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THE 


i? 
7 


AMERICAN JOURNAL 


SCIENCE AND ARTS. 


Prorrssors B. SILLIMAN, B. SILLIMAN, Jr., 
JAMES D. DANA, 


IN CONNECTION WITH 


PROF. ASA GRAY, or CAMBRIDGE, 
PROF. LOUIS AGASSIZ, or CAMBRIDGE, 
DR. WOLCOTT GIBBS, or CAMBRIDGE, 
PROF. S. W. JOHNSON, or NEW HAVEN, 
PROF. GEO. J. BRUSH, or NEW HAVEN. 


SECOND SERIES. 


VOL. XXXVII.—-BAYT, 1864. 


NEW HAVEN: EDITORS. 
1864. 


PPA PPAAP AAA 
PRINTED BY E. HAYES, 426 CHAPEL &T. 


CONTENTS OF VOLUME XXXVII. 


NUMBER CIX. 


Aarl. Theory of Earthquakes; by Professor ALexts Perrey, 
H. The Classification of Animals based on the principle of Ceph- 
alization; by James D, Dana.—No. II. Classification of 
nsects, . eee : Safe ‘ 
HI. On Fossil Insects from the Carboniferous formation in Illinois ; 
by James D, Dana, : - - - * : - 
IV. The Density, Rotation and Relative Age of the Planets; by 
Prof. Gustavus Hinricus, lowa State University, - = 
V. Researches on the Platinum metals; by Wotcott Grzss, M.D., 
VI. Tubularia Not Parthenogenous ; by Prof. Henry James Cuarx, 
VI. Contributions from the Sheffield Laboratory of Yale College. 
—No. VI.—On Tephroite ; by Geo. J. Brusn, : : 
VU. Crystallographic Examination of the Acid Tartrates of Casia 
and Rubidia ; by Jostan P, Cooke, Jr., + . - - 
IX, Geographical Notices, No. XIX.—Speke and Grant’s explora- 
tion of the sources of the Nile, 75.—Unger’s scientific re- 
sults of a tour in Greece and the Tonian Islands, 79.— 
Guyot’s Physical Wall-maps of the Continents, 80.—Prof. 
Whitney on the highest mountains of the United States and 
_ Of North America, 81.—Prof. J. D. Whitney’s Survey of 
California—Proposed Maps, $82.— Recent Australian Ex- 
plorations ; Explorations from Adelaide across the Conti- 
nent of Australia; by J. McDovaty Stuart, 84.—Explor- 
ation of the Interior of Australia; by Mr. Lanpsporoven, 
85.—Explorations in the Interior of Australia by the Burke 
Relief Expedition, under Mr. J. M’Kintay, 86.—Dr. Liv- 
_ INGsronz’s recent exploration of the Niassa Lake, 87.—Ex- 
ploration of the River Vermejo, in the Argentine Confedera- 
tion—Mr. Porter C. Buss, 88. 


‘8 


10 


36 
57 
61 


iv CONTENTS. 


Page 
X. Review of Holbrook’s Ichthyology of South Carolina, - - 
XI. U. S. Coast Survey Reports for the years 1861 and 1862, 95 
XII. Proceedings of Learned Societies—Address of the Presi- 
dent of the Royal Society, - - - 100 


SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE. 


hysics.—Electrical properties of Pyroxyline-Paper and Gun-cotton, by Prof. JoHn 
Jounston, 115.—On the wave lengths of certain spectral lines, J. MiLLER, 116. 


Chemist oo a new metallic oxyd, Baur, 116.—On solid arseniuret of hydrogen, . 
Wiebernoip: On the crystalline form of Ssiplata of thallium, Victor yon Lane: 
= a erytlized hydrate soda, Harms: On the constitution of emer, H. Rost, 

ungsten, Caron, 118.—On a new series of metallic oxyds, 

H. Rose, 119 Oa cake of silicium with oxygen and ean rogen, WiuueER, 120- 

—The ieee, of Thallium—Derived from statements of Crookes, Lamy and 

Botiger, and from original observations, | 


Analytical Chemistry.—Estimation of Sulphuric Acid in salts of the alkalies, Sroza, 122. 


Photography.—Dry Process, by MM. TrtsszrE : Aes 123.--Another modifica- 
tion of the dry process, 124—also by JuLuret, 


Metallurgy.—On the occurrence of Titaninm in Pig Iron, and some Remarks on the use 
of titaniferous Minerals in the piepness of Iron and Steel, by Eowarp RILEY, 
F.C.S Aluminum and A » by I. L. Bett, 133.—Processes of 

Silver and Gold Extraction, by Guipo KurstTet, 134. 


Agricultural Chemistry.—Die Chemie in ihrer Anwendung auf Agricultur und Physiolo- 
gie, etc., also _ Natural Laws of Husbandry, by Justus von Lizzie, edited by Joun 
LY T 35.--On a function of Roots, Henrici, 136. 


Sie Fe ee to Paleontology, by Prof. James Haut, 137.—Preliminary No- 
tice of the Fauna of the Potsdam sandstone, ete., with a letter to M. Joachim Barrande, 
by James Hau: Preliminary Notice of some species of Crinoidea from the Waverly 
siktiie series of Summit County, Ohio, supposed to be of the age of the Chemung 
group of New York, by James Hatt: A Monograph of the Fossil Estheria, by Prof. 
T. Rorert Jones, F.G.S., 140 

Astronomy and Meteorology.—On the new Planet Eurynome, (7), by Prof. James C. 
Warson, 140.—-Shooting Stars on the night of November 13th-14th, 1863, 141—Ad- 
ditional Communications on Shooting Stars, 1 


Miscellaneous Scientific — eneqers to the Desert of Sahara under Messrs. 
Martins and Escher yon Linth: Mount Hope erasomes: yong N. Y., 146.-—-The 
Chemical Chair in Berlin: Prof. Watson s new Ast 1 at Marseilles and 
Vienna: Prof. Ogden N. Rood, 14 


Book Notices.--A Text-book by James D. Dana, 147.--A Tract on Crystal- 
lography, by W. H. Mituer, M.A., etc. : Se ietoce of Fossil plauts tC by 


Mr. George Gibbs, by Dr. J. S. Newserry: Reminiscences of Amherst College, by 
Epwarp Hitcucock, 148.—Frick’s Physical echnies: Waitz's Scenaaaa to An- 
thropology, translated by - T. Con.inewoon, F.GS., etc.: Petroleum vein in 


Northwestern Virginia, by J. P. Lesuey, 149, 


CONTENTS. v 


Obitwary.—Henry Fitz, 149.--Prof. E. Emmens, 151. 

Titles of Works received, 152. 

Transactions of Societies—American Academy of Arts and Sciences: Journal of the 
Acad, of Nat. Sci., Feb. to Nev., 1862: Proceedings of the Acad. Nat. Sci. cf Philadel- 
phia, 156, 


NUMBER CX, 


Mie: Kitt” The Clateiticathon'of Aatmale based’ ent Wie'principte” 
of Cephalization; by James D. Dana.—No. III. Classifica- 
tion of Herbivores, - 157 
XIV. Note on the position of pore ee nnong ot make of 
Vertebrates; by James D. Dana, - : 84 


XV. On Celestial Dynamics; by Dr. J. R. sexed, ee 
XVI. Second Notice of Recent Researches relating to Nebule ; 
by A. Gaurien, - | 198 
XVIII. On the action of very Bee Electric Light en the lodized 
Plate; by Prof. Qgpen N. Roop, - 
XIX. On the Invisibility of Nebulous Matter ; by D. TeoweniOl 210 
XX. Remarks on the family Pteriide, (= Aviculide) with de- 


scriptions of some new fossil genera; by F. B. Merk, - 212 
XXI. On some Minerals of the Chlorite pie by Joun B. 
PEARSE 


XXil. Sieiice of a atl sadioeiien “of Fossils pee i isin 
Sandstone of Wisconsin and the Lake Superior Sandstone 
of Michigan ; by Prof. ALExanpER WINCHELL, - 
XXIH. On the Orbits of Binary Stars; by Prof. Danren Kirxwoop, 233 
XXIV. On the best Mode of presenting, in a popular form, the 
Theory of the Tides, with suggestions for Conese te Jie: 
trative apparatus; by Wittiam Dennis, 204 
XX¥V. Analysis of a Meteorite — Chili; by Prof ee ‘ 
A. Joy 243 
XXVI. Gotha to Litictadys : - *: rider Hoxr,M. A, etc., 248 


SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE. 


Piysics—On the passage of radiant heat through polished, Rie and smoked rock-salt, 
and on the diffusion of rays of heat: H. Kxopiacn, 

Chemist he a cyanid of phosphorus, Hitsner and Weuruave: On Indium, Reica 
and Ricurer, 269. 

Feet. and Geology—Eusynchite and Dechenite, C. CzupNowicz, 270.—Githite 

rom Lake Superior: Szaibelyite, 271.—Astrophyllite, F. Pisanr: Bragite, J. A. Micu- 

AELSON: On Organic Remains in the Laurentian Rocks of Canada, by Sir W. E. 
Logan, F.R.S., 272.—On Glaciers and other phenomena connected with the Hima 
layas, 273. 


vi CONTENTS. 


Botany.—Nomenclature, 278.—Annales Musei Botanici edidit F. A 
Guit. Miquet, 281.——Martivs, Flora Brasiliensis, 283-—Species Genera et Onkwte 
Algarum, auctore Jacoso Georcio AGARDH: Phycologia Avatralicn; 3a History of Aus. 


Botanical sgt for the year 1863--Professor Martin Martens: Dr. Christian von 
Steven: Pru H. B. Alfred Moquin-Tandon: Francis Boott, M.D., 283.—Jacques 
Gay, 292, 


Astronomy.—-Comet IV, 1863, 292—Comet V, 1863: Comet VI, 1863, 293.—Letter from 
Prof. James C. Watson on the discovery of Comet VI: Notes on n Be on by F. An- 
Bott, Esq , 294, 

Miscellaneous Scientific Intelligence-—Account of the easting of a gigantic (Rodman) Gun 
at Fort Pitt Foundry, 2 

Bock einesing> Outlines of a Dictionary of the Solubilities of Chemical Substances, 
By Fraxkx EH. Srorer, 301.—Chambers’ Encyclopedia: A Practical Handbook of 
Medical Pi Bi ; by Joun E. Bowman, F.C.8.: Dana’s Manual of Geology, 392. 

Obituary. —Edward Hitchcock, 302.—Giovanna Plana: Heinrich Rose: Cappocei, 304. 


NUMBER CXIl. 


Agr. XXVII. On the Diptera or two-winged Insects of the Amber- : 
fauna, (Ueber die Diptern-fauna des Bernsteins) : a lecture 
id Director Lew, at the meeting of the German naturalists 
n Keenigsberg, in 1861, . : 
XXVIIL Abstract of Prof. Meissner’s Gress kek on Oxygen, 
Ozone, and Antozone; by S. W. Jounson,~ - 
XXIX. Glacial Action about Penobscot ak ; ey Me. Sou 
e Laski, - 339 
XXX. Contributions ait the ‘Sheffield Vilchus of Yale Col. 
lege. No. VII.—On the Indirect Determination of Potash 
and Soda; by Peter Cottier, B.A., 
XXXI. Contributions to Chemistry from the reboaiy of iis 
wrence Scientific School; by Wo.cotr Gisgs, M.D.— 
1. On the relations of hyposulphite of soda to certain metallic 
oxyds.—2. On the determination of nitrogen by weight.— 
3. On the separation of cerium from didymium and lantha- 
num.—4. On the separation and estimation of cerium.—5. 
On the quantitative separation of cerium from yttrium, alu- 
minum, glucinum, manganese, iron and uranium.—6. 
the employment of — of fluorid of potassium in 
analysis, - i. 346 


CONTENTS. vil 


XIII. On the Cretaceous and Superior Formations of West 
Tennessee ; by Jas. M. Sarrorp, - 
XXXIV. On the Influence of Ozone and some ohek Chemical 
Agents on Germination and Vegetation; by M. Carey Lea, 3878 
XXXV. Remarks on the Distillation of Substances of different 
Volatilities ; by M. Carey Lea, : - 377 
XXXVI. The original accounts of the Goi in Cay, times of 
the November Star-Shower; together with a determination 
of the length of its cycle, its annual period, and the probable 
orbit of the group of bodies around the sun; by 
EWTON, — - - . - . - - . - 3877 
XXXVII. Note on the Product of the Reaction between the Mono- 
oe of Potassium and the Bromid of Ethylene, and on 
eral compounds derived from it; by J. M. Crarrts, - 3890 
XXXVIIL On the mechanical and chemical treatment of Gold 
and other metals; by James D. WHELPLEY,~ - . 401 
XXXIX. Mineralogical Notices ; by Cuartes Uruam Seeuike: 405 


Page. 
XXXII. On Shepard’s Paracolumbite ; by F. Pisany, . - 3859 
XX 

360 


SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE. 


Physics and Chemisiry.—On the spectrum of carbon, ATTFIELD: On the optical distine- 
PE- 


Seycer : On the action of light upon nitro-prussi sodinm, Roussin, 408.—On the 
barometer, as an indicator of the earth’s rotation, and the sun’s distance, by Puixy 
Earve Cuase, 409.— auve or Anilin purple, Perkin, 413.— } 


Pipe Beads, by Georce H. Emerson, 4]4.—Elements of Chemistry, Theoretical and 
Practical, by Winttam ALLEN MiLuer, M.D., LL.D, etc., 415 

Mineralogy and Geology.—Voleano of Kilauea, Hawaii: I. Letter from Rev. T, Coan, 
415: IL Letter from Rev. O. H. Guiicx, 416.--On Glacial Phenomena in Nova Scoti 
by B. eae Jr., 417.—Synopsis of the Flora of the Carboniferous Period in Nova 
Scotia, by J. W. Dawson, LL.D., ete. , 419—~Report of J. D, Whitney, on the Geo- 
logical ee ey of California, 427. bie Mass of Native Copper, by J. B. Townsenp: 
— | Rhizopods of Canada, in a letter from T. Srerry Hunt, F.R.S., 431.— 

Ueber dyadische Pflanzen, by Dr. H. B. Getnitz: Beitriige zur Kenntstie 

der organischen Ueborsesté i in der Dyas und tiber den Namen Dyas: Appendix tothe « 
third edition of the Antiquity of Man, by Sir Cuartes Lyeiu: A popular and practical 
exposition of the Minerals and Geology of Canada, by E. J. Cuarman, Ph.D., 432. 

Botany and Zoology.—On the Popula¥ Names of British Plants, hy R. C. A. Prion, M.D., 
ete., 433.—Cosson et Germain de Saint-Pierre, Flore des Environs de Paris—Synopsis 
Analytique de Ia Flore des Environs de Paris, 434.--Des Fleurs de Pleine Terre, com- 
Prenant la Description et Ja Culture des Fleurs Annuelies, Vivaces, et Bulbeu 
pleine terre, etc., par ViLMontN-ANDRIEUX : Monographia Generis Lepigonorum, auc- 
tore N.C. Krxpzere, 435.—Kongliga Svenska Fregatten Eugenies Resa, etc.—Botany 
of the Galapagos Islands, by N. J. ANDERSSON: Caroli Wright Lichenes Insule Cubs, 


yi CONTENTS. 


Isaac Lea, LL.D., etc., 436.—List of the Polyps and Corals sent by the Museum of 
Comparative Zoology to oF Institutes in exchange, with ee wey by A. E. Ver- 
RILL: Prospectus of a oan h of the Tetraonine, or Famil the Grouse, by 
the author, D. G. Exutor, 437. 


Miscellaneous Scientific Intelligence-On the Yellow Coloration of faded —— 
Prints, by M. Carey Lea, 433.—Magnesium tas for Photography 
Preservation of Animal Substances, Pasteur: The difficulties ivetlene is "he Ga ing 
of long Electric Sea Cables, acbeseabinig of Iron, 441.—Submarine Voleano in 
‘the Mediterranean, 442.—Water in Paris: Academy of Sciences, 443.—Spanish Scien- 
i 


my 

ey eet 446.--Maury’s ip Direetions, and Wind and Current Charts, 447.— 
Obituary —W m. J. Taylor, 4 

Miscellaneous Bibliography.—Boston Journal of Natural History, 447. ene Almanac 
and Annual Record, dag the year 1864, 448.—Notices of New Works and ings 
of Societies, 4 

Index, 451 


ERRATA. 
Pages 39 to 56, in title, for “ A. Hinrichs,” read “G, Hinrichs.”—P. 212, 1. 3 from bot- 


tom, for ‘ Pinna, and Avicula Modiola,” read “ Pinna, Avicula and Modiola.”—P, 214, 


1. 14 from top, for “ M. perattennuata,” read “ M. perattenuata.”"—P. 216, lines 17 and 
22 from top, for “hinge in which,” read “hinge of which.”—P. 219, 1. 14 from top, 
for “ smooth, rounded,” read “smoothly rounded.”——P. 422, 1. 1 from Ribtiou: for “lon- 
gifola,” read “ longifvlia,”—P. 423, 1. 7 from top, for ‘ * Loshii,” read  Loschii.” 


AMERICAN 


f 


JOURNAL OF SCIENCE AND ARTS. 


[SECOND SERIES.] 


Art. IL—Theory of Earthquakes; by Professor ALEXIS PERREY, 
of Dijon, France.’ 


ARTHQUAKEs arte a complex phenomenon. It is difficult to 
refer them to One cause alone, The shocks or series of shocks 
in a given region may have a special or local cause. Ve may 
distinguish 2 Number of such special causes acting independently 
of the pees cause whose general action they modify. More- 
over, these secondary causes may be modified in their action by 
the principal cause, the latter manifesting itself only through a 
differential result. 

: the phenomena, it is difficult to distinguish those 
which are the effects of the principal cause from those of special 
or local causes, The first aim of investigation should be to 
determine that differential result in which the gag ae 


disappear; oF, in other words, the influence of the principal 
cause is brought into strong relief, the differential action making 
lt manifest, : 
There is a periodicity as to times of occurrence in earthquakes, 
as in other Cosmical and meteorological phenomena. When 
? Translated for this Journal from a memoir communicated by the author entitled 
. itions sur lex Zremblements de terre et les Volcans ; formulées M. Avexis 
Penney, Professeur 4 la Faculté des ciences ijon, adressées 4 M. Lamé, Mem- 
bre de l'Institut; 36 p- 8vo. Paris, 1863. Mallet-Bachelier, Quai des Augustins, 55. 
Only the part on Hurthquakes is here | 


Am. Joun. $cl.~QgcoNp Seigss, Vor. XXXVIL, No. 109.—Jan., 1864. 
1 


2 Alexis Perrey on Earthquakes. 


gous maxima and two minima, the maxima corresponding to the 
passage of the superior and inferior meridian, and the minima 


shocks, show that there is a relation between the frequency of 
earthquakes and the rotation of the moon. Is this relation one 
of cause and effect? I believe so, after a careful study of the 
subject, and propose to present the evidence 


Suppose now the envelop or crust to have so great thickness 
and such elasticity that it cannot take at once the form of the 
central nucleus, Pressure and tension in the crust of a greater 
or less amount will be the result, which will be a cause of frac- 
tures. ‘These fractures will be the starting point of molecular — 
vibrations which may be propagated in the crust to its surface _ 


Alexis Perrey on Earthquakes. 3 


and have the character of true earthquakes. Such is the first or 
principal cause of the phenomenon. 

The two opposite protuberances of the central nucleus together 
constitute, in their movement of rotation, what we call the great 
or primary earthquake or seismic wave. The greater the lunar 
influence, the greater will be the protuberances and the higher 
the seismic wave. 


should result, which, in the case supposed, would also cause, 
when its crests pass under the points of least resistance, the same 


two seismic waves should ad to, or diminish, one another, or 
coalesce in one wave, as with oceanic tidal waves. They will 
therefore manifest themselves at the surface only by their differ- 
ential or their resultant effects; and their union will form the 
great luni-solar wave. Its effect will therefore be the greatest 
possible at the syzygies; and hence the ruptures of the earth, 
consequent thereupon, should be most frequent at these two 
epochs in the lunar period: 

Let us now take note of the diurnal motion of the earth. We 
now have two new seismic waves; a lunar, the crests of which 


It is easy to conceive that in their simultaneous progress, these 
1 ; 


Points of view as the luni-solar wave depending solely on the 
motion of the moon in its orbit. 


n their progress, these different waves are similar, or, at least, 
h 


Sure on the earth’s crust, which, supposing it homogeneous, will 
experience at these points maxima and minima in c ange o 
form, and consequently in frequency of fractures; and there- 
ee maxima and minima in vibrations of the crust, or earth- 
quakes 


leal expressions of the physical laws of the phenomenon) will 
®nter necessarily the distances of the sun and moon from the 
farth. But the action being in the inverse ratio of the squares 
of the distances, the effect should be, under this point of view, 
Sreater at the perigee than at the apogee. In accordance with 
this, I have found, that, relatively to the lunar motion, earth- 
quakes are more frequent at the perigee than at the apogee; and 


Into these periodical functions of the seismic waves (or analyt- ¢ 


4 Alexis Perrey on Earthquakes. 


relatively to the earth’s orbital motion, they are more frequent 

at the winter solstice ea! at the summer, that is, at the peri- 
helion than at the aphelio 

these waves are, siaiale cally, not single waves, but are 

groups of successive undulations, like the tidal in the ocean. 

ence there must be a oe, of pressures and tensions in 
the passage of a seismic wave over a given point. Hence, also, 
a possible, and probable, succession in the vibrations of the crust. 
Hence, also, an undulatory character in the earthquake shocks, 
with alternations of intensity during their passage. 

Thus e have regarded the crust as eee interiorly an 
ellipsoidal Hariice, and the central nucleus as li 
Let us now suppose the nucleus the same, but het inner surface 
of the crust as having irregularities like the outer,—that 1 
mountain elevations projecting inward, and immersed in the fluid 
mass, and valleys whose depressions are excavated in the crust. 
Such an internal orographic cdo ould modify the progress 
of the seismic waves. A wa Se would rise and increase its velo- 
city and, consequently, its sitive force, between two mountains 
or elevations that obstruct its passage; it would spread and lose 
velocity over a plain or in a valley where it could expand and 
develop itself; and would beat against the declivities or pro- 
jections encountered. Hence a new kind of ¢ compression, and, 
therefore, of molecular vibrations, whscls should propagate them- 
selves to the earth’s surfac ce, and appear as earthquakes. Hence 
also, beyond question, some partial displacements in the walls of 
the vaulted crust, and ruptures causing vibrations more or less 
intense. Hence, ‘also, fssures in the vault, of greater or less ex- 
tent, and more or less.a 

An introduction of the incandescent liquid from the earth- 
quake-wave into these fissures could hardly take place without 
shocks or vibrations more or less apparent. But it is a question 
whether such vibrations would reach the earth’s surface. This 
would depend on their intensity; and also on the thickness and 
ra peel of the crust, which would necessarily have an important 


ence. 
These displacements and ruptures could not take place with- 


: ote aciulelecs to a an or less ata ne pe ee 
condition and nature of the region. 


Alexis Perrey on Earthquakes. 5 


But are these fractures, as has been said, the only cause of the 
Sounds which so often precede, accompany, or follow, earth- 
quakes? It is difficult to believe it. We acknowledge that we 
are not ready to explain the sounds that so often precede earth- 
quakes. In the case of earthquake shocks which are continued 
for a length of time, these sounds are often repeated: And how 
does the sound-vibration differ from the dynamical vibration 
which immediately follows it? Moreover, in such earthquake- 
shocks, continued for a length of time, both aérial and subterra- 
nean detonations are frequently repeated without any sensible 
movement of the ground. Many instances of this kind occurred 
in the valley of Visp in 1855 and 1856.” The sounds are, in 
fact, one of the most obscure elements connected with earth- 

uakes 
_ But to proceed, the ruptures which take place at certain points 
in the crust shake the neighboring parts, which, in their turn, 
.under the action of successive earthquake waves, lead to other 
like fractures. Such catastrophes may again and again follow. 

e thus account for the shocks which are repeated for a greater 
or less time after every great earthquake. d 

he fractures opened at any point will become prolonged in 
the direction of the line of least resistance. Hence comes the 


is seen that the waves that are propagated laterally arrive later, 
Telatively to the passage of the moon over the meridian, at the 


this kind are the shocks on the Mississippi in 1811; those of 
Maurienne in 1838; those of Scotland in 1842 and 1843. 


* The detonations in the valley of Visp continued to occur at intervals even till 
May, 1861. The later months of the year do not appear to have been marked by 
any repetition of the phenomena of 1855.—(Letters and Journal of M. Tscheinen, 
“urate at Greechen.)—Note added August 26th, 1862. 


{ 


6 Alexis Perrey on Earthquakes. 


The periodicity of the phenomenon may manifest itself again 
in the renewal of the shocks. But the maxima and minima of 


the port is alone sufficient to explain this apparent anomaly. 
In these two 5-year periods, there was a series of local shocks in 
a region where earthquakes are unfrequent. 

The quinquennial period from 1810 to 1815 affords no sensible 
maxima and minima. But the facts on record are few. During 
the unhappy years of 1814, 1815, the journals took little note of 
subterranean commotions, 


* Prof. Perrey has made out, from the facts which he has collected, for the first 
f of the present century (from 1801 to 1850), that there were 5388 1 
on which earthquakes occurred ; or, counting as so many separate davs 


6th and 7th for the quadratures, 
Arranging thus the phenomena, he obtained for the 5388 days,—2761-48 at the 


syzygies and 262652 at the quadratures, leaving a difference in favor of the syzygies 
134-96 


For the 6596 days, he obtained 3434-64 at the syzygies and 3161°36 at the quadra- 
tures, leaving 273-28 in favor of the syzygies. 
Ina similar manner, for the half century preceding, or from 1751 to 1800, he ob- 
tained 1901-18 earthquake days at the syzygies, and 1753-82 at the quadratures, the 
e in favor of the syzygies being 147-36. 
ing the earthquake days during the years 1761 to 1800, which occur within 


at the apogee, leaving a difference of 604 in favor of the igee; or leaving off the 
outer two of the five days, the result was 3134 at the padincs and 278), at the 
pogee, or an excess of 35 at t rigee, 

Taking the earthquakes of o in Calabria as given for the years 1836 to 1853 
(18 years) in a Journal kept by M.S. Arcovito, he finds 437 earthquake shocks at 
the i 349 at the quadratures, or an excess of 88 at the syzygies. He 
ks wk he less 5° from ° 


Alexis Perrey on Earthquakes, 7 


e central nucleus and the crust? And should not the 
presence of these gases modify in some way, the dynamic action 
of the earthquake waves? Is not their sudden explosion, the 
Cause, at times, of transient disturbances in the central mass? 
And, consequently, are there not thence sensible reactions against 
the inner surface of the crust, causing strong vibrations that are 
propagated to the outer surface 

is idea, which I have elsewhere brought forward,’ is re- 
marked upon as follows by the learned author of the Histoire 
des Progrés de la Geologie. ‘As to these immense tempests 
which the author raises at the surface of the incandescent fluid, 
Whose waves of fire beat against the flanks of the mountains 
which project downward like gigantic stalactites, they appear to 
us to be a little remote from the domain of science and to pertain 
rather to that of the imagination.” 

But, without taxing too much the imagination, can we not 
See that these chemical actions, which others have made the sole 
cause of earthquakes, may produce some perturbations, or mod- 
ifications, in earthquake movements which shall obscure at times 
the periodicity ? 

ormerly, especially during the last century, the existence of 
numerous vast caverns in the earth, for the propagation of earth- 
quakes, was admitted. We do not deny the existence of such 
caverns; but, in our view, instead of their favoring earthquake 
vibrations they would arrest, or at least impede, them. The 
simplest break will modify the rate and direction of the undula- 
1ons. But such caverns should also cause, in some cases, mo- 
lecular vibrations which, on being propagated to the earth’s 
surface, would not differ from ordinary earthquakes. The liquid 
Matter, in entering the cavities, would also cause shocks of a 
Similar kind. Hence may come some of those facts registere¢ 
in earthquake tables, which interfere with the exhibition of the 
periodicity. 

We pass by other causes to which earthquakes have been at- 
tributed. Several, although less general than they have been sup- 
posed to be, may be admitted among special or secondary causes. 

* Monss the Scandinavian insula, Ve dela Com- 
reson Besontifqee do ied en Seondinavic, en Lapua, ea, Pars, 1845. 


. 


8 Alexis Perrey on Earthquakes. 


It cannot be too often repeated, that earthquakes are not of 
one single kind, identically the same. They are various both in 
causes and effects; I aim simply to bring out in relief the prin- 


been observed in the Pyrenees and the Andes. In the great 
valleys occupied by rivers, the mean direction, as calculated by 

rt, appears to be that of the course of the depression. I 
have shown this to be the fact with the basins of the Rhone and 
the Rhine, where the direction is nearly meridional, and the 
basin of the Danube, which has a transverse course, or from west 


east. 
In France, the departments most subject to earthquakes appear 
to be those about the mouths of the large rivers. The depart- 


Rhone forms a kind of node with that of the Sadne, is the only 


one which can compare with the kind just mentioned in number 
of earthquakes. 


Whatever may be the cause of the molecular vibration at any 


be spherical and concentric. How will it then be in a medium 
which is not homogeneous, or is of unequal density? This can- 


succeed one another through each point in the sphere of undula- 
tion and make successive shocks at the earth’s surface, the shocks 
directly over the centre or focus of the vibrations will be verti- 
eal: and the obliquity, or variation from verticality, will be 
greater the more remote the place of emergence at the surface is 
from the centre of vibration alluded to; or, the locality being 
fixed, the nearer this centre is to the surface. 

There can be no rotary shocks; the cases of apparent rotation 
ndicate the point from which it actually comes? I believe not. 
The difference in the rocks encoun! should produce deriva- 
tive and reflected undulations, as in the case of waves of sound. 


we have explained elsewhere. But does the direction of a shock 


Alexis Perrey on Earthquakes. 9 


Breaks in the rocks, as the caverns referred to, must modify 
their propagation, vary their direction and weaken their intensity, 
and may extinguish them; and this may account for the simulta- 

@ neous shaking of two regions while an intermediate locality is 
undisturbed—a phenomenon of so frequent occurrence in certain 
parts of America that the people speak of it under the expres- 
sion of the earth being bridged within, or suspended. 

Boussingault recognized, as the principal cause of the earth- 

uakes of the Andes, the continual and progressive sliding of 
the dislocated rocks of which they consist; and he considered 
the phenomenon as incessant in South America, an earthquake 
taking place, in his view, somewhere in the Andes at every 
instant of time. 
ese views are not at variance with my own. Any slidings 
due to gravity will be caused, or favored, by the daily vibrations 
whose effects and causes have been considered. 

Calculation demonstrates the existence of two kinds of waves 
moving with different velocities around a centre of vibration; 
Tadmit readily, with Mr. Wertheim, the coéxistence of these 
two kinds of waves. If then there are several successive sets 
of vibrations at a given point, each will propagate the double 
system of waves. It will be the same, also, if there are simulta- 
heous disturbances at a number of neighboring points. ) 
waves of greatest velocity of one set will overtake and pass by 
those of least velocity in the preceding set, and at an interval of 
distance depending on the interval of time between the successive 

ns. 


vibratio 


disturbance than the passage of two successive waves. In this 
case, the surface of the earth under vibration, if epg homoge- 
neous, should present concentric zones in whic the disturbance 
will be alternately more and less great. I would say, however, 
that I do not believe that such an alternation of effects from earth- 


tures on the surface to be upset or damaged should have an 
identity of construction and of position with reference to the 
points of compass which cannot be looked for. ee 

: At some future time, I propose to consider, from this point of 
View, the occurrence of the first shock more or less light which 
Precedes often the great shakings, and of the harmless vibrations 
which separate the disastrous shocks; and also the short interval 

Am. Jour. Sct.—Szconp Sens, Vou. XXXVI, No. 109.—Jax., 1864. 

2 


a0 Dana on the Classification of Animals 


of relative repose or simple tremulousness which separates two 
consecutive shocks of moderate intensity. 

s to the velocity of the propagation of shocks, we make no 
definite statement. Notwithstanding the trials of Dr. Julius 
Schmidt, we have no confidence in the results derived from his 


value to science. 


Art. II.—The Classification of Animals based on the principle of 
re by James D. Dana.—No. II. Classification of 
Inse 


THE principles which have been presented in my former ar- 
ticle on the classification of animals may be further exemplified 


subdivisions of the animal kingdom; an = the present time 
take up for this purpose the order of Insec 
The subject may be ABRIPPERY borane by a Aaa 
tion, arranged so as to be convenient for reference, of thos 
the characteristics bearing on on de which are of most BeorTiails 
importance. In connection with the mention below of these 


found on the pages referred to. 

Under each head the characteristic to be looked for in a supe- 
rior group is first mentioned; and then those of related kinds in 
inferior groups. 

2 ss a prea group, (A) a prosthenic eae In an a 

p (B) a metasthenic condition of different grades o 
fits (Bg in a still lower group (0) a Riesintta  niinie. 
e 323 -) 
ese conditions come under the transferent method of ad Bat yg 
which i is exhibited in a transfer of force and function towards e 
(preferent) ps ascending grade, or in the reverse direction Cechearent) 
with descend 
_ This ROET is similar in nature to that which results in amplificate 
@ reverse ; in one direction, the descending, it is outward or 


1 For Article I, see last volume of this Journal, p. 32i. 


A Ske Ne, ea 


based on the principle of Cephalization.—Insects. 11 


circumferential diffusion, and may be designated apocentric; in the 
other, the ascending, it is cephalic concentration or epicentric—the sys- 
temic centre here referred to corresponding in position to the cephalic 
nervous mass or brain (p. 322). 

The degrees of concentration do not generally shade indefinitely into 
one another. There is a range of variations under a given ype or spe- 
cific condition of the systemic force; and then a drop-down or saltus to 


_ IL In a superior group, (A) compactness, regularity and per- 
fection of structure, with normal proportions and narrow limits 
of variation. 


the latter), or a lengthening or attenuation of limbs (long-amplifi- 
cate), or in a general enlargement (large-amplificate, gross-ampli- 

cate); (D) a multiplicate condition, or an indefinite multiplica- 
‘tion of segments or members, as in Myriapods and Worms, and 
Opposed to a limitate condition like that of Insects, Spiders, and 
Crustaceans; (E) an analyzed or elementalized condition, being a 
mor ion i 


more or less completely defunctionated condition of any organs or 

members. (P. 324. 7 
V. Sup., (A) a terrestrial mode of life in all stages.—Inf,, (B) 
an aquatic mode of life, (a) in the adult stage, but not connected 
with aquatic respiration ; (4) in the larval stage only; (¢) in 
all stages, with aquatic respiration throughout each. A terres- 
trial mode of life in all stages may be distinguished as perlerres- 
‘y and an aquatic mode of. life in all stages with aquatic 


f 


12 Dana on the Classification of Animals 


respiration, peraquatic. The latter has been observed on page 
330, (Art. [.) to have a dilutive effect on the materials and 


menopters, and a the other species. Condition a may occur in 

inferior grades, as among Coleopters, apparently through degrada- 

tion.—Inf., (B) prematurative, or passing through no period of 

fest in the young state, as in Insects undergoing no complete 
28 


= 


having the power of budding.—Jnf, (B) hemiphytoid, either in 


accompanied by a fundamental change in plan of structure, but 
not in accordance with any of the methods enumerated, it being 


The distinction between Megasthenes and Microsthenes under Mam- 
mals is of this kind (p. 338); also that of Mammals and Birds; also that 
Insecteans and Crustaceans among Articulates. In the last, there 


se | three segments. Moreover, in the highest Ohaitbeaiein the Crabs, 
includes three more body-segments than in Insects. ‘The differ- 
ences also between Hymenopters and Dipters (see p. 17), Lepidopters 
and Homopters, Coleopters and Hemipters, exemplify a general lower- 
ing of the grade of structure, not referable to any special one or two of 
the methods of cephalization. The general term potential is applied to 
cases like the above on page $22 of Art. I, as a convenient term, though 


Internal eharaeteristies, as those of the digestive, reproductive 


based on the principle of Cephalization.—Insects. 13 


or nervous system, have not been referred to among the above 
characteristics, because (1) they often undergo very wide varia- 
tions under a given type, and especially in its inferior or degra- 
dational subdivisifh ; further, (2) when any internal condition 
is distinctive of a natural group of species, there is always some 
type or plan of general structure corresponding to it in limits; 
and (3) the type or plan of structure is the surest criterion as to 
whether a group is natural or not. As an example of this last, 


ture distinct natural groups. Besides other decisive distinctions, 
the former have without exception prehensile fore-feet, while in 
the latter, these organs are defunctionated of this power of pre- 
-Aension, and are simply locomotive organs. 


CLASSIFICATION OF INSECTS. 


been shown to depend on a transfer of force and function away 
m the systemic centre; and this by an abrupt transition, pro- 

ducing an abrupt downward step in grade, ; ; 
_ This retroferent transfer is exhibited prominently in the wings, 
the anterior wings in the Metasthenics having little or no use in 
flying. These organs have been stated to have eminent import- 
ance in the order of Insects because the type is aérial. There is 
additional reason for this importance in the fact that the dorsal 
side of an animal is the superior, and the ventral, the inferior ; or, 
the former is the more central in the life-system, and the latter 
the os circumferential. inca o 

‘8 the series of legs, as well as wings, may p’ cases 

transfer of Leama sites Gees the terms Pacbens and Metas- 
enics become more precise if reference to the wings is included. 
They will thus be (ategoy being the Greek for wing) (1) Plero- 
, and (2) Ptero-metasthenics. The two-winged species 


14 Dana on the Classification of Animals 


under the former (the Dipters) have the posterior wings obso- 
lescent, and those under the latter (Strepsipters) the anterior. 
Insects of tlie first of these grand divisions are eminently 
pterosthenic or strong in the wing—Hymenojfters, Dipters, Lept- 
dopters and Neuropters being relatively good flyers. Those 0 
the second are as decidedly podosthenic—Coleopters, Hemipters 
and Orthopters being relatively poor flyers, and strong in the Jeg. 
Consequently the terms Pterosthenics and Podosthenics might be 
employed for the two grander divisions of Insects, as well as for 
those of Birds (Art. I, p. 343). Yet their use in the two cases 
would be different; for in Birds the wings and legs are relatively 
anterior and posterior members, and not dorsal and ventral as 1m 
nsects. But since the dorsal and ventral parts have a similar 
opposite relation to the systemic centre as the anterior and 
posterior, as just now remarked, the difference is one of degree 
rather than of kind. 
As there are pteroprosthenic and pterometasthenic Insects, sO 
there are podoprosthenic, or those in which the anterior legs are 
stronger than the posterior, and podometasthenic, or those m 


The Thysanures or Apiers, which constitute the third grand- 
division, are urosthenic, most of the species having even the 


the names in the synopsis are added only the two characteristics 

of (1) perterrestrial (terrestrial in both larval and adult life) ot 

semiaquatic (aquatic in larval life), and (2) permaturative or pre- 
uturative. 


I. Ptero-prosthenics, or Ctenopters. 

i. Apirens (from Apis bee and penna wing, the wings being 
approximately like those of the Bee). 

; Hi; menopters.—Perterrestrial. Permaturative. 
b. Dipters.—Mostly perterrestrial. Permaturative. 
ce. Aphanipters (Fleas).—Perterrestrial. Permaturative. 
- ? As the anterior pair (or that which is obsolescent in th Strepsipters) is of little 
functional value in the Pterometasthenics, t i ot of es or four- 
Winged among them is of much less importance than among the Pteroprosthenics. 
Moreover, there is a line of gradation from ordinary Coleopters to the Strepsipters 


based on the principle of Cephalization.—Insects. 16 


2. AMPLIPENS (from amplus large and penna). 
a. Lepidopters.—Perterrestrial. Permaturative. 
b. Homopters.—Perterrestrial. Prematurative, 
¢. Trichopters—*Semiaquatic. Permaturative. 

3. ATTENUATES, or NEUROPTERS. 

a. Apipenniforms.—Perterrestrial. Permaturative, or prematurative. 
b, Ampli if Perterrestrial, iaquatic. Permaturative, 


* 


4 Lf 7 
or prematurative. 
c. Perattenuates, or Typical Neuropters.—Semiaquatic. Prematu- 
rative. 


II. Ptero-metasthenics, or Elytropters. 
a. Coleopters.—Mostly terrestrial. Permaturative. 
b. Hemipters,—Mostly terrestrial. Prematurative. 
¢. Orthopters.—Terrestrial. Prematurative. © 

a, Curs 


: ors. 
6. Ambulators. 
7. Saltators, or Typical Orthopters. 
III. Thysanures, or Apters. 
Lepismians and Podurians. 


I, PTERO-PROSTHENICS, or CTENOPTERS. 


neatly adjusted and all well-proportioned. Among them, there 


* This point is well presented in a recent paper on “ Synthetic Types in Insects,” 
by A.S, Packard, Jr., (Jour. Boston, Soe. Nat. Hist., 1863, pp. 590-608). The au- 
thor observes, on page 591, “the clear-winged Sesia [Lepidopter] imitates the 
humble-bee in its form and flight; the different species of Algerians [Lepidopters} 
simulate members of nearly every hymenopterous family, as we ean see when re- 
calling such names as apiformis, vespiformis, philanthiformis, tiphiaformis, scolice- 
Sormis, spheciformis, chrysidiformis, cynipidiformis, formiciformis, ichneumoni for- 
mis, uroceriformis, and tenthrediformis. So also other Agerians resemble different 

f Diptera, as seen in the 


16 Dana on the Classification of Animals 


transporting young and food: the jaws are therefore perfune- 
tionate in these species to a degree comparable with that of the 
jaws of a Carnivore among Mammals. The higher kinds also 
supply the young with food, either by storing it or by direct feed- 


* 


ing—a quality approximating to that of the Altrices (Nursers) 


purpose of flying, and are typical in size, texture and power. 
he species are all perterrestrial.‘ 

The above characteristics show that the tribe of Hymenopters 
takes the lead among Insects, and therefore stands at the head in 
the subkingdom of Articulates. 

Note on Size under the Insect-type.—If, then, Hymenopters stand 
first among Insects, we may learn from the higher of the species 
the normal size of the Insect-type under its best condition as to 
stru 


archetype, and may be less to any degree; (2) the more inferior 
the group in which large forms occur, the greater the amount of 


Sormis, anthraciformis, musceeformis, &c. In the Diptera we find Bombylius, 
resembling, as its name implies, Bombus; and also iphria, which so closely apes 
the humble-bee in its form, coloration, size and flight, even to the buzz, which is, if 

here i i i to 


era, and are normal in the Ymenoptera. The fly to get them has to pass over 
one sub-order to obtain a bizarre form which i 
state the Apia” ch is a prevalent an mon family 
Addition to Note, while in the press.—These, and other observations beyond, for 
which I am indebted to Mr. Packard, are so apposite to my subject as to cpp as 
if prepared for the use here made of them. In fact, however, my with its 
notes was written without any acquaintance with the author beyond what I had 
derived from his valuable pl sbi also without his knowledge. 
Some Hymenopters can with their wings or legs; but none are semiaquatic. 


based on the principle of Cephalization.—Insects. 17 


general uniformity. ‘The integuments are less firm than in Hymen- 
opters. The mouth is simply suctorial, and self-feeding is the 
in 


only function. Individuals never live communities. The 


is attended with (1) an enlargement of the mesothorax (the seg- 
ment supporting the anterior pair) at the expense of the meta- 
thorax (or posterior segment of the thorax), and (2) an increased 


the gree of force thus concentrated is far less than that of the 


Size, in their many imitations of Hymenopters, in the semiaquatic 
life of some species, their less strength as compared with size, 
their habits, &c. It is stated on page 12 that the transition from 


1c. 
, The foot note on the preceding page states some of the rela- 
tions between Dipters and Hymenopters. On this point West- 
Wood says: “It seems to be admitted on all hands that the 
Insects which are the real analogues of the Hymenopters exist -in 
Ax. Jour. Sct.—Szconp Series, Vou. XXXVI, No. 109.—Jan., 1864 
3 


18 Dana on the Classification of Animals 


the Dipterous order, almost every Hymenopterous genus having 
its representative in the latter.” The analogies as well as affini- 


female places with the eggs some bits of dried blood; and if so, 
there is a degree of nursing among Fleas which is an additional 
relation to the Hymenopters. The body is amplificate behind. 
The absence of wings is to be attributed to ellipsis through 


opters—The wings of Lepidopters are typically very 
] ; ? 


paratively narrow, but through degradation of type. The am- 


the smullest species are far larger than the smallest of Apipens 
and of most other tribes of Insects, The mouth is haustellate, 
‘with the mandibles atrophied or nearly so.’ The species are 

- § Tt has been argued that since the larves of epidopters have r bles, 
‘While the butterflies have these organs only in a viedieputier? eas n sere or husesud: 


based on the principle of Cephalization.—Insects. 19 


¢. Lrichopters:—The Trichopters, while permaturative like the 
Lepidopters, are semiaquatic, and he re inferior to both 
Lepidopters and Homopters. wings are pilose, are 


tion is evidence of superiority of rank among Insects in general. (See Agassiz on 
the Classification of Insects from Embryological data.) But as Lepidopters are on 
various ae : 


re) ms: ta ’ 
Condition; it is a degradation of — type, as much as when the digestive system 
; d Worms becomes atrophied with growth. 
Exceptions like these do not set aside the embryogenic law of grade: they only 
show that this law : 1 b 
cephalization, before it can be safely followed in determining the grade of s 


in embry 
vidual growth, ‘he 
‘latter principle, once recognized, more than reciprocates. 


20 Dana on the Classification of Animals - 


the extremity of the abdomen, or the lip, or both, and by this 
means unites bits of sticks, pebbles, etc., into a portable case or 
sheath for itself. | 

All entomological writers acknowledge that the Trichopters — 
resemble Lepidopters. They have so much the aspect of some 
Phaleenids, that they were called Mouches papillonacées by Reau- 
mur; and the larves, according to De Geer, are closely like 
caterpillars in internal organization. Other Lepidopteroid char- 
acteristics mentioned by different authors are observed in the ru- 
dimentary condition of the mandibles, the structure of the legs, 
the faculty of spinning fibres possessed by the larve, the portable 
larval sheath closely imitating those of the larves of many Tineids 
and the Psychids. One genus of Phryganeans is named Hydro- 
psyche in allusion to the resemblance, and Newman transferred 
the genus Psyche from the Lepidopters to the Trichopters. The 
species naturally constitute a hypotypic group to the Amplipens. 
The hypotypic division of a terrestrial group often consists of 
aquatic or semiaquatic species. Although the Trichopters are 
generally united to the Neuropters, they are always placed to 
one side in a group by themselves, on account of their wide di- 
vergence frem that type. The parallelism between the subdi- 
visions of Amplipens and those of the Amplipenniforms on page 

, further sustains our arrangement. : 

3. Attenuates, or Neuropters—The Neuropters are mostly long: 
amplificate, being generally slender in body, wings and legs; 
they are also widely diverse in shape and size. The win 
membranous, but are sometimes partly colored; they are often 
equal; the posterior are sometimes even the larger, but some- 
times also much the smaller, and occasionally obsolete. In 4 
few species both pairs are wanting. The mouth, unlike that of 
the Lepidopters and Homopters, but like that of most of their 

es, is not suctorial but mandibulate. Among the i 


Two of the subdivisions of Neuropters appear to be represent- 


based on the principle of Cephalization—Insects. 21 


rostrate, the Wings narrow, and the legs and body slender, as in 
the Tipule 
. An coreg —The Amplipenniform Neuropters are 
related to the A Amplipens in having the wings amplificate; but, 
as follows naturally from the fact of the inferior grade of Neu- 
ters, these wings resemble rather the narrower forms of the 


Lepidoptera 
ieaesti sees although not without exceptions: 
pair is sometimes a little aba than the anterior. Thes 
are either Poe or semiaquatic, and either péiamtareeiee 
or prematurati 

ackard, Jr., in his memoir already mentioned remarks as follows on the 
Termite, ee the Panor rpids. 

“The — ide among a ee cog oye in the Neuroptera their well-known 
analogues, the Zermites or White Like the true fosrsit: these otnreayng in- 
sects rear eis of sand or clay, or ey colonies are concealed beneath various ob- 
jects, or in decayed trees and roots. There are als soa differentiation of the inividoa, 

iti r. Those characters hich 


.] 
Oo 
Ss 
=] 
) 
o 
BS 
a8 
i) 
s 
_— 
3S 
mn 
ot 
= 
S 
a 
wag 
n 
~] 
wm 


occupies the largest part of the head, and i n he gene eral reange 

mouth-parts, this family differs widely from other Neuroptera. Thor ough the pro- 
thorax is large, yet the middle region net the body is massed together more than 
usual. Like the ants, the costal ges es of the wings are well-developed, while 
those occupying the hinder Bet ns 0 Indeed, bated: the true 


amily Panorpide assume s dipterous denen Bittacus has its som leasitate 


2 he 
Striking. In both the mouth parts are greatly elongated, and the head much pro- 
dueed i m that direction, leaving a very short vertex; and the antenne are much the 
d sh i fe 


and side pieces, wherein it simulates Tipula ; but the resemblance is still greater in 

the elongated ees a and al g slende re 

fully into a comparison of the notum of both insects, we shall find the large meso- 
um, the short neg and the longer-than-broad | nag : 

of the metathorax of Panorpa closely resembling those piec Tipula. There is 

the same — of the first pair of wings. os = h the srnight actin e778 gradually 

around at the a apex, as the inner r edge cur up just as apidly to meet the costa 


at the apex which is situated in the Siddle i of the wi so in the di 
of the main nervures, their relative distances a apart, ¢ and their termination, even to the 
of th the * of Tipu, 


genera are strict] logous. Both gene va agree, 
tations of authors, i in < Sontan thei — ay on their long sages Sil introducing 
mang’ wegen and patuted' abdomen into the earth, when about to deposit their eggs.” 


? 


22 Dana on the Classification of Animals 


lice belong to this group, and thus represent the plant-lice among 
the Homopters.—(3) The Perlideans, semiaquatic and prematura- 
tive species, which are Trichopteroid (or like the Phryganeans) 
in the form of the wings, in the larve being not only aquatic but 
also living in a sheath, and in the adult eating little or nothing. 
hus each subdivision of the Amplipens, the Lepidopterous, 
Remaphnvece and Trichopterous, appears to be represented in 
the subdivisions of the Amplipenniforms. 
The subdivisions of Attenuates or Neuropters deduced are 
the following: 
1. APIPENNIFORMS. 
1. Termitideans, or Hymenopteroid group. 
2. Panorpideans, or Dipteroid group. 
8. Aphanipteroid. Group unknown. 
2. AMPLIPENNIFORMS. 
1. Plannipennians, or Lepidopteroid group. 
‘2, Psocideans, or Homopteroid group. 
3. Perlideans, or Trichopteroid group. 
3. Peratrenvates or Typrca, Nevuroprers, 
1. Libellulideans. 
2. Hphemerideans. 
As the higher Apipenniforms, the Termitideans, are prematura- 
tive, while the Dipteroid Panorpideans and the higher Ampli- 


each other And, indeed, in the short dy and broad head and long antenne, 
in the very unequal wings, which are folded roof.like over the omen, in 
their simple neuration, in the short legs and feeble tarsi, and in their mode of flight 


and their appearing wi 

remarkably like the winged plant-lice.” 

He also illustrates at some length the relations of some of the Planipennians to’ 
which he he Myrmeleonti 


Pe hepiopters, in the course he remarks, that among t ds 
“ Ascalaphus was described by Seopoli as a Papilio, and has been said by Kirby to 
esemble Heliconia.”. The form of the ante is strikingly Lepidopteroid in its 
club-like shape, and its rather broad wings a . We add that the of 


wings are 
nop , 2 genus of the Hemerobiids, closel: resembles of 
Bon is called D. phaleenoides, ~ - sea 


based on the principle of Cephalization—Insects. 23 


—— whether the latter groups should not rank before the 


vision of Apipens), or that of the Lepidopters (the first of 
Amplipens), it is natural that the descent required to bring the 
Hymenopterous type down to a Neuropterous level should be 


maturativ 

c. Peratienuates or Typical Attenuates.—The body and wings in 
these species are narrow or long-amplificate, the posterior wings 
sometimes small or wanting. The species are semzaquate and 
prematurative, 

They include: (1) the Zibellulideans, which have the wings 
nearly equal, and the mandibles stout ; and (2) the Hphemerideans, 
which have the posterior wings smallest and sometimes obsolete, 
and the mouth organs in the adult atrophied. The latter show 
their inferiority in being short-lived and in eating nothing or 
but little in the adult state; the functions of the adult are almost 
solely those of the posterior portion of the body. 


II, PTERO-METASTHENICS, OR ELYTROPTERS. 


_ 4 Coleopters.—Coleopters, in their compact structures consist- 
ing of well-adjusted parts, their comparatively limited diversity 
of form, and their being imitated by many species of other 
tribes while never themselves imitators,’ exhibit the characteris- 
tics of a type of the highest grade in its subdivision. At the 
Same time they show inferiority to the Hymenopters in their 


* A. S. Packard brings out this fact, in his pamphlet, in connection with the cor- 
esponding one with regard to Hymenopters already cited. He says “There is 
similar parallelism of analogous forms between the Coleoptera, Hemiptera, Or- 

uroptera, which seem bound together by gong such 


Which do not in turn assume any of their forms. Some Orthoptera are very 
deat prowl, and some Hemiptera are very Coleopterous-like. The re 
anno! said,” Be 
Mr. Packard, adoptin it would seem from his words provisionally, the two 
grand Saran of Moet at piauisetatas and Haas/elatie; remaiks that e" 
culminate in the Coleopters and Hymenopters, respectively. As the Hemipters are 
haustellate, the facts respecting their relations above mentioned go against this old 
division of Insects and sustai opEse shagorey th 
Hemipters follow the Coleopters although the latter are ma late,—the distine- 
tion of mandibulate and haustellate, of minor im- 


24 Dana on the Classification of Animals 


stouter or grosser aie ws and their greater diversity as to size and 
shape; in the jaws the highest species being perfunctionate 
to a less degree; wie very decidedly in their metasthenic nature 
as regards the wings, the anterior pair being only wing-covers 
or elytra. The mouth is mandibulate, and often rodent as we 
as feeding. In some species there is a degree of care for the 
oung that approaches somewhat that in the Hymenopters. 
They never live in communities for mutual work. The food, 
like “shat of Dipters, is various, being either vegetable, articulate- 
animal or vertebrate-animal, the last either living, freshly dea 
or decaying. The species are mostly perterrestrial. They are 
all permaturative. 
ipters—Among Hemipters the structures are rather 
laxly put together compared with those of Coleopters, the body 
thinner and ‘softer, the wings usually more or less overlapping ; 
and their strength for the same size very much less. There are 
some of the same differences between Hemipters and Coleopters 
as between Dipters and co ewes Though never very 
large, they appear to be amplificate species, —sometimes broad- 
amplificate, being _ for their breadth, and sometimes long- 
~ lifcate. The elytra are coriaceous na ty in the basal half; 
this t thinning of the. w ing-covers comports with their being 


large. The ii are semicoriaceous. Both pairs of wings are 
sometimes obsolete. The mouth is mandibulate, and simply 
wing and feeding in function. The species are mostly per- 
terrestrial, never semiaquatie ; all are prematurative 
e Ort rthopters include three grand subdivisions,—the Jirst 
and second representatives respectively of Coleopters and Hemip- 
ters, and the third typica 

(1) The Cursors or Coleopteroid species consist of the Blatta and 
Forficula groups, which, though elongate, are still comparatively 
short in body, and much like “‘Coleopters ; the wings in the Blat- 
tids are rather lax, and the bodies soft for the size. 

(2) The Ambulators or Hemipteroid species, that is, the Man- 
tids and Phasmids. The species are often thin and broad, and 
‘Simulate leaves, bark and sticks in color and markings; and in 
this respect this group and the Hemipters show an approxima- 
tion. There is also some approach between these groups in ~~ 


based on the principle of Cephalization.—Insects. 25 


uch more restricted in size, and therefore do not run off into 
those extravagances which give to Orthopters their most obvious 
eatures, : 

(c) The Saltators, or Typical Orthopters, (Grasshoppers, Crick- 
ets, &ic.,) differ from the preceding in being strongly podometa- 
sthenic, a mark of low inferiority. The species show that they 
are the typical Orthopters by their trim and well-made forms, 
their great leaping powers, and the absence of any close likeness 
to other groups. 


III, THYSANURES, or APTERS. 


i the Anure, in which it is suctorial. 

The Lepismians have been often said to be related to both 
Lepidopters and Neuropters, and some authors regard them as 
= species of the latter group. Erichson referred them to 

Orthopters, 


The reasons for making the Thysanures a third grand division 
of Insects, and for not including in the same other apterous 
groups, are as follow: 

1. The agility of movement of these species show that they 
are not degraded “forms pertaining to the inferior limits of 
another higher type, but constitute an independent type, or, are 
typical in the grand division to which they belong. : 

2. While the Lepismians may be regarded as related to Lepi- 
dopters and Neuropters, such caudal sete are found in no Lepi- 
ter and the scales on no Neuropter. They stand in distant 
relation to both. ; : 
A. Jour. Scr.—Szcoxp Srrizs, Vou. XXXVII, No. 109.—Jan., 1864, 
4 


26 Dana on the Classification of Animals 


8. The forms among the Lepismians are related to those of 
Myriapods, as has been observed by different writers, and so also 
are their movements. Thus they occupy a position between 
Insects and an inferior order of Insecteans. 

4, The third or degradational group of Insects, if such there be, 
should contain, according to analogy, elongated larve-like forms, 
such as make an elementalized exhibition of the Insect-type. As 
the longicaudate Birds, or Erpetoids, constitute the third or 
degradational division of Birds (aérial Vertebrates), so the longl- 
caudate Thysanures may well represent the degradational divi- 
sion of Insects (aérial Articulates). The shorter Podurians are 
elliptic forms. 

5. While Insects of the first grand division are prosthenic, and 
those of the second are metasthenic, those of the third are, on the 
scheme proposed, urosthenic, even those few which are not salta- 
torial using the caudal extremity in locomotion. It accords with 
the relations in many other departments of the animal king- 
dom that these three sthenic grades should mark off the three 
grand divisions. 

6. With regard to the exclusion of other apterous Insects, we 
offer the following remarks. The apterous Pediculi, as Nitzsch 
long since observed, have no characteristics that would separate 
them from Hemipters, and the-Nirmids none that would remove 
them from Orthopters. They are simply inferior wingless spe- 
cies of those types, as much as the Coccids are of Homopters; 
and they have nothing of the agility of the Lepismids, ‘There 
are no points of structure indicating an affinity to any two or 
more of the higher subdivisions of Insects, or to the inferior 
Myriapods; they are not urosthenic, being in no way essentially 
different, as regards their legs, from the types to which they are 
referred, — 

Fleas are permaturative, like all Apipens, and in this and other 
ways show that they have no relations to the Lepismians. e 
reasons for regarding them as an independent type under the 
Apipens have been presented on page 18. 

The Lepismians and Podurians appear therefore to be rightly 
made the third grand ‘group of Insects. Like the Erpetoid 
birds, and degradational or intermediate types in other cases, 
the group may have been well-represented in species in t 
geologieal ages. At the present time we know of only the two 
above-mentioned families under this type,sand both are sup- 
i to have eloser relations to the Pteroprosthenics than to the 

terometasthenies, If any group ever existed related as closely 
to the Pterometasthenies, as the above mentioned are to the 
_ Pteroprosthenics, and if, besides, there has existed a third typical 
group, the species are yet to be discovered, either fossil or living- 


- 


based on the principle of Cephalization.—Insects. 27 


Parallelism between Pteroprosthenics and Pterometasthenics. 


roup. ‘They are 
the mouth mandibulate, although unlike in that the latter 
(or highest species) are also suctorial; alike also in being with 
few exceptions terrestrial, and also in being permaturative. 

Hemipters an ipters, or the two second subdivisions, are 
alike in having the mouth suctorial, and feeble species for their 
size as compared with those of the first subdivisions. 

The typical Orthopters and the Aphantpters, or the types under 
the two third subdivisions, consist alike of saltatorial and podo- 
metasthenic species. 

(2.) Between the three subdivisions of the Pterometasthenics and 
the three of the Pteroprosthenics.—The more prominent of the rela- 
tions between Coleopters and Apipens have just been mentioned. 

ose of Hemipters and Amplipens are still closer; Hemipters 

ing so near to Homopters in structure, and especially in the 
composition of the rostrate mouth, that they have been placed 
together in the same tribe by most entomologists. 

The Orthopters and Neuropters, or the third subdivisions of 
each, show a degree of approximation in the close resemblance 
in form between the Neuropterous Mantispids and the Orthop- 
terous Mantids, indicating a tendency to run off into the same 
style of amplificate structure, and also in the Cricket-like form of 
the Neuropterous Borei; more profoundly in the resemblance in 
structure of mouth and the nature of the metamorphosis between 
the Neuropterous Perle and the Orthopterous Phasmids, as re- 
marked upon by Westwood. ‘ : 

us the grand divisions of the Pterometasthenics constitute 

4 parallel series to those of the Pteroprosthenics. 

he further parallelisms, under both the Pteroprosthenics and 
Pterometasthenics, between the third of the grand divisions of 
each and the first and second have been explained on pages 20 
to 22, and 24. 
_ The affinities and analogies of species and groups appear hence 
to be fully exhibited in the system of classification presented, 
far more so than in any arrangement of osculant circles. 

(8.) Between the several groups as to the number of subdivisions, 

“and the grades of types constituting them.—The number of subdi- 
‘Visions in the groups, both the higher and lower, is three, as In 
most of the classes and orders that came under consideration in 
Article I, 


28 Dana on the Classification of Animals 


Of these three subdivisions both among the Pteroprosthenies 
and Pterometasthenics—the first and second grand divisions of 
Insects—the two higher are typical, of different grades, and the 
third is hypotypic. The same is true of the three subdivisions 
of each the Apipens and Amplipens, or the first and second 
grand divisions of the Pteroprosthenics. This is exhibited in 
the following table, in which the grades are expressed by the 
Same terms as in Article L 


: Pteroprosthenics. | Pterometasthenics. | Apipens. Amplipens. 
Betatypic, Apipens. Coleopters. || Hymenopters. | Lepidopters. 
Gammatypic,| Amplipens. | Hemipters. ipters. omopters. 
Hypotypic, | Attenuates. Orthopters. || Aphanipters. | Trichopters. 

In the third or hypotypic division of both the Pteroprosthenics — 
and Pterometasthenics, on the contrary, the first and second 
the three subdivisions appear to be hypertypic groups, while the 
Uurd is typical; and the hypertypic groups are more or Jess 
closely representatives respectively of the first and second grand 
divisions, as follows: 


or N europters. nibert 2 be 
AT otertent : : \ Coleopteroids, 
ypertypic, Apipenniforms. } oS Caketa: 
B-Hypertypic, : : bee ae 
yper pic, Amplipenniforms, ar Ambala 
Typical, Perattenuates. Saltators. 


Methods of cephalization, or decephalization, at the basis of the succes 
sive grades of subdivisions, | 

A. In the subkingdom of Articulates, as shown by the writer 

and long held by Agassiz, the classes oF 


special methods of decephalization laid down, ( : 
In passing from Crustaceans to Worms, the methods illustrated 
are the analytic, in the resolution of the bod mostly into its 


‘Rormal annuli; the multiplicative, in the indefinite number 


ca") 
et 
bo 


Segments; the elliptic, in the al 


y 


~~ 


based on the principle of Cephalization—lInsects, 29 


B. The grand subdivisions of Insecteans are Insects, Spiders, 
and Myriapods. 
assing from Insects to Spiders, the methods of decephal- 
ization illustrated are the retroferent, case a, in the transfer of one 
pair of mouth organs to the locomotive series; and ashadeof the , 
analytic, in the loss of the independent definition of the head 
and thorax. 


Pterometasthentes, and Thysanures or Apters. ae 
_ In passing from the first to the second, the principal method 
illustrated is the retroferent, case b, as shown in the transfer back- 


ward of the flying function, and also in the locomotive function 
cae transferred in a considerable degree from the wings to the 
eet. 


In passing from the second to the third, the methods exempli- 
fied are the analytic, shown in the equal annuli and partial loss 
of distinction of thorax and abdomen; the retroferent, case b, in 
the transfer backward to the caudal extremity of a part of the 
locomotive function ; elliptic, in the absence of wings; prematu- 
rative, in there being no metamorphosis. 

rand subdivisions of the Pteroprosthenics are the 


ters, Dipters and Aphanipters. 


_F. The grand Micaak' of the Amplipens are Lepidopters, 
Homopters and Trichopters. é 
In passing from the /irst to the second, the methods exemplified 


30 Dana on the Classification of Animals 


are mainly the same as in passing from the first to the second 
under the Apipens. In passing to the third, there are the semt 
dilutive, the larves being aquatic; and the defunctivnative, the 
mouth in the adult failing mostly of the organs and function 
of feeding. 

The same potential method, which distinguishes Hymenoplers 
from Dipters, or the two highest subdivisions of Apipens, also 
distinguishes the two highest of Amplipens, or Lepidopiers and 
\Homopters, and the two highest of Pterometasthenics, or Coleop- 
ders and Hemipters. 

It is not necessary to continue these illustrations further. 

From the above review of the relations of the successive stages 

roups, it is seen that the distinctions between them are 
throughout strictly ordinal, taking the word in its primary 
sense; that is, all, from the highest to the lowest, are distinc 
tions in rank, 


based on the principle of Cephalization.—Insects. 31 


their subdivisions (pp. 22, 24). The line for the Homopters is 
made to run lowest on account of the Aphids and Coccids, 


Apipens. 
me oan 
Hym. 
; pe. 
Amplipens. bis 
Dip. ae : Attenuates. Col. e' 
Lep. eerie, #8. 


Ap. 
| Hom. Amp. Hem. 
Or. 
P. 
Aph. Tri. | | 
Thy. 
a |v 
/ ene bens sod 
I It 
which seem to be inferior even to the Pediculi of the Hemipters 
and Nirmids of the Orthopters. : 


Designations of the successive grades of groups. 


The parallelism between the grander subdivisions of the 
Pterometasthenics (Coleopters, Hemipters and Orthopters) and 
those of the Apipens, (Hymenopters, Dipters and Aphanipters,) 
and Amplipens, (Lepidopters, Homopters and Trichopters,) 
teaches that these subdivisions are codrdinates, or of one grade. 

This is further indicated by other points of parallelism, namely, 
that the first subdivision of the Pterometasthenics and Apipens, 
the Hymenopters and Coleopters, have eminently the features 
each of a high type; and the last, the Aphanipters and typical 
Orthopters, are alike metapodosthenic or saltatorial species. So 


icckaennipattestnniia 


3 


also under the Amplipens, the 2nd subdivision, or that of Ho- | 


mopters, is closely related to the second of Pterometasthenics, 
or that of Hemipters (page 27). : 
_ Hence, if the grander subdivisions of Apipens and of Ampli- 
to are called tribes, those of the Pterometasthenics should also 

So designated. 

Under the subkingdom of Articulates, there are the classes of 
Insecteans, Crustaceans and Worms; and under Insecteans, the 
orders Insects, Spiders and Myriapods. = 

then the term tribe be used for the familiar groups, Hymen- 
opters, Dipters, &c., as just suggested, the question comes up as 
to the designations of the two intermediate grades of groups be- 
tween orders and tribes : 

The distinctions on which they are based are so obviously or- 


inal that they may be well called orders of subordinate grades; 


and I propose for the first of the two the PON ee stages 


nd for the second ordinules, a diminutive of orders. 
will then be as follows. 


é 


oo 


32 Dana on the Classification of Animals 


Orders: Insects, Spiders, and Myriapods. 
Under Jnsects— | 
Suborders: 1 Pteroprosthenics, 2 Pterometasthenies, 8 Thy- 


sanures, 
*  Ordinules (confined to the Pteroprosthenics): 1 Apipens, 2 
Amplipens, 3 Attenuates or Neuropters. 
Apipens. Amplipens. Attenuates. Pterometasthenics. 
. Hy pt pidopters. Apipennif Coleopters. 
Tribes, je Dipters. Homopters. Amplipenniforms.| Hemipters. 
3. Aphanipters. frichopters. Perattenuates, Orthopters. 
The subdivisions of the three tribes under the Attenuates or 
Neuropters, (p. 22,) and those of the tribes of Orthopters, (p. 24,) 
may be all designated swbtribes; there is in the two higher of 
each a like reference to the higher tribes of Insects. 
This subject will come up again for further discussion. But, 
for comparison, I allude here to one other department of animal 
life—that of Mammals. 


] T enidontere 


no occasion for doubting that these subdivisions are codrdinates 


re is further reason for the many a 


Jogies, in t the 
base of their respective 


based on the principle of Cephalization.—Insects. 33 


grand divisions, lead off apparently in geological time the Insects 
of the globe—the Neuropters the pteroprosthenic, and the Or- 


being among Carboniferous species,) and possibly also Coleopters. 
Nothing is yet known of ancient Thysanures, although it is 
probable they were in existence at the same time. 

e should expect also from the association of the Neuropters 
and Orthopters in the same Carboniferous fauna that there 
would be examples of intermediate types between these tribes, 
that is, those which, while related fundamentally to one of the 
two tribes, presents some characteristics of the other; for in 
this way the striking harmony in the flora or fauna of an age in 

eological history was often produced,—as, for example, in the 

and-vegetation of the Carboniferous era, which embraced com- 

mon Acrogens (Ferns) and Gymnosperms; and besides these, 
fh ; 


* The Orthopterous features among Neuropters appear to be modifications of 
under the types in this group which have been already mentioned, especially 
the Lepidopteroid, and not indications of a distinct type of Orthopteroid ; 
a fossil ies re and also the modern Mantispids, are true Plani- 
ians in their wings and in their other characteristics of special im : 
hey properly constitute an Orthopteroid group in this be. 
Am. Jour. Sct.—Srcoxp Sexims, Vou. XXXVII, No. 109.—Jan., 1864. 
5 


34 Dana on Fossil Insects from the Carboniferous. ° 


Art. IL.—On Fossil Insects from the Carboniferous formation in 
Illinois; by James D. Dana. Ae 

The remains of Insects, represented in the following figures, 
were discovered by Mr. John G. Bronson in the Carbonifer- 
ous beds at Morris, Illinois. 
They occur in the flattened 
iron-stone concretions of the 
‘beds. Other concretions of 
the locality contain various 
coal plants, and also the re- 


appear in the Report on the 
Geology of the State by Mr. 
Worthen. Among them, ac- 
cording to Mr. Lesquereux, 
the following are common 
species: Neuropteris hirsuta 
, NV. rarinervis Brgt., 
Pecopteris Miltont Bret., P. 
unita Bret., P. equalis Bret., 
nnularia longifolia Bret. 
The description of the Crus- 
taceans we reserve for an- 
other time. 
_ Figure 1 is twice the natu- 
ral size lineally. In general 
form and the neuration of 
the wings the Insect is close- 
ly like the Semblids among 
the Neuropters, and especially, 
the Chauliodes i 


la yy 


Wy 


i 


MM 


no reason tan 


MMAR lic 


J ote ) € species P Pp |S ete 2 

that therefore it must have been a Newropter, and not an Orthop- — 
ter, Yet in the broad costate femurs of the second pair of legs, — 
and the form of the prothorax, it approaches the Orthdpters of — 


> Phyllium family, and is very unlike any known Neuroptet 
the anterior legs are peculiar in having a large and broad femt 


ig: 
ak 


er spines as long as the joint, t 


4 


s : oe: rie ae 
GAC i ere SS oo eg es Sa eae ay Se eh ie hal os ac ea 


Dana on Fossil Insects from the Carboniferous, 35 


Wings, is 1 inch 10 lines; and the breadth, from the medial line 
of the abdomen to the left margin of the left wing, 5 lines. 

By request of the discoverer, I name the new genus here indi- 
cated, Miamia, after the Miami University, his ‘alma mater.” 
In view of the important results of his explorations, the species 


may be designated the Mfiamia Bronsont. 

Figure 2 represents, natural size, a mutilated anterior wing of 
another Neuropter. 
neuration approximates to 
that in the genus Hemero- 


bius, The dotted lineshows RI - 
the probab : Sa a es 
ay able length and ~S_-4 TY 
outh . Se. \ Se er 
ne of the wing—these SST 


Organs in the Planipenni- <i aie 
ing 3 to 4 times as ; 
long as their breadth. The areolets are obliterated towards the 


hervures and their irregularit appears to be owing to a want of 
directive force in the eaten, ot to a low grade of cephalization 
e animal 


36 G. Hinrichs on the Density, Rotation, and Age of the Planets. 


Art. IV.—The Density, Rotation and Relative Age of the Planets} | 
by Prof. Gustavus Hinricus, Iowa State University. 


of moving in vacuo suffer some, however slight a resistance in 
moving through ether, then the analytical demonstration loses its 
physical import. 2 

The metaphysician, in contemplating the ardor wherewith this 
doctrine is advocated cannot but see in it a more refined form 0 
the doctrine of ancient philosophy that the earth is about equal 
to the universe; and the theologian might find the stability of 
the planetary system opposed to the prediction that nothing 
is eterna below. , 

_Yet this is not the place to decide the latter questions; we 


} 


* Olmsted’s Astronomy by Snell, $384 


G, Hinrichs on the Density, Rotation, and Age of the Planets. $7 


far as possible, then we must accept a different course of inves- 
tigation, We must do for astronomy what geology has done 
for geography—in the absence of records from the earlier stages 
of the earth’s history it has been successfully attempted to 
supply them by observations on the configuration of the earth’s 
parts, carefully compared with the yet continuing changes 
thereof’ We must try to investigate the different celestial strata, 
try to see whether they are in situ or displaced, and, if displaced, 
measure the force which produced the dislocation: then we will 
obtain as good determinations of the relutive age of these celestial 
strata or planets and moons as geology affords for the relative 
age of terrestrial stratu.2 As far as Induction is to be relied on 
in geology it may safely be relied on in astronomy, and we 
hope to show that the known observed configuration of tbe 
solar system gives, by means of the calculus and a strict induc- 
tion, as good a determination of the relative age and the resisting 
lorces as geology can produce in regard to the earth’s crust. If 
then geology, notwithstanding its yet leaving many questions 
undecided, is considered more than idle speculation, we hope to 
vindicate the same confidence for the results of this investigation 
into the nature and effects of the dislocating force of the solar 
system: we will try to show that the resistance of the ether filling 


different distances, we easily find that the year would be short- 
ened only one second in a thousand years by this resistance! 
this quantity is imperceptible, resistance is; but the latter cannot 


I. The effects of Resestance. 
_ Let r be the radius vector, 6 the anomaly, ¢ the time, 7 the 
angle between the orbit and a perpendicular to the radius vector, 
and R th accelerating force due to the resisting medium; then 


_* See an example in Dana’s Manual of Geology, p. 386, where the relative age 
of the Sil ecaha Canaaae «ths owes i 


38 G. Hinrichs on the Density, Rotation, and Age of the Planets. 


resolving the forces into a radial and transversal component wé 
obtain the general equations’ of motion: ‘a? 


d%r d0\2 B " 
7a—"( a) =— atR sin, ] 
dir? a (1) 
, a =—R cos 
wedi cua cs 


We might integrate (1) by the methods of approximative 
integration, as Laplace has done in a similar case; or we migh 
integrate for R=0 and use the variation of parameters. This 
latter method would be much more appropriate than the first; 
yet we think that a simple successive approximation is fully 
exact enough and at the same time so much more elegant and 
easy that we will prefer it, considering uniformity to be a true 
element of any investigation. We therefore directly aim at just 
that degree of approximation which observation enables us to 
test—and also thereby keep this paper within the range of almost 
every student of the calculus. 

rst approximation gives Kepler’s laws as the integral of 
(1) re R=0, representing the motions in vacuo:* i. e. respect 
ively : 


~ 1+-ecos 0’ ae 
SDS SS oi @) 
~~ T2~a(1 =e?) 


I. The orbit is an ellipse ; 

II. The radius vector of any planet describes equal areas in 
equal times ; 

ITf. The mean radii vectores (mean distances) of the several 
planets describe in their mean motion equal solids in equal times. 


* These formule are easily obtained as stated; compare Price, Infinit. Calculus, 
vol. iii, Art. 297, formula (174), remembering that P = gravitation =— =. Q=0 
“SSE g d 
sin 7= Ze? 87= en and as a simple identity 
do 
dr do, d90__ 1 /2rdr do d29 a(r a) a 
2—-— a 8 baie hy | 
Wie tea a ti 08 +e. 


* The first and second are of familiar form; the third i. hae 
Caleulus, vol. iii, Art. 331, where A is near his = may be found in Price’ 


: be analogous to the 
mean motion of the individuals I found this form whilst searching for the harmony 
between these two laws, and used it as early as 1857 in publie lectures on the pria- 


A. Hinrichs on the Rotation, Density, and Age of the Planets. 39 


d?r (5) u 
oe, eS 


dt? dr Fh 
1 dt pop yt 
Pi dt bP 


Finally, a third approximation would likewise take the yet 
neglected term Rsiny into account; but this is in the present 
state of science altogether worthless, as observations but imper- 
fectly suffice to test our second approximation 
_ In order to integrate (1’) the function R must be known. It 
is admitted that, » being a function of the velocity v and » a cer- 
tain constant, 

=r9(). (3) 
According to Newton (Principia, Book H, Sect. VIL; Francoeur 
écanique, 5 éd, art. 228), we have for a sphere of radius @, 
density a moving in a medium of density 9, 
gn: (4) 
8 0A 

: The function @ is generally taken as v? ; but the very accurate 

experiments of Giulio’ prove that for small velocities of the 


Py of the beautiful as a means of investigating the laws of nature instead of the 
0 ics 


show the correctness of our expression we simply introduce the mean velocity 
a 
V=2r p for thereby the third (2) becomes 


a? 
p= 4? os a=aV?, 
.. rd the right cone of radius V and altitude a is of constant volume. _ 
__* It is easily understood that neglecting Resin is the same as assumio the ex- 
ty to be constant. As e now is very small, and Laplace (Méc. Oé/. Liv. X, 
chap. VIL. 8 18) ft Sg ee ae an at : plan 
he obtained PP sted 


Willd 


c= constant | ie } 
; density of ether 
Ur second approximation will be more close for future than for past ages. 
Min 1853; as most of my books are yet in Germany, I cannot cite the memoir of 
Vesti oe my abstract at hand only gives t ‘principal results of bis in- 


40 A, Hinrichs on the Density, Rotation, and Age of the Planets 


pendulum the resistance is principally proportional to the velo- 
city itself, for greater velocities, to its square, or more exactly 


9(v)=av--be?, 


: 


w, as the resistance under consideration is excessively small, ; 


Now. 
the form of g will be very nearly 


o(v)=0. (6) 
Introducin ng these laws (6) and (@) into (8) the equations (1’) 
for the secon hail sea becom 
d6\ 2 ub 
eo ai) core 


(1") 


The first of these is satisfied by the api orbit of each single 
lution ; the second, si = gl educes to 
revolu e second, since v cos7=-~ >=, I 
(a ) zai? 
which, by the second @) expressing the conservation of the 
areas, mes the simple st 
Op ve (8) 
giving, ifc=C for t=0, and « the base of the natural logarithms, 
e==Ca 


(9) 
By the third law = Kepler, i. e. the third of (2) or a= con- 
stant times c? we hav 


ahd 


a=Ae_ gts (10) 


if A be the value of a for t=0. Thus the distance from the sun 
does not decrease ment but with a velocity proportional to 
the decreasing value of a 

tO _ovae™ Vt ane Soe, el 


If ee the present age, distance a, and « the 
correspondin: te an aces differing from the former by # pe re 
time, then (10) gives 
; i. grid BO esol ql 0”) 


giving the distanes ak x a function of its present Meso s and the 
interval of time from the present. As the unk 
9 enters into », we may instead of (10,) use the 


log eloga——, (12) 


A, Hinrichs on the Density, Rotation, and Age of the Planets. 41 


where the unit of a is arbitrary and that of ¢ and 4 may be as- 
sumed if the unit of is determined in conformity therewith. 
We then may take for our earth a=100, e=10, A=1; then the 
unit of # will be known as soon as the amount of resistance oF 
the density of the ether is given, Neither being exactly known 
e must be satisfied with an estimate; and thus (12) easi ly 
bore that if our eurth approaches the sun annually by ten feet, 
unit of age t is ten thousand millions of years. 
It will be seen that, ve ie as the st egonare of our 
earth is known, the unit of # will be determ 
By means of (10’) or its reaesabink (12) a. ain now enabled 
to calculate the effect of resistance on the ania of fe cay 
at any age #, both in future (+4) and the past (— e now 
to a comparison of the results of this eas with ob- 
servation, using the following data’ 


a 9 ray 
gh 
Mercury, 38 3-9 1:23 2 
Venus 72 9°98 1:07 1 
: 100 10:00 1:00 1 
152 514 9 
Aste 10°0 (assumed.) 
Jupiter 520 1144 24 
rn, 954 94°8 14 08 
Uranus, 1918 45°8 18 
<a 3004 42:5 23 


Past. Present. Future. 
9g 1 


4 2 0 4 6 
Mercury, 240 95 38 15 6 2 
Venus, 181 100 72 45 29 18 
252 159 100 63 40 25 
Mars, 955 381 152 65 9 
Jupiter, 125 626 520. «488~=<“‘z C8 
1991 1378 954 are 
Uranus, 6351 3490 1918 1078 593 
Neptune, 5985 4237 3004 2127 1504 1066 
For an asteroid ie which eal, 
2 0-0 5 1-0 
Distance, ine 770 280 28 3 
* For G=95,000,000 X 528, or about 50,000,000,000 ten-feets, hence a—2== 
49,999, 999,999 ten-feets ; consequently by (12) 


Wis « ate ee 1,9 1 year; 
menind =a10 log -— < 0:0000000001, > being 1 year; 
si iv 119; meant Tee eae by Babinet, 


42 A. Hinrichs on the Density, Rotation, and Age of the Planets, 


These numbers are represented in the annexed diagram, which 
thus shows the variations in the distance of the lanets 


mony of the heavens” without taking the element of resistan 


of these modifications in their position. : 
The dislocation of strata of rocks is no fact ; we simply see 
similar parts in irregular position, and conclude by induction that 
they once formed a continuous stratum; but would it not be 
equally just to conclude that the heavenly strata, i. e., the planetary 
orbs, are dislocated, if we can show that, Ist, they approach to @ 
definite law, as the terrestrial strata in being parallel ; : 
2nd, The assumption of the Jorce of resistance fully explains the 
deviations from that law, as the assumption of internal action ex- 
plains the dislocation of geological strata? 
e think the analogy is about as close as can be, and there- 
fore will venture the attempt, 

It is a well known fact that the so-called law of Titius or Bode, 
is pretty correct for all planets from Venus to Uranus; only 
Mercury and Venus deviate considerably from the duplication of 
the successive mutual distances. This law—only in the case 0 

ercury deviating from the above named—may therefore well 
be compared to the original level of terrestrial strata, if the laws 
of resistance as developed in the preceding suffice to explain 
the actual deviations from it, 

It is even a priori highly probable that some simple law pre- 
vailed at the time of the 


8} 
the heavenly spaces. 


listances, and gave as his final opinion that “ the old planets are altered a little in 
- caper a (Humboldt, Cosmos, iii, 440 ; Harper's edition, iv, 110.) This seems to 
another instance of Kepler's divination of scientific results. 


A, Hinrichs on the Density, Rotation, and Age of the Planets, 43 


- Taking now 2 according to this law as the original distance, 
we find the age # by (12), viz: 


Distance.” Age. Distance. 
Mercury, 60 10 |Jupiter, 680 3°0 
s, 80 *6 |Saturn, 1320 2:0 
Earth, 120 *8 (Uranus, 2600 1:0 
Mars, 200 6 |Neptune, 5160 3-0 
Asteroid, 360 ? Mean age, 2°25 
Mean age, “712 


Although there is considerable variation in each separate 
group, the mean gives a decidedly higher age to the exterior planets 
than to the interior ones, about in the ratio of one to three. 

But if this law is correct, it demands that the relative age of the 
planets increases with their relative distances from the sun (supposing 
no interchange of place yet to have occurred). Consequently 
our determination of the age of the single planets appears to be 
very uncertain, since Jupiter figures with the same age as Nep- 
tune! But it is easy to show that this is simply a consequence 
of our taking » constant, whilst it not only is greatly varying, 
but even varying in different degrees for different planets. For, 
considering 4 as constant,” and for a certain former period g=ng, 

e, being the present value of 9), the constancy of the mass 
gives e7A=93,A, or A,=n3A, i.e. 
64 “et 
 89A~ 89,4, 


n?—=v,n?, (13) 


ulated. 
We must therefore apply a subtractive correction to our calcu- 
the mass of the planet. By doing so 
i  Saeiee we found the equations of condition pretty well satis- 
fi by taking this correction proportional to the mass. For th 
Superior planets we may have (the constant being assumed 01) 
* These distances seem to afford a good average; the law is rigorously applied, — 
for 80 ~60=20, 12 0—80=40=2-20, 200--120=80==2°40, ete. The series is, 
m, m+n, m+2n, m+4n, m-+8n, ete. 
aa Aes probable that 6 is not ee as on el es _—: the reid 
or trying it wi velocity of light r 
{ime whereby we ar cared though different bathe of the heavenly space (ab- 


44 A. Hinrichs on the Density, Rotation, and Age of the Planets. 


Mass, Age. Correction. Corrected Age. 
Jupiter, 25 3 2°5 "5 | 
Saturn, 7 2 i 13 
Uranus, . 1 1 *] 9 
Neptune, 2 3 3 2°8 


This is already a much more regular series; the mean of the 
corrected ages for Jupiter and Saturn is ‘9, for Uranus and Nep- 
tune 1°8, or, whilst the uncorrected age of the former was greater 
than that of the latter, by this (very imperfect) correction for 
mass it is as one of Jupiter-Saturn to two of Uranus-Neptune. 
The conclusion seems therefore well-founded, that a more thor- 
ough investigation of the variation of » in time, tf possible at all, 
would give the age of the different planets as regularly increasing 

un. 


of our solar system, we shall find the following four laws: 
First Law. The nearest seconda approaches its primary with 
advancing age.—Expressing these distances in radii of the central 
ody, we have: 
Mercury, 80 rad. of the Sun. 
Moon SS ot =a 


? . 
Jupiter, Ist Moon, 6 “ « «& Jupiter. 


Saturn, Ist Moon, 4°“ & & Qaturn. 
thus showing a decrease with age. Uranus, having its moons 


proper measure of the closeness. We ha 
: Nept.-Ur. =1:115 Ur.-Saturn, 


. 4 
Ur.-Sat. =2'247 Sat.-Jupiter. | 
Sat.-Jup. =1'718 Jup.-Asteroid. 
Jup.-Ast. ==2°195 Ast.-Mars. 
Ast.-Mars ==2°195 Mars-Earth 


“a 
4h “ 


Am, Jour. Sci Vou. XXXVII—p. 36. 


A. Hinrichs on the Density, Rotation, and Age of the Planets. 45 


which numbers regularly decrease with the increasing age, con- 
h 


of the actual forms of the lunar systems of Jupiter, Saturn and 
Uranus shows that these latter are very irregular, whilst the 
bam world of Jupiter, the youngest of this group, is as yet very 
regular, 

Yet the distances of its moons is not quite regular; for they 
are, expressed in radii of the planet respectively 
6:0 9°623 15°350 26-998. 
As Jupiter is proved to be older than the interior planets, and 
as these exhibit sions of age in their mutual distances, the face 
of old Jove can neither be without wrinkles. Indeed, perceiy- 
ing that the same law of duplication is applicable to the above 
distances, and selecting as the primitive values 

7 7+3=> 0+6=16 16+12=—28, 
we get by the known dimensions of these moons the following 
relative ages: 
8 13 7 

which, as the third has as much mass as the other three taken 
together, by the reduction for masses, would become more regu- 


twice as great as the mean age of the first two. Therefore we 
Must likewise conclude that the age of Jupiter's satellites in- 
creases with their distance from the primary. 

f the masses and dimensions of the members of the more dis- 
tant worlds were known, we should certainly find this law of the 
age increasing with the distance from the central body to be 
Universal 


Sven by the diagram expressing the results of formula (12). 

_ We have already seen that the Jovial World indeed a pears 
Very regular, and that the smaller regularity of the more distant 
Worlds confirms our result as to their higher age. 

t what age will the configuration of the solar system corres- 

Pond to the present configuration of the world of Saturn? The 

lagram gives the fourth age as answer. For at that time we 
have the following similarity between the two systems: 
a For if in (12) ¢, @, A and x are multiplied by a constant n, 9 becomes n9, 


46 A. Hinrichs on the Density, Rotation, and Age of the Planets. 


The Rings of Saturn are represented by the hosts of asteroids, 
which already in the first age intersect the orbit of our earth, 
but in the fourth age will closely encroach the sun, and (perhaps | 
together with those meteorites which are not intercepted by any — 
of the planets) may form continuous rings around the tort 
either on account of their number, or because they probably will — 
become melted; they will form not one ring, but rings, because — 
they will approach the sun according to the amount of their 
actor », just as detritus is deposited in horizontal layers of 
variable fineness. . 
The jour inner moons of Saturn, being very close to each other — 
and to the primary, will be represented by the four dnterior 
planets, for these also are at the fourth age very close together 
and very near the sun, being altogether within the present dis- 
tance of Mercury. The distances are, then, for the planets [see 
results of (12) ]: ae 


Mercury 6, Mars 24, Venus 29, Earth 40; 7 
for the Moons of Saturn, now, io 
Mimas 3°36, Enceladus 431, Tethys 5:34, Dione 684 
or whilst the planetary distances will be as a 
‘ A Eee VEY 
the corresponding lunar distances are now as 
26724. 
or only differing in the first number. a 
The four outer moons of Saturn, now, correspond in configuration — 
to the four exterior planets at age four ; for the first three of each — 
are about equidistant, the fourth far above the rest. ‘he dis 
tances of the planets then are ; 
Jupiter 360, Saturn 454, Uranus 596, Neptune 1504, 
and of the moons are now | oe 
Rhea 955, Titan 22-14, Hyperion 28-00, Japetus 6485, 
or the relative distances are, a 
for the Planets as 7:9:12: 30, 
for the Moonsas 4:9:12: 26, 


? 


pee 


pected. Comparing the better known superior bodies more i 
oleae! we must from the smaller distance (4 instead of 7) 


AES ete Nees ee Ne Ae Ee eRe Ie: » 


Sie ees 


be comparatively of small mass, so as to leave Japetus far be 


uh 


Po: 


ee Saree 


A, Hinrichs on the Density, Rotation, and Age of the Planets. 47 


For in the first place Titan was the first moon which was seen 
(Huyghens, 1655), so we may conclude its mass to be great 
enough to afford a safe comparison with Saturn in the scale of 
Planetary Masses. Rhea, first discovered by Cassini (1672), 
therefore appears to be less considerable, confirming our conclu- 
sio d on its comparatively too great dislocation; and 
finally Hyperion required for its discovery the best telescopes of 
modern times (Bond and Lassell, 1848), thus proving itself to be 
but a small moon. 

Thus the configuration of the lunar world of Saturn corres- 

n 


Plants and animals. So likewise in geology all is confusion if 
We consider the strata in situ, as they are observed to be now ; 
but this chaos gives way for harmony and symmetry if we admit 


We rely on inductive reasoning in the explanation of the facts 
observed in the one case—why, then, not as well in the similar 
case afforded by the more grand dislocation of the strata of the 
Universe ? 


Of course, we would not refer this to practical astronomy, for 
the ephemeris is exact enough without taking this resistance 
into account; but in theoretical astronomy, when discussing the 
slability of the solar system, I think it has been shown. that this 


force ought not to be omitted. | 
_ * The r lar develo ; ‘olk of egg: ion is especially 
itt tis comneion n 7 melon 


48 A. Hinrichs on the Density, Rotation, and Age of the Planets. 


Il. The Laws of Density and Rotation.” 


the entire planetary | 
to the mode of this development. be 


Helmholtz,” and others. Yet the minimum in density exhibited 
by Saturn, and above all the singular motion of the satellites of : 
Uranus, appearing to be entirely at variance with the very fum — 
damental principle of the theory, seem to have bronght these — 
views into disrepute; Brewster even pronounces them to Dé — 
“the dull and ‘dangerous heresy of the age.” ‘The theory of 3 
Laplace seems to have been abandoned without trying to recon — 
cile it with Uranus—which planet was yet unknown at the time ~ 


Plateau’s” researches on the equilibrium of fluids did but revive — 
this theory for a moment.”* ou 
It will easily be seen that our estimate of the planetary ages — 
as based upon the resistance of ether and seen in the cont . 
tion of the several systems, fully agrees with the hypothesis & 
* This part of the present paper was in part communicated at the meeting of 
Scandinavian Naturalists at Copenhagen, 1860; see Forhandlinger, 1860, p. ih 
noes scarcely to be remarked that we only opposed the absolute stability — 
as ge: ead Laplace. i 
. rie des Himmels, 1755. “ 
» Exposition du systéme du monde, 2d éd., Paris 1799, Liv. v, Chap. vi- 
Astronomie Populaire, ii, 7, Paris and Leipzic, 1855, at a 
Naturlerens mechaniske Deel; a text book of Natural Philosophy, used 
the U niversity and Polytechnic School of Copenhagen. ee 
J i 9. 
22 


ie ; 
ee ee ed eee tak ba eT Ree er | art eae 


a Memoirs of the Life and Discoveries of Sir Tsanc Newton, London, 1855, ii,181- 3 

Mém. de PA xelles, vol. xvi, 1843, § 19-27. a 
: is que suivent les forces attractives pore pe et a 
8Ses Planetaires, nous avons vu se produire, en peti Oe 
maga mene de la pluspart des phénoménes de eaigunioe relatifs 
Corps célestes, (§ 27). uy Gs 

* It affords me great pleasure to find an able advocate of this theory in | 
K ; see this Journal, 1860, [2], xxx, 160-181. 


A, Hinrichs on the Density, Rotation, and Age of the Planets, 49 


Kant and sonlow: according to which the more distant members 
were first developed. Hence it seems to be worth the while at- 
tentively to fot out the consequences of this hypothesis in: an 
analytical form, as only thereby it will appear, whether the planet 
Uranus disagrees with the theory itself, or simply with the de- 
ductions of its advocates. 

The Density 4 of the planets must depend, according to this 
theory of evolution and condensation, both upon the distance r 
in the original globe and upon the condensation in time, i. e. 
age #; as the “density was decreasing from the center of the 
nebulous globe, and is increasing in time, we have obviously 

dA dA 
dA= Gio <r (14) 
marr’ the differential dine represent positive, numerical 
values 


Thus it appears that the conclusion of a regularly decreasing 
density demands d?=0; indeed, so far as we are aware, no 
has as yet pointed out the influence of age on the density of 
the planets. 

‘It is evident that, if the differential coéfficients of A in regard 


da=‘3dd—“dr (15) 
which with the simplest possible a gives the integral, 
a Od ? (16) 


where now a, the oan: distance, enters instead of r the radius 
vector, and A=1, a=1, #=1 for our earth. In order to see 
how far this fount represents the actual pepe let us 
culate o from the known Moser! of A anda; (16) g 
A 


a Mean. 
Mercury, 38 ae “66 
Venus, 79 i. q "83 
Earth ~ 100 1:00 1:00 

152 96 1°39 : 
J Upiter, 5°20 24 “91 a 

9°54 “14 15 1-28 
Uranus, 19°18 18 2°89 2 
Neptune, 30-04 : 13 513 


5 
Am. Jour. _—— Srrizs, VOL. XXXVII, No, 109.—Jax., ae 


50 A. Hinrichs on the Density, Rotation, and Age of the Planets, 


If we only take the column of means—having again neglected — 
to take the difference of mass into account, and not having 
searched for the true formula, but only having accepted the most — 
simple form (15) satisfying (14)—we see the age of the planets 
again regularly increasing with the distance, very nearly accord: — 
ing to the law eS 


. oe eas (17) 


r=V200=142.... (18) 
i.e., about equally distant from Uranus and Saturn. 
It m e remembered that we did not try to give a useful 
interpolation,” neither do we pretend to have found the exact 
law ; yet we think that we have shown, that the nebular hypo 
thesis, if duly considered, is in complete accordance with expel 
ence. ‘The contradiction between theory and observation 80 | 
long insisted on appears to have been occasioned by neglecting — 
the most important element of dynamics, time. This elemem 
makes the planetary density increase” after a certain minimum 
has been attained. 
The Law of Rotation.—To find the velocity of rotation from 
_the primary nebulous globe is undoubtedly most difficult; but 
if we wish merely to determine the direction of rotation, and 00+ 
its amount, the following simple analysis will prove sufficient. 
The principal part of motion in the planetary ring is p@ 
to the orbit of the future planet; hence the direction will be 
defined by its equatorial part. : é 
Let then dm be the mass of a particle in the plane of the orbit, 
a+aand 6 its polar codrdinates, a the radius of orbit, 4° 
density and v the velocity in the orbit; then 
fa (19) 
a Pray ae 
will always be but a small fraction at the time of rupture, SiN@ 
the ring passes through a process of condensation previous to it 
—and as the distance to the next planet is never greater bt 
a, § will never exceed one half. Within each nebulous T0g bane 
may assume the density to vary according to _ 


dat anatse, (20) : | 


__ % Such a formula is given by Babinet, /’ Institut, 1857, p. 94. Yet for Neptun’ 
his formula a 

; A=1-2754 —0-2935.a+0-01831 .a? : 

deviating by 8 units from the true density. nat 

i i nt 14 or equal amr 


gives a result 
__.% The density of Neptune is sometimes stated to be b 
¥ Saturn ; Hambokdt, Cosmos, iv, 178 (Harper's) gives “28 as the most 


Sy, OR ee 


A. Hinrichs on the Density, Rotation, and Age of the Planets, 51 : 


so that according to this law the density at the sun would be 
4+4, or 4 is the decrease in density trom the sun to the planet _ 
(in nebulous state). If we compare this law to that assumed in 
(15) we see that =n or ts constant. 

