Ser. >
AMERICAN JOURNAL
SCIENCE AND ARTS.
CONDUCTED BY
Prorrssors B. SILLIMAN anv JAMES D. DANA,
IN CONNECTION WITH
Proressors ASA GRAY, ann WOLCOTT GIBBS,
or CAMBRIDGE,
AND
Prorrssors S. W. JOHNSON, GEO. J. BRUSH, ann
H. A. NEWTON, or NEW HAVEN.
SECOND SERIES.
VOL. XLI.—[WHOLE NUMBER, XCIL.J
Nos. 124, 125, 126 :
JULY, SEPTEMBER, NOVEMBER.
NEW HAVEN: EDITORS.
1866.
PRINTED BY E. HAYES, 426 CHAPEL ST.
RMiss0UR! BOTANICAL
GARDEN LIBRARY
See ER re eae es SMES NEE eR Ene | te ee ee aS ee ee ee ee le a eS ee i
CONTENTS OF VOLUME XLII.
NUMBER CXXIV.
P:
Art. I. Deseription of an Ancient raoo er Mound near New-
ark, Ohio; by O. C. Marsn, - : - -
JI. On the production of Thermo-electric currents by Pee ;
by Prof.O. N. Roop, -
Hl. A Classification of Mollusca, er on ee Princip of Cop
alization; by Epwarp S. Morse, -
12
19
IV. Petroleum in its Geological relations ; by Prof BE. B. Axons, 33
43
V. Notes on Japanese Alloys; by Rapuast PumPELiLy, -
VI. Notes on Tides at Tahiti, and a apart: o
Dr. C. F. Winstow, -
VIL. Further Contributions to the Sunes of as sad Magnesia
Salts; by T. Srerry Hunt, - - : -
‘VIII. Remarks on the new division of the Eocene, or - Shell Bluff
Group, proposed by Mr. Conrad; by Evc. W. Hitcarp,~ -
IX. Preliminary Notice of certain beds of Fish-remains in the
Hamilton abe 3 of Western New York; by Frank H.
BrabD.ey,
X. On the Anpicnion Arnage by F. 's. ca Se fae!
LerrMa - -
XI. On aia a new ‘Mineral Beales sy the ner. os
Rockport, Mass. ; by Josian P. Cooke, SJr., i
XII. Memorandum of a variable or temporary Star of the eee
Magnitude, seen in the Northern — mays 1866 ; i
E. J. Farquaar, .
XIII. New and Brilliant Variable Bars om B. A. Gasaier - -
XIV. On the Emery Mine of Chkatars Hampden County, Mass.,
with remarks on the nature of Emery, and its associate
minerals; by J. Lawrence Situ,
XV. On some minerals associated with the Cryo’ in oecuibes
by G. Hacemann, - a " a
Bese
45
70
73
80
*
lV CONTENTS.
Page.
XVI. Evidence of Two distinct rages Formations in the
Burlington eee by W. H. Nines and Caar.es
WacusmuTH, -
XVII. On a proposed Printing Ciirondeeply$ by Prof. C. A. Satie. 99
XVIII. Note on the geological position of Petroleum reservoirs in
Southern Kentucky and in Tennessee ; by Prof.J.M.Sarrorp, 104
XIX. Analyses of some minerals from the cts mine of Ches-
ter, Mass. ; by Dr. C. T. Jackson, 107
XX. On the detection of Iodine; by M. iki bas oe ae
SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE.
istry and Physics.—On the preparation of Hydrofluoric Acid, by W. P. Dexter, 110.
—Skylight Polarization at Philadelphia, by PLiny Earue Cuase, A.M., 111.--Compar-
ative visibility of Arago’s, Babinet’s, and Brewster's Neutral Points, by PLiny EarLe
pte A and Geology.—On the age of the gold-bearing rocks of the Pacific Coast, by
the Chief Commissioner of Mines for the Province of Neva Scotia, by S. P. Hamitton:
Geological Survey of Nova Scotia: Sulla Geologia dell’ Italia centrale: Petroleum
on the Alleghany River: Orographic Geology, or the Origin and Structure of Moun-
tains, by Georae L. Vose, 123--Dentex Miinsteri, specie di Pesce i cui resti fossili,
etc., Prof Giuseppe Menecutnr: G. F. Matthew on the Azoic and Paleozoic rocks
‘of Southern New Brunswick: Meteorites, 124.--Annotated Catalogue of the principal
Mineral species hitherto recognized in California, etc., by Wm. P. BLake: Die Mine-
rale der Schweiz, von Dr. Avotr Kennecott: Notes on some members of the Feld-
- family, by Isaac Lea: Vorlesungen tiber Mineralogie, von N. von KokscHa.
w, 125.—On the affinities of eine Caalde: by F. B. Meex, 126.
Pr and Zoology —Boussingault’s Researches on the action of Foliage, 126.—Revision
of the North American species of Juncus, by Dr. ENcELMANN: Lessingia germano-
rum, 128 —Illustrations of the Esculent Fungi of the United States: Death of William
Henry Harvey : The International Horticultural Exhibition, 129.—Illustrated Catalogue
of the Museum of Comparative Zovl logy at Harvard College, by ALEXANDER AGASSIZ,
132 —Fossil Meduse, 133--Polymorphism among Bryozoa: a a and ds Saree
of the ‘Vorticeitidan: Parasite: of ‘Hydra, by Prof. H. J. Cua Baird's
Birds : Notes on the Embryology of Starfishes, by pice sees sei
ee —Asteroid 86), 134 —Asteroid (87) ; The new variable star, 135.
ientific Intel — Destruction of Scientific Museums by Fire, 135. --
Walid Prizes : Rumford fo Prof. H. A. Ward’s Collections of Casts of Fossils,
136.—Obituary.—Henry Darwin Rogers, 136.
oe Bibliography.—Transactions of the Connecticut Academy of Arts and Sci-
: The American Annual Cyclopedia and Register of important events, 138.—
i Chamber's Ene peti: Annals of the Dudley Observatory: Snell’ "3
139,—Notices of New Works and Proceedings of Societies, 140.
CONTENTS.
NUMBER CXXV.
Art. XXI. Results of Magnetical Observations made at Eastport,
Maine, between 1860 and 1864, for the United States Coast
Survey ; communicated by A. D. Bacue, +
XXIL. On the age of the Coal Formation of China; by Dr. Jie
Newserry—addressed to RapHaet Pumec.ty, Esq., -
XXII. A Second Method of correcting Monthly Means for the
‘unequal fength of the Months; by Erastus L. DeForest,
XXIV. Gn a New Process of Organic Elementary Analysis for
Substances containing Chlorine; by C. M. Warren, -
XXV. The Vowel Elements in Speech; by Samvuet Porter, -
XXVI. On Photo-micrography with the highest powers, as prac-
tised in the Army Medical Museum; by J. J. Woopwarp, M.D.
XXVII. Note on a Regular Dimerous Flower of Capeier ie
candidum; by Asa Gray, - .
XXVIII. Contributions from the Shetficld Lain of Yale
College.—XII. — of a Mineral ene by Frep-
ERIcK F, THomas, - -
XXIX. On the Nature of the Astle of Ligh upon lodid of Sil-
ver; by M. Carey Lea,
XXX. Observations on the origin hi some of the Earth’ s Piciacen: ;
by James D. Dana, -
XXXI. Contributions to the Oiasiney of the Mineral aries of
Onondaga, New York; by Cuartes A. GorssMANn, -
XXXII A new Meteoric Iron, **the Colorado meteorite,” from
Russel Gulch, Gilpin Co., Colorado oneal : tf Prof.
J, Lawrence SMITH, -
XXXIIL. On Gay-Lussite from evade Pics: ; by B. susauhee
XXXIV. On crystals of ee from Nevada a :
by Joun M. Buake, -
XXXV. On the Structure and Habits of Kiitcaligia Miilleri
Bory, one of the core monadiform Protozoa ; by
H. James-Ciark, - a
XXXVI. Address of Prof. DeCandolle before i recent Hoan:
ical Congress in London, . ‘
XXXVII. Caricography ; by Prof. C. ec . Scie
XXXVIIL Mineral Notices; by Cuartes Urnam Sueparp, — i, 46
Page,
218
220
221
vi CONTENTS.
XXXIX. Brief Notices of several localities of Meteoric Iron ; ta we
CuarLes UpHAM SHEPARD, - 249
XL. Appendix to Article XXX, On the Origin of some of the
Earth’s Features; by James D. Dana, - - 252
SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE.
Chemistry and Physics.--On the chlorids of tungsten, Desray: On the separation of eo-
balt from nickel, Terreri, 254.--On a new alcohol in which oe is erigenic re-
placed by silicon, FatzpeL and Crarts, 255.—On a new class of organi
taining metals, Bertuevor, 256.—Isomerism, BeRTHELOT, 257.—On a new determin-
ation of the velocity of sound in different media, Aucust Kunopt, 2 5. --The vapor
of water not absorbent of much radiant heat, TynpDaLL and FRaNKLAND, 259.—Solar
spots influenced by solar refraction, 269.
Mineralogy und Geology.—-Geological explorations in Northern Mexico, by A. ReMonp,
261.—On Fueuvids in the Coal Formation, by Leo Lesquereux: On the oldest known
formation of the Dead Sea, we L. Larter, 266.—On the occurrence ened sig po-
sition of Oil bearing deposits in New South Wales, by Rev. W. B, CLanxe, 267.—Re-
n Geological and blecata Resources of the Grand Traverse Bee in the Lower
Peninsula of Michigan, by ALEXANDER WincHELL, A.M.: New mineral localities, by
usH: On — Cryolite, by G. Hagemann, 268.--Paracolumbite and
Coccadephilie of C. U. Sugparp, 269.—Celur of a diamond changed by heat: Gies-
eckite a result of the herter of Eleolite: Apophyllite made by artificial means,
of the Diamond, E. 8B. pe Cuancourtois: Paragenesis of —
erite: Analysis of Minerals, by S. B. SrarKLee, 271.-On Anatase at Sil
L, by Rev. E. B. Eppy + Paltcleven | in Russia: On the oman of the
implements found in Celtic monuments, Damour: Geological Survey of lowa: uae
Paleozoic Crustacea and Cirriped, 272.—The Geological Magazine, or Monthly Journal
of Geology, 273,
vology.—- William , Beary Heres 8 273 Pgs Bobet Kaye Greville: Dr C.
Fournier on Crucifers, an —The Genera of Plants, by
Ricuarp AntTuony Sauispury F.R —Handbook of British Water-weeds or
Alge, by Dr. Joun Epwarp Gray, F.R.S.: Scolo officinarum in West
Jr., 281—Icones Histivlogicw, oder Atlas der vergleichenden Gewebelehre ; zweite
Abtheilung, by A. KG.Li Ker, 283.-The Anatomy and Physivlogy of the Vorticelli-
dian Parasite of Hydra, by H. James-Clark : The Arctic Annelids, by A. J. Malmgren,
collections of bones of recent Rattlesnakes, by Wm. A. ANTHONY: Me-
moires pour servir a |’Histoire Naturelle du Mexico, des Antilles et des Etats-Unis, par
Henri DE Saussure,
Astronomy and tdcadg: Die ervations on the Meteors of August last, Hs Davip
Territory
in 1783-1785, oak; a eer &c., by Bengamin Apruoar Gouxp, 286.
-
ene re
CONTENTS. vii
Miscellaneous Scientific Intelligence.-~The American Association, 287. —Addition to the
Article on Method of correcting eau Means, by E. L. Defonase: Flint i
ments, 289.—Library of works on Earthquakes and Volcanoes of Prof. Alexis Perrey,
290.—Obituary.—Prof. Joun A. Porter, 290.
Miscellaneous Bibliogrnphy.—-Geological Survey of Tlinois : oct Aquitanice, 291.—
Notices of New Works and Proceedings of Societies, 291-292.
NUMBER CXXVI.
Art, XLI. William Rowan Hamilton, - i Gaus ae
XLII. The Vowel Elements in Speech ; by ites PorTER, 303
XLIII. Conclusive proofs of the animality of the ciliate Sponges,
and of their affinities with the Infusoria senciaiade ; ad
H. James-Ciark, - 320
XLIV. Cusagigie Leaks to the Soe # Prof C. Rati, 325
a On the Oil-producing ee of West barre : by Prof.
. W. Evans, - :
tee Remarks on the Drift of the Wisi sit Seioee Sak
and its relation to the Glacier and ea: Theories; by
Eve. W. Hitearp, : - - - 343
XLVII. New = of bison fia in Cohahuila, Northern
Mexico; by C. U. SHeparp, - - - - - 347
XLVIII. On ie Spectra and Composion of the Elements ; ‘a
Prof. Gustavus Hinricus, -
XLIX. Contribution to the Chemistry of th Mineral Spdings of
Onondaga, New York; by Cuartes A. GogssMANN, oe
L. On some new Manipulations; by M. Carey Lea, = = (B75
LI. Experiments on the Electro-motive Force and the Resistance
of a Galvanic Circuit; by Hermann Have, - “
LIL. On the Spectrum of a new Star in Corona Borealis ; e
Wituiam Hoaeins and W. A. Mitrer, M.D., -
LIII. On the Source of Muscular Power ; by Epwarp Fuca 393
SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE.
Chemistry and Physics.—Apparatus for the direct determination of the velocity of sound
in atmospheric air, by Dr. E. C. O. Neumann: Interference apparatus for sound-
waves, by G. Quincxe, 417.—A new apparatus for the demonstration of the laws of
falling aay F. Lirricn: Astro-photomieter and results obtained, by Dr. J. C. F.
ZOLLNER, 418.
Mineralogy aud Soles —Note on _ possible identity of Turnerite with Monazite, by
J. D. Dana: Grahamite, 420.—On the discovery of Corundum at the Emery mine, a
Chester, Mass., by Dr. C. T. at Note concerning minerals e
mine of Chester, Mass., by Prof. C. U. Suzrarp, 421,—Laurite, a new | bes eral
Vili CONTENTS.
LER: Mt. t. Hood, 422,.—Alleged discovery of an ancient human skull in California, 424.
in the discovery of the remains of a gigantic sssimatirs in the Cretaceous of maw
Jersey, by E. D. Cope: Exploration es the * Bad Lands”’ or “ Mauvaises Terres” of
the Upper Missouri region, by Dr. F. V. Haypen, 425.—Post-Tertiary of Maine: Dis-
covery of Mastodon remains at C svn , N. Y., Ropert Sarery: An addition to some
notes ‘On a few of the ee ‘localities of Livingston and Genesee counties,
N.Y.” by Henry A. Gre 6.
Botany and modcetengeete DOLLE, Prodromus, Syst. Nat. Regni Vegetabilis. Pars XV:
E. Boissizr, Icones Euphorbiarum, ov Figures de 122 Espéces du Genre Euphorbia,
dessinées et gravées ~ HeyYLanp, etc.: On the young stages of a few Annelids, by
ALEXANDER AGassiz, 427.—Corals and Polyps of the Nerth Pacific Exploring Expe-
dition, with Descriptions of other Pacific Ocean Species, by A. E. Verrinit: On the
Polyps and Corals of Panama, with descriptions of new species, by A. E. VERRILL :
Mrs. Assy A Tenny: Note on the Organisms of the Geysers of California, by Prot
W.H, Brewer, 420,
Astronomy.—Shooting Stars in August, 1866; (1) At Sherburne, N. Y., 429.—(2.) At Ger-
mantown, Pa.: (3) At Westchester, Pa.: (4.) At Natick, Mass., 430.—(5) At sea near
artha’s Vineyard, 431.
Miscellaneous Scientific Intelligence.—National Academy of Sciences, 431.—Meteorite in
Hungary of Jane: 1866, by - Prof JoserH Szaso: Lyceum of Natural History, New
York, 432 —Gifts of ; George Peabody to Science : arn es Sonn Dr. Krantz,
433 —Obituary.—Mr. Epmunp Bunt, 433.—Dr. A. A. Gou 34.—R. W. GinzEs :
Louis S#MAnn: tlie Roger? Kenmccow’. 435.
Miscellaneous Bibliography.—Smithsonian Institution ; Report of the Secretary to the
egents, amt 1866, .—History of the Atlantic Telegraph, by Henry
M. Fiep, D.D.: ents of Sostemien by the late Sir Winntam Rowan Hami-
Ton, 437.—A Soh ama Report of the Texas Geological Survey, etc., by S. B.
Buckuey, 433.—On the Geology of the Key of Sombrero, W.I., by Avexis A. Ju-
LIEN: Memoir on the Island of Navassa, W. 1, by Eucene Gavssoin: Peat and its
Yorigine des Roches, par DeLessz:; Geology and Minerals; a report of Explorations
in the Mineral regions of Minnesota, etc., by Col. CuarnLes WHITTLESEY :
ologique du Department de la Seine: Chambers’s Encyclopedia, 440
InpDEX, 441.
ERRATA.
P. 1, line 12 from bottom, for “ es oe “ Lapham.”
5 a A ee | sabe top, for “ Alter,” re
P. 95, 1. 22 from bottom, after the pice “ing insert :
= 116, 1. 10, for “ ‘hiti “ Prof. Whitney.”
117, «“ “
P. 156—add as a foot note, to aril by. 4. W n, Cited from the
ings of the American Academy 0 of Arts and Eisorices for for z, an. 31, 1866.
“ 170, line 10 from bottom, for “root of the tongue,” Pet “ back of the tongue.”
fe
82,1. 3 from bottom, for “Vowel ol!” read “ Vowe
P. 271, L. 3 from bottom, for “ Sparkler ” ead « beri
Pr. 119 bottom, for “ mére,” read “
P, 341. 1. 16 from bottom, for “over 100,” read “100.”
P. 272, |. 4 from top, for “ East Goshen, Chester, Co.,” read “ Low’s Mine.”
Vol. xli, page 879, line 3; for “sin(x—e, —0° 46’)” read “sin(z—e,—0° 46.”
.
Bree ee eee
“'
_ Squier and Da ave ae
those a numents o
ewar
soe eat extent, and remarkable ‘Tegulari
AMERICAN
JOURNAL OF SCIENCE AND ARTS,
[SECOND SERIES.]
Art. I = fan Ancient Seputchn Mound near Dee
- Ohio ; by O. C. Marsu, F.G.S.'
In the first vorvine of the Smithsonian Contributions er
sare rtant
odbous antiquaries, these authors were enabled
ein. Les that was valuable in previous
important information con-
2€) Pipalstion of this country, who have left
veh: so many imposing structures. The subsequent
ra rohes of Squier, Latham, and others, pe Sages additional
light upon this interesting subject, so that at the present time
the “ Mound-builders” can no longer be ranted as an unknown
le, although both tradition and history are silent in regard
hese ancient monuments of the West have attracted
ion than the group of ‘ Enclosures ts,
k, Ohio, which me long been celebrated
mainly of biaketaioctrhworkt in the form (
and ski, and enclose an area of ab
* Read ee, Connecticut pes ofA
Am, J
2 0. C. Marsh—Description of an Ancient Sepulchral Mound.
the upper terrace between two branches of the Licking River.
They were well described by Atwater, in 1820, who regarded
them as dorks of defense ;* and subsequently by Squier and
Davis, who, owever, consi ered them _ —— enclosures."
ing to American antiquities. In the course of our investiga-
tions a sepulchral mound was opened, which proved to be in
many respects the most interesting one of the kind yet examined.
Mounds of this class received from Squier and Davis much less
attention than the smaller “ Alter Mounds,” as the latter usually
contain more relics of ancient art. ‘These authors, moreover,
examined none of those belonging to the Mewirk group of
works, although the mounds in that vicinity appear to present
e points of difference from those of other localities. For
be given than would otherwise be necessary. The mound
selected for examination was about two and a half miles south
of Newark, on the farm of Mr. Thomas Taylor, and was known
in the neighborhood as the “Taylor Mound.” It was conical in
form, about ten feet in height, and eighty in diameter at the
, these being about the av erage dimensions of the burial
mounds in that vicinity. It was situated on the summit of a
ridge, in the midst of a stately forest. On the mound itself
several oak trees, two and a half to three feet in diameter, were
: Dr. . Wilso essrs.
Shrock, of Newark, «ny Charles W. Chandler, Esq., of Zanes-
ville hb are all much interested in the local antiquities of that
region |
An ‘excavation about eight feet in diameter was first made git
* Transactions American A ntiquarian or vol. i, p. 126.
* Smithsonian Contributions, vol. i, p. 67
OG; Mevsh-—- Discos of an Ancient Sepulchral J be
the first five feet, which was a slow and very 1aboriene under-
taking, nothing worthy of notice was observed except e
traces of ashes, and pieces of charcoal and nhs. scattered about
at various depths. At five and a half feet below the surface,
where the earth became ee difficult to remove, a broken stone
pipe was found, which had evidently been long i in use.
made of a very soft limestone containing fragments of small
fossil shells, apparently Cretaceous species. No rock of precisely :
this kind is known to exist in Ohio. Pieces of a tube of the ~
same material, and about an inch in diameter, were found near
the pipe. The cavity was about two-thirds of an inch in diam-
eter, and had been bored out with great regularity. Similar
tubes have occasionally been found in mounds, but their use is
not oC known.
ut seven feet from the top of the mound a thin white
siya was observed, which extended over a horizontal surface
of several square yards, Near the center of this — =
directly under the apex of the mound, a string of mo
one hundred beads of native copper was fou and with it
a few small bones of a child, about three years of age.
beads were strung ona twisted cord of coarse vege re,
apparently the inner bark of a tree, and this had been pre-
served by salts of the copper, the antiseptic properties of which
re well known. The position of the beads showed clear]
that they had been wound two or three times arouw e neck
of the bees and the bones sheen ei Se: neural arches
of the vertebra, a clavicle, and a first rib), '
cisely those which the beads would es come in contact
ith, w ecom position of t e ains
of the earth. The beads were pit one-fourth of an inl
jong, and one-third in diameter, and no little skill had been
displayed in their construction. They were evidently made,
without the aid of fire, by hammering the metal in its original
Bake; but the joints were so neatly fitted that in most cases it
‘was very difficult to detect them. On the same cord, and
apparently been well polished, and the necklace, when, arene,
must have formed a tasteful and striking ornament.
* Native copper seems to have been the favorite material for ornaments among _
the scared. builders. The metal was, without doubt, d nig originally fon oe
Lake Superior deposits, although it may have been found in the drift.
more probably taken directly from the deposits themselves, a hey 0 pe
ant evidence of ancient — operations, which no one familiar with 2
would attribute to the more Indians,
4 O.C. Marsh—Description of an Ancient Sepulchral Mound.
About a foot below the remains just described, and a little
east of the center of the mound, were two adult human skele-
tons, lying one above the other, and remarkably well preserved.
The interment had evidently been performed with great care.
The heads were toward the east, slightly higher than the feet,
and the arms were carefully composed at the sides. A white
ort similar in every respect to the one already mentioned,
was here voy distinct, and extended horizontally over a space
of five or six yards, in the center of which the remains had
been laid. The earth separated readily through this stratum,
and an examination of the exposed surfaces showed that they
decomposition of the inner layers had produced the peculiar
white substance, as a subsequent microscopic examination werk
indicated.* Directly above these skeletons was a layer of r
for some time, and then tie to go out; when the Seaman
of bone and cinders that remained were scraped together, and
covered with earth. All the bones were in small pieces, and
the lower extremity of a humerus, and some fragments of a
fibula, which showed them to be human, and indicated an adult
rather mee “~ medium size. The two skeletons found beneath
thes ue ere well formed, and of opposite sex. The
Saison. f the bones ‘ndinabed that “the female was about
thirty years of age, and the male somewhat older. It is not im-
ible that these were husband and wife—the latter Lit to
eath and buried above the remains of her consort; the
charred bones may have been those of a human Gporites slain
at the funeral ceremonies.’ Near these skeletons was a sma
quantity of reddish brown powder, which proved on examina
tion to be hematite. It was probably used as a paint.’
® This wiite layer, which was thought by nog een rig to be the ee .
matting, is a characteristic feature i in burial m as only been n found whe "
mong the ancient Mexicans and Peruv jans, when a ruler gee er person of
high rank ‘died, his wives and domestics were often put to death at the tomb, and
urned.
her mound near
scovered in the sapties at Marietta. and re-
garded by some as proof that the otto were acquainted with that hat metal
4 en thi cet. Im, ments of hematite were, i
me Aatiaiites Soe., vol. i, pl 168.
On continuing our excavations about a Pi joer Ted some-
what more to the eastward, a second pile of charred human
bones was found resting on ala ayer of ashes, charcoal and burned
clay. But one or two fragments of these remains could be
identified as human, and these also indicated a small-sized adult.
The incremation had apparently been performed in the same
older. In this case also the head was toward the east, and the
burial had been carefully performed. Near this skeleton about
a pint of white chaff was found, which appeared to belong to
some of the native grasses. The form was still quite distinct,
although nearly all the organic substance had disappeared, A
few inches deeper, near the surface of the natural earth, several
skeletons of various ages were met with, which had evidently
een buried in a hurried manner. All were nearly or quite
horizontal, but no ot of bark had been spread for their recep-
tion, and no care taken in regard to arrangement of limbs, These
skeletons were in a tolerable state of preservation, some parts
being quite perfect. A tibia and fibula, with most of the cor-
responding bones of a foot, were found quite by themselves, and
well preserved.
Our excavations had now eee the 5S pte surface of the
ridge, on which the mound was erected, and we were about to
discontinue further researches, me the dark ior of the earth
at one point attracted sensian, and an examination soon showed
eastern part of me elevation, about four feet from the center.
It consisted of a simple exe cavation, in an east and west direc-
tion, about six En ee. three wide, and nearly two dee
this grave were found ‘parts of at least eight skeletons, which
had evidently been thrown in carelessly,—most of them soon
after death, but one or two not until the bones had become de-
tached and weathered. Some of the bones were very well pre-
J ved, and indicated individuals of various ages. T'wo infants,
t a year and eighteen months old respectively, were each
represented by a single os illium, and bones o ral
small children were found. One skull, apparently that of a. boy
fi nts,
"It was bent together, and. lay across bes grave
the north. Some of the beg | human be
6 O. C. Marsh—Description of an Ancient Sepulchral Mound.
exhumed from the bottom of the grave, were evidently imper-
feet when thrown in. Among these was part of a large femur,
which had been gnawed by some carnivorous animal. Th
marks of the teeth were sharply defined, and corresponded to
those made by a dog or a wo
Quite a number of implements of various kinds were found
with the human remains in this grave. Near its eastern end,
where the detached bones had been buried, were nine lance and
m
from “Flint ridge,” a siliceous deposit of Carboniferous age, which
crops out a few miles distant. These weapons are of “peculiar
he Indians for similar articles. Two of these corres-
ponded steaely in form with the stone hand-axe figured by
Squier and Davis as the only one then known from the: mounds.®
With these axes were found a small hatchet of hematite, a flint
an me a peculiar flint instrument, apparently used for scrap-
kee she the central part of the grave, near the aged female skeleton
already alluded to, were a large number of bone implements, all
exceedingly well preserved, Among these were five needles, or
bodkins, from three to six inches in rie neatly made from
the metatarsal bones of the common deer; and also a pcm:
to an inch an alf in diameter. Most of these had both
ends somewhat sonedesl and perfectly smooth, as if they had
either been long in — or carefully polished. It is possible
implements were used for smoothing down the seams of
skins or leather : they wuuld, at least, be well adapted to such a
rpose. A ‘ whistle,” made from a tooth of a young black
, and several “spoons, ” eut out of the shells of river mus-
sels, were also obtained near the same spot.
vessel of coarse pottery was found near the western = of
the grave, but, unfortunately, was broken in roms It
. oe dey are of New York, p. 3
tributions, vol. i, fig. 10, p- 217.
eras
Mar Sea Saetion of an Ancient Sepulelra Mound. 7
was about five inches in its greatest diameter, six in height, and
one-third of an inch in thickness. It was without ornament
and age made of clay containing some s he and powdered
ns,
Bee the bottom of the mound, ¥ — in the cue
were various animal bones, most of them in an excellent state
of preservation. Many of these al to the common nae ery
and nearly all the hollow bones had been skillfully split open
lengthwise,—probably for the purpose of extracting the mar-
row,—a common custom among rude nations. Some of shoas
remains of the deer indicated individuals of a size seldom at-
tained by the species at the present time. Beside one of the
several bones of the gray rabbit. This renders it not unlikely
that the mound-builders used this animal for food,—a point of
some interest, as the inhabitants of Europe in the stone age are
supposed to have been prevented from eating the hare, by the
same superstition that prevailed among the ancient Britons, and
is still yee among the Laplanders.
the animal remains in the mound, although well
preserved, were in too small fragments to admit of accurate
termination. Characteristic Epona however, were obtained
of those in the following list
Cervus Canadensis, Erxl., (elk).
Cervus Virginianus Bodd. .» (common deer).
Arctomys monaz, Gin., (seater
pee on the chase for subsistence. If, however, they were a
ee and agricultural people, as is "generally supposed, we
should expect to find in the mounds, the remains of domestic,
rather than, of wild, animals, but none of these have yet been
discov This may be owing to the fact that comparativel}
8 O.C. Marsh—Description of an Ancient Sepulchral Mound.
little attention has hitherto been paid to the animal remains,
and other objects of natural history found in the mo unds,
although a careful study of these would undoubtedly throw
much light upon the mode of life of the mound-builders.”
doubtless due in part to the excessive compactness of the earth
above the remains, but mainly to the fact that the mound stood
on an elevation, where moisture could not accumulate. The
skeletons in the lower part of the mound were not so well pre-
served as those higher up, probably because the original soil of
the ridge naturally — — —— than the earth above
it. There may have bee ver, a considerable interval
between the ne or Se albalas one ehsee that followed, and thus
some of the skeletons commenced to decay before the mound
n
was completed. The interval, however, could not have been of
very long duration, as no perceptible deposit of vegetable matter
was formed over the small mound then existing. The same
may be said of the intervals between the regular interments,
and also of the subsequent period preceding the final completion
of the mound. It should, perhaps, be remarked before proceed-
ing further, that this mound had evidently never been disturbed
by the Indians, and that all the human remains and other ob-
jects found in it were undoubtedly deposited there by its builders.
etce
"ite Bu etons found in this mound were of medium size,
somewhat smaller than the average of those of the Indians still
™ The animal remains found near the Swiss lake habitations, show conclusively
be the ae iectope ts sa those settlements were — ters, who subsisted
y on wild anima t a later period, however, during t he change to o-
ral state, domestic animals were Siadally substituted ce - article of ‘ae
Risimeyer Fauna der Pfahibauten der Base
rier and Davis regard this fact as evidenee of the gure antiquity of the
mounds, ‘a8 in En ngland, 1 whe re the moist climate much Nese favorable for preserv-
ncient | Seiten have been found, —
known to have been buried at least oot years,—Smithsonian n Contributions,
p. 168.
** It is well known that the modern Indians occasionally buried their dead i in panes
» but invariably near the surface; the position of such re
— dally the manner of their interment clearly distinguish them from
posits of the mound-builders,
So te a nae E TE 7
ee ie
O. C. Marsh—Description of an Ancient Sepulchral Mound. 9
living in this country. The bones were certainly not stouter
than those of Indians of the same size, although this has been
regarded as a characteristic of the remains of the mound-build-
ers. All the skulls i in the mound were broken—in one instance
Both were of small size, and showed the vertical occiput, promi-
nent vertex, and large ere diameter, so oe
of crania belonging to ce. In other spects
there was nothing of special itera in their conformation,
With a single exception, all the human teeth observed we
perfectly sound. ‘The teeth of all the adult skeletons ae
much worn, those of aged individuals usually to a remarkable
degree. The manner in which these were worn away is pecu-
liarly interesting, as it indicates that the mound-builders, like
the ancient Egyptians, and the Danes of the stone age, did not,
in eating, use the incisive teeth for cutting, as modern nations
do. This is evident from the fact that the worn incisors are all
truncated in the same plane with the coronal surfaces of the
molars, showing that the upper front teeth impinge directly on
the summits of those below, instead of lapping over them. This
peculiarity may be seen in the teet of Egyptian mummies, as
was first pointed out by Cuvi
All the bones in this mo sae nimal as well as human, were
very light, and many of them Seteaingee brittle. They adhere
strongly to the tongue, but application of shydrochloric “—
shows that they still retain a considerable portion of the c
age. Some of the more fragile bones, which showed a ei coand
to crumble on exposure to the air, were readily preserved by
immersing them in aoenanend melted in boiling water, a new
method, used by Prof. Lartet = other French paleontologists,
and admirably adapted to such a purpose.
There are several points puted with this mound which
deserve especial notice, as they appear to throw some additional
light upon the customs of the mound-builders, particularly their
modes of burial, and funeral ceremonies. 01
markable features in the mound was the large number of skele-
tons it containe ith one or two exceptions, none of the
burial mounds hitherto examined have contained more than a
single skeleton which unquestionably belonged to the mound-
builders, while in this instance parts of at least seventeen were
exhumed. The number of small children represented among
these remains is also worthy of notice, as it indicates for this
particular case a rate of infant mortality (about thirty-three per
** Lecons d’Anatomie comparée, tome ii, p. 105. Bruxelles, ages os
Am. Jour, Sci1.—Szconp Series, Vou. XLII, No. 124.—Jury, 1866,
2
10 O. C. Marsh—Description of an Ancient Sepulchral Mound.
cent) which is much higher than some have supposed ever ex-
isted among rude nations. Another point of special interest in
this mound is the evidence it affords that the regular method of
burial among the mound-builders was sometimes omitted, and
the remains interred in a hurried and careless manner. This
was the case with eleven of the skeletons exhumed in the course
of our explorations, a remarkable fact, which appears to be
without a precedent in the experience of previous investigators.
It should be mentioned in this connection that nearly all of
these remains were those of women and children. Their hur-
ried and careless burial might seem to indicate a want of respect
on the part of their surviving friends, were there not ample evi-
dence to prove that reverence for the dead was a prominent
characteristic of the mound-builders. It is not unlikely that in
this instance some unusual cause, such as poms or war, may
deserve notice, as they far —— in number = variety any
hitherto discovered in'a single mo The ve, moreover,
that, if in this instance the rites of. regular burial were denied
rs rem wis supposed future wants wer Happ provided
collected for burial, sometimes long after death. The interest-
ing age of. weapons, which were found with these detached
ould seem to imply that in this case the remains and
sl ‘of a hunter or warrior of disctinction, recovered after
long exposure, had been buried together.”
The last three interments in this mound were performed with
great care, as already stated, and in strict accordance with the
usual custom of the mound-builders. The onl int of par-
ticular interest in regard to them is the connection which ap-
ars to exist between some of the skeletons and the charred
uman bones found above them. Similar deposits of partially
burned bones, supposed to be human, have in one or two in-
stances been observed on the altars of sacrificial mounds, and
occasionally in mounds devoted to sepulture, but their connec-
tion with the human remains buried in the latter, if indeed any
existed, appears to have been overlooked. Our ex xplorations,
which were yey ae and systematically conducted, clearly
demonstrated that in these instances the incremation had taken
place directly oe "thé tomb, and evidently before the regular
interment was completed: taking these facts in connection with
what the researches of other investigators have made known
A similar custom still prevails among some tribes of western Indians,
% #
bd
Seam eae meste SS ctr hi ter. tl) Rip gu. ts etna: Re aca ae MM a SI
* fs ae
O. C. Marsh—Description of an Ancient Sepulchral Mound, 11
concerning the superstitious rites of this 5? seam r poopie it
seems natural to conclude that in each of these c
victim, was sacrificed as part of the funeral ceremonies, ‘Sitbiless
as a special tribute of respect to a person of distinc
All the skeletons in this mound, except one, eaiie to have
been buried in a horizontal position with the face u wards,
The Rin sp was the skeleton of the aged female found in the
grave, which lay on its side; but this may have been owing to
99 fact that the body had been bent ei ei perhaps in conse-
uence of age. The skeletons which had received a regular in-
terment all had their heads toward the east, bide no such definite *
position has been noticed in the remains found in other mounds,
As the grave had the same direction, this can hardly have been
sition of the ridge upon which the mound ei fe 3 layer of
e human remains, suddenly exucaihes by a cov-
pore of earth. Pauidly the mtg as well as other objects of
interest, were contained in the outer portion of the mound,
which was not examined, though usually everything deposited
by the mound-builders was placed near the — and hence
our explorations were chiefly confined to that
Such is a brief and incomplete description of one of the an-
cient mounds of the West, of which at least ten thousand are
known to exist in the single state of Ohio, and countless num-
bers elsewhere in the valleys o Aon Bee se and its tributaries.
These abe are the only remaining memorials of a race
whose history has been buri with them, and from these alone
can we hope to learn who this people were, and whence they
came. The Indians of this country, although retaining no tradi-
tion of oe more ancient fi oe regarded their works with
eration; but the present possessors of the soil have, in
peti little of this feelin ais hence hundreds of these monu-
ments of the past are annually swept away by the plow, and their
contents irretrievably lost. A few pioneers in American arche-
ology have, indeed, rescued much that is valuable, but the work
is hardly commen need ; and a careful and systematic oo
of these various mqnuments would not only add greatly to our
knowledge of this interesting people, but doubtless also help to
solve the question of the antiquity of man on this continent,
ene — that more important one of the unity of the hur
poetic! psec Ct., Feb. 1866.
12 O..N. Rood on thermo-electric currents by percussion.
Art. Il.—On the production of Thermo-electric currents by percus-
sion; by O. N. Roop, Prof. of Physics in Columbia College.
_ THE production of thermo-electric currents by friction was
observed by P. Erman in 1845,’ but I do not know that the sub-
ject of the present article has ever been examined with any care.
For the purpose of studying the thermo-electric currents pro-
duced by percussion, the apparatus represented in the figure
\\
DTM Sain
Bi
A
free and falls. The rod is fastened at such a height that when
its bent end is in the highest of the five holes, the distance be-
tween the lower surface of the ball and the anvil below, is one
inch. The holes in brass plate again are exactly one inch apart,
so that the experimenter can easily, without altering the appa-
* Arch. de EL, v,. 477; Inst, No. 614, p. 355.
O. N. Rood on thermo-electric currents by percussion. 13
ratus, obtain at will, a fall of 1, 2, 8, 4 or 5 inches successively,
by raising the ball by the string, and using in turn each of the
five holes in the brass plate. By this means the production of
accidental thermo-electric currents from the heat of the hands is
avoided, as the string and bent rod enable the observer to make
the necessary adjustments from some distance
alls on a thermo-electric couple #4, consisting of a
ciptal wire of German silver and iron soldered together, or
better, of a compound plate of the’ same metals, the juncture
being soldered, as when plutes are used, the couple suffers but
little i injury from the repeated falls of the ball. In the selection
of these two metals for the couple, a suggestion of Poggendorff
is followed, who showed that they give a strong current when
their juncture is heated. The couple is so arranged that the
ball strikes just on the juncture of the two metals, and there by
means of the heat developed, produces a thermo: electric current.
The juncture of the two metals was generally insulated by silk,
¢., to prevent the heat from being immediately conducted o
The two farther ends of the couple were fastened. by bos bind-
ing screws ss, which were in metallic connection with a delicate
galvanomete
Below the eenegae is the brass anvil A.
A certain amount of heat is developed at the junction of the
couple by a given fall of the ball; if now the couple were left
in contact with the ball and anvil after the fall, this heat would
be rapidly conducted away; it therefore became e necessary to
contrive, first, an apparatus for raising the ball instantly after
its fall out of contact with the couple, and second, some arrange-
ment for raising the couple at the same instant out of contact
with the anvil. The ea of these ends is accomplished by
the lever L, the shorter arm of which is cut out so that when it
quickly pressed down, and fastened by turning the bent 4
at w. The lever thus raises the ball 4 4 inch above the couple,
and the latter itself acting at the same instant as a spring,
raises itself by its own elasticity above the anvil. The wires
from the binding screws were connected with an apparatus for
breaking the circuif, in which small cups of mercury were
This portion of the apparatus was placed on a table; -the galvan-
ometer, however, on a shelf attached to the wall ‘of the room
‘with brass nails, it being found that iron nails exercised a con-
siderable effect on the astatic needle. When thus arranged, and
observed with the perpen’, ii steadiness of the needa, was
nat sensibly affected by a per ee anon the room. |
a5
14. O. N. Rood on thermo-electric currents by percussion.
The upper needle of the galvanometer was provided with a
very fine glass rod, which served as an index, the breadth of the
rod being only half of that of the divisions on the galvanome-
ter circle. The end of the glass rod was blackened to render it
plainly visible. Directly over the needle, a mirror silvered by
Liebig’s process was placed at an angle of 45°; the index was
observed with aid of this mirror and a small telescope magnify-
ing five diameters; in this manner ,;';° could be est d
The falling apparatus was enclosed by wooden poviana also
the apparatus for breaking the circuit and the galvanometer.
If these precautions are neglected accidental currents are con-
stantly ose ale in the wires employed, and no reliable results
can ned. It is farther necessary after exchanging the
couple or Gendiag the binding screws, to allow the apparatus
to remain at rest for two or three hours, so that the currents
mperature o
constant. I may remark, finally, that in eet of all these pre-
cautious it is rarely the case that ay feeble and nearly constant
accidental currents are wholly a
The galvanometer was made by Duboseq; after balancing the
magnetism of the needles it was found that the copper wire of
the coil was so magnetic that the needles took up a position 30°—
85° on either side of the zero point. I re-wound the frame
with American wire, when the needle readily returned to the
true zero; upon, however, bringing the two needles very nearly
into the same plane, and carrying forward their astasie, the same
difficulty was again experienced, when another sample of Amer-
ican wire was tried with a result which was but little better.
All of these samples when tested in the apparatus used for
experiments on diamagnetism, were evidently magnetic, the
French sample being strongly so. The difficulty was “evaded by
bending the needles slightly out of the true plane, when they
took up a position nearly east and west, and returned with cer-
tainty to the true zero. In this state of inferior sensitiveness
one simple oscillation consumed 18 seconds. There were suf:
ficient indications to show that owing to the magnetism of the
coil the needle was more sensitive to currents sam seem oe at
10°-15° than when at 0°; it accordingly becam ry to
calibrate the instrument with care. This was rer by one of
the methods described by Melloni and quoted by Tyndall, (Heat
considered as a mode of motion, p. 870).
For degrees under 10° the constant currents employed in the’
calibration were produced by a small thermo-electric pile with
one of its faces turned toward the exterior colder wall of the
room, while the other face was directed toward an interior
Ee ee ee heme) ae een
aa bE RN eet ay 35
ee I ee at ead ee oi eee ee te
O. N. Rood on thermo-electric currents by percussion. 15
These, as it were natural sources of heat gave very constant
currents, and by partially closing one of the caps of the pile,
any desired deviation between 0° and 10° could readily be ob-
taine
It was found that for about 6° the deviation of the needle
was directly pit tape to the strength of the current; for de-
grees beyond this, it was necessary to construct a curve em ye
ing the wher obtained experimentally. The ratio between
the first and final deviation up to 30° was also obtained ; it was
constant for 6°. These latter determinations were important,
as after the first deviation the needle, owing to conduction in
the couple, slowly sinks to 0°, and only then comes to rest. I
was not able to measure with exactitude the time required for
currents produced by falls of the ball from different distances to
subside, the imperfect results obtained showed that it varied be-
tween ik minutes up to 84 minutes, according to the distance
fallen by the ball. 1t having been found then in the calibration
experiments, that the force of the current was proportional to
the deviation up to 6°, and farther, that the first deviation was
proportional to the final deviation for the same number of de-
grees, in the results given below, where the first deviation was
peor eS the observations actually obtained and unreduced will
n, but where the first deviation exceeded 6° the reduced
ate will be found.
As the total amount of heat produced by the fall of a body
is divided between the falling body and that arresting its motion,
it is evident that if the mass of the latter be small compared
with that of the falling body, its temperature will, owing to this
fact, be correspondingly high; and if the siete body be a
thermo-electric element of small mass, a proportionately large
deviation of the galvanometer needle will be produced. Te
however, the couple at the moment of the percussion and after-
wards, be allowed to be in metalli@ contact with the metallic
ball, the temperature of the couple will by conduction be rapidly
reduced to that of the metallic ball, so that the deviation of the
needle will be very small, and the phenomena complicated. T
illustrate this I give, in table 1, the small and irregular devia-
tions which were produced v under these circumstances
couple, and anvil all remaining in metallic contact after the fall.
Taste 1.
Distance fallen, lin. 2 in. 3 in, 4 in. 5 in.
or? a is ° ; ° s°
Deviations, “4 is te ie to ve
ie to
In table 1, a newly etint compound plate similar to that
used in table 4 was employed.
16 O. N. Rood on thermo-electric currents by percussion.
To avoid the effects of conduction external to the couple, a
number of insulating substances were tried, which gave more or
less constant results.
1. Thin card board or plates of mica placed above and below
the aganle gave irregular resu
o thicknesses of dried bladder, paiannd above and below
the ‘saoke gave somewhat better results
3. Four omeeaierigg of heavy woven silk were also used for
the same pu
4. The best ae were, however, obtained by using heavy
woven silk, which was spread over with a coating of yellow
wax, and then wrapt around the sa at the juncture. This
insulating seen after being used for some time so as to
, gave results which were about as constant as
could be ie under the circumstances
low are results obtained in these several WARE
Taste 2.— With two skins above and below.
Distance fallen, lin. 2 in. 3 in. 4 in.
3 15? 2°29 3°0° 58°
1-4 2:3 4°3
1:8 2°5 3-0 4-4
First unreduced 1:2 3-5 3°4 5-9
deviations, ; 1-4 30 35 6-0
1-2 35 3°7 5-0
11 24 41 58
11 2-2 B°4 49
Average, 1:3 2-7 3°55 52
In this and in all the other tables, the order of the experi-
ments was across the page, from left to right, and not down the
single columns.
e No. 8, contains results obtained with four layers of
plain silk above and below the couple.
Tase 3.
Distances fallen, 1 in. 2in. 3 in. 4in.
6F 34° 37° 61°
“4 3°9% 54
16 3°5 41 6:0
First unreduced is py 5 42 60
deviations, 15 26 43 60
5 2 50 65
“4 26 47 60
“4 2 43 69
Average, 16 30 45 60
The results given in tables 2 and 3, were obtained by using a
comes wire of German silver and iron with a diameter of 9
of a millimeter; the juncture was bound with a little fine iron
wire and soldered. This form of couple was found to lose its
shape by the repeated blows; it also finally cut the insulating
substance, so that in all the following experiments plates of the
|
a Pe eee Ce he ee ee eee 3 SA eee
sk SER ee a IE Sion hal nea een om aera malts oe A Se 2h Cons, iy:
poses
ve Sen are
umn are higher than in table 5; a corresponding result obt
O. N. Rood on thermo-electric currents by percussion. - ¥7
same metals soldered together were used; the form of these
-plates remained nearly unaltered.
Accordingly, to obtain the results given in 4 and 5, a
pound plate of this kind was used; the breadth of the ski
was 7 millimeters, length 150 millimeters thickness of iron and
of German silver being about ‘2 of am
The ia in table 4 was wound with four layers of heavy
plain si
Tasie 4,
Distance fallen, lin. 2 in. 3 in. 4 in. Sin.“
1:6° 26° 38° 40° 49°
First unreduced 7 es ie nf as
exists 13 24 3:4 40 45
1:3 2-2 3°65. 3°8 4:5
Average, 1-38 2-3 3 37 46
Table 5 gives results when 4 layers of waed silk were used
with the same couple
TaBLe 5
Distance fallen, 1 in. 2 in. 3 in. 4in. 5in.
15 3-1° 50° 64° 9°
First unreduced hi 4 a be a
deviations,
, 15 2-9 4-2 56 83
14 2-8 4°2 5 8-0
Average, 15 294 846 6-04 8-4
Reduced average, 1:07 21 3:28 43 6:0
It will be observed that in tables 2, 3 and 5 the result is more
or less perfectly indicated that the force of the current is pro-
portional to the distance the ball falls through, or in other words
to the square of its velocity at the moment of impact
Effect of allowing the ball to remain in contact with insulated couple
after the impact.
The results given in table 6 were obtained directly after those
given in table 5, everything remaining unaltered except that
the ball was not raised out of contact with the couple.
Tasie 6.
Distance fallen, lin, 2 in. 3 in. 4in. 5 in.
20° 2 5o 6° 4:99 oO
First unreduced se 2°6 3-1 40 5-7
deviation, 1-7 2-3 3-2 40 54
as 2°3 3-0 36 51
Average, 1s 2°42 3°22 3°95 55
The extent to which the heat generated is thus conducted
away from the couple is very noticeable in the last three ooh
but it is a little remarkable tha Sie deviations in the first
Am. Journ. 8c1.—Seconp SERIES, Vox. eon No. 124.—Juty, 1866, —
3
18 ~ O. N. Rood on thermo-electric currents by percussion.
with a narrow couple is given below in table 8. To ascertain
that the plate had not been altered, experiments were made:
with it afterward, the ball being lifted.
To find out whether any peculiar influence was exercised by
the mass of the couple within small limits, the above mentioned
plate was now cut down, till its breadth was 3 millimeters. It
was covered with waxed silk and the following results obtained:
TABLE si
Distance falien; lin. Qin. 3 in. 4 in.
0° 328° 480° 646° 7-20°
‘ 1°35 2-42 477 6°10 710
ie 1-20 2°42 3°50 490 6°38
Reduced deviations, 114 2:07 3-00 5:00 7-00
1:07 201 3:00 4:90 6-46
1-14 1:90 3°20 " 6:20
Average, 1:23 235. - . 871 539 672
To compare the temperature here developed with what was
produced in the broad plate before it was cut down, I give below
the reduced deviation of the broad plate taken from table 5:
: lin, 2in. 3in. din.
Reduced deviation of narrow plate, 1°23 2°35 | 371 5°39
” = “ broad AG 10 21 3°28 4:30
Difference, 16 25 “43 1-09
The narrow plate used in table 7 being employed and arranged
exactly as before, the ball was allowed after its fall to remain in
contact with the insulated couple.
TaBLE 8.
Distance fallen, 1 in. 2 in, 3 in. 4in. 5 in.
2-49 30° or 59° 56°
Sea 2°5 31 3°8 39 59
Unreduced deviations, 25 3-0 34 35 52
26 31 37 39 59
Average, 25 6 :
Rated average, 1°79 2°17 2°57 27
Hifect of the first twenty, &c. falls on the newly prepared plate.
When the couple is wound with plain or with waxed silk,
and subjected to the action of the falling body, the first 15-20
eviations of the needle are much larger than any above given
with the successive falls as the silk becomes compac the
deviations decrease in size, reach a minimum, and remain about
as constant as shown in the tables. The results so far given
then, except, of course, in case of table 1, were obtained after
this point had been approxiisaayy reached. I give below, as a
sample, the first set of deviations obtained directly after winding
with waxed silk the couple used in table 7. The ball was lifted
in the usual way.
SS ee ee a his Seer en (Ugh ile Seah eee a Leg Le a eee SS Nc a 0 = i am Gaal eR yeh Nl ea ade
E. S. Morse—Classification of Mollusca, etc. 19
Distance fallen being 5 in., the reduced deviations are given
23°5° gmc 16°3°, 138°, , 124°, 11:6°, 108 Bo je Bl? "86°,
84°, 81° , 79°, 84 *, 84 © 7:85°, 74°, 75°, 66°, 7-22, 7, 6'8°.
A pcan action was observed with unwaxed silk, This
might be accounted for by saying that the mass of silk and wax
becoming compacted is then a better conductor of heat than be-
fore, and that the temperature of the couple is thus lowered by
the short but necessary contact with the ball; but the compara-
tively small effect which is produced even by continued contact
with the ball shown in tables 6 and 8 prove that this supposition
is untenable.
The larger deviation must then be attributed to the sliding of
the particles of silk and wax over themselves, this taking place
to a much greater extent in the first twenty falls than afterward.
After the minimum point has been reached, if the couple is laid
bare and rewound, the same large deviations are obtained, show-
ing that they are not due to an alteration in the couple itself.
Finally, it is remarkable that a much smaller mechanical force
m3 lied directly to the couple in the shape of friction, produces
isproportionately large deviation ; thus drawing the wooden
pie of a lead-pencil once over the naked junction with a force
less than would be ee iy the ball falling 1 inch gave a
deviation of 18-25°
It is hardly necessary to add, that the deviation of the needle
was in all cases in the same direction as though heat had been
applied to the juncture of the thermo-electric couple
New York, Feb. 22, 1866,
Art. IIl.—A Classification of Mollusca, based on the “Principle
of Cephalization ;” by Epwarp 8. Morse. '—With a plate.
R beeoming acquainted with the perfect unity of plan in
ee Radiata and the connected series of homologies, running
through the whole branch, (as demonstrated by Prof. Agassiz
in his private lectures) my interest was excited to discover, if
inding the universality of vertebration among the Vertebrata,
of articulation among the Articulata, and similarly of radiation
among the Radiata, I could not but believe that in the Mollusca
*
some plan lay hidden, which, when unfolded, would as | :
convey their type, and unite them all, as in ‘the other.
' Proc, of Easex Institute, iv, p. 162.
20 E. 8. Morse—Classification of Mollusca
It is not enough to call them soft bodied animals; for in consid-
ering their shell as a part of their organization, we have among
them many of the hardest animals known, and we also have an
number of soft bodied animals in the other branches.
Their bilaterality, as cieiing anything definite, is an equally
unsatisfactory character. Prof. Huxley has given an archetype,
or common plan of the Mollusca, as he conceives it, with many
rte a in the article ‘‘ Mollusca,” English Cyclope-
dia, vi . 855. In his figure of the archetype, however,
which i is sbalaterady peermedia we have details of structure
= Sek Agassiz in his “ Methods of Study in Natural History ”
also suggests his idea of the plan, or structure, when he says, p.
34, “Right and left, have the preponderance over the other
diameters of the body, ” and says furthermore, that collectors
unconsciously recognize this in the arrangement of their collec-
tions. “They instinctively give them the position best calcu-
lated Hs son their distinctive characteristics, — to accomplish
e them in such a manner as to show
so obtains among ‘the Lamellibranchs. All Brachiopods are
displayed from the dorsal or ventral valve. Also the Gastero-
4 particularly the flat forms like Patella, Chiton, etc., and
e Nudibranchs as well, while in the i of the nake
Sdiapse we most usually bate s a dorsal vi
Though Prof. Agassiz speaks of ie regs i - characterizing
the Radiates, and similarly of articulation and vertebration as
characterizing the Articulates and Vertebrates, yet Mollusks are
spoken of as first introducing the character ‘of bilaterality, or
division of parts along a longitudinal axis, that prevails through-
out the Animal Kingdom, with the exception of the Radiates,
This then can be no restricted definition for the Mollusca, since
it pervades the two higher branches; and who will deny the
evidence of bilaterality among the Radiates, the higher Hchino-
derms for instance, as Clypeastroids and Spatangoids, where we
have as good a definition of a longitudinal axis as we obtain in
many Mollusks. Even among the Polyps, as in the Actinaria,
the antero- — axis is eepaeed expressed in the undue prom-
inence of the primary rad.
Prof. Dana se been the first to publicly announce the plan
of Mollusca, when he says, “The structure essentially a soft,
fleshy bag, containing the stomach and viscera, without a radiate
structure, and without articulations,’
* Dana’s Manual of Geology, p. 148.
*
ee RR te et BE Coe a yet,» Rples CE RIS Ulgthna nee egret Ee Fs Fads Sheri, ORAL NEG UC TAY pp SO i a a RE REL ae TENNER Cee Te ae are Meme eS FY eine twee ee te
a Trae
pene Wee
et ee
SS) fe RE Ee Se orn Reema!
on the Principle of Cephalization. 21
As far back as 1855 he presented this thought in his lectures
at Yale College.
In the year 1862 Mr. Alpheus Hyatt had independently
worked out a similar result, and has ase in MSS. notes, the
necessary data demonstrating the sa
Mr. Hyatt also proposes the name ay nna as more fully and
truthfully expressing the type, than the unmeaning word Mol-
lusca. ‘This name not only expresses the Plan, but is ae cae
to the titles Vertebrata, Articulata, and Radiat ta, atid is
way a cso appellation,
Objecting as all must to the introduction of a new name, still
one so appropriate as that proposed by Mr. Hyatt, in lieu of one |
that has no relation to the Branch, except its traditional use, is
certainly worthy of consideration, as it so clearly indicates what
can believed to be the fundamental ‘idea i in the Branch, that of the
essential structure of the animal, if rightly understood, must be
our guide. The gradual morphological changes of the contents
of the sac, and all other relations, are based on the principle of
Cephalization. In the plate presented (Series J) I have given a
typical figure of the six prominent groups of the Saccata;
namely, Polyzoa, Brachiopoda, Tuni nicata, Lamellibranchiata,
teropoda, and Cephalopoda.
For obvious reasons, only the intestine, head, and pedal
d in their normal position, anterior pole downward, the
dorsal —— is turned to-the left. Commencing with the Poly-
zoa, (Series I, P) we have the sac closed, while the mouth and
anus terminate close i aeen at the posterior pole of the sac;
the mouth occupying the me posterior position, and by a
dorsal bend of the Gta upon itself, terminating dorsally,
The nerve mass is found between the oral and anal openings,
In this class the mouth and anus have the power of protrusion
from the sac. In the three re orders, Cyclostomata, Ctenos-
tomata, and Cheilostomata, t oon, when completely
evaginated, presents no fold or eiecion of the sac, while in the
higher group Phylactolamata, there is a partial me ee
inversion of the sac under like conditions. ©
: hd wi and
een us, and to him I am indebted not eal ae
the of ;
22 E. 8. Morse—Classification of Mollusca
This latter group, combining the permanent inversion of the
sac-walls with the lopho ophoric arms, is the first approach to the
been
a tendency to tarmanate as in the
found on the outer bend of the intestine and actually on the
ventral side; the nerve occupying its homological position.
(The manner in which I view the Brachiopoda, if true, w
entirely reverse the accepted poles of their structure. Ww
een considered as.dorsal, is here regarded as ventral, ont
what has been considered as anterior is here regarded as posterio or.
closed, we have no function pels Ko at that end, except the
degradational one of adhesion. In the or go es I, T)
we have, through continued cephalization, the mo h thrown to
the bottom of the sac, or nearer the anterior end, aad now the
anus terminates behind the mouth, and posterior!
The heart has also followed the intestine in its rotation and
in Polyzoa. e have commencing in this group, the Tunicata,
that erratic bendivig’ of intestine, and varied position in its anal
termination, that is witnessed = up in the scale, and though |
‘aca a? tie Open vabeek aa eatin as the police cove: de
i in no inst ere the arms extended.” W: s Treatise,
~
a es cae OR ee baler Se Tet thn 2
on the Principle of Cephalization. 23
apparently governed by no law, we can yet trace be sity tines
movements toward a normal condition, by comparing Appendi-
cularia, one of the lowest forms of the ieee ae repre-
senting the larval condition of their class. In this form the
intestine has a ventral flexure, and terminates on the ventral
side. In Pyrosoma it makes an abrupt bend toward the anterior
dorsal region, and terminates anteriorly. In Salpa it terminates
dorsally, on a line with the mouth, though still anteriorly.
Botryllus it creeps up, and terminates nearer _ posterior pole
of the sac, though still dorsally. We have in this genus, and
other compound Ascidians, the excurrent oie of several in-
—o coalescing, forming a common cloaca for a community.
e dorsal flexure is oe seen in Giayalliva borealis. In
these rear classes; namely, Polyzoa, Brachiopoda, and Tuni-
cata, the sac is essentially closed at the anterior end, and conse-
quently the mouth opens toward the posterior end, and with
few exceptions all are attached by the anterior en
This makes a natural division, corresponding to the Mollus-
coidea of Milne-Edwards, the Anthoid Mollusks of Dana, and a
portion of the neural division of Hux xley. In the Lamelli-
branchiata — I, L) we have the sac opening anteriorly,
d the mo permanently occupying the anterior region,
though in ha seni forms pointing posteriorly, and in all cases
the tentacular lobes pointing in that direction, and the mouth
bent downward (ventrally), and partially obstructed by the
anterior adductor, or by the undivided mantle. The gradual
ry of the eae poset is clearly seen, rea in
highest class, all this display of structure lies at the anterior
pole. Advancing from the Polyzoa, by the gradual advance of ©
the mouth, the posterior pole becomes less prominent. ve
when the sac opens anteriorly, as in the Lamellibranchiat.
24 E. 8. Morse—Classification of Mollusca
the posterior end of the sac remains open, and the mouth, par- —
tially inclined that way, receives its food from that end; the
food being conducted to the mouth by ciliary motion as in the
three lower classes. The nature of their food is also identical,
being of an infusorial character, and as such it is obvious that
masticating organs, or biting plates, such as we find in the two
higher classes, are not needed.
So long also as the posterior end of the sac remains open, the
anus terminates at that end; when this opening becomes closed, }
as in the higher classes, the anus seeks an outlet through the
anterior opening, and the mouth, that before received its food |
from the posterior end of the sac and by ciliary motion, now
distinctly points the opposite way, and is furnished with the
proper organs to procure food, the nature of which requires
separation and trituration '
In nearly all the foregoing en he and also the position
in which I place the Tunicate sac, I am sustained by heat rit-
ings of eminent naturalists. With the a le poeever,
y views completely reverse the Weed war poles of the dy, :
ward's Treatise on Mol-
correct, they were precisely right. In all my previous attempts
to homologize the different classes, I had always met with an
Pp
them comformable with already received relations, the more I
am convinced that such relations are wrong; and it is only in
believing that continued research will but confirm these propo-
sitions, that I now = = offer them.
According to the s here advanced, the Brachiopods are
(1) attached by a roldikeadion from the dorsal area, as in the lower
Polyzoa, where they lie on the back. (2) In their natural po-
sition in life, this valve is really uppermost. (8) The process
aa
on the Principle of Cephalization. 25
of attachment also proceeds eee the anterior pole ao the body,
= in all the members of the branch even t coiGaanene with
exception of those attached by one <alvs ere g. eset
hierdeeiiay whether it be by a byssus, confined in cells of their
own making, or buried in the mud, it is the anterior end which
is fixed. In several lower forms, ‘like Tridacna and An nomia,
the point of attachment springs from the doe area, as in the
two lowest classes. In regard to the posterior position of the
mouth in Polyzoa and Brachiopoda, we have similar analogies
among the Articulata ; aioe cre for example, where we have
animals ae attached head downward, and all the ont
arts, as in the pedunculated forms, tending toward the pos-
terior pele: of the body; or in Li mulus, where we have such a
decephalization, as it were, that the mouth occupies nearly a cen-
tral position in the ve entral region.
Again, considering the intestine as a simple tube, opening at
each end, with the weight of structure evenly divided between
the two openings, is it any more incredulous, that the oral open:
ing should be a than that the anal ‘opening should be
anterior, as in the
In Polyzoa, the ee and anal openings occupy a similar posi-
tion in all the forms. In Brachiopods, while the mouth remains
in nearly a constant position, the anus terminates either in a
median line, or by a lateral deflection of intestine to one side.
In Tunicata, while the mouth i se a permanent position at
the front of the sac, the anus terminates at various portions of
the sac, generally in a a nm though there is usually a
lateral Seite of the intestine.
In Lamellibranchiata, nie eee and anus terminate in a me-
dian line, with few exceptions, (e.g. Pecten) though the intes-
tine convolutes in various ways. In Gasteropods we have again
lateral deflection of intestine, and though in many sige the
anus terminates in a median line, yet in the bulk of the Gaster-
opods it terminates at one side or the other. In the Dibranchi«
ate Cephalopods we have again the termination of the intestine
in a median line
he diagram ors given (fig. 1) represents an
ideal longitudinal section of the sac, similar to
those of Series I. The arrow within the sac
—. the direction of rotation of the bent intes-
e, carrying with it the heart, (see Plate, Series
I) which i in “Brachiopoda we find on the ventral
region; in Tunicata on the anterior dorsal re-
gion; in Lamellibranchiata on the dorsal mon
in Gastero on the dorsal region and —
farther back; and in the Cephalopods at the
posterior portion of the sac. ‘The different ciatiokg of the ~~ .
Ant. Jour. Sc1r.—SEconD pein Vou. XLII, No, 124.—Jury, 1866.
4
26 £. 8. Morse— Classification of Mollusca
openings i rm in fig. 1 by arrow O) follow the same di-
rection, that rom po osterior to anterior, ventrally. Thus in
Tunicata the vied openings are posterior ‘and posterior-dorsal ;
the posterior-dorsal, being the anal or excurrent orifice; this i is
always the shortest in Tunicata. In Lamellibranchiata the anal
tube moves nearer the branchial tube; in the lower forms their
outer covering coalescing and of equal length, while, Hamed up,
the tubes become entirely separate, and, in some, of extreme
~ he anal tube being the longest. Tn Pisidiam and other
forms the branchial tube disappears, and water is received
decid a sivenkend opening; while the anal tube yet remains, oc-
cupying a posterior position on a line with the antero-posterior
, in the same position the branchial tube vawiiank in the
Tan nicata : and, finally, both tubes become nearly obsolete, and
the mantle is cleft a round, except dorsally. Thus the pro-
gress of sac opening follows in the same line of rotation with
an opposite “direction (fig. 1, arrow A). Commencing with
the Polyzoa as the lowest’ = we have, as in the Cheilosto-
little lid). This mode of attachment is es lowest feature;
namely, attached along the entire dorsal re
As we ascend to the higher forms of the ee we have a free-
ing ot the posterior portion of 5, and the viscera perma-
men springing anteriorly, and from t e valve, as in the
partially freed polyzoon. Crania and ini are attached as
in Lepralia.
In Lingula, where we have the lengthened and flattened sac,
the animal stands vertical in the sand. In Terebratula an
genera, the dorsal valve already assumes preponderance.
over the oe valve, and now obtains its normal position
——
All ah Tunicates with few exceptions are attached, and by
their anterior en
n the compound Ascidians like rat bee where we have &
donatnteniey of individuals clustering round a common center,
their dorsal as well as anterior regions ate ——? or, in other
words, oe ventral and or regions are free
This a nece with importans excep
. on the Principle of Cephalization. 27
The Monomyarians combine in their structure both high ="
low characters. In their open mantle, and certain other features,
they rank high. In their fixed position, the attachment gener-
would indicate the presence of both anterior and posterior ad-
ductors, combined in consequence of the excessive shortness of
their antero-posterior diameter. The Monoyarians present sin-
gular features of xoialeery with the Prachicwiodk. Thus they are
generally inequivalve. The viscera are compacted toward the
dorsal region, and, when attached, they are generally by a pro-
cess from the dorsal portion (e. g. Ano mia), the lowest feature of
attachment. In all these instances; particularly with Anomia,
the analogy is very striking; it is analogy only, and nothing
more, for in their whole structure, and in the relative propor-
tion of their diameters, they present just the opposite extreme.
While we have in Brachiopoda the growth laterally, that is,
spreading on the sides and depressed dorsally, and the valves,
dorsal and cahkiad, in the Monomyarians we have the other
extreme; the valves are right and left, and the display is hi
the side, ‘the growth extending ventrally as it were. Sona
are they that in certain forms, Placuna for example, it is Seok
impossible to conceive the presence of soft parts between the
valves. We compare the relative diameters between the Brach-
iopods and Monomyarians, to show how unlike they are in this
respect.
ameter. BRACHIOPODS. _ Monomyarians,
Antero-posterior. edium Small.
Dorso-ventral. Small. Very large.
Transverse Large. Very small.
By reason of their excessive narrowness, the greater na
of Monomyarians lie on the right or left valve, and as their
sae as in oni fae paper on Eee ic ga 0
Unionide, Journ. Acad. Nat. Sci., 2d Series, vol. iv, Be D-
28 E. &. Morse—Classification of eases
end downward. In Calyptrasn they are in a fixed position,
pecreting a ine valve, upon which they rest. It would be
interesting to know for a certainty which part first becomes
attached in Vermetus and allied forms; their, first point of
attachment must take place at the mouth of the tube or a aper-
ture, which is really anterior and ventral. The Cephalopods
are free.
Thus we have the various regions of attachment, changing
and wel in the diencsion indicated by the arrow A, in
cend in structure toward the anterior end, so we find the princi-
pal organ of locomotion, i.e., the foot, is first developed from
the ventral region, and in like manner tending toward the ante-
rior end, as we ascend in the scale, until, in Cephalopoda, =
ed divisions of the foot surround the head, and poin
irectly forward.
aving personally communicated the substance of this paper
to Professor James D. Dana, he has, in a letter to me, indicated
certain gradient ieleaon: among the Lamellibranchs, Gastero-
pods, and Cephalopods, as manifested in the special characteris-
tics of the — or anterior part of the body, so clearly illus-
trating the principle of cephalization that I now take the liberty
of presenting them. In the Lamellibranchs the foot is a simple
muscular organ developed from the ventral surface and protrud-
ing anteriorly. It is simply an organ of locomotion, in the
lower forms not even performing this faneliote The oral open-
ing = simple slit, without the power of seizing or triturating
its
on the etew of Cephalicition. 29
nished with rows of suckers, or hooks. These arms surround,
the head, and are thrown direetly Sanat They are capable
not only ‘of locomotion, but of seizing their prey, and perform-
oO movements of aggressive action. In the higher forms
of Cephalopods, the function of locomotion is delegated to other
organs, while the arms subserve the uses of the head alone, and
e —
3d, Cephalopods—Locomotion, Prehensio an nd Aggression.
According to the principle of op halnaliies cephalic power is
manifested either as a mechanical, sensorial, or psychical force.
Thus the Cephalopods possess in the gre atest song all three
while Gasteropods, not indicating, to any grea extent, aggres-
sive action, may be said to manifest but little aveiiak se ete:
- and ae Lamellibranchiates manifest soercsomge only mec
acti
We have based the preceding considerations on the common
structure of each class, and for comparison have given an arche-
type, as it were, of each class ‘Cane I). In continuing these
archetypal figures, as illustrating the relative diameters and
mean forms for each class (Series I and IIT), and also the mean,
or average position in nature of the antero-posterior axis (Series
IV), we obtain singular features of polarity,* which I will now
proceed to indicate : premising, however, that what follows. is
average lateral form of each class is given. In Sasa a
transverse section is given of the same figures in Series II. In
Series II the arrow A indicates the direction of posterior bam
and D indicates the dorsal region in Series II and HI.
Series IV a line for each class is given, representing the sven
position of their antero-posterior axis in nature an
5
é
g.
:
i
i
r=
oa
te
3
£
a:
£
* We use this word in its most general sense.
30 E. S. Morse—Classification of Mollusca
tentacles surround the mouth only; the anus terminating out-
side the lophophore. Witness in the highest order of Cephalo-
s, the Dibranchiates, the sae as in Loligo (Series I, C), long
and cylindrical, and in all cases mouth and anus opening ante-
riorly; the arms surrounding the mouth only. Two rough
diagrams, alike in form, but reversed in one case, would repre-
sent each class as we have it here. In Brachiopoda (Series U,
, L) the same. The relative diameters of the Monomyarians
are unlike those of any other class, as before pointed out.
It is confidently believed that when these relations or polari-
ties, between the ascending and descending, or, as Professor
Dana terms them, the Holozoic and Phytozoic classes, have been
further studied, new and interesting features will be revealed.
Thus, the resemblances between the Tunicates and Lamelli-
branchiates are too obvious to indicate.
Among the Brachiopods and Gasteropods, beside what has
been pointed out, we have unlooked for similarities, as for
instance Discina and Calyptraa, or Terebratula and Hyalea.
Among the Polyzoa and Cephalopoda, though no polarities are
brought to mind, except those given above, yet we cannot help
remarking how strong the resemblance is between the Polyzoa
and Protozoa, through Vorticella: and if Vorticella belongs to
Polyzoa, as Professor Agassiz appears inclined to believe, a few
steps more bring us to the Ammonitic forms of the Rhizopods.
This is speculative (though suggestive), as it is now considered
by many that the Protozoa forms a fifth Sub-Kingdom.
considering transverse sections of the sacs, as shown in
Series III, we obtain a like order of polarity. Thus the highest
orders in Polyzoa and Cephalopoda presents a circular section.
Brachiopoda and Gasteropoda are transversely oval; Tunicates
and Lamellibranchiates are longitudinally oval, or in lower
forms circular; while the Monomyarians have the dorso-ventral
diameter in excess, and the transverse diameter reduced to the
minimum.
In considering the position, or angle of the antero-posterior
axis of each class in nature, we obtain similar results (Series IV).
Polyzoa and Cephalopoda, we place in a horizontal position,
ing a swimming Dibranchiate for comparison: this may be
premature however.
Brachiopods and Gasteropods with posterior pole sme @ ele-
S vated, as in Cyrtia and allied forms of Brachiopods, and any
_ eoiled Gasteropod for example. Tunicates and Lameilibrancbi-
Ps eee J
on the Principle of Cephalizdiion, . 31
ates with the axis vertical, the —4 r pole being below, and —
the Monomyarian horizo zontal again. It must be remembered
that the above considerations are pci in their most general
sense, representing only the mean for each group, many of them
erhaps erroneous. They are given rather for the purpose of
indicating a further path of inquiry, which the writer considers
fruitful and intends to follow, than as woe in any way settled.
In ascertaining the mean position of the antero-posterior axis
for the whole branch of Saceata, (that is, the average) we find
that a line at an angle of 45° would represent its position in
nature; the lower end being anterior. In the Radiates a line
through the mouth to the opposite region of the body would
stand ee In Articulates the antero-posterior axis would
be horizontal. Among the Vertebrates, Fishes would be hori-
gotta, = in Articulates ; Se ora have the head slightly ele-
vated; Birds and Mamm mals still more elevated; so that a mean
line, for ests classes might be drawn at an angle of 45°, the
cephalic region being uppermost. Man stands vertical. Thus
in a diagram we would have the following:
2.
he
Pe Ree eee
mise Articulata.*
Saccata.
. Radiata.
nowhere does this character predominate so universally, nor is
it expressed so simply as in the Mollusea; the leading idea as it
were. It was shown also that, essentially, the heart is on the
euter bend of the intestine, or Lae that and the sac wall,
while the principal nerve mass was on the inner bend of the in- i a
testine. We would thus state tes characters. -
SACCATA,
(1.) Animals of varied forms, without a radiate structure and a
without articulations
2.) Stomach and viscera enclosed aap Lae which. may
closed or open, at either one or both
32 E. 8. Morse—Cilassification of Mollusca
(8.) Principal nerve masses, consisting of ganglia, which are ad-
jacent to, or surround the agus
(4.) Intestine bending patie or having an aroma flexure.
(5.) Heart on the outer bend of intestine.
[ Sac open at { CEPHALOPODA,
a OR | autetice end. ({ GasTEROPoDA.
Aout ae fees { LAMELLIBRANCHIATA,
Sacoata. +
peperens oR f Sac open at
HEMITY posterior end. igh ceanierntt
Mouth
: Ladasiterty. Ls ac Cloned. 1Pe Bracuroropa,
OLY
must now consider the relations of ei Saecata to the
dian” branches of the Animal Kingdom. In the paper of Pro-
gamma’ ‘pie, ve degradational ; the ‘Radiates are regarded
as dapradateonal; "ait evel eek hemiphytoid. He employs
also, the terms use above, namely, ons for true animal
org vata Phytozoic, for plant-lilee form
lying these terms to the classes or oe of nate, we
ire the following :
te are! CrPHALOPO
Hotozotc. A GaAsTEROP nn
Gammatypic, LaMELLIBRANCHIATA.
a . § Tuntoara.
Peencsnee ( Bracuiopopa.
Puyrozoic. ae Potyzoa.
ellibranchiates may be considered the essential embodiment of
the branch to which ats belong. Tunicates and Polyzoa may
be compared to Radia
Or, in considering hee freedom or fixedness in life, we have
Cephalo pods free, as in all Verte brates ; opods, a a few
fixed, as in Articulates ; Lamellibranchiates, many fixed, as in
ta, with ener to the other Branches. ‘unicates, the
greater portion fixed, though they do not compare so well with
MENS a Gh Cay Ca eae Seat RE Me ee gee ay y= RE Oa fe ene. Say ee ee LP Three ES Crys nee ee eae TES
E. B. Andrews on Petroleum in its Geological Relations. 33
pty Radiates in this respect, but gies feet and Polyzoa fixed
n the lowest class of Radiates, the Poly
We would tis have
ALPHATYPIC, eae Po Fishes,
GAMMATYPIC, Gasteropods, Ar doveay Worms.
BeratyPio, La ellbranchiates, Saccat
Tun
DrGRADATIONAL, i Brachio dé; esl
Hemiraytow, Poly Radiates, Polyps.
XPLANATION OF PHE
RK zoa; B, Brachio niet ls i nips ein ah he G, Gasneuean
and C. phalopod —-_(M, aad cating Monomyaria of the second s ese
figures are represented anterior end downward, the dorsal region being turned to
the left. The tube within each cut, represents the intestine, the larger end of
which is the mouth, and the smaller end the anus. The ia ates figure repre-
sents the heart, and the star represents the pedal ganglion
ERIES Represents similar views, with less detail. “The dorsal region in ee
series is uppermost, and the posterior boy is turned to the left, as indicated by arro
A. The curved line indicates the intestine, the large end being the mouth.
ran Tl [. Represents transverse sections of sericea lama n Series IT.
epresents the mean position in nature, of the Saitaan poulaasse axes
of thik fives represented a : A, Anterior pole ; P, Posterior pole. e verti-
cal rows of figures are sdeaticad.
Art. IV.—Petroleum in tts Geological Relations; by Prof. E. B.
ANDREWS, Marietta, Ohio
N the number of this Journal for July, 1861, I gave some
facts bearing ea the geological relations of petroleum. My
attention at that time was confined chiefly to those locations
found in the Coal-measures of West Virginia a Southern Ohio.
It is gratifying to know that the views presented in that paper
have since been fully verified. As predicted, by far the larger
part of the oil produced has been found along the axis of a well-
marked anticlinal, extending from the borders of southern Ohio,
forty miles or more, into West Virginia, through Wood, Ritchie
and Wirt counties. A smaller quantity has been found in the
tolinca rocks of Ohio; while scarcely a barrel has been ob-
tained in horizontal rocks, although hundreds of thousands of
generation of oil have existed over a wide area; but the physical
condition of fissures is found to exist in comparatively iat
reas. Fissures serve two purposes, one to give space for the
formation and expansion of the hydro-carbon vapors, and th
other to furnish receptacles for the oil when condensed.
ures must connect with the deeply seated sources of ot oil
Am. Jour. Sct.—Szconp Serizs, Vou. XLII, No. 124.—Juxy.
5
34 E. B. Andrews on Petroleum in its Geological Relations.
If they have any surface outlets, Hi which the more a
feet, another fissure Flag an abundant supply of oil of OTR.
ence, while, as a general rule, oil found near the surface is
heavy, the fissures sistant it being more likely to have sur-
face outlets, yet sometimes the ver y deep fissures may have such
outlets, and the contained oil be heavy.
e West Virginia oil field presents many points of great sci-
entific interest. All the seodlicaua oil wells in this part of the
State group themselves along the anticlinal line marked out in
the article referred to, this line being the one of the greatest
fissuring of the roc cks. Toward its northern and southern ex-
tremities this line presents the form of a simple anticlinal with
the rocks so a on either side of the axis at angles varying
from 5° to But in the middle part there is a double frac-
ture, the: fines of dislocation inclosing a somewhat elliptical-
shaped area about ten miles long by one wide. ese figures
are only proximate estimates, A bird’s-eye view would present
an appearance somewhat like that given in fig. 1. The more
important oil oe ais are indicated by the marks ,
A, A represent the horizontal rocks. These belong to the
highest strata of the Coal-measures. B,B represent the dislo-
cated strata, inclining in opposite directions at angles varying
E. B. Andrews on Petroleum in its Geological Relations. 35
from 30° to 60°. Without having made any instrumental meas-
urements I have estimated the thickness of these strata at about
eight hundred feet. C gives the position of strata lying within
what is popularly called “ the break.” These rocks belong to
the Cae al-measures and have been more or less flexed by
lateral pressure. It is in these middle rocks that the most valu-
' able wells of West Men urs are now being obtained. Wells
bored in the rocks A, A, have been failures as also the wells
bored in B, B. The rocks B, B, appear to have been lifted up
bodily, and in such a way as s not to have been much fissured.
The advantages of the inner strata, marked C, as oil-producing
- rocks, are: first, they are bent and more or less fissured ; secon
they are many hundred feet lower in he series than the strata at
A, A, and are consequently so much nearer the equivalents of
the supposed sources of oil in the Dev Coan rocks of Western
Pennsylvania and Canada; and third, this local disturbance of
the rocks doubtless involves in its many fissures these underly-
ing Devonian strata, and thus has. given every opportunity for
the generation of oil and its upward ascent.
reasonably infer that the oil found along this line is of the same
i by geologieally as the oil obtained in the upper Devonian
ocks of Venango Co., Pa. Thus far the oil obtained within
this double fracture has been found very near the inner edges of
ee: os on the gone iG "The Voreanie Oil Co, and the
West Va. Oil and Oil Land Co. own large areas of land within
the “breaks.” The “ Mount’s Farm” and other companies own
smaller tracts .
T cannot but regard the term “voleanic” as infelicitous when
applied to this region. Nothing is more sensitive to heat than
petroleum, and direct igneous action adequate to the work of
uplifting and dislocating the strata to this extent would, I think,
have driven off all the oil. The uplifted strata at C (fig. 2) con-
tain seams of bituminous and cannel coal which possess the nor-
mal and average quantity of bitumen, There is, to my mind, a°
much better and more scientific explanation of this disturbance,
36 E. B. Andrews on Petroleum in its Geological Relations.
such lateral pressure as would cause an uplift and dislocation.
In this way alone could the sinking strata make room
selves. For the most part along the line there was a pretty
sharp anticlinal formed, but in the center of the line there were
two fractures which may, I think, be satisfactorily explained.
A popular illustration of the dislocation would be the case of
ice fractured and heaped up by the lateral pressure of currents.
It would be easy to find two cakes uplifted and forced upon 4
central one as represented in fig. 3; the central cake at the same
2
time being forced upward and cracked by the force which wedges
itin. If the top of the projecting mass were planed off down
day of heavy oil from a fissure 164 feet deep. The Longmoor
wells find oil in large quantities at the depth of 265 feet. The
came to my knowledge many years ago) was produced by the
same force that dislocated the rocks under consideration, and at
aie
E. B. Andrews on Petroleum in its Geological Relations. 37
the same time. The eae action along this line of uplift
must have been very great, as, in some places, not less than a
thousand feet of the jee -measures have been eroded. I can,
however, find no traces of any other agency of erosion than those
now at work, viz., atmospheric and aqueous. From West Vir-
ginia this line of disturbance passes into Ohio, crossing the Ohio
river near Newport, Messrs C03 OS but, farther to the
Little Muskingum river, is exactly in the anticlinal axis of one
of these smaller undulations. ‘This well began to flow in June,
1861, and is, I believe, still flowing. It is 200 feet dee
I have thus discussed the relation evidently existing between
lines of geological disturbance and the production of oil in West
Virginia and southern Ohio. <A similar connection has been
observed by Sir Wm. E. Logan in the oil fields of Canada (Ge-
ology of Canada, p. 379). The oil obtained on the upper Cum-
berland river in southern Kentucky has been found, so far as
can learn, in locations of similar disturbance.
But there is another and very important class of facts to be
noticed in connection with the subject of the geology of oil.
We find in many parts of the country a very marked tendency
in the oil to accumulate in certain geological horizons. The
stratigraphical position of most of the oil in southern Ohio (in
the Coal-measures) is in a vertical range of about two hun
feet of rocks lying. below the horizon of the Pomeroy coal seam
This is true in Meigs, Athens, Morgan, Noble and ashington
counties. There are some exceptions to this rule, but they are
On Big Sandy river in Kentucky, the conglomerate below
the coal is the “oil rock.’’ In Scioto and Pike counties in Ohio
there is a well marked horizon of oil springs in the Waverly
sandstone, within twenty feet of its line of junction with the
underlying black shale. At Mecca, in Trumbull Co., O., there
is a similar and well-defined “oil rock.” But the most notable
fact of this kind is observed in Venango Co., Penn., where, on
Oil creek, Cherry run, and Pit-hole, the oil is chiefly obtained
in the fissures of the “third sand-rock.” This rock’ is reached
at a depth of from eight hundred to a thousand feet below the
of the Coal-measures. Coal is mined in the hills adjacent
to Pit-hole creek. No oil, so far as I could learn when investi-
gating that region, has been obtained in the arenaceous shales
below the third sand-rock, although a few very deep oe
been sunk. No sand- rock was found below the thi
is found in the third sand-rock, not because it is the third, = =
because it is the lowest, and as such has intercepted the oil
upward ascent, I should here remark that the third san
-
88 £. B. Andrews on Peiroleum in its Geological Relations,
is in some places divided into two parts by about two feet of
soft shales, popularly called the “mud rock,” and the lower part
is sometimes called the fourth nds rock. il is sometimes ob-
tained in the mud rock. This is Marsa explained by the fol-
lowing figure (fig. 4). A and B are the upper and lower divis-
ions of the sand-rock; C is the ieee
rock” penetrated by the well a. The
shale is softened by the water in the
well, and enters the well in the form of *+;
mud. A small cavity, 5, is thus formed,
which sometimes extends to an oil fis-
siLees c, and thus a good oil well is ob- =
‘At Tideoute, on the Alleghany river,
a fine oil field, the famous Economite ‘
wells struck the lowest sand-rock about
one hundred and forty feet below the sh ee “Very ae wells
have been bored in the neighborhood without finding any lower
sand-rock. I had little doubt, when examining the region, that
this_sand- rock served the s me purpose as the third sand-rock
ert retained in its fissures the oil.
nomena of oil and gas springs were seen, Such ‘oil s rings first
finds an outlet through fissures oe laterally to the
surface of the outcropping rock. Whether by boring, at points
remov om the outcrop, where there seta have been no sur-
face drainage, large quantities of oil may be found, remains to
en, it ‘sufficie ently capacious fissures in this oil-horizon
exist, I have no doubt that they will be found to contain large
quantities of oil.
I would, in passing, venture to express my dissent from the
opinion of some egies, that oil which may have been formed
in higher strata descends to lower. In all my investigations of
this matter I have never found any evidences of such a fact,
while, on the other hand, the natural tendency of oil is upward:
the waters lift it up; its cognate gases often force it up; the
original oil vapors rise to condense in higher and cooler cavi-
lower fissures may often be re-volatilized, to ascend an
higher places of condensation near the surface. This last men-
tioned process may have been going on in many regions for an
E. B. Andrews on Petroleum in its Geological Relations. 39
indefinite period. It is possible even, that in some localities all,
or nearly all, the oil has been bro ought up from its deep birth-
places to very near the surface. In such localities very deep
wells would avail nothing. It is certainly evident that on Oil
Creek, Pit-hole, &c., the oil has come from below. and aceumu-
lated in the fissures of the lower sand-rock. It could not have
been forced down from strata above. Confining the winds in
ags were an easy task compared with forcing down and shutting
up the oil with its furious gases in the cavities of the third sand-
moved under this cover to the northwest. These suppositions
are entirely untenable. The oil is found in independent fissures,
is
and combinations. Such facts forbid the supposition of great
lateral subterranean movements. The same reasoning would
apply to the theory sometimes published, that oil passes down
the long slopes of gradually descending strata to the lowest part
of synclinal basins, and there accumulates. Strong brine in an
open permeable rock ean thus descend, but not oil. If the brine
earried the oil down with it, we should expect to i in the
salt wells of Pomeroy, O., no little oil with the brine. The
brine there is obtained in the conglomerate a thousa te feet
down. When oil is obtained it is from fissures comparatively
near the surface.
f the origin of the oil fissures in the sand-rocks on Oil
Creek, Pit-hole, Tideoute, &c., in western cg aca I cannot
speak with entire confidence. The whole region is covered
with drift materials hiding the seit rocks. There are
nited to the axial lines of these undulat
"Tho limits of a single article forbid ap :comaiticaes other oil
fi ere are some other localities of great promise, but to
difficult task. A little oil is to be found almost everywhere in
our country where the rocks are not metamorphic, and in almost
every geological formation, from the Lower Silurian upward.
I have seen samples of oil from nearly every western and south-
western state. I have myself found it in every stage of the
40 E.B, Andrews on Petroleum in its Geological Relations.
change from light fluid oil to hard asphaltum. A fine sample
of bitumen, received from California twelve years ago, interested
me much as containing many very old bones. This specimen
prepared my mind to receive statements subsequently made,
that wild animals were sometimes mired and died in the tarry
oil springs in that State.
the origin of petroleum there are different opinions. All
agree, however, that it must ultimately be traced to vegetable
or animal substances, the primary combinations of hydrogen
and carbon being the product of vital force. It is the opinion
of Dr. J. 5. Newberry and others that petroleum in its present
form is the product of a slow distillation of bituminous strata.
From this theory Mr. T. S. Hunt of the Canada Survey, in the
“Geology of Canada,” p. 526, dissents, and quotes approvingly
the views of Mr. Wall, who investigated the bitumens of Trini-
ad, and who writes that the bitumen “has undergone a special
mineralization, producing a bituminous matter instead of coal
or lignite. This operation is not attributable to heat, nor of the
nature of a distillation, but is due to chemical reactions at the
ordinary temperature and under the normal conditions of cli-
mate.’ It would appear to be Mr. Hunt’s opinion that the bitu-
mens, of which petroleum is the liquid form, are the product of
chemical reactions changing the original organic materials di-
rectly into oil and kindred hydrocarbons. The facts cited in
proof are, that oil is found in the cavities of fossils (Orthocerata,
&c.), and in thin strata composed of certain corals, and in similar
cases, where the oil must have originated in the places where
found and directly from the organic materials. I have observed
many similar facts, particularly in the Devonian limestones of
Ohio. These facts are conclusive so far as they go. There is
ormed.
of this was absorbed by the sediments which now constitute
often aided by pressure) while in a fluid or semi-fluid state. In
a special study of the distribution of bitumen in the Paleozoic
E. B. Andrews on Petroleum in its Geological Relations. 41
of Ohio which I have undertaken, and from which I hope
o derive important results relative to the origin of bitumen,
aes animal and vegetable, the depth under water or beneath
sediments at which the process of ering wren pare ae
the diffusion of the bitumen in certain sedim and no
others,—I think I have already found fasts en cag to siti
that the bitumen now disseminated through pte shales, &c.,
must once have been in a condition of fluidity somewhat akin
to that of petroleum.
Mr. Hunt, p. 522, speaks of the oil-producing corals of Bertie
as being “surroun nded y solid crystalline encrinal limestone
which is free from oil,” and of the “light-colored limestones
b
well or excavation. we not ask lish if the sur-
soundings of this petroleum had Saisie been different, that
is, had there been proper sediments with suitable submergen ce
and pressure, would not the petroleum have been absorbed and
helped to constitute bituminous strata? But can we follow this
ea Ae the nature of its porate from ab-
, and that subsequently more or less of this peti bins
ascended from its places of birth to accum alate in such r -
If such were the origin and history of all our petroleum it would
be reasonable to suppose that much of it would still be found
tn situ, i. e., where it meshes but instead of this, all the oil I
ave ever seen, except very insignificant quantities in isolated
cavities in fossiliferous limestones, has “Aiea strayed far from
its place of origin. It is seldom, indeed, that we nd any oil
in juxtaposition with bituminous strata of : any rena: It is more
often found in fissures in sand-rocks, rocks in which no oil could
ever have been generated, for whatever organic matter they
not fab impossible that the oil could have originated in these
sand-rocks, or in the arenaceous shales which underlie them in
western Pennsylvania, but is most probable that the oil ascended
from the still lower rocks in the form of vapor which condensed
in the superior cavities. In other words, the oil which, accord-
‘ing to the theory, was formed far below in the original bitumin-
process of
ization of tein sui matter, must have undergone a
nies
ve dactaeaiad Series, Vou. XLII, No. 124.—Juny, 1866.
6 ”
42 E. B. Andrews on Petroleum in its Geological Relations.
In favor of the other theory, that petroleum, as now generally
found, is the product of a distillation of bituminous shales, &c.,
as suggested by Dr. Newberry and others, the following argu-
ments may be urged: Ist. Oil may be artificially produced by
distilling such shales and other bituminous materials. In all
essential respects, the analogy between the natural and artificial
oils is complete. 2d. The phenomena of oil and gas exhibited
in our oil fields greatly resemble those observed in the artificial
distillation of oil from bituminous materials, These phenomena
include inflammable gases, naphthas, heavy oils, asphaltums, &c.
3d. It is believed that some petroleum has been actually pro-
duced in the earth by distillation. Dr. Newberry, in an article
on ‘“ Rock Oils of Ohio,’’ thinks he finds local proof of the dis-
tillation of the petroleum in the great bituminous springs of
California, from Tertiary lignites, there being evidences of recent
igneous action in the region. European geologists have attrib-
uted a similar origin to the petroleums of Italy. Of course,
where igneous action is intense, all the bitumen would be en-
tirely driven off. The same would be true where the action is
considerable and long continued, as in the anthracite coal region
of Pennsylvania where the coal has lost its bitumen, but no oil
was formed, or, if formed, it was soon dissipated in gas. 4th.
There is an abundance of oil-making material in the earth.
The subterranean retort is largely charged. 5th. A compara-
tively low temperature is believed to be adequate to set free the
oil vapors. 6th. By this theory there might be produced an
almost indefinite quantity of petroleum, since bituminous strata
are found widely distributed. In this way the existence of pe-
troleum in so many different geographical districts may be
readily explained; whereas, by the opposing theory, we are not
certain that petroleum, as such, has been produced by the direct
bituminization of organic matter, except. in few strata and in
very insignificant quantity. Finally, the agency whigh would
volatilize the liquid bitumen, or petroleum formed by direct
bituminization, and bring it up and distribute it through the
_ oil horizons would certainly be adequate to distill the
ituminous shales, &c., and bring up the oil to the same ele-
vations.
It may, however, be objected, that if this theory of distilla-
at m:
The question, then, would be reduced to this, viz: do the bor-
ings in deep wells ever show that the deep bituminous strata
have lost any of their original and normal quantity of bitumen?
ee
P ee
R. Pumpelly on Japanese Alloys. 43
I will present one or two facts which may have some bearing
upon this point. Iam indebted to the court fe ROK,
Randolph, qmenre of the Carlisle Oil Co., (oF a Fetord of
a well 860 feet deep bored by him near Petroleum, West Va.
This well is near the center of the strata marked C in fig. 2.
The top of the well is in the lower portion of the Coal-measures.
At 170 feet below the surface, Mr. R. struck a series of sand-
rocks which continued 419 feet. I cannot suppose otherwise
265 feet of what the record terms a “gray shale with muc
soot.” The position of these shales would make them the
equivalents of the black shales of the Ohio Devonian formation,
which in Ohio are 250 feet thick. rare evidently contain some
light carbonaceous matter in the “s wai ut the record calls
of the well. Now have these deep shales, aes 600 feet down
and situated within the double dislocation of strata already de-
scribed, lost a part of their bitamen and been changed from
black to gray? Unfortunately, I have not been able to obtain
any sample of the borings in this shale, they, with the “soot,”
having been washed away. Mr. R. is boring his a still
deeper. Should he soon enter the equivalents of the Cliff lime-
stone of the Ohio Reports, I shall then feel assured that he has
already passed through the exact equivalents of the Ohio Black
Shales and mem them “gray.” Of course, such facts are not
conclusive as to any positive loss of bitumen, but ‘they are not
without sijmiicenans Should I find many similar cases. where
strata, which are highly bituminous at their outcrop, are found
to contain little bitumen at great depths, and at the same time,
the rocks above these buri ciate containing in their fissures
much oil, I think ‘hie inference, that the oil was derived from
the bituminous shales, not unwarranted,
Marietta, O., March 20, 1866.
Art, V.— Notes on ee Alloys ; by RAPHAEL PUMPELLY.
the many tore in use among the pete: are based on in-
formation obtained from native metal-workers. bi a few in-
stances, as with the shakdo and gin shi bu _ the process of |
manufacture, generally hidden, was shown
o, an interesting alloy of copper ea gold, the wed ae
metal in proportions varying between 1 p. ¢, and 10p.c. Ob
44 R. Pumpelly on Japanese Alloys,
jects made from this composition, after being polished, are boiled
rs a solution of sulphate of copper, alum and verdigris, by which
they receive a beautiful bluish- black sate I can explain this
color only by supposing that the superficial removal of the cop-
per exposes a thin film of gold, and that the blue color produced
18 in some manner due to the action of light on this film of gold.
The intensity of the color, and to a certain extent, the color
~ are proportionate to the amount of gold, one or two per
of this metal producing only a rich bronze color. Pure
pti treated in the above solution received the appearance of
an enamelled surface with a rich reddish tint, and brass a simi-
lar surface with a darker shade. Shakdo is used for a great’ va-
riety of ornaments, as sword-guards, pipes, clasps, etc.
n shi bu ichi (# sechen silver”) is is an alloy of copper and
silver, in which the amount of silver varies between 30 and 50
r cent. Ornamental objects made from this composition take,
en subjected to He action of the above solution, a rich gray
color much liked e Japanese. Iti = used for sword orna-
ments, 4 and a Ay variety of obje
I ume ; several alloys and fei of different colors as-
sociated in such a manner as to produce an ornamental effect.
Beautiful damask work is produced by soldering together, one
over the other in alternate order, thirty or forty sheets of gold,
shakdo, silver, rose copper, and gin shz bu zchi, and then cutting
deep into the thick plate thus formed with conical reamers, to
produce concentric circles, and making troughs of triangular
tured into the desired shape, scoured with ashes, polished, and
boiled in the solution already mentioned. The boilin ng. brings
out the colors of the shakdo, ginshibuich?, and rose co
IV. Brasses (Sin chu). —The pees quality of brass is > faxtoed
of 10 parts of eae nae 5 of zinc. <A lower quality, of 10
parts copper and 2
x: fase kane (ball mactaly —First quality—copper 10, tin 4,
iron 4, zine 1b.
Second quality—eopper 10, tin 24, lead 14, zine 4.
Third quality—copper 10, tin 8, lead 2, iron 4, zinc 1.
Fourth quality—copper 10, tin 2, lead 2.
In seaiug the bell-metals the copper is first melted and the
other metals added in the order given above, The best small
bells are made from the first quality. Large bells are generally
made fgom the third quality. The kara kane has a wide range
of use in Japan.
Solders.—For bell-metal—brass 20, copper 10, tin 15.
For brass—first quality brass 10, 2 sag th = 6.
For silver—silver 10, first quality brass 5
ee
eae aa
; ie
: C.F. Winslow on Tides and Earthquake phenomena. 45 4
For gin shi bu wchi—silver 10, first quality brass % ae 3.
For mokume—silver 10, first , quality brass 14.
2 For shakdo—fine shaledo 3, zine 10.
For tin—tin 10,
Among the J spanese articles made of copper that find their
way to this country, there are some witha bright red surface,
which is often taken to be either a lacquer or an enamel. These
objects are made of copper containing red oxyd through the
entire mass, and after receiving the requisite ous and a high
polish, are boiled in the mixture mentioned above
a ee es Ee ee i ee ee Rr
Art. VI.—WNotes on Tides at Tahiti, and Earthquake phenomena;
by Dr. C. F. Winstow. From a letter to one of the Editors,
aed Munich, March 26, 1866.
BT ete ae ee LN a ae a SRS FONE Se Teg ew
I RecEIvVED the American Journal of Science for March this
morning, and have read with great interest the article on the
Tides at Tahiti communicated by Prof. Bache, upon the obser-
vations of Capt odgers.
When at Tebitt in 1844 I was immediately struck with the
anomaly in the tidal phenomena. I observed the daily wave
hi
ees had opportunity for observation. The tide was low in
the morning and highest from 12 to 2 o’clock, as a common ob-
June, late in the afternoon (my notes are at home and I do not
remember the exact day), the tide rose later and I was obliged
to abandon my observations and collections on account of this
unexpected circumstance. I remained on the reef until the sea
$9
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a
n Hall, a Boston gentleman, who was for many years a mer- =
hans at Papiete. The results of the observations are that the _
46 C.F. Winslow on Tides and Earthquake phenomena.
highest tides occur in December and January, and the lowest in
June and July ; and the general observation relative to diurnal tudes
at Tahiti was, that the moon exerted less control over tidal movements
than in other latitudes or places in the Pacific Ocean, although simi-
lar, but less mar is. anomalies existed to a noticeable extent in other
more western gro
I was at the ca of Toubooai six days early in May of the
same year, during which J was making more or less observations
upon the reefs and shores, both on the northern and southern
sides of the island. The tides appeared to flow there with their
usual regularity, and rose to a greater height than at Tahiti.
