,
/
REESE LIBRARY
OP THE
UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA.
t*
Received C^
Accessions No. _^^/_ Y&44L Shelf No.
THE
MODERN GREEK:
ITS
PRONUNCIATION AND RELATIONS TO ANCIENT GREEK,
WITH AN
APPENDIX ON THE RULES OF ACCENTUATION,
ETC.
BY
T. T. TIMAYENIS,
OF THE SPRINGFIELD COLLEGIATE INSTITUTE.
L I B II A K Y
UN I V KISS IT V OF
(;ALIFOKNIA.
NEW YORK:
D. APPLETON AND COMPANY, 549 & 551 BROADWAY.
SPRINGFIELD, MASS. :
J. D. GILL, 260 MAIN STREET.
1877.
COPYRIGHT, 1877,
BY T. T. TIMAYENIS.
UNIVERSITY PRESS : WELCH, BIGELOW, & Co.
CAMBRIDGE.
TO THE
REV. M. C. STEBBINS, A.M.,
PRINCIPAL OF THE SPRINGFIELD COLLEGIATE INSTITUTE,
Uolume
IS MOST RESPECTFULLY DEDICATED,
AS A TOKEN OF ADMIRATION
FOB DISTINGUISHED ABILITIES SUCCESSFULLY DEVOTED TO THE PROMOTION OF CLASSICAL
LEARNING IN THIS COUNTRY,
AND A MEMORIAL OF FRIENDSHIP
WHICH HAS EXISTED UNBROKEN DURING MANY YEARS OF ALMOST
DAILY INTERCOURSE.
THE AUTHOR.
PREFACE.
IN preparing this volume, I have made frequent use
of the " 'IffTopta TI}? 'EXXrjviKfc rXdW^," by the late
Professor D. Mavrophredes (Smyrna, 1871). Important
aid has also been received from Professor Geldart's work
on " The Modern Greek Language in its Relation to
Ancient Greek." Other works which I have advan-
tageously consulted are, Anastasius Georgiades' " Trac-
tatus de Elementorum Graecorum Pronunciatione," Gr.
et Lat., Paris, 1812 ; " Eclaircissements tires des Lan-
gues semitiques sur quelques points de la Pronunciation
Grecque " ; Professor Clyde's " Romaic Greek " ; Sopho-
cles' " Romaic Greek Grammar " and " Glossary of Later
and Byzantine Greek." Frequent references have been
made also to the works of ancient and modern Greek
authors, especially to those that have touched upon the
subject of Greek pronunciation. But my obligations
are much greater to Konstantinus Oekonomos, whose
work, "IJepJ irpofopas TI}? 'J^XXipwd}? .TXwcrcrT??," St.
Petersburg, 1829, has been constantly by me.
The subject of Greek pronunciation has been often
discussed by scholars since the time of Erasmus, who
was the first to propagate that new system of pronun-
ciation known as the Erasmian system. Scholars to-day,
vi PREFACE.
generally speaking, although more or less convinced of
the fact that the Erasmian system of Greek pronuncia-
tion is quite at variance with the nature of Grecian
phraseology, with the testimony of ancient authors, and
established principles of history and logic, yet tolerate
this pronunciation because " they do not see that any
good will result to students by adopting the pronun-
ciation now prevalent in Greece." They say, " We
study Greek for the culture it imparts ; we do not care
which is the true pronunciation " ! Now, we study the
" queen of languages," the language of infinite flexibility
and of unequalled vigor, the language which speaks to
the ear like French, to the mind like English, the
language which possesses a literature enshrining works
" not only of imperishable interest, but also of imperish-
able importance for the development of human thought " ;
we study the language without which human knowledge
would appear like the year without spring, or like the
day without its bright sun ; and yet we say, " We do not
care how we pronounce such a language " !
Now, we believe with the Rev. F. W. Farrar, that
the reasons why we spend so long a time in acquiring the
mastery of the Greek are, because the Greek is one of
the most delicate and perfect instruments for the expres-
sion of thought which was ever elaborated by the mind
of man, and because it is therefore admirably adapted,
both by its points of resemblance to our own and other
modern languages, and by its points of difference from
them, to give us the idea or fundamental conception of
all Grammar ; that is, of those laws which regulate the
use of the forms by which we express our thoughts.
Again, the Greek being a " synthetic language," many of
its advantages lie in its compactness, precision, and
PREFACE. vii
beauty of form. Now, suppose we grant that the advan-
tages we seek to obtain from the study of the Greek
cannot be increased by a change of pronunciation ; yet,
we claim, that by adopting the pronunciation prevalent in
Greece, Grecian philology would receive a new impetus.
Scholars in this country and elsewhere, would be better
able to judge of the literary productions of the modern
Greeks ; they would better observe how many idioms and
peculiarities of language prevalent among the ancient
authors, still remain unchanged in the language of the
modern Greeks ; and, finally, the study of modern lan-
guage would become easier to the young student, be-
cause the euphony, grace, and variety of sound and
harmony of the pronunciation of the modern Greeks,
have in a greater or less degree been wrought into all
the modern languages. Hence, their pronunciation is
comparatively an easy matter to attain, if one is thor-
oughly drilled in the sounds which the modern Greeks
give to the vocal elements of their language. On the
other hand, the Erasmian system, an author remarks,
" causes its adherents to lo.se all delicacy, euphony, and
accuracy of expression or sound."
The appendix " on accentuation," although it may
seem foreign to a work of this kind, has been added at
the request of many instructors. It is to be hoped that
by means of the rules which are there given, the study
of this difficult branch of knowledge will become easier
and more interesting to the young student. A few other
grammatical rules have been added, which seem to me
are not given fully, either in Professor Goodwin's or
Hadley's Grammar. Professor Zelf's and Professor
Gennadius' Grammars have been consulted in the prep-
aration of these rules. Scholars are wont to confound
viii PREFACE.
Romaic with Modern Greek, and this sad mistake, it seems
to me, is mainly to be attributed to that statement of
Professor Sophocles, who in the preface of his Romaic
Grammar says, " Romaic, or, as it is often called, Modern
Greek." Now, Professor Clyde asserts that " this glar-
ing mistake has influenced the opinions of many British
scholars, and proves most conclusively that " Professor
Sophocles has confounded things which differ." But
not only Professor Clyde, but Professor Geldart also
remarks, " Sophocles' works, especially his Grammar,
require to be used with caution. For the headings ' An-
cient ' and ' Modern ' which he places over his various
paradigms, should be read, in nearly every case, ' Lan-
guage of Polite Society ' and ' Language of the Common
People ' or ' Cultivated ' and * Vernacular ' ; for the so-
called ancient forms never died out, but may nearly all be
found in the more cultivated modern Greek . . . Again,
in other ways truth is sacrificed by Professor Sophocles
to system, as when he gives rov rrarepa, rov avopa, as the
modern Greek for rov irarpds, rov dvSpos. These forms
occur no doubt, but the classical forms are more common
even in the vernacular." . . .
But the reason why Professor Sophocles, a Greek him-
self, and a scholar of so distinguished a reputation, has
committed so serious a mistake is to be attributed to the
fact that he left Greece many years ago, when quite a
young man, and when education in Greece was in a sad
condition. Hence, Professor Sophocles is familiar with
the vernacular Greek of his times, which in fact might
be called "Romaic Greek," but since the emancipa-
tion of Greece and the establishment of the University
and other schools of learning " Romaic Greek " has en-
tirely disappeared, and in its stead the modern Greek,
PREFACE. IX
which is the newest phase of the old Greek, has resumed
its place.
It is not my purpose now, nor is this the place, to state
fully the distinction there exists between Romaic and Mod-
ern Greek. Suffice it to say, that this difference cannot
be better indicated in brief, than by that which exists
between " broad Scotch " and " good English." Professor
Clyde says " there are phrases in one unknown to the
other, like the famous ' neffow o' glawr,' which all the
English of George IV. and his boasted knowledge of
Scotch to boot, were not able to explain."
There remains for me the pleasant duty of tendering
my warmest thanks, first of all, to the Rev. M. C. Steb-
bins, principal of the Springfield Collegiate Institute,
without whose valuable assistance I doubt much if this
volume would have ever seen the light. Not only has his
kind and valuable service aided much in the construction
of the plan and the development of the work, but also all
the proofs have passed under his critical eye. Should
this work ever accomplish the mission for which the
author sends it out into the world, its success will mainly
be due to his broad and thoughtful scholarship.
To Professor W. S. Tyler, D. D., of Amherst College,
to Professor E. Anagnos of Boston, and to all others
who have honored this work with their favorable notice,
I beg to return my thanks. Last, but not least, I must
tender my thanks to a personal and esteemed friend, S.
Holman Esq., for the very kind encouragement I have
received while this work was yet in embryo.
With the valuable assistance of such a scholar as the
Rev. M. C. Stebbiris, my task might well have been exe-
cuted far better than it is. But such as it is, I commit it
very humbly to the judgment of the public ; but with a
X PREFACE.
comfortable degree of confidence that its deficiencies will
be charitably regarded by those who are best qualified to
appreciate the difficulties necessarily attendant upon the
discussion of the topics herein treated.
T. T. TIMAYENIS.
SPRINGFIELD COLLEGIATE INSTITUTE,
SPRINGFIELD, MASS., September 1, 1877.
CONTENTS.
PART I.
CHAP. PAGE
I. PRONUNCIATION OF THE GREEK LANGUAGE . 1
II. THE ERASMIAN SYSTEM .... 6
III. LOCAL PECULIARITIES ..... 9
IV. MISTAKEN NOTIONS CONCERNING THE MOD-
ERN GREEK PRONUNCIATION ... 15
V. NEGLECT OF THE MODERN GREEK PRONUN-
CIATION 23
VI. PROSPECTIVE STATUS OF GREECE . . 25
VII. MODERN GREEK LITERATURE .... 39
VIII. DIFFERENCE BETWEEN THE OLD ATTIC AND
THE MODERN GREEK . . . . 94
IX. ACCENT AND QUANTITY 99
X. THE ASPIRATE . . . . . 139
PART II.
I. THE ALPHABET 143
II. SOUNDS OF THE VOWELS .... 144
III. DIGRAPHS . 153
xii CONTENTS.
IV. SOUNDS OF THE DIPHTHONGS . . . 155
V. THE CONSONANTS 167
VI. COMBINATIONS OF CONSONANTS . . . 192
VII. EXAMPLES OF MODERN GREEK PRONUNCIA-
TION .... 194
APPENDIX.
RULES OF ACCENTUATION 201
PART I.
CHAPTER I.
ON THE PRONUNCIATION OF THE GREEK LANGUAGE.
'EAXas /xV lore /a'a, iroA-ets 8e
avroi) TIV', ot 8 ' ""EAAr/ve?
6 KtopiKos Trapa AtKatdp^w, anotnr. 26.)
THE pronunciation of the Greek language that
is prevalent in Greece, bids fair to find its way
into the schools and universities of the Old
World and the New. Scholars everywhere, after
much discussion, are coming to the conclusion
" that the pronunciation of the modern Greeks,
even if it is not identical with the ancient, must
have a closer resemblance to the old than that of
the Western nations." It is high time, therefore,
that scholars should adopt in this country, and in
fact wherever the Greek language is studied, the
pronunciation prevalent in Greece, which, as we
will endeavor to prove, must have a closer re-
semblance to the old than any other pronuncia-
tion now in use. Why it is that so little attention
2 ON THE PRONUNCIATION ,
is paid in this country to the way the modern
Greeks pronounce their language we will notice
hereafter. But it is worth while to consider how
eager we are to acquire a correct pronunciation
when we study a foreign language, and how care-
less in pronouncing "the language" in which tlie
loftiest and deepest thoughts were expressed.
Perhaps the idea prevails that after the fall of
Greece, which dates from the war of the Pelo-
ponnesus, " Greece not only saw her greatness
fall, but her spoken language also pass into ob-
livion." How mistaken, indeed, he must be, who
supposes that the traditional language of the
Greeks is a thing of the past, is evident from
what follows. It may be true, that after Greece
had become a Roman province she saw, with
liberty, the arts, sciences, and literature fall into
decadence. It may be true that there were no
more such statesmen and great captains as
Themistocles, Miltiades, Leonidas, Pausanias,
Aristides, and Cimon ; no more great orators like
Pericles, Isocrates, Demosthenes, and .ZEschines ;
no more poets like Sophocles, Euripides, and
Pindar; no more historians like Herodotus,
Thucydides, Xenophon, Ctesias, and Polybius ;
no more philosophers like Pythagoras, Socrates,
Plato, and Aristotle ; no more sculptors like
Phidias and Praxiteles ; no more painters like
Apelles, and Zeuxis, and Parrhasius, yet the
OF THE GREEK LANGUAGE. 3
Greeks never lost their language. In spite of the
invasions of the Goths, of the Bulgarians, of the
Arabs, and of the Turks, the Greek language, I
repeat, never ceased to be spoken by the descend-
ants of the ancient Hellenes. Now, let not the
reader do me the injustice to suppose that I am
unduly influenced by patriotism in my state-
ments. My object is to present facts, to deal
with facts, and to present them in their true light.
If there are any defects in the pronunciation of
the modern Greeks, I will not hesitate to point
them out.
There is perhaps no nation in the history of the
world which has suffered so many invasions, from
so many different races ; yet, far from yielding to
the direful influences bearing upon her, she has
succeeded in preserving many of the virtues
of her illustrious ancestors, together with the lan-
guage, with so little change, a change less than \
that between the English of Chaucer and the
English of to-day.
It is wonderful that the Greeks were able to
preserve their language under the many vicissi-
tudes which the nation had to pass through,
especially while under the Turkish yoke. It is
perhaps this that causes many to disbelieve the
fact that the Greek is as really a living language
as it was in the days of Homer. To bear in
mind the various means the Turks adopted to
4 ON THE PRONUNCIATION
kill, so to speak, the Greek language, the cruelty
and barbarity they exercised over the conquered
people, might perhaps prepare one to believe
that " it was buried in a quiet grave and had given
place to a degenerate scion, or had at best sunk
into the dotage of a second childhood."
And yet, nothing is more true than the state-
ment, that the Greek is as truly a living lan-
guage as it was in the days of Homer. To
express my sentiments, I can do no better than to
use the words of an English writer, who says on
this subject, " That it is a strange and unparal-
leled fact that one of the oldest known languages
in the world, a language in which the loftiest and
deepest thoughts of the greatest poets, the wisest
thinkers, the noblest, holiest, and best of teachers,
have, directly or indirectly, found their utterance
in ^the far-off ages of a hoar antiquity, should at
this day be the living speech of millions through-
out the East of Europe, and various parts of Asia
Minor and Africa; that it should have survived
the fall of empires, and risen again and again
from the ruins of beleaguered cities, deluged, but
never drowned, by floods of invading barbarians,
Romans, Celts, Slaves, Goths and Vandals,
Avars, Huns, Franks, and Turks ; often the lan-
guage of the vanquished, yet never of the dead ;
with features seared by years and service, yet
still essentially the sain^, instinct with the fire
OF THE GREEK LANGUAGE. 5
of life, and beautiful with the memory of the
past."
Professor A. N. Arnold says, " The language
of Greece has undergone no revolution since the
time of the Attic historians, philosophers, orators,
and poets. Through all the successive invasions
and conquests of the country, by the Romans,
the Goths, the Huns, the Sclavonians, the Cru-
saders, the Venetians, and the Turks, the basis
of the population and the substance of the lan-
guage have survived unchanged. There has
never been a period when there were not some
who wrote Greek with a fair approach to Attic
parity Since the time of Homer, the
Greek has never been a dead language. Western
Europe by that libel only proclaimed her own
ignorance and shame. If there has been a time
when even Athenians spoke a wretched patois,
there were even at that time educated men and
women in Constantinople who spoke and wrote
the language in a style which would have been
quite intelligible, not only to Plutarch and Pau-
sanias, but also to Pericles and Plato."
LI r, H A UY
OK
CHAPTER II.
THE ERASMIAN SYSTEM.
AT the first appearance of the Turkish suprem-
acy in Greece, hundreds of families fled to the
West of Europe, bearing with them that very
system of pronunciation which not only the
Greeks still use, but which learned Europe uni-
versally allowed until the time of Erasmus.
The Erasmian system of Greek pronunciation
was proposed about the beginning of the sixteenth
century. Hume informs us that the new system
was vigorously opposed ; it also divided the
Grecians themselves (at Oxford) into parties. The
penalties inflicted for adopting the new pronun-
ciation were no less than whipping, degradation,
and expulsion ; and the Bishop declared that,
rather than permit the new pronunciation of the
Greek, it were better that the language itself were
totally banished the universities. (Historv of
England, Ch. XXXIIL, A. D. 1547.)
At present many seem to be satisfied that it is
best for every one to pronounce Greek after the
analogy of his own vernacular tongue. This
THE ERASMIAN SYSTEM. 7
of course gives rise to as many modes of reading
Greek as there are modern languages in Europe.
And it is worthy of notice that " no system of
Greek pronunciation conflicts oftener with the
direct testimony of the ancient grammarians, as
well as with the established principles of the
Greek language, than that which takes the Eng-
lish for its basis." Professor Sophocles attributes
it to the fact that in no other European language
is the same letter or combination of letters oftener
employed to denote more than one sound or no
sound at all. However, some maintain that an
Englishman, for instance, learns Greek more
easily by attempting to pronounce it as if it were
English. This cannot be true, for " English
orthoepy is confessedly complicated and discour-^
aging, even when it confines itself to its own
language."
Now, the general uniformity of modern Greek
pronunciation, wherever the language is spoken,
is very strong argument for its antiquity, and
against its being a corruption resulting from con-
tact with other languages. In the Spanish dia-
lect we clearly trace the influence of Arabic, in
Italian of Teutonic, in French of Celtic sounds ;
in Greek, on the other hand, though the countries
where it is spoken are as widely distant and the
foreign influences to which it has been subject as
diverse, we find generally the same traditional
8 THE ERASMIAN SYSTEM.
pronunciation among learned and unlearned alike.
In Egypt, in Asia Minor, on the shores of' the
Euxine, in Constantinople, in Athens, in Crete, in
the ^Egean, the pronunciation presents the great-
est harmony in respect to those letters on which
the whole controversy turns.
CHAPTER III.
LOCAL PECULIARITIES.
THE same local peculiarities which existed in
the different sections of ancient Greece are preva-
lent in those sections to-day. The Spartan of to-
day, like the Spartan of old, uses the same short,
cutting, laconic expressions. He is inclined to an
active life of warfare, differing in this respect
from the modern Athenian, who possesses the
same elegance in his bearing and expression as
the Athenian of old. It may not be out of place
to remark that many of the superstitious notions
of the ancients are still prevalent, especially
among the common people of Asia Minor. For
instance, according to Herodotus, when Xerxes
was marching to invade Greece. .... evpt
tVe/ca ScopTycra/xe^o?
a) aOavara) avopi eTTLTpeifjas
Now, it is curious to notice that this custom
of hanging trinkets to " Oriental planes" (plata-
ni) is still prevalent in Asia Minor. The people
hang trinkets to such of the plane-trees as happen
to strike their fancy. It is a custom with the
10 LOCAL PECULIARITIES.
people of that country, for which I doubt whether
they themselves can account. It is simply a cus-
tom handed down from generation to generation,
and from whicn neither time nor any other in-
fluence has been able to dissuade them.
Again, the same strong hold religion had upon
the great mass of the people is still prevalent,
especially in some of the islands of the Archi-
pelago, such as Icaria, Rhodes, and the interior
of Asia Minor. Mr. Alexander S. Murray in his
manual of mythology enumerates many of the
superstitious notions of the ancient Greeks, and,
in fact, it is astonishing to consider that neither
time nor Christianity itself could dissuade the
people from many of those religious notions.
Now, it is a well-known fact, that it was in the
firm belief of his interests being the special care
of a deity, that the husbandman sowed his seed
and watched the vicissitudes of its growth ; that
the sailor and trader intrusted life and property
to the capricious sea. To-day, the husbandman
of Asia Minor sows his seed under the firm belief
that St. George or St. James will watch over his
interests and will bring to him an abundant har-
vest. The sailor and the trader intrust life and
property to St. Nicolas, who, by the way, is the
patron of all seafaring people. In the city
of Smyrna, in a parish called u *Ava) Ma^aXa?,"
" the upper parish," there is a sort of a cavern
LOCAL PECULIARITIES. 11
called "17 Kpv<f>rj Tlavayid" the secret virgin.
This " secret virgin " is considered the patron
of mechanics, and her place is daily thronged by
all classes of workingmen, who, in offering a part
of their scanty earnings to her, earnestly pray
that she may not cease to exercise her influence
over their respective callings. Now, it is a fact,
that in ancient times the mechanic traced the
skill and handicraft, which grew unconsciously
upon him by the practice, to the direct influence
of a God. 'I knew of a poet in Asia Minor, by
the name of George Kanares (Feajpytos Kavdprjs)
who, a few years ago, wrote an interesting poem
and dedicated it to his patron saint, St. Eustha-
thios ! In Mr. Murray's mythology, we notice
that artists ascribed the mysterious evolution
of their ideas, and poets the inspiration of their
song, to " a supreme cause." - Everywhere in
nature was felt the presence of august, invisible
beings, in the sky, with its luminaries and
clouds ; on the sea, with its fickle, changeful
movements ; on the earth, with its lofty peaks, its
plains and rivers. To-day, old women in the
East pretend to cure all sorts of diseases during
full moon, and by the influence of certain invisible
beings who inhabit certain stars. Old women
pretend to cure pimples on the face by rubbing
mud on it during full moon. Again, the deities
of the ancients were represented as immortal,
and, being immortal, they were next, as a con-
12 LOCAL PECULIARITIES.
sequence, supposed to be omnipotent and omnis-
cient. Their physical strength was extraordinary,
the earth shaking sometimes under their tread.
St. George to-day is represented as riding on a
fiery steed, with a spear in his hand with which
he killed a fiery dragon lying at the feet of his
horse. Mythology teaches us that there were
tales of personal visits and adventures of the Gods
among men, taking part in battles and appearing
in dreams. Now, the greater part of those pecul-
iar-looking barracks the so-called churches
that are seen nestled on top of hills and scattered
hither and thither, in the interior of Asia Minor,
were erected because some devout Christian de-
clared that such a saint appeared to him ordering
the erection of a church to his memory ! In pray-
ing it was a custom of the ancients to lift their
hands and turn the face towards the east. This is
still the practice of the ignorant classes in Asia Mi-
nor. Here is a specimen of what seems to have
been the usual form of praying among the ancient
Greeks: "Zeus, our Lord, give unto us whatever
is good, whether we ask it of thee or riot; what-
ever is evil keep far from us, even if we ask it of
thee." The peasant in the East to-day, in pray-
ing, will lift his hands and turn his face towards
the east, and will say in a low tone, as appears to
have been the ancient custom, "My God, our
Lord, I pray to thee, give us whatever is good, and
keep far from us whatever is evil, even if we ask
LOCAL PECULIARITIES. 13
it of thee." This is a very common form of
prayer, which was handed down, as it seems, from
generation to generation. Pythagoras, the phi-
losopher, taught his followers to pray with a loud
voice ; but loud prayers do not appear to have
been customary.
Sneezing was regarded as something divine ;
and Xenophon informs us, that, on one occasion,
a soldier happening to sneeze, all those present,
with one accord, bowed to the God. "Touro Se Xe-
yovros avrov TTTapvvTai rt? cx/coucraz^re? 8* ol crTpa-
Tio)TOLi TTOLVTZS /ua opp,rj TrpocreKvvrjcrav rov Oeov." . . .
To-day, if any one happens to sneeze after nine
o'clock in the evening, the peasants of Asia Minor
are wont to pour wine on the ground. Finally,
we must not forget to mention, as a proof of the
wide-spread religious feeling of the ancient
Greeks, the national festivals or games, such as
the Olympian, Pythian, Nemean, and Isthmian,
maintained in honor of certain Gods. To-day,
likewise, the peasant of the East, in celebrating
the feast of his patron saint, suspends all business
and celebrates the day with festivals and dancing,
cordial invitations being extended to both friends
and foes, a custom which was in existence
among the ancient Greeks, because it is well
known that they used to suspend whatever war
might be going on between separate states, and to
permit visitors to pass unmolested, even through
hostile territories.
14 LOCAL PECULIARITIES.
This tendency to polytheism is certainly a rem-
nant of the religion of the ancient Greeks. Al-
though Christianity has shed its light in Asia
Minor and on the islands of the Archipelago, the
people are addicted to those superstitious notions,
and they will never be abandoned so long as the
barbarous Turk holds sway over those countries.
In the Kingdom of Greece the people are enlight-
ened, and free from most of the superstitious no-
tions of their brethren in the East.
Let us not, however, forget that the inhabitants
of Asia Minor are praiseworthy in retaining the
language of their illustrious ancestors. I have
alluded to the " local peculiarities " which are still
prevalent, in order to show that the Greeks are
a remarkably conservative race. Although the
Turks prohibited, under penalty of death, the
Greek language to be spoken or taught anywhere
in Greece Proper or in Asia Minor; although a
war of extermination was carried on by them, not
only against the people, but against the renowned
monuments of antiquity ; although all teachers,
when pointed out, were instantly murdered, and
the silence which reigned in that country once
the home of the hero and the statesman re-
sembled the silence of an old cemetery, the
Greeks succeeded in keeping up their schools,
and thus kept their language, in spite of their
oppressors.
CHAPTER IV.
MISTAKEN NOTIONS CONCERNING THE MODERN
GREEK PRONUNCIATION.
ONE cause that makes scholars so averse to the
adoption of the modern Greek pronunciation is
the belief that the Greeks must have lost their
language, owing mainly to the invasions of so
many barbarous tribes, to which Greece for cen-
turies submitted, until the year 1821, when the
War of Independence was proclaimed, which
terminated in throwing off the Turkish yoke.
But how erroneous this idea ! An English writer
says " that it seems hardly too much to say that
our conduct in this regard shows a kind of liter-
ary ingratitude, which ought to shock our moral
sense. Greece has, in various ages, preserved to
us the succession of culture, when the rest of the
earth was overrun with savages. For us it has
held the citadel of civilization against the barba-
rism of the world, and now the danger is over we
have forgotten our benefactor, and trouble our-
selves little how it fares with him!" The case
reminds us of the words of the Preacher : " There
was a little city, and few men within it; and there
16 MISTAKEN NOTIONS CONCERNING THE
came a great king against it, and besieged it, and
built great bulwarks against it. Now there was
found in it a poor wise man, and he by his wis-
dom delivered the city ; yet no man remembered
that same poor man." ....
Why forget that during the time when Turkey
held control over Greece, and when Greece
seemed dead to the rest of the world ; when the
Turks, I repeat, had prohibited, under penalty
of death, the Greek language to be spoken any-
where within their domain, often some remote
church among the defiles of the mountains, and
far from the Turks, used to serve as a school,
where the Greek language was taught and
spoken ? Why forget that the Greeks had sub-
terranean schools in Constantinople, the very
capital of Turkey, where, under learned Greek
professors, the Greek language was by night
taught to thousands of Greeks? Now, in those
supernatural efforts, so to speak, on the part of the
Greeks, lies the whole mystery of their success
in preserving their language. No ! Not for a
moment has the Greek forgot who were his ances-
tors ; not for a moment has he thought of giving
up his language. Time, and the invasions of bar-
barians, had no effect whatever to change or
demoralize either the people or the language.
Idiomatic expressions, peculiarities of language,
so common among the ancient Greek authors, are
MODERN GREEK PRONUNCIATION. 17
to be heard, even to-day, in the different sections
of Greece. Foreign words are rigorously ex-
cluded; and even in the public press the names
of foreign newspapers, sometimes also of foreign
places, are subjected to translation. Thus, the
Times is known as 6 XpoVo?, the New York
Herald, as 6 Kyjpvg 7775 Ne'as 'TopKrjs, etc. ; and
whereas it would sound ridiculous to call " Le
palais des Tuileries" the palace of the Tileworks,
it is actually translated by the u 'A^a/cropa ra^
Kepa^iaiv " in modern Greek.
It may be well here to state that it is from the
ancient grammarians we learn the pronunciation
of the Greek language. Moreover, a scholar
affirms that Dionysius of Halicarnassus, by re-
ferring the Greek alphabetical sounds to their
proper organs, has, as it were, embalmed them
for our use. So that, knowing these facts, we
can assert that the modern Greek pronunciation
has a closer resemblance to the ancient Greek
than any other existing pronunciation.
Again, this is evident from the clearness and
distinctness with which the educated classes es-
pecially pronounce. It is evident from the strik-
ing similarity which exists in pronouncing Greek
in all the countries where the modern Greek
pronunciation is prevalent. In Greece, in Asia
Minor, in Egypt, on the islands, one and the
same pronunciation exists. It is again evident
18 MISTAKEN NOTIONS CONCERNING THE
tk
from the purity of style with which the papers
are edited in Greece. It is evident from the fact
that the Greek historians, such as Xenophon. and
Herodotus, are the delight of every Greek who
reads them as understandingly as the average
American does the history of his own country.
Take the last paragraph of the Olympian Oration,
delivered by Professor Philippos loannou, on the
second anniversary of the modern Olympiads,
A. D., 1870. The subject of the oration is, " The
Intellectual Progress of the Greek Nation from
the War of Independence to the Present Time."
In the closing paragraph Professor Arnold states :
" Embracing about a page and a half of closely
printed octavo, there are about fifty verbs, every
one of which is found in Liddell and Scott's
ancient Greek lexicon. .... Of seventy-five or
eighty nouns, all but one are found in the above-
named lexicon, and this one is simply a modifica-
tion of a well known root, familiar to Greek
scholars, and represented by several cognate
words (Tray ia>T7? s) Of about fifty adjectives,
all but one are found in the lexicon, and of this
one the corresponding adverb is found. Indeed,
the adjective itself is found in Pickering's lexicon.
All the nouns and adjectives, without the slightest
exception, are declined as in the ancient gram-
mars. Among eight or ten different pronouns,
personal, relative, demonstrative, and compound,
MODERN GREEK PRONUNCIATION. 19
occurring in all about twenty-four times, there is
only one instance of departure from ancient
usage. Of ten adverbs, the only one not be-
longing to the ancient language is the negative Se*>
(contraction for ouSe*/) instead of ov or OVK. This
modern form is used twice, and the ancient form,
ov^i, also occurs twice. So slight is the difference
between the Greek language of B. C. 400 and
that of A. D. 1870." Now, is this not a proof
that the language must be essentially the same ?
And does not identity of language necessarily
imply identity of sound? How is it that the
people of Athens recently filled the ancient
theatre of Bacchus to overflowing, to witness the
representation of Antigone in ancient Greek ?
How is it that the Athenian heart, ever finely
susceptible to the sentiments of humanity, gave
evidence by many a tear that the people who
witnessed it were imbued with the spirit of the
tragedy, and felt in their very hearts the pathos
of the piece ? To what do you attribute all this I
To what can it be attributed but to the fact that
the " ancient Greek " is to-day essentially the
living language of the modern Greeks? What
more need be said in favor of adopting the modern
Greek pronunciation, which alone is the true pro-
nunciation of the Greek language ?
The Rev. John Groves, a distinguished Greek
scholar, asserts that " We have, after an examina-
20 MISTAKEN NOTIONS CONCERNING- THE
tion made with no little labor, formed a decided
opinion that the pronunciation of the Greeks lias
undergone very little change for ' TWO THOUSAND
YEARS/ The written language itself has been
preserved in greater purity, during an equal ex-
tent of years, than any of the European lan-
guages of the same stock." He is inclined to
believe, with an intelligent traveller in Greece,
that the " contemporary of William of Malmes-
bury or of Froissart would find more difficulty in
conversing with his modern countrymen than any
Athenian of the purer ages with his."
Bishop Horsley remarks that it may reasonably
be supposed that the pronunciation of the Greek
language, even in the time of Eustathius, which
flourished in the beginning of the thirteenth cen-
tury, much more resembled the pronunciation
of the best ages than anything we can substitute
for it now ; certainly much more than our BAR-
BAROUS recitation of Greek, CORRUPTED by our
bad way of sounding it. To the same effect is
the opinion of a well-known English author, who
has bestowed as much attention upon the subject
of pronunciation generally as " any writer of our
age." There seems, says Mr. Midford, no reason-
able ground for doubting that the present polite
pronunciation of Constantinople approaches nearer
to the speech of the ancient Greeks than that
of any other moderns, with any advantage the
MODERN GREEK PRONUNCIATION. 21
study can give, and that in order to obtain the
nearest possible approximation to the ancient
Greek pronunciation we can do no other way so
well as to adopt the Constantinopolitan.
