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THE ae 


AMERICAN JOURNAL 


SCIENCE AND ARTS. 


EDITORS, 


JAMES D. DANA, B. SILLIMAN, ann E. 8. DANA. 


ASSOCIATE EDITORS, 


Prorrssors ASA GRAY, WOLCOTT GIBBS anp 
J. P. COOKE, Jr., or CamBriner, 


Prorrssors H. A. NEWTON, 8. W. JOHNSON, G. J. BRUSH 
anv A. E. VERRILL, or New Haven, 


Prorressor GEORGE F. BARKER, or PuiLapELpHtia. 


THIRD SERIES. 
VOL. XV.—[WHOLE NUMBER, CXV.] 
- Nos. 85—90. 
JANUARY TO JUNE, 1878. 


WITH TWO PLATES. 


NEW HAVEN: EDITORS. 
1878. 


MISSOURI BOTANICAL 
AROEN LIBRARY 


| 


a 


CL ae a ere eee) oe 


P 
Art. I.—Contributions to primed 2h being results derived 


CONTENTS OF VOLUME XV. 


NUMBER LXXXV., 


from an examination of the Observations of the United 
States Signal Service, pee from other sources ; ae Exias 
Loomis, Eighth paper. With plates 1 and 2,.-_____._- 1 


—Under-water Oceanic Temperature; by G. E. Betknap, 27 


Ag 
IV. oopeaaieg Effect of Electric Convection ; ; by H. A. Row- 


VE si: sipitex and its Satellites; by Marra Mrrenet, __._ ~~. 38 
VI.—Revision of the Atomic Weight of Anemos: oe 


an F COORE te we a 41 


Jos 
Vil. By fophusphnciias n Anhydrous Pyrophosphate of 


Lime from the West india: ; by C. U. Suusparp, Jr.,.... 49 


SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE. 
e Direct Combustion of Fe itrogen, 


hemistry and Ph nm, KAMMERER: On 
the Relative Beng aigsice of Caves fs for Hydrogen a d Carbonous oxide, Horsr- 


MANN, 51.—On the Sulphides of Platinum, Rrpan, 52 .—On the Destructive Dis- 
tillation of Phat and Chlo’ ett. ra KRAMERS: Boracic Acid, M. L ULAPAIT, 
53.—Photo-electric Phenomena, R. BornsTetN, 54, HANKEL, 5. 55.—Specifie Heat 


of air at constant pressure and constant yolume, H. Kayser : Fluorescence of 
the Retina, 55. 


of Wi in, 61. : 
Biberisn Steppes: co Physiographie der massigen Gesteine, H. 
Rosensuscu, 65.—A Guide to the Determination of Rocks, by E. Jannetaz: 
Tables seal the Seuiiisetion ot Minerals, by P. FRAZER, Jr.: Tridymite in Ire- 
land: ennsylvania, 66. 

ee —The Different Forms of Flowers on Plants of the same Spe- 
cies, c DarRwIs, 67.—Ferns of North America, D. C. Eaton: Notes on 
Botrychium simplex, G. E. DAVENPORT, 72.— Researches in in regard to the in- 
fluence of light i radiant heat upon transpiration in plants, J. WIESNER: 
Ueber Botrydium granulatum; J. Rosrarinski and M. Worontn, 73,—Om 
Spetsbergens marina Klorofyll forande — 74. —Felei e Bi ay . 
ae affini — a Borneo: Notes on Botrychium simp 
te on the Habits of young Tinie, a AGassiz, 75. nie Se. 

sn of ena a from the Jurassic; O. C. Mars 


Astronomy.—The Nag Meteors: On Schmidt’s en Cygni, 76.--The Report | 


of Professor Pickeri 
—Norwegian Exploring eg ther sone ogi 


Miscellaneous Scientific ee nana 
of Weisbach’s Mechanics, 78.—A New Treatise on Steam Engineering, ete. : 
List of Writings relating to | , MERRIMAN: 
Elements of the Method of Least Squares, by M. MERRIMAN: Royal Society, 79. 
Obituary.—Jared Potter Kirtland, 86. 


iv CONTENTS. 


N UMBER LXXXVI. 


Arr. her —Photometric comparison of Light of aitrdny | 
colores by U.N. eon, (25. eon ae 81 ' 


IX.—Echinoid fauna of Braz il; by Ricnarp Ratu : 82 : 


X. Stiga sin Aa in the tail of Coggia’s Cosas, ae | 
Sve eee ee ee ee 84 

XI. = Suede extinction of the light of a Solar Protuberance; | 
L. Trou 85 


eer) Reger Seta Ng He es elon bal Rati a 


and its relation to tae force find vital liesit S, LuContrs, 99 
XV.—Revision of the Atomic Weight of Antimony ; by 
Jostan P. Coo KE, Jr. (concluded), --__.._. - 1 
X VI.—Two new species of Primordial Fossils; ; by! S. W, Foro, 124 
XVIL—N Note on mailed colata; by. 
XVIII. 


; byS. W. Fo RD, 129 

XIX. —Schweitzer’s “New Aid Ammen Sulphates ; “ge by 
HNSON and R. H. Currrenpen, -.__ .-.--__ 2. 131 
XX, = Poplar of North America ; by SERENO Watson, ---. 135 


SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE. 


Chemistry and Physics.—Viquefaction of Oxygen, M. Raout Pictet, 137.—Lique- 
faction of Oxygen, ehh ee and Hydrogen, 141.—Liquefaction ‘of Rewyiene, 
Nitrogen 


ioxide, and obebly Marsh gas, (LLETET, 142.—Flame-tempera- 

s ETT M um Wor'! E ‘ — n 

ealled Idryl, GOLDscHMIEpDT, —Determination of Nitrogen in Nitroglycerin, 
Laur a R: Aromatic Hydantoins, Sc , 145.—Behavior of Be 

acid in the Organism of Birds, Jarre: Le Sage’s Theo eory of Gravitation, J. 

Crout, 146.—Thermal Conduetivity and Diathermancy of Air and H ydrogen, H. 


Burr, 147. “Se Sacre of the Electric Spark in compressed gases, Cazin and 
Wiruxer, 14 

and Mi ebay La —Silurian tbe by Leo LEsQUEREUX: Modified dri 
New Hatioate © y W. UPHAM, 1 mig vse das Krvstallsystem aa die Winkel 
des Glimmers, von N. v. Sproles : Die Glimmergru 


FELD, 153.—Beitrage zur Bntvwickelungsgeschichte de “aor — by E. Stan.: 


Acetabularia Mediterraneanea, by A. DE BARY E. STRASBURGER, 155.— 
Entwickelh hichte reat Prothalliums von Cvddeneene leptophylla, by 
K. GorpeL: New Species of Parasitic ey : by E. P. cee 
Transpiration in Plants: Japanese Lingula an ds, E. 


ig iets ae = Le aa ey i eee le 2 eR ee eR ee oe 
Rr TT a5 oN OPN SO Re R RG e ye EE ee eS Ty Re eas ree 


S. Morsg, 
—The American Naturalist: Bulletin of the r uttall Ornithological Club: 3 eae 
foie “the me 158. 


Meteors observed in Cambridge, Mass.: Prize for the discovery of 
> Oana 158. —Index posta tp a and Sombie relating to Nebule and 


Clusters, &c.. ly E. i tae 

Miscellaneous Scienti, —teephon in England, 159.—Manual of Heat- 

ing and Ventilation, Peng comme esmerism, Spiri , ete., historically 

Se a by W. B. CarPENTER: The Telephone : Auguste 
os de la Rive, 160.— Rhumkorff, 160. 


RSE ce ot oe a P eamey UE ea ay ™ Pate mene Sears 


CONTENTS. Vv 


schecassecee LXXXVIL. 


xL— 

‘ture ; Phys eory of Cote, by . Norton,.- 161 
XXU.—Transmission of Earth Waves; by H. L. Apso A eR 
XXIII. Sec oreamey of Chemical Notation ; by Brrtuexor and 

NEARIGNACE 2 20 ee ae eo ae eee 184 
epee —Renction of Silver Chloride and Bromide; by M. C. 


pec teate ss 189 
XXV. ot ournal Friction at Low Speeds; y A. S. Kiwparn, 192 
XXVI.—Brightness of the Satellites of Uranu iit bomsel bah 5 
XX VIL—Decomposition of Chromic Iron; by E. F. Smrrn,. 198 


IL. B. Wison,- 
XXIX.—Tantalite from Coosa Co., Alabama; by J. L. Smrru, 203 
XXX.—Am sug ines Silver Nitrate; by W. G. Mrxrer,_ 205 
XXXI—C lization of Variscite ; by = = CHESTER,... 207 
XXXII.—A Ney Planet ; by C. H. F. 208 
XXXIIL—New Dinosaurian Reptiles ; sie "0. ro Marsu,.--. 241 


SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE. 


og wrant J and Physics.—New mode of determining Vapor Densities, ve ndecoes NN, 

—New Oxide of Sulphur, Peteatphatis — BERTHELOT, 209.—Formation 

fs ‘Ammonium Nitrite in Combustion, ZOLLER and GRETE: Fiuoranthrene, a 
r TT ; 


ratory of the Johns Hopkins University, 2 
Geology and Mineralogy. —W isconsin ae Socioers Geological Survey of New 
Jersey, 216.—United States Geological and Geograpl hical Survey, sacle .—Geo 


fm 

2 

+ 

b 

a2 

° 
eee 
Boers 
a 
gees 

ae 

a2 

a 

oF. 

Te 
38 3 

gs 

@ 


ernary beds of Grinn A 
Leda Clay ee pe or beds) of a Ottawa valley: Mineralogy and Petrography 
a an DSWORTH: " Setunrekite from Mitchell Co., North 


as ate ils i slaeelasters Note to the Review of Darwin’s “ Forms 
Flo 221.—Historia Filicum, 222. i F 


wers,” ria Filicum, 222 Pires of North America: List woth! 
found in the vicinity of Boston, 223.—Journal of the ean Society: Guide du 
Botaniste in Belgique: Insect-fertilization in , 224.—Botanical Ne- 
crology of 1877 aoa et ogoniese, 225 Cg new Species ime 
from rican wa Dr. Warring’s a on the 
growth-rings of eee plants a proof of siorublanis seasons, 


Astronomy. oe of the Sun, J. Crobu, 226- ee By the Cordoba Obser- 
_ vatory, B een 230.—-Moon’s Zodiaca | Light, E. S. Houpen, 231. 

Miscellaneous Scientific Intelligence —Address of the President of the Royal Society, 
231. cetaniatbone weld Flasks Pye on the Alps, ota Dog as of Tight 


upon Bacteria and beara Or vEs and T 

ditures for Universities in Germany, cot —Earthqake of of Nov. “tb. 187% 238.— 
Geological — of repaect: Palzeon teer Weat er Service . 
Beiblatter n Annalen der Physik und oat pone 


Obituary. iste César Becquerel, 239.—Henri Victor Regnault, 240. 


vil CONTENTS. 


NUMBER LXXXVIII. 
Pi 

ART. oa ae —Surface Geology of Southwest Pennsylvania ; 
2 


xv eb WTEC RNMON (cs. ays ks ok So ees 5 
xX a Driftless Interior of North America; by J. D. 


Ba ee UES ss es eee ee oe ia 50 
XXXVI ~The Ancient Outlet of Great Salt Lake; by G. K. 
Gotnuer: 53s n ba ce ceed oe a eo 256 
XXXVIL—Projection of Microscope Photographs; by J. C. 
Dinar et oes ei oe a ws aa 59 


XXXVIIL. iy Pee Silurian Fossils in Limestone associated 
with Hydromica slates in Pennsylvania; by F. Pri, Jr., 261 
XX XIX.—Influence of Temperature on the ‘Optical Cousomes 
of Glass; by C. 8. Hastings, - - 


XLI.—Intrusive Nature = ~ Triassic finer of New 
gerepy > by Lo iotseeemrs, 3g Sek et 277 
XLIT. eres Unit of "Blcctrical Resistance; by H. A. 
POOWEAWON or ce eke og ae 281 
XLIT. Groll’s H a = the Origin of Solar and Sidereal 
Heat; by D. RWOOR Sos bce as ES ie 291 
XLIV. —Chemieal Composition of Guanajuatite, a Selenide of 
Bismuth from Guanajuato; by J. W. Maier, .__.___- 294 
LV. ge on Solar Victories and Optical Sindics: ; by 
8. RROGIN Serio ey ecient. ce tees 297 
XLVI.—Tree-like Fossil Plant, AL h came in —_— Upper 
Silurian Rocks of Ohio; by E. W. Crave 


poumiinns eee 


Chemistry and Physics.—Fundame: RTHELOT, 304.— 


Data, Br - 
Relations ‘between the ‘Koa: pe of = ce nts, WACHTER: Prepara- 
ion n, GATEHOUSE: Method of separating Crystallize spe- 
from Silicates, LAUFER, 305.—Stannous Chlori the analysis 
of Nitro-compounds, Lue T: Catalytic action of Carbon Disulphide, HELL 
and 306.—Conversion of Nitriles into Amides, PINNER an 
Que a Pentacid Alcohol, Homa Acids o utter, Kinezert, 307 


TT, 
New Class of Acid ge ViLiieRs: Electro-Magnetic and Calorimetric Absolute 
Measur Ek: Chemi ynamies, C. R. A. Wrieut and A. P. 
Lurr, 308. aa For ae? : Haloid ae of Antimony, J. P. Cooks, Jr., 
310.—The Telephone, an Instrument of Pre ion, G. Fo = 12. 


srishatin = Teen Shake of ay ortho R. D. sarees, 313.— 


; 315. 
New Jersey, 316.—First and Second lacial Eras of s with 
flowers from the Coal-region r Pemmepoae : Mineral Caves of Biches 
Peru, H. SEwELt, 317. ~Homilite, 318, 
Botany and Zoology.—Flora o rhea Nae Africa, 318.—Ferns of Nerth America 
_ Fossil Plants of pean Norma 339. -Elias Magnus Fries : Pourage of the Phar- 


7 eras of parestbes 1877, Dawson, 
rederick Hartt: Hagel Sees - * 


. citing pee Geet 
XL.— —Experiments with Floating Magnets s; by A. M YER, 276 


ae 
. Ee . * z ¥ : ss a esha aes ee 
LE Ge RPE ee eR Ee Oe SN, RT, EE Oe en OST TEES OM PRR SRe SOMES 2 eee RE PU LP Lee eT EIN Se er ee TE Ee Ne Stl 


Fe ee a et Re 


CONTENTS. vil 


NUMBER LXXXIX. 


Page 

Arr. XLVIL. gag eet. on the Absolute Unit of Electrical 
Resistance ; by y A. Row ji cteeee ces eee 
XLVIIT.—Meteorie fron peo Vieginia: by J. W. Matiet,.. 337 


rift Fo 
L.—Geographical and Geological Survey of the Rocky 
Mountain Region, under the direction of J. W. Powell,. 342 
LL—Just Tacsnaton 3 in Music ; by H. Warp Poots,.----- 359 
LII.—Brachiopoda in the Swedish Primordial: ; by 8. Ww. Forp, 364 
LIT.—On the “ Geodes” of the Keokuk Formation, and the 


Genus popes by Samoms J. WALLACE, . 2 J...242. 366 
LIV.—The Coralline, or Magars Timestove ‘of the Appala- 

chian ed. e PAREBTES, coor ee oe neces 370 
LV.—Isopoda from ow England ; ee Oscar Harcer,. ---- 373 
L monio-argentic Iodide; by M. Carry Lra,.---- 9 


—Am y M. y Lea 
LVII.—Fossil Passerine Bird from Colorado; by. J. A, 'ALLEN, 381 
LVIUI.—Terrestrial Electrical Currents; by W. L. Brovun,.. 385 
LIX.—Notice of New Fossil Reptiles ; by O. C, Marsn,.... 409 


SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE. 


Chemistry and Physics.—Specific Heat of Beryllium, Nitson and Perrersson: Syn- 
thesis of Olefines, E:rexorr, 386.— Transformation of Olefine bromides into bro- 


les DEM 
etc. eae 387. — Distillation of _ and resin acids with zine dust, 


ean Sa tains eed the Falls of the Ohio, James Hatt, — 
—Fossil Plants of the Se yowsiager Gravel Deposits of the Sierra Nevada, 
LEsQurrEvx: Fossil wood from the Keokuk form oe S. J. WaLtace: has 
accompanying the Report of the Getlogics! Exploration of the Fortieth hie 
C. Kine, 396.—Geological and Geographical Atlas oF bart F. : 


Botany and Zoology.—Synoptical Flora of North America, Gray: Bibhographical 
are to North American ager case ‘Ss. Wamso N, 400.—Some points in the Morph- 
of Prim hy of Floral Aistivations, etc., G. 

H 


U. * 

mioe 401.—Floral Stru sare a and k ‘Affinities of Sapotaceze, ag M. Hartoe: 

North American Plants: Spore-Formation of the Me esocarpex, V B. Wrrrrock, 

402.—Non-Sexu al O spegcapee — on Fern Proth oe 403. —Cata logue of the Flower- 
ants wi s of Yale College 


Astronomy.—Der ae x Persei, ete., H. . ee OGEL, 404. Reo eerie Jouraes 3 
of Mathematics : Publications of the Cin cinnati Observatory, 406. 


mre gy vents 
on Chemistry, H. e and C. Rep 
tendent of the Coat Boasts for 1874: Minneahe peice. of Nai atural 
oe Re tions to North Ame bsacig tomy 
8. Powers, 407. a ey ARLES PICKERING, 408. 


vill CONTENTS. 


NUMBER XC. 


Art. LX.—Transmission of eee and Volition eG 
the Nerves; by MoM, Gakvans. oo0 oe sere 


Page 


"43 0 
EXIIL.—Ancient Outlet of Great Salt zake ie C. Prats, 439 
Lx 


ANGL 457 
LXVIUL—Fossil Mammal from the Jurassic of ‘the somes > 
y O. C. Marsa, 
LXIX.—Shale recently discoverd pos the Devonian ee! 
Cat 


stones at Independence, Iowa; by S. igh Pe apatite Spa 460 
fim Xone, UNE LL Dic. ay ted a 462 
LXXI.—Letter from B. A. Goup, Director of the Cordoba 

We ee ee 


SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE. 
hemistry and P. —Expansion of the Solid Elements a Function of their : 
Atomic weight, ma 472.—Gallium, LEcog DE BoIsBauUDRAN, 473.—Dimethyl- ; 

ethylene, or pe: Butylene, Erarp, 474.—Oil of Tansy and Oil of Valeri : 
BR inates 


5.—Xanthin-li odies uminates in Pancreatic Diges- 
tion, apa Present Condition of Electrical Meteorology, PALMIERI, 476. 
Floa‘ t ote on ting Magnets, A. M. Ma 


Geology and eralogy.—Supplement to the Second Edition of Acadian Geology, 
J. W. Dawson, 478.—Recherches expérimentales sur les cassures qui traversent 
te 


vom RaTH: Das Erdbeben von Herzogenrath am 24 Juni, 1877, Dr. von 4 
: Die 2. i 


Botany and Zoology.—Karly Introduction and Spread of the Barberry in viet 
New England, 482.—Ferns of North America, D. C. Eaton, 483.—Dictionnai 
_= Botanique: Vargas considerato como Botanico: Dr. Thomas mas Thomson, 484. 


istry: Smithsonian Institution: a Association 
emigre Rate of Earthquake Wave Transit, 48 


AMERICAN 


JOURNAL OF SCIENCE AND ARTS. 


[THIRD SERIES.] 


* 


Art. L—Contributions to Meteorology, being results derived from 
an examination of the Observations of the United States Signal 
Service, and from other sources; by Ex1as Loomts, Professor 
of Natural Philosophy in Yale College. Eighth paper. 
With plates I and Il. 


[Read before the National Academy of Sciences, New York, October 24, 1877.] 
The origin and development of storms. 


In order to determine the circumstances under which storms 
originate, and ultimately acquire their full intensity, I selected 
from the published volumes of the Signal Service observations 
(September, 1872, to May, 1874), all those cases in which the 
barometer fell below 29°25 inches at any station. It was found 
that the barometer on Mt. Washington was frequently very 
much lower than at the neighboring stations, Burlington and 
Portland, indicating some peculiarity of this station. 
these cases were therefore set aside, and reserved for separate 
examination. During the entire period under discussion, the 
mean height of the barometer at Virginia City was nearly a 
third of an inch lower than at the neighboring stations, and 
these observations were therefore eliminated from my list. 
There remained one hundred and forty-eight cases in which 
the barometer fell below 29-25 inches at some one of the other 
stations. Sometimes at the same hour the barometer was 
below 29-25 inches at a considerable number of stations all 
included within the same low area. In such cases only one of 
the stations is included in the table, viz., the station at which 
the barometer was lowest. These one hundred and forty-eight 
cases correspond to forty-four different storms, and are shown 
in the following table, in which column Ist shows the number 
of the storm; column 2d shows the date at which the barome- 
ter was below 29:25 inches; column 3d shows the least height. 
of the barometer observed at that hour; column 4th shows the 

Am. Jour. ee Serres, Vou. XV, No. 85.—Jan., 1878. 


2 Li. Loomis— Observations of the U. S. Signal Service. 


name of the station at which the given height was observed ; 
column 5th shows the total rain-fall (in inches) for the preced- 
ing eight hours, at all the stations included within the area of 
low barometer; column 6th shows the date of the storm’s 


origin so far as can be determined from the observations; 


locality named in column . Several additional columns 
which I had prepared, I am obliged to omit in order to reduce 
the table to the limits of the page of this Journal. 


Barometer below 29°25 inehes. 


Bar. Rain | Storm originated.| High on Eastside.’ | High on Westside _ 
No. Date. low- Station. ‘in fa n oe 
| est. low. | When. | Where.| **"-| Bar. |Direction| Dist.| Bar. | Direction. DB) 
1872. ea a 
Nov. 7.2.29°12)Portland, Me.| 6-00,Nov. 3 Wy. 0 |30.25)S, 70° B.| 850 30°18|N.72° W.| 927 
; 7.3, -13/Quebec 2°43 3 
8.1} -07;/Quebec 6°75 
8.2) *19| Quebec “25 
ee | 30.1} -10/Quebee 2°-26/Nov. 28n. Mi. | 0] -‘38/S. 56 BL] 71) West 
3 Dee. 24.1) -15|Portland, Or. | 1-84/Dec. 23'n. W. “70| East Py 
4 27.1) -17|Halifax ‘T5\Dec. 23.G.M. | 0 | -35'Hast “T0IN. 12 W.il 
6-09\Jan. 1N.M./| 0| -42\N.80E. “15|N. 82 W.| 
5-62 a 
“12 i 
74 Jan. 25 Col. 0} 365: “1T| West A 
} jJan. 28n. Mo.| 0 | 72/8. 54 EL 18) West 6 > 
2°54\Feb. 50. Mo.| 0/| ‘308.49 EL) “4118. 20 W. |LI® 
39, -29|N. 62 E.| | *48|N. 79 W.|20 


bo 
3 
ty 
Sy 
f-r) 
b> 
P 


156 Feb. 20.N.M. | -o1] -341N.70K.|1100| -59|N, 62 W.j20F 


i) 


‘Mar. 14\Dak. | -02| -46/S.78 E.| 930; -36| West 


Barometer below 29°25 inches. 


1090 


a Rain | Storm originated.’ High on Eastside. | High on West side. 
low: Station. in Rain 
esi. | low. | When. | Where all.) Bar. Direction Dist.) Bar. | Direction.| Dist. 
¥ ‘ | Ne 
Mar. 21.1/29 19|Por tland, Me. 4°63 Mar. 16)n. Mo. 0 |30°44 S.58°E.!} 820/30714'S, 40° W.| 900 
21.2} *19\Portland, Me. | 1-78! 
26.3 16 Portland, Me, |} 2°98 M: 23in. T. 0 ‘41 N.16E.| 960) . °14'N. 74 W.!1200 
19.2)29 hes ego 10°42/ Mar. 26in. Mo. 0 *37S. 84 E.) 650) °11.8.41 W.| 900 
29,3 28°80B lingto 5°13 
30.1/28°87 Portland, Me.} 2°78 
30.2 29°20) Portland, Me. | 1°40 
. 24.2) 29°03) Halif; 112,Ang. 23/A. 0. 0 -36 N. 54 W.'1000 
24 3/28-99| Halifax "3| 
25.3|29°18) Yankton 1°70|Sept. 23) Dak. 0 ‘118.83 BE.) 435) -10;West 1080 
26.2} °20)Fort Garry 3 
6.2 0'Punta Rassa | 6°40/Oct. 5/Cub. O01)" -39,N. 33 W./1600 
6.3} °02/Punta Rassa | 5°46 
17.2} °23/St. Paul 5-94'Oct. 16\n. D. 0 318.70 E.| 680) -41) West 1200 
17.3| *02|Duluth 4 | 
27.2| °22)Portland, Me.| 8°41/Oct. 25 Col. ‘04, “50 N.74E.' 710; -47'N. 72 W.) 920 
8.2! *14| Eastport 10|Nov. 4:n. W. 0 | 42 East {1200 
8.3/29°12/H. 1 | 
9,1)2: ic pe sier 6 
13.1)28°99 Cape Rosier | 3°78|Nov. 10|Neb. 0 “24 N. 73 440| °38 West 850 
17.1, 29-00; Wilmin ngton 91|Nov. 13;n. Mo. 0 358. 31 E./1520| °12S. 16 W.| 440 
17.2) 28°82! Norfolk 23 
17.3)28°82/Cape "32 
18.1|28°66|New London | 8°23 
18.2/28°47| Eastpo: 9°12 
ds 284 Chatham 2°16 
.1/28°97\Cape Rosie’ 1°98 
243 29-09|Bastpo 3°14'Noy. 21/N. M. 0 398.82 E.|1460; ‘14 N. 52 W.)1090 
25.1/28°82 Hal 4531 
25.2/28°80, Sy y 79 
aan cranes 0°66 
26,1) 28-85 Sydney 0-78 
26.2 29°17 Sydney 0-07 
3.3/ 29-08) Escanaba 13-99|Nov. 30 Mon. 0 “70'S. 83 E.| 1650: 
1 ba oo 3°67 
4.1/2 0:°95'Dec. 11|N. M. | 0| °37S.82 E1500) -28N. 51 W. 
ae 28.128. 88 Porta, Me.| 2°52 24 n. W. 09' -51\East 1075 
2:28°91| Eastport 4°29 ) 
3853 28-98\srdene ‘49 
31,2 29-23|/Fort Garry ~ 20 i W. 0| ‘63S. 74 E1400 
2.2) -09) . Blin. Mo.| 0} °64S.60 E./1750 
232 
2) 
3.3 | . 
16. . 1 . | 10) 5ON. 765. 900) 87 N. 47 W. 
15.3, an. 14/P.0.-| ‘Oi ast  |1070 | 
16.1 
16.2 
16.3 | 
17.1 hie 
4.1 31N.M. | -03| -64.N.55E.| 950} -20.N. 82 W.| 900 — 
4.2 oe 
10.3 8'G. M. | -04| -64N.20E,|1480| -22.N. 70 W. 
see 28° “8 Syiney | 
9.0. 0 548. 81 E.1200 


sda ee 


Barometer below 29-25 inches. 


. 


ar, Rain | Storm originated.|_ _—_—| High on Kast side. High on West side, 
No. Date. low- Station. in hain. - 
est. low. | When. | Where.| fll.) Bar, |Direetion Dist.| Bar. | Direction. 
1874, | 
Feb. 16.3 29:09|Quebec 1-76/Feb. 12/Or. 0 30.53 Kast 1060 
17.1| ‘0T|\Cape Rosier "30 
17.2; °12/\Cape Rosier 06 i 
35 - Mar. 1.2) °23/Fort Garry *02\Feb. 28\n. Mo. 0 38'S. 72° E.|1800/30-25'S. 15° W,) 4 
1.3) ‘05 Fort Garry 09 : 
3 6.2! °23)/Keokuk 4:45 Mar. 3/Mon. 0} ‘30N.70E.) 730} -21'S.18 W./@ 
6.3] ‘16| Dubuque 4°2¢ 
7.1} -17|Milwaukee cy 
7.2} +24 Alpena 3°98 : 
8.2| -22| Kastport 2°38 ‘ 
8.3] +19, Quebec 1-6¢ 
| -24! 2-35 
z 1-07 
1:4] 
36< “9S 
1-5¢€ 
a 
212 
aL 
91 
14 
40 
56 
66 
a 09 
6°85} Mar. 13) Mon. 03} +-41/East 740 
cy fy 
1-2: 
ea 
§ 
0| April 11| Ut. 0 | .45|N. 54 BE} 940 : 
*39 ] ge 
6°34) April 23\G. M. | -07| -17)N.15 £./1200) -12/N. 70 W. it 
371s - 
1°92 
Sydney of 
11/Father Point | 3-00/April 26) Wy. 0 *241N. 66 E.| 770} -19) West 
30.2/28°97|/Father Point | 1-6 
29°11/Quebee * 
°05|/Father Point | °4 
°22\Father Point | °8 
*13!Fort Sull 43) April 29! Dak. 0 | ‘38i/East {| 620) 
Fort Sully 0 
16)Fort Sully 0 
“233i - 
+25] 156) 
‘17|Leavenworth | 2°6: ; 
Fort Sully *b1|May 7\Mon. 0 23/8. 54 E. 1370 
12/Fort Sully 04 
*17|Fort Sully *92) 
-01/Fort Sul | 2-04 
“15 92 
"24! Alpen 0 | °20/S.80 E.| 440 
*17|Ottawa 
-24' Ottawa Eee 
16|Fort Sully 0} -20/S.36 E.! 550 
-16| Fort Sully 
||Fort Sully 


Observations of the United States Signal Service. 5 


Of these forty-four storms, thirty-two occurred during the five 
months from November to March, and only two occurred dur- 
ing the four months from June to September. 

The third column of the following table shows the number 
of cases in which a storm originated in each of the different 
localities named in column 2d. The first column shows the 
letters by which the locality was designated in column 7th of 
the table on pages 2 to 4. 


Symbol.! Where storm originated. | Cases. ||symbot.! Where storm originated. | Cases. 
P. 0. |Pacifie Ocean, north of n. D. |North of Dakota. 1 
Washington Territory. 2 |/Dak. Dakota. 4 
n. W. |North of Wash’n Terr. 4 |\Neb. |Nebraska. 1 
Or. 1 |in. T. |Northern Texas. 1 
Ut. ta 1 jin. Mi. [North of Michigan. 1 
n. Mo. |North of Montana. 7 ||Ark. |Arkansas. 1 
Mon. |Montana. 5 |iG. M. ‘Gulf of Mexico. 2 
Wy. yoming. 2 ||Ala. |Alabama. 1 
Col. Colorado. 2 |\Cub. |Near Cuba. 1 
N. M. |New Mexico. 5 ||A. O. |Atlantic O.,nearlat 37°.) 1 


nate north of latitude 36°. 

The first stage in the development of each of these storms was 
an area several hundred miles in diameter, over which the height 
of the barometer differed but little from thirty inches, with an 
area of high barometer both on the east and west sides, and at 
a distance of about 1,000 miles. In the few cases in which a 
high barometer is not reported on both sides of the origin, It 1s 


6 LE. Loomis—Results derived from an examination of the 


because the area of the observations was not Pig po! Bs oe 
tended. The mean value of the high barometer on the ea 
side was 80°42 inches, and the mean distance 1,033 miles; on 
the west side the values were 80°31 inches and 977 miles. If 
the area of the observations had been sufficiently extended 
towards the north, it is presumed there would sometimes have 
been found three areas of high barometer within a distance of 
1,000 miles from the locality where the storm originated. On 
Hoffmeyer’ s storm charts we frequently find three areas of high 
barometer and occasionally four areas of high barometer sur- 
rounding an area of low vpn sa 


tendency of the air towards an intermediate point, and the 


currents thus set in motion are deflected to the right by the 


earth’s rotation, whence results a diminished pressure over the 
central area. is diminished recta causes a still stronger 
inward flow of the air, which results in a still greater ea 
sion of the barometer. Sinise the air shicahies in on all s 
towards this area of low barometer, the area tends to ssdieten 
an oval form, which may become sensibly circular if the winds 
are very violent, and the wee force resulting from this 
revolving motion causes a still further fabio of the bar- 
ometer. This partial vacuum would be soon filled, and the 
inward movement of the air would sane wor it not for an 
upward motion by which the inflowing air escapes. The air in 
its upward motion, eg ae: with it a large amount of aqueous 
vapor, is cooled, and its vapor is condensed, producing rain. 
'The heat which is liberated in the condensation of this vapor 
causes a further expansion of the air, and increases the force of 
the inward movement of the wind. Rain is then one of the 
circumstances which increases the force of a storm, and it 
invariably attends. storms when they have aM! to consider- 
able _ as is shown by the rain-fall m column 5th 
the table on page 2. This table chicrpten shows a large rain- 
fall whenever the storm is so situated as to permit observations 
on its eastern side; but when the center of the storm passes 
beyond our stations of observation, the observed rain- 
fall rapidly diminishes. See Nos. 1, 9, 10, 11, 28, 34, 36 
and 37. 


I have shown in my 7th paper, pp. 14, 15, that an area of 
of considerable m 


low barometer agnitude may be formed and 
continue for several a with vay little rain ; but in these 
cases the barometer was never observed to fall as low as 29°25 


rei ree: it will be’ sioniaieds that some rain was invariabl 
ed barometer 


RE Pee isi. est Sine ee 


enever:the: fell below 29-4 inches, an 


Observations of the United States Signal Service. 7 


generally there was some rain reported whenever the barometer 
fell below 29°5 inches. I have found no storm of great violence 
which was not accompanied by a considerable fall of rain. 
Rainfall is not, however, generally the cause of that first move- 
ment of the wind which results in a great barometric depres- 
sion. This appears from column 8th of the table on page 2, 
which shows that over a circle of 600 miles in diameter sur- 
rounding the locality where the storm originated, in thirty-one 
cases no rain for the preceding eight hours was reported from 
any station, and in only one instance did the total rain-fall 
within this circle exceed one-tenth of an inch. It may be said 
that in the neighborhood of these localities the stations were 
few in number, and that rain-fall may have occurred at inter- 
mediate points from which we have no reports. But in at least 
a quarter of all the cases, this circle of 600 miles in diam- 
eter included as many as four or five stations, so that we 
seem fully justified in concluding that generally the inward 
movement of the air toward a central area begins before there 
is any considerable precipitation of vapor. 

ter an area of low barometer has been formed, it soon 
begins to change its position. This movement appears to be 
mainly determined by the same causes which control the general 
circulation of the atmosphere. Throughout the United States 
(with the exception of the extreme southern margin) the aver- 
age annual progress of the wind is from west to east, and this 
movement is determined by causes which are general in their 
operation, and cannot be permanently changed by the influence 
of local storms. When an area of low barometer is formed, 
the wind sets in both from the east and west sides to restore 


storm, and generally extends much beyond these limits, and at 
ll points is exerted nearly in parallel lines. Moreover, the 
disturbance of the atmosphere by storms is mainly confined to 
the lower half of the atmosphere, while the regular movement 
of the upper half is much less disturbed. The force of this 
pr current from the west, combined with that of the lower 
f of the atmosphere, pressing upon the west side of an = 


ha 


8 . Loomis—Results derived from an examination of the 


vails within an area of low barometer takes piaen principally 
on the east side of the low center, as is indicate iti 
of the rain-areas described in my 7th paper. By this upward 


the west side of the low center. Thus the low center is 
steadily transferred toward the east, or the storm travels 
east 


ward. 

The areas of- high barometer which uniformly mark the 
commencement of a storm, invariably attend it during its pro- 
gress eastward. During the progress of the storms recorded in 
the table on page 2, the average value of the high barometer 
on the east side was 30°39 inches, and on the west side 30°32 
inches, which numbers are almost identical with the values 


n 
atmosphere, and this supply evidently comes from the areas of 
low barometer. In other words, during the progress of storms 


barometer. 

An inspection of column 4th of the table on page 2, shows 
that these cases of low barometer occur most frequently in the 
neighborhood of the Atlantic Ocean. This will appear from 
the following table, in which the stations are SS into three 
classes; one class including the stations near the Atlantic 
coast or the Gulf of St. Lawrence, a second class including the 
‘stations between the preceding class and the meridian of 92° 
from Greenwich, the hind clase including stations west of the 

sridian of 92°. | 


MDM aii ten a estas <tare), SVE The As Pie Neer WEARS so Meh aay Abo OW Pi) ake, Noe hie SS Soy ot PR 


Observations of the United States Signal Service. 9 


Near the Atlantic coast. 


From the coast to long. 92°. | West of longitude 92°. 
| 


Station. Lat. |Cases.|| Station. Lat. |Cases.| Station. Lat. |Cases. 
Cape Rosier |48°52’| 11 | Marquette  /46°33’| 3 ||Fort Garry (49°51’} 8 
Father Point |48 31 6 ||Escanaba 45 46 2 ||Fort Benton |47 52 1 
Chatham 7 eae 2 ||Montreal 45 31 1 |\Duluth 46 48 vu 
Quebec 46 48 | 17 ||Ottawa 45 26 | 2 !/Portland, Or. |45 30 | 4 
Sydney 46 8/| 17 || Alpena 45 5} 2 ||St. Paul 4463] 1 
Eastport 44 55 9 ||Grand Haven !43 5 1 ort Sully 44 39 | 17 

alifax 11 ||Milwa’ 3{ 3 |/Yankton 42.45 | 1 
Burlington 29 | 1 ||Buffalo 42 53 1 |Omaha 4116) 3 
Portland, Me. 43 40} 9 ||Dubuque 42 30 | 2 |\Leavenworth |39 19 | 2 
B 21 | 1 ||Oswego 42 28] 1 
New London |41 22] 1 ||Keokuk 40 23 | 1 
Cape May 38 56] 1 
Norfolk 36 51 1 
Wilmington (34 11 1 
Punta Rassa |26 29 2 


We see that cases of low barometer occur most frequently at 
the northern stations, and none have occurred south of latitude 
39° except on the Atlantic coast. The cases of low barometer 
appear to be pretty uniformly distributed along the different 
meridians until we come within two hundred miles of the 
Atlantic coast, with but one exception, viz. Fort Sully. 
There is reason to suspect that in 1874 the readings of the 
barometer at this station were too low. During the first six 
months of 1874 the mean height of the barometer at this station 
was more than one-tenth of an inch below that of the neigh- 
boring stations Duluth, Breckenridge and Yankton. If we 
apply this correction to the observations reported at Fort Sully, 
the number of cases at this station below 29°25 inches will be 
reduced to four, which accords yery well with the results at 
other western stations. The observations at Cape Rosier, 
Father Point and Sydney did not commence until November, 
1873, and those at Chatham in October, 1878. There is then 
a sudden increase in the violence of storms on approaching the 
Atlantic coast, and this may be ascribed to the increased sup- 
ply of aqueous vapor coming from the ocean and the Gulf 
Stream. This increased supply of vapor results in an increas 
fall of rain ; that is, increased expansion of the air, causing an 
increased violence of the wind, and hence diminished pressure. 

In nine of the cases included in the table on page 2, the 
velocity of the wind was reported zero, and in thirty-one cases 
the velocity did not exceed five miles per hour, showing that 
near the center of an area of low pressure there is usually a 
period during which the air is almost entirely calm. mie 

Tn fifty-three of the cases included in the table, no rain was 
reported for the preceding eight hours at the station where the 
barometer was lowest; and in seventy-eight of the cases the 


10 £. Loomis— Results derived from an examination of the 


rain-fall was less than one-tenth of an inch, showing that the 
principal rain-fall does not take place at the center of a low 
rea, but considerably to the east of that center. 

An area of low barometer may have considerable progres- 
sive motion when there is no rain-fall, as is shown in several 
examples quoted in my 7th paper; but the abundant rain-fall 
which usually accompanies great barometric depressions tends 
greatly to modify the movement of the storm’s center. Since 
this rain-fall takes place chiefly on the east side of the low 
center, the heat which is liberated in the condensation of the. 
aqueous vapor causes a stronger inflow of air on the east side and 
a continued fall of the barometer on that side. If there should 
be a great precipitation of vapor on the west side of the center of 
least pressure, this must be accompanied by ascending currents 
of air on that side which would oppose the establishment of 
the equilibrium of pressure on that side, and the center of the 


Precipitation, March 9-14, 1874. 


9.1; 9.2 9.3 10.1{10.2/10.3/11 1/11.2/11.3/12.1/12.2)12.3/13.1/13.2113.3 14.1 
Rochester ng tee i Ge) 8 Gat 02) -01 *22| *04/ -02| °10| -09| -03) -u4! - 
Montreal s 10) 03) +20) 20} -07 “01 “01 
Ottawa 20}: 10)... *30) -10 
Quebec | 20 30 20) -10) 20 
Father Point OL) -05) - 02 33) 
Cape Rosier 57} 03) -19) - 10) -15} 05) 10} -30) 10 
Chatham LC tkU BO | O01) “O01 


to about one foot of snow, and this snow-fall exispied a 


. 


Observations of the United States Signal Service. 7 


extended over so large an area on the west side of the low 
centre, is believed to have been the cause of the slow eastward 
progress of the storm. 

This unusual precipitation on the west side of the storm is 
ascribed in part to an east wind which prevailed at a moderate 
elevation above the earth’s surface, while a strong wind from 
the west or northwest prevailed at the surface of the earth. 
This fact is shown by the following observations of the wind 
and the upper clouds at Portland, Eastport and Halifax. 


Date. Station. Wind. Clouds. 
March 11.2 |Eastport N. W. E. 
11,2 |Halifax Ss. 
11.3 |Halifax W 8. 
12.1 |Kastpo ‘ E. 

12.1 |Portland We N. &. 


__ The precipitation on the west side of the low center ceased 

March 14th, and after that date the low center traveled rapidly 
eastward. From the 14th to the 15th its average progress was 
twenty-nine miles per hour, from the 15th to the 16th it was 
forty-seven miles per hour, from the 16th to the 17th it was 
thirty-six miles per hour, from the 17th to the 18th it was only 
thirteen miles per hour, and from the 18th to the 19th when off 
North Cape it was only eight miles per hour. The progress of 
this storm from Montana to the North Cape is shown on 
, and the isobaric curves show that there was a sudden in- 
crease in the violence of the storm on approaching the Atlantic 
eres 

No. 10 of the table on page 2 presents another example of a 
nearly stationary storm. From February 22d to the 24th the 
center of this storm remained for forty-eight hours near Quebec, 
and for the next two days the storm traveled very slowly, but 
I have no means of determining the exact position of the low 
center. The following observations show that at this time 
there was an unusual precipitation on the west side of the 
storm’s center. 
Precipitution, February 22-26, 1873. 


22.1, 22.2) 22.3 23.1) 23.3) 25.1) 25.3) 26.1) Sum 


Mt. Washington] °15 50 | 32 45 | 50 | 1-92 


~ Quebec | -40 | -30| O01 61 | 2-02 


“60| 20 


No. 40 of the table on page 2 presents another example of 
the same kind. The center of this storm remained near Father 
Point from the morning of April 30th for about two days, and 


it was four days in reaching St. Johns, Newfoundland. In 


12 £. Loomis—Results derived from an examination of the 


this case also there was an unusual precipitation of vapor on 
the west side of the center of low pressure, as is shown by the 
following table : 


Precipitation, April 30—May 3, 1874. 


30.1/ 30.2) 30.3) 1.1] 1.2] 1.3} 2.11 2.2] 2.3] 3-11] 3.2/Sum 
Montreal 06 "80 01 87 
Quebec 50 | -40/ 50} 30 10 1:80 
Chatham "21 | -02 12 | °06| °02; -31] -12}| -06} -04 96 
Cape Rosier | °21| -27| ‘Ol 10! -15} 40} -20} -20 1°54 
Sydney *34| -23 oY a a 


A still more remarkable example of the same kind occurred 
on the Atlantic Ocean in the winter of 1874-5. <A st 


the 80th of December, 1874, there was a low center (barometer 
28°7 inches) a short distance south of Greenland, with an area 


west (bar. 30°8). January Ist the low was ir stationary 


28°7), with a high on the east (bar. 30°5) and another low on 
the west (bar. 28°9) followed on the west side by a high (bar. 
305). January 4th the two low areas had blended into a sin. 
gle low area (bar. 28-9), and the center of least pressure was 


_ able to consider the great depression of January 4th to be the 
continuation of that of December 30th. January 5th the low 


Observations of the Unued States Signal Service. 13 


low pressure which was advancing from the west. January 9th 
the low area was nearly stationary (bar. 28°7), with a high on 
the east much reduced (har. 30°3) and an equal high on the 
west. January 10th low stationary (bar. 28-7) with a high on 
the east (bar. 30°5), with a small low on the west (bar. 29:5) 
and a high further west (bar. 30°6). January 11th the two 
low areas coalesced and the resulting center of least pressure 
was thereby carried 650 miles westward (bar. 28°), with a 
high on the east (bar. 30°7) and a high on the west (bar. 30-4). 
In this case there was a subordinate low center (bar. 29°3) 
about 2,000 miles in a northeast direction, which has the 


epression, and the area of low pressure (below 30 inches) 
stretched entirely across the Atlantic Ocean, including the 
whole of Newfoundland on the west and the whole of Great 
Britain on the east, extending southward to latitude 32° and 
northward beyond latitude 70°. Plate II represents the isobars 
for January 12th and also the path of the storm’s center from 
December 30th to January 18th. January 13th the center 
was nearly stationary, January 14th it had moved a little east- 
ward, January 15th it had moved a little northward, and dur- 
ing the three following days it moved a little eastward. Thus 
on January 18th the center of the storm was only 900 miles 
eastward of its position on December 30th, and it was 200 
miles westward of its position January 3d. The principal 
westerly motion of the storm center appeared to result from the 
influence of another low center advancing from the west and 
uniting with the former. This result took place January 4th 


center, attended by extensive precipitation, which on the 
western side consisted chiefly of snow and sleet, with very low 
temperature, the thermometer on the American coast remain- 
ing much of the time near zero of Fahrenheit, and at stations 
but little removed from the coast sinking more than 20° below 
zero. This precipitation is believed to have taken place chiefly 

er the ocean, where its amount could not be measured. The 
following table shows the precipitation in Newfoundland, New 
Brunswick and its vicinity, and also shows the lowest tempera- 


14 E. Loomis— Results derived from an examination of the 


ture observed each day at two of the stations in New Bruns- 
wick and one in Manitoba. 


Precipitation, Jan. 1-18, 1875. Lowest Temperature. 
St. Char- | Frede-| Chat- Frede-| Chat- | Winni- 
Johns. | Sydney.)jottet’n.'rickton.| ham. |Quebec.|'rickton.| ham. | peg. 
Jan, 1 0-04 — 1%4!— 0°-5| -16°°6 
2 16 | 0°35 | 0°48 | 0°75 | 0°40 ||\— 3:3|/— 3°0|—27°8 
3]; 1:00 “49 *35 “15 26 65/— 10 26°: 
4 01 — 95/— 6°6!—22°9 
5 10 “06 ol — 34!—10°0 |—30°4 
€ —12°6 |—11°3 |—29°5 
y 03 10 | 06 12 |}— 65 |—11°3 |—24°5 
8} 120 | 1:55 | 1°60 “93. | 1°45 ‘ — 65|— 5-6 |—45'5 
0 “15 28 1°00 || —13°1 |--15°3 |—39°2 
10} 1-00 “31 16 t1S 5) SES? — 18|— 4°6|—33°8 
1] 01 || —20-7T | —16°3 |—36°0 
1: 02 —28°9 |—17-0 |—36°3 
x “60 “Ol “70 15°8 |—14°3 | —36°5 
14 “25 36 55 02 “64 30 0-0 |—34 
45 — 75 88 |—29°9 
€ 40 — 33 05 |—31'l 
17 *30 09 “09 — 18/— 1°3 |—34°2 
1g — 54\/— 65 |—34°8 
Sum #31) Sil: 335) 3°93 | 4:65 | 2-93 


Over the Atlantic Ocean near the parallel of 30°, eeeapens 

the month of January the mean height of the baro 

about 30:1 inches. During the twenty days now he oe 

amination there were only four days in which the pressure in 

that region fell below 30°38 inches. Throughout these twenty 
aye | there was always an area of high pressure on the east, 


from 30°4 to 30°8 inches, and generally at a eee of about 
1,500 miles ; but on five days its Aguas was een 3,000 


miles. It is not known whether there was an area of hich 
ressure on the north, but we know that jens this period 
the pare nan ae at the north was extremely low. roughout 


this entire there was therefore a cause to produce a wind 
from four drat directions towards the center of this storm, 
and the foree was sufficient to set the air in motion over an 
immense area. The usual phenomena attendin areas of low 
barometer must therefore follow, viz: high wind 

barometer, and a precipitation of vapor. the present 
occasion these phenomena were exhibited in aad intensity, 
becau use the center of low pressure was directly over the Gulf 


e 


Observations of the United States Signal Service. 15 


Stream, where the temperature of the water in January is 
nearly 60°, and the air which flowed in from the north and 
west was excessively cold. It seems probable that this cold 
northwest wind pushed under the warmer wind from the south- 
east as was observed in the storm of March 11, 1874, and that 
this was one cause of the unusual precipitation on the west 
side of the storm-center. This extensive precipitation on the 
west side of the low center is believed to have been the prin- 
d. 


cipal cause of the slow progress of the storm eastwar 


Violent Winds. 

In order to determine the laws which govern the velocity of 
the wind I selected from the published volumes of the Signal 
Service observations (September, 1872, to May, 1874,) all those 
cases in which the velocity of the wind amounted to forty 
miles per hour. The number of these cases was 250, excluding 


_ the observations at Mount Washington and Pike’s Peak, where 


high velocities are very common. Of these 250 cases, eighty- 
two were reported at 7:35 A. M., ninety-one at 4:35 P. M., and 
seventy-seven at ll p.m. These results indicate a slight influ- 


Month.| Cases. | Month.| Cases. | Month.| Cases. 
Jan. 22 | May 5 ||Sept. 

Feb. 12 \lJune 1 |jOct. 6 
March| 21 | July 3 ||Nov. | 23 
April 20 ||Aug. 2 |\Dec. 9 


Thus we see that during the six months, from November to 


most violent winds. 

‘The following table shows the number of cases in which the 
wind blew from each of the eight principal points of the com- 
pass at the time of these high velocities. We see that violent 
winds come from a northern quarter twoand a half times as 
frequently as they do from a southern quarter, and they sel- 
dom come directly from the south. 


* 


16 EF. Loomis—Results derived from an examination of the 


North 43 cases. South 6 cases. 

Northesst so... ... 48...“ Southwest ._.....- bE Sais 
jas yi WORbeS cua. eee 3 

Southeast ig Northwest 20 5a- = 


The following table shows all the stations at which these vio- 
lent winds were reported in more than two cases, and it also 
shows the number of cases for each of the eight principal 
points of fhe com pass : 


N. | NE.) E, |S.E.| S. | S.W.| W. IN. W.) Sum. 
Quebec _._-_-- 33 9 4 1 6 
Breckenridge _.| 4 9 15 | 28 
Indianola_-____- 22 1 23 
Fort Sully -..-. 6 5 1 1 5 | 18 
Pe ie Re 2 f 1 8 | 15 
Ro : 3 l 4 4 TTk 
Father Point 1 2 x 4} 10 
Fort Benton _.- 5 1 1 7 
eport 2c 5 2 7 
La Sel pence = 2 a! 6 
Pine es 5 5 
Grand Haven — 4 4 
heyenne _ .--- £35: oe 
Milwaukee , 1 1 1 3 
Pes 1 1 1 fen. 
Omaha. 2.5.0: 1 2 3 
Knoxville ____- z 2 3 
Fort Gibson ___ 1 2 3 
veston _.... 2 1 3 
Key West ___-- 1 1 ] 3 


The observations at Cape Rosier and Father Point embrace 
only a period of seven months. A comparison o bh 
servations indicates a decided preponderance of high velocities 
at the more northern stations. In order to determine whether 
the force of the wind gene increases with an increase of 
latitude, I determined the mean velocity of the wind at all the 

ignal Service stations and classified the observations according 
to the latitude of the stations. The elaxig table shows the 
results at all the stations utiing of latitude 30°, except Mount 
Washington and Pike’s 


——— 
pene stations. miles per hour. 


30°—34° 15 7-07 
35°-39° 26 8-57 
40°44" | 36 916 
45°-49°| 10 8-28 


These observations indicate that in North America the aver- 


Observations of the United States Signal Service. 17 


Throughout an extensive region east of the Rocky Mountains 
the annual rain-fall is very small. The winds of this region are 
therefore dry winds, while the air of the Mississippi valley con- 
tains an. abundance of vapor. The difference in the specific 
gravity of the air over the two localities is sufficient to accel- 
erate considerably the west and northwest winds which sweep 
over the dry prairies west of the Mississippi river. _ 
same causes which affect the average velocity of the 
winds affect also the frequency of occurrence of the most vio- 
lent winds. The region where violent winds are of most fre- 
uent occurrence is near the Gulf of St. Lawrence. It has been 
mentioned that the observations at Cape Rosier and Father 
‘oint embrace a period of only seven months, and should 
therefore be multiplied by three in order to render them com- 
parable with observations at the other stations. An important 
reason for the greater violence of the winds in this region, is 
the greater magnitude of the barometric fluctuations and the 
unusual contrast which exists between the warm and moist 


18 E. Loomis—Results derived from an examination of the 


four miles per hour, and also November 18th, 1873, when the 
wind at Indianola was fifty miles per hour. In these and many 
similar cases, there was an area of high barometer in Dakota, 
causing northerly winds at all places on the south side of this 
center from Dakota to the Gulf of Mexico. The frequency of 
violent winds in this region is ascribed to two causes, viz., the 
country is generally destitute of forests and the air is uncom- 
monly dry. 

The frequency of violent winds at Indianola is specially re- 
markable. In order to discover the cause of this phenomenon 
I have prepared the following table, in which column 1st shows 
the dates at which the winds attained a velocity of forty miles 

r hour; column 2d shows the velocity observed; column 3d 
shows the direction of the wind ; column 4th shows the height 
of the barometer; column 5th shows the rain-fall in inches 
during the preceding eight hours; column 6th shows the tem- 
perature of the air at Indianola; column 7th shows the aver- 


Violent winds at Indianola. 


Wind. Thermometer. High on North. 
Barom.' Rain — 

Vel. | Direc. tmp. mp. Differ.; Barom. | Direction.| Dist. 
1872, Oct. 7. ] 29°99 {0°13 | 70°) 82°;—12°) 30-23 .45°W.| 1200 

Nov. 6.2} 40 29°7 6| 57 8 "15 |N. 43 E. 7 
cA ae ase 2 29°83 02; 63 | 18 |—26 "31 [N.45 W.! 1200 
14.1} 46 |; N. 30°06 0} 41 i8 |—37 “87 .31 W.| 1500 
14, 8 s 30°14 0| 49 ig 29 *88 .31 W.| 1500 
Dec. 10.1) 40 - 29°86 |2°14] 47 14 | —27 “65 (32 690 
1873, Jan. 28.1} 43 Fe 30°20 | -05| 30 14 |—44 "BS ay ease 750 
28. . 30°33 0} 23 (44 +5 4 IN. 7 E. 750 
30°42 0} 20 | 74 |—54 42 IN et Ee, 750 
30°17 0} 6 74 |—20 “AE .10 W.} 1100 
30-2: 0; 560 | 75 |—25 | ‘93 IN.10 W.| 1100 
29°91 0; 6 » |—18 “76 .10 W.| 1100 
30°32 0; 48 | 75 |—2T 44 | North | 1200 
N. 29°93 0; 48 | 8L |—33 4% .10 W.} 1100 
N. 30°19 0| 56 —25 5] .31 W.| 1500 
N. |} 29°96 0| 58 3 '—20 “42 .10 W.| 1100 
N.E.} 30°16 0| 57 t |—17 26 IN. 31 E. 300 
N. | 30°22 0| 57 L j—17 ‘46 N.45 W.| 1200 
N. |} 30°12 | -15| 49 | 74 |—25 50 IN. 4 Wi) 970 
N, | 30°25 0} 44 L | —30 “4 10 E. 500 
| N. | 30°17} 0} 43 | 81 |—38 3 10 E.| 600 

a - | 29°70 | -08| 55 | 81 |—26 46 | North | 1 
LN. | 30°05 © 0° 58! 81 i—23 "38 'N.32 E.' 1300 


Observations of the United States Signal Service. 19 


e see that in each of these cases there was an area of high 
inwacter on the north, and this P ressure was generally suffi- 
cient to urge the wind with considerable force towards Indian- 
ola. We also see that in each case the temperature of the air 
at Indianola was below that of the water on the south side, and 
generally very much below it; and moreover the air over the 
Gulf contained an abundance of va por. This cause alone 
would be sufficient to produce a fresh breeze from the north at 
Indianola. 

The reason that violent winds are more common at Indianola 
than at stations further east on the Gulf of Mexico may be the 
greater dryness of the air near the Rocky Mountains. The 
annual rain-fall decreases from the Mississippi River to the 

ocky Mountains. and the winds must be dryer near Hi moun- 
tains than they are near the cee eed River. We find a cor- 
responding increase in the mean velocity of the winds as we 
advance westward from Mobile. At Mobile the mean veloc- 
ity of the wind is 6-0 miles per hour; at New Orleans it is 73 
ose at Galveston it is 9:3 miles ; and at Indianola it is 13°7 
mies, 

At several of the stations, one of the most noticeable pecu- 
liarities of these violent winds is the great oe of 
w 


sorthernst, ete. This seems to indicate that the diate of the 
wind is somewhat a by the configuration of the surface 
of the surrounding country. 

A high velocity « of the wind is not invariably associated with 
alow barometer. In fifty-seven cases (out of 250) the yey so 
was above thirty inches; in sixteen cases it was a 0°25 
inches ; and in three cases it was as high as 30°5 bashed; The 
following are the extreme cases: 


Wind. 
No. Date. Stations. Barom. Direc.| Fore. Temp. 
1 (1873, —~ 7 Breckenridge | 30°75 | N. | 40 | —17° 
2 2) Quebec 30°56 |N.E.| 41 1 
3 1872, Dec. ae Breckenridge | 30°50 N.W.! 40 | —23 
Tn each of these cases there was an area of low barometer 
within the limits of the United States, and also an area of hig 
barometer ; but in cases No. 1 and No. 3 the pressure at. Breck: 


ing 
vation, which seems to indicate that at the former date the 
center of high pressure was northwest of Breckenridge. | 


20 =. Loomis— Observations of the U. 8. Signal Service. 


Breckenridge and Florida, and in a difference of 89° 
This was doubtless an important part of the moving force 
which gave the wind such velocity. No d 3 are remark 


Barometric Gradient. 


I have determined the barometric gradient for each of the 
250 cases of high velocity of the wind, and a comparison of 
the results shows that the gradient increases with the latitude 


Latitude 29°-3 Distance 98 miles. 
is% Rive * 


5 ‘a 66 “ 
“ 42 ce “ 62 “ce 
47 J ‘i 50 ot 


The observations also indicate that the gradient is less in 


summer than in winter; but the observations are too few in 


number to furnish a satisfactory value of the gradient in sum- 
mer for these high velocities. 


tude of the stations employed is about 45°. The first part of 
the table is taken from my second paper, page 18. 


C. G. Rockwood—Recent American Karthquakes. 21 


Relation between the velocity of the wind and the distance between 
the isoburs. 


Veloc. | Dist. 1 Veloc, | Dist. | Veloc. | Dist. | Veloc. | Dist. | Veloc. | Dist. 


2 
3 
4 
5 
6 125 16 100 26 92 36 63 46 46 
t 7 
8 
9 
10 


There are thirty-five cases reported of velocities exceeding 
fifty miles per hour, one of them amounting to seventy-one 


determined from observations at stations distant 100 miles from 
each other. Such exceptional velocities may result from a 
strong upward movement of the air in the neighborhood of the 
station of observation. 

In preparing the materials for this article I have been 
assisted by Mr. Henry A. Hazen, a graduate of Dartmouth 
College of the class of 1871. 


Art. IL.—WNotices of Recent American Earthquakes. No. 7; 
by Professor C. G. Rockwoon, Jr., College of New Jersey. 


In the following notices, those based upon single newspaper 
reports, and which could not be otherwise verified, are p 
in smaller type, and the source of the information is in icated. 
For information received I am indebted to John M. Batchelder 
of Boston, Fred. E. Goodrich of the Boston Post, Principal J. 
W. Dawson of Montreal, Professor E. T. Quimby of Dartmouth 
College and others. 


- 1876.—May 10. A shock at Santa Barbara, Cal.—(U. 8. Sign. 
erv.) : 

Aug. 16. At 1.15 p.m. The bark Forest Queen experienced a 
heavy shock of fifteen seconds duration in lat. 41° 55' N., long. 
126° 25’ W.., off the southern part of Oregon.—(U. 8. Sign. Serv.) 


22 C. G. Rockwood—Recent American Earthquakes, 


Aug. 16. At 11.25 p. m., at Lower Brule Indian Agency, Dakota 
T., a shock of seven seconds duration with loud rumbling noise.— 
(U.S. Sign. Serv.) 


Sept. 21. A shock about 11.80 p. M., felt at Newport, R. £. 
and at Fall River and New Bedford, Mass., and adjacent places. 
At Fort Adams, R. L, it was reported to be “ apparently from 
east to west and lasting about ten seconds,” 

Sept. 25. Two distinct and heavy shocks with an interval of 
about fifteen minutes between them were felt about midnight 
of 24th and 25th throughout southern Illinois and Indiana, from 
St. Louis, Mo. to Indianapolis, Ind., and Louisville, Ky. The 


Sept. 26. A slight shock reported at Friendsville, Tl.—(U. 8. 
Sign. Serv.) 


Oct. 6. Two shocks at San Francisco at 9.20 and 10.08 P. w. 
The first and heavier, lasting ten seconds, with a motion from 
N. W. to S.’E. was felt also at Oakland, San José and Angel 
Tsland. 


Noy. 20. A shock at Eastport, Me., at 1 p. m—(U. S. Sign. Serv.) 
Dec. 11. About 7 Pp. M. at Silver Mountain, Cal., a series of 


A slight shock was also reported at 8 o’clock next morning 
at the same place. 


Dec. 12. A slight shock in the City of Charleston, S. C., in the 
evening.—(U. 8. Sign. Serv.) 
Dec. 21. A shock at Wytheville, Va., at 10.30 a. wa—(U. 8. 


1877.—Jan. 10, A slight shock about 1.15 Pp. w. at Los Angeles, 
Cal., which at Benedict Cafion near there, was felt as three dis- 
tinct shocks preceded by a loud report.—(Los Angeles Express, in 

. Y. Times. 

Jan: 138.) A heavy earthquake abont , forty-five miles south 
east of San Diego, Cal. ‘The reverberations were from east to 
west, and extended throughout the mountains to the borders of 
Cajou Valley.”—(N. Y. Times.) ae 

Feb. 17. A heavy shock at Quincy, Plumas Co., Cal., in the 
morning. ee 

Feb. 18. A distinct shock at 2.20 Pp. Mm. at Portland, Me., 
with rumbling sound. - 


C. G. Rockwood—Recent American Earthquakes. 23 


Feb. 24. The Honolulu Gazette of Feb. 28th reports a sub- 
marine volcanic outbreak in Kealakeakaua Bay at 3 A. M., Feb. 
24. During the same night a severe earthquake was felt at 
Koawalsa and Kell. E 
March 8. Two light shocks about 2 a. M., and a few minutes 
before 5 a. m. at Helena, Montana.—(Helena Independent, in N. Y. 
es. 


March 19. A shock at Kingston, Jamaica, at 12.55 A. M. 
April 17. A slight shock of short duration at Panama at 5.50 
A. M.- i 


April 23. A slight shock at Auburn, N. H., at 11 a. u., from 

; S. E——(U. S. Sign. Serv.) 

April 26. A slight shock at Franklin, N. C., at 5 p. m—(U. S. 
) 


May 2. A shock “lasting eight or ten seconds” at 10.20 
P. M. at Oshawa, Ontario. 

May 9. At 8.30 p. M., a series of severe shocks, lasting four 
or five minutes, and followed by a destructive tidal wave, were 
felt on the coast of Peru, Bolivia and Chili. The center of 
disturbance appeared to be the neighborhood of the volcano 
Ilaga, on the borders of Peru and Bolivia, in lat. 21°S. The 
shocks were felt along the coast from beyond Arequipa, Peru, to 
Valparaiso, Chili, but were most violent and destructive from 

quique, where the duration was 4 m. 20 sec., to Cobija, 
Mexillones and Chavanago, Bolivia. The disturbance does not 
appear to have extended very far inland. The sea wave how- 
_ ever spread over the entire Pacific, being felt along the coast of 
Mexico and California (whence it was reported by the signal 
service a day before news of the shock was received), at the 
Sandwich Islands, the Marquesas Islands, Japan and Australia. 

n the Peruvian and Bolivian coasts the wave was from twenty 


Francisco 348 miles, to Honolulu 408 miles and to Australia 
378 miles per hour. : 

On the Peruvian coast lighter shocks continued at intervals 
for some days, and later reports indicate that the whole coast 
has suffered a considerable permanent upheaval. : 

t San José, Costa Rica, a feeble shock was felt at 5.28 A. M. 
of the 10th (local time) or 9" 54™ after the shock at Iquique. 

In the Sandwich Islands the volcano of Kilauea exhibited 


24 C. G. Rockwood— Recent American Earthquakes. 


unusual activity, and eruptions of lava with occasional earth- 
quake shocks occurred during the week preceding the tidal 
wave, especially one at 2.45 P. M., May 4th. 

More detailed local reports of the phenomena may be found 
in this Journal, III, xiv, p. 77, U.S. Weather Review, May, 
1877, Scientific American, vol. XXXvli, pp. 3, 345, Nature, vol. 
Xvi, pp. 112, 174, 198. 

May A slight shock in the afternoon in Schenectady and 
Schoharie Counties, : 

May 14. A severe shock at Lima and Callao, lasting twenty- 
two seconds. 

ay 15. From Port Stanley, Ont., it is reported that a wave 
five feet high, apparently due to some earthquake shock, swept 
along the northern shore of Lake Erie, followed for an hour by 
smaller ones, 


May 25. A shock at Knoxville, Tenn.—(U. S. Sign. Serv.) 

May 26. A shock at 3 P. u. at New Harmony, Ind.—-(U. S. 
Sign. Serv. 

May 30. A heavy shock between 2 and 8 4. M., at Pasa 
Robles, Cal. 

June ll. A voleanie eruption, smoke and boulders, in the 
mountains near Flowing Wells Station, Southern Pacific R. R., 
about sixty miles from Yuma, preceded by a violent vibration 
of the earth. : 

June 18. At Milwaukee, Wis., at 7.80 P. M., the water in 
Lake Michigan fell two feet in half an hour and rose again 
more quickly.—(U. S. Sign. Serv. 

June 28. A shock about 11.30 P. M. at Bakersfield, Cal. 
“It seemed to be in the nature of an upheaval rather than 
vibratory.” 


July 9. Ashock at Sacramento, Cal., lasting one minute. Oscil- 
lations, E. and W.—(U. S, Sign. Serv.) 


July 14. Two shocks at 6.40 Pp. M., at Memphis, T'enn., last- 
ing several seconds, vibrations from S. W. or W. to N. EK. or E. 

July 15. Three shocks apparently from the west, and lasting 
five seconds, at Carbondale, Il.—(U. 8. Sign. Serv.) 

July 17. A sharp shock at 8 4. M., lasting about thirty 
seconds, at River du Loup, Canada. 

Aug. 10. A shock lasting several seconds at Florence, N. J.— 
(U. 8. Sign. Serv.) 

Aug.17. A slight shock about 11 4. ., felt in Detroit, 
Mich., and a few neighboring towns. It lasted from thirty 

conds to one minute, and was accompanied by a rumbling 
sound, 


C. G. Rockwood— Recent American Earthquakes, 25 


——. At7.30 P.M, of the same day a heavy shock, lasting 
fifteen seconds, was felt at Campo, Cal.—(U. 8. Sign. Serv.) 


Aug. 23. Shocks of an alarming nature were felt at Cobija, 
Bolivia, at 1.40 P. M., fee at Tquique at 5 Pp. M., and a few days 
earlier at Copiapo, Chili. 

Sept. 1. A slight shock at 11 a. M. at Latonsville, Sandy 
Springs, Brookville, Laurel and other points in Prince George's 


Sept. 7. A shock at 10 p.m. at Yuma, Arizona,—(U. S. Sign. 
Serv.) 

Sept. 10. A shock at 9.59 a. m., felt in the valley of the 
Delaware River from Trenton to Philadelphia. Tt affected an 
extent of country, about thirty-five miles along the river cM 
twenty miles wide, and having its center at Burlington, N. J. 
lasted thirty or forty seconds, had an apparent motion consid 
the southwest, and was accompanied by a rumbling noise. 

Sept. 18. Panama advices of this date say, Shocks of earth- 
quake were continuously felt in some of the southern ports of 
Peru. 

Sept. A shock at Campo, Cal., at 2.30 p. m., lasting five 
seconds, with low rumbling.—(U. 8. Si ign. Serv.) 

Oct. 9. A severe shock at 2.20 A. Mm. at Lima and Callao, 
Peru; felt also in Pisco, Ica and Chincha, where two shocks 
were reported. The vibration was from north to south. 

Oct. 12. Quite severe shocks were felt in Oregon, occurring 
in Portland at 1.58 P. M., two shocks being noticed; at Ma rsh- 
hy Clackamas Co., at 145 P. M.; and at Cascades at 1.52 

M. (Another shock was felt at Cascades at 9 A. mM.) The vibra- 
ei were in each case from north to south and were sufficiently 
violent to overthrow chimne 

tien, A. M. of the same day a slight earthquake 
was felt on the Isthmus of Panama. 

Oct. 26. Between 5 and 6 p. M. the schooner Leo felt a 
severe earthquake shock, continuing about ten seconds, in lat. 
43° 13’ N., long 128° W., the vessel being 300 or 400 miles 
from the coast of Oregon. 

Nov. 4. About 2 A. M. a rather severe earthquake was felt 
renaterws a And part of Canada, New York and New Eng- 


along the Connecticut River ; re Burlingios and Benni nington, 
vi. ‘Plattsbur 2, Whitehall and Saratoga, N. Y., and the valley 


26 C. G. Rockwood— Recent American Earthquakes, 


of Lake Champlain and the Hudson as far south as Albany ; 
and finally from Utica, Rome, Auburn and the Mohawk Valley. 
It was probably felt throughout the whole Adirondack region 
which is thus enclosed, but whence no reports could be ex- 
pected. It would thus seem to have been felt over an irregular 
trapezium, whose angles are marked by Pembroke, Ont., Three 
Rivers, P. Q., Hartford, Conn., and Auburn, N. Y.; and which 
is therefore some 200 miles on its northern and southern sides, 
about 800 on the east and 175 on the west. In regard to the 
exact time of the shock the reports differ too much among 
themselves, and are mostly of too vague a nature to permit any 
deductions therefrom as to the direction or rate of progress of 
the vibration. Comparing the reports from thirty-six localities 
in which the time is given, and rejecting three as quite wide of 
the truth, we find them cluster closely about 2 Aa. M., none 
earlier than 1.45, none later than 2.10, most being between 1.50 
a 2 local time. The ~ ones, however, which cee to 
iably accurate are Montreal 1.50 a. (J. W. Dawson), 
Hartford 1.56 (Ed. Hartford Courant)=1.52 idsatroat time, and 
Dudley observatory, AJbany, 1.53 = 1.54 Montreal time. The 
Hartford record is also confirmed by an apparently careful 
report from Windsor, Conn., giving 1.55 a M (25 
reports give in a general way Sa about 2 A. M.,” etc. 
The duration in Montreal was about "twenty seconds. The 
other reports of its duration vary from four or five seconds to 
two or three minutes and in one case five minutes. Most of 
them however gree about half a minute. ch seems to have been 


current testimony of three observers. In some places a rum- 
bling noise and in others two or several shocks were re 
at Dudley observatory “a severe shock of ten seconds duration, 
followed after an interval of thirty seconds by a lighter one ;” at 
Hanover, “a succession of five or six waves, increasing in inten- 
sity for the first third of the time and then decreasing ;” in 
Montreal “a low rumbling sound followed by a sharp soploaas 
and then a tremor.” 
In compiling the — I have been able to compare reports 
from fifty-eight station 
Nov. 14. A slight ion at 9.40 a. m. at Cornwall, Ont. 
Nov. 15. About noon several shocks were felt in Iowa and 
adjoining portions of Kansas, Nebraska and Dakota. The 
- times given were: i loon Gity 1: 12.30 P. M., Council Bluffs 12.15, 


G. E. Belknap— Under-water Oceanic Temperature. 27 


movement H. to W., Omaha 11.40 a. m., three shocks lasting 
ten gos oe apes and Atchison, Ks., 12 M., and Yankton, 
De Py Fy 

These eas are plainly oe but at this distance no 
data are available for correcting 

Nov. 16. A slight shock issuly 2.20 a. M. at Knoxville, 
Denk. 

Noy. 18. A shock about 5 A. M. in the Bermuda Islands — 
(N halle Daily Advertiser). 

Princeton, N. J., Nov. 30, 1877. 


ART. He aeons on under-water So 1 siiaais ; 
Captain G. E. Beuxnap, U.S. N. 


[When, many years ago, it was announced by eee 
Maury and others, that a cold enban might exist in the o 
between two adj cent warmer ones, or vice versa and that there 

might be a succession of such conditions between the surface a 

n e 


cases of a similar character. A similar observation was made b 
Captain Belknap, of the U. 8. seen while in command of the 

. steamer Tuscarora, during her famed cruise in the Pacific ; and 
by the courtesy of Commodore Ammen, chief of the Bureau of Nav- 
igation, we are permitted to present an abstract of a report made 
- that officer on the 2d of September, 1874.—Eps. ] 

TubDY of the surface and under-surface temperatures, a 

sb Pacific Ocean, has yielded some interesting results. Grea 
care was taken to make the observations as accurate ery 


any marked change in temperature, the observations were 
always — In ing the under-surface temperatur 
along the urile Islands, the indications of the Miller-Casella 


thermometers were sometimes so startling and perplexing, the 
indicated temperatures being so low, that ‘the observations — 
often duplicated to verify their accuracy; if the second o! 
vation confirmed the first, the results were accepted as aia: : 
otherwise they were 

roceeding in this way, a 1 cold stratum between two warm 
strata, was found to exist quite near the surface, between the 


28 G. EF. Belknap—Under-water Oceanic Temperature. 


from 20° F. to 28° F.; temperatures manifestly impossible. 

There can be no doubt, however, of the existence of the cold 
stratum described above, as no temperature was recorded until 
repeated observations with different thermometers confirmed its 
accuracy. 


the coldest surface water was found alone the Kurile Islands, 
between the parallels of 45° and 47 ° north latitude. The tem- 


there, though the range of latitude traversed was nearly eight 

egrees higher. The current in that locality was found to be 

setting in a southerly direction, and undoubtedly pouring out 
k. 


e surface temperatures along the Aleutian Islands show 
considerable variation, both in the Pacific and in Behrino’s Sea, 
doubtless attributable to tidal influences, the direction of the 
wind, and the meeting of different currents. 

In passing from Behring’s Sea to the Pacific, through Onni- 
mak Pass, on the morning of the 17th of August, the surface 
temperature rose seven degrees in one hour, some five to seven 
miles inside of the Pass, the current at the time setting with 
moderate strength into the sea. 

The lowest surface temperature along the Kurile group was 
36°-4 F.; along the Aleutian Islands the surface temperatures 
ranged from 41°-6 F. to 49° F. and along the continuation of 
the line, across the Gulf of Alaska, to Cape Flattery, the range 
of temperature was found to be from 50° F. to 59° F., indica- 

ting in the most unmistakable manner the influence of that 


G. E. Belknap—Under-water Oceanic Temperature. 29 


mak Pass is cleared, the temperature of the water rises, and 
the current is found to be setting to the southwestward. 

The following table will show some of the differences of 
temperature observed on the line sounded from Honolulu to 
the Bonin Islands, and that part of the northern line from the 
emg point of Kamtchatka to Onnimak Pass in Behring’s 

ea: 


Southern Line, Northern Line, 

Central North Pacific. North Pacific and Behring’s Sea. 
Surface, ec te 78. 8: 36°-4 to49° F, 
Under Surface 30 f’ms,70°°8) — 73°°5 31°°5 41°°9 

- BO: * 6875... 727% 31°°9 89°°7 
me 100.2": GE 70° 31°°1 38°°5 
. 200 “* 48°%5 — 58° 34°°3 37°°9 
"3 $00" 64 6075 34°°4 37°°3 
. 500 “ 88°9 40°°6 34°°8 35°°9 
. 1000 “ 35° 5 33°°5 33°°8 
ee 2000: “33° 33°°9 33°°5 33°°8 
ns S000. 38°. 7. 83.8 art 33°'3 


The very low temperatures noted at the depth of 30 
fathoms to 206 fathoms are some of those observed in the cold 
stratum already described in this report. 

he serial temperatures observed on this northern line were 
not so extended as could have been wished, owing to the loss 
and breakage of thermometers and to the fact that two of the 
instruments furnished had to be thrown aside as worthless. In 
the latter case the mercury would crowd up past the needle, 


rendering the indications valueless, and that defect in those 
instruments could not be overcome. 

The thermometers sent down at the 3,664 fathom cast came 
up unharmed, and as some of the “ Challenger’s” instruments 
broke at a depth of 3,875 fathoms the maximum pressure 
which the Miller-Casella thermometers will bear must be some- 
where between those depths, or a pressure of about four and 
three-fourths tons per square inch.* The temperature indicated 
at 3,664 fathoms is 33°°8 F. 

I should take into consideration, however, the fact that 
using hempen line and time intervals for sounding, that the 
depths found by the “Challenger” were not so accurate as those 
obtained by the “Tuscarora” with piano wire and dynamo- 
meter. 

* From later results obtained by the Challenger this deduction is probably 
incorrect, as I believe she received whole thermometers back on one or two occa- 
sions from a depth of over 4,000 fathoms. 


30 H. A. Rowland—Magnetic Effect of Electric Convection. 


Art. IV.—On the Magnetic Effect of Electric Convection 7 by 
Henry A. Rowuanp of the Johns Hopkins University, 
Baltimore. 


current. Hence an experiment is of v 
well, in his “ Treatise on Electricity,” Art. 770, has computed 


The apparatus employed consisted of a vulcanite disc 21-1 

and ‘} centimeter thick which could 
be made to revolve around a vertical axis with a velocity of 
61: turns per second. On either side of the disc ata distance 
of 6 cm. were fixed glass plates having a diameter of 38-9 
em. and a hole in the center of 7-8 em. The vulecanite disc 


readily and there should be no uncertainty as to the electrifica- 
ion. The outside plates were usually connected with the earth ; 
and the inside dise with an electric battery, by means of a point 


not discharge unless there was a difference of potential between 
it and the edge. Between the electric battery and the disc, a 


were of non-magnetic material. 

Over the surface of the dise was suspended, from a bracket 
in the wall, an extremely delicate astatic needle, protected from 
electric action and currents of air by a brass tube. The two 
es were 15 cm. long and their centers 17-98 em. distant 


od 


other. readings 
The opening in the tube for observing t 
* The experiments described were made in the laboratory of the Berlin Uni- 
versity through the kindness of Professor Helmholtz, to whose advice they are 
; ir com : idea of the experiment first occurred 
to me in 1868 and was in a note book of that date. 


H. A. Rowland—Magnetic Effect of Electric Convection. 31 


from electrical action by a metallic cone, the mirror being at its 
vert So perfectly was this accomplished that no effect of 
electrical action was apparent either on charging the battery or 
reversing the electrification of the disc. The needles were so 
far apart that any action of the disc would be many fold greater 
on the lower needle than the upper. The direction of the nee- 
dles was that of the motion of the disc directly below them, 
that is, perpendicular to the radius drawn from the axis to the 
needle. As the support of the needle was the wall of the lab- 
oratory and revolving disc was on a table beneath it, the needle 
was reasonably free from vibration. 

In the first experiments with this apparatus no effect was 
observed other than a constant deflection which was reversed 
with the direction of the motion. This was finally traced to 


many weeks, the needle always answered to a change of electri- 
fication of the disc. Also on raising the potential above zero 
the action was the reverse of that when it was lowe elow. 
The swing of the needle on reversing the electrification was 
about 10° or 15- millimeters and therefore the point of equili- 
brium was altered 5 or 74 millimeters. This quantity varied 
with the electrification, the velocity of motion, the sensitive- 
ness of the needle, ete. 

The direction of the action may be thus defined. Calling 
the motion of the dise +- when it moved like the hands of a 


axis, and on changing the electrification, the north pole moved 
away from the axis. With — motion and + electrification, the 
north pole moved away from the axis, and with — electrifica- 
tion, it moved toward the axis. The direction is therefore that 
in which we should expect it to : 

To prevent any suspicion of currents in the gilded surfaces, 


382 H. A. Rowland—Maynetic Effect of Electric Convection. 


the latter, in many experiments, were divided into small por- 
tions by radial scratches, so that no tangential currents could 
take place without sufficient difference of potential to produce 
sparks. But to be perfectly certain, the gilded disc was re- 
placed by a plane thin glass plate which could be electrified by 
Neb on one side, a gilder induction plate at zero potential 


eing on the other. With this arrangement, effects in the same © 


direction as before were obtained, but smaller in quantity, see- 
ing that only one side of the plate could be electritied. 

The inductor plates were now removed, leaving the disc per- 
fectly free, and the iatter was once more gilded with a continu- 
ous gold surface, having only an opening around the axis of 
35cm. The gilding of the dise was connected with the axis 
and so was ata potential of zero. On one side of the plate, 
two small inductors formed of pieces of tin-foil on glass plates, 
were supported, having the disc between them. On electrifying 
these, the disc at the points opposite them was electrified by 
induction but there could be no electrification except at points 
near the inductors. On now revolving the disc, if the induc- 
tors were very small, the electricity would remain nearly at rest 
and the plate would as it were revolve through it. Hence in 
this case we should have conduction without motion of elec- 


8. 
electricity is being constantly conducted in the plate so as to 
retain its position. Now the function which expresses the po- 
tential producing these currents and its differential coefficients 
must be continuous throughout the disc, and so these currents 
must pervade the whole disc. 

To calculate these currents we have two ways. Hither we 
ean consider the electricity at rest and the motion of the dise 
through it to produce an electromotive force in the direction of 
motion and proportional to the velocity of motion, to the elec- 
trification, and to the surface resistance; or, as Professor Helm- 

oltz has suggested, we can consider the electricity to move 
with the dise and as it comes to the edge of the inductor to be 
set free to return by conduction currents to the other edge of 
the inductor so as to supply the loss there. The problem is 
eapable of solution in the case of a dise without a hole in the 
center but the results are too complicated to be of much use. 
Hence scratches were made on the disc in concentric circles 
about °6 em. apart by which the radial component of the cur- 
rents was destroyed and the problem became easily calculable. 


For, let the inductor cover Me the part of the circumference 


_of any one of the conducting circles; then, if C is a constant, 


: 
i | 


Hi, A. Rowland—Moagnetie Hffect of Electric Convection. 33 


the current in the circle outside the inductor will be oS and 
inside the area of the inductor -C On the latter is su- 
perposed the convection current equal to +C. Hence the 
- motion of electricity throughout the whole circle is re what it 


would have been had the inductor covered the whole circle. 
In one experiment 2 was about 8. By comparison with the 
other experiments we know that had electric conduction alone 


presence of so many disturbing causes. o effect was dis- 


deflection of the astatic needle as follows. Turning the two 
needles with poles in the same direction and observing the 
number # of vibrations, and then turning them opposite and 
finding the number n’ of vibrations in that position, we shall 
find, when the lower needle is the strongest, 

n?- 4 


n? tn’? — n2 +n? D (1) 
Where X’ and X are the forces on the upper and lower needle 
respectively, 4 the deflection, D the distance of the scale and 
H the horizontal component of the earth's magnetism. As X’ 
and n’ are very small the first term is nearly X—X’. The tor- 
sion of the silk fiber was too small to affect the result, or at 
least was almost eliminated by the method of experiment. 

The electricity was in the first experiment distributed nearly 
uniformly over the dise with the exception of the oe in 
the center and the excess of distribution on the edge. The 
surface density on either side was 

Am. Jour. isi sas! esses. Vou. XV, No. 85.—Jan., 1878, 


384 H. A. Rowland—Magnetic Effect of Electric Convection. 


V-V' 
es 27(B—p) (2) 
V—V’ being the difference of potential between the disc and 
the outside plates, 6 the thickness of the disc and B the whole 
distance apart of the outside plates. The excess on the edge 
was (Maxwell’s Electricity, Art. 196, Eq. 18), 
BC 4 
E=2(V—V’) xB) log, (2 cos 3B) (3) 


where C is the radius of the disc. 


x= eee '_(o+@)dedy _ 
— D Aeryply (a2 2:2 4yt)t 
perme Om (b-+-2)VC?2—(b-x)? 
© IS 04y (a? a?) Va? + C2 —b2 — 26a" 
where a is the distance of the needle from the disc and } that 
from the axis; N is the number of revolutions of the disc per 
second and v=28,800,000,000 centimeters per second according 
to Maxwell’s determination. The above integral can be. ob- 
tained exactly by elliptic integrals, but as it introduces a great 
variety of complete and incomplete elliptic integrals of all three 
orders, we shal] do best by expanding as follows: 
_t2No 


4aNo 
X= Pa" (A, FAL +A; + he), (4) 
C-—b C+) M 
A,=20( are tan arg -+- are tan mE ) — a log, N’ 


M 
A,=—S( (648) log, 5: gare 20), 
. M 
A= ; —4Cs-+ (3s?-+-2sb+-a?) log, N 
4Cb 
+-(582+-36"b--at(s42) Joe | &e, &e., 


2 C2—f2 


M>=a?-+(C+6)?, N=a?+(C—2)2, 


H. A. Rowland— Magnetic Effect of Electric Convection. 35 


From this must be subtracted the effect of the opening in the 
center, for which the same formula will apply. 

The magnetic action of the excess at the edge may be caleu- 
lated on the supposition that that excess is concentrated in a 
circle of a little smaller diameter, C’, than the disc; 


NE ak 2—k? 
WAG: 
where ae at ia a and F(x) and K(#) are complete ellip- 


tic integrals of the second and first orders respectively. 

he determination of the potential was by means of the 
spark which Thomson has experimented on in absolute meas- 
ure. For sparks of length 7 between two surfaces nearly plane, 
we have on the centimeter, gram, second system, from Thom- 
son’s experiments, 

V—V'=117°5(7+ 0135), 

and for two balls of finite radius, we find, by considering the 
distribution on the two sheets of an hyperboloid of revolution, 

r V/r+1+1 
Wrpi 9 VSrpi-l 
where r is the ratio of the length of spark to diameter of balls 
and had in these experiments a value of about 8. In this case 

V—V'=109°6 (74-0135). (6) 

A battery of nine large jars, each 48-¢. m. high, contained 
the store of electricity supplied to the disc, and the difference 
of potential was determined before and after the experiment by 
charging a small jar and testing its length of spark. Two 
determinations were made before and two after each experi- 
ment, and the mean taken as representing the potential during 
the experiment. 

The velocity of the dise was kept constant by observing a 
governor. The number of revolutions was the same, nearly, 
as determined by the sizes of the pulleys or the sound of a 

beck siren attached to the axis of the disc; the secret o 
this agreement was that the driving cords were well supplied 
with rosin. The number of revolutions was 61: per second. 

In such a delicate experiment, the disturbing causes, such as 
the changes of the earth’s magnetism, the changing temperature 
of the room, &c., were so numerous that only on few days could 
numerical results be obtained, and even then the accuracy 
could not be great. The centimeter, gram, second system, was 
used 


V—V'=117'5 (J-+--0135) log. 


First Series. a=205, b=9-08, n=-697, D=110, H—-182 
nearly, B=1°68, 6=50, C=1055, N—61+, v=28,800,000,000;, 
n' =-0533, C’=10. 


86 H. A. Rowland—Magnetic Effect of Electric Convection. 


Deflection on 
Direction of | Electrifica- [Scale reading; reversing Length of 
motion. tion of disc. in mm, electrifcat'n spark. 
99- 
+ + 1075 7°25 "295 
_ 101°5 
68°5 
se — 165 8°25 290 
= 68-0 
® + 97 
+ a 91°5 7-00 282 
- 100: 
ne 59° 
pa _ 65°5 6°75 265 
. a 58°5 
+ 92°65 
ee _ 85° 6°75 290 
- 91-0 
+ 52°5 
ee a 57-5 5°50 285 
_ 515 
+ 82°0 
+ _ 760 5°85 285 
+ 81-7 
+ 36°5 
ces —_ 43°0 6°50 275 
55 36°5 
+ 68°0 
re as 61-0 7-00 290 
1 68-0 
+ 27°5 
= 33°5 6°50 “288 
~ 26°5 
Mean values. | 6435 | 2845 
"6735 
Hence, 4=—,- ='337 and /=°2845. 
From equation (1), 
X—99 X’= nee =00000327. 
~~ 305700" 
By calculation from the aoe oe we find 
—-99 X’=—_—— = 00000337. 
xX—°99 —— ea: 0337. 
The effect on the upper needle, X’, was about ;', of that on 


. 


the lower 
Second 3 Everything the same as before except the 
following. b=7°65, n’=0525. 


Hf, A. Rowland—Magnetic Effect of Electric Convection. 37 


Deflection o 
Direction of | Electrifica- + 
main Lipeetaeal eae alent | engin of 

+ 172°5 

+ _ 165°5 7-0 “300 
172°5 
+ 120°0 

aes _ 127°5 ‘i 
+ 121°5 fi ~~ 
= 129°0 
_ 163°5 
+ 170°5 x i, 

- “a aa 1-25 297 
fe 170°5 
+ 118°0 
_ 127-0 3 x 
2 pets 8-25 270 
—_— 127°5 

Mean values. 7°50 "2955 


s 22 Sia, t= -2955. 
Hence for this case we have from equation (1), 


X—-'99 X’= eee, Sonor -00000317. 
~~ 315000° 
And from the electrification, 
x—'99 X’— : ——-==°00000349. 
286000" 


Series. Everything the same as in the first series, 
etieet vs =8'1, n’=-0521, D=114. 


Direction of | Electrifi Scale reading yg on a Length of. 
motion. tion of disc. be mm. elecirifieat’n spark. 

+ 151-0 

— 158°5 7°50 "287 
- 151°0 
+ 192°0 

mo —_ 185°5 726 292 
ee 193°5 
_ 1575 

Ss - 148°5 : ; 
ee 1575 8°25 295 
- 150°0 
_ 185:0 
+ 192°5 

+ a. 185°5 7-45. 302 
+ 193°5 
—_ 151°0 

_— ad 143°5 7-25 287 
— 150°5 

Mean values. 760 486| =| 2926 


38. M. Mitchell— Observations on Jupiter and its Satellites. 


° Ate "380, f= *20926. 
For this case Fri equation (1) 


1 
— 99 X’—— —_ — 000 0339, 
x < 295000° ‘niet 
and from the electrification 
X—-°99 X’=— -— =="00000355. 
sais00. 


The error amounts to 38, 10 and 4 per cent respectively in the 
three series. Had we taken Weber's value of v the agreement 
would have been still nearer. Considering the difficulty of 
the experiment and the many sources of error, we may con- 
sider the agreement very satisfactory. The force measured is, 
we observe, about 50000: of the horizontal force of the earth’s 
magnetis 

The difenenes of readings with + and — motion is due to 
the magnetism of rotation of the brass axis. This action is 
eliminated from the resu 


meters per r second satisfies the first and last series of the experi- 
ments the best. 
Berlin, February 15th, 1876. 


Art. V.—Notes of Observations on Jupiter and its Satellites ; by 
| Maria MITCHELL. 


THE following observations were made at the observatory of 
Vassar College; longitude 45 55™ 38s, latitude 41° 41’ 18”. 
The instrument used was the Equatorial telescope; the power 
usually 230. 

1874, May 2.—Observations on Jupiter began at 10% 18™. 
The seeing was excellent. With a power of 600 the ruddiness 
of the equatorial belt was brought out; two Janae dark spots 
on its upper portion were —— striking in appearance, the 

ted space between them being conspicuously white. 
The shadow of the 4th satellite was near egress. It touched 
the limit of the planet, in internal contact at 105 37™ 10s3, 
ore was last seen at 11" 2m 4588. At times during the hour I 

ht the shadow was followed by a companion s 
at rh May 3.—The 3d satellite of Jupiter was occulted a 
95 11m 98-5. [This observation is by Miss Fisher iealents 
with a small telescope.] 


556 ee 


M. Mitchell— Observations on Jupiter and its Satellites. 39 


1874, May 7.—The ingress of the Ist satellite of Jupiter was 
observed. The satellite was in external contact at 105 50" 39s. 
The internal contact was at 105 55™ 7s, 

1874, May 14.—Observations on Jupiter began at 8 P. M. 
The broad equatorial belt was rosy and was seen fully out to 
the following limb. The shadow of the 3d satellite was upon 
the disc. The shadow was dark but not black. I could not~ 
call it circular; the longer diameter was nearly parallel with ~ 
the equatorial belt. It left the planet’s disc at 10 1™ 118-1. 

1874, May 19.—The noticeable peculiarity of the planet's 
disc is that of a large white spot on the broad belt near the 
center at 8410™ p.m. At 95 45™ no trace of this spot could 
be found, although the equatorial belt was seen out to the 
preceding limb. 

1874, May 22.—There was a very decided change in the 
spots from dark to light between 95 6™ Pp. M. and 95 35™ P, M. 

1874, May 28.—The planet was unusually striped. The broad 
belt was much spotted and its upper part heavily shaded. 
There was a rosy tinge over the whole belt. The 3d satellite 
touched the limb of Jupiter, at ingress, at 9" 56" 44s p.m. Its 
internal contact was at 10° 6™ 15° p. M. Although it entered 
on a part of the planet which was not bright, it could be fol- 
lowed only ten minutes. 

1874, June 2—There were peculiar white markings on the 
lower part of the equatorial belt of Jupiter; these were beyond 
the center-at 8" 25™. The 2d satellite touched the limb in 


The internal contact with limb was at 0° 46" 16%. The satel- 
lite was last seen 1" 2™ 51°, although it was upon the dark belt. 
The shadow was followed for some six minutes longer. 

1875, April 23.—The 8d satellite of Jupiter was wholly off 
from the dise of the planet at 7°15" 2° p.m. The shadow of 
the 3d satellite touched the limb, at egress, at 7° 43™ 7° P. M. 
The shadow was wholly off at 8° 1™ 51° p. M. Measurements 
were made of both satellite and shadow. The diameter of the 
satellite measured 2’"17, of the shadow 17°95. : 

1875, April 30.—The 3d satellite touched the following 
limb of Jupiter at 8° 21™ 19°-3. The internal contact was at 
8" 40™ 24*-3. The shadow of the satellite was fully upon the 
disc at 9" 48" 9*-3. The equatorial belt was slightly ruddy, 
and dark and white spots could be seen upon it. The Ist and 
4th satellites were so nearly of the same size that I could dis- 
tinguish them only by position. : 

1875, May 10, 8 to 9.30 P. Mi—A white loop extended diag- 
onally over more than half the equatorial belt of Jupiter. 


40 M. Mitchell—Observations on Jupiter and its Satellites. 


1875, June 2.—Observations began at 7°55" p. M. A very 
remarkable white spot was at once seen, nearly at the center of 
Jupiter’s disc. It was followed by a very dark shading, so 
that it strongly resembled a satellite and shadow in transit. 
The white spot was so well defined as to be easily measured. 
ve escisa'g diameter (oblique to equatorial belt) was 1’'°7. 
. . the white spot was approaching the limb of the 
tess stnidag a es with the planet, and was followed 
y one ate and less distinet. 

5, —Observations began at 7° 30" P. M. At 
Ya oa no Petites spot could be seen. At 3 15™ the white spot 
with the _ appearance of shadow eee could be 
seen, as on June 2. It was, at this time, 4 of t iameter of 
Jupiter, distant from the following limb. At gh 15™ the sec- 
ond white spot was seen, following the first, as on June 2. 
The 1st satellite touched the limb of Jupiter at 8" 21™ 24* Pp. M. 
The internal contact was at 8" 26™ 19° p. m. The satellite 
entered upon the planet below the broad belt, very white, 
more brilliant than the spot, but smaller and scarcely more 
conspicuous. The vipa 3 of the satellite was first seen upon 
the disc at 9° 23™ . M. 

1876, May 30. LOBbertaons began at 9" 39" p. Mm. The 
broad belt on the dise of J upiter was mostly above the equator. 
lt was mottled with large white spots, somewhat rose-tinged. 
th 1st satellite as it approached the planet was of a dazzling 

whiteness; it entered upon the disc above the lower margin of 
the equatorial belt, yet it could be seen for only twelve min- 

utes. The shadow entered on the disc about sixteen minutes 
later very black, but not round, the longer diameter bein 
=~ a perpendicular to equatorial belt. 1st satellite touched 
limb of . at 9" 538™ 26° Pp. M.; was at internal contact 
. 59™ 22°. ‘The shadow was wholly on the disc at 10" 15™ 128 

ca The satellite was seen at 10° 11™ 32*p.m. It is poets 
that the satellite was faintly seen at 10° 34™ 2°. 

1876, May 31.—The peculiarity in the appearance of Jupiter 
is the presence of bright white spots on the upper portion of 
the disc, markings resembling facule on the he first 
satellite was seen to come out of eclipse at 9" 44™ 41°-99. 

1876, June 15.—Observations on Jupiter began at 8" 20™ P. M. 
The first satellite was known to be in transit, but could not be 

seen upon the disc. The shadow of the Ist satellite was 
wholly within the limb at 9" 34" 51°9. At 9" 55™ 36°9 the 
3d satellite was seen to come out from eccultation. At 9" 58” 

11*-9 the 3d satellite was wholly out and shining with brilliant 
white light. At 9" 20™ 42° the Ist satellite was found, a 
ing the preceding limb, a dull gray figure, elliptic in shape, the 
major axis being perpe equatorial belt. When this 


J. P. Gooke—Atomic Weight of Antimony. 41 


satellite reached the limb it was as white as the 8d satellite, and 
rou e transit was made across the brightest part of the 
disc, and where there were no perceptible variations of brillianey. 
The 1st satellite’s last contact with limb was at 10" 2™ 47® 
1876, June 22.—Observations began at 10°12" p.m. The 
Ist satellite, known to be upon the disc, could not be found. 
The shadow was wholly on at 10°26" 56%. The satellite was 
seen, dusky, oval and gray, from 10" 55" 33° to 11" 10™ 33°. 
1877, June 13.—The shadow of the 2d satellite was seen, 
wholly entered upon the disc, at 11° 20" 45%. The satellite 
itself touched the limb at 11" 36™ 07°; was at internal contact 
at 11" 43™ 30°. 
1877, June 19.—The 8d satellite touched the limb of the 
lanet at 10° 47"58°. The internal contact was at 10" 59™ 10%. 
he 1st satellite reappeared from occultation at 11" 4™ 51%. 
The ruddiness of the equatorial belt was noticed by several 
observers. 


Art. VI.—Revision of the Atomic Weight of Antimony; by 
JosraH P. Cooks, Jr. 


[Abstract of a paper, in the Proceedings of the American Academy of Arts and 
Sciences, xiii, 1, prepared by the Author.] 


antimony glance by means of hydrogen and his investigation 
was a model of its kind. In his paper* all the details of the 
experimental work are given and it is evident that every precau- 
tion was taken which the circumstances required. In 1857, 


this result was apparently closely confirmed by Dumas, whose 
analyses of antimonious chloride gave almost precisely 122. 

he present investigation was undertaken with the view of 
reconciling if possible the large discrepancy between the results 


suggested by the method, devised by the author, of precipitating 
sulphides which was described in a previous number of this 


* Poggendorff’s Annalen, xcviii, 455, June, 1856. i c, 563, April, 1857. 
+ Ann. Chem. et de Phys., II, lv, 175, Feb, 1859. § This Journal, If, xiii, 427. 


42 J. P. Cooke—Atomic Weight of Antimony. 


from the circumstance that the antimonious sulphide as usually 
precipitated occludes a small amount of tartaric acid on the 
one hand and of oxichloride of antimony on the other. These 
occlusions tend to produce errors in opposite directions, for 
when, before weighing, the red antimonious sulphide is heated 
to the point of its conversion into the gray modification, the 
tartaric acid is charred, and the carbonaceous residue increases 
the apparent weight of the product; while on the other hand 
the oxichloride of antimony is decomposed at the same tem- 
perature and the antimonious chloride, which volatilizes, tends 
to diminish the weight of the product. In the earlier deter- 
minations these causes of error were balanced as nearly as 
possible by regulating the conditions of the precipitation; but 
it was subsequently found to be possible to entirely prevent the 
occlusion of antimonious oxichloride, and in all the later deter- 
minations allowance was made for the small amount of carbon- 


lowing determinations of the specific gravities of the different 
C., on 


the assumption that the coefficient of cubic expansion for anti- 
mony between 0° and 100° C. is for each degree 0:0000838, as 

bserved by Kopp. The letters here given will be used 
throughout the table to designate the various specimens. As 
might be supposed, the specimens were prepared at different 
times and at different stages of the investigation, but the results 
are united here for the convenience of comparison and of refer- 
ence. 


Spreciric Graviries oF Butrons or Pure Metatiic ANTIMONY. 


Observations of J. P. C., Jr. Observations of W. Dexter. 
A ie 1000 | DL. . 6°7087 
Be 70s |) 6 ee 6°7026 
» 6°6957 | ¢ . .6°6987 
D 6°7070 | d 6°7102 
Bec Se Oe ee 6°7047 
Rea, Re Aeien ee 6700S) SiS Se 6°7052 
Mean...... -. ....6°7022 | Mean 6°7050 


The processes used in preparing the several buttons just 
referred to, the method by which the metal was brought into 
solution in its lowest condition of quantivalence, and the man- 
ner in which the antimonious sulphide was precipitated, col- 
lected, dried and ene are all described at length in the 
original paper. The following table shows the results which 
were obtained. 

*Poggendorff’s Annalen, ¢, 564 (I. c.). 