I have been prompted to communicate these facts because I
have long considered oe tidal phenomena at Tahiti as important
to physical science as they are curious and anomalous; and
week carefully obse ek and studied, I have no doubt they will
greatly enlarge our general cosmical knowledge, and establish a
more correct tidal theory than exists at ay oe notwithstanding
the high utility and value of that we now hav
ile upon this subject of tidal coments in the Pacific
Ocean, I will take occasion to mention that during a long period
of observation upon the coast of Peru with reference to earth-
uake phenomena, I found, not only the highest tides to prevail
at Callao and Paita in December and January, but also a series
of enormous waves or sea-swells to be thrown from time to time
upon the coast, varying from twenty-four to seventy hours in
continuance, accompanied by unusual heights of the tide during
the same period, and, on the contrary also, I remarked that the
-.
so far as I have been able to ascertain; but they increase with,
and accompany, ie swelling of the tides, and occur generally,
not always, about the full of the moon. They so metimes break
suddenly upon the coast. They are annual and constant in their
vcity. During my researches in the old Spanish records for
earthquake phenomena, I have found them spoken of in the
past century, and that they lave often made ravages upon the
coast to a smaller or greater degree. That which overwhelmed
Callao in 1746 invaded the coast with a front swell of 40 feet,
a i and a half hours after the first earthquake had suddenly
astated Lima and Callao, and seventeen and a half — after”
peak 2 tranquillity of the earth had prevailed. This terrible
wave extended for hundreds of miles both north and owe
along the coast, and seemed Ag be an exceptional event in ee
sity although not wholly so in periodicity, it having oce
4P.M., Oct. 80th. It was without doubt ciel: dyn ae
C. F. Winslow on Tides and Earthquake phenomena, 47
in some manner with the action of the internal forces which
produced that series of earthquakes, one of the paced See
also
observed upon the coast of Chili, at Talcahuana, at % 30 < fo) relogky
the same afternoon, without earthquakes. What is very extra-
ordinary also, the waters of the Marafion were equally disturbed
the same night on which the earthquake agitated the coast of
the Pacific, as we learn by the letter of a Jesuit missionary lo-
— among the Indians east of the Andes. Without knowing
ad happened at Lima, he writes as follows: “On the
28th Oct..(1746), apparently about midnight (for here we do not
<now exact time), a very strong earthquake occurred at this
mission. I slept at the time in a ravine of the Marafion where
nothing was perceived but great waves encountering from above
and below, which threatened the canoes with injury ; and as
there was no wind, we do not understand the cause.’
tendimos la causa.” P. loan Deiat de la uipunes de
Jesus Lrimaquas, Nov. 23,1746.) This mission was ‘200 leagues
from Lima.” The convalsion which overthrew Callao and Firma
occurred at 10.30 o'clock P. M. on the 28th of Oct., “five and thre
quarters hours before the full moon.” Nothing unusual sec"
in the appearance of the ocean until 4 o’clock P. M. on the 30th,
noticed, swelled in aoe aie iad, {In connection with this
record I will take occasion to correct an error which prevails in
the books relative to “the submergence of the old city of
Callao.” By careful neprmsstes ets of the entire locality and of
This I have determined by some personal hazard and numerous
ex —
&
48 OC. F. Winslow on Tides and Earthquake phenomena.
ree AS 5
Sl Na Sia *
quake (or plutonic) phenomena in that region of the globe, and =
synchronism of periodic intensity of tidal movements,
as they have been observed on the shores of Tahiti and of Peru,
with the periodic intensity of earthquake and volcanic (plutonic)
movements throughout the surface of the entire planet, I have
been compelled to believe solar influence to be the predominating
element in causal action, and that the lunar connection with ter-
restrial phenomena is reactionary rather than direct. That the
periodicity and intensity of manifestation of internal dynamic
energy are connected with the position of the earth in its orbit,
holding inverse and constant numerical relations to the length
and sweep of the radius vector, as a general law, my observa-
tions and researches have established beyond contradiction or
doubt. And I have the strongest reasons to believe that sys-
tematic observations upon the oceanic movements at Tahiti and
other groups in the South Pacific, and upon the coasts of Peru
and Ecuador, will lead to the discovery of most important data
through which our present lunar theory will be greatly devel- :
oped, and probably profoundly modified. y
facts accumulate in different departments of observation,
it is most interesting to discover a convergence of all terrestrial
henomena toward a central and unique causal agency. e
ate Prof. Kriel of Austria made many observations showing
a connection of earthquakes with terrestrial magnetism. Dr.
ugé of Saxony is showing some remarkable synchronisms 0:
volcanic eruptions with solar spots and variations of the mag-
netic needle. In connection with these important inquiries,
rof. Lamont, the learned director of the astronomical and mag-
netical observatory at Munich, lately informed me that some
ears since, when instituting a series of magnetic observations .
aero Re
surface of the planet, involving the dynamical tension of the
air, ocean, magnetism, electricity,*and plutonic force, all vary by
CE Se Sey it oes
, att
T. 8. Hunt on Lime and Magnesia Salts. 49
In conclusion, I can but express my earnest ee ‘that Prof.
i
South Pacific Ocean, as there are many reasons to believe that
results deduced from researches made in that distant sgn.
(which is so differently formed from our own) will do more to
enlarge our knowledge of mundane and planetary pledions than
those instituted upon the Atlantic shores.
ART. mat —Further Contributions to the History fn ele and Mag-
a Salts, I.—By T. Srerry Hunt, L F.R.S.
Contents oF Secrions.—72-80, Review of previous investigations; 81-87, Hy-
gett double carbonates 3 inc 8 magnesia; 88-95, Supersatarated solutions
carbonates of lime an 96-101, Supposed decomposition of gypsum
by dolomite; 102-110, ‘Artificial fcmatinn of dolomite; 111-112, Its occurrence
in nature
Ty 1859 I published in this Journal, (2), me 170, 865, the
results of a series of investigations on some of the more com-
mon salts of calcium and magnesium, in the course of which I
paper. For the better understanding of what is to follow, [
shall first give a brief analysis of the principal facts detailed in
the paper already referred ts of which this may be looked upon
as a continuation. It wi erefore be convenient for the pur-
pose of reference to ae the sections from $71, with which
that pe concludes
. In sections 1-5 it was shown that the gradual addition
of a ata of bicarbonate of soda to water holding in solu-
tion chlorids of magnesium and calcium, first precipitates the
whole of the latter element as carbonate of lime, with but t one
or two hundredths of adhering carbonate of magnesia, and there
is thus obtained at length a solution holding only,chlorids of
sodium and magnesium, with a portion of bicarbonate of i
which, by evaporation at ordinary temperatures, is de 2
Am. Jour. Sct.—Seconp Serres, Vou. XLII, No. 124. —JOEy, 1866,
=
50 T. S. Hunt on Lime and Magnesia Salts.
a nearly pure carbonate. A similar separation of the two bases
is obtained when dilute solutions of neutral carbonate are sub-
stituted for the bicarbonate of soda. These reactions are intel-
ligible when it is considered that hydrous carbonate of magnesia
at ordinary temperatures decomposes the soluble salts of lime
with the separation of carbonate of lime. . This is true not only
for the sulphate and chlorid, but also for the bicarbonate of
lime (§ 6).
§ 73. The jae ghee See recently precipitated carbonate of lime
in the presence of an excess of carbonic acid and in water ho <
ing alkaline and pa chlorids, were ree to present some
teresting peculiarities. By adding solutions of bicarbonate ‘of
soda to carbonated water holding ‘chlorids of caleium and mag-
nesium, supersaturated solutions, opnipinnig at the ordinary
temperature and pressure from 3°4 to 4:1 grams of carbonate
of lime to the liter were readily ms _ These, however, at
Pp
carbonate ($ 3-7). This solubility of the carbonate of lime
will be enna discussed in § 88.
4, According to sufoge a _ of water saturated with
carbonic ‘neil dissolves only 1:33 gr. of carbonate of magnesia;
in presence of alkaline and earthy ablbeide I obtained, however,
permanent solutions holding not less than 21-0 gr. to he liter,
thus confirming the previous results of Bineau ($8). In §9 1
have described the observations of this chemist and my own on
the ae yor decomposition of solutions of the sesquicar-
nate of magnesia, which after a time let fall in close vessels
a prelate, of hydrat ted monocarbonate.
a ee eee nae eee ey Coos tet rt eo Pi BER ey EN
T. S. Hunt on Lime and Magnesia Salts. 51
the liter.
§ 76. This increased solubility was explained by the fact of a
as one or the other sulphate was employed (§ 10-19).
77. It was further found that when such a solution contain-
ing sulphate of lime and bicarbonate of magnesia was slowly
evaporated at temperatures of from 80° to 70°C., the lime
was deposited as crystalline gypsum, mixed with more or less
carbonate, while the more soluble bicarbonate of magnesia was
esia.
§ 78. It was evident that in this newly discovered reaction
between solutions of bicarbonate of lime and sulphate of mag-
nesian limestone. Before, however, inquiring into the condi-
tions under which this double carbonate may be formed, some
experiments were undertaken to determine the relative solubili-
ties of carbonate of lime, dolomite and magnesite in dilute
acetic acid at different temperatures. It was found that this re-
at a temperature of 4
§$ 28, 29, it was evident that, although dolomite was not quite
liquid containing only three per cent of acetic acid attacks pure
carbonate of lime with lively effervescence at 16°C., and even
52 T. S. Hunt on Lime and ‘Magnesia Salts.
_ at 0°C., and that it is capable of being used with still greater
advantage than a stronger acid for the investigation of these
mixtures of carbonates. In some further experiments to be de-
tailed below, the action of an acid thus diluted upon an excess
of the mixed anonaes = made available for a process of
fractional separation (§ 10
§ 79. In §$ 30 the Aeneas of Bischof, showing the sparing |
solubility of dolomite in carbonic-acid water, were cited, and in
farther illustration the following observation, since made, may
recorde One gram of a very pure crystalline dolomite
in he i fine powder was suspended in little. more than half
a liter of water, which was then saturated with carbonic acid at
the ordinary pressure, and the mixture digested for eighteen
hours at about 18° C. with frequent agitation. At the end of
this time the water held in solution an amount equal to 0:15 gr.
to the litre of the two carbonates, in the proportion of carbonate
of lime 57, carbonate of magnesia 43. In order to determine
carbonate dissolved was oo to 0°39 grs. to the liter. In order {
to show the relative solubilities in carbonic-acid water, of dolo- |
mite in fine powder and pure precipitated carbonate of lime, a |
mixture of one gram of each was digested for eighteen hours |
with half a liter under the conditions — described, when there
were found in solution carbonate of lime 0-380 and carbonate of
magnesia 0:007, equal to 0-015 of dolomite, so that only about
four parts of the latter were dissolved for ninety. six of carbon-
ate of lime.
80. The next point of interest in my previous paper
an inquiry into the a mata in which the double naboiaiie ;
of lime and magnesia, known as dolomite, may be peo
Starting from the well ene fact that gypsums are generally
associated with dolomite, (although great deposits of dolomite
are often without gypsum), and from the unfounded notion that
oe dolomites are formed by a process of alteration from pre-
viously de the ea limestones, Haidinger had suggested that the
e carbonate of magnesia might be due toa reaction,
ont Ree eee Mae yp gl
MS ESE ge ea ete ft ag
—
ERS oa Se le eee al eae ieee a
*
T.S. Hunt on Lime and Magnesia Salts. 53
two Hecreseno of pure ere ep carbonate of lime was
or so
decomposition of the sulphate of magnesia was complete, and
the carbonate of lime removed from the mixture held only 0°7
er cent of carbonate of magnesia, while the residue contained,
esides sulphate of lime, oe of magnesia with only 13
er cent of carbonate o
Marignac bad iowa ‘to form the double carbonate by
heating in a similar manner solutions of magnesian chlorid with
an excess of carbonate of lime. In this case, as I have shown,
the decomposition, even after several hours at temperatures of
150°-290° C. is but very partial, while the product analyzed by
dilute acetic acid was chiefly carbonate of lime, mechanically
mingled with magnesite and a small but variable proportion of
the double carbonate ($ 34-36). In both cases the carbonate of
Q
3
&
se
et
a
=
e.
2)
=
~
wf
3s
"dQ
os
et
o
a)
o
tal
ao
®
rc
a
a-*
bo]
3
jon
7
a
ee
a double dentate
n subsequent experiments, pre it was shown that when
a.
are given, with many details, in § 39-42, and furt ner experi-
Hydrated double carbonates of lime and magnesia,
81. The results noticed in the last section gave rise to further
inquiries into the affinity between the carbonates of lime and
magnesia, and to the discovery of some artificial hydrated com-
pounds of the two. The numerous hydrated double carbonates
studied by Deville were all compounds of the alkalies (potash
or — with magnesia or a magnesian oxyd. In his beautiful
memoir on these salts published in 1851 (An. Ch. et Phys, [3],
Xxxiii, 75-106), besides a series of double salts containing alka-
ine bicarbonatés with nine equivalents of water, Deville has
escribed numerous neutral double carbonates having the gen-
eral formula C,MMO,, which are either anhydrous or combined
with three, four, or ten atoms of water, HO; (H=1,C=6, O=8),
n these ese salts, which are all crystalline, the cae metal i is either
tassium or sodium, and the agnesium, nickel,
cobalt or wet ek With zinc the goto of 1 the ht uble carbon-
ate is less simple than for the preceding, being, according to
Deville, 3NaCO, ,8ZnCO,,8HO. The mode in which these salts
54 T. S. Hunt on Lime and Magnesia Salts.
hydrated salts. A paste of magnesia alba and bicarbonate of
soda with water was found to be slowly changed at a tempera-
ture of from 60°-70° C. into transparent crystals of the anhy-
drous double carbonate, which crystallizes in the hexagon |
system and as remarked by Deville may be regarded asa soda-
dolomite C,NaMgO,. I have already shown, § 38-40, that
when this is heated to 200° C., with a solution of chlorid of
calcium, the sodium is replaced by calcium, and dolomite is
formed. It was with the anticipation that under conditions
similar to those made use of by Deville, it might be possible
to obtain double carbonates of lime and magnesia, that the fol-
lowing experiments, resulting in the production of hydrated .
carbonates, were undertaken. |
$82. The first step was to procure a solution of the chlorids
of calcium and magnesium in equivalent proportions, and for
this purpose a crystalline dolomite from Galt, in western Canada, .
whose only impurity was a few thousandths of carbonate of iron
was selected. This being dissolved in hot hydrochloric acid .
nearly to saturation, a little chlorine or chlorate of potash was
added, and the digestion continued with an excess of the dolo-
mite till the whole of the iron was precipitated, and a pure con-
centrated solution of the two chlorids in equivalent proportions
was obtained.
§ 83. When the above solution is mixed with a slight excess )
of a solution of pure monocarbonate of soda and the resulting 7
pasty mass heated to from 65° to 80° C., the precipitate is
wholly changed in a few hours into a dense white granular
matter, which, under the microscope, is seen to consist of pearly
translucent globules, either single or aggregated. They areusu- ~
ally about ,,',;th of an inch in diameter, and although most |
frequently spherical, sometimes present the form of disks hav-
ing a radiated structure and ragged edges. Lobed and com-
pound shapes from the coalescence of these disks are also met
with. This substance is so slowly attacked by cold dilute aceti¢
acid that it was at first mistaken by me for true dolomite, an
described as such in a note to the American Philosophical Society
before I had discovered water in its composition. It, however,
gives off an abundance of water when heated in a glass tube,
even after having been dried at 85°C. In the analysis of three
several preparations of this compound, in which the lime and
magnesia were calculated as neutral carbonates, there was always
a deficit of from seven to nine per cent, which was regarded as
altogether water. In a subsequent preparation, however, it was
fee
oe aes
OE Ps ere a OR ny See ee ee eC Cw ERNE eR ome Ren he pee RE Oe yr eR aa ay ap nee APE OTR NP merarena Aye TEE RNS yh ee
T.S. Hunt on Lime and Magnesia Salis. 55
found that when freed by washing from all trace of chlorids it
yielded a quantity of soda equal to 1:86 per cent of carbonate
of soda, and moreover that there was a deficiency in the amount
of carbonic acid, which was only about nine-tenths of that re-
quired to form neutral carbonates with the bases; so that the
compound isa slightly basic carbonate of lime and magnesia
with a little soda, “and with about ten per cent of water.
ther analyses are required of this substance, which appears to be
nearly related to the native hydrodolomite or dolomite-sinter of
Kobell.
e magma obtained as in the last section slowly
§84. Th
changes at ordinary temperatures into a crystalline compound
ri
much more hi ghly hydrated than the last. tall cylindrical
jar filled with the paste of the freshly Eeepiptipe’, carbonates
and exposed to the light at a temperature of 15° to 18° C., after
twenty-four hours showed a layer of liquid at the surface from
a partial subsiding of the precipitate, which, at the end of
twelve days in one case, and twenty-five in another, pa
only one-seventh of the original volume. The process ‘of change
appeared to consist in the formation of nuclei, from which crys-
tallization proceeded until every particle of the once volumin-
ous, opaque and amorphous precipitate had become translucent,
dense and crystalline. The phi ak liquid was alkaline
from an excess of carbonate of soda, and held only traces of
carbonate of magnesia in solution. The precipitate washed by
decantation and dried on blotting paper, consisted of brilliant
ecome opaque on the edges, without, however, losing their
hardness, Leated in a glass tube they give off much water with
decrepitation. The following are the results of two analyses of
portions of this carbonate from the same preparation, but dried
at different times by exposure to the air for several hours at
18°C. The carbonates were supposed to be neutral
though no determination of the carbonic acid was 7 e. The
carbonate of soda was separately determined on five grams,
the absence of chlorids having been established, a Ae water
estimated from the loss:
I.
Carbonate of i - - 87-74 8608
pik de - - 31°38 31°06
oda, us 2°18 2-18
Watdh by siecle 7 - 28°70 29°78
56 T. S. Hunt on Lime and Negrete Salts.
§ 85. Without farther analysis it would be pevoreens to at-
tempt to fix the composition of this double carbona he
conditions under which it is generated are precisely nga of the
drated neutral carbonate of magnesia, and it is therefore not
and saa, tuk ite, has a similar formula, C, CaNaO ,,5H0,
and that it may be arti ficially formed by a rocess which recalls
crystalline double salt, (Jour. fur prakt. Chimie, xcili, 339).
. In another experiment a portion of the solution of the
chlorids of calcium and magnesium in equivalent portions, was
by accident mixed with a quantity of carbonate of soda insuf
cient for its complete (ee The mixture was ses
I. Il.
Carbonate - lime, - - 51°30 50°52
magnesia, - - 29°97 30-09
Water, by Pie . 18°73 19°39
100°v0 100.00
The ratios deduced from the above are nearly ten a -
oe seven atoms of magnesia, and twen nty-one of water.
ese results it is pas aren 2: to construct a simple formula, and
Oe Se ete he SP EES ey ATE ee Fe Ch eh
T. S. Hunt on Lime and Magnesia Salts. : 57
although — = represented one of the neutral carbonates
obtained by s containing three atoms of soda, eight of
wid of = dr wa eight of water, I should prefer, padi
farther investigation, to regard the above described substance as
and magnesia. It is worthy of note that while the simple
carbonate of magnesia retains in crystallizing 6HO, the com-
pound of one equivalent each of lime and magnesia contains
only 5HO, and the last, in which the lime predominates, is much
less hydrated. These double carbonates deserve a more careful
ditions analogous to the double carbonates of lime and mag-
nesia just described. The amorphous paste obtained by mix-
ing a solution of sulphate of magnesia with a slight excess of
carbonate of soda undergoes a change precisely similar to that
of the mixed carbonates, and is transformed into small prisms
aggregated into spherical masses, like the double carbonates of
lime and magnesia. It is tolerably permanent in the air, and
yielded me 29:0 per cent of magnesia; which exactly corres-
ponds with the above formula
Supersaturated solutions of carbonates of lime and magnesia.
§ 88. In $78 allusion was made to om coed experiments on
the solubility of carbonate of lime in presence of an excess of
carbonic aci ound that by the addition of re oghiag ag of
soda to a solution holding chlorids of sodium, calcium -
nesium (with or without sulphate of soda), and saariited with
carbonic acid, it is possible to obtain transparent solutions hold-
ing from 3-40 to 416 gr. of carbonate of lime to the liter. Of
of lime which water is capable of holding permanenily in solu-
tion; although, as pointed out in §56 of my recent paper on
a Waters (this —* Ae xl, 196), it would seem from
mparative experiments f Boutron and Boudet that these
chlorids favor the formation of unstable supersaturated solutions.
89. have now to speak of supersaturated solutions of
carbonates of lime and magnesia without any excess of carbonic
acid, of which a brief notice is given in the section of that paper
an. Jour. Sci1.—Seconp Serres, Vou. XLII, No. 124.—Juxy, 1866,
8
88 T. 8S. Hunt on Lime and Magnesia Salts.
just cited. The power of alkaline chlorids and of chlorid of
calcium to prevent the precipitation of carbonate of lime, an
even to dissolve it when precipitated, has already been observed
by Berthollet and by Storer (Dictionary of Solubilities, 110),
but the inquiry does not appear to have been pursued farther.
In like manner the power of salts of potash, soda or magnesia to
prevent the precipitation of magnesia by alkaline carbonates, was
noticed by H. Rose and by Longchamp (Gmelin’s Handbook, iii,
225). These reactions | have made the subject of careful ex-
periments, one object of which was to determine whether hy-
drated or anhydrous double carbonates of lime and magnesia
of calcium are first mingled, is immediately dissolved by a solu-
tion of sulphate of magnesia, and by operating with solutions
of known strength, as indicated above, it is easy to obtain trans-
parent liquids holding in a liter, besides three or four hundredths
of hydrated sulphate of magnesia, 08 gr. and even 1-2 gr. of
carbonate of lime, together with 1:0 gr. of carbonate of magne-
sia, the only other substance present in the water being the chlo-
rid of ium equivalent to these carbonates. <A solution of
chlorid of magnesium, holding some chlorid of sodium and sul-
hate of magnesia, in like manner dissolved 1:0 gr. of carbonate
of lime to the liter. Such solutions have an alkaline reaction.
t
rod), and at the end of eight or ten days at the ordinary temper-
ature the solution holds no more lime in solution, although still
BSH Soa ag OT Bes Seas iy a ea are ae D
T. S. Hunt on Lime and Magnesia Salts. 59
retaining all its carbonate of magnesia. When the recent solu-
tion is boiled there is formed a i seo precipitate of ei
of magnesia, with some lime, and after evaporation to drynes
in a water-bath, a portion of soluble lime-salt remains in the
residue.
$92. The transparent crystals which are slowly deposited
from these solutions contain neither magnesia nor sulphurie
acid. At low w temperatures they are permanent in the air, but
when heated to about 30° C. change into an opaque pasty mass.
Analysis gives for their composition, carbonate of lim
water 47°7. These crystals agree in their physical chaveeeve
with the stg mor carbonate of lime, C,Ca,O,, 10HO, which
requires water 47°
9 s shown in §75, precipitated and even crystalline car-
bonate of lime is permanently soluble to a large extent in solu-
tions of sulphate of soda or of magnesia in presence of an excess
of ssi acid, in which case sulphate of lime and bicarbonate
of soda or of magnesia result from double decomposition. This
process is, however, entirely different from the ready dissolving
Me recently precipitated and as yet unaggregated carbonate of
me in solutions of sulphate or chlorid of magnesium which
solutions of the carbonate of lime. The difference in the condi-
tion of the lime in the two cases is readily shown by the action
of alcohol, which from the first solutions at once precipitates the
whole of the lime as gypsum, and from the second separates it
no less completely in the form of carbonate. It suffices, how-
ever, in the second case to saturate with carbonic acid before the
addition of alcohol to reproduce the ee vs the first case,
and stig instead of carbonate, sulphate of lim
94. The solubility of the yet uncondensed arbi et of lime
in neutral sot power are without action upon it in another
state of aggregation, 1 a good example of the modified frtinsse
bo
of the solutions thus obtained affords an instructive instance
the influence of time on chemical changes.
§95. I have found that monocarbonate of magnesia is still
more soluble than monocarbonate of lime under the conditions
described, and have in this way obtained more than 5:0 gr. of
carbonate of magnesia in solution in a liter of water holding
six per cent of hydrated sulphate of magnesia and a little chlo-
rid of sodium. ‘This solution, strongly alkaline in its reactions, »
gave, when gently heated, a or ri een which was
almost wholly dissolved after some hours repose in the cold. I
have already shown (§ 23) Sand Satna sulphate of magne-
60 T. 8. Hunt on Lime and Magnesia Saits.
sia retains a portion of carbonate of magnesia even after the so-
lution has been long boiled, or evaporated to dryness; this is
manifested by an alkaline reaction and by the power of precipi-
tating the nitrates of silver and copper. That these reactions
are due to dissolved carbonate, and not to a sulphate with excess
of base, is indicated from the fact that the addition of small
quantities of hydrate of soda to a solution of sulphate of mag-
nesia gives rise to a precipitate of hydrate of magnesia which 1s
insoluble in the sulphate, and does not communicate to it an
alkaline reaction,
On the supposed decomposition of gypsum by dolomite,
§96. Haidinger, according to Bischof, has endeavored to ex-
plain the origin of the sulphate of magnesia observed in many
gypsum quarries by supposing a decomposition of the sulphate
of lime by dolomite, and Suckow has also proposed the same
explanation to account for an efflorescence of Epsom salt near
Jena (Chem. Geology, i, 430, iii, 159). Bischof mentions in
connection with the latter instance an observation of Mitscher-
lich, which from the omission of a few words in the English
translation, seems to imply that this chemist had observed the
complete decomposition of bitter-spar by a solution of gypsum.
On reference to the German edition, however, it appears that Mit-
scherlich had observed the decomposition of carbonate of mag-
nesia by gypsum, and thus that his experiments do not confirm
the hypothesis of Haidinger and Suckow, which we have here
to examine. It is therefore by an error that in my recent essay
on Natural Waters, § 19-21, I have attributed the views of
these geologists to Mitscherlich, whose original memoir cited by
Bischof is not accessible to me.
$97. In the paper just cited I have recorded the following
experiments: A solution of gypsum was made to percolate
slowly through a column of several inches of finely powdered
dolomite previously washed with pure water. After ten suc-
cessive filtrations of the liquid, occupying as many days, no per-
ceptible amount of sulphate of magnesia was formed. Solutions
of gypsum, and others of chlorid of calcium, were then digested
for several months at the ordinary temperature with pulverized
dolomite, and also with native crystalline carbonate of magnesia
(from Styria), with similar negative results. Solutions of gyp-
sum impregnated with carbonic acid were also allowed to remain
in contact with pulverized dolomite and magnesite during the
warm season for a period of six months, and even then only
traces of magnesia were taken into solution.
In one experiment out of many, 10-0 gr. of pure crystalline
dolomite from Galt ($82) and 1-0 gr. of pure crystalline gypsum
°-18° C, for six
were digested with 200 c.c. of water at from 15°-18
SA Te OS Le CREE Mena EEN FTAA eM VON eee ney hg See Ree ye CREE EE TLS
T. S. Hunt on Lime and Magnesia Salts. 61
days, when the filtrate, freed from gypsum by evaporation and
the addition of alcohol, gave no trace of magnesia. The resi-
due was then treated for the same time with water holding car-
bonie acid in solution, and the filtrate having been evaporat
to dryness, gave to water an amount of sulphate corresponding
to a 0 of carbonate of magnesia for the 200 ¢.c., equal to
rssath of the weight of the dolomite. The digestion of a simi-
lar iS of dolomite and gypsum with pure water — r six
days at from 50° to 60° C., with frequent agitation, gave no appre-
— amount of soluble magnesian salt. When lesadiesade dol-
mite was digested at this temperature with a solution of pate
of calcium for twenty-four hours, an amount of chlori mag-
nesium equal to ;4;;ths of the dolomite was formed.
It was evident from these and similar experiments that no re-
nmi puey place between dolomite and solutions of gypsum
ev ° C., except in the presence of carbonic acid, whose
renee ation on pocerae ($79) causes the formation of a small
amount of s e of magnesia. It was then necessary to
search stools for an explanation of the origin of the magne-
sian sulphate found in the conditions observed by Haidinger
and Suckow.
- 98. The hydrous aoe e magnesia are — attncla
sulphate of magnesia when digested for twelve hours in the
cold with a solution of gypsum, This hydrated carbonate also
completely decomposes protosulphate of iron in the cold.
bsence of any hydrous carbonate of magnesia from
the Galt dolomite was i by its complete indifference to the
action of gypsum solutions. It was, however, possible that some
other dolomites might contain portions of such a carbonate inter-
mixed. Accordingly a white earthy magnesian limestone from
Chaumont,’ belonging to the gy psiferous series of the Paris
basin, was selected for experiment, pulverized, washed and dried.
Of this 100 gr. were digested for six days with 1-0 gr. of gyp-
sum and 250 c.e. of water at from 15°-18° C. At the end of
this time sulphate of magnesia equal to 0 025 of carbonate was
* Ina note published in 1860 in this Journal, [2], xxix, 284, I showed for the
first eine that the gypsum of the basin of Paris, France, is immediately overlaid
by dolomite. fi was there stated that two specimens of the so-called white marls
62 T. S. Hunt on Lime and Magnesia Salts.
found in solution. The residue was then farther digested for
the same time with 250 c.c. of a solution of gypsum satura
with carbonic acid, and gave a farther amount of sulphate equal
to 0.052 gr. carbonate of magnesia. That the first action of the
g n a hydrous carbonate appears from the fact
that the residue from the above processes, when farther digested
for ten days in the cold with a fresh portion of pure gypsum so-
lution and ers caeeres. agitated, gave only traces of sulphate of
magnesia.
°100. It was, haieova, possible that besides hydrous a
ate of magnesia an admixture of hydrate of magnesia might
also in some cases intervene to effect the decomposition of gyp-
sum. The native crystalline hydrate, brucite, in presence of a
—_ of gypsum containing carbonic acid readily gives rise
ulphate of —— and the rock known as + sae is
ka at 15° C. took up from the mineral 8-95 p. c. of magnesia
and 0:30 p.c. of lime. 100 gr. of ate: and carefully
washed predazzite and 1:0 gr. of gypsum were digested for five
days with 250 c.c. of water at 15°-18° C., snd the tiquid’* then
bly in the cold, aia a ae acetic acid was employed for its analysis. The two
spec imens gave as fi
.
Carbonate of — 364 367 = 593 P. ¢.
magnesia, 25°9 25:2 = 40°7
302
Inso. tu ble,
Water, alumina and loss, 17°6
1000 ig 0
m
wit any einarveeceis ast and gave ‘a8 aout aaa 53-2, alumina and
cules iron-oxyd 19-5, magnesia a trace, water and loss 17:0, insoluble
41=1 ats This clay See ae. Neg oe argillites which I have de-
seri the Geology vd Canada, page 601, a portion of a magnesian silicate,
which nin either exist asa double silicate with alumina analogous to chlorite, or
as a simple hydrous ete: like the sepiolite or magnesian marl which is com
gypsum inly lamina ted and enclose allie of menilite. It efferv
pala cold acai is da pete ig mi it _ fps cent of carbonate of lime, siphare
The’ analysis gave silica 58°4, m slong 20°9, li ren a trac igen and i
3-0, volatile 17:0==99°3. This silicate is readily sisiosivacal by sulphuric acid, eve
after ignition. In my paper on Natural Walkers, tl this Journal, : xl, 49, will be
found some observations on the artificial fo a (8 a, subject
which I edt Ness to discuss in a separate paper.
oo cap pam ah Rg ae ae ca oa eo Niel nel al ee a alae Dea a
T. 8. Hunt on Lime and Magnesia Salts. ; 63
contained but a trace of magnesia in solution. To the residue
was added 250 c.c. of a solution of gypsum partially saturated
with carbonic acid. After twenty-four hours digestion 200 ¢.c.
of the liquid were found to yield on evaporation little gypsum,
but an amount of sulphate of magnesia equal to 0330 gr. of
carbonate. A second portion of gypsum solution with carbonic
acid being added gave, after frequent agitation for seven days, a
quantity equal to not less than 8°93 gr. of sulphate of magnesia
to the liter, showing that a considerable portion of gypsum be-
sides that first in solution took part in the reaction. In — as
in all the previous experiments, a coarsely crystalline and very
pure gypsum, preroney pulverized and washed with distilled
water, was mad of,
§ 101. From al these eoaneneate it appears that although
quantities in some magnesian limestones. It also appears that,
with the intervention of carbonic acid, hydrate of magnesia,
and rocks like predazzite containing this substance, may decom-
be repre-
sented as a compound of monocarbonate and ool of magne-
sia, is probably resolved by a solution of gypsum into carbonate
of lime and hydrate of magnesia, a mixture like predazzite,
which requires, as in § 99, the intervention of carbonic acid to
oa it to decompose a further portion of gypsum
Production of dolomite.
§ 102. In $80 I have already discussed the conditions under
which ioe anhydrous double carbonate of lime and magnesia
may be formed, and referred to the sacperimeiie in a previous
paper in which ‘T had succeeded in producing it at temperatures
considerably above 100° C. It was with a hope of obtaining it
at lower temperatures that many of the experiments already
detailed in this paper were undertaken. Thus it was not im
sible that from the supersaturated solutions holding both the
mouocarbonate of lime and that of magnesia, a compound of
the two might be deposited. The experiments alread y described,
however, show that the carbonate of lime separates completely
after a time as a hydrate, without any trace of carbonate of
magnesia. Again it was hoped that the slow union of the two
carbonates at temperatures below 100° C. might give rise to the
anhydrous double salt, instead of which, however, we have seen
that there are formed the hydrated double carbonates already
escribed. Attempts were el made to dehydrate these com-
pounds and thus produce dolomite, but with partial success.
64 T. S. Hunt on Lime and Magnesia Salts.
§ 103. The following experiments were made in confirmation
of those described in 1859. In the examination of the products
obtained, acetic acid was made use of as before, but with modifi- .
cations ($78). A dilute acid was prepared by mixing three
measures of the glacial acid with ninety-seven of water. Of
this liquid, containing three-hundredths of acetic acid, there
would be required in round numbers about 44 c.c. for the solu-
tion of one gram of dolomite, upon which the action is compar-
atively slow at the ordinary temperature, although this same
liquid dissolves carbonate of lime with lively effervescence. By
dividing into two or more portions the amount of this dilute
acid required to dissolve a given weight of a preparation of thé
two carbonates, and keeping separate the matters dissolved by
the successive portions, a fractional analysis of the material is
effected, which gives results still more satisfactory than those ob-
tained by the method described in the previous paper.
§ 104. In § 37 it was shown the anhydrous crystalline car-
bonate of magnesia evinces no disposition to combine with car-
bonate of lime, and the following experiments will show that
the crystalline sexhydrated carbonate of magnesia (§ 87) is but
little disposed to combination. A portion of this compound
was intimately mingled with an equivalent of precipitated car-
nate of lime and one-fifth of an equivalent of bicarbonate of
soda, which would at an elevated temperature furnish carbonic
acid that might aid the reaction of the earthy carbonates. This
mixture formed into a paste with water was heated in a closed
tube for two hours from 120° to 180° C., and then to 180°C.
After six hours the matter was removed, washed with water and
magnesia, while the residue was slowly but completely soluble
in hydrochloric acid, and was carbonate of magnesia with only
3°2 p.c. of carbonate of lime. From this it appears that a por-
tion of the double carbonate is formed in this experiment and
remains mingled with resulting magnesite. In another experi-
ment, in which no bicarbonate of soda was added, the portion
soluble in dilute acetic acid contained 90°3 of carbonate of lime
and the residue only 68 p. c., the remainder being carbonate of
magnesia. The result of these experiments, like that of von
Morlot, is thus chiefly a mixture of carbonate of lime with mag-
ia,
In the above asin all the experiments at temperatures over
100° C., here described, I have made use of bronze tubes hold-
ing about 14 c.c., with screw-caps made tight by an interposed
disk of lead, and heated in an oil-bath.
§ 105. It was next to be seen whether the hydrous double
T. S. Hunt on Lime and Magnesia Salts. 65
carbonates would yield dolomite by ee ae For this pur-
se a portion of the hydr®carbonate formed at the ordinary
of iene acid of three per cent, by which it was at first en
attacked. The last or fourth part was not perceptibly ac
upon by cold dilute hydrochloric acid, but required heat and
long digestion with this acid to effect its solution. The compo-
sition of the successive portions was as follows:
Calc. Carb. Mag. Carb.
i, 21 parts, 90°36 9°64
II. A ES ls 99°06 “94
UI 20... St 82:09 17-91...
IV. i aaehes 9°52 90°48
These results show that as in the preceding section but little
SO is formed, though the proportion of lime which still
remains in Iv, 1 indicates a certain amount of the double salt.
The presence of nearly ten per cent of magnesian aren (in
with less ons one per cent in II, seems to be due toa partial
decomposition of the magnesian carbonate during its dehydra- .
tion, involving a loss of carbonic acid and the formation of
hydrate of magnesia. A similar result is seen in the second ex-
perumpens of the last section, while in the previous experiment
is was to a mete extent prevented by the presence of bicar-
bonate of
§ 106. A neon of the hydrocarbonate with excess of lime-
salt, described in n § 86, gave, when treated like the last, a some-
what larger admixture of dolomite and when the hydrous double
0°-9
carbonate formed at 8 0° C. was gradually heated with water
to 180° C., the fractional analysis of F the product showed that a
large proportion of dolomite had oma on rmed. The composi-
tion of the first and rong rtions follows, the second
having been lest, and the third completely ani ed,
Carb. Cal. Carb. Mag.
i. 25 parts, 583 41°7
i. PE AP undet. undet.
Ill. va 46°5 53°5
$107. In another trial with a granular double carbonate pre-
pared at about 60° C., and then heated as before, the following
results were wie 2 fractional analysis, a residue of pure
ae of magnesia insoluble in acetic acid remaining.
Carb.
Calc, Carb. Mag.
ce 66°7 33°3
II. 55:4 44°6
00°0 100°0
It suffices to cahper the last two results with those o ot in
Am. Jour. Sc1.—Srconp Series, Vou. XLII, No. 124.—Jury, 1866.
9
66 T. S. Hunt on Lime and Magnesia Salis.
in the previous two sections mi ¥ wre recorded in § 80, to see
that in the present case a double anflydrous carbonate is actually
a While in the ans ae preparations with sulphate of
magnesia and carbonate of lime, or with the more hydrated
residue is, by the farther action of the dilute acetic acid, shown
a mixture of dolomite with magnesite.
§ 108. But the most favorable conditions for the artificial sok
duction of dolomite, so far as yet observed, are attained with a
intimate mixture of the two carbonates in the amorphous ca
as precipitated by a slight excess of carbonate of soda from the
tion of equivalent ti of the chlorids of calcium
and magnesium. (§ 82) o effect the union of the two car-
bonates the heat should be very gradually raised to 120°-130°,
+
>
ee
pe |
<q
5
pee
>
oc
oe
fa?)
ea)
os
Q,
o
0Q
on
ps)
yr
oD
ja
er
°
eS
aa)
oO
ot
= Be
a5)
et
Os
3
lar}
ps)
+
o
md
ie)
ip
°
“3
aay
rcoae
c
oS
ordinary temperature, and a ain moistened with water and |
acid with similar results to the preceding. e last residue of
_ twenty-one per cent consisted of carbonate of lime 52° 7, carbon-
ate of magnesia 47°
It is unnecessary to multiply the descriptions of results of
this kind obtained from five or six different preparations, and |
all showing that under the influence of heat the pasty mix- —
ture of the two carbonates yields an anhydrous, sparingly |
soluble compound having the chemical character and compost- |
tion of dolomite, Poet requires carbonate of lime 54-35, carbon-
ate of magnesia
§ 109. In walang experiment a mixture containing more , than
an equivalent of magnesian carbonate was heated as above
described, and the portion dissolved by the first action of the
acid contained 48°6 per cent of carbonate of magnesia, while
the second portion dissolved had only 47-0 per cent, and the
residue was pure magnesite. The excess of magnesia in the
first fraction over the second would seem to be shor as in § 105,
to a partial decomposition of the excess of hydrated magne-
sian carbonate in the mixture.
T. S. Hunt on Lime and Magnesia Salts. 67
$110. Carbonic-acid water may be employed arsed =
(52°0 per cent), the action of 500 ¢.c. of water saturated with
yaar acid during two and a half hours, removed from one
containing only 48°5 per cent of magnesian
teetes The residue, from which the more finely divided
portions had thus been removed, was very slowly see tr by a
‘solution of carbonic acid, a second portion of 500 ¢.¢. of whic
after four hours, took up 0: 145, and a third portion, after eighteen
hours more, 0°162 gr. of the two carbonates, in both cases con- ’
ee of earbonate of lime 53-0, carbonate of 1 magnesia 47:0.
111. In coneluding this part of the subject it is to be ree
marked that two things in the history of dolomite may be
regarded as established: first, its origin in nature by direct
a er and not by the alteration of non-magnesian lime-
stones; and second, its artificial production by the “direct union
of mixtures of the carbonates of lime and magnesia at tempera-
tures above 120° C. e question next arises ; whether all dolo-
mite strata have been exposed to such a temperature, or whether
there are yet unknown conditions under he ich the double
carbonate can be found at lower temperature
magnesian limestone from the elevated coral island of
The
. Matea, described by Dana (this Jour., I xiv, 82), is, according
to the analysis of Silliman, and my ow n subseque ent examination
and analysis (Ibid., [2], xix, 429), a true dolomite with a slight
excess of carbonate of lime, and is is regarded by Dana as of
recent origin, and as derived, in some way, from the alteration
of coral mud. If this origin ‘be established beyond a doubt, it
is to be remarked that the separation of carbonate of magnesia
from sea-water requires peculiar conditions, which evidently are
rarely fulfilled in the case of these coral deposits; and its pro-
duction being conceded, the volcanic agencies so active in these
regions may have ver. well furnished the heat requisite to form
dolomite before the elevation of the island.
§112. Apart from the formation of stratified sedimentary
dolomite, we have also to keep in mind the frequent occurrence
A this double carbonate as a mineral of secondary bee ap atts:
ning drusy cavities, filling veins, and even the moulds of foss
shat ($ 52, 53). The conditions of its aah from cate
waters are ‘probabl not unlike those of the quartz, fluor, and
pi iy with ee in its form of bitter-spar, it is often
and as subjects for farther investigation, may yet
oe more i ht on the agencies which have effected the union
and crystallization of the two carbonates in sedimentary
Montreal, Jan. 1866.
68 E. W. Hilgard on Conrad's division of the Eocene.
ArT. VIII.—Remarks on the new division i the Eocene, or Shell
Bluff Group, proposed by Mr. Conrad ; by Eue. W. HILGar D,
Ph.D., State Geologist of Mississippi.
In a brief paper published in the January number of this
Journal, Mr. Conrad proposes to distinguish, as a separate group
of the American “Mipeane, a series of deposits but feebly repre-
sented at Vicksburg by a five-foot stratum of dark lignitic clay
and sand, coats in its paleontological characters from both
the Vicksburg and Jackson group. Mr. Conrad considers it to
be especially characterized by the occurrence of Ostrea Georgt-
ana, and defines it as underlying the “ Orbitolite limestone of the
Jackson Group.” He also mentions, in the section of the Vicks-
burg Bluff, the Orbitolite limestone, as a representative of the
Jackson group.
The latter supposition is manifestly an oversight on the part
of my honored friend. That the group of fos sils described by
him, and figured in Prof. Wailes’s ‘Report, as J. sil ate do
not occur at Vicksburg, I need not recall to his mind; but he
has overlooked the fact that the Orbitoides Martelli thronahoue
the state of Mississippi, at least, is entirely absent from the
Jackson Group, the Orbitoides limestone being invariably
accompanied by Pecten Poulsoni, Arca yeah decile Ostrea
Vicksburgensis, and other leading Vicksburg fos
Of Ostrea Georgiana I have unfortunately never seen an au-
thentic specimen or description; but from the facts stated by
Mr. Conrad, and his comparing it to P. longirostris Lamk., Iu
hesitatingly seer u a specimens from Vicksburg, labeled
gan. by Prof. Wailes. Upon the authority of the
latter observer, Mr. Conrad mentions the occurrence of O. Geor-
and
times resembling closely G. convera of the Rotten Tigdetone.
It is one of the leading fossils of what I have most unequivo-
cally recognized as the upper member of the Jackson BrOuP ; it
occurs at Jackson itself, on the hill-tops, associated with .
glodon bones, Umbrella planulata, Cyprea fenestralis, Morio Peter-
soni, Conus tortilis, and others, in stratum No. 7 of section 27,
page 131 of my Report. The Jackson feuctta deseribed by Mr.
Conrad are derived hs Nos, 4 and 5 of that section.
Ra Nr ht Migs EY Se eee me ee Eh see Se Ee ae
pert i ne 2)
E. W. eigend on Conrad's division of the Hocene. 69
In the numerous localities where I have studied the beds of
the Jackson group, I have never found a single Orbitoides asso-
ciated with them. The constant concomitant of the latter fossil,
the Pecten Poulsoni, ~~ is ee from the Jackson strata, being
replaced by P. nuper
But if the Grisiteides canadian is no member of the Jackson,
but on the contrary, a characteristic one of the Vicksburg group,
then it is clear that the strata of the “Shell Bluff group’
Vicksburg lie above, and not below the Jackson strata. For ws
cannot be supposed. that the latter, which occupy so extensive’
an area above Vicksburg (see the map accompanying my Report,)
should suddenly come to an end, and leave no trace of a repre-
sentative between the Shell Bluff pee the Vicksburg groups did
it belong there.
There is only one other locality in the state, as far as known,
where O. Georgiana (i.e. the large air occurring at Vicks-
burg) is found, viz: in Jasper county, Miss., where “it was col-
lected by Prof. W. D. Moore, late of the. University of Miss.
It there occurs again in the same outcrop with Pecten Poulson,
Orbitoides, and a Schizaster, which is also a leading Vicksburg
fossil ; this locality being Tikewise considerably south of the
shell prairies of the Jackson
As there is nothing to justify the assumption of a sudden
termination of the strata of the latter group, which, on the con-
trary, may be seen disappearing under those forming the transi
tion to the Vicksburg strata, with remarkable regularity, along
the course of both Pearl and Chickasawhay rivers, (see p. 135
of my Report), the conclusion is inevitable that the Jaakson group
as older than the Shell Bluff group as defined by Conrad.
hat there may be a considerable difference in the geological
horizons of the Jackson and Vicksburg groups proper, sufficient
“to admit of the existence of a fauna deserving to
into a distinet group, is proved, not only by the paucity of coin-
cident species, (see list, ibid, p. 182), but no less by the consid-
erable thickness of the intervening strata in eastern Mississippi,
on the Chickasawhay river, which near Red Bluff Station
(ibid, p. 185,) amounts to over one hundred feet.
Here, as at Vicksburg, we have, underlying the Orbitoides,
marls and limestones, a stratum of inconsiderable t ickness, but
literally teeming with shells, which are a strange mixture of the
faunas of Jackson and Vieksbur rg, with numerous peculiar
species (see list, ibid, p. 136). Here also, we have a Madrepora,
distinct from, but closely allied to, the eS ae in a
“ Georgiana bed” at Vicksbur rg; where in its t e find an
extraordinary eee of valves of Meretrix si i : rara avis
in the Vicksburg strata proper, but abundant in the
group. Busycon undulatum, also, is a Jackson form, it not
70 F. H. Bradley on Fish-remains in Western New York.
Of course, these data are insufficient as yet to parallelize Mr.
Conrad’
ining
Art. IX.—Preliminary Notice of certain beds of Fish-remains, in
the Hamilton group of Western New York; by Franx H.
BRADLEY. ,
ticular masses of impure pyrites, which contain large quantities
of the teeth, fin-spines and bony-scales, of fishes, and numerous
ollusca.
The layers composing these beds are very variable in thick-
ness and in composition, some being quite solid and compose
almost entirely of pyrites; others, thin and fragile, and interlam-
inated with layers of black shale. The latter portions commonly
contain the bones, while the more solid portions yield shells
most numerously.
t would seem that the sulphur of the pyrites must have come
from the decomposed fish, and that the beds correspond to the
deposits of fish-remains reported by dredgers in certain seas,
while the surrounding bottom yields not a fragment.
Information concerning the situation of these localities was
~~ by Mr. H. A. Green in the January number of this
ournal. ;
So far as I have been able to ascertain, they had not been ex-
plored by any one previous to my visit in July, 1864, at which
s Shell Bluff and my Red Bluff group. But their rela-
F. H. Bradley on Fish-remains in Western New York. 71
Mr. Green to increase my collections. The specimens thus ob-
tained are sufficient to indicate the. distence of at least two or
three species of on and to show the principal characters of one
ofthem. It ish oped that further explorations, now in progress,
will be still more successful.
The most common species has a —_ or three-forked tooth,
inches across (probably a distinct species). One large, aicimad
interior, bone measures three by four inches, with a thickness,
at one end, of over an inch. One jaw is between three ‘iad
four inches lon ng.
ese remains all retain their bony structure, though some of
the larger and more porous fragments are thoroughly permeated
with the pyrites.
Accompanying these remains are very numerous shells
readily from the rock, with very brilliant sur
A few of the Orthocerata retain their malin structure,
and also have their cavities mostly filled with calcité. The .
same mineral is ee — in the interior of the ’ Goniatites
which are common i .
Of Goniutites, eare: are at jonas three species, — a@ very
minute form which I am inclined to call the young of G. uni-
angularis, but which ae prove distinct. Of eS
we have twelve or fifteen species; probably as many Lamelli-
branchs; and five or six Brachiopods. Excepting the Goni-
atites, which are sometimes two ee across, the shells are
all minute.
A few specimens of three or four small species of epiedyeee-
have been found, and the stems of la: : ere are qui
common in some layers. Corals are very r
Many of the species will very cer na i ssesiew riba with
those which crowd the Hamilton blue shales, but I have reason
to think that most of them are new. No careful examination
and comparison have as yet been made; but I hope that it may,
ere long, be completed, and the results published.
72 FS. Pfeil and H. Leffman on the Ammonium Amaigam.
pustulose scale, measuring about ten inches by fourteen; the
pustules are about one-fourth of an inch in diameter. Consider-
able digging was done, but no further discoveries made.
Being | absent from home, I have not the opportunity of ref ‘
ring to my specimens, and I cannot thotetors make the present
notice more complete.
Panama, U. 8. C., May 11, 1866.
ArT. X.—On the Ammonium a by F. S. Pret’
and Henry LEFFMA)
For some years the attention of chemists nae been directed
to the eareeeey oe of the substitution ammoniums. Notwith-
standing their close analogy to ammonium itself, in many re
spects, we ston not been able to find record of any systematic
attempt to form amalgams analogous to the well known ammo-
site amalgam. The consideration of this fact induced us to
mence a series of experiments . determine the deportment
of ee bodies with sodium amalga
A saturated solution of chlorid “of trimethyl-ammonium was
treated with sodium amalgam, and a series of phenomena fol-
lowed éxactly identical with those which occur in the prepara-
tion of the ammonium amalgam. The swelling rapidly subsided,
hydrogen gas a given off, and the liquid was found to con-
tain trim ethylam
Saturated sit pS of the chlorohydrates of aniline, conine,
morphine and quinine, and of the acetate of rosaniline, when
treated with sodium amalgam, give rise to copious evolution of
ao gas, apse turgescence.
ts (in addition to ote ee by Dr. ©.
0s
are, pe ee peipieeneeres, either liquid or solid, produce
no amalgam.
ae — be mentioned that a solution of chlorid of ammonium
in pure glycerine gives rise. to an amalgam, but the turgescence
is much interfered with by the viscosity of the solvent; and also
that sodium amalgam, when placed upon a crystal of chlorid of 4
ammonium, produced no -Teaction until moistened with a drop
of water.
? The address of F. S, Pieil is 1437 North 11th street, Philadelphia.
*
J. P. Cooke on Danalite from Rockport, Mass. 73
Art. XI.—On Danae a new Mineral Species from the Granite
of Rockport, Mass.; by Jos1an P. CooKgE, Jr.
na saps through the —s granite, which is quar-
ried at the extremity of Cape Ann, Massachusetts, and much
used for building in ner. ea shadie vicinity, are Deckaioad
grains of a flesh- red mineral somewhat resembling Rhodonite.
The mineral has been at times found in masses of considerable
size, and for a specimen of this sort I am indebted to the kind-
ness of Mr. W. J. Knowlton, of the re Scientific School.
The characters of the mineral are as follows: Color, flesh-
red to gray. Streak similar in color to the scare but lighter.
Lustre, vitreo-resinous. Translucent. Fracture subeonchoidal
uneven. Brittle. Hardness 5: 5 to 6.. Specific gravity—two de-
terminations—3°427. e exterior portion of the mass showed
no indication of bayatallind form and there was no distinct
Il
to the longer md of the face. The m eral, therefore, crys-
tallizes in the holohedral forms of the cneiasieie system.
Before the blowpipe the mineral readily fuses on . the edges to
a black enamel. Hence its fusibility is about 4 of von Kobell’s
scale. On charcoal with carbonate of soda it gives a slight
coating of oxyd of zinc. In a closed tube it loses color, but
gives off no water or any sublimate. It is perfectly decomposed
after some time b hydrochloric acid, the silica partly gelatiniz-
ing. It is also decomposed by nitric acid; but then the silica
separates as a powder. It is partially decomposed by dilute sul-
phuric acid, and even by acetic acid, sulphid of hydrogen gas
being evolv
In order to thoroughly decompose the mineral the material
was finely pulverized and sealed up with some concentrated
acid in a glass flask, which was then exposed for several hours
to the heat of a water-bath. When hydroehloric acid was used
a slightly greenish solution = —- frequently depositing
crystals of protochlorid of i oling, but showing no
traces uichlorid, and Fm ane the flask a strong ‘odor
of sulphid o hydrogen was observed. When nitric acid was
used the flask became filled with nitrous vapors, and both the
iron and the sulphur were completely oxydized. A qualitative
analysis eg roved tha mineral to be a compound of silica, glucina,
protoxyd of iron, oxyd of manganese, and oxyd of zine, mixed
with the sulphids of the last three met: presence
Am. Jour. Sc1.—Srconp Serius, Vou. XLII, No. els, 1866.
74 J. P. Cooke on Danalite from Rockport, Mass.
alumina could not with certainty be detected by any known
tests. The precipitate of glucina perfectly redissolved in an
excess of carbonate of ammonia, and no crystals of alum could
be obtained from a solution of the sulphate when treated in the
usual way with an excess of —_ of potash, although they
were sought for with a microscop
As the sulphid of hydrogen ehiatag is evolved from the metal-
lic sulphids, when the mineral is decomposed by waa
acid in a closed flask, would necessarily reduce all the ir
present to the condition of proto-chlorid, the following el
ment was made to determine the original condition of the iron
in the mineral. It is evident that any such reduction must be
attended with the separation of free sulphur, and hence sulphur
was sought for in the products remaining in the flask after the
decomposition was finished. The sulphid of hydrogen and the
greater part of the free hydrochloric _ having been first ex-
. pelled, the residuo ee boiled with an excess of concentrated
nitric acid, an o trace of seiner acid was found it was
— ‘that the i iron in the mineral, not united with sulphur,
all in the condition of protoxyd, The same experiment
iso proved that none of the varieties of iron pyrites could be
present in the mineral in distinct grains, as was at first suspected;
and this conclusion was confirmed by the fact that a powe
magnet failed to attract any portion of the mineral, even when
reduced to the finest powde
In the quantitative analysis no unusual methods were em-
ployed. - The mineral was decomposed in a sealed flask as
Lastly , the sear which now comer in solution as sip
' We have never succeeded in ety eed the whole of the glucina as
——o although carefully attending to all uations which have been aa
d by other analysts. “But alumina is perfectly recipitated when the necessary
ee are observed,
J. P. Cooke on Danalite from Rockport, Mass. 75
acid, was determined as eee of — in sis usual way.
The results of my analyses were as-follow
: 2. 3 4 Mean
Silica, - ihe 3154 31°96 31°69 31-73
Protoxyd = seer A eoes vere 25-71 29°09 27°40
Oxyd of : 17-90 16°90 19-11 16°14 1751
Oxyd of manganese, = OS 6-64 617 6°47 6°28
Glucina, oa f tess 13:86 13-79 13°83
Sulphur, - : Be veee 5°93 5-02 5°48
: 102-74 10220 102-23
Oxygen equivalent to per cent of sulphur; 2:96 2°5
9978 9969 99-49
For analysis 4 the material used was a portion of the crystal
described above. When in mass it had a bright flesh-red ie
and even in the powder the color was still quite decided. The
material used in analysis 3 was taken from a wholly different
ianeapcele aero s 1 and 2 were made before the composition
of the mineral was correctly seein: and the best method of
analysis discovered. Hence, only a portion of the bases were
accurately determined, = only those results are given which
are known to be trustworthy. The materia] for all the analyses
was selected —_ reat care; but that used in 4 being a portion
of a crystal e center of a large mass was unquestionably
the most pur
The most ante) theory of the constitution of the mineral,
to which the above results and the crystalline form both point,
is that the mineral is an isomorphous mixture of a monometric
—— with the simple sulphids of iron, zinc, and wags of
manganese, all of which affect the same crystalline form
different sulphids must be present in somewhat varying propor-
tions; for while in 4 the sulphid of iron is evidently in excess,
the sulphid of zinc equally predominates in 3, and such a differ-
ence is plainly indicated by the difference of color already men-
This view is also sustained by the action of different
acids on the pulverized mineral. Dilute sulphuric acid attacks
the powder even when cold, sulphid of velngho being evolved,
while iron and zinc in large quantities, with some glucina, enter
into solution. Even dilute acetic acid causes an evolution of
indicus that the gee sulphids are so intimate
with the silicate that the decomposition of the first aoe
76 J. P. Cooke on Danalite from Rockport, Mass.
a limited extent at least the breaking up of the last. This is
what we should naturally ‘expect in an isomorphous mixture,
the sulphids not being present in separable grains; but diffused
through the mineral in a state of imperfect chemical combination,
and thus oe even a firm silicate exceedingly susceptible
of a
On owe the results of analysis given above it will
farther app, in support of the same theory of the constitution
of the oxyds of zine an n vary very considerably ; these
metals, although in the seep Cet and determined as
oxyds, being, in fact, combined t reater or less extent wr
ened posite as a sesquiox base we shall have for the oxy-
gen ratio vine — I “ee silica, the pro-
pene 8:22: : 16°81 or very n Again, the
sixth of the amount of oxygen in the silicate; so that for every
twelve equivalents of oxygen in the silicate we have one equiv-
alent of sulphur in the sulphids. Hence we deduce as the gen-
eral formula of the min
(4R,. 48e) Si + 4RS in which R=Fe.Zn. Mn.
The oxygen ratio of the new mineral is the type ratio of the
garnet family, and to this family it undoubtedly belongs. Its
Danatti G .
Action of to ielieteiaas, saith Gelatinizes, but Decomposed, but
chloric acid ily and’ does
Before blowpipe, Fuses on edges Fuses more readily Fuses easily to
to whi ' to black enamel. a bead,
Sp. gr. 3°39 to 4, 3°427 3°7 to 42
Hardness, 55 5°5 to 6. 6°5 to 75.
Luster, Vitreo-resinous, ditto, ditto,
eak. 8
It is true that Willemite and Garnet belong to different erys-
_ talline systems, but the ordinary form of Willemite really ap-
Eee SUS are Re TE ee aye yh ee EE
ee? oh CA ete a ie cinch
1 CRG TSM See Meese ee eg eee ce es te LS sk
Ft iain tk ee re clean gine stckaae Bain ipa ety) Winey cE Neto atthe eae es. hn arate tan toel eT) WORE cate ae Se nn Cee Lee ne eae a a eR ip have ee ye ESTEE OR
J. P. Cooke on Danalite from Rockport, Mass. 77
very large amount of iron and zine entering into its composition,
its color, luster, hardness, and other physical as well as chemical
properties, all distinguish it from Helvin and prove the mineral
to be a new species. As such I take great oe gta in so tnd
it the name of Danalite, after Prof. James D. Dana, of New
oe & name so honorably associated with American miner-
way nal fragments of Danalite are not ee met ppc -
the quarries at Rockport, and*small grains of it, as I
already said, are quite generally disseminated pier’ the
granite ledges which form the —— of Cape Ann. But
arge masses of the mineral have not been obtained for some
_ time, the portion of the rock in sete they were found having
been long since quarried. The mineral was first supposed by
the local collectors to be Rhodonite, and under this name good
n
near Glou , Mass. The mineral at this locality is more
garnet- nike is in aps meade and contains a considerable silieemt of
alumina associated with the glucina. An analysis of a specimen
from this locality om) the ets a results :
Silica, - - 29°88
Protoxyd of i — . - - - - 28°13
Oxyd of z - , - 8 - 1815
Oxyd of ‘sauniinied: - : : - mae tf
Glucina and alumina, : - - - 14-72
Lime, - - - - - - ~ 688
Magnesia, - s , : . traces
Sulphur, - - - - = - - 4°32
102°24
Oxygen equiv. to ae . 2 ‘ 241
99°83
At Gloucester the Danalite i is associated with fluor pet which I
have never recognized on the specimens from Rockport, although
the granite, in which the mineral is imbedded, has at both local-
ities a similar character. Danalite is also associated at both
localities with two very remarkable varieties of lepidolite mica.
These have also been analyzed and an account of the investiga-
tion will be given in a future paper,
~”
78 J. P. Cooke on Danalite from Rockport, Mass.
Separation of Sesquioxyd of Iron from Alumina, Glucina, and
most of the rare earths —The method of Mr. H. Sainte-Claire
ter adapted to the purpose, and would serve many other use-
ful ends in the laboratory. In addition to the tube, a small
platinum nacelle would be required, as large as the tube will
admit and about 14” in length. With such an apparatus the
method of conducting the process is as follows: The tube
having been mounted horizontally on any convenient stand,
one end of it, which is closed by a doubly pierced india rub-
ber cork, is connected on one side with a small hydrogen
generator and on the other with a small flask for generating
hydrochloric acid gas. To the other end of the tube is fastened
by an india rubber connector a small glass adapter, so curved
that the end may dip under water. The mixed bases, whose
total weight is known, having been placed in the nacelle in a
finely pulverized condition, and the nacelle having been intro-
duced into the tube, the heat of a single Bunsen burner is
applied, while a gentle current of hydrogen is caused to flow
ough the apparatus. In the course of half an hour all the
the heat is then withdrawn, and the current of hydrochloric
acid gas being again replaced by a current of hydrogen, the
apparatus is allowed to cool. The alumina, or whatever earth
may present, is left behind in the nacelle in a perfectly pure
condition and can be at once weighed, while the weight of ses-
quioxyd of iron is known from the loss. If the product is not
perfectly white the nacelle should be returned to the tube and
the process repeated. The result can be controlled by also
weighing the nacelle after the reduction of the iron, but it is not
safe to estimate the amount of i e loss 0
weight at this time, since a very small error in this determina
tion would cause an important error in the calculated amount
* Annales de Chimie et de Physique, Tome xxxviii.
4
é
E. 8. Farquhar on a new variable Star. 79
of sesquioxyd. We give these details not as new, but because
we feel assured that with the simple modification here described
the process will be found far more expeditious, convenient and
acapella than any other process now in use. A small porce-
ight be used instead of the tube platinum, but this
cannot be ste as the porcelain is liable to break
unless protected, and when properly protected sufficient heat
best obtained from a small automatic generator, and the hydro-
chloric acid gas may be generated in a small flask from coarse
salt and sulphuric acid, which has been previously diluted with
about one-third of its volume of water, and allowed to cool.
This mixture when gently heated gives a constant flow of gas,
which almost immediately stops when the lamp is withdrawn.
Both gases rhonid pass through a was h bottle containing strong
sulphuric acid before entering the =
Art. XII—Memorandum of a variable or temporary Star of the
Second Magnitude, seen in the Northern Bie ey 1866; by
K. J. FARQUHAR, Assistant Librarian U. S. P nt Office.
WALKING out between eight and nine o’clock in the evening
of Saturday, May 12, near Sandy Spring, Montgomery county,
Maryland, and looking over the constellations in the east, I was
surprised at the appearance—or apparition I may call it—of a
star in the Northern Crown which I could not believe I had
ever seen there before. Immediately on reaching home I looked
up an atlas of the heavens, and found no such star mark
upon it. I then walked over to the house of my uncle, Mr.
Benjamin Hallowell, who having looked at another ma of his
own, and found no record of such a star, came out with me to
see it, As soon asI had pointed it out to him, he remarked
that he had seen it for several nights, amounting to three weeks,
or as he afterwards said, a month, probably ever since the con-
stellation had come within view of a spot where he was accus-
tomed to take an sadian walk. He is therefore, so far as I
om the first person who ever saw it. He had remarked it as
unfamiliar star, and —— it was a tare ore consid-
pare whether ou planet ever frequented there e did not
think it had changed position at all during the dane but, he
was inclined to beer it had varied in magnitude from time to
time; though on neither of these matters “will he s :
tively, beeause he had not given the star anys ecial attention.
It appeared to be two-thirds or three-quarters of a degree were
_of Epsilon Coron. It was of a pure, soft white, and twink]
hat about fo:
little. Seen through a telescope that magnifies rty times, -
80 B. A. Gould on a new variable Star.
it showed nothing of the nature of acomet. I thought it grew
brighter during that evening, but will not be certain. I believe
hose who carefully observed its magnitude pronounced it a
seemed inclined to question this, but did not profess to be sure
of his oelcmed in that respect. There can be no doubt that
during at least part of that night, the stranger star was fully as
bright as Alphacca; I think brighter. Sunday morning it did
not seem to have changed in luster, but Sunday night it was
only of the third magnitude, and since that time it has gradually
faded from sight of the naked eye. On Tuesday night it was
taken note of at the Washington Observatory, and I suppose it
- ahd not necessary for me to carry this memorandum any
urther..
©
Arr. XIIL—New and Brilliant Variable Star; by B. A. GOULD.
(In a letter to the Editors dated Cambridge, Jo une 9, 1866.)
On Monday evening, May 14, Mr. S. C. Chandler, Jr., of the
U.S. Coast Survey, while engaged i in observing the magnitudes
of fixed stars, by comparison without optical aid, perceived a
brilliant star not a degree from ¢Corone. At 11 P.M. he esti-
mated its light as between that of 8 and y Herculis, rather nearer
to the latter; it was decidedly brighter than 9 Boiss, and at
least two- thirds of a magnitude brighter than ? or 7 Coronex.
The sky had been obscured for several successive nights, but
Mr. Chandler is confident that, three weeks previous (at which
date he had examined the region with care), no star of sufficient
brilliancy to attract attention was visible in this place.
On the ensuing evening, May 15, at 9 p. m., Mr. Chandler and
myself examined the star together, and eae in Any wien its
brilliancy as not essentially different from that of 8 Coronsz or
y Herculis, and as right between the two. It was very
ere ek fainter than 3 Bod
two pelos and was ver near t the ait af vuibiliey to the
ith
similar in Hercules sand Serpens, both at 98 and at
135; and a he terval between these comparisons it had di-
minished by not less than a tenth of a magnitude.
On the 20th, it was no longer reeptible by the unaided eye,
but was easily | seen and conic by means of an opera glass
Subsequent observations have been made by Mr.
and myself on the 24th, 28th, 31st May, and this evening, June
; these being the only nights when the exceedingly unfavor-
PS st ©. Oe ee oe ©
B. A. Gould on a new variable Star. 81
able weather has Iwi egeece = magnitude this evening seems
to be almost exactly the n
The position ial the nti was at once seen to correspond
very nearly with that of a star, No. 2765 of 26°, given by Ar-
gelander in his “ Durchmusterung des siidlichen Himmels.”
n observation of position, by means of a transit-instrument
belonging to the Coast Survey, and temporarily in my posses-
sion, corroborated the impression that these stars were identical ; .
and now that the variable has waned to the 9th —— and
no other small star is found to have been obscured by its excess
es sepa it is manifest that the original suspicion was cor-
here seems to be no regular observation of the star’s
re on record.
The determinations of magnitude during the time of visibility
to the naked eye are rendered easy by means of a yet unpub-
lished uranometry of the region between the declinations.+45°
and —2°, prepared at the Dudley Observatory in Albany dur-
ing the year 1858, in which the brightness of every star visible
to the naked eye is given to the nearest tenth of a magnitude.
This, however, affords the a values for no date subse-
uent to Ma 19; and the comparison-stars for later observa-
tions are still subject to some ‘pisattaegs which may affect the
determination for the variable by a tenth or pega Ee Fas —
nths of a magnitude. These will, however, be car
termined before long by Mr. Cha ndler
The Albany values for the iaigetness of the comparison-stars
are these:
M.
« Corone, 2°0 | y Herculis, 3 5| a Serpentis, 4°6
6 Herculis, 2°3 | 6 Corone, 3°5 | B. A.C. 5399, 5:9
5 Boitis, 3°1 | 7 Corone, 3°6 | Bessel Z. 296,3, 6-0
é Herculis, 3-4 | e Corone, 39 | B. A. C. 5452, 6-1
For the variable, the magnitudes, as thus far determined by us,
M. M.
1866, May 14, 11° 2°9 | 1866, May 24, of 8678
15, 9 3:5 28, 10 8-9
19, 9 58 ot "0 8:9
os 13 59 June 9, 10°.--- oe
20, 63
94
Mr. Chas. A. Schott in Washington observed the star May
24 and 31, and race a the magnitudes on those dates as 81
and 8°7 respecti ively
Since first eating public attention to the sudden appearance
of this remarkable star, I have received from many quarters in-
formation of its independent and, in several instances, previous
detection; but only in a few cases do trustworthy ees
tions of its magnitude appear to have been made.
Am. Jour. Sc1.—Szconp SzRIEs, Vou. XLII, No. 124.—Junry, 1966,
il :
82 B. A. Gould on a new variable Star.
Mr. Wm. M. Davis, Jr., of Philadelphia, saw the star on the
ae of May 12, called the attention of his fam mily and friends
e phenomenon, and noted in his journal that the star was
as ne as « Coron.
Mr. Ferguson, of the Washington Observatory, writes that the
star was seen on Sunday evening, May 13, by Mr. Farquhar of
Washington, assistant to Prof. Schaeffer, who communicated the
fact to Admiral Davis, superintendent of the observatory. Mr.
Farquhar estimated the magnitude on the 13th inst. as the sec-
ond; Mr. Ferguson observed ae — on the 15th, and estimated
it as then of the fourth magnitu
Prof. Watson, of the Ann ae Observatory, sends me word
that Mr. Barker, a gentleman in London, Canada, perceived the
star about May 1, and described it as equal to « Coronee in bril-
ae at that time.
. Henry Tutwiler, of Greene Springs, Ala., also detected
the ae on the 12th of May. For letters from ‘him I am in
debted to Robert Patterson, Esq., of Philadelphia, and to Prof.
Henry of the epieutir we Institution. He states that on that
evening, it was somewhat superior in brilliancy to « Corone;
and on other aines he observed or estimated it as follows: May
14 mag., somewhat brighter than @Coronze; May 17th,
less bright than Coron; May 19th, barely visible to the naked
eye; May 20th, only perceptible through a small spy-glass, 8th
mag.; May 24th, 10th mag. This last estimate must have been
an extreme one, very possibly in hazy sky and without compar-
ison-stars.
At an early day the star was also noted by Mr. Hallowell of
Alexandria, who has very recently communicated his observa-
tions to a Philadelphia daily paper, but I have not yet been able
to see them. Indirectly I have been informed that Mr. Hallo-
well has seen the star on athe occasions during the winter,
which would imply that it has been fluctuating in short periods,
—— Mr. Chandler is positive that when he examined the region
toward the close of April, the star was, to say the least, not con-
spicuous
Mr. R. L. Knight, ef Sree ie writes me that on the 23d
of September last he saw, in the constellation of the Crown, 4
brilliant star, not laid sina upon the maps, and that it was then
equal to Gemma in brilliance
- From these various data it would seem probable that the new.
variable which should, following Argelander’s notation, receive
the name 7’ Coron, must hav acres a magnitude of at least
1} at maximum, and that ie m, perhaps only one of &
series, occurred ‘between the 5th same 113th of May.
P.S. June 12. The Astronomische Nachrichten of May 26,
this day received, brings information of the detection of this stat
J. L. Smith on the Emery mine of Chester, Mass. 83
is Ireland on the 12th, and in Rochefort, France, on the 13th of
ay. ;
On the 16th, Mr. Huggins — ee Miller made a eareful
observation of its spectrum,—the star being then a little below
the 4th magnitude. Their BE si was that the spectrum was
double, cousisting of one principal system of lines analogous to
that of the sun; and, superposed upon this, a second one, ap-
parently due to light emanating from intensely heated gaseous
matter ,—containing, among other bands, two bright ones in the
positions of the lines F and C, which correspond to hydrogen
ines
r. Courbebaisse, who observed the star at Rochefort on the
13th, states that he had seen no such star there on the 11t
Art. XIV.—On the Emery — of —— ip Aa County,
Mass., with remarks on the nature of H and tts associate
minerals; by J. LAWRENCE oe Pres’ t ase Gas Co.
CONSIDERABLE interest is attached to the recent developments
of an extensive deposit of emery in Chester, Hampden county,
Mass., by Prof. C. T. Jackson; and my name has been associate
in various ways with it, without my having had any thing directly
to do with it. Sundry communications have also been received
by me from various aries These communications are best
auswered by the faets embraced in this article, some portions of
which it has always been my eiempe: . publish without ref-
erence to the special interest of any one in the matter.
ae to 1846, awe was simply ee as a mineral, coming
us from a few rem te localities, and was used in the arts with-
= our having any Cee of its true geological position or
its mineralogical relations. “About that period, circumstances
favored my commencing those geological and mineralogical dis-
coveries in relation to emery, that were afterwards embodied in
two papers, presented to the Academy of Sciences of Paris, in
1850, in which the subject was thoroughly discussed, and I might
say almost exhausted. The light in which those discoveries
were considered will be seen by ‘the conclusions of the report of
the committee of the Academy, salad of Messrs. Dufrenoy,
Elie de Beaumont, and Cordier, v
“Tt results from the review ut given of the labors of Dr.
Smith, ie he has,made known—
. recise nature of the geology of emery in Asia Minor
and the a Archipelago ;”
2d. “That he has deseribed the properties of the principal
minerals associated with it, and the manner in which they occur,
84 J. L. Smith on the E'mery mine of Chester, Mass.
especially diaspore and emerylite; this last mineral forms, by
the identity of its composition in the different formations that
the author had occasion to study, a mica constituting a new
species, and one well determined ;”
3d, “Finally, that he has given a means for determining the
qualities of emery, and consequently their commercial value;
this process, eminently practical, offers, besides, an interest in a
scientific point of view, inasmuch as it permits of ——s
the difference in the tenacity of minerals of equal ha
“These researches of geology, mineralogy, and of snalytcl
chemistry, constitute a work of the highest interest, both as
whole, as well as from the new facts they promise to soiniadl
Your committee consequently propose to thank Dr. Smith for
having peictcamiegted them to the Academy, and in considera-
At that time I had discovered six new localities of emery in
Asia Minor, and the Grecian Archipelago. Those localities were
far removed from each other, and furnished so many different
places for the study of emery and its associate minerals in addi-
tion to the old locality of Naxos; and consequently many.points
of general interest were brought out, besides others connected
with the line of study. Those who may feel interested in the
subject will find the investigation and results there arrived at in
this Journal, vols. x and xi, 1850 and 1851; they embrace the
geology, mineralogy, ¢ chemical ¢ composition, manner of mining,
commercial Se aga associate minerals, &c.
The study of the associate minerals I considered of great
importance, as they pial be guides in future explorations in
ilies parts. of the world; and even prior to completing the re-
searches on the subject I wrote to Professor Silliman and
him to examine the American corundum localities for these
minerals, one of them in particular, which he immediately did.
With the corundum from the locality in Chester county, Penn.,
and Buncombe county, N. C., he “soon found the mineral indi-
cated,” and communicated the same to this J ournal, Nov. 1849,
pp. 879 and 383.
Nothing further came to my notice in relation to emery until
I received from Prof. ©. T. Jackson a letter dated Oct. 9th, 1864,
—— what foll
¢e
iscovered pacer or margarite in Asia Minor as an
associa ba mineral with emery. On the 22d of October last, 1863,
Pape fe ce ee ge Ne
J. L. Smith on the Emery mine of Chester, Mass. 85
to be margarite, and from that I ventured to predict t the occur-
rence of emery, but ri attention was paid to this prediction by
the owners of the mine, who were more intent on the iron ore.
A few weeks since, pn Dr. Lucas, one of the owners, resident
in Chester, and called him into my office, and explained to him
the great value of emery, and told him how to detect it, and he
promised to make the search I required, and took exact direc-
tions from me.”
margarite ‘ee this appears to be identical) as an associate of
emery, and also as an interesting case of deduction heat scientific
memoirs.’
Accompanying the letter he sent me a paper giving mea sum-
mary of a communication he had made to the Boston Society of
Natural History on the subject, concluding by remarking that
‘had not the occurrence of emerylite and chloritoid called his
attention to the probable existence of emery at this loéality; it
would have been a to this day, and no one knows how
much longer. e fact was mentioned as an —- of the
real uses of supposed useless minerals; and the Doc k
sion to express his oe to Dr. Smith, of Lodiveiiia for his
iate eme
valuable contributions to our knowledge of the
minerals of the es Archipelago and Asia Mises ¢
These statements are ient to show how far my geological
observations served de to Prof. C. T. Jackson, in his de-
I have since visited the locality, having done so in the month
of March last. The geological character and position of the
rocks was not as well made out by me as might have been done
in a more favorable season; but as my observations accord, as
far as they go, with those of Dr. Jackson and Prof. Shepard, I
prefer inserting their observations, rather than my own, in de-
scribing the geology of the emery ‘localit ity.
“The mine is situated nearly in the center of the Green Moun-
tain chain as it traverses the western border of the state, at a
7 pene not far from half way between the Connecticut and Hud-
rocks,
It is included in the metamorphic series of
consisting of vast breadths of gneiss and mica-slate, with
considerable interpolations of talcose slate and serpentine. The
general direction of the stratification is N. 20° E. and S. 20° W.,
the relation to the horizon varying from vertical, to a dip of from
75° to 80°, sometimes east, sometimes west.
86 J. L. Smith on the Emery mine of Chester, Mass.
“The immediate vicinity of the mine presents a succession of
lengthened rocky swells with rather precipitous sides, having
summits between 750 and 1000 feet above the level of the prin-
es streams by which the hills are traversed. The longer axis
of the elevations generally coincides with the directions of the
strata.
estimated at 750 feet.
“The emery vein, whose average width may be taken at four
feet, is situated near the junction of the great gneiss formation
constituting the western flank of the mountains with the mica-
orming the eastern slope. T'o speak more exactly, how-
ever, it lies just within the gneiss, having throughout a layer of
is rock of from four to ten feet in thickness for its eastern wall.
Nor does the mica slate advance quite up to this outside layer of
the gneiss; but in place thereof, an extensive intrusion of tal-
cose slate occurs, having an average thickness of twenty feet on
the south mountain, and widening out at the north mountain to
a breadth of nearly 200 feet as it reaches the terminus of the
vein, in the bed of the Westfield river.
“The gneiss, more especially in the vicinity of the vein, is a
very peculiar rock. It abounds in thick seams of a coarse-
grained, very black and shining hornblende; and where this is
not found, it is much veined and penetrated by epidote. The
stratification is much contorted also; and when the surface of
the formation happens to be weathered or water-worn, its basset-
ing es strikingly resemble in color some of the serpentine
marbles. It is also noticeable that in it quartz is everywhere
J. L. Smith on the Emery mine of Chester, Mass. 87
like the gneiss again, are strikingly free from quartz or uncom-
bined silica in any of its forms. Indeed this generally abundant
substance is altogether wanting, not only in the emery-vein but
in the talcose formations constituting its eastern bounda:
t makes its appearance, however, in abundance in the mica
slate as soon as the taleose rocks are passed—showing itself not
only as the usual ni a tae of the slate, but in more or less
continuous seams, a few inches thick up to above six inches,
and sometimes a foot, j in width. Where the seams are thin and
discontinuous, the included masses thin out at each end beens
a the sharp edges being curved in opposit® diree-
tions, so as to form frequent white patches upon the surface of
the rocks in the shape of the letter 8.”
Mineralogical Character and Composition of the Chester Emery.
It resembles more nearly that from Gumuchdagh — Eph-
esus,) than any other that I know of. It is of a fine grain, and
dark blue bordering on black, not unlike certain variate of
magnetic iron ore; with it there are frequently found pieces of
corundum of some size. The interior of the mass is free from
micaceous specks, such as are found in the emery of Niles Its
powder examined under the microscope shows the distinct exist-
ence of more than one mineral, which are often so inseparably
connected that the smallest fragments contain them together.
The two predominating are corundum and magnetic oxyd of iron.
Several s were submitted to chemical examination
from sees most largely impregnated with Scone ince of
iron to those that appeared to contain least. They all consisted
essentially of alumina and oxyd of iron; aoe I invari found
a little titanic acid and silica, and most ¢ monly a mag ute
quantity of magnesia. No. 1 was an ceberion é specimen; No. 2,
the better quality of rock; No. 3, the emery rock mea et and
prepared for market in the form of emery; No.4, the same, and
called emery crystals.
2. ; 4.
Alumina, 44:01 50°02 51:92 74:22
iad oxyd of iron, 50°21 44°11 42°25 19°31
Silic 3°13 3°25 5°46 5°48
I examined a specimen of No. 2: grain fine, and treated re-
peatedly with hydrochloric acid and water over a water-bath:
great deal of oxyd of iron and a little alumina were dissolved;
ihe residue on analysis proved to be nearly pure corundum,
giving,
Alumina, oS
Magnetic ahs of iron, - - - - 9°63
ilica,’ - - - - 81
‘No attempt was made to estimate the water.
88 J. L, Smith on the Emery mine of Chester, Mass.
All the chemical and physical examinations made go to show
that the emery of Chester is, like all other emeries, a mixture of
corundum and nts - iron; a@ fact that will be reverted to
again a little farther
Prof. Jackson amaizied two specimens, after digesting them
with nitro-muriatic acid, and has given as the composition,
x 2
Alu - - - 60°40 39°05
seine ah iron, - - - 39°60 40°95
and a goes on to state, ‘from which it would appear that
proto of iron is an essential chemical ingredient in emery,
and not an accidental admixture.” Dr. J. Lawrence Smith’s ex-
po lead to the same result, but he considers the oxyd of
n to be an irregular mixture with the alumina and not a reg-
ula chemical constituent. In either case, I think emery ought
to rank as a separate species, and not as a granular variety of
po ea from which it differs so in physical characters.”
Iw ould here remark that Dr. Jackson's conclusion would be
correct in the first state of the case, were the iron an essential
chemical Fionn: but in the latter, it would be erroneous, and
introduce inextricable confusion into the science of mineralogy
by 89K 4 mere mechanical mixture as a specific distinction.
Prof. C. U. Shepard writing on the same point says, ‘ His con-
clusions (Dr. Jackson’s) would obviously be acquiesced in were
it not for the strong resemblance in striz and cleavage between
the emery and common corundum, making it impossible for us
to separate the substances erystallographically from one another.
othing like a hare crystal of emery has yet been found at
the mine; but it is quite remarkable that the mineral is here
generally’ coarsely massive, or in large separate individuals often
of the size of kernels of Indian corn, whose cleavages are per-
and which present on their planes the delicate strize so char-
tie Cer of corundum from the Carnatic.’”’ Yet Prof. Shepard
or making emery a new mineral species and calling it Hmerite,
with the formula FeAl
If the views of Profs. Jackson and Shepard are to be taken as
correct, the question as to the mineralogical —_— of — is
easily settled without resorting to any new mineral s It
is simply a massive iron-spinel (hereynite) oriths the one of
having a hardness equal to corundum.
Emeries,
: ‘Tron spinel. Jackson. Shepard.
Alumina, - - 58-75 60°49 xP
Protoxyd iron, - 41°25 39°60 :
I would say, at this point, that if the mineral of Chester is to
ts — as an aluminate of iron, the rock called emery
examination of my analyses in 1850, which it is su py are the ones re
tie to here, most certainly do not sustain the conclusion. : J. Le
J. L. Smith on the Emery mine of Chester, Mass. 89
coming from Naxos and other well known localities is not that
compound, and that if one is emery the other is not. But asI do
not take their view of the 2 hy in consider the Chester mineral
as true an emery as that of ‘Naxo
Effective Composition. .
. jhardness | Specific i
= Locality. Sapphire ghewiky, Water.| Alumina. purge Lime. | Silica.
100. iron. ig
Emery
1 | Kulah, ” 57 428 1:90 | * 63:50 32°25 0°92 | 161
2 Bamogees avcdewes 56 3°98 | 2°10 7010 22°21 0°62 | 4:00
3 DASARI 5 ees cea icie'ea 56 3175 | 2°53 71:06 0°32 1:40 | 4-12
(ICON fot oe wee 53 402 | 2°36 63:00 30°12 0°50 | 2°36
5S | Nasa: ooo és 46 3°75 “13 58:53 24:10 0°86 10
6: | Wicetiaeccedine vs 46 3-74 | 310) 75-12 12:06 | 0°72 | 6-88
td UO snd eaters 3°87 | 5°47 69°46 19°08 2°81 | 2-41
§ | Hphesus, ...6..... 42 431 5°62 60°10 33°20 0-48 | 1:80
9 eter ee est 3°89 | 2°00 61:05 27°15 1:30 | 9°68
CorunpuM.
1 — of India, 100: 22062 pera] Pel 189 oie OBO
2 90 eta ees 97:32 LOO. bea 3
3 Cores, phing aT 388 1:60 92°39 1°67 112 } 2°05
4 Asia M., 65 3°92 | 0°68 87°52 7-50 082 | 2-01
5 se Asia, 60 3°60 | 1°66 86°62 $21 O70 | 3°85
6 _ India, 58 3°89 | 2-86 93°12 O91 1:02 | 0-96
7 by Asia, 57 3°80 | 3°74 87°32 3°12 1:00 | 2°61
8 India, 55 3-91 3°10 84°56 706 1-20 4:00
Emery.
1 | Chester, Mass.,....) 33 ESS ee 44°01 BOS 7 ee | SS
2 «. §: (qasale Se ae ee BA aes 8-26
3 a vt pee’ pees ene e 5192 42°25 « | 546
4 id i ie 45 “ wee 74-29 19°31 . | 548
5 rs e ae a Sti sees 84-02 9°63 eee | OE
different suites of chectve: Savinese. Thus: Nos. 9 and 4 .
ula emeries, containing about the same amount of alum
_have effective hardness in the proportion of 40 to 53. but it twill
be seen that No. 9 contains 9°6 per cent of silica, which doubt-
Am. Jour. Sci.—SeconpD Serres, Vou. XLII, No. 124.—Juxr, 1866.
12
90 J. L. Smith on the Emery mine of Chester, Mass.
less appropriates a portion of the alumina, thus reducing the
alumina attributable to corundum; so that, were it possible to
So again, if we compare Nos. 8 and 1, the ibotte hardness will
be found in the proportion of 42 to ‘87, while their amounts of
alumina vary only as 60 to 63; but if we regard the amount of
water in the two it is as 5°6 to 1° 9, much of this water comin
from diaspore that is intimately mixed with the corundum ; an
in several specimens I possess, the two minerals shade into each
other so completely, that it is impossible to tell where one be-
gins and the other ends. The above facts were all well examined
when my first memoirs appeared on this subject, which accounts
for the following remark then ma
“Those emeries which contain the least water, everything
else alike, are the hardest, as instanced by that from Kulah, not-
withstanding the quantity of iron it contains. The silica exist-
ing in emery is most often in combination with alumina, or the
oxyd of iron, or both; for this reason we must not always re-
gard the quantity of alumina as an indication of the quantity of
corundum in eme
In concluding this part of the subject I would state that while
T do not consider my opinions infallible in this matter, still all
my experience and research, gathered from suc varied sources,
point to the conclusion that emery is a mixture of —_ min-
erals, principally corundum and magnetic oxyd of iron,
former being the effective agent in the mechanical “thane to
which it is applied; the o oxyd of iron is not to be considered as
an unimportant ingredient, it serving by its presence to eee:
to some extent the harsh cutting aioe of the corundum
Minerals associated with the emery of Chester.
Corundum.—This mineral, as might naturally be expected, is
found with the emery, seem distinct and separate to be at
once recognized, sometimes in t seams, massive in its charac-
ter, but more commonly in a fastened crystals of small dimensions.
Diaspore.— ery excellent and beautiful specimens of be
hydrate of alumina have been found at this emery locality; 1
is often in distinct and separate prismatic or bladed crystals,
quite — and transparent.
EB te or Margarite.—Some of the finest s ens of this
mineral that are known have been fognd at this "ooality, ‘
J. L. Smith on the Emery mine of Chester, Mass. 91
but as the analysis made out and accepted as the aie ete of
margarite did not accord with that of emerylite, I undertook t
reéxamine margarite, when I found that its Seenponition: had
been erroneously determined, and that it was, in fact, the same
mineral with emerylite, which last name has had to yield to the
priority of date of the o
I have a ee the rade aiette from Chester and find its com-
position as follo
Silica, . é : : 32-21 .
Alumina, - - - - - 4887
ime, - - - eh oe 2602
Oxyd of iron, - - - - 250
Manganese, - - - - "20
Magnesia, - - - - 32
Soda and little potash, . - 191
Lithia, - - - - - 32
There is a little titanic acid with ae oxyd of iron that I did
not estimate.
Chlorite.—This mineral as found with the emery is the so-
called corundophilite of Shepard; on examination it proves to
be, Bibs chemically and physically, a chlorite of the variety
ripidolite.
Biotite—In examining a specimen of dark green micaceous
mineral which I took to be chlorite (the corundophilite of
This mineral occurs on the surface of a white rock that Prof
Shepard vals indianite, "but which I have not had time to ex-
amine. It is in small thin micaceous crystals perpendicular to
the surface of the indianite; in the mass, it is of a dark green
color, so dark that at a little distance it looks like lamellar pinch:
bago. A careful analysis peli the 7 ie eympostt ion:
Silica, - 2 39°08
Aaa - - - - 15°38
Magne : - . 23°58
Phctieya of fie - - - - 712
ea - - : “31
Potash, - - - - 7°50
Soda, - - . - - 2°63
Waite « S210 - - . 2°24
Fluorine, - . - - “76
98°60 60
This corresponds with the composition of the biotite from Mom
roe county, New York, as made out by Prof. Brush and myself
in our reéxamination of American minerals several years ago.
92 J. L. Smith on the Emery mine of Chester, Mass.
Corundophalite proved to be a chlorite——About the time I pub-
lished my memoirs on emery in 1850 and 1851, Prof. Shepard
made the announcement of a new mineral (this Journal, 1851,
xii, 211), stating that it “occurs with corundum near Ashevi lle,
in Buncombe Co., N. C., in imperfect bene groups, and also
spreading out in laminze between layer corundum; color
leek-green, etc.” An analysis of it showin silica 34°76, protox.
iron 31°25, alumina 8°55, water 5°47, making a loss of nearh y 20
per cent, a portion © which he attributes to alkalies ; neither lime
nor magnesia were detected. He operated on 140 milligrams ;
this mineral was considered a new one, and Prof. Shepard called
it corundophilite. Supposing that I had observed the same
‘mineral in certain specimens of emery and emerylite from Ches-
ter, Mass., I enclosed a fragment of the specimen to oe S. to
ascertain if this was the mineral he called co ; he re-
turned the specimen, announcing that it was. I then analyzed
the same and found it to be, both chemically and pt bemer Fs
chlorite, identical no doubt with the chlorite I found associated
with the emery of Asia Minor; both the Asia Minor and 1 Chester
varieties occur in compact mass, composed of an agglomeration
of small crystalline plates—identical with the chlorites of Mont
des Sept Lacs and of St. Christophe, and the ripidolites of Rauris
and St. Gothard. In the following analysis I do not pretend to
furnish that of the pure mineral, as from the thinness of the lay-
ers in the specimens at my disposal my cannot be separated in
that state of purity I am in the habit of seeking for in all min-
erals that I examine:
Silica, - - - - 25°06
Alumina, - - - - - 80°70
Protoxyd of -iron, - - - 16°50
Magnesia, - - + - 1641
Water, - - - - 10°62
99°29
ph — characters were not examined, there being no means
t
I may remark that the alumina and magnesia were separated
by resolution and Hike Caer three times
Tourmaline.—This mineral is also found oe ood a of
Chester in the same manner as with the e of
Titaniferous iron — —This is found, seiticaliy 3 in flat-
tened crystals in the ite.
Oxyd of titanium (baie ite or rutile).—With the diaspore we
found some beautiful flattened hair-brown crystals; the speci-
men in my ager: does - furnish the face of the crystals
so as to enable make out what form of titanium oxyd it
is. Prof. Shepard thinks he teh sufficient evidence to pronounce
it to be brookite
G. Hagemann on minerals with Cryolite in Greenland. 93
Magnetic oxyd of tron—This ore of iron is found in great
abundance associated with the emery, and is worked for the
manufacture of iron; it contains a little oxyd of titanium.
The above, as well as some other associated minerals of less
importance, justify the concluding poten of my paper on
emery fifteen years ago, viz: o not risk much in saying»
that the hydrate of aluinina or diensite as well as the —
or emerylite, chlorite or tourmaline, and the minerals of iro
as magnetic, titaniferous iron, Xc., will be found almost mbes
where with the emery and corundum.”
ArT. XV.—On some minerals associated with the Cryolite in
. Greenland; by G. HAGEMANN.
A notice of the pachnolite, discovered by Prof. Knop in the
Greenland cryolite, has already appeared in this Journal." On
examination of several cargoes of eryolite imported by the
Pennsylvania Salt Manufacturing Company, I have not only
found pachnolite, but also have observed some other minerals
which may be of i interest.
with that noticed by Prof. Thomsen.
The mineral crystallizes in dimetric form, the dimetric pyra-
-mid and prisms being plainly seen, but no further crystallo-
graphic examination was made. Tt has a distinct basal cleav-
age. The color is white with a reddish tinge, the crystals
have a bright luster, and are coated with a white earthy en-
velop (Si!). Sp. gr., 274-2 ‘76; hardness, about that of eryolite.
Heated in the closed tube this mineral yields water with an acid
reaction hie ae the glass. At a higher temperature it
* Vol, sli, p. 119.
94 G. Hagemann on minerals with Cryolite in Greenland.
separated from the insoluble silicates, alumina and silica were
separated by carbonate of ammonia, and fluorid of calcium with
rbonate of lime were thrown down with chlorid of calcium;
this precipitate was dried and ignited, and the carbonate of
lime was removed by acetic acid. The silica was imperfectly
determined, as I had not the means at my disposal to estimate
it accurately. I treated the pulverized mineral with solution of
soda and carbonate of soda, filtered, and decomposed the solu-
tion by chlorhydric acid; evaporating to dryness thus render-
ing the silica insoluble. Analysis gave,
Equivalents.
Fluorine, - artes oat: BOOS ;
Aluminum, - : 14°27 1°05
Sodium, - nee - T15 0°311 } 1.996
Calcium, - - 14°51 0°725 f
Water, - . seat SPI0 1:07
Silica, ‘ ‘ 2° 0-135
97°71
, caused by minute crystals of iron-pyrites), Hardness,
e
water. Analysis gave,
Fluorine, -— - 51°03 2°68 2
Aluminum, - 767 1:307 1
ium, - - 23°00 * :
Calcium, : - 701 0-35 Liss ts
oisture, - - 0°57
Insoluble, - - 0-74
100°22
are found associated with cryolite in the vicinity of Ivyiktant near
Arksut-fiord, in South Greenland.
Natrona, Pa., May, 1866.
same as cryolite. Fuses at a red heat without giving off
Messrs. Niles and Wachsmuth on Geolgical Formations, wm 95
Art. XVI.— Evidence of Two distinct femme Formations in
the Burlington Limestone; by W. H. Nixes and CHARL LES
‘W ACHSMUTH."
Dr. CHARLES A. WuirTE was the first to record any natura)
division of the Burlington limestone. In the Journal of the Bos-
ton Society of Natural History, vol. vii, No. 2, Dr. White has
given a “Section of rocks exposed at Burlington.” He there
describes eight beds, which he numbers from the lowest upward.
He refers the first six beds of his section to the Chemung group,
and beds “No.7” and “No. 8” to the Burlington limestone.
In vol. ix of the Proceedings Bost. Soc. Nat. Hist., and in
of the Journal of the same society, Dr. White describes certain
species of fossils from the Burlington ro¢ks; and although he
gives the beds or divisions in which the s ecies occur, yet no-
where does he claim that the Burlington limestone comprises
more than one geological formation.
r own observations have led us to regard these two divis-
limestone, and the upper division, the Upper Burlington lime-
stone. ‘The reasons for ranking these divisions as distinct
formations are as follo
The Burlington limestones are eminently crinoidal “in their
composition, as well as in their better preserved fossils. Whil
fragments of th <a Rigor orm an important feature in the
Teater mass of ocks, there are, —— se, some strata of
* While making a special study of a hago! of Crinoids, the Actinocrinide, the
— of which were to have published in the Illustrated Catalogue of the- ‘Museum:
of Comparative carrie it became achaanry spend considerable time at Bur-
ington, Iowa, for th hae of studying the ee and valuable collections of Mr.
Charles Wedanalls; Rey. W. H. eae and Dr. Otto Thieme. From the pub- -
lished observations of Dr, C. A. W and from some notes made by Mr. Wachs-
th, Ih
a an in imate acquaintance with the species, and a series of most ca mee
tions. Accordingly, with the ahead of Pro Agassiz, rE sesocited myiell with
Mr. Wachsmuth, for a careful examination and comparison of all the specimens in.
the three collect: ections, for the identification of the species, and for the determination of
i ublishing, in e scientific
freque sth seh ir occurrence. ye
06 Messrs. Niles and Wachsmuth on Geological
limestones, and it is upon such evidence that we foun
classification of these strata.
The strata of the Lower Burlington limestone present many
differences in color, structure, and composition; but by intimate
acquaintance they can generally be distinguished from those of
the Upper Burlington limestone by their lithological characters
alone. In the upper part of this formation the limestone strata
become interstratified with beds of chert, and the uppermost
stratum of chert, which attains any considerable extent and
thickness, forms the division between the Lower and the Upper
Burlington limestones. This stratum of chert, in the vicinity
of Burlington, is from two to three feet in thickness. The
B
8
=
8
fon)
ion
&
cr
a
8
5
>
®
°
=)
5
g
&
Q,
et
general features, \
Upper gabe <b and those of the Keokuk limestone; as 1
appears from the fossils, that it was during the latter formation
that crinoids culminated in extravagance of size and features.
Three grades of crinoidal development are thus exhibited: by
the species of the Lower ie those of the Upper Bur-
lington, and by those of the Keokuk limestone. ;
We have examined the species of Crinoids and noticed their
stratigraphical distribution with care, and have found no evi
ence of any species occurring in both the Lower and the
A ae i lip
Formations in the Burlington Limestone. 97
Upper Burlington limestones. It would seem, from these facts,
that there was something connected with the presence of siliceous
matter in depositing waters, during the formation of the uppe
‘beds of the Lower Burlington Limestone, which was unfavor-
able to the growth and life of the inhabise Crinoids; for, with
the introduction of the chert deposits, the Crinoids | appear to
have declined, and finally all of the species became extinct be-
fore the completion of the dividing stratum of chert above men-
tioned. A parallel instance is to be noticed in the fact that
there is a stratum of chert between the Upper Burlington and
the cee limestones, which marks a similar organic change:
e
many undescribed species, which are as : distinetly limited to one
formation as those here mentioned.
Some species of Crinoids which are —_ only in the Lower Burlington
Lime.
Actinocrinus proboscidialis Hall. |Actinocrinus i Hall.
multibrachiatus “ superlatus ns
sexarmatus s brevis .
i Ss unicornis Owen & Shumard.
ornatus . araneolus Meek & esgsiomees
inflatu a Agaricocrinus Henan
sculptus 4 pee
discoidens . Megistocrinus Evansii “rise & Feicserd:
turbinatus 23 Whitei
papillatus te Platycrinus Frandei Owen & Shumard.
rmos a
inornatus «
lepidus = ye ideus
aequalis - Burlingtonensis “
opusculus cg Prateni then.
chloris . ornogranulus M
clarus 6 scobina Meek & Worthen.
infrequens i verrucosus White
lucina = regalis
thoas * eminulus o
ovatus ig inod .
ceelatus = pileiformis “
gemmiformis “ me oe “
bulis . pocilliformis
coronatus . nucleiformis “
i . truncatulus
ri . exsertus .
pentagonus ° calyeulus =“
ispina “ cavus .
subaculeatus “ behones tus :
“ acu ptus
igs
Am, Jour, Sci.—Sxconp SERIES, Vou, XLII, No. 124.Jutr, 1866.
13
98 Messrs. Niles and Wachsmuth on Geological Formations, &c.
Platycrinus excavatus
striobra
nodob
Cyathocrinus Wachsmouthi Meek & Wor.
oak _ Owen & Shumard.
mgs aie.
tus
iriactp eas o
Poteriocrinus a be eon alis .
zea
eubimpressus ML. & W.
\Scaphiocrinus a Hall.
tortuosus
“Wachstnuthi M. & WwW,
rpc opie dilatatus White
secaa/sadeap = Burlingtonensis cide
Hall.
SS ee
Trematocrinus eticclabas 8
“Saale «
|Zeacrinus scopari S
|Pentremites eeliformis 0. & Ss.
“yar. projectus M. & W.
Some species of Crinoids which are found only in the Upper Burlington
Limestone.
Actinocrinus sir ay Hall
ae
BERS
&
sR RRR
7
S38
oS.
§ a
a a a
glans
calyculoides “
clelia
ne a
Agaricocrin'
|Agaricocrinus excavatus Hall.
bullatus %
stellatus
ae Me
M. & W.
Platycrinus oll? Hall.
glyptus
osus
subspinulosns * 2
Wortheni
pet riesni White.
pleurovimenus
Cya viminalis .
rotundatus “
scul ptilis .
lamell White.
ss a
C. A, Young on a proposed Printing Chronograph. 99
Trematocrinus typus Hall. (Cheirocrinus dactylus Hall.
tuberculosus “ ventricosus 2
papillatus c amellosus "
Pentremites Norwoodi Owen & Shum’d.|Belemnocrinus typus White.
: elongatus Shumard. Bursacrinus Wachmuthi Meek & Wort’n,
Sayi oe Zeacrinus elegans a
sirius White. ramosus '
Forbesiocrinus Agassizi Hall. perangulatus White.
asterieformis “ sacculus f
ramulosus * Troostanus Meek & Worthen.
Art. XVII—On a proposed Printing Chronograph; by ©. A.
Youne, Prof. Nat. Phil. and Ast. in Dartmouth College.
errors very vexatious and hard to trace.
It is proposed to save the whole of this purely clerical labor
by making the chronograph itself record the instant of observa-
tion in hours, minutes, seconds and hundredths of a second, in
printed characters, and in a form suitable for preservation and
reduction
ever, be made much heavier than ordinary, and especially the
centrifugal fly should be of sufficient size and weight to answer
the purpose of a balance wheel in preventing sensible changes
of velocity from slight momentary variations in the resistances
of the train. a
The pendulum should be controlled by electro-magnetic im-
pulses sent every second from the standard clock, in the same
100 C.A. Young ona proposed Printing Chronograph.
manner practised for some years at the Dudley and other ob-
servatories. It might perhaps be well to substitute for the half
seconds pendulum commonly used, a pendulum beating quarter
seconds, the requisite rapidity of oscillation being secured by a
or .
I shall assume then that we have an axis revolving once per
second with a uniform motion. It is immaterial, of course,
whether this uniform motion is obtained through the spring-
governor, or by means of some other of the many ingenious in-
ventions that have been contrived for the purpose, though I do
not think any can be found more simple and effective.
ose now that in fig. 1, A is
such an axis, and that Bis a sec-
ond axis mounted on the prolonga-
tion of A, but entirely separate,
bearing a type-wheel, ¢¢, at its ex-
tremity. Suppose also that f is a
balanced arm attached to the ex-
tremity of A, and that 0 is a similar
arm attached to B, and bearing a
pin, d, which engages with /
It is then evident that A in its ee
motion would take along the type-
oe
id
acceleration: 2d, at the instant when the arm / strikes the pin
it will receive a shock due to the inertia of B and its appendages;
this would tend to retardation. The difference only of the two
effects would have to be corrected by the action of the spring-
governor; and it is believed, if the governor train has consider-
able momentum, and the type-wheel ¢¢ is made.as light as pos
sible, that the disturbance will be nearly or quite insensible. _
The mechanical arrangements by which this idea i
C. A. Young on a proposed Printing Chronograph. 101
The wheel ¢¢ is adjustable upon its axis so that its zero can
be made to come rmost at the instant when the wheel K
102. C. A. Young on a proposed Printing Chronograph.
eo =
T lar .