Always using the upper and lower sign respectively for the 
—— and inferior part of the ring, we find the wis wva dw 
of dm 


dw=wa(1--§)9(A=Fd8)dé dd, (21) 
if we remember that our statement of Kepler's third law gives 


#=av? (see note on (3)). Retaining only the first power of § in 
the differential, but the second in the integral, we obtain 


dw—=ualA+ (34 —9)§]d§ dd, (21’) 
or to 2a) AE = ae Hreonst (22) 


The vis viva w, of the superior part of the ring (from $=0 to 
=§,) will produce direct motion; w, of the inferior part (from 
§=£, to &=0) will produce retrograde motion; hence the whole 
vis viva producing direct rotation in the orbit is W=w,—w, or 


by (22) , 
3A—0 

=2mua(E,—F,)[o4°—“e,48) | (2s) 

As the mutual distance of planets increases from the sun we 


must supppose §,>§,, whereby the first parenthesis of (23) 
always will be positive; hence we have 


W=0,.: for. ctemg 
(24) 
if 


c= gi+5, é. 

2-+-3(5 52) 

Now, 4 is most probably constant, as stated above ; and §,, & 
being ratios, will ikewise be at least nearly constant; hence ¢ 
represents about the same quantity for all planets. Consequently 
(24) reads in words: fy 

The rotary motion in orbit will be direct, zero, or retrograde if the 
Primitive density A at the orbit was greater, equal to, or less than a 
certain quantity, c, depending on the position of the orbit in the 
i (§, and &,) and the variation 0 of the density. 

If d=o, then c=o, and consequently all planets would have a 
direct rotation, as hitherto assumed. But must according to 
all physical knowledge be some positive quantity, however small, 
as the density a in every globe of some extension Increases 
toward the center; i.e, if A is at all greater than c it will be so 
hear the center, and if at all less than c it cannot but be further 
can the center. Hence we may also read (24) in the following 

ner: 


'§2 A! Hinrichs on the Density, Rotation, and Age of the Planets. 


The planets near the sun, A>c, have a DIRECT rotation, which 
disappears at a certain distance from the sun (A=c) and is followed — 
by @ RETROGRADE motion of all the more distant planets (having 


a<¢). ; 
: The great discovery of Herschel, far from being opposed to the : 
nebular hypothesis of Kant and Laplace, on the contrary affords. 
a most interesting and decisive confirmation of it, and makes ib 
even similar to a most remarkable proposition in the theory of 
gravitation. For in the latter the orbit will be an ellipse, 4 
rabola or a hyperbola, according as the centrifugal force was 
ess, equal to, or greater than a definite quantity ; so here we Se 
the direction of rotation determined in the very same manner, 
he motion of the moons of Uranus is consequently for the ; 
nebular hypothesis exactly what the nearly parabolic orbits of, 
comets are for the hypothesis of gravitation. If the density 4 
ad been excessively small, all the planets might have beet 
retrograde in their rotation, although they would have had @ 
direct revolution. a 
The velocity of rotation depends upon W and the mass of a 
planet; we cannot here determine it. But we can show how the 
position of the axis of rotation will vary. For if—as is highly 
probable—the ring was not quite symmetric with regard to the 
lane of the orbit, then there will be a difference of vis viva W, 
tween these two sides, tending to produce rotation around af 
axis in the plane of the orbit. Hence the position of the axis of 
rotation of a planet will be determined by 


tani) (25) 


t being the angle between the equator and orbit of the planet, 
As the direction of the axis W, only determines the position of 
the nodes of the equator, we must here consider W , a8 positives 

as been found to change sign at a certain distance in becom: 
ing negative; so that we see: all planets inferior to Uranus have 
tdcute, superior to Uranus i must be obtuse. The determination 
of the exact position of the axis of Neptune” will therefore be 
of great importance as a test of this remarkable Jaw. __ 

rigin of the tangential force—As now the contradictions bof 
tween observations and the theory of Kant and Laplace prove Lt 
be but apparent,-founded in the neglect of the theory by mathe 
maticians; we may inquire into the cause of the primitive | 
motion of the nebulous sphere. ma 
_ Attractive particles (m) alone cannot give rise to a couple ¢ 
forces; neither can repulsive particles (u) do it—but by t® 
' ™* Humboldt gives i=84° 7’ for Neptune, but does not state whether the mete 
is direct or not, It must be retrograde or i=145° 53’‘—Cosmos, iv, 181. (Ha 


A. Hinrichs on the Density, Rotation, and Age of the Planets. 53 


mutual action of both kinds of particles there will arise a couple 
N in any plane a, y, equal to 


N=3™ (ex ¥8) [/(0) 90h (26) 


if x, y and §, 7 are the codrdinates of m and 4, r their mutual 
distance and f and ¢ their laws of mutual action. Now this sum 
2 of the couples for all particles in the universe can only be 
zero either by 


ay—yS=o0, i.e. = (27) 
or K(r)—9¢(r)=0, ie. f(r)=9(r). (28) 


But (27) can only be satisfied if m and ware in the same radius 
vector from the origin of the codrdinates; hence (27) cannot be 
satisfied in general. Hence if we have 

fo\Zalr), (29) 
then N cannot be zero; if N,, N,, are the resulting couples for 
the other codrdinate planes, there results a force of gyration in the 
matter filling space 

Ga (N?-LN)2-LN,2) > 0, (30) 
which is always positive. Hence, : 

If the law of repulsive particles, », differs from the law of attractive 
particles, f, then a rotation wi nee : 

The laws of magnetic and electric attraction and repulsion 
Seem to be at variance with such an inequality, and even 
Principle that action and reaction are equal; but we may well 
remark that the slightest difference for any atomic distance 
would be sufficient, and that the grouping of several repelling 
atoms “ around one attracting atom m may well be _— 

i 


With a difference between action and reaction as taken in 
usual signification. : sent 

If this non-identity of the two forces of material nature is ad- 
Mitted, we see a rotation of the nebulous matter to be a direct 
consequence of this inequality ; by attraction the matter acquires 
a globular form, the effected rotation produces a flattening of 
the globe,—and from this moment the axis of rotation will re- 
main stationary. By continued attraction the size diminishes, 


ter, a 
Ting is formed, produci lanet with its satellites, the whole 
sats med, producing a p : ys . 


54 A. Hinrichs on the Density, Rotation, and Age of the Planets, 


Ww 

and the high age of Saturn, have already descended to the 
proximity of this body—as the asteroids will do in the course of 
about one age. 

Finally, it may yet be remarked, that we believe we are able 
to account for the multiform phenomena of terrestrial magnetism 
by the friction of ether on the earth ;” if this theory should be 
admitted as a true physical one, the magnetic needle would be 
directed by the force lost in resistance, or, 10 speak in conformity 
with the doctrine of the correlation of physical forces, the vis 
viva lost in resistance is converted into magnetism, The mag- 
netic needle thus would afford a direct proof of the existence of 
this resistance, as the pendulum of Foucault attests the rotation 
of the earth. 

We believe that our efforts have approached more or less to 
the establishment of the following conclusions : : 

Ist. The negative evidence of the non-existence of a resisting 
medium, as afforded by the motions of the planets during the 
few centuries of accurate observations, is of no weight whatever 
in regar urations of time like those contemplated in the 
theory of the stability of the solar system ; hence it follows, t00, 
that it is unreasonable to expect here that accuracy of numeri 
determinations which so highly distinguishes the predetermina 
tion of astronomical phenomena for shorter periods, but that the 
immensity of time here under consideration admits of no high 


_ ™ Of course; for organized beings are more or less cephalized, till in Jan we 
’ ih {- 
* The only—yet very imperfect—exposé of this theory hitherto published, 1 
Pe etnngactions ai Folge der Bewegung der Erde.in Aether. Copenhageds 


A. Hinrichs on the Density, Rotation, and Age of the Planets. 55 


accuracy than the immensity of space in the estimation of the 
distances of fixed stars and nebule. 

2d. The present configuration of the planetary system is with- 
out that harmony and order everywhere else observed when 
matter is aggregating (e. g. in crystals, etc.); we must therefore 
suppose, that the original harmonious configuration has been 
altered by the action of some general cause, displacing the celes- 
tial strata (orbs) according to the individual mass, size and posi- 
tion of each body; the same we know to have occurred in the 
case of the earth’s figure, being at first ellipsoidal, but now to 
some extent irregular—or the terrestrial strata of rocks, which 
were at first continuous, but are now greatly dislocated. 

3d. This cause has been and is the resistance of the ether filling 
the heavenly space in which the celestial globes are moving; for 

e mathematical investigation of the effects of such a resistance 
agrees perfectly with the phenomena observed, especially in the 
following particulars : 

4th. The configuration of the solar system is exactly as such a 
resistance would modify it; for, admitting a regular law for the 
primitive distances, we obtain a determination of the relative 
age of the planets which increases with the distance from the sun and 
is the more regular, the closer we follow the conditions of the 
problem (as in taking the mass into account) ; 

5th, Even the different satellites of Jupiter follow this same 


W; an 
6th, Whilst the Zunar world of Jupiter appears to be of about 
the same irregularity as the planetary world, 

7th, The lunar world of Saturn shows decidedly older (i. e. less 
regular) features, thus confirming the previously obtained result 
as to its age; it is even made evident that ; 
8th. This lunar world of Saturn in its present configuration 
Temarkably resembles the configuration of the whole planetary 
world at the end of the fourth age (i. e. according to our estimate, 
after 40,000,000,000 years); again, mee 

_ 9th, The lunar world of Uranus corresponds in its configura- 

tion to a yet higher age, thus again corroborating the determin- 
ation of its age. bats 

10th. The closeness of the orbits, and even the distance of the 
first secondary from its primary are according to the same law 
of resistance. 

llth. This age, as determined by resistance and confirmed by 
the observed configuration, exactly corresponds to that ascribed 
to the several bodies in the theory of Kant and Laplace; 

12th. The variation of the density of the planets 1s in complete 
harmony with this theory and the laws of resistance—the mini- 

© We tri ixty di ing in the successive enlargement 
of the aban tale A papper Ma ap variation of the age. 


56 A. Hinrichs on the Density, Rotation, and Age of the Planets. 


mum density observed in Saturn being a highly important confir- 


mation of both theories ; 

13th. The daw of rotation affords a most interesting and valu- 
able proof for the theory of Kant and Laplace, instead of being at 
variance therewith ; for the theory, if analytically expounded, 
demands just the very transition in direction and just the same 
= of axis, as observed in the rotary motions of the planets, 

ranus forming the transition. 

14th. If the laws of attraction are not fully identical with 
those of repulsion, the created matter would already virtually con- 


tain the tangential force upon which the duration of the whole 


world principally depends.’ This is simply an instance of — 


“throwing the first cause further back,” since the translatory 


movement no longer needs to be considered as a direct action of 


the Creator, but as a design, embodied and effected through some 
previous direct act. 


selves, the Creator needs no tools, no constant effort for pro- 
ducing His ends; His almighty “fiat” created the universe, and 


sun; but since we have abundant reason to believe the whole 

solar world with all its wonders to be in the great All only @ 

och in the deep—how great is the Father of this All, if the 
eath o i 


f such a Ie sag World is to Him what the last 


breath of a coral is to us 


oe oe : z : i ; ‘ é 


W. Gibbs on the Platinum metals. 57 


Art. V.—Researches on the Platinum metals ; by Wo.Lcotr 
s, M.D. 


(Continued from vol. xxxiv, p. 342, Nov, 1862.) 


THE mass of mixed double chlorids, after the volatilization of 
the osmium and the separation of the iron and other impurities 
by washing with a concentrated and cold solution of chlori 


yg water and afterward with boiling dilute chlorhydric acid. 
The filtrate and washings are to be evaporated together on a water- 
bath to dryness, They contain the whole of the ruthenium and 
platinum present in the original solution. The mass upon the 
filter, which has a pale buff color, consists of the two insoluble 
double salts, : 

6NH, .Co,Cl,+Ir,Cl,, and 6NH, .Co,Cl,+-Rh,Cl,, 
and is perfectly free from ruthenium and platinum, 

_ This process is based upon the fact that the iridium and rho- 
dium double salts above mentioned are almost absolutely insol- 
uble in boiling water and in boiling dilute chlorhydric acid, 
while the ruthenium and platinum salts, which have respectively 
the formulas 

6NH, .Co,Cl,4+3RuCl,, and 6NH, .Co,Cl,+3PtCl,, 
are easily soluble. | 
wit tladium also forms with chlorid of luteocobalt a double 
- Salt which is easily soluble in dilute chlorhydric acid, and which 
Ax, Jour. 8c1.—Secoxp Serizs, Vou. XXXVII, No. 109,—Jan., 1864. 
8 


58 W. Gibbs on the Platinum metals. 


crystallizes from the solution, on cooling, in beautiful orange-yel- 
ow granular crystals. The formula of this salt is 6NH,.Co, 
Cl,+38PdCl. Any traces of palladium which may have been 
present in the original mass of double chlorids will therefore be 
found with the ruthenium and platinum salts. When the mixed 
chlorids have been thoroughly washed, palladium is never pres 

The sesquichlorid of ruthenium gives no precipitate with 
solutions of chlorid of luteocobalt, and appears not to form a 
double salt with the chlorid of this radical, possibly in conse- 
quence of the ¢riacid character of luteocobalt and the bibasic — 
character of the sesquichlorid of ruthenium, the potassium — 
double salt being Ru,Cl,+2KCl. All the sesquichlorid of — 
ruthenium present in the mass of mixed chlorids in combination 
with chlorid of potassium will therefore be found in the filtrate 
from the insoluble iridium and rhodium double salts. 


rated to dryness and the chlorid of cobalt dissolved out by boiling — 
with absolute alcohol. The iridium and rhodium are then to be — 


nearly to dryness, boiled with a strong solution of caustic potasb, 
and then treated with an excess of chlorhydric acid, which gives — 
the double chlorids RuCl, KCl, PtCl, KCl and Ru,Cl, 2KCl, — 
together with an excess of chlorid of potassium and a little — 
chlorid of cobalt. This last may easily be removed by alcohol — 
after evaporating the mixed chlorids to dryness. Platinum and | 
ruthenium may then be separated by boiling with nitrite of :. 
potash, evaporating to dryness, boiling with dilute chlorhydri¢ , 
acid so as to convert the whole of the ruthenium into RuCl, — 
KCl, neutralizing with carbonate of potash, again boiling with — 
nitrite of potash, evaporating to dryness and dissolving out the — 

€ nitrite of ruthenium and potash by absolute alcohol. — 


j 


Be 
Sian 


W, Gibbs on the Platinum metals. 59 


The nitrite of ruthenium and potash may then be treated in the 
manner already described and the ruthenium brought into the 
form of the double salt of mercury and ruthendiamin, from 
which the pure metal is easily obtained. This method of sepa- 
rating the platinum metals gives excellent results, but is not free 
from objection. In the first place it will be remarked that it 
does not dispense with the employment of the alkaline nitrites, 
although to some extent it facilitates their use. But the chief 
objection is found in the necessity of employing very large quan- 
tities of chlorid of luteocobalt, a salt which is not to be had in 
commerce and which must therefore be specially prepared for 
the occasion, 


hydric acid. The precipitate on the filter consists chiefly of the 
H,.Co,Cl,+Rh,C 
of the corresponding iridium salt. 


by aleohol, and the iridium and rhodium separated by nitrite of 
soda and sulphid of ammonium in the manner already pointed 
out. ; 


The filtrate from the insoluble rhodium and iridium salts con- 
tains the ruthenium as RuCl, KCl and Ru,Ci, 2KCI, together 
Usually with a small quantity of the double salt 6NH, .Co,Cl, 
+8RuCl, and of PtCl, KCl. The platinum and ruthenium are 
then to be separated with nitrite of potash and alcohol by the 
Process already described. This method of employing the 


60 W. Gibbs on the Platinum metals, 


chlorid of luteocobalt is extremely convenient when it is desired 
to obtain pure ruthenium or rhodium at once from the osmium- 
iridium. 


ployed to reduce the IrCl, to Ir,Cl, may exercise a reducing 
action on the Ru,Cl,, it will be found advantageous after wash 
ing out the RuCl, KCl and Ru,Cl, 2KCl, to convert the Ru, 
Cl, 2KCl entirely into RuCl, KCl. This may easily be accom: | 
plished by adding a solution of caustic potash in excess and then — 


of hyper-ruthenic acid is observed. By adding nitric acid im 
excess so as to dissolve the black precipitate at first produced 
and then evaporating to dryness with an excess of chlorhydri¢ 
acid, the whole of the ruthenium will be brought into the form 
of RuCl, KCl. , 
When a solution of chlorid of luteocobalt is added to one con- 
taining bichlorid of fvidiutl® 
is thrown down, consisting of a salt which has the formula 
rC 


platinate of potassium, after repeated crystallization, obstinately 
retains a reddish or deep orange tint arising from traces of the 


Balt, as well as the separation of rhodium from platinum, ruthe 
‘ium and palladium. TI shall return to this ma i 
“of the metals of this group separately and will then point out — 


H. J. Clark.—Tubularia Not Parthenogenous, 61 


another method of using the chlorid of luteocobalt, which is also 
deserving of attention. 

The separation of the metals contained in the mass of sulphids 
precipitated in the separation of iridium from rhodium, ruthe- 
nium and platinum, by the method already pointed out, may be 
very conveniently effected in the following manner. The mixed 
sulphids are to be dried, separated from the filter and intimately 
mixed in a mortar with an equal weight of a mixture of equal 
parts of carbonate and nitrate of baryta. The filter is to be 
burned and the ash mixed with the sulphids and baryta salts. 
The mixture is then to be ignited in a porcelain or earthen cruci- 
ble for an hour at a full red heat, and the mass, which does not 
fuse, treated with strong chlorhydric acid, which dissolves the 
oxyds of rhodium, ruthenium and platinum completely, leaving 
only sulphate of baryta. The baryta is then to be precipitated by 
sulphuric acid, an excess of which must be carefully avoided, and 
then a solution of chlorid of luteocobalt added as long as a pre- 
cipitate is formed. The double chlorid of rhodium and luteocobalt 
may then be filtered off and thoroughly washed with boiling water 
acidulated with chlorhydric acid. By igniting this salt and dis- 
solving the chlorid of cobalt out from the mass, pure metallic 
rhodium remains. The platinum and ruthenium in the filtrate 
may then be separated by means of nitrite of potash and alcohol 
im the manner already described. 

This method of treating the sulphids requires only a small 
quantity of chlorid of luteocobalt, is extremely easy of applica- 
tion and is much shorter than the first method which I haye 
described. Taken in connection with the process for separating 
iridium by means of nitrite of soda and sulphid of sodium, it 
furnishes ‘an easy and complete solution of the problem of the 
qualitative or quantitative separation of the metals of this group, 
osmium only being determined by the loss. 

Cambridge, Nov. 10th, 1863. 

(To be continued.) 


Art. VI.—Tubularia Not Parthenogenous; by Prof. Henry 
JAMES CLARK, of Harvard University, Cambridge, Mass. 


tt is with no small degree of pleasure that I announce the 
discovery of the eggs of the Tubularians. During the middle of 
ctober I had in my aquarium the three most_common species, 
this group, on our shores, viz: Tubularia indivisa Lin. (T. 
Couthouyi Ag.) Thamnoenidia coronata Ag. (Tubularia coronata 
Abild., Thamnoenidia spectabilis Ag.) —— calamaris? (P. 
crocea Ag., Tubularia calamaris Van Ben.?). In each of these 
T have traced the development of the egg, from its inception to 


62 H. J, Clark.—Tubularia Not Parthenogenous. 


objective, yet it was not until 1 applied a } inch objective, of 
the same optician, that I gained a clear and unmistakable view 


comprehensible, I must prelude the description by an account of 
some other discoveries which I have made in regard to the mus- 


of contraction in these animals; and some indeed have given 


themselves up to the idea of a contraction of the individual cells _ 


of the walls, imagining themselves to be warranted in this belief 
by the Supposed example of the so-called unicellular Infusoria. 


noted thus in my journal, “March 14, 1862. Between’ the 


and tentacles, there is a layer of longitudinal fibrillated muscu- 
lar bands.— e cells of the core of the tentacles are arrang 


° 


is a layer of circular and a layer of longitudinal — 


9? * . ae ath 
bilis’ Ag.). The muscular system, of Tiaropsis, Bou sinyums 
1 Sars: y ’ psis, Seek 


STS, BOP eee kg 


Sige 


H. J. Clark.—T'ubularia Not Parthenogenous. 63 


Jibrille’ lying between and behind the innermost and middle 
walls of the disc.” Thus I had verified the existence of a mus- 


ovis for this divergence from the base upon which I began, 

ecause I hope thereby to disclose the more general prevalence 

of this myological feature in the mor hology of Acalephe. 
During my studies upon the development of the eggs of the 


W 
Later, Huxley described the system in Siphonophore, as being in the outer wall, 
We owe to Allman the credit of having first pointed out, in the hydraform, the 
nature and true position of the muscular system. He says, ( and Physiol. of 
Cordylophora, Phil. Trans, 18538, p. 372), “It consists of numerous longitu 

res, which are j 


The most elaborate attempt upon this subject is that of Agassiz. _ His 
of the muscular system of Hippocrene, Sarsia and Tiaropsis, in his monograph, on 
the Acalephx of North America, Mem. Am. 


ilar 
fibres may be witnessed in Coryne, Syncoryne, and other marine — yet &e. 


ec cau 

of the walls, produced by contraction, as muscular fibres ; and everywhere the cell 

of either the innermost or middle wall are described as “ contractile cells” of the 

muscular layer. The truth is, the muscular layer is composed of fibrille, Pebowe 
i e 


64 HI. J. Clark.—Tubularia Not Parthenogenous. 


excessively thin, longitudinally fibrillated muscular layer be- 
ween the outer and inner walls of the stem, disc, tentacles, and 
branching stems of the genitalia; and whenever the latter pul- 
lulate to form a genital sac, a medusoid, all the cellular and mus- 
cular elements enter into the operation, and thus there arises at 
first a highly contractile, triple walled hernia, the outer wall of 
which consists of a single stratum of broad cells, each containing 


~ a large nucleus; the middle wall, or stratum, forms the muscular 


layer; and the innermost wall is made up of a single layer of 


latter also becomes globular. Surrounding this space we have 
on one side the outer wall at the end of the bud and on the 
other side, the inner wall, lined by the muscular layer, crane 


stratum which is the ovigerous layer. 


Only one step more is now required to perfect the morpholo- — : 
gical plan of development of this organ, and that is brought ® 


EL, J. Clark.—Tubularia Not Parthenogenous. 65 


about by a simple hollowing out of the ovigerous stratum, so that, 
instead of remaining a solid mass, it becomes as it weré a lining 
to the muscular layer, which embraces it. Thus in an end view 
of the bud we would have a hollow sphere made up of five con- 
centric layers, succeeding each other as enumerated above. This 
is essentially the typical form of the meduso-genitalium of the 

ubularians; for whatever changes occur in the later days of 
growth, no new morphological features are instituted 


? On the walls of the most highly developed medusoid—The immense gelatini- 
form mass which constitutes such a large proportion of the bell of these free forms 


u 
layer, chondrophys ; 8d, the outer muscular stratum, ectomyoplax, which presses 


ophragma, in eon the mesophragma of | bell 
Now in the fally-formed ¢ meduso-genital of the above mentioned Tubularians, T. ig 
&c., only the chondrophys is wanting. ms ect and endoderm 4 
gladly adopt for, yet would restrict to, the outer and inner walls of the ccenosare 0 
hydratorm ; b it would seem to be a misapplication of terms to call the 
middle wall,” of the meduso-genital or gonophore, a derm, I apply to it the name 
and 


ete 


66 G. J. Brush on Tephroite. ‘ 


former and the latter; there is but one type of development in the 
medusoids of all the Hydroids. This is what my observations — 
within the past two years have led me to believe. The further 
development of the young of the Tubularians proceeds in an 
unequal degree for the different individuals, some of them grow — 
much more rapidly than others, and finally, becoming separated — 
from their matrix, move freely in the cavity of the genital orgal, — 
until their tentacles are developed so as to present the same one 


sided cylindrico-claviform outlines as the parent, and then the ie 


escape into the open sea. Thus they succeed each other unti 
the ovigerous layer is totally bereft of all its progeny, and noth: 


S eo 


ing but a faintly granular blastema is left to represent the outer 


wall of the proboscis, and its continuation the innermost wall of 


the bell. I would add finally, that in the males of these Tubu- : | 
Jarians, not even excepting Parypha, the meduso-genitals af — 
chap in form, structure, and development with those of the — 
emale: 


s ——e 


Art. VIl.—Contributions from the Sheffield Laboratory of Yale 


College—No. VI.—On Tephroite, by Gro. J. BRUSH. 


‘ ent of the original specimen in the collee 
tion of the Royal Mining Academy in Freiberg, and with thi 


neh ied 


ote oe STN 


I have been enabled to identify the species at Stirling, where it : 
occurs in considerable abundance. It has a distinct cleavage ae 


. . ? . 
varieties of willemite, which 


section; this permits its being readily distinguished from the 
l 


_ > Annals Lye. Nat. Hist., New York, vol. iii, (1828) p. 26 
: thaupt, Charakteristik des Mineral cat Bas ee 9. 
-* Stirling Hill is in the town of Spart System's, 3d ed., pp. 211, 32 


it so much resembles in color and 


G. J. Brush on Tephroite. 67 


lustre. The specimen received from Professor Breithaupt had 
the following physical and chemical characters—Color, dark-ash 
tosmoky-gray. Lustre, vitreous to greasy. Hardness, 6. Spe- 
cific gravity, 410 (Breit.). It was associated with franklinite 
and zincite; small specks of the latter species were so intimately 
mixed with the tephroite that great care was required to obtain 
the mineral pure for analysis, The zincite seemed to be dis- 


Cloizeaux has shown, from the examination of crystals in his 


toa cleavage plane, which seems to me to be perpendicular to 
th 9° 30’ 


2H==84° 19’ Red rays, hence 2E=159° 17 
82° 59’ Blue rays, hence 2 E=156/ 58’ in air. 
The indices of refraction of the oil employed were 1°465 for the 
red rays, and 1-479 for the blue rays. As my small plates were 
hot cut absolutely normal to the bisectrix, these measurements 
are sufficiently near those published in my paper to enable us 
to indentify the species, especially as the position of the plane 
of the axes, and the character of the dispersion is the same in 
th cases,” 
These important observations, in connection with the memoir 
y Professor Des Cloizeaux, before alluded to, demonstrate con- 
usively that the optical and crystallographic characters of the 
‘ Annales des Mines, 5th Series, se P. 24 
ces w. : es. G. J. B. 
ic an Aripescl bi ney on the anne plane was unquestionably due to 
* From a Wiles io sof Oe Siac! dated Paris, Feb. 19th, 1863. 


68 G. J. Brush on Tephroite. 


original tephroite are similar to those of chrysolite, and that 
this isomorphism is further sustained by the chemical composi 
tion of the minerals, both being represented by the general for- 
mula R3Si. 

Before the blowpipe, tephroite fuses easily to a black mass; 
fusibility =8°5 on v. Kobell’s scale. With the fluxes, gives Te 


Oxygen, 
Biion 802 me wig eo 7 8019 1610 1610 
usoxyd,- - - 65°59 14°78 
Ferrous oxyd, - - - 1-09 0-24 | 
i RCE Hatt eS ‘1:38 0°55 } 15°92 
ime, ~ z * - - 104 0:30 
Zinc oxyd, - - - - 0:27 0-05 | 
jeniiion, => = 4 6 . 0°37 
99°93 


the cleavage surfaces almost flesh-red. Both specimens were 
less fusible than the original tephroite, the brown variety “a 
bi hagas 


to 5 of v. Kobell’s scale. In all other physical characters these 3 


gravity, most mineralogists would, on a mere inspection, deter 


G. J. Brush on Tephroite. 69 


_ mine them to be members of the feldspar group. The mineral 
that I found at Stirling exhibited a beautiful and vivid green 
phosphorescence when struck with a hammer ina darkened room. 
The broad cleavage surface is striated with fine parallel lines. 
Analyses made by Messrs. Peter Collier and Arnold Hague under 
my direction in this Laboratory gave the following composition. 
o. 1, brown variety, analyzed by P. Collier. No. 2, red va- 

riety, analyzed by A. Hague. 
Oxygen. 2. mere 


Silica, 80°55 16°29 31-73 2 
Manganous oxyd, 52°32 11-79 4762 10°73 } 
Ferrous oxyd, 1°52 vt | 0°23 05 | 
Magnesi 73 309 $1684 14°03 561 17-48 

ime, 1-60 0-45 0°54 O15 
Zinc oxyd, 5-93 117 41'T 0:94 
Ignition, 0-28 0-35 

99:93 G.=2°97 99-27  G.=2'87 


Both minerals were associated with zincite, disseminated in the 
same manner as in the original tephroite, and the oxyd of zine 
given in the analyses is undoubtedly due to this impurity. Des 
Cloizeaux has also published analyses of two specimens of this 
mineral, in both of which zincite was present as a mechanical 
impurity. These analyses, made by Deville* and Damour,’ gave 
the following results: 

Bi n M, €a Zn Ign. : 
2837 = 59-31 2-16 2-16 0°39 7°58 —= 99:97 Deville. 
29°95 = 36-43 196 «61860 «=6©——_—i11 61 1°71=10026 Damour, 

Excluding the oxyd of zinc in my analysis, and in those by 
Collier, Hague, Deville and Damour, we have— 

Bi Mn Fe Mg Ca Ign. 

1. 307 6577 109 189 104 0-87== 9993 Brush. 
Oxygen, 1614 1482 024 056 080 
6 2. 8070 866417 = 284 234 042 ——== 99°97 Deville. 

xygen, 1637 1446 0682 094 O12 ? 
Phe 3248 5562 1°61 322 170  030== 99°93 Collier. 

yeen, ‘1732 1253 036 (829 . 04 

a $553 5002 «024 «1474S = O'BT== 99-27 Hague. 
xygen, 1778 1127 - 005 590. 016 

. 3388 4120 2922 2103 —— 193=10026 Damour. 
Oxygen, 1780 9:28 049 8-41 

The ratio of the oxygen of the silica to that of the bases in 
No. 1, is 1614: 15-92. No.2, 16:37:1604, No. 3, 17°32: 16°66. 


* Des Cloizeaux, Manuel de Mineralogie, i, 38. ° Ann. des Mines, loc. cit. 


70 J. P. Cooke on Tartrates of Cesia and Rubidia. 


Hague, the ratio is nearly 1:2:3, giving the formula Mg%St 
+2Mn°Si or (}Mg+23In)°Si. The specimens analyzed by Deville 3 
and myself, as well as those investigated by Thomson and Ram: — 
melsberg, are very nearly pure Mn®si, so that we have here repre: 
sented three distinct varieties of tephroite, each giving a simple 
ratio and formula. The replacement of manganese by magnesia, 
as shown by the above results, is exceedingly interesting, in view 
of the fact, that both chrysolite and tephroite crystallize in the 
trimetric form. A further analogy is observed, when the varie 
ties of tephroite are compared with those of chrysolite; for 
besides the indefinite isomorphous mixtures of magnesia and 
iron in the various olivines, we have in bollonite an example of 
a magnesian chrysolite, and in hyalosiderite an iron magnesia 
chrysolite, (Fe®Si+Mg°Si), while fayalite is an almost pure Irony 
chrysolite. The analyses of tephroite, here given, seem to ‘ 
monstrate that the varieties thus far examined have no oxy‘ 
of zinc in chemical combination, although the mineral is intr 
mately associated with both zincite and willemite. : 
New Haven, Oct. 1st, 1863. 


Arr. VUI.—Crystallographic Examination of the Acid Tartrates of 
Cesia and Rubidia; by Jostan P, Cooxe, Jr. 


1. Bitartrate of Cesia, HO, CsO,C,H,0, ,.—This salt forms 
transparent and colorless crystals belonging to the oe 
system, which may present either a right-handed or a left-hand 
hemihedrism. ‘The axial relations calculated from the aD 
Zand Y of the fundamental octahedron are ; 

a:6:¢=>0661:1 : 0-694 
The observed planes were 


+1 +4 (a: 5:6) @i—aa: 6: ac : 

~1=~$ (6:8: ¢) to wes abs ec 
4 * 

~$3= — 4($a: 5: 3c) Me ae Ps ce 
to aac bie 


The values obtained for the angles are as follows. Those 
asterisked were used in calculating the angles given in the sec 
ond col e aumann and Dana, X indicates the 
angle between two planes of the fundamental octahedron over 
the macrodiagonal edge, Y the angle over the brachydiagonal 
edge, and Z the angle over the basal edge. 


X= 109° Y = 128° 50’ Z—= 98° 30’ 


J. P. Cooke on Tartrates of Cesia and Rubidia. 71 


4 


Observed. Calculated. 
+1 on +1 over vertex, 81° 30/* 
+1 on +1 over 7, 51° 10/* 
+1 on —1 over brachy.-edge, 128° 58! 128° 50! 
+1 on —1 over macro.-edge, 102° 58! 103° 
+lon [ 139° 15! 139° 15/ 
+lon 115° 35/ 115° 35/ 
Ton I over %, 69° 22' 69° 80/ 
lion 1% over vertex, 118° 4 


These angles were measured on three different crystals similar 
to fig. 1, and excepting for the angles between 1 
the prismatic planes, the values closely agreed gee? 
on all. The planes +1 were very perfect and 
the angles between them agreed to a min- 
ute. The planes —1 were not so perfect, but 
the angles which they formed are accurate as 
given above within a few minutes. The planes 
v1 and 72 were strongly striated parallel to the 
vertical axis and the angles made by them 
with other planes could not be measured with 
any accuracy when the intersection edge was 
parallel to the direction of the striation. The 
Same was also true of the angles made by 
the planes I, under the same circumstances, 
although no striation was visible and the re- 


When, however, the intersection-edge was at 
right angles or greatly inclined to the strize, the 
angles could be measured within a few minutes, and were found 
to be very constant. The planes 17 on all the crystals examined 
were very imperfect and generally only rudimentary, : 
he crystals of the bitartrate of czsia cleave with great readi- 
ness parallel to the plane 77, with less readiness, but still easily, 
parallel to 77, giving in each case brilliant planes of cleavage at 
right angles to each other. No evidence of cleavage parallel to 
the basal section could be detected, the erystals when broken 
or split in this direction always giving a conchoidal fracture. 
Among the crystals of this salt kindly submitted to our ex- 
amination by Mr. Allen, two very different types of forms were 
easily distinguished, which, as we are informed, were the result 
of wholly different crystallizations. In fig. 1 we have both the 
Positive and negative sphenoids (which form together the funda- 
mental octahedron), the planes of the first being distinguished 
from those of the last only by being uniformly much more de- 
veloped and having a greater brilliancy. In another variety of 
this same type of forms, represented by fig. 2, we have only the 


74 J. P. Cooke on Tartrates of Cesia and Rubidia. 


sitive sphenoid. Crystals were also observed intermediate 

etween figs. 2 and 1 with the planes of the negative sphenoi 
in different degrees of development. The crystals of the variety 
represented by fig. 2 contained a small amount of rubidium; 
but this isomorphous admixture did not perceptibly alter the 
angles. We measured on three different crysté 


Observed. Calculated. 
+1 on +1 over vertex, r  B1° 80? 81° 30’ 
+1 on +1 over %, 51° 10/ 51° 10! 
41 on. b 139° 15/ 139° 15! 


These crystals were very perfect and comparatively large, 
measuring about 7 millimeters long by 5 millimeters wide in the 
direction of the brachydiagonal. As with the first variety, no 
accurate measurements could be obtained of the angles between 
the prismatic planes. 


2. 4. 3. 


The second type of crystals is represented by the figures 3 
and4. On these forms we have the planes of a left-handed 
sphenoid, —38, which are not found on crystals of the first type 
and are here so largely developed as to give a very different 
character to the crystal. Planes of the corresponding positive 
sphenoid were not discovered, although a large number of crys 
tals were examined. These planes were very dull and rough, 


by attaching. to them small plates of mica, and the angles 
were thus approximatively measured, but the results cannot be 
relied upon within two or three degrees. The values obtained 
were 
Measured, Calculated for 43. 

x 146° 144° 46’ 

Y,  9t4e 101° 52/ 

he Pt gee 88° 42! 


J. P. Cooke on Fartrates of Cesia and Rubidia. 73 


No other probable parameters of these planes would even ap- 
proximatively satisfy these values. The crystals represented by 
fig. 3 differ materially from those represented by fig. 4, and were 
obtained by a different crystallization. All of the first have the 
planes +-1, which could not be detected on those of the last. On 
three separate crystals of the form fig. 3, the angle +1 on I meas- 
ured 189° 15’, the same as on the crystals of the first type. 

It is evident, then, from this examination that the bitartrate 
of cesia forms two different types of crystals, which present 
respectively a right-handed and Jeft-handed hemihedrism. Either 


acid was used in the preparation of the salt: 
2. Bitartrate of Rubidia, HO, ,H,O,,.—This salt re- . 
sembles very closely the last, with which it is isomorphous. The 
crystals examined were all similar in character, about 5 milli- 
meters long by 2 millimeters wide, and very perfect. They 
belong to the trimetric system and have the axial relations, 
@.:.b s.e=0°695.: 1 : 0:726 
The planes observed, with the exception of —1, are represented 
on fig. 5, ey are the same as on the last, with the exception 
of the negative sphenoid —43. Of this no trace 5. 
Could be discovered. The planes —1, moreove 


X=108° 40 = Y=2126° 43" - Z=99° 34’ 
Measured. Calculated. 
tI on +1 over vertex, 80° 26/* 
+1 on +1 over it, i itd 
t1 on +1 over iz, 76° 14! 76° 20° 
+1 on I, : 139° 47’ =: 189° 47 


Ton I over a, 71° 83 71° 56/ 
li on 1%, 


Am. Jour. Sct—Srconp Senizs, VoL. XXXVII, No. 109—Jan., 1964. 
10 


74 J. P. Cooke on Tartrates of Cesia and Rubidia. 


the crystals of the bitartrate of cesia. As is shown by the fig- 
ure, the planes 1? are more largely developed on the crystals of — 
the rubidium than those of the cesium salt, and in this as wellas 
in the other figures, we have endeavored to preserve as nearly 
as possible the general habitus of the crystals, as well as the 
relative dimensions of their planes. . a 
The cleavage of the crystals of the bitartrate of rubidia 18 
in all respects similar to that of the cesium salt, and the same 1s 
true of the crystals formed by an isomorphous mixture of the 
two substances. Moreover, the playes 7z and #7 are similarly 
striated on both. : 
3. Bitartrate of Potassa.—We add for the sake of comparison 
the elements of the crystalline form of the ordinary bitartrate of 
potassa as determined by Schabus (‘ Rammelsberg’s Krystallo- 
graphische Chemie,” page 304). His results, reduced to the system 
of notation used in this article, are 
“ a:b :c=0°7372 :1:0°7115, 
X= 100° 20, Y¥ == 125° 46/, Z= 108° 38", 
For the most pS the same planes occur as on the crystals ; 


Geographical Notices. 75 


Art. IX.— Geographical Notices. No. XIX. 


SPEKE AND GRANT’s EXPLORATION OF THE SOURCES OF 
THE NILE. 


THE great event of the year 1862, in geographical exploration, 
has been the reported discovery of the sources of the Nile by 
ve perseverance and boldness of two English officers, Capt. 

n 


expedition had been sent out, was immediately called, and in it 
apt. Speke made a statement full of interesting particulars in 

= to the route he had followed and the discoveries he had 
made, 


ad of a great, fresh-water lake lying close on 8° south lat., 
and at an elevation of about 4000 feet above the sea line, which 
he at once conjectured, from its size and position, as well as from 
all which the natives told him of its extent, to be a principal 
Source of the river Nile. This lake was called by the natives 

yanza, a term signifying Water, Lake, Pond, or River, to which 
the English discoverer added the name of his sovereign, christen- 


ith the patronage of the London Geographical Society and 
the British Govern ment, went forth in 1860, on a new expedition, 
having for his chief object the determination of this specific 
duestion. Reaching the coast of Kast Africa about the first of 
October, 1860, Messrs. Speke and Grant made their way to the 
Southern point of the Nyanza, and thence going northward they 
traced one of the principal affluents of the Nile from its source in 
the lake to its union with the great river itself’ This result has 
been heralded ever where, in general terms, but having receive 
apt. Speke’s own Report of the journey we prefer to place its 
details on record here’ Their sagacity, perseverance, bravery 
and success elicit universal commendation. We understand that 
volume may be expected from the explorers at an early day, 
from the press of Wm. Blackwood, Edinburgh. 


' v. Proceedings Roy. Geog. Soc., Lond., vii, 212-217. 


76 Geographical Notices. 


For an illustration of the relations of the Victoria Nyanza to 
Lake Tanganika, and the River Shire, the reader may consult 
to advantage a map by Mr. Ernest Sandoz in the erican 
Geographical Society’s Proceedings, October, 1862. 

Capt. Speke’s narrative begins with reminding his hearers 
that his observations are the results of two visits to the region, 
and that he has not followed the river from head to foot, but 
has tracked it down, occasionally touching upon it. His state 
ment blends native information with his own experiences. He 
then continues,— i 

“ After returning to Unyanyembi (the old point) 3° S. of the lake, in 
1861, I struck upon a new route, which I imagined, from the unsophis- 
ticated depositions of the ivory merchants, would lead me to a creek om 
the westerly flank af the Nyanza, situated on the southern boundary of 
Karagwé. Geographical definitions were here again found wanting, 
for, instead of tne ereek to the great lake appearing, a new lake was 


now fast d x 
south and east flanks of Karagwé, in form a mountain valley, is sul 


that the lake receives its greatest terrestrial supply of water, through ie 
the medium of the Kitangulé River, which, in draining the aforesaid a 
Luero-lo-Urigi, drains off the superfluous waters of many minor lakes — 
as the Akenyara in Urnndi; the Luchura, which is the second of — 
a chain including the Akenyara; the Ingezi and Kara imé; and the 
little Winandermere, which in Karagwé lies below the capital on 1t8 — 
southeastern corner. None of these lakes are large—mere puddles in — 
comparison to the great Victoria Nyanza; but still the Kitangulé, after 
receiving all their contributions, is a noble river, low sunk like a huge PS 
eanal, about 80 yards across, with a velocity ef about 4 miles an hour — 
which appears equal to the Nile itself, as soon as it issues from the lake a 
by the Ripon Falls. The question naturally suggests itself, What forms 
these lakes ?—whence originate their waters? It is simply this: the 
Mountains of the Moon, in which they lie, encireling the northern end 
and the Tanganyika Lake, are exposed to the influences of the rainy Zone, 
where I observed, in 1862, no less than 238 year Oe ag | 
ones. Mashondé, in the upper portion of Uganda, 18 
the first place where, in this second expedition ie 
Victoria Lake, called in these more northern eo : 
(lo-of) Luta (dead) Nzigé (locust), in consequence of the reputed fact 
that flights of locusts, in endeavoring to cross t opp’ 
down from fatigue, unable to accom 
wing, and, perishing in the lake, have been found dead in den 
by the boatmen. But, like the word Nyanza, it i i 


1 
8 greatest difficulty in endeavoring to‘ put together the information 


Exploration of the sources of the Nile. 77 


riably says it runs from mouth to head. In a southerly direction the 
Uaganda boatmen go as far as the island of kerewé, which I saw on 


like Dr. Krapf, merely narrated what th rd. .As salt-islands were 
visited by the natives in search of that mineral, the surrounding waters 
naturally were conside t by them, deprived as they were of its 


red sal 
connecting links, which included the whole area of ground under con- 
sideration within the limits of the drainage system of the Nile. The 
Arabs, who, it is now very clear, had heard of everything in connexion 


tells us of a river trending from the river: Newey, by Mount Kenia, 
towards the Nile. If such is the case, it must be a feeder to the Baringa, 
whose waters pass off by the Asua river into the Nile, for the whole 
‘asia immediately on the eastern side of the Victoria Nyanza is said 


ashondé, and roceeding north along the boundary coast of Nyanza to 
the valley of Katonga, which, as situated on the quarter of the lake, is 
constantly in view, the land above the lake is beautiful, composed of low 


With bogey bottoms, as many as one to every mile, even counting at one 
Period a much fuller stream than at the present day, when the ol 
Was on the present surface of the water, and its breadth was double that 
which it now presents. The Mountains of the Moon are wearing down, 
and so is Africa, Crossing over the Equator altogether, the conformation 
increased in beauty; the drain- 
" 8Ge@ system was found the opposite, clearly showing where in the north 
slope of Africa one stream, the Mweranga, of moderate dimensions, said 
to arise in the Lake, flowed north, and joined the Nile in the kingdom 
of Unyroro, where its name is changed to Thafa. Far on, another stream, 


78 Geographical Notices. . 


} The point of confluence presents the appearance 
f a diminutive lake at a sharp elbow of the Nile, and has hardly 


considerable velocity, carrying as I have said the palms with it. 

second affluent in order of position, which, with all the others, is on the 
right of the Nile, is the Giraffe River, swirling with a considerable stream 
and graceful round into the parent Nile. 


greater than the Giraffe River, but less in velocity; so that we may infer 
their perennial contents are much the same. Unfortunately, the North- q 


of far greater magnitude tha: 
streams may be one siver still 


Unger’s Tour in Greece and the Ionian Islands. 79 


comparison would have to be drawn with the Nile above it, which it 
would very nearly equal; for the N ile, with these additions, has scarcely 
doubled its importance, considered as it was seen from above entering the 
Bahr el Ghazal. The Blue River was long assumed to be the Nile only 
because its perennial powers were never tested. It appears to be a moun- 
tain-stream emanating in the country without the rainy zone, but subject 


apart from this feature of the volume of the Blue River, the Nile runs 
ike a sluice in its wonted course; whilst the Blue River, conjoining with 
the Giraffe and Sobat, describes a graceful sweep. The Atbara, which is 
the last, is in all respects like the Blue Nile, only smaller. With one 


White River, the Blue is freely navigated, owing to the great accessions 
of the Giraffe and Sobat Rivers, but below the Blue and Atbara Rivers to 
the sea, the sandbanks obstruct further passage.” 

Uneer’s Screntiric Resutts OF A ToUR IN GREECE AND 
THE Jontan Isutanps.—From the recent work of Prof. Fr, 
Nger, we derive the following epitome of his observations. His 
briéf tour (March 25—June 10, 1860) was confined chiefly to 

ubcea and the Ionian Islands, and the results are contributions 
to their Botany and Geology. He gives 
species of living plants collected by him, four of which being 
new are deacHbat: 
seckera turgida, and Silene Unger’, and with them a new variety 
0! 


and described ten years ago 


kalk) with Tertiary basins in the centre and in the south. The 
highest elevation is in the north, St. Salvator, 2900 feet. 
verai curious natural phenomena are discussed by Unger, 
a8 for instance, that at Argostoli on the west coast of Cephallenia, 
Where the gulf waters flow inland through narrow channels 
of apPearing under the rocks. The force of the water in ed 
_ : 


IM oper 
He supposes it to pass 


80 Geographical Notices. 


brackish springs on the eastern side of the island, which are 
only one to one and a half feet above the sea level. _ The surface 


have been observed in other parts of Greece, as the ancient 
Rheiti near Eleusis, and may perhaps hereafter be traced to 
marine sources. : i 

To the question whether, so far as natural characteristics are 
concerned, the East is susceptible of a revival of its ancient pros- 
perity, he gives an affirmative answer, having shown by compat — 
ing ancient testimonies with his own obser¥ations that there has 
been no natural change there of any account. F : 


Guyor’s PHysicAL WALL-MAPS OF THE ConTINENTS.—A 


ant contribution to scientific cartography, and will be found im 
many particulars, as we believe, superior to other similar works, 


The author of the maps is Professor Arnold Guyot 


Highest Mountains of the U. States and N. America. 81 


striking manner the predominant slopes and elevations. Besides 
this, the marine currents, the lines of equal temperature, the 
zones of vegetation and other physical phenomena are indicated. 


it is easy to recognize what mountain chains, table lands, or 


that in such general maps as these, the essential, the predominant, 
the characteristic, should be given in clear, bold; lines; while 


Political divisions and the principal towns are also indicated on 
these maps, in a manner which does not obscure the physical 
features. The lettering is also well managed. Names are sufii- 
ciently frequent but are so printed as not to crowd the map, and 
ndeed so as not to be read at the distance of a few feet. By 
devices of this kind. a great deal of detail is introduced without 


are ready for publication. (New York: C. Scribner, 1863.) 


Pror. WHITNEY on THE HIGHEST MOUNTAINS OF THE 
Uxtrep Srares ann or NortH America.—Prof. J. D. Whit- 
hey, Superintendent of the California Geological Survey, dis- 
Cusses briefly in the California Proceedings, ii, 219, the uestion 
“which is the highest mountain in the United States and which 
in North America?” His conclusion is that AM¢. Shasta, the 
height of which according to the barometrical measurements of 
the California Geological Survey, is 14,440 ft., probably overtops 
all other peaks within the limits of the United States, ‘Mt. Hood, 
spinetimes called the loftiest peak of the Cascade Range, is prob- 
ably not so high as Mts. Shasta, Rainier, or Adams, and by no 

™. Jour, 8c1.—Szconp Sertes, Vou. XXXVII, No. 109.—Jax., 1864. 

11 


‘ 


od 
elevated portions of the Coast Ranges; but, as a general thin the genu- 
ine Mexican te weer 


82 Geographical Notices. 


means entitled to the supremacy of the chain, although one of 
ighest points in it. Dr, Vansant’s trigonometrical meas 

urements in 1860 are reported to have given the height of Mt. 

Hood as 11,934 feet. 

Mt. St. Elias has generally been considered the highest 
mountain in North America on the authority of Malespina’s 
manuscripts, discovered by Humboldt in the archives of Mex: 
ico, which assign to it an elevation of 17 ,854 feet. The follow- 
ing circumstances, in the view of Prof. Whitney, justify us in 
believing that Malespina’s measurements were grossly incorrect, 

“In the first place,” he remarks, “La Perouse measured this mountain 
in 1786-8, and made it only 12,661 feet high; again, on the English 
Hydrographical Charts, it is given at 14,970 feet. But, secondly, Van- 


viz: 16,000 and 16,750 feet. But, it may be said with truth, that these 
figures given by Douglas are of little value, and that they aré considerably 
above the real heights, 

n regard to the height of the Mexican volcanoes, there is no uncer 
tainty. They have been 


is 17,783 feet in height, and must, ws 
standing at the head of the mountains of the North American continent.” 


Pror. J. D, Wurrney’s Survey or CALIFORNIA—PRO- 
POSED MAps.—The California Geological Survey is likely soon 


ogist, exhibits what has already been accomplished, - 
“California is covered by a vast net-work of mountain ranges, Sepa 


° 
i] 
? 
ER 
o 
2 
=] 
=a 
- 
e 
= 
_ 
& 
2, 
a 
ba) 
eZ) 
io] 


The remaining fourteen-fifteent 
called mountainous, as the valleys include but a small portion of 
its surface. Into this mountainous region no accurate surveys have ever 
been carried; even the General Land Office work stops at the base of the 
mountains. A few ranch lines have been run among the moderat 


grants were limited to the 


. 


Survey of California—Proposed Maps. 83 


contain a compilation of nearly all that is known at that office in regard 
to the geography of the State. The maps, as thus blocked out, have 
n used by us in the field, by filling in the topography wherever our 


@ maps which have been or are now being prepared for publica- 
tion are: 


a8 minutely as the scale allows, is nearly completed, and will be soo 
ready for the engraver, 


3d. A map of the Coast Ranges, from the Bay of Monterey south to 
Santa Barbara. It is about three feet by two and one-half in dimensions, 
#8 on a scale of six miles to the inch and embraces about 16,000 square 
miles of territory. To complete it will require about another year’s work 
in the field with two sub-parties. 


5th. Map of the Comstock Lode, on a scale of four hundred feet to 
the inch, completed. 

6th. Map of the central portion of the Sierra Nevada; scale not yet 
determined on. Extensive surveys have been made by Mr. Wackenreuder 
for this part of the work, and these will be continued during the present 
Season, 


84 Geographical Notices. 


_ Of the above mentioned maps, Nos. 1 and 2 will accompany the first 
volume of the Report. Nos. 4, 5,and probably 6, the second volume. ~ 
It is intended, if the survey is carried to completion, to construct & 
final map of the State on a seale of six miles to the inch, in nine sheets, 
each about three feet square. ¢ 


series of observations, we found to be 14,440 feet above the sea level. 
This is the first of the lofty voleanic peaks of the Sierra Nevada which 
has been accurately measured. ‘ 

In the department of geology proper, our explorations have extended 
over portions of forty of the forty-six counties into which the State 1s 
divided; and when it is remembered that the average size of a county 18 
equal to half that of the State of Massachusetts, (California having just 
twenty-four times the area of that State,) some idea of the’ magnitude of 
our work may be obtained. The chain of the Sierra Nevada may be 
parallelized with that of the Alps for extent and average elevation; — 
while the Coast Ranges are nearly as extensive as the Appalachian chain 
of mountai é 

We have obtained a pretty clear idea of the general structure of the 
Coast Ranges from Los Angeles to Clear Lake; the vicinity of the Bay 


of San Francisco has been worked out in considerable detail, including — 


Australia. From the Lond. Geog. Soc. Proceedings (iii, 82), 
which we are indebted for so much information that illustrates — 
ns progress of British enterprise, we draw the following ¢* 
racts. @ 


# # 
“1, Explorations from Adelaide across the Continent of Australia; — 
by J. McDovatt Srvarr.—tThis expedition proceeded along the pre — 
vious route until they reached the point attained by Mr. Stuart in 1861, 
from which he was obliged to retire in consequence of the inability of 3 
his small party to penetrate farther. a ae 


} eee 


Australian Explorations. 85 


The dense scrub a had in 1861 formed an insurmountable barrier 
was penetrated after six weeks’ incessant labor, and the other side was 
reached in safety oa ‘without oss. 

n getting into clear peo again and taking dean they 
found themselves in lat. 16° 40’. Ten miles further on, or lat. 30’, 
they struck on a large r ni nore y a branch of the Riper River 
which they followed down until its confluence with the main stre 
known as the Roper River. They found that it took its source in some 
rocky and hilly land, through which they crossed several creeks running 
in a northeast direction, until they reached the table-land in lat. 13° 50/ 
and in long. 182° 30", They aaeee this rina te and came upon a 


due north. On this course they travelled for about 30 miles, and then 
struck due east for about 10 to 15 miles; after which due north to the 
seaport in Van Diemen Gulf, which was reached on the 24th of July, 
1862; and on the following day they planted their flag on the beac 
amid great cheering from the party. 

The point on the coast reached was a promontory marked on the 
Admiralty Charts as being 30 miles east of Cape Ho tham 

e river, which they ‘followed, ran about 40 miles parallel with a 

river marked on the map as the Adelaide, the difference in the longitude 
being only from 6 to 12 miles. Stuart passed through much good 
country, well fitted for agricultural and pastoral purposes. Leichhardt 
had previously seen this tract, and noticed it in terms not less favorable, 
Even in the scrub water seems to have been found in sufficient quanti- 
ties to satisfy the wants of all the party, iogainy the horses, obviating 
yr aulle Wen. for carrying a supply from camp to camp beyond New- 


"They were not nearly so fortunate on the return route, ice Mevr 
than two whole ray before they obtained a or rg ae € taly 
occasion on whic were inconvenienced 


Station Mr. Howitt’s party were among t to ; welooins him | 
after his laborious but pote: mission 

loration of the Interior of Australia tee Mr. LanpsporoveGn, 
—Mr Landsborough, who had poner remem vol. vii, p. 5) 
ag southwesterly for 300 ae from C 


country. This terminated in some picturesque hills, among witch it 
was thought that a sheep sess Beat would be well a rp 
the hills there was more wood and less pasture. 


crossed on the 19th, followed for some pa and finally left on ‘the 1 Ist 
March in lat. 20° 3, Near Mounts Little and Brown the river is deep, 
and seems perennial. ‘The country is probably thinly inhabited, as the 


86 Geographical Notices. 


pow would be necessary. While still on the Flinders a blue range 
of mountains was visible, and named Branston Range; another moun- 


Mr. R. Buchannan. On the 29th the party reached Landsborough 
Creek, leading to Thomson River, where Landsborough came upon an 


Continuing their course in a $.S.W, direction, and partly under 
the guidance of natives, some of whom, however, seemed disposed to 


it had been visited. On the 2ist of May they reached the station 
of a settler on the Warigo River; and thence passed by Bumaranah 
on the Darling on the 2nd of June, to Menindie and Melbourne by the 
usual route. oy 

3. Explorations in the Interior of Australia by the Burke Relief 
Expedition, under Mr. J. M’Krxtay.—The South Australian Burke 
Relief Expedition was originally organized with the view of ascertain 


suffered from want of water. Marks on many of the trees showed that 


dition which perished upon Cooper Creek, after achieving the task 80 
tt 


truth of a report that some whites were living upon a raft in one of the F 
ereeks in the vicinity. On the banks of the creek were marks of # 


Dr. Livingstone’s Explorations in Africa. 87 


European encampment; the dung of camels proving that it must have 
been one of Burke’s, while en route to or from the Gulf to Cooper 
Creek. The remains of one of the party, since ascertained to be Gray, 
and showing traces of a violent death, were found slightly covered with 
earth and boughs; and at a little distance two holes very like graves, 
A subsequent visit to Cooper Creek left but little doubt about the fate 
of Burke. 

In the course of December the main camp moved to a double lake, 
called Appocaldradille. From this point a scout was undertaken to 
both north and cast without finding water for 50 miles. The party 
consequently moved on to a deep creck, called Appanbara, where, how- 
ever, they endured much suffering from heat and bad water. After 

e first rains in February, it was thought practicable to traverse the 

For some days the route lay along a creek called ‘ Cari- 


21st the expedition commenced its return vid Port Dennison; and on 
the 2nd of August, after great fatigues and the loss of most of the cattl ‘ 
the first station in the settled districts was reached.” 


Dr. Livinastonn’s RECENT EXPLORATION or THE NIASSA 
Lakr.—The following synopsis of a recent communication from 
Dr. Livingstone respecting his explorations of one of the Lakes 
in Southern Central Africa, is taken from the London Geograph- 
ical Society. (Proceedings, vii, 


‘are. Pa 
ay in the boat: the latter were never able to cross the lake or venture 
from shore, owing to the suddenness and extraordinary violence of 
the storms, They ascertained its breadth by rough triangulation, when- 
Sear x . ht he 


certain knowledge was obtained in regard to its northern extremity. The 
lake has something of the boot shape of Italy: it is narrowest at the 


88 Geographical Notices. 


ankle, where it is 20 miles, and broadens gradually to 50 or 60 miles. 


m 
is- 


towards the north; where Dr. Livingstone turned, it disappears altogether. 
The depth of the Jake is readily to be traced by the changing color of 
its surface. A belt of bright green water fringes the shore, and varies in 


found insufficient to reach the bottom one mile from shore. e tem 
perature of the water is 72° Fahrenheit; its rise in the rain 
3 feet. Five affluents were seen on its western coast, of inconideaa 


aoe their united volume was far inferior to that of the waters of 
Shiré. 


Natives, of essentially one tribe and language, throng the southern 
portion of the lake. Their villages are so close together as frequently to 
i er 


men and good cultivators of the land : they were reasonably civil to Dr 
goons party, and exacted no dues for the right of Shoo” ( The 


he Niassa for the purpose of checking this traffic as far as may be PAS 

ticable, and also with the object of further exploration.” 5 
EXPLORATION OF THE RIVER VERMEJO, IN THE ARGENTINE — 

CONFEDERATION—Mr. Porter ©. Buiss.-_The Argentine Con 


; Oo : om ) 
with Mr. Bliss, we shall look with seiseniet ie a fall 
tic statement of his observations. ee 


Holbrook’s Ichthyology of South Carolina. 89 


Art. X.—Review of Holbrook's Ichthyology of South Carolina.’ 


THIs volume is for the most part a second edition, the first 
haying been published in the year 1855, but suspended with the 
issue of the tenth number. The plates, stones, and origina 
drawings for the work having been subsequently Aaiteeed. 
the fire which consumed the Artists’ Buildings in Philadel- 


the work has, however, enabled” Dr. Holbrook ‘to give more 
accurate and highly finished plates and to correct some errors of 


tributed previous to the destruction of the original plates,.... 
” the author “ de- 


A 
What strange optical delusion a preoperculum, like that repre- 
i Homoprion - 
: Ichthyology of South Carolina, Vol. L Jouy Epwarps Horzsoox, M.D., 
de., Charleston S.C. Published by Russell & Jones, 1860. 
ouR. Sci1.—Szconp Series, Vou. XXXVI, No. 109.—Jan., 1864. 
12 


Mee 


90 Holbrook’s Ichthyology of South Carolina. 


tus, could have been imagined by the artist, it is difficult to conjec- 
ture. With these remarks, however, special criticism may end, 
for although some of the other figures might be much improved, 
most are tolerably accurate. __ eo 
With regard to the nomenclature of the species, little need be 
said. The names which will probably be for the most part 
adopted are given below; those spvcially interested in the sub- 
ject are referred to the discussions in the Proceedings of the 
Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia, & . Hol- 
brook has been frequently unfortunate in the application to his 
fishes of former names, especially in the cases of the synonymy 
of his Caranx hippos and Homoprion xanthurus. The Scomber 
hippos L., identified with the first, belongs to a different genus, 


name instead of rubricauda. The Gasterosteus Carolinus was 28 — | 
evidently intended for Holbrook’s Bothrolaemus pompanus, no 
tter 


As Dr. Holbrook has not uniformly adopted a systematic at 
* Labrus auritus Linn. Syst, Nat., ed. xii, vol. i, p. 475. ae eS 
* See Proc, Acad. Nat. Psa Philad., 1862, p. 439. We e 


yee Mal Be, 
So aed SPC eo SO ee eee 


Holbrook’s Ichthyology of South Carolina. 91 


agrus and Serranus nigritus not Scizenide, but severally Sparoid 
and Percoid; and finally Zrachinotus and Hemulon are not 
Scopelinidsx, but respectively members of the Scombroid and 
Scizenoid families as understood by Dr. Holbroo 

With regard to the systematic arrangement thus corrected, it 
may be remarked that it is not an exposition of the views now 
Pesyalent concerning the limits of the families. All the Scom- 


Lobotes is the type of a peculiar one, and finally Sawrus is the 
Tepresentative of another, 


€ most 
doubtedly the foundation of the family Ichthelidae for the recep- 
tion of the North American fresh water Percoids of Cuvier with 


considered that the Theraponidae of that author taken from it 
should be itself subdivided, and the family of Ichthelidae is 
therefore proposed for some of its constituents. The onl 


the true Percoids by their physiognomy; that it is probable 
that the family itself is a natural one ; it has indeed more resem- 


and in Africa. Like them, the Ichthelidx construct a rude nest, 

Suard their young and are the most characteristic Acanthop- 

terygian types of their respective regions. Their arrangement 

Geolors-and the variation is the number of anal spines are 
orms 


* Dr. Holbrook gives to Grystes in the new edition, “branchiostegal rays seven” 
instead of “ branchial Pectin? pel arg but in a note adds that “sometimes 
there are but six rays,” 


’ 


92 Holbrook’s Ichthyology of South Carolina. 


distinguished by the equal development of, and the correspon- 
dence of, the regions of the body above and below the axis, 
while in the Percoids and others, these regions are obliquely 
opposed. It is therefore probable that future investigation wi 
place the family on a firm basis. The family itself is composed 
of two very distinct types which must be regarded as subfami- 
lies; the Lepomin# distinguished by the very much greater 
development of the dorsal than the anal fin, their termination 
at the same vertical behind, and the equality of their respective 
soft portions; the EUCENTRARCHIN#, in which the dorsal and 
anal fins are nearly or quite equal and obliquely opposed, so that 
the end of the anal is considerably behind the vertical from that 
of the dorsal ; the soft portion of the anal is longest. These two 
subfamilies embrace a number of genera; Dr. Holbrook has ad- 


mitted “ Pomotis, Ichthelis, Pomozis, Ambloplites, Catliurus LAsl) 


&c., Raf., Centrarchus and Bryttus.". The Pomotis cheetodon B 
obesus, Grd., Centrarchus pomotis, Bd., Ambloplites interruptus Gd., 
and Pomoxis hexacanthus Ag., are types of as many additional 
genera; that typified by Pomotis chaetodon may be called MESO- 
GONISTIUS on account of the peculiar angulation at the dorsa 
spine; P. obesus (n. g. ENNEACANTHUS) is distinguished by the 
nine spines of the dorsal fin; Centrarchus pomotis ANTHAR: | 
cHus), by the elliptical form, cycloid scales and convex caudal; 
the Ambloplites interruptus has been already separated under the 


D chus .. Hyperistius 
Gill, and Pomoxis Raf., belong to the subfamily Bucentrarchine, : 
while all the others are Lepominze.’ ; : 

While we have been thus obliged to dissent from Dr. Hol- 2 


gy” 
1855 under another title the work now reviewed, and that he 


_, 4 synopsis of the family of Iehthelide, or Centrarchoids, will be hereafter pub- 
lished in the Proceedings of the Academy of Philadelphia. There the synonymy 
of the genera, so much complicated by the mischievous Rafinesque, will be also dis- 

a rectification of the nomenclature attera ee 


cussed and pte ? 
_* “Southern Ichthyology: or tion of th ie 3 itin waters of 
Roath Caroli yology erties DO taal Londen Wiley 


outh Ca Georgia and Florida.” New York and London, Wiley & Putnat, 
1847. Thave seen only one number of this (If), including pages 1 to 32 and 


Holbrook’s Ichthyology of South Carolina. 93 


finally withdrew as much as possible that last publication from cir- 
culation and issued a new edition of it with so slight modifica- 
tions in 1860,—we cannot withhold the praise of the most con- 
scientious desire on his part for perfection, and the wish that the 
first volume of the final work shall be followed by others. It is 
however, doubtful whether the enterprising little state at whose 
expense the last edition of that first volume was published will 
feel able soon to continue its encouragement of the abstract 
sciences, and we may therefore probably hope in vain for the 
completion of the work. The following list of the species de- 
scribed under Holbrookian names, with references to the pages 
e 


Family Percide, 


flavescens, oe ne | 
Family Ichthelide, 
omotis vulgaris, 8 6 1, 2, (Pomotis) aureus. 
Ichthelis incisor, 12 13 uy, 1, Lepomis incisor. 

: ubricauda,? 15 10 ua, 2, Lepomis auritus. 
Centrarchus irideus, 18 15 wm, 1, Eucentrarchus (irideus). 
Labrax Americanus, 20 21 “ 2, Morone Americana, 

“  lineatus, 24 17 tv, 1, Roccus lineatus, 
Grystes salmoides, 28 25 2, Micropterus salmoides, 
Serranus erythrogaster, 32 29 v, 2, (Epinephelus) erythrogas- 
Diplectrum fasciculare, 35 32 ¢ __. [ter 
omoxis hexacanthus, 39 36 vi, 1, Hyperistius carolinensis, 
Rhypticus maculatus, 42° $9 2, Promicropterus maculatus, 
Centropristis atrarius, 45 42 “vn, 2, Centropristis atrarius. 
3 trifurea, 49 47 1, Triloburus trifurcus. 
Family Sparide. 
Tgus ovis, 58 51 vim, 2, Sargus probatocephalus. 
on rhomboides, 59 56 1; 
Family Scombridee, 
Temnodon saltator, 64 62 1x, 2, Pomatomus saltatrix. 
Cybium maculatum, 68 66 1, Apodontis maculatus, 


94 


Seriola Carolinensis, 
oe 
 . chloris, 
Bothrolemus pampanus, 
Cara anx defensor, 


ippos, 
“  faleatus, 
% ichardi, 


Elacate canada, 
Echeneis vittata,* 
Family Squamipinnide, 
Is gigas, 
faber, 
Family Scieenide. 
ius pe toine 


Heemulon chr ysopieron, 


um, 
Otolthus really 
thallacsinus, 
. nothus, 
= Carolinensis, 
Umbrina alburnus, 
littoralis, 


Mic cropogon undulatus 
Corvina ocellat 

arimus recta 
Pristipoma fulvomacu- 

atum,’ 
Leivstorsias obliquus, 
Hom moprion xantharas, 
eolatus, 

Tae Sustemenne 


Family Scopelinidee. 
Saurus foetens, 
Trachinotus la aucus, 

zmulon quadritineatun, 

Family Esocidee 


Raok affini 
Esox Raweeal 


® Seriola is core Ist ed, 


9 
18 


or 


198 
201 


Holbrcok’s Ichthyology of South Carolina. 


70 x, 2, Halatractus Carolincensis, 
13 1, Halatractus zonatus. 
V7 x1, : fslerpecombee chloris. 


94 Ch aran ngu = fala” 
95 XIV, 2; Fae 
© 101 ° Bcheneis aibiowtdhe 
105 xv, 2, Pavsphiiciin gigas. 
10 1, * faber. 
112 xvi, 2. 
Ti i 
120 xvu, 1. 
123 
ves XVIII, 1, Cynoscion regalis, 
13 2. thalassinus, 
$91 > Spt “ on 
133 2, si roli nensis.. 
700 ae. 9." Menticirrus al birt 
142 2" littoralis. 
145 xx, 1. 
149 2, Scizenops ocellatus. 
158 xxit 1, 
156 2. oe fulyomacu- 


se 
163 xxim,** =a} 
170 (inf. = =o) Bairdiella argyroleuca. 
168 xxrv,’* 1, Stellifer lanceolatus. 
159 2. . 


175 ue ie 
178 2, (Epinephelus) nigritus. 
179 xxv1, 2. 
184 1, Synodus fcetens. 
xxvii1,** 1, 
o 
xxvur,’’ 1, 
ue 


T. GILL. i 


U.S. Coast Survey Reports—1861 and 1862. 95 


Arr. XT.—U, &. Coast Survey Reports for the years 1861 and 1862. 


by most of the parties before their proceedings were suspended 
in consequence either of actual or of threatened violence. Op- 
erations upon the northern coast were of course undisturbed, 
but the distribution of labor was somewhat modified during the 
Summer of 1861, in consequence of the state of things in the 
Vicinity of Chesapeake Bay. 

ring the second of the years to which these reports relate, 
the services rendered by the officers of the survey upon the 


entirely as before to the systematic prosecution of the general 
plan of the survey, have been probably of more immediate value 
to the government than if they had been so. They have recoy- 


and ascertained their magnitude and extent. In this way they 
have contributed very materially to the security of our navy and 


enemy; or as, in the interior, they 
Secured topographical information of the greatest value, by opera- 
tions sometimes conducted immediately under fire. 


96 U. S. Coast Survey Reports—1861 and 1862. 


' 
€ mean time, upon all that large portion of the coast 

which the rebellion could not reach or affect, the survey has 
steadily advanced without any modification of its plan, though 
with an activity somewhat reduced in consequence of the reduc: 
tion of the appropriations for this work since the commencement 
of the war. This reduction has been considerable when com- 
pared with the total of the appropriations themselves—amount- 
ing to from twenty to forty per cent—but in absolute amount it 
is so inconsiderable as to excite a doubt as to the wisdom of the 


he hydrography covered 
thousand miles, One hundre 
thousand soundings had been made, and more than ei 
four hundred specimens of bottom obtained, 


U. 8. Coast Survey Reports—1861 and 1862. 97 


Of manuscript maps and charts, two thousand one hundred 
and eighty-one had been constructed; and of engraved maps 
charts and sketches, there had been produced four hundred and 
ninety-three, 

The triangulation extends from Passamaquoddy Bay on the’ 
northeast boundary of the United States, to Matanzas inlet on 
the east coast of Florida below St. Augustine, with a single 
interruption of about sixty miles on the coast of South Carolina. 
From Cape Florida it extends over all the line of the Keys to 
the Tortugas, It embraces also some portion of the western 
coast of the peninsula. From St. Marks it is continuous through 
St. George’s Sound; it embraces Pensacola harbor, the Perdido 
entrance, Mobile Bay, Mississippi Sound, Lake Borgne and Lake 
Ponchartrain as far as New Orleans. A branch triangulation 
extends also through Isle au Breton Sound to the mouth of the 
Mississippi river. West of the delta it covers most of the coast 
of Louisiana and Texas. 

On the Pacific coast, the survey has been less connected ; 
but it embraces all the principal harbors, headlands and an- 
chorages. 

The triangulation is on many portions of the coast considera- 
bly in advance of the topography and hydrography. This is 
particularly the case in Maine, in the Gulf of Mexico and on the 
northwest coast. Upon the Maine and Pacific coasts the work 
Is being actively advanced. Energetic reconnoissances have 
also been made in the Gulf, between Mobile and New Orleans, 
since the outbreaking of the war. : 

One of the most important of the surveys made during the 
year 1862, was that of the Potomac river from near its mou 
up to Georgetown. Connected with this may also be mentioned 
important topographical surveys of the country around Wash- 
ington. 


‘he survey of the Florida reefs was also energetically pursued 
during the same period. ; 
The hydrographic operations of this year of which the results 
have probably been most immediately valuable, are those upon 
he coast of North and South Carolina and of Georgia. Hatteras 
Inlet, Oregon Inlet, the Neuse river to a point above Newbern, 
the Harbor of Beaufort with its entrance, were surveyed or 
Tesurveyed so soon as the progress of naval and military opera- 
tions had opened the*way, to the great subsequent advantage of 
our commanders. ; : 
In like manner, on the coast of South Carolina, Georgia and 
‘lorida, similar operations were carried on after the occupation 
of Port Royal. Stono inlet and river, Folly and Kiawah rivers, 
and N. disto river, were resurveyed and sounded out, the 
channels being found in some of them to be entirely chan 
Am. Jour. Sct.—Szconp Serres, VoL. XXXVII, No. 109.—Jan., 1864. 
13 


98 U. 8. Coast Survey Reports—1861 and 1862. 


‘Parts of St. Helena Sound, Port Royal Sound, Calibogue Sound, 
Tybee Roads, Wassaw Sound, St. Simon’s Sound, and the bar 
of Fernandina, were also resurveyed, and the shore lines of many — 
of the islands and rivers were traced. All these operations were 
of essential importance to the success of the national arms upon 
that coast. ¥ 

We find in these reports also the usual annual lists of devel- 
opments and discoveries made in the progress of the survey 
Some of these consist in the detection of rocks and shoals pre: 
viously unknown, lying in frequented waters, and others im — 
bringing to light new and more favorable channels by whieh 
the approaches to harbors are improved or the difficulties of — 
navigation diminished. Not less important than these are the — 
discoveries of changes produced by the shifting of sands, intro — 
ducing dangers which did not previously exist, and rendering it 
necessary to alter entirely the sailing lines which navigators have — 
been accustomed to follow. The total number of these develop: ; 
ments embraced in the general list appended to the latest report, — 
amounts to no less than two hundred and sixteen. Besides the : 
direct benefits to commerce and the national prosperity which £ 
flow naturally from the positive information gathered by the — 
coast survey, there are some indirect advantages attending 18 — 
operations, which are especially important to the interests 0 — 
science. Of these we find illustrations in the reports before Us, _— 
in the contributions embraced in the appendices, on the subjects — 
of longitude, Terrestrial Magnetism, the Solar Spo : 
expansibility of metallic bars. he papers on Longitude are by 
Prof. Peirce, and give the results of his computations from 1 
observations of the Pleiades for the recent period during which 
the moon’s path lay across that group. Some of these observ — 
tions were made both in this country and in Europe, and serve — 
to determine the errors of the tables, and thus to give additional 
value to those which were made only in this country. The 
will also serve to fix the relative longitudes of the places of 
observation, to correct the places of the stars, and inal : 
determine the moon’s semi-diameter, and “the necessity of hav 
ing regard to the A pil crn of the moon in the comp 

em.” 


solution of the pro 
Th 


e articles on Magnetism embrace the continuation of the ‘ 


Assistant Charles ott. Besides these, there is pr 
the regular biennial publication of results found at twenty-t¥? 
stations occupied st survey parties, for the 


“J 
lination, dip and intensity. 


U. S. Coast Survey Reports—1861 and 1862. 99 


A very interesting part of the discussion of the Girard College 
observations is that which shows the influence o 
the magnetic horizontal force. In the lunar day there is a dis- 
tinct magnetic tide having two ebbs and flows. The times 
maxima are two hours, and of minima seven and a half hours, 
after the culminations. The influence of the relative positions 
of the sun and moon on the horizontal magnetic force, though 


We, at the beginning of this war, been in possession of a topo- 
ya survey of the country, like the trigonometrical survey 
of France, or the ordnanee survey of Great Britain, it 1s by no 
means improbable that there might have been already saved, in 
the increased celerity and certainty of our operations, a m 

larger amount to the treasury of the country, than the whole 
survey itself could have cost. This is one of those lessons 
which governments only learn from experience. Let us hope 
that our present costly experience may not have been thrown 
away. 


100 Proceedings of Learned Societies. 


Art. XII.—Proceedings of Learned Societies, 


Royal Society Anniversary.—The President’s Address was delivered by 
‘ Major General Sazinz on Monday, Nov, 5—as follows. ye 


est re the scien’ 
importance of establishing in some convenient locality in her Majesty’s 


dominions, from whence the southern nebule and multiple stars could 


discussion in 1853 had terminated in - 
consisting of the Earl of Rosse, Dr 
Warren de la Rue, to superintend the construction of the telescope, it 
the event of the recommendation of the two Societies bein y 


Address of the President of the Royal Society. 101 


limited to the occasion which has given rise to them. The considera- 
tions which apply to a telescope for the observation of the southern 
nebulz at Melbourne are no less applicable to one which might be estab- 
ished on a site from whence a great part of the southern nebule could 
also be observed (as well as those of our own hemisphere), but enjoying 
the immense advantage conferred by elevation into the higher and less 
dense strata of the atmosphere. Such sites are to be found in the Nil- 


Having learnt that a series of pendulum experiments at the gla 
avai 


have the opportunity of testing the exactness of the correction for 
buoyancy by vibrating his pendulum on both its knife-edges in the 
Vacuum apparatus which is now established at Kew. 


It is much to be desired that a similar series of pendulum experiments 


still greater extension, would seem 
to present a most favorable opportunity for the combination of pendulum 
i In such case the ulums of the Royal Society might 
be made available with excellent effect. i 
eas size of our printed volumes in the present year gives no 
unfavorable and, I ir i : 
of the Society, for I 


102 Proceedings of Learned Societies. 


not been less vigilant and cautious than heretofore in the selection of 
the papers to be printed. Although much care has been given to 
ing the expenses of illustration within reasonable bounds, the cost of 


the Society’s publications has been this year unusually high; yet I am _ 


lad to be able to state that our whole expenditure within the year has 
fallen within our income. With your permission, I will briefly advert 
to a few of the subjects which have occupied the Society’s attention im 
the past year. 
The researches of Kirchhoff and Bunsen have rendered it in a hi 


fixed lines. The apparent diurnal motion of the stars causes much 


. 


only by their effects. Nor can the astronomical and physical parts 

the inquiry be well dissociated, so as to be separately undertaken by 
different individuals ; for the most elaborate drawings can hardly convey 
a faithful idea of the various aspects of the different dark and bright 
lines, which yet must be borne in mind in instituting a comparison in 
cases of apparent coincidence. It is fortunate, therefore, that the inquiry 
h en taken up by two gentlemen working in concert. Ina sh 

paper read to the Society on the 26th of last February, and published 
in the Proceedings, Mr. Huggins and Dr. Miller have described and 
figured the spectra of three of the brighter stars, and this part of the 
inquiry will doubtless be continued. In a paper since presented to the 
Society, Mr. Huggins describes the means employed for practically 


ception 


Professor Tyndall has given us the fourth of a series of papers upon : 


_ Rays of heat; and that certain portions of these heat-rays are 


tag 


Address of the President of the Royal Society. 103 


werfully absorbed than others, rays from objects at a low temperature 
eing more easily absorbed than those from objects at an elevated tem- 
perature. He has also proved that gases radiate as well as absorb; and, 


hitherto held upon the meteorological relations of aqueous vapor. 

e Bakerian Lecture, by Mr. Sorby, is entitled by him ‘On the 
In this paper 
are embodied a series of observations upon the influence of pressure 
upon the solubility of salts, in which he has obtained results analogous 
to the change in the freezing point of liquids under pressure. He finds 
in cases where, as is usual, the yolume of the water and the salt is less 
than the volume of the water and the salt separately, that the solubility 
is increased by pressure; but that, in cases where, as when salammoniac 


, : ; wv 


and purposes pursuing his researches upon chemical action under pres- 
sure. This may, therefore, be regarded as forming the first of a 


series upon a highly interesting and important branch of investigation, 
Pp galy inte sg P s 


metals, has of late years attracted very general attention. ele- 
mentary gas and each metal show certain well-marked characteristic 
i ich it i pl sumed 


are changed? What evidence have we that spectra are superposed, § 
that we Sisenie the full sum of the spectra which the electrodes and 
the medium would produce separately? : ‘ 
To examine these and similar questions in the only unimpeachabl 
way, that of actual experiment, formed the object of a long and labori- 
ous research by Dr. Robinson, the results of which are contained in a 


104 Proceedings of Learned Societies. 


in each of five different gases (including air), and for each gas separately 
at the atmospheric pressure, and at the low pressure obtained by a good 


properties of the molecules which are present, through a range from 
great intensity down to a faintness which may elude our most powerful 
ea io 


at the extreme south of Spitzbergen, and rmine on @ 
favorable locality for the measurement of a ine. The result of the 
first years’ exploration has been the selection of stations, on hills ot 


proposed are o es. A convenient locality has also been 

for the base-line. _ The continuation of the preliminary survey to the 
Sear aoe ome is to be the work of the summer of 1864. The 
report of the geodesical surveyors has shown that the northern portion 
presents no impediments which may not be surmounted by courage and 


Address of the President of the Royal Society. 105 


perseverance ; and, with regard to the southern portion, the knowledge . 
already acquired is considered to justify the expectation that the result, 
of the second year’s exploration will be no less favorable. Should such 
be the case, it is anticipated that the necessary steps will be taken for 
carrying into execution the measurement of the arc itself. 
erhaps, be permitted to allude for a moment to the P 

interest with which I must naturally regard the proposed undertaking. 

he measurement of an arc of the meridian at Spitzbergen is an enter- 


favorable than those contemplated by its original proposer—by reason 
of the high latitude of the northern observer—the greater number of 
stars in the moon’s path, now included in our catalogues, of which a 


re’ 
of land above the sea-level; and I may therefore venture to refer them 
to a paper in the Phil. Trans. for 1824 (Art. xvi), written from Spitz- 
bergen itself in July, 1823, containing the articulars of a barometrical 
and trigonometrical determination of the height (approximately 1644 
English feet) of the well-defined summit of a conspicuous hill in the 
* Antoni i,“ 210 per riconoscere la Figura della Terra.” 
er apg bo ele ae go ety rk peeing 
an appendix, was printed for private circulation in 1819 by Mr. 


notes an 

is Baily, * 

Am. Jour. Scr.—Seconp Series, VoL. XXXVII, No. 109.—Jan., 1864. 
14 


106 Proceedings of Learned Societies. 


vicinity of Fairhaven. The barometrical comparison was repeated on 

several days, the barometer on the summit of the hill being stationary, 

and the observation of the two barometers strictly simultaneous, the 
hei 


gi by igonometrical, was mM 
excellent accord. The hill may be identified with certainty by the plan 
which accompanies the paper referred to: it is of easy access, and may 
be remeasured with little difficulty. | 


4 
o 
+ 
° 
oO 
cr 
o 
° 
fom) 

BP 
a 
Po) 
= 
° 
5 
ce 
mg 
Pa 
oO 
=. 
~ 
=] 
Q 
ot 
“ 
© 
=] 


ordnance purposes 
as to call imperati 
however, in its com 
purposes 


Address of the President of the Royal Society. 107 


tifie points which are still more or less obscure—in pre nt 
attention of her Majesty’s Government the expediency of instituting 
under its own auspices a and searching inquiry into the possible 


to be reduced in the proportion of 2 to 3, and the leagth of the gun itself 
to admit of a diminution of nearly one-third. These conclusions are 
based on the evidence of long and apparently very carefully conducted 
Courses of experiment in the imperial factory in the neighbor 00 
Vienna. The results appear to be especially deserving the attention of 
those who are engaged in the important problems of facilitating the 
employment of guns of large calibre and of great projectile force in the 
broadsides of our line-of-battle ships, and in reducing, as far as may be 
possible, the dimensions of the ports. 


altogether a novel subject of discussion in this country. When the 
material was first introduced by Schénbein in 1846, its distinctive quali- 


liability was due to imperfection in its preparation, and ceases altogether 
when suitable processes are adopted in its manufacture. Perfect. gun- 


without danger of: deterioration. It is not impaired by damp; and may 
submerged without injury, its original qualities returning unchanged 
: 


108 Proceedings of Learned Societies. 


The experiments made by the Austrian Artillery Commission, as well 
as those for blasting and mining, were conducted on a very large scale; 


with small arms the trials appear to have been comparatively few. j 


gun-cotton and gunpowder have to be investigated, both as to the tem- 


peratures generated in the act of explosion, and the nature of the com _ 


pounds which result from them, under circumstances strictly analogous 
to those which occur in artillery practice.’ hh 
I proceed to announce the awards which the Council has made of the 
Medals in the present year; and to state the grounds upon which these 
awards have been made. if 
The Copley Medal has been awarded to the Rev. Adam Sedgwick, for 


the Killas Rocks and their Fossils in Devonshire. i 


Mr. Sedgwick was appointed Woodwardian Professor of Geology in 


the University of Cambridge in the year 1818, since which time, up toa 


recent period, comprising an interval of upwards of forty years, he bas 


repose, 

Under such circumstances geology needed the support and open ad- 
vocacy of men who, by their intellect and acquirements, and by the re 
spect attached to their individual characters, their profession, or social 
position, might be able on the one hand to repress wild fancies, and on 
the other to rebut the unfounded assertions of those who opp 


Address of the President of the Royal Society. 109 


which to this day holds its high place in the estimation of geologists as 
the foundation of our knowledge of this impartant class of deposits, 
whether we regard their origin, form of deposition, peculiarities of struc- 
ture,-or organic contents. 
ontemporaneously with this excellent work, he examined the whin 
sill of Upper Teesdale, showed its claims to be treated as a rock of fusion, 
and discussed the perplexed question of its origin, 
Advancing to one of the great problems which occupied his thoughts 
for many years, he combined in 1831 the observations of the older rocks 
of the Lake mountains which.he had commenced in 1822, and added a 


vided honor of the first unrolling of the long series of deposits which 
constitute the oldest groups of British fossiliferous rocks, ; 

Still more complete, however, was the success of that work which 
was undertaken immediately afterwards on the coeval roc of Wales; 
by which Professor Sedgwick and Sir Roderick Murchison, toiling in sep- 
arate districts, unravelled the intricate relations of those ancient rock 
and determined the main features of the successive groups of ancient life 
which they enclose. These labors began in 1831-32, and in 1835 the 
two great explorers had advanced so far if their research as to present a 
united memoir to the British Association in Dublin, showing the progress 
each had made in the establishment of the Cambrian and Silurian sys- 
tems, as they were then called; Professor Sedgwick taking the former, 
and Sir Roderick Murchison the latter for his special field of study. 

In 1843 Professor Sedgwick produced two memoirs on the structure of 


ing principally taken from his observations in 1831-82, while the more 
detailed sections of the eastern part were from those of 1842-43. 
These two papers gave the complete outline or framework, as it were, of 
the geological structure of this intricate region. In several subsequent 


oe 5, eal 


110 Proceedings of Learned Societies. 


mal, and all the great anticlinal and sinclinal lines on which the funda-_ 


eation. He always proceeded on this principle; nor (from the paucity of 


_ There _are other important memoirs of Professor Sedgwick’s of which 
time forbids more than a very passing notice. The memoir ‘On the — 


bed 
@ 
» 
> 
} 
° 
B 
3 
a. 
& 
Qu. 
of 
fas) 
4 
g 
wr 
2,3 
wn 
g 
o 
-~ 
= 
3 
@ 
< 
-_ 
=) 
n 
| 
oO 
= 
a 
oO 
i=} 
So 


_ Carboniferous series, and their position in a trough of the subjacent rocks, 
which rocks, on account of their position and their organic contents, 
were concluded to belong to the Devonian, or Old Red Sandstone period, — 


other localities. Finally, we may notice another joint memoir by these 
authors in 1830, ‘On the Structure of the Eastern Alps,’ which, howevehy 
ad no immediate relation to the researches on the Paleozoic formation: — 
_ will ormeonittenns~ the memoirs which have been noticed art 
me most part pervaded by a certain unity of purpose. The investig® 
tions were not on points of merely local Sitpienn but were essential 


Address of the President of the Royal Society. 111 


the elucidation of the geological history of our planet during those early 
E F 


periods of which the records are most difficult to unfold. Few persons, 


with when he first entered North Wales as a geologist. Geologically 
i d the 


a complicated mountain or district with those in another, so as to form 
a distinct geometrical conception of the arrangement of the sewed 
Mm. 7 


extremely doubtful whether any other British geologist forty years ago 
could have undertaken, with a fair chance of success, the great and diffi- 


The Copley Medal was then presented with the following address :-— 
“ Proressor SepewicK,—Accept this medal, the highest honor which 


thirty-five years, during which they have been more especially devoted 4 


that extensive and most difficult order of plants the fungi, have rende 


Besid pers in various journals on fungi from all parts 
of the globe, and in particular an early and admirable memoir on British 


112 Proceedings of Learned Societies. 


and difficult, upon which its broad generalizations are founded. Mr, 
Berkeley’s merits are not confined to description or classification; there 
are facts of the highest significance which he has been the first to indi- 
eate, and which in many cases he has also proved by observation and by 
experiments. We refer to his observations on the development of the 


tions, and sometimes of the absolute specific identity of various forms of : 
fungi previously referred to different tribes; and to the recognition, 1 


many so-called epiphytal and parasitic fungi are nothing but morbid con- 
ditions of the tissues of the plant; on the other hand, that microscopié 


: Kala n te 
high opinion which the botanical members of the Council of the Royal 
Society entertain of your researches in cryptogamic botany, especially my- 


e Council has awarded a royal medal to John Peter Gassiot, Esq ; 
for his researches on the Voltaic Battery and Current, and on the Diss 
charge of Electricity throug : 
most of which are recorded j 


Address of the President of the Royal Society. 113 


2. The identity of voltaic with frictional electricity was denied by 
many, because it gave no spark through an interval of air, Davy h 
indeed, asserted the contrary in his ‘Elements of Chemical Philosophy ; 
but his statement seems to have been doubted or unheeded. Mr. Gassiot, 
in the Transactions for 1844, has put the fact beyond dispute ; he showed 


ells, the same or even greater effect could be produced by a much 
smaller series. The battery of 500 Grove’s cells, which was constructed 
for these experiments, is probably in some respects, the most powerful 
that was ever made. 
3. The currents produced by electric or magnetic induction are of 
the highest interest, and the employment of them as a so ree of electri 


In this new field Mr. Gassiot has been one of the most successful explorers. 
So early as 1839 he showed that the induction-current gives a real spark, 
and he found that in the flame of a spirit-lamp it could strike at a dis- 
tance of #ths of an inch. 


understood, but Mr. Gassio made some very important additions to 
our knowledge of it in the Bakerian Lecture for 1858, and his subsequent 
communications to the Society. ng these may be named his explan- 


sealed; then, by heating the potassa, th 
’ i. Vessels so e: 


or even totally, absorbed 


t d 
alkali is vaporized by heating them, and the gradual progress of the ex- 
haustion gives a wide range of observation, wt Us ‘ 
5. gs of an induction machine is necessarily intermittent, 

it supposed that the strata are in some way caused by the 
rmittence, and are possibly connected with the mode of action of the 


* Aw Jour. Sct.—Ssconp Series, Vou. XXXVII, No. 109.—Jan., 1864. 
15 


114 Proceedings of Learned Societies. 


contact-breaker. Mr. Gassiot has, however, shown that they are per — 
fectly developed in the discharge of an extended voltaic battery through 
exhausted tubes. The large water-battery already mentioned shows them 
in great beauty; the discharge, however, is-still intermittent. j 
6. The same appearance is exhibited by a Grove’s battery of 400 
well-insulated cells ; but in this case a new and remarkable phenomenon 
presents itself At first the discharge resembles that obtained from the 


7. This change is accompanied by a remarkable alteration in the 
heating of the two electrodes, Mr. Gassiot had previously shown that, im 


he: 
the intermittent to continuous, the previously heated negative electrode — 
became cool, and the positive was intensely heated. . 


this liberal and unselfish spirit has been strikingly exhibited. He has 
had executed a grand spectroscope, furnished with no less than 


-~ 


* was entre 
This magnificent instrament he bas placed at the disposal of any Fel 
of the Society who may happen. to be engaged in researches req ring 
the use of such powerful apparatus, The instrument is at present at the 
few Observatory, where it is in contemplation to undertake the construc 
tion of a highly elaborate map of the spectrum, as 
Mr. Gassiot is. still pursuing his electrical researches, and we may bd 
assured that he will feel this acknowledgment of his labors by the hoya 
Society not merely as a reeompense for that he has accomplished, but # 
an obligation to continued exertion and new discoveries.” 
a medal was then handed to Mr. Gassiot, with the following ! 
marks :-— 
_ “Mr. Gasstor,—You will receive this medal as a mark of the deéP 
interest which the Royal Society takes in the investigations in which y' 


erst 


{ 


Scientific Intelligence. 115 


are engaged, and of the high value which it attaches to the results with 
— = have already enriched our transactions. 

e the grounds on which the medal has been awarded to you 
by he Curtaiia but it may be permitted to me to express the hope that 
you will also sno ‘ate with it—as it is impossible that we should not do— 
the Society’s eee? of ine generous and kindly spirit which has 

manifested itself, as elsewhere, so also in all your pursuit of science, of 
which one soetetiel ih ‘others will remain in future times connected 
with the Societ en ~ Diyeae ones of the Scientific Relief Fund.”— 
The Reader, Dec. 5, 


SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE. 
I. PHYSICS. 


1, Electrical properties of Pyroxiline-paper and Gun-cotton.—Prof. 
Joun Jounston, of Wesleyan University, Ct, has called my attention to 
aremarkable power in pyroxiline-paper of producing van electrical 
excitement in sulphur, sealing wax, &c. His note is as tollow 

Meio University, Middletown, Dee, 24, 1863. 

Prof. Sitriman—Dear Sir :—We are told by writers on electricity that sul- 
phur by friction with all other geibiaces — negative’y excited; as cat’s 
fur, on the other extreme, of friction with all other substances becomes excited 
positively. But a few da o I made the docotery that sulphur by friction 
with paper pyroxiline (I will eal it) is excited with positive seers - are 
also sealing wax, amber, &c. The paper is prepared in the sam r as 
gun-cotton, which would also in all probability be found to pepe "the si 

operty. 

Seg pone br some of the paper for trial. It was prepared by my 


Pe erhaps pies will think bars matter of sufficient importance to make a note of 

it in the Journal of Scie Respectfully yours, 

Joun JoHNsToN. 

I have repeated and confirmed Prof. Johnston’s experiment nigsagcss 
it to gun-cotton. I find as he suggests that the latter substance pro 


Stance pro xluced b sn ip the hp mes or a are 
‘ood 


stances also so prod uce power spacer exten in glass. It is “ificult 
mine w 


cotton o P pyrene paper. This seeming anomaly, cnn our 

ordinary: m f discrimination in cases of electrical excitemen 

Mands bethaa in ebsiigattel It would appear that of negative shot 

yet observed, these azotized species of cellulose are the most remarkable— 

= S80 oe gen ae which the most highly negative electrics hero 
@ posi B. B. 


Shi ber 25 , 


116 Scientific Intelligence. 


4. On the wave lengths of certain spectral lines—J. MiitteR has mea 
sured the wave lengths of several interesting lines by means of the diffrae 
tion spectrum. The results obtained were as follows: 

For the yellow sodium line, Nae, 4—0-0005918™™, 
For the red lithium line, Lie, 4—0-0006763™m, 
For the blue strontium line, Srd, 4—0-0004631™m, 
For the green thallium line, The, 4 0-000534gmm, 
Pogg. Ann., exviii, 641. Ww. G. 