Synruesis oF SULPHIDE OF ANTIMONY, 


Wt. of red ee oat Wt. of black Wg pr 
No. Wt. in day of Wt. dissolved Total weight Sb,8, Per seb of 8 gal {Sb Sb,S, dried at Per cent. of S Ape f Sb 
Sb taken from balls. of Sb used, dried at 180°C. in same. 1en ‘pasa 210° C. in same. hen 839, 
1, A. 2 0036 0°2023 2°2059 8°0898 aie ee 79 3088 28°57 "hue-0c 
2,. Be 20017 02662 2°2679 3°1778 28.63 119°64 3°1764 28°60 119°82* 
$ KE, 2°0113 00853 2°0966 2°9383 28°65 119°56 2°9350 28°57 120.03* 
4, A, 1°09 00798 20771 2°9051 28°50 120°41 2°9021 28°43 120°85 
5, E. 2°0019 01087 2°1106 2°9508 28°47 120°57 2°9486 28°42 120°89+ 
Mean se Determinatiote 3... °°" > SK. 28572 119°994 wee eo 28°518 120°32 
G -AY .1'768 00430 1°8068 2°5301 28°59 119°91 got OS e eiee ae 
7 Ag «2 ers 00894 2°1169 2°9639 28°57 Pie ee, Om ae. 2 Be 5 ae 
8 B. 20116 00188 2°0304 2°8423 28°57 120°04 2°8410 28°53 120 238 
9, -B. 2 20027 0°1000 2°1027 2°9429 28°55 120°13 2°9409 28°50 120°41 
10, 22015 01424 2°1439 3°0025 28°58 119°94 2°9931 28°49 ~ -120°47 
11, E.  2:0038 0°3379 2°3417 3°2792 28°59 119°90 3°2788 38°58 119°95 
12. E. 20014 02168 2°2182 31061 28°59 119°92 3°1022 28°50 120°44 
Mean of ot & Determigations -25. 2." 5, S..s<. 28°576 716-086. = So. 28°520 120°298 
13, 6 0°3787 2°3843 3°3369 28°55 120°34 _ 83369 28°51 120°14|| 
Mean of the 18 Determinations <...2°. 4; =k Babiab. - $1094. 9 =4-.2- 28°522 120°295 
Large residue of eB small sublimate. | No sublimate or loss of weight on drying and conversion. Residue large, 


We ight of black bey Sam ound. be made under conditions. 


Hit ie sidue of ca ea sublimate. but weighed and subtracted. The best determination, and as perfect as can 
Both residue and sublimate see 


44 J. P. Cooke—Atomic Weight of Antimony. 


We were for some time in doubt in what condition the sul- 
phide of antimony ought to be weighed, in order to obtain the 
most accurate results. Our final judgment was that the errors 
already referred to would best be balanced, while others would 
be avoided, by weighing the sulphide, after it had been dried, 
at from 180° to 200° , but before it was actually converted into 
the gray sulphide "This conversion takes place between 210° 
and 220°, varying to that extent in different cases. The change, 
as we infer, is attended with a sudden evolution of heat, and 
the action is quite violent. Small particles of the material are 
See projected from the vessel, and we sometimes noticed 

that the surface of the platinum nacelle became coated with the 
familiar sublimate of sulphide of antimony. If there is oxi- 
chloride in the precipitate, there may be an additional volatiliza- 
tion of chloride of antimony at this time; but the main loss, as 
we have constantly observed, ee place before the point of 
conversion is reac e therefore concluded that more 
trustworthy results could be deduedl from the wees of the 
red sulphide dried, as we have described, than from that of the 
gray ; and, as will ‘be seen, this judgment was fully confirmed 
by subsequent experiments on the haloid compounds. We 
have, however, in all but two instances weighed the sulphide 
in both con ditions, and we give the results of both yelptiaes : 
and on comparing these results in determinations eight to 
thirteen inclusive of the table on page 48, which were made 
under the nearly identical conditions we have above indicated, 
it will be seen that the differences are far smaller with the red 
sulphide than with the gray, which shows conclusively that 
additional causes of error must have affected the last weights, 
—a circumstance which sustains our judgment. 

n the first twelve determinations we did not estimate the 
amount of the carbonaceous residue, which is assumed to 


without the usual occlusion — een onde In this case, there 
was no evidence . sublimation nor loss during conversion, but 
a proportionally large carbonaceous residue, which was deducted 
from the ncaa of the sulphide; and the result of this deter- 
mination, as ‘will be seen, still further corroborates our conclu- 
sion. The same is true of the analyses of chloride of antimony 
made more recently, in which we dissolved crystallized chloride 
of antimony in a concentrated aqueous solution of tartaric acid, 
without using any excess of hydrochloric acid. In these cases 

, the drying of the precipitate, and the conversion from the 
red to the gray modification, were attended with no appearance 


J. P. Cooke—Atomic Weight of Antimony. 45 


of sublimation. Were we to repeat the investigation with our 
— knowledge, we should follow the indications of these 
ast analyses; and instead of attemping to make the two chief 
errors as small as possible, and balance them, we should seek 
to remove from the solution all the free hydrochloric acid, and 
thus eliminate the error due to the occlusion of oxichloride. It 
would then, of course, be necessary to determine in all cases 
the carbonaceous residue, which might however be very large, 
without impairing the accuracy of the result. Still, our experi- 
ence with shea antimony determinations would lead us to fear 
that we might thus raise up as many hindrances as we avoided, 
and the determination we have given as No. 13 is sufficient for 
all purposes of comparison. 
his point in our investigation was reached in the spring of 
1876, and the results given above were presented to the Ameri- 
can Academy of Arts and Sciences at their meeting of June 
14th, 1876. But although they agreed so closely with the 
results of Schneider, and although the close confirmation of his 
analysis thus furnished by our synthesis seemed so conclusive, 
ier we could not rest satisfied so long as the great discrepancy 
tween this value of the atomic weight and the higher number 
obtained by Dumas remained unexplained. We therefore 


chloride, and the r are united in the following table. 
Beginning with crystallized chloride of antimony obtained from 
different dealers, an in a commercial sense, we first 


further peso by repeated crystallizations from fusion. As 


e 
latent heat), it is easy to arrest the process at any point, and 
ed off the still liquid portion from the erystals which have 
iormed. The 


46 J. P. Cooke—Atomic Weight of Antimony. 


repeated, and so on indefinitely as long as the material lasts. 
In this way, from several ‘kilograms of the commercial 
chloride we obtained the few grams of beautifully clear and 
perfect crystals used in our analyses. In the fifth preparation, 
the crystals were obtained not by fusion, but by cooling a 
saturated solution of the previously distilled chloride in purified 
sulphide of carbon. Such a solution, saturated at the boiling 
point of sulphide of carbon, deposits the larger part of the 
chloride, when cooled to the ordinary temperature. Naturally, 
every precaution was taken during the course of these prepara- 
tions to protect this exceedingly hygroscopic substance from 
contact with moist air, and all the transfers were made in a 
portable photographic developing chamber, the air of which 
was kept dry by dishes of sulphuric acid. The portions for 
analysis were transferred, in this chamber, to tightly fitting 
weighing tubes; and, after the weight was taken, they were 
dissolved in a concentrated aqueous solution of tartaric acid, 
using about five grams of tartaric acid to each gram of chloride 
of antimony. Thesolutions were then diluted 


in an air bath at temperatures varying from 110° to 120°. 
They were weighed with the small dis k of paper used in this 


H. ay and, ‘the excess of this reagent having Beene ved by 
warming the filtrate with a small eae: of ferric aie: the 


bea abies tallized chloride of Veron and Fontaine, Paris, which was 
Purified in the manner described above, 
6 Was made from a erystallized chloride marked Rousseau Fréres, Paris, purified 
as before. 


c Was tasters again distilled and crystallized. 
d, The same c, after ten additional distillations. 


u 


et eee 


J. P. Cooke---Atomic Weight of Antimony. 47 


e, The same as d, again distilled below 100° in a current of dry hydrogen gas. 
f Was made with a crystallized chloride from Merck of Dermoid purified by 
ulphide of car- 


g, Same as f, but in this determination the antimony was first precipitated from 
the solution 


ANALYsis OF ANTIMONIOUS CHLORIDE. 
DETERMINATION OF CHLORINE. 


% of Chlorin 
SbCl, AgCl. C1=35'5 At. Wt. of Sb 

No. grams. grams. g=108. =35 
LG 1°5974 yielded 3°0124 46°653 121°78 
2a 1°2533 = 2°3620 46°623 121°93 
3 a. 0°8876 v2 1°6754 46°696 121°57 
4b, 0°9336 is 15674 46°516 122°46 
5 6. 0°5326 #: 1°0021 46°446 122°30 
6 0°7270 34 1°3691 46°588 122-10 
TSG 1°2679 se 2°3883 46°599 122°04 
8 « 1°9422 oa 3°6646 46°678 121°66 
9e 1°7702 Ke 3°3384 46°655 121°77 
10d. 2°5030 oe 4°7184 46°635 121°87 
11 d. 2°1450 ng 4°0410 . 46°616 121°96 
12 e 1°7697 . 3°3281 46°524 122°42 
13 @. 2°3435 3 4°4157 46°613 121°98 
14 f. 1°3686 ss 2°5813 46°659 121°75 
157. 18638“ 3°5146 46°650 121°79 
16 f. 2°0300 e 3°8282 46°653 121°78 
17 g. 2°4450 “ 4°6086 46°630 121°89 
Mean value for all analyses 46°620 121°94 

Theory when Sb = 122 46608 122° 

: “g: == 120 47-020 120° 

If in calculating the per cent of chlorine from the results of 
the above determinations we use the atomic weights for silver 


and ehladne obtained by Stas (namely, Cl=35°457 and Ag= 
107-93), these per cents will be in each case very nearly 0-020 
lower, and we shall obtain for the mean value 46°600 instead 
of 46-620. pons on this assumption the atomic weight of 
antimony, deduc m Dumas’s cag of the chloride, would 
be 121-95 foatead of 199 Again, if we use Stas’s value of the 
atomic weight of sul has (S=32-074) in pA ee tlfe atomic 
weight of antimony rom ourown results, on the synthesis of the 
sulphide, we should para 120-28 instead of 120; and, lastly, the 
values Sb=120-28 Cl=85'457 give for the per cent of 
ehlorine i . antimonious chloride the value 46-931. 

ere, then, is a most striking result: for these determina- 
tions Nitin the value of the atomic weight of pulicoat 


48 J. P. Cooke—Atomic Weight of Antimony. 


obtained by Dumas as closely as did the previous determina- 
tions confirm that obtained by Schneider. Evidently, there 
was a large constant error in one case or the other. Moreover, 
it appeared improbable that in either case any error could arise 
in the chemical process employed: for, in the first instance, we 
had a synthesis by one method confirming an analysis by a 
wholly different method ; and, in the second instance, the analy- 
tical process employed is regarded as one of the most accurate 
known to science, and we had apparent’). shown that its accu- 
racy was not impaired under the peculiar conditions present. 
It appeared, therefore, reasonable to assume that the results did 
truly indicate both the actual proportion of antimony in the 
sulphide of antimony and of chlorine in the chloride of anti- 
mony analyzed, and to look for the cause of the discrepancy to 
some impurity in one or the other compound. e therefore 
next sought to determine how much sulphide of antimon 
could be obtained from a given weight of chloride of antimony, 
hoping that by thus bringing the relations of antimony to 
chlorine and sulphur into close comparison the source of the 
error might be indicat 
The following table exhibits the results of these antimony 
determinations, as well as the general result of the assumed 
complete analysis of antimonious chloride. The per cent of 
chlorine taken is the mean of the first thirteen determinations 
of the previous table, as these only had been made at the time 
the second table was drawn up, and it therefore exhibits the 
results exactly as they were presented to us at this stage of the 
investigation. 
ANALYSIS OF ANTIMONIOUS CHLORIDE. 
DETERMINATION OF ANTIMONY. 
SbCl, taken in Sb,S, obtained ¢ of = irra mem when @ of Antimony if 
grams. in grams. = S=-120: 42.* Sb: S=122 : 32.+ 


15. 3°8846 2°8973 53°275 53°525 
26. 5°1317 3°8417 53°473 53°725 
36, 44480 3°3201 53°316 53°567 
4 b. 506 3°4009 53°882 53°633 
56. 4°8077 3°6072 53°593 53°845 
6 774 3°1958 . 53°367 53°618 
Mean of all Analyses 53-401 53°652 


: MEAN RESULTS OF COMPLETE ANALYSIS. 
Antimony, the mean of six determinations 53°401 53°652 
Chlori «“ thirteen “ 46°611f 46°61 er, 
100°012 100°263 
*Or wie that of the gray sulphide is antimony, as deduced from actual 


> sain generall. pted theory. 
En Oe ee aed 1g=1G8. Cocttaing © Dewie: 


C. U. Shepard, Jr.—A new mineral, Pyrophosphorite. 49 


As they at first repented themselves to us, these new results, 
so far from throwing light on the subject, only rendered the 
problem the more obscure and baffling. Towards interpreting 


value our own spe eriments and those of Schneider might have 
in fixing the atomic weight of antimony, they had at least 
established, SR: all doubt, the proportion of this element in 
the gray sulphide weighed in our antimony determinations. 
For if we assumed, as those experiments indicated, that five- 
sevenths of the gray sulpbide was antimony, then the amounts 
of antimony and chlorine found in the analysis of antimonious 
chloride just made almost exactly supplemented eac 
while on the other hand, if this material was, as generally 
believed, pure Sb,S,, in which Sb:S=122: 32, then our deter- 
minations of one or the other of these elements must be greatly 
erroneous, and the excess obtained far too great to be explained 
y any known or probable imperfections of our Of 
course, although the gray sulphide might contain, on the aver- 
age, five-sevenths of its weight of ne ape it was a possible 
etDpomnos that it rca also occlude a constant amount of 


and taken into the account, and in our later determination even 
this had been reduced to sosmall an amount as to be wholly 
insignificant 

[To be continued. ] 


Art. VII.—On a new ecineral Pyrophosphorite: an Anhydrous 
Pyrophosphate ve Lime from the West Indies ; by CHARLES 
UpHaM SHEPARD, Jr., Professor of Chemistry in the Medi- 
cal College of ne State of South Carolina 


TurovuGu the kindness of Mr. C. C. Wyllie of London, Eng- 
land, I have been put in the possession of a few small fragments 
of a mineral phosphate from a new locality in the West Indies. 
Commercial considerations forbid at present the aes a of 
the precise position of this deposit, but later I hope to 
to announce it, as also to give iatorseten with regard to the 
— amen of occurrence, and so 0 

R. Scr.—TutepD Sees Von. XV, No. * —Jan., 1878. 


50 CU. Shepard, Jr.—A new mineral, Pyrophosphorite. 


The mineral is generally snow-white and opaque, with here 
and there aslight tinge of bluish-gray. The white portion is = 
and has an earthy fracture like magnesite; the grayish—c 
stituting perhaps one-third of the mass—is small- bothyoidal 
like gibbsite, and is somewhat the harder of the two. 

The specific gravity varies between 2°50 and 2°58; hardness 
between 3 and 8°. Before the blowpipe it melts with diffi- 
culty on the eles to a whitish enamel. 

The following are the results of several chemical analyses of 
the mineral, as ‘executed on two different portions of material : 


1st Series. 2d Series. Mean. 

ee on imitans. wie OBOO. 6 eas 0°390 
Rar os Sot Bes Se 44°50 44°424 44°462 
Ma: meee (AL a. eet 3°141 3°090 
Stloberie WGd 0°57 0°687 0°628 
Eoeephoric A010. ods aes « BOOT 50°629 50°799 
Silic =i pe gp OE | ge 0°434 0°367 
Oxide of iron and alumina .--- 0°437 0°437 
100°1738 


If we add together the adventitious ingredients, viz: the 
pyrophosphates of iron oe alumina (taking an equal portion 
of phosphoric acid as the oxide of iron sehen the 
sulphate of lime, silica and ‘cs on ignition, we obtai 


ae sank 
BLA sole aay of iron and alumina -_-.---- 0°874 
Sulph Mie siud oak Peelers ee ee 
Silica Siwalesse bas eee ee Ce Bee 0°367 
AO Ob, SOWICION 5 0 as 2 a ns oe ee 
2°699 
There remain, 
t. 
Mare tid co's apie 44°022 or 45°16 
ee 3°090 3°17 | on raising the 
Phasphoris acid 50°362 51°67 2 ihe 4 per cent. 
ee 0 per cent, 
97°474 100°00 


The above composition agrees with the formula 
2MgO, P,0,+4(5Ca0, 2P,0,)* or2MgO, P,0,+4 } ocaO FO" 
which would require the following amounts of 


By calculation. Actually found. 
Ene ors sas 45°20 per cent. 45°16 per cent. 
Magnesia. --- ---- oo 8°17 
Pheaphicks baa 51°57 51°67 

100-00 | 100-00 


: Ca,P,0 
* Expressed according to atomic system Mg,P,0, +44 Cro ; 


Chemistry and Physics. 51 


The mineral therefore is (essentially) s protvar ortho- 
pyrophosphate of lime with pyrophosphate of magnes 
absence of water naturally suggests that its popoatiits must 
have — in contact with some igneous formation. The p 


SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE. 
I. CHEMISTRY AND PHysIcs. 


1. On the Direct Combustion of Nitrogen.—K&mMERER has 
described an interesting lecture e experiment to show the direct 
union of the nitrogen and ox ygen of air. Ina cylinder or globe 

about two liters capacity filled with air, a piece of burning 
magnesium ribbon about thirty to forty centimeters long, is 

laced. When the combustion of the magnesium is ended, a 
intense odor of nitrogen tetroxide is sancti and when the soe 
nesium oxide has deposited, the characteristic color of this gas 


: oO 
color when starch tion | is added.— Ber. Berl. Chem. Ges., x, 
1684, lear 1877. “2. B, 
2. the Relative — of Oxygen for Hydrogen and 
Oardonous oxide.—Bun n his “ Gasometric Methods,” has 
e 


hydrogen and carbonous oxide are mixed with oxygen in quantity 
insufficient to burn them both completely, and exploded; from 
which he draws the ons that the atomic ratio of the com- 
ee products (H,O:CO,) is always oe by simple 
changing from one to the other per saltum as the 

portion of hydrogen varies. Horstmann has experimented anew 
in this direction and has obtained quite different results. © 

finds: 1st. That when electrolytic gas and carbonous oxide are 


carbon 

ing ratio. Thus while the hydrogen, relatively to the carbonous 
oxide, varied from 0°25:1 to 2°33:1, from 20 to 70 per cent of 
the mixture being burned, the ratio.of the combustion- products 
(H,0: CO,) varied from 0°8:1 to 45:1. Nothing like a sudden 
change of ratio was anywhere observed. 2d. That when to a 
mixture of carbonous oxide and hydrogen, increasing quantities 


52. = Scientific Intelligence. 


of oxygen are added and the whole exploded, as in E. v. Meyer’ 8 
method, ‘aqueous vapor and carbon dioxide are formed in a con- 


oxygen between-these two combustible gases does not take place 
according to the law laid down by Bunsen. As to the cause of 
the discrepancy, he says that’ | while his experiments were made 
with dry gases in dry tubes, he has observed that see aqueous 
vapor is hag in the tube, less hydrogen n and more carbonous 
oxide is burned. e ratio of H,O: CO, is always Teena and 
the more, ‘the reater the amount of moisture present. On the 
other hand, in presence of carbon dioxide, more hydrogen and less 
earbonous oxide is burned. Now v. Meyer's experiments were 


with moist gases. Moreover, the variation in the ratio of the com- 
es is peculiar. As the oxygen increases, this ratio 
at ncreases, reaches a maximum, when the amount of com- 
bustible gases burned is about 30 to 35 per cent, and then falls 
uniformly — to the limiting value reached when the coma late 


bonous oxide in the unburned residue. Since therefore relatively 
more lane. is always b Ae than carbonous oxide, the attrac- 
tion of o eater oe ‘she former than for ~ _— ges 


Chemistry and Physics. 53 


various special devices, such as pouring a solution of platinic 
chloride into a sulphide, drop by drop, or in fusing platinic sul- 


ammonium, thus resembling copper; 5th, t platinous sulphide 
y be considered soluble or insoluble according to hysical 
state and the nature of the sulphide used us salts occur 


G. F. B. 
4. On the Destructive Distillation of Phenol and Chlorbenzene. 
amined th d 


ceived were fractionated and yielded benzene, toluene, xylene, 
naphthalene, anthracene, and phenanthrene. Chlorbenzene thus 
treated gave diphenyl, parachlordiphenyl, paradichlordiphenyl 
and an isomer of it, and diphenylbenzene.—Liebig’s Annalen, 
elxxxix, 129, 135, October, 1877. . F. B, 

. Boracic Acid.—In the Annales de Chemie et de Physique, 


he calls the normal sea water, and he opens his paper with the 
following broad generalization: ‘Toutes les substances, salines 
existant en amas et en couches dans les terrains s¢dimentaires ont 
fait primitivement partie d’une mer normale. D’un autre cote, a 


In order to establish this conclusion in the case of the borates he 
gives in the first place experimental evidence that the water of 
the Mediterranean contains at least two decigrams of boracic acid 
in each cubic meter, and, further, that on evaporating the brine 

racic acid accumulates in the bittern until after the deposition 
of carnallite. In the second place, he insists that in the very 
characteristic deposits of Stassfurt the borates are found above 

e carnallite as we should expect, if these deposits were formed 


54 Scientific Intelligence. 


as assumed, by the drying up of extensive salt lakes. Again, 

aving confirmed the previous statements that the chief salt beds 
of the world are found on two geological somal the Lias and 
the middle Tertiary, he ah evidence t the aremma of 


beds—heated ‘it is ek b vetosnts aie —determines well- 
known chemical changes, from which result the peculiar acid va- 
pors there discharged. But we can only give here the barest out- 


boracic acid. rejects the test aco turmeric as menlarcirieyae 
in the presence of such a mass of salts as are found in bittern, an 
he finds the flame reaction by far the most sensitive as well as the 
most trustworthy of all the tests with which he has ri er aang 
When the Bunsen lamp is supplied with pure hydrogen, 
that the flame reaction will indicate the one-millionth of a gram of 
boracic acid. His method of applying the test is as follows: The 
material to be tested is first m with an excess of oil of vitriol, 
and this ea held in a loop of mpbichnrit wire is brought near— 
hin four millimeters—but never nearer than two millimeters 
to the visible mantle of the hydrogen se? so that the flame may 
not be colored in the least by sodium always present. If the 
assay contains boracic acid, th states green coloration 
appears, which can be identified with absolute certainty, by means 
of a spectroscope, and the coloration can be most delicately ob- 
served by looking through the mantle of the dame oo 
P 


6. Photo-electric Phenomena.—R. BornsTEIN enktiib es veins 8 ex- 
periments on the influence of light on the electrical tension in 
metals, and shows that the effect is not a thermo-electric one. 
The -Photo-electric series of the metals runs in this order :—Alu- 
minium, gold, copper, platinum, silver. While the thermo-electric 
series is as follows :—Silver, platinum, copper, gold, aluminium. 

His conclusions are as follows 

(1.) In a hee oma of 1 two different metals, a photo- 
electric current merated whenever the two junctions are ex- 
posed to arileeton jeaiacioms of different nro tee 

(2.) When the same junction is exposed in one case to an in- 

temperature, and in sauces to a more javeane illumina- 


Geology and Mineralogy. 55 


tion, the thermo-electric and photo-electric currents Teepeckirely 
generated i in these cases are opposed to each other in direction. 
Phil. Mag., Nov., 1877, p. 330. J. T. 
NKEL concludes from a series of experiments upon the 
photo-electricity of varieties of fluor-spar, that the pes ao phe- 
nomena are largely due to the influence of the chemical rays of 
the spectrum, which cause chemical changes in the eoqatinee ae of 
the crystal. —Ann. der Physik und Chemie, No. 9, 1877, p. 66. 


a eae soe of air at constant pressure and constant vol- 
—li. K R has erence the specific heat of air at con- 


by 
the transverse aes of steel nae excited by a wichopalia 
bow. A 


were compared with those of a tuning fork. H. Kayser conelndss 
from his experiments that the true value of the velocity of sou 
in free air is 332-5 m. The value of &, the specific heat, has been 
— assigned as will be seen from the following table: 


Maso 220 ete 2A ew Cand Biss 25S ee. 1°41 
Weisbach Se Fay ees 74005 ~Rontpér i222 2S its 1°405 


H, Kayser concludes ee the true value is k=1°4106. rah 
alnn., No. 10, 1877, p. 218. 
worescence of the Retina.—M. von Bezold and Dr. hn 


Mag., Nov., 1877, p. 397; Trans. from Berichte d. baier. bane 
Math h. Phys., June, July 7, 1877. 


Il GroLoGgy aND MINERALOGY. 


1. Reports of the United States dtl 8a Surveys west of 

the ‘One-hundredth meridian, in charge of First Lieutenant Guo. 
Wueerer, Corps of Engineers U. 8. Army, under the diree- 

tion of Brig. -Gen. A. A. Humpar nys, Chief of Engineers, U. S. 
Vol. LV. Paleontology; quarto with 83 plates. Washing- 

ton, 1877, Engineer department, U. S. Army.—This large vol- 
ume, a contribution to the science of the country from the 

Wheeler expedition, Bane ae War Department, comprises two 

important memoirs, as foll 

(1.) Report =e the Invertebrate Fossils collected in portions of 
Nevada, Utah, Colorado, New Mexico and Arizona, by pa rties of 
the Expeditions ‘of 1871, 1872, 1873 and 1874; by € Cuar.es A. 
Warre, M.D.: comprising general observations upon the collec- 
tions and the periods they represent; a general view of the classi- 
fication adopted; and descriptions, in successive chapters, of the 


56 Scientific Intelligence. 


fossils of the Primordial, Canadian, Trenton, Subcarboniferous, 
Carboniferous, Jurassic, — ous and Tertiary Periods ; and 
illustrated by twenty-one plate 

(2.) Report upon the extinct Vortebreta obtained in New ora’ 
by parties of the Expedition of 1874; f, 
AED fossils of the Mesozoic periods, and geology of Meso- 

oic and Tertiary beds; (2) fossils of the Eocene; (3) fonetls of 
the Loup Fork group; and illustrated by sixty-two plates 

rof. White’s valuable re ods has already been psielly “noticed 

in vol. xii of this Journal (18 

Prof. Cope’s report ren descriptions of a large number of 
vertebrate fossils, including species of fishes, ge Pq and 
mammals. Some ‘of t e general saute arrived at w regard to 
the species of the Eocene of New Mexico are pres ones in vol. 
xii of this Journal, asre, p- 297). The Loup Fork (or Loup 
River) group, a s Dr. Cope observes, has now been identified at 
three widely eratietie" localities: by "Dr. Hayden in the Upper 
Missouri region, and by Dr. Cope in Colorado, and in New 
its the Santa Fé a first studied by Dr. Hayden, bein ng 

f this horizon. The group underlies the “ White River group” 
in the Missouri region, and has been regarded as Pliocene. Dr. 
Cope has described thirty-four species of Vertebrates from these 


those of the White River beds, they appear to be somewhat older 
in oe geological relations than —_ and hence, he has sug- 
ed (first in 1875) that they may be Upper Miocene, Th 
= favoring this supposition are stated to be Amphieyon, 
elaepe Hippotherium, Aceratherium (Aphelops), 2 Mastodon 
of M. angustidens, Pseudelurus, Steneo The 
tice "Fy the White River and Loup Fork — differ, widely 
in genera from those of the Eocene. The 6 2 lithographic plates 
of fossils illustrating Prof, Font s Memoir are crowded with good 
gures. Nineteen of them are occupied with figures of parts o 
skeletons of different species of oe (Bathmodon of Cope 
1872-1875) named by Dr. Cope, CU. cuspidatus, C. lobatus, ©. 
et C. radians, C. latidens, C. elepha ntopus, C. molestus, 
C. simus. Prof. Cope discusses several controverted points, 
Shak we leave without no 
2. Summary of field pee ve the United States Geological 
and Geographical Survey of the Territories, under the charge of 
Dr. AYDEN, for the season of 1877.—The work of the 
United States Geological and Geographical Survey of the Terri- 
tories in charge of Dr. F, V. Hayden has been prosecuted with 
— success during the past year. The surveys in Uolorado 
g been completed psn the previous year, the parties 
png Ae: their work ina belt of country lying mainly in the 
western half of Wyoming, but also embracing piissead pact 
of Utah ae Idaho; all lying immediately north of the region 
embraced in the e Survey of the 40th Parallel by Clarence King. 
The parties “all took the field on the first of June. 


Geology and Mineralogy. 57 


The primary-triangulation party, upon the work of which that 
of all the topographical parties is based, was, as usual, in charge 
of Mr. A. D. Wilson, Chief Topographer. He took the field at 


The area embraces about 28,000 square miles, and within it twenty- 


tant. From these, connections were made at six points with the 
triangulation of the Survey of the 40th parallel. 

In addition there were three other fully equipped divisions for 
topographical and geological work, and another under the direc- 
tion of Dr. C. A. White, for special geological and paleontological 
work. 


The party first surveyed that portion of the district which is 
ohn y j i ) 


sedimentary origin. A comparatively small space is occupied by 
strata of Silurian age; the others range from Carboniferous to 


beds of the Green River and Bridger groups, probably of Eocene 
age. Coal was found to exist in large quantity on Upper Bear 
River and its tributaries, and also on some of the branches of 
Green River, being especially abundant between Twin Creek and 
Ham’s Fork. In the Malade valley, Dr. Peale observed deposits 
that are of later age than the Bridger group, but still, probably of 
Tertiary age, : : 

The Sweetwater division in charge of Mr. G. B. Chittenden, 

* A map showin ri trian ions of this survey has quite recently 
been published. $e te 


58 Scientific Intelligence. 


with Dr. F. M. Endlich as geologist, covers rectangle No. 57, which 
is bounded by meridians 107° and 109° 30’, and parallels 41° 45’ 

d 43°, embracing about 10,800 square miles. The k 
the field at Salt Wells station, on the Union Pacific Railroad, and 


been of late Tertiary outflow, and quite extensive, the region is 
occupied by sedimentary or stratified rocks; which he refers to 
Lower Silurian, Carboniferous, J ura-T'riassic, Cretaceous and Ter- 


tiary ages. Th 

all parts of the district. Besides these, he mentions other deposits 
in the valley of Snake River, later than the Tertiary strata just 
referred to, but still probably of Tertiary origin. It seems 


y 
eale, may prove to be of the same age as the Lake Beds of Dr. 
Hayden in Middle Park, the Uinta Group of Mr. King, &e. 


Geology and Mineralogy. 59 


. A. W 
paleontologist of this survey, and he took the field at the begin- 
ning of the past season, continuing his labors until its close. He 
has pursued his researches with such success as to demonstrate 
the necessity of continuing this class of investigations by various 
lines of travel across what is generally known as the great Rocky 
Mountain region, especially those portions of it that have been 
surveyed, as well as those in which the surveys are now in pro- 


Rivers; thence, crossing Green River, he pushed his investiga- 
tions westward along the southern base of the Uinta chain, as far 
as Great Salt Lake. Thence recrossing the Wasatch Mountains, 
he carried his work eastward across the Green River basin. 


continuous within what is now that part of the continent, from 
the earliest to the latest of the epochs just named. uring the 
progress of the field work, large and very important collections 
of fossils were made, which are now being investigated. : 
Messrs. S. H. Scudder of Cambridge and F. C. Bowditch of 
ton spent two months in Colorado, Wyoming and Utah, in 
making collections and observations in fossil and recent entomol- 
ogy, with very gratifying results. Mr. Scudder is making arrange- 
ments to add materially to his labors in this department, in connee- 
tion with the survey. : 
Professor Joseph Leidy spent some time during the season in 
Green River Basin, making observations and collections for his 
large work on Rhizopoda, which is to form one of the quarto 
volumes of the survey. : 
e botany of the survey was represented during the past sea- 
son by the two great masters, Sir Joseph D. Hooker, Director of 
the celebrated gardens at Kew, England, and Professor Asa Gray 


60 Scientific Intelligence. 


partment, was directed to visit and report upon those ruins, in 
connection with his usual work; which he did, and the results 
h l 


en up, and added to his department, the work of repro- 
ducing these models as well as those of ancient pottery found 
with them. In furtherance of this work he visit Nort ern 


, the dwell- 
ings of the forgotten people; forgotten, because the builders of 
; et i 


: 


Geology and Mineralogy. 61 


But in February, 
1876, it again passed into the hands of able geologists through 
the substitution of Prof. T. C. Chamberlain, of Beloit College, 
and under this arrangement, the new volume, above announced, 


to order. Dr, Lapham was displaced, unreasonably, in 1875, 
Dr. O. W. White. 


ney being vol. I) contains Dr. ham’s annual reports for 1873, 
1874, and Dr. White’s for 1875 as introductory to the reports of 


IL On the Geology of Western Wisconsin, by Prof. Roland D. 
ages. 
Ill. On the Geology and Topography of the lead region, by 
es 
ese R 
with ability and care, and with a full appreciation of what both 
science and the econ 
8 
are the subjects of valuable ee and then the distribution 
and characteristics of the severa 
are stated ; ts 
“Stand” Rock, of Potsdam Sandstone, which is almost as remark- 
able as anything of the kind in Rocky Mountain scenery. The 
post 


usual interest. The third report, on the lead region, is, as its 
author states, much briefer than the subject demands. It serves 


62 Scientific Intelligence. 


to supplement and extend the account by Prof. Whitney, adding 
the results afforded by the more recent mining operations and a 
further study of the regions. 

e Atlas consists of a series of colored plates, illustrating in 
sections the geology of the State; and others for eastern Wi 


think, for the small amount of detail in the geology. 
e cite from the volume the following facts and conclusions 
relating to the Wisconsin drift. 
In the first place the facts with regard to the driftless region, 
which covers Southwestern Wisconsin and the borders of Minne- 
st ‘ 


and Iowa adjoining, described a d rof. J. D. 
Whitney, are brought out with additional observations; and th 
view of Dr, Percival, its first describer, an f. itney is sus- 


southeast town of Minnesota—that of Houston. The former 
absence of the ice is proved by the absence of gravel and stones, 
which suddenly cease on entering the region, and, as Prof. Irvin 

states, by the character of the hills and ravines and the existence 


over it of numerous fragile sandstone peaks. The origin of this 


2 


? . 
latter brings out, in his report, a new theory in explanation of it. 
According to the observations of Prof. Irving, in connection 
h 


h 
west (3) along a Keweenaw Bay depression, west of southwest 
: depression, as a ; 


reached to Illinois. While those of the Keweenaw Bay depres 
sion and Western Lake Superior continued westward and south- 


Geology and Mineralogy. 63 


ward over Minnesota, and thence, as N. H. Winchell has shown, 
south to Iowa, where it was connected with the ice over northern 
Tilinois. 
The independence of the glacier-mass of the Michigan Bay de- 
— and that of the long Green Bay valley is well proved by 
of. 


of ponds and pools over its surface. It is one to ten miles wide, 


west outlines of the Green Bay valley glacier. It consists of gravel, 
bowlders, sand and clay, unstratified, but with portions here and 
h 


glacial scratches made by the Michigan and Green Bay ice- 


c 
Bay side and a southeast on that of the Green River Valley, thus 
pointing to the range as a moraine ridge between the two ice- 
masses or along their blending borders. Again, on the west side 
of the Green Bay Valley the glacial scratches run southwest- 
ward (while southeastward on the east side) and terminate in the 


edly have an undermining action and may have produced part of 
the depressions, Over the regions of Wisconsin between the Green 


gion was left iceless and driftless. He states that the surface is 
not higher than that of Wisconsin to the east, and is lower than that 
of Minnesota to the west; and hence that no argument can be 

rawn in favor of its escape from the ice by its altitude or by an 
elevation of the land. The explanation, though different, is closely 


64 Scientific Intelligence. 


related to that given by Professor N. H. Winchell, in his Minne- 
sota Geological Report for 1876, (published in 187 7)* and that the 
hills of the granitic =. stretching sacar aie from 
Keweenaw Point, and from the south shore of Lake Superior 
farther west, prevented the Spasaasie of shes great glacier from 
Lake Superior i in that dire 

Both Professor Chamberlain and Professor Irving state that 
there is abundant evidence that during the Glacial era the continent 
in that part was higher above the sea-level than now; and that 
this elevation was followed by a depression below the present | level 
—that of the Champlain period. The former states that “some 
of the streams have cut channels from one to three RE feet 
deeper than those they now rola DASE oy pointing to the fact of 
greater elevation during the Glacial e 

The chapters on the drift contain numerous facts with regard 
ba the sources of the — proving ee coe for 100 to 300 


The observations on the Champlain deposits and terraces are also 
highly interesting. 
wo other facts we cite here. The Milwaukee brick have 
a cream-white color and this has been attributed to the absence 
of iron. But Professor Chamberlain states that the clay is red, 
and contains, according to analyses of the brick, nearly jive per 
cent of oxide of iron; and that the absence of color must be due 
to the formation of a silicate of lime and iron, lime being also 
present in the ¢ [The eee. is probably a variety of epee, 
the formation of Which 3 in the Triassic red sandstone of the Con 
necticut valley where it adjoins "Ses dikes has often been oleckvad 
the writer to be connected with a discharge of the red color 
of the sandstone. 
The Niagara fimestone of southern Wisconsin includes two 
distinct varieties of limestone which were of simultaneous origin; 
and, according to Professor _ Chamberlain, sa "oe ah kind 


ral reef seas, 
and the granular to the beach sand-rock, sik is ations 
made along the shores of the coral reef regions out of — sands. 
. D. De 


Jo 
+ Mr. A. H. Wo rthen states, in the first volume of hie palace rhe , of 
i pean to 
oelow Galena within the driftless area but not far north of its southern limits) he 
observ: . Beebe informed 


in Lucas county, near the middle of southern Iowa, which weighed more than 

beg pounds. Galena is about 350 miles ina straight line south southwest from 

sl an era w copper region, and Lucas county is 170 miles southwest-by-west 
arom Cralens, or about 465 miles southwest-by-south from the Keweenaw region. 


prRreneyy 
a 
di 
lise 
ae 
ee 
&, 


Geology and Mineralogy. 65 


4, Probabie pion — of the Great Salt Lake,—It is be- 
lieved that the explorations of the survey under the direction of 
r. Hayden, the past satan have determined the probable an- 
cient outlet of the great lake that once filled the Salt ‘ake Basin. 

t the head of Marsh Creek, which occupies the valley, continu- 
ing directly south from that of the lowest Portneuf, is the lowest 
pass between the Great Basin and the drainage of the Columbia. 
In fact so low and flat is it, that a marsh directly connects the 
two streams, one flowing to the Bear River and the other to the 
Portneuf and Snake Rivers. 

This fact was observed by the Survey in 1871 and 1872, but 
this district has been carefully examined the past season by Mr. 
oe and Dr. 

Siberian Steppes. —Professor John Milne, in a paper enti- 
tled “Across Europe and Asia, Part V, from Ekaterinburg to 
Tomsk” (Geol. Mag., ages ree ar suggests that the material of ~~ 
ted b 


great — of Siberia y the rivers while t 
were r floods paused oy Abi being dammed about hae 
shouths 3 in eekaeaaides of the ice of the stream not having there 
melted. He shows that although ae — of — of the wa- 
ters in autumn differs but a week o in the more northern and 
asiot heat parts of the rivers, the Gies of saclline i in the spring often 
Iife nth Consequently the ice toward the mouth of the 


their norther were 
neath the sea—more or less constantly coin alah a lake of tur- 
bid water.” Floods ra this source occur now in Siberia. This 


One, plain accompanies it; and as it expands in flowin 
northward, so with the plai The widening “ se plains con- 
= until they unite to — that ge aa which 


a Mikroskopiache Piysiographie de pases Gesteine, von 
Rosenpuscu. 6 pp. 8vo. Stuttgart, 1877. (E. Schweiger- 
~ sche Verlagshandlng. apna presen t work forms ane operly a 


Am. Jour. S8cl.—Tuirp Serres, Vou. XV, No. Se 
5 


Nat emes | Tea Sacie aaies ae 


66 Scientific Intelligence. 


method of classification adopted is as follows:—(i) orthoclase 
rocks ; (2) orthoclase-nepheline, and orthoclase-leucite rocks; (3) 
plagioclase rocks; (4) plagioclase-nepheline, and plagioclase-leu- 
cite rocks; (5) nepheline rocks; (6) leucite rocks; (7) olivine, or 
chrysolite rocks. The special system of ercesiaarn ot thes se 


ular, syenites, or (2) Abe porphyries ‘with no ‘iit 
Secondly, the younger rocks (I) ie a * sore. and are (1) gran- 
ular or porphyritic, liparites, or (2) glussy, obsidian, trachytic 
pitchstone, perlite, eooreeds or Ries are (II) without quartz, includ- 


“— the trachytes and e glassy rocks 
The description of the i individual rocks are very a ieee espe- 
cially the references to their microscopic character. valuable 
portion of the work is the list of books and memoirs on nef aeraan 
cal subjects covering about thirty pages. E. 8. D. 
7. A Guide to 


oe of Rocks, being an intro- 
duction to Litholo ee by E. Janyeraz. Translated from the 
French by G. W. Pl mpton, C.E., A.M. 165 pp. 8vo. New 
see 1877. (D. Van Nostrand.)—This little book has some very 


escribed as due to the ‘ ria eay of fragments of the rock 

in which wos — found,” (p. 36); pyrites (FeS,) j is said to be 

reduc o FeS (p 109) ete. Besides, such words as 

Cordveritfels, Cavite, lopfstein, Gallinace, ete., do not belong 
to the English language. 

8. Zubles for the Determination of Minerals. Based upon the 
tables of Weisbach; enlarged, and furnished with a set of mineral 
formulas, a column o: of 8 specitic gravities and some of the character- 
istic blowpipe reactions; by Persiror Frazer, Jr., A.M. 119 pp. 
8vo, Philadelphia, 1878. _(- B. Lippincott ’& Co ne —The first 


‘eine ix of this J urnal. e revised wor ides numerous cor- _ 


rections and minor sadieign ns, contains s some new fe. atures, as for 

instance, the indication of the comparative rarity of the less 

aes species 

_ 9. Tridymite in Ireland.—Prof. A. von Lasaulx reports the dis- 
covery, of tridymite in the trachyte-porphyry of onl Antrim, 


10. Anihracite of Pennsylvania.—Mr, E. T, Hardman, in a 
n the Journal of the Royal Geological Society of Ireland 
= 200, 1876), attributes the change to anthracite in eatin 
series of trap-dikes to the eastward—not tec 
ae at that these upriibes are Triassic or Jurassic in yin pe 
the nearest over fifteen miles distant from the coal. 


Botany and Zoology. 67 


III. Borany anp Zooroey. 


1. C, Darwin. The Different Forms of Flowers on Plants of the 
same Species. (London, Murray ; New York, D. Appleton & Co. 
1877.) 12mo, 352 pp.—Circumstances have prevented an earlier 
notice of this volume, Mr, Darwin’s last work upon the fertilization 


ting qualifications. He a 8, moreover, succinct notices of what 
as been done by others in the same field. 

Six of the chapters relate to dimorphous blossoms, such as those 
of Primrose and Houstonia, including also the trimorphic cases, as 
of Lythrum Salicaria and some species of Oxalis. The seventh 
chapter discusses Pol gamous, Dicecious Diccious 


ygam: , and Gyno- 
Plants; the eighth and closing chapter is devoted to Cleisto- 
Flow 


sexual organs themselves (calyx, corolla, ete., being alike in the 
two sorts),—Mr. Darwin adopts Hildebrand’s term of heterustyled. 


rm, a Oo 
and pistils, not in the floral enve opes, and avoids the erroneous 
implication of the term heterostyled, that the style is only or mainly 

‘ ; 
gonous. We were too late to ensure its adoption in this work. A 
fairly good term once in use ought not to be exc anged for a new 
one without very sufficient reason ; and for the present purpose the 


this 
botany as a part of the character, of the genera or species which 


we shall write Flores hermaphroditi, Didi moncecet, dicecei, 
Jyno-dicecei, polygami, as the case may be. ; 
One good set of terms for phytography we owe to Mr. Darwin 


- 


ne g 
and the present book, i. e., that of gyno-dicecious and gyno-monc- 


68 Scientific Intelligence. 


cious, for the case of those plants which produce their two kinds 
of blossoms as hermaphrodites and females, either on distinct indi- 
viduals or on the same plant. ‘So, likewise, the term andro-mone- 
cious and andro-diecious for the case of hermaphrodite and male 
flowers, on the same or on separate individuals. As to andro-dice- 
ism, Mr. Darwin ‘remarks that, after making enquiries from sev- 
eral ‘bouaAintie I can hear of no such cases. The last summer 
brought one such case to light in our Cambridge Botanic Garden, 
perhaps exceptionally, but it raises the inquiry whether Diospyrus 
Virgiiana, our Persimmon tree, may not be of this character. A 
solitary female tree here, and wi ith no male tree in the town, sets 
fruit more or pith n most seasons ; ; but the persimmons are under 
sized and seedless. This year it was loaded with full-sized fruit; 
well furnished with seeds, the latter with a good embryo.: The 
female gp always bear stamens; but these are generally 
thought to be impotent; perhaps they besten produce some 
pollen ; they doubtless did so upon this oc 


. 


Darwin asserts, it would be Prenat and conduce to 
ric i 


and 
females co-exist. This ur in two ways, and possibly in 
three. The English Ash, as he remarks, is tricecious, or has the 
three kinds on as many individual trees ; while some Maples bear 
all three on the same tre 
If we rightly read a sheaiivit on p.10, it implies that proterandry 
and en are known to occu r only i in “some few hermaphro- 
dite plants.” But it can hardly mean that, cases of it being com- 
mon and abvions s in many natural orders 
The first chapter of this volume is dev oted to Primula and its 
allies; the second, to hybrid Primulas, mainly to the Oxlip, which 


is shown to bea spontaneous hybrid between the Cowslip eit: the 
Prim A note is added on some wild hybrid Verbascums, spe- 
cially tho those babtbeen Verbaseum Thapsus and V. Liyehoiteid which 


cross with the greatest ficility, and produce a series of forms 
which almost connect these two widely distinct species 
lly 


hybrids of the first generation almost wholly self-sterile. 
ch cases as this and that of the Oxlip, which was 

thought to prove that the ee and the Primrose were 

varieties of one speci “ show, as Ir. Darwin remarks, “ that bot- 


ben Gini particulart those of some s ax of 
stonia, Mitchella, and other Rubia “The fourth chapter 
discusses the t fl wers of the same ere ah stars 


Botany and Zoology. 69 


striking case was first brought to light. Our Vesa verticillata 
is also referred to, the trimorphous species of Oxalis Aaaee eek, and 
finally Pontederia, the only monocotyledonous genus now known 

to be heterogone. e trimorphism in this genus was dacacie a 


data, our common Pickerel-weed. by Mr. Leggett of New “York. 
Chapter VI is a detailed discussion of experiments on the illegiti- 
mate offspring of heterogone flowers; i. e., offspring produced by 
breeding shea the danse ofthe same ‘form, short-sty ed with long- 


' stamened, or th The conclusion is that in all points 


e con 
“the patallelison | is moudeetals close between the effects of illegit- 
imate and hybrid fertilization. It is hardly an exaggeration to 
assert that seedlings from an Fh ager aay cde fertilized — 


of Lythrum or Primula for the sake of ascertaining whether the 
were specifically distinct, and he found that they could be united 
nly with some di culty, that their offspring were i’ 


whole series of tions crossed species and Lad Ae brid off 
spring, he might maintain that his oe had b roved to 
be good and true species ; but he w be co mpletely deceived.” 
The cause of this sterility between gre iduals w may h 
sprung from the very same parent or parents an from the 
same = must evidently in their 1 e organs 


reproductiv 

n some recondite incompatibility of their sexual ele- 
ments, ase in any general difference of structure or constitution. 
And Mr. Darwin effectively argues that the same holds in ca 
of distinct species of the same genus. “ We are indeed led to 
this same conclusion,” he adds, “ the impossibility of detecting 
any differences sufficient to account for certain species crossing 

with the —— ease, whilst other state allied se cannot 
be crossed, or can be crossed only with extreme di 
are led to this. conclusion euigie more forcibly by causitienie the 
great difference which often exists in the facility of crossing 
reciprocally the same two § sea: or it is manifest in this case 


ility of hybrids ceas es to be a criterion of specie 

The 6th ee follows up the subject in a series of pee penis 
remarks. It refers to those cases of more or less recip 
rocal differences i in stamens and style which are una prt 
any difference in size or form of pollen-grains; and it tabulates 
the difference in pollen-grains of the two sorts. “ With all the 
oe in which the grains differ in diameter, there is no excep- 

to the rule, that those from the anehaee of the short-styled 


* 


70 Serentifie Intelligence. 


form, the tubes of which have to penetrate the longer pistil of 
the long-styled form, are larger than the grains from the other 
form.” “This curious relation led Delpino (as it formerly did me) 
to believe that the larger size of the grains is connected with the 
greater supply of matter needed for the development of their 
on ubes.” But it proved that, in many cases where the 
pollens differ mach in size, the styles differ moderately in length 
1 


? 


a ce versa, and that in plants generally, there is no close 
relationship between size of pollen and length of style (the grains 

ing of the same size in Datura arborea and in Buckwheat 
while the style of the one is nine inches long and of the other 
very short); yet still “it is difficult quite to give up the belief 
that the pollen grains from the longer stamens of heterostyled 
plants have become larger in order to allow of the development 

i 


and it would have been of little use to such plants to beco 
heterostyled e can thus understand why it is that not a single 


enera are mentioned which ‘have probably passe 
on from the heterogone condition to the diwcious, Coprosma is 


tendencies in the same direction. On the other han , Mr. Dar- 
8 observations on Ewonymus Europeeus are “ very interesting, 
h : 


obvious tendency towards dicecism, the principal illustrations are 
: : . 


, ete, 
The eighth and last — is devoted to Cleistogamic flowers. 


nds of flowers are evidently arran 


~ 


a n 
howy blossoms, produce others which fertilize and fructify with- 


Botany and Zoology. ; 71 


of the ordinar y flowers self-fertilize without expanding or full 


rine their development; but in others these comparatively . 


nute and ever-closed flowers are profoundly modified paca 
Narsityss in reference to — function. Dr. Kuhn, in 1867, gav 
them the appropriate name of flores ea teh cleistogamic, or 
as we prefer auepainoushe flow The literature of the subject 
gathered 


known of these blossoms is condensed. e cannot here attempt 
a recapitulation. In brief, “ they are conastenida for their small 
size and fi rer opening so that they resemble buds; their 


e 
petals are rudimentary or quite aborted; their stamens are often . 
; F 


educed in number, with the anthers of very small size, contain- 
ing few pollen-grains, ee have remarkably thin transparent 
coats, and which generally emit their tubes while still enclosed 
within the anther-cells; and lastly the pistil is much reduced in 
~~ with the stigma ‘in some cases hardly a . “es oo 


quently insects do not visit them; nor if they “id aan see find 
h flow 


an entrance. Suc wers are therefore invariably self-fertilized ; 
Indee : 


insects ; in some, such as Orchids, they are dependent upon this 
agency for such fertility as peat possess. 

Cleistogamous flowers are known in about twenty-four natural 
orders, yet not ina larg caabed of genera. The list given by 


y 
enlarged; but in one particular it may be diminished, for Auellia, 
Dipteracanthus, and Cryphiacanthus are really all of one genus. 


original pula — and irrespective of this var 


rushes and grasses, ” Among the latter, it is singular that one of 

the earliest: ee n and strongly marked cases, that of Ampht- 

carpum (Milium amplicanpem Pursh), — be overlooked. 
Since this notice was written, Mr. Pringle has announced to us 

the serbia ’ a flowers re regularly ooeunriny within 

the leaf-sheaths of Danthonia spicata a 

and other on 


72 : Scientific Intelligence. 


which figures give for the study of Ferns. _ Books of this kind, of 
various pretension and merit, abound in Great Britain, and there 
is evidently a great demand for them. But our own fern-fanciers 
are becoming numerous and active, and this work will aid them 
and bring many more into the field. At least our botanists and 
botanical students want it. And this work seems to us well plan- 
ned to meet all these requisitions. Well executed it certainly is, 

the 


specimens of chromo-lithography. Plate II, representin etlan- 
thes vestita and C. Coopere (a new species, detected in California ° 
by Mrs. Elwood Cooper, whose name it bears), is to o in 
best ; and the synopsis of the species of the genus, arranged und 
the sections, was a thought. The figure of A um ser 
ratum, a tropical American Fern, recently discovered in Fl 

r. Garber, is well managed and characteristic ; amp- 
light the green is too blue. Under the same conditions the Ly- 


godium, which is well chosen for a leader, seems too pale and dull. 
A little more practice will set this all right. The prospectus in- 


ter. We hope, and we do not doubt, that the sale will warrant 


A. G 
3. Notes on Botrychium simplex, by Grorcx E. Davenrort, 
1877.—Here is more Fern-lore, an exhaustive mono 


e frond. Two large quarto plates crowded with figures (48 
in number), illustrate the forms which these two peci ein 
this country, and the account of them fills 22 pages of letter-press 
of th: i The result of this thorough treatment is to con- 


the figures are heliotype reproductions of Mr. Emerton’s outline 
drawings. It is stated that “if the publication of these notes shall 


Botany and Zoology. 73 


prove to be of any service to fern-students [which it surely will], 


_ they will owe it entirely to the generosity of Mr. Robinson.’ 


4, Researches in regard to the influence of light and vadiaie 
heat upon transpiration in plants, by J. Wimsnur ameerey . 
Ann. d. Se. Nat., Sept., 1877, from ‘Sitzun ngsb. der k. Akad. 
Wissensch., 1876, t. 74). Wiesner prefaces his memoir ae a ee 
historical account, of which we here give an abstract. Near the 
middle of the last century, Guettard demonstrated by rude ex- 
periments that light favors transpiration. Unger, and, later, 
Sachs have supposed that the movements of sto mata under the 


quent excitation. 
Wiesner, in the memoir now noticed, gives a detailed account 
periments, and presents the following conclusions. 
A part of the light, which has traversed chlorophyll is trans- 
e 


- feeble in the dark, although the stomata were 
widely open. Also that th rk heat-rays are less active in 
transpirat the luminous rays, and that the ultra-violet 
rays have no influence at all; that, whatever may nature 


of - rays, they act solely by elevating the ee of the 
tiss 

5. kes Botrydium granulatum ; by J. eeckeeninics and M. 
Worontn.—This is an interesting paper which appeared in the 
Botanische Zeitung of Oct. 12. The investigations were carried 
on simultaneously by Rostafinski in Strassb and Woronin in 
St. - fect the i peng which are beautifully done, being drawn 
by Wor As is well known Botrydium granulatum is a unicel- 


74 Scientific Intelligence. 


lular Alga of a more or less pyriform shape, from whose smaller 
end grows a branching root-like process by which the plant is 


fastened in the moist ground. Small as it is, it is amply provided — 


with reproductive bodies as will be seen by the following : ere 
The contents of the pyriform portion may change into a lar, 

number of zodspores each provided with a cilium. 2d. If the PER 
becomes somewhat dry the pyriform portion shrivels, and the root 
fibres ave up into a apretea: of cells which m sc be transfor med 


which, after —* from the spore, unite in twos or some larger 
number so as to form what Rostafineki would call an isospore or, 
as is more cesenily expressed, a zygos 

The cells of Botrydium sometimes bud out at the ere and the 
budding processes, labs a time, send out hyaline _— and finally 
separate from the mother cell, forming a new indivi - In this 
connection, we would refer toa plant “which we Seals jena the 
past summer at Eastport, Maine, and Gloucester, Mass., where it 
was not rare on rocks and wharf at seid ring The species seems 
to be identical with Celiolum gregurium A. Br., found by Brown 
and afterwards by Pringsheim at icligeland, in company with 


least C. gregarium, should be included in Botrydium. w. 

6. Om gars aca marina Klorofyll firande Thalloph rte 
By Dr. F. R. Kjellma 

Ueber die — Vajetatio des Murmanschen Meeres. By Dr. 
F. R. Kjellm 


Bidrag til Shanealeial af Kariska hafvets Algvegetation. By 
Kjellman. 


Bed. hE: 

The above named articles, which are extracted from the proceed- 
ings of the Swedish Royal "Academy are important contributions 
to our knowledge of arctic Algw. Dr. Kjellman as botanist of 


coast, in striking contrast to that of Norway, that there is 
an aiacet entire absence of littoral Fuci and ora, of all littoral 


* 


Botany and Zoology. | 75 


species whatever. The most prolific region was in water about 
ten fathoms deep. W. G. F. 

7. Leleie Specie nei Gruppi affini raccolte a Borneo. By Vin- 
cenzo Cesati. Prospetto delle Felei raccolte dal Signor O, Beccari 
nella Polinesia. By Vincenzo Cesati, Napoli.—The former article 
forms a pamphlet of forty-one pages, with four plates, in pea the 
writer enumerates the higher er yptogam s of Borneo and describes 
a number of new species. The latter aetials is much shorter and’ 
contains descriptions of about thirty new species and = es. 

w. 


. Notes on Botrychium simplex nner ; by GrorcE E Day 
opel 1877. Salem, Mass. 4to, pp. tab. 2.- o. Bacrehiaa. 
simplec i is a little Fern which was sch atari docnaag and figured 
in this Journal in 1823 (vol. vi, p. 103), by President Hitchcock. 
For many years it was very little known, and was confused with 
several other species of the same genus. "Dr. Milde, in vol. xxvi, 
of the Nova Acta Acad. Nat. Curiosorum, was the first to cle early 
define it, to associate with it forms more ‘hi ighly developed than 

the specimens known to hae Hitchcock, and to illustrate the 
species with ny se its several forms and Speen fe cea 


results of his studies upon other species. D. C. EATON. 


that when collecting fossils he finds large numbers of Trilobites 
on their back;* from this he argues that they died in their nat- 
ural position, and that when living they probably swam on their 

acks. He mentions, in support of his view, the well known fact 


that position. I have for several summers kept young horse-shoe 
erabs in my j and have noticed that besides thus often swim- 
hon on their Reoke, they will remain in a similar position for 
hours, perfectly quiet, on the bottom of the jars where mg are 
kept. When disy cast their skin it invariably keeps the same 
attitude on the bottom of the jar. It is not an uncommon thing 
to find on beaches, where Limulus is common, hundreds of skins 
thrown up and left dry by the tide, the greater part of which are 
turned on their backs, ‘An additional point to be brought for- 


Sea Lye. “Wat Hist., -xi, p. 155, dein: Twenty-eighth Report N. Y. State 
Museum, Dec., 1876. : 


0 aaa 


76 Scientific Intelligence. 


browsing, as it were, upon w what — find in their road, and 
washing away what they do not need Bo means = a pow erful 
current produced by their abdominal apy d 
by the hor. 

10. New Species of Cer atodus, from the Jurassic ; by O. C. 
Marsu.—Among the interesting vertebrate remains recently found 
in the Jurassic of Colorado is a tooth of a Ceratodus, in good 


projections, which are separated by four notches. The front pro- 
Jection is longest, and most pointed. The et is attached to a 
portion of the dentary bone, as shown in the accompan ou 
The length of this “dental plate i is 20 
mm., and the transverse diameter 11 mm. 
The species is the first Mesozoic Cerato- 
dus found in this spied aud hence of 


: much interest. It may be named Cerat- 

Ceratodus Giintheri. odus Giintheri, in aun of Prof. 
Natural size Giinther of the British Museum, The 
eam usc of this species is in the Atlantosaurus beds of 


ve 
upper Jurassic.— Communicated by the Author. 


' JV. Astronomy. 


The phish Meteors.— At my request, Messrs. Benjamin 

Vail and John P. Carr, students in the State University, kept 
watch last night for the November meteors. The earl part of 
the night was too cloudy for observations, but tefokS. ta o’clock 
this morning (the 14th) the sky had become quite clear. In one 
hour and fifty minutes—from 1.55 to 3.45—fifty-four meteors 
were oe gia by the two observers. is was at the rate of 
thirty per hour. Nearly all were Leonids—that is, the ee from 
which they radiated was in the constellation Leo. <A few of the 
number were as large as first magnitude ae and left trains 
which continued luminous for several seconds. e appearance, 
of so large a number ten or eleven years after the maximum dis- 
plays of 1866 and 1867 is — bigs gus 

Bloomington, November 14, 1 NIEL KIRKW 

2. On Schmidt's Nib Conae —Mr. Cin baad. in a taki to 
the Astronomische Nachrichten, Naty Lord Lindiay” *s Observatory 
at Dunecht, dated September 5, : “On September 2, 1877, 
ivi this star with the 1 siirich refractor of this observatory. 


tint, especially when viewed in the same field with the reddish star 

.+42° 4184 which it precedes by about 25% Viewed raed a 
low power eye-piece and a powerful direct vision prism, held be- 
tween the eye and the ee see ee light of the star was found to 


be absolutely monochrom e prism Browning spectro- 
scope with a slit, but wittiout a cylindrical gave a star-like 
image without a trace of continuous s A few hurried 


measures were all that esta be see hey indicated a wave- 


eer) bic 


Astronomy. 77 


length of 512 mm.; but great uncertainty attaches to this deter- 
mination as a slight derangement of the spectroscope prevented 
the introduction of a comparison spectrum. On September 3, 


very reliable result was ‘6 mm. single measure of min 
gave 4961. It will be at once seen that the light of this remnants 


nd 

found 500°8 mm, and 493°5 as limiting wave-lengths between which 
the whole width of the line must be enclosed. Bearing in min 

the history of this star from the time of its discovery by Schmidt 
it would seem certain that we have an instance before us in 
which a star has changed into a owenets —— of small angu- 
lar diameter. At least it may ely affirmed that no astrono- 
mer discovering the object in its iochnat atene would, after view- 
ing it through a prism, hesitate to pronounce as to its present neb- 
ulous character. Judging from the brightness of the star in the 
finders of 33 inch aperture it is probable that a refractor of 5 
inches aperture a sufficient to show the monochromatic 
aoe of its light when viewed through a small direct-vision 


e "The Report of Professor Pickering, Director of the Harvard 
College Observatory, to the Visitors, Nov. 26, 1877, has been pub- 
lished. It has been decided to devote the large refractor to 
photometric work and some results of general interest have been 

r d g 


¥ 
giving the cians to which the primary must be reduced to 
render it no brighter than the satellite, or the diameter of the lat- 
ter, if it reflected light in the same proportion as the planet. This 
is, in fact, probably the only estimate we can ever make of the 
true diameter of these bodies, An approximate reduction of the 


. . co 


from the holes, gives its equivalent diameter at about 5-9 =e 
: his 


ay 
inner satellite give its diameter as 65 miles. The direct compari- 

son of the two gives their relative diameters as in the ratio of 
10 to 9. These figures will be somewhat altered in the final re- 
duction. As the darker color of the outer satellite somewhat 
diminishes its light, it is probably safe to call it about six miles 
in diameter, and the inner satellite seven miles 

This photometer has since been used upon various other objects. 
A large number of measurements of seven of the rage ee of 

object 


Saturn have been obtained, including the very faint 


78 Miscellaneous Intelligence. 


ards will thus be established for the fainter stars, with which 
observers hereafter can compare other minute objects. Several 
asteroids ‘have been compared in like manner, and will give some 
reliable data regarding the true diameters of these bodies. 


V. MisceLLaNnrous ScrENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE. 


e 
with a bottom temperature of 28-4°, the lowest yet found by the 
expedition.— Harper's Weekly, October 27, 1877. 

ranslation of Weisbach’s Mechanics.—Professor DuBois 
has translated that part of volume second, section second of 


Weisbach’s Mechanics that treats of Hydraulics and Hydraulie 

otoers. ‘Though complete in itself it is also intended as a con- 
tinuation of Coxe’s translation of volume I, and it is to be soon 
wed by a translation of that part of volume II that treats of 
it, Steam and the Steam Engine. It is hoped that the transla- 


- 


Miscellaneous Inteliigence. 19 


tion of volume III will soon follow. The part now issued forms a 
es me of lviii arid 675 pages. It is published by J. Wiley 
on 
. A new Treatise on Steam Engineering, Physical age tt 
of permanent Gases, and of different kinds of Vapor ; by Joun 
ystrom, C.E. 185 pp. 8vo. New York, 1876. ( 
oe s Sons. )—This work contains many formulas and tables 
relating to combustion, steam pressure and so on, which will be 


useful to the practi tical engineer. The author makes a vigorous 
attack upon many of the co mmonly accepted terms in mechanics, as 
he has done in his eaumogen of Mechan cs. A lar e number ) 


 taleeaebe 
this memoir Mr. ie tds, ives over 400 titles of volumes or 
memoirs relating to the Method of Least Squares, beginning with 
aed rule, published in 1722, and ending with the year 1876. 


The work is however not a mere list of titles. He has given 
Sen upo d abstracts of all the more important papers 
About one-fifth of the titles are quoted at second hand. These 


inor importance. e 

has been able to examine in the libraries of Yale College. The 
su pgeme ey of this list with rent mee of papers is a contribu- 
io hoe value to exact scie 

. ts of the Method of. — Squares ; by ae 
Miser 198 pp. 8vo. London, 1877. (Macmillan & Co.)— 
Merriman treats the subject of Least Squares in two sections. are 
the first he a the least amount of theory possible, the 


*& 


object being to give and explain the practical rules. In the second - 


he detelave ae theor 

6. Royal Society. —In their award of medals for the present 
year, the Council of the Royal Society have taken a wide view, 
for four of the five rea chosen for the honor are foreigners 
Copley medal goes to Professor J. D. Dana, of New Haven, Conn. 
for his biological, vestovaick sia mineralogical investigations, ei 
ried on through half a century, and for the valuable works 
which his ree spa have nea published. ~ F. el, 


wald Heer, of “Zurich for his numerous researches aa ritings on 
the Tertiary plants of Europe, of the North Atueiie North Asia, 
and North America, and for his able generalizations respecting 
their affinities and their geological and climatic relations. For 


the first award of the e Davy Medal, aber Wilhelm Bunsen, of. 


Heidelberg, and Gustay Robert Kirchoff, of Berlin, are select 


i 


_ The Sil 
other weal 


80 "Miscellaneous intelligence. 


This is a good beginning with a medal which is, perhaps, 
destined to become famous in the history of science. There will 
be no question as regards the custody of the golden prize, for each 
of the two learned professors will have a medal.— Athenceum. 
ver Country or the Great Southwest. A review of the Mineral and 
th, the attractions and material development of the former kingdom of 
ew Spain, comprising Mexico and the Mexican Cessions to the United States in 
1848, and 1853, by A. D. Anderson. 221 pp. 8vo. New York, 1877. (G. P. 
Putnam’s Sons). 

Journal of the American Electrical Society ; including original and selected 

papers on Telegraphy and Electrical Science. Vol. i, No. 2, Chicago, 1877. 
OBITUARY. 

Jarep Rorrer Kirrianp, M.D., LL.D.—Dr. Kirtland died at 
his residence in East Rockfort (near Cleveland), Ohio, December 
10, 1877, at the advanced age of eighty-four years, having been 
born in Wallingford, Connecticut, November 10th, 1793, In 


ory. 
Dr. Kirtland was a man of untiring industry, devoted to the 
duties of an arduous practice in medicine, and tho P 

fessor of the theory and practice of his art in more than one 


stores of exact id varied knowledge afforded an unfailing source 
of enjoyment. He retained his intellectual powers undimmed to 


Journal in 1818, and his name has stood on its books to the close 
of the last year, being, so far as appears, the last member of that 
original number, reas 


. 


* 


* 


STORM OF MARCH 5-18, 1874. 
50 30° 3 oy 
ie 5 ‘ T r r 1 
x | 
a / So a | 
: PA 7 «a = 70 


ye Se 4 
ae Oy a sows 


BAY 


7 c 
larson & Crisand.. Wew Haven. Conn 


AMERICAN 


JOURNAL OF SCIENCE AND ARTS. 


[THIRD SERIES] 


Art. VIIL—On the Photometric comparison of Light of different 
colors ; by Professor O. N, Roop, of Columbia College. 


[Read before the National Academy of Sciences, Oct. 24th, 1877.] 


THe comparison of the intensities of light of different colors 
has long been considered one of the most difficult o 


may not be without interest to those whose studies lie in this 
direction. The luminosity of card-board painted with vermilion, 
was, for example, measured as follows: a circular dise of the 
vermilion card-board was attached to the axis of a rotation- 


brightness till the observer again became doubtful, when a 


directions, but remaining in ignorance of the results to the end. 


82 R. Rathbun—Echinoid fauna of Brazil. 


as 100. In this experiment and in all those that follow, proper 
corrections were made for the amount of white light reflected 
by the black disc, this having been previously ascertained, in a 
manner which will be described in a future communication. 

In order to test the correctness of the final result, oe lumin- 


the vermilion, was next measured in the same way; it poral 
26 ats 


a0 black card-board, measured. The gray thus obtained had 
a luminosity of 24°54, that of white card-board being 100. 
Nexi, the value of this same gray was calculated from the 
measured luminosities of the two colored discs, and the propor- 
tions of these colors required to produce a pure gray by mix- 
ture on the rotation apparatus; the calculated value was 25°47. 

This agreement proves the correctness of the photometric 
s assumption, that the Sota 


poeta confirmation. 

Corresponding measurements were made with a green, and 
its complementary purpie disc; also with a blue, and its com- 
plementary yellow disc; the results are given below. 

Luminosity. Gray (observed.) Gray (calculated.) 


MOEMINOD; .... = =. —- 23°38 } : ze 
lue-green, -..----- 26°56 ( 24°54 25°47 
Chrome yellow, ----80°3 : 
Cobalt las, ale ee 5°38 t 54°51 53°92 
Ga ere Seen ee 11 
Purple, 14°83 t 24°94 26°56 


Arr. 1X.—The Geological Commission of Brazil. eon to 
the Echinoid fauna of Brazil; by RicHARD RaTuBu 


THouGH the Geological sasig a a has busied itself in 
investigating the marine fauna at almost every point on the 
coas razil where its jnbote ave extended, yet in a group 
like that of the Echinz, the different shore species of which are 
- so readily found and collected by all travelers, it has been able 
to add very little that is new. In its collections, however, are 
three species which do not seem to have been recorded from 
Brazil before. They are: Diadema setosum Gray, Hipponot 


R. Rathbun— Echinoid fauna of Brazil. 83 


but it was found in great abundance by Mr. J. C. Branner, on 
the shores of the island of Fernando de Noronha, situated nearly 


recorded by Mr. Agassiz, it was limited to the main shores and 
islands of the seas between North and South America, and to 
the Bermudas. 

The third and last species mentioned, Me/lita sexforis, was 
dredged from the shallow water inside of Fort Villegagnon, in 
the harbor of Rio de Janeiro, by Professor E. Selenka, who has 


kindly presented the Commission with several specimens. ey 
are very numerous in this one locality, but, so far as we know, 
have not been obtained from any other part of Brazil this 


of the specimen from Cape Verde Isles, figured by Agassiz (op. 
cit., pl. 1d), and varies much in the length and strength of the 
Spines, which are usually more or less overgrown with calcare- 
ous sea weeds. Though Fernando de Noronha is not 200 miles 
distant from the main coast, yet there intervenes a great depth 

Water, as ascertained by recent exploration ; the marine fauna 
of the island, however, seems to be very similar to that of the 


The following list probably contains all the littoral species 
of Echini at present known from Brazil, all of which, with the 


84 L. Trouvelot—Undulations in the tail of Coggia’s Comet. 


exception of Strongylocentrotus Gaimardi A. Agassiz, have been 
found by the Geological Commission. The localities at which 
they were obtained are so nearly those recorded by Mr. Alex. 
Agassiz in his Revision of this group, that it would be of no 
value to enumerate them again here. ‘The species are as follows: 


Cidaris tribuloides B1., Hipponoé esculenta A. Agassiz, 
Arbacia pustulosa Gray, Clypeaster subdepressus L. Agassiz, 
Diadema setosum Gray, HMellita testudinata Klein, 
Echinometra subangularis Desml., Mellita sexforis A. 


Agassiz, 
Strongylocentrotus Gaimardi A. Agassiz, Encope emarginata L. Agassiz. 
Toxopneustes variegatus A. Agassiz, 


It has been noticed that Mellita testudinata is brilliantly phos- 
phorescent at times, when it has been removed from the water 
or a few hours, though it be still wet and apparently alive. 
The phosphorence is very apparent over the entire body. I 
indebted to Mr. Alex. Agassiz for kindly examining and veri- 
fying the determinations of a collection of the above Hchint 
sent to the United States, excepting Mellita sexforis, which has 
been found only very recently. 


Art. X.—Undulations observed in the tail of Coggia’s Comet, 
1874; by L. TrRovuvetor. 


On the evening of July 21, 1874, at 95 0™, the moon being 
in her first quarter, and the sky remarkably clear even close to 
the horizon, my attention was attracted by a bright ray of light 
darting from the northwestern horizon, way up in the constel- 
lations. Taking it for an auroral phenomenon, I went in for 
the spectroscope ; but on my return, after a few seconds, to my 
disappointment I found no more trace of it. Soon, however, 
it reappeared, and darted up in an instant after the manner of 
certain auroral rays, and vanished again after ten or fifteen 
seconds. I then Scenis aware of my error, and found with 
surprise that the phenomenon was taking place in the tail of 
Joggia’s Comet, the head of which was then plunged under 
the horizon. 

During the whole time that I observed this interesting phe- 
nomenon, I saw the comet’s tail shortening and extending, 
lightning up and extinguishing like the rays of certain auroras. 
Extended undulations, rapid vibrations, ran along it in succes- 
sion from the horizon to its extremity, giving it the appearance 
of a fine gauze wavering in a strong breeze. The. pulsations 
and the waves of light were of unequal duration; some being 
rapid, while others lasted a longer time. For over one hour 
the comet's tail kindled and extinguished more than one hun- 
dred times; the extinction being sometimes so complete that 


L. Trouvelot—Sudden extinction of the Light, etc. 85 


y Ursee Majoris 

Be it coincidence-or not, at the moment that this phenomenon 
was occurring, a strong magnetic perturbation was going on in 
Cambridge, where the declination needle oscillated through an 
angle of 1° 27’, although no auroral light was seen; and by 
the kindness of Mr. Cleveland Abbe, of the Signal Corps, I 
learn that no aurora was reported for that night. 

It is not a new thing to see vibrations and pulsations ran- 
ning along the tail of comets. Many observers have seen this 
eeepothen hs among others Longomontanus, Vandelin, Snel- 
ius and Father Cysat, who are reported to have seen undula- 
tions taking place on the border of the Comet of 1618, as if it 
was agitated by the wind. Hevelius observed analogous mo- 
tions in the Comets of 1652 and 1661. Pingré asserted that he 
distinctly saw in the long tail of the Comet of 1769, “des 
ondulations semblables a celles que les aurores boréales pré- 
sentent.”* According to Winnecke, from the 5th to the 12th 
of October, 1858, the rays forming the superior part of Donati’s 
comet spread and contracted suddenly like the rays of the 
aurora, 


Cambridge, Jan. 5, 1877. 


Art. XI.— Sudden extinction of the light of a Solar Protuberauce ; 
by L. TROUVELOT. 


_ ON the 26th of June, 1874, while making my daily observa- 
tions of the sun with the spectroscope at the Harvard College 
Observatory, Il saw an unusual phenomenon, which may be 
worth recording. The narrow slit of the instrument was di- 
rected on the preceding side, about 270°, just above a group of 
Spots which was then very near the limb, when I saw a ril- 
hant protuberance partly projected on the spectrum, on the side 
of the rays of less refrangi bility. In shape, this hydrogen flame 
resembled an elongated comma, having its acute extremity 
directed toward the sun, where it terminated just a little above 
the chromosphere. The chromosphere under this protuberance 
formed several slender and acute aigrette-shaped flames, none 
of which, however, reached it. The large prominence, which 
was slightly inclined to the limb, had a height of 3’ 37”, and 
about 3° in its greatest width. 

* Arago, Astro. pop., vol. ii, p. 439, Paris, 1855. 


86 L. Trouvelot—Sudden extinction of the 


When the slit was set wide open, so as to allow the whole 
protuberance to be seen between its jaws, the comma-shaped 
flame appeared perfect, and showed plainly its texture. But 
when it was observed with a narrower slit it became partly 
invisible on the C line; only a short and jagged portion being 
seen in it on the red side. When the slit was carried along the 
protuberance by means of its screw, the portion visible on the 
C line did not remain constant, but either extended or con- 
tracted of a small quantity; the maximum portion visible on 
the C line never being more than one-fourth the width of the 
slit, while sometimes it was not seen at all on this line. 

The portion of the protuberance projected on the spectrum 
was considerably more brilliant than the spectrum itself, and 
about one-third only of its whole iength was visible. As the 
slit was carried along it, the visible parts became invisible near 
the C line, and invisible parts appeared on the spectrum; and 
the area of the visible portion either contracted or extended, 
when seen in different parts. 


no motion of any kind, no extension, no contraction, could be 
perceived before or at the moment this phenomenon took place, 
and as the light did not go out of it gradually, but as suddenly 
as a flash of lightning, it does not seem that a change of posi- 
tion was the cause of its disappearance, but rather because the 
light which rendered it visible abandoned it in an instant. 

According to theory, this protuberance was moving rapidly 
away from the earth at the moment of the observation, as it 
was projected upon the less refrangible side of the spectrum ; 
yet this would fail to explain its sudden disappearance, since 
for this it should have moved out of sight with an unconceiv- 
able velocity. 

For over half an hour I watched attentively the same spot in 


Light of a Solar Protuberance. 87 


cannot be conceived as being due to the reflection of light, as 
in the case of the clouds in our atmosphere: it is the protuber- 
ance itself which is rendered luminous by some change taking 
place in it. These observations would seem to indicate that on 
the sun there are sometimes dark and non-luminous protuber- 
ances, which may cause the spots of absorption often observed 
in the vicinity of spots. 

The phenomenon of the gradual illumination of a protuber- 
ance was observed in 1869, at Des Moines, Iowa, during the 
total eclipse of the sun, by Professor William A. Rogers, who 
accompanied Dr. C. H. F. Peters, on the Litchfield Eclipse Ex. 

ition. Professor Rogers was observing a large protuber- 
ance on the sun with a 9-inch-aperture refractor, when he saw 
several protuberances form gradually in the vicinity of the 
large flame, and at a considerable height above the chromo- 
e 


ere. 

The projection of the hydrogen flames on the spectrum is 
not a very rare phenomenon during the period of maximum of 
sun-spots, and it has been observed several times. However, 


ei 
On Sept. 10th, 1872, at 125 33™, I was anaes smal] nar- 
row flame forming an arch on the chromosphere, the height of 
n 


Jike a rope. For a few seconds, it continued to ascend, at the 
same time growing wider; and at 12" 37™, it had attained its 


sunk to a level with the chromosphere and was lost in it. 

_ At the same instant that the are of hydrogen was distended, 
it was seen rojected on the spectrum opposite the sun, to- 
wards the violet. The figure of this protuberance appea 
exactly the same, whether it was projected on the spectrum or 
Seen between the wide-open jaws of the slit. However, when 
the slit was narrow, the flame became invisible on the C line, 
although it remained projected on the spectrum. When the 
protuberance, after having reached its greatest altitude, de- 


88 L. Trouvelot—Moon's Zodiacal Light. 


this did not seem to affect the position of the flame on the spec- 
trum. 
Cambridge, January 12, 1877. 


_ Art. XIL—The Moon's Zodiacal Light ; by L. Trouvenor. 


Durine the evening of April 3, 1874, the “ Zodiacal Light’ 
was particularly brilliant; especially close to the horizon, where 
it appeared as a segment of a circle, having an irregular wavy 
outline, giving it a vague resemblance to the beams of a faint 
aurora. Although the sky was clear, it was found impossible 
to observe with the telescope on that night, on account of the 
great disturbance of the atmosphere. At 9» 45™, the declina- 
tion needle indicated a very strong magnetic perturbation in 
Cambridge, oscillating through an angle of 3° 22’. However, 
no aurora was visible at this time, although the phenomena 
usually attending them were manifested during the evening by 
the tremulous appearance of the telescopic images. 

ile going home, I remarked in the east a strange conical 
light rising obliquely from the top of the roof of a building, 
behind which the moon, then about 15° or 20° above the 


utes, when it gradually faded away until it almost totally dis- 
appea ve minutes later, although the sky was clear. A 
quarter of an hour after, the sky was overcast with dense 
yapors, which continued for nearly an hour. © 

- At 11 Om the sky had cleared up, and the moon shone 
brightly. The luminous appendage was still visible, and even 
appeared more brilliant than before. In order to ascertain 


C. Marignac—Chemical Equivalents and Atomic Weights. 89 


e tim 
totally invisible, although the sky remained clear. i 
The fact that the zodiacal light had been unusually brilliant 


and the aurora. The result of my observations of the zodiacal 
light and the aurora during the last seven years also seems to 
indicate some such connection, as when the zodiacal light was 
observed to be particularly bright, it has generally been fol- 
lowed by auroral phenomena. But only a long series of obser- 
vations in this direction can solve the problem. 

ridge, Nov. 2, 1877. 


. 


Art. XII. —Chemical Equivalents and Atomic Weights con- 
sidered as bases of a system of Notation; by C. MARIGNAC. 


(Translated from Moniteur Scientifique of Quesneville for September, 1877, by 
Mr. P. Casamajor.) 


THE Academy of Sciences of Paris has witnessed lately, at 
Several of its sittings, an interesting discussion, in which sey- 
eral eminent chemists, among its members, have taken part.* 
This discussion related to two questions which have often 
been brought before it, and which will probably be brought 
before it again many times. 

One subject of discussion was a principle, stated in 1811 by 


-* Messrs, Sainte Claire Deville, Wirtz, Berthelot, Fizeau. 


90 ©. Marignac—Chemical Equivalents and Atomic Weights. 


an Italian philosopher, Avogadro, on the equality of the mole- 
cules of all bodies in a gaseous state. This principle is hal 
placed in opposition to the law of Gay Lussac, on the simple 
relations which exist between volumes of gases, capable oe com- 
bining with one another, which law was established a few years 
before, and which, to tell the truth, is not in contradiction with 
the hypothesis of deenireaie From this question arose another, 
on the relative merits = the chemical notations, expressed in 
equivalents or in atom 

For the present, I will not discuss the first of these 5 vie 
The truth of the principle of Avogadro can only be admitted 
on the condition of supposing that the atoms of Peaplé gases 
cannot exist in a free state, but are welded together in_ pairs, 
forming molecules occupying two volumes, like the molecules 


and for phosphorus and arsenic, whose molecules must contain 
four atoms. 

This hypothesis is not absurd in itself. It may account for 
certain chemical rine such, for instance, as the greater energy 
of action that bodies possess in a nascent state, or before their 
atoms have coed biel two by two to form molecules; also for 
the ease with which certain reactions take place, as pointed o out 
by M. Wiirtz. It also explains several physical facts, such as 
the equality of specific heat for the same volume of simple or 
compound gases, whose molecule is formed of two atoms, as 
carbonic oxide, hydrochloric acid. It found lately an important 
poe gm in the researches of Messrs. Kundt and Warburg* 


gases. We must acknowledge, however, that these considera- 
tions Go not constitute sufficient proofs. 
On the other hand, there are some compound bodies whose 
ress densities are in contradiction with the principle of Avo- 
We should be forced to admit that all these compounds 
suffer decomposition when they seem to be reduced to vapor, 
so that, instead of measuring their volume, we measure that of 
their elements, -or of the products of their wr Sd pit 
Although this decomposition has been ascertained in some 
cases, it has not in one 
seen, the principle of Avogadro gives rise to 
serious objections, ihe without being convinced of its worth- 
lessness, like my eminent friend, M. Deville, I acknowledge 
that it is as yet but an hypothesis, in contradiction with facts, 
which have not been satisfactorily explained. But, I repeat 


Berichte der deutschen Chemischen Gesellschaft, 1875, p. 945. 


C Marignac—Chemical Equivalents and Atomic Weights. 91 


to have them discussed in the presence of the scientific body 
which has the greatest authority, with the object of maintaining 
the established system, or of introducing the other. 

To enter into this discussion, it is doubtless advisable, in the 
first instance, to detine what is understood by these equivalents 
and these atomic weights, which are placed in opposition to 
one another. 

equivalents, I see that M. Berthelot tells us that 
3 } tion.” Unfortunately he 


? is S 
vf any, at least of any that is precise and general. Doubtless 


bromine and iodine, the definition of their relative equivalents 
18 perfectly clear, as the term equivalent is its own definition. 
ut when we deal with bodies which have not a similar 


. . x a = nd 
; University, comprising faculties of letters, medicine, law a 
Govlogy , lycées for Manan instruction and schools of primary instruction.— 


92 @C. Marignac—Chemical Equivalents and Atomic Weights. 


analogy, and particularly if they do not perform the same 
functions, the idea of equivalence has no meaning. I defy 
anybody to give a general definition of equivalents which 
justifies the weight 14, adopted for nitrogen. In volume, it 
eure to the equivalents of hydrogen and of chlorine, 

t it has not the same chemical value. It has the same 
wictanah value as the equivalents of phosphorus and arsenic, 

t 


equivalents of oxygen, of reac gael and of most metals) Why 
then should this number exist ? 

If, instead of starting Pain a general definition, which does 
not exist, we try to find the meaning of equivalents in the 
methods employed i in determining them, we are led to the 
following conclusion 

It is proved by experience that we may assign to a body, 
it simple or compound, various weights, ‘multiples of the same 
number, and that these weights express the proportions accord- 
ing to which all bodies combine with one another. We ma 
choose one of these weights to express the equivalent of the 
body. All combinations may then be represented as the 


and, if the equivalent is — ented by a symbol (in general 
the first letter of the name of oe element), combinations may 
represented by foeeh olen which are not generally compli- 
eated. This is, after all, the only condition required of equiv- 
— and hence the only general definition, although not 
very precise, which can be given is that the equivalent repre- 
—— for a element or Sceeey: Sing nd body one of the weights 


en bodies are an nai and have the same chemical 
denice their equivalents are represented by the weights 
which replace each other in analogous combinations. Let us 
note, however, that this rule is not followed for compound 
bodies, such as bases and acids, whose so-called equivalents 
are weights which often have: very sean values of com- 


‘undamental principle of equivalents has been entirely aban- 
doned for compound bodies, and, in its stead, a method has 
been adopted, which has been borrowed from the atomic 


C. Marignac—Chemical Equivalents and Atomic Weights. 98 


theory, by taking for their weights the sum of the equivalents 
of the elements which they contain. 

I believe I am not in error when I affirm this, as M. Ber- 
thelot* says: ‘One equivalent of phosphoric acid corresponds 
to three equivalents of nitric acid, when it forms a tribasic 
phosphate. 

2. Equivalents are chosen in such a way that compounds, 
which offer the greatest analogies, are represented by similar 
formulas. This principle served as a guide in determining the 
equivalents of aluminum and of copper. It is often in contra- 
diction with the preceding. For instance, aluminum and mag- 
nesium, which are both powerful deoxidizing agents, do not 
replace each other in the proportions indicated by the equiva- 
lents adopted for these two metals. 
| When neither of these rules is applicable, or when the 
lead to complicated formulas, the equivalent of a body is chosen 
in such a way as to give the simplest possible formulas for its 
most important combinations. This rule justifies the adoption 
of the equivalents of nitrogen, phosphorous, arsenic and of some 
other elements, 

e may see by the above that the equivalents constitute a 
purely conventional and arbitrary system, without any scien- 
tific value. 

The explanation I have given of equivalents is somewhat 
different from that which my illustrious teacher, M. Dumas, gave 
in his lessons of chemical philosophy. This eminent chem- 
ist took as his starting point the equivalents of bases, as deter- 
mined by their true chemical equivalence, founded on the same 
quantity of oxygen contained in the base. The equivalents of 
acids are rigorously deducted from the weights necessary to 
neutralize an equivalent of base. Afterwards, he seeks to es- 
tablish the equivalents of the elements by considerations which, 
he acknowledges, are often arbitrary. This method of deter- 
mining equivalents however, has been either never adopted, or 
entirely abandoned, doubtless because it led to formulas which 
are inadmissible. I have given the meaning of equivalents, 
such as they have been adopted, and not such as they might 
have been. 


* Meeting of the Académie des Sciences of June 4th, 1877. I cannot in any 
manner accept what he says, in the same place, that this equivalent of phosphoric 
pendrin to one equivalent of nitric acid in sic phosphates, or two 
€quivalents in bibasic phosphates, To admit such expressions, we must deny to 
Ae nitred serte that all chemists attribute to it in these salts, since the publication 
°f Graham’s researches. 


94 ©. Marignac—Chemical Equivalents and Atomic Weights. 


If we refer to the fundamental hypothesis of the atomic theory, 
which supposes that the a of bodies is not indefinite, 
but that they are formed by the agglomeration of excessively 
small but indivisible particles, or atoms, the theoretical defini- 
tion of atomic weights is of the simplest, as they are the relative 
weights of these ultimate particles. But, however simple the 
definition may be, the determination of the weights is sur- 
rounded with great difficulties, 

thesis of the existence of atoms accounts in such a 
simple manner for that < hs ag equivalent proportions for 
elements which play t me part, that we are natura 
at first sight, to mueiter icas proportions as representing their 
relative _— weights, although this consequence is not rigor- 
ously necessary. It is evident, however, that as neither this 
consideration of chemical equivalence, nor any other considera- 
tio rawn from chemistry alone, has led to a complete and 
arti: cpitanh of chemical equiva alents, we cannot by such con- 
siderations be gui in the choice of all the atomic weights, 
and as these. on account of the hypothesis that is made on their 
nature, cannot be arbitrary, like equivalents, it has become 
necessary to study the physical properties of the elements and 
of compound bodies to find motives for this determination of 
the atomic weights. Among the properties which can be ap- 
pealed to, the most important are the densities of gases and 
vapors, . the specific heats and isomorphism. 

I acknowledge that in some very rare cases these three orders 
of physical properties do not lead to the same result, and [agree 

with Mr. Berthelot that between these three data we must make 
a choice. I am, however. in complete disagreement from him 
in the conclusion that I draw Sane this. If he does not say So 
expressly, his whole argument proves that, in his opinion, no 
account is to be taken of these physical properties, when they 
disturb the usage established for weights that have been adopted 

‘or a long time in chemical notations. On the contrary, I think 
that great account should be taken of these physical properties, 
and that when they all agree we must have eno fear of modifying 
a few formulas which have only long usage in their favor, par- 
re if the necessary modification is unimportant. If, 

oreover, the physical properties do not agree, it is necessary 
i. cite the facts with the greatest care, and see if, in some 
cas isagreement can be explained and then choose the 
vaabe which spite ot i digs the general properties of the 
elements and its 

Is it thipoobes to oe this? The best proof that it is not, and 
that there is even no serious difficulty in determining the atomic 
weight which agrees the best with the physical pro properties, vf - 
be found in this circumstance that there is no disagreem 


C. Marignac— Chemical Equivalents and Atomic Weights. 95 


among chemists, who accept this system of notation, as to the 
atomic weights, except for a few bodies that are not, as yet, 
sufficiently known; whose physical properties have not been 
sufficiently studied, and for which, besides, the idea of equiva- 
ents is quite as uncertain as that of atomic weights. 

I am perfectly aware that the majority of chemists, who have 
adopted atomic formulas, believe that they are now able to give 
a rigorous definition of atomic weights. Starting from mole- 
cules, which they define as the smallest quantity of a body, 
simple or compound, which can exist in the state of liberty ; 
admitting as an axiom the principle of Avogadro, which states 
the equality of volume of all molecules in a gaseous state, from 
which may be deducted their relative weights, they define the 
atom as the smallest quantity of a body which may enter into 
the composition of a molecule. This definition allows them to 
determine the atomic weights with certainty, at least for those 
bodies that enter into volatile combinations. I have not given 
great weight to this consideration because, not more than 

rthelo 


obtained by considerations based on the physical properties. 
the atomic 


established, nor indeed had their equivalents. This observa- 
tion might be appealed to as the strongest proof of the accuracy 
of the definition of atomic weights, but I have no wish to admit 
it, as constituting a sufficiently sure base for the determination 
of atomic weights. 

I have here to answer an objection, which I acknowledge to be 
Serious, and which I believe is at the bottom of the opposition 
of erthelot. The atomic weights rest on an hypothesis 
which has never been, and, in fact, can never be demonstrated, 
which many scientific men do not consider as verisimilar, that 
of the existence of atoms. in : 

_Tam nearly ready to agree with M. Berthelot in his opposi- 
tion, and I have certainly no idea of defending the atomic 


atomic weights. My answer to the objection stated above is 
that the existence of atoms is only useful in justifying the 


on the indivisibility of atoms; consequently we may consi 
atomic weights as entirely independent of this indivisibility. 


96 @. Marignac—Chemical Equivalents and Atomic Weights. 


In reality, I consider atomic weights, and I believe that many 
chemists agree in this, as being only equivalents, in the deter- 
mination of which arbitrary Sidi ventions have been replaced 
by scientific considerations, based on the study of physical 
properties. 

et us now sum up the advantages that atomic notations 


same e divergence exists for equivalents. 

Atomic weights are exactly nes Shee to the specific pi 
of simple gases, that are not liquifiable, which agreement 
not exist for equivalents. According to the law of Dulong atid 
Petit, the specific heats of the atoms of all simple bodies, either ' 
solid or liquid, are nearly the same, except for three bodies, 
carbon, boron and silicon, whose ‘physical properties offer 


Equivalents do not offer this concordance. I will not insist on 

the objection raised by M. Berthelot, and founded on this, that 
the equality of specific heats of atoms is far from being absolute, 

as he was sufficiently answered b . Wiirtz and Fizeau. I 
will merely add that if we only admitted physical laws that are 
absolute, we should have to reject them all. Even the law of 
volumes of Gay Lussac would have to be dropped, as it has 
been ascertained that all gases have not the same coéfficient of 
expansion, so that the existence of simple ratios in combina- 
tions by volume are not strictly accurate. 

As to compound bodies, the molecular formulas, based on 
the use of seis weights, present the same advantages, perhaps 
to a ghee degree, when we compare them to the formulas in 
equiv: 

Phe ito use of atomic weights allows us to simplify the formulas 
of a great number of co mpounds by dividing them by two. 
Particularly is this the « case with organic compounds. Not 
only does the formula become simpler, but there is an impor- 
tant advantage gained, that the formulas of almost all com- 

ands correspond to the same volume, which is double the 
volume of the simple atom. The only exceptions are for a 
very limited number of bodies, generally belonging to types of 
complex wed i such as salts of ammonia and of bases 
derived from ammonia; even for these it has not been proved 
that they a not regulated by any law, even if M. Deville is 


C. Marignac—Chemical Equivalents and Atomic Weights. 97 


right in thinking that the irregularities they present are not due 
to the decomposition of their vapors. On the other hand, the 
formulas by equivalents teach us nothing on the vapor densi- 
ties of compound bodies, as their equivalents may correspond 
to two, four or eight volumes of vapor, perhaps even of six, i 
the old equivalent of silicon is kept, as is done by many of 
those who prefer the notations by equivalents. Molecular 
formulas also agree with the specific heats of compound bodies 
in the solid state. According to the law of Woestyn, molecu- 
lar heats are proportional to the number of atoms contained 
in the molecule, which law has the same degree of approxima- 
tion as that of Dulong and Petit. Formulas by equivalents do 
not show these properties. : 

Finally, the system of notation, based on atomic weights, 
gives the explanation of several cases of isomorphism which 
are incomprehensible with the notation based on equivalents. 
For instance, in the case of perchlorates and permanganates, 
and in the case of chloride and sulphide of silver when com- 
pared to protochloride and protosulphide of copper. | I may 
also recall that it was by considerations of the same kind that 
I was led to discover oxygen in fluorine compounds of niobium, 
where its presence had not been suspected, and that the formu- 
las of these compounds, expressed in equivalents, would never 
have suggested this idea. 

n presence of these advantages, we may as hat are 
those that are offered by the system of equivalents and its 


seven, which would have given it the same volume as oxygen, 
or 14 which would have accounted for its value of combination 
toward hydrogen and the metals, we may readily believe that 
there will never be a sufficient motive to replace it by one of 
these numbers. The determination of equivalents not being 
governed by any fixed rule, they will not be necessarily modi- 
ed when we come to have a more accurate knowledge of the 
properties of bodies. : : 
In the second place, as, in their determination, no account 1s 
taken of the physical properties of bodies, greater attention can 
given to their chemical equivalence, when it exists. This 
presents some advantages in practical chemistry. : 
These considerations are doubtless of some value; but if we 
examine things a little closer, we may easily see that, in this 
i there is really very little difference between the two 
stems. 


Am. Jour. Sct.—Turrp Serres, Vou. XV, No. 86.—Fss., 1878. 
7 


98 ©. Marignac—Chemical Equivalents and Atomic Weights. 


It is true that there was a time when atomic weights 
had to be changed, and it is doubtless, on this account, that 
atomic weights were dropped and equivalents adopted. Never- 
theless, the history of chemistry shows that for more than 
thirty years no changes have been judged necessary for well 
known bodies, and that those which have been admitted for 
elements, whose properties or whose combinations had previ- 
ously been raises nown, were so thoroughly justified by 
their chemical properties, that even the equivalents of these 
bodies have had to be modified. Such was the case for bis- 


state; on the specific heat of their combinations, or on isomor- 
phism as was done in the first instance by M. Regnault.* We 
may see by this that, on the score of invariability, the two 
systems are on a par. 

As to the advantage which results from the fact that equiva- 
lents express ratios of real chemical equivalence, in cases 
where they are not indicated by atomic weights, it would be 
an important one if chemical equivalence were indicated in all 
cases; but we know that this is not so. It is really not more 
difficult to conceive and to remember that an atom of oxygen 
is worth two of chlorine, and an atom of lead two of silver 
than to know that an equivalent of nitrogen is worth three of 
oxygen, and that two equivalents of aluminium are worth 
three of magnesium. So there is really no advantage, on these 
two heads, which can counterbalance those which I have 
shown for atomic notations. 

It may be said that the preceding is a contradiction of what 
I said before. I said that the system of equivalents presents 
conditions of invariability that are not presented by atomic 
weights. Further on I have shown that every change of atomic 
weight had necessitated a corresponding change in equivalents. 

If we look for the cause of this apparent contradiction, it 
seems to me that we shall be led to make an observation whic 
gives the kev to the discussion actually going on. It is that, 
in reality, if we keep out of sight every question as to the 
origin of the terms equivalents and atomic weights, there is no 
difference between the two systems, and the partisans of equiva- 


and occur with great frequency. 
* Annales de Chimie et de Physique, 1841, III, vol. i, p. 191. 


J. LeConte—Glycogenic function of the Liver. 99 


Art. XIV.—Some thoughts on the Glycogenie function of the 
Liver and its relation to vital force and vital heat; by JosEPH 
L 


[Read before the National Academy of Sciences, New York, October, 1877.] 


THE great size of the liver and its persistence as a conspicu- 
ous organ, as we go down the animal scale even to a very low 
position, clearly demonstrate the great importance of its func- 
tions. This conclusion is entirely confirmed by the very grave 
effects on the health produced by its disorders. But in spite of 
its acknowledged importance, great obscurity still hangs about 
the true nature of its functions. The function of the liver is 
not simple, like that of the lungs or the kidneys, but very 
complex. The liver isthe manufactory of both bile and sugar. 
The bile is both a secretion used in the digestive preparation 
of food, and an exeretion, separating poisonous matters 
the blood. The sugar, too, has doubtless as many and as com- 


e€ ‘ 
usually acknowledged facts connected with this function. 

1. The portal blood of flesh-fed animals contains no sugar, 
but the same blood, after passing through the liver, i e., the 
blood of the hepatic vein, contains always a notable quan- 
tity of this substance. Evidently, therefore, i is manufactured 
in the liver. 


veins until every trace of sugar is removed, and then the liver 
be allowed to stand a while, on recommencing the transmission 
of water the first that passes is decidedly sugary. The same pro- 
cess may be repeated several times with the same result, until 
the material out of which the sugar is made is finall exhausted. 

8. If the liver of any animal be kept a considerable time 
before cooking, the amount of sugar which accumulates in its 


100 J. LeConte— Glycogenie function of the Liver. 


substance is so large as to be easily detected by the taste. The 
liver is decidedly sweet. I have very often detected this sweet- 
ness. I have not seen attention drawn to the fact. 

4. Evidently, therefore, the liver is constantly forming “— 
from some insoluble or feebly soluble substance, which o 


This substance has been isolated by Claude Bernard and oth- 
ers, and its properties determined. It is a white, feebly-soluble, 
tasteless, amorphous substance, having the composition of 
starch or dextrin. It changes easily and rapidly into sugar by 
mere contact of blood or other albuminoid ferment. It is 
called glycogen or sugar-maker. It is a kind of animal starch. 
The quantity of glycogen in the liver varies much with the 
food, Hee greatest (17 per cent) with amyloid food, and least 
(7 per cent or even only 2 per cent) with albuminoid food. 
(Pavy.). 

5. The sugar formed from glycogen (liver-sugar) is closely 
allied, perhaps in composition sone with glucose; but ap- 
parently differs from this and all other forms ot sugar in being 
more unstable, i. e., more easily rater and especially more 
easily burned or oxidized in the blood. Tt therefore probably dif- 
fers Pot glucose in molecular structure if not in chemical com- 


pect i throw light on t rs oppiait sad which therefore we 

1. The-a amount of amyloids which may be taken, and often 
is kee is food, by a healthy man in the course of a day, is 
certainly one or two pounds. The whole of this is converted 
into sugar before it can be taken up. Two pounds of sugar, 
therefore, may be taken into the blood of a man who is fed 
largel on amyloid f 

$i his artiount - sugar in is blood would make or 


J. LeConte—Glycogenic function of the Liver. 101 


of the sugar is arrested in the liver, changed into a less soluble sub- 


Jrom circulation and stored in the liver. The stored amylod is 
then slowly re-changed to sugar, but in the more oxidable form of 
liver-sugar,and_ re-delivered, little by little, to the blood by the 
hepatic vein, as the necessities of combustion for animal heat 
and vital force require. 

The views thus far presented have been held with more or 
less firmness by most physiologists since Bernard’s discovery of 
this function. In what follows I have attempted only to push 
these views to what seems to me their legitimate conclusions. 