= me | |
4 | 4 i) Py
ee ana)
ae ee NRT I
Te Py 7 |
t| | NY
"tg WE i =.
% SL
The arm ee is firmly secured to the left-hand extremity of the
axis B, and carries at one end two pins (y) near each other,
C. A. Young on a proposed Printing Chronograph. 108
forming a fork ; at the other end it has a little projection (2).
The arm // is delicately pivoted at (x), and at the other extremity
passing freely between the pins of the fork (y) carries the steel
pind. Atthe middle it is expanded into a ring, gg, through
which the arbor B passes without touching: ff is made of soft
iron, and the annular expansion at the middle thus serves for
the armature of the electro-magnet whose action is to produce
the desired result at the touch of the observer's key.
A light spring between e and f solicits f to the left, and thus
whenever the electro-magnet is not acting keeps the pin d in
the position represented in fig. 2, engaged with the arm b. In
this state of things the type-wheel ¢¢ will be carried round con-
tinuously by A. Of course the arms e and f must be as light as
consistent with sufficient stiffness, and their weight must bal-
ance in all parts of the revolution, and neither tend to accelerate
or retard the motion of the type-wheel.
Close behind the arms e and / is placed a stationary dise of
metal, H H, having one hundred equidistant holes pierced in it
in a circle, so situated that whenever the arm / is drawn to the
right by the magnet (thus disengaging the type-wheel from the
train) the pin d will immediately enter one of these holes, stop
the type-wheel, and hold it in place until the magnet ceases to act.
his magnet is peculiar in having for its core, instead of a
solid rod, an iron tube, through which the axis B passes. Thus
the pole of the magnet is always in the same position with ref-
erence to the armature gg, notwithstanding its revolution. As
only one pole of the magnet acts upon the armature it is neces-
sary to make the coils more powerful than ordinary.
| or bringing the hammer down upon the paper and movin
the paper along after each impression any one of many different
plans might be used. Probably the best, leaving expense out
of the account, would be to have the hammer raised by an inde-
pendent train of wheelwork, which should be unlocked by an
electro-magnet at the instant of observation, thus releasing the
ammer, and allowing the wheelwork after the blow to move far
enough to raise the hammer again, and carry the paper forward,
nother more simple plan is to work the hammer directly by
& powerful electro-magnet, to which the magnet Z should act as
a relay—that is, whenever the pin d touches the disc H it should
establish a current which should bring down the hammer upon
the paper; the hammer in rising after the blow carries the paper
along one space.
rovision is also made for carrying the paper along several
Spaces at the will of the observer, so as to leave an interval be-
tween the record of different stars.
Although there are only fifty numbers on the type-wheel_
which prints the decimal of the second, the record is made to
the nearest hundredth. There being one hundred holes in the
od
“e
104 «= J. M. Safford on Petroleum in Southern Kentucky.
disc H, the type which — the decimal of the second may
either come in line wit which gives the whole seconds, or
half a space above it, hoe 25°18 or 258; the first would be
read twenty-five and eighteen hundredths, the second twenty-
five and nineteen hundredths.
_ It is not intended to secure precise coincidence of error be-
tween the clock and chronograph—merely coincidence of rate.
This is obtained by controlling the pendulum of the spring-gov-
ernor from the clock. The type-wheels can be set so as to indi-
cate the nearest whole second; and then the exact difference be-
tween the clock error and the chron ograph error can easily be
found by making the clock record itself Seeanieleally at the be-
ginning of a minute.
The operation of the instrument is then as follows. When the
observer oe his key, the magnet Z acts upon the armature,
and withdraws the pin d from its engagement with 4, causing it
to plunge Pao one of the hundred holes in the dise H. The con-
tact of d with H in its turn, by a magnet not shown in the cut,
brings sai the hammer upon the paper 0 0 and forces it against
the type, a piece of impression paper being interposed. -
When the observer takes his finger from the key, d returns to
its original position and will engage with dat its next revolu- :
tion. The hammer also rises, and in rising caietes the paper
along one space in readiness for the next impre
As yet the printing chronograph exists wily ke as an idea, but
it is hoped that the idea will soon be realized, and the machine
put in operation at the Shattuck Observatory. The result of
the experiment will form the subject of a future communication.
Dartmouth College, April, 1866.
ecient
Art. XVIII.—Note on the geological position of Petroleum Reser-
ri in Southern Kentucky and in Tennessee; by Prof. J. M..
AFFORD
‘THE object of the following note is to point out briefly the
- geological position of the ae reservoirs in Southern Ken-
tucky and in Tennessee, so far as they have been met with
within the field of my npeervecionk: I hope, in a future articl
to give a summary of all ascertained facts with reference to the
mineral oils of this re :
The accompanying general section will serve to illustrate the e
topographical and geological features of the region under consid-
eration. The line of section extends from the Cumberland
mountain, or table-land, in “Putnam county, Tennessee, through
_Overton county, in a a direction a little west of north, to Burks-
‘yille, Kentucky, and thence to Glasgow. The entire ‘distance is
J. M. Safford on Petroleum in Southern Kentucky. 105
about seventy miles. The region traversed by this line is a
plateau, from 800 to 1000 feet above the sea , out of the nearly
horizontal strata of which the ie streams have eroded yal-
leys from 300 to 500 feet dee 7
: i : : 2000 feet.
311500.
ito Le ; Go 1000 sé
pee Io ga ete a ee 500. et
Cc a™ total
———— Tide water.
The following are the formations @ heseogt in the section :
ss measures, 400 ft., edge of table-
6 untain Limestone, ‘about 550 ft. thick i in Putnam county ;
mostly Bideonries
5. Siliceous group; the “knobstones” of Kentucky. From
300 to a feet thick, including the Lithostrotion beds as its
F
Burksville
Cumb. riv’r.
Ohav river
givet.
upper par
: 4. Bla alte rina and Genesee, having a maximum
thivkerieds of about eet.
3. Upper Si rari Poni or wholly, from 100 to 150 feet
thick; mostly a series of limestones, some of which are impure,
approaching fine sbriditone or shale in character. The ponte
these strata in the region of Glasgow is mainly inferred fro
the fact that they are seen in certain sections to the seriedst
and southwest of this point. They are, however, oe
unimportant, and thin out southeastward and disappear.
2. Nashville group, Mr. Dana’s Hudson period ; tc fossilifer-
ous limestones with some calcareous shales, 500 fee
1. Trenton limestones, at the base of the section.
It may be remarke d, in passing, that one of the most striking
features of this section is the almost entire absence of the Upper
Silurian and Devonian formations. In the Tennessee and Cum-
eens
T have represented i in the section the geological places of what
we may call typical petroleum wells by the short heavy verti
nes. We will notice — in ieeonding order
Ist. In the Mountain Limestone. The heavy line at a in the
pper part of this formation Sdicates simply the gieecineet lewd 7
of the “Beaty oil well.” Its foie ee and to’ Soyer een
positions are very different. The well is located in ee
on the Big South Fork of Godibeland river, aed near the Ten-
: eubeye® awkward term subcarboniferous ought to be dropped. Silurian rocks are —
ae Jour. Se Serres, Vou. XLII, No. 124.—Juxy, 1806,
2¢
106 «J. M. Safford on Petroleum in Southern Kentucky.
nessee line. The valley of the stream is, at the well, narrow,
and is deeply set in the Cumberland table-land; it cuts through
the Coal-measures and into the top part of the Mountain lime-
voir of oil was struck, from which so much petroleum flowed as
to lead to the abandonment of the boring asa salt well. For
several years after petroleum was gathered at this point for me-
dicinal pare How much petroleum issued from this boring
it is now impossible to tell. I give it simply as a good exam-
ple of an oil reservoir actually tapped in the Mountain limestone.
2d. In the Siliceous group. ‘There are several examples in this
formation of reservoirs reached by boring. At in the section
the geological (not geographical) place of the “ Porter well” in
Allen county, Kentucky, is represented. This well is located
on Bay’s Fork of Big Barren, on a line between Scottsville and |
Bowling Green, and “about seven miles from the former place {
and eighteen from the latter. This reservoir was ta , some
time in January of this year, at the moderate depth of 55 feet.
It yielded for a number of days, by pumping, about 400 barrels
of oil and strong brine per day, half of which was oil. At the )
time of my visit, Feb. 18th, it had produced altogether about
1000 barrels of petroleum, but was not then doing well.
In the southern part of Overton county, Tennessee, on Spring
creek, is another example. Here a reservoir was struck which
yielded heavy oil, but how much I am not informed.
3d. In the Black Slate. On Boyd’s creek, near Glasgow, Ken-
tucky, is a group of half a dozen wells or more. Their position
is shown by the heavy vertical lines atc. One or two of these
met with oil in the Black Slate.
5th. In the Nashville group. This, group has furnished the
most and the largest reservoirs. The geological and topograph-
ical place of a number of borings, which have tapped oil reser-
voirs, on the Cumberland and Obey rivers, and on their tributa-
ries, both in Kentucky and Tennessee, is shown by the heavy
C. T. Jackson on minerals from the Emery mine of Chester. 107
short lines at d, d. The old “ American oil sil near Burks-
ville, originally bored for salt water, may be taken as an exam-
his, from top to bottom, is within se Nashville group.
Its mouth is not far from 40 feet below the level of the Black
Slate. At the depth of about 175 feet this boring tapped an oil
reservoir, from which flowed out, at a minimum estimate, 50,000
barrels of oil. The recently bored “rete creek well, which
. In the Trenton iinestoeai Some boring has been done in
thie series, but as yet no ee of any note have been dis-
- covered, at least in Tennes
Nashville, Tenn., March 19th, 1866.
ArT. XIX. —Analyses ch some minerals rege the Emery mine of
Chester, Mass, ; communicated by Dr. C. T. JACKSON. bse
a letter to one of the Balto)
q ar
3 Scratching quartz crystal readily. It is associated with crystals
: of black tourmaline. It is very compact, fine granular in
texture, with a conchoidal splintery fracture, and has G. = 2586,
H.=75; the color slightly greenish white. I obtained for its
PRE a n,
i
Silica, - - - - - 62:00 60-00
Alumina, - - - - 24°40 25:00
Morris ce Ae eC 0
Magnesia, «© - a . “ .
ee ee
Water, - - -
9°67
In No. 2 there was a trace of oxyd of iron not Sige
2. Analysis of Margarite, by JOHN C. J Ackson,—The margarite
of Chester has, G. = 3°08, H.=8%5-4. The = ‘afforded :
Sili ney * a bat 29° 84 eae se
Alumina, - - - ~ ~ oS 53°84 f os
Lime, - ‘ > 3 = é - 10°38
- : : : : - 0-24
Alkalies, soda chiefly, - 7 - * - 748
a = L 2 é E 2 3:
Sesquioxyd of iron, - - - ge
108 C. T. Jackson on minerals from the Emery mine of Chester.
was made by my son, John C. Jackson. I was’ in hopes
would have had time to repeat the work and determine the
which contain microscopic erystals of Brookite. nearly,
scratching quartz distinctly but feebly. G. = 3:39. a ae
ac Tn - . - . * 147 5 iss
. [80°75] 83-0
Oxyds eidsaiioa aint - 4:50
Sesquioxyd of iron ik ome titanium, - 30
10000 = 100°8
The diaspore occurs in both the North and South Mountains,
associated with emery a chloritoid. It exists both in bladed
striated ws and in small prisms of considerable length,
sometim: inch or shisha long. Only the microscopic crystals
gins wevtectly defined forms.
hloritoid.—Ten grains of the chloritoid were selected for the
analysis, as pure as possible, but it still con cae capi
ye a
Water, - - - - - 11:00 11:00
Silica, - . - - - 22:50 22°50
Alumin - - - - ~ 28°50 28°50
rotoxyd of iron, - ‘i - 18:00
a of eke - - - 41°50 20°25
. - 18 —
100-80 05
analysis of masonite: (From ated made in 1839 and pub-
lished in 1840; Geol. of R. I., page 88, Prov., R. L., 1840. ie
analysis was repeated several times, and this is a mean of a num
ber of ey dads ate analyacs 24 so koa on 25 end 50 grain lots )
Water, 4-000
Silica | - - - > * - 33-200
Alumina, - - > - - - 29000
agnesia, - - - - - 0 240
Protoxyd of iron, - . - - - 25924
Oxyd of manganese, - = See 6000
99374
Boston, March, 1866.
M. C. Lea on the detection of Iodine. 109
Art. XX.—On the detection of Iodine ; by M. Carry LEA.
WHERE iodine exists in the form of hydriodie acid, or the
iodid of a base, two methods are commonly employed to put it
into a condition to be detected by the starch test. One of these
is by the action of nitric acid, the other by chlorine or bromine
water. The latter is the more delicate, but has the disadvantage
that if the chlorine or bromine be added in excess, the reaction
is missed.
It occurred to me while engaged in testing for iodine, that the
facility with which that body is eliminated from its hydrogen |
and metallic combinations by chromic acid would make the latter
substance a valuable means of bringing about the starch reac-
tion, and a few experiments completely confirmed this view.
If, for example, we take an extremely dilute solution of iodid
of potassium, such that the addition of nitric acid and starch pro-
duces no perceptible effect, the further addition of a single drop
of very dilute solution of bichromate of potash will instantly
bring about the characteristic reaction.
When chlorhydric acid is substituted for nitric, the effect of
the bichromate is (as was to be expected) still more marked.
The test has then the full delicacy at least of the chlorine test,
with this great advantage, that an excess of the reagent does
not prevent the reaction.
As to the delicacy of this test, the following observations
were made.
With solutions of iodid of potassium up to one hundred thou-
sandth (1: 100,000) the precipitate was abundant, becoming less
lue and more tawny as the dilution increased. Beyond this
point the distinctness rapidly fell off. The indications were ob-
Servable at one-four-hundred-thousandth. With a solution of
one-eight-hundred-thousandth it was doubtful whether any effect
was evident though still it was thought that a darkening was
produced.
The experiment can be made in two ways, according to the
result desired.
If it is wished to observe the effect of the chromic acid in in-
creasing the delicacy of the indication, add the acid and starch
to the very dilute solution of iodid, and then when the extreme
dilution is such that no reaction appears, a drop of solution of
bichromate instantly produces it. _
But in employing the reagent in the search for iodine, add
the starch to the liquid to be tested, stir it up, add a drop of
dilute solution of bichromate, enough to communicate a ale
pe color, and finally add a few drops of chlorhydric acid,
h haracteristic precipitate,
.
€ test is then the production of the c
110 Scientific Intelligence.
or in case of great cane atin to a half-millionth,
merely a tawny shade n to the s
It seems scarcely necessary to say that if a very great — .
acid is used, and too much bichromate, the starch may be
to reduce the Sdhacinaate: Even this, however, cannot decciva
for a bluish-green solution is thereby produced, whereas the in-
dications of iodid are in the order of their strength : blue pre-
Cipitate, tawny precipitate, tawny solution. Unless in the case
of very exceptional dilution above spoken of, a well marked
blue precipitate is always obtaine
The examination of the delieuey of the reaction yee very
dilute solutions was made at a temperature of 65° F. or there-
_ abouts. sp fact requires to be taken into account, as “anos
e experiments of Fresenius to be found in the Jabres-
bericht for 1857, the delicacy of the starch test increases as the
temperature falls, so that at 0° C. a fainter trace can be ren-
dered evident than at 12° C, and so on: the difference is as-
sert
to be material. Fresenius’s experiments were made with
sulphuric acid ne! hyponitric pat and the delicacy of the reac-
tion obtaine him at corresponding temperatures seems to
fall a little short of the above.
SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE.
I. CHEMISTRY AND PHYSICS.
. On the preparation of Hydrofluoric And; by W. P. Dexrer.—
the cryolite from which the pur sles iscdiuaes: acid is prepared ;
aperture, is supported by three strips - platinum rivetted to the ne a
both being made of silver platinum
A dome’of platinum attached toa leadlon vessel seems to me a half-
“ Setar. combining the disadvantages attending the use of both
pan those who are not in possession of an apparatus of platinum, I can
recommend from experience the following comparatively inexpensive
arrangem ment.
It consists of the ordinary leaden en bore, (mine i is 6”’ high by 34’ inter-
nal diameter,) made of a piece of lead pipe into which a bottom of lead
is cast, and provided near the top with a small and short tube for the
escape of the gas. The tube must incline slightly from the retort up-
Chemistry and Physics. 111
rd, otherwise whatever is condensed or projected upon it will flow
downward and the product be contaminated, at least, with lead. Into
this tube a smaller one of platinum is luted, which is bent into the shape
of a quarter of a circle so that the farther end points downward ; this
end is soldered with gold into the bottom of an inverted platinum eruci-
ble. An old one, ipo and cracked, suc as is generally to be
immersed in “water sank ed in a ear not very much ey Dea it in
diameter, offers a large surface for the absorption of the acid gas, while
a retrocession of the liquid from absorption or change of temperature is
impossible.
The cover to the retort may be cast in one piece with a shoulder, or be
made of two discs of lead of the size of the inner and outer diameters of
the bore, and held together by a ring of lead cast into them and serving
asahandle. For a lute I spread a thin layer of gypsum on the surfaces
in 9 ae ben cover the joint on the outside with a paste of rye-meal.
2. Sky cldstok akan at Philadelphia; by Pursy Earte Caase,
A.M., ‘PAB Reo ent observations with a —_ polariscope having —
led me to results which, while generally confirm , differ in a few par-
ticulars from those published by Sir David Brewster, (Phil. Mag. [4], xxx,
pp. 118, 166, sqq.), I place some of them on record, to facilitate a com-
(1.) In a the great circles which pass tharotek the sun, the polarization
of a clea r sky is positive, sas in the neighborhood of the solar and
anti-solar points. If the polariscope is rotated from the positive maxi-
mum, the bands gradually diminish in brillianey, vanishing at about 45°,
and attaining a negative maximum at about 90°.
2 ) Within the primary lemniscates, of which the solar and anti-solar
points are the respective centers, and the neutral points (actual or theo-
Fea are the limits; the polarization of a clear sky is negative when
the bands pass towa rd the sun's center, vanishing when re
inclined re to the _~ bt and attaining a positive maximum when
the Pereneny reaches
’s and Babinet’s neutral points can be seen as well before
sunrise as shee sunset, provided the atmospheric conditions are
Brewster gives the preference to the evening observations, but =ppaeeae
for no other reason yee that the sky is then usually clearer than in
ae (op. cit. ; pel
T hav ve reply, and with vas gs mcg difficulty, observed
h
as biter facility as that of Babinet’s. (For the difficulties of Brewste
and Babinet, see loc. cit., pp. 119, 166, 181.
(5.) Within the solar primary lemniseate it is frequently difficult to
make any ordinary observation of the polarized bands, on account t of the
dazzling intensity of the a But when the direct rays of the sun
.F Proceedi rican Philosophical Soci 4g ay apne
hes a rhe tine bar anil pons below che ane sol pele sot bona
BBP cars x as Sak ig eaptllce to determ’ cette peau =
112 Scientific Intelligence.
have been shut off by a thin disc oe with its edge towards si eye,
ce
of the disc), I have often been a le to mark the opposite polarinations
and the Spaeee of the neutral points with perfect ease, even at mic
n our climate it is by no means unusual to have days on which
al! the three neutral points can be observed, and their places determined.
During the whole period of Brewster’s observations at St. Andrews, he
found but two such days, April 5th and 8th, 1842, (loc. cit., pp. 124,
7.) Quasi-neutral lines, — bands of opposite aeieeea can -
found in crete . parts of the sky by rotating the polari
the line of maximum positive or negative paladin “But aia
additional ‘elisicsl will show that the neutralization is only apparent.
The position of a true neutral point can be determined by swee ing
its neighborhood alternately with the vertical and with the horizontal
polarized bands forms curves with a ny wae 4 determined by the position
of the sun or of the anti-solar point
(10.) Some of my observations have indicated an apparent os
between these curves and the magnetic dip and terrestrial latitude. I
have not been able to satisfy myself w whether the co octet was
merely ee or whether it indicated another point of analogy be-
ey the laws of light and of magnetism.
“a8 varying effects of haze and cloud, appear, on the whole, to
‘aes Brewster’s theory, that the neutral point is produced ‘by the op-
posite action of light polarized by reflexion and refraction.” ged pp:
123, 169, 176, 178, 180.
In one oe soon after sunset, the reflection from aihiaceed
clouds i in the neighbor me: the anti “solar r point was such as to totally
oO
ot Points ;* by Putny Ears Cuassz, 2 A., 8.P.A.S.—In my eommuni-
cation of Janudr 2 ies, I stated that when Brewster's neutral point is
above the. horizon, I had frequently determined its position with great
* Tam not sure whether this is the “singular effect” thus described by aphdlag a
(loc. cit., p. 124); ress soorsying the Shiga vertically round, the neutral sain
ond ging fou har igi a » Was the arc of a circle, to whi
the bands was a (See, also, , PP. 121, 167.)
? From the Prasstioes of the American Philosop hical Society, April 6, 1866.
a ip gt Ee ake ee eae
Ea oe ae REE ee re ees ee Geet
Chemistry and Physics. 113
(1.) Arago’s neutral ‘eager often assumes a distinctness which is never:
exhibited by either of the others, merely because the polarized bands in
the vicinity of the sun are obscured by the dazzling brilliancy of its
Tay
(2.) For the same reason, Babinet’s neutral point is often better de-
fined, in the morning and evening, than Brewster’s during the middle of
e day.
(8.) But when Brewster’s and Babinet’s neutral points are both above
the horizon, if the sky is clear, the former is generally more easily posited
_ the o tter. This is especially the case at midda
every clear day, and on a large portion of the days which are
coats ctneued by — the position of each of the neutral points
can be determined. wster records but two days during five years’
observations (Phil Mine 7 80, 124), upon which he saw all the points.
rago’s neutral point often rises before Brewster’s sets. Under
favorable eee sie the three points are, therefore, some-
times simultaneously v
(6.) Halos and stands are @ frequently discernible through the polari-
scope, which are invisible to t ed eye.
The i abstract genaies some of the results of the month’s
observations
Satisfactory observations were made on 25 days.
All the neutral points were see Bi”
There e were no satisfactory observations on 6.2%
“ 389 obse rvations of Arago’s n neutral point on 25: S
= iat 5. @ rapes ae 4 aerae
“es “ce 59 Bre “ 20 ae
ied. ie weeps point was remarkably "detinct on ; ; 4
“
Prewsten 8 a 11
Arago’s was the at one observed on ee
abinet’s 1 day.
Babinet’s abd Brewster’s the only ones seen on : eg
rago’s a binet’s “ = 2 days.
pag ahd pone were simultaneously ree on April 5th, from 45 32’
to 4
B sewilers 5 weaiead point was perceptibly more than Babinet’s at fifteen
observations, and less distinct at two observations.
subjoin a few of my notes, which refer to points of special interest ;
March 8th, 5" 45’, p.m. Near the proper position for Arago’s neutral
point, the positive and ‘negative polarities coalesce — clouds, with no
intervening space or neutral line.
M A. M.
March 11th, 3550/, p.m. Sky covered with thin clouds. A neutral
pose in the East, 42° above the horizon, and more than 70° from the
anti-solar point, with reversed polarization, or positive — and oe
Au: Joie, Sc1.—Seconp Series, Vou. XLII, No. 124.
15
114 Scientific Intelligence.
tive above. 5°25’, A similar point still observable, but about 5°
nearer the horizon
arch 12th, gb 30’, a.m. Cloudy. Polarization positive from East
and West horizon, nearly to Zenith. A similar observation was made
March 21st, at 69 p.m.
March 17th, 9h and 10" 40/ a.m.,? and March 18, 10° 30’, a.m.°
Very clear. Sun so bright that I was unable to detect the negative
polarity between Babinet ts neutral ae . Brewster’s, even by screen-
ing the eye from i sah light of the
Mare vie, ll A.M." Halo, visible only through the polariscope.
tet 20th, vig 25’, p.m. Cloudy. Polarization in horizon every-
where pos
March oath to 28th, inclusive. On each of these five successive days .
Brewster’s neutral point was remarkably distinct and beauti ul.
April 3d, 5" 40’ p.m. Cloudy in West, and polarization positive from
iti to hori rizon.
trong reflection sometimes changes the character of a comparatively
weak polarization, from positive to negative, or vice versd. A fal inter
reflection, by showing whether the bands are interrupted or continuous, /
often gee in determining the character of the polarization.
reased refraction of a piece of glass, interposed between the
polavidcope and the sky, will frequently show a neutral point which is
otherwise invisible.
The normal polarity is often reversed by, a stratum of clouds of uni-
form thickness, especially within the solar primary lemniscate.
II. MINERALOGY AND GEOLOGY.
1. On the age of the gold-bearing rocks of the Pacific Oe by Prof.
Wa. H. Brewer. (Communicated for this bdo al). —In t he preceding
number of this Journal, in a résumé o tney’s “Geology of Cali-
fornia,” I noticed in some detail (pp. 361-3 64 ,) the ee aed oe data from
which the secondary age of the auriferous rocks of the Paci ast had
their first publication. These ee ae a reference to the more important
fossils that had come under the observation of the members of the
en datoren
Since that aie was printed, a paper bearing about the same date
has been Bes Net entitled,
? On steamboat in Raritan es. * At Eagleswood, near Perth Amboy-
4 In New Yo rk, : ra
ae
7
Mineralogy and Geology. 115
In addition to the Catalogue of Minerals it contains about fou
pages of, “ Notes on the Geogr a Distribution and Geology of the
Precious Metals” “on the Pacific slo
These “ Notes” contain statements “appa rently so entirely at variance
with the facts I detailed in the résumé mentioned, that, unless answered,
they are not only calculated to mislead those who are interested in the
history of geological discovery in California, but also to call in question
the pigeons | of some e those facts; as well as the statements relat-
ing to them in the various publications of the cog Bee
survey. The official hawaii of this document gives t rkable
statements and claims it puts forth their principal weight, mes detnasde
that they be carefully examined, particularly as regards those differences
which exist between these statements on the one side, and those pub-
especially important as it relates to the question, who first demonstrated
and first published the Secondary age of the auriferous rocks of Cali-
Sornia, Blake says:
“ After years of laborious ae for fossils by which the age of the ge
bearing rocks might be mined, I had the pleasure, early in 1863, t
obtain a s ecimen contai inde Aeimin ites, fom a locality on the hee.
River, preserved in the cabinet of Mr. Spe This fossil was of extreme
importance, being insdivadtive of the Secondary: age of the gold-bearing or i
and was therefore eee ed, and copies of it sent to the Smithsonian
Institution at Washington, for description. It was subsequently weno in
the Proceedings of the California Academy of Natural Sciences, Sept. 1864.”
(Page 28 of pam phiet.)
We
in plate (for similar fossils found not in place had been known several
years earlier); (2,) that it was sufficiently well brsianetd to be determined,
and even from a photograph ; and (3,) that its secondary age was published
i a,” ferri
in Sept. 1 ng to his ori r, (Proc. Acad.
ii, p. 167, which was no apeoes until December, 1864,) the
following additional information: “ not certain whether the speci-
men was taken from the slates in hele or broken from a loose mass.”
are néw or re or even whether they are ammonites or ceratites.” This
?
announcement was made a year (and it was not published until three
months set after the Geological aiid had taken nearly twent
recognizable species of Jurassic and Triassic fossils from the auriferous
gn
slates, and also later than the publioation yeti Prof. Whitney’s announce-
ment in this Journal of the Secondary age of the formation. I leave out
in the true slates, near Pence Ranch, in 1862, and the other discoveries
of fossils before Sept. 1864, which are noticed in the Report on the
Geology of California.
He observes again:
“The same year, when at Bear Valley, Mariposa county, upon the chief
goldboaring rocks of California, I identified a group of Secondary fossils
the slates contiguous to the Pine Tree Vein, and noticed them at a meet-
ing of the on sion Academy, Oct. 3, 1864, announcing the Jurassic or
Cretaceous of these slates. The best characterized fossil was a Plagi-
ostoma,” ket (Ib.)
116 Scientific Intelligence.
These fossils were not found in 1863, as the — implies, but*late
in Sept. 1864. On referring to He original paper in the Proceedings of
the Academy, (iii, p. 170), I find that he “identified ” the fossils by re-
ea them i ~ wrong genera, ne determined by Mr. Meek).
Again he st
“ The attention sen the Geological Survey having been directed to this local-
ity by my announcement and exhibition of fossils in San Francisco,” &c. (Ib.)
The attention of Mr. Gabb and zo was ate to those particu-
lar species by the announcement; but had already procur
and forwarded to Prof. Whiting, "for Scat pion by Mr. Meek, similar »
specimens from the same locality before a, Blake had seen or heard
of a fossil being found there. I had not been advised of Mr. King’s
action in the matter, nor had Mr. Gabb, me afterwards visited the local-
ity and Anes more Ayo mens.
marks furt
“Tt appears also, from same source, (Whitney’s Geology of California),
that Mr. King, a gentleman pe with the Survey, had obtained Belem-
nites from the Mariposa rocks in 1864,” &c. (Ib.)
Prof. Blake neglects to ase that sis same source informs him that
ese Belemnites were found in plac e very near to ine Tree vein, and
are before’ the fossils mentioned in the preceding paragraph
gain:
8)
siderable aps rt of the gold-bearing slates of California are probably Carbonif-
erous.” (p. 2
Devonian or Silurian,” &c., and in the later pages of the same work he
paves the way for priority of discovery, —_ a actually prove to be
Silurian, by stating that the conclusions arrived at by Sir R. I. Murchi-
en confirmed by his (Prof. Blake’s) dhidesibonss in California.
gain
“The opinion of the comparatively modern age of the gold rocks has been
steadily gaining strength for years past, and has been the subject of discus-
sion in the daily j ournals.”
SSPE a a ET or ee ee ee ee ee ee 4
ES at OTE TONE NOR gee SER Me Se ANE RETR
Se oa eee gS ae ae
Pe
ee eee a Os en eee ae ee ee ee ae en NT an amet ye) Ne Bee eo ReS
Mineralogy and Geology. 117
and some months before said announcement was printed. (See London
Mining and Smelting pcre Oct. 1864, pp. 215-217).
Awd; furthermore, the conclusions were reiterated in the preface to the
Paleontology (vol. i, p. 18) w which was issued in Dee. 1864, the same
species of fossils of the age under consideration, more than half of
which had been found in California in the rocks associated with gold.
Many of the plates and descriptions of these fossils had been prepared
more than a year before this, or in 1
Prof. Blake adds:
et to observe that in this publication (Whitney’s Geology of ae
fornia), as well as Mr. roe notice of the fossils, no mention is made o
previous announcement, and that my part in the discov ery and publication of
the Secondary age of the Mariposa gold rocks is studiously and wholly
ignored.” (Foot -note to +)
While the fanialage: quoted only strictly claims a part in the “ dis-
covery and publication of the Secondary age of the Mariposa gold
rocks,” yet any person not acquainted with the facts, and not examining
t tes of the original discoveries and publications, would draw
inference from the connection in which the statement stands, that Prof.
Bla e had been the first to discover and announce the. > Ke of these
fossils, and Prof. Whiting three months in publishing the conclusions.
Nor could Prof, Blake have been ignorant of this, for he had all the
The article under review being an official Report published by the State
Board of Agriculture inthe Transactions of the State Agricultural
Society, as well as in pamphlet form, is intended to reach the more in-
telligent siprire of the } ple of that an to diftuse reliable informa-
ns
ment of the ots = of the great or belt of the State, and ae
Sta ignored
part in the discovery and publication of the age of the gold rocks”
had occurred so long after the discovery and publication of the fact by
cad ace ‘
For the information of those interested in the question, I will here
state that I n California during the period of the discoveries under
Sana ech a collected a part of the fossils in the ion of the
State Geological Survey, and was acquainted with the localities and
dates. I was present at the meeting of the California Academy, Oct. Pe
1864, when Prof, Blake exhibited his Mariposa fossils and made his so-
i18 Scientific Intelligence.
called “announcement.” He prefaced his paper by stating that after
years of search for fossils in the gold rocks, by means of which their age
pnaitt be determined, those which he exhibited were the first he had
n able to obtain, and that his attention had been called to these and
thei eee by Miss Errington. In the verbal discussion that followed
fossils, and that the Survey had “ found fossils in the rocks associ-
any with gold along a line nearly 300 miles in length, extending from
Pitt River to the Mariposa Estate,” os (For synopsis of these remarks,
see Proc. Cal. Acad. Nat. Sci., ili, p. 198). I described minutely the
Genesee Valley localities for Jurassic, Triassic, and Carboniferous fossils,
soon. Yet I find in his pamphlet, (p. 28,) the statement, “ Fossils o
Secondary age from Genesee Valley, in the northern part of the State,
were common in eeerens in 1864. (!)
New Haven, June 1 66.
2. A Catalogue of the Paleozoic Fossils of North America, Part
Lichinodermata ; by B. F.Suumarp, M.D. 73 8vo, (From t
Transactions of the Acade emy of Sciences of St. Louis, vol. ii, 1866).—
The first signature of Part I, of this Catalogue, to the 18th page inclusive,
succeeding signatures of this part, bear the dates of August and October,
1865 , and February, 1866, at a amg extra ——. were distributed
by the author. Parts 2d, 3d, &c., now in course of preparation, or *
the press, will consist of lists of the Plast Polyeoa, Brachiopoda, an
sod Chg f North American Paleozoic ossils.
arranging them into families or larger groups, in accordance with their
zoological affinities, but a simple alphabetical lst of species and genera,
with full references to the works where t ey were described or noticed ;
d as such, it will be a valuable aid to those who may wish to study
this class of fossils, since it forms a complete index to the entire literature
of the subject. Tt. also gives the geological position of each s ies,
something of the synonymy, and contains numerous foot-notes of
are likewise tables showing the geological range of the different genera.”
The whole number of species included is 750, of which 97 are from the
* It is probable that Cupellecrinus Troost, described on p. 361, is not distinct
oa eonnee eee nites pir (see Wesainns Siluria, p. ie unless we admit
absence of a proboscis as a oo
pep nore well established fact there are three Archimedes lime-
stones : ere Sub-earboniferous series of the = Western sates it would have been
er if the auibor had ree <a these as net rocks, in giving the geological
poe of genera and species.
Mineralogy and Geology. 119
Lower Silurian, 86 from the Upper Silurian, 115 from the Devonian,
and 452 from the Carboniferous rocks.
d to synonymy, i oup like this, snicladiog so many close
allied species of which only dancriptions have been published, there will
of course, be differences of opinion; and beyond the instances where
direet Fee cance of authentic examples of the allied forms have been
ases where no figures have been published), any views on the
within can only be regarded as mere opinions, that may be right or ma
e wrong. Some of the supposed synonyms are believed by the writer
of this notice to be distinct abet while he has no doubts whatever in
regard to the distinctness of other forms, between which comparisons
are suggested. These sel et selotisirene will be useful even when the
species alluded to are distinct, as hints to those who may have the means
to make comparisons, and wi ish to do so, with the view of studying the
at pl
accuracy and completeness of this valuable Sees there are a pare
names not accompanied by correct diagnoses, great confusion would re-
sult, since many of the destespasonn published ey oe Miller, Link,
and various other early investigators, as well as by many later ones,
would apply equally well to almost any other genus of the alle family ;
while not unfrequently the few characters given by them were not all
strictly applicable to the particular type named. Where they cited
i t t
regard to the particular genera they had in view, their names have been
adopted notwithstanding the defects of their diagnoses. Where an
author has given us the means of peng beyond a reasonable doubt,
Bell lerophon Montfort, yee no one hase because
its author described it as a chambered hell —siplyf A i “ fact that
his _ —_ ata pinecn what genus he ha
gain, cannot agree with the author of a: cestalogns in citing
Gilbertsocrinue ree as a aynee ym of Rhodocrinus Miller, (although
st wot may se . specimen of Goniasteroidocrinus or
with i and pseudo-brachial appendages unbroken. Inns Mr
Billings hinted at the probability that Gilbertsocrinus would be found to
* See note on this subject in Proc. Phil. Acad. Nat. Sci, Aug., 1865, p. 168,
a
120 Scientific Intelligence.
be a distinct genus, merely from inspecting Phillips’s figures of imperfect
specimens, The only question, in the opinion of the writer, respecting
the name Gilberisocrinus, is whether it may not have to give way to the
older name Ol/ucrinus Cumberland, 1826. If de Koninck, Pictet and
others are right in the opinion that Ol/acrinus was founded upon one of
the same types as Gilbertsocrinus Phillips, 1836, then Cumberland’s
name must take precedence, and our American species described under
the names Zrematocrinus and Goniasteroidocrinus will have to take the
names Ollacrinus tuberosus, O. fiscellus, O. typus, O. papillatus, O, robus-
tus, O. tuberculosus, O. reticulatus, &e.
At the end of the catalogue under review the author states in a note,
the Caliocrinus Meek & Worthen, recently proposed for a section of
Actinocrinus, would have to be changed, because Celiocrinus had been
tive name at all.
Geologists and paleontologists will certainly feel under many obliga-
tions to Dr. Shumard for the preparation of these useful lists, which will
so materially facilitate their investigations; and if all cannot agree with
him in every particular, it will, we think, be generally conceded that he
has performed the task with skill and impartiality, M.
8. On the deposit of Rock Salt at New Iberia, Louisiana; by Prof. |
Ricuarp Owen.—Prof. Owen stated that having heard various accounts
: is plantation, “La Petite Ance,.” distant in a
southwest direction from ag al :
! tu ]
proving a good brine, Mr. Marsh boiled it down and made considerable
quantities of salt, hen, however, the demand for salt became greater,
at the breaking out of the war, Mr. Marsh’s son requ permission to
Ce ee ee, ee ee LE ON,”
Mineralogy and Geology. 12}
sink other wells, hoping to obtain a stronger brine. After digging
fifteen feet, one of the negroes employed struck a hard substance with
his pick-axe, and was desired by the owner to go on and throw out some .
of the supposed rock. On washing off the excavated mass, it proved to.
be pure, hard rock-salt.
The area found, at which, by probing to the depth of from 15 to 18
ft., rock-salt was struck, indicatés that the deposit underlies several square
acres, perhaps four to six. The materials passed through, to reach it,
are chiefly bluish clay, sand and gravel, with some lumps of micaceous
sandstone. At the above depth, within that area, under every place at
which they have bored or dug down, they reac ched the solid’ rock-salt.
Through this solid scraban they bored twenty-six feet, and still found the
salt deposit.
In getting it out for sale, it was found necessary to blast in the usual
manner for obtaining building rock; and, even after purchasing moderate-
sized Jumps, the consumer has considerable difficulty in reducing them
to asize fit for use. This compactness seems also to protect the salt from
deliquescence, and even to enable it for a long period to resist solution
when immersed in water. He was assured that large Jumps, packed in
barrels, had been sunk in creeks and ponds for concealment, and taken
up weeks esis scarcely at all diminished 3 in bulk.
The accumulation of 15 to 18 feet of clay, sand, and gravel on the
deposit ee evidently been the result of comparatively recent washings
from the adjoining hills; and the deposit has, no doubt, been worked by
the aborigines, as, at more than one place, on reaching the rock-salt,
Indian relics were ‘found. He saw, at Mr. Henshaw’s, a basket, obtained
from the surface of the rotates 15 feet below the surface of the soil,
made of split cane; and was informed that they also found pieces of
charcoal, apparently the remnants of fires or torches. . stg of bark,
depositions of successive layers of sand and gravel; the latter entirely
rounded by attrition, and chiefly quartzose. That thrown out at the old
salt-openings was of the same character.
The highest point - the ridge is 160 feet above the water in the
Gulf at low tide. sea, occasional ly, from the combined influence 2 of
ca
was constructed ; and wagons came many miles to carry it off, at a cent
and a half per pound, eaedice at the mouth of the excavation. .
r an inspection of some hours, made, as remarked, rather unfavor-
ably on account of rain, but still sufficiently in detail to be certain of
Am. Jour. Sc1.—Sseconp Series, Vou. XLII, No. 124.—Juxr, 1866. :
16
122 Scientific Intelligence,
the facts, and, after having obtained and closely inspected numerots
specimens of the r ock-salt, gravel, — s of sandstone, and one very fine
erystal, over two inches cube and nearly transparent, a all of which are
now in the Indiana State University, he felt assured that the whole phe-
nomena must be referred to aqueous action.
In all probability, the semicircular deposit of sand and gravel, thrown
to the height of 160 feet waa web inet to the contour of the
sea coast, resulted from the combined action of the winds and the waves
of the ocean. In a similar manner, gaciets ridges of nearly the same
height have formed on the south shore of Lake Michigan, conforming to
its coast outline; the latest and most northerly being close to the water's
edge, . having formed since the settlement of the country by the
white
As abe: ‘fooult of similar ‘canses, he conceived that these sea-beach
itted
geological periods, although chiefly in the true Carboniferous era ; and
so we may also have saline deposits, greatest, as in Europe, during the
New Red sero or Saliferous Period, yet taking place also during the
Quaternary
hen, hecaven £ these ridges on the Gulf coast became high enough
to have their materials frequently washed down by rains, the interior
basin would readily fill up, and ~ detritus gradually cover any articles
left by the aborigines. The salt and exclusion from air are sufficient to
account for the preservation of fe relics from decay for a long egerer
e great inundation which, a few years since, destroyed so many
families, who had visited Lost Island as a watering-place, was of the
character above alluded to, and took place only about fifteen miles from
the salt locality just desc ribed.
Whether or not the explanations here offered of the interesting phe-
nomena exhibited at Petite Ance is correct or not, the facts are
important; and the evidences remain there to be examined at any time
by those interested. The locality can be reached by railroad travel of
80 miles from New Orleans to Brashear City; thence, crossing Berwick
Bay, the traveller, taking horseback or other conveyance for about 40 :
a reaches New Iberia; thence it is ten miles more - the causeway
plantation, and two to the salt- boring; which is, as stated, on 4
palit with Marsh Island on the south, and Vermillion then on the west.
The property has been sold by Mr. Marsh, and is now owned (he be-
lieved) by Mr. Ave’
It m rie not bei irr elevant to saris as a proof nes at no very distant
at Se
Mineralogy and Geology. 123
our route of march, by the Téche, at least five miles north of Franklin,
Louisiana.
He would also add, that although borings have been made to even
more than 15 or 18 foot at other parts of the Gulf coast, which seemed
similar in character et no other considerable deposits had been
been made from the brine springs or wells——TZrans. Acad. Sci., St.
4, Fossil Spider from the Coal ‘splepas by Dr. F. — (Jahrb,
Min. of Leonhard & Geinitz, 1866, p- 1 6).—Dr. Roemer has here de-
tfe
formation of Upper Silesia. It is called the Protalycosa ———
a name that ee a near relation in general habit to the modern Ly-
3 . €osa, The body is about an inch long. Appended to this nh is a
notice of a specimen of Arthropleura armata Jordan, from the Carbon-
iferous beds of Zwickau, by Dr. Geinitz. The specimen is sufficient to
show that the animal was a ee it is evidently part of the cara-
~~ and probably of a Decapod.
5. Observations on the casi strata of Texus ; by B. F. Suumarp,
M.D., State Geologist. 9 pp. 8vo. From the Transactions of the Acad.
Sci. at St. Louis—The paper gives an important section of the strata
with Ih desrons and a list of fossils, The Lower Cretaceous—arenace-
Ba i oa le ae eh i
Nova Scotia, for the year 1865; ys as Provincial Secre-
tary. 32 vo. 1866. Halifax, N. S—This s Report treats mainly of
matters of economical interest. We learn from it that the quantity: of
nes,
ae eT EN Ne 9s, ee atta
s
Oo
=
i=}
he |
o
o o
z
-
& &,
Ee
rr
oj
*g
iz)
=i
et
=
a
tion in Nova Scotia is nes ‘and that the total quantity of “ Roun
and Slack Coal” sold i the mines during the year ending Sept. 30,
1865, was 652,854 to
". Geo logical Survey of Nova Scotia: ate How’s Report on certain
minerals found by Dr. Honeymann. . PP. to.—The minerals are ores
of copper, lead ody iron, barytes, limes iter “pencil stone.
- Sulla Geologia del? Italia ante. estratto di alcune lezioni orali
date nel maggio, 1864, dal Cav. Iemvo Coceut, raceolte e publicate per
cura di C. Purnr e di A. Marrant. 100 pp. 8v0., with 2 plates. Firenze,
1864.—The author discusses with new and interesting views the nature
and origin of the later formations and the features of Central —
n .—Pro
d, n
the geology of the region, in the Proceedings of the American Philo-
_— Society, x, 266, 1866. ae _ er abi
0. Orographic Geology, or the Origin a tructure of Mountains:
A io by Gr Georez L. Voss, Civil Engineer. 136 pp. 8v0. Bos-
ton, 1866.—The author of this work has here presented a general
124 Scientific Intelligence.
review of the theories that have been brought forward to account for the
- oobi flexures or displacements, metamorphism and_ elevations,
at have taken place in the earth’s crust. These theories, and the objec-
os to them, appear to be so presented, with a citation of a large
number of authorities; and the work may be profitably read by all who
would study this obseure debarininct of geology. e author very
any does not add to the number of hypotheses, yet briefly draws
me conclusions from the survey. Upon these conclusions we may re-
ini} in a future number.
=, entexr Miinsteri, specie di Pesce i cui resti fossili, trovati nelle Ar-
é Subapennine del Volter rano dal Dott. G. Amidei, sono descritti ed
illustrati dal Prof. C. Giuseeppz Meneeuini. 26 pp. 4to, with a plate.
Pisa, 1864. (Nistri.)—Prof. ——— besides describing a fossil fish
of the genus Dentex, shows that o bones described by C, di Minster
as portions of what he calls Gage subtruncatus and C. interruptus,
long to one and the same species, and that this species is identical with
his own. He therefore gives the species the name Dentex Mitnsteri.
12. ; ;
following are some of his conclusions: that th e geological formations of
Acadia include rocks of all ages, from the Huronian to the Carboniferous
1. W. Bailey and ‘the 9 is eed to have been prepared by Prot.
Mr. Matthew
lite, nd “a attempt ve imitate meteorites by mea ns of this rock; im-
of magnesian rocks of the chrysolite kind ‘both in the case of
sometimes in groups of fscbdles: distri bated eae the orn chry-
solite. The rock called lherzolite, from the vicinity of Lake Lherz, in
France, is essentially a compound rg these two minerals, chrysolite and
Mineralogy and Geology. 125
enstatite. From his results he —— that serpentine has been a com-
mon source of chrysolite. The memoir merits close
eol. and Mining in the College of “eegesiete 32 pp. 8v0. Mareh,
1866. Sacramento.—Prof. Blake has done a good service to mineralogy
in this catalogue of California and adie. ~wousknarieed mineral locali-
ties. e pamphlet contains, besides a mention of the localities, notices
of the associations and characters of some of the species, and a list of
private and public cabinets in California. It closes with a chapter of
four pages containing Notes on the Geographical distribution and Geology
of the Precious Metals and Valuable Minerals of the Pacific Slope of
the oe States, some points in which Prof. Brewer has criticized at
ange
15. De ap erin dee Schweiz, yon Dr. Apotr Kenneortr. 460
16mo, with 78 woodcuts. Leipzig, 1866 (Wilhelm Engelmann).—
Kenngott i is alias thorough in his mineralogical works. This Mineral-
ogy of the Alps contains not only notices of the localities and the asso-
ciations of the ice but also extended observations on pecu pee
presented by many of the minerals at their several localities, with som
new cepasiceteis determinations. The work is therefore much more
than a mere topographical sevorey: It is full of original observations,
16. Motes on some members of the rage’ family by Isaac Lea.
66).—
give the na e Lennili te sf a greenish orthoclase ‘pane without cleav-
age,” from an nni, Delaware Co.; Delawareite, to accompanying speci-
mens, pearly, and distingtly cleavable ; and Cassinite. to a dull bluish
of sunstone and m stone are mention ad, and some particulars respect-
ing the microscopic crystals of different feldspars. No conclusions are
arrived at in regard to the nature of the erystals.
17. Vorlesungen iiber Mineralogie ; von N. von | gaa rag 25 Berg-
Ingenieur, Ist vol., 344 pp. 4to. St. Petersburg, 18 5. (A. Jacobson.)
is work is a German translation by its au sl from the Russian.
Von Kokscharow has lon been laboring with great success, and with
its erystallograp ic department. The volume just now e first
rt of an admi series of lessons in general mine kes
up crystallography, illustrates the subject with numerous excellent
s great work on Russian mineralogy, a rough-
out is both simple and thorough in its explanations. e cha
126 Scientific Intelligence,
extended tables of measurements of a considerable number of species;
and is illustrated by many woodcuts, —_ 4 great beauty representing
paren a nena artis (chrysoberyl,e
18. he affinit sg Sv Big by F. B. Mex, (Proe,
Chiecge rea Sci., i KT Che Bellerophontide are eeu ye by Mr.
Meek a as very near Emarginula, a view suggested i in 1864 by de Koninck,
and adopted in 1852 by d’Orbigny, and in 1855 by Pictet. His con-
clusions are based on a fossil described by Professor Hall under the name
Nemanotus. Figur res of this species given in McChesney’s “ New ns
ozoic Fossils,” (there called young of Bucania Chicagoénsis), and o
page 344 of the Canadian Geology (1863) show that, while it has =
form of Bueania, it differs in having along the middle of the dorsal side a
row of isolated oval siphonal openings. Mr. Meek observes that it bears
the same neler to Bucania that Polytremaria does to Pleurotomaria,
and Rim o Emarginula, Ina letter to one of the editors Mr. Mee
mentions £5 the shell is also figured in the recent bape by Prof,
Winchell, on Chicago Niagara Fossils, plate 3, figs. 7a,
Ill. BOTANY AND ZOOLOGY.
Boussingauli’s Researches on the action of Foliage—-A ful\ abstract
of the first part of these bee eeieed Tne to the Frene
Academy of Sciences, is given in the Comptes Rendus, vol. lx, No. 18
ing any 0 of it. Bousstn adit made his experi riments in a better. form,
upon leaves only, avoiding all complication of the action of the roots or :
eae parts of the plant. His results are: :
. That leaves exposed to suns ni - pure hey acid do not de- |
compas this gas at all, or only with extreme s |
in a mixture with a tahoaptieria air, they decompose carbonic
ie rapidly. The oxygen of the atmospheric air, however, appears to |
ay no par |
3. Leaves deco ompose carbonic acid in sunshine as readily when this
gas is mixed with nitrogen or with hydro.
_ Although this decomposition of carbonic ‘acid by green foliage must
a case of dissociation,—a separation of carbon from oxygen,—yet
j
:
:
Se i ha SS ace alee
Botany and Zoology. 127
in the one case, or of oxygen as in the other, so as to determine the ac-
tion either of combination or of dissociation.
n a continuation of these investigations (Comptes Rendus, vol. ]xi,
Sept. 25, 1865), Boussingault shows that carbonic oxyd, whether pure
or diluted, is not decomposable 2 foliage, and that this inertness
n carbonic oxy
expresses the relation under which “tom is —— with the elements of
water in cellulose, starch, sugar, &c., i.e. in the important principles
elaborated = the leaves the ronpteition of which i is represented by car-
bon and water. e goes on to prove that a leaf which has been decom-
_ posing carbone acid and water all day long is capable of doing the same
— the next day, if not allowed to dry, but the losing of a certain
than that of some of the lower animals (Zardigrades, Notipes, to)
which bear wonderful desiccation.
he third instalment of the investigation is given in Nos. 16 and 17
of the same volume (Oct. 16 and 23, 1865). It appears that detached
leaves, kept in shade for many days, with the cut end of the petiole in ~
water to prevent ee sa ve the power of decomposing carbonic
acid whenever brought into sunshine. But for this they must be kept
in an at mosphere ¢ containing a prea of oxygen ; sore this they soon
pane transformed into alent acid, through an -atxioree which is
presumed to go on continually, whether in light or darkness, and to an-
swer to respiration. Of course a healthy and active leaf decomposes far
pibton rich in carbonic acid, a square meter _ folia age
dec sermon on the average over a liter of carbonic acid - r, while
in darkness only roo of a liter of carbonic acid was prod per hour.
acid in the abersen cae oxygen. But ie latter, though liaiels smalh
in ateit seems to be necessary to the preservation of their vitality.
In hydrogen, cnbertad hydrogen, or —— as well as in pure car-
bonic acid, they soon lose their decompos ing power, and die from the
impossibility of respiration, i. €., are asphyxiated.
es confined in a limited portion of atmospheric or other air over
not under these circumstances at all Jose the power of transforming oay-
gen into carbonic acid; but that is what we boekd expect, for the ear-
bonie acid so evolved (whether its evolution be called as or not)
~ = e a product of decomposition of the leaf’s —— or substance.
owe to Boussingault and his assistant Lewy the min-
ing a composition of the air contained in a fertile soil, poe the fact that
128 Scientific Intelligence.
this air in a strongly manured see contains a very large — of
carbonic acid. Boussingault has now devised an experiment by which
the air contained in a branch wipe an Oleander in full vegetation was ex-
tracted. It proved to be sieeeae 88:01 per cent, oxygen 6°64, carboni¢
acid 5°35 per cent; being about the composition of the air from a well-
manured soil. This carbonic acid carried into the leaves with ‘en sap,
composed along with wa r under sunlight, must be th rece of the
glucose (C!12H!2012) which it is the rrineipel pain of ‘foliage to
produce. This glucose, in fixing or abandoning the elements of water,
mes sugar, starch, cellulose, or other hydrates of carbon, which, in
whatever part of the plant accumulated or deposited, and however trans-
formed or re-transformed, must always have originated from carbonic acid
and water in the green parts of plants. In closing his present paper with
some illustrations of this now familiar view, Boussingault announces that
his more recent experiments will enable him to demonstrate the direct
formation of saccharine matter by the green parts of vegetables “—
to the light.
2. Revision of the North American species of Juncus ; by Dr. Rueaie
MANN —_ 0. 7 = the ena — of the Transactions of the Academy
Rocky Mountains, made during the summer per 1864. 3. And finally,
this number of the Transactions is closed (on p. 458) with the 34th page
of the account of our Junci, with which Dr. Engelmann has been occu-
pied “since the end of last summer.” The sheets now before us com-
re confident his correspondents will gladly render,—to prepare and issue
erbarium Juncorum Bor.-Am. Normale, which will stand in oe
of expensive plates, and will, it is believed, be far preferable to them
ae o
rmanorum.—A friend, who knew the botanist Lessing
in Berlin, informs us that Chamisso dedicated this Californian plant, not
(as we have it in the last volume of this pS p- 263) to the botanist
Botany and Zoology. 129
and his distinguished er but to the brothers Lessing, the botan-
ist and the painter, and so that the specific name refers not to the Ger-
mans but to the brothers. On turning to the Linnza, however, we find
all three associated in the dedication ; and the specific name seems as if
ne to carry a double meanin
. Illustrations of the Esculent Fungi of the United States, —_We
ena: that our American Mycologist, Rev. Dr. M. A. Curtis, of
ee Te North Carolina, is preparing colored figures and descrip-
ions of the principal eatable species of Mushrooms and other Fungi,
natives this country, with plain directions for their preparation and
use. The work will be published, propably in parts, if sufficient en-
couragement is offered to induce a publisher to undertake it. A large
may be turned to good account whenever the knowledge which this work
is ep t to diffuse shall be made generally available. A. G.
Death of Wm. Henry Harvey, Professor of Botany in Trinity Col-
legs Dublin, and keeper of the University Herbarium. —His many friends
n this country will receive with great sorrow the tidings that this dis-
tinguished Algologist as well as general botanist, and ‘most admirable
man, died of pulmonary aienie. at a ach England, on the 15th of
May, in the 56th year of his age. e may hope to present peat
wee account of his life and scientific labors
. The International Horticultural Exhibition, with a Boeanioal as
a —he rises above the monplaces of the oceasion to the
consideration of important ‘opti questions, and to the fugly of
new modes or appliances for resolving some of them. Many of his re-
marks or illustrations are of such general interest that we are inclined to
reprint a pee? portion of the ress, if room can n be found for it.
sented to ae Botanical Congress, with abstracts of most of fi an
the details of a few. The following are ahone which attract our notice:
Mr, DeCandolle, the President, On a recent very exact measurement o,
the diameter of the trunk of one of the gigantic Sequoias of California.
The tree was the base of “the Old Maid,” the stump of which now serves
4,
ae tree of which we _asimilar measurement of a radius by a
tape, on which the centuries only are g the t
sbont 1295 years old, as long ago recorded, we believe, in this a
Am. Jour. Scl.—Seconp Sznies, Vou. XLII, No. 124.—Juny, 1866.
17
<n ogee
130 Scientific Intelligence,
Prof, rm of Kénigsberg, On the Change in the Direction of the
branches of wo ood y plants caused by low degrees of temperature. full
winter. Perhaps the winter position of oh a which we naturally
attribute to loading with snow is partly owing to the movement which
aioe Caspary describes. The only known observation before published
ade. b : Li
their weight; and as the day advanced and grew warmer they regained
their original position. Lately Von Wittich, he profeencr of Physiology
mm iversi 6
, &e.
detailed observations and experiments. The results are:
branches of all trees sNowed a displacement in a lateral direc-
i
e
tent of one or two inches; those of a Lime-tree, perme rh, Larch, a
White Pine to the right, the former as much as nearl y 34 inches, at the
poiat measured. (The length of the branches not dtr nor why 4
eee is not given in angular deviation.
. The e, Larch, White Pine, and some others exhibited a droop-
ing sitaserient as soon as frost began, and they drooped the lower as
grew more severe, the os ac ‘sein of the lowering in the
Lime reaching to fully three fee
3. The branches of other spsbie of trees begin to rise as soon as frost
sets in, and rise the higher the severer the frost. Examples are Ptero-
earya Caucasica and Negundo.
4. The branches of other species exhibit a rising motion during mild
frost, but a drooping one when the cold is intense. Such are the Horse-
ges Buckeye, and ail The latter two oo at 10° F.,
the Horse-chestnut re) So ey! .
Botany and Zoology. 131
duration of the frost. The cause of these changes of direction Prof.
Caspary is unable to explain. Of course the effect of snow, water, &.,
was eliminated. The phenomenon shows that different sides of the
branches are differently contracted longitudinally by low temperature;
but whether the shortening on n the s ide toward which the branch turned
connected with the vertical by supposing bee Shonen ning of the cells
along one line of the wood, this line winding more or less in consequence
of the oblique or spiral direction of the cells, as sipede gt in the well
known twist of many stems, especially of Conifers, That young wood
is differently contracted by cold in different places in the direction of the
circumference and radius, Prof. Caspary showed in a paper published in
the Botanische Zeitung nine years ago, and he asserts that this contrac:
tion exceeds that of all other solid bodies, even that of zinc and iron
but the poping: contraction has not been examined in fresh young
3
ae cold at Kon eee eal mai in with the east wind which | is
temperature and of change in the branches constantly coincide, those of
humidity and dryness are not coincident with the extremes of change in
the direction ot he branches.
Mr. of Hee On the Floral Envelopes of Lauraceae,
ese he re. Sat as representing han and corolla, and the Laurels as a
sort of Combretacee with free perianth !
Dr. Hildebrand of Bonn, On the necessity of Insect Agency in the fer-
tilization of Corydalis cava. Here, although the anthers and stigma
are in contact, and the latter sure to be covered with pollen from the
former, when protected from insects no capsules set. Moreover Biya is
formed n flo
se e
effectual activity of so large an insect as the humble-bee in fertilizing o our
Corydalis a bie
r. Howard of London, author of the Vew Quinologia, On the Species
of Cathe’ He thinks that every well- defined district of the Andes
i
e
which Dr. Weddell remarked that if it could be proved that
pees left out the first A by accident, it should be restored; but if he
deliberately wrote Cinchona for the sake of euphony, as is mos poe
132 Scientific Intelligence.
it would set a bad precedent to alter it. Moreover as the ch in Spanish
is not pronounced as in English, e. g., in church, no advantage would be
gained by the alteration.
Prof, Karl Kock of Berlin, Some Propositions with respect to System-
eneric names would be hindered by the retention of the original de-
scriber’s nagne suffixed to the species when transferred to another genus;
that a system more prompt and effectual than that of Walper’s Anneles
for collecting the scattered literature might be arranged, by a local botan-
ical committee in every country to collect its scattered materials in the
way of published names ‘nd descriptions, and a general editorship in
some European capital to digest and publish them ; “that a botanico-hor-
families, and work up the new plants introduced into cultivation, thus
dividing the field of labor as astronomers have already divided the fir-
mament.
Prof. Lecoq, of France, On the Migration of Mountain Plants. ‘The
object of the author is to show that the mountains of Auvergne have re-
ceived their alpine plants by oe agency of birds and of wind, and not
by a gradual migration <r a supposed“ glacial period, the existence
of which he denies altogethe
Prof. Schultz atialocisines On the presence — source of Nitrogen
in turf and peat, with reference to its use as a manure for plants. Hav-
ing so far misunderstood “ Ingenhauss, afiasite: Boussingault,” an
other sensible vegetable chemists as to suppose them to maintdin that
because “the mould of the soil is derived from the plants rete oP PE
itself” He should g° on and tell us where and how these animals ob-
tained their nitrogen
7. Illustrated Catalogue of the Museum of Comparative Zoslogy at
ollege. No, If. North American Acalephe. By ALEXAN-
which it emanates, and its author. The typography is excellent, and the
wood-cuts, three hundred and sixty in number, are finely executed and
Botany and Zoology. 133
printed, and although most of them are in outline they serve admirably
for this class of subjects. While many of the figures have appeared
before in Agassiz’s Contributions, vol. iii and iv, Sea-side-Studies i in Nat-
History, vol. ix, very many new ones appear in this work for the first
time, and illustrate many species either ose} new or exigency de-
scribed or figured before.
Tn_addition to the descriptions of the species there is also given a great
amount of information concerning their embryological development and
growth and anatomical characters, which renders the work far more val-
uable than a mere descriptive catalogue. The synonymy is also much
more complete than usual in similar works. The author has, in fact,
brought euibines in a condensed form nearly all the information hitherto
peri concerning the = of North America, and has added very
much that is new and ori
To 1h general remarks ioesiiaais hae age the various conflicting
Views of authors are discussed and new facts in their embryology are
brought forward to prove them to piles actually the highest order
of Acalephs, and especially to show that their bilaterality is more appa-
rent than real. The evidence adduced seems fully sufficient to establish
their true position, but we cannot see that their bilaterality is destroyed
thereby, or that this conflicts with their Acalephian character, since bi-
sa is also a fundamental feature of both Polyps and Echinoderms,
r. Ag shows that the ae a is no more bilateral than
any anesetad gs jelly-fish, but becomes more so by its changes during de-
velopment. The author, i in fact, anita their bilateral structure when he
fays: “ Examines in the light of prophetic beings, the bilaterality of the
Acalephs is but another of those wonderful links which unite in one great
whole the different members of the animal kingdom” (p. 11). But on
a previous page he says: “ Bilaterality seems at first sight to be the plan
upon which these animals are built; but an elimination of the deceptive
co-efficients will show the plan of radiation —- this apparent -
It
has hitherto appeared in this country relating to Acalephs. We regret
only that the genera already known, but often imperfectly characterized
in previous works, have not been described in this. The reason for the
omission is not apparent, since in the preceding rege on Ophiurians
by Mr. Lyman, the genera, both old and new, are well agree
8. Fossil Meduse.—Professor Hacxen of Jena, who in 1865 maalked
attention to the existence of well preserved Meduse in the pi Ras
slates of Eichstadt, belonging probably to the families of Alquoride
134 Scientific Intelligence.
Trachynemidz, has published, in a recent number of Leonhard & Geinitz
alrbuch, a second notice of two other species of Medusz so well pre-
served that the family to which they belong can be ascertained beyond
doubt. They are from the same locality, and belong to the Iaoophonty
to the family of Rhizostemide. The restoration which Professor Heckel
has been able to make from the specimens in his possession is quite satis-
factory, pe the attention of geologists hevleg been called to this subject
lephze, since it is now well known that even at the present time a kind of
petritaetion of jelly-fishes when thrown upon sandy beaches pesdlily takes
lace. a dhs
9. Polym
dissertation, oa Nihod at Upsala in 1863, has shown ee the ex-
istence of polymorphism amoung Bryozo i
upon the marine species of the Scandinavian coast. He shows that there
are no less than six different forms of cells, which are probably never all
found on the same stock. According to his view the Avicularia are only
moins cells. Stoliczka was the first to call attention we es polymorph-
m of Bryozoa in his studies of fossil Bryozoa. The r by Smith is
peer behets not illustrated, and is written in a shee pusilable to
but few any ts.
10. Anatomy and Physiology of the Vorticellidan Parasite ne i at
ichodi Prof. H. J. Crarg. (16
.S
Pa
Be
<
ras)
77)
oe
a
ie io}
- Ss
°
=]
Tm
i)
=
@
oO
»
mn
rol
[=v
Feb., 1866.)—Prof. Clark, through his microscopic investigations, makes
this parasite of the Hydra reveal much that is important with regard to
the general structure of - b cipenert while correcting many details
hitherto published respecting the species. One of the points ascertained
is, that the so-called vostibelss ia te the Vorticellide, described by
some microscopists, is an optical delusio
11. Baird’s American Bir = A IR 21, 22, 23, pages 320-368, of
Professor Baird’s work on American Birds have been issued. They treat
of the Vireonidz, including the ene Vireosylvia and part of Vireo. The
pages exhibit the same complete command of the department of Ameri-
ae penthology so well manifested in those that have preceded them.
Pips s On & Embryology of Star fishes—Tornaria ; by ALEXAN-
8 pp. 8vo, with a large plate. (From the a of the
tes Nat Hist, N. Y., vol. viii, Apr. 1866.)—This paper illustrates some
points of special spicrest connected with the relations of starfishes to
other Echinoderm
IV. ASTRONOMY.
@), whose ae 3 was emp in determining. This planet has re-
neg Soheiaig letiene have been furnished
by Dr. Tlatien..
Miscellaneous Intelligence. 135
1866, Jan. 8:0, Berlin mean time.
M = 8° 23/146
23
m-Q = 300 43 14
se OT GB a8 8 Men equinox 1866°0
ss 4 47 44
9 = 11 49 365
fe 652°9848
= 0°490069
2. Asteroid @) ot the morning of June 15, 1866, a new asteroid
was discovered by Dr. C. H. F. Peters, at Hantics College epbes as
a little brighter than stars of the twelfth magnitude. Ou the morn
of June 21st its e a was 20° 24, and Dec. 17° 30’ S. with a slow mo-
tion toward the w
3. The new wetiatl star.—The Monthly Notices of the Royal Astro-
nomical Society for ee 1866, contain observations of the new variable
star mentioned on preceding pages of this Journal, The following re-
sults show the brightness of this star from the 15th to the 20th.
1866, May 15, at 125 O™G.M.T. 7 Corone = 3°6 or 3°7
] : es 4:2
. “c 30 6é
7%, “ 0 “ “ 4:9
18, “12 30 “ “ 5:3
19, “12 15 “ “ 5-7
20, “ 12 30 “ “ 6-2
V. MISCELLANEOUS SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE.
1. Destruction of Scientific Museums by Fire-——During the past two
months two of the more valuable scientific collections of the country
igned
m. Stimpson, Secretary. “ As vats as can now ascertained the
present condition of the collections and property of the rn ademy is
as follows: About half the Mammals and Birds, and nearly all the
skulls, etc., will be saved; the extensive collection of bird’s eggs and
hests was ‘entirely destro’ red; fishes and reptiles are saved; insects alk
destroyed with the exception of the Le he dried Crustacea
and Echinodermata destroyed; shells and fossils in great part saved.
about 2,000 jars, The herbari i ion of
the series of the plans of the North Pacific Expedition, is pe 6
Library is ts Seen but most of the books will be
lesson taught by these disasters should ge heeded throughout hi
The yt
land: make all buildings for scientific Museums thoroughly Sire-proof.
136 Miscellaneous Intelligence.
2. Walker Prizes—The founding of prizes by the late Dr. Wm. J.
Walker, for memoirs presented to the Boston Society : Natural History,
was mentioned in volume xl of this Journal, at page
The sae are the lakjiels for prizes, as na a announced :
Subject for 1866-7. “The fertilization of plants by the agency of
io. in sete both to cases where this agency is absolutely neces-
sary, and where it is only wrens ” the investigations to be in prefer-
en panieeted to indigenous plan
Sulject of the annual prize for 1867-8. “Adduce and discuss the
evidences of the co-existence of man and extinct animals, with the view
of atone the limits of his antiquity.
rs offered in competition for the above prizes must be forwarded
on or bihors April first, prepaid and addressed “ Boston seers uke of N atural
History, for the Committee on the Walker Prizes, Boston, Mass
Boston, June 1866.
8. Rumford Medal.—The Rumford Medal of the American Academy
of Arts and Sciences was, on the 12th of June last, awarded to Mr.
Atvan Crarx of Cambridge, for his improvements in the making of
lenses es the telesco
. Henry A. Ward's Collections rf Casts of Fossils, at Roches-
pee 7 Prof. Ward, in the course of his travels for the formation of
ne large Cabinet at Rochester, has had occasion to make casts of numer-
ous fossils, large and small, from the skeletons of Elephants, Mastodons,
and the Gaud deloupe Man to shells of Rhizopods; and he is consequently
enabled to furnish copies of oe to other cabinets. He is now issuing
an illustrated enicene of 150 pages or more, which gives some idea of
By means of them, series r representing the principal types of different
families (as that of Trilobites, or of Ammonites, etc.) may be made
effectiveness to a cabinet as a means of instruction. A gift of a collec-
tion of Mr. Ward’s casts from any patron of learning to an academy or
college would render great service to the instructor, the pupils, and the
institution.
OBITUARY.
Henry Darwin Rocers, one of the most widely known and distin-
guished of American Geo eologists, died on the 29th of May last, a
Glasgow, in Scotland, where since 1857 he has held the sas! of baci
Professor of Geology and Natural History. Prof. Rogers was born
Miscellaneous Intelligence. 137
; ei in 1809, being the third of four brothers all of whom have
: : : : At th
as an active BE Pi in ae lle See ctiaelly with the reanee
4 of the State of New Jersey, the Report and map of which he published
; in 1835. _ About a year later he was charged with the responsible duty
faithful foie aided y a large corps of able assistants. is brother,
of. William B. Rogers, was at: the same time charged with the prelim-
inary explorations of the State of Virginia, and the great pee of
the structure of the Appalachian chain were thus at the same moment
brought under the observation of two of the ablest investigators of
structural geology who have ever devoted their talents in that direction.
in Boston in the summer of 1842. This remarkable memoir, probably
the most important of its class ever produc a in America, is published
in the volume of memoirs of the Association for that t year. hese
researches have their full and more perfect exhibition in the volumes of
ogy, taking ak with the labors: of ae best privents of the time.
For some ye
Bees resided at Boston, devoting biceekt to his favorite studies, and t
the public exposition of the depar ae of science which he valtivated:
is great knowledge on many s ts he was able to impart ina
atyle equally a and graceful, sitbe in pabiie speaking or as a
writer. Few pe of science have excelled him in power of illustra-
tion of difficult subjects, or in Rei the attention of large audi-
rsity.
"Prof psa had for some years Se in delicate health, but er
Am. Jour. Sc1.—Srconp Series, VoL. XLII, No. 124.—Juxr, 1866,
18
138 Miscellaneous Bibliography.
decease was unexpected. He passed most of the last winter in Boston
ing to Scotland only a
short time before his death. His amiable manners and remarkable
powers as a conversationalist had won for him the same social ‘distinetidl
in Great Britain which he long enjoyed in America, and a numerous
body of personal friends deplore. his loss on both sides of the Atlantic.
VI. MISCELLANEOUS BIBLIOGRAPHY.
1. Transactions of the Connecticut Academy of Arts and Sciences ;
Vol. I, Part I, 248 pp. 8vo, with 3 plates. New Haven,»Conn., 1866.
($2.50).—The Connecticut Academy of Arts and Sciences was organized
and chartered by the State in the year 1799. In 1810 it issued the first
part of Vol. I, of the “Memoirs” of the Academy, containing, amon
of winter, by Noan Wessrer; on the Mineralogy of New Haven, by B.
ma on the quantity of rain which falls on different days of the
moon, by Jeremran Day; on an Aurora at Durham, by Rev. Exizur
Goppinn.: on the Weston Meteorite, by Profs. Sitniman and Kine@sLey ;
iV th 4 imap’
paper on the fusion of Pescontd bodies by the compound yee of
Dr. ope ; and Prof. ay’s on the comet of 1811
e 1816, papers read halos the Academy have, to a considerable
iviciis, aad ‘their way to the public through the American Journal of
Science, the first number of oo as issued in August, 1818. The
Academy has now commenced a second series of publications under the
title of Transactions. The rer ae just issued contains four papers: 1,
The register of the Aurora Borealis made at New Haven by E. C. Her-
cx, between March 1837 ~~ My 1854, occupying 130 pages, with
extracts from a register by cis Braptey; 2, Notices of Auroras, ex-
President of Yale College, made between Nov. 1763 and Nov. 1794,
together with other miscellaneous notices of later date collected by Prof.
E. Loomis; 3, on Bekker’s Digammated text of Homer, by Prof. James
The Academy aoe Maktage of pe ag —~ other academies,
and announces on cover of the voees t p —r may be
—— to the Libieras of _ Academy at New gn
The American Annual Cyclopedia — Raper ‘of important
events of the year 1865. vol. v, large 8vo. New York, D. Appleton &
Co. 1866. pp. 850.—It is highly creditable Bee to the Editors and
the great publishing house of 65 ctoula that the stcsoigeecta and ene
|
|
|
4
p:!
Miscellaneous Bibliography. 139
ments, biography, statistics, mre finance, literature, science, agri-
culture, and mechanical indus
The chief articles on acientifie subjects are treated with a good degree
of fullness of detail, and for the most part pret epg ate Sarai
astronomy, cveratore and instruments, auroras, wikiots and meteor-
ites, including Prof. Newton’s researches, and the height of the atmos-
phere, chemistry, kinins | arts and the new nomenclature and notation
iscoveri i
rh.
The subjects of paramount importance in public affairs for the year
1865, such as army operations, naval affairs, and the proceedings of
Congress, justly receive in this volume a larger portion of space than
any others ees probably than they may ever do again,
s Encyclopedia: a Dictionary of Universal Knowledge
Sor the pores on the ‘base of the latest edition of the German Conver-
sations- Lexicon. Illustrated 2 he ee and maps. bibs sesh
d
its in aes notices, an account of the recently discovered fossil
bird at Solenhofen, with a weodetit: The scientific ewes with their
seus: are an important part of this at
plate leh on of the ae ere on a — of oneal others
ri
cussed which are of copa to the iactice! astronomer. p-
hangers ee in addition to other matters, observations of the planet
ars made at the barca in 1862; of the planet Neptune, made in
5. Olmsted's Aironomy «4 an Introduction to Astronomy, én sit as
a Text-book for the use of Students in College ; by Denison fom D,
LL.D., ae Prof, Nat. Phil. and Astron. in Yale College. Third cation
re — by E. §. Dae LL.D., Prof. a Phil. in sale College.
ood w York,
8vo, with five p
lates: and num
} popu
140 Miscellaneous Bibliography.
tions in the arrangement, and the een largely of new engravings,
some as substitutes for old cuts, and others in illustration of points not
before discussed. volume closes with some useful tables. The work
is clear, simple, and sufficiently full for ordinary class instruction.
Transactions of the "bee gga Institute of the City of New York for 1864, ’65.
732 pp. 8vo. Bea ss't
The Com eee i hiscine o — tener mode of its continuance in
depth, by P. B pe a Dr. Phil. 84 pp. 8vo. San Francisco, 1866.
ey “7 the Chicago Artesian well: by oa. A, Swurepr, Jr. 50 pp. 8vo.
Chi “op he
Proc tT. Scr, Partap., No. 1. gies meengets 1866.—Pag
~< stindy of the Teteride vs: Cassin. —p. 25, Gritheat "Review of the Procellariade,
Part i iii, ve age Falm aree ; soe Se owes. Pe 5 Twe ly ve fini species of Union-
Sater ; J. Cassin—p. 39 - _ of the Birds of
Procerpines Bost oe ist., Vol. age 180, ee the genus Belemno-
crinus ; C.. rg White—-p toe “Habit of the Halibut; NV. E. Atwood. —p. 187, On
some Odonata from the Isle of Pines; 8. H. Seu dder—p, a “On ‘the a gra
la plumipes and its silk aa an ccifoniioat product; B. G. Wi
Odonata. pata from the White Mts., N. H.; S. H. Secu cudder—p. “oom On pre irichodina
pediculus Zhr.; H J. Cla ark—p, 224, Notes ona a in California and
C. T. Jacksoh.—p. 229, Notes on Hawaian volcano; H. Mann.—p. 231, On nly ves:
ar,
ake.—p, evation of Continental masse . Shall 241, On
the Pleistocene Glacial Climate of eae pe D. Rogers.—p. 248, List of Birds
from Porto Rico; H. Bryant. — 257, servative solution for gai
A, E. Verrili.—p. 259. "Relea n Geog. Distribution of N. A. birds; A. £. Verrill.
8 262, Notes on California; C. 7? ee am 264, List - Seah of Okak,
Labrador, observed by Rev. S. Weiz Packard Jr.—p. 2 n the develop:
as Poe —— of the Py anieopeaae ee notes on the Sieben of Insec
A
pines Catcaco Acap. ape ibe . oe e 9, Note on the affinities of the
Belerphontie F. B. Meek.—p.1 oe ‘of deg ie fossils from the Si-
oe n and Carboniferous Me in nd other Western 5 tes; Meek &
an "33, On a new of the genus arora fT. Gill.— . 46, De-
“i Am
Th rs
Tuompson and Benjamin da Co LY. “8 View Pr Seiden "Was. Stimpson, M.D., Secre-
y, G. H. Frosr, tage
caine sartagiayticed ex Institute, tbs a 0.8. Ocr., Nov., Deo, 1865.
Issued June 1, 1866. af nen Mass.—Page 19 sh Peieice on Polyzoa, a, suborder
Phylactole 3 yatt, A very Bs at paper, illustrated by 14 plates of
unexcelled beauty.
Transactions oF THE Acap. Scr. or St, Louis. 1, II, No. 2, 1866.—Page
222, also 226, 246, 249, 264, 266, 297, 298, 419, On aiciais of St. Louis, ete. ; En-
gelmann- OP 223, Ancient graves in Pike Co., Mo.; Bro cena 24, Gestation
of Opossum ; Engelmann.—p. 226, On P. ‘E. Chase’s pee ga soa ism; Holmes.
p. 250, Rock sat deposit in Louisiana; Owen.— 4 re Pigg oe —
. 268, Oil springs in Missouri; Shumard.—p. 2 Sg ners of th e Rocky
ts. ; ‘Parry—p. 282, On degre’ se eh ts nigel mann.—p. 285, Altitude of
; izenus.
Shuz , New a
—p- 417, Observations on Ozone; Bandelier, —-p. 418, Fossil pide
low.—-p, 424, Revision of the N, "A. species of Juncus; Engelma
:
.
Am, Journ. or Sct. anp Anta. You. XLIL~—<Arr. III.
Al SHISTS
Wh SAYIS
SI1YIS
1
AMERICAN
JOURNAL OF SCIENCE AND ARTS.
i
[SECOND SERIES.}
Arr. XX1.—Resulis of Magnetical Observations made at Eastport,
Maine, between bee and 1864, for the United States Coast Sur-
vey ; communicate A. D. BacuE, Supdt., under author-
ity from the Treasury Department.
THESE observations were made in connexion with the general
i system of magnetical determinations on the coast, and with the
Seis object of ascertaining the law of ane secular change in
he easternmost coast region ‘of the Unite
*
142 <A. D. Bache on Magnetical Observations in Maine.
long, ,%; inch external and 4 internal diameter; value of a
scale division 15”, The dip-circle has a diameter of 54 inches,
and reads to 30” by sian: of two verniers; io eee are 94
inches long, and the ntings are made w microscopes
attached to the vuonicas on small holes liam through the
needles. Those use during the first half of the series have
axles and pivots of the ordinary construction, but from October
1862 two needles were used having their axles so fitted in
arbors, as to admit of being turned about their centers, by
rich means they may be brought to rest on different parts of
the pivots. The observations were made on each day in three
different positions of the pivots, and the errors arising from
faults in their figure appear to be very nearly eliminated.
The position of the magnetic observatory is on the parade
ground of Fort Sullivan near Eastport, in lat. 44° 54’-4, long.
66° 58'°9, west of Greenwich.
he observations were made successively by Messrs. G. B.
Vose, S. Walker, E. Goodfellow, A. T. Mosman and H. W.
Richardson, all attached to the Coast Surve
The discussion herewith presented of the ec Sigs et has
been made by Assistant C. A. Schott. The results are stated
under the several heads of declination, ai: ad horizontal
intensity
1. Padnaten: —The zero of the emg magnet, or the
position of the magnetic axis on its scale, was determined by
inversions each month, and its readings on rite circle referred to
a distant mark of known azimuth. On four days about the
middle of ich month the declination readings were recorded
every half hour, between the morning minimum and the after-
noon maximum, generally between the hours of 6 A. M. and 2
P.M. Hach monthly declination result is therefore the mean
from observations made on four days.
To obtain es mean declination of the day or that value
which would result from 24 hourly observations, a small cor-
greatest declination of the day gives the west declination too
large, as does also the — of the half hourly readings between
those extremes, the amount of excess being the same. We
have << the following corrections to our means expressed
tn parts of the diurnal range:
fe ee ee
“ February. ~ “ August, es
March, : — sy % September, —_ sls
. April — Pi * « Octo : ine
0
A. D. Bache on Magnetical Observations in Maine. 143
Diurnai range of the declination,—The difference between the
maximum and minimum value of the declination set down in
the table for each month, is the mean of four days of observa-
tions.
Means erved, Cor. for Mfrs gs
iseo. | 1861. | 1962 | 1863. | 1964. { of ee ainual {21 yonre.
5 years. inequality, ‘inequality lanaaleed,
Jan, | 152] 86 | 121] 106] 11-4] 116 | -#1 | -64 | 85
Feb. 12°6 11-7 110 8-0 9:0 105 -3°2 -9°3 —3°5
March,} 16°4 18-1 13-1 11°8 13°0 14°5 +0°8 -0-2 +06
April, rhe 136 18-4 166 116 15°2 +15 -O'1 +14
May, 18 8-8 14:2 156 15°9 14 +0°9 00 +0°9
June, 18: t 12'S 17-7 15:5 13°2 154 +17 0:0 +17
July, 13:0 163 17°8 14:6 13°6 15:1 +14 00 +14
Aug., 21-5 18:7 19°8 14:5 in 18°3 +4'6 00 +4°6
Sept., 19-5 188 174 | 155 eee 17°5 +3'8 +01 +3°9
Oct., 18-7 10-4 141 14-2 ‘eae 14:0 +03 +2 +0°5
Nov, 13°97 9-2 8-9 8-9 9°9 -3'8 +0 -3°5
Dee., 7-8 9-0 8-0 6-4 fase | 75 -6°2 +04 -58
Annual ; : : i |
Means, 15-9 13-0 14:4; 12-7 pg | 137
The average difference between the 7 values of 1864 and the
mean of the 4 years preceding is —1’6. Applying this to the 4
sage means for the remaining five months, the interpolated means
1864 become, for Aug. 17-0, for Sept. 16'°2, for Oct. 12”8,
for Nov. 8'-6, and for Dec. 62. The column headed * means of
5 years” is ssutphaaatl with the aifl of these values. The inter-
ha mean for 1864 is 12°4. The pear annual change
0"-9,
The 11 year inequality in the range of the <a bi ogi
appears quite plainly in py annual means. The y
€ of maximum and 1866 of minimum, sbsohdiniy a the on
servations of the solar spots; in 1865 the average range will,
therefo ore, be a little above 12’, and in 1866 a little below this
value. giving a range of variability due to the 11 years inequal-
ity of nearly 4’. The corresponding ee ans a tae
the petal yet eriod, a correction iia therefore been apie
to obtain the annual inequality in the diurnal range free from
the cahes year period as shown in last column of above table. _
The annual inequality of the diurnal range at Eastport and
Philadelphia compare as shown by the annexed diagram, the
full line being for Eastport, the broken line for Philadelphia.
he Toronto curve also agrees well with these curves.
144 A. D. Biche on Magnetical Observations in Maine.
AwnvaL JNEQuaLity In THE Diurnat Raver,
+
”,
i
CaohrONnNe O- Bw B
Bae, aS Lae |
1
The diurnal range eee a maximum in August and a mini-
mum in December. There is reason to suppose that the curve
is a compound one, consisting of two waves, changing its
character ae to changes in epochs and amount of these
component sy
pochs: of poec diurnal deflection—The average epochs of
the morning east elongation and the afternoon west elongation
are given in the following table:
East j East West
fie partie ionseciall Elongation. Elongation.
R. M. H. M. iH. M. H. M
Jan., 8 30 x20 July, 7 20 00
Feb,, 8 40 1 6&0 Aug., 1 50 0 20
Mar., 8 20 1 10 Sept., 7 30 0 50
Ree 88 BO PS 101 Oct 7-30 Sek we
May, 77 70 0 20 Nov., 8 00 1 00
June, 6 50 0 40 Dee., 9 00 1 00
For the summer half year from April to Se sane gains
the morning east elongation occurs at 74 20™, a r the winter
half year from October _to March metaded, "ihe east elongation
west elongation occurs at 05 40m, snd for the winter half year at
1 20". At Philadelphia these epochs were 1 8m and 15 25™
respectively. On the average Pe the year, the turning epochs
are 74 50™ A. M., and 14 0m p
Mean monthly values of the dination, observed at Eastport
between August 1860 and July 1864.
These ins were obtained as ate Let D, = ici of
daily minimum and maximum declination, D,,= mean of all
half hourly dee ination between these osseous and palo
them, then D= DtD, +C, where C = correction to refer the
i
"
|
|
4
se |
|
4
|
A. D. Bache on Magnetical Observations in Maine. 145
- declination to its av erage value of the day. The minutes given
in the table are to be added to 17°.
is | tee2” | teed” | eat | Means
’ ‘ 4 i
ug., 581 595 60'1 642 605
Sept., 569 611 611 63 6 60-7
Oct., 57-2 60-1 60°8 63-7 605
Nov., 598 61-7 63:5 643 62:3
Dec., 585 59°2 623 627 60°6
an., 565 61-0 621 62:8 606
April, 58-7 612 62-0 63-0 61:2
f 80 60°71 611 616 60°2
June, 61-0 59:3 60-7 61-2 605
July, 58°] 59-2 607 62:0 60:0
Meuns, 58 2 601 61-4 62'9 60 65
The average value for the period is 18° 00’-65.
Annual effect of the secular change-—We deduce the annual
effect of the secular change directly from the preceding table.
Sonal increase of eter gerne between 1861 and 1862, 1"9
18 es
“ i “ 1868 “ 1864, © 1°5
Average annual increase of west declination,
which, considering the locality, appears a remarkably srhall
value. Acc ording to our previous information we might have
cted an annual increase of about 4. Either the above
obtain a ponfignaG ion of its s scald Sorta increase; from four
days of observation 18° 04"7 was found, and since ’ the annual
mean is found by adding 14 (vide previous years) the declina-
tion for 1865 becomes 18° 06’-1, and the annual increase appar-
ently eqnrals 2’4
e annual mean declination corrected for a number
of observations in,1860 and 1864, is as follow
In 1860, 17° 57°11 W. In 1863, ‘a 02"3 W.
“1861” “it os - 1504, 18° )3'-7 =
a Pe 18° 006 “ . ape 18° 0671 «
beaten: Saal afalidation of this ties in refobelie to
hich ey go oast Survey Report for 1860, pp. 811-12, may bs
146 A. D. Bache on Magnetical Observations in Maine.
The values for Eastport have been derived as follows:
Correct’ns
| Corrected Annual
dig phe fer Sactiaatn: inequality.
Auy., 5 | 407 61°2 +0°55
Sept., 60°7 +0°6 61°3 +065
Oct., 5 | 405 61-0 40°35
Nov., 623 | +0°3 62°6 1:95
Dee., 606 | 40-2 60°8 40°15
Jan., 60°6 +0°1 60-7 +0-05
Feb 04 | -O'1 60-3 -0°35
March, 60°4 -0'2 60°2 -045
April 12 | -0-3 60-9 +025
ay, 60-2 | -05 59-7 -0°95
June, 60°5 -0°6 59°9 -0°75
July 60-0 -0°7 59°3 1°35
The following comparative table contains the annual inequal-
ity sa Sopa Philadelphia and Toronto, the latter ele three
different epochs, the last two of which are derived fi r.
scion paper on “Monthly absolute values ‘of the po
elements at Toronto, from 1856 to 1864 inclusive :”
Annual iP, lags of the Magnetic Declination. + indicates west
deflection, — east deflection from Normal declination.
pose t, ‘ on yee (Tene oe Vovoate.
1s60-67 | 18tu-45. | 1sks-s!. | 186-59. | 1860-64 | 16 years
Jan., +05 +05 #04 Bo +0°10 +0 03
Feb -0°35 +04 -05 +0 2 -0°35 -—0°28
March, -0°45 -01 -02 +05 -014 )
l, 0°25 -O1 0-0 +U 1 -031 -007
ay, -095 $02 0-1 -04 -0 67 -0°35
June, —0°75 -06 -0'5 -0°7 +0°03 =38
July, -1°35 -1:0 -08 -0°5 +0 30 -0°38
Aug., 055 —0°9 —(2 —09:1 +0-19 0°06
Sept 0 +007 +07 013 +052
Oct +035 -0'2 10 00 +0°40 +056
Nov., +0°9 +03 +01 41 +029
Dec +015 +07 +03 +01 -007 Hild
The general agreement of the Eastport, Philadelphia, and
the approximate Tesemblance of the Toronto (i6 year) curves
is shown on the aearas mga the annual range kee
period, a
observations. The effect of the annual inequality is to diminish
the west declination in 5 uly and to increase it in on
these being the months when it reaches its greatest amount.
2. Dip.—The series of observations and results extend fr oes
saseary 1860, to July 1864, during which period the
ments and observers were changed several times. Ape
discussion of the observations of 1860-61-62 showed an Lt
,
i
4
if
A. D. Bache on Magnetical Observations in Maine. 147
diminution of the dip of 2'-2 in the first year, and of 3’0°in the
second year. These evidences of a decreasing secular change
, es eas ee ee oe ee Se ew ee i
+18 a
Eig oe aj
L2t. 4
OSL. and
0.6 neem
0.3L 4]
0.0L aeons
O38 L 4
0.6 LL ~
0.9 —
ba ich
“15 |
BOG Ae SiS Fee el Bea Saas Set Biais Sod Seek Vee
Z28ee 2238 Eb se 8 2
3. = “ 5 3 3 woza s
appeared at that time anomalous, but it will be seen that they
are borne out by subsequent observations, and likewise in other
places. The observations of the dip at Washington in 1860
first tndicated a change of sign in the secular effect, which fact
is now fully established by later observations,
The values given in the following table for each month are
the means of observations made on three, and sometimes on
four days with two needles; the polarity of the needles was
reversed during each set:
Monthly means of magnetic dip.
1860. 1861. 1862. 1863. 1964.
t ’ Qo ’ 9 ’
Jan., 15 51-6 15 529 18 502 75 47-0 75 46-1
Feb., 52-7 53-4 495 456 46-7
March, 54° 52-7 490 474 467
April, 54-4 521 49°3 490 446
ay, 53°5 49°5 48-1 479 46-0
June, 518 49-8 48-0 48°6 45°6
July, 52-9 499 48-4 49°1 44:9
54 504 482 50-6
Sept., 512 48°3 498
Oct., 533 50-9 492 49°5
Nov,, 51-9 49°9 47-4 48-3
Dee., 523 - 493 469 468
Means, | 75 53'1 15510 | 76485 15483
In July 1865 the dip was found from observations on four
days, 75° 44-7, which, when reduced to the mean of the year,
Zives 75° 448 for 1865. gee
148 <A. D. Bache on Magnetical Observations in Maine.
Annual effect of the secular change.
1861—1860, —2'1
1862—186l, —2°5
1863—1 862, —O0?2
1864—1863, —2-0
Mean. a a
On the average, therefore, the annual diminution is very
nearly 1’.
Annual inequality of the dip.—If we take the monthly means
1860
n. g
between 1860 and 1864 is —0’-90, about half that of Eastport.
A + sign indicates greater dip, a — sign less dip than the
normal value.
yrerth: gate Corrected dip. — gga si :
change. Eastport.’ | Toronto.
’ ° i ‘ a /
Jan., 7650-4 | ~O'717 | 75496 -v6 | -03
Feb,, 0°63 49° -0°5 -0°3
March 50°9 -0°49 50-4 +02 +071
April, 51:2 -0°35 50°8 +06 +0°3
May, 49°8 -0-21 49°6 -06 +0rL
June, 49°6 -0-07 49-5 0-7 -0°5
July 50°1 +0-07 0-0 ~05
Aug,, 51-0 +0°21 51-2 +10 +0°1
Sept., 5U7 +0°35 51-0 +0°8 +06
Oct., 50°7 +049 51:2 +10 +05
Nov., 494 +0°63 50-0 -0°2 -O1
Dec., 38 +0-77 49-6 -0°6 -01
Mean, 76 60:2
by the annexed diagram. The range of the inequality at
oronto is less than at Eastport, where it hardly reaches sae!
5 Se ee ee ae a ds ee
A, D. Bache on Magnetical Observations in Maine. 149
observations, the values of the magnetic moment of the magnet
are subjoined as resulting from the monthly determinations dur-
j at i 4 i - 13 L 2 1 t PS ee eee
#ro [i a
6.BL Bs
Dp. a
‘
0.4; e
o.2/F : i
var —— 7
4
oO2F ~\ —
’
64h =
1 \
0.6 io
: ;
0.8 |.
‘ ’
1 sae. a IS Me doer} [eet l 1—
ce oe ul i o
= ie] & se @ = 4 2 Bi 5 6 uw z
3 LL 5 ae | = = Oe amd a)
| ing the last two years when its magnetic condition had become
: nearly constant.
Magnetic moment of magnet A at 62° Fahr.
1962. July, 0°4017 1863, 0°4004
ug., “4015 "3999
Sept., 4013 ‘4003
ct, -4016 -4008
Nov., 4012 -4003
| Dec., *4009 -4000
: 1863. Jan. *4007 1864, "4002
3 e 4006 4001
Mar., “4007 -4003
Apr, 4008 “4003
May, 4008 ‘4007
June, 4006 4001
Table of observed values of the horizontal force.
Mean
1860. 1861 1962. 1863. 1964, | 1860-64,
5 years,
an., 3298 | 3306 | 3297 | 3304 | 3308 | 3303
Feb,, | 3-299 3311 | 3300 | 3-304 | 3308 | 3-304
3300 | 3308 | 3302 | 3307 | 3311
April, $311 8°307 3-302 3314 3313
ay, 3-309 | 3315 | 3307 | 3318 | 3315
June, 3316 | 3309 | 3814 | 3-320
July 3315 316 | 3305 | 3313 | 3320
ug, | $306 | 3306 | 3306 | 3-311 :
Sept., 3307 308 3:304 3-308 ones
3°307 ‘997 | 3303 | 3-306 :
| Nov., | 3-308 297 | 8-304 wank
Dek, 3309 297 | 3302 | 3-308 ae
Mean, | 3307 | 3307 | 3308 | 38310
Am. Jour, Scr.—
—Sxrconp Ssriss, Vou. XLI, No. 125,—Szrr., 18
20
150 A. D. Bache on Magnetical Observations in Maine.
In computing the last column the wanting values for 1864
been supplied by interpolation. In July 1865, from ob-
da
referring this to the annual mean we subtract 0:006 and obtain
for 1865 the value 3-313.
"senal change of the horizontal force—Examining the annual
ns we notice at first a diminution of the force till the begin-
fic of the year 1862; the force after this date shows an
annual increase of 0-0012 parts of the force. In a previous dis-
rae (Coast Survey Report 1861, Appendix No. 22) the hor-
zontal force along the Atlantic coast was found to diminish
annually 00011 parts of the force. This ee according
e on ti observations, has now ceased, and changed to
vations, where it took aie cae to G. T. Kingston,
Director of the Omeeratiry in 1860, which is the year of min-
imum force. At Toronto the present annual increase amounts
to 0 0010 parts of the force
We have further from the Eastport observations the following
table of the total force, F=H sec I.
5 F,
1860, 75° 53/1 3°307 13°56
1861, 75° 51-0 3°307 13°53
1862, 75° 48/5 3°303 13-47
1863, 75° 48'3 3°310 13°50
1864, 75° 46-3 3313 13-48
5, =
Florida, it appears that both the horizontal and total forces
were diminiahe
main “year is midway between the extreme years ; "the series
there extends over nine years, between 1856 and 1864.
J. 8. Newberry on the Coal Formation of China. 151
Annual inequality of the horizontal force, at Eastport 1860-1864
(43 years) ; at Toronto 1856-1864 (9 years).
Ann Annual
H at . * H at
Eastport. ines ?! Toronto. inequal a
Jan., 3°308 ~"005 3°4850 — 0034
’ ~004 4847 0037
arch, 306 —"002 4873 —0011
April, 309 +001 "4863 —'0021
ay, 313 +005 4918 +0084
June, 314 +006 4921 +0037
July, 314 +006 4931 +'0047
Aug, 308 00) 4930 + 0046
Sept., 308 00 4889 +0005
Oct., 304 ~— 004 4868 —001
Nov., 305 ~ 003 4856 —0029
Dec. 305 ~ 003 4858 0026
Means, | 3-308 84884
TE eee By ae *
+007 4
6 7
Ss o-]
4 : <
3 ‘ oe
a 33 +
1 7
0
J
2
3
A
=)
=: Q06/..
| EA rE Oe, PANG FOE Bees ean Cae ee
2a 1a Se Soe ae
sf 22222 25923 85
The agreement in the annual inequality at the two places is
as close as can _— y be expected. For stricter comparison it
would be necessary to convert the tabular numbers of the ea
inequality inte parts of the respective forces. o.
Arr. XXIT.—On the Age of the Coal Formation of China; by
Dr. J. S. Newperry: addressed to RaPHAEL PUMPELLY, Esq.
THE fossil plants you were kind enough to submit to me for
peep, tt though few in number and somewhat fragments
prov
152 J. S. Newberry on the Coal Formation of China.
This conclusion is based on the entire absence of Carbonifer-
ous plants from the collection; and the presence of well marked
Cycads—species of Podozamites and Pterozamites—closely allied
to, if not identical with, some heretofore found in Europe and
America.
I give below such descriptions of the several species contained
in the collection as could be framed from the somewhat meager
material submitted to me. Future observations made upon a
larger number of more perfect specimens will be necessary be-
fore questions of specific identity or difference can be definitively
settled, but it is scarcely probable that any facts or specimens
hereafter to be obtained will require a modification of the view,
plants new to science, but the Pecopteris, Sph Pi m-
ates, Plerozamites, &e., have a very familiar look; and in their
resemblance to well known fo resh evidence of the
monotony of the vegetation of the globe previous to the intro- 4
duction of the angiospermous forests of the Cretaceous period. 3
Whether the strata which have furnished these plants should
be considered Triassic or Jurassic remains to be determined by
future observations, as the fossils yet obtained can hardly be
considered sufficient for the solution of that question.
:
4
a
a
J. S. Newberry on the Coal Formation of China. 153
from those of a European Jurassic species (P. lancolotus Lind.).
Still, the evidence of identity is much stronger in regard to the
former species than the latter.
From Piyunsz we have a fine Pecopterts with the falcate
pinnules so characteristic of the Mesozoic species, and, indeed,
very accurately copying the form of P. Whitbiensis, a Euro
Jurassic species; but unfortunately the strata which contain this
fossil have been much metamorphosed, the coal converted to
anthracite, and the nervation of the fern has been entirely
obliterated, while the outline remains distinct.
Probably it will be found as difficult—or rather as impossible
—in China, as it has proved in this country, to identify all the
subdivisions of the Mesozoic strata discernible in Europe. Yet
we shall doubtless gather there new proofs of the constancy of
the order of sequence in geological history, and new evidence of
the stability of the foundations on which geology as a science
rests.
I have under my eye, as I write this letter, four collections of
fossil plants, which, though from very widely separated locali-
ties, are curiously linked together. They are,—
ist. Fossil plants,—Cycads and Conifers,—collected by my-
self from the “Gypsum Formation” (Triassic) at Abiguiu, New
Mexico. Of this collection the most conspicuous and interest-
ing plant is Otozamites Macombii N. :
2d. A collection of fossil plants—Cycads and ferns—received
through Prof. J. D. Whitney from Sonora, Mexico, where they
occur with coal strata and Triassic mol ‘
In this collection Otozamites Macombit is associated with Stran-
geriies magnifolia Rogers, Pecopteris faleatus Emm., and other
plants occurring abundantly in North Carolina. |
d. A collection of fossil plants—Cycads and ferns—from N.
Carolina and Virginia, including, besides the last two mentioned,
and many which are new, several species apparently identical
With European Triassic plants, of the genera Haidingera,
bieria, Laccopteris, &c. ; “a among other Cycads, Podozamites Em-
monsi N,
4th. The collection made by yourself in China—Cycads and
ferns—in which one of the most distinctly marked plants is
P. Emmonsii.
In regard to the American localities cited above, there is per-
haps no good reason for our withholding assent to the conclu-
Sion that the rocks furnishing the fossil plants, are Triassic, but
154 E. L. DeForest on a method of correcting monthly means.
when we remember how much difference of opinion there has
been, and indeed still is, _— pet subject, even in the light of
large deletions of fossils, n hardly with propriety offer
even a conjecture as to the sete age of the Chinese coal strata.
0 recapitulate. One species of Podozamites contained in the
collection is apparently identical with an American Triassic spe-
eies; the other more resembles a European Jurassic plant. The
Pterozamites resembles both Triassic and Jurassic species, but is
identical with neither. The Pecopteris has certainly a remark-
able likeness to P. Whitbiensis, which occurs both in the Liassic
and Oolitic floras; and it is not yet certain ap it is not also
found in the Carolina and Richmond coal basins.
The Sphenopieris and Hymenophyllites are altogether new, and
suggest no affinites of value in this connection—while the "Tax
ttes, Hquisetites, &c., are too obscure to afford us any help.
Cleveland, Ohio, Sept. 25, 1865.
ArT. XXITI—A Second Method of correcting Monthly Means for
the unequal length of the Months ; by Erastus L. DEForEst.
In the May number of this Journal I gave a system of neh
equations for finding the mean temperature, rain-fall, &c.,
any mean month in terms of the means for the three nearest ost
endar months. This was done on the supposition that the curve
of daily temperatures for any three consecutive months may be
represented by a portion of a parabola whose equation is
y=a+be+cr?,
A similar system of Sec ong may be found by assuming that
the
e curve is of the
peer eit sin (t—e,),
which may be written
y=A-+-B cos +C sin 2.