Furthermore, the University of Cambridge in
England has candidly acknowledged that the
English are almost singular in the erroneous and
vitiated pronunciation of the Greek language.
And, in a well-known literary journal, a writer
has remarked, in strong language: "It is, I be-
lieve, an undisputed fact, that our pronunciation
of Greek bears not the slightest resemblance to
that of the ancients A remedy should be
found Great attention ought to be paid to
the pronunciation of the modern Greeks, ....
which must obviously approximate more to the
standard of the ancients than the method preva-
lent in England and elsewhere."
Again, it is an undisputed fact, that by study-
ing the Greek as a living language, and by
adopting the modern Greek pronunciation, many
idioms of modern Greek may be employed in
a manner hitherto unlocked for, in the criticism
of documents of doubtful age, as, for example, the
Gospel of St. John, with a view of determining
the period at which they were written.
Professor Geldart asserts that the relation be-
tween accent and quantity in poetry can never be
fully nor fairly judged by any one who is not
22 MODERN GREEK PRONUNCIATION.
familiar with the sound of Greek read accentually,
a familiarity which can hardly be acquired apart
from a practical acquaintance with Greek as a
living, spoken language.
Furthermore, "the pronunciation of Greek, and
the interchange of certain letters within the limits
of the Greek language, is a sealed mystery to
those who are ignorant of the sounds which the
Greeks of the present day give to the letters of
their alphabet and their several combinations."
Finally, as exactly the same letters appear to
be interchangeable in ancient and modern Greek,
we hold it to be in itself the strongest proof of
the general identity of modern and ancient Greek
pronunciation. But we will notice this point
hereafter. We will no1^ proceed to discuss the
subject concerning the neglect of the modern
Greek pronunciation.
CHAPTER V.
NEGLECT OF THE MODERN GREEK PRONUNCIATION.
AFTER the foregoing considerations, the reader
may be curious to know why scholars are so loath
to adopt the pronunciation prevalent in Greece.
For, in fact, how can the Western nations ever
suppose that their pronunciation is correct, when
they pronounce the Greek, which is the living
language of millions of people, according to the
sound of their respective languages ? Is this not
a regrettable confusion ? Now, would it not be
better to have for the Greek one uniform pronun-
ciation, such as we have for every other spoken
language ?
The reasons for this neglect are many and
various. With learned men of the old school it
is due, very probably, " to a certain antiquarian
bent of mind, amounting to a positive prejudice
against everything modern." Professor Geldart
is certainly right, when he says, that with such
scholars the fact that a language is dead, is, of
itself, the best reason for studying it, forgetting
that " a living dog is better than a dead lion."
24 MODERN GREEK PRONUNCIATION.
To such, the discovery that the Greek is as really
a living language as it was in the days of Homer,
can hardly be expected to prove welcome. The
manner of life which such persons lead is not
inaptly expressed in the words of Southey :
" My days among the dead are passed.
Around me I behold,
Where'er these casual eyes are cast,
The mighty minds of old :
My never-failing friends are they,
With whom I converse night and day."
The remaining reasons for this neglect, Professor
Geldart attributes to " the politi cal insignificance
of the nation ; the obscurity of its literature ; the
small practical use of the language ; and last,
but perhaps not the least, the prevalence of the
Erasmian system of pronunciation."
CHAPTER VI.
PROSPECTIVE STATUS OF GREECE.
" (EDIPUS. Where are we now, my dear Antigone ?
Knowest thou the place ?
ANTIGONE. Far as my eyes can reach I see a city
With lofty turrets crowned ; and if I err not,
This place is sacred ; by the laurel shade,
Olive and vine thick planted, and the songs
Of nightingale sweet warbling through the year."
THE political insignificance of Greece cannot be
of very long duration. A people which has made
such rapid strides in education as the Greek nation,
since its independence was established, must "be
worth something, after all." Professor Felton
said, in reference to the University of Athens,
" That many of its professors would do honor to
any university of Europe " ; and it is not saying
too much when I say that the University of
Athens is acknowledged to-day as one of the very
best universities of Europe. General education
is widely spread in Greece, and no nation sur-
passes the modern Greeks "in general informa-
tion." But in order that the reader may fully
understand the astonishing progress the Greeks
26 PROSPECTIVE STATUS OF GREECE.
have made in the sciences, arts, and literature,
that is to say, in civilization, since 1832, the year
when Greece was declared an independent king-
dom, it is necessary that I preface my remarks
by a brief description of the country before the
occurrence of that memorable event.
" Before I farther in the tale do pass,
It seemeth me accordant unto reason
To tell you all, the condition
Of each of them, so as it seemeth me,
And who they were, and of what degree,
And eke in what array they all were in."
In 1821 a general war against the Turks was
declared, and, after a war of seven years a most
cruel and atrocious war the Greeks succeeded in
obtaining their liberty. Education during those
years, and previous to 1821, was indeed in a sad
condition. The Turks would permit the Greeks
to have churches, but they would not permit them
to have any " regular schools." The Greeks
accordingly turned many of their churches into
school-houses, and here is a faithful description
of one of those "schools" by a Greek who
attended one of them : " The rich were wont to
attend the subterranean schools established in
Constantinople, Smyrna, and other cities. These
schools were generally taught by able and
scholarly men, who had studied in Germany.
The poor attended the schools held in the church.
PROSPECTIVE STATUS OF GREECE. 27
The school was kept at the entrance of the church,
and our teacher was the priest, a man of not
extensive acquirements. We went at about eight
o'clock in the morning, and were ranged in two
lines in the porch, one on each side of the door.
The children sat on sheepskins spread on the
floor with the wool up, the floor being swept very
clean. Sometimes we were ranged round against
the wall, without distinction of age or class,
brothers being generally placed together, and the
girls in another group. The exercises began at
eight o'clock, by all standing, while a prayer was
repeated by the teacher. Then we all said the
Creed. The priest then repeated the psalm be-
ginning ' Eleeson me o Theos,' which is much
used by us in ancient Greek, of which I un-
derstood the meaning when a little boy. It
needed not a translation. When this was done,
the boys began to read, one at a time going with
his book to the master, who corrected any errors.
There were two classes, one in an alphabet
book, called 'phillada' (leaves); the other in
the Psalter, or the ' Apostles.' The l Apostles '
contained the Acts and all the Epistles. Both
the Psalter and the l Apostles ' were in ancient
Greek. Each scholar had a few lines to read,
which he studied as a lesson at his seat. We
never studied mathematics, as we did afterwards,
in the school of Oekonomos in Smyrna, This
28 PROSPECTIVE STATUS OF GREECE.
school of Oekonomos was what I may term a
' private school.' A few such schools were to be
found in Asia Minor at that time. But they were
generally placed under the protection of some
European power, and thus they were left un-
molested. To this day, the Evangelical College
in Smyrna, though a Greek institution, endowed
by a Greek, is under the protection of England.
After dinner we learned to write. Three or four
small sheets of paper sewed together, without a
cover, served for each of the older boys, who
used to write with large crow-quills. These quills
were very durable. The shepherds supplied us
from the birds they killed. The pens were
mended by the master. We sat on sheepskins,
as I mentioned, spread on the floor, and placed
the paper on our knees with our inkstands beside
us. The master gave a copy of the alphabet
alone to each learner, and afterwards a line or
more, written always in a small hand. All the
exercise of the afternoon, for two or three hours,
was in writing. Before the close of school-hours,
the writing was shown to the master, who pun-
ished the negligent by feruling their hands.
Great offences were punished by bastinado on the
feet. * This was performed after the Turkish man-
ner, by lifting the feet up. In ours and the neigh-
boring villages of poor Greeks, the boys carried
every week ten paras (two and a half cents), or
Vi J V
. V <..
PROSPECTIVE STATUS OF GREECE. ^$9
'-. '
bread, olives, eggs, cheese, wine, to feed the ma&fcer. ^
This was the regular price. There was no dange/
of being starved. Each was informed whether to\
carry a loaf of bread or a piece of cheese this
week, which was generally different from the last
and the next week. At the rates established then,
I suppose the master received about the value
of four dollars per month for teaching thirty
boys. There was no suoh thing as boarding, so
that the expense of living cannot be estimated as
in the United States ; but everything was cheap.
Beef was two and a half cents a pound ; veal or
lamb, four cents ; goat's flesh, two cents. Flour
was four cents a pound."
Such was the state of education in those years
of bitter slavery. The monasteries, especially
those on Mount Olympus, afforded instruction to
those who wished to learn, but generally speak-
ing it was " religious instruction," and those at-
tending, for the most part, were preparing for
the ministry. Shortly after the release from the
Turkish yoke, the courts of England, France,
and Russia, being desirous to give to Greece a
fresh proof of their friendly (?) disposition, took
upon themselves the responsibility of directing
the internal affairs of the kingdom, and of framing
a constitution for the nation. The Greeks were
opposed to the friendly wishes of the Powers;
they were opposed to the form of government
30 PROSPECTIVE STATUS OF GREECE.
the Powers wished to establish over them ; they
were unwilling to have foreigners direct the
destinies of their nation ; so that, after the lapse
often years (since 1832), " The Minerva," a
Greek paper then published in Athens, asserted
in strong language, " After the lapse of more
than ten years, and an expenditure of thirty
millions of dollars, the interests of the country
are so completely neglected, that to this moment
(1842), Greece is left with the greatest part of her
domain uncultivated ; with her forts filled with
mud ; with many of her rich plains and valleys
in a state of progressive desolation ; with some
few schools and seminaries of learning, supported
principally by private contribution, and denied
the benefit of a vigilant superintendence ; with
churches more fit for stables than for temples
of religion ; with suppressed monasteries ; with a
clergy in rags ; with a navy inferior to the one in
the days of Capodistria ; with a population small
enough, and yet diminishing by constant emi-
gration to Turkey; with many and rich uniforms,
but without a manufacturing establishment ; with
plenty of commercial treaties, but with a com-
merce poorer and more insignificant than ever;
with a bank which promises wonders, but with no
resources and public credit."
The above picture of Greece is by no means
an exaggeration of the actual state of things at
PROSPECTIVE STATUS OF GREECE. 31
the time. The budget for 1843 showed a revenue
of 15,669,795 drachmas, against an expenditure
of 18,666,582 drachmas, which it was feared
would be increased to more than 6,000,000 drach- .
mas, inasmuch as it was thought that the govern-
ment would hardly realize more than 12,000,000
drachmas from the revenue of the realm. The
causes of these misfortunes must be attributed
to the fact that the Powers were determined to
establish in Greece an " absolute monarchy,"
and the Greeks, on the other hand, wished to
have a constitutional government. Others laid
the blame upon the Bavarians, upon those "who"
to use the language of " The Minerva "
" disbanded the veterans of Greece, and gave
the bread of her liberators to worthless merce-
naries, who led to the slaughter-house the heroes
of her revolution, and exiled in foreign missions
the best of her statesmen ; who shackled the
press, burdened the people with taxes, wasted the
loan and the revenue, gave the national lands to
strangers, weakened the interests of her protect-
ors, dampened the sympathies of her friends,
disregarded the Protocols, despised the advice
of kings, persecuted the constitution, and intro-
duced into the country that system of govern-
ment which must be stigmatized as * absolute
and despotic.'"
Others maintain, and perhaps with justice, that
32 PROSPECTIVE STATUS OF GREECE.
the real causes are to be sought in the memorable
treaty of the 7th of May, 1832, between the
Minister of Bavaria on one side and the Pleni-
potentiaries of England, France, and Russia on
the other. By virtue of this memorable state
paper, the sovereignty of Greece was conferred
upon King Otho, and it was further agreed, be-
tween the contracting . parties, that his Majesty,
being then a minor, should proceed to his king-
dom, under the tutelage of THREE Regents, not
one of whom was to be a Greek, who, besides a
a loan of sixty millions of francs, were to have a
mercenary army of four thousand men !
The history of the last fifty years, a Greek
asserts, has recorded many wrongs, many acts of
oppression and injustice ; but neither the history
of the present, nor the annals of ancient and
modern times, can afford us a more terrible ex-
ample of national vassalage than that which we
see in the case of Greece, and which portrays in
such vivid colors the beauties of an exotic policy,
which Mr. Macaulay has justly characterized as
the worst species of slavery. Mr. Perdicaris
remarks that the sacrifices of Greece, the full
hecatombs which she laid on the altar of liberty,
the deep sympathy which her suffering and heroic
courage created in. the minds of the civilized
communities of the world, are still fresh in our
memory, and we can hardly dissipate our blush,
PROSPECTIVE STATUS OF GREECE. 33
or smother our indignation, when, with such
glorious antecedents, we find such wretched con-
sequences ; when in the place of that substantial
good which animated the heroes of Greece, and
which was anticipated by her people arid her
friends, we have a government which requires
from two to three millions of dollars for its sup-
port, but which, at the same time, is swayed to
and fro by some one of the three potent and
irresponsible Plenipotentiaries of England, France,
and Russia ! Is there anything more humiliating
or more degrading than this !
But this state of things could not go on much
longer. The Greeks resolutely took the matter
into their own hands, and by one master-stroke
they saved their country from its perilous and
degraded condition. This they accomplished by
that memorable revolution of September 3, 1843.
It accomplished a great deal of good, without
giving rise to evil consequences. That great
popular movement of a single day ended, in the
words of a Greek historian, in the acquisition of a
social compact, which is destined to protect, for
ages to come, the prerogatives of the throne and
the rights of the nation.
The Greeks, having established a form of
government such as they wished, showed them-
selves capable of governing themselves. They
commenced to rebuild their fallen city and to
34 ' PROSPECTIVE STATUS OF GREECE.
preserve the renowned monuments of antiquity,
which suffered not so much from the conqueror
as they did from the ruthless hand of the anti-
quarian.
It was the antiquarian, and not the conqueror,
who ruined the temples of antiquity and de-
spoiled the city of Athens of its treasures. We
can only feel, says the indignant Byron, or im-
agine, the regret with which ruins of cities, once
the capitals of empires, are beheld ; the reflections
suggested by such objects are too trite to require
recapitulation. But never did the littleness of
man, and the vanity of his very best virtues,
of patriotism to watch and valor to. defend his
country, appear more conspicuous than in the
record of what Athefis was and the certainty of
what she now is. This theatre of contentions
between mighty factions, of the struggles of
orators, the exaltation and deposition of tyrants,
and triumphs and punishment of generals, is now
become a scene of petty intrigues and perpetual
disturbance between the bickering agents of cer-
tain British nobility and gentry ; the wild foxes,
the owls, and serpents, in the ruins of Babylon
were scarcely less degrading than such inhabi-
tants. The Turks have the plea of conquest for
their tyranny, and the Greeks have only suffered
the fortunes of war incident to the bravest. But
how are the mighty fallen, when two painters
PROSPECTIVE STATUS OF GREECE. 35
contest the privilege of plundering the Parthenon,
and triumph in turn according to the tenor of
each succeeding firman ! Sylla could but punish,
Philip subdue, and Xerxes burn Athens, but it
remained for the petty antiquarian and his des-
picable agents to render her as contemptible as
himself and his pursuits.
However, let us not forget that neither the
conqueror, nor the antiquarian, nor time, the de-
stroyer of all things, has succeeded in effacing
the wonders of art; the principal monuments
of the city, and the Acropolis with many of its
monuments, were spared, and Athens, " even
when under the government of a worthless slave,
continued to be the favorite of all those who had
an eye for art or for nature."
" But lo ! from high Hymettus to the plain
The Queen of Night nsserts her silent reign.
"NTo murky vapor, herald of the storm,
Hides her fair face or gilds her glowing form.
With cornice glimmering in the moonbeam's play,
When the white column greets her grateful ray,
And bright around with quivering beams beset,
Her emblem sparkles o'er the minaret ;
The groves of olive scattered dark and wide,
Where meek Cephisus sheds his scanty tide,
The cypress saddening by the sacred mosque,
The glimmering turret of the gay kiosk,
And sad and sombre mid the holy calm,
Near Theseus' fane, yon solitary palm,
All tinged with varied hues, arrests the eye,
And dull were his heart that passed them heedless by."
36 PROSPECTIVE STATUS OF GREECE.
For the preservation of the " antiquities," a
society was formed under the name of the
tl Archaeological Society of Athens." The mem-
bers went to work with willing hearts and hands,
so that they succeeded in rendering the " National
Museum " the most interesting and perhaps the
richest museum of the world.
Ever lovely, ever dear,
How may I salute thine ear!
O what size of words may tell
Half the charms that in thee dwell !
In thy sight are joy and pleasure
Without stint and without measure.
In thy breath is all that flings
Sense and thought of choicest things.
Now, the progress Greece has made since her
independence is evident from what follows :
Greece in 1834 had a population of 650,000
inhabitants. In 1870 she had 1,238,000 inhabit-
ants, that is to say, her population was doubled
in thirty-six years, increasing more rapidly
than in Great Britain, and much faster than in
any other country of Europe. Greece, together
with the Ionian islands, has to-day a population
of one million and a half.
In 1830 there were in Greece 110 schools, and
the number of scholars amounted to 9,249. In
1860, there were in Greece 752 schools, with
52,860 scholars. In 1837 there were in the
PROSPECTIVE STATUS OF GREECE. 37
University of Athens 52 scholars; in 1866 there
were 1182. In regard to the commercial and
maritime interests of the country, suffice it to say,
that in 1871 Greece had 35,000 sailors; three
times as many as Great Britain in proportion
to her population. Her commerce with England
in 1861 amounted to 923,000 English pounds;
in 1871 it reached the sum of 2,332,000 pounds.
Education is free. From the village school to
the " great University " of Athens, education is
free. Edmond About, in his work, " Contem-
porary Greece," speaks in the following terms
concerning the Greek students : "I have seen
in Greece all kinds of students, but I never saw
the student who would not study." Rev. Joseph
Cook thus eloquently portrays the intellectual
progress of the Greek nation :
" What has happened in Greece since she was liberated
from Turkey ?
" Forty years ago not a book could be bought at Athens.
To-day one in eighteen of the whole population of Greece
is in school. Fifty years of independence and the Hellenic
spirit have doubled the population of Greece, increased her
revenues five hundred per cent, extended telegraphic com-
munication over the kingdom, enlarged the fleet from 440 to
5,000 vessels, opened eight ports, founded eleven new cities,
restored forty ruined towns, changed Athens from a hamlet
of hovels to a city of 60,000 inhabitants, and planted there
a royal palace, a legislative chamber, six type-foundries, forty
printing establishments, twenty newspapers, an astronomical
observatory, and a university with fifty professors and twelve
38 PROSPECTIVE STATUS OF GREECE.
hundred students. King Otho's German court, when he
came from Nauplia to Athens in 1835, lived at first in a shed
that kept out neither the rain nor the north wind. On Con-
stitution Peace in Athens, in 1843, the Hellenic spirit, with-
out violence, and by the display of force for but a few hours,
substituted for personal power in Greece a constitutional
government as free as that of England. George Finlay, the
historian of the Greek Revolution, and who fought in it,
affirms that, even before that event, degraded as the people
were politically, a larger proportion could read and write
than among any other Christian race in Europe. Undoubt-
edly long bondage, acting on the native adroitness of the
race, taught the Greeks disingenuousness. The old blood
produced an Alcibiades as well as a Socrates, a Cleon as
well as a Phocion ; there was in it, as in American veins
to-day, a tendency to social, commercial, and political sharp-
dealing. But after fifty years of independence the Hellenic
spirit devotes a larger percentage of public revenue to pur-
poses of instruction than France, Italy, England, Germany,
or even the United States. Modern Greece, fifty years ago
a slave and beggar, to-day, by the confession of the most
merciless statisticians, its enemies, stands at the head of the
list of self-educated nations."
" ' The Deity has changed in nothing these cities ; but I
am not surprised thereby; for I know the Destiny is ever
striving to produce something new, and changes the weak ns
well as the strong, by the power of Necessity.' " (PAUSANIAS.)
CHAPTER VII.
MODERN GREEK LITERATURE.
THE Sepluagint, Polybius, and the New Testa- |
ment were written in what is called Hellenistic ,
Greek, or u rj Koivrj SiaXe/cros." I may in fact /
remark that Hellenistic Greek, or " rj Koivrj SiaXe/c-
Tos," first made its appearance in the Sepluagint.
For example, " efeX#e IK rfjs 7779 crov, KOL IK rrjs
crvyytvelas crov . . . Travres ^K\ivav t OL^JLOL rj-^peLot-
crOrjcrav rct^o? dt'ewy/xeVos 6 \apvyt; avTav" sounds
just like modern Greek.
Of Polybius it may be said that the general
run of his sentences is not so modern as the Sep-
tuagint, yet many of his peculiarities, or novelties,
are decidedly modern. The New Testament is \
written in the language in which the newspapers
are to-day printed in Greece. Everything about
it is decidedly modern. The language of the
New Testament needs no translation with us ; it
is as natural for a Greek, of fair education, to
understand the New Testament " in the original
Greek " as it is for an American to understand the
language of an English paper.
40 MODERN GREEK LITERATURE.
To-day there are many books published in
Athens, written by modern Greeks, in a style far
above that of the New_ Testament; take, for in-
stance : Kal r)p(i)TT)crav OLVTOVS Xeyoire? ovrog ICTTIV
6 wos VJJLCOV, ov v//,ets Xeyere on rvtykos lyevvrjOrj ;
ovv apTi /3XeVei ; * KTreKpiO^crav avroT? ot yo-
avTov, KOL &TTQV oiSa/xe^ on 01)705 icrnv o wo?
, KOLL on rv^Xo? eyevvTJOrj. Now, in all this,
w r ith the exception of the word oiSapev, for which
the modern Greek will supply r^^evpo^^v, every-
thing- else sounds decidedly modern.
We now pass into the " Roman period."
Lebeck's edition of Phrynichus, " Eclogse and
Epitome," will perhaps give an idea as to the
state of the spoken language about 180 years
after Christ.
We come next to the Diocletian age. The fol-
lowing Nubian inscription by a King Silco,
Corpus Insc. iii. p. 486, may serve as a type
of the Greek spoken at that time in ^Ethiopia :
OTTOJV -r]\6ov et? Te\/Jii,v Kal
a rcov BXe/jL/JLVcov, Kal 6 0eos fpouteP /J,OL TO vt,Kr)[j,a /mera
e^Opwv arra^) eviKTjcra nraKiv KCLI t/cparrjcra ra? TroXe/.?
avrwv, e>caOe(T0r)V /Ltera rwv OV\WV JJLOV TO JJLZV
r/./ J * vJVjt.' r >/
aTrag eviKfjaa avrcov Kau avrot, i]fyw(jav /ue* fTroirjcra
VY]V fiT awrwv Kai, w^oadv pot, TO, et^coXa avrwv, xai
MODERN GREEK LITERATURE. 41
TOV OpKOV CiVTWV O>9 Kd\OI, L(7LV avOpCOTTOl,'
et<? TCI avw fieprj /JLOV ore eyeyovo/jLrjv ftaai-
OVK a7rrj\0ov oXo)9 oTTicrco TWV aXXaw (3ao~i\ewv
aXXa aKfjur)v e/jLTrpoaQev avTcov. 01 jap (fiiXoveiKovcriv per
OVK a(j)a) (cf. acf>e(0vTai in New Testament) avrovs et?
avrwv ei> fj,r) KaTrj^Lcoaav yu-e KCLI TrapaicaXovaiv
J T-, v\1 / /_> \\?
,. xLya) yap ft? KCLTO) pep?) hecov CLJJLI KCK, et?
avu> fjieprj all- elfjLL" eiroXearjaa fjiera ra)v BXe/jL/jivcov Kal
eoj? TeX^Jew? Iv a-yraf /cal ol aXXot NovjSaSwv
fjieT e/Jiov- OVK acj)(0 avTovs Ka0ecr0f)vat, et9 TT\V aKiav et /XT;
W7roK\ti>ovo-i, IJLOI KOLI OVK eircoKav vrjpov eca) et9 TTJV oiKiav
avTwv. Ol yap (j)i\oveiKOvo'l /JLOI dpird^a) TWV yuvaiKwv
/cat, T a Traioia avTwv.
From the age of Diocletian to the Byzantine
Period is but a step. Now, until the time of
Ptochoprodromus, in the eleventh century after
Christ, " artificial Attic " was still the language
of literature ; but the popular dialect, often re-
ferred to by authors, keeps coming to the surface.
The following is a short specimen of the
popular style adopted in this period, from the
" Apophthegmata Patrum " :
' H\0ov TTore TraTepe? et? 'A\%dv$piav K\r)0evT6s VTTO
eo(f)L\ov TOV ap%ie7Tia-K07rov iva r noir\ari ev%r)v
TO. tepa. Kat, eaOiovrcov avrwv Trap avTOV
Kal jfafav fvq&v SaKpivojAevoi, Kal \aj3cov
2 MODERN GREEK LITERATURE.
f J / rf / VP> * -v ' * /
eTTHTKOTTOS V KOTTClbiV 0(i)K6 TO) TrXrjGLOV CtVTOV jepOVTl
\eya)v, iBov TOVTO Ka\ov KOTra&iv eo"rw, (frdye a{3/3a. Ol
Be a7roKpi6evT<i elirov. '.Hyuet? ea>? apri \ayava, ^aQlo^v
et Se /c/jea? ecrrt ou rpwyopev. Kal ov/ceri TrpoaeOero ovSe
et? eavT(t)v yevcraaOai, avrov.
The next period of " Greek literature" may be
reckoned from_622, the date of the Hegira, to
1099. We have here before our eyes "the tran-
sition in literature from the language of the gram-
marians to the language of the people."
Theophanes (758-816). Besides a host of
new words, and ancient words with new mean-
ings, he has the following grammatical innova-
tions :
The endings -aScs, -aSco*>, -aSas, in nouns in -a? ;
01 a/iTjpaSes, emirs, rous d/x^paSa?. The endings
-15, -iv for -tos, -iov ; 6 Kvpis rov Kvpiv. *As \a\yj-
for XaX^crtojiiei', and a? etcreX^cycrt for etcreX-
The perfect participle without redupli-
cation, as crtS^pw/xeVo?, KacrreXX&yieVos TrvpTroX-rj^e-
j/05. ^H/xtcru, half, indeclinable. The ending -05
for tov ; acrxrffJLO) for acr^/xoi'i ; airb with the ac-
cusative. 'ATTO 'AXefa^S/oetai/ ; ets for eV. 'ESiSa-
crAcer iv Kwz/crraz'Tiz'ovTro'Xei, ct? TO evKTijpiOV Trjs
ayias 'A^ao-raa-tas ; o-vr with the genitive as well
as a'/xa with the genitive, etc., etc.
The age of Malalas cannot be determined with
certainty. Professor Sophocles supposes that, as,
MODERN GREEK LITERATURE. 43
however, most of the grammatical innovations
contained in the work that bears his name belong
to the language of the eighth and ninth centuries,
it may be assumed that he jvas_con temporary with
Theophanes. It would seem, further, that Greek
was not his mother tongue.
I. The endings -es for at, as Ilepo-eg for Hcpo-ai.
Metaplastic dative plural rcus TrXdVats, from 17
TrXctAca, classical TrXdg 77X01*05. Participle active in
ovra for -ov, and eWa for -e*>; TrecroVra, ot/coiWa,
6Vra, /xe'XXoz'Ta, Trape^ovra.
The accusative for the dative. The article be-
fore interrogative words. "A/m, with the genitive.
'ATTO, by, for VTTO after passive forms. Mera, with,
followed by the accusative.
The anonymous biographer of Leo Armenius
uses the following grammatical innovations :
The ending -ovv for -overt ; Kvpievovv for Kvpitv-
ovcri IK with the accusative /cat euya>os for euye-
1^179. The auxiliary as for a<^e?.
Leo the Philosopher (A. D. 886-911), in his
" Tactica," employs a considerable number of new
words and the endings : -o? for -779.
II. tStKos = proprium, as in Romaic. The end-
ing -orat for -et (second person sing, passive), ov
for [vf\ in the protasis, etc.-
Constantine Porphyrogenitus, who wrote all his
works purposely u in the common and spoken
44 MODERN GREEK LITERATURE.
language," with the exception of the Life of St.
Basil, which was written in the artificial " Attic
Greek " of that period, gives us : The ending -cus
for at; dXXafi/AO*>, gen. dXXa^'/xaros ; crct9 for tyxwz>;
eW for eV; povoyevrj for the vocative of /xoz'oye^g;
for avTwv ; etcre for el; crou for crcu, as KOL\TJ-
rjpepa, u Good morning to you"; va for IVa,
and So? with the accus. 4> A/xa, with the subj. Mera,
w^&, followed with the accus., etc.
An anonymous writer, known as " Theophanes
Continuatus," makes use of the expression, " the
common and impure language," which evidently
means the language of the illiterate. In his col-
lection entitled " Theophanes Continuatus," we
find : *AXv, gen. of *AXus, xpucros for ^pucrous.
The ending a?, /cpacras, vitner, and periphrastic
future subjunctive.
Cedrenus (A. D. 1057) wrote in ancient Greek,
but with " indifferent success." His work contains
but few grammatical innovations : Gen. in 77 from
775 ; the numeral adverb eTrrcu for I
Scylitzes gives us the following specimen of the
common dialect : eoi ere eVricra, ffrovpve' ea) Iva ere
= in modern Greek, 'eyw ere e/crtcra fyovpvt,
VOL ere xaXaera>, / built thee, oven, I will de-
molish thee!
Anna Commena, who wrote a history of the
MODERN GREEK LITERATURE. 45
Byzantine War about the year 1100, alludes to
the common dialect. She has preserved the fol-
lowing popular tetrastitch :
To aafiparov TT}? TVpivrjs
Xaprjs A\ti6, evorjcres TO,
Kal T7]v Seurepav TO irpcot"
Eljra^ /ca\co<i
This closes the mediaeval period of Greek liter-
ature.
Theodoras Prodromus (A. D. 1143-1180) may
be regarded as the earliest " modern Greek author."
He is said to have used the " popular dialect," or
" Romaic Greek," in its entirety. Before pro-
ceeding any farther, it may be well to give the
origin of the term " Romaic Greek."
ORIGIN OF THE NAME "ROMAIC."
In Professor Sophocles' " Romaic Grammar"
we find that when Constantine the Great trans-
ferred the seat of empire to Byzantium, he called
it Nea 'Pc^u//?, New Rome. The popular name, how-
ever, was, and still continues to be, Kaj^o-ra^rt^ou-
770X15, Constantinople, that is Kaj^crra^TtVov 770X19,
the city of Constantine. The appellation Neiv Rome
is now obsolete, except in connection with the
titles of its bishop. Thus, Tpr^yopio<; eXeo^ eov
Ne'as 'PojiTs /cat
46 MODERN GREEK LITERATURE.
olKovfjLeviKos TrcLTpidp^qs, Gregory, by the mercy of
God Archbishop of Constantinople, which is New
Rome, and Universal Patriarch. After that mem-
orable event the name of 'Potato*,, Romans, was
applied to the Greeks as well as to the genuine
Eomans. The subjects of the Byzantine emperor
were sometimes distinguished from the '
'PcofjLOiOi, Western Romans, by the adjective '
Eastern. The Emperor's domain was known as
'Pw/xa^ta, Romania, the country of the Romans, a
derivative of e P<o/i,ai/o?, Romanus, Roman.
The Greeks being thus changed into Romans,
it was natural that the name of the language
should undergo a corresponding transformation.
The adjective 'Pw/^auAcos (trisyllabic), less cor-
rectly 'Pwjucu/co?, is derived from 'Pw/xcuo?, after
the analogy of the classical 'A^aa/cog, from '
Hence 17 'Pco/zac/cT; yXwcrcra, or simply ra '
Romaic, the language of the Romans.
The term rj 'EAXrjj/i/a) TXcacrcra, or simply ra
'EXXrjvLKa, is regularly applied now to the ancient
and present language of Greece.