II. CHEMISTRY. 


On a new metallic oryd.—Baur claims to have discovered ina 
mineral from Rénsholm, an island near Stockholm, a new metal whi 
he calls Wasium, from the royal family of Wasa. The mineral itself— 
Wasit—resembles orthite and was found to contain silica, alumina, oxyd 
of iron, cerium, didymium, lime, manganese, magnesia and alkali, together 
with a trace of uranium, a tantatic acid and perhaps thoria. About one 
per cent of the new oxyd is present. As obtained by the ignition of the 
nitrate it is a brownish sandy powder of density 3-726. Before the 
blowpipe it gives with borax in both flames a clear and colorless glass 
which readily becomes milk-white by flaming. With the phosphate it 


gives a clear and colorless glass bead which does not become opaque on 


comes lilac-colored, then darker and bluish brown, and on t | 
appears a ring of a brilliant brown varnish, which becomes broader uM 
the mass assumes a gummy appearance. Water converts it intoa white 


oe z 


* 


characteristic of the new metallic oxyd. Solutions of the oxyd were pre 

cipitated by ammonia, the precipitate being insoluble in caustic ee 
but soluble in carbonate of ammonia. e@ oxyd was also precipitated ; 
from quite acid solutions by oxalic acid and its salts, It is to be hoped — 
that a more appropriate name will be found for the new metal, if indeed, 


actually occurs in the minerals mentioned by Bahr—Wasite, Norwegiat 
orthite and gadolinite from Ytterby.—Pogg. Ann., exix, 572. W. Ge 


‘the same gelatinous precipitate on evaporation. of its watery solutioa — 
which Bahr insists on as characteristic of the new metallic oxyd.—s.] 


Chemistry. 117 


€ a new oxyd of arsenic. In fusing nitric acid the compound 


of the nose. Its poisonous character may be readily inferred.—Pogg, 
Ann,, exviii, 615, .G. 

8. On the crystalline form of sulphate of thallium.—Victor von Lan@ 
has measured crystals of sulphate of thallium which are isomorphous 
with sulphate of potassium. The observed rhombic faces were 100, 010, 
110, 210, 101,111. The ratio of the axes is for 

ThSO,, a@:b:¢c=1: 0°7319 : 0°5539 
and for KSO,, a@:b:ce=1: 0°7464:0°5727 
The surfaces reflected very well and exhibited an adamantoid lustre, prob- 
ably in consequence of the large quantity of thallium in the salt. C) 
position of the optical axes of elasticity corresponded with that in sul- 
phate of ammonium but not with that in sulphate of potassium.—Pogg. 
Ann., exviii, 630. . @ 

4. On a crystallized hydrate of soda.—Harms has obtained a well 
crystallized and definite hydrate of soda by exposing a solution of caustic 
soda of density 1:385 to a temperature of 0° C. The crystals are often 
very large, have a glassy lustre and are perfectly transparent and color- 
less ; they fuse at 6° C. and yield a solution of density of 1:405. As the 
author states that the crystals may be obtained very pure even from so- 
lutions which contain sulphate and chlorid of sodium, it seems probable 
that they will afford a ready means of obtaining pure soda solutions for 
laboratory use. The formula of the crystallized hydrate is NaO+-8HO ; 


oblique rhombic.—Pogg. Ann., cxix, 170. _ W.@ 

5. On the constitution of Columbite—H. Rose has published an ex- 
tended discussion of the minerals which contain hyponiobie acid. As 
Specially interesting to chemists we note simply the fact that in pure and 
undecom varieties the ratio of the oxygen in the acid to that in the 
bases is as 3 to 1, so that pure columbites may be regarded as mixtures 
of Nb,O, FeO with Nb,O, MnO. Rose calls attention to the iso- 
morvhism of columbite and wolfram, and remarks further that the ob- 
servations of Nordenskiéld, ‘and later of himself, go to prove that hypo- 

i in the uncombined sta‘ 


niobie and tungstic acids are isomorphous in te, 80 


118 Scientific Intelligence. 


that we have crystallographically Nb,0,=WO,. A reduction of the 
equivalent of iungsten so as to make tungstic acid W,0, does not 
appear to be admissable——Pogg. Ann., exviii, 406. W. G 


G 
ote.—Since niobic acid, NbO,, unquestionably belongs to the same 


argument for writing the chlorids NbCl, and TnCl,. On the other 
and Marignac has recently shown that the oxy-fluo-tungstates are 

isomorphous with the fluo-titanates, since we have TiF, CuF=WO,C 
+WF,Cu. Marignae writes this equality Ti, F,Cu,=W,0,F,Cu, 
WO,F,Cu, and assumes that @,—=F,. This obliges us 

to admit that in this compound Ti, =W,, while the view, which we have 
taken above requires Nb,=Ti,=W, since Nb=Ti in combination 


i —s produced by tungsten upon the qualities of bronze, cast iron 
stee 


metals. The crude tungsten contains iron, manganese. and carbon and 18 
now sold at 375 the kilogramme, a price which will probably be still 
farther reduced. Tungsten as thus prepared was found inéapable of form- 


with a brilliant lustre so that tungsten steel is easily recognized by® 
eye. Poor steel requires more tungsten than stcel of good 


quality. A good cement steel alloyed with 5 per 100 of tungsten gave 


a steel of excessive hardness which, however, forged very well, though it 
Tequired rdinary steel. 


ired much more force than o After tempering, it 4 


ing true alloys with copper, tin, and gun-metal, the latter becoming lS 
harden 


Chemistry, 119 


quired a hardness comparable only to that of the hard white cast-iron. 


the grains the price ‘a steel would. be increased y only 7 or ae 
os the 100 kilogrammes.— Ann, de Chimie, Ixviii, Ww. G. 
€ p. tt for further notice of titanium in pig ii 

Bi On a new series of metallic oryds.—l. Rose si aires a class 
of oxyds which contain four equivalents of metal to one of oxygen, The 
type of this class of compounds is an oxyd of copper which has = for- 
mula Cu,O. When a solution of sulphate of copper is added to an ex- 
eess of a very dilute solution of protochlorid of tin in caustic alkali a 
hydrate of protoxyd of copper 1s precipitated, which after a short time 
becomes yellow, and on shaking passes ito olive-green ; after a time this 
in turn changes sorte and finally 6g — ed to metallic copper. 

@ green oxyde t be obtained in a state of purity without great 
difficulty, owing wr as mie aise to oxydize a also to the difficulty of 
removing the ‘last traces of tin. Rose has, however, succeeded in 


aetatinss which’ probably: consists of Cu,Cy, The moist oxy is not 
OLY 
oxyd and provoxyd Rose m: vintains that t o suboxyd of sive reg 


2 This view, pen he oe oa a long tie time defended, he nti to 
the alkaline metals, regarding s ash as Na,O an ie 
recalls the formation by Bunsen “of ‘Bins alkaline subchlorids “by elec- 
trolysis, and states that these compounds can also be obtained by fusing 
potassium with chlorid of — or sodium with chlorid of sodium, 
in a current of hydrogen Rose considers these subchlorids as K,Cl 
and Na,Cl. He proposes to pia a for the received nomenclature of 
the basic oxyds, the terms quadrantoxyd, semioxyd, isoxyd, diploxyd 
and sesquioxyd, denoting respectively the oxyds w we! ormala 4 
itten R,O, R 


written R : O,, Rz04.—Pogg. Ann., 
ote.—It a pears at least extremely probable, shat ihe ‘yeautitul tive 
ri eons colors produced y the action of metallic sodium or potassium 


‘nie bodies containing chlorine, may be expiained by 
inpecti Seto jee te aisles sobchineide are found like those 
menti Seek Sy eames and Rose. I recall, for example, the memoir of 


120 Scientific Intelligence, 


orange yel 
silicic acid colored brown by amorphous silicium. Heated out of contact 


=a 
4 
o 
ot 
3 
Ss 
Oo 
© 
=. 
< 
=. 
S 
cad 
S 
c 
S 
= 
= 
5 
& 
2 
oa 
4 
Q 
Ll 
= 
» 
tJ 
a 
® 
a 
a 
Lod 
= 
4 


possibly Si, H,0, 9. _ Compounds containing sulphur, selenium and tellu- 
rium were also obtained, but only imperfectly examined. The sulpbut 
compound explodes violently when heated in a tube.—Ann. der Chemie 
und Pharm., exxvii, 257. We 


Chemisiry. 121 


9. The Characteristics of Thallium'—Derived from statements of 
Crookes, Lamy and Bottger, and from original observations —Thallium 
occurs in minute quantities in many native metallic sulphids, especially 
in iron and copper pyrites. Hence it is often found in commercial sul- 
phur, in oil-of-vitricl and in the sediment of the sulphuric acid chambers 
in metallic copper, bismuth and cadmium, and in preparations derived 
from these substances. It likewise occurs in the flue-dust of furnaces and 
in certain mineral springs. 


hydrate (TIO,, HO) is brown and dissolves in chlorhydric, nitric and 
sulphuric acids. At high temperatures it loses its water but retains its 


me ed , . . 
Voluminous. Sulphid of thallium is insoluble in sulphid of ammonium, 
in alkalies, alkaline carbonates and cyanids. It oxydizes to soluble sul- 


ates produce no precipitates in solutions of thallium.— Chlorhydric acid 
throws down from solutions that are not too dilute, protochlorid of thal- 
2 From the Editor’s notes to a new edition of Fresenius’ Qualitative Analysis in 
Preparation, to be published by John Wiley, New Yor 
4s, Jour. Scr.—Seconp Szxms, Vou. XXXVII, No. 109.—Jan., 1864. 
te | ss 


122 Scientific Intelligence. 


lium as a white curdy quickly-subsiding precipitate, which requires 50 
rts of boiling water and 200 parts of cold water for its solution, and is 
ess soluble in water containing chlorhydric acid.—Jodid of potassium 
(next to sulphid of ammonium the most sensitive reagent) gives a | 
yellow precipitate of iodid of thallium, which appears to be slightly — 
soluble either in water or excess of the reagent.—Bichlorid of platinum — 
throws down a pale orange precipitate of platinchlorid of thallium which 
is slightly soluble in water and is decomposed on ignition, evolving chlo- 


tral analysis. The spectrum is characterized by a single bright green 
line coincident with Bad. This line is however usually perceptible for 
ut a moment, owing to the volatility of the thallium compound, and 
hence its intensity and duration do not safely indicate the richness im 
thallium of pyrites, flue-dust, &e. fe 
Of crude sulphur a piece as large as a pea is nearly burned away ond 
platinum loop and the residue is examined in the spectroscope; or better, 
_ the sulphur is mostly dissolved by means of sulphid of carbon, and what 
remains is tested spectrally. In pyrites, flue-dust, and lead-chamber 
sediment, it may be usually detected at once by the spectroscope. . The 
sublimate procured by strongly heating finely pulverized native sulphids 
in a closed tube, often gives the reaction when none can be obtained — 
directly from the sulphids themselves. 8. Weal 
AnatyticaL CHEMIstRy.— 
10. Estimation of Sulphuric Acid in salts of the alkalies.—It is well 
known that precipitated sulphate of baryta may retain alkaline salts in 


consta 


Photography. 123 


PHoToGRAPHY.— 

11. Dry Process ; by MM. TrtsskrE et Jacquremet, of Marseilles — 
Any eollodion which gives good results by the wet process may be used 
in this, provided that it contains at least one per cent of iodids and 4 per 
cent of bromids. The following formula is recommended : 


Ether, - - - - - - - - 60 cub. c. m.* 

Alcohol, - - - - - - - 40 - 

Gun cott - - - - - - gram. 

Todid of ‘cadmium, - - - - - O70 uc 5° 
monium, - . - . bats ag 

Bromid ork ammonium, - 0-40 “ 

The plate is covered as usual, ina sesitewea® ina bath containing 
Distilled water, - - - - - . be cub. $:: m. 
Nitrate of silver, -- - - - - 8 gra 
Glacial acetic acid, - - eee ae y m. 


The plate is then snarl toa bath of distilled and filtered water, 
where it should remain until the plate ceases to appear oily. It is aa 
passed successively through three other baths of filtered water. 
first two, filtered spring water may be used, but the last should be “illed 
with distilled water. 

The plate is next washed in a solution of tannin, containing 


Distilled water, - - 100 cub. ¢. m. 
Tannin, - - - . - - 3 grams. 
Alcohol of 40 pr. ct. -  5Scub.¢c.m. 
In preparing this solution the tannin ito : first dissolved in the 
pure water, and filtered before the alcohol is a efore applying 


placed in rede See That from the first glass should be — 


treatment of a seco ate. -Lastly, the plate is washed under a ta 
supplied with pure water to remove the excess of tannin, and air dried. 
1 f exposure for views is stated as from 1 to 14 minutes with 


a quarter plate Jamin view-lens of 10 c. m. focus, under best conditions. 


fine camel’s hai Having soaked the plate for a few minutes in 
pure water, it is next di in the silver bath used for sensitizing and 


drained. It is then dipped into ‘a shallow flat glass dish containing a 
sufficient quantity of the gee ersinn y 


oso water, - - - a bi “i m. 
yrogal lie acid, - w es * a a 
Glacial acetic acid, - - - - 10 cub. cm. 


By rocking the dish the liquid i is kept = pene over the sur- 
te and the dev re eee is carefully watched by the | ight transmitted 
t a the glass 

@ exposu e has been well timed the image will appear slowly, but 
aa all the dacs sharply defined and the lights wholly unstained. It 
is then only necessary to add to the ore a few drops ata time, of 
a weak solution of nitrate silver until the blacks are sufficiently intense 


* 98-84 cubic centimeters = 1 liquid ounce, 1 gram = 15-4 grains, 


124 Scientific Intelligence. 


in the ordinary way. After again washing, a weak solution of gum ara ye 
bic is spread over the plate which is then dried and varnished. : 


that although the washing of the sensitized plate should be begun im 


ace id. If under ex hasten the development by increasing. 
the amount of pyrogallic acid and subsequently of nitrate of silver, whet 
the details are well out ew experiments gives the operator perfect 


not steady hands, the use of a shallow glass dish in developing as recom 
mended above will be found of great advantage, especially when the pro 
cess is prolonged. 


_ Photography. 125° 


Seven parts of crushed or ground malt are digested with 24 parts of. 
warm water, the mixtures being well stirred for 10 or 15 minutes at a 
temperature of 70° C. It is then slowly cooled and, having been strained 
through a cloth, is carefully filtered. 

The same collodion and silver bath are used as in the wet process, 
When the plate is sensitized it is placed in a flat dish of distilled water, 
which is waved over the surface until the plate ceases to appear oily. It 
is then drained for a moment and the malt solution turned on and off, as - 
directed above for the tannin, when the plate is again drained and dried. 
The exposure is about the same as with the tannin process. Before de- 


Crystallized green vitriol, - - - 120 to 170 grains. 
Ware st apetioas id, - - - - ee (liquid), 
If sitistent serge he is not ft obitnhet9 at first, to a ea: ort of the 
same developer may ed a few drops of the following solution, and 
€ process repeated 
Nitrate of marry - - - - - - 15 grains. 
Citric acid, - - - - - IGe.5° 
ater, - 1 ounce 


The sedis are said to be — to those of the tannin process, es- 
pecially for transparencies on glas 
M. Julhiet, a French ph reunnine of a oo the following re- 
ceipts for the dry collodion process, which are said t maine remarkably 
fine negatives, excellently well adapted for ieaaine the solar camera, 
and the beauty of the — prints made by him he attributes entirely 
to the delicacy of the negat 
“ Colledion. 
Alcohol, - - : ‘ ‘ F ‘ 
Gun-cotton, - - : ‘ : F s 
Todid of cadmium, - - - - - * a 
i z z - 05 
Bromid of cadmium, - 02 


Should be kept for a — to a ‘a tent atid a half until the color, at 
rst red, becomes orange. 


+ Silver Bath. ¢ 
Nitrate of Abi - - “ * pice : — 
— acid, : tad a aig SiG Z - 100 “ 
Solution of Tannin. 
Tannin, . : - - : - - s - grams. 
Water, - - - . : 3 Resta a 
Alcohol, - - - 


Before devel , th with « a small amount of dis- 
tilled ia silent hepa and then flooded with a solution containing 


Nitrate of silver, - o " - 3 grams. 
Water, - - . 


] ol, - - o ite 


126 Scientific Intelligence. 


which is allowed to rest on the plate for a minute and then drained ¢ 


when the developer is applied. Two solutions are prepared. if 
0. 1. Pyrogallic acid, - - - - - 1 gram. 
Water, So Hota wy Rael 
Glacial acetic acid, - - - - 25 


cono. - - - - 
No. 2. Saturated solution of gallic acid in pure water. 
The developer consists of 5 grams of No. 1, mixed with 15 g 


; ARD Rutey, F.C.S.'—The presence of small cubical red crysta 
with a metallie lustre, has long been observed in the hearths of 
: 


blast furnaces—they may be said, in fact, to be universally pr 
to a grea t less extent—occur most largely in the hearths 
furnaces where clay iron-stone, or siliceous iron ores (su 


r. 
mercial reputation for its quality, and, as a rule, the better the quality’ 
iron made in a blast-furnace the more titan; < 


ntity. 
The red crystals were first supposed by Wollaston to be titanium} 
Wobler has subsequently shown them = be a mixture of a nitrid | 


* Read before the British Association at Newcastle, and extracted from 
London Chemical News, Nos, 20g and 207, Nov. 7 and 14, 1863. 


Metallurgy. 127 


percentage of iron. The following are two analyses of some Norwegian 
o that has been used in the blast-furnace, and will be subsequently re- 
erred to :— 


2. 
Magnetic oxyd of iron, Ad ee we 54.72 
Titanic acid, - - - - . - 86°88 40°80 
ilica, - - - - - - . 13°32 1.58 
Magnesia, - - és gs lea ee ain 207 2°13 
ime, Oe frre ny ee eA ae “78 "66 
Bisulphid of iron (iron pyrites) - - - 1:05 err 
100-24 99°89 
Metallic iron, - 39 39°62 


no longer to be considered one of the rarer elements, as it occurs very 
generally disseminated, and is a universal constituent of all clays, as was 
pointed out by me in a paper read before the Chemical Society last year, 
and recently published, from which the following table is extracted—giv- 
ing the percentage of titanium in the principal fire bricks used in London. 
The methods adopted to determine titanium are not at all satisfactory ; 
the following results would certainly be too low rather than too high, as 
in all probability the whole of the titanic acid was not obtained :— 
Table showing the amount of Titanic Acid in Fire Bricks and Clay. A complete 
analysis of these Bricks was not made, except those of Dowlais, and the Titanic 
Acid is too low and only represents in part the amount present. 


Silica. Titanic Acid. 
Description of Brick. Per cent. Per cent. 


Stourbridge (Slickman), - - . - 65:11 1:05 
= Rufford), - . - - - 63°42 1°05 

Neweastle (Lucas), - - - - + 6049 60 
> (Stephenson)... 3.= fA x ian cet eps 7 
" amsey), - : - - - : 

Wortley Leeds (farina ai cpio hl ee See 96 

Harwarden, North Wales, - - + + 6289 69 

Dowlais, South W “ a : * . 63:02 1°04 

ellow London clay, (dry), - ee - 62 “50 

Ewell brick, Surrey; + * 0 ="). «ty to =< UERE trace 

Dinas brick, South Wales, - - - - 94°33 

Black alder, Devonshire, - - - T5616 “ 


From the above results it is apparent that in furnaces where clay iron- 
stone is used, the source of the titanium ‘is the clay in the ore and the 
shale attached to it. In siliceous ores, such as the hematites, the titanium 
most probably is obtained from the rutile, which is frequently found in 
quartz, and perhaps partly from the fire bricks and shale, which is fre- 
quently used. 

* These analyses were made in my laboratory by my late pupil, Mr. Betley. 


128 Scientific Intelligence. 


The minerals of titanium, viz. rutile and titanic acid mixed with: 
iron, are largely found in Norway, and can be brought over to this coum ~ 
try ata very cheap rate. Rutile, which, commercially speaking, is pure 
titanic acid, can be purchased here for 10/. per ton, or even Jess if it wee 
taken in large quantity ; and iron ores, such as shown in the analyses 
given, can ught at from 20s. to 40s. per ton. a ee 

Recently a series of patents have been secured by Mr. R. Mushet, for 
the use and application of titanium in the manufacture of iron and steel, a 
and for alloying titanium with iron and steel, in which very beneficial we 
results are claimed for the action of the titanium. i 

Before entering upon the question as to the effects of titanium, tt will 


Up to the end of 1862 the author examined samples of pig iron, and 
Poe 


but in no case could any distinct evidence of its presence be proved, 
. ti 


strengthened by the results of M. St. Claire Deville, of Paris, who. : 
paid especial attention to the subject; and Dr. Percy observed also that 


e could never find it. M.St. Claire Deville mentioned to me, 
nversation on the subject, that he had eget see 
n a 


Belfast Iron Ore, dried to 280° Fahrenheit. 
eee: 
Peroxyd of iron, 
Protoxyd of iron, 
Alumina, - - 
Titanic acid, - 
anganese, - 
eae 


Magnesia, £ 
Combined water, - 2 
Phosphoric acid and copper, 


Oe OS et Mea Sey wey oat eee ea 
ot OR PERE fee ee ee 
Fe tice Fae, Rosh tt 
ie ea wee Eset Med aah ors, ene ete 
* 4 ‘ ' e¢ ‘ ' ' 1 ' 
So RP SE SOs gg gs Og 


‘ Jorss 
_ Metallic iron, per cent, 23°5 ? 
_ The use of this ore in the furnace was attended with considerable 
vantage on account of the high percentage of alumina it contains, 1 


Metallurgy. 129 


forming a anes readily fusible double silicate with the silica contained 
in the hem 
The method pursued to detect titanium was the same as that adopted 
and oh in my paper in the Journal of the Chemical Society for 1862, 
age 3 It, however, required no very special method to point out 


titanic acid was obtained, which gave the reactidns peculiar to titanic 
acid in the blowpipe flame with microcosmic salt. ‘The whole of the 
titanic acid cannot be rope with the silica, and a considerable 
amount is in solution with the ir However, to de termine accurately 


* The following are eg ree have been adopted to yee the titanic acid: 
—A weighed portion 0 Boy borings of the pig are treated with fuming nitric acid 
ina flask, a few drops o f chiothydre acid added from time ‘ tne, the whole 
being well boiled. The contents of the flask are then transferred into a por 
dish, evaporated to dryness, and heated strongly. ral igri it yt be found cha 
oxyd of iron readily detaches aes from the dish, a n be easily t iy and 


poured on the contents of the ated the di h may 

strong chlorhydric acid. The contents of the beaker are 4s bollé a for or got Mth = 

hree hours until complete solution of the iron is effected; and as some ninntity of 

chlorhydric acid is required for this, my usual plan is to allow a large portion of 
si ; 


0 
tained very nearly white after sh ge! off the graphite, and very little iron will be 
found with it except the pig contain much phosphorus, as the silica invasiehly ie 
tains more or less phosphate of i ke! from insoluble ce sphid o' yo which ca 


driven off by boiling. The solution is then nearly neutralized with ammonia, a 

acetate of ammoma or soda added; and if there is only a a small quantity of phos- 

phoric acid, there will always be sufficient peroxyd of iron to precipitate it, but if 
itri a 


Am. Jour. Scr,—Szconp Serres, Vou. XXXVI, No. 109.—Jay., 1864. 
17 


130 Scientific Intelligence. 


titanic acid, oxyd of iron ought to be entirely absent, as it either p 
vents its precipitation altogether, or materially retards it. This is, 
fact, the great reason why titanic acid has been so frequently overlooke 
and so many errors made. Some special experiments on this point wil 
be found in my paper previously alluded to. be 
Titanium may, however, be found more satisfactorily and more re 
during the process usually adopted to determine the amount of grapht 


t 
each other, and the filter well washed to remove all the iron. Iti : 
then treated with dilute potash, and washed once; then re- biog 
i as to remove entirely the silica. The potash was thoroug 
washed out, and the filter treated with chlorhydric acid, thoro 
washed and dried at 250° F., until the weight was constant. This garé 
the graphite, on burning which a residue of a dirty light brown color 
was left, which, on being fused with bisulphate of potash and treated 
ie acid, as will, 


before, proved that the residue was nearly pure titani 
seen from the results below :— 


Graphite and _ Residue Titanic acid 

of pigtaken. Titanic acid. after burning. obtained. — 
No.1 Pig 205°68 7°82 1-28 1-085 
“9% 05 185 "835 “145 
«3 21686 7-04 83 28 


and redissolved in chlorhydric acid—is given below :— 


rains bee : 
of pig taken. Silica obtained. 
No.1 120°845 4:29 

“ 9 127-93 8°659 “20 

“ 3 122°55 9-22 265 
taric acid is destroyed; in either case the residue is fused with of 
or where nitric acid is used, this is driven off with sulphuric aci : 
bisu tash is dissolved in cold water, boiled for some hours, @ 4 
to a ni arm place, when the titanic acid is filtered off an 


t in a wi 
with dilute sulphuric acid—dried, ignited, and weighed. If the 
bi id is not required, then the precipitate produced ( 
“ dri ; 


* 


8s even in sn has a very ect i , 
tion of titanic acid, so that it is always advisable to add a littl 
which reduces the oxyd of iron and facilitates the precipitation of 


Metallurgy. 131 


This residue, chiefly titanic acid, contained, however, some iron, and 
was not so pure as that obtained by burning the graphite, given in the 
above table. The following are the tabulated results of the analyses of 
the three samples of pig: 


I. II, III. 

rbon, . - - 3°31 318 311 

Silicium, - - - - 1°86 3°28 8:55 

on, - - - - - 93°47 92°79 92°04 

Manganese, - vie 50 48 1-09 
Sulphur, - — - ae "071 058 112 
Phosphorus, - - - ‘076 062 093 
Titanium, - - - - 1150 “Tl ‘470 


100437  —-100°560 100465 

In all these the carbon was combined ; and traces of antimony, nickel, 
copper, and cobalt were found in all three samples. Samples 1. and 1. 
were No. 3 grey iron; and sample 11. was bright iron. 

The percentage of titanium given in the above analyses differs from 
that in the preceding table, due probably to the chlorhydric acid dis- 
solving some of the titanium. From 15 to 16 grains of the pig are dis- 
solved in nitro-chlorhydric acid, and the solution evaporated to dryness, 
the silica separated in the usual way, and volatilized with fluohydric 
and sulphuric acids, the residue fused with a little bisulphate of potash, 
dissolved in cold water, and added to the filtrate from the silica. The 


the Cornish ores used: 


* Analysis made in my laboratory by Mr, Betley. 


132 Scientific Intelligence. 


Siliceous matter,- - = - - 23°38 21-70 2718 = 2108 © 
Peroxyd ofiron,- + - + 4196 5632 47°32 02097 
Peroxyd of manganese, - - 26°77 611 1625 245 


Percentage of metallic iron, - 2938 3948 38814 401877 
= _ manganese, 1608 10°25 10°34 155 
These ores contained a little phosphoric acid. i 
The following are the results of the analyses of three samples of this 
pig; the titanium being determined as in the other analysis of pig 
ven :— 


I Il. 
Grapite, 2. = es +e we 3010 2615 
Combined carbon, - - . . 1 1:02 
Silicium, - “ - - - 2-590 2°550 8:325 
sith A Sync fae ia OOD 86-880 84256 
Manganese, - - - - -  5°850 6 370 8-087 
Nickel and Cobalt, - - - 110 F 
Copper with a little antimony, - 060 "045 “064 
Phosphorus, - = - disse Ge 147 154 201 
ee ee eee 026 026 ‘0iT 
Titanium, - - i é é 790 1°150 1629 


joe: ren 

Samples 1. and 1. were made with a mixture of 4 Cornish, ¢ 

bog-ore, 4 hematite; and sample mt, } Irish bog-ore, $ Cornish ore 
The Irish bog-ore contained 7 to 9 per cent of manganese. 

These samples of pig were numbers 1 and 2, with here 


Metallurgy. 133 


cult to flux or to get a good cinder; so that it is always necessary to 
have a large amount of an easily fusible silicate before satisfactory results 
can be obtained in the reduction of ores containing titanic acid. The 
following are the results of the dry assays of some titaniferous iron ore, 
containing by wet assay 39°08 per cent of iron: 

1. 


2. 
Tron ore, - - - - : 500 500 500 500 
Clay, - - - - - - 100 100 00 
Lime, - - - - - - 250 2380 150 180 
Anthracite, - - ~ . - 80 15 q 70 
930 905 "15 850 


cal considerations on the composition of iron and steel. 
luminum and Aluminum-bronze ; by I. L. Brut, the Mayor of 


are concerned, new metal has scarcely been such as to require much to 
be added to those admirable researches bestowed upon the process by the 
distin 
tion 


mages . . 
the double chlorid subsequently decomposed by fusion with sodium, 
Faint, however, as the traces might be of impurity in the alum itself, 


134 Scientific Intelligence. 


they toa great extent, if not entirely, being of a fixed character when 
exposed to heat, were to be found in 


fo 
a 


Bauzite, so called from the name of the locality wh 
France. It contains— 
Titanium, - - 
Sesquioxyd of iron, 
Alumina, - . 
Carbonate of lime, 
Water," is 


F228 ek Ft 
P.O CP eh 
ERE a ae GAY Soe | 
ert Saou eee ae 
autem Tee ae ee 
Ee SM oe See, ee 
ee Sake 8 


The bauxite is ground and mixed with the ordinary alkali of com 
merce, heated in a furnace. The metal is so extensively used in the als 


it : 

be — — that metal, with the additional ay 202, 
property of being nearly as hard SEE A x, No. 2 
Oe, ith 1808. te te Chemical: Nome HE 

8. Processes of Silver and Gold Extraction ; by Guivo Kusstsh 

8vo. 327, with 7 lithographic plates. (Carlton) San Francisco, 18' 

From the title page we learn that this work treats of the processes 


Agricultural Chemistry. 135 


in Nevada and California for the extraction of gold and eh and is 
intended especially for the mining public of California and Neva he 
first part contains a chapter on the blow ipe, a description of gold and 
silver ores and the methods of assaying them, besides the extrac tion pro- 
cesses above alluded to. Part second, is a treatise on the general metal- 
lurgy of silver ores and is translated from Kerl’s “Hiittenkunde.” It 
contains further, a valuable series of tables showing the amount of fine 
silver per ton of ore and the values of silver and gold per ounce in the 
bar. The book seems to have been written and eh with considera- 
ble care by one who evidently understands his subject, and from our 
examination of it we should think it to be well adapted "for the purpose 
for which it was prepared. 


IV. AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY. 


. Die Chemie in ihrer Anwendung auf Agricultur und Physiologie, 
von y ustus von Lizsic. In zwei Theilen. Siebente Auflage. Erster Theil: 
—Der Chemische Process der Ernihrung der Vegetabilien. Zweiter Theil: 
—Die Naturgesetze des Feldbaues, Braunschweig, 1862. Also The Natu- 
ral Laws of guarene ry, by Justus von We cel c. Edited by Jony Bryrn, 
M. _ New ork : D. Appleton & Co., '3.—The seventh edition of 


The se 
faithful Aig satin translation n, is a new book w scope may be im 
perfectly gathered from the following titles of its chapte ers: 

Chap. I. Th Chap. II. The Soil; Chap. III. Action of Soil 
on Food of Plants in Manure; Chap. IV. Farm ee Manure; Chap. V. 
The System of Farm-yard Manuring; Chap. VI. Guano; Chap. VII. 
peal Excrements; Chap. VIII. Earthy Phosphates ; Chap. 

und Rape-Cake; Chap. X. Wood-Ash; Chap. XI. Ammonia 
and Nit Ni Sk ee XIL Common Salt, Nitrate of Soda, Salts of 
mo , Li 

This wo otk is ities n in ike earnest captivating athe pid characterizes 
the pienso of Liebig; it displ 2h vast knowledge and will be of 
Sea service to the science of agriculture by exciting Mitaiton and 

reb. 


“The work is largely devoted to the adv: of certain doctrines which 


different soils and felts 2, That the pill thagtl active process 0 
gaseous and liquid diffusion eka does not apply in full force to- the 


136 Scientific Intelligence. 


science. : Bs 

2. On a function of Roots.—Hewricr (Hennebery’s Journal fir Land- a 
wirthschaft, 1863, p. 280 et. seq.) has made some ingenious and interest 
ing observations on the function of roots in supplying water to the plant 7 
and on the development, under certain conditions, of special roots destined 
for this purpose. It is a matter of not infrequent occurrence that plants 


: Vate to a surprising extent. Henrici surmised 
t the roots which most cultivated plants send down deep into the 
even when the latter is b means porous or inviting, are d 


moist by occasional waterings The 
grew, putting forth new leaves. After the lapse of several weeks, ! 


* 


Geology. 137 


not acquire a vivid green color, but remained pale and yellowish ; they 
did not wither until the usual time late in autumn. The roots continue 


were vigorous, very Jong and beset with numerous fibrils and buds. In 
the funnel tube the roots made a perfect tissue of fibers. In the dr 
earth of the funnel the roots were less extensively developed, yet exhibited 
some juicy buds. The stem and the young axillary leaf-buds were also 
full of sap. The water-roots being cut away, the plant was put into gar- 
den soil and placed in a conservatory where it grew vigorously, and in 
May bore two offshoots. 

The experiment makes it quite certain that plants extend a portion of 
their roots into the subsoil: chiefly for the purpose of gathering supplies 
of water. 8. W. J. 


Vv. GEOLOGY. 


1. Contributions to Paleontology ; by Prof. James Haut. (Appendix 
D of the Sixteenth Report of the Regents of the University of the State 
of New York on the condition of the State Cabinet of Natural History, 


ing the following subjects : 


h 
(4.) Note on the Geological Range of the genus Receptaculites in 


Cauda-Galli, F. Velum, &c.—The author infers, from the fact of the 
Occurrence of these forms, so far as now known, solely in Devonian rocks, 
that their occurrence may be found of advantage elsewhere, as indicating 
Jour. Sci.—Seconp SEaes, VoL, XXXVII, No. 109.—Jan., 1864. 
18 


138 Scientific Intelligence. a 


strata of similar age, but adds: “In other regions, however, where the : 


line between Devonian and Carboniferous is not so well defined as in 
New York and to the westward, these forms may be found to have @ 
a 


closing remark: “ Within New York these fossils are restricted to the 


force, I leave geologists to decide. These same doctrines, carried out it 


geological equivalency can never be fulfilled when sedimentary fo 

are studied over wide geographical areas.” 

(9.) The Flora of the Devonian period.—After some general obsertir 

tions on the subject, a recent article by Dr. Dawson (Quart. Journ. Geel. 
t 


age there consisting of limestones, A few remarks are added upon the 
group, exact demarcation of which, however, if it bas any 
existence, is not yet understood, eo 
(10.) Preliminary notice of the Fauna of the Potsdam sandstone; with é 
ieuek ae a beara known species of fossils, and descriptions 
rom i 
five plates) —This atisle. © — wgeliot oa 
below 


& 
E 
z 
ey 
: 
8 


apes 
Adentity of the forms referred to th 


Contains descriptions of 3 new ‘i 


Geology. | 139 


they are convex and trilobed, with only the narrow middle lobe trans- 

versely sutured, the lateral being broad and smooth; it is called Pemphi- 

gaspis bullata. Professor Hall observes with regard to the distribution 

of the species of the Upper Mississippi valley : 

“ Although I have not been able to recognize the successive Trilobite 

beds of the Sandstone as indicated by Dr. Owen, I can nevertheless refer 
ed to 


s of the formation, and clearly separated from the great central mass, 
we have the Genera Dicellocephalus, Triarthrella and Aglaspis, together 
with Lingula, Serpulites and Euomphalus. We observe, therefore, that 
the earliest trilobites are referable to the genus Conocephalites; and the 
genus Dicellocephalus does not appear in the first stages of the formation, 


stages of the sandstone, that the typical species of this genus of Dr. 
Owen appear; and those from the lower m, 
belong apparently to other genera.” * * ‘ 
; tages recognized, the physical con- 
ditions have been very monotonous hie the entire period; and in 
ar indications. We find great 

h 


trilobi - 
[We may here remark that the spelling Dikelocephalus, although it is 
that of Owen, the author of the genus, is wrong, and no authority can 


140 Scientific Intelligence. 


make right a continuation in the error. The word is from the Greek 
dexsida and xeqady, and therefore requires two letters 7 ; and, also, if the 
k of the second part be changed into ¢, (as it should be,) the & of the 
first part ought also to beso changed. The true orthography is therefore 
Dicellocephalus.—Ebs. | 

(11.) Notes and Corrections,—under which head, observations are 
made on Retzia and Lichas 


fae] 


Chemung group of New York ; by James Haut. Published at 
November 11, 1863. 8vo. pp- 11.—This paper, published in 


orizo . 
4. A Monograph of the Fossil Estherie ; by T. Rupert Jones, FY 
Prof. Geol. and Min. Royal Military College, Sandhurst. 134 


VI. ASTRONOMY AND METEOROLOGY. 

1. On the new Planet Eurynome @), (in a letter to the Editors from 

Prof. Jamzs C, Watson, dated Observatory, Ann Arbor, Nov. 1: 
aT 1 


a 5 
18638, ~—e Oh 98m 29s +38° 183 
3 $F 
15 28 10 7 ene Bi | 
19 28 48 2 386 
23 29.68 2 33°6 
27 31 38 2 326 


Astronomy and Meteorology. 141 


a 6 log. A. 

1863, Dec. 1 Oh 33m 47s 2° 35%4 010884 

5 3 25 2.4)" 012112 

f 9 89 29 2 62°0 0'13349 
13 42 68 + eho | 014589 

17 46 52 $° 91% 015821 

pe | 61 8 8 40°9 017048 

25 O 55 44 +4 2°47 0°18255 


The correction to be applied to this ephemeris, Nov. 11th, was 
4s Ad.= +03. 


This agreement is very close, considering the fact that the elements 
were derived from observations made during only the nine days follow- 
ing the date of the discovery. 

n several evenings I have made careful estimates of the magnitude 
of the planet by comparing it with stars of nearly the same brilliancy in 
its vicinity, and adopting Argelander’s scale. 


Date, Mag. Date. Mag. 
Sept. 14, 9°50 Oct. 12, 9°50 
26, 9°50 23, 9°20 

28, 9°50 28, 9°25 

Oct. 10, 9°25 31, 9°25 
ii, 9°50 Nov. 3, 9°20 


Reducing these estimates to Oct. 10th, and taking the mean, giving 
the estimates equal weights, we find, 

ct. 10th, magnitude = 9°3. 

According to the elements already obtained, adopting this determina- 
tion for Oct. 10th, the mean opposition magnitude of the planet, M= 
10°37, and the magnitude when the planet is in opposition will vary 
between the limits 9°0 and 1174. . 

The planet therefore ranks among the brighter members of the Aster- 
oid Group, and it is probable that the final determination will indicate 
that it is brighter than results as above. 

MerroroLogy— 


oe BR 
extensive arrangements were made this year for watching for shooting 
stars on the nights near Nov. 13th. A circular was issued by the Com- 
mittee on Meteors of the Connecticut Academy, and one by Mr. Robert 
Brown, Jr., of Cincinnati, inviting the codperation of observers. These 
invitations were heartily responded to throughout the country. 
former arranged for observations on one night, Nov. 13-14th, the latter on 

ree successive nights. The reported results are very gratifying. They 
show distinctly that there was a larger number of meteors to be seen 
Nov. 13-14th than on ordinary nights, and also than have been seen on 
the corresponding night of years immediately eding. A ti 
from Leo is also very distinctly shown. Sip dame Y at nearly every 
station whose latitude is.greater than that of New Yor! the clouds and 
rain prevented successful observation. The following is a brief account 
of observations made. j 

(1.) Lieut. Gilliss, of the U. 8. Naval Observatory at Washington, com- 
municates to the editors of this Journal observations on 213 shooting 


142 Scientific Intelligence. 


stars seen by Mr. Ferguson, Assistant Astronomer, Professors Hall and 

arkness, and Messrs. S ringer, Eastman, Rogers and Harrison, on the 
night of Nov. 13-14th, 1863. The duration of flight was in each case 
estimated, the places of appearance and disappearance, and the appa 
magnitude. The observations will be published in detail. The average : 
of the entinates of duration is 0°37 sec. In this list there were— 


rom 104510" to 11h, 8 meteors. 

“ 1 1 “ 1 2 | 1 “a 

“cc 12 “ 1 93 ; “ 

“ 1 “ 2 42 “ 

i 2 3 46 a oe 
“ 3 “ 4 46 “ r 
‘“ 4 “ 5h 7m 37 “ec al 


(2.) At Haverford College, Prof. Samuel J. Gummere, assisted a 
Prof. Clement L. Smith, Messrs. James A. Chase, Edward T. ca 
Barney Taber, Allen C. Thomas and R. Morris mage au 316 
ing stars between 104 38™ p,m. and 54 16™ a. m. of the me night i 
The distribution of the flights cyan the hours was as colonia? ‘a8 


From 1028 38™ to 11h p.m, 6 meteors. 
“ 1 


es.“ 19 10S ee 
Fs 12 "ass 40. 4 Je 
“ 1 %, sc 2 52 “ ig ; 
“ 2 H 3 67 y 
. 3 4 aes 
“ 4 “ (a 64 “ 


5 af 
Nearly two hundred were pact pon he ot and the lines show 
ecided radiation from = sickle 


Abog seventy of them were amon g those seen at the Naval Obserss 
tory in Washington. The paths Pig more than fifty can probably. ig 
computed, 

(3.) Mr. B. V. Marsh, at Germantown, watched from 14 is. 5h ai 
Mr. Philip H. Strubing assisted in Beaten the record. 

rom 15 to 18 shooting | stars. 
“ 2 6“ - 

“ 3 “ 4 M “ 

“cs 4 “ 5 “ 

“ 5 “ 5 20m 14 “ 
Total in 4h = "97 - 


The 
were favicibla 


seconds. 

(4) Mr. H. D. Vail, assisted by Mr, Wim. G. Rhoads and Mr. Thos B 
McCollin, observed a t Philadelphia, Ahey recorded 55 paths, 15. bss 
of w which appear to h ave been seen at | Washington. Mr. C. J. A 


Astronomy and Meteorology. 143 


(7.) To the North and East of these stations the clouds and rain pre- 
vented observation almost entirely. Rev. H. S. Osborn, at Belvidere, N.J., 
saw three. Homer G. Newton, M.D., and Mr. T, W. Twining, at Brook- 
lyn, saw six. At New Haven, Prof. W. D. Whitney, A. W. Wright, 
Ph.D., J. W. Gibbs, and Mr. Hewitt, with a large party of students, were 
watching and saw only 32 from 944 p.m. to 145 a.m, The air was very 
hazy, and after half past one the sky was entirely covered. The paths 
traced after eleven o’clock indicate a radiation from Leo. 


Noy. 11th. Nov. 12th. Nov. 13th. Nov. 14th. 
From 35 45™ to 4h 45m, 9-12 3 10 30 
2 1 12 19 
Hourly average, 85 2°7 11 245 
On the first morning the sky within 25° or 30° of the horizon was ob- 
scured by the haze. The star ¢ Urse Minoris was clearly visible. On 


thick on the fourth morning. On the morning of Nov. 15th it rained. — 
(10.) Mr. Francis Bradley, of Chicago, Ill. says that “on the night of 
Nov. 12-13th it was cloudy until midnight, and our company of observers 


144 Scientific Intelligence. 


dispersed. At 2 o'clock, a. m., Nov. 13th, I arose and found it partially 
clear, few or no stars being visible below an altitude of 30° or 40°. The 
rest of the sky was a little dim. U 


cloudy and rainy.’ oa 
(1 i) Prof. O. N. Stoddard, of Miami University, at Oxford, Ohio, aided 
by a number of members of the Senior Class, observed on __ a 
Nov. 11th and Nov. 12th. The next night was cloudy. The follo : 


are the numbers seen: 


10h tollh 11h to12h 12h tolh 1h togh om a e 
16 19 28 20 


Nov. 11-12th, 
12-13th, 10 36 40 43 


Of those seen the first night, 67 were conformable, or 64 per cent. pe 
the second night 76 were conformable, or 59 per cent. There were 


by 


v. 13th. The sky which had 
became entirely covered with cloud 
rt 


before been partially obscured oe 


8, 


HES 


At Oxford, Ohio, by Prof. O. N. Stoddard. cKibben. 
|, Hillsborough, Ohio, “ Prof, Matthews and Messrs. Edwards and Mc : 
“ Marietta, # “Prof. Evans. 

“ Pittsburgh, Pa., “ Profs. W. 


rots. Woods, Burnham and Bradley. 
“ Bloomi Ind., “ Profs, Wylie and Kirkwood. 
“ College Hill, Ohio, “ Pro erman, 
“ Richmond, Ind., “ Profs. Morgan and Moore. 
“ ier, Ohio, “ Prof. Hamilton L, Smith. 
“Frankfort, Ind., = aut. J.B, Reno. 
oN ashville, Tenn., “ Rev. J. Berrien Lindsley, D.D. 
“ Louisville, Ky., “ E. A. Grant, LL.D. 
“ Cardington, Ohio, “ Mr, M Allen Armstrong. 
“ ny, Ind., E. S. Crosier, M. D., U.S. A. 
“ Crawfordsville,“ = « Prof. J. L, Ca. pbell 
“ Hanover, . - 
“ Cincinnati, O 


: Thomson, 
hio, =“ Messrs. Robt. Brown, Jr. and C. G, Boemer. 


Astronomy and Meteorology. 145 


(14.) The following observers have reported that they were prepared 
to watch on the night of Nov. 13th, either alone or with others; viz., 
Prof. ; 

Mr. Horace Bumstead, Boston, Mr. F. W. Russell, Natick, Mass., Mr. Esty, 
Amherst, Mass., Mr. R. Norman Foster, Northampton, Mass., Mr. Hiram 
A. Cutting, Lunenberg., Vt., Mr. Searle, Newport, .. Rev. Wi 

Smith, Berlin, Conn., Mr. G. W. Hough, at the Albany Observatory, 


1832 there was a display in Europe; in 1833 one in America. Yet the 
same shower should evidently be visible through several hours (not less 
than six) in longitude. 

According to the observations this year there appears to have been a 
decline of numbers towards morning. We should naturally expect an 
increase until daybreak, since their frequency it would seem should be 
proportional to the sine of the angle of elevation of the radiant. If the 


decrease is real and is due to a diminution of the numbers entering 


_ It is well worth observing whether there js. a four years period for any 
single longitude, as might be expected from a ring of small thickness. If 
we are 


reason to suppose that it will be more remarkable in Europe than in 
America. Hi Ae Bo 

Additional Communications.—After the foregoing abstract by Professor 
Newton was in type, full Reports were received from Prof. A. D. Bach 
Superintendent of the Coast Survey, and from Prof. Hamilton L. Smith, 
of Kenyon College. 


tps 
under direction of Mr. Charles A. Schott, Assistant of Coast Survey, and 
composed of himself with Mr. L. F. P i 
and Messrs, J. Main, A. Zuambrock, W. T. Bright, L. Karcher, J. Downes, 
and H. Main,—eight observers,—and to each certain portion of the 
heavens two observers were generally assigned. Magnitudes were noted, 
and also the instants of flight to the nearest half second on a chronometer 
of known error and rate, and with a free command of the heavens down 
to 15° above the horizon, which was beclouded. The durations of flight 
Were recorded in forty-nine instances. From 8 p.., Nov. 18, to 2 a. m., 
Nov. 14, one hundred and seven flights were recorded and more than half 

them mapped upon the star chart as follows :— 
Am. Jour. Sct.—Seconp Sertes, Vou. XXXVII, No. 109.—Jax., 1864. 
19 


146 Scientific Intelligence. 


From 82 to 9b 7 meteors, | From 115 to 125 
8 “ “ 


a“ 10 
“ 10 “ 11 ll “ “ 1 “ 2 - 
At 10™ 5145 after midnight, and also at 11™ 3045, large ae spl : 
meteors, the first from 5° N.E. of Sirius and the second from of the 


same, moved west 60°, in the first instance, and 50° in hel Re "bol 
nearly parallel to the equator, and the last directly across Sirius. 
e durations varied from 05-1 to 15-00, and they average 0*-41 for the 
forty-aine estimated. ie 
At Kenyon College the pight of the 13th—14th was entirely obscured, x 
and that of the 12th-13th partially, There were, however, in 331 mine 
utes after 105 20™ p. m., one hundred and ninety-nine meteors see, via? a 
N.E. 36, N.W. 35, SE. 58, S.W.17, N.1, E. 7, Zenith 43, 8.2 On 
the night Vee ‘(11th-12th), i in 210 minutes, ‘from 11% 29m p. My to i 
about 


NE. 305 aa S.E. 68, S.W. 24, N.3, E. : Zenith 15. The a 


(euives further i inquiry sna Sentnatio‘. Shiny of the bigs a i map ee | 
on the chart, and these vary in are from 2° to 25°. One of the he longest te 
lies in Perseus and remarkably exhibits a hoot aa peti! having its 
termination about at right angles to its beg g. i 
Both of these Reports will be treated ‘ts in detail hereafter, when the : 
entire mass of returns shall-have been collated and discussed. A. OT = 


Vil. MISCELLANEOUS SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE. 


1, Expedition to the Desert of Sahara under Messrs. Martins and ie 
cher von Linth —Through the kindness of a friend we are enabled 10 
give the following information relating to an expedition now in 
from Switzerland to the Sahara desert, under the direction of Mess 
Martins and Escher von Linth. ached - 

The expedition left Switzerland on the 11th of October last and : a 
Algiers on the 18th. From there te, they went to papel 8 and tthe ie 


of mountains to the north of pene 
endless Sahara. The letter observ. 

“They also, like the French soldiéis twenty years ago, and t he he Bom 
Legions seventeen centuries before, could not help crying, ‘the of the < 
sea,’ transported as lage were by the i impression of they ramears 
tableaux. Another selemn moment of their j journey was the : 
the ‘cluse’ of El a where, after a long walk in a most bar te 

esert country, they perceived also, on a sudden, the Oasis of Biska’® 
lineating itself in at most delightful manner with its palm-trees of Sl 
with their gilded fruits. The contrast between the icy solitude ° 
Gothard and the lovely gardens of Lago Maggiore is certainly st!®™ 


Miscellaneous Intelligence. 147 


of the Bonapartea flourishing finely. 

The head of the old plant slowly decayed, a part of the leaves fell off, 
no suckers or shoots have appeared, and by another summer the plant 
will have died. 

It is now known, if not ascertained before, that the seeds of this plant 
will ripen in a warmed conservatory. 

Many and splendid additions of exotics have been made by the pro- 
prietors. The air-plants, Zillandsia pulchella and linifolia, were in full 
bloom a few weeks since, growing upon a dry stick a few inches long, 
besides others of the Orchis family. Cc. D. 

Rochester, N. Y., Sept. 1, 1863. 

3. The Chemical Chair in Berlin, made vacant by the lamented death 
of Mitscherlich, has been declined by Bunsen, who could not be induced 
to leave the circle of friends he has drawn about him in Heidelberg. 
Dr. Hofmann, of London, has since received the proffer of the place, but 


rof. Watson's new Asteroid G3) Hurynome, was aroma, Sa 
> 
a 


vations from Sept. 14 to Sept. 23 at Ann Arbor, are given in Astr. Nachtr., 
No. 1442, and in this Journal for November, 443. See also this number, 
p- 140. te 

5. Prof. Oapen N. Roov.—Prof. Rood, formerly of Troy University, 
and well known by his numerous able physical papers in this Journal, 
has lately been elected to the Chair of Physies in Columbia College, New 
York, and will enter upon his new duties at once. 

Boox Nortcrs.— 

1. A Text-book of Geology ; designed for Schools and Academies, by 
James D. Dawa. 356 pp. 12mo. Illustrated by 375 wood-cuts, 1864, 
Philadelphia, Theodore Bliss & Co. Price $1.75. 

In the preparation of the Text-book the general plan of the “Manual 


148 Miscellaneous Intelligence. 


of Geology” has been followed. Geology has been treated as a history=— 
a history of the geographical changes of the globe, or those of its eonli- 
nents and seas, through the successive ages, and also a history of the 
progress of life from the earliest species to Man; and the illustrations of 
the science have been mainly drawn from American rocks, so that the 


Although an abridgment of the “Manual,” it is not a patchwor. 
extracts from it. The whole has been entirely rewritten and thrown into 


other literary institutions, and not less those of the general rea 


would obtain a knowledge of geology without entering into 1 
Cetails. 


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Miscellaneous Intelligence. 149 


ful or self-laudatory statements, but inferentially from the simple thread 
of history. 

On another occasion we may return to this volume for some valuable 
statistics of the scientific departments at Amherst. A full list of Dr. 
Hitchcock’s numerous publications is given, amounting in all to no less 
than 171, of which 24 are distinct volumes and 69 are on scientific 
subjects. 

5. Frick’s Physical Technics.'—We cordially commend this book to 
all teachers of physics and especially to those whose situation or cireum- 
stances cut them off access to a good ¢ollection of physical instru- 
ments. The arrangement of the book follows Miller’s text book, many 
of the figures of apparatus being identical. While the most expert 
demonstrator may gain sore useful hints from Dr. Frick’s book, the less 
experienced teacher and student will find it an invaluable vade mecum in 


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Anthropologie der Naturvolker, by J. T. Corurnewoop, F.G.S., F.RS.L., 
and published for the Anthropological Society of London by Longman, 
Green, Longmans and Roberts.—This work sustains the idea of the 


the Proc. Amer. Philos. Soc., vol. ix, 1863.) 
OBITUARY. 

Hewry Firz.—The death of Mr. Henry Fitz has inflicted an almost 
irreparable loss upon that large class of scientific men whose apparatus 
is the product of the optician’s skill, while those who knew him person- 
ally and appreciated his frank and generous character must feel that his 
vacant place cannot be filled. : 

It is not saying too much to assert that Mr. Fitz has done more to pop- 
ularize Astronomy in this country than any other man. In former days 


hitherto enjoyed only in fixed observatories with costly instruments. 
r. Fitz was entirely a self-taught optician, and like his friend and co- 


* Physical 1 ies: or Practical instructions for making experiments in Physics 
and pememenee Ph. sical Apparatus with the most limited means. By Dr. 
J. Frick, Director of the High School in Freiburg, and Professor of Physics in the 
Lyceum. Translated by John D. Easter, Ph.D., Professor of Natural Philosophy 

ity of Georgia. 


and 
1862. 8yo, pp. 467. 


150 Miscellaneous Intelligence. 


may 


little remarkable that both of these American opticians were many years 


is not intended to impugn the originality of Mr. Foucault's discovery, bus 
simply to record the priority of American invention—it is within the 
knowledge of the writer that Mr. Fitz used the method of local corree 
as early as the year 1846. 
The largest telescope completed by Mr. Fitz was of the dialitic construe 
tion, having an aperture of 16 inches. It is mounted in the private ob- 
servatory of Mr. Van Duzee, of Buffalo. 4 
The principle achromatic telescopes made by Mr. Fitz are located as 
follows : 
One of 13 inches aperture at Alleghany City, Penn. 
ie - Tyudley Observatory. Albany, N. Y. 


ed udiad 5 Se 2 Ann Arbor, Michigan. o 
ee ee . (not yet mounted) at the Vassar College 
oughkeepsie, N. Y. ! 
alain 2 ies “a the private Observatory of Mr. L. M. 
erfurd, New York City. 
4, pete ae ig U.S. Military Academy, West Point. 
_ “ ptivate Observatory of Mr. Vickars, Baltt- 
more. 
oe . belonging to the Hon. 
Chargé to Monte Video 
eo ee “ Elmira Female College, N. Y. 
ate ” Haverford College, Penn. ee 
pee: eae _ private Observatory of Mr. John Campbell, 
New York City. ‘ 
co ee yf constructed for the U.S, Astr. Expeditit 
to Chili, and now there. 
mee. 8f * “ private Observatory of Mr, Robert Vi 
Arsdale, Newark, N. J. 


Mr. Fitz’s optical labors were not con 
copes, but almost immediately u 


Within the compass of a short notice it would be impossible to e? 
merate all the instrumental additions and simplifications for which | t 
scientific world is indebted to Mr. Fitz, and perhaps it would not be 
he power of any one person to recall them all: they could only be g 
red trom a comparison of the experience of those who knew and ré 
the benefit of his fertile ingenuity, the achievements of which were 
uded to in his modest and unostentatious conversation. 


Miscellaneous Intelligence. 151 


Mr, Fitz has left with his bereaved family precious legacies of experi- 
ence and material which it is hoped will enable them to continue his op- 
tical labors in a worthy manner. 

Pror. E. Emmons.—Died, at his plantation, in Brunswick, N. C., Oc- 
tober Ist, 1863, Professor Eszyezer Emmons, M.D. Born in Middlefield, 
Mass., in 1798, he was graduated at Williams College in the class of 

818. He studied medicine and received the degree of M.D. from the 


sections; and to him was assigned the N.E. portion of the State on the 
coast of Lake Ontario and south to the counties of Herkimer, Lewis an 
Saratoga, as the divisions were in 1842, when his report was published. 
r. Emmons removed from his home in Massachusetts to Albany, that 
-he might be in the centre of the great geological survey. There he was 
made a Professor in one of the chairs of the Albany Medical College. 
To his Geological Report, he added successive reports on the agriculture 


There his life was closed. On his exhibition of his fossil collections in 
North Carolina, at the meeting of the Scientific Association at Albany in 
1856, Professor Agassiz stated that the discoveries were of a higher 
character in geology than any published for years. 
The offices Dr. Emmons held show the public estimate of his qualifica- 
tions and acquisitions. His labors show that this estimate was not too 
high or misplaced. 
Tn his Report on the Second (his) District of New York, which before 
is examination was unknown as to its geology, Dr. Emmons gave a lucid 
and full view of the rocks and their relations, and chapter vir and the two 
following contain his “ Taconic System,” or the rocks between the fossil- 
iferous of Eastern New York and the primary rocks of the western part 
of New England. In the Report on the Agriculture of the State, pub- 
lished in 1843, Dr. Emmons gave an expanded and interesting view of 
the Taconic System. Though opposed by some of his associated geolo- 
gists and by some others of high distinction, the author has found 
support in some distinguished geologists of Europe. Dr. Emmons died 


’ 


152 Works Received. 


VIII. WORKS RECEIVED. 

PROCEEDINGS oF SocIET ata 

Jahresbericht iiber die Forishritte der Chemie ; herausgegeben von Hepwaxy 
Korr and Hernrica Witt. Fir 

Oversigt over det kongelige dnoske “Sie menaeRYs Selskabs Forhandlinger 9g 
dets Mediemmers Arbeider i Aare 

Jabrbiicher des Vereins fiir Na fecha im Herzogthum Nassau. Sechrest 
Heft. Wiesbaden: 186 

wae ungen der naturforschenden Gesellschaft in Basel. Dritter Theil. he 

oder Schiuss-heft. Basel: 1863. 
Weeteiit der Deutschen rates Gesellschaft. XIV. Band. 2. Heft. 18 
li 

Monat aelcte Brg koniglichen Preufs. Sioiewie ae Wissenchaften zu Bein 

Aus 


dem Jahre Mit 11 Tafeln. Berlin g 
~ Bulletin de la ‘Société Impériale des peat iy ‘le Moscon, publié ribo’ on Re : 
ion du eur Renarp. Année 1862. Nos. IJ, III, IV. Mosco ie 
Verslagen en Mededeelingen re koninklijk se < ——— van ‘Tc 


‘Aldecling S ashesiko, 3d and 4th parts. 1862. 
rslagen en Mededeelingen der ronnklie ‘Akademie van Wetenechappen 
Afdecine Letterkunde. 6th Deel. Amster 
Jaarboek van de pr pict — mie van | Weteanttsiapiiel Gevestigd i! 


ind 
or, 


sterdam, voor 18 
Bulletins -  LAcadém via Hoyal ale des aRES des opr otag et des rod | 
papa e Année, 2me Sér.,T. XIII, XIV. 1862. xelle 


Bru x 
onnés et autres “Mémotres, } pas: par r Académie Royale ¢ 
Sciences sone Betined et des Beaux-Arts de Belgiq ue. Collection in-8°. —T. 3 a 
mye on xelles : a abt 
ch der kaiserlich -kéniglichen geologischen ers: 1861 ee 
xil et Nro.3,4. The same, 1863. XIII. Band. Nro. io 


RTS.— ? 
Report pe opmnioners upon the field Railroad, and Hoo! 
Tone. Febronry ra , 1868. Boston: Wricht ‘  behen State Printers, Ne 


pring : 
co -Fifth Abe ad Report of the Regents of the University of the State of 
ew York. 862, 
eport of the Commissioner of Agriculture for the year 1862. Washington: " 
ie. 
Report « . the Commissioner of Patents for the year 1861. Agriculture. Mies: 
ington : 
METEO ROLOGY AND row aie 


1863 


exten 

of twenty-eight years gin a > half from aa — i oo" , 1860. : 
Caswett, Professor of Natural Philosophy and "Astronomy in Brown Universi 
Providence, Rhode Island. Washington City: Published by the Smithsonian | 
ar in the Anantara Contributions to Knowle ledge. October, 1860. Ne se York 
_ Discussion of the Magnetic and Meteorological Observations made at the 
College Observatory, i aig hg 1840, 1841, 1842, 1843, i aa ‘845. 
ond Section, comprising Parts IV, V, and VL Horizontal For y Ae 
Published by the Siiithsanian ME vat November, 1862. “New York : D. AP 
pleton & Co. pe 


Report upon the det eager of the Longitude of America and Europe - 
the Solar Eclipse of July 28,1851. By Protessor Benjamin Peirce, LLD., &. 
_ New Discussion of the oe of the M + Pecie on the Ue 
the Gulf of Mexico, with a Chart of the rds. baa for 1860. By 4 


Places of ‘ Ss : 
Sur Ja Marche annuelle du Thermométre et Bare orhacpl Neérlande ¢ 
lieux de LEaro) déduite Foerritions simultanées de 1849 . 


Works Received. 153 


~ C. H. D. vl s Bartor. Publiées par L’Académie Royale des Sciences 4 Am- 
m. Ams vhs : 1861. 

Abstract ts of Magnetics Observations made at the Magnetical Observatory, To- 
ronto, Canada West, during the years pr to 1862, inclusive, and during parts of 
the years 1853. 1854, and 1855. Toro 

Reduction of the Observations of the is ep-Sunk Thermometers at the Royal 
Prof. J. Eve 


Results of Meteorological pa for Twent ere for H 


tidirollogiocims ‘Beobachtongn Aufgezeichnet auf Christiania’s Observatorium. 
Lieferang I ea Il, 1837-1847. Christiania: 1862. 

Met sche dasiocsiigvah in Neder land en Zijne Bezittingen, en Afwijkin- 
gen vane em seed ur en Barometerstand op vele Plaatsen in Eur ropa. Uitgegeven 
door het koninklijk ates ee meteorlegteh Institnut. 1861. The same, 1862. 
Utr ae Kemink en Zoon. 

On the Rainfall and Eraporti in Dublin, in the year 1860. By the R 
= t Havexton, M.D, F.R.S., Fellow of Trinity College, Dublin. Dublin : 


baie, the oo and Force of the Wind at Leopold Harbour. By the same. 


cron 
r oesterreichischen Fregatte can um die Erde in den Jahren 1857, 
858, 1859, 9, ‘ibis den Befehlen des Com. B. von Wutterstorr-Ursair. Nautisch- 
piyrnher Te sna I. ee Gouin Ortsbestimmungen und Fluthbeo- 


Société de Géographie de Genéve. Mémoires et Bulletin. Tome II].—1re Liv- 
raison. Genéve: 

Uber die Siciher der i in den Jahren 1850 bis 1857 sagt. ena Erd-erschiit+ 
terungen und die Beziehungen derselben zu den Vulkanen und zur Atmosphiire: yon 
i Kart Emit Kuvee, Lehrer an der a See abode zu Chemnitz. Stuttgart: 

861. 


1 oaomranhy, Meteorology and Hyetography of Sacramento, Cal. By Taomay 


pocna AND CHEmist TRY.— 


in. ; Ca 
On the Construction of Improved Ordnance, as oe in a letter to the Secre 

taries of War, and of t ro and the Chiefs of the Bureaus of Engineers, sak 
of Ordnance, of the United S an Bt Dat re, Teeapwett, late Rumford Profes- 
sor in Harvard College. 

er Erdm stag ution th ale fo fol r Bewegung der Erde im Aeter. Von Gustav 
Sines Cand Math. Copen ge 
i Love af den kosmiske Pei. at Gustay Hrvptous, Cand. Math. Kjoe- 

= 11860 

of an Electrical Machine of a New Form, constructed with regard to 

the mire of Gorureal ich By P. H. Vanpepwerpe, M.D., Professor of Chem- 
a of Physics and Chemistry at the 


oy at, ¥. ow pe 

The Observed Métions a te Companion of Sirius ee with poe greg to 
the disturbing body indicated by Theory. By TF: H. Sarrorp, Assistant at the Ob- 
preg of Harvard College. From ee edings of the hive Wren my 

and Sciences, . VI. e: 

Pe gt maa of a new Cataloguing and Charting Machine. By G. W. Hoven, 

A.M., Astronomer in eee of the Dudley Observatory. Abstract of a Paper read 
before the Albany Tnsti Albany : 1868. 


Am. Jour. Pei Ati Senne, V ot. XXXVII, No. 109. —ia., 1864. 


154 Works Received. 


_— sur la _ Electrique de M. Greet dans or bsg gree oe chirurgicales-et : 
es opératio oak l'on peut faire avec cet sabes e de la description — 
rote son anse moignla a température constante. : 
Preliminary Revearches on Thallium. By William ek Esq., F.C.S. Contin 
uation of the s 
MINERAL LOGY AND GEOLOGY.— | 
Ancient Mining of the Shores of Lake Superior, By Cuartes WHITTLEseT~ — 
Smithsonian Contributions to Knowledge. Washington City: ge 1863, New 
York: D, Appleton & Co. sea, 
The Penokie Mieseal Range, Wisconsin. By Caantes Warrrtxser, of Cleveland, — 
Qhio. Boston pita 
Experi sere Researches on the Granites ‘6 deiene Part IIL.—On the Granites 
F, 


of Donegal. By the Rev. Samuet Haveuto , F-R.S., GS, Fellow of Trim 

ity polleee, aad. “cates r of Gases 5 in the Univesity of Dublin. London : 1862. 
rare rolog y M. er, Mining Engineer, and 
aed of Fs Faculty of Science at Rennes eaateh from the “ Annales des 
Mines,” Vol. XI, 1857, by e mueL Haucarton, M.A ellow of Trin- 
ity College, and Prof Geology in the Uni of Dublin. Dublin: 185% 
Chemical and Min ee! Relations of Metamorphic Rocks, b ice 
NT, og from the Dublin Quarterly tora of Science 


On the Geological epaat u ae the Southern Grampians, By James Nico, 
.E., F.G-S., Prof. of Nat. ‘Hist. in the Universityrof Aberdeen : 
On the nae? Bearing Strata of Merionethshire. By T. A. Reapwis, FOS, E88 : 


: 1862. 
Robe o on the Chaudiére Gold pian: Canada East. Sept.1863. Printed byor 
der of the Legislature. Quebec : 
jel Se of the Chief Gold ‘Commissiover for the Province of Nova Scotia, for the 
year 1862. Halifax, N.S 


castor et du pétal ar M. Des ore 

Note Sur les Propeidiée Tron t biréfringentes et mn .v Forme cristalline de Ta | 
blygonite. By the same, From a si ere | 

Observations sur les Modifications permanentes et te pasa ires que laction des : 
moles apporte a quelques rane optiques de plusieurs corps crista llisés. By Z 

e same, 

Rapport dares di —— varicolori aperte nei pa = proprieta della Sigh 
Tropora Gatto et Caporatt, nel luogo detto il Capan 

acigno ‘Dae litico. Nota de I Prof, Cav. G. Menge 

my Riwaens = Ferro Oligisto nei giacimenti ; ofiolitiei “di Toscana. Not 

ecw fs —— — Pisa : 
iamo y Wruutaw Pots, Fellow of the ies iety, ete. ete, Be 

tracted from Macmillan’s s sae gazine - Merge jary, 1 eee With » Note 0 on the ered 
rial State Crown and its J ewels, by Prof. J. Tennant, F.G.S. ete. Reprinted from 
the Transactions of the London and Middlesex Archeological Sodlethi Vol. I ae 


don: 

The Mansfeld Copper- a eee in Prussian Saxony: their and 
state. W ith tatistics, Metallurgical age esses, Ad ae eration, Social oe 
of the Miners, Provident fen By W PE F.G.S., Mining Engineet. 
printed from the Journal of the Society ‘of Art red 

n the International Exhibition of 1862. By Mr. Wat. Hawes. A Paper ® 
before the Society of Arts, June 5th, 18 Ison 

Geolo — ee oti i Bergens Omegn af Ta. Hiortpant 0g M. 
Christiani 
Sidicwets =: ie 

Ueber lpg ys dec 2 Dr. C. Ta. F. vox Sresotp, k. “siesta 
Mitglieb der k. Akademie der Wissen schaften. Mimchen, 1 ys fod 

Daakrivelse over Lophogaster typicus, en Merkverdig Form af de Laver? (ag 

Krebsdyr, af seen G9 os ianias Universite) ~~” 
lithographerede Platicher Chelate 


Works Received. 155 


Synopsis of the Vegetable — of Norway. By Dr. F. C. Scuvur 
Translated from ae MS. by Rey. M. R. Barnard, B.A. British Chaplain, Christiania. 
Christiania : 
n the Form of the Cells made by various tee a and by the Honey Bee: with 
an Appendix on the Origin of Species, i the'R ey. Samuet Haveuroy, M.D., F.R.S. 


Fellow of Trinity College, Dublin. D 
Remarks on som racteristics of the edad Fauna of the White Mountains, 
New Hampshire. By re = hte bie Scupper. capo e Boston Journal of Natural 


History, Vol. VII, Part 1V. mbridge: Nov. 

Catalogue of the Lepidoptera of New O ntl vin its vicinity, prepared by L. 
VON RE&IZENSTEIN, 

Bibliography of North, American Conehology previous to the year 1860.—Smith- 
sonian Miscellaneous ae Prepared for the csyrtre ed Tostitatio by W. 
G. ey: Part I. " Ame wale thors. Washington 

Annual Report of the Triste of the Museum n of Comparative Zobloey, together 
with the Report of the Director, 1862. Boston 


MEDICINE.— 
Medico-Legal Contributions on Arsenic. By Caantes H, Porter, M.D. Albany, 


Outlines of a New Theory of Muscular Action. By ay wy Peace Haveuron, 
-D., F.R.S., Fellow, of Trinity College, oevEN Londo 
The Purification and Disinfection of the System by a or a use of fresh-burned 
Charcoal and pure Air better than poisoning it for the oe ion aud Cure of the 
great majority of Diseases. By A.S. L. New York: 1863. 
The Transactions of the N. Y. Academy of Medi cine — Management of Pulmo- 
nary Tuberculosis. | By Austin Fuint, M.D. New Yi ms 
Manual of Etherization: containing directions for t yea tail of Ether, 
Sn ha ee other Anesthetic agents, - ination, i in af 0 Operations. By 
T. Jackson, M.D., F.G.S.F. Boston 
ee eas, 
Pes ar dam jist 1861, Relazioni dei Giurati. Industria Mineraria e Metal- 
London 
‘Bapoe: of rt Committee of the Overseers of Harvard College appointed to visit 
eer Peer in the year 1862; together with the Report of the Director. Bos- 
on 
tia al Address os ‘bese ag ora LL.D., as Chancellor of ae 
University, ae M1 
The Wa 


a r, M.D. 
Sanford, M.D. as Professor of anny Fe “inaiesty fet ale College. Deliv ered 
September vith, 1863. New Haven: 
Contents of the Correspondence of Sent Men of the Seventeenth Century, 
cng at the seeing se Press, Oxfor ee wo volumes, 1641. heroes om at ae 
and Prof. of 
MeGaasuaticn ‘a Sakesrs = llege, éffent zung 
Gevachtniss ingen bee Baptiste Bi io ‘der ae Se 
der k. b. Akademie dee Wissenschaften am 28. Marz 1862. Von Oart Frieprica 
Classe. iinchen: 1862, 


nigs ropes IL. geha en yon Jurtus Fremerey von Liesic, Vorstand der 


Aka demie. Minchen: eo 
_ Giornale dell In: nzegnere-Architetto ed Agronomo. Anno IX. Num, 7° e 8°.-— 


i 
e Agosto uvertes. Journal Universel des 
i Moniteur Tilustré des bac armpiy aged sets Octobre-Novembre 


Expositions Frangaises et Etrangéres et Ind 
1863. Paris : 1863. Fe 


156 Works Received, 


' Transactions of Societies, 


AMERICAN — or Arts AND Sciences. Vol. VII[.—Part IT.—361, On the 
Measure of Forces of et mores with sec Velocities ; D. Trea duell.—810, 
Remarks on Spence e Reser ank Deposits; Francis Bowen.—389, A Hi 

of the Fishes of Massachusetts, with six plates) <3 Humphreys Storer (com — 
tinued.)}—435, On Certain Forn Interpolatio P. G. Bartlett.—445, Obser 
vations on the Language of “, sabe (ened on Wright's edition of the Canter 
Tales, Harleian MS. No. 7334) ; F. J. Child.—5038, Plante Wrightiane e Cuba he 
entali, Pars Il. (Monopetelze et heb es); A. Grisebach —537,A Catalogue 
of aesmeeis — and Clock Stars, for the eer of Observation in Right As 
censi mses of their positions; Zruman Henry Safford —569, The 
Sun a airtel Stars BAe = 

—. OF THE Aca y Naturat Sciences or Purtaverrata. Ve 1. Vm 
Part  FEBRUA ARY, 1862, 5, On the Chilopoda of North mage with a eat 
aia . all the specimens in the Collection of the Smithsonian Institution ; Hort 


tio C. Wood, w Unionide of t ited ee 

R, 1862.—111, Monograph of the Fossil Polyzoa of the Secondary and T 
Formations of Nort : abb and G. H. 
tions of Ni irds from tern Africa in the Museum of the Academy of Nat- 
ural Sciences of Philadel phia ; John C : Ne ide o t 
States and Arctic America; Jsaac Lea.—MARCH, 1863.—217, je Melanide | 
the Leroet ome Tsaae Lea —NOVEMBER, 1863.—$ 58, On the Pedipalpi 
North . GC. Wood, Jr., M.D.—377, New Exotic tied ees me 


401, Deseripkitos of the soft parts 0 of one hundred and forty-three species 
some Embryonic Forms of Unionide of the United States; Jsaac 57, 
Stan = new and little known species of Birds of the family Picide ay 
seum Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia; John Canin-—¥ol 
Part y, Saagie continuation of Mr, Lea’s Paper on New Melanide ; 
PROCEEDING S$ oF THE Acap. or Nar, Scr. or Purtap, 1863, (cine from % 


ee 

Gobioi est . 
. Gill.—267, On the Gobioids of the Ea ra Oba ast of the United States; 
7. Gili. —271, On the genus Regen nt =e hep T. Gill.—272, es 
the genera of Hemirhamphine; 7 

American Pam, Soc. Tran sisabae a XII—Part IIT.—Art. 4, Intellectual 

Symbolism: a Basis “a Science ; Be! Earle Chase, M.A.—Vol. a 
Californian Mosses ; L. Lesquereuz. 


Es 


AMERICAN 


ma 
Ro 
Ps 


sie 


JOURNAL OF SCIENCE AND ARTS. 


[SECOND SERIES.} 


Arr. XIII.—The Classification of Animals based on the principle 
of Cephalization ; by James D. Dana.—No. III. Classification 
of Herbivores.’ 


THE principle of cephalization and its applications rest on the 
following simple facts : . 

( n animal is embodied or concentred force, which force 
manifests polarity in the results of its action in development, that 
is, in the oppositeness of the anterior and_ posterior extremities 
of the structures evolved and also in the dorso-ventral relations 
of these structures. 

... 2.) The primary potential centre is in the head, or more pre- 
cisely, in the cephalic nervous mass—an animal being funda- 
mentally cephalized organism. But, besides this, there may 


(4.) The differences just mentioned are expressed in the a 
ture of the organism; and all such expressions are necessarily 
expressions of grade. 
(6.) Each of these kinds of differences must have expression, 
or, be apparent, (a) through the various circumstances attending 


+ ad 


~ 


. 


that far profounder knowledge is requisite for unfailing aoa 


158 Dana on the Classification of Animals 


development or growth, and ()) through all the steps in the ~ 
progress of growth, as well as (c) in the resulting structures, 
The above general facts are at the foundation of all the — 
methods of cephalization, or decephalization, pointed out in Ar ~ 
ticle I. They receive further illustration in the pages beyond, 
ot pase explanations on pages 175 to 182. i 


eee ee 


he con: 


tremes of cephalization is one source of the difficulties in the 
subject of classification. But the law cannot, on account of the 
trouble it may give, be condemned; for, as I have before 1 
marked, it is in accordance with universal truth that smallness, 

or circumferential contraction, should proceed both from concel 
tration, and from lack of quantity, although these are opposil® 
conditions. The difficulties in the way of a right use the 
principle of cephalization are, therefore, in nature, and must 
met by the only legitimate means—thorough study. be 


But he believes that the principle appealed to is right an fon. 
damental; and if he ventures to present new classifications © 
departments in zoology in which adepts in these departmen 
have made trials with diffierent results, it is only to offer such 


animal kingdom were considered. In the second, one 


Orders was reviewed and an arrangement given of its suv! 
sions, down to the grade of Tribes. In the present, the 


cation of a Z'ribe is followed out, down to the grade of Fan 


ee) 


based on the principle of Cephalization—Herbivores. 159 


CLASSIFICATION OF HERBIVORES. 


Under the order of Megasthenes,* the tribe of Quadrumanes, 
as stated on p. 834, Art. I, is properly hypertypic, that of Carni- 
vores superior typical, that of Herbivores inferior typical, and that 
of Mutilates (or Cetaceans) hypotypie. 


1. Distinctions between Herbivores and the tribes neat superior and 
inferior. 


A. Herbivores show their inferiority to Carnivores, or the 
superior typical group of megasthenic Mammals, on the basis 
of the principle of cephalization, in the following ways: 

(1.) In the fore-limbs being defunctionated of the power of 
prehension and reduced to simple locomotive organs. 

(2.) In the fore-limbs being not as much superior to the hind- 
limbs in strength as in the Carnivores, and even inferior to the 
hind-limbs in some species,—Herbivores, being less strongly 
prosthenic than Carnivores, and the species of the larger and most 
characteristic group being metasthenic. ; 

In the structure being strongly amplificate—Taking the 


gp Re : Pe aan . heape 
exhibits inferiority likewise in its great bulk; it is a marked 


* In order that the position of Herbivores, as reeognized by the writer, may be 


(vol. xxxv, p. 65), senting the tribes of t 
in parallel dete order to exbibit their parallel relations 


Order I. Mav. 
Order IT. ENES. Order IIT, Micnostnenes. 
1. it aii 1. Chiropters or Bats. 
2. Carnivores 9. Insectivores. 
8. Herbi “ 
4. Ht Mia 4, Edentates. 
Order IV. OGrocorps. 
Marsupials and Monotremes. 


160 Dana on the Classification of Animals 


(7.) In the extremely wide variations as to size and shape 
under the type, and the occurrence of bizarre features.—As, for 


etc. 7 
, being perverted to 
serve for defense or attack; and the nose sometimes for prehem 


canines in the same typical species. ie, 

(10.) In being prematurative in development, the young.amk 
a aati the power of sight and locomotion almost as soo — 
as bor 


ie : 

The abnormal outgrowths from the body or skeleton of Her 
bivores—as of horns on the forehead or nose, of a proboseis by 
an elongation of the nose, of tusks, horn-like in function, by 
an elongation of teeth, of humps of fat as in the Camel—serve 10 
show, and even, if possible, more strikingly than the tendency 
to amplificate structures, that the vegetative force in Herbivores 
is far less under systemic control than in Carnivores. The Car 
nivores may be styled a tight type, the Herbivores remarkably @ 
loose one. Stepping over the line from Carnivores to Herbivore’ 
is passing from a group of marked regularity to one full of ab 
normities, ee 

3.-—The superiority of the urosthenic aquatic Herbivores (Si 
renians) to the Mutilates (Cetaceans) is exhibited in theit— | _ 

(1.) Having the nostrils never Hl blo nor perverted : 
to blowholes, these organs being essentially like those of terme 
trial Mammals. : 

(2.) Never being multiplicate as to the number of pb 
or joints, of the digits. 

3.) 


based on the principle of Cephalization.—Herbivores, 161 


See on this point, Art. I, p. 828, and beyond, p. 179. 

Mutilates consequently differ from aquatic Herbivores funda- 
mentally in (a) being mult‘plicate structures, as manifested in 
their limbs and teeth, as well as in the less important fact of great 
length of body behind; and also ()) in being more elementalized 
structures, as shown in the reptile-like teeth. 1e type is 
eminently, therefore, a multiplicate and elementalized type, and 
thus stands apart from that of the Sirenians,’ 

2. Prosthenic, metasthenie and urosthenic distinctions among Her- 
bivores.—The distinctions, prosthenic, metasthenic and urosthenic 
appear to be an important basis of subdivisions under the Her- 
bivorous type. 

The urosihenic species (or those using the caudal extremity for 
locomotion) are the Sirenians, as the Dugong and Manatus, 

The distinction of prosthenic and metasthenic is manifested 
among the other Herbivores in two ways: (1) a higher or pre 
mary, in the general structure; and (2) un inferior or secondary, 
in the extremities of the limbs. 

(1.) Ln the general structure —Under this method, the prosthente 
species are those in which the fore-limbs are the stronger pair, 
and the melasthenic, those in which the hind-limbs are the 
stronger. The former include the Proboscideans, Rhinoceroses, 

apirs, Hogs and Hippopotamids. The Hog is particularly 
strong in the neck and fore-quarters. It is well known t 
fatted hog often loses the use of its hind-limbs from overgrowth, 
and not of the fore-limbs, although the fore-limbs carry not only 
their share of a body nearly equally divided between the limbs, 
but also the heavily weighted head. ’ 

The metasthente species are the Solipeds and the Ruminants, 


in which the hind-limbs are well known to be the strong Pe 
Th f-de- 


* Thi iti t only the Sirenians but also the Zeuglodonts, which 
have ‘ oon begtig paris with normal teeth and nostrils, although very 
elongat ie. 

4 sae “= baer eeded than mere ree te hind- 
lim consequen these metasthenic species are not good for this kin 
Oe teat a ot cat length of limb,-too little real strength for the 
long and steady pull which it requires, and which is very different from the mere 


162 Dana on the Classification of Animals 
Such species, strong in the hind-limbs, are well named Sthen 
meres (from the Greek oGevos strong and syoos thigh). at 
2.) In the extremities of the limbs——The sthenic distinction 
referred to under this head is the inferior of the two becauseit 
appears only in the extremities of those organs which in their 
geueral relations exhibit the former. The manifestation of it 
confined to the hand and foot. 
As the inner side of the hand or foot is the more central side 
‘in the system and the outer the more circumferential—a fact 
which any one will become aware of on looking at his open 
hand as it lies on a table—the higher species should have the 
rincipal strength in the inner fingers rather than the outer 
he transfer of force from the innermost to the outer, with de- 
scending grade of species, is well exemplified among Herbivores 

and the higher Mammals. 
In Man the inner toe is the stron 


nus (as figured in Blainville’s Osteologie) 4 
U. arctos (ferox) 2, 8, 4,5 are very nearly equal 
4 and 5 are the longest, exceeding 3- | i 


Tapirs, and it is so whether the number of toes be three or four, that 


movement of the legs demanded of a beast of burden,—too little superiority 19 
on ee ae or an ill-adjustment of muscley ma os, ete 
the purpose, e Camel, one of the hypotypic or degradation uminants, 
Tak tase lecinded, ated 6 


baséd on the principle of Cephalization.—Herbivores. 168 


even stronger than, the vird; and, at the same time, the ji/th is 
as strong as, or stronger than, the second, if both are not alto- 
gether wanting; while the jirst is obsolete. The examples in- 
clude all the so-called paradigitate species, as the Hog, Stag, Ox, 
etc,, in which the toes are equal (or approximately so) in pairs, 
the larger pair consisting of the third and fourth toes, and the 
other, of the second and fifth. In the common Ox, the fourth toe 
appears to exceed slightly the third in size, and so also, the 
rudimentary fifth the second. In the Hog, also, the jourth toe is 
sometimes a little the largest. 

is sthenic distinction. partially fails among degradational 
forms, such as the Seals, Sirenians and Cetaceans, in which the 
structure is so far degenerated that this delicate mark of grade 
has not its full normal exhibition. _ 

8. Distinction depending on the existence, or not, of a power-organ 
to aid in feeding, additional to those of the jaws.—Carnivores have, 
as one of their characteristics, organs apart from the teeth to aid 
in seizing or gathering their food. Amon Herbivores, the 
Elephant has an organ of prehension of great power and per- 
fection in the trunk or elongated nose. ‘he Tapirs and Hogs 
have also an elongated nose, which, although incapable. of pre- 
hension, except toa slight degree in the former, is a power-organ 
essential to the animal for the collection of its food. The Rin- 
noceros has a nose-horn serving in the same way. The nose is 
thus in all these groups, from the Elephant to the lowest of the 


The Horses and the Ruminants feed themselves by grazing, 

using their lips, teeth and tongue for the purpose, but having no 
id from the nose. | 

4, Distinction of gross-amplificate and long-amplificate.— Gross- 

i 1 enlargement of the structure 


. . . 


amplification consists in a genera 


skeleton and in its fleshy covering ; and when in the latter it is 
often apparent in the production of an abnormal amount of fat 
over the body. This fatty overgrowth is the lowest grade of 


Long-amplification is exhibited in an increased proportional 
length of the body and its limbs or members, involving in 
Vertebrates an elongation of the bony structure. 

The gross-amplificate terrestrial Herbivores are those of the 
Elephant, Tapir and Hog groups, 10 which there is little differ- 
ence in the proportions of the body from those of the Carnivores. 


164 Dana on the Classification of Animals 


it is independent of any in the limbs. : Ge 
The Bovine species are examples of gross-amplification on 4 
long-amplificate structure. on 
The long-amplificate species include all the Ruminants, togethet 
with the Solipeds or species of the Horse-family among the Non- 
ruminants. ee 
This long-amplification is exhibited prominently in the limb, — 
neck and head. ae 
(1.) Jn the limbs.—As in other cases, it is manifested mos 
strikingly toward the circumferential limits of the system. + 
humerus shows no elongation, and is often even shorter, a8 com 
pared with the size of the body, in these amplificate species that 
in more typical kinds. Below the humerus, amplification 8 
apparent in the fact that the radius exceeds in length the hume 
Tus; it is still more manifest in the great elongation of the bones 
below, especially the metacarpals and phalanges, the former 
alone being sometimes as long as the radius. The same general 
facts are true of the hind-limb. Owing to this extension of the 
extremities, the joint which seems like the knee in the leg o® 
Horse, Deer, Ox, etc. is really the commencement of the foot 


than the humerus; and the cannon-bone is two-thirds as vier: 
the radius. In the Camel the proportions are not very WY 


little more than one-fifth of the whole limb (measured, 281207 
Horse, from the commencement of the humerus to the aa 
of the digits); the radius is one-half longer than the bu reais 
and the cannon-bone, or metacarpal, is as long as the ™ Tar 
The facts strongly contrast with those among the Elephant, eel 
pir and Hog groups, the humerus in these species being | , and 
one-third and four-ninths of the length of the whole lim), 
longer than the radius, ms 

t would seem, therefore, that the length of the humerus a 


a standa 
struct 


based on the principle of Cephalization—Herbivores. 165 


minant is built, : ) 
Pes nie elongate head, on the type of a Grallatorial or Wading 
ir 


This amplification or circumferential extension of the head 
appears in many species to be concurrent with that in the limbs, 
as if the two were of like dynamical origin, or had a dependent 
genetic relation in the structure. pe Re. 

song-amplification in the head is still farther exhibited in the 
typical Ruminants through an outgrowth of horns on the fore- 
his is a frontal elongation, bony in its nature (or having 

& bony core at least , and peculiar to these long-amplificate spe- 
cies. In other words, those species in which the bones of the 
a — long have generally long growths of horn from the 

4 - . . . 

_ 9. Subdivisions.in the classification of Herbivores.—The distine- 
tions which have been mentioned on the p ing pages point 
‘to the same general arrangement of the terrestrial Herbivores, 

Aw. Jour. Sc1.—geconp Serres, Vou. XXXVI, No. 110.—Manrcu, 1864, 

22 


166 Dana on the Classification of Animals 


Two grand divisions are indicated. 


for aid in feeding, etc. 


Tl. The Solipeds and Ruminanis, on the contrary, are— 
(1.) Metasthenic in general structure, and, therefore, STHENO- | 
MERES. ak 
(2.) Long-amplificate in the limbs, neck and head, and some 
times, in addition, sross-amplificate. ie 
(8.) Long-amplificate in the forehead through an Mer — 
of horns, except in the superior group of Solipeds and them — 
rior or hypotypic species. E 
(4.) Not amplificate in the fleshy part of the snout. bat the 
(6.) Not Sthenorhines—haying no use for the nose Dut ™™ — 
legitimate one. ors 


The two groups are then— : 
I. The Prosthenics, or SrHENORHINES, including the Blephanh 
Tapir and Hog groups. ly 


. 


If. The Metasthenics, or Sraznomerns, including the Sol 
peds and Ruminants, . 


ting to those of the Carnivores; and in the omnivorous pe - 
ter or tendency of some species. And the relation of the Ls 
to the Elephant-group is no less striking. These afte : 
been generally admitted by zoologists. The species of the a 
and Hog groups, especially the latter, are the most Carmi ae 

like of Herbivores, pyall 
- So, among the Sthenomeres, the living Ruminants have Gest 
been associated in classification. The Solipeds alone ae a 
arranged in most sy 


based on the principle of Cephalization.—Herbivores. 167 


relations to the Pachyderms, it has close affinities also to the 
Ruminants. It is a Sthenomere and not a Sthenorhine; but 
it stands in the group of Sthenomeres, between the Ruminants 
and the Sthenorhines,’ representing a Pachydermatoid division 
in the group. 

The prosthenic species, it appears, are the gross-amplificate, and 
the metasthenic are the long-amplificate. But this distinction in 


ing, accordin ; 
The extinct Paleotheres are other exceptions; for in these Hocene 


odd organ. i occurs only in the 
atc Vicdanas rater y an, the nose; and 
the deduction, we may 
reasonably doubt the alleged connection between the odd or 


It al here repeated that the Horse ) 
having a eidas’ eine decidua. as stated by Huxley, characterizing the 
igher M : 


higher Herbi ore Eleph: and Hyrax, at least); but not the species of the 
log ts the ices of Sinen oh es, nor any of the Sthenomeres. (See Art. II, 
P.13 ; 


168 Dana on the Classification of Animals 


even in horns and the odd or even in the toes. The true dis 

tinction with regard to the horns appears to be that already 

mentioned :—that the Sthenorhines have only the nose—not the 

forehead—elongated or amplificated through a growth of horns, 

and this is an epidermic amplification, while among the Stheno- 

meres, an inferior group, the bony structure of the forehead 18 
a | ie + 


4Vul 


If it be sustained that the Camelopard has a central horn on the 
front of the head, as has been claimed and recently reaffirm | 
a case of an odd or medial horn occurs among the Paridigilalts; 
but it is a forehead-horn. : 
We should therefore make the statement thus: a 
The Sthenorhines, gross-amplificate species, may have one or 
two nasal epidermic horns, or horns proceeding from the eacoskelelan. 
e Sthenomeres, Jong-amplificate species, may have two or 
more frontal bony horns, or horns proceeding from the endoskelelon. 
In addition, the exoskeleton, under this inferior type, ‘sometimes 
contributes large epidermic additions in the shape of sheaths to 
the horns, as well as hoofs to the feet. l= | 
III:The third group of Herbivores includes only the Sirenvans 
—aquatic species that fail of hind-limbs, like Whales, rit” 
various marks of superiority to the Mutilates, as already brielf 
indicated. UG: oe 
The grand divisions of the tribe of Herbivores, which ren 
n pointed out and elucidated in the preceding pages, Lae 


e further application 2 = is 
principle of cephalization. In connection, one or two © ait 2 
more prominent distinctions of the higher groups are mentlion’™ 


Synopsis of the proposed classification of Herbivores, 


I. Sthenorhines. 8 

Prosthenie. Snout servin g as a power-organ, usually elongt e 

ed. Gross-amplificate, rarely long-amplificate in extinct § a 

Horns, when any, proceeding from the exoskeleton alone, | | = 

1. ProgoscrpEans.—Snout an organ of digital as ae ; 

rachial prehension. Imparidigitate. Ac 

tS Elephantids: , 

2.) Dinotherids. (?). te 

2. TAPIRIDEANS.—Snout imperfectly, or not at all, prehensil 
ve there never being prehension at the extremity (oT digital | 
_hension). Imparidigitate. ae 


(1) Rhinocerotids —Having a nasal horn. 


A 


based on the principle of Cephalization—Herbivores. 169 


(2.) Tapiroids—Without a nasal horn. Snout elongate, often im- 
perfectly prehensile. 
a, Tapirids. 
b. Paleotherids. 
(3.) Hyracids.— Without a nasal horn. Snout not elongated. 
8. SuIDEANS.—Snout elongate, but not at all prehensile. 
Paridigitate. 
(1.) Suids. 
(2.) Hippopotamids. 


II. Sthenomeres. 
Metasthenic. Long-amplificate, even when gross-amplificate. 
out no ower-organ. Horns, when any, proceeding from 
the endoskeleton, frontal. 
1. Sourpeps.— Without horns. Imparidigitate. 
(1.) Equids, 
(2.) Macrauchenids. (?) 
2. Ruminants.—Having horns in the typical group, except 
often in females. Paridigitate. 
- (1.) Cornigers—Having horns. Frontiferient. 
a. Cervids. 
b. Antilopids. 
ce. Camelopardalids. 
({2.) Nudifronts—Without horns. Not frontiferient, feeble in self- 
defense. ‘ 


a, Camelids. 
» 6. Moschids. 
ec. Anoplotherids. 
? 


‘TIL. Sirenians. 

Urosthenic, natatorial. Having a large caudal fin for swim- 
ming. Posterior limbs wanting. 

Manatus, Halicore or Dugong, Rytina, etc. 

In the following enumeration of the distinctions of the several 
subdivisions, I confine myself almost entirely to those character- 
istics which are obviously based on the principle of cephaliza- 
tion, omitting the many anatomical details to be found in zoolo- 
gical treatises, 


A. Subdivisions of the Sthenorhines. 


(1.) The Proboscideans are distinguished by the high charac- 
teristic of having in the proboscis a prehensile organ of great 


it 


170 Dana on the Classification of Animals 


power and perfection—one that combines the qualities both ofa 
prehensile hand and a grasping arm, and which, therefore, 38 
more serviceable for prehension than the fore-limb of a Carnivore. 
Although this is a perverted use of a nose, it is not supposed to 
be attended with any degeneration of the normal sense below 
that of other Herbivores. The elliptic condition of the jaws im 


the species is connected, as already explained (Art. I, p. 400), ioe 


with the enormous development of the tusks. The forelimb 18 
proportionally as short as in the Lion, and the hand-portion evel 
orter, its length being only one-half that of the humerus. 
~ The Dinothere appears to show in its skull that it was a true 
Proboscidean, that is, an animal with an Elephant-like proboscis. 
so, it was, in all probability, a terrestrial animal, like an 
Elephant, or not more aquatic than a Hippopotamus. The fach 
that prehension is a characteristic of Carnivores and the higher 
Mammals, and, among terrestrial Herbivores, only of the sup 


rior species, indicates that it is a mark of high grade, and, there: 


The Tapiridcans are related to the Proboscideans in the 


snout, and to the Suideans in this and many other characteristics. — 


the horn is absent; and if, as suggested by Blainville, the sa 


a mark of inferiorit 


Ee Ee Rosie Meer ape Pee Poet aN py alg Se on i eg ah Ie Ls a sell ny ee eM ae ging, ae ei 


extinct 
h toes of ce 
the fore-limbs are four in number, as in the Tapir, and besides thi 


based on the principle of Cephalization.—Herbivores. 171 


Acerotheres (whether females or not) are among the earliest 
geological representatives of the Rhinoceros group, 

The Hyracids are degradational forms, having the snout not 
prolonged and not horned, yet having it terminate in a flat naked 
space with the nostrils on either side, also having the tail reduced 
to a mere tubercle, and having the small size, as well as some 
of the habits, of a Rodent of the Hare family. It is good at 
digging. This abbreviation before and behind in the Hyrax 
may be an example under the elliptic method of decephaliza- 
tion, evincing feebleness in a life-system which is of extreme 
smallness for the Herbivore-type. The animals of the little 
Syrian species were long since described as “a feeble folk.” 
<6 30 : 26). 