It will be observed that there is here a double change in op- 
posite directions. The liver seems to change sugar by dehy- 
dration into glycogen only to change by rehydration glycogen 

ack again into sugar. At first sight there seems to be, there- 
fore, a waste of force such as never occurs in the animal body. 
This has been urged by Pavy and others as an objection to 
this double change, as a fact. But there are at least two good 
Teasons for this double change. First: A large quantity of 
sugar (glucose) in. the blood is very hurtful. The experiments of 
Dr. Wier Mitchell, of Philadelphia, have prov that large 


102 J. LeConte—Glycogenic function of the Liver. 


quantities of sugar in the blood produce, among other hurtful 
effects, cataract and blindness. ‘The cataract, socommon amon 
diabetie patients is doubtless due to this cause. Plainly, there- 
fore, there is needed a reservoir to receive and detain the flood 
of glucose poured into the blood after every full meal of 
amyloids. The liver is that reservoir. A second reason for 
this double change—(and this is probably the fundamental rea- 
son)—is that the sugar is re-delivered to the blood not as glu- 
cose but as liver-sugar, and therefore in a more oxidable form— 
as a better fuel than previously. 

For thesake of greater clearness, we have spoken thus far as 
if glycogen were made only from sugar. Most of it is un- 
doubtedly made in this way in all animals except carnivora. 
But it seems certain that the liver has the power of making gly- 
cogen from albuminoids also; for animals fed on albuminoids 
alone still continue to make sugar from glycogen. Therefore— 
and this is a very important point—albuminoids are decompused 
in the liver into glycogen and some nitrogenous matter, which is 
separated and excreted partly in the bile, but probably mostly 
restored to the blood to be excreted as urea by the kidneys. 
In this way the excess of albuminoid food, over and above what 
is necessary for tissue-building is reduced to a condition suitable for 
easy combustion. 

But if this view be correct—if this be the way in which 
albuminoid food in excess of the requirements of tissue-build- 
ing is disposed of, then it is certain that waste tissues also are 
eliminated in the same way, for these are also albuminoid. 
The first step in the elimination of these takes place in the 
liver where they are decomposed into glycogen to be burned as 
sugar and eliminated through the lungs, and a nitrogenous res- 
idue to be eliminated mostly by the kidneys. If so, then ani- 
mals starved to death ought to make glycogen and liver-sugar 
to the last. Now, according to Chauvean, horses and dogs after 
six days fasting still continued to make liver-sugar.* 

Again: we have spoken thus far only of the dissolved food 
taken up by the portal capillaries and distributed through the 
liver before entering the general circulation. By far the larger 
part undoubtedly takes this course; but a small portion also is 
taken up by the lacteals. This enters the general circulation 
through the thoracic duct, little by little, in proportion as it is 
taken up. But this also must pass, though not so directly, 
through the liver by the hepatic artery or by the mesenteric 
artery and portal vein and is doubtless also arrested there in 
the form of glycogen. / 

There are, then, three sources of glycogen, and therefore of 
liver-sugar, viz: 1. The whole of the amyloid food. 2. All 

: . * Comptes Rendus, vol. xliii, p. 1008. 


J. LeConte—Glycogenie function of the Liver. 103 


albuminoid food in excess of what is required for tissue-building ; 
and 8. All wasie tissues. But since in the mature animal waste 


nated: partly as the nitrogenous matter of the bile, but mostly 
as urea by the kidneys. There are also the same three sources 
of vital force and vital heat, viz: 1. Combustion of amyloi 

f 2. Combustion of the combustible portion of albumin- 
oid food-excess. And 8. Combustion of the combustible por- 
tion of waste tissues. And, for the reason already assigned, this 
is exactly equivalent to combustion of the combustible portion 
of the whole food. Therefore, the sole object of the glycogenic 


are led to anticipate that the failure of this function must 
entirely sap the vitality of the system. That such is a fact we 
shall presently see. 

There are several important conclusions to be drawn from 
the above to which I would next call attention. i 

1. The real function of the liver in this connection is not 
glycogenie or sugar-making as usually supposed, but glyco- 
genic or glycogen-making. Glycogen-making is a true vital 


changes are descensive only. These two opposite processes 1D 
the liver are fully recognized by Claude Bernard, although for 
convenience both processes are called glycogenic. 


104 J. LeConte—Glycogenre function of the Liver. 


2. In the well-known and usually fatal disease, diabetes, 
sugar is excreted in large quantities by the kidneys. But the 
kidneys are not the organ in fault. On the contrary they do 
all they can to remedy the evil. Sugar in the blood is ex- 
tremely hurtful; the kidneys remove it as fast as they can. 
Some have supposed that the lungs are in fault. e sugar 
contributed by the liver to the blood, they say, is not burned 
up as fast as received (as it ought to be) on account of deti- 
ciency of oxygen taken in by the lun ut the true organ 
directly in fault is undoubtedly the liver. In diabetic patients 
the liver seems to have Jost its glycogen-making power. The 
sugar taken up by the portal capillaries is not arrested in the 
liver, but allowed to pass straight through unchanged into the 
general circulation, whence it must, of course, be eliminated 
by the kidneys. The difficulty is not too much sugar-making 
but failure to arrest the sugar as glycogen. This is proved b 
cases of traumatic diabetes. It is well known that puncture 
of the floor of the fourth ventricle of the brain produces dia- 
betes. In such cases, even though sugar be ingested in large 
quantities there is no glycogen formed in the liver; the glu- 
cose having been allowed (probably on account of paralysis of 
the vaso-motor nerves) to pass straight through unchanged 
into the general circulation. The extreme gravity of patho- 
logical diabetes, therefore, is partly the result of the directly 
hurtful effects of sugar in the blood, as shown by diabetic cat- 
aract, but chiefly owing to serious disorder of a very impor- 
tant function of the liver—a function on which wholly depends 
animal heat and animal force of all kinds, viz: the prepara- 
tion of food and waste-tissue for easy combustion. The use of 


reconverted into the soluble form of sugar. 
In a work entitled “‘ Digestion Végétale,” published in 1876, 


J. LeConte—Glycogenic function of the Lnver. 105 


universal among organisms. But, as we have already shown, 
the true analogue both of starch-formation and starch-solution 
in plants is found in the glycogenic function of the liver. Di- 


building material: of course, therefore, a re-conversion 
into sugar it must be again re-converted into insoluble cellu- 


use as fuel for force-making. Plants do not require it for force 
for they draw their force from the sun. Animals do not require 
it for tissue-building for their tissues are wholly aibuminoid. 

. We have seen that albuminoids, whether food or waste tis- 
Sues, are probably split in tbe liver into glycogen and some 
hitrogenous residuum. The glycogen is changed into sugar and ~ 


106 J. LeConte—Glycogenic function of the Liver. 


then by oxidation into CO, and H,O and eliminated by the 
lungs. The nitrogenous residuum if it is not at first urea is at 
least easily changed into urea and eliminated by the kidneys. 
We see then the close relation between the functions of the 
liver and kidneys. Now in going down the animal scale, we 
find in many cases, as for example in insects, that the same 
organ performs both functions. In the process of evolution urea 
was at first formed and excreted at once by the same organ. 
Afterwards these two processes were differentiated. 

7. We have already stated that Foster found a large percent- 
age of glycogen in the tissues of entozoa.* He asks, “ Of what 
use is this glycogen?” and answers, “ No respiratory use” is 
possible, for “having a constant temperature secured to them” 
by the body of their host, “they are the very last creatures to 
need respiratory or calorifacient material.” He, therefore, 
inclines to the view of Pavy, that glycogen is not respiratory 
material at all, but material on its way to become fibrin. On 
the contrary, we, for our part, see in this observation of the 
presence of stored amyloid in an animal not needing any inter- 


often or too strongly enforced that the prime object of com- 
bustion in the animal machine, as in the steam engine, is not 
heat-making but force-making. Heat is only a concomitant, often 
useful, but sometimes useless and even distressing. Careful 
experiments have over and over proved this; the doctrine of 
conservation of force absolutely requires it; and yet pbysiolo- 
gists still go on serenely talking of respiratory food as only heat- 
making, as if vital force were something wholly unrelated to 
other forces of nature and therefore requiring no explanation at 
all. e vital force created by combustion ma 
largely in mechanical power, as in the higher animals, or almost 
wholly in the vegetative functions of digestion, assimilation, 
secretion, &c., as in the more sluggish lower animals suc 
many mollusea and entozoa. 
Postseript.—Since finishing this article in April last, I have 

read with deep interest a very remarkable paper by Professor 

é * Proc. Roy. Soc., xiv, 543. 


J. P. Cooke—Atomic Weight of Antimony. 107 


Schiff,* entitled “‘ A new function of the liver,” in which the 
author demonstrates in the most convincing manner by means 
of experiments on dogs and frogs conducted in the physiologi- 
eal laboratory in Geneva, that the liver has the power of completely 
decomposing poisonous matters generated by the wasting of tissues. 
Ligation of the vessels of the liver, especially of the portal vein, 


death in the course of one to three hours. In frogs, it is true, liga- 
tion produced little effect, but this is only because of the slow- 
ness of the changes in their tissnes; for the blood of dogs dead 
of ligated livers injected into the circulation of frogs quickly 
destroyed life if their livers are ligated, but produced no effect if 
the livers are unligated. Moreover many other organic poi- 
sons were shown to be either wholly or partly destroyed and 
rendered innocuous by the liver. Doubtless this is the true 


rather an extension of the glycogenic function, throwing upo 
it a new light and giving it a new significance. It is precisely 
this new significance which I have attempted to set forth in the 
foregoing paper. 

Berkeley, Cal., Oct. 15, 1877. 


Art. XV.—Revision of the Alomic Weight of Antimony; by 
Jostan P. Cooke, Jr. 


(Concluded from page 49.) 


_ AFTER a long series of experimeuts, which threw but little 
light on the cause of the discrepancy that had now become so 
prominent, although they yielded very interesting subsidiary 
results which are described in detail in the original paper, we 
Made a series of analyses of antimonious bromide with the 
hope that if there was, as we suspected, a_ 
error in the analyses of anitimonious chloride, the same influ- 
weswould affect the analyses of the corresponding bromide to 


* Arch. des Sciences, lviii, 293, March, 1877. 


108 J. P. Cooke—Atomic Weight of Antimony. 


We prepared the bromide of antimony by adding in small 
— at a time the pulverized metal to a strong solution of 
romine in sulphide of carbon. The retort containing the so- 


water bath; and then, replacing the water bath with a gas 


delicate tests which we possess for all three of these elements so 
frequently associated with commercial antimony and bromine, 
failed to show the least trace of either in the bromide of anti- 
mony we analyz The determinations of bromine were 
made in all respects like those of chlorine. Great care was 
taken not to add more than a very slight excess of argentic 
nitrate, and we found that under these conditions the superna- 
tant liquid cleared more readily above the precipitate in the 
case of bromide of silver than with the corresponding chloride, 
and for this reason the first could be washed more quickly than 
the last. The results of these determinations are embodied in 
the table on the following page. 

Here, as before, the letters indicate different preparations: @ 
was made and purified as described above; 6 was the same ma- 
terial as a redistilled and again crystallized from bisulphide of 
carbon; c was another portion of the same material several 
times redistilled and twice recrystallized from the same sol- 
vent; d was a separate preparation from the start; e was 
another separate preparation purified with extreme care. In 
the last case there was over a kilogram of the crude pro- 
duct, which was reduced by the fractional distillation and crys- 
tallization—each process repeated from ten to twenty times— 


J. P. Cooke—Atomic Weight of Antimony. 109 


to the few grams used in the analyses.) These methods of 
ert the substance were thus pushed to their utmost 
imits. 
ANALYSES OF ANTIMONIOUS BROMIDE. 
DETEMINATION OF BROMINE. 
Wt. of SbBr, taken .Wt.of AgBr ¢ of Bromine 
in grams. obtained. 


No. Br=80, Ag 108. 

l, a. 1°8621 2°9216 66°765 

2, a. 0°9856 1°5422 66°584 

3, 5. 1:8650 2°9268 66°79 : 

4, b. 1°5330 2°4030 66°703 

5, b. 1°3689 2°1445 66°663 

6, ¢. 1°2124 1°8991 66°655 

7, ¢. 0°9417 1°4749 66°647 

8, d. 2°5404 3°9755 66°593 

9, d. 1°5269 2°3905 66°623 
10, e. 1°8604 2°9180 66°743 
11, ¢. 1°7298 2°7083 66°624 
12, ¢. 3°2838 5°1398 66°604 
13, ¢. 2°3589 3°6959 66°671 

14, €. 1°3323 2°0863 66°635 
15, ¢. 26974 4°2285 66°708 


Mean value from last six determinations, 66°664 
Mean value from all the determinations, 66°6665 
Theory Sb 120 requires, ......--------- 66°6666 
TOOTS SAPS oO eee ou ieee 66°2983 


whether we take Stas’s or Dumas’s values for the atomic 
weights of bromine and silver, the atomic weight of antimony 
deduced from the above determinations is exactly 120-00. 
_This is certainly a remarkably close confirmation of our pre- 
vious conclusion. Indeed the wonderful coincidence between 
the observed and the theoretical results must be to a certain 
extent accidental ; for no process of chemical analysis is capa- 
ble of the accuracy which this agreement would imply. Still 
table errors of the process, so 
far as they are indicated by the variations from the mean 


110 J. P. Cooke—Atomic Weight of Antimony. 


must depend on the extraordinary attraction of this substance 
for moisture. Before, however, fully following out the clew 
thus obtained, we made a similar study of the iodide of anti- 


mony. 

The iodide of antimony was prepared like the bromide, by 
shaking up in a glass flask a solution of iodine in bisulphide of 
carbon with finely pulverized metallic antimony. On filtering 
and decanting, after the color of the iodine is discharged, a 
solution having a pale greenish-yellow color is obtained, from 
which on cooling or on evaporation red crystals of iodide of 
antimony are deposited. The substance may be purified by 
recrystallization from the same solvent; but iodide of anti- 
mony is far less soluble in bisulphide of carbon than the chlo- 
ride or bromide, and cannot therefore be so advantageously 
treated in this way, nor can tbe small amount of carbonaceous 
impurity which the crystals acquire from the solvent be so 
easily rem . Moreover, iodide of antimony cannot be so 
readily distilled as the chloride or bromide, on account of its 
high boiling point, which is above that of metallic mercury. 
But another property of iodide of antimony which, so far as 


ful phenomenon. So also when the greenish-yellow solution 
(above described) of the iodide in bisulphide of carbon is ex- 
1 tothe air and light, it rapidly becomes colored red f 


J. P. Cooke—Atomic Weight of Antimony. 111 


deposition of the insoluble oxi-iodide. Even the crystals of 
iodide of antimony, when kept in the light, slowly become 
opaque from the formation of the same oxi-iodide; while the 
odor and staining of the stopper of the bottle furnish abundant 
proof of the liberation of iodine. « The study of these phe- 
nomena was most interesting, and the results obtained will be 
described in another paper. It is sufficient for the present to 
say that they pointed out to us a great source of impurity in 
iodide of antimony, and fully explained the want of accordance 
in our analyses of the crystals of this substance as first pre- 


pared. It was evident that we could only hope to purify the 
material by distilling or subliming it in an atmosphere o. 
Inert gas; and we devised the apparatus represented in the ac- 
companying figure for this purpose, which we have since found 
very generally useful forall sublimations where the temperature 
required does not exceed that which can be measured with a 


lated temperature the precipitates of sulphide of antimony, 
aa: was so arranged that the character of 


112 J. P. Cooke—Atomic Weight of Antimony. 


it reaches its melting point, 167°, the evaporation becomes very 
marked. Assoon as melted, it sublimes quite rapidly ; and we 
obtained the best results by ‘keeping the temperature between 
180° and 200°, and by shifting the adapters we used as receiv- 
ers, it was —_ to collect the different portions of the subli- 

te. thus obtained crystals of two isomeric modifications 
of iodide of antimony : the more abundant in large hexagonal 
plates, often half an inch or more in diameter, perfectly trans- 
parent, and of the most brilliant ruby-red color ; the other in 
small — — ee the same peculiar greenish: yellow 

color as the solution of the iodide already mentioned. The 
Ganaat of the bee was always small, but it was ae in pro- 
portion as the temperature was lower. This new and most 
interesting product will be described in the paper just referred 
to. Of these crystals, the most brilliant, chiefly of the red va- 
riety, were selected for analysis. The iodine determinations 
were conducted in all respects like those of chlorine and bro- 
mine. The iodide was first dissolved by a very concentrated 
solution of tartarie acid, and then the solution was diluted to 
the required extent. The same care was taken not to add 


tion in so far as it was a product of a separate sublimation ; 
but the material sublimed was essentially the same in all cases, 
—a mixture of the products of many crystallizations from the 
crude material made as described above. The results are col- 
lected in the following table : 


ANALysis oF IopipEe or ANTIMONY. 
IopINE —e. 


No, Wt ofSbl,, Wt. of Agl, nigew roves Variety. 
i 171877 16727 76°110 Pure red. 
2. 0°4610 0°6497 767161 tesa yellow. 
3. 3°2527 45716 75°956 Pur re 
4, 1°8068 2°5389 75°939 ure 
5. 15970 2°2456 75°990 Red ind 1 yellow. 
6. 2°3201 3°2645 76°C40 Pure re 
‘* 0°3496 0°4927 76°161 Chiefly anew 
Mean -wAlRes kines ca bocdiociwniness 76°051 
Theory Sb==120, requires a inne 76°047 
Theory Sih 82,.. <5 oi eerie nate ne: 75°744 


If in calculating the results of these iodine determinations we 
use the atomic — of Stas, I=126°85 and Ag=107'93, the 

mean value would be 76-034, and the corresponding atomic 
weight of antimony 119-95. 


J. P. Cooke—Atomic Weight of Antimony. 113 


The difference (0°004) between the first mean value and 
theory—corresponding to only about 2; of a milligram in the 
largest amount of argentic iodide weighed—is evidently insig- 
nificant, so that these results confirm the lower value of the 
atomic weight of antimony as closely as did the analyses of the 
bromide. 


As we have already intimated, our analyses of the iodide 
of antimony, as first crystallized from bisulphide of carbon, 
vielded very discordant results. These we give in the table 
below, not, as before, in the exact order in which the analyses 
Ww ade, but in the order of the several values, so as to 
exhibit the distribution of the errors. 


ANALYSES OF CRYSTALLIZED Antrmontous IopIDE, RED VARIETY. 


No. ' % of Iodine. 
Be ee ete ee ae oe. eT 
D tech wht tes big eats i ok Tae 
Beis ce a Eee 75°78 
Be ee ee ee ee 75°80 
Bik ve ae eae ee ee 
| AGN i aca eet ON Ui ong gee Boel 75°85 
ey Etiini 75°87 
Sof ee es ee ee ee 
Vie er Pe ee oe ee eee 
PERO VOlR ce cis ne .-75°83 
Lheory Sbiai09.) 2) <2 eee 75°74 
Theory Sb=-190.. 2 oe ee 


The cause of this discordance we attributed, as we have inti- 
mated, chiefly to the remarkable readiness with which iodide of 
antimony undergoes oxidation in contact with the air, resulting 
A the formation of oxi-iodide of antimony and free iodine, 

us :— 


28bI, + O-O = 2SbOI + 21L-1 
While the free iodine escapes, the oxi-iodide remains as an im- 
purity in the preparation, and the effect is a replacement of a por- 
tion of its iodine by oxygen. Now, since eight parts of oxygen 
replace one hundred and twenty-seven parts of iodine, it can 
readily be seen that an otherwise almost imperceptible amount of 
oxidation would be sufficient to produce all the variation from the 
normal composition which the above results present. A simple 
calculation will show that an absorption of only 7#2,ths of one 
per cent of oxygen, or less than half a milligram by each gram 
of iodide of antimony, would reduce the per cent of iodine from 
the theoretical val ue, 76-047, to the mean of the above results, 
Am. Jour, Sct.—Turp Serres, Vou. XV, No. 86.—Fxs., 1878. 
8 


114 J. P. Cooke—Atomic Werght of Antimony. 


75832 ; and that a corresponding absorption of three-quarters 
of a milligram would reduce the per cent to 75-700, the lowest 
observed. It is not, therefore, surprising tbat we could obtain 
concordant results only with material wbich had been both 
purified by crystallization and also recently sublimed. 
Returning now to discuss again the cause of the disagree- 
ment of the analyses of antimonious chloride with our otherwise 
consistent results in regard to the atomic weight of antimony, 
it was obvious that the strong hygroscopic power of the chloride 
must lead to a replacement precisely similar to that which is 
shyly in the iodide by direct oxidation; for, as we have 
fore said, the crystals of antimonious chloride cannot be 
exposed to the atmosphere for an instant without absorbing a 
perceptible amount of moisture, and every molecule of water 
thus absorbed reacts on a molecule of the chloride, thus:— 


SbCl, + H,O = SbOCI + 2HCL 


And when the antimonious chloride is boiled, the hydrochloric 
acid formed is given off, while the oxichloride remains behind, 
dissolved in the great mass of the liquid. Indeed, it seems 
impossible, with our ordinary appliances, to prepare or purify 
antimonious chloride without its becoming contaminated with 
oxichloride; and our experiments would indicate that when 
once it has been formed, as above described, in the mass of the 
material, it cannot be wholly removed by distillation or crys- 
tallization, however often these processes may , 
aturally, our attention was very early called to this obvious 
source of impurity in the antimonious chloride we prepared: 
and we noticed from the first that, even after the material had 
been many times distilled, there was always left, on repeating 
the process, a very small amount of dark-colored residue. 
had examined the residue, and found that it was a mixture of 
chloride and oxichloride of antimony, colored by a trace of car- 
bonaceous material; and we had made a long series of analyses 
for the purpose of studying the effect produced by the action 
we have described. The result of these analyses is given in 
the following table. We started with material already purified 
by fractional distillation and crystallization, and distilled it ten 
imes in succession ; not, however, carrying the distillation to 
absolute dryness, but leaving, so far as we could judge by the 
eye, about the same amount of residue in the retort each time. 
These residues we analyzed, as we did also the final distillate. 
The material first distilled was the same as that marked ¢ in 
the table on page 47, and we assumed that the average of the 
results there given truly represented its composition. 


J. P. Cooke—Atomic Weight of Antimony. 115 


ANALYSES OF ANTIMONIOUS CHLORIDE. 


RESIDUES AND DISTILLATES. 


@ of Chlorine. 
The original purified preparation ..._..........-..--.-- 46°64 
Mle fecidue of lst distillate. |. 0.2 (612i baron ee oi Si 45°71 
a 2d Misti val it Boies eo BE. Bie 45°66 
4 3d Bs othe Mage see Tas ee oe 46°03 
x, 4th ick Soe aeu AGE eee he 46°26 
. 5th 2 ie dos hh cae eee oe eee BE 
sal 6th © oo URN SEs ae BU RD ale oe 00 
- 7th e etek Be a i ee 2 ee a ee 
x3 8th GOS ice perience nmr iicge 45°94 
i 9th SS gah ens deeds ees 
“ CO Goeeit Eh eon iagegs Oak aa ee ere 45°99 
Pee ent distillate. oc Ae 46°6 


transfers between the several distillations necessarily involved. 
But, on the other hand, the very remarkable fact that these ten 


on the final result; and this opinion was still further strength- 


upon us by the subsequent results of the investigation, = 
turning to the subject after our experiments with iodide 


action on the iodide. It ends in replacing a small amount of 
orine by oxygen; and although, in consequence of the 


116 J. P. Cooke—Atomic Weight cf Antimony. 


smaller atomic weight of chlorine, it requires in this last case a 
larger replacement to produce a corresponding change of per- 
centage composition, yet still the amount required to make all 
the difference in question is very small; so that, when we come 
to sum up the supposed completed results (as on page 47), it 
might easily be covered up by slight inaccuracies of the 
analytical work. An easy calculation will show that the sub- 
stitution of but ;',°, of one per cent of oxygen for the equiva- 
lent amount of chlorine would reduce the per cent of this last 
element in the chloride from 47-020, corresponding to Sb=120, 
to 46-608, which corresponds to Sb=122; and such a substitu- 
tion would result from the absorption of only 1,4, milligram of 
water by each gram of the chloride. The composition of the 
material would then be as follows :— 


Composition OF ANTIMONIOUS CHLORIDE WITH 745, PER CENT OF 
O wHEN CL=35°5 anp Sp=120. 


RmONteRiLait. Sou ces. celui. 22 a aii 26606 
MpeGR swodid. ress ee Ca eo ae ee 
BRNNIONG Sia. 8 a a ee hl eee 

100°000 


Now it will be seen by referring to the tables, on pages 47 and 
48, that these percentages do not differ from the mean of the 
results of our previous analyses as much as these results differ 
among themselves; and we therefore determined to repeat these 
analyses, hoping that the experience we had acquired in both 
chlorine and antimony determinations would now enable us to 
obtain results sufficiently sharp to show evén the small ditfer- 
ences of composition which the substitution in question would 


produce. 
termined. For this purpose, we used first crystallized SbOCl, 


tages. Th 
decomposition began between 167° and 175°, but was not com- 


ing both stages, chloride of antimony sublimed; and there was 
left in the nacelle at the close of the process beautiful crystals 


J. P. Cooke—Atomic Weight of Antimony. 117 


of Sb,O,. In another experiment, we used crystallized 


First stage: 5SbOCI=Sb,0,Cl,+SbCl, ; (1) 
Second stage: 3Sb,0,Cl,=5Sb,0,+2SbC1,; (2) 


larger sublimate of chloride, we varied the apparatus in our 
. third experiment so far as to place the nacelle in a tube of the 
shape represented in the accompanying figure. This tube was 
weighed with the nacelle, and was so 

selected that it quite closely fitted the — SS) 
combustion - tube within which it was S Fits, AeA ot 
placed for heating, as shown in figure b dotted lines. <And it 
is evident that, while with this arrangement the SbCl, would 
be swept by the CO, gas into the colder portion of the combuas- 
tion-tube, the greater part at least of the sublimed oxide would 
be retained in the small tube, which was of course at each stage 
wesned with the nacelle, as at first. Our results were as fol- 
Ows :— 


Weight of SbOCI.- TS UE: 04939 grams, 
Loss at 280° _.. 01271 : 


Required by theory of reaction 1, if Sb=120_. .0°1305 


Total loss at red heat; that is, in both stages .--.0°2179 © 
Required by theory of reactions 1 and 2--.-- -- . .0°2174 
It was evident from this determination that the order of the 
ecomposition was precisely that indicated by our reactions, 
although the end of the first stage was not quite so sharply 
marked as the end of the second; and this would naturally be 
expected. 


showed, when further heated, precisely the same order of phe- 
it was plain that the residue left on evaporating the chloride at 


a temperature not exceeding 120° was chiefly at least SbOCI ; 
but that this when heated more intensely was converted into 


118 J. P. Cooke—Atomic Weight of Antimony. 


our preparations of chloride of antimony by distilling a weighed 
amount from a platinum nacelle at as low a temperature as pos- 
sible in a current of dry carbonic acid, and heating the residue 
to a temperature of about 275°. We thus obtained the follow- 


ing results :-— 
No. Wt. of SbCl,. Residue. % of residue Sb,0,Cly. 
t, 6°7286 0°0212 0°315 
Zs 4°5150 0°0151 0°334 
3. 7°9320 0°0258 0°325 


In order to yield 0°146 per cent of oxygen, which would 
reduce the per cent of chlorine in the preparation from 47-020 
to 46-608, as in the scheme on page 116, there would be required 
1:155 per cent of Sb,O,Cl,. 

Although the results of the above determinations accord 
within a few per cent of the quantity estimated, yet it was per-~ 
fectly clear during the course of theexperiments that they did not 
at all represent the total quantity of the oxichloride present in 
the preparation examined. Not only was the composition of 
the preparation not materially altered by the slow distillation, 
—a fact shown by the determinations marked e in the table on 
page 47, and by which we were misled at the outset,— but also 
the product from our distillation yielded when distilled again 
apparently as much residue as before. In a word, we foun 
the same phenomena repeated in these distillations at a low tem- 

rature which had been so noticeable when the chloride was 


danger, and we had taken unusual precautions on both these 
points, the explanations suggested did not seem to us sufficient ; 
and we came to the conclusion that the oxichloride must distil 
over with the chloride of antimony to a certain limited extent, 
and that it was only an excess above this definite amount which 
was left behind as residue. Of course, SbOCI not only is not 
volatile, but is at once decomposed by heat; and we do not 
suppose that this compound by the tension of its own vapor is 

arried over in distillation. It isa very dilute solution, as it 
were, of SbOCl] in SbCl, which thus distils; and the distilla- 
tion of the oxichloride may resemble the carrying over © 


J. P. Cooke—Atomic Weight of Antimony. 119 


boracie acid by the vapor of water, and similar phenomena, the 
result, as it is has always appeared to us, of a feeble kind of 
chemical union which has been usually designated by the term 
“molecular combination.” Such a theory would account for 
the remarkable constancy which we have found in the chlorine 
determinations of the various preparations of antimonious chlo- 
ride purified by distillation. But, on account of the very great 
difficulty of removing all possible disturbing causes, we found 
it impossible to obtain a rigid experimental demonstration of 
our theory without much more time and labor than we could 
then command. We hope to return to the subject hereafter. 
Meanwhile, however, it was evident that we could place no reli- 
ance whatever on the results just obtained. Nevertheless, the 
determinations were of value on account of the contrast 
tween these results and those of a similar series of experiments 
on the residues from antimonious bromide which we collect in 
‘the following table :— 


y Residue chiefly 
No. Wt. of SbBrs. Sb,0,Bro. % of residue. 
if 2°8342 “ 0°035 
2, 2°0220 0°0006 0°030 
3. 4°6730 0°0010 0°021 


As will be seen, this residue is less than one-tenth of that 
obtained from the chloride, and is practically insignificant. 
_ Evidently, then, in the determination of the atomic weight of 

antimony more accurate results may be expected from the anal- 
ysis of the bromide than from the analysis of either the chlo- 
ride or the iodide of thiselement. The intermediate position of 
the bromide renders it, ina very remarkable way, the most 
Stable of the three compounds. It absorbs moisture far less 
eagerly than the chloride, and it absorbs oxygen far less read- 
ily than the iodide, and is thus in great measure protected 
against each of these two sources of the same impurity. 
_ We come finally to the new analyses of antimonious chlo- 
ride we had undertaken. Fortunately, some of the old prepara- 
tion that had been distilled so often had been preserved. It 
been boiled for along time since the last analyses were 


120 J. P. Cooke—Atomic Weight of Antimony. 


acts in this way, as we found out in more than one instance to 
our cost 


Detaits oF AnTIMONY DETERMINATION. 


The antimonious chloride was first transferred to a very care- 
fully dried weighing tube, and thence to the large flask in 
which it was dissolved. ‘he transfer to the weighing tube was 
made in a dry atmosphere, and only required two or three sec- 
onds. It is evident, however, that a slight absorption of mois- 
ture at this point is not important; for, even if it increased the 
apparent weight of the assay by several milligrams, it would 
only reduce to a barely perceptible extent the percentages of 
all the constituents leaving the relative values wholly un- 
changed. It is only when, on boiling the chloride, after such 
an absorption, the chlorine is driven off, that the essential 
change of composition results. 

Weight of tube and antimonious chloride --20°9609 grams. 
* “ after transfer to flask - - -- -- 16°3920 


“+ @hloride analysed. 220520221005. -. 45689 “ 

The weight of the tube and chloride while on the balance 
pan remained invariable for a sufficient length of time to give 
positive assurance of the constancy of the weights. The chlo- 
ride was dissolved in a saturated solution of tartaric acid con- 
taining about 15 grams of the pure acid, and then diluted with 
carbonic acid and water and precipitated as before described. » 
The precipitate, having been washed and collected as before, 
was dried in an air bath, at about 110°. ; 


Weight of small filter................ 0°0434 grams. 
- porcelain crucible —s0Laiee 
101-2566“ 
2, crucible and precipitate.....104°6762 
“ red sulphide of antimony.-.. 34196 “ 


A portion of the dried precipitate dissolved in hydrochloric 
aeid gave no residue. The rest was then transferred to a pla- 


J. P. Cooke—Atomie Weight of Antimony. 121 


tinum nacelle, and heated, as has been described, in a current 
of dry carbonic dioxide gas. No sublimate was formed, and 
only a very slight empyreumatic odor could be perceived. 


Weight of platinum nacelle ---..2.. 2. 21.22. 6-2493 grams. 
= nacelle and dried precipitate -- ------- 95273 “ 
- portion taken. (2c 2. 2c ci jee! _.8°2780  * 
nacelle and precipitate after heating to 
285° for over half an hour --..-.-.9°5234 “ 
Loss of weight of portion taken-...------.-----0°0039 “ 
Corresponding loss for whole precipitate ---. ---. 00041 “ 
Weight of red sulphide as above----- .--------- 3°4196 * 
Fs gray sulphide. :.. 60. - 43 -5s2 sen $4155 


The carbonaceous residue left on dissolving this whole 
amount of gray sulphide in hydrochloric acid was barely per- 
ceptible. It was collected, however, as usual, on a weighed 
paper disk, and estimated. 


Weight of small paper filter......-.---.--- ----0°0198 grams. 

* Bamé with Tresidte 2 2022 45 220 ce 02127 % 

5 tesidueorustiieo hides seer ES ae 00014 
Calculated for whole precipitate... .-------- ---- 0°0015 : 
Weight of gray sulphide as above...----------- 3°4155 
Total weight of gray sulphide. --- 34140 “ 


Corresponding weight of antimony ditsaad to be 
¥ of the sulphide. _.-_..----- -- -- EE ol er 

Per cent of antimony in the antimonious chloride 

ion .. orate 


. 


under examinatio 


tion, the lower is the more exact. nti 
oming next to the chlorine determinations, we noticed, for 


rocess, as employed in the analysis of chloride of antimony. 
a precipitate of argentic chloride that had been deposited 


122 J. P. Cooke—Atomie Weight of Antimony. 


from an unusually concentrated solution of antimonious chloride 
in tartaric acid, and had stood over night, our attention was 
called to some crystalline grains, which, on examination, proved 
to be a compound of tartaric acid, antimony and silver. We 
soon found that this product could be readily obtained by 
concentrating the filtrate from the precipitate of argentic 
chloride, and adding to it, while still warm, an excess of 
argentic nitrate. On coo ing, the new crystals form in abun- 
d hey have not yet been measured, but under the 
microscope they have the general aspect of right rhombic plates 
or prisms, with hemihedral modifications,—a general form which 
is so characteristic of the tartrates, and which we ourselves 
have previously studied in our crystallographic determinations 
of the tartrates of rubidium and cesium.* We obtained for 
the amount of silver in the acca as a mean of three analyses, 
26°30 per cent. The compound Ag, SbO.H,=0,=(C, 

H,O would require 26°34 ues cent. “The crystals may there- 


they appear to have prepared the substance only in an amor- 
phous condition. At least, in the description quoted, no men- 
tion is made of any crystalline form. 

These crystals of argento-antimonious tartrate are apparently 
not acted upon in the least by cold water, and only slightly by 
boiling water; and finding this on insoluble material mixed 
with the precipitated chloride of silver, under the conditions 
stated, we were led to fear that “ft might be occluded to some 
extent by this precipitate, even when formed in much more 
dilute solutions of antimony and tartaric acid. The phenom- 

non was very similar to that we had already studied in the 
occlusion of the oxichloride by the sulphide of antimony; and 
there was reason to fear that, as in the previous case, an occlu- 
sion of this double tartrate might canis even when the ale 


t, s] aby tated, w 
had always taken great care not to add more than the slightest 
possible excess of sapie i sikinta, and this was especially true 
in our more recent determinations. Now, however, we were 


* Am. Jour. of Science and Arts, II, xxxvii, 70. 
+ Gmelin Handbook, Cavendish Edition, x, 326. 


J. P. Cooke—Atomic Weight of Antumony. 123 


on our guard, and in the following determinations very great 
pains were taken to add just the requisite amount of the silver 
salt, and the argentic chloride was subsequently examined for 
traces of any such occlusion. But, excepting this close atten- 
tion to well-known precautions, the determinations were made 
in the same way as before. 


ANALYsIS OF ANTIMONIOUS CHLORIDE. 


No. Wt. of SbOl,. Wt. of AgCl. % of Chlorine. 

Ey 22220 4°1682 46°407 

2; 1°9458 3°6512 46°420 
Mean value She 46438 


calculating what would be the composition of a preparation of 


antimonious chloride in which ;,'%, of a per cent. of oxygen 
had replaced an equivalent amount of chlorine, assuming, of - 
course, Sb = 120 an = 35°5,—-we obtain the following very 
striking accordance :— 
Analysis. Sb = 120, Gl = 35°5 
Ghlotine: «ce. dc ke 46°413 
4ygen a Rs 213 
Antimony eRe ee ig ee | 53°369 
100°000 * 1007000 


The general conclusions, then, which we deduce as the 
results of this investigation, are— 

First, that the value of the atomic weight of antimony found 
by Schneider in 1856—Sb=120 3—must be accurate within a 
few tenths of a unit, but that the most probable value of this 

.-. as deduced from our experiments, is Sb=120, when 


Secondly, that the apparent disagreement with this result, 
presented by the partial analyses of antimonious chlori e, is 
probably due to the constant presence of oxichloride in the 
preparations of this compound. 

The investigation from the first: has been a study of constant 


124. S W. Ford—Two new species of Primordial Fossils. 


whose influence we have been able to trace, although we have 
not been able to define them as clearly as we could desire, it 
would be presumptuous in us to express too great confidence 
either in the correctness of our theories or even in the conclu- 
siveness of our experimental results. Of this, however, we feel 
assured, that more trustworthy results cannot be expected from 
a repetition of the same processes until a more complete and 
accurate knowledge has been acquired of the substances em- 
ployed. We have therefore proposed to ourselves a more 
thorough investigation of the haloid compounds of antimony, 
and the first results of this investigation we shall shortly pub- 
lish. After the requisite data have been thus collected, we 
hope to return to the old problem with such definite knowledge 
of the relations involved as will enable us to obtain at once 
more sharp and decisive results than are now possible. 

During the course of this investigation, we have been suc- 

cessively aided in the experimental work by Dr. F. A. Gooch, 
- Mr. GC. Richardson and Mr. W-H. Melville, at the time students 
in this laboratory; and without their assistance we could not 
have accomplished the great amount of labor it involved. 

Harvard College Laboratory, June 12th, 1877. 


Arr. XVI.—Descriptions of two new species of Primordial Fos- 
sils; by S. W. Forp. 


places, and are seen to be thin and delicate. The outer wall 
has been almost wholly removed and the portions of it that re- 
main are much weathered. The material presented for study 
consists, therefore, of the solid moulds of the interseptal spaces, 
the cup filled with limestone, a small number of the septa, @ 


. * This Journal, March, 1873. 


S. W. Ford—Two new species of Primordial Fossils. 125 


transverse section of the inner wall and the impression of a 
considerable portion of the outer wall. The latter shows that 
the external surface when perfect was longitudinally furrowed 
as in Archeocyathellus. In that genus, however, so far as 
known, there are two rows of pores along each of the furrows, 
one on either side of the septa; whereas, in the present genus 
there appears to have been but one, and that placed 
directly on the line of the septa. The evidence of this 
consists of rudely circular holes placed at regular intervals 
along the middle of each furrow in the cast. ese ap- 
pear to me to argue the existence of funnel-like projections 
mward of.the outer wall at the place of the openin t 
they mark the position of orifices leading into the interior ap- 

ears to me in the highest degree probable. Their position is, 

owever, so remarkable, that I was for a long time unable to 
understand the meaning of them. 

On one side of the specimen there are a small number of the 
interseptal moulds that project beyond the others and one of 
these shows one of its lateral faces for a considerable distance 
lengthwise, and also nearly down to the outer surface of the 
inner wall. An examination of this face shows that the cavi- 
ties observed along the furrows extend but 
a short distance inward, and that the septa 
arched around the funnel-like projections which 
they represent from below, striking the outer 
wall only at the intervening spaces (the spaces 
between the dots in the figure). It is further 
shown that these cavities are directed slightly 


the orifices were proportionally considerably larger than those 

ies of Are ellus (A. Rensselaert- 

cus), while their position is such as to present no obstacle in 

the way of regarding them as having communicated simulta- 
neously with two of the interseptal spaces. — 

The fossils of this group have, in their septate structure 

* Fig. la.—A few of the interseptal moulds of Protocyathus rarus enlarged to 

show the position of the suppest external orifices; 6, enlarged outline of a lat- 

eral face of one of the moulds designed to show the direction of the cavities c, c. 


126 S. W. Ford—Two new species of Primordial Fossils. 


much the appearance of corals; but the peculiar poriferous 
structure known to characterize a good typical species, the uni- 
form presence of a large walled central cavity, and the exist- 
ence in one species Ea ab Minganensis) of branched 
spicule would seem t y them more nearly to the spon 
By the late lamented Mr. Billings, to whom we owe our first 
knowledge of these singular forms, and who has discussed their 
affinities at considerable length, they were classed provisionally 
with the sponges; but in conclusion he remarks that ‘The re- 
semblance between the whole structure and that of the paleozoic 
corals seems also to show that in the Lower Silurian seas forms 
— combining the characters of the Protozoa and the Ce- 
lenterata.”* The existence of such forms in our older deposits 
is a ais of much interest, and it is to be hoped that contin- 
ued researches will add still further to our knowledge of them. 

This species occurs in conglomerate-limestone of the Lower 
Potsdam group at Troy, N. Y. 

Solenopleura nana, sp. nov.—Of this species I havea num- 
ber of specimens of the head, but they are all more or less im- 
perfect. The largest and best preserved specimen consists of a 
nearly perfect glabella and the greater portion of the fixed 
cheeks, and is but two lines in length. The glabella is nearly 
four-fifths the total length of the head and is especially charac- 
terized by its great relief. It is obtusely conical, slightly 
widest ome and is well defined all around by the dorsal fur- 

ws. a specimen two lines in length its highest point is 
nearly one and one-half lines above the base of the fix 
cheeks. It is marked on either side by two or three faint fur- 
rows. The fixed cheeks are notably convex, but their relief 
does not exceed one-third of that of the glabella. The eyes 


lar fillet. The dintance from the. eye to ‘the glabella is 
nearly equal to the width of the glabella at - mid length. 
The front margin is narrow and is bounded by a feebly convex 
rim, inside of which there is a narrow furrow hich gradually 
deepens on either side of the median line in passing outwart 
Between this furrow and the glabella there is a somewhat angu- 
lar ridge which widens in passing outward to the sutures. 

The course of the facial suture is nearly the same with that 
of Solenopleura brachymetopa of Angelin (Paleontologia Scan- 
dinavica, Pl. xix, fig. 1), but is directed slightly more inward 
in front of the eye. The neck-furrow is continuous all across. 


The exact form of the neck-segment cannot made out, 
owing to the damaged condition of all of the sections at this 
point. It is seen, however, to be less elevated than in the ma- 


* Pal. Boss., vol: i, p. 357. 


S. W. Ford—Note on Lingulella celata. 127 


jority of the species, not rising above the surface of the fixed 
eks. The entire surface is covered witha fine regular gran- 
ulation. 

This species is the second one of the genus, so far as I am 
aware, that has been described from American rocks, the first 
one having been obtained from strata of the Acadian epoch 
in Newfoundland and described by Mr. Billings. It occurs in 
both even-bedded and conglomerate limestone of the Lower 

otsdam group at Troy, N. Y., associated with Olenellus, Cono- 
coryphe and Microdiscus. It is principally interesting on account 
of its affording another generic link between the already 
closely related faunz of the Acadian and Lower Potsdam. 

New York, Oct. 13th, 1877. 


Art. XVIL—Note on Lingulella celata ; by S. W. Forp. 


THE above mentioned species, occurring in the Troy Pri- 
mordial, has hitherto been set down by me as an Obviella, but 
the evidence now in hand shows tbat it should be referred to 
the genus Lingulella of Salter. The following are the principal 
characters : 

The ventral valve is somewhat elongate-ovate, with the beak 
pointed, slightly elevated and conspicuously channeled for the 
peeeee of the pedicle. The convexity is moderate and nearly 


position the large lateral scars of the ventral valve of certain 
species of Obolelia (e. g., O. chromatica.) The other impressions 
of this valve have not been made out. 

The dorsal valve is more rotund than the ventral and has the 
beak much depressed. The convexity increases with increas- 
ing age, and in adult specimens is such as to sometimes give 
the valve a semi-globose appearance. A shallow depression 
extends in all the specimens from the beak to the front margin, 
but in fully grown forms it is often inconspicuous. On the 
inside there are four prominent ridges. Of these the more cen- 
tral twocommence close to the median line a short distance in — 
front of the beak and extend into the forward third of the 
shell slightly diverging throughout, while the lateral pair take 
their rise close to the beak and reach to points a little in ad- 
vance of the mid-length. There is also a short slender ridge 
directly beneath the beak on the median line. The central por- 
tion of the valve in the upper half is slightly excavated. The 
description of the interior of this valve has been mainly drawn 
up from an excellent natural internal moul 


128 S. W. Ford—Note on Lingulella celata. 


The surface of both valves is ornamented with moderately 
conspicuous radiating and concentric lines, the latter irregularly 


series alternating with those of the next, and so on, as first 
pointed out by Professor Hall in his description of the dorsal 
valve (Pal. N. Y., vol. i, p. 290, pl. 79, fig. 9). The effect of this 
style of ornamentation is very beautiful ; and when, as is usu- 
ally the case, the shells have a dark, polished aspect, with a 
setting of light-colored limestone, few handsomer fossil objects 
can be named. The shell is thick and of a finely lamellar 
structure. The usual length of the ventral valve is about 
three and one-half lines. 

This is one of the best marked fossils of the Troy Primor- 
dial and may be easily identified by means of very small frag- 
meuts. 

The species known as Obolella crassa of the Troy beds may 
also be briefly noticed in this connection. It includes the 
species already widely known under the name of O. desquamata 
from the same locality, this latter, as may be shown, having been 
founded upon the dorsal valve of the former. The ventral valve 
is always more acutely pointed at the beak than the dorsal, but 
beyond this feature there is nothing, so far as I have been able 
to discover, by which they may be distinguished from each 
other externally. The surface of each, when perfect, is both 
radiately and concentrically striated. As a rule, however, the 
imbricating edges of the successive layers of growth are the 
only markings visible. : 

f the interior of the ventral valve an excellent figure was 
given by Mr. Billings on page 355 of this Journal for May, 1872; 
but the interior markings of the dorsal valve have nowhere, to 
my knowledge, yet been accurately shown. The scars are nearly 
the same with those of the dorsal valve of 0. chromatica,* but 
the smaller pair close to the beak are here, in the majority of 
cases, distinctly connected with the larger pair directly beneath 
them ; while the central pair, instead of running parallel with 
each other throughout, diverge at the mid-length of the valve, 
and extend onward in slender falcate forms into the anterior 
fourth of the shell. Their parallel portions are, however, the 
. only parts usually seen, and it was only after collecting the 
species for a number of years that I obtained evidence that 
what had come to be looked upon as wholes were, in reality, 
only parts of much more extensive impressions. 

The species of Brachiopoda at present known to me from 
the Troy Primordial are the following: Obolella crassa, O. gem- 

*“On the structure of Obolella chromatica,” by E. Billings, F.G.S. This 
Journal, March, 1876. : 


S. W. Ford—Development of Olenellus asaphoides. 129 


ma* (Billings sp., or a species which I am unable to distinguish 
from this form by any good characters), O. nitida, Lingulella 
celata, and asmall species of Orthis yet undescribed. This latter 
species is about one-third smaller than Orthis Billingsi of the 
Acadian groupt which it otherwise much resembles, except 
that the ribs do not dichotomize as in that species. None o 
the specimens yet obtained are sufficiently perfect to admit of 


a full description. 
New York, Oct. 31st, 1877. 


Art, XVIIL—WNote on the Development of Olenellus asaphoides ; 
by S. W. Forp. 


SINCE the publication of my paper giving an account of the 
metamorphoses of this remarkable trilobite,t I have obtained 
at Troy a number of specimens further illustrating and confirm- 
ing the fact of the metamorphoses. Among the more impor- 
tant of these is a beautifully preserved cephalic shield showing 
the manner in which the appendages that I have called the 
inter-ocular spines were finally lost. As this specimen supplies 
one of the most important links in the demonstration and ully 
confirms what was inferred from the structure of previously 
known specimens representing other phases of the development, 
the more interesting features which it presents may be briefly 
noticed at this time. : 

he specimen in question is almost exactly intermediate 
between the forms represented by figures 3 and 4 of my former 
paper. Excepting the neck-furrow and the second pair of fur- 
rows in advance, none of the glabellar furrows reach the median 
line; while the inter-ocular spines, still further reduced in size, 
are seen to be entirely cut off from the swollen spaces between 
the eye-lobes and glabella, by the furrows immediately within 
the eye-lobes extending completely across them, and uniting 
with the marginal furrows. There can be scarcely a doubt but 
that the next moult would result in a bead destitute of these 
appendages, as in fact, we find the forms next in order of in- 
creasing size to be. The dwarfed proportions of the appendages 
lead also to the conclusion that they are examples of atrophied 
Organs, as has likewise been suggested to me by M. Barrande. 
I know of no instance of this—the suppression of spinous 


* This Journal, Ma: 
me ? iV, 187 . 355. 
{ Acadian Geol., Tigaee 1868, p. 644. Also Dana, Man. of Geol., 1874, p, 


130 = S. W. Ford—Development of Olenellus asaphoides. 


appendages beyond the contour—in any other species of 
trilobite. 

The surface of the cheeks in the specimen under wipiig is 
beautifully ornamented with fine, waved, radiating lines as 
the adult. 

I may also add, that several of the different stages of growth 
observed are shown to be represented by two distinct forms, 
respectively a long and a broad form. The same thing has 
been stated by Barrande for a large number of Bohemian 
species. Some of the ~~ forms were very diminutive, the 
smallest specimen now in my possession being one-third smaller 
than the smallest axiniple yet illustrated. I have also observed 
oe specimen the width of which did not exceed ;',th of an 

neh 


. 


eee York, December 10th, 1877. 


* Neither the small trilobite scorers ph a a by G. Linnarsson under the n 
of Paradoxides aculeatus isha ransaction e Geol. Soc. of Stockholm for 1877, | ‘ 
aaa nor the Hage previously de ribo s as Paradoxides Kjerulfi by J. G. O. Lin- 
on furnish, in ilobi 


n roof of 
oumgeat in their structure, a generic identity with Olenellus asaphoides. Moreover, 
I greatly question ‘whether the two Swedish species above mentioned are truly 
—_——_ i 0 i oly 


mn 
There is nothing, to my mind, in the structure of the specimens figured. to ead to a 
comparison of the posterior spines of P_aculeatus wtth the smaller pair of P. Kjerulji. 
In regard to Mr. Linnarsson’s somewhat extended, but, as it appears to me, too 

sa 
reason to change any o of the statements Seer in my former paper. hatever 
L son’s P% le ove to be, I fid spiaiert 
that Olenellus a is et a true Par Wheat the development of some 
species of Paradoxides shall have been any on (if, indeed, any of the species ever 
sustained gee we shall probably , able to satisfy ourselve os more fully upon 
this point. The smaller spines of the posterior margin of P. mag — : 
a ece n with the in cathe tects cakes and G. Li 
was the first to perceive this; but at present I think it axeeey doubtful wbeaiae 
they can be properly regarded as homologous. ‘This will become the ache ge 
¢ i is 


4 and 
it may, the relations of the two genera are manifestly very close, and the Sw 
beds fortunately promise to contribute and toward working them out to com- 
leteness. Mr. Linnarsson considers peg ar and 
. aculeatus, one example of which he owe figures, an picheginka form of t 7 same 
— but finding that the forms of my young not his 
e thinks my account most probably deeply in fault. Were his conclusions 
and ame, 8 portray: yep by a better array of facts drawn from his own speci 
field of observation they pen possess greater fitness and value. 


hated ie 


Johnson and Chittenden—New Acid Ammonium Sulphates. 181 


Art, XIX.—On Schweitzer’s “New Acid Ammonium Sulphates ra 
by S. W. Jounson and R. H. Cuirrenpen. Contributions 
from the Sheffield Laboratory of Yale College. No. Ll. 


Dr. Paul Schweitzer, in a paper “On some New Acid Am- 
monium Sulphates, read before the American Chemical Society, 
July 6, 1876,* has given the results of some partial analyses of 
residues remaining after subjecting ammonium sulphate to 
several degrees of ignition, and has inferred: 1. That exposure 
to a heat a little higher than that of the boiling point of mer- 
cury converts ammonium sulphate into ammonium bisulphate 
with loss of one-half of its ammonia. 2. That a temperature 
somewhat below incipient redness occasions further loss of 
ammonia and sulphuric acid and leaves a salt of the formula 
(NH,),H,(SO,),. 3. That probably an intermediate salt is 
formed having the formula (NH,),H,(SO,), 

These conclusions are based on the fact that the residues of 
ignition at the temperatures named yield such percentages of 
SO, as the above formule require. We have repeated most 
of Dr. Schweitzer’s experiments, and so far as we have gone, 
have fully verified his observations. The formule which he 
deduces from his estimations of SO, are, however, inconsistent 
with the usually received atom-fixin wers of the elements 
involved, and we have made further investigation of the sub- 
stances to which he has called attention, in order to ascertain 
whether they are really exceptions to the laws of valence, and 
therefore possibly serviceable means of enlarging our generaliza- 
tions, or have a composition different from that which Dr, 
Schweitzer has inferred. 


and after fifteen minutes further igpinan “ted aap a = 
. urther heating at the same 


as the ignition is prolonged. second sample gave in the 
ee 
+ Made Pedigrees rg. —*, akc } onium carbonate, and analyzed 
With following results : 
Found, Calculated. 
60°70 60°60 


go 
(NH,),0 39°28 39°39 


182 Johnson and Chittenden—New Acid Ammonium Sulphaies. 


first analysis 68°95 per cent and after a second ignition 69°41 
per cent To make the analyses more complete, ammonia 
was estimated in both samples by distillation with sodium hy- 
droxide, and in the second sample hydrogen was determined by 
combustion with lead chromate and metallic copper and found 
to be 4°67 per cent. 

the basis of the ammonia estimation we have the follow- 
ing statement. 


Found. Found. Calculated for 
z 2. pisulphate. 
SO 70°08 69°41 69°56 
NH, 17°00 17°08 14°78 
Difference 12°92 13°51 H,O 15°66 
100°00 100°00 100°00 


The ultimate composition, reckoning oxygen by difference, 
is—— 


Found. Found. Calculated for 
i: 2. bisulphate. 
Ss 28°01 27°76 Ziec 
oO 53°49 55°65 
N 14°01 14°08 1217 
H 4°34 
100°00 99°98 


On dissolving in water the solution has an acid reaction, 
addition of strong alcohol to the saturated solution throws 
down a crystalline precipitate which is normal ammonium sul- 
phate and yielded in the results of two successive determinations 
25 r cent and 25°65 per cent of 3. Theory requires 


The analyzed substance compared with the salts just named 
in respect to atomic ratios gives the following results, eight 
atoms of sulphur being assumed in each case for convenience. 

Normal 


Seweitzer’s 1st 
sulphate. Bisulphate. Pyrosulphate. substance. 
oe 8 8 
N=16 8 12 9°3 
H=s4 40 26 43 
O==32 32 24 30°8 


Inspection of the above figures makes evident that the ana- 
lyzed substance must contain besides normal sulphate, a cer- 


Johnson and Chittenden—New Acid Ammonium Sulphates. 188 


tain proportion of bisulphate in order to bring down the 
nitrogen below twelve and also some pyrosulphate to reduce 
the oxygen below thirty-two. 

Calculation shows, in fact, that the substance is a mixture 
of nearly one molecule of pyrosulphate (NH,),S,0,, one 
molecule of sulphate, (NH,),SO,, and three molecules of bi- 
sulphate 3(NH,HSO,). Such a mixture would have the fol- 


lowing empirical expression: S,0,,N, H,, and its centesimal 
composition compares closely with our analyses. 
Calculated. Found. 
i; 
6S 27°86 28°01 27°76 
230 53°41 53°49 
IN 14°22 14°01 14°08 
31H 4°50 67 
99°99 100°00 


Our examination of the so-called “ biammonium tetrahydrogen 
sulphate” obtained by subjecting ammonium sulphate to near 
incipient redness demonstrates that it also is a mixture. Th 
facts given by Professor Schweitzer agree substantially with 
those observed by us. 
e found in the residue after two successive heatings 
54 and 


zer's formule, but indicate that the substance is very 
nearly a mixture of two molecules of ammonium bisulphate 
(NH,)HSO, with one molecule of pyrosulphate (NH,),5,0,. 
Such a mixture is represented empirically by S,0,,N,H,,. 
The percentages required by it and those found in our analyses 
are subjoined. 


Found. 
Calculated. ome = 2. 3. 
48 28°96 29°05 29°01 28°81 
150 54°29 53°85 53°78 
4N 12°67 12°94 12°94 12-96 
8H 4°07 4°16 4° 


On adding a little aleohol (98 ad cent) and agitating, oily- 
appearing drops separated, whic 


134 Johnson and Chittenden—New Acid Ammonium Sulphates. 


crystals formed. These B were separated and dried at 100 C. 
These crystals proved to be normal ammonium sulphate. 
They yielded by analysis— 
A B Calculated. 
(NH,),. 39°33 39°46 39°39 

The alcoholic mother-liquor was evaporated on the water- 
bath and left a small fluid residue, which on cooling deposited 
a few crystals, apparently of normal sulphate. The few drops 
of liquid remaining were intensely acid and had all the char- 
acters of sulphuric acid discolored by organic matters. Treat- 
ment with aqueous alcohol thus resolves both the bisulphate 
(two molecules) and the pyrosulphate into normal sulphate and 
sulphuric acid, or in part probably into sulphethylic acid. 

In the first stage of the decomposition of ammonium sul- 
phate at a temperature “a little higher than the boiling point of . 
mercury” the vapors are alkaline. The chemical change would 
appear to involve six molecules of the sulphate, which lose five 
molecules of ammonia gas and one molecule of water vapor, 
leaving as solid residue a mixture of one molecule of unchanged 
sulphate, one of pyrosulphate and three of bisulphate. 

a a le rir! Opal 
(NH,).S,0,-+(NH,).50, 
In these changes two molecules of sulphate yield one mole- 
cule of pyrosulphate with loss of one water- and two ammonia- 
molecules,* while three molecules of sulphate yield, each, a 
molecule of bisulphate, with loss of a molecule of ammonia,t 
and the sixth molecule of sulphate comes out unaltered. 

In the second stage of heating (near incipient redness) the 
fumes are at first alkaline, but shortly become acid, and con- 
tinued so as long as that temperature is maintained. 

The changes are empirically expressed as follows: 

S,0,,N,H,,—[280,+2H,0+3NH,]=S,0,,N.Hie, 
or rationally— 
[3(NH,HSO,)+(NH,).S,0, + (NH,),S0,] —[2S0,+2H,0+ 
3NH, |=2(NH,HSO,)+(NH,).8,0,. 

The rise of temperature from 350° to 520° C. appears not to 
alter the pyrosulphate and bisulphate, but the chemical change 

to result from a molecule of sulphate reacting on a mole- 
cule of bisulphate, whereby both are decomposed, thus— 
NH,HSO,+(NH,),80,=280,4+2H,0+3NH,. 

It would be interesting to study the reactions at other 

tem peratures. 


ONH. 
80s<oxn* 80, / ONH, 
* NE, gs 0+2NH,]=<, >0 
ONH. ? 3+" S80, 
SO.< : ~ONH, 


+ 380,<0N Ht —3NH,=380:<On- 


S. Watson—Poplars of North America. 1385 
Art. XX.—The Poplars of North America; by SERENO 
WATSON. 


THE following incomplete synopsis of the species of Populus 
is based upon the material in several of our principal herbaria, 
and is published for the purpose of drawing the attention o 
botanists during the coming season to this still very imperfectly 
known genus. Flowers and fruit even of the common species 
are too rare in collections, and are much needed for their satis- 
factory definition. 

§ 1. Styles two, with two or three narrow or filiform lobes: 
capsules small, thin, oblong-conical, two-valved: seeds very 
small: leaves ovate. 

* Petioles flattened: bracts silky: stamens six to twenty. 

1. P. tremuloides Michx. 2. P. grandidentata Michx. 

** Petioles terete: bracts not silky: stamens twelve to sixty. 

3. P. heterophylla L. 

. Styles two to four, with dilated lobes: capsules large, 
often thick, subglobose to ovate-oblong, two to four-valved : 
bracts mostly glabrous. 

* Leaves cordate or ovate to lanceolate, crenate; petioles 
terete: stamens twelve to thirty: seed a line lon 


4. P. balsamifera L. Leaves whiter beneath, ovate-lanceo- 
late, acuminate, glabrous ; petioles one-half to two inches long, 


thombie-ovate to narrowly lanceolate, mostly cuneate at base, 
often small ; petioles one-half inch long or less (rarely one 


136 S. Watson—Poplars of North America. 


and extensively planted in Utah, but the wood considered 
worthless, 
+t t Capsule tomentose, three-valved. 
6. P. trichocarpa Torr. and Gray. Leaves broadly ovate, 
acuminate, cordate, often whiter beneath with age, puberulent 
when young; petioles one or two inches long: rhachis pubes- 


villous: pedicels a line or two long.—S. California to W. 
Nevada and British Columbia. 

* * Leaves deltoid, sinuate-crenate ; petioles flattened: sta- 
mens sixty or more: seed one and one-half or two lines long: 
capsule three or four-valved : rhachis and disk glabrous. 

7. P. monilifera Ait. Leaves with numerous serratures and 
narrow very acute acumination, broadly truncate-deltoid, some- 
times ovate, rarely cordate; petioles two to four inches long: 
ament usually long (two to seven inches): disk rarely two 
lines broad: capsules rather thin, oblong-ovate, four or five 
lines long, on slender pedicels one to five lines long.—New 
England to Florida, Louisiana,-and the base of the Rocky 
Mountains in Colorado and Wyoming. Most flowering and 
fruiting specimens seen from east of the Mississippi have four, 
rarely three, distinct styles and a four-valved capsule; a single 


a peltate stigma, and the capsule three-valved. The more 
western specimens have all three distinct styles and a three- 
valved capsule. ere are no apparent differences otherwise, 
and it remains to be seen whether these forms can be specilic- 


t 
P. Fremonti Watson. Leaves with few serratures (four 
ad aeute 


lines broad, and pedicels eight to ten lines long: pistillate 


a ree ur inches long: disk three lines broad: cap- 
sules ovate, thick-coriaceous, three-valved, on stout pedicels two 


(two to six inches long), the disk two or three lines broad, and 

the somewhat angled capsules three- or usually four-valved, on 

slender pedicels two to eight lines long.—The phat form 

from N. California to S. Utah; the variety from S. California 
to the Rio Grande. 3 
- ze ip 


Chemistry and Physics. 187 


SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE. 
I. CHEMISTRY AND PHysIcs. 


1, Liquefaction of Oxygen ;* by M. Raovut Picret.—The ob- 
ject which I have had in view for more than three years is to 
demonstrate experimentally that molecular cohesion js a general 
property of bodies, to which there is no exception. 

the permanent gases are not capable of liquefying, we must 
conclude that their constituent particles do not attract each other, 
and thus do not conform to this law. 

Thus, to cause experimentally the molecules of a gas to approach 
each other as much as possible, certain indispensable conditions 
are necessary, which may be expressed thus :— 

(1.) To have the gas absolutely pure, with no trace of foreign gas. 

ts} To be able to obtain extremely energetic pressures. 

3.) To obtain intense cold, and to subtract heat at these low 
temperatures, 

(4.) To utilise a large surface for condensation at these low tem- 


peratures, 

(5.) To be able to utilise the rapid expansion of the gas from 
extreme condensation to the atmosphere pressure—an expansion 
which, added to the preceding means, will compel liquefaction. 
Having fulfilled these five conditions, we may formulate the 

oa alternative :— 

e 


Satisfy these different conditions, and I have chosen the compli- 
cated apparatus of which the following 1s a brief description :— 


» ing E 

Couple these pumps in such a way that the exhaustion of one 
Corresponds to the compression of the other. The exhaustion ° 
the first communicates with a tube (R) of 1°1 metres long and 12° 


138 Scientific Intelligence. 


centimeters in diameter, nig filled with liquid sulphurous acid. 
Under the influence of a good vacuum the temperature of this 
so rapidly sinks to —65°, and even to —73°, the extreme limit 


SThioegh this tube of eke as acid passes a second smaller 
tube (s), of six pigeon diameter, and the same length as the 
envelope. These two tubes are lonil by a common base. 

In the central pre is retained compressed sarionls acid pro- 
duced by the reaction of hydrochloric acid on Carrara marble. 
This gas, being dried, is stored in an oil gasometer (@) of one 
cubic meter capacity. 

t a pressure of from four to six oe oo carbonic acid 
easily liquefies under these circumstance The resulting liquid 
is led into a long — tube (B), four cma in jength and four 
ne more in diamete 

o pumps, P pes ae , coupled together like the first, exhaust 
dartonls acid either fro om ‘the penn? (c) or from the long tube 


lowest obtainable temperature. These two long tubes are con- 
nected by the ends of the carbonic ate tube, consequently oo 
ore tube extends about one meter beyond the other. I hav 
rved this portion downward and given the two long tubes . 
slightly inclined position, but still very near the horizontal, as I 
have shown in the accompanyin wee 
cine small central tube is curved at a, and screws into the neck 
howitzer shell, c, the ane “of which are thirty-five 
pailinietans thick ; the height is is ee centimeters, and the 


the 
up, and introduced into the shell perfectly dry. When the double 
circulation of the sulphurous and carbonic acids has lowered the 


Chemistry and Physics. 139 


DESCRIPTIONS OF THE DRAWINGS. 


4. A tu meters | 14 millimeters external diameter, and 4 millim 
Wioenat P Bence in hic the o vane 5 condenses. It is furnished we é a 


w-tap, 7, from which the liquid oxygen jets out. Ap’ gauge, M, 
measures the pressure up to 800 atmospheres. 
B.A fade: 4 + meters long, .; which is solid carbonic acid. The stock of carbonic 
acid i ined in a gaso cymes G, of 1 cubic cir gh capaci es three-way 
tap, , nate it when desired in munication with the appara : 
ri shell : f chlorate of potash mixed with 
ng age potassium. It is heated with gas. : crn ee 
the tube B or the gasometer G, according to the position of the, 
8. A tube, 60 anillinaeters diameter and 1°] meter long, in which is condensed the 
the pumps. This liquefied gas returns by 
gr sue 125 ie Pence " diameter and 1-1 meters long, containing liquid 
acid. 
oa P,. Doubleaction exhaustion and force pumps, exhausting sulphurous acid 
the tube rR. 
Q. A tubular condenser of sulph compressed by the pumps. This body, 
ar na returns by the smal Es the tube R. The cold water for 
acid passes through the apertures E E. 


ic acid caused by the suction of the pumps. 


140 Scientific Intelligence. 


fo giisg eine . the — depres, I heat the shell over a series 
of gas-burn The decomposition of the chlorate of potas 
takes place a “first ceieniy, iad rather suddenly towards the 
end of the vperation. A pressure-gauge, M, at the extremity of 
a long tube, lets me constantly observe the pressure and the pro- 
gress of the reaction. This gauge is graduated to 800 atmos- 
pheres, and was made for me expressly by Bourdon, of Paris. 
hen the reaction is terminated the pressure exceeds 500 

atmospheres; but it almost immediately sinks a ase and stops 
at 320 atmospheres. If at this moment I open the screw-tap, 7, 
which terminates the tube, a jet of liquid is distinotly ae seen to 0 spirt 
out with extreme violence. I close the tap, and in the course of a 
few moments a second jet—less abundant, however—can be ob- 
tained. 

Pieces of charcoal, slightly incandescent, put in this jet —_ 
spontaneously with inconceivable violence. have not yet s 


ittle of this liquid. 
ee ot I repeated this experiment before the majority of the 
mbers of our Physical gone moat e had three successive 
Z 


posal, worked by a steam-engine. 
Geneva, December 25, 1877. 


en—among 
expressly to assist at  ehis important experim 

At 10 o’clock in the evening the m nanieeater, which had risen to 
560 atmos —- a few ssinutes to 505, and remained 


this diminution in the pressure that part of the gas had assumed 
the liquid form under the fattaanes of the 140 degrees of cold to 
which it was exposed. The tap closing the orifice of the reve was 
then — and a jet of oxygen spirted out with extraordinary 
violence 

A ray of electric light being thrown on the sae’ 2 showed 
that it was chiefly composed of two parts ;—one central, and some 
centimeters long, the whiteness of which showed that the element 
was liquid, or even solid; the other exterior, the blue tint of 


Chemistry and Physics. 141 


which indicated the presence of oxygen compressed and frozen in 
the gaseous state. 

The success of this remarkable and conclusive experiment called 
forth the applause of all present. 

We understand that Messrs. Pictet & Co., of 22, Rue de Gram- 
mont, Paris, are fitting up apparatus with the intention of having 
these experiments repeated at their Freezing-Machine Works, at 
Clichy, in Paris.— Chemical News, . 4. 

‘ Liquefaction of Oxygen, Nitrogen and Hydrogen. 
Experiments of M. Cailletet. (From Nature, of January 3d 


of 300 atmospheres and at a temperature 0 This result 
was ommunicated to the Acade at t was con- 
signed to a sealed packet on account of M. Cailletet being then a 
candidate for a seat in the Section of Mineralog ence, then, 


credited to both, on the ground that the researches of each were 
absolutely independent, both pursuing the same object, creating 


compressed. The remainder of the space in the large cylinder is 
occupied by mercury. M. Cailletet’s process consists in com- 


Was at once formed. The same result has since been obtained 
Without the employment of sulphurous acid, by giving the gas 
time to cool after compression. 


142 Screntific Intelligence. 


MM. Pictet has done; on being separated from its enormous pres- 
sure it has merely put on on the — of a cloud. 

M. Cailletet first introduced pure nitrogen gas into the appa- 
ratus, Undera pressure of 200 atmospheres the tube was opened, 
and a number of drops of liquid nitrogen were formed. Hydro- 

n was hext experimented with, and this, the lightest and most 
difficult, of all gases, was 8 reduce to the form of a mist at 280 


present at the experiment estimated it at —300 
Although oxygen and nitrogen h ad both been liquefied, it was 
deemed of interest to carry out the process with air, and t 
eo was filled with the latter, carefully dried and freed from 
carbonic acid. The xp yielded the same 


3. On the Lie Soctiee ‘of Acetylene, Ethyl hydride, Nitrogen 
dioxide and ly Mars. AILLETET, studying the com- 
pressibility ot acetylene, seeds a amarked departure from the law 

f Mariotte in its behavior, and, pushing the condensation still 
further, succeeded in liquefying it. The apparatus consisted of a 


ac a i the temperature bei ais gens tans 1 
seen to form and run down the walls of the tube, under a pre 
of eighty-three atmospheres. R the pressure gradually, 


ragerelty a pears to hl refractive, and is lighter than water 

which ais soluble Eas | proportions. It dissolves paraffin 
and fats. Cooled to zero in presence of water and linseed oil, it 
forms a white compound like snow, which decomposes on heating 
or lowering the pressure. The tension of the acetylene vapor 
is as follows: at +1°, 48 pera sar at 2°5, 50; at 10, 


63; at 18°, 83; at 25°, 94; at 31° Com omparing t the tensions 
of acetylene, ethylene, and ethyl i (C,H,) which con- 
tain in equal volumes, equal weights ts of carbon united to increas- 


ing quantities of hydrogen in the ratio 1:2: 3, the author finds 
the tension of acetelyne at 1°, as above, to be "forty-four atmo- 
spheres ; that of ethylene at 0° according to Semen: being forty- 
six atmospheres, and that of ethylene hydride—now liquefied for 


Chemistry and Physics. 143 


the first time by Cailletet—at 4° being forty-six atmospheres, its 
liquefaction taking place at a pressure a little less than that of 
acetyle 


e. 


a subsequent paper, CAILLETET announces the liquefaction of 
nitrogen dioxide, by a pressure of 104 atmospheres at —11°. At 
> Rha ae Bigg 
u 


and so remained up to a hei ht of four or five centimeters, Teach- 
ing 650° at the height of six centimeters. Mixtures of air and 

Sid in a Bunsen burner closed below, and the 
temperature measured in the hottest part of the flame. For one 


one volume of gas and three of air, 1116° ith four volumes 
of air the mixture would no longer burn in a Bu ; 
and burned from a at-wing burner gav mapera- 


and one-half CO,, a temperature of 1000°; one volume gas and 
two of CO, gave 860°; moe with three of CO, 780°. With four 
Hommes CO,, the mixture burned only in contact with a flame.— 
az. Chim. Ital., vii, 422, Sept. 1877. 2, 2 Sa 
5. On the nciple of Maximum Work, as illustrated by the 
Spontaneous decomposition of Barium perhydrate.—As & funda- 


144 Scientific Intelligence. 


mental deduction from his thermochemical researches, BERTHELOT 
proved long ago the tendency of chemical systems toward that 
composition which corresponds to the maximum evolution of heat. 
He now notes an excellent illustration of this law in the case of 
barium perhydrate, which decomposes spontaneously, while 
barium peroxide is permanent. A specimen of BaO, prepared 
in 1874 contained 9:4 oxygen in excess, and in 1877, 9°2 of this 
oxygen; showing its permanence. The hydrate however, BaO, 
(H,O),, prepared pure and kept moist, gradually decomposes, 
gas bubbles of oxygen developing in the mass, generating a pres- 
sure in the vessel, and forming a crystalline mass o 

hydrate BaO, (H,O),,. This decomposition is even more rapid 
under water. A specimen prepared in 1874 and kept moist, had 


spontaneous decomposition of barium perhydrate is not to be 
found in any symbolic considerations, drawn from a figurative 
arrangement of atoms; but is explained by very simple and very 
obvious principles, resulting from the regular action of molecular 
mechanics,”— Bull. Soc. Ch., I, xxviii, 502, Dec. 1877. G. F. B. 
6. On the Hydrocarbon called Idryl.—Gotpscumiept has sub- 


ul was the alcoholic extract of the chamber deposit, and fused 
from 75° to 86°. By solution in alcohol, difficultly soluble flocks 
were observed which were filtered off and marked A. They fused 
at about 200°. From the filtrate, or from the more fusible por- 


dissolved in aleohol and mixed with a 
solution of picric acid. Red crystalline precipitates were thus 


nt. On concentration, additional picrate was obtained but 
ighter in color as it was more soluble. The portions having 


Chemistry and Physics. 145 


nearly the same fusing point were united and recrystallized till 
this point was constant; eighty fractions being in this way con- 
i ee. The first ( in dark red i 


fusing at 220°; the second (D) was in large bright red_ brittle 
needles, fusing at 185°; the third AE) was in oot: yellow fine deli- 
cate needles, which fused at 144°. On examin ing the fractions 
obtained A yielded a small care of a body insoluble in ben- 


fraction D a new hydrocarbon having the formula C a whisk 
though not Gas al with Bédecker’s substance—this being pro 

ably a mixture of pyrene and phenanthrene—the author proposes 
to call idryl. Further researches lagp 8 its constitution are in 


progress.— Ber. Berl. Chem. Ges., x, 2022, Dec 
1. Onthe Determination of Nitrogen in Ni troglycerin. —LAUER 
and Apor have made a series of experiments to ascertain the best 


method of determining nitrogen | in be POLL eh Solution of the 


of the nitrogen by Reichhardt’s method, gave too low results. The 
dynamite was then shaken with water, the deposited nitroglycerin 
dissolved in alcohol, the alcoholic solution treated with potash and 


on ssiwnesly and yielded she, theoretical ‘quantity, 18°5 ap: ia — 
rl. Chem. Ges., x, 1982, Dec 

8. On Anis Hydantoins. gtr we direct union of pono 

acid and glycocoll, hydantoic acid is produced : door *4+CONH 


=Cco<NH By loss of water, hydantoin is formed 


NH.CH ,COOH. 
ee 

CONV H CH,” Hydantoin and its homologues methyl-hydan- 

toin, may also be formed by fusing nectar g Heo H. or the corre 


sponding homologues of it with urea: d 5% OH “CONT 


=€o< ieee me at *+H.O+NH,. Scuweser has succeeded 
in forming a Ladi a en by fusing together phenyl-glycocoll 
NH 


with | Phenvl-hydantoic acid was not 
urea: CO omy yl-hy aa 
obtained. When how ever, ™” acani dea e ata 


and Phenyl-elyoocall in aqueous . solution are allowed to stand for 
some days at 40° the filtrate after separation of the a m 
ce esl “ie alcohol, on abundance of phenyl-by — 
Ber. Berl, Chem. 2045, Dec. 1877. F. B. 
‘hai. ri Scr.—Tutrp eal: Vou. XV, No. 86.—Fes., 1878. 
10 


146 Scientific Intelligence. 


9h On the Behavior fl a acid in the Organism of Birds. 
FFE has taken up anew the question of the ¢ change which 
“ins acid undergoes in the organism of birds, first investigated 
y Meissner and Shepard. He confirms the result of these latter 
chemists that no isopiiein acid is geen but that an acid is ex- 
creted which like hippuric acid is a paired benzoic acid. To this 
acid he gives the name ornithuric ary e prepares it by ex- 
tracting with alcohol the fresh excreta of hens fed on benzoic acid, 
evaporating the alcohol, = ew ing again with hot absolute alcohol, 
and evaporating. ame? sre dedi aegis liquid is mixed wit 


thuric acid separates in crystalline ‘ikea having when pare the 
empirical formula C,,H,,N,O,. Boiled with hydrochloric acid it 
gives benzoic acid and a new base C (NH, ):0» inn 
acid.— Ber. Berl. Chem. Ges., x, 1925, Nov. . B 
9. Le Sage 8 Theory of Gravitation ; J by ae Seeds LLD., 
F.R.S.—Le Sage’s Theory of Gravitation is at present exciting a 
good deal of attention among physicists. ag is perhaps to a 
considerable extent due to the fact that some of the — 
arbitrarily assumed by Le Sage in his ent othesis, have 
ogc to follow as necessary consequences from the kinetic ene 


e 
one case at least he seems to me to have failed.* It isa necessary 
condition of Le Sage’s theory, in order that gravity may be pro- 
portional to mass, that the total volume of the free spaces In a 
apa in the form of interstices between the molecules a 
t compared with the total volume of matter containe 

- fiolbenles themselves. This condition of free interstices Mr. 
Preston considers to be satisfied by assuming the molecules to be 
small as compared with their mean distances 

Were we at liberty to make any assu ssumptions we chose in refer- 
ence to the smallness of the molecules of matter and their distance 


* In an interesting article on Kinetic Theories of Gravitation by Mr. W. B. 
ttayslot-pabiiahed in the Smithsonian Report for 1876, he lays down six funda- 
characteristics of of gravitation with which every theory, he says, must 

six requirements, Le Sage’s theory he maintains satisfies but 


Chemistry and Physics. 147 


them. This subject has recently been investigated by Sir William 
Thomson, who has given full details of his result in a remarkable 
paper in “Nature” vol. i, p.551. Sir William says the diameter 
of the molecule cannot be less than z59,54y,a57 Of a centimeter. 
The number of molecules in a cubic centimeter of a liquid or a 
solid may, he says, be from 3X10" to3X10*. This gives the dis- 
tance from center to center of two consecutive molecules to be 

aaivsor of a centimeter. Now, if we take 


theory appears therefore to be utterly irreconcilable with Sir 


But even supposing we were to assume, what we are ha ar- 
ranted in doing, that the molecules are 10,000 times smaller and 
their distances 10,000 times greater than Sir Willi omson 
concludes, still this would not assist the or c 


Mag., Jan., 1878. : 
10, On the Thermal Conductivity and Diathermancy of Air 
and Hydrogen.—Dr. Henry Borr, Professor of Physics in the 
University of Giessen has undertaken the revision of the wo 
rong eeigp Tyndall and others upon this subject. The apparatus 


could be filled with any gas at any pressure. A thermometer was 
luserted through a tubulature about 50 mm. below the thin glass 
plate placed in a horizontal position. e upper vessel was filled 


ed 
he found that the temperature akeny"s pyoabad ie: , 
even at ordin atmospheric pressure it had greater dlatherman 
than a ane He batt “8 ly concluded that hydrogen was 
Similar to the metals in to conducting power. Dr, Buff’s 


# 


148 Scientific Intelligence. 


apparatus was similar to that of Magnus, with the exception that 
a brass cylinder was cemented upon the glass vessel; instead of 
the thin glass plate a polished metallic surface, constituting the 
bottom of the brass vessel, faced the enclosed thermometer, a 
double wall surrounded the cylinder filled with cotton wool to pre- 
vent too rapid cooling. The glass cylinder was 20 em. high and 
7°5 em. in diameter-—its lower edge was ground so as to fit air-tight 
upon the plate of an air pump. The thermometer in Magnus’ 
d of 


air.” —Phil. Mag., Dec. 1877, page 401. 

11. & of the Electrie Spark in compressed gases.—CAZIN 
and Winer have been experimenting separately upon the sub- 
ject. Cazin resses his results as follows: The electric spark 
resembles an ordinary gas flame. In both sources of light there 
are, beside the peculiar vaporous particles which give line spectra, 

e admixture of the last which arises from the character of the 
electrodes and sides of the containing vessel increases with the 
pressure, so that finally the line spectrum upon the higher con- 
tinuous spectrum disappears. In the so-called aureole the mate- 


Geology and Mineralogy. 149 


ich were not perceptible at ordinary pressures, together with 
the always present sodium lines an um line which ap- 


clusions of Cazin that the continuous spectrum 1s 
: c 


IL GroLtoagy AND MINERALOGY. 


1. Silurian Plants ; by Leo Lesquereux. 12 pp. 8vo. From 
the Proceedings of the Amer. Phil. Soc., Oct, 19, 1877.—Mr. Les- 
quereux has here published, with a plate for illustration, his latest 


cinnati group, first brought out in 1876, gives additional maport. 

ance and interest to the earlier discoveries 1n Ohio. M . Lesqu 
reux calls the species he first described Protostigma sigillaroides : 
nd adds now, from the same rocks—the Cincinnati group, near 
Cincinnati, Sphenophyllnm primevum Lesqx., Psilophytum gra- 
cillimum Lesqx. (near Covington, Ky., opposite Cincinnati). : 
In thi er Mr. Lesquereux also describes a Fungus (Bhi 
zomorpha sigillarice Lesqx.), found in connection with a Sigilla- 

ria in cannel coal at Cannelton, Beaver Co., Kentucky. 

: ; 2 by WarrEN Upuam. 


150 Scientific Intelligence. 


study of these Quaternary deposits, carried on while acting as 
assistant geologist in the survey of the State. The conclusions 
here brought out with regard to the long gravel deposits of the 
larger valleys, which had been called kames, or eskers, are given 
at length in the last volume of this Journal, in an article contrib- 
uted by himself. All parts of the subject are worked up with 
- thoroughness and the facts are given with full details in the vol- 
u ons. 


é as 
von N. v. Koxscnarow.—The monograph of the eminent Russian 


4. Die Glimmergruppe ; 1 Theil, von G. Tschermak.—The me- 


moir by Prof. Tschermak upon the mica family, of which the first 


ical relations to a second paper. The exact determination of their 
optical characters has enabled the author to prove that all the 
micas, although a variation in angle from the orthorhombic form 
may not be established, are nevertheless monoclinic. 

e micas are divided into two groups; with the first the plane 
of the optic ages is perpendicular to the plane of symmetry and 
with the second is parallel to it; they are as follows:— 


— i Anomite. Meroxene, Lepidomelane. 
— Phlogopite, Zinnwaldite. 
Muscovites:—  Lepidolite. ; 


FP 
Margarites:—  Margarite. 
The name Merorene, first introduced by Breithaupt, is em- 
ployed by the author to include all the nlagnesia micas of Wr eivitia: 
and also all other magnesia micas closely related to them and not 
falling into the other divisions. On the other hand the magnesia 
micas which fall into the second class as defined above are called 
anomite (Gr. avouéo) ; in this class falls the mica of L. Baikal, 
and that of Greenwood Furnace, N. Y.— Vienna Academy. 
E. 8. 


dD. 


Botany and Zoology. 151 


II Botany AND ZooLoey. 


1. The Hybridization of Lilies ; by Francis Parkman.—In 
No. 15 of the second volume of the Bulletin of the Bussey Insti- 
tution, under the above title, Mr. Parkman gives a summary of his 
experiments, during ten or twelve years, in crossing Lilies. One 


d | 
name of Lilium Parkmanni. The interesting physiological point 
which Mr. Parkman here records is, that this striking novelty 

h 


rent, L. speciosum. That 
these plants were truly hybrids, notwithstanding, is well made 
g 


parent. 
It would naturally be thought that this slight but evident im- 
pression of the character of the male parent might be deepened 
y iteration. That was tried next year, when the flowers of 
several of these plants were fertilized with the pollen of L. awratum 
precisely as their female parent had been fertilized, The result 
was an extremely scanty crop of seed, “ but there was envagh to 


_ ren experiment proceeded one generation 
farther. “In the following year I set some of them apart from 


152 Scientific Intelligence. 


the — and applied to them, as to their mother before ont the 
po n of several species of lilies. This time the seeds were ex- 
Genely mat: A few, however, were reebased but the oleate 
and flowers that resulted Ce them were, to all appearance, Z. 
superbum pure and s 
In trials of other spines results intermediate between these two 
cases were obtained. For instance the pure white of the perianth 


the herbag 
unaffected ; but in that or the next ‘generation “ distinct stapes 
could be seen of the eet of alien pollen” in the changed color of 
many of the anthers, and in the abortion of others. They “ass 
showed differences of habit among themselves, some being ve 

sae and vigorous, oe others compact and bus shy, W with a tendency 
o bloom in clusters; but these ma y have been mere seedling 

veeldthoria with whieh the dipbeldinetioi had nothing to do.” Yet 
some of these marks correspond with known results of hybridiza- 
tion 
That offspring should partake ster oe of the characters of the 
two A sone is a matter of commo: observation. That in the genus 
in forty i nstance “yr = fifty take 


shown, is verre remarkable. That, in not a few instances it should 
take them al 


should be rey resented = cases — extraordin ae ‘ 


the name of the two parents, t shat of the male ing. The 
plan had the double advantage of indicating the origin of the 
cross, and of distinguishing rt ae om species in nomenclature ; 

in practice it proves insufficien 


Botany and Zoology. 153 


. 


would be broken up. But it is now stated (Gard. Chron., Dee. 15 


of all countries, specially those of dry regions. .G. 

3. Dr. Engelmann’s new botanical Papers in the Transactions 
of the Acad. Sci. St. Louis, vol. iii, Nov.—Dec., 1877.--The most 
Important of these papers is an appendix to that on The Oaks 
of the United States, read in the spring of 1876, and pub- 
lished soon afterward. A full notice of it appeared in this 


of the section Sabina, which fills ten pages with the discussion 
of our nine s ecies, Mexican and West Indian being included. 
The third paper is a small one on The Flowering of Agave Shawii, 
with a plate illustrating floral details. It must suffice merely to 
announce these publications, which are indispensable to working 
botanists. ee 

A new range for two Orchids is given by the Rev. Dr. 
Wizse of Oswego, New York, who sends Listera australis and 
Habenaria leucophlia, gathered by him in “Lily Marsh,” nine 
miles east of Oswego. ‘The first was not known north of the pine 

arrens of New Jersey, and is a southern plant. The secon 
longs to the district from central Ohio west, but Mr. Hankenson 


tals, AG 


ay e€ 
Work is full of interesting facts and observations and is excel- 


154 Scientific Intelligence. 


lently illustrated. Had it been shortened by one-half, it would 
ha en easier reading, certainly for foreigners. As it is, it is 


and spores of Coprinus are produced directly from the mycelium 
by a vegetative process without the intervention of any sexual 
ns, i t thi i 


sclerotium, the stipe, and the pileus and places them in conditions 
favorable to farther growth. Now, if the fruit-bearing body is 


) Hence there can be no sexual organs either in the sclero- 
tium, stipe or pileus. The mycelium and the hymenium in 


see about the first attempt to refer different species of fungi to a 
hypothetical type which was the common ancestor. This method 
which has been used with such advantage by zoologists is not 


Botany and Zoology. 155 


likely to answer as well in fungi of which almost no definite fossil 
remains exist. W. G. F, 
5. Beitrdge zur Entwickelungsgeschichte der Flechten, Part II. 
Ueber die Bedeutung der Hymenialgonidien ; by Dr, E. Srant. 
Leipsic,, 1877. 8°.—An admirable essay, excellently planned, 
and beautifully written. In the first part of this work whic 
already been noticed in the Journal, Stahl gave an account of the 
sexual organs of lichens. In the present, he considers the signifi- 
cation of the hymenial gonidia of course in its bearings on the 


menial gonidia are derived from the thalline gonidia and present 

a different aspect simply from their different surround 

the spores are Sacheused some the nial gonidia are 
ways dischar ith them. the res germinate, thei 

hyphe fasten themselves upon the gonidia which then increase 

more rapidly tha re. In from four to five months Stahl suc- 

ceeded in raising n rithecia and spores by his culture of the 


y producing the lichen-fruit in his cultures, Stahl removes this 


o e 
notice the statement in the number of Just’s Jahresbericht that 


156 : Scientific Intelligence. 


° 
+ 
mM 
} 
ia 
feed 
@ 
~T 
oo 
> 
Ry 
e 
&. 
eel 
® 
Qu 
9 
° 
re) 
ro) 
Ps 
=] 
ea 
%, 
e 
=a 
oO 
ae) 
ber 
} 
4 
ct 
> 
° 
ba 
ae 
o 
fas) 


several months and attain a considerable size. Ww. G F. 
anew Species of Parasitic Green Alga belonging to the 


Chlorochytrium = found b Prot. Wright on several plants, 


the parasite which is very common on Keto rpi of o 
coast. At the end of the second article is a consideration of the 
iferent forms of sporangia found in British species of Eetocarpus. 


. 


that his method is free from errors, he submits the following ex- 


spiration are the ones absorbed by chlorophyll 
trauspiration be ee mee to their own convertible energy ; it 


t with greater energy, although only partly ab- 
sorbed by chlorophyll, than can a blue ray, pene inca orific radia- 
e a é bsorbed. ah @ ; 

; apanese Lingula and Shell Mounds.—At a meeting 0 
= Boston Society of Natural History, December 19, Professor 
WARD 8. Morse communicated some of the results of his work 


Botany and Zoology. 157 


in Japan. His main object in visiting Japan was to study more 
fully a group of animals upon which he has been at work for a 
long time—the Brachiopoda. 

Accepting an appointment as professor of Zoology in the Impe- 
rial University of Tokio he established a Zoological station on the 
coast for the purpose of collecting material for the University 
Museum and for the training of Japanese assistants in the work. 

Ilis studies of Lingula have brought out many points new to 
science. The discovery of audito In ss 


been changed twice since August 20th, and yet no specimen 
died. This illustrated more fully the vitality of Lingula than the 
experiments he had made on the North Carolina Lingula several 
years since. : 

A description was also given of an ancient shell-mound discov- 
ered by Professor Morse at Omori near Tokio, and photographs of 
many of the vessels exhumed were exhibited. The general aspects 
of the deposit were like those described by Steenstrup in Denmark, 


’ ates coast. 
The implements were mostly horn. Only three rude stone imple- 
ments were discovered. The pottery was remarkable in showing 


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In the character of the raised knobs for handles on the edge of 
the vessels it shows the closest resemblance to pottery discovered 


by Professor Hartt in Brazil. Mr. Morse was not pre 
whether it was early Aino or a race which ‘ the Ainos 
and which the Ain i in their occupation of the island 


158 Scientific Intelligence. 


The American Naturalist.—The January number of this sci- 
entific monthly comes to us from Philadelphia, where this Journal 
is to be published hereafter by Messrs. McCalla & Stavely. 
Protessor E. D. Cope is now associated with Professor Packard 
in the editorial management of the journal. It has always been 
successful in combining the scientific and popular in its articles, 
and has contributed greatly to scipnoeeducation 4 in the country as 
well as to the progress of geet ; and the Prospectus states that 
this will, be still its aim. It is also announced that the depart- 
ment of birds will be edited by Dr. Coues, and that of micros- 
copy by Dr. R. oe Ward; and that Professor O. ia poe will 


interest, maki an attractive journa mateur as well 
as the man of science. It has for its mata a a beautiful col- 
ored plate of Baird’s Bunting,—Passerculus of Coues,— 
illustrating a paper by Dr. Elliot Coues, U.S. A. Professor J. 
A. Allen has a paper on An inadequate “ The birds’ nests,” 
in which, after stating various facts, expresses the following 
conclusion: ‘“ surprising thing about Mr. allace’s 
‘theory of birds’ nests’ is its inadequacy and its irrelevancy to the 

as proposed to explain; espect it was 


a >a for the Bulletin is only two dollars 

Nests of “ the dener.”—In the Annali ai Stori ria naturale 
ael pt Civico di Genova, the illustrious traveller and botanist, 
Prof. eccari, describes the wonderful gallery or bower-con- 
structions of the Amblyornis inornata, observed by himself in 
the Arfak Mountains. The huts and gardens, as built and laid 
out by this bird, which is called “the gardener,” to surpass 
any production of intelligence and taste for the waniited hitherto 
described and observed in birds of the Paradise family.— Nature, 


Dee. 6, p. 110. 
IV. Astronomy. 
tie Meteors observed in Cambridge, Mass,, November 3, 1877. 


m 

the d same radian. which was near 0 Mars, pea! their directions 

were towards the S.W., all Avene Is to the ‘Mere radiant. 
B.A me Ps. H. 

. Prize for the discovery of Comets,—The ye my 
of aSrideni at Vienna has resolved to continue, un raat notice, 
the prizes, Belecte se Since 1872, for the discovery of telescopic 

of such a prize, consisting, according to 
the wish of the receiver, either in a gold medal or in its money 


Miscellaneous Intelligence. 159 


value of twenty Austrian ducats, is connected with the following 
conditions : 

(1.) Prizes are awarded only for the first eight successful dis- 
coveries of each calendar year; for comets that, at the time of 
their discovery, were telescopic, i. e., invisible to the naked eye, 
that had not been seen before by any other observer, and the 


c 
be supplemented at the next occasion by later observations. (4.) 
If the comet should not have been verified by other observers, 
the prize will be awarded only when the observations of the dis- 
coverer are sufficient for determining the orbit. (5. e prizes 


each year. If the first notice of the discovery a t 
the first March and the last May, the prize will be decided in the 


gene ay session of the Academy in the next year. ) 
Application for the prize is to be made within three months after 
e ews of the discovery has arrived at the Imperial Acad- 


emy. Later applications will not be considered. (7.) The 
astronomers of the observatory of the University at Vienna will 
be judges, whether the conditions contained in arts. 1,3 and 4 
have been fulfilled. ; 

3. Index Catalogue of Books and Memoirs relating to Nebule 
and Clusters, de. ; by Epvwarp S. Hotpey. Smithsonian Institu- 
tion, Washington, 1877. 8°, pp. ix and 111.—About half of this 

Holden is devoted to the catalogue 
: a list of books and 
memoirs relating to the nebula in Orion; a similar list of those 


Nebule and Clusters. 
V. MisceELLANEOUS SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE. 
1. Telephone in England.—Col. W. H. Reynoxps has concluded 


a contract with the English Government by which the Post Office 
Department has. adopted the Bell telephone as a part of its tele- 


was heard through the telephone, and individual voices were dis- 
tinguished. This important experiment was conducted by Mr. J. 
Bourdeaux, of the Submarine Telegraph Company. very 
Successful experiments. were made with the telephone on Saturday 


160 Miscellaneous Intelligence. 


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stan nieg the weather was ie rable. The experiments were 
made wit th ol ane Bell’s instruments The Berlin correspondent 
g 


sult is awaited with great curiosity in military cirolee. e 
Cologne Gazette denies that any telephone is‘in exueee e between 
Varzin and Bismarck’s eat Berlin. Our ontem porary says 
that the distance, 363 kiloractara. is too lange using a pinciais g 
with any advantage.—Natur e, Dee. 6, * 

Manua 


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Scuumann, C.E., U. 8. Treasury Department. 89 pp. 8vo. New 
York, 1877. (D. Van Nostrand. )—This little book contains the 
formulas and data required by architects and engineers in putting 
to practice in the ac bey af buildings, the theoretical sally 


erism, Suieitoctisi, ete, historically and scientifically 
eeaoty sag being two Lectures delivere a the London Institu- 
tion, with Preface and Appendix; by W ARPENTER, C.B 
E.RS. 15 8 pp. 12mo. New York, is77. “(D. Appleige & Co.) 
—The learned physiologist of Lon don , Dr. Carpenter, has show 
goo = thorough knowledge and excellent ee in sake 
lectures. 


at _ = a 
E.—The number of the Bibliothéque 
Uaivenais fp cesses in ‘Sei Phys. et Nat.) for September, pie iT, 
has its 254 pages occupied with a biographical notice of the emt 
nent Swiss Physicist, Auguste de la Rive, who died, at the age rt 
seventy-two, = the 27th of N ovember, 1873. 
Proteus, or Unity in Nature, by Charles Bland Radcliffe, M.D. 214 pp. 8v0- 
London. ‘(Mac acMillan & Co. 
The Physiology of Mind. By Henry Maudsley, M.D. 544 pp. 8vo. New 
fein (D. Appleton & Co.) 
atetheaial Researe! By William Ferrel. Part I. On the Mechanics 
scat thi, Gomeeuk iasthema ot the Atmosphere. 50 pp. 4to. With 6 charts. U. 5. 
Coast Survey, OC. P. Patterson, Superintendent. Washington. 1877. An en 
tant memoir discussing mathematically, from meteorological data with referen 
to the whole earth’s sorties. 
OBITUARY. 
Ruum«KorrF died in Paris on the 20th of December at the a 
of seventy-four. He gave his first “ Ruhmkorff Coil” to the wor d 
in 1851, and received for it from the French Exhibition in 1855 
prize of 50,000 francs. 


THE 


AMERICAN 


JOURNAL OF SCIENCE AND ARTS. 


[THIRD SERIES] 


rs 
> 


Art. XXI.—Coggia’s Comet—its Physical Condition and Struc- 
ture. Physical Theory of Comets; by Prof. W. A. Norton. 


ments of the pa ted by M. 
Schulhof (Astr. Nachr., No. 2003). T=1874, July 885664, 
G. M. T., 7=271° 6 195, O=118° 44’ 25’°3, 1=66° 20’ 
58’6, log. g=9°829826, which gives, per. dist. g=0-67581. 
Motion direct. ° 

Nature and Condition of the Cometic Matter.—The following 
are the general results of. the observations made with the spec- 
troscope and polariscope* with the view of ascertaining the 
nature and condition of the matter of the comet; in the nucleus . 
and coma or envelopes, and as more widely diffused in the tail. 

(1.) The light of the tail and coma was partially polarized in 
a plane through the axis of the tail. 

(2.) The spectrum of the comet consisted of three or more 
bright bands on a continuous spectrum. This continuous spec- 
trum was faint on July 7, but became much brighter by July 
14. The three bright bands were identical with those obtained 
by passing a spark from an induction coil through gaseous 

* Month. Not. . Soc., 187 489 to 491; 1874-5, p. 83. 
Aatz. Nachr,, No. 2018 9p. 181082 

Am, Jour. Scr.—Tarrp Senet. Vou. XV, No. 87.—Maxcu, 1878, 


162 W. A. Norton—Coggia’s Comet. 


dioxide of carbon (carbonic acid gas). Other experiments 
have shown that the volatile hydro-carbons give, with the 
electric spark, the same spectroscopic bands; and that these 
are wholly due to the momentary incandescence of the carbon 
molecules of the compound. - Several other comets have given 
the same “carbon bands.” Brorsen’s comet, a faint circular 
nebula, invisible to the naked eye, proved to be an exception. 
Three bright bands were observed in its spectrum, but they 
differed in position and other features from the carbon bands. 

(3.) “The spectrum of the nucleus was continuous, but it 
appeared to have traces of numerous bright bands, and three 
or four dark lines also were seen.” 


(1.) From the bright bands observed we may infer that the 


vapor of some hydro-carbon. ; 

‘ é e light of incandescence of the gaseous particles, 
which furnished the bands, must have been of electric origin; 
since the heat of the sun could not have been sufficient to 
ignite the most inflammable vapor. 

(3.) The continuous spectrum on which the three, carbon 
bands were seen, affords no decisive evidence of the presence 2 
the coma of discrete solid particles, since it may have resulted 
from the solar light reflected from the gaseous particles. Such 
light would not have been sufficiently intense to give the dark 
solar lines. 

(4.) The “traces of bright bands” seen in the spectrum of 
the nucleus reveal the presence of vapors at its surface shining 
by electric light. The bright continuous spectrum may have 

wholly due to reflected solar light (since dark solar lines 
were not wanting), or partly to discrete solid particles render 
luminous by electric discharges. The light reflected from the 
solid nucleus, or from dense vapors or clouds near its surface, 
may well have been of sufficient intensity to make the gaseous 

n bands resulting from electric discharges inconspicuous. 

(5.) The spectroscope did not give any decisive evidence 
with to the state of the matter in the tail—whether 
gaseous or composed more or less of discrete solid particles; 
but since the tail was formed of matter flowing in continuous 
streams from the head, we must suppose that it was made up 
chiefly of gaseous particles, like the head. 

j (6.) The light of the tail was exclusively reflected solar 
ight. Si 


- 


W. A. Norton—Coggia’s Comet. 163 


e ‘ 

The experiments of Professor Arthur W. Wright, of Yale 
College, on the: gases from stony meteorites,* have furnished 
strong evidence in support of the hypothesis first propounded 
by him, that the cometic substance is gaseous carbon dioxide. 
He found that “in meteorites of the stony kind, the character- 
istic gas is carbon dioxide, and this, with a small proportion of 
carbonic oxide (oxide of carbon), makes up more than nine- 
tenths of the gas given off at the temperature of boiling water, 
and about half that evolved at a low re 4 e spectrum 
of the gases, obtained by passing an electric spark through a 
small tube containing the gases at a low tension, consisted of 
the hydrogen and carbon spectra together. The three bright 
bands of the carbon spectrum were éoincident in position with 
those in the spectra of comets, and had the same relative order 
of intensity. The close relationship now known to subsist 
between comets and meteors renders it highly probable, as sug- 

ested by Professor Wright, that the cometic matter is iden- 
tical with the gaseous matter found associated with stony mete- 
orites, and consists chiefly of carbon dioxide disengaged from 
the nucleus of the comet by the heat of the sun. 