Now, we have said that the first modern Greek
writer who can be said to have used the " Romaic
dialect" in its entirety was Theodorus Prodromus
(A. D. 1143-1180), nicknamed " Ptochoprodro-
mus." He lived in the reign of the Emperor
Mangel Comnenus, was a monk, and addressed
to him a series of popular verses, crrt^oi
MODERN GREEK LITERATURE. 47
preserved to us by Coray in the first volume of
liis " Atacta," Paris, 1828. The burden of these
verses appears to be the poverty of learned men.
They are written with great spirit, and in a style
which may be termed " barbarous ancient Greek."
Since the emancipation of Greece the style com-
menced to show its native power, so that " Romaic
Greek" or " barbarous ancient Greek" is a thing
altogether of the past. The following is a speci-
men of his style :
TTJV K6(j)a\r)V aov, jBao-tXeu, a<? rovro rl JJLZ Xeyet? /
VjV if # \ j /
Av e%a) yeiTovav Ttvav fce^rj iraioiv ayopiv,
Na TOV eliTco V*j MdOe TO ypauaaTircbv va fy')(rr) ;
Hapa KpaviapOKe'(j)a\ov TraWe? va /M ovopaGovv.
Na TOV etyro) rt, MdOe TO T^ayjaprjv TO iraioiv aov.
PeiTovav e%c0 TTCT^T^V^ ra^a
IlXrjv eve Ka\otyovvi(TT7]<;, eve /cat,
Orav yap iSrj TTJV avyrjv
Aeyei a? /Spaar) TO Kpacrlv real /3a\e TO Trnrepiv
Ev6vs TO /3pa<reiv TO OepfJLov \eyet, Trpos TO iraiBiv TOV
Na TO 7rai$LV /u-ou, ayopao~e
$epe Kol B\a%(,rcov TVplv a\\r)v
Kal So? fJL va Trpoyevawuai,, KCLI Tore va
'A<f> ov oe (f>0aa-r) TO TVplv teal TCL
Kav Tecrcrepa TOV &iSovo~iv 6t? TO Tpavov
Kal TrapevOvs vTroBrjaav eiracpet, teal Tre
Qiav Se TraXiv, /9ao-t\eO, yevuaTos; copa
48 MODERN GREEK LITERATURE.
TO KaXairoSiv rov, ptTnei Kal TO
Kal \eyei TTJV yvvaliccnov, Kvpa Kal #e?
Kai rrptoTOv fjilcraov e/efeerToV, Sevrepov TO atyovyydrov,
Kai rplrov TO aKptorracrTov o(>6ov airo /Jiepiov.
Kai TGTapTov povoKvOpov, 7r\r)v /SXtTre va /JUT)
Acf) ov Be irapaOeaovaw Kal vi-fye'rat, Kai /caTcr
^ AvaQe^a fjue Baai\ev KOI TpicravaOe/JLa fie,
Ovrav arpa(j)(Ji) KOI iBa) TOI/ XotTroz/ TO TTCO? Ka6
To TTDJ? avaKOfjiTToverai va TTiacrr) TO KOvraXiv,
Kat, ovbev rpe^ovv TO, aa\ia /uoy, w? Tpe^et, TO
Kai, eyco vTrayco K epxp^ai TroSa? ne'rpwv TWV arfycov.
EvOvs r)TO) lov lafJi/Bov^ jvpevco TOV
r/ \ ) r / vv -v \\
vpeva) TOV Ttvppi^iov Kai, TO. \oi7ra ia
A\\a Ta jjLerpa TTVV (jjeXovv d rrjv a^erpov /JLOV irelvav ;
Ilore yap e/c TOV la^ftov va (jjayo)
*H TTW? e/c TOV Ttvppi^Lov TTOTe fjiov va
E&e T%vi,T7]<; 0o(j)i(rTr)<; e/tet^o? o
Elrre TO Kvpie Xeyaov, rj
We give here some of his grammatical innova-
tions as collected by Professor Sophocles. They
will be found of importance to any one who may
read his writings, and, in fact, a key to the Eomaic
dialect :
I. N, annexed to words ending in a vowel : <o'-
peiv, tKTevio-OrjV, ye'irovav, TLVOLV, VTroSrjfJiciLV, BpaSw,
tKOiCdtpvv, icrlv. II. The ending es or at? for at:
res reWapes yaWcus. III. The accent of pro-
paroxytone nouns and adjectives retains its place :
MODERN GREEK LITERATURE. 49
6 /coVoias yetro^tcrcra?, Sevreprjv, crKovfJL7rpO7ra\ap,v-
SoTracrrov. IV. Augmentative endings, -a: ovpa,
Ko^dnoLy KoppaTovpa. V. The adjective ending
-la for -eta : rot? /xa/cpe'ag juvras. VJ. The article
oj jbr at : ot ap^d^ricrcres, ot crapses. VII. 'Ard?,
thus, 'Ard? rov yivtrai 'larpds. VIII. 'Eau-
e//"; thus, Tp(f> TOV iavrov crov. IX. Hoi; or
OTTOV for 05, who. X. The verbal ending -oV&> or
et>i>o> from the classical OOK Trercrd^w, cr^/cw^cu.
XL "Ei/, &, S/t cTi/c for 'cort or cto-t. XII. Peri-
phrastic future by means of 0e'Xo) and the infini-
tive ; thus, tfe'Aeis a-vpew, the first example of the
Jdrid. XIII. Future subjunctive by meansnof V~cT
and the imperfect or aorist indicative : VOL 'ow,
va pe StSai/, vd 'p,a0a. XIV. Imperfect passive
proparoxytone : ^p^o^v and ripyovpow, vd ' pyd-
^ovfjiow, yivQV[LQvv. XV. The ending -vra&i for
-VTO : thus, eVouXoiWacri for 'eTrajXov^ro. XVI. The
accusative for the dative, passim. XVII. The ac-
cusative for the genitive after numeral adverbs :
aTraf TOV xpovov, once a year. XVIII. Na and Sia
vd as in the Greek of the present day. XIX. Eu-
6vs TO, followed by the aorist infinitive, is equivalent
to the modern. EvOvs TTOV, as soon as. XX. All
the prepositions take the accusative : crvv rrjv 77-
Trjcnv. XXI. OuSeiSLfo^^ov, not.
Almost contemporary with Ptochoprodromus
was Simon Sethos, who is the first prose writer in
modern Greek. ~~
50 MODERN GREEK LITERATURE.
The " Book of the Conquest of Romania and
the Morea," Bi/BXiov TT?S /couy/cecrra? rrjs e Pa>/*a-
via<$ KOLI TOV Mcupato?, by the Franks (French,
Italians), now ascertained to be a translation
from the French, belongs to the fourteenth cen-
tury and represents the Romaic of that period.
It is published by Buchon in the second volume
of his "Recherches Historiques," Paris, 1845.
Professor Sophocles states, that from the abuse it
heaps upon the Greeks, because they, on more
than one occasion, deceived the truth-loving
Franks, but chiefly because the Latins were
unable to induce that stiff-necked, perfidious,
lying people to recognize the apostolic claim of
the Holy Father, it is not difficult to perceive
that the translator, as well as the original au-
thor, was a member of the Western church.
The " Book of the Conquest " may be best de-
scribed " as a rhyming chronicle, which might
deserve the name of poor verse were it not so
prosaic, or of bad prose were it not written in
metre."
To the same period belongs the epic poem en-
titled " Belthandros and Chrysantza." This poem
is without question a far more imaginative poem
than the " Niebungelied." The writer possessed
what is called "real genius." If our reason were
disposed to deny this, our sensations on perusing
his work will fully prove it. It is an infallible
MODERN GREEK LITERATURE. 51
proof of real genius when a writer possesses the
power to stir the feelings, or to affect the mind,
in the most lively manner, by a few words, and
with the most perfect simplicity of language.
Such a genius conspicuously marks both Shake-
speare and the writer of " Belthandros and Chry-
santza."
The poem, as Geldart remarks, is a romance
of knight-errantry, in which we can plainly trace
the effects of the crusades in Greece. The plot
of " Belthandros and Chrysantza" is simple but
imaginative. The hero is Belthandros (a Grae-
cism for Bertran), the son of Rhodophilus, King
of Romania, who has two sons, Bertran and
Philarmus, one of whom he loves, and the other
of whom of course he hates. Belthandros, the
unfortunate object of his ' father's displeasure,
accordingly takes a journey eastward, and after
heroic exploits performed at the expense of his
father's men-at-arms, who are despatched to bring
him back, he reaches Armenia, and the fortress of
Tarsus. Riding by the side of a small stream, he
espies a gleam of light in the running waters, and
follows up the course of the rivulet a ten days'
journey. It leads him to a magic building called
the Castle of Love, built of precious stones, and
surrounded and filled with every imaginable form
of wonder, in the way of automaton, birds and
beasts of gold, reminding us of Vulcan's work-
52 MODERN GREEK LITERATURE.
manship. Then follows an introduction to the
King of the Loves, the owner of the enchanted
palace, who gives him the task of choosing the
most beautiful out of forty women. He first
selects three, and having thus equalized the prob-
lem to that which Paris of old had solved, he
proceeds to award the palm to Chrysantza, who
turns out to be the daughter of the King of
Antiochia, and whose subsequent appearance at
the court of Rhodophilus reconciles the father,
and terminates the story with the slaying of the
fatted calf.
" Did the modern Greek language possess but
this single epic, to say that it is destitute of litera-
ture were a calumny indeed."
Emmanuel Gorgilas ('E^avov^X FewpyiXXas),
a native of Rhodes, belongs to the latter part of
the fifteenth century. He wrote several poems in
Romaic verse. About the same time the story of
Apollonius of Tyre (' ATroXXom'ov rov Iv Tvpo>) was
translated into Romaic from the Latin romance
Apollonius Tyrius, the supposed prototype of
Shakespeare's Pericles, Prince of Tyre.
The following works are attributed to Em-
manuel Gorgilas.
1. Anfy^cris ets ra? Trpafeis TOV Trepi/BoTjrov crrpa-
rrjyov TMV e Pa)/Aa<,W /icyaXou BeXicra/n'ov (e^eSoOrj iv
Ba>erta rai 1554 VTTO QpajKicrKov 'Pa/x-TraTcrcrov ets
4 TOAOVS. The w r ork is metrical.
,
MODERN GREEK LITERATURE/' V/53
' -- 1 **r ' -"'/
v/ ' 4* /'
2. To avaTiKov rrjs 'PdSou (avcKSorifo f lv TTJf JIa-' /
picriavr) ty
3. Sprjvos r^5 K&j^o-ra^Tt^ovTroXeo)?. >]/,.
Demetrius Zenos (A^/x^rpto? 6 ZT^O?), who
translated the Batrachomyomachia into the " Ro
raaic dialect," represents the spoken language of
the sixteenth century. This translation Martin
Crusius, A. D. 1526-1607, translated into Latin.
But almost the only examples of Modern Greek
in the sixteenth century consist of letters and
fragments of speeches, chiefly the utterances of
ecclesiastics.
The " great work " of the seventeenth century,
as Professor Geldart calls it, is one entitled
" Erophile," written in the Cretan dialect, by one
Chortakes, a Cretan. It is a tragedy, and opens
with a monologue of Charon, the impersonation
<of Death, who speaks as follows :
tf-r v l' r '-\ / 2 Jr ^ r\ /C 5
xi aypia K r] ai>6\v7rr)Tr) K rj O-KOTCIVT] (ywpia JJLOV,
Kal TO Spetroat * OTTOV ftacrTw;* KOI ravra TCI yvyvd IJLOV
KorcfcaXa, K rj TroXXat? BpovraLS, K rj aarpaTrais Oj
1 *H dypia = 7) dypia (6 &ypio$, -ta, -lov).
2 T) a.ve\^ir'r]T-rj for aveXirio-Tos, ov, with sense of desperate.
3 0w/Hd = Gewpta.
4 dpeirdv = Speiravov, ou, TO
** Ba<7rcD =
54 MODERN GREEK LITERATURE.
"OTTOV Ti}V jrjv avoi^aai, K eftyrjrc aTrov 6 roy
JToto? eifj,ai /jiova^d 7 rcove 8/^co? /xtX
Na (fravepwaovv <n]iiepov a ocrou? /ae
> T-! 9 10 * V . V 11 ' J f'x 12 ^ -
ht^W^ai u KCIVOS TO \OL7TOV (ITT O\0i fJLG {JLLGOVGl,
Kal cTKv\oKap$rj 13 /cat TV(f)\o K CLTTOVOV fie \a\ovai.
Ey(t)/jL CL7TOV T^r) BaGlXeVS T^f] /JL7rOpOV/J,l>OV<i OV\OV$,
7r\ov(7Lov<; K avriinToov^ rf' a'e^rat? KOL r
KCU T yepovras, pucpovs KCU
teal T$] XcwXou?, 16 K 0X0^9 av6 pwirovs rf*
aXXou?
JVa/xa, 17 yiajjid ovre (JLOV fyavr) pl%vc0 18 /^at avarovco.
K > V >/*x |O o\ / v s / ^
et9 TOI^ aao T^T? viorrj? TOI/? T^T; %povovs TOVS T6\toi'co
Avovct) T 8o'ou9 f
' aypiais /cap$Lat,s KaraTrovco, rfr/ \oyi(Tfjiovs a\\uaaw
teal r'
K efcel irov /j.e TTO\V OV^JLO ia /jiaria fiov
6 aTToD = d?r6.
7 /ioraxaT-awe = JT/ themselves ; so TTOT^ /AOU (never) in my life.
8 jutXta = 6/xiXta, -a?.
9 /iTropoOai = SiWircu.
10 *E7tSwat = ('70^) el/tat.
11 r6 Xoi7r6i' = m <rw^, finally (common in modern Greek).
12 aTr' 6'Xoi /A /xiaoG(7i = M wc?i Aate (me).
13 (TKv\OK&p8r) = hound-hearted.
14 rfij BacrtXei>s, i. e. rods Ba<rtX^Fs, contracted for roi)s
15 avfifj-iropovs = /wKpoi/s, d6wdroi'S (weak).
16 Xa>Xoi)s =
17 Ftaju-a 7ia^id 6Wc, a5 soon as ; etymology 5ia/ta S^re \pbvov.
18 P i X vu> P'TTW.
19 =
MODERN GREEK LITERATURE. 55
w, d\dicaipais? KOCT/JLOI, TroXXo/ /3ov\ov(ri.
Hov TWV 'EXXrji/o) r] Bacn\eiat,s ; TTOV TO> 'Pw/Aiwv rj
l fj,7rope o/u.ei>a? %copais ; TTOV
/ 21 <7TO \dtCKO KaTOlKOVV, j3oV/3ol fJL 8/^0)? ^ (TTOJULa
^>vfJLval^ ^ &ev evpw TTOV crrj yr) \iya/ci 24 p^w/ia.
TrA^crta 25 KaKOppi^iKOi^ fcal yidvra Be Qeaypovcn
fc? TTW? \i<yaivovai, rf/; %povov<; TTOJ? irepvovai ;
To ^6? 27 eSuifiq, TO 7rpox&es TrX^o 8ei/ dv WTO par at,,
^TT/^a 28 fjuicpr) TO arifJLpo crra (TKOTewa Xoyarat.
'Sevav dvoiyofftpdXiafJLa, 1 TWV ap/taTi, diroawva)
Kat S/^a)? \VTrr)(ri, Kafj,id ira<i 30 avOpwiro (TKOTWVCO
Ta Ka\\rj crjBvvw, K ojj,op<f>o TrpoawTro Be Xi>7roi)//,at,
Tou? Tcnreivovs Be Xe^oz/cG, TOL>? aypiovs Se 31 (f)0/3ovjj,at,
jTou? (frevyovv (f)Tav oy\rjyopa } T0f9 /ie fyjTovv fjiaicpaiva)
Kai S/^ft)? i/a //,e Kpd^ovei, av^yd rf^ ya/zou? fj,7rat,vo).
$TO)%ol T apiraTe fyevyovai, Ta cr^/yyere 7reroi)<7^,
Ta Treppa^dveTe aicopTroiiv, TCL KTieT %a\ovai,.
20 a\au/>ats, Cretan, for o\6K\tjpai.
21
22 yu Si'xws = without. The /A is pleonastic.
23
25 ir\-fj<Jia.
2J KOKoppifrifot = ill-fated. To ptft/co is modern Greek for /ofe. The
idea is the same as in ireirpw^^vov (common in modern Gieek)
that ivhich is deep fixed like a root in the ground, pi fa.
27 TO t/'^s, yesterday evening.
28 S7Ti'0a = STriflayU??.
29 <ivoiyo<T(pd\i(TiJ.a, from awt^w and 0-0a\lfw, i. e.
hence, ^o s/m.
80 Tracra for Trclfra.
31 5^ for 5^ ou.
56 MODERN GREEK LITERATURE.
^ v M 32 /O ' ' r '* v -\ ' v
2<a amua o-pvv r) ooga era?, ra TrXouTTjcra? aa
^Kopirova^ve /cal yavoviai, KOI r ovo^a era? \vovet
2a varov 8 ^ yLte TO %ept era? ypa/jijjLevo el? irepiyidXt,
^TT) $Laicpicri rf/i OaXavffas, yrj
a evyeveo-rare Movp/jLovp' v
f n ' > r/ N v' ' " 36 v v x "
rrpopa TT o/\at? T^ a^oerat? :at T^A; TtyLtat?
Me r QVOfJM crov TOVTO JJLOV rov KQTTQV va
a?ro rf^ ^apai^ <rov TrXr/cra i/a aou
oero) ere Oeww r\o, 3S ae SXeVew /caX\o 7000
Me a7r\a<yxvos dve^ircarco, K aperpij
K etcrat TT T^ Treprj^avrjat, paKpav rov Koa-pov
TTJ (T/CQTfiM^, Trot) Se yevva \afBpa, ov&e c/>c5?
n/r v i / 39' v Vv '
JUtt T^it^a IJUQVO Kai, KCLTTVO TO. Tpiyvpa
The next writer we shall notice is Franciscus
Scuphos, who flourished about the year 1669.
He was born in Crete and was educated in Italy,
and was also professor at the Greek school in
Venice. He wrote a work on Rhetoric, which
may be regarded, in the words of an English
scholar, a living example of the fact that the
oratory of the ancients continues to live in the
oratory of modern Greece.
32 2 a airiOa = (is ainvd^p. Lat. scintilla.
2S aa ffK6vrj = ws Kovtoprds (dust).
34 2 d vdrov wffav.
35 xa/icu, Cretan, for the modern xd/^ou, the ancient
36 T dperais rds dperds.
87 Ttari = tireiSrjTrep (yap).
88
39 , a curious corruption and metathesis for
MODERN GREEK LITERATURE. 57
In the eighteenth century we are, met by the
names of Kosmas the Aetolian and Rhegas of
Pherae, both scholarly men, and the great fore-
runners of Greek independence. The following
oath administered by Rhega to all his confeder-
ates, is an example of his deadly intolerance to
tyranny :
*/2 Baai\6i> TOV fcocraou opKi&uai a? <re,
Srqv yvtourjv TMV TVppavwv va ur)v e\6a) TTOTC.
M.r]T va TOVS SouXei/cra), fj,r)T va
JEt? TO, Ta^ifiaTa T&V va f^
Evoaw fc5 cr' TOV KO<7fJ.ov, 6 /zo^o? aov CT/COTTO?
Tov va TOVS atyavicro) va gvai GTpaOepos.
J7iO"ro9 et? T7)v varplBa ovvrpiffa) TOV vyov
Ki a%u>piG-Tos va ty]oa) CITTO TOV o-TpaTrjyov.
K>v rt ~ ^ r ' '' ' i ' * f
av Trapapct) TOV opicov, v aeTpatyri o ovpavo?
Kal va juLe KUTaKavarj va yev caaav
Here is another war-song, which contributed
in no small degree to fire the Greeks with that
enthusiasm for liberty which soon resulted in the
insurrection :
a TOV 'HpaicXeovs opuaTe, fie
eva %e/5fc, ue T a\\o TTJV
yevvalws, Spaa/neTe o\oi
Kai, ⁢aTe TUJV f E\\r)i>cov TO yeVo? OTL %rj.
Kai TbpLWTai, KL a$e\<f)ia Wappiavoi,
T Ap-^iTreXayov //a? Tovpxos a? //rj (fravrj.
Av Tt9 o/iftj? TO\jjL7](jr) va TTappovatacrOf]
58 MODERN GREEK LITERATURE.
a?
va
va /caroi/coo/iev a ra oprj /cal ftovvd ;
Rhegas was betrayed to the Turks by the
Christian government of Austria, and was by
them put to death on the spot, at Belgrade.
The following inscription was engraved on the
tombstone of Rhegas and Kosmas :
Ovroi e\ev6epiav 6r]
Evpov evl fiA.o^o<? 'Oicpvoevra fjuo
Xalpere rjpevral KOifJLutfJLevoL, eaoicev
CLTT
KOI TOT eyeipofjievot, TTO\/&)
et? aypav crTreuSer d.
In 1777, was born at Larissa, in Thessaly,
Constantinus Cumas, author of a great number
of geographical, mathematical, and philosophical
works. He was known under the name " 6
<tXoo-o<o5 " (the philosopher). Most of the
learned Greeks of those times were from R,u-
melia, which province was in higher repute on
this account than any other in Greece. Numbers
of the " Kleptes " were men of scholastic attain-
ments. Having been abroad, and seen a better
state of things, as well as having acquired refine-
ment from books, they could not submit to the
degradation that awaited them among the Turks,
and therefore retired to the mountains and lived
MODERN GREEK LITERATURE. 59
in independence. In some of the wildest and
most dreary mountains were many of the most
intelligent of our people, and in the dress of shep-
herds were to be found men such as Constantinus
Cumas.
Constantinus Cumas was one of those lettered
Greeks who began to propose the cultivation of
the spoken language. Their plan was as fol-
lows :
I. The ancient inflections are to be preferred
to the corresponding modern and mediaeval in-
flections.
II. All barbarous or foreign words and idioms
are to be banished.
III. All new words are to be formed by deriva-
tion and composition after the analogy of the
ancient language.
IV. The ancient orthography of words of
Greek origin is to be preferred.
The following is a specimen of Cumas 7 style:
' etvai, 7T/30? -Jto?, <poi>tyto9 TE'KTWV ocrrt? ayopd^et,
teat Trpioviov ra oirola efiTroBl^ovrai airo tip
Kal TOU? aXXou? <7ToXfoy<iOL>9 va
TO, i8ta avTcov epya, tfyovv TO ev va 7T\Ka TO Be eTepov
va TTpiovity ; ajrapaXXaKTa Trdo-^ei, vojj,l%a> bcnis 8ta va
(TTO\t(rr) Trjv j\wao'av /me yevircas aTroXuTOU? real BOTCKCK;
KOL %ft))0t5 dvaytcrjv Xefet? ao-ui/ei^tcrrof?, tcivSuvevei, va Trjv
et? TOV9 aicovovTas ij avayiva)-
60 MODERN GREEK LITERATURE.
The following is a catalogue of Constantinus
Cum as' published works:
Vota.
ava\DTLK7] 7Tpayjj.aTia TOV Appa
Kat\\ov. 1803 1
a fjLa07j/j,cm,Ka)v KCLI fyvaucwv TTpay^aTeiwv. 1807 8
p7?;/,e/a9 eTriTOfir). 1808 2
Treipa/jLa'riKTJs (j)vcrtKrj^. 1812 1
Bet,\dvBov 'AydOwv. 1814 3
Swray/jia </>Xocro</a?. 1818 1819 4
TevvejjidXov laropta T^ <t\o<7o</a?. 1818 ... 1
^vvotlrLS laropiK^ ypovoXoytas. 1818 1
2vvo-fyis TraXata? yecoypcufrlas /ze 3 TnW/ea?. 1818 . 1
:, V0)76-
tcal
1818 .......'... 1
cov 777? 'EXXrjvircrjs y\waar)<;. 1826 .... 2
BeL\dv$ov A/3&r)plrai,. 1827 2
IcrTopla TWV avOptoTTivav irpa^ewv. 1830 32 . . 12
rpafjL^ariKTj. 1833 1
'ASpiavou Bd\/3r] yea)ypa<f>ia. 1838 1840 ... 5
~45
The great name that appears at the end of the
eighteenth century is that of Adamantius Coraes,
the great patriot and linguistic reformer, and one
of the most celebrated literati of Europe, as
Professor Geldart and others justly assert. Born
at Smyrna, on April 27, 1748, the two sentiments
which formed his main-springs of action through-
MODERN GREEK LITERATURE. 61
out life, were early developed, namely, patriot-
ism, synonymous in his case with hatred of the
Turk, and a passion for learning. His historian
informs us that in his native town he was greatly
assisted in his lingual and other studies by the
Dutch consular chaplain, Bernhard Keum, of
whom he makes frequent and affectionate men-
tion in his " Autobiography and Correspond-
ence." At the age of twenty -four he became his
father's mercantile agent at Amsterdam, where he
spent six years, but the ledger was the least
interesting of his books, and in 1778 he was
recalled. He returned with the greatest reluc-
tance, because his darling project was to study
medicine in France, in order that, should he be
obliged to live among the Turks, he might
exercise among them the only profession which
procured respectful treatment for the Greeks.
After four melancholy years at Smyrna, his
wishes were at length complied with, and in 1782
he arrived at Montpellier. He distinguished him-
self in this famous medical school, and, having
obtained his diploma, removed to Paris in 1788,
where, instead of practising his profession, he
engaged in literary labors, most of them having
a patriotic aim. Here he wrote letters, to his
countrymen, encouraging them in the struggle
for freedom to which Rhegas was already insti-
gating them ; and here he pursued those studies
62 MODERN GREEK LITERATURE.
which have established his fame as a European
scholar. Napoleon selected him to prepare a
translation of Strabo's Geography, the first vol-
ume of which was presented to the Emperor in
1805. In a letter dated Ley den, July 22d, of
that same year, Wyttembach, writing to Larcher,
calls Coraes " not only a Grecian but a veritable
Greek." In 1807 his edition of Isocrates pro-
cured for him the title of " Patriarch of Greek
Philology," and in 1814 he received an official
letter inquiring if he would accept a Greek chair
in the College Royal About the first week
of April, 1833, Coraes, having extended his hand
to reach a cup of coffee, fell to the ground and
received injuries from which he died the 10th
of April, 1833. He was buried at "Mont Par-
nasse," and the following inscription was engraved
on his tombstone :
. AAAMANTIOS KOPAHS
XIOS
'TTTO ewr)V JJLCV iaa Be rrj '.EXXaSt 7re<pi\r)iJ,evr)v yrjv
TWV Tlapicriwv
KEIMAL
His published works are as follows :
La M^decine Clinique. 1787. Montpellier.
Merdtypaais e/c rov yeppavitcov rov Selle.
Introduction a 1'etude de la Nature et de la M^decine.
Ibid.
MODERN GREEK LITERATURE. 63
Cate'chisme Orthodoxe Russe. (From the German of
Plato, Archbishop of Moscow.)
Vade-mecum du Medecin. Montpellier. (From the
English.)
Esquisse d'une Histoire de la Medecine. Paris. 1767.
(From the English.)
Pyretologiae Synopsis. Montpellier. 1786.
ASe\(j)iK7j Si,$acrKa\La, an Answer to IlarpLKj] biSao-rca-
X/a, a Forgery of the Turkish Government, published
under the name of Anthimus, Patriarch of Jerusalem, for
the purpose of allaying the tumultuary tendencies of the
Greek subjects of the Porte.
Les Caracteres de Th^ophraste. 1799.
Traite d'Hippocrate, des airs, des eaux et des lieux.
Paris. 1806.
Ibid., second edition with Greek title. 1816.
BeicKapiov Trepl O&L icy 1*0,7 &v KOL TTOIVWV. Paris. 1802,
1823.
2d\7ri(r/j,a 7ro\efj,i(TTTipiov. Paris. 1803. (On the
death of Rhegas.)
'HXio&wpov AlQioTTiKa BiftXia Se'rca. Paris. 1804. In
two Volumes.
Lettre du Docteur Coray sur le testament secret des
Athe'niens, dont parle Dimarque dans la harangue centre
Demosthenes.
Aid\oryo<; Bvo Tpaucwv (caTol/ccov T^? Beverlas. 1805.
1825.
XKrjviK^ BifiXioOJiKW. 1809 - 1827. 'Ex-
\rjvifcri Bi,p\i,o0iiKrj. Paris. 1807-1835. 15 volumes.
(Consisting of editions of classical authors, with notes.)
Ilapepya e EXX. B^\ioO^K^. 1809-1827. 9 volumes.
pa^mSiat, A. 1811 - 1820.
64 MODERN GREEK LITERATURE.
TOV l jrepij3or)TOV
TWV aKZTTTiKwv <J)I\OO~O(HI)V NofjiM aA.oV, NO/AW tcatcov.
"Arcucra. Paris. 1818-1825. 2 volumes.
1831.
vvois epas
AvTo/3ioypa<j)la. 1833.
Besides a great many articles in the " Logics
Hermes," a Greek periodical published in Vienna,
on philological and political subjects.
On his death he left his library and manuscripts
to the gymnasium at Chios, the birthplace of his
ancestors. His unpublished works are more nu-
merous, if not more voluminous, than those which
have been given to the world. Besides this, the
margins of many of his books are crowded with
notes in his handwriting.
The following is a catalogue of the works
which were bestowed by him to the library of
Chios, and which remain as yet unpublished.
Adnotationes in Atha3neum.
Notes sur Eschyles.
-v|rw8/a E, e&>? TOV 250 (nl^ov.
et? TOV 'AOrjvatov real 'HpoSoTOV.
I(TOV TWV GTa\6eicrwv a-r)fjiiu)(Ta)v et? E. Barcker,
V veav eicSocriv Ae^ifcov Hederius.
irepl
MODERN GREEK LITERATURE. 65
Ta\rjvov et? TO irepi yvptov 'iTTTrotf/mToi;?, <re\. 1 401,
Kelpevov <7eX. 4 75 0-77/1,. 1 170 avTiypaifxnr,
'Ape-raiov pe-rdfypacns Ta\\im], dSiopOcoros Kai ciTeX???,
<reX. 1-407.
^77/zetfwo-et? et? TO irpocrwpivov HoXtTeu/xa T?}? '.
Observationes miscelaneae, pag. 1 - 905.
Idem sine paginatione.
Idem in Athseneum, pag. 1 - 139.
'HpoSorov et? TO TpcuKiKov, creX. 1 1250
eiw? TOI> Trapayp. 56 TOV 7 Bt,/3\iov.
TO? KOL aTeX?)?, <r. 1 241.
Plus 1'art de la inedecine, pag. 1-10 et une table le
tout incoplet.
Keipevov Kai a-ij/jieicoa-ew et? TO frepl StatV^? oe'ft>z>, teal
et? TO 7re/)t a/^a/a? 'larpiK'fjs TOV 'IirTTOKpaTovs, o-eX. 116
TO KeifievoV) al a-rj/ju. cr. 117 408.
^/Ltetcocret? /cara- Ta\r)vov etc TWV avrov (
ff\. 1-1067. "En Tti/e? o-77/ietajcret? ej? Ta
TOV 'IinroKpaTOVs creX. 1-21.
Tpa^iJiaTiKj] TT}? rpairciKrjs yXwo-o*^
Collationes des manouscris Grecs, pag. 1 - 84.
5*T/%oi 'Icodvvov Tferfof. 1-141.
t fjierpcov, o*eX. 1 48.
et? TO ' A r jro\\(i)Viov Trepl truz/Tafew?, creX. 1 24.
AegircoXoyia airo TO f E\\r]viKOV et? TO TpaiKt,Kov.
Aegifcov $(,a<f>opct)v avyypcKJiecov et? TCI^ t I f ir r n'OKpar'r]V.
Adnotationes in varies Auctores Graecos.
A\\T] Ae%iKO\oyia cnro TO c E\\7jvticov et? TO TpaiKiicov.
66 MODERN GREEK LITERATURE.
Few countries, Geldart says, none certainly
save Germany, can show such a literary Hercules
as Adamanties Coraes, the second Leo Allatius
of Greece.
The next writer we shall notice is Constantinus
Oekonomos, who was contemporary with Coraes.
