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-*f> 



REESE LIBRARY 



Oft 



UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA. 

Accessiom Νσ.^^Υ^^^ Skeif Να. J_ ^'^_ 

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THE 



MODERN GREEK: 



PKONDNCUTION ASD BDUTIONS TO ANCIDII βΒΕΕΕ, 



WITH AN 



APPENDIX ON THE BULE8 OP ΑΟΟΕΝΤϋΑΉΟΝ, 



Τ. Τ. TIMAYENIS, 

OF THB SPBINOFIBIiD COLLEOIATB INSTITOTI. 



r^ LI Β Η Λ η ν 

τ: Ν Ι VKKsriv ΟΙ" 
Ι CALlFOIiNIA. , 

NEW YORK:. 

D. APPLETON AND COMPANY, 549 & 551 BROADWAY. 

SPRINGFIELD, MASS. : 

J. D. GILL, 260 MAIN STREET. 

1877. 



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Copyright, 1877, 
By T. T. TIMATENIS. 



University Press: Welch, Bigelow, & Co., 
Cambridge. 



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TO THE 

REV. M. C. STEBBINS, A.M., 

PRINCIPAL OF THE SPBINOFIELD COLLEGIATE INSTITUTE, 

Ci|t0 U0lume 

IS MOST RESPBCTFULIT DEDICATED, 

AS A TOKEN OF ADMIBATION 

FOR DISTINOUISHBD ABILITIES SUCCESSFULLY DEVOTED TO THE PROMOTION OF CLASSICAL 
LEARNING IN THIS COUNTRY, 

AND A MEMORIAL• OF FRIENDSHIP 

WHICH HAS EXISTED UNBROKEN DURING MANY YEARS OF ALMOST 
DAILY INTERCOURSE. 

THE AUTHOR. 



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; '- ' '! U Λ t; , 
PREFACE. 



In preparing this volume, I have made frequent use 
of the " 'Ιστορία της Έ\\ηνικη<; Γλώσσης/' by the late 
Professor D. Mavrophredes (Smyrna, 1871). Important 
aid has also been received from Professor Geldart's work 
on "The Modern Greek Language in its Relation to 
Ancient Greek.'* Other works which I have advan- 
tageously consulted are, Anastasius Georgiades' "Trac- 
tatus de Elementorum Graecorum Pronunciatione," Gr. 
et Lat., Paris, 1812 ; " Eclaircissements tiros d^s Lan- 
gues somitiques sur quelques points de la Pronunciation 
Grecque " ; Professor Clyde's " Romaic Greek " ; Sopho- 
cles' " Romaic Greek Grammar " and " Glossary of Later 
and Byzantine Greek." Frequent references have been 
made also to the works of ancient and modern Greek 
authors, especially to those that have touched upon the 
subject of Greek pronunciation. But my obhgations 
are much greater to Konstantinus Oekonomos, whose 
work, "ilepi ττροφορας της *Ε\\ηνικης Γλώσσης,^' St. 
Petersburg, 1829, has been constantly by me. 

The subject of Greek pronunciation has been often 
"discussed by scholars since the time of Erasmus, who 
was the first to propagate that new system of pronun- 
ciation known as the Erasmian system. Scholars to-day. 



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vi PREFACE. 

generally speaking, although more or less convinced of 
the fact that the Erasmian system of Greek pronuncia- 
tion is quite at variance with the nature of Grecian 
phraseology, with the testimony of ancient authors, and 
established principles of history and logic, yet tolerate 
this pronunciation because "they do not see that any 
good will result to students by adopting the pronun- 
ciation now prevalent in Greece." They say, " We 
study Greek for the culture it imparts ; we do not care 
which is the true pronunciation '* ! Now, we study the 
" queen of languages," the language of infinite flexibility 
and of unequalled vigor, the language which speaks to 
the ear like French, to the mind like Enghsh, — the 
language which possesses a literature enshrining Λvorks 
" not only of imperishable interest, but also of imperish- 
able importance for the development of human thought " ; 
we study the language without which human knowledge 
would appear like the year without spring, or like the 
day without its bright sun ; and yet we say, " We do not 
care how we pronounce such a language " ! 

Now, we believe with the Rev. P. W. Parrar, that 
the reasons why we spend so long a time in acquiring the 
mastery of the Greek are, because the Greek is one of 
the most delicate and perfect instruments for the expres- 
sion of thought which was ever elaborated by the mind 
of man, and because it is therefore admirably adapted, 
both by its points of resemblance to our own and other 
modern languages, and by its points of difference from 
them, to give us the id«a or fundamental conception of 
all Grammar ; that is, of those laws which regulate the 
use of the forms by which we express our thoughts. 
Again, the Greek being a " synthetic language," many of 
its advantages lie in its compactness, precision, and 



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PREFACE. vii 

beauty of form. Now, suppose we grant that the advan- 
tages we seek to obtain from the study of the Greek 
cannot be increased by a change of pronunciation ; yet, 
we claim, that by adopting the pronunciation prevalent in 
Gi'eece, Grecian philology would receive a new impetus. 
Scholars in this country and elsewhere, would be better 
able to judge of the literary productions of the modem 
Greeks ; they would better observe how many idioms and 
peculiarities of language prevalent among the ancient 
«.uthors, still remain unchanged in the language of the 
modern Greeks ; and, finally, the study of modern lan- 
guage would become easier to the young student, be- 
cause the euphony, grace, and variety of sound and 
harmony of the pronunciation of the modern Greeks, 
have in a greater or less degree been wrought into all 
the modem languages. Hence, their pronunciation is 
comparatively an easy matter to attain, if one is thor- 
oughly drilled in the sounds which the modern Greeks 
give to the vocal elements of their language. On the 
other hand, the Erasmian system, an author remarks, 
" causes its adherents to Igse all delicacy, euphony, and 
accuracy of expression or sound." 

The appendix "on accentuation," although it may 
seem foreign to a work of this kind, has been added at 
the request of many instructors. It is to be hoped that 
by means of the mles which are there given, the study 
of this difficult branch of knowledge will become easier 
and more interesting to the young student. A few other 
grammatical rules have been added, wliich seem to me 
are not given fully, either in Professor Goodwin's or 
Hadley's Grammar. Professor Zelf's and Professor 
Germadius' Grammars have been consulted in. the prep- 
aration of these rules. Scholars are wont to confound 



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Vlll PREFACE. 

Romaic with Modern Greek, and this sad mistake, it seems 
to me, is mainly to be attributed to that statement of 
Professor Sophocles, who in the preface of his Romaic 
Grammar says, " Romaic, or, as it is often called. Modern 
Greek." Now, Professor Clyde asserts that " this glar- 
ing mistake has influenced the opinions of many British 
scholars, and proves most conclusively that "Professor 
Sophocles has confounded things which differ." But 
not only Professor Clyde, but Professor G^ldart also 
remarks, " Sophocles' works, especially his Grammar, 
require to be used with caution. For the headings * An- 
cient ' and * Modern ' which he places over his various 
paradigms, should be read, in nearly every case, * Lan- 
guage of Polite Society ' and ' Language of the Common 
People ' or ' Cultivated ' and ' Vernacular ' ; for the so- 
called ancient forms never died out, but may nearly all be 
found in the more cultivated modern Greek . . . Again, 
in other ways truth is sacrificed by Professor Sophocles 
to system, as when he gives τον irarepa, του avBpa, as the 
modern Greek for τον πατρός, τον άρΒρός. These forms 
occur no doubt, but the classical forms are more common 
even in the vernacular." .... 

But the reason why Professor Sophocles, a Greek him- 
self, and a scholar of so distinguished a reputation, has 
committed so serious a mistake is to be attributed to the 
fact that he left Greece many years ago, when quite a 
young man, and when education in Greece was in a sad 
condition. Hence, Professor Sophocles is familiar with 
the vernacular Greek of his times, — which in fact might 
be called "Romaic Greek," — but since the emancipa- 
tion of Greece and the establishment of the university 
and other schools of learning "Romaic Greek" has en- 
tirely disappeared, and in its stead the modern Greek, 



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PREFACE. IX 

which is the newest phase of the old Greek, has resumed 
its place. 

It is not my purpose now, nor is this the place, to state 
fully the distinction there exists between Romaic and Mod- 
ern Greek. Suffice it to say, that this difference cannot 
be better indicated in brief, than by that which exists 
between " broad Scotch " and " good English." Professor 
Clyde says "there are phrases in one unknown to the 
other, like the famous 'neffow o' glawr,' which all the 
English of George IV. and his boasted knowledge of 
Scotch to boot, were not able to explain." 

There remains for me the pleasant duty of tendering 
my warmest thanks, first of all, to the Rev. M. C. Steb- 
bins, principal of the Springfield Collegiate Institute, 
without whose valuable assistance I doubt much if this 
volume would have ever seen the light. Not only has his 
kind and valuable service aided much in the construction 
of the plan and the development of the work, but also all 
the proofs have passed under his critical eye. Should 
this work ever accomplish the mission for which the 
author sends it out into the world, its success will mainly 
be due to his broad and thoughtful scholarship. 

To Professor W. S. Tyler, D. D., of Amherst College, 
to Professor E. Anagnos of Boston, and to all others 
who have honored this work with their favorable notice, 
I beg to return my thanks. Last, but not least, I must 
tender my thanks to a personal and esteemed friend, S. 
Holman Esq., for the very kind encouragement I have 
received while this work was yet in embryo. 

With the valuable assistance of such a scholar as the 
Rev. M. C. Stebbins, my task might well have been exe- 
cuted far better than it is. But such as it is, I commit it 
very humbly to the judgment of the public ; but with a 



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χ PREFACE. 

comfortable degree of confidence that its deficiencies will 
be charitably regarded by those who are best qualified to 
appreciate the difiiculties necessarily attendant upon the 
discussion of the topics herein treated. 

T. T. TIMAYENIS. 

Springfield Collegiate Institute, 

Springfield, Mass., September 1, 1877. 



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CONTENTS. 



PART I. 

Chap. Page 

I. Pronunciation of the Gbeek Language . 1 

II. The Ebasmian System .... 6 

III. Local Peculiarities 9 

IV. Mistaken Notions concerning the Mod- 

ern Greek Pronunciation ... 15 
V. Neglect op the Modern Greek Pronun- 
ciation 23 

VI. Prospective Status of Greece ... 25 

VII. Modern Greek Literature .... 39 
VIII. Difference between the Old Attic and 

THE Modern Greek .... 94 

IX. Accent and Quantity 99 

X. The Aspirate 139 

PART II. 

I. The Alphabet 143 

11. Sounds of the Vowels .... 144 

III. Digraphs 153 



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xii CONTENTS. 

IV. Sounds op the Diphthongs . . . 155 

V. The Consonants 167 

VI. Combinations op Consonants . . . 192 
VII. Examples op Modern Geebk Pronuncia- 
tion 194 



APPENDIX. 
Rules op Accentuation 201 



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PART I. 



CHAPTER I. 

ON THE PRONUNCIATION OF THE GREEK LANGUAGE. 

Έλλας ftcv coTi ftto, ττόλας Sc TrXctove? • 
συ /A€V άτηκίζ€ΐς^ ηνίκ &ν φωνψ λεγτ/ς 
αντου Ttv', οί δ"Έλλτ/ν€ς ίλληνίζομ€ν. 

(jnioaiidmnos ό κωμικός ναρα Αικαιάρχφ, αττοσπ. 26.) 

The pronunciation of the Greek language that 
is prevalent in Greece, bids fair to find its way 
into the schools and universities of the Old 
World and the New. Scholars everywhere, after 
much discussion, are coining to the conclusion 
** that the pronunciation of the modem Greeks, 
even if it is not identical with the ancient, must 
have a closer resemblance to the old than that of 
the Western nations." It is high time, therefore, 
that scholars should adopt in this country, and in 
fact wherever the Greek language is studied, the 
pronunciation prevalent in Greece, which, as we 
will endeavor to prove, must have a closer re- 
semblance to the old than any other pronuncia- 
tion now in use. Why it is that so little attention 



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2 ON THE PRONUNCIATION 

is paid in tliis country to the way tlie modem 
Greeks pronounce their language we will notice 
hereafter. But it is worth while to consider how 
eager we are to acquire a correct pronunciation 
when we study a foreign language, and how care- 
less in pronouncing "the language" in which the 
loftiest and deepest thoughts were expressed. 

Perhaps the idea prevails that after the fall of 
Greece, which dates from the war of the Pelo- 
ponnesus, "Greece not only saw her greatness 
fall, but her spoken language also pass into ob- 
livion." How mistaken, indeed, he must be, who 
supposes that the traditional language of 
Greeks is a thing of the past, is evident from 
what follows. It may be true, that after Greece 
had become a Roman province she saw, with 
liberty, the arts, sciences, and literature fall into 
decadence. It may be true that there were no 
more such statesmen and great captains as 
Themistocles, Miltiades, Leonidas, Pausanias, 
Aristides, and Cimon ; no more great orators like 
Pericles, Isocrates, Demosthenes, and ^schines; 
no more poets like Sophocles, Euripides, and 
Pindar; no more historians like Herodotus, 
Thucydides, Xenophon, Ctesias, and Polybius; 
no more philosophers like Pythagoras, Socrates, 
Plato, and Aristotle; no more sculptors like 
Phidias and Praxiteles; no more painters like 
Apelles, and Zeuxis, and Parrhaeius, yet the 




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OF THE GREEK LANGUAOB. 3 

Greeks never lost their language. In spite of the " 
invasions of the Goths, of the Bulgarians, of the 
Arabs, and of the Turks, the Greek language, I 
repeat, never ceased to be spoken by the descend- 
ants of the ancient Hellenes. Now, let not the 
reader do me the injustice to suppose that I am 
unduly influenced by patriotism in my state- 
ments. My object is to present facts, — to deal 
with facts, and to present them in their true light. 
If there are any defects in the pronunciation of 
the modem Greeks, I will not hesitate to point 
them out. 

There is perhaps no nation in the history of the 
world which has suffered so many invasions, from 
so many different races; yet, far from yielding to 
tlie direful influences bearing upon her, she has 
succeeded in preser\dng many of the virtues 
of her illustrious ancestors, together with the lan- 
guage, with so little change, — a change less than 1 
that between the English of Chaucer and the * 
English of to-day. 

It is wonderful that the Greeks were able to 
preserve their language under the many vicissi- 
tudes which the nation had to pass through, 
especially while under the Turkish yoke. It is 
perhaps this that causes many to disbelieve the 
fact that the Greek is as really a living language 
as it was in the days of Homer. To bear in 
mind the various means the Turks adopted to 



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4 ON THE PRONUNCIATION 

kill, so to speak, the Greek language, — the cruelty 
and barbarity they exercised over the conquered 
people, • — might perhaps prepare one to believe 
that " it was buried in a quiet grave and had given 
place to a degenerate scion, or had at best sunk 
into the dotage of a second childhood." 

And yet, nothing is more true than the state- 
ment, that the Greek is as truly a living lan- 
guage as it was in the days of Homer. To 
express my sentiments, I can do no better than to 
use the words of an English writer, who says on 
this subject, "That it is a strange and unparal- 
leled fact that one of the oldest known languages 
in the world, a language in which the loftiest and 
deepest thoughts of the greatest poets, the wisest 
thinkers, the noblest, holiest, and best of teachers, 
have, directly or indirectly, found their utterance 
in the far-off ages of a hoar antiquity, should at 
this day be the living speech of millions through- 
out the East of Europe, and various parts of Asia 
Minor and Africa; that it should have survived 
the fall of empires, and risen again and again 
from the ruins of beleaguered cities, deluged, but 
never drowned, by floods of invading barbarians, 
Romans, Celts, Slaves, Goths and Vandals, 
Avars, Huns, Franks, and Turks ; often the lan- 
guage of the vanquished, yet never of the dead ; 
with features seared by years and service, yet 
still essentially the sam^,— instihct with the fire 



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OF THE GREEK LANGUAGE. 5 

of life, and beautiful with tlie memory of the 
past." 

Professor A. N. Arnold says, ^^ The language 
of Greece has undergone no revolution since the 
time of the Attic historians, philosophers, orators, 
and poets. Through all the successive invasions 
and conquests of the country, by the Romans, 
the Goths, the Huns, the Sclavonians, the Cru- 
saders, the Venetians, and the Turks, the basis 
of the population and the substance of the lan- 
guage have survived unchanged. There has 
never been a period when there were not some 
who wrote Greek with a fair approach to Attic 

parity Since the time of Homer, the 

Greek has never been a dead language. Western 
Europe by that libel only proclaimed her own 
ignorance and shame. If there has been a time 
when even Athenians spoke a wretched patois, 
there were even at that time educated men and 
women in Constantinople who spoke and wrote 
the language in a style which would haA'^e been 
quite intelligible, not only to Plutarch and Pau- 
sanias, but also to Pericles and Plato." 



/ J.l r> ii A '- ' 






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CHAPTER IL 

THE ERASMIAN SYSTEM. 

At the first appearance of the Turkish suprem- 
acy in Greece, Imndreds of families fled to the 
West of Europe, bearing with them that very 
system of pronunciation which not only the 
Greeks still use, but which learned Europe uni- 
versally allowed until the time of Erasmus. 

The Erasmian system of Greek pronunciation 
was proposed about the beginning of the sixteenth 
century. Hume informs us that the new system 
was vigorously opposed ; it also divided the 
Grecians themselves (at Oxford) into parties. The 
penalties inflicted for adopting the new pronun- 
ciation were no less than whipping, degi'adation, 
and expulsion; and the Bishop declared that, 
rather than permit the new pronunciation of the 
Greek, it were better that the language itself were 
totally banished the universities. (History of 
England, Ch. ΧΧΧΙΠ., A. D. 1547.) 

At present many seem to be satisfied that it is 
best for every one to pronounce Greek after the 
analogy of his own vernacular tongue. This 



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THE ERASMIAN SYSTEM. 7 

of course gives rise to as many modes of reading 
Greek as there are modern languages in Europe. 
And it is worthy of notice that " no system of 
Greek pronunciation conflicts oftener with the 
direct testimony of the ancient grammarians, as 
well as with the established principles of the 
Greek language, than that which takes the Eng- 
lish for its basis." Professor Sophocles attributes 
it to the fact that in no other European language 
is the same letter or combination of letters oftener 
employed to denote more than one sound or no 
sound at all. However, some maintain that an 
Englishman, for instance, learns Greek more 
easily by attempting to pronounce it as if it were 
English. This cannot be true, for "English 
orthoepy is confessedly complicated and discour-^ 
aging, βλ^βτί when it confines itself to its own 
language." 

Now, the general uniformity of modern Greek 
pronunciation, wherever the language is spoken, 
is very strong argument for its antiquity, and 
against its being a corruption resulting from con- 
tact with other languages. In the Spanish dia- 
lect we clearly trace the influence of Arabic, in 
Italian of Teutonic, in French of Celtic sounds ; 
in Greek, on the other hand, though the countries 
where it is spoken are as widely distant and the 
foreign influences to which it has been subject as 
diverse, we find generally the same traditional 



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8 THE ERASMIAN SYSTEM. 

pronunciation among learned and unlearned alike. 
In Egypt, in Asia Minor, on the shores of the 
Euxine, in Constantinople, in Athens, in Crete, in 
the ^gean, the pronunciation presents the great- 
est harmony in respect to those letters on which 
the whole controversy turns. 



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CHAPTER III. 

LOCAL PECULIARITIES. 

The same local peculiarities which existed in 
the different sections of ancient Greece are preva- 
lent in those sections to-day. The Spartan of to- 
day, like the Spartan of old, uses the same short, 
cutting, laconic expressions. He is inclined to an 
active life of warfare, differing in this respect 
from the modem Athenian, who possesses the 
same elegance in his bearing and expression as 
the Athenian of old. It may not be out of place 
to remark that many of the superstitious notions 
of the ancients are still prevalent, especially 
among the common people of Asia Minor. For 
instance, according to Herodotus, when Xerxes 

was marching to invade Greece cSpc πλα- 

τάνιστον την /caXXeos €Ϊν€κα 8ωρησάμ€νος κόσμω 

γ^ρνσέψ καΙ μέΚ€8ωνφ άθανάτω άν8ρΙ €πιτρέ^α^ 

Now, it is curious to notice that this custom 
of hanging trinkets to '* Oriental planes " (plata- 
ni) is still prevalent in Asia Minor. The people 
hang trinkets to such of the plane-trees as happen 
to strike their fancy. It is a custom with the 



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10 LOCAL PECULIARITIES. 

people of that country, for which I doubt Avhether 
they tliemselves can account. It is simply a cus- 
tom handed down from generation to generation, 
and from wliicli neither time nor any other in- 
fluence has been able to dissuade them. 

Again, the same strong hold religion had upon 
the great mass of the people is still prevalent, 
especially in some of the islands of the Archi- 
pelago, such as Icaria, Rhodes, and the interior 
of Asia Minor. Mr. Alexander S. Murray in his 
manual of mythology enumerates many of tho 
superstitious notions of the ancient Greeks, and, 
in fact, it is astonishing to consider that neither 
time nor Christianity itself could dissuade the 
people from many of those religious notions. 
Now, it is a well-known fact, that it was in the 
firm belief of his interests being the special care 
of a deity, that the husbandman sowed his seed 
and watched the vicissitudes of its growth ; that 
the sailor and trader intrusted life and property 
to the capricious sea. To-day, the^ husbandman 
of Asia Minor sows his seed under the firm belief 
that St. George or St. James will watch over his 
interests and will bring to him an abundant har- 
vest. The sailor and the trader intrust life and 
property to St. Nicolas, who, by the way, is the 
patron of all seafaring people. In the city 
of Smyrna, in a parish called "*Αι/ω Μαχαλάς,'' — 
" the upper parish," — there is a sort of a cavern 



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LOCAL PECULIARITIES. 11 

called " η Κρυφή Παι/αγιά," — the secret virgin. 
This *' secret virgin" is considered the patron 
of mechanics, and her place is daily thronged by 
all classes of workingmen, who, in offering a part 
of their scanty earnings to her, earnestly pray 
that she may not cease to exercise her influence 
over their respective callings. Now, it is a fact, 
that in ancient times the mechanic traced the 
skill and handicraft, which grew unconsciously 
upon him by the practice, to the direct influence 
of a God. Ί knew of a poet in Asia Minor, by 
the name of George Kanares (Γβώ/ογιος Κανάρης) 
who, a few years ago, wrote an interesting poem 
and dedicated it to his patron saint, St. Eustha- 
thiosi In Mr. Murray's mythology, we notice 
that artists ascribed the mysterious evolution 
of their ideas, and poets the inspiration of their 
song, to "a supreme cause." • Everywhere in 
nature was felt the presence of august, invisible 
beings, — in the sky, with its luminaries and 
clouds; on the sea, with its fickle, changeful 
movements ; on the earth, with its lofty peaks, its 
plains and rivers. To-day, old women in the 
East pretend to cure all sorts of diseases during 
full moon, and by the influence of certain invisible 
beings who inhabit certain stars. Old women 
pretend to cure pimples on the face by rubbing 
mud on it during full moon. Again, the deities 
of the ancients were represented as immortal, 
and, being immortal, they were next, as a con- 

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12 LOCAL PECULIARITIES. 

sequence, supposed to be omnipotent and omnis- 
cient. Their physical strength was extraordinary, 
the earth shaking sometimes under their tread. 
St. George to-day is represented as riding on a 
fiery steed, with a spear in his hand with which 
he killed a fiery dragon lying at the feet of his 
horse. Mythology teaches us that there were 
tales of personal visits and adventures of the Gods 
among men, taking part in battles and appearing 
in dreams. Now, the greater part of those pecul- 
iar-looking barracks — the so-called churches — 
that are seen nestled on top of hills and scattered 
hither and thither, in the interior of Asia Minor, 
were erected because some devout Christian de- 
clared that such a saint appeared to him ordering 
the erection of a church to his memory ! In pray- 
ing it was a custom of the ancients to lift their 
hands and turn the face towards the east. This is 
still the practice of the ignorant classes in Asia Mi- 
nor. Here is a specimen of what seems to have 
been the usual form of praying among the ancient 
Greeks : " Zeus, our Lord, give unto us whatever 
is good, whether we ask it of thee or not ; what- 
ever is evil keep far from us, even if we ask it of 
thee." The peasant in the East to-day, in pray- 
ing, will lift his hands and turn his face towards 
the east, and will say in a low tone, as appears to 
have been the ancient custom, "My God, our 
Lord, I pray to thee, give us whatever is good, and 
keep far from us whatever is evil, even if we ask 

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LOCAL PECULIARITIES. 13 

it of thee.'' This is a very common form of 
prayer, which was handed down, as it seems, from 
generation to generation. Pythagoras, the phi- 
losopher, taught his followers to pray with a loud 
voice; but loud prayers do not appear to have 
been customary. 

Sneezing was regarded as something divine; 
and Xenophon informs us, that, on one occasion, 
a soldier happening to sneeze, all those present, 
with one accord, bowed to the God. "Τούτο Sc Xc- 
γοι^τοζ avTOV πτάρννταί τις • ακονσαντ^^ δ* οι στρα- 
τιωται πάρτβς μία ορμ^ προσβκννησαν τον OeovJ^ . . . 
To-day, if any one happens to sneeze after nine 
o'clock in the evening, the peasants of Asia Minor 
are wont to pour wine on the ground. Finally, 
we must not forget to mention, as a proof of the 
wide-spread religious feeling of the ancient 
Greeks, the national festiΛ^als or games, such as 
the Olympian, Pythian, Nemean, and Isthmian, 
maintained in honor of certain Gods. To-day, 
likewise, the peasant of the East, in celebrating 
the feast of his patron saint, suspends all business 
and celebrates the day with festivals and dancing, 
cordial invitations being extended to both friends 
and foes, — a custom which was in existence 
among the ancient Greeks, because it is well 
known that they used to suspend whatever war 
might be going on between separate states, and to 
permit visitors to pass unmolested, even through 
hostile territories. 

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14 LOCAL PECULIARITIES. 

This tendency to polytheism is certainly a rem- 
nant of the religion of the ancient Greeks. Al- 
though Christianity has shed its light in Asia 
Minor and on the islands of the Archipelago, the 
people are addicted to those superstitious notions, 
and they will never be abandoned so long as the 
barbarous Turk holds sway over those coimtries. 
In the Kingdom of Greece the people are enlight- 
ened, and free from most of the superstitious no- 
tions of their brethren in the East. 

Let us not, however, forget that the inhabitants 
of Asia Minor are praiseworthy in retaining the 
language of their illustrious ancestors. I have 
alluded to the *' local peculiarities " which are still 
prevalent, in order to sliow that the Greeks are 
a remarkably conserΛ"ative race. Although the 
Turks prohibited, under penalty of death, the 
Greek language to be spoken or taught anywhere 
in Greece Proper or in Asia Minor; although a 
Avar of extermination was carried on by them, not 
only against the people, but against the renowned 
monuments of antiquity; although all teachers, 
when pointed out, were instantly murdered, and 
the silence which reigned in that country — once 
the home of the hero and the statesman — re- 
sembled the silence of an old cemetery, the 
Greeks succeeded in keeping up their schools, 
and thus kept their language, in spite of their 
oppressors. 



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CHAPTER IV. 

MISTAKEN NOTIONS CONCERNINa THE MODERN 
GREEK PRONUNCIATION. 

One cause that makes scholars so averse to the 
adoption of the modern Greek pronunciation is 
the belief that the Greeks must have lost their 
language, owing mainly to the invasions of so 
many barbarous tribes, to which Greece for cen- 
turies submitted, until the year 1821, when the 
War of Independence was proclaimed, which 
terminated in throwing off the Turkish yoke. 
But how erroneous this idea ! An English writer 
says " that it seems hardly too much to say that 
our conduct in this regard shows a kind of liter- 
ary ingi'atitude, which ought to shock our moral 
sense. Greece has, in various ages, preserved to 
us the succession of culture, when the rest of the 
earth was overrun with savages. For us it has 
lield the citadel of civilization against the barba- 
rism of the world, and now tlie danger is OΛ'er we 
have forgotten our benefactor, and trouble our- 
selves little how it fares with him." Tlie case 
reminds us of the words of the Preaclier : " There 
was a little city, and few men within it; and there 



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16 MISTAKEN NOTIONS CONCERNING THE 

came a great king against it, and besieged it, and 
built great bulwarks against it. Now there was 
found in it a poor wise man, and lie by his wis- 
dom delivered the city ; yet no man remembered 
that same poor man." .... 

Why forget that during the time when Turkey 
held control over Greece, and when Greece 
seemed dead to the rest of the world ; when the 
Turks, I repeat, had prohibited, under penalty 
of death, the Greek language to be spoken any- 
where within tlieir domain, often some remote 
church among the defiles of the mountains, and 
far from the Turks, used to serve as a school, 
where the Greek language was taught and 
spoken ? Why forget that the Greeks had sub- 
terranean schools in Constantinople, the very 
capital of Turkey, where, under learned Greek 
professors, the Greek language was by night 
taught to thousands of Greeks? Now, in those 
supematui'al efforts, so to speak, on the part of the 
Greeks, lies the whole mystery of their success 
in preserving their, language. No ! Not for a 
moment has the Greek forgot who were his ances- 
tors ; not for a moment has he thouglit of giving 
up liis language. Time, and the invasions of bar- 
barians, had no effect whatever to change or 
demoralize either the people or the language. 
Idiomatic expressions, peculiarities of language, 
so common among the ancient Greek authors, are 



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MODERN GREEK PRONUNCIATION. 17 

to be heard, even to-day, in the different sections 
of Greece. Foreign words are rigorously ex- 
cluded ; and even in the public press the names 
of foreign newspapers, sometimes also of foreign 
places, are subjected to translation. Thus, the 
Times is known as 6 Χρόνος, the New York 
Herald, as ό Κήρυξ της Ncas ^Τόρκης, etc. ; and 
whereas it would sound ridiculous to call " Le 
palais des Tuileries" the palace of the Tileworks, 
it is actually translated by the ^^* Ανάκτορα των 
Κ€ραμ€ίων " in modern Greek. 

It may be well here to state that it is from the 
ancient grammarians we learn tlie pronunciation 
of the Greek language. MoreoA^er, a scholar 
affirms that Diony^ius of Halicamassus, by re- 
ferring the Greek alphabetical sounds to their 
proper organs, has, as it were, embalmed them 
for our use. So that, knowing these facts, we 
can assert that the modem Greek pronunciation 
has a closer resemblance to the ancient Greek 
than any other existing pronunciation. 

Again, this is evident from the clearness and 
distinctness with which the educated classes es- 
pecially pronounce. It is evident from the strik- 
ing similarity which exists in pronouncing Greek 
in all the countries where the modern Greek 
pronunciation is prevalent. In Greece, in Asia 
Minor, in Egypt, on the islands, one and the 
same pronunciation exists. It is again evident 



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18 MISTAKEN NOTIONS CONCERNING THE 

from the purity of style with which the papers 
are edited in Greece. It is evident from the fact 
that the Greek historians, such as Xenophon and 
Herodotus, are the delight of every Greek who 
reads them as understandingly as the average 
American does the history of his own country. 
Take the last paragraph of the Olympian Oration, 
delivered by Professor Philippos loannou, on the 
second anniversary of the modem Olympiads, 
A. D., 1870. The subject of the oration is, "The 
Intellectual Progress of the Greek Nation from 
the War of Independence to tlie Present Time." 
In tlie closing paragraph Professor Arnold states : 
" Embracing about a page and a half of closely 
printed octavo, there are about fifty verbs, every 
one of which is found in Liddell and Scott's 
ancient Greek lexicon. .... Of seventy-five or 
eighty nouns, all but one are found in the above- 
named lexicon, and this one is simply a modifica- 
tion of a well known root, familiar to Greek 
scholars, and represented by several cognate 

words (παγιωτης) Of about fifty adjectives, 

all but one are found in the lexicon, and of this 
one the coiTesponding adΛ^erb is found. Indeed, 
the adjective itself is found in Pickering's lexicon. 
All the nouns and adjectives, witliout the slightest 
exception, are declined as in the ancient gram- 
mars. Among eight or ten different pronouns, 
personal, relative, demonstrative, and compound, 



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MODERN GREEK PRONUNCIATION. 19 

occurring in all about twenty-four times, there is 
only one instance of departure from ancient 
usage. Of ten adverbs, the only one not be- 
longing to the ancient language is the negative Sci/ 
(contraction for ovhkp) instead of ov or ουκ. This 
modem form is used twice, and the ancient form, 
ουχί, also occurs twice. So slight is the difference 
between the Greek language of B. C. 400 and 
that of A. D. 1870." Noi^, is this not a proof 
that the language must be essentially the same I 
And does not identity of language necessarily 
imply identity of sound f How is it that the 
people of Athens recently filled the ancient 
theatre of Bacchus to overflowing, to witness the 
representation of Antigone in ancient Greek? 
How is it that the Athenian heart, ever finely 
susceptible to the sentiments of humanity, gave 
evidence by many a tear that the people who 
witnessed it were imbued with the spirit of the 
tragedy, and felt in their very hearts the pathos 
of the piece ? To Avhat do you attribute all this ? 
To what can it be attributed but to the fact that 
the " ancient Greek " is to-day essentially the 
living language of the modern Greeks? What 
more need be said in favor of adopting the modern 
Greek pronunciation, which alone is the true pro- 
nunciation of the Greek language ? 

The Rev. John Groves, a distinguished Greek 
scholar, asserts that " We have, after an examina- 



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20 MISTAKEN NOTIONS CONCERNING- THE 

tion made with no little labor, formed a decided 
opinion that the pronunciation of the Greeks lias 
undergone very little change for ' two thousand 
YEARS.' The written language itself has been 
preserved in greater purity, during an equal ex- 
tent of years, than any of the European lan- 
guages of the same stock." He is inclined to 
believe, with an intelligent traveller in Greece, 
that the "contemporary of William of Malmes- 
bury or of Froissart would find more difficulty in 
conversing with his modem countrymen than any 
Athenian of the purer ages with his." 

Bishop Horsley remarks that it may reasonably 
be supposed that the pronunciation of the Greek 
language, even in the time of Eustathius, which 
flourished in the beginning of the thirteenth cen- 
tury, much more resembled the pronunciation 
of the best ages than anything we can substitute 
for it now; certainly much more than our bar- 
barous recitation of Greek, corrupted by our 
bad way of sounding it. To the same effect is 
the opinion of a well-known English author, who 
has bestowed as much attention upon the subject 
of pronunciation generally as ** any writer of our 
age." There seems, says Mr. Midford, no reason- 
able ground for doubting that the present polite 
pronunciation of Constantinople approaches nearer 
to the speech of the ancient Greeks than that 
of any other moderns, with any advantage the 



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MODERN GREEK PRONUNCIATION. 21 

study can give, and that ίη order to obtain the 
nearest possible approximation to the ancient 
Greek pronunciation we can do no other way so 
well as to adopt the Constantinopolitan. 

Furtliermore, the University of Cambridge in 
England has candidly acknowledged that the 
English are almost singular in the erroneous and 
vitiated pronunciation of the Greek language. 
And, in a well-known literary journal, a writer 
has remarked, in strong language : '* It is, I be- 
lieve, an undisputed fact, that our pronunciation 
of Greek bears not the slightest resemblance to 

that of the ancients A remedy should be 

found Great attention ought to be paid to 

the pronunciation of the modern Greeks, .... 
which must obviously approximate more to the 
standard of the ancients than the method preva- 
lent in England and elsewhere." 

Again, it is an undisputed fact, that by study- 
ing the Greek as a living language, and by 
adopting the modem Greek pronunciation, many 
idioms of modem Greek may be employed in 
a manner hitherto unlooked for, in the criticism 
of documents of doubtful age, as, for example, the 
Gospel of St. John, — with a Λύew of determining 
the period at which they were written. 

Professor Geldart asserts that the relation be- 
tween accent and quantity in poetry can never be 
fully nor fairly judged by any one who is not 



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22 MODERN GREEK PRONUNCIATION. 

familiar with the sound of Greek read accentually, 
a familiarity which can hardly be acquired apart 
from a practical acquaintance with Greek as a 
living, spoken language. 

Furthermore, "the pronunciation of Greek, and 
the interchange of certain letters within the limits 
of the Greek language, is a sealed mystery to 
those who are ignorant of the sounds which the 
Greeks of the present day give to the letters of 
their alphabet and their several combinations." 

Finally, as exactly the same letters appear to 
be interchangeable in ancient and modem Greek, 
we hold it to be in itself the strongest proof of 
the general identity of modern and ancient Greek 
pronunciation. But we will notice this point 
hereafter. We will notr proceed to discuss the 
subject concerning the neglect of the modem 
Greek pronimciation. 



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CHAPTER V. 

NEGLECT OF THE MODERN GREEK PRONUNCIATION. 

After the foregoing considerations, the reader 
may be curious to know why scholars are so loath 
to adopt the pronunciation prevalent in Greece. 
For, in fact, how can the Western nations ever 
suppose that their pronunciation is correct, when 
they pronounce the Greek, which is the living 
language of millions of people, according to tlie 
sound of tlieir respective languages ? Is this not 
a regrettable confusion ? Now, would it not be 
better to have for the Greek one uniform pronun- 
ciation, such as we have for every other spoken 
language ? 

The reasons for this neglect are many and 
various. With learned men of the old school it 
is due, very probably, " to a certain antiquarian 
bent of mind, amounting to a positive prejudice 
against everything modern." Professor Geldart 
is certainly right, when he says, that with such 
scholars the fact that a language is dead, is, of 
itself, the best reason for studying it, — forgetting 
that " a living dog is better than a dead lion." 



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24 MODERN GREEK PRONUNCIATION. 

To sucli, the discovery that the Greek is as really 
a living language as it was in the days of Homer, 
can hardly be expected to prove welcome. The 
manner of life which such persons lead is not 
inaptly expressed in the words of Southey : — 

** My days among the dead are passed. 
Around me I behold, 

Where'er these casual eyes are cast., 
The mighty minds of old : 
My never-failing friends are they, 
With whom I converse night and day." 

The remaining reasons for this neglect, Professor 
Geldart attributes to *^ the political insignificance 
of the nation ; the obscurity of its literature ; the 
small practical use of the language; and last, 
but perhaps not the least, the prevalence of the 
Erasmian system of pronunciation." 



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CHAPTER VL 

PROSPECTIVE STATUS OF GREECE. 

" (Edipus. Where are we now, my dear Antigone ? 
Knowest thou the place ? 

Antigone. Far as my eyes can reach I see a city 
With lofty turrets crowned ; and if I err not, 
This place is sacred ; by the laurel shade, 
Olive and vine thick planted, and the songs 
Of nightingale sweet warbling through the year." 

The political insignificance of Greece cannot be 
of very long duration. A people which has made 
such rapid strides in education as the Greek nation, 
since its independence was established, must "be 
worth something, after all." Professor Felton 
said, in reference to the University of Athens, 
" That many of its professors would do honor to 
any university of Europe " ; and it is not saying 
too much when I say that the University of 
Athens is acknowledged to-day as one of the very 
best universities of Europe. General education 
is widely spread in Greece, and no nation sur- 
passes the modem Greeks "in general informa- 
tion." But ill order that the reader may fully 
understand the astonishing progress the Greeks 



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26 PROSPECTIVE STATUS OF GREECE. 

have made in the sciences, arts, and literature, 
that is to say, in civihzation, since 1832, the year 
when Greece was declared an independent king- 
dom, it is necessary that I preface my remarks 
by a brief description of tlie country before the 
occurrence of that memorable event. 

" Before I farther in the tale do pass, 
It seeraeth me accordaivt unto reason 
To tell you all, the condition 
Of each of them, so as it seemeth me, 
And who they were, and of what degree, 
And eke in what array they all were in." 

In 1821 .a general war against the Turks was 
declared, and, after a war of seven years — a most 
cruel and atrocious war — the Greeks succeeded in 
obtaining their liberty. Education during those 
years, and previous to 1821, was indeed in a sad 
condition. The Turks would permit the Greeks 
to have churches, but they would not permit them 
to have any ** regular schools." The Greeks 
accordingly turned many of their churches into 
scliool-houses, and here is a faithful description 
of one of those *^ schools " by a Greek who 
attended one of them : ^^ The rich were wont to 
attend the subterranean schools established in 
Constantinople, Smyrna, and other cities. These 
schools were generally taught by able and 
scholarly men, who had studied in Germany. 
The poor attended the schools held in the church. 



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PROSPECTIVE STATUS OF GREECE. 27 

The school was kept at the entrance of the church, 
and our teacher was the priest, a man of not 
extensive acquirements. We went at about eiglit 
o'clock in the morning, and were ranged in two 
lines in the porch, one on each side of the door. 
The children sat on sheepskins spread on the 
floor witli tlie wool up, the floor being swept very 
clean. Sometimes we were ranged round against 
the wall, without distinction of age or class, 
brothers being generally placed together, and the 
girls in another group. The exercises began at 
eight o'clock, by all standing, while a prayer was 
repeated by the teacher. Then we all said the 
Creed. The priest then repeated the psalm be- 
ginning ' El^eson me ο Theos,' whicli is much 
used by us in ancient Greek, of which I un- 
derstood the meaning when a little boy. It 
needed not a translation. When this was done, 
the boys began to read, one at a time going with 
his book to the master, who corrected any errors. 
There were two classes, — one in an alphabet 
book, called 'phillada' (leaves); the other in 
the Psalter, or the 'Apostles.' The 'Apostles' 
contained the Acts and all the Epistles. Both 
the Psalter and the 'Apostles' were in ancient 
Greek, ^ach scholar had a few lines to read, 
which he studied as a lesson at his seat. We 
never studied mathematics, as we did afterwards, 
in the school of Oekonomos in Smyrna. This 



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28 PROSPECTIVE STATUS OF GREECE. 

school of Oekonomos was what I may term a 
* private school.' A few such schools were to be 
found in Asia Minor at that time. But they were 
generally placed under the protection of some 
, European power, and thus they were left un- 
molested. To this day, the Evangelical College 
in Smyrna, though a Greek institution, endowed 
by a Greek, is under the protection of England. 
After dinner we learned to write. Three or four 
small sheets of paper sewed together, without a 
cover, served for each of the older boys, who 
used to write with large crow-quills. These quills 
were very durable. The sliepherds supplied us 
from the birds they killed. The pens were 
mended by the master. We sat on sheepskins, 
as I mentioned, spread on the floor, and placed 
the paper on our knees with our inkstands beside 
us. The master gave a copy of the alphabet 
alone to each learner, and afterwards a line or 
more, written always in a small hand. All the 
exercise of the afternoon, for two or three hours, 
was in writing. Before the close of school-hoiu's, 
the writing was shown to the master, Λνΐιο pim- 
ished the negligent by feruling their hands. 
Great oifences were punished by bastinado on the 
feet. ' This was performed after the Turkish man- 
ner, by lifting the feet up. In ours and the neigh- 
boring A^llages of poor Greeks, the boys carried 
every week ten paras (two and a half cents), or 



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PROSPECTIVE STATUS OF GREEtJji. ^ '^<^9 ' /^* 



-/, v.. 



bread, olives, eggs, cheese, wine, to feed the n^fler. ^^ 
This was the regular price. There was no dan^φf ^λ 
of being starved. Each was informed whether to^ a 
carry a loaf of bread or a piece of cheese this * 
week, which was generally different from the last 
and the next week. At the rates established then, 
I suppose the master received about the value 
of four dollars per month for teaching thirty 
boys. There was no suoh thing as boarding, so 
that the expense of living cannot be estimated as 
in the United States ; but everything was cheap. 
Beef was two iand a half cents a pound ; veal or 
lamb, four cents ; goat's flesh, two cents. Flour 
was four cents a pound." 

Such was the state of education in those years 
of bitter slavery. The monasteries, especially 
those on Mount Olympus, afforded instruction to 
those who wished to learn, but generally speak- 
ing it was ^'religious instruction," and those at- 
tending, for the most part, were preparing for 
the ministry. Shortly after the release frotn the 
Turkish yoke, the courts of England, France, 
and Russia, being desirous to give to Greece a 
fresh proof of their friendly (?) disposition, took 
upon themselves the responsibility of directing 
the internal affairs of the kingdom, and of framing 
a constitution for the nation. The Greeks were 
opposed to the friendly wishes of the Powers; 
they were opposed to the form of government 



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30 PROSPECTIVE STATUS OF GREECE. 

the Powers wished to establish over them ; they 
were unwilling to have foreigners direct the 
destinies of their nation ; so that, after the lapse 
of ten years (since 1832), "The Minerva," a 
Greek paper then published in Athens, asserted 
in strong language, " After the lapse of more 
than ten years, and an expenditure of thirty 
millions of dollars, the interests of the country 
are so completely neglected, that to this moment 
(1842), Greece is left with the greatest part of her 
domain uncultivated ; with her forts filled with 
mud ; with many of her rich plains and valleys 
in a state of progressive desolation; with some 
few schools and seminaries of learning, supported 
principally by private contribution, and denied 
the benefit of a vigilant superintendence; with 
churches more fit for stables than for temples 
of religion ; Tsath suppressed monastenes ; with a 
clergy in rags ; with a navy inferior to the one in 
the days of Capodistria ; with a population small 
enough, and yet diminishing by constant emi- 
gration to Turkey; with many and rich uniforms, 
but without a manufacturing establishment ; with 
plenty of commercial treaties, but with a com- 
merce poorer and more insignificant than ever; 
with a bank which promises wonders, but with no 
resources and public credit." 

The above picture of Greece is by no means 
an exaggeration of the actual state of things at 

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PROSPECTIVE STATUS OF GREECE. 31 

the time. The budget for 1843 showed a revenue 
of 15,669,795 drachmas, against an expenditure 
of 18,666,582 drachmas, Avhich it was feared 
would be increased to more than 6,000,000 drach- . 
mas, inasmuch as it was thought that the govern- 
ment would hardly realize more than 12,000,000 
drachmas from the revenue of the realm. The 
causes of these misfortunes must be attributed 
to the fact that the Powers were determined to 
establish in Greece an "absolute monarchy," 
and the Greeks, on the other hand, wished to 
have a constitutional government. Others laid 
the blame upon the Bavarians, upon those "who" 
— to use the language of "The Minerva" — 
"disbanded the veterans of Greece, and gave 
the bread of her liberators to worthless merce- 
naries, Λνΐιο led to the slaughter-house the heroes 
of her revolution, and exiled in foreign missions 
the best of her statesmen ; who shackled the 
press, burdened the people with taxes, wasted the 
loan and the revenue, gave the national lands to 
strangers, weakened the interests of her protect- 
ors, dampened the sympathies of her friends, 
disregarded the Protocols, despised the advice 
of kings, persecuted the constitution, and intro- 
duced into the country that system of govern- 
ment which must be stigmatized as ' absolute 
and despotic.'" 

Others maintain, and perhaps with justice, that 



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32 PROSPECTIVE STATUS OF GREECE. 

the real causes are to be sought in the memorable 
treaty of the 7th of May, 1832, between tlie 
Minister of Bavaria on one side and the Pleni- 
. potentiaries of England, France, and Russia on 
the other. By virtue of this memorable state 
paper, the sovereignty of Greece Avas confeiTed 
upon King Otho, and it was further agreed, be- 
tween the contracting , parties, that his Majesty, 
being then a minor, should proceed to his king- 
dom, under the tutelage of three Regents, not 
one of whom was to be a Greek, who, besides a 
a loan of sixty millions of francs, were to have a 
mercenary army of four thousand men ! 

The history of the last fifty years, a Greek 
asserts, has recorded many wrongs, many acts of 
oppression and injustice ; but neither the liistory 
of the present, nor the annals of ancient and 
modem times, can afford us a more terrible ex- 
ample of national vassalage than that which we 
see in the case of Greece, and which portrays in 
such vivid colors the beauties of an exotic policy, 
which Mr. Macaulay has justly characterized as 
the worst species of slavery. Mr. Perdicaris 
remarks that the sacrifices of Greece, the full 
hecatombs which she laid on the altar of liberty, 
the deep sympathy which her suffering and heroic 
courage created in the minds of the civilized 
communities of the world, are still fresh in our 
memory, and we can hardly dissipate our blush, 



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PROSPECTIVE STATUS OF GREECE/ 33 

or smother our indignation, when, with such 
glorious antecedents, we find sucli wretched con- 
sequences ; when in the place of that substantial 
good wliich animated the heroes of Greece, and 
which was anticipated by her people and her 
friends, we have a government which requires 
from two to three millions of dollars for its sup- 
port, but wliicli, at the same time, is swayed to 
and fro by some one of the three potent and 
iiTCsponsible Plenipotentiaries of England, France, 
and Russia ! Is there anytliing more humiliating 
or more degrading than this ? 

But this state of things could not go on much 
longer. The Greeks resolutely took the matter 
into, their own hands, and by one master-stroke 
they saved their country from its perilous and 
degraded condition. This they accomplished by 
that memorable revolution of September 3, 1843. 
It accomplished a great deal of good, without 
giving rise to evil consequences. That great 
popular movement of a single day ended, in the 
words of a Greek historian, in the acquisition of a 
social compact, which is destined to protect, for 
ages to come, the prerogatives of the throne and 
the rights of the nation. 