If we adopt this hypothesis with regard to the nature and 
origin of the cometic substance, the question arises in what 
condition does the carbon dioxide exist, in its association with 
the matter of the nucleus? We may at once admit, with Pro- 


of approaching the sun, the increasing amount of heat received 
from the sun should give rise to copious evolutions of the 
* This Journal, III, vol. ix, July, 1875, p. 44. 


164 W. A. Norton—Coggia’s Comet. 


carbon-dioxide in the gaseous form—either continuously or in- 
termittently—and these may occur either simultaneously over 
large areas, or in limited streams or jets. A portion of the 
vapor evolved may be condensed into solid particles by the cold 
resulting from the rapid evaporation. In so far as the gas is in 
intimate physical association with the solid matter of the nu- 
cleus, it would seem that the heat of the sun would not at the 
perihelion distance of either Coggia’s Comet, the great comet of 
1861, Donati’s Comet, or, indeed, of any of the conspicuous 
comets with a few exceptions, be intense enough to occasion 
such copious evolutions of gaseous matter as have been actually 
observed. Evolutions of occluded gas may, however, consti- 
tute the chief phenomena, produced by the solar heat, in the 
cases of the inconspicuous comets of short period, which, in re- 
treating from the sun do not pass sn the limits of the 
planetary system. 

The conclusions that have now been reached apply strictl 
only to the comets that have been spectroscopically observed, 
but they may be regarded as probably applicable also to other 
comets that do not differ greatly from these in the circumstan- 
ces of their approach to the sun and recess from him, and in 
the physical phenomena they have presented. The great 
comets of 1848 and 1860, that approached very near the sun, 
may have given off, in great abundance, aqueous or other 
forms of yaporous matter, derived from the liquefaction and 


the earth, permeated by free electricity increasing in tension 
from the surface of the nucleus upward; and that whatever 


Physical — of the Comet.—From numerous published 
the comet, I select that in which its peculiar 
eatures are most conspicuous. The cut is a copy of a drawing 


W. A. Norton— Coggia’s Comet. 165 


communicated by R. S. Newall to A. C. Ranyard, showing 
the aspect of the comet, as seen at Ferndene on July 12th. In 
the accompanying description* it is stated that “the nucleus 
was very bright, with a disk tolerably well defined. In front 
of the nucleus (i. e. on the side toward the sun) was a fan- 
shaped light which seemed to arise from the overlapping or du- 
plication of the two tails, which streamed away behind (the 
nucleus) for a length of about 15°, forming, as it were, two 
luminous veils, delicate, transparent and flickering, having be- 
tween them a black space well defined up to the nucleus. The 
edges of these tails appeared to be brighter than the middle 
part, and crossing over the nucleus they formed the sides of the 
; the outside edges also crossing over formed the top of the 
fan and head of the comet. In front of this was another cov- 
ering semicircular and brightest in the preceding part, and in 
front of that was again another fainter envelope or cloud. 
This outer faint envelope, or duplex envelope, has been a no- 
ticeable feature in the aspect of other comets (e. g. Donati’s). 


et 


I. 


Physical structure and condition of the Comet.—Upon the vari- 
ous drawings made by different observers, Mr. Ranyard has 
the following remarks:+ ‘The drawings that were made o 
Coggia’s comet during the early part of July, 1874, show that 
although there was but one small almost stellar nucleus, there 
were two sets of parabolic envelopes situated side by side, 
ently overlapping one another just in front of the nucleus. 


* Month. Notices of Astr. Soc., 1875-6, p. 279. + Ibid. 


166 -W. A. Norton— Coggia’s Comet. 


were shown in the drawings made by Mr. Huggins and Mr. 
Christie. They are also to be seen in Mrs. Newall’s drawing 
(see cut, p. 165), and they were described by Mr. Lockyer in a 
letter published in the Times, of July 16th, on the structure of 
the comet. When the comet was again visible in the Southern 
hemisphere, the inner duplicate structure was still visible, but 
the outer ares had been dissipated.” The duplicate structure 
here referred to is a highly significant fact. That it may be 

uly appreciated it must be borne in mind that at the period 
when this structure was observed, the line of sight from the 
earth to the nucleus was inclined under a small angle to the 


since the ere contrast between the dark space behind the 
nucleus and 


W. A. Norton—Coggia’s Comet. 167 


from the region exposed to the normal incidence of the sun’s 
rays, it appears, then, altogether fails of application to Coggia’s 
. comet. It gives the single hollow paraboloidal tail without 

duplication, which is entirely at variance with the facts of ob- 
servation. 

Physical Theory of cometary phenomena.—Now, if there be, 
in fact, two systems of jets, eminating from opposite hemis- 
pheres of the nucleus, and passing over from one to the other, 
we can look for the origin of such a state of things only in a 
supposed magnetic condition of the nucleus, and in the hypoth- 
esis that the lines of initial discharge lie in the direction of the 
. lines of the magnetic force ; or in lines having a certain relation 
to these. This consideration brings us to the proper point of 
view for the presentation of the definite physical theory of com- 


nucleus. This envelope, consisting of a diamagnetic gas, is 
traversed by the ideal lines of magnetic force proceeding from 
the nucleus, which are also lines of electric conduction through 
the diamagnetic gas. The electricity set free by the ascending 
currents of the gas, by reason of the diminished gaseous pres- 
sure, is propagated along these lines; and the impulsive force 
of the electric currents detaches streams of successive mole- 

cules of the gas, in the direction of the lines of conduction. 
La Rive’s well-known experiment of transmitting electricity 
through an attenuated gas or vapor surrounding a magnet, 
showed that the lines of force in the magnetic field were also 


Operate on other molecules not thus detached, with an intensity 
‘sufficient to overcome their gravitation toward the nucleus. 
' In my mathematical discussion of Donati’s comet* I reached 
the result that the tail of the comet was made up of matter of 
which a portion was solicited by an effective solar repulsion, 
* This Journal, Il, vol. xxxii, No. $4, July, 1861. 


168 W. A. Norton—Coggia’s Comet. 


Frying Mer Aap 
showed that the ‘columnar structure” of the tail, signalized 
by Prof. Bond, was attributable to considerable variations, at 
short intervals, in the quantity of matter detached from the 
head of thecomet ; while the limits of variation of the effect- 


between the limits, repulsion=1-415 A and attraction=0°786 A. 
orce of Cosmical Repulsion.—Several hypotheses have been 
propounded with regard to the nature and origin of this force. 
But none of them appear to be free from serious objections. 
Several years since (1861) I suggested the hypothesis that the 
solar repulsion might consist in the repulsive action of free 
statical electricity. We have abundant evidence of electric 
excitation both at the surface of the sun and in the cometa 


sun as an electro-magnet + on the gaseous molecules of the comet. 


- - F. Zollner, in two elaborate papers published in the Astronomische 
Nachrichten, No. 2057-2060 and No. 2082-2086, has endeavored to remove the 
force of the several objections urged by Dr. Zenker to the electric theory of the 

lar repulsion, and gang the adequacy of this theory. Dr. Zenker has pub- 

our =m ‘ 


y A discus- 
sion, it does not appear that the above-mentioned objection has been set aside. It 
must be admitted, I think, that at present the tric theory rests under a 
of doubt. As for Dr. Zenker’s own reaction theory, to mention no other objec- 
tions, it is certainly wholly inapplicable to the case of a co ming as near the 
sun as did the comets of 1843 and 1860; and it obviously affords no explanation 
ee oe ure of ia’s comet. 

e term electro-magnet is meant a magnet which derives its magnetic 
condition from the continued operation of some external cause. ae 


W. A. Norton—Coggia’s Comet. 169 


It_ was conclusively established by Faraday, by a series of careful 
experiments, that the gases, with the exception of oxygen, are 


rapidly changing one, in approximate correspondence with the 
varying rate of the orbital motion. The circular magnetic cur- 


Inequality of the Solar Repulsion.—Faraday established that 
the diamagnetism of a gas increased with its temperature. But 


by changes of temperature. But may not material variations 
oO 


diamagnetic condition result from the ewe discharges to — 


which the gaseous molecules are expose 


Looking at the matter from the general point of view I have 
taken in my papers on Molecular Physics, it appears that such dis- 
* This Journal, II, vol. xli, Jan., 1866. 


170 W. A. Norion—Coggia’s Comet. 


cometic particles may differ greatly in size or mass. This 


coma. But both of these suppositions seem to be irreconcilable 
with certain facts of observation. 
Explanation of General and Special Phenomena.—It should be 


repulsion, whatever may be its origin, is exerted normally, or 
approximately so, to the surface of the body, and that the radial 
impulses of this force take effect unequally on different gaseous 


bly on solid cometic particles differing in size or mass. A mag- 
netic condition of the nucleus, sufficiently decided to determine 


e 
field, is however an essential feature of the theory. 
The precise character of the phenomena should depend, to 
s of rotation of the 


m this position there will be two efficient causes of special 
phenomena to be considered : (1) the point of maximum evap- 


W. A. Norton—Coggia's Comet. - 171 


orating effect of the sun’s rays will probably fall at some point 
of either the northern or the southern hemisphere of the nucleus, 
instead of on the equator; (2) the magnetic poles will not coin- 
cide with the poles of rotation, and the magnetic equator will 
be more or less inclined to the plane of the equator of rotation, 
as well as to that of the orbit. From this it follows that the 
lines of force will, in general, be more or less inclined to the 
astronomical meridian planes of the nucleus; and hence that 
the initial directions of the jets of cometic matter will be in- 
clined to these planes b 


a meridian should result from the cold produced by a copious 
evaporation and the intercepting action of the vapors already 


be supposed : 
tor, and extend gradually both north and south. The Neti, 
directions of the discharges, and therefore also of the initi 


side, the gedaera becomes parallel to the equator (ecg), and 
thus to the radius vector (ce). From 0° to 35 


172 _ W. A. Norton—Coggia’s Comet. 


this line, and beyond 385° diverges from it under a larger and 
larger angle. If the initial velocity is constant, as well as the 
solar repulsion, the escaping molecule should attain to its great- 
_est distance from the nucleus when the discharge occurs from 
the latitude of 35°, and in the precise direction of the sun, If 
then the process of electric dischar egin near the equator, 
and extend gradually to the north and south, the outer surface 
of the envelope formed will gradually move away from the 
nucleus, and attain its greatest distance when the process reaches 
the latitude 35°. The jets that issue from latitudes greater 
than that (about 35°) at which the direction is parallel to the 
radius vector, do not pass sensibly beyond the boundary line of 
the jets that proceed from points between 0° and 35° of the 
other aay wed, unless for such jets the projectile velocity is 
greater, or the solar repulsion less. 


BR 


2 


What has now been stated should be the precise result if the 
molecules after receiving a projectile velocity were exposed 
only to the retarding force of the solar repulsion. The effect- 
ive action of the nucleus would obviously modify somewhat 
the curve for each initial direction, and alter the limiting lati- 
tude for which the recess in the assumed direction is a maxi- 
mum. If this effective action is attractive, this latitude will 


exceed 35°, if it is repulsive, it will be less than 35°. 


* 


Ei ye, tiie 


W. A. Norton—Coggia’s Comet. | 173 


distance to which the jets recede in the direction of the sun. 
We may then regard any expelled particle as issuing from the 
small sphere of sensible action of the nucleus with an initial 
velocity resulting from the projectile force of the electric dis- 
charge, and the retarding force of the nucleus (or accelerating 
force if the effective action should be repulsive); and as subse- 
quently retarded by the solar Pe Heeiate s we have seen, p. 


the solar repulsion, its velocity and direction of emergence 
from this sphere, becomes thei{initial velocity and direction. 


RR Ie 


3. : : 
As, for any one molecule, the solar repulsion is sensibly constant 
t 


within the extent of the head of the comet, the p j 
molecule will be parabolic. If we regard the initial velocity 


est rec d 
which suffer the greatest retardation should form a similar 
luminous surface at a lower depth. The latter would eventu- 


174 _ W. A. Norton—Coggia’s Comet. 


form the following side. The time required for any receding 
particle receiving an initial velocity in the line of direction of 
the sun, to reach its point of greatest recess, must have been 
less than twenty-four hours, in the cage of the two comets 
(Donati’s and Coggia’s) for which the intensity of the actual 
solar repulsion has been determined. 


Let nes gq (Fig. 3) represent the nucleus, or more strictly the 
surface of projectile discharge, and n’e’ s’q’ the sphere of sen- 
sible action of the nucleus ; e g being the equator and ce R the 
direction of the sun. The point p is at lat. 35°, and ris the 
point of projection of the jet which issues from the sphere 
n’e’ s'q’ in the direction 7’ A parallel toce R. The jets pro- 
ceeding from the are er issue from this sphere at various 
points from u to 7’. One of these jets proceeding from a certain 
point near e will have at v a direction at right angles to ce R, 


+ 


If the jet discliarge extend beyond r to some point z the jet 

proceeding from z will emerge trom the sphere n 
erge 

the same sphere between 7’ and z’. Now letn’e’s' 7 (Fig. 4) 


any jet emerging from this sphere to the line n’cs' perpendic- 
ular to the radius vector ce’ &. Sup a Cosiated from 


W. A. Norton—- Coggia’s Comet. 175 


shown in the diagram. The jets proceed from n’ ve’r’, and 
_were projected from the lower latitudes of the right hemis- 

phere, or between e¢ and r (Fig. 8). Jets issuing from the corre- 
sponding are e r, of the other hemisphere, would form a similar 
set of curves to the right of ce’ #. Other sets of parabolic 
jets are projected from latitudes above 35°, or from the ares r z 
and r, « (Fig. 8); but these will have sensibly the same outer 
boundary as those from e7’ ander, unless the initial velocity 
or the solar repulsion is different. It is to be observed that ce 
is so small a fraction of ce’ (Fig. 8) and ce’ so small a fraction 
of ¢ V (Fig. 4) that we may without material error regard v as 
coincident with n’, and 7’ as coincident with e’. 


° ‘g 
oa’ 100 nie 


he 


1B0 


5, 


The hypothesis made in the construction of Fig. 4, that the 
solar repulsion is constant for all values of a, or in other wo 


magnetic needle on the earth’s surface, and varies, we may su 
pose, with the latitude according toa similar law. Let it be 
denoted by £. 


176 _ W. A. Norton—Coggia’s Comet. 


In Fig. 5 the solar repulsion is assumed to be inversely pro- 
portional to sin 6. The change of direction of the jet while 
passing through the sphere of sensible action of the nucleus is 
neglected in the application of this law. Two systems of 
curvilinear jets are shown—one answering to values of a varying 
by 10° from 50° to 90°, and emanating from latitudes less than 
35° of the right hemisphere, or from a portion of the arc er 
(Fig. 3); and another answering to values of a varying by 10° 
from 90° to 180°, and estimated from right to left. These em- 
anated from latitudes greater than 35° of the left hemisphere, 
or from a portion of the are r, x (Fig. 8’. The other corres- 
ponding systems of jets, emanating from portions of er, and r 2, 
would form the other half of the comet. If we consider all 
the jets issuing from the right hemisphere as forming one sys- 
tem, and all those issuing from the left hemisphere as forming 
another system, then for each system a will vary from 50° to 
180°: and will increase from left to right for the first, and from 
right to left for the second. They answer to the supposition 
that the outstreaming extends from latitude 174° to 574°, in 
each hemisphere. It will be seen that the jets proceeding 
from the latitudes higher than 35°, for which a varies from 90° 
to 180°, recede to greater distances from the nucleus than those 
emanating from latitudes less than 35°, for which a varies from 
50° to 90°. This of course results from the greater values of 
sin 6 that obtain for the first-mentioned set of jets. Thus, for 
the 130° jet sin 6=0-953, while for the 50° jet sin 6=0534. 
_ The envelope, Vaéd, or outer boundary of the latter system of 
jets thus falls within that, Va’ d’ a’, of the other system. The 
overlapping of the two systems of jets should accordingly be 
conspicuously visible, and an appearance presented similar to 

at of Coggia’s comet on July 12th, as shown in the drawing 
on page 165. 


Certain comets have presented peculiarities of appearance which 
I find, on a careful examination, admit of pisisdocsoty explanation 
on the hypothesis that the equator of the nucleus was inclined to 


* 


W. A. Norton—Coggia’s Comet. 177 


the two branches of the normal tail, in connection with an anom- 
alous curvature of the first portion of the longer branch, when the 
comet was viewed from certain positions of the earth relative to 
the plane of the orbit, observed in the case of Comet II, 1862, and 
elaborately discussed by Prof. Schiaparelli and Prof. Bredichin. 

n this case we have only to suppose that the sun was vertical 
to points of one of the hemispheres, and as a consequence the jet 
discharges were mostly confined to that hemisphere. The longer 
branch of the tail was composed of jets issuing from the lower 
latitudes, while the less copious and more fluctuating discharges 
of matter subject to a diminished solar repulsion (p. 176) from 


r. 
The anomalous curvature of the former system of jets, and their 
interlacing with the other system, was a simple consequence of 
the greater intensity of the solar repulsion in operation on the 
former than on the latter. 

e curious phenomenon of the oscillation of jets first observed 
by Bessel in the head of Halley’s comet, and of which he offered 
in explanation the improbable hypothesis of a polar attractive 
force exercised by the sun upon the nearer portion of the nucleus, 


planes of different local meridians on the nucleus. As the planes 


* To illustrate, if the outstreaming were perm Be right perpen we (Fig. 
: : : us 
thoes easing Pe ress oc oul oor 
Am. Jour. Sci.—Tuirp Serres, Vou. XV, No. 87.—Maxcu, 1878. 
12 


£. 
Ue Vthe 


178 H. L. Abbot—Transmission of Earth Waves. 


Art. XXIIL—On the Velocity of Transmission of Earth Waves ; 
by General H. L. Assor, Corps of Engineers. 


ADVANTAGE was taken of the explosion of 50,000 pounds of 
dynamite at Hallet’s Point, on September 24th, 1876, to meas- 
ure the velocity with which the shock was transmitted through 
the ground, both across Long Island and along the south bank 
of Kast River. The results were embodied in a paper read by 
me before the National Academy of Sciences, on October 18th, 
1876, and subsequently again read and printed as one of the 
papers of the Essayons Club of the Corps of Engineers. 

n the number of the London, Edinburgh and Dublin Phi- 
losophical Magazine, for October, 1877, appeared a short review 
of this paper from the pen of Mr. Robert Mallet, F.R.S., a gen- 
tleman well known for his numerous and able contributions to 
seismology. In this article, he suggested reasons which | 
him to doubt the value and accuracy of the Hallet’s Point 
resu 

Even if I had felt disposed to enter into a controversy upon 
the subject, 1 should have been quite disarmed by the conclud- 
ing sentence of this article, which expresses views so just an 
liberal that it may well be quoted as an exemplar of the man- 
ner in which scientific questions should be considered. He 


writes : 

“Tn these objections I wish to be clearly understood as hav- 
ing no a priord difficulty in accepting a higher velocity of wave 
transit than the highest attained experimentally by myself. It 
is highly probable that such may be elicited by future experi- 
‘ment. But should such cases arise, their results like all great 
physical truths, should only be credited upon unexceptionable 
observations or experimental evidence. While feeling justi- 
fied in making these objections, I wish to disclaim all contro- 
versial spirit or intention; loss of sight, indeed, and diminished 
energy would prevent my engaging in any scientific contro- 
versy, were any called for.” 

Believing, at the date of my first paper, that the data secured 
at the Hallet’s Point explosion demonstrated the necessity for 
more exact and comprehensive knowledge of the subject, I 
have, during the past season, taken advantage of the facilities 
offered by large sub-aqueous explosions at the School of Sub- 
marine Mining at Willet’s Point, to continue the investigation ; 
and, on October 23d, 1877, I read a second paper before the 
National Academy of Sciences, giving the results thus obtained. 
As only a brief abstract of this paper has appeared in print, I 

ropose now to give a summary a ie conclusions suggested 
y the whole series of experiments and, incidentally, to explain 


H. L. Abbot—Transmission of Earth Waves. 179 
my reasons for believing that Mr. Mallet has not quite under- 
stood the parts of my first paper to which he has taken excep- 
tion. 

Limited space forbids any detailed explanation here of the 
method adopted for measuring the time of transmission of the 
shocks; especially as this is fully given in my printed paper, 
together with the notes of the observers in full. Suffice it to 
say that the instant of explosion and the time of arrival of the 
tremors, were electrically recorded on the same moving paper 
with extreme precision. The following table exhibits the data, 
of which only the first six observations were known to Mr. 
Mallet when he wrote his article. 


88 3 3s Peer et . 
33 Date, Observer. Cause of shock. 53 Se ; “Traperale 
ok e| ° | on. 
“ ele CCC 

miles. sees. secs. |ft. per sec. 
1 |Aug. 18, '76.'Capt. Livermore |200 Ibs. dynm. + |B} 5 + 5280 + 
2 |Sept. 24,°76.\Lieut. Young /[Hallet’s Pt. ex.| 5-134/A.| 7 +634 | 3873 + 
3| “ “ & |Tieut. Griffin “ «| g-330/ B.| 63 |72°3 | 8300 
4; “ “ ‘Lieut. Kingman] “ “ “ | 9-333) A./10°9 |23°5 | 4521 
5} “ *  |Tieut. Leach “  «& & 119-769| B. {12-7 |19°0 | 5309 
6 |Oct. 10, '76.'Lieut. Kingman |70 Ibs. powder.| 1°360| A.| 5-8 |inst.| 1240 
7 \Sept. 6, "77. Lieut. Kin Ibs. dynm.| 1°169| A.| 1°8 | 78 | 3428 
8| “ “ & ‘Lieut. Leach © & "& 1 7-169|B.| O-7% [178 |; 8814 
9 |Sept. 12, 77. Lieut. Griffin [200 lbs. dynm.| 1-340| A.| 1-05| 8:8 | 6730 
a a hed Lieut, h « «© "«& | 4-349} B.| O8L)17-1 | 8730 
1l| “ “ & |Tjieut. Griffin /70 Ibs. powder.) 1-340| A.| 1°27] 4°8 | 5559 
| Dr eee Hplt  # 1:340'B. | 0-84'15°1 | 8415 


Mr. Mallet’s results 


mat ed 


Royal Society, and unquestionabl 


were reported many 


years ago to the 


y are to be accepted as exhib- 


figures : 
in sand : Be eee Boma. 
in discontinuous and much shat- 

te (tec i AR. 


Velocity in ft. per second 
- “ “ 


ve 5 


‘in more solid granite .--. .-.-- 
in quarries at Holyhead (mean) 1320 ft. 
The extraordinary differences between these rates and those 
measured at the Hallet’s Point explosion, and the apparent dis- 
crepancies of the latter among themselves, led me to so plan 
the new observations as to throw light upon two points: Ist, 
Does a telescope of high power detect a tremor in the mercury 
in advance of the one first revealed by a lower power? 2d, Is 


“ is 


bd “ “cc 


180 H. L, Abbot—Transmission of Earth Waves. 


there a difference in the rate of transmission of the shocks, due 
to differences in the intensity of the initial explosion 

The method adopted was to station two observers near each 
other at a carefully selected inland position; each observing a 
mercury seismometer, and holding in his hand the key of an 
accurate Morse register to record the instant of arrival and the 
duration of the tremor. These seismometers were the same 
instruments used at the Hallet’s Point explosion. They dif- 
fered from each other only in the optical power of the telescope, 
that designated A in the table having a magnifying power of 6, 
and that marked B of 12. 

A fuse in the electrical circuit which fired the torpedo, was 
bedded in the cartridge of a field gun directed toward the ob- 


sion of the shock, the rejection of all the observations made 
with type A follows as a matter of course. They are valuable 
as exhibiting the rate of advance of waves having a certain in- 


Lieut. Leach, using a power of 12, recorded of the second 
observation of September 12th (No. 12), “ The gunpowder wave 
was peculiar, in having a much more gradual increase than has 
been observed in dynamite shocks. I should say it was at 
least two seconds in attaining a maximum, whereas the dynam- 


H. L. Abbot—Transmission of Earth Waves. 181 


ite usually reaches its maximum in a very small fraction of a 
second.” 


of the tremor was much less. The reason is, that the initial 
earth waves were far more violent in the latter case, when the 
torpedo lay on the bottom in thirty feet of water, than in the 
former, when the charge was only submerged five feet in water 
thirteen feet deep, and thus expended much of its energy in 
throwing a huge jet of water 330 feet into the air. s 
Thus it will be seen that these records, and the velocities 
observed on the two days, all tend to confirm the idea that a 
slow-burning explosive, like gunpowder, generates a series of 
gradually increasing tremors which, at a distance of a mile, are 
at first quite invisible with the less sensitive seismometer ; 
and are only detected by it when near their maximum inten- 
sity. If Lieut. Leach’s estimate of time for the arrival of the 
orgie wave be accepted, we have, therefore, for the first 
ile: 


’ 
( Power of 12 gives 8415 feet per second. 
p rpedo j “ce 6e “ 59 “ “ i 
(70 lbs.) Estimated mini- | o4g9 «@ «we 
er gi 


m pow ves 
Shallow torpedo; actual minimum t 1240 “« « “ 
(70 Ibs.) power gi 


by No. 6and No. 11 has been already pointed out. Fora 


power of 12, the table shows that for the first mile: 
400 Ibs. of dynamite give 8814 feet per second. 

200: 2 a one 
70“ “powder (deep) 8415 “ “  “* 


__If it be admitted also that the velocity of the wave dimin- 
ishes with its advance, all the data become accordant. Thus: 


182 H. L. Abbot—Transmission of Earth Waves. 


200 lbs. of dynamite give for 1 mile, 8730 ft. per second. 
oe 6s oc “ “ “ce 5 “c ¢ oe 6 ce 


50.000 “* *& “ oe “cc 8 “6 8300 “be oe 
% en 2 “cc se “cc 134 (74 5300 OG “cs 
In fine, I believe that the following general conclusions are 
suggested by these measurements: Ist, igh magnifying 


4th, 
are complex, consisting of many short waves first increasing 
and then decreasing in amplitude; and, with a detonating explo- 
sive, the interval between the first wave and the maximum wave, 
at any station, is shorter than with a slow-burning explosive. 
summary of the objections suggested by Mr. Mallet to 

the Willet’s Point observations will now be given ; although, 
in the new light thrown upon the subject by these subsequent 
measurements, perhaps he might not desire to press them. __ 

Mr. Mallet considers that the explosion at Hallet’s Point 
furnished data ill suited to determine the delicate physical 
problem of the rate of progression of a wave of disturbance 
through the earth’s crust, for the reason that the initial impulse 
was due to the combined effect of many small charges, and not 
of one single mass of dynamite; hence, as he states : : 

‘\I conceive it, therefore, impossible with sufficient exacti- 
tude to assign the instant at which the wave of shock sta 
in this instance; and to assume the appearance of disturbed 
water above the seat of explosion, or the shock felt from the 
ground closely adjacent to it, as marking that instant seems to 
me, in either choice, to neglect many sources of error. 

ing unable to read my paper personally, he has not fully 

understood the manner in which the instant of the starting of 
the wave was fixed. The great mine was fired by a mecban- 
ical drop, which closed simultaneously all the twenty-three elec- 
trical circuits. One extra pin and mercury cup in this drop was 
provided by General Newton for my use, and the signal was 


absolute instant of closing the a A circuits was elevtrically 
i t is impossible that this 


records among themselves invalidate their accuracy. I have 


just shown how these apparent discrepancies are explained by 


Hi. L. Abbot—Transmission of Earth Waves. 183 


the later observations at Willet’s Point; and have thus an- 
swered this argument which, when the results were first col- 
lated, suggested itself to my own mind. 

. Mallet next mentions certain objections that show him 
not quite to understand the geography and geology of the 
region separating Hallet’s Point from the four stations; which, 
in the absence of a map to illustrate the paper, is very natural. 
The straight line to Willet’s Point follows the shore and waters 
of East River, offering both a land and water route to the 
wave of disturbance. The other three stations lie in the in- 
terior of Long Island, with no water between them and Hallet’s 
Point. The intermediate country consists of low rolling hills 
formed of deposits of the clay, sand and boulders characteristic 
of drift, the geological formation to which they belong. The 


rated : 

rock, (3) by the fall of the water; and also to the wave-diffu- 
sion experienced in traversing long distances. He argues, 
therefrom, that the distances were too great for satisfactory 
ati Now the records show both the beginning and 

end of the mercury vibration, as well as the automatic signal 
sent by the explosion. The first and last determine the veloc- 


184 Systems of Chemical Notation. 


served; and no absolute personal equation machine was avail- 
able. The officers were trained observers; and their distances 


greater will be the number of important facts developed ; and 


Mallet’s results and those here described to inaccuracy of obser- 

vation. Differences in the material traversed by the waves, and 

in the method of ubserving, may possibly explain them. If 

Mr. Mallet’s health will permit him to publish the details of his 

mode of observing, and to give the whole subject a general 

discussion, the paper will certainly find interested readers. 
Willet’s Point, N. Y. Harbor, Jan. 14, 1878. 


Art. XXIII.—On Systems of Chemical Notation. Letter of M. 
BERTHELOT to M. Marignac* (from the Moniteur Scientifique 
of December, 1877). 


has not been generall y accepted in France, it is because it has 
not succeeded, so far, in obtaining the good opinion of the 
majority of scientists; but, notwithstanding, imputations have 
not been spared that the partisans of equivalents are anima 
with a retrograde spirit. 

* An answer to the ae ; e 
Journal, February, ref igre tsemecag 2 Scientifique, September, 1877. (See this 


Systems of Chemical Notation. 185 


Allow me, in the next place, to point out some observations 
on the fundamental part of the question under discussion. It 
presented itself before the Paris Academy of Sciences under 
two heads: the system of atoms, and the language or notation 
of atomic weights. You were right in separating these two 
things. I had tried to do the same thing, but with less dis- 
tinctness, in my last work, On Chemical Synthesis, in whic 
explained the system very fully, but without adopting it, and I 
said that the notation by atoms possesses certain advantages, but 
also some disadvantages. The discussion recently raised could 
not, in the nature of things, assume this methodical form; but 
I believe that I kept about the same ground, as I always said 
that the two languages expressed the same ideas in the same 
way, in most cases, except that special advantages belonged to 
each system of notation. Your conclusions seem to be about 
- the same as mine. 

The definition of equivalents, which you accuse me of not ° 
giving, was nevertheless presented during the discussion, and I 
will take the liberty of reproducing it: ‘ Equivalents express, 
in my opinion, the ratios of weight according to which bodies 
combine or substitute themselves for one another.” These 
ratios may be determined by the balance with infinitely as #4 


base with those of the sesquioxides. It is only in a subordinate 
way, and for the purpose of giving greater precision to chemt- 
cal analogies, which are often somewhat vague, that physical 
oduced, such as the gaseous density, 

t, the crystalline form, the molecular volume in 

the solid state, ete. 


186 Systems of Chemical Notation. 


ratios as in the gaseous state, it is for one of the two following 
reasons, either the specific heats of the solid elements change 
unequally with the temperature, as I believe is the case, or two 
gaseous molecules are united in one solid molecule, as the atom- 
ists suppose. In either case, it seems to me that the specific 
heats of solids must be put aside in the determination of abso- 
lute equivalents.* : 
L insist the more on this point that the new equivalents, if 
we attribute to this word the extensive meanin that you 
rightly give to it, introduce an undeniable complication in 
chemical reactions. In your classical researches on the specific 
heats of saline solution you found yourself obliged to double 
the atomic weights of hydrochloric and of nitric acid and of 
their salts, with the object of expressing with greater clearness 
the analogies and parallelism of their properties. You wrote: 
: H°Ccr’; Na’Cl’; N?0°, H*0; N*0°, K’0, 
and in the same manner you were led to double acetic acid and 
the acetates : 
C*H’O*, H’O ; C*H*0*, K’0. 
The same necessity has been felt by all those who have had 
to express the equivalent ratios of acids, of water and of bases, 
* I cannot accept your opinion on the absolute value of the law of Weestyn in 
calculation of the specific heats of solid . You know very well 
that M. Kopp, who went to the bottom of this question in 1864, found himself 
obliged, in verifying this relation, to attribute to the solid elements in their com- 
bination specific heats varying from 6°4 (silver, chlorine, nitrogen), down to 4 
(oxygen), 2°3 (hydrogen), and 1-8 (carbon). 


Systems of Chemical Notation. 187 


as may be seen in the remarkable papers of Mr. Thompson on 

Thermo-chemistry, and even in the new edition of Gmelin, now 

cringe) in Germany (see, among other things, iodie acid 
oO; HO). 


believe that it would be advisable, in the future, to set aside all 


promise such rich harvests of discoveries 
Benzeval-sur-Dives (Calvados), August 10th, 1877. 


ANSWER oF M. MARIGNAC. 


lot, while opposing this doctrine, seems to me to confirm it, as 
e was obliged to give a double definition. Sometimes these 


itutio 
ea st ~~ 
still this is not the value that has been chosen for its equivalent. 


188 Systems of Chemical Notation. 


As M. Berthelot himself observes, we only differ in the opin- 
ion that each of us has formed on the part and relative im- 


acid. But if this has led me to group together two molecules 
of an alkaline chloride or nitrate, I was obliged, for the same 
reason, when taking the specific heats of sulphate of alumina or 
of alkaline iti i 


and phosphoric acid PhOS, and that the equivalents of alumin- 
be and phosphorus should be modified accordingly. 


ties of bodies by referring them to chemically equivalent 
weights, in cases where these — neither to molecular 
weights nor to the equivalents usually adopted, but we cannot 
conclude from this “that those weights ought to be adopted as 
symbols of notations, 


M. C. Lea—Reactions of Silver Chloride and Bromide. 189 


Apart from all these things, I agree with M. Berthelot that it 
is not advisable to exaggerate the importance of these ques- 
tions, the solution of which cannot affect the important laws 
and theories of chemistry, and about which we can only reach 
a conclusion when we have arrived at more complete knowl- 
edge of the molecular constitution of compound bodies. This 
constitution itself will be doubtless revealed to us by researches 
on molecular mechanics, such as those on Thermo-chemistry, 
through which this eminent scientist aids so powerfully the 
advancement of science. ~ 


Art. XXIV.—On some Reactions of Silver Chloride and Bro- 
mide; by M. Carey Lea, Philadelphia. 


long continued action of nitric acid was there any decomposition 
of the darkened chloride, and even then, traces only of silver 
were taken up by the acid. : 

It therefore appears that the substance produced by the action 
of light on silver chloride is of a much more permanent char- 
acter than in the case of the other silver haloids) Some other 
reactions noted in the course of the examinations which appear 
not devoid of interest, are given below. 


altered substance, and completely change its character. 
As to the first point—the small proportion of material actually 
altered by light. It is generally thought that silver chloride ts 
by the action of light to a sub-chloride containing half 


190 M. C. Lea—Reactions of Silver Chloride and Rromide. 


as much chlorine as the normal white chloride. _ Yet the loss of 
chlorine has been found too small to be weighed. Fresenius 
doubts if a loss in weight could be detected by the most delicate 
balance, and Von Bibra in the investigation above referred to, 
could not find the slightest loss in weight. . 

With a view to obtain some quantitative indication in the 
matter, the following determination was made. 

Silver chloride was precipitated with an excess of hydro- 
chloric acid, was well washed, and exposed to bright sunlight 
for five days. During this time it was spread in a very thin 
layer over the bottom of a large white porcelain basin, was fre- 
quently stirred up to bring constantly new surfaces to the 
light, and was kept moistened with water. 

Of the resulting dark powder two grams were taken and 
were thoroughly treated with sodium hyposulphite to remove 
the unaltered chloride. Previous experience had shown that 
extraordinary precautions were necessary to effect this thor- 
oughly, as the removal of the last portions of normal silver 
chloride is very difficult. Accordingly the strong solution of 
hyposulphite was many times renewed, each time being left to 
act for from twelve to twenty-four hours. Finally the gray 
residue (metallic silver) was washed, dried and weighed, an 
found to amount to twenty-one milligrams. 

It thus appears that as the result of five days’ action of 
strong sunshine, with frequent stirring up and mixing to bring 
fresh portions to the light, about one per cent only of the silver 
chloride was acted upon. And if we suppose this action to con- 
sist in removing one-half the chlorine, then the whole loss 12 
weight by the action of the light should be but little over one- 
tenth of one percent. This proportion is of course not inap- 
preciable, and the observations of Fresenius and of V. Bibra 
above quoted must be taken as referring to shorter exposures. 

It was mentioned that another difficulty in verifying the 
nature of the action of light lay in the fact that those sub- 
stances which can “is or dissolving out the unaltered 
chloride, also unfortunately attack the altered substance. 

The two reagents most effectual for this removal are sodium 


ts s The facts here mentioned lead to the curious reflection that the permanency ¢ 
ordinary : prints is greatly diminished by the fixing process. FOF 


M. C. Lea— Reactions of Silver Chloride and Bromide. 191 


When cold nitric acid, sp. gr. 1:28, is poured over a goansity 
C 


quickly whitened by aqua regia, it is reasonable to conclude 
that the dark matter contain less chlorine than the normal, 
and is either a subchloride or an oxychloride. Beyond this, 
we know nothing with certainty 

When the dark substance was boiled for several minutes 
with the same nitric acid, no silver was extracted. But when 
the vessel was placed on a sand bath and kept at or near boiling 
point for eighteen hours, renewing the acid as it escaped, a dis- 
tinct effect was produced. The substance became a little lighter 
in color, and the acid was found to have taken up enough sil- 
ver to show a strong opalescence by addition of hydrochloric 
acid ; not enough however to give an immediate precipitate. 

monia and sodium hyposulphite have this in common, 
that both leave metallic salien behind when the darkened 
chloride is submitted to their action. In the case of the sodium 
salt, it is of course understood that it is presented in strong 
solution and very large excess. 
Silver Bromide. 

Silver bromide was precipitated with excess of KBr and 
well washed, and exposed to light. 

When cold nitric acid, sp. gr. 1°28, was allowed to stand for 
‘One minute over the darkened bromide it took up silver abun- 
dantly. Allowed to act for an hour at a heat considerably be- 
low 212° the color of the darkened bromide had considerably 
changed and at the end of seven or eight hours, com plete decom- 
position had taken place. The resulting AgBr is lemon yellow 
and has more the general appearance of iodide than of bromide. 

Philadelphia, Jan., 1878. 


influences. To a considerable on this v 
substitution of gold for the metallic silver. < 
The use of a fixi “reatment can of course never be dispensed as it is 
essential to remove the unaltered chloride. But it is evident that if a substance 
sage be found which would remove the te : chlo mechs nega reg 
wh by li a great advan 
ing that which has been da pores fem ti  apgardiaggir: Ges 
Stopped when the right strength was obtained, without being 
allow for nite effect sf the fixing agent, and the print obtained w 


probabl: be alwa: perfectly permanent. ~ ee : 

The fact that both sodium ky posulphite and ammonia in removing the unaltered 
chloride, reduce the altered to metallic silver, explains why the gold toning opera- 
tion succeeds much better when applied after the fixing operation, than before it. 


192 A. 8. Kimball—Journal Friction at Low Speeds. 


Art. XXV.—On Journal Friction at Low Speeds; by A. S 
KIMBALL, Professor of Physics in the Worcester Free In- 
stitute. 


experiments consisted of—Ist. A pair of cone pulleys giving 
i the work shop. 


w 
with a pulley by which it was driven. The journals on this 
shaft were seven-eighths of an inch in diameter; they revolved 
in cast iron boxes three and .one-half inches long, truly bored 
and polished. A thin cut was planed from the upper half of 
each box, so that when resting upon its journals it was not 
quite in contact with the lower half Above each box was 4 
lever of the second class, by means of which it was possible to 
apply any desired pressure to the revolving journals. The 


A. 8 Kimball—Journal Friction at Low Speeds, 198 


course of the experiment is obvious. The experimental shaft, 
loaded with a known weight, was driven at different speeds, the 
rewired power noted, and the coefficient of friction calculated. 

he results of seven series of experiments are shown in the 
following table, in which the first column shows the velocity of 
the circumference of the journal in feet per minute, the seven 
following columns giving the correspunding coefficients of fric- 
tion. Since it was found impossible to maintain the same state 
of lubrication for any great length of time, every series which 


could not be completed in one half day was left unfinished. 


Taste I. 

Af a. b C. d. é. Fo g- 
5 is (-° aes 0° WPS 6: Hines 7 SPC) | RT a | 
2°17 “153 150 l 131 129 114 109 
5°15 122 128 122 “080 "080 097 “083 
10°99 “089 086 “069 067 080 060 
Sd ae ot "068 058 “066 052 053 
42°86 “068 “060 "045 "041 


In spite of the irregularities to be seen in this table, the law 
as stated above is clearly shown. Some of the discrepancies 
are doubtless due to variations in the state of lubrication of the 
journals. The pressure on the lower boxes in series a, ¢, d an 
e, was 180 pounds; in series 6, fand g, 210 pounds. Ina, 8, 
c,d and e, the journals were lubricated by wiping them with a 
handful of waste saturated with sperm oil. In / and g, as 


experimental shaft: 


Taste IL 
Speeds, 59’. 217. 616 10°99! 19°71’. 42°86" 
(55 4°3 3°5 2°5 2-0 2-0 
54 4°2 3°6 26 1°9 19 
. 5°38 4°3 3°6 2°5 1°9 1°9 
Differences | 54 44 3°5 2°5 2-1 1-9 
ie PES wuae ers ae 24 19 2-0 
: 5-5 4°3 3°5 2°3 2-0 2-0 
5-4 4°3 3°6 2°5 2-0 2-0 
54 4°3 3°6 2°5 1°9 1°9 
Averages, 5°41 4°28 3:65 2°47 1°96 1-96. 
Coefficients, 187. "148 "122 "086 068 068 


The variation in observations taken at the same some is 
nearly identical in every series with that shown in Table 
Am. Jour, So. —Turep Serres, Vor. XV, No. 87.-- Manon, +78. 
13 


. 


194 A. S. Kimball—Journal Friction at Low Speeds. 


In order to eliminate as far as possible gradual changes in 
the condition of the rubbing surfaces, the following order of 
observation was adopted in each series. Calling the slowest 
speed No. 1, four observations were made alternating 


between Nos. 6 and 1. 

“ .T4 2. 
7. BE ees 
(74 6 


5, ete. 
1, 


a 
& 

me ho OH Ee 
a 


“cc 6. 


lower speeds were decisive. The most probable values of the 
coefficient as shown by a graphical construction of all these ex- 
periments is shown in 


BLE III. 
Speed, Noe 48 47 10 AG ay 40" 40. 60° 00 
Coefficient, 150 *122 -104 -093 -079 -066 -058 ‘054 053 °052 -051 050 
Thus we see that the conditions under which journal friction 
usually occurs are such that the maximum coefficient will be 
found at a very low speed. While using a journal 6” in diam- 


is great in comparison, or on the other hand so great as to pro- 
duce abrasion. An experimental examination of this point 


turbing slightly the adjustment of the machine. These results’ 


as the specific pressure on the journal increases even when the, 
pressures are quite large. 


Brightness of the Satellites of Uranus. 195 


Taste IV. 
Pressures are given in pounds on a square inch of longitudinal 
journal section. 
Fr; Coef’ts at 59” per min. Coef’ts at 2°17’ per min. 
"154 "159 136 0 


23°5 15 

36°8 157 "156 138 130 

50°1 149 147 119 124 

63°4 149 153 117 127 

76°7 153 “152 108 126 

90°0 151 "150 109 123 
103°3 155 "150 111 127 
116°6 149 "145 113 124 
129°9 147 "146 112 "123 
143°2 145 "146 113 121 
156°5 147 "147 113 124 
169°8 146 "146 112 121 
183°1 145 "148 109 124 
196°4 144 "145 111 125 


The larger part of the experiments referred to were made by 
esper, a student of the Institute, whose patience and care 
deserve especial mention. 


ArT. XXVI.— Observations of the Brightness of the Satellites of 
-_  Oranus. 


[Communicated by Rear-Admiral John Rodgers, U.S.N., Superintendent U. 8. 
Naval Observatory.] 


It was surmised by Professor Newcomb that the brightness 
of Ariel varied in different parts of its orbit (Wash. Ast. O 
1874, Appendix I, p. 48,) and that it was least bright in 
p=180°+ duri 74. koe 
There have been observed in 1874-5-6-7 nineteen position 
angles of Ariel: of these, seven were 180°, and twelve 
were 0°+. : : 
A better test is the following: on fifteen nights this satellite 
was bright enough to allow of measures of distance. On six 0 
these ee e nine the 


196 Brightness of the Satellites of Uranus. 


Dr. H. C. Vogel has suggested that Titania also is of varying 
brightness in different parts of the orbit. arly attention was 
ven to this point. The following extracts from the observing 
Cooke may be of use, when an exact photometric determination 
comes to be made. The weight indicates the steadiness of the 
images, five being perfectly steady. The epee given are to 
the nearest degree in p and nearest second in s. 
1875. Jan. 26. Titania; p=260°, s=19”. We 4, Titania is 
fainter than I have ever seen it—HN. 
1875. March 4. Four stars visible besides Oberon and Titania. 


Oberon, p23ie: s= 26° 

Titania, p= 184° gosz 85" 
Star 1, p= 350°+ s= 80° 
Star 2, p= 20° s= 100’4 
Star 3, p= 130°+ s=130°4+ 
Star 4, p= 95°+ $= 200°+ 


Order of brightness ; 4, 1, 8, 2; and 2 somewhat brighter than 
Titania.—HN. 
1875. May 25. Oberon: p=230°, s=31”. 
Titania: p=21°, s=30". 
on very faint [and therefore as nothing is said of bright- 
-_ ci ptsies Titania brighter than Oberon at same dis- 


S76. fan. 14. Oberon: p=11°, s=28"") 
Titania: p=48°, s=2T7" § 

Titania much brighter than Oberon. Moonlight.—HN. 

1376. Jan. 20. Oberon: p=821°, s=27” 
Titania : p= 186°, s=34” 
| Ser of Oberon quite difficult [and of Titania not so. }—HN. 

1876. Jan. 25. — ; p=181", s=44” Wt=2. 

= 852°, s=31" 

Oberon easier = see (brighter) than Titania.—HN. 

1876. Jan. 26. Titania in p=310°, s=16”. Wt. 5. 

— is son the smallest distance at which Titania has been 


1876. Jan. 31. ~— a =716°, s=17” | w 
riel: p=29°, s=12” Sut 
Titania is at ot twice as bright as Ariel. Ti ~— is 
decidedly brighter than the satellite of Neptune. It is easier 


to see (under these conditions, Wt=5) within 16” of Tenino: 
than the satellite of Neptune within 16” of Neptune.—HN. 
1876. Feb. 2. Oberon : p=888°, s=88" | 
tlania; p=T°, s= =34"{ 
After careful examination with 800 A and 400 A, I cannot 
decide which is brighter, Oberon or nee but if there is any 
differe’ Titania is the brighter.— 


Brightness of the Satellites of Uranw;  - 197 
1876. Feb. 18. Oberon : : ee it 
Titania | Wt=4t. 


1876. Feb. 20. Star near aco - p=89°, s= 27’. Wt=1. 
This star is about ‘she brightness of ey. = Titania. 
an Oberon Lae ice for Thence p=lbl°+) 
1876. March 3. Two stare, eo Uranus, fos slightly 
righter than Oberon. Star = 280°, s= 
Sta : ere s=50” estinated. 
Not much difference in the brightness of Oberon ani. Awana. 
[For Oberon p=236°, for Titania p=268° +}. 
Umbriel: p=23°, s=20" Wt=3. 
Ariel: p=173°, s=13” “a 
Umbriel i ‘5 more steadily seen than Ariel but nat aed more 80. 
Then reduced aperture to. fifteen inches. _Umbrie was cer 
tainly seen and its position eould haye been mcngarel poy 
was not certainly seen. Sky 


azy. Bright m 
Mar. 4. Ariel: p=’, s=18". “Mooolightand a 


ta: 
Titania is decidedly prance han Ob her f 
1876. March 18. Oberon? ps , 8 cy 05'S 
Titania: palo’, s=80"S oe eda 
Oberon is Baki? than Titanta,—H. Aine agi ike’ oy. 
1876. March 14. a R penes g=1 


mbri pale’ s=19" 
Titania : p=126°, s=18" 
one speci e327" 


1876. March 22. Conon Ea =78°, cit ne Se 
sa Titania : p=161°, s=26" vat ene 
Titania much ogee pai, “3, ue 
1876. March 23 : p= s if : 
SS Titania : es pt We=8 
Oberon ogi nae than Titania —# j u 


e we 


Titania: paar om’ 

Oberon brighter than Titania.-# <a 

It is not desirable to draw any’ es aaticiaual ab 

vations as yet. They are here recorded as hey we of ser- 

Vice in photometric observations, and the sare 
as occasion offers. 


tees E F. Smith— Decomposition of Chromic Iron. 


Akt. XX7A new method for - ante of Chromic 
fron > by Epear F. Sur 


» Recen*ry I was’ led to try the action of bromine and sodium 
hydrate Hy nae fuivétibed chromic iron, and as the amount of 
un extracted in this manner was rather surprising, the 
ia followin oi dx penitent were made, to ascertain a effect. bro- 
: mine aloe would have upon the same substan 
» L Mocerate rately fine chromic iron (+1500 sine was placed in 
a tube o hard ‘and after adding dilute bromine water and 
roles | the tube, the latter was placed in an ai ir-bath and << 
a twele Bi 2, at a temperature about 180° C. When cool 
thet its contents sear upon a “filter. 
- The tubhele jeaided was théroughly washed by decantation, 
oe and upe the filter, with hot water. The filtrate after concen- 
peal vas treated yf a slight excess of ammonium hydrate, 
; he -precipi of aluminum hydrate, etc. The Jat- 
solored filtrate then vs 


Panag 


The predpitate formed, after protracted digestion, was sltdveod 
to settle key the dei ar Itered. After washing, the pre- 
was'"dissol lved few drops of dilute Agee 

cid an ‘ecipita “Operation was repeated and the 
recipit 5 ‘Ynally transferred to a filter, washed, dried and 
ed. The amount of ahresne pete found | ereee 


E. F. Smith— Decomposition of Chromis, iron, 199 


stance appeared to be perfectly desoreppnet, the solution was 
remove Ac ge the sat and evaporatedin a — to expel 
the large excess of moet upon the, spradual. disgp distnnearance of 
which a dark powder showeditself., The solution was st strongly 
diluted with water and filtered. The insolubje pesidue was 
thoroughly washed with hot gyater. Dried am Eva this 
weighed ‘0140 grams. 


condition. To this end the:material that h 
an impalpable powder in an, agate mortar was €le-~oted, hen 
dried and two distinct portions of 1600 grams e:ch placed in 
good hard glass tubes. To each portion was acle] 4 rather 
large quantity of bromine water_am from ten to Wave e dcppe 
af bro omine. Both tubes were heated for one day % 139° 

For two successive days the temperature was mailsined at 
170°C. At the atone of a third ga ox of i fies 

and opene 
was removed from the oven ) ape eer to I ra 


complete was to have the chiens iron in an foo: the 


The whole was pou a beaker * Sorated, 
water added and PN ag The eet was thorou ile ashed, 
dried and ignited, then transferred to a beaker an ‘pith 
dilute hydrochloric acid. The entire mass dissol¥' at 
and without a residue. The veer eatiahtd was, ierefore 
complete 

The Bitcats from the iron oxide was evaporated ‘a me 
dryness after the addition of an excess of ammonium iydrate, 
then diluted and filtered. The sokivor was reduc with 


The second tube, evel at On ng pe the fst id 

a large amount of separated ferric oxid 

off the chromium solution also dissolved very readily warm, 

dilute hydrochloric acid, oe ‘pot the least trace o° Lig e. 

ae from. this, after be mg. similarly treated Babove, 

lelded 62:83 chromium ox! 

. These results accord with those of Garrett, who an), bec 

ore from Texas, red nisi ‘ btained a about GB: cent 


same 
chromic oxide. & yey te hae ad 


200 EB Wilson— New genera of Pyenogoni 


scdetes al te ‘water were heated t 125° C., but invaria- 
bly exploded before wae decomposition was completed, and 
therefore 10 farther attempts | were made to use the alkali to 
ons me 


» Allthat is to effect the complete decomposition of 
chromic i Ne sentiag this method is that the substance be ex: 
ingly fine card, that the same be exposed with bromine toa 
temperaturef 180°C. from two to three ders The addition 
of near dogs pens anton the decomposition 
idedly 


Dacincd by the ignitioks of the 
may be brought into solution again by 
| acl eat m2 ue in a beaker. 
of Pennsylvania, Dec. 


Descriptions of two new genera. of Pyenogonida ; 
Witson. Brief Contributions to, Zoology 


certain genera (e. lene 
ulated to the hae us and 
ann by means of which le 


marillare tes Tiveitebeitll - 
250, Pi be 1874 (non Stimpson) 


E. B. Wilson—New genera of Pycnogonida. 201 


Oculiferous segment broad, as long as the two following seg- 
ments taken together, not emarginate between the bases of the 
antenne. Neck swollen. Posterior segment of body very 
slender. Abdomen rather more than twice as long as broad, 
slightly bifid at the extremity. 

Ocutiferous tubercle prominent, acute, placed on the anterior 
portion of the first segment. Eyes four, ovate, varying in 
color from light brown to black. 

Rostrum very large, longer than the oculiferous segment, con- 
stricted at base, thus appearing somewhat clavate. The extrem- 
ity is subglobose. 

Antenne hairy, long and slender, their bases closely approxi- 
mated. Basal joint. extending beyond extremity of rostrum. 
Chela stout, hairy. Dactylus very stout, smooth on margin. 

Ovigerous legs stout, roughened by 
minute tubercles, the outer joints with 
many strong hairs, most of which are di- 
rected backward. The two basal joints 
are very thick; the first is shorter than 
its width, the second about twice the 

rst. The succeeding joints are much 
more slender. The third is nearly two 
and a half the second, somewhat cla- 
vate, and suddenly constricted a short 
distance from the base. Fourth joint 
half the third. Fifth considerably less 
than fourth. Terminal joint much 


Fig. 1.—Anoplodactylus witus. 
Terminal joints of leg; 6, ov- 
igerous leg. 

considerably longer and clavate. The three following joints 
are much longer, the sixth being the longest. The seventh 


is a series of much smaller stout spines. The dactylus is stout, 
about two-thirds as long as the propodus. The whole surface 
of the body is scabrous. ‘The legs bear a few scattered hairs, 
which are more numerous on the outer joints. 

e genital orifices are situated on the lower side of the 
second joint of the legs, near the external margin. The sexes 
resemble each other closely except in the absence, in the male, 
of the ovigerous legs. ‘The males are also, as a rule, slightly 
larger than the females. ‘It is most frequently deep purple 
in color, but gray and brown specimens are often met with. 
( Verrill). 


This species is common in Vineyard Sound, but does not 


202 F. B. Wilson—New genera of Pycnogonida. 


near the base of the third joint for an articulation. 
Length of body in largest specimens (inclusive of rostrum 
and abdomen), 7 millimeters. Legs, 30 millimeters. 


Pseudopallene, (gen. nov.). 

Body robust. Neck broad and thick. Rostrum more or less 
acute. Antenne three-jointed, chelate. Palpi wanting.  Oviger- 
ous legs composed of eleven joints. Legs nine-jointed. Dactylus 


lus is armed with two very large auxiliary claws. A Pallene, 


probably be referred to Pseudopallene. Having seen no speci- 
mens of these species, I have been unable to verify this. 


O 

collection of the Peabody Museum, dredged by the United States 
ish Commission in Johnson’s Bay, near Eastport, Maine, in 12 

fathoms rocky bottom. Stimpson records it from deep water off 


rand Menan, “on Asridie callose.” His description being in- 


y very broad, oval, neck not constricted. Oculiferous 
tuburcle small, rounded four, ovate, light brow 
Oculiferous segment half as long as t nd and 


J. L. Smith—Tantalite from Alabama. 203 


Rostrum as long as oculiferous segment, with a constriction 
on each side below, giving it the appearance of being articu- 
lated at this point, acute-conical, with a rosette of filamentary 
processes around the terminal mouth. 

Antenne hairy, stout and swollen, about twice as long as the 
rostrum, tipped with amber color. Basal joints enlarged near 
their attachment. The second joint has a prominent rounded 
tubercle on the lower end, behind which the dactylus closes. 

Ovigerous legs slender, eleven- 
jointed, terminal joint ‘elaw-like, 
trifid. Fifth joint somewhat cla- 
vate, considerably smaller than 
the fourth. The four outer joints 
are armed with three or four stout, 
smooth, curved spines. 

Legs very stout, the three basal 
joints short, overlapping each other 
in an imbricated manner. Fourt 
joint as long as the three basal 
joints taken together, much di 
tended by the ovaries in the speci- Dias 
men described. Fifth, aslong as Fig. 2 
the fourth but much more slender. 4 Terminal apart Se 
Sixth, longer and more slender. eee a 
Seventh (tarsus) very short, nearly triangular. Kighth slightly 
curved, armed with five or six spines on the inner (concave) 
margin. Dactylus slender, curved, acute, without accessory 
claws, about two-thirds as long as the preceding joint. : 

All of the legs bear more or fewer prominent, conical, spiny 
tubercles. These are arranged in longitudinal rows on some 
of the joints, particularly on the fifth and sixth, which appear 
deeply serrate on the external margin. The entire surface of 
the body is rough, and more or less hairy. 

Genital orifices small, on the second joint of the legs. 

Length (inclusive of rostrum and abdomen) 3 millimeters. 
Legs, 7°5 millimeters. Ovigerous legs, 3°7 millimeters. 


_—Pseudopuliene hispida. 


Art. XXIX. —7anitalite from Coosa County, Alabama, its mode 
of occurrence and composition ; by J. LAWRENCE SMITH, 
Louisville, Ky. 


WHILE coluinbite has been long known from a number of 
localities in the United States and at some of them it is found 
in great abundance, the related mineral tantalite has never 
been identified, until recently I proved the fact of its eggs BOE 
in Alabama. Professor Kénig has described (Proc. Acad. 


204 J. L. Smith—Tantalite from Alabama. 


Nat. Sci. Philadelphia, 1876) a mineral which he considered to 
be tantalite from Yancey County, North Carolina. There must 
however have been some mistake about the matter, for he states 
the specific gravity of the mineral to be 5807. If this deter- 
mination was given correctly this could not have been tantalite. 
I have found columbite from the North Carolina localities with 
specific gravities from 5°6 to 6°38, varying according to the 
amount of tantalic acid present with the columbic acid. There 
is no instance. that I know of where tantalite has as low a spe- 
cific gravity as 7. Z 

I am indebted to Professor Eugene Smith, State Geologist of 
Alabama, for the specimen of tantalite that first came under 
my observation; he suspected it to be tantalite and sent it to 
me for verification; he had obtained the specimen from Judge 
Bently, to whom we owe what we know about the manner of 
its occurrence. 

It is found in Coosa County, Alabama, detached from any 
rock, lying loose with “bowlders” (as Judge Bentley calls 
them) of granite more or less disintegrated. As, however, this 
region belongs to the older series of rocks (Professor Eugene 
Smith has not yet explored it) these blocks of granite are doubt- 
less not bowlders, but detached masses, weather worn. They are 
found both under and on the surface for miles, ranning north- 
east and southwest. cross these in a direction northwest and 
southeast runs a ridge filled with quartz and flint rocks and at 
the intersection of the two, over about an acre of surface, some 
fifty specimens of tantalite have been collected, from the size 
of a pea to a lump one and a quarter pounds in weight. — 

araci -emens.—They are irregular masses, without 
the slightest indication of crystalline form, just such pieces as I 
have obtained from the locality at Limoges; they are more or 
ess rounded, with a ready cleavage in one direction; the spect- 
mens although long exposed, have undergone but little altera- 
tion, as indicated by examination made on several specimens. 
The specific gravity varied from 7°305 to 7°401. 

n analysis it was found to consist of: 


ee 9°65 : 
eee Lc. pieces 1°10 } 81°62 metalic acids. 
Stee Se ge 
Manganese protoxide, ..____- 3°72 
Tron me A ce 13°51 
Copper Gxule,. 6... “89 

99°74 


The tantalic acid contains very little columbic acid. 
_ Judging from the discoveries already made, and the large 
size of some of the pieces of tantalite, we may expect some 
important results from the future explorations in Alabama. 


Ee 


W. G. Mixter—Amylidenamine Silver Nitrate. 205 


Arr. XXX.—On Amylidenamine Silver Nitrate; by 


W. G. 
MIXTER. Contributions from the Sheffield Laboratory of Yale 
College, No. XXX. 


STRECKER (Liebig’s Ann., cxxx, p. 220) states that silver 
nitrate produces in alcoholic solutions of valeralammonia, a 
white precipitate, which slowly turns black in the cold, but he 
says nothing as to the composition of the substance. I have 
obtained what is doubtless the same compound by the spon- 
taneous evaporation of alcoholic ammonia solutions of valeral- 
ammonia to which an excess of silver nitrate had been added. 


and then adding thirty grams of hydrous valeralammonia, from 
105 


for 
Ist Series Qd Series. ©, ,Hg3N,0s4g- 
Carbon. ...... 4211 42°26 3 
Hydrogen ..... _ 7°89 7°90 7°76 
Nitrogen ...--. 3°24 13-18 13-18 
paves: 25°26 25°19 25°41 
Oxygen ...... . [11°50] [11°47] 11°30 


100°00 100700 Re - 

The equation 3(C Tr ,ONH,)+AgNO =C,,H,,N,0,Ag 
+3H "O doabilees represents the formation of the substance 
in question. It is not possible to give a gravimetric proof on 


206 W. G. Mixter—Amylidenamine Silver Nitrate. 


account of some decomposition which occurs during the evapo- 
ration. The compound dissolves with but partial separation 
of silver in boiling water. The clear aqueous solution evapo- 
rated on a water bath leaves a slight black residue and a very 
soluble crystalline mass, which contains silver, reacts for am- 
monia and gives red fumes when heated with oil of vitriol. By 
distilling with ammonia water crystals are obtained in the distil- 
late which reduce silver. Hot dilute acids decompose it with 
the separation of an oil which has the odor of valeral, and hot 
oil of vitriol evolves nitrous fumes from it. The reactions 
show that the substance contains the amyliden, ammonio and 
nitro groups and that it is an amine analogous to Rose’s 
3NH,AgNO,, thus: 
H,N C,H, ,—NH 
H,N } AgNO, C,H,,=NH } AgNO, 
H,N (sooNE 
The name amylidenamine silver nitrate is perhaps the best 
that can be given to the substance until more is known of its 
constitution. If the corresponding ammonio compound be 
gentammonium nitrate (Graham— 
Otto, iti, 840) the derivative from valeralammonia may be 
arded as di-amylid i tamylid ium 


= 5 


Oo af 


nitrate, thus: 


Ag Ag 
I | 
a0 —O-NO, C,H,,=N—O-NO, 
| 
H,N C21, NG 
l 


“ C,H, ,=NH, 
Amylidenamine silver nitrate is insoluble in water, ammonia 
4 ; : 


Calculated for. 
Carbon 32.023 4:99 Oo, 65°79 
drogen ____. 11-25 ot 10°97 
Nitrogen __.__. 9°53 Ny 9°21 
Sulphur _...-._ 14-01 Ss 14°03 


99°78 100.00 


A, H. Chester—Crystallization of Variscite. 207 


The results indicate a mixture of C,,H,,N, and 2(C,H, ,S). 
The oil has the odor of thiovaleral, and decomposes when dis- 
tilled. Hydrochloric acid added to the concentrated etherial 
solution of it produces a white curdy mass which was not ob- 
tained free from adhering oi]. This last product is soluble in 
alcohol, ether, and with the separation of an oil in hot water. 
Platinic chloride produces at once in the alcoholic solution a 
small light yellow precipitate and in a few minutes a dark 
brownish red curdy precipitate which yields to water, platin- 
chloride of ammonium. ‘The red precipitate after washing 
with water and alcohol, reacts for platinum, sulphur and a hydro- 
carbon. Lack of material prevented further investigation of the 
oe a from amylidenamine silver nitrate by the action of 

ydrogen sulphide. 

New Haven, January 10, 1878. 


ArT. XXXI.—WNote on the Crystallization of Variscite ; by 
ALBERT H. CHESTER. 


A MicroscoPic examination of certain small crystals of the 
mineral variscite from Arkansas reveals the following facts with 
reference to its method of occurrence and crystallization. 

The crystals are rarely distinct, but are usually found in 
complicated groups, sometimes forming clusters of a sheaf form. 
Very rarely single prismatic crystals are found, sufficiently dis- 

1. 2. tinct to admit of measurement. 

Fig. 1 AoE the most common 

ee form, belonging to the orthorhom- 

bic system, and showing faces of 

J, %, it and O. In this crystal 

I,f=114° 6’. In general but 

one termination is seen, but crys- 

tals showing both ends aré some- 

times found lying on the quartz 

matrix, the bases being similar 

to each other. The face 7 is 

very small and therefore easily 

overlooked, and 7% is about the same size as J, so that these 

crystals may readily be mistaken for hexagonal prisms. Crystals 

showing a simple termination like that in fig. 1 are seldom seen. 

More frequently the basal plane is like fig. 2, or still more 

complicated. ‘These planes are often covered with a thin 
Opaque white coating, probably of quartz. : 

striking peculiarity of this mineral is its high lustre, like 

that of beryl, which it much resembles when viewed under a 

low power.” The crystal figured above is 0°3 mm. in diameter, 

and is about the average size of those examined. 
Hamilton College Laboratory, January 19th, 1878. 


208 Scientific Intelligence. 


ArT. XXXII. —Discovery of a New Planet ; by C. H. F. Perers. 
(From a letter to one of the Editors.) 


In the night of February 3-4, in revising one of my Zodi- 
acal Charts, I found a star that I could not have omitted, as 
being of the tenth magnitude. Some measures therefore were 
immediately taken, which showed that the object is a planet 
hitherto unknown. Its position was, 

Feb. 3, 13" 46" 478 m. t. a@=10" 1™ 38*-08. 6=-+11° 23’ 34”°1, 
from ten comparisons with Dm. +11°.2173,—the place of this 
star being determined by differentiation from LL. 19882, of 
which there are several modern determinations, viz: W. 105.91, 
R. 3090, Arg. +11°.2190, Berlin Mer. Cir. in A. N., No. 1388. 

Last night it clouded up, before the planet could be re-ob- 
served. But from the measurements of the preceding night fol- 
lows the hourly motion —1*-75.and 4-270, or the daily motion 
—42s and +11’, so that there will be no difficulty in finding 
the planet again, it having now already entered upon Chacor- 
nac’s chart. 

There has been some confusion of late in the numbering of 
planetoids, arisen from neglect of prompt communication. But 
it seems this new member will’ have to carry the number 180. 
If the priority of discovery remains to me, I propose the name 
Hunike, in commemoration of the glorious victories won by the 
Russian armies in their strife for humanity. 

Litchfield Observatory of Hamilton College, Clinton, N. Y., Feb. 5, 1878. 


ed 


SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE. 


I. CHEMISTRY AND PuHysics. 


y 
ties, founded upon the well established a 
‘d- not miscible with a given liquid are distilled with this 
ui gv 


liquid, the quantity of the two bodies in the distillate, is, at @ 
constant temperature of ebullition, in a constant ratio. Since, 00 


the mechanical theory of gases, the vapor-tension, other things 
being equal, depends on the number of molecules which the vapor 


sions of these constituents in the vapor mixture. results 
confirm completely the hypothesis and establish the ——— 
law: The ratio of the quantities of the substances in the disti 

late, expressed in molecular weights, is equal to the ratio of the 
vapor-tensions of these constituents in the vapor mixture, meas- 


Chemistry and Physics. 209 


ured at the temperature of ebullition. If g is the weight of one 
substance in the distillate, m its molecular weight and p its vapor 
tension at the boiling point ¢ and under the barometric pressure 
6; and if G be the weight of the other constituent, M its molec- 
ular weight and P its vapor tension also at the boiling point, we 
have, by the above law, 


An extended series of experimental results are given, which estab- 
lish the equality of these two ratios. From this equation it fol- 


lows that M= =_— If one of the substances be water, m= 18, 


_ t= 98°2°, the tension of aqueous vapor p = 712-4 mm. and hence 
the naphthalene vapor tension P =6 —p = 733—712°4 = 20°6 mm, 
The molecular weight of water m= 18. Substituting these values, 
_ 18X8°9X712°4 _ ‘ ees oat: 
M = Tsog = 118 The formula C,H, requires 1 
This is an extreme case, but the result shows that the above 
formula, and not any multiple or submultiple of it, is correct. The 
method is capable of indefinite extension.— Ber. Berl. Chem. Ges., 
X, 2098, Jan., 1878. GARE ALE oe 
2. Ona new Oxide of Sulphur, Persulphuric oxide.— BERTHE- 
Lor has described a new oxide of sulphur which he calls persul- 


. 


phuric oxide, corresponding to perchromic and permanganic 
: ric 


of absolutely dry sulphurous oxide and oxygen uty oA § 
e electrolysis of con- 


centrated sulphuric acid, and has been confounded with the so- 
s also fe 


les, many centimeters long and of an apprec - 
often crossing the tube. It resembles sulphuric oxide, but th - 
ter is opaque, in finer needles, shorter and narrower. It 
4 considerable vapor tension and sublimes spon 
* Ann. Chim. Phys., V, xii, 463, December, 1877. 
Au, Jour. Sct.—TaIrD sees ts Vou. XV, No. 87.—Mancu, 1878. 


210 Serentific Intelligence. 


tubes containing it. Its composition was determined by synthe- 
sis and by analysis. Synthetically, the residual gas after the ac- 
tion was withdrawn by a mercury pump and measured; it was 
one-eighth of the original gas, corresponding to the equati 
foe ; or in volumes 4-+-4 originally and 1 finally. 
Analytically by opening the tube under a titered stannous chlo- 
ride solution, the excess of oxygen was determined; and y pre- 
cipitation with barium chloride, the sulphuric acid was ascer- 
ained. The ratio obtained was SO,:O::10:1; the theoretical 
ratio 8,0,=(SO,),: O or 160: 16. The same result was reached 


oxygen rapidly in presence of platinum sponge. Treated with 
sulphurous acid, hyposulphuric acid is formed. Barium hydrate 
gives barium persulphate, which is soluble in water—C. R., 


hundred cubic centimeters of this water distilled from pure baryta, 


ecm 
gave a distillate in which platinice chloride produced a precipitate. 
— Ber. he B. 


ae : . : = Ks eee erg Bae 
With zine dust, it gives fluorene, and with lime, diphenyleneketone. 


Chemistry and Physics. 211 


Hence the _— is diphenyleneketonecarbonie acid, with the formula 


CAN Go 
cu , and the hydrocarbon has the constitutional formula 
osy CO 
C,H.—CH—C 
et | The authors give the hydrocarbon, therefore, 
C,H,—-—-C 
the name fluoranthrene, ee attention to the fact that Schmitz 
has proved the identity of ier’s fluorene with diphenyleneme- 


thane. In a postscript, Fittig says that he has just seen the paper 
of Goldschmiedt upon idryl, and has no doubt that the hydrocar- 
n C_H. there described is identical wr his rina eran 


5. 5. Simple synthesis of Formic acid. = Mae and Denes Shine 
Studied the reaction of carbonous oxide upon caustic alkali, ob- 


an instructive class experiment. This synthesis is important in 
view of the fact that the hydrogen solidified by — was pre- 
pared by fusing together sodium hydrate and form 


NaOH+H.COONa =CO<ON* +H, The fusion ore place in 
the generator.—Ber. Berl. Chem. Ges., x, 2117, Jan., = - 


pyridine, Hence the acid is pyridine-carbonie aci 
COOH.— Ber. Berl. Chem. Ges., x, 2136, Jan., 1878. G. F. B. 
7. Chemical Philosophy.—As “recent discussions i in the French 
Academy, Soper with the paper of Marignac, translated in the 
f this J 


of molecular mechanics. ‘This epartment of P obyeies involves the 
eee age theory of heat and the kinetic —— of g yes 
ve been developed by such masters as R \ Claadian, 300 


212 Scientific Intelligence. 


and Maxwell, and it is not too much to say that these theories— 
essentially one and the same—rest to-day on as firm a foundation 


gases the t eaphe of Avogadro isa pve consequence and 
must be true unless this whole theory is a delusion. It is not how- 
ever at present important to consider whether the absolute truth 
of the pag will probably be hereafter vindicated or the reverse. 
For the moment the only question is whether the kinetic theory 
of gases ¥¢ a age ES basis for the system of modern chemistry, 
and we are surprised that any scholar, who appreciates the pres- 


ent position of the theory should not acquiesce in the decision in 
which the great body of working chemists—certainly of those out- 
side of France—agree. e two great uses of systems, or theo- 


ries, in science are to direct yh aa and to facilitate the ac- 
quisition of knowled e. Of the vane of the molernlyy theory in 


stated and youtniecs developed... ... Of course we are far 
from believing that the ideas ex prevailing are necessnr rily true, 


clear SORES 8 and that in nee ng to clarify our ideas and 


the changes of molecular structure, which evidently 1 very con- 


ose 
which aba as rae teams aed te Saad don our pee oe 
tions and hitherto safe gui ides on account of a few anomalies, 


a 
2 ee 


Chemistry and Physics. 213 


in the debate in the French Academy, greatly surprises us. Cer- 
. : “ 


many the study of chemistry has been during the last ten years 
almost solely directed by theories of molecular structure, and that 

uring this period the German chemists, thus guided, have done 
more to advance their science than all the other nations of the 


and if the present science of “molecular mechanics” is a legiti- 
mate branch of knowledge, then the so-called “Law of a- 


is held by the great masters of modern chemical philosophy. 
3.7, IR. 


ence was not ready for them, have lain neglected since 1863. The 
position of the h droxyl group, he finds, has a marked effect on 


whole amount of ether which it is possible to form from second- 
ary alcohols, varying from 61°5 to 66°65 per cent of the theory, is 


affect the initial rate, which is the same for all its pena 
W easily explained exceptions, but do influence the limit, 


214 Scientific Intelligence. 


most curious fact observed in this research—benzyl and cinnamyl 

alcohols have the same Se rate as allyl alcohol in spite of the 

wide differences between the aromatic compounds and those of 
i 0 


except their alcoholic nature: it follows from these facts that new 
alcohols can easily be referred to their proper class by determin- 
ing their initial rate of etherification. Menschutkin’s somewhat 

len ngthy discussion of the relative rate, i. e., the rate referred to 
the limit seems rather unnecessary, as it i s of course a mere fune- 
tion of the limit, but it is not worth while to dwell on the single 


and of valuable suggestions for ~~ research, notably those in 
regard to the bearing of isomerism on the rate ‘and limit, which it 
is to be hoped he will follow out “thorongly, as soon as he has 
finished the tertiary alcohols annem COH) with which he is 
now at work.— Ber. Deutsch. Chem. Gres., x, 1728, 1898. L. Js 
9. Solid Hi Aad giabe Density of “iguit | Ox “ygen.— W ith the ap- 
paratus described i e last number of this Journal, M. Prcrer 
has succeeded in ech liquefying and solidifying hydrogen, and 


appearance, and destecides ah the opinion long since expressed by 
Dumas, that hydrogen is a gaseous metal. M. Pictet prepared 


M. 
density of chee oxygen based on many factors, but gy on the 
im i 


tube was not quite filled, the agreement is still closer. This 
density is about one-half of Jet of sulphur, and the result is re- 


umes of oxygen and sulphur must be equal when in the same state 
of aggregation. As the atomic weight of oxygen is one-half of 
that of sulphur, Dumas po concluded that the densities of the 
two substances w o each other the same ratio. 

In Nature for Jan. 31 ‘aay be seen a large wood-eut represen- 


Chemistry and Physies. 215 


tation of the apparatus used by M. Caillelet in his experiments 
described in our last number. Sie Oy BR 
10. The effect of Light and Heat upon the electrical resistance 
of Selenium.—W. Stwmens has undertaken a long ecg upon 
i at it 


scale, but without much success. He hopes, however, that other 
observers with better means may be more successful.— Amn. der 


Physik und Chemie, No. 12, 1877, p. 521. J.T. 
12. On Electromagnetic and Calometric absolute measurements. 
—Prof. H. T. Weer in a paper not yet concluded, discusses the 
various results, obtained by different observers for the value of 
’ resistance unit, and concludes from three independent 


Wilh. Weber, F. Kohlrausch and L. Lorenz, are a ted with 
rs of observation. Prof. H. T. Weber finds for the value of 


e 
Siemens’ resistance unit the expression 
1S. M. U, = 0-950 x 101°( 


Weber concludes his first paper as follows :-— : 

“(1.) The fundamental ee itherto recognized of induced Se? 
rents of variable intensity represent with great precision the : 
facts. The opinion of M. Lorenz, that the B soo difference | “i 
tween the results found by M.M. Weber, F._ ohlrausch and the 
physicists of the British Resistance Committee was the conse 


— 
. 


me) 
sec 


216 Scientific Intelligence. 


quence of our imperfect knowledge of the laws of such induced 
currents, finds no confirmation at all in the above sarge ments. 
(2.) Absolute measurements of resistance can with the means 
of galvanic observations nowadays at our disposal, be carried out 
= such exactness and certainty “ can only be attained in few 
rtments of physics. The notion widely accepted — 
phioiieiate: that absolute measurements of resistance belong t 


ists, supplied with the most perfect instruments and _ localities, 
will not be able to bt abaokite resistance measurements that 


sensiién of experiment. rdi Peter these me 
urements can be effected with tolerable accuracy with en scant 
means ro in moderately equipped localities,”— Phil. Jan., 
1878, J. Ts 
13. i ie Srom the Chemical Laboratory of the Johns — 
kins ae Nos. 4-8, 22 pp. 8vo. Baltimore, Decem 
n the oxidation of Recnaishpdeskeans and of ee 
substitution-products, b N. Morse and L Remsey; No. 5 


MSE» ’ 

n of xylenesulphonic acids, by M. W. Inxs and I. 

— N; No. 6, on acetylamidophenols, by H. N. Morse; No. 7, 
a correction, by 'L Remsen ; ; No. 8, a Lecture-experiment, id. 


II. GroLocy AND MINERALOGY. 


1, Annual Report of the Wisconsin Geological — for the 
year 1877; by T. C. CaampBertatn, Chief — ae — Besides valu- 
able notes on the local geology of portions of a ‘State, this 
Report contains brief descriptions of new Bitutibe fossils of Wis- 
consin. The Potsdam sandstone afforded the species Bellerophon 
antiquatus, and new — of each of the following genera of Trilo- 
bites: Conocephalites, Crepicephalus, a is, Agraulos, Ario- 
nellus and Eilliptocephalus ; and the Lower magnesian limestone 
trilobites, of the genera Dicellocephalus (omer Bathyurus of Bill- 
oe and I/lenurus, beside Mapeigakabit, and s species of Sceevogyr4, 

ee and Leptena. A —_ - new species also are 


who had one of the assistant pane ra of the meee 
Cislogtiade Survey o <8 : nnual Report of 
i. : H. © , State G or the year 1877 .—The final 


yield of clay in some parts is 10,000 tons an acre, and single acres 
ave egree 40,000 tons ; a ina — year 265, ness tons 0 


Geology and Mineralogy. 217 


of Paterson. The southern edge of the drift in New Jersey is 
stated to pass along the line of Short Hills extending from Perth 
Amboy, on the north side of the Raritan, to the First Mountain. 
Between First and Second Mountains it fills the valley ~ less 


than half a mile south of the Morris and Essex railroad. say 
thence be traced to Long Hill, ieee a Dover and on the 
Delaware below i é whole line of ‘due moraine is 


vi 
hagerents plain and well define 
. Bulletin of the United rant Geological and i 
ge. Vol. iv, No 


r . V. Haypen, Geologi 
- This number of the Bulletin contains papers by G. B. Samwurr 
on the Ornithology of the Rio Grande; by E. D. Corx on Creta- 


oo on t e Ma: anh of Fort Sisseton, Dakota; by R. 
Ripgeway of oe Ansiioan Herodiones; by 8S. HI. ScuppER on 
the Butterflies of Southern Utah and peau ER ; mira Coves and 
Yarrow on the Herpetology of Dakotah and y 
E. Coves on the Consolidation of the hoofs in the Vi irginian deer, 
and on a breed of solid-hoofed pigs apparently established in 

exas, 

In the case of the deer the consolidation is confined to the horny 
Substance of the true hoof. 

With regard to the pigs of Texas, the animal is completely 
and the anchylosis of the terminal phalanges of the 


eet of horny ouleunaiiat — is curiously like the frog of 
the horse’s hoof. The breed is so firmly established that no ten- 


dency to revert to the oniginal partes eae form is observable. 


mens and ‘facts to Dr. Coues 
oofed boar with a sow of the ordinary type, a majority of the 
. litter have the peculiarity of the male parent. 


218 Scientific Intelligence. 


artiodactyle than before; for the two toes are still present as 
uch as before, although coalesced at extremity; and the fourth, 
the outer of the two, equals the third—which is the grand charac- 
teristic of artiodactyles and determines that even stroke of the 
alescence of the two 

metacarpal or metatarsal bones into a “cannon” bone. J. D. D. 
4. Report on the Geographical and Geological Survey of the 
: ion ; by Major J. W. Powe t, in charge of 


Tuomrson and the topographic in two parties, under Mr. W. H. 
Graves and Mr. J. R. Hunsaawe. Geological investigations were 
carried forward by Major Powett, Mr. J. K. Gu.serr and Captain 

: TT The results also include researches in the depart- 


reference to the rise and fall of Great Salt Lake. Le. 

n the variations of the Decortieated Leaf-scars of certain 
Sigillarie ; and on the variations of the Leaf-sears of Lepido- 
es 


species, 
6. Elements of Geology ; a text-book for Colleges and the 
eneral read “ Religion and 


Geology and ‘Mineralogy. 219 


7. Contributions to the Fossil Flora of the Western Territories. 
Part Il. The Tertiary Flora ; by Leo LesQqueREvx. Te pp. 


cs 
iv 3} 


plate) deserves particular mention. The discovery of some of 
these remains was recorded in this Journal, for January, 1874; 


contribution from the Sheffield Laboratory* on the above named 
subject, the writer gave analys 
from the so-called “Chloritic formation,” and pointed out the 
resemblance in composition between these rocks and basic igneous 
rocks, By the aid of the microscope the rocks were inferred to be 
pyroxenic. On a further examination with better facilities, I 
have found that the mineral, sup to be pyroxene, is horn- 
blende, and that the rocks belong therefore to the diorite group. 


. Le 


ical survey, in which analogous roc 
and in which a revision of my previous studyt+ upon these rocks 
will be found. : 

9. Elevated Quaternary beds of Grinnell Land and North 
Greenland.—The December number of the Annals and Magazine 
se evidences of former 
Frt_pEN, naturalist to 


the late Arctic Expedition. The author spea of his Oe ae 
lished in the Journal of the Royal 


orth, that “the land which surrounds the Nort 
ing a general movement of upheaval; or, to be perfectly 
* This Journal, Feb., 1876. + Ibid., Aug., 1876. 


220 Scientific Intelligence. 


we find on it, in all directions, evidences that there has been a 
movement of upheaval since there was any subsidence.” In Grin- 
nell Land and North Greenland shell beds in some localities rest 
on “ Miocene strata, and extend to an elevation of not less than a 
thousand feet above their level,” proving, as he states, that since 
the Miocene there has been “a subsidence of over a thousand 
feet, and a subsequent Sohontel to a similar altitude.” The 

beds overlie also the other rocks of the country. The shells are 


Lawrence River and the Labrador and Maine coasts: such as, 

Saxicava rugosa, Mya truncata, Cardium Islandicum,  Tel- 

lina ealearia, Astate bo satiek Pecten Groenlandieus and others. 
Hb : ‘ie * 


10. A Seal from the Leda Clay Shot gone sia of the Ot- 
tawa valley.—Dr. Dawson describes this he common 
Greenland species, Phoca Greenlandica. It sg atlen in ate clays of 
Green’s creek, which have “afforded beautiful specimens of the 
Capelin and other fishes, and also of eeere shells of northern and 
cold-water types.”— Canadian Natur 

11. Notes on Ag Mineralogy and ok om capprtinch ee 
bye by M. Epwarps Wap swortH.—The r ned 

y% 


as “ diorytes,” “ syenites,” ete. e microscopical examination 
has shown that the no ae and essential constituents of the 
rocks are augite, feldspar, and magnetite; they contain also 
apatite, sage pyrite, h peal nde, and perhaps biotite. The 

*ks fr of the localities are marked by a greater or less 
degree of aocalea. in some the change being slight, while in 
others the decomposition. roduct “ viridite” forms with magnetite 
the mass of the rock e rocks which have previously been 
called “ diorite” and “ trap” are isa e to be identical and of 
the same age, while the “ greenstones” which show more altera- 
tion are regarded as older. The Sond es for the different rocks 
examined, are stated, and the microscopical characters given with 
care an | minuteness. 

Mr. Wadsworth gives in the beginning of his paper a list, cov- 
ering six pages, of the published articles upon subjects connected 
with the mineralogy an geology of Eastern Massachusetts. —Proe. 
Boston Nat. Hist. Soc., xix, 217, M 


A ay, 1877. 
- Analysis of Samarskite from Mitchell C hoes Caro- 
rof. C. F. Ramu Nort | 


RG, 
Srenste.. ia y been analyzed by Miss E. Hl i a Prof. 
O. D. Allen and Dr. J. Lawrence Smith (see this Journal, IIL, xiii, 
362, and xiv, 1 Prof. Rammelsberg, who has contributed so 


30). - 
much to our knowledge of this group of minerals, has also pub- 
rain an analysis of the same Babe It is as follows :—— 


Botany and Zoology. 221 


Cb.0; Ta.0, Sn0, UO; Fe,0;(Mn20s3) Ce,03* Y¥.0; ErO Sid, 
41°07 14°36 0°16 10°90 14°61 2°37 6°10 10°80 0°56 

* With a little Di. =100°93 
The formula deduced from the above is 8R,Nb,0,, +F#,U,0,, 


where R=Y,, Fe,, Ce,(Er,), each double atom having an equiv- 

alence of six (Y= 92, Ce=138). The American samarskite differs 

from the Uralian mineral in the high percentage of tantalic acid, 
Phys i 


and of the element erbium.—Ann. Phys. u. Chem., II, ii, 663. 


Ill Borany AnD ZooLoey. 


1. Supplementary Note to the Review of Darwin’s “ Forms of 
Flowers,” (In No, 7~-71.)—A contributor to the 
i anced the i 


d) bodil 
the closed flowers, and would therefore cross-fertilize them: 2, 
that there was a neat adaptation for ulterior self-fertilization ; the 


n 
iverged, and became revolute, a ee of the : 
i e abundant pollen; es this 

Th 


may call for a brief remark. He states that Gen 
in his neighborhood behaves differently, and that the flowers 
“do not last a long while.” Between this an 

y is not v ‘ t 
done away with by the statement following, that “ the ovarium, 
d soon pushes itself through the 
mouth of the corolla, exposing the stigmatic surfaces which remain 


” - * 


cross-fertilized before this, its day is long passed. __ 
ollows this: “The only difficulty with me 1s, that I do 
hot see where the pollen to cross-fertilize is to come from, Mr. 
i from 


lon.” This is equivalent to saying that there is no “ practical” 
(meaning useful) cross-fertilization if the plants grow near enough 
for a bee to fly from the one to the other; which is making what 
iT9 


222 Scientific Intelligence. 


then returning, and agai ing back, continuou spec and 
coming, as a ene ae so beautifully arranged by 
nature, shoul whatever heats m 3 do elsewhere.” Cer- 


were ever thought to do so. 
e article continues thus: “ However, it is well to recognize 
the fact, that plants, _ no doubt insects, behave differently i in 
‘ “te : 


induction of a general rule, t plants and insect e 
depended upon for behavior,-—is inferred © instances, one 
of which has been metagem o18 ake Arion and n 


0., 1875; re-issued 1877. 12mo, pp. 429. And with 30 litho- 
graphic plates.—The title page proceeds to state, that this vol- 
ume contains a review of the principles upon n which renera are 
founded, and the systems of classification of the principal authors ; 
with a new general arrangement; characters of the genera; re- 
marks on their reln¢ionshi to one another, their species, reference 
to authors, geographical diseeabutiot: &c. The plates, drawn on 
stone by Fitch, illustrate the tribes and leading genera. Mr. 
Smith , perhaps, t the oldest ee preridologst, and while he 
had his ¢ eyesight was one of the best. No else was so inti- 
mately and extensively sha ualekad with Benin} in a living state. 
In him unusual practical oo was miata ei with no mean 


me 
f venti ion, wish Brown had cau- 


first t o 
_Sously suggested for the definition of genera, and he may be said — 


Botany and Zoology. 223 


to use them with better judgment than Presl, upon an ampler 
_ store of materials. His papers, published in 1841-1843, were 
thought very valuable; an has since endeavored to make his 


“the chief aim of the work being the definition of gen d 
their classification, on the different modes of growth, 
venation, and fructification.” It has good indexes, a list of Fern 


useful book both to woes andamateurs. To those who do no 

possess a considerable botanical library, it would appear to be in- 

dispensable. A Ge 
3. Ferns of North America. By Prof. Dantet C. Eaton, 


enters the etymology of generic names, and is altogether a 
h 


and plates and letter-p are ever. commendable. The 
latter extends to p. 4 e three plates illustrate, Asplenium 
ebeneum, the ambiguous A. ebenoides, B chium Lunaria, la 


mark at the close of the account of Asplenium ebeneum, we sug- 
gest that the best of all reasons for adhering to this specific name, 
is that it is the earliest given for this Asplenium as such. A. G. 


Remarks, &c. From Bulletin of the B . 

pp. 224-252.—The principal bulk and chief interest of this article 

will be found in what are called the “ Remarks,” which are criti- 

cal studies of development, synonymy, &c., of various interesting 
n 


ssed for an Uredo, and 


noth i e only new species described is his 
genus ; but, what is better for science, a goodly number of species 
are reduced and pro erred; for instance, £ sidium 

yi Andromede of 


Peck, and E. discoideum of Ellis. The synonymy of various spe- 
cies of Uromyces is given in detail, and various newly proposed 
Species are referred to Schweinitzian origin: ce 


224 Screntific Intelligence. 


5. Journal of the Linnean Society.— The last two numbers, con- 
taining together almost 200 pages, are filled with the Spicilegium 
aroccane, by John Ball, based on the collections made 
n Marocco by Sir Joseph Hooker and himself; a critical pie: 
illustrated by plates of some new or rare spe cies. Thus hae 
— the beginning of the Umbelliferce. ike 
6. Guide du Botaniste in Belgique (Plantes vivantes rr Sos- 


dl 


siles), par Francots Criprx. Bruxelles and Paris, 1878 


d g 
just the information he most needs, and which, without such 
help at the outset, he will 1 be a long while in obtaining ;—details 
for herborization ; Ap capcom of specimens; formation of her- 


ariam; arrangement for exchanges; nature and characteristics 
of different sorts of “botanical books, ‘and how to use them; 5 h 
to write them, mo ;and a useful section on the correction of 


proofs; the denwhias's tare and what it must needs contain ; 
selection of some of the einitpal floras _ botanical iets of 
the day ; a choice of European Zesiccate ; sketch of the princi- 

ples and methods of vegetable saleueelray; with detailed instruc- 

tions for collecting and managing specimens ; systematic lists of 

etc. This all be- 
eral. 


Herbaria, etce.; then the ee botany of the pee te 
a catalogue of its fossil flora; full instructions for herborizations in 
different parts of Belgium, with enumeration of the choice plants 
of each Settens the same for the fossil flora; and 
logue of all the works of Belgian botanists, or those who have 
sojourned in Belgium long enough to be so accounted, from 
Anselme de Boodt, 1640, st Clusius, downward. No other 
country has such a hand-bo A. G 
. A eurious adaptatio aes insect-fertilization in Trichostema 
is described in a letter from Mr. I. J. Isaman, of Bangor, Cali- 


Mr, ionuian —— of the two states of the blossom 
to illustrate his account of the process, which he describes as 


ws: 
“ The tube of the an is bent upon itself when in its normal 
condition. On inserting a pin or a small splint, the tube is 


meatehtened; and the stamens and pistil are thrown forward, 
and strike very forcibly upon the back of any intruding insect. 
I have watthed bees for hours, gathering honey from these 
plants, and have heen very much amused bet ~ dengan ee “ 
The sketches well Show how the o may take hee 


—_ 


Botany and Zoology. 225 


of position; also to he e seeds os raising the plant; for this 
species is not in cultivation. Our two Eastern species should 
likewise < examined in “ahis regard. 
8. Botanical Necrology of 1877.—This contains an aenidiel 
number of noted names. e following are the principal. 
Mrs. Marra Eva Sar widow of the late Dr. J. E. wee 


tra R 1872, a cryptogamic penn of. much 
SHEDS died fapaasy 22, 187 7, in his 71st yea 
WitHetm HormetsTer, Professor at Tiibingen, a most. distin- 
he rea anatomist, died, January 12, 1877, in the 53d 
year of his age s death was noticed in last year’s necrolog 
ALEXANDER n, Professor of ge, died, 4 at Berlin preys 


er. 

OURGEAU, one of the best and most persevering botanical 
collectors of our da , who crossed the American continent at the 
north with sy el ‘and made his. last collection in Mexico dur- 


at the age o 
Hue = nN WEDDELL, English i in birth, French by adop- 
tion, author of a hi He Chloris Andina, and of monographs 
of the Urticee, Podostemacee, and. Cinchona, a first-class rere 
Solna, died in August last, of heart-disease, at the a age ° 


PO 
aad author of a Flora Helier er a pe 0 the 


ber 9, at the age of 6 

Prof, thease ot author of a Botany of the Southern 
United States, died i in case last, at the age of 73, An obituary 
hotice appeared in the December pte 3 of this Journal. a. ¢. 

9. I. Desmidiee et CEdogonice ; by O. Norvsrept and V. 

ITrRock. If. Bohuslinds CEdogonieer. IL. Nonnullee ae 
aque dulcis Brasilienses ; by O. NorpsTEDT.— —The three papers 
just named appeared in the Proceedings of of the Academy of Sci- 
ence of Stockholm, rang each is accompanied by a plate. e 
Species described the first named paper were collected by 

Am. Jour. foxTn, on Vou. XV, No. 87.—Manrcu, 1878. 


226 Scientific Intelligence. 


Nordstedt himself in Italy and the Tyrol. The desmids were 
determined by Nordstedt and the GEdogonie by Wittrock. The 
species from Brazil, which with two exceptions are desmids, were 
collected by A. Glaziou and E. Warming. Ww. GF. 

10. A new Species of Chimera from American Waters ; by T. 
Gitt.—One of the most unexpected discoveries recently made 
in American ichthyology is that of a species of the genus Chi- 
mera, of which a specimen has lately been sent to the Smithso- 
nian Institution. It was caught southeast of the La Have bank, 
in lat. 42° 40’ N., lon. 63° 23’ W., at a depth of 350 fathoms, 
with a bait of halibut. A close comparison of the specimen with 
individuals of the European Chimera monstrosa renders it evi- 
dent that it does not belong to that species, but is an entirely dis- 
tinct specific form. It may be named Chimera plumbea, and 
diagnosed as follows:—A Chimera with the snout acutely pro- 


little above the level of the inferior margin of the orbit ; the dor- 
sals close together; the dorsal th its anterior surface 
rounded; the ventrals trian and pointed; the pectorals 


ormly plumbeous. By these characters the species is readily 
separable from the Chimara monstrosa and other species of the 
genus.—Proc. Phil. Soc,, Dec. 22, 1877, Washington. 
11, Dr. W. M. Gabb on Dr. Warring’s paper on the growth- 
rings of exogenous plants a proof of alternating seasons, in the 
3 


clusions arrived at by the Doctor are e only demu 
at one ave never seen an exogen without rings (3).- ¢ 
ny tree grows here at the average rate of one inch 


_ The mahoga 
diameter per annum. Now the one-half inch radius certainly 
contains an average of three rings—which cannot in any manner 


might go farther: Santo Domingo is eighteen to nineteen de- 

grees north of the Equator. But I have seen the same facts 

amply proven ten degrees farther south, where there is practically 

no variation of temperature, where the rainy season lasts twelve 

months in the year, and where the trees are, to all appearances, 
ually vigorous at all seasons of the year, 


IV. Astronomy. 


1. On the age of the Sun in relation to Evolution ; by JAMES 
/ROLL.—One of the most formidable objections to the theory of 
evolution is the enormous length of time which it demands. On 


Astronomy. 297 


this point Professor Heckel, one of the highest authorities on the 
subject, in his “ History of Creation,” has the following :—* Dar- 
Wwin’s theory, as well that of Lyell, retiders the assumption of im- 

ense periods absolutely necessary. . . . If the theory of 
development be true at all there must certainly have elapsed im- 
mense periods, utterly inconceivable to us, during which the 
gradual historical development of the animal and vegetable pro- 
ceeded by the slow transformation of species. . . . t ri- 
ods during which species originated by gradual transmutation, 
must not be calculated by single centuries, but by hundreds and 
by millions of centuries. Every process - development is the 

ast, 


deavors to answer this question and to meet the objections urged 
against the enormous lapse of time assumed for evolution. : 

ig g leave to remark,” he says, “that we have not a single 
rational ground for conceiving the time requisite to be limited in 
any Way. . % t is absolutely impossible to see what can in 
any way limit us in assuming long periods of time . . . 
From a strictly philosophical point of view it makes no difference 
whether we hypothetically assume for this process ten millions or 
ten thousand millions of years n the same way as the 


distances between the different planetary systems are not caleu- 
ated by miles but by Sirius-distances, each of which comprises 
millions of miles, so the organic history of the earth must not be 
calculated by thousands of years, but by paleontological or geo- 
logical periods, each of which comprises many thousands of years, 
nd perhaps millions or milliards of thousands of years.” 
Statements more utterly opposed to the present state of modern 


at. 
rsally appealed to as the only 
e sun could have obtained its 


228 Scientific Intelligence. 


Professor Heckel may make any assumption he chooses about 
the age of the sun, but he must not do so in regard to the age of 
the sun’s heat. One who believes it inconceivable that matter can 
either be created or annihilated may be allowed to maintain that 
the sun existed from all eternity, but he cannot be permitted to 


her source, in addition, at least, to 


in a heated condition then in condensing it would have to part 
not merely with the heat of condensation, but also with the heat 
it originally possessed. 

The question then arises—By what means could the nebulous 
mass have become incandescent? From what source could the 
heat have been obtained? The dynamical theory of heat affords, 
as was shown several years ago (Phil. Mag. for May, 1868), an 
easy answer to this question. The answer is that the energy 1n 
the form of heat » y the mass may have been derived 
from motion in space. i 


les per second, would, by their concussion, generate In a single 


moving with a velocity of 476 miles per second, would possess 
4,149 10” foot-pounds of kinetic ener. , and this, converted into 
heat by the stoppage of their motion, would give out an amount 
of heat which would cover the present rate of the sun’s radiation 
for a period of 50,000,000 years, 

There is nothing very extraordinary in the velocity which we 
have found would be required to generate the 50,000,000 years’ 
heat in the case of the two Supposed bodies. A comet having an 
orbit extending to the path of the planet Neptune, approaching 


Ss 


5 Saar 


Astronomy. 999 


so near the sun as to almost graze his surface in passing, would 
have a velocity of about 390 miles per second, which is within 
eighty-six miles of that required. ; 

t must be borne in mind, however, that the 476 miles per sec- 
ond is the velocity at the moment of collision. But more than 
one-half of this velocity, or 274 miles per second, would be derived 

om their mutual attraction as they approached each other. We 
have consequently to assume an original or projected velocity of 
only 202 miles per second. If the original velocity was 678 per 
second, this, with the 274 derived from gravity, would generate 
an amount of heat which would suffice for 200,000,000 years. 


ence? It is just as easy to conceive that they always existed in 
motion as that they always existed at rest. In fact, this is the 
only way in which energy could remain in a body without dissipa- 


tion into space. Under other forms a certain amount of it is 


ace. 
_ The theory that the sun’s heat was originally derived from mo- 
tion in space is, therefore, for this reason, also more In harmony 
n 


the sun could have derived his heat. e one is gravitation, the 
other motion in space. The former could have afforded only 
about 20,000,000 or 30,000,000 years’ heat, but there is in reality 
no absolute limit to the amount which may have been derived from 
velocity of motion. And when we take into consideration the 
magnitude of the stellar universe, the difference between a motion 
of 202 miles per second, and one of 1,700 miles to a great ex 
na a and the one velocity becomes about as probable as 

e other. 

It may be urged as an objection to the theory that we have no 
experience of bodies moving in space with such enormous — 
ties as the above. This objection, for the following reason, 18 © 


No body moving with a velocity exceeding 400 miles per secon 

i er of our solar system; and beyond our nia 
tem there is nothing visible but the stars and_ bule. se 
Stars, however, are suns like our own, 


230 Scientific Intelligence. 


the occasion of receiving from the Governor of the Province of 
Cordoba the premiums awarded at the Philadelphia Centennial 
Exhibition to the Observatory for Lunar and Stellar Photographs, 


e 
ours, and will probably long continue to claim the ; 
Much of the credit of the stellar photographs is due to the 
pure air of Cordoba, which is incredibly transparent on those not 
very numerous occasions when the sky is truly clear. The 
impressions on glass which I exhibited were of six different 


am as 

unprepared to state. Since it is important that all the images 

should be opiate round, without the slightest perceptible elon- 

Say and si ; i 
as 


e have already secured measurable photographic impressions 
objects, of which ninetee 


the undertaking remain paralyzed in its resent state, the results 
may be regarded as richly worth the labo 

the planets Jupiter, Mars and Saturn have awe been photo- 
graphed with sufficient distinctness to show clearly the details 
of light and color on the surfaces of the two former, and the 


Miscellaneous Intelligence. 231 


existence of the ring in the latter; but these images have not 
been sufficiently sharp to permit of successful photographic 
enlargement.” 

3. Moon’s Zodiacal Light ; note by E. S. Hotpen. From a 
letter to the Editors, dated Naval Observatory, Washington, 

+ February 4, 1378.—In your Journal for February, 1878, p. 
88, is a note by M. Trouvelot, on “the Moon’s Zodiacal Light,” in 
which he describes a conical luminous appendage about 4$° long, 
extended on both sides of the moon, which was seen by him April 
3, 1874, 

In this connection an observation of a similar phenomenon by 
Messier, in the Mémoires de l’ Académie Royale des Sciences, 1771, 
p. 434, is noteworthy. In this memoir, Messier gives a roug 
wood-cut of its appearance, from which its length on each side of 
the moon is shown to be about 24°. 