M1, ,, 5, Z,, and c, retain the same significations which
they had in my former article, only instead of denoting days,
let them denote the Cpa ares, the days being — to
are in the ratio of 3654 days to 360°. By a process of integra-
tion similar to that followed before, we shall find that
m= A+ B[sin (2.-++n,)—~sin $n,]——C[eos $n, ~cos(inz-+n dh
m=A+— B sin 4n., :
E. L, DeForest on a method of correcting monthly means. 155
1 : : 1
‘elaceie Bisin ($n.-+-n,) —sin alt C[eostn, —cos($n2--n5)],
M,=A+- B cosz, sin bef C sinz, sin de.
Let the above be written for brevity
m,=A-+Béb,+Ce,,
m,—A-+Bd,,
m,—A+Bb,+Ce,,
M,=A+Bb"-LCe",
Eliminating A, B and C, and employing K and L as auxiliary
letters, we shall find this expression for M, :
Kao (2 —5)—¢3(b2— hy
€,(b,-6,)—¢,(6, -45)
c,(b2 — 6") —c'""(b, —b,)
¢3(6—b,)—c,(b,— 03)
M,=m,+(K+L)m,—Km,—Lm,.
We may now proceed to compute for each of the twelve months
separately, the numerical values of b,, d,, 5, ¢,, Cy, 6” and ec”,
and from them the numerical coéfficients K and L, with the fol-
lowing result:
|S awe
M, =m, +0036 m, +0031 m,,—-0067 m,
M, =m, —-0127m, —-0030m, + 0157m,
M, =m, +'0028m, —-0248m, +°0220m,
M, =m, —:0042m, ~—-0199m, +0241 m,
M, =m. +'0016m, —-0217m, +0201 m,
M, =m, —-0039m, —-0179m, +0218 m,
M; =m, +:0025m, —-0199m, +:0174 m,
M, =m, +0025m, —-0103m, +0078 m,
M, =m, —-0027m, —-0067m, +:'0094m,,
M,o=m,,+'0030 m,,—"0085 m, +0055 m,,
M, =m, , —0026 m, , ~—°0046 m, +0072 m,2
M, 2==m,.+'0032 m,, ~°0064 m, ,+°0032 m,
A comparison of this system of equations, found by using a
‘trigonometrical curve, with the former system which was found
by using an algebraic curve, is interesting as showing how far
the values of the numerical coéfficients are independent of the
nature of the curve employed. The fact that these two sets of
coéflicients differ but little, tends to establish the general aecu-
racy of both methods, and gives a high degree of pechebiiey
the results derived from them. These results are almost iden-
tical. For the climate of St. Paul, where the great range of
156 C. M. Warren on a new process
13°74 46:92 73°44 46°97
17°79 59°41 69°93 31°50
32°05 68°73 58°68 16°79
and by the second method they are
73°44 46°97
17°80 59°43 69°93 31°49
32°08 68°74 58°67 16°79
showing a maximum difference of only ‘03.
The equation of = ore of daily temperatures throughout
the year is by the first method
yas: Hifies 86 sin (7—104° 41’) &e.,
and by the second method it is
y= 44-67-4+29°86 sin (r—104° 40’)+ &e.
Tf it is necessary to choose between the two ee perhaps
the second may be preferred for reducing temperatures, because
oocieirical curve admits points of inflexion, which the
ban annot have; so that the latter can hardly be said to
represent very well the curve of pupersne in the spring and
autumn months, where it changes from ex to concave or
the reverse. Accordingly we see that for St. Paul the differences
between the monthly means found by the two methods are
greatest in the spring and autumn months, and null at midsum-
mer and midwinter.
May, 1866.
salina sia
ArT. XXIV.—On a New Process of Organic Elementary Y sg
Sor Substances containing Chlorine; by C. M. War
— bodies containing chlorine—and probably those <
that contain bromine and iodine—may be analyzed by a pr
anslogous to that which I have already described for Seinen
containing sulphur.’
in that process, so also in this, the substance is burnt in a
stream of oxygen gas, in the manner described in my first paper,
on organic Elementary “Anal
Similarly, also, as in bo scares of sulphur ayn the
chlorine i is + absorbed and retained during the combustion, by 4
i 2
hydrogen, in either process, are determined from the same por-
- G iaaaaeaaae the American Academy, March, 1865 ; this Journal, Jan, 1866,
* Proceedings of the American Acad,, 1864, p. 251; this Journal, xxxviii, 387.
of Organic Elementary Analysis. 157
tion of the substance as the sulphur or chlorine, in a manner sim-
ilar in other respects to that described for simple hydrocarbons.’
In pursuing this research some difficulty was experienced, as
was anticipated, in finding a substance which would absorb and
retain the whole of the chlorine, under conditions that would at
the same time insure that every trace of the carbonic acid and
water should pass through unabsorbed.
The search for this substance was confined to the oxyds of the
heavy metals, as these alone, from their strong affinity for chlo-
rine, and weak affinity for carbonic acid, seemed to give encour-
agement of success.
The difficulty, however, in finding such a substance was chiefly
due to the circumstance that most of the chlorids of these metals
are either too volatile, or begin to suffer decomposition at too
low a temperature; it being requisite that the absorbing sub-
stance, and the newly formed chlorid of the same, should bear
to be heated sufficiently to prevent both condensation of water
and absorption of carbonic acid, and at the same time avoid a
temperature high enough to occasion any appreciable decompo-
sition of the chlorid.
temperature of that part of the combustion tube which should
contain this substance.
ay
For this purpose was constructed a sheet-iron air-bath or cham-
ber, A, fig. 1, provided with two holes—one on each side—to
Am. Jour. Scr.—Seconp Series, Vou. XLII, No. 125.—Sept., 1866.
; 21
158 C. M. Warren on a new process
receive the combustion tube, and a tubulure in the top for a ther-
mometer, One end of the air-bath is made to rest on the com-
2.
packed with pure asbes-
tos ; between 5 and c—
a space of about two
inches,—being left va-
cant, a plug of asbestos ne wes .
is placed at c; the space between ¢c and d, 4 to 5 inches in sonia
is filled with an intimate mixture of asbestos and brown oxy
of copper; and, finally, a plug of asbestos is placed at d.
of Organic Elementary Analysis. 159
After the combustion, the chlorid, together with the excess
mi abe is extracted from the asbestos by means of dilute nitric
aci
in the analysis of sulphur compounds,
I. Experiments with Oxyd of Lead and with Oxyd
of Copper, placed in the anterior end of the com-
bustion tube, as absorbents of Chlorine in the
analysis of substances difficulily combustible.
The substance selected for analysis, as a
test of the process for that class of bodies
in Gerhardt’s Zraité de Chimie. When the ff
usual tests were applied, no impurity could
be detected.
viment 1,—A mixture of oxyd of lead and asbestos was
placed in the anterior end of the combustion tube, between
c and d, fig. 2, as previously described. As chlorid of lead was
supposed to bear a pretty high temperature, without volatiliza-
tion or decomposition, the use of the air-bath was omitted in this
experiment, and the oxyd gently heated with a small flame from
ée combustion furnace. The combustion had not proceeded
far when it became apparent, from deposition of minute drops of
liquid on the sides of the vacant part of the tube,—from 6 toc,
fig. 2,—that the combustion of the chloloform was incomplete,
although no doubt could exist as to the presence of an excess of
oxygen. This deposit of liquid, which, as already stated, was
supposed to be a chlorid of carbon, was found to be difficultly
volatile, suffering partial decomposition, and leaving on the tube
a brown deposit, which was not entirely removed by ignition in
a stream of oxygen. The high temperature employed to burn
off this deposit occasioned excessive heating of the posterior end
of the mixture of lead oxyd and asbestos; and this may have
n the cause, to some extent, of the excess in the determina-
tions of carbon and hydrogen, although subsequent analyses indi-
cate that the sample of chloroform under examination contained
a larger percentage of these elements—particularly of the latter
—than belongs to pure chloroform. This experiment gave 11°47.
per cent of carbon, and 1:87 per cent of hydrogen. Theor.
160 C. M. Warren on a new process
gives 10-07 per cent of carbon, and 0°85 per cent of hydrogen.
he mixture of asbestos and oxyd and chlorid of lead was remo-
ved from the tube, and treated in the usual manner with a solu-
tion of bicarbonate of soda to obtain a soluble chlorid. This
operation was found extremely tedious. Even after treatment
for more than two weeks, with occasional fresh portions of the
bicarbonate and frequent agitation, the decomposition of the
lead chlorid was still found to be incomplete, and the operation
was abandoned. As this is given in the text books as a good
process for the separation of chlorine from chlorid of lead,* I am
led to presume that in this case the excess of heat employed
gave rise to the formation of an oxychlorid, which is, doubtless,
more slowly acted upon by the bicarbonate. This single exper-
iment does not, therefore, prove that oxyd of lead may not be
employed in this process with good results, when used for easily
combustible substanees, and excessive heat is avoided. But it
will, unquestionably, be found preferable to use a substance
which will give directly a soluble chlori
being no deficiency in the supply of oxygen, served to confirm
the impression gained by the preceding experiment,—that chlo-
roform could not be completely burnt in oxygen alone, but that
a substance having affinity for chlorine would have to be mixed
with the asbestos, at the point where the combustion takes place.
I. Experiments with Oxyd of Zinc, mixed with the asbestos in the pos-
terior part of the combustion tube, as absorbent of Chlorine in the
analysis of substances dificultly combustible.
ments was to determine whether the presence, at the pene where
& ent 1.—In this experiment, three grams of oxyd of
zinc were intimately mixed in a mortar with the quantity of
asbestos necessary to fill the space between a and 8, fig, 2, an
that part of the tube then packed with this mixture in the usu
manner. A simi i
of Organic Elementary Analysis.
rid of zinc, it was deemed advisable to retain the use of the air-
t.
of asbestos were treated for chlorine, separately. The solution
obtained from the anterior column was found to contain but a
trace of chlorine, giving only a milkiness with nitrate of silver;
showing that the chlorid of zinc does not travel far through a
column of asbestos from the point where the flame plays directly
on the tube.
ftesulis of the Analysis.— 02067 gram of chloroform gave
0:0798 of carbonic acid, 00276 of water, and 0°7372 of chlorid
of silver. *
Caiculated. Found.
Carbon = C, 12 10-0671 10°5278
Hydrogen H. 1 . 0°8473 1°4514
Chlorine Cl, 106-2 89°0856 880455
100 100-0242
eriment 2.—In this experiment, the whole length of the
combustion tube from a to d was packed with a mixture of as-
Calculated. Found.
ooo
Carbon Cc, 12 =: 10°0671 10°3062
Hydrogen H 1 0°8473 1:2733
Chlorine Cl . 106-2 89-0865 87-9014
100 99°4809
results are regarded, therefore, as satisfactorily establishing the
utility of this process in the analysis of chloroform. But the
162 C. M. Warren on a new pracess
Til. Enns with Oxyd of Zinc, as an absorbent of Chlorine in the
nalysis of substances rich in H ydrogen.
In these experiments the oxyd of zinc was employed in the
me manner as above described for the analysis of chloroform.
The chlorid of amyl, which was the subject of analysis, was
SS n the usual manner. Its boiling-point was 102°, 8
corr
The following results of two analyses with oxyd of zinc indi-
cate that this oxyd combined with and retained some of the car-
bonic acid. This result was not anticipated, as in the analysis of
chloroform the determination of carbon was uniformly slightly
ay eae
The results of these two analyses are as follows
2 gram of chlorid of amyl gave 03513 3 of carbonic
seid: 0 0° 1854 of water, and 0°2528 of chlorid of silver.
Calculated. Found.
Carbon Gc. 60 563910 49°85
Hydrogen H,, 11 103383 10°72
Chlorine Cl 35°4 33°2707 32°47 :
100: 93°04
{
* Since the above was written, I have observed upon revi xing my notes,—not
only of ere with a of zinc, but also with oxyd of copper, that in every
anal made note of carbonization, or peer mena of the asbestos in
com! =a tie siehich oni papi! ring from too rapid distillation of the
ee
ening of th
of zine, but, as
consequence, as similar
were ttended good
question, whether the oxyd of zine may not serv purpose in the
substances of chaeaanaaes wine
of Organic Elementary Analysis. 163
2.—0°1657 gram of chlorid of amyl gave 0°8314 of carbonic
acid and 0°1608 of water.
Calculated. Found.
Carbon Ci, 60 563910 54°56
Hydrogen” =H, 1) 10°3383 10°74
Chlorine Cl 35°4 = 33°2707
IV, Experiments with Oxyd of Copper, as absorbent of Chlorine in the
analysis of substances rich in Hydrogen.
In these experiments, for the reason previously stated, the oxyd
of copper could only be placed in the anterior end of the com-
bustion tube, where it might be maintained at a tolerably low
temperature. After two or three experiments,—which were but
partially successful,—it became apparent that the range of tem-
perature within which oxyd of copper could be made serviceable
to absorb the chlorine was probably rather limited.
t was observed, for example, that at 150° to 160° even brown
oxyd of copper, which had been but gently ignited, would fail
to absorb nearly all the chlorine, and consequently the determin-
ation of the carbon, and sometimes that of the hydrogen, would
be in excess. In one experiment, in which the oxyd of copper
was kept at about 153° C., its appearance had suffered no change,
and it was found to contain only 8:29 per cent of chlorine, or
only about one quarter of the theoretical quantity. When a
sufficiently high temperature is employed, on the contrary, the
posterior end of the column of oxyd of copper and asbestos has
the appearance of being entirely changed into yellow chlorid of
copper, the rest of the column remaining, for the most part, of
its original dark color.
In another experiment, with the oxyd of copper kept at a
temperature of about 160°, only about fourteen per cent of chlo-
rine was obtaine
In both of these experiments the carbon determination was
considerably in excess, and in one of them the hydrogen also.
The oxyd of copper employed had been strongly ignited.
Before proceeding further with these somewhat random exper-
iments, it was deemed advisable to determine the temperature at
which chlorid of copper begins to give off chlorine, in order to
know how far it would be safe to raise the temperature of the
air-bath in conducting an analysis. By making use of the air-
bath to regulate the temperature of the chlorid of ones this
determination was easily made. During the heating of the chlo-
rid, a current of air from the air-gasometer was admitted through
the tube in which it was contained.
bservations.—At 243° not a perceptible trace of chlorine was
givenoff. After the lapse of fifteen minutes, at 250°, the nitrate
of silver into which the gas was conducted, was observed to be >
164 C. M. Warren on a new process
slightly milky; this may, therefore, be taken as about the tem-
perature at which chlorid of copper begins to suffer decomposi-
tion. At 267°, a solution of nitrate of silver was instantly pre-
cipitated.
Thinking that perhaps the small quantity of chlorine evolved
under these circumstances might be taken up again and retained
if oxyd of copper were present, and possibly, also, that in that
case a higher temperature might be safely employed,—to make
the conditions of the experiment conform in this particular to
those which exist in an analysis, all but one inch of the chlorid
of copper was removed from the tube, and in its place was
put a mixture of asbestos and oxyd of copper, occupying a space
of four inches in length, forward of the chlorid. The experi-
ment was then repeated. Prolonged heating in a current of air,
and afterwards in oxygen, during which the thermometer rose
to 350°, produced no reaction with nitrate of silver. From this
the combustion there was no appearance of chlorid of copper,
except in the first half-inch at the back end of the column of
the mixture of oxyd of copper and asbestos; showing that the
temperature employed was favorable for rapid and complete ab-
sorption of the chlorine.
lis of the Analysis.—0°1682 gram of chlorid of amyl gave ©
wee of carbonic acid, 0°1633 of water, and 0°2233 of chlorid
of silver.
Calculated. Found.
Carbon C€,, 60 563910 56-522
Hydrogen H,, 11 103383 10-761
Chlorine Cl 35°4 33°2707 82°773
100 109-056
-
_ Analysis 2.—The oxyd of copper employed was of the same
preparation as that used in Analysis 1. The space occupied by
the mixture of asbestos and oxyd of copper was only 34 inches
in length, but contained the same quantity, viz. 5 grams of
the oxyd of copper, as used in the previous analysis. The tem-
perature of the air-bath ranged from 250° to 253°. At the close
of Organic Elementary Analysis. 165
of the combustion, it was found that all but £inch at the for-
ward end of the column of mixed asbestos and vase of copper
showing that with ee mee — of copper mper-
ature higher than 250°, even as high as 350°, is more fsa
for the absorption of the chlorine. The fo lowing results of the
analysis, tp, are equally accurate with those of the pre-
ceding analysi
01669 gram of chlorid of amyl rie 0: — of carbonie acid,
0°1612 of water, 0°22138 of chlorid of silve
Calculated. Found.
Carbon ©,, 60 56:3910 56-489
Hydrogen H,, 11 10°3383 10°785
Chlorine Cl 35°4 33°2707 32°732
100 100-006
Analysis 3—Under the impression that an oxyd of copper
which had been less strongly ignited might be effectual to sina
the chlorine at a lower temperature, I employed i in this and the
two following analyses a preparation of brown oxyd of copper,
— by precipitation with potash and ignition over an ordi-
'y gas flame. In this analysis the temperature of the air-bath
paused from 150° to 158°. ~ e space occupied by the asbestos
mixture was four siahies in length, and contained three grams
of the oxyd. Although the results of the analysis indicate that
the temperature of the air-bath was too low, they also show, by
comparison with the results obtained in = ogee with strongly
ignited oxyd at about the same temperature of the air-bath (see
p. 163), that the brown oxyd is decidedly scorers in respect to
the temperature required. This was also shown by the appear-
ance of the oxyd after combustion,—the newly formed chlori
Peng scabies in the case of the brown oxyd, toa much shorter
ace
Results of the Analysis.—0°1640 gram of chlorid of amyl gave
0°3504 of carbonic acid, 0°1562 of water, and 0°1884 of chlorid
of ine
Calculated. Found.
Carbon C,, 60 56°3910 58-268
Hydrogen H,, 11 10°3383 10°582
Chlorine Cl 35°4 33-2707 28°360
100. 97°210
Analysis 4.—Used the same preparation of oxyd of copper as
in analysis 8, viz., the brown oxyd. Temperature of the air-
Scr.—SzconpD ou. XLH, No. 125.
166 C. M. Warren on a new process, etc,
bath reached 170°. Slight carbonization occurred just at the
close of the combustion, from extending the heat backward too
soon, under a wrong impression that the substance was all burnt.
Were it not for this circumstance, it is believed that this would
have been a good analysis, although the temperature of the air-
bath was kept so low. That a higher temperature of the bath
is desirable, however, is shown by the fact that the chlorid of
copper appeared diffused over a space of 24 inches. The length
of the column of mixed asbestos and oxyd of copper was only
four inches in this experiment, containing but one gram of the
oxyd.
Results of the Analysis—0°1568 gram of chlorid of amyl gave
0°3195 of carbonic acid, and 0°1522 of water.
Calculated. Found.
Carbon C 60 56-3910 55574
Hydrogen Ha, 11 10°3383 10°784
Chlorine Cl 854 83-2707
Analysis 5.—The oxyd of copper employed was of the same
preparation as that of analyses 3 and 4. The temperature of the
air-bath, however, was considerably higher, ranging from 240°
to 247°. The mixture of asbestos and oxyd of copper occupied
a space of five inches in length, but contained only two grams of
the oxyd. At the close of the combustion there was no appear-
ance of chlorid of copper, except at the back end of the column,
a space # of an inch in length.
fesults of the Analysis—0°1631 gram of chlorid of amyl gave
gt of carbonic acid, 0°1557 of water, and 0-2157 of chlorid
of silver.
Calculated. Found.
Carbon Ci 6 60 56-3910 56542
Hydrogen H,, 11 10°3383 10°607
Chlorine = Cl 35°4 =. 33-2707 32-649
100° 99°798
t bestos ; hence 1
is obvious that but little of a solvent is needed to extract the
chlorid. In this respect the new process bears a striking contrast
to the old one, which inyolves the use of a large quantity of
Time, necessitating a corresponding quantity of acid, and intro-
ducing disagreeable manipulation, which tend to increase the
liability to error.
I have not yet tried the process recently described by Carius,"
* Annalen der Chimie und Pharmacie.
S. Porter on the Vowel Elements in Speech. 167
termine the three elements, carbon, hydrogen, and chlorine at a
single combustion, without the introduction of any diffi
hazardous manipulation, induces the belief that it will be found
preferable to any other that has been devised.
Art. XX V.— The Vowel Elements in Speech ; by SAMUEL PoRTER,
of Hartford, Conn.
THE division of the alphabetic elements into vowels and con-
sonants is one which grammarians have ever been compelled to
recognize, however hard they may have found it to mark the
distinction by satisfactory definitions. The nature of the vowels
is such, somehow, that every word must contain at least one of
them. The same is true, for the most part, of syllables as well
as words. The consonants J, n, r, m, do indeed occasionally
take the place of a vowel in a dependent, unaccented syllable,
times properly, and sometimes by a slightly incorrect pronunci-
tion. Br nd no syllable under a full accent, is
without a vowel. rare exceptions which may occur, as in
ence in function rests upon a difference in essential nature,—
what that is will be developed, in the sequel, as incidental to
“mechanism of speech” may well denote the ob
of inquiry. It is upon mechanical relations among the voca
168 S. Porter on the Vowel Elements in Speech.
elements that the laws of syllabication and euphony and the
processes of phonetic _prasrenstesg depend far more than on
auditory impressions. out a true physiological analysis,
investigation into the ss ‘of phonetic change must be merely
empirical : only so far as an pa aaa ‘thereto is one
ean un yr ete cd coats claim r ank as a scie
o r
will hardly be questioned. To one who should derive his ideas
on the subject baht se Bourgeois Gentilhomme of Moliére, such
studies might indeed seem idle and ridiculous; but those who |
know anything of the subject see in it a matter of practical as
well as scientific interest, sufficient to invite and to warrant the
thorough and minute treatment which alone can Se valuable
resu
but partial success. hile there is a 2 eral agreemen
many leading points, eeets is still on many others a ere
diversity of vi rvations wanting in precision have |
to a corresponding vagueness in the use of terms, Mere inci-
dental concomitants have been mistaken for essential matters.
fi
tending to be thus complete has presented claims so demonstra-
bly valid as to compel a general acceptance. Dr. Briicke, of
Vienna, the author of a most thorough and able treatise on
phonology, remarks that ‘the formation of the vowels still pre-
sents to us considerable theoretical difficulties, which it will take
a long time perhaps to solve ina satisfactory manner.”’ Prof.
Max Miiller, in the second series of his Lectures, treats the phys-
iology of the vowels with a good deal of particularity, but
makes no attempt to present a complete and exhaustive scheme.
In short, a true system of the vowels has thus far remained &
desideratum.
ator, ot less essential is the careful training of the ear to
the just disorimination of articulate sounds. Then, the pee
ments—to e an ee again and again—will n
much eareful attention, and eall for some ingenuity of contriv-
ance. A slight variation of the “ physiologic rocess,” so slight
as e ly perceptible, or not at all perceptible without
observation of a aie kind, will —— result in a marked dif-
? Cited at second-hand from Prof. R. L. s Investigations into the Laws of
English Aeon and Pronuneiation (New ¥ Work: 1862).
8. Porter on the Vowel Elements in Speech. 169
ference in the character of the sound produced. Attention will
be needed to distinguish with invariable certainty compound
elements from simple, mixed from pure; and especial care in
order to eliminate whatever i is only incidental, or even purely
accidental, and so to seize upon what is really essential.
When all is iote so far, there remains the task of making
one’s self understood by o others. The clearest and most thorough
exposition will be but labor lost upon those who have undis-
criminating ears and loose habits or incorrect modes of pronun-
ciation; and the number of such among otherwise well-educated
men—linguists and grammarians with the rest—is by no
small. Local and national diversities of pronunciation are
another barrier to a mutual u ndepseodting in these matters.
e38 the diffeulay 4 is far enters! We ie in this souates not
peculiarities of pronunciation; and in Great Britain such exist
in a more marked degree, in the case of the higher as well as ahs.
aie! classes. Such diversities of usage, quite unsuspected it
may be, are liable = render the examples employed for illustra-
tion ineffectual to any other result than a thorough misunder-
tandin
I sia lal to offer my views on the subject because I pp ti
that I have so far overcome the obstacles first named as to have
hit upon the key to a true system of the vowels, and feel in
duty bound to encounter the difficulties involved in the task of
exposition.
[ would not pat forward my scheme in an attitude of antag-
onism toward the other systems or half-systems which have
gained acceptance. I would have it regarded as completing
what was fragmentary, and explaining what was but half under-
stood,—by bringing to view certain new relations,—and as
having its own substantial correctness confirmed by the ground
it furnishes upon which to reconcile the conflicting diversities
of other schemes. If, on minor points, my positions shall in
not ys + ess for once.” This is dapeckalty true of Pes ; Ww reat ie
when not an entire sating off, of the muffled “ omar ” quality of the medials, 6, d, —
g, in whatever part of the word, is a very general characteristic of the Germans, —
Hence, their phonologists peaally, and Max Miller with them, disallow this qual-
ity as distinctive, though Kempelen (a Mig ge strongly insisted on it as such,
and illustrated it Pits by the experiment o a flageolet blown within a bladder.
170 S. Porter on the Vowel Elements in Speech,
any case appear open to question, or even be fairly convicted
of inaccuracy, I shall be well content, provided I succeed in
demonstrating the correctness of the system in its leading
features, I have not, however, been careless of the details.
hed 2 aii eon Lit are the key to the system :-—
All the vowels are articulated primarily between the
ie and the “Batata: Some of them, those usually called
labials (old, ooze, he! &c.), are.further modified by the action of
the lips. All are thus either palato-linguals ahaoly. or else
labio-palato- aubanles and the latter consist of a palato-lingual |
part, capable of being employed by itself, and of a labial part
ee is dependent on and super-added to the other
. The arientatiba’ is effected (1) as between the tongue and :
ae ‘palate in the nage 3 manner:—The organs are so dis- :
d, and the muscles of the tongue, with those also of the 1
_soft-palate, so put sit action, as to make a firm tube, or passage,
fitted for the reverberation of the sound which comes from the
of course, in which the same palato-lin
two distinct vowels as used with and without the labial modifi-
cation. (2) The labial modification is effected by a firm con-
traction and more or less protrusion of the lips together with a
rigid tension of the eae so as to cause a further reverbera-
tion of the sound, and thus give the vowel a different character
to the ear: the sound is deveruehated through two passages or
cavities instead o
oh The reels ete es -non- labial — are assorted Bebe:
or
mined upon the palat e than wat the tongue, owing - . &
* The
sare — members or ee is, the syllabic. pe aboaat whieh
Tt is farther allowable to use the terms, as [ do
here, with ca inaiie reference to those mechanical adjustments of the organs
which give to the several elements their distinctive shecvheted.
A
5
S. Porter on the Vowel Elements in Speech. 171
differing in degree as more or less open or close. These differ-
ences are effected, in the palato-lingual passage, by approximat-
ing more or less to the palate the part of the tongue at the
place of the articulation, especially at the front viens of the
passage; the passage may at the same time be narrowed more
or less, as more or Jess of the margin of the enone. is put into
contact with the borders of the palate. The labials will need
no other or further criterion; for, in their case, the more or less
sae of the lips will correspond to that between tongue and
palate
The scheme does not contemplate a precise admeasurement of
vce and close as between vowels of different groups; it requires
h comparison; it deviates from other systems in this, es-
agkliy, that it assigns to different places, and thus ranges under
separate Se vowels which Mob een commonly viewed as
differing merely in degree of openne
e degree of openness as between Biante and palate is not
pd to be distinguished from the greater or less opening of the
s, but it is to be noted that the two do not always coincide,
ina. especially, that the close labials (awe, owe, ooze, &c.,) involve
a wider separation of the jaws than the corresponding open and
non-labial vowels (nor, not, fully, &c.). A decided labial. modifi-
cation requires, absolutely, a considerable opening of the jaws,
that the stretched cheeks may wall the passage.
A glance at the diagram and the table a few pages forward,
will give the reader a more definite general idea of the scheme.
rip ae LAltemiat ns points require attention before proceeding with
the details.
i. as to the number of vowels capable of being produced, there
is no certain limit in nature. The variations in degree of open-
___ Ness are obviously infinite; the variations as the terminus o the
4 re or les
we can do is to mark certain points, as if by lines € jacitedé and
longitude, and make no account of intermediate gradations any
further than to refer them to the nearest of these points.
for the number to be recognized in a system, much will depend
on the special purpose in view. My object obviously uires
scheme both éoapretienei ve and minute,—and will exact minute- :
ness of orthoépical detail in the way of illustration.
eee vary greatly in the number of vowels pee em-
172 S. Porter on the Vowel Elements in Speech.
ploy. In all our modern tongues we have many more than the
three original vowels of the Sanskrit and the Gothic,—though
we can hardly doubt that these three admitted severally consid-
erable latitude of variation. In English, we recognize as
distinct many more than we have separate characters for; while
over and above these, we may notice slight variations, as due to
the influence of associated consonants, or in connection with
varying accentuation or emphasis; and, in the pronunciation of
different persons, and even of the same person at different times,
we observe appreciable shades of difference in what will be
usually regarded as the same vowel.
n all the vowels alike, the sound proceeds from the larynz,
being struck out upon the chords of the glottis, which, when
drawn near each other to the proper interval and duly con-
tracted, are set into vibration by air forced through from the
lungs; the sound is then modified into this or that vowel by
reverberation through a passage of this or that description. In
Sound produced in the larynx, intonated or aspirated, does
not always take the form of a vowel. So it does not in the
sound (hm) made in clearing the throat; in which case it under-
goes a peculiar modification, but makes no vowel. Laryngeal
. The larynx opens directly into the pharynx, which is 4
musculo-membranous sac through which the breath from the
that it is, moreover, essentially modified by varying adjustments
of the velum,* so far my theory involves, indeed, a modification
of the pharynx itself, and one that differs more or less for differ-
ent vowels. That there is an action of the fore-part of the
* See the positions of the soft- iagram this mat-
ter, my independett <cmhne Ee shaping not aera sg oe those
established by the elaborate and ingenious experiments of Dr. Gostteinh, of Viens.
S. Porter on the Vowel Elements in Speech. 173
pharynx in all the ne was observed by Prof. Leon Vaisse,
of Paris; and it was regar y him as giving them that —
= eer or quality in ads they differ from the conso-
nan fy view is that the whole vowel-tube is eenctrinds in
saincia this general — by the very same action which
gives distinctive character o each several vo
4. After the vocal neni has passed the palato- lingual pas-
sage, it has still to traverse a further portion of the oral cavity ; i
and in every case the sound will be in some degree modified o
colored according to the disposition of those anterior parts ; buy
except in the proper labials, the effect will not amount to a
change in the essential character of the vowel. The mouth
even be tensely drawn close to the teeth, very much as in the
open of the labials, and still leave so predominant the
saaeusel character given by the palato-lingual passage, that we
recognize the modification only as a di erent resonance given to
the same vowel. In the word hutl, for example, we should by
such means give to the vowel a more full and sonorous qual
me who read this may need, at the outset, to be dis-
with quality, or character as respects articulation.
observed then, that no amount of mere prolongation will change,
for instance, the so-called short sig in full, a fet into the
corresponding long in fool, pool, rule, food ; nor will any process
of curtailment convert the latter into the former. This is but
an example of what is true universally of the vowels in the
English, and to a greater or less degree in all languages. The
tendency to variation of quality when a vowel is lengthened or
shortened, is natural and universal.
Philologists have been accustomed to define the difference of
long and short, in the vowels, as one of duration merely; but
i”)
cr
[1
—to treat the distinction as one of fundamental importance in |
* See the article, Parote (Physiologie et Sans bere the pen of Prof. :
Vaisse, in the Supplement nt to the Encyclopédie Moderne of the MM. Didot. :
Am. Jour. Sc1.—Sxrconp Serres, Vou. XLII, No. 125,—Sepr., 1866.
23 mes
174 ~—*S, Porter on the Vowel Elements in Speech,
etymology: the differing relations of the long and of the short,
which they must and do recognize, are quite unaccountable on
their view of the case. If we lay open the physiological ground
of a difference here in quality, we do so much to place etymo-
logical science upon the right basis.
. There are questions concerning xis feng * the vowels to
tone or pitch. Have the vowels each what may be called in any
sense their natural pitch? “This, if so, can help little to a knowl-
edge of their proper vowel character, which remains the same
under every variety of pitch. Is the peculiar character of each
vowel to be explained as a certain combination of harmonie
notes? This, if so, will not help much, in our physiological i a
quiries, till we have a better understanding of the mechanic
conditions upon which such combinations depend in other cases.
rof. Max Miiller, in reporting the discoveries of Helmholtz on
this point, tells us the vowel quality is to be explained as exactly
analogous to the timbre by which instruments, as the violin,
flute, ‘harp, &e., are distinguished one ares another. (Lect. on
the Sci. of Lan ng., 2nd ser., pp. 127-8: Am.ed.) But we have
voices differing in timbre,—the reedy — the flute-like bbe aac
iffering as do the instraments to which we liken them
upon their merits or bearing. They ru non a different line of
inquiry from that which I ‘have here in hand, and neither su-
persede it nor interfere with it
There are two or three facts under this head, which, if not
succession any two or more of the simple vowel elements, we
wale th organs are con itiedked by muscle and Hemant The
connection is such that a movement of the tongue will require
a reidjustment of the muscles of the larynx, to keep the latter
S. Porter on the Vowel Elements in Speech, 175
tered on every pitch with equal purity of tone, and there would
seem to be one certain key for each, on which the purest tone is
heard,—the purest musically we mean, that is, the most free
from discordant intermixture. The same cause above mentioned
may have an agency in this case also; but I think that here
the effect may be due primarily to the form and dimensions of
the vowel-tube.
7. I would have distinctly understood what I do not, as well
as what I do, affirm. I do not say that the character of the
Opposite of the other. But, in each of these modes, the several
and as the places at which the peculiar quality of each element
1s most distinctly brought out and sharply discriminated.
Prof. Henry N. Day, who has given much attention to the subject, seems dis.
regard the peculiarities of the several vowels as proceedin wholly from
cause. See his article on Znglish Phonology in the Biblical & y for
176 -§. Porter on the Vowel Elements in Speech,
In the wh gi Tasced analysis, which I am now to give, oe the
simple vowel. elements, I shall arrange them in nine gro
according as the eminioe -lingual tube ee farther or less fax
forward, --which I shall designate as the 0, 1%
4 vowels, 0 or groups of vowels. Under aie grou a cis ‘foo
degrees, more or less close or open, which I call close, middle,
open, open-depressed, and indicate by numerals aitixned as supe-
riors; thus: a' (close), a? (middle), a? (open), a + (open-depres-
sed). Labials will be distinguished by an’ affixed to the figure
for the degree, as: o', uw"! a?
diagram aa the table, "here inserted, depend of course,
for their explanation, upon the analysis in detail which will
follow. In the diagram, we have the median line of the palate
from root of front teeth to root of uvula,——the hard-palate
xt and thus, of course, sicaes shea even on ote open-
ness s—they indicate, also, the direction of the vocal current at
the termin
Diagram of Palato-lingual Positions.
Table of the Simple Vowel Elements.
| Grovp I.
—-last, ask, chant; Fr. la, lira, -a.
—father, calm ; Fr. dame, gt caver.
o ae arm, charge ; r. dme,
*:—Broad pron. of psalm, balm, pli, &c.; do, of Fr. ame, bas,
S. Porter on the Vowel Elements in Speech, 177
Group II.
a1!:—_war, lord, awe, pause
a?!:—all, water, long, daughter; first element in boy, voice.
a2 :—salt, although, cross, horror.
a* :—sod, nor, off, what, knowledge.
a* :—Low Ger. a; wrong pron. of war, lord, glory, forth, scorn, and of
first elem. in joy, rejoice.
Grovp IIL.
o1/:__main element in note, toe, low, loaf, door, mourn, beau, hautboy ;
nd.
Fr. éter, eau, pivot; Ger. Ofen, lobt, Mo
*:—Wrong pron. of note, toa C.
oat: Riggio samy propose, mellow; Fr, pete noble, porter, mot,
dom ; Ger., kochen, Holbe, Mer orgen
o? :—Wrong pron. "of cout toad, stone,
3 sn dot, folly, knock, proper ; Ger. Gott, flott, Ros
o* :— Wrong’ pron. of door, oar, board, &e.; Fr, encore, Sok alors, aurore,
Group IV,
u4!:—fool, pool, moon, move, shoe, soup; main and final elem. of wnion,
few, view, beauty ; Fr. rouler, vous; Ger. Schule, Stwhl, gut.
u2!:—full, pull, bosom, woman, should, good, foot, book ; final elem. in
eee ow, round; vanish of woe, row, ‘roll ; Fr. pal, bout,
bou : Ger. lustig, Schuld
ld, Bu nd.
—Wrong pds of pull, foot, book, é&e. : ; Ger. durch, Butte.
us :—fulfill, willfwl ; wrong in foot, s00 soon, put, de,
ut :—Qu: Scotch gude, sune, bluid, puir, (for good, soon, blood, sands
Initial of dew, new, tube, lute, suit, rude, &c.—u* or u
Group V.
6*!:_Ger. schén, Kénig, ds Fr. jeéine, heureuse, feux.
6?!:_Ger, Wérter, méchte; Fr. leur, jeune, amateur,
6? :—merey, virtue, girl, aL earl, pearl, earth.
63 :—up, ee cousin, rough, dove, done, flood; Fr. de, le, ce, and (nasal)
n, brun
:—Fr. ae re,
*:—Broad pron. “of church, rig &c; first elem. of our, bound, now,
also of ice, my, rig
oe VL
a* :—Ger. Madchen, téglich, wére, gabe, leben, geben, gelegen; sh
aprés, scéne, plaze, jamais, wm ee re, pere; Eng. their, fair, paren
4? :—care, there, peepee ae pair,—a? or a1; Ger. réchen, damme iain
.. :—at, cat, man, sad, ha
é*:—Drawling of cat, is &e.; Fr. (nasal) vin, fin, cousin.
Group VIL
1 :—Main elem. ia fate, name, great, vein the hail, pay, gaol, ree Ger,
mehr, jeder, ledig, ot Fr, perhaps in some cases the “open e.
e? :—nitrate, elima te, parliament, and usually initial in fata, name, yin
Ger. Fertig Keller, Liebe, Vater; Qu: Fr, aimer, maison, et ;
e? —get, egg, r end. ii
e* -—Qu: Fr, ie bite, féte?
178 S. Porter on the Vowel Elements in Speech.
ince VITL.
é1:—Fr. bonté, cité, j’az, aim
é? :—guinea, valey, pose sien and (vulgar) America; Fr. cette, telle,
, aime , Maiso
3 :—Ger. denn, Be tis sorchiane ne &e.
* :—Swedish long é, as in
Group IX,
#1:—machine, field, eat, eve, deep; Fr. avis, lire, amie; Ger. Mine, mr, wider.
ail:__Fr, ruse, Grue: Ger. aber, Schiiler.
22 :—divine, vehicle, mitegate, mandarin: the vanish of name, hail, &e.,
also of ice, my, &e., eh of oil, boy, &c.; Fr. ami, fiddle, fier,
hn Ger. mit, bitten, n cht.
#2!:__Fr, une, rude; Ger. Glick, tri Initial of union, view.
13 :—pin, hit, sin, wall.
a# ;—Draw wing = pin, wall, &c.; initial in a Yankee pron. of do, rude,
h, &.
Physiological Analysis of the Vowel Elements.
I. THe a VoweEts.—For these, the place of articulation is
between the root of the tongue and the extremity of the soft-
palate, that is, at the throat. That no part of the tongue but
the root is essentially concerned in the articulation, may be
easily ascertained: for the tongue can be variously rolled and
a without materially marring the vowel sound. The
tongue may lie loose upon the floor of the ribet except that
the whole will sepsis so participate in the movement of the
root portion as to be somewhat raised in the close vowel.
There are no labiale i in this group.
Degree1.— Vowel a'. This, the quite es vowel of the group,
is proper in such words as ‘staff, graft, ask, last, chant.
(Princ. of peri + 990, 6.) Itis the slodah i a in sa Pretielt as in la,
a strong tendency to pass into d° (cat),—the natu-
ral position ret the tongue and also that of the soft-palate being
nearly the same for both, —but the two sounds are to be clearly
discriminated.
2.— Vowel a?. The proper Italian a, and the ordinary
a in Pieuch, as établir, malade. In English, the Italian a, as we
call it, in father, arm, &e., is variously heard, but this form is to
regarded as the more elegant i in most cases
Degree 3.— Vowel a*. The open or broad a in French, as éme,*
bas, erdee, ee when under the circumflex.
—Vowel a*. The open French a may by some be
at ate in this form, that is, with the utmost depression of
the root of the tongue. So, also, the broad Low German a, an
the Scotch broad a, in man, &c., ‘though more commonly as 4‘.
* Principles of Pronunciation, prefixed to the new edition (1864) of Webster's
Dictionary.
S. Porter on the Vowel Elements in Speech. 179
In English, the @ may sometimes be ee saps; thus
broad and open, in words like psalm, balm
II. Toe & Vowers.—The poktarigk fee “of the tongue is.
somewhat raised and is adjusted on each side to the lower por-
tion of the soft-palate to form the vowel-tube, which thus extends
upward and forward a little way from the throat, and directs the
vowel current obliquely upward. In this condition of the back-
tongue, the tip and fore part will be naturally retracted, and
more or less so as the vowel is more or less close.
peaueee ground of the easy and frequent transition between
War, warm, awe, lord, form, order,
pinnae. (Prine, of Pan. $$ 7, 25.) The labial modification is
tion. If we attempt it, we e make an porn: to the soft Ger-
man g in Zage.
Degree 2.—Vowel a2". The difference between this and the
poosting i is not very strongly marked to the ear; but in some
words the associated eerie make the vowel less close, as
all, water, wander, son
— Vowel a. Sod Pio, ma off, what, knowledge;
differing a slightly from the prec
ree 4.—Vowel d*. Here properly “alls the broad Low Ger-
mana. Here, also, we find the initial element in a certain flat
pronunciation’ of joy, rejoice, &c., heard not unfrequently,—4d*
in place of d?4. Some speakers use this i A place of the properly
close vowel in war, all, lord, niet &c., and even for the long o
in glory, glorious, and other wo
he Scotch mon, blaw, snaw, (for man, blow, snow,) obviously
* Gardiner, in his Music of Nature, (p. 61, Am. ed.,) says of Macready ,“ By
aiming too much a t distinctness, he incurs a false pronunciation of the dg
which proceeds ies his drawi ng back too ack the corners of his mouth ;
We wey Scarn for scorn, go "varth for oh forth, harrible! harrible! for horrible ! ! hor-
rible !” Drowing bask the corners of the mouth is identical with entire absence of
labial modification ; the vowel actually heard was, I doubt not, d*. 3 :
180 S,. Porter on the Vowel Elements in Speech.
belong to the @ group, but, to which degree, wig opportunities
have not been such as to enable me to determin
It is to be remarked that the open-depressed degree suits in all
cases with long quantity, and thus, in every group except. the
first (a), is liable to appear as a substitute for the close degree,
weet is naturally long in all but the first group, while the
mply open degree (No. 3) is, with the same exception, the one
fea of all fitted for ee quantity
Ill. THe o VowrELs.—The palato- -lingual passage is extended
one step further, to a higher point along the velum palati; and,
in direction, is inclined still more highly upward; the velum
palati itself is higher and more arched. As the back- jonas is
thus raised, the fore-part will vet rise also, Like a
the preceding group, the tongue will naturally be erased
more or less according to the degree of closeness.
The close and open or middle o correspond to the long and
short o in most of the languages of Europe; thus we have 0
close and long in our note, open and short in not. There is,
however, in the Italian and some other tongues, especially the
Danish and wedish, a distinction of so-called open and close
not identical with this ; and to confound that with this would
e a serious mistake. ‘The Italian close o (o chiuso, stretto) is
described by Dietz, A. J. Ellis, and others, as nearer to the w
(rude, full). The Italian open 0, Ss gio largo,) probably lies a
little on the other side of our o and nearer to the d. The dis-
tinction, which holds alike in the long a the short vowels—
croce, bocea (close), modo, dotto (open), —is at this day a nicety
of pronunciation not generally recognized or regarded except in
the purest style of the language as spoken by native Italians.
Degree 1.— Vowel 0%. Note, old, over, &c., that is, the “long 0”;
French, tréne, dter, repos, clos, dé épéat, pivot, au, eau, Ke. ; ‘Ger-
man, Ofen, lobt, Mond, &e.
The English "long o” is almost always diphthongal, or com-
pound, taking a vanish in another vowel, which is commonly of
the w group (full, food); as plainly appears in hoe, bow, no, bowl,
owe, low, &c. Followed by r, as in board, store, gore, oar, roar,
the vanish is a labial vowel of the d é group (but, err, Fr. eu).
In spoke, broke, over, also, on uickly uttered, the vanish, if
any, is imperceptibly slight. nglish as spoken by foreigners,
the long o without the coat in accordance with their own
v
open eusy pies 3) of eg grou
Vowel 0’. Sometimes heard oa an improper mode of pro-
nouncing the long o in English, —with the vanish, but without
aes Ph =
S. Porter on the Vowel Elements in Speech. 181
labial modification: one of the affectations of some public speak-
ers. It might possibly be identified as an Irish or Scottish peeu-
liarity, or both. ,
egree 2.— Vowel o?', Heard in syllables which take a sort of
secondary accent, as opinion, cotemporary, agony, mulatto, mel-
low, propose, proceed. And in a considerable number of words,
such as stone, coat, toad, loaf, &c., the best taste will, perhaps,
prefer this to the extreme close 0, not neglecting, however, some-
thing of the vanish ; also in torn, lorn, board, door, &e.
Ve have here the shorter o in French, as obéir, noble, &c.
The German short o may, as I think, fall sometimes here an
sometimes in the third or open degree.
owelo?. An extremely improper pronunciation of a class
of words just alluded to, coat, stone, toad, throat, whole, loaf,
&c., quite common in America, and more especially in the rustic
dialect of New England. The fault is commonly described as
consisting simply in the omission of the vanish (Prine. of Pron.,
$20), but the non-labial character and the more open degree
are in fact equally essential. Board, door, oar, torn, are
also frequently and faultily so pronounced.
egree 3.— Vowel o?. Not, dot, hop, &c., which with those un-
der a? (nor, off, sod, &c.,) are the “short o” in English. The
distinction between o* and @%, though slight and usually not
regarded by orthoépists, is actually existent in practice, but
depends mostly, we believe, on the influence of consonants
associated.
Here, I think, belongs the shortest German 0, Gott, Ross,
flott; as also the French, sotte, culotte, folle, &c.
egree 4.— Vowel o*. Differs not greatly, but I think apprecia-
bly, from the d*. Here belongs, if I mistake not, the French
encore, corps, alors, aurore. We hear it in one of the several
mispronunciations of beard, ear, torn, forth, &c.
IV. Tae w Voweis.—The palato-lingual passage reaches
another step forward on the tongue, and to a higher point upon
the soft-palate; the vocal current is nearly vertical in direction,
and the soft-palate is arched upward extremely: the group
stands as the terminus of an ascending series from the throat. :
n this group, the tongue, in passing from open to close, is
perceived to be distinctly elevated as well as retracted.
Degree 1.— Vowel ut. The closer and usually longer oo, as
food, &c.; the o in do, &c.; oe in shoe, &c.; ou in you, &.; the
main and final part of the compound in wnion, view, few, eres
&c. Whether the u in rude, ruin, &c., should take a slight
initial sound of another vowel, is made a matter of question.
I think it strikes, or should do so, a more open vowel of the
group, and then falls upon this; as it does also in dew, new, 4
tube, lure, suit, &e. : .
Am. Jour. Sc1.—Szconp Series, Vou. XLII, No. 125.—Sepr., 1866,
24 3
182 S. Porter on the Vowel Elements in Speech.
This is the long wv vowel of most European languages. In
French, it is the long ow; the letter u, as alone, having early
gone over from this to a vowel group further forward.
The labial contraction is closer in this vowel than in the close
o. ‘lhe vowel bas a peculiar mellow smoothness, and imparts
the same character to the 0, when added thereto as a vanish. It
is possible to utter the palato-lingual part of this vowel without
the labial modification, but not smoothly and with perfectly pure
vowel quality.
Degree 2.— Vowel u?', Full, push, bosom, should, good, foot, &c.
In the proper pronunciation of these words, the lips are con-
tracted to nearly or quite the same degree as for the close o
simple. It is the final element in the diphthong our, now,
round, and the usual vanish of woe, low, roll, &c., the long 0.
In French, we have it in coup, bout, bourse, &c., that is, the
shorter ou. Itis the short or middle u of the German and of
most of the languages of Europe.
_ Vowel u?. This non-labial is frequently used in America,
improperly, in place of each of the two preceding, as in foot,
soot, root, roof, soon, book, shoot, full, put. If I mistake not, it is
the proper form of the shortest u in German, as in durch, &e.
egree 3.— Vowel u*. The unaccented fulfill, willful, &c.; also,
to, do, &e., when uneniphatic and somewhat slurred; also for-
merly common and still to be heard in New England in some,
if not all, of the class of words just specified, foot, soon, &c.
Young misses who mince their words will pronounce two, as
well as too, in this way. But slight change in the action of the
organs is needed to convert this utterance into either a short?
or a French wu.
Degree 4.— Vowel u*. Heard, as I incline to think, in the
Scotch gude or guid, sune, suld, blude or bluid, dure, &c. (for
goad, soon, should, blood, door, &c.), with perhaps a vanish in an-
new, tube, lute, &c. (Prine. of Pron., § 30.
‘ E 6 Vowets.—The palato-lingual tube reaches yet
further forward, but hardly beyond the extreme fore-part of the
soft palate. ‘he edges of the tongue join the borders of the
palate about «s far as to the hinder teeth, and the tip of the
tongue is naturally further forward than in the more close of the
degrees in the preceding group.
In this and in all the remaining groups, the degrees of close
and open are made by the greater and less elevation or depres
sion of the tongue, and not at all by its retraction.
yvee 1.— Vowel 01", A sound strange to English ears; the
long & in German, as schén, Kénig; the long close eu in Frene
as jefine, heureuse, fewx.
S. Porter on the Vowel Elements in Speech. 183
egree 2.— Vowel 6?'. The shorter German @, as Worter,
méchte; the French ew in leur, jewne, peur, &c.
wel 62. There i is, In English, a class of cases in which e,
in up, but, or burn, urge. But orthoépists agree, for the most
Pah that a different Utterance in these cases is sanctioned y
e best usage,—without mang well agreed, however, as to its
ost character. As I he e describe it, the vowel differs from
the French leur simply re the acti of the labial modification,
i Prin. of ae §§ 14
egree 3.— Vowe 16%, The 2 in up, but, &e.; o and oo in don
company, flood, &c.; oe in does; .—unaecented syllables tend Ri
this sound, as altar, os, tapir, "zephyr, verbal, bedlam, ballad,
methed, &e, Fre equen inglish, but rare in other European
tongues, In French, occurs nasalized in wn, brun, Pr and is
the so-called “e feminine,” as e, ce, de mande, dame, when
not elided,—aunless this takes PEE OH of a labial modification.’
This English vowel is described by some German grammari-
ans as appre e the short German 6 and lying between that
and the short 0.” some English phonologists, it has be een
called “the — vowel,” and by others “the neutral vowel”
and for the most part they seem ata loss how to locate it ee
their systems. Dr. Rapp, in his Physiologie der sarees ae :
it the Urlaut, Urvocal, the original, or primitive vowel. It
y some described as “the unmodified vowel.” To pe se
that this vowel is not mere vocal tone unmodified, we need but
to notice the fixed, rigid position of the tongue in the utterance,
e vocal e ement or tone, In the consonants wv, zy &e., is
unmodified ous wise, but is clearly unlike the vowel in ques-
tion. Only, when the ‘vowel is slurred and almost elided, as in
perform, token, or Fr. eg dela, there is probably no deter-
minate vowel modifcatio
Degree 4.— Vowel 6*!, tthe best French orthoépists have dis-
tinguished the aa of eu before r, in beurre, coeur, &e., as a
road and open one; as do also some of the best instructors.
It is recognized by the ear as an approach to an open- depre
a or d, and falls exactly into the place here assigned it.
Vou vel i, This, as by itself, we have only to “note as a broad,
flat, drawling utterance of the w in up, but, (G3), and by some
clerical speakers affected in church, work, ke.
. Vaisse ranks this ¢ as a “ labio- palatal. ” Palsgrave (1530) ascribes to
it a nasa aiguctty: : says the reader should “ sodeynly nh BN his voyee when
cometh to the soundynge of hym, and also sounde hym ¥ in the |
wD. Eclaireixsem ssement, &e,: ed. Genin.
* See Matzner, , Eng. Grammatik, i, 14; and Fiedler, p. 115,
»
184 S. Porter on the Vowel Elements in Speech.
This element is, however, important as the initial of two
diphthongs, viz., ow or ow (our, now), and long? (zce, kite), ac-
cording to the best usage. The Scotch give the long 7 as d* +0";
some of the North of England dialects as d+7; we sometimes
hear it as a?+7?, sometimes as +27, not to ‘speak of other
variations.
VI. Tse & Vowr.s.—The vowel-tube, reaching a ste
further, fairly ns upon the hard palate above; and the borders
of the tongue will there meet either the teeth or the gums or
palate on each side. The tip of the nce will be naturally
more advanced than for the —- group.
egree 1.— Vowel i'. e longer German d, as Madchen, wire,
&e. ‘The long and grave German e, as leben, geben, gelegen, is
the same, unless somewhat less close." Also, the “open-gra
é, So- called, in French, as apres, scéne, jamais, faire, pere, pe
In other languages 0 turope, also, es someti mes takes a similar
sound, improperly nev oto as s “open.” Thus in Spanish, as
we are taught in Sales’ Gra , “before n, 7, s, z, in the same
2a é 18 sopdotnted more ¥en; as in the English words
are.” In Italian, e has such a so-called open sound in
Soiceroun ords.
In En stish: this vowel occurs only as followed by r. Herr.
therr, fair, fairy, parent, pazr, bear, &., take properly Ther ae
or else the middle degree (d?), usage ‘being diverse; an
give improperly the ‘long a” sound (er). I incline to a dis-
prayer, care, pear, and others. The influence of some professe
orthoépists, whose obtuseness has led them to ignore the dis-
tinction between this vowel and the “long a,” has tended to
expel the sound from the language. Still, as respects the
English “Jong a” itself, the usage is less settled and uniform
than is generally supposed, In some quarters it even takes th
vowel sound here in question, which once regularly belo nged to
it,” and this cause may have helped to obscure the distinction
" The distinction between the ¢ in leben, de, and ths Pore long e (see the ¢
Jac
group), is gn by Jacob Grimm ssa —s but would s t to be univ eae
observed at the present day. Heyse, in his Selnlgrammati, ‘deseribes this ¢ as
similar t e d, aimee t would come nearer to + which is somewhat
change that g white of pe paaeth time came ‘about. Two hun dred yea
ago, Dr. Jo a Wallis and Bishop Wilkins knew no other English ee of a pe
what they both describe expressly as the Italian sound, long and short. e ai,
which now almost invariably ave the “long a” sound,—pa ail, main, not bged vs
from pale, mane,—was then usually a proper diphthong, the same now used in
oat ord aye, iia sometimes Sard yet in Isaiah, Sinai, aisle.
S. Porter on the Vowel Elements in Speech. 185
: just alluded to. Such a use is marked by Alex. M. Bell,
Edi nburgh, as “an oratorical and especially a pulpit Sookie
as “in nation, education, gracious, &c.” (Elocutionary Manual,
&e., Edinb., 1859 4 But, as I am told that it is a marked char-
acteristic in the pronunciation of some English public speak-
ers, the Rey. James Martineau among others, and as I have bh care
it not unfrequently from native Americans, I am dis isposed t
regard it rather as a relic of olden time whieh soot tg) habit
has preserved to some extent, and more especially in the pulpit
and on the stage
It is not unusual to describe e vowel in question as identical
with the e in met prolonged. The truth is that to prolong the e
in met without change of cutie is difficult, and ane attempt is
q apt to produce this ‘vowel as a watter of fact: yet the two are
: really different in — quality. The aicied is good as a
practical rule, but not to be accepted as a true analysis.
legree 2.— Vowel ii In treating of the vowel above, we have
remarked sufficiently upon this, as concerns the Enylish. I
= vag she shorter a takes this sound in many words, as rdchen,
dam , though in perhaps the greater number
differ pautialiy from the short e; but there is a want of uni-
formity in its Sian rag 5 by the Germans themselves.
egree 3.— Vowel G*. The so-called short ¢ in English, as at,
eat, man. Not ae rd inGerman. In French, modern wee in-
ree 4,.— e
of the short a Fa in the genuine aenkee dialéat, whieh ae
substitutes it for d' or d, as in where, hair, &c., and, 1 resides
using it conspicuously in are, takes it Ae initial element i = out,
cow, now, round, the whole compound being nearly @*+0°+u
The vowel involves such an action of the velum palati as super-
adds a decided nasal quality. Fully nasalized, it is the French
tn, as vin, fin, cousin, &e.
close form, passed over to the present “long oY which lies in the fy group _
ward. l ed
Exam nples of the transitional us were observed,—within the prese
century, of course,—by the eminent phonvlogist and linguist, Dr. Erasmus Rask, pe
_ says: “The é ferme, es es —which we have yet to sabe 2 very
frequent in Danish but not of ata nt occurrence in Bhglsh still it is found es
such words as their, vein, tek have a differe nt sound fr
- Ido not forget that Dr. k is regarded some as mo
t a ; but somewhat unjas' s
Danish Grammar, edited by Repp, and professedly a faithful reproduce!
sep e such distinction made ee
uc.
Lectures on the English Language, by G. P. M.
285.) ‘Did Mr. M.’s usual accuracy fail him in this case?
186 S. Porter on the Vowel Elements in Speech.
VII. Tue e VowrEts.—The passage is extended still further
on the hard-palate and the tongue, and the tip of the tongue
will naturally be found further forwar
Degree 1.— Vowel e'. The “long a” in English, as in ale, fate,
great, vein, hal, day, &c. ; ee the more usual German long é,
as in mehr, jeder; the other, in leben, &., has been already ‘de-
scribed as @'. Possibly » some one of the two or three or more
varieties of the “open e” in French may not differ materially
rom this.
This vowel, in English, more commonly takes a vanish in an
2 vowel (peque, pzn, Ke.) : ; as it plainly does always in say, ray,
» aC,
egree 2.— Vowel e?. Occurs in English in lightly accented or
eeew syllables; as nitrate, carbonate, climate, parlament,
pidary, comparative, &c. In such a case as edge, the conso-
nant inclines the vowel to this instead of the open “sound of e in
get, t ough edge would never be made close like age. The long
a is “iaeails struck upon this degree, falling quick y upon the
closer sound for the main part, and ending « off with the vanish
ini; e.g., name, ga pain; but in quick. utterance, the closer
sound is not given
This is the usual shee e of pte Gamma accented and unac-
eee ag fertig, on Liebe,
— Vovel e?, The auslish short e, so-called, as in get,
egg, ae “We do not hear previsel y this in the shortest French
e, crtte, trompette, nor in the German, as denn, Bett, i ;—denn
is not just the maatee den, is sechs the same with s
gree 4.— Vow let, ‘lo this I am disposed to ape the
French é, as in téte, ie. In ‘inalist the long a may be some-
times draw led into ‘this form, and. singers do this sometimes ees
the sliort ¢, as iu self, ten, fur exa mple ; but in each case it is a
flat and faulty pronunciation.
vi HE é VowkeLs.—The passage reaches well on to the
forward part of the hard-palate and the tongue
Degree 1.—Vowel é1. The close é and ai of the French, as
nté, cité, j'ai, aimeraz. The sound may sometimes be given
to the English long a, but such is not the usual pronunciation.
Degree 2.— Vowel é g2, The French “open acute” e and a, as
eette, ii. aimer, maison; also heard in ‘certain unaccented syl-
lables Nglish, as guinea, valley, carried, college, resist, pre
pare, appchig level, busy, city, and in the vulgar a final, as
America, Cuba, Eliza. The vowel is aihaubat “difficult to dis-
eriminate from wa “ the feeding group
Po this belongs, I think, the German
we, Bat a pas a shortest French e, as trompette, &c. -
naccented, in goodness, knowledge, trumpet, de.
rights heat here being not the short #, nor the regular short »
but intermediate.
aga
S. Porter on the Vowel Elements in Speech. 187
Degree 4.— Vowel é*. The Swedish long é, as Carlén, from the
best information I have, would appear +5 8 tat orrectly described
as this vowel. Dr. Thomas's des: sription of it (Webster’s Dic-
tionary, new ed., p. 1684) as “a sound resembling that of short
¢ et a " would fee it very near to this,
IX. tie t Vo —The most advanced group in the scale
a
the middle and back part of the ae: is sep aie 0 & position
somewhat like that for the uw vowels, and with a aictiler or even
oi arching up of the solt- -palate,
I give this as the precise arrangement which brings out the
sinnd most distinctly and most naturally. But, im all the ante-
rior groups, as before remarked, owing to the extensile structure
of the tongue, the articulation may have a determinate and
nearly invariable place upon the palate, and yet reach to a vari-
able point on the tongue. Thus, in this case, the tongue may
be thrust forward, with the tip and fore part depressed behind
the lower teeth; the terminus of the vowel-tube falling further
, of course.” The variation is the same as may occur in
the so-called ii consonants, ¢,n, d, which are properly made
with the tip of the tongue, but can be uttered by using a part
of the tongue considerably further back.
The peculiar shape of the palatal arch, as it converges forward
and gives to the passage a rounded form, would seem to bear an
essential part in producing the vowels ‘of this group. If they
can be imperfectly imitated at a place further back on the palate,
it is done only by so shaping the si as to make a somewh
ae converging fees rounded passag
gree 1, — Vou weli', Machine, field, eat, &e., and the BEY
ends - as eve, r, dee eep, &C. ; the long 7 on the continent, as
(Fr.) avis, lire, 2 seer and (Ge er.) Mine, mer, wider.
Vowel 1, aco long g u of-the French, as ruse, grue, and long
% of the Germa ‘iber, Schiiler. As co commonly uttered, it
might, if peor ‘ds labial modification, form a somewhat im-
ure 7, made such by some admixture of ‘weousonantal y. This
vonel < ahead sowhsen exists as developed from an original
uv
Vowel 12. The so-called short z of the French, as
ami, fiddle, vif, and of the German, as mit, bitten, ncht. In
English, may be heard in vehement, vehicle, divine, mitigate,
ae As resented in the diagram in Max Miiller’s Lectures, second series, p. ~~
selon ‘be canas at fault in placing the _— of approximation q)
188 S. Porter on the Vowel Elements in Speech.
&c.: and, in ee — chloréd, &c., is preferable to
the closer sound, It makes the usual vanish of “long a” in
name, praise, die: the whole bei ‘ing commonly e* be? +17; “alae
the final element ‘of “long 7,” ice (8 +63+47?), and of ov, oy, as
toil, boy (4?'+73),
gt! n he shorter French wu, as wne, rude, ruban, per-
haps a little more open in butte, russe, &c.; and the shorter
German iw. as Gliick, wiinschen, Miitter. e have in this—and
not in the simple 2? or {!—the initial part of the English long
u, as union, use, soho mute, and of you in youth, you, ” &e, an
eau in béanty. etween this and the main and fina | element,
ape is a distinct acctuntdal y. So that the long wu is 7!+y+
propound this,—with deference of course to the “ Auto-
ric’ "—as the “Soe of f how to Hot the word view.
3.— Vowel 13. The “short 2” in pin, hit, g’ve, &e. The
acoat otice may sometimes snpeen this, as in petite,
risque, ville, and the German in bitten, »st; but are hardly, we
think, to be ranked here.
— ee 4,—Voweli*. Heard in an improper ce: on of
rear, viz.,:t" (eve), é? ‘aid, ¢ ' (fate), a " Gh, Madchen),
(Kénig, j eine), u'! (goze), 0! (oak), he ae ’ (past), we
shall find the ition of the organs such that, if we suppose a
tween tongue and palate, it would enter fur-
ther and further with each successive vowel,
We have only to use a thin rod, or even a yeh to perio
e that, at the point of the wedge su
Es
vowel station is simply carried back, and that the difference is
not one of merely open and close. The same thing may be
J. J. Woodward on Photo-micrography. 189
done with the series of open vowels 7%, é*, &. (pin, Ger. denn,
end, cat, but, willful, not, ner, Fr. bas or Eng. balm),—and the
same fact of the regress of the vowel station will be observed.
Experiments of this sort, fairly made, seem to me to furnish
complete demonstration of the leading principles on which I
insist. Further proof will appear in the sequel.
Tf, on the other hand, we try to arrange all the vowels in a
single series on any principle whatever, we find ourselves ut-
terly baffled. If we distinguish them as simply more and less
open or close, we find confusion instead of order. Nor should
these terms open and close be applied otherwise than as I have
done. It is true they might not unaptly be used to describe the
difference as the vowel station moves back toward the throat or
forward from it,—even as they might describe the corolla of a
flower unfolded down toward the base or only near the tip,—
but the terms are wanted to indicate the width of the expansion,
and must therefore not be used for the depth. Neither is the
confusion escaped by setting the labials in a class by themselves,
arranged according to the extent of the labial opening: the
labials cannot be all so discriminated, if we include all in actual
use, while for the non-labials the difficulty still holds. Nor will
any other subdivision answer, which falls short of the group-
ings, or substantially such, as in the scheme here presented.
[To be continued. ]
Art. XXVI.—On Photo-micrography with the highest powers, as
practised in the Army Medical Museum; by J. J. Woopwarp,
M.D., Asst. Surgeon and Brevet Major U.S. Army, in charge
of the Record and Pension Division Surgeon General’s Office,
and of the Medical Section Army Medical Museum.
PHotocRrapPHy had but just begun to attract attention when
the attempt was made by Donné to reproduce microscopic objects
by the Daguerrean process; and although the results of these ex-
periments were far from satisfactory, they promised enough to lead
to further efforts in this direction, renewed with each step in the
gradual improvement of the photographic art. These exertions
were crowned by acontinual progress, which did not however
keep pace with the development of other branches of photogra-
phy, though it must be admitted that in the hands of the more
modern experimenters, and especially of Prof. Gerlach of Erlan-
gen, Jos. Albert of Munich and Dr. R. L. Maddox of Southamp-
ton, the success has been such as to guarantee a wide field of
usefulness for this method of representation.
In America, the chief experimenters have been Prof.
Rood of Columbia College and Mr. Lewis M. Rutherfurd of
Am. Jour. Sct.—Srconp Series, Vou. XLII, No. 125.—Sxpr, 1866. ee
25
£0. N,
190 J.J. Woodward on Photo-micrography.
York. Besides these, mention must be made of the paper of Dr.
John Dean of Boston on the Spinal Cord, which is illustrated by
photomicrographs reproduced by photolithography. The work
of D n however was done with magnifying powers not ex-
ceeding ten or twelve diameters, while both Professor Rood and
Mr. Rutherfurd have experimented with very high powers.
Prof. Rood published a very interesting account of his process
in this Journal in 1861.’ Omitting details, it appears from this
paper that in his operations, he used direct sunlight for illumina-
tion, and employed ordinary achromatic objectives with or without
eye-pieces. The difference between the visual and chemical foci
he endeavored to overcome by an alteration of the fine adjustment
after the plan suggested by Shadbolt.? Prof. Rood thus obtain-
achromatic objectives. In May, 1865, Mr. Lewis M. Rutherfurd,
New York, published a paper on Astronomical Photography,’
which contained the following suggestive passages. “T
vergence. On applying this test I found that an objective of flint
and crown in which the visual was united with the photographic
focus, (in other words, where the instrument sala be focalized
on a plate of ground glass by the eye, as in ordinary cameras,
and in the heliographs constructed by Dalmayer for the Kew
observatory and for the Russian government,) is a mere com-
romise to convenience in which both visual and actinic qual-
ities are sacrificed. ”
* On the practical application of Photography to the microscope; by Prof. 0. N.
Rood ; vol, xxxii, p. 186
.
On the photographi ‘delineation of microscopic objects by artificial illumination.
. of Mi i ci
4.
phic
Geo. Shadbolt, Esq. Quarterly Journ. of Microscopical Science, xol. i, p. 165.
Astronomical Photography ; by Lewis M. Rutherfurd, this Journal, xxxix, 30
J. J. Woodward on Photo-micrography. 191
crown lens should be combined with a flint which will pro-
duce a combined focal length about one-tenth shorter than would
be required to satisfy the conditions of achromatism for the eye,
and in this condition the objective is entirely worthless for vis-
ion.” With a telescopic objective constructed on this principle,
Mr. Rutherfurd obtained telescopic photographs of such satisfac-
tory quality that he concludes his paper as follows:
“The success of this telescopic objective has encouraged me
to hope that an almost equal improvement may be made for
photography in the microscope, which instrument is more favor-
ably situated for definition than the telescope, since it is inde-
pendent of atmospheric conditions, Its achromatic status is
easily examined by the spectroscope, using as a star the solar
image reflected from a minute globule of mercury. Mr. Wales
is now constructing for me a one-tenth objective, which, upon
his new plan, is to be provided with a tube so arranged as to ad-
mit the removal of the rear combination, and in place of the one
ordinarily used, one is to be substituted at will which shall
bring to one focus the actinic rays.”
This objective was satisfactorily constructed by Mr. Wales (of
Fort Lee, N. J.) and Mr. Rutherfurd made with it a number of
experiments, full of promise, though his other pursuits prevented
him from following out the new plan to its ultimate results,
Such was the condition of photo-micrography in America
when it occurred to me to resort to this method of illustration
in preparin proper representations of the histological studies
of camp diseases which have been made by me or under m
se ese for the Official Medical History of the War of the Re-
lion.
done in this direction. This is also the opinion of Dr. lox,
whose judgment is of the greater value as he is one of the most
successful laborers in this direction in Europe, ;
192 J, J. Woodward on Photo-micrography.
The principles involved in obtaining successful photographs
with the microscope are the following:
1. 'To use objectives so corrected as to bring the actinic ray
to a focus.
2. To illuminate by direct sunlight passed through a solution
of ammonio-sulphate of copper, which excludes practically all
but the actinic extremity of the spectrum.
3. Where it is desired to increase the power of any objective,
to use a properly constructed achromatic concave instead of an
eye-piece.
4. To focus on plate glass with a focusing glass, instead of
ground glass.
5. With high powers to use a heliostat to preserve steady
illumination.
. Where an object exhibits interference phenomena when
illuminated with parallel rays, as is the case with certain diatoms
and many of the soft tissues, to produce a proper diffusion of
the rays by interposition of one or more plates of ground glass
in the illuminating pencil.
Strict adherence to these principles is indispensable to success.
= he Museum they have been carried out by the following
etails :
occupied by a shutter about fourteen inches high on which the
blackened sash shuts down light-tight. In this shutter is a
phragm or the achromatic condenser fits into the tube projecting
inward from the shutter by which the sun’s light reflected from
the mirror outside is admitted. A black velvet hood covers the
rts about the stage and objective of the microscope, and thus
prevents the leakage of light into the room.
*
J. J. Woodward on Photo-micrography. 193
The plate holder is movable backward and forward on the
walnut frame on which the microscope stands, its maximum dis-
tance from the stage of the microscope being nearly nine feet.
To permit ready focusing at distances greater than the length
of the arm, a wooden rod #ths of an inch in diameter and capa-
ble of easy rotation runs the whole length of the right side of the
frame. ‘The milled head of the fine adjustment of the microscope
is grooved, and a small grooved wheel in the end of the rod
permits the two to be connected with a band. The operator
standing at any part of the frame can therefore manipulate the
fine adjustment by simply turning the wooden rod in his fingers.
The arrangements of light, position of object, coarse adjust-
ment, &c., are made by the operator, who stands by the micro-
scope, which has a suitable eye-piece adjusted, and observes the
object in the usual way; afterwards, removing the eye-piece
and going to the plate holder, the final focusing is made by
means of the wooden rod, the image being viewed with a focus-
ing glass on a piece of plate glass held in the same frame which
is to receive the sensitive plate.
he cell containing the ammonio-sulphate of copper hangs
outside the shutter over the hole by which light is admitted.
It not only excludes the unnecessary illuminating rays, but pre-
vents danger to the objective from the concentrated solar heat
and permits the eye of the operator to view the objects about
to be copied without fatigue or injury. Latterly a plate of alum
has also been used to exclude solar heat especially during any
temporary removal of the ammonio-sulphate cell. The chemical
processes employed are well known to all photographers. With
the above apparatus, it has been found that the best defined
pictures are obtained when the distance employed with any ob-
jective does not exceed three or four fee é
The achromatic concave used as a substitute for the eye-piece
is a combination of somewhat more than half an inch transverse
194 J. J. Woodward on Photo-micrography.
been taken in the Army Medical Museum is a th, manufac-
tured recently for the Museum by Messrs. Powell and Lealand of
London. The subject selected for the experiment was Pleuro-
sigma angulatum, ith the ,),th and three feet nine inches dis-
tance and without an eye-piece, a picture of a portion of a frus-
tule was obtained magnified 2,344 diameters. This negative
readily bore enlargement to 19,050 diameters. The field in the
About the same time experiments were made with the Wales’
$th, due amplification being given by the achromatic concave.
It was intended to obtain with this the same power as with the
- sth, but, although the distance was reduced to 8 feet, the subse-
quent measurements showed 2,540 diameters, or about 200 diam-
ings on Pleurosigma angulatum, an opinion which had previ-
ously been expressed by Mr. Wenham.
At the date of publication of Circular No. 6, Surgeon Gene-
ral’s Office, both Dr. Curtis and myself believed these markings
to be hexagonal, as was stated and figured on page 148 of that
work. The greater power now obtained has corrected this opin-
ion, but it is worthy of note that in the present pictures the
markings appear hexagonal in both the small ones, if viewed
with the eye at the visual distance, while on close inspection or
with a lens they are seen to be circular. In the pictures with
19,050 diameters the circular shape of the markings is very plain,
t if viewed from a considerable distance or with a concave
lens, they appear hexagonal. I also send you herewith a photo-
graph of cartilage magnified 370 diameters, in illustration of the
results attainable in the photography of the soft tissues. bh
* On the evidence furnished by Photography as to the nature of the markings on
the Pleurosigma angulatum ; by Prof. Q. N. Rood, this Journal, vol. xxxii, p. 335.
A, Gray on a Dimerous Flower. 195
— _— capsules, corpuscles and nuclei with the utmost
% ae it 1s our Opinion that henceforward photography is
indispensable to the proper representation of microscopic objects,
and is, as practised in the Army Medical Museum, even in its
poi) condition, adequate to the satisfactory representation of
all microscopic objects that do not depend for their value on
colors.
Art. XXVII—WNote on a Regular Dimerous se lower of Cypripe-
dium candidum; by ASA GRA
Mr. J. A. Paine, Jr., of New York, who two years ago de-
tected an interesting monstrosity of Pogonia iho poade: has
now brought to me, preserved in spirit, a monstrous blossom of
Cypripedium candidum, which demands a recor
_ The plant bears two flowers: the axillary one is normal; i
terminal one exhibits the following peculiarities. The low
fe of the bract forms a sheath which encloses the ovary. The
labellum is wanting; and there are two phe stamens, the su-
pernumerary one being opposite the other, i.e. on the side of
the style where the labellum belongs. ocardinsly the first im-
pression would be that the labellum is here transformed into a
sterile stamen. The latter, however, car with the normal
sterile stamen in its insertion as well as in shape, being x Spon
adnate to the base of the style. Moiesres the anteposed sep
is exactly like the other, has a good midrib and an entire Pe ee
the two sterile stamens are anteposed to the two sepals, so
is longer than usual, is pate and erect; tke biead disciform
stigma therefore faces upwards ; it is oval and symmetrical, and
alight groove across its middle shows it to be dimerous. The
placentze, accordingly, are only two. The groove on the stigma
and Be placentz are in line with the fertile stamens.
re, therefore, is a symmetrical and complete, regular, but
Bienen orchideous flower, the first verticil of stamens not an-
theriferous, the ene antheriferous, the carpels alternate with
these; and here we have clear (and perhaps the first direct) de-
monstration that the orchideous type of flower has two stamin
Verticils, as Brown always insisted.
196 Contributions from the Sheffield Laboratory.
Art. XXVIII.— Contributions from the Sheffield Laboratory of Yale
College—XII. Analysis of a Mineral Water; by FREDERICK F.
THomas, Ph.B.
THE mineral spring, the water of which is the subject of this
notice, is situated in the town of Barton, Tioga Co., New York,
about seven miles northeast of the village of Waverly, near
what is called Talmadge Hill. It is one of two sulphur springs
that have been observed in that county. The other, resembling
it in character, is about twenty miles north, near the village of
Spencer; both have been noticed in the State geological reports,
and have been in repute for many years among the inhabitants of
that region on account of certain remedial properties which their
this Laboratory, consist ri
also contain sulphuric acid
quantities, some potash, soda and iron, as well as chlorine,
organic matter, and a trace of manganese. They turn black upon
heating before the blowpipe, but no effervescence is o
on treating them, in the pulverized state, with acids. The wa-
of sulphuric acid made on the water as soon as received at the
laboratory, gave 0°116 grain per gallon, while other estimations,
e from water which had remained sealed in bottles for some
weeks, gave a slightly larger amount, which resulted from oxyda-
tion of sulphur.
As the rocks in which the spring rises contain traces of man-
F. F. Thomas—Analysis of a Mineral Water. 195
A few feet from this spring there rises eter Shilig, “Sam
from the same formation, but containing no sulph
tom and sides of the spring are covered with a ealcewahs white
coating of separated sulphur; bubbles of gas rise at frequent
intervals, and on acta the surface burst, emitting the odor
of sulphuretted hydrog
he substances icbaakind in the water are potash, soda, am-
monia, lim me, magnesia, iron, alumina, carbonic acid, chlorine,
sulphuric acid, sulphydric acid, silicic acid, eee matter, and
slight traces of nitric and phosphoric _
The results of seen were as follo
Potash, 2 - 0- 070 grains per gallon.
oda, ahem a aaa
Ammonia (NH, 0), ‘ is sie “ “ «
Lim = « 2 125 “ “ “
Mace - mt 0°946 “ “ “
Ox aye of 7 iron and alumina, - 0°360 ‘“ “ “
Carbonic aed, - 12-992 “ “ ‘“
ilie eae - - - - 0°983 “ “ “
Chlo - - - - 1°293 “ “ “
Sulphurie acid, - - 0116 « “ “
Organic — ges at a 1/160 wie “
Sulphur, e , ‘ 1524 “ “ “
tal, - $82:910 = ie i
These mapa et may be combined in the following manner :
Chiorid of sodium, - = 2045 grains per gallon.
potassium, - - 0-110 * a i
Carbonate of soda, - - = TAP.’ : o :
a oe G50 eS veal ates
“ — ig ao 8°650 “ ““ “
“i ae csi, a « 1-987 “c “ “
Sulphate of lim - - ~ 0197 a : x
aes of iron ‘and alumina - 0°360 . %
Olesnig matter, oe
Su pur, - -
Carbonic aad 2S
Total, een
Add oxygen equiv. to chlorine,
sa
198 M. C. Lea on the action of Light upon Iodid of Silver.
prea that amount crisis to the sulphuric acid fan
by analysis was deducted and the remainder set down as sul-
bear The carbonic acid was determined by adding weighed
amounts of the water to chlorid of calcium that had been freed
previously from carbonic aci
The ammonia was determined by Boussingault’s method.
general, the methods given in Fresenius’s quantitative Re =
were followed in the several determinations.
Art. XXIX.—On the Nature of the Action of Light upon Iodid
of Silver; by M. Carey Lea, Philadelphia.’
Muc# difference = ra teak has long existed in respect to the
explanation of certain phenomena of photographic action. In
the vast majority of eases the action of light is a reducing one.
Salts of iron, of uranium, and of other metals are reduced from
a higher to a lower stage of oxydation, and the same is the case
with the combinations of certain metallic acids, such as bichro-
mates and ee These phenomena present n o difficulty.
It is oy en we come to the silver haloids that obscurity
comm
It is Peacrally held, and there seems no reason to doubt it, i
that chlorid and bromid of silver undergo reduction when ex- te
posed to light. I shall therefore pass over anes compounds, :
and discuss only the action of light upon the i
n respect to this, two opposite opinions saat divided those
are who have seriously occupied themselves with the sub-
Some believe the action of light on the iodid to be purely
physic antes hold it to be connected with an absolute chemi-
cal change; some again holding this chemical change to be a
reduction to a sub- iodid, others to metallic silver
ed
to light in the presence of free nitrate of silver, it undergoes re-
uction. An examination of this reduced substance showed that
it still contained iodine; when treated with nitric acid, a solu-
tion of nitrate of silver was obtained, with a product of yellow
1 Tn the following series of investigations it has been the object me the writer to
to fix, with greater exactness, the obscure chemical and p' phenom-
pty oa ge Rifle Mgt een
pu in the journals devoted sugges”
ted to him to make a brief aro f of these studies in a essentially chemical
and physical relations
lat
i
M. C. Lea on the action of Light upon Iodid of Silver. 199
iodid of silver. If the iodid of silver, after exposure to light
in the presence of free nitrate, is carefully washed, the free ni-
of course dissolve who olly i in nitric acid. But as just ‘said, this
it does not do, but leaves behind yellow iodid of silver perfectly
soluble in hyposulphite of soda. It is clear, therefore, that iodid
of silver is reduced b ors reese = light, when free nitrate of
silver is present, to acbdiod sub-iodid is pares Py
nitric acid into nitrate of — tie iodid a2 oe And I
found the same to be the case when tan zn is subsite
for free nitrate of silver, though the actibd’ is areniy slower:
in the former case a sub-iodid is formed.
There is a question, however, far more difficult than these, to
answer, and it is this: Does reduction of some sort invaria ly
accompany the action of light upon iodid of silver? Is, or is
not that action, in its essence a chemical action
Before proceeding to investigate that question, another pre-
sents itself, demanding solution. It had been long held as an
indisputable fact, which none had attempted to controvert, that
perfectly pure iodid of silver was insensitive to light, and that
sensitiveness only a peared when free nitrate of silver, tannic
acid, or other “sensitizer” was presen
I soon satisfied myself that this asserted fact (for the we gee
= of which long discussions had taken place) had ist-
nee whatever, and that t pure iodid of silver was ane mk
tive to light. The long series of experiments, made with the
out difteatay The demonstration was so convin
had the pleasure of seeing those who were the most janes sup-
Porters of the old view, abandon it entirely.
x return then to the main question, which is: Deus chemieak
company the production of - im-
r Ssion upon iodid of yn? In my opinion 2 does not. I
old that: 1. When perfectly pure iodid of silver, rool J is
exposed to light, it receives a physical impression only. 2. Bat
that when certain other pean for se nitrate of sil-
ver, tannic acid, and perhaps many others, are , then 3
ical action, a reduction, a or may, take
200 M. C. Lea on the action of Light upon Iodid of Silver,
The second . oct ee . generally admitted; th
first, on the rary, is much contested. I shall therefore
briefly state thie. pect of the saenedl series of investigations
undertaken to arrive at a clearer view of the principles involved.
When pure iodid of silver, isolated, is exposed to light for a
very brief period, an invisible, or late nt image is produced, which
by the action of a sng ‘just ready to precipitate metallie
silver, becomes eviden
If the action of light in producing an invisible image upon
pure iodid of silver isolated be a chemical] one, it is not possible
that it should be destroyed except by chemical means.
A piece of glass supporting a film of pure iodid of silver iso-
lated from all other substances was exposed for many hours to
a strong sunlight. It was then placed in a dark closet for
thirty- me hours, at the end of which time it was placed under a
negative and e exposed to light for two seconds. On pouring a
ccanrette over it, a clear “bright picture instantly appeared.
Thus the action of the sun for many hours had ee an
impression which completely disappeared in thirty-six hou
ow if the action of light is to reduce iodid to sub- iodid, Bee
did this sub-iodid recover its lost proportion of iodine? The
LS i
f
Ag
E
theory holds that the production of a latent image is accompa-
nied by a reduction. he plate in question then either should
under the action of the developer have received a deposit eg over,
or else must have recovered its iodine. The latter cas ot
supposable, the other alternative did not ~ place, Hanon the
action of light could not have been chemical.”
In some cases, the action of light pit perfectly pure iodid
of silver, isolated from all other bodies, may produce a visible
‘s pins ecy Pgh this pacha ni that I have seen made is one by Dr. Vogel,
when actual chemical dec ecorpeniton indoabtely
does take. vine: hn tomieeny is peaveréa by re in the dark. This is in the
ee i
©
case per sal
has no tendency to oxydize by a
itsel i a rther
c
<
evelopments—the silver devel
f the image, as is t ee
M. C. Lea on the action of Light upon Iodid of Silver. 201
image. This very remarkable fact, a description of which I
nape ate early in June last, and which has been since verified
y other observers,* might seem to be inimical to the physical
theory. A careful study proved the contrary. Pure iodid o
silver, still moist, in considerable quantity, freshly precipitated
and washed, was placed in a porcelain basin and exposed to sun-
light. It instantly showed the slight darkening above referred
to, but even after the action of the light and direct sunlight was
continued for several hours, no reduced silver could be detected.
In addition to the foregoing, which are direct arguments, is
to be placed the following indirect.
, ma-
ier
gla ents have been since repeated by Girard with substitution
lasa and rock erystal, with like results, OR os
+
See paper by Major Russell in Sutton’s Notes, vol. xi, No. 245.
2 These 4 hav. .
202 M. C. Lea on the action of Light upon Iodid of Silver.
Chemists are very familiar with the fact that in cases of slow
precipitation, the precipitate tends to follow the path which the
sed to stir the solution, has travelled over. The anal-
ogy which this and the development of a latent image present
cannot be missed, and they are brought closer still by the pres-
sure images just described. In all cases a molecular alteration
takes place, and the molecules thus altered seem to have their
attraction for exterior objects increased, and for each other and
tbe surrounding homologous particles diminished.
This has been beautifully illustrated by some experiments
lately published. A steel burnisher being drawn firmly over @
plate of glass, yet so as not to scratch it or abrade the surface,
the glass on examination by polarized light showed its structure
altered by a line of color where the burnisher passed. This
molecular effect slowly diminishes, and in a few days the parti-
eles return to their wonted state.
The foregoing experiment beautifully illustrates the changes
of molecular condition whic ies are capable of undergoing.
I have just remarked, that by drawing a blunt glass rod over the
inside of a glass vessel, the parts so treated attract to themselves
of a latent photographic image, and the experiment just cited,
reveals by polarized light a change of structure in those paths
over which the body has been drawn. In the course of hours
or days, this molecular change gradually passes away, and the
_ body recovers its original condition, just as ave shown that
when as in the case of pure iodid of silver, isolated, no reduction
takes place, the effect of light gradually passes off, leaving the
iodid free to receive a new impression.
It seems almost superfluous to say that what is here stated of
_ the development of pressure images is not given by way of ex-
planation, but as illustration and confirmation of the general
view expressed.
Before concluding, a few words seem required as to what ex-
= is to be given to the ordinary process of Negative
graphy.
In the foregoing I have reasoned on the action of light upon
pure iodid of silver isolated. In the camera, light is made to
act upon lodid of silver in a very different condition. It is in
contact with nitrate of silver and with organic matter, and here
t.
of silver is presen
'
:
"
4
M. C. Lea on the action of Light upon Iodid of Silver. 203
I think it is evident from what has been already said, that in
this case several images are formed, superposed as it were, on eac
other,—First, a physical image upon the iodid of silver. Sec-
ondly, if the exposure be sufficient, an image formed of sub-iodid
of silver produced by the action of light upon the iodid and ni-
trate. Thirdly, there may be an image formed by the action of
light upon the silver or its iodid in connection with the organic
matter of the film (collodion or albumen). And, fourthly, if
bromid or chlorid be present in the film, these may undergo
reduction.
The separate nature of these images, or some of them, which
merated, was completely removed. Nothing remained but the
third, and it is not improbable that in some of the “dry pro-
cesses” this third source is the principal basis of the picture,
though evidently only a subsidiary one, in the ordinary “ wet
process.”
Another form of this experiment consists in developing the
picture Jefore immersing it in the solution of acid nitrate, and
then in leaving it but a short time in that solution, so that only
the visible picture shall be removed, and the film of iodid and
bromid be left. a
Here all basis for development depending upon reduction is
removed, and the production of the picture must depend wholly
upon the first and third of the foregoing causes to the exclusion:
of the second and fourth.
Without having extended my observations to the reo
type, I may remark that this process must be ranked along with
those in which there is a reducing substance present, and there-
fore reduction may take place. The metallic back of the da-
guerreotype plate stands in the same relation to the iodid that
tannin and other so-called sensitizers do. It seems probable
therefore that in the case of the daguerreotype, there may be
a“
204 M.C. Lea on the action of Light upon Iodid of Silver.
alls, imposes no more difficulty than the dissimilarity of the
nature of the glass from that of the precipitate which is attached
to those parts of the glass which have been pressed by the rod
in stirring.
In fact it may be truly said that whenever one body is pressed
against another, the particles of the body pressed against tend
to have their attraction for each other diminished, and their at-
traction for external bodies, whether homogeneous or heteroge-
neous, increased.
I have endeavored in this brief review of a subject replete
with difficulties, to show that the action of light upon pure iodid
of silver isolated cannot be a chemical reduction:
1st. Because that effect, even when carried many hundred
thousand times further than in the ordinary ott Ba pro
cesses, perfectly disappears in a few hours, spontaneously, under
circumstances which render it impossible to suppose that jodine
have been restored to replace that which (had reduction
taken place) must have been disengaged.
. Because, even where the action of light is prolonged many
hundred thousand fold the ordinary time, no reduced silver nor
sub-iodid can be detected as present.
3d. I have shown that another metal, mercury, is capable of
sil
developing these images as well as silver.
J. D. Dana on the origin of the Earth's Features. 205
In the pradieen of such, I have tote necessarily obliged here
confine myself to the affirmative side of the question, in suppor ort
of the existence of a physical image, distinct from chemical re-
a and though often accompanied by it, yet never “e6ae
sa
I cannot conclude these Shor a expressing my
thanks for the kind assistance given me by my friend Mr.
Thomas P. Shepard of Providence, Rhode. Island. 4
Philadelphia, July 10, 1866. :
ArT. XXX.—Observations on the el li eat of the Earth's
Features ; by JAMES
sions are the following: that the deposition and rnc Bs
large accumulations of sediment produce the folding and c
pression of strata; bx the alteration or eehadiorpliten of wedi
ments has arisen primarily from pein geo “this force being
resolvable into oukek actions that give rise to phenomena which
seem to be due to heat and to chemical action;” and that “it is
better philosophy ” attribute the results of of metamorphism to
this cause “than to a supposed central mass of fluid, gaseous
emanations, and the like, that we know sthing about, which
seem oppos osed by important facts, and which, from all we know,
should act generally and not locally ; oe especially not in the
regions of great accumulation which from their very thickness
would seem to be most removed from is source of heat beneath
the earth’s crust.” (p. 133.
* For the writer’s earlier discussions of this subject, see volumes ii, iti, iv, ps
cy Pk this Journal, second series, the writer's Expl. Exp. Geologieal Report,
Am. Jour. Sc1.—Szconp Srrigs, VoL. XLII, No. 125.—Szpr., 1866.
206 J. D. Dana on the origin of the Earth’s Features.
of these beds: indeed, the ripple-marks, the marine plants, &c., prove
that the sea in which these deposits were successively made was always
shallow. The accumulation could thus only have been made by a grad- |
ual subsidence of the ocean-bed. The greatest depression
along the line of the greatest accumulation ; and, in the direction of the
thinning margin, the settling would ss. By this process, as te a
lower side became gradually curved, rents and fractures upon that side :
» 49.
“The direction of the waves formed by the settling of any wide area
will be parallel to the great synclinal axis; a fact already stated in bd
! Rogers. Th i a
d th
determined the elevations existed long before the production of the moun-
* See his note to page 48, and pages 53, 54.
ee
J. D. Dana on the origin of the Earth’s Features. 207
tains themselves. At no point, says Mr. Hall, between the Appalachians
and the Rocky Mountains, could a mountain chain have been roduced,
because the accumulated materials were insufficient. The Rocky Moun
tains owe their greater height to a series of later deposits than ri:
3 which cap the Appalachians; the White Mountains are covered with a
3 later formation than that which covers the Green Mountains; the Alps
are newer than the Jura; and, generally, if it is the original deposition
of the materials that has pro uced mountains, then the greater the accu-
terially from other mountain ranges.” If t E eeiainrneiie oe of the
Alps are of Paleozoic age, and the sequence has _been continued, even
the long-continued accumulation of sediments; sediments not simply
marking this altitude, but vastly more, for there is doubtless as much oj
the mass below the level of the sea as above it. This view we find a
plicable to the Appalachians, and it must be a necessary condition of
mountain elevation.” ——Hall’s Pal. N.Y., Vol. LII, Introduction.
“We must look to some eae _— than heat for the production of
the phenomena [of metamorphism]; and it seems that the prime cause
must have existed within tha material itself, and that the entire change
is due to motion, or fermentation, and pressure, aided by a moderate in-
ass to
a level where the surrounding temperature was higher.—
The hypothesis then is that the thickening of the deposits
along the Appalachian region to 40,000 feet, more or less, which
went on through the Paleozoic ages (and which was due mainly,
as Mr. Hall holds, to material distributed e the northeastern
Oceanic current, now she co abrador current) ultimated in a
subsidence of 40, 000 feet, and in flexures, plications, fractures, —
metamorphism, trap dikes, and mountains; and that the same
general principle was exemplified in the origin of the
mountains and An aon the Alps and Himalayas, and all other
mountain =.
- The fact of | A " subsidence in the Appalachian region ac-
mpan, aes the accumulation of the deposits is established by
ssliste ccs markings in most of the successive strata, from
the bottom to the top -of the Paleozoic, as stated by Pr ofessor
4
208 J. D. Dana on the origin of the Earth's Features.
Hall. And it must be admitted, further, that in other regions
of the globe subsidence has, in most cases, attended similar
accumulations. We do not question this postulate of Mr. Hall’s.
The Carboniferous formation of Nova Scotia is a case o
kind where the evidence is clear; for although 16,000 feet thick,
it bears throughout proofs of its origin near the ocean’s level,
in dirt beds, coal seams, estuary deposits, and the like. The
16,000 feet of thickness prove, therefore, 16,000 feet, approxi-
mately, of gradually progressing subsidence.
should be the thickness of the earth’s rocky crust, and what its
density, in order that it should be thus sensitive to the touch of
sediments? Could there be the foot-per-foot movement under
any degree of thinness? Surely the 800 miles of the mathema-
ticians, or the densely viscid or the solid interior of some theorists,
would give it no chance. And would a thickness of twenty
les, or of ten, or of five, allow of this no-resistance move-
ment? The idea is obviously opposed to the very nature of the
earth and its forces,
(2) pressure upon the interior liquid mass of the globe, which
would be felt variously over the whole inner surface of the she
* For details on this point, see Dr. Dawson’ paper in the Jour. Geol. Soc. of
London, No. 86 (May, 1868), p- 95. . .
ep ee ee ee, eee
J. D. Dana on the origin of the Earth's Features. 209
The effects would, hence, be widely distributed, and be but
feebly peepee in any region, as will be seen on plotting to the
scale of nature. A small part only of the action would tend to
cause aispla acements over the region of the thickened (and thereby
ab aderme ag sinking crust. Flexures on the scale of magnitude
mber presented in the Appalachian region, grouped, as
en are, most thickly over its middle and to the eastward, and
fading out westward where the crust has not one. fourth as s great a
thickness of sediments, are a to the fundamental principle
appealed to in the hypot
We observe, further, that the ines part, at least, of the bold
flexing of the A alachian rocks ace toward, or at, the
close of the ave waar age, aie the Paleozoic deposits of
Pennsylvania had been laid down; while, on the contrary, it
should have very ipo attended its progress, if sinking were
the cause, since seven-eighths of this sinking had taken place
before the era of the Coal-measures. ptm the metamorph-
ism and the making of the mountains fon mainly involved in
the pas final result, and were a part o
We well question whether the ‘ded as long as its crust
was so mcanive to the weight of a layer of gravel, would any-
where be able to hold up mountains; for mountains have grav-
ity as well as gravel beds or other sediments. We should ba
have expected, after a sinking had been going on in the A
lachian region for ages through simple gravity, a foot for a foot
of deposits, that there, on that same yielding crust, the Appa-
lachian mountains should have found a firm sta tanding place, and
especially before the vast Rocky mountain region, half the con-
tinent in breadth, was ae a with its sinking process; or that
in Triassic and Jur: es, the Green mountains should have
kept their place on ie Hag and the high table Jands on the
east, when the crust was so weak below that the sands washed
into the Connecticut valley by the hillside streamlets caused it
to bend downward an inch for every inch of cing till
some thousands of feet of sandstone and of subsidence been
egaadd or that the more ancient ridges of the Alga. should
ave been able to stand with uplifted heads while great Tertiary
basins in Stipes and over the regions of the present Ap-
ennines and Pyrenees, and in other parts of Kurope, were so
P
thinly Coieomet ‘abatis a sinking, through the weight of gravel of
no aig specific gravity than the rocks of “the Alps, was
going on by the thousands of feet; and that these same ‘sink-
ing basins should have next become the site of mountain pea
t has been remarked above that the hypothesis of Mr.
* These Triassico-Jurassic beds of the Connecticut valley have a width o
miles or so, and extend from Long Island Sound at New Haven 120 miles to stl oe
ern Massachusetts. Prof. Hall includes the > region among the exam
dence from (See Paleonto 1. N. tel -
ed Sar
210 J. D. Dana on the origin of the Earth’s Features.
gravity; for this produces none: and ho
. Mr. Hall’s hypothesis has its cause for subsidence, but none
for the lifting of the thickened sunken crust into mountains.
greatest thickness. At first thought, it would seem almost 1n-
credible that the upliftings of mountains, whatever their mode
the disturbing or uplifting force is lateral action or pressure from
noted that the thick accumulations are produced just where 0S-
cillations and disturbances, or great yieldings in the crust, had
been in progress through the long preceding ages (attending
C. A. Goessmann on the Onondaga Mineral Springs. 211
the accumulation of the sediments), and, therefore, just where
such disturbances or yieldings = most like ely to continue to
occur through after time. LHarthquakes show that even now,
in this last of the a ata ages, the same border regions of
the continents, although daily t thickening from the sediments
borne to the ocean by rivers, are the areas of the greatest and
most frequent movements of the earth’s crust,
Art. XXXI.— Contribution to the Gee % se Mineral Springs
of Onondaga, New York; by CHARLES A. GOESSMANN, Ph.D.,
Chemist to the Salt Company of Shen sp
Some of the ata i a of the Brines of Onondaga, N. Y.,
have already been illustra pibl ae series of analyses in two pre-
Onon nti Lake, north and west of tha’ city of Syracuse. This
entire district consists mainly of low lands, which are yet partly
in a marshy state. They have been reclaimed in the course of
time from the original lake bed, by natural and artificial drain-
age, and extend from one to one and half miles south of the lake.
They are everywhere bounded by more or less abruptly rising :
grounds. These embankments, toward the east and west, at the aa
southern end of the lake basin a fe het in several places, in
fees ied A. Goessmann. pa ee ee De-
ember 6, 1862.
on the Manufactory of Solar Salt, &c., by the same. se amogengs
cember, 1863,
212 ©. A. Goessmann on the Onondaga Mineral Springs.
depth of from twenty-five to thirty feet. These formations, par-
ticularly near the outcrops of the Onondaga shales, or at the ter
mination of their surface drainage, are frequently found to be
filled with an abundance of water of a peculiar saline character.
ese waters sometimes contain only mere traces of chlorids,
while in those from other similar localities in their vicinity a
considerable amount of chlorid of sodium may be observed.
Among the questions to which these facts give rise, the fol-
lowing appeared to me of great interest:
First: Xs there any relation between the chemical composition
of the spring waters peculiar to the locality, and the brines?
Second: What chemical changes may result from their union,
should their composition materially differ.
Third: Do the waters of the springs and the brines derive their
characteristic qualities from soilor rocks of one and the same
kind, though in different conditions; or do they both owe their
peculiar chemical composition to entirely different sources; and
if so, where are these sources located ?
remote from the t brine-supplyi istrict —contends
strongly in favor of a previous gradual extraction of larger quan-
tities of more le saline compounds (chlorid of sodium in
idinger. Mittheilungen, ete., November 12,1846, Wien, This Journal,
to the Hon. Geddes fo valuable map of the
outlines of the geology of Onondaga County.
ees OF PI oe ee OS
C. A. Goessmann on the Onondaga Mineral Springs, 213
local geological investigations must decide upon their value.
In entering upon considerations of the above questions I se-
lected two springs from an elevation several miles distant from
the brine-bearing district, two in its immediate vicinity and a
sample of average brine of the Syracuse district.
The samples were as follows:
, From a well at the north of a hill where, formerly, numbers
of pseudomorphs of chlorid of sodium had been found; the well
terminated in a hard clayish shale.
6, From a well situated midway between the former and the
brine-furnishing locality ; the well terminated in the red clay of
t nondaga Salt Group. Both wells were at least from forty
to fifty feet above the level of the lake. é
a spring within the brine-producing district, at a
height of about ten feet above the level of the lake.
d, From a spring in close proximity to c, and at the same ele-
vation.
e, A brine from the vicinity of springs ¢ and d.
a. Water from a well (47 feet deep) on Willow street near the
corner of Catharine street, in the city of Syracuse.
e well from which this water was collected is situated in
the vicinity of one of those spots (James street height) where,
some years ago, while workmen were engaged in grading James
street, a considerable number of pseudomorphs of chlorid of
sodium were found. Serpentine was also discoverd not far off.
Two prominent hills, of which the most conspicuous is known
as “Prospect Hill,” intervene between that locality and the quite
abrupt descent of the high grounds around the east and south-
west side of the former lake bed—our present brine-furnishing
district. In sinking this well, (Nov., 1863,) a layer of gravel-
bearing loamy soil of ten feet thick was passed, then twelve feet
of crumbled green shale, and lastly twenty-five feet of a har
light green clayish shale. The water usually stands fourteen
The ground perforated by this well is probably fifty feet
above the level of the lake, and about two and a half miles from
the nearest salt well. :
One thousand parts of this water contained—
Calcium, - - 2302 parts.