He was a native of Thessaly, and had received a
superior education. He soon became remarkable
for his opposition to some of the doctrines and
practices which had before prevailed amongst the
Greeks, or, at least, had not been openly opposed.
A Greek historian informs us that the bishop
soon viewed him with dislike, being a man in-
ferior in education, talents, and soundness of
opinion, and at length interdicted his public
preaching. Oekonomos had a sincere desire to
establish better principles amongst his country-
men, and intended to introduce all possible im-
provements in the system of education, and was
disposed to forward everything that might prove
beneficial to them. He did not, therefore, allow
himself to be discouraged by the bishop's oppo-
sition, but made a journey to Constantinople to
obtain permission of Gregorius, the patriarch, to
preach where he pleased. In this he succeeded ;
and, after his return to Smyrna, preached with
more zeal and boldness than before. The char-
acter of Oekonomos was of the most sincere,
frank, and friendly description, with the most
MODERN GREEK LITERATURE. 67
kind and willing disposition. He combined an
extraordinary decision and independence. His
historian informs us that he "regarded the ob-
servance of ceremonies, by many so much insisted
on, as a matter of small importance compared
with the feelings they were designed to cultivate
or to express. Oekonomos devoted his attention
and time much to the establishment of schools.
He acted in this co-operation with various en-
lightened Greeks, who were anxious for the
greater extension of knowledge among the Greeks,
and had taken pains to introduce the Prussian
system of instruction in the schools he was
endeavoring to establish.
Jacob Rhizos Nerulos, known under the ap-
pellation of "the modern Aristophanes of Greece,"
was contemporary with Oekonomos. He was
the unsparing satirist of the " Logios Hermes,"
and his style was and is still known under the
appellation of the " Nerulian style."
To illustrate the above I give three short ex-
tracts, taken respectively from the "Auro/Sioypa-
<ia" of Coraes, the treatise " Tlepl Ilpo^opa?" of
Oekonomos, and the " Kopafctort/ca," a satirical
comedy of Nerulos, in which I need hardly say
the KopctAce? are the followers of Coraes.
Al e/rSoVefc? IJLOV &ev e\et^frav o/^w? va fjbo
/cat, e^Opovs, o\l<yovs vivas cr^oXacrTi^ou?, evco/jievovs
oyi TToXXou? TOV iepciTLKov ray/iaro?, ol oirolot, //-e
68 MODERN GREEK LITERATURE.
\fj,rj(rav ypiws w? KaivoToftov oyi fjiovov et? ra Trep
BeiaSt a\\a icai, et? avrr}v JJLOV Trjv OprjGiceiav. Meravoa)
Tcopa, OTL Tou? dvTe7ro\ejjir)(ra K eyw' (f)povifJLO)Tpa r)6e\a
rrpd^eiv^ av dfcoXovOovaa TO aocfrov Trapayye\/jLa TOV '
77]TOV t " f/ JESofez/ av-ro}. CORAES, Avroffioy pallet.
To Trepl yvrjalas TWV * E\\T]VIKWV
TToXv/cporov TrpopXrjfAa, Trpo Tpiwv %8r) alwvwv et? rrjv Eu-
fj,eyd\a>v o-vty]Tr)aea)v wrroOeaw. Upwro? o
7Tpl TO> 1520 aVo\a/CT/<7a9 ryu e&J9 Tore arvvrjOrj teal vevo-
, eTrevoijGev aXK.'rjv TTavTaTTaat, veav real avr\Kov-
7775 ' EXKvjvLKrjs y\wcro-i)S etc^covrjcriv, TTJV oTroiav Kal
7rape'$(i)K6v et? TOU? OTraSou? TOV to? /JLOVTJV d\r)0tvr)v /cal
yvr)(Tiav, Kaff v\v tdya /cal ol 7ra\aiol ' E\\i]ve$ errpofapov
]V y\a)<Tadv Tcov. OEKONOMOS TIepi
Elvai Bvo xpovia ratpa OTTOV o rraTe'pas fjiov
air kv aXXotforo Tra0o<> TO va ofjii\r) KopaKUTTiKa, KCLI aXXo
8ev Kafjivei rrapd vd trrbX/fn Xefta, va TrXaTTr) Xefet? dvr^-
KOVGTais Kal Trapa^evais, va oiafiafy KCITI Sta^oXo^apra
TV7rci)/jLva, orrov- TCI ovofjia^ovv \oyiov EpfJLTf Kat, va ypa<prj
Kal vd \a\fj jjbia yXcocrcra, OTTOV TIJV Srj/jiiovpyei 6 iSios.
Tl va Ka/jLCi) ; yid vd TOV vrro^pewcrco^ fiidfo TOV eavTov
JJLOV va /jidOw avTals rat? arjBeo-Tarais (j>\vaplai,s, Kai p
o\ov OTTOV Bev yvpvd rj yXuxraa JJLOV, <r aura Ta KaTapa-
/ </>. ^J^vvv^ /
KopaKicrTifca, fju o\ov TOVTO, eTreior) Kai Ta KaTpevei,
K eya> vd TOV o//tXa> T?) ykwa-aa TOU, Kal t?
\gl 'SlKTI TOV OTTOV T]06\a TTpofa'pei, fJil BlBeL TJ]V
vr) TOV. NERULOS,
MODERN GREEK LITERATURE. 69
Modern Greece has not produced many author-
esses. But among these, Angelica Pala, chiefly
known by the following ode " On the Death of
Lord Byron," is certainly the most distinguished.
She belongs to the beginning of the nineteenth
century.
i.
Tof<? XafJLTTpOVS V/JLVOVS T?}? VLKrjS d<j)iVCi)V
%66 r)po)ci)v 6 arparos
\VTTQVVT ai ijrvyfai, TWV
T' a,Kovi fjiatcpoOev Kal ^a'ipet, 6 e
2.
'O ^>/X,05 ^\^e 7r\7?z> /io\i? TOV
-v' S/ l * .
K\.aiOVT<; TOV Ta<pOV aVTOV,
TO
Kat, TO TpoTraiov QCLVCLTOV
3.
' H\0e va fj,7rveva-r) cw? aXXo? TvpTaio?
r)v, <f>ev, 6 BdpSos eXTT/Ic
ISov jievei et? alwviov
4.
*
'/2? Se'vSpov KeiT OTT* eKocrfiei
Nuv Trpo TToSwv (frOelpovffa TOV TO
Hvor] TO eppity ave/jiov <r<j)oo'pov.
70 MODERN GREEK LITERATURE.
5.
t T-l^ -V ^ / > X N ( * A -\ '
liiAAa? / eav TO O-W/JLO, rov rj Ayy\ia
Na (f>epij els fjLvrj/bia ^rjra iraTpiKov.
Ei?re, Movffuw w /jLrjrepa y\v/cela,
T6KVOV fJiOV 6 ft09 TO>V MoU(7G)V.
6.
p(OTQ)V TOU?
firjv aKQvasv TTJIS
Ta<j)ov a? e%r) rjpaxov arr]v yrjv
The great lyrical poet of Greece is, however,
Athanasios Christopulos, the so-called modern
Anacreon. He was born at Kastoria, in Mace-
donia, in 1772, and died in Moldavia, where he
held the office of judge, in 1847. Professor
Geldart states that his undoubted genius was
consecrated chiefly to the glory of the wine-
bottle, yet he wrote some love -songs of exquisite
tenderness and beauty, which have been copied
without acknowledgment by various modern
poets. Consciously or unconsciously, the " Night-
ingale" of Christopulos is certainly at the founda-
tion of the " Swallow" of Tennyson. Inasmuch
as the nightingale sings, and the swallow only
twitters, my readers will agree with Professor
Geldart in preferring the Greek to the English
poet in this particular case.
MODERN GREEK LITERATURE. 71
Christopulos and two other very popular poets
of Modern Greece, Vallariotes and Solomos,
wrote for the common people in vernacular
Romaic. The following extracts, taken respec-
tively from the works of these three great poets,
may serve as examples :
OLD AGE.
Na t] rpt^e? crov ap%iov
AQavdcrie v dcnrpi^ovv !
Na Sa/cpucov e
Na <re \eyei, teal 6
$i,\e TrXeov elffai 76/309,
'Sro effi Ka\r) -^1^77
Trf veoTijra %aipeTa,
o e TO,,
ra irapevOvs,
Ta
' / / f /
ap^va pe vyeia
Ta iriKpa ra jeparela
V> v *>" ^ N /I"
2; TO ej;r)<; va Ta yevurjs.
Aev ae nnavovv ra \ov\ovSia,
Aev ere irpeiTOW Ta TpayovBia,
Ilrjy Keivo<; 6
Ta)pa Ta(f>
Tcopa 6dvaTo<$
Twpa %a/oo
OOev TT\GOV i
Prj^e o\a TO. /ca\a<rov
He TOV Koajiov^Ee Peid!
72 MODERN GREEK LITERATURE.
K.CU TO. Safcpva /Sacra povov
Eis TTJV \v7rrjv K et9 TOV TTOVOV
Mia jLiKr Traprfjopid !
ANSWER TO THE PRECEDING.
Tla ! rj r/o/^69 //,' av a
Tl 6% rj a&TTpr) TOU?
ToLjap T* ao-Trpo
H (friXoavras ay/cvXovet,
Ta %ei\aKia cr TTJV a<j)7) ;
To rpLavrd(j)v\\o
To \ov\ovoi TWV 'Epa)T(0v
Elvai acTrpo fcaOapo.
Kai TO KOKKIVO rj <f>v(7is
To
M eva
H (JLVpTia T779
Eis TO irpao'ivo K\aoi r^9,
Mecr & TO, (f)v\\a ra %\(i)pa
O\a KaTtfKTTrpa, adv %t,ovt,
Ta \ov\ovSid 7779 (j)vrpovet
T dv6r)pd, /col rpvfapd.
Kai o Aias o /xeyaXo9
Tia 7^9 ArjSas rov 70 Ka\\os
KVKVOS ywrjtce fjita <f)opa.
eV o "Epcos
\ X \. /.
ttV 7OV KVKVOV TU <pTpa .
MODERN GREEK LITERATURE. 73
To \OITTOV
'As aff7rpio) Sev /JLC ytte
Havre\ws Sej> /ue \vrra
f//-\ ff / > > /<
Cm 0<70 TT
Toaro TT\eov
" 5 o "Epci)$ //. ayaTra.
THE NIGHTINGALE.
t/ arjSovafct, pov Ka\o,
Kiva KOI Traye Vro yia\o.
Trjv avpi/Brj TTOV ^evpeis,
Na Tra? z/a //< TT)I/ evpr)<z
aai/ r^v /3p^9 i/a TT)Z/ 18779
icel va
T\vica y\vtca yLte
JVa cr/cv^y va <je Traprj
' Av a epcorrjo-r) T'I & eav ;
Kal TTOIOS o-e GTeXvet, air TO
Elire, ?rc3? et/xat
IIoV\l
lift)? o 0^)61/7779 yu-ou e
Ta TraOrj fjiov va K\aiyco
Me /LteXo9 i^a o-' ra \eyco.
T(jTpa (TKv^re rciTrewd
Kcu \a\r)(7e TTJV aiyava,
Kat, opKia TTJV a ra Ka\\rj
%TOV Kop<j)o va ere
A% arjSovaKi, fj, Sev
74 MODERN GREEK LITERATURE.
Sa ere TO TTfG, Elcrat, TTKTTO ;
'E7rl/3ov\o fJLrj
%70V KrjTTOV 7TOV
BACCHI LAUDES.
' Orav TTiVco TO KpaaaKL
$70 XpVCTO fJLOV TTOTTJpCtKl
Kal 6 1/01)5 IULOV
TOT ap%ifo KCLI
Kal yeXw Kal
K rj far) fju v%api<rTel.
Tore TTCLVOVV fj <f>povTioe$
Tore vfSvvovv y e
Tore favyovv ol
K! r] /capSid JJLOV
f,- V \ /j /
Kdt, TO (7T7;C705 fJLOV
N* avaaaivr) v
Tia TOP Koa-fjLov oev
As yvpify OTT&)?
To KpaaaKi JJLOV va
'H KctvctTa va /JUT)
ATT TO TrXajt, va
N' a7ro6ava)fjL6
Dionysius Solomos was born in the island of
Zacynthos in 1798 (April 8), and died the 21st
of November, 1857. The following Ode to Lib-
erty, written by him in the "month of May,"
1823, is justly admired for its simplicity and
MODERN GREEK LITERATURE.
75
imagination, and it has with justice become "The
National Song of Greece." It is played on all
great national holidays : /
i.
, V X , // //
C17TO TJ]V KO-yf.l, ^> ' y
>U TJ]V 7pOfJLpTJ, **S
V v '* v v v . X/ s
2, yVO)pl%(0 CL7TO TT]V Oyi, ^^
flov /ji fiia fjLGTpaet, TTJV yrj.
2.
TO, KOKKaKa
Twv *Ei\\Tiv(t3v TO, iepa,
Kai aav Trpwra d
Xalpe, co p^atyoe, 'EXeuOepid !
3.
E/cei ie
K eva a-TofjLa atcapr epovaes
E\a TTttXt va (7ov Try*
4.
Apyeie v a\6rj eKeiwrj rj '
v v * r \ -\ v
r(li TjTCl'lt O\.Q> (TL(D'7TTI\(l )
TuiTi ra a/cia^e rj (j>o/3epa
Kai Ta
5.
S - Ilaprjyopia
Movrj cov e/jieve va
Kai,
7 a va tc\ais.
76 MODERN GREEK LITERATURE.
6.
Kal dfcaprepei, Kal atcaprepet,
$i\e\v0epr)v XaXftt,
' Eva KTV7rae T aXXo
7.
K* eXee? TTOT, a / Trore fiyavco
To K<pa\L airo TG* e/o/itat? ;
Kal airoKpivovTO airo TTUVCO
8.
Tore e<rr\Kove<s TO
Me? ra /cXai'ftaT
Kal et9 TO pov%o aov ecrTaJ"' at/ta
9.
Me ra pov%a
He'jOO) oVt (l/Syaives
Na yvpevys et? Ta fe
10.
rj TOV Bpouo
Akv elv evtcoXais 77 Ovpais,
Eav rj xpeia Tat? KOVpTa\rj.
MODERN GREEK LITERATURE. 77
11.
CTOU
avaaiaaiv
v
.4XXo<? aov Irafe Poifleia,
Kal ere yeXaae <f>pt,KTa.
12.
A\\oi, wfc/Lte / <7 TJ]V crvjjL(f>oa aov
e v avprj^ ra ?rat8ta crov,
13.
$evyei, OTT/CTO) TO Tro&api,
Kal 6\oj\riyopo Trarel
H 77]v Trerpa, 77 TO %opTapt, t
Uov Tr
14.
GOV yepvei
'H.
TTTCO^OV TTOV
y elvai pdpos rov 77 fajTj.
15.
Nat / a\\a rcopa
TT //I / ^ -f /
J\(IU6 T6KVO (TOV fJL Op/jLTJ,
Ilbv
atcaraTravo-ra yvpevet,
r-r ^ / v v /)/
i rriv ViKrj rj rrjv Uavrj.
78 MODERN GREEK LITERATURE.
16.
TO. KOKKaKa
Taiv EK\r)v<0v ra iepa,
aav irpwra
Xaipe, <& %atpe,
17.
MoXt? ei&e TTJV opfjirjv crov
O Ovpavos, TTOV <yta TO*' e
EiS TJ]v jrjv rr)v /jujTpiKrjv aou
Erpe(j> avQia /cai
18.
icai,
Kcna%0ovia /JLM fforj,
Kai TOV Prjrya &ov a
IIo\efji6fcpa^7rj TJ
19.
/ /^^ t / > /.
U\oi OL roTTOi aov o e/cpagav,
Kai ra crrofjiara etywvajrav
f Off a alff6ai>6TO TJ /capita!
20.
Ecfccovdgave tw? T darepia
Tov loviov KOL ra vrjaia,
Kat, effrjfcwffave ra %e/
Tia va Be i^o we ^apa.
MODERN GREEK LITERATURE. 79
21.
M' o\ov
To /caOeva
Kal 6^9 TO yueVcoTTo
22.
Kal 7ov BdaiyfCTov rj yrj (the land of Washington)
Kal TCL Gioepa ev0v/jirj6r]
Uou TTjv eSevav KCLI
23.
ATT TOV TTupyov 70V
2a va Xerj ere %aip6
Kal 7r)V xiJ ri l v TOV
To Aeov7o.pi, 70 *Io~7rav6.
24.
E\a(f)tao~Qrj Try? A<yy\ias
To Qrjijnb, Kal aepvet, evOvs
Ka7a T a/cpa rrj? *Povcrcrlas
Ta fiovyKpca-fJia7a 7G opyrjs.
25.
TO KivYjia 7ov
nV /-. 9 p. /
, CO? Ttt fJLe\7] ll> CUVCL7a.
Kat, et? TOU Aiyaiov TO /cv^a
Mia
80 MODERN GREEK LITERATURE.
These twenty-five stanzas will suffice to give
to the reader an idea of this unequalled poem.
The poem is composed of one hundred and fifty-
eight stanzas.
Besides his " Ode to Liberty," Solomos wrote
a lyric poem on the death of Lord Byron, of one
hundred and sixty-six stanzas, commencing as
follows :
i.
'AevOepia, yia \ljo Trcnjre
Na XTVTras fie TO arradl.
Ta)pa aijjicocre teal K\ayfre
ELS TOV Mira'Cpov (Byron) TO
2.
Kat, /caroTTi a? aicXovOovve
Offoi 7Tpat;av \a/JL7Tpa !
ATTOTTCLVOV TOV a<?
Movov <nr]6ia y
3.
TIpWTOl a? 6\00VV6 01 5*
Kat air TO Aetyavov auro
As pciKpaivovve ol 7r/9o8oT6?
7-r\>> ^>' /j x >
Aat air ra \oyia OTTOV va TTOJ.
, O7r\a
yvpOovv Kara vi} JTJ,
yvp^eva
TOV Map/cov Tr) 6avr).
MODERN GREEK LITERATURE. 81
Uov eiv 6a, \eve craaricr/jLevoi,
To Aeovrapt, TO '
Elvat, r) xyrrj rov
Kal 70 fjuovKpLo-fjia ffovflo .....
Solomos wrote, besides these two poems we
have noticed, many other songs and sonnets, all
evincing the creative power and masterly genius
of the poet. The following sonnet, entitled " C H
Scu'flovXa" (The Golden-haired Girl), is sung by
young and old in Greece :
Trjv l$a
rrv ??> i ^ J \
1 rjv ida y^e? apya,
'/Tou efJLTrrjKe a TTJ
No. irarj <j
2.
> 77 r ^ f
Hi(pOV<7KOV T CtCpl
Aevfcorara Travia,
TO 7TplO~7pl,
Uov dirXovei ra
3.
01
Me
Fal avrr) fie TO pav-tiki (handkerchief)
82 MODERN GREEK LITERATURE.
4.
Kal TO
va
'4^2? TTOV rj TTO\\T)
Mov TO ^Kv-re Kal avro.
5.
oX/^o, a o\i<yaKi,
A\v rjgepa va TTO),
Av ej3\7ra TravaKt,,
' H TOV TreXayov cxppo.
6.
Kal a<f>ov Travi,
a TO vepo,
01 (f)i\ot
> T-,0 t > } /
Eoa/cpvaa K ejco.
Aev fcXaiya) TTJ @apKov\a
K\a<yto ra Travia
, K\aiya) rrj
Hov trdei a Tr)v
Mov , K\aiya) rrjv !i
Me ra \evrca Travia,
Mov K\aiya) TTJV &av
Me ra %av6a fjia\\ia.
MODERN GREEK LITERATURE. 83
Aristoteles Valaorites, who died twelve or fif-
teen years ago, was "a voluminous poet," full of
power and imagination. The following
OJ&TJ " may serve as an example :
Trjv avyr) pe TT) BpoaovXa egecfrvrpcocr eva po$o
Tr]v avyrj fj,e 77) Spoo~ov\a e/jiapadrjfce TO po8o !
avoi^t, /jiova^a ara irepi^ava K\apia TOV
rjffe T arjbovi e/cafj,6 KO.L 777 <>w\ia TOV .
%av rj avoify yvplcrr) KOI r a^ovi aa yvplar]
Trj (f)a)\i>a rov TTOV 6a
"OTav /3yat,v6 rj ae\r}vrj, OTCLV e$<yaivav T
Me ayamj TO eOeaypovcrav, TOV aTf\wvave TO, %ejom.
2av va r)de\av eKel errava) va TO rrdpovv TO
E\eyav TTOJ? elv dSep<f>i) e\eyav -Troi?
T* ovpavov TO fJiovoTfaTi, T optyavo 6 a
/ do-Tepia ! w% ! do-Te'pia ! yprijopa TTOV Oa
K aTToioi, TTOV Tj/covcrav T arjSovi O~TO /c\apt,rov va \a\rj.
EiTrav &lv elvat, Tpayovo'i,, fjLvpo\oyt elv creel ....
Ki oaoi eloav Ta? aKTivas TWV dare'payv TOV ovpavov
Na ye\ovv va 7raiyvi$Lovv fj,e TO. (f>v\\a TOV ovpavov
Eiirave TCL <j>c0Ta eicelva a% ! &ev elvat, TT}
Elirav OTI elvai TO, <p(OTa v
T^ v ~ \ \ \ ~ _ '. i ' f/ f /c\
1 ?7i/ avyri fj.e TTJ opo&ovXa 6e(pVTpct)o~e eva pooo
TTJV avyr) fj,e TTJ 8poo~ov\a e/jiapddrjKe TO poSo
84 MODERN GREEK LITERATURE.
11/0 ' / ' "/J f T> x <
IVLrjv eTrepaaev etceiuev o tiopias o
Kal aav elBe reroio pooo 6 GK\r)pos e
' A pTTClge T7) fJLVpCOO'ld TOV
Kcu TTJV Trrjpe aia (j)Tepa TOV ; . . . .
Aev TO %evpw ! KaTroios elire QTL e'-^re'? TO ffpd&v
ElSe Kairoiove va favyp aav Kcnrvos fj,6 TOV dyepa.
T' a\oyo TOV ?)TO pavpo cav TT}? vv%Tai TO
K e\a(f)po crav TOV alOepa,
El? TO %epi TOV ejSacTTovae, a%afjLVo
( Eva poBo fJLapa^^vo.
OTO.V efavye aK\ov0a)VTa<; TOV ireXaov TTJV aicprj axprj
V A ^ v </ p> /
A% oev e%vv eva oaxpv,
Movov \ey GTQ KV/JLCI, TTOV TOV /BXerrei KCU,
fjiov etTreVe,
elv wfjLOpfo TO po$o ; " Movov \eyet <TTO %opTapi,
IIov vrroKCLTto air TO Trobdpi
Tov d\oyov TOV TreOalvei. U A/ etyu. af*o<? K eye*
TGTOIO poBo va $op(o ;
Terota poBa KOI TOV Xdpov KCLVQVV to/JLOp<f)a TO. CTr^Oia
Elvai d\r]66ia, elv d\^0eia !
A very popular poet of Greece is Zalocostas,
who has been dead some fifteen years or more,
a voluminous translator from Italian poets, as
Professor Geldart states, and, as an original writer,
full of power and imagination. The following
may serve as an example :
MODERN GREEK LITERATURE. 85
9 s* ^ / />> / f
SI 7T\rjpr)<>,<T7rTa)v ava^vricrewv ^wpa,
' fl yrj tc\iv(*)v a6\wv, co yrj TTO^T^,
To ai/Aa Troiovcra rjfjiwv ! $ici TL
M' opyrjv Kal fjue a\yo<$ <re {3\e7rofj,ev rwpa ;
a e/,eoLtei/ ore
ica fj,o%oi, virrp%ov
K eiriderov a\\o Se
/BXaarol Kal Xptarov
* 1 alcr^o?, a> VO/JLOI crK\7)pov
*/2 fjiapTVpes, Trota irr)\6 eT
Ta T6tcva V^JLWV opcfrava,
c /2? cmy/Aa TO bvo^a fyepovv TOV
t? d(f)6ov %ao9 Ta peuf
bovXcov /cal fjiavpcov TOV eQvovs
6
Kat T ovofi CLVTO TGOV jrpoyovcav (JLCLS crfivvcov.
Ev TrpcoTOis TO Trvp e^eppdy et? TO Sov
Efcel ol yevvalot, Trarepes rj/mw
Eicpavyaaav iravres /jLe peyav
oev et
Krvrrare avbpeloi
v ev ytta^at? Trupo?
Krvrrare ! K rj Xd'iow pe f/0o? ogu
Hpaiov Ta? Tafet?
86 MODERN GREEK LITERATURE.
Tf? T]v o Katcovpyos ef ov o\eOpia
E<~ri\6ev r) TrpwTT) epi&cov cnropa ;
if / - 1 V/j ->. > / ' ' "> ^
1L, LU fJL\,\.QVT(i)V CliteVWV upci
JEt? TT]V K6(j)a\ijv TOV vd Treey /Sapela !
j]vai Travrov /3$\vtcTov r bvo^d TOV
TOV e rt9 va
a\yov$ ev copa OCLVCLTOV !
lS TOV TVfJL^OV eKtlvOV TT\r](JLOV
'Hv(p%6'r) /ze Trdrayov %da/j.a
K.al T^? y?}? etc TWV arr\dy^ywv TMV Kpvwv
*A ! &ev rjTO TOV vov /xou drrdTTj,
Mr}T <frpov&ov TOV (j)o/3ov IJLOV TrXao-fia.
B\oavpov rrepMGTpefa 'pan,
Kai \afjiTrdoa (f)\oywv oiaTrvpav
Me T7]v aaapKOv ^Ipa Kpari.
'EOepfjiavOrj 7T a/JL7pov yvpov ^
O aiOrjp, KCLI TI yrj, KUL 01 \tOoi^
Kal r) KOVLS avTT] TWV /jiapTvpcov.
Tou? yevvaiovs /za? /mapTVpas el$a,
Oaoi erreaov iridTew^ <pi\oi,
Aid /uilav OavovTes rraTpiSa.
, GKvOpwrroi, Kal opyiXoi,
MODERN GREEK LITERATURE. 87
Of the so-called " Kleptic Ballads," the pride
of modern Greece, the following may serve as a
specimen :
THE BUPJAL OF DEMOS.
'O rjKtos /3acrL\eve, K 6 Arjuos
'Svpre, TratSfca IJLOV, a TO vepov, ^coal vii <aV airo^
Kai crv, Aa/ATTpa/crj JJL avetyie, KaOov e&a> KOVTCL IJLOV
Nd ! T ap^a-ra (JLOV (popeae, va rjaai, KdTrnavos
Kal cret?, TraiBia fAov, irapere TO eprj/jio airaOi /JLOV,
Ilpdcnva Kotyere /cXaSid, o-rpware fjiov va
Kai (f)epre TOV Trvev^a-riKo va
Na TOV eiTra) Ta Kpi/jLara TTOV
Tpiaisra \povi a/>tapTft)Xo?, K. eiicoat, rrrevre K\(j)Tr]<;
Kal Twpa fjb rjpOe Odvaros, Kal 6e\co v a
KdfjL6T6 TO Kl/Bovpl (JLOV TT\aTV,
Na <IT etc opdos va TroXe/xtw, /cat 8/7rXa va
K' aTTO TO fAepos TO Seft d(f)fjcrTe rrapaOvpi,,
Ta '^eK&ovia va p^covTat^ TTJV avoifyv va
Kal T drjoovia TOV KCL\OV MaC va fjCe uaQaivovv !
Among the numberless and nameless poems of
the mo'dern Greeks I agree with Professor Geldart
in saying, that I know nothing in any language
more beautiful of its kind than the following :
TO pevfjia T77? wr? (J>ov
A ^ / v 1 ) /
Ztia TL va or a7ravT7]cro) ;
Al /JL6 d(f> 0V SeV T)(JO
va ae iSco
88 MODERN GREEK LITERATURE.
K\ \ V
ai fie
Kal
Ala ere
p^, fed/me TI va r/crft)
H va Bravery rj TTVOI] JJLOV
II\eov
Aev &TCO, ol <neva<yiAoi JJLOV
Tr)V /capSiav crov v e\KU&ovv
Se\co povov, OTO.V
Trjs ^a)^? IJLOV ai
Eva arevay/jiov
'/2? %CUpeTKTjiJLOV V
Kal et? TOV rd<j)ov IJLOV va %f
"Ev 00V SdtCV 8t' JJL
A modern Greek, Mr. Apostolos Arsakios, who,
I believe, is still living at Athens, when but eigh-
teen years old wrote an " Idyl" which closely
resembles the style of Theocritus. Mr. Arsakios
wrote this "Idyl" to congratulate Napoleon the
First for a son which was born to the emperor,
but we really believe that the main object of the
author was to induce the conqueror of Austerlitz
to help the Greeks, who were then striving for
independence. The following lines may give an
idea of his style :
MODERN GREEK LITERATURE. 89
EIATAAION.
/cal
Ha <r, yepai'j aSpavels fyopeowri, TroSe? IQV ataovov ;
Ha 8' ap KeKfJiaKws, fjieya r aaQ^aivwv aXaXaa-at,
Kal TOCOOVTOS i$pa)<? 'jrepi^i^po^e acofjia yepaiov ;
av^ TTCOU cr/clBvar evOa tcai evda
yXw 6opv/3q), vepeOa) re vroa? re XeXa^o?
Kyycov Be /BpaBvTrovv /^oXt? cop^aa" rj\vaiv apdpcov,
HtcifMravi (nco\iw arKrjpiTrTtoV yrjpa? afyavpov^
EvOa /col evQ 6 yepcov ^eOeiraJV (p>vj;r]\iBa Troif
vrayav KIKVS fiav ou/c eri, irpocrcrw
rpo/neovri re yvia
JEfipo%0<p ye bpofjw Ta be IJLOI TTCLVT evveire, TGKVOV
Svpcri, TToOev /So/x/3o? fue, iroOev 8 a etcTrayXos a%a),
aepto? ; cr^apayw pav Travra raparret ;
*A\\a ae jap Sr) ravra t irarep 0/Xe, /JUT)
r<L\Xo)v ^apyu-aro? py , tS ocrou? Ta\\oi<riv a
JtJ\\avo)v gvve&eorcre /xeya? ^>&)? X 66 / 96 fiapeia.
Tocrawv fjiav Xeye, Qvp(Ti, 11 TOVTIOV ev
Ov fJLav rot vitcijcnv aya\\o/jievoi, /cporeovri,
NIKO.I, fjbv yap Tot? S' e^aSe? 1^1;^
OvBe T^5 oiaei rocraov dyafcporov
90 MODERN GREEK LITERATURE.
Ov&e n roiovrov. TdSe vvv, </Xo9, dppev eyeipet,
IVa-TToXeozm TeAfo? Sa/jLapciTOv j <jivaQr}\av
y A\\d TV yap 8/7 rovro, rroOev^ TTOJ?, w ^yade, eyvws ;
Qtpcris.
/jiV /cyycov, /ca@' vbprjXbv yLtaXa voj
S 0% 6 SoUTTO? CL(j)LK6rO ' <j)
7T / / / / '
LI para yLta^a? reK/jicop, oia re icpoiov ov
Kai j3\oavpov TrXaray^^a TO IJLCLV fiofLftevov etfelvo
Kat> 7ro\v(f)\oi(T/3ov e\et<^ {jo-pava?, ^ap
<I>pa(7&6V oi's ycov /JLOI, Kcopv&wv ev rcoSe
Mi/jt,vev, e<ya)v v6vs Be Trepao-aas Xalr/jia
KpcLitrva yu-aX' axrre veo$ (roSe jap 1/6077770? oveiap)
H.\v6ov ear vaaov rav yetTo^a, ev6a
AajJLOS aTra? eX.X^i' Keprcvpas (paivero
OvSe /j,ra\\dav oto? r r]V ^dp/jbaro^
TOVTIOV dppr]T(D' TO yap OVK olov T u
TOVTT leaves WOVTO' /3oa<? Se KCLT ^8 XaXa70)9
.Kat KOTOV a\\d\OL(TLV eovra TLV coXecre ^ap/na,
Tlaura S' ^ <t>i\Tpoi>, iravra yavos 778 ta yrjpvs.