_ The condition of the sky, as described by Trouvelot and Mes- 
Sler, appears to have been the same. ; 

In the Comptes Rendus, July 2, 1877, p. 44, M. Hugo describes 
a similar phenomenon which he saw above the lunar dise, about 4° 
in length, and in this case, also, the sky appears to have been sim- 
ilarly affected. These are the only cases known to me. 


V. MISCELLANEOUS SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE. 


1. Address of the President of the Royal Society, at the Anni- 
versary Meeting, November 30, 1877.—The first part of the ad- 
i g 


the biological results, appeared to have quite come up 
ations, iderin 


232 Miscellaneous Intelligence. 


much higher latitude than has elsewhere been explored botanically, 
he spe- 


a 
ertain warm gales and warm currents that were experienced in 


lat. 82° and 83° May not these phenomena of vegetation and 
temperature indicate the existence of large tracts of land clothed 
with vegetation in th rior of nland, far within the 


competent and willing workers in most of the departments, while 
their association with such naturalists as Agassiz and Hecke 


Miscellaneous Intelligence. 233 
cannot fail to be gratifying to themselves and assuring to the 
public.” * * * 


The remainder of the President’s address was occupied with 
reference to some of the American institutions he visited during 
his recent tour, followed by some remarks on the flora. These he 
gave in more of a narrative form than characterized the formal 


case as to the natural history museums generally. In fact his 
whole time was given to field-work in the region west of the Great 
Plains. The commendation of the U.S. scientific surveys would 


one here so highly and justly praised was the only one which the 
President had had the opportunity to become personally acquainted 
wi 


tinued,—The most important scientific results hitherto derived 

from the labors of Dr. Hayden and his parties are unquestionably 

the geological: such as the delineation of the boundaries of the 
a De 


retaceous an rtiary seas and lakes that a fee more than 


mains oO Oo g, ’ 
things, referable to so many orders of sponte and animals, and 
often 

States, with museums vastly larger than our own, are at a loss 


fectionery and fruit at the stalls of the railway stations, from the 
eastern base of the Rocky Mountains all the way to California, 


ing. i : 
over many hundred miles, observes that the character of its sok 
Ontological, as well as of its strictly geological contents is such, 


234 Miscellaneous Intelligence. 


be placed in the lower Tertiary or upper 1s 
most probable that the testimony of paleontologists will always 
be as conflicting as it is at present. Profe sh, one of the 


mals afford a satisfactory solution of the difficulty. ‘ Invertebrate 
remains,’ he says, ‘throw little light on the question ;’ and he is 
obliged to assume that ‘ the line, if line there be, must be drawn 
where the dinosaurs and other Mesozoic vertebrates disappear, 


early condition of the higher plants as compared with the higher 
animals. Other, and perhaps even more cient, reasons for 


ee, To way 
related, become too often fallacious guides. Another result, fore- 
t of t le 
fessor Marsh in respect of the vertebrates, is that all the Tertiary 
Sarat 


older data than the corresponding ones in Europe. This, though 
apparently supported by his conclusions that the main migrations 
of animals was from the American to the Asiatic continent (which 
he deduces from the American, as compared with the European, 
life-histories of the Edentata, Marsupialia, Ungulata, Rodentia, 

en Primates, is a ve eneralization. ” 


reference is made to “a few of the magnificent collections of veg- 
etable remains, Cretaceous and others, that have been studied and 


ace ical Survey, and in Separate wi issued under its 
auspices ;” and a series ritical remarks upon vegetable pale- 
ontology and its peculiar difficulties and liabilities follow. We 


Miscelianeous Intelligence. 235 


continents. How great 

mate and natural features of India had its trigonometrical or 
revenue surveys been carried out in the same catholic spirit ? 
And what scientific literature can England and its colonies show 
to compare with that of the United States surveys?” _ 

These extracts were taken from the report in the Times news- 
paper, of November 30, in advance of the official copy in the 
Royal Society’s Proceedings. 

2. Observations on Hermetically-sealed Flasks opened on the 
Alps. Ina letter to Professor Huxiey, from Professor TyNDALL, 
dated Alp Lusgen, September 18th, 1877.—Though the question 


wo 
but for six weeks fifty of the flasks remained perfectly clear. 


Spirit-lamp, and to keep my body 
Snipped off their sealed ends. ae 
he two groups of flasks were then placed in our — _ 
hen, where the temperature varied from about 65° to 
Fahrenheit. 


. 


236 Miscellaneous Intelligence. 


deductions which we draw from these simple “experiments may be 
summed up as follows :— 

1.) Light is inimical to the development of Bacteria and the 
microscopic fungi associated with putrefaction and decay, its action 
- the latter organisms being apparently less rapid than upon the 

ormer. 
(2.) Under favorable conditions it wholly prevents that develop- 
under less favorable it may only retard 


rays of the spectru ; 
5. e fitness of a cultivation-liquid to act as a nidus is not 
impaired by insolation. 
6.) The germs originally present in such a liquid may be wholly 
destroyed <i : ondenigar: fluid perfectly preserved by the un- 
gat, 


though there are many vital phenomena, both of plant-life 


confine ourselves to the plain facts of our observations, 
and have studiously avoided speculation and theory. We cannot, 
however, refra rom offering one comment on the striking 


to special circumstances, and differing essentially in its vital phe- 
nomena from the true cellular tissue of the plant and its proto- 


It appears to us that the organisms which have been the subject 
of our research may be regarded simply as individual “ cells 7 oF 
ae 


themselves may be in operation throughout the vegetable and 
perhaps also the animal, kingdom wherever light has direct access 


Miscellaneous Intelligence. 237 


to protoplasm? On the one hand we have chlorophyl, owing its 
very existence to light, and whose functions are deoxidizing; 


solar rays are not only non-essential, but even devitalizing and 
injurious. 

This suggestion we advance provisionally and with diffidence ; 
nor do we wish to imply that the relations of light to protoplasmic 
matter are by any means so simple as might be inferred from the 
above broad statement. 

To this the following is added by the authors as the inference 
from other experiments described in a postscript. 

This remarkable fact, then, appears to follow as a deduction, 
that a vacuum (or approximation to such) which of itself is a 
condition antagonistic to the development of Bacteria, neverthe- 


4. Expenditures for Universities in Germany.—Some inter- 
esting details, on the contributions of the State to the univer- 
sities, as well as on other points, were given in a recent num- 
ber of the Academy by Professor ie. Lankester :— 

erman States on the twenty 


from fees) of a professor in a German university ran es from” 
£100 to £600 a year. Asa rule, at the age of five-and-thirty, a 
man in this career may (in Germany) cc 

come of £400 a year (with retiring pension). The expenditure 
on attendants, libraries, laboratories and officials may be caleu- 
lated as being (in a well-conducted university) more than equal 


average German professorial stipend at only £200 a year, we find 


teen universities in this 


“In order to equip and carry on pee age ting ae 


e 
country which should bear comparison w 
* We wish, however, to make it clear that we by no means insist on this ex- 
ion; the i admit of other explanations. 
tie, We presume professors strictly so-called, exclusive of “ privat-docenten.” 


238 Miscellaneous Intelligence. 


ties, we require not less than an immediate expenditure of 
£1,000,000 sterling in building and apparatus, and an annual ex- 
penditure of from £500,000 to £800,000.” 

When we add to the Government subsidy the income of the 
universities from other sources, the sum is enormously increased. 
The half-million, moreover, does not include the occasional grants 


Erection of the German Industrial Museum, 998,000 mk. ; erection 


versity, erection of an Herbarium,: 422,000 mk.; of a Clinic, 

1,955,000 mk.; of a new building for a second Chemical Labora- 

tory, as well as of a Technical and Pharmaceutical Institute, 

967,000 m 

the nature and extent of the scientific teaching in German 
m ea ma ormed 


logical Museum in Berlin, 1,800,000 mk.; and for the Berlin Uni- 
; He ff 


gives no adequate idea of the means at the command of a German 
University for training its students in science. The number of 


oe of its large and comprehensive library. In connection with 
erlin alone there are twenty-three scientific “ Anstalten,” as they 


. 


een seen that higher 


; : nsas and Missouri on the 
nto Dakota and Minnesota on the North. In Omaha 


Miscellaneous Intelligence. 239 


three, and in North Platte, Lincoln and West Point, Neb., two 
shocks were felt. In North Platte and Columbus, Neb., and in 
Sioux City, Iowa, walls of buildings were cracked. The times 
given are still very discordant, varying all the way from 10.40 
A. M., to 12.20 Pp. M., Omaha time i 
A. M., is probably not far from correct. The December number of 
Peterman’s Mittheilungen, contains a long article on the Iquique 
earthquake of May 9, 1877, giving valuable data in regard to 
and ocean wave. Ue 
6. Memoirs of the Geological Survey of India, Paleontologia 
Indica, Section Il, No. 2, contains Jurassic (Liassic) flora of 


of Washington University, St. Louis, which will be recognized as 
the “central station.” The circular issued is signed by William 
S. Eliot, President of the University, and Francis E. Nipher, Pro- 


su workers in this branch of science, 
the literature would be otherwise inaccessible, can hardly be over- 
estimated, 

OBITUARY. 

M. Antoine Cfsar Brcqueret died on the 19th of January, 
at the advanced age of nearly ninety years. ite was born at 
Chatillon-sur-Loing (Loiret) on the 7th of March, 1788. 

as educated in the Polytechnic School, which he left as 

icer i 8. He served in Spain and took part in 
several sieges under the orders of Marshal Suchet. In 1814 M. 
Beequerel was named Inspector of the Polytechnic School, and he 
quitted the army in 1815. es: 
da Member of the Académie des Sci- 

M. Beecquerel was elected a Me Se uabesof tas Rees 


240 Miscellaneous Intelligence. 


on different branches of electricity, to which M. Becquerel de- 
voted his especial attention, will be found in the Comptes Rendus 
of the Academy of Sciences. e may more particularly name 
Mémoire sur les Caractares Optiques des Minéraux (183+), Sur les 
Propriétes Teenchiienidies des Corps Simples et leurs Applica- 
tions aux s (1841), and Mémoires sur la Reproduction Arti- 
ficielle des econ Minéraux, 4 aide de Courants Electriques 
trés faibles (1852). His researches on animal heat t, and other 
applications of physics to physiology, on which subjects memoirs 
will be found in the Comptes Rendus, were % a high see 
Becquerel was a voluminous writer on science, the most 


n the several divisions of electrical science, to which the father 
and s son had devoted the largest portion of their lives. Atheneum, 

an. 26. 

M. Re uEr—M. Henri Victor Regnault died at sa almost 
simultaneously with M. Becquerel, on the 2ist of January. 

M. Re was born on the 2\st of Jul 1810, at Aix-la- 
Chapelle He was a student of the Polytechnic School, and 
shortly after leaving that school he became Ingénieur en Chef 

s Min In 1 ; Physics 


College of France and of Chemistry in the Polytechnic School. 
In the same year he was elected a Member of the Académie des 


ences soGebeines par Ordre de M. le Ministre des Travaux ate 
a Vanes et Baa la Proposition de la inieianoe Centrale des Machines 
These main a standard authority upon 
all ede relating 2 the thedey and practice of the use e of 
Steam as a motive 
. Regnault was the father of the ge a seh painter who fell, 

fighting for his country, at he siege of Pa 

egnault published a Cours Elémentaire de Chimie, in four 
volumes. Premiére Notions de Chimie, and a Traité de payee 
The Cours Elémentaire has been translated into several European 
languages, and the other works of M. Regnault are highly appre 
ciated in this country as in France.— Ibi, id. 


APPEND. 


Art. XX XII1.—WNotice of New Dinosaurian Reptiles ; 
by Professor O. C. MARSH. 


IN addition to the Jurassic reptiles already described by the 
writer,* several others of interest are now represented in the 
Yale Museum. Among these are a number of Dinosaurs of 
gigantic size, and others of diminutive proportions. Nearly all 
are from the Atlantosaurus beds of the Rocky Mountains. Most 


tinct third trochanter. The proximal end and upper half of 
the shaft are compressed transversely. he inner condyle of 
the distal end is proportionally large, and on the outer one, 

62 This femur is over eight feet 
(98 inches, or 2,500™") in length. The transverse diameter 


ave the same pro- 
and fifteen feet! 
* This Journal, xiv, pp. 87, 254, 513, 514, 
Am. Jour. Sct.—THIRrD geet Vou. XV, No. 87.—Maroxu, 1878. 
1 


242-0. C. Marsh—Notice of New Dinosaurian Reptiles. 


The only remains of this monster at present known are in 
the Yale College Museum. They are from the Upper Jurassic 
of Colorado. 


extend below the inferior surface of the centra. The latter 
are also more fully ossified than in Atlantosaurus. The first 
Vv 


ve. 
The present species is represented by various remains, the 


Eran Gth of waereie it Soe = ee ti is ARS ays Sy 535°" 
Transverse diameter of anterior articular face....__..... 215° 
Transverse diameter of posterior articular face..._....... 190° 
Expanse of transverse processes of second vertebra ------ 395° 


science is indebted for many important discoveries in the 
Rocky Mountain region. : 
Allosaurus lucaris, sp. nov. 
The peculiar genus named by the writer Allosaurus proves 
to be very different from the Dinosaurs found with it, and to 


excavated that only a narrow keel is left below, and there are 
large cavities in the interior. The length of this centrum is 

9mm ; the vertical diameter of the anterior face, 81-°™™; and 
the width of this face, 33™, The articulation for the rib is at 
the anterior border, just below the suture of the ait 


his speci he 
Mountains, and belonged to a reptile eighteen or twenty feet 
in length. 


0. C. Marsh— Notice of New Dinosaurian Reptiles. 248 


Creosaurus atrox, gen. et sp. nov. 
This genus is nearly allied to Dryptosaurus (Lelaps), “i 
was the carnivorous enemy of the huge Adlantosauride. It1 
indicated by various remains in oteeat ae rvation, amon " 
them the ilium represented be The teeth referred to the 
present species have the crowns more or ia trihedral, and the 
cutting edges crenulated. The metapodial bones preserved are 
me “and the terminal phalanges supported sharp claws. 
The vertebrae known are biconcave, and the terminal caudals 
are iiach elongated. 


Inferior view. Both one-tenth natural size. 


The following measurements indicate the size of this reptile : 


Antero-posterior diameter of left ilium---.--- .---------. 700™™ 
Wivtinn! Giatnatar: ee es 425° 
ngth of metatarsal - ee ee ae 277" 
Transverse diameter of proximal ‘Get ee 72° 
Transverse diameter of distal end. ------- ---- ---- ----- 79° 
Length of distal canda ees 
Transverse diameter of eer oe 2 -e e 33° 
Transverse diameter of distal end. --.--------- ---- ----- - 
This zara was about twenty feet in length. The — 


at present wn are from the same horizon as those 
described, ad were vatleatad by Mr. 8. W. Williston. 


244 =O. C. Marsh—Notice of New Dinosaurian Reptiles. 


Laosaurus celer, gen, et sp. nov. 
The present genus is indicated by various remains of small 
Dinosaurs, of two or more species. The long bones are not 


the cavities small. e vertebree preserved are biconcave, and 
the neural arches loosely united to the centra. The dorsal and 
anterior caudals are more elongated than in most Dinosaurs. 
The phalanges are so avian in character, that they would read- 
ily be taken for those of birds. The anterior limbs were much 
smaller than the posterior. 

he following are some of the dimensions of the present 


species 
Length of median caudal vertebra. __.__._.__..._.__..- so" 


Vertical diameter of anterior articulation.._....._...._-- 17 
a PaUNWehe CibtehO gs 16° 
Greatest diameter of provimal end.of ulna: .....2. 20.2. 19°5 
Length of proximal phalanx of pes ._____- 29° 
Length of second phalanx es a. en, SE 
Length of third phalanx. __.._.___ reece | 


The remains at present known indicate an animal about as 
large as a fox. ey are from the same horizon as the species 
described above. 

Laosaurus gracilis, sp. nov. 

A second species, much smaller than the above, is represented 
- by well preserved remains of various parts of the skeleton. 

size is indicated by the following measurements : 


Length of lumbar verte We er 16°" 
Transverse diameter of anterior face... _..._._......... 1° 
Transverse diameter of posterior face iv 
Lengt medintl Gaudal vertebra 16° 
Transverse diameter anterior face es ae 
Greatest diameter of proximal end of ulna_......_..___.. 17° 


The present species is from the same locality and horizon as 
the one above described. 
_ This reptile is the smallest known Dinosaur, with the excep- 
‘ton of the diminutive species of Nanosaurus (N. agilis and 
N. victor). The latter cenus possesses some very peculiar 
characters, and represents a distinct family, Nanosauride. 

’ Yale College, New Haven, February, 1878. 


AMERICAN 


JOURNAL OF SCIENCE AND ARTS. 


[THIRD SERIES.] 


ArT, XXXIV.—On the Surface Geology of Southwest Pennsyl- 
vania, and adjoining portions of Maryland and West Virginia ; 
by Joun J. Srevenson, Professor of Geology in the Uni- 
versity of New York. 


THE following article contains a brief summary of the re- 
sults obtained by me during three years’ labor in connection 
with the Second Geological Survey of Pennsylvania. The de- 
tailed statement will appear elsewhere. 

e area in which observations were made covers in all 
more than 10,000 square miles. It embraces that portion of 
Pennsylvania lying south from the Ohio and Conemaugh Rivers 
and west from the Alleghanies; includes a large part of West 
Virginia and Maryland lying on both sides of the Alleghanies 
of Virginia; and has the channel-ways of four great rivers, the 
Monongahela, Cheat, Youghiogheny and Potomac, lying partly 

t 


oF 


within it. 


main streams, : 

A second series of benches appears throughout this whole 
region and seems to be characteristic of a much wider area 
than that in which observations were made. The benches of 
this series evidently differ in origin from those of the lower se- 
nes ; their detrital coating contains little clay, no transpo 
fragments and consists almost wholly of sand. They are almost 
absolutely horizontal ; they do not merge into the lower series, 

Am. Jour. Sct.—Tutrp Sertzs, Vou. XV, No. 88.—APRIL, 1878. 
17 


246 J. J. Stevenson—Surface Geology of Pennsylvania. 


The Horizontal Benches. 
Benches belonging to this series have been fully recognized 
over the whole area examined. The altitudes are as follows :— 


Above tide. Above tide. Above tide. 
1, 2,580 feet. 8. 1,570 feet. 15. 1,290 feet. 
2, 2,40 S 1520 > 16. 1,270 .* 
Bi 2308... ©. 10, 1.475 . * 17, 3,240. © 
4, 2.288 “ tt, ooo. * 18, ‘t,100 2* 
5; 3.083" * 13, ¥420 ° = 18. 1160 
6. 1,820 “ 12, Tee0 | * 20. 1,100 “ 
i. 1,600 = 14, 1,850 “ 


Of these benches, those below No. 11 were recognized at 
many localities within an area of more than 5,000 square miles ; 


extreme variation in level is barely twenty feet in any case and 
in most of the benches the altitude is accurately the same at all 


places. No. 17 shows a variation of eighteen feet, and I am 
much inclined to believe that I have confounded two benches 


a long distance north and south and is broken only by gaps 
which the pales streams make through this small ridge on 

i the Monongahela River. He sees also that this 
plain is the divide between two valleys, one at the east between 
this and Chestnut Ridge, and the other at the west, in which 


an plain of Brush Ridge, as well as by lower benches which 
veak its continuity and convert it into'a succession of basins. 


J. J. Stevenson—Surface Geology of Pennsylvania. 247 


From the summit-plain of this Brush Ridge, the surface falls off 
in regular steps. 

If, now, the observer turn his attention to the region lying 
directly west from the Monongahela River, he will see that No. 
16 is a broad continuous plain beyond that river, but that still 
farther back toward the west, the fourteenth bench, on an islan 
of which he is standing, forms a similar plain, while stil] farther 
back, No. 18, with an altitude of 1,380 feet above tide, stretches 
_ northward and southward and is broken only by the narrow 
valleys in which the larger streams flow. 

Should the observer's position be changed to Hillsborough, 
fifteen miles west from the Monongahela River, where the ele- 
vation is about 1,500 feet above tide, he will see that No. 13 is 
of great extent north and south, while back of it the country 
rises to a still higher level, again and again, until it reaches No. 
Li at 1,445 feet above tide. 

From the river westward to Hillsborough, or rather to a 
ridge passing nearly north and south at three miles east from 
that village, the surface rises in a succession of steps which are 
beautifully marked. From the hill-top at Hillsborough, the 
descent to the river is very handsomely shown. : 

That these benches are simply the result of remodeling val- 
leys formed long before the agent making the benches began to 
work, is shown by the distribution of the benches themselves ; 
for these benches line the sides of long narrow valleys reaching 
far inland from the rivers, and breaking through ridges bearing 


valleys began, I believe, even before the anticlinal axes had 
been elevated sufficiently to affect the topography. he main 
streams of the present drainage system break through all the 


bol anies of Virginia. 4 
d axes west from the Alleghanies a oy lene faoin their 


condition of preservation. If they had been of ancient origin 


ette county. 
The whole structu re of t 


: : : age iate vicinity. They exten 
ae toeiten died ee 2? ee oot Be the Alleghanies 


248 «oS. J. Stevenson—Surface Geology of Pennsylvania. 


them by the draining away of a great lake or by the action of a 
great flood sweeping over the whole region. They can be no 
other than sea-beaches, marking stages in the withdrawal of the 
ocean. This supposition involves a submergence of the land to 
a depth of fully 2,600 feet, if we regard the higher benches as due 

the same cause with the lower ones, and the submergence 
would have to be somewhat greater to account for the even 
crests of the Alleghanies and other ridges of the Appalachian 
region west from the Blue Ridge 

The River Terraces. 

The persistent terraces are five in number and their relations 
are shown at the junction of Cheat and Monongahela Rivers. 
Three or four miles north from the West Virginia line, they are 
as follows :— 


Above river. Above river. 
1. 280 feet. 4, 80 feet. 
210" = SL 

a 180. 


The absolute elevation of the highest terrace at this locality is 
1,050 feet above tide. 
ese fall down stream and are covered by detritus, consist- 
ing of irregularly bedded sand, clay or gravel, in which are 
po 


streams, being divided by the channel-way just as the present 
“bottom” is divided. In some instances a terrace is wanting 
on one side; but there it is clear enough that that corrasion 
was confined to one side, for the terrace is unusually wide on 
the other. The same condition is often seen in the Hood plain 
of the river now. 
in my report for 1875, these terraces are simply 
n the rock on which rests a thin coat of detritus. Mr. 
Gilbert, in his memoir on the geology of the Henry 
Mountains (not yet published), describes similar terraces as 0C- 
curring there, though it does not appear that they are found at 
the same height on both sides of the streams. 
The terraces on the Ohio, below Pittsburg, consist largely of 
northern drift brought down by the Allegheny and Beaver 
Rivers, so that they certainly date from a time later than that 


shelves i 
G. 


J. J. Stevenson—Surface Geology of Pennsylvania. 249 


at which the drift was spread over northern Pennsylvania. 
Along the Monongahela and other rivers south from the Ohio, no 
such material occurs, but the deposits afford sufficient evidence 
of another kind to enable us to fix their origin within compara- 
tively recent times. At New Geneva on the Monongahela near 
the West Virginia line, the highest terrace has a thick coating, 
in which a layer known as the “swamp clay” holds much half 
rotted wood, such as is frequently seen in peat . In the 
same neighborhood the third terrace shows many Unio shells in 
an advanced stage of decay. A similar condition exists on the 
same terrace at Morgantown, farther up the river in West Vir- 
ginia. At Belvernon, on the same river, near the northern line 
of Fayette county, this terrace yields many fragments of wood. 
In this way it can be shown that the deposits on the first, third, 
fourth and fifth benches are of recent origin. 

Since these deposits are of recent origin, there would seem to 
be good reason for supposing that the valleys through which 
their streams flow are also of recent origin, at least so much of 
them as lies below the level of the highest terrace. But it has 
been suggested that these terraces are only the result of re- 
working the sides of thé valleys, which had been eroded pre- 
vious] 


the sides are gently sloping, whereas below it they become steep 
at once. Above the line of that terrace, the smaller valleys a 


very few miles of its mouth. ; 

ese river terraces are relics of river beds, which at one 
time stretched across the valleys, just as the river “ bottoms 
now do; and the valleys below the line of the highest terrace 
have been eroded since the drainage system was reésta ‘ished 
by withdrawal of the ocean below the lines of the former 
stream beds. 

Conclusions. 

The general conclusions to which I have come are :—1. That 
he erosion, to which is due the general configuration of th 
surface above the highest river terrace, began even before the 
elevation of the anticlinal axes and con Papi 
region was submerged in post-glacial time. 2. That t it orl- 
zontal benches are due to re-working of preéxisting valleys, 


250 = J. D. Dana—Driftless Interior of North America, 


and that they mark stages of rest during emergence of the con- 

tinent from the ocean which covered it. 8. That the river ter- 

races and the valleys which they line, were formed after the 

drainage system had been reéstablished by withdrawal of the 

“yer to a level below that at which the streams had previously 
owed. 


ArT. XXXV.—On the Driftless Interior of North America ; by 
JAMES D. DANA. 


1. Driftless area of Central and West-Central North America, 


€ portions of two of Mr. Schott’s charts (see 
beyond); one (No. 1) giving the lines of equal precipitation for 

*Vol. ix, p. 312. Further, vol. x, p. 385, and vol. xiii, p. 80. The connection 
between the distribution of the ice and the amount of peal paisiiod is appealed to 
also in ibid., v, 206, 1873, and illustrated from Mr. Schott’s chart. 


J. D. Dana—Driftless Interior of North America. 251 


cover the whole area (some mountain ridges not being con- 
i the Sierra Nevada ; 
from Iowa and Minnesota to Salt Lake City ; and from Minne- 
sota northward and westward. The line of four inches, as 
the copied portion of the chart shows, passes along the eastern 


ter diverges eastward—continues northward along the summit 
of the mountains. i 

In contrast with this, the winter precipitation over New 
England is 8 to 12 inches; over New York, 6 to 10 inches; 
over Ohio and Indiana, 8 to 10 inches; over the Southern 
States, from Virginia to Georgia and Louisiana, 10 to 20 inches. 

On the chart No. 2 is given the amount of annual precipita- 
tion for this same region. While this amount is 40 to 45 
inches in New England; 40 to 50 inches from Pennsylvania 
southwestward; and 40 to 45.over Ohio and Indiana, the line 
of 20 inches (half the average for New England, Pennsylvania, 

hio, and Jess than half for the more Southern States) crosses 
Western Minnesota and passes just west of Iowa; and the 
line of 16 inches enters Minnesota. Mr. Schott’s chart shows 


less up to 16 inches embraces (exclusive of parts of the 


lines, and especially those of the summer, bend far ire ne 
over the dry region. The climate consequently woul piles 
necessarily occasioned over this central and western eepn ee 
_ continent, only a small amount of precipitation m - th ee : 
~ era; and all the observed glacial facts prove positively tha 

+S a wares portions, the line 2 of No. 1, and 16, 20 and 24 of No. 2, are, 
according to Mr, Schott, only approximati 


* \¢ 7 
K Kant 
CAAA, 
WSN 


ae. 
7 


1. Lines OF Equal WINTER PRECIPITATION. 


See, 
\ . Ai 
SS Q's 


SS 
SOS SS ws 
Ts SAS 
Ce 
. 
SS AC 
RASS “~ 
_ 
ASS WS 
S 


\ 
AY _— 
wk * 


. AN SSN 


SK 


Lives or Equal ANNUAL PRECIPITATIO 


254d. D. Dana—Drifiless Interior of North America. 


was too small for the production of a southward moving 
glacier. The southwestward direction of the scratches and of 
the bowlder-movement over the area from Wisconsin to Lake 
Winnipeg not only sustains this, but shows also that the ice 
had its greatest height over the region of greatest precipitation 
somewhere between the line from Wisconsin to Lake Winnipeg 
and beyond, and that of the Atlantic coast. More facts 
needed before the northern limit of the glacierless and driftless 
area can be laid down. 
2. Driftless area in Wisconsin. 

The charts accompanying this paper have been introduced 
here partly to exhibit the bearing of the climatal facts on the 
question as to the origin of the “driftless area” in Wisconsin, 
a description of which is given, from Professor Irving’s Report, 


winter chart (No. 1) the driftless area is almost wholly in- 


cluded within the area which has only 2 to 4 inches for the 


4area. Ag 
(No. 2), this driftless area (excepting its south end) is the driest 


found in Lucas County, Southern Iowa, 


is distant four aA S and sixty miles from Keweenaw Point, » 


its probable source. From Iowa the ice stretched eastward 
across Illinois to the Lake Michigan region. 
is southwestward prolongation of the glacier from the 


western half of Lake Superior over a region as dry as that of 


a 


J. D. Dana—Drifiless Interior of North America. 255 


the Wisconsin driftless area appears to be a consequence, as 
Professor Irving urges, of the great depth of the Lake Superior 
trough—over a thousand feet below the present surface of the 
water—and its lying in a southwest-by-west (or about 8. 55° W. 

direction, which was nearly that of the glacier motion in that 
part of North America. For this would have determined the 


nesota and Iowa to Missouri, a distance of five hundred miles, 
this being shown by the bowlders of copper. Whatever the 
pitch along that course, it was twice as great toward the Wis- 
consin driftless area, since the northern border of the area is 
hardly half as far. Down Lake Michigan the pitch continued 
into Illinois and Indiana; but the Kettle Range west of Lake 
Michigan, running along the east front of the driftless area, 
marks out, as Professors Chamberlain and Irving show, its 
moraine termination in that direction. d 

The eastern parallel branch of the Kettle Range lying 
between the Green Bay Valley and Lake Michigan, which, 
according to these geologists, is also a moraine ridge, is evi- 
dence, as they observe, that at the time when it was formed, 
the glacier of Green Bay Valley was distinct from that of 

ke Michigan. It seems probable that when the Glacial era 
was at its height, the two were merged in one glacier; but that 
later, as the ice diminished, the former became independent, 
and that then the eastern Kettle Range was made. 

3. The earth's axis had the same position in the Glacial era as 
now, if the driftless character of the Wisconsin area depended on 
the climatal conditions explained. The concordance between 
the limits of the drier areas of the Glacial era and those of the 
present time, and especially the fact in this respect with regard 
to the isolated area in Wisconsin sustains this proposition. 
The probability that such was the trath was long since made 


Apparent by the observation that the southern termination of 


e glacier in North America and Europe was very nearly 
along what is now the course of the same identical oe 
The position and extent of the Wisconsin driftless area affo: 


more precise and positive evidence. 


s 


256 G. K. Gilbert—Ancient Outlet of Great Salt Lake. 


Art. XXXVI.—The Ancient Outlet of Great Salt Lake; a 
letter to the Editors, by G. K. GILBERT. 


Great Salt Lake has no outlet, and its fluctuating level is 
determined by the balance between inflowing streams and 
solar evaporation. On the surrounding mountains there are 
water-lines rising in steps to a thousand feet above its sur- 
face, and showing that in ancient times a great body of water 
occupied its basin. This ancient body, known as Lake Bonne- 


finding it in Idaho, at the north end of Cache Valley, the locality 
being known as Red Rock Pass. The circumstances were suc 

as to leave no doubt in my mind that I had determined the 
actual point of outflow, and on my return to the East I made 
the announcement without reservation in a communication to 


ell has charge. t, in 3 
January, 1878 (p. 65), there sa a statement (apparently on 
Dr. F. V. Hayden, but without signature) 


. 


: season, h 
etfs ancient outlet of the great lake that once filled 


ence and position of the ancient outlet beyond question. 

If Lake Erie were to dry away, and a Beologat of the future 
should examine its basin, he would easily trace the former shore- 
line around it. At two points he would find this line interrupted. 
At Detroit and at Buffalo he would meet with narrow, trough- 


iy ee 


G. K. Gilbert—Ancient Outlet of Great Salt Lake. 257 


like passes, depressed somewhat below the level of the shore line, 
and leading to other basins. Following the Detroit P% e 
would be led to the Huron basin and would find there a shore 
line so nearly on a level with the Erie that he could not readily 
determine which was the higher. Following the Buffalo Pass 
he would find a continuous descent for many miles to the Onta- 
rio basin, and in that basin he would find no water-line at the 
level of the Erie shore. In each case he would learn from the 
form of the passage that it had been the channel of a river, 
and in the latter case he would learn from the direction and 
continuity of descent, and from the absence of corresponding 
shore lines, that it had been the channel of an outflowing river. 
in regard to Lake Bonneville. To discover its outlet it 
was necessary to find a point where the Bonneville shore line 
was interrupted by a pass of which the floor was lower than the 
shore line, and which led to a valley not marked by a continu- 
ation of the shore line. These conditions are satisfied at 
Rock Pass, and, in addition, there is a continuous descent from 
the pass to the Pacific ocean. All about Cache Valley the 
Bonneville shore line has been traced, and it is well marked 
within a half mile of the pass. The floor of the Pass at the 


the conclusion is irresistible that here the ancient lake outflowed. 

At the divide a portion of each wall of the ancient channel 
is composed of solid limestone, and its floor is interrupted by 
knolls of the same material. It is evident, too, that the chan- 
nel has lost something in depth, for Marsh Creek and some 
smaller streams at the south have thrown so much debris into 
it as to divide it into several little basins occupied by ponds 
and marshes. It is not improbable that twenty or thirty feet 
have thus been built upon the floor and that the original bed of 
the channel where it crosses the limestone is 360 or 370 feet 
lower than the highest Bonneville beach. Still we must not 


coexistent level of the lake, but rather that during the exist- 
ence of the outlet its channel was slowly excavated to that ex- 


is sustained in a very striking manner by the phenomena of the 
shore lines. 


on 


258 G. K. @ilbert—Ancient Outlet of Great Salt Lake. 


cumstances asserts its supremacy and clearly marks the longest 
lingering of the water. It has been called the “ Provo Beach,” 
and it runs about 365 feet below the Bonneville Beach. When 
the discharge of the lake began, its level was that recorded by 
the Bonneville Beach. The outflowing stream crossed the 
unconsolidated gravels that overlay the limestone at Red Rock 

ass, and cut them away rapidly. The lake surface was low- 
ered with comparative rapidity until the limestone was exposed, 
but from that time the progress was exceedingly slow. Fora 
long period the water was held at nearly the same level, and 
the Provo Beach was produced. Then came the drying of the 
climate, and the outflow ceased ; and slowly, with many linger- 
ings, the lake has shrunk to its present size. 

In Dr. Hayden’s Preliminary Report of the field work of his 
Survey for the season of 1877, noticed on page 56 of the cur- 


geological observations, but it is to be hoped that the idea will 
not be advocated in that gentleman’s report. The divide 
referred to is near Malade City, and separates Malade Valley 
from Marsh Valley. The Bonneville Beach is well marked all 
about Malade Valley, and nowhere more strongly than in the 


afforded passage to the water. 


Eilon who visited the locality in 187 2, expressed the half 
formed opinion that it had been a point of outflow, but he de- 


J. C. Draper— Projection of Microscope Photographs. | 259 


scribed no channel of outflow ; and it is evident, moreover, that 
he gave little thought to the subject, for he made the somewhat 
astonishing suggestion that four outflowing streams might have 
coéxisted—one at the Soda Spring Pass, one at Red Rock, one 
near Malade City, and one at the head of the Malade River. If 
he had seen the channel at Red Rock, I do not doubt that he 


Art. XXXVII.—On the Projection of Microscope Photographs ; 
ty JOHN CHRISTOPHER Draper, M.D., LL.D., Professor of 
atural History in the College of the City of New York. 


IN the lanterns that are constructed for the projection of pho- 
tographic or other images on a screen, the support or stage on 
which the photographic slide is placed is close to, and at an in- 
variable distance from, the condensing lens. So long as the ob- 
jects to be projected are nearly equal in size to the diameter of 
the condenser, this is the only adjustment that can be made to 
illuminate the whole surface of the object; but, when the 
diameter of the field occupied by the object is only one-half, or 
one-quarter of the diameter of the condensing lens, the_bril- 
lianey of the result obtained upon the screen may be greatly in- 
creased by removing the supporting stage or object carrier to a 
greater distance from the condenser, so that a convergent beam 
of light may fall on the object to be projected. T'o accomplish 
this I have constructed the following form of lantern: 

In the figure, a is a zirconia light, mounted on an adjustable 
base (see American Journal of Science and Arts, Sept., 1877, 
page 208), which may be used with a condensing lens of very 
short focus, since the zirconia is not burrowed into cavities 
Where the oxyhydrogen flame impinges, as happens with lime 
cylinders, and causes the flame to be reflected upon the con- 
densing lens and thereby destroys it. In the jet employed, the 
gases are mixed just before they are ignited. 4, , is a short 
focus condensing lens. ¢, the stage or support carrying the pho- 
tographie or other design to be projected. d, the projection 


260 J. C. Draper—Projection of Microscope Photographs. 


lens formed of three sets of lenses and giving a perfectly flat 
rectilinear fie a, c,d, are mounted on a base board e, 


istance between d and ¢, required in giving the correct focus, 
may be obtained. The base e, f, is attached to a second or 


_ When a series of objects of very different sizes is to be pro- 
jected, as is the case with microscopic photographs taken under 


or ot 
objects as clearly visible at considerable distances as are the 


t. 
In closing this brief communication I desire is aaa that I 
have made phowenphs of Frustulia saxonica under a power of 
: ‘ he photographs in question were made 1n 
the City aa 2 building by a one-twentieth inch immersion 
e light was from the sun, reflected by a helio- 
stat, through ammonio-sulphate of copper solution, and con- 


F.. Prime, Jr.—Lower Silurian Fossils. 261 


densed on the object at an angle of 80° to 40°. The photo- 
graph in question was direct, by which I mean that there was 
no intermediate or secondary enlargement of a first photograph. 
With this photograph and the lantern described, I awe shown 
Frustulia saxonica magnified more than half a million diame- 
ters; a result which must be seen to be appreciated. 


Art. XXXVIII.— On the Discovery of Lower Silurian Fossils in 
Limestone associated with Hydromica slates, and on other points 
in the Geology of Lehigh and Northampton Counties, Eastern 
Pennsylvania ; by FREDERICK PRIME, Jr., Professor of Metal- 
lurgy at Lafayette College, Easton, Pennsylvania. 


erles were made lies near the eastern verte of the State, south- 
idge. Th 


ings of the Philosophical Society for December 21, where it appears 
under the title “ On the Paleozoie Rocks of Lehigh and North- 
ampton Counties, Pennsylvania.—s. D. D. 


THE Paleozoic rocks of Lehigh and Northampton counties 

are: The Potsdam Sandstone (No. I); Magnesian or Aurorz 

Limestone (No. II); Trenton Limestone (No. II); Utica Shale 

(No. III); Hudson River or Matinal Slate (No. IIT). | : 
The Potsdam sandstone is first found in the outlying penin- 

sula of the South Mountains, known as Ridge, where it 
Am. Jour. ee Vou. XV, No. 88,—APRIL, 1878. 


262 F. Prime, Jr.—Lower Silurian Fossils, 


occurs on the northwest flank of the hill and undoubtedly has 
a northwest dip. It next occurs in two small patches on the 
northern flank of the main range of the South Mountain near 
Macungie (formerly Millerstown). A small patch of it is also 
found associated with the gneiss, where the latter crops out 
through the limestone in the gorge of the Little Lehigh Creek 
at Jerusalem Church, two miles northwest of Emaus. But it 
is first seen to any great extent along the north flank of the 
main range just south of Emaus, where its occurrence is con- 
stant, but of varying thickness, and continues for a distance of 
four and a half miles, after which it can no longer be traced. 

It occurs again at the ridge of the South Mountain, close to 
Allentown, which forms the southern barrier of the Lehigh 


to the oxidation of the ferrous oxide it contains. The change 
‘om a pudding-stone to a compact quartzite in the sandstone 
shows that there has been a a sinking of the earth's crust 
and an increase in the depth of the sea, thus preparing the way 
for the subsequent deposition of the limestone. 
e Potsdam sandstone often, as elsewhere, contains Scolithus. 
Next above the Potsdam sandstone oceur hydromica slates, 
which Rogers has called the Upper Primal Slates, but which 
really form a portion of the No. LI limestone, and gradually pass 
into this. They lie along the north flank of the South Mountain 
and cverlie the Pots Jam conformably wherever this is visible, 
eing far more persistent in their occurrence, continuing with 
few intervals the entire distance from the western boundary of 
Lehigh county to the Delaware River. They are of great eco- 
nomic importance as carrying the lowest range of brown hem- 
atite iron ores, to be mentioned later. : 
se slates are composed in t part of the mineral 
damourite and occur of a pink, Sigil and yellow color. 


F.. Prime, Jr.— Lower Silurian Fossils, 263 


When exposed to the weather they very rapidly decompose to 
soft unctuous plastic clays in a few days, and some of these 
will in time probably become valuable in the manufacture of 
coarse kinds of pottery. Generally they contain more or less of 
the carbonates of lime and magnesia, and silica, mixed with the 
damourite.* Hydromica slate also occurs the greater portion of 
the distance from the western boundary of Lehigh county to 
the Delaware River, at the junction of the No. IT limestones 
with the No. III slates, here also carrying brown hematite ores 
in extensive deposits. 

It also occurs intercalated in the limestone, forming layers 
from the thickness of a sheet of paper to several feet, and these 
layers are innumerable. Their existence has been seen both in 
rock outcrops as well as in wells which have been sunk. 

The clay to which the hydromica slate decomposes is gener- 
ally of a white color, although sometimes brown from the pres- 

d 


Overlying the hydromica slates, and conformable with these and 
the Potsdam sandstone, is the No. II or Magnesian limestone ( u- 
roral of Rogers), which extends as a great inass varying Jrom six to 


It disappears, however, in the upper stra 
The limestone varies fr i ? ‘ 

being for the most part compact to semi-crystalline, while there 
are occasionally shaly beds. In composition it varies much. 
often approaching a true dolomite, again a pure limestone. But 
from the isolated analyses made it would seem as if or per- 
centage of magnesia was less in the upper beds than the lower 
ones. The limestone is always siliceous, often very much 
and hence much care is now being taken by many of the iron- 


i i s of it, which are low in silica, so as to 
masters in selecting beds of it, whic Oo nak vdeo 


Tt often contains minute 


i i : f Penn., p. 12. 
* Report of Progress for 1874 of Lehigh Dist. Geol. Survey : 
+ See Geology of Tennessee, by Safford, pp. 215, 218. 


264 F. Prime, Jr.—Lower Silurian Fossils. 


grains of pyrite disseminated through it, which weather out on 
exposure, leaving minute cavities behind. Numerous analyses 
have shown the presence of ferrous carbonate varying in amount 
from 0°588 to 1°305 per cent. 

A peculiarity of the limestone is that it is often brecciated, 
the fragments being composed exclusively of limestone, cemented 
together by calcite or dolomite. The brecciated appearance is 
rarely visible on fresh fracture, being usually brought to view 

y weathering. When seen in place it will usually be found 
that one or more brecciated beds occur between two others 
which do not exhibit this peculiarity. As the beds of the No. 
II limestone have been much disturbed by the force which ele- 
vated the South Mountain range, the probable explanation of 
this brecciation is that a very hard, unyielding bed occurs be- 
tween two more pliable ones; that these, when subjected to the 
lateral thrust of the uprising mass of the South Mountains, 
have couformed themselves to the folds of the strata, while the 
harder one, being unable to do this, has been fractured and re- 
cemented in sitt by the percolation of calcareous waters. 


stone (according to these observers) having been formed from 
the lower, the brecciated limestones are adduced as evidences 
of upheaval and shore action. 

The explanation I have offered of the formation of the bree- 
ciated limestone is both more in accordance with the facts ob- 
served and with the generall accepted view of the deep-sea 
formation of limestone than the hypothesis above stated ; for 
the brecciated limestones are as common near the base of the 
series as at the top. 

ides, the genus Monocraterion found in the Lehi 
limestone belongs to the same family as Scolithus, saat is there- 
fore no greater proof of age than the latter; and it occurs in 


o. II, being not more 
than fifty to one hundred feet from the overlying Calciferous 
and Trenton. 


_humber a dozen specimens, and have been found in but four 
localities. At Helfrich’s Spring, about two and a half miles 


west end of the hill, near 
of the creek forming the s 
species of Monocraterion, as yet undescribed. Of this half a 


F. Prime, Jr.—Lower Silurian Fossiis, 265 


dozen casts have been found; but all efforts to discover the 
fossil itself have been hitherto unsuccessful. This discovery is 
the more interesting as the genus Monocraterion has hitherto 
only been known to occur in Sweden. 

About half a mile northeast of this five or six specimens of 
a Lingula were found in John Schadt’s quarry, but it is impos- 
sible to determine its species. About half a mile west o l 
frich’s Spring a single specimen of an Orthoceratite was found 
_ close to the Jordan, just north of Scherer’s Tavern, but so im- 
perfect that its species is undeterminable. Finally a specimen 
of Huomphalus was found on Nero Peters’ farm, two miles east 
of Ballietsville. 

Not a single fossil has thus far been found in the No. IL 
limestone of Northampton county. 

The No. II limestone, like the Magnesian limestone of the 
Mississippi Valley, is exceedingly soluble. Streams constantly 

isappear in the ground, forsaking their original beds except 

when the volume of water is too great to be carried off by the 
subterranean channels, only to reappear again as springs at 

eater or less distances. The effects due to this solution of the, 


action could begin. The different beds too are soluble in very 
different degrees; some apparently yield at once to the eroding 
action of water, while others afford a resistance to this operation 
for reasons as yet unknown, but which are probably rather me- 
chanical or physical than chemical. Knowing as we 

little of the conditions, under which the different layers of 
limestone, almost or quite identical in composition, were 
formed, we can only speculate that those layers which resisted 
erosion were more compact, hard, and dense, perhaps more 
metamorphosed by a subsequent crystallization than the others, 
while we actually have no facts on W ich to base such theories. 
No better illustration of the darkness amidst which geologists 


other. We can explain alternations of shale, 
limestone by changes in depth of the sea in which they were 
formed ; but such an explanation does 


266 F.. Prime, Jr.— Lower Silurian Fossils. 


continuity have occurred, to be succeeded by another layer of 
the same material? 

While the greater portion of the limestone has in all proba- 
bility been formed in deep water, we have one instance in a 
quarry at Uhlersville on the Delaware where it must have been 
formed as a beach, since we find here distinct traces of ripple 
marks along the entire face of the quarry, some sixty feet high 
and fifty feet deep, the strata being tilted nearly vertically. 

It has been generally supposed that the limestone dips almost 
universally southward; and while this view holds good for 

orthampton county, except at the junction of No. II with the 
No. III slates and ‘along the north flank of the South Moun- 
tains, it is not the case in Lehigh county; for here we find 
northwest dips, more especially along an axis which is pro- 
longed some distance into Northampton county, a short distance 


As a general thing the limestones pass conformably under the 
“No. III slates, and the few exceptions where the slates dip 
toward the limestones, and the latter away from the slates can 
readily be explained by an overturning of the beds toward the 
south, by which means as in the slate ¢ uarry close to and south 
of Ironton the slate apparently passes conformably below the 
limestone. 

Overlying the No. IT limestone occurs the Trenton limestone 
which is more fossiliferous and contains such characteristic 
fossils as Cheetetes Lycoperdon and Orthis pectinella as well as the 
stems of an encrinite. It was first found about a mile south of 


This limestone resembles. in appearance the No. II, being 
however more compact and not at all crystalline, and of a gray 
black color. 

There has been no apparent sudden break between the two, 
but the transition has been a nal one, This was to be ex- 
pected if the subsidence of the sea-bottom was steady and slow. 

_ An examination of the beds between Ironton in Lehigh county 
and the Delaware River, as close to the junction of the limestone 


+ 


F. Prime, Jr.—Lower Silurian Fossils. 267 


proportion of alumina which it contains. This also was to be 
expected if the subsidence continued, as signaling an approach 
to the era of slate-formation and open-sea deposition. These 
limestones are utilized on the Lehigh river in the manufacture 
of hydraulic cements and lately Portland cement has been made 
at the Copley Cement Works, which is said to be nearly or quite 
equal to the imported. Careful search and the demand for it 
will no doubt cause this variety of the limestone to be explored 
at various other points in the two counties, and will in time 
render us independent of the cement now sent from the Hudson 
River. The limestone is of a dull, earthy appearance, entirely 
free from any crystalline texture and of a dark gray color. 
Before closing our discussion of the limestone it is necessary 
to speak of the large and numerous deposits of brown hematite 
iron-ore which occur in it, and which form the main support of 
the extensive iron furnaces of the Lehigh and Schuylkill 
Valleys. : ; 
The brown hematite iron-ore occurs almost exclusively in 
two irregular lines of deposition; the one along the northern 
flank of the South Mountain Range, the other at or near the 
junction of the No. II limestone with the No. III slates. A 
few other localities, at which the ore is found, but these are 1n- 
significant in number compared to the two lines mentioned. 


with damourite; the same _ else 
brown hematite is found zn Joco originale. its ar 
however found which have evidently been pockets or cavities in 
the limestone into which the masses of limonite have been 
ing the Drift Period. 


let 


more especially potash, points to : 
from Archzean rocks containing orthoclase 
ecomposition of these three 


all the oxides above mentioned 


have been derived from iron pyrites, 


268 F. Prime, Jr.—Lower Silurian Fossils. 


which the latter offers to chemical change of any kind when 
exposed to the action of air and water, and its unaltered condi- 
tion and fresh, bright appearance in rivers and on the seashore. 
But the question as to how the brown hematite got into its 
present condition and whether it was deposited cotemporane- 
ously with the rocks containing it, or subsequently to these, is 


hydromica region of Connecticut. Hence we must have recourse 
to other sources. It seems most doubtful that the mineral, 


ates. Whence was it derived? I have already stated that 
the limestone contains varying proportion of ferrous carbonate 
and of pyrite, and when we consider the enormous erosion 
which the limestone has undergone, the wonder is not that the 
eposits of iron ore should be so great, but rather that they 
should be so small. The ferrous carbonate and the pyrite oxl- 


dised to ferrous sulphate being both soluble in water, the former 
when the wa 


became later decomposed by the action of aerated 
water to hydrated ferric oxide and free silica, which latter we 


where the No. ITI limestones oce 
_ It is well here to emphasize the fact that these brown hema- 
tite ores all belong to the Lower Silurian limestone formation, 


| 
| 
| 


C. 8. Hastings—Optical Constants of Glass. 269 


since, in 1874, Dr. Sterry Hunt, after a cursory examination 
of Ziegler’s Mine in Berks County, situated at the junction of 
the No. II limestone and the No. III slates, made the mistake, 
in a paper on “The Decay of Crystalline s” before the 
National Academy of Science, of supposing that the hydromica 
slates belonged to the Huronian Period :—a mistake into which 
so eminent an observer as himself would never have fallen had 
he been better acquainted with the region. 

At intervals along the junction of the limestones and slates 
there occurs a black carbonaceous shale, often decompose 
black or dark blue clay, which I have supposed to be the rep- 
resentative of the Utica shales. It consists of a very carbona- 
ceous hydromica slate (containing damourite), without any fos- 
sils and may not belong to the Utica Period at all. In no 
instance has it been found more than one to twelve feet thick, 
but it sometimes carries pyrite from which a portion of the iron 
ores, just mentioned, may have been derived. These shales 
are of no economic im 


opened at various points for the purpose of extracting them, as, 
however, they have been but very slightly examined, during the 
progress of the present Geological Survey of the State, I shall 
defer a more detailed description of them to some future time. 


Art. XXXIX.—On the Influence of Temperature on the Optical 
Constants of Glass ; by CHARLES S. Hastines, of the Jobns 
Hopkins University. 


A FORMULA connecting the refractive power of a body with 
its density, established by Newton, 1s well known. This, 


er. : 

More recently rear: Gladstone have made an extensive 
study of the changes produced in the refractive and as cor 
powers of various liquids by increase of temperature; @ study 


270 C. S. Hastings— Optical Constants of Glass. 


ever, to much less accordant results. Rudberg, in investigating 

the optical properties of several crystals, found that in arrago- 

nite and quartz, the variations in density and refractive index 

are in the same direction, but that with -calcite the case is 

different, the index for the ordinary ray seeming inde- 

pendent of changes in tem erature, and for the extra- 
r 


an elegant and celebrated method. I shall quote later, some 
- es ees the only quantitative ones which I have been able 
o find. 

The instrument with which the following determinations were 
made, is the large spectrometer by Meyerstein, belonging to 
the Physical Laboratory of the Johns Hopkins University. 
The circle is 12 inches in diameter, divided to 6’, and reads by 
two microscopes to 2”. The probable error of one division is 
1”-48, and its larger periodic errors are expressed in the formula 

=2"°386+7''82 sin (2+62° 36’)+2.1 sin (2 z2+157°) 

+432 sin (3 2+328°)+0’-46 sin (4 z+122°) 
N being the corrected and z the immediate reading. 


Much labor was expended in putting the instrument in so 
satisfactory a state, for in order to secure uniformity of reading 
it was found necessary to re-grind the axis. The collimating 
telescope too, was, by inexcusable carelessness in construction, 
directed nearly one-fourth of an inch away from the axis, thus 
vitiating all determinations of double deviations by the intro- 
duction of unknown errors of aberration in the object glass. 


rea 

‘two verniers to single minutes of are. This platform turns 

independently of the large circle with inconsiderable friction, 

and upon it is placed the prism to be studied. The methods 

adopted to adjust the instrument and prism, and to measure 

the angle of the prism were exceedingly accurate and perhaps 
& proper place for description here. 


: 
| 


se amcecmemnmeaaeeae eee 


cee en eee a a aD 


C. & Hastings—Optical Constants of Glass. 271 


In the focal plane of the positive eye-piece was a reticle con- 
sisting of lines on glass ruled as follows :—a system of two 
airs of parallel iines crossing at center of field, one pair being 
orizontal and the other vertical, the angular distance (measured 
from objective) between the components of each pair being 
about 1’; and a single line, vertical and about 25’ to the right 
of the vertical pair. Over this single line was placed a small 
totally reflecting prism, one of its faces turned toward an open- 
ing in the eye-tube. The advantage of this arrangement is at 
once evident, for it was possible to get a strongly illuminated 
image of the single line, reflected by a plane beyond the 
objective, between the two vertical lines, at the same time 
avoiding the annoyance of waste light reflected from the eye- 
lenses on the one hand, since the mirror was within the eye- 
piece, and from the objective on the other, owing to the eccen- 
tric position of the mirror. : 
instrument was put in adjustment by means of a piece 
of plane-parallel glass placed vertically upon the platform, ie, 
so that its plane was parallel to the axis of the instrument. 


Then the glass was turned 180°. If the image of the horizontal 
lines corresponded with the lines themselves it was aes ; if not, 
the correction was divided between the glass and the telescope. 
Proceeding in this way, it was easy to adjust the telescope so 
that once sighting the reflected image it would be again visible 
i i lass 180°, and that inde- 
pendently of the azimuth of the platform as referred to the 


axes of the instrument and platform are parallel, while that of 
the telescope is perpendicular to both. The proper adj ustment 
of the collimating telescope as regards focus and direction, is so 
evidently attainable from these that it is not worth while 
describing it spevially. 


i i i ” in the prism 
same intensity, and that a motion of but 30” in 
would carry the reflected line from one of the pair to the other. 


272 C. 8. Hastings—Optical Constants of Glass. 


The next step was to rotate the great circle, and with it the 
prism, until the other face took exactly the same position ; the 
reading then would clearly be the supplement of the desired 
angle ; in practice, however, the angle was repeated by turning 
back the platform independently of the circle, the repetition 
being carried usually to six times, and then back over the same 
ground for verification. This method was well adapted to this 
work as the mass moved independently was small, and turned 
with little friction. It failed however, as might be expected, in 
measuring later the angles of deviation, for here the joints to be 
turned were much larger, and that limit of accuracy which is 
always reached so easily and quickly by the method of repeti- 
tion, was not below that of a single reading of the microscopes. 

f the adjustment of the prism for measuring the double 
angle of deviation for the different Fraunhofer lines, little need 
be said except that, besides the care taken in placing the sur- 


exist in every lens save for rays of a single wave length, or, in 
rare cases, of two wave lengths. : 

The position of the prism for minimum deviation of a single 
line was carefully determined on the small circle attached to 
the platform, by experiment, while those of the other lines 
observed wefe computed after an approximate measurement 
of the angle of deviation. 


point the telescope upon the particular Fraunhofer line which 
as to be ism in i 


etermined, with the prism in its first position of 


ation and in, the difference of readings being the 
double deviation required. With this observation was also 
put the temperature of the prism at the pido mepri 


thermometer reading to quarter degrees, estimated, however, to 
tenths, and then filled with water. The reading of the barom- 


ay 


daneieaunt 


4 
; 
j 
: 
; 


C. S. Hastings—Optical Constants of Glass. 273 


amount determined from the formula given above. The prisms 
were as follows 
I, Of Feil’s flint glass, No. 1237, sp. 


-» D554, 
of prism, 60° 4' 56"-210"'18, 


ng 
III, Of Feil’s crown glass, No. 1219, sp. gt, 2°482. 
Angle of prism, 60° 10’ 9”°04+-0"°23. 
IV, Flint glass, sp. gr., 3°497. 
Angle of prism, 50° 7’ 53”°01-0"-20. 
V, Crown glass, sp. gr., 2°510. 
Angle of prism, 59° 48’ 127-404-0"-08. 

The materials of IV and V have been in my possession a 
long time, and there is no way to determine what they are 
except from their optical properties, and the statement of the 
optician from whom I procured them, that the first is of French 
and the second of English manufacture. I suppose IV to be a 
flint glass of Feil’s making, while V is doubtless of the so-called 
‘soft crown” of Chance Brothers. 

he temperature affecting the observations ranges from 
14°-9 ©. to 29° C., though most of the lines were measured 
with a maximum difference of 10° C. 

The reduction of the observations on the first three prisms 
to a temperature of 20° C. and barometric height of thirty 
inches gave the following indices of refraction : 

Temperature, 20° C. Barometric height, 30 inches. 


i IL. TL 
Line. n e n e n ée 
A 1°615258 +3 1572464 | +6 1512456 | +3 
B 1-618706 3 1575332 7 1514369 3 
CG 1620482 3 1576815 6 1515334 3 
2 1°62542 3 1°580905 6 [517965 3 
5614 1°628001 2 17583024 6 1519292 3 
1°631893 2 1586214 ' 521274 3 
1637756 2 1°590989 5 524182 3 
4548 1°643524 3 1595660 , 526981 3 
1°649086 3 1°600129 Y 1°529597 3 
h 1°654848 3 1604749 y 1°532251 3 
3951 1°659757 2 | 1608658 V4 1°534458 3 


which the indices of refraction, in columns hea n, reter. 
The last line is beautifully defined and lies nearly midwa 

between H, and H,. The columns under e give the probable 
errors of each determination in units of the sixth place decimal. 
It should be remarked here that the larger probable errors 10 
the determinations of prism II arise from the greater probable 
error in the determination of its refracting angle, hence the 


27+ C. 8. Hastings—Ortieal Constants of Glass. 

values are relatively, though not absolutely, as accurate as the 
ers. 
The following table contains, in the columns under # 


’ 
increase of refractive index also in units of sixth place, corres- 
ponding to an increase of 1° C. in temperature. 


is ii FEE 
Line. i’ k Kk’ k ke K 
A 4°12 3°79 1:70 1°74 caf — "iT 
B 4°04 4°22 2°35 2°04 = <oe — 53 
C 3°96 4°45 277 2719 — 06 — ‘i 
D, 5°12 5°07 2°43 2°61 — 00 — '08 
5614 6°58 5°40 2°56 | 2°84 + “04 ee le 
E 54> 5°87 2°68 3°16 + 36 
F 5°69 6:57 3°52 3°63 — °09 + “14 
4548 7:24 4°32 4°09 +111 
G 8°53 7°85 3°86 4°51 +1°26 +144 
h 8°03 8°48 4°78 493 +1°05 +1°78 
3951 9°2] 8:99 6-04 5°28 + 3°22 + 2°06 


It is evident at a glance that the values of k’ increase in each 
case with the decrease of wave length; and it was found that 
the quantities could be embodied, within the limits of error of 
the observations, by a formula of the form 


1\2 
The significance of the constants a and # is clearly that the 


first is the change in refractive power for light of indefinitely 
great wave length, or briefly, the change in refractive gt 


z 
SE Aue Pew Rene eS fen 1°875-+-1°1105,. 
1 
i 8 eae k= 4424. “15555: 
i 
Ill nie --k=—1'813-+0°6045,. 


: f glass, computed in the 
ordinary way, are as 9:8:6 nearly, while the coefficients 10 


| 
| 
. 


Fal ea 


Ser Re Mae ka kee Se Re 


eee ies eC ka ee ee 


C. 8. Hastings— Optical Constants of Glass. - 275 


question are as 9:6:5 nearly; hence if this relation holds 
approximately for all optical glasses, as is probable, an achro- 

combination good for one temperature is good for all 
others within moderate limits. 

Fizeau found, in the researches before alluded to, values for 
the refractive increment for 1°C., not unlike our own, namely : 
Crown glass (zinc), sp. gr., 2°626, Ap>=0°00. 

Common flint glass, sp. gr., 3°584, Ap>=2°6. 

Dense flint glass, sp. gr., 4°14, Ap=6°87. 
The magnitudes of the quantities £ show at once the importance of 
observing the temperature of the prism in every accurate deter-* 
mination of refractive indices, neglect in so doing generally viti- 
ating the fifth decimal place. It may be remarked, too, that 
ordinary variations in barometric pressure cannot be neglected 
when it is desired to limit the errors to the sixth decimal place. 

The prisms IV and V were not studied to determine the 


Temperature, 20° C. Barometer, 30 inches. 


Line. IV. Vv. 
A 1°603945 509607 
B 1607306 611584 
C 17609041 512580 
“Ds 1°613843 515288 
5614 1°616333 [516673 
1°620103 518719 
F 1°625751 521696 
G 1°636702 1°527300 
h 2 284 1°530075 
3951 1°647048 1°532381 


The probable errors were not computed, for the reason that the 
temperature corrections were assumed; but as regards their 
accuracy, the values under IV are perhaps quite as good as 
those which go before; those under V, on the other hand, 
have much larger errors, though probably in every case below 
two units in the fifth place. Ti is finds its explanation in the 
fact that the material was not homogeneous, thus giving less 
perfect definition than the others, though the surfaces of the 


ing the theory of the astronomical objective. 
Johns Hopkins University, January, 1878. 


276 A. M. Mayer—Experiments with Floating Magnets. 


Art. XL.—A note on Experiments with floating Magnets ; showing 
the motions and arrangements in a plane of freely moving bodes, 
acted on by forces of attraction and repulsion ; and serving in 
the study of the directions and motions of the lines of magnetic 
force ; by ALFRED M. Mayer. 


For one of my little books of the Experimental Science 
Series I have devised a system of experiments which illustrate 
the action of atomic forces, and the atomic arrangement in 
‘molecules, in so pleasing a manner, that I think these experi- 
ments should be known to those interested in the study and 
teaching of physics. 

A 


Four floating needles take these two forms 


Five a“ a“ “c “i “ 4“ 
.* 
Six ab “ sé nm ae ti F 
. 
Seven “ “ sb “we ““ 


I have obtained the figures up to the combination of twenty 
ree needles. Some of these forms are stable; others are 
unstable, and are sent into the stable forms by vibration. 

hese experiments can be varied without end. It is cer- 
tainly interesting to see the mutual effect of two or more 


I. CG. Russell—Triassie Trap Sheets of New Jersey. 277 


vibrating systems, each ruled more or less by the motions of its 
own superposed magnet; to witness the deformations and 
decompositions of one molecular arrangement by the vibrations. 
of a neighboring group, to note the changes in form which take 
place when a larger magnet enters the combination, and to see 
the deformation of groups produced by the side action of a 
magnet placed near the bowl. 

n the vertical lantern these exhibitions are suggestive of 
much thought to the student. Of course they are merely sug- 


as to the grouping and mutual actions of molecules in space. 

1 will here add that I use needles floating vertically and 
horizontally in water as delicate and mobile indicators of mag- 
netic actions; such as the determination of the position of the 

oles in magnets, and the displacement of the lines of magnetic 
orce during inductive action on plates of metal, at rest and in 
motion. 

The vibratory motions in the lines of force in the Bell-tele- 
phone have been studied from the motions of a needle (float- 
ing vertically under the pole of the magnet), caused by moving 
to and fro through determined distances, the thin iron plate in 
front of this magnet. These experiments are worth repeating 
by those who desire clearer conceptions of the manner of action 
of that remarkable instrument. 


Art, XLL—On the Intrusive Nature of the Triassic Trap Sheets 
of New Jersey; by I. CO: RUSSELL. 


ALTHOUGH the trap sheets which traverse the Triassic rocks 
of New Jersey and of the Connecticut Valley are commonly 
spoken of as being dikes of igneous rocks, yet the proof of 


tary rocks, is very positively shown. 
The rid nee See Jase have a general north and 
south direction, usually conformable with the strike of the 


associa sa 

of the Triassic formation. The trap rocks, also, seem neually 
to be conformable in dip with the stratified rocks above and 
below them. ‘These facts, together with the consideration of 


278) «=. C. Russell—Triassic Trap Sheets of New Jersey. 


the rare occurrence of the exposure of the junction of the trap 
rocks with the stratified rocks that overlie them—owing to the 
removal of the latter by denudation, and to the line of contact 
‘being covered with drift or overgrown by vegetation—have led 
to the supposition that the sheets of trap were not intrusive, but 
were formed cotemporaneously with the shales and sandstones 
as a bed or stratum of igneous rock, which was spread out in a 
molten condition at the bottom of the shallow sea in which the 
strati rocks were being deposited. The question in hand, 
then, is to determine (1) whether the plutonic rocks of the 
Triassic were spread out as a sheet of molten matter and allowed 
to cool and consolidate before the rocks that rest upon them 
were deposited, both, therefore, belonging to the same geolog- 
ical period; or (2) were the trap rocks forced out in a fused state 
among the sedimentary strata after their consolidation, which, 
consequently, would make them more recent than either the 
rocks above or below them. 


ewark Mountain, for some twenty miles of its course in the 
neighborhood of Plainfield, New Jersey. We hoped by making 


t. 
2d. To determine, if possible, if the trap sheets seem in all 
eases to be conformable in bedding with the stratified rocks 
with which they are associated. 
_ It is not difficult to find the junction of these igneous rocks 
with the shales and sandstones that underlie them. In all such 


of places in the shales and sandstones beneath the trap rocks in 
eo Plainfield, New Jerse : 
ese 0 indi 


I. C. Russell—Triassic Trap Sheets of New Jersey. 279 


were at one time inclined to suppose, before the sandstones and 
shales above them were deposited, then, of course, the rock 


ain, 
Jersey, and near the little deserted village of Feltville, the de- 
sired junction is very plainly shown. We there found one 
page of the history of the Triassic formation clearly legible. 
At this locality the stratified rocks are well exposed in the 
sides of a deep ravine which has been carved out by a smal] 
brook that flows down the western slope of the mountain. 


overlying rocks. The outside of these masses present a scorla- 
ceous or slag-like appearance; in the interior the cavities are 


filled with Re illtchted misenia The shales that rest directly 


have been intensely metamorphosed, and are scarcely to be dis- 
tinguished from the trap itself In hand specimens It 1s fre- 
quently impossible to determine from their appearance alone 
which is trap and which is metamorphosed shale. Ata distance 
of six or eight feet above the trap the shales are still very much 


é ightly, if at 
trap, the shales and sandstones are changed but slightly, if at 
all, from their normal condition. A bed of limestone teh bs 
to three feet in thickness, which is here interstratified with the 
shales and sandstones—a very rare occurrence In the Triassic 


280 =. € Russell—Triassic Trap Sheets of New Jersey. 


formation of New Jersey—where it approaches the trap is con- 
siderably altered and forms a mass of semi-crystallized carbon- 
ate of lime. : 


cia have been filled by infiltration with calcite and zeolites. 
This interesting material seems to have a history somewhat 
similar to that of the “ friction breccias,” mentioned by Von 

otta, as occurring at the margins of eruptive igneous rocks, 
and formed at the time of their eruption. ; 


the igneous 8, composing the First Newar n, were 
intruded in a molten state between the layers of the stratified 
r subsequent to their consolidation. As these mountains 


may be that one is thousands of years older than its neighbor. 
As regards the conformability of the trap sheets with the 
associated sedimentary rocks, we have but little information to 
offer, independent of the section at Feltville which we have 
already described. The curved course which a number of the 
trap ridges in New Jersey follow, seems to indicate that they 
ust cut across the strata of the sedimentary rocks, which, 


throughout the whole Triassic area in New J ersey, have a 
nearly uniform dip of from twelve degrees to fifteen degrees 
toward the northwest. 


H. A. Rowland—Absolute Unit of Electrical Resistance. 281 


Art. XLIL.—Research on the Absolute Unit of Hlectrical Resist- 
ance; by Henry A. Row.anp,* Professor of Physics in the 
Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, Md. 


Preliminary Remarks. 
SINCE the classical determination of the absolute unit of elec- 


ment, the induction current was uced by reversing the 
main current, and in Kirchhoff’s by removing the circuits to a 
distance from each ot And ms to me that this 


In the carrying out of the experiment I have partly availed 
f my own instruments and have partly drawn on the 


he experiment was performe : 
house near the University, which was reasonably free trom 
* I am greatly indebted to Mr. Jacques, Fellow of the University, who is - 
excellent Sherrer for his assis uring the experiment, particularly in read 
the nt gal 


282 Hf. A. Rowland—Absoiute Unit of Electrical Resistance. 


sary to select a region entirely free from such disturbance. 
The small probable error proves that sufficient precaution was 
taken in this respect. a 

The result of the experiment that the British Association 
unit is too great by about ‘88 per cent, agrees well with Joule’s 
experiment on the heat generated in a wire by a current, and 
makes the mechanical equivalent as thus obtained very nearly 
that which he found from friction: it is intermediate between 
the result of Lorenz and the British Association Committee; 
and it agrees almost exactly with the British Association Com- 
mittee's experiments, if we accept the correction which I have 
applied below. 

The difference of nearly three per cent which remains be- 
tween my result and that of Kohlrausch is difficult to explain, 
but it is thought that something has been done in this direc- 
tion in the criticism of his method and results which are en- 
tered into below. My value, when introduced into Thomson’s 


light: but experiments on this ratio have not yet attained the 
highest accuracy. 


History. 
The first determination of the resistance of a wire in absolute 


stan stance. However we know that the wire was of 
copper and the temperature 0° R. and that the result obtained 


* Bestimmung der Constanten von welcher die Intensitat inducirter elektrischer 
Stréme abhangt. Pogg. Ann, Bd. 76, S. 412, 
+ Elektrodynamische Maasbestimmungen; or Pogg. Ann., Bd. 82, 8. 337. 


H, A, Rowland—Absolute Unit of Electrical Resistance. 288 


the damping of a swinging needle. Three experiments gave 

for the resistance of the circuit 1903-108, 1898-108, and 1900-108 
mine ; ° . 

—, but it is to be noted that a correction of five eighths per 

cent was niade on account of the time, two seconds, which it. 
took to turn the earth-inductor, and that no account was taken 

of the temperature, although the material was copper. He finds 


for the value of the Jacobi unit, 598-107 a Three years after 


that, in 1853, Weber made another determination of the spe- 
cific resistance of copper.* But these determinations were 
more to develop the method than for exact measurement, and 
it was not until 1862+ that Weber made an exact determina- 
tion which he expected to be standard. In this last determin- 
ation he used a method compounded of his first twoemethods 
by which the constant of the galvanometer was eliminated, and 
the same method has since been used by Kohlrausch in his 
experiments of 1870. The results of these experiments were 
embodied in a determination of the value of the Siemens unit 
and of a standard which was sent by Sir Wm. Thomson. As 


The matter was in this state when a committee was appointed 
by the British Association in 1861, who, by their so pevenen 4 
which have extended through eight years, have done so mac 


in the magnetic meridian also causes re 
volving coil which deflects the needle from that — 
Whenever a conducting body moves in a magnetic le is 
rents are generated in it in such direction that the total re- 
* Abb. d. Kon. Ges. d. Wissenschaften zu Gottingen, Bd. 5. : : 
+ Zar Creivimcstattie; Gattingen, 1862. Also Abh. d. K. Ges. d. Wis. zu Got- 
tingen, Bd. 10. 


984 H. A, Rowland—Absolute Unit of Electrical Resistance. 


sultant action is such that the lines of force are apparently 
dragged after the body as though they met with resistance 
in passing through it: and so we may regard Thomson's 
method as a means of measuring the amount of this dragging 
action. 

' But, however beautiful and apparently simple the method 
may appear in theory, yet when we come to the details we find 
many reasons for not expecting the finest results from it. 
Nearly all these reasons have been stated by Kohlrausch, and I 
ean do barely more in this direction than review his objections, 
point out the direction in which each would affect the result, 
and perhaps in some cases estimate the amount. 

In the first place, as the needle also induced currents in the 
coil which tended in turn to deflect the needle, the needle must 
have a very small magnetic moment in order that this term may 
be small enough to be treated as a correction. For this reason 
the magnetic needle was a small steel sphere 8 mm. diameter, 
and not magnetized to saturation. It is evident that in a qui- 
escent magnetic field such a magnet would give the direction 
of the lines of force as accurately as the large magnets of Gauss 
and Weber, weighing many pounds. But the magnetic force 
due to the revolving coil is intermittent and the needle must 
show as it were the average force, together with the action due 
to induced magnetization. Whether the magnet shows the 


dragged with the coil, and hence makes the deflection greater 
than it should be, and the absolute value of the Ohm too small 


e. 

: The mere fact that this small magnet was attached to a com- 
paratively large mirror which was exposed to air currents 
could hardly have affected the result, seeing that the disturb- 
ances would have been all eliminated except those due to air 
currents from the revolving coil, and which we are assured did 
not exist from the fact that no deflection took place when the coil 
was revolved with the circuit broken. In revolving the coil in 

posite directions very different results were obtained, and the 


H. A, Rowland—Absolute Unit of Electrical Resistance. 285 


and the deflection was diminished by its torsion 00132. No 
mention is made of the method used for untwisting the fiber, 
and we see that it would require only 2°11 turns to deflect the 
needle 1° from the meridian. To estimate the approximate 
effect of this, we may omit from Maxwell’s equation* all the 
other minor corrections and we have 


__GKw cos p =} a ae ft ) nearly, 

where we have substituted g—f for g in Maxwell's equation 
in the term involving 4 In this equation 7 is measured from 
the magnetic meridian; but let us take # as the angle from the 
point of equilibrium. en p’=g’+a and et ad where 
~’ and g’ are for negative rotation and #” and @” for positive 


1 


R=} 


rotation and a= are sin =— 


14+¢ 
Let ‘oa eect 
. —~ GKw 
Then CR 


= tan p(1+#)’ 
; 1 
CR ite 
; R=3(R'+R’). 
Where R’ and R” are the apparent values of the resistance as 
calculated from the negative and positive rotations, and R, is 
the mean of the two as taken from the table published by the 
British Association Committee. If R is the true resistance, 

1 | 


OR= oe 
sin a’ ‘ es 
tan @'(1-H0)(14 <) tan 9'(40(1~ in =) 


We shall then find approximately 
oS 1+ tan yp’ tana Be: —— — 
F sin a tana ii ei 
R14 sin 3) (1- tan yp" . (: sin p" ( a tan? 
When a is small compared with #” or y’, and when these are 
also small, we have 
RER(parat—W)tes) 
So that b¥ taking the mean of positive and negative rotations, 
the pedis of bortibs is almost entirely aiimpinated. Ne 
the angle by which the needle is deflected ge t = mag 
meridian by the torsion and its value is 3 (1-7) nearly, 
+ « Reports on Electrical Standards,” p. 103. 


1—tany” tana 


286 H. A. Rowland—Absolute Unit of Electrical Resistance. 


when @ is small, and this, in one or two of their experiments, 
exceeds unity or a exceeds 28°°6, which is absurd. Taking 


: R ; 
even one of the ordinary cases where —‘=1'02 and + is about 


zo, We a=12° nearly, which is a value so large that it 
would surely have been noticed. e may conclude 
that no reasonable amount of torsion in the silk fiber could 


these currents, but has failed to consider the theory of them. 
Now, from the fact that after any number of revolutions the 
number of lines of force passing through any part of the appa- 
ratus is the same as before, we immediately deduce the fact 
that, if Ohm’s law be correct, the algebraical sum of the cur- 
rents at every point in the frame is zero, and hence the average 
magnetic action on the needle zero. But although these cur- 


rotation, the effect is nearly but not quite eliminated. The 
amount of the effect is evidently dependent upon the velocity 
of rotation and increases with it in some unknown proportion, 
and the residual effect is evidently in the direction of making 
the action on the needle too small and thus of increasing R. 

- these currents are the cause of the different values of R 
a ta with positive and negative rotation, we should find 
at if we picked out those experiments in which this difference 
was the greatest, they should give a larger value of R than the 
others. Taking the mean of all the results} in which this dif- 

Reports on Electrical egrysa London, 1873, p. 191. 

and hare thong probate that te ae tre Sein Sl nt i a 


column should read 1:0032 and 1-0065 instead of 1:0040 and ‘9981, and in my 
discussion I have considered them to read thus. i ii 


H.. A. Rowland—Absolute Unit of Electrical Resistance. 287 


ference is greater than one per cent, we find for the Ohm 
10083 earth quad. 
sec. 


earth quad. 
sec. 


, and when it is less than one per cent, 9966 


, Which is in accordance with the theory, the aver- 


age velocities being 49.2 and 44° nearly. But the individual 
observations have too great a probable error for an exact 


colnparison. Sie 
But whatever the cause of the effect we are considering, the 
following method of correction must apply. e experiments 


show that R is a function of the velocity of rotation, and hence, 
by Taylor's theorem, the true resistance R, must be 
R,=R(1+Aw+Bw?-+ &c.), 
and when R is the mean of results with positive and negative 
rotations, 
R,=R(1+Bu?+Du!+&c.). 
Supposing that all the terms can be omitted a the first 
two, and using the above results for large and small velocities, 


we find R, = 9926 =e But if we reject the two results 


in which the difference of positive and negative rotations is 
over seven per cent, we find 
R,="9034 sahanns, 
The rejection of all the higher powers of w renders the cor- 
rection uncertain, but it at least shows that the Ohm is some- 
what smaller than it was meant to be, which agrees with my 
ex periments. : : 
t is to be regretted that the details of these experiments 
have never been published, and so an exact estimate of their 
value can never be made. Indeed, we have no data for deter- 
mining the value of the Ohm from the experiments of 1863. 
All we know is that, in the final result, the 1864 experiments 
had five times the weight of those of 1868, and that the two 
results differed ‘16 per cent, bat which was the larger is not 
stated. Now the table of results published in the report of the 
1864 experiments contains many errors, some of which we can 
find out by comparison of the columns. The following cor- 
rections seem probable in the eleven at 


fifth columns, read 1:0032 and +082 in place of 1-0040 an 
+0-40. No. 11, fourth and fifth columns, read 10065 = 
+0°65 in place of 09981 and —0'19. Whether we make 


288 H. A. Rowland—Absolute Unit of Electrical Resistance. 


' With the corrections the mean value of the 1864 experiments 
is 1 Ohm = 1-00071 St auae’ 


fourth column, it is 100014. With the corrections the dif 
ference between fast and slow rotation is ‘6 per cent. 


, and without them, using the 


being one formed out of a combination of Weber’s two methods 
of the earth inductor and of damping, by which the constant of 
the galvanometer was eliminated, and is the same as Weber 
used in his experiments of 1862. His formula for the resist- 
ance of the circuit, omitting small corrections, is 

_ 3282T?2,(A—A,) AB 
= ?K (A2--B?)? 
where S is the surface of the earth inductor, T is the bori- 
zontal intensity of the earth’s magnetism, K the moment of 
inertia of the magnet, ¢, the time of vibration of the magnet, 
A the logarithmic decrement, and A and B are the ares in the 
method of recoil. 


an 
wv 


approximately, 


wire occupied two per cent of the radius of the coil, making it 
uncertain to what point the radius should be measured. As 
the coil is wound, each winding sinks into the space between 
the two wires beneath, except at one spot where it must pass 


it would diminish the value of S? 1:4 per cent, and make 
Kohlrausch’s result only °6 per cent greater than the result of 
the British Association Committee. ~ 

‘Three other quantities, T, A and K, are very hard to deter- 
mine with accuracy, and yet T enters as a square. It is to 


H. A. Rowland—Absolute Unit of Electrical Resistance. 289 


be noted that this earth-inductor is the same as that used by 
Weber in his experiment of 1862; and which also gave a larger 
value to the Ohm than those of the British Association Com- 
mittee. Indeed, the results with this inductor and by this method 


form the only cases where the absolute resistance of the Ohm has 


Association Committ 

There seems to be a small one-sided error in A and B which 
Kohlrausch does not mention, but which Weber, in his old 
experiments of 1851, considered worthy of a 6 per cent cor- 


been found greater than that from the experiments of the British 
tee. 


Needle by the earth-inductor, and y is the velocity as deduced 
from the ordinary equation for the method of recoil, I find 


pon) CA et 


more exact to substitute 
4 (fy f"s sin t di==4 (=) 
a/J a 
in the place of 72. The formula then becomes 
2 \2\ 1-44 
emis (6) (at) pt 
re exact when A is small than when it 


is large, but it is sufficiently exact in all a to give — 


: how long it took him to 
Source. Kohlrausch does not state g halk about 


290 H. A. Rowland—Absolute Unit of Electrical Resistance. 


7 yz, and as A=$ nearly, we have 

-¥ —1.0008, 
which would diminish the value of the resistance by ‘16 per 
ce 


n 

As the time we have allowed for turning the earth-inductor 
is probably greater than it actually was, the actual correction 
will be less than this. 

The correction for the extra current induced in the inductor 
and galvanometer, as given by Maxwell’s equation,* has been 
shown by Stoletow to be too small to affect the result appre- 
ciably. : 

We may sum up our criticism of this experiment in a few 
words. The method is defective because, although absolute 
resistance has the dimensions of “F“, yet in this method the 
fourth power of space and the square of time enter, besides 
other quantities which are difficult to determine. The instru- 
ments are defective, because the eurth-inductor was of such 
poor proportion and made of such large wire that its average 
radius was difficult to determine, and was undoubtedly over- 
estimated. 

It seems probable that a paper scale, which expands and 
contracts with the weather, was used. And lastly, the results 
with this inductor and by this method have twice given greater 
results than anybody else has ever found, and greater than the 
known values of the mechanical equivalent of heat would 
indicate. 

The latest experiments on resistance have been made by 
Lorenz of Copenhagen,+ by a new method of his own, or rather 
by an application of an experiment of Faraday’s. It consists 
im measuring the difference of potential between the center and 
edge of a disc in rapid rotation in a field of known magnetic 
intensity. 

A lengthy criticism of this experiment is not needed, seeing 
that it was made more to illustrate the method than to give a 
new value to the Ohm. The quantity primarily determined 
by the experiment was the absolute resistance of mercury, and 


which it revolved. 
* “ Electricity and Magnetism,” Art. 762. 
t Pogg. Ann., Bd. cxlix, (1873), p. 251. 


PORT al St he eg Oe 


D. Kirkwood—Solar and Sidereal Heat. .- Bet 


In conclusion I give the following table of results, a 
the 


as nearly as possible to the absolute value of Ohm 
earth quad. , 
ame ; 
Date. Observer. Value of Ohm. Remarks, 
1849 |Kirchhoff__.-.--- 88 to ‘90 Approximately. 
S051" Weber 2-22.52. = *95 to ‘97 
18 1-088 From Thomson’s un 
62 [Weber -....-... } 1075 From lange s fale ] Siemen’s unit. 
1863 ; § 10000 Mean of a ts. 
—4/B. A. Committee. ) 993 Corrected ris a zero velocity of coil. 
1870 |Kohlrausch 10196 
970 Taking ratio of quicksilver unit to Ohm 
1873 |Lorenz 962. 
980 Taking ratio of quicksilver unit to Ohm 
1876 [Rowland ----..- ‘9912 Prom a preliminary comparison with the 
: B. A. uni 
[To be continued. } 


Art. XLIII —On Croll’s Hypothesis of the Origin of ae and 
Sidereal Heat ; by Professor DANIEL KirRKWwoo 


THE Quarterly Journal of Science for July, 1877, contains 
an able and interesting article by James Croll, LD., F.RS., 
on the age and origin of the sun’s heat. The theory of as 
Croll may be regarded as a compromise between the mathema- 
ticians, represented by Thomson, Tait and Newcomb, ine the 


geologists of the uniformitarian school, represented by ‘Playfair, 
Lyell, Darwin, etc. The principal points of this remarkable 
paper a 


1. That, as had been estimated by Sir William Thomson and 
others, but twenty million years’ heat could be produced by 
the —_ epee of the sun’s mass. 

w determination has — made by H. F. Weber 
great accuracy. The result 


* Since 
of Zuri ults a befe ae 
at ih, i in “eho ths the the diferent an agree with comparison seems to a been 


made simply with a nas4 of resistance coils and snot with standa modern 
oe n’s Mepis seem to be reasonably exact, bu’ m the table published by the 


tish Association » Oomiadeee in 1864, it seems cue vat that time cer- 
en nearer Fess 

tainty as to its value. He obtains 1 S. U. = ‘9550 —_-——, wileh 18 grea 
or than the British Association determinati i. mae we take the dif- 
ferent ratios of the Siemen's to the British path unit, ranging from “14 


— whee to 1°92 per cent below. In any 
Well with my own. The apparatus used does Sand ot seem to have been of the best 


i con e mes 
Pair of coils is used, seeing that in that case the constant, both of magn effect 
tnd of induction, depend on the ej Sc it nat tt 


cient detaile 


292 D. Kirkwood—Solar and Sidereal Heat. 


2. That not less than five hundred millions of years have 
been required for the stratification of the earth’s crust at the 
present rate of subaérial denudation ; and hence that the grav- 
itation theory of the origin of the sun’s heat is incompatible 
with geological facts. 

we suppose two solid opaque bodies, each equal to half 
the sun’s mass, to fall together in consequence simply of their 
mutual attraction, the collision would instantly generate suffi- 
cient heat to reduce the entire mass to a state of vapor. If, in 
addition to the motion resulting from their mutual attraction, 
we suppose the bodies to have had an original or independent 
motion towards each other of 202 miles per second, the con- 
cussion would produce 50,000,000 years’ heat; a motion of 678 
miles per second, together with that due to their mutual at- 
traction, would generate 200,000,000 years’ heat ; and a velocity 
of 1,700 miles per second would generate an amount of beat 
which would keep up the supply at the present rate for 800,- 
000,000 years. 

4. The sun and all visible stars may have derived their heat 
from the collision of cold, opaque masses thus moving in space. 
The nebulz are the products of the more recent impacts, and 
the stars have been formed by the condensation of ancient 
nebulee. 

5. This theory, while accepting the doctrine of the conser- 
vation of energy, indicates at the same time a possible supply 
of heat for several hundred millions of years; thus satisfying 
all moderate demands for geological time. 

The mathematical correctness of the theory here stated will not 

be called in question. We shall consider merely the probability 
of the facts assumed as its basis. To the present writer the 
hypothesis seems unsatisfactory for the following reasons: 
_ L The existence of such sidereal bodies as the theory assumes 
is purely conjectural, unless it be claimed that lost or missing 
stars have become non-luminous, of which we have no conclu- 
sive evidence. 


and in no case exceeding 200 miles per secon 

3. If the two iia whose collision the sun is supposed 
to have been formed were very unequal, as would be most 
Siete the amount of heat generated would be correspond- 
ingly less. 


4. Such collisions as the theory assumes are wholly hypo- 
thetical. It is infinitely improbable that two cosmical bodies 
should move in the same straight line; and of two moving in 
different lines, it is improbable that either should impinge 


ee ee i st -_ ei 


D. Kirkwood—Solar and Sidereal Heat, 298 


against the other. Comets pass rownd the sun without collision 


containing one-half the matter of the solar system, were ap- 
proaching one another in the same straight line, each at the 
rate of 1,70 miles per second ;* that on meeting, their motion 
was transformed into heat; and that their united mass was at 
once reduced to vapor: the great question yet remains—How 
much of the period represented by these 800,000,000 years’ heat 
can be claimed as geological time? The nebula formed by the 
collision would extend far beyond the present orbit of Nep- 
tune. The amount of heat radiated in a given time from so 
vast a surface would doubtless be much greater than that now 
emitted in an equal period. No considerable contraction could 
occur until a large proportion of the heat produced by the 


’ 


inevitable that much the greater part of the 800,000,000 years 


pon the whole, it seems more difficult to grant the demands 

of Dr. Croll’s hypothesis than to believe that in former ages the 
stratification of the earth’s crust proceeded more rapidly than 
at presen ormer, as we have seen, has no sufficient 
basis in the facts of observation. On the other hand, if our 
planet has cooled down from a state of igneous fluidity, the 
great heat of former times must doubtless have intensified b 
aqueous and atmospheric agencies in producing modifications 
of the earth’s exterior. 

Bloomington, Indiana, March, 1878. 

* This i ity mentioned by Dr. Croll. An 
mation would of pase Ras lB more heat, but the hypothesis 

+ Proc. Kan Phil 860, vol. xvi, pp. 329-333 and National Quarterly Review, 
March, 1877, p. 292. 

Am. Jour. wijees dace ya: Vou. XV, No. 88.—APRIL, 1878. 


increased rate of 
would be open to 


294 J. W. Mallet—Selenide of Bismuth from Guanajuato. 


Art. XLIV.—On the chemical composition of Guanajuatite, or Sel- 
entde of Bismuth, from Guanajuato, Mexico; by J. W. MALLET, 
University of Virginia. 


THIS mineral seems to have been first noticed by Sefior Cas- 
tillo in March, 1878, and was by him partially described* as 
a sulpho-selenide of bismuth. 

In the Guanajuato journal ‘La Republica” for July 18, 
1873, Fernandez t published a full description, giving to the 
mineral the name Guanajuatite, and stating that it is solely a 
selenide of bismuth, a small amount of sulphur found being 
attributed to admixture with a little pyrite. In the same year 
or 1874 Rammelsbergt obtained as the result of a partial exam- 
imation on a very small quantity, 


EEE EES ae Se OE 16°7 
ee Oak 
82°1 


and suggested the Phase of zinc. The mineral was more 
fully examined by Frenzel,§ whose analysis yielded, 


mencere ss 24°13 
Rupee oe. Se es - 6°60 
Wiemuth e250. ey ee 67°38 

98°11 


whence the formula has been deduced—2Bi,Se, . Bi,S,. 

In the 2d Appendix to the 5th edition of Dana’s Mineral- 
ogy | the name Frenzelite was proposed for the species, but 
this has subsequently been retracted | in favor of the prior 
claim of the name Guanajuatite given by Fernandez. 

The above are up to this time, I believe, the only published 
notices of the mineral in question. They leave two doubts in 
regard to its composition, namely, whether sulphur is really a 
constituent or only found from accidental admixture, an 
whether zinc is present or not. 

At the Bascessedl pres Exhibition of 1876, my friend Sefior 


. 


the Mexican Commission, was kind enough 


* Naturaleza, ii, 174 (1873); Jahrb. Min. (1874), 225, 
in this Journal, April, 1877, p. 
Mine! 


, p- 319. 
p App. to 5th ed. Dana’s Mineralogy (March, 1875), p. 22. 
Loe. cit. 


Min. (1874), 679. 
{ This Journal, loc. cit. 


J. W. Mallet—Selenide of Bismuth from Guanajuato. 295 


tempting to settle the above questions by careful repetition of 
the chemical analysis. The already pulverized specimen was 
chiefly used, but was supplemented by a portion of the other 
—neither was altogether free from the hydrous silicate of 
aluminum which constitutes the gangue. 

The method employed was the following. Water having 
been driven off by careful heating in a slow stream of carbon 
dioxide gas, collected and weighed, the mineral was mixed 
with ten times its weight of potassium cyanide and fused in an 
atmosphere of hydrogen. The mass on cooling was trea 
with water, and the solution filtered ; the residue on the filter 
dried and again fused with the cyanide to ensure complete de- 
composition, repeating the treatment with water and filtration. 
From the mixed filtrates selenium was thrown down by addi- 
tion of hydrochloric acid in excess, filtered after thirty-six 
hours on a weighed filter, cautiously dried and weighed ; it 
was then burned, and a minute amount of silica left behind 
was determined. The solution from which the selenium had 


used) an inum were now precipitated by ammonium sul- 
phide, and separated by barium carbonate, the alumina being 
deter The original residue of bismuth, left on the filter 


fusion with potassium cyanide, and weighed as me 
ay 


Silentniss.o: cuue cede aoe 
ulphur ......-.-------+-+--- “61 
Biante is fo ss TCE OS 59°92 
abe ee Ec nae 2°53 
Webra OF kkk aii cee trace 
4 ee ee een 3°47 
Ne ee | OO 
99°63 


Zinc was specially looked for, both in the general analysis and 
using a separate portion for this purpose alone, but none could 


296 J. W. Mallet—Stlenide of Bismuth from Guanajuato. 


be found. Possibly, as Rammelsberg had but a very small 
quantity of material on which to work, he may have been led 
to suspect the presence of zinc by a precipitate of aluminum 
hydrate derived from gangue. 

0 evidence, physical or chemical, could be found of the 
presence of pyrite; the trace (unweighable) of iron appears to 
belong to the gangue, 

It is stated that this gangue is galapectite (Halloysite) ; if the 
amount of such mineral present be calculated from the alumina 
the above figures represent the specimen as composed of— 


Guanajuatite 1.220 22. u... 92°17 

Gaasan Halloysite___..__. 6°72 

gee ae 56 

Moisture---_. 18 

99°63 

and the Guanajuatite in the pure state would consist of 

Rrebonetina. 20254. Soe oo 34°33 

Sulphur -. "66 

Re se i ck 65°01 

100°00 


Hence we have the atomic ratio, 
Bi: Se: S= 310: 432; 21, 
or, uniting the sulphur with selenium, 
Bi:Se= 310: 453 = 2:000: 2-922, 


It seems clear that the mineral in question must be viewed 
as sesqui-selenide of bismuth, with isomorphous replacement 
to a variable extent of selenium by sulphur. 

It is also mentioned (this Journal, April, 1867) that Fernan- 
dez has described a second selenide of bisesteh from the same 
locality, and has derived from his analyses of more or less pure 


Janssen Solar Photograph and Optical Studies, 297 


Art. XLV.—On the Janssen Solar Photograph and Optical 
Studies ; by S. P. LANGLEY. 


Mr. JANSSEN, in papers lately presented to the French Insti- 
tute* has given an account of recent results in solar-photo- 
graphy, obtained by him at the observatory of Meudon, and 
from the comments of Messrs. Huggins, Lockyer, De la Rue 
and other competent judges, it has been understood that 
remarkable advances have been made over any before pro- 
duced. A copy has been published in the Annuaire du 


or rice-grain-” like forms as had been commonly sup- 
posed. The term “rice-grain,” it was carefully explained, was 
Incorrect, and as an illustration imperfect. 


* Comptes Rendus, Oct. 29th and Dec. 31st, 1877. 


298 Janssen Solar Photograph and Optical Studies. : 


of the foliate form and subdivision, specially calling attention 
to them in the plate, where they are found in two squares sur- 
rounded by a heavy outline. It is necessary to insist on the fact 
that purely optical methods had informed us of the nature of 
the constituents of the surface with a minuteness which photo- 
graphy has not even now attained. It was also stated in the 
first of these articles that the estimated mean distances between 
the centers of these composite objects ranged from 2°57 to 1-42 
according to the degree of disintegration introduced by magnify- 
ing power, and the very important conclusion was reached that 
the light of the sun comes to us chiefly from an extremely small 
part of its surface—an indefinitely small part, but which is at 
any rate less than one-fifth of the whole. M. Janssen’s impression 
that the true form and relative area of these has first been shown 
by the Aner is a misapprehension, though arising most 
naturally in part from the vicious nomenclature of the subject. 


: na closer view we see t rse vague macula- 
tions or marblings* (formed as it seems to me by waves in the 
solar a ing regions of greater thickness and 


the plate is hardly possible, but as the individual “ grains” 
* This is seen in the Albertype on removing it five or six yards from the eye 

where details are lost. The ae ie igi 

Brace tho ove itctt) vagueness of the aggregations is in the original 


_t Indicated all over the Albertype lates, and shown in specific details in the 
two designated squares. —" 


Janssen Solar Photograph and Optical Studies. 299 


may be here counted, I have placed on the positive a Rogers’ 
reticule, consisting of very small squares, engine-divided on 
glass, which had been actually used on the sun for a similar 
purpose; and with its aid counted the “grains” in different 


should M. Janssen succeed in future in enlarging his photo- 
graph while retaining his present wonderful definition, that 


nition is as sharp and clear as we have escrl d it. ow,—a 
question evidently to be asked,—is this bad definition something 
in the solar atmosphere or our own? oes it mean a tremen- 


away from the facule as seen on the edge? I believe there 
has been, from telescopic study, a somewhat uncertain recog- 
nition that the photospheric structure differed at different times, 


if once recognized, would be visible to the telescope, if sought, 


granulations varied at different times from solar causes; but with 
the telescope we lack the facility for deliberate comparison of 
one part of the disc with another, we obtain here, since owing 
to the undulations which we do know without doubt, are in our 
own atmosphere, our best vision is but momentary, an — 
we can turn from one part of the sun to compare It with another 
the opportunity is gone. The “omg Eaoereraieg as it is, in 


800 Janssen Solar Photograph and Optical Studies. 


the thousandth exposure may fall in the brief instant of defi- 
nition the observer patiently watches for, and then the results 


nomenon, or (what might conceivably be the case) some unde- 
tected causes of minute instrumental error. The difficulty of 


presence of residual phenomena, which, however minute, were 


i ty of distinguishing by @ 
single plate, the exact limits between the effects of solar and 


tremities of filaments; extremities whi aggregated, 
fs sg and which lifted higher than their fellows cause the 


* Comptes Rendus, Sept. 6, 1875, p. 438. 


Janssen Solar Photograph and Optical Studies. 301 


tosphere to a field of grain in which from a bird's-eye view, we 
see, in a calm, only the rounded summits of the wheat. ta 
wind blow fitfully over the surface, bending the crests here and 
there and showing more of the form of the straws. This is, it 
seems to me, the suggested explanation of the elongated form of 
the “grains” shown in such an interesting manner in M. Jans- 


nomena, and it would be doubtless desirable, if possible, that 


before us, demand not only the finest mechanical and chem- 
ical methods and still more the highest skill, but atmospheric 
conditions so brief as to rarely or never last during even the 

short time mentioned. 
Finally, then, though without two pen ia Of equal-ehr 
es er, it is perhaps 


Allegheny, Penn., March 14, 1878. 


302 E. W. Claypole—Tree-like fossil plant, Glyptodendron. 


Art. XLVI.—On the occurrence of a Tree-like fossil plant, Glyp- 
todendron, in the Upper Silurian (Clinton) Rocks of Ohio; b 
Professor E. W. Cuaypour, B.A., B.Se. (London), of Anti- 
och College, Yellow Springs, Ohio. 


In the month of July, 1877, while on a geological excursion 
in company with one of my students, Mr. Leven Siler, in the 
vicinity of Eaton, in Preble County, Ohio, the latter picked up 
and banded me a slab bearing the impression'of a vegetable 
stem, which proved, on closer examination, to be that of a 
plant allied to Lepidodendron. As the beds in which we were 
working at the time lie at the very base of the “Clinton” of 
the Ohio Survey, and within a few feet of the break which 
marks the summit of the Cincinnati group of the Lower Silu- 
rian, the specimen immediately assumed unusual interest and 
importance ; no indisputable traces of land-plants having then 
come to light from so low an horizon in America, and no re- 
mains of arborescent vegetation being known with certainty from 
strata of so old a date in the New or Old World. 

The slab containing the impression was not taken out of the 
solid rock, but lay loose on the bank of Clinton limestone. 
This fact will naturally raise some question concerning its age 
in the mind of every geologist. Fortunately, however, we are 
not in this instance dependent upon such evidence. To any 
one practically familiar with the Clinton rocks as they crop out 

the Cincinnati uplift no doubt can arise. The stone 1s 
a piece of yellow, rough, encrinital limestone, considerably 
weathered, with the characteristic appearance of the Clinton at 
Eaton and here. Moreover, by the side of the impression there 


me imens. But further 
re Boe the fossil and its nearest allies among the Sigillarids 
and Lepidodendrids has induced me to place it by itself in a 
new genus, which seems to form a connecting link between some 
other paleozoic genera. I append the following description :— 


E. W. Claypole—Tree-like fossil plant, Glyptodendron. 308 


GLYPTODENDRON. ‘Tree-like; stem cylindrical; surface 
marked with two parallel sets of ridges running spirally up the 
stem in opposite directions, crossing each other and thus forming 
thomboidal areoles. Lower portion of areole depressed and prob- 
ably representing or containing a leaf-scar. Depressed porece 
of areole (leaf-scar?) symmetrical (i. e. alike on the right and 
left sides.) Vascular scars, leaves, fruit, etc., unknown. The 
name is from the Greek yAdga, I engrave, and alludes to the 
depressed areoles. 

Glyptodendron Eatonense. Stem thick and trunk-like; the 
specimen from which this description was made measured when 
complete about six inches in diameter. Surface divided into 
rhomboidal areoles by two sets of narrow ridges parallel and 
- peadaier vag running spirally up the stem in opposite directions. 

ese ridges cross bas other nearly at right angles. The are- 
oles thus formed measure about seven-sixteenths of an inch 
along each diagonal. Lower portion of areole deeply and 
evenly depressed and probably Hi ul a sunken leaf-scar. 
Upper border of depressed portion rounded in outline and ele- 
vated, equalling in height the spiral ridges. No trace of the 
vascular scars can be seen in consequence of the roughness of 


He says, “ The marks on your specimen, at 
rags sight, resemble those of the Lepidodendra of the type of the 


have belonged to a plant of the nature of a Tree-fern, or of a 
Sigillaria allied to ‘s Menardi, rather than to a true Lepidoden- 


304 Scientific Intelligence. 

dron.” ‘In speaking of the areoles, I take it for granted that 
the curvature of the cast represents that of the stem.” “The 
specimen may, however, have been a bit of bark pressed out 
of shape.” 