Magnesium, - - - 00359
ee
ili - + - - ‘
hI - - - - 00156
re (not determined) ee. ,
214 CC. A. Goessmann on the Onondaga Mineral Springs.
1000 parts of this water left at 200° to 212° F., 08906 parts of
solid residue; one gallon would consequently leave 3°36525
grams or 51°9849 grains.
b. Water taken from a well sunk from the top of Prospect
Hill, to a depth of seventy-five feet, i. e., the level of Salina street
at the corner of Lock street. Prospect Hill lies about midway
between the well which furnished the water for Analysis a, and
the northwestern termination of the high embankment (80 or
40 feet) around the eastern and southeastern shores of Ononda-
ga Lake and its adjoining low lands. Prospect Hill consists
mainly of gravel and is covered with numerous boulders, and
underlaid with the red clay of the Onondaga Salt Group. The
gravel is here and there interspersed with layers of cemented
gravel (hard pan) and of a red loamy soil. These layers are of
varying extent and apparently without any order of succession.
The water subjected to analysis was taken from the first quanti-
ties drawn from the well soon after its completion (April, 1868).
Quantitative tests for carbonic acid and iron, being under exist-
ing circumstances of no value, were omitted.
One thousand parts of this water contained—
Calcium, - - - - 0.52838
Magnesium, - - - 0°03954
aie oe Z . - 000821
Sulphuric acid - - - 1:02660
hlorine, = - - - - 0°01268
Silica, - - - -
0°00450
(not determined)
“ “
n, -
Free carbonic acid,
C. A. Goessmann on the Onondaga Mineral Springs. 215
One thousand parts of this water contained—
Calcium, - - - 0°35265
Magnesium, - - - 0°07620
odiu - - - - 450454
Suiphuri sea - - - 0°64379
Chlorine - - - vf 95266
ilica, - - - 00490
Free carbonic acid, (not determined)
Carbonate of protoxyd of iron m (trace),
Bromine (traces),
1000 grams left, at 200° to 212° F., 130340 grams of solid
residue; one gallon would consequently leave 49°2405 grams, or
“
760-7309 grains.
d. This sam “ple of water was taken ee a gee about twenty-
five to thirty feet distant from the last one, c. The spring is en-
closed in a tight wooden tank of 10 to 12 ‘feet deep, and issues
at the foot of an embankment from thirty to forty feet high.
Its elevation alae the level of the lake corresponds nearly with
that of the sprin
1000 parts of this water contained in solution—
sae ‘ - P 0-28147
Magnesium, - . - 0°07700
odium, = - . . 401378
Silica and alumina, . - 001770
Are get - - 0°48150
Chlo - - - §°30918
Vibeiine - . - - 0:00232
Free carbonic acid, - - (not determined)
Carbonate of protoxyd of iron,
1000 parts of this water left, at from 200° to 212° F., 11°73 32
parts of solid residue. One gallon would therefore leave
685-07402 grains “of ot ae ee rue contained in com-
ody le 0-1150 of carboni
he brine for > this anit ise tas males from a salt well in
the vicinity of c and d, (July 30, 1863).
Calcium, - - . - 2°25005
Magnesium, . - - 0°36799
Free carbonic acid,
1000 grams of this brine Lattned 164243 grams S saline
216 CC. A. Goessmann on the Onondaga Mineral Springs.
residue; one U. S. gallon* would therefore contain 9586-9891
grains.
The brines of Onondaga, though no ars somewhat in con-
centration, vary but slightly in regard to the relative propor-
tions of their component parts; and the analytical statement
just her will be found to meet all practical requirements.
In 1000 parts Willow st. )Prospect Hill) Mineral Mineral Syracuse
of well. well. water. water. brine.
are contained a. b es d, e;
i 0°2302 0-5284 03526 02815 2°2500
Magnesium, 0:0359 0:0395 00762 00770 03679
Sodium, 00101 0°0082 45045 401387 610650
Potassium,* hoes Seles + eae Pane 0:0572
Sulphuric acid, 0°3442 10266 06437 0-4815 3°3955
Chlorine, 00156 0:0127 69526 63092 96°3635
Bromine,* ps are Sook 0°00232+| 00208
ilica,* 0°0050 0-0045 0:0049 O-0177+ owes
Carbonic acid,* mele pee: Loe 0°1150t “ane
* Tn all cases where no figures are given no quantitative tests have been made.
+ Silica and alumina. $ Combined in the residue left at 200° to 212° F.
Although, unquestionably, much significance must be conceded
to the fact that the same group of elements form the most prom-
inent features of the analytical results, there nevertheless exis-
ted some doubts whether a mere succession of extractions of the
same strata or the same kind of rocks, etc., would suffice to ex-
plain satisfactorily the peculiar nature of the various liquids ;
a view which appears still more conspicuous when these compo-
nent parts are arranged in the pa RT most likely to be
present in each of the waters
aving arrived at this point, I ese to institute some in-
quiry in regard to the action of certain c unds toward each
other under circumstances similar to ties should be obliged
to take into consideration a a ae of the second question
should promise encouraging results; and in this connection I
would call particular atone to the earlier statements of
. Karsten,’ and the results given in the highly interesting pub-
Tieations of T. Sterry Hunt,’—the former treating mainly of the
re and changes of the ‘Srines dio. latter tore especially ©:
the “chenkil of natural waters in general.
riments were in some cases designed to give merely
an idea of the degree of certain changes under given circum-
stances. It appeared to me of importance to ascertain—
58 glean United States gallon is equal to 241 cubic inches or 3778°625 grams oF
3
; ee cot BU. Karsten, Salinenkunde, Berlin, 1843. ‘Saly end
unt, Chemistry of Natural oo this Journal, March, July
September, ises.
Pee EE SS enn ans eee er eee er ke ee
C. A. Goessmann on the Onondaga Mineral Springs. 217
I. How does carbonate of magnesia act yin sulphate of lime in
the presence of free carbonic acid ?—To test the degree of this ac-
tion, I adopted the ipl course. T mixed in a suitable
vessel ten grams of well washed carbonate of magnesia, twenty-
five grams of sulphate of jeer (gypsum,) and five hundred
cubic centimeters of distilled water : which mixture I afterwards
treated for a short time each day during four weeks, with well
washed carbonic acid gas, soas to secure a constant supply of
bicarbonate of magnesia to the solution of gypsum. The solu-
tion thence resulting, after being separated by filtration from
the white residue, was equal to four hundred and fifty cubic
centimeters. I place ced it in a flat glass dish, and left it to grad-
ual Phd aecpae at the ordinary temperature.
few days rest the bottom of the vessel began to be
covered with a small amount of sediment. No further note-
worthy change took place, until the whole liquid gradually
formed into a solid crystalline mass, consisting in the main of a
net-work of needles. The solution, being tested before its so-
lidification, was of a slightly alkaline reaction; the crystals re-
sulting from. its evaporation were transparent, a crumbled
readily to a white powder when exposed to dry
One hundred parts of an apparently sidered aiuls of the
saline mass, contained—
Carbonic acid, - . - 16721
Sulphuric acid, - - 31°4803
Calcium oxyd (lim e), - - 0°7988
Magnesium oxyd (magnesia), - 17-0327
One hundred parts of the same mass, heated to a dull red
heat, lost 51:0593 parts of its weight; leaving therefore 48-9407 _
parts of a white residue.
abe of lime, . 1°4268
¢ hydrated pa aires of magne
“3(Mg0, CO?)-++-(Mg0, HO), 2°4911
Sulphate of magnesia (MgO, 03-4710), 96°8020
As the oe amount of the saline compound obtained in the
t d
progress its co. noentration as carbonate of pee The ap-
parently slow decomposition of gypsum must be attributed to
the limited solubility of that compound. It is not uareasonable
218 J. L. Smith on the Colorado Meteorite.
to presume that carbonic acid, under pressure and at common
temperature, would alter the degree of action above illustrated.
Il. How does carbonate of magnesia act upon sulphate of lime in
the presence of free carbonic acid and chlorid of sodium ?—lIn this
investigation I proceeded thus: I weighed into a glass bottle 31
parts of commercial carbonate of magnesia, 86 parts of gypsum,
58 parts of chlorid of sodium, and 3000 parts of distilled wa-
ter, and-treated the whole mass with carbonic acid gas for sev-
eral weeks, as described in a former experiment. The filtrate,
1. That gypsum, carbonate of magnesia, and carbonic acid in
the presence of chlorid of sodium, form chlorid of magnesium,
sulphate of soda, and carbonate of lime.
2. That at a certain higher temperature, the sulphate of soda
and chlorid of magnesiuin partly re-transform into sulphate of
magnesia and chlorid of sodium.
3. That the solubility of the gypsum governs the degree of
decomposition.
: (To be continued.)
Art. XXXIIL—A new Meteoric Iron, “ the Colorado meteorite,”
Jrom Russel Gulch, Gilpin Co., near Central City, Colorado Ter-
ritory ; by J. LAWRENCE Situ, Prof. Chem. in University of
Louisville.
I HAVE known of the existence of a new meteoric iron from
J. L. Smith on the Colorado Meteorite, 219
e mass of iron is accompanied with the ft label :
“Meteoric iron found in Russel Gnlch, Feb. 18, 1 r,
Otho Cu rtice. Weight 29 lbs. Brought to pe ak Feb.
1864.”
The mass measures in its extreme length, breadth, and igi
ness, 8$ 74X53 inches. It is perfect in all parts except at on
extremity, and, as stated above, weighs 29 lbs.
his iron is one of medium ‘hardness, with the deneity, 772;
and when cut through was found to contain a few small nodul
of iron pyrites. It is attacked readily by nitric acid, i gives
bold Widmannstittian figures without very sharp angles. It re-
sists the action of the air and moisture very well, and is conse-
quently but little altered on the surface. No siliceous minerals
could be traced in any of the crevices. On analysis its compo-
sition was found to be—
Tron, - - - - 90°61
Nickel, - - - - 7°84
Cobalt, - - - - ‘78 i
Copper, - : - ‘ minute quantity.
Phosphorus, - - - 02
99°26
Ihave not made any further observations in relation to the
présence of copper in meteoric iron since , when I called
attention to it. Since then I have me more confirmed in
the opinion, then first expressed, that copper would be found in
all meteoric irons; this has been the result of examinations of
many well known acai irons, and all new ones that have
come under my examinati
One or two grains of she: iron is all that is necessary for the
examination, if it be done carefully; but four to five grains had
better be used, Dissolve the iron ‘in cehlorhydric acid, and if
add a drop or two at the end of the operation. Hvaporate away
when the introduction of a clean oc of iron will cause a de-
position of the copper with all its characteristic properties.
220 2B. Silliman on Gay-Lussite from Nevada Territory.
Art. XXXIII.—On Gay-Lussite from Nevada Territory ; by
B. SILLIMAN. |
In September, 1864, I “ipnas the body of saline water known as
Little Salt Lake, situated near Ragtown, about a mile and a half
south of the main emigrant dea to Humboldt. It fills the bot-
tom of a deep funnel-shaped depression in the Desert plain. The
form and other peculiarities of this depression suggest a volcanic
origin. It is distinctly crater-shaped, with the outline a double
ellipse, made apparently ia the “aoe of two craters; the
larger is to the north, an sa diameter of about a mile and a
half. The whole length paid and hs is somewhat greater than °
that from east to west in the larger division. The water- surface
is about 200 feet below the lip of the crater, mebie is elevated
somewhat above the general level of the plain. The slope of
the converging sides is steep, varying from 25° to 45°; the ap-
proach to the water is therefore difficult, except at one or two
points where an oblique footpath has been worn. There is a
narrow margin or beach, varying from a few yards to a hundred
feet or so, covered with shoal water, and the shore then plunges’
off to v eep water. There is a small island in the northern
or large division of this lake, also surrounded by shoal water.
The section of the slope shows a series of beds of volcanic ma-
terials, lapilli and ashes, mixed with boulders or masses of black
t, and concretions from thermal springs. The shores on
the west side are also skirted with calcareous matter, and there
is a steady flow of water from numerous small springs of fresh
water into the lake. One of these springs is a copious fountain
of excellent drinking water. The water of the lake is very
saline. Its taste is salt, bitter, and decidedly alkaline. Its
effect on the skin in bathing i is that of a solution oe an alkaline
carbonate, and its odor is strongly marine. The $ are en-
epee with saline matters resulting from the scaporstion of
e
Bride picetien of the lake swarmed with srnall ducks; and divers
prac e cranes and other aquatic birds were on its shores.
of larve of a Species of fly (equally abundant at Mono
tate) swarm in the shallow waters of the shore, but no fish ap-
pear to live in it. The water is so dense that a swimmer floats
on it like acork. There are no thermal springs now active in
ohare the bois erature of which is normal.
Se eg ee ea RENAL Ee ne ae eT oe
J. M. Blake on Gay-Lussite from Nevada Territory. 221
near the shore were not dense enough to deposit these crystals;
and that if we could reach the island we might find them there,
where, from the absence of fresh water springs, the saline solu-
tion of the lake would be more dense. This conjecture was
fully verified. Mr. Semple, my secretary, succeeded in reaching
the island in a very insecure boat, where he found the shores
completely incrusted with beautiful clusters of these crystals,
whose acute edges cut the naked feet. We secured an abundant
supply of this rare and interesting mineral which, I believe, had
not before been recognized in the United States. No other crys-
tallized mineral was discovered.
e Gay-Lussite obviously has its origin from the reaction of
the salts of soda and lime with which the waters are abundantly
charged, and being very slightly soluble is readily deposited in
these situations where the density of the water is maintained or
increased by solar evaporation.’ Hence it does not occur along
the shores where the marginal springs of fresh water dilute the
solution. The flow of these springs does not in summer fully
replace the solar evaporation, as is evident from the water-line
retiring slightly from its winter level.
_ This interesting lake has no outlet. It has plainly been a
point of volcanic activity in modern geologic times, its eruptions
being confined to mud, ashes, pumice and lapilli. It is one of a
considerable number of similar phenomena with whic reat
Basin is dotted, and of which Mono lake, on the western margin
of the Desert, is the most remarkable. The bottom of the an-
with dead fresh-water modern shells, chiefly univalves.
‘Seieennilaeeeni
ArT. XXXIV.—On crystals of Gay-Lussite, from Nevada Terri-
tory; by Joun M. BLAKE.
THE crystals of Gay-Lussite here described were obtained by
Prof. B. Silliman in 1864, at Little Salt Lake, near Ragtown,
Churchill Co., Nevada. The crystals differ strikingly from
thosé measured and described by Phillips (Phil. Mag. April,
1827) in the proportional development of the planes as is shown
by comparison with the figures given by Phillips, and by Des-
cloizeaux (Ann. Ch. Phys., 8d series, vol. vii, p. 489).
* Gay-Lussite has been made artificially by J. Fritzsche, by mixing eight parts
by measure of a saturated solution of carbonate of soda with one of a solution of _
chlorid of calcium of 1-130—1-150 specific gravity.—J. f. pr. Ch., xciii, 339.
Am. Jour. 8c1.—Szconp Sxrizs, Vou. XLII, No. 125.—Sept., 1866.
29
222 J. M. Blake on Gay-Lussite from Nevada Territory.
The planes observed by Phillips were J, O, 22, 17, 12, and 4;
and the monoclinic axes, calculated from his measurements, are
a:b:c=1:444:1:489:1; C=78°27'. Of the above- mentioned
planes, 7? was not detected on the —- crystals, But there
and . then appears to be made up of numerous microscopic
plan The same was true of 17. These tw
Sen, giving no definite reflected image of the
sun, were approximately measured by noting |
the: points at which ~ light was reflected with
e€ maximum inten
In my trials I Sonica the cleavage parallel to
planes J perfect; parallel to O less perfect, giv-
ing a reflected image with a strong light. Speci-
mens in the Yale Cabinet from near Lake Ma-
racaibo, South America, showed the same com-
posite character of the planes; but the effloresced
condition of the specimens prevented any exact
comparison with them
The following are the angles obtained: the faces are mostly
too feebly polished to afford results nearer than a degree. The
angles are ivi in the order in which they were obtained in
the several zones.
Zone Ist: J on J; 69° 25’; £ 180° 20’; J, 247°5
Zone 2d: 12 on li, 69° 30’; os 128° 20": h, vr 50’, 179°
40’; 12, 249° 30’; O, 304° ; li,
Zone 3d: Ion 12, 43° 20’; 3 71°, small; J, 180° 20’; 1%,
221° 20’; 4, 249° 40’, small.
Zone 4th : Zon 1, 53° 10’; Z, 179° 20°, 180° 10’; 12, 281°
20’; J, 359°,
Zone Sth h; on }, 52° 50’; 0, 96° 10"; 1 179° 10'; 4, 231°
16; 0, 2
Zone eth O on 1i, 50°; 2, 101°; O, 178° 40’; 12, 228° 30’?
;
28
’ The following are Phillips’s sei sting in three
zones, on all of rie observed p lanes:
Zone lst: I on a, 84° 25’; TL, 68° 50) 5 180°.
Zone od: Lion 2, 85° iB 1i, 70° 30’; 0, 125° 10’; 13, 180°.
Zone 8d: Ion 13, 42° 15; 4, 69° 55’; 1%, "110° 20’; J, 180°.
New Haven, Ct., Jan. 1866.
H. J. Clark on Anthophysa Miilleri. 223
Art. XXXV.—On the Structure and Habits of Anthophysa Miil-
lert Bory, one of the sedentary monadiform Protozoa; by H.
JAMES-CLARK, A.B., B.
Durine the last five years, and more especially within the
latter eighteen months I have been engaged largely upon an in-
vestigation of the relations of the monadiform animalcules to
the zodspores of the true Alge; and of all the numerous in-
stances of the former that I have more or less thoroughly stud-
ied I have never met with one which could be said to bear but
a very moderate resemblance to the latter. I refer to the true
Alge. Iscarcely need add that I mean by this to except those
doubtful forms which seem to be related to Volvox and Gonium,
7 as Pandorina, Protococcus, Stephanosphera, Chiamidococcus,
C.
hose who have become accustomed to these creatures, and
have learned to look upon them, through long years of patient
study, as old and familiar friends, know well the value of using
the best lenses that the opticians ‘of the present day can afford ;
and never doubt for a moment the utter worthlessness of an
Moreover it is saitioack? ‘Mesirabte that elaborate investiga-
tions should be m nade, and unstinted minutiz set forth in illus-
there is nu small pect with our prese snags te wedge of them,
attempt to give a strict Spogtiptiien! view of the itions sof
the various organs of one among the most lowly of the whole
group of animalcules.
224 H. J. Clark on Anthophysa Miillert.
A considerable portion of the second volume of the great
work of Messrs. Claparéde and Lachman, ‘“ Etudes sur Jes Infu-
soires,” &c., is occupied by a discussion of the animality of cer-
tain doubtful forms of Monad-like infusoria. The tests which
these authors offer as determinatives of the zodlogical relations
animal nature—and not because he had by direct observation
decided it to be a genuine animal, The figures of Cohn (Mikro-
skopische Algen und Pilze. Nov. Acta Acad. Cs, Leop, 185+.
Taf. xv, fig. 1-8) are not much better than those of Dujardin.
Habitat and general appearance.—I have been so fortunate as
to determine the animality of Anthophysa by both of the tests
above mentioned; and there rests not the least doubt in my
mind that this infusorian is as truly a member of the zodlogical
kingdom as any of the well known Protozoa. I would state,
for the information of those who are not acquainted with the
habits of this animalcule, that it is quite common among the
fresh water weeds. It may be most advantageously studied
when it is attached to Myriophyllum or Ceratophyllum ; a small
piece of the tip of the filiform leaf, of either, which seems to be
covered by an irregular, floccose deposit, usually affording abun-
dant specimens.
Under a low magnifying power this floccose matter appears
to consist of clusters of very jagged, irregularly branching and
contorted, semitransparent, intertwined stems and projecting,
tapering and flexible twigs. ach of the tips of the latter sus-
tains a single, more or less globose mass of spindle-shaped bod-
ies, which radiate from a common center of attachment; and
are kept in a constant agitation by the spasmodic jerks of a
long, stout, usually rigid, areuate filament, with which the free
end of each one is endowed. The whole bristling mass revolves
alternately from right te left and from left to right; whirling
upon its slender pivot with such a degree of freedom that one
might almost suspect that it merely rested upon it, and had no
truer adhesion to it than the juggler’s top to the end of the
PE en ee en eee
H. J. Clark on Anthophysa Miilleri. 225
ends and the twig begins. All of the members of a group ra-
diate from a common point of attachment, to which they adhere
by their tapering filamentous ends. The free end is truncate,
but one corner of it,—as if in continuation of the line along
which the opposite flattened sides meet,—projects in the form
of a rather blunt triangular beak. At the inner edge of the
ase of this beak lies the mouth, to which the former—as fre-
quent observation has proved—acts as a lip or prehensile organ
when food is taken into the body. The prevailing tint is a more
or less uniform light gamboge, without the least trace of an eye-
Spot of any color.
226 H. J. Clark on Anthophysa Miillert.
always toward the pedicel of the colony. One is forcibly re-
minded by this of the systematic relation of some of the flowers
of Labiate, with their stamens projecting far beyond the upper
lip of the corolla. The globose heads of the Menthe are partic-
ularly good examples for illustrating this similitude.
cule possesses are preéminently prehensile in character; and
their apparent appropriation for the office of propulsion, when a
colony breaks loose from its attachment, I can scarcely doubt is
an accidental one, inasmuch as the arcuate cilium continues its
spasmodic twitching without any apparent deviation from its
usual mode of action.
the mouth than the latter. It is highly flexible and vibrates
with great rapidity in what appears to be a gyratory manner.
_ Lhe mouth.—This organ is never visible except when food is
rex through it. It then may be seen that it lies close to the
which acts as a sort of lip by curving over the introcep'
H. J. Clark on Anthophysa Miilleri. 227
then the cilia return to their usual positions, while the intro-
cepted edible passes toward the center of the body, and is there
immediately enclosed in a digestive vacuole. For a while the
food dances about in this vacuole with a very lively motion, but
finally it subsides into quietude. ses
The contractile vesicle.—There is a two-fold difficulty in discov-
ering the presence of this organ. In the first place it is compar-
very rarely possible to see it contract twice in succession be-
tween any two of the abrupt, lateral deviations of the body,
about half way between the two ends of the body, and nearly
midway betwixt the two extremes of its greater dia
meter. At
the completion of its diastole it has a circular outline, and ap-
Nowish
228 H.J. Clark on Anthophysa Miilleri.
ances made up of the ae laterally agglutinated twigs. The
youngest, terminal portions of the branches which, under the
name of twigs, have been dieneibid in this paper as the imme-
diate supporters of the colonies of monads, are evidently tubu-
lar. They appear to be as flexible as a spider’ s thread, and are
usually quite irregular in outline, and in the calibre of the canal
which permeates them. The wall of these tubular twigs is quite
thick, and is alike rough on the exterior and interior faces. The
substance within the tubes appears homogeneous, but whether
it is solid or fluid could not be determined. The oldest part of
the stems is of a reddish brown color, but as Ses taper off into
branchlets they gradually ever a gamboge color, and finally
terminate in scarcely colore
Reproduction by fanaa is the only method of propa-
gating peeruertten which I have observed. As a preliminary to
assumes at first an oval contour and finally becomes globular.
During this transition both of the — cilia become much
more conspicuous than usual, and the body develops a closely
fitting hyaline envelope about it; siete passing into a sort of en-
cysted s tate. The ¢ ontractile vesicle, however, does not seem
saa oes var of self-divvek sigan oak nd about mes minutes.
the bell meets the body. Sig-
flagellum as long as the body and bell. The two contractile ewes
sae i a i
H. J, Clark on Anthophysa Miilleri. 229
idly separate from each other by the broadening of the body,
and leave between them the smaller cilium. The latter at this
time appears much thicker than usual, and seems to be composed
of two closely approximated, parallel threads. By this time the
contractile vesicle has also divided into two, which lie closely
side by side.
At this moment the time noted in one series of observations
30 P.M. By 2.35 p.m. the larger flagella had separated
still farther, and the smaller cilium had split into two very con-
spicuous filaments; as yet, however, attached to a common point
of the body. From this time forth to the completion of the
process of fissigemmation all of the cilia kept up a slow vibra-
tion, in which they undulated from base to tip with a sort of
snake-like motion. By 2.45 p.m. the body had become quite ap-
of constriction. Still the process went on very rapidly, and by
2.55 P.M. the new bodies were widely separated, but still attached
to each other by a mere thread. At 3 P.M. the body which was
attached to the pedicel was left alone, and its companion swam
away to seek a new attachment, and build up its stem.
To the last moment the hyaline envelope remained about the
Segments, and in fact so long afterwards that time and circum-
Stances did not allow me to ascertain its final disposition. EI
would remark, however, that when the ovate bodies of the half
grown monads are contracted temporarily into a globular shape,
they appear identical—excepting that they lack the hyaline en-
Velope—with these recently fissated forms. In all probability,
therefore, the latter lose their envelope and assume the shape of
rmer.
Aa. Jour. Sc1.—Secoxp Serigs, Vou. XLII, No. 125.—Sept., 1866. _
30
230 Address of Prof. DeCandolle
As to the development of the stem I think it quite certait
that it grows out from the posterior end of the body. The best
proof of this is that I have frequently found a monad—espe-
cially in the condition of the one which I described above as
breaking loose from its companion—nearly sessile upon a clean
spot, and attached by a very short, faint, film-like thread. From
this size upward I had no difficulty in finding abundant examples
as gradually increasing in diameter as they did in length; thus
furnishing a pretty strong evidence that the stem grows under
the influence of its own innate powers, and is not therefore a de-
posit emanating from the body of the monad, except, perbaps,
as it may be nourished py a fluid circulating within its
hollow core.
Cambridge, Mass., May 21, 1866.
.
eal Congress in London
ART. re Ea ale of Prof. DeCandolle to the recent Botani-
i
vations will be to call to mind how they aid each other, and to
first meeting of the Botanical Congress was held in the Raphael Room of
the South Kensington Museum on Wednesday, May 23, at 11 A. M., Prof. DeCan-
dolle in the chair, 4 A very large meeting, including almost all the British reste -
Prssid \dre hs : ent i assembled to
a ts Negba ters: present in London were
phe oe ee
before the Botanical Congress in London. 231
show how much more they might do so. IfI am not mistaken,
it will follow from the facts to which I shall allude, that our
3 united efforts, scientific or practical, modest though they appear,
4 contribute to increase the well-being of man, in all conditions
q and in all countries.
1. The advantages of horticulture to botany.—Let us first men-
4 tion the services that horticulture renders, or may render, to
botany. Without being myself a horticulturist, I affirm or rec-
| @ ognize them willingly, the advancement of science rendering it
a necessary to have recourse to all its collateral branches.
_ eno longer live in those times of illusion, when botanists
merely occupied themselves with European plants, or with a
The traveller is too much exhausted in warm countries, too
distracted in those temperate regions favorable to active life,
and his faculties are too much benumbed in the colder regions,
to enable him to devote himself to minute researches with th
the variety of species it accumulates and successfully pore
232 ' Address of Prof. DeCandolle
studying the curious phenomena of fertilization, the movements
and direction of the stem, leaves, and parts of the flowers. Hor-
ticulture has done much to advance the progress of physiological
botany, but it still has much todo. The most remarkable ex-
race These have a great scientific importance, and
it is undoubtedly the horticulturists who are the teachers of
It app me, however, gardens can be made still more
useful in carrying out physiological researches. For instance,
there is much yet to be learne e mode of action of heat,
light, and electricity upon vegetation. I pointed out many of
these deficiencies in 1855, in my “Géographie Botanique Rai-
Ten years later Mr. Julius Sachs, in his recently pub-
lished and valuable work on physiological botany,’ remarks
much the same deficiencies, notwithstanding that some progress
has been made in these matters. The evil consists in this, that
when it is desired to observe the action of temperature, either
fixed or varied, mean or extreme, or the effect of light, it is ex-
ceedingly difficult, and sometimes impossible, when observations
are made in the usual manner, to eliminate the effects of the
ne variations of heat and light. In the laboratory it is
wished to ascertain the influence of the gases diffused in the at-
mosphere around plants, or that of the plants themselves upon
the atmosphere.
Place plants under a receiver, and they are no longer in a natu-
ral condition; leave them in the open air, and the winds and
currents, produced at each moment of the day by the temperature,
disperse the gaseous bodies in the atmosphere. Every one is
aware of the numerous discussions concerning the more or less
pernicious influence of the gases given off from certain manu-
factories. e ruin now of a manufacturer, now of a horticul-
turist, may result from the declaration of an expert; hence it is
incumbent on scientific men not to pronounce on these delicate
questions without substantial proof.
Pages 46, 49, 57, and 1346, é ;
Handbuch der Experimental-physiologie de Pflanzen, 1 vol. in 8vo. Leipzig,
before the Botanical Congress in London. 233
to the wish of the observer?” My question passed unnotice
in a voluminous work where, in truth, it was but an accessory.
I renew it now in the presence of an assembly admirably quali-
fied to solve it. I should like, were it possible, to have a green-
house placed in some large horticultural establishment or botanic
garden, under the direction of some ingenious and accurate
physiologist, and adapted to experiments on vegetable physiol-
ogy; and this is, within a little, my idea of such a construc-
tion ;—
The building should be sheltered from all external variations
of temperature; to effect which I imagine it shou e ina
great measure below the level of the ground. I would have it
built of thick brickwork, in the form of a vault. The upper
convexity, which would rise above the ground, should have two
&
fixed degree of temperature could be obtained as in a cellar.
The vaulted building should have an underground communica-
ge cl a series of successive doors,
The temperature should be regulated by metallic conductors,
heated or cooled at a distance. Engineers have already devised
ratus when necessary.
Obviously, with a hothouse thus constructed, the growth of
plants could be followed from their germination to the ripening
of their seeds, under the influence of a temperature and an
amount of light perfectly definite in intensity. It could then be
_ ascertained how heat acts during the successive phases from
4 G . . 5 ‘ .
= thet. psi yo cased. 3 roe tar exhibited at Chiswick in 1837,
figured in the “ Flore dot Beeston 4 Jardins,” vol. xii, Miscell. p. 184. aa
234 Address of Prof. DeCandolle
ance of each function; and as the electric light resembles that
of the sun, we could in our experimental hothouse submit vege
tation to a continued light.’ :
A building such as I propose would allow of light being
passed through colored glasses or colored solutions, and so prove
the “ Bibliot erselle de Genéve” (Archives des Sciences), Nov.
Af the en constructed, the da their construction are, at
ie ed throughout our books. I will cite, for instance, th wth of 2
e gro
scape of Dasylirion, as observed by M. Ed. Morren (Belgique Hortic., 1865, p. 322).
The figures there given are not favorable to the accepted notion, that the growth of
paratus which produces the a persistent and vivid light is the mag
achine, i ism, as dis-
the
gine of low power, which sets in motion a whee
. de G Ar Scientif., 1861
machine is inexpensive, but, unfortunately,
tem has already been applied to two light
to that of the “ Société I’ Alliance,”
of MM. E. Becquerel and Tresca,
Bp es ihe
before the Botanical Congress in London. 235
the effect of the different visible or invisible rays which enter
into the composition of sunlight. For the sake of exactness
nothing is superior to the deci piaiilar of the ]uminous rays
by a prism, and the fixing the rays by means of a heliostat.
co
periments concerning the action of various rays upon the pro-
duction of oxygen by leaves on — the ge of the green
coloring matter, have only confirmed the discoveries made in
1836, without either prism or reimens by Professor Daubeny,’
from which it appears that the most ‘luminous rays have the
ost Panes me to them the hottest rays, and lastly those
balled chem
Dr, Gardade) in 1843, Mr. Draper singin after, and Dr,
C. M. Guillemin in 1857, * Gorroborated by means of the prism
and the heliostat the discovery of Dr. Daubeny, which negatived
the opinions prevalent since the time of Senebi ery Tessier,
and which were the result of erroneous” experiments. It wa as
difficult ~ believe that the most refrangible sneak for in-
stance, which acts the most on metallic gare in age?
*, Dauben Philos, Trans., 1836,
OE. - cuss Band P iL Migs 18H extract in French in La Lop Res
; Dra
Fe r, Edinb. Phil. ~~ gy “aa 1844,
ih: _ 1844, L li fe ©. M.), Ann. Sci. ie stond ser. 4, vo
vo Me oui en hk he p- 69; Tessi m. Acad. Sci., 17883 ‘Gilby,
i. de Chimie, 183, va Succo w, Co rmintatie: “is ar effectibus chemicis, in :
4to, Jena 1828, a Zantedonehi. ‘cited by Dutrochet, Compt. Rend. Acad, Sci,
1844, oye se :
* Asa proof o he persistence of the old age 7 will quote a phrase of Pro-
fessor Tynall’s, . his most clear “On Radiation,” (London,
1865,) p. 6:—“In the nee of their houtal pire thea sate? violet gr dips
of the utmost i the organic world.” Ido not know whether the au-
thor had in view an influence of the chemical rays over the ani Ais -
according to ce passages ~ Mr. Sachs, I doubt if they have more — over
eee sat ppeared inthe Tomiie! hey
are collected and yan inenter markable volume called Handbuch der -hysit
logischen Botanik, vol. iv, lie. 1868, pp. 1 to 46,
236 Address of Prof. DeCandolle
chemistry ; contrary to that which occurs in mineral chemistry,
at least in the case of chlorid of silver. The least refrangible
according to its intensity. It is these, also, which change the
coloring matter of flowers when it has been dissolved in water
or alcohol.“ Those rays called chemical, such as violet, and the
invisible rays beyond violet, according to recent experiments,
confirmatory of those of ancient authors—those of Sebastian
Poggioli, in 1817, and of C. M. Guillemin—have but one single
well-ascertained effect, that of favoring the bending of the stem
toward the quarter from which they come more decidedly than
do other rays; yet that is an effect perhaps more negative than
positive, if the flexure proceeds, as many still believe, from what
is going on on the side least exposed to the light.”*
effect upon vegetation of the non-visible calorific rays at
the other extremity of the spectrum have been but little studied.
According to the experiments we have on this subject, they
would appear to have but little power over any of the functions ;
but it would be worth while to investigate further the calorific
regions of the spectrum by employing Dr. Tyndall’s process,
that is, by means of iodine dissolved in bisulphid of carbon,
which permits no trace of visible light to pass.
How interesting it would be to make all these laboratory ex-
prolonged as long as desirable, and, probably, unlooked-for re-
sults would occur as to the form or color of the organs, particu-
larly of the leaves. :
Permit me to recall on this subject an experiment made in
1853 by Professor von Martius.” It will interest horticulturists
now that plants with colored foliage become more and more
fashionable. Prof. von Martius placed some plants of Amaranthus
tricolor for two months under glasses of various colors. Under
Sir John Herschell, Edinb. Phil. Journ., January, 1843. ;
8. sh em a Scientifici, quoted by Dutrochet, Compt. Rend. Acad. Sci,
** The rather confused and questionable explanations, founded on the notions of
Dutrochet, of the existence of a deoxydizing power on the brightest side, clash with
the fact that the blue, indigo, and violet rays, the least powerful for deoxydizing
tissues, are the most powerful in causing them to
“ Gelehrte Anzeige,” Miinchen, Dec. 5, 1853. _«
before the Botanical Congress in London. 237
on Orchids; and many others I could name,
existed, had there not been rich amateurs either to edit or buy
th
em.
It is horticulture that has given us the longest series of illus- _
trated journals that have ever been published; and here I must
do justice especially to the English horticulturists. No doubt
the science of our time requires a larger amount of analytical
details than is contained in the plates of the “ Botanical M: \-
zine,” “Botanical Register,” ‘Andrews’ Repository,” “Loddiges’
Am. Jour. Sc1.—Szconp Szrigs, VoL. XLII, No. 125,—Sert., 1866.
238 Address of Prof. DeCandolile
Botanical Cabinet,” “Sweet’s British Flower Garden,” ‘ Paxton’s
Magazine and Flower Garden,” and other English journals; but
what a number of forms are thus fixed by the engravings in
these books, and what a fund of valuable documents for consult-
ation they afford. One must admire the “ Botanical Magazine,”
eommenced in 1793, continued from month to month with an
exemplary regularity, and which is now at its 5580th plate.
Not only has it always represented rare and new species, but it
has ever been conducted on a simple and uniform plan, whick
renders it convenient to consult.
beautiful establishment at Kew, w
pa of the indefatigable activi :
uastly, if we ask the origin of the garden of the Royal Horti-
cultural Society at Kensington, we are told it is only a develop-
_ The names of Sir William Hooker and of Dr. Lindley, thanks
® Since these lines were in the inter’s bands, British cietin has sustained a
severe loss in the death of the truly amiable and learned Professor W. H, Harvey,
of Dublin, so well known by his works on Alge, and on the botany of South Africa. —
I cannot refrain from ur e of this great bereavement.
*
9
before the Botanical Congress in London. 239
to their special works, will ever remain distinguished in science.
These two botanists have, moreover, been directors of horticul-
them in distrust. On the contrary, innovations, if in harmony
with the principles, may be, and I will even say ought to be,
pted
<
ey should be discouraged,
C decoknds there is Id
temperate regi
240 Address of Prof. DeCandolle
to that of tea; and we can assert that that part of America in-
cluded between San Francisco and the Oregon territory will,
one day, supply wines as varied and as excellent as those Kuro-
pean ones produced between Portugal and the Rhine.
It is a singular fact, that the two principal beverages of the
civilized world, wine and tea, which produce similar stimulating
effects, but which to a certain extent are the substitutes one for
the other in different countries, present also in the mode of cul-
tivating them the most marked resemblances and differences.
The vine and the tea-plant succeed best on stony, barren hill-
sides, of which they sometimes increase the value a hundred-
fold. According to the exposure, the soil, the cultivation and
manner of preparing the produce, wine and tea are obtained of
unquestionable excellence; while the neighboring crops, but a
short distance off, may be more or less ordinary in quality. The
two shrubs require a temperate climate, but the vine needs heat
nd no rain during summer, while the tea-plant requires rain
and but little summer heat; the result of which is, that these
two species are almost geographically incompatible. Vine-grow-
ing countries will never produce tea, and vice versd.
ut you will say, these examples belong rather to agriculture,
‘and concern neither botany nor gardens. I maintain the con-
to the French colonies in America. A multitude of such in-
stances might be named. In the present day science has pro-
gressed, practical men avail themselves of it, governments and
nations have abandoned those mistaken ideas in accordance with
which it was supposed that a cultivation advantageous to one
country othe
was injurious to others. Hence we may hope to see,
*
before the Botanical Congress in London. 241
‘ before long, api ee planted in all regions where they can
' thrive, to the great advantage of mankind in general.
q One of the i evident effects of science has been to create
J in the horticultural public a taste for varied and rare forms.
Formerly in gardens there were only to be found certain kinds
of plants which dated back to the time of the Crusades, or even
of 2 —_ The acid of the New ge did not pro-
in Europe. Botanists, eee were more ambitious. Their
Millectors were numerous and daring. They en saad their her-
baria with an infinitude of new forms, and published works
upon exotic plants, such as those of Hernandez, Rumphius,
62)
©
©
=]
B
o
5
wn
@
<
rs)
i
eo
BA
ae
=
oO
o
Fy
5
a
°
ed
9
S
ee
wm
ness “ the eee es. Then ceased the reign of tulips and
: peonies in flower ga selene Curiosity, that great incentive to
all ais era penetrated horticulture, the change in gar-
dens became rapid. Instead of a few hundred species such as
2 were cultivated at a commencement of the last century, there
& are now 20,000 or 80,000 to be found in most of the present
world. the members of one ‘aul only bore the same name, and —
if each individual had but one christian name, differing from —
those es" other members of his pense —— - epelege
;
242 Address of Prof. DeCandolle,
less, the admirable plan of nomenclature that science has pro-
vided for horticulturists, and which they cannot too much appre-
ciate and respect.”
ture.—The pursuit of horticulture dem ooks er herbaaiie
as that of scientific botany requires Galiyated living plants.
Thence the necessity, w is more an recognized, of
i more a
bringing together the materials for comparison in the same town,
the same establishment, and even under the same administra-
tion, organized so as to facilitate the use of them. How many
institutions in Europe, either private or public, would be bene-
ted by this arrangement! How many towns and countries are
now deficient—some i n libraries, some in herbaria, some in re-
th of botanists and horticulturists. Each of these clan
must clearly have distinct characteristics; but the one should
be influenced by the ae By these means, some too retiring
dispositions aa be brought out, and certain dormant powers
_ developed, Horticulture, “ instance, has a commercial ten-
met ts nomenclature and its minute observations, has some-
thing technical and dry about it, which contrasts with the gran-
eur of nature, and with the sentiment of art. It is for horti-
culture, combining, as it does, the planning and the decorations
of gardens, to develop the ssethetie faculties of the savant, as of
the world in general. A lovel y flower, beautiful trees, a splen-
19
lwo years ago I made a request to the eco sa des ace pagent se
Belges, which appears to Pad eth favorably received, and i ot be usele:
to repeat it here. It a in begging the siotinatturiate who obati new sae
ties not to give them botanical names, with a Latin designation, but merely arbi-
trary names of quite a aiercak nature, in order to avoid confusion and useless re-
ches. in oks. For example, if called a Gale olaria, Sebastopol, or Tri-
ree Gand, every one would understand it meant a garden hao but if
ones, the better it is, unless ‘they can be appended to the Sy ee omenclature:
as as when we ony Brassica campestris oleifera, instead of, shortly, C
_.” The Botanical Gardens at Kew area fine example of 5 Shoald be done,
large or a more modest 3 Dee
are yet inconvenient or incomplete. niaiy wrwnn where t the means of udy
~
&
ae
C. Dewey on Caricography. 243
more truly scientific subjects, in which many among you are no
doubt disposed to take part.
Arr. XXXVIL—Caricography ; by Prof. C. Dewry.
Continued from vol. xli, p. 381.—1866. (The 43d No.)
No. 299. Carex retrocurva, Dew. 1845.
_ Spikes distinct ;_staminate single, terminal pedunculate cylindric; pis-
tillate spikes 2-5, cylindric short-oblong rather close-flowered, often re-
its ovate cuspidate scale; culm 8-16 inches high, nearly erect, then sub-
prostrate; leaves sub-radical, soft and wide; whole plant rather glaucous,
Open , Massachusetts and New York; south, north and west.
When C. oligocarpa was confounded with C. digitalis, this was called by
. Gray C. oligocarpa var. latifolia, Gray, Gram. and Cyp., 1835, as
quoted in Tor. Mon., p. 416, 1836.
No. 300. . stylosa, Meyer. 1830. .
na
e
#
244 C. Dewey on Caricography.
Russian America—Unalaska, Meyer, and Sitka, Bongard. Contrary’
to the remark made in vol. xxix, p. 252, 1836, from Meyer’s figure, this
se is not C. Carltonia, or even C. Parryana, Dew., but is far different.
fon. 1836.
No. 301. C. apes Boott, pecais Hartwegiane. 1842.
exce ating its ovate or oblong lanceolate scale which is eran on the pale
back ; culm 8 to 10 inches high, rather slender, not filiform, but leafy ;
leaves narrow, flat, often longer than the culm, slightly rough on the
ae ag ; plant pale green.
sterile, tumid and nerved scale between the spikelet and the axis at
the Sad oe the lateral spikelets, oe by Dr. Boott in this species and
two others, is a very striking and curious character.
California, Dr. H. N. Bolander ; ‘Gusisiaila, Hartweg, says Dr. Boo
in the shore reference. From C. Deweyana, it differs in having pa
stigmas.
No. 302. (C, Davalliana, Smith. 1800 ?
owers dicecious with an oblong simple spike, never androgynous ;
fruit distigmatic, oblong-lanceolate, rostrate and roundish, tapering above
and commonly much recurved, sub-scabrous above, nerved and longer
e acute or awned scale; culm 5-8 inches high; leaves
e plants from the Rocky Mountains are exactly like C. Daval-
liana from Europe, and President Smith of the Linnzean Society, is ade-
quate authority for the specific name.
No. 303. C. Gayana, Desv.
Spike of 4-8 spikelets aggregated into an ovate head;
spikelets staminate above, ovate, sessile, eas a: lower sometimes branch-
or ._.. tomy pistillate spikelets closely aggregated (Boott), or
sometimes diwcious (Boott) ; stigmas two; fruit roundish ovate, short-
acuminate or sealed sub-scabrous above, shorter and narrower than the
ovate-acuminate or broad ovate lanceolate 3 SS ee culm ex-
ceeding a foot in height and earth toward the base; leaves narrow and
4 often as the culm, scabrous on the en all light ats esac the
brown, and sr aes sitlens
Boundary Survey an d Rocky Mountains, Fendler, 881, and Hall, of Ill.
— iformis, Chapman, in vol. vi, p. 244, 1848, has been
— by. the author but as it is an authentic form of 6. —
ere receives the nam debilis var. ormis, Dew. It is de
sesibed ie the above e, bilis var. fusiformis,
C. Dewey on Caricography. 245
C. Oederi, Ehrht.; has occurred in a dicecious form; numerous pis-
tillate spikelets on one cu m, and the staminate one "to three short
spikes on onery: culm, but both growing from the same root; about
fifteen inches
rand ih Sides Clinton ; a singular form.
_ 3. C. viridula, Mx., is a var. of C. Oederi, Ehrht., as Dr. Torrey learned
q from an peters die of the herbarium of Michaux, and as stated in this
Journal, xxvii, p. 276, 1835, and Tor. Mon. , p- 417, 1836. New Evel
the state of New York, and Canada have given forms of C. Oederi, short,
small, with smooth culm : spikes three, the two lower axillary or Bracticie
and pistillate entirely, nearly or quite ¢ sessile; and the upper one staminate
below and all small, while the triquetrous rostrate acuminate fruit allies
it to C. flava and not to C. triceps, It differs enough from C. Ocderi
from C. triceps and C. hirsuta. So accurate was Dr. Torrey in that early
day in the determination of nearly all the species of Carex given by
chaux.
C. Buabaumii, Wahl., C. polygana, Schk., (not Muh.) has very va-
riable spikes, stigmas 3 in United States, an nd culm sharply ingest
]
and very scabrous to partially smooth. The pistillate scales i -
are said to be cuspidate, about equalling, the fruit, and by o ahi to be
ovate, mucronate or cuspidate. On specimens from Germany the scales
and black or dark; rusty on the sides as als culm very stiff and
rough. From the marsh, Bergen.
5. = striatula, Mx., 1803; xxvii, 278, 1835.
blanda, Dew.; x, 45, 1826,
These two were found to be the same by Dr. Torrey, as he had a
to the herbeiein of Michaux, and both are described under the last refer-
ence; of the latter, its re , C. conoidea, Muh., given, while some
botanists placed it under C. a
6. C. vaginata, Tausch, xli, p. ai 1866, and var. alticaulis, Dew.
Both of these forms have been abundant this season in the marsh at —
reat numbers at Belleville, C. W., by Macoun,
former. The refracted culm above the upper SS :
spike has been uncommon this year at either locality.
Am, Jour. Sci—Srconp Srrizes, Vou. XLII, No. 125.—Sepr., 1866.
32
1) ala
Ee
Sry
246 C. U. Shepard—Mineral Notices.
Art. XXXVIII.— Mineral Notices; by CHARLES UPHAM
SHEPARD.
1. On Hagemannite, a new mineral from Arksutfiord, Greenland.
For my knowledge of the present species I am indebted to
Mr. G. Hagemann, chemist to the Natrona chemical works, Al-
leghany county, Pennsylvania, for whom it is named and from
whom I received it, along with its associates, pachnolite, cryo-
lite, ete.
The mineral is in seams and veins of from one-third to half
shows an even fracture. H.=3°0 to 35. G.=2°59
adheres but feebly to the tongue, without emitting a strong ar-
C. U, Shepard—Mineral Notices. 247
termined by heating the mineral under lime. The mineral con-
tains a trace of phosphoric acid.
Al Fe Ca »@ Mg Na Fl Si HO _Insol.
12-00 5:82 11:20 2°30 845 40°10 179 1044 1:08
12°21 5°87 11°16 Seid es 40°51 eoes Seca scl Se gtk
11:98 617 11:16 Seek anes hae sees ao oe eae
Mean, 12-06 596 11:18 2°30 845 40°30 719 «10-44 =61-08
HO = 10°44 19344 — 1:16 or 2 HO
Al “== 19-06 4498 = °0886) y oog « of Al
ae oe 598 = 0202 | — Fe
Ca = 11:181}98 = 0559 “ 1 Ca
Mg =. Soy aes se OT) - Mg
Na = 845945 = etter ge 87
Fl = 40°30 4239 = 2125 “ 4 Fl
St. = eae o520 * 3 TS
The deduction of a formula is difficult. The following is sug-
gested :
2(Ca-+2Na+4Mg)Fl+($Al4-}Fe)?SiFl2-+-2HO
but it is very complicated; and it is uncertain whether Sif, is
capable of counbining thus with metals. The iron was found to
be present as sesquioxyd.”
2. Cotunnite at South Hamptan Lead Mine.
In a recent number of this Journal I have described scheelite
as a rare product of the Hampton lead mine. [am now able
to add cotunnite (PbCl) as a production, though similarly scarce,
of the same locality. ‘Two or three specimens have been brought
me by one of my pupils (Mr. P. W. Lyman, of the Junior _
class in Amherst College); and I have since heard of a fourth
Specimen, found by another visitor of the mine. The crystals
are small, and occur in groups lining druses of quartz, They
have the form of ape eaee NA priems, are without transpa-
rency and perfectly milk-white. When reduced to a fine pow-
ler the mineral is soluble in water, from which the nitrate of |
silver throws down the chlorid of silver.
248 C. U. Shepard—Mineral Notices.
3. Columbite at Northfield, Mass.
This mineral was sent to me last autumn for cba dirwrer: by
Mr. M. A. Brown, of Springfield, Mass., an enterprising mine-
ralogist, now on his way to Montana, I visited ‘ locality
with him last month. It is on land belonging to Mr. Simeon
aeretsn. and situated about one mile northeast of the village.
t occurs in a much disintegrated coarse-grained graphic ee
which here forms veins from ten to fifteen feet in width, travers
ing the micaceous schist. Beryl is also somewhat abundant in
uniform shortness or tabular form, and the regularity of their
terminations by a single plane. In this respect they resemble
the beryls of Goshen and Norwich. e columbite is tolerably
crystallized, black and shining, with a specific gravity of 6°,
which, it will be observed, is much higher than that of the Con-
necticut localities and nearly identical with the sabre va-
riety. e largest fragments weighed only a few o
the supply at the locality (which i is mostly derived Foti ‘on soil
contiguous to the vein) is very lim
Very interesting specimens of zepalatiined fibrilite in distinct
white prisms having nearly the form of kyanite are occasionally
met with in the drift of this region. The crystals penetrate a
compact micaceous rock in all ris and from their great
hardness are found projecting at various angles quite beyond
the surface, notwithstanding the iuitign to which the masses
have been subjected.
e remote southeastern section of the town, on what is
“interesting specimens of the astrophyllite variety of mica. Grace
mountain in Warwick is visible to the northeast from this vicin-
_ ity, and is the locality of the beautiful radiated black tourma-
line associated with granular epidote.
4. Spodumene in Winchester, New Hampshire,
This is a continuation of the Goshen formation. The ster
is on land of Mr. Brown (the father of Mr. M. A. Brown), a
whose
eld rom | Winchester The Sea ledge comes into view
mine
ost north locali t) d wrk
TOreation & of “the Goshe fr ea ity of this species, and as ap
C. U. Shepard on localities of Meteoric Iron. Be ae
4 Art, XXXIX.— Brief Notices of several localities of Meteorite Iron;
by CHAarLes UPHAM SHEPARD.
1. Savisavik, North Greenland.
THIS ares ee iron F been in my possession upward of two
years; and ) before describing its locality, to have
obtained a eel of casbarial fully adequate to its description
4 and analysis; but not succeeding in this I deem it best to delay |
roe mstibe of it no longer. i
y specim ens, consisting merely of a few scales, scarcely
larger than one’s ‘finger nail, were the gift of John C. Trautwine,
Hsq., Civil Engineer, of Philad elphia, to whom they had been
presented by Dr. Hays, the well- known arctic voyager, accom-
panied by the following note
. “* * Isend you the fragment of iron (supposed to be me-
@ teoric) which I promised, It was obtained from an Esquimau
7 at my winter station of Port Foul, in 1861, who had obtained
maux seale off fragments with flint stone.
Yours, etc., i, . Hays,”
Philadelphia, April 17, 1864.
This iron is pa ae malleable and remarkably homogeneous, —
without being much prone to oxydation. Its specific nian by
pear
ne little nickel asd tap and 80 ujuah fobeie that it is bees
and brittle like cast-iron.
" It is not plain from Dr. Hays’s letter whether this word begins with r
250 C. U. Shepard on localities of Meteoric Iron:
2. Botetourt County, Virginia.
This iron was discovered more than fifteen years ago in a
. Manross, who took them with him to Gottingen,
where in the laboratory of Prof. Wohler he analyzed one of
them so far as to determine the presence of nickel in the very
unusually high proportion of more than 20 percent. In the
860, while Mr. Manross was delivering lectures in this
college on chemistry, he presented me a little fragment of this
iron along with the foregoing information; and after his melan-
choly death at the battle of Antietam, his widow gave me the
only remaining specimen of it that is known.
The quantity is too small to justify a further analysis; and I
ai cific
ity =7°64. Fracture fine granular like cast-steel. It does not
8. Colorado.
If neither of the two preceding irons are likely to be repre-
: in our collections, there is certainly a prospect that it will
be quite otherwise with the mass just discovered upon the east-
ern slope of the Sierre Madre Range of the Rocky Mocntaiie.
_For my acquaintance with this discovery I am indebted to the
kindness of Mr. J. Alden Smith, a practical mineralogist, at
present residing in Colorado. This gentleman has transmitted
to me by mail a very interesting cleavage lamina, 14 inches long
yy gths of an inch wide and ith thick, and which shows on one
ge a portion of the natural coating of the meteorite. His let-
until his return to the east in the coming autumn. By means
of the promised specimens he expects to bring with him on his
return, I hope to be able to give a more circumstantial account
of the discovery.
The detection of the mass, and which has occurred only within
C. U. Shepard in localities of Meteoric Iron. 251
a few weeks, is due to Messrs. Wilson and Morrison, by whom
Mr. Smith was shown to the locality. It is situated within a
very deep ravine, - the elevation of 8000 feet above the ocean
and surrounded with high mountains on all sides. The exact
a crevice in the solid ledge, and thereby to eth been muc
shattered at one extremity,—a circumstance that enabled the
finders to detach several small pieces.” They inferred the fall
to have taken place at a very remote period, as abe mass exhib-
ited a coating of oxyds half an inch thick. “Its composition is
ganese and a trace of copper. In some parts, iron forms the
ote ingredient, while in others clack and cobalt are — in
either. The laminz of this substance are unusually thick, and
possess a light color together with a bright luster. As they are
disposed in accordance with the octahedral cleavage of the iron,
they render the Widinasnstétian figures strikingly —
without polishing or the use of acids. ” No o pyrites or graphite
visible in my specimen. Specific gravity = 7°43.
4, Supposed new locality in Tennessee.
Through the kindness of a scientific gate in Mississippi, Dr.
W. Spillman, I am able to announce the very recent discovery
of a considerable mass of a iron conan a mountain in
ness with by a nee ra aa
man can The
sree : which
had been
ce
Amherst College, July 9, 1866.
252 J.D. Dana on the origin of the Earth’s Features.
Art. XL.—Appendix to Article XXX, On the Origin of some of
the Harth’s Features; by JAMES D. Dana.
On page 210 I have made but a bare allusion to the question
of the heat required in metamorphism. . Vose dispenses
with heat altogether, except what may be incidental to compres-
sion. And Professor Hall regards it as of secondary importance,
or not absolutely necessary (see our citation on page 207), and
attributes the little extraneous heat that may be present and
operative—probably, he says ‘‘ not much above that of boiling
water” (Pal., vol. iti, p. 77)—to the sinking of the thickening
deposits to a level ‘‘where the surrounding temperature was
higher ;” higher, that is, on the principle, first suggested by Her-
schel, of the rising of the isothermal planes within the earth’s
crust in concordance with increase of thickness through super-
ficial deposits; the isothermal plane of 100°, for example, being
within a certain distance of the surface of the crust in a given re-
gion, and rising as the surface rises by new accumulations above.
The correctness of Herschel’s principle cannot be doubted.
But the question of its actual agency in ordinary metamorphism
must be decided by an appeal to facts; and on this point I would
here present a few facts for consideration.
The numbers and boldness of the flexures in the rocks of most
metamorphic regions have always seemed to me to bear against
the view that the heat causing the change had ascended by the
very quiet method recognized in this theory. For the heat, thus
slowly creeping upward, a few inches, feet, or yards in a cen-
tury, should produce the change with little disturbance in the
mass, and leave the beds nearly or quite horizontal: a condition
very unlike that actually found in nature. The region of the
thickened accumulations is also necessarily, as I have said, one
of strengthened crust, under the petite ley poibeses and dis-
J.D. Dana on the origin of the Earth’s Features. 253
mung, making a dislocation of at least 16,000, and probably of
20,000, feet. And yet the Trenton limestone and Hudson River
shales are not metamorphic. Some local cases of alteration
occur there, including patches of roofing slate; but the greater
art of the shales are no harder than the ordinary shales of the
ennsylvania Coal formation.’
At a depth of 16,000 feet the temperature of the earth’s crust,
allowing an increase of 1° F. for 60 feet of descent, would be
about 330° F.; or with 1° F. for 50 feet, about 880° F.—either
of which temperatures is far above the boiling point of water;
and with the thinner crust of Paleozoic time the temperature at
this depth should have been still higher. But, notwithstanding
this heat, and also the compression from so great an overlying
mass, the limestones and shales are not crystalline. The change
of parts of the shale to roofing slate is no evidence in favor of
the efficiency of the alleged cause; for such a cause should act
uniformly over great areas.
In Southern Virginia, between Walker’s Mountain and the
Peak Hills, the Trenton rocks, as Lesley observes, are brought
mh by means of a fault, to a level with the Lower Carboniferous.
The amount of the fault by the lowest estimate is 15,000 feet.
Notwithstanding the depth at which the Trenton beds had been
ying previous to the faulting, the limestones are not granular
marbles, but ordinary stratified limestone.
Again, in the great Nova Scotia section, at the Joggins, 15,000
feet of rock are exposed to view out of the 16,000 feet or more
of the whole Carboniferous formation ; and the lower strata of
these 15,000 feet consist of shales and sandstones, and fossilif-
erous limestone, without metamorphism. .
at is the natural inference from these data? . Can we as-
* In a recent conversation with Mr. Lesley, he confirmed these statements, and
said that the upturned rocks are so situated that the srerelenate thickness of the
Series is easily ascertained. The facts are briefly alluded to in my Manual of Ge-
ology, on page 707.
Am. Jour. Sc1.—Szconp Szrizs, Vou. XLII, No. 125.—Szpr., 1966.
33
254 Scientific Intelligence.
SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE.
I, CHEMISTRY AND PHYSICS.
1. On the chlorids af tungsten.—Dersray has studied the vapor-den-
sities of the volatile compounds of tungsten with chlorine, and with chlo-
rine and oxygen, and has arrived at results of much theoretical interest.
en a current of age! chlorine is passed over metallic tungsten heated
to redness in a tube of hard glass, red vapors are obtained which con-
dense to a dark gray mass, which is a mixture of the two chlorids WC,
and W,Cl,. By distillation in a current of chlorine the terchlorid
WCl,, may be obtained very nearly pure. There are, as is well known,
oxalic acid. th e red ox “ie rid or, as_we should as to term it, ae
vow O Cl,+WO,.
The terchlorid heated with tungstic acid acts upon it with evolution of
heat, according to the equation,
WO,+2WC!,=—3WOCI,.
The easy decomposition of the dioxychlorid makes it sy ealnes to deter-
mine vi ay of its vapor, but the vapor-densities of the two other
on eg Laan of 2 vols., ie 5°93 upon that of 4 vols. If we sins
with that tungstic acid is wi O, and the perchlorid W’Cl,, the
equivalent of the chlorid becomes five-thirds of the old equivalent and
its Ss pete five-thirds of that found above theoretically, so that t if
o 4 vols. of vapor we have for its vapor-density
11-46, which et nearly with that found by experiment, We must
W’'0,+2W"C 5 Which is the same as seach the existence of bodies
the vapor-density of which corresponds to 12 volumes.— Comptes Rendus,
: Ww. G.
2. op ed separation of. lt from nickel—Trrreit has given &
ting cna from nickel which promises to yield good
veralte. o solution containing the two metals ammonia is to be
Chemistry and Physics. 255
of hypermanganate of potash is to be added until present in excess, as
shown by the violet color of the solution remaining for a short time.
g fi
Paris, Feb. 1866, p. 88. oe
a new alcohol in which carbon is partially replaced by silicon —
f p
pound is first attacked, while chlorid of potassium is formed and the
monochlorinated compound remains among the products of the action,
When water is added to the contents of the tube after the action, an oily
liquid separates which is to be washed twice with water and then treated
with concentrated sulphuric acid, which dissolves the acetic acid com-
pound and the oxyd of silicium-triethyl, aren} t ©, leaving the
Hes : 2°" 5/8 :
silicium-ethyl and its chlorine derivatives unacted upon. The portion
of potash and alcohol. The liquid separated by water is again treated
with sulphuric acid, the solution decanted and poured into water, A
liquid separates which boils between 208° and 214° C., has a faint ethe-
al adi acetic smell, and burns with a luminous flame, giving off white
fumes of silicic acid. This liquid has the formula st 8, and is
derived from monochlorinated silicium-ethyl by replacing the chlorine by
oxacetyl, €,H,©. Treated with an alcoholic solution of caustic sotiak
- body yields a new liquid boiling at 1904,C., and having the formula
“oH, 9 Le, which is the hydrate corresponding to the acetate above
256 Scientific Intelligence.
described. The authors term the radical, Si€,H,,, silicononyl, and
compare the hydrate and acetate to the corresponding compounds of ear-
bon and hydrogen, Cotre t and ©
19. ©, considering silicium to
H,o 5% g
has described a very remarkable series of bodies derived from acetylene,
1
the precipitate by decantation with strong ammonia sa
sh brown flocky precipitate, decomposed by chlorhydrie acid with
formation of subchlorid of copper and acetylene. It oses sal-
The chlorid of cuprosacety! is obtained by passing acetylene, bubble
by bubble, into a concentrated solution of subchlorid of co »per in chlo-
rid of potassium. The gas is absorbed and a yellow precipitate is formed,
with formation of the oxyd, and by boiling chlorhydric and nitric acids.
It unites with chlorid of ammoniu
The argentic compounds of acetylene are analogous to those of copper.
They may be deduced from the radical C, Ag,H, which the author terms
yes precipitate first with ammonia and then with distilled water. It
e
stance decomposed by chlorhydric acid. The phosphate is a yellow
eurdy precipitate. Berthelot remarks tha
of a hydruret upon a metallic salt. The analogy between cuprosacetyl
and ammonia may be shown by the following formulas :
Chemistry and Physics. 257
C,€u, C,€uH C,AgH
NH, 4H,-H C,€u,.H or C,€uH.€u C, ,Ag,H
NH,O vive’ C, €u,HO or C, Gul. €u0 Cy ,4g,HO
The author further poe that (C.€ uH. se and (C,AgH.Ag)O
are analogous to the f Reiset’s ‘base, (NH, Pt)O, and that various
facts lead him to beliave: che there are compounds analogous to the base
(2NH,Pt)O, such as [(C, AgH),Ag]O.
n a subsequent paper the author describ il sae unds contain-
- Ing gold and chromium, the constitution of which, however, is not yet
clearly ascertained. Silver unites with allylene to (i argentallyl, the
chlorid of which has the formula [C,H,Ag(C,H,Ag,)]Cl, so that the
“neta corresponds to the secon series of acetylene compounds above
entioned. Wh i i
forms ethylene, C,H,, and its ere; C,H,. Potassium acts in a
similar manner but with more violence. Ata a higher temperature paren
replaces all the hydrogen and form C,Na,. The results given are to be
considered as preliminary to a fuller investigation of oe subjec pine
letin de la Société Chim ee March, 1866, pp. 176, 1
5. Lsomerism.—BERTHELOT, in a Memoir on a new kind of isomerism,
proposes the following subdivision of this subject. Isomeric bodies—th t
is to say, bodies formed of the same elements united in the same propor-
Hona—“can be separated into a certain number of classes or general
groups
(1) Rouiselent he serge —Substaneces which appear to have a
purely accidental relation to nage other; for instance, butyric acid
eH, 0, ks Pees (C,H
@. Meta m.—Bodies fo ao by the union of 4 canbe de
ciples, so Hat in thee formule a kind of compensation
for example, methylacetic ether, C, H, (Cy H, O,) sad err etrarer
ether, C, H, (C, H, O,).
(3.) Polymerism. ~—Gompounds arising from the union of several aes
ecules to form a this is shown in the case of vs sa “Eps gue
ay ln Cro
sire rr the compound molecule taken as a oe ee than the diver-
poses bret a new one, called kenomeri (from xevdr), distinct
from all the others, though allied to meta
(6.) Kenomerism.—Two different compounds may lose, by the effect
of certain reagents which bring about decomposition, different groups of
elements, and the somaninders: 1 be identical 3 in composition ; these two de 2
258 Scientific Intelligence.
amples: aleohol by losing 2 equivalents of hydrogen is turned into al-
dehyde : ate Van a Mg eV a: ‘
Glycol, on the other hand, by giving up 2 equivalents of water, is con-
verted into glycolic ether (oxyd of ethylene) :
C, H, 0, O,=¢, HO...
Glycolic ether and aldehyde are isomeric; their composition is the
same, but their properties, both physical and chemical, are extremely
different. This is a good case of kenomerism. Again, essence of tere-
benthine combines with hydrochloric acid under different conditions to
form two distinct hydrochlorates, the monohydrochlorate, C,, H,, H Cl,
and the dihydrochlorate, C,,H,,2HCl. From the first body the
crystalline compound C,, H,,, camphene, is obtained, and from the lat-
ter C,, H,,, terpilene, two hydrocarbons of very different properties.—
Reader, July 7.
6.
e
and besides is admirably adapted for the class-room.
After having enlarged our knowledge of longitudinal vibrations of
glass tubes coated on the inside with lycopodium, Mr. Kundt closed one
or both ends of the longitudinally vibrating glass tube; instead of the
between the heaps, produced by the stationary waves are corresponding
parts of the wave-length of the tone in glass and air (here one-half
2 Waves in glass, thus giving 4:16—=1:32—%: 48.
When the tube is held in the same manner, that is, when its length is
the same part of a glass-wave, the distance of the heaps (half-wave lengths
in the gas) will be proportional to the velocity of sound in the gas, or
the number of heaps will be inversely proportional ‘o that velocity.
Chemistry and Physics. 259
For tubes filled respectively with air, carbonic acid, illuminating gas
and hydrogen, Mr. Kundt obtained ree aes 32, 40, 20, and 9 heaps,
from which the velocity of sound (air = 1) is for carbonic acid 232 =°8,
ee gas 32 = 1-6, hydrogen 32 = 3°56. ssp found, ‘bya
y difficult method, for carbonic acid *79, for hydrogen
tT obtain still greater accuracy, and also determine rie velocity of
sound in different solids, Kundt closes one end of the glass tube
ta a an rod 9415 mm. long and 5 mm. diameter, Mr. Kundt ob-
— in three —— Ses Balan in each making numerous measure-
s of the distances, the velocities 10°87, 10°87, 10°86. Another
ra rod gave 10°94 2a 10°90. Similarly for steel, 15: hes - 334 and
| 2 15°343 ; for glass, 15°24, 15°25 and 15°24; for copper,
% Wertheim found for cast-steel, 14°961; for steel a5 7 108; for
q copper, 11°167.
: e above leaves no doubt that Mr. Kundt has enriched science with
a a new method for the aang of the velocity of sound in solids,
4 gases and vapors, alike excellent for a high degree of accuracy in i
numerical Jebciin gies ease of execution, elegance and simplicity,
making it exceedingly convenient for lecture experimen
We are engaged in experiments to try the application of this method
to liquids.— Poggendorf’’s Annalen, 1866, exxvii, 497-523 ; pion”,
1866, p. nee Cosmos, 1866, ili, 98-100.
ee now s
an apparatus which affords positive proof of og presence or absence
condensed vapor, “ fog.” He has found that the radiation (which js pro-
portional to the absorption) of the following gases and vapors gave the
following deflections — his very delicate thermo-multiplier, all the gases
being heated about to 230° C.: dry at mospheric air 3 mm.; air having
through water % 2 5; dry carbonic — gas 100 to 120; com- ae
mon illuminating gas, about the same; air having passed thro’ ugh bil-
ing water, irregular, but maximum deflection only 20, and only eradhally >
260 Scientific Intelligence.
From the circumstances attending the deflection of 20 mm., even this
may be ascribed to the presence of fo
Magnus, as well as Dove, ea Riess, Kundt, and others who wit-
saturated at a higher temperature never greater than 20 mm.; and onl
when fogs gti the deflection became about as great as with carbonic
acid gas, viz., 100 mm.
Magnus also agente with a number of other vapors. He also
shows how the phenomena of dew are in accordance with his view; that
dew would be impossible if watery vapor had so great a n absorptive
power as Tyndall supposes; but that all the deductions of Tyndall and
Frankland in regard to climate and the glacial period remain true if
we substitute fog or foggy vapor for true uncondensed vapor; and
finally, that the aqueous absorption lines in the spectrum observed by
Cook ecchi are contradictory to any extraordinary absorptive
power in actual vapor.—Poggendorf’’s Annalen, 1866, cxxvii, 613- te
. Solar spots influenced by solar refraction—In a certain sense "the
Boies ons of Carrington (this Journal, xxxviii, 142) and of Spérer
have = ee the subject of the physical constitution of the sun back into
uncertainty and doubt. But it seems that as little as Kirchhoff’s obser-
vations upset our views of the constitution of the Laterna mundi of Co-
ing the ho dizontal —— of the exterior atmosphere less
apparent diameter of the sun at 25°, and neglecting some insignifican
terms, Mr. Dauge obtains the falioatne: value of the period of ae
of a spot at a solar latitude 4
oO
41'= 25: 30x 2 +8
sin 25°
Ww innit
here £. ee
Taking the mean of Carrington’s observations for every fifth d
latitude, Dauge grat the following comparison between the observed ss)
and calc ) values of the period of revolution expressed in days:
Mineralogy and Geology. 261
eg 5° 10° 15° 20° 25° 30°. 35° 474°
O 25°30 25°11 25°20 25°51 25°73 25°90 26:34 26:92 2796
C 25°30 aes 25° ae 25°50 25°68 25°92 26: aa 26° - 28°33
work.—Z’ Institut, 1866, pp. 159, 165-168, G. H
II. MINERALOGY AND GEOLOGY.
. Geological explorations i in Northern Mexico; by A. Rimonn. sere
riled from his notes, and prepared for publication, by J. D. W
18 pp. 8vo. San Francisco, 1866.—We cite a few paragraphs from this
valuable _ on _— geology of Northern oe : co,
has become for its mines and ssieg. Resets Paine and how muc “ been
written about it, it is surprising how little exact information has hitherto
been obtained with regard to either its geography or geology. On com-
ang = — published maps of the region in question, it will be
seen a é how much they differ from each other in their delineations
of nie "its, main topographical features, while the details are entirely
wantin
“The name of the ‘Sierra Madre’ is usually applied to the main range
of mountains of this country, or the western border of the plateau goer
Wwe go toward the a so, too, that of the valleys increases in that di:
rection, the whole system of mountains and valleys spreading out in
something like a fan shape.
“Going north, the chain appears to sink gradually, penta deter-
minations of altitude in northern Mexico are extremely few in number.
It is eater that there is, in about latitude 32°, a depression of the moun-
tain ranges which extends entirely across the continent, and which would
enable the traveler to cross from the Atlantic to the Pacific, without nec-
essarily surmounting an elevation greater than four thousand feet. The
he highest, and the rarer point is said to
the Cerro de Cuiteco, sixty leagues northéast of Jesus Farin on the
? See Emory, in Mexican Boundary Report, vol. i, p. 41.
Am. Jour. Sc1.—Szconp Szrres, Vou. XL, No. 125.—Sepr., 1966,
34
262 Scientific Intelligence.
To the north, the are east of Sahuaripa are also very high; but they
have never been measured. No peaks or ridges, however, in this por-
tion of Mexico attain anything like the elevation of the higher portion
of the Sierra Nevada, few if any points ean 4 10,000 feet i in altitude.
“The direction of the Sierra is nearly that of a line connecting seme
of the best mining districts in Mexico, a hiok. are situated on or very near
the summit of the mountains. These districts are the following, enumer-
ating them in their geographical order from the south toward the north ;
In Durango, San Antonio de las Ventanas, Guarisamey, and San Dimas,
remarkable for their auriferous silver ores ,and sixty-two Mexican leagues
northeast of Mazatlan; in Chihuahua, Guadalupe y Calvo, and San Pe-
dro de Batopilas, yielding fine specimens of native silver; also, Jesus
arie, in the same State, and the Real del la Cieneguita, Sonora, with
aitver ‘and gold mines.
“The geological structure of the occidental slope of the Sierra Madre,
as well as that of the other parts of this great chain, is exceedingly in-
teresting, and, as yet but little known, oerrbetaiding the valuable in-
_ vestigations of Humboldt and other eminent men; for, up to the present
time, , the age of the different formations has never been fixed with any
degree of accuracy, from want of materials and of sufficient observations.
In 1863, 1864, and 1865, however, I explored quite a number of locali-
dikes of extremely varied character. The granites, however, are ve
poor in veins of the precious metals, while the porphyries are highly
metalliferous, In Sinaloa (Candelero) and Durango (San Dimas) we see
@ granites underlie the metalliferous porphyries, and that the
greenstones, in Sonora (near Hermosillo and in the vicinity of La Ha-
ce a penetrate through them
“The oldest sedimentary rocks, “which I have observed, belong to the
arboniferous series; this is represented in the eastern part of set ple
masses of ‘limestone, forming baal high and meer rid -e
paving a little west of north. The upturned strata are seen, any
s, to rest on granite. Argentiferous veins occur Shecmetions wi
formation.
“The next pad of Ege smal rocks, in order, is the Triassic; this
Mineralogy and Geology. 263
erous and contain veins of silver ores. Them metamorphic slates and lime-
stones of the Altar and Magdalena districts, which include the richest
sibly b
y also be noticed
the gold which they furnish does not resemble that ohtsitied rata
e Triassic strata.
The Cretaceous period is also i aie at the foot of the Sierra
Ma ides at Arivechi, in Sonora. The strata belonging to this series are
chiefly argillaceous shales, and they ae upon porphvries and Carbonif-
erous limestone. ey have been disturbed and elevated since their de-
position. The fossils, which they contain in ene number and in a fine
state of preservation, will be noticed farther o
€ - the sii nats formations were ‘oleate in existence before
= indications of ancient craters or vents.
“The lithological character of the eruptive materials is extremely va-
ried, and there seem to have been several periods of igneous action je
s many disturbances of the strata, all of which took place
after the close of the Cretaceous e ee Three different series of vol-
5
less uplifted since their deposition, - coverin
sedimentary formations as well as older volcanic porphyries.
attain a ~~ thickness, between San ahisks and San Ignacio, in Duran-
go and Sin
“ Above hens formations occur ancient alluvial od with bones of
oo | 0 Di by Mr.
aan
m. Besides these, stcpe othe 7
Shum, and Turbinolia Texana Con. ag veg p. 11.
SS suhee. §
264 Scientific Intelligence.
extinct animals (elephants) at two localities: near La Noria, northeast of
Mazatlan, and in the Arroya de la Palma, two leagues east of La Casita,
in Sono
- Shsets of Liem lavas, somewhat similar to those of California, and
probably of the same age, forming with tufas the upper — series,
orerlio the other fobabane occupying a nearly horizontal positi
e most recent formation is that of the terrace deposits of ane and
oo which occur in Sonora.”
The pamphlet, after giving details on these several formations, closes
with a list of the principal mines of northern Mexico, in which the ores
they yield are mentioned, the dip and strike of the veins, and other par-
— of interest.
n Fucoids in the Coal Formation; by Leo Lesquereux. 14 pp.
i with a plate. From the Trans. Am. ’Phil. Soc., xiii, 313.—After re-
;
on Slippery Rock Creek, opposite Wurtemberg, Lawrence Co., Pennsyl-
vania. The specimens were from the lower surface of a thin layer of
Fucoids, resembling sig i, mcs Seats Hall; micaceous sandstone,
with a few remains of Paleeophycu
The frond, in the new species, is somewhat lyre-shape in outline, but
varies much. It is 2 in. to 1 ft. in length, and half this in breadth.
has a fleshy margin from an eighth to a fourth of an inch thick; and it
is crossed by curving ribs, which — from the inner to the outer edge,
a concentric with the lower mar
8 species is referred by Euscadend to Sternberg’s genus Caulerpiles,
and nated C. marginatus, It resembles somewhat Fucoides Cauda-
“ed = the Devonian,—Hall’s Spirophyton—which Lesquereux refers to
the same genus. It has nothing of the spiral character of the F. Cauda-
Galli, on which Hall bases his name Spirophyton. Lesquereux considers
this character not of generic value, and due only to a twisting © f the
frond as it Lin peculiarity observed in some living Fuci.
Lesquere ux closes his memoir with a statement of some strong reasons
ee tio of mar that ssckvoliis has been derived mainly from the decompo-
marine plants.
3. On the oldest known British Crab (Protocarcinus longipes Bell,
a. ) from the poaeie Marble of Malmesbury, Wilts ; by Hz enry Woop-
living on our om coasts. — Proc, y Book: Sie, Reader, Jona 2.
Mineralogy and Geology. 265 |
Memoirs of the Geological Survey of Great Britain and of the
1 soe of Practical Geology. The Geology of North Wales, by A. C.
ae , F.R.S., Local Director of the Geological Survey of Gr eat Britain.
382 pp. "Bvo, with numerous plates, a map and sections. London, 1866.
13s. in boards—In a brief introductory notice of this volume preceding
_ the Preface, Sir Roderick Murchison says, “The Memoir upon the Geo-
logical Structure of North Wales which is now published is, I consider,
the most important work which has been issued by the Geological ris bi
d ctor;” and w
Ww
earliest fossiliferous rocks of Wales, and with great fulness and exactness
of description. There are 26 lithographic plates of fossils, besides sec-
tions, and a beautiful colored geological map of Wales. In the summary
at page 229, Prof. Ramsay gives the following statement respecting the
lowest of i Silurian beds.
“The chief object of this Memoir has now been accomplished, for I
have described in detail the Cambrian and Lower Silurian rocks of Meri-
equivalents of the Irish rocks at oy and ‘of the poe sa ond
sandstones in the northwest of Scotiand described = Sir Roderick 1 ion
chison., In Wales, however, we never | et to their base, w a *2
clear, for reer Wales there seems to be conformity, and even a
gradual passage from the Cambrian rocks - ye Lingula flags. The
are, therefore, intimately related to eac rhaps, excep -
separation by line and color
# ges — _ ula i from 5.0 aby: a 6,000 feet thick where ele con-
own, abo a of Trilobites of the genera
pene ibe (4), Agnostus (5 5), oo us (7), a (C
lai ;
ermi-
266 Scientific Intelligence.
species are entirely distinct. The remaining seven are ree pele
Cheirurus, Ogygia, Ampyx, Ps silocephalus, and WViobe. The Pteropod
l ;
we know, first appear in the Tremadoe slates in Britain. Of the Trilo-
bites, Agnostus princeps seems to be the fo species common to Lingula
flags and Tremadoc slate, and of a tolerably aig list of bivalve _
shells ET Davisii and L. lepis are re only forms that ascend from
the lower horizon. It was not till after the ea of Wales had been
mapped that the existence of the Tremadoc slate as a recognizable sub-
formation was suspected, for where almost all the rocks are slaty, an
where there is no visible break in aiipareis minor chological distine-
tions are eet of small value. AJ] known evidence e, however, tends
to prove that in Wales the Tremadoc slate is a ea rt formation, and
though searched for, none of its peculiar fossils have yet been found in
Wales, except in certain spots in Merionethshire and Caernarvonshire.
“Next come the Llandeilo and Bala beds, the prodigious development
of life in which had no Leg ag in the older ne formations; and it is
important to remember that the fossils of these strata are to a great ex-
tent different generically, an a7 entirely apoaitioall from those
known in the more ancient formation
“ With respect, then, to Lingula, Poetic ce, and Llandeilo and Bala
beds, taking into consideration the remarkable breaks in succession not
only of species but of genera, together with various physical points of
great significance, I have no doubt that actual unconformity exists in this
part of the series, and het there is a necessary connexion between these
facts. Indeed, this unconformity, if not seen, is, as already stated, nae
inferred, for while in Merionethshire the Lingula flags are from 5,000 to
6,000 feet thick, only 11 miles north, near Llanberris, their thickness is
only 2,000 feet, this reduction having been produced proba ably by wncon-
formable overlap. Close to —— Straits, if present at all, the Lingula
beds are still thinner, and in Anglesey they are absent altogether, so that
the Llandeilo and Bala beds lie. directly and, I believe, unconformably on
Cambrian strata. To show that this is not a mere local accident, let me
recall the circumstance that in Ireland and in Sutherlandshire the Lin-
gula flags are also absent, and Llandeilo beds lie unconformably on Cam-
brian grits and conglomera
essor Ramsay aeons with a summary of his results with regard
to the rest of the Silu
The volume closes with an appendix on the fossils : Sena the plates
of ong igi by the able paola
é formation of the Dead Sea - by L. aera & me-
moir on mie Dead Sea by Mr. Lartet closes with the following Senne
soe — my geological study of the basin of the Dead Sea I a
ink—
(1.) That at the end of the Eocene period, and in consequence of an
upward = (the date of the commencement of which cannot
determi bed was protrud rresponding to the continen’
* Q) Bebe th pra igi MS:
Sg ona this protrusion (even before the deposit of the Cretaceous
disturbances had taken place i in the submarine beds, and a fissure
Mineralogy and Geology. 267
had opened from north to south through which the feldspathic Ag sae
their way, which now appear between Petra and the Dead Sea
que 1 movements which determined the formation of the highlands of
Palestine ; while the fall of the eastern side of those highlands all along
the line of dislocation, may have caused that narrow and lengthened de-
= which separates Palestine from Arabia.
The spree se the Dead Sea has thus been formed without any in-
onal from o unication with the ocean; whence it follows that
thing but a reservoir for the rainfall—the saltness of which originally
proceeded from the constitution of the environs of the ne and has
greatly increased mae the influence of incessant evaporat
5.) Toward the end of the Tertiary period, or the commencement of
the ne period, the water of the lake stig at more than 100
meters above its present level, and then deposited marls rich in salt and
. gypsum 7 ia
(
lon]
a
x
waa
"Oo
—
3
oO
+e
~)
Qu
“
Sa
oO
AS)
=
on)
©
=
S
ao
Bae
°
oS
D
fo
tS]
4
oO
pe
Ss]
i
92]
t=]
ef
]
Q
fa)
tool
°
ee
=
©
So
S
rad
3
which extend as far as the Jordan valley itself. Other eruptions of less
importance took place directly east of the lake, of which three reached
its eastern shore near the W adys Ghuweir and Zerka Main and the south
end of the plain of Zarah,
-) Hot and mineral springs, pee eruptions, similar to those
which accompany and follow volcanic action, and earthquakes, which are
still me in the pre have been the e last important pire eiyaces
dS il 14
as
unctuous clay, ve ai stp contained many similar quartz grains; these
a lh ee aspect, so that by sight alone one
268 Scientific Intelligence.
7. Report on Geological and Industrial Resources of the Grand Tra-
verse Region, or the Counties of Antrim, Grand Traverse, Benzie a
Leelanaw, in the Lower Peninsula of Michigan po by ALExaNper W1x-
CHELL, A. M,, Professor of Geology, couces ee Soar in in University
of Michigan, and late State Geologist. 98 pp. 8vo, with a map. Ann Ar-
bor, 1866.—The object of this pamphlet by ne seus Winchell is to
meow ns view the resources of the Grand Traverse Region—that is, the
portion of Michigan on the west side of the peninsula about Grand Tra-
verse Bay. It treats of the topography, soils, climate, timber and native
useful plants and animals, geology and geological resources as regards
salt, — and clays, and of the farm Sage fossi s, etc. Professor
tion into (1) Pale buff massive fees (consi of etn |
beds below, as “sx designates them, and Stromatopora beds above; (2)
Bituminous shales and limestones (consisting "3 Bryozoa beds below and
of ay Saga beds above); (3) Buff vesicular magnesian Jimestones ;
(4) Chert beds. No. 1, or the lowest, graduate, on the east side of the
peninsula of Michigan, into the subjacent Corniferous limestone. oy
total — of species of fossils observed in No. 1 is 41; in 2, 87;
3, : spec
eae mineral localities ; by Guo. J. Brusu.—(1.) Diaspore—A
reo r more since Mr. W. W. Jefferis sent me some minute fragments
of a hard foliated mineral found by him at Newlin, Chester Co., Pa.
The substance was euneddad in —— aad: on examination prov ved to
soar to the cleavage; it is im tie io so that it is » difficult
to make out the other planes. In size a: crystals surpass any t that I
have seen from Asia Minor or Schemnitz, and in perfection of planes
they compare favorably with the beautiful crystals discovered by Prof. f. J.
Lawrence a. oe Gumuch Da, gh.
(2.) Ouvarovite—Among some specimens presented to the metallur-
gical collection ae Yale College by. Mr, ¢ Clayton of San Francisco, there is
_ a piece of chromic iron, from near New Idria, California. This specimen
x ick
Sihgnitiel the latter proves to be in druses of crystals showing the rhom-
bic faces of the el dodecahedron; and on blowpipe analysis the
; hrome-garnet.
On ery stallized hired by G. Hagemann. co for
this Journal. ‘}—Crptala of eryolite have hitherto been considered a great
rarity, and the only form dinens od. is that of the simple recanguls prism.
td have been much sought for with little success, and my
in finding them in the cryolite of a cok eer soy
: Mineralogy and Geology. 269
The eryolite on which the crystals were found is not of good quality,
that is to say, it is much mixed with other minerals. - purer cryolite
cargoes have never afforded me any traces of crystals. They occurred
over the exterior of the large masses, and only in one © instance have I
found them lining a cavity. They were covered in all cases with a red
mineral,
t common form is a rectangular prism, either short and tabu-
= or long; the former sometimes 6 mm. square; the latter small, not
exceeding 3mm. in length. The prisms have os? a replacement
of two of the angles by a triangular plane (a); and the base and sides
are og Nah striated in a direction parallel to the sides of this plane,
and i me direction when the plane is absent. The prisms are
grouped one over another, giving a stair-like surface, which is mostly
covered by the red mineral ‘diudea to. Where this mineral is absent, or
va are respectively 126° 50’ san 109° 16’, Planes
of 0} siesta oi pyramids exist, but they are all very small. How-
ever incomplete this wong there can be no doubt that the crystals
are trimetric in char
y Pisani na other chemists and howe to be clin , ne
the true seach oes “ a8 of wn aa B.C, of whieh he had only
0'146 of a gram for mica] exam
But Prof. Shepard xs -pebtialved in + this deel and elsewhere that
‘Am. Jour. Sc1.—Srconp Series, Vou. XLII, No. 125.—Serr., 1866.
30
270 Scientific Intelligence.
Chester mineral is corundophilite; he has written Dr. J. Lawrence
Smith to this effect (as cited in our Jast number), and other persons also,
including one of the editors of this Journal; and he has distributed spe-
cimens so labeled. And if he does no t know his own species, it may
el
been named without more knowledge.—,. p. p.
11. Color of a diamond gine by heat.—In May last, Prof. Fremy
exhibited to the Academy of Sciences at Paris a yellowish diamond, of
the size and quality that otdieiarily sells for 12,000 dollars, which on
being heated changes its color to rose-red; this color it retains for two
or three days and then wredlially resumes the original yellow. On account
of this peculiarity the actual value of the diamond was stated to be three
times the amount above mentioned.—Les Mondes, p. 85, May 10, 1866.
Gieseckite a result of the alteration of Eleeolite. —The view that the
mineral oie ait found first in Greenland and some years since at
0°33 p. c. of water on calcination, and entirely soluble in acids; along
side of this, there are red spots where alteration has com menced ; an
beyond, the mineral is changed to a brick-red uniform material, mostly
opaque, with some translucent spots of unaltered elzolite. This red ma-
terial afforded 5:90 p. c. of water, and dissolved only partially in dilute
nitric acid, it yielding an abundant red precipitate. On separating the
insoluble portion, by treatment with dilute cold nitric acid, this afforded,
on analysis, $i 46°95, 31 34°65, Be 1°86, Mg 0°58, Ca 0°68, K 8°71, NaSi
0°71, H 5°58—=99°72, thus rom that, besides taking up water, the
soda of the elzolite had been replaced almost wholly by potash. os
transformation of elzolite into gieseckite is similar in many respects
at of cancrinite into bergmannite elucidated by Pisani and ne in
1862 (Ann. de Ch. et Phys, Ixvii). The facts prove that these appar-
ently crystallized minerals are actually pseudomorphs. Blum has ob-
served a specimen of bergmannite with a nucleus of elzolite, ==
A pbiiyttite made by artificial means—BecquerE has observed
that if distilled water is made to run ort over plates of sulphate of
lime, the surface becomes chatoyant from the dissolving action of the
water ; on if ws saturated solution of siibphiats of potash be employed
instead a double sulphate of potash and lime is obtained, erys-
tallized in seeded while with a solution of silicate of potash (marking
0 to 10 raed degrees), instead of the —— pearly radiated
Mineralogy and Geology. 271
14. On a new variety of Spinel; by H. Sr.Cratre Devitie.—A black
spinel with low pyramids in has of the octahedral Planes, and the faces
rounded, has been found in the rock of At | Lherzolite. Most
of the crystals, however, are cctahiedions jib rounded beveled edges
and eroded faces. The crystals are 5 to 10 (rarely 20) millimeters in de
ameter; and though mostly black are war eaman reddish-br
3°871 for the black; 3-868 for the reddish-bro Analysis by Deville
gave 4159-06, Fe 10: 72, Fe 18°60, Mg 17: 20—-100" 58, whence the formula
Cee Fe)(2l, He), as in true Plecnanie, —Les Mondes, J uly 12, p. ship
5. Origin of the Diamon . B. pe Cuancourrors has presented
‘ie view that the diamond has hace formed from hydrocarburetted ema-
nations, as sulphur is formed from hydrosulphuretted emanations, and
that its origin is thus connected with the previous existence of petroleum-
bearing or bituminous schists. In the oxydation of sulphuretted hydro-
gen in solfataras, all the hydrogen is oxydized, but only part of the sul-
phur passes to the state of sulphurous acid in this humid process of com-
bustion. So, in an analogous manner, the diamond was probably formed ;
a
in which all the e hydrogen was oxydized, but only a part of the carbon
was transformed into carbonic acid. This view accords with the occur-
rence of the diamond in arenaceous rocks or itacolumites, which are
mostly metamorphic rocks of paleozoic age, and which may have once
been bituminous either by original formation or by emanations from
that of the metamorphism to which the ae Oi rocks have
SENET ti been subjected, and which may have been essential to the
an
6. Paragenesis of Minerals—Revss has a paper of great interest in
the Berichte of the Vienna Academy for Jan. 7, 1863, on the associa-
tions and superpositions 0: of the various minerals at Przibram, with refer-
€
The great number of metallic ores and other ee: in that noted mining
on makes it especially instructive in this
cats Cassiterite, Declan from Montebras in rance has been found
by Capt. Carron to contain two to three per cent of niobic and tantalic
acids, and in some cases even five per cent, and he says that the ore may
used for obtaining these rare me' etals.
Cassiterite is found in the Temeschal Ranche, in Los Angeles Co., Cali-
-_ rnia, at sever val points, with some promise of economical valed. It
some cases with a ferruginous eeerreto rock, or a very
black com aa hornblende in granite and qua
Wood-tin has been oy near Eooasille, Owhyhee Co., Idaho
arryes by Walter Gibson of N or.
8. Analyses fae — i; (communizated by S. B. Sparxten.—(1.)
e from Delaware Co., Penn, rock is
nilekeceramen: Teen nen ivaacin ane and from half
272 Scientific Intelligence.
to sg rea of a mile wide. The analysis gave: Silica 47°77, FeO
15°41, MnO °26, Al,O, 7°69, CaO 13°16, MgO 15°28=99°57. It is of
a very dark son color.
2.) Precious serpentine from East — oe Co., Penn. Silica
43° oa FeO 1°38, MgO 40°48, HO 13°45=—
On Anatase at Smithfield, mt By “8 a . E. B, Eopy.—Anatase
rs at the Dexter Lime Rock, Smithfield, R. L, and is there associated
occu
with ‘eryetallized quartz, nacrite, acicular natrclite and pearl spar. The
is dolomite. Needles of natrolite penetrate the quartz orystals i in
every eee and the caleit te also.— Bost. Soc, Nat. Hist., x, 94.
roleum in Russia.—A well, six centimeters in bore, near Tem-
rioux, in saeanes Russia, affords 73 000 litres of oil per day.
21. On the Composition of the Stone implements found in Celtic mon-
our has i
which he calls re bandas Pete elie alike or black
horton), saussurite, onan the rocks aphanite, a diorite, dolerite,
petrosilex. e obsidian Oe — anoes, an s found i in Europe
Haute-Loire. s tha’
more of ea mayo loealities have afforded the pee rata Mondes,
Nov. 2
and ac. He — masses of fibrolite weighing eight to
twelve kilc amen With it occurs andalusite, a mineral hitherto not
found in France.— Les prises Dee. 21, 1865.
- Geological Survey of Towa.—It gives us silastic to state that the
13,000 b survey of lowa has been again = up by the State, and that
3,000 have been appropriated for two years, and Dr. C. A. White put
charge. Dr. White will we believe do oa the work before him and
Reports of great value both to the state and to science. The
of his a isapene on him and his assistants the duty of
Botany and Zoology. 273
Eurypterus in character, obtained from the Lower Ludlow beds, for which
he proposes the generic name Hemiaspis, He also shows that the Chi-
The Geological Magazine, or Monthly Journal of Geology (with
which is incorporated “ The Geologist”); edited by Henry Woopwarp,
F.GS., F.Z.S., Professor Jouw Morris, F.G.S., &e., and Rospert Erng-
RIDGE, "RRSE , F.G.S., etc.—The third volume of this Magazine of Ge-
ology, published by Messrs. a mete & Co., London, commenced with
January of the current year. It is issued es monthly numbers of 4
pages each, illustrated sl plates i: lee It has an able editorial
corps, and numbers many of the first pia of England among its
contributors; and the j interest os value of its papers entitle it to a large
American circulation. A plate in No. 3 (March) gives excellent views
of the wings of a Libellula from the Stonesfield beds, illustrating a paper
by Prof. John Phillips; two others, representations of the j jaws and teeth
of a new Sauroid fish from the Kimmeridge Clay, described in an article
by Prof. Owen; and another, sections of an ancient beach and wodereinig
forest near Calais. In No. 5, Prof. Owen has an illustrated paper o
smal] mammal from the Upper Oolite of Purbeck which he calls ‘Stylo-
genlogcl on in the Proceedings of ep ifecont societies, and reviews of
works, The price per number is 1s. 6d.
Ill. BOTANY AND ZOOLOGY.
. Wittram Henry Harvey, whose lamented death was announced
in the last number of this Journal (p. 129), was born at Summerville,
near Limerick, Ireland, on the 5th of February, 181 1. His father, Joseph
M. Harvey, was a highly res merchant in that city, and a member
of the Society of Friends. William Henry was, we believe, the young-
est of several children. He received a good education at Ballitore School,
~—an institution of the Friends, and on leaving it was engaged for a time
in his father’s counting-room, devoting, however, all his spare time to
Natural History, his favorite pursuit even from boyhood. He made con-
siderable attainments in Entomology and Conchology, and in Botany he
early turned his attention to Mosses and oe To the study of the
latter, in which he became preéminent, he w from the first
by the opportunities which he enjoyed on “i paserdie western coast
of Ireland, the family usually spending a good part of the summer at
the eea-side, mostly on the bold and picturesque i of Clare. Ast
rare moss, which Sir J. E. Smith, so in turn was
whee 's, iy his his discovery of two new habitats of another r rare moss, t
led to a with Hook t
— ai 1 » Whi Poa 2 ape abe
bint dlowniane |
274 Scientific Intelligence.
by his illustrious friend and patron, Harvey sought some it in
which he mig evote himself to science; and it would a
selected by Mr. Spring Rice (the late Lord momen: for the se of
Colonial Sanaa at the Ca aie of Good Hope; that by some accident
in 1841 and gave up the appoint tment.
After two years of prostration and seclusion he was well again; and,
in 1844, on the death of Dr. Coulter, he was appointed Keeper of the
in . Aj
added his own large collections, for which he was allowed fifty pounds 4
year, in addition to a slender salary, and he pee to build up th
herbarium into a first-c ass establishment. ip of Botany
in the College, which was pretty well endowed, fell vacant about this
time; and the College authorities, wishing to at Harvey to the chair
and so to combine the two offices, conferred upon him the necessary de-
gree of M.D. But it was contended that an eres degree did not
meet the requirements, and so Dr. Allman, the present distinguished
was sao by mortal disea:
He had oie soi ih a the Cape in 1838, his Genera of South
African Planis, hastily prepared, solely for local use, but no unworthy
beginning of his work in Phznogamous Bota tany; and in his favorite
department of the science he had brought out, in 1841, his Manual of
British Alge, which he re-edited in 1849. He now commenced
first of the series of his greater works, illustrated by his facile pencil,
for he drew admirably. The first tip es of his excellent and
beautiful Phycologia Britannica, a Hi h Seaweeds, contain-
ng colored th va iti
\
Botany and Zoology. 275
by his own hand. A similar but less extended work, the Wereis Austra-
leis, or Algee of the Southern Ocean, which was begun in 1847, was car-
ried only to 50 plates, of selected and eae species.
In 1848, Dr, Harvey succeeded Dr. as Professor of Botany in
the Royal Dublin Society, to which see the Botanic Garden at
Glasnevin ; this required him to deliver short courses of lectures annu-
ally in ul in or in some other Irish town, and provided a welcome ad-
model of that class of ctl ntific books; it was published i in 1 1849,
and has passed through proltrs adittobac In July of that year, having
arranged a visit to this country, and having been invited to deliver a
course of lectures before the Lowell Tasusibse he took steamer ie Halifax
In the autumn he gave an admirable course of lectures upon Crypto-
gamic Botany before the Lowell Institute, in Boston, and afterwards a
shorter course at the Smithsonian Institution at Washington. He then
lled
travelled in the Southern Atlantic States, continuing the exploration of
of our Alge@ down to Florida and the Keys; and i oe ree 8 re-
turned to Ireland.’ Under the wise and li _ arrangeme
no
bastion to pats the ha the R terme in the fifth vol-
ume; and the third, or Chlorospermea, in the tenth volume of the series,
as well as Tasmania. Taking advantage of a missionary ship, which was
of Dr. Berrapie eS eneum states, quite erroneously, that pn
* A notice
edry this time made a around the shores of the Pacific, visiting Oregon and
276 Scientific Intelligence.
to cruise among the South Sea Islands, and which offered him unexpected
facilities, he visited the Fiji, Navigators’ and Friendly Islands, touching
also at New Zealand. Returning to Poitier, he sailed to Valparaiso, which
he reached much prostrated through over-exertion in a w climate ;
and when recuperated he returned home by way of the Isthmus, arriving
in October, 1856. The algological collections of these three laborious years,
or the Australian portion of them, formed see — of Prof. eet
than any panbae one. This was the Flora preet a full per
account of all the plants of the Cape Colony and the adjacent provinces
of Caffraria and Natal—in which he was associated with Dr. Sonder of
Hamburgh. Three thick octavo volumes of this work have appeared,
the last in 1865, including the Composite. Along with this Dr. Harve
also it
winter ae spring of 1864-5 were “epent in the ect of France, with
: en 3 ° . % * .
milder air, anit idee a peaceful rest. COn D Tuesd ay, the 15th of May,
1866, at the age of 55 years, he quietly breathed his last, at the residence
of Lady Hooker, the widow of his long-attached friend Sir William J.
Hooker, surrounded by kind and anxious relatives and friends, and was
buried in the cemetery at Torquay on Saturday the 19th of May.”
Botany and Zoology. 277
Dr. Harvey was one of the few botanists of our aye who excelled both
in phenogamie and cryptogamic botany. In Algology, his favorite
branch, probably he has wie? no superior ; in systematic botany generally
he had now an —— position. He was a keen observer and a capital
describer. He in cosa accurately, worked readily and easily with
microscope, pencil aa pen, wrote perspicuously, and where the subject
permitted, with captivat inet grace ; affording, in his lighter productions
mere glimpses of the w and poetical imagination, delicate humor,
refined feeling, and sincere hacia which were charmingly revealed ie
intimate intercourse and correspondence, and which won the admiration
and the love of all who knew him well. Handsome in person, gentle
and fascinating in manners, genial and warm-hearted but of very retiring
ma a simple in his tastes and unaffectedly devout, it is not surpris-
ing that he attracted friends wherever he went, so ie his death will be
sensibly felt on every continent and in the islands of the sea. A. G.
Dr. Rozerr Kaye Grevitte, the distingeuished predecessor of Dr.
Harvey in British Algology, and for many years a prominent investiga-
tor and illustrator of other branches of the Lower Cryptogama, the col-
Jaborator of Sir Wm. Hooker in the Jcones Filicum—died at his resi-
thr: roi as well as Butaals t.
r. C. Fournier on Crucifere, and St isymbriu um in cr oak
a rto memoir of 154 pages and two plates, comprising a full monograph
of Sisymbrium (166 species), prepared by various anatomical researches,
a siieas andail als connie ribed and definable and that when two
a“ ator morphologically even by slight pone constant |
often be fortified by equally constant histological differences,
at sone ta demonstrating the distinctness - the two types. He
develops and makes good use of a principle brought out pir deters
M. Duval-Jouve, which he calls “the principle of the parallel variation —
Am. Jour. Sci.—Seconp Suries, Vou, XLU, No. 125,—Serr., 1866. “
278 Scientific Intelligence.
of congeneric types.” It amounts to this quite familiar idea, that the
common causes of those ordinary variations which depend upon external
genera admitted are still too numerous. In the present essay he extends
Sisymbrium beyond Bentham and Hooker’s limits, to comprise Braya,
Halimolobus, and Eutrema. Upon the monograph of Sisymbrium we
wish to comment upon three or four American species :—
common introduced weed, S. officinale “ fere unico pedunculo filiformi.”
The fruiting pedicels are 2 to 24 lines long and slender, ‘instead of onl
ca.