Orns appears to be a mark of elevation. hat they are the 
highest 3 poebetivadie is also evident from the elegance rm, 


172 Dana on the Classification of Animals 


grace of motion, fleetness and strength which characterize one — 
or more species of the group, and which combination of qualiti 

is presented in equal perfection in no other Herbivore. The 
type, therefore, may rightly claim the first place in its grand 
division, and not a subordinate one, either between Tapirs and 


roup. - . 
ie ftuminants are naturally divided ae two groups.— 
(1.) The Cornigers or typical specics,—These are (4) furnished | 
with horns (whence the name applied to them) at least in the 
males. ‘They are (b) frontiferient, that is, strike with the forehead . 
in attack. (c.) The foot has great compactness, the two rincipgy oe 


hoofed, that the animal walks upon them; the hoofs are flat on 
the inner side and fit well together, so as to look and act much like 


too short to touch the ground, and are sometimes altogether 


of the Nudifronts. 4 

The two families of Cervids and Antilopids, mentioned in the 
Synopsis, page 169, are the same in limits as those usuall 
named, except that the Camelopard is excluded. The Camel 
pardalid is the special long-amplificate, or Heron-like grouP 
under the Corniger type. The Ho are persistent, a8 12 om 4 
Antilopids ; but instead of a corneous sheath, they have inte 4 
covering only the hairy skin. In this respect and, furth eg 
their extreme long-amplification, in the young animal's ee : 
horns at birth, and in their using the hind-legs in kicking 3" ie 
_ principal means of defense, like the Horse, (and not merely 38 


based on the principle of Cephalization.—Herbivores. 178 


inch board. As the head of a Camelopard is raised seventeen 
or eighteen feet above the ground, the systemic force in this 
inferior Herbivore is diffused through a sphere whose radius is 
nearly twice that of the Lion, and six to eight times that of its 
superior among Herbivores, a common Stag or Goat—a condition 
betokening very low grade. Its inferiority among Cornigers is 
also apparent in the small head and brains for so large a body, 


g in different ways.— oy 
(a.) In a comparatively relaxed condition of the extremities, 


are elongated so as to touch the ground in walking ; and, in 
one species, not only are the scaphoid and euboid bones disjunct, 


cannon-bone of the Cornigers and Solipeds. In others, also, the 

metacarpals are not completely coalesced. _ sa 
The Anoplotherids are like the Moschids in the lax condition, 

of the two large toes in the Moschus aquaticus, t 


: as i , the 
sa Seah and cuboid bones are disjunct and also the metacarpals 
an 


he 
of horns but the forehead is not used in defense or at- 
tack, being apparently unfitted for this purpose. 
(c.) In their feeble means of defence and bizarre shapes.— _ 
The Camel sometimes bites—an almost universal propensity 
among animals, there being 2 consciousness of power in the 
Ax. Jour. 8cr.—Seconp Sentes, VoL. XXXVII, No. 110.—Mance, 1864. 
23 


174 Dana on the Classification of Animals 


jaws when none elsewhere. The male Musk-deer is aided b 
long canines; yet it is a very timid animal, and although it 
takes extraordinary bounds when fleeing from a pursuer, it is 
said to become very soon exhausted, and thus is a little after the 
Grasshopper-style among hypotypic Insects. The Llamas spit, 

amel has a body out of proportion to its legs, and 
exhibits awkwardness in features and gait; its hump is ag ab- 
normal growth of fatty and cellular tissue, having no functional 
value beyond that of serving as fuel for the craft when out on 
the desert; and its formation evinces large vegetative powers 
with consequently feeble systemic control. ; 

d.) In the presence of canines in most of the species; and 
in the Anoplotherids the set of teeth, besides being complete, 
having the canines short and not projecting, as in Man.— 

The variation from the Ruminant type in the teeth shows a 
tendency to return to normal regularity and simplicity, as 18 
common in inferior species (Art. 1, pp. 826, 440), and is nota 
mark of elevation toward the Pachyderms. 

Owen observes that an Anoplotherid resembles, in its absence 
of horns, its divided metatarsals and metacarpals, its lax toes, 
and its even and normal number of teeth, “the embryo Rumr 


through adult life. He speaks of it, again, : ; 
features of the more generalized (or less specialized) Mammalian 
type, and remarks upon the same as also shown, though les 
strikingly, in the Camel. This relation, so correctly presented, 
hold, that these species are low ™ 
a condition analogous to that of an 
animal in an unfinished or young state is one of comparative 
feebleness. The embryological resemblance, on this view, & 
tends not only to form but also to force. | 

e Pachydermatoid qualities in the Moschids, and some among 
those so regarded in the Camelids, correspond therefore to 4 
degradation of the Ruminant-type. . 


to bring out the Ruminant type-structure. It here appears ‘ 
the relaxed or enfeebled condition of that force which ] = - 
a lax state of the digits or extremities of the limbs is attend 

by modifications of the teeth—the dental series losing its tYP® 
character by the development of some or all of the missing teeth, 


based on the principle of Cephalization.—Herbivores, 175 


indicative, each, of inferiority of grade. They are feeble in the 

ead, and have no use for the forehead in attack or defense; 
they are weak as to means of defense of any kind; they have a 
lax condition of the extremities; they have a more complete 
and regular series of teeth, but as a result of a more diffused 
state of the systemic force, or less systemic control, 


C. Strenians. 


_ The distinctions of the Sirenians have already been sufficiently 
indicated (p. 169). 


In conclusion, the writer may here state that he does not look 
upon the classification which has been presented, as in all points 
that to which beyond question the right application of the princi- 
ple of cephalization leads; but only as that which, as far as he 
now understands the facts and the principle, appears to him to 
be correct to nature : 


D. Dynamical considerations. 


On page 174, it is likewise shown that a relaxation of the parts 
in the extremities of the limbs is concurrent with a relaxing also 
of the elements of the jaws. : 

us the head and the limbs, parts alike circumferential, 
undergo analogous changes under similar conditions—the am- 
Plification in the head increasing from the basal portion of the 
skull toward the extremity of the jaws; and that in the limbs 
mcreasing from the body toward the extremities of these limbs. 
Now it is to be noted that, while the head and the limbs 
diminish in amplification toward their basal portions, they are 
Separated in the same species by a long-amplificate neck. It seems 
ollow, therefore, that the head is one centre of amplification, 
nd the bo y another; or, in other words, that there are two 
distinct centres of amplification, a cephalic and a thoracic, the 
former the prima 


tion, should be considered as subordinate to the cephalic, or to 


the thoracie, centre, or to both equally. In reply, it is to he 


that in the head. Moreover, short limbs and a short neck go 
together (as in the natatorial Herbivores and Mutilates), even 


176 Dana on the Classification of Animals 


when the head is excessively elongated; and when the limbs 
are reduced to fins, as in Fishes, the neck is essentially wanting. 
Again, the longer cervical vertebrze are those most remote from 
the body, and the stoutest those nearest it; and, in the Camelo- 
pard, an animal in which the part of the limbs remote from the 
body is very much elongated, these cervical vertebrae remote from 
the body are likewise much elongated. It would hence appear 
that the amplification in the neck in these species is subordinate 
mainly to the thoracic or secondary centre. 

But although this argument in favor of a connection at times 
between amplification in the neck and limbs may appear direct, 
we deem it only a doubtful suggestion. In any case, the fact of 
two systemic centres in Mammals seems to be established—one, 
the cephalic or superior, quite small in radius and with narrow 
limits of amplification; the other, the thoracic or injerrior, very 
large in radius, and admitting of a wide range of amplification. 

In Crustaceans the head and thorax make one single division 
of the body, the cephalothorax; and the cephalic nervous mass 
is often quite near the first thoracic, the two in some inferior 
peeves being on opposite sides of the esophagus. The cephalo- 
thorax here corresponds, therefore, to one single primary cen- 
tre; and this centre is situated near the anterior margin of the 
mouth-aperture, or between the mandibular and 2nd-antennary 
segments, where it is placed by the writer in his former articles 
on this subject. ere is an inferior or secondary centre in 
Crustaceans, but this is abdominal, as remarked in Art. I, p. 322. 
In Insects, as the body consists of three parts, a head, thorax 


or about its are’ ’ 
m 


or less independent of the others j : ‘ay uber 
nate to it. P ers in the amplification 


reac he highest concentration and greatest elf 
cumterential contraction; and when in any less degree, ange 
slag or circumferential extension. 3 


hen the systemic control js stil] so great as to keep the parlé 


, is simply gross-amplif 


: 7° 2 . d . zt ; a 
Sross-amplification of the whole bony structure in superior eG 
A , ! e 


bused on the principle of Cephalization.—Herbivores, 177 


cies, and of fatty, cellular and dermal tissues mainly, in species 
of a feebler life-system. But when the control is less complete, 
the parts of the bony structure increase in length by amplifica- 
tion, especially the more circumferential portions of them—this 
amplificating tendency increasing in amount with the distance from 
the systemic centre or centres—and the structure is long-amplificate. 
With a feebler life-system, not able to keep the structure evolved 
to type-perfection, the limbs may have lax or imperfect extremi- 
ties, that is, lax as compared with their condition in the typigal 
Species under the t 

2. Definiteness of the distinction of gross-amplificate and long-am- 
plificate—It has been observed that the two higher groups of 
terrestrial _Herbivores are distinguished, the first, by being very 
generally gross-amplificate in the structures included, and the 
second by being long-amplificate, and that the two groups are 
thus quite well separated, there being but few cases of long- 
amplification in the former, and the gross-amplification in the 
latter taking place upon long-amplificate structures. It is a 


force, 
to which the above, relating to amplification, is actually subordi- 


8 
The separateness of th © powers is also illustrated by the arrest of devel- 
oo in The brain, in Seventh shown by fewer gyri and a greater simplicit 
of folds, while there is an increase of size up to normal dimensions, See W.C. 
Minor's translation of articles by Dr. Wagner, in this Journal [2], xxxiv, 188, and, 
; ilar, the remark of Dr. Minor on this pofat, on p. 199. 


* 


178 Dana on the Classification of Animals 


nate—which is, that the force may vary in cephalic concentrahon, 
and thereby in its distribution along the principal body-axis. : 
It has been shown in this and the former articles that there is 


been illustrated from all departments of the animal kingdom; 
and with examples from Herbivores in the preceding pages. We 
refer again to the facts among Crustaceans in this Journal (vol. 
xxii, 14, 1856, and the chapter in the author’s Expl. Exped. 
Report, p. 1412,) as especially clear and conclusive, and as hav- 
ing peculiar interest because historically the source in the Wir 
ter's mind of the principles here explained. 3 
Moreover, this backward transfer of force and function manl- 
fests itself also in the posterior elongation of the structure and 
also in some anterior dilation. Conversely, elevation of grade 1s 
manifested in the abbreviation of the structure behind, and to 


extremity is at its maximum under any type, the structure pe 
prosthenic in the highest degree possible for that type. But 
the anterior extremity of the body-axis is not in this maximum 
State, owing to a diffusion of the force posteriorly, the condition 
1s one less prosthenic; by a further loss and diffusion posteriorly; 
there may be another step down (for such transitions, as we bavé 
before found, appear to be by a saltus) perhaps to a lower grade 


methods of dece i ; 
Seek is « li os os apocentric distribution of force—or io 
perfect expression of the fact. “hh 


_* In my last article (Art. IT, p. 1 ificate and retroferent 
ethods of decephali ( es p. 10) I have referred the amplificate anc a away 
or centre. This, although true, is but 


based on the principle of Cephalization.—Herbivores. 179 
founder descent to a urosthenic condition, with great length 
behind and a large part of the force of the structure thrown 
into the caudal extremity. 

But, besides the increase of muscular force attending cephalic 
<n gp there is also increase of cephalic foree—the senso- 


eis, The force is so largely purely cephalic, that he may be 


imates to equality along all parts of the body-axis, the animal is 
the next thing in grade of life to a plant; the cephalic centre in 


hale as mentioned on page 160. If, in addition, the systemic 
force is feeble, the body may be contracted both before and 


* ith decreasing cephalic concentration, there may be not only 


toward an equality in the series of parts gr elements. This 1s 
Tecephalization re the analytic meth explained in Art. I, p. 826. 


180 Dana on the Classification of Animals 


the forces and material of the being can develop at one time but 
one or a few ova; in others inferior, the amount required for each 
is so small, or, is so small a part of the whole energies of the indi- 
vidual, that the number produced is almost indefinitely large. 
4. Relation of the law of amplification to the law of axial distribu: 
tion of force—The condition as to the distribution of force along 
the body-axis under a type, determines, as has been shown, the 
form or general nature of the structure, in any case, an the 
structure thus established is that which undergoes amplification. 
Thus the law of amplification is secondary to the law of axial 
distribution. Gross-amplification in a Whale is amplification of 
a urosthenie structure, or one in which the forces are so distribu: 
ted along the axis that the anterior pole is not very highly supe 


Mammals, that sensorial and other higher cephalic force becomes 
converted, in the transfer posteriorly, into muscular force; 8° 
that a Whale is a representative of the force of a typical megas 
thene,—a Lion, for example—in the condition almost exclusively 
of muscular force. The last part of this statement may be quite 
true; for the Whale may not differ from a Lion so much in 


by the cephalic polarity of the life-energy characterizing the 
organism under development. The brain is the last part of a0 
animal that is perfected. It becomes complete in its poweTS, a 
after the rest of the structure has so far reached its limits 


material on the one great feature of the being. In th 
way the cephalized structure attains its most highly eephalized 
condition. at 
The views here set forth rest on the ground that in a living 
organism there are not only molecular forces every where ind 
vidually at work, carrying on all changes and growth, but es 


based on the principle of Cephalization—Herbivores. 181 


' that there is centralized control over all molecular forces, deter- 
mining the limits, nature and condition of the organism.” 

I would not be understood as including Man’s higher nature 
among the attributes that.can be developed out of simple mat- 
ter and cephalized life. For Man evinces in his power to com- 
prehend Nature’s laws and use them for his physical, intellectual 
and moral progress, that he is above Nature. He shows in his 
thoughts of the infinite—in his recognition of an omnipotent 

reator, (or, as well, in his efforts to reason himself out of this 
recognition, or into the substitution of an infinite Nature)—in 
his sense o obligation to moral law, and law as emanating from 
an infinite God—in his aspirations towards the infinite—in 
his hopes reaching into the indefinite future—and in his capa. 
bility of indefinite development, that he has within him an 
element of the infinite, a spiritual element, which places him 
above nature, constitutes his likeness to his Creator, and assures 
him of a future of spiritual existence apart from matter and its 
inferior developments. 

6. Distinction of Megasthenes and Microsthenes.—The fact stated 
with regard to the powerful life-system of the Whale affords aid 
towards a definite understanding of the distinction between the 
great groups of Megasthenes and Microsthenes. ‘The subdivi- 
sions of these groups are mentioned in a note to page 159, and 
m1 &amanner to exhibit their parallelism :—the Quadramanes and 
Chiropters being in one line, since they have long been regarded 
48 correlates in many of their characters; so Carnivores and 
Insectivores in. the second; Herbivores and Rodents in the 

ird; and Mutilates and Edentates in the fourth. Carnivores 
and Insectivores are both carnivorous and both prosthenic tribes. 
Herbivores and Rodents are both herbivorous, and the larger 
and most characteristic part of the former and all of the latter 
are metasthenic. Mutilates and Edentates are both degradational 
types; the latter, like the former, sometimes multiplicate an 
elementalized in’ their teeth, sometimes wholly elliptical as to 
teeth, sometimes vast in amplification; and bearing, through all 
their stracty re, evidence of great inferiority among the placental 

ammals, The mean sizes of the Megasthenes and Microsthenes 
have been shown to be about as 


cies, they still retain this peculiar feature of the Megasthenic 
type. : 
2 This iden is illustrated by reference to the nature of coral polyps in the wri- 
ter’s Report on Zoophytes, ato, 184 
Att. Jour. Sor—Szconp Sznms, Vou. XXXVI, No. 110—Mance, 1864. 
2 24 


. 


182 Dana on the Classification of Animals 


The Edentates are also large beasts, and the first impulse, 
under the influence of the sense of sight, is to declare them like- 
wise Megasthenes, because they are big enough to beso. But 


literally microsthenic in life-system. Compared even with 
quick-moving Rodent, the slow Sloth is muscularly feeble; for 
relative strength is to be measured, not by the single blow that 
may be given, but by the product of the strength of a single 
blow into the number of times this blow may be repeated in & 
given time, as for instance, in twenty-four hours. d 

The Edentates appear therefore to be as truly degradational 
Microsthenes, as the Mutilates are degradational Megasthenes. 
They show their feebleness according to the elliptic method, m 
their head and jaws to an extent not manifested even among 
Mutilates. 

The Edentate type exhibits its inferiority to that of all other 
placental Mammals also in admitting more or less of a cour 
mingling of Reptilian characteristics with the Mammalian, as P- 

ars in the scale-made or shield-like armor of many species, the 

eeble sensibility of all, and several peculiarities in the skeleton: 
—showing thus that the type holds a position in some Tespe®” 
between those of Mammals and Reptiles, or at the extreme lower 
end of the placental series. 
D. Additional Observations. : 
_1. Grade among groups.—The groups under the several subdi- 
visions in the proposed classification show a gradation 1m Ta®™ 
corresponding with their position. Moreover, the third ae 


in the higher subdivisions of the animal kingdom, and 10 


would have to go, because metasthenic, at the foot of the hi her 
vision, when they have the characteristics of a superior vu 
SToup, and not those of a hypotypic; and the Suideaus W 


il ae 
ern 


based on the principle of Cephalization.—Herbivores, 183 


take their place at the head of the lower, before the Ruminants, 
because prosthenic, although decidedly hypotypic in shape, strue- 
ture and stupidity. 

2. Designations of the grades of subdivisions in the tribe of Herbr- 
vores.—Under the tribe of Herbivores, the subdivisions of the 
first grade, that is, those of Sthenorhines, Sthenomeres, and 
Sirenians, may be conveniently named subiribes. The subdi- 
Visions of the second grade, or those of Proboscideans, Tapir- 
ir ete., may be called ¢ribules, this word being diminutive 
of tribe. j 


It is to these Eocene species, according to all analogy, that we 
should look for the closest approximation of the two grand 


divisions of terrestrial Herbivores. And so in actual fact, the 


later exhibitions of the type. 


184 Dana on the position of Amphibians among Vertebraies. 


Art. XIV.—WNote on the position of Amphibians among the classes 
of Vertebrates; by JAMES D. Dana. 


IN a recent article by the writer on the Parallel relations of the 
classes of Vertebrates," Amphibians are made the inferior division 
of the class of Reptiles, The usual arguments against this view 
were not alluded to because they were believed to be familiar to 
all interested in the subject, and their discussion at the time 
seented not to be required. A few words with regard to them 
are here added in order to set forth more distinctly the special 


‘he chemical researches on the composition of eggs by i, + 
made a few years since,’ claiming to show among their rest 
“the curious physiological fact that Amphibians, besides passing 


the superstructures also, and far more wide ee th 
But the question recurred whether in the subdivision of 38 
subkingdoms of animal life into classes, it is not, after all, i 
more correct method to take note primarily of species 1 the! 
finished or adult state; that is, whether adults do not exp 
the true idea and nature of species, or the objects to be cei : 
rather than the special series of changes through which the adu 
characteristics are reached. poe 
_ In favor of an affirmative reply to this question, the fact Tie 
out prominently that, as regards the subkingdoms in anima He 
embryology in the hands of the best embryologists has 0M) 


subordinate divisions under the subkingdoms ‘there is ve only 
of natural affinities in all. Professor Agassiz, in his Essay 


1 This Journal, [2], xxxvi, 815, November, 1868. cic, 1956 
* This Journal, cr xix, 38, 238, xx, 65, 1855, from the Journ. de Pha ee eh 


* 


Dana on the position of Amphibians among Vertebrates. 185 


on Classification,’ criticizes the systems of Van Beneden, Kolliker 
and Vogt, on account of their violating the structural affinities 
of groups, implying that embryological conclusions have to be 
tested by a reference to the natural types of structure. In nature 
a specific type is often expressed in a long series of species run- 
ning through a very wide range of grade; and structures so di- 
verse in grade as those of the higher and lower extreme groups 
are diverse in the nature of the changes which take place in the 
course of embryological development. Not appreciating this 
fact, enbryological systemists have cut the series, and mad¢ bol 
demarcations between parts that are essentially one in type. 
Thus has resulted the separation of the class of Worms from 
Articulates by both Van Beneden and Vogt, and of the order 
of Cephalopods from Mollusks by the latter, ete.; and such 
errors will continue to attend upon the decisions of pure embry- 
ology until the precise value of its characteristics in classification 
Is understood. : 
If, then, the structural relations of the developed animals are 
an authority to which embryology must appeal, the adult Am- 
phibians may claim to be considered, on a question of their rela- 
tions to ordinary Reptiles, even before their eggs and young. 
mbryology proves that Amphibians and ordinary Reptiles are 
distinct groups, as is proved also by structural considerations; 
ut, in the present state of the science, it can hardly be said to 
demonstrate that these groups are classes, coUrdinate with those 
of Birds and Mammals;—and I venture to say, as regards the 
gl of groups, that, in no state, will it prove what the 
adult structures will not sustain. 


nary or terrestrial Reptiles? The development, at each step, in- 
Volves, and depends upon, chemical changes; and it is hence 


Cetaceans. pet 
‘divides the Invertebrates into two groups, the first, including Insects, Myria- 
- agi and Crustaceans, the second, the eabkingdom = ceorce aye the inferior 
mo the subkingdom of Articulates, that is, Worms, toge he ltadiates, 
Rhizopods and mea ‘and his division of Polyps, among the Radiates, in his 
i s both Polyps and Acalephs. Vogt makes 
: in Tading Vertebrates, and all Articulates 
excepting Worms ; the second, Mollusks, Worms and Radiates; the thi — 
it : ; and his division of Mollusks does not embrace the Cep. w we 
it does include a tribe of Acalephs. Recently, Prof, Huxley, in lectures before 
Gaze’ College of S s, of which a report is given in the Medical and 
tte, for May, 1863, says, (page 555,) after discussing | the im 
Placenta in Mammals as a basis of classification, that, in his view, t 
culty in the way of a classification which unites the Pro ideans with 
tather than with Paridigitate and Imparidigitate Herbivores. 


there is no diffi- 
the Rodents 


186 Dana on the position of Amphibians among Vertebrates. 


reasonable to infer that the egg which was to be developed when 
bathed in water should thus differ somewhat from one that was 


ustrated also in the following article in the same volume 


(Article I, On the Classification of animals based on the principt 
of Cephalization) by a wider range of analogies, showing tha 


similar hypotypic groups constitute the lower subdivision ™ 
several departments of the animal kingdom. 


J. R. Mayer on Celestial Dynamics. 187 


Art. XV.—On Celestial Dynamics; by Dr. J. R. MAYER. 


THE movements of celestial bodies in an absolute vacuum 
would be as uniform as those of a mathematical pendulum, 
whereas a resisting medium pervading all space would cause the 
planets to move in shorter and shorter orbits, and at last to fall 
into the sun. 

Assuming such a resisting medium, these wandering celestial 
bodies must have on the periphery of the solar system their 
cradle, and in its centre their grave; and however long the 
duration, and however great the number of their revolutions 
may be, as many masses will on the average in a certain time 
arrive at the sun as formerly in a like period of time came 
within his sphere of attraction. k 5 

‘All these bodies plunge with a violent impetus into their 
common grave. Since no cause exists without an effect, each of 
these cosmical masses will, like a weight falling to the earth, 
produce by its percussion an amount of heat proportional to its 
vis viva. 

From the idea of a sun whose attraction acts throughout 
Space, of ponderable bodies scattered throughout the universe, 


] 
Concerning subjects so distant from us in tim 
and confine our attention exclusively : 
m the observation of the existing state of things. 

_ Besides the fourteen known planets with their eighteen satel- 
lites, a great many other cosmical masses move within the space 
of the planetary system of whi h the comets deserve to be men- 
tioned first, 


: Kepler's celebrated statement that “there are more comets m 
| ? Continued from vol. xxxvi, p. 266. +“ 


188 J. R. Mayer on Celestial Dynamics. 


the heavens than fish in the ocean,” is founded on the fact that, 
of all the comets belonging to our solar system, comparatively 
few can be seen by the inhabitants of the earth, and therefore 


the not inconsiderable number of actually observed comets ob- 


It has been shown, by repeated observation, that on a bright 
night twenty minutes seldom elapse without a shooting-star 
being visible to an observer in any situation. At certain times 


when they were said to fall, “crowded together like snow- 
flakes,” they were estimated as at least 240,000. On the whole, 


comets, and the asteroids mov 


sw sun, or whether they are constantly approaching that central 


that necessary for the existence of light (whether light be cM 
sidered as emission of matter or the undulations of a universal 
ether), this alone is sufficient to alter the motion of the pl 
in the course of time and the arrangement of the whole Sih 
itself; the fall of all the planets and the comets into the su? 
and the destruction of the present state of the solar system sage 
be the final result of this action.” | 
inthe Angust ring slog, heh mes cet, ea ede 
nal, xxxii, 451<-Eps, = 


J. R. Mayer on Celestial Dynamics. 189 


other circumstances remaining the same, the faster they move 
towards the sun: it may therefore happen that in a space of 
time wherein the mean distance of the earth from the sun would 
diminish one metre, a small asteroid would travel more than one 
thousand miles towards the central body. 

As cosmical masses stream from all sides in immense numbers 
towards the sun, it follows that they must become more and 
more crowded together as they approach thereto. The conjec- 
ture at once suggests itself that the zodiacal light, the nebulous 
light of vast dimensions which surrounds the sun, owes its 
origin to such closely packed asteroids, However it may be, 

8 much is certain, th 


sin the universe is repeated in a remarkable manner in 
the disposition of the planets and the fixed stars. 


From the great number of cometary masses and asteroids and 
the zodiacal light on the one hand, and the existence of a resist- 
ing ether on the other, it necessarily follows that ponderable 
matter must continually be arriving on the solar surface. Th 
effect produced by these masses evidently depends on their final 
Velocity ; and, in order to determine the latter, we shall discuss 


The final yelocit weight attracted by, and moving to- 

oe will become greater as the height through 

ch the weight falls increases. This velocity, however, if it 

be only produced by the fall, cannot exceed a certain magni- 

; it has a maximum, the value of which depends on the 

Volume and mass of the attracting celestial body. 

Ax. Jour. Sc1.—Szconp Series, Vou. XXXVI, No. 110.—Maxcn, 1864. 
25 


190 J. R. Mayer on Celestial Dynamics. 


Let r be the radius of a spherical and solid celestial body, and 
g the velocity at the end of the first second of a weight falling 
on the surface of this body; then the greatest velocity which 
this weight can obtain by its fall toward the celestial body, or 
the velocity with which it will arrive at its surface after a fall 
from an infinite height, is V2gr in one second. This number, 
wherein g and r are expressed in metres, we shall ¢ oe 

For our globe the value of g is 9°8164....and that of f 
6,369,800; and consequently én our earth 

G=/(2 X 9°8164 X 6,369,800)— 11,183. 

The solar radius is 112-05 times that of the earth and the ve- 
locity produced by gravity on the sun’s surface is 28°36 times 
greater than the same velocity on the surface of our globe; the 
greatest velocity therefore which a body could obtain in conse 
quence of the solar attraction, or 

Gan/ (28°36 X 11205) X11,183—=630,400 ; 


2a—h 
G =, 
* a 2axh 
At the moment the planet comes in contact with the solar sur 


face, h is equal to 1, and its velocity is therefore 
26— 1 


GX 
It follows from this formula that the smaller 2a Sed the rg 

i will 
its Velocity when it reaches the sun. This velocity, like the 


2a can never be less than 2. The smallest velocity with he 
we can imagine a cosmical body to arrive on the su ecto 


sun is consequently | 
. Gx Jsso00, 


or a velocity of 60 geographical miles in one second. 


J, R. Mayer on Celestial Dynamics. 191 


For this smallest value, the orbit of the asteroid is circular ; 
for a larger value it becomes elliptical, until finally, with increas- 
ing eccentricity, when the value of 2a approaches infinity, the 
orbit becomes a parabola. In this last case the velocity is 


ox, |F—toe, 
re) 

or 85 geographical miles in one second. : 
If the value of the major axis become nagative, or the orbit 


assume the form of a hyperbola, the velocity may increase with- 
out end. But this could only happen when cosmical masses 


expressed by the formula 
e——GX aay 


gteat as the solar radius, or 96,000 geographical miles. 

What thermal effect ‘obrebpstil “such velocities? Is the 
effect sufficiently great to play an important part in the immense 
development of heat on the sun bain of 

his crucial question may be easily answered by the help o 
the receding considerations. According to the formula given 
at the end of Chapter II, the degree of heat generated by per- 
Cussion is . 


=0°000139° Xc?, . i 
Where ¢ denotes the velocity of the striking body expressed in 
metres. The velocity of an asteroid when it strikes the ae 
Measures from 445,750 to 630,400 metres; the calorific effect o 
2 . ' 

The relati : +h which an asteroid reaches the solar surface 
in nici ee ee of the sun’s rotation, This, 2b i as 
hy as the rotary effect of the asteroid, is without moment and may be neglec' 

This distance is to be counted from the centre of the sun. 


192 ' J. R. Mayer on Celestial Dynamics. 


the percussion is consequently equal to from 274 to 55 millions 
of degrees of heat.* 

An asteroid, therefore, by its fall into the sun developes from 
4600 to 9200 times as much heat as would be generated by the © 
combustion of an equal mass of coal. 


V. The Origin of the Sun’s Heat (continuation). 


The question why the planets move in curved orbits, one of 
the grandest of problems, was solved by Newton in consequence, 
it is believed, of his reflecting on the fall of an apple. 
story is not improbable, for we are on the right track for the 
discovery of truth when once we clearly recognize that between 
great and small no qualitative but only a quantitative difference 
exists-—when we resist the suggestions of an ever active Imagine 
tion, and look for the same laws in the greatest as well as in the 
smallest processes of nature. mm 

is universal range is the essence of a law of nature, andt 
touchstone of the correctness of human theories. We ia 
the fall of an apple and investigate the law which governs ‘a 
phenomenon; for the earth we substitute the sun, and for t 
apple a planet, and thus possess ourselves of the key to the me 
chanics of the heavens. i 

As the same laws prevail in the greater as well asim ¥ 
smaller processes of nature, Newton’s method may be used 2 


celestial distances, we obtain a generation of heat exceeding al 
terrestrial measures, And since we have sufficient reas?” 


The fact that the development of heat by mechanical — 
on the surface of our globe is, as a rule, not so great, ra cam : 


. is 
heat generated by a weight falling from a height of 367 mete of 


* Throughout this memoir the degrees of heat are expressed in the given 
‘Bea Unless stated to the contrary, the measures of length args metres, 
geographical miles, A, r phen wile <2, of degree of latitude = 
and an English mile =1609 metres. ] 


J. R. Mayer on Celestial Dynamics. 193 


the same weight of coal; just as small as is the amount of heat 
developed by a weight moving with the not inconsiderable 
velocity of 85 metres in one second. But, according to the laws 
of mechanics, the effect-is proportional to the square of velocity; 
if, therefore, the weight move 100 times faster, or with a velocity 
of 8500 metres in one second, it will produce a greater effect 
than the combustion of an equal quantity of coal. 

It is true that so great a velocity cannot be obtained by human 
means; everyday experience, however, shows the development 
of high degrees of temperature by mechanical processes. 

In the common flint and steel, the particles of steel which are 
struck off are sufficiently heated to burn in air. A few blows 
directed by a skillful blacksmith with a sledge-hammer against 
a piece of cold metal may raise the temperature of the metal at 
the points of collision to redness. ae 

The new crank of a steamer, whilst being polished by friction, 
becomes red-hot, several buckets of water being required to cool 
it down to its ordinary temperature. ; 

When a railroad train passes with even less than its ordinary 


One of the grandest constructions for the production of motion 
by human art is the channel in which the wood was allowed to 
gli 


Ce ee 

Rays of heat on passing through glass and other transparent 
bodies undergo partial ainonek which differs in degree, how- 
ever, according to the temperature of the source from which the 
i i warm than 


of 
glass. As the temperature of a source of heat increases, its 


194 J. R. Mayer on Celestial Dynamics. 


respect, their diathermic energy is found to be far superior to 
that of all artificial sources of heat. The temperature of the 
focus of a concave metallic reflector in which the sun’s light has 
been collected is only diminished from one-seventh to one-eighth 
by the interposition of a screen of glass. If the same exper 
ment be made with an artificial and luminous source of heat, it 
is found that, though the focus be very hot when the screen 18 
away, the interposition of the latter cuts off nearly all the heat; 
moreover, the focus will not recover its former temperature when 
reflector and screen are placed sufficiently near to the source of 


ered from a surface of from 5 to 6 square metres, and concentra 
ut the 


sufficient to vaporize platinum, rhodium, and similar metals. the 
The radiation calculated in Chap. III. likewise proves *” 
enormous temperature of the solar surface. From the nag 
nation mentioned therein, it follows that each square centume’™ 
of the sun’s surface loses by radiation about 80 units of a 
minute—an immense quantity in comparison with ter 


A correct theory of the origin of the sun’s heat must explait 

the cause of such enormous temperatures. This-explana ‘let, 

be deduced from the foregoing statement. According oe 
temperature at which bodies appear intensely white-Ao 


ge, 


J. R. Mayer on Celestial Dynamics. 195 


compared with that of water, we find the heat developed by the 
asteroid to be from 7000 to 14,000 times greater than that of 
the oxyhydrogen mixture. From data like these, the extraordi- 
nary diathermic energy of the sun’s rays, the immense radiation 
from his surface, and the high temperature in the focus of the 
Teflector are easily accounted for. 

The facts above mentioned show that, unless we assume on 
the sun the existence of matter with unheard of chemical pro- 

rties as a deus ex machind, no chemical process could maintain 
the present high radiation of the sun; it also follows from the 


ficial light appears dark in comparison with the sun’s light, so 
the mechanical processes of the heavens throw into the shade 


The quality of the sun’s rays, as dependent on his tempera- 
ture, is of the greatest importance to mankind. If the solar heat 
were originated by a chemical process, and amounted near its 


Teach the surface of our earth and warm it. ‘T’he comparatively 
low temperature of the terrestrial surface 18 the cause why the 
heat cannot easily radiate back through the atmosphere into the 
Universe. The atmosphere acts, therefore, like an envelope, 
Which is easily pierced by the solar rays, but which offers con- 
siderable resistance to the radiant heat i from our earth ; 
— — resembles that of a valve — a we an to pass 
y in one direction, but stops the flow in the 0 ; 
: , : eatest importance as 
The action of the atmosphere 1s of the gr It mee the 


l i 
Mean temperature of the earth’s surface. After the setting of 


196 J. R. Mayer on Celestial Dynamics. 


the sun—in fact, in all places where his rays do not reach the 
surface, the temperature of the earth would soon be as low as 
that of the universe, if the atmosphere were removed, or if it did 
not exist. Hven the powerful solar rays in the tropics would be 
unable to preserve water in its liquid state. 

Between the great cold which would reign at all times and in 
all places, and the moderate warmth which in reality exists on 
our globe, intermediate temperatures may be imagined; and it 
is easily seen that the mean temperature would decrease if the 
atmosphere were to become more and more rare. Such a rare 
faction of a valve-like acting atmosphere actually takes place as 
we ascend higher and higher above the level of the sea, and it 
is accordingly and necessarily accompanied by a corresponding 
diminution of temperature. 


perature of low altitudes is nevertheless higher than it 8 ™ 
more elevated positions, is explained by the fact that the atmo 
sphere stops to a far greater egree the calorific rays emanating 
from the earth than it does those from the sun. 


VI. The Constancy of the Sun’s Mass. 


Newton, as is well known, considered light to be the emission 
of luminous particles from the sun. the continued emissit 
of light this great philosopher saw a cause tending to ey 
the solar mass; and he assumed, in order to make good this (0% 
comets and other cosmical masses to be continually falling into 
tral body. ids 


J. R. Mayer on Celestial Dynamics. 197 


If we express this view of Newton's in the language of the 
undulatory theory, which is now universally accepted, we obtain 
the results developed in the preceding pages. It is true that our 
theory does not accept a peculiar “substance” of light or of heat ; 
nevertheless, according to it, the radiation of light and heat eon- 
sists also in purely material processes, in a sogt of motion, in the 
vibrations of ponderable resisting substances. Quiescence is 

rkness and death; motion is light and life. 

An undulating motion proceeding from a point or a plane 
and excited in an unlimited medium, cannot be imagined apart 
from another simultaneous motion, a translation of the particles 
themselves ;* it therefore follows, not only from the emission, 
but also from the undulatory theory, that radiation continually 
diminishes the mass of the sun. Why, nevertheless, the mass of 

e sun does not really diminish has already been stated. 

The radiation of the sun is a centrifugal action equivalent to 
4 centripetal motion. 

The calorific effect of the centrifugal action of the sun can be 
found by direct observation; it amounts, according to Chap. ITI, 
M One minute to 12,650 millions of cubic miles of heat, or 5°17 
pellions of units of heat. In Chapter IV it has been shown 

one kilogram of the mass of an asteroid originates from 
275 to 55 millions of units of heat; the quantity of cosmical 
masses, therefore, which falls every minute into the sun amounts 
to from 94,000 to 188,000 billions of kilograms. 

To obtain this remarkable result, we made use of a method 
which is common in physical inquiries. Observation of the 
Moon’s motion reveals to us the external form of the earth. The 


Planet, just j 

whilst the pendulum has become a magic power in the hands of 

the Sees, enabling him to discover cavities in the bowels of 
earth. O 


the 


rmination of those cosmical masses which the sun receives 
a the space through which he sends forth his rays. 


Th 
centrifugal motion is perhaps the cause of the 
eomets when in the desighvurkbbeat of the sun, as observ 


repulsion of the tails on 
by Bessel. 
Jour. Scr.—Szconp Series, VoL. XXXVII, No. 110.—Manrox, 1864 


198 A, Gautier on recent Researches on Nebule. 


This quantity, however, may be brought nearer to our compre 
hension by comparison with other cosmical magnitudes. The 
nearest celestial body to us (the moon) has a mass of about 
90,000 trillions of kilograms, and it would therefore cover the: 
expenditure of the sun for from one to two years. e mass of 
the earth would afford nourishment to the sun for a period of 
from 60 to 120 years. i 

To facilitate the appreciation of the masses and the distances 
occurring in the planetary system, Herschel draws the following 
picture. Let the sun be represented by a globe 1 metre in diam- 
eter. The nearest planet (Mercury) will be about as large as 
a pepper-corn, 3$ millimetres in thickness, at a distance of 40 
metres. 78 and 107 metres distant from the sun will move 
Venus and the Earth, each 9 millimetres in diameter, or a little 
. larger than a pea. Not much more than a quarter of a metre 
from the Earth will be the Moon, the size of a mustard seed, 
24 millimetres in diameter. Mars, at a distance of 160 metres, 
will have about half the diameter of the Earth; and the smaller 
planets (Vesta, Hebe, Astrea, Juno, Pallas, Ceres, &c.), at a dis: 

nee of from 250 to 800 metres from the sun, will resemble 
particles of sand. Jupiter and Saturn, 560 and 1000 metres 
distant from the centre, will be represented by oranges, 10 and 
9 centimetres in diameter. Uranus, of the size of a nut 4 centr 
metres across, will be 2000 metres; and Neptune, as large as an 
apple 6 centimetres in diameter, will be nearly twice as distant, 
or about half a geographical mile away from the sun. rom 
Neptune to the nearest fixed star will be more than 2000 ge — 
graphical miles. 


ieee a 


. GAUTIER.’ 


Labors of Lord Rosse; First Memoirs.—Since 1827 Lord Ross 
has been engaged in the construction of large specula for Oo 
nomical telescopes. In 1839 he finished his first telescope ¥ af 
had a speculum three feet in diameter with a foca distance | 
rf feet, and he described the method of constructing it me wi 

" Translated for this Journal from the Bibliothéque Universelle, for June, ot 


Art. XVI—<Second Notice of Recent Researches relating to Nebula; 
by A i 


* 
. 


A, Gautier on recent Researches on Nebule. 199 


moir which was inserted in the Philosophical Transactions of the 
Royal Society of London for the year 1840. Afterwards, he 
undertook to produce specula of larger dimensions, and in 1844 
he completed two, six feet in diameter, with a focal distance of 
56 feet, for the employment of which he constructed a huge tel- 
escope, which he erected in the open air, between two walls 
to which it was attached, near his country seat at Birr (Castle) 
or Parsonstown in Ireland, twenty-five leagues southwest of 
ublin 

_ Lord Rosse has been for several years President of the Royal 
Society of London. In 1850 he published in the Transactions 
of this ancient and illustrious Society, his first memoir of 15 pa- 
ges quarto upon his observations of nebule, accompanied with 
four plates representing seventeen of these celestial objects. Be- 
fore noticing his second memoir upon the same subject, presented 
to the same Society in 1861, I will mention some details extracted 
from the preceding memoir. > 

In the memoir of 1850, Lord Rosse first ee out the spiral 
form which he had discovered in many nebulz, a fact of great 
importance as throwing new light upon the constitution of those 
celestial systems. 

The beautiful nebula, No. 51 of Messier’s catalogue, (No. 1622 
of the catalogue published by Sir John Herschel, in the Phil. 
Trans, for 1838,) is situated in the constellation Canes Venaticr, 
near Bootes, in about 13% 23™ of right ascension and 48° of north 
declination. It had been described by Messier as a double neb- 
_ Wa containing stars; by Sir William Herschel as a brilliant 


into two branches. Lord Rosse, in 1845, was the first to dis- 


er one, but the form of the 
nebula being such as is reptesetse in the figure, this connection 
icreases the difficulty of conceiving of any hypothesis to ex- 


creas I . ble that such 
Plain it. It appears in the highest degree rs ites pda to 


Unite to this idea that of a resisting medium, but the supposition 
i an equilibrigm purely statical is not admissible. Some posi- 


200 A. Gautier on recent Researches on Nebulae. 


tive measurements, whether of changes of brightness, or of form, 

or of variations of position, will therefore be most highly inter- 

esting, but they present great difficulties.’’. Mr. Johnston Stoney, 
m 


* 


osse associated with himself in these observations, 


sitions of different stars situated in the nebula, No. 51 of Mes- 
sier, as referred to its central nucleus. The nebula No. 99 of 
Messier, (No. 1173 of Sir John Herschel’s catalogue,) situated 
about 125 10™ of right ascension and 15° of hern declina- 
tion, has also given opportunity for some similar measurements. 
is is the second nebula in which Lord Rosse has shown a very 
distinct spiral structure. He has described also, in his memoir 
of 1850, twelve fainter nebulz of the same class, and he sur 
mised that some others are of the same kind. He described and 
figured in this memoir five new annular nebule, in addition to 
the two already contained in the catalogue of Sir John Herschel; 
some more stars called nebulous, and other nebule of an 
elongated lenticular form, three of which are represented in the 


plates attached to this memoir. 


“ Here,” he says, “in winter celestial objects are usually most distinct, 
and the sky is the darkest before eleven o’clock at night; the sky bow 
ever soon becomes luminous and the details of the nebula which are 
distinct disappear. In spring and autumn the change of light is not 80 
prompt nor so decided, but the nights are shorter. Guided by the admir 
able catalogue of Sir John Herschel (containing the positions and a sum 
mary description of 2306 nebule) we have examined nearly all the rent 


a 
brilliant nebule known, with the exception of a few in the vicinity of 
have not 


itted n made, and the most remarkable objects have been # 
r to a detailed examination, on favorable nights, sometimes ag 
aid of & micrometer. In our eminently variable climate, when 


A, Gautier on recent Researches on Nebulae. 201 


phere particularly advantageous and very rare, I have decided not to de- 
fer longer the presentation of this memoir.” 


ing the details of nebulm of feeble light, as well as to recognize 
4 great nuinber that are double or multiple. He also thinks that 
1t would be well to employ silver for the second reflection. Lord 
be says he has often experienced 

‘ween numerous observations, 


202 A. Gautier on recent researches on Nebule. 


x 
; 


finiiéy that it could under all circumstances be arranged 1D 


of Sir John Herschel’s catalogue. The comparison of 
sults with those obtained by Otto Struve and communicated by 


3 in the di 


of observations descriptive of the greater part of the nebule 


By 


| 


A. Gautier on recent Researches on Nebulae. 203 


Sir John Herschel’s catalogue of 1833, arranged in the order 
adopted by that catalogue, that is, according to their right ascen- 
sions. These observations are frequently accompanied, in the 
text itself, by designs rapidly executed upon wood, representin 
the characteristics of some of the nebula, among which are fif 
teen having a structure distinctly spiral. 
memoir is concluded with a list of thirty-five nebule of 

Herschel’s catalogue which have not been rediscovered in the 
course of the ordinary observations of Lord Rosse and his as- 
sistants, and to which it is therefore desirable that the attention 
of astronomers should be directed anew. e 

The drawings of remarkable nebule have been very faithfully 
engraved by Mr. Basire, as were those of the first memoir. 
pace observes however that the stars are frequently figured too 
arge, 


ber, 1862 7 
__it does not appear that the observations thus-far confirm the - 
ideas, previously put forth by some savans, as to the probability 


observed the more this investiga 


Mysterious and un chable. ! 

Il. Various gw cae and Articles relating to Nebule.—Mr. 
D’Arrest has announced, in No. 1879 of the Astr. Nachrichten, 
the existence of a third variable nebula, north of the constella- 
tion Taurus, This nebula had been seen before at the o ; 


204 A, Gautier on recent Researches on Nebula, 


tory of Bonn, by Messrs. Schénfeld and Kriiger, in 1855 and 
1856, and in America, by Mr. Tuttle, in 1859. It was then vis 
ible with a comet seeker of 84 lines aperture, but in 1862 Mr. 
D’Arrest found that it was seen with difficulty at Copenhagen 
with the great telescope of his observatory. 
Mr. Schonfeld, acting director of the observatory of Mannheim, 
published in No. 1391 of the Astr. Nachrichten a notice of the 
observations upon nebule recorded in the surveys of the heay- 
ens by zones made at the observatory of Bonn, in which he de- 
nies the variability of the light of this same nebula of Taurus, 
which,he had observed without difficulty, in September, 1862, 
with a telescope of eight feet focal length. The author regar 
the variability of the second nebula of this kind in Taurus as no 
more certain than that of the one discovered in 1855 by Mr 
Tempel, in the Pleiades, near the star Merope, and designated as 
variable by Mr. D’ Arrest, in No. 1878 of the Astr. Nachrichten, 
Messrs. Chacornac having also observed it with him, in Septem- 
ber, 1862. Mr. Schonfeld considers that the variability of the 
atmosphere and of the eye of the observer may occasion very 
fused ligh ry 
Doctor Auwers, astronomer at Gdttingen, in a letter which 
follows the preceding article, takes the same view as Mr. Schon 
feld. From his own observations, made at Kénigsberg in 1858, 


pecans impressions from nebul of feeble and somewhat dit 
t. 


and at Géttingen in 1861, he admits indeed the variabili of 


the light of the nebula discovered in Taurus by Mr. Hind ia 


1852, which appears to have attained its greatest brilliancy 1m 
I but he‘does not cre 


ones, the field of vision of these last being in general uite ade 
ited.” He adds that in September, 1862, he clearly distinguish 


ed the two nebule in question, with a comet seeker of two 


focal length : 
Dr. Auwers has also inserted in No. 1392, Astr. Nachr., cata 


logue of the exact positions in 1860 of forty nebulae as oboertes 
with the heliometer of the observatory of Kénigsberg- *" 


mm the catalogues already published by Messrs. Langier 


-D’Arrest. These comparisons do not appear to show vad 


changes of position. 
_ Doctor Winnecke, ina letter dated at the Observatory of Poal- 
kova and inserted in No. 1397 of Ast. Nachr., confirms 


ea Pa i eee ee ee ee ed 


son announced above, that small telescopes frequently enable: ee 


> ES 


* 


_ A. Gautier on recent Researches on Nebula. 205 


to distinguish nebulz better than the larger instruments. He 
does not think the variability of the last two nebulae of Taurus 
has been distinctly shown. 

Mr. D’Arrest, in an article published in No. 1898 Astr. Nachr. 
acknowledges the variability of the nebula near Merope, and 
ei out another nebula marked by Jeaurat to the north of 

leione, in a chart of the Pleiades published by him in the Mé- 
moires de 1’ Académie des Sciences of Paris, for 1779, which has not 
yet been rediscovered. He presumes, therefore, that this region 
of the heavens is especially subject fo variations of Ji 

The same astronomer has announced, in No. 1407 Astr. Nachr., 
that Sir John Herschel is preparing a new general catalogue of 
nebul from observations both ancient and modern, and he gives 
on this occasion a list. of corrections of the catalogue of 18338, 
resulting from his own observations and those of Messrs. Auwers 
and Marth, which Sir John Herschel will beable to make use of 
in his new work. 

The later numbers of the Monthly Notices of the Astronomi- 
cal Society of London contain no articles relating to nebule. I 
will cite only one article by F. Abbott, dated at his private ob- 
Servatory at Hobart-'Town, (Australia,) in May, 1862, and pub- 
lished in the Monthly Notices, No. 1, Vol. 28, apne 32, This ar- 
ticle, presented to the Society at its session Nov. 14, 1862, with 
a drawing which has not been reproduced in the Monthly Notices, 
18 devoted to a cluster of stars in the Southern Cross designa 
a Greek letter Kappa. “This ee ee ee 

tt, “ whi i 1 stated to be com oO 
t, “which Sir John Herschel s geet in 


With a telescope of five feet focal length, furnished with an ex- 
de d f | 
hundred and thirty-five, and that for the colors only ee ee 


‘entation made by Sir John Herschel. 
Ax. Jour. see ey Serres, Vou. XXXVII, No. 110.—Manrcx, 1864, 
7 : 


206 A. Gautier on recent Researches on Nebule. 


Several of the stars have preserved their color, but according 
to Mr. Abbott, most of them have changed ; all the small stars, 
from the tenth to the fourteenth magnitude, have the color. 


_ Prussian blue, with more or less of a tint of red or green mixed — 


with the blue, 


with magnifying powers of only 20 to 40 diamet 


bE 


ers. cae 
Finally, I will report a note by Chacornac, entitled “ Nebuleuse = 
variable det du Taureau,” presented by Mr. Le Verrier to the 


Academy of Sciences of Paris at its session April 6, 1868, and 

inserted in the Comptes Rendu of that meeting, t. 56, p. 

Mr. Chacornac, at Marseilles, in the latter part 

the first part of 1854, noticed a star of the eleventh magnitude 
I fo) 


ern declination, without perceiving any nebula at that point) 
but he could not see any at Paris near the meridian towards 


ture, although the atmosphere was very transparent. 
The 19th of October, 1855, he observed a faint nebula pt 


mensions, or form. January 27th, 1856, it appeared to Fs 
quite brilliant, presenting the appearance of a transparent 0° 


parallel bands, resenti f -] tangular, the greaté 
lide ihiashia, bBo, a@ form nearly tha gun smaller 
arc 24 minutes. 


ecting itself upon this same small star very near to $ of Taner 
place, ¢ 


hetey ries: ors th os eee ete 


O. N. Rood on action of Electric Light on Iodized Plates. 207 


November 20th, 1862, Mr. Chacornac could no longer find the 
least trace of this nebula, while the small star upon which it was 
projected did not present any variation of brightness; and the | 
nebula has since been invisible with the instruments of the Im- 
perial Observatory of Paris. 

We see by the preceding Notices what a degree of activity 
and interest the researches upon nebule now inspire, and also 
how many difficulties they present. It will not probably be 
very long before we may hope to obtain a solution of some of 
the important questions to which they have given rise. 


Art. XVIII.—On the action of very weak Electric Light on the 
Todized Plate; by OGDEN N. Roop, Professor of Physics in 
Columbia College. 


time of taking the picture. - Careful examination of the plate 


of invisible electric brushes, resting on these points, and under- 
some experiments to determine whether weak electric light 
could be photographed. Geisler tubes were used in a dark room, 
and with the aid of Gunther, he succeeded in obtaining good 
photographs of the stratified discharge,' as Prof. Wm. B. Rogers 
ad done some months previously. 


This led me to attempt the study of the electric brush by the 
aid of photography, but as its light is incomparably weaker than 


Toxyline, in which the cotton fibre was somewhat disintegrated, 
and-by its use I finally obtained good photographs of the post- 
tive, as well as of the negative h. An ordinary came 

Was employed, and the exposure | en minutes. The 


minute photographs were then enlarged as. usual, and prints 


made from the enlarged negatives. 
* Pogg. Annalen, vol. exiii, No. vii * This Journal, xxx, 8817. 


208 O.N. Rood on action of Electric Light on Iodized Plates. 


The positive electrical brush consists, as is well known, of 4 
short stem with widely branching ramifications; these latter are 
r ; 


very faint even in the 


2, 


on the wood-cut, fig. 1, whic 
is from a photograph magnified 
ten diameters. 

t is well known that the s 
negative brush is much smaller than the posl- 
tive, and it is often spoken of as a star or mr 
nute point of light; the photograph, however, 
shows that this is not the case, but that is 
structure is analogous to that of the positive 
brush, only that the ramification begins lower 
down on the stem, as it were, nearly at its root, as is seen im the 
wood-cut, fig. 2, which is from a magnified photograph. 


Negative electric brush, 


Positive electric brush, 


Action of weak electric light on the plate in the presence of daylight. 
—The Geisler tubes in the physical cabinet of the college enabled 
me now to put the probability of Dove’s suggestion to the test 
of experiment; some of these were connected with an induction 
coil and photographed in broad daylight, when it was found tha 
the image formed by the electric discharge could be easily traced 
through the length of the tubes, and that even the stratification 
was still partially visible. In these cases, however, the electri¢ 
light was still visible to the eye during the discharges. 

Aecordingly, to make an exact experiment on this point, & 
sheet of white paper was placed behind one of these tubes and 


invisible. Nevertheless an intense photographic image 0 it 
envelope, and a very distinct image of the diffused electri¢ lig 


_ This experiment is indeed a very erat ak proof of the tee 

ical activity of the electric light, the more so, as according 3 
e of my experiments, the iodized plate is by no means 

sensitive to slight differences in illumination as the human ey® 


O. N. Rood on action of Electric Light on Iodized Plates. 209 


Among the Geisler tubes belonging to the college I found one 
in which bulbs of uranium glass were alternated with small 
tubes of plain colorless glass. When the room was darkened, 
and the electric discharge passed through it, owing to their fluo- 
rescence the s shone very brightly, invisible or faintly visi- 
ble light being converted into bright green light. On taking a 
photograph of the tube, it was quite surprising to see how blank 
were the spaces on the plate, where the images of the green 
bulbs had fallen; after an exposure of four minutes only one of 
the bulbs could be faintly traced, though other portions of the 


bright sky fell directly through it on the lens of the camera, 
the entire aperture of the lens (a ‘portrait combination” of 
six inches focal length) was used, and the exposure lasted one 
minute. An examination of the negative plate showed that the 
thin walls of the uranium bulbs had merely diminished to some 
extent the chemical power of the rays passing through them. 
The same experiment with a plate of uranium glass two-tenths 
of an inch in thickness gave a result like in kind only differin 
in degree: the chemical intensity of the light being iminishet 
about one-half. This shows, in accordance with theory, that 1t 
1s mainly the dispersed light which has lost its chemical power, 
and that through a plate of even this thickness many chemi 
Tays still penetrate. ppt 

_A photograph of another Geisler tube, in which the interior 
discharge tube was surrounded by a solution of sulphate of qui- 
line, was also taken: this liquid by its fluorescent property di- 
Minished, of course, the intensity of chemical action of the 
electric light, but by no means to the same extent as the ura- 
lum glass. 


Feb. 3d, 1864, 


210 D. Trowbridge on the Invisibility of Nebulous Matter. 


Art, XIX.—On the Invisibility of Nebulous Matter ; by 
D. TROWBRIDGE. 


Ir has generally been supposed that if nebulous matter, in the 
proper sense of the word, or cosmical vapor, exists in the heav- 
ens, and within reach of our telescopes, it will be visible to the 
eye, with suitable optical aid. It is proposed to show in this ar- 
ticle, with some plausibility, that this is an erroneous idea, except 
in some particular cases. ; 

Comets are the only celestial objects, whose physical constitu- 
tion is approximately understood, that afford us anything like 4 
distinct notion of what nebulous matter is. By far the greater 
proportion of these bodies are composed of materials so extreme 
ri rare that the solar rays can penetrate completely through the 

e 


regions of our atmosphere, must be- looked upon as dense and 
ive bodies in comparison with the almost spiritual texture of 
these light bodies. A cloud composed of materials so rare, and 
whose distance from us did not exceed fifteen or twenty miles, 
would searcely be visible. A comet, however, will be visible 
when its distance from us is many millions of miles. 
_ What conclusion can we draw from these facts? Do they not 
indicate that comets do not shine wholly by reflected light? re 
the 3d of July, 1819, Arago made an attempt to analyze the 
light of comets, by applying his polariscope to the great comet 
of 1819. The instrument showed unmistakable signs of polar 
ized light, and, therefore, of reflected sun-light. Similar observ 
ations on Halley’s comet, in 1835, more clearly indicated the ex: 
istence of polarized light. “These beautiful experiments still 
leave it undecided, whether, in addition to this reflected solar 
light, comets may not have light of their own. Even . 
case of the planets, as, for instance, in Venus, an evolution © 
independent light seems very probable.” ' 

“The variable intensity of light in comets cannot always be 
explained by the position of their orbits, and their distance from 
the sun.”* “After mentioning Arago’s observations, with his po” 
lariscope, on Halley’s comet, in 1835, Mr. Hind says, “ Still the 
variation in the intensity of light is not universally such a8 
Should follow if the comet merely reflected the sun’s rays —_ 

* Cosmos, vol. i, pp. 90, 91. Bohn’s edition. * Cosmos, vol. i, p. 9 


% 


D. Trowbridge on the Invisibility of Nehulous Matter. 211 


certain permanent conditions, and we are under the necessity of 
looking to physical causes inherent in the body itself for an ex- 
planation of some few observations which appear irreconcilable 
with the theory of reflected solar light.”* “The molecular con- 
ditions of the head or nucleus, so seldom possessing a definite 
outline, as well as the tail of the comet, is rendered so much the 
more mysterious from the fact that it causes no refraction.” * 
have collected these facts together to show that reflected 
solar light cannot completely explain, at present, all the phe- 
nomena of the light of comets. Besides the above observations, 
it may be added that the visibility of comets in the day time, 
and even when near the sun, also indicates a light-generating 
process in the comet; for otherwise we must suppose them ca- 


that nebulous vapor is necessarily too diffuse, 


. 


render nebulous matter visible 


212 F. B. Meek on the Family Pteriide. 


higher telescopic power resolves previous nebule? It is very 
doubtful whether our best telescopes will ever be able to bring 


lous matter in the vicinity of our system, either planetary or 
stellar, and ages may pass before our system, in its a 
through space, will come near any of the small patches that may 
exist, so as to render them visible to us. 

Perry City, N. Y., Aug. 31st, 1863. 


closely connected with the period of the solar spots. It is also 
known that the auroras influence the needle; and that they are sub- 
ject to the same law of periodicity as the solar spots; and thus 
seem to be connected with solar influence. The effect of the 
auroras is evidently light-producing. 


a 


Art, XX.—Remarks on the family Pteriide, (= Aviculide) wilh 
descriptions of some new fossil genera; by F. B, MEEK. 


THE existing genera of the family Pteriidx form a group a 
once so natural, and so distinctly defined, that conchologists meet 


with little difficulty in deciding what particular genera it should 


include." When we undertake to classify the more numerorm 
extinct genera, however, which were introduced, lived out thet 
term, and passed out of existence at various periods during Wt 
immense interval of time between the first introduction 0 this 


presenting various intermediate gradations between the moder! 


* Perhaps the only question in regard to the limits of this family, as known it 
our existing seas, respecting which late writers on conchology differ, 1s, wheth : 
ee  incinde t i e think it should, while otbers make 


sie IN see Soe 


differs in not having its beaks terminal, but set back some distance from the “a 


obtusely pointed anterior extremi The beaks, however, are de eens 
scarcel distinct from the cardi y of the shell 


scarcely : inal margin, and the general aspect of the 
to be intermediate between that of Pinna, and Avicula 


pero Hed know whether or not it has a prismatic structure ; if not, 
probably be found to belong to the Mytilide. 


F. B. Meek on the Family Pteriide. 213 


representatives of this and some of the allied groups.” For in- 
stance, no conchologist could be for a moment in doubt whether 


more properly to the Aviculide or to the Pectenide, Yet In 
tracing these two families by their fossil shells back into the 


types, it will be observed that the hinge plates, or denticles, 
me more and more oblique, until in some of the Paleozoic 


obscure divisions are to be seen at the remotest extremities of the 
hinge, ranging nearly or quite parallel to the cardinal margin, as 
in Prerinia, Bakevellia, and some of the other genera apparently 
belonging to the Aviculide. In addition to this, in many © the 


etal of these ancient types, is provided with cartilage furrows, 
ay Purl ies. of Bake: 


Sion; and yet in all their other known characters these forms 
agree with the Aviculide. : iin 
Tn another direction, some of these ancient groups of Avicult 

2 . 
_ * Whether the introduction, and gradual dying out of the various forms present- 
ing these intermediate shibastihe Sian 9 from the operation of a law of patie 
like that termed by Dr. Darwin “natural selection,” or any other, or from repea 
culous creati it is ject of this paper to discuss. 
* As typitied ‘or Deadianeagide Sowerby, rehich must no as the 
Mg of Dolabra, since Prof. King has separated from that genus as f t pro rm 
oe rig Schizodus, Dolabra? alpina Hall, (Iowa Report, 1, part ii, pl. 29 fig. 2) 


Am. Jour. Sc1.—Srconp Series, Vou. XXXVI, No. 110.—Marcn, 1864. 
28 


214 F. B. Meek on the Family Pteriide. 


seem to show a disposition to shade off towards the Mytilide or 

Dreissenide. Amongst the Carboniferous and Permian species — 
of Myalina, for instance, we see species presenting exactly the — 
form and other general external appearances of the existing 
genera Mytilus and Dreissena, to which even yet some paleon 
tologists will persist in referring them. On a closer inspection, 
‘however, these Carboniferous and Permian species, when we call 
find them with the two valves united, are seen to be always 4 
little inequivalve, while their hinge also differs from that of the 
Mytilide and Dreissenide in having a flat area with longitudinal 
cartilage furrows. In addition to these differences, 1 have dis 


g 
he 
& 
ba 
= 
v 
3 
< 
= 
g 
Ka 
oO 
i@) 
a 
re) 
“<4 
4?) 
a) 
~) 
S 
oy 
a 
— 
Q 
= 
Cs) 
=. 
Ea 
R 
m 
ra) 
zr 
& 


in the true Aviculas. It is true that the same structure has also 
been observed by Dr. Carpenter in the inner layer of Dreissend, 
but the unquestionable imequivalve character of Myalina, 10 coh 
nection with its peculiar striated cartilage area, and the fact 

these shells are always found associated with marine types, 7? 
sufficient evidences that they have no very close affinities © 


Family PTERIID.A (or Aviculide). 

Shell inequivalve, inequilateral, composed of an inner. lam 
nated pearly layer, and an outer prismatic substance; left ot 
upper valve always more convex than the other. AW 
margin of the right valve generally more or less sinuous er 3 
passage of the byssus. Cartilage submarginal, simple, and Ee ee 
‘In a single cavity or depression near the beaks, or divided s : 
distributed in a series of furrows crossing the cardinal fact 
right angles,—or, in some of the older fossil genera, occupy 
linear furrows in the cardinal area or facet, ranging more or wed ; 
— parallel to the hinge line. Hinge with or without pers 
a io 


muscular impression generally small and placed near the D sila 
Pallial line simple, often irregularly dotted. ae 
Since Scopoli’s namie, Pteria, was regularly established in 17795 While iy 

pame, Avicula, was not affirmed by any om Ae understanding oF 789. I b 
= n ideas of genera and species, until Bruguiere adopted it 10 1789. 
- Gray is right in restoring Scopoli’s name, Pteria, for this genus. 


* 


F. B. Meek on the Family Pteriide. 215. 


The animal in the existing typical genus has the mantle-mar- _ 


ns freely open and doubly fringed; foot small, grooved, and 

aving the power of spinning a byssus; palpi large; gills two 
on each side, crescent shaped, free or connected with each other 
posteriorly, and to the mantle. 

The foregoing diagnosis of the shells of this family is framed 
80 as to include species belonging to three subordinate groups, 
the first of which, so far as known to the writer, has no living 
representatives, and seems to have been mainly confined to the 
Paleozoic epoch. The other two groups (the Pieriine or Avicu- 
line and Melinine) are both represented by living species in 
our existing seas. These three sections or subfamilies may be 
characterized as follows :— 


1. Prerinny.x, (or Pterinia group). : 

Cartilage apparently occupying a series of linear furrows, ranging more 
or less nearly parallel to the cardinal margin, in a usually broad, flat- 
tened cardinal facet or area, Anterior muscular scar sometimes mode- 


horhynchus, and several undefined Paleozoic groups. A part of the 


2. Prerunx, (or Aviculine). 

Cartilage mainly or entirely confined to a single, more or less defined, 
depression or cavity behind the beaks. Anterior muscular impression 
very small, . 

Includes Pteroperna, Pteria (or Avicula), Margaritifera, Malleus, 
Aucella and Eumicrotis. The following extinct genera also probably 
belong here, viz:—Monotis, Halobia, Pteronites and Posidonomya, with 
apparently some undescribed fossil genera. 


3. Meuninz, (Perna or Isognomon group.) , 

Cartilage divided and distributed along the hinge in a series of furrows 
crossing the cardinal area at right angles to the hinge line. Anterior 
muscular scar generally very small. - : 

neludes Crenatula, Melina (= Perna Brug., not Adanson), Bakevellia, 
lia, Inoceramus and Pulvinites. 


and interior of a greater number of fossil species are known. 
i ] as hinge 


© Megambonia aviculoides, and M. lamellosa Hall, for instance. 


216 F. B. Meek on the Family Pteriide. 


nizing the convenience of sections or intermediate groups between 
families and genera, for it is highly probable that if we knewall 
the characters of all the species that ever existed, from the be 


gists, and typified by the existing A. Hirundo. At any rate,l 

ave never seen a specimen, nor can I remember a figure, of 
any species showing the hinge of a true Avicula, from any of our 
American Paleozoic rocks. So far as my knowledge extends, all 
the Silurian and Devonian species, the hinge in which has been 
seen, want the cartilage cavity of the modern Aviculas, and have 


9 
E 
“ 
a 
i. 
; 


the striated hinge facet, or the oblique hinge teeth, (one or the 


other or both) of Pterinia, more or less distinctly marked. 


addition to this, most of the Silurian and Devonian, and many 


of the Carboniferous species, the hinge in which is unknow?, 

resent more the external appearance of the European species 
figured by Goldfuss and others, in which the internal characters 
of Pterinia are known to exist. 


tained, from the examination of a very fine natural cast of the 10 
terior of Avicula Flabella Conrad, from the Hamilton Group, 
Cayuga Co., N. Y., that it presents all the characters of @ 
typical Plerinia. The specimen examined is a cast of # ™ 


valve, showing the impression of three rather long oblique hinge? 


teeth behind the beak, and of seven or eight shorter ones 12 


Aviculas; but Prof. Winchell describes, from the Michigan 10 
a form which he refers to the first of these species, a8 having 
long posterior cartilage facet.” at 
From all that is now known in relation to the affinities of ‘and 
shells, we may safely infer that probably all of our Silurian cae 
Devonian species, especially those of the Hamilton and Che the 
erred , 


he 


the same relations to the existing Aviculas, or Prerias, tbat the 


shese 


F. B. Meek on the Family Ptertide. 217 


old Aviculopectens do to our modern Pectens.’ For, in the mod- 
ern types of the Pectenide and Aviculide, the cartilage is mainly 


Prof. McCoy, Mr. Woodward and others, in referring that genus 
also to the ‘Aviculide, had it not been for the fact, that, on sub- 
jecting sections of a typical Carboniferous species (Aviculopecten 
amplus Meek & Worthen) to a microscopical examination, it was 
found not to possess the prismatic structure of the Aviculide, but 


' 127, pl. cxvi, fig. 10, a, 6, ¢, 4 & f, 9) 
This genus may be briefly characterized as follows :— 

Genus GrypHoruyNcuvs, Meek.—Shell small, thick, nearly 
Or quite as wide as long, very slightly oblique, plano-convex, or 
sub-hemispherical, the right valve being flat or concave, and the 
left very gibbous; posterior and anterior margins, somewhat 
sinuous, but neither valve with a defined byssal sinus. Beaks 
sub-central; that of the left valve elevated, gibbous, ree 
incurved, and at the extremity directed obliquely forward ; be 

) 


shell, ranging more or less nearly at right angles to the umbonal 
axis; in both valves provided with a wide, well defined cardinal 
area. Ears subequal, not produced, i t 
and convex in the left, in which latter the anterior one 18 sepa- 
rated from the swell of the umbo by 4 deep oblique “spt 
Surface with fine, sometimes decussating strie. Hinge with sev- 
~ ral small irregular teeth near the middle. 

* The i ad between nearly or quite all of the Paleo- 
elaine woe Basile & our modern seas. 


218 F. B. Meek on the Family Pteriide. 


This genus includes @. grypheatus and G., tenuistriatus (= Avie 
ula grypheata and A. tenuistriata, of Munster, Gold; Petref. Germ, 
ii, 127-8). 

“In the same group may also be placed, as the type of a dis- 


tinct subgenus, another little Triassic species described by Mun- 


ster as Avicula decussata (Goldf. Petref. Germ. ii, 128, cxvi, 12a, b), 
For this form I would propose the subgeneric name Actinophorus, 
It agrees with the typical species in all essential characters, ex: 


cepting in being much more oblique, in having its posterior 


margin truncated at right angles to the hinge, instead of being — 


slightly sinuous; and particularly in having the left valve orna 
mented with strongly elevated, distant, radiating coste or plr 
cations, 

I have not been able to see the prismatic structure in either of 
these types, but, from all analogy, I should suppose it could be 
detected in specimens in a better state of preservation. So far 
as known to the writer, this genus has not been discovered im 
a and has only been found in the St. Cassian deposits of 

e Tyrol 


yrol, | 
Under the Aviculine or Pteriine, it will also be observed that 
. . 1s 


Schlotheim, = Monotis speluncaria of King and others); as 
E. radialis (= Peeten radialis Phillips); and &. Garforthensis, 
(=Monotis Garjorthensis King). This genus may be described 
as follows :— 


convex, the left valve being usuall very convex, and the right 
flat or a little concave; not distinctly auriculate, the ears being 


cle large and subcentral, those of the retractors small and sa | 
near the beaks. Surface generally with radiating, vaulted, ait 


~The species of this genus have been usually referred t Bunt. a 


eo a eee 


F., B. Meek on the Family Pteriide. 219 


smooth, rounded, and without even the most obscure indication 
of an emargination, to represent the deep, sharply defined, byssal 
sinus of Humicrotis. 

I know nothing of the hinge, or of the microscopical struc- 
ture, of Monotis salinarius, the specimens at the Smithsonian 
Institution being firmly imbedded in the very hard brittle ma- 
rix, and not in a condition to show any traces of minute struc- 
ture. Dr. Carpenter, however, has examined a species—Avicula 
cygnipes, of Phillips—(which is unknown to the writer), supposed 

e congeneric with the type of Bronn’s genus, and finds it to 
possess the structure of the Pectenide, rather than that of the 
Aviculide. On examining thin sections of our Kansas shell, 
the type of the genus here described, by the aid of a magnifying 
power of about three hundred and fifty diameters, the prismatic 


ee P 
pearance of some species of [noceramus. They also have a small 
peculiar concave ear just in front of the beak of the left as well 


Margin in Aucella than in Humicrotis. Auet t 
Seem to bear similar relations to Humicrotis, that Posidonomya 
does to Monotis proper, as typified by Mf. salinarws. 
It is remarkable that, even in late European publications, we 
See the so-called Monotis speluncaria placed in the genus : 
There is still another small group of Jurassic shells represented 
by one species in our collection from the far West, for which I 


* 


220 F. B. Meek on the Family Pteriide. 


had thought a subgeneric name should be proposed. Farther 
comparisons, however, with specimens of some European speci 


species 
of this type, have led to the conclusion that these little shells 


form a section of the genus Humicrotis, probably too closely con- 
nected by some intermediate forms to merit a distinct subgeneric 


name. ‘The western species of this section alluded to above is 


ster: also Mf decussata, and M. Alberti Munster, (Goldf. Pe 
Germ., ii, p. 138-9,) as well as a species figured by Goldfuss as 
Monotis echinati, (id., pl. exxi, 6.) 


. + 
These shells have much the general outline of the typical spe , 
c 


cies of Humicrotis, being short or suborbicular and but very 
slightly oblique, without any anterior ear, and generally hay- 
ing the posterior ear much abbreviated. They differ, howevel, 


? 


n conclusion, I would remark that the numerous widely dif 2 


ferent types from the older rocks, figured in the various works 


In many cases, from microscopical examinations, in determining 
the family affinities of the ancient fossil genera of Avi . 
Arcide and Pectenide ; especially, where the condition of the 
Specimens under investigation is such as to prevent the Di 
of the hinge and interior from being determined. How far, 
ever, the different types of structure may have been cons be 
amongst all the ancient genera of these families, remains ' 

determined by the examination of a larger number of s 


the same, from co: i i f that species. 
the same locality paring our specimens with the type o: 8} ’ 


ature 


* The figures here referred to are not recognizable, but we know our shell to be | 
visi BP collected at 


pce 


eo Pea iene 


SG a 


: . 
4 
5 


J. B. Pearse on Minerals of the Chlorite Group. 221 


Art. XXI.—On some Minerals of the Chlorite Group; by JOHN 
B. PEARSE. | 


of which there are three kinds—one colored pure — a ve 
. The fol- 


The mineral is in distinct crystals. There is the strongest evi- 
dence that all belong to the trimetric system, closely resembling 
i e 


truncated pyramid, but the lateral surfaces are so striated as to 
be incapable of measurement. ramid is made up of a 


. The hardness of the green and red is 2°75; the specific grav- 
ity of the green at 64° Fahr. 2°355, that of the red 2:383, which 


micaceous plates, with a vitreous lustre, and white streak. | Here 
blowpipe reactions show the presence of chrome, and silica, the 
— bsence of fluorine in 


the green. Traces of the alkalies were shown in the red. Both 


Fresh 
and perfect crystals were used for ea t. 
Same variety, in Srdat to certify undeniably the composition. 
M. JOUR. Sci.—Suconp Series, VoL. XXXVII, No. 110.—Mancu, 1864. 
29 


222 J. B. Pearse on Minerals of the Chlorite Group. 


In no case was any crystal chosen the color of which was im 
tinct. eh 
The following is an outline of the method of analysis adopted. 

After solution by means of carbonate of soda, and chlorhydrie 

acid, the usual precautions being taken for an accurate estima: 

tion of the silica, the filtrate was rendered slightly alkaline with 
ammonia which precipitated the sequioxyds of iron, chrome and 


nickel oxyd from the sesquioxyds; the latter was then dried, 
weighed, pulverized carefully with carbonate of soda, and then — 


nitric acid, was treated by sulphid of potassium, as al 

separate: the nickel from the lime and magnesia. The lime Wis _ 
ecipitated as oxalate, and estimated as sulphate; the magnesia — 

in the usual way. After the solution of th 

estimation of the oxyd of nickel, the oxyd was redissolved, and : 

separated by ammonia from the impurities which cling oma ; 

lowing results—two determinatious bein g generally made of each - 


Green. ‘. Reddish-green, 
No. 1. No. 2. Average. || No. 1. No, 2. 
Si0,*| 28800 28444 28-699 || 31515 82-200 
Al,0, 18:375 18-375 || 13-74 see 


PaO | 810 ‘370 || +231 200 


303 1-278 Te 
Mg,0| 31-766 32483 32-195 || 34871 34-929 
H,O | 13900 14185 14-095 || 13-933 14-033 


* Si=28-4,0=—16. ag 
_ The joint weight of sesquioxyds in the green was 40°™% we 
4°89 ; that of their separate determinations 24°82, the ann pele 
firming the former, after exclusion of silica. These 2M a 
show that the red and reddish-green are identical, but ere ao 
differ from the green. Since there is one per cent more . mi se : 
* Chem. News, vol. vi, p- 82. 2 al 


J. B. Pearse on Minerals of the Chlorite Group. 223 


of chrome, and one and a third per cent less of protoxyd of 
iron in the red than in the green, the first question as to the 
cause of the difference of color is unanswered by analysis. It 
is possibly due to molecular arrangement. 

The following formule exhibit the number of each class of in- 
gredients, the sesquioxyds of chrome, iron, and aluminum being 
represented by Al,O, and the protoxyds of magnesium, calcium, 
Iron, and nickel, by Mg,O, because aluminum and magnesium 
constitute by far the larger proportion of the bases. 

Green, 5Si0,+2Al,0,+9Mg,0+8H,0. 
Red, &.,  7Si0,+2A1,0,+13Mg,0+10H,0. 

Without attempting at present to reconcile these numbers to 
any theory of the silicates, it will prove interesting to discuss 
the reliable results of analysis attained by different chemists, with 
different specimens of this and other minerals referable to the 
chlorite group. In order to show their mutual relations more 
clearly, [ subjoin a table of their atomic composition, reducing 
them all to the proportions arising from two atoms of alumina. 


* Proportion of atoms in chloritic minerals. 


SiO, Al,O,; Mg,O0 H.O Analyst. 
1, Kammererite, erystallized, 5 2 8 8 ermann, 
2. My green, rs 5 2 9 8 Pear 
3, Chlorite (average analysis) 6 2 10 8 Rammelsberg 
4. Kammererite, fibrous, 6 2 10 8 Hermann 
5. Chonikrite, massive, ae 10 6 von Kobell 
6. Rhodophyllite, crystallized, 7 2 12 10 Genth. 
7. My red, e 7 2 19° 10 Pearse, 
8. Kammererite, « 8 2 14 10 Smith & Brush. 
9. Pyrosclerite, 8 2 12 10 von Kobell. 
10. Tabergite, 9 2 14 10 Svanberg. 
11. Kammererite, crystalline, 9 2 11 10 Hartwall, Garrett. 
12, Pyrosclerite, impure, 9 2 14 6 Lychnell. 


ssion. 
Genth’s analysis of rhodophyllite (6) gives nine or ten sae 
of water, and twelve atoms of magnesia; my red, and reddish- 
green (7) give ten atoms of water and rather less than thiniees 
atoms magnesia. I therefore prefer the formula I have given 4 
Genth’s rhodophyllite, with which my red is identical. Smit 
& Brush’s kiimmererite differs from rhodophyllite by an atom 
of olivine. These two formule may be regarded as reliable, be- 
ing derived from well executed analyses of crystallized specimens. 


224 J. B. Pearse on Minerals of the Chlorite Group. 


We may reject at once from the above list chonikrite (6), and 
pyrosclerite (12) as impure. The kimmererite of Hartwall and 
Garrett (11) not being quite pure, and differing but slightly from — 
von Kobell’s pyrosclerite (9) might be referred to the latter, as _ 
Dana has done. But as pyrosclerite (9) differs by only one atom 


_ Our critical examination of the above series of minerals lim- 
its their number to four, viz. Nos. 2, 8, 6, (7) and 8, whieh are * 
here presented as distinct varieties, together with the formule of Me 
olivine, augite, and serpentine, for the sake of further diseussio® 


Nos. SiO, Al,0, Mg,0 H,O : 
2. Grastite, 5 2 9 8 Pearse and Hermant 
3. Chilorite, 6 2 10 8 Many analysts. 
6. Rhodophyllite, z - 12 10 Genth and Pearse. ; 
8. Kammererite, 8 2 14 10 Smith & Brush. 
ugite, 1 1 : 
Olivine, 1 2 : 
Serpentine, 2 3 2 : 


A comparative study of the above shows the following ot ‘ 
markable differences between these varieties of the chlorite gt0UP’ 


Grastite + augite = chlorite. 
Grastite + serpentine = rhodophyllite. ; . 
Grastite + olivine + serpentine == kammererite. oe 
In other words, the differences of composition agnor eet 
bers of the chlorite group are the simpler minerals etofore 
with them in locality, or from which they have been hereto! es 
assumed to be derived. e 
My apology for a new name is that not one of those heretofore prop i: 
any member of this group is applicable, oe 


J. B. Pearse on Minerals of the Chlorite Group. 225 


If I may be allowed to hazard a conjecture as to the introduc- 
tion of alumina to those simple minerals to build up the chlorite 
group, I suggest that it is due to the conjoined influence of adja- 
cent decomposed feldspar, and a solution of magnesia. For de- 
composed feldspar, I take the most general composition of kaolin, 
and for solution of magnesia, brucite. Grastite and kimmer- 
erite may: be supposed to be formed thus: 


Grastite : Sid, Al,0,; Mg,0 H,O 
1 atom of kaolin, 3 2 3 
2 * olivine, 2 4 
6." braeile; 5 5 
1 “© grastite, 5 2 9 8 


Kammererite: 


1 atom of kaolin, 3 2 3 
7 Onvine, 3 6 

1 “ serpentine, 2 4 2 
oS prucite, 5 5 
1 “  kammererite, 8 2 14. 10 


moment’s consideration will show that these conjectures are 
not unfounded. Chlorite is found where talcose matter and feld- 


adjacent feldspar, and serpentine has been supposed to de- 


rived from olivine. The locality in which grastite, rhodophyl- 
lite, and kiimmererite are remarkably developed, viz. Lancaster 
county, Penn., abounds in brucite. In fact brucite either as such 


Lancaster Co., 
enn. We have therefore only hazarded a natural conclusion, 
that chloritic minerals are formed from their simpler mineral 
associates, : 
Philadelphia, Oct. 26th, 1863. 


226 A. Winchell on Fossils from the Potsdam 


Art. XXII.—WNotice of a small collection of Fossils from the Pots. 
. dam Sandstone of Wisconsin and the Lake Superior Sandstone of : 
Michigan ; by Prof. ALEXANDER WINCHELL. “a 


The interest which attaches to every vestige of organic life be 


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region three or four miles farther south, it supports the first er i 
liers of the Calciferous sandrock. : Me | 
The high bluffs surrounding the lake are described er : 
Wood (and also by Prof, Hall in the Wisconsin Report) re rae 
sisting entirely of bluish or iron-stained quartzite, exhibits 7 
; . be- i) 

* The present paper was written and accepted for publication in this Journal b* e 
fore I had become aware of the existence of the very important eee patience . 
nograp! i" here ex} J : 

my great admiration. It will nevertheless be observed that Prof. papa form t 
does not embrace a notice of any fossils found as far south as those whi descrip- : 
i that some interest must still at pete 


* Sometimes improperly styled “Spirit Lake.” 


of Wisconsin and Lake Superior. 227 


gradual passage into an overlying conglomerate, which, in turn, 
assumes, above, the characteristics of the Potsdam sandstone. 
Both insist on the absolute continuity and conformability of the 
quartzite, conglomerate and sandstone. Mr. Wood says: “It 
is in the northern slope of the main ridge (on the east of the 
lake) that I found these fossils. If the sandstone containin 

them shall be called ‘ Potsdam,’ and the main ridge ‘ Quartzite, 
then I should say that they were a continuous deposit; and I 
do not know of any reason for separating them, only that they 
differ in hardness; while it is only at the extremes of the scale 
that this difference is manifest.” Prof. Hall states (Geol. Rep, 


quartzite is superimposed a little farther south, by the outliers 
of the Calciferous sandrock, this fact would give countenance to 
the alternative suggested. 

ScoLiTrHuS LINEARIS. 

S. linearis Hall. is present in abundance in some of the frag- 
ments, in the foretF abe t, cylindrical, nest-like cay ay 
or three inches long, extending vertically to the planes 0 |. 
ding. They vary from ‘05 to ‘27 of an inch in diameter. 


228 A. Winchell on Fossils from the Potsdam 


Ortnts BaRraBuEnsis, n. sp. 

There are several imperfect specimens of an Orthis, apparently 
of the type of 0. biforatus. The form is transverse, with a 
straight hinge-line,“ and the sub-equal beaks a little elevated 


D. Owen (Rep. Wis. Jo. and Min., p. 575) and Shumard 
(St. Louis Trans., i, 627) have made allusion to the existence of 


STRAPAROLLUS (OputLeta) PRIMORDIALIS, nD. sp. 

A planorboid shell, three-fourths of an inch in diameter, and 
having the apex of the spire depressed below the level of the 
outer whorl. The number of whorls is probably about five, 
but only the last two are preserved in the best specimens. + 
tube enlarges very gradual] y, and is marked by a distinct carina 
just above the peripheral line, above and below which is a shal- 

oov: 


Some of the specimens of this fossi] greatly resemble the if 


rock of New York; but the volutions enlarge a little ee 


PLevrotomaria? apvena, n. sp. 
A trochoid or sub-turreted shell, of at least four whorls, 
which are depressed-convex externally, and apparently destitute 


* 


Potsdam of Wisconsin and Lake Superior. 229 


of all superficial ornaments. But three whorls have been seen; 
these are ‘66 inch in height, and the lower one is about “77 inch 
in diameter—the three being of nearly equal height. 

This fossil is quite unlike anything described from the Pots- 
dam sandstone; and there is nothing in the Calciferous sand- 
rock which approaches nearer than Holopea Proserpina Billings 
(Pamphlet, Jan. 1862, p. 28), with which this may be eongeneric. 


A DicettocerHatus PEPINENSIS, et : ce 
An imperfect cephalic shield shows a narrow border, with a 
decidedly thickene margin, which is broader than the furrow 
Yetween it and the front of the glabella. The glabella is prom- 
ment, with sub-parallel sides and an obtusely rounded anterior 
®xtremity. Opposite the middle of the prominent palpebral 
Am. Jour. Sct.—Szconp Series, Vou. XXXVI, No. 110,—Marcx, 1864. 
30 


230 A. Winchell on Fossils from the 


lobes, a furrow passes quite across the glabella, being curved 
backward in the middle. Behind this is another nearly parallel 
furrow, and in front is a pair of faint furrows situated nearly op- 
posite the anterior extremity of the palpebral lobe, and eac 
traceable about one-third the distance across the glabella. An 
other glabella, very similar to this, shows three transverse fur- 
rows, besides the anterior interrupted furrow. 
A finely preserved pygidium presents a strong convexity, 
especially in the middlelobe. Aside from the marginal flap, the 
external outline is nearly semicircular, with the anterior margin 
considerably curved. The lateral lobes are strongly convex, be: 
coming less so nearer the border, and abruptly joining the cal 
dal flap, at an inclination of about 45°. The pleure are furrowed 
in such a manner that there seems to be an accessory pleura 0 
tween each two principal ones. The articulations are seven i0 
number in both the axial and side lobes, and extend nearly 10 
the terminal apex of the middle lobe. The caudal flap is fat, 
and about as wide as the middle lobe at its anterior end, au 
marked uniformly through its whole length by eight or more 
rigid concentric striz. No indications of caudal spines. 
_ This pygidium was originally referred to this species on sue 
information as was accessible, amongst which was Hall’s figure 
in the Wisconsin Report (p. 22, fig. 4), showing indications of & 


previously been described. 


Prycnasris BaRaBUENSIS, 0. Sp. 
The collection embraces some fragments of the cephalic and 

caudal shields of a large trilobite, which, while its generic rel 
tions are somewhat indeterminate, has a certain expression which 
is peculiar. The head is about 2°4 inches broad, and rather co® 
vex; the thickened and convex margin of the border is separe 
ted from the glabella by a narrow, concave furrow, giving the 
border a width of three-tenths of an inch. Posteriorly, the bor 


epee borders of the cheek. ‘The surface is feebly eee 
ate-wrinkled; though with oblique light it is seen to be tai 
tinctly so, and the character is even better shown with a 10" 
magnifier, though the cast is preserved in sandstone. 7 
_ The pygidium which undoubtedly belongs to the same oh 
cies is 2°9 inches across, and three-fourths of an inch in _ 
The middle lobe is nine-tenths of an inch across, and 18 4 


Potsdam of Wisconsin and Lake Superior. 231 


prominent, with its posterior portion inarticulate and broad] 
rounded, There is no limiting furrow separating it from the 
lateral lobes; and posteriorly it fades insensibly into the ter- 
minal border. The lateral lobes are but faintly articulate, and, 
meeting behind the axis, form a border three-fourths of an inch 
broad, which is strongly curved downward on all sides, and 
presents a circularly curved outline, without any indications of 
caudal appendages. 

The foregoing was written before seeing Prof. Hall’s memoir; 
and I had referred the specimens to Dicellocephalus, with a query. 
I could scarcely doubt of their generic distinctness, but felt re- 
luctant to engage in genus-making without ampler materials. I 
am happy now to recognize Prof. Hall’s new genus as exactly 
meeting my want. This species differs from P. Miniscaénsis Hall, 
in its broader and fuller movable cheek and broader margin, 
and much longer genal points. 


Il. The University has for many years been in possession of 
some fucoidal remains from the red sandstone of the sout 
shore of Lake Superior. As it is so uncertain when any further 
paleontological data will be obtained from that region, I do not 
deem it necessary to defer longer a brief notice of these fossil 

gee 


pe | 


different portions of the fronds of recent marine algz, shows how 
little Pepeniience can be placed upon descriptions founded on 


PaLZopurycus ARTICULATUS, 0. Sp. 
Consisting of large, straight or geniculated, compressed-cylin- 
drical, irregularly articulated, branching stems. The largest 


* 


* 


232 A. Winchell on Fossils from the Potsdam, etc. 


stems are an inch and a quarter in diameter; the transverse sec 
tion oblong, rounded at the ends, or, in other eases, more nearly 
acircle. ‘The branches are uniformly much smaller than the 
main stem, and leave it at an angle of about 30°. One of the 
most marked peculiarities of the species is the somewhat regular 
transverse constrictions, which occur at intervals of about half 
an inch, in most of the specimens. At these constrictions the 
fucoid has shown a disposition to separate, so that most of the 
fragments present sharply truncate extremities. Surface smooth. 

This fucoid is found abundantly scattered over the surfaces of 
slabs of dark red, fine-grained sandstone, from the north flank 
of the Porcupine mountains, Lake Superior. 

Collected by Dr. Douglass Houghton, in 1840. 


PaLzopuycus INFORMIS, Nn. Sp. 


line. - In some instances it would seem that a hollow, conical 

iece had been compressed so as to present two opposite edges. 
Boiisetivea an irregularly elongate piece presents occasional et- 
largements and tuberculous eminences. ‘here are some indica 


tions that the plant was branched, some of which consist in the 


close approximation of co-adapted edges without complete june 
tio e surfaces are smooth and shining. The fragments 
vary from half an inch to two inches in width. 

Abundant in dark red sandstone from Montreal river, Lake 


sandstone three miles west of Eagle river; and again in wil 


tion of the lowest fossiliferous sandstones 

thought by Messrs. Foster and Whitney, and formerly by #4) 

and still earlier intimated in the unpublished notes of Dr. a 

ton; or finally, as now intimated by Hall, a formation rang 

from a horizon below the fossiliferous sandstones of ¥ 

to the top of the Chazy formation or St. Peter’s sandstone. 
University of Michigan, Dec. 11th, 1863. 


ae 


Paes Sea ene 


Prof. Kirkwood on the Orbits of Binary Stars. 233 


Art. XXIII.—On the Orbits of Binary Stars; by Prof. DANIEL 
KirRKWooD, Bloomington, Indiana. 


more than 6000.’ The proportion of these in which t 
oy is merely optical cannot now be determined: the num- 
er, however, in which a change of relative position had been 
detected, was, at the middle of the present century no less than 
650. In the motions of these bodies, so far as observed, we fin 
one general and striking characteristic; the orbits are much more 
elliptical than those of our planetary system. In Sir John Her- 
schel’s Table (1850) of fourteen double stars whose orbits bad 
been calculated, the eccentricity in seven cases is greater than 
that of Faye’s comet (0°5559); while in the case of A/pha 
taurt it is nearly equal to that of Halley’s.”_ We propose to in- 
quire whether this remarkable fact in regard to the sidereal or- 
bits is susceptible of explanation by the nebular hypothesis. 
na former number of this Journal’ it was stated that the 


Tue whole number of double stars hitherto observed is rather 
h the du- 


. The components being less than 82’ asunder. , 
The eccentricity of ‘he former is 0°95; that of the latter, 0°9674. 
For September, 1860, p. 165. 


234 W. Dennis on the Theory of the Tides. 


ArT. XXIV.—On the best Mode of presenting, in a popular form, 
the Theory of the Tides, with suggestions for constructing illustra- 
tive apparatus ; by WiLLIAM DENNIS, Philadelphia, Pa. 


Iv is remarked by Sir J. Herschel that “many persons find a 
strange difficulty in conceiving how they (the tides) are pro- 
duced ;” and Mrs. Somerville goes so far as to say (Physical Sci- 
ences, ©. 13), that among those classed as astronomical problems 
this “is by far the most difficult and its explanation the least sat- 
isfactory.” This latter statement is perhaps rather broad as it 
stands, but if it were limited somewhat, so that the singularity 
of the phenomenon and the importance and familiar interest 
that attach to it and to its effects should be taken into account, It 
would scarcely require further qualification. It can hardly be 
denied that an intelligent comprehension of this subject is rare 
even among those to whom the causes of most natural phenom- 
ena are familiar, while to the great majority of intelligent peo 
ple it is altogether a mystery. It seems, therefore, worth while 
to enquire whether the difficulties complained of have been re 


duced toa minimum, or whether they be not in part owing 0 


defects or errors in the usual mode of presenting the explanation. 

aving had occasion, in the preparation of a new elementary 
treatise on astronomy, to consider this subject attentively, as 
well as to examine the explanations commonly given, 1 have 
been compelled to conclude that no small portion of the obseu- 
rity and perplexity commonly supposed to belong to this sub- 
ject arises from the want of a proper consideration and statement 


of the ocean are raised by the moon’s attraction, 
in many cases, will be that they are lifted up by main strength, 
as it were, the force of gravity being overcome,’ and having no 
where observed any similar effect of the moon’s attraction, he 


cannot conceive how this can be. Nor will it tend in any 0%. 
"gree to lessen his perplexity if he shall see it stated, (as he may) 


ten-millionth part of the force of gravity, and that of the sun 
attraction not even half as great as it. It is therefore imp? fy 
to show, by a preliminary explanation, that the waters ° 
* An idea akin to this must exist, it would seem, in the minds of those yee 
speak of the lateral attraction of the moon at a given place after or age its 
meridian of that place; as if this disturbing force, so minute © 
st, and in respect of this lateral action, so greatly reduced by its very pat: 
ection, or else by the near approach of the place in question to the mean 
could ever produce any appreciable effect whatever in that way. 


a 


W. Dennis on the Theory of the Tides. 235 


: do not maintain their general figure and outline under the 
influence of gravity alone. On the contrary it is well known 
that by the centrifugal force generated by the earth’s rotation on 
its axis they are kept at a higher level or greater distance from 
the centre on other parts of the globe than at the poles, this ele- 
Yation amounting at the equator where it is atest to about 13 
miles, ey are therefore exactly suspended or poised between 
these two forces, namely, the force of gravity and the centrifugal 
force just mentioned, and any other force that should in the least 
degree add to or counteract the influence of either of these 


236 W. Dennis on the Theory of the Tides. 


nearer, while the tide raised at the same time on the opposite _ 


ide of the earth results from the earth being drawn away from 
the waters there because they are more remote than the mass of 
the earth and are thus “left behind,” or “left heaped up;” and 
then we are told that at full moon, when the attractions of the 
sun and moon are opposite in direction, they conspire to produce 
spring tides in the same manner as at new moon when their at- 
tractions coincide in direction. Now asit is not easy to see how 
a body can be drawn away so as to leave any thing behind in 
two opposite directions at the same time, these statements appear 
quite inconsistent and are well calculated to confuse and perplex. 
It is therefore important and indeed indispensable to the com 
munication of an intelligible view of this phenomenon to explain, 
as before remarked, the conditions and circumstances, or, to ex: 
press it more definitely, the relations and dependencies existing 
among the bodies concerned in it: a course at once so natur 
and so needful that it seems remarkable that it should not have 
been more generally and more fully adopted. 
As the earth is held to its curved path around the sun by the 


& 


of 


will be less 


sure, Again on the opposite side of the earth or that m 
ote from the sun, the attractive or restraining force W 


immediately disturbed: these waters will therefore cee ane : 


ost Te 


ca eg Et 
\ pt cee ty rea aes Mite 


W. Dennis on the Theory of the Tides. 237 


than the mean and therefore not quite equal to the centrifugal 
force and here accordingly there will be an excess of this latter 
force: but on this side it is this centrifugal force that acts in a 
direction opposite to that of gravity, and this excess of it will 
consequently disturb the equilibriam of the surface waters here 
_ in precisely the same manner as in the other case. 

eferring now, for illustration, to the suspended ball before 
mentioned, let us suppose it to be a hollow globe one or two feet 
in diameter, of a quite flexible material, as India rubber, having 
an opening about half an inch in diameter at the top and also at 


stiff horizontal wires, which are placed at right angles to each 
other and the extremities of which pass loosely through small 
Openings in the sides of the globe. Passing this cord over a 
eter: and attaching a weight, so adjust the weight that it shall 
sufficient to support the middle horizontal zone or segment of 
the globe. Let there be two other cords with pulleys and at- 
tach one to the top of the globe and the other to the bottom, the 
latter passing down through the opening in the top; then at- 
tach to the former a weight somewhat more than sufficient to sup- 
port the top part of the flexible globe and to the latter a weight 
not quite sufficient to support the bottom part. Now it should’ 
remembered that in this illustration the force of gravity or 
Weight of the globe stands in place of the centrifugal force gen- 
¢ y the earth’s motion in its orbit, and the tension of the 
cords, in place of the sun’s attractive force varying at different 
distances: the cord.attached to the wires at the centre may then 
represent the mean attractive force of the sun at the mean dis- 


or most remote side. The globe being flexible, it is evident that 
the top part will be drawn up somewhat by the excess of the 


238 W. Dennis on the Theory of the Tides. 


around the earth being a fact as familiar to most as that of the 
earth around the sun. But action and reaction being always 
equal, while the earth holds the moon to its course or orbit i 


ner attracted and held by the moon to an extent proportioned t0 
its inferior size or mass, and the consequence is that both bodies 


against what seems to be a very common misconception 0! 
revolution of the earth about this point. This material error 
Consists in supposing that point in the earth where this cenulv 
lies, or which coincides with this centre at any instant, to be md 
honary as regards this revolution, while the other parts of # 


W. Dennis on the Theory of the Tides. 239 


earth revolve about it; whereas, it is a revolution of the centre 
of the earth around this common centre of gravity, every point 
in the surface or elsewhere having a corresponding motion: it is 
not a revolution of the parts of the earth about a point within it 
which remains fixed, but a revolution of the earth as a mass about 


its larger orbit by the sun’s, and there is consequently a corres- 
ponding excess of the attractive force over the mean and there- 


i the former case, a disturbance of the 
equilibrium of the surface waters—a tendency in those on these 
two sides to rise to a higher level, and a consequent eaten 

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Must therefore conspire to produce the same effect which will o 
Course be an exaggerated one: hence the spring tides that are 
observed about the time of new moon. Nor is what has bee 
already stated in relation to the earth’s being held to its place b 
the sun’s attraction in any way inconsistent with this result. It 
1s still held by the sun, and with the same force, but the attrac- 
tion of the moon is added to that of the sun and it is thus not 
merely held, but actually drawn out of the course which it would 


240 W. Dennis on the Theory of the Tides. 


have taken under the influence of the sun’s attraction alone and 
brought for the time somewhat nearer to the sun. 