The Greeks, haAUng established a form of 
government such as they Λvished, showed them- 
seh^es capable of governing themselves. They 
commenced to rebuild their fallen city and to 



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34 'PROSPECTIVE STATUS OF GREECE. 

preserve the renowned monuments of antiquity, 
which suffered not so much from the conqueror 
as they did from the ruthless hand of the anti- 
quarian. 

It was the antiquarian, and not the conqueror, 
who ruined the temples of antiquity and de- 
spoiled the city of Athens of its treasures. We 
can only feel, says the indignant Byron, or im- 
agine, the regret with which ruins of cities, once 
the capitals of empires, are beheld ; the reflections 
suggested by such objects are too trite to require 
recapitulation. But never did the littleness of 
man, and the vanity of his very best virtues, 
of patriotism to watch and valor to -defend his 
country, appear more conspicuous tlian in the 
record of what Athetis was and the certainty of 
what she now is. This tlieatre of contentions 
between mighty factions, of the struggles of 
orators, the exaltation and deposition of tyrants, 
and triumphs and punishment of generals, is now 
become a scene of petty intrigues and perpetual 
distiu-bance between the bickering agents of cer- 
tain British nobility and gentry ; the λυΙΜ foxes, 
the owls, and serpents, in the ruins of Babylon 
were scarcely less degrading than such inhabi- 
tants. The Turks have the plea of conquest for 
their tyranny, and the Greeks have only suffered 
the fortunes of war incident to the bravest. But 
how are the mighty fallen, Avhen two painters 



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PROSPECTIVE STATUS OF GREECE. 35 

contest the privilege of plundering the Parthenon, 
and triumph in turn according to the tenor of 
each succeeding firman ! Sylla could but punish, 
Philip subdue, and Xerxes bum Athens, but it 
remained for the petty antiquarian and his des- 
picable agents to render her as contemptible as 
himself and his pursuits. 

However, let us not forget that neither the 
conqueror, nor the antiquarian, nor time, the de- 
stroyer of all things, has succeeded in effacing 
the wonders of art; the principal monuments 
of the city, and the Acropolis with many of its 
monuments, were spared, and Athens, " even 
when under the government of a worthless slave, 
continued to be the favorite of all those who had 
an eye for art or for nature." 

** But lo ! from high Hymettus to the plain 
The Queen of Night asseits her silent reign. 
No murky vapor, hei'ald of the storm, 
Hides her fair face or gilds her glowing form. 
With cornice glimmering in the moonbeam's play, 
When the white column greets her grateful ray. 
And bright around with quivering beams beset, 
Her emblem sparkles o'er the minaret ; 
The groves of olive scattered dark and wide. 
Where meek Cephisus sheds his scanty tide. 
The cypress saddening by the sacred mosque. 
The glimmering turret of the gay kiosk. 
And sad and sombre mid the holy calm. 
Near Theseus' fane, yon solitary palm. 
All tinged with varied hues, arrests the eye, 
And dull were his heart that jiassed them heedless by." 

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36 PROSPECTIVE STATUS OF GREECE. 

For the preservation of the " antiquities," a 
society was formed under the name of the 
'^ Archaeological Society of Athens." The mem- 
bers went to work with willing hearts and hands, 
so tliat they succeeded in rendering the "National 
Museum " the most interesting and perhaps the 
richest museum of the world. 

Ever lovely, ever dear, 
How may I salute thine ear! 
Ο what size of words may tell . 
Half the charms that in thee dwell t 
In thy sight are joy and pleasure 
Without stint and without measure. 
In thy breath is all that flings 
Sense and thought of choicest things. 

Now, the progress Greece has made since her 
independence is evident from what follows : — 
Greece in 1834 had a population of 650,000 
inhabitants. In 1870 she had 1,238,000 inhabit- 
ants, — that is to say, her population was doubled 
in thirty-six years, — increasing more rapidly 
than in Great Britain, and much faster than in 
any other country of Europe. Greece, together 
with the Ionian islands, has to-day a population 
of one million and a half 

In 1830 there were in Greece 110 schools, and 
the number of scholars amounted to 9,249. In 
1860, there were in Greece 752 schools, with 
52,860 scholars. In 1837 there were in the 



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PROSPECTIVE STATUS OF GREECE. 37 

University of Athens 52 scholars; in 1866 there 
were 1182. In regard to the commercial and 
maritime interests of the country, suffice it to say, 
that in 1871 Greece had 35,000 sailors; three 
times as many as Great Britain in proportion 
to her population. Her commerce with England 
in 1861 amounted to 923,000 English pounds; 
in 1871 it reached the sum of 2,332,000 pounds. 
Education is free. From the village school to 
the " great University " of Athens, education is 
free. Edmond About, in his work, "Contem- 
porary Greece," speaks in the following terms 
concerning the Greek students : " I have seen 
in Greece all kinds of students, but I never saw 
the student who would not study." Rev. Joseph 
Cook thus eloquently portrays the intellectual 
progress of the Greek nation : — 

"What has happened in Greece since she was liberated 
from Turkey ? 

"Forty years ago not a book could be bought at Athens. 
To-day one in eighteen of the whole population of Greece 
fs in school. Fifty years of independence and the Hellenic 
spirit have doubled the population of Greece, increased her 
revenues five hundred per cent, extended telegraphic com- 
munication over the kingdom, enlarged the fleet from 440 to 
5,000 vessels, opened eight ports, founded eleven new cities, 
restored forty ruined towns, changed Athens from a hamlet 
of hovels to a city of 60,000 inhabitants, and planted there 
a royal palace, a legislative chamber, six type-foundries, forty 
printing establishments, twenty newspapers, an astronomical 
observatory, and a university with fifty professors and twelve 



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38 PROSPECTIVE STATUS OF GREECE. 

hundred students. King Otho*s German court, when he 
came from Nauplia to Athens in 1835, lived at first in a shed 
that kept out neither the rain nor the north wind. On Con- 
stitution Peace in Athens, in 1843, the Hellenic spirit, with- 
out violence, and by the display of force for but a few hours, 
substituted for pereonal power in Greece a constitutional 
government as free as that of England. Geoi-ge Finlay, the 
historian of the Greek Revolution, and who fought in it, 
affirms that, even before that event, degraded as the people 
were politically, a larger proportion could read and write 
than among any other Christian race in Europe. Undoubt- 
edly long bondage, acting on the native adroitness of the 
race, taught the Greeks disingenuousness. The old blood 
produced an Alcibiades as well as a Socrates, a Cleon as 
well as a Phocion ; there was in it, as in American veins 
to-day, a tendency to social, commercial, and political sharp- 
dealing. But after fifty yeara of independence the Hellenic 
spirit devotes a larger percentage of public revenue to pur- 
poses of instruction than France, Italy, England, Germany, 
or even the United States. Modern Greece, fifty years ago 
a slave and beggar, to-day, by the confession of the most 
merciless statisticians, its enemies, stands at the head of the 
list of self-educated nations." 

" ' The Deity has changed in nothing these cities ; but I 
am not surprised thereby; for I know the Destiny is ever 
striving to produce something new, and changes the weak a# 
well as the strong, by the power of Necessity.' " (Pausanias.) 



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CHAPTER VIL 

MODERN GREEK LITERATURE• 

The Septiiagint^ J^olyhius^ ancLlhe New Testa- 
ment were written in what is called Hellenistic 
Greek, or "17 κοινή διάλεκτος." I τααγ in fact / 
remark that Hellenistic Greek, or " η κοινή hidkeK- 
τος,^^ first made its appearance in the Septuagint. 
For example, " i^eXde έκ της γης σον, καΐ έκ της 
συγγενείας σου . . . πάντες εζέκλιναν, άμα ηχρειώ' 
σθησαν τάφος άνεωγμενος 6 λάρυγξ αύτών,^^ sounds 
just like modem Greek. 

Of Polybius it may be said that the general \^ 
nm of his sentences is not so modem as the Sep- | 
tuagint, yet many of his pecidiarities, or novelties, \ 
are decidedly modern. The New Testament is \ 
written in the language in which the newspapers 
are to-day printed in Greece. Everything about 
it is decidedly modem. The language of the 
New Testament needs no translation with us ; it 
is as natural for a Greek, of fair education, to 
understand the New Testament " in the original 
Greek " as it is for an American to understand the 
language of an English paper. 



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40 MODERN GREEK LITERATURE. 

To-day there are many books published in 
Athens, written by modern Greeks, in a style far 
\ above that of the New_Testament ; take, for inr 
\ stance : καΐ ή ρώτησαν αυτούς λεγοντβς' ουτός έστιν 
6\ ' ο νιος νμων, 6ν νμεΐς \€γ€Τ€ οτι τυφλός ^γ^ννήθη ; 
πως ονν άρτι β\έπ€ΐ ; *Απ€κρίθησαν αύτοΐς οι yo- 
] ν€Ϊς αντον, καΐ €Ϊπον οΓδαμει^ ort οντάς Ιστιν 6 νΙος 
-^ ημών, καϊ ort τνφλος έγα/νηθη. Now, in all this, 
with the exception of the word ο18αμ€ν, for which 
the modem Greek will supply ηξ^νρομ^ν, every- 
thing else sounds decidedly modem. 

We now pass into the " Roman period." 
Lebeck's edition of Phrynichus, '^ Eclogse and 
Epitome," will perhaps give an idea as to the 
state of the spoken language about 180 years 
after Christ. 



We come next to the Diocletian age. The fol- 
lowing Nubian inscription by a King Silco, 
Corpus Insc. iii. p. 486, may serve as a type 
of the Greek spoken at that time in Ethiopia : — 

Εγο) ΧιΧκω βασιΚίσκος Νονβα^ών καυ ο\ων ίων Αιθί• 
όττων ηλθον €ίς ΤβΧμιν και Τάφιν^ ατταξ Βνο ίττολβμησα 
μ€τα των ΒΧβμμυων^ και ο θεός €Βωκ€Ρ μοι το νι,κημα μβτα 
των ίγθρων ατταξ^ €νικηση τταλιν και € κράτησα τάς ττόλε/ς 
αυτών^ ζκαθβσθην μ€τα των οχΧων μου• το μεν ιτρωτον 
άτταξ ενικησα αυτών και αυτοί ήξιωσαν 쀕 εποιησα €ΐρψ 
νην μ€τ αυτών και ωμοσάν μοι τα €ΐΒω\α αυτών, και 



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MODERN GREEK LITERATURE. 4l 

ίττίστενσα τον ορκον αυτών ώς καΧον βισίν ανθρωττον 
άναγωρ-ηθην ei^ τα ανω μβρη μου* ore ^^€ηιονομην βασί' 
Χίσκο^ ουκ άττηλθον ολω? οττισω των αΧΧων βασιΧβων 
αΧΧα ακμην ίμττροσθξν αυτών, ot yap φιΧονβι,κοΰσιν μ€τ 
€μοΰ ουκ άφώ (cf. αφβωνταο in New Testament) αυτούς eU 
γωραν αυτών ev μη κατηξιωσαν μ€ καν παρακαΧοΰσιν 
καθεσθηναι. Ε^ω ηαρ 6t9 κατω μβρη Χβων €ΐμι και €4? 
ανω μ€ρη αϊξ βΐμί' βττοΧεμησα μβτα των ΒΧβμμνων καΐ 
Πρίμεως βω? Γ€λ[/Α]€ω9 ίν ατταξ και οΐ αΧΧοι, ΝουβαΒών 
ανωτζρω βττόρθησα χωράς αυτών^ €'7Γ€ΐ8η βφιΧονακησαν 
μ€τ €μοΰ• ουκ αφώ αυτούς καθ€σθηναι 6^9 την σκιάν ξΐ μη 
υτΓοκΧινουσι μοι και ουκ βπωκαν νηρον €σω €ΐς την οικίαν 
αυτών. Οί γαρ φιΧονεικουσί μοι άρττάζω τών γυναικών 
και τα ΊταιΒία αυτών. 

From Jhe age of Diocletian to the Byzantine 
Period is but a step. Now, until tlie time of 
Ptochoprodromus, in the eleventh century after 
Christ, " artificial Attic " was still the language 
of literature ; but the popular dialect, often re- 
ferred to by authors, keeps coming to the surface. 

The following is a short specimen of the 
popular style adopted in this period, from the 
" Apophthegmata Patrum " : — 

ΗΧθον 7ΓΟΤ6 7Γατ€ρ€9 €ΐ<ζ ΑΧβξανΒρβιαν κΧηθεντβς υττο 
θβοφιΧου του αρχιεττισκοττου ινα ττοιηση ^υχην και καθελη 
τα lepa. ΚαΙ βσθιοντων αυτών τταρ αυτοΰ τταρβτίθη 
κρ€ας μοσγιον. Και ησθιον μηΖ^ν Βακρινόμ€νοι και Χαβών 



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i2 MODERN GREEK LITERATURE. 

hnaKoiro^ ev xoiraStv €8ωκ€ τφ πΧησίον αντον yepovti 
\€γων^ iBov τοντο καΧον KOiraSiv eanu^ φαγ€ αββά, Oi 
δέ a'TrofcptOevre^ elirov, Ήμ€Ϊς Iw αρη Χάχ^αρα ησθίομ^ν 
el hi κρέας €<m ου τρωγομερ. Καί oVken irpoaeOero ovBe 
6t9 €ξαυτών γευσασθαν αυτόν. 

The next period of " Greek literature" may be 
reckoned from 622^ the date of the Hegh-a, to 
li)99. We have here before our eyes " the tran- 
sition in literature from the language of the gram- 
marians to the language of the people.'' 

Theophanes (758-816). Besides a host of 
new words, and ancient words with new mean- 
ings, he has the following grammatical innova- 
tions : — 

The endings -αδβς, -άδων, -άδας, in nouns in -ας ; 
oi άμηράΒες, emirs, τους άμηράΒας. The endings 
-19, 'LV for -IQ^ 'iov ; 6 κυρις τον κνριν. "Κ^ΧαΚψ 
σωμ€ν for λαΧησωμεν, and άς άσίϊ^ωσι for €t(rcX- 
θοντων. The perfect participle without redupli- 
cation, as σι.8ηρωμ€ΐ/ος, καστελΚωμενος πυρπολημέ- 
νος, "ϊΐμίσυ, half, indeclinable. The ending -os- 
for ων; άσχημω for άσχήμονι; άπο with the ac- 
cusative. *Από *Αλ€ξάν8ρ€ίαν ; els for iv. Έδιδα- 
σκ€ν iv Κωνσταντινουπό\€ί, eU το ^υκτηριον της 
άγιας ^Αναστασίας ; συν with the genitive as well 
as ajita with the genitive, etc., etc. 

The age of Malalas cannot be determined with 
certainty. Professor Sophocles supposes that, as, 



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MODERN GREEK LITERATURE. 43 

however, most of the grammatical innovations 
contained in the work that bears his name belong 
to the l^guage of the eighth and ninth centuries, 
it may be assumed that he was contemporary with 
Theophanes. It wpuld_ seem, further, that Greek 
was not his mother tongue. ^ 

I. The endings -€9 for ai, as Πβρσ- ^ς for Uipaai . 
Metaplastic dative^ plural τοις πλάκαις, from η 
πλάκα, classical πλάξ πλακός. Participle aqtiyfiJa. 
οντά for 'ov, and ό^α for -cj^ ; π€σόρτα, οίκονρτα, 
δντα, μέλλοντα, παρέχοντα. 

The accusative for the dative. The article be- .^ / ^ ^ ^ 
\ fore interrogative words. ^A/lui, with the genitive. ^''- ^ 
\ fAiro, 6ji, for υπό after passive forms. Mcra, withj ^ 
followed by the accusative. 

The anonymous biographer of Leo Armenius 
uses the following grammatical innovations : — ^ 

The ending.j-ouK-iQr -ονσ^ ; κυριεύουν for Kvpi^w- 
ουσι ; c/c with the accusative καί ^υγενος for cvyc- j ~ 
νης. Th£auxiliai5j:.as for a^c$. ^ 

Leo the Philosopher (A. D. 886-911), in his 
" Tactica," employs a considerable number of new 
words and the endings : -09 for -779. 

II. tStfc09 = |>ropriwm, as in ^iomaic. The end- 
ing -ccrat for -€t (second person sing, passive), ov 
for μη in the protasis, ^etc. " 

Constantine Porphyrogenitus, who wrote all his 
works purposely "in the common and spoken 



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44 MODERN GREEK LITERATURE. 

language," with the exception of the Life of St. 
Basil, which was written in the artificial "Attic 
Greek " of that period, gives us : The ending -αις 
for at ; αΚΚάζιμοι/, gen. αλλαζίματος ; σας for νμων; 
ίνα for €V'j μονογενή for the vocative of μονογενής] 
των for αντων] excre for €T| σον for σοι» as icaXij- 
σου ημέρα, " Good morning to you"; va for Iva, 
and cft>s, wltli^the accus. *Ά/ια, with the subj. Mera, 
withj followed with the accus., etc. 

An anonymous writer, known as " Theophanes 
Continuatus," makes use of the expression, '^ the 
common and impure language," which evidently 
means the language of the illiterate. In his col- 
lection entitled "Theophanes Continuatus," we 
find: ^Αλυ, gen. of ^Αλυς, χρυσός for χρυσούς. 
The ending ας, κρασάς, vitnery and periphrastic 
future subjunctive. 

Cedrenus (A. D. 1057) wrote in ancient Greek, 
but with " indiflferent success." His work contains 
but few grammatical innovations : Gen. in η from 
ης ; the numeral adverb ίττταί for Ιπτάκις. 

Scylitzes gives us the following specimen of the 
common dialect : €ω ere έκτισα, φουρνν έω αψ cc 
χαλάσω = in modem Greek, 'εγώ σ€ έκτισα φονρνβ, 
έγώ να σ€ χαλάσω, Ι built theCy Ο oveUy I wiU de- 
molish thee! 

Anna Commena, who wrote a history of the 

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MODERN GREEK LITERATURE. 45 

Byzantine War about the year 1100, alludes to 
the common dialect. She has preserved the fol- 
lowing popular tetrastitch: — 

To σαββατορ τ^? τνρινη<; 
Χαρζς Αλίξιε^ Ινοησί^ το, 
Και την hevrepav το πτρωι* 
£ύπα, καΧω^ yepuKiv μου. 
• • . . , 

This closes the mediaeval period of Greek liter- 
ature. 

Theodoras Prodromus (A. D. 1143-1180) may 
be regarded as the earliest ^^modern Greek author." 
He is said to have used the ^^ popular dialect," or 
"Romaic Greek," in its entirety. Before pro- 
ceeding any farther, it may be well to give the 
origin of the term " Romaic Greek." 

ORIGIN OF THE NAME "ROMAIC." 

In Professor Sophocles' "Romaic Grammar" 
we find that when Constantino the Great trans- 
ferred the seat of empire to Byzantium, he called 
it Nea ^ΐώμη. New Bome. The popular name, how- 
ever, was, and still continues to be, Κωνσταντινού- 
πολις, Constantinople^ that is Κωνσταντίνου πόλις, 
the city of Constantine. The appellation New Borne 
is now obsolete, except in connection with the 
titles of its bishop. Thus, Γρηγόριος ikeoj^^eov 
αργι^πίσκοπος Κωνσταντινουπόλεως Neas *νώμης καΐ 



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46 MODERN GREEK LITERATURE. 

οίκονμα/ικός πατριάρχης, Gregory, hy the mercy of 
God Archbishop of Constantinople, which is New 
Borne, and Universal Patriarch. After that mem- 
orable event the name of 'Ρωμαίοι, Romans, was 
applied to the Greeks as well as to the genuine 
Eomans. The subjects of the Byzantine emperor 
were sometimes distinguished from the Έσπέριοι 
*Ρωμάΐοι, Western Eomans, by the adjective 'Εώοι, 
Eastern. The Emperor's domain was known as 
'ΐωμανία, Bomania, the country of the Eomans, a 
derivative of 'Ρωμανός, Romanus, Boman. 

The Greeks being thus changed into Romans, 
it was natural that the name of the language 
should undergo a corresponding transformation. 
The adjective 'Ρωμαίικος (trisyllabic), less cor- 
rectly 'Ρωμαϊκός, is derived from 'Ρωμαίος, after 
the analogy of the classical *Αχαιικός, from *A;(aio9. 
Hence η 'Ρωμαϊκή γλωσσά, or simply τα 'Ρωμαίικα, 
Bomaic, the langrmge of the Bomans. 

The term η Έλλψικη Τλωσσα, or simply τα 
Ελληνικά, is regularly applied now to the ancient 
and present language of Greece. 

Now, we have said that the first modem Greek 
writer who can be said to have used the " Romaic 
dialect " in its entirety was Theodorus Prodromus 
(A. D. 1143-1180), nicknamed " Ptochoprodro- 
mus." He lived in the reign of the Emperor 
Manuel Comnenus, was a monk, and addressed 
to him a series of popular verses, στίχοι πολιτικοί. 



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MODERN GREEK LITERATURE. 47 

presented to lis by. Coray in. the first volume of 
hia "Atacta," Paris, 1828. The burden of these 
verses appears to be the poverty of learned men. 
They are written with great spirit, and in a style 
which may be termed '^ barbarous ancient Greek." 
Since tlie emancipation of Greece the style com- 
menced, to gho wits native j)Ower, so that "Romaic 
Greek" or ^^bafb.aroaaJ^.^^^ί^1^^ ftrA^l^^Ma a thing 
altogether of the past. The following is a speci- 
men of his style : — 

Tijp κβφαΧην σον, BaaiXev^ eU τοντο ri μ€ Xeyet? ; 
Av €χω yeiTovdv τιναν κίχτ} iraiSiv ay opiv^ 
/ Na τον βίττω Va, MdOe το γραμματικον να ζη<Γρ ; 
Πάρα κρανιαροκβφάλον ττάντ^ξ να μ ονομάσουν* 
Να τον βίττώ Vt, Μάθβ το τζαγγάρην το παώιν σου• 
Γβίτοναν €χω ττετζωτην^ τάχα ψβυΒοτζαγγάρην • 
ίΤλ^ι; ei^e καΧοψουνιστης^ eve καί χαροκόπος» 
Οταν γαρ iSt) την ανγην ΤΓ€ρι,χαρασσομ€νην^ 
Aeyei ας βράση το κρασίν και fiaXe το Trimepiv 
Ευθύς το βράσ€ΐν το θ€ρμόν Xeyei προς το τταιΖίν του 
Να το τταιΖίν μον^ ayόpaσe χρρΒόκοιΧα σταμ^νου^ 
Φepe καΐ Βχάχικον τυρίν αΧΧην σταμ€ναρ4αν^ 
Κα\ 8ός μ€ να τΓρογ€υσωμαι, καΐ τοτ€ να τΓ€τζόνω. 
Αφ ου he φθαστ) το τνρίν καΐ τα γρρΖοκοιΧίτζα. 
. • • . • 

Καν τβσσβρα τον ΒίΒουσιν €ΐς το τρανόν μονχρουτιν • 
Kat τΓαρ€υθυς υττοΒημαν eiraipec και 7Γ€τζόν€ΐ • 
Οταν Be τταλιν^ βασιΧ€υ^ γ€νματος ωρα φθάση^. 



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48 MODERN GREEK LITERATURE. 

*Ρ(,πτ€ΐ ΊΟ καλατΓοΒίρ τοι;, pvin^i kcu to aaviStv^ 
Kcu \ey€L• τηρ ywalKarov, Κυρα καΐ Bi^ τραττ^ζιν • 
Kai Ίτρωτον μίσσον ίκζβστόν^ Seirepop το σφουγ^άτον, 
Κα\ τρίτον το ακρωτταστον οφθον από μορίου. 
KclL τέταρτον μονόκνθρον, irXrjv /8λίπ€ να μη βράζη. 

Αφ ου Se τταραθ^σουσιν και νι/^^ται κ(ΐί κατση, 
^Ανάθβμά μ€ ΒασίΧ^ύ κα\ τρισανάθ€μά /te, 

Ονταν στραφώ καΐ ϊ8ω τον Xocirov το ττώς καθίζ€ΐ^ 
Το ττώς ανακομτΓονβταί να inaarj το κουτάΚιν^ 
Καί ουΒβν τρώγουν τα σάλια μου^ ώ? Tpe^ei το ττοτάμιν. 
ΚαΙ βγω ύτταγω κ βρ'χρμαι ττόΖα^ μβτρων των στίγων. 
Ενθυς ζήτω τον ι,αμβον^ γυρβυω τον σπον8€Ϊον• 
Τυρ^ύω τον ττυρρίγίον καί τα Χοιττα τα μέτρα, 

ΑΧΚα τα μβτρα ττου φέΚοΰν σ την αμβτρόν μου irelvav; 
Πότ€ yap etc τον ίαμβον να φάγω κοσμοκράτορ ; 
^Η ττώ? etc τον ττυρριγιον ττοτέ μου να γρρτασω ; 

EBe τ€χνίτης σοφιστής €Κ€ΐνος 6 τζαγγαρη^• 
Elire το Κύρΐ€ Χίησον^ ηρξατο ρουκανιζ^ιν. 

We give here some of liis grammatical innova- 
1 tions as collected by Professor Sophocles. They 
\ will be found of importance to any one who may 
j read his writings, and, in fact, a key to the Eemaic 
* dialect: — 

I. N, annexed to words ending in a vowel : φο- 
peiv, έκτενίσθην, yeirovap, τινάν, νπό8ημαν, Bpahvv, 
ίκαΟάζουν,ίσέν. Π. The ending €9 or at 9 for α ι: 
τ€9 τέσσαρες γωνίαις. III. The accent of pro- 
paroxytone nouns and adjectives retains its place : 



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MODERN GREEK LITERATURE. 49 

ό κάποιας γ€ΐτόρισσας, hevreprqv, σκονμπροπαΚαμν 
Βόπαστου. IV. A ugmentative ending s, -α: ovpa, 
κομμάτια, κομματονρα. V. The adjective ending 
-€α for -€ta : τας μακριάς μντας. VJ. The article 
>C otmxJiL^ oi άρχόρτίσσ€<;, oi σάρκες, VII. Άτος, 
seif; thus, ^Ατός του γίνεται ^Ιατρός. VIII. Έαυ- 
τόν, self; thus, τρέφε τον εαυτόν σου, IX. Που or 
ότΓοΰ for 09, wL•. Χ. The verbal ending -όνω or • 
ώνω from the classical oin: πετσόνω, σηκώνω. 
XI. ''Εν, ενε, ενι εΐνε for 'εστί or είσί. XII. Peri- 
phrastic future by means of θέλω and the infini- 
tive ; thus, θέλεις σύρειν^ύϊβ f^gst example of the 
kind. XIII. Future subjunctive by means^ufTcT' 
and the imperfect or aorist indicative: va 'ζουν, 
να με διδαΐ', να *μαθα. XIV. Imperfect passive 
proparoxytone : ήρχόμην and ηρχουμουν, νά 'ργά- 
ζουμουν, γένουμουν. XV. The ending -ι^τασι for 
'VTo : thus, έπουλούντασι for 'επωλουντο. XVI. The 
accusative for the dative, passim. XVII. The ac- 
cusative for the genitive after numeral adverbs: 
άπαξ τον χράνον, once a year. XVIII. Νά and δια 
νά as in the Greek of the present day. XIX. Εύ- 
θύς TOj followed by the aorist infinitive, is θquiΛ^alent 
to the modem. Eifθifς που, as soon as. XX. All 
the prepositions tak^ the .accusative : συν την ζψ 
τησιν. XXI. Oύhείς^SolioυJ^not. 

Almost contemporary with Ptochoprodromus 
was Simon Sethos, who is the first prose writer in 
modem Greekl^ 



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50 MODERN GREEK LITERATURE. 

The " Book of the Conquest of Eomania and 
the Morea," Βιβλίον της κονγκ4στας της ^Ρωμα- 
νίας και τον Μωραΐος, by the Franks (French, 
Italians), now ascertained to be a translation 
from the French, belongs to the fourteenth cen- 
tury and represents the RomaLe of that period. 
It is published by Buchon in the second volume 
of his "Recherches Historiques,'' Paris, 1845. 
Professor Sophocles states, that from the abuse it 
heaps upon the Greeks, because they, on more 
than one occasion, deceived the truth-loving 
Franks, but chiefly because the Latins were 
unable to induce that stiff-necked, perfidious, 
lying people to recognize the apostolic claim of 
the Holy Father, it is not difficult to perceive 
that the ti-anslator, as well as the original au- 
thor, was a member of the Western church. 
Tlie *'Book of the Conquest" may be best de- 
scribed ^'as a rhyming chronicle, which might 
deserve the name of poor verse were it not so 
prosaic, or of bad prose were it not written in 
metre." 

To^ the same period belongs the epic poem en- 
titled ^* Belthandros and Chrysantza." This poem 
is without question a far more imaginative poem 
than the *' Niebungelied." The writer possessed 
what is called " real genius." If our reason were 
disposed to deny this, our sensations on perusing 
his work will fully prove it It is an infallible 



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MODERN GREEK LITERATURE. 51 

proof of real genius when a writer possesses the 
power to stir the feelings, or to aflfect the mind, 
in the most lively manner, by a few words, and 
with the most perfect simplicity -of language. 
Such a genius conspicuously marks both Shake- 
speare and the writer of '^ Belthandros and Chry- 
santza." 

The poem, as Geldart remarks, is a romance 
of knight-errantry, in which we can plainly trace 
the effects of the crusades in Greece. The plot 
of ''Belthandros and Chrysantza" is sample but 
imaginative. The Fero Is Belthandros (a Grae- 
cism for Bertran), the son of Ehodophilus, King 
of Eomania, who has two sons, Bertran and 
Philarmus, one of whom he loves, and the other 
of whom of course he hates. Belthandros, the 
unfortunate object of his ^father's displeasure, 
accordingly takes a journey eastward, and after 
heroic exploits performed at the expense of his 
father's men-at-arms, who are despatched to bring 
him back, he reaches Armenia, and the fortress of 
Tarsus. Riding by the side of a small stream, lie 
espies a gleam of light in the running waters, and 
follows up the course of the rivulet a ten days' 
journey. It leads him to a magic building called 
the Castle of Love, built of precious stones, and 
surrounded and filled with every imaginable foim 
of wonder, in the way of automaton, birds and 
beasts of gold, reminding us of Vulcan's work- 



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52 MODERN GREEK UTERATURK 

manship. Then follows an introduction to the 
King of the Loves, the owner of the enchanted 
palace, who gives him the task of choosing the 
most beautiful out of forty women. He first 
selects three, and having thus equalized the prob- 
lem to that which Paris of old had solved, he 
proceeds to award the palm to Chrysantza, who 
turns out to be the daughter of the King of 
Antiocliia, and whose subsequent appearance at 
the court of Ehodophilus reconciles the father, 
and terminates the story with the slaying of the 
fatted calf. 

" Did the modern Greek language possess but 
this single epic, to say that it is destitute of litera- 
ture were a calumny indeed." 

Emmanuel Gorgilas (^Εμμανουήλ Τ€ωργιΧΚας), 
a native of Rhodes, belongs to the latter part of 
the fifteenth century. He wrote several poems in 
Romaic verse. About the same time the story of 
Apollonius of Tyre {^Απολλώνιου του iv Τιίρω) was 
translated into Romaic from the Latin romance 
Apollonius Tyrius, the supposed prototype of 
Shakespeare's Pericles, Prince of Tyre. 

The following works are attributed to Em- 
manuel Gorgilas. 

1. Διηγτ^σις eU τάς πράξ€ίς του περιβόητου στρα- 
τηγού των ^Ρωμαίων μεγάλου Βελισαρίου (εξβΒόθη iv 
Βενετία τω 1554 υπό Φραγκίσκου 'Ραμπατσέτου εις 
4 τόμους. The work is metrical. 



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// 



/ Ay Λ\ 

MODERN GREEK LITER^URE/^ V^53 

2. To Θανατίκόν της *Ρόδου {ανέκ^οτ^Ί^ βν τ^ΧΓα-^ λ 
ρισιανγι Βιβλιοθήκη). "Ο/^ >/" 

3. &ρήι/ος της Κωνσταντινουπόλ€ως. ^y^ ^/rf 
Demetrius Zenos {έ^ημητριος 6 Ζ171Ό9), τ\φο 

translated the Batrachomyomachia into the " Be*^ 
maic dialect," represents the spoken language of 
the sixteenth century. This translation Martin 
Crusius, A. D. 1526-1607, translated into Latin. 
But almost the only examples of Modern Greek 
in the sixteenth century consist of letters and 
fragments of si)eeches, chiefly the utterances of 
ecclesiastics. 



The " great work " of the seventeenth century, 
as Professor Geldart calls it, is one entitled 
y Eropliile," written in the Cretan dialect, by one 
Chortakes, a Cretan. It is a tragedy, and opens 
with a monologue of Charon, the impersonation 
Of Death, who speaks as follows : — 

*H aypia ^ κ η ανζΧύττητη ^ κ η σκοτεινή θωριά ^ μου^ 
Και το Bpeirdv * οττον βαστώ,^ και ταΰτα τα γνβνά μου 
ΚόκκαΧα^ κ -ρ ποΧΧαις ΒρονταΙς, κ η αστρατταις ομάδι. 

1 *Η Aypta = η aypia (6 AyptoSy -ία, -ιον), 

2 η άνζΧύπητη for άνέλπιστοί, ον^ with sense of desperate. 

* θωριά = θ€ωρία. 

* Spevdp = δρέτανον, ου, τ6 = Αρ€πάνη. 

* Βαστώ = Βαστάζω. 



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54 MODERN GREEK LITERATURE• 

"ΟτΓου την yfjp άνοίξασι^ κ ίβγηκ αττοΰ^ τον Α8η^ 
IToto9 €Ϊμαι μοναχού ^ των€ δίχως μιΧια ® μττορουσι ^ 
Να φανερώσουν σήμερον σ όσους μ€ συντηρούσα 
• • • • • 

^Εγωμαί '^ κ€Ϊνος το Χοιττον ^^ απ οΧοι ^ μ€ μισουσί, 
Κα\ σκυΧοκάρΒη ^^ καΐ τι/φλο κ αττονον μ4 \α\ουσι, 
*Εγωμ! άπου τζη Βασιλεύς ^* τζη ^ μπ ο ρου μένους ουΧους, 
Τζη πΧούσιους κ ανήμπορους^ τζ άφενταις κα\ τζη ΒούΧους 
Τξη νέους καΐ τζη γέροντας, μικρούς καΐ τζη μεγάΧους 
Τζη φρόνιμους και, τζη ΧωΧους}^ κ οΧους ανθρώπους τζ^ 

αΧΧους 
Γιαμα}^ γιαμά οντε μου φαν^ ρίχνω ^^ καΐ θανατόνω. 
κ' εΙς τοι/ άθο^^ τζη νιότης τους τζη χρόνους τους τεΧειόνω 
Λυονω τζη Βόξαις καΐ τιμαΐς τα * νάματα μαυρίζω 
Τζη Βικαιοσύνας Ζιασκορπω^ και τζη φιΧιαίς χωρίζω^ 
Τζ' αγριαις καρδιαίς καταπονώ^ τζη Χογισμους άΧΧάσσω 
τ^ ελπίδες ρίχνω ?' μια μεριά, καΐ τζ εη/νοιαις κατατάσσω 
κ' εκεί που με πολύ θυμό τα μάτια μου στραφοΐίσι^ 

• άτοΟ = άτ6. 

' μοραχάτων€ = by themselves ; so τοτ^ μου {never) in my life. 

* /«λίά = 6/αλία, -at. 

^ μτΓορουσί = δύνανται, 

10 'ΕγώΜοι ^ (Έγώ) €ΐμΛΐ, 

11 τό \oivbv = in trtUh, finally (common in modem Greek). 

12 air* Skoi μ^ μισοΰσι = all men hate (me), 
1' σκύΧοκάρδη «= hound-hearted. 

1* rf i; Βασιλ€ΐ>5, i. e. τούί Βασιλ^Ρί, contracted for τού^ Βασιλ^Γαί. 

1^ άνήμίΓορουί = μικρούί^ άδυνάτουί (weak). 

1β Χωλού? = μαριώδηί. 

" Τιαμα γιαμά βιπ -e, as soon as ; etymology δΐ&μα Oinre χρόρορ. 

'* ^ίχνω = βΙΐΓτω. 

ιβ άθό = άρθοί, flower. 



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MODERN GREEK LITERATURE. 55 

Χωραις γαΧουν^ άκάκαιραι^^ κόσμοι, ΊΤοΧΚοί βουΧονσι. 
Που των ^ΕΧΚηνω η Βασι\€ΐαί<ξ ; ττου τω ^ Ρωμιών η τόσαις 
Πλουσιαι^ καΐ μ7Γορ€ζόμ€ναις χωραις ; ΉΌν τοσαι^ γνωσαι,ς ; 
• • • • • 

Φτωχοί*^ στο "λάκκο κατοικούν^ βονβοί μ€ δ*χω9^ στόμα 
Ψυχαΐ'ζ Ύ^υμναΐς ^ ΒΙν ξ€ύρω ιτοΰ στη yrj XiyuKi ^ χΆμα, 

ίϊ ττλησΑα^ κακορρίζικοι^ kcu γίάρτα δβ θβωρονσί 
Τζη μ€ραις ττω? λιγαίνονσι, τζη χρόνους ττως ττζρνοΰσι ; 
Το ψ€ς^ ίΖίάβη, το ττροχθΐ^ ΊτΧηο Bep άριστοράται, 
ΣίΓίθα^ μίκρη το σημ€ρο στα σκοτβινα Χογάται, 

Sevav άνοίγοσφάΧισμα^ των αμματί άττοσωνω 
ΚαΙ Βίχω<; Χνπησι καμία ττασ^ ανθρωττο σκοτώνω 
Τα κάΧΚη σβυνω, κ όμορφο ιτρόσωττο 8e Χιπτοΰμαι, 
Toif^ Taireivov^ he Χεημονώ^ του? aypiov^ δέ^^ φοβούμαι 
Του<ζ φβυγονν φταν oyXrjyopa, τους μ€ ζητούν μακραίνω 
Kai Βίχως να μ€ κράζουσν συχνά τζη γάμους ^μπαίνω. 
Φτωχοί τ αρττατβ φβύγουσι,^ τα σφ/γγ€Τ6 TreroSai, 
Τα ΐΓ€ρμαζόν€Τ€ σκορπούν, τα κτίζετε χαΧ^υσι. 

** άΧάκαιραα^ Cretan, for 6\6κ\ηραι, 

^ Φτωχοί = τέιτητ€ί (άι^θρωτοι). 

^ μέ dlxws = vjUhout, The μ^ is pleonastic 

*• 'γδυμΜΜ = for "γυμι^Μ, 

** XiyUKi = oXlyop. 

^ irXiJiTta = μάΧα» 

2* κοκοββί^ικοι = ill-fated. To βι^ικό is modern Greek for fate. The 
idea is the same θ8ίην€νρωμένορ (common in modern Gieek) €ΐμαρμένη, 
thcit which is deep fixed like a root in the ground, jti^a, 

^ τ 6 ^^y, yesterday evening. 

® 'ΣνΙθα = ΣΊΓίθαμή, 

^ άνοΐΎοσφάΧισμα, from avolyw ΛηάσφαΧίξ^ω, i. e. ασφαλίζω, to make fast, 
hence, to shut, 

** ΊΓΟΑτα for iratn-a, 

Μ di for δέν = ού. 



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56 MODERN GREEK LITERATURE. 

Sa οΊτίθα^ σβύρ η ίόξα σας, τα ΊτΧούτησα^ σα σκόνη^ 
ΣκορτΓονσην€ καί γανοιηαι, Kcii τ ορομά σα? Xvovei 
Σα νατορ^ μ€ το χ^ρι σας γραμμένο eU ireptyuiXv 
Στη Βιάκρισί 7ζτ] θαΚασσα^, γη γμμαι^ στην πασττάλη 
• • • • • 

Σ^ ehiaXe^a evyeveaTare Μουρμουρ ύψηΧ6τατ€ 
^Ρήτορα V o\at9 τζ* άρ€ταΙζ^ καν τζη τιμαΐς γεματβ, 
Me τ όνομα σου τοντο μου τον κόπον να στολ/σω, 
Και χαρι ατΓΟ τζη χαραι<: σου ττλησα να σου χαρίσω 
Τιατι^ οσω σ€ θ€ωρώ ψηΧο,^ σ€ βΧβπω καΧΧο ιόαο 
Me στΓΧαγχνος αν€ξικακο^ κ άμετρη καΧοσννη — 
κ' €7σα^ 7Γ την ττερηφανησι μακράν του κόσμου κείνη 
Τη σκοτεινή^ ιτοΰ Se γέννα Χαβρα^ ουΒε φως χαρίζει 
Μα τζίκνα^ μόνο καΐ καττνο τα τρίγυρα γεμίζει. 

The next writer we shall notice is Franciscus 
Scuphos, who flourished about the year 1669. 
He was bom in Crete and was educated in Italy, 
and was also professor at the Greek school in 
Venice. He wrote a work on Ehetoric, which 
may be regarded, in the words of an English 
scholar, a living example of the fact that the 
oratory of the ancients continues to live in the 
oratory of modem Greece. 

^ Σά σιτίθα = ώί στινθ-ήρ. Lat. scintilla. 

^ σά σκόνη = ώ$ κονιορτόί (dust), 

** Σά νατον = ωσάν. 

^ χάμαι, Cretan, for the modem χάμου, the ancient χαμχιΐ. 

** τζ aperais = τά$ aperds, 

^ Γιατί = έΊΓ€ΐδήπ€ρ (yap), 

® ψηλό = ύψηΧόν = /Α^αΐ'. 

* τζίκνα, a cuiious corruption and metathesis foj: κνίζα. 



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MODERN GREEK LITERATURE. 57 

In the eighteenth century we arq met by the 
names of Kosmas the Aetolian and Rhegas of 
Pherae, both scholarly men, and the great fore- 
runners of Greek independence. The following 
oath administered by Rhega to all his confeder- 
ates, is an example of his deadly intolerance to 
tyranny : — 

SI BaaCKeif του κόσμου ορκίζομαι ας σ€, 
2την γνωμην των τυρρανων να μην €λθώ ττοτβ. 
Μη7€ να τους δουλευσω, μητ€ να ττΧανβθώ, 
Εις τα ταξίματα των να μη τταραΒοθώ. 
Ενόσω ζω σ τον κοσμον, 6 μονός μου σκοπός 
Του να τους αφανίσω να rjvai στραθβρος. 
Πιστός €ΐς την πατρίΒα συντρίβω τον ζυ^όν 
Κι αχώριστος να ζήσω αττο τον στρατηγον, 
Κ αν Ίταραβώ τον ορκον, ν αστραψη ο ουρανός 
Και να μ€ κατακαυστ) να y€V ωσάν καττνος. 

Here is another war-song, which contributed 
in no small degree to fire the Greeks with tliat 
enthusiasm for liberty which soon resulted in the 
insurrection : — 

ΠαιΒια του Ήρακ\€ους 6ρματ€^ μ€ σπαθιά 
Κρατ€Ϊτ€ μ eva χ€ρι^ μ€ τ αΧΚο την φωτιά, 
Ορμησατ€ γβνναίως, Βραμμ€Τ€ όλοι μαζη 
Και Β€ΐξατ€ των ΕΧΚηνων το ^4νος οτι ζη, 
Σ'7Γ€τσιωται^ και ΤΒριωται, κι άΒβλφια Ψαρριανοι, 
Εις τ ΑργιΤΓ^Χα^ον μας Τούρκος ας μη φανψ 
Αν τις όμως τοΧμηστι να τταρρουσιασθί) 



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58 MODERN GREEK LITERATURE. 

Στα BaOrj τηζ θαΧασσης a<i καταττονΎΐσθτι — 
'Λ? 7Γ0Τ€ τΓοΚΧηκαρια να ζωμβν σ τα στβνα 
ΧΐΓη\ια<ξ να κα70ίκώμ€ν σ τα Όρη καί βουνά; 

Rhegas was betrayed to the Turks by the 
Christian government of Austria, and was by 
them put to death on the spot, at Belgrade. 

The following inscription was engraved on the 
tombstone of Rhegas and Kosmas : — 

OvToi iXevOepiav θηρωμβνοι α'^Καομορφον 

Ενρον ivl ξυΧοχοΰς Οκρνοβντα μορον • 

Xaipere θηρευτοί κοιμωμβνοι, €σοκ€ν ηως 

^ΕΚθτι άτΓ * Ολύμπου Χαμττά^ άνίσχομενη • 

και τοτ €γ€ΐρομ€νοι, ττοΧίω βρομώ ορνυμβναων 

8αιμον€ς €ίς aypav σπβνδετ αΧεξικακον. 

In 1777, was bom at Larissa, in Thessaly, 
Constantinus Cumas, author of a great number 
of geographical, mathematical, and philosophical 
works. He was known under the name '* 6 
φιλόσοφος " (the philosopher). Most of the 
learned Greeks of those times were from Ru- 
melia, which province was in higher repute on 
this account than any other in Greece. Numbers 
of the " Kleptes " were men of scholastic attain- 
ments. Having been abroad, and seen a better 
state of things, as well as having acquired refine- 
ment from books, they could not submit to the 
degradation that awaited them among the Turks, 
and therefore retired to the mountains and lived 



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MODERN GREEK LITERATURE. 59 

in independence. In some of the wildest and 
most ^eary mountains were many of the most 
inteUigent of our people, and in the dress of shep- 
herds were to be found men such as Constantinus 
Cumas. 

Constantinus Cumas was one of those lettered 
Greeks who began to propose the cultivation of 
the spoken language. Their plan was as fol- 
lows : — 

I. The ancient inflections are to be prefeiTed 
to the corresponding modern and mediaeval in- 
flections. 

II. All barbarous or foreign words and idioms 
are to be banished. 

III. All new words are to be formed by deriva- 
tion and composition after the analogy of the 
ancient language. 

IV. The ancient orthography of words of 
Greek origin is to be preferred. 

Tlie following is a specimen of Cumas' style : — 

'ilW' eli/at, Ίτρος Αως^ φρ6ρι,μο<ζ τ4κτων Όστι<ζ άγοραξβι 
σκβττάρνιορ και irpiovtov τα οττοΐα βμτΓοΒίζονται αττο τη» 
'χρνσωσίΡ καΐ τον^ aX\ov<i στοΧισμους να €χπ\ηρωσωσι 
τα ιΒια αυτών epya, ήγουν το ev να ΤΓ€\€κα το he erepov 
να ττρωνίξη ; ατταραλΧακτα νασχβι, νομίζω οστι<ζ Sta να 
στοΧίση την γΧωσσαν μ€ γ€νικα<ζ αττοΧυτους και Βοτικας 
και χωρΐ^ ανάγκην Xefet? άσυν€ΐθ ιστούς^ κινΒυν€ύ€ΐ να την 
καταστηση ακαταΧητττον €t9 του? ακουοντας η αναγινω- 
σκοντας. 



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60 MODERN GREEK LITERATURE. 