S. teres. The obscure Candamine teres of Michaux was doubtfully re-
ra. Dr. Fournier bas
up
“ Siliques erect, one-third of an inch in length,” is rendered “ Siligue
erect@, vir tertiam partem linee longe,” a very short silique indeed, to
, as Miel he Flora above
referred to, the cotyledons are said to be “ distinctly incumbent,” we are
bound to direct attention to a remark in the first edition of Gray’s Manual
of Botany, p- 34, where it is stated that “the plant appears clearly to be
Nasturtium tanacetifolium or N. lyratum of the Southern States (coty/-
edons accumbent /), which leads me to suspect a mistake in the record
the locality.” So far as the portion of an tic specimen (given to
the writer in 1839 by the late Achille Richard) allows the compari
it accords fully ant collected be w Orleans by Dr. Riddell
|! with a ;
and by Berlandier (his No. 1940). Yet it may be a starveling V. palus-
ire, and in that case reall eae Sha plai .
Botany and Zoology. 279
8. Sophia and its relatives. If Dr. Hooker has taken one extreme
view in suggesting the union of numerous American forms with this ra.
world species, Dr. Fournier has certainly gone to the eee and has
oduced some new species upon ins ufficient rounds or wrong co njec:
tures. A review of the materials ss us leads to the following remarks
upon the N Bee American forms
S. canescens Nutt., is our only ‘pasion with heen two-ranked seeds,
these being much narrower than the partition. e pods vary from
short-oblong or slightly clavate-oblong to oblong-linear and are shorter
than their horizontal or sometimes ascending pedicels, = brachycarpum
Rich. is a short-fruited form of this, at least in part, S. Cu ape fom
Fisch., is the South American representative, with pe longer than the
pedicel ; but some of nt specimens iat well justify Rocker and
Arnott’s reference of a: o S. canescen
. tncisum Engelm. mati belongs s. tae apace (excl. syn.),
and probably S. strech m of Fournier, is the pla ust a
pro S. 8 having slender pods with cma se We
linearibus,” and the “ Facies S. Sophie, at facile pened siliquis
duplo brevioribus,” but the added remarks “4 lineas longa, lineam lata,”
and “ . edicello patenti brevior,” pes rea 2 canescens. The pals are only
06 orrarely 7 or 8 lines long, and more or less assurgent on
widely ipreitiag or horizontal paittasle * hich are sometimes z ‘ee own
len even longer, but are usually considerably shorter. It ditfers
hay S. Sophia, then, j in the herd and spreading s. But Mexican
specimens, ath as Coulter’s 683 and Gregg’s 408 (referable we suppose
to Fournier’s 8S, Catoctin}, with ‘their “decidedly ascending pedicels
and pot onaee the interval.
wegianum Foerake (the Hartwegian specimen of which we
unacountaby lack, but we have the Gaskatchawan plant of Bourgeau)
nown by its short erect-appressed pedicels and pods, the latter ‘short-
linear or somewhat fusifor i and “2 to 5 sin long, crowded with seeds i
‘ee phia L., marked pep snag linear pods mee an inch
ong), aa or assurgent on ascending pedicels, and one-ran
belongs mee to the Old World, but is naturalized in Lower Canada,
he
xi, p. 360 simply copied fons DeCandolle’s chaser of
ar ar may add ce neither shan speci — — the pub-
lichset figures r’s character,
“ pedicelli ee tn nele ne aaa
contre Uaxe.” is an
ae
¥
b
280 Scientific Intelligence.
arctic and seemingly abnormal form of S. Sophia, with permanently
Ee ieviated racemes. His father’s description of the pods, as 2 inches
or more in length, is indirectly contradicted by his figure of the plant
“ of the natural size,” in which the pods scarcely exceed an inch. This
is about the length in an arctic specimen, collected by Dr. Seemann, in
which the axis of the racemes is bar sre nnn lengthened. In it and in
some Himalayan specimens o ophia, the seeds s appear to be oblong
instead af ow as they are in the Canadian (introduced) and Eu-
ropean p
Whi, pe with our present materials, we should acknowledge
these four species in North America, we could not affirm that they are
strictly circumscribed and definable; and it is quite likely that ni res
might deem the discrimination hopele ess,
4. The Case of Plants ; by Richarp AntHony Satissury, a R S.,
ete. ee a containing part of Liri ame. ; hendea.: Van Voorst.
ten thousand pounds in the three per-cents from a very old maiden lady
of that name, who made him her heir. He died in London in March,
1829. In his turn he proposed to more than one botanist to leave to
him his library and his Sorta ts DeCandolle, as he tells us for one—
on the condition of assuming the name of a ury. He actually left a
pr t of his property and his mss. to the late Dr. Burchell. Since ae
ae death, two years ago his sister cane over Salisbury’s Mss.
sions, soos it ea. perhaps ~~ been ieatible to expunge.” But if
ne oo at all, it strikes us that there was no other
arm can now come of it. Pleurothalle is
Salisbury mo for sf sacha and Liriogame, for the petaloi-
deous or non-glumaceous Monocotyledones, The fragment relates prin-
ay to Liliaceous and Amaryllideous genera, and is very curious and
ing. It must of course be insisted tha : se mp Genera Plantarum
are not to be burdened with the synonymous which here first see
the hh. g. Xeniatrum for Rafin nesque’s Clintonia, Neolexis for Smi-
&e. The interest of this opuscula is solely historical and ‘eritieal
We could wish that the able editor had put upon record a general ac-
count of what Salisbury did for botany.
Botany and Zoology. 281
5. Handbook of British Water-weeds or Alge, by Dr. Jonn Epwa
Gray, F.R.S., &.—The Diatomacee, by W. Caruruers, F.LS., &¢.—
London: Hardwicke, 1864. pp. 123, 18mo.—An excellent little manual,
and one which may be very useful and convenient in this country also
(so many of the Alge being identical), containing as it does the Fresh
Water species, but these only in an arranged list, with references to the
leading figures. The Desmidee and Diatomacee add much to its value.
a.G
6. Scolopendrium oficinarum in Western New York: probable deter-
mination of the original locality of Pursh ; by J. . Patnz, Jn.—At the
therefore, was visited to find out how far this new station is from “On-
v
Whirlpools, as the one in the Niagara river. On the shaded talus of
nearest of these, “Little lake,” about one mile west of the town,
Scolopendrium was detected in limited quantity, with Camptosorus rhi-
zophyllus. “Green pond” and “White lake” occur near together, two
282 Scientific Intelligence.
in the village who recognized the plant, indicate that it may not be in-
frequent throughout the town.
Onondaga valley affords frequent outbreaks of the same limestone rock
which Pursh made his stay while exploring in this region, and accom-
pret the writer to a locality called Split-rock, half a mile south of
airmount, the residence of Mr. Geddes, who confidently believes this to
be
meat Onondaga, &c., easily made from similarity in the names, or from
the indefinite extent covered by the former name at that time, 1806-1818.
eorer no such st :
with Nuttall’s specimens; and for the identity of his with the habitat o
Pursh as above “ y :
PO ek a URE Oe he ae He
Botany and Bieaee 283
for wherever the Hel ches, Nia and Tesekos ire affo
favorable stations
Cambridge, June 15,1
7. Icones, Titoli oder Atlas der vergleichenden Gewebelehre ;
zweite Abtheilu er feinere Bau der hihereren Thiere
eft. Die iodaboien der Coelenteraten, mit x Tafeln und 13 Holz-
schnitten; by A. Ké.uer. Leipzig, 1865.—This work is an elaborate
essay upo n the microscopic structure of Polyps and Acalephs, but more
especially, upon the hard parts of the Halcyonoid Polyps. It is well
illustrated by numerous beautifully ape epee and cuts, ee the
details of the pies = sections of the of Gorgoniz,
culiar — and structure of the balbarools. — observed in ‘al Al-
cyonaria; the inte pa of various Hydroids, ete. As ork illus-
jendiag: the histology of these classes of an siinle it is eoaloable and far
beyond any preceding work on the same subject.
n pages 131 to 142 the author has given a Synopsis of the Classifi-
cation of the Haleyonoid Polyps so far as known to him, and has intro-
uced many new species and several new genera, with many important
changes, based mainly upon the microscopic structure of the hard parts.
us Primnoa is maintained with its original limits, he subdi-
i is
visions of D not being recognized
restricted to — forms like fera — — os the grou
having Jf. placomus Ebr. as its type, the new muricea .
ietecke with ‘howe species. e new genus Biches alli
have the precedence tw ies referred to (Z. flabellum and z.
osa nov.) do not appear to be ientieal with either of those m
tioned in this work. Th aura is restricted to forms like P.
flexuosa Lamx., and for another group haying P. dichotoma as its type,
the genus Pleaurella has been established, with six species. The limits
of the genus Gorgonia have been enlarged by the reunion of Péerogorgia,
Leptogorgia, Lophogorgia, Aiphigorgia, Rhipidogorgia,, easing ha
and Haime. The genus Erythropodium is proposed for Xenia carybe-
ete Du ~ et Mich., and this, with Sympodium, is placed in the family
reariace
The withioe is, however, ss at fault in uniting Gorgonia suberosa
Ellis, Aleyonium m plecaureum Lamx., and A. asbestinum Pallas, into one
ag (Br. suberosum Debsh for, as I have previously shown,” they rep-
t three very distinct species and two genera. But Briarewm palma-
pera Duch. et Mich. is probably identical with B. asbestinum. This i is
ve roceedings Boston Soe. Nat. History, x, 22, and Proc, Essex Institute, iv, 187.
* Bulletin of the Muse ok 68 Cong Doslogy, No. 3, p. 89, and Revision Polyps
E. Coast U. U.S, p. 1 e
284 Scientific Intelligence.
doubtless owing st the lack of gpa of G, suberosa Ellis. For the
Gorgonia subero per, the new genus Sclerogorgia is established,
satiichs as noted, appears to be the same as Suberogorgia Gray. )
G. patula Ellis and G. verriculata Esper are referred here, and a sub-
family, Selerogorgiacea, is instituted for the grou
The work is of peculiar value in systematic zoology because the author
has had, for bite a and illustration, the original specimens of Esper,
as well as of Duchassaing and other writers, thus restoring to ia science
many species that have long been regar arded as doubtful, or altogether
an gna by many recent authors, although very well described oa fig-
ured
a ofa and Ph ysiology of the Vorticellidian Toue (Bri
a pediculus Ehr.) © Ue Hydra; by H. James -CLARK _Fro he
“
the free Meduse of Hydra, of which the tek was announced in
the Proceedings of the Boston Soc. of Natural Histor y, Nov. 1850, p.
354. The investigations upon the structure of this species has an addi-
tional interest on account of the views held by some authors that the
Vorticeilide are closely allied to the Bryozoa.
According to Prof. Clark, all previous figures of this species represent
it in an abnormal or diseased state, “The peristome is not a closed circle
as in Vorticellide ig ie but follows the spiral course of the vibratory
crown, and vanishes near the aperture of the vestibule. The vibratory
crown consists of a single row of vibrating cilia, which winds along the
margin of the spiral, dexiotropic ait Sak just at the edge of the cupu-
liform disk, and déscends thence to the left of the vestibular aperture,
Neither Trichodina, nor any of the Vorticellida, a vestibu-
lar lash or woes and ee mise is an optical illusion. terior
truncate end of ined by a well-defined annular velum,
immediately behind atic. 9 arising from t is, 18 i
ete circle of vibrating cil * vestibule opens near and
or e cilia-crowned margin of the sunken ae Bean disk.
anus opens into the vestibule a short distance from its mout d
lecti
invaluable in staging the aie = our own coast. It is a mono-
graph of the arctic Dorsibranchiate and Tubicolous Annelids, with nu-
taacag synoptic tables of the genera, and detailed descriptions of all
the species and genera, whether new or previously edi ree new
Botany and Zoology. : 285
ig oa frre Sabellacea, and Hriographidea, are character-
AB and 52 new species are described. The
ban oh ae teretielta osed, at least give evidence of a careful study of
these difficult fore though sometimes the generic characters seem too
slight. As most of ‘these genera, with the same or closely allied species,
are likely to oceur on our own coast, the work will form, with the older
Ww
scriptions are in Latin, and the work is thus rendered accessible to all.
The illustrations are very full, nearly every Hoge being see ie =
though sometimes stiff, are in the main e xcellent,
10. On Collections of Bones of recent Ritileanoies 5 in y easy in me
stone near Howe's Cave; by Wa. A. AntHony. (From a letter to one of
the Editors, dated Franklin, Del. Co., N. Y., Aug. 15, 1866.)—On my way
to Albany last week, in n compan with Prof. Orton of Antioch college, I
Stopped at ‘“‘ Howe’s Cave,” and there learned that at a stone Pipaadhe about
a quarter of a mile distant, the workmen had struck into a fiss Il
with the bones of rattlesnakes. We ashi the spot, found cha bones
iiehis which had fallen from the top. Among these fragments are pas-
Sages worn smooth by long usage and now filled with the bones of the
former inhabitants.
e rock forming the sides of the fissure is in some places covered with
an rete Sage of carbonate of lime an inch or more in thickness.
the quarry told us that they had found deposits of bones that required a
man ten minutes to remove with a shovel, and from m n observation
T have little reason to doubt his statement. ‘These raed pie that the
number of — that inhabi ted iis cavern must have been enormous.
Onhopta of Mexico and the Antilles is the preface states,
mainly on the collections and observations “ author, H. de Saussure,
but in part, also, on Mexican specimens from Mr, Sallé; others
tom Cuba from oey of Havana, and aa from the United States,
for comparison, received from Mr. Edw orton of Connecticut. The
i: Boks sstatieens Serres, Vou. XLII, No, 125,—Serr., 1866,
37
286 Scientific Intelligence.
IV. ASTRONOMY AND METEOROLOGY.
a, Observations on the Meteors of August last; by Davi Trow-
ge. (From a letter to the editors, dated Heotar, N. Y., lat. 424° N,,
it 0° from Washington, Aug. 11th, 1866.)—The following i is a report
of ed emataet a of meteoric phenomena at the August period, 1866.
—lI observed from 9 till 9.20 p.m. I saw fourteen meteors, the
ths of bus converged toward Oyiands and seven toward Cassiopea, or
a little below (to the east, eatinsied on the arte Nearly all left a
visible — Some moved slowly and — rapidly.
Aug. 10.—I observed from 9 till 10.15 p.m. in company, a part of the
time, ies three other individuals. Wes aw in all sixty-five meteors; 1
saw at least fifty of them. The paths of aes “seven of — converged
of whi oh were conformable. It was partly clear a portion of the time.
On each evening my ew a was confined mainly to the region of the
the rudeness of m cieeesaiioae would allow me to draw any con-
clusion, I should say that on the 9th the center of the region from which
the meteors came was somewhat below the chair (as seen at the time of
observation); on the 10th nearer the chair; and on the 11th in the chair.
n the evening of the 26th of July (1866), about 8}P.M., a very
bright meteor flashed out in Cygnus, and moved from east to west with
great rapidity. Its path was about 30° after I saw it. Height above
the northern horizon about 50°. Duration of flight from one-half to one
second, It left a beautiful train. The head was red and train _, Se
was certainly below the clouds. It passed between me and some
stratus clouds, so dense as to hide pane stars completely. Several
bars that saw it said it was below the c
Observatory of Russia.—The ant “of Me, Kupffer at the head of
sa Central cocina of Russia has been filled by the appointment of
= — of Dorpat.
ass of Meteoric — in Colorado Territory.—Prof. Henry has
srassinicl to the Editors a note respecting the discovery of a mass of
iron in a deep gulch near Saks Creek, Colorado Territory, about twenty-
five or thirty miles from Denver, and 800 or 1000 feet below the top of
a steep hill. Mr. James L. Wilson, who describes it in the Daily News
published at Denver, Colorado Territory, May 14th, states that it was at
first mistaken by himself and Mr. G. R. Morrison who accompanied him
ad geting seen pg before, for the ‘ blossom’ or “iron hat” of a mineral
e. is irregular in form, being about twenty-two inches long, nine
to ten broad, and wide. ren of its A are flat and two
rounded. This form indi cates it to be a fragment of a much larger mass.
Miscellaneous Intelligence. 287
it is magnetic. Its weight is estimated at 500 pounds, The force with
which it etreck the rocks at the time of its fall had so shattered one en
as to ee the discoverers to break off a piece that te at eleven
ou
unequaily distributed in its mass. In one part the shh and cobalt are
largely in excess of the _ pro while i in other parts iron forms the
chief ingredient. Thes tals are aggregated and highly crystallized.
A coating of the oxyd of i ee: half an inch thick has taken the place of
the shining black crust observed on aérolites when they first reach the
earth, The Jess oxydizable metals, nickel and cobalt, still remain in
their metallic state in this coating of iron rust.”
It is pretty certain from this not satisfactory description, that this is an
example of an iron meteor-mass found where it has fallen, the ~~
of the mass and of the adjacent rocks being rarely observed. It w
tions of the methods of reduction adopted, and r rine! on other points
of interest, and then proceeds with the tables of seus
was appointed Professor of Mathematics at the Acole ‘Militaire j in 1777,
In 1785, after the last of 0d me above mentioned were made,
he left France as astronom of LaPeyrouse se’s expedition as see the
trious throughout the course of the expedition, having established an
astronomical observatory at each of the ports visited. But his com-
mander did ~ allow him to send any of bis results home, and none e of
them were sa
V. MISCELLANEOUS SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE.
. The American Association.—The American Association for the Ad-
vancement of Science, after a suspension of its meetings for five years in
consequence of the war, its fifteenth meeting at Buffalo, N. Y., com-
capes. on Wednesday, August 15th, and continuing until ‘uesday,
"The aes cers of the meeting were: Pres. F. A. P. Barwarp of Colum-
bia College, President ; Dr A. A. Goutp of Boston, Vice President ;
Prof. Extas Looms of Yale College, General Secretary ; Prof, Josupy
VERING of Harvard nig Permanent Secretary ; Dr. A, L. pt a
of Philadelphia, Treasurer.
288 Miscellaneous Intelligence.
of stimulating research, and promoting friendly intercourse among scien-
tific men
Several prominent members, unavoidably absent, se ane their re-
grets by letter, as well as their abiding interest in the Association. The
feeling ng amp to be general among the members that, hereafter, the
he success of the meeti ing was very greatly promoted by the cordial
acts of kindness and appreciation, contributed largely to the enjoyment
of the members, as well as to their own reputation for intelligence and
public spirit.
The next meeting is to be held at Burlington, Vt., commencing on the
21st of August, 1867. The following officers were appointed for the
year ensuing: Prof. J. S. Newserry of N. Y., President ; Prof. Wot-
coTr Gisss of Cambridge, Vice President ; Prof. Joszex Lovenine of
Cambridge, ee Secretary ; Prof. C. S. Lyman of sie Haven,
General Secretary ; Dr. A. L. Exwyy of Philadelphia, Treasu
The following’ ‘titles of the papers read ph from the omic of
Buffalo, in which quite full reports were giv
The Spots on the Sun; Prof. E. ore
On the oars of Algol; Prof. E. Loomn
On the path of the meteoric fire-ball of. 1860 which passed over Buffalo; Prof.
OFFIN.
The Dearborn Observatory of ergs pot T. H. Sarrorp,
> ing ee of electrical currents B. ge Sad snk
ew met! illuminating apparatus for o ia ue objects under the micros ;
Pres. F. A. - Hamil i Bias Te ,
registration of meteorological phenomena, G. M. eet of Albany.
et Magnetic oe ag J. E. Hmearp, U. 8. Coast S vey.
Effect of ine on fire; Prof. a . Horsrorp.
= = automatic barometer Se oe . Hover.
Theory of meteors b.Kincwoon.
On the Ae Crom,
General meteorological feat features of the west; Prof. O. N. chien
On fundamental Star-eatalogues; Prof. T. H. Sarrorp of
On a new method for the construction of of Nile snd. Anisclaatalden E. B, Etsiotr
On the statistical systems of certain countries of Europe; E. B, Extiorr. .
Decimal and measures; B.S, Lyman.
On the galvanic ttery ; Dr. Brapiey.
‘The f Southern Minnesota; Prof. James
Structure the untains and valleys i Tennessee, Northern Georgia, and Ala-
y mo ern 1A,
bama; James Hatt, er
aici gla
Miscellaneous Intelligence. 289
On the ie tps 00 Prof. A. nee
On the Rocks ; G.C. Swatu
The Prscrheg fy sesenyadas and their mineral, T. Sreery Honr.
On the Meise eval Be ovimaoctld a Srer
On petroleum; T. Sre
On the inter stractore “of Athyris, Meristella, and the allied genera; Jas. Hatt.
On the stru and mode of growth of the spines on the cardinal area of Cho-
netes; jist,
On ‘Gryopeyiies. anew mica; Prof. J. P. Cooke.
m a new chemical nomenclature ; Ss. D. Ee omen
On ene . Worr
The Glaciers of the St. Lawrence ; ol. Warrier os a
Glacial epoch in the valley of the ipa Dr. Newserry.
and I bots dacs ; E. W. Hirear np of Miseise sippi.
Evidences of Glacial action in Southeastern New York; James Hyarr of Bengall,
‘On the supposed plasticity of Ae he stones; B. 8. Lym
é On a section of the strata in Northeastern Ohio and Western Virginia; Prof. E.
. ANDREWS.
On the origin of prairies; Dr. J. S. Newserry.
steam-boiler Ss Prof. O, N. Stop
On the effects of alum as used in making breads Prof E. N. Horsrorp.
On the fruit-producing belt of Michigan
Proportional dimensions of the hacen frame; "B oe ache
A eulogy on the late President Hitchcock was delivered by Mrs, A. L.
Phelps, and an address on scientific studies as a means of mental dis-
cipline, by Prof. J. P. Cooke. The Association passed a resolution in
favor of the —— into common use of the decimal system of
Weights and measu
2. Addition to Article on Method of correcting Monthly Means (page
154); by E. L. DeForesr.—In general, if we have any three pabgiarbety
monthly means given, and wish to infer from them, as nearly as e,
what the form of the curve must be, our knowledge respectin mes
under two heads. First, it must be a curve of three parameters; for the
three given monthly 8 are sufficient to d ine three, ly
the surface, especially after peughing. Among them there is a saw well
toothed, about six centimeters long; a whistle of stone which gave out
& Very acute sound. On the same estate there are wooded hills which
contain several hundreds of Celtic tombs, some of which, of an oval
form, are five to seven meters long sa project a 9 surface more
than a meter. There are also large blocks of stone, said to be Druidie,
bn Mr. Chatel regards as ancient altars, = chika may belong to the — oe
reg:
of Stone.—Les Mondes, p. 137, May 24
*
290 Miscellaneous Intelligence.
4, Library of works on Earthquakes and Volcanoes of Prof. Alexis
Perrey.—Professor Perrey, of Dijon, has recently offered for sale his very
extensive library—probably the best on the two topics of Earthquakes
Vv
one,
OBITUARY,
Prof. Jonn A. Portzer.—John Addison Porter died at New Haven,
Conn., on the 25th of August. Prof. Porter was born in Catskill, N, Y.,
March 15th, 1823, and graduated at Yale College in 1842.
of literary as well as scientific tastes, he was called to fill the post first of
tutor, and then of Professor of Rhetoric, in Delaware College, in Newark,
In connection with the Sheffield Scientific School, the activity and zeal
of Prof. Porter enabled him to do excellent service, both for the institu-
tion and the cause of agricultural science throughout the United States.
He was chiefly instrumental in originating and conducting the very suc-
cessful course of Agricultural lectures, which, in 1860, attracted large
num of persons to New Haven from distant parts of this country,
In the reorganization of the School, about the same time, he took an
mst part, and some important changes were largely due to his forecast
and energy.
ergy
rof. Porter was a ready and forcible public speaker, with a clear and
is labors in behalf of
his country, were particularly earnest and effective, so long as his failing
k He was ever zealous for truth and justice,
invention, and the most unwearied assiduity.
a a a a te Ea Sa cl
}
Miscellaneous Bibliography. ~ 291
VI. MISCELLANEOUS BIBLIOGRAPHY.
1. Geological Survey of Illinois: A. H. Wortuen, Director. Volume
, Geology. xvi, and 504 pp. large 8vo, with maps and sections. 1866.
Published by the authority of the Legislature of Ilinois—This first
volume of the Geologi i i i
at home who have looked to the State Geologist for an exposition of the
mineral resources of the State. The various subjects are well treated, and
publication is every way handsome and gener as h
@ assistance f. Whitney in the survey of the lead region;
of Prof. Leo Lesquereux in that of the Coal formation and the subject
stract of its contents which we propose to give in another number.
liquie Aquitanice, being Contributions to the Archeology and
- London. [Stanford
On the Anatomy of Ve
F.RS. London. “‘[Longm
Ms dies. yol. II, Birds and Mammals; by R. Owes, ue
ans. | és it
J
292 Miscellaneous Bibliography.
The sense — Mammalia; by W. Boryp Dawams, Esq., M.A., F.G.S., a
W. Aysurorp Sanrorp, F.G.S. Part 1. Published by the Paleontological Society
jie Appthapalogieal ‘Treatises of io OHANN Frieprich BLuMEensacn, wi
of h arx and Flourens, etc., pei ee by T. Bendysche, M.A. Published
for the Authropologca Society. [ Long’ ans.
Histo tacés fossiles; par E. Buancaarp. The first volume of thi
work * Fo rustacea was presented by the author to the Academy of Siang
in April
pce aux ‘sil et Sige de l’Attique, d’aprés les recherches faites par M.
Apert Gavpry. Paris. (E. Lévy.)—The 13th (last) part of this important work
a been seatied. The whole makes a volume in small folio of 323 pages, with 52
thogra
Clay ¢ aa tehante, von Dr. Leor. Hetnricu Fiscuer. 114 pp.4to. Leipzig 1864
WW. elmann.)—Consists of tables for the determination of the mineral silicates.
Jabresbericht des Vereins baled rdkunde zu Dresden. Dresden, 1865. Erster,
30 pp. 8vo; Zweiter, 57 pp. 8vo, with also a paper of O4 p. entitled Der Chaldier
Sephas Rue eine kritische Pavniediuae aus der Geschichte der Geographie, von Dr.
pea
Archiv far “Anthropologie. Zeitschrift fiir Naturgeschichte und Nokes -
Menschen ; by C. E. v. Baer of St. Petersburgh, E. Desor of Neufchatel, A. Ec
: Basel, H.5S ; D _
Welcker of Halle, cates she castial direction of A. Ecker ct L. Lin Reentire
ppears irregularly in parts, 3 of which make a volume. Published by Frieder ich
Vieweg & Sohn, at Braunschw elg.
Procesrpincs "Ke cap. Scr. Puiraperputa, No. 2. Aprit, May, 1866.—Page 101,
History of the “small black dvratie Ant”; @. Lincecum.—p. 110, Notes on some
members of the Feldspar family; Z. Lea.—p. 113, On Chistetes es and some related
genera, with descriptions of species; C. Rominger.—p. 123, 4th Contribution to the
erpetology of Tropical America; EZ. D. Cope.—p. 133, se 5 n.sp. of Unio, and 2
of Lithasia; J. Lea.—p. 134, Critical review of the Proce Nariidee, Parts [V and V
ith a general ae Loge E. Coues.—p.197, On the cranial forms of the Ameri-
Proc. Bost. Soc. Nat. laa, Vol. X.—p. 296, On the modifications of oceanic
currents in massa geological periods; WV. 8. Shaler-—p. 302, relations of the life
of individuals among tetrabranchiate Cephalopods, and the collective geological life
e sam . Hyatt—p. 805, On a mineral resemblin Colorado ;
. Hayes.—p. 809, New species of Schiedea, and an allied genus;
H. Mann—p. 320, Chemical as s of minerals associated with the emery of
Chester, Mass.; C. 7: Jackson.—p. 323, Bus Polyps and Corals of Pak with de-
scriptions of new species ; _E. Verri
AnSats or tae Lycev un Nat . Hisr. or New Yors. Vol. VIII, Nos. 8—12.—
oe vis tee on Specie of the ‘ily Corbiculide, with figs.; 7: Prime.—p.
the season rological —_ r for New York in 1865; 0. W. Dfor-
as Bimbryology of Star fishes ; A. 4 jpaenkane 247, Examination of Amer-
and pon do G.N. Lawrence. .—p. 301, New species of Reptilian bird from
Saree: Massachusetts ; OH. Hitchcock.—p. Se dick te Kae
A. Agassiz—p. "350, Seven new irds from Central
and South America; @. NV. Lawrence ae
oo baatite rei 2 JaAN., slgrs har 72" ae ; gehts a
@ of & monogra ipa oiimes, T. Gill.—p. 14, Notice of a Foray ©
a colony 0 | Formica sanguinea colony of a black species of Formica; 5
ihiien M, Ss of the Polyp and Corals of the N. Pacific ae Expe-
Verrill_—The Naturalists’ Directory, cae II, 16 pp. to
the N dcuratite Directory. The bo of this Appendix (w which is to be 2 ontioued),
is to ame naturalists in ne of Uiepictag of spectrin: by cit
otherwise, and to give changes of address, additions of names to the Directory, !
reo of other org of i Sips Sena lines in it are allowed to each megengend
notices for d additional a
aid aE 10 ondiee Hon derensamincecig a a.
AMERICAN
JOURNAL OF SCIENCE AND ARTS.
[SECOND SERIES.]
Art. XLI— William Rowan Hamilton.'
Witu1am Rowan HAmItton, one of the ablest mathemati-
iby,
descended originally settled in the north of Ireland, in the reign
First and it is said that by right a baronetcy be-
FS ON ee PSS TR PS FM ee need Cee, ee Oe REE ye Oe ee
©
~
=}
Qu
ow
o
ct
oO
pu
S
ba]
B.
a
ea S
e Ey
bd
SB
poe)
<
z
st.
o
B
oO
5
onal
bs)
—
S
2
2.
a
S
2
* From the Monthly Notices of the Royal Astron. Soc., xvi, 109.
Au. Jour. Sci.—Ssconp Series, Vou. XLII, No. 126.—Nov., 1866.
38 ;
-
294 William Rowan Hamilton.
spect, that at the age of seven he was examined in Hebrew by @
Fellow of Trinity College, Dublin, and that “the child passed
a better examination in that language than many candidates for
the fellowship.” For obvious reasons we hope there is some par-
donable though very natural exaggeration in the statement. It
is certain however that the attention of the Persian Ambassador,
n on a visit to Dublin, was attracted by a letter of greeting
written in Persian by young Hamilton at the age of fourteen.
Whether or not any allowance is to be made for the shadow of
the future overlapping the memory of the past, it is quite certain
that the vast intellectual capacities of the boy were evinced and
cultivated at a very early age, and what is of far greater conse-
quence, this early mental activity did not prostrate or forestal
the successful exertions of maturer life. It is quite possible that
the literary turn thus given to his earlier pursuits may have hap-
pily laid the foundation of that peculiar combination of meta-
myer and poetry, which distinguished some of his mathemat-
ical performances from those of most other men. For his early
‘processes in the Mécanique Céleste. Meanwhile, and notwith-
standing this very unusual advancement in mathematical knowl-
edge, the main culture of his mind had been classical ; and that,
not alone from natural predilection, but on account of the re-
quirements of the collegiate course on which it was his intention
to embark and to compete.
It is almost needless to say that young Hamilton, with a mind
thus disciplined and furnished, entered upon his course at Trin-
ity College, Dublin, if not without able competitors, at all events
without an equal, whether in literature or mathematics. As
might be expected, he carried before him; and when we
speak of success in his literary efforts, it must be understood
William Rowan Hamilton. 295
this encouragement to the young philosopher was the speedy :
completion of a memoir which may be sai ntain the germ
able to what mathematicians call “The Princi-
ple of Least Action,” or, in other words, probably as true, and
certainly more expressive, amenable to the principle of no waste
296 William Rowan Hamilton.
This circumstance is of itself sufficiently remarkable, and_re-
flects equal honor upon the authorities who ventured to make
the appointment, and on the young geometer who, by dint of
genius and laborious study, was qualified to discharge the duties
of the post. In connexion with this arrangement there is a point
of osculation with our own Society of sufficient interest to de-
“ooh ew tem ho we wa
eee on Sere oe
illiam Rowan Hamilton. 297
In 1828 Hamilton became a Fellow of the Royal Astronom-
“ical Society, and thus at the time of his decease was among the
oldest, as his name was certainly among the most honored, of
our members. In 1833 he made known, in one of several sup-
plements to the “Theory of Systems of Rays,” his great discov-
ery of Conical Refraction. In this memoir, starting again from
the principle of least action, and, as before, conducting the inves-
tigation by means of a single Principal Function, he establishes
the entire theory of double refraction; and, applying it to the
case of biaxial crystals, by a new and simpler method’ than that
originally pursued by Fresnel, he obtains the equation to the
form of the wave assumed by the vibrating ether within the
erystal. On examining the form of the wave surface, Hamilton,
with remarkable sagacity, observed that if the theory and the
results were true, a single ray of light incident at a certain angle
on a biaxial crystal, must of necessity pass into it, not as one ray,
nor even as two rays, but as a conical sheet of light, and then
finally emerge as a luminous cylindrical surface. And, again,
his profound and complicated analysis indicated that there was
also a direction within the crystal, such, that if an internal ray
of light passed along it, it would emerge from the crystal, not as
one ray, but as a luminous conical shell. Such results as these
were not only apparently contrary to all analogy one expecta-
experiment was at length successfully performed by Dr. Hum-
phrey Lloyd, of Dublin, whose patient ingenuity, and faith in
in a crystal, into an infinite number of rays, forming the surface
of a luminous cone.
process by a very elegant
._| It is but a point of justice to state that Mr. Archibald Smith has since much
ed icit method of elimination. _
‘proved the simplicity of the
ee
oe
ig
e
=
298 William Rowan Hamilton.
still more so because they serve to encourage the student to per-
severe in his researches, animated by the fullest conviction that
if truthfully conducted they can only land him in truth, and
eaving the cut bono to be determined by the appreciations, or
the wants, or the curiosities, of men in time to come.
e Royal Irish Academy took cognizance of Hamilton’s
their appreciation of his merits. In 1837 he was elected Pres-
ident of the Royal Irish Academy, succeeding’ his friend and
early patron, Dr. Brinkley, in the chair, as he had succeeded him
i e Professorship of Astronomy. He retained this distin-
guished office for eight years, and on his resignation he received
the thanks of that eminent-Academy “for his high and impar-
tial bearing in the chair.”
In 1834 and 1885 he communicated to the Royal Society two
papers on “ A General Method in Dynamics.” Here, again, he
commenced with the same fundamental idea, as that which he
had already so successfully adopted in his “Theory of Systems
ates, (codrdinates at the time ¢), the other, those in regard to the
fying a single partial differential equation; and he considers that
.
* Dr. Lloyd, sen., was President for two years after the death of the Bishop of
Cloyne. Hamilton succeeded Lloyd,
William Rowan Hamilton. 299
s two memoirs can only
be compared with that effected at an earlier epoch by the publi-
‘ worth, but because they are less within the scope of our Society ;
to the length of the other line; 4 :
2. The angle through which the one line must be conceived
to be turned in order that it may coincide with the diree-
tion of the other; ‘ :
e plane in which the two lines lie. __ ;
And inasmuch as the determination of this plane involves
two elements, viz: Ist, its inclination to some fixe or known
plane, and 2d, an element which is analogous to the longitude of
a planet’s node, it follows that four* elements or symbols are re-
* The shove is in fact one of Hamilton’s many illustrations of the meaning of a
quarternion, Analytically speaking, a quarternion is an e of the form
w+ie+tjy+tkz, where i,j,k are imaginary roots of 4/ —1, differing from the eal
300 William Rowan Hamilton.
quired to determine the relation which one line in space bears to
another line.* The combination of these four elements, then,
ion the em of Sir William Hamilton; and as handled
and developed by him, these combinations unquestionably form
a ealculus of amazing generality, grasp and power. As an en-
gine of investigation, in the general problem of combined rota-
com-
pleteness or in facility. ey remind one of the tentacles of
some gigantic polype ramifying out into immensity, and bring-
ing aad with them the spoils of space.*
_Itis et premature to anticipate on which of his meee
Dynamical Theorems. As yet, sare a the former calculus can
applied by other philosophers to new lines of investi ation ;
nevertheless, it can scarcely j supposed that the persistent and
conscientious labor of such a man for twenty-two successive
years can fail to be full of the seeds of thought, and one day be
found to admit and to invite important applications. It must
however be ss caer eta (partly perhaps on account of its com-
parative novelty, and partly on neigh: of the metaphysical at-
mosphere which surrounds it), the method is neither easy nor
ce to any but bas ablest ma most daring of the analysts
ong us; many who has essayed to bend this bow has
pechetiy said to himself what Antinous said to his boon com-
panions :—
* Thou wast not born to bend
The unpliant hea. or to direct the shaft.”
and poi i and 28 e symbol (x) is the ratio of the lengths of
ernion. Such is th
the F .
life ; indeed it = ses to have been fatally i rt to 6 Ta health. a on “all but
shed when ted of the author arrest —— its entire completion. The
Boss ef Trity College, Da, have marked their of the value of this book
by. ein ged the aoa its publleation.
ie With this simi ee Sed hs genes hws
memoir
William Rowan Hamilton. 301
We have just spoken of the metaphysical atmosphere which
seems to pervade Hamilton’s Calculus of Quarternions; an
was not alone because the culture and bias s mind unavoid-
ably led him in this direction, that many of his mathematical
investigations assume etaphysical turn, but because he, in
he was also a poet. He was hea ay, “I live by mathemat-
ics, but I am a poet.” If, by this aphorism, hd meant that, had
he so chosen, he would have becom re emin )
of our greatest living philosophers who would perhaps say, “ By
filial duty I am an astronomer, but I was born a chemist.” Of
Hamilton counted among his friends, Coleridge, Southey, Mrs.
Hemans, and Wordsworth. It is said that when Wordsworth
through Hamilton’s enthusiasm, was enabled to get a glimpse of
the inexpressible fascination which surrounds the daring and
creative spirit of modern geometry, the old man was for the first
: time inclined to admit even a mathematician into the charmed
| Circle of the brotherhood of poets. The anecdote rests upon
Am. Jour. Sct.—Seconp SERigEs, VoL. XLII, No. 126.—Nov., 1866. =
39
302 William Rowan Hamilton.
before the great analyst revealed it. In vindication of the just-
ness of these remarks on the expansiveness of great intellects,
and on the poetic power which almost invariably is, at the least,
latent within them, we cannot refrain from quoting the following
sonnet, written by a great Astronomer, on the occasion of a visit
to Ely Cathedral, in company with Sir William Hamilton :—
Sunday, July 29, 1845,
The organ’s swell was hushed,—but soft and low
An echo more than musie rang,—where he
The doubly-gifted, poured forth whisp’ringl
High-wrought and rich, his heart’ berant
Beneath that vast and vaulted canopy.
Plunging anon into the fathomless sea
Of thought, he dived where rarer treasures grow,
Gems of an unsunned warmth, and deeper glow.
y,
ow,
Oh! born for either sphere, whose soul can thrill
With all that Poesy has soft or bright,
Or wield the sceptre of the sage at will,
(That mighty mace’ which bursts its way to light),
as thou wilt, or plunge,—thy ardent mind
on—but cannot leave our love behind.
ere a man
disguise, though too diffident to obtrude, his profound conviction
of the truth of revealed religion. Endued with such qualities
as these, what wonder, if of his friends he was almost the idol,
and of his university the pride; for he was gentle, and he was
eloquent, and he spoke evil of no man, he defended the fair fame
of the absent, and he held controversy with none. :
uch then is an imperfect but unexaggerated sketch of this
remarkable man. We will only add, that happily he did not
ive to survive himself, but in full possession of his faculties,
almost in the very presence of the friends who had long admire
him; and, what was no new thing to him, supported by the con-
victions and consolations of his faith, he resigned himself to his
rest, as one who knew that he had done a work which had been
given him to do. re te
eR be ly s Leek tol al : + J lent individual (Si W.R.H)
su ; addressed has ed hi le t consu' ry ae ( Essays
by Bir Jokn Herschel. mas :
“In the preparation of this éloge, the writer ‘has received much assistance from
Dean Graves, P.R.LA.; the Rev. R. P. Graves, of Dublin; and Professors De Mor-
gan and Cayley. .
T The eembalt
rT
]
|
|
|
|
A ae Se a et ee ee ge ee ee ee ee
S. Porter on the Vowel Elements in Speech. 303
Arr. XLU.—The Vowel Elements in Speech ; by SAMUEL Porter,
of Hartford, Conn.
[Concluded from page 189.]
THERE are certain modes of action of the organs in vowel utter-
ance, which are to be noticed as the ground of some important
properties and relations. It is observable that the open vowels
: eee
fectly natural on mechanical and physiological principles. ‘The
vowel in téte, &c., is unquestionably such as to be accounted fo
ble of the same abrupt, explosive quality ; and, when prolonged,
usually tend to become more close, or, when at the closest, to
move forward into a contiguous or otherwise related vowel of
another group. These effects, again, we ascribe to the peculiar
ode of action of the tongue, as, after coming into line for the
group, it has to be raised to the proper degree of closeness: it
is like raising the arm a little way after extending it. This mo-
tion cannot well be suddenly and firmly arrested so as to pro-
duce an abrupt or explosive utterance. It is also more natural .
to continue this motion than to hold it arrested so as to prolong
the vowel unchanged. Obviously, also, the effect of continuing
304 S. Porter on the Vowel Elements in Speech.
the impulse, after reaching the closest degree, would be to raise,
or bend up, the tongue at a point further forward, and so to carry
the vowel into another group. The middle may, however,
sometimes take the course of the open degree, and move a step
backward in becoming more close when prolonged.
The tendency of the open-depressed vowels, when prolonged,
is, for like reasons, in the opposite direction: they incline to
greater openness, so far as possible, or else to a backward move-
ment. Thus, self, ten, &c. drawled into the open-depressed de-
gree, incline to the @ if still further prolonged.
t is to be remarked, that the turn taken by vowels under
change of quantity will be much influenced by the character of
consonants succeeding.
ese physiological actions and tendencies are important in
their bearing upon vowel change in etymology, and as explain-
ing the rationale of diphthongs and all compound vowel sounds.
This will presently be illustrated by examples.
the relations among the several vowels depend.
A number of different series may be made out, founded on
a, e, tand a, o, uw.
ward on the line of the tongue, from the common point of de-
S. Porter on the Vowel Elements in Speech. 305
and the other the back-palatal, or the guttural, series. The vowels
of the lingual series are also allied by ai general Sisediion of
the vocal current forward, while in d, 0 and wu it is upward ;—
the position of the tongue for this effect may be observed to ‘in-
fluence the lower jaw: “tending to protrusion in at least d, o and
u, and to retraction in at least a and Gd. The plausible and com-
monly accepted scheme which regards these two series as deter-
by the less and less palatal opening from a to 7 and the
on peat less labial opening from a to u, fails to er the facts as
they present themselves under accurate ‘observatio
Other lines of vowel transition diverge from the guttural se-
ries forwards toward % Thus, the open d, o and u are so related
:
man 6 of the wmlaut; and, by a similar process, we have the é
vowels in the French eu from an original e+u. The connection
is intimate between all degrees of the u with the i,—the tongue
being so placed for the u oat by raising the fore-part, it —
comes into position for the similar operatio
between d@ and 7 in the ite ot diphthong, and ei neceat
different vowels (d+ the proper one) and 2, in the various ways
of pronouncing the Eng. “long 7.” From the open vowels gen-
erally to the high position of the back tongue which forms the
sions or middle x, the transition is easy, at least in diphthongal
combination, as will presently be exemplified. e
cial ground of ee between 7 and w in the similar positions
of the soft-palat
We are now prepared to consider the laws to which diph-
thongal combinations are subject; but I will first enumerate the
Principal pure diphthongs that are possible. They are :—
le ati :*_Eng. only in Doe word ay, or aye, or sometimes heard in
h, Sinai, &c., and in the long ¢ t, wrongfully.
2. d+-i:—toil, boy; North of England long z.
* Instead of i non-labial as the final element, we may have, in each case, the
nila i (Ger. i, Fr.u). Dr. C. L. Merkel resolves the German diphéhoag du
(Heuser, Serres: and e t (Feue sik le) into a+ii, His Physiologie der menschli-
cough ana a care careful and minutely exact as well as original investi
gor. “osce and Briicke undergo the ordeal of sound and searching criticism
306 S. Porter on the Vowel Elements in Speech.
3. 64-42? (or, with the “glide,” 64-+4-G5-4-i7) pices ds a, as high, pine,
¢.,—the Scotch long ¢ is 63-++-2?, or 6?-+7?.
’ a+i :—an affected Le plerigt gy of anes a,
2
2
&
|
5
=
i}
i g
®
a
os
As
°
at
Sd
: of our,
. o-+-u :—“long o” (old) with the vanish,
. 64 u2! (with the glide, A i nbs u??) :our, now, &c.;—the Scotch
our, &., are 63/4
10. @, or d*, +a (with glide, Rropay: —Yankee our, now, &c.
11. ‘e*, or ¢%, jie bic 6 glide):—ancient pronunciation rs few, dew,
e form of Yankee new, rude, smooth,
12. i#-+-u ee 6 slide) :—extreme form of Yankee new, ite smooth,
o, &c.
13. e*-+a: — a A.-S. deaf, cealf, &e. ?
14. e#+0:—Qu., A.-S. seofon, heofon, seolf, &e.
15. u* or é trent :—rude, tube, lute, swt, new, on &e.
_ The relative quantity of the initial and final elements is not
alike in all these; but is usually greater in the initial. Where
I have Sroaaea to mark the degree, there is more or less latitude
of variation
groups have not rie been reckoned as Orioles —the usua
English long a and long 0, for example. A movement which
requires a relaxation of the tongue or lips in passing from one
element to the other will interrupt the continuity of the vowel
sound, and necessitate either a hiatus, or the intervention of a
Tee w consonant, making in the latter case an impure diphthong.
us, +7 (tozl) is a forward movement, and gives continuous
vowel sound; but the reverse, t+d, almost necessarily intro-
ls ay sound, heard asin yawl (¢+y+d). Sowehave ityt4
yard, and in the Italian piano, fiamma, &e.; t+y+0 in young,
million, billiard, &e.; i+y+u in union, mu te, &e. A rearward
movement can give a pure diphthong ‘only ees the first ele-
ment, if not both, is quite open; as in Nos. 9 to 14 of the fore-
going table. A Re SE movement from close to ii on
the lips always introduces a consonantal w, as in the French
* A term used by phonetists, and denoting, strictly, the whole series intermedi-
ate, as the voice passes gradually from one position of the organs to another.
OR ee ae ee
a eee © ee ee eee
S. Porter on the Vowel Elements in Speech. 307
out and rot, the pre buono, and English quarter, war (w+
w+da'), we (u?!+0+
A word here on the subject of pitch as related to seer oi
sounds. I have remarked upon the ease to rise or fall i
pitch as the tongue moves forward or backward, or else as it
rises or falls, on our vowel-scale. mire are certain noticeable
of authority or of confident assertion. It may ee dip e of in-
quiry, whether in those languages which are less diphthongal
the level tone more prevails.
Let us now attend to some of the kre ee of the system
: rani Sor etymological and orthotprcal changes. Trocess
run tsetse into an e or @ 80 as aimer, jm, Batre,
chaine, —and au into an eh in chaud, anes pauvre,—and
eu into an 6,—as in peur, veuve, jeune. "That these digraphs
thd once really diphthongal in utterance, is quite sare —
tz, Gram., vol. i.) Such change is common in
guages, In describing the d vowels (p. 184, note), I eaciaal
to the originally diphthongal character of ai ‘and ay in English,
as In praise, vatn, day, say, &c. So was . also = the aw and
aw, which now take an d sound, as in fault, cause, draw, law.
In the Sanskrit, we find the e and o ftir eautng only as de-
veloped from ai and au;—the e and o are always and every-
Where, at least in the Indo-European languages, secondary and
derivative elements, 0 owing their origin to this or to some other
a ‘oat in modern German, we have, from o, from a, an
** Dr. Merkel, ‘whose work comes into my hand as this article is peeing through
the press, approximates partially to the view presen ve. He says, “ ie
ot the diphthong de epends upon the convergence of the dilated vocal or-
gans,” es with Briicke in ascribing the w and y to movement in the a
direction, from close to ope
308 S. Porter on the Vowel Elements in Speech,
dropped or changed to e—in a succeeding rnleshact of inflection
or derivation; as Wort-Worter, Hand- kurtz—kiirtzen ;
and as Bett, Ende, from old badi, andi; ina of it in Tingiah
are bed, end, men, sell (Goth. salyan), and other cases not a few ;
—and in the Old N orse, for instance, a takes umlaut from u in
the néxt syllable. The umlaut is believed to have come up
through an intervening stage of diphthongation,—badi, for ex-
ample, becoming first bazdi and then bedi or bed: but whether
so or not, reference to it here is pertinen nt.
I maintain that such change is to be explained almost wholly
by palato-lingual action. Of course it is so in the case of e or @
from az. As for au, labial position would not determine its re-
duction to o or d rather than toa labial d. In the # from wi or wu,
there is seenly an admixture of a consonantal y, such as fae
from the rapid utterance of the extremes in close succession
than from an attempt to effect their simultaneous utterance.
The developed product does not necessarily take the quality of
either of the two extremes.
Change from a diphthong to one of its components, by dropping
the other, is also not uncommon. Thus from A.-S. ea, we have
shall, sharp, hard, calf, &c., as well as deaf, head, red, ee ; from
a eo, seven, heaven, devil, &e.; and we have benefit, parish,
venison, comparison, &e., from the old or the later French bien-
, Veneison, comparaison.
Another process of change is from a simple vowel to a diph-
ng, —common] si not vag aa a by prefixing or annex
wife, porn t, ae. ion, Se od ‘ou meres
—. cas S. hus, esis hund, &. In ee
The
” so common in Sander 3 is cae ‘of a <owel
S. Porter on the Vowel Elements in Speech. 309
by prefixing ana, In French, we have a short ¢ prefixed, in
bien, brief, dieu, fiel, fier, pied, tent, &c., and an e before
that is transformed to u, in feu, jeu, neuf, meule, peuple, heure,
c. (from focus, jocus, novem, mola, populus, hora, &c.). In Ital-
ian, the 7 prefixed to e and wu to o, form a marked feature: as
fiero, sieda, buono, &e. Examples of the new element suffixe
we have in our “longa” and “longo” with the vanish ;—in
French, we have ¢ added to a of the Latin, in clair, a’mer, main,
&e.; ¢ toe in O. Fr. mez, trevs, let, veile, &e. (now moi, trois, loi,
voile, &c.), and in the modern frein, plen, veine, &c.; 7 to o in
vox, connoitre, &c., and to u in sus (sum), &c.;—all of these
digraphs having been once actual diphthongs. All such changes
must accord with the laws of diphthongal combination, as before
stated; to which may be added, that it is in converting a short
vowel into a long one, and in giving greater quantity or weight
to one already long, that the tendency to diphthongation is usu-
ally manifested.
may be replaced by another entirely different and perhaps he
remote on the scale. Thus, through Fr. brief, we have Eng.
govern, F
pierce, the superadded 7 is the only element now he:
age.
The changes of this sort in the Italian as evolved from the
Latin are strikingly confirmatory of certain leading features of
the scheme here set forth. The Italian exhibits a remarkable
regularity in its development, having been little disturbed by
outside influences,—and is thus, so far as it goes, peculiarly
Am. Jour. Sct.—Szconp SeriEs, VoL. XLII, No. 126.—Nov., 1866.
0
310 S. Porter on the Vowel Elements in Speech.
for the establishment of principles of phonetic change. There
are recognized in Italian an 7 vowel, and a “close” and an “open”
e,—so called,—the close (chiuso) being like the e of our scheme,
or nearer to the é, and the open (aperto) either precisely or nearly
like the d So there is a wu, and a “close” and an “open” 0,—
the close nearer to the u, and the open probably nearer the 4,
than is the o in the scheme.” Thus, three stand in order in what
, L called the lingual series, and three in the back-palatal, or guttu-
ral. Of each there is a long and a short; and these with the a
our scheme or nearer to the é, and the Latin o to have been the
o or nearer the u, we find the same rules in each set of these changes.
We have (1) short ¢ changed to so-called ‘close e”—é or e of the
scheme, and short e to nearly if not precisely our dé vowel; and
again, short « to “close o,” and short o to nearly if not fully
oO
and e to “open e;” and again wu to )
ere also we have the original vowel short, though in a syllable
greater weight and predominance of the vowel sounds in mod-
"It may seem that one or two more vowel-places should be marked on the
back-palatal part of our seale, since the ear can distinguish the though in-
deed only for the close or close and middle degrees: perhaps so many ought to be
noted,—certainly if demanded by the exigencies of any single language.
we NS eee ate ey eae
S. Porter on the Vowel Elements in Speech. 311
prevailing in Italian,—as does the reverse in English. We have
(8) an original long vowel or diphthong, with little or no change
except the condensation of the diphthong,—just as ought to be
expected in connection with the actual changes as above stated.
Similar laws and tendencies have had partial sway in the other
branches of the Latinic family.
Every language under the sun will show examples, in abund-
ance, of changes, more or less regular, by direct transition from
one vowel group into another,—whether we study it in its ety-
mological history, its dialectic variations, or the mutations of or-
thoépical fashion. e changes in vowel-pronunciation which the
Linglish has undergone, and for the most part within three hund-
red and fifty years, are many, though not all, of this description.
It should be received as an incontrovertible fact, that the
vowels in English had once substantially the Latin and Italian
sounds ;—and this they had, indeed, for the most part, even to
ish in “ swate,” “indade,” for sweet, indeed, and the like. Two
hundred years ago, the ee had obtained its present pronunciation
or wavered between this and an a.”
* For a full exposition of one branch of this topic, see the article, Shakespearean
ion, i merican Review for April, 1864. In respect to the
long a as in Shakespeare’s time, the view there taken is not quite correct. care-
ful examination of Wallis and Wilkins leaves no doubt that they regarded it as
identical with the Italian a. Dr. Wallis (Gram. Ling. Ang., 6th ed, 1765, p. 8)
8 of the English a, long and short: “Cambro-Brittani hoc sono solent suum @
ronunciare ; su n(p. escribe
it as the slender a, “a exile,” in distinction from the broad a, “4d pingue,” used in
the German and the French of that period, and heard in the English all, hall, haul,
dc. Again, he describes the English ¢ (pp. 9, 56) as iike the e of the rench, S$
ifies it, when long, tially with
on,
reed (Real : id
art, hallowed, name, as, day, daily, trespasses, temptation, and, Amen, maker, Mary,
Pilate, was, again, at, hand, for o in body. He uses an
.
312 S. Porter on the Vowel Elements in Speech.
The point we have in hand,—that of direct transition from
one vowel-group to another,—will be best illustrated by taking
into view, etymologically, the ancestral and allied tongues along with
the English, and adverting also to existing dialectic variations,—
with this proviso, however, that the precise process of change
cannot always be determined as direct rather than indirect and
circuitous.
A.-S. f6t, Eng. foot; again, Sans. dant-as, Lat. dent-is, Gr. 60évt-os,
A.-S. tédh, Eng. tooth; Sans. ashtan, A.-S. eahta, Eng. eight,
Lat. octo, G na 5
knee, Gr. 7évv; Sans. matri, Lat. mater, Gr. mjtyo, A.-S. modor,
Eng. mother (6), Ger. mutter; Sans. mas, Gr, snjvy, A.-S. mona,
Be OF . . S A
bdén
(0),
other for the a in almighty, and the o in Lord, of, for, from, &c.; and employs ¢ for
conceived, dead, Jesus, Amen, heaven, earth, &¢.,—that is, for a sound which, when
long, did not differ greatly, if at all, from the “long a” of our time. Reference to
such, " : Eng’
ge, first series, Lect. xxii. Ihave not overlooked the noteworthy, but in
conclusive, « Memoranda” of Mr. R. G. White, appended to vol. xii of his edition
_ For the earlier period referred to above, Ihave depended mainly upon Palsgrave,
—— t de la Langue Francaise, the reprint by Genin, Paris, 1852 (1530
the original); for the other and later, my statements accord with those of Wilkins
and Wallis. See also Atlantic Monthly, vol. iii, pp. 255, 6 (in the article on Whites
2 coe 1, Aine note:
P J
*
S. Porter on the Vowel Elements in Speech. 313
nearer to a; and the presumption is confirmed by the fact that
the A.-S. long o became the English 00, and that this 00 ex-
pressed the long o sound till at least the sixteenth century. The
transition on this line is naturally from the long a; while the
short @ would move directly only on the other line, through é:
thus we have in Anglo-Saxon a short dé as the more frequent
correspondent of Gothic short a,—as A.-S. dig, mdy, at, that,
biid, girs, gaf, &e., for Gothic dags, mag, at, thata, bath, gras,
gaf, &c. (Hing. day, may, at, that, bade, grass, gave, &c.).”"
ther, from A.-S. ori, fader, &c., and as our Southerners, some
gual line: as in git, yis, es, ketch, for get, yes, as, catch, Ac. ;
the same weacta ant aaa which leads to this inclines also to
substitute the open non-labials, in the u, 0 and a groups, for the
close labials, as requiring a less wide opening of the jaws, and
In general less effort of the organs.
_The French, as from the Latin, affords numerous examples of
direct transition on the lingual line, in both a forward and a
backward direction: as cher, sel, tel, from carus, sal, talis; SIX,
se
crois, avoir, from me, credo, habere; conseil, justesse,
verre, from consilium, justitia, possideo, vitrum
um, &c. : 2
On the back-palatal line, we find in English the u sound, in ag
._ . See the Grammars of Fiedler and of Miatzner for a full detail of lett
im the derivation of the English from the parent tongues. bare
314 S. Porter on the Vowel Elements in Speech.
words of Anglo-Saxon origin, most frequently from an ob -S. long
0, as foot, good, bosom, cool, stool, tooth, do, &e.; an the A.-S.
long ) corresponds to the Gothic long 0, and this to the Sandal
long a, we have a regular precession from ato u. Examples in
— to the same effect might be adduced from other lan-
transition is ibe French wu (¢! 3 om a Latin u,—most ree
from a long, ~~ sometimes “ee ashort vu, The same change
is found to have occurred in the Italian of Lombardy, and one
similar took si at some period in the Greek; the Polish y,
which is a non-labial, but a etymologically to Sanskrit
u, probably arose in a similar ma The Scotch age or
gude, muzr, sune, suld, buck, (for mee moor, soon, fas d, book,)
&ec., are noticeable i in thi is connecti ion. The vo wels ide spring
from the u on this line, whether by direct ersiak or by the
umlaut are somewhat diverse in themselves; but all admit of
further precession or pre into an 7 non-labial and such as
to betray no trace of o rom u. This has come to pass in
dialects of Gavioarian, Fresh, Modern Greek, German, and
other languages (see Dietz: Gram. T, 415); in English we have
numerous cases of 1 aie A.-S. y as ‘amlaut of u,—as king, sin,
kin, bridge, little,
As for the eenaiasiad connection of the & group with the oth-
ers,—we may observe in the German é and French ew somewhat
of a proclivity to slide into a close & in pronunciation. In our
virtue, merey, earth, &c. the vowels here followed by r have fal-
len back into'an é sound. The open ¢ has a near relation to the
open vowels of several groups,—as its place on the physiological
map would render probable. Transition into it is easy especl ly
from u, o and 4; and has taken place in sun, but, wp, mutton, in
the vulgar tuck for took, sut for soot, &c., and in son, done, mon-
key, nothing, mother, brother, &c. ‘We _ not whether the
mither, brither of the Scotch are examples of ¢ from é, or from
o by way of u ina form like the Ger. mutter, bruder; but the
pretty == seem the more natural. From a, e and7z to & open,
ces are numerous in unaccented syllables: as, liver, over,
sobhie pillar, dollar, elixir, nadir, problem, predict, tyrant, Wo-
man, Ou uba, Missouri, definite, digest ;—this before 7 is correct,
but not approved in most other cases.
The certain vowels to certain of the consonants
well explained upon our scheme. Thus, the positions of the
tongue for the open é and for the usual English 7,” requiring
* On the “iste SecA conc lg ale and the continental r, neared on
other nice points Parone ompecseerin catetelay ait we Hoe
pared Introduction | tthe Dictionary Noted Names of Fiction, by William
A. Wheeler, (Boston, 1865 f
S. Porter on the Vowel Elements in Speech. 315
but a slight change to pass from one to the — favor the use
of this vowel before the r,—as in cases just cited. Again, it
often occurs that 7 gives way for a w in its ois : as Fr. autre
from alter, sauf—salvus, faux—falsus, Et 2 chevaux for’
chevals, du—de le, au—a le, &e. ; North- -English awmost, awd,
for almost, old; Scottish se hauf, tas shouther, &c. for
hold, half, alms, shoulder, &c. In the English would, walk, t talk,
&ec. the 1 ‘probably first gave way to a u pail which with the
vowel preceding coalesced into one intermediate; and the / still
heard in aliar, ball, &c. probably had influence in the change
from an a toan a sound. It sometimes occurs that w is prefixed,
the / being retained, of which would, from wolde, must have been
originally ; an example. Now, as / is nota labial but a lingual
consonant, this relation cannot be accounted for at all, if we re-
foam
ise]
S
lar]
5
i
So
‘0g
ct
=
oO
=~
=
of
ig
“oO
ct
pete
“2
°
ey
et
or
oO
uy
o)
o
aq
es
fae)
Lag
o
Ss
oO
BE
®
a
ot
3
fa*)
"S
25
2
es
S
sonant. But, in certain other cases, ] passes into 7: as Italian
piano from planus, fiamma—flamma, chiaro—clarus, ptacere—
placere, — mare, bianco—Fr. blane— ng. é
Here / follows a consonant and precedes a vowel,—and the 4
whose sien reaches nearly to the wf of the tongue, results natu-
rally from the weakened / in this
The frequent intarihaags between male vowel w and the corso-
nants w and v is of course to be explained by reference to labial
action.
In the case of the palatal, or gutturo-palatal, mutes, k, 9, ch,
(tenuis, media, asper,) with the related sibilants feloded, the
variation induced by association th different vowels is alto-
gether accordant with our scheme. Thus, in German, the differ-
ag articulation is Seer or me deep—near = ise: that 1 tte
in the order of our groups, @, 4, 0, %, 3, a, So with
(hard) in English, fae sound is really different ‘nt cori
produced at a different place, in gape, gone, go, a girl, gar.
Ish, gay, gear. In Egypt, we find it difficult, if we try, to gi
the hard sound at all to the g, coming thus between two tr
of the extreme anterior group. In words like kind, guile,
guard, &e. a precession and partial softening of the consonant
necessarily changes the succeeding vowel, in accordance with a
quite prevalent style (Princ. of Pron. §7 2, Note), either by in-
terposing a yowel from a forward group, or, as may with
o
‘as
4
316 S. Porter on the Vowel Elements in Speech.
kind, guile, &c. by a mere precession of the initial of the dipth:
thong : and, v. v. the change of the vowel would necessitate that
of aire consonant, Ped c= noticeable is a frequent change of
“Anglo-Saxon g into uw or w and into? or y English, as determined
by the antecedent octal Thus come maw, draw, saw, own, bow,
c. from maga, dragan, sage, dgen, boga; and main, maiden,
wain, sail, rain, lad, may, day, way, &c. from miéigen, miigden,
wiigen, segel, regen, ‘legede, , dag, weg, &e. We have also
maudlin from Magdalen. To. explain fully the consonant pan
tion, it must be added that, while & and hard g always involve
contact guttural, that is, of back: -tongue with back-palate,” the
point of contact may be higher or lower; it will be a as
the vowels associated advance forward on the scale; and, at t
ie time, the borders of the tongue will be applied to the ob
n the precise place as for the vowel. A position will thus
i senitedl which, omitting then the guttural contact, will give
y for g, and German middle ch aspirate for &; or, replacing the
guttural by forward contact, will give g soft, as gem, for g hard,
and ch soft, as chill, Italian, for & or hard c,—and, from these,
transition is easy to Fr. 7, or z in azure, to sh, or Fr. ch, and to s,
or c incity. The vowel relations of the hard and soft, among
these consonants, are to some extent familiar to all.
inally, this view of the mode of formation of the vowels
nsist of pure tone variously articulated. But we have %, 4,
7, l, which are, or at least may be, articulated with pure tone un-
mixed " breath He How, then, do these differ from the
vowels
Some phonologits hold that there is here no essential differ-
ence, ere is a theory, dehy ay advocated by Prof. W. D.
Whitney, of Yale College, and by him first distinctly propeny
ded, so far as I know, w oh regards the degree of open or close
as the real and only ground of distinction between asa and
eS hat characterizes the vowels as such being their
or k and g hard, ¢ -palate; made by the
mille ni dt ar saa oes Dr Behe’
tanding, f d
Physiolny 2 raf Shek Speech, in the Bibliotheca Sara for April, i al whic it ma Aan
observ f Dr.
the uur of Pg on iy sitter ed, Voala rascal other disproof eeliaigh
S. Porter on the Vowel Elements in Speech. 317
openness, and the consonants, their closeness, while a neutral
border-land lies between, neither decidedly one nor the other.”
Against this view,—which the well-merited reputation of Prof.
between the two classes of elements. So that, if the contrast in
degree of open and close be admitted as an actual fact, it is still
not the material fact 1 in the case. But the fact so assumed i is far
than the vowel ne ; and the consonant w and the vowel w'! ma
be so uttered—in the word woo, for example,—that the latter
shall be closer, labially, than the former. As respects both w
and y, more wi ill be said presently on this point.
esuming our inquiry, it is to be observed that w requires no
special palatolingual position, any more than-does v; as let be
tried on the word way. It. is true that a lip- -modification like
what belongs to w ike be taken by the vowel u'’. This will
make what may be called either an impure vowel or an impure
consonant, and may fulfil the function of either a vowel or a
consonant : of a consonant in a word like we, or woe, and of a
aS an accompaniment. But vowel and sos ie ‘i ality are
hevertheless — and w as a consonant is not at all a palato-
lingual articulat
here remain r, me and y: they are palato-lingual articulations;
which are, or it is here i may be, uttered with pure tone;
which also allow of indefinite prolongation ;—agreeing in these
Tespects with the vowels. But, to each of these, as to every
= See the two dant by Prof. Whitney, On Lepsins’s Standard angianads in
the e Journal of the American Oriental Society, vols. vii and vii
* The fact that several vowel not ny requires z ‘special palato-lingual pas-
sage, but that this passage is a proper tube,—walied in sonnel by Cee ure on each
side,—is a point to which particular attention is piney as i s to have been
erto unnoti The side i fora pony ing
ay be consi
extension on of the arch of the hard ipalete, Ses, i Should be obese Vee
ss against which Ba
Am. Jour. Sc1.—SzconbD pectié Vou. XLII, No. 126.—Nov., 1966.
41
318 S. Porter on the Vowel Elements in Speech.
presented a partial obstruction, of a yielding nature, over which
the vocal current breaks, or by which it rubs, producing a murs
mur, burr, or trill, only, instead of a reverberation and ringing
out of the sound.
Turning again now to the w, we find here a contrast of ten-
sion and non-tension of the lips as a further distinction between
this consonant and the vowel u!/, is may be made visible
and palpable in the word woo, which presents the two elements
quite open as labials to external observation.
In explaining the theory of the diphthong, there was occasion
to notice the development of w between two vowels whose suc-
cession involves transition from a close to an open position of the
lips,—as in the Fr. out and the Eng. ae f ' y in hke
manner in the transition from a forward to a backward (or what
some would call a close and an open) palato-lingual articulation,
—as in million, billzard. Now, such transition requires a relax-
ation of the tension which characterizes vowel-articulation ; and
either a hiatus or a consonant must intervene. The simple re-
laxation of the articulating organs, with continuance of the tone,
gives us win one case and y in the other. From this we may
conclude, first, negatively, that these consonants are not more
close than the vowels from which they are developed by transi-
tion to a more open position; second, positively, that this relax-
ation, or non-tension, is what essentially distinguishes these con-
sonants from the vowel
: The characteristic feature of the vowel depends, then, upon hav-
ing a palato-lingual tube formed in the manner described for the re-
verberation of the sound from the larynx, and cousists in the actual
Be es. Dt NSERC fT a tay eee eee eS ee
S. Porter on the Vocal Elements in Speech. 319
production and modification of the voice in that manner. When
we add that, for the labials, the voice is further reverberated in
of mute and fluid consonants, or with a fluid consonant alone.
PI, bi, er, kn, prb, tlb, rl, si, il, rrr, &. are utterable without the
help of a vowel ;—but yet are never employed as words, though
cesses of articulation, make up, by their varieties of combina-
tion, the whole of the outward form, or body, of that divinely
ordained product of human instinct and intellect which we call
Speech or language, and which, in its various relations, presents
One of the most interesting, and certainly not least important,
Subjects of scientific study.
® The fact is, that the want of resisting power in the lips, as against the vocal
current, disqualifies them from acting alone in the articulation of a vowel,—limits
them to the subordinate and secondarily modifying agency as above and before
deseri That the palato-lingual is really the primary cy in the labial vow-
els, may be readily proved by pronouncing, as can be done easily and with perfect
distinctness, an 6, an w, an 0, and an d, with one and the same lip-modification for
and all.
320 H. J. Clark on the animality of Sponges.
Art. XLITI.—Conelusive proofs of the animality of the ciliate
Sponges, and of their affinities with the Infusoria Flagellata;
by H. James-Ciark, A.B., B.S.
Berore I proceed to the main point in question in this article,
I wish to say a word in-regard to the group of animals, viz: the
Protozoa, of which | am fully convinced the Spongie Ciliate are
art
From the time when Ehrenberg published his great work, the
eriod of the issue of the “Etudes
typical relation of the Infusorian organization; but it may be
that the apparent paucity of characters among the lower mem-
* H. James-Clark: “ Mind in Nature” D. Appleton & Co., New York, 1865.
H. J. Clark on the animality of Sponges. 321
drawing the reader’s particular attention to the arguments which
I have adduced——in the volume above mentioned—to prove the
unity of plan in the organization of the Protozoa, and its dissimi-
larity from any other which dominates among the four remain-
ing grand divisions,
most remarkable forms. I regret that words alone cannot, at
this time, render their peculiarities as evident as I hope the illus-
trations will, in my forthcoming paper, in the Memoirs of the
oston Society of Natural History.
I must ask the reader in the first place to go back with me
almost to the Ultima Thule of animal simplicity, and revise the
organization of the hitherto too lowly estimated Monas, in order
to lay the foundation for the group which embraces in its limits
80 gigantic a family as the Spongie Ciliate. o not think any
one will be prepared to fully appreciate such a remarkable defi-
niteness and system in the arrangement of the organization of
onas as I have discovered among the various forms which con-
stitute that genus. ;
itherto a Jfonas has been looked upon as a mere shapeless
molecule, with a vibrating cilium of some sort or other, attached
to its surface at an indefinite point. As I understand the rela-
tion of parts, now, the motory cilium or flagellum is perhaps the
most remarkable feature of the whole animal, not only in a
physiological aspect, but also in its topographical relationship.
t me illustrate this by a description of the body and append-
ages of Monas termo Ehr. :
The body of that species has the form of a wide, compressed
heart, with two distinct summits. The broad flattened sides lie
Opposite to each other, and parallel with the plane which passes
through the two summits, and which forms the prolongation of
the greater transverse diameter of the body. Between these sum-
mits is. an aperture which constitutes the mouth. One of the
Plane which runs through the two summits, and forms, as I have
just mentioned, the plane of the greater teaueeemue lee ial
322 H. J, Clark on the animality of Sponges.
the body. This remarkable feature is scarcely to be recognized
during the free state of the animal; but when the latter is moored
transverse diameter coincident with the line of vision. The
then seems, at first sight, to have a symmetrical aspect, such as
is not observable from any other point of view; and such it
might be made to appear if I should belittle the importance of
one single organ, by simply mentioning its existence, and omit-
ting to lay down its exact topographical relationship. I refer to
the contractile vesicle. During the systole of this organ it is so
inconspicuous that it would easily escape even the most careful
observation; but during the transition to the expanded state,
and at the full diastole, its prominence, from the point of view
just mentioned, is so great as to rival the flagelium in attraction.
It may then be seen as a comparatively large, rounded, trans-
parent, vesicular body, which stands out in strong profile, just
in front of the middle, and close to the-surface of the left side of
e body. At full diastole it even forces the overlying region
fo
side, viz: to show that they are not adult. I think moreover
that I am fully warranted in assuming that a Monas which
sesses such an organization as I have described, and is attac
“a
:
%
Be
:
;
ERE nN cae ee OE ea GSP a eto een a
H. J. Clark on the animality of Spoages. 323
to a stem, is an adult; and more especially so since, among many
hundreds which I have observed from time to time, I have never
seen any trace of a transition to a higher form. That such
simple organizations can exist without rising toa more compli-
cated state, during a whole lifetime, I am furthermore sustained
in believing by the discovery of some new generic forms, which,
although scarcely, if at all, more highly organized than Monas,
have in addition such characters as would seem to stand in the
way of a transition to a more elevated grade of existence. For
instance, the presence of a calyx about the body of an infusorian,
into which it can retreat, is an indication of a fixity of condi-
tion which corresponds to the adult state. Thus I found one of
the new genera which I just alluded to. :
Bicoseeca, as it is called, may be described in general terms as
a stemless Monas which is attached to the bottom of a calyx, by
a highly muscular, retractile cord. All the organs have the same
remarkable definiteness of relationship and peculiarity of form
that Monas possesses; and in addition there is the muscular cord
which, with oft-repeated jerks retracts the body to the very bot-
tom of the calycine envelope. ere are two singularly diverse
species of this genus; one marine and the other lacustrine. -
The most interesting infusorian of this group of new forms is
the one which I have called Codosiga. This links the Sponges to
the flagellate Infusoria. Its greatest peculiarity consists in the
Sapien of a highly flexible, extensible and retractile, nem-
ranous collar, or hollow cylinder, which projects from the an-
terior end of the body. The cylinder is slightly flaring, and, if
we include the asymmetrical body, the whole might be compared
toa very deep, one-sided bell, with its narrower end half filled
up. The single, sigmoid-arcuate, rigid flugellum arises from the
depths of the bell, exactly at the middle of the truncate front,
as it were forming a prolongation of the longitudinal axis of the
y- There is no lip, and the flagellum, which rises close to
the mouth, has a strong resemblance to that of Monas, both in
proportion, form, and habits; and performs the office of a pre-
hensile organ when the body is fixed, or acts as a propeller dur-
ing natation. ‘The contractile vesicles are two, or even three, in
number, and lie in the posterior third of the body. The only
Species of this genus which I know of is gregarious in habit,
but usually not more than four or five bodies are to be found at-
tached, like Anthophysa, by their narrower, posterior ends, to
the branchlets of a single forking stem. The peculiarity in re-
gard to the direction of the curvature of the flagella in a back-
ward direction, toward the stem, is as highly marked in Codosiga
as in Anthophysa (described by me in the September number
of this Journal) and there is also the same fixed relationship of
the longitudinal and the’ greater and less transverse d
of the several individuals of the colony.
324 H. J, Clark on the animality of Sponges.
There is still another new genus which I would like to men-
tion here because it forms a collateral link with Codosiga in the
affiliation of the Sponges with the Monadina. This genus I
have called Salpingeca. It is, as it were, a single individual of
Codosiga which does not possess a stem, but is seated in a calyx,
from which it protrudes, or into which it retracts, at will. There
are three well marked species, of which one is marine.
I come now to the principal object of this communication.
The sponge which formed the main basis of these investigations
is the well known marine species Leucosolenia (Grantia) botry-
oides Bowerbank. It is preéminently a branching form, and, on
account of the slenderness and transparency of its tapering,
hollow ramules, is‘a most desirable object for study. A branch-
let—and in fact the whole colony—may be stated to be essen-
tially a double tube. The outer tube consists of a glairy, gelat-
inifurm stratum in which the spicules are im in a certain
order, and is pierced by numerous ostioles, which are continued
through the interior tube to its hollow center. The inner layer,
or tube, is entirely made up of the individual members of the
colony, the bodies of which are packed together closely, side by
side like pavement stones, with their posterior ends slightly im-
bedded in the glairy substance of the outer tube, and their an-
terior ends projecting freely into the general cavity. To de-
scribe the shape and organization of one of these individuals
would be to repeat, almost word for word, what I have already
said of the monad of Codosiga ; in short Leucosolenia bears some
such sort of relationship to Codosiga that Salpingeca does; the
latter being as it were a stemless Codosiga seated in a calyx,
whilst Leucosolenia is comparable to a stratum of the monads
of Codosiga imbe in a spiculiferous envelope. It is clear
therefore that the organic difference between Leucosolenia and
Jodosiga is scarcely enough to locate them in two different faml-
lies; in fact I am inclined to consider them only as generically
distinct, and hardly, if at all, more widely separated in this re-
spect than are Salpingaca and Codosiga. :
What are the diversities of other genera of the Spongie Ciliate
C. Dewey on Caricography—Index. 325
Art. XLIV.—Caricography ; by Prof. C. Dewry.
Continued from vol, xlii, p. 331, 1866. (No. 44.)
Index to the Species.
Tue description of the species of Carex of our country in
this Journal was especially designed to aid those who had just
entered upon the study of our plants. It was begun in 1824,
only seven years after the great impulse, produced by the lec-
tures of Professor Amos Eaton, to the study of botany and some
other branches of natural history. There were few works on
botany accessible to students; and, even when I had in 1815
ascertained the principles of the Artificial System of Linneus
and studied the genera in a general botany, no work describing
the species was accessible. ‘Che Gramina of Dr. Muhlenberg
was published in 1817, and his Catalogue of our plants a little
earlier, These, with Persoon’s Synopsis, the Reedgrass of Chris-
tian Schkuhr, and a Botanical Dictionary, were the works of
which Eaton made such valuable and extensive application. The
standard authors on Carices then were Schkuhr and Muhlenberg;
and they were implicitly followed, even in the few mistakes they
made, and for the correction of which no method occurred for
many years. As knowledge of the species increased, the diffi-
culties became perplexing, especially in relation to Carex erinita
and C. paleacea, C. oligocarpa and C. digitalis, C. folliculata and
var. xanthophysa, C. plantaginea and C. anceps. W hile American
otanists have solved many of the difficulties, far more has been
effected in the study of our North American Carices by Francis
Boott, M.D., of the Linnzan Society, England, who enjoyed the
greatest facilities and showed the most persevering activity.
n the Index, the quoted authorities are necessarily few. The
name of the species, or the jirst name (when more are given), is
considered the designation due to the species; the synonyms are
in talics, The references, besides Schkuhr and Muhlenberg
already mentioned, are chiefly the following:
Monograph of N. Am. Cyperacea, by John Torrey, M.D., pub-
lished in 1838, and his Botany of the State of New York, 1843.
The reference is Mon. 1836, or Tor. 1836 or 1843, or both. _
Flora Boreali-Americana, Michaux, 1803. Though earlier
deem. it was of little use to us, till the result of Dr. Torrey’s
‘xamination of the Herbarium of Michaux in Paris, was pu
lished in vol. xxvii, 1835. ge :
arices Am. Septen. Exsiccate; edidit H. P. Sartwell, M.D.,
1848. ParsIet II. This collection of Carices, not figures, 158
in number, nearly all correct, and fine specimens, is very inter-
esting. The reference is Sart. or Exsic. 1848. ey
Prof. Tuckerman’s Enumeratio Methodica, 1843, scientific, dis-
criminating and curious, has some important references. :
Jour. Sc1.—Srconpw Szries, Vou. XLII, No. 126.—Nov., 1866,
42
@
326 C. Dewey on Caricography—Indez.
Trans. Lin. Soc., 1843; 3. Six new N. Am. species of
Carex, in Boston Journal of Nat. Hist., 1845; 4. De Carietbus,
in Hooker’s Journal of Botany, 1846; 5. Caricis species Nove
vel minus Cognitae, Lin. Soc., 1851; 6. Illustrations of the
Genus Carex, Part I. 1858; Part II, 1860; and Part-II], 1862.
These are severally quoted as Boott 1840, Boott 1851, &c. Boott’s
Illustrations of Carex is a magnificent work containing fall de-
scriptions and splendid figures of 291 species on 126 pages and
411 plates, forming three large folio volumes. It is proper to
add that Part IV was nearly complete for the press, when this
admirable man and botanist was removed by death, on Christ-
mas morning, 1864: born in Boston, 1792, and died in London.
With noble generosity too he distributed the “Illustrations”
among his numerous botanical friends.
_ Figures of 119 species (numbered 117) are given in several
volumes, ending vol. xlix, 1845. There are in vol. ix, 12 fig-
ures; vol. x, 11 figures; xi, 26 figs.; xii, 2; xiv, 5; xxv, 3;
xxvi, 2; xxviii, 6; xxix, 18; xxx, 9; xliii, 4; xlviii, 8; and
xlix, 12 figures. Many of these are finely characteristic; but
want of space prevents more particular reference.
The following notices are important: :
1, A Catalogue of one hundred and twenty-eight species 12
vol. xi, pp. 819-825, 1826, as then understood. Due attention
was not paid to priority of names.
2. Species of Carex in the Herbarium of Dr. Muhlenberg, as
named by him, in possession of the Am. Phil. Soc., Philadel-
phia, compared with the species then current, vol. xxv, PPp-
142-6, 1834.
8. Carices collected in’ Arctic America by the English Explor-
5 m
(or more) of Carex, many more will probably be added in the
coming twenty years.
SE Ea BON eS SORE ne Sede re ne BP a ae POR Rw AR re! ae
C. Dewey on Caricography—Indez, - $27
INDEX.
Carex adusta, Boott 1840 (not Carey).
— argyrantha, beets om gt 1859; ‘this Jour., vol. xxix, p. 346, 1860; xli, 331, 1866,
a C. estivalis, Curtis iv, 347,
Br. 1898; 3 xi, 305, 317, 1
C. alata, Tor. 1836; xxviii, 231, 1859; Sart. No. 77
— stra Sart. Exsic, No. 48 (not os gi
C. alopecaidea, Tuckerman Enum. 1843; xli, 326, 1
Var. sperai i nego Dew., viii, 350, 1849; ia 92, 2 1849,
* — ceph @ Var. maxima, Dew. a xliii, 92 42.
C. alpestris, Attica: caus ty 1824 ; Europ
Var, tri ew.,
C. alpina, VahL, XXVi, “T. 1s34.
Cc, amplifolia, Boott 1 1840; iv, 345, 1847.
: G, ra ew ea, Good. 1792: vii, 266, 1824,
e C. angustata, , Boot 1840; xii, 326, 1
acuta, Muh. (nc rt Lin), x , 265, 1838; Tor. 1886 and 1843,
C. aperta, Boott 1840 | iv, att 184
a War, erecta,
C. aguatilis, ices 267, “ts
ee Note i wrong.
var. Ign lanceata Dew., xvili, 102, 1854.
C. atrata, Lin., —
var, ovata, Boots 186 ; GC, ovata, _—_ 1803 ; 3 44, 1826.
— C. nigra, Allion. ; bi Fries Anderson and Boo
C. C, aurea, Nuttall 1818; 48, 1826.
.&B :
C. Baltzellii, pe gee 1843; sia ay 355, 184 i ‘. ®
- Barbarac, Dew., xxxi, oubtfa
C. Barrattii, Schw. & Torrey i824; xi, 162, 1826, and xii, 297, 1827; Boott Iust. No,
176, 135
C, Bela- -villa, Dew., xli, 229, 1866.
2 Cc. ere or, All., xi, 306 1826.
e “6g
Gebhardii, Buckle aoe Schk.
C. bullata, Schk. 1806 ic OE 11, 185 (not Carex, Boott, ke).
— Yar. cyindracea, Dew., xi, 315, 1826: cancel ed.
C. Buxbaumii, Wabl 1803; x, 39, 1826 ; Slit 245, 1866.
Canadeusis, Dew., xli, 229, 1
C. capillaris, Lin., xxxix, 51, 1840.
C. capitata, Lin., xx -
C. Careyana, Wey
ix, 4
c C. compacta Sng R. Br.}, xxvii, 273, and xxviii, 237, 1485; cancel, lost,
€o! Br. 1823,
membranacea, . Hooker (not Hoppe), xxix, 247, 1836.
i Prof. Tuckerman, in xxxiv, diesarg ~ Lane this name.
Described by Prof. Gray in xlii,
* The caption ania read (“ Contin oa fe |. xxvii, p. 81,” d&c.), and the num-
bers should be from 254, 255 and 256 Me 257, 258 and =
* The ° nae by Dr and mets of ©. bullata, Schk., are too unlike those of the
eo e for that of the species, ix, 71, 1825, that is, for C. pseudo-
328 C. Dewey on Caricography—Indez,
C. aaa by > hi 1823 ; xi, 152, 1826,
tnoiensis, Dew., vi, 245, 1848; di seased var,
li, 246, 1846.
2 .y li, 248, 1846.
C. crinita, Lam. 1789; xxvii, 80, 1859 ; Mu uh. in in part.
var, paleacea. C. cantare $ Wabl., x, 270, 1826.
C. cristata, Schw. 1823; 1826.
c. erus-corvi, Siattlen orth, 1832; RET Ti 128, 1850,
sicaeformis, Bo ott t, Boston Journ
Dew: i i, 248,
mihush ric, Gray, and bor ithoryncha, Fendler.
C. A ear get oa 1880; vy, 173, 1848.
1836; Boott 1858. 858, No. 158,
C. cosa Barve 1792: more 93, 1824,
1803.
ceri a } oe
w. (not Lin.), xi, 306, 1826.
: Cc. meni & Muh. 18175, Ae Ras "1826.
C Davalliana, Smith a ti, 244, 1866.
C. Davisii
— arista
ii, Schw.
ta,
Z Wa er 244, 1 d xiii, 244
C. decidua, Boott 1846; ii, 78, 1858 = xxxi, 26, iB6r.
<¢€
13 be
Rab
Fl
uh. i817 ot fos x, 280, soo Tor. 1836 and 1843,
a ae an dag Dew., ie rie
mot — a Bob a 1820;
a, Carey, after Garey re & Boot ( (not Schk,® or Ehrht. ), Xix, 256, 1855,
‘ C. muh Huds., xli, 830, i
— intermedia , Go oden. as Dg 1847. 7
var. Sartwellii, Dew., xliii, e 1842, and xli, 330, 1866. 2
C. Douglasii, B oott 840: xxiv, 46 , 1857, q
var. densi-spicata, Dew., Xxxii, 41, 1861. q
c. eee , Boo a
Duv. (not Sch hk. bs vil, 266, aru and xi, 316, 1826, a
Cc. ©. Ehiiottt, has & Tor. 1834; €. fulva, Muh, (not good), :
Sy EXVi, 107; 1834: :
Cc. elongata, = aby iv, 345, 1847, a
C. Emmonsii, Dew., in Torrey, Mon, 1836, :
a, Bevin !
. oO! ew., Seer as Ton.
C. exilis, Dew., xiv, 351, 1828
ar.
Var. squamacea, Dew., same page.
C. extensa, Gooden. 1792; ; xi, 327, 1866,
C. festiva, Dew Ey exix, 836.
Cc. festucacea, Sehk., viii, 96, 1824; Sart. Nos, 44 and 49, 1848.
— fenea, var. 4, Boott 1
C. ©. flit lia, N rr, ethene, Bo 320, 1866.
0. uti 18:
Zs oe eae and xii, 296, 1827; xli,
Vil
C. coos m™m Dew. 1846: 5
= a. te 5 61 ; corrected, see C. xanthosperma.
; mistake of Wahl. and of Schk. is corrected, xxvii, 79, 1859.
* Buckley, this Sona xlv, 173, 1843.
* In fact there is no C. tenella, Schk.; for Schl. himself adopted C. loeliacea L. in
place of his name ade ee
C. Dewey on Caricography—Index, _ 329
C. — Rudge 1803; C. castanea, Wahl.
— blepharophora, Gray, xxx, 59, 1836.
i
o]
, 45, 1826.
C, foenea, Willd., x, 284, 1826, and xxv, 142, 1834.
C. folliculata, Lin. isk Schk. & Muh.
— zanthophysa, Wahl., vii, 274, 1824, and xiv, 353, 1828,
©)
C. for! W., iii,
C, Franklinii, Boott 1840; xxxii, 38, 1861.
ang eek ; Rudge,) xxvii, 273, 1836.
Cc Sims, a, ae g. ere iggy
Gay
C.G Geyeri, Boott 1846 ; xxvii, 7
: gigantea, ey oeee 1803; xi, 164, 1826, and xli, 329, 1866.
labra, Boott a geod xxix, ey 1865,
c glareos
C. glaucescens, ‘Eliot 1834: xi, 150, 1826.
h. 1817, var. androgyna,? Curtis 1843; xlviii, 140, 1845,
C. graciilima, Relrw, 1823 ; viii, 98, 1824.
C. granula ates Muh. 1817; 2 272) 1824, and xi, 156, 1826, *
Cc. Gry) Carey? 1847; vy, 58, 1863.
— divica var. liana (not Wa hL.), x,
C. Halei, Carey ee Dewey), Boot fiitet 3 No. on, 1860.
~ turgescens (not Torrey), iii, 356, 1847.
. Halseyana,¥ te xi, 313, 1826, and xxviii, 231, 1859.
— polym a uh. (0 not Scbk. )in part; Boott 1858,
C. Hartii, eT 226, 1866, and var. Bradleyi, 1866,
Cc. Hartwegii, Boott bath” Sage on 244,
Cc. plea Boott 1840; xix, 46
C. Houghtonii, Torrey 1836; nig “2 1996, and xxxix, 73, 1865 (not Sart. 130).
C. bystricina, Willd., x, 35, 1826.
— Cooleyi, Dew., a var., xlviii, 144, 1845.
—_ oe baal a var., Vi, 245, :
C. Secures, Ligon ai, 526, 1834, and xxxii, 39, 1861.
C. mescens, 804;
— folliculata, Scuk. (Got _ x . 32, ee and Muh.«1817.
C. Jamesii, hore , 1843, an, xxxv, 60, 1863.
i _ i rig! i
uckle xlviii id, 1845, and xxix, 346, 1860.
c. Koneibkeral = ie
ca, De ew., an a Tes, and xxxv, 60, 1863,
oo «be Dr. Curtis in this Journal, xliv, 84, 1843.
is cae Carey’ ription in ye 22, 1847.
o Heese 6 is one of the thi plow t et! rahe y described, under
C. ieee Muh. (not Schk.); Os riata, Mx., is an of them; and the third
is not yet ascertained. No one o eas can, with cease be nam a
Muh., the name does esign ws any one. is
tin Hlust., No. 1858, as nam “C, polymorpha (Muhlenberg) (C.
Halseyana, D ” Dr. Boott evidently saw r that C. poly
Species, Bias hence
Species intended. C. polymorpha, Muh., in part, is es too bad when avoidable. _
330 C. Dewey on Caricography—Indez.
C. levigata, Smith, Brit. Flora.
— Greenrana, Dew., xxx, 61, 1836.
C. lax i Lam, ‘1789 ot 'scne): xxvii, 80, 1859.
— ance; “Ph Muh, 1826.
C. iocar i: Ree iii, inte elt var. of C. flava, L.
Cc. neha , XXVii, 272, 1
1792; vii, 276, “18 and xxvi, 277, 1834.
C. oneal ae Ebrht. X 42,1 826.
Cc. Liddoni, Boott 1840;” xlix, 5, 1845,
C. limosa, Lin.
— lenticula ris, Dew. ( (no ot Mx. "4 i iid! 1824,
ria Wahl. 1803; 08; 41, 1826, ae a 309, 1866,
xxy, 14
c. lon: rots Tor 2% = 1835,
©.3 a ae na, M 165, 1826.
ar. 2, Ly sy wwe, Saw. 1865 3li, 828, 1866,
C. inpunifornis, Sartwell, ix, 29, 1
— lupulina var. eS Schw. . & Torre aes xi, 166, 1826,
: macro-c etn, "Mey
— spectabilis, Dew., ih ;
C. Magellanica, Lam. he ar x, 70, 1865, and Boott 1860,
l =e var. irrigua, 1. 1803; > 41, 1826,
_ cula, Mx, 1803 and Res rrey 1843 ; xlii, 330, 1866,
—i a, Smith 1845; x,
C. pth sesh Boott 1 a re 1845,
Cc. na, Dew., xxix, 247,
C. maritima, Vahl., iv, ¢ aS 1847.
; R. Be 1823 ; xi,
1826.
C. Meadii, Dew., xliii, 90, 1843, Boott 1858,
C. Mervenell Presonts _
— Coli ids 62, 1836.
C microdonta, Tor oa Hooker 1836; v, 174, 1848, and xxxv, 60, 1863.
C. microglochin, Wail, ., V, 174, 1848,
Cc. microstachya, Mx. 1803 (not Erhrt, earlier), Mon. 1836.
~ po eieide, Muh. 1806; ixy258, 1825.
iacea, Muh., “f * 1826,
var. minor, D. at doubtful.
es ew, te; doubt
Cc. Mitchelliana, Curtis,12 x “ivi iii, 140, 18
C. monile, Tuckerman, n, xxix, 346, 1860; Exsic, 152, 1848, probably true.
C. Mublen Sehk., viii, 265, 1824."
ss murica oe xi, 307,
mutica, 1823;
©. narding, Treemeet eae 310, sia and xxix, 252, 1836,
©. Nebraskensis, Dew. 102, 1854, and xxxv, 60, 1863.
C. nigricans, se De 1 1836,
? Named before Prescott’s w: to hand, as in some other cases.
** See his description, thor a, 8,3 1843.
C. Dewey on Caricography—Index. 331
C. nigro- w. 1823! % ar Tg
U. Rave Anis coh. W823 ix,
— collecta, Dew., a var., Xi, 314, thee’
C. Norvegica, Wa hl, xxxii, 33, 1861.
C. peop Dew., til, 92 , 1842.
i, Dev ie xiv, 48, 1857.
C. otiusat, Lil.
a, Dew., xxix, fogh e 1836.
Cc. Oederi, 1 Ehrht. "1800 ; 38, 1826, and xlii, 245, 1866.
viridula, Mx. 1803; xis oh 1826, and xlii, 245, 1866.
C. pad oo Sehk. (no I Muh.) 1806 : iv, 349, 1847.14
r. Sartwelliana, Dew, y , 1848.
G. oligosperma, Mx. 1 srg i, 160, 1826,
a, Dew., xiv, 351 1828.
Ohieyi, ‘Bock: 18s: ae 347, 1860.
C. ox ylepis, Tor. & Hook. eres iii, 354, 1847,
C. Salecoate, Lin., vii, 267
Cc dos: , 1792; xxix, 346, 1
C. panicea, Lin 140,
oO.
XXv, 18
S "exairhnnagg Lin., x, 275, 1826, for its varieties,
yi,
C. ite Dew., | xxviii, 28 239, 1835, and xiii, 331, 1866.
= arctica, Dew., t the e same, young.
L
259, 18:
ennsylvanica, Lam. st) xix, 252, 1855.
— marginata, Muh. 1806, xi, 163, 1826; var. Dew., xxxy, 59, 1863.
346, 1836.
: xxix, 347, 1 1860,
— bullata, Care _— of Boott 1858 (not Schk.).
Cc. G. baeyphytis Lam. 1789, Muh. & Schk. in part; vii, 272, 1824, and xi, 155, 1826,
Ascarps, we 1823; xi, 162, 1826, and xxix, 251, 1836.
C. Raeana, Boott 1851 and 1858; xii 230, 1866.
C. rariflora, — eng xxxix, 71, 1
— limosa var. a, Wahl. 1803; x, 42, 1826.
C. Raynoldell. Dew: pipet 39, 186 ‘
C. recta, Boott 1840; y, 175, 1848.
C. Re edofwskiana, Meyer 1830; xxix, 250, 1836.
C. remota, Lin Nive ge
Cc. aie coarse, few
r Sc az 4
Cc. cea R. Br. 1823: a 15
righ not Carey), xii
oe is, Fl. Fl De n, Ocde 4 Heit 310, 1826 (not Lin.).
C.r cae ‘Curt rtis mine, 47, 1845, oS ¥, 00, 1863.
> Var.
Cc. rotundata, Wahl. 1803; xli, 327, 1866.
Cc. atch singe "Allion.
meray
= Deen
- Saxatilis, Lin. 1737; rb AB
se s This description overlooked by Dr. Boott in his No, 93, 1858.
* Descripti on by Mr. Carey, ini ” 38, 1847,
332 C. Dewey on Caricography—Indez.
— pulla, Gooden. 1792; Boott 1843; Fries 1846.
C. scabrata, Schw. 1823 : ix, 66, 1825.
7
— Wormskioldiana, Hornm, xiv 35° 1828; xi, 154, 1826.
C. scirpoides, Sc ok Viii, 96, set
C. setacea, Dew., ix, 61, 1825.
C. Shortiana, Dew. , xxx, 60, 1836; C. Schortii, Tor., later.
C. siccata, Dew., x , 278, 1826,
Meyer 1830
C. noth Pieaeott 1827?
‘ocarpa, (not eeped xxix, 245, 1836.
C. sparganioides, Muh., viii, 255, 1824,
Boo tt 1862.
. minor.
— muricata var. ecphalided, Dew., xli, 330, 1866.
C. squarrosa, Lin. 1 vii, 270, 1824,
var. ty neon ‘Dew x, 316, 1826.
. stellate, atop 1792; i, 306, 1826.
stenolepis, r. 1835: xxe 1836, and xli, 331, 1866.
c G.stenophyli, Wal Wahl. “1808 XXViii, 237, 1 1835.
C. sterili
c. ste eudelii, Kun eon” es 46, 1845.
sti
C. straminea, Willd, vil, 276, 1824, and xi, 157, 1826.
revior, Dew. ae i, 158 and 318, 1826.
269, _
C. stylosa, ve Sea ae xlii, 243, 1866, and or 252, 1836.
C. subulata, 803 (not Wahil.).
_ Collins, Nutiall ig xi, 317, 1
, 1826 ; as subulata, used by Wahl.
C. Sullivantii, Booit!? 1840 xlix, 44, 1
C. sychnocephala,
C. tenax, Chapman, xix, 254, 1855; 113, 1848.
C. — a _ yi 1800? not Sek or dy Rent xxviii, 232, 1859.
‘ é % an
— vitilis, ye Anderson
s var. vitilis, Carey 1
i, 1860.
var. rostrata, Sartwell (not er are Exsic. 1848.
hbase saci Paine, C: er "
C. tenuiflora, Wahl, xxxix, 5 a iE
C. teretinscula, Gooden. 1792 265, 1824.
C. tetanica, Schk. (not Mon}: oy 312, 1826, 1826
C. Thurberi, Dew.,
©. Torreyi, Tuek. ae soy XxxV, 60, 1863.
\, Description by Mr. Buckley in this i xlv, 174, 1843.
" Description by Dr. Boott in xlii, 39, 1842.”
Mr. Carey’s description in iv, 24, ar
|
j
4
:
j
“
C. Dewey on Caricography—Indez. 333
c. a Boott 1848 ; ix, 30, 1850.
spitosa, (not of Lin. or Gooden.), x, 266, 1826.
“var ramosa, Dew., xii, 297, 1827.
; in part (not I Lin, ), xX, 265, 1826, and var. sparsiflora, Dew.
C. pac Mx. 1803; xlviii, 142,
C, tricho ocarpa, Muh h. 1806; vii, 24, 1824, and xi, 158, 1826.
var. turbinata, Dew., xi xi , 149,
€. triquetra, Boott 1845; XXXV, 80, 7863,
i -9 XXX1, 26, 6, 1861.
, ix, 63,1
C. Tuckermani, Dew. xls, a8, 1845, and Boott 1846.
C, turgescens,1 Tor. 1836 ; xxxv, 5
C. umbell _~ 19 Schk, 1800) a asa PF 1826, not xxxi, 26, 1861.
i, 1826
ar.
C. — ee , Xxvili, 2
C. ustulata, ay Wal , Xi, 149, 0, 186, and Schk.
C. utr ieniate. B tt 1840; xxviii, 231, 1859.
var. § evans Dee mae 232, 1859.
rs lindrtea, Schw. 1823 (not Tuck. or Carey); xli, 331, 1866.
C. ¥ mere ta, Tousch 1821; xli, 227, 1866; Kun 1850.
r, alti-caulis, Dew., ‘xii, 227, xlii, 245, 1
C. Vahl Schk. 1806; XX¥i, 377, 1
C. yallicola, Dew., xxxii, 1
C. — Muh 20 1806; x i, 162, » 1826.
pete cellata, | bev, xi, 163, 1
Cc. eae 1,72 Dew., 347, 1860, an = IL 331, 1866,
— monile, Sartwell ites Tuckerman), xlix, 47, "1845.
7 vesicaria var. cylindracea, 845.
C. venusth, De ew., xxvi, 107, 1
C. verrucosa, Schw. (not Muh, ‘8 xi, 159, 1826; mistake of Schw., and is expunged.
C. verticillata, Boott Fah
C. vesiearia, Lin., x, 273 re ’ Boott 1846.
ce. virescens, Muh., ix, Lf 1885.
by i“ #
Muh
: ; bx, 60, 1825.
c io eae aa mae xi, eg 1826.
- Vulgaris, Fries 1846, N.
ES = eestor, si Gooden, 1792, & Muh. — Lin. oa an 297, 1827, last of the note.
C. Washingtoniana, x x, 272, 1826, er dew 1 oe
Carey (not Gooden. ) in Gray.
C. —— aon, ix, 258, 1825, and xi, 311, 1826,
856, pe should be named C. Halei, Carey (not Dewey).
Te vie eeeciacs of this species I added to that of Schk. and Mub. the oe
erizing it as var.
He arte this that I t give to Schk. and Muh. t
4 Qn he hat Tit last note, when I found pants ead Peeps
act rm vicina, t dn hus I introduced un
their name wmbellata, stole with other fee ag vy ties language he not
ni calle yy their e. ume te separated this
vicina of C. bial Sal I thought ve truth
heir
varia, Schk. é& Muh., t not having their sessile spikelets, I named them
vi a i See as these to not found by Muh, till sR after Schk,
had published C. varia By blendi e characters, e type, and
mask Bev - t C. Vv s probably on form
i a a .
of C. ot ie The. as ts Dear borg A in his No. 152, Exsie.; yet both Dr.