Again, when the two attracting bodies are on opposite sides of 
the earth at full moon, it will be found that the result should 


held suspended by the sun’s attraction without regard to the 
moon’s position or action upon it. hile thus held or sus 
pended, the moon by its attraction draws it somewhat out of the 
course it would otherwise pursue, bringing it now a little nearer 
to the sun and then taking it a little farther from it, at one ime 
hurrying it onward and again retarding it somewhat, (move 
ments necessarily resulting from that revolution of the earth 
about the common centre of gravity of itself and the moon ber 
fore explained) ; but this by-play between the earth and the moon 
in no way essentially affects the relation existing between the 
earth and the sun: the former unceasingly pursues its orbit 

course around the latter, which must therefore constantly hold 


same direction (at néw moon) conspire to produce a 
namely, the spring tides of new moon, seems hardly to require 
separate illustration. It is as if the power of one of these born 
were temporarily increased, which would of course produce am 
increased result, It may however be illustrated by 4 ™ ike 
tion of the apparatus before described. Let the flexible globe be 
suspended by three*weights with pulleys, representing a5 ™ 
former case the sun’s attraction, the weights being now con ae" 


With the several parts of the globe by elastic cords or bands, 


+ 


W. Dennis on the Theory of the Tides. 241 


they will then represent the constant action o 
the same time allow the whole globe or any of its parts to move 
to a limited extent under the action of another force. By means 
three other cords with pulleys, attach three additional weights 
to the sarne points to act in the same direction and thus to rep- 
resent the added attraction of the moon; and by a proper adjust- 
ment of the second set of weights, and of the size or elastic 
force of the first set of cords, not only the increased elongation 
of the earth (the spring tides) belonging to this position of the 
other bodies, but its temporary approach to the sun, may be 


when the suspension is completed clamp the cords at the pulleys ; 
the sun and at 


. 


and in like manner does the combin 


* 


the disturbing influence of these bodies is to render the sur- 


tions not so affected, which of course at the same time sink. But 
I the case we are now considering, while the moons influence 
8 producing the lunar tide on two opposite sides of the earth, 


sun is at the same time acting upon the intermediate equa- 


242 W. Dennis on the Theory of the Tides. : 


words, by tending to elongate the globe in a direction at right 
angles to that of the moon’s attraction, will lessen somewhat the 
vertical or lunar elongation. 


turning points to what it is at the next; but to deseribe these 
changes—and the same may be said of numerous subordinate of 
collateral branches of this subject—does not fall within the se 


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* it “ai be observed that I say “in part,” and speak above of “equatorial sp 
t 


ces,” etc. ere seems to be good reason to dou I r in this connection one 
circumstance has be any means properly attended to, namely, that the lunat 
be raised in part, perhaps in some cases chiefly, by the pressure of those 
portion the surface waters lying northward or southward of the central points 
f the moon's direct influence; these wo he most part wholly usdist 
un’s influ unar ave is formed theoretically by 


upon, the edge of the wa e theoretical proportion betw 

. as been commonly, (not say careless 53 stated as that between the sum 
sy difference of the two separa ing influences of the sun and m 

to 3; but even theoretically this is manifestly i : 


of the case to consider the i ; 
ilbb as the hear haar es here as the lunar tide alone, 


C. A. Joy on a Meteorite from Chili. 243 


Art. XXV.—Analysis of a Meteorite from Chili; by CHARLES A. 
Joy, Professor of Chemistry in Columbia College, New York. 


THIS meteorite was found on a mountain pass, about fifty 
miles from Copiapo, in the province of Atacama, Chili, by a na- 
tive of the Argentine Republic, and presented to Mr. Joseph 
Brower, by whom it was brought to New York, and to whose 
kindness I am indebted for the fragment used in the analysis. 
The original specimen has been deposited by Mr. Brower, with 
a large collection of rare silver and copper ores from Chili, in 
the mineralogical cabinet at Union College, Schenectady. 

he outer crust of the meteorite wore the usual dark red color 
of oxydized iron. Its weight, uncut, was 1784 grams. ‘The 
specific gravity is 4°35. A polished etched surface gave an im- 
es on paper of scattered points rather than of regular lines. 
t also readily reduced copper from its solutions. 
close inspection of the specimen shewed that there was a 
large per-centage of stony matter interspersed through the mass, 
The color and hardness of a portion of this indicated olivine; 
other fragments recalled the appearance of partially decomposed 
labradorite. An unsuccessful attempt was made to withdraw 
the iron by means of a magnet, but the powdered mineral ad- 
ered to the magnet in association with the iron 


When a slight yellow precipitate of tin was thrown down, while 
. Copper was dissolved and afterward precipitated by potash. 
After expelling the sulphuretted hydrogen from the first fil- 
by molybdate of ammonia 
and afterward determined as phosphate of magnesia. 
or the determination of the iron, alumina, nickel, cobalt, 
Manganese, and lime, a second portion was taken and treated as 
before . 
Suecessively precipitated by ammonia and sulphid of ammonium 


244 C. A. Joy on a Meteorite from Chili. 


and the precipitate redissolved and weighed. The iron and alu- 
mina were separated from the other bases by carbonate of baryta. 
The nickel, cobalt, and manganese, were not determined in this 
portion, but were precipitated by potash and weighed. The 
separation of the iron and alumina was accomplished by means 
of the hyposulphite of soda. The alumina was found to be free 
from the oxyd of chromium. The lime was determined as car- 
bonate. For the separation of the nickel and cobalt from man- 


Results : 
From 37519 grams. 1°134 grms, insol. 2°385 grms. soluble. 
BaO, SO, 0-6 
Mg0,PO, 0-015 000423 P 
CuO 0-002 000159 Cu 
Sn0, 0-001 0001 SnO, 

No. 8. Mn,O, 0-011 No. 2. 1:166 grms, material. 
Co,0, 0-021 0390 grms. insoluble. 
Nid 0°124 0-776 “ soluble. | 

0-156 
CaO, CO, 0°025 0°014 CaO 
€,U3 0°859 0°6013 Fe 
0-039 0-039 Al,O, 
Mn,0, 0-006 000432 Mn 
iO 0-077 0:06034 Ni Cale. from No.3) 
Co,0, 0:013 0:00959 Co 
From the above figures we obtain the following results: 
Ae c : - - 77°48 pr. ct. 
nye A . : yh a 
Co - o ~~ gS Red ie: 1:23 “ 
me SS ie ea 055 = 
(a0 iz g nd é 1°80 “ 
Al,0, ‘a * 2 5-02 ‘“ 
i ’ oe me a ms 3°95 se 
tT - - is = ae z 0-17 “ 
ee ‘i “ Pe 0-06 “ 
Sng lah aadvaw 4 aii? wife Se 004 & 
98-07 


C. A. Joy on a Meteorite from Chili. 245 


As the analysis was conducted with great care; and as we 
have alumina and lime evidently derived from the decomposi- 
tion of a portion of the mineral, and as protoxyd of iron is 
easily attacked in silicates, it is proper to assume that the differ- 
ence is due to oxygen combined with iron as protoxyd. Assum- 
ing 1:90 pr. ct. oxygen, we require 6°65 pr. ct. Fe to form 8°55 
FeO. This will give us for the soluble portion : 


Fe 70°83 pr.ct. Mn 0°55 pr. ete 
Ni TT? Al,0, 5-02 
Co 1:23 FeO 8:55 
Cu 0-06 CaO 1°80 
S 3-95 SnO, 0-04 
P 017 gpg 


The average of several analyses gave 68°19 pr. ct. soluble in 
acids, and 31°81 pr. ct. insoluble in acids. 


Insoluble mineral portion. 


tion of HCl yielded brown sulphid of tin. The ammoniacal fil- 
trate from SnO, was colored distinctly blue by co 

The filtrate from the sulphid of tin and sulphid of copper was 

ted with chlorid of ammonium and ammonia and saturated 


_ With sulphid of ammonium and heated, by which iron, manga- 


Cipitate was dissolved in aqua regia. From the filtrate from the 
7 tg metals the lime was precipitated by oxalate of ammonia 
the magnesia by phosphate of soda. 

From the solution in aqua regia, the oxyds of iron, alumina, 
| mium, were precipitated by carbonate of baryta in the 
cold. The excess of baryta was removed by sulphuric acid and 
Manganese precipitated by potash: this precipitate was ex- 
amined for nickel and cobalt and found to contain traces. 
AM. Jour. Sct.—Seconp Serres, Vou. XXXVII, No. 110.—Mancx, 1864. 
32 


hese, nickel, cobalt, and chromium were ee aprta This pre- 


246 C. A. Joy on a Meteorite from Chili. 


The precipitate containing the oxyds of iron, alumina, and 
chromium, and excess of carbonate of baryta, was dissolved in 
chlorhydric acid, the baryta removed by sulphuric acid, and 
iron and alumina separated by hyposulphite of sodas 

The sesquioxyd of chromium was separated from the oxyds of 
iron and alumina, as follows: The Al,O, was fused with Na0, 


Fe,0, was also fused with carbonate of soda and nitrate 
of potassa, and the mass lixiviated with water,, filtered, saturated 
with chlorhydric acid, alcohol added, heated to boiling, and the 
sesquioxyd of chromium precipitated by ammonia. 


Results : 
Substance taken = 0°518 grms. 
Found, SiO, 0°334 grms. 64:478 per cent. 
FeO 0°0729 14073 
MgO 0:06737 13°005 : 
MnO 0°01678 3°239 
Cr,05 0-00907 1°750-2°575 Cr20, Fed 
Al,O, 0:00593 1144 
aO 0-00448 0°864 
Sn0,+CuO 0-005 0:965 
NiO, CoO 0-002 0:386 
0°51753 99°904 
Second Analysis, 
Substance taken = 17114 grms. 
Found, SiO, 0-713 65°61 per cent. 
MgO 071549 13°90 
FeO 071647 14°78 
Cr,0, 0-0140 1:25 
Al,0O, 0-0120 1:07 
' MnO 0°0325 2°91 
0°0128 1°15 
Ni, CO 0-0010 0-09 
100°76 
Average. 
SiO, - - - ss 65°04 
MgO - - - . 13°45 
FeO - - - - 14°42 
Cr,0, - Pe - 1°50 
Al,0, = - - 1:10 
MnO . - - 3:07 
CaO - - - 1-01 
Ni, Co - - . 0°23 


C. A. Joy on a Meteorite from Chili. 


247 


From these analyses we have the composition of the meteorite 
as a whole, as follows: 


Fe - - - 48-298 per cent. 
Ni - - - - 5°298 
Co ~ - 0°838 
Mn - - - - 0°375 
Cu - - - - 0:040 
8 - - - - 2°693 
= - - 0'115 
siO0, - - - 20°689 insoluble. 
MnO - - - - 0076. 3:8 
‘0, - - - - Ug, tt Sipe tig 
NiO, CoO - - - 07 - 
FeO - - - - 5°830 soluble. 
FeO - - - - 4'587 insoluble. 
CaQ_ oe = - - 1:227 soluble 
Ca0- < - - 0°321 insoluble. 
Al,O, - és - 3423 soluble 
Al,O, - - - - 0°349 insoluble. 
MgO - ‘ . - 4°27 7 
pn, = : = 0°027 soluble. 
Sn0, - i ‘ ‘ 0162 insoluble. 
100:076 
Metallic portion. Mineral portion. 
Fe 48:298 per cent. SiO, 20°689 per cent. 
Ni 5-298 MnO 0-976 
Co 0-838 Cr.0, 0-477 
Mn 0375 NiO, CoO —-:0:078 
Cu 0-040 FeO 10°417 
8 2693 MgO 4278 
P 0-115 Al,O, 3772 
ee EET CaO 1°548 Another anal. 
57°657 Sn0, 0°189 
42°419 
In 100 parts. 
Metallic, Mineral. 
Fe 83°76 SiO, 48°61 
“a 9:18 FeO 24-47 
1°45 M 10°05 
Mn 0°65 aL, 8°86 
Cu 0-07 CaO 63 
ni 0:20 MnO foe 
. 8 ‘ E Cr,0 x 
sat ae 6 NiO, CoO 0°17 Another anal. 
99:98 Sn0, ‘44 0°78 


"99°64 


248 T. S. Hunt on Lithology. 


If we examine the mineral portion under a microscope and 
study its behavior towards reagents, we shall find at least two 
silicates in the meteorite; one of them, like olivine, having the 
formula RO, SiO,, not so easily attacked by acids, and the other 
resembling labradorite, with the formula «R,O, SiO, + yRO 
SiO,. Assuming that the Cr,O, was combined with the FeO 
as chrome iron, the 1°12 Cr,O, will require 0°52 FeO, which 
must be deducted from the 24-47 pr. ct. FeO. Assigning Mg0, 
MnO, NiO, CoO, to the mineral RO?, SiO, andthe Al,O,, CaO, 
to the mineral « R,O, SiO, + yROSIO,, and dividing the FeO 
between them, we have for the mineral portion: 


Chrome iron - - 1-64 pr, ct. Cr,0, FeO 
Olivine, - - 27°43 RO, SiO, i 
Labradorite- - 70°13 Al,0, SiO0,4-4RO Si0, 
99°20 
This will give for the composition of the meteorite; 
Nickel iron (with Co, Mn, and Cu) 48°689 
Sulphid of iron, FeS 7405 
Chrome iron, Cr,O, FeO 0-701 
Schreibersite, (Fe 1:38, Ni 0°67, P 0°115) 1°563 
Olivine, RO, SiO, 11°677 
Labradorite,* (R04, S10, + 4RO Si0,) 29°852 
Tin stone, SnO, 0°189 
100-076 


Calculations were made referring the silicates to hornblende, 
hypersthene, augite, and anorthite, but I omit them in the sum- 
mary as being of a purely theoretical character. The above 18 
believed to give the fair average constitution of this meteorite. 

I must express my obligation to my assistant, Mr. Charles 4, 
Stetefeldt, for skillful aid in hastening the completion of the 
analysis. 

‘New York, Jan. 1st, 1364, 


————— 


Arr. XXVI.—Contributions to Lithology; by T. StERRY HoNt 
M.A., F.R.S.; of the Geological Survey of Canada. 
I. Theoretical Notions—Il. Classification and Nomenclature. : 

In a recent paps on The Chemical and Mineralogical Relations 
ks (this Journal, [2] xxxvi, 214), an ace © 

was made to define the principles which haye presided over 

formation of sedimentary rocks, and to explain the nature an 
conditions of their alteration or metamorphism. That paper 


- 


T. 8. Hunt on Lithology. 249 


may be considered as to a certain extent introductory to the pres- 
ent one, which will contain, in the first part, some theoretical 
considerations which it is conceived should serve as a basis to 
lithological studies. In the second part will be given a few de- 
finitions which may serve to render more intelligible the classifi- 
eation and nomenclature of crystalline rocks; while a third part 
will contain the results of the chemical and mineralogical exam- 
ination of some of the eruptive rocks of Canada. These results 
will be found for the most part in the recently published volume 
entitled the Geology of Canada. 


Thave already, in other places, expressed the opinion that the 
various eruptive rocks have had no other origin than the soften- 
ing and displacement of sedimentary deposits; and have thus 
their sources within the lower portions of the earth’s stratified 


views of many modern mathematicians and poyseets the school 
of geologists just referred to regard as a shell of very limited 
thickness, 

The view which I adopt is one the merit of which belongs, I 
believe, to Christian Keferstein, who, in his Naturgeschichte des 
Erdhirpers, published in 1834, maintained that all the unstrati- 
fied rocks, from granite to lava, are products of the transforma- 


€ Origin of metamorphism and of volcanic aie by the 
action of the internal heat of the earth upon deeply buried sedi- 
ments impregnated with water. (Proc. Geol. Soc. of London, 
Vol. ii, pp. 548, 596.) See also my papers in the Canadian Jour- 
nal, 1858, p. 206: Quart. Jour. Geol. Soc. 1859, p. 488; Can, 
Naturatise, Bes. 1859, and this Journal, [2], vol. xxx, p. 185. 


250 T. S. Hunt on Lithology. 


The presence of water in igneous rocks, and the'part which it 
may play in giving liquidity to all volcanic and plutonic rocks 
was insisted upon by Poulett Scrope, so long ago as 1824, in his 
Considerations on Volcanos, (see also Quart. Jour. Geol. Soc. Lon- 
don, xii, 341.) This view has since been ably meets 

Bu eol, 


hate tassium, sodium, calcium and magnesium, so 
times with free chlorhydric acid. Similar fluid cavities were 
oun im in most crystals artificially formed in aqueous s0- 


merous small fluid-cavities. In like manner, he deduces rom 
the fluid-cavities in the Vesuvian minerals just noticed, a tetr 
perature of from 360° to 880°C. The presence, at the same HMé, 
of bubbles or vapor-cavities and of glass and stone-cavitles In 


tion was present, along with melted rock, and various gases 47 


vapors. * * * * I therefore think that we must conclude 
visionally, that at a great depth from the surface, at the foci 


T. S. Hunt on Lithology. 251 


voleanic activity, liquid water is present along with the melted 
rocks, and that it produces results which would not otherwise 
occur.” (loc, cit., p. 483.) 

Mr. Sorby has, as we have just seen, determined the tempera- 
ture requisite to expand the liquid so as to fill the fluid-cavities, 
provided they were formed under a pressure not greater than 
the elastic force of the vapor. This of course represents the 
lowest temperature at which the consolidation could have taken 


n this connection Mr. Sorby remarks that from Mr. Robert 
Hunt's observations on the mean increase of temperature in the 


incumbent strata;” and he concludes that wit regard to rocks 
and minerals formed at high temperatures, we have “at one end 
of the chain erupted lavas, indicating as gee and complete 


* 


252 T. S. Hunt on Lithology. 


vapor, it remained, as we have seen, to take its part in the crys: 
tallization, in some cases forming hydrated minerals; and the 
excess of it, as Mr. Sorby suggests, passed up as a highly heated 
liquid, holding dissolved materials, which would afterwards be 
deposited in the form of mineral veins in the fissures of super: 
incumbent rocks. : 

I have thought it well to give at some length the remarkable 
results and conclusions by Mr. Sorby, because I conceive that 
they have not as yet received the full degree of consideration to 
which they are entitled, and are perhaps little known to some 
my readers.’ The temperature deduced by him from the exam- 
ination of the crystals of hornblende and feldspar from Vesu- 
vius is curiously supported by the experiments of Daubrée ; who 
obtained crystallized pyroxene, feldspar and quartz, in presence 
of alkaline solutions, at a temperature of low redness; while De 
Senarmont crystallized quartz, fluor-spar and sulphate of barytes 
in presence of water, at temperatures between 200° and 300°C, 
At the same time the deposits from the thermal waters at Plom- 
biéres show that crystalline hydrous silicates, such as apophyllite, 
harmotome, and chabazite, have formed at temperatures but little 
above 80° C. 


We conceive that the deeply buried sedimentary strata, under 
the combined action of heat and water have, according to their 


rent beds. It is only those rocks which, like lavas, have — 
ssimilar 
to those of the undisturbed crystalline sediments. With this ex- 

ception the only distinction which can be drawn between strati- 
- fied and unstratified masses must in most cases be based up 


rocks, or sediments displaced and translated, forming — 
and intrusive masses. Under the head of exotic rocks 18 ei 
ever to be included another class of crystalline aggregates, whit 
are for the most distinguished by their structure from 1) 
jected or intrusive masses. I refer to the accumulations which 

© Sie taster bales ing those of Sorby, Pree. 
Kip. dan Peetton, Moras 13; 1863; had Snot ye Geol. Soc., Vol 


T. S. Hunt on Lithology. 253 


fill mineral veins, and which doubtless have beet deposited from 
aqueous solutions. While their peculiar arrangement, with the 


Beeraiaance of feldspar and mica gives rise to aggregates which 


and crystalline limestones, when a majority of writers, even to 
the present day, class serpentines, euphotides, and hyperites 


Ogist is accumulating, from year to year, a great mass of eyi- 
ce in favor of the indigenous nature of all these rocks. The 


jetamorphosed in situ,—indigenous rocks, which were altered 
before the Jurassic dolomites were deposited, (Bel. Soc. Geol. 
ni [2], vi, 506-516). In like manner we find <a a hn 

us t iti so © 


254 T. 8. Hunt on Lithology. 


show the passage into eruptive rocks. Thus the crystalline 


able dykes among the adjacent broken siliceous strata, thus as- 
suming for small distances, the characters of an intrusive rock. 
For some figures and descriptions illustrating these broken and 
distorted strata, see Geology of Canada, pp. 27, 28. Wemay also 


allude in this connection to the observations of Dr. Hitch f° 
em 


inated, and bent around each other. (This Journal, [2], ¥¥™4 
372.) Hence, while the tendency of the various observations 
above cited is in favor of the indigenous character of many rocks 
hitherto regarded as eruptive, we have at the same time evidence 


that these rocks are occasionally displaced. We should not. 


therefore on a@ priori grounds reject the assertion that any ineta 
morphic sediment may sometimes occur in an exotic or intrusive 
fo: iven rock, like limestone or diorite, may occur 
as an indigenous and an exotic rock; and different port! 
the same mass may be seen by different observers under 


such 


ons of 


s 


T. S. Hunt on Lithology.. 255 


unlike conditions that one may regard it as indigenous, and the 
other, with equal reason, may set it down as intrusive. It is evi- 
dent then that to the lithologist, who examines rocks without 
reference to their geological relations, the question of the exotic 
or indigenous character of a given rock is, in most cases, one 
altogether foreign; and one which can frequently be decided 
only by the geologist in the field. Hence, although generally 
made a fundamental distinction in classification, it will be disre- 
garded in the following sketch of the nomenclature of crystal- 
ine rocks, 


_ Imay here allude to a fact which I have already noticed, and 
tried to explain, (this Journal, [2], xxxi, 414, and xxxvi, 220, 
note,) that throughout the great metamorphic belt which consti- 
tutes the Appalachian chain, exotic rocks are comparatively rare, 
(at least in New England and Canada); but abound, on the con- 
trary, among the unaltered strata on either side. Illustrations of 
this are seen in the valley of Lake Champlain, and in its north- 
ward continuation toward Montreal, in those of the Hudson and 
Connecticut, and in the northeastward continuation of the latter 
valley by Lake Memphramagog to the Bay of Chaleurs, which 
is marked throughout by intrusive granites. In accordance with 
the reasons already assigned for this distribution of exotic rocks 
it is probable that a similar condition of things will be found to 
exist in other regions; and that eruptive rocks will, as a general 
rule, be found among unaltered, rather than among metamorphic 
strata. It is of course possible that a crystallization of the sed- 
iments may in some cases take place subsequent to the eruption 
of foreign rocks into their midst. The rarity of intrusive rocks 
among crystalline strata, not less than the unaltered condition of 
Sediments which are traversed by abundant intrusive masses, 18 
4strong proof of the fallacy of the still generally received no- 
tion which connects metamorphism with the contiguity of erup- 
tive rocks, 


256 T. S. Hunt on Lithology. 


The minerals essential to the composition of the rocks under 
consideration are few in number, and are as follows: quartz, or 
thoclase; a triclinic feldspar which may be albite, oligoclase, an- 
desine, labradorite or anorthite ; scapolite, leucite, nepheline, so- 
dalite; natrolite, or some allied zeolite; iolite, garnet, epidote, 
wollastonite, hornblende, pyroxene, olivine, chloritoid, serpen- 
tine, diallage; muscovite, phlogopite, and some other micas; 
chlorite, and tale. To these may be added as accidental ingre- 
dients, the carbonates of lime, magnesia, and protoxyd of iron, 
together with magnetite, ilmenite and sphene. The silicates 


names. We may note first the granitoid structure, in which t 

mineral elements are distinctly crystalline, as in granite. From 
this, there is a gradual passage through granular into compact 
varieties of rock. Most of these are simply finely granular, and 


ee on this point Naumann On the probable eruptive origin 
several kinds of gneiss, etc.; Leonhard and Bronn, Neues Jahr. 


po es others icet d 
Scrope, is undoubtedly the result of movements in the ee 
mass, and the same is true of some of the granitoid dolorites 


? 
seems to a stud 


on already remarked, the progress of each year’s investiga 


2 to the category of indigenous rocks many ° th 
-Viously regarded as eruptive, and will, I am convinced, 


T. S. Hunt on Lithology. 257 


the principle which I have laid down of the comparative rarity 
of exotic rocks in crystalline and metamorphic regions. 
Oceasionally the crystallization of a rock takes place around 
certain centres, giving rise to rounded masses which have a ra- 
diated or a concentric structure, and constitute the so-called glob- 
ular or orbicular rocks. Distinct crystals of some minerals, gen- 
erally feldspar, augite, or olivine, are often found im ed in 
rocks having a compact base. To such rocks the name of por- 
phyry is given, and by analogy a rock with a granular base en- 
closing distinct crystals is designated as porphyritic or porphy- 
roid. Amorphous or vitreous rocks, as pitchstones, are in like 
manner sometimes porphyritic. The name of porphyry, at first 
given toa peculiar type of feldspathic rocks, has now become so 
extended that it is to be regarded as only indicating an accident 
of structure. The title of amygdaloid is given to various rocks 
having rounded cavities which are wholly or partially filled with 
various crystalline minerals. The base of these rocks is gener- 
y granular or crypto-crystalline, but is sometimes amorphous, 
resembling a scoria or vesicular lava, the cavities of which have 
been filled by infiltration. Such is doubtless the origin of some 
amygdaloids. In more cases however these cavities have prob- 
ably been formed like those often found in dolomites and some 
other rocks, by a contraction during solidification. Porphyroid 
rocks, in which quartz, orthoclase and other minerals are ar- 
Tanged in orbicular masses, are also sometimes designated amyg- 
daloids, and may be confounded with the two previous classes m 
which thé imbedded minerals are the result of subsequent infiltra- 
tion. Allied in structure and origin to the last are what are named 
Variolites or variolitic rocks. (See Geology of Canada, pp. 606, 607.) 
The masses into which some aluminous minerals enter as a 


classes, whose origin we mane“ aneae 
dy referred to. (This Journal, [2], xxxvi, 218.) ‘The first of 


Mant mineral is orthoclase, generally associated with quartz, and 
the composite rocks of this class seldom have a density much 
above that of these species; or from 2°6 to 2°7. In the second 
Class, the characteristic mineral is a triclinic feldspar, with pyrox- 


258 T. S. Hunt on Lithology. 


ene or hornblende, the feldspar sometimes predominant; while 
in other cases the pyroxene or hornblende makes up the princi- 
pal part of the rock. The presence of these lattef minerals gen- 
erally gives to the fine grained rocks of this class a dar 
a hardness somewhat inferior to the more siliceous class, and a 
density which may vary from 2-7 to more than 38-0. il 
however be found that the line between the two classes cannot 
always be distinctly drawn, inasmuch as rocks containing ortho- 
clase and quartz often include triclinic feldspars such as albite 
and oligoclase, and by an admixture of hornblende offer a tran- 
sition to rocks of the second class. On the other hand, quartz is 
sometimes found with triclinic feldspars and hornblende in the 
rocks of the second class. Besides these two feldspathic classes, 
there is a third small but interesting group, in which an alummn- 
ous silicate of high specific gravity, such as garnet, epidote, or 
zoisite replaces the feldspar wholly or in part. These minerals 
ing basic silicates rich in alumina, the relations of this group 
are naturally with those of the second class, although varieties of 
these species are found in rocks which belong to the first class. 

The silico-aluminous crystalline rocks may thus be convenient 
ly divided into three families. The first of these includes those 
rocks in which the aluminous mineral is orthoclase, (orthose) 
from which they may be conveniently designated by the name 
of the orthosile family. The second includes those in which the 
aluminous element is an anorthic or triclinic feldspar, and may 
be designated as the anorthosite family ; chemically related to this 
are those rocks holding as one of their elements nepheline, leu 
cite, or scapolite. ‘The third family includes those rocks which 
contain an aluminous silicate of high density, as epidote, zoisile, 
garnet, andalusite, or kyanite, in place of a feldspathide. Iolite 
or dichroite, which enters into the composition of some orthosite 
rocks, appears from its atomic volume to be related to the feld- 
spars, and should take its place along side of anorthite and s¢a- 
polite as a magnesian feldspathide, while beryl in like manner 
appears to be a glucinic feldspathide. 

It is worthy of notice that some feldspars having the erystal- 
lization and density of orthoclase, nevertheless contain large ae 
portions of soda. The loxoclase of Breithaupt appears from thé 
analysis of Smith and Brush to be a true soda-orthoclase ; ye 
Journal, [2], xvi, 43,) while the sanidine or glassy feldspar 
many trachytes contains potash and soda in nearly equal prop 
tions. The name of potash-albite has been given to some woe 
— of this composition, but the trachytic rocks hereafter pe 

ribed contain feldspars, which without being glassy, 29" 
the composition of sanidine, together with a cleavage mene 


coeenty which show them to belong to orthoclase eK jee 


to albite. The anorthic feldspars offer in their composi 


T. S. Hunt on Lithology. ae. 259 


gradations from albite to anorthite that the various intermediate 
species which have been distinguished seem to pass into each 
other. (This Journal, [2], xviii, 270. Phil. Mag. [4], ix, 262.) 
Next to the feldspars in lithological importance are the two 
species, pyroxene and hornblende. These are sometimes found 


drated micas observed by Haughton in many of the Irish gran- 


trivial names which have been from time to time imposed. In 
the case of simple rocks the terms quartzite, pyroxenite, anortho- 
site, and orthoclasite are sufficiently definite, or they may be fur- 


micaceous, and quartzo-micaceo-hornblendic orthoclasite would 


clase and black mi 
albite, and quartz. Pete? 
The structure of these orthosite rocks gives rise also to a great 

ty of names; thus to coarsely lamellar granites the name 
of pegmatite is sometimes given, while fine grained mixtures of 


260 T. S. Hunt on Lithology. 


or crystals; while in some 


in Spain, described by Fournet as passing from a dull rough 
grayish feldspathic mass, into a highly crystalline aggregate of 


Teneriffe as trachytes, (Comptes Rendus, xliv, 1067); sot at this 
word, like porphyry, comes to indicate nothing more than yet 


sition; and their differences in texture probably depend pa : 

fact that _ one was solidified under great peer The 
other near the surface, trachytes ing in fact into Ja’ a 
observations of Sorby on the fluid-cavities in the crystals ¥ 3 
granite and trachyte are in point. : 


T. S. Hunt on Lithology. 261 


_ Among the intrusive rocks of Canada, to be described, are 
ech aiie compact, and earthy varieties of trachytic orthosites, 

ides trachytic porphyries. These rocks often contain dissemi- 
nated earthy carbonates, sometimes in considerable amount; as 
Deville had already shown for some of the trachytes of Hungary, 


the Rhine. Trachytes also hold in some eases disseminated por- 
tions of a zeolite, apparently natrolite, and through this mixture 
pass into phonolites, of which a characteristic variety will be no- 
ticed in this paper. Obsidian and pumice-stone, which are often 
associated with orthoclase trachytes, are related to them in com 
ition ; and pitchstone and perlite are similar rocks, differing 
owever in containing some combined water. Rocks resembling 
pitchstone, and sometimes porphyritie from the presence of dis« 
linet crystals of feldspar, occur in the south side of Michipicoten 
and, Lake Superior, but have not yet been examined. Ana 

ses by Jackson and by Whitney of the pitchstones of —oe 


diabase, The feldspar of diorites varies in composition from al- 
te to anorthite, and is occasionally accompanied by quartz. 
This, though most frequent with the more siliceous feldspars, is 


es of the Huronian series are in part at least diorites, 


inated hornblende, and it takes the name of greenstone. 
‘Aw. Jour. Sc—szconp Szrihs, VoL- raayu wee 110,—Manon, 1864, 
34 : 


262 T. S. Hunt on Lithology. 


hornblende, and some quartz. The norite from Sweden is 4 
anular mixture of a similar kind, containing also mica; an 
the ophite of some writers is a diorite in which hornblende 
greatly predominates. 
The rocks which are essentially composed of anorthie feldspar 


‘ven to those 


varieties of diabase which contain hypersthene or diallage 


These rocks occur abundantly in the Labrador series, where the 
hypersthene in them sometimes takes the form of a green ae 
; iated 


to which epidote is said to occur in the hyperites of the same Se 


w YO 

the hyperites of Sweden, and of the Island of Skye. 

ersthene 

The hyperites, although indigenous rocks in the Labrador pai 
in Canada, are described as forming in other regions jntrusl 
masses, eas" : 

Those varieties of diabase or hyperite which contain diallag® 

have, by the Italian lithologists been called gramiton® "| 

Rose and others have been described under the name of gann™ 


his rock sometimes contains hornblende, mica, and an ee 


Se 


but by 


T. S. Hunt on Lithology. 263 


zoisite, which has the hardness of quartz and a density of 3°, to 


have by most of the modern lithologists been confounded with 
saussurite, and hence the name of euphotide is frequently given 
to the so-called granitone or gabbro, which is only a diallagic 
variety of diabase. The true euphotide often contains a portion 
of tale, and sometimes encloses crystals of a triclinic feldspar, 
apparently labradorite, thus offering a transition to diabase. S 
arther my researches on Kuphotide and Saussurite (this Journal, 
[2], xxvii, 889, and xxxvii, 426. 

nder the name of dolerite, as already remarked, it is pro- 
posed to class such anorthosite rocks as contain a black ferrugin- 
ous pyroxene or augite. These rocks, which are sometimes 


ot may constitute several hundredths of the mass. 
any fin 
tions of some zeolitic mineral, and they often abound in chlorite. 


.t¢ommon among greenstones, and for 
needed. See on this point Geology of Canada, pp. 469, 605, 
and the remarks on melaphyre below. Se. 

_ The finer grained dolerites are often cellular, giving rise to 
amygdaloids, whose cavities are generally filled with calcite, 


264 T. 8. Hunt on Lithology. 


dinary conditions, or perhaps in some cases derived from volcanic 
ash or voleanic mud. As the other extreme of this series of 
rocks we may notice that dolerites often assume a trachytic form 
—the trachy-dolerites already mentioned—or constitute the lavas 
from modern volcanos, Me 
mong the compound rocks which are related to the preceding 
group by the presence of augite may be noticed nepheline-doler 
ite, in which nepheline replaces the feldspar ; and analcimite, a 
variety into which analcime enters in large amount. Scapolite 
also in some cases replaces feldspar, and forms with green pyrox- 
€ne, a peculiar aggregate associated with the Laurentian lime- 
Stones. Leucite enters as an important element in some doler- 
ites, and even replaces wholly the feldspathic element, giving 
rise to what has been called leucitophyre or leucilite. es 
[Leucite is generally regarded as an exclusively volcanic mine 
eral, but according to Fournet, it occurs like other feldspars i 
mineral veins, forming the gangue of certain auriferous veins 10 


. 


Mexico, (G@éologie Lyonnaise, p. 261). According to Scheerer 


posed by Brongniart as a synonym for black po hyry, (mn 


Von Buch employed the name of melaphyre as synony? 
with augite-porphyry, in which he was followed by Dill, 


T. S. Hunt on Lithology. 265 


{Des Roches, p. 75). In consequence of this confusion, and of 
the vague manner in which the term is used to include rocks 
which are sometimes diorites and sometimes varieties of dolerite 
or basalt, Cotta seems disposed to’ reject the name of melaphyre 
as a useless synonym, in which I agree with him. (Gesteinslehre, 
p.48.) More recently however, Senft (Die Felsarten, p. 268,) has 
endeavored to give a new signification to the term, and defines 
melaphyre as a reddish-gray or greenish-brown colored rock, 
passing into black, and containing neither hornblende nor pyrox- 
ene. The melaphyres of Thuringia and of the Hartz, according 
to him, consist of labradorite with iron-chlorite, (delessite,) car- 
bonates of iron and lime, and a considerable portion of titanifer- 
ous magnetic iron. Hornblende and mica are present only as 
rare and accidental minerals. We have already alluded to this 
class of anorthosite rocks, as requiring a distinctive name, but 
from the historical relations of the word melaphyre, it seems to 
be an unfortunate appellation for rocks which are not black in 
color, and from which both hornblende and pyroxen 
_ ‘ve now come to consider that third group of silicated rocks, 
in which the feldspathides are replaced by the denser double sil- 
lcates of the grenatide family, garnet, epidote, zoisite, and per- 
haps idocrase. Red garnet enters into many gneissic rocks, and 
even forms with a little admixture of quartz, rock masses. In 
some of these, as in the Laurentian series, there appears an ad- 
“Mixture of pyroxene, forming a passage into omphazite or eclo- 


Related to this is an apparently undescribed rock from the Ty- 
Tol, of which a specimen is before me, consisting of red garnet, 


Composed of olivine, with pyroxene, and enstatite, a magnesian 
augite; these minerals bein p : ; 
ilmenite. Thave already alluded to the true euphotides, in which 
2 Compact zoisite, ( jade or saussurite,) takes the place of feldspar 
Ma rock th 


266 T. S. Hunt on Lithology. 


diallagic diabase and diallagic ophiolite on the other. 
hese greenstones, which contain a chloritic mineral, and are 


metamorphism furnish evidences that similar compounds have re 
sulted from the action of heat upon mechanical! mixtures in sed- 
imentary deposits, (ibid. p. 581). A further consideration of this 
subject, and of the two-fold origin of many siliceous minerals 8 
reserved for another place. 

[To be continued. ] 


Physics. 267 


SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE. 
I, PHYSICS. 


1. On the passage of radiant heat through polished, rough, and smoked 
rock-salt, and on the diffusion of rays of heat—H. Knosiavcn has con- 
tributed a very elaborate and valuable investigation of the transmission 
of radiant heat through rock-salt. e give the results in the author’s 
own words, referring the reader for details of apparatus and methods to 
the original memoir. 

I. (1.) Clear chemically pure rock-salt permits rays of heat of all 
kinds to pass through it in equal proportion, whether the difference be- 


lasses. 

henomena can not be referred (with Forbes) to an absorp- 
; nor (with 
Melloni) to an unequal dispersion in the rough and cloudy media de- 
pending on the heat-color, by which the rays are more or less deviated 
from the thermoscope. Neither is the roughness of the surface in itself, 
nor the direction of the rays proceeding from a single point the deter- 
mining condition. 

(4.) The diffuse heat arising from radiation through rough or cloudy 
Screens or reflection from rough surfaces radiates more abundantly through 
diffusing screens according as (a) the rays are more diffuse, (6) in com- 
Parison with parallel rays, as the screens are more diltusive. 


Yariously radiated from a greater or less number of points. 

(6.) Hence, for one and the same source of heat, the ratio of trans- 
Mission in question (in spite of a constant quantity of heat falling directly 
ia the plates) diminishes with the distance of the source, and the more 

: m ; 


(7.) It is ible, by a proper ‘arrangement of the experiments, to 
Cause the wee abansadt Saal of rays of heat from a source at 
100° ©, in comparison with those from the lamp, cited in (1.), to disap- 


268 Scientific Intelligence. 


pear, and even, conversely, to bring about a more abundant transtnission 
of the heat of the lamp. 
I, (1.) In the passage of radiant heat through rock-salt covered with 

be an elective absorption nesta by Melloni) takes place without 
diffusion. A diffusive action (supp by Forbes) never takes place in 
consequence of the rough surface of the layer of soot, but sometimes in 
een = a tarnishing of the rock-salt plate in the process of cov- 
ering wit 

2.) In Bier case of transmission through thin rita of metal Jaid upon 
glass the first process takes place without the las 

(3 e presence of an elective absorption shetiad daring transmission » 
is most certainly pi gts by spent whether the heat before and 
after its passage through the substance in question retains unchanged or 
varies its capacity to pass through othe (clear) diathermanous bodies 
“ a smooth surface. 


b. 
a consists of parallel and the other of "diffusive rays, the latter passes 
mos a a the substance tested, this substance is diffusive. In 
is ethod is pointed out for the co pil oke with each other 


whic 

with an capillaked or nas ohh ihe diffusion exerted upon them is in 
general increased. This increase, with the change in inclination, in the 
first place becomes larger with the generally diffusive property of the 
screen, but then again grows less to such a degree that in very rough 
and sufficiently cloudy plates, just as in the case of clear ones no differ- 
ence can be detected in the behavior of rays which are transmitted at 
different angles of inclination, 

b. A diffusion produced by reflection from rough surfaces diminishes, 
on the contrary, ee = more obliquely incident rays, and passes 20 nally 


in the Hiteror of the su ubstance, the Panek ean qua ality of the 
surface produces a “coloration” of the transmitted hea 

(3.) It follows, sachet that in the case of the pe and cloudy 
media in question, a sess on must be made between the action of the 
which which is always present, and that of the elective absorption 


occu 
Fused common = produced a diffusion but no heat-co -coloration. _ 
5} Another piece of rock-salt was found to be ebemicaly ' -— et 
chanically i impure, — exercised both a diffusive action and 
absorption. Circumstances of this kind explain the varying obeer 7 
made in different etguibiaaiies with rock-salt.—Pogg. Ann., CX%, ay 


Chemistry. 269. 


II. CHEMISTRY. 


1, On a cyanid of phosphorus.—Hitsner and Werurnave have de- 
scribed a tercyanid of phosphorus obtained by the following process. 
Perfectly dry vyanid of silver is heated in a glass tube with an equiva- 
lent quantity of terchlorid of phosphorus diluted with chlorofurm. The 
double decomposition requires a temperature of 120° C. to 140° C. for 
several hours. The chloroform is distilled off in a current of carbonic 
acid gas and the cyanid of phosphorus sublimed into the neck of the 
retort. Tercyanid of phosphorus forms long brilliant snow-white crystals. 
When gently heated they take fire in the air and burn with a bright 
light. Water decomposes the cyanid with violence, forming phosphorous 
and cyanhydric acids. The crystals melt and volatilize at about 190° C. 
Analysis proved that the constitution of the cyanid of phosphorus is 
PCy, ; the authors propose to study the products of its decomposition.— 
Ann, der Chemie und Pharm., cxxviii, 254, Nov. 1863. W. G. 

2, On Indium.—Ruicu and Ricnrsr have given some further details 
of the new metallic element, Indium, discovered by them in the Freiburg 
blendes, Indium gives in the spectroscope two blue lines, of which the 
brighter stands at 98, the fainter at 195, of a scale on which the sodium 
line stands at 38, and the blue strontium line at 93. A compound of 
Indium colors the flame of Bunsen’s burner violet, so that the presence 


hydric acid with evolution of gas, and the solution gives the blue line 
With great intensity. The hydrated oxyd precipitated by ammonia is 
nd ; : . . . 


4 white crystalline carbonate. The oxyd ignited in a current of hydro- 


oxyd in a platinum spoon with a little chlorhydric acid, when the blue 
line is rather less brilliant but lasts longer. A solution of the metal in 
chlorhydric acid gives with ammonia and sulphid of ammonium a gray- 
3 brown precipitate, but it is possible't at the color may arise from im- 
Purities. The separation of iron from indium is difficult. The chlorid 
Fine With ferrocyanid of potassium a white precipitate, with a shade of 
from the presence of iron, ferrideyanid gave no precipitate, sulpho- 
‘yanid of potassium a pale red, owing to the presence of iron. The 
Sxyd gives no blue color before the blowpipe with cobalt solution, and 
ignition dissolves slowly but completely in chlorhydric acid. The 
authors satisfied themselves that indium occurs only in the Freiberg zinc- 
nde, and not in the arsenkies and schwefelkies.—Journ, fir prakt, 
Chemie, Band 90, 172. 
Am. Jour. Scr.—Szconp Serres, Vor. XXXVII, No. 110.—Mancu, 1864 
35 ; 


: 


270 . Screntific Intelligence. 


III MINERALOGY AND GEOLOGY. 
1. Husynchite and Dechenite—In an extended investigation on Vana- 
dium, C. Czupnowicz reviews the analyses of vanadinite, dechenite, ara- 
oxene and eusynchite. He shows, that the method used by Tschermak 


Pb Zn v* Si - 
1; 56°47 16-78 23°55 3°20 traces == 100 
%. 53:91 21°41 19°17 551 traces = 100 


Ce 
=> 
© 
) 
| 
x 
& 
a 
ic) 
rr 
4 
o 
i) 
=] 
: 
r 
9S 
a 
bal 
cy 
& 
7 
s 
S 
3 
a 
PY) 
J 
Qu 
= 
Ss 
=> 
~ 
s 
= 
3 
TA 


stated that, on qualitative analysis of this mineral, I had found it to 

contain zinc, and attention was also called to its remarkable resemblance 

to dechenite. This statement is now confirmed by the analyses of Caud- 
e 


now 
also the fact that in the same article I pointed out the existence of zine 
in dechenite, and suggested the probability that dechenite and areoxene 
were identical. About the time my note was published, Bergemann gave 
the following analysis of arseoxene in Leonhard and Bronn’s Jahrbuch 
fir Mineralogie (1857, p. 397): 


Pb Zn As Vv AlPe* 
52°55 18-11 1052 16°81 1°34 = 99°33 
* With traces of phosphoric acid. 
Bergemann mentions that arzoxene enite occur together at 


neutral vanadate of lead. I have examined a specimen of 
obtained from Dr. Krantz in 1851, shortly after Krantz and Bergemat 
had described this species, and have found that it contains, not only pei 
but arsenic, The specimen has the appearance of being pure and vidal 
tered; it is perfectly homogeneous, has a brownish-red color, is ne 


- 


~~ 


_ Mineralogy and Geology. 271 


except a questionable difference in color. Any one reading v. Kobell’s 
description of arzeoxene’ and Bergemann’s ‘original description of the 
physical characters of dechenite? could hardly fail to conclude that they 
h 


2, 
with hematite at the Jackson Iron Mountain, near Marquette, Lake Supe- 
Tor. Some of the specimens have the hyacinth-red color which charac- 
terizes the variety of githite called by the Germans “ Rubinglimmer, 
It also occurs in acicular crystals of an almost velvet-black ea — 


ie 
: ri 
ticed briefly in this Journal,’ has been further investigated by Stromeyer 
and Pete 


acid in the cold, cave a residue consisting of a crystalline powder, and 
rounded ke of the size of a lentil These kernels are translu- 
cent, white on the exterior, and interiorly yellowish. Hardness, between 
3 and 4, Stromeyer found the limestone to contain 16°6 of crystalline 
heedles, and 14-8 of the rounded kernels. The specific gravity : 
former was 2-7, of the latter 30. The air-dried mineral was constant in 


artz. 

8B Fe asf Qu fe ce 
ti Needles, 36°66 rom 1°66 699 049 0°20 — vir 
2. Kernels, 3460 4944 320 1237 020 —— = 


Nie. 2 Pogg. Ann., Ixxx, 393. 
* Vol sain yest ee. * Ber, Wien, Akad., xlvii, $48. 


272 Scientific Intelligence. 


The needles contained traces of carbon, and oxyd of manganese, If the 
chlorine is considered to exist as MgCl and the iron as #e?2H3, and these 


composition of the mineral will be B 38-35, Me 54°63, H 7:00==100 
gives the formula 3(Mg5B?)4+4HO. A similar calculation made with No, 
2 gives B 36-13, Mg 51°52, H 12°35=100, and the formula 3(Mg*B*)-+8H, or 
4 atoms more of water than the crystalline variety, The composition is 
related to that of stassfurthite, this last minera being an acid hydro- 
borate combined with chlorid of magnesium, ‘i szaibelyite i is a basi¢ 
hydro-borate in which chlorid of magnesium is not an essential constitu 
ent. [The specific gravity of the borate with ve atoms of water i8 stat 
to be less than that with 8 atoms of nbs this is probably either a mis 
print or an error in observation.— 

4, Astrophyllite—F. Pisant has ‘ésaihined Scheerer’s astrophyllite 
It is a micaceous substance, found at Brevig imbedded in w flay 
the ri Abe cient is associated with catapleiite, ngihasi and large 
prisms of a black m It forms six-sided prisms, frequently lengthened 
in the direction of +s shorter diagonal, sometimes in  stellated groups 
and having a basic cleavage. In thin leaves translucent. Color brona- 
yellow. The powder resembles mosaic gold. Laminz only slightly 
elastic. H.=3, G.=8°324. Before the blowpipe swells up, and fuses 
easily to a black magnetic enamel. With soda and borax shows a strong 
manganese reaction. In the 2 spectroscope gives the lines of lime, Fr 
potash, and lithia. Decomposed by chlorhydrie acid with ae 
silicie acid in scales; the solution heated with zine or tin s the reac 
tion for titanic neha Analysis gave—silica 33°23, titanic ai 7-09, zit 


conia 4°97, alumina 4°00, ferric oxyd 3°75, ferrous oxyd 23°58, mange 


trace, og aaa ¥: « 1e Sayeea? ratio aie ca bases to vibe me 


5. 5 -Winaiite —J, A. Micnartson has analyzed a ante mn Hell 
in Norway, which he s says is the bragite of Forbes and Dahl. The ali 
eral is grayish-brown in color, has an uneven fracture and a met 
lustre. H1—=4°5. G.=5-40, With salt of phosphorus and borax ' 
— bead, eam is | greenish- -yellow while warm, and colorless on cooling: 

mpositio 


Pecan y Ge C. fin Co tg Po H 
$610 145. S871 748 4:95 1327 G11 182 089 OW TU 
from which Michaelson draws the formula — and considers the er 

ral to be identical with tyrite and fergusonit —d. f. pr. Chem, ‘pragite 
[Tyrite and furgusonite need further seechiaaten: it may be that 
and tyrite are identical, but the analyses of Hartwell, Weber a 


J. B:! 
would indicate that fer: nat HO and tyrite are distinet species. —& J 
6. 2 the 


Laurentian Rocks. of Canadas eu 
a letter to the Editors at Ny Journal ben Sit W.E. Lote to the . 


ted Montreal, Feb. 17th, 1864. .)—In August, 1859, 


+ 


Mineralogy and Geology. 273 


American Association at Springfield, Mass., specimens of what was re- 
garded by me as an organic form externally resembling Stromatocerium, 
and found in the Laurentian limestone of the Ottawa. These were de- 
scribed by me in the Canadian Naturalist for that year, (vol. iv, p. 300 
and afterwards figured in the Geology of Canada, (p. 49). In 1863, sim- 
ilar forms were detected by the Geological Survey, in the serpentine-lime- 
stune of Grenville, sections of which we have prepared and submitted for 
aws e finds that the ser- 


nal, [2], xxxvi, 228,) that these oldest known stratified rocks, constituting 
the great Laurentian system, are probably to be divided into two uncon- 


rests unconformably upon the true Laurentian series. It is the limestones 
of this latter and more ancient division which have afforded the Foramin- 


» On Glaciers and other phenomena connected with the Himalayas ; 
(Proc, Roy. Geog. Soc., Jan, 1864.)—Dr. Falconer, after describing the 
Progress of the Trigonometrical Survey in India, next drew attention to 
the glacier system of the Himalayas. All the best observers— Dr. Thom- 

be 


A any dist h : 

Mvers which cut them across, rivers like the Indus, the Sutlej, and some 
ers of the Ganges; but, regarded in one grand aspect, they constitu- 

ies of mountains with ravines and valleys intervening. Viewed, 

then, in this light, there were two great ranges which culminated to espe- 
cially great altitudes, and which bounded the Indus river to the south 
and to the north; and this being one of the points where the Himalayan 
attained its greatest altitude, there the a phenomena were 
the greatest grandeur and upon the loftiest scale. The 


274 Scientific Intelligence. 


referred to that part of the range which bounded the valley of the Indus 
Bp 


e north, the Kara-Korum, or Mooz-tagh, or the “Iey range of 


mountains,” and the other great series of them were the mountains which 
bounded the Indus upon the south. Although the glaciers upon the Shi- 
gar valley and in the valley of Bialdoh, which he himself had visited in 
1838, were of such surpassing grandeur and importance, as had been 
mentioned by Sir Roderick Murchison, it was but fair to say that upon 
the northern side there were glaciers which, so far as description went, 
were equally grand, if not grander. Those to which he should especially 
refer were the glaciers at the head of the Zanscar river. Mr. J. A. Arrow- 
smith was well acquainted with the mountain-ridge to which he referred 
and the glaciers which arose from it. There was a river called the Che- 


ciers extending from a very great distance, and having enormous width, 
and which, until the description that had been given by Capt. Austel, 
had been unrivalled by any glacial phenomena with which they were ac- 


ere was 
the Himalayan chain so remarkable that he should take the rags $ 


the numerous lakes which jutted pel from the Alps into the plain of Italy. 

Commencing on the west theré were the Lago d’Orta, the Lago ™a f 

di Lugano, the Lago di Como, the Lago d’[seo, and te Lago of 

Garda; in fact, wherever a great valley projected itself from the chain 0 

the Alps at right angles to the strike of the chain, there was, See = 
t lake. Regarding these lakes in a general way, WI" 


i 
3 
re 
4 
; 


3 


| 
| 


Mineralogy and Geology. 275 


o 


_+he question then arose, What was the physical reason of this great 
difference between the tropical mountains and those of temperate Europe ? 


European and Eastern mountains. He looked to the numerous lakes to 
the north and south of the Alps; and he would put the map of India 
alongside, where the same kind of rivers were debouching into the plains, 


carved out a great lake. This was the theory, or rather hypothesis, 
Which Professor Ramsay put forward to explain the lakes which were so 
abundant in the valleys of the Alps. A similar speculation, but greatly 
More restricted, had been advanced by Martillet a short time before. 


n ced, he 

it with the most li sition i :tion with his own experience 
: vely o ition in connection wit! 

n the Himalayan Mette hen The opposition which he gave to it was 


? See this Journal, [2], xxxv, 324-345, May, 1863. 


by 


wer, 


276 Scientific Intelligence. 


— 
FS) 
oad 
A 
= 
= 
ao) 
= 
~ 
n 
4 
ee 
=) 
S 
or 
Eh 
= 
Me 
o 
v7) 
o 
3 
oR 
e 
os 
Qu 
fe) 
=] 
< 
=F 
o 
° 
= 
= 
5 
® 
3 
= 
oa 
—- 


nean, and then should have again risen along an incline at a rate 
about 180 feet per mile. Without going into all the objections, he might 
state he believed the principal one was, t e mechanical difficulties in 


slide or incline, upon which all the solid material could be Ger” 


eg eee OS eT? 


. 


& 


AM. Jour. Sct.—Secoxp Sexres, Vor. XXXVI, No. 110.—Mancu, 1864. e 


Mineralogy and Geology. oe 


ner mentioned. If they would look at the map of the Himalayan moun- 
tains, one of the most remarkable things they would observe on th 
southern side of the chain was, that there were no great lakes whatever 


—not one that would compare with Lake Lugano, or wit of the 
second or third-rate Jakes in the Alps. But, if they crossed to the north- 
ern side of the chain, where the temperature was much co during 


export from Thibet, and it was invariably found in connection with hot 
springs. Within the last twenty years, a remarkab 
place, The late Count Larderelle, an original-minded and eminently 


lating that, at no very remote period of time, a plateau in the Hima- 


at the only rational solution which science could suggest was 
that, within a comparatively modern period, a period closely trenching 
Upon the time when man made his appearance upon the earth, the Hima- 


-Tayas had been elevated 8000 or 10,000 feet. 


vo ae a ae” a Kane Sa 
é . a 


thy 


278 Scientific Intelligence. 


* IV. BOTANY. 


rules of nomenclature drawn up at the instance of the association by 


Mr. Strickland and others, with power to.reprint these rules, and to cor- ; 


respond with foreign naturalists and others on the best means of insuring 
their general adoption.” “ Accordingly the rules, as originally circulated, 
are now reprinted [i. e. in the Edinburgh New Philosophical Journal for 
Oct. 1863, p. 260 et seq. |, and zoologists are requested to examine them 
carefully, and to communicate any suggestions for alteration or Improve- 
ment, on or before the first of June, 1864, to Sir William Jardine, Bart, 
Jardine Hall, by Lockerby, N. B.” 

As most of the propositions are from their nature equally applicable to 
botany, and as the new committee comprises the names of four botarists, 
extremely well selected, it is obvious that the improvement of nomencla- 


We feel free, therefore, to make any suggestions that may occur to us 
from the botanical point of view : 


First, we would reeommend that “the admirable code proposed in a 


Philosophica Botanica of Linnzus,”—to which, “if zoologists had pa 


the lapse of time have become inoperative, or were from the first over 


nice: ex gr, 222, 224, 225, 227, 228, 229, 230, etc., most of which are | 


recommendations rathef than laws. The British Association’s Commit 


tee has pruperly divided its code into two parts, 1. Rules for re 
ing the no- 


the present nomenclature: 2. Recommendations for improving 


menclature in future. The laws all resolve themselves into, or are conse 


quences of the fundamental law of priority, “the only effectual and just 
one.” 


m . 
nomial nomenclature, having originated with Linnaeus, the law of pres 


in respect of that nomenclature, is not to extend to the writings of am fal 
dent authors,” is perhaps somewhat too broadly stated. The essen 
thing done by Linnzeus in the establishment of the binomia 
ture was, that he added the specific name to the generic. 
ormed genera and generic names; but he did not pretend t 
ventor or establisher of either, at least in Botany. This merit he ae 
_ to Tournefort, in words which we have already cited in this Journal \" 
'Y, p. 134); and he respected accordingly the genera of Tourn 
reformer, While, therefore, it is quite out o question 1 


1 nomencla- 
Iso re- 


to be the in- ue 


» taking only the liberties which fairly pertained Pos him as if 


- 


-. 


wl 
Botany. 279 


supersede established Linnzean names by Totrnefortian, we think it only 
right that Tournefortian genera, adopted as such by Lianzeus, should con- 


tinue to be cited as of Tournefort. So, as did Linnzus, we prefer to write 
Jasminum, Tourn., Circea, T. ourn., rinus, Tourn., Tamarindus, 
Tourn., etc. Indeed, it is not fair to Linnzeus to father u on bi ic 


e 
names, such as the last two and many more, which Linneus specially 
objects to, as not made according to rule. Specific names, of courte, can- 
hot antedate Linneeus, even if the descriptive phrase of the elders were 

rd : 


some other genus in zoology or botany, or Jor some other species in the 


; 8 
Proper in its day, is now inapplicable. Endlicher, who in a few cases en- 
deavored to a ply it, will probably be the last general writer to change 


onee In each respective kingdom of nature. 
“$12. A name which has never been clearly defined in some published 
work should be changed for the earliest name by which the object shall 
80 defined.” Very well. And the good of science demands 
that unpublished descriptions, and manuscript names in collections, how- 
“ver public, should assert no claim as agaiust properly published names. 
But Suppose the author of the latter well knew of the earlier manuscript 


*r unpublished name, and had met with it in public collections, such 
name being unobjectionable, may he wilfully disregard it? And as to 
names without charac ers, may not the affixin name to a sufficient 


wilful disregard of unpublished names, especially of those in public or 
distributed collections, is injurious, dishonorable, and morally wrong. In 
the brotherhood of botanists, it should be a custom and courtesy 
und scientifie convenience in this respect have the practical force of law, 
the wilful violation of which would not long be tolerated ; and the distri- 
bution of hamed specimens, where and as far as they go, is held to be 
‘antamount to publication. : 

‘to the recommendations for the future improvement of nomencla- 
ture, in passing under review the “ Classes o objectionable names,” we 
Wonder that geographical specific names should have been objected to: we 

them very convenient in botany and, next to characteristic names, 
about as good as any. Comparative specific names in oides and ine 
ses are much used by botanists, and are often particularly characteristic, 
Specific Names derived from persons, used with discretion, and as for a 
Possible restricted to those who have had to do with the species, as dis-_ 


280 Scientific Intelligence. 


coverer, deseriber, d&e., are surely nnobjectionable. Generic names de- 
rived from persons are, we agree, best restricted to botany, where, when 
er eo atey. pple, they are in good taste, if not too cacophonous. As 
osely resembling renee in large genera it may sometimes be best to 


are intolerable. But whist can be orettiar: among unmeaning names 
than R. Brown’s Tellima? Botanists will hardly agree that a 

Neric name which has been effectually superseded by the law of priority, 
should never afterwards be bestowed upon some other genus of some 
Other order, “It has sometimes been the practice, in sting an old 


Genus, to give to the lesser genera so formed the names of their respective 


typical yin ies.’ The emai he ee ws ras usage became the pro- 


ne appening at yu hse thalictroides, Now if we adopt the 
of Linngus, to which he would probably have adhered had he lived 
il now, We write the naine ta the authority thus :— 
Leontiee thelictroides, Lin 
(Syn. Cauulo phyllum thatlictroides, Michx.) 
The abbreviated eet of the authors appended stand in pe of the full 
reference, e.gr. Linn. Sp. Pl. 4, p. 448, and Michx. Fl, Bor-Am. 1,P 
205, tab. 21. If the a view be adopted, it stands, in bees os 
Caulophyllum thalictroides, Michx. 
(Syn. Leontice thalictroides, Linn,) 
But, fearfyl lest the ee — should be robbed of his due credit, 
it has been proposec a 
Caulophyllum alicia, Linn, This is = only an anachronism 


mi a century, but an imposition upon Linnzeus of a view which be had 
and perhaps esate not have adopted. To avoid such fatal objer 
. thons, it has been proposed to write Coulockyllai (Michx.) ogee 


— ; which is not only “ too lengthy and inconvenient to 
and ra rapidity,” but too sonitnncn aod uncouth to be used at all. sat 
finally, the Committee propose to write,— 
Caulophyllum thalictroides, (Lian.) (sp.),— 
which is scarcely shorter, or even to leave out the(sp.) Th 0 rene i but 
to note that Linnseus originally gave the specific name gs long 
_ Bot the generic. Who 4, aon be otherwise ascertained. A pretly 


nee convinces us much confusion is risked Be troub™ 


and nothing worth tiala secured by these endeavors to put fore 


Botany. 281 


ward the original er than the actual application of a specific name. 

te-Li enclature broke down in the attempt to combine spe- 
cific appellation wih description, Here the attempt is to connect it with 
the history of its origin, which, after all, can be rightly told only in the 
synonymy. The natural re;nedy for the supposed evil which this mode 
of citation was to cure is, to consider (as is simply the fact) that the ap- 
pended authority does not indicate the pipes but only the application at 
the time being, of the particular name, and so no one is thus robbed of 
his due. The instructed a very well k knows the bibliography of 
apecies, or where to look for it; the tyro can learn. 

“$C. Specific names Boa always be woritten with a small initial 
letter, even ake derived from persons or places :”—on the round that 

Peeper names written with a capital letter are liable to be mistaken 
“or generic. (But no naturalist would be apt to write the name of a 
species without that of the genus, or its initial, preceding.) Also, “ that 
_ all species are equal, and should therefore be written all alike” The 
question is one of convenience, taste, and usage. As to the first, we do 
not think a strong case is made out. If mere uniformity be the leading 
consideration, it might be well to follow the example of the American 
author who corrected Ranunculus Flammula Linn. and R. Cymbalaria 
Pursh, into R flammulus and R. cymbalarius! As to tasteFand usage, 
sa “sng there would be a vast preponderance against the ‘innovation, 

espects personal names and those substantive names whic 
ta delighted ie gather from the old yi aaeg &e., pe turn to 
specific use, @. es Ranunculus Flammula, R. Lingua, R. Tho a, R. Fi- 
taria, and the like. Adjective names of places te pom eihy pe 
printed with a small initial, e. g., &. lapponicus, ete. DeCandolle writes 
such names with a capital letter; and this best accords with English 
analogy, but has not been universally adopted, and probably will not be. 
F. It is recommended that in subdividing an old genus in fulure, 
the names given to the subdivisions should bana in gender with that of 
the original group. ” The practical objection to this is, that old names 
should be reviy ed for these genera or subgenera, if there be any applica- 
ble ones, which is likely to be the case in “bota any. A. G. 

2, Ain ales Musei Botanici Lugduno- Batavi, edidit F, A. Gui. Mr- 
QWeEL. Univ. Rheno-Trajec. Bot. Prof, Musei Bot. L. B. Director. Tom. 
I, fase. 1-4, pp. 1-128, tab, 1-4, ful. Amsterdam and Utrecht. 1863. 
—Professor Miquel, still retaining his chair at the University of Utrecht, 
has succeeded the late Dr. Blume as Director of the Royal Botanical 

useum at Leyden; and that a a — invaluable materials 


effects of his activity and good judgment, Four numbers of the present 

Work, each of eight folio wine ia ecu and one colored plate, have 

* ei during the year 1863; and the work is peng to be eon- 
ued at the rate of five numbers in a year; the ce 3 florins each. 

The extent, character, and importance of this Sahliention- may be juc 

of from the following brief analysis of the contents of the four numbers 

oR i Miquel himself, a revision 

‘ust we ‘we from the indefatigable Prof. Miquel himsell, a 
of the Araliacee of the Indian Archipelago, with an a nalytical conspec- 


282 Scientific Intelligence. 


tus of the known genera of the order, and the revision of certain genera, 
as, for instance, of Aralia (from which he again excludes 

additional case of identity of peculiar N. E. American with N. E. Asian 
species, of much interest, is adduced, viz: that the Linnean Aralia 


Zuce., are all referable to our own fawiliar A. spinosa! Specimens from 
Georgia, collected by the late Mr. Beyrich, are provisionally named an 


herbarium, from the size of the leaves, &c., that a full suite of specimens is ’ 


bn . 

ocarpon, which are associated in North America, but 

even a third species of the same type, and an analogue of our peculiar 
V. erythrocarpon, as well as a species which comes nearer to our 


terest to us. : ‘ ; Pp 
Fourthly, Filices, presertim Indice et Japonica, are described by Pro- 
essor Mettenius, but thus far only Gleicheniacee and 


Q 
< 


arranged according to their affinities, and followed by a particular wet 
count of the many varieties of several species. : 

Sixthly, by Prof. Miquel we have Ampelidee Nove, with a ane 
ment of Vitis (including Cissus, Ampelopsis, and Dee a 
of Vitis 


pounded, without admitting which it is declared that Quercus and “' 

tanea cannot be kept apart, viz: Calleocarpus, of two Sumatran 1 

and Castanopsis of Don (as a section of Quercus), of numerous ir 1 
hestnuts. ane 


variously regarded as Oaks or C 


Botany. 283 


Eighthly, the Araceae, by Dr. Schott, the renowned monographer of 
the order. A sheet or two of the first part ends the No. 4 of these in- 
teresting Annales. A. G. 

8. Martius, Flora Brasiliensis: fasc. 33-35. July, 1863.—These fas- 


hey here 
occupy almost 250 pages of letter-press, illustrated by 26 plates. Brazil 


species appear to have been faithfully elaborated by Keernicke, who has 
also furnished the excellent analyses which enhance the value of the nu- 


co 
Gnetum and 4 of Ephedra. The gymnospermous view Is adopted, Ephe- 


Merely two species of ia, both of which are figured. : 

The eg by Sugita author, as to the Brazilian flora, include 
only one Araucaria and two species’of Podocarpus, all three most elabo- 
rately illustrated by figures, as also is Cupressus Lusitania, an oriental 
/ypress, planted in Brazil.. The interest of the article lies in a conspectus 

an arrangement of the order, and in an Ezcursus M on 
the structure of i 


scale obsolete. 


284 Scientific Intelligence. 


The tribe Araucariee is characterized by multilocular anthers, the cells 
linear and hanging free, cupressaceous (i. ¢., simple and globose) pollen, 
simple scales to the female ament [which appear to answer to bracts and 
not carpophylls}, inyerted ovules, and naked buds, 

The tribe Abietinee, by bilocular anthers, with oblong and separate 
cells, pinaceous (rarely cupressaceous) pollen, double and separate scales 
to the female ament, inverted ovules, and scaly buds. 

The tribe Curninghamiew, by the 2 or 3 short cells to the anthers, 
cupressaceous pollen, double scales to the female ament (the inner one 
smaller) but completely or incompletely coalescent into one body, invert 
ovules, and mostly naked buds. To this tribe our author doubifully 
refers Sequoia ! . 

he tribe Tuzodinew, by the 3—5-locular anthers, with roundish appo 
site cells, cupressaceous pollen, the scales of the fertile ament double, 
nearly equal, and coalescent, or their tips free, the ovules erect, and the 
buds naked. 


vincingly defends the gymnospermous doctrine, impugned by 
Baillon, and Parlatore, and adopts and fortifies A. Braun’s view ae ee 
inner or ovuliferous scale in the Abietinee is a metamorphosis 


or 
of the ovules of Abietinee and Ci 


Botany. 285 


stitute one flower, while in a Pine or Fir each ovuliferous scale, and in a 
Yew, the ovule itself would be a flower. Unwilling to accept such a con- 
clusion, which makes the ament of a Conifer in one case an inflorescence 


t, the flowers or ovules are “secundo gradu azillares.” The fem 
flower in all Conifera, accordingly, is concluded to be an ovule, and this 
is the metamorphosis of a lateral axis; while the Jeaves of a primary 
axis are metamorphosed into stamens. The latter we see frequent con- 
firmation of in monstrous catkins of Abies, where some of the subtending 


h we so : 
_ What a pity this beautiful “synthetic type” did not come to light 
1c n 

inally Dr. Eichler adopts the view of Brongniart, that the Gymno- 
sperms constitute a true natural class, intermediate between Cryptogams 
igiosperms. No new reasons are adduced in support of this view ; 

but on the whole it must be admitted that the grounds for the maintain- 
anee of Gymnosperms as a peculiar type or class grow stronger; although 
We could not say with propriety that they are intermediate between 


ter large reductions, Prof, Meisner enumerates 36 azilian species. _ 
Ax. Jour, Sci1.—Szconp Series, VOL. XXXVII, No. 110.—Maxcz, 1864, 
37 


286 Scientific, Intelligence. 


Much as this tribe luxuriates in these regions, it appears not to furnish 
esculent fruit, as in our cooler northern regions. Of the proper Hricinee 
the largest genus is Leucothoé, with 28 species. There are no Pyrolea, 
and no Monotropee known as yet in the Brazilian Empire; but Mono- 
tgopa uniflora occurs as near as the southern part of New Granada. 

A. @ 


arpu. Vol. IL. pars 3:2. Lund, 1863. pp. 787-1291. 8vo.—We 
have had the gratification of receiving another and large instalment 
this classical work. It comprises Agardh’s Ordo X hodomelea, con- 


d 
tralian genus, of two species, named Cliftonia by Harvey,—a name long 
ago pre-occupied in Phenogamic Botany. e work is as excellent in 


300 colored plates. It is published by Lovell Reeve & Co., and costs im 

London a little less than £8. do 
6. Thesaurus Capensis, &c. Vol. II, No. 1, 1863.—Professor Harvey, 

in the midst of indefatigable labors both in Algology and upon the Cape 


are devoted to subjects of curious interest; five or six illustrate remarka- 
ble Orchids, and one exhibits an extraordinary Pelargonium with its 
petals slit up into fine shreds ntinia acris is figured, and the fact 


Plants indigenous to the 
Ferpinanp Méuter, Ph.D., M.D., F 


detailed flora of Victoria Colony, with full ordinal, generic, and s 


e 
manner. It is published by the Colonial Government, which appears 19 
have been always ready to promote worthy scientific investigation 
And we trust it will be carried to completion, notwithstanding the more 
comprehensive Australian Flora. hn la 
8. Notice sur les Plantes de Michaux et sur son Voyage au Ct pe 
et a la Baie d’ Hudson, d’aprés son Journal manuscrit et aulres 
ments inédits; par Abbé Ovine Bruner. Quebec.—The eee 
Botany in the Laval University, Quebec, makes an appropriate d or 
this interesting publication. It is a study of the botanical explo ef 
and journeyings of the elder Michaux in Lower Canada and, aig 
_ the Saguenay River and Lake Mistassius, nearly to Hudson's ° 


Botany. 287 


While pursuing botanical studies at Paris, Prof. Brunet had noted with 
care, all the Canadian stations, in the herbarium of Michaux, and since 
his return he has been able to retrace every step of this hardy explorer 
and pioneer by means of his manuscript journals preserved by the Amer- 
iean Philosophical Society at Philadelphia. Attention was first called to 
this interesting manuscript, and an abstract given, in our vol. xlii (old 
series) about twenty-two years ago,—chiefly referring, however, to Mi- 
chaux’s explorations in the Alleghanies of the Southern States. In the 
present article we have a full account of the northern exploration, in the 
summer and autuma of 1792, with lists of some of the principal plants 
collected at each station, and useful notes upon the geographical distribu- 
tion or range of the forest-trees of the region. 

pon Michaux’s remark that the Gaultheria procumbens disappears 
about ten leagues above Lake St. John, Prof. Brunet adds a foot-note 
relative to the name of the physician of Quebec to whom Linnzus or 
Kalm dedicated this well-known plant. Kalm wrote the name Gaulthier ; 
hence Gaultheria, But, relying upon the French Academy of Sciences, 
ina volume of whose memoirs the name is written Gautier, Endlicher 
changed the orthography of the genus to Gautiera, Others have plau- 
sibly conjectured that his name was Gualthier or Gualtier, hence Gual- 
thieria or Gualtiera, But Prof. Brunet has settled the matter by refer- 
ting to the registers of the parish of Wotre-Dame de Quebec (e. g., 1751, 
Aug, 26), where the signature of this physician is found, written Gaul- 
tier, Gaulleria or Gaultheria, the original form of the generic name, is 
therefore not much amiss, and scarcely needful to alter; although Gaul- 
tera would be more correct, and may at length be made to prevail. 


having been selected in which (according to the authorities at Kew) they 
Would be most beneficial to science.” 2. “The General Character of the 


288 Scientific Intelligence. 


ble juice that merits attention, It happened, during the Spanish admin- 
istration, that a number of written documents, destined to the mother 


list. Of European botanists we have to record only the following :— 


theory of deduplication, which he maintained in his inaugural thesis 
Montpellier, published in 1826. His principal botanical writings (for he 
wrote also upon zoological and other subjects) are his succinct mono 


And now with deep sorrow we have to add the name Be 
rancis Boott, M.D., who died at his residence in London on engg 
mas morning, in the 71st year of his age. _He was born in meee 
the 26th of September, 1792, His father, Kirk Boott, came to fal 
country early in life, from Derbyshire, England, became 4 | 
merchant in Boston, was one of the pioneers of manufacturing entie” 
prise here, and one of the founders of Lowell,—the type, if not me 
the original, of New England manufacturing towns. His ‘oh the 
dence was on the site now occupied by the Revere House, of whi versit] 
Boott mansion forms a part. Francis Boott entered Harvard Uni ahet, 
in the year 1806, and took his Bachelor's degree in 1810. A year sailed 
being then in his nineteenth year, viz., in the summer of 1811, he 


and the three succeeding years were mainly spent with his. rela 
their friends near Derby, where he made the acquaintance of Mrs. er : 
_ castle, his future mother-in-law, who was something of a botanish _ 


_ Botany. * 989 


fo 
ge Shaw, Nathaniel Tucker, and Dr. Jacob Bigelow, the 


est 
however, afterwards persuaded to accept a collection of books instead, in 
; “4” 


The early death of Dr. Armstrong, cutting short a distinguished 
tater, imposed upon his friend the duties of a biographer and expositor. 
i ion, Dr. Boott, in the year 1834, pub- 


cellence as a teacher. Although he did not continue in this career, 

i jenti i e was an 

Versity College), and was for more than a qu 

a ee of its Senate and nae - oe 
time in medical practice, and was for many years : 

the American Embassy ; but he gradually withdrew from professional 

ates and toils to more congenial literary and scientific pursuits. As 


290 * Scientific Intelligence. 


early as the year 1819 he had become a Fellow of the Linnean Society 
of London; and afterwards, for the last twenty-five years, he gave it con- 


tinuous and invaluable service as Secretary, Treasurer, or Vice President, 


one time it was thought that Dr. Boott might be recalled to his 
native country and to an active scientific life. Nearly thirty years ago 
he was offered the chair of Natural History in Harvard University,— 
a chair which had remained vacant since the death of Professor Peck 


of his great work, entitled Illustrations of the Genus Carex, a fol 
ume with 200 plates, admirably representing about that number of ng 
cies, A very large proportion of them were North American specie hi 
which he naturally always took a special interest. In the letter of d 
cation of this work to his friend John Amo: well, Esq., of some? 
Dr. Boott states that his original design “was limited to the ares 
of the Carices of North America,” but that the large collections brovgh 


rawings, engravings, and _ letter- having been produced at bis ® 
: wings gravings, and letter-press having been pr given away. 


nor. put forth any promise to continue the w 
Part Second quietly appeared, without a word of preface. 


But in 1860 


Botany. - 997 


110 plates. Two years after, this was followed by Part Third, with 100 
plates, making 410 in all; and it is understood that the materials of a 
fourth volume are left in such forwardness that it may perhaps be pub- 
lished by his surviving family. 

ur own estimate of this work has been recorded in the pages of this 
Journal, as the successive volumes were received. The motto which the 
author placed upon his title-pages :— 

“The man who labors and digests things most, 
Will be much apter to despair than boast,” 
1 felicitously expressive both of the endless difficulties of the subject, 
al is undervaluation of his endeavors to overcome them. A most 
competent judge briefly declares that,— 

“This work is certainly one of the most munificent contributions ever 
made to scientific botany, besides being one of the most accurate; on 
which account it certainly entitles its author to take a much higher place 
amongst botanists than that of an amateur, which was all that his mod- 
esty would allow him to lay claim to.” 

r. Boott’s health, which had long been delicate, was much shattered 
in the winter of 1839-40 by a dangerous attack of pneumonia. “ From 
_ this time he had repeated slight attacks; but no alarming symptoms oc- 
curred till June 1863, when the remaining lung gave way, and from that 
time he never fairly rallied. He died at his residence, 24 Gower street, 
on Christmas Day,—retaining to the last his faculties and all the charac- 
teristics of his most admirable life.” 

Dr. Boott was a man of singular purity, delicacy, and goodness of char- 
acter, and of the most affectionate disposition. Few men of his ardent 
temperament and extreme sense of justice ever made less enemies or more 
friends. To the latter he attached himself with entire devotion. If there 


Flora Boreali- Americana. His British herbarium was long ago simi- 
larly given to a then young American botanist Another who, twenty- 
five years ago, called to take leave of him upon return n- 


his own library, where they were not duplicates. We know of one or 
Wo instances where he had commenced a critical study of a particular 
39 with a view to pe gre a wreecigeege sh that rons ae 
taken u j e te ; n 
other =e ag apiece Society of London owes no little of its 
ed Prosperity to his long and faithful services and his wise counsels. 
kept up an active correspondence with his friends in this country ; 


292 Scientific Intelligence. 


and for more than thirty years our young professional men, naturalists, 
and others who have visited Europe, have experienced cordial welcome 
and thoughtful kindness at his hands. The following gives a good ides 
of the man :— 


P 
coat, knee-breeches, and _ silk stockings, for the very good reason th 


tinued to wear to the last, and with which dress his casual acquaintance, 
no jess than his personal friends, will ever associate him. 
was so tall and thin as almost to suggest ill-health; and the refinement 
of his manners, his expression, address, and bearing were in perfeet keep- 
ing with his polished mind and many accomplishments.’ 

The preceding extracts are all from an excellent article in the Garden- 
er’s Chronicle for January 16, to which we are much indebted. In the 


tomaceous plant, Boorria corpata, a genus dedicated “in honorem Fran- 
cisci Boott, Americani, botanici ardentissimi et peritissimi, amici dilectis- 
simi, non minus animi probitate quam scientiarum cultu, et morum sud- 
vitate egregii.” A. G 
Jacques Gay.— We have just heard of the death of this excellent man 
and botanist, but without details. The event must have been sudden, a8 


an it was, without him 


G. 


long life-time, is now done away; and to botanists Paris will seem 0 


Vv. ASTRONOMY, 
1. Comet IV, 1863.—This comet was discovered by M. Tempel . 
Marseilles on Nov. 5th. It was visible to the naked eye, shining 4% 
bright asa star of the 5th magnitude. It appeared as a conden or a 
nebula, showing a tail about 2° long. The following elements we 
computed by Mr. H. Romberg. ; 
T = 1863, Nov. 9-49923, Greenwich m. t. 
™ = 94° 46’ 10”6 ) Apparent equinox 
Q = 97 31 15 2 Nov, 13°5. 
log.g = 9°849148 
otion direct. 
i The following are some observations of this comet. 


oh m. t. Lubeck. R.A. : 
Nov. 19, 18h 30m 4359 © )gh 19m gos-99 «= 18° 22/ 20 


Dec. 
19°30 
"20,18 10° 41-0 13 27 46-81 14 48 50% 


ce 
: 


Astronomy. © 293 

ee m. t. Greenwich. 
Dec. 3, 65 16m 175 

m. t. Josephstadt. 

Dec. 8, 5 48 650 15 46 9:04 +30 14 15 2 


R.A. Dec. 
15h 46m 358-8 + 30° 16717” 


was confounded w ; 4 
2. Comet V, 1863.—This comet was discovered on Oct. 9th by Mr. 

Backer at Nauen. The following elements were computed by Mr. Her- 
mann Romberg. 

T = 1863, Dec. 27-°70863, Greenwich m. t. 

m == 180° 17! 53-4 ) Apparent equinox 

Q = 104 51 28 °8 t of Oct. 14°5. 

Be 16 20 sk 

log.g == 0°131934 

. Motion direct. 
This comet appeared as an oblong nebula, strongly condensed in the 
middle. Its diameter was about 14, and it shone as a star of the 8th 
magnitud 


3. Comet VI, 1863.—On the 28th of December, 1863, M. Respighi, 
Director of the Observatory at Bologna discovered a new comet (the 
sixth of 1863). It exhibited a nebulosity condensed toward the centre, 
with the trace of a tail about half a degree in length. The following 
are two observations of Dec. 28th. 


m. t. Bologn RA: Dec. 
64 43m 4s 18h 49m 245-80 25° 57! 33"7 
gS: ee 18 50 1 “76 26..13.°2 = 
M. E. Weiss has calculated the following elements of this comet. 
Perihelion passage, 1863, Dec. 27:9915 
ngitude of perihelion, 60° 31’ 22" 
Longitude of no 304 47 17 
Inclination, 64 43 40 
Perihelion distance, 0°77301 
Motion direct. 


Comet of 1490. Comet of 1810. 
Perihelion passage, Dec. 24°477 Sept. 291062 
Longitude of perihelion, 5 52° 44’ 42 
Longitude of node, 8 45 310 21 2 
Inclination, 1 37 61 11 15 
Perihelion distance, 0°7376 0:97579 
Motion direct. direct. 


This comet was discovered at Ann Arbor on the 9th of January, as 
“ttounced in the following letter from Prof. Watson: 
AM Jour. 8c1.—Szconp Series, VoL. XXXVII, No. 110.—Mancu, 1864 


294 ' Scientific Intelligence. 


“Observatory, Ann Arbor, Michigan, 1864, Jan, 13. 
GENTLEMEN? 
I have the pleasure to inform you that I discovered a new comet on 
the evening of Saturday, Jan. 9th, at 64 o’clock. I have observed the 


following accurate positions : 


Ann Arbor M. T. Comet a. Comet 6. 
1864, Jan. 10, 65 57m 7s 19h 14m 33-37 +34° 6 59 
ti. > Ao 57 iv. it. 10. aL 34 52 52 2 
5 RS aon 19° 20 «83°35 35 42 47:0 


From these places I have derived the following elements of the orbit: 
T1863, Dec. 27-1413 Washington M. T. 


at— 60° 17! 39-0 : 
 Q=304 40 49-0 App. equinox, Jan. 11th. 


+— 68 38 
log g== 9°885810 
Motion direct 


The comparison of the middle’place gives: 


C.—0. 
Ai cosB=—2"9 ABm— 150 
The comet is large and bright, with a tail 14° in length, and a nt- 


by subsequent observations. Very truly yours 
oe NY YO" FAMES 0. WATSON" 
This comet was barely visible to the naked eye during the latter part 
of January, and in a comet-seeker exhibited a tail about 2° in a 
. Notes on 4 Argus ; by F. Assort, Esq. (from ior me 
Astronomical Society, Nov. 13, 1863.)—That the duration of this star's 
apparition is variable to a great extent is certain; and by comparing 
present description with the monograph of Sir J. Herschel, taken at Cape 
of Good Hope, it will, I think, appear conclusive that the apparition . 
the surrounding nebule is also variable. “a 
Messier recommended careful observations to be made on such objects 


with a view to ascertain whether or not any indications ers 


| u from 

which Sir Wm. Herschel, by his own observations from 1783 to tt: ; 
ilar oe 

maintained the same opinion in reference to the nebule in <) 

and of later date, Bond, Pogson, Struve, D’Arrest, and others, have © 

served such changes. i 

_ Sir John Herschel, when at the Cape, carefully examined 7 Argus Abs ; 

an 18-inch ‘reflector; “No part of this nebula,” says Herschel, “820% 


Astronomy. : 295 


any sign of resolution into stars.” “It is not easy,” he adds, “ for lan- 
guage to convey a full impression of the beauty and sublimity of the 
spectacle which the nebula offers as it enters the field of the telescope.” 


arrange themselves, and thus the whole mass would, in process of time, 
be transformed into a determinate number of discrete bodies, which 
would ultimately assume the condition of a cluster of stars.” : 
That this condition is partly carried out in the object 7 Argus will be 
manifest by comparing the Cape description with the present one. A 
great difference may be caused by the optical means employed, as far as 
resolvability goes; but if an increased number of brilliant isolated stars, 


the centre and surrounded OPEN 
with nebule, in the most 
dense part of which is situ- 
ated 7 Argus. The appear- 


“NEBULA 


Open space or dark part, and : ee 

surrounded with an almost innumerable quantity of brilliant stars, many 
of which are arranged in groups, some being of 4 lue, an eof a 
muddy color. They are eck Ee brilliant in the dark space, and afford 
a comparison with the variable star itself. = : 
_It appears somewhat paradoxical that in 1838, when examined by Sir 
J. Herschel, the star 1 Argus was situated in the most dense part of the 


ioe The irregularity of this star, and the nebulosity surrounding it, involve 


296 Miscellaneous Intelligence. 


a principle as to whether its accession and diminution is the effect pro- 
duced by distance, transits of opaque bodies, or solar spots; or whether 
the nebulosity surrounding 7 Argus interferes with the light emitted by 
the star; if so, the increase and diminution, however vacillating, become 
obvious. 


VI. MISCELLANEOUS SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE. 


manufacture necessarily awakened much interest here. Thinking there- 
fore that your readers may feel a like interest, I take the liberty of sending 


e 
Rupert’s drop. In the case of solid cast iron shot, for example, there is 
maximum diameter within which these can be cast without containing 
cavities. But beyond this point, the contraction toward the exterioh 
which is the first to solidify, is so great that these cavities are 
Ia general the contraction is irregular and the cavities are near the upper 
surface. Hence it is considered preferable to cast thick shells, in whieh 
ease the core locates the cavity exactly in the centre. For the same 
ficulties in casting large guns, it was at first proposed to apply the same 
remedy. 1at is, to cast the gun with a core, so that the contraction 
should be uniform from the axis to the surface. | 
ajor—then Lieutenant—T. J. Rodman had his attention first called 


: maker” was a wrought iron imported gun, having a bore 7 “ans 
inches in diameter. Considering the conditions under which 1rom § 
were usually cast, Major Rodman at once saw the enormous strain ” 


cast was In ta enter” 
He then applied himself to the mathematical investigation 
the conditions under which a central force acts. He found that Barlow 


us in a gun one calibre thick the distance from the bore to teenie 
is 8, and the strain on the exterior when fired is only th that om ef 07 | 
terior. Now if the strain at the interior is the breaking strain, then ' a 


* 


Miscellaneous Intelligence. 297 


be “two-thirds of that which half a calibre in thickness would offer if 


outward. But the tension in cooling acts in the same direction, And 
this latter force far exceeds the former, if we remember Major Rodman’s 


n 
the way of casting large guns, was to cast them with a core. is core 


sides would lie in one groove, the other in the adjoining one, and the 
connecting part would bind the core together longitudinally. The diffi- 
culty of procuring this peculiar shaped wire led him at last to abandon 


t the gun, instead of facilitating it. Instead of the resistance op 
to the powder bei 


these guns it is less subject to wear than when it is the last part to cool, 
method, 


48 in the old 


298 Miscellaneous Intelligence. 


The plan thus devised was offered to the Ordnance Department three 
several times during the years 1845 and 1846. But they thought it im- 


Knap & Totten, proprietors of the Fort Pitt Foundry, Pittsburgh. They 
_ agreed to make a trial of the principle at their own expense and also to 
defray the expense of securing a patent, if he would assign one-half of 


his right in it to them. This he agreed to do, and the patent was ac . 


cordingly issued in August, 1847. Preparations were immediately com- 
menced and the first hollow cannon was cast at that Foundry in the win- 
ter of 1849-50. This was an 8-inch Columbiad. At the same time and 
from the same metal a solid gun of the same size was cast. en fin- 
ished, they were proved with a charge of 10 lbs. powder and one 64 
pound shot. The gun cast solid burst at the 85th fire: the one cast hol- 


manner, with only such slight variations as experience had suggested, 
The guns were of the same size as in the previous experiment. The one 
cast solid burst at the 73d fire, the other has endured 1500 rounds and 


of powder as possible. From these investigations, he came to the con-_ 


elusion that the old columbiad model was radically defective. He there- 


100% 
rounds, it only remained to increase the size of the guns thus X ey BE 
of a gun, whose bore should be 20 inches in diameter. Owing howev™ 
to the great 


© the great demand for large guns, of the size already made, no AN" F 
to cast this immense gun was made until the present winter. 


! 


Renae aah 


Eo eng he pe 


Miscellaneous Intelligence. 299 


The Fort Pitt Foundry stands on the Alleghany river, testing on made 
land. As guns are cast vertically, with the muzzle up, the first thing to 
be done is to sink a pit, as deep as the intended gun is long. In this in- 
stance the requisite depth would carry the bottom of the pit below the 
water line and water would flow in. A wrought iron tank fills up there- 
fore half the height of the pit: and this is lined with a layer of brick 9 
inches thick, which is continued to the top. A circular pit 30 feet deep 
and 14 feet in diameter is thus made. Within this the flask, or support 


e 
® 
>] 
ss 
a 
°o 
=] 
key 
i=) 
S 
S 
sy 
<4 
= 
Qu 
& 
i=} 
le j=] 
~ 
3 
Ss 
& 
co 
ag 
& 
= 
ae 
oe 
3 
oe 
= 
° 
— 7 
2 
=< 
& 
= 
oe 
3S 
i 
B 


_the furnaces are constructed on the reverberatory plan, the hearth in- 
clining toward the fire. They are known as air furnaces, and depend on 
draft entirely. They were charged cold with second fusion Bloomfield 
Pig iron; No. 4 receiving 39 tons, No. 5 and No. 6, 234 tons each. No. 
3 was charged with 18 tons and held as reserve. The fires were lighted 


iron in the furnaces was tested from time to time to ascertain when it 
Teached the tight point. At 12%24™, the three furnaces were tapped 
simultaneously. The metal was conducted in runners to a pool near the 
Pit, from the side of which, near the bottom, it passed in two runners to 

® gun mould, entering, not directly, but through side channels or gates, 
having branch gates inclined upward toward the axis, at intervals of 12 
Inches. The scene just at this time was grand. Three streams of liquid 


300 Miscellaneous Intelligence. 


the gun-mould could be seen the boiling metal slowly rising toward the 
top. The moisture of the sand yielded up its hydrogen: the rope fur- 
nished carbonic oxyd; and the sticks with which the surface of the metal 


a 
perature of 36° F, had been admitted to the core-barrel before tapping 
the furnaces, and it then left at the same temperature, the flow being 30 
gallons per minute. At 1254547, the mould was full and the flow from 
the furnaces was stopped ; the entire time of casting being 214 minutes. 
At this instant, the water left the core barrel at 42°. At 4™ thereafter 
52°; 8™- 654°; 14™—814; 25m~91°; and at 30™-913°, One hour 
after casting, this flow of water was increased to 60 gallons per minute, 

t two o’clock a collar was put on the flask and more metal was added 
to increase the length of the ‘sinking head.’ More effectually to retard 
external cooling, grate bars were placed near the bottom of the pit, 
around the flask, and the fire on them was lighted at 3% o'clock. The 


uously through at the rate of 2000 cubic feet per minute. This air com- 
menced to flow at 24 57™ on the 12th, and continued uninterruptedly 
until the gun was cold. On the 19th at 35 30™ p, m. the air issued at the 
temperature of 70°F, the fire in the pit having been extinguished the 
night previous. On the 23d, the gun was stripped; i.e., the flask was 


top. But in removal it fractured across the spongy portion, about 
- inches from the exterior. So that of the thickness of the gun 144 inches, 


was therefore continued until the 25th. Then by means of two immense 
steam cranes, this huge gun, weighing 86 tons, was lifted from its pit, and 
prepared for the lathe. The casting was perfect. All these facts, there 
re, indicate that 20-inch guns are as easily made as 15-inch. tal 
The dimensions of this gun when finished will be as follows ae 


men could load it as easily as five now load the 15-inch gun. 
mentioned, in crushing 


the sides of a2 


Miscellaneous Intelligence. 301 — 


iron-clad, would equal that of six ten-inch solid shot: and that of the 
battering shell would considerably exceed that of seven ten-inch solid shot. 

This gun being entirely experimental, Government only pays the ex- 
penses of manufacture. On all guns cast hollow, however, the patentees 
get one cent per pound royalty. 

The casting of this gun took place under the supervision of Major 
Dyer, of the Springfield (Mass.) Armory ; Major Rodman, of the Arsen- 
al, Watertown, Mass.; and Capt. Benét, Inspector-in-chief of Ordnance, 
West Point, N. Y.: all of the Army. And there were present Capt. 
Aulick, of the Ordnance Bureau, and Capt. Berrian, Inspector of cannon 
and projectiles at this station, of the Navy. Capt. Goodenough of the 

yal Navy, and the Marquis de Basse Court, of the Italian Navy, were 
among the distinguished s 

This immense Foundry is now carried on by Charles Knap, Esq. He 
has for his foreman Mr. Joseph Kaye, acknowledged to be the best gun 
founder in the country. G. 


VII. BOOK NOTICES. 


1. First Outlines of a Dictionary of the Solubilities of Chemical Sub- 
stances, By Frayx H. Srorer. Part Il—The importance which we 
attach to Mr. Storer’s work now in process of publication leads us to 


of sources, as is sufficiently evinced by the great number 
ences given. As asingle example, we may remark that the solubility 
of nitrate of potash in various menstrua is illustrated by no less than 
sixty-three quotations from authors on the subject. ‘ 
_ the advantages of a work like this are two-fold. For it not oe 
the chemist by placing in an acceptable shape the information whic 


lus to the completion of an exact knowledge on the subject to which it 
ne . It exposes, by a si ificant silence, the points which have 
been overlooked or neglected, or relative to which no observations have 
een made; thereby inviting active chemists to fill up these lacunes and 
complete our knowledge. Mr. Storer has moreover given very conscien- 
tiously his authority for by far the greater num of his statements, 
therein following the excellent example set by Leopold Gmelin; which is 
Sie y Ra coming more and more g nipieak-tepret 
hs is - i isfac J in ¥ . mae 
reader and to the nevtiors'qaeiel ” To the latter, it aids in giving the 
just reward of their labors, that consideration and reputation which to- 
gether with honest and hearty love for the study, is so often the only 
Feeompense that fulls to the lot of the really scientific chemist. To the 
4m. Jour. Sc1.—Secoxp Seuims, Vou. XXXVII, No. 110.—Mancu, 1864. 
S as 


302 Book Notices. 


reader, it is equally valuable, for in.the case of conflicting statements it 
enables him at least to form some opinion as to which are most likely 
to be reliable, and as to the necessity of further investigation. 

The book is indispensable to the chemical student. We feel the want 
of the third part, for the sulphates, phosphates and tartrates, etc., and 
shall welcome its appearance. oI 

2. Chambers’ Encyclopedia: a Dictionary of Universal Knowledge for 
the People. Illustrated. Philadelphia: J. B. Lippincott & Co. Edin- 
burgh: W. & R. Chambers. 1861-1863, Vols. I-V, royal 8vo, pp. 
828 each.— We have in a previous volume of this Journal noticed the 
commencement of this valuable publication. It has now reached the 


committed of extending such notices beyond the proper limits of a 
dictionary of knowledge to the dimensions and scope of elaborate 


di ae are also introduced, and the electrolytic detection of metals is 
revived. 
4. Dana’s Manual of Geology.—A revised edition of Dana’s at 
of Geology has just been issued by the publishers (T. Bliss & Sows 
. cu 


long-tailed Bird of Solenhofen, copied from the last December number 


oe OBITUARY. sie 

Epwarp Hircucoox.—Professor Edward Hitchcock died at sue 

i usetts, Feb. 27th, at six in the morning, aged seventy years Al 
nine months, He was born at Deerfield, Mass., May 24th, 119300 BE 


though enjoying limited advantages of early education he had the pos 

tion of Principal of the Academy in his ht town, from 1815 mane 
ag which time he also edited an almauac. In 1811, when on} 

years of age, he made observations on the comet and solar eclips¢ 


Obituary. 303 


year. His first geological paper, and in fact his first important contribution 
to science, was his “ Remarks on the Geology and Mineralogy of a section 
of Massachusetts on Connecticut River,” published with a map in the first 
volume of this Journal, and dated at Deerfield, Oct.1817. From 1818 
to 1825 he was the Pastor of a church in Conway, Mass., still pursuing 
his scientific studies as is evident from his papers, chiefly on mineralogy 
and geology, published in the first ten volumes of this Journal. He gave 
hi : 


Chemistry and Natural History in Amherst College, with whose history 
845 he 


examine the geology of the State, which resulted at last, in 1841, in a 
final report in two quarto volumes of 840 pages, with 56 plates and 82 
Wwood-cuts. This was independent of the separate reports on zoology and 


uction—althou; h it was so 
Much his habit to despond and still labor on, that we felt it not neg 
: ; vi 


? ‘This Journal, vol. ix, p. 107. 