My own opinion, after a careful examination of the original, 
is that the curvature of the cast does represent that of the stem, 
and consequently that Dr. Dawson’s remarks on its resemblances 
are wellfounded. The bark of Lepidodendra, etc., when pressed 
as usually occurs in the Coal-measures, is constantly flattened. 
In a subsequent communication, Dr. Dawson alludes to the 
possibility suggested above, that the fossil may exhibit a com- 
posite character partaking of the character of more than one 
existing genus. The wide diffusion of the type which it most 
resembles in the Lower Carboniferous is good reason for be- 
lieving that it is very ancient, and therefore its occurrence so low 
as the Clinton limestone is the less surprising. 

In conclusion, I gladly express my indebtedness to Dr. J. W 
Dawson, of Montreal, for valuable aid cheerfully rendered, and 

Mr. Leo Lesquereux, of Columbus, in this State, for prompt 
and kind replies to letters of enquiry. 


SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE. 
I. CHEMISTRY AND PHYsICcs. 2 


1. On certain Fundamental Thermo-chemical Data.—BERvHE- 
Lot has re-determined with great care the heat data belonging to 
certain chemical reactions, using an improved calorimeter for the 
purpose, described in the memoir. The heat of formation of 
sulphurous oxide, although determined many times, was not UP 
to this time accurately known. Thus sixteen grams of sulphur 
burned to gaseous sulphurous oxide gave Dulong 41°6 calories, 
Hess 41-1, Andrews 36°9, and Favre and Silbermann 35°6, the 


. 


glass, and the sulphur used the octahedral variety. The mean 
result was, for sixteen oe of sulphur, 34°55 calories. From 
lates the heat of formation of sulphuri¢ 


diamond, in burning to C,O, evolves 94, C, in burning to C,0, 
evolves 94 —68 2=25°8, or for amorphous carbon 28°8. Ethy lene 
twenty-eight grams, yields 334-5 calories, acetylene twenty-5!* 


Chemistry and Physics. 805 


grams, 317°5, and benzene seventy-eight grams, 776 calories. In 
the formation of the hydrogen compoun nds of bromine and iodine 
H+Br gas=HBr gas yields 13:1 calories, while H+Br liquid 

=HBr gas gives 9°5, H+I gas =H gas gives Aggy 9 calories, and 
H-+I solid =HI gas ives —6°3. The heat of formation of 
bromic acid is —21-2, and * hypobromous PI ga gh tig 
Chim. Phys., V, xiii, ‘ Jan. 

2. Relations between the pipe Weights of the Ble neat 
WarcuTER has described certain additional relations between the 


(i. e., one positive and the other Pein) are a equal to one 


fusing and the boiling points of the elements, so far as known, 
increase With increasing atomic weights and increas ig V3 ge 
fr 


atomic weights, the greater, the higher the valence. 6th. 

crass of the negative metallo ids—fluorine to silicon—for the 
e roper, diminishes be * Rae atomic weight and an 

increasing valence.—Ber. B Fes., Xi, 11, Jan. Ne 


B. 

8. New Method for the Preparation of Nitrogen. s eesaes SE 
has observed that when ammonium nitrate and manganese perpide 
are heated together up to the fusing point ais the former (about 
180°) a violent reaction age the mass mes red hot and 
nitrogen is evolv the temperature be oe t between 180° 

ee 200°, yea nitrogen is entirely pure, being formed according to 

€ equatio 
On H NO,),+Mn0, =Mn(NO,),+(H,9).+N. 
One experiment, three grams NO, heated with an equal 
weight of MnO, in a acti & bath kept at 205°, yielded 630 


cubic centimeters of gas, nearly a theoretical quantity. If the 
nous nit 


temperature rises above 216° 8 decomp — 
giving sachin vapors and ox sg At td the gas contai 
sp og per t of oxygen.— Bull. Soe. Ae, Eh xxi, a — 
187 P. 

i “On a Method 0 separating Crystallized Silica, patois 
Quart, from Siltoaten- —Lavurer has suggested an improvement 


os 


306 Scientific Intelligence. 


5. On the use of Stannous Chloride in the analysis of Nitro- 

compounds,—Limpricut, noticing the facility with which an acid 

solution of stannous chloride reduced nitro-compounds, made a 

series of experiments to ascertain whether the reaction could not 
made use of to 


stannous chloride solution of known strength, the nett (tt) 
0 oO : 
SnCi,+(H,0), B titrition the quantity of stannous chloride 


an 
Stototte salt in a liter of water; (3) starch solution diluted and 


="0059 gr. Sn, =0-0007666 gr. NO,; (5) Permanganate solution, 
made and titered as usual. In the analysis, 0°2 h 


m 
10 c.c. of the tin solution, and warmed. After cooling the flask 
is filled to the mark with water, 10 ¢.c. is removed with a pipette, 

aced in a er, dil mixed with the soda solution until 
the precipitate at first produced is re-dissolved, and after adding 
some starch solution, titered with the iodine solution until the 
blue becomes permanent, ‘numerous results given show the 
panne to be accurate.—Ber. Berl. Chem. Ges., xi, 35, Jan 
1 G. ¥ 


B. 
6. On a so-called Catalytic action of Carbon Disulphide. 


Chemistry and Physics. 307 


water bath in sealed tubes for forty hours, have not the slightest 

n on each other, — addition of a small quantity of carbon 
disulphide to the mixture so facilitates the reaction that even in 
six hours it is ees and in one case the tube exploded from 
the evolved hydrogen bromide, in two hours, Further investiga- 
tion showed that the presence of the disulphide was not abso- 
lutely necessary, ‘oie for the formation of the addition or the 
renee products of bromine and acetic acid, but that it facil- 

ted the formation of both to an extraordinary degree, the time 
required for the action to be completed being in the exact inverse 


ratio of the amount of CS, present. The precise mode of action 
of the disulphide, the authors are now engaged in 1 iexastgatnie: 
—Ber. Berl. Chem. Ges., xi, 241, Feb. 1878. G. F. B. 


7. On. the Conversion of Nitriles into Amides.—Prsner and 
Kietn showed a short time ago that any nitrile may be made to 
combine directly with = alcohol, by passing gaseous HCl or 
HBr into a mixture of the two. There is first formed the salt of 
an fotiockinnne 


_RCN+R’0H-+(HCl),=RC OW HC) 
which immediately loses HCl and becomes a salt of an imide. 
Thus benzonitrile and isobutyl alcohol when thus treated give the 
hydrochlorate of benzimidobutyl ether, C.H,C | OCH, wee By 
the action of alcoholic ammonia, the free benzimidobuty] ether 
C.H C} 06, H, and benzimido-amide (or benzenylamimide) 


C.H,C HCl are obtained. The authors now describe ben- 


siidborade and its silver compound, and the action of ethyl 
iodide and of acetic oxide u upon it, and also benzimidobutyl ether. 

so a polymer of Lggrorrtice termed kyaphenin. meee 
= Ges. Nes 4, Jan. 1 


Wislicenus’s laboratory, which go to prove this sugar a 

pentacid alcohol the prolonged action of acetic oxide upon 

quercite in sealed tubes at 100° to 120°, a pent tate w 

obtained as amorphous brittle mass, having ae farina 

OCH H,O),. Saponification with barium hydrate confir 
sition. The tetra and the ean cd are Liao a 


‘Uuming h eae acid was without action.—Liebig’s Ann., 
exe, 282, gyro bi . F. B. 
9. On the cids of Cocoa Butter.—Kixezert has exa 


ae chemical racicoa A of the Cocoa butter of —o hav- 
a fusing point of about 30° C. . was as y sodium 
a the sodium salt converted into a barium salt, this decom- 


308 Scientific Intelligence. 


sed by HCl in presence of ether one the fatty acids obtained 

by distilling off the ether, were repeatedly crystallized from alco- 
y re serene the fractional crystallization, there was 
Shenae beside olei acid, an acid of the formula C,,H,,O, and 
fusing point 57°5° as one extreme, and —— C,,H,,,0,, of fusing 


128" 29 


point. 72°2° as the other, both of which are new. To the latter 
J. Ch. 


the pegs anne the name Theobromic acid.— Soc., xxxiii, 

38, Jan. G. F. B 
10. On. a new Class of Acid tain iar ee has studied a 

new class of ee salts, the acid acetates which acetic acid’ 


itself plays the part of water of cotinine, Their general 


formula of the sodium salts is C,H,Na0,(C,H,0 )—H, oO, where 
n 


= = or 3.- Thus, a salt crystallizing in small flat efflorescent 
prisms has the formula C,H sNaO,(C,H ,0,)4(H,O)$. Another of 
the second class, where ~ Mas, is in small efflorescent prisms 
of the formula C,H,NaO,(C,H,O,)3(H ,O)42.— Bull. Soc. ~*~ be 

xxix, 153, Feb. 1 1878. 
ll. Electro- Magnetic and pheno imetric Absolute Mumwoneda 
ae the continuation of a paper with the above title, Professor 
F, WEBER Psat ia that the seg of the Siemen’s mercury 


unit of resistance lies between 0°9536 x 10° ("a) ‘oad 


0°9550 * 10” ( Teen) and that the value of the British unit is 
the value asserted, 101° et . Professor Weber also dis- 


ome the experiments of Favre on the quantities of heat devel- 
by various electromotive forces in their circuits during the 
i f zinc. F 


of a mercury calo rimeter, an instrument which Weber sz aeattg” 
os ee. Mauien 1878 ape a 

12 agri Ee lobstessare ER Wricut and Mr. = 

Mary’s Hos ital Tondon, pet made a first report 

to the Like Chemical y* of their _investigation on this 

chief point established by their paper is the general 

principle that “ ‘that reduc agent begins to act cat the lowest 


of ¢ experiments are given on — reduction of ¢ cupric ‘oxide and 


Chemistry and Physics. 309 


ferric oxide by carbonic oxide, by hydrogen and by carbon re- 
c 


tion of carbon, hydrogen, and carbonic oxide with sixteen grams 
of oxygen are taken as 47°78, 57°82 and 68°35 respectively. The 
effect of the different physical states both of the metallic oxides 
and of the charcoal used is likewise carefully discussed. 

nh connection with the above paper, Mr. M. M. Pattison Muir, 
of Caius College, Cambridge discusses the “influence exerted b 
time and mass in certain reactions in which insoluble salts are 
produced.” The author following a previous suggestion of Glad- 

pipet 4 


ally becomes more and more slow.” 2, “that the equation 

CaCl, +M,CO,=2MCIi+CaCoO, 
does not furnish a full expression of the action of sodium or po- 
tassium carbonate upon calcium chloride. en the two salts 


are mixed in the proportion expressed by their respective formule, 


4, 
w f 9 
that elevation of temperature tends to increase and on the other 


d increase the excursions of the 
our. Scl.—Turrp Series, Vou. XV, No. 88.—APRIL, 1 
21 


310 Scientific Intelligence. 


residual molecules of sodium or potassium carbonate and of calcium 
chloride, would also increase the chances in favor of collision oc- 
¢ 


the excursions of these residual molecules, or tending to increase 

the number of molecules which take no part in the production of 

calcium carbonate, and hence to decrease the chances of the sodium 

or potassium carbonate and the calcium chloride molecules coming 

into collision, wenld also tend to diminish = amount of calcium 
t m 


solutions would tend to decrease the chances of snme hea 
the two sets of molecul 
13. eS a —In the Journal of the Ciethinal: Society jet 
err 


Mintz (Compt. rend., lxxxiv, 301). These experimenters ha 
sought to establish two points firs t, that rapes vapors prevent 
nitrification; secondly, that ibisificasion may be induced by seed- 


ing in many cases sufficient t oad oy all the germ nie chitiek in 
an organic hey while tina solution kept in darkness developed 
bacteria fr earing of this observation on the fact that 
The pase ‘retards or even prevents nitrification is obvious. 
e oor of light on nitrification was not apparently quite 
known ; it is twice hinted at in Gmelin’s Chemistry es ‘endish 
Translation, > 68, vii, =} but it is not mentioned to oT 
ubjec 


t. Reczunination re some of Haloid laioniec of An * 
Cooks, Jr. (Proceedings of the Amert- 
eda oF. of Aria and Blcies vol. xiii. Boston, 1877).— 


paper co: 
Ieal and ci yveadinurrahiegs relbtiuaih of the iodide of antimony in 
particular, but also of the chloride, bromide, and the oxichlorides, 
oxibromides, and oxi-iodides. The chloride and the bromide of | 


Chemistry and Physics. 311 


antimony were both obtained by several different methods, in dis- 
tinct crystals. These were extremely deliquescent, but, notwith- 


) 
tained in three crystalline conditions—hexagonal, orthorhombic 
and monoclinic. The hexagonal crystals have a deep ruby-re 

color; their specific gravity is 4-848, and the melting point is 167°. 
The orthorhombic crystals have a greenish-yellow color; they are 
formed when the iodide is volatilized at a low temperature—be- 
low 114°, and when subjected to a higher temperature they 

on 


ling the orthorhombic crystals of foliated minerals frequently imi- 


tions parallel to each they would form crystals having a rhombic 
d g : 


312 Screntific Intelligence. 


the following manner :—A solution _ the iodide in carbon disul- 
phide, after jt has been exposed for some hours to the action of 
the sunlight, undergoes partial ss a ag some iodine being set 
free, this ‘solution i is then distilled over a water bath, and the pro- 


ate of 4°768. That ee are true isomers of the other forms 


it the monoclinic iodide in pure carbon disulphide the hex- 
onal iodide is obtained, as —— a small quantity of minute rhom- 
bic plates, whose.ang] e 60° and 120° om these facts it 


he suggestion is made that possibly the supposed orthorhom- 

bic — may prove upon more exact determination on better 
material, to be really monoclinic, so that the difference between 
the two Yellow varieties that have been = would exist ee | 
in habit. This would not, however, affect the general result 
reached as to the sorte of their form to the Pea ae kind and 
the reason for its existen 

The “ molecular snieling® which has been ‘explained is quite dis- 
tinct from the “interlaminar macling,” described by the orale in 
his paper upon the Vermiculites, and alluded to above. The la 
involves no essential change in "substance ; the former teeter se a 


15. The Telephone, an Instrument of Mbcthetont —The “applica- 
tions to which the te beat aye may in future be put cannot yet 
all foreseen ay had its value shown to me ina 
remarkable ae hi 1 tir a Rieribo-cloctrie: intermittent current 
by drawing a — end of copper wire alon ng a rasp completing the 
cirenit. A tel ephone was ae into the circuit, in another room, 
and every time that the wire was drawn along the rasp a hoarse 
eae Sine: was heard in the telephone. 2. I used a thermopile 
n burner shining on it from a distance of six feet. 
The curr ent was rendered intermittent by the file, and the sound 
was most distinctly heard. A Thomson’s reflecting galvanometer 
was introduced into the circuit which showed that the currents. 


Geology and Mineralogy. 813 


still the effects were faintly audible. Here the galvanometer, 
which was still in circuit, hardly gave any indication. 


In these experiments only one telephone is used, viz: at the 
i ith a powerful current 


and short dashes of the Morse alphabet. 
_ I ought to mention that I believe the 


as Prof. Tait. 
Grorce Forses, Andersonian College, Glasgow, February 13. 


—From Nature of Feb. 28. 
Il GroLtogy AND MINERALOGY. 


l. Origin of the Driftless Region of the Northwest; by 
np D. Irvinc.—In a notice of vol. ii of the Geology of 
the explanation 


I have offered for the existence of the riftless region of Wiscon- 


Report for 1876. I am informed, also, that 
ritten for a Chicago journal 
Page which’ I have not myself seen —has said that my explana- 
on i i in- 


worth, they are wholly my own. Possibly they are wo 
more because analogous to those reached independently by some 


314 Scientific Intelligence. 


one else. The matter has long excited my attention, the entire 
inadequacy of the older views having forced itself upon me when 


first engaged in field-work in Wisconsin. 
However, though cheerfully acknowledging the priority of 
IPs vi 


the Green Bay Valley and Lake Superior. The crystalline rock 
region is no such lofty one as he appears to suppose, is mnie 


; but, because of ; 
size and force, and of their westerly direction, they left the region 
farther south untouched. ‘ 

_ Professor Winchell’s view was reached by noticing the relation 
in position of the driftless region and the area of crystalline 


Wisconsin. At the time that I wrote, the proofs of a’similar state 
of affairs for the Lake Superior country were nearly as good, and 
be seen when the reports on that country 
come to be published. 
University of Wisconsin, February 18, 1878. 
2. Second Geological Survey of Pennsylvania. : 
(1) Report of Progress in the Fayette and Westmoreland district 
of the Bituminous Coal Fields of We nsylvania ; by 


: Western Pen 
J.J. Srevensoy. Part 1, Eastern Allegheny County and Fayette 


Geology and Mineralogy. 315 


and Westmoreland oo west from Chestnut Ridge. 438 pp. 
8vo, with maps and se —Professor Stevenson’s Report gives 
first an account of he "phytical features and general geology of 
the district, and then describes with detail the stratification of the 


bed. The coals and iron ores are described, and many analyses 
are ie = spe latter. 
(2.) Report of Pr ogress in the Cambria and Somerset District 
sale the Fituntaoud Coal Fields of Western Pennsylvania ; by . 
ews :G, Pra Part II, Somerset. 
vate , Pa.—The region he scribed lies to the southeast of 


1858 to occur i the bottom “of the Barren oe and at the top 
of the Lower Productive Coal series, has no > and opt it 
should fer fpr from that report wherever it occurs, an 
from Lesley’s “ Manual of Coal.” The Report is ‘lustrated by 
numerous wood-cuts, and six maps and sections. 

(3.) wy Well trot dens and Levels ; by Joun F. a 348 
Pp. 8vo. Harrisburg, Pa.—This Report is a very Vv. e sys- 
temnatiied statement of facts connected with the oil Broan of 
Western Pennsylvania. It contains the geological and geograph- 
ical positions and depths of all the oil openings, and sections of 
the rocks in each case as far as oe By were obtainable. _ The work 


316 Scientific Intelligence. 


they contain, it takes up in succession the life of the periods in 
geological history, commencing with the oldest. Its many illus- 
trations are not as well engraved as they should be. The author 
is a zoologist as well as geologist, and the student will find his 
work a very valuable help toward obtaining a comprehensive 
knowledge - the progress of life on the globe 
Reports of the United States Exploration ‘of the 40th parallel, 
Fog ai Kine, Geologist in charge. Submitted to the Chief of 
Engineers and published by order of the Secretary of War, under 
authority of Congress. ‘Two volumes of these Reports, on the re- 
gion in the vicinity of the 40th parallel cae the Sierra Nevada 
and the Front Range of the Rocky Mountains, have recently been 
issued. They add greatly to our knowledge of Rocky Mountain 
geology, and are hastening on the time when we shall ae com- 
sata map of the great territories. These two volumes are num- 
red volumes ii and iv. Volume iii, by Mr, King, is one in the 
press, and will soon be ready for delivery. 

Volume ii, contains the “ Descriptive Geology” by ARNOLD 
Haguz and §. F, Em MONS; it is an octavo volume of 890 pages 
and is lasted ay twenty-six plates. A Soars of it-is deferred 
to another number of this 

olume iv, ck sore rs 670 pages, consists of three reports 
or parts: I, "Paleontology, by Fick mae K, illustrated by seven- 
teen plates; II, Paleontology, by Jam : Has and R. P. Wurt- 
FIELD, illustrated by seven plates, and ll, Ornithology by RopeRrt 
Ripeway. The Report of the late Mr. Meek contains fossils 


the Tavis District, Nevada; and the west side of Degouly 
Mountain, White Pine District, Nevada. They include Brachio- 
pods, of aes gonere spisopines Lingulepis, Kutorgina and a 


= 
3 
7 
$5 
113 
is 
a 
z 
3 
= 
+ 
w 


belong to the upper portion of the Lower Silurian, the Devonian, 
Carboniferous, Triassic and Jurassic formations. 


regions ‘and their faunas i is presented, and lists of the species of 

each, which we propose to notice in a future number 
5. Report on the Clay Deposits of Woodbridg e, South Am- 
boy, and other places in New Jersey, together swith their uses for 
brick, po ne etc., by Grorar H. Cook, State Geologist of 
New Jersey. 2 pp. 8 8vo. phen N. J., 1878.—This valua- 
ble volume, on a Jersey deposits, is published by 5 

as a part of the results of yo Geological Survey. It give 


ed 


Geology and Mineralogy. 8317 


se 

southwest to Trenton, on the Delaware. The second is a large 
colored map, giving special details with regard to the northeast- 
e ing 


contains a colored chart, showing the condition of Europe in the 
fi d se cial 

range. The chart is interesting as exhibiting the supposed condi- 
tion of Europe, according to one believing in the iceberg theory of 


the drift. 
7. Cordaites with flowers from the Coal region of Pennsylvania, 
i f 


arlin 
and leaves attached to the stems of Cordaites. “Sternberg in 


R » . . . 
to publish last fall his splendid monograph of the Cordattes in his 
i a, Mr. Mansfield has now obtained a splendid 


some y illustrating the relation of this 
remarkable group.”—Amer. Phil. Soe., Feb. 1, 1878. 


above the sea, and 4000 feet above the town of Huallanea. 
region was reached after an arduous journey across the Andes 


318 Scientific Intelligence. 


from the port of Casma; in the course of it, it was necessary to 
cross several parallel ranges, one of them 16,800 feet in altitude, 


9. On the new Mineral Homilite—In December, 1876, M. 
Paijkull published an account of a new mineral, associated with 


1 
are totally isotropic. M. Damour has analyzed the m eral an 
his analysis (2) is here quoted together with that of M. Paijkull (1). 
SiO. BO; Al,0O,; Fe.0; FeO MnO Ce.0,* MgO CaO Na.O K,0 H,O 
(1) 31-87 pate 150: 2°15 © 16°26) -- 0°62 27-28 1-09 0°41 0°85 =100° 
(2) 33°00 [15-21 18°18 0-74 2°56 27°00 1°01 -. 2°30 =100° 
* With La,0s;, Di.O0;. 


The h : t 
From the fact that the analyses do not afford any simply atomic 
~ fr e . » 


1. Flora of Tropical Africa ; by Danret Outver. Vol. Il. 
Tinhelbifors es pr sand edie s a 

work Professor Oliver has secured an efficient collaborator in Mr. 
Hiern, who has not only taken the Ebenacee, of which he has 
formerly published a classical monograph, but also the Umbel- 


DERE eS a Te ee ae 


rts ail 


Botany and Zoology. 319 


lifere, Rubiacee and Dipsacee, and has borne a part in the elabo- 
ration of the Composite, 
more genera than would be expected, namely 117, and 17 are 


Gertn., replaces Webera of Schreber, being three years older ; 
also Chomelia Linn., is said to be the correct name, but Chomeliu 
of Jacquin is kept up. Canthivm Lam., is restored in good time 
for that important genus, much to the relief of the nomenclature, 
and the original Plectronia of Linneus is said to be Olinia! 


The Liberian coffee, the seed of Coffea Liberica, “is said to be 


> 
Psychotria, with 61 species, is made to include Chasalia, and to 


one, and another plant named Richardia, in honor of L. C. 
Richard, and the present state of things having been acquiesced 
im for more than half a century, this certainly is a case to whic 

z d 


posits of the Sierra Nevada; by Leo Lesquerevx. i 
10 plates, 4to. 1878. (Vol. vi, No. 2 of the Memoirs of the 
Museum of Comparative Zoology at Harvard College.)—A me- 


Specimens figured are impressions of is ¢ a fine- 
ained whitish clay or soapstone,” mainly from a collection 
made r, Voy, of Oakland, California, which was sec red and 
resented to the California University by the liberality of Mr. D. 
O. Mills, remains are of special interest from the 


320 Scientific Intelligence. 


may pt i : ge ch 
University will receive and forward any American collections des- 
tined for it. S 


number of years ago, he had been led to an observation on the 


none. He @ 
first soppoese the ants had all been destroyed, but in the attic he 
observed a few feasting on some dead house flies, which led him 


ai a : 
sweet cake. He accordingly distributed through the house pieces 
of bacon, which were afterw: 


rds found swarming with a astra 
a ith the same result for several days, when, in like 
manner with the cake, the ants finally ceased to visit the bacon. 


leces of cheese Were next tried, with the same results; but yin 
an undoubted thinning in the multitude of ants. When the 


ee SNE Se ee EN PET Gt 


Miscellaneous Intelligence. 821 


cheese proved no longer cpt recollecting the feast on dead 
flies in the attic, dead grasshoppers were su pplie ed from the gar- 
much for 


ced ag appear to have been thoroughly oe nor has 
the e since been —_— with them.— Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci 
Philodelphia 1877, p. 3 

8. ‘arboniferous pooiee’s tes of Illinois.—At the Baten, 4 
the Boston Society of ren History for December 5, 1877, 


S. H. Scudder showe rawings of interesting Argoeietes 
from the pad sae ‘eke of Illinois. The first represented a 
Species of white ani, showing a wing without reticulation; the 


second, the terminal scinneiis of a eriiacent belonging to a genus 
allied to Dithyrocaris, but which he had at first taken for some 
extraordinary form of insect. 

A Manual of the Anatomy of Invertebrated Animals, by 
Tuomas H. Huxtey , F.R.S. 596 pp. 8vo. (New York: Apple- 
ton & Co.)—The best and latest students’ manual of the inverte- 
brates in the English language. 

0. Nomenclature in Zoology and AR by W. H. Dat, U. 
5. Coast Survey.—Mr. Dall, as chairman of the committee of the 
American Association on Zoological Nomendlaturs has been doing 


€ > 
principles of cislogioa! and botanical nomenclature into one sym- 
metrical system. Mr. Dall’s statement of this og is a great 


twenty-four days, but gra adually regained its usual powers an 


- habits of flight, and its ability to feed itself and drink. Only one 


such case is on record. He argued for the propriety an 
hess of such operations from the acknowledged gee ey waieteabie 
ties of the science—Proc. Amer. Phil. Soc., Feb. 1, 18 


V. MisceELLANEOUS SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE. 


Hist 
Dawson, LL.D., F.R.S. the Canadian epheat te yol. ¥ 
first. series will be found firs on the earthquake of October 17, 


322 Miscellaneous Intelligence. 


1860, with a summary of facts relating to the previous shocks 
recorded in Canada, a 

local peculiarities and probable causes. subject was con- 
tinued in vol. i, of the new series, in connection with the earth- 


a 

wide-spread disturbances of the earth’s crust in the present 
autumn, 

On January 4, 1871, a shock was experienced at Hawkesbury, 
Ontario, but was not reported from any other place. A more 


ve been noticed from time to time, but did not attract much 
attention, and I have preserved no details in relation to them. 
at of the present month was probably the most considerable 
since 1871. It occurred at Montreal, at ten minutes before two on 
the morning of Sunday, November 4. At Montreal there was 
only one distinct shock, preceded by the usual rumbling noise, 
and sufficiently severe to be distinctly felt, and to shake window- 


> 
southern side, about 300 miles on the eastern side, and 175 on the 
western.” So far as can be learned from the reports, the shock 
seems to have been most severely felt on the north side of the valley 
of the St. Lawrence and abo i i 


nd some general remarks on their periods, - 
b The j 


Miscelianeous Intelligence. 323 


If we add to the table of earthquakes in Eastern America, 
given in vol. v of the Naturalist, the more recent earthquakes 
observed in Canada, the proportion for the several months will 


stand as follows :— 


Ma u 
8; November, 15; December, 8. Total, 78. 

Thus of seventy-eight recorded Canadian and New England 
earthquakes, fifteen, or nearly one-fifth, occurred in November; 
forty, or more than half of the total number, in the third of the 
rel extending from October to January inclusive. The pub- 
ished catalogues show that similar ratios have been observed 
elsewhere, at least in the Northern hemisphere. 

nh some earthquakes a low state of the barometer has been 
observed, as if a diminution of atmospheric pressure was con- 


rust causing vibration. In the present case no very decided 
suc 


high for the season, and this rapid fluctuation was accompanied 
with much atmospheric disturbance in the region of the lakes and 
the St. Lawrence Valley. e weather map issued by the War 


Dep 
shows a low barometer in the Gulf of St. Lawrence and a high 
barometer in the Middle States—the area of the earthquake being 
about half way between the extremes. 

n sre nit f with previous earthquakes it has been observed 
that the greatest intensity of the shocks appeared near the june- 
tion of the Laurentian with the Silurian formations. This would 


Wave propagated through the S : , 
sipabinik ee aetiakltn and eastern sides of the Laurentian region, 


324 Miscellaneous Intelligence. 


or a shock Sa ase under the Laurentian of these regions had 
extended itself from them into the Silurian rocks to the south and 
east. If the ptovaiting'i impression stated in the eet that the 
vib a passed from W. to E. or N.W. to S.E,, is — the 
latter would be the more probable supposition. Tt i is, however, 
very difficult to attain to any certainty as to the actual direction 
of the disturbance, and some observers give it as precisely the 
opposite of that above stat 

On the 14th of Moeahens a slight shock was felt at Cornwall, 
Ontario, and on the 15th of November earthquake shocks oc curred 
over a wide area in Kansas, Iowa, Dakota and Nebraska. 


OBITUARY, 


CHARLES ce ee Harrr.—Professor Hartt, according to a 
telegram from Rio Pak died of yellow fever soon after the 


ee 

i o Sxccui, the Astronomer and Director of the Observa- 
tory at the Collegio gf at_ Rome, Italy, died on the 26th of 
February last. Father Secchi, in the years 1848 and 1849, was 
connected with the Observatory of Georgetown none. near 
Washington. In 1850 he returned to Eur ope and entered on hi 
labors at Rome. His papers on astronomical and physical subjects 
are very numerous and of great value. 


ig eases 


ieee aires Stine a RR 


AMERICAN 


JOURNAL OF SCIENCE AND ARTS. 


[THIRD SERIES.] 


* 


Art. XLVII.—Research on the Absolute Unit of Electrical Resist- 
ance; by Henry A. RowLAND, Professor of Physics in the 
Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, Md. 

[Continued from page 291.] 
Theory of the Method. 

WHEN a current is induced in a circuit by magnetic action 
of any kind, Faraday has shown that the induced current is 
proportional to the number of lines of force cut by the circuit 
and inversely as the resistance of the circuit. If we have two 
Circuits near each other, the first of which carries a current, 
and the second is then removed to an infinite distance, there will 
be a current in it proportional to the number of lines of force 
cut. Let now a unit current be sent through the second cir- 
cuit and one of strength E through the first; then, on removing 
the second circuit, work will be performed which we easily see 
is also proportional to the number of lines of force cut. Hence, 
if EM is the work done, Q is the induced current, and R is the 
resistance of the second circuit, 

g=cr™ 


where C is a constant whose value is unity on the absolute 
System. 

When the current in the first circuit is broken, the lines of 
force contract on themselves, and the induced current is the 
same as if the second circuit had been removed to an infinite 
distance. If the current is reversed the induced current is 
twice as great; hence in this case 


E M E 

=—2E— or R=2M—. 

pees Q 

Am. Jour. Sc1.—Turp Serres, VoL. XV, No. 89.—Mar, 1878, 
22 


326 H. A. Rowland—Absolute Unit of Electrical Resistance. 


Hence, to measure the absolute resistance of a circuit on this 
method, we must calculate M and measure the ratio of Q to E. 
M is known as the mutual potential of the two circuits with 
unit currents, and mathematical methods are known for its 
calculation. 

The simplest and best form in which the wire can be wound 
for the calculation of M is in parallel circular coils of equal 
size and of as small sectional area as possible. For measuring 
E a tangent galvanometer is needed, and we shall then have 

B= tan 6, 
where H is the horizontal intensity of the earth’s magnetism at 
the place of the tangent galvanometer, and G@ the constant of 
the galvanometer. 
or measuring Q we must use the ballistic method, and we 
ve 


A cid 
Biot Ei ge tT! Ig. avaer 
hse aad EES 2 sin $0 
Qa = che ‘2 sin $0, 


which for very small values of A becomes 
be ee 


Ne eg GO antand 1 

Te G Tsin$@1+4A—4A2’ 
where H’ is the horizontal component of the earth’s magnetism 
at the place of the small galvanometer, G’ its constant, T 
the time of vibration of the needle, and A the logarithmic 
decrement. ' 

The ratio of H’ to H can be determined by allowing a needle 
to vibrate in the two positions. But this introduces error, and 
by the following method we can eliminate both this and the 
distance of the mirror from the scale by which we find 6 and 


eter, before and after each experiment. Let a and a’ be the 
deflections of the tangent galvanometer and the other galva- 
be 


— tan a= ae tana’, 
and we have finally 
\>7 G tana’ tané 
R=Mz 
TG’ tana sing# 1445-42? 


Hf, A. Rowland—Absolute Unit of Electrical Resistance, 327 


which does not contain H or H’, and the distance of the mirror 
from the scale does not enter except as a correction in the ratio 
of sin $6’ and tan a’; and, as a and 6 can be made nearly 
equal, the correction of the tangent galvanometer for the 
length of needle is almost eliminated. When the method of 
1 


recoil is used, we must substitute 1+4 A\° for the term in- 
7 


volving A, and sin $A’+sin $B’ in the place of sin 46, A’ and 
B’ being the greater and smaller arcs in that method. This is 
on the supposition that A is small. 

The ratio of G’” to G must be so large, say 12,000, that it is 
difficult to determine it by direct experiment, but it is found 
readily by measurement or indirect comparison. — 

It is seen that in this equation the quantities only enter as 
the first powers, and that the only constants to be determined 
which enter the equation are M, G and @”, which all vary in 
simple proportion to the linear measurement. It is to 
noted also that the only quantities which require to be reduced 
to standard measure are M and T, and that the others may all 
be made on any arbitrary scale. No correction is needed for 
temperature except to M. Indeed, I believe that this method 
exceeds all others in simplicity and probable accuracy and its 
freedom from constant errors, seeing that every quantity was 
varied except G’” and G, whose ratio was determined within 
probably one in three thousand by two methods. 

Having obtained the resistance of the circuit by this method, 
we have next to measure it in ohms. For this purpose the 
resistance of the circuit was always adjusted until 1t was equal 
to a certain German silver standard, which was afterward care- 
fully compared with the ohm. This standard was about thirty- 
five ohms. 

By this method, the following data are needed. 

1. Ratio of constants of galvanometer and circle. 

2. Ratio of the tangents of the two deflections of tangent 
galvanometer. : 

8. Ratio of the deflection to the swing of the other gal- 
vanometer, : 

4. Mutual potential of induction coils on each other. 

5. Time of vibration of the n 

6. Resistance of standard in ohms. 

For correction we need the following: 

1. The logarithmi 


4. Rate of chronometer. 
5. Correction to reduce to standard meter. . 


828 H. A. Rowland—Absolute Unit of Electrical Resistance. 


6. aN of the resistance of German silver with the 
emaperse 
7.» Perhporabare of standard resistance. 
Arc of swing when the time of vibration is determined. 
9. Length of needle in ee and other galvanometer 
ary! compensated by the me 
Onin variation of saaietsada of circuit during the experi- 


Be 

The i i errors are compensated by the method of 
experim 

1. The Teal and daily variation of the earth’s magnetism. 

2. The variation of the magnetism of the nee 

3. The magnetic and inductive action of the parts of the 
apparatus on each other 

4. The rea for length of needle in the tangent gal- 
vanometer (nearly). 

The axial displacement of the wires in the coils for 

induction 

6. The error due to not having the coils of the galvanom- 
eter and the. circle parallel to the needle. 

7. Scale error (partly). 

8. The zero error ot pe 


Caleulation of Constants. 

Circle.—For obtaining the ratio of G to G”, it is best to cal- 
culate them separately and then take their ratio, though it 
might be found by Maxwell’s method (“Electricity,” Article 
753). But as the ratio is great, the heating of the resistances 
would produce error in this latter method. 

For the simple cir 


4 
I EE (13(5) + &e.) 
(A? 4+B2)2 A 
where A is its radius aan ~ the distance of the plane of the 
circle to the needle on its 


Galvanometer for Jue 7. the more sensitive 


its sensitiveness. If we make the galyanometer of two cir- 
cular coils of rectangular section whose depth is to its width as 
to 100, and whose centers of sections are at a radius apart 
from each other, we shall have Maxwell’s modification of 
Helmholtz’s arrangement. The oon He can then be found 
by calculation or comparison with another coi 
axwell’s formule are only adapted to coils ‘of small section. 
Hence we must investigate a new formula.* 
* A formula involving the first two We 
peci ame ot ead the cente: wo tems of my sores, but ep erie siete tion, 18 
— Elektrodynamische Maasbestimmungen inbesondere 


H. A, Rowland—Absolute Unit of Electrical Resistance. 829 


Let N be the total number of windings in the galvanometer. 
Let R and r be the outer and inner radii of the coils. 
Let X and = be the distances of tl:e planes of the edges of the 

coils from the center. 

t a be the angle subtended by the radius of any winding at 

the center. 
Let 5 be the length of the radius vector drawn from the center 

to the point where we measure the force. 
Let 6 be the angle between this line and the axis. 
Let ¢ be the distance from the center to any winding. 
Let w be the potential of the coil at the given point. 

Then (Maxwell's “ Electricity,” Art. 695), for one winding, 
te=—2n{1—c08 a-+-sinta( 20, (a) Q,(0)-+3(5) 2(a)Q()4+-&e.) | 

t 
and for two coils symmetrically placed on each side of the 
origin, 
‘ 1/b\" 5 1/d\*, 

w=47 cos a—sin’a() 3) Q, (2)0+4(3) Q, (2) Q(0)-+&e.) 
where Q, (9), , &c., denote zonal spherical harmonics, and 
Q,’(@), Ss a oO denote the differential coefficients of spheri- 
cal harmonics with respect to cos a. ; 

As the needle never makes a large angle with the plane of 
the coils, it will be sufficient to compute only the axial com- 

nent of the force, which we shall call F. Let us make the 

rst computation without substitution of the limits of integra- 
tion, and then afterward substitute these: 


Fates sa MI ae 


N 
F=3R—opy (X—=) Jt war, 


and we ean write 


oe 22N 2 6 H lik & ° 
F=——yx=a | H,+H,27Q,(4)+H,0Q.+ & 
where H,==2 loge (r+a/z?+r") 

He 13:5. (2é—1) sin? 1 ee ee na ltisen € &e. | 


2 SPIN aA eae ge 2i—1  2—3 
A st 
2i-4 i(¢-1)(i—2 
B=A oe ( )(¢—2) 


‘M—1 = (241) 2 
2i—6 , i(i—1)(i—2) .. (@—-4) 
C=B ast (2i—1)(2¢—3)2.4 


pac 428 i= 8) 
=“ 37—5  (2i—i) (2i—3) (27-5) 2.4.6 
E= &e., &. 


330 H. A. Rowland—Absolute Unit of Electrical Resistance. 


Substituting the limits for z, 7 and a, we find 
R+V7X?2+R?2 
r+V7X2472 one r+ a2 + 7? 


H,=xX log, 


R? r 1 R* - 
=—1} Me a cake | 
1 Rs 


H,=— =a z (20X*+4-7X?R?+ 2R*) — 
X!(X'-R)}? 
— (20X'4 7X4 ant) —_B’_ (n+ 1a? R*+ 2B") 
X*(X? +r’)? : se* (a? +R?) 


r 

4 yd or 
The needle consisted of two parallel lamina of steel of length, 
l, and a distance, W, from each other. As the correction for 
length is small, we may assume that the magnetism of each 
lamina is concentrated in two points at a distance n / from each 


other, where n is a quantity to be determined. 


ence 


where cos # Ta tana wat seeing that the needle hangs par- 
nt)” A 


allel to the coils. In short thick magnets, the polar distance 
is about 3 J and the value of n will be about 4 For all other 
magnets it will be between this and unity. In the present case 
n= nearly. ‘ 

As all the terms after the first are very minute, this approx!- 
mation is sufficient, and will at least give us an idea of the 
amount of this source of error. 

Induction Coils. 

The induction coils were in the shape of two parallel coils of 
nearly equal size and of nearly square section. 

Let A and a be the mean radii of the coils. Let 5 be the 
Was distance apart of the coils. 

t 


2n/ Aa 
young 
V(A+a)?403° 
Supposing the coils concentrated at their center of section we 
know that 


M,=42V Ka} (S—e) F(e)—2K(6) } 
where F(c) and E(c) are elliptic integrals. 


Seem eae CE is ed) de 


H. A. Rowland—Absolute Unit of Electrical Resistance, 331 


Ift¢ and 7 are the depth and width of each coil, the total 
value of M will be, when A=a nearly, 
1 | d?M d?M 
M=Moti | Gantt geet f ete 


and we find 
d? 


a ri 4 E(c) 4b7c* pm ie 
dat =~ 34 aati OA Ro" hp s ) 
F(c) (c+ 


@M, _—- xe : 
db? ~ A(1—c’) 


6? c? ; 
F(o)(2U—-e8)— gare ))— 
1—c?-c4 
B(o)(2—e8 eto mety t 
Corrections. 
Calling # and 6 the scale deflections corresponding to tan a’ 
and sin 40’, we may write our equation for the value of the 
resistance 
p) +4(5) 
1-(£) "445 
; K tand 6 (5 D 
=Ttan a 6 d\? G\:U+A+ ete.) 
1—35(5) +'22(5 
where R’ is the resistance of the circuit at a given temperature 
17-0° C., and K=20ME 14 a+b-+ete.) i ahah hy BD, ole. 
and a, b, ete. are the variable and constant corrections respec- 
tively. 
a. Correction for damping, 
a=—sA+4,A°. 


R 


b. Torsion of fiber. ne 
The needle of the tangent galvanometer was sustained on a 
point and so required no correction. e co 
torsion in the other galvanometer 1s the same for # and 6 and 
hence only affects ‘T. Therefore, if ¢ is the coefficient of 


ie b= —Ht. 
ce. Rate of chronometer. : 
Let p be the number of seconds gained in a day above the 
normal time 
e=—+_. 
86400 : 
d. Reduction to normal meter. The portion of this Sai 
tion which depends on temperature must be treated under ih 
variable corrections. Let m the excess of the meter u 
above the normal meter, expressed in meters; then 
| d=+m. 


332 H. A. Rowland—Absolute Unit of Electrical Resistance. 


e. Correction of T for the are of vibration. This are was always 
the same, starting atc, and being reduced by damping to aboute,, 


—_— Tue = 
c= + iyenn Ca” —%")s 
where c, and ¢, are the total ares of oscillation. 


f. Correction for length of needles. For the tangent gal- 
vanometer, the correction is variable. For the circle it is 
q 
S= +1( : 
where 7 is half the distance between the poles of the needle and 
A radius of circle. For the other galyanometer it 1s 
included in the formula for G. 
uction to normal meter. As the dimension of R is a 


velocity and the induction coils were wound on brass, the cor- 
rection is 


=-+-y('—?’) 

where y is the coefficient of expansion of brass or copper, ¢ 
the actual and ¢” the normal temperature. 

orrection of standard resistance for temperature. Let 
M be the variation of the resistance for 1° C., ¢’” be the actual 
and ¢v the normal temperature 17°°0 C.; then 

B>=— p(t" —#"), 

C. Correction for length of needle in tangent galvanometer, 


x 15. ' e\ ! 
Vas += sin (a+ a)(r) (a’—a) 
where 7’ is half the distance between the poles of the needle 


No. 3. By the introduction of commutators at various points 
all ge isturbance of instruments could be compensated. 
io. a . . 


No. 6. The circle was always adjusted parallel to the coils of 
the galvanometer. Should ‘hes not be parallel to the needle, 
G and G” will be altered in exactly the same ratios and will thus 
not affect the result. The same may be said of the deflection 
of the magnet from the magnetic meridian due to torsion. 


H. A. Rowland—Absolute Unit of Hlectrical Resistance. 333 


No. 7. 8 and é both ranged over the same portion of the 
scale and so scale error is partly compensated. 

o. 8. The zero-point of all galvanometers was eliminated 
by equal deflections on opposite sides of the zero-point. 
Instruments, 

Wire and coils.—The wire used in all instruments was quite 
small silk-covered copper wire, and was always ound 
accurately turned* brass grooves in which a single layer of 
Wire just fitted. The separate layers always had the same 
number of windings, and the wire was wound so carefully that 
the coils preserved their proper shape throughout. r 
was used between the layers. As the wire was small, very 
little distortion was produced at the point where one layer had 
to rise over the tops of the wires below. Corrections were 
made for the thickness of the steel tape used to measure the 
circumference of each layer; also for the sinking of each layer 
into the spaces between the wires below, seeing that the tape 
measures the circumference of the tops of the wires. The steel 


The advantages of small wire over large are many ; we know 
exactly where the current ; it adapts itself readily to the 


cm. long and its position was read on a circle 20° cm. diam- 
eter, graduated to 15’. The graduated circle was raised so 
that the aluminium pointer was on a level with it, thus avoid- 
ing parallax. The needle and pe only weighed a gram 
or two, and rested on a point at the center which was so nicely 
made that it would make several oscillations within 1° and 


ometer, which was made to order in ; 
before 1 , and much time was lost before finding out the source of the difficulty. 


334 H. A. Rowland—Absolute Unit of Electrical Resistance. 


ment of weak currents. It was entirely of brass, except the 
wooden base, and was large and heavy, weighing twenty or 
twenty-five pounds. It could be used with a mirror and scale 
or as a sine galvanometer. It will be necessary to describe 
here only those portions which affect the accuracy of the 
present experimen 

The coils were of the form described above in the theoretical 
porien, and were wound on a brass cylinder about 82 cm 
ong and 11-6 cm. diameter in two deep grooves about 3° em. 
deep and 25 cm. wide. The opening in the center for the 


ale. 

The coils contained about five pounds of No. 22 silk-covered 

copper wire in 1790: turns. 
wo needles were used in this galvanometer, each con- 
structed so that its magnetic axis should be invariable; this 
was accomplished by affixing two thin laminw of glass-hard 
steel, to the two sides of a square piece of wood, with their 
planes vertical. This made a sort of compound magnet very 
strong for its length, and with a constant magnetic axis. The 
first needle had a near] rectangular mirror 2°4 by 1°8 cm. on 
the sides and -22 em. thick. The other needle had a circular 
mirror 2-05 cm. diameter and about 1 mm. thick. The nee- 
dle of the first was 1-27 em. and of the second 1-20 cm. long, 
and the pieces of wood were about -45 cm. and °6 cm. uare 


length of 49 cm. and 42 em. respectively.- The total weights 
were 5-1 and 5-6 grams and the times of vibration about 7° 


sp ipeimenneninaaeaaiinee hed Toa teen meee 


H. A. Rowland— Absolute Unit of Electrical Resistance. 3385 


and 11:5 seconds. They were suspended by three single fibers 
of silk about 48 em. long. 

In front of the needle was a piece of plane-parallel glass. 
This and the mirrors were made by Steinheil of Munich, and 
were most perfect in every way. 

In the winding of the coils every care was taken, seeing that 
a small error in so small a coil would produce great relative 
error. And for this reason the constant was also found by com- 
parison with another coil. The following were the dimensions: 

Mean radius 4°3212 c. m. 
212 r= 30212 

X=3°475565 w= “935565 

R-r=2°6000 X—wr=2°54000 
N=1790° 


whence 
F=1832-25—1-70 52Q, (0) —4°50 b4Q, (A)+ 90 5°Q, (0) — &e. 
Taking the mean dimensions of the two needles, we have 
1=1°23, w='52, n=}, cosi’=748. 
Q,(4)=+'339, Q,()=—354, Q,(W)=— 275. 
.. G@=1832°25—"083-+- 071 — 002 + &c.=1832°24. 

The coil with which this galvanometer was compared was 
the large coil of an elec ynamometer similar to that de- 
scribed in Maxwell’s “ Electricity,” Art. 725, but smaller. The 
coil was on Helmholtz’s principle with a diameter of 27° cm., 
and was very accurately wound on the brass cylinder. There 
was a total of 240 windings in the coil. The constant of this 
coil was 78-371 by calculation. 

T’o eliminate the difference of intensity of the earth’s mag- 
netism, an observation was first made and then the positions of 
the instruments were changed so that each occupied exactly 
the position of the other: the square root of the product of the 


coils together and the other with them separate. The results 
were for the ratio of the constants 
23'3931 and 23°4008, 
which give 
G=1833°37 and 1833°98. 
The mean result is 
1833-67 - °09, 
and this includes seven determinations with two reversals of 
instruments. This result is one part in thirteen hundred 
greater than found by direct calculation, which 
accounted for by the small size of the galvanometer ¢ 


is to be 
oils and 


336 H. A. Rowland—Absolute Unit of Electrical Resistance. 


the consequent difficulty of their accurate measurement. A 
comparison with the electro-dynamometer has such a small 
probable error, and as it is a much larger coil, it seems best to 
give this number twice the weight of that found by calcula- 
tion: we thus obtain 
G = 1833-19 

as the final result. 

It does not seem probable that this can be in error more than 
one part in two or three thousand. 

lescope, scale, &c.—The telescope, mirrors and plane-par- 


nations was the mean distance. In using the coils they were 
always used in all four positions. The probable error of each 
set of twelve readings was +001 mm. The data are as fol- 
lows, naming the coils A, B and C: 
Mean radius of A=13°710, of B=13°690, of C=13°720. 
Mean distance apart of A and B=6°534, of A and C=9°574, of 
B and C=11°471. 
N=154 for each coil, E=-90, n=-84. 
For A and B we have 
M=3774860°+ 3, (74250°—665 10°)=3775500° 
The remaining terms of the series are practically zero, as was 
found by dividing one of the coils into parts and calculating 
the parts separately and adding them. 
or A and C 
M=25614 10°-+-1,(34000- —27230°)=2561974° 
For B and C 
M=2050600-+-1,(27500°— 19800°)—=2051320° 
The calculation of the elliptic integrals was made by aid of the 
tables of the Jacobi function, g, given in Bertrand’s “Traité de 
Calcul Integrale” as well as by the expansions in terms of the 
modulus after transforming them by the Landen substitution. 
[To be continued.] 


: 
: 


J. W. Mallet on Meteoric Iron from Virginia. 337 


Art. XLVIII.—On a fourth mass of Meteorie Iron from Augusta 
County, Virginia; by J. W. MALLET. 


In 1871 I described * three masses of meteoric iron found 
a few miles from Staunton in this State; still another has 
lately been brought to light under the following circumstances. 
About the year 1858 or 1859 a negro man, named Alf, belong- 


it, but no one considered it curious or valuable enough to pay 
the price asked, a dollar. This man is dead, and it cannot now 
be ascertained where he found the specimen, but probably on 

r. Van Lear’s land, and undoubtedly in his immediate neigh- 
borhood. Failing to sell the mass, Alf threw it away in a 
vacant plot of ground behind a blacksmith’s shop. Here it 
lay for several years, until it was used, with some other loose 
material, to build a stone fence. On account of its irregular 
shape and great weight it soon fell out of the fence, and was 
then thrown aside in the rear of a dentist’s house. He used it 
for some time as an anvil on which to hammer metals and 


orite before it was sent to Rochester, and have furnished me 


weight was 152 pounds, or 68.950 grams. The crust was not 
as thick as that upon the masses from the same locality previ- 
ously examined, and at a number of points the metallic luster 


* This Journal, III, ii, 10. : : 
*The above account of the history of the meteorite was furnished by Mr. 
Miller. 


338 J. W. Mallet on Meteoric Iron from Virginia. 


i . t i 
n Lil hii rho ct Litt | 


sti bits 
ig 20 30 40 50,.C.m. 


n analysis made by Mr. J. R. Santos of Guayaquil, Ecua- 
dor, now working in this laboratory, gave the following results. 


he a 91:490 Sulphur ........-43 -n-+ 018 
Nickel ...:........... .7:659 Ohlorine nit ee 
RNG ict. a ED ORIDOR 0 on 5 pnd an 20 } 

Copper...-....-.----- ‘021 Silicon (counted as silica) 108 
a ee os ee a so trace 

Pnosonoras 6005'S. 06 99°963 


The chlorine occurs as ferrous chloride, soluble in water. 
87°5 grams of iron was used for the analysis, so as to render 
ar’ 


tial examination of another specimen, however, showed that, 


n such masses, 
and probably of the nickel in the alloy, is not altogether unt- 
form. The average amount of nickel is somewhat less than in 


University of Virginia, March 6, 1878. 


W. J. McGee—Drift Formations in Northeastern Iowa. 389 


Arr. XLIX.—On the Relative Positions of the Forest Bed and 
associated Drift Formations in Northeastern Iowa; by W. J. 
McGEE. ti 


and within ‘it are ada remains of the mammoth, the masto- 
don, of Castoroides ohioensis, Bison lafrons, and their contem- 
poraries. In most of the localities just mentioned the Forest 
Bed is overlaid by a partially stratified deposit, regarding the 
origin and age of which there is some doubt.. e condition 
of the superficial deposits in the ribaghiborliood of the residence 
of the writer is such as to throw much light on the question o 
the true geological position of this formation. A few sections 
nded. 


are appen 
I. A well in Farley, Towa. 
Stirface ‘poll 7st a eS Se 2 feet. 
Clean ay ‘wath occasional grainte mon feck ei ck . 
Olay with bowlders, gravel and flint... -.------------ 
Thin-bedded, black, pci not als clay, with fag 
ments of wood - Sans oe owe 
: Thiek-bedded do., with "‘much-alecomposed fragments a 
ood. Undisturbed by glacier -_----..----------- ‘ 
. Hard yellow clay, sometimes with bowlders. .- Posctan i e 
D ravel and small bowlders-..----:---------- 2 
: oe fiaeed ne. 
e of the wood found in this well—probably Willow 
) though not we i determined—was so well pre- 


2 PN 


oe an 


1. Surface soil... 3 feet. 
2. pe ay with occasional ua nite “bowld Aste bea Otek 10 


; Same as in I OE ee oS ee oa acne < wae aoe np 
7, | Yellow clay with sand, gravel and small bowlders --. 4 re 


é Niagara oe 
hio Geol. Rep., 1874, pt. I, vol. ii, p. 3. 


340 W. J. McGee—Drift Formations in Northeastern Iowa. 


Pieces of the soft shaly substance from the lower part of No. 
4 were found to be slowly combustible, but contained too 
much earthy matter to burn readily. Charred wood and sticks 
burned off at one end were found in this well. 


IIL A well two miles northwest from last. 
Stratification not personally observed. At about twenty feet 
a large stump of a tree identified as Red Cedar (Juniperus vir- 
gintana) was struck in one side of the well. Below it a stra- 
tum of the older glacial Drift several feet in thickness was 
penetrated. The stump retained so much of its organic char- 
acter as to render the water unfit for use when it rose to its 
level. 
IV. A well half a mile northeast from last. 


1. Surface soil. --- - Ae Ceo es et. 4 feet. 
2. Clay witha granite bowlder weighing 500 pounds ----- fat 
8. Clay with gravel ._....- nou wid Jeli 8.1% 


3 oe 


ee ee ee ee ee ad 


V. A well two miles northeast from last. 
Stratification not observed personally. At about fifty feet 
fragments of wood, one partially burned, were found inter- 
mixed throughout a hard, blackish, laminated clay. Below 
is the usual yellow clay, with gravel, sand and small bowl- 
ders was found resting on Niagara limestone. 


VI. A well quarter of a mile southeast of last. 
1. Surface accumulation 
2. (Absent, owing to denudation). 
3. Clay with gravel, sand and bowlders..--.--- .------- 16e* 
4, pe denice shaly clay, with fragments of wood, one 
isturbe 


5.§ identified doubtfully as Sumac. Disturbed by 
glacial and alluvial action .............---------- 6 “ 
: t Yellow Clay, With Bravel, etn. : 5... i. 25.5 ------ 47 


8. Niagara limestone. 


topography beneath the Forest far as it has been 
determined, is not greatly different from that of the present 
surface. The wells given are but ples of all excavated 


orest Bed or both it and the older Drift have been remov 
or modified. The interesting fact is, that the uppermost de- 
posit is in all cases the same, and is beyond the shadow of @ 


SO ee eo ere 


W. J. McGee—Drift Formations in Northeastern Iowa. 341 


metamorphic rocks from far to the northward. ‘These, hov 
ever, are quite abundant. In some fields it has been necessary 


however. Perhaps one in a thousand shows plainly grooves 
and deep scorings; but many others are less distinctly marked. 
Still not more than one-tenth exhibit any other marks of glacial 
action than a rounded form. 

The Forest Bed is found at many other localities in Iowa, 
and within it the bones of the mastodon and beds of peat 
have been discovered.+ The writer has also seen crania of 
Bison iatifrons from the same horizon. It has generally been 
considered to be—in other places as well as in Iowa—a post- 


must be of interglacial age; and from a recent examination 
the writer is convinced that the overlying deposits in Illinois 


the slow retreat of the glacier. In Nebraska this carbonaceous 
stratum has been found resting on glacial Drift and overlaid 
WM both the Drift of the later glacier and the Loess of the 
Missouri Valley.t The similarity of the organic remains found 
in this stratum wherever exposed indicates a like age for its 
deposits over the whole territory in which it 1s found. 
* Dr. 0. A. White’s Geol. Rep. (of Iowa), 1870, vol. i, p. 87. 
en c., pp. L17, 118, 119, and 339. : 
“Superficial Deposits of Nebraska;” from Hayden's Report for 1874, p. 5. 
Farley, Iowa, March 12th, 1878. 
M, JOUR, vomnedsones Series, Vou. XV, No. 89,—May, 1878. 


B42 J.W. Powell's Survey of the Rocky Mountain Region. 


Art. L.— Geographical and Geological Survey of the Rocky 
_ Mountain Region under the direction of Professor J. W. Powell. 
_ Account of work performed during the year 1877. 


AxsouT the middle of last May, the surveying corps again 


took the field. This year the rendezvous camp was at Mount 
Pleasant, a little town in Utah about 125 miles south of Salt 
Lake City. Three parties were organized under the direction of 
Professor A. H. Thompson, one to extend the triangulation and 
two for topographic purposes, the latter being under charge of 
Mr. W. Graves and Mr. J. H. Renshawe respectively, and 
the former under the immediate direction of Professor Thomp- 
son, assisted by Mr. O. D. Wheeler. 

The area designated for the season’s work lies between 38° 
and 40° 30’ north latitude, and between 109° 30’ and 112° west 
longitude, Greenwich, and is embraced in atlas sheets 86 and 75. 

angulation.—The triangulation party left Mount Pleasant 
in June. The work of this year being a continuation of the 
expansion from the Gunnison Base Line measured in 1874, it 
was desirable to first visit some of the geodetic points established 
in previous years but the unprecedented amount of snow yet 
remaining in the high plateaus and mountains rendered this im- 


practicable, and the first part of the season was spent in establish- - 


ing stations on the T’a-va-puts Plateau west of the Green River. 
In midsummer the party was able to visit the high plateaus and 
connect the work of past years with that of this season. ter 
the triangulation was extended to the east joining the work of 
the United States Geological and Geographical Survey of the 
Territories under charge of Dr. F. V. Hayden and to the north 
to join the work of the United States Geological Exploration 
of the 40th Parallel, Clarence King, United States Geologist in 
charge. The whole area of the season’s work embraces some- 
thing more than 13,000 square miles. The instrument used was 
the theodolite hereafter described. The points sighted to on 
‘the geodetic stations were either artificial monuments or well 


defined natural points, and all stations were marked by stone 
cairns, 


: 


sininihdia di le bie di ee 


J.W. Powell's Survey of the Rocky Mountain Region, $48 


a narrow valley through which passes the only practicable 
route of travel between Central Utah and Western Colorado. 


sands and deep tortuous cafions giving to the landscape an 
appearance strange and weird. 

he Book Cliffs rise to an average altitude above their base 
of 3,000 feet, and about 8,500 feet above the sea-level, and the 
country from the southern crest inclines gently northward to 
the valleys of the White and Uinta Rivers. This gigantic ter- 
race, called the Ta-va-puts Plateau, is cut in twain from north 
to south by profound gorges through which the Green River 
runs, known as the cafion of Desolation and Gray Cafion. The 
drainage of the plateau is northward from the brink of the 
cliffs through deep narrow cafions for many miles, but at last all 
these enter the Cafion of Desolation a few miles from its head. 
North of the Ta-v4-puts Plateau are the valleys of the White 
and Uinta Rivers. Nearly all the latter and a large portion 
of the lower course of the former are within the boundaries of 
Mr. Graves’ work. 


considerable bodies of irrigable lands are found along the Grand, 
Green, San Rafael and Price Rivers; and in the valleys of the 
Uinta and White Rivers, are other large tracts, on which the 
waters of the streams named can be conveyed at slight cost. 
Mr. Graves determined the extent, character and location of 
these lands, and the amount of water carried by the streams 
throughout the area embraced in his work. 

On the Ta-va-puts Plateau are small forests of pine and fir, 
but generally Mr. Graves’ district possesses no more timber than 
sufficient to meet the future local requirements of actual settlers. 

Topographic Work by Mr. Renshawe—The district assigned 


344 oJ. W. Powell's Survey of the Rocky Mountain Region. 


and drained from its very western edge toward the east by the 
Fremont, San Rafael, Price and Uinta Rivers. The western 
portion includes broad valleys, abrupt ranges of mountains, and 
one plateau of considerable extent. The principal valleys in 
this part are the San Pete, Juab and Utah, all having a general 
northern and southern trend, an average elevation of about 
5,000 feet, and all are drained by the San Pete River and the 
streams flowing into Utah Lake. The mountain ranges standing 
between the valleys are the Wasatch, rising in its highest peaks 
to 12,000 feet, the Lake Mountains and the Tintic Hills each 
reaching an altitude of nearly 7,500 feet. 

The lofty table land called Gunnison Plateau has an area of 
about 750 square miles, and an average elevation of 8,000 feet. 
It is bounded on three sides by almost vertical walls, and is 
extremely rugged and difficult to traverse. 

There is but little irrigable land in the eastern portion of 
Mr. Renshawe’s district, but the broad valleys of the western 
contain large areas of excellent lands, and the numerous streams 
furnish a good supply of water. 

Mr. Renshawe determined the volume of water in every con- 
siderable stream as well as the extent and localities of the irri- 
gable lands throughout his district. 

On the plateaus and mountain ranges are large quantities of 
excellent timber. “ 

* On the head waters of the Price River and on Huntington 
Creek are extensive beds of coal, and on that portion of the 
Wasatch Range included in Mr. Renshawe’s district are deposits 
of silver and galena. 

. Renshawe extended the secondary triangulation over the 
whole district assigned him, making stations at an average dis- 
tance of about eight miles, and measuring all the angles of 
nearly every triangle in the extension. He also made a con 
nected plane-table map of the whole area, and complemented 
his work with a complete set of orographic sketches. 

etry—The hypsometric work of this season rests on 

a primary base established at the general supply and rendezvous 
camp at Mount Pleasant, and connected by a long series of 
observations with the station of the United States Signal Service 
at Salt Lake City. At the base station observations were made 
with mercurial barometers four times each da: , and for eight 
ercu- 


ri barometers were carried y each field party, and observa- 
tions made to connect every camp with the base station. All 
the geodetic points and topographic stations were connected by 
observations with mercurial barometers either with the camps 
or directly with the base stations or both. All the topographic 
stations were also connected with each other by angulation, and 


\ 


SESE te eee 


J.W. Powell's Survey of the Rocky Mountain Region. 345 


from these stations the altitudes of all located points were de- 
termined by the latter method. 

Instruments. Base-measuring Apparatus. — The apparatus 
used in measuring the base lines from which the primary trian- 
gulation is developed consists essentially of wooden rods aligned 
and leveled on movable trestles or tripods, the contact being 


The line of coincidence is marked upon both plates and contact 
is determined by a magnifier. A delicate spirit-level is attached 
to each case to adjust it horizontally and a thermometer inserted 
to determine the temperature of the rod. Two steel pins by 
which the rods are aligned are fixed on the cases directly over 
the center of the ends of the rods. 


which a sliding cross-piece is clam by thumb screws. 
Above this cross-piece parallel to and carried with it, is a sec- 


atheodolite. The line is first ranged out and stakes set 500 
feet apart along its length, then with six men to work the appa- 
ratus, 3,000 feet per day can be measured with all the accuracy 


d. 
Theodolite.—The theodolite used in the triangulation is of a 
new pattern, embracing a number of improvements demanded 
by the character of the work. So far as possible the number 


346 JW. Powell's Survey of the Rocky Mountain Region. 


a 


inches in diameter, and reads by double verniers to five sec- 


the scale adopted by the 


é ry for 
Interior Department for the hysical atlas of the Rocky Moun- - 


eo region, that is, a scale of four miles to the inch. 


ments of its optical axis are recorded. The telescope rotates 
about a vertical and about a horizontal axis similarly to the 
telescope of a theodolite, and is connected by simple mechan- 
ism with a pencil which rests on a sheet of paper attached to 
the platen. When the topographer moves the telescope so as 
to carry its optical axis over the profiles of the landscape, the 
pencil traces a sketch of the same. This sketch being mechan- 
ically produced, is susceptible of measurement, and is a definite 
and authoritative record of the angular relations of the objects 


presses Co loeeh cetre ae gee eaeea 


J.W. Powell's Survey of the Rocky Mountain Region. 347. 


sketched. The instrument is also furnished with a graduated 
circle on which horizontal angles may be read to the nearest 
half minute, and this circle is used for the secondary triangula- 
tion. The orograph and plane-table are used conjointly, and 
their results furnish data for the production of contour maps. 
It is believed that by their introduction the quality of topo- 
graphic work has been much improved, without addition to its 
cost. hen a topographer takes the field with these two 
instruments and plane-table sheets on which the primary trian- 
gulation has been previously plotted, he returns with a map on 
which all of the geographic features to be delineated have been 
determined by their angular relations and the scenic character: 
istics necessary to give proper effect to the maps, have been 
outlined by instrumental means. In this manner the subse- 
quent construction of maps at the office ready for the engraver is 
reduced to a minimum of labor, while for the proper accuracy 
the topographer is not necessitated to resort to his memory for 
the appearance of the landscape, but only to the definite record. 
rometers.—T he instruments used in the hypsometric work 
yehrom- 


’ 


are Green’s mercurial mountain barometers, Green’s ps 


Classification of Lands by Mr. Gilbert—The Survey under 
the se. of ee Powell has been extended over the 


348 J. W. Powell's Survey of the Rocky Mountain Region. 


to which it is practicable to convey them by canals, and these 
lands were measured in order to determine the agricultural 


eanals. Five million dollars is probably a moderate estimate 
of the cost of redeeming the 500,000 acres that are susceptible 
of reclamation, and the requisite capital will have to be con- 
centrated upon a small number of large canals. 

Since the first settlement of the territory in the year 1847 


PRA OE ies sce 0 


J. W. Powell's Survey of the Rocky Mountain Region. 849 


the water supply has increased. It is reported by the citizens 
that each stream is now capable of irrigating a greater area of 
land than when it was first used. Creeks that once scan- 
tily watered a few acres of ground now afford an ample supply 
or double, treble, and even fifty times the original area. This 
increase has been accompanied by a rise of Great Salt Lake, 
which having no escape for its water except by evaporation 
has stored up the surplus from the streams. 
or the purpose of investigating the extent and the cause of 
the increase of the streams, Mr. Gilbert made a study of the 
fluctuations of the lake. It was a matter of common report 
that the surface of the water had been subject to considerable 
changes and that on the whole it bad greatly risen since its 
shores were first settled; but previous to the year 1875 no sys- 
tematic record of its movements had been kept. In that year 
a series of observations was inaugurated by Dr. John R. Park 
of Salt Lake City, at the suggestion and request of the Secre- 
tary of the Smithsonian Institution. A small pillar of granite, 
graduated to feet and inches, was erected at the water's edge 
near a rocky islet known as Black Rock. The locality was then 
a popular pleasure resort, and the record was undertaken by 
r. J. T. Mitchell. Observations were made at frequent inter- 
vals for more than a year, but were then interrupted by reason 
of the disuse of the locality as a place of resort, and they have 
not since been resumed in a systematic way. To obviate a 
similar difficulty in the future, Mr. Gilbert caused a new record 
post to be established near the town of Farmington, where the 
work of observation has been undertaken by Mr. Jacob Miller, 
and it is anticipated that in the future there will be no break in 
the continuity of the record. ; 3 
In the interval from 1847 to 1875, during which no direct 
observations were made, there was nevertheless a considerable 
amount of indirect observation incidental to the pursuits of the 
citizens. The islands of the lake were used for pasturage, 


testimony of the boatmen was compiled by Mr. Jacob Miller 
and a history of the oscillations was deduced. 

A similar and corroborative history has been derived by Mr. 
Gilbert from an independent investigation. Two of the islands 
used for pasturage are joined to the main Jand by broad, flat 
bars, and during the lower stages of the lake these bars being 


350 J. W. Powell's Survey of the Rocky Mountain Region. 


either dry or covered by a moderate depth of water, have 
afforded means of communication. It happens that the Ante- 
lope Island bar was in use until 1865, when it became so deeply 
covered that fording on horseback was impracticable ; and that 
the Stansbury Island bar was first covered with water in 1866, 
and has been used as a ford, with slight exception, ever since. 
By the compilation of the testimony of those who have made 
use of these crossings, a continuous record was derived, which 
cannot deviate very widely from the truth, and the work was 
checked by making careful soundings to ascertain the present 
depth of water on the Antelope Island bar. 

From 1847 to 1850 there was little change beside the annual 
tide variation dependent upon the spring floods, and which 

akes the summer stage in each year from one to two feet 
higher than the winter. Then the water began to rise and so 
continued until in 1855 and 1856 its mean stage was four feet 
higher than in 1850. This progressive rise was followed by a pro- 
gressive fall of equal amount, and in 1860 the lake had returned 
to its first observed level. In 1862 there began a second rise 
which continued for eight years and carried the water ten feet 
above the original level. Since 1869 there has been no great 
. change, bnt the mean height has fluctuated through a range of 
about two feet. 


the water surface increased from 1,750 to 2,166 square miles, or 
nearly twenty-four per cent. By this expansion the surface 
for evaporation was increased so that the lake could return to 
the atmosphere the surplus thrown into it by the augmented 
streams. 


Whatever land is at any time flooded by the lake becomes 
saturated with salt, and if the water afterward retires, remains 
barren of vegetation for many years. The highest level reached 


the last great rise of the lake, the storm line was six feet lower 
than at present, and the intervening belt of land still retains 
the stumps and roots of bushes that have been killed by the 


Piet 


* 


J. W. Powell's Survey of the Rocky Mountain Region. 351 


sage brush. The whole period is as likely to have been meas- 
ured by centuries as by decades. 

Thus it appears that the last twelve years have witnessed an 
extension of the lake, which is not only without precedent in 
the experience of the citizens of Utah but is clearly an anomaly 
in the history of the lake. To explain it and to explain at the 
same time the increase of the streams, there are two general 
theories worthy of consideration. 

he first is that there has been a change of climate in Utah 
whereby the atmosphere is moister, so that the fall of rain and 
snow has become greater and the rate of evaporation has be- 
come slower. The second is that the industries of the white 
man, which have been steadily growing in importance for the 
last thirty years, have so modified the surface of the land that 
a larger share of the snow and rain finds its way into the 
water-courses and a smaller share is returned to the air by 


thus check the evaporation from their surfaces, and the streams 

which he thereby rescues from dissipation are used In irriga- 

tion for a few months only, while for the remainder of the year 

they pay their tribute to the lake. The destruction of grasses 
he 


B 
a 
© 
3 
© 
4 
cr 
© 
S 
= 
J 
@ 
is 2] 
s 5.5 
Ss. 
Q g 
ee 
i 
x) 
tA 
z 
= 
4 
a. 
yg 
oy 
< 
fe) 
a 


increase. : 
- Geological work by Mr. Gilbert—During the preceding sum- 
mer Mr. Gilbert had discovered a peculiar series of phenomena 


852 J. W. Powell's Survey of the Rocky Mountain Region. 


roduced by recent orographic displacements, and he has this 
year found opportunity to study them in numerous new local- 
ities. It appears that the system of faults and flexures—the 
system of upward and downward movements— by which the 
mountain ranges and the valleys of Utah and Nevada were 


produced have continued down to the present time. Evidence: 


of recent movement has been discovered on the lines of many 


Idaho and Nevada, and demonstrating that the ancient outlet 
he had discovered the preceding summer at Red Rock Pass was 
the only one by which the lake had ever discharged its water 
to the Snake River. 


‘e Henry Mountains constitute a small grovp in South- 
eastern Utah and stand quite by themselves. They are of 


the earth, in the usual way, failed to penetrate the upper 
tc of the crust and formed subterranean lakes or chambers. 
he strata ying above the lava lakes were upbent in the form 
les, and from these bubbles of sandstone and shale 


with their cores of trap, the erosive agents of the air have 


‘ 


J. W. Powell's Survey of the Rocky Mountain Region. 853 


district in plaster, exhibiting the forms due to upheaval as they 
would appear if unmodified by degradation. He prepared also 
a topographic model, exhibiting the same forms as actually 
modified; and the two models will be reproduced by photo- 
graphy to illustrate the report.. The treatment of the second 
element of structure is of a thorough character and includes a 
discussion of the general principles which control the sculpture 
of the land surfaces of the earth by rains and rivers. The vol- 
ume is ready for the binder. 

Geological work by Captain Dution—Captain Dutton resumed 
his exploration of the same field which he has been studying 
for three years, having recognized in it a certain unity which 
renders it eminently adapted to an important monograph. The 
region explored by him is centrally situated in the territory of 
Utah, extending from Nebo in the Wasatch nearly southward 
a distance of about 180 miles and having a maximum breadth 
of about 60 miles. It possesses certain features which serve to 
distinguish it both topographically and geologically, and he 

roposes to call it the District of the High Plateaus of Utah. 
It consists of a group of uplifts now standing at altitudes be- 
tween 9,000 and 11,500 feet above sea-level, while the general 
platform of the country is from 5,000 to 7,000 feet high. The 
plateaus have been carved out of this platform by great faults, 
and the general structure corresponds closely to that escribed 
by Professor Powell under the name of the Kaibab structure 
and illustrated by*him in his section of the region travers 
the Grand Caiion of the Colorado. The relations of this belt 
of high plateaus to the regions adjoining are of special interest. 
At the close of the Cretaceous, the country lying to the east- 
ward of it by gradation from an oceanic to a lacustrine 
condition, the intermediate stage presenting doubtless a strict 
analogy to the condition of the Baltic. This Kocene lake area 


Colorado River. During Cretaceous and Eocene time the area 
now occupied by the Great Basin was dry land, and its dennda- 
tion must have furnished a large part of the sediments which 
were spread over the bottom of the great lake. The movements, 
which took place during the Eocene, at last resulted in the 
desiccation of the lake, and though a strict chronological correla- 
tion to European and other divisions of time cannot be made 
with certainty, it may be provisionally inferred that this desicca- 
tion was completed before the commencement of the Miocene. 
It was brought about by the more rapid uplifting of the lake 
area than that of the Great Basin until at last the former area 
became the loftier of the two, thus reversing their relative alti- 
tudes. The lake area is now a portion of the so-called Plateau 
Country and since the commencement of the Miocene (para-Mio- 


354 JW. Powell's Survey of the Rocky Mountain Region. 


cene) has been subject to a great and continuous erosion. The 
district of the High Plateaus occupies a portion of a narrow 
belt separating the Plateau Country from the Basin Province 
and therefore stands upon the locus of the ancient shore line 
which in the lacustrine stage bounded the two areas. To that 
shore line they stand in an intimate and remarkable relation. 
To its trend the great displacements maintain not merely gen- 
eral parallelism but an approximation to strict parallelism both 
in totality and in detail which would not have oie anticipated 
and which cannot be purely accidental, and seems to point to 
some definite determinative association between the littoral 


from the arched, flexed and tilted types prevailing in other 
disturbed localities. There is an abrupt transition from this 


preserved. 

But of all the features displayed by the High Plateaus the 
most remarkable are the manifestations of former volcanic 
activity. Both in area and thickness the volcanic emanations 
ve. They cover more than 5,000 square miles, 


‘SS & 


ter pa 
lace after the lake basin had been ned or had shrunken to 
imits outside of the district, for sedimentary beds have not been 
found intercalated between the various flows but always under- 
he them. It is therefore impossible to fix with great precision 
the commencement of the outbreaks, but the general indications 


Neericey, 


i) Syren aa 


J. W. Powell's Survey of the Rocky Mountain Region. 355 


are, that they began very soon after the close of the lacustrine 
period, and they may have commenced still earlier. The erup- 
ive epoch was undoubtedly a long one. The individual flows 
are very numerous and represent all the great groups of eruptive 
rocks. In many cases the quantity of material extravasated is 
so great that the eruptions may we called massive, not 
however of such marvellous extent as asserted to have been 


ave ema- 
nated during recent or modern times from any existing volcanic 


and precision. so vast are the accumulations and so expansive 
are the sheets, and at the same time so numerous that whereso- 
ever they were emitted the earlier vents must have been buried 
by later deluges of lava, and even the more recent vents, except 
in the case of the latest basalts, have been swept away by slow . 
erosions in the long period which has elapsed since their activity 
was extinguished. There are, however, still remaining, distinct 


a certain sense uneonformity of the various eruptions, and 
greater irregularities in their bedding as compared with the 
¥. y 


ency took place after the close or during the decadence of the 


tean Province occurred. During its progre I 
must have taken place, and their later age 18 readily identifia- 


356 J. W. Poweli’s Survey of the Rocky Mountain Region. 


long enough after the close of the Eocene to allow for the accu- 
mulation of these vast bodies of voleanic beds. This may 
carry the period of faulting far into the Miocene period, or pos- 
sibly as far as the commencement of the Pliocene. But while 


One point which during the study of this region has engaged 
the careful attention of Captain Dutton, has been to ascertain 
whether it presents any such sequence in the lithological char- 
acter of the eruptions as is asserted by Baron Richthofen to 
prevail in the voleanic districts of Europe, South America, 
Asia Minor, and the Sierra Nevada. This asserted sequence 
has engaged the profound attention of most vulcanologists and 


is of great importance in relation to all questions bearing upon 


that the high plateaus of Utah exhibit in a deci anner 
essentially the e sequence which Richthofen claims for 
ther volcanic he earliest eruptions consist of roc 


the great displacements and partly through the agency of ero- 
sion, and wherever found it is seen to occupy the lowest posi- 


J.W. Powell’s Survey of the Rocky Mountain Region. 3857 


tinued to have its seat through a long cycle in and about the 
same locality. The propylite is succeed a rock answering 
to Richthofen’s description of hornblende andesite, which is 
usually overlaid by a rock rich in augite with triclinic feldspar, 
which may be termed augitic andesite. Still higher in the 
series are found immense masses of trachyte which, however, 
is frequently intercalated with dolerite. The variety of the 
trachytes is very great—so great indeed that were it not for 
the persistence of certain mineralogical as well as textural 
characteristics, which are universally accepted as being dis- 
tinctive of that group of rocks, one might feel strongly 
tempted to make numerous subdivisions of them. ex- 
tremes of the varieties of the trachytes might be represented 


ing of well-developed orthoclase feldspar imbedded in a fine 
paste highly charged with peroxide of iron, Between these 


Tn the lithological scale, propylite and hornblendic andesite are 
very nearly intermediate between the extremes of acid roc 


pe " 
toward the acid end of the scale, and on the other toward the 


Sense independently of each other, so. that they intercalate ; 

the acid becoming at one end more acid with the progress of 

the volcanic cycle, and the basic rocks becoming more basic. 

, series seems to pursue its own order and to be subject to 

its own law, so that being originally divergent, they become 

more and more widely separated in their lithological charac- 
Am. Jour. oe ae Vou. XV, No. 89.—May, 1878. 


858 J. W. Powell's Survey of the Rocky Mountain Region. 


ters, as the cycle proceeds. Thus at the commencement of the 
activity we have propylite and hornblendic andesite, which are 
closely assimilated to each other in their physical characteris- 
tics; at the middle stage we have trachytes and moderately 
basic dolerites, which are moderately separated, and at the close 
we have rhyolites and basalts, which stand at the opposite ends 
of the scal 


and to correspond with each relief map a stereogram in plaster 
18 constructed on the same scale, designed to exhibit such sur- 


[To be continued. ] 


‘ 


H. Ward Poole on Just Intonation in Musie. 359 © 


Art. LI.—Just Intonation in Music. Its Notation and Instru- 
ments; by HENRY WaRD Pootg, M.A., of South Danvers, 
Massachusetts; and Professor in the National College of 
Mexico. 


Ir is evident that there is a general want of intelligence con- 
cerning the fundamental laws of Musical Intonation, the consti- 


comma, etc., can be recognized and sung. Without reference to 
previous times, I can declare from abundant personal knowl- 
edge, and actual demonstration, that the chord of the seventh 
is most agreeable and easy to give with the just ratio of 4:7, 
and that there is no practical difficulty in singing in just in- 
tervals. There appears to be a general desire expressed for 
such perfect intonation, and in consequence the following obser- 
vations may be interesting. . : 

However complicated this subject may appear when studied 
in books which do not have any primary definitions or canons, 
it can be made as clear and orderly as naturally it would be 
supposed, in view of the fact that music is based upon the 
mathematics. : 

Classification of Musical Tones into three Principal Orders.— 
Admitting into music only the prime numbers 2, 3, 5, 7, and 
considering the 2 as auxiliary, forming octaves, and inversions, 


Harmonic), 4:7. A series (each a fifth from the next,) is 
ormed of each of these kinds, and we have three Prime Series. 
A-due mixture of the notes of each is necessary for harmony. 
Using the letters, C, D, E, etc., we may express: the series to 
which each belongs in various ways. In common notation it 


360 H. Ward Poole on Just Intonation in Music. 


the First series with Red: giving to the e, and all of the Second 
series, the Yellow, which, to show well by artificial light will 
e well done by gold. In like manner, the Third series, that 
of the Sevenths, indicated pie a gothic ugha will be colored 
Blue.* Nothing remains but to call the tones by distinctive 
names. The syllables of Guido answered 1 this purpose when 
there was no “modulation within the key,” and no account 
made of Perfect sevenths. T'o the modern syllables re two, 
which were not in the original i in the “Ut queant laxis ;” to wit, 
the “Do,” and the “Si.” Keeping the Do as it is, and changing 
the initial Tether of the si, so as not to confuse it hereafter with 
that of sol, we may find a common ending to all the notes of the 
first series, or that of the Fifths. These are the Ist, 2d, 4th and 
5th. Preserving the lst and 5th as they are, but rejecting be 
final letter of the sol, and making the rest conform, we shall h 
Do, Ro, Fo and So. Their class is known by the abiding ; 
the place of each in the scale by the initial consonant. For the 
second class, that of the Thirds, mi, la, si, we preserve also the 
present termination of the majority, and have mi, li, and Zi. 
-For the Perfect sevenths or Third series, which are generally 
sounded by the termination of e (Italian), we preserve the same, 
and zi flat is Ze. And the dominant seventh, lower than Fa, 
will be Fe. There are two different Diatonic Scales oreuel 
as the Seventh 4:7, is introduced or not; they will be ex 
in reference to their syllables for singing, their letters. Fol, 
relative vibrations and intervals, as follows: 
TRIPLE Dratonic SCALE. 
a aiaae Chords als C, G and F. 
Fo : : - 
In key of C, Ci 5 F G 
Colo Red Red Yellow Red Red Yellow Yellow Red 
Relative Vibrations, 48 54 —s«GO 64 72 90 «96 
Intervals, 8:9 9:10 15:16 8:9 9:10 8:9 15:16 
Dovuste Diatonic Scae. 
Common Chord ay C; Chord of Seventh ap arg on G. 
Fo » So i Ze Bs Fo 
a of C (Tonic ¥), -@ B’ ri 
lors, Yellow Hue Red Red Yellow Red 
Beletirs Vibrations, se chciag 6 ye gs a eS 
48 Shoo: 60 6312 81 0: 1% 
Intervals, | | 8:9 9:10 20:21 7:8, 8:9, 9:10 .16:16 
* Thad selected for the three Prime Chords, the colors generally considered 38 
eainel 


as nearly as could mination, with the Prime Chord of 
Third. ow, Green, and Blue being as Do, Ro, mi and Fe (the 
t 7th), or as + the num! the le «semen Seale 32 40, 42, 
the Violet approxi 6 Sn 8 a joe Selle tabl 
‘in ¢ 7 Pr ‘ diraaia” AO saat den 


in the ‘ 


2 


PRR iB 


H. Ward Poole on Just Intonation in. Music. 361 


The Double Diatonic Scale has two notes differing from two 
of the triple scale on the same tonic—which is F; although its 
tones are all in the key or scale of C, being identical with the 
Triple Diatonic of C, with the exception of the change of b into 
B’. But its ending and tonic is F. Having thus provided for 
the notation and distinction of these different series of Primary 


st 
effective ring. Especially in duets is this observed; the two 
voices are constantly giving pairs.of different colors. The 
duplicates or notes of the remaining series—there being three— 


monious, 6:7, and d 


n ¥, 
“grave second ” of the old theorists, and is the sixth of the: 


e of F, and 
“modulations within the key. 
Scale of C, harmonized, 
~ ODeFGabc ChaGFeDC 
unison b Cae F Ge eG FedC b unison 


The instruments of just intonation are those of free tones, 
as the voice, the violin class, and the trombones, etc., and those 
of fixed tones, as the organ and other instruments to be 


described. . . ey 
The Enharmonic Key-board for organs, etc., described in this 


Journal in July, 1867, while preserving its essential principles, 
is capable of being varied to embrace more or less series of 


362 H.. Ward Poole on Just Intonation in Music. 


sounds, and to give to each the prominence desired. I shall 
describe one which embraces the three series of Prime chords, 
and, in addition, a Fourth, of the leading notes to the Thirds of 

eries IT, which are used in ornamental passages and the 


digitals will fall upon these lines, and will be understood by 
reference to the diagram, the mutual relation being the same in 


-Dragram.—Simply to show the relative position of the Digitals of the four 
Series ; their exact si ing as follows: 


@ = 6°5 inches + 24 (= 0-27). b= 0°9. 
: th. 


Wid Length. 
L. (C, D) 4a (and 3a) 4 
IL. tg d, e) 2a 3b 
IT. (C', E57) 2a 1d 
IV.( cH, a 26 


all parts of the boards. The digitals of each signature are ele- 
vated one-tenth of an inch as they go backward. The base of 
the digital C, with its 3d, e, and d#, (leading note to e,) and its 
seventh B are ,'; of an inch higher than F, a, g# and EB’, and 
the same distance lower than G, b, a and F. The white keys 


ae ee a 


H. Ward Poole on Just Intonation in Music. 363 


of Series I being at this level, the black keys rise 0°45; the 
orange keys, (Series IV,) are 0°75; and the blue keys of Series 
III are 0-90, All the elevated keys are reduced in width, down 
to the base, so as to allow the finger to enter freely between 
them. The number of digitals being 48, each lever is taken at 
the half of these primary 24 divisions, and all lie in one level 
at the rear of the key-board. In construction, the number of 
pipes (or vibrators, in the cabinet organs) is reduced by using 
the same for those which being at the distance of 8 Fifths an 
1 Third are practically identical. (§ 29, 30 this Journal, July, 
186 


Justly-Intoned Pianofortes.—It is desirable to obtain a loud 
and full tone by a single wire, large and at full tension. Then 
with an enharmonic key-board and the triple sets of wires, the 
whole will be easily kept in tune, and will sound louder than 
if they were tempered. i ; 

Wind Instruments of the class of the horn, cornet, etc., 
depend, for the fundamental tone, on the length of the tube, 
and for the harmonies, on the tension of the lips. The funda- 
mental length may be varied by the common cornet valves or 
“pistons” and corresponding supplementary tubes to give the 
tones of series I. These valves are arra in the order of 
the fifths, or thus: F,C, G, D, A, E, B, ete. To play the 
triple diatonic scale of C will be used the valve of C (or the 
simple tube of the whole instrument, if so constructed) and 
those of F and G, on its right and left; the order of these dom- 
inants, etc., is the same in every key. For the sake of economy 


? 


364 S. W. Ford—Forms of Brachiopoda. 


Art. LIL—On certain Forms of Brachiopoda oceurring in the 
Swedish Primordial; by S. W. Forp. 


; ing to M. Linnarsson’s 
description, in the absence of the longitudinal *slit of Discina, 
the perforation of the apex of the ventral valve, and in its inte- 
rior markings so far as these have been made out. The shell 
substance is corneous. . Linnarsson considers the most 
nearly related genera to be Obolella and Acrotreta, but at the 


acea the presence of an umbonal orifice is always readily recog- 
nizable. The interior of this valve, so far as known, shows 00 
trace whatever of muscular scars or imprints. 

In that subdivision of the American Primdedial known as the 
Lower Potsdam, and which is considered to lie above the Para- 
dowides-bearing strata of this continent, we have at Troy, N. Y.,a 
species of Lingulella (L. coelata), very closely resembling in the 
interior markings of its dorsal valve the dorsal valve of Linnars- 
son's A. coriacea, and in the same formation, both in New York 
and Canada, another form bearing an equally strong resemblance 
to his A. granulata. This latter American form is the operculum 
gy a Pt i. Its true character was first ascertained by Mr. 

illings, who described it, together with the shell to which it 
belongs, in the Canadian Naturalist for December, 1871, under 
the name of Hyolithellus micans.+° It is usually circular in 

31, Om faunan ilagren med Paradomides dlandicus;” af G. Linnarsson. pines 
‘oreni -i Stockholm Farh Als. o. . 
¥ Boo alao this Journel for May,1872. CR penne 


S. W. Ford—Forms of Brachivpoda. 365 


form, rarely broad+ovate longitudinally, and has an excentric 
apex or nucleus. Around this point the surface lines are 
arranged concentrically. Some of the specimens show also the 
existence of fine radiating lines in the nucleal region. The 


oramen does not appear to be a constant feature. The inte- 
rior of A, granulata has not been observed and the dorsal valve 
1s in doubt. The form is nearly cireular, the deviation from 


and H. impar,* permit us to observe the interior of this piece. 
In neither do we find any trace of muscular scars. In this 


- fe preg rnal for June, 1872. ; 
ae Pingel sg adi oari~ pred poda of Bohemian Basin, 


an a ition; Lut such a compositic 0 eer 
tively stated to characterize any of them (Systéme Silurienne, &e., iii, 1867, p. 66). 
t Bull. Soe. Geol. Fr., t. xvii, p. 532, pl. vim, fig. 2. 


866 S. W. Wallace—“Geodes” of the Keokuk Formation. 


Ido not intend by the foregoing observations to assert that 
the dorsal valve of M. Linnarsson’s A. coriacea is the dorsal 
valve of a Lingulella, or that what he sets down as ventral 


valves of A. coriacea and A. grunulata are both, or either of 


and Swedish forms compared, and which appear to me to be 
sufficiently pronounced to at least. suggest the question whether 
the Swedish species noticed. may not, as a whole or in part, be 
susceptible of a more rigorous determination. 

New York, January 22, 1878. | 


Arr. LIIL—On the.“‘Geodes” of the Keokuk Formation, and the 
_ Genus Biopalla, with some Species; by SaMUEL J. WALLACE, 
of Keokuk, Iowa. 


THE large hollow stone balls, set inside with myriads of 
brilliant crystals, which are found in the upper beds of the 
Keokuk Formation (Subcarboniferous), are well known for 
their beauty and as curiosities, under the names of Geodes, 
Niggerheads, etc. They are very plentiful, of various sizes, 
from a few lines to over two feet, where that part of the forma- 
tion is exposed in the Mississippi Valley, and in the lower 
Drift and the Alluvium derived from it. 


nessee. ‘Tio the we , 
sibly reappears in the geodes found by Professor Comstock in 
the Wind River region, Government Survey. z 
_ ‘Phe matrix bed is generally shale, varying sometimes to lime- 
stone and to porous rotten stone. The lower layers are lime- 
stone but not so pure as the next layer below, which here is the 


S. W. Wallace—“ Geodes” of the Keokuk Formation. 367 


best quarry rock of the Keokuk Formation. Stratification 
marks often show over and around the es similar to those 
around bodies in mud banks formed by currents. The shale 
seems to be but the remains of original deposits several times 
thicker, which have evidently béen dissolved out, leaving the 
insoluble portion to be compressed to the present shale. e 
limestone portions have not been compressed so much. 

The geodes themselves are merely crystalline shells formed 
from percolating water around the walls of vacant cavities. 
The outer shell is silica, generally chalcedony, with crystals of 
various minerals, principally silica and calcite, pointed inward in 
great variety and beauty. The external forms are sharply 


t. . 
__ The Indiana Geological Report, 1873, 278, gives the 
idea that they owe their origin to animal remains. This is 


evident by the peculiar family likeness through a great variety 
of sizes and forms; and by the lack of any other cause for 
them in such remarkable numbers, shapes and sizes. 

- An extended study of thousands of specimens and exposures, 
by the writer, confirms this by the recognition of peculiarities 
of growth and nature. It seems that the cavities were formed by 
the rotting out of sponges which had become covered by de- 


Sponges of trade, but without stems or apparent means of 
attachment. They may have of ‘ 
drifting along on the soft bottom, and often became covered in 


368 SW. Wallace—Geodes” of the Keokuk Formation. 


the soft deposits. They also often grew in fixed positions, as 
they are found crowded and fitting together in beds, wit 
angular forms. It is evident that only those which became 
covered by deposits would leave any remains in the strata. 
There is a great variety of forms and markings, but they are 
mainly of a few general and related types. The principal 
type is that of a massive peculiar cushion-like figure, with in- 


are similar, but the top is usually distinct from the lateral sides. 
They are frequently nearly round, sometimes higher than wide, 
but usually have three different diameters, the shortest of 
which is vertical, and so form a flattened oval. 

_ There are indications that the structure was fibrous; the 
fibers mainly running conformable to the surface and to the 


a large crinoid stem. It has split the column in five parts, bend- 
ing them apart to fit its form, into which they are imbedded up 
the sides. This is well preserved and curious. ; 
lany fine as well as large specimens. exist in collections 
here, and enough for many car-loads have been ship away. 
The largest, showing the outside markings finely, is owned by 
R. F. Bower. It is twenty-six inches across. A larger one, 


| generally arises 
mineral sponges, or from their having been silicified before 
ppea 


Wseiaie EELS Nea ee eee ee 


S. W. Wallace— Geodes” of the Keokuk Formation. 369 


non-mineral substance, and many parts formed of lime, have 
first entirely disappeared, so as to leave vacant cavities. me 
of these are still vacant. But most have been afterward filled 
by crystals from water containing bicarbonate of lime and silica, 
which show no internal structure of the original body. i 
includes not only these grades, but a large proportion of the 
crinoids, skells and corals, that originally arias lind: so that 
this is not so strange for the non-mineral sponges as for those. 
The following is the principal distinct type: 


BIOPALLA (new genus). 


inches, varying from one line to over two feet; no foot-stalk 


marked peculiar cushion-like figure. 

Named from the Greek, féo¢, life, and zadda, a ball. 

There is uncertainty as to the distinction of species, but I 
venture to name the following: 


“eke very distinct, few to medium, symmetrical and regular. 
nterspaces large, swelling lobe-like. A few largest indrawn 


ion. 

Biopalla’ Wortheni—Size medium to large; form varied ; 
vertical and lateral faces different. Markings on top more or 
less sharp and crowded; on lateral sides, less numerous, and 
ehinngatol vertically ; on bottom not so sharp as on top; other- 
wise more or less varied, as in B. Keokuk. 

From Hamilton, Ill.; Drift ; and other places. 

Biopalla Woodmani.—A peculiar form from the Drift, Keo- 
kuk, Iowa, supposed to be from the northward. Found as 


370 Barreti—Coralline Limestone from Montague, New Jersey. 


Biopalla Heckeli.—Size medium to ——. Form sometimes 
flattened. Markings often distinct. Surface with more or less 
open gash-shaped cup-like cells, differing in size with the body, 
one-third to one inch in longest diameter, in directions conform- 
able to those of the furrows. 


flattened, lateral edges thin and centers more or less projecting. 
Markings generally not deep; often pit-like marks; sometimes 
an indrawn furrow runs diagonally from bottom to to 
around, with centers along it. Often beautifully translucent, 
with peculiar markings. : 

From Drift, Keokuk, Iowa, ete. 

Biopalla palmata.—Size medium to ——. : Form flattened. 
Markings not deep on top and bottom, but elongated toward 
the edges; the edge deeply serrated by projecting interspaces, 
and deeply indrawn vertical furrows. 

rare and peculiar form. Keokuk, Iowa, Drift. 


Art. LIV.—The Coraline, or Niagara Limestone of the Appala- 
chian System as represented at Nearpass’s Chiff, Montague, New 
Jersey ; by Dr. S. T. Barrert, Port Jervis, N. Y. : 


Oe ae 


: 
| 
: 
F 
. 
| 
| 
: 
' 


Barrett—Coralline Limestone from Montague, New Jersey. 371 


former communication,* and the Tentaculite limestone with its 
two divisions of dark blue and quarry stone occupy the upper 
twenty feet of this cliff, while below the Tentaculite, and pale- 
ontologically connected with it, are nearly horizontal. strata, 
about thirty feet in vertical thickness, apparently referable to 
Water Lime division of the Lower Helderberg group. 
Lying below the Water Lime are fifty feet vertical thickness 
fe which contain species characteristic of the 
Coralline limestone at Schoharie, with a larger proportion of 
Niagara species than are reported from that locality, a few 
Clinton types and some perhaps new or peculiar species, 
hese species as far as identified are as follows: 

Coralline limestone species: Cyathophyllum inequale= Colum- 
naria inequalis, Strophodonta —— = Leptena —— of Plate 74, 
figs. 8a and 384, Pal. N. Y., vol. ii, Ahynchonella lamellata= 
Atrypa lamellata, Meristella nucleolata=(Atrypa) nucleolata, Caly- 
mene camerata; all of which were identified by Mr. Whitfield ; 
Stromatopora constellata, Tellinomya(?) aequilatera and Avicula 
securiformis, identified by myself. oo: 

Niagara species : Halysites agglomeratus, Favosites pyriformis, 
Cladopora seriata, Cyatho Shumardi, Rhynchonella pisa; identi- 
fied by Mr. Whitfield; Halysites catenulatus, Syringopora mul- 
ticaulis, Favosites venustus, F. purasiticus, Stromatopora concen- 
trica, Trematopora tuberculosa, Aulopora precius, Spirorbis wnor- 
it Pholodops ovalis and Ambonychia acutirostra, identified 

y myself. ; 

Cini species: Caninia bilateralis by Mr. Whitfield, Ten- 
taculites minutus and Beyrichia lata by myseli 

A very beautiful Proetus of about the size and general out- 
line, as far as can be conjectured from the fragments in my 
possession, of the P. Si (2), Pal. N. Y., vol. ii, Pl. 67, occurs, 
very rarely, throughout this lower fifty feet. The pygidium is 
subsemicircular, narrowly rounded behind, margined. bes 
subequal, mesial lobe elevated, obtuse posteriorly, number of 
segments thirteen or fourteen, continued backward to the end. 
Surface of the cheeks and margin of the pygidium vermicu- 
i i as known, granulate. Inferior 
marginal portions of the pygidium and cephalic shield incras- 

ith i lize, appearing much as represen 


species doubtfully referred by Professor Hall to the Proetus 
Stokesii of Murchison, but differs very much from the figures 
and description there given. I have named it, provisionally, 
Proetus pachydermatus. 

* This Journal, vol. xiii, pp. 385 and 386. The Stromatopora Limestone is best 
seen at Mr. Sandford Nearpass’s Quarry, ¢ mile northeast of Nearpass s Cliff. 


872 Barrett—Coralline Limestone from Montague, New Jersey. 


The Strophodonta* (Leptena) of Pl. 74, figs. 3a and 3b, 
Pal. N. Y., vol. ii, is very abundant in the lower beds of this 
Coralline or Niagara limestone. Its ventral valve has the 
surface characters represented enlarged in fig. 30,+ its dorsal 
valve has the flat radiate strise and the concentric, crowded, 
thread-like strize represented in fig. 6d of the same plate. Both 
valves have a denticulated hinge line, the cast of the interior of 
the ventral valve resembles fig. 4a, the cast of the interior of 
the dorsal valve is near figs. 6a and 6 of the same plate. The 
impression of the cast of the interior of the dorsal valve shows 
widely divergent socket-ridges,t with three subparallel ridges in 
the bottom of the shell, the mesial longest and extending two- 
thirds the length of the valve toward the front. Old shells 
have about the size and form of fig. 4a. Shell flat, undulated, 


inequale and the Strophodonta (Ne 
the other species being represented by a very few depauperate 


N. Y. Pal for the Niagara group. The mural pores show 
plainly in thin vertical sections, or, better yet, in sections cut 
obliquely transverse to the axis of growth. 

* T have labelled it provisionally S. Nearpassii 


os 
. 
more arenate 


t Cardinal processes not apparent. 


= eek hapa ga ieccolendatamucliate nee > 2 eh a IRA 


SE Saar 24 c= 


: 
t 


ne EE nee ee eT nT NRE ie Lee, 


O. Harger—Isopoda from New England. 373 


Art. LV.—Descriptions of new Genera and Species of Isopoda, 
from New England and Adjacent Regions ; by OSCAR HARGER, 
Brief Contributions to Zoology from the Museum of Yale College, 
No. XXXVI 


THE genera and species described in the present paper are, 
except the first, marine and were, mostly, collected by the 
United States Fish Commission, along the New England coast. 
More complete descriptions with figures of all the new, and 
most of the old species, are nearly ready for publication in the 
Report of the Commissioner. As it seems desirable, however, 
to give a wider publication to the genera and species believed 
to be new, the following diagnoses are here inserted. 


Actoniscus, gen. nov.* 


oO 


A. ellipticus, n. sp. Body oval. Head with a prominent 
angular median lobe, and broadly rounded, divergent late 
lo Eyes oval, longitudinal, prominent, black. Antennulee 
rudimentary. Antenne nine-jointed ; first segment short; sec- 
ond strongly clavate; third smaller, clavate ; fourth flattened- 
cylindrical; fifth longest, slender, bent at the base ; 
shorter than the fifth segment, composed of four subequal seg- 
ments, tipped with sete. Terminal segment of maxillipeds 
elongate triangular, ciliated and slightly lobed near the tip. 
First thoracic segment excavated in front for the head, shorter 
above than the following segments except the last, which is short- 
est. Legs small, scarcely spiny. Pleon continuing the regular 
oval outline of the thorax, apparently with four pairs of lamel- 
lar cox, the last pair are, however, the enlarged seg- 
ments of the uropoda and are notched on their inner margins 
for the short outer rami, while the more slender inner rami are 
borne lower down on the under surface. The rami scarcely pro- 
Ject beyond the general outline. : 

Wis ties iG been collected by Professor A. E. Verriil, at 
Savin Rock, near New Haven, and also at Stony Creek, in com- 
pany with Philoseia vittata Say. 