Boott and Prof. Tu serie rejected it. = ae locality ar been destro yed, Dr. S.
cannot
=, yore" ag? yh Ongar an English "Cate a: "was co confounded _ or itself ab-
sorbed, ©. ceespitosa, Lin., from 1792 till they were shown to cad stinet "2 were
Separated by Dredger, as Dr. gots states,in 1841, As the form ew
En, ig and tage! over and west, it is et under ‘ie pame bas a
by F abo’ ed prevent mistakes e Linnean name. ve
ree ck ‘Sct—Sucon Serves, Vou. XLU, No. pti hisirs 1866, et) a :
al
334 Evans on the Oil-producing uplift of W. Virginia.
Woodii, eee li, 249, a and iv, en 1847.
i 349
o
Art. XLV.—On the Oil-producing Uplift of West Virginia; by
Prof. KE. W. Evans,
THE most productive oil region of West Virginia, so far as
developments have yet gone, is ; confined to a line of uplift, ex-
tending from Burning Springs on the Little rye: in a di-
pele from twelve to fourteen degrees east of n rth, to the
Ohio river,—a distance of 35 miles. Thus iinited. the line is
ally. bisected by the Northwestern Virginia railroad, at Petro-
pn soe which will therefore serve as a convenient point
of refe
In its central portion, which for convenience I shall wei sts
as the middle segment, the upheaval is most marked, an
hibits some pipes features. This part is about ten mails in
length, arid is also nearly bisected by the railroad. A cross-
section of it, as ands out from the railroad cuttings, the records
of borings, and the frequent exposures of rock along the streams
of the neighborhood, is shown in fig. 1, It is a decapitated
eR ae ee ee ant ee ae ne ne E
fold,—a flexure of the strata in the anticlinal form, having the
summit worn down by water.
Se ii ee
eT ae ee, oN ee
™ This name should be substituted for flace in the volume and page here
osperma in page
given, as the syed was selected on account of the cag color of f the fruit on the
rom the south: yellow fruited Sedge
ntal i misnpy.
C. xerocarpa, S. H. Wright. Spikes 4-6, long, very slender e the
t, sessile or sub-pedicelled, with close ovate acute scales; the Pistillate
fruited except the lower very lax part, the upper half staminate ; stig-
te, small ye ose, com d and api e,
me te scale, or equalli xcept some of the upper and
scales; culm 18 to 24 inches, = "Wade: 3-sided a sea — on the upper
— bracts leaf-like; leaves slender, narrow, scabrous on the edge and shorter
. Pare plant, except the dry brownish arid spikes od frais which give the
name,
Pratisburg § teuben Co, N. Y., on a rich peat bottom in an extensive flat, abun-
See cme oat oF re thon tae athe Cake = Dr. 8. H. Wright. of
re with the longest small spikes and close
—
Evans on the Oil-producing uplift of W. Virginia, 335
ope.
To the westward from A, and to the eastward from B, there
is a somewhat sudden transition from the steep slopes to a com-
paratively slight inclination of the strata, which continues far
enough to either side to give an additional outcropping of about
200 feet, estimated perpendicularly to the strata.
It is not claimed that these figures are accurate; but if they
are approximately correct, the rocks on the summit of the anti-
elinal have been brought up out of place not less than 1100 feet,
probably as much as 1200 at the highest axial point. This es-
timate has reference to the place of maximum upheaval, a little
north of the railroad.
main uplift. One of these, represented at E, is quite prominent
and persistent, and in fact constitutes the crown or proper axial
The most distinctive features of this segment of-the uplift are
seen in the abrupt change of direction at Band F. The Appa-
lachian folds farther east, where there was more heating and
crystallization, exhibit curves rather than angles, even when
most prominent. But here we find sharp angular points, with
some arching to either side, but upon the whole partaking rather
of the character of fractures, and affording numerous crevices
in the soft and brittle rock. Hence the popular name of “the
break,” by which this uplift is known, is not altogether inappli-
eable. There is, however, no actual disruption of the strata,
and no fault, either at the western angle B, or at the easte:
angle F. The abruptness of these angles has led some into the
supposition that the nearly horizontal strata of the inner belt
are not continuous and identical with the inclined strata to
t
$36 Evans ox the Oil-producing uplift of W. Virginia.
either side, but abut against their sides or faces, in the manner
exhibited in fig. 2. That such is not the case is conclusively
shown by the following facts.
First, a comparison of the rocks in the western slope, from B
to A, fig. 1, by their lithological characters, with the rocks in
the eastern slope, from F to G, shows that they are identical one
by one in their order;-they are also found identical with the
rocks in the intermediate hills, as at D, so far as these extend
upward, say a maximum height of about 300 feet. The strata
thus traced over include sandstones, shales and veins of coal;
also a layer of flinty limestone, which may be mentioned as one
of the best guides. At the railroad this appears on the west
side projecting upward through the bed of Laurel Fork, and on
the east side in an exposure of sloping rocks in the hill a little
south of Petroleum station. At various places it not only ap-
pears in the opposite slopes, but has also been traced through
the hills between, as on Comb run, about two miles south of the
railroad. Indeed there are numerous exposures in situations
corresponding to B and F, fig. 1, where the continuous connec-
tion of the same strata, as they change from an approximately
horizontal position to a steep pitch, is plainly traced by the eye.
Again, it is a fact that the rocks bored through in positions a
little to the left of B, fig. 1, correspond, in lithological charac-
ters, with those found to the right of it, but differ from the latter
in being struck further down, and in continuing longer in pro- :
portion to a greatly increased inclination. Borings made at
descend into rocks of steep pitch. All this is in direct con-
tradiction to the hypothesis presented in fig. 2, where the slop-
ing rocks are.represented as not only distinct from, but also as
projecting over the horizontal ones.
The inner belt between the slopes, from B to F, is not inap-
propriately called the “oil belt,” as it is only in the horizontal
or slightly inclined rocks between these limits that oil has been
und in paying quantities. In the upturned edges of the east
and west slopes, as well as over a considerable extent of terri-
tory outside, a large number of wells have been bored for oil,
but with little or no success.
Even within the inner belt, the producing wells are thus far
nearly all confined to three narrow strips. It will be seen that
the cross section, fig. 1, exhibits three principal angles, marking
three distinct axial lines; the western angle at B, w i
Evans on the Oil-producing uplift of W. Virginia, 387
depth, especially on the side toward B; but they are generally
axis plane, approximately bisecting the angle at B, it would of
course incline to the eastward from B in its descent, as repre-
sented in fig. 1. Accordingly the most frequent strikes, and
generally the best wells, are not on the side next to the slope,
ut on the eastern half of the strip, toward C, where this main
line of crevices, in its eastern ramifications, would cross the above-
mentioned sandstone, after it has become horizontal.
On the eastern margin of the inner belt, the main if not the
only developments are on Gales’ fork of Myers’ creek, about
three and a half miles north of the railroad, where there are
some good wells, confined to a similar narrow strip, just west of
F; but the production is not so large, in proportion to the num-
ber of wells sunk, as on the western margin.
_ On the inner axis, at E, and a short distance to either side of
it, there have been numerous strikes on Oil Spring run, from
One to two miles north of the railroad, and on Hughes river
have been made in the areas that lie between the three produc-
Ww ner
es, are too far off to approach the region of the axis-plane
her.
338 vans on the Oil-producing uplift of W. Virginia.
face; but the inner (or lower) strata of the slopes conduct to
erevices still covered by a mass of horizontal rock, where oil is
now found.
The surface rocks of the country adjacent to this uplift, on
either side, are well known to be those of the Upper Coal-meas-
ures. The lowest rocks brought to the surface by the upheaval
are undoubtedly those of the Lower Coal-measures. ‘This is in-
dicated by the occasional appearance of Lepidodendra. In the
hills between the slopes there are three or four veins of coal,
and their equivalents are found in the inner strata of the slopes;
but where the upheaval has been greatest, I think only two
seams have been detected in wells sunk in the valleys ;—those
been penetrated a great distance. This may be the Lower Sub-
carboniferous (or Vespertine); or, as from data furnished by
Rogers we may infer that the latter is but slightly developed
in this region, and may be represented by the thin conglome-
rates just mentioned, it is probable that the sandstone belongs
to the Chemung group, overlying the black shales, and consti-
tuting the geological horizon of most of the oil obtained in
Pennsylvania.
The opinion has been expressed, in this Journal, that a well
860 feet deep, put down near the middle of the inner belt, in
the neighborhood which we are considering, and at a point
where it is represented that a depth of about 1000 feet from the
than they are estimated, in the Ohio reports, to be in the neigh-
boring counties to the northwest of the Ohio river. This is in
a
:
3
bs
a
Evans on the Oil-producing uplift of W. Virginia. 339
to Rogers, a much more extensive distribution westward,
from its eastern outcrop in the Appalachian chain, than the
lower or sandstone group. Iam aware that at the northwestern
point not very much nearer its line of maximum development
than this, it is found in boring to have a thickness of not less
than 700 feet. Besides, the 300 feet of shales which I have set
middle axis becomes more prominent by comparison, though
really subsiding; and this finally becomes the sole axis,
340 Evans on the Oil-producing uplift of W. Virginia.
both extremities of the line. At the northern and southern
ends of what I have designated as the middle segment, a little .
north of the Northwestern ene — and a little south
of Hughes river, the subsidence of the eastern and western axes
becomes somewhat sudden a coaced. Both however can be
*
river, and southward across the headwaters of Standing Stone
ereek to within seven miles of Burning Springs. The western
— seems to extend a little the. both ways, than the eastern.
en asserte
middle leona of this uplift so
narrows down toward both ends
that the opposite slopes actually
come together, thus enclosing an
insular space, in the form of a
double convex lens. <A careful
examination will show that such
is not the fact; so far from it
that toward their extremities the
eastern and western axes actu-
ally diverge, as one vaher an-
other of the inner strata of the
slopes sink to a lower inclination.
B
exhibits only a simple anticlinal
or flexure, whose axis is the pro-
longation of what has been called
the 1 middle axis. Strictly speak-
ing, these are not the extreme
_— of the uplift; it has been
in a diuninishing wave
miles across both rivers;
‘ead taeotiahly ita Selals length
is as much as 50 miles. It is Bs. w.—Burning Spring Shiga
a ac toward both ends, by ¢. H. W.—Californ ene
other and minor flexures, ap- GF. —Gales Fork Wells.
proximately parallel with it ee ae Wells
At nearly all points along this Tittle Kanawha riv
uplift where a thorough test has ae NS = aca ‘Wells.
made, on the lines before 6 R Ho rier Wells.
indicated, oil has been found in ae Ween ae rina Railroad
. . 0
oe quantity. The principal 7 _Northwest Virginia Turnpike.
rm
segment are at nee anes s on the Little Kanawha, and at
Evans on the Oil-producing uplift of W. Virginia. 341
ures. A deep well near the railroad, in the middle segment,
which has penetrated over 100 feet into the probable equivalents
of the main oil rocks of Pennsylvania, yields, from the bottom,
an immense quantity of carburetted hydrogen but no petroleum.
On this as well as other anticlinals in this region, burning
Springs are of quite common occurrence, but they are in most
cases locally associated with light oil. Many of the wells from
to afford an extensive system of vertical fissures, would seem to
be one of the determining characters of the main oil rocks. This
feature belongs to several of the coarse sandstones of the Coal-
measures; but it is most conspicuously seen in the conglomerate —
Am. Jour. Sc1.—Szconp Serres, Vou. XLII, No. 126.—Nov., 1866. eee
342 Evans on the Oil-producing uplift of W. Virginia.
at its various outcrops, a8 in Hocking county, Ohio, and at the
falls of the Great Kanawha;—so also near the head of the Alle-
ghany river, where the groups of regular blocks, standing out
upon the surface, have given rise to “such names as Rock City
and Ruined City. In some cases, however, the oil-yielding rock
is found crushed into small fragm
This line of uplift is approximately parwie! with the Appa-
lachian folds to the eastward, and is un tedly a member of
the same system. ‘I'he statement has aces os this Journal
that it makes an angle with the mountain chains of about 40°,
—an error arising probably from comparing it with the moun-
tains of Tennessee or northern Pennsylvania, instead of wit
those which lie in a Jateral direction from it, namely, in northern
oo The latter iievaboe one of those segments of the
Aap alachian zone where the mountains, accor ing to Rogers,
ar approximately aoiah and south. ‘This flexure is as nearly
parallel with their general course as oe are with one another.
or does it stand isolated from the rest; for in the intermediate
space there are several other minor oe having the same
general direction, though occurring at inter vals which increase
to the westwar
s establishing the theory that the lateral pressure concerned
in uplifting the ‘Appalachian folds was exerted from the ocean
side (as if by the subsidence of a baer area in a period of
great cooling and contraction), it has been shown by geologists
that as a general fact the w fogs dips of ibe folds are steeper
than the eastern, —that upon going westward, further from the
direct action of the moving ‘fore, this feature becomes less
marked,—that to the westward also the folds are less crowded
together, or separated by wider intervals, and the uplifting con-
nected with less metamorphism and debituminization. ‘This
fold, as one of the westernmost members of the series, conforms
to the rest in all these general laws which, with the fact of par-
allelism, serve to eonnect them with a common cause, as parts
of one system.
Toward the extremities of this uplift, where it becomes a
comparatively slight flexure, the aetna inclination of its west-
ern dip ceases; but this forms no exception to the general fact
as seen in the other Appalachian folds. As would follow from
the above theory in regard to their origin, it is not until they
attain a considerable angular elevation that the pushing over
of their summits, which is a surface movement, begins to take
“Her ere, as in other parts of the Appalachian rege Li is
evidence of a transverse system of disturbances. An example -
is seen on McFarland’s pean of Hughes river, 2 pe ailede cant of
Hilgard on Drift in the Western and Southern States. 443
this uplift, in a vertical fissure cutting through nearly horizontal
rocks with a bearing, as described by Lesley, of 78° east
north. It is filled with a sort of solidified bitumen, or asphalt,
—the result, probably, of the slow oxydation of the heavy re-
siduum of oils which once occupied it.
Art. XLVI.—Remarks on the Drift of the Western and Southern
Sales, and its relation to the Glacier and Iceberg Theories ; by
Eve. W. Hitcarp, Pb.D., State Geologist of Mississippi.
IN a recent paper on the Quaternary formations of Mississippi
(this Journal, May, 1866), I have expressed my views concerning
the remarkable formation designated as the “Orange Sand,” in
my Report on the Geology of Mississippi.
The admirable exposition of the whole subject of the Post- ’
tertiary formations in Dana's Manual of Geology, to which I have
since been enabled to refer, as well as the portion of Dana’s Ad-
dress before the American Association in 1855, relating to that
period, Suggest to me with greater clearness the points to be set-
tled in establishing the presumed correspondence of the Orange
Sand of the Southwest to the recognized drift of the Northwest.
On this subject I now propose to offer a few additional remarks,
T have not perhaps, in the paper referred to, been sufficiently
explicit, in comparing the Orange Sand to the northern drift in
general, without specially mentioning as its supposed congener,
the drift of the Northwest, particularly that of Illinois, Wiscon-
sin, Iowa and Missouri. That the drift of New England, as de-
scribed by Hitchcock and Dana, can be satisfactorily accounted
for on the glacier theory alone, few who have delved among the
ancient and modern moraines of Switzerland will question,
ut the Western drift deposits, even so far north as Towa, as
Hall's observations show, and still more in Iilinois and Missouri,
differ seriously in their structure both from the New England
moraines, and from the lines of blocks apparently left by the
glacier melted zz situ. In the West the “erratic” blocks, both
er een
violently shoved forward by an unusual advance of the glacier,
344 Hilgard on Drift in the Western and Southern States, :
an appearance rarely extends connectedly beyond a few yards,
nor is it likely it ever should, however stupendous the scale o
the glacier. Nor will any one, acquainted with moraines and
their material, be likely to mistake an aqueous deposit for a
moraine, or vice versd.
In Desmoines county, Iowa, according to Hall, the drift con-
sists of “partially stratified deposits of clay, sand and gravel,
with boulders of primary and secondary rocks irregularly dis-
tributed through the mass, though usually most abundant in the
lower portion.” These boulders in the description of Lee county
are spoken of as “worn and rounded masses” of various rocks,
occurring in distant localities. We have the same in Henry
county; in Van Buren, this deposit furnished ‘a mass of sill-
ceous wood,” which ‘presented none of the water-worn charac-
ters of a boulder; but the angles were as sharp and well defined
as if it had never been removed from the spot where it was at
. first buried.” In Washington county, again, we find mentioned
“a heavy deposit of drift material presenting the usual charac-
teristics of this formation, and consisting of irregularly stratified
beds of sand, gravel and clay, with an average thickness of from
forty to sixty feet.” : i
The above, taken verbatim from Hall’s Towa Report, might
serve as a very fair description of a good portion of the Or-
ange Sand of Mississippi, the only difference being the greater
size of the boulders in the more northern locality; a merely
quantitative variation.
In Missouri the phenomena are the same. The drift there,
The latter remark is interesting, as it shows precisely what I
found to be the case in the eastern: pebble belt of Mississippl.
The pebbles there are almost exclusively derived from the sili-
ceous group of the Carboniferous, which occurs only in patches
farther northward, but underlies the pebble strata themselves
(Miss. Rept., p. 17, ff).
- But Swallow goes 0
stratigraphical position.
This, also, is precisely the predicament of the Orange Sand
deposits, :
Hilgard on Drift in the Western and Southern States. $45
As for the drift of Illinois, I am unable to refer to the Reports
of that State; but my own early recollections of it such as it
exists in St. Clair county, place it in precisely the same category
with the drift of lowaand Missouri. Only I remember distinetly
the occurrence in it, of angular boulders of syenite, greenstone
and quartzite.
delta south of it. And even as far south as Vicksburg, the ac-
tion of waier alone is inadequate to account for the transportation
of the boulders found in these beds.
Dana's remark (Manual, p. 554) that “ while the glaciers were
disappearing, many a stream or lake would have existed to strat-
ify the drift, and cause denudation in elevated places,” points no
doubt to the true explanation of these phenomena: but it does
not go far enough to satisfy existing facts. Agassiz has obser-
ved that “the melting snows of the declining glacier epoch” may
have been instrumental in the formation of the river terraces ;
but Tuomey was, I believe, the first to point out, that the South. .
‘ern drift may have been formed in consequence of the sudden
melting of the northern glaciers (Second Report on the Geology
of Alabama, ed. Mallet, p. 146); such as would have resulted
from a first, rapid depression of so huge a mass of ice below the
snow line.
The assumption of a pretty rapid depression seems necessary
to account for the immense volumes of water required to produce
with ice-cold water by the enormous influx rom the glacier re-
a state of violent flow. ;
That the action must at first have been extremely violent, is
Proved by the deep erosion of the un:erlying formations, ant
the transportation and subsequent redeposition in mass, of their
Materials, more or less altered; which 1s exhibited on so exten-
Sive a scale in Mississippi. But for the fact that wherever the
316 Hilgard on Drift in the Western and Southern States,
more ancient strata were readily susceptible of denudation,
they have entered largely, at times almost exclusively, into the
composition of the Orange Sand strata, we might suppose that
the surface of the former (which appears to be at least equally
as hilly as the present one) had been denuded by atmospheric
agencies during the glacial period of elevation.
When, after the subsidence of the first rush, the velocity of
the water had so far diminished as to render it capable of form-
"ing stratified deposits, these would naturally possess the mixed
character resulting from a twofold mode of transportation—by
water, and by floating ice—the former, no doubt, in many cases,
succeeding the latter, and, by the grinding action of the smaller
gravel and sand, transforming the angular blocks first dropped
into the rounded boulders characterizing the drift of Iowa and
Missouri, and faintly represented by their scattered congeners
in the Orange Sand delta.
t would thus seem that the grandly simple means of a single
elevation and re-depression in the northern latitudes, to which
; enomena of the ancient glaciers and sea-beaches point us,
will equally satisfy the conditions required for the formation of
the Western and Southern Drift. Down to the. later stages of
the northern re-depression, the predominant slope would every-
where be southward, so as to collect in the Mississippi valley the
glacier waters, not only of the whole extent of northern terri-
tory now tributary to it, but probably also those of the present
arctic slope of British America, and a portion of that now trib-
utary to the St. Lawrence. Hence the comparative absence of
stratified drift from the Northern Atlantic slope of the United
States; and its presence, on the contrary, on the sea border of
the Southern States, as stated by Tuomey, 7. c.
_ As to the Champlain epoch, it would seem to be represented
in its later part only, by that which in the Western and Gulf
States has formed the “second bottoms.” In the Mississippi Val-
Sic A il a i tala Sci
C. U. Shepard on a new locality of Meteoric Iron. 347
ceased; while yet the volume of water carried by those chan-
nels greatly exceeded that which corresponds to the era of the
second bottoms, south, or to the bottom prairie of Missouri.
he only sea-beach terrace now existing on the Gulf coast, and
with which the second bottoms show a manifest confluence of
level and material, is from 18 to 24 feet above tide-water. But
the evidences of sea-beach or tidal action extend far back into
the interior (Miss. Rept. p. 29), so that in fact, the second bottom
of the Pascagoula exhibits that structure, and not the usual one
resulting from flowing water, throughout its course. The same
structure, moreover, extends to some elevation into the border-
ing uplands, where these sands overlie the Post-pliocene beds an
Orange Sand.
The present beach terrace of the gulf coast cannot, therefore,
be considered as the true measure of the amount either of de-
pression during, or re-elevation subsequent to, the Champlain
epoch. Whether the great absolute elevation of some of the
Orange Sand ridges of Mississippi and Alabama (probably ex-
ceeding in some cases, 700 feet) necessitates the assumption of
even a greater depression than the present beach-marks would
indicate, the known facts are hardly adequate to determine.
University of Mississippi, July 12, 1866.
—
Art. XLVII.—New locality of Meteorite Iron in Cohahuila, North-
ern Mexico; by CHARLES UPHAM SHEPARD.
For my knowledge of this most remarkable locality 1 am in-
debted to the following communication of my friend Prof. For-
rest Shepherd of New Haven, Conn., who, twenty-seven years
ago, furnished me the earliest notice of the fall of a meteoric
stone at Little Piney, Mo. The weightiness of the present con-
tribution makes ample amends for so protracted a silence.
o
the department of Cohahuila. This I am enabled to do through
the kindness ‘and perseverance of my esteemed friend Maj. E.
Nueva Leon, and to each of whom I am indebted for protection
es.
.+he route pursued by Maj. Hamilton was as follows (see map):
318 «(C.U, Shepard on a new locality of Meteoric Iron.
From Santa Rosa westerly to Naciemento, 40 miles, more or less
gh the mountains, called Pue
the Puerta, northerly for 60 miles, along the valley, past a spring
to the termination of the mountain on the left; and thence
AY
CDA
=
mr S
aS
Wee
SS
Whe
PW
Ve 2
«Ks ies S
i Sys
Suni
% i S.R.
4 Ze SSO bea tren
@ anne msn me mee
e
BE
2. "ne
B, Bonanza; N, Naciemento; P, Puerta Santana; S, Springs; S. R., Santa Rosa.
around the end of the mountain, passing a second spring, by a
northwest route for a distance of about 50 miles toward an ap-
parent junction of the mountains, and where the valley becomes
“Hoping that this remarkable locality may hereafter shed
some additional light on the mysteries of aérolitic origin,
T remain very truly yours, Forrest SHEPHERD.
: to it the designation Bonanza, upon Prof. Shep-
herd’s map.
Tam unable to decide whether these iron masses have been
= sk Peer ie ree sin
SE REI ee Ta RE ER Ra a Re et ee a eee ee | es
C. U. Shepard on a new locality of Meteoric Iron. 349
described by others, though it may prove they are the same as
those mentioned by Assistant A. Schott on page 84, part ii, of
Major Emory’s Report on the Mexican Boundary Survey, and
which are laid down as occurring 90 miles northwest from Santa
Rosa; but whether he refers to the Santa Rosa of Cohahuila,
lat. 28°, long. 101° 30’, is not certain. They certainly do not
seem to belong to the locality on the Sancha estate, from whence
eame the 250 pound mass in the Smithsonian Museum at Wash-
ington, as this is stated to have occurred but 50 or 60 miles
from Santa Rosa, Cohahuila.
Description of the specimen.
It is a flattened cleavage mass rather above a quarter of am
inch in thickness, by two inches in length and one and a half
broad. It weighs 120 grams, or rather more than a quarter
of a pound. Its color is dark iron-black without any appear-
ance of iron-rust. About three-fourths inch square of one of its
sides exhibits the original surface of the mass, showing three
well marked though shallow polyhedral depressions, but, like
the Madoc, the Texas, and many other irons, without any well
defined crust. For the rest, the two broad surfaces are nearly
cleavage in the mass. e
are also plane, and have resulted from octahedral cleavages.
; g
through the slight projection of a lamina rather more than one-
eighth of an inch in thickness, a fragment weighing six grams
of a lens. Among them was a feeble trace of a blackish pow-
der, proceeding no doubt from the black pellicle of the exterior
‘Am. Jour. Sc1.—Seconp Serizs, Vou. XLII, No. 126.—Noy., 1866.
45
350 G. Hinrichs on Spectral Lines:
of the mass. The brilliant capillary points, when more nearly
examined, seemed identical in size and character with the rhab-
dite crystals of Reichenbach, so beautifully figured in Prof.
Rose’s admirable memoir on meteorites,’ as occurring in the
Braunau meteoric iron. The lens also shows upon the cleavage
planes of the iron, those peculiar striae which Prof. Rese has
pointed out as occurring in the Braunau iron; in particalar,
such as are parallel to the edges and certain diagonals of the
cube, and which Prestel has shown to be present also in cleavage
crystals of artificial iron. So far therefore as one sample can
show, the structural identity of this iron with the interesting
Braunau mass is very clear.
The specific gravity, determined by a single experiment, was
7:50. The solution in nitric acid, when precipitated by ammo-
continent. Is their preponderance in such regions at all ex-
plained by the greater impenetrability of the surfaces upon
which they have fallen?
Amherst College, Sept. 14, 1866.
Art. XLVIII.—On the Spectra and Composition of the Elements;
by Prof. Gusravus Hryricus, Iowa State University.
$1. Two years ago I communicated to this Journal the re-
sults of a preliminary investigation of the distribution of the
dark lines in the spectra of some of the elements, especially the
spectra of the alkaline earths and iron.’ At that time no exact
and comprehensive determinations of the wave-lengths corres-
ponding to these lines had been made; our investigation was
therefore necessarily based upon Kirchhoff’s arbitrary millime-
oO
mn
5
=
S
oo
Sey
&
o>
ong
z
o
=.
io
rs)
o
a
<=
oO
“|
<
=
MS
=
e.
tty
5
* Beschrei und Eintheilung der Meteoriten auf grund der Sammlung im
mineralogischen Museum zu Berlin von Gustav Rose. Berlin, 1364.
* This Journal, 1864, vol. xxviii, pp. 31-40.
Q
’
a
2
——
G, Hinrichs on Spectral Lines, — 351
Having now some direct determinations of wave-lengths, we
resume our investigation. It will be seen that the results of our
preliminary investigation are fully confirmed in their essential
features, and that the number of elements to which they apply
is greatly enlarged.
number of the lines laid down in Kirchhoff’s map of the spec-
trum, thereby enabling us by a simple geometrical interpolation
to find the wave-length of any of Kirchhoff’s lines with great
accuracy, the number of lines determined by Ditscheiner being
sufficiently extensive to warrant the use of a large scale in this
interpolation. The scale we used was 1 mm. of Kirchhoff’s scale
and one ten-millionth millimeter wave-length, severally equal to
two millimeters. On this scale the length of the spectrum from
to G, or from 600 mm. to 2800 mm. Kirchhoff, taken as ab-
Scissx, becomes 4400 mm., or nearly 15 feet. In some instances
we used a five times longer scale, making the spectrum 75 feet.
There is still another series of determinations by Angstrém,*
but the original memoir is not accessible to us, and the extract
in this Journal does not admit of direct comparison with Kireh-
hoff’s scale.
3. We will now first give the extension of our laws to the _
e ; and in
make a few theoretical remarks suggested in the course of our
Investigation.
Tn the following, W will always denote the wavelength ex:
pressed in ten-millionths of a millimeter, D the differences, 1 the
assumed number of equal intervals, W’ the calculated wave-
lengths, E the error, the difference between observation and cal-
culation, E=W—W’ and d the interval,
$4. Hydrogen spectrum. Ps
Line, Ww D - ¢
Ww’ E
5 6533 6533 0
1690 10
4
: lies one . 4390 +3
7 43
where d=169, Range from red to indigo, or C to G.
is Journal, 1865, vol, xxix, pp. 217-18. 2 ;
* Bestimmung der Wellenlinge der Fraunhofer’schen Linien des ne gE e
trum. Sitzungsberiechte der Akad. d. Wies. Wien, 1864, Bd. 50, pp. 206-341. a ee
Journal, 1866, vol. xli, pp. 395-396.
This Journal, 1865, xxxix, 215. ;
fel ae
352 G, Hinrichs on Spectral Lines.
$5. Chlorine spectrum.
Line. WwW
D ‘ Ww’ E
a Sint: 5451 0
8 5216 iF ; 5216 0
4792 4793 -E1
7 3
where d—47. Range, from yellow to blue.
§ 6. Bromine spectrum.
ii W D é Ww’
oe 516 = 5166 +3
8 4793 ft a 4791 +2
y 4766 “4 . 4766 0
3 4691 4691
where d=25. Range, from green to blue.
It will be noticed that the first interval is five times the last.
§ 7. Iodine spectrum. —
Line, Ww
D i Ww’ E
ae ’
5947 5949 —2
H ? ; 610 47 q
533 5383 +4
2 5167 pote = nee 48
t 4661 $4 y 4661 0
7 4629 ins es 4629 0
6 4446 931 29 4445 +1
4215 4218 +2
‘ where d=8. Range, from orange to indigo,
Though the differences E are not quite so insignificant as in
the preceding, they are yet within the errors of observation;
and though the intervals seem to follow no law, yet they may
be grouped as follows:
21 63 4 23 29
or 77 21 63 5
or 11 3 9 8 times 7
—,—_
or 1l 12 8
very nearly o:3 5%;
and 4+23=27 with 29 forms another group if an intermediate
line at 28 should be observed. As it seems, 7 is divisible in
“iets t of these intervals, 7.d=56 will be an interval of a higher
er.
§ 8. Witrogen spectrum,
ii . D Fy Ww E
ll eh 521 8 pete oy
17 5762 827 5 5764
where d=65. Range, from red to yellow.
EN is fo oN Soe RNY a ren Cae OU See We eat ey Oa ee
| G. Hinrichs on Spectral Lines. | 353
$9. Oxygen spectrum,
Line, w é Ww’ E
a 6150 6150 0
8 5328 nee : 5327 ~—1
r 5185 ae 5 5190 +45
4367 4367 0
where d==1374. Range, from orange to near indigo.
$10. Mercury spectrum,
Line. Ww t wi E
a 5782 5784 —2
a’ 5759 <a: t 5759 0
g 5461 Fae F 5459 +42
9 5359 0
* 43
where d=25. Range, from yellow to near indigo.
Tn the synopsis of Pliicker’s determinations given in this Jour-
nal (vol. xxxix), we find also the lines of several compounds,
and we will improve this opportunity to test the application of
the law of multiple distances to the four binary compounds in-
vestigated by Pliicker.
§11. Tercklorid of phosphorus spectrum.
Line, Ww D i
f e921
F- a 6493
1, 469 tt Sa
7 oe ae eee
where d=36.
$12. Bichlorid of silicon spectrum.
ine, Ww D t we
bd 6329 6329 0
358 3
te ee ee
where d=116}.
$13. Bichlorid of tin spectrum.
Ling - W D é :
a 6445 64444441
651 65
ee eee
5 5333 at “i Se
4524 net es 4524 0
where d—=10.
$14. Carbonic acid spectrum.
i WwW D i ! E
f 5599 409 41 5600 —1
Ses 90 ae
119 12 2
7 4382 +2
where d==10,
354 G. Hinrichs on Spectral Lines,
§ 15. The preceding tables may be condensed to the following:
Substance, d Values of 7.
Hydrogen, 169 10 3
Chlorine, 47 5 9
Bromine, 25 15 1 3
Iodine, 97 8 ee ee ee
: on 17 84 56
or 11 12 8
or 243 3 2
Nitrogen, 65 8
Oxyen, 1373 6 1 6
Mercury, 25 x 12 14
Terchlorid of phosphorus, 36 13 12
Bichlorid of silicon, RRS 8
Bichlorid of tin, 10 65 21 20°
Carbonic acid, 10 41 69 12
$16. It can hardly be assumed that the determinations of
Pliicker are as accurate as those of Ditscheiner; the latter are,
as will be shown, not always reliable in the last figure. Hence
the agreement between observation and our calculation 1s in
most cases astonishingly close; thus for hydrogen, where d=
169 there is only one single deviation, and this amounts to only
three units; the chlorine spectrum shows as good as no devia-
tion at all, only one unit for d=47 on a range of 700. It is similar
for bromine, oxygen, nitrogen, and mercury. Only iodine devi-
ates for one single line (9) more than is proper, especially as d
is only 8; but then this being the only instance, it may be due
to a greater error in the observation of 6.
It may perhaps be objected, that only few lines are taken for
each element. But we have taken ail lines for which determin-
ations could be found, and though they may be few in number,
they are ranging through the greater part of the spectrum. —
uming that the other metalloids will correspond in this as
they do in all other respects, we may express the above by the
following law: the wave-lengths of the dark lines in the spectra of
the several metalloids differ from one another by simple multiple of @
certain number, d, peculiar for each element, and the spectra of the .
binary compounds given do not show so simple multiples, but
the differences are yet expressible in multiples of a certain num-
ber for each compound.
_ The above law is substantially the same as the laws deduced
in the preliminary investigation. ,
17. In all the foregoing tables we have made use of Pliickers
observations, which are only known to us in their final result,
The following values of W will be taken from Ditscheiner, and
as his memoir js at hand, we may first ascertain the degree of
accuracy of his observations.
G. Hinrichs on Spectral Lines. 355
For Kirchhoff’s line 1834:0 he finds W=5040-0 from 18 de-
terminations, gonging from 5039°3 to 5041-4, showing a range
of 2°1 (page 326, 1. ¢.}
For ate 6 he finds W=5165'8 from 13 determinations,
ranging gr et 1 to 51668 or a range of nearly two of our
units (page 8
In peqovdanae herewith we found it impossible for — parts
of the spectrum, to draw a straight line through the points de-
termined according to Ditscheiner’s wave lengths as cha to
Kirchhoff’s millimeters as abscisse; showing that the decimal
of Ditscheiner could not be relied upon, and in a few instances
even the Le was Baier We will now review the caleitum
Spectrum, as given in our first article. In addition to the pre-
ceding, I will anit the intensity as given by Kirchhoff, and
K the oes on ig es ff’s millimeter scale. ow is obtained as
according to the scale mentioned in §2. It was impossible to
obtain reliable results by arithmetical interpolation, the small
errors of observation thereby affecting the final result to a very
great extent, while by proper drawing of the line the individual
errors of observation were as good as eliminate
§ 18. Calcium spectrum.—We will, as in our first article, con-
sider each of the six principal groups separately.
Grove I. d,—3:3. Near line G.
I K WwW D t Ww’ E
be gg60-7 dae 48220 0
4b 2864-7 4308'8 6-5 2 4308°8 0
4 2854°7 4303°2 3:3 1 4302°2 +1
4c 2834-2 4299°0 42989 +1
The intervals are just as given in the preliminary Jneeaige
tion—and E is completely abe the errors of observation.
Group II contains too few
Group III, d,==1:16. Near ame
I K
Ww i Ww’
45 15331 52615 5261-48 +02
45 15305 «52617 § 21 8
4c 15302 5263°6 13-1 ~—«5 26380 — 20
de 1528°7 5264°9 47 4 526496 —-06
6c =—-1522°7 «= 269°6 5269°6 OU
The scale used for this interpolation was three times the one
= in §2; 1 mm. K was represente
to prevent misunderstandings it must be remembered siksacith
n order
the rashid a millimeter, while Ditscheiner expresses his hia rowulte in mil-
lionths of a millimeter.
356 G. Hinrichs on Spectral Lines.
The difference between the first two lines is too small to war-
rant any conclusion drawn from the same.
Group IV. d,=1°46. In the yellow.
I Ww D i wd E
8d =—-:1235°0 = 555820 57 g_~SC«#282-00 00
4e = -:1229°6 = 55 87°7 17. gy. OUST SE eG
9d 12283 55894 4g g . 958030 +10
5d 1224°7 5593°6 3-9 g 559368 —'08
5d 1221°6 5597°5 0-5 g 5596-60 —'10
3c =—s-«1219°2 = 56000 aa 1 559952 "42
Sd = 12178 += 5601-0 560098 +02
These intervals form the following simple series:
2
3
Nisetreaentynnennioned
or 4 4 2 2 ae
ee
or 4 + 4 1
Group V. d,=6°57. In the orange.
I K Ww D t Ww’ E
2e 8949 6102°0 19-0 3 6102°0 00
4b Soro C1210 Gg aekt 7
56 863°9 6161-0 6-7 1 6161-13 —13
3d 860°2 6167-7 6167°70 00
Grovr VI, P
There are too few observations for a very accurate determina- q
tion of the corresponding wave-lengths of this group in the red
part of the spectrum. The difference of 2°3 K as found in our
preliminary investigation corresponds to 623 wave-length in
this part of the spectrum. :
Comparing the different groups we need not expect the differ-
ence d itself to be the same for all groups; but such a multi-
lum thereof as the intervals indicate, ought to be the same.
hus we find
Group I, d,=3°3 2d ,—=6°60
« TI, d,=116 6d = 6-96
ey AV, d xel46 4d,—5°84
ee Vy O57 1d,=6°57
“ Vi, d,=6-23 ge 6'23
ld
the mean of which is =—6°44
As the above numbers go, we see that the interval ap-
roaches equality, but is not strictly so. Yet it may well be
rne in mind that the greatest deviation either above or below
the given mean value amounts to only half a unit; so tha 7
though the equality of the interval cannot be considered as de-
monstrated, yet the inequality is not demonstrated either. __
It is now necessary to consider the single lines given by Kireh-
Se TR IS ee ee ae ee ee ae) ee ee ee ee ee
G. Hinrichs on Spectral Lines. 357
hoff outside of the preceding groups. These give the following
result: d=16,
I K Ww D i Ww’ E
Qe 18878 «50410 og «HD 0
Sb 1627251856) yg | 51880 eS
2 1443-5 58452, gg | RKO +8
Se 10208 BES agg gg | BETO =F
25 = 641-0 6721-2 67210 4-2
f E
: Se =: 2869°7 +s: 4322-0 7 43210 = -++-1-0.
IL 5¢ = 2638-8 ~~ «= 4484-0 ai 4433-0 +10
2c 18328 5041-0 5041-0 0-0
5b §=:16272 = 51856 ag UI ere
Il. 4b 15331 5 261°5 ‘ 52610 +5
2b 8614435 = §345°2 4s 63450 + 2
IV (last). 5d 12178 56010 +8 5601-0 0-0
Sc 10293 = § 8563 13 58570 =
Vv 894-9 6162-0 90g 61610 +10
VI 2c 7201 6492-0 +4 6493-0 = —10
2b 6410 6721°2 = 6721-0 +. 2
The series of intervals admits of the following contractions:
ea. Scape 8 ee :
Sinneypiomeaiad?
eg 10 1 As a 35
45 9 10 16:48 54
54 10 << 16 54
64 ~*~: 16 54
or 8 times 8 2 2 7
Finally it must be noticed that this difference, d=16, accord-
ing to this table may be taken an even number of times, up to
, SO as to give a physieal interval; and 2d=382 is 5 times 6-4,
the mean of the intervals deduced for the several groups
hus we believe to have shown that the wave-lengths of Dits-
ri in regard to the regular distribution of the dark lines in
the ca m spectrum m fully confirm the laws enunciated in our
pedlietioasy Ede mui?
selrum. Having discussed the calcium spec-
trum at éoneirile ap we may pass more lightly over the
ium spectrum. As there are very few barium lines coinei-
dent with those st by Ditscheiner it may be sufficient to
multiply the difference between Kirchhoff’s numbers with the
tangent or grade of the curve at the point considered (that is,
the ratio between dW and dK) as taken from our — .
Am. Jour. Sc1.—Szconp Serres, Vor. XLII, No. 126.—Nov.
46
358 G. Hinrichs on Spectral Lines.
I K D Grade. De
Qe = 2081°1 : igh SS
eet 8 833 = 2X1665
le 1287.5 : ;
oe eee ee. Fas 76-6 1X 16°6
s. iseta. Ott. 18? 060 = a K1606
1b spe, oe ae 665 = 41664
4} Gers 180 18 302 = : its
3a 719°6 : ao ee
2 718-7 9 2°5 23: <= 7
On account of our method here used, only such lines could
be considered as are sufficiently close to admit of our reduction
of the difference in K by simple multiplication with the grade.
All lines accessible give the interval 16-6—the mean of the six
determinations is 16°3. It is also seen that the actual intervals
are very simple multiples hereof.
§ 20. Magnesium spectrum.
I K WwW
Ww E
6e 1655°6 5165°8 1 5166-07 —27
6f 1648°8 5171°3 5171°3 0
4c 1634-7 5181-0
4g 1634°1 5181°5 5181-76 +26
where d—5-23.
The line 6/ is Fraunhofer’s }. The reduction was here effected
arithmetically by means of the grade ‘8; affecting only the last
given number.
These three or four lines forming a natural group, the total
range or 3d, i. e., 15°69, becomes characteristic of this element.
$21. Strontium spectrum. It will be noticed that this differ-
ence is very nearly the same as the one previously found for
barium and calcium. It thus becomes of great interest to ascer-
tain whether or not strontium also herein agrees with the other
praia of the group of alkaline earths. We have for stron-
am
I K Ww ; w E
36 753°8 5400-0 4 5400-0 0-0
3a 1274-7 = 5532-0 . 55306 + 1-4
4¢ 1820 = 54800, 54823 28
3 { 28579 4806-0 43070 ~—1:0
4a 2858°5
2 gs 8:9)
2859-4)
where d=16-1,
The intervals give
: 54 3 73
OF eRe sd oma
Sananaaineeee
see BE ey eat Oe See On ee ee See eee ee
G. Hinrichs on Spectral Lines. 359
or the first to the last nearly as 8:4, Also 544+8=57 to 78
nearly as 7:9. The reductions were performed by means of
the known grade, no one of the above strontium lines coincid-
ing with Ditscheiner’s lines
he alkaline earths give as the difference of wave-lengths
characterizing their spectrum, magnesium pos calcium 16:0,
strontium 16°1, and barium 16° 3, or in millimete
Atomic Wii ato
weight. m.
Magnesium, - - - - 12 000000157
Caloium, «+2... 2° 0 000000160
Btrontiam,. a:.hu.0 6 eee 0:00000161
Barium, - - - - 68°5 000000163
Mean value, 0-011000160
This coincidence is very remarkable, though the absolute
identity can hardly be pla Fs admissible. We -shall come
back to this point in our theoretical remar
§ Sodium spectrum.—Professor Cooke ‘of Cambridge has
ecently given * four drawings of the three sodium lines forming
F raunhofer's D. From — figures I find by measurement
=12 mm., «D,=8 mm., or the distances are as
t am very sorry that I aye not the detariiiatiang! ‘of Wolf
and Diacon in regard to the spectra of the alkalies. Interesting
and zaluable results might no doubt be derived from these ob-
Me
Ben n spectrum.—We will now review the three large and
Raat groups of the iron spectrum as given in our first article.
Grour I. d,—3-29-—-0""-000000329.
I K WwW a Ww’ E
46 12006 5623-25 562158 -—+1°67
6c 1242: 5569°40 556899 + °41
o 42 12456 5565°65 556570 2 = “05
The intervals are inthe i oem Only the first value of E may
be considered important—may disappear =e the observation
of a line between the first two given a
The intervals give the following series:
2 4 5 + 1 1
Necieieinnipescmemniaad?
or 1+5 § 5 1
showing that the following may be considered as intervals of
higher order:
DD, edd 1916, DS setd = 1645
* This Journal, 1866, xl, 179. * This Journal, 1863, xxv, 414.
*
360 G. Hinrichs on Spectral Lines.
Grovr II. d,—0-9=0"™-00000009.
I K
i w’ E
4d 18370 5461°8 g 84613 2 5
6c 18435 54545) 4541 HA
Bd =ss1851'1 54453 9 4451 42
5b 13527 = 5443-05 54433 8
5b = «13629 «= 432°5 5 482° 0-0
6d 18670 5428-2 , 54280 +2
5b 486 «13726 = 422-0 9 EET 49
4c 1380°5 5413°6 5 54136 0-0
4e 1384-7 5403-9 , 54001 —2
6c 1389-4 5404-4 1 $4048. 8
5d =—s-1390°9 = 5403-7 g 5403-7 0-0
Be 13975 5395-7 5 53056 1
4e rea. ba9IO a
4e 14105 = 58819 5, 2 58821 062
6c 14215 — 5369°8 1; «(4586050 48
5b = «1423-0 3685 3 $3686 —l
5b 1425-4 5366-0 go. S0058 | 1
5b = «1428-2 = «863-2 5363-2 0-0
The agreement is very close. The intervals are apparently not
very simple, but they give
6°10 & 19 6 7°98 6 1 0 6.3014. 39 8
_——_
—— — —— seyret: sites
8 12° 12 ha 2 9 a8 10 616 15 6
first multiple of 4 (viz. 8, 12, 12, 12) and in the latter half mul-
tiples of 5 (5, 5, 10, 5, 10, 15). But we may also group these
as follows:
8 10 35 6 26 2400-6; 10: 16 8
which are all, excepting extremes, multiples of 5; the extremes
would by completion with adjacent parts not observed by Kirch-
hoff no doubt complete the series. Dividing by the common 5
we obtain the ratios ~
2 7 1 1 2 1 2 3
which again may be combined as
— 3 gaa oe
To the common factor 5 above corresponds an interval of D,=
5d,=4°5; to this further interval of 8 such corresponds an in-
_ terval of D,’=3x5d,=15d,=185. Both of these numbers
have theoretical importance,
Cag a ee ee ee ee ee eee aa rT ae OPES
G. Hinrichs on Spectral Lines. 361
Grove III. i= oe oe
I
Ww’ E
5e ve res 5 go S086 100
6d 20052 4918-8 9 4918764 +036
6c 20072 49173 5, 4917346 —-046
6c 2041°3 4890-4 1 4890-404 —-004
65 2042-2 48898 = 4g = 4889695 105
6e 2058°0 = A876-4 g 4876224 +176
5e 2066-2 4870-0 1 4869943 4-057
5e 20671 48692 4, 4869:234 —-034
4857'890 —-190
‘Bae as bea as nothing. The intervals arrange themselves as fol-
ow
2 38 1 19 9 1 16
—_—— : —— ——
40 20 10 16
Cee Brees
Of course, the extremities not necessarily re sara full
intervals, need not correspond; yet they are sibel by 4.
The natural intervals of a higher order in this group are:
=4d,=2836, D,”=5d,=3545, D,’”"=10d, = 090, and per-
haps D,"=9d,=6'881.
Comparing the different groups we see that the differences d
are not te same, for
-
d,==0°9, d,==0°709,
but we Hees foie the intervals D *
yellow, D,’ = 44,==-13 = {
green, D, ==15¢d,=13'5 >} mean 13°61,
blue, 2 2D. go ead 18
Which are not quite equal, but good approximations. We shall
come back to this difference between the values—it seems that
the values are a little larger in the blue than in the
a psi king back upon ‘the complicated groups of the Tich iron
m we cannot help being convinced that the dark lines are
distribated according to law, at mudtiple intervals as measured
by the wave-length.
§ 25. Before concluding this part of our investigation we will
dcinpars our new results with those in our first article. the
‘ron spectrum, the first group shows the following intervals:
then - 8 12 it 11
now 2 4 5 4 1 1
while the second groups gave
mae 6 8.3 48 6.70: 6 6-2 6.5 8 M888
mem 20:8 38 St 9 1 8-1 8S 10 ae
and the third group
then
4
me £ £ 38 1 1: eee
362 G. Hinrichs on Spectral Lines.
By having more accurate data, the intervals become more sim-
plified, especially in regard to the consolidating of groups of
lines, as has been shown in the preceding paragraph.
In the synopsis of the calcium spectrum given on page 35 of
our first article (this Jour., vol. xxxvili) the deviations amount
to fully
a=0"" 0000030,
while in our present article the greatest deviation is only (§ 18)
a’=0™"-0000001
or a: a’=30: 1, only one-thirtieth of the previous one.
This comparison might be considerably enlarged—but the
preceding is enough to show that far from disappearing by
closer approximation and more accurate data, the laws there. ,
enunciated are becoming even more prominent and unmistak-
able in proportion as the data of observation have become more
rigorous and reliable. It may therefore be hoped that contin-
ued investigation will tend to the better establishment of the
laws referred to.
And it is in view of this greater confidence we are permitted
to bestow on the regular distribution of the dark lines that we
will venture upon the dangerous ground of a theoretical expla-
nation of these wonderful facts and mysterious laws. e im-
portance of spectral a in a practical point of view is es-
my first article on the dark lines.
little detail on this difficult and obscure, but most important.
int.
_ $26. Origin of the dark lines—The mere aspect of the dark
lines in any spectroscope conveys almost a moral conviction to
the mind that they are allied in their origin to the dark lines of
interference produced by thin plates and the like; for example,
Talbot's interference phenomena produced by the interposition
of a little’ piece of glass or mica between the eye and the ocular
of a telescope directed to a spectrum, or Baden Powell’s lines
produced by a glass plate immersed in a prismatic trough fill
with cassia-oil, ete. :
This idea is already old, and I know of no definite refutation
thereof. The lines produced by the vapors of iodine, bromine,
hypochlorous acid and others, are closely allied to the regular
spectral lines and the above lines of interference. Bottger
- This Journal, 1863, vol. xxxy, p. 414,
G. Hinrichs on Spectral Lines. 363
states furthermore, that the selenium spectrum contains between
the yellow and the violet @ very large number of equidistant dark
hin
e have furthermore proved that though not ail lines are
present, corresponding to each successive equal interval, still all
the known lines occupy positions in exact avcordance with the
equal intervals, that is, the dark lines are as if from the whole
number of exactly equidistant lines some had been blotted out or at
least obscured by other causes.
From all this, both the experimental and our theoretical evi-
dence, we conclude, that the dark lines are produced by interference.
We will now see whether we can account for some other pecu-
liarities of their distribution by means of this hypothesis.
Erman, in his investigation of the absorption lines of iodine,
bromine, etc., has shown that such lines produce y a plate of
mica are the closer together, the thicker the plates, and that they
are farther apart in the violet than in the re
ture, becoming more numerous with higher temperature—the
dark lines would be as changing as the arrangement of the atoms.
ut we know the spectral lines to be permanent and immutable,
aS we suppose the atoms themselves to be.” We therefore must
tra of the elements are the result of the interference of at most three
systems of interferences determined by the three dimensions of the
oms,
We shall now compare some of the points involved herein to
the results of observation laid down in the preceding paragraphs.
7. Is the difference constant throughout the entire spectrum ?
or are the lines farther apart in the blue end of the spectrum,
Where the wave-length is smaller? The values of D obtained
for the iron groups are: D in the yellow 13°16, in the green
more extended research is required. But we may safely affirm
that in case any such variation is actually proved it will be found
to be very small. :
$28. The lines of the same group are equidistant—as required —
by this theory; for we have seen the same difference d to ex-
Press all the numerous observed values for even very extensive
* Mitscherlich’s observations in regard to the spectrum of iodine admits of other
explanation.
364 G. Hinrichs on Spectral Lines.
groups of lines. Thus iron group I numbers 18 lines ranging
through nearly 100 mm. of Kirchhoff’s scale. ° be-
fore, not all lines are actually observed—but that may be due
to the coéxistence of the several systems caused by the several
dimensions of the atoms, whereby also a variation in the inten-
sity of the lines would be produced.
$29. Influence of the dimension of the atoms.—The greater d,
the closer must be the dark lines. If this theoretical result be
applied to the elements, considering their dimension as d, it
would follow, if we adopt the hypothesis of one element, there-
by measuring volume by the weight of the atom, that the lines |
must be generally the closer the greater the atomic weight of the ele-
ments,
In the following table A is the atomic weight taken from
Will’s Jahresbericht for 1863 as copied in the Smithsonian Re-
port for 1864; d is the interval as found in the preceding para-
8:
Metalloids. A d Metals. A d
Hydrogen, 1 169°0||Magnesium, 12 5°23
Chlorine 35°5 47-0 alcium, 20 sete
d id . real ,
Bromine, 80°0 25-0 for veral } Be: 6°5
Iodine 127°0 0 groups,
i ==3°29
Nitrogen, 140 65°0 Iron, 28 head
pes
Oxygen, 8-0 1372 meron d,= °709
shins Mercury, 100 25°0
We notice first the great intervals of the metalloids as com-
ared to those of the metals; also in general a greater interval
or smaller atomic weight. This is the more conclusive for simi-
elements, as exemplified in the chlorine group. :
€ can not expect a more close agreement, for the dimensions
and not the volume, proportional to the atomic weight, decide
the distribution of the dark lines.
ut the dimensions can only be found by for a. moment _ac-
cepting our hypothesis of the construction of the elements. We
hope that the preceding will induce the reader to approach this
question, ;
30. Dimensions of the atoms.—We suppose all elementary
atoms to be built up of the atoms of one single matter, the urstoff.
the atomic weight of hydrogen referred to this prime-element
be H—we have reason to believe that H=4. :
Whatever be the form of these atoms, the laws of mechanics
force them to arrange themselves regularly—and the most stable
form will be the prism. If quite rectangular, and a, 6, ¢ be the
number of primary atoms, in the three directions, we shall have
(leaving out the factor H) :
we 0:6.6.
G. Hinrichs on Spectral Lines. _ 365
If the atom has a quadratic base, a=b, we have
Aes at ce.
If provided with one or several pyramidal additions, we hav:
= @.0 :
_ Elements will of course show similar properties when of sim-
ilar form (a theorem which I have demonstrated in my notes
many years ago—and which is closely allied to the well known
properties of isomorphous bodies). hus prismatic atoms will,
when they have the same base a.b and only differ in length c=n,
form a natural group
Aas x ab,
or when quadratic eh CE,
or when with pyramidal additions,
=k-+n.ab,
or A=k-+n.a?, ete.
We shall here refer only to those natural groups of elements
that have been treated of in the preceding, viz: the chlorine
group, the oxygen group, the group of the alkaline earths and
the group of the alkalies
Oxygen group ; quadratic. Formula A =n.4?.
7%
A Cale. Obs. Error,
Oxygen, 1 144— 16 16 0-0
Sulphur, 2 24% == 82 32 0-0
Selenium, 5 § 44 =- 80 80 0-0
Tellurium, 8 8:42 — 128 128 0-0
Chlorine group; quadratic. Formula A =7.3?+1.
n A Calc. Obs. Error.
Fluorine, 2 232-+1=— 19 19 0-0
Chlorine, 4 4:32 —1= 35 855 =f 5
Bromine, 9 9°37 —1= 80 80 0:0
odine, 14 14324+1=127— 127 0-0
Alkaline group ; quadratic with pyramid. A=7+7n.4?.
n Ae Obs. Error,
Lithium, 0 7 7 0-0
ium, 1 7+ 1.47% = 238 23 0-0
Potassium, 2 7+2.47= 39 39 0-0
Rubidium, 5 7+5.427= 87 854 —16
zesium, 8 748.42=135 1330 —2-0
Alkaline-earths group ; quadratic. A=n.2?.
n As Cole Obs. Error.
Magnesitim, 3 322 = 12 12 0-0
Calcium, 5 5°22 = 20 20 0-0
Strontium, 11 11:22 = 44 43-8 —2
Barium, 17 17:22 = 68 68°5 +5.
366 _ G, Hinrichs on Spectral Lines.
We cannot here go into any detail as to the relation of these —
formule to the numerical relations discovered by Carey Lea,
Dumas and others; we hope soon to be enabled to publish our
labors on the constitution of the elements. Neither can we here
discuss these formule in the sense of the mechanics of atoms
deducing the physical and chemical properties of the elements
from these formule; these interesting relations also we must
delay till some future, but I hope not a very distant, time. Nor
is this the place to discuss the few slight device noticed.
‘Our aim here i is to make use of these our old formule in spectral
analysis.
First, seca we notice that the alkaline-earth metals are quad-
ratic, so that their 3 shots are the result of two systems only of
lines. Further, having a common base (2), they must show one
set of differences, either absolutely or nearly equal—which, until
_ we havean analytical investigation hereof, or fuller experimental
results, we cannot decide. But this is precisely what has been
found in §22, where the intervals were found respectively to be
MagncnaMl y 23.3... PG ages 000000157 mm.
Calcium evewee eee es 160
Strontitiin 2c ve fee ee 161
SMGWl sv saect seeker ee 163
We might now discuss the occurrence of the dimension-figures
of the atoms in the corresponding spectra as intervals ; suc for
magnesium 2 and 3, for calcium 2 and 5, ete. Such coinciden-
ces are pretty numerous, but a fuller stock of still more reliable
measurements will be required for the metallic spectra
For the chlorine group we have the following dimension n, and
distance d of lines, according to the given tables.
n d n.d
Chlorine, 4 47 188
Bromine, 9 25 225
lodine, 14 8 112
Then by se a Sep the interval 8 for iodine we get 14x 16=224;
or the distance of the lines is nearly inversely proportional to the
atomic eneusien
The other dimension of this group is 8, and is fairly repre-
sented in the intervals. Thus we have in the spectrum of todine,
neglecting the two extremes which are not necessarily complete,
the intervals (see § 7)
21=3X7 :
638-8 <21=-3 X 8X7
23+4-4=—-27=3X9 =3X3X3
where the dimensions 3 of the base 3? is fully a The
extreme intervals are 77=3 x26 less 1, and 29=3 X10 less 1.
oy =
pea NE ei eS
G. Hinrichs on Spectral Lines, 367
Bromine gives the intervals (§ 6)
or again the dimension 8.
Chlorine has the intervals (§ 5)
9=3X3
and 5—-3xX2—1
which, as 5 is probably not complete as far as it goes, again pro-
nounces the dimen 3.
we seein the specira of the chlorine group a full and accu-
rate representation of the atomic dimensions of these elements as ex-
pressed tn their formula A=n.3*+1, where n=4, 9,14. I re-
gret that I have no measurements for the fluorine spectrum
$31. Conclusion.—In the preceding we have found, by means
of the most accurate determinations of Ditscheiner and Pliicker,
that for the thirteen elements considered (viz., hydrogen, oxy-
gen, nitrogen, chlorine, bromine, iodine, mercury, sodium, mag-
esium, calcium, stro ntium, barium, iron, and besides four com-
botndsy - the dark lines of the elements are equidistant throughout
the spectrum, but of varying intensity, many not being observed (or
observable) at all; the oe between the observable lines are ex-
Pressible as simple multiples of the ssid distance indicated by all.
It may be that the lines are a little farther apart in the more re-
fracted bie part of the spectrum ; see
¢ have, further, py considering the spectra of ney elements,
Viz., magnesium, calcium, strontium, barium and chlorine, bro-
mine, iodine, found that the dark lines of the denis are related to
the atomic dimensions, considering the elements composed of one single
primary element, “Orsto
Thus we found the four alkaline-earth metals, having the
‘Same base, 2?, to give almost identically the Poni principal dis-
tance of the lines; the mean was 0mm in wave-length.
Also in the chlorine ce, most fomaskabls confirmations of
this law were di iscove
pothesis of one primary matter as the a. of elements, not
O
with no favor: nevertheless we have engined to develop aes
Consequences of this hypothesis
ms as if spectra Menlyeis has shaken the axiom of the
elementary nature of the so-called chemical elements in minds —
formerly adverse to questioning that axiom. Believin ving the sci-
368 C..A. Goessmann on the Onondaga Mineral Springs.
entific public now more apt to give a hearing to our theory, we
intend to publish a series of articles, giving the properties of
the chemical elements as functions of their atomic weight, this
expressed as in the few instances given in §30. We hope to
prove that the unity of matier is as real as the unity of force—
‘both being the creative work of one all-pervading being.
Iowa City, lowa, July, 1866.
Art. XLIX.— Contribution to the Chemistry of the Mineral Springs
of Onondaga, New York; by CHARLES A. GoEssMANN, Ph.D.,
Chemist to the Salt Company of Onondaga.
{Concluded from page 218.]}
III. How does carbonate of lime act upon a solution of chiorid of
magnesium ?—I boiled for sixteen hours two grams of finely pul-
eblorid of caleium; while freed magnesia enters into com-
bination with the main bulk of its chlorid, forming a soluble
oxychlorid. The duration of treatment and the temperature
influence, to some extent, the degree of change, which in itself
peratures,
IV. How does carbonate of magnesia act upon chlorid of caleium ?
—A solution of 0-7660 grams of chlorid of calcium in 50 cub.
cent. of water was boiled for nearly an hour with an excess of
carbonate of magnesia, equal to 10264 oxyd of magnesium when
C. A. Goessmann on the Onondaga Mineral Springs. 369
an examination proved that only 0°0246 grams of oxyd of cal-
cium, equal to 0:0470 chlorid of calcium were left in the solu-
tion; while the missing lime had been replaced by magnesia: or,
in other words, the chlorid of calcium, originally in solution,
had been replaced by chlorid of magnesium. The excess of
carbonate of magnesia employed for the operation, as left upon
the filter, contained 06480 grams carbonate of lime (=0°7193
chlorid of calcium), The mutual decomposition is therefore,
under proper circumstances, quite rapid and complete. There
tioned, I repeated the experiment, substituting Onondaga brine for
a simple solution of chlorid o i :
8
E
3
.
s.
8
7]
é.
sg
is)
Q.
2
tr
RB
5
:
Set
°
3.
e.
°
=
©
oO
a
&
i=]
Ss
Qu
a
?
hagnitude is in a less degree a matter of time than of the quan-
tities in which they happen to mix. As carbonic acid gas in-
creases the solubility of a number of compounds here under con-
Sideration, its presence either as gas, or in the form of a bicart
nate, must, for that very reason, be highly favorable for bringing
about some of the changes above described. ce
370 C. A. Goessmann on the Onondaga Mineral Springs.
In the following final arrangement of my quantitative analyt-
ical results (see page 216), I favor No. I. in each case as the form
best illustrative of the teachings of my investigations; for I am
inclined to believe that the least objectionable basis for arranging
analytical results, is to state them as they are obtained from an
analysis of the solid residue left after a careful evaporation to
dryness at common temperatures. In taking this view I am
fully aware of the various changes of affinities which the altera-
tions in temperature and concentration, in many instances, exert.
Nos. II. and III, in each corresponding case, represent the same
analysis in forms based upon views differing from those adopted
in this paper. ‘
Arrangement of the above various analytical results according to three
different views.
‘
a. (Willow st.) 5.(Prospect Hill.) ¢. d._ e.(Syracuse brine.)
Sulphate of lime, 03817 15214 06625 0760250 57720
“ magnesia, 01522 0°1764 we. ae es
. U311 00258 04508 0:22560 ee:
Carbonate of lime, 02946 02024 03942 0°26130 ee
6 prot: iron, ' 2. es not det. - ree 00440
Chlorid of sodium, errs sess 12°0844 10°02313 155°3170
e potassium, Sea foes et bea 07109
“ magnesium, 0°0209 00169 0°3016 030340 1°4440
. calcium, pala iy mee oe 5330
Bromid of magnesium, .... es eect 000270 00240
Silica, 00050 = =©0'0085 ~=—s-0°0049~S—s« 0017704 ss
Free carbonic acid, not det. not det. not det, not det. not det.
ce, water 885°7570
IL
a b. c. d.
Sulphate of lime, 0°3817 1°5214 06625 0°60260
- magnesia, 0°1532 01977 0'3810 0°19065
Carbonate of lime, 0°2946 0°2024 073945 0°26186
Chlorid of sodium, 0°0257 00208 11°4572 10°20893
- magnesium, .... ee eer 015247
Bromid, * pees fsa ye 00270
Silica, 0-0050 0°0045 0°0049 0:017704
Free carbohic acid, not det. not det. not det.2 + det.
III,
a. b. 6 d
Sulphate of lime, 0°5851 1:7452 1:0943 0°81830
Car! onate of lime, 0°1451 0°0334 00769 pinto
ed agnesia, 071256 071884 0°2667 ;
Chlorid of sodium, 0°0257 00208 114572 10°39680
Bromid of os aa, ee eens 2
Silica, 0-005:
0 5 cola
Free carbonic acid, _not det. not det. not det.o not det.
« With some alumina. § Also some protox. iron and bromine undetermined.
The changes going on in this class of mineral waters as long
as free carbonic acid or bicarbonates are present, as well as
C. A. Goessmann on the Onondaga Mineral Springs. 371 -
consequences resulting from the application of higher temper-
atures for concentration, have, no doubt, n instrumental in
causing views like those illustrated in N of each analysis.
To represent the strongest acid in combination with the strong-
sium,’ sulphate of soda, sulphate of magnesia and carbonate of
lime; cand d contain the same compounds (except sulphate of
appears that, so far as a, b, ¢ and d are concerned, a more or less
e brine, even if exposed to the influence of a proportionate
access of carbonate of magnesia in a suitable condition, will ulti-
mately change its composition in such a manner as to resemb!
most closely that of the different _— provided the excess of
erat:
chlorid of sodium is left out of consi ion.
* The brines of Onondaga contain traces of iodine ; and so do the mineral wa-
P
i! .
ws fre uently, during the summer season, indications of free iodine,
Particularly of bromine. A peculiar condition of the atmosphere (ozone ?) seems
ir di A similar reaction was noticed during a thunder-
i i from a tel-
Storm within the past su: eAson ; ning
pole (which it had struck) into a tank containing stored bri
mpare for further illustration, 1 News, London,
372 C. A. Goessmann on the Onondaga Mineral Springs.
stances where the gypsum and carbonate of magnesia exceed
the chlorid of sodium, or under the influence of a certain higher
degree of temperature, the product will be sulphate of soda,
chlorid of magnesium, carbonate of lime, and sulphate of mag-
nesia. The essential difference between the brine and the spring wa-
ters consists, as has been noticed, in the fact that the former contains
_ chlorid of culeium instead of carbonate of lime contained in the lat-
ter. The presence of chlorid of calcium in the brines practically
excludes all sulphates, except sulphate of lime. A sufficient
amount of carbonate of magnesia, added to the Onondaga brine,
displaced quite readily the chlorid of calcium, by forming chlorid
of magnesium and carbonate of lime; and would have displaced,
finally, at the expense of the gypsum produced (if exceeding the
chlorid of calcium in amount), sulphate of soda and chlorid of
magnesium, provided an excess of free carbonic acid were secured
during the whole action. Free carbonic acid never fails to
present in the cases presented. The changes which must occur
when the brine and spring waters become mixed are, in view of
the preceding statements, quite obvious. The sulphate of mag-
nesia and sulphate of soda of the waters act upon the chlorid of
calcium of the brine, producing sulphate of lime, and the chlo-
rids of magnesium and sodium; while the carbonate of lime
contained in the spring waters enter simply into the mixture.
The observation, that in several instances carbonate of lime has
been found covering the crystals of gypsum separated in the
wooden vats during the concentration of the brine by solar heat,
may find its proper explanation in the temporary existence of
Ca
circumstances where an access of spring water to the brine has
happened.
Ee oking at these facts in regard to the brines from a mere
too trifling consequence to require any serious notice.
to the water of the springs, the result of a union with brine must
prove quite different, if merely on account of the differences 1n
concentration—a fact most unmistakably demonstrated the
analytical results obtained from the water of the springs ¢ and d.
C. A. Goessmann on the Onondaga Mineral Springs. 373
roper, detailed records of the exact geological features of the
localities here under consideration are quite deficient, as I have
records concerning the real conditions of the strata which di-
rectly underlie our area of red shale—if bearing salt water, etc.,
have come to my knowledge. The importance of such infor-
mation, it must be admitted, cannot be overrated when engage
in tracing the origin of our brines. All that is at present known
of the Onondaga brines and their sources may be summed up in
the following statements: .
. The depressions in the Onondaga Shales are filled, in some
localities, to an extent of nearly three to four hundred feet in
depth with a diluvial deposit (detritus), varying from the coarsest
gravel to the finest drift sand.* :
2. The layers of coarse gravel and fine sand alternate without
any distinct order or extent. : :
3. The gravel has frequently been formed into a conglomerate
of great hardness, commonly called hard-pan—an impermeable
layer which intersects, more or less efficiently, the various strata
of the loose material. Hey
4. A formation of more recent origin, consisting of a red loam
* Dolomite and limestone of a dolomitic character—are slowly acted upon; Kars-
ten, Haidinger, Hunt. ie
“The alternation of impermeable and loose strata may have some bearing upon
the artesian character of the salt springs of Onondaga. Ae
Aw. Jour. Sct—Srcoxp Serres, Vou. XLII, No. 136.—Noyv., 1366. le:
48
374 C. A, Goessmann on the Onondaga Mineral Springs.
or loamy sand, covers, frequently, to a considerable extent, and
to a depth of from 30 to 40 feet, the lower diluvial deposits.
5. The Onondaga red shale has been struck everywere, when
the boring was continued beneath the brine-bearing drift masses;
near the eastern embankment at from 90 to 180 feet ;—toward
the middle of the valley, between Salina and Geddes, at about
882 feet.
brine proper makes its appearance at about 300 feet
below the level of the surface.
. The brine rises by means of boring and tubing to the level
of the lake surface or within from 10 to 15 feet of it; the de-
gree of its rise depends apparently on the specific gravity of the
brine e most concentrated brine remains lowest.
8. The yield of a well, independently of the concentration of
the brine, depends on the size of the gravel or sand around the
lower termination of the tubing.
9. The brine does not increase or decrease in strength during
the winter season, when no pumping takes place; its temper-
ature is from 52° to 58° F.
10. The deep wells bear tlie heavy drafts of brine during the
summer season without suffering in strength, while the shallow
wells decline.*
11. The lowest depth does not, in all cases, guarantee the most
concentrated brine.
12. The red shale apparently bears irregularities of stratifica-
tion independent of the peculiar form of a basin.
13. The outcrop of the red shale on the eastern embankment
of the lowlands—at Green Point—contains veins of gypsum 1n-
terspersed with specular iron ore.
occurrence of the peroxyd of iron asa pseudomorph of
chlorid of iron in this local outcrop of the red shale is deserving
of some attention. The peculiar manner in which the gypsum
and that ore present themselves, sometimes in veins along side
of each other, sometimes the latter surrounded and enclosed by
the former, (besides the resemblance between some of the adjoin-
ing gypsum to the hardened masses of gypsum separated from
its boiling solution in salt water,) are facts which seem to point to
the existefice of some peculiar local disturbance due to subterra-
nean heat. The presence of serpentine at James street height,
and the elevation of the localities where casts of chlorid of so-
dium have thus far been found, may also bear some relation to
* The strength of the brine from the various wells varies from 45° to 76°, Salo-
meter at 60°. The weaker brine is frequently found near the outskirts of the lak
aang the shallow wells. ‘The strongest brine has thus far been
obtained beach of the lake, and along the banks of Onon-
eek, (tov the valley), between Geddes and Salina. The
nual presen of salt for the past ten years averages about
0!
M. C. Lea on some new Manipulations, — 375
the presumed changes which some of the surrounding localities
.
have suffered in regard to their original stratification.
Syracuse, Feb., 1866.
Apt. L.—On some new Manipulations ; by M. Cargy LEA.
J. Grapvation or Burertes.
(1.) Seleetion of Tube.
toa certain extent, that of the calculations, in actual use. In
the following manner a variation in the diameter of the tube un-
der examination, amounting to ;s';5 or less can easily be de-
tected,
i. 2, 3.
wre
ss
ae
A piece of thin glazed letter paper is cut to the shape represent-
ed in fig. 1, this is wound tightly round the tube, making the sue-
cessive folds perfectly correspond at bottom, a card is held to the
paper, and a thin line is drawn with a fine pointed pencil, pass-
ing over three folds of the paper as represented in fig. 2.
876 ' M. C. Lea on some new Manipulations.
The paper is then loosened, slipped a few inches along the tube
and tightened again, keeping the lower edge exactly even. A
very small difference in the diameter of the tube will cause the
line to appear broken, as represented in fig. 3, instead of straight.
A displacement from end to end amounting to one ;}> of an
inch is easily observable, and as this difference corresponds to a
unassisted eye, With an ordinary lens, a difference of ,},; of an
in length which would bear this test when applied with the ut-
most ri
groove, touching its edges, a diamond peneil is drawn along the
tube, the edge of the oat serving me rule, and a line is made
from one end ef the space intended to be graduated to the other.
The tube is then rotated on its axes a quarter of an inch, an
another line is drawn parallel with the former. These lines serve
M. C. Lea on some new Manipulations. 377
to limit the length of the single degrees, each fifth and tenth be-
ing drawn beyond them.
e cleats are then fastened, the three-edged rule is laid with
one of its edges resting on the tu be, and its ends also are secured
by cleats (these last are not represented i in the figure). A piece
4,
ELTILEEL LLL LLL LLL LAL LL Ak
ETTPLTELTTLLTT TTT LL LL} CITUTTITLT ITIL TT TT LT
cer Calibration.
When a burette contains a portion of liquid, it isa matter of —
great nicety to determine the division or fraction of a division to
which the surface of the liquid corresponds. To save the labor
of holding the paper with the lower half blackened behind the ©
ube, it is convenient to substitute card board, and to cut two
parallel slits in it so as to form a band, — ‘being slipped over
the burette, the card maintains its own positi The use
per blackened on the lower half, gives, po to Mohr, all
the accuracy desirable. Bunsen, on the contrary, uses a cathe-
tometer. That the former method is insufficient any one may
Satisfy himself by placing the card in position, and then moving
a head slightly in a vertical direction when the black line which
assumed to mark the surface of the liquid, will be found to
Sie also, and shosigh the change is but small, it will be found
that even the sli ightest movement of the eye produces a change
in the position of the line which gives a difference in results
easily detected by a good balance. Let us suppose that _ ——
server notes the position of the black line before an
Ving a portion of the liquid, he cannot be certain that hise eye akan
occupied the same relative: position in both cases, unless he takes
due precautions. Every observer does not possess a cathetom-
eter, and the following arrangement which is of extreme —
city, will be found to answer every purpose
378 M. C. Lea on some new Manipulations.
A slip of wood is provided 5 inch thick, 14 inches wide, and
- 2feetlong. A piece of card about 4 inches square has two par-
allel slits made in it at one end, one slit half an inch from the
top, the other the same distance from the bottom. These slits
are of such a length as just to permit the piece of wood to be
passed through them, presenting the appearance represented in
the margin.
To make a reading, the half black card previously spoken of is
slipped over the burette, and the line of separation between the
white and black is brought one millimeter below the black line
which marks the surface of the liquid. The instrument repre-
sented in the margin, is then placed beside the burette, 5,
the lower end resting on the table, and the card is raised
or lowered until the edge B exactly corresponds with vi
the line of separation in the black and white card. The
stick is then drawn toward the observer, the end B ns
still resting on the table, and the observer places his eye
so as to keep the line B in range with the line of sep-
aration, and makes the reading.
Another precaution which I regard as essential, and
which I have nowhere seen mentioned, is the follow-
ing: The observer should place himself where he has
a strong side light. The half black half white card must
not be placed parallel to the eyes of the observer, but
must be turned toward the light, so as to make an an-°
gle of 45° with the line of vision. In this way a strong light
is reflected from the card and thrown through the burette in a
manner greatly conducive to clearness of vision, and the black
line which marks the surface acquires a peculiar sharpness. —
I cannot better illustrate the necessity of these precautions,
(especially the use of the little instrament above described, and
which may be termed the eye adjuster) than by the comparison
of the following results obtained without them and with them.
illed water corresponding to the divisions of a tube pre-
pared in the manner above described was carefully weighed in
an accurate balance.
1. Without the precautions,
~ Mean of first three trials, 2023 grams.
“ 66 second “ “ 1974 “
2. With the precautions.
Mean of first three trials, 2°046 grams.
Tt eeoond * S 2047 “
of = tae more <<)“ 2050 “
It will be seen that the trials without the precautions which I
recommended gave results which were not only discordant with
each other, but were all wrong and below the truth. With the
M. C, Lea on some new Manipulations. 379
precautions, on the contrary, the mean of the first three differed
from that of the second vie oy only a single milligram, or less
than the sixtieth part of a
o show that the latter aes were of no fortuitous joxeaisnis
I may mention other instances. The distilled water
ing with a given space was weighed sia times Ae nn ean
trials gave 27091. To the above two rane a may add the fol.
lowing:
Table No, 3, mean of first : weighings, 2: of 4 more; 20515
BOSH 4, 2°38 Mod 2-362
sé “ 5, “ “ “ : 2-365, a“ 3 “ 2:370
ac 4“ 6, “cc “ “ a sé 3°355, “ 9 “a 3°551
it “ i; “cc “ “ 9 “ 3°577, “ 2 “ 3°577
“ce “ 8, “ce “ “ 2 46 2°3605, “ 93 a“ 2°3630
Comparing the first and second columns, that is, the first set
of determinations, with the second we find that the maximum
error was ‘005, and the minimum ‘0, or exact correspondence.
The average of all the cases was 3°3 milligrams, or about one-
twentieth of a drop. It would be difficult 4 8 burete —— to
obtain greater accuracy than this, for if we are using, for
ple, ten per cent solutions, the maximum error sand ani half
a milligram of the reagent used, and the average error woul
be one-third of a milligr
I might greatly aiteod thie table of verifications, but I think
what I have cited will be sufficient i bape that the i simple
precautions which I here propose, viz., the positio Set bu-
rette and card relatively to the light, oa still ee ye
an eye-adjuster consisting of a slip of wood and sliding pst are
suflicient to carry us to the sabain limits of accuracy whic
the burette is capable of affording. It also shows that the bu-
rette is entitled to great confidence where carefully used and
when the reactions which mark the termination of the operation
are perfectly distinct and sharp.
LEE a hcjenccaime
tered ¥ with a funnel of the Sinalless dimensions very speedy
e followi .
nel, and tied part at the neck, taking care that the string
covers all the ey perfectly. A piece of india-rubber tube is
then passed over the open end of the stem of the funnel: this
piece ma sian: be several feet i in length, or it may be shorter,
and the difference be made up by inserting a glass tube. The
funnel and tube are then filled with water, the open end of the
380 M. C. Lea on some new Manipulations.
tube is closed with the finger and the funnel is quickly inverted
in the vessel containing the mixture to be filtered. The other
end of the tube hangs down into a convenient vessel placed on
the floor. If it is desirable that water
shall not be added to the mixture, the
funnel is inverted empty, and the air is
drawn out by a pipette inserted into
the open end of the india rubber tube.
It is evident that this arrangement is
a combination of filter and siphon, and
the pressure of the column of water in
the longer leg of the siphon expedites
the operation very much and leaves the
solid portions much drier than ordinary.
As the liquid begins to be exhausted,
the solid portions are to be gathered
round the funnel with aspatula. When
the filtrate ceases to run, the funnel is
left full:—in order that this may not
return upon the solid matter, the funnel is lifted out of the ves-
sel and the broad end quickly turned uppermost, when the con-
tents of the funnel flow down the tube.
When a precipitate is to be well washed this mode is evidently
not applicable, although a tolerable washing is perfectly practi-
cable. But when liquid and solid matters are to be quickly sep-
arated on a large scale, it is very useful. When masses of small
crystals strongly retaining the mother water, are to be freed
from it, this may be done more quickly and more thoroughly
than by ordinary filtration. Many other cases will readily sug-
gest themselves. For example, when potash has been boiled
with lime to render it caustic in large vessels, it is usually drawn
off with a siphon into bottles and left twelve to twenty-four
hours to settle, and then must be carefully decanted. It is far
less trouble to filter it in the above manner in the act of re-
moving it by asiphon. And so with many of the rough opera-
tions which occasionally present themselves in the laboratory,
and which are upon a scale rather exceeding the capacities of
ordinary filtering funnels.
Tn the i pha of crystals from the mother water, muslin
. will general ly give a clear filtrate. In other cases it is necessary
to place a piece of filtering paper inside the muslin. The paper
must of course be of size sufficient to be secured by the twine at
the neck of the funnel. But the force with which the column 0
water acts upon the muslin over the mouth of the funnel, draws
it to a concave shape, and sometimes breaks the paper. 1°
avoid this, the paper may be folded so as to fit the inside of the
funnel, turning the edges oyer and securing them as before de-
H. Haug on the Electro-motive Force, etc. 381
scribed. ‘T'o do this requires a little dexterity; the diameter of
the paper must be six or seven times that of the mouth of the
funnel, it must be folded across in two rectangular directions in
the ordinary way, then opened and reversed and from opposite
points in the edges folded some distance past the middle. The
funnel is then passed into it and the edges are passed round
the neck of the funnel, the muslin is next placed over the pa-
per and the whole is secured round the neck with cord.
Art. Ll.—Ezperiments on the Electro-motive Force and the Re-
sistance of a Galvanic Circuit; by HERMANN Have.
constants I used Ohm’s method. A single galvanic cell was, by
means of short, thick copper wires, connected with a tangent
compass and a rheochord. The tangent compass was 0:
gendorff’s construction, the needle suspended by a hair, and
modified according to Gaugain, thus securing the proportion-
ality between the intensity and the tangent. The rheochord
was of thin platinum wire, of Poggendorft’s construction, mod-
ified by Dubois-Reymond. Both instruments were made by the
best artists in Germany. ;
The law of the maximum of the effect of a galvanic battery
requires both the internal and the external resistances to be the
8a important reasons, which, however, have no
ords.
rom a careful study of the problem of ety application
of the electro-magnetism as motive power, | have become con-
Vinced that it is merely a question of economy—economy in
any material to be consumed, as well as economy in power to
Am. Jocr. Sct.—Szconp Srxses, Vou. XLII, No. 126.—Nov., 1866.
49
382 H. Haug on the Electro-motive Force
be derived from it, and to be transformed for the object in view.
I found it necessary to exercise this economy from the very out-
set, and further on, at each and every step of all the processes
and operations involved in the development and transformation
of the power. One of these steps was the production of the
galvanic current within a full circuit, from the free electricities
of the poles of the open battery. A given quantity of electri-
city, in a galvanic current, will always, generally viewed, produce
the same amount of electric process. But the free electricities
requiring time for motion i combination (to use some kind of
expression for the details of the electric process), remain during
this time, subject to the influences of induction and the molecu-
lar qualities of the conductors. There may, consequently, occur
something like a diffusion of the electricities, before the electric
process is completed, and. it is most probable that the direction
of the electric process therefore, will not remain one and the
same for the whole quantity of electricities, but that one part of
the electric process will be executed in directions varying from
the main direction, thus diminishing the actual effect of the pro-
cess; and that the amount of this part, respectively the amount
actually disposable, will depend upon and vary with certain cir-
cumstances. Now, as the electro-magnetic effect of the galvanic
current is plainly and invariably governed by the direction of
the electric process, it becomes evident that the amount of elec-
tro-magnetism to be derived from a given quantity of electrici-
ties, and available for any practical purpose, depends entirely
on that part of the electric process which, at last, is going on in
the main direction, and which is only a certain percentage of the
whole electric process.
These considerations compelled me to be watchful, and this
the more as I met with but one remark (by Buff, if I remember
rightly) directly pertaining to this question. He found the elec-
tro-motive force of the battery increasing with the decrease of
the measured intensities of the current. This circumstance, 1
true, would justify my views of the matter, and naturally ihe
affect the economical applications of the galvanic current. ‘The _
and Resistance of a Galvanic Circuit. 383
lution of sulphate of zine) and strong nitric acid, or a properly
acidulated solution of bichromate of potash instead.
My method of experimenting was as follows. After prevent-
ing the conducting wires from affecting the tangent compass,
and determining the intensity of the current within the shortest
circuit possible, increasing length of platinum wire was, without
opening the circuit, introduced into it. The reasons for not
opening the cireuit after each observation, were: 1, the time re-
_ quired for every observation after the circuit had been opened ;
2, within the electro-magnetic machine, a similarly gradual
change of resistance is effected, by means of the brake; 8, the
rheochord is just designed, partly, to relieve of that tedious
practice of opening the circuit every time a new resistance is in-
troduced, and no objections have been raised, so far, against its
proper use.
T'o ealculate the constants of the battery I followed the com-
mon rule, combining the highest intensity within the shortest
cireuit, with each and every lower intensity. Let I, and [,,
be the intensities, E the electro-motive force, R the internal re-
sistance, and P,, P, the respective length of the platinum wire
of the rheochord, and we have
sett; E=Rl,.
? . °
have to state that the figures on the “rheochord” line are centi-
ed. In case
tensity. The rest of the table will explain itself, or will be
explained later.
electro-motive force, exhibit an iner ounting to 100 per
cent within the range of the experiments, with the decrease
€ lower intensity which is to be ed with the direct in-
tensity, or with the increase of the external resistance. I con-
f, *
of Ohm, and its experimental proofs by many of the ablest ob-
servers, led at first to a severe doubt as to the value of my own
384 H. Haug on the Electro-motive Force
ters of platinum wire. Now the first circumstance, the general
case. The errors of observation may hide the normal increase,
and may have led to the trifling with the matter, as generally
observed.
’ Examining more closely some reports of other experimenters
I was indeed able to trace the general increase of the constants
of a galvanic battery with the decrease of the observed intensi-
jess: TF . Miiller records the following results of observa-
tions with six cells of Daniell’s construction. The resistance is
exp in meters of copper wire.
Internal resistances
No. of - . Mean values «
battery. for Meters of copper wire introduced into the circuit. of them.
& 19 40 70 100
he 2°85 2°85 3°20 * ‘pant cin 2:97
2. 341 8°35 3°55 Pee tic 3°44
. 3-02 3-05 3°23 PEERS Ogee Fae 3°10
4, 319 3:19 3°55 pis hark pag 3°25
5. 3:08 3138 3°40 eat rare 3°21
&. 3°68 864 3°57 wise ae 3°63
20°6
Bat. of 6 cells, 18-20 19-03 18°01 2G wees 18°31
18-56 18:38 18-47
I think nobody can overlook the general increase of the inter-
nal resistance of every cell, except No. 6, with the increase 0
the external resistance, or with the decrease of the observed in-
tensity. The sum of the mean resistances of all the six cells is
20°6, while the battery of all the six cells combined actually
id net have more than 18°81, as calculated from the corres-
ponding first three observations with 5, respectively 10, and 40
meters r wire in the circuit. Thus the internal resist-
gre
from these figures that they are equal, to his satisfaction. But
whatever the reason of this real increase of the galvanic con-
dertook other series of experiments, the results of which are
eet iain)
and Resistance of a Galvanic Circuit. 385
given in tables 1, 111, Iv, and v. Since, according to the form-
ula HE=RI,, both the electro-motive force and the internal re-
sistance maintain the same relation, I calculated for these, and
all the following tables, only the internal resistance. Table 111
shows an increase from 2°98 to 5°52, not quite as much as table
I; though the direct intensity is about the rene while the ex-
ternal resistance has been increased very much. ‘Tables 11 and
Iv plainly demonstrate, as a general rule, that the increase of the
internal resistance becomes less remarkable when the direct in-
tensity of the battery is low. This rule, however, has its pei
tions, and table v exhibits a very remarkable case. The direc
intensity of this battery is less than in table u, still nes one
of the internal resistance is much greater than in this t
These results vexed me the more, since I eudentonk the ex-
periments mainly for practical purposes. e experiments de-
layed my proposed investigation, and I could not anticipate any
direct profit. I therefore : concluded to give up, for the pres-
ent, determining the constants of the battery, as they were not
p
fol rom
E E PASM,
=p L= R50 =a opP. that v= (I, oR ih .
As table v shows, the resistance of the copper wire “ caleu-
lated in this manner, increases with the decrease of the observed
intensities, just the same as the internal resistance did. - d no
limit being fixed, there could not be placed any reliability in’
any one of these calculated resistances, nor could I, with such a
method, determine at all any resistance, under circumstances
similar to those I proposed to try within the electro-magnetic
machine. I now was compelled to investigate the matter at
once,
As mentioned above, the reason for the increase of the inter-
nal resistance may be the relations existing between the intensity
of the current, the heat developed by it within the circuit, and
the influence of te temperature upon the resistance of conductors.
Jadeed, the heating of the platinum wire makes our unit of re-
sistance greater than the resistance of a unit of length of the
wire at common temperature. And the liquids in the cup being
3386 H. Haug on the Electro-motive Force
heated, thereby offer Jess resistance. The internal resistance
being diminished, and measured with an increased unit, will, of
course, appear smaller than at low intensities. But knowing this,
every body ought to foresee the general increase of the constants
of the galvanic current with the decrease of its intensity, instead
of neglecting this fact entirely, or underrating its importance,
and treating any variation of results simply as errors of observ-
ation.
whole, it is however just to remark, that it is indeed open to ob-
jection on a general ground, since all the experiments, the ratio of
increase of the resistance of conductors with increase of temper-
ature, as commonly understood, is based upon, must have been
influenced, and their results augmented, by any other reason of
such increase of resistance, if there be any other reason at all.
_But this interpretation of the fact in question is liable to more
direct and more conclusive objections, and I could not feel sat-
isfied with it at all. In the first place, there were the expert
ments of table v, which seemed directly to contradict any such
explanation. The ratio of increase of the internal resistance, the
copper wire included, from 8°86 to 15-71 is oe 223718
The ratio of increase of resistance of the copper wire,
culated separately, from 4:0 to 7-1 is = 1:1775
true internal resistance, resulting either by sub-
tracting the resistances of the copper wire from the
pective whole internal resistances, or by direct
=
calculation after the formula R=; a 2 : . increases
from 4°86 to 8°61, or in the ratio of : = 1:17
Thus the ratio of increase of resistance of the copper wire is the
same as, or even a little greater than, that of the true internal re-
o
>
and Resistance of a Galvanic Circuit, 387
sistance, or the liquids. Now it is eee from the fact of the
cst te r wire aie heated much less t nthe platinum, and in-
or platinum =100+0'1861 t.° Cels., for copper pepsin 9
t.° Celsius), that oe ratio of increase of resistance of the er
wire should a r to be eomenoeacg smaller than that of the
tery, by combining the highest direct intensity with some lower
Ones, or any other specific. “method” certain experimenters dus
fer, is rather arbitrary, since Ohm’s formula knows of no
expected to get more reliable results, especially by throwing out
those observations in which the platinum wire sti “been
heated very much. But these calculations seemed to run per-
fectly wild, giving much greater values than ever before. Com-
bining; for instance, the intensity 0-115 with 100 centimeters 4
platinum wire, in table I, with each of the following three i
ac = , the values for the in-
tensities, after the formula R
Sistance (3° a gave an increase from 1: 7°38, thus far greater
than anybody ‘could attempt to explain by way of influence of
temperature. I now became pretty much convinced that there
with decrease of intensity, aud a reason very much more power-
ful than the influence of temperature, and one able to conceal, by |
Way of its great ratio and the errors of observations, compara-
tively slight differences in the ratio of increase of resistance of
—— and copper as proceeding from the influence of temper-
"On the other hand, those great and much varying values
Seemed to pronounce my observations as perfectly worthless. I
388 H, Haug on the Electro-motive Force, etc.
each —. to such a degree as to silence every doubt about their
wrth
Hov r, my experiments were open to grave objections, as
Paibay: ‘tidizated by the sik rose of the results. Indeed, the
use of acids (nitric acid particularly) from former experiments
may have caused some polarization to set in.. The time required
for a series of observations—the diminishing of the direct in-
tensity usually occurring ‘dusie this time—the change of the
temperature and chemical an ee of the liquids—the influ-
ence perhaps existing of the circuit being kept closed during
the rapid but gradual Saas from one external resistance to
another—all these circumstances may be considered susceptible
of bringing on such extraordinary results as those just referred to.
.
TaBie fi:
Bunsen’s battery. Gas coke in nitric a acid. The acids had been used previous .
a “+ phenechag The platinum wire, when shorter than 8 centimeters, becam
Rheo- Com- Tan- Internal Electro-mo-|Rheo- Com- Tan- Internal Electro-
chord. gent. resist. tive fi hord. pass. gent. resist. tive foree.
0 608° 1-789 60 10°2° 18 658 — 1197
7 best oes Ta Le 8 14 666 12°16
8 285 B43 3:48 6:23 {100 66 "115 669 12:27
10 26-2 “492 3°77 6-77 |'20 57 “099 684 126
20 19°25 "354 4:89 g-sg (160 45 “O79 T1L 13°15
40 13-0 281 587 10:6 |200 3°6 063 697 13°05
Tasie IT,
The same vet The gas coke, — washing with — = been exposed to
he drying action of thé’ r for 24 hou rs. The acids.
Rheochord. Reeadhat Tangent. Int. resist. Rheochord. can: eidsais Int. resist.
0 55° 4281 eles 100 51 0893 6°67
10 22-4 4122 4-05 120 43 0752 667
20 16 2867 5:02 140 3°8 6 6°83
40 10°5 1853 5-96 160 3°33 0576 679
79 1388 6-46 180 295 0516 6°75
80 62 "1086 6-58 200 26 0455 658
Taste III.
The same battery, except the gas coke e sciemmaes sf author dey Hees. Het P
before. Acids the sam
Rheochord. Compass. Tangent. Int. resist. |Rheochord. ee Tangent. Int. resist.
0 61° 1°8040 mae 180 28° 0489 501
10 “4122 2-98 200 25 0437 494
16 28 378 220 04 50
40 105 "1853 458 240 2°15 0375 5-09
60 TS 1370 493 260 + 0 5:13
615 +1077 5-08 280 9 0332 5°25
100 5-05 | 300 1-85 082 547
120 4 0744 5-16 320 18 0814 6
140 365 0638 6513 340 165 5°52
389
TABLE Iv. —Bunsen’s battery,- with a common hollow cylinder. The acids had
been u ii iptas sly.
Huggins and Miller on the Spectrum of a new Star.
Rheochord. Compass. Tangent. Int. r Rheochord. Compass. Tangent. Int. resist.
16°79 100 4°35 0761 7°65
: oF 120 3°95 “0690 39°67
ye eit tg 140 3:4 "0594 38°2
10 12°15 2153 82
‘ oF ae 160 31 0541 38°9
20 98 W727 8204] 48, se 2 eae
40 7°85 "1290 34:17 200 0-75 0480 42°21
60 6:0 "1051 36°22 ss
80 5-06 “0885 37-2
Taste V.—Bunsen’s battery, with gas coke. acids had been used previousl
The nitric acid, however, was mixed with snip acid to restore the stre ook
The circuit contained 80 inches of thin copper wire.
Resist. True Resist. True
Rheo- Com- Tan- Int. of 80in. inter. [Rheo- Com- Tan Int. of 80in. inter.
chord, pass. gent. resist. copper. resist. chord. pass. gent. resist. copper. resist.
84-5° 40 TV 13°01 688 (TTS
O gga CREE tere seer: eeeete BO 86.1408 1967 O18 TED
op. grr 4. i0 66 1157 13°95 631 7-64
3. 25-2 4706 . 8:34 877 457 ‘ :
99 = : : Go" yO 1968 14:49 655 7°94
6 223 4101 85 388 4°71 = 4
‘ ‘ : 90 5&6 0980 14°74 666 808
8 203 3699 906 410 4:96 i
; \ ox | 100 5&2 -0910 1508 679 824
10 188 3405 957 432 56:25
3 : # 120 45 ‘0787 15°29 691. 838
12 174 8184 982 444 5:38 : :
14 : 9 - _ ‘ 140 388 -0664 14°75 667 808
164 2943 1024 463 5°61 a
16 : L974 ‘ ; . 160 35 612 15°41 97 oat
15°5 2773 1059 4°79 5°80 za ne 3 ": 61
sore es eee eee | 660. 20: hel, Sell) Pe eee
20 14 2493 1115 5604 GIL | ~
80 114 -2016 12:22 553 669 |
The 80 inches of copper wire excluded, and the circuit closed directly, the cur-
9°
rent gave a at the compass, corresponding to a mean tangent of 1°2712.
(To be continued.)
Art. LIL—On the Spectrum of a new Star in C
ny WiuiramM Hvuaeins, F.R.S., and W. A. Mitter, M.D,
reas. R.S.?
Corona Borealis ;*
DAY, May the 16th, one of us received a
YESTER
Mr. John Birming oh
am of
Tuam, stating that
note from
he. tad observed
on the night of May 12 a new star in the constellation of Corona
* The Astronomer Royal wrote to one of us on the 18th, rr os
meridian observation of it; on a rough reduction
> A. 1868, May 17,
Dp;
ing precisely oe Drivliodee No. 2765 of ‘ Bonner
tude 9°5.”
agreej
nation +26°, m
that this star will
: convenient
Am. Jour. Scr.—SzcoxD
50
hea ou
its elements
53”
Ste raverzeichniss,’ decli-
Mr, Baxen dell writes on the 2Ist, “It is
t to bea
Series, Vi
ox. XLII, No. 126—Nov., 1866,
390 Huggins and Miller on the Spectrum of a new Star.
Borealis. He describes the star as “very brilliant, of about the
2d magnitude.” Also Mr. Baxendell of Manchester wrote to
one of t us, giving the observations which follow of the new star,
as seen by him on the night of the 15th instant:
“A new star has suddenly burst forth in Corona. It is some-
what less than a degree distant from ¢ of that constellation in a
southeasterly direction, and last night was fully equal in bril-
liancy to J Serpen tis or » Herculis, both stars of about the 3d
magnitude.’
Last night, May 16th, we observed: this remarkable object.
e star appeared to us considerably below the 3d magnitude,
but brighter than ¢ Coronz. In the telescope it was surrounde
with a faint nebulous haze, extending to a considerable distance,
really existed about the star. When the spectroscope was
placed on the telescope, the light of this new star formed a spec-
trum unlike that of any celestial body which we have hitherto
examined. The light of the star is compound, and has eman-
ated from two different sources. Hach light forms itso own aa
formed was emitted by matter in the state of luminous gas.’
These spectra are represented with considerable approximative
accuracy in the annexed diagram.
Spectrum of absor ‘ption and spectrum of bright lines forming the com-
pound spectrum of a new star near ¢ Corone Borealis.
oe On the 17th this nebulosity was suspected only ; on the 19th and 21st it was
seen.
* The position of the groups of dark Lape non that the light of the gies
sphere, after passing th rough the absorbent gpg is yellow. The light, how-
ever, of the green and blue bright lines ake o some extent ms the green pte
pe are Oe f other refangitities) which tive been at stopped by absorption. To
’ , the tar appears nearly white. Mewerty: as "ihe star flickers,
“ys an occasional preponderance of yellow r bl . Bax
~ ep ae verte the results of prismatic analysis, deseri ‘bes the impression he
: ap siege . be “as if the yellow of the star were seen i brough an overlying film of
=
Huggins and Miller on the Spectrum of a new Star. 391
at small eer as far as the spec etrum can be tr
n of the gaseous spectrum.—A bright Lina, much more
brilliant ro the part of the continuous spectrum upon which
it falls, occupies a position which several measures make to be
coincident with Fraunhofer’s F.* At rather more than one-fourth
of the distance which separates F and G, a second and less bril-
liant line was seen. Botti these lines were narrow and sharply
defined. Beyond these lines, and at a distance a little more
than one- thaed: of that which separates the second bright line
from the strongest bright one, a third bright line was observed.
€ appearance of this line suggested that it was either double
of the spectrum, Serod: a line brighter than he
normal relative brillianey’ of this part of the spectrum. ‘h
brightness of this line, however, was not nearly so marked in
proportion to that of the part of the spectrum i it occurs,
as was that of the lines in the green and blue.”
General conclusions.—It is difficult to imagine the present phys-
ical constitution of this remarkable object. There must be a
photosphere of matter in the solid or liquid state emitting light
of all refrangibilities. Surrounding this must exist also an at-
: uced by taking the induction-spark
through the thes soe a Smal lion a the teen imultaneously with
the beioht lines of the star. The brightest line coincided with the middle Tf the
expanded line of hydrogen which corresponds to Fraunhofer’s F. On pie net
the faintness of the red end se = rum, when the amount of di
sary for these observations w: Sved th the exact eoincidence of the ‘aie tn ie
part of the spectrum with the ie line of Sparores, though extremely probable,
was not determin oe aaa equal certainty.
pe estar were observed again on the 17th, the 19th, the ae
and the 23d. On in evenings no important alteration oe
lith an e t of
veni
than on the 16th, the ved bright line ine appeared a ond brighter rohateity raed
green and blue bright lines. On the 19th and 21st the absorption lines about 6
were stronger than on the 16th. From the 16th the continuous spectrum n-
more give he gaseous spectrum, so than on the 23d,
though the s as a whole was faint, the bright lines were brilliant when
compared with the continuous spectrum. eae
392 Huggins and Miller on the Spectrum of a new Star.
mosphere of cooler vapors, which give rise by absorption to the
groups of dark lines. '
Besides this constitution, which it possesses in common with
the sun and the stars, there must exist the source of the gaseous
spectrum. That this is not produced by the faint nebulosity
seen about the star is evident by the brightness of the lines, and
the circumstance that they do not extend in the instrument be-
gibi
The character of the spectrum of this star, taken together
the absorption Spectrum of the new star, The whole class of
7 On the dependenee of the relative characters of the bright lines of hydrogen
— oa of pressure and temperature, see Pliicker ty Hittorf, Phil, Trans.,
E.. Frankland on the Source of Muscular Power. 393
tint, possess a close general accordance with those of « Orionis,
8 Pegasi, and the absorption spectrum of the remarkable object
described in this paper. The purely speculative idea presents
itself from these observations, that hydrogen probably plays an
important part in the differences of physical constitution which
apparently separate the stars into groups, and possibly also in
the changes by which these differences may be brought about.*
Art. LIII.—On the Source of Muscular Power; by EDWARD
FRANKLAND, Ph.D., F.R.S."
Wuart is the source of muscular power? Twenty years ago,
if this question had been asked, there were se few philosophers
who would have hesitated to reply, “The source of muscular
return such a reply. We at Sie ow that an animal, however
high its organization may be, can no more generate an amount
of force capable of ries A a re vof sand, than a stone can
' fall upwards or a locomotive drive a train ‘without fuel. _
that such an animal can do is to liberate that store of force
potential energy, which is locked up in its food. It is the = sd
weal change which food suffers in the body of an animal that lib-
erates the previously pent-up forces of that food, which now
make their appearance in the form of actwal energy—as heat and
mechanical motion.
— food, and food — comes the mailer of which the
mal body is built up; and from food alone come all the dif-
este: kinds of physical force whisk an animal is capable of man-
ifestin
The” two chief forms of force thus manifested are ~~ and
Muscular motion or mechanical work, and these have been almost
universally ‘steed to two distinct sources—the heat to the ‘oxy
* Mr. Rapesdelt Cah re ee poh g Be oe, of ee:
May o GM. T, ==3'6 or 3°7 magnitude.
a ih “ aa 42
roam yf Weeder 0! is £ 49
418 * 12 60 as = 53
e998 © 18 IS = “gs 57
“ 99“ 19 “ * 62
“ 91 * 19g bi eS 73
wes is. . TT
8.28 = ).40..: 80 . * ie
“ “ 10 “ ae
24 30
* From the Proce. Roy. Inst. of Great Britain, June . oe
394 LE. Frankland on the Source of Muscular Power.
ation of the food, and the mechanical work to the oxydation of
the muscles.