The following is a catalogue of Constantinus 
Cumas' published works: — 

Κωνικών τομών αναλυτική ττραγματβια του Αββα 

ΚαίΧΚου. 1803 1 

Xcipa μαθηματικών και φυσικών ττρα^ματβιών. 1807 8 

^ΑΒητου γημβίας €ττιτ0μη, 1808 2 

Σύνοψις ΊΓβιραματικης φυσικής, 1812 1 

ΒειΧάνΒου ^Αγαθών, 1814 3 

Χύντα^^μα φιΚοσοφίας, 1818 — 1819 . . . . • 4 

Τ€νν€μά\ου ιστορία της φιλοσοφίας. 1818 ... 1 

Σύνοψις ιστορικής γρονολογίας. 1818 1 

Σύνοψις τταλαιας γεωγραφίας μ€ 3 ττίνακας, 1818 . 1 
Σύνοψις €7Γΐστημών [αριθμητικής^ γεωμετρίας, νεωτέ- 
ρας γεωγραφίας^ αστρονομίας^ λογικής και 

ηθικής^ 1818 1 

Αεξικον της 'Ελληνικής γλώσσης. 1826 .... 2 

ΒειλάνΒου ^ΑβΒηριται. 1827 2 

'Ιστορία τών άνθρωττίνων Ίτράξεων. 1830-32 . . 12 

Γραμματική. 1833 1 

ΆΒριανου Βαλβη γεωγραφία. 1838-1840 ... 5 

~45 

The gi-eat name that appears at the end of the 
eighteenth century is that of Adamantius Coraes, 
the great patriot and linguistic reformer, and one 
of the most celebrated literati of Europe, as 
Professor Geldart and others justly assert. Born 
at Smyrna, on April 27, 1748, the two sentiments 
which formed his main-springs of action through- 



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MODERN GREEK LITERATURE. 61 

out life, were early developed, namely, patriot- 
ism, synonymous in his case with hatred of the 
Turk, and a passion for learning. His historian 
informs us that in his native town he was greatly 
assisted in his lingual and other studies by the 
Dutch consular chaplain, Bemhard Keum, of 
whom he makes frequent and afltectionate men- 
tion in his ** Autobiography and Correspond- 
ence." At the age of twenty-four he became his 
father's mercantile agent at Amsterdam, where he 
spent six years, but the ledger was the least 
interesting of his books, and in 1778 he was 
recalled. He retm'ned with the greatest reluc- 
tance, because his darling project was to study 
medicine in France, in order that, should he be 
obliged to live among the Turks, he might 
exercise among them the only profession which 
procured respectful treatment for the Greeks. 
After four melancholy years at Smyrna, his 
wishes were at length complied with, and in 1782 
he anived at Montpellier. He distinguished him- 
self in this famous medical school, and, having 
obtained his diploma, removed to Paris in 1788, 
where, instead of practising his profession, he 
engaged in literary labors, most of them having 
a patriotic aim. Here he wrote letters to his 
countrymen, encouraging them in the struggle 
for freedom to which Rhegas was already insti- 
gating them ; and here he pursued those studies 



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62 MODERN GREEK LITERATURE. 

which have established his fame as a European 
scholar. Napoleon selected him to prepare a 
translation of Strabo's Geography, the first vol- 
ume of which was presented to the Emperor in 
1805. In a letter dated Ley den, July 22d, of 
that same year, Wyttembach, writing to Larcher, 
calls Coraes ''not only a Grecian but a veritable 
Greek.'' In 1807 his edition of Isocrates pro- 
cured for him the title of " Patriarch of Greek 
Philology," and in 1814 he received an official 
letter inquiring if he would accept a Greek chair 

in the College Royal About the first week 

of April, 1833,. Coraes, having extended his hand 
to reach a cup of coffee, fell to the ground and 
received injuries from which he died the 10th 
of April, 1833. He was buried at "Mont Par- 
nasse," and the following inscription was engraved 
on his tombstone : — 

. ΑΔΑΜΑΝΤΙΟΣ KOPAHS 

XIOS 

Τπο ξενην μίν Ισα he τ^ Έλλαδ* 'πβφιΧημβνην γηι/ 

των Παρισίων 

ΚΕΙΜΑΙ. 

His published works are as follows : — 

La M^decine Cliniqiie. 1787. Montpellier. 
Μ€τάφρασι<ζ etc του γβρμανι,κοΰ του Selle. 
Introduction h I'etude de la Nature et de la M^decine. 
Ibid. 



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MODERN GREEK LITERATURE. 63 

Cat^chisme Orthodoxe Russe. (Prom the German of 
Plato, Archbishop of Moscow.) 

Vade-mecum du Medecin. Montpellier. (Prom the 
English.) 

Esquisse d'une Histoire de la M^decine. Paris. 1767. 
(From the English.) 

Pyretologiae Synopsis. Montpellier. 1786. 

ΑΒξΧφίκη ΒιΒασκαΧία, an Answer to Πατρική Βώασκα- 
λ/α, a Forgery of the Turkish Government, published 
under the name of Anthimus, Patriarch of Jerusalem, for 
the purpose of allaying the tumultuary tendencies of the 
Greek subjects of the Porte. 

Les Caract^res de Th^ophraste. 1799. 

Traits d'Hippocrate, des airs, des eaux et des lieux. 
Paris. 1806. 

Ibid., second edition with Greek title. 1816. 

Be/c/caplov irepi άΒικημάτωρ και ττοινων, Paris. 1802, 
1823. 

ΧαΚ'πίσμα ττοΧβμίστηριον: Paris. 1803. (On the 
death of Rhegas.) 

ΉλιοΒώρον ΑίθιοτΓίκα Βιβχία Befca, Paris. 1804. In 
two Volumes. 

Lettre du Docteur Coray sur le testament secret des 
Ath^niens, dont parle Dimarque dans la harangue centre 
Demosthenes. 

^iaKoyo9 Βύο Γραικών κατοίκων της Ββρβτιας, 1805. 
καΐ kv'^TBpa. 1825. 

ΠρόΒρομο<ζΈ\\ηρΐκης Βιβ\ΐοθηκη<ζ. 1809-1827. Έλ- 

Χηρικη Βιβλιοθήκη. Paris. 1807--1835. 15 volumes. 
(Consisting of editions of classical authors, with notes.) 
' ndpepya'EW. Βιβλιοθήκης. 1809-1827. 9 volumes. 
*Ι\\ιάΒος ραψωΒίαι Δ. 1811 - 1820, 



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64 MODERN GREEK LITERATURE. 

Διατριβή αυτοσγ<ίΖιο^ irepi του wepifioriTOV Βόγματοζ 
των σκβιττικών φιΚοσόφων Νόμω καΚόν^ Νόμφ κακορ* 
"Άτακτα. Paris. 1818-1825. 2 volumes. \ 

2υΡ6κ8ημος Ιβρατικός. 1831. \ 

Σνροψι^ Upa^ Κατηχησ€ως. 
Αυτοβιογραφία, 1833. 

Besides a great many articles in the " Logics 
Hermes," a Greek periodical published in Vienna, 
on philological and political subjects. 

On his death he left his library and manuscripts 
to the gymnasium at Chios, the bhthplace of his 
ancestors. His impublished works are more nu- 
merous, if not more voluminous, than those which 
have been given to the world. Besides this, the 
margins of many of his books are crowded with 
notes in his handwriting. 

The following is a catalogue of the works 
which were bestowed by him to the library of 
Chios, and which remain as yet unpublished. 

Adnotationes in Athaeneum. 
Notes sur Eschyles. 

ΙλιαΒο^ ^ΡαψωΒία Ε, εως top 250 στίχρν. 
Σημ€ΐωσ€ΐς €ΐ<ζ του ^Αθηραιον /cai Ήρό8οτορ. 
"Τλη Αεξικοΰ ΓαΧΚογραικικοΰ. 
Γραμματικοί Σημ€ΐωσ€ΐ<ζ. 

Ισον των σταΧθέισων σημ€ΐωσ€ων eU Ε. Barcker, Sia 
την veav ίκΒοσιν Α€ξικοΰ Hederius. 

*Εξηγησ€ΐ^ eU τον * ΑττοΧΚωνιορ irepl συρτάξβως. 



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MODERN GREEK LITERATURE. 65 

Γαληνού €h ro irepi χυμών ^Ιπττοκρατοχτ;^ σβλ. 1-401, 
ΚΒΐμβνον σβλ. 4-75 σημ. 1-170 αντίγραφαν. 

*Αρ€ταΙου μ€τάφρασι<; ΓαΧΚίκη, αΒιόρθωτος καΐ ατ€λ^9, 
σ€λ. 1-407. ' 

Χημ€ΐωσ€ί<ξ el^ το ττροσωρινον Πο\ίΤ€υμα τη<ί Έλλαδθ9• 

Observationes miscelaneae, pag. 1 - 905. 

Idem sine paginatione. 

Idem in Athaenemn, pag. 1 - 139. 

Ae^iKoXoyia, 

Μβτάφρασι^ ^ΗροΒότου eh το Τραικικον, σέΚ* 1-1250 
ca>9 TOP τταραγρ. 56 του 7 Βιβλίου, 

* Αφορισμών ΊΐΓΤΓΟκράτους^ μζτάφρασις Γαλλική άΒιόρθω- 
Τ09 και άτ€λ^9, σ. 1 — 241. 

Plus Tart de la m^decine, pag. 1-10 et une table le 
tout incoplet. 

Κβίμβνον και σημ€ΐωσ€ΐ<ζ €ΐς το irepl Βιαιτη^ οξεων^ και 
€49 το irepi αρχαίας ^Ιατρικής του Ίτητοκρατους, σ€λ. 116 
το ΚεΙμενον^ αι σημ, σ. 117 — 408. 

Χημ€ΐωσ€ΐς κατά Γαληνού ίκ τών αυτού συγγραμμάτων 
σ€λ. 1-1067. 'Έτι Τ4ΐ;€9 σημειώσεις εΙς τα συγγράμματα 
του ΊτΓ*πΌκράτους σελ, 1-21. 

Γραμματική της Γραικικης γλώσσης ατελ€ΐωτος. 

Collationes des manouscris Grecs, pag. 1 - 84. 

Στίχοι 'Ιωάννου Τζετξου. 1-141. w. 

Περί μέτρων^ σελ, 1-48. 

Σχόλια εΙς το ^Αττολλωνίου ττερι συντάξεως^ σελ, 1 - 24. 

Λεξικολογία απο το ^ΕΧληνικον εις το Γραικικον, 

Αεξικον Ζιαφορων συγγραφέων εΙς τον Ίτητοκρατην, 

Adnotationes in varies Auctores Graecos. 

Αλλη Λεξικολογία άττο το Έλληνικον εις το Γραικικον, 



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66 MODERN GREEK LITERATURE. 

Few countries, Geldart says, none certainly 
save Germany, can show such a literary Hercules 
as Adamanties Coraes, the second Leo Allatius 
of Greece. ^ 

The next writer we shall notice is Constantinus 
Oekonomos, who was contemporary with Coraes. 
He was a native of Thessaly, and had received a 
superior education. He soon became remarkable 
for his opposition to some of the doctrines and 
practices which had before prevailed amongst the 
Greeks, or, at least, had not been openly opposed. 
A Greek historian informs us that the bishop 
soon viewed him with dislike, being a man in- 
ferior in education, talents, and soundness of 
opinion, and at length interdicted his public 
preaching. Oekonomos had a sincere desire to 
establish better principles amongst his country- 
men, and intended to introduce all possible im- 
provements in the system of education, and was 
disposed to forward everything that might prove 
beneficial to them. He did not, therefore, allow 
himself to be discouraged by the bishop's oppo- 
sition, but made a journey to Constantinople to 
obtain permission of Gregorius, the patriarch, to 
preach where he pleased. In this he succeeded ; 
and, after his return to Smyrna, preached with 
more zeal and boldness than before. The char- 
acter of Oekonomos was of the most sincere, 
frank, and friendly description, with the most 



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MODERN GREEK LITERATURE. 67 

kind and willing disposition. He combined an 
extraordinary decision and independence. His 
historian informs us that he 'regarded the ob- 
servance of ceremonies, by many so much insisted 
on, as a matter of small importance compared 
with the feelings they were designed to cultivate 
or to express. Oekonomos devoted his attention 
and time much to the establislunent of schools. 
He acted in this co-operation with various en- 
lightened Greeks, who were anxious for the 
greater extension of knowledge among the Greeks, 
and had taken pains to introduce the Prussian 
system of instruction in the schools he was 
endeavoring to establish. 

Jacob Rhizos Nerulos, known under the ap- 
pellation of "the modem Aristophanes of Greece," 
was contemporary with Oekonomos. He was 
the unsparing satirist of the "Logios Hermes," 
and his style was and is still known under the 
appellation of the " Nerulian style." 

To illustrate the above I give three short ex- 
tracts, taken respectiΛ^ely from the ^Άύτοβιογρα- 
<^ία" of Coraes, the treatise "IIc/ol Προψορας" of 
Oekonomos, and the " KopaKtVrtfca," a satirical 
comedy of Nerulos, in which I need hardly say 
the KopafC€9 are the followers of Coraes. 

Ai, €κΒοσ€ίζ μου Sev €\€ΐψαν όμως να μου γεννησωσί 
και €γθρου<ζ^ οΧιγους η,ρας σχολαστικούς^ ενωμένους μ€ 
οχι 7Γολλου9 του 'κρατικού ταΎματος^ οΐ οττοίοι μ€ κατ€ΤΓ0' 



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68 MODERN GREEK LITERATURE. 

Χίμησαν aypuo^ ώ? καινοτομον ογι, μόνον €69 τα irepi τταΐτ 
Seia^, άλΧα και eU αντην μου την θρησκ^ίαν. Μβτανοω 
τώρα^ ΟΤΙ του? αντ€ΤΓοΧ€μησα κ βγω• φρονιμωτερα ηθέΚα 
ττράξβιν^ αν άκοΧουθοΰσα το σοφον τταραγγβλμα τον ^Εττικ" 
τητου, ""ΕΒοξβν αύτω" — CORAES, Αυτοβιογραφία. 

Το 7Γ€ρι γνησιαζ των ΕΧΚηνικων γραμμάτων ττροφορα^ 
ΊΓοΧύκροτον ττρόβλημα^ προ τριών ηΒη αιώνων €49 την Εύ^ 
ρώττην άναφυβν^ ύπηρξβ ΐΓοΧΧακι^ €ΐς ττοΧΚου^ ΊτοΧΧών και 
μβγάΧων συζητ'ησ€ων ύπόθβσις. Πρώτος 6 σοφο<$ Ερασμος 
ΤΓ€ρΙ τω 1520 αττοΧακτίσας την έω9 τοτ€ συνήθη και vevo• 
μισμ€νην, €7Γ€νόησ€ν αΧΧην ττανταιτασι veav και ανηκου^ 
στον 7^9 ^ΕΧΧηνικης γΧώσσης εκφωνησιν^ την οποίαν και 
παρ€Βωκ€ν eU tou9 6παΒού<ζ του ώς μόνην άΧηθινην και 
γνησίαν^ κα& ην τάχα καΐ οι παΧαιοί ' ΕΧΧην€<ζ βπρόφβρον 
την γΧώσσάν των, — Oekonomos Πβρι προφορά^:, 

Εϊναι Βνο 'χρόνια τώρα οπού 6 πατβρα^ μου άρρωστοι 
απ €V αΧΧοκοτο πάθος το να ομιΧί) κορακιστικα^ και αΧΧο 
iev κάμνει πάρα να σκαΧιζτ} Χεξικα^ να ττλαττι; λ€'^€49 ανψ 
κουσταις και παραξεναις^ να Βιαβάζι^ κάτι ΒιαβοΧόγαρτα 
τυπωμένα, οπού- τα ονομάζουν Χόγιον ^Ερμη καΐ να γράφη 
και να XaXrj μια γλώσσα, οπού την Βημιονργεΐ 6 ιΒιος. 
Τΐ νά κάμω ; για να τον υποχρεώσω^ βιάζω τον εαυτόν 
μου να μάθω αυταΐ'ζ ταΓς άηΒβστάται^; φΧυαρΙαι<ζ, καΐ μ 
οΧον οποΰ Bev γυρνά η γΧώσσα μου, σ αυτά τα καταρα- 
μένα κορακιστικα^ μ όλον τούτο, επειΒη καΐ τα Χατρεύει^ 
βιάζομαι κ εγω να τον ομιΧω τη γΧωσσα τον, και ει<ζ 
κάθε Χεξι Βικη του οποΰ ηθεΧα προφέρει με ΒίΒει την 
ευγτι του. — Nerulos, Κορακίστικα. 



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MODERN GREEK LITERATURE. 69 

Modem Greece has not produced many author- 
esses. But among these, Angelica Pala, chiefly 
known by the following ode " On the Death of 
Lord Byron," is certainly the most distinguished. 
She belongs to the beginning of the nineteenth 
century. - . 

1. 
To 1/9 \αμπρου<% ύμνους τή? νικη^ αφινων 
ΚΧαυθμών ήχ€Ϊ ηρώων 6 στρατός • 
Πικρώς Χι/πουρτ ai ψνχαι των ΕλΧηνων^ 
Γ' uKOvei μακρόθεν και, χαίρ€ΐ 6 βχ^θρός. 

2. 
Ό φίλος η\θ€ • ΊτΧην μόλις τον elBov 
ΧκατΓτουν κλαωντβς τον τάφον αυτούς 
Ίδον το τ€λος βνΒόξων βλττ/δωι/, 
ΚαΙ το τροΊταιον θανάτου σκληρού. 

Ζ. ' 

Ηλθ€ να ίμττνΒυσΐ] ως άλλος Τυρταίος 
Είς κάθ€ στήθος ττ6λ4μων ορμην. 
Πλην^ φβΰ, 6 Βάρδος βΤ^νσας ματαίως 
*ΙΒοΰ μ€ν€ί €ίς αιώνων σιωττην: 

4. 
^Ως BevBpov Κ€Ϊτ οττ Ικοσμπ μ€^άλως 
Την κορυφην μουσικού Παρνασσού, 
Νυν Ίτρο ΤΓοΒών φθείρουσα του το κάλλος 
Πνοή το ίρρΐ"^ ανέμου σφοΒροΰ, 



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70 MODERN GREEK LITERATURE. 

5. 
Έλλαν/ iav TO σώμα του η AyyXca 
Να φίρΐι 6*9 μνήμα ζήτα ιτατρικόν. 
ΕίτΓβ^ Μουσών ω μητέρα γΧυκβΐα, 
Elvcu Τ€κνον μου 6 υΙο<ί τών Μουσών, 



Καταφρονών τών ερώτων του^ θρήνους, 
*HSovrj^ μην άκουων την φωνην 
Εζητ€ί βδω ηρώων του^ κινΒυνους 
Τάφον α9 Ιχι; ηρώων ^στην ^γήν. 

The great lyrical poet of Greece is, however, 
Athanasios Christopiilos, the so-called modern 
Anacreon. He was bom at Kastoria, in Mace- 
donia, in 1772, and died in Moldavia, where he 
held the office of judge, in 1847. Professor 
Geldart states that his undoubted genius was 
consecrated chiefly to the glory of the wine- 
bottle, yet he wrote some love-songs of exquisite 
tenderness and beauty, which have been copied 
without acknowledgment by various modem 
poets. Consciously or unconsciously, the ** Night- 
ingale " of Christopulos is certainly at the founda- 
tion of the "Swallow" of Tennyson. Inasmuch 
as the nightingale sings, and the swallow only 
twitters, my readers will agree with Professor 
Geldart in preferring the Greek to the English 
poet in this particular case. 



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MODERN GREEK LITERATURE. 71 

Christopulos and two other very popular poets 
of Modem Greece, Vallariotes and Solomos, 
wrote for the common people in vernacular 
Romaic. The following extracts, taken respec- 
tively from the works of these three great poets, 
may serve as examples : — 

OLD AGE. 

Na η τρ/χ€9 cov άρ')(ίξουν 
*Αθανάσΐ€ ν* άσιτρίζουν Ι 

Να 8ακρύων βτΓοχη ! 
Να σ€ λ€γ66 καί 6 Ερως^ 
Φί,\€ ττλβοι/ elaai y€po9, 
Sro €ξη^ κα\η ψυχή. 
Τη ν€οτητα γαιρίια^ 
Τα φιΧημΛΤ αφησβ τα, 
Βεχασβ' τα τταρβνθύ^;^ 
Και αργίνα μ€ νγ€ΐα 
Τα ΊΓίκρα τα γβρατβΐα 
2* το βξης να τα yevOri^. 
Aev σ€ ΊΓίανουν τα λοΑ/λονδ^α, 
Δ\ν σε TTpeirovp τα τρα^ούίια, 
Πηγ €Κ€Ϊρος 6 καιρός* 
Τώρα τάφος '7Γ\ησιαξ€ΐ, 
Τώρα θάνατος φωνάζβι, 
Τώρα χάρος Χιητηρος! 

Οθεν ττλβΌι/ ετοίμασαν, 

Ρήξ€ ολα τα κάΚάσου 
lik Ίον κόσμον 'Έχβ Teia! 



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72 MODERN GREEK LITERATURE. 

Kai τα Ba/cpva βαστά μόνον 
Είς την Χύττην κ 6t? τον ττόνον 
Μια μικρή τταρηγοριά ! 

ANSWER ΤΟ THE PRECEDING. 

Πα ! η τρίχ€ς μ αν άσιτρίζουν 
Μηττω^ ταχατ€ ττικρίζουν ; 
Τι €χ^ η ασιτρη του<ξ βαφή; 
Toiyap τ ασττρο θανατονβι ; 
Η φιΧωντας αγκυ\όν€ΐ 
Τα χειΧακια σ την άφη ; 
Το τριαντάφυΧΚο μαζ πρώτον 
Το ΧονΧούΒι των ^Ερώτων 
Είναι ασττρο καθαρό* 
Και το κόκκινο η φύσι^ 
Το συγκ€ρασ€ν ίπίσης 
Μ €va χρώμ ασττρουΒβρο. 
Η μυρτιά τη^ί ΑφροΒιτη^ 
Εις το Ίτρασινο κ\αΒι της, 
Μ€σ σ τα φύΚΚα τα χλω/οα 
0\α Kayiarrpa, σαν χιόνι. 
Τα ΧουλούΒιά της φντρονει 
L• ανθηρά, και τρυφ€ρά. 
Και 6 Αίας 6 μ€ya\oς 
Για της ΛηΒας του το κάλλος 
Κύκνος γινηκ€ μια φορά, 
Ν* άττόΒει^ βίς κάθβ μ όρος 
Ασπραις τρίχαις θέλ 6 "Ερως 
Sav του κύκνου τα φτβρα Ι 



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MODERN GREEK LITERATURE. 73 

To Χοίπον κ€γ οσο ^€λ€ί, 
Α^ ασπρίζω Sep μ€ μ€\€ί, 
Παρτέλως Bep μβ Χνττα • 
' Οτι οσο παρτ ασπρίζω. 
Τόσο π\€0Ρ ροστιμίζω^ 
Τοσ ο 'Έρω^ μ α^απα. 

THE NIGHTINGALE. 

Κίρ αηΒορακι, μου καΚο, 
Κίρα κα\ παγ€ στο γιαΧο. 
Τηρ ακριβή που ξβνρεις, 
Να πας να με τηρ €νρρς • 
ΚαΙ σαρ τηρ βρτις να την ιΖτβ 
Αρχίνα κ€Ϊ να tceXaSfj^ 
ΓΧυκά γΧυκα με χαρι 
Να σκύ•^ να σέ traprf 
Αν σ ερωτησ'ρ τι σ €συ ; 
ΚαΙ ποιος σε στέΧνει απ το νησί; 
Έιπ\^ πως είμαι Βωρο 
ΠουΧί στεναγμοφορο ! 
Πώς 6 αφέντης μου ε8ώ 
Με στεΧνει να σε τραγουΒω* 
Τα πάθη μου να κΧαίγω 
Με μεΧος να σ τα Χεγω, 
Τστερα σκύψε ταπεινά 
ΚαΙ ΧαΧησε την σιγανά. 
Και ορκισ την σ τα καΧΧη 
Stov κόρφο να σε βάΧτ) • 
Αχ αηοονακι μ οεν βαστώ 



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74 MODERN GREEK LITERATURE. 

α σβ TO wft), Εισαί ιηστο ; 
^ΕττΙβουΧο μη γενης 
Στορ κψτον ττοΰ €μΐΓαίν€ί^, 

BACCHI LAUDES. 

'Όταν ΊΓίνω το κρασάκι 
Sto χρυσό μου ποτηράκι 
ΚαΙ 6 ρους μου ζαΧισθί)^ • 
Τοτ αρχίζω κολ γρρ^ύω^ 
Καί γελώ και χωρατεύω, 

η ζωή μ €χτχαριστ€ΐ, 
Τοτ€ Ίταύοϋρ ^ φροντίΒ€ς 
Τοτ€ σβυρουρ ι; ελττ/δες 
Τότε φεύγουρ οι καττροί, 
Κ η καρ8ια μου γα\ηριζ€ΐ^ 
ΚαΙ το στήθος μου άρχίζβι 
Ν* αρασαίρτι ρ άραπρ^. 
Για TOP κοσμορ Sep μ€ /ίίελεί, 
Ας γυρίζη όπως OeXeij 
Το κρασάκι μου Ρα ζί). 
Ή καράτα ρά μη στίη^ ^ 
Απ το πΧαγι ρα μη Xei^y 
ΐί* άποθάρωμβ μαζί ! 
• • • • • 

Dionysius Solomos was born in the island of 
Zacynthos in 1798 (April 8), and died the 21st 
of November, 1857. The following Ode to Lib- 
erty, written by him in the "month of May," 
1823, is justly admired for its simplicity and 



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MODERN GREEK LITERATURE. 75 

imagination, and it has with justice become "The 
National Song of Greece." It is played on all 
great national holidays: — / 

2k e γνωρίζω αττο τηρ κογ^ \f^\ ' >^ ν - 
Τον σπαθιού τηρ τρομζρη, Μ y " '^ ♦ν ^^ 

Se γνωρίζω άττο τηρ οψί^ ^\^ ^r ^^^ ^ 
ϋον μ€ ρια μ€τρα€ί τηρ γη, ^ . Λ^ | ^. 

*Απ τα κόκκαΧα βγα\μέρη * \„*^^ ^ 

Τώρ ΕΧΚηρωρ τα Upa, 

Και σαρ ιτρωτα άνΒρ€ίωμ€νη^ 

Χαΐρ€^ ω χοΊρ€^ EXeuOepid Ι 

3. 
Εκ€Ϊ μέσα ίκατοίκοΰσβς^ 
Πικραμμβνη, εντροτταΧη^ 
Κ' eva στόμα άκαρτβρούαβς 
Ε\α ΊΓοΚι να σου V^• 

4. 
Αργ€ΐ€ ρ aXuff €Κ€ΐνη η μ€ρα^ 
ΚαΙ ηταρ οΧα σιωττηΧα, 
Γ*ατί τα σκίαζα η φοβ€ρα 
ΚαΙ τα ^ττΧάκονβ η σκΧαβια. 

5. 
Δνστνγτι^ Ι Παρηγοριά 

Μόνη σου €μ€ν6 να λ€9 ^ 

Π€ρασμ€να μ€γ<ΐΚάα 
Kcii Βίηγώντας τα να κΧαΙ^. 



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76 MODERN GREEK LITERATURE. 

6. 
Kal άκαρτ€ρ€ί καΐ άκαρτ€ρ€ί 
Φι\€\€ύθ€ρην \α\ια^ 
Ενα ίκτντταε τ αΧΚο χ^ρί 
^ΑτΓΟ τηρ αιτέΚπισια• 

7. 
Κ* 6λ€€9 • TTOTC, α / W0T6 β^^άνω 
Το κβφίίλί άπο τσ βρμι,αΐς ; 
ΚαΙ άτΓοκρίνοντο αττο ττάνω ' 
ΚΧάψαν^, αλι;σ€9, φωναΐς. 

8• 
Τότ€ €ση/€ον€^ 70 βΧβμμα 
Μβς τα κλάνματα θο\ό, 
Καί €49 το ρούχο σου ίσταζ αίμα 
Πλήθος αίμα *Ε\\ηνικό. 

9. 

Me τά ρούχα αίματωμβνα, 
' * Εερω ore ίβγαινβς κρυφά. 

Να γυρ^υηγζ €t9 τα ξβνα 
Α\\α χ€ρια Βυνατά Ι 



10. 
Μοναγτ] τον Βρόμο CTrrjpe^ 

ΕξαναΚθες μονάχη' 

Δ\ν €iv βύκοΧαις τ^ θύραις, 

Εαν η χρ€ία ταΐς κουρταλ^. 



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f 



MODEEN GREEK LITEBATUBE, 77 

11. 

ilX\o9 σου €κλαψ€ eU τα στηθία. 
Aw αναστασι,ν καμμια, 
ΑλΧος σου βταξε βοΊβζία^ \/ 

Και σ6 ^έΚασε φρικτά* 

12. 

ΑΧΚοι, ωϊμ€ Ι σ την συμφορά σου 
ΌτΓοΰ βγαίροντο ιτοΧυ, 
Συρ(ε ν αυρ7)ς τα τταιΒια σου, 
Συρ€^ eXeyav ot σκληροί I 

13. 

^ Φβύγβι οπίσω το ττοΒάρί^ 
Και ολογληγορο ττατβί 
Η την 7Γ€τρα, η το 'χορτάρι. 
Που την Βόξα σου €νθνμ€Ϊ. 

14. 
Ταπβινότατη σου yipvei 
Ή τρισάθΧια κ€φα\η 
Σαν τττωγρυ *7Γθΰ θυροΒερνει, 
Κ\ €Ϊναι βάρος του η ζωη, 

15. 
Ναι Ι α\\α τώρα avTiiraXeuei 
Καθβ τ€κνο σου μ€ ορμή, 
Πύΰ ακατάπαυστα γυρβύβι 
Η την νίκη η την θανή. 



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78 MODERN GREEK LITERATURE. 

16. 
Αίγ Ttt fcoKfcaXa βγα\μ€νη 
Των *Ε\\ηνωρ τα lepa^ 
Λ,αί σαν ττρωτα ανορΒίωμ^νη^ 
Xalpe^ ω χαΐρ€, ^EXevOepia Ι 

17. 
ΜοΧι^ eiBe την ορμην σου 
Ο Ουρανός^ ττοΰ yia τσ ίγθρου^ 
Εις την γήν την μητρικην σου 
Ετρβφ άνθια και καρττους, 

18. 

Εγα\ην€υσ€* και βχύθη 
Καταγθόνια μια βοη^ 
Και του ^Ρηγα σου άπ€κρίθη 
Πο\€μ6κραχτη η φωνή. 

19. 

ΟΧοι οΐ τόποι σου σ ίκράξαν," 
Χαιρετώντας σ€ θβρμα^ 
Και τα στόματα βφωναξαν 

Οσα αισθανετο η καρΒια! 

20. 
Εφωνάξανε ώς τ αστέρια 
Του Ιονίου και τα νησιά ^ 
Και €σηκωσαν€ τα χ€ρια 
Για να Βείξουνβ χ^ρα. 



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MODERN GREEK LITERATURE. 79 

21. 
M' oXov Voir pat αΧυσωμβι/ο 
To καθένα τεχνικά. 
Και, βίς το μέτωττο γραμμ€Ρ0 
^Εγ€ί • ψ€ντρα *Ε\€νθ€ρια. 

22. 
ΓκαρΒιακα, γαροττοιηθη 

ΚαΙ του Βάσι^κτον η γη (the land of Washington) 
Κα\ τα aiiepa ίι/θυμηθη 
*Ποΰ την eSevav και, αυτή. 

23. 
^Αττ τον ττυργον του φωναζβ^^ 
2, α να \€η σε χαφβτω, 
ΚαΙ την χι^την του τνναζβι, 
Το Λιοντάρι, το ^Ισπανό. 

24. 
^ΕΧαφιάσθη της ^ΑγγΧίας 
Το θη]!ω^ καί σερνβί €ύθυ<; 
Ι^ατα τ άκρα της ^Ρουσσίας 
Τα μου'^κρίσματα τσ ορηης. 

25. 
Εις το κίνημα του δβ/χι/βί, 
Ρώς τα μβΧη etv Βυνατά. 
Καί €6ς του Αίγαίου το κύμα ρίχν€ί 
Μια σττιθόβαλη ματιά. 



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80 MODERN GREEK LITERATURE. 

These twenty-five stanzas will suffice to give 
to the reader an idea of this unequalled poem. 
The poem is composed of , one hundred and fifty- 
eight stanzas. 

Besides his "Ode to Liberty," Solomos wrote 
a lyric poem on the death of Lord Byron, of one 
hundred and sixty-six stanzas, commencing as 
follows : — 

1. 
^AevOepta, yia Xlyo παψβ 
Να γτυτΓψζ μ\ το στταθί* 
Τώρα σίμωσβ και κ\α'^€ 
£ί? Ύου Μπαϊρον (uyron) το κορμί. 

2. 
Και, κατοτη ας ακΧονθοννβ 
' Οσοι €7Γραξαν€ Χαμττρα ! 
ΑτΓοτΓανου του α<ζ χτυπούνε 
Μόνον στηθία ηρωϊκα. 

3. 
Πρώτοι α9 €\θουν€ οΐ Σου\ιωτ€ς 
Κα\ άπ το Αείψανον αυτό 
Ας μακραίνουν^ οΐ ττροδοτβ? 
Και ατΓ τα Χογια οττου να ττω, 

'*• 
φλαμΊΓουρα^ οττλα τιμημένα^ 
Ας γυρθοΰν κατά τη γη. 
Καθώς ητανβ γυρμενα 
Εις του Μάρκου τη θανή. 



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MODERN GREEK LITERATURE. 81 

Που eip Oci Xeve σαστισμένοι 
To AeovTapi το 'AyyXifco ; 
Elvai η χΐ)7η του ττξσμίνη^ 
Και το μούγκρισμα βουβρ 

, \ 

Solomos wrote, besides these two poems we 
have noticed, many other songs and sonnets, all 
evincing the creative power and masterly genius 
of the poet. The following sonnet, entitled " Ή 
Ηαν^ουλα" (The Golden-haired Girl), is sung by 
young and old in Greece : — 

1. 
Την elBa την ΗανθούΧα 
^"* , Την €ΪΒα ^ψ€ς apya, 

*Ποΰ €μ7Γηκ€ σ τη βαρκουΧα 
Να Trarf σ την ξενηταά, 

4 2. 

Άφουσκον€ τ a€pt 
Αβυκότατα ττανια^ 
*Ωσαν το 7Γ€ρίστ€ρι, 
^Που airXovei τα φτ€ρα. 

Εστ€Κονταν οι φίΧοι 
Me ΧυΊτη, μ€ χαρά. 

Και αύτη μ€ το μαντιΧι (handkerchief) 
Τού^ αποχαιρ€τα. 



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82 MODERN GREEK LITERATURE. 



Kat TO 'χαιρετισμό της 
Εσταθηκα να Ι8ω^ 
ί2ς ΤΓοΰ η ΐΓοΧΧη μακροτης 
Μου το κρυψ€ και αυτό• 



6. 
Χ oXiyo, σ ολιγακί 
Akv ήξερα να ιτω, 
Αν εβλεττα ιτανακι^ 
Η του πελάγου άφρο. 



Xy 



6. 
Και άφοΰ ττανί, μαντιΚί 
^Εγάθη σ το v€p6, 

ΕΒακρυσαν οι φίλοι 

Εοακρυσα κ βγω. 

7. 
Akv κλαίγω τη βαρκουλα 
Δεν κλαίγω τα wavia, 
Μον , κλαίγω την ^ανθονλα^ 
Που ττάει σ την ξενητια. 



Δεν κλαίγω τη βαρκουλα 
Με τα λευκά ττανια^ 
Μόν κλαίγω την ξανθούλα 
Με τα ξανθά μαλλιά. 



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MODERN GREEK LITERATURE. 83 

Aristoteles Valaorites, who died twelve or fif- 
teen years ago, was " a voluminous poet," full of 
power and imagination. The following ^^Ν€κρικη 
ώδι^" may serve as an example : — 

Την αύγη μ€ τη ΒροσοΰΧα ίξεφυτρωσ ίνα ροΒο 
Την αυγή μ€ τη Βροσονλα βμαραθηκβ το ρόΒο Ι 
Για μιαν ανοιξι μονάχα στα Ίτβρίφανα κλαριά του 
Ετρα/γούΒησ€ τ αηΒόνι €καμ€ και τη φωΧια του . . • • 
Sav η ανοιξι γυριστή και τ άηΒονι σα yvpiay 
Τη φωΧια τον ΤΓου θα στηστ^ ; . . • , 

'Όταν €βγαιν€ η σέΚηνη, όταν efiyaivav τ άστβρια 

Me αγάπη το €θ€ωρονσαν, του άττΧωνανε τα χ^ρια. 

Sav να ηθέΚαν €Κ€ΐ ίττάνω να το ττάρονν το κανμένο, 

EXeyav ττως elv οΒέρφι^ Ιλβγαϊ/ jttcJ? ττΧανημβνο 

Ί^ ουρανού το μονοπάτι τ ορφανό θα βΐχβ χάστ) 

Λΐχ! αστέρια: ωχ! αστέρια! γρήγορα που σα σας 

φθάστ) ! 
Κ αποιοι που ηκουσαν τ αηΒονι στο κΧαριτου να λαλ^. 
Είπαν Bev etvai τραγούΒι^ μυροΧόγι etv etcei .... 
Κί όσοι etBav τας ακτίνας των αστέρων του ουρανού 
Να γέΧουν να παιγνιΒιζουν μβ τα φύΧΧα του ουρανού % 
Είπανε τα φωτά εκείνα αχ Ι Βεν είναι της χαράς 
Είπαν ΟΤΙ είναι τα φώτα νεκρικής κεροΒοσας. 



Την αυγή με τη ΒροσουΧα εζεφύτρωσε ενα ροΒο 
Την αυγή με τη ΒροσουΧα εμαράθηκε το ρόΒο 



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84 MODERN GREEK LITERATURE. 

Μην €7Γ€ρασ€ν CKeWev ο Βοριάς 6 τταγωμζνος 
ΚαΙ σαν elhe τέτοιο ροΒο 6 σκΧηρός €ρωτ€μ€νος 

Αρτταξζ τη μνρωΒιά τον 

Και την πήρε στα φτβρά τον ; . . . . 



^€V το ξ€νρω ! ΚατΓΟίος etire οτι ίψβς το βράΒν βράΒν 
ElBe Kairoiove να φ€νγρ σαν καττνος με τον ayepa. 
Γ' αλογό τον ητο μαύρο σαν της ννγτας το σκοτάδι, 

Κ έΚαφρο σαν τον αιθ€ρα^ 
Εις το χ€ρι τον €βαστονσ€, αγαμνό ξεγνμνωμενο 

Ενα ροΒο μαραμμένο. 
Οταν €φ€νγ€ ακΧονθωντας τον ττέΚάον την άκρη άκρη 

Αχ Bev €χνν eva Βάκρν, 
Μόνον eXeye στο κνμα, ττον τοι/ β\4τΓ€ΐ και τραβιέται, 

*' Κύματα μον είττετβ, elireTe 
Δ\ν elv ωμορφο το ροΒο ; '* Μόνον Xeyei στο γρρτάρι 

Πον ντΓΟκάτω αττ το ττοΒάρι 
Τον aXoyov τον ireOaivei, ^'Aev €ΐμ άξιος κ eyct) 

Τέτοιο ροΒο να φορώ ; 
Τέτοια ροΒα και τον Χάρου κάνουν ωμορφα τα στήθια 

Είναι αλήθεια^ eiv αλήθεια ! 

Α very popular poet of Greece is Zalocostas, 
who has been dead some fifteen years or more, 
— a voluminous translator from Italian poets, as 
Professor Geldart states, and, as an original writer, 
full of power and imagination. The following 
may serve as an example: — 



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MODERN GREEK LITERATURE. 85 

12 ττΧηρης ,σ€ΐΓ7ων αραμνησ€ων χωρά, 

Λ γη κ\€ΐρώρ αθΧων, ω γη ιτοθητη^ 

Το αίμα ττοίοΰσα ημών Ι Bta re 

Μ οργην και μ€ άΚγος σ€ β\€ΤΓομ€ν τώρα ; 

ΑλΧοίως, φβί, αΧΧην σ ίβΧεπομβν οτ€ 

Aya>p€^ καΐ μόχθοι ύττηρχρν κοινοί^ 

Κ ejriOeTou αΧΧο Bev βίγομεν η 

^ΕΧ'^ηρων βΧαστοΙ καΐ Χρίστου στρατίωταί. 

ί1 αίσχος, ω νόμοί σκΧηρου ΤΓ^ττρωμένου ! 

Λΐ μαρτυρβς^ ποια επηΧυ eiroyr) ! 

Τα τέκνα υμώρ ορφαρα, Βυστυχή^ 

ίΐς στίγμα το ορομα φέρουν τον ξβραυ, 

• • • • • 

^ις ζοφεον χάος τα ρεύματα χυνων. 
Των ΒουΧων και μαύρων του έθνους στιγμών, 
Παρηρχετ 6 χρόνος βαρνς στεναγμών^ 
at τ ονομ αυτό των ττρογονων μας σ βυνών, 

• * • • • 
Εν πρώτοις το πυρ εξερράγ εις το SovXi 
Εκεί οι γενναίοι πατέρες ημών 

Ε κραύγασαν πάντες με μεγαν θυμόν 
ΑΧηπασα^ τρέμε• Βεν είμεθα ΒονΧοι, 

• • • • • 
Κτυπάτε ανΒρεΐοιΙ Φωναι αμαζόνων 

Αντηχούν εν μάχαις πυρός μεταξύ^ 
Κτυπάτε Ι κ η ΧαϊΒω με ξίφος οξύ 
Ηραίου τας τα^6Α9 μαχίμων γειτόνων. 



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86 MODERN GREEK LITERATURE. 

1^9 ην 6 κακούργος ίξ ου οΧβθρία 
*Εξηλθ€ν η ττρώτη βρίδων σιτορά ; 
"Λ, €ΐθ€ μέΧΧοντων αΙωνων άρα ^ 
JE*9 την κεφαλήν του να irdarj βαρεία ! 

• • • • • 

Ας ηναι, ιταντου βΒέλυκτον τ όνομα του 
Λτάραγον υπνον να μη κοιμηθ^ 
Πλησίον του Be τίς να μην εύρβθ^ 
Παρήγορος άλγους ev ωρα θανάτου Ι 

• • • • • 

Εις του τυμβον €Κ€ίνον ιτλησιον 
Ηνβω^θη μ€ τταταγον 'χάσμα • 
ΚαΙ της γης €κ των σττλάγχνων των κρύων 
^Ετίνάγθη Βζκαττηγυ φάσμα. 
"Α ! hev ητο του νου μου απάτη, 
Μητ€ φρούΒον του φόβου μου πλάσμα, 
Βλοσυρον π€ρΐ€στρ€φ€ ^μάτι^ 
ΚαΙ λαμπαΒα φλογών Βιαπυρων 
Me την ασαρκον χ€Ϊρα ίκρατει, 
Eθepμavθη eπ αμ€τρον γνρον . 

Ο αιθηρ, και η γη, κα\ οΐ λίθοι^ 
Και η κονις αυτή των μαρτύρων, 
• • • • • 

Τους γevvaίoυς μας μάρτυρας βίδα, 
Οσοι €π€σον πιστeως φίλοι 
Δια μιαν θανοντ€ς πατριΒα, 
Κατηφείς^ σκυθρωποί και οργιλοι, 
ΚατεΒεικνυον μέλη θλασμενα 
ΚαΙ πληγών ΒιαγαΙνοντα χείλη. 



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MODERN GREEK LITERATURE. 87 

Of the so-called "Kleptic Ballads," the pride 
of modem Greece, the following may serve as a 
specimen : — 

THE BURIAL OF DEMOS. 

Ο ηλιο^ €βασί\€υ€^ κ 6 Δήμος Βίαταζα• 

Σνρτ€^ τταίΒι,α μου, σ το vepov, ψωμί να φάτ άττοΛίτε, 

Και συ, Λαμττρακη μ ανεψίί, κάθου βΒω κοντά μου • 

α . τ άρματα μου φορ€σ€, να ησαι καττιτανος • 
Kac aet9i τταιόια μου, irapere ίο βρημο σιταθί μου. 
Πράσινα κοψ€Τ€ κΧαΒια, στρώστβ μου να κάθισα}^ 
Και φ€ρτ€ τον ττνΒυματι,κο να μ βξομοΧογηση* 
Να τον eiirS) τα κριματα ττου €γω καμωμβνα^ 
Τριάντα χρονι αμαρτωλός, κ είκοσι ττβντβ κΧίφτης • 
Και τώρα μ ηρθβ θάνατος, και θβλω ν αποθάνω, 
Καμ€Τ€ το κιβουρι μου ττΧατύ, ψηΧο να γβνη, 
Να στ€κ ορθός να ττολβμώ, και ΒίττΧα να γεμίζω. 
Κ ατΓΟ το μβρος το Βεξι αφήστ€ τταραθύρι, 
Τα γεΧιΒονια να ργωνται, την ανοιξιν να φβρουν 
ΚαΙ τ άηΒόνια τον καΧον Μαϊ να μ€ μαθαίνουν ! 

Among the numberless and nameless poems of 
the motlern Greeks I agree with Professor Geldart 
in saying, that I know nothing in any language 
more beautiful of its kind tlian the following : — 

Εις TO ρεύμα της ζωής μου 
Δια τι να σ ατταντησω ; 

ι €μ€ αφ ου 0€v ησο 
Διατι να σ€ ιΒώ ; . . . • 



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88 MODERN GREEK LITERATURE. 

Kai μ€ €καμ€<ζ ατταυστω^ 
2τ€ΐ/αγ/χ-ου9 να υττοφερω, 
Kcu γελά? Βιοτί κΧαιω, 
Δια σβ καί θρηνωΒώ. 

Στερξβ, καμ€ η να ζήσω 

^Ή. να Ίταύση η ττνοη μου • 

"^Ισω?, νσω^ στην θανην μου * 

nXeov μ€ταμ€\ηθης. 

Akv ζητω^ οΐ στεναγμοί μου 

Την KapSiav σου ν βΚκυσουν • 

θβλω μόνον, όταν σβύσουν 

Τη<ζ ζωής μου αΐ στνγμαι^ 

Ενα στεναγμον θρηνωΒη 

'Λ? γαιρετίσμον ν αφησΎ)ς, 

ΚαΙ €49 τον ταφον μου να χύσης 

Εν σου Βάκρυ Bt €μ€. 
• • • • • 

Α modem Greek, Mr. Apostolos Arsakios, who, 
I believe, is still living at Athens, when but eigh- 
teen years old wrote an "Idyl" which closely 
resembles the style of Theocritus. Mr. Arsakios 
wrote this '^Idyl" to congratulate Napoleon the 
First for a son which was born to the emperor, 
but we really believe that the main object of the 
author was to induce the conqueror of Austerlitz 
to help the Greeks, who were then striving for 
independence. The following lines may give an 
idea of his style: — 



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MODERN GREEK LITERATURE. 89 

ΕΙΔΤΛΛΙΟΝ. 

θυρσι^ καΐ Αάφνις. 

Πα σ€, Ύ€ρων^ αΒρανεΐς φορβορτι ιτοΒβς τον ακιΖνον ; 
Ώα δ αρ κ€/€μακως, μέγα τ ασθμαίνων αΧαΧασαι, 
Καϊ τοσσ ούτος Ι8ρω<; ττεριΒίΒρομε σώμα yepaiov ; 

Αάφνί$. 
Παντοσ €μον, ττοιμαν^ ττωύ σκιΒνατ βνθα και €ρθα 

ΕκτταγΧω θορυβώ^ νβμεθω τε ττοα? τβ λβλα^ο? • 
Κ'ργων δέ βραΒύττουν μό\ί<ζ ωρμασ ηΚυσιν άρθρων^ 
ΧκΙμττωνι σκοΧιώ σκηρίτττων γήρας αφαυρον^ 

Ένθα καν €νθ 6 γέρων μεθβττων φνζηΧιΒα ττοιμναν^ 
Καί ταρα'χας τταγαν* κίκνς μαν ουκ en ττροσσω 

Εμτ^εΖα βαίνβμβναι^ τρομεοντί re γνια γβραοώ 

Εμμόγθω γε Βρόμω' Τα δε μοί τταντ evveire, τβκνον 
θύρσί^ ττόθεν βόμβος με, ιτόθεν δ* ά εκτταγΧος αχώ, 
ΧάΧκειον 'ΤΓροΧίΤΓοΰσα Βαφοινας βρο'χθον Εννενς, 

Εμβρεμετ αέριος; σμαράγφ μαν ιταντα ταραττει ; 

θύρσις, 
'^λ\ά σε γαρ Βη ταντα, ττάτερ φιΧε^ μη θορυβονντων^ 
ΓάΧΧων γάρματος εργ , ΙΒ όσους ΤάΧΧοισιν αΒεΧφους 
*ΕΧΧάνων ξυνεΒεσσε μέγας φως χειρι βαρεία. 

Αάφνίί. 
Τόσσων μαν λέγε, θύρσι, τι τουτιον ενφροσυναων ; 
Ου μαν τοι νικησιν αγαΧΧομενοι κροτεοντι • 
Νίκαι μεν γαρ τοις Β εθαΒες νυν ήΒε βέβαιοι, 
ΟυΒε τις οισεΐ τοσσον αγακροτ^ν ασττετον,^Βος. 



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90 MODERN GREEK LITERATURE. 

OvBe τι Ύοωΰτον, TaBe νυν, φιΚο^^ appev eyetpei 
NaTToXeovTt Τ€ΛΌ9 Βαμαρατον y αναθήΧαν 

Αάφρί$. 