"ZwT? NAFLOAEftN ! Z^ /3a<ri,\vs 8e o 'Pa
KpaaSetcov jueyaXa)*;, 7TtXft)<?' 8 et? ^e^a Tre^Trov
K eyvwv, A(i(f>vi^ yuoyt?, 67^ 877 rain appev eyeipei
Na7To\eovri Teo?, 'Pco/za? ^SacrtXef ?, avaOrfkav -
Havra 8' evpvrdrav rp(,rr\a (ta\ 7786 rerparr\a
Toaaa TI %ap{iaro<xepya /car ap^av ywer
MODERN GREEK LITERATURE. 91
Another modern Greek, Mr. Demetrius Schoinas,
composed a " Pindaric Ode," in April, 1811, for
the purpose of congratulating Napoleon the First
for the son that was born to him :
y!
Aiirev ' a^ OCOKOV evOa ddaa"-
(76 vvyaacri,
3 Ipiv K re TroSd-
VG/JLOV B\ tovoaagev 'AQavdrcos
?r ayopdvSe KaXecrai,,
(iTTo S' wpro TU% dyyeXeoiaa eTrel
Se ALOS j,e0 ojiautv a\6ov te-
Tocriv pa eveire Tray-
ev SaTreSw
v Trapa 8' ayyeXo? e-
crra eto? reja^ o
Icrre vvv @eot, tSe rep-
Trecrde' ayu-o? yap /-teya/
Writing in " classical Greek" has of late years
been generally the habit of all educated Greeks.
The following extract from an essay, "Uepl TOV
el efrji> KCU rat? yvv atf t rats Spa/xart/cat? eVtSeifecrt
Trapet^at," written by a well-known doctor of
Athens, may serve as an example :
Ta>v ap-^aiwv ovtiev irepl rovrov /3e/3aiov KaraXeXonro-
rwv, 01, vewrepot, Strr^ TJ/ULLV l&eav TrapeSa/cav, etc Siaue-
rpov $id(f)0pov ol uev yap avvwv fjiaXiara elo-rjyayov et?
ra dearpa ra? yvvaiKas, ol Be a7re/cXetcraj> et? TO
92 MODERN GREEK LITERATURE.
.... Ev Se rf} ^TrapTr), OTTOV KOL TO TWV
cf)v\ov /Jiepos rr}? TroXtreta? etc rov VOJJLQV crvvicrTa, ej
<acrt, Kal auras ra? ewyevevrepas, ov povov et? TO Oearpov
, aXX' (ojrep KOL Tovff oiMO\o^ov^evw<^ e/ce/z/at? aTT?;-
\\ xj\ \r t n v
i,} /cat, ^ppeveiv GTTI, <7fcr)i>rjS) Kai, viroKpuveavaL, Kai>
67rl TOVTW \a/ji/3dvi,v irapa TOV ^oprjjov. Tavra
eicelvos. Oi Be a\\ot, OVK am Xoyoi; TaDra Kpivav-
T9, KOL Qearplais aTrXw? avoiyovai TO Oearpov, KOI TOTTOV
Before closing this chapter, a few words are due
to our contemporaries. The writings of many
modern Greek prose authors, as, for instance, the
" 'icrTOyotcc TTJS 'E\\r)vu<rjs eVai>acrTacrea>9/' by Spy-
ridon Tricupes, and " AO/CI/AIO^ tcrropta? rrj? 'EXX^-
vucrjs yXwo-o-T;?," by D. Mavrophredes, are well
known, and have been reviewed in some of the
leading English journals. Professor Asopios is
well known by his " Eicraywyrj a? TltVSapoz/," and
Professor Damalas by his " Ilepl ap^o)v. r Pap-
paregopulos 7 History of Greece is remarkable, as
Professor Geldart states, for its clear and simple
style and the unstudied purity of its language.
I close this chapter with the following extract
from Plutarch's "Life of Caesar," as translated
by Mr. A. R. Rangabes, "Ek rr)v KaOo^ikov^v-qv^
(in the spoken language), late Greek Ambassador
in Paris, and well known not only as a scholar
and archaeologist, but also as a poet:
MODERN GREEK LITERATURE.
\oirrov avrrj
t . / </ ''''/) v ' " x ' </ * /"' . '
o Xoyo?, oart? eppeuij rrept, avrrjs. /li o, ou JAOVOV OL
eyeptievret; Trape^e^ono TTJV Trporaacv avrov, d\\a
7rpoofMi\r](7dvTa)v, apvovfjievoi ra? tS/a? ra)i>
, irape^e^ovro Tip e8t/crji/ TOU, eco? orov rfkOev r)
(7ipd TOV Kdra)vo<; KOL rov Kdr\ov. OVTOL 8 rjvavTiwQrj-
cav ^9 op/jirfi, /cat, a>? o Kaiwv jJL6Ta \ojov eppi-^re /cat,
VTTOVOLCLV /car civTOv, /col e^avecTTf] tear avrov /3ta/a)?, ol
fJLv az/S/365 Trape&oOrjaav oVw? OavaroBajai,' Kara 8e TOV
Kcuaapos, ev a) ef*}/o^TO TT}? /8ouX^?, TroXXot TWI/ i/ecov TO>^
<j>povpovvTO)v rov KiKtpwva rore opfJiriaavTes, earpe^av
yv/jLi>a ra %i,(f>?i KO.T avrov. A\\a \ejerat, on, 6 Kov-
picov, TcepiK.a\v-fyas Tore, avrov Bia TTJS n$VVpV TOU, rov
e^jyaye. Kal 6 Kuctpwv, orav ol vtoi 7rpoo-/3\'^rav et?
avrov, on evevvev avro^aTt/ca)?, (froffrjOeis rov STJ/JLOV, rj TOV
(frovov oXo)? a&iKOV Kai rrapavo^ov Oewpwv. Tovro 6yuft)<?
&v rj^evpw TTO)? o Ki/cepcav av elvai a'X^^e?, &ev TO eypatyev
et? TOV rrepl 7779 vrrareias \ojov TOV Kar^yopelro 8' vare-
pov on, Sev &xeX7]#7? rore eK r^ evtcaipia? tfns dptarrj
Trapovcrid^ero et? avrov Kara TOV Kalaapos, aXX eSeiXtaaev
evcomov TOV Br]fjLOU, (Jans vTrepTaTWS yvvoei rov Kaicrapa.
CHAPTER VIII.
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN THE OLD ATTIC AND THE
MODERN GREEK.
THE only difference that exists between the old
pure Attic and the modern Greek or common
dialect, is as follows :
The common dialect is a loose Attic with a
mixture of Macedonian and Alexandrian words.
It adopts various new forms, as i/ieucr/Aa, ^I/co?,
LOL, K)(VVW, CTTTJKO), OfJLVVO) for l//e9So<?, VlKlf),
e/c^eet^, UTT^/JU, o/xz'u/x.t ; it admits va-
rious poetical words, as avOevTeiv, to lord it ; dXe'fc-
T0)p for a\KTpva>v ; ecrOa) for ecr#uu ; /Spe^a), to rain,
etc. ; it uses old words in new senses, as crvvi-
, I prove; O^MI/LOV, wages ; epevyecrOai, eloqui ;
, fruit; XaXia, language; and it frames
new words and new compounds, as ypjjyopw,
7T(uSio#ej>, at/xaro^vcrta. It ceases to employ the
dual ; entirely abandons the use of the optative
in oratio obliqua ; uses the infinitive instead of the
future participle after verbs of going, sending, etc. ;
admits ei with the subjunctive, ora^, /cat, tVa,
with the present indicative ; and, finally, shows a
OLD ATTIC AND MODERN GREEK. 95
tendency to analysis, by using prepositions where
the case-terminations would have been originally
sufficient to express the meaning, and by employ-
ing the active with lavrbv instead of the middle.
(erdpa^v iavTov= Irapa^aro. See Farrar's " Greek
Syntax.")
The dual number, which does not exist in
modern Greek, is not found in the 2Eolic dialect,
and, in fact, being altogether unnecessary, early
begins to vanish and to be treated as quite sub-
ordinate to the plural. The dual number may be
termed " a superfluous exuberance," adding but
little force to the language.
Such being the changes which have passed over
the Greek language, we still hold that it has lost
neither the elasticity nor the life of the ancient
Greek. Her words are not, so to speak, " con-
gealed," and " void of life," as are the words
of the French and with the exception of the
German the words of other languages, which
retain the meaning once given them. It may
be said that this produces indefiniteness and
want of clearness; but for all that, this is one
of the strongest proofs of the life of the lan-
guage. This is the reason why the " New
Hellenistic," though somewhat under a new gar-
ment, is the traditional language of the old
Greeks, which for the* last thirty centuries runs
through the Grecian heaven, at times shining with
96 OLD ATTIC AND MODERN GKEEK.
all its usual light, at times scarcely visible and
clouded by mist, but never extinguished. It is
not and cannot be termed the daughter of the
old Greek, just as the term is applied to modern
languages derived from the Latin, because these
languages are shoots from the root of the withered,
dried, and grafted trunk of the Latin, whilst the
modern Greek is the same old trunk, variously
tried, withered as to some of its branches, but
for the most part producing new branches in the
place of the ones withered, never losing its vitality,
and promising, under a careful cultivation, to be-
come the same old shady and far-spreading tree
which it was formerly.
Modern languages, such as the French and the
Italian, are founded, as a modern Greek scholar
asserts, upon the " popular Latin"; but this Latin
is, so to speak, in ruins, and it is from its ruins
that these languages arose invested with new
forms, new idioms, and a new life. Notice how
the following Latin words, cabattus, annulus, lovis,
pater, mater, fratris, soror, pellis, oculus, ovum, testa,
niger, instrumentum, corpus (corporis), become, so
to speak, mutilated in the Italian cavallo, annetto,
bove or hue, padre, madre, fmtello (especially from
fratellus), sorella, pette, occhio, nove, testa, nero,
strumento, corpo, and in the still worse French,
cheval, anneau, boeuf, pere, -mere, frere, sceur, peau,
ceil, 03uf, tete, noire, instrument, corps. The three
OLD ATTIC AND MODERN GREEK. 97
genders in Latin are compressed into two. From
the demonstrative pronoun ille, ilia, the definite
article fe, la results ; and from the numeral imus,
una, itnum, the indefinite article uno, una, immune;
similar changes have occurred in the Greek lan-
guage, but when ? In the Homeric and Attic
times only.
The forms of the verbs were likewise so much
changed that it was necessary to add separate
personal pronouns, to distinguish the persons,
which has never occurred in the Greek language.
J'aime, tu dimes, il aime, nous aimons, vous aimez,
instead of amo, amas, amat, amamus ; instead of
the one perfection, three were formed, defini, in-
definij anterieur. Besides this, another new tense
was added, the " conditional," which does not
really exist in the Latin. Thus, in the Italian we
have the forms vender ei, vender esti, vender ebbe; and
in the French, je vendrais, tu vendrais, il vendrait,
etc. Words of either foreign, German, Greek,
or Celtic origin have crept into the language
and are so thoroughly woven with the whole
fabric of the language that they can never be
eradicated : on the other hand, the foreign idioms
which have been introduced into the Greek lan-
guage are, for the most part, superficial ; they are
spots which can easily be rubbed out, and are by
no means deep and indelible colors.
These languages, accordingly, are justly termed
98 OLD ATTIC AND MODERN GREEK.
"her daughters," but the "New Hellenistic" is
one and the same old Greek ; or, as a modern
Greek scholar calls it, " the newest phase of th'e
old Greek," to which state it has come slowly
through many centuries, not violently, or acci-
dentally, but unassisted, and by means of those
very laws lying in her own nature.
It may not be out of place here to remark, if
we look to the matter of pronunciation in a prac-
tical point of view, what has already been stated
by a recent scholar who travelled in Greece, viz. :
A knowledge of Greek, with the modem Greek
pronunciation, will obviate the necessity of en-
gaging an interpreter when travelling in Greece,
Turkey, Egypt, and Asia Minor. Greek, as the
language of the most thriving mercantile race,
is the medium of communication between many
of the various nations of the East. Again, by
discarding the pronunciation now prevalent, and
adopting instead the modern Greek, and by study-
ing the Greek " as a living language," I will men-
tion what scholars like Ross and Tassow have
already noticed, " that great light may be thrown
upon the meaning of classical authors.'* Be-
sides, it is a fact that the knowledge of Greek
as a living language is of chief significance in
the verbal criticism of the New Testament and
the Septuagint.
CHAPTER IX.
ACCENT AND QUANTITY.
THE word " prosody" retains among the modern
Greeks the signification of the old grammarians,
"the doctrine of accentuation." In this sense
it differs entirely from " prosody" as the word is
to-day understood by those who study the Greek
as a foreign language. We do not believe in the
statements of J. Vossius and many others, that
prosody meant simply " metrical quantity" or
" musical rhythm," and that the genuine prosody
of the Greek words was always in " unison of
sound with the poetical rhythm " or " the quantity
of the syllables," etc.
Now, that " prosody," as a modern Greek
scholar asserts, meant among the ancient Greeks
u Kal ras iv TOJ SiaXeyecr#ai racreis rrjs lyypafjLjjidTOv
<f)Q)VT)<s" viz. the " grammatical accents," is evident
from what follows.
Aristotle (350 B. C.) calls definitely the " accent
of a word prosody." "Tlapd Se rrjv Trpocroy^iav
iv fjiev rot? dvev ypacfrrjs StaXe/crt/co?? ov pa^iov Troirj-
crai Ao-ycw" .... a But from accent, in discussions
which are not committed to writing, it is not easy
100 ACCENT AND QUANTITY.
to frame an argument." (So</>icrr. eXey^. a, /3X.
Kal tfa&js). Again, treating of -"the parts of
Rhetoric," Aristotle recommends " TTO)S rots robots
Xpyo-Oai, olov ofeia /cat /3apia Kal ^arj, .... and
on the manner in which we should employ its
tones, viz., the acute, the grave, and the inter-
mediate," .... from which he says " harmony
results."
Accordingly, if musical intonation really was
characteristic of ancient Greek accentuation, this
feature has been most faithfully preserved. Pro-
fessor Geldart remarks that the Greeks, especially
when excited in preaching or public speaking,
intone so melodiously that something very like a
tune is heard of which the higher tones are al-
ways the more emphatic syllables Aristox-
enus, a pupil of Aristotle (330 B. C.), teaches
that U 7TpO)TOV OLTraVTtoV, T7]V 7^5 (f)Ct)Vrj<$ KlVrjCTlV
<5iopicrTlov TO) p,e\\ovTi TTpa^fJiaTevetrOaL Trepl fjit-
Xou?, avTrjv rrjv Kara TOTTOV ov yap eis
GLvrri<$ a>v Tvyyavti KIVZLTOLL ptv yap Kal St
vd)v rjjjitov, Kal /xeXwSou^raj^, rrjv tlprjfJLevrjv
6v yap Kal fiapv $rj\ov a>5 IP a^oTtpois rourot?
ecrrt (Aptcrrof. ap^oviK. crrot^. Bt/3X. y, iv TOfJiaj a,
creX. 3, rrjs eVSocr. Mei'^o/x). Again, " Avw 8e
etcrt^ tSeat KivTJcrea)? (of the voice), 17 re
Kal TI Siao-TrjfJiaTLKjj. Trjv ^cv ovv awe^r)
eivai (j>ap.ev StaXeyou/^teVa;^ yap rjucov ourw? rj
Kara Tpoirov, wcrre ^Sa/^oi; So/ci^
ACCENT AND QUANTITY. 101
Kara Se TT)V erepar, TJ
tvavTitoS TT<f>vK yive<rOai* Kal yap tOTCurffai re oo-
/cet, Kal wdvTes TOV TOVTO (fiaivojjievov Tcoielv OVKZTL
\4yeiv <f)ao~lv, dXX* aSew SioVep e^ rw StaXeyecr^at
(frevyofjiev TO icrrdvai rrjv (frwvrjv, av /XT) Sta TrdOos
TTOTC et<? Toiavrrjv Kivr)&Lv avayKa(T0a>fJLv e\0eiv iv
8e ra> /xeXwSet^ TOVVOLVT'LOV TrotoD/xe^ TO /xe^ yap
, TO S' icrravai rrjv (jxijvrjv cos
Dionysius the Thracian (66 B. C.) defines the
accent u (/Hovrjs 0,7717^070-1^ ivappoviov 77 AcaTa
avoLTacriv iv rrj ofeta 7) AcaTa o/xaXtcr/xo^ e^ TT^ ^8a-
peta, 77 KOTO, TrepiK\ai(TLv iv TTJ TreptcrTrw/xeV^." Cicero
(60 B. C.), speaking of the acute (acntum), grave
(gravum), and the circumflex (circumflexum), says,
that from these, results ---- " quidam cantus "{Cicer.
Orator. 17), so that, as Oekonomos asserts, gram-
matical prosody in Latin was translated accentus
(ac-cino = ad cano, viz. ad cantum}. Dionysius of
Halicarnassus (30 B. C.) mentions as of like name
or meaning "prosody" and " accent": TdVei? <w-
^9 at KaXovfjLevai, TrpocrwStat. The same one,
treating " rrepl /xa^Vecos ypa^aTa)^," says " Trpw-
TOV TOL OPOfJLCILTa TWV ypajJifJiaTOiV K[J,av6dvOfJiV 7TlTa
TOUS TVTTOVS Kal TO,? Suz/a/xets * eT^' OUTW Ta? orv\\a-
j3a<$ Kal TOL iv avrals irdOr] Kal fjbrd TOVTO 77877 Ta?
Xefetg /cat TO, o~vfJL/3e^KOTa avTaLS, e/CTacret? T \eyaj
Kal o-vcrTo\ds KOL TrpocrwSta?." .... Sextus(190 B.C.)
enumerates and distinctly calls "ras
102 ACCENT AND QUANTITY.
TLKCOV TTpocrwSia?, o^ziav KOI ftapeLav KOL
[jievrjv" Hence it results from the testimony
of the different authors mentioned, and of many
others omitted for the sake of brevity, that prosody
meant by no means what Vossius and Henninius
and others have asserted, u a singing and melody
in unison of sound with the poetical rhythm,"
but simply the " accent accompanying the pro-
nunciation of a word," or " TO Xoyw8e9 /xeXo? TO iv
TCHS OVOIJLOLO-IV" as Aristoxenus justly remarks.
Erasmus himself never recommended the disuse
of the Greek accent in pronunciation, and very
well draws out the distinction between accent and
quantity as follows.
He puts his lesson into the mouth of a bear,
who is made to say, " There are some men so
obtuse as to confound stress with length of sound,
while the two things are as different as^possible."
A sharp sound is one thing, a long sound is an-
other. Intensiveness is not the same thing as
extensiveness. And yet I know learned men,
who, in sounding the words cu/e^ou KOL OLTT^OV,
lengthened the middle syllable with all their
might and main, just because it has the acute
accent, though it is short by nature ; in fact, as
short as a syllable could be. Why, the very don-
keys might teach us the difference between accent
and quantity, for they, when they bray, make the
sharp sound short and the deep one long.
ACCENT AND QUANTITY. 103
The " followers of Erasmus" in Germany,
however vicious their pronunciation in other re-
spects, invariably read Greek so that the accent
is heard, and never dream that they are sacrificing
quantity.
Professor Geldart asserts, "that our prejudice
against accents is for the most part insular, arid
deepened moreover by the insular peculiarities
of our pronunciation. This is especially the case
with respect to long and short v, which we ordi-
narily pronounce in exactly the same manner,
namely as you. The result of this is, that when
we want to show the difference between long
and short v, we have no other means open to us
than that of laying a stress on the long v and
leaving the short unaccented. In -rjvTv^ei and
vTTtvOvvos we pronounce the v as you, i. e., really
long, and we only distinguish between the long v
in the one case and the short v in the other by
flying in the face of the Greek accent, and read-
ing the words respectively yvTvyei and vtrevOvvos.
In this case, so far from preserving the true quan-
tity by the use of the Latin accent, we are only
covering a false one."
Now, there is no human language without its
accents of prosody whether written or not
fixed or represented by analogy or custom. Be-
cause, as Oekonomos remarks, the accent tends to
the unity of the w^ord, concentrating its syllables
104 ACCENT AND QUANTITY.
into one whole, and rendering the meaning of the
word clear. Thus, the accentual, or, so to speak,
11 belonging to speaking," prosody of the common
dialect differed from the poetical prosody. Hence
it results, that Vossius and his 'followers are
wrong in affirming that the accents of the words
were always in unison with the metre of the
verses and the quantity of the syllables. This is
evident, as a modern Greek says, because, first,
the whole nation were not poets ; and again, be-
cause the accents as a consequence would have
been unsteady or indefinite, being changed to suit
the quantity of syllables, which at times vary,
becoming either long or short, for the completion
or perfection of the metre, that is to say, the
accents could not then have had a definite and
fixed location in the common dialect or in con-
versation ; the laws and meaning of the language
would no . longer have been unvarying, and it
could not have been a satisfactory medium of
communication for the people (who certainly did
not converse with each other in verse), or for
philosophers themselves. This reminds us how
Lucianus, the famous writer, a native of Samo-
sata, in a witty way says that Venus, once en-
raged against the inhabitants of Abdera, caused
them all to be seized with a poetical frenzy,
so that the one could not understand the
other !
ACCENT AND QUANTITY. 105
We conclude, therefore, that there exists in the
Greek language the definite accentuation of
words as old as the language itself. Oekonomos
says that the Greek language expressed from the
earlier times the stress of its sounds, .that is to
say, the accentual prosody of the words, definitely
according to the custom of each dialect. The Do-
rians, for instance, have the peculiarity of using
the circumflex accent in barytone futures, as in acrw
Stoo-w Xegovvn (Aefoucri). The ^Eolians again, by
putting the acute accent on the penultimate, say
fypovr^v, K&kriv, VQJ]V instead of fypQvziv, etc. They
likewise, in words of two syllables, place the acute
accent on the penultimate, whilst others accent
the same words on the last syllables ; for instance,
crv(f)os or erodes AcaXo?, rpa^y^ ) ofus, TryXevs, Ov^os
ava>9 instead of avcos (aws, r)0)s) OVJJLOS, etc., and the
adverbs /caXw?, <ro</>&>9 instead of ws. Thus, the
Boeotians were wont to say vyt'ets instead of v
(ei = 77). In like manner were formed
aiyX^eis, reX-^ei?. In like manner, although Plato
wrote ra^ur^ra, he also wrote ^eor^ra, avOpcoTro-
rrjTa, TpaTYi^OTrjTa, KvaOoTTjTa, etc.
The Attics used to say, TOVTL, ravrl, iKtivuvi in-
stead of Tavra, TOVTO, IKZIVUV. They likewise said,
Trovrjpe KOL d\r)0es Kal avriKpvs and l\0, etTre, evpe.
They also said, 816x179, TpieY^s and Steres, ryotere?,
etc., while others accent the same words on the last
syllable. The lonians and the Attics said, a
106 ACCENT AND QUANTITY.
avaiSeirj, eu/cXeir?, Karrj^eir), wliilst, on tlie other
hand, the Attic tragedians in these very words
accent the antepenult.
Now, these variations of accent are simply dia-
lectic. They by no means change the fact, that
there is a definite law of accentuation in the Greek
language.
This definite law of accentuation existed even
before the Greek language was divided into dia-
lects. So long as the Greeks remained a tribe
of small numbers, inhabiting one and the same
country, they spoke one and the same language,
and the greatest harmony prevailed as respects
the accent and pronunciation of the words. But
when the Greeks commenced to scatter and to
migrate into different countries, then, in time,
their language also began to differ by certain
variations and distinctions, and hence the dialects
arose.
Similar dialectic variations exist to this day in
the Greek language, but the people understand
each other without any difficulty whatever. These
dialectic variations do not alter the language, con-
sequently the rules of accentuation are uniform,
although the people adapt them to suit their
idiomatic peculiarities. Poetic prosody likewise
teaches the uniform accentuation of words. This
is evident because many short syllables become
long in both the arsis and the thesis, by means
ACCENT AND QUANTITY. 107
of the accent, which, as Oekonoinos asserts,
lengthens somewhat the quantity in pronuncia-
tion. For instance, the Homeric viroSegfy (IX.),
a/co/xicrT67? (OS. <), KOLKoepyir) (OS. ^), aepyirj (OS. a>),
JcTTtTy (OS. f), iXiou (IX. o), aypiov (IX. ^), ofjiouov
(IX. e), v7Tepo7T\iyo-L (IX. a) lengthen i by means
of the accent, naturally short in these words.
Oekonomos also says, that o and e become long in
AtdXou (O. /c), 0,770 eOtv (IX. ), LTnroTrjv ('ETn/ypo/^/x,.
Ilaucra^. ^, 10), eayeV^i^ (Aur. err. 11, 2), etc.
Likewise in the aywa /cal opyvia (Herod, and
Xenop.). Now, it is only by the placing of the
accent on the antepenultimate that final a becomes
short, as, for instance, dyviav (IX. v, 254), opyvi
virep (OS. 1, 328). It is on this account that the
Attic tragedians, by shortening the last syllable,
used the -ZEolic forms r^iv, v^iv instead of rj^lv,
v/m>, etc.
Now, we believe that the accents always ex-
isted in the Greek language. There is no lan-
guage without its accents. Aristophanes of
Byzantium (200 B. C.) might have introduced
written accents, in order to preserve the true pro-
nunciation of Greek at the time when it was
becoming the vernacular of many Oriental races,
but accents existed long before Aristophanes, and,
in fact, long before the Homeric era. Accents,
we say, always existed, but the ancient Greeks
did not generally write them. The fact that
108 ACCENT AND QUANTITY.
many of the inscriptions that have been dis-
covered are without accents does by no means
prove that accents did not exist among the an-
cient Greeks. Now, the modern Greeks seldom,
if ever, put any accents on capital letters, that
is to say, on words composed of capitals, and it
would not be strange if the ancient Greeks like-
wise were accustomed to leave off the accents
from inscriptions, which were generally written
with capitals. It is, however, worthy of remark
that a verse of Euripides, with accentual marks,
has been discovered written on the walls of Her-
culaneum. It was natural for the ancient Greeks
to pronounce their language correctly, even with-
out marking the syllables on which the stress
ought to fall by means of the accent. To this
day, many women of Greece, in writing to their
husbands away from home, usually write without
the accents. But do they not know how to pro-
nounce their language just as well as those who
make constant use of written accents ? To pro-
nounce correctly, to lay the stress on the syllable
on which the accent falls, is natural to every
Greek, although he may do it unconsciously. He
is taught to pronounce according to accent from
early childhood ; he pronounces correctly, al-
though he may not know the laws of prosocty.
We said that accents have always existed in
the Greek language. Homer (1000 B. C.) says
ACCENT AND QUANTITY. 109
and Tpcoas (IX. ^, 57). 'AXX' elcrepx^o
re/coc, ofipa craa)o-rjs Tpaia? /ecu Tyowas,
/cGSos ope^s. Now, how could Homer other-
wise than by means of the accent distinguish
between the male and female inhabitants ? Oeko-
nomos also brings the example of S/xwo^ /ecu
(6 S/za>9 OS. , 59 and 399) from S/^ww^ KCU
(07 8^a)^, 08. 121 and 25, 45, 154). How could
he distinguish finally XdW and Xavv (IX. <, 314)
unless by means of the accent 1 It is by means
of the accent, Oekonomos says, that Homer length-
ened in the arsis or thesis the short syllable of
the penult and the antepenult, as t/xe^ai, apo/ze-
i/at, 6t9, KaKoepyLrj, aypiov, 6/xotou, etc. ; he also
shortened the long syllable, or the one before it,
by means of the accent, as eyeipo^L.v y /3ouXercu,
a.7ro0LOfjiv instead of eyetpw/>te^, /3ov\r)Tai, a
Compare also the eVet^ /Ae/Ado)?
9, 'OSucreus, 'OSvcr^o?, because it is on ac-
count of the force of the following accent that the
one of the consonants was omitted. The ancient
grammarians spoke in detail concerning these
facts, as did also the great scholar Hernnanus in
his " EJementa doctrinse metricae," page 56, etc.
Again, Aristophanes (430 B. C.), by means of
the accent, shows the difference in the meaning
of the words : Bo'eio? 877/^09 (oxytone) from Srj/xos
(Barp. 40, 'ITTTT. 95) and StaTre^w/xe^ from StaTriVo-
(Boeotian, Sia7reu>aju,es KOLL SiaTru/o/xes). His con-
110 ACCENT AND QUANTITY.
temporary, Isocrates, played upon the words /cat
vov with KOLIVOV (ypafiioiov KGLIVOV, /cat /SiftXiov KCLL-
vov, and so on). Plato (390 B. C.) distinctly says,
" IIoXXa/ct9 e7re/xy8aXXo/xe^ ypd^ara, TOL 8' l^aipov-
, Trap o /BovXofMeOa ovopdtpvres, /cat ra? 6
>, oiov Att <tXo9 rouro tVa cx^rt
TO? ovo^a T)\LIV yevrjTai, TO, re erepov avrodev twra
, feat di'Tt ofetas TT}? peer?)? o-vXX
aXXcoz^ 8e TOVVOLVTLOV
, ra Se ftapvTtpa (ftOeyyojJieOa.
TOIVVV V KOI TO TOMS OivO ptoTTtoV OVO^OL TTeTTQvOtVy O)?
e/xol So/cet- e/c yap yo^/xaros oz/o/^a yeyovev, ^05 ypa/x-
/iaro5, TOU a, efatpe^eWo?, /cat fiapvTepas r^9 reXev-
TTJS ye^o/xeV^?, ivTtvOcv 6 a^^pcuTro? (ecrrt^) avaOpuv
a oTToiTre " We often put in and leave out let-
ters in words, and give names as we please, and
change the accents. Take, for example, the words
Att ^tXo?. In order to convert these into a noun
we omit one of the iotas, and sound the middle
syllable grave instead of acute ; as, in other words
also, letters are inserted, and the grave is changed
into an acute The name avOpuTros, which
was once a phrase and is now a noun, appears
to be a case just of this sort; for one. letter,
which is the a, has been omitted, and the acute
of the last syllable has been changed to a
grave Hence man, of all animals, is rightly
called avOpoiTTOs, meaning 6 avaOpwv a otrajTrev.
Again, Aristotle (350 B. C.) says: Ilapa 8e TT)I>
ACCENT AND QUANTITY. HI
eV jno> rot? avev ypac/^s SiaXeKTiKots ov
paSiov Troirjcrai Xoyoz>, iv Se rots yeypa/x/xeVoi? KOL
7TOi7jfjiao~i \6yov paXkov olov /cat ro^ 'Q^pov cWot
SiopOovvTai irpos TOUS eXey^oz/ra? a>5 droTraj? etp^-
KOTOL ..... U To /^e^ OV KCLTCLTrvdeTai OfJL/BpCO," \.VOV(T L
yap avrb rrj TTpocrcoSia Xeyoz/re? TO ou o^vrepov. Kat
TO Trept TO IVVTTVLOV Tov Aya/>te/xi^o^o9, OTI ou/c ai/ros
6 Zeu? elTre ..... " StSo/xe^ Se ot eS^o? apecrOai"
dXXa TO) IvvTTviq) StSo^at.
" But from accent, in discussions which are not
committed to writing, it is not easy to frame an
argument, but rather in writings and poems ; as,
for instance, some defend Homer against those
who accuse him as having spoken absurdly,
To /xev ov KaraTrvBcTai o//,/?pw,
for they solve this by accent, saying that ov is to
be marked with an acute accent. Also about the
dream of Agamemnon, because Jupiter himself
does not say,
Se ot ev
but says to the dream StScWi. Such things,
therefore, are assumed (explained) from accent."
Although the Greek language from its earlier
times had " accents," their use became more prev-
alent in both writing and speaking after the time
of Aristophanes (200 B. C.), who is also considered
as their inventor.