* From axr#, the beach, and Oniscus. 

Am. Jocr. Sc1.—Tamp — Vou. XV, No. 89.—May, 1878. 


3874 O. Harger—Isopoda from New England. 


Chiridotea,* gen. nov. 

First three pairs of legs terminated by prehensile hands, in 
each of which the carpus is short and triangular, the propodus 
is robust and the dactylus capable of complete flexion on the 
pro Antenne with an articulated flagellum. Head 
dilated laterally. Operculum vaulted, with two apical plates. 

is genus is founded on Ch. ceca (Idotea ceca Say), which 
occurs on this coast from Florida to Halifax, Nova Scotia. 
It includes Ch. Tujisii (Idotea Tufisit Stimpson), of the New 
England coast from Long Island Sound to the Bay of Fundy, 
and, as constituted above, would also include Ch. entomon 
(/dotea entomon Bosc.), from the Baltic and other European local- 
ities, and Ch. Sabini (Idothea Sabini Kroyer), from the Arctic. 

e above mentioned species ought certainly to be separated 
from Idotea tricuspidata Desm., which may properly be regarded 
as the type of the genus Jdotea Fabr. 


Synidotea,t gen. nov. 


Astacilla Americana, sp. nov. 
Body nearly uniform in size throughout in the female, with 
the fourth thoracic segment narrow in the male, tuberculated. 
Head united with the first thoracic segment, and, together with 


slightly surpassing the second segment of the antennz in the 
female, nearly attaining the middle of the third in the male; 
basal segment swollen, nearly as long as the next two which 
are much more slender, last or flagellar segment shorter than 
the peduncle in the female, longer than the peduncle in the 
male. Antenne about three-fourths as long as the body, 
fourth segment longest, then the fifth and third; first two seg- 
ments short; flagellum three-jointed, short. First thoraci¢ 
* From xép, a hand, and Idotea. + From ctv, with or together, and Idotea. 


| 
| 


O. Harger—Isopoda from New England. 375 


females being generally considerably larger than the males, but 
More specimens are necessary to prove the constancy of this 
proportion. : 
The specimens of this species were found adhering to Prim- 
noa, from St. George’s Bank. : 
Astacilla Fleming, is synonymous with Leacia (Leachia) John- 
ston, which is preoccupied. 


exceeding the propodus; second pair longer than 
third and fourth increasing slightly in length; carpus and pro- 


876 O. Harger—Isopoda from New England. 


podus subequal in all, armed, in the second pair only, with 
spines. Swimming legs (last three pairs) robust, carpus sub- 
circular, dactylus usually about half as long as the propodus. 
Pleon broader than long. Uropoda short, rami cylindrical, 
spiny at the tip; the outer more slender but not shorter than 
the inner. Length of body 45mm. Carpus of first pair 1mm. ; 
propodus 0°6mm.; of second pair, carpus 1‘5mm., propodus 

‘6mm.; of fourth pair, carpus 15mm., propodus 1‘7mm. 
Color, in alcohol, pale honey-yellow. 

This species was dredged in 220 fathoms, in the Gulf of St. 
Lawrence, by Mr. J. F. Whiteaves. 


Aigathoa loliginea, sp. nov. 
Body elongate oval, not suddenly narrower at the base of 
the pleon, which is slightly dilated at the last segment. Head 


passi1 2 
nearly alike throughout, first pair a little more robust, last pair 
slightly the longest, all with strongly curved dactyli. Pleon 
longer than the thorax, tapering to the fifth segment. First 
pair of pleopoda with the basal segment large, nearly square; 
last pair, or uropoda, surpassing the telson; basal segment tri- 
angular with the inner angle acute but scarcely produced ; ram 
flat, the outer with slightly divergent sides, chiiansl y rounded 
at the end; the inner broader, triangular, with the outer side 
longest ; cilia very short almost rudimentary. Length 13mm., 
breadth 86mm. Color in alcohol yellowish with minute black 
specks, most abundant on the pleon. ac 

The only specimen in the collection was obtained by Mr. 
S. F. Clark, at Savin Rock, near New Haven, from the mouth 
of a squid (Leligo Pealit), whence the specific name. 

Ptilanthura, gen. nov.* 

Antennul with the flagellum remarkably developed, multi- 
articulate, second and Slow segments provided with a 
incomplete, dense whorl of fine slender hairs. This whorl is 
interrupted in each segment upon its internal or anterior side, 

* From rriAév a plume, and Anthura. : 


O, Harger—Isopoda from New England. 377 


. . NOV. 
broadest at the base of the pleon. Head broader but shorter 
than the first thoracic segment, narrowed to a point in front and 
less acutely behind. Eyes prominent, black, within the margin 
of the head. Antennuls, when reflexed, attaining the third 
thoracic segment; first segment large but not longer than the 
second ; third shorter than the second, followed by a short first 
flagellar segment, second and following segments about twenty 
im number, obconic, fitting into each other, flattened and naked 
on one side, which is the outer and somewhat inferior side in the 
reflexed organ, densely elongate-ciliate distally, except on the 
flattened side ; cilia attaining about the fifth following segment. 
Antenne hardly surpassing the peduncle of the antennule, 
eight-jointed. Maxillipeds with a quadrate basal segment, emar- 
pete externally for the subtriangular external lamella, and 

earing a single scarcely smaller terminal segment, truncate and 

ciliate at the tip. Thoracic segments slender, margined, the 
seventh but little over half as long as the others, First pair 
of legs moderately enlarged, segments well separated, dactylus 
Strong, shorter than the inner margin of the propodus; remain- 
ing pairs of legs slender. Pleon about as long as the last three 
_ thoracic segments, first five segments consolidated along the 

median line, each rising into a low broad tubercle on each side 
of the median line; last segment as long as the preceding five ; 
telson elongate-ovate obtusely pointed. Uropoda equaling the 
telson. Length 11mm., breadth 0°9mm., color in life brownish 
and somewhat mottled above, lighter below. 

This species has been found on the New England coast 
from Noank Harbor, Conn., to Casco Bay, Maine. 

Paraianais algieola, sp. nov. 

Tanais filum Harger, Rep. U. S. Com. Fish and Fisheries, 
part 1, p. 578. 1874, non Stimpson. _ 

Eyes conspicuous, black, plainly articulated, larger in the 
males, Antennule in the females three-jointed, tapering, 
Setose at the tip, first segment as long as the last two which 
are subequal ; elongated and eleven-jointed in the male, the 
first segment long, curved upward near the base, last eight 
segments with olfactory sete. Antennw short, five-jointed, 
deflected, fourth segment longest. First pair of legs robust, 
hand short and stout in the female, digital process scarcely 
toothed, bearing three sete near its inner margin; hand in 
males strongly chelate, digital process elongated, curved, two- 
toothed; dactylus curved, slender, with about seven setiform 
Spines on its inner margin ; carpus in the males long and stout. 


378 0. Harger—Isopoda from New England. 


Second pair of legs elongated, basis flattened and curved, dac- 
tylus slender but shorter than the propodus. Bases of last 
three pairs of legs swollen. Uropoda bearing sete at the tips 
of the segments, biramous; outer ramus short, scarcely if at all 
surpassing the basal segment of the inner ramus which is six- 
jointed and tapering. Length 2°2mm., breadth 0.83mm. Color 
nearly white. 

his species is rather abundant among eelgrass and alge 
at Noank an oods-Holl, and probably other localities on 
the southern shore of New England. I formerly considered it 
as identical with Zanazs filum Stimpson and supposed its range 
to extend as far as the Bay of Fundy. I now regard that as 

error, as it is probable that 7. filum is a true Tanais with 
simple uropoda, though I have as yet seen no specimens from 
the Bay of Fundy, nor any fully answering to Stimpson’s 
description. 

Paratanais limicola, sp. nov. 


long as the third. The dactylus of the second pair of legs, 
with its slender, acicular, terminal spine is longer than the 
propodus. The pleon is not dilated at the sides. The uro- 
poda have the outer ramus two-jointed, slender, and surpass- 
ing the basal segment of the inner ramus which is five-jointed, 
peas the basal segment long and imperfectly divided. Length 

‘Smm. 

This specie was obtained on a soft muddy bottom in forty- 
eight fathoms, Massachusetts Bay, off Salem, in the summer 
of 1877, by the United States Fish Commission. 


the antenns, basal segment subquadrate, hand or propodus less 
robust than the carpus; digital process of Saobia 

dactylus short. Second (first free) thoracic segment two-thirds 
as long as the third, which is equal to the fourth and fifth ; sixth 
and seventh progressively shorter. Second pair of legs scarcely 
more slender than the following pairs, basal segment not curv: 


M. C. Lea—Ammonia-argentic Lodide. 379 


ing around the basal segments of the first pair. leon six- 
jointed; uropoda short, biramous, each ramus two-jointed, the 
outer more slender than the inner, half its length and bearing 
a long bristle at the tip. Length 25mm. - | 
This species was taken along with P. dimicola and unfortu- 
nately only a single specimen is as yet known, 
Yale College, April, 1878. 


Art. LVL.—Ammonio-argentic Iodide ; by M. Cary Lexa. 


WHEN silver iodide is exposed to ammonia gas it absorbs 
3°6 per cent, and forms Bets to Rammelsberg a compound 
in which an atom of ammonia is united to two of Ag] Liquid 
ammonia instantly whitens AglI, every trace of the strong lemon- 
yellow color disappears. The behavior of the ammonia iodide 
under the influence of light differs singularly from that of the 
plain iodide, and will be here described. 

The affinity of AgI for ammonia is very slight. If the 
white compound be thrown upon a filter and washed with 
water, the ammonia washes quickly out, the yellow color re- 
appearing. If simply exposed to the air, the yellow color 
returns while the powder is yet moist, so that the ammonia is 
held back with less energy than the water. So long, however, 

e€ ammonia is present, the properties of the iodide are 
entirely altered. 

Agl precipitated with excess of KI does not darken by ex- 
posure to light even continued for months. But the same 
iodide exposed under liquid ammonia rapidly darkens to an 
intensé violet-black, precisely similar to that of A 
to light, and not at all resembling the greenish-black of Agi 
exposed in presence of excess of silver nitrate. (This differ- 
ence no doubt depends upon the yellow of the unchanged AgI 
mixing with the bluish-black of the changed, whereas in the case 
of the ammonia iodide the yellow color has been first destroyed.) 

the exposure is continued for some time, the intense 
violet-black color gradually lightens again, and finally quite 
disappears, the iodide recovers its original yellow color with 
perhaps a little more of a grayish shade. This is a new reac- 
tion and differs entirely from anything that has been hitherto 
observed. It has been long known that darkened AglI washed 
over with solution of KI and exposed to light, bleached. This 
ast reaction is intelligible enough for KI in solution expo 


washed well with water (during which operation it passes 


380 M. C. Lea—Ammonia-argentic Iodide. 


from violet-black to dark-brown), and may then be exposed 
to light either under liquid ammonia or under pure water, in 
either case the bleaching takes place, though in the latter case 
more slowly. 

If the experiment be performed in a test-tube, the bleaching 
under ammonia requires several hours, under water from one 
to three days. But if the iodide be formed upon paper, and 
this paper be exposed to light, washing it constantly with 
liquid ammonia, the darkening followed by the bleaching 
requires little more than a minute. In this case, however, the 


depend hee the escape of ammonia, for if the darkened am- 
monia iodide 


washed with water, and this water gave distinct indications of 
iodine. The iodine present is in so small quantity that it may 
easily be overlooked, but it is certainly there. The washing 
given to the AgI was so thorough that it seemed impossible to 
admit that traces of KI remained attached to the AgI, but in 


When Ag! is blackened under ammonia in a test-tube, and 
the uncorked test-tube is set aside in the dark for a day or two, 
the AgI assumes a singular pinkish shade. It thus appears 
that AgI under the influence of ammonia and of light gives 
indications of most of the colors of the spectrum. Startin, 


ays, seem to give hope of 
te method of heliochromy- 


ae 


J. A. Allen—Fossil Passerine Bird from Colorado. $81 


Art. LVI.—Description of a Fossil Passerine Bird from the 
Insecthearing Shales of Colorado; by J. A. ALLEN.* 


THE species of fossil bird described in this paper is based on 
some beautifully preserved remains from the insect-bearing 
shales of Florissant, Colorado. They consist of the greater 
part of a skeleton, embracing all of the bones of the anterior and 
posterior extremities, excepting the femora. Unfortunately, 
the bill and the anterior portion of the head are wanting, but 
the outlines of the remainder of the head and of the neck are 
distinctly traceable. The bones are all in situ, and indicate be- 
yond question a high ornithic type, probably referable to the 
Oscine division of the Passeres. The specimen bears also re- 
markably distinet impressions of the wings and tail, indicating 
not only the general form of these parts, but even the shafts 
and barbs of the feathers. Mis 

n size and in general proportions, the present species differs 
little from the Scarlet Tanager (Pyranga rubra) or the Cedar- 
ird (Ampelis cedrorum). The bones of the wings, as well as 
the wings themselves, indicate a similar alar development, but 
the tarsi and feet are rather smaller and weaker ; and hence in 
this point the agreement is better with the short-legged Pewees 
(genus Contopus). These features indicate arboreal habits and 
well-developed powers of flight. The absence of the bill ren- 
ders it impossible to assign the species to any particular family, 
a the fossil on the whale gives the impression of Fringilline 
affinities, 


Paleospiza beila, gen. et sp. nov. 


Wings rather long, pointed. Tail (apparently) f about two- 
thirds the length of the wing, rounded or graduated, the outer 
feathers (as preserved) being much shorter than the inner. 

ne side shows distinctly six rectrices. Tarsus short, its 
length a little less than that of the middle toe. Lateral toes 
subequal, scarcely shorter than the middle one. Hind toe 
about two-thirds as long as the middle toe. Feet and toes 
strictly those of a perching bird, and the proportionate length 
of the bones of the fore and hind limbs is the same as in 
ordinary arboreal Passeres, especially as represented by the 
Ta nagride, 

* From the Bulletin of the Geological and Geographical Survey of the Terri- 
tories, vol. iv, No. 2, page 443, April, 1578. : coe ee 

The character of the tail is given with reservation, since it is not Lm te cer 
tain that the whole of the tail, or that the exact form of the ne Pe ion, 18 
shown, especially as the preserved impression is somewhat unsymme 


. 


382 


J. A. Allen—Fossil Passerine Bird from 


Colorado. 


J. A. Allen—Fossil Passerine Bird from Colorado. 388 


One of the specimens affords the following measurements : 


Inches. Inches. 
Humerus, length. .-..--.. 0°80} Middle toe and claw-_-..-- 0°6 
Forearm, length....--- . 0°95 | Claw alone AG: 020 
Manus, length --....----- 1°02 | Hind toe and claw-..---- 0°37 
Coracoid, length---- .---- 0°72 | Claw alone Fie IS 
Clavicle, length_--.--.--- 063; Wing .2css ue cl ol) 80 
een, WenOth. 22 sce 1:00 | Tail (approximate) -....... 2 
mareus, length. .: ... 2... 0°60 | Total length (approximate) 6°85 


The bones still rest in the original matrix, and, being some- 
what crushed and flattened, do not admit of detailed descrip- 
tion and comparison with other types. e furculum is well 


Another specimen from the same locality, and probably 
representing the same species, consists of the tip of the tail 
and about the apical third of a half-expanded wing. (Fig.2.) In 


The larger specimen, first described, is divided into an 
upper and a lower half, the greater part, however, adhering to 


884. J. A. Allen—Fossil Passerine Bird from Colorado. 


the lower slab. The bones adhere about equally to the two 
faces. The drawing is made from the lower slab, with some 
of the details filled in from the upper one. The feather im- 
pressions are about equally distinct on both, and where in 
either case the bones are absent, exact molds of them remain, 
so that the structure can be seen and measurements taken almost 
equally well from either slab, except that nothing anterior to 
the breast is shown on the upper slab. 


The species here described is of special interest as being the 
first fossil Passerine bird discovered in North America, 


Professor O. C. Marsh in 1872, from the Lower Tertiary of 
Wyoming Territory. Probably the insect-bearing shales of 
Colorado will afford, on further exploration, other types of the 
higher groups of birds. 

For the opportunity of describing these interesting specimens 
I am indebted to Mr. S. H. Scudder, who obtained them during 


Professor O. C. Marsh in 1870,* who refers to it as “the distal 
portion of a large feather, with the shaft and vane in excellent 
preservation.” 

*This Journ., II, vol. xi, p. 272, 1870. 


W. L. Broun—Terrestrial Electrical Currents. 885 


Art. LVIII.—Experiment for Illustrating the Terrestrial Elec- 
trical Currents ; by Professor Wu. LERoy Brotn. 


THE following experiment enables a lecturer to exhibit to a 
large audience, in a very simple way, the action of the currents 
of electricity that pass around the earth. The experiment was 
suggested on reading an article by Professor om 
in the Philosophical Magazine for November, 1877. 


section three by two centimeters, whose sides were in length a 
fraction over a meter, and in breadth three-fourths of a meter. 
About the perimeter of this rectangular frame were wrapped 
twenty coils of insulated copper wire: each extremity of the 
wire was made to terminate near the center of one of the 
shorter sides, and passing through the wooden frame was 
fastened and cut off about three centimeters from the frame. 
This rectangular frame was then so suspended, in a horizontal 
position, by wires attached to the frame of an ordinary hydro- 
static balance, that the longer sides were at right angles with 
the beam. By adjusting weights in the pans the index of the 
balance was brought to the zero point. Two small orifices 
bored in a block of wood, a centimeter apart, served as 


When the current was reversed the deflection was in the oppo- 
site direction. By breaking and closing the circuit at proper 
intervals to augment the oscillations, the large frame was readily 
made to oscillate through an arc of five degrees. When the sides 
of the rectangle were placed northeast and southwest the current 
produced no sensible effect. A bichromate of potas 
of sixteen cells with plates of zinc and carbon, twenty-five by 
Six centimeters, was used. a 
With a rectangle containing a larger number of coils of 
Wire, attached to a very delicate balance, by using a consfant 
acting battery, the variation in the magnetism of the earth 
might thus be advantageously observed. 


386 Scientific Intelligence. 


SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE. 


I. CHEMISTRY AND PHysics. 


1 
the naked eye distinctly prismatic, often aggregate in dendritic 
masses of the color and luster of steel. 


0 by 
sulphur, and burns readily in a current of chlorine formmg the 
chloride. On analysis, the metal gave of beryllium 87-09 per cent; 


between 0° and 100° C. As the result of four experiments, the 
specific heat of pure beryllium was obtained as 0°4107, 0°4144, 
t 


=. be 
if the atomic weight be assumed as 13°8, it follows that beryllium 
belongs, not to the magnesium group, but to that of aluminum, 
that its atomic weight is 13-8, its specific heat 0°4079, and that 
llium oxide is Be,O, as Berzelius claimed.— Ber. hem. 
18 


Ges., xi, 381, March, 1878, G. F. B. 
2. On a new is of nes.—ErEekorr has succeeded in 

effecting a new synthesis of hydrocarbons of the general 
ath yy ng together for seven or eight hours molecular 


> 


: m 
which aiatillcd sompletcte between 36° and 85°, consisted to t 


70° to 83°. This fraction combined energetically with bromine, 

yielding a solid compound fusing at 139°-140°, volatile with par- 

tial decomposition, and having the formula C,H,,Br,. 0 wit 
uric acid, a liquid and a solid body separating out on dilu- 


Chemistry and Physics. 387 


tion, the latter having a characteristic camphor-like odor, easily 
volatile in a current of steam, crystallizing from weak alcohol 
at 75°-76° and ing the formula 


xi, 412, March, 1878 
3. Tr 


wh | . : : 
a C=O. On boiling the bromide with water, a crys- 


4 . 
tallized acid was obtained, which was bromacetic acid. Tribro- 
minated ethylene also absorbs oxygen under similar conditions, 
and yields dibromacetyl bromide.—Bull. Soe. Ch., Il, xxix, 204, 

arch, 1878, : G. F. Be 
4. Ona Remarkable Reaction of Boric acid and Borax with 


poses car j 
above named polyatomic alcohols in solution, be mixed with 
solution of boric ‘acid, so dilute that it no longer reddens litmus, 
h . . 


388 Scientific Intelligence. 


his experiments to test the extreme delicacy of the boric acid 
reaction. If one cubic centimeter of a solution iF ot acid 
gg percept poe — to test paper) be mixed with 10 c. ¢. of a 
5 per cent solu of mannite, a strong acid cg is de- 
slips turning tients paper onion-red at once. A yyy, solu- 
tion of borax, which is neutral, when 2 ¢. c. are mixed with 10 ¢ ¢. 
7. the mannite solution, ie a bright-red at once. Five c. c. of 
& typ 000 SOlution added to 5 c. c, of the mannite solution, gave a 
decided acid reaction at Wire end of a minute. Quantitative ex- 
periments showed that the alkali required to neutralize the acidity 
roduced, was the exact quantity needed to form the mono- 
metaborate.— Bull. Soc. Ch., Il, xxix, 195, 198, March, i 


. B. 
5. On the Products of the Distillation ow, Resins a resin 
Acids with Zine dust.—Ctamictan has studied the products 


From 600 grams abietic acid, 250 cubic a ds of distillate 
were obtained, which on fraction ning, gave toluene, metaethyl 
methyl-benzene, naphthalene, methyl-naphthalene, and methyl- 
anthracene. Colophony itself, when iis distilled gave the same 
products, and in about the same proportion with the exception of 
toluene, which was present in much smaller quantity. On istill- 
ing gum-benzoin with zine dust, toluene, xylene, naphthalene, 
and a ehehaene were obtained.— Ber. Berl. yes te 
xi, 269, 878. 


oily body, having the formula C “HO, fo fo . 

stance with alkalies, and boils at 285°. Treated with acetic 
oxide, it t yields an acetyl derivative C pH (CH.O0. which = 
bromine gives a bromo-compound ©,,H,,Br,(C,H,O)O,. Hea 

to 130° with hydrochloric acid, torrents 8 of. methyl chloride pe 
evolved, and a crystallized body is obtained hav ving the formula 
C,H,,0,. This Sancapie regan as a higher homologue of pyro- 


an ¢ OH 
gallic acid, thus C,H, one the methyl derivative C,,H,,O, be 


OCH, OCH, 
ing C,H, . OCH, and its acetyl compound ©,H,4 OCH, . Since 
: OH OC,H,0 


Chemistry and Physics. 389 


propylated trioxybenzene, or dimethyl propyl-pyrogallate. On 

O, and thie on reduction a 
hydroquinone C, » § The th 
wood tar was isolated with difficulty and had the formula 


affording a crystallized substance of the formula C,H,O,, which 
was pyrogallic acid (pyrogallol). 


was the dimethyl ether of pyrogallic acid C,H, OCH,. By the 


action of oxidizing agents, most conveniently potassium dichro- 
mate, it is converted into the magnificent steel-blue needles of 
cedriret. In proof of this as the origin of the cedriret of Reichen- 
bach, Hofmann prepared this dimethyl ether synthetically and 
found that it gave identically the same product on oxidation,— 
Ber. Berl. Chem. Ges., xi, 329, Feb. 1878. G. F. B. 

. he Constituents of Corallin——ZvuLKowsky has ex- 
amined the corallin of commerce and finds it to be a mixture of 
at least six different bodies: 1st, a coarsely crystalline garnet-red 
body with blue luster, of the composition C,,H,,0, ; 2d, a deriva- 


this, a deep red amorphous powder, showing metallic luster, re- 


8. On Curarine.—Sacus has examined the active substance of 
curare and finds it to be an alkaloid of the composition C,H, 
Ww 


Am, Jour. Sc1.—THIRD ——” Vou. XV, No. 89.—May, 1878. 


390 ; Screntifie Intelligence. 


while the water obtained from the steam is perfectly potable. M. 
Hétet gives evidence that his method has been thoroughly tried 


with entire success.— Ann. de Chim. et de Phys. (5), xiii, 29. 


J. P.O, TR 

9. Boracie Acid.—M, Avrrep Drrre (Ann. de Chim. et Phys., 

(5), xiii, 67) has made some new determinations of the “heat of 

solution” of boric hydrate, and also of the “heat of hydration” 

of boric oxide, which have led to remarkable results, It appears 
€ 


units of heat, and that one equivalent (35 grams) of boric oxide 


(fused boracic acid) in combining with water absorbs 6254°7 


the heat was dissipated, the temperature of the mass would 
raised t itte finds that for the specific gravity of 


O1 
mined the corresponding values for boric hydrate. 


At 0° 6=1°5463 Between 12° and 60° &=0°00154 
12 12° and 80° &=0°00148 


Further, it appears that the mean density of the boric oxide 
and ice, which may be regarded as united in the hydrate, is 
siti while that of boric hydrate at 0° is 1:5463, ‘There must, 


Chemistry and Physics. 391 


would be 136° and the amount of heat absorbed 2982-2 units. 
Evidently then less than one-half of the heat of hydration is due 
to this cause. M. Ditte has also determined the solubility of 


e 
thermometer, but it was found possible to simplify very greatly 
the details of the process without seriously impairing the accu- 


ble investigation of the boiling point of s at different 
emperatures, the observations of temperature are undoubtedly 
accurate to this extent, but Regnault’s own n of these 


own more accurately; for even when withim the range of a 
mercury thermometer an observation of a g point to be 
accurate to a tenth of a centigrade de attentio 


The glass thermometer bulb used in our bi sc age is repre- 
sented in the accompanying figure of one-hal the 


‘its linear dimensions. The longer stem was made of fine ther- 
mometer tube, and a shorter stem was added to the opposite end 
of the bulb in order to facilitate the cleaning, drying, filling, or 
emptying of the interior—all of which was easily accomplished 
by the aid of a Bunsen pump. The shorter stem was of course 
sealed after the bulb Kad been dried and made ready for use, and 
before it was immersed in the medium whose temperature was to 

measured. After an equilibrium had been established at this 
unknown temperature T°, the protruding end of the longer stem 


892 Scientific Intelligence. 


was sealed, and at the same time the height of the barometer H 
was noted. The bulb was then taken to a room of uniform tem- 
perature provided in the laboratory for gas analysis, and after 
being mounted on a convenient support, the end of the stem was 
broken off under mercury, and the apparatus left to itself for a 
time to secure a perfect equilibrium of temperature. This tem- 
perature (T’°) was then observed by means of a standard ther- 
mometer hanging near the bulb; also the height (h) to which 
the mercury had risen in the bulb was measured by a cathetom- 
eter, and in addition the height H’ of the barometer (hanging in 
the same room) was again noted. Closing now the open stem 
with the finger, the bulb was quickly inverted and the pistes | 
mercury drawn out into a tared vessel and weighed (nipping o 

the end of the shorter stem in order to admit the air). Thi 


T?+273°2=(I"°-4-273°2) alr —T')°k}. 


It will be noted that as the mercury columns, including the 
heights of the barometer, were all measured at the same constant 
temperature, and, as we are dealing with relative values only, no 
reductions are necessary. Moreover, an error of one-tenth of a 


millimeter in the value of Hy Would make in determining the 


boiling point of sulphur (448°) a difference of only one-eighth of 
a degree, so that measurements of these heights are sufficiently 
close if accurate to one-half a millimeter, and might even be 

ith a common rule. The most uncertain element in the 
formula is the expansion of glass, but if the bulbs are made of 
flint glass (lead glass) tubing, such as is used for ornamental 


glass 8 to soften. e rate of expansiou of flint glass is not 
only less than that of crown, but it is also more constant and 


pared with the results of Regnault reduced to the corresponding 
pressures : 


Chemistry and Physics. 393 


Boiling Point of Sulphur. 
Barometer. 
Height at 0°. Bennett. Regnault. Diff. 
758°8 : 


A verage difference, 05 


ing as ‘alee the two ester e or the poo we obtain 
values for the boiling point of sulphur differing by more than a 
degree, and hence, as we have already said, there is still an 


evident, Mr. Bennett’s observations confirm very closely the inter- 


y ourselves, but since the boilin point of sulphur has become 
such an important constant we propose to have the observations 

repeated under the most favorable condita we can comman 

After the accuracy irae ur method had been thus placed be- 
yond doubt within the limits require d, Mr. Bennett made three 
dete: ee herpeeeie i the boiling point of antimonious iodide with 
the follow resu 


tise Height at 0°. Boiling Point SbI;. 
758-1 millimeters. 400-4 
T1584 400°-9 
401°-9 


159°3 
Proba bably only ae sal art of the differences between ee 
observations depends on the variations of pressure, and 401 
the nearest whole eh of degrees to the neenne point of so 
Monious iodide at the normal pressure of the 
*This Journal, II, xiv, 484 


394 Scientific Intelligence. 


The method we have here described we can most confidently 
recommend as a most efficient and accurate means of determining 


J. C. P., JR. 
11. The Influence of the density of a body upon its ‘Light- 
ries - 


bing power.—Professor Guan has conducted a se ot ex 


any change of absorption with change of density that it must be 
very small. He is inclined to think that his results give evidence 


varies greatly 
85° the effects are very faint; between 75° and 60° they are com- 
t 


the analyzer from extinction, and so forward. 


subject to exceptions.— Phil. Mag., March, 1878, p. 161 
he Velocit i 


A. Micuetson, Ensign U. S. Navy, Instructor in Physics and 


sak 
any distance. the figure, S is a division ore scale ruled on 
ed M, a revolving plane mirror; L, an achromatic lens; 8", 2 
xed plane mirror, at any distance from : 
The point S is so situated that its image §’ reflected in the mir 


Geology and Mineralogy. 395 


ror M, is in one focus of the lens L, while ine image of S' oe 
cides with the mirror 8”, which is placed at the conjugate foc 
With this arrangement, when M turns alomty, the light from S” is 
reflected back through the lens, so that an image is formed — 
coincides with S. en, however, the mirror rotates rapidly, 
the position of M will — changed ‘while the light travels from 
M to 8” and back again, so oes the image is displaced in the 
eh of rotation of the mirr 


L 
s! s 


Let iy; be the ranma d of light; D, twice the distance M 8”; n, 
the number urns per second; 7, the distance M S and 6 the 
4nrn 

é 


deflection ; then V is found by the formula V= 


In a preliminary experiment the deflection amounted to five 
millimeters when the mirror revolved 128 times per second. 


IL GroLtoecy AND MINERALOGY. 


1. On the Limestones of the Falls of the Ohio, by Jamzs 
Hatt. 16 pp. 4to. Advance sheets of vol. ‘v, part 2, of the Paleon- 
tology of New York.—Professor Hall reviews the facts with ref- 
erence to the beds at the Falls of the Ohio v4 their fossils, gives 
the results of personal eS a s at the conclusion 
that en —_ include—beginnin - 

(1.) Niagara — Ty _ Upper Silurian, which are the “ Cate- 
nipora beds” of S$. 8 
(2.) Upper Helderbe deni to which bel ong the next follow- 
ing strata, (a) Coral sh (6) Turbo bed, (c) Nucleocrinus bed, 
d (d@) Spirifer bed, of Lyon. 
“@) — 30 feet of Hamilton beds, which are of impure mag- 
limestone, and comprise a the Hydraulic limestone, and 
the Encrinital limestone, of Lyon. 
(4.) The “ Black Slate,” which, after a special discuss sais of the 


ous intercalations a “ shales at its base, thins ree a 


—— the 


396 Scientific Intelligence. 


2. Report on the Fossil Plants of the Auriferous Gravel 
Deposits of the Sierra Nevada; by L. Lesquerrvx. Memoirs 
of the Museum of Comparative Zoology at Harvard College. 
Vol. vi, No, 2. 58 pp. 4to, with ten double plates. — Professor Les- 
quereux here describes fifty species, and gives figures of the leaves 
on which they are based. He concludes: 

(1.) The species are related by some identical or closely allied 
forms to the Miocene, and still more intimately by others to the 
present flora of the North American continent. 

(2.) The North American facies is traced by some species to the 
Miocene, the Eocene, even the Cretaceous of the Western Territo- 

vies. Hence it is not possible to persist in considering the essen- 
tial types of the present North American flora as derived by 
migration from Europe or from Asia, either during the prevalence 
the Miocene or after it. This flora is connatural and autoch- 


quent to the Glacial period. is remarkable fact, so clearly dem- 

onstrated by nature, may serve as an exemplification of the causes 

os the disconnection of some of the other groups of our geological 
oras. 


_3. Memorandum of a fossil wood from the Keokuk formation 
Keokuk, Iowa ; by Samuxt J. Watuace, of that place.—A por- 
i kuk 


tion, Subcarboniferous, at Keokuk, Iowa, March 6th, 1878. age 
a section nearly three feet long; one end disappearing in 


external or bark markings, but rather those of woody fiber, possi- 


from the best quarry layers of the Keokuk Formation, five feet 

i d,” and from the center of a solid 18-inch 

> layer, on a horizon of numerous shells, fish teeth, etc. 

Is not this among the first distinct land plants from this forma- 
tors. 


tion ?—From a letter to the Edi 
_4, Atlas accompanying the Report of the Geological Explora- 
tion of the Fortieth Parallel ; by ga ont Kiva, U.S. Geologist 


Geology and Mineralogy. . 


in charge. Made by authority of the Hon. Secretary of War, 
under the direction of Brig. and Brevt. Major-General A. A. 
Humphreys, Chief of Engineers, U.S. A. 1876.—One of the maps 
of this Atlas has already been noticed in this Journal in volume xi 
(page 161). The completed atlas has recently been issued. It is 


top 
region nearly fifty miles wide either side of the fortieth parallel from 
western Nevada to eastern Colorado. e atlas is a grand con- 
tribution to the Geology of the continent, and bears testimony to 
the very great care and thoroughness of the surveys under Mr. 
King. The five colored geological maps present not only the 
distribution of the several areas of igneous, granitic, and stratified 


trac 
the study of which in the field, by Mr. King, has been supple- 
mented by the exceedingly valuable volume of descriptions by 
Professor Zirkel, forming part of the Reports of the Survey. 

The plates are from the establishment of J. Bien, New York, 


sage land, coal land, gold districts and silver districts; a general 
geological map; six sectional geological maps, and as many topo- 
graphical, on a scale of four miles to the inch; two maps of geo- 
logical sections and one of panoramic views. e areas of the 


memoirs, representing the following species: ©. pune 
Wariolars, é. ‘illatedleis, C. obtusus, C. levis, C. vigilans, C. sex- 
costatus, C. nereus, and C. verrucosus. The limits of the genus 
are those accepted by Eichwald in 1840. It includes Enerinurus, 
and Cybele and Atractopyge are made subgenera under it. 


$98 (tix Scientific Intelligence. 


ra garteutfanes and Upper Silurian fossils of Illinois and 
Indiana,—Dr. C. A. Waite has published descriptions of some 
invertebrate ore in the Proceedings * oe Academy of Natu- 
ral Sciences of Philadelphia for it p. 2 
ate naib - Ostrauer und Walden burger Schichten 
von D. 366 4to.—An ok Arne memoir on the fossil 
gow es the: Lower Carboni iferous formation of Moravia, illustrated 
a large and beautiful plates, a map, and two plates 
ot secti The lower Culm includes av oe rboniferous lime- 
stone with Productus giganteus Sow. rring in Altwasser, 
Neudorf near Silberberg, Hausdorf, ete., natn which ihe 4 Culm- 
Dachschiefer,” containing Posidonomya Becheri Br. is equiva- 
lent; and the upper Culm, the Ostrau and Racvncaes shales, 
Ome of the specimens of plants figured are of remarkable size 
and os pa 
of the Musk Ox (Ovibos moschatus) have been 
found in she. less of the Rhine near Unkel, according to F. 
mer.—Zts. geol. Ges., xxix, 592. 
10. Notice of three new Phosphates ease py co 
Connecticut ;* by Groren J. Brusu and Ep 
(1). Eosruorrre, Usually observed in pileipatis a am 
obtuse angle measures 1044°, and which probably belong to the 
orthorhombic system. The crystals are uniform rmly terminated by 
two pyramids in different vertical zones. —- maacesling nee 
nearly seers Also commonly — mass Hardness 


ated Al,O,: RO: 10 = 1 1:2 saa Th 

corresponds to the ¢ empirical formula 0.) 40,0: 

ee oe The compact v eae tain quartz an and other 
is of a whitish compact specimen by Horace 

me | Wells som 14°41 of insoluble ee and the remainder 

= oT atomic ratio of eosphorite. 

2.) TRrrprorprre, Occurs in erystalline a tes whose struc 
ture is parallel-fibrous to arm also di onda and again con- 
fusedly fibrous to nearly co mpact massive. Isolated prismatic 
erystals are occasionall ahead imbedded in quartz. Inv 
- cases these crystals have been detached with their termina- 

ons preserved; the crystallogra hie data thus obtained show 
that the mineral is ere related in form to wagnerite. Hard- 

* Communicated by the A: 


Geology and Mineralogy. 399 


ness=4'5-5,. Specific gravity=3°697. Luster vitreous to greasy- 
adamantine. Color yellowish to reddish brown, the crystals - 
occasionally topaz- to wine-yellow. Transparent to translucent. 
Fuses in the naked lamp-fiame, and B. B. in the forceps colors the 
flame pale green. Completely soluble in the fluxes, giving reac- 
tions for iron and manganese. uble in nitric and hydrochloric 
acid. Analyses by 8. L. Penfield have proved it to be a hydrous 
eee of manganese and iron, giving the atomic ratio of 
?,0,: RO: H,O of 1: 4:1. This corresponds to the formula 
R,P,0,, H,O=R,P,0,+H,RO,. The mineral in external charac- 
ter has a marked resemblance to triplite, and this fact is expressed 
in the name which has been given it 


NSONITE curs foliated massive; often lamellar 
radiate, the laminw being sometimes straigh t more often 
rv ne instance observed in tabular crystals with stri- 


Before the blowpipe in the forceps fuses at 1 to a black magnetic 
globule, and colors the flame pale-green with an occasional faint 
tinge of red ith the fluxes gives reactions for iro an- 


¥ the 
nese, Soluble in acids. The chemical i now in progress 
y S. L. Penfield indicates it to be a hydrous phosphate of iron and 
manganese with alkalies, the spectroscope showing the presence 
of both soda and lithia. ‘ 5 
The above species are from a deposit of manganese minerals in 
avein of coarse albitic granite which has been quarried for mica. 
Associated with them is a considerable amount of a ferriferous 


ganese; all these apparently are products of the oxidation of the 

her minerals. e have also determined the presence of vivi- 
anite, hebronite, apatite, and some other phosphates whose com- 
position needs further investigation before a final conclusion in 


the ne sles, y 
iade. wi Wi d all the facts in regard to 
made, with sone still in progress, an i a ttake alle 


11. Mineralogy: Vol. 1, The General Principles of Mineralogy : 
by J. H. Gece F.G.S. 206 pp. 8vo. New York, 1878. (G. P. 


400 Scientific Intelligence. 


properties of minera system of Miller, is principally <a 
in the chapters upon crystallography, shovgh the symbols o 
mann are also given value s portion of the wena is 


III. Botany AND ZooLoGy. 


1. Synoptical Flora of North America ; by Asa Gray.—The 
first part of this work is expected to be published before May- 
day. Tt will form a bound eee of itself, with index, ete.; but 


it is only the first part of vol. i p biieation begins» ith 
vol. ii, because it takes up the sledilick Flora w the Flora of 
North America by Torrey and Gra ray — ns five and thirty 


n 
the first volume of the new wor e present publication in 
cludes all the es Seine after Composite, and fills over 400 com 
pact imperial 8vo pages. The price is fixed so as barely to recover 
the cost of the edition. For this sam ($6), it will be sent by mai 


to any part of the United States, post-paid, if ordered from the 


or of Harvard University Herbarium, Cambridge, Mass. 
In the trade it is published by Messrs. Ivison, Blakeman, Taylor 
& Co., New York. 
2. Biblioyraphical Index to North American Botany ; 
Citations of pees all the Recorded Indigenous and Nat 
uralized Species of the 


siblice ra ra as in similar instances. ian be recompensed only by 
the consciousness of having done "useful work, won helpful to 
fellow-laborers and those who are to come after them. The Sec- 
retary, in his advertisement, states that this work “is eager 
_by the Smithsonian Institution, at the request of the leading bot- 


Geology and Mineralogy. 401 


anists of the United States, who have also contributed to the 
expense of its preparation.” But the contributions must have 
been few and of comparatively small amount, while the labor has 
been protracted. 

The portion now issued covers the ground of the first volume 
of Torrey and Gray’s Flora of North America, i. e. of je fh ate 
petalous pe and ve therefore be regarded as a com- 
plete portion or volume. It is very pe a bibliography, but 


taking might suffice ; but it is a critical ovat and re-Investiga- 


into strong cloth binding; and that these may be obtained, from 
me curator of the Ha ae University Herbarium, at the addi- 


thre 
ot the bibliography of the subject. bhe placenta of Primulacee 
is con cluded to be “a direct prolongation of the receptacle or 


Trane The forms ee Be are cla — under eight re. sr 
lent kinds, five of which we — nnaiee ies or varieti 
of the imbricative; the term convolute ( n place of contorted) is 


this + Se, the degrees of frequency of the various kinds are 
indicated; the mode in w whiall they may pass into each other is 
speculated upon 


shown ; their origination under evolution with 


402 Scientific Intelligence. 


ingenuity ; the cruciferous flower is conceived to have arisen by 
+ ig metrical —_ of fives to fours, etc. ; the hypothesis that 
e corolla o ula is an outgrowth of the andrecium is 
controverted, more parsicnlasly on the ground that the develop- 
ment of the parts of normal flowers is by no means always cen- 
“a tal. 
. Floral Structure and Affinities of Sapotacee ; by Maxcus 
M. ‘Harroe, M.A., ete.—A short paper in Trimen’s Journal of 
Botany, for March, 1878. Observations made at the Botanic 
Garden at Peradeniya, Ceylo n, and very neatly cclend out. As 
to the ovules, “ the impre sion” is that the ey are the axillary buds 
of the carpels. owers almost — 2 gape volu- 


from the periphery inwards.” ach new member arises in 
front of the widest intervals between the next oldest members. 
If the intervals be wide, the new separ are formed in front of 
the widest intervals between the members of the next oldest 
whorl and those of the next but one, a both falling under Hof- 
meister’s generalizations. The order nearest to Sapotacee is Myr- 

sinacee ; and Styracacee: (Symplocex: being separated) nearer than 


t Berlin. Profe 
ee Tibingen, takes the new chair of Physiological uietene: at 


6. Curtiss: Nort h American Pilants.—The first part 
oe of dried plants of our Southern sep hope species, 
ie Yat arg Meri announced a year re ago, 18 
issued. t supplied to the Harvard Tecanos Flecbariam 
enables us us to anne that the apeniensng are well chosen, copious 
and perfect, are carefully put up, all named, with printed tickets 
in neat form and taste; and that these sets are cheap at the price, 
viz: twenty dollars for 250 species. To favor this laudable enter- 
pose and to facilitate their acquisition by botanists, some sets 

ave been aclostane at the Harvard University Herbarium, the 
Curator of which will receive applications for them. 

7. On the Spore-Formation of the Mesocarpew, and Sine of 

the» ! trrock.—In the 


something like a knee-joint, and divide into three parts, in the 
central one of which the spore is formed directly, without conju- 


A RG, geo aa aaa 


Botany and Zoology. 403 


gation. Dr. Wittrock observed a rotation of the chlorophyll- 


he 9 are sometimes formed in three different ways, sup- 
posed to be cbtadweteniatle of the three different genera, seas 
asap" Vicctasaenne and Staurospermum 
. Non-Sexual Outgrowths on Fern Prothalli.—The dadkvens 
of ee non-sexual production of the Fern-plant from the pro- 
thallus, by Dr. Farlow, when a pupil of De Bary at Strasburg, 
as been extended to numerous instances. The facts and bearings 
of the case were reported to the Society of German N aturalists, 
at the late meeting at Munich, by Professor De Bary, as follows : 
“Investigation has shown that’ som e Ferns, mi Pteris Cre- 
ticu, Aspidium faleatum, and Aspidin m Flix as, var. vris- 
tatum , form on the prothalli normal antheridia but apni no 


bryo, the: ica described by Farlow. In those ee which 
develop archegonia no such outgrowth has been obsery e 


thallus, there is formed an axial punctum pi bo ap on which a 

second and the successive later leaves appeat. At the base of 
the first leaf there is formed, endogenou 7a So the vascular bundle, 
the first root. As soon as ei second lea Recing i the bud grows 
i ring in reat from 
the normal mode of growth are not uncommon. nique tly the 
prothalli form branches similar to themselves ( secondary — 
oo can Pion sige leaves and shoots in a great variety o 


place 

Pte pagation, oa pe benod batten suckers, etc. The numerous bulb- 
ets of the higher phanerogams, species of AZium, Dentaria and 

= like, are fe a s of this, as well as of the successive degrees 
of differenc pi ca a 3 Closer observation of the = piers 


404 Scientific Intelligence. 


9. A Catulogue of the Flowering Plants and higher Cryptogams 
owing without cultivation within t “= miles of Yale College. 
Published by the Berzelius Society, New Haven, 1878, pp. 72, 
8vo, and an outline map.—This i es has reached us barely 
in time for announcement here. Its form and typography are 
aap and the editors (whose names are not mentioned), 
appear to have ioe their work admirably, under the auspices of 
Professor Eaton, who adds an introduction, with interesting his- 
Lage details. The catalogue extends to the Musei and re mic 
the summary of species gives the total number of 1 
A. G 


IV. AsTRONOMY. 


i “ati Sternhaufen x Persei, etc., von Dr. H. C. Voce. 
Leipzig, 1878. 4to, pp. 36.—Dr. Vog el, of the Potsdam Observa- 


for any pair are Srlgeticat thus: Ist, four measures of p; four 
measures of s; 2d, determination of parallel; the next pair is 
then observed as follows : Ist, four measures s of P; 
of 4 ; 2d, determination of parallel ; and so on throughout the 
night. 

$2 contains an i ae Te of the position-circle ; and of the 
value of the revolution of the micrometer. The zero of “the micro- 


aaa stars less t n 10th e were determined from meas- 
ures of p and s with four rclecte stars of the group. These four 
were connected by and s and also Aa and Ad; and 

atee stars of the cluster  Perse?, 


they were further clase wit 
which had been observed with the Bonn meridian-circle. The 


Botany and Zoology. 405 


pairs of stars were stern alternately on different threads, the 
hose of 


zeros determined under the same circumstances as t the 
coe the position iil easured by turning the circle 
in ways. From four to six measures of p and s were made 


each’ siotit and for each pair of the brighter stars at least four 
nights observations were made, i. e., at least sixteen measures of 
pands. The reductions are complete, and the observations are 
reduced oe 1870 0. 


§ 4 deals with the accuracy re the observations ; for the brighter 
stars, the probable error of a si. ngle observation is found to 
in 8, “0"228, in p (reduced) +0":306. The probable errors for 


within less than 1” in each coérdinate, which Dr. Vogel considers 
sufficient for his purpos 

§5 treats of the determinations of the brightness of the star. 
of this cluster. ptt a stars of the cluster range between the 
6°5 and Ae ma 


ined by ave estimates of itude 5 times; the pro 
able error of the mean is +0714 eerie * the brighter stars 
were determined on several evenings e, and on two 


Ԥ 6 gives the srl of the stars (in tabular <a ed wig 
Results, A difference eniehon the Spring and Aut serva 
tions, in Both Aw and Ad, of one of the stars indicates vas peaeivty a 
parallax of about 07:3. 

§7 gives the Observations of the Fundamental Stars ; and Cat- 
alogue of the 30 brightest stars. The observations are of relative 
Aa and Ad of the four sage stars, and of two of Arge- 
lander’s stars in A Perseé and also meridian observations. These 
last also iididate a nb to cand star 6. None of the stars 
appear to have a large proper motio 

8 deals in the sane ray with Oheeoattorl of the fainter stars ; 
and Catalogue of all the stars of the cluster. "This is followed by 
two charts, one of the brighter stars and the plan of triangulation, 
the other of the whole cluster. 

AM. Jour, $c1,—Tuirp — Vou. XV, No. 89.—May, 1878. 


406 Scientific Intelligence. 


other researches of the author in the sam re all 
models of what such investigations should be, and leave nothing 
to be desired in methods bservation or reduction, in the u- 


E. 8. H. 

2. American Journal of Mathematics Pure and Applied. 
Published under the auspices of the Johns Hopkins University. 
Vol. i, No.1. 4°, 104 pp. Baltimore, 1878.—We are glad to greet 


, Hddy, Weichold, Cayley, Rowland, Peirce, Sylvester. 
bx two longest articles are b Mr. G. W. Hill, Researches in the 
The 


S 
J 
ge 
3 
a 
+ 
3 
oe 
mM 
Le) 
rs) 
- 
= 
< 
o 
n 
eo 
o 
5 


V. MiscELLANEOUS ScIEnTIFIC INTELLIGENCE. 


1. Drifiless Region of Wisconsin. (Communication to the 
Editors.) —There are one or two sentences in Professor Dana's 
paper on the “ Driftless Interior of North America,” in the 


° 
the theoretical conclusions as to the glacial phenomena of the 
en given in volume ii of the Geology of Wisconsin. As 


reports themselves, I give, therefore, a brief statement of the 
acts. In 1874, Professor T. C. Chamberlin investigated the 
already known Potash Kettle Range of Eastern Wisconsin, - 


ce 
ward again, and carried it to the southern boundary of the district 
under my charge. In June, 1875, he furnished me with a map 


Miscellaneous Intelligence. 407 


on which he had marked the probable position of the continuation 
in the Central Wisconsin District. Afterward I verified this and 
located the range as mapped in my report; and in studying out 
my own observations on the Glacial Drift, found them to harmonize 
so thoroughly with his theory that the Kettle Ranges are contin- 
uous moraines, that I yielded to his idea and used it in explaining 
the phenomena observed in my own district—among them the 
existence of the Driftless Region. The honor of the first recogni- 
tion of these great moraines as such, and of their great value as 
indicators of the positions and size of the various glaciers, and of 
glacial movements generally, must be given entirely to Professor 
Chamberlin. Should this idea stand the test of investigation, it 
will, beyond doubt, lead to some important conclusions. 
ROLAND D. IRVING. 

2. A Treatise on Chemistry ; by H. E. Roscor, F.R.S. and 
C. Scuortemmer, F.R.S., Professors of Chemistry in Owens Col- 
lege. Vol. I. The Non-metallic Elements. 769 pp. 8vo ew 

sf 


also another by J. E. Hilgard, Assistant, on the determinations of 
Transatlantic Longitudes of 1872, being the final Report, giving 
a review of previous determinations. : 

4. Minnesota Academy of Natural Sciences.—The Bulletin 
for 1877 contains a catalogue, with notes, of the Mycological flora 
of Minnesota, by A. E. Johnson, M.D., occupying 100 pages. 

5. Matter and Motion; by J. CLerk Maxwett, M.A., LL.D., 
etc. 224 pp.12mo. New York, 1878. (D. Van Nostrand—Van 

ost 


and May numbers of Van Nostrand’s Magazine. It is a very clear 
Statement of some of the fundamental principles of physics by a 
most eminent authority. 

6. Contributions to North American Ethnology: Tribes of 
California ; by Stpuen Powers. Department of the Interior, 
U.S. Geographical and Geological Survey of the Rocky Mountain 
Region, J. W. Powell in charge. 636 pp. 4to, with a map and 


habits, weapons, implements, etc. Many of 
pages of the volume are occupied by vocabularies from various 
Sources, edited by Prof. Powell. 
Report of the Chief of Engineers for the year 1877. PartsIand IL 1456 
Pages, 8yo. 1878. 


408 Miscellaneous Intelligence. 


OBITUARY. 

Dr. Cuartes Pickertne.—Dr, Pickering died in Boston on 
the 17th of March, of pneumonia, at the age of seventy-three. He 
was a grandson of Col. Timothy Pickering, who was a member 
of Washington’s cabinet and one of the most distinguished men of 
his day. He was a member of the class of 1823 at Harvard Col- 


g was appointed one of the Naturalists of 
the United States Exploring Expedition under the command of 

ilkes, U. 8. N. ition gave him good oppor- 
tunities for pursuing his favorite studies. And these opportunities 
for original observation were further enlarged; for, soon after his 
return from this voyage, on the 11th of October, 1843, he left for 


Egypt, Arabia, India, and the eastern part of Africa, in order to 


gam a 


th 
lished, in 1848, The Races of Men, and their Geographical Dis- 


of his own Existence, was only recently completed, and is now 
passing through the press. ; 

. Pickering was untiring and most conscientious in scientific 
research, and of great and varied learning. His works are reposi- 
tories of carefully observed facts on the subjects he had laboriously 
phan geen along with the conclusions to which he had been led. 

a 


and was a most genial traveling companion, though naturally 
peo. among those with whom he was not familiar. 


Fae 
ese 
sah 


APPENDIX. 


Art. LIX.—Notice of New Fossil Reptiles ; by Professor 
O. C. Marsu. 


lent preservation, and among them are several genera, having 
the more important characters of the Rhynchocephala, of which 


Central ossifications apparently exist in all the Reptilia yet 
found in this new fauna, and hence serve to distinguish it. 
With this character is another of hardly less interest. The 
anterior rib-bearing vertebre preserved have three separate 


tubercle. In the implantation of the teeth and their succes- 
sional development, these Reptiles resemble the Mosasuria. 
Am. Jour. Sot.—Tarrp Series, Vou. XV, No. 89.—Mar, 1878. 
a7* 


410 O. C. Marsh—Notice of New Fossil Reptiles. 


These characters, with others mentioned below, indicate two 
distinct families, which may be called Nothodontide and Sphen- 
acodontide, from the typical genera here described. 


Nothodon lentus, gen. et sp. nov. 

This genus of Reptiles may readily be distinguished by the 
dentition. In each separate premaxillary there are two slender 
pointed teeth. In front of the maxillary there are one or two 
similar teeth, followed by a number with narrow transverse 
crowns, resembling in form the premolars of some carnivorous 

. These crowns, when unworn, have a central cusp, 
and on each side a tubercle, somewhat like that on the premolars 
of the genus Canis. In the present species the first and last of 
the transverse teeth are smaller than the middle ones. The 


aengue Of Migiivary bone 2... et Pe coe 
Space occupied by ten maxillary teeth ---- .--- -- 55° 
Height of crown of second maxillary tooth -_-. -- 14° 
Height of crown of third maxillary tooth .-..... 9% 
Antero-posterior diameter............---...--. 3 
araGaverse diameter cc. ccsci) cco 604m vce-% 8 
Antero-posterior diameter of eighth tooth ------- 5 
ranavorse Giameter. soci. cn sw. bcs cin eee 15 


The present species was about five or six feet in length, and 
herbivorous in habit. It was apparently slow in movement, 
and probably more or less aquatic. The remains at present 

own are from New Mexico. 

Sphenacodon ferox, gen. et sp. nov. : 

I the present genus the anterior teeth are somewhat like 
those of the reptile described above, but the posterior, or more 
characteristic ones, are totally different. The crowns are much 
compressed, and have very sharp cutting edges, without crenula- 
tions. In the present species the carnivorous teeth are crowd 
together, and the crowns placed slightly oblique, and twist 
The jaws were comparatively short and massive. The rami of 
the lower jaws were apparently united. by cartilage only, and 
the symphysis was short. The vertebra are deeply biconcave. 


Measurements from the type of this species are as follows: 
Length of dentary bone: 221 2: os. eee is 1502 
Space occupied: by teeth. 3. oi i 130° 
Extent of four anterior caniniform teeth... ___- 25° 


O. C. Marsh—Notice of New Fossil Reptiles. 411 
Height above jaw of second lower tooth ---..--- 16=° 
Depth of dentary bone at symphysis. ---------. 26° 
Height of crown of compressed tooth..-. ..-. -- 8: 
‘Transverse diameter... of o5.cedlcs ages 4° 


This reptile was about six feet in length, and carnivorous in 
habit. Its remains are from the same locality in New Mexico 
that yielded those of Nothodon. 


Ophiacodon mirus, gen. et sp. Nov. 


Extent of anterior sixteen teeth in dentary -- ----- aa 
Extent of anterior five lower teeth .-------------- : 
Height of crown of fourth lower tooth ----------- 10 
Dep lower jaw at sym PEE Ge + 
Extent of seven anterior maxillary teeth 33 
Height of crown of first maxillary tooth --.-.-.---- 9 
Antero-posterior diameter of crown --------.~----- 3 


This species was about as large as those described above, and 

is from the same geological horizon in New Mexico. 
Ophiacodon grandis, sp. nov. 

A second larger species of apparently the same genus is rep- 
resented by portions of the jaws, and teeth, and various parts 
of the skeleton. In this species the dentary bone is angular at 
its anterior extremity, and triangular in section. Its external 
surface is rugose, as in the Crocodiles. The crowns of the teeth 
are striate at the base, and the latter is furrowed vertically. 
The teeth are not so thickly set as in the smaller species, and 
the bases of the crowns are somewhat transverse. 


Measurements. 
Space occupied by ten anterior lower teeth ------- 140™™ 
Depth of lower jaw at symphysis - --------------- 129° 


Antero-posterior extent of symphysis .--.-------- 25° 
Depth of dentary bone below seventh tooth - ----- 30° 
Width of dentary at this point ------------------ 20° 


The present species was about ten feet in length, and the 
largest reptile yet found in this fauna. The remains are from 
New Mexico. 

Yale College, New Haven, April, 1878. 


Ry Ont sg 


pte! 


Bah 


ane 


Ne ae ae ee 
as There 


AMERICAN 


JOURNAL OF SCIENCE AND ARTS. 


[THIRD SERIES] 


* 
> 


Art. LX.— On the Transmission of Sensation and Volition 
through the Nerves.* Contribution from the Physical Labora- 
tory of the Cornell University; by M. M. Garver, B.S., Pro- 
fessor of Natural Science in Mercersburg College, Pa. 


_ During the winter of 1875-6 some experiments were made 
in the Physical Laboratory of the Cornell University, under the 
direction of Professor Wm. A. Anthony, to determine the rate 
of transmission through the nerves. The experiments were 
continued for a period of several months, during which some 
interesting and, as far as the writer’s knowledge goes, new 
results were obtained. 


screw and worked in a fixed nut; consequently when the 
handle was turned the cylinder gradually advanced in the 
direction of its axis. The tuning-fork, which was kept in 
vibration and regulated by one of Kénig’s automatic break- 
Pieces, bore upon one of its prongs a flexible style of brass 
which was placed in contact with the blackened paper. Then 
when the tuning-fork was set to vibrating and the cylinder 

*This arti inci of extracts from a presented by the 
author for eheatunc bt ctisk dacleanh commencement of the Cornell Univer- 


414 M. M. Garver—Sensation and Volition through the Nerves. 


turned, an undulating line was traced spirally round the cylin- 
der; each one of the undulations corresponding to a known 
interval of time. The base of the tuning-fork was connected 
with one wire from the induction coil and the cylinder with 
the other, so that when the primary circuit was broken a spark 
would pass from the end of the style through the paper to the 
cylinder, displacing the lampblack in its passage and leaving a 
small dot in the undulating line or trace. 

The method of using the apparatus was as follows: the wire 
of the secondary circuit connected with the tuning-fork was 
conducted to one side and used to give the signals by placing 
a short break in the wire in contact with the part of the body 
desired, the flesh of the body completing the circuit. The 
resistance in the primary circuit was so regulated that th 


dots,—the fractions of vibrations being estimated in tenths by 


M. M. Garver—Sensation and Volition through the Nerves. 415 


In experimenting upon myself the time required to answera 
signal given on the left hand, as deduced from one hundred 
and nine single observations, was found to be 0°1572’--0009” ; 
when the signal was given upon the shoulder, the time e as 
obtained from sixty observations, was 0°1482”+--0010". The 
difference is 0-009" and the distance, as measured, twenty-three 
inches, hence the velocity from the data, was in this case 
213° le 28°6 feet per seco 

The results can abst best be shown in a table (see table 
I.) All the series from which these results were obtained are 
not given because they would swell the proportions of this. 
article to an undue extent; and also because the establishment 
of the reliability of the numerical results obta _ it is 
expected, can be shown to be of minor importance. 


TABLE I. 

Pe Vee mired | Diff Velocity in 
posiaenS2 | 5% | anna ot | "me Eooure® | Pimanee) Vege) Vane 
Zes signal. answer. time. nerve. 

Fowler (1),| 30 | Left foot, |0-1707” ae 
0412 33°7 
46 | Leté check, ee ee ee 


9-1296 
Garver (2),) 109 | Left hand, (0°1572"+ 0009") ).o» ‘ : 
“i '| 60 |Left shoulder,|0-1482" x-0010"| 0? | 28 1% s13 5356 
(3),| 53 | Left hand, |01686"+-0017"| . c,ar| 9; oe ae 
- 51 |Left shoulder, 1632" £0017! 01546",; 2] in. | A1sat1T-4 
Left foot, |0°1866"+-0014"| | 141. 
105 | Left hip, |017557+-0012"| 111 | 36 im 3T0°T + 45 
Ol ated oimeumtlt tea 108 0008 | 0130" | 164 in. | 105° +101 


cs 
= 
mo 
S 
ve 


Back, ; 
wee po isa" +0010 0098" | 36 in. | 30744476 
-1542 By ety : 
(| 356 lLattsheulder(o-1saaa¢ 7 | 00003" | 28.tm. |. 6000-7 
t will be noticed that the time in (4) and (6) differs con- 
sidtersb iy in the two sets of observations, although taken from 
the same person. The difference can hardly be owing to errors 
in “eee erage for the sum of the — errors is less than 
003”, while the differences refe ‘0061’ and 0074”. 
There seg evidently a change in the pinch power of the 
nerve, or in the mental status of the individual during the 
interval of time which elapsed before the last series were taken. 
Number (4) was taken Jan. 8th ; number (6) a week later. 
Number (7) | gives an extraordina nary result. It is so very 
large that it can hardly be regarded otherwise than as erroneous. 
Doubtless there was a change in condition while taking the 
observations, for all the observations from the hand were taken’ 
before any were taken from the shoulder, and the fatigue inci- 


dent upon taking so large a number of observations is con- 
siderable, so pi at can hardly be claimed that the experiments 


416 M. M. Garver—Sensation and Volition through the Nerves. 


were made under exactly the same conditions. If, however, 
the observations had been taken alternately from hand and 
shoulder, any change in condition would have affected both 
alike, and although the mean time might have increased or 
diminished, the differences would not have <i materially 
affected. It is unfortunate that the order of the observations 
was not stage for then the whole series wold have been 
broken up, and the change, if any, detected. This series will 
be again referred to hereafter. 

Xperiments were also made to determine the relative time 

uired for receiving sensations through the eye and ear. 
Table II exhibits the results obtained from four different 
individuals. 


TABLE ITI. 
Time from Time from Difference in 
Name. “sight to hand.” ** ear to hand.” favor of the ear. 

Lee 01628" + 0011’ 0°1327" +0009" 0301" 
_ 071793" + 0012” 071359" +0019” 0434" 
Gare. oc os 0°1856" + 0015 651" +-0016" 0205” 
Wh ove... eue | 071808" + °0035” 0°1364" +-0020" 0444" 
Hasse 0°1809” + -0018” 9" +-0015" 0370" 


It will be noticed that the time required to hear a sound is 
in all cases less than that required to see a light; and the dif- 
ference is sufficient to allow a sound to traverse a distance of 


light ene from the same 


ear, _ the time registered as in the thie eases. In findi 
” it was necessary to siinrinate 
the soa of the spark, and in order to accomplish this a small 
tube was fitted with platinum wires so as to give a spark 
about an inch in length, and partially exhausted of air. If 


the exhaustion be properly regulated, the spark is sharp and 
distinct, but perfect cctly noisel eae 3 
It would seem that 


experimenters in attempting to determine 
the velocity of nervous transmission, have generally assum 
that under the same circumstances the ra te of transmission is 
constant. us analyze a few series of es hecnpert an 

what light they throw on the subject. 

If the constant, or if the oe of the sre 
maples ~ — elements than those eperine measuring ® 

x 


a curve approximating to that shown in fig. 1, 
well-known curve of probability. And she asilnge it must be 


M. M. Garver—Sensation and Volition through the Nerves, 417 


x 


0 
1. The curve of probability. (From 
ah Constructed from the equation 
1 
este Bice where e is the base of the 


Napierian system of logarithms, y the proba- 
bility, and A G e., x) the value of ore errors. 
The scale of the ordinates is m ur times 
that of the La cissee in order to sdk the 
eer of the curve more distinctly. 


each 
eared was as follows, the sign = ste betas used instead of the 


he 
i appeared :” 

Fowler. 

2  E 
Té=t 24-7 
Wz = 
18= 26=0 
19=—4 zi=0 
202235 98=1 
21 290 
22—0 30=-1 
33=— 


evident that if the “er- 

not accidental, 
but are governed by some 
other law, the form of the 


The readings were taken 
in vibrations and tenths, 
f 


nals were given on the left 
foot and answered as in 
every case by flexing the 
index finger pe at right 
a> =a h mber 


num shee ap- 
Fowler, 

: IL 

16= 2 22=1 

Si 93==8: 

18= 4 4—2 

fh cer 25-1 

20=10 26=2 

vb fei 


There were tenths in many instances, but for the sake of 
mitted. 


brevity they have been o 


Y 


wate ca 
22 23 2% 25 


x 


ee Oe Oe 


3 
49 20 a 
Pi 


mall Re come under the second e case. (See figs. 2 rand 13) 


by * 


418 M. M. Garver—Sensation and Volition through the Nerves. 


about ;; of a second. And here is another peculiarity to 
which attention is particularly called, for it may serve to 


3. 


AN 


2 ¢ \7 Ol 7 Wy 18 la, 
Meche tT ESE, Ae SOR OR AN oF ES 9b Bg xX 


explain the anomalous results obtained in some particular 
ca he maxima in I (fig. 2) occur at 21 and 24, while in 
Il (fig. 3) they appear at 20 and 23, showing an evident change 
in the condition of the nerve. The observations in I were 
taken the day after those in I, otherwise the conditions were 
apparently the same. It is impossible to tell when the change 
took place or to tell the cause, but if such a change should 
occur during the time occupied in taking the observations, it 
is manifest that the results would be materially affected an 
the peculiar periodicity of the results more or less destroyed. 
more examples showing a periodicity will be given, 

but instead of plotting out in curves, it will be sufficient to 
indicate the groups by braces. The numbers at the right indi- 

approximately the difference between the means of the 
groups; 23 vibrations being equivalent to a little less than 3s 
of a second.* 


ae ee Is 
“Sightto “Sight to s rt «Bene to s Hoe to “Shoulder to 
. se hand.” hand.”* hand.” hand.” 
We-2: 19= “1t= 6 v= 16= 12 1 
20= 4 se ins Viz 
21=10 2I=1| 24° 19=11 19= 0 i8= 16=2 
=16 = 5 f vib 4 20= 0 19=10 w= 
23=12 tae. = 9 Sis 2 mal 18 24 
a= 4472-1 99-61 3 o9— a— 6) 7 19=5 + vip 
25=10) 25= 0 23— 7) Vo. 1 2 oo—140 
= 1° 96st 24— = 6) YP o3— 5 21=6 
27= 1 27> 2 2=— 0 = 24—- 4 22=% 
28= 1 =1 =0 26= 1 25= =3 
27= 2 =. ako 24=1 
pad © 28= 0 30— 1 25=0 


_* The exact rate of the fork during these experiments was 128-1 vibrations pe? 
6, the fork underwent 


WM. M. Garver—Sensation and Volition through the Nerves. 419 — 


The difference between VII and VIII is very marked, and 
by simple inspection, noticing the position of the maxima, we 
can determine pretty closely the difference in time between 
hand and shoulder. It appears to be two vibrations, corre- 
sponding very closely to the difference between the means, 
which was found to be 1-98 vibrations. 

In the same way let us examine the experiments which gave 
the anomalous results before mentioned. 


ies Hand ‘wo a ys Shoulder to hand.” 
14> 0 23=10 14> 19=32 
Lise 6 94=— 6 os 20=25 
16=10 = Meat 21-31) 36 
17=28 36— 2 li=78 22a, 1 | Vib. 
18=—40 =f 18=34 BEA? i pond | 
1954; $81 ti P| 
20==22 7 24 
2i=i4 aaa 1 77 1 vib 
23=19 


which he esti- 
mated the “norm” or mean. The periodicity is evidently the 


wee Die physiologische Diagnostik der Nervenkrankheiten, Leipzig, 


420 M. M. Garver—Sensation and Volition through the Nerves. 


same as that obtained in our experiments, and must have its 
foundation in the same cause. 


XI. XIL XIII. XIV. aN; 
Right foot. Left foot. Right hand. Ear. XII dors. vert. 

5=1 9=1 10=4 16=1 10=3 
9=2 10=5 1i=3 M3 
10=3 11=4 12=9 18=4 Penta 
1= 12=5 13=10 19=7 is=35 
13==6 13=8 14= 4 14=3 o 
= 14 tas 1638 bee QS 3 18:5 *° 
=3 tas =10 16=2 9=2 (25 16=4 
6=10 5°" *> 16— tats 17=8 93=—4 Li=3 

= 17=8 [°° 18=—3 =1 18=3 
1%=7 18=0 19=2 19=0 
]8=4 19= 
i9—3 


From the many examples of the occurrence of these periods, 
it would appear that they have their origin in the physical or 
mental action of the individual, but their physiological or psy- 
chological significance is not known, and the complete elucida- 
tion can be hoped for only through the aid of more extended 
investigations, 

I 


some principally, perhaps, on account of the imperfect working 


wregular intervals so as to avoid anything like rhythm, thus 
requiring an act of perception and an act of volition for eac 
observation; and from what has been shown, it appears that 
these two acts cannot be performed with any great deg 
regularity. In order then, if possible, to obviate this difficulty, 


the pendulum of a clock was made to give the signals at inter- 
vals of a , each beat of the clock giving a signal which 
was red upon the smoked surface. The other coil in 


registe. 
connection with the answering key was used to register the 
answers. ‘T'wo coils are necessary because when but one 18 


M. M. Garver—Sensation and Volition through the Nerves. 421 


and, if the rate of niet is uniform, will be proportional 

to the length of then 
The first nic was made. by simply trying to beat time 
with the index finger of the right band to signals given on the 
back of the left hand. Great care was taken to prevent any 
idea of the time belle received except through the nerves expert- 
mented upon. On examining the register after the first set of 
observations was oh it was found that the answers some- 
times followed and sometimes preceded the signals and did not 
have the regularity expected. Upon noticing that the signal 
had been frequently Shusieeiad I made a_ new effort, taking 
_ great pains tobe sure that the signal was elt each time before 
answering. A few observations were then taken, and after 
stopping a short time to examine the effect, a few more were 
taken. The following was the result, the tuning-fork making 
127-8 vibrations per secon 
XVI. XVII. 


33 46 45-2 
38°5 28°4 43 
44 32-4 31-2 427 
30 oor 40 42°5 
35 35°5 . Al 43°5 
38°8 33°5 36°5 42 
33°5 43 
Mean=34°8 49 425 


Here then, we have two sets of observations salah within a 
few minutes of each other, the external conditions to all in- 


&S 
the mean of the first (XVI) by nearly 25 per cent. The differ- 
ence is probably due, at least in part, to an error in judgment 
or pe she to recognize the exact instant at which the signal 
was give 


a 
32 42 31-7 
35 445 32°4 
29° 44-2 27-3 
33-7 40°5 23% 
34 38 25 
35-4 31-3 26 
35-6 
37-5 
Pe more sets (X VIII and aie taken two days afterwards, 
der early as possible the same external conditions, ex- 
hibit another phase. Here it is seen that "XIX, taken a few 
utes after XVIII, commenced as on the previous day, with 


a marked increase over the preceding values, but gradually 
decreased nearly one-half in oe few observations. 


422 M. M. Garver—Sensation and Volition through the Nerves. 


obtained; the coil would simply cease working. It gave 
‘accurate results or none at all.” 
ere are too few observations in any one of the last series, 
to give any marked indication of the periodicity noticed in the 
results obtained by the first method; but nevertheless, series 
, on analysis, shows a tendency to break into three groups, 
differing by six and a half vibrations. Thus: 


XVI. 
Garver “ Hand to hand.” 


3)—4 ° 43=3 
36=2 } 1 
apa 46=1 64 vib. 

40=1 +64 vib. 47=1 

41=1 48=0 

oe 49=3 
It is very improbable, to say the least, that certain values 
should be selected and certain others be rejected in this way 


without some cause beyond that of mere accident. 

The period, it will be noticed, differs somewhat in different 
individuals but is almost constant in the same individual. The 
doubling may be caused by the obliteration of one of the nor- 
mal groups, or as it appears sometimes, by the rejection of the 
intermediate values. ; 

It may not be amiss to suggest an explanation of the “ per!- 
odicity * however liable it may be to be overthrown by further 
investigation. , 

It seems that when an individual is experimented upon as 1n 


most attention upon the point of application of the signal, I was 
sometimes aware that the signal was not answered as soon as It 


going too far to assume that the variation is entirely cereb 
Could not such a periodicity have its origin in 


is to resemble an “ increment to the judgment. 
urg, March, 1878. 


conceivable that such might be the case and be of such a nature 
bl 


af 


Mins 


J. J. Stevenson—Upper Devonian Rocks of Pennsylvania. 428 


Art. LXI.—TZhe Upper Devonian Rocks of Southwest Pennsyl- 
vania ; by JoHN J. SrEVENSON, Professor of Geology in 
the University of New York. 


TuE Vespertine or Pocono sandstone of the Pennsylvania 
Survey is a massive sandstone from 350 to 450 feet thick in 


stones, interstratified with red to gray and olive shales. 


representing the Upper Devonian. During the hasty examina- 
tion of 1876, I was unable to make any close study of the sec- 
tion, and so provisionally regarded the lower rocks as belonging 
to the same series with the upper. i 
in my report to Professor Lesley for 1876. But the examina- 
tions made in the several gaps during 1877 showed the previous 
conclusion to be erroneous, and that the lower portion of the 
section from the very base of the Pocono sandstone is Devonian 
and not Lower Carboniferous. : 

A general section of the Devonian rocks, as observed in the 
gaps mentioned above, is as follows :— 
1. Shales and thin sandstones--.. --- ---------- 
2. White to BRET aot sandstones with some shale--. 70 “ 


we ewer eee 
aes san: wc in i i a ae ee i a EO - 


424 J. J. Stevenson— Upper Devonian Rocks of Pennsylvania. 


Lithologically, the top portion, No. 1 of the section, is a 
transition mass, more closely related to the overlying than to 
the underlying rocks. But its relations are clearly shown by 
the fossils which occur in it. This part of the section is well 
exposed in the several gaps referred to,-as well as on the 
National Road as it winds up the western side of Chestnut 
Ridge in Fayette County. At all localities examined it shows 
the same character, the sandstones are light-gray to brown and 
in thin beds, while the shales vary from brown to dull blue. 


but in both gaps of the Youghiogheny there are compact gray 
sandstones, good enough to be used for building purposes. On 
the National Road, ten or twelve miles south from the Youghio- 
gheny River, the shale and micaceous sandstones re-appear as 
on the Conemaugh. These micaceous sandstones are reddish- 


arder layers have their upper surfaces covered by a close mat 
of fucoids. : 
A curious conglomerate, from ten to twenty feet thick, 


sistent, having been seen under Chestnut Ridge on the Cone- 
maugh and Youghiogheny rivers as well as on the National 


are much larger than those seen in any other conglomerate 

exposed within southwest Pennsylvania. They are oval, thor- 

oughly rounded and polished as by long rolling in water. 

Most of the larger pebbles are quartz, but with them are others 

of felsite-porphyry, quite soft, which had been blackened exte- 

riorly before they were embedded in the material cementing 
mass, 


Relations of these Rocks. 
In the final report of the First Geological Survey of Penn- 


sylvania, Formation IX, the red Catskill of New York, is 
mentioned as occurring in the district under consideration. 
Following that report, I intimated in my second annual report 
to Professor Lesley that the rocks described in this article 
might be referred to that formation; on the maps accompany- 
ing my third annual report, now assing through the press, the 
areas are colored as Catskill. This which was done to pre- 


J. J. Stevenson— Upper Devonian Rocks of Pennsylvania, 425 


serve unity in the maps of the survey, is not in full accord 
with the facts. 

To determine the relations of rocks one may be guided by 
lithological characters and relative position, or if possible he 
may trace the rocks to some typical locality, or should fossils 
be present he may make his determinations by means of those. 
For the most part, geologists are satisfied to abide by the last 
test, as itis of universal application and saves a great expendi- 
ture of time and labor. But some geologists are disposed to 
think the simpler method inaccurate, and seem inclined to rebel 
against an imagined assumption on the part of paleontologists. 
It is desirable then to ascertain whether or not the relations of 
these rocks can be determined by tracing or by lithological 
characters. 

The bold anticlinal axes of southwest Pennsylvania are the 
Alleghany Mountains, Negro Mountain, the Viaduct axis, 
Laurel Ridge and Chestnut Ridge, all mountainous for the 
greater portion of their extent within the State of Pennsyl- 
vania. Under these axes alone may one look for exposures of 
the lower strata, for away from them the surface rocks belong 
to the Coal Measures. 

An exposure under the Alleghanies in Maryland reaches 
below the Pocono or Vespertine sandstone, but northward 
there is no described exposure anywhere on the west side of 
those mountains in Somerset County of Pennsylvania;.and, as 

be ascertained from the report of Mr. Platt’s close 
survey, the deepest gorge on that side is cut down only to the 
rocks of Formation XI, the Umbral. But in Cambria County, 
which is immediately north from Somerset, the exposures 


The Viaduct axis separates itself from the Negro Mountain 
in northern Maryland and continues as a strong axis through 
Somerset, Cambria and Clearfield Counties of Pennsylvania. 
But it nowhere shows anything below the upper portion of 
Formation X, as appears from the reports made by Messrs. F. 
and W. G. Platt. 


Laurel Ridge, at the line between Pennsylvania and West 
Virginia, niente only the upper portion of the Umbral, XI, 
but at the Youghiogheny River, the upper part of the Devonian 
is reached, its section being ex by the railroad cuts. 
Here and there, northward from the Youghiogheny, a deep 


426 J. J. Stevenson—Upper Devonian Rocks of Pennsylvania. 


gorge is cut down to the Devonian, but owing to the thick 
coat of debris, no exposures oceur and no section can be 
obtained south from the Conemaugh River. The fold declines 
north from that river, so that the gaps made within Cambria 
County by Chest and Black Lick Creeks reach barely to 
Formation X, and no gap in Clearfield County, south from that 
of the west branch of the Susquehanna, seems to expose any 
lower rock. These facts are gathered from the reports of 
Messrs. F. and W. G. Platt on Cambria, Somerset and Clearfield 
Counties, and from my own careful observations in Fayette 
and Westmoreland. 

Chestnut Ridge first shows the Devonian rocks near the 
National Road in Fayette County, but thence northward the 
axis diminishes in strength, a given stratum being fully 1,000 
feet lower at the Conemaugh than at the National Road. 
Between that road and the Youghiogheny River, several 
gorges are cut down to the Devonian, but no section can be 
obtained until the Youghiogheny River is reached. North 
from the river, owing to the decline of the axis in that direc- 
tion, the deepest gorges soon fail to reach the Devonian and 
no exposure exists between the Youghiogheny and the Cone- 
maugh. North from the Conemaugh the fold still decreases in 
strength, as is well shown by the fact that the Lower Coals 
creep constantly higher up its sides, so that the gaps made by 
Black Lick and other streams cannot do more than barely to 
reach Formation X, especially since the great Conglomerate of 
XII thickens very materially in that direction, as abundantly 
age from the report on Clearfield County by Mr. Franklin 

latt. 


There is no exposure whatever for more than fifty miles 
along the west slope of the Alleghany Mountain; no exposure 
ceurs in Negro Mountain or the Viaduct axis, so that no 


e 
thirty-five miles. . Surely under such circumstances one may 
hesitate before accepting any conclusion based on mere strati- 


graphy. 3 
But is lithology any better? At all exposures to which 
reference has been made, except those in Clearfield County, 
respecting which I have no knowled e, rocks more or less 
similar in appearance are found Ssaibilinacy below Formation 
X, which is believed to represent the gray Catskill of New York. 
As they are at the top of the Devonian, they are likely to be 


J. J. Stevenson— Upper Devonian Rocks of Pennsylvania. 427 


Catskill or Chemung, or to represent both groups, unless indeed 
those have thinned out. Professor H. D. Rogers thus describes 
the Chemung and Catskill of Pennsylvania :— 

‘““VERGENT SERIES. 

“Vercent Fiacs (Portage flags of New York).—A rather 
fine-grained gray sandstone in thin layers, parted by thin 
alternating bands of shale. It abounds in marine vegetation. 
Thickness in Huntingdon 1,700 feet. 

“VERGENT SHALES (Chemung group of New York),.—A thick 
mass of gray, blue and olive-colored shales, and gray and 
brown sandstones. The sandstones predominate in the upper 
part, where the shales contain many fossils. Thickness in 
Huntingdon 3,200 feet. 

‘‘ PONENT SERIES. 

“Ponent Rev SANDSTONE (Catskill group of New York).— 
In its fullest development this is a mass of very thick alternat- 
ing red shales with red and gray argillaceous sandstones. It 
has very few organic remains. Among them is oloptychius, 
and one or two other remarkable fossil fishes, of genera dis- 
tinetive of Old Red Sandstone. This formation has its maxi- 
mum thickness in its southeastern outcrops, where it measures 
more than 5,000 feet.”—Final Rep. First Geol. Surv. Penn., 
vol. 1, p. 108. 


On pages 140, 141 and 142 of the same volume, Professor 
Rogers gives some further details respecting the lithological 
characters of the rocks. In the northwest belt, the Vergent or 
Portage flags consist of dark gray flaggy sandstones parted by 
thin layers of blue shale, with large marine plants and a 
Nucula as the chief fossils, while in the next belt toward the 
west they are made up of thin-bedded, fine-grained, siliceous 
gray sandstones, intimately alternating with blue and greenish 


shales, 

In the middle belt, the Vergent Shales or the Chemung con- 
sists of gray, red to olive sandy shales, with gray and red 
argillaceous sandstones, but no details are given respecting this 
“aie in the belts west or northwest from the Alleghany 

ountains. : 

In the northwest belt, the Ponent or Catskill consists of fine 
and argillaceous sandstones, with an increase of red and green 
shale and with some calcareous layers. 

On page 798 of vol. ii of the same report, Professor Rogers 
points out the similarity between the deposits of the Ponent 
and Vergent, and states that the sediments of the former are 
quite as impalpable as are those of the latter. 

all these descriptions ~be compared with those already 
given of the rocks occurring in the gaps of the Youghiogheny 


* 


428 J. J. Stevenson—Upper Devonian Rocks of Pennsylvania. 


and Conemaugh through Laurel and Chestnut Ridges, it will 
be seen that, as far as lithological characters are concerned, 
those rocks may be either Catskill or Chemung, though indeed 
the evidence seems to be rather in favor of their being Che- 
mung, for if one wished to describe them briefly and compre- 
hensively, he could do no better than to combine Professor 
Rogers’ descriptions of the Portage and Chemung, thus :— 

“A rather fine-grained gray and brown sandstone in thin 
layers parted by alternating bands of gray, blue, olive and red 
shales. It abounds in marine vegetation, and in the upper part 
the shales contain many fossils.” 

Since it would be excessively difficult to determine the rela- 
tions of these rocks by mere stratigraphy, and since the litho- 
logical characters fail to throw any distinct light upon the 
matter, the third test must be employed. 

What are the fossils? 

In the Summer of 1877, while making examinations in the 
Conemaugh Gap through Chestnut Ridge, I found, almost mid- 
way in the section given on another page, numerous specimens 
of Spirifer Verneuilir, Rhynchonella Stephani and Streptorhynchus 
Chemungensis, associated with many lamellibranchs and poorly 
preserved brachiopods, which could not be determined at the 
time. Further examination showed that these species occur up 
to within — inches of the undoubted Pocono sandstone, or 

The 


In order that no doubt might remain respecting these species, 
I sent some specimens to Professor Hall, who has made out the 


Langula, sp. ; 2. Discina grandis or D. Alleghaniensis ; 3. 
Streptorhynchus Chemungensis; 4. Rhynchonella Stephani ; 5. 
pirifera. Verneuilii; 6. Paicwoneilo maxima ; 7. Sanguinolites 
rigida ; 8. S. clavulus; 9. S. ventricosa? 10. Mytilarca Che- 
mungensis ; 11. Pteronites, sp.;.12. Pteronites, sp. ; 13. Actino- 
a recta ; 14. New form, undt.; 15. Orthoceras crotalum 2. 
These were collected at one locality and in haste, the only 
object aig Ba obtain a few specimens of the more common 
forms. Of the list, Nos. 6 and 18 are found in New York only 
in the Hamilton rocks, while No. 15 is ve closely allied to a 
Hamilton species and may be identical wit it; but reaping, 
the other forms there is no doubt—they are Chemung... Allo 
these forms occur also in the layers interstratified with those 
containing the fucoids, They are not stray specimens, such as 
might have been washed from the older into the newer rocks, 


: 
; 


J. J. Stevenson— Upper Devonian Rocks of Pennsylvania. 429 


for they are found in great abundance throughout the section 
and they are as well preserved as Chemung fossils usually are 
in New York. With these are immense quantities of fucoids, 
such as are characteristic of the Portage or lower Chemung in 
New York. But in the whole section there is not an Anodonta, 
not a fish-plate, not any fossil of any sort which can in any way 
be identified as belonging to the red Catskill of New York. 

It is more than probable that the section represents only the 
lower portion of the Chemung and that not only the red Cats- 
kill, but also the upper portion of the Chemung is wanting in 
this part of Pennsylvania.* 

What then has become of the great Catskill group? € 
upper or gray Catskill is represented, no doubt, by the Pocono 
or Vespertine sandstone, but the lower or red Catskill has dis- 
<a s Nor is this disappearance at all strange. It is sim- 
ply what might have been expected. 

Professor H. D. Rogers, on pp. 141 and 142 of vol. i, of his 
Final Report, shows with what rapidity the Ponent or red 
Catskill thins out toward the northwest; that it is 5,000 to 
6,000 feet thick in the southeast belt; 2,500 to 1,000 feet in 
the northwest belt; and 400 to 0 feet in the fifth belt; the 
diminution in each belt being distinct as one goes nor’ 
or even west. No details are given respecting the variations of 
the group in a due west direction or towards the southwest, 
most probably because no possibility of tracing the group ex- 
isted then any more than now. The presence of Ponent rocks 
is incidentally mentioned in notes upon the southern Allegha- 
nies and the gaps through Chestnut and Laurel Ridges, but these 
observations were evidently regarded as too detached and too 
unimportant to be of value, since no reference 1s made to them 
in the general summary of the group given in vol. 1 of the 
Final Report. : ath: : 

All the evidence points in one direction. Itis impossible by 
any stratigraphical work to make direct connection between the 
localities under consideration and those where the age of the 
rocks is settled beyond dispute; the lithological characters of 

* In the Proceedi erican Philosophical Society, vol. xvii, p. 270, it is 
stated that at 200 feet below the Pittsburg bal y in the Lower Bar- 


e . 

No explanation is necessary further than to say that the species were wrongly 
identified. I haye examined the specimens and have recognized the following: 
Species :— 

Lophophyllum proliferum M’C., Athyris subtilita H., Spirifer planoconvecus Shum., 
Orihis carbonaria Swal., Chonetes granuifera Owen, Productus pertenuis Meek ?, 
Hemi } M. and H., Lima retifera Shum., Astartella vera 
These are usually thought to be quite characteristic of the Coal measures. 
Am. Joon. Sc1.—TuHirp _— Vou. XV, No. 90.—Jung, 1878. 


430 H. A. Rowland—Absolute Unit of Electrical Resistance. 


the rocks in question are much like those of the Chemung, 
while the fossils, both animal and vegetable, are unquestionably 
of Chemung age. But one conclusion remains—the rocks are 
Chemung and, as already stated, probably represent only the 
lower Chemung; the great Catskill group has so far thinned 
out, that it is represented only by its upper or gray member, 
the Vespertine of Pennsylvania. 


Art. LXIl—Research on the Absolute Unit of Electrical Resist- 
ance; by Henry A. Rowianp, Professor of Physics in the 
Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, Md. 


[Concluded from page 336.] 


em. broad, 1°8 thick and 82-7 em. diameter. As the room had 
no fire in it, the circle remained perfect throughout the experi- 
ment. The wire was straightened by stretching and measu 
before placing on the circle, which last was done with great 
care to prevent stretching ; after the experiment it was meas- 
ured and found exact to ;, mm. ‘ 
The circle was adjusted parallel and concentric with the coils 
galvanometer, but at a distance of 1-1 cm. to one side, 
in order to allow the glass tube with the suspending fiber to 
pass. The length of wire was 259-58 cm. which gives a mean 
radius of 41313844 cm. These data give G’= -151925. Pre 
liminary results were also obtained by use of another circle. 
C. meter.—To obtain the time of vibration, a marine 
chronometer giving mean solar time was used. The rate was 
onl. a second per day. ; 
e dge.—To compare the resistance of the cireult 
with the arbitrary German silver standard, a bridge on Jenkins 
plan, made by Elliott of London, was used. A Thomson gal- 
vanometer with a single battery cell gave the means of accurately 
adjusting the resistance, one division of the scale representing 
one part in fifty thousand. 
aon Fagg Se Fred Paper T have criticised the use of wooden circles val 
needle Ty Wnpebded Some te cance SE et See F 


| 
| 


H. A. Rowland—Absolute Unit of Electrical Resistance. 431 


Thermometers.—Accurate thermometers graduated to half 
degrees were used for finding the temperature of the standard. 
The arbitrary standard.—This was made of about seventy 
feet of German silver wire, mounted in the same way as the 


temperature was taken as 17° C. 

To obtain the accurate resistance of this standard in ohms, I 
had two standards of 10 ohms and one of 1, 100, and 1,000 
ohms. The 1-ohm, and one of the 10-ohm standards, were made 
by Elliott of London, and the others by Messrs. Warden, Muir- 
head and Clark of the same place. But on careful comparison 
I found that Warden, Muirhead and Clark’s 10-ohm standard 
was 1:00171 times that of Messrs. Elliott Bros. On stating these 
facts to the two firms I met no response from the first firm, but 
the second kindly undertook to make me a standard which 
should be true by the standards in charge of Professor Max- 
well at Cambridge.* At present I give the result of the com- 
parison with these standards, as well as some others, and also 
with a set of resistance coils by Messrs. Elliott Bros. 

Ci tat N tators except those having mercury 
connections were used, and those in the circuit whose resist- 
ance was determined were so constructed as to offer no appre- 
ciable resistance. The commutator by which the main current 
was reversed, could be operated in a fraction of a second, so 
as to cause no delay in the reversal. 

Connecting wires,—These were of No. 22 or No. 16 wire and 
were all carefully twisted together. The insulation was tes 
and found to be excellent. ean 

Inductor for damping.—This has already been described in 
my first paper on “Magnetic Permeability,” and merely con- 
sisted of a small horse-shoe magnet with a sliding coil, which 
was introduced into the secondary circuit. By moving it back 
and forth, the induced current could be used to stop the vibra- 
tions of the needle and make it stationary at the zero point. 
This is necessary in the method where the first throw of the 
galvanometer needle constitutes the observation, but in the 
method of recoil it is not necessary to use it very often. I 

refer the method of the first throw as a general rule, but I 
ave used both methods. : 

This method of damping will be found much more efficient 
than that of the damping magnet as taught by Weber, and 

practice a single movement will often bring the needle 
exactly to rest at the zero point. 

* i and as I cannot tell when the standard will 
sive: Cpe paren cioteeanrs a Secale hoping to make a more exact 
comparison in future. 


432 H. A. Rowland—Absolute Unit of Electrical Resistance. 


Arrangement of apparatus.—Two rooms on the ground floor 
of a small building near the University were set aside for the 


experiment, making a space 8 m. long by 8°7 m. wide. e 
plan of the arrangement is seen at fig. 1. The current from 


° 1 2 2 4 5 6 7 : 


re 


the battery, in the University, entered at A, the battery being 
eighteen one-gallon cells of a chromate battery, arranged two 
abreast and eight for tension. The resistance of the circuit 
was about 20 ohms, and of the whole battery about 4 ohm, 
thus insuring a reasonably constant current. 

At B some resistance could be inserted by withdrawing plugs 
so as to vary the current. 

At C is the tangent galvanometer with commutator on @ 
brick pier. The nearness of the commutator produces no error, 
seeing that we only wish to determine the ratio of two currents. 
The effect of currents in the commutator was, however, van- 
ishingly small in any case. 

At D is the principal commutator which reversed the cur- 
rent in the induction coils, L, or in the circle, F, when it: was 
in the circuit. | 

Che secondary circuit included the induction coil, L, the 
damping inductor, M, and the galvanometer G. ‘ 

t H was the Jenkin’s bridge, with standard at P, in a 
beaker of water, and a Thomson galvanometer at J K. The 


‘he telescope and scale, E, were on a jaca wooden table, 
and the two galvanometers on brick piers with marble tops. _ 
A row of gas-burners at Q illuminated the silvered scale in 
the most perfect manner. 


H, A, Rowland—Absolute Unit of Electrical Resistance. 488 


Adjustments and tests.—The circle, F, must be parallel to coils 
of galvanometer, G. The circle and coils of galvanometer 
were first adjusted with their planes vertical and then adjusted 
in azimuth by measurement from the end of the bar, R. to the 
sides of the circle, F. e adjustment was always within 30’, 
which would only cause an error of one part in 25 

e needle must hang in the magnetic meridian by a fiber 
without torsion, and the coils must be parallel to it. These 
adjustments were carefully made, but, as has been shown, the 
error from this source is compensated. 

The needle must hang in the center of the galvanometer 
coils and on the axis of the circle. The error from this source 
is vanishingly small. ; 

The scale must be perpendicular to the line joining the zero 
point and the galvanometer needle, it must be level and not too 
much below the galvanometer needle. All errors from this 
source are partially or entirely compensated by the method of 
experiment. ‘ 

The induction coils, L, must be horizontal, and at the same 
level as the two galvanometers, so as not to produce any mag- 
netic action on them. The error from this source is exactly 


practically zero. The insulation of 
tators was carefully tes 

Method of Kaperiment.—As has been stated before, the 
method generally used was that of the first throw of the needle, 
though the method of recoil was also used. For the successful 
use of the first method a quickly vibrating needle and the 
damping inductor are indispensable, seeing that with a slow 
moving needle we can never be certain of its being at rest. By 
this method it is not necessary to have the needle at rest at the 
zero point, but, if it vibrates in an arc of only a millimeter or 
two, we have only to wait till it comes to rest at its point of 
greatest elongation on either side of the zero point and then 
reverse the commutator. The error by this method is in the 
direction of making the throw greater in proportion of the 
The smallest throw used was 


4384 H. A. Rowland—Absolute Unit of Electrical Resistance. 


n 7°8 seconds, but the time of vibration was too short and 

se needle was constructed vibrating in 11°5 seconds, which 

was a sufficiently long period to be used successfully after 
practice. 

There seems to be no error introduced by the time taken to 
reverse the commutator in the method of recoil, seeing that the 
breaking of the current stops the needle and the making starts 
it in the opposite direction. As the time was only a fraction 
of a second the error is minute iu any case. 

hile the current is broken in the reversal, the battery may 
recuperate a little and there is also some action from the extra 
current, but there seems to be no doubt that long before the 
four or six seconds which the needle takes to reach its greatest 
elongation everything has again settled to its normal condition 
and the current resumes its original strength. Hence the error 
from these sources may be considered as vanishingly small. 

Some experiments were made by simply breaking cscs current 
and they gave the same result as by reversal. 

The ovewieg is the order of observations corresponding to 
each experim 

“$3 he ene of —— of needle was observed. 

. The = was around the circle, F, so as to 
sa B and a. Sirmnitanenaa readings were taken at the 
two galvanometers. The commutator at the tangent galvan- 
ometer was then reversed and readings again taken. After 
that the ea paren to the circle was reversed and the operation 

s gave four readings for the circle and eight for 
the tangent arid claire as both ends of the needle were read. 
n some cases these were pore ey six and twelve respect- 
ively. This operation was repeated three times with currents 
of different eR coristitubing three observations each of 4 
and fp. T nate any action due to the induction coils, they 
were sometimes korisented in one way and sometimes in the 
opposite w 
BG. 


H. A. Rowland—Absolute Unit of Electrical Resistance. 485 


respect to each other, followed by another comparison of resist- 
ance with standard. 
5th. Biestrediaub of a and # were again made as before. 

6th. The time of vibration was again determined. 

The observations as here explained furnished data for three 
computations of the resistance of the circuit, one with each of 
the three currents. In each of these three a ete a was 
the mean of 16 readings, 8 of 8 or sometimes 12, @ of 16 and d 
of 16. Ta using the method of recoil nearly the same order 
was observe 

The time of vibration was determined by allowing the needle 
to vibrate for about ten seconds and making ten observations 
of transits before and after that period. During the experiment, 
I usually observed at the telescope and Mr. Jacques at the tan- 
gent galvanometer. 

The methods of obtaining the corrections require no explan- 
ation. 


Results. 
The constant corrections are as follows for the first needle. 
a= —A+1°= —-00711 
b= Meee ~ Sh 


sal Cy oe + °00003 
f= + 00003 
a fy Pes ore e+f= —-00718, 

For method of recoil it becomes — 00016. 
Hence for A and B, log K=11-45360380 

‘ A and C, log K=11-2852033 

“ — * Band C, log K=1171886619 
For method of recoil using A and B, log K=11°4566630. 
For second needle and method of recoil, 


a=—} z)= — 000050 


J= +00 
a+b+ ai ee ye —-00017 
For A and B, log K=11°4566587 
* A and C, log K=11-2882590 
“ B and on log K=11 1917176 
The distance oF the mirror from the scale varied between 
192-3 and 193°5 cm 


Table of Results. 
hab Rest ee I sgitancen 
“ton” Method. v Said B 4 - 8 , B D eee farth quad. Error. ‘centage 
. +-000| —00 | +:00 |—-00 _ ‘ 
‘9 | goo! 187 22017) 170-29 [40 19°44 [43 32°56) 19 | 075 | 036 | 22. | 34°672 ) 
A&C|) 0 “ « |495-61; 14128 |35 29:06 |37 22-94) “ « | 999 | “ | 34-784 $| 34-748 |+-029|+-083 
0 uc “ 1473-83] 13140 |33 43°56 {35 28°01; “ « | 995 | « ‘187 
0 | 7800! 20:3 (292-20; 137-07 |40 27°81 [42 49°81} 21 | 145 | 036 | 74 | 34760 
B&O} 0 u « |186-66 11370 |35 41-94 |37 33°69) « | 999 | « | 34-680 }| 34714 |~-005 |—-014 
0 u “ (144-64! 105-71 (83 55°87 |35 35°94) « | 995 | « | 34-402 
0 | 7-806} 21-0 | 219 16816 |40 7°56 |42 1806) 22 | 176 | 035 | 44 | 34-762 
A&C|) 0 « « {184-99| 139-65 {35 26°37 (37 T3847) “ « | 995 | « | s425 6} 34473 |+-0n4 | +-155 
0 “ « 1473-20) 129: 33 40°75 |35 13-06) « | 994 | & | 34-831 
pe 0 | 1822} 2447 208 23598 [38 41°87 [40 56-13, 29 | 334 | O34 | 44 | 34-700 : ; 
‘& BI 4 6-31] § 119°20 ) (34 10°50 : « | yoo | & can ¥| 84716 |—-003 |—-00 
B « | | 165+ yiiast 2 be oT atl ae | age ee Bees 
9 | 7-26] 25:4 |211-15' 12929 |39 3-87 |41 19:19) 32 | 370 | 034 | 44 | 34-730 
B&C |, o 4 « |178-01| 107-48 (34 27°31 |36 13-25] « | 997 | « | 34-493 6) 84-718 |~—-001 |—-003 
0 “ « |166-98| 100-27 |32 4612 |34 19°87) “ « | 995 | “ | 34-700 
0 | 7928! 25-9 |210-53! 237-74 |39 1-69 {41 11°62} 32 | 392 | 034 | 43 | 34-665 
A&B|I 0 “ « 1477-73] 19772 134 2400 (36 150) « | 996 | « | 34-704 $] 34-685 |—-084|—-098 
0 “ « | 166-32; 184:35 |32 40:00 |34 1456) “ « | 924 | “ | 34-686 
R [13-488] 198 |219°62| | 4 4o7 ) [40 0-16 21 | 123 | 039 | 33 | 34-701 
A&BIL R “ « | 18515 | vai 20°82 4 \49 14:85} « | 308 | “ | 34-667 $1 34-688 |—-031 |—-089 
a “ 1173-64 33 37°31 “ « | 399 | «© | 34-697 
R 11-487} 206 | 216-8¢ 39 37°43 22 | 158 | o30 | 22 | 34-724 
A&CIIR “ « | 193-38) { 56 ‘059 ¢ (28 ost bj41 35-29) + « | yoo | & | 34-795 6) 34-712 |—-007 |—-020 
R “ «| yoga) (56 33 81-25 “ « | jor | « | 34-688 ‘ 


34°7192 +°0070 


‘sounjsisay JDn.uyIapy fo RUQ anjosgyY—punmoy “WY A 9SF 


H. A. Rowland—Absolute Unit of Electrical Resistance. 437 


Should we reject the quantity 34-831 in the third experiment 
so as to make the mean result of that experiment 34-744 instead 
of 34:778, we should obtain as a mean result of the whole 

34°7156+°0053, 
which has a less probable error than when the above observa- 
tion is retained. ‘The number of plus and minus errors are also 
more nearly equal and the greatest difference from the mean 1 
part in 1100. However the two results do not differ more than 
1 part in 10,000. 
We shall take 


earth quad. Z 
R=34°719-+-'007 iena at.17°C. 
as the final result. 
Discussion. 


On glancing over the table we see that the number of nega- 
tive errors greatly exceed the number of positive, but, if we 
take only the four errors which are greater than 1 part in 5,000, 
we shall find two of them negative and two positive. 