^Δ\\α τυ yap Βη τοΰτο, ιτοθβν^ ττως, ω yade, €yvως ; 

θύρσίί, 
Δβίμακα μ\ν Kjjycov^ καθ* ύΒρηΧον μαΧα νόμβνον 
ΑίφνιΒίος οχ^ 6 Βούττος αφίκβτο * φαινβτο Β ημ€^ 
Πράτα μαγα^ Τ€κμωρ^ Βία τ€ κροτον ονρανομηκη 
Και βΧοσνρον *π'Xaτάyημa • το μαν βομββΰον €Κ€ίνο 
Καί ΊΓοΧυφΧοισβον βΧειφ υσμανα^^ 'χάρμα Be μάΧΧον 
Φρα^Β^ν* 01*9 yS)v μον ΚωρυΒων ev τωδε νομβυαν 
Μίμνεν, eywv ευθύς Be ττερασσας ΧαΙτμα θαΧασσας 
KpacTTva μαΧ ώστε ν€θ<ζ (roSe yap ν€οτητος oveiap^ 
ΗΧυθον €σ νασον ταν yeiTova^ βνθα θριασΒβν 
Δαμο<ζ άπας βΧΧην Κερκύρας φαίνβτο χαίρων, 
ΟυΒβ μβταΧΧααν οίος τ ην χάρματος αυτψ 
Τουτίον άρρητω* το yap ουκ οίον τ αβακ€μμ€ν 
ΤουτΓίφανβς ωοντο* βοάς Be κατ ηΒ αΧαΧατως 
ΚαΙ κοτον άΧΧάΧοισιν ίοντα tlv ωλεσε χάρμα. 
Πάντα δ' ην φιΧτρον, τταντα yovoς ηΒ ια yηpυς. 
''Ζώη ΝΑΠΟΛΕΩΝ Ι Ζωη βασιΧευς Β\ ο 'ΡωμαςΓ 
ΕράσΒεκον μ€yc^Xως, ιηΧως' Β εις rjepa ττεμττον• 

eyv^Vt Δαφνί, μoyις, οτι οη ταυτ appev eyeipei 
NaTToXeovTi τεκος^ Ρωμας βασίΧευς, αναθηΧαν* 
Πάντα Β βυρυταταν τρίττΧα μαΧ ηΒβ τετραττΧά 
Τόσσα τι χάpμaτoς(epya κατ αρχαν yLver *Άνακτος. 



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MODERN GREEK LITERATURE. 91 

Another modem Greek, Mr. Demetrius Schoinas, 
composed a ** Pindaric Ode," in April, 1811, for 
the purpose of congratulating Napoleon the First 
for the son that was born to him : — 

Στροφή γ! 
Αίττεν δ' αψ Θώκον €νθα θαασ' 
σ€ νύγμασί χαρά<ξ • 

Ιριν €κ re iroha" 
ν^μον δ , ώνόμαξβν Αθάνατων 
€7Γ ayopdvSe /caXcaai, \ 

αίΓο ο ωρτο ταχ ayyeXeoiaa • cTret 
Se Αίθ<ζ με& ομάηυριν αΧθον te- 
ραν^ ΊΌίσιν ρα epeire Tray- 
^(ρυσεφ ev δαπβδω 
Ζευς' τταρα δ ayyeXo^ €- 
στα Βεξίος Αρτεμις οΙ 

Ιστ€ νυν ©eoi, ίδε τέρ^ 
ireaOe* άμος yap μ€yaκ\€Tjς. 

Writing in " classical Grreek " has of late years 
been generally the habit of all educated Greeks. 
The following extract from an essay, "ΠβρΙ του 
€1 €ζην καΐ ταΐς γυνα^ζΐ τοις Βραματικαΐς imSeL^eai* 
πα /Deti/at," written by a well-known doctor of 
Athens, may serve as an example: — 

Των αρχαίων ovBev irepl τούτου βέβαιον καταΧέλοιπό' 
των^ oi νεώτεροι Βιττην ημΐν ιΒεαν τταρεΒωκαν, εκ Βιαμε•- 
τ ρου Βιαφορον οι μεν yap αυτών μάλιστα εισηyayov εις 
τα θέατρα τας yυvaίκaς^ οι Βε απέκλεισαν εις το τταντεΧες» 



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92 MODERN GREEK LITERATURE. 

, . , . Ev Be ry STraprrf^ οπον fcal το των γυναικών 
φυλον μέρος τή<ζ ΐΓο\ίΤ€ΐας €κ του νομού συνιστά, e^elvai^ 
φασ\ και αυτας τας ευγενεστέρας, ου μόνον εις το θεατρον 
εισιεναι, αλλ [οττερ και τουθ ομολογουμένως εκειναις αττη» 
γόρευται) και γρρευειν εττι σκηνής^ και ύττοκρινεσθαι, και 
μισθον επΙ τούτφ Χαμβάνειν τταρα του χορηγού. Ταύτα 
μεν εκείνος. Οι 8ε αΧΧοι ουκ άξια Χόγου ταύτα κρίναν^ 
τ ες, καΐ θεατρίαις άττΧώς ανοιγουσι το θεατρον^ και τόπον 
αυταις αττοΒιΒοασιν ωρισμενον. 

Before closing this chapter, a few words are due 
to our contemporaries. The writings of many 
modern Greek prose authors, as, for instance, the 
"'Ιστορία ttJs ^Ελληνικής επαναστάσεως,^' by Spy- 
ridon Tricupes, and ^^ Αοκίμιον Ιστορίας της ^ΕΧΚψ 
ν(.κης γλώσσης,^^ by D. Mavrophredes, are well 
known, and have been reviewed in some of the 
leading English journals. Professor Asopios is 
well known by his " Εισαγωγή ct? IliVSapoi/," and 
Professor Damalas by his "Πβρι άρχων,^^ Pap- 
paregopulos' History of Greece is remarkable, as 
Professor Geldart states, for its clear and simple 
style and the unstudied purity^ of its language. 
I close this chapter with the following extract 
from Plutarch's "Life of Caesar," as translated 
by Mr. A. R. Eangabes, ^^Είς την καθομιΚονμένην''^ 
(in the spoken language), late Greek Ambassador 
in Paris, and well known not only as a scholar 
and archaeologist, but also as a poet: — 



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MODERN GREEK UTERAOiufeik ' &3 

'\ ■ ■ . ''-■/■ ' -'..■ 

Ή γνώμη Χοιίγορ αντη βφάνη φι\4νυρώ:τΓ^ο<^^ καΐ i^oyypo^ 
ο \oyo<;, οστίς ίρρ^θη irepl αύτης. Δι σ^ ου μόι^ον οΐ μ€τ^ 
αντορ €γ€ρθ€ντ€<ζ τταρβΒβχορτο την ττροτασιν αντον, μΚλα 
καΐ τΓολλο/ των ττροομίΧησάντων, αρνουμβνοι τα? ιΒιας Τ^Ρ 
γνωμας^ τταρβΒβ'χρντο την eSiKrjV του, έω? ότου ηΧθβν η 
σαρά του Κάτωνο*; καΙ του Κάτλου, Ούτοι δ' ηναντιωθη^ 
σαν μβθ^ ορμη^, καί ώ? ο Κάτων μ€τα Χργου eppiyjre καΐ 
ιΠΓονοιαν κατ αυτού, και ίξανεστη κατ αυτού βιαίως, οΐ 
μ€ν avBpe^ τταρ^Ζόβησαν οιτως θανατοθωσι* κατά he του 
Καίσαρος, ev φ ^ζηρχ^το της βουλής, ττοΧλοΙ των νιων των 
φρουρουντων τον Κικίρωνα τοτβ ορμησαντβς, €στρ€'\Ιταν 
γυμνά τα ξίφη κατ αυτού, ΑΧΧα XeycToi οτι 6 Κου^ 
ριων, ΊτερικαΧυψας τοτβ αυτόν Βια της τηβίννου του, τον 
e^riyaye. ΚαΙ 6 Κικέρων, όταν οΐ V€Oi ττροσ^βΧεψαν €ΐς 
αύτον, ΟΤΙ ίνβυσβν άττοφατικως, φοβηθείς τον Ζήμον, η τον 
φονον οΧως αΖικον και τταρανομον θβωρων. Τούτο όμως 
Bev ήξβύρω ττως 6 Κικίρων αν Δναι άΧηθ\ς, Bev το eypayfrev 
€ΐς τον 7Γ€ρΙ της ύττατβίας Xoyov του' κατηγορβΐτο Β νστβ- 
ρον οτι Bev ωφεΧ-ηθη τοτβ εκ της ευκαιρίας ήτις άριστη 
τταρουσιάζετο εις αυτόν κατά τού Καίσαρος, αλλ εΒειΧιασεν 
ενωτΓίον τού Βημου, όστις χητερτάτως ηυνοει τον Καίσαρα. 



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CHAPTER VIII. 

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN THE OLD ATTIC AND THE 
MODERN GREEK. 

The only difference that exists between the old 
pure Attic and the modern Greek or common 
dialect^ is as follows : — 

The common dialect is a loose Attic with a 
mixtm-e of Macedonian and Alexandrian words. 
It adopts various new forms, as ψ€υσ-/χα, νικος, 
νουθεσία, Ικχυν^ιν, στηκω, ομνύω for ψβΰδος, νίκη, 
νουθέτησι^, ίκχέ^ιν, ΐστημι, ομννμι; it admits va- 
rious poetical words, as avOevretv, to lord it ; αλέκ- 
τωρ for ά\€κτρνών; ίσθω for Ισθίω\ βρέχω y to raifij 
etc.; it uses old words in new senses, as σννίτ 
στημί, Iprove; ο^ώνιον, wages ; ipevy εσθ ai, eloqui; 
γεννήματα, fruit; λαλιά, language; and it frames 
new words and new compounds, as γρηγορώ, 
παώιόθεν, αΙματοχυσία. It ceases to employ tlie 
dual; entirely abandons the use of the optative 
in oratio obliqua; uses the infinitive instead of the 
future participle after verbs af going, sending, etc. ; 
admits ei with the subjunctive, όταν, καϊ, ίνα, 
with the present indicative ; and, finally, shows a 



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OLD ATTIC AND MODERN GREEK. 95 

tendency to analysis, by using prepositions where 
the case-terminations wouH have been originally 
sufficient to express the meaning, and by employ- 
ing the active with iavrbv instead of the jni^Je. 
{hapa^ev Ιαντον=.€ταράξατο. See Farrar's ^' Greek 
Syntax.") 

The dual number, which does not exist in 
modem Greek, is not found in the ^olic dialect, 
and, in fact, being altogether unnecessary, early 
begins to vanish and to be treated as quite sub- 
ordinate to the plural. The dual number may be 
termed ^*a superfluous exuberance," adding but 
little force to the language. 

Such being the changes which have passed over 
the Greek language, we still hold that it has lost 
neither the elasticity nor the life of the ancient 
Greek. Her words are not^ so to speak, "con- 
gealed," and " void of life," as are the words 
of the French and — with the exception of the 
German — the words of other languages, which 
retain the meaning once given them. It may 
be said that this produces indefiniteness and 
want of clearness; but for all that, this is one 
of the strongest proofs of the life of the lan- 
guage. This is the reason why the "New 
Hellenistic," though somewhat under -a new gar- 
ment, is the traditional language of the old 
Greeks, which for the. last tliirty centuries runs 
through the Grecian heaven, at times shining with 



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96 OLD ATTIC AND MODERN GREEK. 

all its usual light, at times scarcely visible and 
clouded by mist, but never extinguished. It is 
not and cannot be teimed the daughter of the 
old Greek, just as the term is applied to modem 
languages derived from the Latin, because these 
languages are shoots from the root of the withered, 
dried, and grafted trunk of the Latin, whilst the 
modern Greek is the same old trunk, variously 
tried, withered as to some of its branches, but 
for the most part producing new branches in the 
place of the ones withered, never losing its vitality, 
and promising, under a careful cultivation, to be- 
come the same old shady and far-spreading tree 
whicli it was fonnerly. 

Modern languages, such as the French and the 
Italian, are founded, as a modern Greek scholar 
asserts, upon the "popular Latin"; but this Latin 
is, so to speak, in ruins, and it is from its ruins 
that these languages arose invested with new 
forms, new idioms, and a new life. Notice how 
the following Latin words, caballus, annulm^ hovis^ 
pater J mater, fratris, soror, pellis, oculuSj ovum, testaj 
nigerj instrumentuMj corpus (corporis), become, so 
to speak, mutilated in the Italian cavallo, annello, 
hove or h^ίe, padre, madre, fratello (especially from 
fratellus), sorella, pelle, occhio, nove, testa, nero, 
strumento, corpo, and in the still worse French, 
cheval, anneau, hoeuf, pere, *mere, frere, sceur, peau, 
ωϊΐ, ων/, tete, noire, instrument, corps. The three 



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OLD ATTIC AND MODERN GREEK. 97 

genders in Latin are compressed into two. From 
the demonstrative pronoun ille, ilia, the definite 
article le, la results ; and from the numeral unuSj 
una, unum, the indefinite article uno, una, un,\me; 
similar changes have occurred in the Greek lan- 
guage, but when ? In the Homeric and Attic 
times only. 

The forms of the verbs were likewise so much 
changed that it was necessary to add separate 
personal pronoxms, to distinguish the persons, 
wliich has never occurred in the Greek language. 
J^aime, tu aimes, il aime, nous aimons, vous aimej^^, 
instead of dmo, amds, amat, amamus ; instead of 
the one perfectum, three were formed, defini, in- 
definij anterieur. Besides this, another new tense 
was added, the ** conditional," which does not 
really exist in the Latin. Thus, in the Italian we 
have the forms venderei, venderesti, venderebbe; and 
in the French, je vendrais, tu vendrais, il vendrait, 
etc. Words of either foreign, German, Greek, 
or Celtic origin have crept into the language 
and are so thoroughly woΛ^en with the whole 
fabric of the language that they can never be 
eradicated : on the other hand, the foreign idioms 
which have been introduced into the Greek lan- 
guage are, for the most part, superficial ; they are 
spots which can easily be rubbed out, and are by 
no means deep and indelible colors. 

These languages, accordingly, are justly termed 



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98 OLD ATTIC AND MODERN GREEK. 

" her daughters," but the " New Hellenistic " is 
one and the same old Greek; or, as a modem 
Greek scholar calls it, " the newest phase of the 
old Greek," — to which state it has come slowly 
thi'ough many cenjuries, not \aolently, or acci- 
dentally, but unassisted, and by means of those 
very laws lying in her own nature. 

It may not be out of place here to remark, if 
we look to the matter of pronunciation in a prac- 
tical point of view, what has already been stated 
by a recent scholar who travelled in Greece, viz. : 
A knowledge of Greek, with the modem Greek 
pronunciation, will obviate the necessity of en- 
gaging an interpreter when travelling in Greece, 
Turkey, Egypt, and Asia Minor. Greek, as the 
language of the most thriving mercantile race, 
is the medium of communication between many 
of the various nations of the East. Again, by 
discarding the pronunciation now prevalent, and 
adopting instead the modern Greek, and by study- 
ing the Greek " as a living language," I will men- 
tion what scholars like Ross and Tassow have 
already noticed, " that great light may be thrown 
upon the meaning of classical authors." Be- 
sides, it is a fact that the knowledge of Greek 
as a living language is of chief significance in 
the verbal criticism of the New Testament and 
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CHAPTER IX. 

ACCENT AND QUANTITY. 

The word " prosody" retains among the modern 
Greeks the signification of the old grammarians, 
— " the doctrine of accentuation." In this sense 
it differs entirely from "prosody" as the word is 
to-day understood by those who study the Greek 
as a foreign language. We. do not believe in the 
statements of J. Vossius and many others, that 
prosody meant simply "metrical quantity" or 
" musical rhythm," and that the genuine prosody 
of the Greek words was always in "unison of 
sound with the poetical rhythm " or " the quantity 
of the syllables," etc. 

Now, that " prosody," as a modem Greek 
scholar asserts, meant among the ancient Greeks 
"/cat τας iv τω ΖιαΚέγεσθαι racret? της εγγραμμάτου 
φωνης,^^ Λπζ. the "grammatical accents," is eA^dent 
from what follows. 

Aristotle (350 B. C.) calls definitely the " accent 
of a word prosody." "Παρά 8e την προσωΒιαν 
iv μ€ν τοις avev γραφής 8ία\€κτίκοΐς ου pahiov ττονη- 
σαι \6yov^'' .... "But from accent, in discussions 
which are not committed to writing, it is not easy 



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/ 



100 ACCENT AND QUANTITY. 

to frame an argument." (Χοφιστ. i^eyx. a, β\. 
και έφβξης). Again, treating of "the parts of 
Rhetoric," Aristotle recommends " πώς τοΐ$ τόνοις 
χρησθαι, οίον οζβία καί βαρεία καΧ μ^σχι, .... and 
on the manner in whicli we should employ its 
tones, viz., the acwfe, the grave^ and the inter- 
mediate,^^ .... from which he says " harmony 
results." 

Accordingly, if musical intonation really was 
characteristic of ancient Greek accentuation, this 
feature has been most faithfully preserved. Pro- 
fessor Geldart remarks that the Greeks, especially 
when excited in preaching or public speaking, 
intone so melodiously that something very ^ike a 
tune is heard of which the higher tones are al- 
ways the more emphatic syllables Aristox- 

enus, a pupil of Aristotle (330 B. C), teaches 
that ^^ πρώτον απάντων, την της φωιη/ς κίνησιν 
8ωριστ€ον τω μίλλοντι πραγματ^ύ^σθαι πβρί μέ- 
λους, αντην την κατά τόπον ου γαρ €Ϊς τρόπος 
αιττης ων τυγχάνει • Ktvetrat μ€ν γαρ καΐ διαλ€γο/χ€- 
νων ημών, καΧ μβλωΒονντων, την βίρημενην κίνησιν • 
οζύ γαρ και βαρύ Βηλον ώς iv αμφοτ4ροις τούτοις 
4στΙ {Κριστοζ. άρμονικ. στοιχ. Βιβλ. γ, iv τόμω α, 
σ€λ. 3, της €κΒοσ. Μβϊβομ). Again, " Δύω he τιν€ς 
ζίσιν Ihiai κινησβως (of the voice), η Τ€ συνεχής 
και η Βιαστηματικη. Ύην μ€ν ούν συνεχή λογικην 
etvau φαμεν • ΖιαΧεγουμένων γαρ ημών ούτως η φωνή 
κινείται κατά τρόπον, ώστ€ μηΖαμου hoK^iv Ιστασθαι * 



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ACCENT AND QUANTITY. 101 

κατά 8e την irepav, ην ονομάζομ^ν Ζιαστηματικην, 
εναντίων πέφυκ€. y tVc^^at • και γαρ ΐστασθαί re δο- 
Κ€Ϊ, καΐ 7Γοίντ€<ζ τον τοΰτο φαινόμενον Troieiv ουκέτι 
\eyeiv φασίν, αλλ' ^Beiv Βίόπβρ iv τω διαλεγεσ^αι 
φ€ύγομ€ν το ίστάι^αι την φωνην, αν μη δια πάθος 
ποτ€ €ΐς τοιαντην κίνησιν άναγκασθωμεν iK0€LV • iv 
δε τω μελωΒβΐν τουναντίον ποωυμεν• το μεν γαρ 
συνεχές φεύγομεν, το δ* ίστάναι την φωνην ώς /χά- 
λιστα Βιώκομβν. . . . 

Dionysius the Thracian (66 Β. C.) defines ilie 
accent ^' φωνής άπηχησιν βναρμονίου η κατά 
άνάτασιν iv τη οζεία η κατά ομαΚισμον iv τη βα- 
peia, η κατά πβρίκλασιν iv τη περισπωμένη.^^ Cicero 
(60 Β. C.), speaking of the acute (acutmn), grave 
{gravum\ and the circumflex (circumflexum), says, 

that from these, results " quidam cantus " (Cicer. 

Orator. 17), so that, as Oekonomos asserts, gram- 
matical prosody in Latin was translated accentus 
(aC'Cino = ad cano, viz. ad cantum). Dionysius of 
Halicamassus (30 B. C.) mentions as of like name 
or meaning *^ prosody" and "accent": τάσεις φω- 
νής at καλούμβναι προσωΖίαι. The same one, 
treating ^^περί μαθήσεως γραμμάτων^^^ says ^^ πρώ- 
τον τα ονόματα των γραμμάτων iκμavθάvoμ€V' έπειτα 
τους τύπους και τάς δυνάμεις • εΐθ" οΰτω τας συλλα- 
βάς και τα iv αύταΐς πάθη • και μετά τούτο η8η τάς 
λεζεις και τα συμβεβηκότα αύταΐς, εκτάσεις τε λέγω 

και συστολάς καΐ προσωδίας^ Sextus ( 190 Β. C.) 

enumerates and distinctly calls *^ τάς των Γράμμα- 



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102 ACCENT AND QUANTITY. 

τικων προσωδίας, o^etav καΧ βαρ^ίαν καΧ 7Γ€ρΐ(7πω- 
μένην.^^ Hence it results from the testimony 
of the different authors mentioned, and of many 
others omitted for the sake of brevity, that prosody 
meant by no means what Vossius and Henninius 
and others have asserted, ** a singing and melody 
in unison of sound with the poetical rhythm," 
but-4dmply the ^* accent accompanying the pro- 
nunciation^of a word," or ^' το λογώδες μίΚος το ev 
τοις ονομασιν,^^ as Aristoxenus justly remarks. 

Erasmus himself never recommended the disuse 
of the Greek accent in pronunciation, and very 
well draws out the distinction between accent and 
quantity as follows. 

He puts his lesson into the mouth of a bear, 
who is made to say, " There are some men so 
obtuse as to confound stress with length of sound, 
while the two things are as different asgpossible," 
A shai-p sound is one thing, a long sound is an- 
other. Intensiveness is not the same thing as 
extensiveness. And yet I know learned men, 
who, in sounding the words ανέχον και άπβχου, 
lengthened the middle syllable with all their 
might and main, just because it has the acute 
accent, though it is short by nature ; in fact, as 
short as a syllable could be. Why, the very don- 
keys might teach us the difference between accent 
and quantity, for they, when they bray, make the 
sharp sound short and the deep one long. 



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ACCENT AND QUANTITY. 103 

The "followers of Erasmus" in Germany, 
however A'icious their pronunciation in other re- 
spects, invariably read Greek so that the accent 
is heard, and never dream that they are sacrificing 
quantity. 

Professor Geldart asserts, "that our prejudice 
against accents is for the most part insular, and 
deepened moreover by the insular peculiarities 
of our pronimciation. This is especially the case 
with respect to long and short υ, which we ordi- 
narily pronounce in exactly the same manner, 
namely as you. The result of this is, that when 
we want to show the difference between long 
and short υ, we have no other means open to us 
than that of laying a stress on the long ν and 
leaving the short unaccented. In ηύτνχεί and 
υπεύθυνος we pronounce the υ as you, i. e., really 
long, and we only distinguish between the long υ 
in the one case and the short υ in the other by 
flying in the face of the Greek accent, and read- 
ing the words respectively ηυτυχει and υπεύθυνος. 
In this case, so far from preserving the true quan- 
tity by the use of the Latin accent, we are only 
covering a false one." 

Now, there is no human language without its 
accents of prosody — whether written or not — 
fixed or represented by analogy or custom. Be- 
cause, as Oekonomos remarks, the accent tends to 
the unity of the word, concentrating its syllables 



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104 ACCENT AND QUANTITY. 

into one wliole, and rendering the meaning of tlie 
word clear. Thus, the accentual, or, so to speak, 
*^ belonging to speaking," prosody of the common 
dialect diifered from the poetical prosody. Hence 
it results, that Vossius and his followers are 
wrong in affirming that the accents of the words 
Avere always in unison with the metre of the 
verses and the quantity of the syllables. This is 
CA^dent, as a modern Greek says, because, first, 
the whole nation were not poets ; and again, be- 
cause the accents as a consequence would have 
been unsteady or indefinite, being changed to suit 
the quantity of syllables, which at times vary, 
becoming either long or short, for the completion 
or perfection of the metre, — that is to say, the 
accents could not then have had a definite and 
fixed location in the common dialect or in con- 
versation ; the laws and meaning of the language 
would no. longer have been unvarying, and it 
could not have been a satisfactory medium of 
communication for the people (who certainly did 
not converse with each other in verse), or for 
philosophers themselves. This reminds us how 
Lucianus, the famous writer, a native of Samo- 
sata, in a ivitty way says that Venus, once en- 
raged against the inhabitants of Abdera, caused 
them all to be seized with a poetical frenzy, 
so that the one could not understand the 
other ! 



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ACCENT AND QUANTITY. 105 

We conclude, therefore, that there exists in the 
Greek language the definite accentuation of 
words as old as the language itself Oekonomos 
says that the Greek language expressed from the 
earlier times the stress of its sounds, .that is to 
say, the accentual prosody of the words, definitely 
according to the custom of each dialect. The Do- 
rians, for instance, have the peculiarity of using 
the circumflex accent in barytone futures, as in ασ-ώ 
Βωσώ λεξονντυ (λβξονσί). The jEolians again, by 
putting the acute accent on the penultimate, say 
φρόνην, κάλην, νόην instead of φρον€Ϊν, etc. They 
likewise, in words of two syllables, place the acute 
accent on the penultimate, Avhilst otiiers accent 
the same words on the last syllables ; for instance, 
σνφος or σόφος κάλος, τραχύς, οξύς, πηλ^νς, θυμός 
ανως instead of ανως {άως, ηώς) θνμος, etc., and the 
adverbs καλώς, σόφως instead of ως. Thus, the 
Boeotians were wont to say νγίβυς instead of υγιής 
(et = η). In like manner were formed χαρίεις, 
αιγλτ^€ΐς, τ^Κη^ις. In like manner, although Plato 
wrote ταχύτητα, he also wrote θεότητα, ανθρωπό- 
τητα, τρατηζότητα, κυαθότητα, etc. 

The Attics used to say, τουτί, ταυτί, έκεινωνί in- 
stead of ταύτα, τούτο, εκείνων. They likewise said, 
πόνηρβ καΐ αληθές καΐ αντικρυς and ελθέ, emi, εύρ4. 
Tliey also said, Ζιίτης, τριετής and δί€Τ€9, τρίετες, 
etc., while others accent the same words on the last 
syllable. The lonians and the Attics said, άληθείη. 



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106 ACCENT AND QUANTITY. 

άναυΒβίη, evAcXetr;, κατηφείη, whilst, on the other 
hand, the Attic tragedians in these very words 
accent the antepenult. 

Now, these variations of accent are simply dia- 
lectic. They by no means change the fact, that 
there is a definite law of accentuation in the Greek 
language. 

This definite law of accentuation existed even 
before the Greek language was divided into dia- 
lects. So long as the Greeks remained a tribe 
of small numbers, inhabiting one and the same 
country, they spoke one and the same language, 
and the greatest harmony prevailed as respects 
the accent and pronunciation of the words. But 
when the Greeks commenced to scatter atid to 
migrate into dififerent countries, then, in time, 
their language also began to diifer by certain 
variations and distinctions, and hence the dialects 
arose. 

Similar dialectic variations exist to this day in 
the Greek language, but the people understand 
each other without any difiiculty whatever. These 
dialectic variations do not alter the language, con- 
sequently the rules of accentuation are uniform, 
although the people adapt them to suit their 
idiomatic peculiarities. Poetic prosody likewise 
teaches the uniform accentuation of words. This 
is evident because many short syllables become 
long in both the arsis and the thesis, by means 



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ACCENT AND QUANTITY. 107 

of the accent, which, as Oekonomos asserts, 
lengthens somewhat the quantity in pronuncia- 
tion. For instance, the Homeric ύποΒβξίη (I λ.), 
άκομιστίη (Οδ. φ), κακοεργίη (Οδ. χ), ά€ργίη (Οδ. ω), 
Ιστίη (Οδ. ζ), ιλίον (Ιλ. ο), άγριου (Ιλ. χ), ομοάον 
(Ιλ. e), νπ€ροπλίΎΐσί (Ιλ. α) lengthen t by means 
of the accent, naturally short in these words. 
Oekonomos also says, that ο and e become long in 
Αίολου (οδ. κ), άτΓΟ edev (Ιλ. ζ), Ιττπότην (^Επιγραμμ. 
ΐίαυσαν. θ, 10), &€αγ€νηρ (Αύτ. στ. 11, 2), etc. 
Likewise in the αγυιά /cat οργυια (Herod, and 
Xenop.). Now, it is only by the placing of the 
accent on the antepenultimate that final α becomes 
short, as, for instance, άγυιαν (Ιλ. υ, 254), οργνι 
vnep (οδ. 1, 328). It is on this account that the 
Attic tragedians, by shortening the last syllable, 
used the jEolic forms ημυν, νμιν instead of ημίν, 
νμΧν, etc. 

Now, we believe that the accents alw^^j^s ex- 
isted in the Greek language. There is no lan- 
guage without its accents. - Arigiophanes j)f 
Byzantium (200 B. C.) might haΛ^e introduced 
written accents, in order to preserve the true pro- 
nunciation of Greek at the time when it was 
becoming the vernacular of many Oriental races, 
but accents existed long before Aristophanes, and, 
in fact, long before the Homeric era. Accents, 
we say, always existed, but the ancient Greeks 
did not generally write them. Tlie fact that 



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108 ACCENT AND QUANTITY. 

many of the inscriptions that Imxe been dis- 
covered are Avithout accents does by no means 
prove that accents did not exist among the an- 
cient Greeks. Now, the modem Greeks seldom, 
if ^ever, put any accents on capital letters, that 
is to say, on words composed of capitals, and it 
would not be strange if the ancient Greeks like- 
wise were accustomed to leave oif the accents 
from inscriptions, which were generally written 
whh capitals. It is, however, Avorthy of remark 
that a verse of Euripides, w^ith accentual marks, 
has been discovered written on the walls of Her- 
culan£iim. It was natural for the ancient Greeks 
to pronounce then- language correctly, even with- 
out marking the syllables on which the stress 
ought to fall by means of the accent. To this 
day, many women of Greece, in writing to their 
husbands away from home, usually write without 
the accents. But do they not know how to pro- 
nounce their language just as well as those who 
make constant use of written accents I To pro- 
nounce correctly, to lay the stress on the syllable 
on which the accent falls, is natural to every 
Greek, although he may do it unconsciously. He 
is taught to pronounce according to accent from 
early childhood; he pronounces correctly, al- 
though he may not know the laws of prosody. 

We said that accents have always existed in 
the Greek language. Homer (1000 B. C.) says 



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ACCENT AND QUANTITY. 109 

Ύρωας and Ύρωάς (Ιλ. χ> 57). *Αλλ* άσ4ρχ€ο τείχος, 
€μον Τ€κο^ οφρα σαώστι^ Τρώας και Ύρωάς, μη8€ 
μέγα κυδος όρεξης. Now, how could Homer other- 
wise than by means of the accent distinguish 
between the male and female inhabitants ? Oeko- 
nomos also brings the example of 8μώων και 8μωας 
(ό 8μως • Οδ. ζ, 59 and 399) from 8μωωρ καΐ δμωάς 
(ή Βμωη, Οδ. 121 and 25, 45, 154). How could 
he distinguish finally λάων and λαών (Ιλ. φ, 314) 
imless by means of the accent ? It is by means 
of the accent, Oekonomos says, that Homer length- 
ened in the arsis or thesis the short syllable of 
the penult and the antepenult, as Ιμεναυ, αρόμε• 
ναι, δΪ€9, κακοεργίη, άγριου, ομοίου, etc. ; he also 
shortened the long syllable, or the one before it, 
by means of the accent, as έγείρομει/, βουΚεται, 
άποθείομα/ instead of έγείρωμεν, βουΚηται, άποθείω- 
μ€ν. Compare also the Ιπενη μεμάχος *ΑχΙλ€ύς, 
*Αχυληος, 'Οδυσβύς, *θ8υσηος, because it is on ac- 
count of the force of the following accent that the 
one of the consonants was omitted. The ancient 
grammarians spoke in detail concerning these 
facts, as did also the great scholar Hernnanus in 
his " Elementa doctrinae metricae," page 56, etc. 

Again, Aristophanes (430 B. C), by means of 
the accent, shows the difference in the meaning 
of the words : Boeto? 8ημος (oxytone) from 8ημος 
(Bar/). 40, *Ιππ. 95) and Ζιαπεινωμ^ν from διαπινο- 
μ€ν (Boeotian, Ζιαττειναμες καΧ 8υαπίρομ€ς), His con- 



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110 ACCENT AND QUANTITY. 

temporary, Isocrates, played upon the words καΐ 
νου with καινού {γραφιΒίον καινού, και βιβλίου και- 
νού, and so on). Plato (390 Β. C.) distinctly says, 
" Πολλάκις €π€μβάλλομ€ν γράμματα, τα δ* ίζαιρον- 
μ€ν, παρ* ο βονΚόμ^θα 6νομάζοντ€ς, καΐ τάς δζυτητα^ 
μ€ταβάλλομ€ν, οΐον Δα φίλος • τοντο ίνα olvtI ρήμα- 
τος όνομα ημίν γένηται, το, τ€ €Τ€ρον αντόθεν ιώτα 
€ζ€ίλομ€ν, και άντι οζ^ίας της μέσης συλλαβής βα- 
peiav €φθ€γζάμ€θα • άλλων δέ τουναντίον έμβάλλο^ 
μεν γράμματα, τα he βαρύτερα φθεγγόμεθα. Τούτων 
τοίιτυν €v καΐ το των ανθρώπων όνομα πίπονθεν, ως 
€μοι hoKei' Ικ γαρ ρήματος όνομα γέγονεν, Ινος γράμ" 
ματος, του α, Ιζαιρεθέντος, καΧ βαρυτέρας της τελευ^ 
της γενομένης, εντεύθεν 6 άνθρωπος {έστΧν^ αναβρών 
α οπωπ€ " We often put in and leave out let- 
ters in words, and give names as we please, and 
change the accents. Take, for example, the words 
Au φίλος. In order to convert these into a noun 
we omit one of the iotas, and sound the middle 
syllable graA^e instead of acute ; as, in other words 
also, letters are inserted, and the grave is changed 

into an acute The name άνθρωπος, which 

Avas once a phrase and is now a noun, appears 
to be a case just of thi^ sort; for οης letter, 
which is the a, has been omitted, and the acute 
of the last syllable has been changed to a 

grave Hence man, of all animals, is rightly 

called άνθρωπος, meaning ό άναθρων ά οπωπεν. 
Again, Aristotle (350 Β. C.) says: Παρά δέ την 



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ACCENT AND QUANTITY. Ill 

προσω8ίαρ iv μ^ν τοις avev γραφής 8ία\€κτικοΐς ου 
ράΖιον ποιησαι λόγον, iv Se τοις γβγραμμένους καΐ 
ΊΓονημασι \oyov μαΧΚον • οίον καΐ τον 'Όμηρον ενιοι 
hiopOovvrai προς τους ελέγχοντας ώς άτόπως άρψ 

κότα *^Τό μεν ου καταπύθεται 6μβρω^\\ύουσι 

γαρ αυτό rg προσωδία λέγοντες το ου οξύτερον. Και 
το περί το ενυπνων του * Αγαμέμνονος, otl ουκ αύτος 

6 Ζευς είπε " 8ί8ομεν 8έ οί εΐτχος άρεσθαι,^^ 

άλλα τω ενυπνίω διδοναι. 

^* But from accent, in discussions which are not 
committed to writing, it is not easy to frame an 
argument, but rather in writings and poems ; as, 
for instance, some defend Homer against those 
Avho accuse him as liaving spoken absurdly, — 

To ft€v ov κατατρύχεται ομβρω, — 

for they solve this by accent, saying that ου is to 
be marked with an acute accent. Also about the 
dream of Agamemnon, because Jupiter himself 
does not say, 

Βί8ομ€ν 8c oi (νχος apiaOaiy 

but says to the dream StSwat. Such things, 
therefore, are assumed (explained) from accent." 

Although the Greek language from its earlier 
times had " accents," their use became more prev- 
alent in both writing and speaking after the time 
of Aristophanes (200 B. C), who is also considered 
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χ 



112 ACCENT AND QUANTITY. 

Oi χρόνοι και ol τόνοι και τα 'ΐΓν€ύματα^ Αριστοφάνους 
ίκτυττωσαντος yeyove ιτρός τ€ Βιακρισιν της αμφιβοΧου 
λ€^€α)9, και ττρος το μέλος της φωνής συμπάσης^ και την 
άρμονίαν^ ως αν επάΒοιμεν φθ€γγόμ€νοι. Σκίψαι S ώς 
ίκαστον αυτών φυσικώς αμα και οικείως, καθώττβρ τα ορ- 
ηανα^ ίσχημάτισται καϊ ωνόμασται• eireiSrj και ταύτα 
€μ€\\€ τ φ Χογφ ώσπβρ opyava €σ€σθαι• €ωρακ€ yap και 
την μουσικην οΰτω το μέλος και τους αριθμούς σημαινομε- 
νην και irrj μεν άνιεΐσαν^ ττ^ δ* ειτιτείνουσαν^ και το μεν 
οξυ το Βε βαρύ ονομάζουσαν^ κ, τ. λ. {^ΑρκαΒ, Πάρα Βίτ 
λοϊσών Ώρολετ/όμ, εΙς' Ομηρον. σελ. ια,) 

Now, it results from what has been said, and 
from the direct testimony of the different authors 
mentioned, and of many whose testimony might 
have been cited, that grammatical accent or pros- 
ody is essentially different from ^* poetical pros- 
ody." The modem Greeks in pronouncing ac- 
cording to, accent agree in every respect with the 
direct testimony of the ancient grammarians, the 
divine Plato, Aristptle^icero, Phitarchj_jLristQXfi- 
nus, Sextus, Nicanc)^i20 B. C.), Aristophanes, 
Dionysius of Halicarnassus, and of many others. 
The statement of Professor Sophocles that all 
A'Owel sounds in modem Greek are i sochronous 
is incorrect, because in many instances we ^ pro- 
nounce more or less the grave as well as the 
acute accent. We distinguish the acute accent, 
as Oekonomos justly remarks, by pronouncing 



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ACCENT AND QUANTITY. 113 

/ 
the word more emphatically, or by raising the 
voice, and especially so in questions, as τίς τον 
ίκαμβ κριτην ; we pronounce likewise the circum- 
flex, though rarely, by prolonging the voice. This 
is especially to be noticed in Thessaly and Epirus, 
in which countries tlie people pronounce cT8a = 
αδατ and δώ/ια as if it were δοο/χα, etc. 

Now, to attempt to pronounce the Greek ac- 
cording to the principles of Latin accentuation is 
simply^ absurd. It is a fact that Latin prosody in 
some instances agi'ees with Greek accentuation, 
but in many respects there is a wide difference 
between the two. To begin with, the Latin ac- 
centuation of many words renders doubly sure 
the accuracy and correctness of the accentuation 
of the modem Greeks. For instance, the pro- 
paroxytone words, 'Απόλλωνος, *Άρίωνος, €Ϊ8ωλορ, 
ίρημος, ενέργημα, παράκλητος, the ancient Latin 
poets used likewise to pronounce by marking 
the antepenultima with the acute accent, as Apol- 
linis, Ononis (sse | vQmque | rionis | ensem, Hor), 
idolum (Auson). Now, those who pronounce 
simply according to the ^quantity of syllables, 
pronounce as if the words were written, άΒωλορ, 
ΆτΓοΧΧωΐΌς, and so forth, and thus, as Oekonomos 
puts it, act in violation of the principles of both 
the Grecian and Latin Muse. The Latins never 
accent the last syllable of a word. On the other 
hand, tlie Greek language possesses many such 



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114 ACCENT AND QUANTITY. 

nouns, and h^nce this difference alone suffices to 
put an insurmountable barrier between the Latin 
and Greek prosody^. The Latin tongue, being 
fashioned after tlie jEolic dialect, keeps, generally 
speaking, its accentuation, especially so in words 
of two syllables, which the jEolians pronounced 
by placing the accent on the penultimf^, as αυως 
€ίΐμι (άώς, βΐμΐ). Many words of three syllables 
they pronounced by placing the acute accent on 
the penultima, as Άχίλλενς η *Αχί\λης, 'Τδύσσενς. 
Latin : Achilles, Ulysses. Oxytone or paroxytone 
trisyllabic words the jEolians used to pronounce 
by placing the acute accent on the antepenultima, 
for instance, Swaros instiBad of Βυνατος, and so 
on. But even in the accentuation of words of 
two and three syllables, generally speaking, the 
^olians differed materially from the Latins. Thus, 
the uiEolians pronounced κατά, σιω, Ιων, and, again, 
Ιέρης, Μι/ασίας, etc. Again, Oekonomos justly re- 
marks, that Latin prosody materially differed from 
the Greek, inasmuch as the Latins accent the ante- 
penultimate even when the last syllable is, accord- 
ing to the Greeks, long. On the other hand, the 
Greek prosody always strictly observes the last 
syllable of every word and its change in respect 
to the cases, and places the accent according to 
the quantity of the last syllable. For instance, the 
Latins say Philosophia, Historia, Theologia, Ec- 
clesia, and the genitives Corporum, dngeli, and so 



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ACCENT AND QIJANTlfty^. * ^ U5 

on, placing the accent on tfte Mi|fepenurtiifi^e, ^ 
which fact is in direct violation of^^ie^Jimppiples r^ 
of Greek prosody, which is always directeli/in 
the accentuation of a word by ihe' quanfity hv 
th e^ last syllable: Again, the change of the ac-"^ 
cent by contraction is a thing unknown among 
the Latins, as careo '= χαρβω, χηρέω, χηρ€ύω, 
χτηρόω, -ώ, and δ^/οω, Β^ίκω, κνύω, 8όκω, doceo = δο- 
κζω, hence 8οκω. There are, besides, numberless 
other peculiarities of the Greek language, both dia- 
lectic and perpetual, which diΛάde and separate its 
prosody from the Latin. But however well Latin 
prosody has been fashioned and formed by her 
glorious poets and writers, yet it never could 
attain, imitate, or approach, either the euphony, 
the elasticity, or the manifold and very rich 
variety of the Grecian prosody. Finally, it is 
a fact that modem Philology, owing to the great 
changes wliich have passed over the Latin lan- 
guage, ever since the second century after Christ, 
has been unable to ascertain the original sound 
of her letters. Thus we claim that it is incon- 
sistent with well-established principles and facts 
to attempt to pronounce Greek according to Latin 
accentuation. There is certainly much similarity 
between the Greek and Latin, but this similarity 
or ^resemblance is not, as a Greek says, that of 
one egg to another, neither that of one drop of 
water to another. The Latin language resem- 



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116 



ACCENT AND QUANTITY. 



bles the Greek language just as a daughter 
resembles her mother, or just as a sister might 
resemble her sister ; or, as Oekonomos says, how- 
ever strong a resemblance there may be between 
the two languages, the warbling of a Procne 
(swallow) (ϋίϊβι•8 from that of a niglitingale. 

Now, that the accent plays a most important 
part in the meaning of a word, is manifest from 
the following collection of words, which are 
written alike, but distinguished from each other 
in meaning by the accents. The distinguished 
scholar, Gottlob Hoffman, said in reference to this 
point, "Why! anybody can easily distinguish 
the word δια from δια and μόρη from μονή (μένω) 
and some other similar words simply by the 
nieaning ! " However, there are many words and 
many nouns in the Greek language distinguished 
from each other simply by means of the accent, 
but without which all the soothsayers of the world 
could never tell the meaning. 



'AycXatos, belonging to a herd, 
'AycXatos, of the herd or TmU- 

titude / άγ. ανθρωτΓΟί, opp. tO 

αρχοντ€ς, 
"Αγη, in good sense, wonder^ 

reverence^awe ; in bad sense, 

envy^ hatred. 
*Αγη,'ψ, breakage^piece^spUn- 



ter ; κωπων άγ. -<Esch. Pers. 

425. 
'^Αγητος, AgetuSy a Spartan. 
*ΑγΎΐτ6ς, admired^ famous. 
* Αγκυρα, Ancyra^ a city of Ga- 

latia. "" 

"Αγκυρα, an anchor. 
Άγόραω?, to he bought in the 

market; as in most Edd. 

oftheN. T. aprds. 



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ACCENT AND QUANTITY. 



117 



'Αγοραίος, belonging to the 

ayopa, Zcvs αγοραίος, 
"Αγων, άγοντος, leading. 
Άγων, -ωνος, a contest, 
*Α8ολ€σχης, chatterer; aSoXc- 

σχης, svhtle. Job. Philopo- 

nus. 
'A^poos, -a, -ov, very rarely -os, 

-ov, assembled in crowds, 

Eustath. p. 1387. 
"Αθρόος, -ov (a. priv. θρόος)^ 

noiseless^ only in gramm. 
'A^wos, -ov, unpunishedy scot- 
free. 
'Άθωος,-η, -ov, of Mount Athos, 

^sch. Ag. 285. 
AWos, -COS, a bwming heat^ 

fire. 
ΑΙϋός, "ή, "OV, burnt, fire-col- 
ored, fiery, Pind. p. 8, 65. 

Bachyl. 12. 
Atvos, -ου, δ, 1, α tale, story, 

hence, a fable; 2, praise. 
Αινός, -iy, -ov, Ep. word = Sctvos, 

dread, dire, fearful, 
ΑΙόλος, -η, -ov, easily turning, 

quietly moving, 
AtoXos, -ov,thegodofthe winds, 
Ahrcia, fem. οΐΑΙττυς, high and 

steep ; lofiy, 
AtTTCMi, -as, -η, 1, ^pea, a city 

of Messenia; 2, a city in 

the island of Cyprus, later, 

Soli. 
ΛΓτΓΟί, -cos, TO, a Iieight, a 



steep, a hill. -<Esch. Ag. 
285, etc.; ττρος αίπος tcvat, 
6Sov7rop€LV. 

ΑΙπός, -η, -όν, Ep. for αίττυς, 
high, lofty, usu. of cities. 

'Aioy, 17, 1, a point, edge; 
2, silence, etc. 

"Ακη, -ης, η, Ace, the earlier 
name of the city Ptolemais 
in Phoenicia. 

*Ακηλητος, inexorable, 

*Ακηλητ6ς, spotless. Joh. Phi- 
lop. 

'Akis, -180s, η, a point-barb, a 
splinter. 

*Ακις, -ώος, δ, Acis, a river of 
Sicily. Theoc. 1, 69. 

"Ακρις, -ως, 1, the extremity; 
2, AcriSy a city of Libya. 
Diod. 

*Ακρ[ς, -tSos, a locust. 

^Ακροβόλός, one that throws 
from afar, a skirmisher. 

*Ακρ6βολος, -ov, struck from 
afar. 

'Αλιά, -as, an assembly, gather- 
ing. 

*Αλι<£, -as, a salt-cellar. 

"'AXts, adv., in heaps, in crowds^ 
in swarms, 

*AAxs, -tSos, saltness, 

*Αλωά, a threshing-fioor. 

'Αλωα, a festival of Demeter. 

"Αμητος, -ου, δ, a reaping, har- 
vesting. 



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ACCENT AND QUANTITY. 



*Αμητ6ς, the harvest gathered 
in, 

* Αμυγδαλή, -ης, oft in Theophr. 

the almond-tree. 

* Αμυγδαλή, -lys, an almond. 
"Αρα, Ep. pa, then^ straight- 
way^ etc. 

'Αρά, ας, a curse. 

'Αραιός, -ly, -ov, thin^ narrow^ 

weak, 
Άραιος, -αια, prayed against^ 

accursed. 
"Apyqs, -ου, δ, Arges or Cyclops. 

Hes. Th. 140. 
'Αργής, a kind of serpent. 
^Apyw9, -^os, white^ bright, 
\Kpyo^ -ου, ό, Argus^ son of 
^Tnpiter and Niobe, and King 

^ργος) -)}, -όν, shining, 

bright. 
"Apvetos, -ctix, -ειον, of a lamb 

or sAeep / Kpca. 
'Apvctos, -ου, ό, a young ram 

just full-grown. 
Άρνός, α sAeejE?, etc. 
"Άρνος, ArnuSy a river of Etni- 

ria, now the Arno. 
'Αρπάγη, -ψ, seizure, rapine. 

'Αρπάγη, -ης, a hook, esp. for 

drawing up a bucket. 
"Αρσίζ, -€ω?, η, raising up. 
Άρσι?, -ιδο5, arrow-point 

Pharor. 
'ApriTOKos, new-born. 



Άρτιτόκο9, having just given 

birth ^ μητηρ. 
* Αρτίτομος, just CUt. 
'AprtTo/xos, having just cut, 
Άσφόδ€λο9, ό, asphodel. 
*Ασφοδ€λ05, producing aspho^ 

del, 
Αύλίτη/?, a flute-player. 
Αυλητής, a farm-servant. 

B. 

Βοιό;, -α, -ov, ZiWZe, insignifl- 
cant. 

Batos, J^oeus, a raan. 

Βάχχ€ΐο9, belonging to Bac- 
chus or Λίβ n7e5. 

BaKxctos, sub. -που?, α metrical 
foot of three syllables,^ — 

^ασΔ^ α queen, princess, 
^ασιλζία^ a kingdom. 

Βτ^λος, -ου, δ, ίΛβ threshold. 

Brj\oq,-ov,J^elu^, a Babylonian 
deity. 

Bto9, -ου, life. 

Blos, a bow. 

Βληχρός, -a, -όν, weak, nerve- 
less. 

Βληχρος, a woody plant, flow- 
ering late. 

Βροτός, -ου, δ, mortal, man. 

Βρότο?, blood that has flowed 
from a wounded man, gore. 

Βυσσός, -ου, the depths of the 
sea; water-deeps. 



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119 



Βνσσος, a fine yellowish βαχ, 
and the linen made from it 
(cotton). 



Γαυλος, a round-built Phoeni- 
cian merchanUvessd, 

Γαυλός, -ου, a milk-pail, a won 
terhucket. 

Γελοίο?, lauglwhU, absurd. 

FcXotos, exciting laughter^ 
merry. 

Γλαυκός, -ly, -ov, bright, gleam- 
ing, etc. 