112 ACCENT AND QUANTITY.
Ol %povoi Kai 01 TOVOI Kal Ta TTvevfACLTa,
re
-/{. VVV/ N *- / \ ^
Aeeo)?, Kdt, irpos TO yLte\o? 777? (pwvrf^ av/JLTraaT)?, KCLI TTJ
dpjjLOviav, ft>9 av eTraSoi/jiev (f>0iyyo/jivoi. .^Vevjrcu 8' d
e/cacnov avrwv (fivei/cox; afJLa KOL otve/o)?, KaQilTrep TCI bp-
)_/ \/ J^NV^
yava, eo'^rjfjLaria'TaL KOI wvofjLatJTai eireiori teat, vavra
e/jL6\\6 TW \oy<p o)(T7Tp opjava ecreadai ewpatce jap KO.I
\ ^ rf ^ '^ NN '/1 V '
TTJV /j,ovcriKr)V OVTOJ TO /AeA,o9 KO.I TOU^ aptcx/u-ou
vrjv /cat TT^ /^ez> dvielarav. Try 8' eV^Te/^oucray, /cat TO
ofu TO 8e ^Sapu o^o/Ltafoucra^, :. T. X. ( ApicaS. Ilapa Bi-
. cre\. ta.
Now, it results from what has been said, and
from the direct testimony of the different authors
mentioned, and of many whose testimony might
have been cited, that grammatical accent or pros-
ody is essentially different from " poetical pros-
ody." The modern Greeks in pronouncing ac-
cording to accent agree in every respect with the
direct testimony of the ancient grammarians, the
divine Plato, Aristotle, Cicero, Plutarch, Aristoxe-
nus, Sextus, Nicanor (120 B.C.), Aristophanes,
Dionysius of Halicarnassus, and of many others.
The statement of Professor Sophocles that all
vowel sounds in modern Greek are isochronous
is incorrect, because in many insta,nces~r\ f e pro-
nounce more or less the grave as well as the
acute accent. We distinguish the acute accent,
as Oekonomos justly remarks, by pronouncing
ACCENT AND QUANTITY. 113
the word more emphatically, or by raising the
voice, and especially so in questions, as TIS TOP
Kafji KpLTtfv ; we pronounce likewise the circum-
flex, though rarely, by prolonging the voice. This
is especially to be noticed in Thessaly and Epirus,
in which countries the people pronounce elSa =
uSar and Soy^a as if it were Soo/xa, etc.
Now, to attempt to pronounce the Greek ac-
cording to the principles of Latin accentuation is
simply absurd. It is a fact that Latin prosody in
some instances agrees with Greek accentuation,
but in many respects there is a wide difference
between the two. To begin with, the Latin ac-
centuation of many words renders doubly sure
the accuracy and correctness of the accentuation
of the modern Greeks. For instance, the pro-
paroxytone words, 'ATro'XXwi'og, 'Hptco^o?, eibuXov,
eprjfjios, IvepyyiJia, Trapa/cX^ro?, the ancient Latin
poets used likewise to pronounce by marking
the antepenultima with the acute accent, as Apol-
linis, Orlonis (sse vumque | rionis | ensem, Hor),
Idolum (Auson). Now, those who pronounce
simply according to the quantity of syllables,
pronounce as if the words were written, etSwXo*>,
'ATToXXoiz/o?, and so forth, and thus, as Oekonomos
puts it, act in violation of the principles of both
the Grecian and Latin Muse. The Latins never
accent the last syllable of a word. On the other
hand, the Greek language possesses many such
114 ACCENT AND QUANTITY.
nouns, and hence this difference alone suffices to
put an insurmountable barrier between the Latin
and Greek prosody. The Latin tongue, being
fashioned after the ^Eolic dialect, keeps, generally
speaking, its accentuation, especially so in words
of two syllables, which the .ZEolians pronounced
by placing the accent on the penultima, as auw?
e^t (aw?, et/xt). Many words of three syllables
they pronounced by placing the acute accent on
the penultima, as 'A^AXevs TI 'A^tXX^?, 'TSuo-crevs.
Latin : Achilles, Ulysses. Oxytone or paroxytone
trisyllabic words the .ZEolians used to pronounce
by placing the acute accent 011 the antepenultima,
for instance, Swaros instead of Swaro?, and so
on. But even in the accentuation of words of
two and three syllables, generally speaking, the
^Eolians differed materially from the Latins. Thus,
the ^Eolians pronounced Kara, crtw, li)v, and, again,
ieprjs, M^acrta?, etc. Again, Oekonomos justly re-
marks, that Latin prosody materially differed from
the Greek, inasmuch as the Latins accent the ante-
penultimate even when the last syllable is, accord-
ing to the Greeks, long. On the other hand, the
Greek prosody always strictly observes the last
syllable of every word and its change in respect
to the cases, and places the accent according t6
the quantity of the last syllable. For instance, the
Latins say Philosophia, Historia, Theologia, Ec-
clesia, and the genitives Corporum, angeli, and so
' -v '*/.
ACCENT AND QUANTlffy / .
0, >,<, '*~4,
on, placing the accent on ^^ A^M*A*aa^-*
^^^.
which fact is in direct violation ofc^
of Greek prosody, which is always directed i
the accentuation of a word by the quantity o
the last syllable. Again, the change of the ac-
cent by contraction is a thing unknown among
the Latins, as cdreo = -^apeco, xypect), ^rjpevaj,
>, -o>, and Se/coj, Set/ecu, KVVOJ, SOKW, doceo = So-
>, hence So/cw. There are, besides, numberless
other peculiarities of the Greek language, both dia-
lectic and perpetual, which divide and separate its
prosody from the Latin. But however well Latin
prosody has been fashioned and formed by her
glorious poets and writers, yet it never could
attain, imitate, or approach, either the euphony,
the elasticity, or the manifold and very rich
variety of the Grecian prosody. Finally, it is
a fact that modern Philology, owing to the great
changes which have passed over the Latin lan-
guage, ever since the second century after Christ,
has been unable to ascertain the original sound
" of her letters. Thus we claim that it is incon-
sistent with well-established principles and facts
to attempt to pronounce Greek according to Latin
accentuation. There is certainly much similarity
between the Greek and Latin, but this similarity
or ^resemblance is not, as a Greek says, that of
one egg to another, neither that of one drop of
\vater to another. The Latin language resem-
116
ACCENT AND QUANTITY.
"bles the Greek language just as a daughter
resembles her mother, or just as a sister might
resemble her sister ; or, as Oekonomos says, how-
ever strong a resemblance there may be between
the two languages, the warbling of a Procne
(swallow) differs from that of a nightingale.
Now, that the accent plays a most important
part in the meaning of a word, is manifest from
the following collection of words, which are
written alike, but distinguished from each other
in meaning by the accents. The distinguished
scholar, Gottlob Hoffman, said in reference to this
point, " Why ! anybody can easily distinguish
the word Sea from Sta and povrj from JHOI/T) (/Aei>a>)
and some other similar words simply by the
meaning ! " However, there are many words and
many nouns in the Greek language distinguished
from each other simply by means of the accent,
but without which all the soothsayers of the world
could never tell the meaning.
A.
'AyeAaios, belonging to a herd.
'Aye'Aatog, of the herd or mul-
titude ; ay. avOpfDTTOi, opp. to
"Ayr;, in good sense, wonder,
reverence, awe; in bad sense,
envy, hatred.
'Ayij,-i}s, breakage,piece,splin-
ter ; KUTTW ay. ^Esch.Pers.
425.
, Agetus, a Spartan,
os, admired, famous.
Ancyra, a city of Ga-
latia.
"AyKvpa, an anchor.
'Ayopcuo?, to be bought in the
market; as in most Edd.
of the N. T. apros.
ACCENT AND QUANTITY.
117
'Ayopatos, belonging to the
ayopd, Zevs dyopaios.
"Aywv, ayovros, leading.
'AyoSv, -wvos, a contest.
, chatterer; dSoXe-
^s, subtle. Job. Philopo-
nus.
'Afyo'os, -a, -ov, very rarely -os,
-ov, assembled in crowds.
Eustath. p. 1387.
"A#poos, -ov (a. priv. 0po'os),
noiseless, only in gramm.
'Atfojos, -ov, unpunished, scot-
free.
*A0uos,-7), -oi/, of Mount Athos.
^Esch. Ag. 285.
AT#os, -cos, a burning heat,
fire.
Ai0o's, -77, -ov, burnt, fire-col-
ored, fiery. Find. p. 8, 65.
Bachyl. 12.
Atvos, -ov, 6, 1, a tale, story,
hence, a fable; 2, praise.
Aivos, -rj, -ov, Ep. word = 6Wos,
dread, dire, fearful.
Ato'Ao?, ->;, -ov, easily turning,
quietly moving.
AtoXos, -ovjhegodofthe winds.
At7Tta, fern, of Atxus, high and
steep; lofty.
AiTreta, -as, -?;, 1, JEpea, a city
of Messenia ; 2, a city in
the island of Cyprus, later,
Soli.
At7ros, -eos, TO, a height, a
steep, a hill. JEsch. Ag.
285, etc. ; Trpos atTros ieWi,
AITTOS, -r), -ov, Ep. for CUTTVS,
A, lofty, usu. of cities.
17, 1, a point, edge;
2, silence, etc.
, -4ce, the earlier
name of the city Ptoleinais
in Phoenicia.
, inexorable.
S, spotless. Joh. Phi-
lop.
'A/as, -tSos, 17, point-barb, a
splinter.
*A/as, -tSos, 6, Ads, a river of
Sicily. Theoc. 1, 69.
, -tos, 1, the extremity ;
2, Acris, a city of Libya.
Diod.
is, -tSos, a locust.
'AKpo/2dXds, owe ^Aa^ throve
from afar, a skirmisher.
'AKpo/?oXos, -ov, struck from
afar.
'AXt'a, -as, an assembly, gather-
ing.
'AXta, -a?, a salt-cellar.
"AXis, adv., in heaps, in crowds,
in swarms.
'AXts, -t8os, saltness.
'AXcoa, a threshing-floor.
'AXwa, a festival of Demeter.
"A/A?7Tos, -ov, 6, a reaping, har-
vesting.
118
ACCENT AND QUANTITY.
S, the harvest gathered
in.
^, -?/?, oft in Theophr.
the almond-tree.
aA.??, -779, an almond.
"Apa, Ep. pa, then, straight-
way, etc.
'Apa, a?, curse.
'Apaio'?, ->?, -ov, ifAm, narrow,
weal:.
'Apace?, -aia, prayed against,
accursed.
"Apy>7?, -ov, 6, Arges or Cyclops.
Hes. Th. 140.
a kind of serpent.
79, -^ros, white, bright.
, 6, Argus, son of
iter and Niobe, and King
OS.
-77, -6V, shining,
wight.
"Api/etos, -eta, -eiov, #/* $ lamb
or
Apyetos, -oi), 6, a young ram
just full-grown.
'Api/os, a sheep, etc.
"Apvos, Arnus, a river of Etru-
ria, now the Arno.
js, seizure, rapine.
ayr;, -rjs, a hook, esp. for
drawing up a bucket.
"Apcrt?, -ew?, ^, raising up.
-1805, arrow-point.
Pharor.
, new-born.
, having just given
birth /
'ApriTo//,os, having just cut.
'Ao-</)o8eAos, 6, asphodel.
'Ao-<oSeJVos, producing aspho-
del.
js, a flute-player.
j a farm-servant.
B.
Bato?, -a, -ov, ^'^/e, insignifi-
cant.
Bato?, Boeus, a man.
, belonging to Bac-
chus or Ai's r^es.
, sub. -TTOUC, a metrical
foot of three syllables,*-
or -- ~.
a queen, princess.
ux, kingdom.
-ov, 6, Ae threshold.
-ov,jBelus, a Babylonian
deity.
Bio?, -ov, 7i/e.
Bio?, a bow.
, -a, -w, weak, nerve-
, woody plant, flow-
ering late.
Bporos, ~ov, 6, mortal, m,an.
Bporos, blood that has flowed
from a wounded man,
?, -ov, ^Ae depths of the
sea / water-deeps.
ACCENT AND QUANTITY.
119
Buo-o-o?, a fine yellowish flax,
and the linen made from it
(cotton).
r.
a round-built Phoeni-
cian merchant-vessel.
s, -ov, a milk-pail, a wa-
ter-bucket.
, laughable, absurd.
, exciting laughter,
merry.
rAavKo?, -77, -ov, bright, gleam-
ing, etc.
r/VavKos, an edible fish of gray
color.
FoVos, -ov, /ia which is begot-
ten, a child.
Twos, corn-land, a sown field
(Horn.), usu. in phrase, Tov-
vov oAony?.
Fvpo's, -a, -ov, round, Lat. cur-
vus.
Fvpo?, -ov, a round ring, circle.
A.
j, --5?, the neck, throat.
ip??, a city and promon-
tory.
A-^/AOS, -ov, a country dis-
trict.
A?7/xos, -ov,fat, tallow.
ta, adv. publicly.
-ra, neut. public
things.
Ata, ace. o/
Ata, prep. 5y, through.
TJs, noble, born of Jove.
AtoyeV?;?, Diogenes, a man's
name.
, cutting in two.
-ov, pass., cw ^/i
1 , divided equally.
AOKOS, 6, opinion.
AOKO'S, foam.
AoAio?, -a, -ov, crafty, deceit-
ful.
AoXto?, -ov, 6, Dolius, a slave
of Laertes in Ithaca.
Apv//,os, #ft> oak-coppice, thicket.
, Drymus, a city of Pho-
cs.
E.
said.
, coming, arrival.
'EAevo-i5, -ti/o?, Eleusis, a
city.
'Eaiperos, -ov, taken out,
picked.
'E^cu/oeTos, ->;, -ov, that can be
taken out.
v E7ratvo5, approval, praise.
'ETraivo?, -77, -ov, exceedingly
awful.
, a province.
, a woman's name.
'Eptveo?, the wild fig-tree.
'EptVeos, of wool, woollen.
120
ACCENT AND QUANTITY.
"Eros, a year.
'ETOS, in vain.
Evav0>js, flowery.
, Euanthes, a name.
TJ?, well-born (a civil, po-
lite man), evyev^s aV$pw7ros.
yeVT/s, Eugenes,^ -^oQi of the
Anthology.
?}?, well-disposed.
, Eumenes, a brave
Athenian at Salamis.
Ev/cAeta, renown, good fame.
Ev/cAeta, Euclia, an appella-
tion of Diana.
rjs, stout, lively.
s, Eusthenes, a name.
Z.
, Zorus, founder of Car-
thage.
JT^, TO e7rai/(o TOT) /AeXtTo?, /cat
. Eust. p. 906, 52.
H.
/, slinger.
/, gen. pi.
-a, -ov, belonging to
Hercules.
'Hpa/cXetos, herculean.
"Hrron/, compart.
, part, of rjTTow.
fern,
seeing.
s, -7J, -oi/, warm, hot, boil-
ing.
, -ov, ^Ae lupine, esp. w-
pinous, used in Athens to
counteract the effects of
drink.
dome.
5, -ov, 1, ^Ae sow?/ 2,
wrath, etc.
0v/>tos, -ov, tliyme, Lat. thymus.
'la, 17, voice.
"la, old Ion. cwey plural, violet.
, imp. aor. mid.
'I3ov, /o / behold.
part. pres.
eVo?, part. perf.
's, rws^, etc.
5, -to?, one of the Sporades,
etc.
Ipnus, a place in Locris.
, keeping or groom-
ing horses, etc.
C, horse-haired, etc.
-ov, equipping,
arming horses.
TroKopvo-r^c, Hippocorystes,
masc. prop. noun.
ACCENT AND QUANTITY.
121
Katpor, -ov, 1, strictly the right
measure; 2, the right meas-
ure of time.
Ka~po?, also Kaipws, threads,
slips, or thrums on the beam
of the loom.
KaAAio-flei'?/?, adorned with
strength.
KaAAio-tfeV?;?, Callisthenes, an
orator.
KcLW, dry wood, fire-wood.
KoAoV, neut.
KaAws, adv. from
KuAw?, a rope.
j, a bending, winding, as
of a river.
fjiTrrj, a caterpillar.
for e/ceu/os.
Ketvo'?, empty".
, a charmer.
JT-rj<?, charmed.
from Ke
y> from
K>}/3os, Cerus, a river.
07, ->/, -6V, renowned, fa-
mous.
KAeiros, Clitus,^ proper nnme.
KAeto), to tell of, make fa-
mous.
w, Clio, one of the Muses.
the thistle.
o?, yellow.
os, woody.
, Cnemus, a name.
KO/XTTO?, pride.
OS, proud.
Kpto?, a ram.
a proper name.
ttt from Krao/x-ai.
Kracr^at from KTetVw.
Imix.
W, aCCUS. Of KVKWV.
Kvpro?, a creed.
05, crooked. Eust. p. 907.
, a fishing-basket.
os, curved, bent, arched.
A.
pretext.
j, handle.
Aao?, -ov, the people.
Aao?, the name of a city.
Aapo?, a ravenous sea-bird ;
the gull.
Aapo?, -a, -OK, pleasant, nice.
, a 5are roc/;.
a?, a limpet.
winepress.
?, throwing stones.
oe, struck with stones.
Ai^avos, fore-finger.
string of a harp.
M.
long.
Ma/<pos, length.
~M.aXu.Kia, softness.
122
ACCENT AND QUANTITY.
MaXa/cta, water-animals of soft
substance.
rj, a staying (convent).
/, fern, of MoVos.
, laborious.
o?, icretched.
, gen. from ^via; [AVIWV,
muscle.
MuAAo?, awry, crooked.
Mu'AA.09, an edible fish.
MvAwv, a place for a mill,
etc.
Mv\o)v, a city.
Mvpi'ot, infinite in numbers.
Muptoi, ten thousand.
N.
Neo9, young.
Neo9, /res/i land, fallow.
a pasture.
H.
Eav0o9, golden, yellow.
Ecu/00?, a proper name.
Eevtov, a room for strangers.
EeVwv, a proper name.
O.
"OKI/OS, <7e?ay.
s, -rj, oV, iW/e, cowardly.
ertheless.
ally, etc.
ountain.
\Op6<s,yhe watery or serous part
of milk.
OVKOW, not therefore, so not.
OVKOVV, therefore, according-
ly.
Qvpos, a mountain.
Ovpos, a trench.
Ovpd, tail.
Ovpa, boundaries.
n.
narpoKToi/05, parricidal.
narpo/croi/09, slain by a father.
Ilet^w, to persuade.
Ilet^w, persuasion, etc.
, fat.
i/, 1, aor.; 2, part, of
y, rattling sound.
?, washing-trough.
, washed. Schol. Aris-
tophanes' Plut. 1062.
IToto?, -Trota, Trotov, of what na-
ture?
Iloto?, -a, -oi/, o/* a certain na-
ture, kind, etc.
HoYo?, a drinking-bout / c-
->/, -or, verb, adj.
drunk, for drinking.
IIptoToyoj/o9, first-born.
IlpwroyoVo?, bringing forth
first.
IIpwTOTOAco9, first-born.
IIpwroroKoc, bearing her first-
born.
ACCENT AND QUANTITY.
123
me-colored.
Pyrrhus, a man's
name.
wpos, -ov, tufa-stone.
?, -a, -6v, blind; misera-
ble.
P.
'PtVr;, shark. Job. Phil.
'PITT?/, town-wall.
as of wind. East. p.
301.
cor, a rosebud.
17, Rhodon, masc. prop.
name.
'Po'Sio?, adj., Mhodian, of
Rhodes.
'PoSto?, subst., Rhodius, a
riv 7 er.
WVO5, ^ lewd fellow.
wv, from o-atpw, sweeping.
9, gen. fern, of o-os.
?, a moth.
d<j>r), a hole, trench.
a^ry, a digging.
lion's whelp.
?, young of every other
beast.
v, -77, -oV, sown, scat-
tered.
^Ae shrub.
, a 5w?icA of grapes.
or ^e
plummet in a carpenter's
bench.
ia, a community.
/aa, a public feast in hon-
or of Theseus.
/o/xo?, 1, anything that draws,
drags, or tfears along with
violence ; 2, fashion, mode.
, Syrmus, a proper
name.
T.
TavpoKTovos, slaying bulls.
Tai;poKToi/o5, killed by 'a bull.
om afafa
, a name (son of
Ulysses).
J?, appearing afar.
, Telephanes, a prop.
name.
oc, cutting.
volume.
Topos, piercing, thrilling.
Topoc, a 5orer used in trying
for water.
o?, wheel, etc.
a running course.
Y.
c Y/?o?-, -77, -ov, hump-backed.
r Y/?o?, Ae bunch or hump of
a camel.
"Y/3pts, insolence.
t?, a night-bird of prey.
124
ACCENT AND QUANTITY.
XaAao7?oAo9, stricken with
3>aiSpos, -a, -ov, beaming, bright.
<a~Spos, Phwdrus, a pr. name.
<o'pos, a tribute, tax.
3>opo's, bearing, carrying.
<uAaKiJ, a watching or guard-
ing a watch.
<v/\aKi7, Phylace, a city.
X.
XaAao/?oAo9, showering hail;
hail.
-, -ry, -ov, glad-eyed,
bright-eyed.
, a man's name.
V
a
e shoulder.
?, raw, rough, etc.
^O^os, paleness.
Again, many proper nouns are formed from
substantives by transposition of the accent. For
instance :
from a/ce<rr/7<?.
Avyrj, from avyrj.
Baios, from
from
and Topyw, from yop-
yo?.
Atoyei/r;?, from
from eu
KAetro?, from fcActros.
, from AevKos.
from AOJTO?.
, from
Hippos and Iluppa, from ?n;ppo9,
-pa.
or 5/xt/cp09, from er/it-
) from
and
8po5, -Spa,.
In like manner, to this day, many nouns become
proper simply by a change of the accent, some of
which are either local and idiomatic, so to speak,
to certain places, whilst other nouns are common
to all the Greeks. For instance : Xpvcros, from
bs, like x/oucr^s (IX. a) and "Xpucros EtcriSo-
ACCENT AND QUANTITY. 125
TOU 'Atf^cuos" (Olyp. 236), found in an Attic in-
scription. 2<Tavpos, from crravpos. Aa//,7rpos, from
XafjiTrpos. <l>opo5, from (f>opos. 'Pio9, from /koei?,
whence the " /HOUS #e<rcraAias ^wpa." St^tos, from
cri/xos, whence ^L^w Si/^am'S^?, Si/^/uas SijU^9(o? ( a
diminutive Boeotian appellation), and many others
which I might enumerate, as well as numberless
other forms or innovations of the accent both in
ancient and modern Greek, which show the care
w T e ought to exercise in pronouncing Greek.
Now, many believe that the ancient Greeks
pronounced the verses, such as "the hexameters"
and "the iambic" simply according to the " quanti-
ty of the syllables," and that they entirely over-
looked or neglected the accent. But this does not
seem so certain, and there are many things that go
to show that the Greeks, in pronouncing the verses,
never neglected or overlooked the accent.
No language ever uses in poetry " an accentual
prosody" directly opposite and antagonistic to
the one in prose. In pronouncing Latin verse
we sometimes overlook or, so to speak, neglect
the natural accent of the words for the sake of
the rhythm.
But this fact by no means proves the necessity
of pronouncing Greek verse in like manner. In
the first place, who assures us that Virgil himself
pronounced his verses in the manner now preva-
lent? We can only form a meagre idea from
126 ACCENT AND QUANTITY.
Quintilian concerning Latin versification, from
the fact that he did not speak in detail about
these things. Now, Geldart affirms that just be-
cause the Latin accent, however fallaciously ap-
plied to Greek, does in a remarkable manner
tend to preserve to a great extent (though by no
means completely) the quantity of syllables, the
notion has arisen that it could not be otherwise
preserved. That this notion is completely false
is practically shown even in Latin, in which we
have to recognize, and do recognize, the length
of the many long syllables, which it is impossible
even according to the Latin system to accent. It
is, besides, a well-known fact that many distin-
guished European scholars asserted that we ought
by no means to neglect accent in pronouncing
Latin verse. Again, Homer lengthened by means
of the accent not only the short syllable in the
arsis, but also in the thesis, as AidXov, and so on.
He likewise shortened, as we have already re-
marked, the syllable before or after the accent
simply by means of it. He at times used the
syllable accented on the thesis as a short one, as
I 7T7TOV5 aXe rat (IX. X, 192) instead of aX^rat;
sometimes even the accent causes one X to be
omitted, as in A^tXev?, and so on. And, in
short, the ancient poetry was by no means sep-
arated from the accents of prose. (See Herr-
mann, " Elementa doctrinse rnetricse.")
ACCENT AND QUANTITY. 127
Aristotle says that the iambic metre is mostly
used in common conversation. u e O S J ta/x,/3o9 CLVTTJ
ICTTIV TI Xefts rj TO*V troXXwv ' Sto jitaXto~Ta TTOLVTMV TMV
Herpatv ta/x/3eta ^Otyyovrai Xeyonres." " For the
iambic measure is most of all adapted to conver-
sation. And as an evidence of this we most fre-
quently speak in iambic in familiar discourse with
each other." Plutarch says concerning the "iam-
bic measure" "TO, {lev \eyovraL irapa Kpovcriv, ra
Se a&ovTai .... TO Se Trapa rr)v Kpovcriv Xeyecr^at*
(elvai TO OLVTO KOI rj TrapafcaraXoy^.") Oekonomos
says, " TTapaKOLToXoyri " is what the moderns call
" recitativum" a sort of address, in which the poems
are pronounced, as the Italians say, u quasi parlan-
do" whilst tlie term tl /caraXoyaS^^ " and "rj Kara-
means u ro ra acr/xara OVK VTTO
Dionysius of Halicarriassus describes the mov-
ableness, transposing, or changing of the accents
which takes place in the odes. Now, what differ-
ence there exists between hexameters and iambics
on the one hand and lyric odes on the other is
evident. Demosthenes himself distinguishes the
" metrical" (as, for instance, the Homeric verses)
from those that are sung, such as the odes of
Pindar, the " dithyrambic," the " choruses," the
strophes and others which are uttered, so to
speak, by a varying melody of the voice : " c/ flo-re
KOL TOT;? TOJV e/x/xeV^wf /cat TOL><? TOW
/cat TroXXou? Ta)V
128 ACCENT AND QUANTITY.
TO, Kiva)V epya rrs OLVTMV
(Aoy. eVtra<). Dionysius of Halicarnassus, treat-
ing of the changes which are necessary for the
composition or formation of harmony, teaches
that they must be* " Sta</>opot /cat at racrets rrj<?
(0^779, at /caXov/xej'at TrpocnwStat, /cXeWoucrat rfj
Trot/ctXta TOV Kopov." So that, recommending the
same rules for the formation of harmony in both
metrical and prose writings, he distinctly asserts
the importance and the necessity of respecting
the accent both in metrical and prose writings.
In another passage he says, " MOVO-LKTJ ns 771^ /cat rj
TO)V TTQ\ITLKO)V \6yO)V 67T ICTTTJ fJLTTJ , TO) TTOCTO) Sta^epOUCTa
Iv aSSat? /cat o/oya^ots, ou^t TO) Trotw- /cat yap iv
Ty /cat jiteXo? e^ovcnv at Xefets /cat pv9p.ov /cat
}jieTa/3o\rjv /cat TrpeVo^." Now, as a modern Greek
says, if the orators pronounced according to
rhythm and according to the accents, why not
the poets also *$ And if the speeches of the orators
must be read according to the accents, why not
read the poems in like manner 1 Dionysius also
compares many rhetorical passages of the same
rhythm with poetical verses of like rhythm, for
instance that of Demosthenes,
" MT/T* iSias ^0pa<s /x^8e/xtas cveKa,"
and says that it is exactly an elegiac pentameter,
just like
He compares in like manner many other passages
ACCENT AND QUANTITY. 129
of the same orator, saying merely that these prose
passages differ from the poems, inasmuch as the
former are " poetical, rhythmical, and melodious,"
whilst the poems are in rhythm that is to say
" accordant in harmony" and " according to meas-
ure " and " musical" " eppv Opa KOI Upper pa KCU
jiteXwSiKa," because the poems possess in succession
similar metres arid rhythms arranged according
to verse, period, or strophe, whilst the rhetorical
phrases or the so-called " oratorical cadences" have
rhythm, but not the same in succession. On the
contrary, they are irregular and wandering, and
mixed obscurely with others, so that the rhetorical
phrase becomes, as Aristotle termed it, "/x/qrc e/x-
/AeTpos pyre dppv&iJios," neither "metrical nor void
of rhythm."
We must remark that Dionysius, who is justly
called a -very critical scholar, by no means con-
sidered the poems as void of accent, as some have
supposed, because he would naturally have said so.
Oekonomos says that one can observes many
other hexameter passages in Demosthenes, such as,
Tov yap ev 'Afufrur&g TroAejuoi/, Si' ov ets '
Also
Twv a'AAwv '
as well as in many other writers, for instance St.
Chrvsostom :
roV i^XiaKOJv aacfiyiav Aa/x,7rporcpa ovcra TT/^, ....
Tov /caTrvov 7rpocre^)Xe^e, KCU -^/xai'pwtrev aTrao-av (Trcpt 'lepwcr.), etc.
130 ACCENT AND QUANTITY.
Aristiades, the KoiWtXta^o? (Quintilian), recom-
mends " TTTapa)v crTo^d^ecrOaL eWotag re Trpeirov-
0-775, /cat Xe'fe&j?, /cat apiLOVias, /cat pvOfJiov- TrpOKa-
#7?yetrat JJLZV r) eWota TrdVrcog, TJS aVeu ovre atpecrts
OVTC <f)vyrj rti'os lyyiveraL' TavTrjs Se jjLijjLTjf
/cat Trpo? TJ)V rov TreXa? aKorjv re /cat TreiOa)
d^ay/cata CLVTTJ Se of yr^r^ra? re /cat
TrpocrXa/BoiHTa JJLTOL Stacrr^jLtaraj^,
(perhaps crvy/ce^u/AeVoj^) /xe^, eyevvrjcrev appoviav
Xoyots Se rot? cru/x^xw^ot? reray/^eVo)^ pv0p,ov"
Now, if accent, which tends to mark the word
clearly, were overlooked in the recitation of
poems, it is evident that so much confusion and
doubt would have resulted as to render the mean-
ing of the verse extremely obscure. Aristotle
(350 B. C.) likewise recommends as the first excel-
lence of poetical recitation the clearness of ivords.
Now, how can words possess clearness if we do not
respect their accents! "*H yap Xe'fts, ^rot 77 Sta
ra)v wondrous pfJLr)VLa, T7)v CLVTrjv e^ei SiW/iw /cat
eVt Ttov efJLjJLeTpajv /cat eVt TMV Xdyco^." Quinctilian
recommends "that poems should be read in such
a manner that the reader may appear rather to
be pronouncing a "prose passage" and "without
metre," whilst the prose passages of the orators
should be recited just like poems ; that is to say,
neither the rhythm of the poems ought to be
sung, nor the harmony of the words (in prose)
to be confounded with the stupid and rude or
ACCENT AND QUANTITY. 131
unpolished conversation of the rabble. That is
what Caesar meant, saying, "if you sing the poem
you sing it badly, if you read it you sing it well."
Finally, not one of the old grammarians recom-
mends the reading of the poems simply according
to the quantity of syllables. On the 'contrary,
Tryphoii (Tpvfav) censures the practice, calling
it "TO, Kara TroSa, /caKo/xerpa." And Erasmus
also distinguished accent from quantity, and com-
plained because in his church neither the quan-
tity of the syllables nor the accent of the words
was kept with accuracy, especially in "musical
odes." "Accenfois non indicat doctrinam quantitatis
syllabicce" .... and "Chorus ecelesiastieus nee in
psalmis recitandis nee in eanticis solemnibus ulliim
habet brevium aut long arum delectum, ne tonorum
quidem admodum magnam rationem" etc. (Dialog,
de rect. Linq. Graec. pronunt.)
It becomes evident, therefore, that the custom-
ary pronunciation of those who pronounce sim-
ply according to the quantity of syllables cannot
be the safe or correct way of pronunciation.
"For what purpose," a modern Greek exclaims,
"for what purpose were the poets of Greece
compelled to compose metres (and especially the
heroic) in every respect and directly opposite to
the accentual prosody of the words, and, so to
speak, without any foundation in the very nature
of the language? Or, perchance, did they not
132 ACCENT AND QUANTITY.
compose verses for their fellow-citizens, whom
they sought to teach and to please ? What more
than the neglect or the absence of accents from
the poems could render them incomprehensible
to the many?"