304 Obituary. 


behalf, we find a mirror of his scientific life and labors. How much he 
was the servant of all work, in his position of President, appears from 
the following passage : 

“ My epistolary correspondence in the Presidency was peculiarly _ 


of a common school, an academy, or a professor in a college—or any one 


agements, his clear, firm grasp of truth sustained and raised him above 
all difficulties, and has secured him an honored name in science. And this 


upil of 


. 


pe 
of the most gentle and excellent of men. Thus in two months eid 
Bairoreity of Berlin lost two of her most illustrious men, Mitscher 
~ Rose. 


AMERICAN 


JOURNAL OF SCIENCE AND ARTS. 


[SECOND SEBIES.] 


Art. XXVII—On the Diptera or two-winged Insects of the Amber- 
fauna. (Ueber die Diptern-fauna des Bernsteins): a lecture by 
Director Law, at the meeting of the German Naturalists in 
Keenigsberg, in 1861. 


Ises the most interesting results. The objects for such investi- 
however are so various, that a division of labor is required. 
uced 


* We owe this translati i 's interesting I. 
slation of Director Law's interesting J.ect 
fauna Diptera to ey: a te Sacxex, so well known for his important contribu- 
tions to f American : — if 


be table to English readers who have not access e original. 

Seif has kindly furnished the notes, containing lists of species aaa Europe 

reg North America, and which, not being found in the nal, are published 
the firs time.—{ Note by the Editor.) 

_ Aut Jour. 3c1.—Secoxp Seeres, Vou. XXXVII, No. 111.—May, 1864. 


306 On the Diptera of the Amber-fauna. 


tion of this supply is the entire Behrendt collection of Diptera in 
amber, to which that of A} ; also rich contri- 
butions from the collection of H. Menge, of Danzig, from that of 
the Physico-economical Society of Koenigsberg, as well as from 
the Thomas collection in the Royal Mineralogical Museum at 
Berlin, without special mention of valuable contributions from 
individual collectors, who have with praiseworthy liberality 
sought to advance the aims of science. 

The investigation of this rich supply of material has, up to 
this time, made known about 850 species of Diptera in amber, 
and these all belong to the division of the Diptera proboseidea, 
while, so far, not a single species of the Diptera eproboscidea has 
been found to occur. Of these 850 species, however, there are 
only 656 in so complete a state of preservation that their specifie 
characters can be Rtabiiinct with absolute certainty. These 
are distributed over 101 genera, of which 50, with 3895 species, 
belong to the Diptera nemocera, and 51, with 261 species, to the 
Diptera brachycera. : 

In the case of the latter, the chemical decomposition of theit 


numbers; the family of the Culicide is the poorest. : 3 
From what has been said above, as to the frog eniee eS ak : 
é ily be w 


place in the systematic arrangement can be assigned only ri 
Sa difficulty. This is true especially for those fons sae ist 


Tutely necessary to distinguish those fainilies of the Diptera — 
brachycera whose occurrence in amber is beyond a dou pie - 
those which are more or less doubtful. The families which» i 


On the Diptera of the Amber-fauna. 307 


now known certainly to occur in amber, are the following sev- 
enteen: Xylophagide, Tabanide, Leptide, Cyrtide, Asilida, The- 
reuidee, Bombylide, Syrphide, Pipunculide, Hybotide, Empide, 
Tachydromide, Dolichopodide, Helomyzide, Micropexide, Diop- 
side and Phoride. The families whose existence in amber is tol- 
erably well established, are the following ten: Myopide, Tachi 
nide, Deride, Muscide, Anthomyide, Sciomyzide, Sapromyzxda, 
Ephydrinide, Drosophilide and Oscinide. As families, which 
seem not to be represented in amber, we may name six: the 
Sarcophagide, Lonchwide, Heteroneuride, Opomyzide, Piophilide, 
and Geomyzide. Finally, there are eighteen families of which 
it is perfectly certain that not a single species has been found in 
amber, namely: Stratiomyide, Acanthomeride, Mydaside, Hir- 
moneuride, Scenopinide, Platypezide, Lonchopteride, Cistride, 
Cordyluride, Psilide, Ortalide, Trypetide, Phycodromide, Sep- 
Borboride. Of th 


= 


. e 
families above named, the Dolichopodide far exceed all the others 


A seemiage The proof of its correctness by the soeaieaton 


f the species, enclosed in amber derived from different locali- 


~_ If the speci is found enclosed in the same piece with the spe- 
cies b, iin dhae-beca eau to occur in another piece ed 


with c, we may presume that they belong to the same district- 


fauna. I have therefore devoted especial attention to those pieces 
of amber which contained several species, and have endeavored, 


308 On the Diptera of the Amber-fauna. 


from their examination, to form a catalogue of the species which, 
under the above supposition, might be considered as belonging to 
the same district-fauna. Some very beautiful pieces of amber, 
containing each from ten to twelve species of Diptera have 
greatly aided me in this investigation. But among most of the 
amber collectors the unfortunate fashior prevails of dividing the 
larger pieces, containing several specimens, into smaller fragments 
in order to show each one by itself and to make a more conven- 
ient arrangement in the museum. The loss to a true scientific 
investigation of the Amber-fauna by this mode of proceeding 
has been so great that I cannot use too strong language in pro- 
testing against it. Although the catalogue thus formed does not 
by any means embrace all the species, it is yet comprehensive 
enough to enable me fully to confirm the supposition that the 
Diptera which are found in Prussian amber belong to one and 
the same district-fauna. 

The assumption that the Amber-diptera represent a fragment 
only of such a district-fauna, dependent upon special and yet 
uniform local conditions, must be considered as established, if 

e composition of this fauna evidently suggests coincident con- 
clusions as to the nature of these local conditions; or, in other 
words, if it can be proved that the Dipterous fauna of the am- 
ber is composed of the different families, just in the same man- 
ner as families of recent Diptera would enter into the composition 
of a fauna, subject to certain local conditions. ; 
_ Now, the composition of the Dipterous fauna of the amber 18 
indeed precisely such, as forcibly to suggest some conclusions 
about the nature of the localities in which it flourished and 10 


up with vegetation, or the shelter of the denser forests, 80. 
they are found in abundance in amber. Of the Dolichopodid@, 
those species are quite absent which live principally pon | 
water, or on water plants, while of those more active forms 
which swarm in open spots, there are only a few scattered bod 
Sentatives; on the contrary, of those genera whose species 2 “ 
present day are found lurking for their prey in swarms on ™ 


‘On the Diptera of the Amber-fauna. 309 


ground for their unfrequent occurrence in amber, if we assume 
that the species of these families were already abundant in the 
Amber epoch, while under the same supposition we could ex- 
Plain it by the controlling influence of special local conditions. 

he numerous and very varied forms of the Cecidomyda, whose 
species are strictly confined each to its peculiar plant, teach us 
that the flora was one rich in species; this decidedly removes 
the supposition of the exclusive presence of extensive conifer- 


lants, if not abundant in numbers, were at least rich in species, 
while it is by no means app 
cent form. Next to the Cecidomyide, the species of no other 


aes the rarity, of Synanthere in the Amber period, would 
these insects, who seek the plants, which are to be the r 


310 On the Diptera of the Amber-fauna.’ 


of their progeny, in open and sunny spots, and hover about these’ 
lants, or at least in their neighborhood, with great pertinacity. 


species; and we involuntarily ask, In what sort of a climate lay 
this paradise for long-legged gallinippers and impudent gnats? 

If we had any reason to consider the now extant amber-diptera 
as representatives of a district fauna in general, instea of 
pte 


as to the number of species as well as individuals, the g of 
rarity of Asilide, and still more of the Bombylida, the absence 
all Nemestrinida, etc., would undoubtedly have indicated 4 cli- 


in such a case have been but of little importance, as even now 
the higher latitudes harbor some forms of this kind. I believe 


Mt nemocera will lose the importance which it other ee 
would have had; for also in present times, localities of here 
indicated description, even in much lower latitudes, show ™ 


On the Diptera of the Amber-fauna. 311 


prevalence in the same degree; at the same time, the presence of 
a number of Diptera, closely related to some southern species, 
will gain so much the greater importance, since the rarity of 

eir occurrence in amber merely proves their rarity in the spe- 
cified local conditions, without excluding the possibility of their 
common occurrence in other localities as well as of the occur- 


that of the southern peninsule of Kurope. 
An especial interest is afforded by the comparison of the Am- 


and careful scrutiny only the fossil Diptera found near Radoboj 
in Croatia. The collection of these Diptera belonging to the 


312. On the Diptera of the Amber-fauna, 


number of species has increased, or even what new forms have 
been added to the previously existing ones, such a comparison 
would of course afiord the highest interest. But, unfortunately, 
such an attempt is impossible, on the one side because of the 
as yet very imperfect knowledge of the now living Diptera, on 
the other, because what we know of the Amber-Diptera is but a 
fragment of a district fauna. In confronting, therefore, both 
faunas, I will by no means try to discover and to establish dif 
ferences between them of the above indicated kind, which would 
be a useless attempt; my only aim will be to refute as erroneous 
certain conclusions as to the existence of such differences, 


as founded upon erroneous premises. Fora long time students 


its close relationship to Electra. Both combine the many-jointed 
antenne of the Diplera nemocera with the general structure of 


eed some reason to suppose that the limit between 
two sections was sharper now than in the Tertiary period, al- 
though our very incomplete knowledge of the living Dips 
caution was justified subsequently by the discovery of a Bost 
American species, published by Mr. Haliday under the name 
Rachicerus julvicollis, a species which not only forms a most - 
cided transition between the two principal sections of Diptet™ 
but shows even the closest relationship with Hlectra and Chryso- 
themis. My own studies of the North American fauna have 


On the Diptera of the Amber-fauna. 313 


made me acquainted with three other intermediate forms of this 
kind, two from the United States and one from Cuba. These 
species also belong to the relationship of Hlectra, Chrysothemis 
and Rachicerus, although they cannot be referred to either of 


servations on the Dipterous fauna of the Amber,” published in 
1 A part only of these genera owe their existence to the 
necessity of establishing for these fossil species generic distine- 
tions based upon slighter plastic characters than those usually 
admitted for the separation of living species, and have therefore 
less claim to be taken into consideration here. Another portion 
consists for the most part of very striking species, easily distin- 

ished from all the known living genera. But this circumstance 


re- 
and for which I me 
, the name of Arthropeas, on account of its peculiar su 
uliform antenna. After having found Arthropeas nana om — 
ber, I received a closely allied species from Eastern 5! ra, 
A, Sibirica m., and now I possess in A. Americana m., a 
from the United States which is even somewhat more nearly re 
a A. nana. 
‘he genus Bolbomyia, two whic 
Was remarkable for “the difficulty of assigning a suitable 
tion for it in the system, as ee 


necies of which occur in — 


314 On the Diptera of the Amber-fauna. 


Diplonema, remarkable for the elegant structure of its anten- 
nz, is one of the most striking genera of Psychodie found in 
amber; Styringomyia, a genus of the Zipulide, hasa very pecu- 
liar neuration of the wings; both genera when I discovered 
them in amber were new. I was not a little surprised therefore 
when I found specimens of both genera together, enclosed ina 
lump of copal. Unfortunately it was not possible for me to as 
certain the country where this piece of so-called East Indian 
copal came from, although I still hope that a well-preserved 
beetle, contained in it, may help to solve this question. 

Among the amber Diptera I also found three species of a Tip: 
ulideous genus, which I called Zoxorhina; it is remarkable for 
its long, almost filiform, stiff proboscis, for the peculiar structure 
of its oral organs, and for the abnormal neuration of its wings. 
Later, I became acquainted with a living representative of this 
genus in Zocorhina fragilis from Jamaica, and still later I was led 
to recognize that Westwood’s genus Limnobiorhynchus, founded 
upon a Canadian and a Brazilian species, was, if not identical, 
at least very closely related with Zoxorhina. 

_ Another very remarkable genus among the number of the 

Tipulide occurring in amber, is the new genus Macrochile. A 
closely allied genus was recently described by Baron Osten 
Sacken, in the Proceedings of the Academy of Natural Sciences 
of Philadelphia, under the name of Protoplasa. 

These instanees, which could be increased by many others, 
will be sufficient to prove that it would be premature to conclu 
from the presence in amber of a number of genera, tbe living 
representatives of which have not yet been found, to the nov 
existence of these genera in the fauna of the present epoch. 

The result therefore to be drawn from the foregoing facts and 
from the considerations connected with them, is in general of & 
rather negative nature; and this result is, that the facts 1n Our 
possession do not justify any conclusion as to the existence 1? 
the Amber period of forms totally different from those now liv: 
ing in any important parts of their organization—or, to adopt & 
more positive mode of expression, it seems extremely probable 
that the generic types which existed in the Amber period, ip 
been preserved down to our time, The question whether Ao 
number of generic types has been perceptibly increased since * 
Amber period cannot be discussed at all, as we possess but @ 
small fraction of the fauna of that time. ! 

If the generic types of the Diptera of the Amber period have 
thus been preserved to our time, the question naturally aes 
whether this is not also the ease with the specific ty pes, if not Ai 
at least some of them. The general impression produced by ra 
- Diptera, even in a cursory examination, has 50 little to 
the character of novelty in it that we at once feel dispose® © 


On the Diptera of the Amber-fauna. 315 


yaise this question and to proceed to the comparison with living 
species. Since the very beginning of my researches, that is, about 
seventeen years ago, I have very closely pursued this compari- 
son. I early found that some of the species enclosed in am 


h 

ose acquainted with the extreme difficulty attending, in 
many cases, the discovery of definite plastic characters for the 
discrimination of undoubtedly different species of living Diptera, 
will justify me if I attach less importance to the result of a single 
comparison of a fossil species, contained in amber, with an ex- 
tremely resembling living one, than to the general average of the 
results of such comparisons. And this is, as already noticed 
above, that with the increase in quantity as well as in quality of 
materials for comparison, the differences which could be traced 


poorer materials. Thus, not only do we not possess any sufficient 
proof of the identity of any one species, contained in amber, 
with a living one, but the results heretofore obtained render it 
extremely probable that a still greater increase of materials for 
Investigation will enable us to discover specific distinctions even 


living species so closely resembling them is a very peculiar one. 


close link of relationship to 

additions to the number of old 

species, but are so to say, the one he bi species, is in my 
nion irresisti snreindiced observer. nT 

i On irresistible to any vad atiche sal distribution of the ivi é 
eci closely enecies enclosed in amber, le 

Species so closely related to some species patent sige 


316 On the Diptera of the Amber-fauna. 


result in the course of my researches took place as follows. It 
appeared at first that the living species of the indicated kind 
were scattered irregularly and at random over all the parts of the 
globe. Further inquiry not only increased the number of suc 
related couples of species, but allowed also very frequently to 
replace the living species of some previously discovered pair 
some other, still more closely allied to the fossil one. The fur- 
ther the research was pursued in this direction, the more it be- 
came evident that the living species of these pairs have a very 
definite geographical distribution, as being gradually eliminated 
from the other parts of the world, they tended more and more 
to concentrate in Europe, and in a much higher degree in North 
America. ; 
I readily acknowledge that my researches have necessarily 
been influenced by a purely personal coéfficient, which has to be 
taken into account, in order to establish the absolute value of 
the result obtained. This personal coéfficient consists in the at- 
meric proportion of the living species from different parts of the 
world, which could be subjected to comparison, as well as in the 
more or less complete knowledge I had of the Dipterous faunz 
of the different continents. The European Dipterous fauna 8 
naturally the best known to me; next comes the North Ameri 
eam fauna, which I know better than that of all other extra 
European countries, excepting perhaps that of the Cape, as. 
possess from that region more than 800 species, collected within 
a comparatively limited territory. It is therefore unquestionable 
that the result obtained by me requires a correction, at 
can have a claim to an absolute value. But should I even it 
troduce this correction in the highest measure admissible, st 
enough will be left to enable me to assert with the utmost cer 
tainty that those among the living Diptera which most closely 
resemble the amber Diptera, abound in a most prevailing degree 
in North America and especially between the latitudes of about 


some amber Diptera are more allied than to any other know? 
living species. 

The facts just explained become especially striking through 
the circumstance that those genera of amber Diptera, whit 
not occur in Europe, and which for this reason attracted i 
attention from European students, were in part discovered 12 


re i : 
America, and are in replaced there by closely allied gener. 
With regard to this, I 


M will remind only of what has beet a 
above on the genera Diplonema, Toxorhina, Styringomy ”” 


On the Diptera of the Amber-fauna. . 317 


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The comparison of the North American Diptera with the 
possible to me, on a very extended 
scale, through the study of the collections of Baron Osten 
ken; this comparison showed a surprisingly large number 
hese species, 
from 2 83h species, common to both continents, I ean ison Sear 2° co 
_, 2 personal investigation, the following: A les maculipennis , A 
Pleles quadrimaculates ‘Say =pictus LW), Anopheles nigripes Staeg., Tanypus 
choreus Meig., Ceratopogon lineatus Meig., Cecidomyia ~ serdar sad Say (=funesta 
Motch + = secalina Lw.), Seat trata Say (= recurva Lw i: : Linn., 
Aspistes borealis Lw., f Fear 9 fenestralis Scop., Rhyphus punctatus Meig. (= me 
J Say), Ce ia. ferruginea Fab. (= palli a Say), viridis Say 
Jrontalis Lw.), provided the specimen, communicated to me as. : 
a to the old world, Hristalis enens » (= xencerus wll 
ticata Fab. (= cimbiciformis Fall.), Syritta pipiens Linn, Xylota pigra Fab. (=ha- 


snide 6 


318 On the Diptera of the Amber-fauna. 


— identical and showing no difference whatever, a large 
number of species has to be recorded, which, if they had been 
found in Europe, — certainly have been considered only as 
slight varieties of other well-known European species, as their 
only deviation wleocign consists in a slight difference of coloring; 
but this difference being a very constant one, it becomes extreme- 
ly difficult to decide w hether such species should be considered 
as specifically distinct from the corresponding European species, 
or as identical with them.’ A third, not less numerous category 
of species, shows, besides these slight but constant differences 


relative length of the wings or the sion to the whole bole ete., 

differences which, in order to be brought to light, sometimes re- 

: — the comparison of a whole series of specimens.‘ A fourth 

matodes Fab.), Platychirus granditarsus Férst., Brachyopa ag east Fall., Sceno- 
alli 


pinus fenestralis Linn, (=pallipes Say), Scenopinus leer vifron , Dolichopus 
brevipennis Meig., Dol. plumipes Scop., Dol. discifer Stann., Se wchoks pinnae Zett, 
Prsilopus pallens Wied.. (= albonotatus Lew), Oestrus bovis Fab., yia oe 
Linn, Gastrus Equi Lin lanophora roralis Linn., lis Fab , 
domestica — Cyrtoneura meditabunda Fab,, C. stabulans Fall., Meeneda 
ealcitrans Linn., Anthomyia diaphan ed., Anthom, stygia 
ig., Arici oides Hylemyia Angelice Scop., Hudrotea dentipes, Hy 
‘yia Babee 9 Meig., Homalomyia canicularis 4, manieata, 


m Lin., H, subpel/ucens 

aris Fab., Hydrotea armipes Fall., Ophyra leucostoma Wied., Lispe uliginosa 
Fall, S Scatophaga squalida (=S. fureata Say ?) Seatophaga stereorea Lin., Cordylura 
hireus, omyza lupulina Fab., Seyphella flava Linn., Jeusonie cy bales ane 
Fab., Lauxania frontalis Lw., Psila bicolor, i nana Fall, Seiom 
Fall, Sciomyza albocostata Fall., Dryomyza anilis F t Btepharspire jae 2 Ortals 
débrces Li ie Ate : Meiz., 
P! 


Y, . W., 
Fall., Scatella Stenhammari Zett , Ockthunes mantis Deg., Ilythea spiloa Hal. 
phagus ovinus Linn. Olfersia Arde Macq.. Hippobosea equina Lin 

Besides a great ma uy other species, the occurrence of which on both continents is 
recorded with less certainty, the following European sis sies are found in G Greenland, 
according to Steger’s trustworthy statements -——Diamesa Waltlii Meig. .» Ohirono- 
mus eee — Chironomus aterrimus Meig., C Chicindinin 8 picipes — ‘ preter 
ipennis Meig., fare a flavipes Meig., “Calliphora erythrocephala M 
Phiyjtomysa obbeatuile Fal 

[Rhipidia a. M. cad Symplecta punctipennis may be also added with cer- 


ACK 
M Asi instances of such species may be re aie ye hem the North American set 


and Chrysotoxum bie msgid Linn, elanoceré pictigen Lew. and 7. Un Lion, 
elanocera and 7 -Peaietun; Fall, Hemerodromia valida Lw. and 

#. canal Zett. 

s ere may be named: Bombylius fraterculus Wied. and the European 


B. major 
eyes sotorum sp. indeser, i Chrysotoxum fasciolatu: m Deg., Helophilus *P 
fates and H, rm Fab., cia sp. gh ciel L. peer, on M., Cyrtone rion, 
‘Sp. indeser. an, C. assimilis Fall., Gymnosoma par Walk. and 
a te | C. pudica Meig., Allophyla levis Lw. and A. nar 
cornis Meig., Pigpets feateia Lw. and 7 Heraclei Liun., Ortalis re ena L 
pe ten fom ban ata @ sp. indeser. and D. funebris, Hphydra rae 
and E. micans many other species, 


On the Diptera of the Amber-fauna. 319 


group may be formed of the likewise very numerous species 
which, although so like some European species as to be at first 
glance mistaken for them, show upon nearer examination very 
definite plastic characters. The discovery of these characters 
often requires a great deal of attention; nevertheless they are of 
such a nature that the comparison of even single specimens 
leaves no doubt as to their specific differences.’ 

The large number of species contained in all the four groups 
shows that the Dipterous fauna of North America is not only 
very much like the European fauna, but that there is between 
them a relationship of a more intimate kind, which is to be com- 
pared only with that uninterrupted succession offered by the Dip- 
terous fauna of the whole northern part of the Old World. 


mon, w 
only slightly different in coloring; otherwise their faunas have 
no p 


which they can live and their brood can prosper. As the Le 

lulide show in this respect the nearest approach to them, the laws 
of their geographical distribution may also be the nearest to 
f the Diptera. The latter laws differ from those of the 
other orders of insects, by the wide area of distribution of the 
Single species and by the configuration of these areas. The 

not nearly the same for the species of all families, but vary ac- 
cording to families, so that the climatic character 18 most clearly 


5 pe : " 
AS instances of such species may be named: Chrysopila guadrata Say and 
Chrysopila nubecula Fall, Leptix vertebrata Say, and Leptis annulata Deg.. Leptis 


e Het ella bombylans Linn., Helom é an 
“eOmyza, lateritia Helo Meig., Sepedon pusillus Lew. and 
Paden spinipen Scop Phibporic opporita Laow and Philygria. punctato-nervosa Fall, 


320 On the Diptera of the Amber-fauna. 


plicity of the conditions required for the existence of a speci 
still some families show in this respect peculiarities which do 
not find a satisfactory explanation in those two causes, 

On account of the very great extent of the area of distribu: 
tion of the Diptera in general, the faunze of distant countries 
have many more species of this order in common, than of any 
other order of insects, The same causes on which this extent of 
distribution depends facilitate even in our days the importation 
of Diptera much more than that of other insects, through the 
intercourse between countries. It is well known that Musca do- 


ions of smoked meat and cheese along with him, Piophila Pea 
sionts and Casei have accompanied him. They occur in Green- 


beantiful Symmictus costatus is found together with them, from 
in to the southern extremity of Africa. The barrier of a 


and the a uction of Medeterus inequalipes, common on th 
shores of 


with them, as for instance several of Oscinis and Chlorops with the 
cereals, also the noxious Cécidomyia destructor. Petalophora cap- 
wala occurs wherever the orange and the lemon are cultiva 
and with the extension of the culture of the olive-tree, Dacus 
Olee has followed it. | 


Those 
dis- 


nently colonize them. It is no wonder therefore that An 
which for a considerable period of time has been in connie bs 
always increasing intercourse with Europe, should have wit}. 
2 species in common. It would be m 


a 
a 


On the Diptera of the Amber-fauna. 321 


whether the existing intercourse between the two continents is 
sufficient to account for the large number of species common to 
both. Iam satisfied that it has to be answered negatively. 

In order to investigate the influence of a prolonged intercourse 
of this kind between two countries separated by a sea, I have 
repeatedly directed my attention to the comparison of the Dip- 
terous faunas in the countries surrounding the Mediterranean. 
These investigations, for which I possess abundant materials, 
. have made me, as far as it was possible, thoroughly acquainted 
with the influence exercised by an intercourse of this kind on 
the intermingling of the faunas, and have afforded me a measure 
of this influence. In drawing a conclusion from the extent of 
these influences in the countries adjacent to the Mediterranean, 
to the extent of the same influences as existing in consequence 
of the intercourse between Europe and America, we have to 
take into account the comparatively recent epoch when this lat- 
ter intercourse began, the much greater distance between the 
two continents, and before all, the much greater length of time 
required for a passage between them, especially in former years. 
In'view of all these causes, tending to diminish the probable 
influence of the intercourse on the intermingling of the faunas, 
We cannot possibly admit that the occurrence of such a large 
number of species, common to both sides of the ocean, should be 
merely the result of an intermingling brought about by this in- 

urse. It should be borne in mind that it is not with one 


from Europe to America; it can hardly be doubted that Scenopinus 
Senestralis and S. levifrons can easily be brought over in ships; 
the conformity of many species of Scatophaga and rborus can. 


easily found in their mode of life; nor will it appear very extra- 


Scribed as a European species, under the name of M. cimbu iformis ; 
that Hristalis on pe North America, should be a de- 
Scendant of European parents, is easily possible, as a ship affords 
the necessary conditions for the preservation of the larves. It 
Au. Jour. Sct.—Szcoxp Sentes, Vou. XXXVII, No. 111.—May, 1864, 
42 


322 On the Diptera of the Amber-fauna. 


will be more difficult, however, to explain how JIlythea sprlota, 
Dichela caudata and D. brevicauda, Ochthera Mantis, etc., should 
have crossed the sea. The importation of some species, as, for 
instance, of the beautiful Psilopus albinotatus, discovered by me 
in Rhodus, seems almost inexplicable, and still this species is 
perfectly identical with the North American P. pallens. That 


nevertheless occurrences of this kind, owing to the large numr 

; We have to 
conclude then, for the present, that the importation of species 
through the agency of frequent intercourse, does not afford & 
sufficient explanation of the large number of species common to 


men 

ones.—Still better known is the influence which certain we 
exercise on the coloring of all the species occurring there; oo 
is, for instance, in a very striking degree, the case with Icel 

‘A collection from that country, at a cursory view, seems gee 
tain many new species, but upon closer examination, these 


On the Diptera of the Amber-fauna. 323 


The same question may be proposed about those North Ameri- 
can species which deviate from European species only by slight 
plastic differences, often merely a small variation in the size of 


°rgans are of the highest importance, whilst, on the contrary, 
all the other differences, observable even in the two sexes of 


824 On the Diptera of the Amber-fauna. 


n 
some former period, as the impression left by such a comparison 


stock for both, it is to be sought among the Diptera of a former 


e 


Dipterous faunge are to be considered as branches of this : 
the necessary inference would be that at a former period Europe 


Al 
aentions. All those problems to which the study of the livi 


remained within the exclusive limits of Dipterology, partly ow 


ing to my conviction that the interest of truth is 


Meissner’s Researches on Oxygen, Ozone, and Antozone. 325 


Art. XX VIII.— Abstract of Prof. Meissner’s Researches on Oxy- 
gen, Ozone, and Antozone ;* by 8. W. JOHNSON. 


Dr. MEISSNER has submitted the ozone and antozone question 
toan extended and masterly investigation; at least such is our 
impression from a careful perusal of his treatise, an octavo vol- 
ume of 370 pages, the preface of which bears the date of Feb., 
1863. This book is appropriately dedicated to SCHONBEIN, 
whose name will stand in imperishable connection with the re- 
markable discovery of the triple nature of oxygen—a discover 
which must, ere long, give us a new insight into the relations of 
matter to force, and modify, in a radical manner, some of the 
doctrines now current in science. 

In the preface it is distinctly announced of ozone and anto- 
Zone that one of them can not be formed without the other 
simultaneously appearing. This is a discovery of the utmost 
importance, and we shall endeavor to present briefly the author's 
arguments in proof of its reality. 

In the Introduction is presented a concise but comprehensive 
sketch of the history of the ozone question up to date of pub- 
lication. Section I. bears the heading: THE RELATIONS OF 
ELECTRICITY TO OXYGEN, and is divided into two chapters, of 
Which the Ist, of 200 pages, relates to Hlectrized Oxygen, and 
the 2d to Ozone and Antozone. These headings are made a 
propriate by the history and progress of the investigation rather 

lan by its results. e second section, of 72 pages, is enti- 
ed: THE POLARIZATION OF OXYGEN IN THE ACT OF COMBUS- 


that the object of the first part of his investigation is to ascer- 
fain whether, as all previous experiments would appear to show, 
the effect of electricity on oxygen is simply to convert it, or a 
part of it, into ozone, or whether, as Schonbein in 1861 had 
assumed from theoretical grounds, the ordinary inactive oxygen 
8 polarized into the two opposite oxygens, the negative-active 
9One and the positive-active antozone. 

To electrize oxygen the apparatus of von Babo (Verhandl. der 
Naturforsch, Gesellschaft zu Hreiburg ii, p. 831), imitated from an 

t of W. Siemens (Pogg. Ann., 1857, B. xii, p. 66, 

120) was employed, in which ozonization takes place in a thin 
Stratum of air, and is determined by the silent discharge from 
Poor conductors, This apparatus is made as ollows: twelve 
i fine copper wires, such as are used in covering violin strings, 
ld about five decimetres long, are inserted each into a very 

_, Untersuchungen ii .G. Mrisswen, Professor in Géttin- 
~ Wit cene Ladee tates rae eure! 1863. , 


326 Meissner’s Researches on Oxygen, Ozone, and Antozone. 


thin glass tube somewhat longer than itself and about 03 mm, 
in width. Each of these tubes is sealed at one end. Into the 
other end is fused a wire of platinum which, within the tube, is 
twisted with the copper wire, and without the tube projects an 
inch or so. The twelve tubes thus made, are arranged within a 
glass tube 7 mm. wide and 6 decimetres long, so that the pro- 
jecting platinum wires of six of them are at one end and those 
of the other six are at the other end of this wide tube. These 
two sets of wires are each twisted about a larger platinum wire 
which passes through and is fused into the wall of the wide tube. 
The tubes of the one bundle are distributed among those of the 
other as equally as may be; they are, moreover, in close con 
tact, and the spaces surrounding them are as narrow as possible. 
On connecting the extremes of these two series of inclosed wires 
with the electrodes of the secondary coil of a powerful induc- 
tion apparatus, the electrical discharge takes place through the 
walls of the narrow tubes and through the air that surrounds 
. The discharge is unattended with sparks, and on ap 
sree the ear only a faint crackling sound is perceptible. 
in the dark the bundle of fine tubes shines throughout its 
whole length with a reddish-violet light. During the electrical 
action the air bathing the small tubes is powerfully ozonized. 
By adapting suitable apparatus to the large tube the ozonized 
air may be removed and submitted to examination, and its place 
supplied with fresh air, at pleasure. In Meissner’s resarches the 


The perfectly dry air, after traversing the ozonizer, was sub- 
mitted to the action of reagents in receivers of glass connected 
with the ozonizer by means of a mercury joint, this metal being 
unaffected by dry ozone. : 
The first point Meissner sought to investigate was whether 
dry electrized air, after being deprived of ozone, possessed aa # 
erties other than those of common oxygen and nitrogen. | odid 
found that by transmitting it through a strong solution of 1 > 
of potassium it was readily and totally deprived of ozone; * 
stream of air thus deozonized exhibited nothing remarka 
until it had been passed through pure water, but, as 1t eme? 
from the water, it appeared in the form of a thick white mist, per 
fectly ‘similar to that formed by the cooling of steam, whic der 
sometimes so dense as to render the part of the small vessel 


Meissner’s Researches on Oxygen, Ozone, and Antozone. 327 


filled with it quite opake. There was no perceptible change of 
temperature, and the mist was formed equally well whether the 
water traversed by the deozonized air jindicated 35° or 0° C. 
The mist also appeared when the stream of air merely passed 
through a moistened tube, and sometimes the cloud formed at 
once, when the air escaped from a somewhat dilute solution of 
iodid of potassium; but in case this solution was concentrated, 
and especially when the air on leaving it streamed through a 
chlorid of calcium tube, no mist appeared until the air came in 
contact with water. 

The appearance of the mist strictly depends upon the action of 
the induction instrument. When it ceases to work, the mist 
disappears, allowance being made for the time occupied by the 
air-current in traversing the apparatus. The mist is denser or 
rarer the more or less vigorous the electrical excitement. The 
same cloud is formed when other d izing agents are employ 
ed instead of iodid of potassium, viz: pyrogallic acid, and like- 
wise, when, in the absence of a reducing solution, the dry elec- 
trized current comes at once in contact with water. 

Further experiments demonstrated that the cloud is formed 
when pure oxygen gas, prepared either by electrolysis or from 
chlorate of potash, is submitted to the electric influence and sub- 
Sequently treated as above described, while that under the same 
ee nnn pure nitrogen and pure hydrogen suffer no appar- 
ent change. 

The author found himself thus led to the conclusion that when 

simultan 


oxygen is subject to electrical action there is forme e- 


amniov 


f a dry glass cylinder, it displaces the air, preserving a sharply 
defined boundary, and by aaa agitation is easily broken into 
Ss 


328 Meissner’s Researches on Oxygen, Ozone, and Antozone. 


flow together to the bottom of the vessel. This disappearance 
of the mist is entirely spontaneous, and independent of changes 
of temperature. It is impossible to reproduce the mist in the 
air out of which it has disappeared, by contact with more water, 
The water which precipitates from the cloud may be perfectly 
pure, though it is not so always. The air remaining has all the 
characters of the ordinary atmospheric mixture, 

Antozone has thus the property of taking up water, conferring 
upon the latter the peculiar physical conditions of a cloud or 
mist, and after a short time depositing it again in droplets as it 
itself is transformed into ordinary oxygen. 

y passing the antozone mist into desiccating substances, as 
chlorid of calcium, it is deprived of water, the antozone becom- 
ing transparent, but retaining its faculty of giving a cloud when 
brought again in contact with water. Many strong saline solu- 
tions likewise deprive antozone of water; hence the non-appear 
ance of the cloud when the stream of electrized air emerges from 
a strong solution of iodid of potassium. It does appear however 
when the solution is sufficiently dilute. i 

y comparing the capacity for water, of a stream of ordinary 
air or oxygen with that of an electrized current of the same vol- 


In the dry state antozone likewise reverts to common oxyge? 
as shown by a gradual decrease of power to form a cloud with 
w is conversion goes on, however, more slowly than 
when it is moist, occupying 1 to 14 hours for its completion. 

Under the conditions in which antozone so igen! disappears, 

ough — 


gh temperature, 235° to 240° (Andrews), which at once weer 
x : po 


Meissner’s Researches on Oxygen, Ozone, and Antozone. 329 


branch currents is deozonized, the other passing on unaltered, it 
is found when they emerge from a vessel of water that the cloud 
med by antozone is much denser in the deozonized current 


on the other hand, that when antozone does vanish from the dry 
mixture, it involves in its change more ozone than disappears 
from the rapidly altering moist mixture. ; : * 

eissner proceeds to an experimental comparison of his Atmi- 


examining this question the author was led to repeat Sch6nbein’s 
€xperiments on the production and reactions of HO,. Hi 
firmed the observations of the latter concerning the character of 


inch or so in width, furnished with a ground-glass stopper, and 
filled with water nearly to the top of the smaller tube. BaO, is 


the ! 
’ . 
te, and the solution of HO, is therefore extremely dilute. 
Meissner found ‘that to prepare ‘a pure and concentrated solution 


was Tn distinction from ozone. 
&M. Jovg. Sc1.—Sgcoxp Suxizs, Vou. XXXVII, No. 111.—Mar, 1864 
43 


330 Meissner’s Researches on Oxygen, Ozone, and Antoxone, 


of HO, it was only necessary to pass CO, into water, mixed 
with BaO,, BaO, CO, and HO, resulting. In this way he ob- 
tained directly, a solution so concentrated that it decomposed 
under the influence of light.’ 

Asa means of detecting HO,, the author found Schénbein's 
reagent, viz: iodid of potassium and starch-paste in conjunction 
with protosulphate of iron, to possess the greatest delicacy and 
to be most characteristic when applied with certain precautions, 
especially when the ferrous salt is employed in very minute 
quantity. As regards the reactions that occur between this Te 
agent and HO,, Meissner after adducing the somewhat contra- 
dictory statements made at different times by Schénbein, is led 
to conclude that HO, is without effect on KI, in neutral solution, 
except in presence of some “ predisposing” agent, like FeO, and 
that contrary to Schénbein’s opinion the first action consists in 
an oxydation of FeO, to Fe,O, and that the deoxydation of HO, 
thus begun, continues in presence of KI after all FeO has 
oxydized and results in the oxydation of KI and destruetion of 

2. ‘he presence of any acid suffices to induce the reacton 
between HO, and KI, instantaneously when the acid is added 
to a mixture of HO, and KI; but after a considerable interval, 
and in a much less marked manner, or even not at all as meas 


ured by the separation of I, when the HO, is mixed with an 


acid previous to the addition of KI. Our author's theory of the 
mode in which the well known power of acids to prevent de- 


eral—but were undeniably those of HO,, while the presence of 
antozone in the spar was equally certain. As to the condition 
in which it there exists, or how it may possibly be produced 7 
grinding, Meissner feels unable to offer any hypothesis. nich 
ooked in vain for evidences of antozone in other minerals WA 

manifest a peculiar odor when submitted to friction. Not even 
in a compact fluor from Ivikaet in Greenland, which has pe 
mentioned as having properties similar to that of Welsen' 
could any be detected. ih 
_ Oxydized oil of turpentine, Meissner found to give the both 
reactions as the Welsendorf fluor. He concludes that 1 90 


* Debray and Balar 
Rend, lv, 736-8). 


d had previously (?) published the same method, (ComP™ 


- Meissner’s Researches on Oxygen, Ozone, and Antozone. 331 


antozone or the product of its action on water, viz: HO,, is pres- 
ent, and that besides, there exists in both a substance which like 
ferrous sulphate “ disposes” HO, to act upon KI, since they de- 
compose KI without the addition of FeO, SO,. 

Returning to the question of the identity of atmizone and ant- 
ozone, Meissner informs us that a liquid having the reactions 
of HO, is obtained when a current of electrized air is passed for 
some hours through a strong and alkaline solution of pyrogallie 
acid, (which deprives it completely of ozone), and subsequently 
through pure water. The water slowly acquires a recognizable 
content of HO, giving with KI and starch no reaction until the 
addition of FeO, SO,, when an instantaneous liberation of I be- 
comes manifest. Atmizone, however, appears capable of oxyd- 
izing water only when it is newly formed. If the stream of 
electrized and deozonized air is passed through a series of ves- 
sels containing water, HO, scarcely appears in the second and 
subsequent vessels, though the atmizone cloud is formed in them 
all. This cloud, however, is the less dense and well defined, the 
farther from the induction apparatus it is produced, and it ma 

ence be inferred that atmizone loses its power of oxydizing 
HO when its electrical polarity has declined beyond a certain 


Water had all the properties of the original liquid; while, as is 
well known, NH,O, NO, and HO, are completely decomposed 
dissipated by this treatment. : : i 
. No substance having the properties in question could be imag- 
Med present save iodic acid which is known to liberate I from 
Kl and which is likewise formed when ozone acts upon KI. 
But in what manner this body could pass out of one alkaline 
Solution and through another, as must be the case here, was diffi- 
ult to conceive. Meissner at once attempted to demonstrate 
directly its presence or absence. He therefore put his electrizing 


f 


332 Meissner’s Researches on Oxygen, Ozone, and Antozone, 


apparatus into prolonged action, (six hours daily for eight days) 
passing the stream of electrized air first, through strong solution 

I, then through concentrated potash lye, and lastly a 
three vessels of water. When this experiment was finished, th 
water of the receivers reacted very powerfully on KI. It was 
concentrated by evaporation, in which process it finally acquired 
an acid reaction, first reddening and afterward bleaching litmus 
paper. A crystalline residue remained which when dissolved in 
water and treated with SO, gave a copious separation of iodine. 
Other reactions confirmed this substance as 10,. On further 
experiment it was found that so soon as the atmizone .current 
was deprived of its mozsture it was no longer capable of trans- 
porting IO,. It would therefore appear that when iodine is set 
free in the solution of KI by the action of the ozone occupying 
the periphery of the air bubble, a portion of it, vaporizing im 
wardly, is there oxydized by ozone to IO, and then is taken up 
by the atmizone cloud, and by it transmitted through the varl- 
ous solutions. 

In the next place Meissner examined the deportment of Schén- 
bein’s antozone to water vapor, to ascertain whether it possessed 
the cloud-forming property. By experiments with the gas 
evolved from BaO, and HO, SO,, this was found to be the 7 
and the antozone cloud resembled, in all particulars, that yie! 
by atmizone. If, for example, a tube containing the just mixed 
materials for giving off antozone is carried into a flask occupied 
with moist air, the latter gradually becomes filled with a cloud 
which disappears again after a short interval. 

_ Another point to investigate was the deportment of antozoné 
toward solution of KI. Schénbein asserted that antozone de- 
composes this salt and oxydizes its elements, while atmizone 
appears to be unaffected by it. On repeating Schdnbein’s exper 
iment, and further investigating the subject, Meissner conc 

that the reaction observed by Schdnbein was due to the sul- 
phuric acid of the mixture being mechanically projected against 
the test papers. At least, when solution of KI was placed in 
vessel beside the tube evolving antozone, no iodine was liber® 
ted in the former until after the addition of FeO, SO,. peel 
bein himself has lately expressed the probability that antozoné 
does not decompose KI. i 

In one further particular, there is a difference between attr 
zone and antozone which Meissner was unable to account 
satisfactorily. Antozone hasa peculiar odor, and when 51 of 
exeites a choking sensation, while atmizone manifests neither ‘ 


ed from 
sub- 
in all other respects must warrant the conclusion that the tw? 


are essentially identical. 


4 


Meissner’s Researches on Oxygen, Ozone, and Antozone. 333 


The author now goes on to give the results of his observa- 
tions on the deportment of the mixture of ozone and antozone 
as obtained by the electrization of pure oxygen. He finds that 
ozone does not prevent the union of HO with antozone, with 
production of HO,. When instead of pure oxygen, common air 
is electrized the nitrogen of the latter becomes involved in the 
reactions, and in water through which the electrized mixture is 
passed, nitric acid gradually accumutates, but chiefly in the first 
water-receiver. When the electrized air has become charged 
with moisture, the production of NO,, (as well as that of HO, 
which is simultaneously formed,) is lessened to an extraordinary 

egree, 

- Schénbein’s statements regarding the generation of NH,O, NO. 
made it necessary to look for this salt in the electrized air. 
' Meissner affirms tiat NO, cannot be safely distinguished from 

O, by means of KI and starch, for no decided difference in the 
amount of iodid separated by addition of an acid or of FeO, 
SO, can be perceived. Nitrous acid must therefore be detected 
in some other manner when, as in the case before us, it is mixed 
with HO,. When nitrates are treated with dilute sulphuric acid, 
NO, is liberated and by contact with FeO, SO,, is reduced with 


‘0,. In fact we should not expect to find NO, under these 
circumstances, as the excess of ozone would oxydize any that 
might at first appear. Ammonia could not be detected by Ness- 
ler’s extraordinaril y delicate test. ; 
~ On passing electrized oxygen first through a receiver of water 
and then, in a second receiver, bringing it in contact with nitro- 
gen (common air), it resulted that no NO, could be detected in 
the water of the first vessel, while in that of the second, it was 
Teadily found though in smaller quantity than in the previous 
€xperiments. It was thus demonstrated that the oxydation of 
‘is not, or is not alone, a direct result of electrical action, but 
1s the effect of the excited oxygen. 


334 Meissner’s Researches on Oxygen, Ozone, and Antozone. 


In what precise manner ozone and antozone codperate to oxyd- 
ize N, Meissner does not claim to have fully decided. He is dis- 
ed, however, to think that antozone alone is capable of con- 
verting N to one of the lower oxyds, probably NO,, and that 
this unites to ozone forming NO,, which is really the first pro- 


ozone. Since, however, the numerous trials of De La Rive, 
Fremy, Becquerel, Marchand and others, have abundantly de- 
monstrated that ozone is produced when the electric spark 1 dis- 

solbfen'e 


charged through pure oxygen, it is obvious that in 


absorbed from moist electrized air, both it and antozone — 
k 


a fact which harmonizes with the statements first made by Fre- 
The same electrical current gives by silent discharge throug 
] NO, and ™ < 


ks. 
ance of NO, in case of electrization by sparks is due to the heat 


J. DeLaski on Glactal Action about Penobscot Bay. 385 


“reali in this process, for by heating a current of air electrized 
y the silent discharge, in such a way that it comes immediately 
in contact with water, ozone and antozone at once disappear, and 
NO, is copiously formed. 

In further experiments, the author demonstrated the presence 
of HO, in water, near whose surface electrical sparks had been 
made to play. 

Thus far we have given quite fully the facts observed by Meiss- 
ner in the first chapter of his book. He finishes the experimen- 
tal part of this chapter with an account of observations which 
lead to the conclusion that the production of ozone and antozone 
is the result of electrical tension, and occupies about 40 pages in 
a discussion of the theories of Clausius, Schénbein, De La Rive, 
and Brodie, and in unfolding his own theoretical views. To 
tender his ideas intelligible would occupy more space than we 
have at command. In fact, this part of the volume scarcely ad- 
mits of abstract. All who are interested in these topics will not 
fail to study the original. 

(To be continued.) 


Arr. XXIX.— Glacial Action about Penobscot Bay; by Mr. JonN 
DE LaskKI. 


Previous to the year 1859, the writer, like most ordinary 
teaders who are familiar with the descriptions of the phenomena 
of boulder action given in our text books, believed that the drift 
material of clay, sand, gravel, boulders, and the scoring of the 
tocky surface of the country, must have been the effects of ice- 
berg action. Up to that time I had not seen any mention what- 
ever of the former existence of glaciers in any part of Maine; 
and I was therefore quite unprepared to doubt that the numerous 
examples of the striated surfaces about the village where I resided 
—Carver’s Harbor, Vinalhaven—were other than those made by 
the chafing of floating ice-mountains over the ledges when these 
formed the bottom of a continental sea. The theory of Hugh 
Miller in his « Popular Geology,” a work then recently published, 
had attracted my attention, which supposes that the eastern de- 
flection of the Gulf stream, at the close of the Tertiary era, carried 


Undergoing the pr f submergence, and that the bergs were 
> mor he cube hills and score and ak them 

wo sgl as the country went slowly beneath the surface. _ 

.. But on attentively examining the scratched rocks of the vicin- 

ity of Penobscot Bay, I could not reconcile the iceberg doctrine 

with the facts connected with these scratches and with the exten- 


336 J. DeLaski on Glacial Action dbout Penobscot Bay, 


. 


sive denudation of the country everywhere presenting itself to 
the eye. It.is quite evident that the formations o obseot 


to twenty feet and sometimes more; and the slates of the coast 
have but one usual dip and strike. The irregular denudation of 
the granitic floor of the region of the Penobscot Bay was cer- 
tainly posterior to the Tertiary times; and icebergs, if we adopt 
the theory, ought to have left the country vastly more level, 
where the granite abounds, than it actually is, 

The hills of the coast generally rise abruptly from the valleys 
and the sea. They are scored ‘alike along their eastern and 


On the other hand, there were examples of denuded and 


faces of the rocks with great : 
beneath it with the same delicacy of action as the sides and top 


of rude and unsystematic blows upon the faces of any of - 


was removed by piece-meal—chipped away as the snore 
wood” might chip his fallen tree, or spar; and it is appa re 
iat afterwards it became scratched by some means—san 


down smoothly and evenly the face of the rock. 


~ 


J, DeLaski on Glacial Action about Penobscot Bay. 337 


It is quite evident that these chips, some of which must have 

n many feet in length and breadth, were not removed by a 
blow, such as an iceberg has been supposed by some writers to 
make upon the rocky sea-bottom over which it is floating. 
Again I think it evident that the blow was not given horizon- 
tally, but rather at a very considerable angle,—say from 40 to 
50°—and directed from the north; and that the breaking of the 
rocky floor.was effected by pressure. These irregular depressions 
are generally upon protuberant ledges, the “ embossed” rocks of 


such a result, if the rock which was pressing upon the 
edge, producing the furrow, had passed along beyond it toward 
sout 


horth for two miles, the land continues to rise to not less than 
AM. Jour. Sct.—Sgcoxp Sentes, Vou. XXXVII, No, 111.—May, 1864. 
44 


338 J. DeLaski on Glacial Action about Penobscot Bay. 


two hundred feet, and stretches in the east and west direction 
for more than three miles. 

Wherever the formation is of syenite—and there are about 
seventy-five square miles of surface covered with this rock, in 
Vinalhaven—the hills are broken down on their southern brows 
into step-like descents. There is one hill of this character in the 
town from twenty-five to fifty feet high and two thousand broad, 
nearly wedge-shaped, with its apex turned toward: the north. 
I found, wherever I examined them, that the striz had com- 
menced to form at the southern foot of these hills, in straight 
parallel lines, generally very close up to the wall; and, in one 
g and shaded 


ing a little more than one hundred feet directly from the water. 
The formation here is trap. This hill may extend, east and 


J. DeLaski on Glacial Action about Penobscot Bay. 339 


pee had been made by a gigantic gouge and afterward 
bed down in one direction, for I found in passing my hand 


ceiling—I was astonished to find that it was thoroughly polished 
to be decisive 


_ Over the entire extent of the syenitic formation, boulders of 


340 J. DeLaski on Giacial Action about Penobscot Bay. 


the same rock are strewn with wonderful profusion, and num- 
bers of them weigh many tons; they rest on beds of soil several 
feet in depth, just as a glacier might have left them as it slowly 
melted away. 

Upon the northern slopes of the hills the rocks are torn asun- 
der in such a manner as wholly to preclude the idea that the 
work had been done by icebergs. Had bergs halted in such 
places, and through a long age, chafed against the northern walls 
of such high hills, the denudation, after all, would have been an 
insignificant affair; and none but the largest bergs could have 
worn at all the faces of the hills. But the debris of the stoss 
side of the hills has been transported over the hills, rather than 
along their sides; and we frequently find large boulders, evidently 
not far removed from their native beds, resting on the hills, and 
often in such a manner that their transportation and deposition 
could not have been accomplished through the agency of ice 
bergs or oceanic waves. 

As I have already remarked, the hills of the coast have a uni- 
form feature: they are steep on the south, and have a gradual 
descent from their summits toward the north. I know of no 
exceptions to this rule. There must be a meaning in this spe 
eific form of the hills. If the ledges and minor hills of the isl- 
ands of the great fiord of the State have been moulded into this 
peculiar figure by glacial action, or that of icebergs, I conclude 
that the denuding agent must have reached the tops of the Cam- 
den hills, 1400 feet high, and those of the island of Mount Des- 
ert, 2000 feet; for these maintain, when viewed from the east 
or west, the same general contour as the other hills of the coast. 
It is quite impossible that icebergs could ever have broken down 
the tops of those high hills. Moreover, if they had been undet 
water to the depth of a thousand feet or five hundred, the sea 
which covered New England and the continent to the west 
would have had a warming influence on the climate, and would 
therefore probably have been quite clear of icebergs. _ 

sides of the Camden hills are scratched from their base to 
the summits. Megunticook, the highest but one, is broken down 
on its southern brow into a precipice of nearly 300 feet. Here, 
the strie appear on a vein of colored quartz in a most beauti- 
fal manner. They are very delicate, and the rock is polished 
like glass. Toward the north, in the direction whence 
scratching agent eame, the hill continues to rise till it attains the 
height of one or two hundred feet above the brow. On descen@ 
ing the precipice by a circuitous route, and approaching its base, 
we are at once struck with the fact that this hill has been de 
nuded or broken down from top to bottom. The perpendicu! 
wall of Megunticook forms the northern side of a valley and te 
northern extremity of Mount Battie the southern side; into 


J. DeLaski on Glacial Action about Penobscot Bay. 341 


valley immense blocks of the gray micaceous sandstone from the 
brow of the overlooking hill have been projected—not as if they 
had merely tumbled down and accumulated as talus—for man 

of these boulders have been carried to a considerable distance 
over the top of the latter mountain, and are very perceptibly less 
angular than those which lie at the base of the precipice. To- 
ward the southern extremity of Mount Battie, strize appear again, 
one thousand feet above the sea; and the entire top of the 
mountain bears evidence that it has been thoroughly denuded 
upon a most magnificent scale. The boulders here found were 


to the plain below, though this part of Mount Battie is abrupt, 
falling off at an angle of seventy degrees or more. At this ex- 


tremity of Mount Battie, along the ascent, the strise runa few 
egrees-—and in one case as much as twenty—out of the usual 


from the great hill before them. They are identical in composi- 
tion with.the mountain, so that we here again see evidence that 


The striee upon these rocks are developed in the most 


may be traced up and down, over the tops and along the sides 
the ledges, the: aries pointing directly ‘toward the high hills 


‘on the north 


On examining the island of Mount Desert, which, like Vinal- 
haven, is Sahhipenedl of agente and the argillo-micaceous slate, 


342 J. DeLaski on Glacial Action about Penobscot Bay. 


there are similar boulder phenomena to those observed fort 
miles west among the Camden hills. These mountains wh 


amid these vast ruins, it is apparent that only the irresistible 
grasp of a glacier could have broken them off and carried them 
far away toward the south. Here, as elsewhere, the granitic 
boulders are larger and less angular as we approach the hills 
from the south. Among these boulders, rocks of other forma- 
tions are rarely found; and these are from the slates to the north 
of the hills, having been carried over these elevations, not around 
them. Upon the northern declivities of these hills, the boulders 
are not so numerous nor so large as they are on the south, but are 
generally much worn; and like those on the south, they are 
syenitic, like the formation of the hills, 
ut besides the coves and harbors of this great island of Mount 

Desert, its ledges, headlands and ponds, (some of which last are 
large and deep,) all trend north and south in conformity to the 
course of the striz. More than one of its deeper ponds are 
gouged out of the solid syenite, and we find no evidence of this 
having been done by any other agency than that of glaciers. 

Beyond these hills to the north, for fifteen or twenty miles, 
over a comparatively level country, the Taconic slates again ap 
pear; and the detritus of these rocks have been but sparingly 
transported over the granitic formation of Mount Desert. I thi 
it a safe conclusion that the rocks torn from the hills, the valleys 
and the plains of the country, were not generally removed to any 
great distance southward. We find indeed the fossiliferous rocks 
rom the region beyond Katahdin, a hundred and fifty miles 
north, scattered over the islands of the coast; brought doa 
upon the more elevated parts of the glacier, rather than attache 
to or near its under surface, during their distant transportaon 
But these rocks are by no means abundant. : 
. Upon Vinalhaven, as we leave one of the granitic quarries 0? 


A 


J. DeLaski on Glacial Action about Penobscot Bay. 343 


the western side of Carver’s Harbor and pass along north toward 
the highest granitic hill in the town, there rises a series of terra 

one above another, along a north and south course, till they 
attain the altitude of 150 feet above the water. The highest 


we meet again another slope, rising gradually toward the south 
till it attains the usual height of this elevated ridge. 

I consider this dell as having been gouged out of the rock, as 
the most of our harbors, coves, and ponds have been, by glacial 
action. We see the hills not only curving easily to the north, 
and steep on their southern sides, but we find also that their east 
and west sides are abrupt. We know that this abruptness, in 
the southern part of Maine, must have been caused by dennda- 
_ tion; not such a wearing away as slow moving icebergs would be 
likely to make, though hundreds of thousands had struck in the 
Same place. And those east and west sides both low, and high 
Up the hills, are often seen beautifully, never roughly, scored, A 
Suppose that when an iceberg touches along the side of a sub 
marine hill, it would be deflected like any floating body, by the 
continuation of the current around the hills; it could not uni- 
formly chafe and scratch the rock in all its inequalities of wall; 
for we know that the sides of the bergs are not abundantly ape 
plied with those stone-grooving tools necessary for the smooth- 
Ing and scratching. 

And, let me ask, by what means were those oblong and wedge- 
om ae boulders deposited in the peculiar manner in which we 

them? They do not lie with their longer diagonals across 
the strize, but were left by some agent /ead on in their course to- 
Ward the south. Icebergs could not have dropped them thus, 
While the movements of a glacier would have compelled the 
ulder to take this wedge-shape form in many cases, and would 
have kept its base always directed forward in the line of its 
Course, 
__ if then there is evidence of a power so great, acting against 
the highest hills of the coast, even leaving over their sum- 
Mits indisputable marks of extensive denudation, we have rea- 
80n to believe that the glacier which swept across them was of 
Yast thickness. Had the glacier reached barely above the top 


344 P. Collier on Indirect Determinations of Potash and Soda, 


of the highest hill of the Mount Desert group, an elevation of 
2000 feet, its action for ages might have indeed accomplished 
the rounding and sloping of the northern sides of those moun- 
tains; but the ice of a few hundred feet in thickness above their 
summits, could not have produced that vast amount of denuda- 
tion required to form their southern brows. It is altogether 
probable that the glacier far overtopped the highest of the hills, 
and it is not unreasonable to suppose it to have been at least 
twice two thousand feet in thickness. . 

Moreover there is evidence that this glacier was not limited to 
this great fiord of Maine. It must have extended far toward 
the east and covered the country on the west. In fact, it was 
probably a part of the universal glacier which covered the con- 
tinent wherever the drift striae have been observed. But upon 
the discussion of this point I will not now enter. 


Art. XXX.— Contributions from the Sheffield Laboratory of Yale 
Coliege. No. VIIL—On the Indirect Determination of Potash and 
a; by Perer Conner, B.A., Assistant in the Sheffield 
Laboratory. , 


dence of chemists, at least, it is rarely mentioned in published 
investigations. I have therefore, at the suggestion of Prof. John 
son, made a number of experiments to ascertain the limits of 
error in this process, 
he volumetric estimation of chlorine as perfected by Mohr 
offers by far the best basis for an indirect determination of t 
alkalies. It is in fact requisite in employing the usual direct 
method, to procure the alkalies in the condition of pure chlorids 
before precipitation. . 
hen the alkali chlorids are obtained free from all foreig? 
matters, it is but the work of a few moments to ascertain their 
content of chlorine. 
_ The silver solution used for this purpose is best prepared by 
weighing off in a porcelain crucible about 4:8 grm. of clean hi’ 
tallized nitrate of silver, fusing it at the lowest possible. t 
and then ascertaining its weight accurately. After fusion © 
ould weigh a little more than 4:7933 grm., the quantity Bee 
contained in a liter of water, gives a solution of which.1 ¢. & es 


® 


P. Collier on Indirect Determinations of Potash and Soda. 345 


may hold 70 c. c.) graduated to fifths ensures the needful accu- 
tacy of reading. In my determinations #;th c.c. of silver solu- 
tion were deducted as the excess needed to produce a visible 
quantity of chromate of silver. 

The appended table gives the results I obtained in the analy- 
ses of the chlorids of potassium and sodium. The salts were 
ay pure and the quantities were weighed out in each case. 

order to test the method thoroughly I have varied the pro- 
portions of the mixtures from one extreme to the other. 


Summary of Volumetric Chlorine Determinations. 


K Ci taken. |NaCliaken.) Cl found. hi 
_ analysis, 0582 | ---- | 02780 | 05725 
~ Bie 1668 ---- | 07940 | ‘16617 
a. “1507 ---- | O7168 | ‘15056 
ae 3 0590 
a 782 | 0317 07881 
i 0379 | 03750 
as 0169 
Grou 0166 01514 
en 0429 | 05120 | 05319 
ith  « se Bo | 09029 
et 0182 | 05820 
1a 967 0102 | 05217 
gigi ‘0101 1600 po sees 01089 
oe 1100 


og may be seen from the above list of analyses, which includes 

‘the determinations I have made, from first to last, for the 

Purposes of this paper, that in no case does the difference be- 

tween the quantities taken and found of either alkali chlorid 

exceed two milligrams, and in most instances it is less than one 

tailligram, The correspondence between the amounts of chlorine 
AM. Jour. Sct.—grconp Serres, Vou. XXXVII, No. 111—Mar, 1864. 


346 Contributions to Chemistry from the 


as taken and found is of course still more near. The errors 
that appear in the estimation of the chlorids would be consid- 
erably reduced, if, as usually happens, they were calculated as 
oxyds 


Here follow the formule which I have employed for caleu- 
lating the quantities of NaCl and KCl, or of NaO and KO, con- 
tained in or corresponding to any mixture of alkali-chlorids 
whose total weight and amount of chlorine are known. ue 


KCl = W x 46288 — C X 76811. : 

NaO=C X 4:0466 — W x 1°9243. 

KO W x 2:90248 = C x 48210. i 

The restlts I have obtained thus demonstrate that the indirect 

method is in all cases equal in accuracy to the ordinary separa- 

tion, while in the matter of convenience and economy of time 
there is no comparison between them. i, 


st 


Agr. XXXI— Contributions to Chemistry from the Laboratory of 
the Lawrence Scientific School; by Woucort G1pss, M.D., Rum- 
_ ford Professor in Harvard University.—No. I. A 


acid. Himly’s paper attracted little attention and was soon 10% 
gotten. ‘T'he subject was again taken up at about the same time 
by Vohl? and Slater* who a pear been unacquainted 


by these chemists differ in some particulars, especially as Te - ; 

copper and lead. More recently Chancel* has employed pate | 

Posulphite for the separation of alumina from iron, and 

_ | Annalen der Chemie und Pharmacie, xliii, 150. "3 ‘The same, xcvi, 237 
Chemical Gazette, 1855, 369, he Comptes Rendus, xhvi, Ole. ig 5 


Lawrence Scientific School. 347 


meyer’ has extended the same process to the separation of iron 
from titanic acid and zirconia. Other analytical applications of 
the hyposulphite have been made in which.the salt is employed 
either as a solvent or in volumetric processes: these do not re- 
uire notice in this place, The following observations on the 
behavior of the hyposulphite toward certain metallic salts are 
interesting from a purely chemical rather than from an analyti- 
cal point of view. ‘ 
fickel— When a neutral solution of sulphate, chlorid or ni- 
trate of nickel is boiled with a solution of hyposulphite of soda, 
a black precipitate of sulphid of nickel is thrown down, an 
after very long boiling the precipitation is complete and the so- 
lution is free from nickel. If the solution of nickel be pre- 
viously acidulated by the addition of a drop or two of acetic 
acid the precipitation is more rapid. It is very difficult to de- 
termine the exact point at which the solution ceases to contain 


slowly. Rammelsberg* long since observed that a solution of 
hyposulphite of nickel is partially decomposed by evaporation, 
and that the dry mass on heating yields a yellow sulphid of 


He solution of nickel is introduced by a long funnel together 
with the solution of hyposulphite which should be in excess 
and concentrated. After sealing the tube before the blast-lamp 
itis to be heated in an air-bath and kept for half an hour at a 
temperature of about 120° C. Every trace of nickel is thrown 
down in the form of sulphid mixed with free sulphur: the tube 
May then be opened at the point, the liquid allowed to flow into 
4 Deaker, the tube cut across and the sulphid of nickel washed 
Sut. It may be thrown on a filter and washed with boiling 
Water without oxydizing in the smallest degree. The equation 
tepresenting this reaction appears to be - 

NiCl-+-2Na0, 8,0, =NiS-+NaCl +Na0, 8,0,. 


* Ann. der Chem, und Pharm., exiii, 127. © Pogg. Ann., lvi, 295. 


348 Contributions to Chemistry from the 


This process answers extremely well for the analysis of nickel 
‘salts and gives more accurate results than the precipitation of 
the nickel as oxyd by caustic potash: it also requires less time 
since the sulphid may be washed with the greatest ease. On the 
other hand, as [ shall show, it is of very limited application as 
a means of separating nickel from other metals. The sulphid 
of nickel precipitated by heating with solution of hyposulphite 
of soda appears black at first, but after ignition has a dar 
bronze yellow color. It is unchangeable in the air, and may be 
boiled with strong chlorhydric acid without being sensibly at- 
tacked. Strong sulphuric acid exerts no action upon it: nitric 
acid oxydizes it to sulphate of nickel. It may be heated ina 
covered porcelain crucible without oxydation, but by roasting 
in a current of air is converted into a basic sulphate. For quan- 
titative purposes it is best, after washing and drying the sul- 
id, to burn it with the filter in a porcelain crucible so as: 

convert it into basic sulphate, to add to this a few drops of sul- 
phuric acid, evaporate to dryness and gently ignite the resulting 
neutral sulphate, from the weight of which the nickel may be 
calculated. The sulphate must be completely soluble in hot 
wate! se has shown that the sulphate may be completely 
converted into oxyd by strong ignition.’ 


ltj—The relations of cobalt to hyposulphite of soda are 


nary atmospheric pressure is almost impossible, In a seal 
tube, at a temperature of 120° C., the precipitation is cones 


ll cases, now- 
ever, it is best to treat the roasted sulphid with a few drops of 
sulphuric acid, evaporate and ignite gently. The cobalt (i) 
then be calculated from the weight of the sulphate. Cobalt 


by this process; as in the case of nickel, however, the nA 


completely precipitated together as sulphids b hyposulphite of 
soda at 120° C. ag is eat to weigh oth scaptbee as sulphates 
and then determine the cobalt by Stromeyer’s method as mo 
fied by Dr. Genth*, and myself; the oakel is then found by 
simply subtracting the weight of the sulphate of cobalt } 
that of the mixed sulphates. _ | 

* Pogg. Ann., cx, 132. * This Journal, [2], vol. xxiv, p- 86 


Lawrence Scientific School. 349 


_ Jron—A. solution of peroxyd of iron becomes of a deep vi 
let color upon the addition of hyposulphite of soda; after a 
short time the color disappears and the iron is reduced to prot- 
oxyd. According to Fordos’ and Gélis, the reaction which 
takes place in this case is represented by the equation 

Fe,Cl, + 2NaO.S,0, = NaCl + 2Fe0!+ Na, 8,0,. 


omy to the air, and is not sensibly dissolved by strong chlor- 
y 


The boiling must be continued until the whole of the sulphurous 
acid is expelled. Chancel applies this reaction to the quantita- 
tive Separation of alumina from iron, but I have always found 
that the complete precipitation of the alumina is, to say the . 

extremely difficult. This may be due to the formation of a sul- 
Phite which is not decomposed by boiling. When a solution of 
alum is heated to 120° C, with a strong solution of hyposulphite 
f soda the whole of.the alumina is precipitated after a short 
time, as a hydrate mixed with sulphur. The precipitate is white 
and of a peculiar semi-gelatinous charactér; it 1s more easil 

Washed than the ordinary hydrate thrown down by ammonia, It 

® Ann. de Chimie et de Physique, viii, 351. 


350 Contributions to Chemistry from the 


20° C 


Zinc.—W hen solutions of gulphate of zine and hyposulphite 
-140° C0, 


tated under ordinary atmospheric pressure from boiling solutions. 
When a boiling solution of sulphid of sodium is added to a 
boiling solution of sulphate of nickel or cobalt, the sulphids are 


2. On the determination of nitrogen by weight. 
Bunsen” has given a method of analyzing nitrates and nitrites 


salt in a single analysis, This method consists essentially im 
igniting the salt in an atmosphere of nitrogen gas, absorbing the. 
oxygen evolved by metallic copper, and collecting the water 12 
a chlorid of calcium tube. The nitrogen in the salt is given by 
he loss of weight in the apparatus. ‘a 
_ In those analyses of nitrates or nitrites in which it is only de- 
sired to determine the nitrogen, the following process may 0@ 
employed with advantage. A hard glass tube, about six inches 
in length, is sealed at one end, and its volume determin it 
filling it with mercury and pouring this into a graduated ve ra 
The tube is to be carefully dried and weighed with a good cork+ 
itis then to be filled with finely divided metallic copper, PT& 
jared by reduction of the oxyd, so as to ehable the operator t0 
judge of the quantity necessary. The salt to be analyzed 8 
then weighed and mixed with the metallic copper, either 1n # 
* Ann. der Chemie und Pharmacie, lxxii, 40. 


Lawrence Scientific School. : 351 


contents and cork is again weighed. The wéight of the copper 
7 


dividing this weight by the density of metallic copper. A 


352 Contributions to Chemistry from the 


eterminations aré made it will be found convenient to employ 
printed forms for logarithmic calculation, the logarithmic con 
stants of reduction being printed upon the form itself in thei 
proper places.” 


even with the hardest combustion tubes. Where many a 


8. On the separation of Cerium from Didymium and Lanthanum, 


The methods which have been recently proposed for the sep- 
aration of cerium from lanthanum and didymium are familiar 


mixed oxalates are tested the oxalic acid is oxydized to carboni¢ 
acid before the characteristic cerium-yellow appears. For the 
purpose of testing it is sufficient to dissolve the salt to be exam- 
ined in nitric acid diluted with its own volume of water, to add 
a small quantity of pure peroxyd of lead and boil for a few 
minutes, when the smallest trace of cerium can be detected 
by the yellow color of the solution. The reaction is here ex 
actly analogous to that of nitric acid and peroxyd of lead with 
solutions of manganese, which last is oxydized, not as Crum 
supposed, to hypermanganic acid, but, as Rose has shown, 10 
Sesquioxyd. : 
When a solution containing a salt of cerium dissolved in st: 
pero 


* Such pri ' : journal at 4° 
such printed forms may be had from the publishers of this Ji 


VY a 
nm al 


Lawrence Scientific School. 353 


the protoxyd of cerium in the nearly insoluble double sulphate 
of soda and cerium metals is only partially oxydized b 
heating with strong sulphuric acid and peroxyd of iad xleiosagie 
oxygen is freely evolved. 

A solution of hypermanganate of potash has no immediate 
action upon a solution of protoxyd of cerium either in nitric or 
in sulphuric acid, the violet color remaining unehanged even in 
ahot solution. On boiling for some time, however, the color 
changes slowly, the solution gradually becomes yellow and a 

rown flocky precipitate is thrown down, which consists of hy- 


‘drate of sesquioxyd of manganese. 


According to Stapff, a solution of hypermanganate of potash 
isimmediately decolorized by a solution of the sulphate of po- 
ium and protoxyd of cerium in chlorhydric acid, but after 
some time chlorine is evolved and the sesquioxyd of cerium 
found is reduced to protoxyd. It is clear that in this case the 
Bpizing agent is chlorine. The further investigation of this 
subject was committed to Dr. T. M. Drown, who has obtained 
the following results, 
en a solution of cerium, didymium, and lanthanum, is 
treated with nitric acid and peroxyd of lead in the manner 
pointed out above, the deep orange colored liquid evaporated 
to dryness, and heated for a short time to a temperature suffi- 
ciently high to expel a portion of the acid, it will be found that 
boiling water acidulated with nitric acid dissolves only the salts 
of lanthanum and did mium, leaving the whole of the cerium 
in the form of basic nitrate, insoluble in water. The insoluble 
matter is to be filtered off and thoroughly washed. A current 
of sulphydric acid gas passed into the filtrate removes the lead, 
after which the lanthanum and didymium may be precipita- 
together as oxalates, which if the process has been care- 
fully performed, are perfectly free from cerium. The mass on 
the filter is readily dissolved by fuming nitric acid. Sulphydrie 
acid is then to be passed through the solution sufficiently diluted 

With water until the lead is completely precipitated. The cerium 
May then be thrown down by oxalic acid, ignited and weighed 
a Ce, O,, or as sulphate. In this manner Dr. Drown obtained 
in four analyses of the same salt 

DiO and LnO = 24:84, 25°31, 25°54, 24°65 per cent. 

Nitrate of protoxyd of cerium obtained by this process gives, 
When tested by the spectroscope with transmitted light, even In 
Very thick layers, a scarcely perceptible indication of didymium. 
Tmay here mention that Gladstone’s lines farnish, with proper 
are, the most delicate test for the presence of didymium which 
We Possess, is only necessary to transmit the light through 
Very thick layers of liquid and to employ a condensing lens so 

Ax. Jour, Sct.—Szconp Srrres, Vou. XXXVII, No. 111.—Mar, 1864. 

46 


854 Contributions to Chemistry from the 


as to throw the transmitted light directly upon the slit of the 
spectroscope. 


4, On the separation and estimation of cerium. 


gramme of oxyd is a good working proportion. The solution is 
then to be boiled and a hot solution of oxalic acid or oxalate of 
ammonia added. On cooling, especially when the solution has 
been well stirred with a glass rod, or shaken, the oxalate sepa 

ates in large crystalline grains of a pale rose-violet color. he 
precipitate is to be filtered off and well washed with boiling water, 
the washing being extremely easy in consequence of the coarse 
granular character of the precipitate. The filter is then to be 
pierced and the oxalate carefully washed down into a crucible, 
after which the water in the crucible may easily be removed by 
evaporation and the oxalate dried at a temperature of 100°C. 
The equivalents of lanthanum and didymium are so near to that 


of cerium that no very sensible error is committed by consider _ 


ing the mixed oxalates as consisting simply of CeO C,0, +829 
In mineral analyses in which the relative quantity of oxygen 
the acids and bases must be determined with accuracy, it may be 
desirable to ascertain the quantity of oxalic acid ina weighed 
alee of the oxalates by combustion with oxyd of coppet, 

rom this the acid in the entire precipitate may be found, and 
the oxygen in the three bases will then be one-third of the oxy: 
gen in the acid. 


5. On the quantitative separation of cerium from yttrium, alumin- 
um, glucinum, manganese, tron and uranium. 
The relations of the three metallic oxyds of the cerium 
to sulphate of potash have long been fainiliar to chemists, @ x 
have furnished methods of separation from other oxyds a 
Pinta ct « use. In examining this subject I have oe be : 
phate of soda possesses great advantages over sulphate of po" 
‘the double sulphates of sodium and the protoxyds of cerium, 
Janthanum and didymium, being ibeolntely insoluble 10 a 
rated solution of sulphate of soda. On the other hand, 


Lawrence Scientific School, 855 


double sulphates of sodium and glucinum, aluminum, yttrium, 
_ protoxyd of iron, and sesquioxyd of uranium, are readily solu- 
ble in sulphate of soda and may easily be washed out from the 
highly erystalline insoluble double sulphates of the cerium group. 
In the analysis of minerals in which cerium occurs with one or 
more of the other oxyds, the following method may be employ- 
ed with great advantage. The oxyds are to be brought into the 
form of sulphates, dissolved in the smallest quantity of water, 
and a saturated solution of sulphate of soda added, together 
with a sufficient quantity of the dry sulphate in powder, to sat- 
urate the water of solution. It is most advantageous to use hot 
solutions. The insoluble double sulphates of soda and the ceri- 
um metals separate immediately, as a white, highly crystalline 
powder, which is to be brought upon a filter and thoroughly 
washed with a hot saturated solution of sulphate of soda. After 
washing, the double sulphates upon the filter are to be dissolved 
in hot dilute chlorhydric acid, the solution largely diluted with 
water, and the cerium metals precipitated by oxalate of ammo- 
ia, in the manner already pointed out (4). From the filtrate, 
the oxyds of the yttrium group may be precipitated at once by 
oxalate of ammonia, after peroxydizing the iron by means of 

orine water, and rendering the solution slightly acid with 
chlorhydric or sulphuric acid. The only precaution to be taken 
in this process is to reduce the iron completely to the form of 
protosulphate before precipitating the cerium with sulphate of 
soda. This is best accomplished by means of a current of sul- 
phydric acid gas passed into the hot solution. The precipitated 
sulphates always contain iron when this precaution has been neg- 
lec This iron is easily detected in the filtrate from the oxa- 
lates, and may be precipitated by ammonia and added to that 
obtained from the main solution. 


6. On the employment of fluohydrate of fluorid of potassium in 
analysis. 


The facility with which the double fluorid of titanium and po- 
fassium, or fluotitanate of potassium, separates In a crysta line 
state from hot aqueous solutions, on cooling, suggested to Woh- 
ler the best method at present known for obtaining pure titanic 
acid. In Wohler’s process, rutile or titaniferous iron is fuse 
With an excess of carbonate of potash, the fused mass treated 
with water, which leaves the greater part of the iron undissolved 
and the filtrate saturated with Faediydtic acid. By recrystalliza- 
tion the fluotitanate TiF , KF, or perhaps more correctly, ph ge 
AY, may be obtained in white, scaly crystals, resembling boric 
acid; from this salt pure titanic acid is easily obtained by pre- 
tion with ammonia. Marignac modified this process very 
“Cvantageously in the treatment of zircon to obtain pure zirconic 


356 Contributions to Chemistry from the 


acid. The zircon was fused with fluohydrate of fluorid of potas- 
sium directly. In this manner a perfect resolution of the min 
eral was easily obtained; the fluozirconate of potassium was then 
dissolved out from the insoluble fluosilicate by hot water, acidu- 
lated with fluohydric acid. The observations of Wohler and 
Marignac suggested to me a further extension of the same pro 
cess, the general result of the.investigation being that fluohy- 
drate of fluorid of potassium or sodium may be employed with 
great advantage in resolving minerals containing metallic oxyds 
of the types RO, and R,O,. The special results are as follows. 

ucinum.—Glucina, purified from iron and aluminum by the 
usual methods, is to be fused with twice its weight of fluohy- 
drate of fluorid of potassium, and the fused mass treated with 
boiling water, to which a small quantity of fluohydric acid has 
been added. On filtering a notable quantity of the insoluble 
fluorid of aluminum and potassium almost always remains upon 
the filter, even when the separation from glucinum has been 
carefully executed, by means of carbonate of ammonia. The 
filtrate, on cooling, deposits colorless transparent crusts of the 
double fluorid of glucinum and potassium which are easily puri- 
fied by recrystallization. This method affords the simplest—l 
am almost disposed to say the only—method of obtaining a chem- 
ically pure salt of glucinum. The double salt is apt to contain 
an excess of fluorid of potassium. To obtain it perfectly pure for 
analysis, Mr. J. C. Newbery fused the fluohydrate of potassium 
with an excess of glucina. The salt as thus obtained gave him 


Calculated. Found. 
Glucinum, - é é wi 5°74 5°70 
Potassium, - - i - 47°73 47°76 
Fluorine, + - * - 46°58 46°50 
100-00 99°96 


which corresponds precisely with the formula G,F,+8KF, #f 
glucinum be taken as 7, or with GF+KF, if glucinum be taken 
as 4°66. In this analysis the fluorine was estimated by the loss. 
Berzelius gives the formula G,F,+3KF. Glucina may be 0 
tained directly from beryl, as Mr. Newbery” has found, by fusing 
the finely pulverized mineral with fluohydrate of potassiult, 
dissolving out the soluble double fluorid of glucinum and pe 
slum, and purifying by recrystallization. As, however, Dery’ 
contains only 13 or 14 per cent of glucinum, this process 18 ne 
economical, It is better to separate the other oxyds as far be 
possible by the ordinary methods and then to purify the ae 
glucina by the process above pointed out. It is perhaps wort 
1 notice that while almost all proto- and sesquioxyds give 19S 
~™ Prof. Joy had already re: be completely resolved by 
fusion with fiuorid of potvninen Heed See Ponfien: Ae July, 1868. = e 


Lawrence Scientific School. 357 


uble double salts with fluorid of potassium, the fluorid of gluci- 
num behaves like a bifluorid, so as to suggest that glucina may: 
possibly be GO, instead of GO orG,O,. Ammonia precipitates 
glucina directly from the solution of the double fluorid. When 
a solution of fluorid of sodium is added to one of aluminum and 
—- the whole of the aluminum is thrown down in the 
rm of cryolite, Al, F,,3NaF, while the glucinum remains in 
solution. It is probable that this method will give accurate 
quantitative results. 
Hyponiobie acid.—I am indebted to the kindness of Prof. B. 
Silliman, Jr., for a liberal supply of columbite from Middletown, 
Connecticut. Mr. F. W. Tustin has found that the finely pul- 
yerized mineral treated with a solution of three times its weight 


the mere process of 
cee thus obtained by fusion in a platinum crucible gives a 


ass has then a greenish tint. It must be rubbed to ver, 

fine powder before boiling with water acidulated with fluohydrie 
acid. After passing sulphydric acid gas through the solution and 
filtering, the hypo-fluoniobate crystallizes in colorless acicular 
crystals which must be purified by repeated crystallization, The 
salt is much more soluble in hot than in cold water. In this 
Process a considerable quantity of fluosilicate of potassium, fluo- 
tid of calcium, quartz, and other impurities, usually remain upon 
the filter, with the sulphids of tin and tungsten. The difficulty 
in this process consists in separating the iron, when, as in the 
mineral columbite, this is present in comparatively large quan- 
In this case very large platinum or silver vessels and nu- 
merous recrystallizations become necessary. It is better, there- 
Im preparing large quantities of pure hyponiobic acid to 
fuse with fluohydrate of potassium, dissolve the fused mass in 
Water as before, and filter to separate quartz, fluosilicate of po- 
tassium and fluorid of calcium, evaporate the solution to dryness 
and heat with pure sulphuric acid until the whole of the fluorine 


358 Contributions to Chemistry, etc. 


ten and tin. After thorough washing, it may be again fused 
with fluohydrate of potassium, and the double fluorid obtained 


mic and sulphuric acids may be precipitated together by acetate 
of lead. The precipitate after washing is to be boiled with 


eaustic alkalies, or with sulphur and carbonate of soda. 4 
From what has been said it will appear that fluohydrate 
possesses peculiar advantages in resolving those mim 


or gutta-percha. 
Cambridge, Mass., Jan. 18th, 1864. 


F. Pisani on Shepard's Paracolumbite. 359 : 
Art. XXXII.—On Shepard’s Paracolumbite; by Mr. F. Pisani 
of -Patiad::5.:: 


PROFESSOR SHEPARD has given the name Paracolumbite to 
a black mineral found in small grains, or irregular seams, in the 


study its chemical composition. I have thus ascertained, that 
the paracolumbite is nothing more than a titaniferous iron, mixe 
with a little gangue, from which it is extremely difficult to sepa- 
rate it entirely by mechanical means. The mineral occurs in 

lack granules that on pulverization give an equally black pow- 
der. Hardness 45. Density 4:353. Before the blowpipe fuses 
toa black magnetic globule. Partially attacked by chlorhydrie 
acid, and this solution heated with tin gives a violet color. En- 
tirely decomposed by prolonged heat with concentrated sul- 
phuric acid; the addition of cold water gives a solution which 
on boiling becomes cloudy with deposition of titanic acid. 
Shepard,’ on the contrary, states the solution obtained by decom- 
position with sulphuric acid is not rendered milky by boiling, 
and that the metallic acid contained in paracolumbite is not 
Utanic acid. 

A quantitative analysis made by attacking the substance 
with bi-sulphate of potash gave the following results: 


Titanic acid, - : : 35°66 
Ferrous oxyd, - - - - - $908 
Ferric oxyd, - . P> * - 8°48 
Silica and insoluble, - - - - 1066 
Alumina, u ‘ Z : ¢ 7-66 
Lime, % z : & 3 
Magnesia, A s . . - 1:94 
100°54 


Deducting from the analysis the silica, alumina and lime 
Which belong to the gangue, it is obvious that the mineral is an 
rdinary titanic iron, Paracolumbite cannot therefore be con- 
Sidered’a distinct mineral species. It is identical with titanic iron, 


* Communicated by the author. * Mineralogy, 2d edition, (1857,) page 287, 
Paris, (France,) Feb. 4th, 1864. 


360 J. M. Safford on the Cretaceous 


Art. XXXIII—On the Cretaceous and Superior Formations of 
West Tennessee ; by Jas. M. SaFForp, Lebanon, Tenn, 


In this article I propose to enumerate and describe briefly, so 
far as my examinations will permit, the Cretaceous and higher 
formations of West Tennessee. But before commencing with 
the lowest in order, it will be well to notice first the formation 
of gravel that is so common and conspicuous in the Western Val- 
ley of the Tennessee river,’ and that rests upon all the formations 
occurring in this region excepting the alluvium of the bottoms 

The Western Valley Gravel.—This formation is, by no means, 
continuous over the whole area to which it belongs. It occurs 
in patches, or detached beds, depending much, in this respect, 
upon the nature of the surface on which it rests, and upon the ex- 
tent to which it has been denuded. The beds, however, often 
cover locally large areas, the observer travelling upon them with- 
out a break for many miles. Their thickness is not great, rarely 
exceeding fifty or sixty feet, and being generally much less. 

This gravel was doubtless deposited after the valley had re- 
ceived, for the most part, its present general form. _ Its beds are 
found upon the bluffs of the river, upon the uplands back of the 
bottoms and upon comparatively high ridges, being always the 
uppermost formation. It is often seen as far back as eight ot 
ten miles from the river on both sides. On the eastern side it 
extends farther, and frequently caps the very high ridges of this 
part of the State, some of which are 800 feet above the sea. In 
this direction it extends, at some points, a few miles beyond the 


he worn pebbles are sometimes locally mingled with angular 
cherty fragments; but in such cases the beds are in the vicinity 
of Paleozoic rocks, the known source of the angular chert. Not 
unfrequently masses of the gravel may be seen cemented, usually 
by oxyd of iron, into heavy blocks of coarse conglomerate. 4 
some of the iron-ore banks within the limits of this formation, 
we find sections presenting mingled masses of worn pebbles, am 
gular chert, and heats in irregular fragments and in “ pols 
the masses occasionally cemented into solid blocks. 

* Or simply the Wester : i i mparatively narrow 
and broken valley slaoegie-windh ts ‘ocean pe <i poles 0 Alabama‘? 


. 


ae 


and Superior Formations of West Tennessee. 


The exact age of this tei is not known. 


later date than the Cretac 
ay be synchronous with en gravel of 
. ne Mss ississippi bluffs; but of this I have 
no vaca wont 2 (This gravel is not 
indicated on the map. It is represented in 
the section at its eastern end by the group 
of dots. 
Excepting the Paleozoic rocks and the 
gravel just noticed, the distinctive groups 


> ag est Tennessee may be designated as 
. Bottom  aeate Modern. 
8. Bluff Loa Post-tertiary. 
1. Bluff Gein vel, ps 
6. Bluff Lignite, ip Seri Tertiary ? 
5. eo nge San “e LaGra : 
oup, y Tontiaty. 
4, Porere is Group, (pro- 
vision ne 
3. Ripley on ‘oup, Lye tirel; Cretaceous. 
2. Green ies or the shell-bed 
1. Coffee San 
* Atno point 


in Tennessee have I seen gravel run- 
ing under the Cretaceous beds, In 


.—5 
ae 


might be tis as the remains of 
ie ancient shingle of the Mbt sea, or estuary, 
far, however, as m my o rats "have extended, I 
4am compelled to refer air the deposi 

at least, to the same e epoch, 
As to the waters which brought, aod deposited this 
the impressions received in the field are that 


ts, in Tennessee 


oJ 
& * 
z 
=’ 
s 
& 
Ss 
- 
a 
ro 
cm 
5 
8 < 
& 
bes 
® 
#5 
He 
8 
° 
ne 
= 


n Tennessee with the 
wal’ of the Mississippi, the ¢ ais re 
‘eostig havin ng bee ed the 

Mississi u of West Tennessee. In eae par 
lens =p, in one or both, these bodies of water may 


Drs, Harper ris ene, in their respective Missis- 
tpi Re iate this gravel w: i“ is 
ee a? weocrnt fa ferns ne which 

“Orange Sand.” hey state, overlies the 
= part of the State of ceals, to 
The von. many of its ermal age 

ve nd originally appli me 
fa sional sere of te te the mos rt 

* to Hilgard’s Northern Lignitic. With the 
in netion of the gravel described pid 

“aessee of the « Orange Sand” as understood by th 


G ® 
“SHTIN OZT ‘avou IIVH NOLSHIUVHO YF SIHANAW ABL PXOTV NOILLOUS 


Bggs2e 
<{ 


= 


\ 


\\ 


“ 


361 


It is certainly 


ous beds in she Western valley. 


L mets low wa- 


1703 


:| = Buntyn 304, 


— Germantown 378. 


— Collierville 379. 


— Lafayette 316. 


-—~ Moscow 352. 


— La Grange 531. 
~ Grand Juncti’n 575. 


~ Saulsbury 536. 


— Porter’s Cr, 
~ Middleton 407, 


uddy Cr. 


— Chawalla 409, 
— Miss. & Tenn. Jine. 


- Corinth 434. 


— Glendale 495. 


— Burns 463, 


| Tuka 555, 


A 


_ Miss. and Ala, line. 


ve, Iam not we to admit the existence 


Aw. Jour, Scr. Riise SrRizs, eis XXXVII, No. i —May, 1864. 
47 


362 J. M. Safford on the Cretaceous 


On the map and in the section accompanying this article the 
areas occupied san by these beds are laid off, and are 
numbered as aboy 


The Paleozoic rocks occupy a narrow irregular belt, (marked 
0, 0, upon the map,) averaging about five miles in width, . 
lying along the western side of the Tennessee river. This be 
is interrupted near the southern part of the State, in a 
county, the river bending to the west and striking ee 
san ; 
berg, ‘Genesee, (Black Slate,) and Sub-carboniferous epochs. I do not, 
sipiere ropose to dwell upon these here, hese F neretole pass 

n to the beds and roups enumerated abov 

ot The Coffee Sand.—This, the oldest ee group seen * 
the surface in Tennessee, overlaps the western bevelled olf 0 
the Paleozoic rocks. It is ns northern extension of the et 

ati Charle ston R. R. 

the Alama, hough the nortenstar rer of Messiah th 
id at <% Sor Raven ~ me negors Its base-lin ne arabe oe foot 1 
of Chi shetion, fe 12 a oes points of the section are about 


5s 
~ da = aie” 


and Superior Formations of West Tennessee, 363 


bighee sand of Hilgard, which most likely ought to be included 
in his Hutaw Group. Its outcrop occupies a belt of territory 
varying from about two to eight miles in width, and running 
more than half way through the State.“ (See 1, 1, on the map.) 
As before stated, the Tennessee, in the southern part of the 
State, strikes this group. The river here washes the sand, along 
its western bank, for eighteen or twenty miles and presents us, 
at intervals, with several bluffs that exhibit interesting sections. 
to 100 feet in 


the gravel bed described. The principal ones, (indicated on the 
map by short heavy lines,) are the Coffee Bluff; sometimes 


> 


With in the series. It very generally contains woody fragments 

and leaves converted more or less into lignite. Silicified trunks 

Of trees are not uncommon. The maximum thickness of the 

~y in Tennessee is not known; it is probably not far from 
t 


eet. 
A section of the bluff at Coffee may be taken as a type of the 
materials and stratification of this group. 


4. On top ; gravel and ferruginous conglomerate. 
8. Sands, with thin laminz of slaty clay; much like No. 1 below. 10 feet. 
2. Slaty clay, with but little sand; contains fragments of wo 
_ and leaves, ; 
- Grey and yellow sands, interstratified with numerous thin 
aminz and some thicker layers of slaty clay; strata of sand 
Oceasionally from three to six feet without clay. Leaves, in 
agments, and pieces of lignitic wood abundant. — Projecting 
from the mass are the ends of two large trunks, their bark con- 
verted into lignite and their wood silicified. — : 
Contains pyrites and yields proto-salts of iron and ferrugin- 
ous waters, 


Extending to the water's edge. ‘ . - 65 feet. 


20 feet. 


‘ ‘ ec A : 
There is some i rd to the northern limits of this and the succeeding 
Brae (No. 2.) a ioe. onan upon the map by the broken lines bounding the 
ne limi satisfactorily known as far as the lines continue un- 
: but beyond this they are not easily determined and require more examina- 
tion, outline given is probably not far from the correct one. 


364 — J. M. Safford on the Cretaceous 


yet it is difficult to obtain good specimens. None that I know 


fossils, to Mr. Wm. M. Gabb, of Philadelphia, who described it 
as Volulilithes Saffordi, giving “Tennessee” by mistake as the 
locality. (Jour. Acad. Nat. Sci., [2], iv, 299.) The specimen 
was obtained from a cut about three miles and a half west of 


2. The Green Sand, or the shell-bed.— At many points along its 
eastern edge this bed is seen resting upon the Coffee sand. I 

mass consists generally of fine quartzose sand mixed with clay, 
forming a clayey sand, which is more or less calcareous. It con 
tains green grains throughout, though not abundantly, and fine 


7 


scales of mica. Owing to the clay present and a certain degree 


of the series. 

Below the soil, for ten or twenty feet from the surface, the 
Green sand is usually converted by atmospheric agencies into? 
greyish or dirty-buff tenacious material locally called goin a 
from its tendency to cleave, when losing moisture, in irregula! 
block-like masses. “cee 

It abounds in shells. Exogyra costata, Gryphcea vesicularts, r 
trea larva and Anomic, are found at nearly all exposures. r 
numerous points, whitish clayey or marly “bald places, ° 
“glades,” nearly or quite destitute of soil and vegetation, #@ 


to 

* To obtain good water in the region of the Green sand it is often necessary 
bore through the formation to the Coffee sand. Upon reaching = drinkable wa 
ng 


and Superior Formations of West Tennessee. 365 


met with, strewed over which, individuals of the species men- 
tioned, and of others, are abundant, the large shells being very 
conspicuous. ‘This formation is preéminently the shell-bed of the 
Post-paleozoic beds of West ‘Tennessee. A list of species col- 
lected is given below. It -_ contains wood and leaves, but not 
as abundantly as the Coffee 
This bed is the sortie ektindlioh of the Rotten limestone 
d Mississippi and Alabama. Its outcrop in Tennessee occupies 
the surface averaging about eight miles in width for at 
hast half way through the State. (2,2, map and section.) Fur- 
ther north it soon becomes inconspicuous, Its limits in this di- 
rection have not been satisfactorily made out. The broken lines 
mark its probable extension and termination. Its thickness is 
' known from data supplied by the well-borers. Along the west- 
ern margin of its outcrop it varies from 200 t 350 feet, the 
maximum being in the southern part of the Sta 
The list below contains the species collected io myself from 
this nie These, together with the species collected from the 
g group, were submitted to the examination of Messrs. 
Sea a Gabb. The eo — were described by them in 
the Jour. Acad. Nat. Sei., v, 2d series. In their descrip- 
tions some are referred to aoe ‘localities. The principal and 
correct localities are indicated upon the: map by small crosses, 
and will be designated in the list by letters. They are as che 


(a.) The first, at the wrt tele of the bed, in a cut of the Mem 


an 
(0.) The “Bald Hills,” ee or i miles north o i in Tennessee, 
miles northwest of Monterey, in MoNairy cou 
(¢.) A bank about 2 24 miles east of Purdy, (Pu) Tena and very near 
the top of the bed. 
es A cut in the Memphis and Charleston Railroad very _ the point 
where the railroad crosses the Mississippi and Tennessee lin 


: Platytrochus iahabtae ae and Bets, - -- - d, 
2. Corbula crassiplica, G - d, 
3, Crassatella vadosa, Ans ‘(Syn. c Ripleyana, Con. te tee a, ¢. 


4, Astarte crinulirata, ore 
5. Venilia Conradi, Mort. 4 . 


9. Arca Saffordi,Gabb, - : + * d. 
10, Nucula Cee Gabb,  - . ‘ t : d, 
1h. Cuculle Tippana, Con., - : : r ¢. 
12, Clenoides (Lima) pelagica, Mort., - * 5 a. 
4 C. reticulata, Lyell and acicrs - . 4 sé a. 
4. Pecten virgatus, Ni ilsson, - - - = a. 
15, Neithea occidentalis, Con y Cm 


- - - a,b, 
(Syn. P. quadricostata, Radiol 7a perhaps quinguecostata of Mort.) 


366 mS M. Safford on the Cretaceous 


16. Ostrea Larva, Lam., (Syn. O. falcata, Mort., not Sow.) - -a, 5,64, 
17. O. plumosa, Mort., - - - - - a, b, 


18. O. lecticosta, Gabb, —- - - - - a,bed, 
(I think this must be O. crenulata, Tuomey.) 
19, Hrogyra costata, Say, - - ‘ ‘ - 65,64 


20, Gryphea vesicularia, Lam., - - - . a, b, ¢. 
(Syn. O. convera, Say, and G. mutabilis, Mort.) 
for - - - - 


21. G. Vomer, Mort. - a, , 
22. Anomia tellinoides, Mort., - - - - a, b, 
23. A. Argentaria, Mort.,  - ee = -. Ohne 
24. Placunanomia Saffordi,Con., - ‘- - - a,b,o,d. 