Γλαυκοί, an edible fish of gray 
color. 

rovos, -ου, that which is begot- 
ten, a child. 

Tovos, corn-land, a sown field 
(Horn.), HSU. in phrase, Γου- 
vov άλα»^^. 

Γυρ09, -ά, -ov, round, Lat. ciir- 
vus. 

Γύρος, -ου, a round ring, circle. 

Δ. 

Acipiy, -^9, th^ neck, throat. 

Α€φη, a city and promon- 
tory. 

Αημ,ος, -ου, a Country dis- 
trict. 

Αημός, -ov^fiat, toMow, 
^^ίημοο-ία, adv. pubUcly. 

ATy/AOfrta, -τα, neut. public 
things. 



Αία, ace. of Ζευς. 

Δια, prep, by, through. 

Αιογενης, noble, bom of Jove. 

Αι&γενψ, Diogenes, a man's 
name. 

διχοτόμος. Cutting in two. 

Αυχότομ^ς, -ov, pass., cut in 
half, divided equally. 

Δόκος, ό, opinion. 

Δοκός, beam. 

Δόλιος, -α, -ov, crafty, deceit- 
ful. 

Δολιός, -ου, δ, Dolius, a slave 
of Laertes in Ithaca. 

Δρυ/ΑΟς, an oak-coppice, thicket. 

Αρνμος, Drymus, a city of Pho- 
cis. 

E. 

EiTTc, he said, 

EiTTc, say thou. 

*Έλ€υσις, coming, arrival. 

Έλ€υσις, -ιι/ος, jEJlei6sis, a 

city. 
Έ^αήο€τος, -ov, taken out, 

picked. 
Εξαίρετος, -ly, -όν, ίΛαί can be 

taken out• 
"Ετταινος, approval, praise. 
'Ετταινός, -η, -ov, exceedingly 

awful. 
Έτταρχια, a province. 
Έπάρχια, a woman's name. 
Έρινεός, ίΛβ wild fig-tree. 
Έριν€ος, of wool, woollen. 



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ACCENT AND QUANTITY. 



"Ετος, a year. 

Έτος, in vain, 

Ένάνθψ, flowery. 

Ένάνθης, Euanthes^ a name. 

Euycnys, well-bom (a civil, po- 
lite man), euycnjs άνθροητος, 

Evycnys, Eugcnes^a poet of the 
Anthology. 

Έυμειτης, welUdisposed. 

Ev/Aenys, Eumenes^ a brave 
Athenian at Salamis. 

Ευκλ€ΐα, renown^ good fame, 

Εΰκλ€ΐα, Eudia^ an appella- 
tion of Diana. 

Ew-^evi}?, stout^ lively. 

Ένσθ€ΐτης, Eicsthenes, a name. 



Ζωρός, -ov, jtmre, θΛββη 
Ζωρος, Zorus, founder of Car- 
thage. 
Ζωη, life. 

Ζώη, TO Ιττάνω τον μ€λιτος, και 
yoXaKTOs. Eust. p. 906, 52. 



Η. 

"Ημών, slinger, 

*ΗρΣ)ν, gen. pi. of r^/xet?. 

'HpaicXctos, -a, -ov, belonging to 

Hercules. 
'HpaKXetos, herculean. 
"Ηττων, compart. 
'Ήττων, part, of τ^ττάω. 



Θ. 

fem. of Θ€()ς. 

(!?€αΓ)α seeing. 

Θερμός, 'ή, -ov, warm, hot, boil- 
ing. 

®€ρμος, -ου, the lupine, esp. Zi^ 
pinous, used in Athens to 
counteract the effects of 
drink. 

a dome. 

jgoX^, mud, dirt. 

Θυ /AOs, -ου, 1, ίΛβ «cmZ/ 2, 
wrath, etc. 

Θυ/>ιο5, -ου, thyme, Lat. thymus. 

I. 

Ίά, ly, voice. 

*Ia, old Ion. one/ plural, violet. 

Ίδ€, ancZ. 

*Ιδ€, behold. 

Ίδου, imp. aor. mid. 

Ίδου, Zo / behold. 

*Ιδρΰ/Α€νο9, part. pres. 

Ί^υ/Α«/ο9, part. pei-£ 

Ί09, rwsi, etc. 

"Ιος, -i09, one of the Sporades^ 

, etc. 

Ίττνό?, -0, ατι ove/i. 

"Ιπνοζ, Ipnus, a place in Locris. 

Ίπ7Γοκό/Αθ9, keeping or groom- 
ing horses, etc. 

'Iinro#cofto9, horse-haired, etc. 

ΊπτΓοκορυσττ}?, -ου, equipping, 
arming horses. 

ΊτητοκορνοΎης, Mppocorystes, 
masc. prop. noun. 



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121 



*S^ 



Katpo?, -oO, 1, Strictly the right 
measure; % the right meas- 
ure of time, 

Καΐρο9, also καιρώ?, threads^ 
slips^ or thrums on the beam 
of the loom, 

Καλλυσθ^νής^ adomcd with 
strength. 

ΚαλλΛσθενης^ CalUstheneSy an 
orator. 

Καλόν, drg wood^ fire-wood. 

Καλόν, neut. of καλό?. 
[^ Καλω9, adv. from καλό$. 
s Καλω5, a rope. 



Κα/Ατπ;, a bending^ winding^ as 

of a river. 
Κά/Ατπ;, a caterpillar, 

KctVO^ for €K€lVOS• 

Kctvo?, emptyl 

Κηλητης^ a charmer. 

Κηλητης^ charmed, 

Kcpcurnys from Kcpas. » 

Kcpacmy? from K€pάvwμu 

Κήρος^ CeruSy a river. 

Κΐ7ρ09, loax, 

Κλ€ΐτό?, -jj, -όν, renowned^ fa- 
mous, 

ΚλεΓτος, Clitus^a proper nnme. 

KAcuo, to tell of make fa- 
mous, 

Κλ€ΐώ, Clio, one of the Muses. 

Kv^Kos, the thistle, 

Κνηκός, yellow, 

Kn/jno?, woody. 



Κνημοζ^ CnemuSy a name. 

Κόμπος, pride, 

Ko/attOs, proud, 

Κρι09, a ram, 

Kpto9, a proper name. 

Κτασ•^αι from κτάομαι, 

Κτασ^αι from κτ^ίνω, 

Κυκ€ω, Imix, 

Κυκ€ώ, accus. of κϋΚ€ών. 

Κΰ/3το9, α creed. 
Κυρτός, crooked, Eust. p. 907. 
Κυρτο9, a fishing-basket. 
Κυρτός, curved, bent, arched, 

A. 

Αάβη, pretext, 
Κ.αβη, handle, 
Λα09, -ου, the people, 
Λαο9, the name of a city. 
Λαρο9, a ravenous sea-bird ; 

the gull, 
Aa/soa, -ά, -ov, pleasant, nice» 
Aen-aq, a bare rock, 
Α€πάς, a limpet, 
Αψ6ς, a wine-press, 
Λ^νο9, wool, 

Αίθοβόλο?, throwing stones, 
Αιθόβολ^, struck with stones, 
Αιχανος, fore-finger, 
Αιχανός, string of a harp. 

M. 

Μακρ09, long. 
Μάκρος, length. 
Μαλάκια, softness. 



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ACCENT AND QUANTITY. 



Μαλάκια, water-animals of soft 

eubstancc. 
MonJ, a staying (convent). 
Mony, fern, of Μόνος, 
Mox^iypos, laborious. 
Μοχθηρός^ wretched, 

Μυιων, gen. from μνία; μυιων^ 

muscle. 
Μυλλός, awry^ crooked. 
Μΰλλος, an edible fish. 
Μυλών, a place for a miU, 

etc. 
Μυλών, a city. 

Μυριοί, infinite in numbers. 
MvpioL, ten thousand. 

N. 

N€09, young. 

'Νίός^ fresh land^faUow. 
yi^^^s a pasture, 
iNo/xosNa law. 



Βαν^ός, golden^ yellow. 
Ηάν^ο9, a proper name. 
Ecvftiv, a room for strangers. 
Η€νων, a proper name. 

O. 
"0/0/09, i?e/ay. 

^-'Οίο^ό?, -ly, ov, idle^ cowardly. 
'^*0)ttw9^ 9ievertheless. 
' [Ομο}ς, equally, etc. 
{ "όρος,*^ mountain. 



yOposHhe watery or serous part 

^f^7nilk. 
Oΰ#coυv, woi therefore, so not. 
OvKovvj therefore, according- 

ly. 

Ουράς, α mountain. 
Ού/οός, α trench. 
Ουρά, ίαι7. 
Ουρά, boundaries. 

Π. 

Πατροκτόνος, parricidal. 

ΤΙατρόκτονος, slain by a father. 

Π€ΐ^ω, ίο persuade. 

ΊΙευθω, persuasion, etc. 

Πιων, /*αί. 

Πιών, 1, aor.; 2, part, of πίνω. 

Πλατάγϊ/, rattle. 

Τίλαταγη, rattling sound. 

Πλυνός, washing-troicgh. 

Πλυνος, washed. Schol. Aris- 
tophanes' Plut. 1062. 

Ποιος, ΊΓοια, ποιον, of what nO' 
turef 

Ποιος, -ά, -όν, of a certain nor 
ture, kind, etc. 

Πότος, a drinking-bout; ca- 
rousal. 

Ποτός, 'ή, -όν, verb, adj. of πιναι, 
drunk, for drinking. 

Πρωτόγονος, first-bom. 

Προ)τογόνος, bringing forth 
first. 

Προ>τότοκος, first-born. 

Προ>τοτόκος, bearing her first- 
born. 



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123 



Πυρρό?, flame-colored, 

Uvppo^j I^yrrhus^ a man's 
name. 

Πώρος, -ου, tufa-stone. 

Πωρό?, -α, -όν^ blind J misera- 
ble. 



•Piv^, file. 

Ύίνη, shark. Joh. Phil. 

'PiViy, townrwall. 

'PtTnJ, δ^αθί of wind. East. p. 

301. 
'Ροδών, a rosebud. 
'Ρόδων, 17, JKhodon, masc. prop. 

name. 
'Ρόδιο9, adj., JRhodian, of 

Rhodes. 
'Ροδιό?, subst., JRhodiuSy a 

river. 

2. 

Soipcuv, -ωνος, α lewdfeUow, 
2αρων, from σαιρω, Sweeping. 
2^9, gen. fem. of σός. 

ϊκάφτ;, α ΛοΖβ, trench. 
5καφΐ7, α digging^. 
Σκύμνος, lion^s whelp. 
5κυ/«,ν09, young of every other 

ίτταρτόν, -ly, -όν, sown^ scat- 
tered. 
'XwapTocy the shrub. 
5ταφυλι;, a bu7ich of grapes. 



Σταφυλή, the levd or the 
plummet in a carpenter's 
bench. 

2υνοικια, a community. 

2υνοικια, a public feast in hon- 
or of Theseus. 

2υρ/χό?, 1, anything that drawSy 
drags, or tears along with 
violence / % fashion, mode. 

5υρ/Αί)9, jSyrmuSy a proper 
name. 



Ταυρο<«τόνο9, slayihg bulls, 
Ύανροκτονος, killed by 'a buU. 
Trjkt^iaxo'iflghting from afan 
Τ7/λ€/χαχο9, a name (son of 

Ulysses). 
Ίηλ^φανψ, appearing afar. 
Ύηλεφάνης, TeUphanes, a prop. 

name. 
To/iw, cutting. 
Τόμος, a volume. 
Τορ09, piercing, thrilling. 
Ύόρός, a borer used in trying 

for water. 
Τροχό?, a wheel, etc. 
Τρόχο9, a running course. 

Y. 

'Y/Soe, -η, -ov, hump-backed. 
*Y/?oc, the bunch or hump of 

a camel. 
"Υβρις, insolence. 
Ύβρις, a night-bird of prey. 



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ACCENT AND QUANTITY. 



Φ. 

Φαώρός, -α, -ov, beaming^ bright. 
Φαΐδρο5, PhcedruSy a pr. name. 
Φορο5, a tribute^ tax, 
Φορ09, bearing, carrying. 
Φνλακη, a watching or guard- 
ing a loOjtcL• 
Φυλάκτ;, Phylace, a city. 

X. 

Χαλαζοβολοζ, showering hxiil; 

νίφη. 



ϋαλαζόβολοζ. Stricken with 

hail. » 

Χαροττό;-, -τ/, -ov, glad-eyed, 

bright-eyed. 
Χάροπος, a man's name. 

Ω. 

jtajCew;- ίΛβ shoulder, 
'<Q^ς)raw, rough, etc. 

*ίΙχρος, paleness. 



Again, many proper nouns are formed from 
substantives by transposition of the accent For 
instance: — 



*Ακ€σΎης, from άκ€στ^9. 

"Afyqros and *Αρψη, from άρψος, 
άρητη. 

Αυγή, from αυγή. 

ΒαΓος, from βαώς. 

TXavKOs, from γλαυκός. 

Γοργός and Γοργώ, from γορ- 
γός. 

Αιογίνης, from 8ιογ€ΐ/ής. 

ΈιπΓζίθψ, from €υπ€ΐ^ής. 



ΚλεΓτος, fi'om κλειτός. 
Λευκός, from λευκός. 
Αωτος, fi'Om λωτός. 
Μεγασ^εη/ς, from ρ,εγασίενής. 
Πυρρός and Πυρρά, fr'om ττυρρός, 

-ρα. 
5/ΐ-€ΐκρος ΟΓ %μικρος, from σ/ι,ι- 

κρός. 
Φαιδρός and Φαίδρα, from ^<u- 

δρός, -δρα. 



In like manner, to this day, many nouns become 
proper simply by a change of the accent, some of 
which are either local and idiomatic, so to speak, 
to certain places, whilst other nouns are common 
to all the Greeks. For instance: Χρυσός, from 
^χρϋσος, like χρυσής (ΐλ. α) and ^^ Χρυσός Είσιδα- 



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ACCENT AND QUANTITY. 125 

τον *Αθψαΐος^^ (Olyp. 236), found in an Attic in- 
scription. Χταυρος, from σταυρός. Αάμπρος, from 
λαμπρός. Φόρος, from φορός. *Pt{o9, from ρίζΟ€ίς, 
whence tlie " ρόζους θβσσαλίας χώρα.^^ Χΐμος, from 
σιμός, whence Χίμων Χιμωνί^ης, Χιμμίας Χίμμυχος (a 
diminutive Boeotian appellation), and many others 
wliich I might enumerate, as well as numberless 
other forms or innovations of the accent both in 
ancient and modem Greek, which show the care 
we ought to exercise in pronouncing Greek. 

Now, many believe that the ancient Greeks 
pronounced the verses, such as "the hexameters" 
and "the iambic" simply according to the "quanti- 
ty of the syllables," and that they entirely over- 
looked or neglected the accent. But this does not 
seem so certain, and there are many things that go 
to show that the Greeks, in pronouncing the verses, 
never neglected or overlooked the accent. 

No language ever uses in poetry " an accentual 
prosody" directly opposite and antagonistic to 
the one in prose. In pronouncing Latin verse 
we sometimes overlook or, so to speak, neglect 
the natural accent of the words for the sake of 
the rhythm. 

But this fact by no means proA^es the necessity 
of pronouncing Greek verse in like manner. In 
the first place, who assures us tliat Virgil himself 
pronounced his verses in the manner now preva- 
lent? We can only form a meagre idea from 



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126 ACCENT AND QUANTITY. 

Quintilian concerning Latin versification, from 
tlie fact that he did not speak in detail about 
these things. Now, Geldart a^rms tliat just be- 
cause the Latin accent, however fallaciously ap- 
plied to Greek, does in a remarkable manner 
tend to preserve to a great extent (though by no 
means completely) the quantity of syllables, the 
notion has arisen that it could not be otherwise 
preserved. That this notion is completely false 
is practically shown even in Latin, in which we 
have to recognize, and do recognize, the length 
of the many long syllables, which it is impossible 
even according to the Latin system to accent. It 
is, besides, a well-known fact that many distin- 
guished European scholars asserted that we ought 
by no means to neglect accent in pronouncing 
Latin verse. Again, Homer lengtliened by means 
of the accent not only the short syllable in the 
arsis, but also in tlie thesis, as Αίολου, and so on. 
He likewise shortened, as we have already re- 
marked, tlie syllable before or after the accent 
simply by means of it. He at times used the 
syllable accented on the thesis as a short one, as 
Γ Ιππους αλ€ | rat (Ιλ. λ, 192) instead of αλτ/ται; 
sometimes even the accent causes one λ to be 
omitted, as in Αχιλεύς, and so on. And, in 
short, the ancient poetry was by no means sep- 
arated from the accents of prose. (See Herr- 
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ACCENT AND QUANTITY. 127 

Aristotle says that the iambic metre is mostly 
used in common conversation. '* *0 δ* ίαμβος αύτη 
iariv η λ€^ις η των πολλών • δώ μάλιστα πάντων των 
μέτρων Ιαμβ^ία φθίγγονται λέγοντζς.^^ '^For the 
iambic measure is most of all adapted to conver- 
sation. And as an evidence of this we most fre- 
quently speak in iambic in familiar discourse with 
each other." Plutarch says concerning the "iam- 
bic measure" "ra μ€ν λέγονται πάρα κρουσιν, τά 

8k aSovTai• το 8k παρά την κρονσιν λέγ€.σθαι* 

{έΙναι το αντο καΙ η παρακαταλογηΡ) Oekonomos 
says, " τΓαρακαταλογτ; " is what the modems call 
" recitatwuntj^ a sort of address, in which the poems 
are pronounced, as the Italians say, ^^ quasi parlan- 
do,^^ whilst tlie term '^καταλογάδτ/ι/" and "17 κατα- 
λογτ;" means *^τδ τά άσματα ουκ νπο μίλβι Xeycti/." 

Dionysius of Halicamassus describes the mov- 
ableness, transposing, or changing of the accents 
which takes place in the odes. Now, what differ- 
ence there exists between liexameters and iambics 
on the one liand and lyric odes on the other is 
evident. Demosthenes himaelf distinguishes the 
" metrical " (as, for instance, the Homeric verses) 
from those that are sung, such as the odes of 
Pindar, the " dithyrambic," the "choruses," the 
strophes and others which are uttered, so to 
speak, by a varying melody of the voice: ""^Ωστε 
καΐ τους τών έμμετρων καΐ τους των ψ8ομένων 
ποιητάς καΐ πολλούς τών σχτγγραφέων υποθέσεις 



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128 ACCENT AND QUANTITY. 

τά Ικ^ίνων €pya τη<ζ αντων μουσικής ΐΓ^ιτονησθαι^^ 
(Λογ. έπίτάφ). Dionysius of Halicamassus, treat- 
ing of tlie changes which are necessary for the 
composition or formation of harmony, teaches 
that they must be* '^διάψοροι καΐ αί τάσεις της^ 
φωνηζ, αί καλονμ^ναι προσω^ίαι, κΚέπτονσαι rg 
ποίκιλία τον κόρον.^^ So tliat, recommending the 
same rules for the formation of harmony in both 
metrical and prose writings, he distinctly asserts 
the importance and the necessity of respecting 
the accent both in metrical and prose writings. 
In another passage he says, " Μουσική τις 9jv και η 
των πολιτικών λόγων επιστήμη, τω ποσψ διαφέρουσα 
της iv ω8αΐς και οργάνοις, ουχί τψ ποιώ* καΐ γαρ iv 
ταύτη και μέλος εχουσιν αί λεζεις καΐ ρυθμον καΧ 
μ€ταβολην και πρίπον^^ Now, as a modern Greek 
says, if the orators pronounced according to 
rhythm and according to the accents, why not 
the poets also ? And if the speeches of the orators 
must be read according to the accents, why not 
read the poems in like manner ? Dionysius also 
compares many rhetorical passages of the same 
rhythm with poetical verses of like rhytlim, for 
instance that of Demosthenes, 

" Miyr' ίδιας έχθρας μη^εμιας €ν€κα^^ 

and says that it is exactly an elegiac pentameter, 
just like 

" K-ovpai ελαφροπό^ων Ιχν^ acipotjutevat." 

He compares in like manner many other passages 



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ACCENT AND QUANTITY. 129 

of the same orator, saying merely that these prose , 
passages differ from tlie poems, inasmuch as the 
former are " poetical, rhythmical, and melodious," 
whilst the poems are in rhythm — that is to say 
*^ accordant in hamjony" and ^^ according to meas- 
ure" and "musical" — ^^ ίρρνθμα καΐ βμμβτρα και 
/Α€λωδικά," because the poems possess in succession 
similar metres and rhythms arranged according 
to verse, period, or strophe, whilst the rhetorical 
phrases or tlie so-called "oratorical cadences" have 
rhythm, but not the same in succession. On the 
contrary, they are irregular and wandering, and 
mixed obscurely with others, so that the rlietorical 
phrase becomes, as Aristotle temied it, ^^ μητ€ c/x.- 
μ€τρος μητ€ αρρνθμος,^^ neither " metrical nor void 
of rhythm." 

We must remark that Dionysius, who is justly 
called a -very critical scholar, by no means con- 
sidered the poems as void of accent, as some have 
supposed, because he would naturally have said so. 

Oekonomos says that one can observes many 
other hexameter passages in Demosthenes, such as, 

Τον yap h ^Αμφίσσυ πόλίμον^ SC ov cts *Ελ<£τ€«ιν. 
*Ηλ^€ Φίλχτητος .... 

Also 

Των άλλων Έλλι/νων ττοΧλάκις εστ^φανωσθαι (-jrcpt 5τ€φ.), 

as well as in many otlier writers, for instance St. 
Chiysostom : — 

Καν των ηλιακών ακτινών λαμιτροτίρα ονσα τυχτ}^ .... 

Του καπνού ττροσΙφΧ^ζζ^ και ημανρωσεν άπασαν (τΓ€ρι Ίερωσ.), etc. 



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130 ACCENT AND QUANTITY. 

Aristiades, the Κοϊιη-ίΚιανος (Quintilian), recom- 
mends ^^ τ€ττάρων στογάζ^σθαι έιη/οίας re Ίτρ^πού- 
σηζ, καΐ λ€^€ως, και αρμονίας, και ρυθμού' προκα- 
θηγ€Ϊται μ€Ρ η evvoia πάντως, ης avev οντ€ αΐρ€σις 
ουτ€ φνγή τίνος έγγίν^ται• ταύτης δε μίμημα λέζίς, 
και προς την τον πέλας άκοην Τ€ και πείθω πρώτως 
αναγκαία' αντη he οζύτητητάς Τ€ και βαρύτητας 
προσΚαβονσα μ€τά διαστημάτων, ατνγκεχνμένην 
(perhaps συγκεχυμένων) μεν, έγεννησεν άρμονίαν • 
λόγοις 8ε τοις σύμφωνο ις τεταγμένων ρυβμον.^^ 
Now, if accent, which tends to mark the word 
clearly, were overlooked in the recitation of 
poems, it is evident that so nmch confusion and 
doubt would have resulted as to render the mean- 
ing of the verse extremely obscure. Aristotle 
(350 B. C.) likewise recommends as the first excel- 
lence of poetical recitation the demoness of words. 
Now, how can words possess clearness if we do not 
respect their accents ? ^^ Ή γαρ λέξις, ητοί η δια 
των ονομάτων ερμηνεία, την αύττ)ι^ e^€i δύι/α/ιιι/ και 
επΙ των έμμετρων και έπΙ των λόγων^ Quinctilian 
recommends ^^tliat poems should be read in such 
a manner that the reader may appear rather to 
be pronouncing a "prose passage" and "without 
metre," whilst the prose passages of the orators 
should be recited just like poems ; that is to say, 
neither the rhythm of the poems ought to be 
sung, nor the harmony of the words (in prose) 
to be confounded with the stupid and rude or 



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ACCENT AND QUANTITY. 131 

unpolished conversation of the rabble. That is 
what Caesar meant, saying, ^'if you sing the poem 
you sing it badly, if you read it you sing it well." 

Finally, not one of the old grammarians recom- 
mends the reading of the poems simply according 
to the quantity of syllables. On the contrary, 
Tryphon (Ύρυφων) censures the practice, calling 
it '* τα κατά πόδα, κακο/ΐ€τρα." And Erasmus 
also distinguished accent from quantity, and com- 
pUined because in his church neither the quan- 
tity of the syllables nor the accent of the words 
was kept with accuracy, especially in *^ musical 
odes." ^^Accentus non indicat doctrinam quantitatis 
syllahicm^^ .... and ^^ Chorus ecclesiasticus nee in 
psalmis reeitandis nee in canticis solemnibus idhim 
habet h^vium aut longarum deleetum, ne tonorum 
quidem admodum magnam rationem,^^ etc. (Dialog, 
de rect. Linq. Graec. pronunt) 

It becomes evident, therefore, that the custom- 
ary pronunciation of those who pronounce sim- 
ply according to the quantity of syllables cannot 
be the safe or correct way of pronunciation. 
"^^ For what purpose," — a modern Greek exclaims, 
— " for " whatpurpose were the poets of Greece 
compelled to compose metres (and especially the 
heroic) in every respect and directly opposite to 
the accentual prosody of the words, and, so to 
speak, without any foundation in the very nature 
of the language? Or, perchance, did they not 



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132 ACCENT AND QUANTITY. 

compose verses for their fellow-citizens, whom 
tliey sought to teach and to please ? What more 
than the neglect or the absence of accents from 
the poems could render them incomprehensible 
to the many?" 

Vossius and his followers blamed the so-called 
^'πολιτικούς στίχους ^^ (popular verses) of the mod- 
ern Greeks, which possess rhyth m^ simply by 
means of the accent aiid the. number of the syl- 
l^ Ies^. But it becomes evident from these popular 
verses tliat our fathers, in pronouncing the verses 
of Homer and of the other poets, observed also 
the accent together with tlie quantity, because 
tlie "popular verses'' are only imitations of many 
Homeric and other old verafia. jironouncfii simply 
according to accent without regard to quantity. 
y Atiention to the quantity of syllables had dis- 

. ■ appeared from the common conversation of the 
"* multitude at the time even when the language had 

. ^ passed its prime. But even whilst the language 
was at its acme, the unpolished multitude did not 
distinguish between the long and short with as 
much emphasis and precision as the poets and the 
orators were accustomed to do. Oekonomos says, 
that many syncopated words extant in both the 
poets and the orators give evidence of the fact, 
e. g. oib/iai and oiSacr^a into οΓ/ιαι and ο ΐσθα , κζβλη 
from κζβαλη instead of κ^φαλψ σανκώς from σα- 
βακως, βλώσκω instead of μολίσκω (/ιλοσκω), /ΐ€- 



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ACCENT AND QUANTITY. 133 

σημβρία from μ€σημ€ρία {μ€σημρία\ χψνιβον 
{χ€ρόνυβον), Ααττίθη^ (λαο-πίθης), Ααγίτης, Λαγός 
(λαόϊ/ άγων), and numberless other forms, both 
dialectic and common to all, as well as those 
words resulting from syncope and synizesis, and 
these Attic words which, although terminating 
in a long vowel, accent the antepenult, e. g. 
ενγ€ως, Μενέλ^ως, etc., show ^Hhat the multi- 
tade_4)ronounr.ed ^rather, Jbuixledly ,aiid not so 
c learly and distinctly jthe long YOwel„sounds." 
The circumflex, pronounced somewhat hurriedly, 
was confounded easily with the acute, as in the 
Homeric, το μει/ ου instead of ov or ου, as well as 
οντυς, transformed into οντις (Od. I. 366). 

But the comedians, imitating the common con- 
versation of the people, made many innovations 
or changes in the rhythm, at times shortening the 
long syllables, then introducing trochaic and 
iambic together with anapestic measures, thus 
endeavoring to imitate the voluble manner of con- 
versation extant among the common classes. 

A modern Greek asserts that after the language 
hadpassed its prime the distinction between th^ 
long and sliort syllables was jnuch neglected. 
Finally, tlie absence of great poets, the absence 
of th^ thealrea, the confusion of dialeclSy and other 
like changes, caused the general neglect of quan- 
tity. About the year 170 (B. C.) Pausanias, a 
pupil of Herodes the Athenian, somewhat distin- 



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134 ACCENT AND QUANTITY. 

guished as a " stump-speaker," was often blamed 
because he confounded long and short syllables, 
just as his Cappadocean compatriots were wont 
to do. But this did not at all interfere with 
the genuine prosody of tlie spoken language. 
*' Poetical prosody" is one thing and "prosody 
of accents " is another. The former deals with 
the quantity of syllables^. the Tatter considpirs the 
location^ of speci al stress. The former changes 
with the rhythm of the poem, the latter has a 
fixed position in every word. After "poetical 
prosody" became less prominent, the prosody 
of accent remained an inseparable peculiarity. 
Our contemporary poets used this as. the founda- 
tion of verse-making, dividing the metres of the 
verses no more according to quantity, wliich the 
ignorant and unpolished multitude could no longer 
appreciate, but only according to the accent and 
the number of the syllables, from which arises the 
so-called "popular rhythm," which has a very 
close connection with the musical rhythm of the 
ancients. Those who composed these verses bor- 
rowed, so to speak, the peculiarity of this versi- 
fication from Jhe ancients, i. e. fromthe trochaic 
metre of ^schjlus' .Pers. : — . 

Ω, βαθυξωνών ανασσα Πβρσώων νπβρτάτη, 
Μητ€ρ η 'Β^ρζου γηραιά^ Χ^ψ^ Aapelov yvvat. 

Having simply kept the accents, they formed verses 
of fifteen syllables, e. g. 



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ACCENT AND QUANTITY. 135 



Τΐος Alvelov γνήσιος ^Ασ κανιού την κλησιν 

^ΑτΓο Κρβούσης γυναικός, της θνγατρος Πρίαμου, 

Την τΓοΧιν ΑΧβαν φκησ€ συν τοις ΤΓ€ρι\ηφθεισι. 
• • • • • 

For this reason Eustathius (1118 Α. D.) termed 
the se verses of fifteen syllables ^^ trochaic versg s.^^ 
Again, Oekonomos says that from the iambic of 
Ai-istophanes, which has two metres, e. g. 
• • • • • 

Δημητ€ρ^ άτονων οργίων 
Ανασσα, συμιταραστατ^ι. 

Verses of eight syllables were formed, stich as 
those composed by Symeon^ Metaphrates about 
1050 A. D. - .— . . 

• • • • • 

^Atto ρυτταρων γ€ΐ\€ων 

^ΑτΓο βΒέΚυρας καρΒίας 

^ΑτΓο ακάθαρτου γΧώσσης 

*Εκ ψυχής βρρυιτωμβνης 

ΔίζοΛ Βίησιν Χριστ€ μου 

» • • • • 

And again, from the same syllables, simply by 
changing the accent, the harmony of the A^erses 
was also changed by " συζυγίας,^^ 

Νυν ai Δυνάμεις ουρανών 
^ΑνθρωτΓοις συγχορ€υσατ€ 



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136 ACCENT AND QUANTITY. 

According to the Anacreontic, 

• • • • • 

Ερω re Βήτα κ ουκ €ρω 
Kcu μαίνομαι, κ ον μαίνομαι. 

Α 1 P[x pnder Agollinarius (350 Α. D.J^is^enerally 
believed to have been "theirst who wrote in these 
so-called " popular verses/' He rendered, at any 
rate, into hexameter verse the psalter, and, in fact, 
many of the writings of the Church. PiOfessor 
Sophocles states that the ^^ ακάθιστος ΰμνος^^ is the 
office of the Virgin, partly read and partly sung, 
all standing^ on the Saturday of the fifth week in 
Lent. And as Georgius Pisides (A. D. 617) was 
the reg-diest versifier of that period, it has been 
conjectured that he was the author of the prin- 
cipal part of it. The distinctive portions of this 
office are its twenty-four oTfcot, houses^ stations. 
Their rhythm is accentual, i. e. 



AyyeXo^ πρωτοστάτης 
Ουρανόθεν ειτβμφθη 
Ενπβΐν τζ θεοτοκφ το Xalpe • 
Kat συν τζ ασωματω φων^ 
Σωματονμενόν σβ θβωρων^ Κνρΐ€, 
Εζιστασο και ιστατο κραχτ^άζων ττρος αυτήν τοιαύτα. 
• • • • • 

HoweΛ''er, many scholars suppose that it was 
Apollinarius (350 A. D.) who composed this in- 



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ACCENT AND QUANTITY. 137 

^tead of Pisides. Compare witli the above the 
Anacreontic verses of similar " συζυγίας,^^ such as 

• • • • • 

Ue/ATrere των δ αττ οικων^ — Hirvoiaiai ζβφνρου, 
θοαζ ακάτους eir οΙΒμα Χίμνας (Βυρίττ•) 
Aevpo KoXelv νόμος ίσ χορόν 
Ασττίσι και, Χογχαι,ς Αγανων — ανακτάς • 
ΕΧΚαΖος ενναζτησιν 
*Α\ίου προσίβαΧβν άρμα [Έυρίπ.) 



Many other examples could be brought to show 
that many of the odes, especially of the Church, 
are fashioned exactly after many lyric and other 
odes of the ancients. 

Rhyme, which is very common in modem 
Greek, is recognized by the classical poets, i. e. 
(Sophocles, Aj. 765, 766) 

Εγνωκα γαρ 8η φωτός ήττατημενη, 
Kat της τταΧαιας γαριτος €κβ€β\ημ€νη* 

And the following in the ^^liad^' (j8, 382), which 
is what Oekonomos calls ^^ ομοωτέλευτα els την 
τέΚευτην " : — 

Ευ μεν τις δόρυ θηξασθω^ €υ δ* ασττ/δα θ^σθω 
• • • • θηξασθω . • • • θίσθω .... 

Again, in the "Iliad" (ψ, 152) : — 

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138 ACCENT AND QUANTITY. 

• • • • • 

Ως εΙπων ίν χ^ρσί κομην erapoio φίΧοω 
θήκ€ν^ ΎοΙσι he ττασιν ύφ Ιμ€ρον ωρσ€ yooio, 
Kat νυ κ ο8υρομ€Ρθΐσιν eSv φαος ΗέΧ,ίοιο. 

• ^ • • • • 
ΦίΧοίο .... γοοίΛ .... 'HeXioio. 

Again, in the "Hiad" {φ, 523-25): — 

• • • • • 

Αστ€ος αίθομβροιο, θβων Be i μηρις avfjfcev 
Πασί h ίθηκβ irovov, ττοΧΧοΐσι Be κηΒβ^ ίφηκβν^ 
Ω,ς Αγι\€υς Τρώζσσι, ιτονον καί Kr\Be ίθηκβρ 
AvYJKev • • . • €φηκ€Ρ .... βθηκβν .... 

In the " Odyssey " we find instances of rhjnne 
(Od. Θ, 147, 148, 111, 112, 125, 126 ; i, 148 ; κ, 44 ; 
λ, 604, etc.) See also Herder's ** Ursachen des 
gesunkenen Geschmacks bey den Λ^erschiedenen 
Volkem," etc., pages 278-290, and Sulzer's Dic- 
tionary, article " Reim." 



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CHAPTER Χ. 

THE ASPIRATE. 

This is no longer sounded in modern Greek ; 
and if it had any sound at all in ancient Greek 
it must have been extremely evanescent This is 
evident from the fact that Aristotle says, — 

Πάρα he την ιτροσωΒίαν \oyoi μ€ν ουκ etalv οντ€ των 
γεγραμμβνων ovre των \€γομ€νων• ττΧην €t τινβζ oXlyot 
γίνοιτ αν, οίον ούτος 6 Xoyo^• Apaye €στί το ου κατοτ 
\υ€ΐς οικία ; ναι' ουκονν το ου κατα\υ€ΐ<; του κατα\υ€ΐς 
άττόφασις ; vat • ίφησας δέ elvai το ου καταΧνβις οίκιαν • 
η οΙκία αρα άπόφασΐί<ζ. */2? δέ \υτ€ον ΒηΧον ου yap 
ταυτο σημαίνει το μεν οζυτβρον το Se βαρύτ€ρον ρηθέν. 

It becomes evident, therefore, that in the times 
of Aristotle, the golden age of Grecian learning, 
the pronunciation of the rougli ov {ov κατα\ύ€ίς) 
diflfered little from the pronunciation of the smooth 
ου. 

It is probable that the only difference between 
the rough and smooth breathing may have been 
that it was the custom to turn κ, π, τ into χ, φ, θ 
before syllables which had the rough breathing, 
which is still the practice of the modem Greeks, 



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140 THE ASPIRATE. 

whereas before the smooth breathing these conso- 
nants remained unaltered. But in the Ionic dia- 
lect this difference of usage did not prevail. 

In modern Greek, though the rough breathing 
is not heard, it affects the pronunciation of a pre- 
ceding tenuis; and several compounds, as εφέτος 
from in iros, μ^θανρων for μ€ταύρωρ. 



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PAET II. 



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CHAPTER 

THE ALPHABET. 

The modern Greek letters, breathings, accents, and mai*ks 
of punctuation ai'e the same as in classical Greek. 



, 


LETTERS. 




Figures. 


Kahes. 




A, α 


Άλφα 


Alpha. 


B,i8 


Β^ο 


Veta. 


r,y 


Γ(ίμ./αα 


Ghamuu 


Δ,δ 


ΔΑτα 


TheUa. 


Ε,ί 


Έψιλόκ 


JEpsilon. 


ζ,ί 


Ζ^α 


Zeta. 


Η,, 


•Ητ« 


Ma. 


Θ, (9 


vihyTtt 


Theta. 


I,t 


'Ιώτα 


JEota. 


Κ, κ 


ΚάτΓττα 


Κόρα. 


Α, λ 


Aa/tjS&i 


Lamvtha. 


Μ,μ 


Μυ 


Me. 


Ν, ν 


Νυ 


Ne. 


Β,έ 


Η? 


Kae. 


Ο,ο, 


"0 μικρόν 


Omecron. 


Π,^ 


m 


Pe. 


Ρ. Ρ 


Ρω 


RM. 


2,σ 


Sty/ia 


8egma. 


• Τ, τ 


Ταυ 


Taff. 


Υ, ν 


*Υι/ηλόν 


Ipsilon. 


Φ, φ 


Φι 


Phe. 


Χ.Χ 


Χι 


He (khe). 


Φ, ψ 


ΨΓ 


Pse. 


Ο,ω 


*Ω /Lieya 


Omega. 



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CHAPTER 11. 

SOUNDS OF THE VOWELS. 

is pronounced like the French a, or like the English a in the 
words cavyfavy father^ calm. 

Schleicher observes that α was frequently represented by c 
or o. This is more especially noticed in the dialectic forms: 
β€ρ€θρον ψστρ/ for βάραθρον αρσην. We have κλέος for κλαΡας, 
from gravaSy πλίνω or πλ€ω from plavdmij etc. In modem 
Greek we have τίποτα (tepota) for τίποτα (tepote). 

Geldart gives the form στροτός 6νω 6ν€χώρησ€ = στρατό? ανω 
άνεχωρησε (Btratos otluo anehorese). In modern Greek we 
have καταβόθρα for καταβόθρα {katavah'thra)^ άρμαθω. for 6p- 
μαθιά {ormahtheah). Schleicher observes that the three ter- 
minations of contracted verbs, -άω, -coi, and όω were originally 
but one, viz. -αω. In modem Greek, at least in the language 
of the common people, -€ω is always represented by -αω. We 
have ζητάει for ζητεϊ (zetee)^ περνπατατε for ircptiraTCtTC (pertpcl•• 
teete), and so on. Geldart states that a in ancient Greek is 
seldom weakened into υ, yet this appears to have been the 
case in νυξ (nix)^ 6ννξ (oneaj), κύκλος (keklos), μνλος (melos)^ 
and a few other words, as μΛχτταξ {mis'tax\ which also appears 
in the form μάσταζ (mahstax) and βνθος (vethos)^ which is 
also written βάθος (vahthos). In modern Greek we get σκυ- 
φος (skephos) for σκάφος (skahphos) or σκάφη (skaphe). So, 
again, we have the diminutive appellation άφων, as χωράφων 
{horahpheon)^ frequently represented by νφιον^ as ^οιόφιον 
{zoepheon). The ancient Greeks prefixed a to many words 
(a euphonicum)^ as άβληχρός (ahvlechros), άσταφίς (astaphts)^ 



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SOUNDS OF THE VOWELS. ' 145 

άχΓΓ€ρο7Γη (ahsterope) for βληχρός {vlechr08)y σταφίς {staphia)^ 
στ€ρσ7Γη (sterope). In modem Greek we have άβρότανον 
(ahvrotanon)y άβράμνλον {ahvramdon) for βράμνλον (vrah- 
melon) ^ βράβνλον (vrahvelon). 

EXAMPLES OF PRONUNCIATION. 

ΆδάμσΓ, ahthamas. 'Ayopawfios, ahghordhn&mos. 

Άδα/χαστοΓ, ohthAShmastos, *Αβρ6βατο£ι ohvrovahtos, 

"aSos, ahtho8, "Αβρομοίι dhvroTiios. 

*Αγηρατορ, aghyraton. Αβοήθητος, ahvoahetos. 
* Αγράμματος, ohgramatos. 

%■ . 

is intermediate between a and t. Professor Sophocles states 
that it requires the mouth to be moderately opened and the 
breath to proceed horizontally. It is approximately expressed 
by the English e in spend, f'^rry, or by the French e. In 
ancient Greek we have the forms όχθρός (ochthros) for έχθρόζ 
(ecthroa). In modem Greek the same forms are still preva- 
lent. 

EXAMPLES OF PRONUNCIATION. 

Εκδικάζω, ehtheMkzo, "Εδαφος, ahaphos, 

"Έκδίκος, Mh^os. Έδώλιον, etholeon, 

"Εκδημος, ektheroos. *Εκπ€ταμαι, ehpetahme• 

*Εκγ€νης, ekgkenes. *Εκπ€σσω, ehpuso, 

"Εκδ^ξις, ekthexis. *Εκπηδάω, €kpeih4oh. 

*Εκγράφω, ekgrahpL•» *Εκπίνω, ehpaioh. 



i^ 



is pronounced like the FrenciT?; or like the English e in the 
word he. The followers of Erasmus pronounce ly as a long 
e, or like two e's, or as uy, for the following reasons. 

They say that in all the old inscriptions, before the letter 
η was introduced in the Greek alphabet, we find invariably 
an €, i. e.: ΑΘΕΝ <^Α.Θψων), MNEMA {μνήμα), ΕΠΙ TE2 
BOYAES KAEGPENES ΠΡΩΤ02, etc. 



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146 SOUNDS OF THE VOWELS. 

Again, Cratinus wrote βη to represent the sound of the 
bleating of sheep. Plato says : " ουκ ητά €χρωμ€θα άλλα e το 
παλαιόν." Sextus says : " συσταλέν το η yivcrat €, €κτα$€ν δ€ το 
€ -γίνψαχ ly." Sextus Seems to regard η and c as essentially 
one and the same letter. The other dialects generally ex- 
press the Ionic 17 by c, as, for instance, βασιληα, βαχτιλία^ etc. 
Finally, the Latin language also renders the Greek η by an e. 
These are, in short, the reasons which the followers of Eras- 
mus bring as their justification for pronouncing the i; as a 
long €. 

Now, in order that we may ascertain how the letter η 
was pronounced by the gpcient Greeks, it is of the highest 
importance to consider, first, from what letters or sounds η 
has resulted. 

a) from d, especially in the Ionic dialect: n/os = νάό?, 
νησοζ — ναοΌς (Doric), Βευτψη = Sevripa^ etc. 

β^) from ac, especially in the Doric dialect: ημητ€ = n- 
ftctcTC, δρη = opae, ζην from factv, χρηται from χράτταΐ; ηλιος^ 
ocXto?, α-Ρέλιο?. 

γ') from €α: x/wiTT, χαλκη^ cvyevrj^ from χρυσέα^ χαίλκ€α^ cvycvca. 

y) from €€: 817X09, ηλίΓίζον, ηλθον^ from SccXo? (ScFeXos), ccXtti- 
ζον^ IcX^ov, etc. 

c') from at, especially among the Boeotians: #c^ ScSvxfty, 
ίτπτότη^ €υ€fyy€rηςy etc., from #cat 8€^νχθαΛ tmrorai, cvcpyerats. 
The letter 17, a scholar says, having resulted from such let- 
ters, it is evident that it was formerly sounded both as an 
e (sounded as in be)^ which pronunciation prevails among the 
greater part of the modem Greeks, and like the French β, 
^ in fete, which pronunciation still is prevalent anaong not 
a few of the modem Greeks, as in ξηρός^ κηρι(ον), σί^ηρο(ν), 
ftvpi(ov), στηκω^ Ιθησα^ instead of ^θηκα^ (ί^ττόνησα^ and many 
other words which are pronounced just as ^cpos (xeros), σί^- 
po(v) {setheron\ κ€ρί(ρν) {chsreon)^ στ€κω (stecho), ίθ€σα {ethe- 
so), {€)πόνησα {epoiieso). Professor Mavrophredes says, the 
ancient Greeks were wont to pronounce η like the French c. 



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SOUNDS OF THE VOWELS. 147 

as iafetej that is, like an ay only in those words in which η 
resulted from cc. That this pronunciation was general among 
the Greeks we have no positive evidence, neither do we 
believe that it was so. Again, by the greater part of the 
Greeks η must have been sounded as the French e (ferme)^ 
that is, as the word κη = kqI (pronounced #cc). Now, this 
sound of 17 as an e has a closer resemblance to the letters a€^ 
€a, at, from which η has resulted, and, besides, it comes nearer 
to e (pronounced as in be)^ into which it afterwards passed 
among the many. This change of the sound of η into an 
L seems to us to have been in use also in the Homeric times, 
as is evident from the words tSc = ήΒί. However, this pro- 
nunciation of 17 as an t became still more prevalent about 
the fifth century B. C, and it must have been very common 
also in the common Attic dialect, because in no other way 
is it possible to explain the statement of Plato m Cratylus, 
418, 68 a': "ol /acv αρχαιότατοι, Ιμφαν την k^4pav €κάλουν, oi δ^ 
Ιΐ&φαν • ot δέ νυν ή|ΐφον," Compare also in 404 : " Αημήτηρ /acv 
φαιν€ται κατά την δόσιν t^s €Βω8ης^ 8νδοΰσ« ώς Κ•ήτΐ|ρ Δημι(τηρ 
Κ€κλήσθαι,^^ 

But about the second and third centuries B, C. the pronun- 
ciation of 17 as an t became still more prevalent, and was 
generally adopted by all those speaking Greek, as is evident 
from the following Hebrew words: Klthim^ Levi^ CJmrmi^ 
Lachis^ SchUOy GilOy Ώιβοη^ JSihon, JETiray which were writ- 
ten in Greek by Ki/ri/i, AonJ, 'Χχφμ.η^ Αάχης^ S^Xa>, Γι/λων, Αψ 
σων, 5i7<ov, 'Ήρα?, in which we plainly see that η was written 
for Ly and, besides, in the MS. of ^Ύ-π-ψβου^^ we may often 
see instances in which η is interchanged with t. 

Now, many of the reasons which the followers of Erasmus 
bring to sustain their view of the sound of the letter η are 
by no means conclusive. To begin with, their argument 
concerning the well-known line of Cratinus, 

**6δ* ήλίθιοί ώσΊΤ€ρ τρόβατον βη βη Xiytav βαδί^^ι" 

is simply inadmissible, for how do we know that Cratinus 



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148 SOUNDS OP THE VOWELS. 

pronounced βή exactly after the Ei*asmian style ? Again, 
even if we admit that Cratinus pronounced βή exactly as a 
follower of Erasmus would have sounded it, what scholar 
would be willing to accept the imaginary symbol of the in- 
articulate bleating of the shfeep as the ground upon which to 
rest the decision of the question, What sound did the cul- 
tured nation of Greece give to the vocal elements of their 
language ? 