Vossius and his followers blamed the so-called
" TroXm/cous CTTIXOVS" (popular verses) of the mod-
ern Greeks, which possess rhythm simply by
means of the"acceht and the number of the syj-
lables. But it becomes evident from these popular
verses that our fathers, in pronouncing the verses
of Homer and of the other poets, observed also
the accent together with the quantity, because
the "popular verses" are only imitations of many
Homeric and other old verses pronounced simply
according to accent without regard to quantity.
Attention to the quantity of syllables had dis-
v ^V a PP eare( i from the common conversation of the
* multitude at the time even when the language had
passed its prime. But even whilst the language
was at its acme, the unpolished multitude did not
distinguish between the long and short with as
much emphasis and precision as the poets and the
orators were accustomed to do. Oekonomos says,
that many syncopated words extant in both the
poets and the orators give evidence of the fact,
e. g. oiOjjiaL and o?Sacr#a into oT/x,cu and oicrOa., KefiXr)
from KefiaXrj instead of /ce^aXr/I crav/ccus from era-
, /3\a)crKa) instead of /xoXtcrAco;
/
ACCENT AND QUANTITY. 133
from juecnj/xepia (/*ecr7?/x/Ha),
>), AaiTiOrjs (Xao-mOrjs), Aayer^?, Aayo?
, and numberless other forms, both
dialectic and common to all, as well as those
words resulting from syncope and synizesis, and
these Attic words which, although terminating
in a long vowel, accent the antepenult, e. g.
euyews, Me^eXews, etc., show "that the multi-
tude pronounced rather hurriedly and not so
clearly and distinctly the long vowel sounds."
The circumflex, pronounced somewhat hurriedly,
was confounded easily with the acute, as in the
Homeric, TO pev ov instead of ov or ov, as well as
ovns, transformed into ouns (Od. I. 366).
But the comedians, imitating the common con-
versation of the people, made many innovations
or changes in the rhythm, at times shortening the
long syllables, then introducing trochaic and
iambic together with anapestic measures, thus
endeavoring to imitate the voluble manner of con-
versation extant among the common classes.
A modern Greek asserts that after the language
had passed its prime the distinction between the
long and short syllables was much neglected.
Finally, the absence of great poets, the absence
of the theatres, the confusion of dialects, and other
like changes, caused the general neglect of quan-
tity. About the year 170 (B. C.) Pausanias, a
pupil of Herodes the Athenian, somewhat distin-
134 ACCENT AND QUANTITY.
guislied as a " stump-speaker," was often blamed
because he confounded long and short syllables,
just as his Cappadocean compatriots were wont
to do. But this did not at all interfere with
the genuine prosody of the spoken language.
" Poetical prosody" is one thing and " prosody
of accents" is another. The former deals with
the quantity of syllables, the latter considers the
location of special stress. The former changes
with the rhythm of the poem, the latter has a
fixed position in every word. After " poetical
prosody " became less prominent, the prosody
of accent remained an inseparable peculiarity.
Our contemporary poets used this as the founda-
tion of verse-making, dividing the metres of the
verses no more according to quantity, which the
ignorant and unpolished multitude could no longer
appreciate, but only according to the accent and
the number of the syllables, from which arises the
so-called " popular rhythm," which has a very
close connection with the musical rhythm of the
ancients. Those who composed these verses bor-
rowed, so to speak, the peculiarity of this versi-
fication from the ancients, i. e. from the trochaic
metre of ^Eschlus' Pers. :
*/2 j3aQv(i)vu>v avacrcra TlepaiSwv vireprarij,
M?J7p 77 Bep^ov yr)pai,a, 'Xjalpe Aapeiov yvvat.
Having simply kept the accents, they formed verses
of fifteen syllables, e. g.
ACCENT AND QUANTITY. 135
Tto? Aiveiov <yvi]crio<$ ACTKCIVIOS rrjv
*A7ro Kpeovarjs <yvvaiKbs, TT}? Ovyarpos Ilptafjiov,
Ti]v iroXiv A\j3av w/crjae aw Tot?
For this reason Eustathius (1118 A. D.) termed
these verses of .fifteen syllables "Jrocliaic verses."
Again, Oekonomos says that from the iambic of
Aristophanes, which has two metres, e. g.
dyvwv opyiwv
' Avaaaa,
Verses of eight syllables were formed, stich as
those composed by Symeon Metaphrates about
1050 A. D.
ATTO p
ATTO j3Se\vpas
ATTO afcaOapTOv
'Etc -^ru^rj? eppu7r(t)fJLV7)<;
Serjaiv XpLare
And again, from the same syllables, simply by
changing the accent, the harmony of the verses
was also changed by " <rvvyta$."
Nvv al Avvafjieis ovpavwv
136 ACCENT AND QUANTITY.
According to the Anacreontic,
> 171 >> y s
JLpco re orjTa K OVK epw
' /
fJLaiVOfJLCLi K 0V
Alexander Apollinarius (350 A. D.) is generally
believed to have been the first who wrote in these
so-called " popular verses." He rendered, at any
rate, into hexameter verse the psalter, and, in fact,
many of the writings of the Church. Professor
Sophocles states that the "d/ca#icrros vpvos" is the
office of the Virgin, partly read and partly sung,
all standing, on the Saturday of the fifth week in
Lent. And as Georgius Pisides (A. D. 617) was
the readiest versifier of that period, it has been
conjectured that he was the author of the prin-
cipal part of it. The distinctive portions of this
office are its twenty-four ol/cot, houses, stations.
Their rhythm is accentual, i. e.
OupavoOzv e7r/
Enrelv TTJ eoroKM TO Xalpe
Kai aw Ty aa-cofiarM <f)a)vf}
2a)/jt,aTovfjievov ere Oewpwv, Kvpie,
KOL KnaTO Kpawyd^wv Trpos avrrjv
However, many scholars suppose that it was
Apollinarius (350 A. D.) who composed this in-
ACCENT AND QUANTITY. 137
stead of Pisides. Compare with the above the
Anacreontic verses of similar " crvvyias," such as
JTeyU-7T6T6 TWV 8' ClTT OLKCiJV, - U.TTVO IGilGl %<f)VpOV,
@oa<? aKciTOVS 67T* olB/jia Xipvas (Evpnr.J
Aevpo KdXelv VO/JLOS ecr XP OV
'AXiov 7Tpoa-e/3a\V appa (EvpiTT.
Many other examples could be brought to show
that many of the odes, especially of the Church,
are fashioned exactly after many lyric and other
odes of the ancients.
Rhyme, which is very common in modern
Greek, is recognized by the classical poets, i. e.
(Sophocles, Aj. 765, 766)
"Eyveoica jap Sr) <<HTO<? r)7raTr)iJ.evr],
Kal TT}? TraXata? xa
And the following in the "Iliad" (, 382), which
is what Oekonomos calls " 6/xoioreXevra ets rrj
Ev fiev Tt? Sdpv 67)%da6(i), ev 8' currr/Sa 6e<r6<i)
.... 6r)^aa6o) .... 6ecr6o) ....
Again, in the "Iliad" (^, 152) :
138 ACCENT AND QUANTITY.
ev %e/3crt KO/LUJV erapoio
, lolai Be TTCLGIV vcf) i^epov copae yooio.
Kal vv K oBvpo/jievoHnv eSv (f>aos '.HeA/oto.
3>i\oio .... jooio .... 'HeX/oto.
Again, in the " Iliad " (<f>, 523 - 25) :
alOofievoiOy 6ewv 8e e /jurjvis dvrjtcev
Tlacri B edrjice TTOVOV, 7ro\\olai Se /crfSe* etrf
/2? A^iKevs Tpwecrat, TTOVQV Kal /crJSe' e
AvrJKev .... <prjicev .... e
In the " Odyssey" we find instances of rhyme
(Od. 0, 147, 148, 111, 112, 125, 126 ; t, 148 ; AC, 44 ;
X, 604, etc.) See also Herder's " Ursachen des
gesunkenen Geschmacks bey den verschiedenen
Yolkern," etc., pages 278-290, and Sulzer's Dic-
tionary, article " Eeim."
CHAPTER X.
THE ASPIRATE.
THIS is no longer sounded in modern Greek ;
and if it had any sound at all in ancient Greek
it must have been extremely evanescent. This is
evident from the fact that Aristotle says,
Tlapa Be TT]V TrpocrcoBiav \oyoi fjuev OVK eicnv ovTe TWV
OVT6 TWV \eyofjiva)v TrXrjv el Tives oX/yot
av, otov ofro? o Xoyo? ' Apaye eo-Ti TO ov Kara-
olicia ; vai" OVKOVV TO ov KaTa\vei<s TOV tcaTa\vei<?
KTfc? ; vai ' e<f)r)cra<; Be elvat TO ov tcaTa\veis oiKiav
77 oiKta apa aTro^acrtt?. if2? Be \VTeov Brj\ov ov yap
TavTO a-rj/jLaivei, TO fiev o^vTepov TO Be ffapvTepov prjOe'v.
It becomes evident, therefore, that in the times
of Aristotle, the golden age of Grecian learning,
the pronunciation of the rough ov (ov fcaraXuei?)
differed little from the pronunciation of the smooth
ov.
It is probable that the only difference between
the rough and smooth breathing may have been
that it was the custom to turn /c, TT, T into %> < #
before syllables which had the rough breathing,
which is still the practice of the modern Greeks,
140 THE ASPIRATE.
whereas before the smooth breathing these conso-
nants remained unaltered. But in the Ionic dia-
lect this difference of usage did not prevail.
In modern Greek, though the rough breathing
is not heard, it affects the pronunciation of a pre-
ceding tenuis ; and several compounds, as e</>eros
from eV eros, ptOoLViov for
PART II
CHAPTER I.
THE ALPHABET.
THE modern Greek letters, breathings, accents, arid marks
of punctuation are the same as in classical Greek.
LETTERS.
FIGURES.
NAMES.
A, a
A, 3
B^ra
Fa/x,/>ta
AcAra
E \lfi\ov
Alpha.
Veta.
Thelta.
Epsitin.
Zeta.
H, r)
Hra
Eta.
, <9
(H^ra
Theta.
I, t
'Icora
Eota.
K, K
KaTTTTtt
Jfdpa.
A, A
Aa/xSa
Ldmvtha.
M, fJL
MO
Me.
N,v
NO
Ne.
H,
St
Kse.
0,o,
"O JJLlKpOV
Omecron.
n, TT
IK
Pe.
p, P
Pw
Rho.
I;
TaO
tSegma.
Taf. f
Ipsilon.
Phe.
*;
X?
He (khe).
Pse.
1), 00
*O /xeya
Omega.
CHAPTER II.
SOUNDS OF THE VOWELS.
A
is pronounced like the French a, or like the English a in the
words car, far, father, calm.
Schleicher observes that a was frequently represented by e
or o. This is more especially noticed in the dialectic forms:
/2epe0pov epo-fjv for (3dpaOpov apo-rjv. We have /<Aeos for KAaFas,
from grdvas, TrAeFw or TrAe'co from pldvdmi, etc. In modern
Greek we have riirora (tepota) for TtVore (tepote).
Geldart gives the form o-Tporo? ov<a ovc^wp^ore = orpaTo? aVa>
avcxuprja-e (stratds ah'no anehdrese). In modern Greek we
have Ka.Taj366pa for KarajSdOpa (katavah'thra), ap^aOid for 6/0-
Ha6id (ormahthedh). Schleicher observes that the three ter-
minations of contracted verbs, -aw, -ew, and o'w were originally
but one, viz. -aw. In modern Greek, at least in the language
of the common people, -o> is always represented by -duo. We
have fyrdei for ^ra (zetee}, Trepnra.Ta.Tf. for TreptTraretrc (peripa-
teete), and so on. Geldart states that a in ancient Greek is
seldom weakened into v, yet this appears to have been the
case in vvj; (nix), ow (dnex), KVK\O<S (keklos), /AvAo? (melos),
and a few other words, as /u,vWa (mis'tax), which also appears
in the form /xa<rra (mdhstax) and fBvOos (vethos), which is
also written fidOos (vdhthos). In modern Greek we get O-KU-
^>os (sJcephos) for O-KO-^O? (sJcdhphos) or O-KO.^ (shdphe). So,
again, we have the diminutive appellation a^tov, as
(hordhpheon), frequently represented by \xfriov, as
(zoepheon). The ancient Greeks prefixed a to many words
(a euphonicum), as d/SA^x/aos (ahvlechros), dcrrac^ts (astap/us),
SOUNDS OF THE VOWELS. 145
TJ (ahsterope) for /3A,?7Xpo's (vlechrds), ora^i's (staphis),
(sterope). In modern Greek we have aftporavov
(ahvrdtanon), d/?pa/i,vAov (ahvrdmelon) for /3pa/x,i>Aoi/ (vrdh-
melori), /3pa/?vAov (vrdhvelon).
EXAMPLES OF PRONUNCIATION.
'ASa/uas-, ahihdmas. 'Ayopavopos, ahghorahnomos.
'Ada/xao-roi-, ahthdhmastos. 'AjSpojSaroy, ahvrovahtos.
, dhthos. "A/3poftos, dhvromos.
/, aghymton. 'A/So^^roy, ahvoethetos.
, ahgrdmatos.
E
>^ _y
is intermediate between a and i." Professor Sophocles states
that it requires the mouth to be moderately opened and the
breath to proceed horizontally. It is approximately expressed
by the English e in spend, ferry, or by the French e. In
ancient Greek we have the forms oxfyo's (ochthrds) for e'x#po?
(ecthros). In modern Greek the same forms are still preva-
lent.
EXAMPLES OF PRONUNCIATION.
ekihekdhzo. *Ea$or, ethaphos.
ekthekos. c E8a>Xioi/, etholeon.
e'kthemos. 'EKTrtVa^at, ekpetahme.
ekghenes. 'E/c7reo-(ra>, ekp&so.
e'kthexis. 'E<7r^8ao>, ekpethdoh.
ekgrdhpho. 'EKirivco, ekpenoh.
.
mch t, or lil
is pronounced like the French i, or like the English e in the
word be. The followers of Erasmus pronounce 7} as a long
e, or like two e's, or as ay, for the following reasons.
They say that in all the old inscriptions, before the letter
rj was introduced in the Greek alphabet, we find invariably
an e, i. e.: AOEN (KOyvuv), MNEMA (/xi/^/xa), EIII TE2
BOYAE2 KAEOFENES IIPOTO2, etc.
146 SOUNDS OF THE VOWELS.
Again, Cratinus wrote /?r) to represent the sound of the
bleating of sheep. Plato says : " OVK rjra. e^pw/xc^a dAAa e TO
TraAcuoV." Sextus says : " o-voraAev TO 77 ytVerat e, ZKTaOtv Se TO
-yivrjrai rj" Sextus seems to regard 77 and e as essentially
one and the same letter. The other dialects generally ex-
press the Ionic 77 by e, as, for instance, /Sao-tA^a, /?ao-iAea, etc.
Finally, the Latin language also renders the Greek 77 by an e.
These are, in short, the reasons which the followers of Eras-
mus bring as their justification for pronouncing the rj as a
long .
Now, in order that we may ascertain how the letter rj
was pronounced by the a/icient Greeks, it is of the highest
importance to consider, first, from what letters or sounds rj
has resulted.
a') from d, especially in the Ionic dialect: vrjos = i/dd?,
1/770-09 = mo-os (Doric), Sevrcpr; = Sevrepd, etc.
ft) from ae, especially in the Doric dialect: Ti/wjre = -
/xaere, oprj = opae, tfiv from aetv, xprJTai from XP* Tal ; "tyA-tos,
ac'Ato?, a-FeAto?.
y} from ca : ^pvcn/, xaA/o;, evyev?;, from ^pvo-ea, ^aAKea, evyevea.
8') from ee : 877X69, ^ATTI^OJ/, 5A0ov, from SceXos (8eFeXos), ee
ov, eeA^ov, etc.
e') from at, especially among the Bosotians:
'nnroTT), fvcpycTr)^ etc., from /ecu SeSv'x^at tTTTrorat,
The letter 77, a scholar says, having resulted from such let-
ters, it is evident that it was formerly sounded both as an
e (sounded as in be\ which pronunciation prevails among the
greater part of the modern Greeks, and like the French e,
as in fete, which pronunciation still is prevalent among not
a few of the modern Greeks, as in >7/>o9, Krjp^ov), <T&-r)po(v),
/x.vpi'(ov), o-rrJKw, e^r/o-a, instead of ed^Ka, (l)ir6vr](Ta, and many
other words which are pronounced just as epds (xeros), o-tof-
po(v) (setheron), Kept(ov) (chereon), o-re/cw (stecho), ZOeo-a (ethe-
sa), (e)7roV77o-a (eponesa). Professor Mavrophredes says, the
ancient Greeks were wont to pronounce 77 like the French e,
SOUNDS OF THE VOWELS. 147
as in fete, that is, like an ay ONLY in those words in which 77
resulted from cc. That this pronunciation was general among
the Greeks we have no positive evidence, neither do we
believe that it was so. Again, by the greater part of the
Greeks 77 must have been sounded as the French e (ferme),
that is, as the word KT) = /cat (pronounced /ce). Now, this
sound of 77 as an e has a closer resemblance to the letters ae,
ea, at, from which 77 has resulted, and, besides, it comes nearer
to e (pronounced as in be), into which it afterwards passed
among the many. This change of the sound of 77 into an
i seems to us to have been in use also in the Homeric times,
as is evident from the words tSe = r}8e. However, this pro-
nunciation of ? as an t became still more prevalent about
the fifth century B. C., and it must have been very common
also in the common Attic dialect, because in no other way
is it possible to explain the statement of Plato in Cratylus,
418, 68 a': "ot /xev apxaioraTOL iptpw rrjv ijw'pav e/caXow, ot 8e
ot Se vw rj^pav." Compare also in 404 : "
Kara rrjv &6(rw T?/? 68008779, 8i8ovo-a cos
But about the second and third centuries B. C. the pronun-
ciation of 77 as an t became still more prevalent, and was
generally adopted by all those speaking Greek, as is evident
from the following Hebrew words: Kithim, Levi, Charmi,
Lachis, Schilo, Gilo, Dison, Sihon, Him, which were writ-
ten in Greek by KT/rt/x, ACVTJ, Xap/XTJ, Aa^?, ^T/Xw, F^Xcov, ATT-
o-wv, ^rjw, v Hpa?, in which we plainly see that 77 was written
for i, and, besides, in the MS. of "'YTreptSov" we may often
see instances in which 77 is interchanged with t.
Now, many of the reasons which the followers of Erasmus
bring to sustain their view of the sound of the letter 77 are
by no means conclusive. To begin with, their argument
concerning the well-known line of Cratinus,
"6 5' r)\idios tiairep irpbfiaTOV (3f) j3r) X^ywv jSaSt'^iet,"
is simply inadmissible, for how do we know that Cratinus
148 SOUNDS OF THE VOWELS.
pronounced /3rj exactly after the Erasmian style? Again,
even if we admit that Cratinus pronounced fifj exactly as a
follower of Erasmus would have sounded it, what scholar
would be willing to accept the imaginary symbol of the in-
articulate bleating of the sheep as the ground upon which to
rest the decision of the question, What sound did the cul-
tured nation of Greece give to the vocal elements of their
language ?
Again, the Latin language renders rj by an c for the simple
reason that it does not have an 77 in its alphabet. For this
reason the Latin has crater for Kparyp and poenia for 71-007-
px, etc. Again, that 77 and et were very similar in sound is
rendered highly probable by the fact that they were inter-
changed, e. g. /CT^OS and TT^OS for /cavo?, fiovXrj and /?ov'Aet.
The ^Eolians and Dorians were wont to render by 77 the ei of
other dialects, i. e. /xva/^ov, a-a/x^ov, T^OV, ^*o*'s ^tXi^fw, vo^rw ; in
like manner the modern Greeks write d^Swi/ instead of detSojy,
det'oX dt8o> (a&V). The Boeotians, on the contrary, rendered
by et the 77 of Other dialects, i. e. 4>i'Aet/u, yeAet/xt, tcrrei/u, ri'dct/u
(Doric <i%7/>u, etc.), dyetoxa, dpi (777x1 and ^Eolic e/A/zt and r/u
from cfu), TTociras instead of TTO^TOI?, and so on. Numerous
examples might be brought to show the similarity of sound
of 77, et, and i ; for instance, in Homer we find 7761877, ^TJSet,
77t'8et. Again, we find the same word written in three dif-
ferent ways, i. e. (T/CCTT^VO?, o-KeTmi/os, OVCCTTIVOS ; (1X77x775, dAeu^s,
dAtT775. We have, again, o/x,/?pii/os and o/nftpyvos, Ke^)aX^i/os and
K(f>aXlvo<;, onra&rjvr]<; and (nraOivys, fce/xao-^ve? and Ka/xaatves, i/cw
and 77/^0), CTACTTTTTO) and OTKCTTTO), Ta7T775 and TOLTTL^ and so on. Now
Ross thinks that the substitution of 77 for e does not prove
that it was sounded like an ay\ for the Latin e, Geldart
states, very often represented an , and on the other hand
tended to become and therefore probably closely resembled
in sound the simple t. So we have tristes from tristeis, writ-
ten tristis. We have also the following words written with
et instead of e, i. e. omneis, treis, parteis, etc.; and not only
SOUNDS OF THE VOWELS. 149
so, but in the Byzantine period designatus became in Greek
Sio-iyi/a-ros (thesegnathos). Ross gives an inscription found at
Carpathus in which ipoW stands for ^poW. Professor Mul-
lach thinks that the very close resemblance between t and rj
is evident in the parallel forms ^K<O and IKW, eiri'/JoXos and CTTTJ-
/?oAos (where 97, Geldart says, seems to be simply L lengthened
by the combined force of the accent and the ictus), yiyas and
yryyei/ris, which two forms we have together in the Batracho-
myomachia,
Trjyevtuv avdpuv fUfw^voL fyya yiydvrwv,
TTtoas from Tn/Saw, ?JSe and iSe. Plutarch writes Palilia,
Aia. Quirinus is translated Kvprjvios, and Scipio into S/
Again, though the words /ca/uAos for /ca/^Ao?, eAa/crT/o-e for
cAaKTio-e in the New Testament are no doubt errors in orthog-
raphy, yet they show, as Geldart states, the early prevalence
of the confusion of rj with i. Again, the scholiast on Eurip.
Phoen. 685 tells us expressly that before the time of Euclides
t was used for 77, o for w. These facts conclusively show the
very early pronunciation of rj as an t.
EXAMPLES OF PRONUNCIATION.
S, etliekds. 'Hp.povi>KTiov, emeronecteon.
, ethos. c H/xe'pa, eme'rdh.
, ethephonos. 'Ho-v^ta, esecheah.
'H8oi/i7, ethone. 'H/LU'T^TO?, emetmetos.
, eletheos. 'H/u/oi>os, emeonos.
emeromenea. 'HfjutiaXrjs, emethales.
is pronounced unquestionably like the French t, or like the
English i in the words machine, marine.
Liddell and Scott mention that L was easily interchanged
with et, whence forms like etXw and tAAw. It was also inter-
changed with or written for 17, and we have instances in the
parallel forms of ^KO> and TKCU, eVrj/SoXos and c7ri/3oAos. In fact
150 SOUNDS OF THE VOWELS.
Plato, Nigidius, Quintilian, Dionysitis of Halicarnassus, and
others so plainly indicate the pronunciation of t, that there
can be no dispute in regard to it.
EXAMPLES OF PRONUNCIATION.
s, iothnephes. *lov6os, ionthos.
ipos. C lir7rop,avr)s, ippomanes.
OS, ipn6s. 'iTTTro/xa^os, ippomdhos.
ipnios. 'iTrnonoXos ippopolos.
/js-, ippaste's. 'lmro8p6pt.ov, ippothromion.
lovXos, ioolos (pron. oo as in moon). 'iTrniicos,
iTTTTGO't/OtOS', ipptisiwiOS.
, ioplokamos. 'iTnroXotya, ippolopliia.
O and O
have nearly the same sound, and this sound is represented
by o in constant.
That we may accurately determine the original sound of w,
we must determine from what letter or letters o> has resulted.
Professor Mavrophedes remarks that w resulted*:
a') from oo, i. e. wvd/xa^ov, (o/xoo-a, etc. from 6ovo/xaov, 6)fJio<Ta.
[?) from d, just as o resulted from a : i. e. </>epw, Xeyw, etc.
from (frepa-fju, A.e'ya-/u; W/AO-?, Sanscr. dma-s / SwSe^a, Sanscr.
dvdda$CMl / TTTW^O-S (ver. Trra^-, TrraK-, TTTT^O-O-W) ; o>pa, Germ.
Jahr " /cat ei/ TO) eTripp^/AariKO) eTTi^e/xart S, OTrep e/< roO
pfTLKOV dt 7Tpofj\@V) i. 6. KaX(09, /CttKCOS, O~O<oJ5, TTttl/TOJ?,
7TWS, TW5, 0)9, etC.
y) from ao : n/>tcoyu,V, rt/xao/jtev ; ^pwvrat, xpaovrou, etc.
) from oa and 077 : atSw, euSoa J S^Xcore, $rjX6r)T.
f) from av : i. e. a>6i/ from at-tov (whence the modern Greek
av-yoV, ^y), wT-05 from au-ro? (whence the modern Greek av-
rtov, ear), 7rai\o9 (comp. TO, TraOpo? and paulus), ojAa, Doric rw
a^Xa^," etc.
Now we must infer from these examples, as well as from
the dialectic changes of o, w, and ov, such as in /coupos, orSpos
(Ionic), Ktopos, wpos (Doric), Kopo?, opos (Attic), and many
SOUNDS OF THE VOWELS. 151
others, that the letter w did not always have the sound of
long o as in hope, but on the contrary a shorter sound like o
in constant.
The different dialectic changes of <D, o, and ov, etc., such as
Koupo? and /xowos instead of Kopos and yuoi/os, are still common
in modern Greek. "We have, also, the forms rpayovSw for r/>a-
ywSw, rpayovSio-TT/s for TpuywSicrrrjs, etc.
EXAMPLES OF PRONUNCIATION.
"Ob?, ozos. '{}0r/u,os, othismos.
'O^O'OTO/ZOS, ozostomos. 'fl^eco, otf/ieo.
*Oap, oar. 'QS/s, o/m.
"Oapor, oahros. 'Q/ZTJOTT^, omestes.
ovelias. '%ioXti/oz/, omolinon.
s-, oymos. 'QXti/ir^y, olenites.
, othermah. ""O/iiXXa, 6millah.
othermos. 'Q/xta?, omias.
'Qdvprrjs, othertes. 'QXfo-iVapTroy, olesikarpos.
Y
is pronounced like the French , or like the English t in
machine, marine.
The most ancient pronunciation of v was certainly like
that of the German and Latin w, or like the diphthong 0w.
Afterwards it deteriorated into that of the German u, or the
French u, and at last it acquired the sound of i.
The old pronunciation of the letter v as the German u is
preserved in numberless modern Greek words, and it is
especially prevalent among the modern Athenians who pro-
nounce ra-vpa instead of Kvpa (Kvpia) ro-vXicrrpa = KtAiVrpa, etc".
In many instances, as Professor Mavroph redes states, the
original pronunciation of the letter v as ov still prevails, i. e.
\pOV(TOL(f>L XpV(T(i<f>lOV, KpOVO-TttXAoV = KpVVTaXoV, KOVpKOVTL =
KOJTOV (from Kvp/caw, KVKaoo), etc.
Again, the forms Spc'o?, Spvov (Hes. v Epy.), /xoXt/3o? and
\v/38u.ivai (IA. W, 80), rpv^oXaa (Horn.) instead of
152 SOUNDS OF THE VOWELS.
well as the words //.vorrtAAw and /ufrrv'AAw, /urvXo? and
lA. v(7(7(o and ruAttro-w, /SvfiXos and /Ji'ySAo?, PVTTTOJ and ptVrw,
0tov and i/a/x,i#iov, Trvo-Tcs and TTIO-TIS show how easily v was ex-
changed with t, and that the pronunciation of u as an t was
not unknown to the ancients. In Asia Minor the pronuncia-
tion of v as an i was still .more common, and about the sixth
century B. C. we find in "Sappho" and " Alcaeus" the forms
M/fos, i^Ao?, iTrep, iTrap, etc., instead offtyofy in/r^Aos, V7rcp, virap.
Now, the pronunciation of v as a long t, which was so com-
mon in Asia Minor, began at an early period to spread into
Greece, so that it became prevalent about the birth of Christ,
as is evident from the coins of Augustus (15 A. D.), of Tibe-
rius (37 A. D.), and Nero (69 A. D.), in which we find HPO-
KPITI A$POAY2IA2 instead of n/ao/cptrot 'A<poS7ias. Again,
'lovAia Se/Scurrov Hyarryp instead of vydrrjp ; IMP. NERO
Ca3sar Aug. P. M.; EYTHIMIYS (= Eu^tos), etc. Here we
may also remark the pronunciation of t and r) as an i.
EXAMPLES OF PRONUNCIATION.
"YX^, He. 'YoTrpwpoy, ioproros.
Yios, i-6s. 'Yo,3oo-Koy, iovoskos.
O?, i-etos. 'Y/jLvrjTrjpios, imneterios.
), ilakdo. 'YXoro/xos, ilotomos.
s, ietomantis.
CHAPTER III.
DIGRAPHS.
PROFESSOR MAVROPHREDES claims that originally they
were all diphthongs, each having resulted from two differ-
ent VOICES, but pronounced as " one syllable," except when-
ever they were purposely separated, i. e. oto/xat, oiw cv, ei5,
duo, cuwi/. The following vowels t and v had the position and
force of a consonant. On this supposition, he asserts, we
can easily explain the cutting off of t and v from eidv, atei', at-
KCU<D, TTOtew, 'AA/caics, dAr/$eta, C7rr/ceud(jo, cTrccrKevao-ev,
i?, yawiyxat, KpaiTrdAry, TroAvKAeiros, eiAwres, from which
resulted eav, dei, doT^r/Aos, /caw, Troew (Att.), "AA/cao?,
(.^Eol.), eTTtcTKed^a) (from 7novceFda>), AcarecrKeao-er/ (CK TOV
(TKFacrev), ea/xept? (e/c TOV cFa^ept?, RoSS insc. ined. 746), ydvv-
IJLO.L (from yaFi/v/xai, verb yav, yaF, Latin gaudeo), as well as
the Latin crapula, Polycletus, Helotes. In like manner from
//.e#ww, oTrvto), we have /xe$v<o, OTTVOD. In later years the sep-
arate vowels of the diphthongs were blended, so that they
came to be pronounced like the Latin or German : ce (a),
ce (o), and #, and finally became simple "monophthongs."
]]iit this change from "diphthongs" to "monophthongs"
prevailed even in the times of Homer, because we have
TroAArJfri, $6770-1, etc., instead of /cotAaio-i, TroAAatcr^,
etc. Furthermore in the Boeotian dialect we have
eve/oyeT?/?, ta/cart^?, ^ett?;?, Trs,
ypd^eo-^, SeSo^^T;, et^o?, Tavayp^o?, etc., instead
of tTTTroTCU, evepyerats, 8ta/cariai5, ^etAtat?, rat?, Karao-KCvdcro-af,
etc., in which examples we plainly see that the
154 DIGRAPHS.
diphthong at is no longer a-t, but has fallen into an 77 or e,
and in later years it naturally acquired the sound of epsilon.
About the third century B. C. diphthongs had entirely be-
come monophthongs, just as they are to-day with the modern
Greeks. We will now proceed to examine each DIPHTHONG
separately.
CHAPTEE IV.
SOUNDS OF THE DIPHTHONGS.
M
is pronounced precisely like an epsilon, or like the English e
in the first syllable of example.