This doctrine, first promulgated, the speaker believed, by
Liebig, occupies a prominent position in that philosopher's justly
celebrated ‘Chemico-Physiological Essays.’
In his work entitled ‘ Die organische Chemie in ihrer Anwen-
dung auf Physiologie und Pathologie, Braunschweig, 1842,’ Lie-
big says, ‘ All experience teaches that there is only one source
of mechanical power in the organism, and this source is the
transformation of the living parts of the body into lifeless com-
pounds.... This transformation occurs in consequence of the
combination of oxygen with the substance of the living parts of
e body.” And again, in his ‘Letters on Chemistry, 1851,’
p. 866, referring to these living parts of the body, he says, ‘“ All
these organized tissues, all the parts which in any way manifest
force in the body are derived from the albumen of the blood;
all the albumen of the blood is derived from the plastic or san-
—- constituents of the food, whether ‘animal or vegetable.
t is clear, therefore, that the plastic constituents of food, the
ultimate source of which is the vegetable kingdom, are the con-
ditions essential to all production or manifestation of force, to
all these effects which the animal organism produces by means
of its organs of sense, thought, and motion.” And again, at
page 374, he says, “The sulphurized and nitrogenous constitu-
ents of food determine the continuance of the manifestations of
force; the non-nitrogenous serve to produce heat. The former
are the builders of organs and organized structures, and the pro-
ducers of force; the latter support the respiratory process, they
are materials for respiration.”’ ;
This doctrine has since been treated as an almost self-evident
truth in most physiological text-books; it has been quite recently
supported by Ranke ;’ and, in his lecture ‘On the Food of Man
in relation to his Useful Work, 1865,’ Playfair says, page 37,
“ From the considerations which have preceded, we consider
Liebig amply justified in viewing the non-nitrogenous portions
of food as mere heat-givers. .. . While we have. been led to
the conclusion that the transformation of the tissues is the source
of dynamical power in the animal.” At page 30 he also says,
“T agree with Draper and others in ssi fo the contrac-
tion of a muscle due to a disintegration of its particles, and its
relaxation to their restoration... . All these facts prove that
transformation of the muscle through the agency of oxygen 38
the condition’ of muscular action.” Finally, in a masterly Te
view of the present relations of chemistry to animal life, pub-
lished in March last,* Odling says, page 98, “ Seeing, then, that
* «Tetanus eine Physi i Studie’ Leipzi 1865.
saan ciate St tert
E.. Frankland on the Source of Muscular Power. 395
muscular exertion is really dependent upon muscular oxydation,
we have to consider we should be the products, and what the
value of this oxydati ... And again, page 108, “The
slow oxydation of so muc mh carbon and hydrogen i in the human
body, therefore, will —<— produce its due amount of heat, or
force liberated by the stl of the st a and hydrogen of
fat is expressed solely in the form of heat, the ‘combustion of -
not the material by the chemical ge re which mi an igcohy work
is produced.” He showed that the 15 lbs. of dry muscles of a
man weighing 150 Ibs. would, if their mechanical work were
due to their chemical change, be completely oxydized in eighty
days, the heart itself in eight days, and the ventricles of the
eart in two and a half days. After endeavoring to prove by
physiological arguments that not one per cent of the oxygen ab-
sorbed in the lungs could possibly come into contact with the
substance of the muscles, Mayer says, ‘The fire-place in which
this combustion goes on is the interior of the blood Vessels, the
blood however—a slowly-burning liquid—is the oil in the r Pe
of life. . . . Just as a plant-leaf transforms a given mechanical
effect, light, into another force, chemical difference, so does the
motion two aie are necessary—the conveyance of combusti-
ble, substances to the muscle by the blood, and the access of
oxygen by respiration. He concluded that the chief combusti-
ble substance so used was fat. A century before —— iso-
lated oxygen, ‘Mayow-m was aware of its existence in the air, in
nitre, and jn nitric acid; he knew that ieabation: is supported
by the oxygen of the air, and that this gas is absorbed in in the
ween organische Bewegung in ihrem Zusammenhange mit dem Stoffwechsel,”
* ‘De Motu musculari, 1681. Mayow was born in 1645, and died 1679,
396 E. Frankland on the Source of Muscular Power.
lungs by the blood, and is absolutely necessary for muscular
activity.
For two decades this doctrine sank into oblivion; and it is
only within the last two years that it has been again advanced,
chiefly by Haidenhain,* Traube, and, to a limited extent, by
Donders.’
Experimental evidence was, however, still wanting to give
missing link in the following words: “The question now arises
what quantity of heat is generated when muscle is burnt to the
products in which its constituent elements leave the human
body through the lungs and kidneys? At present, unfortu-
nately, there are not the experimental data required to give an
accurate answer to this important question, for neither the heat
of combustion of muscle nor of the nitrogenous residue (urea)
e is known.” Owing to the want of these data, the
numerical results of the experiments of Fick and Wislicenus
are rendered less conclusive against the hypothesis of muscle
combustion than they otherwise would have heeti while similar
determinations, which have been made by Edward Smith,
Haughton, Playfair, and others, are even liable to a total misin-
terpretation from the same cause.
_ The speaker stated that he had supplied this want by the ca-
lorimetrical determination of the actual energy evolved by the
combustion of muscle and of urea in oxygen. Availing him-
self of these data he then proceeded to the consideration of the
problem to be solved, the present condition of which might be
thus summed up:—It is agreed on all hands that muscular
Mechanische Leistung Wirmeentwickelung und Stoffumeatz bei der Muskel-
~ press, the speaker has become aware that ‘
Lawes and Gilbert advocated this doctrine in 1852, and repeatedly since; their
opinions being founded upon ppm on the feeding of cattle.
us oo influss des Kochsalzes, des Kaffeés und der Muskel-
ing Stoffwechsel,’ p. 150. Munich, 1860.
* Phil. 1861, p. 747. > M
Stace Oe eee SO See ae ee See Ree
;
F
4
E.. Frankland on the Source of Muscular Power. sa:
power is derived exclusively from the mutual chemical action
of the food and atmospheric oxygen; but opinions differ a
whether that food must first be converted into the actual orga
ized substance of the muscle, before its oxydation can give ri
to mechanical force, or whether it is not also possible that mus-
cular work may be derived from the oxydation of the
which has only arrived at the condition of blood and not of or-
ganized muscular tissue.
The importance of this problem can scarcely be overrated ; it
is a corner-stone of the phymclogiea) edifice, and the key to the
phenomena of the nutrition of animals. For ae isi tee so-
lation the following data require o be determined :
e amount of force or actual pieces generated by the
ae of a given amount of muscle in the body.
The amount of enagtilig force exerted by the muscles
of the body during a given
3d. The quantity of eda iad in the body during the
same time.
If the total amount of force involved in muscular action, as
measured by the mechanical work performed, be greater than
that ioe ye could possibly be generated by the quantity of muscle
oxydized during the same time, it necessarily follows that the
power of the muscles is not derived ae from the oxyda-
tion of their own substance.
As regards the first datum to be determined, it is necessary to
agree upon some unit for the measurement of mechanical ag
The unit most commonly adopted is that represented by the
lifting of a kilogram wei sht to the height of one meter. The
researches of Joule and Mayer have connected this standard
cal power, 425 te ean gain, if a man parses 64
oe grams climbs to a height of 1,000 meters, the ascent of his.
follow the example of the Registrar-General in abbrovisliag the French
ink, gramme to Be
Am, Jour. So1.—Srconp Srrizs, Vou. XLII, No. 126.—Noy., 1906.
51
*
398 £. Frankland on the Source of Muscular Power.
body to this height represents 64,000 meterkilograms of work;
that is, the labor necessary to raise a kilogram weight to the
height of 2 meter 64,000 times. ;
In order to estimate the amount of actual energy generated
by the oxydation of a given amount of muscle in the body, it is
necessary to determine, first, the amount of actual energy gene-
rated by the combustion of that amount of muscle in oxygen,
and then to deduct from the number thus obtained the amount
of energy still remaining in the products of the oxydation of
this quantity of muscle which leave the body. Of these pro-
quantity (2 liters) of water. The determinations were made
with this instrument in the following manner:—19%5 grams of
chlorate of potash, to which about one-eighth of peroxyd of
manganese was added, was intimately mixed with a known
weight (generally about 2 grams) of the substanee whose poten-
tial energy was to be determined, and the mixture being then
placed in the copper tube above mentioned, a small piece of cot-
ton thread, previously steeped in chlorate of potash and dried,
was inserted in the mixture. e temperature of the water 1n
the calorimeter was now ascertained by a delicate thermometer ;
and the end of the cotton thread being ignited, the tube with its
contents was placed in the copper bell and lowered to the bottom
of the water. As soon as the combustion reached the mixture
a stream of gases issued from numerous small openings at the
lower edge of the bel! and rose to the surface of the water—a
height of about 10 inches.
At the termination of the deflagration, the water was allowed
ree access to the interior of the bel, by opening a stop
connected with the bell by a small tube rising above the surface
quickly established. The temperature of the water was again
carefully observed, and the difference between this and the pre-
vious observation determines the calorific power or potential en-
ergy, expressed as heat, of the substance consumed.
dy.
E.. Frankland on the Source of Muscular Power. 399
‘The value thus —_ is, however, obviously subject to the
following correctio
1 € amount of het absorbed by the calorimeter and appa-
tus aenele’, to be added.
2. mount of heat carried away by the escaping gases,
after issuin ng from the w ae to be added.
ount of heat due to the decomposition of the chlo-
rate of potash cst eb to be deducted.
he amount of heat equivalent to the work performed b
the gases generated in overcoming the pressure of the atmos-
phere, to be udded.
Although the errors due to these causes to some extent neu-
tralize each other, there is still an outstanding balance of suffi-
cient importance to require that the necessary corrections should
be mnie! attended to.
unt of error from the first cause was once for all ex-
posiiuereaile determined, and was added to the increase of tem-
perature observed in each experiment.
The amount of heat carried away by the ei gases after
issuing from the water may be divided into two items, viz. :
a. The amount of heat rendered latent by the water which is
cacsied off by the gases in the form of ——
The amount of heat carried off by these gases by reason of
their temperature being above that of the ane from which they
ue.
on was ascertained that a stream of dry air when passed through
the water of the calorimeter, at about the same rate and for the
same > period of t time as the gaseous products of combustion, de- .
C.
neglecte
' The two remaining corrections can be best considered na
nee a single careful-determination eliminates both. When
combustible substance is barnti sce *ygen, the conitons
400 E. Frankland on the Source of Muscular Power.
duced must obviously, in overcoming atmospheric pressure, per-
form an amount o < equivalent, in round numbers, to the
lifting of a weight of 15 lbs. to the height of one inch. In per-
forming this work the gases are cooled, and consequently less
heat is communicated to the water of the calorimeter. Never-
theless, the loss of heat due to this cause is but small. Under the
actual conditions of the experiments detailed below, its amount
would only have inereased the temperature of the water in the
ealorimeter by 0°07 C. Even this slight error is entirely elim-
inated by the final eorrectiori which we have now to consider.
It is well known that the decomposition of chlorate of potash
into chlorid of potassium and free oxygen is attended with the
evolution of heat. Ifa few grains of peroxyd of manganese, or
eo of peroxyd of iron, be dropped into an ounce or two 0
lst experiment,
Ind “ t
i
4th
Sth «
te eh chee aad |
oe Tt
co co oO
-1
on
’ ’ . ' i i
jot, eae Ste Bee
5)1891
Mean, - - - - 378
E. Frankland on the Source of Muscular Power. 401
This result was confirmed by the following experiments :-—
1. Starch was burnt, firstly, in a current of oxygen gas, and
secondly, by admixture with chlorate of potash and peroxyd
of manganes
Heat units epeontt by one J me of starch burnt with 9° , 5 granite
chlorate of pot: 4290
Heat units furnished by ai same weight of sipaag burnt i in a stream
of oxygen gas, 3964
Difference - - - - 326
2d. Phenylic alcohol was burnt with i erie of potash, and
the result compared with the calorific value of this substance as
determined by Favre and Silbermann.
Heat pee furnished by. one ome of peeagic alcohol burnt with.
9°75 grams cep 3 ee 8183
Heat aniés furnished poe of pienyiie alcohol when burnt
ith gaseous ox coe i (Pavic and Silbermann), 7842
Difference, - - : - 341
These three determinations of the heat evolved by the decom-
aaalees of 9°75 grams of chlorate of potash, furnishing the num-
ers 378, 326, and 341, agree as closely as could be expected,
when it is considered that ¢ all experimental errors are oe
thrown upon the calorific value of the chlorate of potash.
‘he mean of the above five experimental numbers w
eases, deducted from the actual values read off in the following
determinations.
It was ascertained by numegous trials that all the chlorate of
potash was decomposed in the de 1088 grations, and that but mere
traces of carbonic oxyd were pro
Joule’s mechanical equivalent of heat was employed, viz., 1
kilogram of water raised 1° C.=423 meterkilograms.
The following wale were obtained :
Actual energy developed by one gram of each substance when burnt in oxygen.
Name of substance dried asa Sele Liege
amc su nee
3 i-| 2d Experi-| 3d Experi- 4th Experi- of force,
alesis paper one | mk | maar | ane es (Mean,)
Beef muscle —
by repeated w: 5174 5062 5195 5088 5103 2161
ing with a Sg
Purified albumen, ....) 5009 4987 sun vie 4998 2117
en Pee eet ices 69 Pie eee Bs 9069 3841
Hippuric acid, ...... | 5330 5437 ave esws | 5888 2280
atid: 3 2645 2585 eae vee 2615 1108
ere eae ee 2121 | 2302 | 2207 | 2197 | 2206 | 934
4 The speaker showed the combustibility of urea by ree upon asbestos in
a jar ee gen gas,
402 E. Frankland on the Source of Muscular Power.
It is evident that the above determination of the actual energy
developed by the combustion of muscle in oxygen represents
more than the amount of actual energy produced by the oxyda-
tion of muscle within the body, because, when muscle burns in
oxygen its carbon is converted into carbonic acid, and its hydro-
gen into water; the nitrogen being, to a great extent, evolved
in the elementary state; whereas, when muscle is most com-
pletely consumed in the body, the products are carbonic acid,
water and urea; the whole of the nitrogen passes out of the
body as urea—a substance which still retains a considerable
amount of potential energy. Dry muscle and pure albumen
yield, under these circumstances, almost exactly one-third of
their weight of urea, and this fact, together with the above de-
of urea, enables us to deduce with certainty the amount of ac-
tual energy developed by muscle and albumen respectively when
consumed in the human body. It is as follows:—
Actual energy developed by one gram of each substance when consumed in the body.
Ni f subst: . ted at 100° 4 Heat units. of f ha ‘
‘ame 0: C. (Mean.) iieus
Beef muscle puritied by ether, | 4368 1848
Purified albumen, ........... 42638 1803
We have thus ascertained the first of our three data, viz., the
amount of force or actual energy generated by the oxydation of
a given amount of muscle in the body; and we now proceed to
ascertain the second, viz., the amount of mechanical force ex-
erted by the muscles of the body during a given time. For this
purpose we have only to avail ourselves of the details of Fick
viz., the height of the summit of the Faulhorn above the level
of the lake of Brienz multiplied by the weight of the body;
the former reckoned in meters, the latter in kilograms. The
weight of the body with the equipments (hat, clothes, stick)
" Phil. Mag., vol. xxxi, p. 496, 1866.-
E.. Frankland on the Source of Muscular Power. 408
amounted to 66 kilograms in Fick’s case, and 76 in Wislicenus’s,
The height above the Faulhorn above the level of the lake of
Brienz is according to trigonometric measurements, exact
1966 meters, Therefore Fick Solana eta 129, 096 and Wislice-
nus 148, 656 meterkilograms of muscular ork,”
But in addition to this measurable axiardal work there is an-
other item of force “which can be expressed in units of wor
and though its value cannot be quite accurately calculated, <0
a tolerable approximation can be made. It consists of the foree
consumed in respiration and the heart’s action. The wor
formed by the heart has been estimated, in a healthy full-grown
man, at about 0°64 meterkilogram™ for each systole. During
the ascent, Fick’s pulse was about 120 per minute. That gives
for the 55 hours of the ascent an amount of work which may
be estimated at 25,844 meterkilograms, entirely employed in the
maintenance of the circulation. No attempt has ae age ame
to estimate the labor of respiration One of u n,
however, in the second edition of his i Medical Physics” a 206),
that Donders’s well-known investigations concerning the condi-
tions of pressure in the cavity of the thorax gi give sufficient data
for such an estimate. He has there shown that the amount of
cent at an average rate of about 265 respirations per minute,
which gives, according to this estimation, an amount of ee ge
for Wisliootue s amount of w ork, as far as it is sable to cal-
culate it, a total of 184,287 Tatar sloarravin
“Besides these estimated (and certainly not agar
items, there are several others which cannot be even approxi-
mately calculated, but the sum of which, if it Paar bs obtained,
would probably exceed even our present large total. We will
try to give at least some sort of an account of them. It must
first be remembered that in the steepest mountain path there are
occasional level portions, or even descents. In ade i such |
places the muscles of the leg are exerted as they are in ascend-
ing, but the whole work performed is eenifovined back into
heat. The same force-producing process, however, must
going on in the muscles as if work were being performed which |
* 0-43 is here assigned as the work of the left, and 0-21 as that of the right ven-
tricle.
404 E. Frankland on the Source of Muscular Power.
did not undergo this. transformation. In order to make this
point yet clearer we may take into consideration that the whole
work of the ascent, only existed temporarily as work. On the
following day the result was reversed; our bodies approached
liberated in the form of heat.”
E. Frankland on the Source of Muscular Power. 405
Ascent of the Faulhorn.
|__ Fick.) Wislicenus.
Gram “Gram
Amount of nitrogen gees in urine pe hour before ascent, 63 “61
Weight of dry muscle co be Bie) ti nitrogen, ".. 2 cee cacs 419 405 —
, Amount of nitrogen secreted per hour during edit. Pee eas "41 39
Weight of dry muscle corresponding to nitrogen, Pe tes ie BL 2-56
pp ar a secreted per hour during 6 hours after t 40 40
the
Weight of p5 muscle corresponding to nitrogen, .......+.- 2:63 2°63
— of nitrogen secreted per hour during the ijlenine AB 51
Weight of dry muscle corresponding to nitrogen, serteeeced, Ue 3°39
Total amount of nitrogen secreted during ascent, .......... 3°31 3°18
Ditto during 6 hours after ascent, ...:.......... ands Velreiele 243 2°42
5-74 5°55
Weight of dry muscle correspond- | During ascent, 20-98 20°89
ing to nitrogen secreted, During 6 hours after ascent, | 1619 161
87:17 37:00
The results of these determinations add a new link to the
chain of experimental evidence, that muscular exertion does not
Ls atiagiely increase we aeoratioh of nitrogen through the urine.
abstained from all nitrogenous foo uring these + irty-on
hours they had naihing | in the way of solid food except sank,
fat, and sugar e two former were taken in the form of cakes.
Starch was mad with water into a thin paste, which was
quantities usual in mountain excursions. It was doubtless ow-
ing to this absence from food containing nithaneh that the
amount of this element secreted th e urine, declined
tolerably hyd from the 29th of August till the evening of
the 30th. Even in the night of the 30th to the 31st, in spite of
the plentiful sneak of albuminous food on the evening of the
30th, the secretion of nitrogen was less than on the precedin,
night. The reason of this is probably to be sought for in the
circumstance that during the period of abstinence, the secretion
of nitrogen was ane on iy te Dae of tissues, and now
ur. §cr.—Seconp Serizs, Vo L. XLII, No. 125.—Nov., 1806.
52
r
406 E. Frankland on the Source of Muscular Power.
the only other mode of exit for this element is through the
feces. Now the proportion secreted through the feeces has been
estimated by Ranke at about one-twelfth of that in the urine;
but inasmuch as all experiments on the subject tend to show
that this alvine nitrogen is, as voided, a constituent of un-oxyd-
ized compounds, that is, of compounds that have not yielded up ©
their force, it has no claim upon our attention.
There is still another circumstance which requires to be taken
into consideration before we proceed to apply our three data to
the solution of the problem before us. It is this:—Is it possible
that at the termination of the ascent of the Faulhorn there might
sential work in ascending, have been estimated by Weber to
weigh in both legs 5’8 kilograms, and if we assume that before
the ascent these muscles contained ‘06 per cent of creatin, while
ter the ascent the percentage had increased to ‘14 per cent,
then the amount of creatin thus exceptionally retained would
amount to 4°64 grams, which would be derived from 84 grams
of muscl
e. :
The speaker had been unable to determine the calorific effect
of creatin, and consequently the actual energy developed by the
transformation of muscle into creatin; for, although he was
kindly furnished with an ample supply of this material by Dr.
Dittmar, yet all attempts to burn it in the calorimeter were fruit-
less. n when mixed in very small proportions with chlorate
of potash and other combustibles of known value, the mixture
invariably exploded violently on ignition. Although actual de-
termination thus fails us, there can be no doubt that the trans-
‘or of muscle into creatin and other non-nitrogenous pro-
ducts must be attended by the liberation of far less actual energy
than its transformation into urea, carbonic acid, and water. To
be convinced of this, it is only necessary to compare (under
equal nitrogen value) the formule of muscle, creatin, and urea,
sesses no thermal value, and that each atom of oxygen destroys
approximately the thermal effect of two atoms of hydrogen.
E. Frankland on the Source of Muscular Power. 407
Comparable Powerful or
formalz, unburnt matter,
Muscle, - = - Casha; Ca,Uas
Creatin, - - oe, Hy aye, ohh
Cred, 2 UR ae, €;'
Thus it is evident that the amount of creatin exceptionally
retained in the system could not greatly affect the result of the |
experiment as regards the possible amount of actual energy de-
rivable from the metamorphosed tissues during the ascent;
firstly, on account of the small quantity of creatin so retained,
and, secondly, because creatin still contains about one-third of
the potential energy of the muscle from which it is derived.
muscles of the legs contained at the end of the ascent eleven
times as much creatin as was present in them before the ascent,
In the above tabular statement of results provision has been
made for this allowance by adding together, on the one hand,
the amounts of nitrogen secreted during the ascent and six
hours after it, and, on the-other, the weights of dry muscle cor-
responding to these two amounts of nitrogen.
Having thus far cleared the ground, let us now compare the
amount of measured and ealculated work performed by each of
the experimenters during the ascent of the Faulhorn, with the
actual energy capable of being developed by the maximum
amount of muscle that could have been consumed in their bod-
ies, this amount being represented by the total quantity of nitro-
gen excreted in each case during the ascent and for six hours
afterwards.
Fick. | ‘Wislicenus. |
Grams, Grams.
Weight of dry muscle consumed 37-17 STO"
Actual ene capable of being produced by the ) | Meterkilograms., Meterkilograms,
eidslsiphind of 87-17 and 87°00 grams of dry 68,690 68,376
muscle in the body,
Measured work performed in the ascent (external t 129,096 148,656
)s :
Calculated circulatory and respiratory work Bt 30,541 35,681
formed during the : :
| 159,687 184,287
It is thus evident that the muscular power expended by these
gentlemen in the ascent of the Faulhorn could not be exclusively
i es, or of other
erived from the oxydation, either of their inusel of of
nitrogenous constituents of their bodies, since the maximum of
408 E, Frankland on the Source of Muscular Power,
power capable of being derived from this source even under
very favorable assumptions is, in both cases, less than one-half
of the work actually performed. But the deficiency becomes
much greater if we take into consideration the fact, that the ac-
p as mu
energy developed within it, the remainder taking the form of
heat. Taking then this highest estimate of the proportion of
mechanical work capable of being got out of actual energy, it
becomes necessary to multiply by two the above numbers repre-
senting the ascertainable work performed, in order to express
the actual energy involved in the production of that work. We
then get the following comparison of the actual energy capable
of being developed by the amount of muscle consumed, with
the actual energy necessary for the performance of the work
executed in the ascent of the Faulhorn,
Fick. Wislicenus,
Actual é ern oe ia Meterkilograms. | Meterkilograms.
ctual energy capable of being produced by
muscle metamorphosis, . , ,... 68,690 68,376
Actual energy expended in work performed, ,.. 819,274 868,574
Thus, taking the average of the two experiments, it is evident
that scarcely one-fifth of the actual energy required for the work per-
could be obtained from the amount of muscle consume
so military prisoners
\dduced by Playfair and made upon pedestrians, pile-drivers,
men turning a winch, and other laborers.
Treadwi 1
: expert
with steps — at distances of eight inches, and the prisoners
to turn the wheel downwards by stepping upwards,
‘ou pe designated below as A, B, C, and D, were em-
ployed in these experiments, and each worked upon the wheel
:
:
‘
@
az
a
E. Frankland on the Source of Muscular Power.
was 34 hours,
409
The total ascent ie hour sei feet, or per day
sults
1432 mile, The following are the
Treadwheel ine sith
ee : Da External work Weight of dry —
Weight in| Ascent in ore : ‘ é ‘le
kilograms.} meters. | hg ed acenaterms | ps a | ” ponding to.
nitrogen.
Grams. Grams,
A 476 23,045 10 1,096,942 1713 1101-2
B 49 23,045 10 1,129,205 1745 LISt-%
Cc 55 20,741 1,140,755 168-0 1080°1
D 56 20,741 9 1,161,496 159°3 1024°8.
In these experiments the measured work was performed in the
short space of 8} hours, while the nitrogen estimated was that
voided in the shape of urea in 24
necessary to
hours.
to add to the measured work that calculated for respi-
ration and circulation for the whole period of 24 ho
It will,
therefore, be
This
urs.
amount of internal work was Fens from the estimates of
Helmholtz and Fick, to be as follows
Internal work,—(Helmholtz and Fick.)
Circulation of the mb during 24 hours, at 76
pulsations
eirnebret for 24 oe at 12 respirations pert
S
Statical activity 0 of denen as
Peristaltic moti
. not determined.|
Tf “
Work
performed.
Meterkilograms,
69,120"
10,886 -
~ 80,006
Actual energy
__Tequired.
“Meterkilograms.
138,240
“ BITT2s
not determined,
~ "460,012
Taking this estimate for ae work, ‘Ale average results of
ressed :—
the treadwheel experiments m
Treadwheel work.
per
Actual energy F y producible by the consumption of 114 grams of ii
muscle i
In t
ave’ bod enetey ‘developed i in the body of ea ach man, Vv
External wor!
Circulation, - - - 69,120 2=
Respiration, : .
* Since making use of this n
the heart alone, for’ 24 hours,
than that above ‘for the «
10,886 X 2== 21, 772
119,605 X 2==239, eyes mis,
240
“
119,605 mks.
17°7 grams.
a6 ee
210,672 mks,
iid
399,222
umber, I find t a Donders estimates the work
at 86,000 meter ms mone a nophaee igor
combined work of ci ireulation and
410 E. Frankland on the Source of Muscular Power.
of these double journeys occupy one minute. e men were
daily engaged with—shot-drill 8 hours, ordinary drill 1} hours,
oakum picking 34 hours,
The total average daily external work was estimated by
Haughton at 96,316 meterkilograms per man.
e following is a condensed summary of the results of these
experiments :—
Military vegetarian prisoners at shot-driil,—( Haughton.)
Average external work per man per day, wy eae - 96,316 mks.
Average nitrogen evolved per man perday, - - - - 121 gratms,
Weight of dry muscle corresponding to average nitrogen evolved ee “
ee a eS
Actual ene ucible. by the consumption of 77-9 grams of
dry ee the toa : ad aes Peg aan ER 143,950 mks,
Average actual energy devehsped daily in the
y of each man, viz., External wor
96,316 2== - - - - 192,682 mks.
Internal work, eo Ee ee eee 160,012 “
are rar 359,644 mks,
_ Owing chiefly to the vegetable diet of these prisoners, the re-
It is more conclusive than that obtained upon the treadwheel,
the amount of work actually performed being considerably more
than twice as great as that which could possibly be obtained
through the muscle metamorphosis occurring in the bodies of
the prisoners, |
Playfair’s determinations.—In these determinations the num-
ber 109,496 meterkilograms was obtained 1 a es ee
vas oD
E. Frankland on the Source of Muscular Power. 411
of daily work performed by pedestrians, pile-drivers; porters,
paviors, &c.; but, as the amount of muscle consumption is cal-
; xydi
nic acid, water, and urea. se following are the results ex-
pressed as in the previous cases
Hard-worked ee Play fair.)
Actual energy
Work performed, required,
Daily labor eras werk), See 109,496 mks. 218,992 mks.
Internal wo - - - 80,006 “ 160,012 “
189,502 mks. 379,004 mks.
Actual energy capable of ping produced from
5:5 oz. (155°92 grams) of flesh-formers con-
__tained i in the daily food of the la abore 288,140 mks.
Thus, even under the exes PR IRT conditions of
these determinations, the actual work performed exceeded that
which could possibly be produced fheaneh the oxydation of the
mpeganos constituents of the daily food by more than 30 per
ve seen, therefore, in He above four sets 3 omnes
interpreted by the data affor y the combustion of muscle
and urea in oxygen, that the Ss aaieeieanian of tee alone ca
be account for more than a small fraction of the sie cower
developed by animals; in fact, this transformation goes on at a
rate almost entirely independent o of the amount of muscular aa
developed. Ifthe mechanical work of an animal be doubled o
trebled there is no corresponding increase of nitrogen in the o
cretions ; whilst it was epoted on the other hand by Lawes and
Gilbert, as early as the year 1854, that sono under the same
conditions as regarded exercise, had the nt of nitrogen in
their secretions increased Ewe Mee merely ‘doublin the amount
of nitrogen in their food. Wh then comes the muscular
power of animals? What are Aha. Gebetasves which, ‘by their
oxydation in the body, furnish the actual energy, whereof a part
is converted into muscular work? In the light of the experi-
mental results detailed above, can it be doubted that a rge
proportion of the muscular power developed in the bodies of ©
animals has its origin in the oxydation of non-nityggenous sub-
stances ft he while the secretion of nitrogen remains nearly
every augmentation of muscular work, as is shown by the fo
loan tabulated results of E. Smith’s highly important experi-
412 , Frankland on the Source of Muscular Power.
ments regarding the amount of carbonic acid evolved from his
own lungs under different circumstances,” :
Excretion of carbonic acid during rest and muscular exer-
tion :—
Carbonic acid
per hour.
During sleep, - - - - . - 19°0 grams,
Lying down and sleep approaching, = - - - 28:0: =."
In a sitting posture, - - - - ‘. 29:0 2.5
Walking at rate of 2 miles per hour, - - - 106-,
ay i “ : “ a = a 100°6 “ec
On the treadwheel, ascending at the rate of 28°65 feet
per minute, - - - - 189-6
It has been already stated as a proposition upon which all are
agreed, that food, and food alone, is the ultimate source from
which muscular power is derived; but the above determinations
and considerations, the speaker believed, prove conclusively, first-
ly, that the non-nitrogenous constituents of the food, such as
starch, fat, &c., are the chief sources of the actual energy, which
becomes partially transformed into muscular work ; and secondly,
that the food does not require to become organized tissue before
its metamorphosis can be rendered available for muscular power ;
its digestion and assimilation into the circulating fluid—the blood
—beirg all that is necessary for this purpose. It is, however, by
no means the non-nitrogenous portions of food alone that are ca-
pable of being so employed, the nitrogenous also, inasmuch as
they are combustible, and consequently capable of furnishing ac-
tual energy, might be expected to be available for the same pur-
pose, and such an expectation is confirmed by the experiments
of Savory upon rats,” in which it is proved that these animals
can live for weeks in good health» upon food consisting almost
exclusively of muscular fibre. Even supposing these rats to have
.
nitrogenous constituents of food is for the renewal of muscular
y which is in part transmuted into muscular force.
ca
active energy, one portion assum-
the brain to the muscle, the nervous agent determines oxydation.
ihe potential energy becomes active
ing the form of motion, another appearing as heat. Here is
* Phil. Trans. for 1859, p.709. The Lancet, 1868, pages 381 and 412.
courses through the muscle, but when the muscle is at rest there
i
3
a
4
4
:
:
Ei. Frankland on the Source of Muscular Power. 413
source of animal heat, here the origin of muscular power! Like the
piston and cylinde r of a steam-en ngine, the muscle itself i is naa
a machine for the sesistontation of heat into motion ;_bot
ous eet of food in commen use, as to their capabilities for
the production of muscular power. The speaker had eget
made careful estimations of the calorific value of different mate-
rials used as food, by the same apparatus and in the same man-
ner as described above for the determination of the actual energy —
in muscle, urea, uric acid, and hippuric acid.
The results are em mbodied i in the following series of tables, but
assigned to starch, and the other surpassing that of ou | ares
in the table; but ‘these numbers would obvious isly hav
utterly fallacious, inasmuch as nadia sawdust nor serail oi
1s, to any apprec ciable extent, Taieahad. te in the alimentary canal.
While the force-values experimentally obtained for the different
articles in these tables must therefore be understood as the max-
ima assignable to the substances to which they belong, yet it
must not be forgotten that a large majority of these substances
appear to be completely digestible under normal circumstances.
Actual energy developed by one gram of various articles of food when burnt in
oxygen.
“ Ae | Heat units. Siren Pesca:
ame © a
Der. | epetnigts | 2% [wmantow
Cheese (Cheshire), ......++.265 6114 4647 2589 1969 240
3752 10138 1589 429 730
Apples, 3669 eco | 1554 8 82:0
Oatmeal, pacts 4004 1696 :
Flour, ones 8941 . 1669 ar
Pea-meal, bees 3936 ze 1667 we
Ground rice, webs 3813 1615
A : ies 3912 1657
Bread crumb, 3984 2231 1687 5
We PERIOD, nba) ta aed oan vo aes Peet 4459 1888
Beef (lean), 5313 1567 2250
vi 4514 1314 1912 556
“ 4343 1980 1839 839
Mackerel, 606 1789 2568 758
Whiting, 4520 90 1914 383
White of egg, 4896 2074 os.
Hard-boiled egg, ......-++++++- 6321 2383 2 009
Am. Jour. ea Series, Vou. XLII, No. 126.—Noy., ine
53
414 EE, Frankland on the Source of Muscular Power.
Actual energy developed by one gram of various articles of food—continued,
Heat units. forse
Name of food. Natural is econ peer!
é Dry. condition. Dry condition.
Yolk of egg, ‘ 6460 3423 2737 1449 47-0
Gelatin, .... 4520 wae 1914
Milk, d 5093 662 2157 280 87-0
arrots, 38767 527 15.95 223 86-0
Cabbage, 8776 434 1599 4 88:5
‘ocoa. nibs, sae 6873 ‘ 291
Beef fat, 9069 Jace 3841 oe bee
utter, bee 7264 wees 8077 a
Cod-liver oil, Ree PN grate 9107 poe 83857 wie
Lump sugar, wale 3348 wiser 1418 As
Commercial grape sugar, .....-. ok 8277 aay 1388 a
Bass’s ale ae. reckoned), jenay BUT 775 1599 328 88:4
Guinness’ Seton’; i. 2.4. F 6348 1076 2688 445 884
Actual energy developed by one gram of various articles of food when oxydized in
the body.
— Meterkilograms
of of force.
Name of food. ? aT Name of food. Natural
=| Bry: | condition. Dry. condition.
Cheshire cheese, ....| 2429 | 1846 || Hard-boiled ad ees 2562 966
-otatoes, 1568 | 429 || Yolk of egg,.......... 2641 | 1400
IAVPIOS Cs os caus ey O16 27 Gelatin 155 ee
Outil oo ey 1665 || Milk, .... pear fl | 266
F SceGarwuccer ewes 162713} Carroteg cas aS ieeen< 1574 220
Pea-meal, .... aay nee 1598 || Cabbage,...... ake 1543 1
¢ d rice oes staal i 1591 OOedn IDS. 5 os Sig ve ce Ghee ek 2902
Arrowroot, ....... vee 1657 Butter, 3077
Bread crumb, .......| 1625 910 || Beef fat, S841 fo eee
Lean of beef, .......| 2047 604 || Cod-liver oil,.......... $857 tees
mre. WOR, oo. cs] 1708 496 || Lump sugar, Ee
- ham, boiled, .| 1559 711 Commercial grape sugar to. [obese
Mackerel, ..........| 2315 | 683 Bass's ale, bottled, ....- 1559 | 328
Whiting, ..... .| 1675 | 885 t, 2688 | 455
White of egg, ...... 1781 244
Weight and ons shows articles of food required to be — in the body in
aise 14U lbs. to the height of 10,000 feet
pice rnal work = ith actual energy.
wa 4
Name of food. 5 in ee Price per Ib. Cost. :
Chee required. ? ;
ee ; ed. o i e
heshire cheese, ..... 1:156 | 010 :
Potatoes, 36s... ; 5-068 0 1 0 54 _
ee . Secs p) Pee 0 14 0 11% 7
PAL, were e eee 1-281 0 29 0 34 4
eck ; 1311 0 2% 0 32 4
TVS PCV EC ER eee 1-335 0 3t ; 4
Se erreceve 1°341 0 vA Be
Artowroot, oss. 1-287 io 1 @
Re ee 9-345 G:- & 0 “al
Lean beef,... 2. ssstuce 3532 1 0 3 a
veal, eee ee eeeceernecs . "eee 4-300 i 6 4 a
E.. Frankland on the Source of Muscular Power. 415
Weight and cost of j rticles of food—continued.
Weight :
Name of food. in Ibs. Price per Ib. Cost.
required.
8. . a. & d&
Ae ne boiled, 3001 ee! 4 6
Mac 3:124 0 8 21
hits n 6369 i 9 4
nite of egg, 8-745 0 6 4 44
Hard-bolled cus, «6. sina i5 a0 Gane a 2°209 0 6} 24
Isinglass, 1377 16 0 2 OF
Milles oe. concer ae ste aaa ens 8:021 5d. per quart. 34
BETOIS; 5 5 Shee Se 9°685 0 18 Lee
Cabbage, 12-020 01 1 of
Cocoa-nibs, 0-735 Li 6 de Te
Butter, 06938 1:6 1. 0+
eef fat 0-555 0 10 0 54
Cod-liver bis. Uline tase 0°553 3 6 1 113
senile ae 1-505 0 6 Saee
Com ax ay grape sugar ob ests sey CaS v3 1537 0 3t 0 54
Hees pein ale (bottled), : 9 bottles. 0 10 Cie
Guinness’s stout, 6=* 0 10 5 It
Weight of various anes of band te sooty to sustain ou gota and circulation
in the body of an average man during 24 hou
Name of food, | Weight in oz. |] Name of food. freight in oz.
Cheshire cheese ba DINE 5 Cosi n «een ant 168
es 13-4 hitd:of @0pi tes ese es 23-1
Apples, 20-7 ae pees egg, PE nr ey 5-8
Oatmeal, 3-4 36
Flour, 35 iL 21-2
Pe Peaish eles ae 35 Sarrots, 25°6
Ground rice, 3-6 labhapey soc ce cc wees « 31-8
ALPOWrOOb Gos ii baxaee os 34 ONCOE ADSI O57 + Veeeien ce
Bread, 6'4 Sutter, 13
deals Deel, = toss ce eee 9-3 | Cod-liver oil 15
veal cs ss vataneas 114 | Lump sugar, 3-9
“ rai boilédjis .a2 asx We ——— grape sugar,.. 40
Mackere 8-3
These results a are in many instances fully borne out by expe-
rience. The food of the agricultural laborers in Lancashire
contains a large proportion of fat. Besides the very fat bacon
which constitutes their animal food proper, they consume large
quantities of i -called apple dumplings, the chief portion of which
consists of paste in which dripping and suet are Jarge ingredi-
ents, in fact cians dumplings frequently contain no fruit at all.
gg dnd bacon pies and potato pies are also very common piéces”
de résistance during harvest-time, and whenever very hard work
is required from the men. The speaker well remembers beir
ee ee ee
.
ible Dr. Poasd states that the Chamois hunters
Switzerland are accustomed, when starting on long
416 EE. Frankland on the Source of Muscular Power.
expeditions, to take with them, as provisions, nothing but bacon-
fat and sugar, because, as they say, these su stances are more
nourishing than meat. They doubtless find that in fat and sugar
they can most conveniently earry with them a store of force-pro-
ducing matter. The above tables affirm the same thing. The
5 lbs. potatoes, 1 ‘3 lb. of flour or pea-meal or of 341bs. of lean
mentions the observations of Dr. M. C. We sind on the food :
insects. The latter remarks, ‘‘ Many insects use during a period
in which very little muscular work is performed food containing
chiefly albuminous matter; on the contrary, at a time when the
muscular work is very considerable, they live exclusively, or
most exclusively, on food free from nitrogen.’ e also men-.
tions bees and butterflies as instances of insects performing enor-
mous muscular work, and subsisting upon a diet containing but
the merest traces of nitrogen
We thus arrive at the following conclusions:
1. The muscle is a oe for the conversion nit potential en-
ergy into mechanical for
The mechanical oie of the muscles is derived chiefly, if
not entirely, from the oxydation of matters contained in the
ood, and not from the oxydation of the muscles themselves.
In man the chief materials used for the production of mus-
cular power are non- nitrogenous; but nitrogenous matters can
also be employed for the same purpose, and hence the greatly
increased evolution of nitrogen under the influence of a flesh
diet, even with no greater muscular exertion
4, Like every other part of the body, the muscles are con-
stantly being renewed ; but this renewal is not perceptibly more
ee during great muscular activity than during comparative
uiescence.
5. After the supply of es albuminized matters in the
man to provide for the ssary renewal of the tissues,
the best materials for the prolate. both of internal and exter-
nal work, are non-nitrogenous matters, such as oil, fat, sugar,
starch, gum, &c.
a ®. The non-nitrogenous matters of food, which find thew way
ee the blood, yield up all their potential energy as actual en-
ergy; the nitrogenous matters, on the other hand, leave the body
a wih a portion (one-seventh) of their potential energy unex-
pen
OL The transformation of potential energy into muscular power
is pcan ok = by the production of heat within the
body, uscular power is exerted externally.
Thi is donbtleatt the chief and, probably, the only source of ani-
heat.
the circumference were 165 m bn: fo rther apart than when the
Chemistry and Physics: : 417
SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE.
I. CHEMISTRY AND PHYSICS,
1, Apparatus for the direct determination of the velocity of sound in
atmospheric air ; by Dr. E. C. O. Neumann.—This ingenious little appa-
ratus consists of a box of wood (82 cm. hie 66 cm em. hig
divided by vertical partitions in suc nner as ae orm two canals,
running from one corner, F, of the box, ee “first only to the middle, the
other by a winding course to near the same point so as to be about six
meters longer. A “little gun is placed on top of the box; when fired the
sound is Rab be through a square tube to the corner F, where it di-
vides; one part goes directly to the middle, A, of the front side ‘of the
box, and ely a short wire, f, fastened upon a thin caoutchouc mem-
brane by means of a small piece of wood; the other part of the sound
traverses the six meters of winding tube, atid at strikes the membrane,
closing’ an peas B (near the latter
rovided wit lackened wire, g (1 mm. diam.), In front of these
wires a disk, Soviet with white paper, can be made to rotate around a
horizontal axis.
When this disk is at rest the report passing in at F will soon push the
wire f against the paper, leaving a black spot—and when the six meters
have been traversed, the other vart of the sound wave will push the wire
tion. But when the disk made one turn per second, these two marks on
was
at rest. Then we evidently save the velocity, v, of sound by the propor-
on
v : 2a15c.m.:: 6m. ; 164mm.,
or v==346™-2. The neces was 22° C.; a good approximation for
a first trial—Pogg. Ann., 1866, exxiii, 307-311 2.
2. Interference apparatus for sound-waves ; @. QuixcK cxe.—This ap-
aratus is based upon Herschel’s idea of applying branching tubes, and
admits of subjective and objective experimentation ; it also may be ap-
plied to the study of secondary tones nigel a etc., like Helmholtz’s
resonators. The simplest kind consists of tw
bent glass tubes DCBEF and GHILM provided a Des
i A B Ie
3
ec
or
w
o
=
>
3
oO
=
ies)
-
es
o
a
Pe cs
A
b>
a
_®
n
o
°
“~
co
b>
rubber tube, which is put into one ear aap se ty oe
other is well closed; at K is another rub
leading to a source of sound, viz., the vibeating branch of a tuning ge :
G a
or its middle rod, or into the box of a monocho
a sho
e ILEB engths —
— thas IHCB. If a tuning fork is used, and the length of MF
properly adjusted (the interference-tube tuned), then only the octave is
ear. an
the prime being destroyed by interference. If
FM or DG is closed by pressure Y with the finger, the fundamental tone
the tuning fork is heard again.
.
®,
418 Scientific Intelligence.
For objective representation A is connected with a glass bell closed by
a fine membrane, the bell and membrane tuned in unison with the tone
experimented with; the sand on the membrane will not be moved wlten
the tone-wave passes through both branches, but it will move as soon as
one of the branches is closed.
The same apparatus may also be connected with one of Kundt’s tubes
described at p. 258 of this volume; and it has finally the great advan-
tage that it can be very easily made by almost anyone—Pogg. Aunn.,
1866, exxviii, 177-192. @. H.
j apparatus for the demonstration of the laws of falling bodies.
(“Fall-machine ;” might it not be rendered “ fall-apparatus?”)—F. Lrp-
PIcH of Gratz, Austria, has constructed an elegant, simple, and compen-
ich can be attached to a table; by means of a fine string
vertical spring, attached to the support by passing through its position of
equilibrium, opens the very ingenious clamp hol ing the string, so that
the frame commences its descent at the very moment the spring passes
the vertical position. The light frame is covered with well-stretched
sooted paper; the vertical spring oscillating parallel to this paper carries
a fine point, which marks a wave-line e descending paper. The
described in the times 1, 2, 3, ete? Drawin tangents at these points of
interseetion the velocities are determined. Measuring the exact length
of the fall during six oscillations gave 296:24™™, 296:05™™, 296°26™™,
frame ; and finally refers to an apparatus of Laborde based upon the
same idea, but less perfect in its realization. Sitzungsberichie, Wien, —
Utes Me
1865, II Abth., Bd. lii, p. 549-562; Z’[nstitut, 1866, p, 199
1. Astro-phot J.
The astro-photometer is described in Zéllner’s “ Grundziage einer allgemei-
plate, f, Nicol’s d and e, through a doubl 2. to a plane glass
Papas d get a gh a double convex lens, g, to a plane g
plate inclined 45° toward these rays and the axis of the telescope, Of,
reflecting the Image of a to i near that of the star seen in the telescope
at &, The rotation of Nicol ¢ is red off on the graduated circle m,
.
Chemistry and Physics. 419
that of d on Z; by rotation of ¢ the color, by turning of d the intensity
of the flame is made equal to that of the star. This photometer can
be attached to most telescopes.
n his “ Photometrische Untersuchungen mit besonderer Ritcksicht auf
die physische ‘Beschaffenheit der Himmelskorper, Leipzig, 1865,” Zéllner
has given the results of his observations together with their bearing upon
the theory of Kant-Laplace. The following intensities were obtained by
comparing the sun or planets separately with « Aurige; he found
Sun : Capella : ; 55,760,000,000 : 1
*
with a probable error of about 5 i cent; and hence for the intensity at
the meat oppositio
Prob. error.
Sun = = 6,994,000.000 times rene “ 8 P. &
Sun = 5,472,000,000 “ Jupi
Sun = 130,980,000,000 “ dees (without the ring) 5 ie .
un = 8,486,000,000,000 times Uran .
Sun = 79,620,000,000,000 “ serine s ys
Sun = 619,600 “ Full Moon, ay ga
and by fies) stn surfaces, Sun = 618,000 times Full Moon, 1°6 p. c.
Fro e above it follows, that our sun at a distance of 3°72
Peters has actually found 0-046. If light suffers no absorption in the
celestial spaces, Capella accordingly must send out much more light than
our sun; and & Centauri seems to be equal to our sun.
_ The reflecting power or albedo Zéllner found as follows :
rob. error. Prob. error.
Moon, 01736 -+-0-0035 | Saturn, 04981 =+0°0249
ars, 02672 +0°0155 | Uranus, 0°6400 -+0°0544
Jupiter, 06238 -+-0°0355 | Neptune, 0°4648 +-0°0372
sake of comparison we add his determination of the albedo of
terrestrial substances: (a.) diffuse reflected light—snow just fallen 0-783,
white paper 0°700, white sandstone 0°237, clay-marl 0°156, quartz-por-
phyry 0°108, moist soil 0°079, dark gray syenite 0°078. (4.) regular re-
flection—mercury 0°648, speculum metal 0°535, glass 0°040, obsidian
00382. Exist 0-021.
In gard to the ney of lunar light in the different phases we
and eriod of complete refrigeration. These periods he 3 cain
in the cosmical history of the earth, and in the present aspect of the
starry heave resentatives of the first period he considers the
which latter is répresented by the invariable stars; our sun isin
the third period ; to the fourth belong the ae stars; and the fifth
is represented by Bessel’s dark stars. For a full exposition of these: a
theses we must refer to the Seiviaibttionsd works of Zéllner.
420 Scientific Intelligence.
II. MINERALOGY AND GEOLOGY.
1. Note on the possible identity of Turnerite with Monazite ; by J.D.
Dana.—The crystals of the rare mineral Turnerite have be een measured
by Levy (who first ea the species), Marignac, Phillips, Descloi-
zeaux, and vom Rath. e latest investigations, by Dr. G. vom Rath,
are published in Dement. Annalen, vol. cxix, p. 247, and are ac-
mpanied with two new figures; his crystals were from a new locality
in as Tavetsch valley, at Santa Brigritta near Rudras—the specimens
before known having come from Mt. Sorel in Dauphiny. The crystals
are somewhat tabular, with (1) a zone pres to the orthodiagonal of
the three — in order, 2, c, u, and a fourth @ but only as a result of
cleavage, on the edge x: wu’; and hs a uranstre zone, directly across ¢,
containing, either side of c, the planes n, v, e, 0, b, the last the face ¢-
((aP a) of Naumann) parallel to the ctinodiagonal BPO also (3)
some other planes. fey Rath makes e= O(o0 nn); a (cleav-
age face) =it1(aPa); u=-l-i (-P a); fay -4 ‘CEP pe Ry Uy €y O,
the clinodomes 4-4, 4-1, 1-i, 2-2
The following are a few of the angles given:
vy. Rath. Descl.
Marignac.
Ste ss. Slt oeiy nee
@:u = 142° 15! seks asws
C2: ae. 40 S77 140° 40/ vee
OTe Se OTC ret 126° 31° 126° 31’
€ze sa 190" 65! 136° 48/ 136° 43/
Tn form and habit the crystals are much like those of Ses ae and
of monazite (see my apa ee gy, Pp 402); coig, u=1-i, a= -1-t; 2, %,
é, 0, are vertical prisms; and e=J, or the fundamental prism. The an-
in monazite orteisaiiie to the above are as follows:
Biol4 ome at eo 186? 6
Qed ata => 148° 6
Pet ee ee eo hp ee 5 00° 40°
—#3-lt = e:@ = 126° 8! 127° 0’, Descl.)
os ee Te - ct 8O? 40 a6 30', Descl.)
| The angles cited are sufficient to determine all the dimensions of the
i denen and the approximations in angle and cleavage leave little doubt
at least the near identity in crystallization of turnerite and monazite.
The absence
other mark 0 resemblance. Moreover, in hardness they are the same;
in color very similar. Yet the actual identity of the a som eannot be
ke ed tt ithout new crystallographic comparisons, or 3
mical examination of tur The trials by Mr. Children were too
imperfect to be decisive against it; while they show that turnerite is not
a rig tm MS silicate,
mite—Professor H nry Wurtz has proposed the name (7ra-
hamite (F (Repent upon a Mineral Formation in West Virginia: New gts
Mineralogy and Geology. 421
nog sh rs sieve Albertite-like aoe of Virginia described by
J.P (see this Jour., xxxvii, 149). r. Lesley took the groun
that . was bt true coal, and com pared it to Albertite. We gather from
Mr. Wurtz’s Report the following facts. The vein occurs in Ritchie Co.,
in Carboniferous rocks, and occupies a shrinkage fissure. It is about 44
feet wide; 2 inches outside are granular; the next 15 or 16 inches
columnar and very lustrous; the middle, averaging 18 inches, though
varying much, less columnar and less lustrous, and more resinous in frae-
ture. He concludes that the rs was filled by the psi of =
resinoid substance while it was in a pasty condition. 1°145
analysis by Dr. J. Maier afforded C 76°45, H 7°82, O (with 1 traces of N)
13°46, ashes 2°26==100. No action with cold or ‘melted caustic potash,
or boiling nitric or muriatic acid, or aqua regia ; a brown solution with
delicate threads. Mr. War fond tha under the same circumstances,
Albertite might be drawn into thre
e Report closes with ne orp as to methods of utilizing graham-
ite in the manufacture of illuminating oils and gas, a cement for sealing
bottles (for which its indifference to acids and alkalies especially adapts
it), translucent varnishes, pees ee compositions, ete.
On the discovery of Corundum at the Emery mine, Chester, Mass.
by Dr. C. T. Tisai. (From a letter to one of the Editors.)—-At the
middle of July last I found a perfect crystal of blue corundum or sap-
phire at the Chester mine. This crystal is among the specimens which
I have arranged for the Emery company to send to the Paris Exposition.
It is surrounded by magnesian carbonate of lime or crystallized dolomite.
The form of the renal is that of the double pyramid with six planes—
like that bs ind by Dufrénoy on page 49, fig. 303; and it is three-tenths
aie on
"Note concerning the minerals of the Emery mine of Chester, Mass. ;
6 Pr of. C. U. Sapa. (Communicated for this Journal.)—There are
? That mineral is close to masonite pean
® See p. 10 of my Report on the sont mine of Chester. _— 1865.
Am. Jour. Sci.—Szconp Szrizs, Vou. XLU, No. 126.—Nov.
54
422 Scientific Intelligence.
as its hardness is only 1°5, whereas if biotite it paegr we from 2°5 to 3:0,
Besides it is flexible and wholly inelastic. Nor can e differences arise
from decomposition, for the mineral is perfectly fr i “shiniog and trans-
lucent. Its specific gravity is 2°76. Before the blow pipe it hardens,
bottle-green glass. It appears to me, therefore, to approach very closely
to the Buncombe mineral found with sapphire, and called by me, corun-
do
oO —This is rather frequent, in bright red, slender and much stri-
ated prisms, closely associated with diaspore and clinochlore, sometimes
in reticulated aggregations.
Amherst College, Sept. 29, 1866.
5. Laurite, a new mineral_—Wéuter has discovered among the fine-
grained platinum ore from Borneo, a new mineral, a sulphid of ruthe-
nium and osmium, to which he has given the name laurie. It occurs
in small grains of” a dark iron-black color, and high luster. Most of the
grains are true crystals, and Sartorius von Waltershausen has recognized
the mineral to have the form of the regular octahedron, in some instances
showing cubic, tetrahexahedral, and other planes. It has a distinct octa-
hedral cleavage, is brittle and yields a dark gray powder on pulveriza-
tion. Hardness, above that of quartz. Specific gravity, above 6 (6-99,
Sartorius), When heated it decrepitates, and B.B. is infusible, giving
first sulphurous and finally osmic aci ate Not acted upon by aqua
regia or by fusion with bisulphate of potash. Fused with hydrate of
potash in a silver crucible the mineral dissolves, yielding a green mass
on cooling. Analysis gave, ruthenium 65°18, osmium 3:03, sulphur
31°79. The osmium was determined by loss, and Wahler observes that
the ruthenium was not entirely free from this substance, so that the per-
centage of ruthenium is given somewhat too high, while that of the
composition of the mineral may be represented by the formula
Se 3) +038, =Ru 62°88, Os 5:00, S 32°12,
or Ru,S, 9 8, OsS, 8:2. This is the first instance of the occurrence of
a natural eulphid in the group of platinum metals.— Ann. Chem. Pharm.,
6. “Mi ood.—The newspapers from the Pacific states — accounts
of two ascents of Mt. Hood during the past summer. e
glean but little information however, further than that the sage is ac-
cessible, € accounts are very conflicting in their details, and some of
the statements evidently very loosely made, while others are apparently
wrong, which we must "regret as the alleged facts may find their way into
more enduring literature than the newspapers.
In July, 1864, the Dalles (Oregon) Meunisinet gave an account of a
‘successful ascent made on the 17th of July of that year. The attempt
% The distinction inction between this mineral and the clinochlore of this locality is per-
pipe then "Te ler saath scratches gypsum with facility, whereas the former makes
Mineralogy and Geology. 423
was made by a party of -_ ie 6 re of that place, three of whom
gave out when near the summ ut the fourth, Edward Ayres, perse-
vered ti succeeded in lar the topmost pinnacle,” which he repre-
sents as a “bare, rugged crag only large enough to stand upon.” y
found “a crater saints 3000 ft. below the top, from which a sulphurous
smoke ascended.”
The present year, we have more detailed accounts of two other ascents.
The first of these was made on the 26th of July, when “a party from
Portland reached the summit after six hours travelling from the snow
in
mond Tak a distance of 400 miles.” pbecr leap to the 1 maps, the act tual
distance between these peaks is but 260 miles. )
n the 20th of last August, another ascent was made by six gentlemen,
one of whom, Prof. Alphonso Wood, has a a detailed account of
the trip before the California Academy of Natural Sciences at their meet-
except where melted by hot gases and steam. “On the west side of the
crater is still an open abyss whence issue constantly volumes of strongly
sulphurous smoke. That there is heat there, is evident from the immense
depression in the snow about the place,—depressed not less than a thou-
sand feet below the snows which fill to the brim the other portions of the
ancient crater.” He measured the various altitudes by observing the boil-
ing point of water, and gives the following figures: “Summit of the Cas-
cade Range and foot of Mt. Hood proper, 4,400 ft.; the limits of forest
trees 9,000 ft.; highest limits of vegetation 11 000 ft.; summit of the
SpA 17,600 fi.” The observed temperature of the boiling point he
states at 180° F. on the summit, and a m that deduces the last figures
quoted and = by anne that w = consider this the highest
orth America.
424 Scientific Intelligence.
to see how Prof. Wood deduces his figures from the observations he gives.
A boiling point of 180° F. represents a barometric pressure of 15°26
inches, which in that region, in the month of August, would probably
represent an altitude of 18,350 feet or more. On Mt. Shasta, which is
300 miles farther south, the forest vegetatiow barely extends up 9,000 ft.,
the alleged height on Mt. Hood, where the alpine species are probably
identical-or similar.
It is noticeable how these accounts differ in other important particu-
lars. One finds the summit a mere “pinnacle” only large enough to
stand upon—another speaks of it as half a mile long. All agree that there
is a crater, but one party finds it 3,000 ft. below the summit; we in
from the description of another that it is at the summit, or at least that a
part of its rim forms the summit; one party descended into it a short
distance, but finds a precipice fifty or sixty feet high; another speaks of
a precipice of a mile vertical. The last observers find the crater nearly
filled with snow, while but a few months ago the papers contained ac-
counts of the mountain in active eruption. From all these we see we
are still in doubt as to the actual height and condition of the peak; but
since these ascents demonstrate that the summit is easily accessible, we
hope soon to have more satisfactory observations. W. H. B.
7. Alleged discovery of an ancient human skull in California.—Ac-
counts have recently been going the rounds of the press of the discovery
and investigated the matter as far as ossible, but owing to
the presence of water and the stoppage of work in the shaft, the exam-
h
ik materials on the western slope of the Sierra Nevada
began in the Pliocene age, and that it continued into the Post-pliocene,
and possibly to comparatively modern times. The alleged position of
the skull is a lower one than any in which the remains of the mastodon
es been found, and therefore the question of its authenticity be-
comes a very Important one; and when the more complete examinatio
has been made, we will lay the results before the readers of the Journal.
Ww. H. B
eS Ee Se Mere EOE ye ME ot eM ey eS me eee ee pny ee Se
Mineralogy and Geology. 425
8, On the discovery of the remains of a gigantic Dinosaur in the Cre-
taceous of Mew Jersey; by E. D. Corps. (Proc. Acad. Nat, Sci. Philad.,
1866, 275.)—Prof. Cope exibited the remains of a gigantic extinct Dino-
saur, from the Cretaceous Green Sand of New Jersey. The bones were
portions of the under jaw with teeth, portions of the seapular arch, in-
cluding supposed clavicles, two humeri i, left femur, and right tibia and
fibula, with numerous phalanges, lumbar, sacral and caudal vertebra, and
numerous other elements in a fragmentary condition.
The animal was found by the workmen under the direction of J. C,
Voorhees, superintendent of the West Jersey Marl Company’s pits, about
two miles 90 ~ as Barnesboro, Gloucester Co.
The e taken from about twenty feck below the surface, in —
top of the ishoiaks te” bed, which donee underlies the green
tum which is of such value as a m
The discovery of this animal fills. a ees in the Cretaceous fauna,
revealing the carnivorous enemy of the great herbivorous Hadrosaurus,
as the Dinodon was related to the Trachodon of the Nebraska beds; and
the Megalosaurus to the Iguanodon of the European Wealden and Oolite.
n size this creature equalled the Megalosaurus Bucklandii, and with
it and Dinodon, honabistited the most formidable type of rapacious terres-
trial vertebrates of which we have any knowledge. In its dentition and
— io ma in it yin closely Wie ERS but the femur,
mbling in its proximal regions more nearly that of the Iguanodon,
indicated ee probable pai of other equally ineoeetadi a Re
and its pertaining to another genus. For this and the species the name
of Lelaps aquilunguis was proposed.
he paper continues with descriptions of the mandible, femur, tibia,
fibula, humerus, phalanges, vertebra, ete.
Exploration of the “ Bad Lands” or “ Mauvaises Terres” of the
Upper Missouri region; by Dr. F. V. Haypen eee Mate has just
gust 3d, with an escort of five soldiers, a ee team, one sph a
guide and Indian interpreter, and an Indian as hg ip inall. The
party went up the Niobrara, north side, as far as Bapid r up
that stream to its 3 ad, crossed over the divide to ‘ie ppeien fork of
White river, passed along the south side of White river to White Earth
creek, about 100 miles north of Fort Laramie, at which aa they were
nearly south of the Bad Lands. From thence they tra the whole
of the Bad Lands and returned on the old Fort Pine ad, thence on the
south side of the Missouri to Fort Randall, having been absent fifty-two
days. Dr. Hayden has made very extensive collections of fossils, including
about fifty turtles, two of them of the largest size, nearly or quite perfect.
The distance travelled on the way out from Fort Randall and beak was
650 miles, and the specimens gee were transported by land
that. wild country for more than 300 miles. We hope soon to give a
full account of the results of the aleuke, —— must be of great im-
portance to geological science, coming from one so able and experienced . vig
in a and so familiar with the whole: Une Missouri region.
426 Scientific Intelligence.
jaw, which was in an excellent state of preservation, measured about 28
inches in length and 22 in breadth between the condyles. On the right
side there was one molar, and on the left side two, one of which was 4
inches, and the other 64 inches in length. ass
12. An addition to some notes “ On a few of the fossiliferous localities
of Livingston and Genesee counties, N. Y. .: published in the Junuar,
will not be less than seven inches across. Others appear to be as large
in at least one direction, and several of them are an ineh or more thick.
One of the larger bones is somewhat broken ; otherwise they appear to
be well preserved, and when worked out will probably be of considerable
interest. _
At Batavia I have recently found another outcrop of the Marcellus
limestone. The character of the rock is such that the fossils can be got
out much easier and better than at Avon. This outcrop will, I think,
furnish some fossils not heretofore found in this limestone.
Mt. Morris, Aug. 29th, 1866,
Botany and Zoology. 427
Ill, BOTANY AND ZOOLOGY,
. DeCanvotir, Prodromus, Syst. Nat. Regni Vegetabilis. Pars XV,
he posterior, ststens Huphorbiaceas. Paris, 1862 and 1866, pp. 1286.
—A part of this thick volume, p. 1-188, containing Euphorbia and its
near allies, elaborated by Boissier, was issued four vears ago, The rest
of the Huphorbiacee, very ably worked out by J. Miller, is now pub-
lished under the date of August last. The extent of the order has evi-
dently confounded the calculations of the editor; for this thick volume
of almost 1300 pages, occupied by the Huphorbiacee, does not comprise
all that was origiually assigned to it, the en cited as sy vet dt
on p. 1, being now excluded an¢ refered o the ensuing volum n-
der Dr. Miiller’s hands, the genera are arrabed upon an intelligible
systern, under ten neatly characterized tribes, and the genera are not a
little reduced. In consequence, Phy kia ee with 438 species almost
rivals Euphorbia itself; and Croton, received also almost in the widest
not poss tite by the aid of new title pages,—that these volumes 15
and 16s be re-numbered and conformed to the actual state of the
e 3b
one fascicle has been issued, to be 17, and soon. The permanent ad-
vantage would much exceed any temporary inconvenience of the ete
. E. Borssrer, Zcones Euphorbiarum, ou Fi igures de 122 Roptote du
aces Euphorbia, dessinées et gravées par Heyann, etc. Paris, Vietor
Masson et fils. 1866. Royal fol. ane! fins the volume of the Prodro-
mus devoted to Euphor biacee, we opportunely receive M. Boissier’s mag-
nificent folio, in which he has illustrated 122 selected species of the vast
genus pend one species o — se a lates, it will be seen
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ie
[nal
°
ercu urialana, ne spherosperma, trichotoma, ictyosperma a, Tex-
ana, Peplidion, Remeriana,—most of them species recently established
either by Boissier or by Dr. Engelmann. Several pages of letter-press
are occupied with remarks on the _——. classification, and
graphical distribution of the genus. Linnzus described 64 species of
Eu sahertieg Boissier, in the Prodromus, dates the recent supple-
ment, has 717.
3. e young stages of a few Annelids ; by AtexanpeR AGaAssiIZ.
(Weiss from the Annals of the Lyceum of Natural History of New
York, vol. viii, June, 1866.)—In this paper, vies is prefaced by useful
428 Scientific Intelligence.
observations on the habits and modes of collecting the young of these
and other marine animals, the author has presented many new and valu-
able contributions to our knowledge of the development of several spe-
cies of Annelids. Among these are species of Planaria, Spirorbis, Tere-
bella, Polydora, Nerine, Phyllodoce, and Nareda(?). The latter is com-
in Annelids. tg work is illustrated by six wood-cut plates, erect |
poe six figure A.
Corals nee Polyps of the North Pacific Exploring Expedition,
with Descriptions of other Pacific Ocean species, with four plates; by A
E. Verritt. (Extracted from Proceedings of the Essex Institute, vols. iv
and v.)\—This pamphlet has been published in three parts, of which the
two first have already been noticed in this Journal. Part III contains
the Madreporaria, illustrated by two plates, one of which includes also
a few species of Actinide. Three new genera, Pachysammia, Calastrea
and Cyclopora., are described, and thirty-seven new species. Among the
more interesting orms are a living Eupsammia, hitherto a tertiary le us,
three species of Stephanoseris, an Allopora from California, and a
sy with a figure of the living polyp.
ie the ree and Corals of Panama, with descriptions of new
sted j by A. E. Verri1. (From the Proceedings of the Boston So-
ciety ‘of Natural History, April, 1866.)—This paper is prefaced b
comparison of the Polyp faunz of the Atlantic and Pacific shores of
Central America, showing a remarkable contrast—as had been previously
determined for the ollusca, Crustacea, and other classes, giving addi-
tional evidence of the improbability of oceanic communication across the
sthmus in recent geological times. Four new aan of Aleyonaria and
eight of Madreporaria are described ; also w genus, Stephanocora,
belonging to the Poritide. All of the pie described species are
mentioned, with their known cach eer and other observations.
6, On the Polyps and Echinoderms of New England, with descrtp-
tions of new eed Bret A. E, Verrint. (Published and stitched with
the f 8 paper special attention is devoted to the geo-
graphical a bitivd st these two classes on our coast, which is dis-
es the introduction. The New England coast is considered as
et theo eory is advanced that “an increase in et of w wile
has ha same effect as ree in the elevation of land—that of causing
a lower temperature, and consequently bri ringing northern animals down
to a Rerceern then. they can inhabit in shallower waters along the
shore, thus giving rise to outlying a ay of more northern faunz far
seals of a proper limits on the coas
The a complete list, so far as known, of all the species
in each fauna, with remarks on their distribution, their Sy &e.
Two new species of Sagartia from near New Haven, an o large
species of Aslerias from the eastern coast, not before ae mt charae-
ea ee ee ee a ee a ee es
Astronomy. 429
terized, are ogaagee A new generic name, Harye — is proposed
for our common Sea-urchins, of which two species are recognized.
new genus, FRR os. is establishe d for the small stavihalies like A.
Mullert Sars, and a new species is described. For the Psoles Fabrict
Lutken, a new genus, Lophothuria, is institute
This being the first attempt yet made to brin ing together and revise the
synonymy of all our species of Echinoderms, it will doubtless be found
al useful to those interested in the subject.
Natural History of Animals ; by Prof. Saxsorn Tenney and Mrs,
Ne A. Tenney. New York, 1866. (Chas. Scribner & Co.)—This
little work is intended for beginners in natural history, and contains
contains five hundred beautifully executed wood-cuts, being a reprint of
those in Tenney’s Manual of Zodlogy. The attempt has been made in
this book to free the subject from all a8 ce Si ae to simplify it to
the utmost extent. It wou ave been more generally useful, png:
had the scientific names of the animals des or ana been given
well as the common names. Affording, as at does, figures and brief des
rof W.
H. ‘aie —In the May number of this Journal io ee ina letter to
Prof. J. D. Dana, on the presence of living species in hot and saline
waters of California, I Sp usta certain facts, relating to organ-
isms in the hot waters of the geyse there stated that Mr. A. M.
Edwards of New York had detected “ rislioal as well as vegetable organ-
isms in the specimens.” Mr. Edwards writes me that he examined speci-
mers collected “over hot stoves in water at 120°5° F.,” and he states _
he found a few remains of Diatomacea, of which he enumerated se
species. No animal remains were fou ~~ ~ such fragments (bir) a as
might have bett derived from outside so
that I make this correction, which arose ni a misapprehension on —
part of what species een detected. In regard to the existence of
other vegetable forms in waters of a pe bt (200° F.), ob-
served by myself, the = were correctly give
New Haven, Oct. 19, 1
IV. ASTRONOMY.
1. Shooting Stars in August, 1866 ——(1.) At Sherburne, NV. Y.—
On ye morning of the 10th of August the writer, with three assist-
seventy-six shooting stars between 12 and 1 o’clock. The float-
hin ty one and two o'clock. e number seemed to dimini:
morning.
Am. Jour. Sct1.—Szconp Series, You. XLII, No. 126.—Nov., 1866.
53
430 Scientific Intelligence.
2.) At Germantown, Pa.—Mr. B. V. Marsh and Mr. R. M. Gummere
watched with the following results.
Aug. 9th, between 8° 40™ and 9° p.m. Mr. Marsh dink saw 7 meteors,
5 abt mable. Aug. 10th, between 8" 47™ and 9° 7™ p.m., 10 meteors.
The weather was very fine. There was perhaps a slight ‘haziness, but
very small stars were very distinct. The following table exhibits the re-
sults of observation on the morning of the 11th.
By Mr. B. V. Marsh. | By Mr. R, M. Grommere.
-c 2 -
Cie. | formabte, | Tota “able formable. | Total
bem bh m
From 0 Oto0 15am] 14 I 15 22
O76)" 630 ° 16 3 18 19
030 * 045 * 8 2 10 6 2 8
0.45." 1.0<" 13 3 16 24 3 27
7D Bates 9 14 4 18 13 3 16
1c Sou 8 5 13 13 + 17
oo * 1 a5°'* 10 3 13 15 3 18
b45'* 2-0-8 il 3 14 19 2 21
2 0:4 2 15." 10 2 12 16 0 16
103 26 129 64
Average, 57°3 meteors a a as neat
per hour.
The average magnitude was decidedly below that = —. years.
Only a few left persistent trains, and there were none of very great splen-
dor. The weather was clear and neem si were altogether favorable.
mii two observers were independent of each o
At Westchester, Pa—J.H. Worrall, Ph. D, wanted on two morn-
ings Belek these results :
Aug. li. Aug. 12.
From 2h to 23h am, 25 meteors. 16
“ 23 to 3 “6 18 “ 15
7 oe i S 21
i Me Wee 13° 11
Total, “63
The sky was perfectly clear from all =~ on the first night. The a
on the second night obscured the south and southeast to 30° high.
star ¢ Urse Minoris was distinctly visible. During both nights the me-
m a point near the piso aa Persens. They were
irregular i in the intervals of their appearance. Sometimes several would
sett in quick succession, and then several minutes would elapse without
“4 At Natick, siaw —Mr. F. W. Russell, on the evening of Aug. var
saw in 14 0 meteors (2 conf. and 8 unconf.); on Aug. 7th in
hou 20 meteors ty eonf, and 13 unconf.) ; and Aug. 8th in one hour, 7"
teors (14 conf. and 10 unconf. ). It rained on the 9th, On the night
a the 10th—11th he saw as follows, watching alone:
gh- 16 coat 8 unconf. Total 24
10-11 10 “ +“
11-12 c “ +e pe « 65 With trains, 13
2-1 sD * 9 « “ 68 “ 18
id 5 10 « “ 86 10
2- 38 86 « Lb mE : 21
Miscellaneous Intelligence. 431
At sea near Martha’s Vineyard.—Mr. Isaac Pierson saw, while
entering Martha’s Vineyard Sound, 100 meteors in two hours between
30" p.m. of Friday the 10th of August—omitting the
quarter hour from 10° 45 to 11". During the first half hour the sky
was about one-eighth covered with clouds.
V. MISCELLANEOUS SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE.
1. National Academy of Sciences.—The sixth stated session of the
National Academy of Sciences was held at Northampton, ar on the
7th of August last. _The following is a list of the papers re
On a photometric method, by Prof. O. N. Roop.
(2.) On a normal map of the solar spectrum, by Prof. Wotcorr Grass.
(3) On traces of glaciers under the tropics, by Prof. Louis AGAsstz.
(4.) On the secular acceleration of the moon’s mean motion, by Jonx
N. SrockweE i; rea Dr. B. A. Gould.
oO.
Pro Per
(6.) On the morphological value and relations of the human hand, by
Dr. Burr G. Wivper.
(7.) On the correlation of gravity and temperature, by Purny E. ge
(8.) On the grounds my analogy between linguistic science and t
physical sciences, by Prof. Wu. D. Warrnry.
On the limitation of homologies, by Prof. Louis Acass1z.
(10.) Ou a new methed of optical analysis, by Prof. Wotcorr Grass.
(11.) On recent soundings in the Gulf Stream, by Mr. Henry Mircne.t,
U. 8. Coast Survey.
(12.) On repeated linear substitutions, by J. E. Oxrver.
(13.) On the metrical system of weights and measures, by Samuen ~
Rueates.
i4.) On some points in the geological structure of southern Minne-
sota, with reference also to the period of denudation of the older forma-
tions, by Prof. James Hatt.
( A new theory of planetary motion, by Prof. T. Stro
(16.) On the linear evaluation of surd forms, by Prof. James te Wirson:
(17.) On the study of young aii and its bearing ti the progress
of paleontology and zodlogy, by Atex. Acassiz; read by Prof. Louis
Agassiz.
Se On a remarkable rainbow, by Prof. Per
19.) An satrap in 1 regard to sound in it economical applica-
tion, a Prof. Joserpx Henr
(20.) On the geographical distribution of fishes in the waters of the
rgeee, by Prof. Lov
(21.) On the sta june of American soldiers, by Dr. B. A
(22.) On the — of the si of the sou on oe ete obtained
by barometric measurements, by
(23. astronomical pboteigenplhy; by Liven M. Rurner
(24.) On the reduction of photographic observations, with pee etermin-
ation of the posi on = Pleiades trom photographs by Mr. Ruther-
furd, by Dr. B. A. G
eel On a table pe facilitating the conversion of longitude and lati-
tude into right ascension and declination, by Wa. Ferre.
432 Miscellaneous Intelligence.
{26.) On the Nephila plumipes or silk spider of South Carolina, by
Dr. Burt G. Wiper.
Prof. J. P. Lestey read a biographical notice of the late Prof. Edward
teorite from Anyahinya N.W. of Hungary.”
The luminous meteor was first observed in the neighborhood of Kas-
chan, and was seen to proceed in an eastern direction. The people nearer 4
to the east say that there was a violent detonation, accompanied by a |
small cloud, and by the fall of several pieces of stone. A Jew, not far
must be veri
e Hungarian Academy of Sciences at Pest has taken proper meas-
ures in order to save a part of the fallen pieces for the interest of science,
and it has become, through the codperation of disinterested and zealous
persons, the proprietor of nearly half of them. 1t has been determined
to send some of them to different scientific institutions in Europe and in
the United States, and thus also to the mineralogical department entrusted
to yourcare. I have the honor to announce to you, that a piece in a
a York.
July number of this Journal, the destruction by fire of the building of the
< are informed that, al-
and others) was preserved intact. So also was its Library, comprising
the Transacti i
fire,—and by the kindness of the Directors of the Mercantile Lib
Association, had been permitted to occupy a place upon its shelves.
Obituary. 433
To repair, as far as possible, the loss which the Lycenm has sustained,
re of its members stand ready to give large private collections in the
ral departments of natural history, whenever — ficient and safe
building shall be secured for their reception. For this, they look to the
own ‘liberality and: public spirit of the wealthy ies of New York,
in.
Gifts of Mr. George Peabody to Science.—Mr. George Peabody has
recently given $150,000 to Harvard Callens for the establishment of a
Museum of American Archeology and Ethnology, and the same amount
to Yale College for a — of Natural History
5. British Association —The meeting of the British siercns8 for the
vege year was held * Nottingham during the week commencing Aug.
Mr. Groves being the — Dundee was secseliial as the
ane of meeting for the — yea
ntz.—D ntz a purchased the extensive collection of
é
ils and minerals rataaien to the Comptoir Minéralogi d Gé-
elogique of the la r is Se Paris, and is about adding
them to — own great establishment for the sale of specimens at Bonn
on the Rhin
OBITUARY.
Mr. Epmunp Btunt, first sence upon the United States Coast Sur-
vey, died on the 2d of September last. Mr. Blunt was a son of
M. a. author a the American Coast Pilot, and was born in New-
of George’ and Nantucket. In 1824 he sarvayed the entrance of New
York harbor from bes es to Fire Island. In 1825 and 1826 he run a
Island, iading with a base “of verificatio on near Providence, .
also triangulated Delaware Bay from Philadelphia to the capes ; also the
Chesapeake from its head to the capes; and the Hudson river to a point
above Troy. In 1855 and 1856 he furnished the points to determine
the seed line of New York harbor, which has done so much for its
preservatio
efore ‘ha while on the Coast Survey, his attention was directed to the
inferiority of the lights in the American light-houses, and he was mainly
instrumental in introducing the Fresnel system into ‘our country ; a sys-
tem which has contributed so much to the safety of font se? ‘Mr.
unt was a mechanic of great inventive power. The dividi ne
built from his plan and under his direction, is an evi cikelig of his cecal.
434 Miscellaneous Intelligence.
edge. Mr. Blunt was a true American, always solicitous for the honor
and advancement of his country ; and when the late rebellion broke out,
he devoted all his energies to the support of the government.
- Goutp.—Dr, Augustus A. Gould died in Boston, Sept 15th, at
was the son of Deacon N. D. Gould, late of Boston. He was born in
New Ipswich, N. H., April 23, 1805, and graduated at Harvard College
in 1825. He pursued the study of medicine with Drs. James Jackson
his name widely known as a scientific student and author by many valu-
able contributions. He became very early one of the most active mem-
bers of the Boston Society of Natural History, and has continued his
office of vice-president, a position he has filled for several years. @
day before his death he spent a long time at the Society rooms, probably
the last business that he did away from home. He was also a Fellow of
eg with Prof. Agassiz, the “ Principles of Zodlogy,” in 1848. This
wor
volume, with a folio atlas of plates, toward the history of that voyage.
In 1863 he published, under the title of “Otia Conchologica,” all the
tions of new species of shells published in his various
works, with notes on changes in their nomenclature. His extensive col-
lection of shells was recently purchased by the Boston Society.
His contributions to médical science are also numerous. In the de-
partment of vital statistics he was eminent among American students of
at subject. He contributed to nearly every volume of the Registrar-
General of Massachusetts papers of great labor and value.
i ee a cr ee ee ee ee ea
R. W. Grsses.—Robert ‘Ison Gibbes, of Colambi isin Carolin,
died in that city near the close of September. Dr.
of the most active men of science in the Southern St tater He was
in Charleston, 8. C., July 8th, 1809. His chief scientific researches were
directed toward the description of organic remains from his native State,
and his memoirs include a “ Monograph on the fossil Squalides of =
United States;” a “Memoir on the fossil genus Basilosaurus,” and an-
other on “ Mosasaurus ae the three yom new genera, Holocodus, Cine
saurus, and Amphorosteus,” the first two published in the Journal of the
Academy of Seca a Ph ila ‘elphia, and the last in the Smithsonian
ii 849.
with its library and collections, was destroyed during the pass:
n, Sherman’s army through South arolina near the close of the late
an SASOA VOR for the Advancement of Science at their late ses-
sion in Bu
Louis Sewiws— Mr Seemann died rehae at Paris on the 23d of
August last. He had been for many yea rs proprietor of a large estab-
lishment in tha for the sale of minerals and fossils, and by his
fidelity in all business transactions and the urbanity of his manners had
won the confidence and regard of all who came into contact with him.
He also comma their respect as a man of science, for he was an ex-
cellent mineralogist, geologist, and paleontologist, and had published
valuable papers in each of these departments. After extensive tours in
Europe he came to this country in 1847 and spent nearly a year in mak-
ing extensive collections in geology and mineralo Prof. Dana ac-
knowledges his indebtedness to Mr. Semann in the Preface of the last
gress, his correspondence has been of like service and
Major Roserr Kewyicurr.—lt is swith great regret that we have to
lan an Francisco to the North Pacific r their arrival at
St. Michael’s he met with many disappointments and lures an
they were perhaps unavoidable, the effect upon isa:
y seemed to overcome him more than the biardabipe ‘saa sufferings
he had previously undergone. He complained much of dizziness
strange distress in his head. On the morning of the 13th of May he
was found by two of ig party not more than two hun cop from
Page missing
from book
at time
of scanning.
Page missing
from book
at time
of scanning.
438 Miscellaneous Bibliography.
able addition to Mathematical science was published in a thick octavo
volume entitled Lectures on Quaternions (Dublin 1853). The later years
of the author’s life have been spent upon the present volume, which cov-
ers the same ground as the dectures and yet can hardly be regarded as a
second edition of them.
be overestimated, and that it is destined to change the
atics.
A student should read this volume rather than any presentation of the
n by another mind. It requires a previous
u
Integral Calculus, and the applications of the caleulus to geometry. Some
portions of the volume, especially the later pages, imp!y also a knowledge
of Analytical and Celestial Mechanics,
ass of cos age which are severally measured by the ratio of one
er, that is, by a zero number of factors. Such are the cireu-
t functions, and angles. To this class belongs the Quaternion. Like
the sine and the tangent it is the quotient of one line divided by another.
ut the lines are considered, in this instance, to have not only length but
also direction in space. There enters into the conception of the quater-
nion, 1st, a relative length of the two lines; 2d, the angle which they
two of these are each determined by a single condition, the third by two
its use of the imaginary expressions to denote directions B
4. A Prelimin of t. Geological Su
with A observations and an outline of the Mineral Deposits of
assistant to Dr. oie ake had the charge of the geo ’
_ Miscellaneous Bibliography. 439
ee before that.to Dr. B. F.Shumard. He presents in thi
any just idea of the geology of the great state. The pamphlet consists
largely of miscellaneous information on general geology, agricultural
Geology of the Key of Sombrero, W.Z.; by Avexis A.
Juten, Assistant in the School of Mines, Columbia College, New York.
p. 8vo, with se plates. (From m the Annals of the ai of N. York,
i.)—Mr. Ju
erals of the ratieheariig coral island Som! rero. This memoir gives a
evidences of the changes of level and other points connected with the
deposits of guano we refer to the memoir.
6. Memoir on the Island of Navassa, W. I.; by Eugene Gavssorn,
Mining Engineer and Metallurgist, 32 pp. Svo. "Baltimore, 1866, Also,
The Island of Navassa illustrated—folio, Idem.—The island of Navassa
is, like Sombrero, an elevated coral eis affo rding
various views of the island, and making an stag atlas. This island is
in the Caribbean sea, in 18° 25’ N. and 75° 5’ W., 33 miles southwest
of Hayti. The greatest height is 300 feet. It has perpendicular cliffs
of compact coral-made limestone on be sides, and these cliffs are penetra-
ted, as usual in such cases, numerous caverns. The summit is low oe
Whether there were successive stages in 5 the elevation
mains to be ascertained. The change of limestone to phosphate ae
the presence of guano aoe: is abundantly exemplified in many places
on this island, as it is on Sombrero. The freshwater of the island the
author remarks is simply the water of the rains which descends below
the surface and rests on the —— saltwater; and he observes that in
digging for water it is important not to go below lowtide level, as the
water then becomes brackish. In a view he concurs with R. J. Nel-
son, the author of a memoir on the geology of the Bermudas. The vol-
um st with analyses of the guano of ae island,
and its uses, as fertilizer and fuel; by Samus. W. Jounso
Prof of A on and Agricult. Chem., Yale Col lege. 168 pp. 12mo. a
beige 1866. (O. Judd & Co.)—This little manual contains more i
u upon the subject of which it treats than any other work with which
*
440 Miscellaneou# Bibliography.
we are acquainted, and it is eminently practical in the arrangement and
treatment of the topics embraced. It is divided into three parts, the first
treating of the origin, varieties and chemical characters of peat ; the sec-
the work (p. 77), it is sufficient to state the following as among the re-
sults; that the admixture of ashes, carbonate of lime, slacked lime, and
Peruvian guano, tended to greatly increase the amount of plant food in
decomposing peat, the crops in extreme cases being augmented thirteen
fold over the production from pure peat, and, without any admixture con-
taining nitrogen, eleven fold,
_ In regard to its value for fuel, a subject now attracting so much atten-
tion, we have here data afforded by the various processes engaged in its
preparation in this country and in Europe. The great question of its prof-
-itableness now remains to be solved by the many experimenters in this
branch of industry, many of whom need the data and facts here brought
together for a more intelligent direction of their. labors. This is espe-
cially the case, as regards the comparative heating effects of peat and coal,
upon which popular opinion is so erroneous, W. H. B.
8. Recherches sur lorigine des Roches, par Devesse, Ingénieur en
chef des Mines, &c. 74 pp. 8vo. Paris, 1865. (F. Savy.) —Delesse has
written much upon the origin of rocks, and whatever comes from his pen
is
r
9. Geology and Minerals: a report of Explorations in the Mineral
Regions of Minnesota during the years 1848, 1859 and 1864, by Col.
Cuartss Warrriesey. 54 pp. 8vo. Cleveland, 1866. Printed by order
of the General Assembly — We barely announce this memoir, as one con-
taining many facts of value on the subjects of the surface features of the |
region mentioned, the phenomena of drift, and the distribution and fea- :
tures of some of the rocks.
10. Carte Géologique du Department de la Seine, publiée d’apres les
orders de M. LeBaron G. E. Haussmann, Senateur Préfet de la Seine,
conformément a la déliberation de la Commission departmentale et ex
eutée sur la carte topographique, gravée sons la direction de M. ’inge-
INDEX: TO: VOLUME ZL:
A rs
Acad. Arts and Sci., Amer., medal, 136. auracer, Clarke on, imag
Nat. Sci. Philad., Proceed. of, 140, 292.|| _Lessingia germanoru
of Sciences, National, memoirs, 287. ountain plants, migration of, 182.
malm-culture, Wendl , 182.
isymbrium, Gray, 277.
session 0 431.
of Chicago, museum = 135,|| Scolopendrium m offieina arum, Firine, 281,
Proceedings, 140 Sequoia | of California, measure d, 129,
4K
6
K
of St. ;
a ae : ystem in, Hoek, 132.
ne Embryo i jozy of Starfishes, 134. epweiageel, on action of foliage, 126.
fie on you cant ‘Annelids, 427. Brad a Pe -, fish-remains in western
oys, Ja ten Pumprlly, 43. : acifi
Amer dasot: for savanenineit of Sci., Aig: W. HL, gold rocks of Pacific coast,
meeting of,
Ammonium amalgam, Pfeil i goan Te at. h008, 422. ae
re Pe for chlorine, Warr n organisms in Cal. gi ss rs, 429,
Sees. rast geol. relations of ee Brew yetere neutral point, hate 111, 112.
ae Assoc, 36th meetin , 433,
Antho: ny, W. A., bones of aa Brak OJ i iseall 268,
Appleton *s Amer. NP 9 dia, 188. B ee T Hew mineral lo one yaar.
Aquitanian remains, Lartet, 4, noticed, 991, |Buckley’s Texas Geo Us
Me Vas (36), Besasle! pmteuta: 1
]
Astron. Obeetvatiey; Russian, director of, California Blake’s list of minerals in, 114,
Antsonomy, Snell’s Olmsted’s, noticed, sere ysers, organisms of, Brewer, 429.
sé
human skull discovered in, "Brewer,
‘Aten Toleorah: Areld’s. Hist. De 487. |lCarbon replaced by silicon, 255.
|\Caricography, Dewey, 243; index to, 325.
po get on change of position in branch-
Bache, A. D., magnetic observ. in Me., 141.
Baird's Am Amer. Bled noticed, 134, 291. Cephalization in mollusea, on basis of,
n isom ‘
crete § in pect 5 radical als, 256. Chambers’ 8 a ocean ae 139, 440.
Blake, J. M. as, Pore from Nevada , 221.|| Chaneor one cing! diamond
Blake, W. P., Minerals of Cal, nonce, Chase, P skylig ht polarization 111.
Mie "125, by ° pied ints, 1 2
Blunt, E. China, coal form ‘
Romer 8 Teme Races ain 427. Chlorine in Sepenas cic pomude hee
Bost. Soe, Nat. Hist., Proceedings, 14
'\Chronograph proposed, Ye
ae gage Picea h iy London, 129. Clark, A., cd D amiord, medal, 1 136.
0, DeCandolle, 230. Clark, EJ, Anthophysa Miilleri, 223.
Rosine animality of ponges,
Boissier, feoues "Eaphortinrete, 427. on Vorticellidian parasite of Hydra,
ussinga ss noticed, 1
Curtis, Esculent Fungi of U.8., 129. Coal formation of China, Newherry, 151.
DeCandolle, Prodromus, 427. Coast wee magnetic observ. in Maine,
Engelmann, Junens of N. A., 128. -
Fournier, on Cruciferss, 277. Cobalt aa nickel, separation of, 254.
‘Gray, Handbook of ‘Brit. Alga, 5 281. Comportie ut Acad. Arts and Sci., Trans-
Salisbu Ge of plant ns, 138.
Bo: Lee Co area ‘division of Eocene, Hilgard on,
Branches, changes of direction a, eo a
Caricography, , 243; Index to, 325.|| Cooke, J. PF, Jr., Danalite, 73. Ho ta ta ies ua
_ Cinchona, species of, 131. Cope, E. D.; Dinosaur in N. J. Cretaceous, =
Corydalis cava, fertilization of, 131. 425.
grt ay flower of © lium ean-||Curtis’ s Esculent Fungi of U. S., tice o
442
gts ag Obsery. on Fixed Stars, no-
Sane, wae 7 origin of earth’s features,
205, 252.
n She hepard’s corundophilite and pa-
racoluibite, 2 269,
gress
oe Fiealnng ‘notice ed, 427,
on correcting monthly
means,
—— on origin of rocks, noticed, 440.
4 ricography, 243, 325.
Dexter, iP. preparation of ‘hydrofluoric
acid,
Diamond, colored by heat, 270.
of, Chan courtois, 271.
Tdocatie, formation of, Hunt, 63.
ecomposed by, Hun
t, 60,
Drift in western and southern pets. Hii-
Dudley Observatory, Annals, noticed, 139.
E
Earth, origin o of pice tg yy — 205, 252.
Earthquakes, ‘Winslow
works on, %
Blectric currents by Aerie ‘ood, 12,
on, 373,
INDEX.
GEOLOGICAL WORKS noticed—
Meek, Bellerophontida, 126.
Mene exhini, Dentex Miisteri, 124,
Nova ea, Geol. Survey, 123; mines
1. of No. Wales, 265
R ond: Geol. of No. } +2
mer, spider from coal-formation, 123.
eran, suleneire fossi N.A., 118,
r us 0 of — s, 12:
Winche ul, Grand Traverse ie 904 268.
Worth en, Geol, survey o .
GEOLO
“hs Bad Lands ” of Pri ey Missouri, Hay-
den’s tour in
Burlington li
China, coal favieacion Oe Newberry, “L
Crab, oldest known British,
Dead Sea, Lartet, 266.
Dinosaur in Cretaceou us of N. J., 425.
Earth’s features, origin of, Dana, 205,
2,
Bocene: sah ag group of, Hilgard, 68
Fish-remains in W. N. ¥. Bradley, 70.
Towa. » Geok survey 0 of, 27 3,
Maine, Post-tertiary fossils of, 426.
Mastodon remains, 3, N. x , 426.
Medusz fossils, Boeke ra 133.
poe Sy ‘ier lary arf of Livingston: and
ene
Pacific pearth ceca t ocks of, Brewer, 114,
Paleozoic crustacea a nage cirriped, 272.
fossils, Shumard’s list of, 118.
neg see Drift, Man, Petroleum, Stone im-
tinne
Elements, spectra of, Hinrichs 350,
Engelmann, G., Junci of
Eocene, Conrad’s division of, Hilgar
Essex og ee Proceedings of, 10,3
E. W., oil-bearing uplift o f W. Va.
F
G
alling bodies, apparatus for showing) —— As As,
F
laws of 418.
new variable star, 79.
b dey
8 * History of — x St 437.
—
te
Galvani cre
ee
GEoLOG noticed—
Beckie. 9 on Teme Geol. Survey, 437.
; of rocks, 440,
— éol, du department de la'|Haug, H., ., electromotive oR and resist-
ance of galvanic circuit
ev , tour through * * Bad Lands,”
island of Navassa,
: Gaussoin, Island of Navassa W. L., 439, || Hayde rtieed
Geol. Magazine,
#., source ot oc al nia:
G
—. of, Haug, ie
Gibbe fon. es W., obituary of,
alae Gibbs, W. , physical and ‘nreinieal abstracts
Soaeuaied 0. A., Onondaga min. springs,
i. rea
old rocks of Pacific — A ened. 114.
obitu
A,., new saad Besos star, 80.
aneyea ., botanical ese 126, 273, 427.
Snares) Rare f Cypripedium can-
coe,
Green, H. ‘A. fossils of Livingston and
Genesee Cos.
Oi, dhe K., Accra of, 277.
G., Greenland minerals, 93.
iograph yo
ments of Quaternions, hae 438.
Harv er, W. H., obituary of, 1
notic
: ra of star, 4
W., §) trum of new *
dent, 8. ime and T ‘of
Oe ee ee ee eee ae a ae ere
ras
Se Sn eee a Re ee ee en ees
FESS EN Sy ee PL eect et Shae ae Se
a en RR EER Bete TNE SR ESS aE Opel ee SE IRN ce Pa a a ee ie a ne ee ee kn ns
INDEX, 443
I
Illinois, geol. survey of, game 291.
Iodid of mgr light on, a, 198.
tio
sepa ration of se quioxy
Isomerism, Berthelo
I
Jackson, C. T. & J. C., analyses of mine-
07, 421.
ab, Che ester, Mass., 1
Japanese alloys, Pu mpelly, "43.
ohnson, on peat, noticed, 439.
Julien’s geology of Sombrero, 439.
K
Kaemtz, head of Russian Observat’y, 286.
Kenngott’ 8 hiccuale der Schweiz, 125,
83.
Krantz, Semann’s minerals bought by, 433.
Kundt, A., velocity of sound, 258.
rads L., ‘formation of Dead i a
i
Leffnann, H., ammonium amalgam, 72
Lesley, J. P., on sites at Brady’s
— ce 128.
tic a,
Light on iodid of silver, Zea, 198,
polarization of, Chase LI.
spectral lines, Hin
— spa Routed ie Th “112,
Tinea ag magnesia salts, Hunt, 49.
Lyceum Nat. stone ts Fey Annals, 202
ih burne ed, 135, 452.
M
Magnesia and lime anit » Hunt, 49.
Maine, magnetic haere: ee
Post- tertiary fossils of, "426.
Malmgren’s Arctic Annelids, mae 284.
oe = of, discovered in Cal
noticed, 1
bs tt om "Bellerophontide, noticed, 126.
Metals in organic Poems ‘Berthelot. A
Motcorie iron ise so 218, 250, 286.
of Gr prahees
of B ioe. = une 1866, Szabo, 432.
of Mexico, Shepard, 347.
bid Tenn., Shepard, 251
Va., Si rd,
Migleciitee Jaubrée on, 124,
Re
geol. of, what
W.A., spectrum 0 star, 389,
Mineral waters, Scag him 7 ee 196,
Onondaga, 1, 368.
MINER
Anata ase, 272: dae sine mt Apophyl-
lite, artificial, 270; Al rksut cope ;
Biotite, Chester, Mass., ol.
; ;
-Lussite, Nev. ae Lona ‘Gieseckite,
a pseudo oh Grahamite
Wurt
Hagemanni Hornblende, Bir-
ite, 246;
mingham, Soe myer 271.
e, 90, 107: *Monazite, 420.
Outerovine al. , 268.
rc nba dimetric, 93; Paracolumb-
ite, rd’s pein
Batlle, c Chester. , 422.
Serpentine, 272: Sillimanie, 272; Spi-
; Sp odumene,
de adie e,
inerals, paragenes is of, Reuss, 271.
Sema nn’s ¢ cate none of, 433, 495.
f, 272.
cg riontins clasited set prc eteg of cephaliza-
tion,
Monthly: aches on correcting, DeForest,
Mor.
Mound, cepulchraly - _ Me
Mount Hood + as .
Muscular power, uy nkland, 393.
ushrooms, esculent, Curtis on, 129,
ee of eerie, 19.
‘arsh, 1.
Brewer, 422.
N
Nat. Acad. Sci., memoirs of, 287.
session of, vor
Navassa, Gaussoin ae noticed, 439,
—. 8 apparatus for soee veloc. of
sound, 4
n Me., Bache, 141.|| Nites
sSbhe, ici
Newberry, J. 8, China coal formation, 151.
wey BA: shooting stars,A Aug. 186,429
milton’ s Quatern
Nickel and goers sepaeuans “Of 954,
W. H., B urlington limestone forma-
PE ons, 95.
trogen in peat, Schultzenstein a 132.
noe Scotia, mines and minerals of, 128.
Blunt, ae 433.
Gibbes, Robert Wilson, 435.
Gould, A. A., ago
Greville, R. x:
milton, oa
Harvey, W. H., 129, 278,
Kennicutt, R., 885.
Seimann,
em se ulehral | mound j in, Mars 1
i
lOltusted’s Astronomy ,Snell’s.
7a 0.
Puine, re - Jr.,
rum, 28
Peabody, Gi, gifts of, to science, 433.
Peat, Johnson on, notice
nitrogen in, Sc hultzenstein, 132.
Perrey, A., sale of library of, 290,
Peters, C. i. F., asteroid discovered by,|| Sza
Scolopendrium officina-
Petroleum, geal. relations of, Andrews, 33.
origi
on aaehaay river, Lesley, 123,
in So. Ky. and Tenn., Safford, 104,
in New S. Wales, Clar ke, 267,
R ;
uplift = W. Virgi nia, Hvans, 334,
cil, F. S., eagle amalgam, 12.
Phatograhy, see Ligh
oto-micro graphy, Vt 189.
Porter, J. A., obituary o
Porter, S., vowel elements, 167, 303.
Q
Sheehan: Hagiilton’s Elements of, 438.
Radicals, organic, metals in, Berthelot, 256.
Ramsay, Geol. of N. Wales, —— "O65.
— A: — of New Mexi 0, 261.
8, paragenesis of mi eons OTL.
Parner. spider from coal formation, 123.
Rogers, H. ne tess? Si
Rood, O mien hermo-electrie currents by
percus
Rumfo ra meitic to A. Clar rk, 136
Russia, Central ge Spal of, 286.
petroleum in, 272.
INDEX.
Sponges, ceartireid of, Clark, 320.
Star, new vari etd 80, 135.
yee m of, ae , 089.
meter, 1 results of, 4
Stars, fix ne D’A s observ. on, 287.
Stone inplements,Ch natel collection, 289,
ic, composition
Sun, oa sof, influenced by tefeaction, 260.
bo, J., meteorite in Hungary, 482.
T
Tahiti, tides at, Winslow, 45.
Te — , petroleum in, Safford, 104.
enney : i
exas aac survey,
— electric currents by percussion,
anal, of mineral water, 196,
Tides at Tahiti, Winslow, 45.
itanium, oxyd of, Chester, ar .y 92.
Trowbri idge ae ee meteors, Aug. 1866, 286.
Tungsten, chlorids of," Debray, oe
v
Verrill, A. E., zoological notices, 132, 283,
427,
Polyps of Panama, noticed, 428.
and Corals of Pacific, noticed, 428.
and Echinoderms
28.
Volcanoes, works on, for’sale, 290.
Vose’s Orographic Geology noticed, 123,
Vowel elements in speech, Porter, 167, 303.
W
uth, on Burlington limestone
Semann, L., obituary of, 435.
Safely, K,, on mastodon remains, 426
ssmann, 211,
ee anal. of minerals, 271.
aboratory Contributions, 196,
0. U., mineral n 10tices, 246,
249,
and pacaicinshel
.
te Net ada, 220,
y of an Mass., 83.
1365, 436, |
ae len, 1 noticed, 439.
Pe a ae for, 417.|
re’s i eg Hie gt erger beer Ww
noti
Wales, Menta eol. of, Ramsay on, 265.
alker — subjects, Bost. Soc. Nat.
Hist.,
Ward, “i. oe ge -< ayo by, 136.
C. M,, n organic com-
ene nds, 156.
ater, absorptive power of vapor of, 259.
aters, eieoral. see Miner
| West Virginia, oil-bearing uplift of, Evans,
White, C. A., appointed geologist of Iowa,
Whittlesey, C., explorations in Minn., no-
ticed,
Neon chell A., on Grand Traverse region,
Shum: he Fossils. noticed, 118. Winslow C. F, tides and earthquakes, 45.
__ Cretaceous of Texas, noticed, 123. :
con, carbon re}
Worthen, A. H. fee ithe = = 291.
Woodward, H., new Paleozoic fossils, 264,
Woodward, J. aA rosea iam 189.
Wurtz, H.,
258; Neumann, Young, C. A., printing chronograph, 99.
Z
|Zéllner, on astro-photometer, 418.
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