Again, the Latin language renders ly by an € for the simple 
reason that it does not have an η in its alphabet. For this 
reason the Latin has crater for κρατηρ and poema for Ίτοίψ 
fui, etc. Again, that η and €t were very similar in sound is 
rendered highly probable by the fact tliat they were inter- 
changed, e. g. κηνος and τηνος for Kctvoi, βονλη and βονλ€ΐ. 
The -^olians and Dorians were wont to render by η the ct of 
other dialects, i. e. μναμήον^ σαμήον^ ?χο*'> τιΚκον^ φιλητω^ νοητωΐ in 
like manner the modern Greeks write άι/δων instead of άβιδων, 
άα'δω, άίδω (αδω). The Boeotians, on the contrary, rendered 
by €1 the η of other dialects, i. e. φίλ€ΐμι, ycXct/xt, «rrci/jit, τίθ^μι 
(Doric φίΧημι^ etc.), άγ€ΐΌχα, €ΐμΙ (ήμΐ and ^olic €μμι and €σμΙ 
from €/utt), irociTas instead of ΐΓοητας, and so on. Numerous 
examples might be brought to show the similarity of sound 
of η, ct, and t ; for instance, in Homer we find ψί&η, ηη8€ΐ^ 
η€ί8€ΐ. Again, we find the same word written in three dif- 
ferent ways, i. e. χτκεττηνος^ σκ€7Γ€α^6ς, σκ€πινο9 ; αλήτης, άλ€ίτης, 
άλίτης. We have, again, ομβρινος and ομβρηνος, κεφαληνος and 
Κ€φαλΐνος, αΊΓαθψης and στταθίνης, Κ€μασην€ς iind καμασΐν^ς, ϊκω 
and ήκω, σκψΓτω and σκίπτω, τάπης and rairts, and SO on. Now 
Ross thinks that the substitution of η for € does not prove 
that it was sounded like an ay; for the Latin e, Geldart 
states, very often represented an ct, and on the other hand 
tended to become and therefore probably closely resembled 
in sound the simple t. So we have tristea from triateiSy writ- 
ten tristis. We have also the following words written with 
ct instead of c, i. e. omneis^ treisj parteis^ etc.; and not only 



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SOUNDS OF THE VOWELS. 149 

BO, but in the^ Byzantine period designatua became in Greek 
δισιγνάτος (thesegnathos), Ross gives an ipecription found at 
Carpathus in which ίρώων stands for ηρώων. Professor Mul- 
lach thinks that the very close resemblance between ι and η 
is evident in the parallel forms ηκω and ίκω, Ιττίβολος and hnj- 
βόλος (where 97, Geldart says, seems to be simply t lengthened 
by the combined force of the accent and the ictus), γίγας and 
γηγατης^ which two forms we have together in the Batracho- 
myomachia, — 

Τητγερέων άνδρΟν μιμούμακΗ, (pya yiyam-ui', — 

moas from τη/δάω, ΐ7δ€ and iSc. Plutarch writes Palilia^ ΊΙαλψ 
λια. Quirinus is translated Kvpijvto?, and Scipio into ^ιαρτίων. 

Again, though the words κάμιλος for κάμηλος, €λάκτησ€ for 

cXoKTwc in the New Testament are no doubt errors in orthog- 
raphy, yet they show, as Geldart states, the early preΛ'^alence 
of the confusion of η with u Again, the scholiast on Eurip. 
Phcen. 685 tells us expressly that before the time of Euclides 
t was used for η, ο for ω. These facts conclusively show the 
very early pronunciation of 17 as an t. 

EXAMPLES OF PRONUNCIATION. 



*Ηθίκ6ς, ethekos. 
*H^or, ethos, 
*Ηδι5φωι/ο£» ethephovOS, 
*Ηδοι/ή, ethane, 
*¥ίλίθιος, eletheos. 
Ήι^ρομηνία^ emeromenea. 



'HpepovvKTiov, efneronecteon, 
Hpcpa, emerah. 
Ησυχία, esecheah, 
Ημίτμητος, eme^tmetos, 
Ημίορος, ememos, 
Ημιθάλης, emethales. 



O) 



is pronounced unquestionably like the French i, or like the 
English i in the words machine^ marine. 

Liddell and Scott mention that t was easily interchanged 
with €t, whence forms like €ίλω and ϊλλω. It was also inter- 
changed with or written for η, and we have instances in the 
parallel forms of ηκω and Γκω, Ιττήβολος and Ιπίβολος, In fact 



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Jo 



150 SOUNDS OF THE VOWELS. 

Plato, Nigidius, Quintilian, Dionysius of Halicarnassus, and 
others eo plainly indicate the pronunciation of έ, that there 
can be no dispute in regard to it. 

EXAMPLES OF PRONUNCIATION. 

^Ιοίν^φης, iothnepha, "ΐονθοί^ ionthos. 

*Ιπο£, ipos. *ΐ7ΠΓομαρης^ ιρροτπαηώ, 

*1πΡΌ£, ipnos, Ίππομάχος^ ippomahos, 

"imnoYi ipnios. Ίπποπόλος ippopolos. 

Ίτηταστης, ippastes. 'iTrirodpofuov, ippothromion. 
"lovkosy ioolos (pron. oo as in moon), Ίτητικός, ippikos. 

*Ιππάσιμος^ ippadrnos. "Ιτπμογ, ippios. 

^Ιοπλόκαμυς^ ioplokamos, 'ίππολοφία, ippolophia, 

and Ω > 

have nearly the same soun3, arid this sound is represented 
by ο in constant. 

That we may accurately determine the original sound of oi, 
we must determine from what letter or letters ω has resulted. 
Professor Mavrophedes remarks that ω resultea : 

a') from ooy i. e. ώνόμαζον, ωμοσα, etc. from οονόμαζον, 6 ίμ^χτα, 

β) from ά, just as ο resulted from ά : i. e. φήοω, Xcyo», etc. 
from φερα-μι^ Aeya-/ii; ώ/ι.ό-9, Sanscr. ama'S / δώδ€κσ, Sanscr. 
dvadagan / τττωχό^ (ver. τττα;^-, τττακ-, ιττησσω)] ωρα^ Genn. 
Jdhr — " καΐ €V τω €7Γψρηματικω Ιττιθίματι ώ«, ο7Γ€ρ €#c τον αφαχ- 
p€TiKOv at frporjXOey^ i. e. κοιλώς, κακως^ σοφως^ πάντως^ "ττολλαχως^ 
ττως^ τώς, &, etc. 

γ') from αο : τιμωμεν^ τιμάομεν \ -χρωνται^ χράονται^ etc. 

δ') from οα and 017: αιδώ, αιδόα; δτ/λωτβ, SiyXoiyrc. 

e) from αυ : i. e. ωον from av-iov (whence the modern Greek 
αν-γόν, effg)y ώτ -os from αυ -ros (whence the modem Greek αύ- 
Ttov, ear)y ττωλρς (comp. τα ναυρος and pavlus)^ ώλα^, Doric τω 
αυλα^," etc. 

Now we must infer from these examples, as well as from 
the dialectic changes of o, ω, and ου, — such as in κονρο^^ ovpo^ 
(Ionic), #(ώρο9, ωρο^ (Doric), κόρος, opos (Attic), and many 



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SOUNDS OF THE VOWELS. 151 

others, — that the letter ω did not always have the sound of 
long ο as in hope, but on the contrary a shorter sound like ο 
in constant. 

The different dialectic changes of ω, ο, and ου, etc., such as 
κονρος and μοννος instead of κόρο^ and μόνος, are still common 
in modern Greek. We have, also, the forms τραγουδώ for τρα- 
γωδω, τραγουδιστής for τραγωδ«Γη;9, etc 

EXAMPLES OF PRONUNCIATION. 

''Ofoff, 6zo8, *ίΐθισμός, othismos, 

^Οζόστομος, ozostomos. *θθ€ω^ otheo. 

"Oap, 6ar, *OSt£, oihis. 

"Oapos, 6ahro8, *ίΙμηστης, omestes. 

'O/ScXiaf, ovelias. *QpoKivoVf omolinon, 

"Ογμος, 6gmo8, 'OXci/tTiyf, olenites, 

"Ohvppa^ othermah, "QpiWay omillah. 

'oBvppoSj othermOs, *0/iitas, omias. 

*0bvpT7jSy othertes, ♦ *ύλ€σίκαρπος, oksikarpos. 

is pronounced like the Freildt-^, or like the English * in 
machine, marine. 

The most ancient pronunciation of υ was certainly like 
that of the German and Latin u, or like the diphthong ou. 
Afterwards it deteriorated into that of the German u, or the 
French u, and at last it acquired the sound oft. 

The old pronunciation of the letter υ as the German w is 
preserved in numberless modem Greek words, and it is 
especially prevalent among the modem Athenians Λvho pro- 
nounce τσνρα instead of κυρα (κυρία) τσϋλιστρα = κυλίστρα, etcr. 
In many instances, as Professor Mavroph redes states, the 
original pronunciation of the letter υ as ου still prevails, i. e. 
χρουσάφι = χρνσάφ^ον, κρονσταΧΧον = κρνσταΧον, κονρκοντι = κνρ- 
κωτόν (from κυρκάω, κυκάω), etc. 

Again, the forms ^ρίος, Spvov (Hes. *Έργ.)> μολιβος and /uto- 
λνβ^αινα (Ιλ. ω, 80), τρνφάλ^ΐΛ (Hom.) instead of τριφόλ€ΐα, as 



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152 SOUNDS OF THE VOWELS. 

well as the words μνστίλλω and /χιστυλΛω, μΛτνλος and μντιΧος^ 
Ιλνσσω and τνλίσσο)^ βνβλοζ and βίβλος^ ρντΓτω and ptVro), ψιμν- 
βιον and ψιμίθων^ ττυστις and ττίστις show how easily υ was ex- 
changed with t, and that the pronunciation of ν as an ι was 
not unknown to the ancients. In Asia Minor the pronuncia- 
tion of υ as an t was still jnore common, and about the sixth 
century B. C. we find in "Sappho" and ** Alcaeus" the forms 
ϊψος^ ίψηλός^ iTrepy Γπ-αρ, etc., instead οΐνψος^ υψηλός^ xnrip^ νπαρ. 
Now, the pronunciation of ν as a long t, which was so com- 
mon in Asia Minor, began at an early period to spread into 
Greece, so that it became prevalent about the biith of Christ, 
as is evident fi'om the coins of Augustus (15 A. D.), of Tibe- 
rius (37 A. D.), and Nero (69 A. D.), in which we find ΠΡΟ- 
KPITI ΑΦΡΟΔΥ2ΙΑ2 instead of Πρόκριτοι ^ΑφροΒιχτίαζ, Again, 
•Ιουλία 2€)8αστου ΘΗγάτι;ρ instead of Θνγάτηρ ; IMP. NERO 
Caesar Aug. P. M.; EYTHIMIY2 (= Εύ^ /uos), etc Here we 
may also remark the pronunciation of φι and i/ as an t. 

EXAMPLES OF PRONUNCIATION. 

"Υλ^, Ue, Ύόπρωρος, ioproros. 

Υίόρ, i^. *Υοβοσκός, iovoskos, 

Ύίτόί, i-€t08, Ύμνητηρως, imnetenos. 

Ύλακάω, ilaJcaO. Υλοτόμος^ Uotomos. 
*Y€T6paimSf ietomantis. 



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CHAPTER ΠΙ. 

DIGRAPHS. 

Professor Mavrophredes claims that originally they 
were all diphthongs, each having resulted from two differ- 
ent VOICES, but pronounced as " one syllable," except when- 
ever they were purposely separated, i. e. οίομαι^ οίω• cv, «5, 
άίω, αΙων, The following vowels t and ν had the position and 
force of a consonant. On this supposition, he asserts, '\ye 
can easily explain the cutting off of ι and ν from ciai/, atct, αί- 
σνφηλος^ καίω, ttoUw^ 'Αλκαίο?, αλήθεια^ ΙΐΓίχτκευάζο)^ έττζσκευασεν^ 
cva/xcpW, γαυνυ/χαι, κραιτταΧη^ 'π•ολνκλ€ΐτοζγ ctXaircs, from which 
resulted iavy αχί^ άσνφηλος^ κάω, ττοΐω (Att.), "Αλκαος, άΧάθεα 
(jEoI.), €τησκ€<ίζω (from ΙπισκέΡαζω)^ κατ€σκ€αχΓ€ν {έκ τον κατ- 
€σκ€Ρασ€ν), €αμ€ρΙς (ck του cFa/xcpi?, Ross insc. ined. 746), γάνν 
μαι (from γαΡι/ν/Ααι, verb γαυ, yaF, Latin gaiideo\ as well as 
the Latin crapida^ PolycletuSy Hdotes, In like manner from 
ftcftito), Kinviiu^ we have /χ€^νοί, όττυω. In later years the sep- 
arate \Owels of the diphthongs were blended, so that they 
came to be pronounced like the Latin or German : m (ά), 
ce (o), and ii, and finally became simple "monophthongs." 
^ut this change fr om "d iphthongs" to "monoph t hon gs" 
prevailed even in the times of Homer, because we ha ve 
Kotkrjaij ΤΓολλησ-ι^ fferjai^ etc., instead of κοίλαισι, πολλαισί, 
^€<uo-i, etc. Furthermore in the Boeotian dialect we have 
ίτπΓοττ;, cv^pyirq^^ ^ΐΛκατίης, χ€ΐλί7)ς^ r^s, καταχΓκευάττη, Κ€κ6μ.κττη^ 
όφίίλετη^ απογράφεσθη^ ^ε^όχθη, ®€ΐβηος^ Ύαυα-γρηος^ etc., instead 
of ί-τΓΤτόται, €υ€/ογ€ταχ9, ^ιακατιαις^ ^(CiXtat?, ταΐ9, κατασκευόχτσαι^ 
KCKO/iurrot, etc., in which examples we plainly see that the 



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154 DIGRAPHS. 

diphthong at is no longer a-t, but has fallen into an η or β, 
and in later yeara it naturally acquired the sound of epsilon. 
About the third century B. C. diphthongs had entirely be- 
come monophthongs, just as they are to-day with the modern 
Greeks. We will now proceed to examine each diphthong 
separately. 



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CHAPTliR IV. 

SOUNDS OF THE DIPHTHONGS. 



^ 



is pronounced precisely like an epsilon, or like the English e 
in the first syllable of example, ^ 

1) That at was pronounced by the ancients like an c is 
evident from the fact that many words which are ordinarily 
written with at, in some cases for the sake of brevity, are 
written with €, e. g. atojpos (Plato) = Ιωρο?, in II. ^, 26 : 

in like manner we have αίόλλω, αΓολο9, in Honaer and Pindar, 
for €ολλω, ^ολ€ω. See also Homer's " Iliad " β, 749 : 

** Τ J δ'*ΕΐΊ^ϊ^$ ^TFOVTO μχν€ττ6\€μοί re ΊΙίραιβοί," 

where Έη^€9 stands for Atvtavcs. Again, we have φαινίν^ 
for ^ci/tV8a, <1>αινόλ7)ς and φ€νώλ7/9, ψ€κας and ψαΐκας^ άνωγαιον 
and άνώγ€ον, Ύιθοραία and TiOopia (an old name of a city in 
Bceotia), XevKoCa and XcuKca, άκταία and ακτία^ etc. 

2) In prosody at at the end of a word is short, also in 
scansion before a vowel. In such cases it could not have 
been sounded as a diphthong. 

3) The translators of the Old Testament (280 B. C.) al- 
ways render the long c of the Hebrews (tzere) by at, i. e. 
Bat^^A = Bethel^ Gen. xii.; Θαι/ϋΐαι/ = Theman^ Gen. xxxvi. 11 ; 
Χαίλων = Clielon^ Num. i. 9; Awav = Enan^ Num. i. 15; ΑΙΧχίμ 
= Elim^ Exod. xvi. 1 ; etc. 

4) The poet Callimachus (250 B. C.) in one of his epi- 



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156 SOUNDS OF THE DIPHTHONGS. 

grams distinctly represents the echo in ν^χι answering by 
Ιχ€ΐ : 

"Ανσα^ίι;, auye ναίχι «τολόί, «raXof άλλα τ pi» elxeuf 
Ίοΰτο <ταφώ$, ήχώ φ-ησί τιι, dλλot ίίχ»." 

5) Inscriptions of the second century Β. C. bear κΐ ττέζοντας^ 
ΊΓζζόντων^ κατάκιτ€^ instead ΟΙ και τταίζοντας^ ττανζόντων^ κατάκ€ΐται, 

6) Dionysius of Halicarnassus (30 Β. C.) translates the 
Latin Prceneatini by IIpcveaT^vo^ and Strabo renders the 
same by n/xuvcoTtvoi. 

7) In the Syriac translation of the Gospels <u is rendered 
by the long Syriac e in the words Καισαρβια, Πραιταγπον, Ύ/χ€- 
Ισαίος, etc. 

8) On some coins of Nero, 69 A. D. (Occo. p. 13), we find 
ΠοτΓττΕα instead of Ποτηταια. 

9) at is rendered by ω in the Latin, i. e. cegilopa = atytXoM^, 
Cegithua = atyt^o?, cegophtdlmus = αιγόφ^αλ/ιος, celurus = αί- 
λουρος^ CBnigma = aTi/ty/m, bcUcena = φάλαινα, hgcena = vcuva. 

10) In Greek inscriptions belonging to the Roman period 
we find € representing ai and vice versa, 

11) Plutarch indicated the true pronunciation of at by 
rendering the Latin fenestra by the Greek φαχνίστρα^ Fenes- 
tella = Φαιν€στ€λλα(ς). 

12) Finally, Sextus (190 A. D.) distinctly asserts that the 
sound at and ct "is simple and unifoim": ""Eirct ovv 6 rov ai 
#cat Λ φθσγγος άιτλονβ €OTt καΐ /xovoctSiys." So also in Sanscrit 
we have veda = vaida, vegas = vaigas^ hhxzrate = bharatai = 
φίρ^ται. In French ai is pronounced as an e, e.g. maiSy 
Frangais^ Anglais^ etc. 

EXAMPLES OF PRONUNCIATION. 

Αιά^ω, eazo, ΑΐκΙζω, ekizo, 

Αίανης, eanes, ΑΪλινος^ elinos, 

Αΐρ^σις, eresis. Αΐθω^ etho, 

Αίακίδης, eakUhis, Αΐθονσα^ ethoom, 

Aidco^at, etheome, AWitmist ethiopU. 
Αϊ^ημων, etherrMyiu 



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SOUNDS OF THE DIPHTHONGS. 157 

vUy i 

is pronounced like af or av according to the letter which 
follows it. If it is followed by ^, f, σ, τ, then this digraph is 
sounded like af; but before γ, δ, λ, ν, ρ, and before vowels 
and other digraphs it is pronounced like αυ. 

1) That the pronunciation of the diphtliongs αυ, €υ, and ου, 
in use by the modern Greeks, was the original pronunciation 
of the ancient Greeks is evident fiOm the fact that the υ of 
these diphthongs in many instances resulted fiom f (v), or 
rather it occupies in many instances the place of f (v) ; e. g. 
αυ<ΐ)5 (jEoI. ηω^) instead of αΰσω9, from the root oFs or Fas; 
Kotciv, λά /utirctv, αυο? {dry) have in like manner resulted from 
the same root. A modern Greek scholar gives also /cλαΰσω = 
κλαΡσω, νάνος (-i^Eol.) = vaFos, vojoq ; αυτό? = aFros. The same 
word is also found in an inscription on the Island of Delos, 

αΡυτος, Ίτανρος (Lat. p(l7^}US) from ττάρΈος = woFpos. In the* 

"Iliad" (17, 86) we have χευωσιν (the aorist subj. of χ€υω), 
^€υα, ;(€υαι = XcFo), Ιχ€Ρά, ^cFat ; ενκηλος = ίΡκηλος = Έ^κ-ηλος 
(from the root νακ, fok, whence Piofessor Mavrophredes says 
we get CKQH/, αΡίκων^ ίκτγη^ oFc/ci/Tt, ηκα, ηκιστος^ etc. ; εύχομαι = 
ϋρχο/χαι = τέχομαι ; cipo? = eFpos, from the root Fd (Fa), whence 
we have also αΰρα and ουρος, as well as ούριος. 

Again, we have βσυλη (JEol. βόλλα) from the ancient βολΈα 
= βόΡλα^ ^ονΐίός^ γοννος from 8opFo5 = 8οΡρ6ς ; γονΈος = γόΡνός ; 
οΖλος (= oAos) from oXfos = oFAo? (Sanscr. sarva-s); νονσος 
(νόσος) from νόσΡβς = vOFo-o9 ; κούρος and κουρι; (Ionic) = κόρος, 
κόρι; from icopFos, κόρΤη = KOFpos, κοΡρη^ etc. 

2) The Latin language renders the diphthongs αυ and €υ 
by the monosyllables αν and ev, i. e. cavneas = καυναας; 

pavo^ paveo = ττανω {φάβω) ; cavo = κάνω (χάω) ; navis = ναυς, 
ναυος; /atiO = λαΡω (λαΰω) ; favo = φαυω ; Ι^ΚανθΗην,8 = Φανω- 
ρΐνος (Φαβωρΐνος, Plutarch) ; τταυρος, by transposition parvus 
(and by another transposition pravus). Oekonomos gives 
also €υοϊ, evav = evoej evan, evax; Ευιος, Evius ; Ευαι/δρος, 



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158 SOUNDS OF THE DIPHTHONGS. 

Evander ; Scu^po?, Χ€βηρος^ Severus ; Δαυο9, Davua (Plaut^ 
Virg., Ovid). 

3) The translators of the Old Testament about the third 
century B. C. render the Hebrew ναυ sometimes by β^ some- 
times by Vy e. g. Δα)8ίδ and Δαυίδ, Κενή = Ijevi, And, vice 
versdy the υ of av and ev the Syriac translator of the New 
Testament (about the firet century A. D.) renders by vav. 
Furthermore, many biblical names, such as Eva, Δαυίδ, Εύαγ- 
yeXtTv, Ενοδια, etc. are rendered in Latin £!να^ Davidy Evan- 
geliumy Έυοάία^ etc. 

4) Cicero writes (Divin. 11, 40) : " Cum M, Crasstis exer- 
citum Snmdisii imponerety quidam in portu caricas Cauno 
advectds vendensy Cauneas clamitabat. DicamicSy 8% placet^ 
monitum ah eo Crassuniy caveret^ ne tret : non fuisae peri- 
turum, 8% omini paruisset.^ Comp. Pliny (Hist. Nat. XV., 
19). Professor Mavrophredes says: "Δήλον, ort to όνομα Cau- 
neas (e. g. καυν€ίας ισ\ά&ας) iv τ§ McyoAiy Ελλάδι ομοφθόγγως 7y 
φράχτη CAV(b)neeA8 Ύίχρνν ως κακο^ ouuvo^ Ιζ€Κηφθτ}Ρ 

The followei-s of Erasmus to sustain their pronunciation of 
αυ bring forward that line of Aristophanes written to rep- 
resent the barking of dogs. Now^ it is c^ri^iifl to rmrf'^fir 
that the followers of Eraamua always cal l the sounds of an i- 
mals to„decide_ anyjjoints of Greek pronunciation. For in- 
stance, when they wish to settle th^ sound of β^ they bring 
the well-known lines of Cratinus written to represent the 
bleating of the sheep ; when they would ^x the sound of oi^ 
they bring that line of Aristophanes written to represent the 
gi'unting of hogs ; and now, between the hogs and the sheep, 
they let loose the dogs to decide by their barking the sound 
of αυ. To what a degradation the followers of Erasmus have 
brought the divine language of Plato! 

EXAMPLES OF PRONUNCIATION. 

Before Θ. 

ΑυθΙντης^ afthentis. Ανθημ€ρος^ afth/meros, Ανθ€ψης, afth^psis. 



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SOUNDS OF THE DIPHTHONGS. 



159 



Before £. 
Av^cW, afocano,'^ Ανξίτροφος, afxitrophos. Χνξομύωσις^ afxomiosis. 

Before o-• 
AvaraKtoSf afstaleos, Αύΰττηρία, afsiertia. Αυστηρός, afsterds. 

Before τ. 
Αντάρ€σκο9, aflareskos, Αντάρχης, aftarhis. Αντ^ρίτης, afteretis. 

Before y. 



Ανγή, avge, 
Av^j avthe. 

AvXoSy avlos, 
Αϋριον, avrion, 

Αν€ΐηων, avenion. 



Αΰγουστος, dvgoostos, 
Avdaray avtkata, 

Ανλφ^ία^ avhihia, 
Ανρφάτης, avrivates. 

Ανηλός, avilos. 



Before 8. 
Αυδάζομαι, avthazome. 

Before λ. 

ΑνΧονρός, avlouros. 

Before p. 
Avpiffi», avrizo. 

Before Vowels. 
Av€pv(uy avereo. 

Before Diphthongs. 
Αναίνω, avdno, 

VEY . 
is likewise pronounced like ef or ev. Before β, #c, £ ττ, σ, τ, φ, 
χ, ψ this diphthong is sounded like ef. Before γ, δ, 4 λ, /i, v, 
ρ, and before vowels and diphthongs, it is pronounced like ev. 
Concerning the antiquity and genuineness of this pronuncia- 
tion we spoke in detail when treating of the diphthong αυ. 

EXAMPLES OF PRONUNCIATION. 

Before Θ. 

ΈυθάΚαμος^ efihalamos, ΕνθάΚασσος, efihalassos, Ενθάλπης^ efthalpU. 

Before κ. 

EvKopbioSt efkarthios. Ευκατάγνωστος^ efkatag^iostos, 

EvKaraaTaTOYf efkaUUtatoe. 



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160 SOUNDS OF THE DIPHTHONGS. 

Before {. 
Έΰξ€Ρθί^ efxenos. Έΰξ€στος, e/xestos. Ένξήραιττοΐ, efixirandos• 

Before v. 
"Eihrenkosj ifpejdos, Ενπ€νθ(ρος, efpeniheros• Et^cirro^y ejpeptos. 

Before o-. 
Είσταθης, efstaikU. Ενστολη;, efstalU, Ένστίφορος, efstephanos. 

Before τ. 
Ενστραφης, efstraphis, Evr/jcjrror, eftreptos. Εΰτρητος, eftritos. 

Before φ. 
Ενφρόνη^ effroni, Είψωνορ, effonos. Ε^ώρατορ, effaratos. 

Before χ. 
Ένχάλκωτος^ e/hdUcotos. Εύχαρις, e/haris. Ευχαριστία, ββαήβΐία. 

Before ψ. 
Ευ^Ιτάμαθος, efpsamathos. Είψηφίς, efpsiphU. 

Before γ. 

E^, ώίρβ. Edyhjvos, evglmos. Ενγαθης, evgaihU. 

Before S. 
Evdia, evthia, EibuSfiaros, evthiavatos. Εν^ιάβοΚοί, evthiavolos. 

Before {. 
Εϋζηλος, evzelos. Εϋζωρος, ώ)Ζ0Τ08, Εΰζωρος, ώζοηοβ. 

Before λ. 

Eif\ip€vos, evUmenos, Ευλύγιστος, evlogistos, Εΰλογος, ^vlogos. 

Before |ju 
Ευμ«γ€θης, evmeyethis. Εύμ(ν(της, evmendtia, Ευμίλανος, evmehnos. 

Before v. 
Εΰρια, evnia, Εΰι^ις, evnis, Εϋνημα, evnema. 

Before p. 
Ευρ€Τ€ος, evreteos, Ευρ€σΙτ€χνος, evresitechnos. Εύρημα, evrema. 

Before Vowels and Diphthongs. 
ΕΰαΒΧος, evathhs, Εύα§ρος, evaeros. Εΰα^€, evathe» 

Ευαίμων, evemon. Ευαισθησία, evesthesia. Ευαίσθητος, evesthetos. 



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SOUNDS OF THE DIPHTHONGS. 161 

'HY ; 

has the sound of (/"before β, κ, ί, ττ, σ, τ, φ, χ, φ, and iv before 
γ, δ, f, λ, /I, ν, ρ and before vowels and diphthongs. That ηυ 
and ων were originally pronounced exactly as they are to-day 
by the modern Greeks is evident from the fact that ψ) and 
ωυ are simply the Ionic forms of αυ and ev : ypi^y?, νην^, ωντός 
θωνμα (Ion.) = γρανς, νανς, αντος θανμα^ etc. It is, therefore, 
evident that the pronunciation of ψ and ωυ closely resembled 
that of αυ, and €υ. 

EXAMPLES OF PRONUNCIATION. 
Τρηνς^ greffs, Niyvi, nejTs. 

«Y . 

is pronounced like of before 6^ #f, f, ττ, σ, τ, φ, χ, i/r, and like ου 
before γ» δ, f, λ, /ι, ν, ρ, also before vowels and diphthongs. 

YI and YH 
are pronounced exactly like the modem Greek ι or like the 
English i in machine. Homer almost always makes the υι in 
the word υΣός a short syllable, e. g. II. f, 130 ; δ, 473 ; ly, 47 ; 
p, 575. Again, the con-ectness of the modem Greek pronun- 
ciation of these vowel-combinations is supported by the two 
forms of the words μ.€θυω and όπυω, which are also written 
μ€θνίω, οΊτνίω. Professor Mavrophredes asserts that this can- 
not be otherwise explained than by the assumption that the 
words μ€θνιω^ όίτυίω, υίο? originally were pronounced μ€θν^ω, 
ότπ^ω, υ)ο9; afterwards the J (t) was cut out, especially be- 
tween two vowels. We have many instances of this, and 
to this day the modern Greeks pronounce μύγα = μν^α, mea. 
Finally, in old inscriptions, as well as on coins, the noun υιό? 
is very often written ws, from which it becomes evident that 
υι = υ = t. 

EXAMPLES OF PRONUNCIATION. 
Χ'Λους, ethoos. Υίόί, eos, Ύηττος, et6s. 



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162 SOUNDS OP THE DIPHTHONGS. 

/ 

sOY ! 

is pronounced exactly like the^rench ou or like the English 
00 in the word moon. 

The diphthong ov was originally a monophthong, as it is 
to this day with the modem Greeks, and was pronounced in 
some dialects like an ο or like the Latin u. This is evident 
from the fact that in the sixth, seventh, and eighth centuries 
B. C. the -^olians used to render ου simply by an o. Again, 
we have many instances in which ου is rendered in different 
dialects by an υ, e. g. κουρ&ωζ (Homeric) = κυρί8ιος = κύρως ; 
KOvpiiiOtUi = KVpwOy I ονΒοφ = ν8ωρ I άσονλία = άχτυλία. 

Again, the Latin and Semitic u is invariably rendered in 
Greek by ου, e. g. 'Ιούδας, 'Ιουδαίος, etc. ; 'Ιούνιος, Βρούτος, Sc^- 
τος, 'Ιούλιος. Finally, the fact that ου is never written sep- 
arated into two sounds (ου), as we occasionally find αυ, ciJ, ci, 
ΟΪ, etc., is a proof. Professor Mavrophredes believes, that ου 
was a monophthong even in the pre-historic period of the 
Greek language. 

EXAMPLES OF PRONUNCIATION•. 

Ονσια, οοήα, Ovdtnore, oothepote, 

θϋτ€ρος, ootei'OB, Οΐί^€Τ€μως, ootheteros. 



Οιίτησις, ootesis. 



01 



is pronounced like oe in ceconomy^ or like an English e. 
Oekonomos thinks that it was sounded in some dialects as 
ου = w Italian or like the Latin ce^ and in some as the French 
u passing into *. This is highly probable from the fact that 
the -^olians used oi instead of ct, e. g. οι/οιρος, οι/€ΐρος. 

1) The Latin language renders oi by oe^ e. g. CEta - 0?τα, 
Croesus = Κροίσος, (Enops = Olvoxf/, (Edipus = Οιδιττους, (Eneiis 
= Οιν€υς. Professor Mavrophredes says that the diphthong 
oe was at an early period pronounced among the ancient Ro- 
mans just as the German o, and consequently oe became, or 



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SOUNDS OF THE DIPHTHONGS. 163 

passed into Β.ηω = η (e). This is highly probable from the 
fact that Quintilian says : " CE scribenditm esse non pro/e- 
rendum^ omnes edocentP 

2) The Alexandrian, the Copt, and the Latin translators 
of the Bible from the third century B. C. to the third cen- 
tury A. D. always render the Hebrew 6 by means of the 
Greek ot, and, vice versdy they render ot by means of δ (ce). 
Now, that ot had also the sound of υ, which is still prevalent 
among the modern Greeks is highly probable from the state- 
ment of Thucyd., B. 54: **Έν τωδ€ τω καφω οΙα €ΐκός, avc/AVTy- 
σθησαν καΧ tovSc tov cttov? φάσ•κοντ€ς ot wp€afivT€poi ψ^σθοΛ. 

'"H^et dcapiojcbs πόλεμος καΐ λοΐ|λ^ &μ αύτφ,* 

hffvero /Licv οδν Ipts rots ανθρύητοι^ μη Χοιμον ώνομάσθαίΐ cv τφ «ret 
ίητο των ιταΧαιων, άλλα λιμ^ν • €νίκησ€ Sc errl τον παρόντος λοιμον 
ciprjarOau^ So that it becomes evident that there existed be- 
tween λοιμός and λιμός a SAMENESS of sound, and not an 
" identity of meaning/' Now, of all sounds the one which 
has a closer resemblance to t, or rather an identity of sound 
with it, is υ, judging also from the fact that Demosthenes 
(fourth century B. C.) writes Άν^μντας instead of ^Ανεμοίτας, 
and from many other examples which we noticed when treat- 
ing of the letter υ we must infer that the letter ν in several 
dialects was written instead of ot, and hence it is evident 
that it was equal to ot or t (ot = υ = t). Again, that ot at an 
early period had exactly the sound of a simple t is evident 
from the fact that about the first century B. C. we find writ- 
ten on a coin of Julius Caesar, lONlSTHS for ΟΙΩΝΙ2ΤΗ5. 
Again, on another coin of Augustus we find ΠΡΟΚΡΙΤΙ for 
ΠΡΟΚΡΙΤΟΙ. 

Αίων 6 Κάσσιος relates that Nero (60 A. D.) killed two 

'Χουλ'ΤΓΐκίους "ort ιτοιητικοί Ικ προγόνων επικαλούμενοι ουκ «ταν- 
σαντο πρόσρημα τοντ έχοντες, αλλ' εις τας τον Νή^ωνος vtKas τας 
ιτνθικαβ εκ της ομωνυμίας ησέβουν,^^ Now, we plainly see ot = υ, 
η = ι; also that otry = m = υ = t, because confessedly ν in that 
period was pronounced as t. About the second century A. D. 



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164 SOUNDS OF THE DIPHTHONGS. 

on some coins of " 'AvTOM/tVov τσν Jliov^ the word άκοστον is 
four times written ot, and the noun Άντωι/Γνος four times is 
found written by « (ΑΝΤΩΝΕΙΝ02), hence it results that ' 
ot = €t = t, etc. 

Now, that t subseriptum of the ct, ly, ω was always silent is 
evident from the statement of Strabo (about the birth of 
Christ) : " ΠολΛοι \ωρ\^ τον ι Ύράφουσι τα? ^οηκας και ΙκβόΧ- 
λονσί γ€ το €θος φνσικην αΐτίαν ουκ ej(oi/," in which the " φυσικην 
αΐτίαν ουκ ^ον" simply means that it was unpronounced. 
Again, that the t subseriptum, long before Strabo, was silent 
we may conclude from the way the ancient Romans rendered 
the words tragcedus^ comoeduSy citharcedus^ ode, rapsodus, 
prosodia, palinodia, herons, patrons, in which the simple 
sound of ο is equivalent to the Greek ω. 

EXAMPLES OF PRONUNCIATION. 
OiiKadc, ^dkaUit. Οΐκ€ίοπραγια, oekeopragia. οΓκο;, mhs. 

i EI \ 

is pronounced like the English i in the words machine, 
marine. That there was a time in which €i was pronounced 
as €-t, appears from the statement of Plato, Cratyl. 402, c : 
" Τον ovv άρχοντα της 8ννάμ€ως ταντης Oeov ώνόμασ€ Πο<Γ€ΐδ»νο, ως 
ir<KrC-8c-<r|Mv οκτο, το Se € ll•γκ€LτaL ίσως cwpcTrtuis €ν€κα.^* 

However, the ct at a very early period passed into the pro- 
nunciation of a simple i, judging from the fact that ct was 
rendered by i in the Latin language, e. g. Mlns = NctXos, 
crocodilns = κροκό^€ΐλος, liJpaminondas = Έττα/Αβινωνδας, Chi- 
rotonia = Xctporovta, spira = cnreipa, ironia = ζίρων^ία, degia = 
cXcycto, litania = Atravcta. In a Latin author we find : " I 
qnoqne apud antiqnos post Ε pronehatnr, et EI diphthongum 
faciehat, qnam pro omni I longa scrihebant, more antiqno 
Grcecomm,^'* Again, that ct had the same sound as t, even 
among the ancient Romans, is rendered highly probable from 
the fact that in the very best period of the Latin language 



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SOUNDS OF THE DIPHTHONGS. 165 

• was substituted for ei. Thus we have iduSj prifmcs^ etc., 
the older forms being eidus^ preimus, etc. The ancient 
Greeks, on the other hand, often rendered the i of the Latins 
by ^h β. g. Plutarch translates the words idu^^ idibics by 
€ΐδούς, €*ώοίς (older form eidus). The very ancient identity of 
the sound of ci as a simple ι is established from the fact that 
we find in Homer €ίδως, €ΐδυία (H. />, 5 ; i, 128 ; i/r, 263 ; Od. a, 
428, etc.), as well as J^vta (II. σ, 380, 482; υ, 12; Od. 17, 92, 
etc.), 1 short. We have ίδυιος, ίδυοι, as well as ctSuot• Again, 
we find the fomis cticcXos and Ik€Ko^^ yctvo/tat (II. κ) and yCvo- 
yuany λ€ίχω and Λ/;(α>, €ρ€ίκη and Ιρίκη^ στ€Ϊβος aud στήθος, δ€ΐω 
and διω, 9Γ€ΐί0ω and πίθω^ φθάρ aud φθΧρ^ and so on. 

Plamoudes relates that ^sop (572 B. C.) pronounced σ€ΐ 
just as συ (υ = t). 

Aristophanes (450 B. C.) has a pun in 8ta7r€tvaju.€s (Bceotian, 
instead of hunruviup.ev) and Βιαπίνομ,α/. In Diogenes Laei*tius 
we find another pun on άλλ^ Ιμάτων and αλειμμάτων: "Ίδων 
μεφακυλλιον Ιμαποκλάττην iv τω βαλανείω Ιφη^ *€7γ' αΧειμμάτνον η 
€7Γ αλλο ιματίον; 

The translators of the Old Testament rendered the Hebrew 
dim by the Greek αίλ^ίμ^ and in several other old Greek pas- 
sages • we find Ίτρωτοτόκια and πρωτοτοκεΐα^ •παφαγ€ίν€ται and 
irapayiverai^ Θαρσ€ίς and ΘαρσΊς, vciko? and νικος. Dionysius 
of Halicamassus clearly regards not only ct but also at and 
αυ and ot "as undivided syllables," or, in other words, con- 
siders them as simple monophthongs. Strabo renders by u 
the Latin t, e. g. Ligeria^ Αειρτγ: {I^oire)^ Idris^ Actpts. The 
Syriac translator of the Gospels renders u by i, e. g. iki = diaj. 
In the New Testament we find ejrct and hr\ njoras and nyorts, 
vcticos and vtfcos, etc. 

The writer Alhenseus says of the Attic courtesan Thais 

(third century B. C.) : Θαι? ττρος γράσ-ωνα ΊΓορενομίιτη έραστην, 
€7Γ€ΐ τΐ9 αυτήν ηρωτα ττοΐ Tropeuercu, cTttcv, 

* Al^ct σχητοικήσουσα τφ ΊΙανδΙονοί,* " 

Thais, whilst saying Alycl meant αίγί (= γράσωνι); the pun is 



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166 SOUNDS OF THE DIPHTHONGS. 

in the similarity of sound between « and t, as Eustathius 
says (Bas., p. 367). Plutarch translates the Latin i by ct, e. g. 
Xusitaniay Ανσιτάν€ία; ΙΓοηοτι,^'*Ονώρ€ΐ ; Pinarii^ Ileivapiot. 
On a papyrus (τταρα Latronne) — Fragments inedis d^an- 
ciens poetes GrecSy tires d^un papyrus appartenant au 
musee royal^ Paris^ 1841 — we find at times " cVl^ " and at 
others the same word written "«τ^ψ," thus demonstrating 
the similarity of sound between ci and t. Cicero (Epist. ad 
Familiares, IX. 22) says : ** Cum loquimur terni nihil flagi- 
tii dicimus / ad cum bini obscenum est, greeds quidem 
inquies. Nihil est ergo in verba / quando et ego grcece 
sciOj et tamen tibi dicOj rini, idque tufaciSy quasi ego groBce 
non latine dixerim.^^ Hence it is evident that βίν^ι had the 
same sound as bini. Nigidius says : " Groecos non tantce in- 
scitice arcesso qui OY ex Ο et Υ scripserunty quantce qui EI 
ex Ε et I; illud enim inopia facerunt, hoc nuUa re coactiP 
Finally, on coins and inscriptions words have been found 
written with ct, which are also written with t, i. e. ΤΡΙΠΟΑΕΙ- 
ΤΩΝ, ETEIMH2EN, NEIKH, ΑΓΡΙΠΠΕΙΝΑ2, TEIMHTHS, 
2ABEIN02, ΑΟΓΓΕΙΝΑ, NEIKOSTPATGS, ΧΕΑΕΙΔ0ΝΙ2, 
ΝΕΙΚΟΠΟΑΕΙΤΩΝ, etc. Notice also the Boeotian forms 
avcycfjpi, AoAis, etc^ instead of avcyccjpci, λαλ€ΐς, etc. 

EXAMPLES OF PRONUNCIATION. 
Έΐαμ^νη, eameni. ΈιρωΡ€ΐα, eronia. Έίρκτη, erkti. 



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, L I ii U A II Υ > 

i f 

;; UNIA'KliSITV OF ■ 

' CALIFOliXlA. J 
CHAPTER V. 

THE CONSONANTS. 

Β 

is pronounced like ν in vase. The followers of Erasmus 
maintain that the letter β was. originally pronounced like the 
Latin b. They claim that the ancient Romans rendered the 
β of the Greek words not by v, but by b. Again, they quote 
that verse of the Comedian Cratinus, — 

"Ό δ* ή\ίθιο$, &σχ€ρ τρόβατον, βη βή \4yw fiadi^ei," — 

in which (they say) it is evident that Cratinus and his fellow- 
citizens, the Athenians, pronounced the ^ as a ό, and η as an e, 
because the sheep in bleating say not βη (according to the 
pronunciation now prevalent in Greece), but bee^ be. They 
claim also that Cicero wrote in one of his letters that the 
Greek βίν^ι has the same sound as the Latin bint. These 
seem to me to be the only reasons which the followers of 
Erasmus bring to sustain their pronunciation of the letter β. ^ 

Now, the ancient Romans represented the β of many Greek 
words like their own v. Oekonomos brings the following 
examples: jScXa», )8<>λω, volo ; βίω^ βύα^ βί^ω^ vivo; βιοτά^ 
vita; βόρω^ βορος^ voro; βόραξ^ vorax; βαίνω^ venio (per- 
haps this is derived from βίω^ whence we have βζίομαι = 

βάωy βαίνω^ βενω)^ βάΒα>^ vado / βία (jSt9, Ftc, ts), VIS/ νίψ 

vtjSos, nix nivis; etc. The ancient Greeks used also to ren- 
der the V of the Latins by β^ for instance ; Valentianus^ Ba- 
kevTiavoq'y 8everU8^ %φηροζ\ OctaviitSy 'Οκτάβιος; VeturiuSy 
BcTovpto?; Avefitiniy *λβ€ντ2νοι (Plutarch), In a few instances 



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168 THE CONSONANTS. 

the V was rendered in Greek by ov ; for instance, Varro = 
Βάρρων or Ονάρρων (this latter peculiarity is for the sake of 
euphony, Ovdppojv being more euphonic than Βάρρων). 

From what has been said it appears probable that in the 
old Latin tongue (which may be termed either the daughter 
or the sister of the -^olic dialect), so long as the pronuncia- 
tion of the emigrant JEolians remained unaltered, so long the 
letter b was pronounced exactly as the modern Greeks pro- 
nounce their β. But afterwards, the Latin language being 
-adopted by the other tribes of Italy, — tribes which were 
barbarous and hence unacquainted with Grecian phraseology, 
— the pronunciation became rather harsh and rough, as their 
manner of speaking, and hence among them the Greek β 
gradually degenerated into the sound of b. To this reason, 
as a modern Greek states, must be attributed the fact of the 
use of b instead of v, as is often seen in ancient inscriptions, 
i. e. bixit instead of vixit^ serbus instead of servus, amabile 
and benemeritus instead of amavile and venemeritus. In 
one of the laws of Numa which has been preserved by. Fes- 
tus we read Jobis instead oi Jovia, Traces of the pronun- 
ciation of β are to be found in the Spanish language, i. e. 
vene^ vestia^ for bene^ bestia; and in French, especially among 
the so-called Gascons. But Jacob Creatin, one of the most 
devoted followera of Erasmus, in his "De Sono Literarum 
Graecorum " admits that the ancient pronunciation of β was 
not so ^''hrrovo^ και βομβηρα^ as the present. -^ 

Lid dell and Scott likewise admit that the pronunciation 
was softer than our b, like the Spanish or modern Greek for 
instance. As for Cicero's statement, no one can assure us 
that the letter b had in his time exactly the pronunciation 
now prevalent among the followers of Erasmus. Again, it is 
probable that Cicero wished simply to show the similarity 
which exists between these two words, as respects the length 
of the syllables (in pronouncing). And, as a scholar affirms, 
these two words were not pronounced by Cicero in a speech, 



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THE CONSONANTS. 169 

but simply written in a letter, whence it may result that 
Cicero wished simply to show the analogy in writing which 
exists between these two words, rather than their sound or 
pronunciation. As for the 

**Ό 0' ηλίθιοι &στ€ρ τρόβατον, βη βη \έyωv /8αδί^6*,'* 

it is evident that Cratinus used it because he had no other 
letter by which he could express the pound made by a sheep. 
For the same reason Aristophanes, when he would represent 
the noise made by pigs, wrote κόϊ, κόΐ (instead of got, got\ 
because the Greek language has no lette r so harsh in sound 
as uj. And when Aristophanes would represent the croaking 
o^he frogs, he wrote βρ€Κ€κ\ξ. Do the frogs ever say vrekJce- 
keka? Or, when he would represent the cackling of hens, he 
wrote τιτικομπρου. Do the hens make such a sound ? There- 
fore it seems to me that it is absurd to attempt to determine 
the sound of ^ by a word used to represent the bleating of 
sheep. For we must confess that the attempts to render the 
noises of animals by the articulate sounds of " μ€ρ6πων άνθρω- 
ιτων" are very unsatisfactory. 

Now, if we consider that the name of f {van) was written 
in Greek βαν, that the Hebrew bau was rendered in the noun 
Δα/31δ by β, that Strabo (p. 213, c) renders the Latin Novum 

Comum^ ^οβονμκόμονμ., and that about the year 69 A. D. a 
coin of Nero bears the inscription OKTABIA 2EBA2TH, — 
the genuineness of* the pronunciation of β as veta is proved 
beyond question. 

. Finally, as a modem Greek says, the nature of the most 
sweetly sounding of all languages by no means admits the 
harsh sound oi β. Just pronounce according to the Erasmian 
method the words βονν^ β8άλλ€ΐ^ β^ίΧλα, βουβρωστιν, β€βρωκότα, 
βαβράζ€ΐ^ βάβαξ^ βλαξ^ βφοστρνχωμ,Ινο^^ βορβορολψττος, βίμβίξ, 
β€βαφα, and you will acknowledge that the Grecian Minerva 
would never have accustomed her lips to such awkward atti- 
tudes when she would not learn to play on the flute because 
it compelled her to inflate her cheeks so ungracefully. The 



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170 THE CONSONANTS. 

. reason why so many students are unable to discover the mel- 
ody so characteristic of the Greek pronunciation is to be 
attributed simply to the Erasmian system of pronunciation. 
What melody can there be in pronouncing " bebrabetimenoa " 
or the word β€βοστρνχωμ€νος (hehostruchomSnos) ? 

EXAMPLES OF PBONUNCIATION. 

'Ά^κκίσΈΚηνος, vekeselenos. Βλάβη, vldvi. 

Βιβλιογράφος, vevleogrdjphos. Βλαστός, vlastds, 

ΒίβΧινος, vevlenos. Βλασφημία, vlasphemia, 

Βλαστάνω, vlastano. Βλάσφημος, vlasphemos, 

Βλάζω, νΐάζο. Βλά^ι^, vlapsis, 

ΒλάτΓτω, vlapto. Βίος, νίθ8, 

Βλάβοί) νΐάυοβ. Βαλσαμον, vaUamon, 

Γ 

before α, ο, ω, αυ, ον has nearly the same sound of ghah^ but 
softer and more guttural than the ga of the Western nations. 
Before c, v, t, υ, cv, ot, γ is pronounced like y, and when fol- 
lowed by another γ, or by κ, ί, or χ, it takes the sound of v. 

That the letter γ was a guttural soft semivowel is evident 
from the fact that Homer has γ as an aspirate before some 
words, as αΤα for γοΓα; also in other Greek words, as lwo% 
{ennoa) for ytWos (yenos). In modem Greek we get λ€ω {leo) 
for λ€γω {Ugho)^ ιτραμα (prahmo) for πρα-γμα (pragmah). 
Professor Gandel remarks that many words in the Septua- 
gint, especially such words as Γάζα and Τόμορβα, prove almost 
to a demonstration that the present pronunciation of γ by the 
modem Greeks must have prevailed in the time of the trans- 
lators of the SeptuagintJ/ 

We said that γ, when followed by another γ, κ, ξ, or χ takes 
the sound of v. This is evident from the way in which the 
Romans used to write such Greek words, i. e. ayycXo?, angdus. 
Again, in very old inscriptions we find that the Greeks were 
wont to write γ before κ, whilst the Romans express the 
sound of the letter γ by v, i. e. in a very old coin the city 
ΖΑΓΚΑΗ is written in Latin ZANKLK 



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THE CONSONANTS. 