Combining the results with the different coils we have 


A ond 6... Se 34°696-+°005 
A sed 2 ee 34°744-+4 ‘011 
B and C 34°716-+- 007 


Had we no other results to go by, we might suppose that the 

value of M might not have been found as exactly for these 

coils as we have supposed them to be. But if we include the 

eager: results rejected on account of the imperfect circle 
ll find 


used, we sha 
Aie0 Bs tee 34°704+°006 
mane t oe as 34°718+017 
Sie 84°758-+ ‘016 


which has the greatest error in an entirely different place. _ 
From the first series the probable error of each determination 


errors which are about equal to +;,'s5, the real probable error 
of M must be about 1 part in 2,500. The 
tions is however too small for an exact estimate of the probable 


errors. 
Taking the results with currents of different strengths, we 
find 


For strongest current.....--.-++--++> 34716 
“ medium Bas Sis 6s oe so 84-715 
ie. lt. ee mes Ree Sek eee 34-727 


which are almost perfectly accordant. Taking the results from 
the method of recoil and the ordinary method, we find 
For ordinary method....... Sue acne 34726010 
“ method of recoil.......---++++-> 84:705 + 006 


438 H. A. Rowland—Absolute Unit of Electrical Resistance. 


If the probable error is subtracted from the first and added to 
the second they will very nearly equal each other. Hence the 
difference is probably accidental. Indeed, by the combination 
of the results it does not seem possible to find any constant 
source of error, and therefore the errors should be eliminated 
by the combination of the results. 

In the final result 

R=34°7192+-°0070 
the probable error, +*0070, includes all errors except the ratio 
of é to G’. Wemay estimate the probable error of G at 
s3,'55 and of G” at +5555. 

Hence the final probable error of R, including all variables, 
iS +5355, Or +°04 per cent, 

or R=34°719+--015. 
The probable error of the British Association determination 
was + ‘08 per cent, not including the probable error of the con- 
stants; and of Kohlrausch’s determination +°33 per cent, in- 
cluding constant errors. 
Comparison with the Ohm. 

The difficulty in obtaining proper standards for comparison 
has been explained above and I shall have to wait until the 
arrival of the new standard before making the exact comparison. 
At present I give the following results, which seem to warrant 
the rejection of Messrs. Elliott Bros’. 10-ohm standard and to 
make that of Messrs. Warden, Muirhead and Clark correct. I 
shall designate the coils by the letter of the firm and by the 
number of ohms. Experiment gave the following results : 

W (10)=1-00171 X E (10), experiment of June 8, 1877. 
Ww (10)=1°00166 xX E (10 i eo ee Ben, 28, 1875. 
W (1,000) : W (100) :: W (10): -999876 E (1), experiment of 
February 23, 1878, ' 

Now the greatest source of error in making coils is in passing 
from the unit to the higher numbers. As the reproduction of 
single units is a very simple process the single ohm is without 
much doubt correct, anid as the above proportion is correct 
within one part in 8,000 of what it should be, it seems to point 
to the great exactness of the standards then used, seeing that 
the exactness of the proportion could hardly have been acci- 
dental. It is also to be noted that Messrs. Warden, Muirhead 
& Clark’s 10-ohm standard agreed more exactly with a set of 
coils by Messrs. Elliott Bros. than their own unit E (10). 

The resistance of my coil as derived from the different stand- 
ards is as follows: 3 

From Elliott Bros. resistance coils.......... 34-979 ohms. 

ue 7, RO AUR BOOS: 35083 “* 
a WM & C's...“ 2 85-0 
“ W., M. & C.’s 100-ohm “ 35°0385 =“ 


ee es sees 


A. C. Peale—Ancient Outlet of Great Salt Lake. 439 


Te give for my determination the values of the ohm as 
ollow 


From Elliott Bros. resistance coils, °99257 


i * 10- ohm standard, "98963 . 

ea Ws M& 07s 99129 

Se WM) rad ¢100-ohm . ‘99098 
For the reasons given above I accept the mean of the last 
two results as the value of the ohm. 

To preserve my standard I have made two extra copies of 
it, the one in German silver and the other in platinum silver 
alloy. The comparisons are given below. No. 1 is in German 
silver, and the other in platinum silveralloy. The temperature 

LEG: 


earth quad. 
sec, 


Ne Devore, 20S 1. Pees June, 1877. 
Noe Dy ct vie. ed 100029 Feb., 1878 
No: Hh eos es Ses 99630 June, 1877. 
Ov Hicueesihs Seb 99932 Feb., 1878 
These are the mer of the copies in terms of the original 
earth quad. 


standard whose resistance is 34°719 
From these results it would seem that the German silver of 


several years and seems to have reached its constant state. 
he final result of the experiment is 
earth quad. 
1 ohm = 9911 sep ae 


Arr. LXTIL—The Ancient Outlet of Great Salt Lake; by A.C. 
PEALE. 


In this Journal for April, 1878, pp. 256-259, is an article 
entitled “The Ancient Outlet of Great Salt Lake; a letter to 
the editors by G. K. Gilbert.” In this article Mr. 
states that “‘ previous to 1876 the outlet was not discover ed, or 
if Mosbeeted: its position was not announced,” and that “in 
the summer of that year” he “had the great pleasure re of find- 
ing it in Idaho, at the north end of Cache Valley, the locality 
being known as Red Rock Pass.” He says also that the 
announcement was made by him “without reservation in a 
communication to the Philosophical Society of Washington,’* 

* At the 116th meeting of the Society, January 13, 1877, “Mr. G. K. Gilbe 

¢ fossil lake of Utah. tle 
described an ancl oudet of the Tako at” Hed Hock Pass near the town of 


440 A. C. Peale—Ancient Outlet of Great Salt Lake. 


and — the ee was also made for him “in the 
same unequivocal manner” “in the Smithsonian Report for 
1876” ( (p. 61), ni ‘in Baird’s Annual of Scientific Discovery 
for 1876’* (p. 206), and that “ there seemed to be no occasion 
for further publication ame the matter should receive its full 
discussion in the Reports of the Survey of which Professor 
Powell has charge,” but owing to a statement + in this Journal 
for January, 1878, p. 65, ‘it seems proper” to him “to defend” 
his “ positive assertions by setting forth the facts which appear” 
to him “ to place the existence and position of the ancient out- 
let beyond question. 

As Red Rock Pass, the point of Mr. Gilbert’s discovery (?), 
is within the area assigned during the season of 1877 to Mr. 
Gannett’s division of the United States Geological Survey of 
the Territories, with which I was connected as geologist, it 
seems proper that I should call attention to several errors in 
Mr. sea statements. 

In the fi lace, his so-called discovery is not a discovery on his 
part. The fi fact that Red Rock Pass was an outlet for the lake 
that once filled the Salt Lake Basin and adjoining valleys § 
Oxford, Idaho, by which its waters were discharged into Snake River. During 
and since the desiccation of on lake, the land which it covered has been — a 
the north aes common with the region of the Laurentian lakes and the eas 


and w seaboard.” (Bulletin of the Philosophical Soci ‘ety of Weshington 
for. 1817, P. 18) 


equivocal” announcement referred to by Mr. Gilbert, is stated in 

peti hy ‘same. » words in both pallioateon, pl is eng in re followin g rather 

vague manner. “Before commencing the main work of the season, M r. Gilbert 

ng excursion in search of the outlet of tate Bon neville, the creat f ey 
lake of Utah.” * * * “The search for the point of outlet wa 

was ook at the north end of Cache Valley, a cag soiies es beyond te Bondar of 

in the Territory of Idaho. —— Report rd of Regents of the 


Smithsonian Institution for 1876. Washington, at tee and (Annual Record 

of —— and Industry for 1876, edited by Spencer F. vpaird. New York, 1877, 
p. 260 

The statement referred as is the pierre: # Toad is believed that the explora- 
tions of the survey under the direction of Dr. Hayden, the past season, et 
determined the probable icin a. of the great lake that once filled the 
Lake Basin.” dager Journal, yi Spite 1878, 
italics in p 


The i$ paragra) 

The following extracts pag the Report of the Survey for 1870, written by 
Dr. sapere show that as early as that time the extent of the great i t inland basin 
and its phony ey itions were y spprocsited by him. 

a moment a a bint bare view of the great inland basin of which 


Columbia on the north, and that of the Colorado e 
region has no visible ow composed of # multi- 
tude of smaller basins or h of which has its little lakes, 


ce of the vallevd ‘sed fol that Goan oF the m are much above 

the waters of Great Salt Lake.” (p. 172.) 
fresh-water lake ounce occupied all this immense basin 

ranges ins were scattered over it as isolated mands, 


A. C. Peale—Ancient Outlet of Great Salt Lake. 441 


was not only recognized, but well known five years prior to 
Mr. Gilbert’s supposed discovery. On page 202 of the Annual 
Report of the Survey for 1872 * is the following statement by 
Professor F. H. Bradley: ‘The level of the divide between the 
head of Marsh Creek and the Bear River drainage, at Red 
Rock Pass, as ascertained by the party of 1871, indicates that 
this was probably another point of outflow ;” and on the fol- 
lowing page (203) the following sentence in relation to the ter- 
races in Marsh Creek Valley, which extend northward from 
Red Rock Pass: ‘They are on too large a scale, and the valley 
is too wide, to have resulted from merely the drainage of the 
small area of mountains about the head of the stream; and I 
am strongly of the opinion that this must have been at one 
time the channel for a large outflow from the Great Basin.” 

It seems to me that this places the discovery where it belongs 
beyond question. 

It appears also that Mr. Gilbert ignores some of his own 
statements. In his report to Lieutenant Wheeler,t he says 
that Professor O. C. Marsh informed him that he had discov- 
ered on the northern shore of the lake an outlet leading to 
Snake River, and in a foot note on the same page says, “ Pro- 
fessor Frank H. Bradley mentions four points of possible out- 
flow from the northeast margins.—(United States Geological 
Survey of the Territories, 1872, p. 202.) 

In the second place, Red Rock Pass was not the outlet of Lake 
Bonneviille. 

Lake Bonneville extended over the whole of Marsh Creek 
Valley and its outlet was more than forty miles farther north 
than Mr. Gilbert ever went. Red Rock Pass was only a point 


ancient lake outflowed.” This sentence implies that he went 
into Marsh Creek Valley. Had he done so or had he even 
ascended one of the numerous points that command the view 


. Vi 
lake. (Report United States Geological Survey for 1871, p. 19.) ie 
ee Sixth 5 gedee Report of the United States Geological Survey of the Territories 
1872, Washington, 1873. 
Report upon Geographical and Geological Explorations west of the 100th 
inte in nee of ee Lieutenant Geo. M. Wheeler. Vol. iii, Geology. 
Washington, 1875, p. 91. 


442 A. C. Peale—Ancient Outlet of Great Salt Lake. 


of both valleys (Cache, and Marsh Creek) the relation of the 
two must have been apparen 
The ‘gentle alluvial slopes” mentioned by Mr. Gilbert (on 
page 257) as being “divided for several miles by a steep-sided, 
flat-bottomed, trench-like passage a thousand feet broad, and 
descending northward from the divide” are white sandstones 
similar to those in the bottoms of Cache and other valleys of 
the Salt Lake Basin. The following elevations on the terraces 
in Marsh Creek Valley were obtained by barometrical observa- 
tions. 
Two miles — of Red Rock Pass on the east side of the 
valley, 5,187 fee 
ix miles = a Red Rock Pass on the edge of Marsh Val- 
ley, 5 pe - 
wenty-six miles ogee Red Rock Pass on the west side of 
the owen: ‘5, 117 fe 
The elevation of ie Bonneville beach is 5,185°7 feet + and 
it is evident that the Red Rock Gap (the walls of which do not 
exceed the elevation of 5,000 feet) could not have been a bar- 
rier to Lake Bonneville. The conclusion is therefore irresisti- 
ble that the result of Mr. Gilbert’s four or five years’ search is 
a mistake. 
In the third place Red Rock Pass was an outlet, but it was 
the outlet probably when the lake was at the level indicated by the 
rove Beach, When the barrier at the northern end of the 
Bonneville Lake was removed, that portion of the lake occupy- 
ing Marsh Creek Valley was completely drained, and Red Rock 
Gap became the barrier of the lake that remained. Then 
it was that the course of Marsh Creek began to be outlined, 
and the lowering of the lake was doubtless comparatively rapid 
until the level of the Provo Lake was reached. The line of 
the Provo Beach indicates a period of comparative permanence, 
but when the pass became lower than the lake, of course the 
lake was dramed. The elevation of the pass as obtained by 
rane level i ws 4,7 - feet, and the Provo Beach, according to 
65 feet below the Bonneville Beach,t 
which would an an eden of 4,820°7 feet for the former. 
In the fourth place I wish to call attention to two more of 
Mr. Gilbert's statements. On page 258 he says, ‘In Dr. Hay- 
den’s Preliminary Report of the field work of his survey for 
*I am indebted to Mr. Henry Gannett for all the elevations I use and for other 
sedosbie icdoraon har ‘while in the feld. 
t This slexatiots | is obtained athe adding 967-7 feet (the height of the one 
given r. Gilbert i se) 
on oe Ss mest of the ct oe vol. pg Ty 1218 fet, 
Union Pacifie Railroad. 
_} This Journal, vol. xv, April, 1878, p. 258. 


Le oe we be tae 


A. C. Peale—Ancient Outlet of Great Salt Lake. 443 


the season of 1877, noticed on page 56 of the current volume 
of this Journal, there is no mention of the observations at Red 
Rock Pass, but the omission appears to have been accidental, &c.” 
The portion of this statement that I have italicised is a gratui- 
tons assumption. The omission was not accidental. I did not 


believe that the outlet was at Red Rock Gap, and in the Pre- 


liminary Report (page 7), I made the following statement: 
“The lower valley of the Portneuf is interesting from the fact 
that it is the probable ancient outlet of the great lake that 
once filled the Salt Lake Basin.”™ 

Mr. Gilbert also hopes that I “will not advocate in” my 
“report the idea that the divide between the Malade and 
Marsh Creek was one of the old outlets of the ancient Salt 
Lake when its waters were at the highest level.” 

Had I been writing a final report on the subject I would 
perhaps have used the word overflow instead of outlet. It 


summit, although” he “bad undertaken last summer to examine 
every divide between the Columbia and Salt Lake Basins, that 
might have afforded passage to the water.” 

In all his investigations he seems never to have noted any 
evidences of a lake having a higher level than his Lake Bonne- 
ville. Such evidences, however, do exist. On both sides of 
the Portneuf where it comes into Marsh Creek Valley an upper 
terrace is seen, and in 1872 Professor F. H. Bradley also 
readily identified an upper terrace in Marsh Creek Valley at 
the lev bo n 


Report 

no warrant for the statement that he made the “ astonishing 
* Preliminary Report of the field work of the United States Geological and 
perce Sea i of the Territories for the season of 1877. Washington, 
1877, p. 7. ; { 
+This Journal, vol. xv, April. 1878, p. 258. Mr. Gilbert appears to take it 
for granted that the point of outlet must necessarily be found at one of the exist- 

ing divides between the Great Basin and the Columbia. 
The railroad profile from the bluffs on Bear River in Cache Valley to Red Rock 
Pass (a distance of fifteen miles) shows a difference of elevation of only eleven 
f the descent of Marsh Creek from Red Rock Pass to a point twenty-six 

ly 1°07 feet per 


draining of Lake Bonneville — easily have 
present the divide for several miles is a swamp. 2 

¢ Sixth Annual of the United States Geological Survey, for 1872. 
Washington, 1873, p. 203. 


444 EF. H. Storer—Ferment-theory of Nitrification. 


suggestion that four outflowing streams might have coexisted.” 
The italics are my own. 
In conclusion I wish to state that this paper is based on the 


special reference to finding an outlet of the ancient Salt Lake. 
Mr. Gilbert has spent portions of at least two seasons in the 
study of this special subject in the northern portion of the 
basin, and it is evident that his investigations are still unsatis- 
factory. 


Art. LXIV.—WNote on the Ferment-theory of Nitrification; by 
F. H. Storer, Harvard University. 


THE results of the following experiments bear so immedi- 
ately upon the recent observations of Schliésing* and Waring- 
ton,t noticed in the April number of this Journal, that I am 
led to publish them by themselves, out of their legitimate con- 
nection with other experiments upon which I have been for 
some time engaged. My experiments were made for the pur- 


- ; No. 6 ammonium chloride, 
black oxide of manganese nd 


a 
peat and pure water; No, 8 leached peat and ammonium chlo- 


* Comptes Rendus, ixxxiv, 301. 
Journal of London Chem Soc., 1878, i, 44. 
+ In the manner described in the note on page 182 of vol. xii of this Journal. 


F. H. Storer—Ferment-theory of Nitrification. 445 


chemicals, and the absence of nitrates and nitrites was proved 
by testing each of the solutions and mixtures with iodo-stareh, 
at the beginning of the experiment. 

The bottles were about half filled with liquid, i. e., each of 
them contained about 250 ce. of the solution or mixture allot- 
ted to it. 

The “leached peat” was prepared from some bog-meadow 
mud from the Bussey farm, which had been kept in barrels in 
a dry store-room for three or four years. This thoroughly air- 
dried substance was percolated with pure water until the fil- 
trate gave no reaction for nitrites or nitrates. 

ic and ferrous hydrates were used in the recentl 

precipitated condition; they were made from the correspond- 
ing chlorides by precipitating with ammonia-water, in the cold. 

e bottles were connected with one another, in the order 
indicated, with short pieces of caoutchouc tubing in such man- 
ner that by aspirating at No. 1 air could be made to bubble 
through the water in each member of the series. The corks of 
the bottles and the caoutchoue connectors were covered with 


ilar bulbs hited with potash-lye to remove nitrates and 
nitrites; through a dry bottle, to catch liquid drawn forward 
from the potash bulbs; and through a large drying tube 
charged for two-thirds its length with calcium chloride and one- 
third with soda-lime. 


and 10 namely gave immediate and strong reactions for the 

nitrogen oxides, while the contents of Nos. 1, 2, 3. 4, 5, 6, and 
1 gave no reaction whatsoever. No. 7 gave a reaction, but 

not a very strong one. The reaction seemed to be strongest In 
Am. Jour. Sci.—TsimD — Vou. XV, No. 90,—Junz, 1878. 


446 F. H. Storer—Ferment-theory of Nitrification. 


the contents of No. 10. It appeared from these results that 
there had been formation either of a nitrate or nitrite in each 
of the bottles which contained humus, and no such formation 
in either of the other bottles; but the thought suggested itself, 
that the small amount of nitrogen oxides found in No. 7 may 
perhaps have been dragged over mechanically from No. 8 by 
the current of air. 

A second series of tests was made upon Nos. 8, 9 and 10, 
to see which of them gave the weakest reaction, 25 ce. of liquid 
being taken from each bottle and diluted with pure water to 
the volume of 100 cc. before applying the test. It appeared 
again that No. 10 gave the strongest reaction and that No. 8 
gave the weakest. Roughly estimated, the strength of the 
reactions from jars Nos. 10, 9 and 8 were to one another as 


It may here be said that humus was employed in these exper- 
iments for the sake of testing the old observation of Millon,* 
who noticed that ammonium salts are changed to nitrates when 
in contact with oxidizing humus, and who argued that the 
chemical action originated by the coming together of humus 
and oxygen, was communicated to the ammonium compound. 
In his own words: “The oxidation of the humic acid is the 
cause of the oxidation of the ammonia.” 


e 
chloride; No. 14 pure water; No. 15 pure water, the same 


warming the laboratory. The current of air passed this time in 
the direction from No. 1 to No. 15; it was maintained constantly 
* Kopp and Will’s Jahresbericht der Chemie, 1860, xiii, 101 and 1864, xvii, 158. 


wl 


F. H. Storer—Ferment-theory of Nitrification. 447 


during ten days, and the contents of the bottles were then 
tested as before for nitrites and nitrates. But no reaction was 
obtained in either instance, with the exception of No. 12 (cot- 
ton rags, etc.), which gave a faint coloration of a not very sat- 
isfactory character. After the application of the test those of 
the bottles which still contained a sufficiency of liquid were 
re-attached to the aspirator and air was drawn through them 
continually during another week, when the test for nitrites and 
nitrates was again applied. But in no case was there any reac- 
tion, with the exception of bottle No. 8 whose contents gave a 
faint coloration. 


tents of the bottles were then tested for nitrites and nitrates, 
but no reaction was obtained in either case. To make sure 
that the absence of the reaction was not due to any interference 
caused by the presence of the peat or the chemicals, a fresh 
portion of liquid was taken from each of the bottles, enough 
nitrate of potash to amount to 0-001 gram of N,O, was added, 
and the test for nitrites and nitrates was applied in the usual 
way: reactions were now obtained immediately in every 


instance. : : 

In the light of the facts observed by Schldsing, the natural 
inference from the results of these experiments is that the for- 
mation of nitrates or nitrites in bottles Nos. 7 to 10 of the first 
series of experiments was due to the presence of living organ- 
isms which the peat had harbored, and that the absence of 
nitrification in the other series of experiments is to be attrib- 
uted to the destruction of the ferment-germs by the hot acid 
with which the peat employed in these gh one had been 
treated. It is to be observed, moreover, that the formation of 
nitrogen oxides in the bottles Nos. 7 to 10 is in nowise out 0 


448 F. H. Storer—Ferment-theory of Nitrification. 


accord with the important fact observed by Warington, that 
darkness* is essential to the action of the nitrifying germs, for 
although my bottles were not shielded from cise’ Gay hans 
the mixtures of peat and water which the tained were 
practically dark-colored muds, not ill-fitted to Moles the germs 
from the light. 

It is possible of course that the colder weather which pre- 
vailed during the later trials may have had an influence upon 
their results; but if this be so, the fact must be counted as an 
additional argument in favor of the ferment-theory. More- 


that is needed to induce nitrification, the heating of the liquids 
by day in the third series of experiments would have been suf- 
he ie though both the strong heat and the cooling of the 
nies would have tended to prevent the growth of 
ee organism 
the Coca of the ferment-theory, it would have been 
well to control the meen: ew above given by trials with 
mixtures of the purified peat and carbonate of lime, for peat 
ich has been treated ah muriatic acid has always a slight 
wed reaction, due I suppose to free humic acid, no matter how 
thoroughly it may have been washed with water, and it is to 
be supposed that this acid peat, devoid withal of phosphatic 
and other saline matters, is not favorable for the growth of the 
ferment. But as was said before, my experiments were made 
to test the oxidizing action of certain chemicals, not to culti- 
vate living organisms. 
It may be added that I have not as yet found any evidence 
* The following statement has a certain interest for analysts as bearing U 
the stability of dilute solutions of — pps chloride. In February, 187 sy 7a 


it was 
noticed by my assistant, Mr. Lewis, solution of ammonium chloride which 
had been prepared ten or twelve ase previously for use in connection with 


Nessler’s test, by dissolving the salt at the rate of 3°15 grams to the liter, now 
gave a strong reaction for nitrites, although f a solutions, made in 
the same way from like ma gave no reaction. e old solution was con- 
tained in a glass-stoppered bottle which was about cae filled by it, and it had 
n kept most of the time in a as cupboard. 
Acting on the supposition that the change of the ammonium salt to a 
had been caused by the growth of some fungus in the liquid and that sale fun- 
gus might pickers be Le at in other bottles in the neighborhood, I a as 
many different specimens of moulds as could be found growing in the various 
saline soltions apt kept in in th the laboratory, and, after sliding with pure water, "placed 
them in a series of half-gallon bottles, into which had been poured from half to 


ee 
, 
i 


eo Pixie 


J.W. Powell's Survey of the Rocky Mountain Region. 449 


that solutions of ammonium compounds can be oxidized to 
nitrites or nitrates by means either of ferric oxide, of black 
oxide of manganese or of gypsum. I can say with Millon,* 
that, in spite of all that has been written in favor of the oxida- 
tion of ammonium by ferric oxide, “I owe it to truth to state 
that though the most varied attempts have been made to oxi- 

ize ammonia in the cold (i. e. in the wet way), by peroxide of 
iron, they have all proved unavailing.” 

I am indebted to my assistant, Mr. D. S. Lewis, for his care- 
ful attention to the details of these experiments. 

Bussey Institution, Jamaica Plain, Mass., April, 1878. 


Art. LXV.—Geographical and Geological Survey of the Rocky 
Mountain Region under the direction of Professor J. W. Powell. 
Account of work performed during the year 1877. 


[Concluded from page 358.] 


was secured. : ) 
vey, prepared a paper on the tribes of Alaska, and edited other 
papers on certain tribes of Oregon and Washington Territory. 


map to accompany his paper, including on it the latest geo- 

1 ination from all available sources. His long 
residence and extended scientific labors in that region pecu- 
liarly fitted him for the task, and he has made a valuable con- 


t f 
The volume also contains a Niskwalli vocabulary with extended 
rammatic notes, the last great work of the lamented author. 
n addition to the map above mentioned and prepared by Mr. 
Dall, a second was made, embracing the western portion of 
Washington Territory and the northern part of Oregon. The 
map includes the latest geographic information, and is colored 


sonian, and turned over to Professor Powell, to be consolidated 
with materials collected by members of bis corps. 


- * Chemical News, 1860, ii, 337, from Comptes Rendus. 


450 oJ. W. Powell's Survey of the Rocky Mountain Region. 


These papers form a quarto volume of 861 pages, entitled 
Contributions to North American Ethnology, volume I, the 
first of a series to be published on this subject. 

Volume II, relating to the tribes of the eastern portion of 
Washington Territory and the State of Oregon, was partially 
prepared for the printer, but it was thought best to withhold 
its publication until further materials were collected from that 


region. 
The third volume of the series has been published. This 
relates to the Indians of California. Mr. Stephen Powers, of 


small chieftaincies, speaking diverse languages, and belonging 
to radically different stocks, and the whole subject was one of 


Smithsonian Collection are published with those of Mr. Pow- 
ers. The linguistic portion of the volume was edited by Pro- 
fessor Powell. 


sonable progress towards civilization, together with which in 
_ Many instances their numbers have increased. No final publi- 


J.W. Powell’s Survey of the Rocky Mountain Region. 451 


cation on the subject has yet been issued, but he has read 
papers before the Philosophical Society of Washington and 
other scientific bodies, to invite the attention of ethnologists to 
the subject. He has also been engaged in preparing the his- 
tory and bibliography of the Klamath, Chinook, Wayiletpu, 
Sahaptin, and other families of Oregon, and his papers on this 
subject will appear in the second volume of Contributions to 
North American Ethnology. 

In March last, Mr. Albert S. Gatschet was employed to assist 
in the study of Indian languages, and during the spring months 
his time was occupied as an assistant in compiling the bibliog- 
raphy of the North American languages. During the summer 
and autumn months he visited a number of tribes in Oregon, 
for the purpose of collecting vocabularies and grammatic notes. 
On his way to the field he stopped at Ogden, where he found a 
tribe of Shoshone Indians, from whom he procured a vocabu- 
lary of about five hundred words. 

In Chico, Butte County, California, he stopped one week, to 
visit the Michépdo Indians, a branch of the Maidu stock, where 
he collected linguistic material of value. From Chico he pro- 
ceeded directly to the Klamath Agency, in Southern Oregon, 


words from Modok Indians visiting Washington and New 
York, and his work at the Klamath Agency was a continua- 
tion of such study. Altogether he has collected a vocabulary 
of about five thousand words, also many sentences and texts 
on historic and mythologic subjects arranged with interlinear 
translations. ‘ ; 

The numerical system of this language 1s quinary,. and the 
numerals above eleven have incorporat particles giving them 
a gender or classifying significance, apparently based upon 
form. The subject and object pronouns are not incorporated 
in the verb; the personal pronouns differ from the possessive ; 
and a true relative pronoun exists. An im} rtant character- 
istic of the language is the use of prefix-particles in nouns and 
verbs indicating form, and the reduplication of the first sylla- 
ble, which is usually the radical syllable, for the purpose of 
showing distribution. It is often equivalent to our plural. It 
occurs in the singular of adjectives indicating shape and color, 
in augmentative and diminutive nouns and verbs, 1n iterative 
and frequentative verbs; and forms the distributive plural of 
many substantives, adjectives, numerals, verbs and adverbs. 

From the Klamath Agency, Mr. Gatschet proceeded to the 
Grande Ronde Agency, in the northwestern part of Oregon. 
On his way he stopped at Dayton, and made collections of 


452 J. W. Powell's Survey of the Rocky Mountain Region, 


Shasta and Umpqua words, from reliable Indians. On the 
Grande Ronde Agency are found a large number of tribes and 
remnants of tribes which were collected there after the Oregon 
war of 1855-6; and with the exception of the Klikatats they 
are all from Western Oregon. The following is a classification 
of the linguistic stocks now on this reservation: Tinnéh, Silets, 
Wayiletpu, Shasta, T’sinuk, Sahaptin, Selish, Modok and Kal- 
apuya. The Kalapuya once occupied almost the whole extent 
of the beautiful and fertile Willamette valley, and one branch 
of this stock, the Yonkalla, even extended into the Umpqua 


Mr. Gatschet also collected vocabularies and sentences of the 
spilowing lepguazen. Shoshoni, Achomawi, Shasta, Wintun, 
W: éssisi, Waska, Klakamas, Mélele, Nestucca, Yamhill, 
ayuk and Ahantchuyuk. In the collection of all these 
vocabularies, the “Introduction to the Study of Indian Lan- 
Ne: prepared for the Smithsonian Institution by Prof. J. 
W. Powell was us 

Dr. H. C. Yarrow, U.S. A., now on duty at the Army Medi- 
cal Museum in Washington, has been engaged during the past 
year in the collection of material for a monograph on the cus- 
_ toms and rites practised in the disposal of the dead among the 


J.W. Powell's Survey of the Rocky Mountain Region. 453 


North American Indians. To aid him in this work, circulars 
of inquiry have been widely distributed among ethnologists and 
other scholars throughout North America, and much material 
has been obtained which will greatly supplement his own ex- 
tended observations and researches. 

During the summer some interesting work was done in the 
examination of the stone graves of Tennessee, and valuable col- 
- lections were made. Professor Powell has codperated with the 
Institution in providing for a more thorough examination of 
the archwology of the islands off the shore of southern Cali- 
fornia. This exploration was made by Rey. Stephen Bowers, 
of Indianapolis, Indiana, and his report will be published with 
the papers of the survey. 

A small volume, entitled “Introduction to the Study of 
Indian Languages,” has been prepared. This book is intended 
for distribution among collectors. In its preparation, Prof. 
Powell was assisted by Prof. W. D. Whitney, the distinguished 
philologist of Yale College, in that part relating to the repre- 
sentation of the sounds of Indian languages. ew prelimi- 
nary copies have been printed and distributed among gentlemen 
interested in the study of Indian languages for such addition 
and emendations as may be suggested preparatory to final pub- 
lication. A tentative classification of the linguistic families of 
the Indians of the United States has been prepared. This will 


It is believed that the labors in this direction will not be void 
of useful results. 


was made of the Black Hills of Dakota, by Mr. Walter P. 
Jenny, with ; 
honorable Secretary of the Interior. On the return of the 


the spread of civilization over a region inhabited by savages. 


geographical and geological report was unfinished at that time. 
This fi work a left in the hands of Mr. Henry A. New- 
ton, his geological assistant, to be completed. On May 28th, 
1877, at the request of Mr. Newton, the completion of the 


454 J.W. Powell's Survey of the Rocky Mountain Region. 


should visit the field again for the purpose of determining 
certain doubtful points in the geological structure, and to in- 
sert on the maps the position of the several towns and roads 
established in that region since the discovery of gold, and Mr. 

ewton was employed for this purpose. He had been in the 
field but a short time when he was prostrated by the sick- 
ness which resulted in his death. Previous to his departure he 
completed his report on the geology of that country, and the 
po A been placed in the hands of the engraver; the whole 
embodying all the facts discovered up to that time. Thus, 
happily, his work will not be lost. It is expected that his 
report will be published during the present winter, in the 
shape in which it was left by him. 

The death of Mr. Newton makes a serious break in the 
ranks of the younger and more active geologists of America. 

€ possessed rare abilities, had much experience in field opera- 
‘ions, and had received thorough and wise training, and his 
work in other fields had exhibited his ability. But the great 
work of his short life will doubtless be his report on the geol- 
ogy of the Black Hills of Dakota. 


During the past six years one branch of the work of the 
survey has been considered of paramount importance, namely, 
the classification of lands and the subjects connected therewith. 
The object has been to determine the extent of irrigable lands, 
timber lands, pasturage lands, coal lands and mineral lands. 
In general the lands that are cultivable only through irrigation 
are limited by the supply of water. There are some excep- - 
tions to this. Where streams are found in narrow valleys or 
run in deep cafions, the limit of agricultural land is determined 
by the extent of the areas to which the water can be conducted 
with proper engineering skill. In the study of this subject 

interesting and important problems have arisen, an 
many valuable facts have been collected. 

From the survey of the timber lands one very important 
fact appears, that the area where standing timber is actually 
found is very much smaller than the areas where the condi- 
tions of physical geography are such that timber should be 
found as a spontaneous growth—that is, the area of timber is 
but a small fraction of the timber region. The destruction of 
timber in such regions now found naked, is due to the great 
fires that so frequently devastate these lands: and the amount 
of timber taken for economic purposes bears but an exceed- 
ingly small ratio to the amount so destroyed. Hence the 
Important problem to be solved is the best method by which 

these fires can be prevented. 


J. Rodgers— Observations on the Transit of Mercury. 455 


Another subject which has received much attention is the 
utilization of the pasturage lands; and still another, the best 
methods of surveying the mineral lands for the purpose of 
description and identification, that the owners of mines may be 
relieved of the great burden of litigation to which they are 
subjected by reason of the inaccurate and expensive methods 
now in vogue. 


Arr. LXVL— Observations on the Transit of Mercury. Letter 
to the Editors from JoHn Rop@ers, Rear Admiral U.5.N., 
Superintendent of the United States Naval Observatory, 
dated May 11, 1878. 


Ir may interest your readers to learn that the transit of Mer- 
cury, occurring on May 5-6, was very successfully observed 
at the Naval Observatory, and throughout the country gen- 
erally. Satisfactory observations of all the contacts were made 
here, and good observations of the contacts have been reporte 
from the observers of the United States Coast Survey in 
Washington, and in different parts of the country. Reports of 
observations of the contacts have been received from 


observatories at Cambridge and at Ann Arbor, Professors 


Pickering and Watson, kindly undertook the work of making 
i ies: and a set of the instru- 


photographs was the same as that followed in the case of the 
transit of Venus. The dry-plate process Was, however, 
adopted in the present case, in place of the wet-plate process 
used in the transit of Venus. The great advantage of the 
dry-plate process, if it can be used successfully, 1s evident. 
The plates were all prepared here by Mr Joseph A. Rogers ; 
and seventy-two plates were sent to each of the observatories, 
where they were exposed and then returned here for develop- 
ment. The same number of plates were exposed here by Mr. 


accurately ; and we think they will furnish data for a very 
exact determination of the latitude and longitude of the planet 


photographing the transit. These gentlemen report a snow 

storm during the early part of the day, but clear weather in the’ 

afternoon, during whvol a good number of photographs was 
ured. 


Our experience in photographing transits of planets, and in 

measuring the photographs, indicates that while the American 
method is correct in theory, the apparatus needs some change. 
In order to obtain good measures, the picture should be sharp, 
and the exposure short. It is probable, therefore, that the 
reflectors, which now lose about nineteen-twentieths of the 
light, will have to be changed. 
_ A comparison of the observations of contact with the 
eee of the American and English Nautical Almanacs 
shows that the English Almanac is much nearer the truth. 
Since the ephemeris of the American Almanac is based on 
Leverrier’s old theory, and that of the English Almanac on his 
recent one, the result of the present observations appears to be 
a confirmation of Leverrier’s theory with respect to an intra- 
mercurial planet. 

United States Naval Observatory, Washington. 


S. P. Langley—Transit of Mercury of May 6th, 1878. 457 


4 


Art. LXV1L—Transit of Mercury of May 6th, 1878; by S. P. 
LANGLEY. 


in their natural colors and relative brightness. 

I had the fortune, at ingress, of an unusually blue and trans- 
parent sky, and aided by this, saw with the polarizing eye-piece 
the entire disc of Mercury outside the sun about one-half a 
minute before first external contact. Presumably it might 
have been seen even earlier, had not time been lost in searching 
for it, through lack of means to designate the precise position- 
angle, the position filar-micrometer not being adaptable to this 
eye-piece. After a pause to verify the reality of the phenome- 
non by revolving the eye-lens, etc., the chronograph key was 
struck at 21 52m 398-45 Allegheny mean time, to record the 
observation. As this was really made earlier, and the disc was 
seen throughout its circumference, it seems clear that the 
coronal back-ground is bright enough to produce this effect at 
least fifteen seconds of arc from the solar limb, and in spite of 
the atmospheric glare. . 

As a partial substitute for the filar micrometer, there was in 
the field a glass reticule, ruled (by Prof. Rogers, of hapa 
in squares whose sides represented here 15°’8, and this enable 
—not a measurement—but a fair comparison to be made of the 
apparent size of the planet before and after it entered on the 
sun. The contrast was striking, as on a back-ground very little 
brighter than itself its diameter was, if anything, greater than 
one of the sides of these squares, while as soon as It entered on 
the sun it seemed to shrink by more than one-fifth of this. 
First external contact was noted on the chronograph at 21» 52™ 
505-48. First internal contact was noted when the sunlight 
could be seen unmistakably between the disc and limb at 21° 
55m 478-95, These entries, 1 believe to have been made in both 
cases nearly two seconds late. The limb just at second contact, 
was steady. I saw no “black drop” or “ ligament” 

As the dise advanced on tbe sun it was closely scrutinized, 
Without at any time any “bright point” or “annulus” being 


458 S. P. Langley—Transit of Mercury of May 6th, 1878. 


spot nuclei, being gray, slightly inclining toward a blue, like 
; t may be that this 


measurements with a Jamin photometer were unsatisfactory. 
Subsequently, by another method, a trustworthy value was 
fixed fora minimum. It was thus found that the light actually 
received on the paper apparently from the so-called “ black” 
body of the planet, at any rate exceeded eight per cent of that 
from direct sunlight, and measures taken by the thermopile and 
pcpbbveeasn showed that heat was coming from the same 
irection. 


* Monthly Notices R. A. S., vol. xxix, p. 26, 
+ I presume that even in absolutely perfect definition there would be theo- 
- al, ae prety Seen 


0. C. Marsh—Notice of a new Fossil Mammal. 459 


It is evident, for instance, that from the facts here stated we 
can estimate, photometrically, the intrinsic brightness of the 
corona, since it was undoubtedly this, acting as a back-ground, 
which enabled the planet, though itself involved to a calculable 
extent in atmospheric glare, to be seen before it reached the 
solar limb. 

The observations were interrupted by haze in the afternoon 
and egress was so nearly invisible that the apparent times of 
contact are not worth giving. 

Allegheny Observatory, May 7, 1878. 


Arr. LXVIIL—Fossil Mammal from the Jurassic of the Rocky 
Mountains ; by Professor O. C. MaRsH. 


ONE of the most interesting discoveries made in the Rocky 
Mountain region is the right lower jaw ot a small mammal 
recently received at the Yale College Museum. The specime 
was found in the Atlantosaurus beds of the Upper Jurassic, 
and the associated fossils are mainly Dinosaurs. 


This specimen is in fair preservation, althou sh most of the 
teeth have been broken off in removing it from the rock. The 


as the corresponding molar of Chironecies variegatus Illiger. 
The angle of the jaw is imperfect, but there are indications that 


The principal dimensions of this specimen are as follows: 


Space occupied by seven posterior tebth cc occl. ico 
Depth of jaw below last molar -------- -------- “4 
Transverse diameter ..------- ---- -------+---- 1°8 
Height of crown of penultimate molar... 45+ i 
Transverse diameter ------------- ---------"-- 15 


The present specimen indicates an animal about as large as 
a weasel. It is of special interest, as hitherto no Jurassic 
mammals have been found in this country. 
Yale College, New Haven, May 13, 1878, 


460 S. Calvin—Shale at Independence, Towa. 


Art. LXIX.—On some dark Shale recently discovered below the 
Devonian Liimestones at Independence, Iowa; with notice of the 
Fossils at present known to be in it; by S. Canvin, Professor 
of Geology, State University of Iowa. 


THE Devonian deposits of Iowa, as now known, may be 
roughly represented by the annexed diagram, in which 1 indi- 
cates the position of a member of the 
3 | group recently discovered at Independence, 
consisting of dark argillaceous shales wit 
2| some thin beds of impure, concretionary 
limestone. It has been explored to a depth 
1| of twenty or twenty-five feet. No. 2 
represents all of what is usually included 
under the head of the Devonian limestones of Iowa, and is 
made up largely of limestone with some associated beds of 
light-colored shales ; estimated thickness, 150 feet. No. 3 isa 
od of argillaceous shales exposed at and near Rockford, Iowa, 
and is referred to frequently as the Rockford Shales. It 
abounds in fossils, and weathers, on exposure, into a stiff clay 
that has been utilized in the manufacture of brick; observed 
thickness, seventy feet. 
Until recently, Nos. 2 and 3 of the above section were sup- 
pest to make up the entire thickness of Devonian rocks in 
owa. No. 2 not only varies, as already indicated, in lithologi- 
cal characters, but the grouping of fossils differs widely in 


equivalent of the New York Chemung. On the other hand, Dr. 
C. A. White, Geology of Iowa, 1870, vol. i, p. 187, is of opinion 


S. Calvin—Shale at Independence, Iowa. 461 


x ese, two are not 
determined and five others are new to science, but the chief 
interest attaches to certain species that have hitherto been 
known only from the shales of bed No. 3, near Rockford, 
Iowa. For the purpose of indicating the relationship of the 
new shale to the other Devonian deposits of lowa, we shall 
arrange the specimens in three groups, using my manuscript 


: ’ 

era subumbona Hall. 
II. Species ranging through all the Devonian deposits, and 

so common to beds 1, 2 and 3: Aérypa reticularis Lin. 
_ IIL. Species common to beds 1 and 3, but not known to oecur 
in the intervening limestones: Strophodonta vata, D. Sp., 
S arcuata Hall, 8. Canace Hall and Whitfield, S. reversa Hall, 

Am. Jour. Sct.—THIrD Serres, Vou. XV, No. 90.—JuNz, 1878. 

31 


462 . Joseph Henry. 
Atrypa hystrix Hall,* and Productus (Productella) dissimitlis 
Hall. 


It is an interesting fact that of the twelve determined species, 
six occur only in the shaly deposits at the opening and close of 
‘the Devonian, ac eg rd these deposits are separated by 
150 feet of limestones. Only one species is known to 
from the lower shale into she uriadiend above, and even that 
appears under a form so altered that specimens from the two 
beds may be distinguished as readily as if they were distinct 


the Atrypa reticularis of No. 1, also finds its nearest representa- 
tive, not in ws limestones immediately above, but in the 
shales at Roe 


itions more favorable to them a iy the deposition of the 
Rockford Shales 
The intimate felation between the two extremes of the group 
ean but strengthen the conclusion of Dr. White, that all the 
Devonian strata of Iowa belong to a single epoch. 


JosepH Henry, LL.D. 


Proressor HENRY died, on the thirteenth of May, 1878, 
at his home in the Smithsonian Institution, Washington City. 
For over half a century Professor Henry has been one of the 

remost men of science in the United States ; and his name is 
well known in all countries where science »: cultivated. He 
was, it is believed, the last of that band of the older men 
of science in America, dating from the last century, baving 
been the associate during his ato of Hare, Silliman, Bache, 
— and others of the sa epoch. His eminent attain- 

ts and important niisaweczion early gave him a well earn 

reputation as an original heresy Later his skill as an 


* The fo as A. hys ffers conspicuously from the 
form described in the hte gee Towa, 1858, bos i, part 2, p. 515, under the name 
ie te ale i is last form is very abundant in tl 


Independence Shale are 


The specimens cal with | 
the form presented by this pening in the Rockford s one For eoomondian of 
nnual Report of Board 


this specific name to this special form. see Tw: 
of Regents on New York Stato Cabinet, p Hr gesepere 


Joseph Henry. 463 


administrator of great public trusts in the interests of science, 
and his rare personal qualities, made him universally respected 
and beloved. His noble presence and cultivated bearing 
were always conspicuous, however distinguished the pate 
about him, and manifested truly the high morale which 
him a dignity rarely equalled. His genial reo not Jenminghed 
with a certain reserve, will never be fo n by those who 
enjoyed his friendship or came into familiar wai with him. 
Fortunately, a fine portrait painted quite recently, by order of 
the trustees of the Smithsonian Institution, will eon his 
well known features and render them familiar to posteri 
Professor Henry was born December 17, 1797, at AToahy 
New York, where also much of his early life was “passed, e 
had at first the advantages of only a commo ool educa- 
tion; later, after two years of work asa aaiieres he came 
under the training of the Albany Academy, where he developed 
ree of mathematical talent which, in 1826, led to his 
Selection for the duties of instructor in mathematics in that 
institution. Prior to this, having had some experience in the 


which A tieaect was ‘saa ted as the radix—a contrivance 
which is hardly known, even by name, to the present genera- 
tion of chemists. Thus, while Professor Henry’s original con- 
tributions. to science were chiefly physical, his first scientific 
work was in the department of chemistry. His work with Dr. 
Beck enabled him, after his removal to Princeton—where he 
became Professor of Natural Philosophy in 1832,—to take up 
the duties of the chemist, Dr. John Torrey, when that well 
known teacher was disabled for a time by ill h 

It was in the interval, between 1828 and 1837, wen the most 
important work of his life was accomplished in the line of 
strictly scientific research. These results are chiefly reco 
in the Transactions of the sen Institute, the volumes of 
this Journal for the period, and the Transactions of the Ameri- 
can y Heian a His ci : Gaiaiatigne to Electricity 
and collected in a separate volume in 1839. 
The aanlyein of shone important reseitreies; and the >isdustior 


464 Joseph Henry. 


of the questions of priority connected with them, will be the 
duty of the academician to whom shall be assigned the prepara- 
tion of a memoir or eulogy of the distinguished author. 
Without assigning dates we give the following brief enume- 
ration of his memoirs and discoveries, taken from a communi- 


Witt, the organization of the meteorological system of the 
State of New York. 

. The development, for the first time, of magnetic power, 
sufficient to sustain tons in weight, in soft iron, by a compara- 
tively feeble galvanic current. 

-he first application of electro-magnetism as a power, to 
produce continued motion in a machine. 

. An exposition of the method by which electro-magnetism 
might be employed in transmitting power to a distance, and the 
demonstration of the practicability of an electro-magnetic tele- 
graph, which, without these discoveries, was impossible. 

6. The discovery of the induction of an electrical current in 
a long wire upon itself, or the means of increasing the intensity 
of a current by the use of a spiral conductor. 

. The method of inducing a current of quantity from one 
of intensity, and vice versa. 

8. The discovery of currents of induction of different orders, 
and of the neutralization of the induction by the interposition 
of plates of metal. 


; substances. 
12. Investigations on molecular attraction, as exhibited in 

liquids, and in yielding and i 

_the theory of soap bak bak 


= called upon to investigate the causes of the bursting of the 


great gun on the United States Steamer Princeton.] 


EGE eat ce Nor + 9 ot eer 4 


Joseph Henry. A465 


13. Original experiments on and exposition of the principles 
of acoustics, as applied to churches and other public buildings 

14. Experiments on various instruments to be used as fog 
signals. 

5. A series of experiments on various illuminating materials 
for light-house use, and the introduction of lard oil for lighting 
the coasts of the United States. This and the preceding in his 
office of Chairman of the Committee on Experiments of the 
Light-House Board. 

16. Experiments on heat, in which the radiation from clouds 
and animals in distant fields was indicated by the thermo-elec- 
trical apparatus applied to a reflecting telescope. 

17. Observations on the comparative temperature of the sun- 
spots, and also of different portions of the sun’s disk. thes 
experiments he was assisted by Professor Alexander. 

18. Proof that the radiant heat from a feebly luminous flame 
is also feeble, and that the increase of radiant light, by the in- 
troduction of a solid substance into the flame of the compound 

lowpipe, is accompanied with an equivalent radiation of heat, 
and also that the increase of light and radiant heat in a flame 
of hydrogen, by the introduction of a solid substance, is attended 
with a diminution in the heating power of the flame itse] 

19. The reflection of heat from coneave mirrors of ice, and 
its application to the source of the heat derived from the moon. 

0. Observations in connection with Professor Alexander, on 
the red flames on the border of the sun, as observed in the 
annular eclipse of 1838. 

Experiments on the phosphorogenic ray of the sun, from 
which it is shown that this emanation is polarizable and refran- 
gible, according to the same laws which govern light. 


to the philosophical hall in the attic, on which was screwed 
firmly a rude imitation of a fiddle at the top near the ceili 
while to the other end negro Sam bad a real fiddle attach 


466 Joseph Henry. 


Ona bell signal from the Professor, Sam would saw away with 
his bow in the cellar, the Professor calling the attention of the 
class to the weird music his fiddle discoursed in the lecture- 
room. On these occasions Professor Henr always remarked 


To the above enumerated papers should be added an impor- 
tant series of communications, made chiefly to the National 
Academy of Sciences during the past four or five years, upon 
the laws of acoustics as developed in the course of investiga- 


fog-signals. These investigations have been carried forward 


close personal attention during many weeks of each season. 


? 
of electricity, as exhibited in the thunder-storm. 
_ Professor Henry remained at Princeton, in the chair of Nat- 
ural phectiag sa until his removal to Washington in 1846, to 
e duties of Secretary of the Smithsonian Institu- 
Favored by nature with a vigorous constitution, he enjoy ed 
__ through his long life. almost uninterrupted good health. His 


cial labor which fell to his share as the head of the Smithson- 
ian Institution ; of the Light-House Board; of the National 


oe 


Fo Bl ee ee eae ot = eel ter, ie et eae |) Ty ts 


- Chances of investinents, 


Joseph Henry. 467 


Academy of Science; and as the adviser of the Government in 
matters of science. 

It was while engaged in discharge of certain experimental 
work on Staten Island last December, connected with the pho- 
tometric laboratory of the Light-House Board, that he experi- 
enced a partial paralysis, which yielded soon to treatment, but 
was doubtless the precursor of the nephritic attack to which he 
succumbed, In April he presided at the opening meeting of the 
session of the National Academy of Sciences held in the rooms 
of the Secretary of the Smithsonian, and submitted an address 
to his associates, read by the Home Secretary, recounting with 
touching simplicity his recent decline of power, and express- 
ing his desire to be relieved from the cares of the office of Pres- 
ident. Asa mark of affectionate respect, the Academy unan- 
imously requested him to retain this post during his life—leay- 
ing the duties to be discharged by the Vice-President. It was 
on this occasion that the announcement was made to the Acad- 
emy, by Professor Henry, and, subsequently, in fuller details, 
by Professor Fairman Rogers, the Treasurer, of the creation of 
an endowment to be called “the Joseph Henry fund.” This fand 
consists of forty thousand dollars, securely invested, the income 
of which is for the support of Professor Henry and that of his 
family, during the life of the latest survivor. Afterwards the 
fund is to be transferred, in trust, to the National Academy of 
Sciences, the income to be forever devoted to scientific research. 
No more graceful and well-merited tribute of respect and affec- 
tion was ever bestowed upon a man of science, by the sponta- 
neous offerings of personal friends and associates. Alas! that 


affairs at the seat of government. By force of his earnest 
determination that the will of the Testator should be carried 


is large t 
original fand paid over to the United States. The policy upon 


468 Letter from B. A. Gould. 


reports. That this long period of activity, over thirty years, 
devoted so largely to work almost purely administrative, was a 
Severe tax upon a man of Professor Henry’s great productive 
power and ability in original research can hard] y be questioned. 
On the other hand, it rarely falls to the lot of any man of 
science to do so much for the best interests of the entire body 
of scientific workers, or to succeed so well in securing respect 


and methods. This is conspicuous in many ways in the his- 


its guidance. 

rofessor Henry leaves a wife and three unmarried daughters, 
who have been assiduous helpers in the scientific work of their 
father, making good to a degree the loss of an only son, whose 
death in early manhood, was a sad disappointment of parental 
va and youthful promise. 

rofessor Henry was buried May 16th, in the Rock Creek 


governmental explorations during the past twenty years, under 
d 


Cemetery, near Georgetown, D. C. The President of the 
United States, the cabinet officers, diplomatic corps and mem- 
of Congress and of the Natioual Academy, were among 
the mourners. B. 8. 


Art. LXXI.—Letter to the Editors from Dr. B. A. Gout, of 
the Cordoba Observatory, dated Cordoba, March 20, 1878. 


I Ave before me the first part of three different letters to you, 
which I have begun during the last eighteen months, but the 
ceaseless pressure of labor in collecting and arranging materials 
during this interval has left little opportunity for elaborating, and 


_ tions are ‘Tned. the part which remains is but the computa- 
Hon and publication of these results, and is going forward 
_ Fapidly as the nature of the case permits. 


‘ 


Letter from B. A. Gould. 469 


Meteorological Office, is already printed—the only one yet pub- 
ies—and 


results to which I allude, and which are there discussed in detail. 
e difficulties which have attended previous 


be in other places, 
Bu ires. 
the wind, and deducting its effects from the mean tem 


hi 
of the sun-spot so closely as scarcely to leave a ing more to be 
d the 


470 Letter from B. A. Gould. 


Thus if we denote by 7 the relative number corresponding to 


the mean s inpeniarcs as observed, to have been 16°°47 in 1870, 
and 17°°51 in 1875, while those which result from the formula are 
16° shee sae 17°49 memset. The difference 0°°16 for the first 


and the excessive deflection of the mean direction of the wind in 
1870 afford what seems to me a sufficient explanation of the rela- 
tive largeness of the residual. 
It is manifest that if the variations of the terrestrial tempera- 
d 


ndence observed bet 
variations of the magnetic declination, all necessity for assuming 
any direct and transcendental o-eimeti wid gti this latter and 


It is a source of regret that 1 have oot at disposal here any 
i nn me t 


which the investigation may be made, viz: Bahia Blanca, just to 
the north of the Patagonian coast, and this I intend to investigate 
as soon as time and gc ascercvee 

rai 


or in other in that component of the mean annual direction 
belonine is spepeodionias to the meridian. Se ag conan without — 


fon. 
periods are respectively a quart er saa the third part rt of pee 
elr existence 


2 es Wg and yet more “marked cycle shows itself in ate 
frequency of the storms, which are so well known and charac 
teristic of the La Plata. Whether we consider the annual num- 
ber of winds of force five, or six, or seven and ut wards, or the 
mean supnal. force, the same result manifests itself, viz: a periodic 


Letter from B. A. Gould. 471 


ears, The form of the corresponding curve is such 


to that comprised in the series of observations, that 
we fixed with accuracy. But I am inelined to 
~_— it will be found not to differ much from twenty-two years, 
n which event we have still another case of near commensura- 
bility with the mean period of the sun-spots. 
s regards the astronomical work there is little to communicate 
as yet. The Uranometry is not yet egies and Iam fea 
that it was a mistake to undertake the printing in this lien. 
ell ele 


remedy these difficulties, but it is of course at_ much expense of 
ergy: Th 


drawings having been obviated by the skill and assiduity of the 
hotolithugrapher, Mr. ere Bien of New York. My first 
assistant, Mr. John M. Thome, to whom more than to any other is 
ue w at accuracy the iereaniastons of magnitude may possess 


attended to the proofs. He returned a few weeks since, bringing 
with him some advanced copies, with which I am quite satisfied. 
The Atlas consists of thirteen charts, on the scale of a globe of 


is added a fourteenth as a sort of a Index-Map, to show the limits 
of the individual charts, the course of the Milky Way, and the 
general distribution of the stars. _ is sbi a Se course comprises 


ing as those between the meri dina ns of right ascension increase, 
The configurations are necessarily distorted, but the degree of 
aggregation of the stars is correctly given. 
S- As mentioned in former letters I have ventured upon rather a 
eo bold reformation of the boundaries of the constellations, whieh I 
ae earnestly hope may find approval with astronomers gene rally. 
Wherever possible, meridians and parallels (equinox of ght 
2 have been employed as boun lines, and in other 
circles so far as might well be. Yet the principle has been i 
lously followed that no important star, and none habitually 
designated by a Greek letter, should be t ransferred to a different 
constellation. By aslight sacrifice of this principle the symme | 
of the adopted boundaries might have been essentially increas 
= yet I have preferred to err upon what the safe side, 
: The text will be in English as well as se 05 but the Latin 
names of the constellations have been n preserv e only basis 
for international accordance in nomenclature. 


SOUS aceecpep pare MAU oe eee tars 


472 Scientific Intelligence. 


to have been felt in neither instance by persons in this vicinity. 

ne of these cases was at the time of the great earthquake which 
destroyed the town of Iquique, and produced so much destruc- 
tion along the coast of Peru, Bolivia and Northern Chile. The 
other was at the time of the severe mene ka ae ndoza. The 


moments at Cordoba were of course very ot ately given 
by the clock itself, and accounts caneally obt eae from the 
points of chief disturbance give the same result as former 


on 

occasions, viz: that the interval of time re se the manifesta- 

tions at these Siri and at Cordoba was less than the snare 

of the watches. This you may remember was the case 

sa when the shock was eee y felt in Cordoba, althou zh the 
tele 


nly a da 
two previous, and the time as shown the dial agreed with that 
Ww WW 


can be measured without special preparation and sani seren 


SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE. 


J. CHEMISTRY AND PHysIcs. 

1. The sion of the Solid Elements a Function of their 
ctiong weight. “since all gases, ve similar physical conditions, 
contain in saat umes the same number of molecules, they 
must ‘al have the “ists coeificising of expansion, because this 


eir atomic weights. The quotient of the density of any such 
postmen referred to water as unity, divided by its atomic vee 
e 


gives the space occupied by one atom of that element. If 
ratio if this value be the Seetoat of expansion be obtained, 
ing re S appear, as is shown in tabular form for 


some s§! 

twenty-six solid Savahita: In the first column the symbols are 
en, in the second the density, i in the pitt the ig thee So 

in the fourth the expansion-coefficient expressed in parts im 

hundred million at 40° C., and i in the fifth ie ratio of this to thé 


to atomic Vouk Thes se Saouite coefficients often 
| iw Simple relizotis for seca Be allied elements; thus the value is 


Chemistry and Physics. 473 


the same for iron, cobalt and nickel, the numbers for arsenic, anti-» 
mony an ismuth areas 1:3: 4, those for zinc and cadmium as 2: 3, 
ete; If shaob coeflicients be regarded from the stand point of 
Lothar Meyer’s law of the periodicity of the properties of the ele- 
ments, and be graphically represented as a function of the atomic 
weight, they give a curve similar to that of the atomic volume, in 
which members of natural families have an analogous position. 
Hence the author concludes that the absolute expansion of the 
atom is a periodic function of its atomic weight.— Ber gyorg hem. 
os xi, — April, 1878, . Bs 
‘0 ew Metal, Gallium.—In connection wish Jou 
aaa oc DE BoisBaupRAN, the —— of gallium, has 
worked up the residues obt ained from 4,300 kilograms of the 
Bensberg zine blende, to obtain more e of the hew metal. 
blende was first pulveriaed and varie roasted, the product treated 


te times, the spectroscope ing — to detect the metal, 
In this way, the gallium became concentrated in a residue weigh- 
ing 100 kilograms. ‘This was dissolved in sulphuric acid, purified 
with hydrogen sulphide, and treated with ammonium acetate, the 

25 being continued. ‘The zinc sulphide thus precipitated, carried 


o . . 
ram, Purified ae vd of gal aa a cloth, agitating with 
ee and ak oe tt whe obtained as a hard, 


a latinum wire havi oe a bit of solid eee on ne Pe pers 
shag erystals are obtained, their summits modified by the basal 
planes. Gallium leaves a bluish y mark on paper, is perma- 


gra 
nent in the air, remains brilliant even in boiling water, but 


tarnishes slightly in aerated water. In fusion it is white like tin 
or silver, but becomes blue-green on solidifying. Chlorine attacks 
it readily, evolving inion heat and producing a well crystallized, 


474 Scientific Intelligence. 


very fusible and — — 0 a pure and deli- 
quescent. Bromine acts less pow y, giving rise to a white 
bromide, and iodine a white ibdide, both of iiich resemble the 
chloride. The atomic weight the authors determined to be 69° 9. 

Durr, —— received a portion of the metal, has undertaken 


: and to be 
covered with a bluish gray ellicke, At a bright red, this pellicle 
is thicker, a feeble sublimate being formed. Treat ed with strong 
nitric acid at 40° or 50° , it dissolves ; and the solution heated to 
110°, loses nitric acid. Redissolved in water, evaporated to a 


63°8 per cent in weight, thus proving it to be a nitrate of the 
sesquioxide, At a higher temperature the nitrate melts, decom- 
ite fri 


ermangan. nee is ioc baby a rata salt ; a view a euieiet 
y the fact fe it does not form an ammonium alum as does the 
sesquioxide sulphate. At a bright red heat, ae nae sre reduces a 
= n of the oxide to the metallic state—C. F., lxx —_ wi 
577, 720, 756, Feb., March, 1878. 
3. On Dime eth yl-ethylene, bape | Butylene.—The aa ie 
of co , as is well known, is a mixture in variable proportions 


of active or aiiviiecthyEStiiyt alcohol ch | CH—HH, OH and 


inactive or isopropyl-ethyl alcohol cH Le CH—CH, —CH, OH. 


Dehydrated by zine chloride in the ordinary way, it furnishes an 
“cea re consisting of four different bodies: two soluble in 
peed woid dil uted — = its volume of water, e this 


tied the ordinary process by placing the zinc oe about 500 
grams, in ee spacious metal 4 a — it in a gas furnace to full 


fusion an d running in a thin stream of amyl alcohol, the “— 
a ina pind worm. The amylene on 

‘product, boiled between 35° and 38°, re com- 

arias aioe by bromine, and with the exception of 3 or 4 per 


cent, consisted of isopropyl-ethylene / CH, * | CH- CH=CH,, pro- 
duced from the corresponding aleohol. The associated ethyl 
methyl-ethy! alcohol as well as the admixed propyl and butyl 
aleohols came over sierra Bat small sceminiases of a deg? 

, diamylene only being isolated. 


Chemistry and Physics. 475 


Wishing to try this method with butyl alcohol, in order to 
obtain normal butylene, Lx Bet and Greene allowe d this alcohol 


C 
mixed with traces of OH Br CBr. 8 No ethyl-vinyl 
was formed in the reaction. Treated with sodium the reaction 
was violent, and the products collected in hydriodic acid yielded 
25 secondary butyl iodide, CH ,—CHI-~ CH, —CH,, thus prov- 


two normal butylenes, i. e., those in which the carbon atoms are 
united to no more than two others; one of these is ethyl- 
vinyl, CH,~CH, —CH=CH, vee the other dimethyl-ethylene 
CH, _CH=CH= ~CH ,. Upon e hypothesis. that in es 
with a hydracid, the hydrogen ov the haloid play the 
as the hydrogen in the saturated molecule and hence theta all the 
hydrogen atoms attached to the same carbon atom have the 
same value, both these bodies should yield the same hydriodate 
CH, —CH, —CHI—CH, ; while if the hydrogen of the HI hoe a 
different value, the two hydriodic compounds will be isomeric. 
Preparing carefully the two bodies the ey were found to be identical 
in properties, both boiling at 118°-121", and both yielding a buty- 
lene by the action of ete potash which gave a bromide dis- 
oo einer ee d 160°.—C. &., Ixxxvi, 488, Feb. ; spas 
Soe. Ch., Tl, xxix, 306, ‘Apri; 1878. 

jo Chemie al P-Composistin of Oil of Tansy and Oil of wale 

—Bruytants has submitted to proximate analysis the oils 

of cay and of valerian The former is a mobile yellow liquid, 
of sp. gr. 0°923 at 15°, begins to boil at 192° and distils Panel. 
between 194° and 207°, the thermometer rising finally to 270°-280 
leaving a resinous mass about a tenth of the whole. Treated 


to which the vapor roti 5°07 corresponds; it is thus an isomer 

urel cam re y t iw action mt the acu hydride 
ahead Ss a Ort s20 by abstraction of H,0, it gives 
eym roHdia, by action of —, chloride, tanacetene 
dichloride, "tanacetene mniancblotdenad cymene, and with ammo- 


476 Scientific Intelligence. 


nio-silver nitrate it gives the sages characteristic of an aldehyde, 
Oxidized with chromic acid i t gives acetic and propionic acids, 
with a it — ca mpborie acid. The eee. of the oil not 


pght. 7. GHO,, C,H, .C,H,0,; Croll Cs H eGaant (t) ethyl: 
borneol oxide, C, Hy .O.C, tha — Ber. Be ri. Chem. . 
449, March, 1878 


Panereatie est N has succeeded by the pion of 
the pean ine ferment u ve eo blood fibrin, in preparing hyp 
xanthin an ably also xanthin itself. ormer has 


easiest: mes as a ee of putrefaction hitherto.— Ber. 
ek Chom hem. Ges., xi, 574, April, 1878, eB 
8. The present Condition of Sa a Meteorology. —Pataiert, 
the Director of the observatory upon Vesuvius, has published in 
the Atti della R. Accad. di Napoli, VII, p. 1-20, 1877, a resume 
of his observations upon the electricity of the air, which he has 
conducted during the past twenty-seven years e also gives a 
description of the apparatus which he has found best suited to his 
purpose. The electrometer resembles, at first sight, that of Dell- 
man; it differs, however, essentially from the latter. The suspen- 
sion of the needle is bifilar and the repulsion between the fixed arm 
and the needle is not due to the repulsion of two bodies charged 
by conduction to the same amount, but is the result of induced 
cha 


by means of a minnaa The chief peculiarity of the conductor 
consists in this, that it ends in a plate twenty-seven centimeters in 
diameter, and the connection with the electrometer is broken just : 
as the conductor reaches the limit of the height to which it is 
raised, which is about 1°5 meters, : 

ith feeble electrical condition the first swing of the needle is 
the double of its final deflection. With large differences of 
potential the fall ¢ of deflection is less. This diminution of indica- 


sean electroscope an 
The ada ‘lieve that 


Chemistry and Physics. 477 


air over the apparatus. Si a ohana upon the 
observatory of the University and at t odimonte in Naples, 
also at the observatory upon Vesuvius. ge mse distant observa- 
tions upon the little St. Bernard and in Moncalieri have impressed 
the author with the belief that with dry clear air, in which the 
pe eeten of + electricity is regular, the strength of the influ- 
nee diminishes with increasing height.—Beibldtter Physik und 
‘Chemie, vol. ii, no. 3, i 5. us 
10. Floating Magnet —Nature, for May 2, contains a 
3 Sir William homens son, in which he observes that Professor 
a 


a: iootog: sonata ee Professor A. M. Mayzr. 
(From a ag er to the Editors, dated South Orange, New Jersey, 
ay 21, 1878.)—I was much gratified to cate that my experi- 


interes 

covered a week or agi apr I sent you the Aes note shuns these 

experiments, published on page 276. These laws are as follows: 

the configurations of the floating magnets - divided es prim- 

ary, secondary, pares quaternary, etc., classes, and the con- 
figurati ons of one class form the ” nuclei to th 

following are the primary configurations : 


Am, Jour. 8c1.—Taimp = ey Vou. XV, No. 90.—Junz, 1878. 


478 Scientific Intelligence. 


The configuration found of 9 magnets begins the secondaries ; 
and this configuration has 2 for its nucleus. The secondaries 
have for nuclei the stable primaries, i. e. pachlaesedcts numbered 
2, 3, 4, 5a, 6a, 7 and 8a. The tertiaries have the secondaries for 
nuclei ; the quaternaries, the tertiaries, ete. 

the configuration be made with the superposed magnet at a 
constant vertical oe it will be a — _— the same 


II. Grotocy anp MINERALOGY. 


1. Supplement to the Second Edition of Acadian Geology ; by 
J. W. Dawson, LL.D., F.R.S. 102 pp.*—This publication con- 
tains the new matter added to the third edition of “Acadian 
Geology,” just issued ; and which is published separately in this 
form for o~ _— of those who alre ady possess the second edi- 
tion. It reviews the new facts which have been discovered in the 
Maritime Peesurs of the Dominion of Canada since 1868. 
ginning with the later deposits, the author endeavors to vindicate 
by new facts his former conclusion that the cold of the Glacial 
eae was not connected with a a glacier, but with 
ocal glaciers on the higher lands and ice-drif ft by Arctic currents 
over the plains, then en weee se nee the Post-pliocene 
deposits as follows, in ascending ord 
(a.) Peaty sevréetriat surface schcnee = bowlder clay. 

‘a Lower stratified gravels and sands. 
{e. stare elay and neater sands with bowlders. Fauna, 
present, extremel 
(d.) kiwis] Austins laclay, witha se Eon number of nthe oe Arctic shells, 
such as are now found only in perm tly ice-laden 
(e.) Upper indd clay and sand, or ada: ron Oe holding many 
ote or boreal shells similar to those of the Labrador 


few littoral shells, of bore 
After some notice of the Trias, aksemabety developed in Prince 
Edward Island, where it has afforded the remains of one Dinosau- 
rian Reptile. and several land plants, and which in Western Nova 
Scotia is so remarkable for its great. a beds, a large spac 
is devoted to the Carboniferous, and more especially to the recog- 
‘nition of an Upper “ Permo-carboniferous ” or perhaps truly Per- 


* New York: Van Nostrand. We are indebted for this notice to Dr. Dawson, 
the author of the work. 


tp 
(f-) demic: sand and gravel, send ee or with a 
r Acadian types. 


Geology and Mineralogy. 479 


mian member, pent rh Ppa vl of red sandstones, and hold- 
ing a somewha t p ora akin to that of the Lower Permian 
of Europe. Deta ‘ls sate illustrations are also given of new s 

of Batrachians, Fishes, Insects, and Crustaceans, recently discov- 
ered, and an ana ysis. and comparison with other countries, is 
made of the remarkable develupment of the Lower Carboniferous 
series of Nova Scotia and New Brunswic 

After a short notice of the Devonian, which, in the region re- 
ferred to, is chiefly remarkable for its rich flora, in the main: dis- 
tinct from that of the Lower Carborniferous, and now numberin 
125 described species, the author proceeds to discuss the diffioul 
ties attending the study of the Silurian and Cambrian formations, 
in a region where they are much disturbed and a and asso- 
ciated with igneous beds of very varied character. On this sub- 
ject he remarks: 

“In the Acadian Provinces, as in some other parts of Eastern 
America, the great igneous outbursts, evidenced by the masses 
and dykes of granite which cut the Lower Devonian rocks, make 
a strong line of distinction between the later and older Paleozoic. 


here of these series are also , often very irregular in 
tribution, and there is little to distinguish mire from each pare 
— when their ages ma circum- 

ANCES 0) many y difficulties to the élshaifieation of all the pre- 
Decmiae rocks of Nova Scotia a and New Brunswick, difficulties as 

et very imperfectly overcome.” 

I 4 tig seemomar and in Eastern Maine, it appears that the 
me es Upper Silurian rocks are capped by felsites, chloritic 
schists and agglomerates of great berctagin- me having an aspect 
not unlike that of the older ioe while in _— Nova 
Scotia bag rocks appear arg hana the st 4 


Siluria all the ai - en the Low eects Silurian pe 
seems om ego been  alncunseaied by tbs of similar a7 


‘ 


480 Scientific Intelligence. 


capic rocks, constituting, with a series of avenge metalliferous 
slates, the “ Cobequid group” of the author, and resembling much 
more the Skiddaw and Borrowdale formations of the English 
geologists, than the contemporaneous Lower Silurian groups o 
inland America. There are, however, Leng ee points of resem- 
blance sti these paculinn Silurian rocks o cadia 
Provinces and those of New England, saat her. constitute a re- 
uuilcabie’ ius of the difference that may obtain in contem- 
poraneous deposits belonging to areas of quiet aqueous sedimenta- 
and of igneous activity. They show very clearly how unsafe 
it may be, without proper whi ie to apply the geological types 
of one area to those of anot 
Below these peculiar Silurian rocks, are thick deposits of Cam- 
brian age, on the whole less modified by con temporaneous igneous 
—. and in some places richly poor me In Cape Breton 
ere have recently been recognized fossils indicating 
Carebrian horizon, resembling that of the ‘English i hos 
Below this is the Acadian series, so rich in Conoe 
and other forms of the Menevian type, é tage © of 
Barrande. Still lower, , according to the author, are the quartzites 


on these points, and references to the field geologists who have 
been working them out, will be found in the publication itself. 
2. Recherches expérimentales cassures qui traversent 
Pécorce terrestre, particulidrement celles ui sont connues pour les 
noms de joints et et de failles par M. Daverke. (Comptes Rendus, 
lxxxvi, 1878).—M. Daubrée, whose experiments relative to meteor- 
ites were re toina recent number of this Journal (vol. xiv, 


occurrence in rock-mai 
iomets, ‘gee eraser Se e — hist he was as sions a plate 
aes bstance 2 form ned an ae 


“producing facture pitbcansc honk eet as 20°. 
The Sar wesliy see Goistiok caets pine oree ont 90 cm. 


a 


Geology and Mineralogy. 481 


fissures w races on the er surfaces of the plate were 
approximately parallel; there were often two conjugate series of 
hese fissures, crossing one ano at an angle varying from 90° 


to 70°, or less, 
the fissure-surfaces, there were also a small number of other planes 


represents a pla 


te which has been subje 


cted to the torsion. 


= > 


i = an, Ss 


= = = 
—Se ~N . ‘~ J 


The above results obtained by the torsion or twisting of a plate 
of ice are shown by M. Daubrée to be closely analogous to the 
phenomena of faults and joints observed in rock-masses. There is 
the same approximate parallelism among them; and this is true 


been submitted, torsion is one wh a 
part in connection with the production of faults gg ee 
P te ! 


i which has played a prominent 
3. Notice of a fourth new Phosphate from 
onnecti y Gro 


e 
mineral is salmon-colored and proved on examination to be a 
phosphate analogous to triphylite in composition. It occurs 


482 Scientific Intellagence. 


immediately associated with spodumene and albite and a mineral 
resembling Shepard’s cymatolite. It has _ omnes a bright 
salmon color and a sub-resinous luster. Hardness =4. Specific 
gravity —3°424. B.B. fuses at 1 to 1°5 acpi the flame bright 
lithia red, with streaks of green, and reacts with the fluxes for iron 
and mangane se. Analysis by Horace L. Wells proves it to be a 
phosphate of manganese and lithia — about con per cent of 
iron, giving the formula LiMnPO, or at We 
propose to name this new mineral Lithidlite. A full description 
bok analyses will be given in an early number of this Journ 
4. Mineralogische Mittheilungen (Neue Folge); von G. ese 
Ratu. (From the Zeitschrift fir Rayetallogtaphic, i, 6, 1877.)— 
Prof. vom Rath describes :—a remarkable compou und crystal. of 
bournonite, consisting of four individuals, but not a true twin; 
also some new forms upon calcite erystals of Bergen Hill, New 
Jersey; and stals of a new mineral, Krennerite. This last 
mineral, a telluride of gold, was first described by Krenner under 
the name of “ Bunsenin;” as this name has already been used for 
another species, vom Rat th, who describes the pap Joram —— 
. s the name Krennerite after the discoverer. 
5. Das Rritebon von Herzogenrath am 24 Juni, 1877: > llins 
seismologische bare von “te A. vo aero 77 pp. 8vo. Bonn, 
of P 


in its s phenomena much similarity with the former one, and it has 
been investigated in the same careful and systematic manner. As 
the results of the investigation it is concluded that the point from 
which the shock went forth was at a depth of 16-85 English miles, 
and that the Meta of propagation was 17-7 miles per minute, 
the general direction being southwest and northeast. The occur 
rence of the eaethatinke is regarded as more or less intima ately 
connected with the great mountain-fissure—the “ Feldbiss,” vice 
nof 


crosses the coal formati the region of the Wurm in a bere 
nearly normal to its strike. 

6. Die Mineralogie von Franz von Kovett. sai edition, 
252 pp. veer pa ipzig, 1878. (Friedrich Brandstetter.)—The Min 
eral pore is neti too well known to need commenda- 
tion he present edition the article upon the chemical 


constitution is hd aby has been altered to some extent with refer- 
ence to the now accepted chemical principles. 


Ill. Botany AND Zoouoey. 


Botany and Zoology. 483 


the great loss and Wete, of the inhabitants of this province; be 
it therefore enacte 


reputation. An apparent justification of this ill odor of the Bar- 
(among the agriculturists we mean) a be found in this 
Journal, vol. xlix of the second series, 1870, p. 406. Mr. 
of Salem, the hare sie: ts: old Province Sara who called our 
attention to this 
e barberry had poveanin been widely and pean ys prop- 
in in the older settlements, during the century or century 
and a quarter of their 2 ig and it is a to suppose 
that attempts to exterminate the bushes were not limited to the 
period of this act’s porate When the nlbanetion of wheat 
particularly, declined, the farmers, probably, relaxed their efforts 
against the barberry, and hence may we not account for its pres- 
ent comparative abundance in the sanais of the older towns, 
which were near the seaboar I remember, when a boy, of 
i from 


largely Essex 
eastern ne and that the bush appeared as thrifty as any - 
had ever seen in Essex County. The preamble of this act, per- 
haps, explains the mystery ; for there is no reason to doubt that 
the ‘experience’ of the farmers therein mentioned was neither 
recent nor confined to a few, in 1754, when the ei it neces repre- 
to 


It has been suggested that the barberry never Malls damaged 
the grain-crops of New England, at least to any nota table extent ; 
but that the settlers, bringing with them from England the PoPy 
lar fear of it, legislated _upon that. But if so, we pee a curio 
illustration of the precarious nature of testimony. For be incon: 
this colonial legislation has passed into history as independent 
evidence that the barberry did damage grain in New England. 


2. Ferns of North America ; by Prof. D. C. Eaton. Parts IV 
and V, issued together, a up the seagenea to p. 113, and 
the illustrations to plate 15. All but two of these plates carry a 
couple of species, and the letter-press grows more copious. 
Aspidium Nevadenee well fills a plate, and is capitally managed ; 
it isa new species of the Sierra Nevada, the joint discovery of 
Mrs. Austin and Mrs. Pulsifer Ames, whose names are rig 
identified with California botany. Pelivea densa, 0 
California (which does well in cultivation), and "Pp. pets seers a 


484 _  Serentific Intelligence. 


species which extends from Peru to Western Texas, make a good 
plate. The supposed raphides of the upper surface of sate — 
ota be cystoliths. Cheilanthas viseida of Davenport 

es of Mr. Lemmon’ : a and C. Clevelandit of Eaton 


for analysis of both i is wretched. - Ge 
Dictionnaire de Botanique; par M. H. Bax Pax 

(Hachett & Co.).—This work has tt sar to the eighth facials; 
to p. 640, and to near the end of Ca. The affluence of sy tra- 
tion continu ots 

5. Vareas considerado como tai see por A. Exxon: 
Caracas, pees 1877. 4to.—This is a memorial discourse upon 
Dr. Varga , pronounced before she Meesiinade Society of the 
Physical pas Natural Sciences, upon the occasion of the transla- 
tion of his remains to the —— Pantheon. To this is oie 


Vargas having b heen ‘suppresse ssed by the present writer, a new 
ee 8, sera of Ternstremi sgn near ea and 


cateinn dese 
Dr. s Tuo: oMSON, the school-mate and associate, in aeaeal 
and pibsioation on Indian Botany, of Sir Joseph Hooker, son of 
the distinguished chemist and professor at Glasgow half a century 
0, died at London, April 18th, after a long illness. 
Gardener s Chronicle of April of, gives an appreciative — 
otice. 


TV. AsTronomy. 


1. Transit of Mercury.—The transit of Mercury was observed 
at New Haven on ee 6th of May by Messrs. J. J. Skinner, W. 
F. Beebe and H. The following are the results 0 
o tions in Washin on mean time; the phases being those 


described in the Washington instructions. Clouds prevented 
observations at some of the contacts. 


Phase Phase Phase |Diam. Loca- 


I. IL IIL. glass.| Power. Obs.! tion. 
dom s:)h mos fh om 
“22 7 1t [22 7 32 laa 7 42- ‘eink oo fe = 
- | 5 33 58: | 5 33 48: | 5 33 18° (+6 = Hall. 
. , Athen. 
22 7 loaien 7 sealaa 22 at io s-in,| 180 | B, Aste 
bee A s. 8. S. 
| 38 67-8! 6 33 49°8| 6 3a 30-82 ™| 210 | H | Obs 


Miscellaneous Intelligence. 485 


V. MISCELLANEOUS SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE. 


. The International Geological Congress.—The time for the 
nine of this Congress in Paris is now finally fixed, by the local 
committee, for the 29th of August, and the Congress will remain 
in session about a fortnight. Further details as to organization 
and place of meeting will soon be made public. Meanwhile, it is 
announced that from the 20th of August to the 15th of September, 
the library and reading-rooms of the Geological Society of France, 
o. 7 rue des ea Se AE I mae will be at the service of 


subscription of twelve francs, required for each member, may 
sent to Dr. Bioche, treasurer. Ladies are admitted to the Congress. 
The local committee add to the above announcement as follows : 
There is reason to believe that the numerous collections of geology 
and paleontology (minerals, ir fossils, "apn plans, sections, 


prepare a special ——_ of them for the use of the Congress. 

Srerry Hunt, Secretary of the i ranermenany 
2. Session of a National Academy of Sciences in A 

List of papers read before the N asain Academy of. Sciences, 

at the April session, 1878: 

Formation and structure of Alacrane Lissa on the Yucatan Bank; by A. AGASsIz. 

The theory of waterspouts M FERREL. 

Report on the sabite of abe onal ites of Mate by ASAPH Hau 

On the relation of loess an d drift to secular disintegration; by R. PUMPELLY. 

On th central zoo-geographical province 

of the United States; by A. S PACKARD, J! 

On an optical ocean-salinometer: by J. E. H 

Pre’ eliminary report on the deep sea dredgings ‘of pag U.S Coast Survey steame 

“Blake” during the past winter in the Gulf Stream and the Gulf of Mexico; wt 

ALEXANDER AGASSIZ. 

Abrasions on the northwest coast of “tig Sg by George DAVIDSON. 

On the law of Boyle and Marriotte; by Wi 

Abstract of a gana on the intersection of circles and the intersection of 


spheres; by All AMIN ALVORD. ics 
Biographical memoir of Louis — second part. Relating to his life and 
Tica; by ARNOLD GUY: 
Biographical memoir of Jeffrie Wyn by A. S. Paokarp, Jr. 
On the force of effective gree st action; by WrLiam A. Norton. 
s on the value of the result obtained for | for the solar parallax from the 
English telescopic sins ; by C. H. 
On the ye cbobrae fauna of the Permian period of ergs United States ; by E. D. 
Cop OPE. : 
Report o: ee “oxygen in the sun;” oh etd ¥ DRAPER. 
aoe comparisons of the components of close double stars; by E. ©. 


‘On the Aiolionlica of geographical names; by F. V. HaYpDEN. 


486 Miscellaneous Intelligence. 


Characteristics of some of the lower spectral lines; by 8. FE LANGLEY. 


A new element of the cerium group; vy J. Law WRENCE SMI 
On Oe pie imary zoo-geographical divisions of the globe nad their relations; by 
aos LL. 


Wallace and Mr. Allen on geographical distribution, with special reference 
to tho niger renege g of the Nearctic region; by Euiiorr Ss. 
n the re and origin of mountains, with specia ay reference to recent 
Fass to a nee theory age Josep LECoNT 
Photometric measures of certain nt faint stars zs satllitos by E. C. PicKERING. 
Contributions et meteo eorology seprry OT eas 
ents in ; by GK. E 

Si he laws saneinad the secant of re hoe Mountain locusts; by ©. V. 

Supplementary notice on the paper, ‘* Whence came ii inner satellite of Mars,” 
read at the October session, 1877; by StepHen ALEXANDER. 

3. Bulletin of the United States National ccc Department 
of the Interior. No. 10, Contributions to North American Tchthy- 
ology, by D. 8. Gorpan. No.2. 120 pp. 8vo, with 45 plates. 

4. Payen’s Manual of Industrial Chemistry, vodied by B. H. 
Pavt. 987 p PP. 8vo, with 698 Pacts in wood. New York, 1878. 


cid processes. 
t American methods in te shiney is not a sur rise. The work 
is still indispensable to all ogres in the industrial chemistry. 


5. Smithsonian Institu oe office of Secretary of the 
Smithsonian Institution, left vacant by the decease of Professor 
Henry, bas been filled by syriiksicneies of Professor S. F. Baird, 
who has for a lon: ‘hie | e ion of Assistant Secretary, 


and is eminently fitted for the higher place by his long and ac ctive 
ms agg se in the affairs of the ongrseers 

American Association.—The American Association for the 
Advaniebueae of Science will hold its eo meeting in St. 
commencing with the third Wednesday in August. Professor 
Marsh is - President of the Association for the meeting and the 


; a Mocks for Mey. Mr. Mallet has a wh to 
: piey i » Abbot’s paper on page 178 of this volume. 


a oe ee ee ee eee | A Te ae 


le Sep a RE 
ey ge 


PN DEX FOU V VLC aT 


A 
Abbot, H. L., transmission of earth waves, 
Academy, National, titles at April meet- 


neat » Sch Minnesota, Bull., 407. 
Acid, benzoic, i in Srgsne of tinds, 146. 
boracic , Os, 
boric, eatibins of, 387. 


ermal conductivi vity of, 1 
Allen, J. A., fossil Passerine on: 381. 
American Joerne of Mathematics, 406. 
Na 


Aiijbotto-arsehite "Woaide, Lea, 319. 
Ammonium nitrite in combustion, 210. 
Amylidenamine silver nitrate, 


Antimony, atomic weight of, Cooke, 41, 


“biting p point of Leena of, 391. 
mpounds of, 310. 
potter hg American, bien 
ing, eae 
British, notice of meeting, 48 
Atomic waa of the elements, ate. 


B 
Beri i, Farag of Botany, 483. 
um rh a 
" y spe ieal abstracts, 51, 
182, 208 30 386, 472. 
Barrett, S. coralline limestone of 
Montague, i. J., 370. 
men te . de, Acetabularia Mediterranea, 


9 APE der Physik 
: nak Penk 
Beiknap, G. z. ene oceanic tem- 
sand 


of meet- 


Boisbaudran, gallium, 4 
a a Aen nope 54. 


"Acetabularia M ee 155. 


£ 
a 
J 
Bacteria, oa of light on, 236. 
Barberry in New England, 482. 
Botrydium granulatum, 73. 

Fern a — non-sexual outgrowths 


aeons, apie of, 67, 221. 


ids, range nr it 153. 
irate of if N. America, Watson, 135. 
Primulacez, morphology of, 400. 


Transpiration in plants, 73, 156. 


| 402. 
Thuret’s t's garden 153. 
:; insect-fertilization, 224. 
Plants, 404. 


ren 
we Eee baten from Fair- 


sare normal, wir 
Cc 
vias rsicaigie ys of oxygen, i dak 141. 
quefaction of acetylene, etc, 142. 
Caistae S., shale ai t Independence, Towa, 
Carbon apes action of, 306. 


ra 
pace ypt re of antimony, 391. Carll, J. F., oil well records, 315. 
Berthelot, maximum work,” 143. ED ee vig Bed x spir 

systems emical notation. Par e 

Cearnid cleaniias hit a Goeree m of the electric spark, 
_ persulphuric oxide, 20 i 
Beryllium, specific heat of, ake ual €. botanical works noticed, 
Boilers, potetio of marine 380. | Chamberlain, T C, geal Fe. Absa 


488 INDEX, 


Chemical dynamics, 308. 
heat data, 304 


211. 
pats "ouere ae of varis- 


R. = new acid ammonium 

noe ek I3 

EW, Glyptodendron, 302. 
resins, 388. 


Collins, J. H., Minera eer a0 
— Coggia’s, roses =i Norton, 


eak prize for discovery of, 158. 
Cook, G. th geol. rep. N. J., 216, 316° 
Cooke dF. i ah atomic ie of anti 
chem cal phompiys at 


haloid compounds of ale 310. 
chemical and physical notes, 53, 214, 
389, 


Cope, E. Dv rtebrate fossils from New 
Copeland, Schmit eS a oo 76. 
Corallin, co: 


Croll, "T, teSaee’ 8 se ore rac 
146. 
age of the sun, 226, 
tac North American Plants, 402. 


D 
Dall, W. H., nomenclature in zoology 
and botany, 321. 
Dana, E. S., new Lag es te Fair- 
rage unt, = 398, 
tices, 65, oo 319, 482, 
Dans, J rg D, swat hoofed pigs, 2 
driftless interior of N. Ame oii and 
region of Wisconsin, 2 
as Forms of flowers, 67, 221. 


PI and light-absorbi 
Dieulafait. DOERCIE acid, 53, 
boracic acid, 390. 
ote A. E., ‘he er eatery 160. 
Downes, A., effect of li ight on Bacteria, 


Draper, J. ©, ———— 


ae A. J., Weisbach’ 's Mechanics, 78. 


Fluoranthrene, 
Fe 


wd apes 394, | 


E 
Reign wet . Nov. S, oo 238. 
of Nov. 4, 1877, 
of Her: ht aa "Fi 24, "TT, seg 
Barthquakes, recent Amer ., foe Jewood,2 
arth wa s, transmission of, Bt , 180. 
Eaton, D. "C. botanical noti 
Ferns 0 Amer., 72, 223, 26, 483, 
Electric convection, magnetic effect 
nd, 


rrents, aie yr Broun, 385. 
rsteoroleey. 
resistance, unit of, Rowland, 281, 
325, 430 
Electro - ~ magnetic absolute measure- 
ments, 3| 
Eltekoff, oe eynthess of olefines, 386. 
" emeeds , oo 2 po $9 9 Geology of 
the 4oth P * ag 
n. pu nRticatiaae of, 153. 
Ethers, at et foraation of, 213. 


Fairchild, H. L., leaf-scars of Sigillariz, 
218. 
— W. G., botanical notices, 73, 153, 


Feilden, H. W., quaternary beds of Grin- 
nell Land, 219, 
Feistmantel. O0., Geol. Surv. India, 239. 
Fittig, fluoranthrene, 210 
Flame sheen eicigens bey 143. 
» the telephone an instrument 
Ford, 8. W., new Primordial fossils, 124. 
note o e Teeuiclia were 127. 


Olenellus asaphoides, 129. 
Brachiopoda, 2ieknes Primordial, 364. 


Fossil, see 


GEOLOG 
Frazer, ?.. war. Tables for the determina- 
bes ‘of mi 


on ora eo low speeds, Kimball, 


G 
— W. M., growth-rings in exogens, 


226. 
Gallium, 47 


Garver, Me * sensation and volition 
through 


2 SURVEYS— 
New Hampshin e, 149. 
New Jersey. a 316. 
Rocky (Powell), 218, 342,407,449. 
Territories (Hayden), 56, 217, 7, 397. 
r—— 1ooth Meri dian (Wheeler), 55- 
40th Parallel, 316, 396. 


INDEX. 


GEO Semel 
Acadian, 478. 
Bird, fossil Passerine, Allen, 381. 
Brachiopoda, forms of Swedish, 364 


fi 
ormations 
— — of North America, 


at Fa nue Northwest, Jrving, 313. 
of Le sagen 61, 254, 406. 
Falls of the piety 
Faults and join 
yee plants rj ‘the re se “Nevada, 


tae ‘from the Keokuk, Wudllace, 
396. 
Geodes of the Keokuk, pea 366. 
Glacial eras of Euro 
ge Ohio, ‘ionpble 302. 


a. ancient outlet of, 65, 
ry of, 219. 


fol tet bt bed Ca 
ee. 
i=] 


ass Russell, 8t% 
Olenailas asaphotdes, Ford, 129. 
geology of, Ste- 


venson, 2 
"Sloan fossils in limestone of, 


a Devonian: Z 
athus, Ford, 124. 
Reptiles, new fossil, Marsh, 241, 409. 
e Leda clay, 2 
Siberian sheriee 65. 
Silurian plants, 149, 219, 302. 


Solenopleura, new, "For d, 
ancient outlet of Great 


be 
56. 


— T., new American 


Chimeera, 2 
Glan, density and light-absorbing Ponce 
394, 


Gravitation, ers Aaayak lak 
, botanical notices, 67, 151, 219, 
221, 318, 40 401, 404, 482. 


489 


H 
See H., glacial eras of Europe, 


Hague. A., descriptive geology, 3 
Ohi 35 J, Limestones of the Falls = the 


4M., Sapotacese, 4 
‘astings, C. S., , optical caveat of glass, 
69, 


Hausema mona Tt pate cengecs properties of 
me 
Hawes, G. W. chloritic formation of the 
New Haven re regio 
Hayden, F. V., field work of on 56. 


publications of expeditions under, 
217, 219, 3 
atlas of hei 397. 
Heat, and sidereal, Ki 
Heil, ss of ret ae 306. 


Hofmann, ‘ens of east tar, 388, 
Holden, E. ’s zodiacal light, 231. 
caecens ical no’ 
index of works on nebulz, 159. 
Holmes, E. M., phurmaceutical catalogue, 
320. 


Homann, quercite a pentacid aleohol, 307. 


Huxley, T. H. , anatomy of invertebrata, 
rt raeatolan, rorie 145 


423. Fad a 


rmal conductivity of, 147. 


seo bth 

Tron, chromic, decomp. of, Smith, 198. 

drving, R. D., driftless region of North- 
west, 313. 

Jsaman, I. J., on trichostema, 224. 


J 
Jaffe benzoic acid in birds, 146. 
annetaz, E., Guide to the Determination 


sy 
Kayser, specific heat of air, 55. 


Kerr, refeetion of polarized light from a 
magnet, 394. 


490 


—— A. §&., journal friction at low 
speed 192. 
King, C. ee Surv. 40th page 316. 
Atl 0th Paralle 1, 39 


: orks on alge, 74, 
reaction of ‘ces e acid, 

Kobell, F. v., Mineralogy, oy ed., 482. 

Kokscharow, N. v., crystallization of 


micas, 150. 
Kramers, phenol and chlorbenzene, 53. 


L 
Laboratory notes of Johns Hopkins Uni- 
versity, 216. 
Laiblin, constitution of nicotine, 211. 
ti 


7 
ammonio-argentic iodide, 379. 
LeBel, normal butylene, 474. 
LeConte, J., glycogenic function of the 
ver, 99, 
Elements of Geology, 218. 
Leidy, J, cire of ants, vad 
Lesquereux, L., Cordaites with flowe 
317. 
Siluria 
Tertiary 


urian plants, 149, 219. 


metric com} 


Phase gi plants of &. Nevada, te 396. 
Rood, | 


Mats, photo! 
m of net 394. 
saeates of, 394 
icht, analysis of nitro-compounds, 


Linnean aswel f woe of, 224, 
— glycogenic function of, LeConie, 


Loomis, E., contrib. to to meteorology, 1. 


INDEX. 


eon J. C., Matter and Motion, 407. 
—_ ane tg rye nts with floating 


wed ah formation in north- 
eastern Towa, 
Meek, F. B., pa leontology (40th parallel), 
re 
Men schutkin , formation of ethers, 213. 
seven transit of, 455, 457, 484. 
Merri .) ML etho d of least squares, 


79. 

erz, synthe pet ape acid, 211 
Metals, photo-electri c properties of, ae 
M Mall 83 
Meteorology, contributions to, Leo 
Meteors, Cambridge, Nov. 3, 1877, we 

ovember, 6. 

Michelson, velocity o ~ 394. 
ros ¥ Siberian sie 3 
Mine pera ser 482. 


150. 

Anthracite of wei Aig 55 6. 
Dickinsonite, Brush and Dana, 399. 
Kosphori . Brush se Peet 
Guanajuatite t, 2 

milite, 318. 
Meaestiacn, Rath, 48 
Lithiolite, Brush sa Duna, 482, 
Meroxene, 150. 
Micas, erystalization of, 150. 


Pyrophosphori 
Samarskite, N orth Caroling 220. 
Tantalite, bama, Smith, 203. 
Tetrahedrite, _ 

bn’ in: Ieclend; 06 


Trpbidive, Denk and Dana, 398. 

Variscite, cyrstallizati of, Chester, 
207. 

Mitchell, M., Jupiter and-its satellites, 38. 


| Mizter, W. G., am ylidenamine silver ni- 
—* 205. 
Moon, zodiacal — of, 88, 231. 
Morse, E. S., Sapa se Lingula and shell 
mounds, 156. 


National, Bulletin. 486. 
, just intonation in, Poole, 359. 


Laff A. P., chemical dynamice, 308. N 
Nawmann, vapor densities, 208. 

We <6 Nerves, rate of trausmission through, 
Magnets. Mayer, 216, 477. 413, 
usenet: in — Nicholson, H. A., Ancient life-history of 
_. me pangs irginia, 33 the earth, 315. 

Marignac, C., chemical notation, 89, i. Nicotine, constitution of, 211- 
“> 0. C., new species of Ce eratodus, | nee a aed endl pra 


Nitro-compounds, anal , 306. 
Nitrogen, direct combustion of, 51. 


F 


iP 4%: 


INDEX. 


Nitroglycerin, nitrogen i 

Nordstedt, O , botanical pte ie 225... 

Norton, W. A +» Coggia’s sencadt 161. 

Norwegian explo ring expedi 8. 

3 Ornith. Club, bulletin rat 158. 

Nys ’ gin- 
ena 


OBITUARY— 
Becquerel, A. C., 239. 


arlato 
Pickering, Dr Charo, 408. 
gg Mi 
: Fags eo 
Ruhikorf N, 160. 
Secchi, A., 3 
— Mrs. Pleasance, 225. 
mae Thomas, 484. 
Weddell, H » 225. 
a cmlonad publ. of, 406. 
Cordoba, | from, 468. 


bon ae oxi 
— of liquid ag 
iquefaction of, 13 


Palmieri, pg 476. 

Parkman, F., hy “ert of gies, 151. 
Os ag 8 a Tonlauetel Chemistry, not., 486. 
Peale, A. C., ancient outlet of Great Salt 


Peters, C. H. F., a new planet, 208 
Letterssun, specie heat of bery lium, 3 386. 
Phenol, distillation of, 53. 


491 

Platt, F., and W. G., bituminous coal of - 
tern rm Pennsylvania, 315. 

eo H. W., just intonation in music, 


Prime, F., Jv.. Lower alr fossils, 
261, 


Q 
Quartz, separation of from mie 305. 
Quereite a pentacid alcohol, 3 


R 
‘ammelsberg 2 cs samarskite, 22 


Rat 
Palen "sition 
Reti uorescence 
Riban. the sulphides of pstinum 
Ridgway, R., Ornitho 0th par,)16 ,i18 
Rockwood, C. G., recent fies erica 
quakes, 21. 
earthquake of Nov. 15, 1877, 238. 
es ea <2 oe leendieg of = us, 195. 
of Mercu 


the 2 tinal ox, 398. 
m of 


‘ Rood, “0. N,, pce compariso: 


light of different ered 81. 
emistry, 
Rosenbusch, H., _ieroscopi hears: 
fe of rocks, 65 
mperatures, 143 
ockatibaki J., Botrydium granulatum, 
3. 
A., magnetic effect of elec- 
tric eronreton, 30. 
of electrical resistance, 281, 
“| Royal’ Soctety. address of president, 231. 
medals o: 


. 
Russell, I. C., Triage tap sinets of ew 
Jersey, 277. 


Sachs, curarine, 389. 4 
, ©. pe miei of a 
tie hydantoins, 145. 
gar vires new acid ammonium sul- 
phates, 13 


Sewell, H., mineral caves of Huallanca, 
Pern, 317 
rs, see METEORS. 
properties of se- 


. | Shepard, dla mace ie 
08. | Shooting Sta 


lenium, 215. 


492 


Silliman, B., Joseph Henry, 4 
Silver chloride and bromide, len 189. 
ith ecomposition of chromic 


: be ee Filicum, 223. 
Smith, J. fos cay from Alabama, 203. 


Smithsonian Inst., secretary of, 486. 
Solar, s oo Soe: 

Solids, Pati Pee of, 472. 

es f the electric spar 


148. 

tahl, E., pitti of hens, 155. 

Bhar, , Schmidt's Nova Cygni, 7 
on, J. J., surface Soler of Penn- 
pivakin, 245. 

U Pper Devonian rocks of Pett as 

geological survey of P 
artes 2 H, ferment. Shao of tie 


Strasborgher, E., Acetabularia Mediter- 
ranea, 

Stur, ee ee Carboniferous plants of 
Moravia, 398. 

ona, : new oxide of, 2 

Sun, age of, Croll, 226; Kirkwood 291. 

oe oO 
ye Beas sudden Sek of, 

Trouvelot, 


3 
Telephone, an npetaaes test, 312. 
woh ype 


Trouvelot. L, undolaton in the. tail of 


Sopa s comet, 8 
don extinction of a solar protu- 


’s zodiacal light, 88. 
oe f: papaieal notices, 54, 147, 
215, 308, 394. e 
ermak, G., die Glimmergruppe, 1 
a, J. flasks opened on the rei 


the moon 


Universities in Germany, 237. 
Up av modified drift in 


N. Hamp- 
Uranus, ialliins of, Rodgers, 195. 


. 


INDEX. 


WwW 


Wadsworth, M. E gain gs of and Pe- 
trography of Bos 
echter, atomic weights of the elements, 


305. 
Wallace, S. J., ““Geodes” of the Keokuk 
formation, 366. 
fossil wood from the Keoknk. 396. 
Watson, S., poplars of N. America, 136. 
Tndex to N. America n botany 400. 
Weather service, volunteer, 2 
cond re ss elec pce. a calor- 
asurements, 215, 
Weisbach’s Mechani cs, 78. 
Wheeler, G. M., gecl. report ¢ of, 55. 
s, 5 


5. 
Carboniferous and Upper Silurian 
fossils of gate and Indiana, 398. 
bleraes = P., paleontology (40th par- 


Wibbe a sent Tange for two orchids, 153. 
Wi solids, 472. 

Wisner, J., influence of light and heat on 
comer eae = ae nts, 73. 

Wilson, E. B. 
id 


v. B., Mesocarpex, 4 
Wood tar, triacid eva of, 3 
Ba oes C. R. A., chemi ax Fach 308. 
Wright, E. P., botanical publications of, 
156. 
Wiiliner, spectrum of the electric spark, 
148, 


x 
Xanthin-like bodies in digestion, 476. 


Zéller, ammonium nitrite in combustion, 
210. 
ion of, 320. 


Pyenogonida, new, now, Wilson, 200. 
See further under GEOLOG 
Zulkowsky, constitu cross of aoaliin an