(Syn, P. lineata, Con. P. lineata can be connected with P. Sa 
fordi by intermediate forms. The species is an abundant and 
variable one. Its individuals are often much larger than those _ 
fi . 


ed. Figure 21, pl. 46, (Jour. Acad., vol. iv.) sh ws the ap- 
_ pearance of the tooth after the enamel, that coats the inside of the 


valves, has been removed. Since the species was described, a few 


25. Scalaria Sillimani, Mort., “ 
26. Natica rectilabrum, Con., fe . 
27. Volutilithes Texana, Con., ae * 
28. Rapa (Pyrula) Richardsonii? Tuomey, - 


FREER 


29. R. trochiformis, Tuomey, 
30. Anchura abrupta, Con., 
g 


) Saf ee 


= 


1. Baculites yi » pay, 
32. Enchodus ferox, Leidy, “ : 
83. Sphyrena, sp. ? - 
34, Ischyrhiza mira, - e 
Besides these, I have in my collection from this bed uncertal 
species of Teredo, Serpula, Rostellaria, Fusus, Turritella and Del- 
phinula. : 1 
8. Ripley Group.—This is a provisional series, and 1s ey” 
upon observations made along and in the vicinity of on 
Memphis and Charleston Railroad. It is only in this region t 
determinable species have been found, although search has De*" 
made elsewhere for them. Its northern extension has beet ™ 
ferred from the general bearings and relations of its strata 
of those of the adjacent groups. ) 
Its outcrop occupies a belt of the surface, (8,8, on the pe 
extending through the State and being, along the railroad, & mh 
fifteen miles wide, but having a less average width. This che 
is in general rough and hilly. The high ridges dividing © 
— of the Tennessee and Mississippi rivers lie mostly WI" 


) 
SSS s 


- 


and Superior Formations of West Tennessee. 367 


The group must be of considerable thickness, not less than 
400 or 500 feet. It is mostly made up of stratified sands. Oc- 
casionally an interstratified bed of dark slaty clay, ten to thirty 
feet thick, is met with, but more frequently a sandy bed lamina- 
ted with clayey leaves. In its lithological character, the group 
ig much like the Coffee sand. Its sandy mass, as seen at the sur- 
face, is very generally yellow, brown or orange, its contents bein 

eroxydized ; occasionally, however, in partially protected or in 
resh exposures, its material is dark colored, abounding more or 
less in fragmentary lignitic matter. 

The outcrop of the group very commonly presents layers or 
masses of ferruginous sandstone locally indurated by oxy of 
iron. This sandstone often occurs in plates, scrolls, tubes and 
other curious shapes. At some points, especially upon high 
knobs and ridges, it is found in heavy massive locks from two 
or three to fifteen feet in thickness. The occurrence of such 
sandstone is, however, common to all the sand-formations of 
West Tennessee. In this group it appears to be especially 
abundant. 


branch of Cypress Creek, (of Hardeman,) and near the “old 
stage road.” Each point is indicated upon the map by a small 


Cross, 

_ The following is a list of species from the two beds, to which 
it will be seen quite a number of the forms are common. = Al 

of them are described in the Jour. Acad. Nat. Scv. of Phila., vol. 
iv, 2d series, The localities are (a.) limestone ; (b.) sand-bed. 

1, Corbula subcompressa, Gabb, - - 2 - b. 
2. Venus Ripleyana, Gabb, - - : - a, b. 
____On the ma ‘oe this article, Muddy Creek is the first stream rep- 
Tesented east of na onthe calico’. M. is Middleton depot. 

Dedicated to Prof. H. A. Gwyn, of Saulsbury, Tennessee. 


368 J. M. Safford on the Cretaceous 


3. Crassatella pteropsis, Gabb, - : - - ab, 
(Conrad had previously given this name toa species of Crassatella; 
Jour. iv, 279. I therefore propose C. Gabbi for it.) . 


4. C. Monmouthensis ? Gabb, - ee 
6. Cardita subquadrata? Gabb, - - - - b 
6. Leda nrotexta, Gabb, - - - : - b, 

1. Modiola Saffordi, Gabb, - ‘ : nce ae a 

8. Ostrea denticulifera, Con., - - - er * 

9. O. crenulimarginata, Gabb, - - - : 6, 


(If No. 8 is referred to the proper species, then O, crenulimargin- 
ata, Gabb, is, I think, its lower or larger valve.) 
10. Grypheaa Vomer, Mort., - : 
11. Turritella Tennesseensis, Gabb, - - f 7. 
12. 7. Saffordi, Gabb, - . - - - 
1 } - 


Pe ae 


14, 7. pumila, Gabb, = as 
15. Nutica rectilabrum, Con., - 
sciola 


17. Neptunea impressa, Gabb, - 
18. Callianassa ? Gwyni, Safford, - © * . 
19. Lamna gracilis? Ag,  - 
20. Crocodilus ? (Tooth.) 
It will be seen that but two species of those given, Gryphea 
Vomer and Natica rectilabrum, are common to this group and the 
Greén sand. Localities in Mississippi, however, furnish series 
of fossils which unite the groups more intimately. It will be 
found perhaps that the two form paleontologically but one 


SASS KCTS SSP 


€. ge He ee 
F 


formation 
The group also contains wood and leaves. The leaves are 
generally found in an imperfect condition and have received but 
ittle attention. As the age of the beds containing them are 
nown, their study would be ver interesting in connection with 
that of the leaves of the formations further west which are 


ica 
scales, is dark when wet and whitish grey whendry. The thick 
ness of the series is perhaps 200 or 800 feet. In this are usually 
several beds of slaty clay from five to fifty feet in thickness. 
Hardeman county, on Porter's Creek,* is a heavy bed said a 


00 feet thick. Ihave seen as much as 50 or 60 feet of it exp 
" The first creek on the map, west of “M.” (Middleton,) on the M.& ©. R. BR 


and Superior Formations of West Tennessee. 369 


face occupied by the group is about eight miles wide. It be- 
comes narrower as we follow it northward. (4,4, on the map.) 
The belt appears to be the northern extension of Hilgard’s 
“Flatwoods” region, the group itself forming the lower part of 
his “Northern Lignitic.” I have met with hard layers, “ rocks,” 
in this series containing shells, but as yet have found no deter- 


Along the Memphis and Charleston Railroad, the belt of sur- 
It b 


Tennessee. It occupies a belt about 40 miles wide, which runs 
in a north-northeasterly direction through nearly the central por- 
tion of this division of the State. (See map and section 5, 5.) 


As seen in bluffs, railroad cuts, gullies, and in nearly all expo- 


are met with. These often contain vegetable matter. Now and 


® This Journal, [2], xxvii. 363. 
Ax, Jour. Sci.—Srcoxp Serms, VoL. XXXVII, No. 111.—Mar, 1864. 
48 


370 J. M. Safford on the Cretaceous 


’ 


happy condition of the country. The following is a list of the 
species as revised by Mr. Lesquereux: 


; sitll myrtifolia ? Willd. 7. Andromeda ssf affinis, 
Prunus Caroliniana, Michx. * Andromeda a, Lsqx. 

$ Laurus Caroliniensis ? Michx 9, Hleagnus renga Ls 

4. Fagus ferruginea, Michx. (Fr uit.) 1. Sapotucites Americanus, Lig 

5. Quercus crassinervis, Ung. . Salix? densinervis, Lsqx. 


6. Quercus Saffordii, Lsqx. 


The first four are recent; the others are new or unknown. In 
a letter to me of Feb. 18 61, Mr. Lesquereux expresses the opin- 
ion that they are of Miocene, br most likely of Upper Miocene, 
age. In deference to my e ent friend’s opinion, I shall re- 
gard the group as Miocene fide more light can be thrown upon 
the question. *° Had it not been for the ‘present condition of the 
rE ea more ample material would have been placed in bis 

ands fi 

I have Rot ae able to find even the cast of a shell in this 
series. The discovery of a few known species, if such exist, is 
a Betdcacai 

6. The Bluff Lignite—This is a provisional group, and con: 
sists, especially in the middle and southern parts of the State, of 
a series of stratified sands with more or less sandy slaty clay, 


osed below the panel “of the Missiseitps blufis. At ae 
rere it scarcely appears above low water. About one ban 
red fe the series has been seen below the gravel. In_ this 
Nees it contains from one to three beds of lignite, which are 
from aoe a foot to four feet in thickness. 
group has no marked eastern outcrop, and may thin out 


© T must confess eee I cannot rid bef of the citi pee that this gro up is 
o—* least Eve I do not know that I can assign a good reason for Key im- 
on. have 


say they were absolutel de pra on account of - unsatisfactory won 
I see too that sagen is inclined t ce his “ Northern Lignitie,” which inc 
i one Sand pare at the very boftons of the Eocene. 


and o 
ef Fetebeess to the erat abore, it will be remarked that two of the rece recent spe 
cies are given wit uery ; oubt, too, is ae N (this Joma loc. o 
with reference to the i ic sired of ‘the ‘nut of ee ferruginea I a aware that Mr. 


and Superior Formations of West Tennessee. 371 


lignite, by which it is characterized, do not ear to extend 
very far east from the range of the bluffs. (See section 6.) In 
my “ Reconnoissance,” p. 102, may be found asection illustrating 
the Bluff formations. Below, I give another taken on the Missis- 
sippi, at Randolph, Tipton county, the river being four or five 
eet above low-water mark. 
8. Bluff Loam, 68 feet. 

Fine siliceous earthy matter of a light ashen or a light buff color, 


in an easterly direction beneath the gravel; at least, the beds of 
a 


6. Bluff Lignite, 90 feet. 


inches thick. Some thin laminz of lignite occur below this bed. 
This portion in all, - - - - - 48 ft. 

A portion not exposed in place where the section was taken, but 
seen in part at another point; consists of laminated sand ee 


above. Down to the water's edge. 2 ft. 
aves from the Bluff lignite, at least from the portion in 
Tennessee, haye not, so far as I know, been examined. 


by Mr. Lesquereux. (This Journal, [2], xxvii, 364.) 
ies i kness from ten to 


with everywhere more or less coarse gravel, and has usually 
alayer of white or variegated clay at its b gravel 1s 


ase. 
generally the most conspicuous portion. This is sometimes ce- 


_ This bed is remarkable for its extent in a general direction 
Parallel with the river. It is seen along the face of the Missis- 
sippi bluff, from the Mississippi state line to Kentucky, and both 
Ways much beyond these limits. 

* Thave gi i the line of bluffs that all along overlook 

A step sd deepen oe Rigs tter The bluffs are the western esca 
ttom. This escarpment is cut by the narrow 
ys of the rivers flowing from the east, but for general purposes may be regarded 
tinuous. 


372 J. M. Safford on the Cretaceous : 


Its eastern outcrop is not well marked. It appears to extend — 
from 15 to 20 miles eastward from a straight line drawn through — 
the most westerly parts of the bluff. The bed is represented on 
the map and in the section by a dotted or broken line. (7,7) Tt 
will be seen that the narrow river-valleys of West Tennessee — 
cut this and the Bluff loam into sections. Ack 

8. The Bluff Loam.—This, the topmost of the bluff formations, — 
is generally a mass of fine siliceous loam, somewhat calcareous, 
and usually of a light ashen yellowish or buff color, but some- 
times lacking the yellow tinge. It is indistinctly stratified; con- 
tains land and fresh-water shells, and frequently oddly shaped 
calcareous concretions. It has in Tennessee a maximum thick 
ness of about 100 feet, ranging generally, however, from 30 to 
80. In the bluff at Memphis, it is from 40 to 60 feet thick, and 
presents in its lower part, along a well-marked horizon and ina 
vertical position, earthy ferruginous casts or moulds of what may 
have been the long tapering tap-roots of some tree. 

The loam rests directly upon the Bluff gravel, and its range 
and extent are shown upon the map by the spaces included his ; 
the broken lines representing the outcrops of the gravel, Its 
eastern limit, like the eastern outcrop of the underlying bed, 18 
with difficulty defined; both are alike given approximate are 

The following species of shells have been collected from 
formation : 


1, Helix appressa, Memphis. 6. Planorbis bicarinatus, Memphis. 
2. H. hirsuta, - 7. Cyclas,sp.t Z 
3. H. monodon, - 8. Amnicola lapidaria, . 


4. H. solitaria, Dyer county 9. Lymn 
5. HZ. profunda, Hickman, Ky. 10. Succinea, sp. ? 


“ 


low high-water mark of 


al beds ° 

sand, clay, gravel and vegetable matter of the ie Be 

om. Ido not propose to dwell upon it here. As a WHO © 
extent in Tennessee can be seen upon the map. (9,9.) 


'S This Journal, [2], x, 56. 


M. C. Lea on the Infiuence of Ozone, etc. 373 


Art. XXXIV.—On the Influence of Ozone and some other Che 


Chem- 
ical Agents on Germination and Vegetation; by M. Cargy LEA, 
Philadelphia. 


and the labors of Boussingault, Knop, Stohmann, Ville, Sachs, 


and many others, are daily adding to our stock of knowledge 
and developing new and interesting fac he studies of these 


chemists have, however, been directed almost entirely to the effects 
of the absence or presence in greater or less proportion in the soil 
of those bases and acids which are there commonly found. With 
respect to other agencies, little has been done since the valuable 
investigations of ‘l'urner and Christison, made more than thirty 
years ago, in which they examined the effects of chlorhydric 
and nitrons acid gases, chlorine, sulphuretted hydrogen, cyano- 
gen and some other gases. Géppert about the same time pub- 
lished some investigations upon the influence of cyanhydric acid. 
The effect of all these substances was very much what mi 

have been anticipated from their tendency to attack organic 

ssues, : 


The examinations which I propose here to describe have been 
made in a somewhat different direction. The most curious result 
obtained appears to me to be that relating to the effect of a highly 
ozonized atmosphere upon the roots of plants. I have also found 


nde 
tirely neutral, may exercise a powerfully poisonous influence 
upon vegetation, when disseminated in the atmosphere sur- 
ounding it. 


Pated before introducing it beneath the bell glass. 

Two sets of experiments were made: in the first, the water 
with which the seeds came in contact was made to contain those 
Solid substances which are most essential to vegetation. In the 


874 M. C. Lea on the Influence of Ozone 


second, very pure river water was used. For the first, phosphate 
of soda, silicate of potash, sulphate of magnesia, nitrate of lime 
and sesquichlorid of iron were added to water in a proportion 
such as to be equivalent to three-tenths of one per cent of solid 
matter. In order to afford a just term of comparison, two yes- 
sels every way similar were filled with this prepared water, were 
covered with gauze so that the gauze should rest on the surface 
of the water, and were placed under bell-glasses resting on glass 
pee. Wheat and maize grains were placed on the gauze, and 
eneath one bell-glass was introduced the ozone-generating mix- 
ture. 
2d day.—Germination appeared to be more advanced in the 
vessel containing the ozone. Seeds, however, of like origin, and 
exposed to the same influences, germinate so irregularly that 
much importance is not to be ascribed to this. 
3d day.—The seeds in ordinary air had overtaken the others. 
They were already covered with mould, of which no sign ap- 
peared on those exposed to ozone. 
4th day.—Mouldiness much increased in the one, still nonein 
the other. The rootlets of the plants exposed to ozone begin to 
exhibit remarkable effects, extending themselves upward ir 
stead ownward, and becoming pinkish at the extremities. 
5th day.—Ozone plants much behind. 
8th day.—The disposition of the roots of the plants exposed 
to oz row upward still continues. Of the wheat plants, 
fully one-half the rootlets have shot directly into the air. The 
only maize plant which has as yet germinated has sent up @ 
healthy plumula over one inch in length; its three rootlets are 
all directed upward and away from the water. Nothing in the 
least similar has taken place in any of the seeds not exposed to 
the influence of ozone. 


ately ed to grow; the strongest plant attained a height of 
six inches, and developed six 


did xceed one-tenth of those produced : f the 
equal number of hea seed ne curious result 0 
almest 1 nee of roots was that the wheat plants oe 


on Germination and Vegetation. 375 


greater part of them fell over on one side. The flatness of the 
grains of maize afforded their plants a better suppor 


stands, which air is of course saturated with moisture, mould 
began immediately to form, and increased until the surface of 
the gauze which rested on the water was completely covered, 
Nothing of the sort was visible in the bell-glass containing an 
ozonized atmosphere. 


but their stronger vitality enabled them to resist longer. It was 
also remarked that the extremities of the leaves of some wheat 
plants, growing in the same vessel, became yellow. But those 
wheat plants which had germinated in the ozone atmosphere, al- 
though much smaller, were perfectly healthy, and the leaves 
showed no disposition to die at the ends. 
Pasteur has lately shown that the putrefaction and oxydation 
of organic bodies is effected to a very large extent by the inter- 
vention of the lowest order of vegetable organisms. That in 


Ing the salts already mentioned. The results obtained were pre- 
cisely the same. ‘These trials afforded a double set of parallel 
€Xperiments, similar sets of seeds having been exposed to the 
action of saline solutions, and to that of river water nearly pure, 
in both cases with and without the influence of ozone. Clearly, 
therefore, to nothing but ozone could be ascribed the inverted 
tendency of the roots, as this always followed its presence, an 
Ver appeared in its absence. 


* See Rép. de Chimie Pure, Sep. 1863, p. 479. 


376 M. C. Lea on the Influence of Ozone, ete. 


(2.) Carbonic Acid. 


Experiments were made to ascertain the effect of a complete 
removal of carbonic acid from the atmosphere surroundin 
plants. The seeds were placed on gauze strained over a ae 
of water, which was set in a dish containing concentrated solu- 
tion of caustic soda, and the whole was covered with a bell-glass, 
A similar arrangement was made, exclusive of the caustic alkali, 
to afford a term of comparison. 

No appreciable difference could be observed. It is probable 
that seedlings, within the height which they can attain under an 
ordinary bell-glass, still derive a sufficient supply of carbon from 
the seed. Be this as it may, the removal of carbonic acid from 
the atmosphere surrounding them did not interfere with their 
growth. 

Experiments made with seeds placed in an atmosphere of cat- 
bonic acid accorded with results obtained by other observers, a8 
to total prevention of germination under circumstances other 
wise favorable. The seeds, however, were found to be not in 
any way injured, and germinated freely on exposure to the at 
mosphere. ee 

It seems probable that in those cases in which germination 
has been observed to take place in an atmosphere of carboni¢ 
acid gas,’ the exclusion of atmospheric air has not been'sull- 
ciently well maintained. 


(3.) Simple and Compound Ethers. 


Seeds were placed on gauze under a bell-glass, as before, and 
an open narrow-mouthed vial containing a little ether was Intro 
duced. Germination was entirely prevented. 

Nitrate of methyl produced a similar effect. 


(4.) Organic Acids in Solution. 


Two organic acids were selected for experiment: oxalic adi 
as being reducing, non-nitrogenous and sharp; picric act 
issolved in water 


lutions 


d 


small 
resulted from the acid reaction of the solutions, other so 


of acid as before, viz.: three-tenths of one per cent. | 
neutral solution of oxalate, a slow germination followed; 12 


* Lindley, Int. to Botany, p. 359. 


H. A. Newton on November Star-Showers. 377 


Art. XXXV.—Femarks on the Distillation of Substances of 
different Volatilities ; by M. Carry La. 


__ SOME experiments which have been recently published b 
M. Berthelot recall to me a similar and remarkable case whic 


’ 


pointed out, we would naturally an to find it principally in 
case, when the less substituted ammonias predominate in quan- 
ty. Almost the whole of the triethylamin passes over in the 
first opie of the distillate, and subsequent ones, though rich 
Mm ethylamin and diethylamin, scarcely contain a trace of tri- 
ethylamin, 


—— 


Anr. XXXVI.—The original accounts of the displays in former 
times of the November Star-Shower ; together with a determination 
of the length of its cycle, its annual period, and the probable orbit 
of the group of bodies around the sun; by H. A. NEwrTon. 


I the followin ges I pro to give, so far as I can, the 
Original accounts Of ice Hoplays of shooting stars which may 
be Considered the predecessors of the great exhibition on the 

ing of Nov. 13th, 1833. These accounts afford data for 
the determination of the length of the annual period, and the 
thirty-three year cycle. They farnish additional arguments (if 
Such arguments are needed) for the theory that the shooting stars 
Jour. Scr.—Srcoxp Sexes, VoL. XXXVII, No. 111.—Mar, 1864. 
49 


378 H. A. Newton on November Star-Showers. 


the time during which the swarm of bodies furnishing the No- 
vember meteors revolves about the sun must be limited to one 
of five accurately determined periods, one of which is more 
probable than the others. They will serve to direct future ob- 
servation, and perhaps verify or correct such hypotheses as have 
been, or may be presen 

Several catalogues of ancient star-showers have been pub- 
lished. Nearly all the accounts given below are cited in Ba 
or in part in these catalogues. I have copied so far as Ie 
from the original writers. A few citations not heretofore ian 
are added. Translations are given of many of the passages, for 
some of which, _ for other valuable aid, I am indebted to the 
kindness of frie 

I. A.D. 902. 

Near the middle of October, A. D. 902, occurred one of the 
most remarkable star-showers on record. The following a 
counts, although the recorded dates differ, refer evidently to the 
same e phenomenon. 

1, “En la luna Dyleada de este mismo afio murié el ey. Ibrahim Becsece 
aqu uella no che se vieron como lanzadas infinitas estrella 
Muvia 4 derecha é amie ¥ “et prea este afio el one be Estrellas,” Gee 
ria dela Dominacion de los Arabes en Espana, 8°, Pari , p. 1 


xl, 353, First quoted ro Von yosntthott 
In the month Dhu-l-Ka’dah of this same year (380 re H.) died ee 5 Torte a 
the 


Ahmad, and that night there were seen, as it were 
which scattere . themselves like rain to right a “left, “and that year r was 


year of the sta et 
a no Dox ominicae Incarnationis 902 urbs Tauromenis a Sarracenis eee § 
Eodem anno in visi sunt igniculi in modum stellarum per ae dis Ba 
an Rex Africae residens s r Cosentiam Calabriae civitatem, Dei fis Teal 
mortuus est.” Chronicon Romualdi IT, Archiepisc. Salernitani : Murator M-" — 
Ser., vii, 160, {This Journal, x1, 354.) First quoted by Mr. Herrick. 


3. “Hoc tempore noctis medio visi sunt igniculi in modum s tellarum hue I . 
diseurrere. Tune Civitas Rhegium a filio Regis Asor ca . apta est. z, nocte 
rimenis capta est a Saracenis. Rex vero Africes super Cosentian nen i 1 Set 
quadam e ci judiclo mortuus est.” Chronicon Vulturnense: Muratori, Rer. 
415. 


i, pars 2, 


4. “ His itaque patratis, vix eat sex dies efuxer nt, cum visu f 
que mirabile e prod, ingen m omnibus timorem incussit. 
xa per noctem volare, militumque instar confi 
visa cottenttiers sy a . Poke don Sancti Procopii ; ngeriptore 
Neap.: Muratori, Rev. Ital. Sohblds 


ennne Diacon? 


H. A. Newton on November Star-Showers. 379 | 


In the preceding paragraph are related the razing of Castellum 
Lucullanum from fear of the Saracens, the removal of the citi- 
zens to Naples, and the crenata of the bo y of St. Severinus 
to the Peteapetl that bore his name. The razing of the town 


occupied five days, and was finished on the 4th day before the 
Ides of October, that is, Tuesday, Oct. 12th. Ina note Cajeta- 
nus says: 


“Joannes Diaconus cum PS icone tm corporis Sancti Severini e Castello Lucul- 
lano Neapolim enarrasset, itum dixerat a Pontifice, et sigh ad illud inquirendum 4, 
Idus Octobris; ut in ejus Basilieam deyentum est, post Missarnm solemnia, detur- 
bato altari, caren humo o, inte, hata m adbut geen at inventum; cumque tet 


Kal. Nove embris, ‘Portenta, quae A aattantut. eveneres ula sque Jost arnt % 


um eodem pn see > ‘Tabromehiaan expu ugnay erat, et Sanctum Proceiark 
abate interfecera’ 

In other ag he contends that the year of the capture of 
Taormina and the invasion of Calabria was A.D. 908. He re- 
fers to his notes on the life of St. Elias Ennensis in the Vitae 
SS. Steulorum for the proof. I have not access to this work, but 
am convinced that the year is A.D. 902. The minuteness and 
consecution of the Arab ‘ehronicles of these political events make 
itimpossible to suppose the year in error. 


5. “Anno i erine xs incarnatione Domini nongentissimo secundo indice. 5. 3. Idus 

tobris regnantibus Leone et Alexandro augustis residenteque quarto Benedicto 

Romano peatities, Partenopenss duce Gregorio et Stephano conele episcopo, fac- 
tot imo 


Se 
pe 
oO 
2 
i=] 
= 
Jo 
a< 
oO 
ge 
_ 
ie] 
+ 
= 
i 
nD 
— 
=| 
B 
mn 
ag 
| 
He 
q 
o> 
sce 
ie) 
D 
fae 
— 
i) 
fF) 
ae 
° 
"y 
3 
ic} 
a 
77) 
' 


edire ¢ : 
nlserioor ties Ttalia j in articulo Martis ponte ab eius giao liberata sac Unde qui- 
lam astruere volu uerunt, ab illius morte signum esse factum ste Sed quia 
on solum in Italia sed in toto mundo yisum est, magis creden midi “ey ane 
m esse sensentioin dicentis : “ Erunt signa in sole et luna et stellis ; 3” neque 
in tale — ied iSemy yr: regis morte in universo orbe Deus ostenderat.”’ Chron- 
Salernitan z, III, p. 549, n. 

“902. Ostensa sunt hoc anno portenta; stella velud pluvie per maximam noctis 
Ben caden nites: Piles et site sakoate tes ut testantur navigantes et molen- 
: aturalem cursum = ip a nocte, hoe est in 5 Kalend. Octobris, non habue- 

runt, An i, 590. 


nalista Saxo: 
The moi account in nearly the same words is found in the 
Annales Palidenses: Pertz, xvi, 60. The year 903 is, however, 
Biven as ah date. 


7. The followin account refers, if the date is correct, to Nov. 
lth, A. D, 899. Sati it seems probable that the year should be 


380 H. A. Newton on November Star-Showers, 


changed from A. H. 286 to A. H. 289. The extract was first 

quoted by Mr. Frihn, Bull. — de V Acad. de St. a vol. 

ili, p. 310, from Hist. Sarac..... a Georg. E]macino ... op.. 

Th. Erpenii, p. 181. 

om slay)3 ess KAS, (POA od CXS Ctaley cytileds Gow Rin by 

» alae oa eal vs ice 23 Up aes ss om oe 
wee 3 eligiad ee ais |. eh sal seer Laity ad 

In the year 286 there happened in Egypt a rthquake, on the Fourth Day [of 
the week], 0 on the 7th of Dhu-l-Ka’dah, jasting: from the middle of the night until 
morning; and so-called flaming stars struck one against another violent Ys, while 
being borne eaten and westward, northward and southward; and no one could 
bear to look toward the heavens, on account of this a aha menon. 

It is very desirable to determine the day on which this re 
markable shower occurred. The historical evidence, however, 
is — conflicting. The years A. D. 901 and 908 are mentioned, 
an e latter contended for, but both are manifest errors. 


even if they were several days apart, especially if thes h 
of the king’s death some days after it happened 
Among the Arab annalists, moreover, there is no agree 

as to Pint day of his death. Abu-l-fida states that he S died at of 
dysentery on ~~ night before Saturday the 19th day of the 
11th Moh, A. , 289 (Annales Muslemict .. . J. J. Reiskii, &¢. 
4°. Hafniae, il. 280), But the 19th of Dhu-l- ‘Ka’ dah was Mon- 
day instead of Saturday. Jannabi, according to Mr. Friha, 


* The following may refer to the same event. The ra gt aie was then ia 
H 


July. “903. Hoc anno mense Augusto stellae de 8 per isae sunt de 
cidisse.” Annales 8. Quintini Veromandensis: Pertz, xvi, 50 oT, 

The ictu (re of the following statement ab * doubtless suggested Fa 
shower. “Anno 901 descendit Abraham rex Sarracenorum in Calabriam, e6! : 


aeerotam viele et itil est ictu fulguris.” Lupi "Protospatas 
ea Rer. Ital. Ser., v, 38. 
is also not saatagbahts that the ig oa from than = Latif, ahora: by Mr. pion 
de this ot thet ae oe 354), refers to the we wee “2 gsuriccd inet © 
cag 290 [of t ijrah, inning oan ; me 
in Egypt, which seattered themselves sigecalls a air rhea boing the whole expanse 
They caused vent ¢ terror and increased continually.” 


H. A. Newton on November Siar-Showers. 381 


agrees with Abu-l-Fida, while Ibn-al-Khatib says the death was 
on the 18th. Nuwairi says it was the night before Saturday the 
98th of Dhu-l Ka’dah, A.H. 289 (Ms. 702 A. fol. 58 vers. and 54 
rect, of the Bibliothéque Imperiale at Paris, cited by Noel des 
Vergers, Histoire de V Afrique, &c., p. 144). Again, Mr. Sédillot 
gives for the date the 12th of Dhu-l-Ka’dah, or the 18th (Comp- 
tes Rendus, xxix, 746). Ibn-al-Athir says he died on the 19th 
(extr. fr. the Kamil-at-Tawdrikh of Ibn-al-Athir, as edited in 
part by Amari in his Biblioteca Arabo-Sicula, p. 242). The 19th. 
of Dhu-l-Ka’dah was the 25th of October, while the 28th was 
the 8d of November. 

Amid this confusion of dates it would not be easy from his- 
torical evidence alone to detect the true day, of the shower. But 
when we know that the subsequent displays point back to the 
morning of Wednesday, the 13th of October, we feel justified 
in calling that the date. It is expressly given in the Chronicon 

itanum. The six days mentioned by Joannes Diaconus may 
oooh s be counted from the beginning of the razing of Castel- 

m Lucullanum and not from its close. If the extract from 
Elmacinus refers, as I suspect it does, to A.H. 289, it implies also 
that the shower was on the same Wednesday morning. 


II. A.D. 931. 
“931, Méme période Tchang-ching), 2e année, 9¢ lune, jour ping-sw (15 Octobre), 


Te Aprés le cinquiéme coup de tambour, jusqu’au jour, on vit, au milieu et 
dans les quatre parties du ciel, plus de cent petites étoiles filantes allant en sens 
divers.” E. Biot, Catalogue Général, etc., p. is catalogue is from the tent 
Volume of the Mem. Roy. Acad. Sci. de Paris. 

A. D. 931. Same period, second year, ninth month, the 23d day of the cycle (Oct. 
Ith). After the fifth watch until daylight, were seen, above, and in the four quarters 
of the sky, a hundred shooting stars moving in different directions. 


In Biot’s memoir successive events throughout a night are al- 
ways related without a break at midnight. Inasmuch as the 


pose, the morning of Oct. 16th. 


III. A. D. 934. 


l. “934. Période Thsing-thai, Ire année, 9¢ lune, jour sin-tcheow (14 Octobre) .... 
Sree Si acer ai ,> sina Jement cette méme date: ‘Il y eut beaucoup 
€s filante 2” FB. Biot, Catal. ete., Pp. 

_ A. D. Porind Thi-thes, first Year, ninth month, 38th day of the cycle (Oct. 
M4). The collection Sin-ou-tai-sse simply says at this date “there were many shoot- 
ing stars all at once.” 

; iS “9834. Indictione 4, Defunctus est Joannes Abbas II. Kal. Aprilis, fer. 2. Et 
it ipso Anno apparuerunt signa in coelo de stellis quae Moro at 

e aliae fils ie in e . 
at the end of Chronicon ie Muratori, Rer. Ital. Scrip., vii, 961. Also in Ann 
- Casinates hf Prrtz, iii, 172. Quoted by Mr. Herrick. The year of the indiction is in 
error, as the day before the Kalends of April was not Monday, in the year 


382 H. A. Newton on November Star-Showe:'s. 


3. “934. Igneae Remis in Coelo acies visae sunt discurrere, et quasi serpens ig- 
neus, et quaedam iacula ferri eid Idus Octobris mane ante lu ucis a Mox 
 h. ae pestis diversis afficiens humana cor pora mor is.’ 

n. Bouquet, Recueil d des Hist. des Gaules, &e., viii, 189. Als ona, “ae 
and in Poo. Bouquet, viii, 166, Quoted by poe Chi asles.° 

Nearly the same sf . ae in Hugonis Chronicon: Pertz, viii, 359; in 

i. iii, 586; and e Chronicon Virdu wnense : Dal, cee viii, 290. 

. By a change of 1 the year, the following quotation (first cited 
by Mr. Frihn) from Eutychtt .... Annal., 11, 529, would refer to 


the same display. 
“er ol, Kew) who oe BAxK)! isd eG se ats x; ~e us eS) 
gd Pu bh ged) oT 

And there was an earthquake, in Egypt, on the aoe day of Dhu-l-Ka’dah of 
this year [A.H. 323] ; and flaming stars struck against one another violently. 

The 3d day of Dhe- 1-Ka’dah of 323, A. H., is the 4th of Oc 
tober, A.D. 985. But the same day of the year 322 is the 15th 
of October, A. D. 984. 

The European chroniclers seem to imply that the shower was 
on the morning of the 14th of October. The Chinese and Arab 
accounts, on the contrary, point to the morning of the 1éth. It 


En 6 bectak on voyalt ne gra saraiin dol ne e suivie Pane izai he de pha Groiles. 
elles, on a ercut deu étoiles gro comme un dixiéme de boisseau: ce 
lérent, Pune jusqu’a Veto Lang (Sirius), Vautre jusqu ‘au Teou u midi (9, 2, 7, Sag- 
ittaire) et elles dispa et ee oe Catalogue, &c., p. 

A.D erio fth Year : r, ninth’ month, 35th day of the eae Abr 
idth}, ‘hier’ were seen cricie thous: rr 3) — stars, whic appeared 
group 4, 7,6, Cancri, and went as far a oup A, u, Ursae } a: General 
large star was sae followed by a half score of small stars. Among them were seen 
two stars as large as a quart tncasure; t Pe went, one to the star Sirius, the other 
“to the group 9, ¢, 1, Sagittarii, and van hed. 

The date in this case I pa to be the morning of the 15th of 
October, for the reason before given. Probably the radiant at 


this time was in Cancer, rather than % in Leo. 
Vy. 2D. OL. 
“1101. 17 Octobre, Visae sunt stellae be coelo ee 
, i, 217, as quoted by A. Perrey, Comptes Rendus 
Vie AD: soon) sted by 
“The following accounts of a shower in this year are Cl 
Mr. Prahn ‘fro rom the Arab writers (Bull. de Acad. de St, Pel 
ii, 314). _ 


H, A, Newton on November Star-Showers. 383 


1. From Suyiti’s Husn (cod. 525 Acad. Se., fol. 342): 
cle pst hn cep Sle! (ob Rhona canals pn i Ri | oy 
Ady Yeti tac Caer tsi ve bets at a . ati 
cyatales cyarayle ae Riw de set a BW IS bre 
And in the year 599, on the night of Saturday, on the last wa of Muharram, 
stars shot hither and thither in the heavens, eastward and westward, and flew 
st one another, like a scattering swarm of locusts, to the 3 right and left; this - 
enomenon lasted until day-break ; people were thrown into cons ternation, and 


cried to God the hepa High with confused clamor; the like = it never happened 
except in the year of the mission of the Prophet, and in the yea 


2. From Dhababt ’s Duwal 2 aps (cod. Bt O. 524 See ie 
ali a Suess¥l eres Brey Sul . ws is S23) ant wyillas, 
ex 
d in the year 599, at the beginning of the year, stars shot hither and thither 


An 
at Baghdad, and flew one against another, like a swarm of locusts; this phenome- 
— until day-break ; and people cried out in supplication to God the Most 


3. From vit 1. — ad-Dimashk?’s Akhbdr ad-Duwal (cod. 
529 Acad. Sc., 
Opals, osu aL eral alle 3 Kelemacdy cypzandy emi Ri By 
Ft ply lled allt 3) GS} esis at Sus ce 3 pias 


ot 4 the year 599, the] d of Muharra ith yan nd 


day-brea ea Sietnte were thrown i felis constern patie and made importunate sup pli- 
cations to God the Most High ; there was never the like seen ire on the coming 
Out of the Messe enger of God—on whom be benediction and pea 

4. From Haji Khalfah’s Tukwtm at-Tawdrikh : 

aw Self wee ro seout 50 

a In the year 599 there was a shooting hither oe nthe of stars in the heavens, 
uring the whole night of the last day of Mu 

‘The last day of Muharram, A. H. "599 1 was Saturday, Oct. 19th, 

. 1202. As the days are counted from sunset to sunset, the 

night before Saturday is here spoken of. 


VII. A.D. 1866. 
cc. “ Vindo 0 anno de 1366, sendo andados xxii dias do mes de Octubro, tres ssioass 
i antes do fllecimento del Rei te Pedro (de Nesteent), se oa on ceo hum movim 
Gann: qual os homées virdo nem ouvir, ; es fol » desda ~~ no ite | por 
te © correrao bodaina outs ee gtd e para o P: e, o de serem jun 
Come¢ardo a correr humas para huma parte e re weg para ieagiorceng E despois de: 
oO 


* 


= 9s 01) Kin 


oa 8 que isto vido, ede rao tam grande medo da pap iage aga andi como at- 
€ culdava rtos, € que era vie a fim do mundo. 
Nine do Lido ; ‘ Crcistcae dante de Port sn reformadas, Parte 1, Lisb. 1600, fol., 
quoted by Humboldt, Kosmos, Stuttgart and Pabinges, 1850, iii, 


384 H. A. Newton on November Star-Showers, 


In the year 1366, and xxii oy 4 of the month of October being past, three months 
before the death of the King Don Pedro (of phe cies there was in the hea eavens a 
f. 


ovement of stars, such as men never befofe heard of. From midnight on- 
ward, all t the stars moved from the east to the eats and after being together, the 
b o move, some in one directio ers in anot And afterward the’ 


fell from the sky in such numbers, and so thickly sy nape that as they desce: 
i i the air seemed to be in 


w 

fora long time. Those who saw it were filled with such great fear and dismay, that 

they wore astounded, imagining they were all dead men, and that the end of the 
me. 


a net m anno (i. e. 1366) die sequenti as festum xi ep virginum, ab hora 

tutina usque ad horam primam visae sun t quasi stellae de coelo cadere continua 

et in tanta ee uod nemo narrare sufficit.” eit siae Pragensis, 
cited by Boguslauski in Pogg. Ann., xlviii, 612. 

“1366. Scintillatio stellarum, ‘“ ane factum est in nocte undecim milium vir- 
ginum. ” Annales Veterocglences : Pertz, xvi, 45. 


e 
ing of the 23d of October. The second account is not incon 
sistent with that time, although the most natural inference from 
the passage is that it was on the morning of Oct. 22d. 


VIII. A.D, 1583. 

ge 533. Période Kia-tsing, 12e année, 9e lune, jour ping-tse, (24 Octobre), «.. +» 
Dubin —— te gr e coup de tambour (de 244 heures du matin), dans les 
quatre parties du ciel, il y eut une quantité innombrable d’étoiles filantes, grandes 

et petites, aaieart ensemble en ligne droite et transversale : cela dura j jusqu’au jour. 

E. Biot, Cat . 208, 
(oer 3 1533. Pe riod Ki Kia-tsing, t elfth year, ninth month, the 13th day of “ ¢ 
24th), ..... from the fourth: to the fifth watch (from 2 to 4 a..), in the four 
ee of the “heavens, there were innumerable shooting stars, great anid el moy- 
map cen in ont! and oblique lines. This continued until daylight. 
stellarum anno 1533. 24. Octob. noctu visa sunt multa millia stellarum 
ales aes edie i inter se di imicare, ut quasi incensum videretur coelum; sunt omnes 
: ; asi 


tal 
Ly ery ° hes mtg Fiirstensberg, quoted by A. Savarik in Pogg. Ann 
»P 


= 


The manuscript volume in which this passage is found was 
written at Wittenberg between A.D. 1520 and 1540. Halle is 

. 43° W. from Wittenberg. I s ss eit that these accounts 
refer to the morning of the 25th of October 


bh SEY WE & F tee 
1602. Méme période ( Wang-li), 30e année, 9e lune, ...... jour sin-sse (27 
are, on Vit mea sh pyre nes de’ petites étoiles peg se BFR eat ‘et se per ri 


econ 
be ‘Pendant la nuit, 4 la cinquiéme heure, ily I parut a uN. E. une nak zane bees 
et d’une coul 


re é aru ‘ er et q 
@’Orion) et s’avanca jusqu’aux étoiles de la Ménagerie céleste (7, 5% % 
Aprés cette apparit on, il y eut deux ae étoiles qui suivirent la grande, mall et 
y eut plusieurs ccutaleiee étoiles filantes, grandes et Pere 
confonducs, qui 'suivirent In méme direction.” E. Boe, Ontalogue, 210, 
- 1602. ag a _— h Feat, ninth iow 18th day of ofthe ele (Oct 
27th, 0. 20. 8.), several hundr rs were seen, whi ch part . 


hen’s 
Daring the ments at the e fifth hour, a star appeared in the N-E. as large as 4 hen 
egg, and of a blucish white color, it left a bright train. From N.E. of the st" 


H. A. Newton on November Star-Showers. 385 


gent ~ pions it =o sma: ° due west. In the south appeared another 


s a pestle a fey ba Its Beg! was whitish blue, its train 
eames, aa its light Wiwsised'¢ ae: art d 8.W. of the belt -_ quadri- 
ral of Orion, and passed to th Lae ‘ "Brida ni. After this were two 


€ group 
small stars which followed the large one, and. still later there were se veril hundred 
Shooting stars, great and small, wae and confused, which followed in the same di- 
rection. 


x, A.D. 1698. 
Mr. Wartmann, of Geneva, has cited a notice of unusual num- 
bers of meteors seen on the 9th of November, A.D., 1698. 


XI. A.D, 1799. 

The remarkable display on Tuesday morning, Nov. 12th, 
1799, is well known from Humboldt’s <escrption of it as seen 
by him and Bonpland at Cumana, in 8. America. This is the 
first shower of the geographical extent of which we can form 
any very clear ideas 

Humboldt’s account is not entirely soem mite itself, a 
is a very inadequate description of what we v the dis 
must have been. It seems to have ieee pri ghially ae iy - 
least in part) while he had the impression that it was a local 
phenomenon. He says:? 


“From half after two, the most extraordinary luminous meteors were seen to- 
Ward the east...... housands of bolides and falling stars succeeded cath other 


ned a ay of att and all "exceeded 25° or 30°..... ‘ Mtr oo land re- 


Risin. afver sunris 
The same Medeicetd were seen at S. Fernando d’Apura, 300 
miles S.W. of Cum mana; at Marao, more than 200 miles farther 
in the same dir rection; and also near the Equator, over 7 
miles south of Cumana.‘ The Count of Marbois, at Cayenne, 
Says :° 


“The northern part of the sk bene seen all on fire. ‘Tnnumerable falling stars 
z= versed the ‘sat anh Ph woe — and a-half, and diffused so vivid a eat —_ 
meteors might be compare 


Andrew Ellicott, Esq., resorted - a bis journal as follows :* 


of 1799, about three o’clock, 4 a te Bea to sec the pyre el 
the stars, as it is ly called). anos nd and awful; 
be coe! geared unt called). Th pene skg-roekes at Pas disappea eared 
only by the light i the sun after daybreak. Pg eteors, which at any one instant 
trom peared as numerous as the stars, flew in n all a ig directions, except 


the earth, toward which they all inclined more 0 


ersonal Narrative of Travels to the Equinoctial Regions; ..... trans. by Helen 
Mn Wigan ‘8¥o, “tindon ke ili, 831-333. 
Pers, Narr, pp. 3 5 Jbid., p. 3 337. 
"Trans. Am re Ph iil, rh sa 98, Also Eilicott’s Journal, 4to, 1814, p. 248. 


Jour. pour Senies, Vou. XXXVI, No. 111.—May, 1864. 
50 


386 H. A; Newton on November Star-Showers. 


He was then in N. lat. 25°, near the edge of the Gulf Stream, 
He was afterward informed that the same phenomena were wit- 
nessed over a large portion of the West India Islands, and as 
far north as St. Mary’s, in lat. 80° 42’, where it appeared as bril- 
liant as with him off Cape Florida. 

The Moravian missionaries in Labrador and Greenland re- 
corded the same shower in their meteorological Journal. 

12th of Nov., there was at Nain and Hoffenthal a strange ap 
the air, pacha greatly Richtenes the Eskimos. For there fell down to ser in the 
four quarters of the heavens, about daybreak, very many fireballs, some of which 


re al o be half an ell in diameter. This phenoinenon was at the same time seen 
at N weg rrnhut and Lichtenau in Greenland. ....” ilb. Annalen der Physik, 


“ae England, the clouds and rain rendered it in many places 
impossible to see these meteors. Yet in some localities they 
were observed, while in others single meteors and flashes of light 
were so remarkable as to be noticed in several of the newhpal 
The first of the following quotations is from the New Castle 
Chronicle, given in the Monthly Magazine for Dec. 1799, p. 917. 
The other is from the Genileman’s Magazine, Nov., 1799, p. 987. 
It is tics from a newspaper. 

“On Tuesday morning, the 12th of November, wet meteors, or balls of 
were poke at Greatham, near Hartlepool, and ot arts of that neigbonood 
They were first observed between five and six Wilock in the morning, in an 
direction, and continued falling in succession, and together, till day reak. Thedt 
wae was very clear, and the moon, which was at full, shone with unco 

ney. like 


brilliancy. The meteors at first appeared what are valgarly hee choot 
falling stars, which soon became stationary; they t as it were, 
ut any perceptible report, and passed to the northward, leaving? ‘behind ror Dea 


tiful trains of floatin ne fire in various shapes, some pointed, some irradiated, some in 

sparks, and others in a large column. The fire balls continued fallin near two 

hours, and were sneceedéd “till near eight o’clock by slight flashes of lightning. 

The general ag rance was sublimel parity particularly to the Hartlepool fisher- 
ea. . 


ee e mi 
crossing each other in different directions, and (a behind them long 
trains » which were visible for two or three minutes after these luminous bodies 


In Germany, Mr. Zeissing, at Isterstadt, near Weimar, € 
Upon his meteorological journal an account of bright ra 
and flashes seen that morning in the sky.° Bright flashes, a0 
= appearances, were seen at Carlsruhe and at Weis: 


t. Mary’s, in Florida, is more than 90° in long. west of Is 
stadt, and Lichtenau is more than 60° north of places in South 
America where the shower was seen. It is very evident t 
more shooting stars were to be seen in America than in urope. 
There is 7 reason to believe that this shower, which w#s 


7 Ree Mow Magesine Dec. 1799, pp. 917, 920, 921, 922, and Feb., 1800, p.2 


H. A. Newton on November Star-Showers. 387 


visible in Labrador and in Florida, would have been seen at in- 
termediate places but for the clouds. At Salem and New Ha- 
ven it was cloudy on that morning. 


XII. A.D. 1832. 


On the morning of Nov. 18th, A. D., 1832, unusual numbers 
of shooting stars were seen throughout Europe. Descriptions 
of the display were given at once in many of the newspapers 
and scientific journals. The most important of these were col- 
lected and published by Prof. Néggerath, of Bonn,” and Prof. 
Gautier, of Geneva.” The names of the places where the shower 

as said to have been witnessed, together with some expressions 
indicating its intensity, will enable one to form a fair idea of the 
— of the display. The places farthest east are mentioned 

rst 


In the island of Mauritius,” ‘the number of the meteors was 
80 great that it was impossible to count them.” At Orenberg,™ 
north of the Caspian Sea, “the sky was filled with shooting 
stars.” At Mocha,” in Arabia, “it appeared like meteors burst- 
Ing in every direction.” At Sudscha,” in Russia, “several hun- 
ied meteors were seen between 5 and 8 o'clock, so that while a 


one being seen.” They were seen at Kursk,” Ruiljsk,” Odessa,” 
1 


St. Petersburg,** Riga,'* Warsaw,” and Berlin.” “At Suczawa,” 


I various places in Switzerland; at Frankfort,” Stattgart,” and 
Carlsruhe,” in South Germany; at Brussels and Liege, in Bel- 


if 
Aix la Chapelle,” Lennep,” Bonn,” and Cologne.” At Salz- 
Uffeln, in Westphalia, “there were often three or four at once 
inthe sky.” At Diisseldorf,” Mr. Custodis counted 267 meteors 
between 4 and 7 o'clock. Mr. Le Verrier saw them™ and says, 
.'t would have taken several hours to count those visible at one 
stant, supposing them fixed.” (!!!) At Grenoble,” an ob- 
Server estimated that he saw at least 60 in 25 minutes. At Li- 
Moges,"* workmen were terribly frightened by the meteors. Near 
1 Schweigger’ , ; i i, 828- d Ixvii, 263. 
hwergger’s Journal Ch nd Physik, \xvi, 328-348, and Ixvii, 
not -ioliotheque jee ie Goa e, 1833, li, 189-207. This article I have 
seen. 
1 Comptes Rendus,v, 121, ~ 4 Astron. Nachrichten, xiii, 241. 
uw iiis Journal, xxvi, 136, : 
om Wochenzeitung ; quoted in Pogg. Annalen, xxix, 448. 
8 Schweig. Jour., xvi, 343. 
guoted in Pogg. Ann., xxix, 448. 
Ibid., xvii, 138. ¥ 
a qumples Rendus, ix, 808. 3 Schweigger’s Jour., Ixvii, 264 


iptes Rendus, v, 562. I take it for granted that the date is in error one day. 


388 H. A, Newton on November Star-Showers. 


not remarkable. Capt. Briggs,” in N. lat. 43° and W. lon, 
saw them quite numerously; but adds, “toward morning only 
) ‘ 


XIII. A.D. 1833. 

The much more remarkable shower of Nov. 13th, 1833, 4 
been so fully described by Prof. Olmsted,” and Prof. Twining, 
that the details need not be repeated. It extended, at least, a 
Cuba to Greenland, and from W., lon. 61° to W. lon. 100, # 
how much farther in each direction is unknown. The mate 
a vessel then in W. lon. 61°, N. lat. 36°, reports that the hae 
were comparatively few. None were observed by the bmg 
two vessels, one in W. lon. 41°, N. lat. 2°, the other in W. ie 
20°, N. lat. 514°, though both reported clear skies.” It is 20 


% Quetelet's Corr. Math. et Phys., ix, 453. the date 
* Phil. Mag, [3], iii, 87; quoted in Pogg. Annal., xxix, 448. I suppose 
one week in error, 
York Herald, quoted in this Journal, xxvi, 186. 3 
Pe La Journal, xxxiii, 132.  Tbid., xxvi, 349. 
This Journal, xxv, 363, and xxvi, 132. % Jbid., xvi, 320. 


H. A. Newton on November Star-Showers. 389 


certain what trust is to be given to this evidence, eee at 


apg P, M., 0 of the 12th, until — evening of the 18 th... At 
Geneva, it was cloudy and snowing both days, while at Great 
St, Bernard there were broken clouds.” That no spleae on the 
eastern continent, where there were civilized men, had clear 


far less brilliant display of the preceding year, it mooie seem 
also certain that if a shower had been seen, we should have de- 
scriptions of it. Capt. Briggs says that it was clear at Canton, 
: and that there could have been no extraordinary dis- 

play ther 

The icine began here about midnight, but, judging from 
the tenor of the conflicting aceounts, it appears not to have been * 
very extraordinary until between 2 and 3 o’cloc , New Haven 
time. This was after sunrise in Europe. I presume that a 
moderate display would have been visible «te late in the morn- 
ing, if the skies had been. clear.” 

® Ibid., x $3 Bibliothtque Univ. de Geneve for 1883. 


“his. Raion’ Xxv 
* If we knew the Aah athe edo gt these showers might be added to a list. 


“Tele 1199. ne At the beginning of the year r [A, H. 599, which began 92 
; ahah Were seen Recht tng the heavens Sais »  Abd-allatif, ae 
e this 


hee nno Dontet MCGOIG. "Belipsis solis facta est secundo Calend. Octobris. 
ignis de caelo odes in i200. Italiae locis visae sunt,” 


my be caidas 


390 J. M. Crafts on the Product of the Reaction between 


Art. XXXVII.—Note on the Product of the Reaction between the 
Monosulphid of Potassium and the Bromid of Ethylene, and on 
several compounds derived from it;* by J. M. CRAFts. 


WHEN an alcoholic solution of monosulphid of potassium is 
mixed with the chlorid of ethylene, no reaction takes place im- 
mediately, but the mixture, after remaining exposed to the air 
several days, deposits a precipitate, whose composition is ex- 
pressed by the empyrical formula, C,H,S. When higher sul- 
phids of potassium are employed, compounds containing more 
sulphur than the preceding are still more readily obtained. 
These bodies, discovered by Léwig and Weidmann and described 
by them as sulphids of ethylene, can not be distilled, but are 
decomposed by heat into various products, of which the princi 
pal is a sulphuretted oil, whose composition has not been deter: 
mined. (Vide @melin, vol. iv.) No direct combinations of these 
sulphids with other bodies have been obtained, and they must be 

“considered as among those of the non-nitrogenous organic com- 
pounds, whose chemical character and properties are the least 
accurately known. 

It was with a view to studying the properties of the monosul- 
~ of ethylene, and particularly the action of chlorine and 

romine u 


a of potassium and the chlorid of ethylene, but resulted from 
estruction of the immediate product of the reaction, through 


* The latter portion of this research, relating to the sulphid of ethylene and > 
combi i$ with oxygen and with bromine, has been published in the 
Rendus of the French Academy of Science, liv, 1277, and lv, 382. The 

é used in this note are H=1; C=12; O== 16; S32; Br=80. 


Monosulphid of Potassium and Bromid of Ethylene. 391 


tance distils in great abundance, while a large quantity of brom- 
hydric acid is given off. Above 205°C. the distillation of the 
Stallized substance nearly ceased, and the small pets 


Which passes over from 205° to 240° is mixed with a yellow oil, 
of which not enough was obtained to determine its properties. 

t this temperature a trace of sulphuretted hydrogen, besides 
bromhydric acid, is found in solution in the water. 


892. J. M. Crafts on the Product of the Reaction between 


Of the different portions of the amorphous body whose analy- 
ses are given below, the melting points of Nos. I]. and III. were 
near 145° C.; but as the substance first softened and then became 
partly liquid before it melted entirely, this point could not be 
very accurately determined. The melting point of No. V, which 
was more precisely marked, was about 125° C, 

The substance was prepared for analysis by washing carefully 
with warm water and drying at 60°-70°C. Some portions were 
also washed with alcohol to insure that no bromid of ethylene 
Temained attached to them, but this precaution was found 
unnecessary. 

Analyses made of different preparations gave the following 

ults : 


I II, It, It, Iv. IV, 
C 36°81 34:96 34:27 2oy 34:20 34°49 
H 5°86 549 5°78 Cs aa ‘93 5 
S 4494 45°98 42°95 43°05 42°05 42°12 
Br 12°56 13°76 17-49 saws S (by loss) 18:00 


10017 10019 10049 

In order to determine in what degree the relative proportions 
of the bodies entering into the reaction might influence the com 
pevigen of the product, in one experiment (No. V) 1 part 

romid of ethylene was treated with 4 part monosulphid of i 
tassium in alcoholic solution (= 1} equivalents); in another (VJ) 
‘sulphid of potassium (7 equivalents) and the mixture was 
allowed to stand 48 hours after the formation of the precipitate. 
A determination of bromine gave: 


v. VI. 
Br = 27°91 &c. 11°95 


ethylene, C,H,S; but is a body whose composition varies be 
in the different preparations, and which contains a considerab! 
amount of bromine, even though the quantity of monosulphid 
potassium employed may have been largely in excess. The 
question arises, is there any relation between the percentage 
amounts of the constituents of this body which is constant 12 
all the analyses, and which may give a clue to determine its com 
Position ? : pe 
An inspection of the figures given above shows that in all the 
talyses the percentage of C is to that of H as 6:1, the same 
ratio that the percentages of those elements bear to one another 
in ethylene, so that it would appear that this radical remains 


Monosulphid of Potassium and Bromid of Ethylene. 393 


intact during the reaction; further, as will be seen by the table 
below, if the bromine in each analysis be supposed combined 
with the amount of carbon required to form with it bromid of 
ethylene, the remainder of the carbon stands very nearly in the 
same atomic relation to the sulphur that these elements bear to 
one another in the sulphid of ethylene, namely, 2:1; so that the 
idea naturally suggests itself that the body in question may be 
abromid of ethylene in which a part of the bromine has. been 
replaced by sulphur. 
The numbers in the table were obtained by multiplying the 
_ percentage amount of bromine by 3, subtracting the product 
_ fom the percentage of carbon, and dividing the remainder by 
12, the atomic weight of carbon, and then comparing the num- 
ber thus obtained with the percentage of sulphur divided by its 
atomic weight, 32. 


1, II. il. IV. 

» ©:8 = 20771 1°92 :1 1:96:1 1:98: 1 
_ There is, however, a fact which speaks strongly against the 
above hypothesis, founded on these numerical relations, namely, 
that the bromine in the amorphous, sulphuretted compound is 
lisengaged at a not very elevated temperature in the form of 
bromhydric acid, a property which indicates a molecular ar- 
tangement of the bromine, with reference to the hydrogen, very 

erent from that in the bromid of ethylene, as this latter can 
be heated to a very high temperature without suffering decom- 
Position, A theory in regard to the nature of a body, which 
depends merely on its percentage composition and is at variance 
with its chemical properties, is inadmissible; and in the ab- 
sence of any reaction which could throw light on the subject, the 
tational formula of the immediate product of the action of 
bromid of ethylene on the monontiphid of ethylene must be 

undetermined. 
It is worthy of notice, that, although a crystallized substance 
S easily obtained by the decomposition of the amorphous body 
by heat, its product of oxydation is not among those which are 

tmed, when the latter is attacked by nitric acid at the ordinary 


: fmperature, 
the crystallized sulphid of ethylene can be obtained in consider- 
able quantity by the decomposition of the amorphous compound 


_ -*9r analysis were taken: 
SE a JOUR. Sor.—geconp SeRres, VoL. XXXVII, No. 111.—May, 1864. 
ie * ‘, 51 ‘ 


394 J. M. Crafts on the Product of the Reaction between 


I. 01735 grams substance, obtained 02540 grms.CO, and 0°1082 ; 
Il. o1790 “ «“ «96946 Ba,0 SO, sein, 
TIL 0°2531 “ se 09845 “ Ba,0S0O, 
I. m. Theory C,H,S 

C= 89-93 Sela Meee 40°00 

H= 6°92 + yoke aes 6°67 

s 53°25 53°37 53°33 

10000 


This analysis leads to the empyrical formula, C,H,S. 

The sulphid of ethylene is a solid body, somewhat volatile at 
the ordinary temperature, and has a peculiar odor, whi 
although disagreeable, is not nearly so strong as that of mercap- 
tan. It is slightly soluble in water; in alcohol, ether and bisul- 
phid of carbon, it is easily soluble, and more so when the sol- 
vents are hot than at the ordinary temperature. 

By gradual evaporation of its solution in the bisulphid of car- 
bon, the sulphid of ethylene may be obtained in transparent 
crystals of considerable size with brilliant surfaces, which, how- 
ever, after a short time become dimmed by the slow evaporation 
of the substance in the air. I am indebted to the kindness of 
Mr. Friedel for the measurement of these crystals. They belong 
to the clinorhombic system. 

In the larger crystals, the base (P) 
is usually much developed; in the 
smaller, the faces (P) and (a’) are 
nearly equally developed. The faces 
observed are, oc P=(M); 0P=(P), 
and Pa =(a’). Vertical axis on in- ; 
clined axis =47° 59’. Prismatic edge of base on inclined axis 
=27° 38’. ? 


Angles measured. Angles calculated. 
Pot 6 yo, G1" ae 81° 13’ 
Frm 112 30 
M:M 69 44 
ey }ii 3] 


Te ee ON, pee ies ante Pe 


i 


3 

: 
ee 
of 


In polarized light a system of rings is observed very oblique 2 


to the face (P), and another almost normal to (a’). 
The solidifying point of the crystals, after they have been 
aioe is 112°. The boiling point is 199°-200° C. ) 
The i i 


aqueous or in alcoholic solution, or even when heated to ts boil ; 


ing point in an atmosphere of the gas. It is readily attacked 


by concentrated nitric acid; red fumes are given off, and : paid 5 


tallized product of oxydation is formed. Only traces r 


phuric acid are produced, even when fuming nitri¢ acid is em 
ployed. 


e oxydation by means of bromine in the eerste 
of water gives rise to the same crystallized product as that? 
tained with nitric acid. 


- Monosulphid of Potassium and Bromid of Ethylene. 395 


~ When dry chlorine gas is passéd over the sulphid of ethylene, 
this latter is attacked with energy, and chlorhydric acid is given 
off, even though pains may have been taken to prevent the tem- 
perature from rising; chlorhydric acid is also disengaged when 
chlorine is passed into a solution of the crystals in the bisulphid 
of carbon. 

Bromine unites directly with the sulphid of ethylene, form- 
ing a definite compound, and if care has been taken to prevent 
the temperature from rising, no bromhydric acid is given off. 

A determination of density of vapor was made, by Dumas’ 
method, on a portion of the crystals purified by repeated crys- 
tallization from bisulphid of carbon. The substance which re- 
mained in the balloon was entirely unaltered at the temperature 
(266°) of the experiment. 


Temperature of balance, pe: 242.0 
a “ oil-bath, ag 
Increased weight of balloon, 0°5535 
Capacity of ; 348 cubic centimetres, 


Air remaining in s c. ¢. 
Barometer during the time of the experiment =766'8 mm. 
4°213 


_ Another determination, made at the boiling point of mercury 
by Deville’s method, failed, because the substance was decom- 
posed at this temperature. 

The determination given above necessitates the doubling of 
the empirical formula, C,H,S, of the sulphid of ethylene, in 

der to make it the rational formula in accordance with the law 
of Ampére: that one molecule of all bodies in the gaseous form 
occupies two volumes of space, if one atom of hydrogen is con- 
sidered as occupying one volume. The sulphid in question 
would thus be the product of the condensation of two molecules 
_ of monosulphid of ethylene into one. 
. Condensed products of this nature, belonging to the ethylene 
group, have been made known by the researches of Wurtz and 


2 mY lene isin 3h and the still more condensed compounds of 
ity of ethylene, combine with two equivalents of bromine, 
play the same part in the glycoles derived from them as the 


396 J. M. Crafts on the Product of the Reaction between 


tween this body and the oxyd of ethylene, and that which 
should be attached to the accordance of the formula with the 
law of Ampére. The latter consideration seems to be the more 


Hi 


he 


< 
2) 
—, 
= 
5 
& 
a) 
S 
Qu 
Cae 
ot 
_ 
m 
5 
° 
or 
5 
7. 
(2) 
J 
so 
— 
& 
on 
= 
~) 
oe 
> 
@ 
2 
3 
° 
5 
al 
et 
B 
oO 
=] 
= 
i=) 
i=] 
a 


Res i ene 


the diatomic sulphids; but as an incertitude exists, I shall re 
tain, in the present memoir, the formule fur the sulphid of ethy- 
lene and for its compounds, which I assigned to them in my 
first communications to the French Academy of Sciences, when 
I was unacquainted with the density of vapor of the sulphid of 
ethylene.’ 

Oxyd of sulphid of ethylene—This body is the only product of 
oxydation of the sulphid of ethylene by nitric acid at a tem- 
perature not exceeding 100° C. It is best prepared by treating 
the sulphid with a small excess of fuming nitric acid, and then 
washing, once with a small quantity of water, and afterward 
with ordinary alcohol until the product is freed from acid. An 
analysis of the body prepared in this way and dried at 100°C, 
gave: 


Sie 


Gram. G % ft Gram. 
I, 02801 substance taken; 03230 CO, and 0:1365 H,O found, 
II. 02104 “ “ 0-2410 “ eNOS 
Ill. o1968 « “ 06010 Ba,O SO, 
‘ a 1II Theory C,H,SO. 
C = 81-45 31-25 pia 31°58 
H = 641 5°36 an 52 
s= ede 41-92 42°10 
o= one: 21:06 
100°09 


a 
_ * Mr. Husemann, who obtained the sulphid of ethylene by another reaction, 8 
well as by the one with monosulphid of potassium, and was occupied with its study 
at the same time as myself, was the first to publish a determination of its d 
of vapor in a note in the Chem. Centralblatt (ises, . 497), which appeared a short 
tine after the publication of my note in the Comptes Rendus (vol. liv, p- 1277); 
aml he deduced from this determination the rational formula ( G28), and named 
4 ’ i 
the body sulphid of diethylene. Mr. Husemann also studied the product of ra 
stitution of chlorine in the oxyd of sulphid of ethylene (the compound 0180) as 
ie 


to determine directly its rational formula), and obtained the body (67H cIso 

crystalline form by the action of chlorine water on the sulphid of ethylene. 

fact, that this body is the first product of substitution of chlorine in the oxyd 

phid of ethylene, speaks rather against, than for, oubling of the k 

mula, C,H,SO, although it ean not be regarded as deciding the question, as Wo" 

have done the exi | Call | 
existence of a compound (c2H, so) 


ere? 


_Monosulphid of Potassium and Bromid of Ethylene. 397 


_ The oxyd of sulphid of ethylene is readily soluble in water, 
and still more so in an acid solution; it is but slightly soluble 
in alcohol and in ether. Its solution in water has at first a sweet 
taste which afterward becomes astringent. 


small prisms terminated by two faces forming an obtuse angle 


form of a fine powder, on the addition of water. The depos 
~ Ron of the crystals in the sealed tubes results probably from the 


NZ nitric acid, whereby water is set free, and also, perhaps, be- 
_ tase they are less soluble in this acid when saturated with 
a hyponitric acid than when pure. : 

_rovided the oxydation has not been carried too far, an 
analysis of the crystals, taken from the tube and washed thor- 
_ SUughly with warm water, gives a little more carbon and hydrogen 
_ al correspond to the composition of the deutoxyd, showing 
. that they still contain, as an admixture, a little of the protoxyd. 
_ =e deutoxyd can however be obtained perfectly pure by dis- 
Solving the crystals in fuming nitric acid, precipitating by the 


398 J. M. Crafts on the Product of the Reaction between 


addition of water and then washing the precipitate with boiling : 
Ww : 


ater. The product thus obtained, and dried at 100° C. gave: 


Gram. ~ Gram. Gram. 
I. 02818 substance taken; 0°2210 CO, and 0°0985 H,O found. 
If. 01642 S 0°4112 Ba,O SO, : 
I. ul. Theory C,H,S0. 

CO. 2 2 26-00 ome 26°08 
Ls ee “i eas 4°36 
a 34°36 84°78 
Ones Hadi’ 84°78 

100-00 


25-22 p.c. O, and 4:37 p.c. H, instead of 26°08 p.c. C, and £36, 4 


p.c. H, which the composition of the deutoxyd requires. In 


roducts 


lline form, and as they are accompanied by other pr an 


oy 


uble, but neither the salts nor the acid have been obtained in? 


se eS 


i 
: 


Monosulphid of Potassium and Bromid of Ethylene. 399 


-‘The bromid of sulphid of ethylene.—It has already been men- 
tioned that the sulphid of ethylene combines directly with bro- 

mine without disengagement of bromhydric acid. Whether this 

combination can take place in more than one proportion is a 

question of particular interest, and at the same time is one, 

which from the manner in which the union of the two bodies is 
ected can be easily resolved. 

When a solution of bromine and another of sulphid of ethy- 
lene in bisulphid of carbon are mixed together in different pro- 
portions, one or the other being largely in excess, a light yellow 
colored precipitate is formed, which always has the same compo- 
sition after it has been purified by washing with bisulphid of 
carbon. Of the preparations analyzed below, No. I. was forme 
in a solution containing bromine in excess, and No. II. in a so- 
lution containing an excess of sulphid of ethylene. 


Gram. Gram. Gram. 
I. 04596 substance taken; 01840 CO, and 00705 H,0 found. 
05864 “ “ 0-915 nd. 


: AgBr fou 
IL 04776 “ “ 08140 ‘“ “ 
a It Theory C,H,SBr, 

© -==. 1092 dace 10°91 

1S eS Se of (3 peat "88 

Br == 72-59 72:53 72°72 

8 Me 14°54 

100-00 


heat at a temperature considerably under 100° C., ana even at 
the ordinar temperature it is decomposed with disengagement 
of brombydric acid, after standing several months in a seal 


Itis worthy of remark that the bromid of sulphid of ethylene 

Ssents no analogy in its properties with a body having the 
mula, C,H ,SCl,, which was obtained by Guthrie by com- 
Ba, directly ethylene gas with the perchlorid of sulphur, 
: The purity in which the foregoing compounds are obtained by 
ae Addition of bromine Kid Oyen to the sulphid of ethy- 
ae proves a fact which could not be demonstrated by a simple 
Analysis of the latter, and only with small degree of accuracy by 
: ‘determination of density of vapor, namely, that this sulphid is 
2 od chemical) y pure compound, and not a mixture of various stages 


400 J. M. Crafts on the Product of the Reaction, &c. 


of condensation of the simple molecule, C,H, S; for in case it 
were composed of such a mixture, the quantity of it which 
would combine with a given quantity of any element must vary 
according as one or another of the different stages of condensa- 
tion predominated in different preparations, 

The sulphid of ethylene is isomerous with a crystallized bod 
obtained by the action of sulphuretted hydrogen on aay ‘ 
and as [ at first suspected that the two bodies were identical, | 
was induced to prepare the latter in order to compare it with the 
subject of my research. It was obtained from aldehyd by the 
process of Weidenbusch, and after having been once distilled 
and separated from its volatile products of decomposition by 
washing with alcohol, it was repeatedly crystallized from various 
solvents, but was usually deposited in the form of silicy fibres, 
much too fine for crystallographic determination. Only once, 
by gradual evaporation of a solution in bisulphid of carbon, 
were crystals obtained of sufficient size for measurement; they 
were in the form of long lamellar prisms with well formed faces, 
which preserved their brilliancy in the air a longer time than 
the sulphid of ethylene, showing that the substance is less vola 
tile at the ordinary temperature. 

According to a determination by Mr. Friedel, the prisms be- 
long to the right rhomboidal system, and have a cleavage paral- 
lel to their base. Two parallel faces are much more largely 
developed than those of the primitive prism, giving to the ery 
tals their lamellar appearance. ; 


Angles measured. Calculated. * 
CP Iee = ° 
oP: acP x» = 137° 40’ 137° 30’ 
CP: 0 P= 9G" 90° 


Two systems of rings are apparent when polarized light 8 
passed through a thin piece obtained by cleavage in ad 
perpendicular to the plane of cleavage. ne 
The solidifying point of this sulphid is not very distinctly 
marked; when a delicate thermometer is plunged into a portion 
which has been melted, the mercury remains stationary an 1 
stant at 95° C., while crystalline flakes are seen to form 1n the 
melted mass, which then becomes soft and solidifies complete! 
only at 70° C. a 
When the body is heated in a retort placed in an oil-bath, oo 
tillation commences at 205° C., but the point of ebullition mS¢ 
gradually to 260°, when a partial decomposition takes place 4m 
a charred mass is left in the retort. sk: 
- The sulphid obtained from aldehyd is destroyed by chloriné 
or bromine with formation of various products. When iM 


with nitric acid, sulphuric acid in notable quantity 18 ; 


formed, but no intermediate product of oxydation, which can © 


hea 


a ay See ee as oe 
= 


J. D. Whelpley on treatment of Gold and other metals. 401 


isolated. It will be thus seen, that this body differs widely in 
chemical as well as in physical properties from the sulphid of 


ylene. 
This research was made in the laboratory of Professor W urtz, 
to whom I owe my thanks for his kind assistance and valuable 


suggestions. 
Paris, August 11th, 1863. 


\ 


Arr, XXXVIII.— On the mechanical and chemical treatment of 
Gold and other metals; in a letter to Prof. B. SILLIMAN, Jr., 
from JAMES D. WHELPLEY. 


AGREEABLY to your request, I send you herewith a few mem- 
oranda in explanation of our new process for preparing quartz- 
ose ores of gold for amalgamation. 

This process, so far as I am aware, together with all the ma- 
chinery employed in it, was invented and constructed by Col. 

.J. Storer and myself. 
_ Our researches in this direction began in the Spring of 1860 
in Philadelphia. We experimented for several months upon a 
small scale, testing most of the then known processes for reduc- 
tion and desulphurization of ores. It then appeared to us that 
ses requiring long periods of time, such as are employed 
y skillful chemists in the laboratory, could not be applied to 
rge mining operations, where masses of several tons have to 
be treated at one operation. 

A few grains of sulphuret of iron or copper heated to white- 
Ress In a platinum capsule will be thoroughly desulphurized, 
but a mass of ore weighing several Soienade of pounds can not 

handled in this manner. The ore fuses in the furnace, taking 
the form of slag, and holds the sulphur confined in its substance. 

Ifon the other hand the finely pulverized ore be spread thinly 


Over a hearth 14 feet in length and 8 or 10 feet in diameter, with 


ee access of air, and the heat either radiated from the roof or 
i up through the hearth of the furnace, a very thorough 

P constant turning and ex- 
Posure of fresh surfaces, taking care that the temperature does 


A large access of atmospheric air is necessary for the manage- 
nent of this process, and it is aided by the addition of chlorid 
o sodium, and other reducents. Thoogh perfect in the end, it 
; I ; i cause of the care re- 
qUired in regulating temperature and handling of the material. 


ever, very valuable to us. We discovered that the first 
Jour. Sct._gecoxp Serres, Vor. XXXVII, No. 111.—May, 1864. 
52 : 


402 J. D. Whelpley on treatment of Gold and other metals, 


condition of thorough desulphurization was the reduction of the 
ores and sulphurets to an impalpable powder. The reason of this 
is evident; viz: that the effect of heat upon a particle increases 
inversely as the square of its diameter. 

Microscopic atoms are readily acted upon by combined air and 
moisture at acherry-red heat. Pieces of the size of mustard s 
will resist the action of the best managed furnace for hours, and 
the difficulty increases with the size of the particles directly as 
the squares of their diameters. 

A theoretically perfect process, therefore, requires :— 

1st, That every particle shall be microscopically small,—in 
the condition of fine, floating dust. 

2d, That the particles do not touch each other while hot. 

8d, That when metallic grains, as of gold or copper, have to 
be separated from the ore, the contact of water with the heated 
particles is necessary. 

We constructed a furnace in which finely pulverized ore-dust 
was floated in a current of hot air and flame, passing down 
through a flue leading from a hard-coal fire, at an angle of about 
45°, and then resting upon a horizontal hearth or sole.’ 

We discovered at this time that moisture or the vapor of water 
in large quantities materially aided the process of desulphuriza- 
tion in free air, and we constructed and applied a steam appa 
ratus by which a volume of steam was made to pass down the 
inclined flue with the ore-dust, the atmosphere, and the products 
of combustion. : 

At this point we encountered several serious difficulties. The 
inside of the inclined flue became lined with stalactoid masses of 
semi-fused ores, and the sole of the furnace caked and covered 
with the same. When a certain quantity of burnt ore had ac- 
cumulated on the hearth, a trap was opened and the heated mass 
pushed through into a water-bath. The agglutinated masses 
on being withdrawn from the bath, were re-ground, and passed 
a second time through the furnace. 

A sufficiency of atmospheric air could not be applied throu 
the furnace doors, and a very large percentage of the ores & 
eaped through the chimney into the open air. 

he last of these difficulties was overcome by placing a power 
ful fan wheel of copper (which served also as a water or Spray 
wheel) in the chimney itself, or in a chamber of it, and by cP 
rying the horizontal flue some 75 feet beyond this wheel. |. 

The steam from the furnace and the spray from this wheel, 
working over a pool of water which formed the floor of a of 
zontal flue, effectually wetted down and saved the flying dust 
ore, 


> This furnace was built and worked in Charlestown, (Mass.) in May, Ju0® ol 
July, 1861.—3, v. w. 


J.D. Wheipley on treatment of Gold and other metals, 408 


_ The brick floor or sole of the furnace was abandoned, and a 
water-floor substituted. Over one end of this pool or water- 

h, a perpendicular flue was erected, from 12 to 15 feet in 
height above the surface of the water. 

The flames of four fires were poured into the top of this flue 
> effect of two fan-wheels: the first, the copper spray-wheel 
uready spoken of ;.the other, an auxiliary fan blower, sending 
air into all the fire-boxes, The top of the furnace was left open, 
and a column of air, bearing pulverized ore, driven directly from 
the pulverizing mills, down through the centre of the perpen- 
dicular flue. 

The operation of this machinery balanced and regulated the 
force of the draft so well, that while ore-dust was driven in at 
the rate of 1200 pounds an hour, carrying with it an excess of 
atmospheric air, if a side door of the descending flue were 
epened, a feather would float in the opening without being 

wn either way, 

e then discovered that the immediate quenching of the fused 
particles of ore, by the water in the pool and in the chamber be- 
ond, was essential to a thorough separation of the metals. The 
ted particles on touching the surface of the water are explo- 
ded into still minuter fragments, a degree of fineness unattain- 
le by any other means. The entire apparatus is constructed 
With a view to this result, oe 
The water lining the bottom of the flues is a circulation com- 
éted by an outside canal. The water thrown up from, the 
Copper dash wheel, returning circuitously, falls back into the 

Tace pool. This water, after some time working of the fur- 
hace, is Of course charged with sulphates of iron, copper, and 
other metals. The insoluble metal falls to the bottom with the 
“iment, which is composed chiefly of silica and iron. In this 
et the gold will be found ready for washing and amalga- 

n 


The sediment is drawn out by the workmen, as fast as it accu- 

mulates, through the submerged arches on which the brick flues 
®t water chambers are established. 
_The condition of the sediment is that of a smooth plasma 
Without grit or coarseness of grain. Using only floating dust, 
10 tons can be worked in ten hours with these results, in a fur- 
hace of the size indicated. More extensive machinery would 
Sve larger returns, 

We built our flues and water beds under the furnace and also 
Under the horizontal brick archway leading therefrom to the 
sPfay-wheel, of common brick thickly covered with ordinary 
piraalic cement, We found this a very good lining for the 
descend 


cash wheel was built of wood, over a brick and wooden water 


404 J. D. Whelpley on treatment of Gold and other metals. 


channel 75 feet long, 6 feet wide, from 20 to 30 feet high. This 
was filled with vapor of water and sulphurous acid from the 
furnace pools, which made a fine rain; carrying down any 
minute ore-dust which might escape the action of the dash 
wheel, also condensing large quantities of sulphuric acid from 
the sulphurets. 

The gold ores most free from sulphurets are easily worked. 
When the sulphur is in excess, the supply of air and moisture — 
must be proportionately large. ; 

In regard to fuel, the finer the ore-dust before burning, the 
more economical the process. 

In pleces where wood alone is accessible for fuel, the fire-boxes 
should be from 20 to 80 inches deep, below the fire-bridges; 8 
inches for coal. : 


Crushing machinery.—For crushing gold ores previous to fine 
grinding, any ordinary crushing machinery may be employed 
that will reduce them to pea- or gravel-size, as they must not be 
larger than this before entering the pulverizer. : 

e crushing mill used by us is a patented invention of my 
own. It consists of a very heavy and solid bar of wrought iron, 
revolving in the bottom of a cast iron tub as close as possible to 
the sides and bottom of the tub. : 

This bar carries at either extremity a hardened steel or chilled 
iron plate, with a cutting edge welded to a soft iron back to pre 
vent rupture. ; 

The sides of the tub are pierced with holes from an inch to 
half an inch in diameter, forming a coarse sieve, . 

Two of these bars may be used crossed, working four cutters, 
held together by a cast iron center piece of great strength an 
solidity, through which an upright shaft passes, furnished with 
a step anda pulley. The speed of these cutters is a little more 
than 10,000 feet a minute. The broken pieces of quartz ave 
thrown out of the holes in the side of the tub at the rate of /iv? 
tons an hour. 


Pulverizing machinery—The pulverizing of the crushed oe 
performed by flat plates of thin iron faced with chilled-iron, ® 
tached to radiating arms; somewhat like the paddles of a steam 
boat wheel. These revolve inside of a east iron dram, as clos 
as possible to the sides and very near its circumference. A hort 
zontal shaft passes through the centre of the drum. is 

The material, gravel size, is poured in on one side at the a% 
by an automatic hopper, which measures the quantity. fan 

_A powerful draft of air, foreed through the machine by ‘ as 
ower forming an essential part of the apparatus, draws pp te 
dust through a hole on the opposite centre of the drum, Wi" 

‘ also passes, 


C. U. Shepard—Mineralogical Notices. 405 


‘The dust is then carried by this fan blower and driven into 
the top of the furnace. The minimum rate of delivery for a 
mill of ordinary size is 1500 pounds an hour. 

Of this last machine I can not give you a more minute account, 
as its successful operation depends upon interior details, obtained 
by long and costly experiment. The maximum rate of produc- 
tion we have not yet ascertained. 

All the new and important features have been patented by 


- Col. J. J. Storer and myself. 


_ As soon as possible, I will furnish you with working plans of 
the furnaces built and worked by us. We have ground the 
hardest copper ores of Vermont and the quartz of Nova Scotia 
In our pulverizing mills. I know of none more difficult of re- 
duction, 

Boston, Mass., March 5th, 1864. 


Art. XXXIX.— Mineralogical Notices; by CHaRLEs UPHAM 
| SHEPARD, of Amherst College. 


Ores of Antimony.—This metal is rather recently made known 
to us as entering into the mineral wealth of this continent. The 
antimonite has been reported from a place called Soldier's De- 

ight, in Md.; and from Carmel, in Penobscot Co., Me. About 
teen years ago, very distinct specimens, though in small quan- 
ity, were brought to me from Cornish, N. H., by Prof. F. Shep- 
herd. The Breithauptite has for several years been known as 
existing at the Chatham (Conn.) nickel mine. But at neither 

these localities was there any flattering promise of the metal 


In workable quantity. It now, however, promises to be pro- 


duced from more than one American locality. Beside the South 
Ham, C. E., mines of antimony, of which a notice is here sub- 
mitted from C. H. Hitchcock, Hsq., as the result of a very recent 
Strvey, we find mention made of two other localities in his 


~~. report on the geology of the State of Maine (1863), one 


of these being in the Province of New Brunswick and the other 
in the eastern part of Maine. 
t. Hitchcock, in presenting me with his notice of the South 
Ham Mines, submitted also several other ores of antimony un- 
Enown on this continent before the discovery of this mine, a de- 
“nption of which I append to his account. 
nif. Hitchcock's Statement on the Antimony Mine of South Ham, 
¢ £—The rocks are the common talco-micaceous schists of the 
uebec Group of the Lower Silurian. The strata run N, 55) 


‘ 


406 C. U. Shepard—Mineralogical Notices. 


E., and dip at a high angle N. 835° W. There are three me- 
tallic lodes upon the hill cutting across the strata at various 
angles, and all intersecting with one another so as to forma 
triangular space. I have seen but one other example of a cross 
lode in Canada. 

A trial shaft has been sunk upon one of the veins, and at a 
depth of 15 feet shows an increase of the lode from 18 inches to 
three feet, with very distinct walls. This lode has been traced 
with the course E. 15° N. for a distance of half a mile. The — 
two other lodes are a very little smaller, and have the courses 

.E. an . 28°. The intersections of the veins have not 
been exposed. ‘The dip is variable, the first and second dipping 
toward each other. 

West of the lodes and higher up the hill is a small bed of 
serpentine. I have not been able to trace either lode across it, 
and suspect the serpentine has cut off the lodes, as the gangue 
the lodes appears on the west side of the former. Numerous 
small leaders to the main lodes traverse the schists, and are all 
charged with antimony. ee 

The gangue is mostly a quartz rock of a dark bluish tint 
The metal is disseminated through it generally unostentatiously, 
but occasionally in both large and small lumps. Dr. Hayess 
assays for the proprietors show that very unpromising portions 
of the gangue yield 80 per cent of antimony. The richest pol 
tions of the lode vary in position, sometimes on the foot and 
sometimes on the hanging wall. The native metal is the com 
mon form of the occurrence of the antimony. The ores occur 
only occasionally, and not in workable quantities. A company 
has been formed to work the lodes, with flattering prospects of 
success. The mine is about thirty miles distant from either 
Danville or Athabaska stations on the Quebee branch of the 
Grand Trunk Railway. CO. H. Hircucock. 


The new ores are stiblite, senarmontite and kermesite.’ 


‘ The following account of the antimony mine of South Ham, C. E., is published ia 
the Report on the Geological Survey of Canada, by Sir Wm. E. Logan (1863), #88 
note to page 876, from which it appears that Professor Shepard's observations 2 
here mostly anticipated: al Boal 

“ A deposit of this metal has lately been discovered in the township of § i 
Ham, on the twenty-eighth lot of the range east of the Gosford road. is 
seri ing in a vein or , of from six to sixteen inches in thickness 
in argillite, which is penetrated by numerous smaller veins of the ore. The 
portion of ‘the antimony is in the metallic state, as lamellar, or more rarely, #8 fin 
granular native antimony ; but the sulphuret, antimony glance, also occurs ™ 
radiating prismatic crystallizations. Besides these, the white oxyd of antimony: a 
massive and fibrous, is found in this locality, associated with small crystallin 
of the red oxysulphuret of antimony, kermesite. These latter ores are tal 
only the results of superficial oxydation. From the specimens already workable 
from this locality, it would appear probable that antimony exists here in 

y. It is accompanied by quartz and a li wn-s Eps. 


quantity. little brown-spar.”— 


C. U, Shepard—Mineralogical Notices. 407 


1, Shblite—-This occurs in crusts upon antimony and quartz, 
and in pseudomorphs after antimonite, the remains of whose 


field, It is imbedd i 
It Was In close proximity to minute erystals of cassiterite, a spe- 
Diino frequently found in the granite of the adjoining towns 
of Goshen and Norwich. 

Jan. 7, 1864. 


408 Scientific Intelligence. 


SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE. 
I, PHYSICS AND CHEMISTRY. 


of carbon as observed in various flames containing this element, and in 
the light of the electrie spark passed through dilute carbonic oxyd and 


bisulphid of carbon, Swan observed in 1856 that all hydrocarbon flames 
give four groups of rays, which are respectively faint yellow, light green, 


spectrum of cyanogen gave—as stated long since by Draper—a splendid 
series of bands which became still more distinct and brilliant on feeding 


rm the spectrum of carbon, and as the blue band is the brightest, he 
explains in this manner the blue color of many flames. The “ blue heat 
of a Deville’s furnace is doubtless a case in point.—Journal of Chem. 
Soc., [2], i, 97. W. G 
2. On the optical distinction between hypermanganie acid and com 
nds of sesquioryd of manganese.—Horpe-Szyuer bas found that & 
solution of hypermanganic acid exerts a powerful absorption upon greet 
and green-yellow rays. A solution of phosphate of sesquioxyd of man 
ganese exhibits the same action. If, however, the solution of this salt is 
diluted more and more, tl he spectra 
gresnally disappears without. the appearance of definite bands, W 
ilute solutions of hypermanganic acid exhibit five distinct absorption 


3. On the action of light upon nitro-prussid of sodium.—Rovssin has 
proposed a method of determining the chemical intensity of light which 
18 based upon the decomposition produced in a solution of nitro-p 


| 


Physics and Chemistry. 409 


of sodium mixed with sesquichlorid of iron. The author recommends a 
solution containing two parts of this nitro-prussid, two of dry sesqu 
chlorid of iron, and ten of water. The solution is to be filtered and kept 


judge of its value——Zes Mondes, March, 1864, 415. W. G. 
. rometer, as an indicator of the earth’s rotation, and the 
sun's distance ;' by Pi ARLE Crase.—The existence of daily baro- 


ey occur in all cl , and at all ons; 3, opposite effects are 
ced at different times, under the same average temperature. Thus 
at St. Helena, the mea hree years’ hourly observation gives the fol- 
lowing average barometric heights : 
From Ob to 12h 28-2801 in. From 185 to 64 28-2838 in. 
“ 12h to oh 28-2861 « “ 64 to 18h 282784 “ 


The upper lines evidently embrace the coolest parts of the day, and 
in warmest, Dividing the day in the first method, the 


former to the latter is ,-2 95.5, 0r 00109. This ratio represents the 
ttlonate elevation or depression of the barometer above or below its 
Mean height that should be caused by the earth’s rotation, and it corres- 
»s Very nearly with the actual disturbance at stations near the equator, 
From Oh. to 6h. the air has a forward motion greater than that of the 
farth, so that it tends to fly away ; its pressure is therefore diminished, 
8 greatest ; 
; Pp an arometer rises, 
rit 12h. to 18h. the earth moves away from the air, and the barometer 
.) While from 18h. to 24h. the increasing velocity of the air urges it 
gage € earth, and the barometer rises. : 
From the Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society. 
AX. Journ, one Series, Vou. XXXVII, No. 111.—Mar, 1864 


410 Scientific Intelligence. 


If the force of rotation at each instant be resolved into two compo 
nents, one in the direction of the radius vector, and the other parallel to 
the earth’s orbit, it will be readily perceived that whenever the latter 
tends to increase the aerial pressure, the former tends to diminish it, and 
vice versa. Let s==the height of the barometer at any given instant; 
M=the mean height at the place of observation; -90°==the hour 
angle; c==the earth’s circumference at the equator; ¢—-24 hours; 
g=the terrestrial gravity; 7==the latitude: and a simple integration 
(aes =)" 

R? {2 


gives the theoretical formula, B=M 


This formula gives a maximum height at 9h. and 21h, and a minimum 
at 3h. and 15h. The St. Helena observations place the maximum at 
10h. and 22h, and the minimum at 4h. and 16h,: an hour later in each 


differences an the results of theory and fA But by ta 
the grand mean of a series of sleerrailonk sufficiently extended to 
ance and eliminate set Eppoipel opposing inequalities, the two results 


According to our Pesala, the ae of altitude at 1, 2, and $ 
hours from the mean, should be in the respective ratios of *5; ° $66, 

1. The actual tiference, es ta to the mean of the St. le: 
servations, are as follows 


Differences of Barometer. 

Diff. of time, lh. 2h. sh. lh. 
Before 1h, 0166 0298 0365 “455 
After “ 0159 0266 Uu298 534 
Before 7h 0122 0202 0243 502 
After 0135 0239 0297 “455 
Before 13h. 0136 "0248 0284 479 
After “ 0131 “0215 0227 ‘HTT 
Before 19h. “O161 -0287 0348 +463 
After... #! “0150 0265 “0286 524 

0145 0252 0293 495 


The mean of the above differences varies from the theoretical meaa 
less than zy455 of an inch. If we take the mean of the ratios, instead 
the ratios of m3 means of the observed differences, the coincidence i 

still more stri 


pa of Time, lh. 2h. 3h. 
Means of Observed ratios, 498625 864625 —«:1-000000 
et ae Means, ‘500000 866025 ~—«1000000 


represents the effective ratio of an entire day. But there is in each e 
SE: acceleration, and a half day of retardation, and the ratio for each : 
day is $2 


= gt 


Physics and Chemistry. 411 


_ The calculated time for the above observed means differs less than 20” 
om the actual time. 
Observed Means, 498625 *864625 1:000000 
Theoret. Diff. of Time, 59/ 48/’ 119/ 40/” 180’ 
Observed “ “ “ DOL 0 120 0" 180’ 
The varying centrifugal force to which the earth is subjected by the 
ipticity of its orbit, rust, in like manner, produce annual tides. The 
disturbing elements render it impossible to determine the average monthly 
height of the barometer, with any degree of accuracy, from any observa- 
tions that have hitherto been made. We may, however, make an inter- 
esting approximation to the annual range, still using the St. Helena rec- 
ords, which are the most complete that have yet been published for any 
station near the equator. Comparing the mean daily range, as determined 
by the average of the observations at each hour, with the mean yearly 
i as determined by the monthly averages, we obtain the following 
Fesuits 


Daily Annual Approximate 
Year. range. range. Ratio. Solar distance, 
1844 0672 in. "1650 in. 24553 137,070,000 m. 
1845 0646 “ 1214 “ 18793 80,300,000 “ 
1846 0670 « 1214 * 1°8120 74,650,000 “ 
8)-1988 3)4078 3)6°1466 
0668 “1359 2-489 95,446,000 “ 
Mean 0663 -1290 1-9457 86,056,000 “ 
2)1326 2)-2649 2)8-9946 
0663 90,702,000 “ 


1324 
The approximate estimates of the solar distance are based on the fol- 
lowing hypothesis : 


0 A==area described by radius vector in time ¢. 
Let ¢', a’, r’, a’, represent corresponding elements of the annual revo- 
lution, “Then? 
Ayal ters Set as 
But the forces of rotation and revolution are so connected, that a 
liffers but slightly from a’. 
e2:e'2:irir 
rf fi oe e'?r very nearly. 
=a 

_ It may be interesting to observe how nearly r (22,738,900 m.) corres- 
‘Ponds with Kirkwood’s value of + (24,082,000 m.), A more thorough 


‘omprehension of all the various effects of gravity and rotation on the 
Rmiy ere, would probably lead to modifications of our formule that 
ould show a still closer correspondence. 


412 Scientific Intelligence. 


There is a great discrepancy between the determinations of the solar 
distance that are based on the records of 1844 and 1846; but it is no 
greater than we might reasonably have anticipated. On the other hand, 
it could hardly have been expected that any comparisons based on t the 
observations of so short a period as three years, would have furnished so 
hear an approximation to the most recent and most accurate determina- 
tion of the earth’s mean radius vector. In order to obtain that approxi« 
mation, it will be seen that I took, Ist, the mean of the ranges and ratios 
for the three ora years ; 2d, the r ranges and ratios of the mea re- 
sults of the e years; 3 3d, the grand mean of these two primary 
means, I oak euk of no other method which would be so likely to 
destroy the effects of changing seasons, and other accidental disturbances. 

The following table exhibits the effects of latitude on the aerobarie 
tides. The differences between the theoretical and observed ranges may 
be owing partly to the equatorial-polar currents, and partly to insufficient 
observations. 


Station Lat. Mean height. | Mean range. Ratio. Theoret. ratio. 
Arctie Dew "8°37 29-789 in, 012 in. 000404 000527 
Girard College, 39 58 29:938 ‘060 “002004 002046 

ashingto 88 53 30-020 062 002065 002079 
St ORS ca 15 57 28282 066 2344 00256 
Equator, 0 30-709 082 -002670 “002670 


The theoretical ratios are determined by multiplying the equatorial 
ratios by — The formula, a ET ~ —, (¢ indicating the ratio of 


R 
the mean range to the mean height,) oe : 
Theoretical Ratio. Observed Ratio. 
Latitude, 0° 002190 “002670 
% 78 37’ “000432 


showing that the ratio is less near the A and greater near the equator 
than our theory indicates, a natural consequence of the centrifugal force 
at the equator ‘and the cold surface currents that produce the trade winds, 
The revolution of the sun around the great Central Sun must 4 
cause Baronateé fluctuations that may possibly be measured by de licate 
instruments and long and patient observation. The Toricellian columa 


n the suuckel of jangeteiae —Peasoz has 4 pabblbise an extended 
memoir on tungsten and its compounds, and has arrived at conc clusions 
which differ very widely from those received by. chemists. These coneli- 
sions, in the author’s own words, are as follows 

(1.) Tungsten, according to the constitution and properti 
oo oh belongs v to the group of biatomic (sic) radicals, arsenic, antimony, 
phos 
(2.) Its ng phe A ndipda ci deduced from numerous experiments . 
19is. io 153° =8)) 
(3.) shy ator es, two compounds with oxygen: 
oxyd WO,, se oxyd. 
b. mes acid WO,, tungstic acid. 


| 
| 
| 


Physics and Chemistry. 413 


_ (4) By their union these two compounds may produce a third oxyd 
(of the class of saline oxyds of Dumas) which corresponds to the formula 
WO0,+W0,=2WO,. 
(5.) Tungstic acid is polybasic; its simple or double salts are repre- 
sented by the general formulas 


(WO,),MO, HO+Aq. 
They easily form double salts by uniting, either with each other: 
(WO,),MO, HO 
* (wo')eMo, Ho f TA% 


_ 6, or with simple tungstates, 
(WO,),MO, HO 
wo>Mo,Ho f TAY 
The formulas comprise the paratungstates and certain acid tungstates, 
(8.) Sulphur, chlorine, and bromine combine with tungsten, producing 
compounds which correspond exactly to the oxyds and acids formed with 
oxygen, 
(9.) Tungsten does not produce an oxychlorid any more than phos- 
Phorus. The compounds which have been so designated are combina- 
tions in definite but variable proportions of anhydrous acid Whig ey 
corresponding chlorid.—Ann. der Chimie et de Physique, Jan. 1864, 93. 
Ww. G 


pile & new organic base, to which he has 

te new base is a black glistening erystalline ¢ ; 

specular iron ore. Mauveine dissolves in alcohol, giving a violet solution 

Which oo aed a purple color on the addition of acids, It is a very 
e@ 


8, On Mauve or Anilin purple— PERKIN has discovered in anilin 


strongly it yields a basic oil. The formula of mauveine is C,,H, N 


et m a boiling alcoholic solution in small prisms possessing & 
lant green metallic lustre. Its formula is C,,Ho4 ed 


be fe . 
salt combines with bi i i f beautiful crystalline 
ichlorid of platinum to form a 
haPound, the formula of which is CssHasNa: BO re 

deseri several other crystalline salts, which serve to prove the 


Ww. 