171 



Again, in very old MS. we see that the Greeks were wont 
to write γ instead of ν before γ, #c, ξ, and χ not only in syn- 
thesis, but also " iv wapaOiaeL,^^ i. e. καλογ κ ayaOov, instead 
of καλόν κ ά-γαθόν ; ey χορον, instead of iv χορόν ; fy καρο9, in- 
stead of €v καρος (cv καρος αίση. Homer), whence resulted the 
synthetic noun eyKap, εγκοφος (just as the old grammarians 
were wont to read this Homeric passage). Now, many of 
the followers of Erasmus blame the Greek grammarians 
because they said that the letter ν before γ, #c, and ( is 
changed in the synthetic words into γ. "What is the use," 
they say, " of changing ν into a γ and then pronouncing it 
like V? Must not the ν always remain a v?" We say. No! 

" Slol την (according to Aristotle) άη^ των φθόγγων ιτροσβολην,^ 
Finally, the forms γ€ρακαραια$ and γεράκων = ίερακαφέας and 

ί€ράκων, and others we might enumerate show that the letter 
γ ought never to be sounded like the hard g of the English. 

EXAMPLES OF PRONUNCIATION. 



Ταλακτοποσία, gha^ktoposiah, 

Ταλατία^ ghalateah, 

Γαλ£Mcτωσιy, ghaldktosis, 

TovoSf ghonos. 

Τονοκτον€ω^ ghonoktoneoh. 

Γόμφος, gomphos. 

Γωνία, ghondah, « 

ΓωΚ€Οί, gholeos, 

ΓωνίΛσμός, ghoniasTTios, 

Γαύρος, gdvros, 

Γανραξ, gMvrax, 

Γανλός, ghavlos. 

rowosj ghounos, 

Γοννατα, ghounatah, 

Γοννοπαχηδί ghounopahes. 

Γίνος, yenos, 

Γ^ντιανη, yentiane, 

Γίνντιμα, yenemah, 

ΓήΒιον, yethion. 



Γηγ€νης, yeymis. 
Γηθ€θ<€ος, yethaleos, 
Γ€νμα, yevmah, 
ΓβυσίΓ, yefsis, 
revoTiKOs, yefstiMs, 
Γβίσον, yeson. 
Γ€ΐτονία, yetoniah* 
Γοϊ, yee. 

"Αγγαρος, ahngharos. 
*Αγγ€7ον, ahngheon. 

* Αγγελία, ahnghelia. 

* Αγκύλος, ahnghelos. 
"Αγκυρα, dhngherah, 
^Αγκνλόκωλος, ahiighelOholos. 
'Άγξις, ahnxis. 
^Αγχίτοκος, ahncMtokos, 
Άγχόη, ahnchoe, 

* Αγχόνη, dhnchone, 
*Αγχότατος, ahnchotatos. 



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172 THE CONSONANTS. 



is pronounced like th in thisy that. The use of σδ, δδ, δ, in- 
stead of f, as in κωμμά^^^νν^ λαδδοιτο, μουσιΒΒει (= μνθ(ζ,€ί), ττλα- 
γιάδδοκτ€9, ψαιριδ䀫/ (σφαιρίζ€ΐν)^ /Ααδδαν, χρή88€ται, etc.; !Σδ€υ9 
(Zcvs), σδυγός, σδ€νγλίχ, οσδος, κω/χ,άσδω, φροντίσ8ω, ονομασθώ, 
«ικάσδω, etc. ; δυ^ όν, δν/χόν, Acvs, etc., — which forms were in 
use among many tribes of ancient Greece, such as the Spar- 
tans, the Megarians, the Boeotians, as well as the JEolians 
and Doi-ians, — proves most conclusively that the pronuncia- 
tion of δ used by the modem Greeks was prevalent among the 
tribes we have enumerated, long before the time of Alexander. 
As ζ had a " hissing sound " (συριστικό?), its dialectic substi- 
tute δ should have a similar sound (ομοωφθογγο^) ; but if δ 
were pronounced as a d, it could never be interchanged with ζ. 
But we cannot agree with Oekonomos that the pronunciation 
of δ, as pronounced by the modern Greeks, was prevalent 
" throughout Greece," in the very acme of the Hellenic lan- 
guage. On the contrary, we have reason to believe that this 
soil (douce)y so to speak, pronunciation of δ was simply dia- 
lectic and not general. There are many words in modem 
Greek, in which δ sounds exactly as a dy from which it seems 
to us that originally the pronunciation of δ as a J was not 
uncommon among the ancient Greeks. For instance : 

AMpov, pronounced ihendron, 

"ApBpas, " andras. 

"ΑνΒρος, " andros. 

*Αν8ριώτης, " andriotes, 

*ΑνΒρ€ΐωμ€νος, " andriomenos, 

Now, whenever tiie letter δ is preceded by a v, the modem 
Greeks pronounce it as a i?; in every other case it has its soft 
sound.^ The different changes of the letter δ into various 
consonants are still prevalent in modem Greek. In ancient 
Greek we get the forms σάνδαλοι/ changed into σάμβαλον^" 
οδ€λ(>«ί for οβελός, Acvs for Zcvs, άριζηλος for άριδι/λο?, δέλω for 



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THE CONSONANTS. 173 

θίλω, η8ω for γηθω^ etc. In modem Greek we get ζορκάΖων for 
SopKoSioVy yicpos for δΐ€ρ09, etc. 

EXAMPLES OF PRONUNpiATION. 

In giving these examples we thought that it might be of 
interest to the scholar to give a few words peculiar to the 
conversational style of the Greeks. Now, it must not be sup- 
posed that these words or forms are in common use in the 
language of literature and of educated men. The cultivated 
language for the most part, as Geldart affirms, preserves the 
grammatical forms of the age of Thucydides, avoiding most 
of the innovations of the later Attic dialect, as, for instance, 
θάΧαττα for θάλαυσσα, or Χ€ρρ6νησ•ος for "Κζρσόνησος. The scholar 
familiar with classical Greek, by using the modem Greek pro- 
nunciation and observing the following peculiarities chiefly 
noticed in the language of the cominon people, will find him- 
self able to converse easily with those to whom the Greek is 
vernacular. 

α ) Strictly speaking there are but four cases in the lan- 
guage of the PEOPLE. The Nominative, Genitive, Accusative, 
and Vocative. 

β') δόία and words like it make in the Genitive τη^ Βόζας, 
and are declined as follows : 

S. N. V. δόία Μούσα P. Ν. Α. V. ρ6ξαι(ς) Μονσαί(ς) 

G. b6$as Μούσας G. ^οξων Μουσών 

Α. δ6ξα(ν) Μονσ'α{ν)' 

ffonor. Opinion, 

S. Ν. V. Ίίμη Τνωμη 

G. Ύιμης Γνώμης 

Α. Ύιμη(ρ) Γνώμη 

Ρ. Ν. Α. V. Ύιμαί(ς) Γνώμαι(ς) 

G. Τλ/χώι/ Γνωμών 

y) Α host of nouns belonging to different declensions are 
made to follow but one : thus, Ta/xtas, 'Αλυ?, Μάρης or Μάρτης, 



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174 



THE CONSONANTS. 



etc. are in the Singular number all declined alike ; namely, 
by cutting off the sign of the Noral ative -ς, in the Gtenitive 
and Vocative, and changing it to ν in the Accusative. This 
V is dropped in pronunciation when the phonetic laws of the 
language admit it (Geldart). 

δ') All adjectives in os have three endings : os, η, ov. When 
OS is preceded by a vowel, the Feminine ends in a. The ac- 
cent of adjectives in os always retains its original place : 

σοφ6(ν) 



σοφή 

σοφηί 

σοφη{ρ) 

σοφαΙ(ς) 

σοφώρ 

σοφάς 



σοφού 
σοφό(ν) 

σοφά 

σοφώρ 

σοφά 



μονή 


μονο(ν) 


μονής 


μόνου 


μ6νη(ν) 


μ6νο(ν) 


μ6ναι(ς) 


μόνα 


μόνων 


μόνων 


μόνας 


μόνα 



S. Ν. σοφός 
G. σοφού 
Α. σοφό(ν) 
V. σσφ^ 
Ρ. Ν. Α. σοφοί 
G. σοφών 
Α. σοφούς 

S. Ν. μόνος 
G. μόνου 
Α. μόνο{ν) 
Ρ. Ν. V. μόνοι 
G. μόνων 
Α. μόνους 

e) The Plural of many words, especially of those of foreign 
origin, is formed by adding -Scs to the stem, as 7rασάδ€s from 
παχτάς, μαΧμον^ς from η μ^ίμον {monkey). These Plurals are 
always paroxytone, whatever the accent of the word in the 
Singular (Geldart). 

ζ) The comparative is sometimes formed by means of 
πλ€ον, morCy as irXiov μεγάλος = greater, wkiov πλονσ•ιθ5 = 
richer, ' 

η) Metaplastic nouns or secondary formations are common, 
as η tttya (the goat), 6 πατέρας (father), 6 βαχτιλεας (king) : 

S. N. πατ€ρας βασιλ€ας 

G. irarkpa βασιΚία 

A. πατ€ρα(ρ) βασι\€α(ν) 

V. πατίρα βασΐΚία 



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THE CONSONANTS. 



175 



P. N. A. V. TTOTcpci βασΐΚ€€ς 

G. πατέρων βασιΚέωρ 

The classical forms, however, δ πατήρ, πατέρος, and 6 βασιλ€νς, 
βαχηλίως, etc., are still more prevalent. 

ff) Of the pronouns c/ac often appears as Ιμενα, ak as iak and 
iatva ; ημείς often becomes €/x€ts, and in the Accusative both 
€μάς and /Atts. The latter, used as an enclitic, supplies the 

place both of ημάς and ημών. *Υμ€Ϊς becomes σεις and cVcis, 
Accusative and enclitic possessive σας, σας. The article, as 
enclitic and proclitic, is used for the personal pronoun in 
oblique cases (Geldait). 

Personal Pfonoans. 



S. N. ^γώ, 


γώ. 






εσύ. 






G. e/tA€Va, ' 


μ€Ρα, 


pjo\J. 




εσένα, 


σένα, 


σον. 


A. f/icVa, 


μίνα. 


μ/. 




εσένα, 


σίνα, 


σε. 


P. N. ή/χ^ίί, 


€μ(ΐε, 


ftctr. 




εσεϊς, 


σεις 




G. ήμας, 


ίμας. 


/χα;. 




εσάς, 


σας 




A. ημάς, 


4μάς, 


/χα;. 




εσάί, 


σας 




The verb εΙμΙ 


is thus conjugated : 










S. €Γ/Χ£Μ, 




είσαι. 


εινε. 








p. €Ϊμ€θα, 


είσθε. 


είνε. 







Imperfect Indicative. 
S. ήμην, ζσο, ^ο{ν). 

Ρ. ^μεθα, ηστε, ^σαν. 



Future Indicative. 
S. θα ^μαι, θά. ζσαί, 

Ρ. θά^μεθα, θαησθε. 



S. θε\ω εισθαι, 
Ρ. θεΚομεν είσθαι, 



Also, 
θε\είς εισθαι, 
θέλετε εισθαι. 



θα?ίνε. 
θα ηνε. 



θε\ει εισθαι. 
θέλουν εισθαι. 



Subjunctive. 
S. ^μαι, ζσαι, 

Ρ. ήμεθα, ηθσε, 



ζνε. 
^νε. 



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176 THE CONSONANTS. 

Future Subjimctive. 
S. ^Θ€\α ίΐσθαι^ ηθίΚίς €Ίσθαι, tjB^ktv ^Ισθαι. 

P. ηθ€\αμ€ν €Ϊσθαί^ ηθ€\(Τ€ €ΐσ^αι, ήβ^Χαν elauai. 

Also, 
S. ^ά ^μουρ^ θα ήσουν, θα ητον, 

Ρ. θα ήμίθα, θα ησθ€, θα ήσαν. 

Imperative. 
S. Ισο, ας ην€, 

Ρ. &S ^V€. 

Infinitive. 
Present €ΐσθαι or eturaiy only after the auxiliary ^ω. 

Participle• 
Present Svras, indeclinable. 

γράφουσι becomes γράφουν ; for εγραφον we have e /ραφα ; for 
eypai/ra9, cypai/rcsf; for Ιγράψατ€, eypOAJ/ere, In the passive in- 
stead of Ύράφα or Ύράφ€ΐ we find •γράφ€σαι ; for Ύραφ6μ€θα^ ypa- 
φ6μ€(ττ€. In like manner for λ€γ6μ€θα we find Xcyo/Accrrc, Xcyo- 
μασταν, and various other forms down to the tragic λ€γ6μ€σθα. 

For εγραφθτρτ we get εγράφθηκαΐ for ίγράχΐίθημ,εν, ^γρουφθηκα- 
μ€ν\ for εγράφθΎμτα^, ^γράφθηκαν. 

In the present tense of contracted verbs in άω, ώ, the third 
person is often uncontracted, as άγαττάα for άγοιτά. Τι/ιιώσι 
appears sometimes as rt/now or ti/aowc. Ti/aoO/acv appears 
sometimes for τιμΛύμεν, 

Such are the main features of modem Greek accidence. 
Professor Geldart states that even with these peculiarities 
the modern Greek may be called the logical result of ancient 
Greek. "For turning to the pronouns we observe that ΙμΙνα 
and co-eiO, for ΙμΙ and σΐ, preserve the original ν (in Sanscrit 
m, mam and tvam) of the Accusative. 'E/icts is referred to by 
Plato (Crat. 418, c) as an older form for ημύ^. As to the 
enclitic and proclitic use of the article it is (except for the 



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THE CONSONANTS. Itl 

accent in the latter case) the same as the Homeric usage, 
e. g. τον €σκότωσ€, he killed him / αΊτ^συλ-ησί tovs, he spoiled 
them. Passing to the verbs we find- in Xeyow (λίτγονσι) pr 
Xeyowc the traces of the old form Xcyovrt {Ιχονι, Professor Gel- 
dart thinks, is quoted by Hesychius as a Cretan form). In 
the passive voice the forms λ€/€σαι, 2d person present, Xeyo- 
fuioTc or Xcyo/Ac^o, as well as Xcyo/Ac^cv, are so plainly Archaic 
forms that they need no explanation. In St. Paul's Epistle 
to the Romans we have καυχασ-αι, thou boastest. In the im- 
perative aorist active Xcfc for λέξον is Homeric. As to the 
imperative aorist passive Xcfov, I cannot but agree with Dr. 
MuUach " that it is the classical middle 1st aorist imperative 
of a verb in μι used as a passive, there being no middle voice 
in modem Greek. Few who compare such fonns as στάσο 
with the coiTesponding modern στόυσσυ, Si^ov, etc. will be able 
to doubt this." We now proceed with our examples of pro- 
nunciation : 

ΑψΙχρω (com. for ^€ικpvω)f th^chno, 

Ααμάσκηρορ, ρηίηβ, ihamdskeTum, 

Α€ρΒράκι, a small tree, ihendrdke, 

Δ€ρνω, to strike, themo, 

AfOTToipay mistress, thespena. 

ΑημοΒι6άσκάΚος, a teacher of a common school, ihemothithaskalos. 



Διάβολος, devil, 


theavolos. 


Διαβόητος, famous, 


theavoetos. 


Δωγωγη, conduct. 


(heagoy^. 


Classical 




Δ€ξιμη\ος, Ikeonmdos, 


Διασηκόω, theasekoo. 


Διαπυντιος, theap6ndios. 


Διάνοια, theanea. 


Διαπλησσω, theapl/so. 


Διάμετρος, theametros. 


ΔιαπίμπΚημΛ, theapimplem>e. 


Δάρχομαι, the&chome. 


Διαρρν^αν, thearrethan. 


Δίκαιος, th^heos. 


Διασημαίνω, theosemaio. 


Δικαιόπολις, thehopolis. 



. ζ 

is pronounced like ζ or like the French 8 in the word rose, 
Dionysius of Halicamassus and Sextus Empiricus say thnt ζ 



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178 THE CONSONANTS. 

results from σδ, not δσ. Thus the forms *Αθψαζ€^ Θηβαζ€^ θύ- 
ραζ€^ χα /jiaic, βνζψ^ evidently resulted from *ΑθηνασΒ(^ θηβαχτΒί^ 
θνρασ^€ χα/Αάσδ€, βνσ8ψ. The followers of Erasmus maintain 
that ζ results from δσ. It is quite probable that they were 
misled by the supposed resemblance to the Latin z. It is 
worth while, however, to consider that Quintilian remarks : 
" The Latin language has no letter by which to translate the 
Greek f, because the ζ of the Greeks sounds melodious and 
sweet, but that of the Romans, rough and unmusical ; and 
the sweet-sounding words Ζώιτνρον and Ζέφυρος, translated in 
Latin Zopyrum and 2!ephyrus^ emit but a harsh and bar- 
barous sound." 

However, the truth is that not only the Erasmians, but 
Dionysius of Halicaniassus and Sextus Empiricus are alike 
mistaken in their views of ζ. The letter ζ is not a double 
consonant, as is evident from the following Homeric pas- 
sages : II. β, 824, ο? δέ Ζέλ^αν; 634, οΓ tc Ζάκυνθον; δ, 103, 121, 
άστυ Zik€lr\9 ; Od. Ι. 24, νλψσσα Ζάκυν0ο« ; etc., in which ζ has 
the force of a single letter and, consequently, does not render 
the syllable long by position. Nor does it seem etymolog- 
ically to have resulted from δσ, because if this wae true we 
ought to have from the forms ελτΓίδσ-ι, ΐΓο^σί, ^λττιδσα, Ικομ,ι^σα^ 
etc., ΙΚτΓίζι^ ΊΓοζί^ ^λτΓΐ^α, €κ6μιζα, and not, as we have, cXTrtVi, 
'TToaiy ^λτΓίσα, Ικομισα. Finally, Professor Mavroph redes says 
that the only forms in which ζ seems to liave resulted from 
two lettei-s, e. g. σδ, are simply those mentioned by Dionysius 
and which we have already enumerated. Schleicher also 
completely discards the notion of pronouncing f as δσ or σδ. 

The ancient Greeks used to boast of the pretty sound of ζ 
(Dion. Comp. 14, p. 172, Scaf.), and a comparison of the Greek 
pronunciation with that of the Western nations will convince 
anybody that the modem Greek pronimciation is by far the 
softer, and consequently it distinctly verifies the statements 
of both Quintilian and Dionysius. The forms νίβ-γω, νφύύ, 
νίζω, τρίβω, τρίβγίύ, τριβιο), τρίζω, /ιασδος, μαζός, φράδω, φράζω 



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THE CONSONANTS. 179 

are still prevalent. Again,. the θ€νς {θ€ος) and Δΐ€υς, Lat. 
Deus, for Zcv?, άρίζηλος for άρί8ηλος, etc. show how easily the 
letter ζ passed into δ. These different changes are very com- 
mon in modern Greek and we also get the forms διατάξω for 
διατάγιω, Ταλάζιος for Γαλάγιος, etc. The change of σ into 
{, as mentioned by Liddell and Scott, is evident from the 
examples Ζφχνη, %φννη ; Σμύρνα^ Ιμνρνα ; etc. 

Professor Geldart says the fact that σ before μ invariably 
sounds as ζ in modem Greek ought to prove the identity of 
the sound of ζ in ancient and modern times. But Professor 
Geldart must certainly be mistaken, since the letter σ does 
not always sound as ζ before μ ; and with the exception of 
the word ^μνρνη, where the sound of σ approximates that of 
{, we know of no other instance in modem Greek where the 
letter σ is sounded like a ζ. For instance, the words ^μψος 
(smenoe) and Σμυρναίος (smerneos) show decidedly that the 
letter σ is not sounded like a f ; if there are any instances in 
which σ sounds like a ζ before μ, these instances are certainly 
dialectic and not general. On the contrary, the similarity of 
the changes of the letter ζ in ancient and modem Greek, and, 
moreover, the softness of its pronunciation by the modem 
Greeks, prove the identity of the sound of ζ in ancient and 
modem times. 

EXAMPLES OF PRONUNCIATION. 



Modem Greek. 




Ζώορ^ animal, 


^ζόοη. 


Ζωρταν^ς, alive, 


zondanos. 


ZvBosy beer. 


zethos. 


Ζωηρ6ς, quick, lively, 


zoeros. 


Ζήτημα^ question ; το Άνατολικόν ζήτημα. 




the Eastern Question, 


to anatolikon zuema. 


Ζάχαρι, su^ar. 


zahare. 


Ζ€στ6ς, η, ov, warm, 


zestas. 


Ζορκά8ί (η Αορκός), 


zorkathe. 


Ζημία, loss, damage. 


zemiah. 



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180 



THE CONSONANTS. 



Ζωοστόσιον, zoostdseon. 
Ζωογόνος^ zoogonos, 
Ζωοφάγοί, zoophagos. 
Ζωρός, zoros, 
Ζωστηρ) zoster. 



ClaesioaL 



Zo<f)€p6si zopheros. 
Ζηλημων^ zelerrwn. 
Zη\oμaιή|ςy zelomanU, 
Ζηλότνποίι zel6tepo8. 



is pronounced like th in the words thirij thick^ think, θ was 
changed into σ in the Laconian dialect. We have, for 
instance, in Aristophanes, Thucydides, and several other 
authors^ the fonns σ€λ€ί, σετω, σηροκτ6ν€, σιγψ, άγασός, ορσά^ 
Άσάνα *Aaav<uoLj ** τω σιω σήχατος," Sc^cicras, ^ειττο/χπ-ος, S^piTr- 
πος, instead of the fbnns ^eXcc, θέτω, θηροκτ6ν€, θιγην, άγαμος, 
ορθή, 'AOdyOf etc., του θ€Ου θνμ,ατος, Θεοδεκτα?, 0€<wro/x?ros, Θτ;- 
ριτπΓος. 

In modem Greek we have άκαντσόχοψος for άκανθόχοφος, 
etc. 

Besides this pronunciation of th the letter θ must have been 
also originally sounded among some tribes of ancient Greece 
like τη, judging from the fact that this pronunciation of τη is 
even to this day preserved in a number of words, especially 
" iv τοις σνν^νασμ,οΐς " χτ, φτ, στ, instead of χθ, φθ, σθ ; for in- 
stance : 



^Έπλ€χτηκα, epl^cteka. 


instead of 


*Επ\€χθηρ, 


*Εχτίς, echta, 


ti 


*Εχθ€9, 


Φτάνω, phtano, 


« 


Φθάνω, 


*Εγράφτηκα, egraphtekah. 


« 


*Εγράφθηρ, 


*Έγνωρίστηκα, egnorUteka, 


(( 


*Ε'γνωρίσβην, 


*AarevriSy astenay 


u 


Άσθ€νης, 


^Οχτρός, ochtras, 


it 


'Εχθρός. 



Again, in the Latin language θ is rendered by th, e. g. Ther- 
situSy Thyesta^ Theopompus, ^giathua. It must be in- 
teresting to the reader to notice how faithfully the modem 
Greeks have preserved the pronunciation of their ancestors, 



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THE CONSONANTS. 



181 



so that traces of the various dialectic sounds of the letters are 
still in use. 

EXAMPLES OF PRONUNCIATION. 





Modem Greek. 




θ€Μΐ, aunty 


thea. 


θρησκεία, religion, 


threskea. 


θάλαμος, chamber. 


thdlamos. 


θρόνος, throne, 


thronos. 


θόρυβος, tumult, 


thdrevos. 


Θνμ6ς, anger, 


themos. 


θρήνος, lamentation. 


threnos. 







θηΚύγλωσσος, theleglossos, 
θηλν^ρίας, thelethrhs. 
θηλάζω, theldzo. 
θηκτός, thehjos. 



ClassicaL 



θυροκοπίω, therokopeo, 
θνροκάπος, therokapos. 
θνρσαχθης, thersachthii. 
θνννος, thenos. 



before a, o, ω, αν, ου is pronounced like k; but before e, i, v, 17, 
ou, ct, oL, and before liquids it becomes much softer and has 
a guttural sound. This letter was interchanged in ancient 
Greek with τ; for instance, we have Ύίμων (Ttmon) for 
Κίμων {Kimon), 7ΓΟκ€ {poke) for πότ€ (pdte), κίς for τίς (tts). 
So in modem Greek we have the forms σκιλβόω (skilvoo) 
for στιλβόω (stelvoo), φκυάριον (phkearion) for φτνάριον 
(phteareon), etc. The old Attics often changed χ into κ; 
thus, χνόος and kvoos, etc.; this peculiarity is still prevalent^ 
among the modern Greeks. The change of κ into β, as men- 
tioned by Liddell and Scott, is more rare as in τήκω, Lat. <a- 
beo. In a few instances π and κ are also found interchanged 
in ancient as well as in modem times, but these forms are 
comparatively rare. 

EXAMPLES OF PRONUNCIATION. 
Modem Greek. 
KopbiXKa, ribbon, korthdla. 

Κόρφος, bosom, karphos. 



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182 THE CONSONANTa 



Κορμί (σώμα), body, 


korm^. 


Κουβαλώ, to move furniture. 


koovald. 


Κόττα (όρνιθα), hen, 


kaa. 


Κρ€ββάη, bed, 


krevdte. 


Classical• 




Καθαρπάζω, katharpaso. 


Κλπ/τίφρων, klepsiphron. 


Κηβίλκω, katheiko. 


KXe^ivoos, klepsinods. 


Ko^cfif, kathexis. 


Κλ(ψφρυτο9, klepsiretos. 


Κάθ€μα, kathema. 





is pronounced like an I. Of the so-called liquid letters the 
letter ρ is both the oldest and hardest, but λ is what Profes- 
sor Mavrophredes terms "ftcTaycvccrrcpos" (more recent) and 
" /χαλακώτ€ρο5 " (scfter), Plato attributes gliding or alipperi•- 
neaa to λ. " The sweetest of semivowels," says Dionysius of 
Halicamassus• '^HSwct /xcv yap (τήν ακοτψ) το λ #cat &Tt των 
ημ,ιφωνων yXvKvraToy • τραχυν€ΐ Sc το ρ και Ιστι των ομογενών ytV" 
ναιότατον. {ττ. σννθ. ονομ., 14.) Compare Eusthatius, p. 1106. 

The letter λ is often written instead of V and p, e. g. ηνΟον 
φίντατος for ηλθον φίλτατος, κρίβανος for κλίβανος. In some 
words y and λ are interchanged, i. e. μόγις and μόλυς. These 
changes are not uncommon in modem Greek. 

That the letter λ is not as old as the letter ρ is evident 
from the fact that the latter is more generally used in the old 
languages, such as are related to the Greek and Latin, as well 
as from its extensive use in many hard and, so to speak, 
rough-sounding dialects. We are indebted to Professor 
Mavrophredes for the following examples which decidedly 
prove that instead of the Greek and Latin λανθάνω, lateo ; 

φλέγω, fulgeo / λείττω, linquo / ΊτλΙκω^ plectO / ττίλεκυς, λνκος, 
lupus/ όλος, τον οσκίκον, sollus ,* πλατύς, latus / ηλεος, sol / 
ΊΓολνς, Ίτόλις, etc. we have the Sanscr. rahdmi (Ιγκαταλείττω)^ 
bhragamij reJc'dmi, pmakfmi, panigus, vrkas, sarvas, prthus^ 
surjaa (from svatjas), parus, purt In like manner we get 



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THE CONSONANTS. 



183 



in Greek from the one root κρν the two words κλυω and άκρο- 
ώ/ΑΟί (= ατΚ'ρόΡ-^'ομΛΐ) ; from the root irpa (πληρονν) We have 

'ττίμπλημ,ι and ΤΓΐμ,ΊΓμημχ \ from pay, αψκ€ω (άρηγω) and άλ€^ω ; 

from μαργ (Sanscn mrg') we have άμ€ργω (modem αρμέγω) 
and ά/χ€λγω; from the root ρνκ we have λνχνος and ρνχνος 
(this latter form is peculiar to the inhabitants of the island 
of Ohio) ; from γαρ we get γαρνω (γι/ρνω), γρωσσα = γλωσσά 
(in the Tsakonian dialect) and γ€λΛω, etc. These examples 
show that ρ is an older and harder letter than λ. 

EXAMPLES OF PRONUNCIATION. 
Modem Greek. 



Αάσττη, mud, Idspe, 


Αίρόνω^ to soil, lerono. 


Aarp€ia, adoration, latrea. 


Av6vωy to dissolve, leaio. 


Α€ίποθνμω, faint, lipothema. 


AvTnjy sorrow, lepe. 


Ac/iow, lemon, lemoni. 




Classical. 




AtvKovia, lq>hkan{a. 


Ααοτρόφος, laotrophos. 


Αέπω, lepo. 


Αανθάνω, lanihdno. 


Αίσβιος, lesvios. 


Αάπη, Idpe. 


Aanapos, laparde. 


Αάσανορ, Idsanon, 



Μ 

is pronounced like m in ma9i. There is no dispute concern- 
ing the pronunciation of this letter and the same dialectic 
changes which occur in ancient Greek, such as μ into π and 
μ into )9, i. e. βρ<πός, μορτο^, etc., are not uncommon in mod- 
em Greek. 

EXAMPLES OF PRONUNCIATiON. 
Modem Greek. 
Mrrof υ, meantuhUe, etc. metaxi. 

Μίταφράζω, to translate, metdphrdzo, 

MeaopvKTay midnighty mesdnecta, 

Μ€ταβάπτω, to paint over, _ metavdpto, 

Mf/da/icv^f , a man of no importance, mithaminos. 

M^icoi, length, mekos. 



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184 



THE CONSONANTa 



ΜηνντηΫ^ minitis. 
Μηνυτρορ, miniiron, 
Μηνψα, minima, 
ΜηνΙσκος, minvskos. 
ΜητίομΜ, mUiome. 



Classical. 



M^rir, mids, 
Μηστωρ^ mistor, 
ΜηρύομΛΐ, miriome. 
Μήτρα, mttra. 
Μ€γάθυμΌ£9 megdlh 



Ν 



is pronounced like η in now^ never. There is no difference 
of opinion as to the pronunciation of this letter, and the 
euphonic changes, such as ν into γ before the palatals γ, κ, χ, 
and ί, and ν into μ before the labials j8, π, φ, ^, and ν into λ 
before another λ, and ν into ρ before another p, etc., are still 
prevalent in modem Greek. 

EXAMPLES OF PRONIJUCIATION. 

Modem Greek. 

Νβροχντι;^, sink, neroheies. Νύχι, nail, n(ihi 

Ncpoy, waieTf neron, Novvor, godfather, nounos, 

"ΝίΐΓτω, to wash, mpto, "Νυστάζω, to be sleepy, nistdzo. 



Νήπιοί, baby {siUy), nipios. 



'Νάπη^ nape, 
Νάρκισσοι, ndrJdssoe. 
Na/io, nama, 
ΝαΐΦΐόν, nanion. 



'N€Kp6s, a dead man, nechros. 



ClaesicaL 



NaoirAof, naopolos, 
Ιίαοφύλαξ, naophelahx, 
"ΝαρΒίτης, narthtlis, 
'Sapbov, ndrthos. 



The common sound of this letter is that of χ in axiom, but 
much harder. After γ, ν, μ it generally has the sound of ^e, 
e. g. τον iei/ov (pronounced ton gsenon). The pronunciation 
of ζ, ξ, and φ by the modem Greeks entirely verifies the 
statements of Dionysius of Halicamassus and of Phrynichus. 
Dionysius says : " Τριών δέ όντων των άλλων γραμμάτων & Βη δίπλα 
καλ€Ϊται, το μεν ζ μάλλον η^ννει την αίκοην των Ιτερωιν • το μεν yap 



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THE CONSONANTS. 185 

ί δια του κ, το Sc ψ δια του w τον σνρνγμον άττοδιδωσι, ψιλών όντων 
αμφοτέρων. .... Phrynichus pays: ^^Nam muUo moUiorem 
8onem habet ψ quam ps vel bs sicut ergo ψ melius {moUius?) 
8onat, sic etiam χ qiuim gs vel cs. Its dialectic changes, 
especially transposition in the JEolic and Doric, of the con- 
sonants which form ^, as (ίφος^ ζιφύΒριον^ Dor. σκίφοζ^ σκιφύ' 
Sptovj are obsolete in modem Greek. 

EXAMPLES OF PRONUNCIATION. 
Modem Greek. 
iS€pv&, to vomit, xemo, ξηραίνω, to dry, xireno. 

ίΒηρός, dry, xiros, β^σκίπαστος, uncovered, xeskepahstos. 

Soivug, sower, xenos, Seirepiw, to surpass, xepemo. 

ClassicaL 
ίίάνθος, xdnthos. Swot, xinds, 

Χανθόουλος, xanihooulos. ίΒννηων, ximon. 

SfvOTipos, xenaimos, Βυλοφανη^, xUophanis. 

!Βΐ€νοτροφίω, xenotropha). 

Π 

has the power of an English p, but when it follows ft or ν it 
takes the sound of b. In modem as in ancient Greek it is 
sometimes interchanged with soft )S, as in ιτάλλω, )3άλλω, and 
the aspirate φ, as πανό?, φανός. 

EXAMPLES OF PRONUNCIATION. 
Modem Greek. 

Παραφρονώ, to despise, paraphrond, 

Ώαρ€ία, cheek, parih. 

Ώαρ€κΚησιον, a country-church, pareJdesion, 

Ώαραπόρτί, a hack-door, parapdrti. 

ΠαροΑτώ, to give up, paretd. 

Πάππος, grandfather, pdpos. 

UavTov, everywhere, pandou. 

ΏαραβΚίπω^ to neglect, paravlepo, 

ΊΙάΚηκάρί, a brave young man, palikdri. 



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186 THE CONSONANXa 

Classical. 

Παρατριβή^ parairivd, Παραχορ^Ιζω, parahorthtzo, 

Τίαρατυπωσίί, parateposis, Παραχίω, paraheo. 

Παρατρσπη^ paratrope, Ilapcic, pareL• 

Ώαρατρψοί^ panUretos. Πάρ^κβαιρω, parekveno. 

Ώαρατρίχω, paratreko, ΤίαρΙκβασίί, parekvasis, 

ϋαρατρίφω, paratrepho, Παρ(κβο\η, parekvole. 

ΙΙαραψ<ΐΚίζω, parapsalizo. Ώαρ€ν6χ\ησΐγ, parenocklesis• 

Παραψάλλω, porapsallo. Παρ€μβο\η, poretnvole. 

Ρ 

is pronounced like the English r, but with more force. Plato 
says that in the utterance of ρ the tongue is in a state of 
vibration. Dionysius calls it a "rough letter": ^Ύραχυν€ΐ Sc 
TO ρ και etrrt των 6μ,ογ€νων γενναιότατον.^ 

The letter ρ was always sounded hard at the beginning of 
a word, with the exception of the two words βάρος and paptov 
(Ύμ,νω CIS Αημ, 450), both of which have the smooth breath- 
ing. This is evident from the fact that the letter p, when 
at the beginning of a word, always had the rough breathing, 
as well as from its doubling when preceded by a vowel, e. g. 
ρήττω, pairrtuy piyros, tppiirrov^ φραψα^ άρρητος. A scholar inti- 
mates that the rough breathing received by this reduplication 
a certain " solidity and concentration." 

Hence it becomes evident that the rule of the grammarians 
— "To ρω cav δίσσοι^ γειτηται h μ€<η[ΐ Xcfct, το ftcv πρώτον ψιλού- 
TiU, το 8c Scrrcpov ΒασυνετοΛ : οίον ΙιτίρρημΛ^ άρρωστος^ συρράπτω, 
etc., ψιΧονται 8c το μ^ν πρώτον, Swti ovS€VOT€ ονλλχιβη ελληνικής 
λ€ί€ως €ΐς 8ασυ λγγ€ί. Το Sk ScvTcpov 8ασνν€ται, 8ιότι φίλαρχος 
i<mvη 8ασ€Γα!" — is not after all, as a modem Greek inti- 
mates, much of a rule. Because, whilst the letter ρ at the 
beginning of a word, both by its rough breathing and hard 
sound, renders the final vowel of a preceding word in the 
dactylic hexameter and the iambic trimeter of the dramatists 
as well as in the anapaests long by position, as in H. ω, 755 : 

** Πολλά Ι^υστάζ€σκ€ν έοϋ repl σημ έτάροιο ! " 



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THE CONSONANTa 187 

it often happens that for the sake of the meter in the same 
word the letter ρ is not doubled though a vowel precedes it, 
as is evident from the Homeric φ€ζον^ ^^e, άμφφύτη ; also in 
Soph. Antig. 950 : 

** KcU Zipot ταμΐ€ύ€σκ€ ywh$ χ^νσορντον^,'* 

and in Aristoph. ®€σμ. 655, hiApi^av^ and so on. 

The rough breathing of ρ at the beginning of a word has 
often, as Professor Mavrophredes asserts, an etymological 
signification ; that is to say, it takes the place of some omitted 
consonant, e.g. phrm = Sanscr. sarpam% Lat. serpo; ροφ€ω^ 
Lat. sorbeo; ρηγνυμι^ liOt, /ranffo ; ptycai, Ij2it. frigeo ; ρίν^ζ), 
Sanscr. ghrdna-m; ptwos = Lat. scirpus; poSovy -^ol. βρ6&ον; 
ρινός = Έρινός ; ρ€γχω = Έρίγχω^ Lat. rugio / etc 

In modem Greek, although ρ is pronounced more strongly 
than the English r, the rough breathing of the letter ρ at the 
beginning of a word is entirely lost 

EXAMPLES OF PRONUNCIATION. 

Modern Ghreek. 

'Ράχη, back^ rdhe. 

'Ροχαλίζω, to snore, rohalizo. 

'PodoKivop, peachy rothakinon, 

'Ρουχικά, clothes, roohik<L 

'Ροπάλορ, a club (to strike with), rdpalon. 

'Ραπτρία, seamstress, raptria• 

ClassicaL 

•pg^;/uo, rathemia. 'Parmjt, rdptis. 

'ΡψΒιος, rathios, 'Ραπτός, raptos. 

'Ράσσω, rosso. 'Ραμφή, ramphe. 

'ΡαφώοΘηκη, raphithoiheke, 'Ραμρος, rwnnos. 

'Ράσμα, rasma. 'Ρ€πω, repo. 

s 

is pronounced like s in soon, see. Plato calls σ an aspirate, 
and Dionysius a hissing and disagreeable letter. 



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188 THE CONSONANTS. 

A scholar says that in modern Greek the letter σ before a 
semivowel 08, γ, δ, ί, λ, /*, v, p) is sounded like a ζ. So also 
in the proclitics τους^ τάς before the same consonants; tous 
βασιΧ.€Ϊς τ^ γ^ = touz vosdes tez ffhes. 

But this is not so. The letter σ does not sound in modem 
Greek like a { before the letters mentioned. The statement 
in "modem Greek" is too broad. This pronunciation is 
simply dialectic and not generaL Now, the letter σ was pro- 
nounced like a ζ among some tribes of ancient Greece especi- 
ally before the letters γ, δ, β^ and before the* liquids A, p, yx. 
Thus, we find in many inscriptions belonging to the first 
century A.TD. many words written with a ζ instead of a σ ; 
e. g. Zfiapay3o9, Ζμνρνη^ Σμικρός^ Z)9orat. The writer Lucian 
also in his " cv τή Slicq των φωνηάττων " represents the letter σ 
as complaining of ζ and saying, "ore δ' oU^c^ckokov cc/u γράμμΛ 
μαρτνρ€Ϊτ€ μοι και αυτοί, μΎβ€7ΓθΤ€ ίγκαλίσηντι τ^ ζήτα σ|λήραγ8ον 
άττοσνάσαντι καΧ πασαν άφ€λόμ€νω την Σ|ΐνρνην." Compare 
Eustathius (pp. 217, 228) and Sextus Empiricus, etc. We 
must not omit to mention that we have no proof that this 
dialectic pronunciation of σ was prevalent among the tribes 
of ancient Greece, and in the very best period of the Hellenic 
language. Now, this dialectic pronunciation of σ, which pre- 
vails in some sections of modern Greece, certainly proves that 
the modem Greeks have not only preserved the pronuncia- 
tion of their ancestors, but even their dialectic variations. 

EXAMPLES OF PRONUNCIATION. 
Modem Greek. 
2τρηφω^ to tmst^ strepho. Στόλοί, a fleet, stolos, 

2τοίχημα, a bet, stehema, IvyxvaiSt ^ confusion^ senhesis. 

2τ€ρω, to deprive, sierro. 

Classical. 
2κΚηρ6ί, sHeros, 2κινθ(φίζω, skintharizo. 

Σκιρτάω, sicirtdo» Σκίνδάλαμος, skinthalamos. 

Σκιράφ€ίον, sldraphion. Σκιρας, skiras. 



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THE CONSONANTS. 189 



is pronounced like t in teU^ task, tin. After ν it is generally 
sounded like a rf, as ίη-ομος = endomos. This pronunciation 
of the letter τ as c? after ν is very old, judging from the fact 
that in an old Latin inscription (see Scalig. Vetust. Rom.) 
we find " δια πάντων " written dia pandon. Again, as regards 
*' expression of sound " and " euphony " the reader, if he pro- 
nounces the following Homeric line : 

** Πολλά δ* ayain'a, κάταιη•α, trapcurra re, δόχμια τ ^\θον" 

will ohserve that the sound of r as a (f after ν is much more 
" majestic " and " expressive." 

EXAMPLES OF PRONUNCIATION. 
Modem Greek. 

ToKosy interest (on money), tokos, 

TinoTf, notliing, tepote. 

TMToreVioff, good for nothing^ tepoioiios, 

Ύίμόνι, rudder, temoni. 

Τρίζω, grind, trezo. 

Ύσακόνω = αδράχνω, to. caJtch, tsakono. 

Classical. 
Ταρσοί, tarsos. Ταράσσω, iardso. 

Ύαρσόω, iarsoo. Ύάραξις, tdraxis. 

Ίαρβίω, tarveo. Ύαριχψπορος, tarihemboros. 



is pronounced like ph in philosopher. In some parts of an- 
cient Greece, especially in the Peloponnesus, the letter φ was 
often used instead of #c; therefore it is highly prohable that 
the letter φ was originally pronounced by gt)me as a κ ; that 
is to say, like the Latin q. In many ancient inscriptions we 
find the letter <^ used instead of κ, as for instance ορφον = op- 
KOVj Μ€ν€συφράτονς = McvcaiKparovs. 



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190 THE CONSONANTS. 

Now, this hypothesis which we advance concerning the 
pronunciation of φ (as a #c) is rendered highly probable from 
the etymology of some words. For instance the word ird- 
φρων^ a scholar asserts, is akin to the Smiscr. pakdmi ; in the 
word Αυφοδόρκος we see that the first part, Awco-s is akin to 
the Sanscr. vffkas^ Lat. lupiis^ which perhaps came fi-om 1%^ 
quus; in this example we see plainly that <^ = to the Latin q. 
Whether there are any traces of the pronunciation of φ as a ic 
among the modem inhabitants of Peloponnesus, we have not 
been able to ascertain. 

EXAMPLES OF PBONUNCIATION. 
Modem Qreek. 
Φθάσίμον, arrival^ phthdsmon• φλόγα, βαηιβ^ phloga, 

Φθην^, cheap, phthencL ^vKkadtov, pamphlet, phUdthion. 

ΦΧυτζάρι (τό), cup, phletzdni, ΦωΚ(ά, nest, pholecL 

Classical. 

ΦίΚακόλουΰος, philakoloothos. ΦΐΚάρματος, phildrmatos. 

ΦΐΚά^€\φος, phildthelphos. Φΐλήρ€τμος, pMeretmos, 

Φθόνος, phthonos. ΦίΚοθηρία, philotheria. 

ΦΐΚήμων, philemon. Φιλόθονποί , philahoopos. 

ΦίΚίρδστος, phUdnthotos. ΦΐΚόδαφνοί, philahaphnos. 
Φιλάργυρος, phUaryeros• 



is pronounced like the English A in the word Ao««e, or much 
more like the German h in the word haben, χ and κ are 
often interchanged both in ancient and modem Greek, e. g. 
Β€χομαι = δ€κο/ιαι; we also find it interchanged in modem 
Greek after σ^ as σκίζω for σχίζω, 

EXAMPLES OF PRONUNCIATION. 

Modem Qreek. 

XoXmS, to spoU, halno. Χαρτί, paper, hartt. 

Χαμένος, lost, ham^nos, Χαψιά, a mouthful, hapsicL 

Χαρά, joy, hara Xavpos, lazy, hatmos. 



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THE CONSONANTS. 191 

ClaesicaL 
Χοη, hoe, Χνόοί, hnoos, 

Χοιράς, herds, Xopdoroposy horthoUmos* 

Χροάζω, hnodzo, 

is sounded like ^σ, e. g. 

Modem Greek. 

Ψψ-ος, roasted, psetds. ΨάΚίδι, scissors, psalithl 

Ψωνίζω, purchase, psonizo. 

Cla438ioaL 
Ψαφαρός, psaphards. Ψαμάθη, psamdthl 

Ψάω, psdo, ΨάλλοΛ, psdllo, 

Ψάμαΰος, psdmaihos. 



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CHAPTER VI• 

COMBINATIONS OF CONSONANTS. 

( 

Τ '■ 
before κ, γ, ί, χ is pronounced like ν (ng). For example: 
before /c, as in άγκίον^ pronounced ankeon; before γ, as in 
αγγ€λο9, pronounced ang-gdoB ; before ί, as in αγίις, pro- 
nounced anxis; before χ, as in αγχόνη, pronounced anhane. 

in middle syllables is pronounced like mb ; as a/xircXos, pro- 
nounced ambdoa. ^. 

NT 
occurs only in middle syllables in pure Greek words ; when 
V ends one word and τ begins the next, the latter takes the 
Bound of (?; for example: τον ravpw, pronounced ion rfowron / 
τον τάφον, pronounced ton daphon. 

Κ 
in the middle of a word and after γ or ν in the same word or 
in consecutive words partakes of the sound of γ (very soft) ; 
for example, €γκ€ψαλος, pronounced eng^giphalos ; τον κ^πον^ 
pronounced ton ghiporu 

Π 
at the beginning of a word which follows one ending with ν 
is sounded like a ό ; for example : τψ πόλιν, pronounced ikn 



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COMBINATIONS OF CONSONANTS. ,193 

bolen. It likewise takes the sound of b after μ in the middle 
of a word ; e. g. τήχττανον, tembanon. 

f 5 (dialectic pronunciation) 
before )ff, 8, p, is ptoBounced like a 2 or like the French 8 in the 
word rose; for example: before )3, as in σβ^στηρ^ pronounced 
zvester; before ^ as in *Ασ^ρούβας^ pronounced azthrouvcis/ 
before p, as in *1&ραήλ, pronounced izrael. 



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CHAPTER VH 



I* 

EXAMPLES OF MODERN GREEK PRONUNCIATION. 



Fob the purpose of connected illustration, and that the 
modem Greek pronunciation may be presented to the student 
as definitely and clearly as possible, we give here selections 
from ancient and modem Greek authors, putting under each 
word of the original text the English symbols required to 
represent accurately the modem Greek method: 

From Xenophon's ''Anabasis." 

*Ε7Γ€4τα 8^ άναμνησω yap νμας καΐ τονζ των Trpoyoviov των 

llpita thaiy anamntso ghar emca he tooa ton proghonon ton 

ημ€Τ€ρωι/ κιν&ννονς. Ινα €*ώητ€ ως άγαθοίς τ€ νμίν νροσηκ€ΐ, cTvcu 

emetSron kinthmoos, ena ithetai as aghathis te emin proseki tnai 
σώζονται τ€ σνν τοΐς θ^όίς καΐ €κ ιτάνυ Sctvtuv οΐ αγαθοί. *Έλβόντων 
sozonde te sin tis theis ke ek pdni thinon e aghathu EUhondon 
ft€V yap Ιΐ€ρσων καΐ των σνν αντοΐς ira^wXrfOci στόλω ως άφανι- 
men ghar Person ke ton sin trftts pamplethS stolo os aphani- 
ονντων Tois Ά^ι/νας, ντΓοστηναΑ αντοΐς * Αθηναίοι τολμησαντ€ς ενίκψ 
\oondon tas AtAtnas, ipostene aflis Athinei tolmUandes enike- 
σαν αντονς Koti ^υζάμενοι τή Άρτήχιδι οπόσους καταχάνοιεν των 
san afloos ke efxameni te Arthemithi oposoos katakdnien ton 
7Γθλ€μιων τοσαντας χίμαιρας καταθύσ^ιν τζ ^€φ, «ret ονκ €Ϊχον 

polemion tosdfias himeras katathisin te theo ept ook than 
ικονας €vp€ii/y iSo^tv αντοΐς κατ Ινιαντον πεντακόσιας θν€ΐν, καΐ ert 
ekanas evrtn, ethoxen aflis kaf eniaflon pendakostas thi'in, ke eti 
Koi vvv άτΓοθνονσιν, 

ke nin apothtoosin. 



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EXAMPLES OF MODERN PRONUNCIATION. 195 



From ΤΙλάτωνο« Άιτολογία Σωκράτον^,^ 

Τίλευτων ουν απ. τονς χεφοτέχ^ας §α• Ιμαντω yap ξνν{β€νι^ 
Telefton οοη epi ioos hirotechnas ea. emaflo ghar xintthin 
ovScv hrurra^iy^y ως έπος cittciv, τούτους Sc γ' g8ctv 0Τ4 evpT^roL" 
oothen epistamenOy 08 epos ipm, iootoot ^L•i gK ethin oti evrisi- 
μί ΐΓολλα και καλά εττυτταμένους • καΐ τούτου ^ky ονκ e^cv- 
mi ροΙΙα ke kola epistamenoos. ke tootoo men ook epsef- 
σθτρ/^ αλλ* ^ύτταντο d ίγω ονκ Ύρτυστάμ,τηιν καΧ μου ταντβ 
sthin, αΐ' epistando α egho ook ipistami» ke moo tafle 
σοφωτ€ρ0ι, ησοΛ^ * αΛΛ*, ώ ανδ /ocs Ά^ι^αιοι, ταντόν μοι Ιδο^αν ^€(-ν 

sophoieri isa», atP, ο andres Aihine'i, ύαβόπ me ethoxan ehi» 
άμΛρτημα^ Swep καΧ oi ιτοιηταύ^ καΧ ot ayaOoi &ημισυ[τ/οί• &α το 

amdrtema oper ke e pietS, ke e agkatU themioorghe. tkia te 
την τίχνψ καλώς ί$€ργάζβτθα4, ίκαστος ηζίου και τ 2λλα τλ 

tin tehnin kalos exerghazesthe ekastos exioo ke f alia ta 
μεγκττα σοφωτατος civot, #cal αυτών αντη η 'Κ'λημμ€λενι Ικ&νην 

megista sofotatos tne, ke αβόη afte e pUmmelia ekinin 
την σοφίαν αττίκρυτττεν ωστ c/ic Ιμαυτον avipayrqv ιητψ τω) 

tin so/tan apekripten. osf erne emaflon anerotan iper too 
χρησμού πότερα Βεζαιμην αν οϋτως Sxnrep €χω ^civ, Η'ψ'^ f^ σοφός 

hrismoo patera thexemin an ootoa osper eho Shin, mete te sophos 
&v την ίκείνων σοφίαν μητ€ άμαθης την α/χά^ιαν, ^ αμφότερα & 

on ten. ektnon softan mete amathU ten amdthean, e ampiotera a 
€K€ivoi • ίχονσιν <Ιχειν • άπεκρινάμην ovv Ιμαυτί^ κσΧ τω χρησμέ οτι 

ektni. Shoosin ehin, apekrindmin οοη emaflo ke to krismo, oti 
μοι λυσιτελοΐ ωσπερ €χω ^€tv. 

me lisiteli osper oho ehin. 

From a Greek Newspaper, October 18, 187β. 

To ίόγμα της συνταγματικής θεωρίας αντίκειται καΐ εις την φυσιν 
Το thoghma tis sintagmatikts theortas andikete ke is ten phisin 
του άνθρωπου και εΙς την φνσιν των πραγμάτων, Ή Βευτερα μεγάλη 
too anthropoo ke is ten phisin don pragmdton. Έ theflera megali 
3wa/us της συνταγματικής θεωρίας είνε η αντιπροσωπεία, *0 βου^ 
tkUtamis tis sentagmatikes theortas tne e *andiprosopm, voo- 



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196 EXAMPLES OF MODERN PRONUNCIATION. 

λ€υτης €χ€ΐ απόλυτον εζουσίαν να 8ui$€(rg την τιμήν την wcpunxriay 
Ιββέί Shi αρόΐϋο» exoostan ηα thiathdse tin dimtn tin perioostan 
ivos ίκατομμνριου και ttXcov άνθρίοττων, χωρίς να § νποχρ€ωμ€νος να 
enas ekatommirtoo ke pleon anthropon, horts na e epohreomonos na 
8UKrg v€pl τοντου λόγον. *Eiwowri τοιούτον σνμβόλανον όί άνθρωποι 
those peri tootoo logon, Ennooasi tiooton simvoleon e anthrope 
του SiKoIov; "Κ-νβ^ρνησις Iv συνταγματική TrokiTtlq. (tvc oi υπουργοί, 
too thikeooF Kevemisis en sindagmatikS politta ene e epoorgS, 
Ήρωτυπον μ€γάλου πρωθυπουργού €V *Αγγλί^ Ιστι ο AopSos Ουάλ- 
Protepon megaloo prothipoorgoo en Anklia estt ο lorthoi ΟοάΙ• 
πωΚ π€ρΧ ου Xiyci συγγραφείς τις δ τι " επΙ της κυβ€ρνησ€ως τσο 
ροΐ pert οο legi iingrafS/s tis ο ti "ept tis kiverniseos too 
ΟυάλιτωΚ η διαφθορά κατηντησ€ σύστημα Βααργανισμίνον,^' (Τ€ρος 
ΟοάΙροΙ e thiafthora kattndise sUtema thiorganismSnon,* dtero» 
Sk oTi "ovScts καθ* δλον το "Βασιλειον της * Αγγλίας υΐΓ€στηριζ€ν 
the oti " oothts katK όΐοη to Fasilion tis Ankltas ipesterizen 
αυτόν Ik TrcTroi^yo-ctus." 
αβόη ek pepithiseos^ 



A Modem Greek Prayer offered before performing the Sacrament 
of the Eucharist. 

'Άρτος Ζώης, αΐωνιζονσης γ€ν€σθω /αοι, το %ωμά σου το άγων, 
Artos Zots, eonizoosis genSstL• me, to Soma soo to aghion 
€}^σπλαγχν€ Kvpte, καΐ το τίμιον Αίμα, καΐ νόσων πολυτρόπων άλ€$ψ ' 
Sfsplaehne Ktrie, ke to ttmion ilma, ke noson politropon alexi- 
τηρισν, 
tSrion. 
'Β€βηλωθ€ίς, ΙΙργοις αίτόποις ο SctXcuos, του σου αχράντου '^ωμα- 
Fevelothts, Srghis atopis ο thileos too soo achrandoo Soma- 
T09, καΧ Θειου Αίματος, άνάζιος υπάρχω, Xpurrk της μ€τουσίας, ijs 
tos, ke Thtoo iimatos, anaxios eparho, Christi tis metoostas, is 

μ€ άζίωσον δακρύων μοι παράσχου "Κριστί. ρανιδας, τον ρύπον 

me axtoson. Thakrion m£ pardshoo ChristS rantthos, ton rtpon 

της καρδίας μου καθαιρουσας^ ως &ν €υσυv€lJ8ότως Κ€καθαρμ€νος^ 
'tis karthias moo katheroosas, os an efsinithotos kekatharmSnos 



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EXAMPLES OF MODERN PRONUNCIATION. 197 

TTMrrci ΊτροσίρχωμΛΐ καΐ φόβί^ Δεσττοτο, iv rg μ€Γαληψ€ί των ®€Liay 
ptsti prosSrhomey ke photo Thespota^ en fe metaltpsi ton Thio» 
Βίόρων σσν, 
ihoron soo, 

Ets αφ€σιν γεν^σθω /tot των Ίτταατματων^ το άχραντοι σου 2ω/Αα 
Is dpAesin genestho me ton ptesmdton, to ahrandon soo Soma 
καϊ ®€Ϊον Αίμα^ eiq ΊΙνευματο^ * Αγίου re κοίνωνίαν^ καΐ cts αΐωνιον 
ke Thton iima, is Fnevmatos AgUoo te kinonian, ke is eonio» 
ζααην φιΧάνθμωιπ€^ καΧ τταΒων κολ θλίψεων αλλοτρίωσα^• 
ζοίη filanthrope, ke pathdn ke thltpseon allotriosin. 



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APPENDIX. 



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APPENDIX. 



BREATHINGS. 

Thebe are two breathings. The rough breathing * (spiru 
tus cdsper) and the smooth breathing * {spiritus lenis). They 
are indicated by the marks * * placed over the initial vowel. 

Words beginning with a diphthong take their respective 
breathings over the second vowel : atSi/^os, cISo?, €ΐ;δω. But 
in the improper diphthongs t never takes the breathing, even 
when it stands upon the line : ΏιδεΓον = wUlov, 

The following words have the rough breathing : 

1. The initial consonant p: thus, ρψ-ωρ; except *Papos, 
JRarua; *νάριος, α, ov,from JRaros^ Rarean: esp. the JRarian 
plain near Eleusis; 'Ράρος, a child of premature birth; but 
pp appears in niost editions pp: παλίρροια. 

2. All words beginning with ν : thus, ΰδωρ, vcXos. 

3. The articles 6, η, oi, ah 

4. The relative pronouns and the relative adverbs : os, ^, o, 
όίος,δσος, ηλίκος, ως, οττως, ηνίκα^ etc. 

5. The personal pronouns of the first and second person 
Plural and the third person Singular : ημ.€ΐ% ου, οζ c, etc. 

6. The possessive pronouns which are formed from the 
stem of the personal pronouns ήμερος. So also the reflexive 
pronouns of the third person Ιαντου, cavr^. 

7. The numerals eU, ίξ, hrra, ίκατον, and all their deriva- 
tives, e. g. Ινιαΐος, ΙβΒομοζ, αττακόσνοι» 

Remark 1. The following words, which are alphabetically clas- 
sified, and their derivatives have also the rough breathing : 



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202 



APPENDIX. 



ϋβρα, a favorite slave. 

άβρόί, graceful, 

6γιος, devoted to the gods, 

ayvost ^olyi sacred, etc. 

^ Αγνών or "Αγνών, Hagnon (a 
proper name). 

&γο9, €ος, reverence. 

άγω for A (γώ, 

&B€, 3 sing. aor. 2 of avdSa, Horn, 
inf. adtiv, 

4^ης, the nether world, 

ddov for (adov, aor. 2 of άν^άνω, 

ά^ρος, thick, 

άΒνπνοος, Dor. for ηδνίΓνοοΐ. 

advs, Dor. for ήδύί, 

άζομΜ, to stand in awe of, 

ut/xa, Mood. 

(ίίμνιον, a bcLsin for^blood, 

Αιμον€ς, ων, the Hcemoneans (in- 
habitants of Hasmonia). 

Αιμόνως, Hoemonios (a proper 
name). 

αίμοί or αίμός, ov, prob. any scratch- 
ing point, as of thorns. 

Αϊμος, Haimus (a mountain). 

αίμν\ο9ι winning. 

αίμωδ€ω, to have the teeth on edge, 

αίμων, όνος, = δαίμων, knowing, 
skilful, 

Acfu»y, Hoimon (a proper name). 

αίνω, to sift, to winnow, 

atptais, a taking, conquering. 

αίρίω, to grasp, to seize. 

Skas, salt. 

oXcla, fishing, 

Sk^rai, Ep. for SkrfrcA, subj. aor. 2 
of SKKoyMi, to leap. 

όλίως, adv. from όλης, Hipp. 



"Αλιά, a festival of the Bhodians. 
*Αλία, ας, Ion. for 'Αλί^, HaUa (a 

Nereid). 
όλία, Ion. όλίη, an assembly, 
*Αλιαί, ων, Halioi (a city). 
'Αλίεφτος, Haliartus (a city). 
*Αλ*άς, the territory of Halioi. 
όλίβΒύω for όλΛύω, to sink in iJie 

sea. ' 
όλίίύς, a fisher. 
άΧίζω, to gather, 

'Αλιζώνιον, Halizonium (a city). 
*Αλιθ(ρσης, HdUthersis (a proper 

name). 
'Αλικαρνασσός, Halicarnassus. 
όλικία. Dor. for ηλικία. 
'Αλικυαι, ων, Halicyce (a city). 
'Αλίκυρνα, Halicyrna (a region of 

^tolia). 
*Αλιμηδη, Halimede (a Nereid). 
*Α\ιμονς, Halimus (a deme of the 

Attic tribe Leontis). 
ίΚιος for ίξΚιος. 
ίΚιος = μάτοΛος, fruitless. 
^AXiof) Halius (a proper name). 
εΚις, in heaps. 

*Αλίσαρνα, Halisama (a city). 
όλισγ€ω, ω, to pollute, 
όλίσκομαι, to he taken. 
Άλω-όδημος, Halisodemus (a poet). 
εΚΚομαι, to spring, leap. 
άΚμη, sea-water. 

"Αλμος, Halmus (a proper name). 
έλίίυργΊς, a purple robe, 
όλονργός. dyed with sea-purple, 
&Κ6ω = όλίσκομαι. 
3λς, a grain or lump of salt. 
δΧνσις, a chain. 
*Αλωα, a festival of Ceres. 



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APPENDIX. 



203 



άΚω€νς, one who works on a Uresh- 

ing-floor* 
άΚώυ, £p. for άλψ, 3 sing. subj. 

aor. 2 of άΚίσκομαι. 
&Κώϊο£ = ak<u(iposj used in a thresh" 

ing-fioor, 
'λΚωΐί = 'Αλωάί, Theocr. 7, 155. 
άΚώκαντι, Dor. for ίζΐΚώκασί^ 8 pi. 

perf . of άλίσκομαι, 
άΚώμ€ναι, Ep. for άΚωναι, inf. aor. 2 

of άλίσκομαι. 
3λων, ωνος, η, = δλωί. 
άΚωνοί, inf. aor. of άλίσκομαι. 
άΚωνήομαι, dep. to work on a 

threshing floor, 
3λως = a threshing-floor, 
άλώω, Ep. for άλω, subj. aor. 2 of 

άΚίσκομαι, 
άμα, adv. α< once. 
Άμα^ρυάί, usu. in plnr., the Hama- 

dryades (nymphs). 
άμάμαξνς, a vine trained on two 

poles. 
άμαξα, a heavy wagon, 
Άμαξία, Hamaxia (a city). 
Αμαρτάνω^ to misS, 
όμαρτη, adv. together, 
άμιλλα, a contest, 
άμ\ς (και άμ\ς)^ a ship, 
άμμα a knot, 
άνδάνω, to please. 
άπαλόί, tender, 
άπάντη, everywhere, 
άπάντοτ€, always, 
άπαξ, once, 
άπλονς, simplex, 
άπτρα, the wick of a lamp. 
άτΓτω, to fasten. 
apKvs (άττίκως), hunter's net. 



άρμα, a chariot 
"Αρμα, Harma (a city). 
'^Αρματος, Harmatus (a promon- 
tory). 
*Αρματονί, HarmatuS (a city). 
αρμόζω, to join. 
'Αρμονίδηΐ, Harmonides (a proper 

name). 
αρπάζω, to carry off. 
'Αρπάλίων, Harpalion (a propw 

name). 
"Αρπαλοί, Harpalus (a proper 

name). 
ΆρπάΚνκος, Harpalycus (a proper 

name). 
άρΊτΜνη, a rope. 
άρπ€ζα, a hedge. 

"Αρπινα, Harpina (a place in Elis). 
Άρποκράτης, Harpocrates (a proper 

name). 
Άρποκρατίων, Harpocration (a 

proper name). 
"ApTTviai, the Harpies. 
a^Uopos, fastidious. 
ά^ίί, α tying. 



iada, perf 2 of άν^άνω, 
4άΚωκα, perf. of άλίσκομαι. 
€(ίΚώκ€ΐν for K€vai, inf. perf. of 

άλίσκομαι. 
ίανηφόροί, a thin, light robe* 
iav6s, η, όν, fit for wearing. 
carat, 3 pi. pres. from ^ιμαι, Ion. 

for JjvTOL•. 
iavTov, rJY, of himself. 
€άφθη, Hom., only found in Ή. y, 

543, and ξ, 419. 
€β^ομος, the seventh. 



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APPENDIX 



"Εβ/χϋοί, Hebrew, Ν. Τ. 

^Εβρος, the Hebrus. 

€Βαν6ς, epith. of oil in Hom^ 

pleasant, 
cdvo, nuptial gifis. 
SfdoSf stool, 

cdovfuzi, fut. of €ζομαι. 
cdpa, a chair, 
€€σσατο^ 3 sing. aor. mid. Ep. of 

CWVfU. 

€€στο, 3 sing. plpf. pass. Ep. of 

CVWfU. 

€ζομΜ, to sit, 

€η, fern, of 46s, his, etc. 

€ηκ€, Ep. for ήκ€, 3 sing. aor. 1 of 

ϊημί. 
€ηνδαν€, Ep. for ijvba¥€, 3 sing. 

impf. act. from άμ^άνω» 
SfU€Vf Ep. and Att. poet. gen. for 

CO ov, masc. and fern, his, her, of 

him, of her. 
€θην, aor. 1 pass, from ίημι, 
€iav6g, Ep. for €av6s. 
f tXiy, the sun's warmth, 
€Ϊλίγμα, poet, for Έλιγμα, 
Έίλιγμαι, perf . pass, from ίΚίσσω. 
€ΪΚΊχατο, Ion. 3 pi. plpf. pass, from 

ίΚίσσω, 
€ΐ\κυσα, aor. 1 act of ^Κκω. 
ΈΪΚκύσΰην, aor. 1 pass, of cXk». 
ciX^a, less usu. aor. 1 act. from 

ΐΚκω than €(λκνσα. 
ΈΪλον and ίϊΚόμην, aor. 2 act and 

mid. of αΙρ€ω, 
€ΐΚόπ(ϋορ, rarer form for dciXo- 

frcdov, α sunshiny place, 
Έίλνω, to wind, 
Έϊλως, Helot. 
(Ιμα, a dress. 



€ίμαρμ€νη, fate. 

€ΐμ€ν, 1 pi. aor. 2 opt for cu/ficv of 
ϊημι. 

€ίμ€νος, part. perf. pass, of ^ννυμι, 

€Ϊμην, aor. 2 opt. mid. of ϊημι. 

€iV€Ka, poet for cWica. 

€ior, Ep. aor. for Έως. 

ccpyyvfu, to shut in, 

€ίρκτη, prison. 

els, μία, €iv, one, 

€is, part. aor. 2 of ϊημι. 

€ΐσα, I put, placed. 

€ΐσάμην, aor. mid. of βισα, Att 

€iTo, 3 sing. aor. 2 ind. (also opt.} 
mid. of ϊημι. 

€ΐωί, Ep. for €ως, constantly. 

*Εκάβη, Hecuba, 

'ΕκάΚη, Hecah (an Attic borough). 

*Εκαμηδη, Hecamede (a proper 
name). 

€κας, afar. 

Έκαστος, every one. 

€κάτ€ρος, each of two, 

€κατ6ν, a hundred. 

€κητι, by means of. 

cicicatdcKa, sixteen. 

"Εκτωρ, Hector (a proper name). 

€κωι/, willing. 

iKeiai, meadow-nymphs, 

EXctoi, the Helei (a people of Ara- 
bia; Strabo). 

ik€i6s, the dormouse, 

Έ\€νη, Helen, 

*Έλίΐ/09, Helenas, 

ίλίσθαι, inf. aor. 2 mid. of α{ρ€ω. 

cXiy, the heat, 

ΐΚη, 3 subj. aor. 2 of αίρίω. 

ίΚηΜ, Ion for iKjj. 

*Έλίκη^ Hdice (a proper name). 



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205 



'Ελικών, Helicon. 

ίλιννω, to rest 

iki(t anything twisted. 

€\iσσωt to ium round. 

€XKosy a wound. 

ίλκνω^ to draw. 

'EXkasf Greece. 

€Χλ€βορος, hellebore. 

"Ελλι/μ, a Greek. 

*ΈΧΚησποντο9, the Hellespont, 

ίλμΛνς, a worm. 

ίΚοψι, ίλοίμην, opt. aor. 2 act and 

mid. of αΙρ€ω. 
"EXoff, Hdos (a city). 
cXoy, wet, low ground. 
€/A€v and (μ(ραι, poet for c ίνα*, inf. 

aor. 2 from ϊημι. 
c/icyof, part. aor. 2 mid. of ϊημι. 
€vos (καϊ ίνας), a year old. 
€v6mjs, unity. 

cWv/it, to clothe one's self in. 
((ysix. 

i(rjsf in order, 
io, Ep. gen. of the pers. pron. 

3 pers. for οΰ. 
4oit Ep. dat sing, of pers. pron. οΰ 

for 04. 
4oio, Ep. gen. from 46s for iov. 
ioist dat. pi. from 46$. 
€opTrfy a feast, 
(OS, (Tfy toy, Ion. and Ep. for Ss, ή, 

Sv, his, her own. 
hr€v. Ion. imp. from έπομαι. 
€πομαι, to follow. 
cirra, seven. 
€pKos, a fence. 
€ρμα, a prop, support 
ίρμην€υω, to interpret 



Έρμψ, Hermes. 

€ρπω, to creep. 

€ρση (fcoi €ρση), dew, 

(s, imp. aor. 2 from ϊημι. 

€σμα, a Stalk. 

Ισμός, anything let loose, esp. a 
swarm of bees, 

ίσν4ρα, evening. 

"Eawepos, Hesperus (a proper 
name). 

ϊσσων. Ion. for ησσων. 

faraoj pf. 2 of Ιίττημί. 

€στακα^ transit perf . of Ίστημι. 

4στάμ€ν, ίστάμ^ναι, Ep. for iaravai, 
inf. perL syncop. ^m ϊστημι. 

«σταμ€Ρ, I pi. perf. syncop. of 
ίστημι. 

€aTaOT€s, pL from ίσταωί. 
€στασαν, 8 pL plpf. syncop. of 

ίστημι. 
ίστασι, 8 pi. perf. syncop. of 

ΧστημΑ, 
(στατ€, 2 pi. perf. syncop. of Ιστημι. 
€στηκα, perf. act from ΐστημι, 
€στηξω, inf. fut from Ϊστημι. 
€στία, the hearth, 
ίστιω, to entertain hospitably, 
€στο, 8 sing. plpf. pass, of €Ρνυμι. 
€στωρ, a peg. 
iraipos, a comrade, 
ertposy the other. 
iroXpos, at hand, ready, 
ίύρίσκω, to find, 
4φθ6ε, boiled, dressed. 
€ψω, to boil. 
c», gen. and ace. sing, from (Ιως, 

the dawn, 
€ω. Ion. subj. aor. 2 of ϊημι. 
€φ, dat. from ios, Hom. 



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APPENDIX. 



€ωΚος, a day old, 

€ώρα, 3 sing. imp. act. from όράω. 
iwpoKfit perf . act. from όράω, 
€ω( , so long as, 

H. 

ηβάσκω, Lat. pubescere. 

τΐβη, manhood. 

ηβός, ripe. 

ΉγημωVf Hegemon (a proper name). 

ΉγησαΧοΐ, Hegesaius (a prefer 

name). 
*Ηγησαν8ρί^ας, Hegesandridos (a 

proper name). 
Ήγησιάναξ, Hegesianax (a proper 

name). 
Ήγησίας, Hegesias (apropername). 
*ΙίγησικΚ4ης^ Hegesicles (a proper 

name). 
Ήγησίνονςι Hegesinus (a proper 

name). 
ΉγησίΊΠΓος, Hegesippus (a proper 

name). 
ηγούμαι, to go hefore. 
ijB€y fem. from 6b€. 
η8ομαί, to delight. 

'lldvXeiovy Mt. Hedylius (in Phocia). 
fjbvSi ήδ^Μΐ, ήθΰ, sweet, 
5/ca, aor. 1 of cij/ii. 
rJKKTTos, the least, 
ηκω^ I am come, 
ηλικία^ age. 
η\ίκο9, as big cut. 
η\ιξ, in the prime of life. 
rjXios, the sun. 

ηλίσκος, dim. from jJXoy, a little nail. 
ξλοί, α nail. 
ifiat, to be set. 
ημίρα, day. 



τίμ€ρος, tamed. 

ημην, impf . from ^μαι. 

ημίονος^ a hcUf-ass, i. e. a mule. 

ημισνί, a half. 

^μμαί, perf. pass, from άτΓτω. 

ημωδία. Ion. for αΙμωΒία. 

ημών, a darter. 

Ψ, ace. sing. fem. from relat. pron. 

ηνία, ίων, το, the reins. 

ψία, ας, η, the bitted bridle. 

ηνίκα, adv. when. 

^αρ, the liver. 

'^Hpa, Juno. 

ΉρακΚης, Hercules. 

Ήράκων, Heracon (a proper name). 

*Up€as, Hereas (a proper name). 

'Upobucos, Herodicus (a proper 

name). 
*Hpo5oToy, Herodotus (a proper 

name). 
^Ιίρωδης, Herodes (a proper name). 
ηρως, a hero, 
ησα, aor. 1 from ηδω. 
ησαι, 2 sing, from ijpai. 
*llaatas, lesaias. 
ησατο, Ep. 3 sing. aor. 1 from 

ηδομαι. 
ήσ€ΐν, inf. f ut. of ϊημι. 
ζσ^αΐ, inf. from ξ/ιαι. 
'Ησίοδος, Hesiod. 

ίξσο, 2 sing, imper. from ^μαι, Horn. 
ησσάομαι, to be worsted, 
^σσων, to be less, 
fffrrat, 3 sing, from ξ/ιιαι. 
ξστο, 3 sing. impf. of ίιμαι. 
ησνχος, calm, 
ησω, f ut. of ιημι. 
"ϋφαίστος, Hephaistos. 



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APPENDIX. 



207 



ίασ*, 3 pi. pres. from 117/ii for Uaai. 
Ιβίσκοΐ, Lat. hibiscus, a kind of 

marsh-mallow, 
ί^ρόω, to sweat. 
18ρνω, to seat* 

Ιθρών ace. from Ι^ρώΐ for ιδρώτα. 
Γθρωα, pustules, 
ίδρώς, sweat, 
i€i, 3 sing. impf. Ion. and Att. of 

ίημι. 
icisi ΐ€Ϊσα, Uv, pres. part, from Ίημι. 
if/uuii, pres. pass, and mid. from ΐημι. 
U^€Vj ΐ€μ€ναι, Ep. pres. inf. from 

Ϊημι for Uvai. 
lev, JEol. for Uaav, 3 pi. impf. from 

ΐημι. 
*Upa (ρήσος), Ηιβτα, one of the 

Lipari islands. 
ιίραξ^ a hawk, 
ifp6si sacred. 

Ιζάνω (ιζω), to make to sit, seat, 
ιημι, to set agoing. 
Ικανός, able. 

ικάρω, to come, to arrive. 
ικ€της, a suppliant. 
ικηΜ, 2 sing. subj. aor. 2 from 

ίκν€ομαι. 
ίκνονμαι, to arrive. 
ικω, to come. 

tXaos (Att. Ί\€ως), soothed. 
ΐΚάρια, a festival of mirth, 
ιλαρός, cheerful. 
ΪΚάσθητι, aor. pass. imp. of ίλά- 

σκομαι. 
ΐΚάσκομαι, to appease, soothe. 
ΪΚηκω, to he gracious, 
ίμας, a leathern strap. 
Ίμάτιον, apiece of dress. 



ιμ€ρος, longing. 
im, in order that. 
Ιππίας, Hippias. 
Ίπποκόων, Hippocodn. 
*ΙΐΓποκράτης, Hippocrates. 
*ΐ7ΠΓΟλ€ω άκρη, promontory of Hip- 

polau^. 
ΊππόΚο'χος, Hippolochus. 
^Ιππολύτη, Hippolyte. 
Ιππος, horse, 
ιπταμαι, to fly. 
ϊστημι, to stand. 
Ιστιαία, Histicea. 
'loTtaioy, Histiants. 
ίστιάτωρ, the chief oj^erer. 
ίστίον, a sail, 
ιστορία, history. 
Ιστός, a ship's mast. 



O. 

oyc, {jyt, Toyc, the demon str. pron. 

he, she, it. 
obf, rjbt, Tode, the demonstr. pron. 

Lat. hicce, hsecce, hocce. 
οδηγός, a guide, 
οδοιπόρος, a traveller, 
οδός, street. 
6θ€ν, whence, 
oiov, neut. from οίος. 
oiovavcl, for olop av ci, just as if, 
οίος, α, ΟΙ', such as. 
όλκας, merchantman, 
όΧκίω, to draw, 
όλμος, a round, smooth stone, 
ολοκαυτίω, ίο bring a bxtrnt-offering. 
όλος, whole, entire, 
ολωσις, a making whole, 
ομάδος, a noise. 



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208 



APPENDIX. 



ό/χαλόφ, levelf smooth, 
όμάρίορ, temple of Jupiter. 
ofuiprce», to meet, 
όμαρτη, adv. together, 
ομάς, the whole. 
6μηγνρί9, an ossemMy. 
όμήλιξ, of the same age. 
"Ομηρος, Homer, 
όμηρος, hostage. 
ofuXoff, a throng of people• 

δμοιο£, similar, 

όμοκΚίω, to call ouL 

όμός, one and the same, common. 

όμου, together. 

όμως, equally. 

όμως, nevertheless. 

6π\η, a hoof. 

σπλον, implemenL 

άπόθίν, whence. 

Snoi, adv. whither. 

οΊΓοΊος, of whai sort. 

όπόσος, ly, ov, as many. 

άπ^αν, whensoever. 

an-orepos, which of two. 

δπου, where. 

ί^πως, in what manner. 

όράω, to see. 

ορηαι or oprjai, 2 sing. pres. mid. of 

όράω. 
Βρημί, Mo\. and Dor. for όράω, 

hence in£. oprjp. 



ορψο or όρητο, 3 sing. impf. mid. 

of 6ράω. 
6ρίζω, to divide (as a border). 
όρκος, the witness of an oath. 
ορμάω, to set in motion, urge, 
άρμίατο. Ion. for &ρμηντο, 3 pi. 

perf. pass, of ορμάω. 
6ρμ€ω, to lie at anchor, 
ορμή, attack, violent pressure, 
όρμίζω, to bring to a safe anchorage, 
όρμος, a necklace. 
6ρος, a boundary, limit. 
6ς, ij, 6, who, etc. 
ooTiptpcu, daily. 
οσιοί, haUowed. 
όσος, as great as. 
όσώραι, every hour. 
6στις, whosoever. 
oTop, adv. whenever. 
ore, when. 
^i,for that, because. 

O. 

S»d€, Att tf>di, from ode, in this wise. 

ώ/αλλα, a kind of game. 

&pa, hour, season, 

ωραϊος, beautiful, etc. 

ωριός, timely. 

ως, adv. thus, so, etc. 

&<m€p, adv. even as, just as. 

&στ€, adv. for, so that, in order. 



Remark 2. When two words have the same form, but are of dif- 
ferent meanings, the ancient Greeks often indicated the difference 
by placing a breathing over the vowel or ρ in the middle of a word ; 
thus, €στ{\ατο (aorist of €ΐσάΚ\ομαι, cV^XXo/tioi), but ioifXaro (aorist of 
σάΚΚομαι), κοτνΧΚήρριΤΓος (^κοτΰλη ρίω), but κοτνΧηρντος (^κοτύλη αρνω). 



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APPENDIX. 209 



ACCENT. 



The accents are three. The acute ', the grave \ and the 
circumflex '^. The acute can stand only on one of the last 
three syllables of a word ; the circumflex, on one of the last 
two ; and the grave, only on the last syllable. 

In case of a diphthong, the accent stands over the second 
vowel ; thus, ττανσω, ταύτα, eKetVov9, cKct, etc. 

The acute may stand either on a long or a short syllable ; 
thus, τ/3€χω, λόγους, ^KctVovs. The acute only can stand on a 
long penultima, followed by a long ultima : μηκσυ^^ γλώσσης. 
When the Nominative and Accusative of uncontracted nouns 
are accented on the ultima, said cases are oxytone : η τιμη^ τψ 

τιμην^ η χαρά, την χαράν, 6 αιών, δ καρπός. When a WOrd is 

accented on the antepenult^ said syllable is always proparoxy- 
tone: βασιλεύοντος. 

Words ending in €υ and ου, when accented on the ultima, 
are perispomen^,; thus, €υ, ττον • except ιδον, ιοΰ, and ου. 

When the Vocative of nouns in ευς and ω of the third de- 
clension ends in €υ and oiy said case must be perispomenon 
if accented on the ultima : δ ^βασιλευ, ώ αιδοΓ, ω σαπφοΐ. 

When the Genitive and Dative of nouns end with a long 
syllable, said cases must be perispomena if accented on the 
ultima : της τιμης^ Ty Tt/t^, του καρπού, τω καρττω, των τιμων^ τοις 
καρποΐς. 

Α contract ultima is always perispomenon, if the acute 
stood on the penultima before contraction : τι^ιώ (τι/χάω), ττλα- 
κονς (πλακόεις). Adverbs in ως, if accented on the ultima, are 
perispomena: καλώς, ευσεβως. 

Remark 1. The circumflex stands on the Nominative and Accu- 
sative of many monosyllabic words ; thus, γρανς, vavs, βους, χους, /ιυρ, 
iipvs, συς, o^r, ττνρ, σκώρ, els, πάς, παρ, etc. 

Remark 2. The circumflex stands also on many monosyllabic 
adverbs and conjunctions ; thus, c^, φευ, S>, ad, νυν^ oZp, γονν, ^, μώμ, 
irj, 7Γ0(, irov, ττών, etc. 



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210 APPENDIX. 

In accenting a word, a syllable long by position is treated 
as short ; thus, Xc^t?, raits (but ττραζι^^ πράγμα^ because the let- 
ter α in these words is long not by position, but by nature). 
Final at and ot have the effect of short vowels on the accent 
of the penult and antepenult : λύονται^ aydpunroiy Ίτολΐται^ νησοι^ 
etc. 

Not so, however, in the optative mode: ttoiScvoc and the 
adverb oacoi, at home. 

When the vltima is long, the antepenult is not accented: 
αι^ρώίΓον, άν^ρωπψ. The Oenitives Singular and Plural of 
some nouns of the third declension are exceptions, e. g. hoXcox, 
πόλ€ων, 7η/χ€ω9, ττηχ^,ν^. 

Primitive words accent the syllable belonging to the root ; 
thus, φ(λοζ. Derivative words accent the syllable which 
specifies or defines; thus, ^iXticos, αψιλος. Hence we have 
the following rules: 

Whenever a new syllable is prefixed to a word, the accent 
is thrown back if the ultima permits it ; thus, λυω, tkvov. 

When a new syllable is affixed to a word, the accent is 
thrown forward if the ultima requires it ; e. g. τταρό^ιγμα, 
ΊΓορα&ύγμΛΤος^ ιταμα^νγμΑπύν^ φως^ φωτίζω^ φ^ύmζoμ€VOiy φωτιζο- 
μ€νη. Final $ and ^, after a short vowel, exclude the acute 
from the antepenult, but not the circumflex from the penult ; 
thus we have ^λιξ^ but νυκτοφνλΛζ instead of ννκτόφυλχιξ. 

SPECIAL RULES (FIRST DECLENSION). 
ilndingB. 

The following Masculine nouns in ης are of the first declen- 
sion: 

1. Proper patronymic nouns in &ης ; thus, *Ατρ€ίΒης^ son of 
Atreus ; Ν€στορίδ7/9, son of Nestor. 

2. Common nouns in τψ ; thus, νολίτψ^ a citizen ; λι^ση^, 
a robber, 

3. Nouns (common or proper) compounded with verbs; 



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APPENDIX. 211 

thus, γ€ωμ€τ[ϊης^ a geometer; βφλιοπωΧης^ a bookseller. Ex- 
cept ηοαηβ compounded with φαίνομ/α^ to appear ; thus, *Api- 
στοφόνη^^ Aristophanes ; Α€ξιφάνης^ Xexiphanes / and a few 
foreign nouns. 

4. Nouns compounded with Feminine nouns of the first 
declension; thus, ^Ολυμιη^νίκη^ (yucq)^ a conqueror in the 
Olympic gomes; *Αρχώίκης (δύπ;), chief judge. 

Accent. 

1. Nouns of this declension form the Oenitive Plural per-' 
ispomenon. 

Three masculines have an irregular accent in the Gen. PL: 
χρήστης^ Usurer j Gen. PL χμηστων (but χ/κ/στών, Gen. PL of 
the adjective χμψττόζ^ good)^ χλούνψ^ living or feeding alone^ 
Gen. PL χλοννων (but χλον^ων^ Gen. PL of the adjective χλον 
vos, epith. of gold in Hesychius (Lexicographus), and cn/auu, 
anntial windsy Gen. PL Ιτησίων. So also the Feminine αφνη^ 
anchovy^ Gen. PL aj^vm (but άφυων, Gen. PL of the adjective 
άφνη9^ duU). 

2. Adjectives whose Masculine is of the third declension 
have the Genitive Plural Feminine perispomenon ; thus, 6 -m- 
φθ^ίς^ η τνφθ€ΐσα, των τυφθ€ΐσων. Adjectives whose Masculine 
is of the second declension accent the Genitive Plural Femi- 
nine regularly (rule 1st) : 6 άγιος, ot aytoe, των αγίων, η ayia^ αι 
ayuu, των άγιων. 

Case-Ending». 

1. Nouns ending in α pure or pa and a few proper nouns 
like AiJSa, Leda^ Γέλα, Gela^ Φιλο/χτ/λα, Philomela^ Άνδρο/χέδα, 
Andromeda^ and contract substantives and adjectives in α 
retain the α in all the cases of the Singular number. 

2. Masculine nouns in as, with the exception of the Gteni- 
tive Singular, follow the same rule. 

3. Masculine nouns of this declension form the Accusative 
Singular by changing σ of the Nominative to v. The Femi- 
nines by affixing ν to the Nominative Singular. 



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212 APPENDIX. 

4. Masculine words in ης form the Vocative Singular in ψ 
But nouns in της and ττης and names of nations and words 
compounded with πωλω^ io selly τρίβω^ to rubj μετρω^ to meai^ 
ure^ αρχω^ to befirsty ώνονμαι^ to purchase^ and λατρο^ω, to server 
form the Vocative Singular in α short ; thus, woktra (Nom. 
πολπΊ79, α citizen) ; γ€ωμ€τρα (Nona. Ύ^Λψ,ίτρης^ a geometer) ; 
βφλισπωλα (Nom. βφλίσπώΚης, a book^dler) \ etc. 

5. A few Doric nouns in ας form their Genitive Singular 
in α by omitting the termination ο ; thus, Τίνθα-γόρας του Πν^α- 
yipa^ ο Α€ωνίδα9 του Ac<iivi8a (from the Done Gen. Πυ^αγόραο, 
Α€ωΐ'ΐδαο). In the same way many proper foreign nouns and 
many nouns of the Hellenistic Greek form their Ctenitive Sin- 
gular ; thus, του *Κννίβα^ τον *Ορόκτα. 

Quantity of Final cl 
The following Feminine words in α have the final α of the 
Nominative Singular long : 

1. Adjectives whose Masculine is of the second declension; 
thus, αγΐο9, sacred^ aylL• Except 7Γ€7Γ€φος^ Troreipa, Lat. matu- 
rusy and nouns which suffer contraction in the penultima; 
thus, διϊος, δ?ο9, Sia (of Jupiter), holj/, pure; Xuos, ΧΓ09, ΧΓα 
(of or from Chios), Chian. 

2. Paroxy tone nouns in ta ; thus, κακία, wickedness / σοφία^ 
wisdom, 

3. Dissyllabic nouns in €ta and nouns in «a derived from 
verbs ending in €υω; thus, /iveui, memory; βασιΚεία, kingdom 
(βασιΚενω)• 

4. All oxytone nouns ; thus, χαρά, jog; λαλιά, speech. 

5. Dissyllabic nouns in pa which have a vowel in the pen- 
ultima; thus, ώρα, hour; θήρα, the chase. Except πρώρα, a 
ship* s prow ; χύτρα, cm earthen pot; σφύρα, a hammer. 

6. Paroxytone nouns in oa and ca; thus, χροό, the skin; 
ττόα, grass; μ,ηλίά, an apple-4ree; Teyco, Tegea. 

7. Nouns of more than two syllables in ata ; thus, ^λαια, the 
olive-tree ; Kcpata, a horn. Except the names of a few cities ; 
thus, Φώκαια, Phocoea; Πλάταια, Platoea. 



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APPENDIX. 213 

The following words have the α short : 

1. Feminine adjectives whose Masculine is of the third 
declension ; thus, ττας, ττασα, every {whole). 

2. All disyllabic nouns in αια; thus, ftata, good motlier ; 
ypaioj an old woman, 

3. Common nouns in «a which are derived from common 
nouns in cvs; thus, Icpcv?, Upeia, a priestess/ 'AAciavSpcvs, 'AAc- 
ίάνδρ€ΐα, Alexandria. 

4. Abstract nouns in €ia which are derived from adjectives 
in ης of the third declension ; thus, cvycnjs, cvyci^cto, nobility. 

5. Abstract nouns in out derived from adjectives in 009, ovs ; 
thus, ciVoo9, ciVovs, cwoio, good will, 

6. Substantives in vta ; thus, ftvto, a fly. So also the oxy- 
tone nouns ο/»γυια, strictly tfie length of the (mtstretched arms ; 
αγνια, a way. 

7. All nouns which in the Grenitive Singular change α into 
η ; thus, Μονσα, Muse; γλώσσα, a tongue. 

8. Dissyllabic nouns in pa which have a diphthong in the 
penultima; thus, σφαίρα, a sphere; 7Γ€Ϊρα, a trial. Except 
αΤ^ρά, a dear (bright) sky; Φαιδρά, Phcedra; αυρά, breeze; 
Xavpoy an aUey; σαΰρά, a lizard. 

9. Nouns in τρία and rccpa derived from nouns in της and 
^2w- and all proparoxytone nouns ; thus, τονητης^ ττοιητρια^ a 
poetess; σωη/ρ, σωτήρα, frequ. an epith. of protecting god- 
desses; τράπεζα• 

SPECIA1>RULES (SECOND DECLENSION). 
Accent. 
1. Nouns compounded with νόος and πλίος^ even when con- 
tracted, are paroxy tone ; thus, TrepwrAoo?, TrcpwrAovc, ττεριπΧόον^ 
7Γ€ρίπλου^ a sailing round; ciVoos, dJvovs, civoovy cvvov, kind- 
hearted. The termination oa, however, always remains un- 
contracted : €ui/oa, ε^λ,οα. 

Remark. ^Oydoos, the eighth, and Χιθοξόος, a stone-mason, ire never 
contracted ; but αντίξοος, hostile, δορνξόος, spear-polishing, and πρόχοος. 



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214 APPENDIX 

a pitcher J are contracted; thus, άττίξοος^ airri(avsj ώττίξόου^ ατηξον, 
προχόον, πρόχου. These nouns, however, sometimes drop ο of the 
stem; thus, Άντιξος^ δόρυξος. 

Peculiaritiee of Gender. 

1. Many nouns in changing their gender change their sig- 
nification, e. g. 6 ζvγόςy the yoke, ή ζυγός, the scale ; 6 IwnOs, a 
horse, η Ιτητος, a mare, 

2. Many nouns of the Masculine or Feminine gender in 
the Singular are Neuter in the Plural; thus, 6 δ€σ/«)ς, τά 
6€σμΑ, fetters / η k^XcvOos, τα κίλευθα, a road (ways) ; " νγρα 
καΙ ΙχθνοειτΓα KiXevdcu* 

SPECIAL RULES (THIRD DECLENSION). 
Accent. 

1. Monosyllabic substantives are oxytone, e. g. μψ, a 
month; θηρ, a wild beast; χειρ, a hand. Nouns, however, 
which have lengthened their stem-vowels, or whose Nomina- 
tives are contracted from barytone or oxytone nouns, are per- 
ispomena; tbus, μυός, μυς, a mouse; ττυρός, irvp, fire; {poaxo^, 
ως), o?9, the ear. Two nouns, το φω? (from φωίς, a man) and 
Ζψζ (from haU, afire-brand), are oxytone. 

Bemark. The vowel which results from contraction, if accented, 
must be p>erispomenon ; thus, yca -γζ, earth, ^Except, (a) when the 
vowel stands before a long ultima ; (h) when it stands before the 
antepenult; and (c) when the second of the contracted vowels is 
oxytone, e. g. ίοταώς, ίστώς. 

2, Monosyllabic words of this declension accent the Geni- 
tive and Dative of all numbers on the case-ending ; the other 
cases are accented on the stem. Except, 

(a) Participles of one syllable, whicb always accent the 
stem, e. g. θ€ίς, θεντος, Oivri, Oeirra. 

(b) The Genitive Plural of the following nouns : τταΐς a 
boy, girl, παΙΒων*, η Βάς, torch, δάδων; η φώί, blister, φω8ων, 
κράζ, the head (Nom. obsolete), κράτων ; ους, ear, ώτων ; όμως, 
α slave; Τρως, α Trojan, Tpmcsy', το φως, light, φώτων; Aos, the 



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APPENDIX. 215 

jackal^ θώων ; δ <r^, moth^ σ€ων. The word φώτων (of men) 
has for its Nom. Sing, ψώ?, Gen. Sing, φωτός. 

(c) Some words which have been contracted from disyl- 
labic stems, e. g. hp^ spring^ Gen. &φός or ^pos, Dat. «ipi or ηρι. 

4. Nouns whose final stem-letter is δ are oxytone ; thns, 
cXw, hope^ cXTTtSos. Except the noun ^ts, strife^ ^ιδο?, and 
Feminine common nouns in τΐ5, whose Masculine ends in της; 
thus, 6 πμοφψΐίΐς^ prophet^ η ττροφψ-ις. 

Adjectives. 

Adjectives are either of three endings, of two, or of one. 
The following adjectives in os are of three endings: 

(a) Verbal in tos and tcos ; thus, Xcktos, ^, ov, chosen, 

(J)) Adjectives in ucos, Xos, vos, pos, and Xcos, e. g. vo/xtictk, 
uoy, wcov, α lawyer^ σνγηλός^ λ»;, λόι/. Silent/ Setvos, ny, vov^feaV' 
ful/ αΙσχρός, pai^ p6v^ causing shame/ etc. 

(c) Comparatives and superlatives ; thus, Xwnyporcpo?, οτφα, 
oTcpoi/; λυτη/ρότατος^ οτάτη^ ότατον, from λνττηρός^ SOrrowful. 
Except a few superlatives which are found of two termina- 
tions among poets and Attic writers ; thus, δυσ€κ^ολωτατος ij 
λοκρίς (Thuc. € 101), την νττατον αρχήν (Dion. Hal. 'Ρυμ. Δρχ, 
Γ 1), ^λοώτατο5 οΒμη (Od. 8, 442). 

The following adjectives in ος are of two endings : 

(a) Compounds and those which are derived from verbs 
already compounded ; thus, 6 καΐη άσκοπος το ασκοττον, impril•• 
dent. 

(b) Positive and comparative adjectives in ων: 6καιη€ν- 
^ϋίμων TO €ΐ;δαι/χον, happy ^ prosperous. 

(c) Many adjectives compounded from substantives in t?, 
w, and ους ; thus, δ και η ενχαρις^ το ενχαρι^ charming/ 6 καΐ η 
τΓολντΓους^ το ττολνττουν, m.any-footed. 

(d) Words compounded with γ€λως and Kcpas, which are 
also declined according to the second Attic declension ; thus, 
ο icoi η ΤΓολνγελως, το πολνγ€λωι/, του πολνγ^λω καΙ ττολνγέλωτο?, 
laughing much. 



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216 APPENDIX. 

^\ 
The following adjectives are of one ending: 

(a) Adjectives which have been compounded with sub- 
stantives keep the latter unchanged even after composition ; 
thus, ό icat 17 α7Γαΐ9» childless; μακρ6χ€φ^ long-armed. 

Remark. The Genitive and Dative Plural of these adjectives are 
found among the poets in the Neuter gender also. 

Feminine Endings of Adjectives in os. 
The following adjectives, in os of three endings form their 
Feminine : 

(a) In 17, if there is no vowel or ρ before the termination ; 
thus, dya$o^y ayaBrj^ kind. 

(b) In a, if they end in α pure or in pos, ροος^ and ρ€ος ;^ thus, 
ayios, άγια, holy; καθαρός, καΒαρά^ proper, clean. 

Neater Endings. 

Adjectives in 09 form their neuter in ov ; thus καλός, καλή, 
καλόν, good. The following form their neuter in ο : 

(α) άλλο9, άλλι;, άλλο, another/ 05, η, ο, who, which; αυτός, 
αυτή, αυτό, self (Lat. ipse)] €Κ€Ϊνος, Ικ€ίνη, Ικάνο, tJiere (Lat. 
iUe) ; ούτος, ανπ/, τοντο, this, th /οΛ. 

Demonstratives of quality, quantity, and age form their 
neuter in the following manner : τοσούτος, τοσαντη, τοσσυτο(ν), 
such (in quantity or number); τοιούτος, τοιαντι;, τοιουτο(ν), 
such (in quality) ; τι;λικονΓος, ττ^λικαντι;, τι;λικουτο(ν), such (in 
age or size). 



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