29 Correctness of the formula adopted.— Proc. of the Royal Society, xii, ibs 


414 Scientific Intelligence. 


7. On Crystals in Blowpipe Beads ; by Gzorcr H. Emzrson.—Obser- 
vations which I have made during the past year on the opacity produced 
by “flaming” in beads of borax, or microcosmic salt, when charged with 
certain substances, have established the fact that this opacity is due to 
the presence of crystals of a definite form, which varies with the sub- 
stance employed; and, also, that the same substance, in some cases, gives 
a different crystalline form with the different fluxes. The crystals are 
generally so minute as to require a good hand-lens, or even a compound 
microscope, to examine them advantageously ; and, in order to facilitate 
microscopic examination, the loop of platinum wire should be at least a 
tenth of an inch in diameter, and quite circular, and the bead very slightly 


convex. 

A little practice will enable the operator to regulate the density of the 
opacity—a very thin film, or cloud, extending partially over the surface 
of the bead, being all that is desirable. have found it convenient to 


alumina, glucina, zirconia, zinc, cadmium, bismuth, silver, tin, tungsti¢ 
acid, molybdic acid, protoryd of cerium, selenium and tellurium, 
With copper and uranium I have noticed what seems to be a ome 


T have, thus far, obtained crystals with baryta, strontia, lime, magnesia, 


way 
I have obtained a gray, metallic precipitate on the reheated portion of the 
ed 


surface of a borax bead, colored dark blue with oxyd of cobalt; 7 


. 


naked eye; but it is occasionally necessary to employ a magnifying power 
of one hundred and fifty diameters, or even more—to clearly distinguist 


able certainty the presence of two substances, so that they may both be 
recognized, as may be seen in beads charged with mixtures of tungst? 
and titanic, and tungstic and niobic acids. 


Mineralogy and Geology. 415 


‘Twould refer those who may desire a more extended account of this 
method of blowpipe analysis, including particular descriptions of all, and 
engravings of some, of the precipitates observed, to a paper entitled 
“Observations on Crystals and Precipitates in Blowpipe Beads,” to appear 
in the forthcoming “ Memoirs” of the “ Boston Society of Natural History.” 

Cambridge, February, 1864. 

1, Elements of Chemistry : Theoretical and Practical ; by Witu1am 
Auten Minter, M.D., L.L.D., Professor of Chemistry in King’s College, 
London, &c., &. Chemical Physics, Part II: Electricity and Magnet: 

From the third London edition. New York: John Wiley, 535 


general purposes of the higher student of chemical philosophy. 
l, I. to accommodate the 


Il MINERALOGY AND GEOLOGY. 


1. Volcano of Kilauea, Hawaii—tl. From a letter to Prof. Lyman, 


lake has risen and thrown its fiery jets far over its rim, sometimes shoot- 

ing them upward 40 to 100 feet. The upward pressure of the Java has 

opened seams in some parts of the crater, from which it has flowed out 
im 


and covered exte 

on its lower side, and floods of molten rock have there been disgorged. 
__ he whole circumference of the crater under its surrounding walls has 
been submerged beneath molten lava, and some portions of it seve 
times. By this circumference, or outer belt, I mean the limits of the so- 
called “Biack Ledge.” Of course, there is no Black Ledge there now, it 

ving been overflowed and obliterated more than 10 years ago. 
the northern portion of the crater, in the region where the foot-path de- 


and reach, by the usual path, the floor of the crater, on account of the 
Sea of fire bi: its plaacldiat Siamese floods of Java ia deposited 
and se 


ut wal made it about 700 feet; probably it is not more than 600 
Row, 


416 Scientific Intelligence. 


The central area remairs undisturbed, except that it is greatly elevated 
by the lifting forces beneath. It is quite a distinct table-land, probably 
500 to 600 feet higher than it was just after the great tapping process of 
1840. 

Mauna Loa is quiet, and we have no symptoms of disturbance except 
at Kilauea. We are looking for some grand demonstration in the latter: 
—the time we do not predict. 

[In order to make the preceding account, and also the following, intel- 
ligible to readers that are not familiar with the crater of Kilauea, we a 
a few explanations, although but a repetition of what has appeared in 
this Journal. e operations described above are confined to the bottom 


the eruption of 1840, the central portions of the pit, having an area one 
third of the whole, sank 300 to 400 feet below the circumferential por- 


ferential portion, forming a bo 
is the part called the “black ledge.” Within ten years after 1840, the 
lower pit had become filled up through the overflowings of lava over its 
bottom, so that the limits of the “black ledge” were already mostly o 
literated, No great eruption has since taken place.—z. D. : 
If. From a letter from Rev. O, H. Guutcx, Missionary of the American 
Board, residing at Kau, on the Island of Hawaii, dated Kau, July 26th, 
1863, cited from the Evangelist—We found the crater gle active, 


was fresh and still warm to the feet, though perhaps six weeks oli. 

Crossing this late flow, which in this spot was but thirty or forty rods 
in width, we proceeded directly to the great lake, three miles distant, 1? 
the south side of the crater. The lake, which is continually varying @ 
size and form, we found to be perhaps four hundred and fifty feet ™ 
diameter, and twenty feet below the surrounding bank, and exceedingly 
active. : 

I have visited the crater but once before this, and that was In 1846 
or 1847. The lake was then elevated above the general floor of the 
crater, and appeared to be enclosed by a stone wall. While we were wn 
Proaching it, the surging lava broke through the stone wall and ran ol 
toward us, and we were able to approach the flow and take out spect 
mens on the ends of our long walking-sticks. This time we saw 


ie Sh tee orci rai tl 


; 
; 
j 


Mineralogy and Geology. 417 


lake as travellers have spoken of it for years past. It is not often, how- 
ever, I think, that it has been found more active. Different caverns at 
the side of the lake were continually spouting forth their fiery foam, 
while waves of liquid fire occasionally broke upon the rocky banks like 
areturning tidal wave upon old Ocean’s shore. At intervals, sometimes 
of a few seconds, and at other ‘times of half a minute, a large fountain 
broke forth in the middle of the lake and threw up its rounded crest of 
P 


thrown up twenty or thirty feet. The whole lake, except in the spot of 
active ebullition, was covered with a tough crust or scum of a pale leaden 
‘color, resembling the skin that forms on the surface of a pot of liquid 
Jead or iron. This crust was in continual motion, being drawn in from 
different directions towards the centres of ebullition ; as it entered the 
foaming mass, or the fiery fountains, it was at once consumed and re- 
solved into molten lava. Ever-changing scenes of fire were visible in the 
different portions of this crust, which floated like thin cream on the sur- 

Smal! stones thrown in sank partially through this skin as if into 
mud, The appearance of the fiery fountains throwing up their lurid 
wave eight, ten. or twelve feet, and sending their spray to a height far 
‘above, was awfully and indescribably grand. 

The scene was ever changing; first the greatest display of fireworks, 
fountains spraying and jetting, would be in one quarter of the lake; then 
in another ; then in three, four, or five different points, all at once. At 
irregular intervals of a minute or two, a small cone of twelve or fifteen 
feet in height, and removed some forty feet from the lake, utters the most 
Unearthly roaring and snorting, as if from ten thousand demons confined 


below. These sounds, as well as the jettings and spoutings, seemed to 
from below 


. next bsided. A few acres covered 
by the glistening lava was all that the morning showed of that night’s 
work of Modern Pele. : 

ch asight travellers to Kilauea are permitted to behold. The volcano 
tm ive than i r years. There are occasional slight 


2 On Glacial Phenomena in Nova Scotia; by B. Suman, Jr. 
. om a Report on the Gold property of the New York and Nova Scotia 


te Company. 56 pp., 8vo, 1864.)—The most striking physical 


of this whol i o the eye of a geologist, next perhaps to 
the uptilted state heaters hail is the waren evidence of a high 
, of glacial action, which has ‘so worn down and polished the rocks 
that their’ edges everywhere resemble the leaves of a book which has 
AM. Jour, Sci.—Seconp Series, Vou. XXXVII, No. 111.—Mar, 1864. 
54 


1g 


= 


418 Scientific Intelligence. 


been cut with a dull — in the binder’s press, in a direction at right 
angles to that of the leav 

Over very considerable me ss glacial _— has been so thorough 
that nothing whatever is left on the rocks the grooves and striae 
which accompany their polish. ie other cases, abe glacial drift is seen, 
composed o _— rarely rounded, fragments of quartzite and clay 
slate, imbedded in a tough clay, resting on the surface of the pales 
rocks. This detrital matter is auriferous, but the large — of coal 
angular fragments of rocks would render it very difficult to wash, per 
when it occurs in situations where water cou!d be aaa obtained 
for sluicing, The gold which it contains is coarse and angular, often still 
attached to the quartz, and showing but little evidence of long trans- 
portation. The “ Boulder Lot,” at Sherbrooke, has yielded a consider- 


object of attention. 

Everywhere over this whole district the eye of the observer is constantly 
arrested by the long lines - granitic and quartzitic pn which have 
been left in trains by the ancient glaciers upon the surface of the pol 
ished rocks. These at esse recall strongly the seein of the Swiss 
— and rival them in the magnitude of the travelled blocks. Some 
of ost striking cases of this sort which I saw were in the vicinity 
of Roaancdehes Harbor, also on the flanks of the Musquodobit Moun- 
— and on the elevated plateau between Jeddore Bay and Ship Harbor, 

—_— Barrens. Here the boulders of white quartz are also very 
abun eee Some very conspicuous blocks of a like epost occur 
on the hills north of Oldham, in the vicinity of Gay’ sR 

The general course of the strike of the rocks is east an a west. 
tween Hammond Plains and Tasigier, for a ee nearly 100 te 
this east and west course is so marked that it may be considered univer 
sal. This course is not usually over 5° or 6° away pais the magnetic 
meridian, and is usually south by that quantity. But to the east and 
west of the points named, the strata bend round to the sea, so that the 
whole system assumes very much the form of a long bow, whose ¢ 
or ~ is the coast line, the asia at each end losing themselves in the 


ocea 

iieaesiasles for a great part of the whole coast, the glacial scratches, 
or the course of the glacial drift, has been almost at right angles to . 
strike of the rocks. A most conspicuous éxample of this may ‘be seen 
th nd Tower, near Halifax, where a large surface of the harder anne 
is completely denuded, and shows splendidly the whole phenomena of 


cial action. These facts bear in a most important manner, it Wi val 
a the reget of the gold. They account in fact, for the gene 
nce of alluvial gold. ‘ust 


__ If we consider for a moment the physical and geslagice: features } 
described, it at once becomes evident that the great mass 7 print 
rials which came from the scouring off of the coun try by glaci — 
has gone iuto the Atlantic Ocean, where the gold is er ii 
Sable. Island, which, by McKinley’s map, is distant about 1 00 ‘miles 


a eT, 


| 
| 


Mineralogy and Geology. 419 


no geologist can doubt for a moment. It follows from this view of the 
case, that the occurrence of extensive “diggings” in Nova Scotia is a 


; been prac- 
tically recognized from the outset, as comparatively few efforts have been 


sands exist in remunerative abundance. ) 
which can be drained, will probably furnish considerable deposits of allu- 
vial gold; and the same is true, no doubt, of certain river estuaries an 


J. W. Dawson, LL. D., F.R.S., F.G. 
(Condensed from the Canadian Naturalist.) —The following list includes 


Geological Society, and by Mr. R. Brown and the author, in the list ap- 
pended to “ Acadian Geology.” i 
. The present synopsis was prepared not so much for immediate publica- 
tion, as in aid of the writer’s investigations of the characteristic plants in 
the numerous coal Leds at the South Joggins, and of the conditions of 
formation of those beds : but as some time may elapse before the publi- 
tation of these researches, and the want of a list of the known species 1s 
much felt by those engaged in the study of the Carboniferous rocks, it has 
been thought advisable to print it in the present form, ; 

he new species have been described in the Canadian Naturalist and 
Geologist, for Dec. 1863, with mention of their collectors and _ localities, 
The part of the Carboniferous system in which the species occur has, how- 
ever, been stated ; and as some confusion has lately arisen from the use of 
the term « Subcarboniferous,” by authors, it is proper to state that the 


‘ Lower coal formation” in this paper is equivalent to “ Subcarbon- 


: flora. } 
the in subordination to these main divisions, will be fully detailed in 


e ; o  #ye : 
tem groups are indicated in the following pages by the initials L.0., M. C. 


» 


420 Scientific Intelligence. 


_ [have included in the list such plants from New Brunswick as are 
known to me. Those from Grand Lake in that Province are I believe on 
the horizon of the Middle coal formation, though tending to the Upper. 
A collection formed by Sir W. E. Logan at Baie de Chaleur, in beds of 
the Lower and aera Middle coal formation, includes also some species 
whieh in Nova Scotia are more pg a one ae of the Upper coal formation. 
This apparent mixture of plants of different horizons, may be a conse- 
quence - the comparatively small shiuiedees of the New Brunswick coal 
rmatio 
In a present unsettled state of the species of coal plants, it 
much diffidenee that I venture to publish this list, which will without 
doubt admit of many corrections and improvements, even in the memoir 
on the formation of the Nova Scotia coals, with which I propose to fol- 
low it. I have, however, endeavored to avoid adding to the load of syn 
onyms, and have in all doubtful cases leaned to the side of identity with 
nown species rather than to that of giving new names. I may add, that 
the increase of my collection has enabled me to reunite es specimens 
which I foe regarded as representatives of distinct species. But for the 
rge number rs specimens which I have been enabled to examine, I 
should save tin] the case of several variable — as for example 
Alethopteris lnchitia and Lepidodendron corrugatu m, have erred in this 
I am constantly more and more convinced ‘that no satisfactory 
ress can be made in fossil Deheny without studying the plants as 
occur in the beds in which they are found, or in large num mbers 0 


_ mens collected from those beds, so as to ascertain the relation of their 


~~ 8 to a other. 
Dap on, Unger.—Large quantities Z -abee coniferous pe are 
found i in aie saunstodee of the coal formation in Nova Scotia; but, after 
slicing more than one hundred ioe sae “the following are the only 
species I can distinguish. It is to be observed, however, that the differ 
ent states of preservation of fh trunks rdnide their study and compat 
ison very di 
pec a sie Acadianum, s. te M. C.; D. materiarium, 5% 
M. and U. C.; D. antiquus, s. n,, L. ; D. an nnntatien, 8. %.; 
Aravcarires, Unger.— Species, — Araucarites gracilis, 8. ”., U. 6. 
Clipe edet Brongt.—Under this name I include four subgenera, Vidy 
Favularia of Sternberg, of which S, elegans i is the type; ¢ .) 


y- 
Hidolepi of allel of which S. seutellata't is the type; (3.) 5 ig a 


ype. 
~ To these may perhaps be added Asolanus of Wood (Proc. P hilad. At. 
Sci.), though most of the specimens of Sigillaria destitute of ribs are 


I would place Syringodendron and Calamodendron as members of z) 
gymnospermous “fanny Sigillariacee. Stigmaria may pireicant 
provisional genus, to include roots he rei with the ene 
rey flip Seca a) el poh M.C.; 8, (Fav.) te C: 
sellata Bronje 8. (Rhytidolepi) seutelata rongt., WM. pee C: 
S. ase: } Schfotheimniana Brongt., M. C.; S. (Bh.) Sal Brongt 5 
wnli Dawson (Jour. Geol. Soc., x.), M.C.; niform is Brongty 


Se et Pe 


Mineralogy and Geology. 421 


pec enn retytel Cig Yair n., M.C.; S. catenoides, 

<M. C.; S. striata, s. n., M. G.: ——, M. C. ok smh) erect stem, 

pony like S. Nanduns s. (Ciathraria) Menardi Brongt., U. C. and 

de S. (Asolanus) Sydnensis, s. n., M. C.; S. 0 rea anum L. & H,, M.C.; 

elongata Bron. ongt., M. C.; 8. flex nosed, é MM. , thy Cog 8: pachyderma 

led M. C.; aS. (Fav.) Prt ar $e ths M. C.; ; S. apes 8 Ney 
 §. Dournaisii Brongt., M. C.; §. Knorrii Brongt., 

‘SreincoanpRon, Brongt. ”_Obscure specimens, refer able to a narrow- 
ribbed species of this genus, occur in the Lower Carboniferous beds at 
Horton and Onslow. 

StigMARIA, Brongt. —Under this name I place all the roots of Stgilla- 
ri@ occurring in the Carboniferous rocks of Nova Scotia. They belong, 
without doubt, to the different species of sigillaroid trees, but it is at pres- 
ent impossible to determine to which ; and the s specific characters of the 

ria themselves are, as might be anticipated, evanescent and unsat- 


Calamites proper "The calamite-like cas ar or internal cavity, sur- 
rounded by a thick cylinder of wood pete consisting of scalariform 
Ils an oss Ste with one row o of roun es; external to this i is 


Minous ¢ coal, 
our —Calamodendron approximatum Brongt., M.C.; C. obscurum, 
M. ©. 


eel L. & H.—These elongate linear leaves have two or three 
ribs and the central band between the ribs raised above the margin; one 
species has been seen attached to Sigillaria Schotheimiana. 

The leaves of Siyillaria elegans are different, being as broad as the 


ie to suppose that they may have icagel to ‘Sigillaria or Calamoden- 
Stems of Sigillaria of the groups Rhytidolepis and Favularia 
bare rings of abnormal scars at intervals, which may have borne such 
of fruit, No such marks are seen on the stems of other subgenera 

. Sigillaria, which probably bore fruit at their summits. 
a tlhe rhabdocarpl, s. 1a M.C.; A. pygmea, 8. n., n., M. 
- Squamosa, s. ——-, ants C., indistinct, but ap- 

i different - those above dese ribed. 

es, Brongt.— Species. ~Trigonoearpum Hookeri Dawson 


9 Si ys - illarie, s. m., M. C.; T._ inter- 
“pity vol. este M. C.; a" eager ial te MG: 


1; UC: 
tras The Trigonocar abundant in some ads of the Middle coal 
on, wc ae tr fruits of Sigillaria, some of them perhaps of 


422 Scientific Intelligence. 

RHABDOCARPUS, oe & Berg.— Species.—Rhabdocary » My 
M.C.; R. insignis, s. x. U. C. 

CaLamrrzs, Backows — Species, as pee tae Suckowii Brongt., M.C. and 
U.C. This species is one of the most common in an erect position, It 
has verticillate branchlets with sels linear leaflets, C. Cistii Brongt, 
M Often found erect. Its leaves are ine —_ linear, stri- 
ate, <3 one-nerved and 3 inches long. C. canneformis Brongt, 
M. C.; C. ramosus Artis, M. C.; C. Voltzii Brong gt. cas(icheenal L. & 
H7.), M. C. Often pe Has lars ‘ze adventitious roots. C. dubius Artis, 
U.C. and M.C.; C, Nova Scotica, s.n., M,C.; C. nodosus Schlot., M.C.; 
C. arenaceus? Je. , MC, 

EquiseEriTEs, Sternberg. — Species. —— curta, s. ., M. ©. Short 
thick stems, enlarging upward and truncate above, joints numerous, 
sheaths as long as the joints, with unequal saniniobse keeled points. 
Lateral branches or fruit with longer leaf-like Arsiak Has the characters 
of Eeuisetites but its oon gt are quite uncertai 

Asteropny.uites, Brongt.— "ager —Astérophiyliited foliosa L. & H,, 
M.C.; A. Siuiadliforinia: L. & H., M.C.; A. grandis Sternberg, M. C.; 
A. tuberculata? Sternberg, M. C.; “Act trinervis: s.1., M. 

ANNULARIA, Sternberg.— Species, —Annularia galioides Zenker, U. C. 
and M. C. 
ore aE S: Brongt.— Seam —Sphenophyllum emarginatum 
Brongt., M. C.; 8. longifolium Germar., M. C. a . U. C.; 8. saxifragifo- 
lium Sternberg, M. US: Schlotheimit "Brongt., M <0; S. erosum L. 
H., M. C. 


The last two species are regarded by Geinitz as varieties of S. emar 
gimatum. A specimen of the last named species in Sir William Logan's 
collection shows a woody jointed stem like that of Asterophyllites, giving 
off branches at the joints. These again branch and bear whorls of leaves 
The stem shows under the microscope a single bundle of reticulated of 
scalariform vessels like those of some ferns, and also like those of Zmesip- 
teris as figured by Brongniart. This settles the affinities of these plants, 


P. ramosissima, s. n. M. ¢ Ge P. crassa, $. 7., 

All these are apeeielly branching fibrous stems or roots, of soft cellu- 
lar tissue with a thin outer bark, Perhaps reg are roots of Asterophyl- 
lites, or perhaps braiich lata of an aquatic plant. 

oncceratHia, Sternberg.— Species—Noeggerathia ———! & ri 
a. de Chaleur, Sir W. E. Logan, A remarkable frpuenl of a leaf, wit 

a petiole nearly three inches long, and a fourth of an inch wide, epread- 
ing abruptly into a lamina, one side of which is much broader than 
other, and with parallel veins eid “it directly from the margin as ar 
a marginal rib. It appears to be doubled in at both edges, and is # 
ruptly broken off. It seems to be a new species, but of what affinities it 
is impossible to decide. N, flabellata Z. .M.C. 

Cycxopreris, Brongt.—Including Cyclopteri proper and sub-gener4 
es, Dn. and Nephropteris, Brong 

Text ap pones oot aorpert, M. C. and U.C.; C. (Ane 
imites) Acadica Daw on (Jour. vol. xvii,), L. C.; ng 
fola G — C.; re Dicksoans) obligua Brongt., M.C.; C. (# New 


Mineralogy and Geology. 423 


bere) ingens Z. d& H.,M.C.; C. oblata LZ. & H., M. C.; ©: fimbriata 
pC. hispida, 8, M.C. 

acl Brongt.— Species. Li rg saan rarinervis Bunbury. 

ot N. oe Pra n., M. C.; N.cordata Brong t. (and var. engi), 
dU. . Voltzii Brongt., UA 7. gigantea Sternb., M. C, 

“i ‘e ae N, flexuosa Sternb., M. C.; N. ‘heterophylla Brongt., M. C. 
and U. C,; N. Loshii Brongt., M. Gus N. acutifolia Brongt., M. C.; N. 
eonjugata Gipt., M.C.; N. attenuata L. & H., M.C.; N. dentata Lage 
M.C.; N. Soretii Brongt., M. C.; N. auriculata Brongt, M. C.; 
dlopteroides, 8. n., M. C. 

Ovowrorrenis, Brongt. — Species.—Odontopteris ‘Schlotheimii Brongt., 
M.C. and U.C.; 0. ane 8. My L, C.4, Q. subeu neata unbury, M.C. 


a. § sect Lsqz., M. CG: S. sat sat M.C.; 8. artemisi- 
ia Brongt. a8 anadensis, 8,9. -M..C.3, 8 peaniiecon New- 
y,M.C.; 8, microloba Guttbier, M. CG. s. obtusiloba? po t.. M. C. 
aes n Brongt.— Species. —Phyllopteris antiqua, 
Aveniorrens, Sternberg.— Species. dbs at lenchiticn Sternb. 
M.C. and U. C.; A. heterophylla LZ. & H., L. C.; A. grandini Brongt., 
C.; A.nervosa Bro ongt., M. C. and U.C.; A. muricata sn enitte 
and U, C.; A. pteroides Brongt. (Brongnartii Goppert), L. C. or M. C.; 
A. Serlii Brongt., M. C.; A. grandis, s. » Be 
Pecoprzris, Bron t.— Spec ves. —Pecopteris arborescens Schlot., M. C. 
and U, RiP) abbroviata Brongt., M. C. and U.C.; P. rigida, s.n., 'U. 
P, unita Brongt, M.C. and U. C.; P. plumosa Brongt., M. C.; P. a 
muphe Brongt., M. C.; P. acuta Brongt. M, Get dei longifolia Brongt., 
jk tceniopteroides ie M. C.; P. Cyathea Brongt., M. O.; 
P equalis Brongt., M. C.; Silimani¢ Brongt., M. C.; villosa 
Brongt t, M.C.; P, Bueklandii pees M.C.; P. oreopteroides ‘Brongt. 
M.C.; P. decurrens Lsqz., M. C.; P- Plunckenetii Sternb., M. 
been, Goppert. — Species. ’_Beinertia Gopperti, s. m. M. ee and 


ty pemsormruims, Gappert.— Species —Hymenophyllites pentadac- 
M. C. 


rAuaortens, Ge Geinitz, _— Species.—Paleopteris Harti, s. 7., Ma, Gy sakes 
UC 


to be trunks of ferns, but are too obscure for description. 

SARontus, Cotta. ’ ‘Trunks of this kind must be rare in the Nova 
Scotia coal fields, A few obscure stems surrounded by cord-like aerial 
Toots have been found, and probably are remains of plants of this — 
, Mecarnyroy, Artis, — Species. —Megaphyton magnificum, 8. 

i 


De IDODENDRON, ” Sternber, — Species. a baepedesonerom corrugatum 

(Jour, G Geol. Soe., en xv), L. C.; L, Pictoense, s. gM Cs De 
pum Sternberg, M. C.; L. dichotomum Sternberg (L. Seecshewaii L. 
4), M. C. and L. C.; A decurtatum, s. »., M. C.; L, undulatum Séern- 


424 Scientific Intelligence. 


berg, M. ©. and U.C.; L. dilatatum Z. & H., M.C.; L.——, like 
tetragonum Gopt., L. C.; L. binerve Bunbury, M. Gs L. tumidum Bun- 


bury, ee er ' Brongt., M. C.; L. elegans "Brongt. M. C.; L, 
plumarium L.& H. M.C.; L. saben Sternb., M.C.; L. Haveotntl 
ernietiag M. a i clypeatum } Lsqz., M.C. and U. C.; L, aculeatum 


are "7, 

. Hatonta, ~~ ‘& H—A specimen probably — to this genus 
from Grand Lake, in the collection of C. F. Hart 

Leprpostrosus, Brongt.— Species. i Bs — L. & H, 
M.C.; L. squamosus, s.n., M.C.; L. longifolius, s. 2., M 
M. C. Acute trigonal leaves, inal: hye yi C. poe with 
obscure scales and remains of long leaves. L. trigonolepis Bunbury, 
M. C. 


LePIDoPHYLLUM, Brongt .— Species.—Lepidophyllum lanceolatum L. é 
H,, M. C. and U.C.; L. trinerve? L. & H., U.C.; L, majus? Brongt, 
2 ay, C. Broad ovate, short, pointed, one nerved, half 

an inch lo ong. L. intermedium L. en fe 
em Se and Lepid Danes including only parts of 
and Lepidophloios, are to be regarded as merely provi 


ae 


rates Se Tarpidutiinoe Senta s.n., M.C.; L. prominulus, & 
M. C,; L. Pano s. a, U. C. and M. G.; L. platystigma, .n.,M. Co; le 
tetragonus, s. ae 93 

birch Corda.— — Species.—Diplotegium retusum, s. ., M. C. 

Kworrta. —Nearly all the plants referred to this genus, in the a 

rous rocks, are, as Géppert has shown, imperfectly preserved stems 
Lepidodendron. In the Lower coal formation many such Knorria forms 
‘are afforded by Z. corrugatum. 

Species.—Knorria Sellonii Sternberg , M,C 

This appears different from the antes Ki norria. Its supposed leaves 

may be aerial roots. It _ a large pith cylinder with very ‘distant tabu 
lar floors, like Sternbergi ta 

Corparrss, Unger, (Pyenophyttam, Tg TE —Cordaites 
rassifolia Corda, M. C.; C. simplex, s. n., M. C, and U. C. C: 

‘Carpiocarrum, Brongt “8 species -Cardioearpum fluitans, s.m., M. oC. 
C. bisectatum, s.n., M. C.; C. like marginatum, M. C.; C. allied 4 

These Cardiocarpa ai are excessively abundant in the roofs of some © 


Mineralogy and Geology. 425 


the pith-cylinders of many coal-formation trees became divided in the 

ed of growth. These fossils are most abundant in the Upper coal 
m ation, but occur also in the Middle coal formation. The following 

Varieties may be distinguished : 

_ (a) Var. approzimata, with fine uniform transverse wrinkles. This 

ls usually invested with a thin coating of structureless coal. 

(6) Var. angularis, with coarser and more angular transverse wrinkles, 

This is the character of the pith of Dadozylon. 

(°) Var, distans, usually of small size, and with distant and irregular 

Wrinkles, is is sometimes invested with wood having the structure of 

Calamodendron, and perhaps is not generically distinct from pprox- 


tmatum, 

(¢) Var. obscura, with distinct and distant transverse wrinkles, but not 
strongly marked on the surface. This is the character of the pith eylin- 
ders of Sigillaria and Lepidophloios. : 

Expocenrres, L. & H.—Many sandstone casts, answering to the char- 
acter of the plants described under this name by Lindley, oceur in 
the Upper coal formation. They are sometimes three inches in diameter 
and several feet in length, irregularly striate longitudinally, and invested 

Neoaly matter. Sometimes they show transverse stration in parts 
their length, I believe they are casts of pith cylinders of the nature of 
“tnverga, and probably of sigillaroid trees. 
ses, L. 3 —Phhnts of this kind are found in the sandstones 

the ree coal formation of the Joggin 


426 Scientific Intelligence. 


liberality in placing at my yay his large and valuable collection of 
the plants of the Cape Breton co: 
The general conclusions deducible from the above catalogue, as well as 
"detailed descriptions of the new species, I hope to give more fully here- 
after, when I shall have completed my examination of the microscopic 
structure of ste several coal seams. In the mean time the following sum- 
mary may be u 
“¢ Te Of 192 eines sik in the list, probably 44 ma be — as 
founded aren! on parts of plants, leaving about 148 true 
on ap Saleen with the lists of Unger, Vertis aiid Les- 
quereux, 92 seem to be common to Nova Scotia and Euro e, and 59 
to Nova Scotia Fa ‘the United States. Most of these last are — 
to Europe and the United States. There are 50 species 
far as known, to Nova Scotia, seta at yea can be little doubt shies qa 
of these will be found elsewhere. ould thus appear that the coal 
ra of Nova Scotia is more closely itd to that of Europe than : 
that of the United States, a curious circumstance in connection with 
similar relationship of the marine fauna of the period ; but additional i si 
formation may modify this view. 
3. The greater part of the species have their headquarters i in the Mid- 
ale. coal formation, and scarcely any species appear in the r 
formation that are not also found in the former. The Lower coal forma 
tion, on the other hand, seems to have a few peculiar species not found at 
ne evels. 
. The characteristic species of the Lower coal formation are Lepido- 
sodeon corrugatum, a spe Cyclopteris Acadica, both of which seem to be 
widely distributed at or near this horizon in Eastern America, while neither 
as yet been pee Sg in the true or Middle coal measures. In 


etc., Pecopteris arborescens, P. abbreviata, P. rigida, Neur tis cordala, 
Dadoxylon materiarium, Lepidophloios parvus, Sigillaria scutellata, are 
caaagragae ene though not confined to this group. . 

e coal formation, and in the central part of it, near the 
sats coal patty occur the large majority of the species of Sigillaria, 
Calamites, Lepidodendron and Ferns ; some of the species ranging 
the Millstone grit into the be coal formation, while others seem 
more narrowly limited. It is observed, ho “lg that as we leave 
the central part of the Sica ee total number of species diminishes 
both above and below, and that it is spl in those beds which hold large 


from 


numbers of plants in situ, or nearly so, that we can expect to find a abs 

variety of species, and especially a hore delicate and perishable 
nisms, 

olf e some beds 


It is also quite observable in the Joggins section that whil Cala- 
supported Sz gillaria, others, in the same part of the system, carried 04 
mites, shes, mixtures of ubesk with other plants; so peti di 
soil, Moisture, etc., frequently cause neivlboring beds to be more 

i hecten ne an sthiena ea more widely separate 
These local and temporary differences must always have occurred pet 
deposition of the coal measures, and should not sé confounded with 
general changes which are connected with lapse of time. 


Mineralogy and Geology. 427 


4, Brief Report of J. D. Whitney, State Geologist of California, on 
the progress of the Geological Survey, to his Excellency Leland Stanford, 
Governor of the State, dated, Office of the Geological Survey, San 
rancisco, Nov, 26, 1863.— i 


t closing. I will, 
therefore, only attempt to set forth, as briefly as possible, the plan which 


on the relations of the Geological Survey to the interests of the State, 
our labors during the season which is now closing have been directed to 


that great chain of mountains, especially of that portion which lies 


Operate to any advantage, or without considerable risk. 

The organization of the corps has remained nearly the same as last year ; 
but the smallness of the appropriation made by the last Legislature has 
had its effect in cutting down the survey to some extent. Prof. Brewer 
has been employed as Assistant Geologist and Botanist, and has been 


d 
plored in completing the map of the vicinity of the Bay of San Francisco, 
in the field and office. The field work is now complete, and the 


toward a map of the central portion of the Sierra Nevada. From Wack- 
&hreuder, a we have ad no assistance, as he has been engaged in 
the service of the United States. The maps commenced by him last 

“remain in the same condition which they were in at the date of my 
tas year’ 8 synopsis, Ke 


428 Scientific Intelligence. 


Mr. Gabb has continued the work of figuring and describing the fossils 
collected by the survey ; he has also been employed during a part of the 
time in the field. 

In the zoological department, Dr. Cooper has been engaged from April 
Ist, a part of the time at Santa Barbara and on the adjacent islands, col- 
lecting marine and land animals, and afterward in the Sierra Nev 
He is now employed in preparing a catalogue of the animals of the State, 

Professor Brewer has continued the collection of botanical specimens, 
and chiefly in the high Sierra, where much that is new and interesting 
has been discovered, no collectors in this department having ever before 
visited our highest mountain regions. The task of working out the bo- 
tanical and zoological collection has been proceeded with, and portions of 

vorts received from some of the eminent authorities to whom various 
subdivisions of the collections had been referred. 

t seems proper, at the present stage of the survey, to make 


amount and character of the printing to be done this winter will depend 

on the settlement of the question whether the survey is to be continued; 

and if so, for what probable length of time. 
Undoubtedly, were the State in a position i 


with advantage, since all will admit that the results proposed to be gained 
by a work of this kind, if it be properly conducted, could not fail to be 


tions to the Executive and Legislature, how much time and money } 

been and are still being expended in other countries in works of this kind, 
as for instance in Great Britain an rance, ut the degree of perte 
tion to be aspired to in such an undertaking must be governed by er 
cumstances ; and if we consider that it would require a population oF 
71,000,000 within the borders of our State in order that our asp 


The farthest limit of completeness to which I ever aspired pct bs 


le expect, and a personal experience of the condition of the treasti’» 
Lore convinced me of the impossibility of carrying out this undertaking, 


Mineralogy and Geology. 429 


recognize the value of the survey until after it was completed, and that 
nsequently it would be impossible to carry it forward on a matured 


with a liberal appropriation—of not less than $40,000 per year. 
am, furthermore, of opinion that the survey should be suspended alto- 
ther, until such time as the finances of the State are placed on a cash 


any longer. 

Should the financial condition of the State be improved, and the ne- 
cessary appropriations made, we might in four years accomplish the fol- 
lowing amount of work: 

We should prepare a map of Central California, extending from the 
parallel of 37° to that of 40° 20’—probably on a scale of three miles 
tothe inch. This map would embrace the area occupied by about nine- 
tenths of the population of the State. It is possible that we might be 
able to complete the map of the Coast Ranges, from Santa Barbara to 
Monterey, which was commenced two years ago. Detailed maps of va- 


be given, The main object of the survey, however, would be the eluci- 
dation of the mineral resources of the State, including everything which 


nts of the survey would also receive a share of attention. 
_ The result of the survey, in case it should be actively continued for 


wary ars longer, would probably be compr ised in ve large vol- 
umes, of which the first would embrace the physical geography and 
geology of the State; the second, the description © he fossils 


a 

of economical value; the fourth, the botany and zoology ; and 
fifth would contain such maps, sections and other illustrations as were 

hot in roduced into the other volumes, or pr 

ie however, that some 

‘0 publish, 


‘Re 


430 Scientific Intelligence. 


f it b 
no further appropriation being made except for the purpose of preparing 
for publication such of the matter as is already collected, so far as the 
same can be made available without any additional field-work, we shall 
be able to furnish two volumes, and perhaps three, accordin 
amount which may be appropriated for preparing the materials in hand 


Th 
tiuuance, by the Legislature of 1862, having just been paid, a volume is 
now due the State, in accordance with the Act passed at that session, 
authorizing the printing of one volume and appropriating $3,000 therefor, 


the office, although I did not enter upon the duties of State Geologist 


of “ — | 
tion. | This Board, consisting of the State Geologist, the Surveyor Gen the 


n or before the secon nday of December, on the Pook 


tak eee PS Pare Se i AD ere eS ec eS eae 


Mineralogy and Geology. 431 


lege, a School of Mines, and a Museum including the geological collec- 
tions of this State.” 

telegraph, on the 12th of April, brought information that the 
Legislature of California had decided on the continuation of the Survey. 


4b Large Mass of Native Copper.—Mr. J. B. Townsenp, agent of the 
Minnesota Mine, has communicated to one of the Editors the following 
facts regarding the large mass of copper found in 1857 :—* The ‘ great 
‘ I ‘4 of . . . 


me men were employed in cutting at first, but as the 
e smaller, only a few could work at the cutting at a time. 
veral heavy blasts were necessary to loosen the mass from its hed. At 


re- 
Placed by certain silicates, which have not only filled up the chambers, 
cells, and septal orifices, but have been injected into the minute tubuli, 

are thus perfectly preserved, as ma be seen on removing the cal- 


*erpentine, and a dark green alumino-magnesian silicate near chlorite and 
loganite, The pyroxene and serpentine are often found in contact, filling 
chambers in the fossil, aud were evidently formed in consecu- 
¥e stages of a continuous process. 
observations confirm the views which I have already expressed 
erican Jou I 


» lead ancient Laurentian Foraminifera, and that of the allied forms 


hay and 
@ shown, are injected with glauconite, is obvious. 


] 
432 Scientific Intelligence. 


7. Ueber zwei neue dyadische Pflanzen ; by Dr. H. B, Gurnrrz (Jahrb, 
Sir Min, etc., 1863, pp. 525-530).—Of the two new plants of the Per- 
mian here described by Dr. Geinitz, one is from the Rothliegende of Ot- 
tendorf near Braunau in Bohemia; it is named Schittzia anomala, 
is a stem in fruit; it is regarded by the author as probably Coniferous, 
and near the living Cryptomeria. The other is from the lower Permian 
of Hohenelbe, and is apparently a root, as the name given it, Rhizolithes 
Kablike, implies. The paper is illustrated by two plates. 

8. Beitriige zur Kenntniss der organischen Ueberreste in der Dyas. 
(order permischen Formation zum Theil) und tuber den Namen Dyas ; 
by Dr. H. B. Gernirz. With two plates. (Jahrb. f. Min., 1863, pp. 
865-398.)—Dr. Geinitz here describes and figures the Prosoponiscus 
problematicus (which he refers to the Isopod Crustaceans), Syringopora 
fischeri Gein., Saurichnites Leisnena Gein., Saurian skin from the lower 
Permian of [uttendorf near Hohenelbe, and remarks upon the preten 
identity of fossils of certain British Carboniferous and Permian schis 
and also upon the name Dyas, of Marcou, used by him for the Permian, 

Under this last head, Dr. Geinitz shows that ‘the Dyas has different 
limits from those before given to the Permian, Yet we still think, with 
Murchison, that the accepted name of Permian may without inconven- 
lence and more properly be extended to cover the whole. We see 


_ advantage in a change, and least of all to one based on a mere accident, 


¢ number of subdivisions of the formation in a particular region. ; 
9. Appendix to the Third edition of the Antiquity of Man; by Sit 
Cuarves Lyeut. Dec. 1863.—This appendix consists of abstracts of 


‘ ls and Geology 
of Canada ; by E. J. Cuaemay, Ph.D., Prof. in University College, To 
ronto. 236 pp., 8vo, with over 200 wood-euts. Toronto, 1864. w.C, 


original, While the volume has a special interest in Canada, it has 
hardly less out of it, with all who would become acquainted with the 
geology of North America. of 


F 


4 


i. 


Botany and Zoology 433 
— III. BOTANY AND ZOOLOGY. 


1. On the Popular Names of British Plants, being an explanation of 
the Origin and Meaning of the names of our indigenous and most com- 


»in all the High and Low German and Scandinavian languages, 
what is particularly worthy of our attention, each of them expressive 


Of some distinct meaning. These will prove, what with many reade 


rs is 

_“ctascertained upon other evidence . . . that the tribes which descended 
upon Britain had entered Europe, not as a set of savages, or wandering 
. rude 


, t 
Be. Asia,—they do not comprise the Eim, Chesnut, Maple, Walnut, 
- soi Holly, or any evergreen, except of the Fir-tribe, or Plum, 
Peach, or Cherry, or any other fruit-tree, except the Apple. For 
JouR. Scr.—Srconn Serres, Vor. XXXVII, No. 111.—May, 1864 
56 


¢ 
; 


* 


a 


434 Scientific Intelligence. 


all these latter they adopted Latin regs a proof that at the time when 
they first came into contact with the Roman provincials on the Lower 


querors from a country view alibi trees were unknown.’ 
The temsformations and transpositions which ma ties names 
have undergone are curious. The word Primrose sonal from 


Ww 
Primeverole, of the Italian Primaverola, a diminutive of the Latin prima 
vera, the first spring flower. This in England was familiarized into 
prime rolles, and then into primrose, which was at length explained as 
meaning the first rose of spring, without considering that the flower in 
question could never have been taken for a rose. T'ube Rose, from Tu- 
berose, i. e., tuberosa was an analogous blunder. a curiously enough, 
the cibnpsstde of the olden time was not a Primula at all, as Dr. Prior 
h 


e 
name in all the old books. Matthioli, in 1586, however, appends the 
name of Primula veris, &c. both to Bellis and Primula. 

“ Primrose peerless,” etymologically eae ~— out to mean Primula 
paralyseos,—a palsy, ‘not a nonpariel prim 

Another link of the chain of ibafadient: our Primrose in the middle 


w bear the 
name. The original Gilliflower being a Pink we may turn to ‘the origin of 
the Jatter name. Dr. Prior informs us that it is derived from the = Ger- 


da faek 

2. Cosson et Germain de Saint-Pierre, Flore des Environs de "Par aris 
giéme ed. Paris: Masson et Fils, 1861. pp. 963, 8vo.— Synopsis Ane 
lytique de la Flore des Environs de Paris, 2itme ed. pp. 5§ pe 
With these two volumes,—the one in this edition enlarged into 4 
octavo, the other a veritable ‘ket companion for herborizations, — 
onthe the whole botany of the district within the space of 6X*: 

Parisian botanical students are furnished in an enviable af the 

The larger volume is a full and most conscientiously os flora” 
region within 24 leagues of Paris, which takes in pasa et 
Evreux, and Compiegne and is supplied with a map ¢ owded with ” 


Botany and Zoology. ’ 435 


tails, synoptical tables, dsc. The commonly cultivated plants are included, 
and the more important ones fully described. Both works are models of 


ir kind. A. G. 
8, Des Fleurs de Pleine Terre, comprenant la Description et la Cul- 
ture des Fleurs Annuelles, Vivaces, et Bulbeuse de pleine terre, suivies de 
Classements divers, indiquant U'emploi de ces Plantes et ['époque de leur 
— floraison, de plans de Jardins, avec des examples de leur ornementation en 
divers genres, etc., etc. Par VitMors—Anprizvx, ef cite. Paris, 1863, 
pp. 1216, 16mo,—Twenty-eight pages are occupied with succinct prefa- 
tory instructions for the raising and propagating of flowering plants. 
 Theclose of the compact little volume contains lists of choice hardy flower- 
3 bulbo 


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Mis chubby; but double title-pages are given for the convenience of 


Sut. Monographia Generis Lepigonorum, Auctore N. C. Kixpperea, 
Upsal, , 1863, pp. 48, 4to, tab, 1-3. Separately printed from the Nova 
Acta Upsal 


Species are elaborately described, and portions of the plant and magnified 


the author makes out that, in strictness, it antedates Spergularia, because 
Persoon ga 
and 


436 3 : Scientific Intelligence. 


sion is into Letosperma, (11 species) and AP aig ete (14 species), each — 
sub-divided, from the size of the capsule, into Macrotheca and Micro- 
theca. One eA — with inoue eeds (L. macrothecum) 
is from “ogee and t mooth-seeded species with small pods are 
assigned to our trai pie as also one — rae siete fruited one 
(Z. salinurn), both to our eastern and our western ¢ T 

is an nse one to study, on account of the wide veouuaslll distri- 
bution, and the close connexion among the forms, which sume 

tinguish into numerous species, while ver would sibaed them rather as 
sto eet segregated derivations of a common stock, or of pie? or 
three stock 


. Kongliga Svenska Fregatten Eugenies Resa, ete. Botanik, 1 2. 
(Published i the Royal Society of Sciences * Stockholm.) Botany of 
J. 


the Galapagos Islands, by N. J. ANpERsson.—The first fasciculus of these 2 


botanical results a the Noma of the Swedish Frigate Eugenie, pub- 


lished several years ago, is a general discussion of the vegetation of the 
Galapagos, in xsi Swedish iavaiadie The second, recently issued, is an 
eer ae wed aniarum in Insulis ai fl sibus a a 


a ae by this more recent and sumed florula. The number it 


A 
ibsatal ve years past, have been “most a et and ae 
Professor a an, — “ex completed the work, so far as oo te 


to es sibustoos to Mr. Wrights coil With the nage of 
Lindig’s Venezuelan collection, we are assnred that no collection of Trop- 
ical Lichenes has ever been made which would compare with this. 
akeakt's descriptions and ae upon the more inter 
ae are published in the Proe ¢ of the American Academ pd 

Arts and rege ay and copies of ihe "publication will be nied 
subscribers to the sets. Several sets yet remain for disposal, containing 
between 144 ei 165 species. Those who desire to obtain them may 
apply to Prof..Gray, Cambridge. The indefatigable replioaiee is eo ve 
suing his botanical investigations in Cuba. 

. Observations on the Genus Unio, together with descriptions 

Species, their soft parts, and’ embryonic forms in the — re 
Tsaac Lea, LL.D., Pres. Acad. Nat. Sci, Philad., ete., ete. 


Jul) a tenth volume of Dr. Lea’s Memoirs on the Uni 
dedicated to Professor ae fries arc Twenty-five pages are 


Botany and Zoology. : 437 
the descriptions of new species, and the rest of the volume by obser- 


ide of the United States. Many of the new species described were 
collected by Prof. Wyman in South America. Other South American 
ies, with a few from Asia, were contributed by Mr. C. M. Wheatley, 

and others from Asia by Mr. Taines. 
The number of known species of North American Unionide has been 
by the author, since the publication of his ninth volume, by 
thirty-six, making in all seven hundred and ten ; and still others, Dr. Lea 

observes, are in his possession. 

ides descriptions of the shells and animals, Dr. Lea makes some 


critical remarks on certain subdivisions of the family which have been 


= by Professor Agassiz. 

The Introduction announces that the eleventh volume will consist 
chiefly of indigenous species of Unionide and Melanide, but with some 
exotic species of the former, descriptions of which have already appeared 
at various times in the Proceedings of the Academy. 

by We may here add, that, in January last, Dr. Lea declined being a can- 
didate for re-election to the office of President of the Academy; where- 


“That this Academy hereby expresses its most grateful sense of the 
entire faithfulness, impartiality, and eminent ability with which Dr. Le 
—otarsetbongg the duties of President during the lengthened term of his 


ment of the interests of science in the United States. 
8. List of the Polyps and Corals sent by the Museum of Comparative 
: : : E 


Zoology, Cambridge, Mass.—This “list” is much more than a list, it 
Sontaining notes by the author at considerable length on the characters 
md synonymy of many of the species, and descriptions of a number o 
‘Species, “The author shows a thorough acquaintance with the de- 
torte which has been under his charge in the Museum of Compara- 
i Zoology at Cambridge, and contributes much in his paper toward 
atin of this department of zoology. 
G rospectus of a Monograph of the Tetraonine, or Family of the 
gang ; issued by the author, D. G. Extrot.—* It is proposed to com- 
lifes, very shortly the publication of this work, including plates with 


l of this family, especially with that portion of it comprising 
| = ‘luding the great number received by the Smithsonian Institution, 


its various expeditions,) the author trusts that he will be enabled 
— some new ig ) 


438 Miscellaneous Intelligence, 


“ Peculiar facilities have been afforded for carrying on an investigation 
in this family ; for not only is the author placed in possession of all the 
specimens obtainable, but, being in constant correspondence with leading 

uropean ornithologists, he is enabled through their kind efforts to be 
kept thoroughly informed of whatever relates to this work in the museums 
of the Old World. 

“*North America,’ says Prince Charles Bonaparte, ‘is exceeded by no 


the requisite number is printed off; thus making it impossible to repro- 
duce the work, unless at the original expense, but causing it to become 
more valuable to those possessing it. 

“The work, imperial folio in size, will be issued in parts—each to con- 
tain six plates—to follow each other as rapidly as may be consistent with 
the proper preparation of such large subjects, and will be furnished to sub 
scribers only, at Ten Dollars each, payable on delivery; the number of 
parts probably not exceeding five. It is intended also to give one or 
more plates, as may be required, illustrating the eggs of the different 


species. 

“The author would beg leave to request those who may desire to sub- 
scribe, to sign their names to the accompanying form and enclose it t 
him, as early as may be convenient, to his residence, No. 21 West 384 
street, New York. 

“A list of the subscribers wiil be given with the last number.” 

New York, Feb. 17th, 1864. 


IV. MISCELLANEOUS SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE. 


_1, On the Yellow Coloration of faded Photographic Prints; by M. 
Carey Lea.'—Everything connected with the permanence of photo 


the dark as to the causes of failure. “Sulphuration” is a conv hi 
word, but it would be more satisfactory if we had some idea as to the 
nature of the obnoxious insoluble sulphur compound. she 
The hypothesis which has for some time past become current Is, (28 
boo a depends upon the presence in the print of some sulphur com 
und, which with time acts upon the silver, converting it, as 18 $810) 


_' Communicated for this Journal by the author, and received too late for inse™ 
tion in the foregoing portion of the Journal. 


Miscellaneous Intelligence. 439 


- black precipitate below a colorless solution ; in the other a brown- 
viscid liquid. But if we watch the process from the outset, we shall 


Consequence of excessive intensity of color. Lampblack, for 
yi a state of excessively fine division is yellowish brown. Ink 


nelude: 
probable,) that the current opinion, ascribing the fad- 
the production of sulphid of silver, is correct. 


440 Miscellaneous Intelligence. 


of the Literary and Philosophical Soziety of Manchester, in January last, 
stated that the magnesium light, proposed by him and Prof. Bunsen, had 


emy of Sciences of Paris, in February, a new and simp! or pre- 
serving animal substances, the invention of Mr. Pagliari. The liquid is 
ompos alum, benzoin and water; the surface of the meat is covered 


load in the necessary manner. An electric cable is a difficult thing to — 
coil, indeed no one who inspects it in short lengths would believe it capa 
ble of being coiled at all ; the cable must, therefore, be laid in the hold, 
in as large a circle as possible, and the space occupied must be , 
clear from cross beams, or perpendicular supports for the deck. The cable 


and in addition a clear space provided sufficient to enable this enormous 
length of cable to be coiled, it is evident that no existing vessel, excep? 
the Great Eastern, would be equal to the requirements of the case. 428 
hands employed in liberating the cable coiled in the hold have a difficult oa 
task to perform, even when the sea is calm and everything on a 


smoothly. When at full speed, the coils have to be carefully 


Miscellaneous Intelligence. 441 


for contrary winds and rough weather, a. large amount of surplus power . 
is indispensable. In fair weather it is not difficult to attend to all these 


5. Permeability of Iron.—Our readers may recollect our having, some 
months ago, mentioned certain experiments made by MM. H. Sainte- 
Claire Deville and Troost, from which it appeared that, by a kind of en- 
Osis scarcely to be suspected in the case of a metal, hydrogen would 

Pass through the pores of a platinum tube. Last week, the Academy of 
Sciences received from them a new paper, in which they announce a 
amilar property in iron. The great difficulty was to find a tube answer- 
} to the various conditions required for the experiment. The iron 


hot admit of being tempered. It was in reality rather iron than steel, 
and so soft that it was drawn into a tube without heating or soldering, © 
though its sides were of a thickness of from three to four millimetres. 
To the ends of this tube, two other tubes of a much smaller diameter, 
and of copper, were soldered with silver; the whole was then introduced 
into an Open porcelain tube, which was put into a furnace ; a glass tube, 


s tablis , i ne- 
ig hydrogen completely deprived of atmospheric air; while at the 
he end, another glass tube, bent at right angles, dipped into a mercury 
bath, its vertical branch being 80 centimetres long. For the space of 


ho 
Tatus, which was maintained at a high temperature, so as to exhaust the 
hee of the hydrogen on the sides of the iron tube, and to drive away 
ike” atmospheric air, as well as the moisture contained in the tube, or 
i a be produced there. This done, the communication between the 
apt tube and the hydrogen apparatus was cut off by melting down the 
slss tube by the aid of the blowpipe. No sooner was this effected, than 
Ax. Jour, Sct.—Szconp Senres, Vou. XXXVII, No. 111.—Mar, 1864. 
57 


442 Miscellaneous Intelligence. 


the mercury, no longer kept down by the stream of hydrogen, yielded 
the pressure of the air, and rose in the vertical glass tube to the height 
of 740 millimetres, or very nearly the usual barometrical height. This — 
would not have happened, had there not been a nearly complete vacuum 
in the tube the instant the supply of hydrogen was cut off. But what 
had become of the hydrogen supplied before? There is but one expla 
nation possible, viz: that, notwithstanding the pressure of the atmos 
phere, the hydrogen had passed through the pores of the steel tube. 
. Hence an iron tube introduced into a furnace where there are reducing 
gases, is a most powerful instrument for carrying off all the hydrogen— 
Galignani. at 
. 6. Submarine Volcano in the Mediterranean.—Letters fro 


twenty or thirty high, composed of cinders. In its centre was the cra- 
ter, which continually emitted steam and smoke; and during the erup 
tions, which occurred on an average every hour and a half, large stones 
and cinders were thrown to the height of one thousand feet. It is mer 
tioned as a singular circumstance that about the same time that this vol 
cano first showed itself, a strong earthquake took place in the island of 
Samos, which divided a hill into two parts, leaving a valley with stream 
of water flowing through it. Recently a party of curious persons 
this wonderful island, and one of them thus reports the result of theit 
observations : "7 
“The beach, which appeared to be a mixture of ashes and sand reduced 
to a powder, was as hard as the firmest sand, but very few yards from 
the water-side the surface was extremely rough, composed of loose Ci 
- ders of all sizes heaped lightly together, so that at every step we 58 
he 


When on the top we were nearly to leeward of the crater, an fall in 
sequence was that the volume of steam that rose from it drove 1 


and perhaps thirty or forty yards across, The level of the oan 
was from twelve feet to twenty feet below the lip or highest meg aore” 
actual crater. It was much discolored and boiling strongly, throwing *P 
quantities of white steam, with this sulphurous vapor which annoy aie 
somuch. There was apparently an underground 1 septic way 
from the southeast side into the sea, which might be traced 9 long 7 


Miseellaneous Intelligence. 443 


by its dark color, and at the same place a thick volume of steam rose 
fiom the outside of the original crater, as if a new one were’ forming. 


an the appearance of this mass of ashes in the middle of the sea. 
You may form some idea of the force of the fire that must have been 
required to form it, by considering that it is, as near as could be estimated, 


St. Maur in order to make the Marne contribute its water to the capital, 


deriving water from the Dhuys are actively progressing. The vast cis- 
We which are to receive it are in course of con 

,of Ménilmontant, at the place called Pare St. Fargeau ; and the prelimi- 

id the cireuit of 

hes between Joinville-Le-Pont 

and Charenton, Napoleon I. caused a canal, two kilometres in length, half 

Here stand the mills of 

Maur, which are to be replaced by a hydraulic machine, throwing 

about 40,000 cubie metres of water in the course of 24 hours. These 

re set in motion by falls of water three metres in height by eight. 

the canal, distributed between 

nk of the river. The eastern one is pro- 

artificial rivulets of the Park of 

motion by a strong turbine, 

urs, for the sum of 


ipality of 
‘iA spar Oa ay F the principal prizes proposed 
hid y of Sciences.—The following are the pr : : 
this year and.the following ones, by the Academy, at ite last, public 


444 Miscellaneous Intelligence. 


muting; ; the papers in all cases to be sent in headed by some motto, to 

be repeated on a sealed envelope containing the name of the author, 
The datos] in parenthesis indicate the last day on which the papers may 
be sentin. A prize of 3,000 francs is to be awarded to the best paper 
on the question: “ To discuss with care and compare with theoretical re- 
sults the observations of tides in the principal abbas : France” (May 30th, 
> a 000K: “To im _ ve in some gon rtant point that part of 


“To establish a n compl rigorous +-abediy of the stability of vet 
librium in floating bodies” (June 30th, 1864)—6,000fr. “To invent and 


choice of the competitor” (June 30th, 1864)—3,000fr. Bordin 

for “some notable improvement in the mechanical theory of heat” jas 
30th, 1864)-—3,000fr. “On the comparative anatomy of the nervous 
system of fish” (August 31st, 1864)—3,000fr. “On the production of 
hybrid animals by artificial fecundation” (Dee. 30th, 1865—8, 000fr. 
“For the improvement of French paleontology, either by showing the 
anatomical characteristics of one or more types of Vertebrata, and thus 
affording important data for the study of our Tertiary fauna, or else by 
treating of fossils coe belong to one of the least known classes of that 
great branch of the animal kingdom”—5,000fr. “To give a com plete 
history of pellagra” (March 31st, 1864)—5,000fr. “On the application of 
ming to therapeutics” (March — a a etn The Academy 


tries and cdlitna of interest in the Pacific ocean. The squadron, whi 
ises several war vessels, arrived at Montevideo, Buenos Ayres, ©. iL 
in oes natn last, from which point the naturalists went overland to V 
paraiso, where the fleet was ordered to meet them. We do not a 
the destination of the expedition after leaving Valparaiso, win as it isn 
unlikely that this group (Sandwich Ids.) will be visited soo 
our columns a list of the savans engaged in this comnmissioB, 


on pee 
Don Fernando Amor, Professor of “Tateral History, who will attend 
to ee. and entomology. 
Den Francisco de Paula Martinez, Professor of Natural History, who 
will give his attention to os crustacea and mollusca. for 
Don <8 


Deb Menudl Alasuged, MD.,oby! han -tty-atseeid: taebe wsieusny 0 
anthie repology. 


Miscellanecus Intelligence. 445 


' Don Bartolome Puig, M.D., naturalist, who is to assist in preparing 
and preserving the collections. 
_ Don Juan Isern, 2d inspector of the museum, naturalist, who will at- 
tend to botany. 

Don Rafael Castro, photographer and draftsman.—Sandwich Island 


10, Vegetable Ivory Vegetable ivory, in contact with concentrated 
_ sulphuric acid, takes a splendid red color, almost equal to magenta, At 
first it is pink, but gradually becomes deeper until it attains a purple, 
when the acid has been allowed to act for twelve hours. 

11. Hrpedition to the Desert of Sahara, under Messrs, Martins and 
Escher von Linth.—A brief notice of the starting of this expedition is 
given at page 146 of this volume, r. Desor, who was one of the 
pry states in his letters, published in the Swiss journals, that from 


h 

going from Biskra and returning was about three weeks. Although 

ef, Mr. Desor regards the expedition as having accomplished important 
results. Tis attention was especially directed to the geological age of 
the Sahara; and he cencludes, with Escher von Linth, that it was a vast- 
sea at the commencement of the present epoch, and that only recently 
has it become dry. He is established in this opinion by the frequent oc- 
currence of a marine shell, the Cardium edule, found to-day on the shores 
of the Mediterranean. r. Desor is of the opinion that the elevation of 
the Desert above the sea though a recent was not a sudden occurrence, 
but was gradual and marked by successive steps. The party brought 
home a number of fish from the Artesian wells of the Desert, belonging 


emy on the subject of periodical meteors. The facts are dec rom 
his own repeated opera and those of A. Herschel, Esq., in England, 


nx; the 5th-13th of December, (having been of late years a fine 
ses) radiant half way between Alpha Gemint and eo patie Bir 
Mentioned, together with others requiring observation. He remarks 


446 Miscellaneous Intelligence. 


the Nov. 13th-14th period is not visible in Australia, according to Pro, 
Newmeyer ; but those of Aug. 9th—-10th, with other periods, are. 
In addition to the above, Mr. Greg has commenced an extract from 


tories, and Hawkhurst ; it giv ves the heights, paths, brilliancy, directions, 
and estimated mass of twenty observed meteors of that period. Their 
average upper limit was 82.50 miles, and their average disappearance 
t 58 miles above the sea-level. The former heights varied from 55 

qlee at the lowest, to 131 miles at the highest ; the latter heights 
from 35 miles at the lowest, to 84 miles at the hi ighest. The paths varied, 
in absolute length, from 18 miles to 100 thiles, and averaged 47°5 miles; 
and the durations varied from half a second to three seconds, and the ve- 
locties range all the way from 23 miles to 71 miles a second. The radiant 
was near Gamma Persei. 

An attempt was also made to estimate the masses of the individual me- 
teors by the heat developed—taking the apparent light as its measure, 
and comparing the latter with the amount of coal gas which would yield 


is put at near one and a-balf pounds avoirdupois, varying from 20 grains 
to 74 pounds. 

It is scarcely necessary to remark here that this last determination must 
have required a large amount of assumption, and can be received only a 
an approximation of the rudest description. Even as such, pares it 

great interest and value. cians 
- 18. National Academy of Sciences—Titles of memoirs resik and ‘of 
oral communications sande at the January Session, 1864, at Washington? 

1. The elements of the mathematical theory ‘of quality. First Ne 
moir; a Perce. 


8. The Saturnian System. First Memoir; Bensamrn Per 


varieties an species ; a —o 
5. On the metamorphoses of Fishes; L. Aca their 
8. On the geographical dbaton ‘of Fishes as i bearing ups 
affinities and systematic classification ; L. Aas lege Ob- 


serv n the years 1840-45; Parts IV, V, VI. Horizontal Foree; 
investigation of the eleven year period of the solar diurnal aire al 

annual inequality, and of the influence of the moon. Abstract; A. © 
Bacue 


8. Discussion of Magnetic Observations, dc. ; Parts VI, Vill wth 1K 
Vertical a i investigation of the eleven year period od of the 
iation and annual inequality, and of the influence of the aga 


Miscellaneous Bibliography. 447 
8. On the force of fired gunpowder, and the pressure to which heavy 
CRABB 


guns are actually subjected in firing ; . P, Banyarp. 
- 10, Description of an anemograph, designed for the University of Mis- 
sissippi; F. A. P. Barnarp. - 
11. On materials of combustion for lamps in Light Houses; Joszpx 
Heyry. 
12, On the Parallelogram of Forces, and on virtual velocities; 
T, Srrone. 
13. On photographs of the Solar Spectrum ; L. M. Ruruerrurp. 
14. On the tangencies of Circles and Spheres ; J. G. Barnarp. 
15. Observations of the Planet Venus near the times of her inferior 
Conjunction, Sept. 28, 1863, and subsequently; Prof. Srepnen AEx- 
ANDE 


16. Brief note on the forms of icebergs; Prof. Srepuzn ALEXANDER, 
14. Maury’s Sailing Directions, and Wind and Current Charts — 


_ Wm. J. Tayzor.—Prof, William J. Taylor died at Philadelphia, April 
6th, aged 31. He was for several years a resident of iladelphia, and 


department of Mineralogy. In the autumn of 1859, he was called to 
the chair of Chemistry in the Medical College at Mobile, Ala., where he 
spent but one season. Returning north, he settled near Berlin, Worcester 
Co., Maryland, and, on the breaking out of the war, was a very ardent 
Supporter of the cause of the Union. He aided in raising a regiment, of 
ne he was Major, and continued in re pile service woe Le 

months, In his early death, mineralogical science Joses an active 
able investigator, BE promt an jaa ie and whole-souled patriot, 

; V. MISCELLANEOUS BIBLIOGRAPHY. 

_L. Boston Journal of Natural History: Vol. VIL, No. 1, 1859,—- 
Arr. I. A Supplement ‘3 the “ Terrestrial Mollusks of the United States ;” 
by W. G Brrwey. Ree ae 
No. 2, 1861.—Anrr. II. Observations upon the Geology and Paleon- 
tology of Burlington, Iowa, and its vicinity; by Oaaries A. Warrz.— 
TL On the Hymenoptera of the genus Atlantus in the United States ; 
y Eowarv Norton.—IV. Descriptions of new species av ea from 
© Carboniferous Rocks of the Mississippi Valley ; by James Hau. ~ 


. 


448 Miscellaneous Bibliography. 


No. 3, 1862.—Arr. V. Notes on new species of Microscopical Organ- 
isms, chiefly from the Para River, South America; by Lorine W. Bar 
teY.—VI. Contributions to the Comparative Myology of the Chimpan- 
zee; by Burt G. Witper.—VII. On Alternate Generation in Annelids, 
and the Embryology of Autolytus cornutus ; by A. Agassiz.—VIII. Ma- 
terials for a Monograph of the North American Orthoptera, including 4 
Catalogue of the known New England Species ; by Samuex H. Scupper. 

0. 4, 1863.—Art, IX. Observations on the summit structure of Pen- 


Acassiz.—XII. Prodromus of the history, structure, and physiology of 
the order Lucernarie ; by Prof. Henry James Crank, of Harvard Uni- 
versity, Cambridge, Mass.—XIII. Monograph of the genus Callinectes; 

Atsert Orpway.—XIV. On the Fossil Crab of Gay Head; by Dr. 

uu1aM Stimpson.—XV. On Synthetic Types in Insects; by A. 5 
Pacxarp, Jr— XVI. Description of a “ White Fish” or “ White Whale” 
(Beluga borealis Lesson) ; by Jerrrres Wyman, M.D., Prof. of Anatomy 
in Harvard College—XVII. Remarks on some characteristics of the In- 
sect Fauna of the White Mountains, New Hampshire; by Samvst H. 


Scupper. 

2. National Almanac and Annual Record, for the year 1864, 642 

. 12mo. Philadelphia, 1864. George W. Childs.—The National Al- 
manac for 1863 was noticed by us early last year (xxxv, 465). e vol- 
ume now issued sustains the same high character, and _ besides is much 
increased in value by a still wider range of subjects, and fuller details. 
While remarkably complete as a national work, it also contains much 
information on foreign countries, their sovereigns, governments, areas, 
populations, finances, armies, navies, commerce, navigation, ete. ete. 


Astronomical and Meteorological observations made at the U. S. Naval Observa- 
tory during the year 1862, Capt. J. M. Griurss, U. S. N., Superintendent. 700 pp» 
4to. Washington, 1863. Published by authority from the Hon, Secretary of the 


avy. 
Report of the Commissioner of Agriculture for the year 1862. 632 pp» Bro, 
with plates and wood-cuts. Washington, 1863. . 
The Geography and Resources of Arizona and Sonora: an Address before the 
American Geographical and Statistical Society, by Syivesten Mowry of 
New edition. 124 pp, 8vo, with a map. San Francisco and New York. 1863. 
A. Roman & Co. 
pp., 8vo, from t Proceedings of 
Appleton’s U.S. Postal Guide, containing the chief regulations of the Post Office 
and a complete list of the Pust Offices throughout the U. States. March, 1864 
Published quarterly. 25 cents. cilaiee aa 
Report of the British Association for the meeting at Cambridge in 1862, 9-9 
and 244 pp., oe tose £1. e : by R. Howat 
Synopsis of t eology of Durham a rt of Northumberland, by . Hows 
and J. W.Kirsy. 34 pp., 8vo. Published 1 by the Tyneside Naturalist’s Field 
Club, Aug. 1863, 


Miscellaneous Bibliography. . 449 


On the Nomenclature of the Foraminifera, by W. K. Parker, Esq. and 


Prof. T. 
R. Jones, F.GS, 20 pp., 8vo; from the Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist. for Sept. 1863, 


P-, 
Synopsis of the psi e ee Terrestrial palous of the State of aine, by 
og 8. mga 4 pp. 4to. Portland, Me.-—This catalogue includes the names 


specie 
Dictionary ot es and hes allied ig of — ieee founded on 

f the late Dr. Ure, by ER ACW. F.C.S., ted by eminent pam 
tbtor va Soin Volumes, ate Vol. Il, "985 pp. Tecan 1864. Long 


er Matert inux de b stpechcnetr par M. Detessr, Ingevieur des Mines, Prof. de Geol. 
a l’ecole norma 27 6 pp.. 8vo. Paris, 1863. Exposition Universelle de 1862. 

Musée Teyler: C t de la collection f pg ren hag par T.C. 
Winxuir. Ist liv 24 pp. “large 8vo. Harlem, 1863. Les Hér oes 

De Becton als folge — Bewegung der Erde im aes yon GusTAY 
Hinarcus, Cand. Se th. 44 pp., 8v« sl amap. Copenhagen, 1860. 

cet e Waarnemingen in erland, "ete, uitagegeven door het kon. 
ned. Met iaclons tek tuut, 1862. Utrecht, i 3: 

epee Takttagelser : utgifna af kongl. svenska Vetenskaps-akademien, 
bearbetade af Er. Edlund. 2d vol. 1860, and 3d vol. 1861. Stockholm, 1861 and 


Kongliga svenska Fregatten Eugenies a omkring Jorden under Befal ya a re 
irgin, aoren 1851-1853, utgifna “af k. svenska Vetenskaps-akademien. 
nae Heft 10, Zoology ; Heft Ly iouay: —Also an edition in Sean “ ‘he 
Procerpines or Acap. Nar. Sct. Pater ye —OCTOBER and ee ER, 
1863,—273, On Strepomatidse . a name for a family of fluviatile Mollusea, usually 
confounded with palit S. 8. Ha eee, escription of a collection of 


ci 
Notes on the Birds of Jamaica; W. 7. March, with voi ss by S, F. Baird.—304, 
Notes on the Mimidx of Jam sien Bio: rd Hill—306, Synonymy of the species 
of Strepomatide, a family of Fluv tile Mollusca, cahabisies North a ket Part 
I; George W. Tryon, Jr.—322, N rs on the Picide John Cassin. —DECEMBER. 
—329, Description of the Genus Stereslepis Ayres; Theodore Gill.—330, gear 
tion of the Genus Oxyjulis Gill; Theodore Gi it eae, Note on some recent - 
tions to the Ichthyological Fauna of Mibsichiawite: Theodore Gill,—833, Note on 
the species of Sebastes of the eastern coast of North America; 7heodore Gill— 
336, On some new and singular intermediate forms of pee F. W. Lewis, 
M.D.—346, Synopsis of the species of Hosackia; Asa Gray.—352, Synopsis of the 


e 
f yids Wm. M. Sandy FEBRUARY 2, The Crania of Covina 
torquatus and C. Adamsii compared; Elliott Coues, abe a Se bas . 


vy 
lusea inhabiting North America. Part Il; George 
Proceepixcs or Boston at. Hist., vol. ix. 295, E Sapplanentary notice of 
Neosorex palustris: A. ill, —229, me t of frogs ; he 
zo f life on. hi: zh okie oat 8. .— 233, di to the 
wue of the Birds find @ ais: Me., and about the Bay 

E. Verrill.—234, On antimony pol ee Brunswick; A. A. Hayes 935 
‘kie mineral rai ze, onsin; Chas. D y.—245, On the Sea Serpent, 
#.¢. Asciap —246. On the pees of the andreecium of the F . 


‘ 


450 Miscellaneous Bibliography. 


J. T. Rothrock.—249, Malacozoological Notices, rin 1, on the cage Gundlachia; 
Wm. Stimpson,—252, On impregnatio me * rs ; J. Wyman.—2538, Notice of 
rill: —27 igrati 


the eggs and young of a Ss r; A é. On migration of the 
— swa ‘wie A. BE. he ee be 9, Dewviniee or bee new Birds from the Baha- 
uy ryant. ervations on an a yman,—286, On cer- 


tain seabiiehie or "exceptional ete with Janeiutons ‘of new genera and species, 
ete, - lt Walsh 


PRooEEDINGS OF Fr Arts AND Sciences, vol, vi-—1, Obituaries of 
Nathan “Appleton, seta 7% ‘Diiot, Richard | Sullivan, Cornelius C. "Falto on, Luther 
V. Bell, Sir Francis il Peter Barlow, and J. B. Bio t.—35, ae ng jogue of 
onere Stars: Polar and Clock Stars, for fim reduction of observations in right 

ascension, with a discussion of the positions.—37, On the phlvscieek of some new 
or obscure species of plants, of monopetalous orders, in the collection of the U.S. 


i e 
tis, section xa je Spas Gray.—81, “Standard Mean Right Ascensions of Cir- 
cumpolar an d Time Stars;” B. A, Gould.—85, Supplement to the Ichnology of 
New England; E. Hitchcoe on Ue 92, On an echo in a large chimney; B. A. Gould— 


or 
Procrepines or AMER. Pati. Sociery, vol. vii, 1860.—329, eon —_ -slates in 
Europe and America; J, P. Lesley—831, On gold and silver 0 Washoe ; 
bois.— Annual Address, by the President, Dr. Wood.—339, On:4 a slitting 
thermometer and barometer; J. P. Lesley—342, On a new aneroid barometer; 
P. Lesle ey.— 347, ucane Bee of H. D. Gingn 3 J. R. Ingersoll —363, Obituary of Wash- 


e 
Stone-im in - 
ago of Pape De 5ois and Eekfeldt,—281,*On the structure of a 

ie e Brandywine; J. P. Lesley. —285, ‘Investigations into the laws of English 
Orthograpy and Pronanciation ; R. L. Tafel.—37 8, On phosphoric acid in agricul 

; Dr. Emerson.—380, On metaphysical discussion; /. P. Lesley —883, On the 

beni of an Arctic Expedition ; LL Hayes.—Vol. ae Me ie t Vocabularies of 
African Dialects; Alexander Orummell and . Le , On the Taconic rood 
tem; Jas. Ha 126 6, Average health ot ‘Philadelphia i ubeis. —30, Ont 
lachians and the a formation in Virginia; J. P. Lesley.—39 

e glish Tal . 


> 
t; HR. 59, Sept. 12th 
: oa ereren na “curtain” aurora of J uly 23d; J. P. Lesley.—64, Obituary 
of Prof. Géscge ode Dr. Dunglison—70, Obituary of Dr. Geo. W- rs 
Dr. Duitipon 86, On the skull of the Helmet Hornbill; Dr. Harris—88, ‘ 
i ; ? Powel—9 


o 

i= 

PS) 

Q 

=. 

o 

ae 

DR 

oO 

8 

oo 

— 

S 

= 

: 

s 
Lee 
ace ee 
FR % 
5 

bond * 

= 

> 

oO 

o 
eg 

‘3 

3 
i 

= 


to letters of classical alphabets; Chase.—183, On an aspha — coal *6id 5 is in bn wee 
Virginia; J. P. Lesley.—208, ei agers to Prof. Lawley on the Cape Breton “O®” 
Dawson. —224, On assay-balances; Dubois 


(For eonclndee of Didliogtaphy: see page 456) 


INDEX TO VOLUME’ 2AAXRVIT, 


A 
Abbott, F., notes on n Argus, 294. 
ey; American, proceedings of, 156, 
National, poesia of, 446. 


aed 4 rnal of, 156. 
dings of bec 449. 
at mn flees re) 


— by 


ican ep viorstions, 
ir 
ae containing tungsten, Caron, 118. 
Almana' a National, and Annual Record, 
notice of, 448. 
nu and aluminum-bronze, Lf L. 
Amber-fauna, Diptera of the, Lew, 305. 
Annnerst geet Heminlscenees of, by ZB 
otice of, 1 
Amphibians, position of, among Verte- 


brates, J. D. 4 
Andersson, 


N. J. whey of the 
z lapagos Is slags, notice 
Anilin purple, wate in. 
Animal 


sap on preserva- 


on 
Ant! ropology, Waitz’s Introduction to, 
“se of, 149. 
ony in Canada, 405. 
Anignity of Man, 3d appendix to Lyell’s, 


aed Confederation, explorations in, 


Ocles stial d dj amics, 187, 
Comet TV. imams, ; 

1 

__VI, 1863, 293. 

Density, rotation and relative age of the 
79), 140, 147. 
Nebuiz, recent researches on, 1 
aes lous matter, invisibility of, 210. 
Notes on n 294. 


et 
Ps 
ae 


nts of, Newton, 3 


um of carbon, 408. 
sy: 84, 
212. 


P d, 443. 
ceeiaenk ey Royal Society, 


87. 
Ge. , Species, Genera et Ordines 


Barometer as an indicator of earth’s rota- 
tion and s' pes s ceria P. E. Chase, 409, 
Bell, I. L., inum and aluminum- 

bronze, 133. 
n Chemical _ vacant, 147, 
Binary stars, 
liss, P. C., e& eplorations ins. America, = 
Plowpipe beads, crystals in, G. H. Emer: 


Blyth’s new edition of Liebig’s Chemistry, 

otice of, 1 

Boott, Francis, ‘obituary of, 288. 

Boston Soe. Nat. Hist., Journal of, 447, 
roceedings = 449, 

cou necrology for 1 38. 

Oo 
Agardh, Gen. et ru 
Andersson, Ga alpago: fe denlepigy 436. 
Brunet, Plantes de Michaux, etc., 286. 
Cosson '& G.de ‘ Pierre , Flore des enyi- 

pate de Paris, 434. 

, on flora of the Carboniferous, 


alum 


Harvey, Prey cn Australica, 286. 
Kt stag graphia gen, Lepigono- 
um, 435. 
LT jall’s plants of British ames 287. 
Mart rtius, Flora ae ae 
, Annales, = 
, Plants of Vi icto oria, 286. 
, Po ular names of British plants, 


See ME Lichenes Insule Cube, 436. 


Mii 
Prior, 


i cg aga x, Des Fleurs de Pleine 
nih dig 

coriatia ‘a thymifo ‘olia, 287. 

Gaultheria, 0: igin of t e, 287. 

Somes rected by ozone, rae. 378. 

Gym 6 aaeess structure of flowers in, 

Ink plant, 287. 

Womenhiere 


, 278, 
~d4 Tal ineralogical sate a 270. 
on dechenite and areo 
seceeer cite Lake Paperior; Or. 
tephr 


Cc 
vis eres crystals of tartrates of, J. P. Cooke, 


cairn Wasiney, 82. Survey, reports on, 
and peney of, by 


“3 
, ON wasium, 116, Cap) 
Barker, G. F., on casting of 20-inch gun 
at Pittsburgh, 296. Cel 


= uary of, 304. 
ag alloys containing tungsten, 118. 
estial dynamics, J. R. Mayer, 187. 


452 


(NDEX. 


of BEET classification based on, J. ae cre seme I tract on, by W. H. Miller, 


Chambers’ Eneyelspeas, notice of, 302. iveacie ne ioe pipe beads, G. H. Emerson, 


otice of work by, on 


ca- 


Chemical Chair in opie id 147. 
CHEMICAL WORKS, n of :— 
Blozham’s Medical Chemistry, 302, 
Miller’s Elements, 
Liebig’ s Chemistry, 135. 
a —— %e A argo of Solubilities, 301. 
HE. 
eins a of hydrogen, 117. 
Cesia and rubidia, tartrates of, 70, 
Carbon, spectrum 
pear n, separation ‘of, from yttrium, 


Co are 

Sepstals ie ‘bio mnie beads, 414, 

Cyanid of phosphorus, 269. 

Distillation of substances of different 

Praag 377. 

Et ar Be, co leer of a sulphid of po- 
m on bromid of, 390. 
anganic acid and compounds of; 

manganese, optical dis- 


. —s . sg gy of czesia and rubidia, 
P. Cooke, Jr., 


Cidnowies, on eusy nchite and dechenite, 
270, 


Dan n Classification, based 01 


a, J. D., 
cepbaiieation’ Insects, 10; tiorepiee 
S¥f 


Embryology in classification, 19, 184, 

Insects in geolog’ ac al histor: 

Carboniferous insects, 

amplificate Soa. general obserya- 

ions on, 175. 

Megasthenes and microsthenes 

Herbivores in er rie: history, 183, 
hi s among 


position of Amphibia 
brates, 1 
Text-book of Geology by, notice of 


1 
Manual of Geology, notice of, revised 
edition of, 302. 
Daws W. , Synopsis of Carboniferous 
Flora of Nova Scotia, 
DeLaski, J., on n glacial a action about Penob- 
scot Bay, 
ennis, heory of tides, 234. 


445, 


itrogen, determination of, 310. 
Nitro-prussid of sodium, action of light 


upon, 408. 
Oxyds, new metallic, 116, 119. 
Oxygen, ozone, and antozone, 325. 
Platinum-metals, 

epee and soda, indirect determination 


Silicin um, compounds of, with oxygen 
drogen, 120. 


tain spitailia. a oxyds, 
Sulphuric acid, estimation of, 122. 
Thallium 


hate 
ag, Sag atoys of 118. 
Ri further, “Phot 
Pst ag min i B. gt 
Tabula aria not Siok: 


Classification as Nie on cephalization, 
J. D. , 10, 157. 

Coan, T., pn Kilauea, 15. 

y Reports, review of, 95. 

“36. ier, P, indirect determination of pot- 
and so 


as 
gag see Ast omy. 
ke, J. Pod on crystals of tartrates o 
eas and ps ia, 70. 
dry process a # in photog graphy, 1 


—— 


Cosson, «alo b P des Environs de Paris, by, 


Ons, JH 6 = — of reaction 
pede ion potassium and Dromid 


of native, of L. Cee = 


Desert "of Sa ahara, expedition to, 146, 
y of iron, 441 
rune a, 
ces of different vol- 
M. C. Lea, Lea, 377. 


atilities, 


Earthquakes, theory of, A. Perrey, 1 440, 
Electric eable, pire gaara oh cv laying, 
n of, on iodized a 207. 
Electrical rs erties of parr! ne 

gun ¢ vat op n, J. Johnston and B. 


a3 oa 
Elevations, a e Height. 
Elliott, D. G., corres of a monograph 
e Tetra onine, 


437. 
on crystals in blowpipe 


151. 
140, 147. 
46, 445. 


Emerson, G. H., 
[ beads, 414. 
(Emmons, E., bel pe hag of, 1 


anis ah 
Explorations, see Goopeaphtesl Notices. 


F 
Binet gl f the , Himalayas, 27. 
sideigh até oman: f, 149, 
Tren Academy, s of, 443 
Prick, Me notice o: Physical 


G 
Galapagos Islands, botany of, 436. 
“ti . ier, A., recent t researches on —_ : 


Gay, Jacques, obituary of, 292. 
itz, H. B., on onganie ie ote : 


gee and on the name Dy 


of, 483. Permian ptante, noticed; 


Technics by; 


{NDEX, 


Geographical notices, D. C. Gilman, 75. 
GEOLOGICAL WORKS, ete., netien ap 0 
a — Mineralo ogy. and geology of, 
‘an, 
Dane's 8 oo tecenr of Geology, 302. 
Text-book of Geology, 147. 


Hail’s Contributions to Paleontology, || 


Halt ‘on the Crinoids of the Waverly, 

sendrtous, 140, | 

m the Fauna of po Potsdam, 140, 
Gente on the ok 
.» Mo cess on fossil Es- 

uate on Anuigit of Man, appendix to 
Greece, etc., 

Wi eye Reports on California, 
GroLoey and PaLEoNTOLOGY :— 
Carboniferous flora of Nova Scotia, Daw- 
son, 


79. 
82, 427.) 


ong the Him ae 


5 SE 


H 
| Hall, oes x snistatiems to Paleontology by, 
review of, 
Cr lab boy me ag Waverly sandstone 
by, ea of, 140. 
Fau na of the Potsdam sandstone by, 


Harms, on hydrate of soda, 117. 
“a s Phycologia Australica, notice of, 


Heat, passage a radiant, through rock- 
salt, Knoblauch, 267. 
He eight of mountains in North America, 


Hemeristia onlin 
Hen ‘anction eat 
| Shea classification ws pal 157, 
imalay a glaciers of, Falconer, 273, 
sole s, G., on density, rotation, and 
relative age of the planets, 
C, #H., on antimony in Canada, 


Hite. hock, &., reminiscences of Amherst 
College by, notice of, 149. 


“| Holo ook's Pr (ethsoldes of 8. Carolina, re- 


view ot, 


in N ova Scotia, 4 
Herbivores, early, 183. 
Thsects, early, 32, i 
‘Laurentian fossils i bpm 272, 4381. | 
Lithology, 
Potsdam fess, Es “Halt, 140 
Winchell, © 
Pteriidee (or ‘Avicalide), F. B. Meek, 212., 
Volcanoes, see Volcano. 
Germination as affected by ozone, etc., JZ.’ 
C Lea, 32: 
» platinum metals, £7. 
chemical abstracts, 116, 269, 408. 
, 116, 267. 


relations of hyposulphite of soda, &e. i 
ggilctermination of nitrogen by weight,’ 


nen of Soshpdaee of fluorid: 
of potassium in analysis, 334 
opgeparation and estimation ie ae 
Gill, T., review of Holbrook’s ie 


of 8. Caro 
an, D. C. a cetieabilnk sales 7D. | 
Sucal action about Penobscot Bay, J. 


273 among the Himalayas, falconer, 
47 in Nova Scotia, B. Silliman, Jr., 
Gold, mechanical and chemical treatment! 
of, J. D. Whel 


processes of xt t 134, 
Grastite, See 


z 


on nomenclature 


‘Ivo 


—— T. R., on 
low ¢. A., on a meteorite from sake 243, 


Kila 
Gray, A’, notices of botanical works, 281, Kindberg, 7 c., M 
433 9 i ie 
kwood,. 


Fes go on eyanid of phosphorus, 269. 
| ent T. &., contributions to lithology, 


ge Laurentian Rhizopods of Canada, 
431. 


I 
Ichthyology of 8. Carolina, review of Hol- 
brook’s, 89. 
‘Indium, 269. 
Ink- sve t, Jame. 
| eggs od siseteation noh J. D. J, 2 aes 10. 
he C rous, J. D. 


e Amber-fauna, 305. 
omaee tite Fira E. Riley, 126. 
containing = en, 118. 

ry, vegetable, 
J 


I 


Jameson, on ink-plant, 287. 
Johnson, 8. gh cn deve 121. 


chemica 
notice of Ticbigs Chemistry, 135, 


J., on 


Fe We hia gencris Le- 
onorum by, no 


en 
D., on orbits of binary stars, 


278, 
Greece. 
oe Saban of, Unger des 445. || Knoblauch, H,, on 9g of radiant heat 
on through "rock-salt, 
Gun-casting at Pitebargk: 296. Kuestel, G., processes of a and Silver 
Guyot’s Physical Maps, notice of, 80. extraction, noticed, 134, 


~. 


Lang, V. von, on suilphuret of ee 117. 
Laurentian fossils he - Can W. £. Lo- 


gan, 
eo beees Scientific Bebbal, contributions 
, 546. 


by, toc 
Tea, 2 to genus Unio, notice of, 436 
. C., notice of Storer’s Dictionary 
of Soluvilities, ‘S01. 


on influence of pene etc., on ger- 
mination and vegetation, ae 

yellow gop of faded pho 
th Z Bon 


to- 
on a petroleum vein in Vir- 
uiebig s Chemistry, notice of new edition) 
Lithology, contributions to, 7. S. Hunt, 


Livingstone’ s explorations in Africa, 8 
Lew, on Diptera of the Amber-fauna, 305, 


sow gett ari riea, 287, 


Magnesium light for photog 
Maps of California, propose 
ical, 80. 
s, M., obit tuary of, 288. 
‘Marines Flora Brasili liensis, review of, 283. 
Maury’s s Sailing Directions, ete., Report of) 
National Academy on 447, 


iy er 


“Wee n oxygen, ozone, 
ie deb Chit, C. A. Joy, 243. 
wi us on 


e, 272. 
Miter Mer” s( CW. i. ) Deeesetey | notice of, 414. 
iler’s (W. A.) Crystallography, notice of,” 


Astrophylie, ‘272, 


Chisrite group, 221. 
n, sic 


INDEX. 


gpg Annales Musei Bot. ete., notice 
Mogain-iandon, C. H. B, A., obituary of, 


Mount Hope Nurseries 
Miiller, F., Pla _ of the one of Victo- 


ri by, notice 
Miller, J.. on pre lengths of spectral 
lines, 116. 
N 


ie, popular, of British plants, review 


Nattonal Almanac and Annual Record, 
notice of, 448. 

National A 

Ne - le 


Nebuious matter, invisibility of, D. Trow- 
210. 


cademy, see Academ 


, recent researches on, A. Gautier, 


berry, J. S., ice of memoir by, on 
fossil plants ‘of x W. Boundary, 148. 


New metallic ea Bahr and Seen 116. 
ay. 


n||Vewton, ., on original accounts of No- 
vember aah ower in former times, 377 
Nicklés, J., on wasiu ia 


Nile, exploration of, 
menclature in ntendl History, A. Gray, 


| | Nova. co cotia, Carboniferous Flora of, J. W. 


g ial action in, B. perce re 417, 
EEE apse meteors, see Astron 


0 
OBITU 
Danes Boot, 288. 
Cappocci, 304 
Ebenezer Emmons, Bis 
Henry Fitz, 149. 
Jacques ya i 2 
Edward Hitchcock, 302. 
Martin Martens, 288. 
C. HBA, oon senda 288. 
Giovanni nsec 304. 
Heinrich 
Christian ‘on Steven, 288. 
m. J. Taylo 


Pec. fade toot to, by J. Hall, 
sats Sala 
ee rt 
Paris, water works about, 448. 
r, on Pagliani’s n de re of presery- 
ing animal substances, 
minerals of the chlorite 


ving 


re 
oup, 

Penobscot cot Bay, glacial action about, 
J. DeLas 


Periodical meteors, 2. P. Greg, 445. 
n mauve or anilin purple, 413. 


Permeability 0 of iron 
n theory se: earthquakes, 1. 
yite, 271. 


piers ‘} ns Acad. Academy. 
ilade os see c 
Tsfeal Boe. Amer, 156, 450. 


‘PHOTO appessocga 
| Action of electric light on the iodized — 
plate, 207. ahs 


4 


INDEX. 


PHOTOGRAP 
Dry proces, 123. 


455 


Silliman, KG ee on glacial action in Nova 
a ae 


tT, 440. Society, § 
Ye ee cosineatia Yor faded prints, 438. Solubitities, nenice of Storer’s Dictionary 


hm Technics by Frick, notice of, 149. 


ae = an indicator of earth’s 
rotation and sun’s distance, 409. 
Electrical  Aiecsostores of pyroxiline pa- 


er an n cotton, 1 
Heat, oan a val radiant, through rock 
sa 


Optical distineti en between hyperm: 
ganic acid and compounds 0 seats 
oxyd of man “art e, 408. 

Permeability o n, 441. 

tog Tt a eae of, 116. 

Spe arbon, 408. 


st of arthquakes A. Perrey, 1. 
Theory of tide 
_ , on astophylite, 272. 
n paracolumb » 309. 
Pitsburg fandry, ening of a 20-inch 


ee 
Plan & Glovanat, obituary of, 304. 
Planets, density, rotation and relative age’ 
f, G. Hinrichs, 36. 
pin metals 
Preservation of shania al substances, 440. 
Priov’s Popular Names of British Plants, 
. ast 433. 
red by Wa Academy, 443. 
Preriidee F. B. Meek 
Pyroxiline paper, eetial properties of, 
J. Johnston and B. Silliman, Jr., 115. 


R 


iad Thee notice of, 456. 
foci n er, on indium, 269. 
Sieg ee of the Azoic, 273, "481. 
Ri a es tit pense in iron, 126. 
action of weak electric 
4 on the ‘iodized plate, 207. 
x raat professor in Columbia College,|/y 
Roots, cole n of, Hen 
bari H, on columbite, Pitas 
new series ay! metallic oxyds, 119. 
reps 
moirs oy. on nebule, noticed, 


8, 
5 


. 


Roussin, on action of E59 on nitro-prus- 
sid of sodium 


Royal Society, 1 
R abide. envi of tartrates of, J. P.|| Watson, J. 


me 
South American ride gts 88. 
Spectr, see Physic: 

d Grant’s explorations, 5. 
PT eat e see Astronom 
Steven, Christian von, obi tua of, 288. 
Stolba, on n eatimation D of sulphuric acid in 
salts of the alka 

-|| Storer’s Di tee a Solubilities, notice 

ol, 
Stror romeyer, on szaibelyite, 271. 
Sun’s heat, origin of, J. 2. Mayer, 187. 


m 


Tides, theory of, W. 
Titan ium in iron, 126. 
d, J. B., on a large mass of native 


Troost, on permeability of iron, 441 

Trowbridge , D., on invisibility of nebulous 
matt 

Tuckerman s Caroli aed 20 Lichenes In- 
sule Cube, n 

Tubularia not parthenogerions, HJ. Clark, 


Tungsten, alloys containing, 11 
ing, A. C., on shooting ot 


U 
Unger, on geology of Greece, etc., 79. 


141, 445. 


445. 


Vegetable ivory 
* "affected by ozone, etc., 


is aru as 


Verrill, A. EB. List of had and Corals, 
etc., by, notice of, 437. 

Volcano of Kilauea, " Coan, 415. 

pabuenrine, in ie Mediterranean, 442, 


Wasium, Bahr and Nieklés, 116. 
Water in Paris, 443. 
U., on = VI, 1863, 204, 


Cooke, Ji on Eurynome, 
te Cadaonoagt nid cyanid tof of pees 269. 
ord, J. I, P ae Giusshent of of gold and other netal: 
on enn ad pose su ted 
ae” of West Tenn Whitey J.D D., reports on California Sur- 
edition yey, 


7. 


1 
Sailing Directions, Maury's, noti 


Sheffield Laboratory, comtalinsicns iat 67, 


Shepard, C. U., mineralogical notices, 405. 
Shooting stars, see Astronomy. 
— » B., Jr. a pyroxiline paper and 


gig on om abstracts, 116. 


on heights of mountains in N. Amer- 


Wiederhold, on arseniuret of hydrogen, 
117. j 
Mt A ot tele “8 

ke Su r san gee 
| Wéhler, on compounds of siliclum with 
| oxygen and 10, , 


456 INDEX, | 


AL WORKS, etc., notices of:—. ||ZooL_oacy.— Vertebrates, 
i bag? creme 437. Man,. caahadaenital in, 162, 179, ~ 
80. Edentates, 182, 

_ Lea, on the cus ent, 436. Megasthenes and Microsthenes, 181 

Verrill, Polyps and coon of Mus, Comp.||4 
Diptera of the Amber-fatina, 305. 

See 2 further, G oka Insects, classification ‘of, Dana, 13. 
Insects, Carboniferous, of Illinois, D 

Cepha i Rabe as a basis of classifica- . ¢ 

n, Dana, 10, 157. | Mollusks. 
Embryology in classification, 19, 184. Pteriide (or Aviculide), Meek, 212. 
iates. ‘ 
—- bians, position of, among Ver- —— not parthenogenous, C 
tebrates, > 


Carnivores, relations of, to Herbivores, P, 
— relations of, to Herbivores,| 
aonivgien: classification of, Dana, 159.|! 


votozoans. 
en aL of the Azoic, or Lauren 


eee ee continued from page 450.) 

Index Geographicus, being a list, alphabetically ito of the principal } 

on the globe, with the en oa in which they are situated, and their latitude 
seca Broige none with special reference to Keith Johnston's Royal 
pp. | London an burgh,—- Win. Black w« sons. 218, 

The Bs Review of Literature, Science and Art. No. 64, V>l. III, 
19, 1864.—This weekly Review, published in Leashes by James Bohn, is espe 
valuable to scientific men fur its abs of the pri iti 
scientifi it tific miscellanies. The number here mentione 


—scientific news touching on a variety of topies—an acco 

s Soirée of the 12th of March—Note on Bone Caves in “Bor 

ge ye y Se Huxley by C. Carter Blake and J. Hunt—Note on the re 
ion of the earth's rotation by B. Frankland; Proceedings of the Academ 
Vienna and Brussels, and of various British Societies Archeological, Antl 


hilo Asi 
Statistical, of Arts, Royal of Edinburgh, Royal of Glasgow) and 
tute of British Architects, In Nos. 62, 63 and 66, the origin of Lakes 
ussed by Feioulan and others, in continuation of, ~ Hse in 
sition to, the article by Falconer, cited at page 273 of this volum 
[The following were received too late for further notice in this number.--E 
. . The Gray ce of the Medulla obl grin sed gag sh by J Joun Ree 
76 gg strated by 16 4 tlithograpiep oe series 0 
raphs, giving the entire topography o rp 5 , ER? ; 
copies, by copies from the ne Basted origin Contributi 
Es pene ecepted for publication, August, 1863. 
A manual ta lementary Probleres in the Linear Perspective of Form 
by Epwarp S. Warren, C. E., Prof. Descr. Geom., ri te 
nic Institute, and author of “Draftsman Manual,” and “G 
scriptive Geometry.” 116 pp. 12mo. New York, jax John na Wiley. ~An ex 
t man 


225 


vi 
The th of Life, or or mal-respiration the enjoymen’ 
life of man, by akg os Catity, author of poe of of travels amongst the “ 
8 pp. 80, w ‘ 


with 25 Illustrations, New York, 1864. 

Miley sensible and somewhat humerous essay, with serio-comic truthfe 

‘Illustra at Mutsecsel. Progreny by Huznsenr Srencer. shaadi 
& 1664-—-D. Appleton & Co 


2 lect : 
meeps 


andSk 
sont Rensselaer oh 


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