1) That at was pronounced by the ancients like an e is
evident from the fact that many words which are ordinarily
written with cu, in some cases for the sake of brevity, are
written with e, e. g. auopos (Plato) = ewpos, in II. #, 26 :
" A.r)aai/j.r]v, ra S K' ai/re p,TT|Opa TrdvTa yevotro " ;
in like manner we have aio'AAw, atoAo?, in Homer and Pindar,
for e'oAAu), eoAew. See also Homer's " Iliad " /?, 749 :
" T J d"]i>irjves ZTTOVTO /jLeveirToXe/Aoi re IIepcu/3oi,"
where 'En^ves stands for Aiviave?. Again, we have <aiviVSa
for <ej/iVSa, cf>aLi>6\'r}<; and </)evtoA.77s, i/^e/ca? and i/^atKa?, dvcoyatov
and dvwyeoi', Tt^opata and Tt^opea (an old name of a city in
Bceotia), XevKaua and A.VKea, aKTttta and d/crea, etc.
2) In prosody at at the end of a word is short, also in
scansion before a vowel. In such cases it could not have
been sounded as a diphthong.
3) The translators of the Old Testament (280 B. C.) al-
ways render the long e of the Hebrews (tzere) by at, i. e.
Bat^X = Jletkel, Gen. xii.; at/xai/ = Theman, Gen. xxxvi. 11;
XatXwi/ = Chelon, Num. i. 9; Ati/dV = Enan, Num. i. 15; AtAet/x
= Elim, Exod. xvi. 1 ; etc.
4) The poet Callimachus (250 B. C.) in one of his epi-
156 SOUNDS OF THE DIPHTHONGS.
grams distinctly represents the echo in v-a^i answering by
), avye vai\i /caXos, /caXos dXXa irpiv eli
TOVTO ffa<pu/s, TJ
5) Inscriptions of the second century B. C. bear KC 7reoi/ra5,
7reoi/Ta>i/, Kara/are, instead of KOL Trat^oi/Ttt?, Trai^ovTOJj/, KaraKetrat.
6) Dionysius of Halicarnassus (30 B. C.) translates the
Latin Prcenestini by IIpej/eo-T^i/ot, and Strabo renders the
same by npatveorti/ot.
7) In the Syriac translation of the Gospels at is rendered
by the long Syriac e in the words Kaicrapeta, npamopiov, 'Y//,e-
vato?, etc.
8) On some coins of Nero, 69 A. D. (Occo. p. 13), we find
IIoTrTrEa instead of IIoTrTrata.
9) at is rendered by ce in the Latin, i. e. cegilops = atytAco^,
cegithus = alytOo^ cegophtalmus = atyo^^aX/xo?, celurus - a.1-
Xovpos, cenigma = au/tyyua, balcena <aA.atVa, hycena vawa.
10) In Greek inscriptions belonging to the Roman period
we find representing at and vice versa.
11) Plutarch indicated the true pronunciation of at by
rendering the Latin fenestra by the Greek <a/rrpa, Fenes-
tella = 3>a/o-T'AA.a(s).
12) Finally, Sextus (190 A.D.) distinctly asserts that the
sound at and ct "is simple and uniform": "'ETTCI ovv 6 TOV at
Kat ci <$oyyo? airXovs etrrt /cat /xovoet8>Js." So also in Sanscrit
we have veda = vaida, ve$as = vai$as, bharate = bharatai -
^epcrat. In French ai is pronounced as an e, e. g. mais,
Franqais, Anglais, etc.
EXAMPLES OF PRONUNCIATION.
Am<o, edzo. Alicifa, ekizo.
Alavfjs, eane's. Ai'Xii/oy, e'linos.
Aipeo-i?, eresis. Ai'0o>, etho.
AiaKtSr;s, eakUhis. AWovo-a, ethoosa.
At8c'o/iai, ethe'ome. AiQioTris, ethiopis.
, ethe'mon.
SOUNDS OF THE DIPHTHONGS. 157
is pronounced like of or av according to the letter which
follows it. If it is followed by 6, , <r, T, then this digraph is
sounded like af '; but before y, 8, A, v, p, and before vowels
and other digraphs it is pronounced like av.
1) That the pronunciation of the diphthongs av, ev, and or,
in use by the modern Greeks, was the original pronunciation
of the ancient Greeks is evident from the fact that the v of
these diphthongs in many instances resulted from F (v), or
rather it occupies in many instances the place of F (v) ; e. g.
avo>s (^Eol. fas) instead of avo-co?, from the root aFs or Fas;
/caieiv, Aa/xTreiv, avo? (dry) have in like manner resulted from
the same root. A modern Greek scholar gives also /cAavVoo =
KAaFtrto, vavos (^Eol.) = raFos, vaos; avros = aFros. The same
word is also found in an inscription on the Island of Delos,
O.FUTOS. Travpos (Lat. parvus) from TrapFo? = TraFpos. In the*
"Iliad" (77, 86) we have ^evoxrtv (the aorist subj. of
X eva X e ^ at = X e/F(Jt) ' ^X eFa ' X^ Fat ' evKi^Xos = F>oyXo9
(from the root vaK, Fa/c, whence Professor Mavrophredes says
We get e/cwi/, aFeicwi/, e/c^ri, dFcM^rc, ?yKa, ^/cicrro?, etc. ; ev^o/jiaL =
F^o/x,at = Fexo/xat ; i!/>o9 = tFpos, from the root Fa (Fa), whence
we have also avpa and ovpos, as well as ovptog.
Again, we have ftovXr) (^Eol. j36X.\a) from the ancient /3oXFa
= /3oFA.a, Sovpo?, yowo? from SopFos = SoFpos ; yovFos = yoFi/os ;
ovAos (= oAos) from oAFos = oFAo? (Sanscr. sarva-s]\
(^ocros) from vocrFo? = voFaros 5 Kovpos and Kovprj (Ionic) = Ko
/cop>7 from KopFos, KOpFr; = KoFpo?, KoFprj, etc.
2) The Latin language renders the diphthongs av and
by the monosyllables av and ew, i. e. cavneas =
(Aava>) ; favo = <avw
ptvo? (^a^wptj/o?, Plutarch) ; Travpo?, by transposition parvus
(and by another transposition pravus). Oekonomos gives
also evoi, evdV = evoe, eva^, evax; E&os, Emus ;
158 SOUNDS OF THE DIPHTHONGS.
Evander ; Sev^pos, 2e/%>os, Severus ; Aavo?, Davus (Plant.,
Yirg., Ovid).
3) The translators of the Old Testament about the third
century B. C. render the Hebrew vav sometimes by (3, some-
times by v, e. g. Aa/2tS and AaviS, ACVTJ = X/evi. And, vice
versa, the v of av and cv the Syriac translator of the New
Testament (about the first century A. D.) renders by vav.
Furthermore, many biblical names, such as Eva, AaviS, Evay-
yeAiov, EvoSt'a, etc. are rendered in Latin Eva, David, Evan-
gelium, Evodia, etc.
4) Cicero writes (Divin. 11, 40) : " Cum M. Crassus exer-
citum JSrundisii imponeret, quidam in portu caricas Cauno
advectas vendens, CAUNEAS clamitabat. Dicamus, si placet,
monitum db eo Crassum, caveret, ne iret : non fuisse peri-
turum, si omini paruisset" Comp. Pliny (Hist. Nat. XV.,
19). Professor Mavrophredes says: "A^Xov, on TO ovopa Cau-
neas (e. g. Kaweias icr^aSas) ev ir) MeyaAr/ 'EXXaSt 6/xo^>^oyyws TTJ
<f>pdo-L CAV(E)NEEAS ^ow w? /ca/co? oluvos e^eA,^^."
The followers of Erasmus to sustain their pronunciation of
av bring forward that line of Aristophanes written to rep-
resent the barking of dogs. Now, it is curious to consider
that the followers of Erasmus always call the sounds of ani-
mals to decide any points of Greek pronunciation. For in-
stance, when they wish to settle the sound of (3, they bring
the well-known lines of Cratinus written to represent the
bleating of the sheep ; when they would fix the sound of ot,
they bring that line of Aristophanes written to represent the
grunting of hogs ; and now, between the hogs and the sheep,
they let loose the dogs to decide by their barking the sound
of av. To what a degradation the followers of Erasmus have
brought the divine language of Plato !
EXAMPLES OF PRONUNCIATION.
Before 0.
Av6evTT)s, afthe'ntis. Av^/zfpo?, afthe'meros. At'&S/^s-, afthepsis.
SOUNDS OF THE DIPHTHONGS.
159
Before .
vgdvai, afxdno. Avgirpocpos, afxitrophos. Avgopeioxris, afxomiosis.
Before or.
O, afsteria. Ava-rrjpos, afsteros.
Before r.
, qftdrhis.
Before y.
Before 8.
, avthdzome.
Before X.
Av\ovp6s, avlourds.
Before p.
, avrizo.
Before Vowels.
avereo.
errjs, afteretis.
Avyovaros, dvgoostos.
AuSara, avfhdta.
Ai/AwS/a, avlothia.
Avpipdrrjs, avrivdtes.
6s, avilds.
easy afstale'os.
AvrdpeaKos, aftdreskos.
Avyf], avge.
Avdfj, avthe.
AiiXos, avl6s.
Avpiov, dvrion.
Avevuav, avenion.
EY
is likewise pronounced like e/or ev. Before ^, K, f, TT, tr, T, <,
^, I/A this diphthong is sounded like ef. Before y, S, 4> ^i f- *
p, and before vowels and diphthongs, it is pronounced like ev.
Concerning the antiquity and genuineness of this pronuncia-
tion we spoke in detail when treating of the diphthong av.
EXAMPLES OF PRONUNCIATION.
Before 0.
Ev6d\a}jLos, efthdlamos. EvOdXavaos, efthdlassos. Ev0a\7rys, eftlialpis.
Before K.
efkdrthios. EvKardyvoxj-ros, efkatdgnostos.
, efkatdstatos.
Before Diphthongs.
aveno.
160 SOUNDS OF THE DIPHTHONGS.
Before .
Evevoy, efxenos. Eveoroy, efxestos. Evgrjpavros, efxirandos.
Before or.
EwfTrXoy, efpeplos. EvnevOfpos, efpentheros. E>7r7rroy, efpeptos.
Before <r.
fis, efstatUs. EvoraXqy, efstalis. EiW^avoy, efstephanos.
Before T.
fjs, efstraphis. Evrperrros, eftreptos. Ei/rp^Toy, eftritos.
Before |).
v^pow;, e/rtfm. Ev^wi/oy, ejfowos. E^^wparoy, e/6ratos.
Before x-
efhdlkotos. E^apty, efharis. Ev^apio-r/a, efharistia.
Before x|/.
s, efpsdmathos. Etyrjtys, efpsiphis.
Before -y-
Ewye, ev^fg. EvyXjyi/os, evglenos. EvyaQfa evgathis.
Before 8.
EvSta, evtMa. Evfiia/Saros, evthidvatos. EvSiaftdhos, evthidvolos.
Before
E^Xoy, evzelos. Ev^copoy, evzoros. Evfavos, e'vzonos.
Before X.
Ev\ip.vos, evlimenos. Et/Xoytoroy, evlogistos. EuXoyoy, evlogos.
Before |*.
Evpfyedrjs, evmeye'this. EfyieWrqy, evmene'tis. Ev/xe'Xai/oy, evmelanos.
Before v.
evnia. Evvis, e'vnis. Etfi^/ia, evnema.
Before p.
Evpercoy, evreteos. Evpeo-tre^i/oy, evresUechnos. Evprjpa, evrema.
Before Vowels and Diphthongs.
E#a#Xoy, evathlos. Euaepoy, evderos. EvaSe, evathe.
EvaifjLuv, evemon. Evaio-drja-ia, evesthesia. Eva/a^i/roy, evesthetos.
SOUNDS OF THE DIPHTHONGS. 161
HV
has the sound of if before 0, K, , w, er, r, <, x> & and 10 before
y, 8, , A, /*, v, p and before vowels and diphthongs. That yv
and <ov were originally pronounced exactly as they are to-day
by the modern Greeks is evident from the fact that yv and
<ov are simply the Ionic forms of av and cv : yp^s, vrjvs, owros
Owvjjia (Ion.) = ypavs, vaus, avros dav^a, etc. It is, therefore,
evident that the pronunciation of yv and o>v closely resembled
that of av, and ev.
EXAMPLES OF PRONUNCIATION.
s. NT/Cff, nefs.
is pronounced like of before 0, K, , w, o-, r, <^>, x ? ^ and like ow
before y, 8, & A, /x, v, p, also before vowels and diphthongs.
YI and YH
are pronounced exactly like the modern Greek t or like the
English i in machine. Homer almost always makes the vt in
the word vtos a short syllable, e. g. II. & 130 ; 8, 473 ; 77, 47 ;
p, 575. Again, the correctness of the modern Greek pronun-
ciation of these vowel-combinations is supported by the two
forms of the words //.0vo> and OTTVW, which are also written
/xeflvajo, oTTutw. Professor Mavrophredes asserts that this can-
not be otherwise explained than by the assumption that the
words pcOviia, oTn/tw, mo? originally were pronounced yae^'w,
oTTijw, t>jos; afterwards the j (i) was cut out, especially be-
tween two vowels. We have many instances of this, and
to this day the modern Greeks pronounce //.vya = /w;"a, mea.
Finally, in old inscriptions, as well as on coins, the noun vto?
is very often written vos, from which it becomes evident that
VL - V = I.
EXAMPLES OF PRONUNCIATION.
Yios, e6s. 'Y^rroy, etos.
162 SOUNDS OF THE DIPHTHONGS.
OY
is pronounced exactly like the French ou or like the English
oo in the word moon.
The diphthong ov was originally a monophthong, as it is
to this day with the modern Greeks, and was pronounced in
some dialects like an o or like the Latin u. This is evident
from the fact that in the sixth, seventh, and eighth centuries
B. C. the ^Eolians used to render ov simply by an o. Again,
we have many instances in which ov is rendered in different
dialects by an v, e. g. Kovpt'8tos (Homeric) = Kvpt'Stos = Kvptos ;
KOvpwOfiCL = KvpwOf) ) ov8(Dp = vSoop ; avovXto. = dcrvA.ta.
Again, the Latin and Semitic u is invariably rendered in
Greek by ov, e. g. 'lovSas, 'IovS<uos, etc. ; 'lovVto?, Bpovros, ^c-
TOS, 'lov'Atos. Finally, the fact that ov is never written sep-
arated into two sounds (ov), as we occasionally find ai), ev, a,
ot, etc., is a proof, Professor Mavrophredes believes, that ov
was a monophthong even in the pre-historic period of the
Greek language.
EXAMPLES OF PRONUNCIATION.
, oosia. Ov&Trorf, oothe'pote.
sj ooteros. Oudere/jwy, ootheteros.
ootesis.
01
is pronounced like oe in ceconomy, or like an English e.
Oekonomos thinks that it was sounded in some dialects as
ov = u Italian or like the Latin ce, and in some as the French
u passing into i. This is highly probable from the fact that
the JEolians used ot instead of et, e. g. oVoi/oo?, oVetpos.
1) The Latin language renders ot by ce, e. g. (Eta = Otra,
Croesus = Kpoto-o?, CEnops = Olvoi]/, GEdipus - OtStVov?, (Eneus
= Oti/ev?. Professor Mavrophredes says that the diphthong
ce was at an early period pronounced among the ancient Ro-
mans just as the German o, and consequently 02 became, or
SOUNDS OF THE DIPHTHONGS. 163
passed into an CB = yj (e). This is highly probable from the
fact that Quintilian says : " CE scribendum esse non prqfe-
rendum, omnes edocent"
2) The Alexandrian, the Copt, and the Latin translators
of the Bible from the third century B. C. to the third cen-
tury A. D. always render the Hebrew o by means of the
Greek ot, and, vice versa, they render ot by means of o (ce).
Now, that oc had also the sound of v, which is still prevalent
among the modern Greeks is highly probable from the state-
ment of Thlicyd., B. 54: "'Ei/ ru>Se TW /cat/ow ota etKo's, avpvr r
o-&r]<rav KOL rovSe rov CTTOVS <j>d(TKOVT<; ot 7rp<rj3vTepoi aSeo-$ai.
'"Hei 5w/jta/c6s iroXefnos Kai Xotp-bs #/* avrtj),'
eycVero fj^kv ow epi? rots di/^pwTrots /AT) AOI/AW a>vo/x,ao-$at ev rw tTret
VTTO TWV TraXatwv, aAAa Xijidv ei/c/cryo-e 8e eTTt roO Trapwros XOL/JLOV
ftpqtrOau" So that it becomes evident that there existed be-
tween Act/no? and At/^os a SAMENESS of sound, and not an
" identity of meaning." Now, of all sounds the one which
has a closer resemblance to t, or rather an identity of sound
with it, is v, judging also from the fact that Demosthenes
(fourth century B. C.) writes 'AvejaiVas instead of 'Avt/xo/ras,
and from many other examples which we noticed when treat-
ing of the letter v we must infer that the letter v in several
dialects was written instead of ot, and hence it is evident
that it was equal to ot or t (ot = v = t). Again, that ot at an
early period had exactly the sound of a simple t is evident
from the fact that about the first century B. C. we find writ-
ten on a coin of Julius Caesar, IQNI2TH2 for OIQNI2TH2.
Again, on another coin of Augustus we find ZIPOKPITI for
HPOKPITOI.
AtW 6 Kao-o-tos relates that Nero (60 A. D.) killed two
^OvX.7TLKLOV<S " OTt irOlT]TlKOl fK TTpOJOVdiV tTTLKaXoVfJieVOl OVK 67TCW-
O-O.I/TO TrpocrprjiJia rovr e^ovres, dAX' et? TO.? rov Nepwvos vtKas ras
iro0iK<xs e/c r>}? o/Maw/Ma? ^o-e^ow." Now, we plainly see ot = v,
7j = t; also that oirj = m - v = t, because confessedly v in that
period was pronounced as t. About the second century A. D.
164 SOUNDS OF THE DIPHTHONGS.
on some coins of " 'AvrawVov rov Tliov " the word et/coo-Tov is
four times written ot, and the noun 'Avroovtvos four times is
found written by et (ANTONEINO2), hence it results that
ot = et = t, etc.
Now, that L subscriptum of the a, #, a> was always silent is
evident from the statement of Strabo (about the birth of
Christ) : u IIoAAot ^oopis rov t ypcu^oixrt ras SoTt/cas /cat e/c/^aA-
XOVO-L ye TO e$os <frvo~iK.r}v airiav OVK ex ol/ '" m which the " <ucrt/cr/i/
airtav OVK e^oi/" simply means that it was unpronounced.
Again, that the t subscriptum, long before Strabo, was silent
we may conclude from the way the ancient Romans rendered
the words tragcedus, comcedus, citharcedus, ode^ rapsodus^
prosodia, palinodia, herons, patrons, in which the simple
sound of o is equivalent to the Greek w.
EXAMPLES OF PRONUNCIATION.
, wkathe. QtKeioTrpayia, cekeopragia. Oi/cos, cckos.
E,
is pronounced like the English i in the words machine,
marine. That there was a time in which CL was pronounced
as e-t, appears from the statement of Plato, Cratyl. 402, e :
" Toi/ ovv ap\ovTa r^5 8wa/x,ea>s Tavrrjs Oeov wvo/>iao-e Iloo-eiSwva, ws
iroo-C-8-o-|i.ov oi/ra, TO 8e e eyKetTat to-tos cvTrpeTreias ei/e/ca."
However, the et at a very early period passed into the pro-
nunciation of a simple e, judging from the fact that et was
rendered by * in the Latin language, e. g. Nilns = NetXo?,
crocodilns = K/oo/coSetAos, Epaminondas - 'E7ro,/xetvoSv8a5, Chi-
rotonia = XetpoTovta, spira - o-7retpa, ironia = etpw^eta, elegia -
eXeyeta, litania = AtTavei'a. In a Latin author we find : " I
quoqne apnd antiques post E pronebatnr, et El diphthongum
fo.ciebat, quani pro omni I longa scribebant, more antiquo
Grcecornm" Again, that et had the same sound as t, even
among the ancient Romans, is rendered highly probable from
the fact that in the very best period of the Latin language
SOUNDS OF THE DIPHTHONGS. 165
i was substituted for ei. Thus we have idus, primus, etc.,
the older forms being eidus, preimus, etc. The ancient
Greeks, on the other hand, often rendered the i of the Latins
by ct, e. g. Plutarch translates the words idus, idibus by
eiSovs, ei8ots (older form eidus). The very ancient identity of
the sound of et as a simple i is established from the fact that
we find in Homer eiScbs, ei8ma (II. p, 5 ; t, 128 ; fa 263 ; Od. a,
428, etc.), as well as 28vZd (II. <r, 380, 482 ; v, 12 ; Od. ^ 92,
etc.), t short. We have t8vios, "Svoe, as well as e'Suot. Again,
we find the forms et/ceXos and t/ceXos, yetVo/xai (II. K) and yiW
^u-at, Aet^ci) and At^co, epet'/oy and fpiKrj) <7Ti/5os and crn'/Jos, 8eto>
and Siw, Trei&o and TU^W, <#etp and ^>^lp, and so on.
Plamoudes relates that ^Esop (572 B. C.) pronounced crei
just as o-v (v = t).
Aristophanes (450 B. C.) has a pun in Sicwi-ai/a/Aes (Boeotian,
instead of SiaTreivw/xei/) and 810,73- u/o/z/. In Diogenes Laertius
we find another pun on dAA.' t/xartov and aAet/A/xartoi/ : " 'I8wv
fjieipaKvXXiov t/xaTtOKAeTrrryv ev TW y^aAavcto) l^ry, 'cV aX^i^aTiov fj
err a\\o t/xartov;" J
The translators of the Old Testament rendered the Hebrew
dim by the Greek atAeiJu,, and in several other old Greek pas-
sages we find TrpwTOTOKta and Trpcororo/feta, TrapayetWrai and
TrapaytVercu, ap<rets and aptrt?, vct/co? and VIKO?. Dionysius
of Halicarnassus clearly regards not only et but also at and
av and 01 "as undivided syllables," or, in other words, con-
siders them as simple monophthongs. Strabo renders by et
the Latin *, e. g. Ligeris, Aetpry? (XcnVe), Liris, Aetpts. The
Syriac translator of the Gospels renders a by t, e. g. iki =
In the New Testament we find erm and evri, vTJo-rets and
VCLKOS and VIKOS, etc.
The writer Athena3us says of the Attic courtesan Thais
(third century B. C.) : ats Trpo? ypao-wva
C7T6 TtS O.VT'TJV rjpOJTO, TTOL 7TOp7;Tat,
Thais, whilst saying Atyet meant atyt (= ypao-wvt); the pun is
166 ' SOUNDS OF THE DIPHTHONGS.
in the similarity of sound between a and t, as Eustathius
says (Bas., p. 367). Plutarch translates the Latin i by a, e. g.
Lusitania, Avcrmxveia ; Honor i/^Qvupti, Pinarii, Ileii/apioi.
On a papyrus (-n-a/aa Latronne) Fragments inedis d'an-
ciens poetes Grecs, tires d"*un papyrus appartenant au
musee royal, Paris, 1841 we find at times "eVi</>" and at
others the same word written "eVei</>," thus demonstrating
the similarity of sound between ei and t. Cicero (Epist. ad
Familiares, IX. 22) says : " Cum loquimur TERNI nihil flagi-
tii dicimus ? ' ad cum BINI obscenum est, greeds quidem
inquies. Nihil est ergo in verbo / quando et ego grcece
scio, et tamen tibi dico, RINI, idque tufacis, quasi ego grcece
non latine dixerim" Hence it is evident that /3iW had the
same sound as bini. Nigidius says : " Grcecos non tantce in-
scitice arcesso qui OY ex O et Y scripserunt, quantce qui EI
ex E et I ; illud enim inopia facerunt, hoc nulla re coacti."
Finally, on coins and inscriptions words have been found
written with , which are also written with t, i. e. TPIHOAEI-
TON, ETEIMH2EN, NEIKH, ArPinHEINA^, TEIMHTH2,
2ABEIN02, AOrrEINA, NEIKO2TPATOS, XEAEIAONI^,
NEIKOIIOAEITON, etc. Notice also the Boeotian forms
dveyeipt, XaXt?, etc^ instead of di/cyetpa, AaXets, etc.
EXAMPLES OF PRONUNCIATION,
ty, eameni. Elpaweia, eronia. EipKTrj, erkte.
L I B R A K Y
UNIVERSITY OF
CALIFORNIA.
CHAPTER V.
THE CONSONANTS.
B
is pronounced like v in vase. The followers of Erasmus
maintain that the letter ft was, origin ally pronounced like the
Latin b. They claim that the ancient Romans rendered the
ft of the Greek words not by v, but by b. Again, they quote
that verse of the Comedian Cratinus,
in which (they say) it is evident that Cratinus and his fellow-
citizens, the Athenians, pronounced the ft as a #, and rj as an e,
because the sheep in bleating say not /ft} (according to the
pronunciation now prevalent in Greece), but bee, be. They
claim also that Cicero wrote in one of his letters that the
Greek fiivei has the same sound as the Latin bini. These
seem to me to be the only reasons which the followers of
Erasmus bring to sustain their pronunciation of the letter ft.
Now, the ancient Romans represented the ft of many Greek
words like their own v. Oekonomos brings the following
examples: /2e'Aco, ft6\w, volo ; /?6o>, /?to>, /JtFco, vivo; y?tora,
vita; ftopw, ftopos, voro; ft6pa, vorax; /iWvw, venio (per-
haps this is derived from /?e'o>, whence we have /3eto/>tat =
/Saw, /?aiW>, /5evco) ; /?aSo>, Vddo / ftia (/?is, Fie, ??), VIS / i/ii/r
vi/?o?, nix nivis ; etc. The ancient Greeks used also to ren-
der the v of the Latins by /?, for instance : Valentianus, Ba-
Severus, 2e/3r}po5; Octavius, *OKray8tos; Veturius,
; Aventini, 'A/Sej/r^ot (Plutarch). In a few instances
168 THE CONSONANTS.
the v was rendered in Greek by ov; for instance, Varro =
Bappwv or OvdppiDv (this latter peculiarity is for the sake of
euphony, Ovappwv being more euphonic than Bappon/).
From what has been said it appears probable that in the
old Latin tongue (which may be termed either the daughter
or the sister of the .^Eolic dialect), so long as the pronuncia-
tion of the emigrant ^Eolians remained unaltered, so long the
letter b was pronounced exactly as the modern Greeks pro-
nounce their /?. But afterwards, the Latin language being
adopted by the other tribes of Italy, tribes which were
barbarous and hence unacquainted with Grecian phraseology,
the pronunciation became rather harsh and rough, as their
manner of speaking, and hence among them the Greek J3
gradually degenerated into the sound of b. To this reason,
as a modern Greek states, must be attributed the fact of the
use of b instead of v, as is often seen in ancient inscriptions,
i. e. bixit instead of vixit, serbus instead of servus, amabile
and benemeritus instead of amavile and venemeritus. In
one of the laws of Numa which has been preserved by, Fes-
tus we read Jobis instead of Joms. Traces of the pronun-
ciation of ft are to be found in the Spanish language, i. e.
vene, vestia, for bene, bestia; and in French, especially among
the so-called Gascons. But Jacob Creatin, one of the most
devoted followers of Erasmus, in his "De Sono Literarum
Gragcorum" admits that the ancient pronunciation of (3 was
not so "ei/Tovos Kat fiofjiprjpa " as the present.
Liddell and Scott likewise admit that the pronunciation
was softer than our #, like the Spanish or modern Greek for
instance. As for Cicero's statement, no one can assure us
that the letter b had in his time exactly the pronunciation
now prevalent among the followers of Erasmus. Again, it is
probable that Cicero wished simply to show the similarity
which exists between these two words, as respects the length
of the syllables (in pronouncing). And, as a scholar affirms,
these two words were not pronounced by Cicero in a speech,
THE CONSONANTS. 169
but simply written in a letter, whence it may result that
Cicero wished simply to show the analogy in writing which
exists between these two words, rather than their sound or
pronunciation. As for the
"'05' TjXidios &<rirep irp6(3aroi>, 77 fir) Xtyw padifa,"
it is evident that Cratiims used it because he had no other
letter by which he could express the sound made by a sheep.
For the same reason Aristophanes, when he would represent
the noise made by pigs, wrote KOI, KOI (instead of got, goi\
because the Greek language has no letter so harsh in sound
as #. And when Aristophanes would represent the croaking
o^he frogs, he wrote /?peKe*e. Do the frogs ever say vreJcJce-
keksf Or, when he would represent the cackling of hens, he
wrote Tiri/co/xTTpou. Do the hens make such a sound ? There-
fore it seems to me that it is absurd to attempt to determine
the sound of ft by a word used to represent the bleating of
sheep. For we must confess that the attempts to render the
noises of animals by the articulate sounds of " /xepoVan/ dv#pw-
TTOH/" are very unsatisfactory.
Now, if we consider that the name of F (vau) was written
in Greek fiav, that the Hebrew bau was rendered in the noun
Aa/3tS by ft that Strabo (p. 213, c) renders the Latin Novum
Comum, NO^OV/XKO/XOV/X, and that about the year 69 A. D. a
coin of Nero bears the inscription OKTABIA 2EBA2TH,
the genuineness of the pronunciation of /? as veta is proved
beyond question.
Finally, as a modern Greek says, the nature of the most
sweetly sounding of all languages by no means admits the
harsh sound of (3. Just pronounce according to the Erasmian
method the words /3ow, /3SaAAei, /3Se'AAa, ^ov/?ptoo-rti/,
j3pa<f>a, and you will acknowledge that the 'Grecian Minerva
would never have accustomed her lips to such awkward atti-
tudes when she would not learn to play on the flute because
it compelled her to inflate her cheeks so ungracefully. The
170 THE CONSONANTS.
reason why so many students are unable to discover the mel-
ody so characteristic of the Greek pronunciation is to be
attributed simply to the Erasmian system of pronunciation.
What melody can there be in pronouncing "bebrabeumenos"
or the word ^eySoo-rpv^w/xeVos (bebostruchomenos) ?
EXAMPLES OF PRONUNCIATION".
s, vekeselenos. BXa/3?y, vldvi.
Bt/3Xioypa0os, vevleogrdphos. BXuoroy, vlastos.
Bt/SXiz/os-, vevlenos. BXao-(p/7/xia, vlasphemia.
BXao-rai/co, vlastdno. BXaa-^/ioy, vldsplumos.
BXaa>, vldzo. BXav/riy, vldpsis.
BXaTrrco, vldpto. Bios, vios.
BXa/3d*, vldvos. BaXcra/zoi/, vdlsamon.
T
before a, o, <o, av, ov has nearly the same sound of ghdh, but
softer and more guttural than the ga of the Western nations.
Before e, v, t, v, ev, ot, y is pronounced like y, and when fol-
lowed by another y, or by *, ^, or ^, it takes the sound of v.
That the letter y was a guttural soft semivowel is evident
from the fact that Homer has y as an aspirate before some
words, as ala for yaia; also in other Greek words, as twos
(ennos) for yiWos (yenos}. In modern Greek we get Aew (Je'o)
for Xeyo) (Ugho), -rrpa^a (prdhma) for Trpay/x-a (pragmah).
Professor Gandel remarks that many words in the Septua-
gint, especially such words as Taa and To/xoppa, prove almost
to a demonstration that the present pronunciation of y by the
modern Greeks must have prevailed in the time of the trans-
lators of the Septuaginty
We said that y, when followed by another y, *, or x takes
the sound of v. This is evident from the way in which the
Romans used to write such Greek words, i. e. ayyeAos, angelus.
Again, in very old inscriptions we find that the Greeks were
wont to write y before K, whilst the Romans express the
sound of the letter y by v, i. e. in a very old coin the city
ZATKAH is written in Latin ZANKLE'
THE CONSONANTS. 171
in, in very old MS. we see that the Greeks were wont
to write y instead of v before y, K, , and ^ not only in syn-
thesis, but also " ev 7rapa$m," i. 6. KaXoy K* aya$ov, instead
of /coAov K' ayaBov ; ey xP v > instead of iv xPv > e 'y fa/ao?, in-
stead of ei/ /capo? (eV /capos aio^, Homer), whence resulted the
synthetic noun ey/cap, ey/capos (just as the old grammarians
were wont to read this Homeric passage). Now, many of
the followers of Erasmus blame the Greek grammarians
because they said that the letter v before y, *, and is
changed in the synthetic words into y. " What is the use,"
they say, " of changing v into a y and then pronouncing it
like v? Must not the v always remain a v?" We say, No!
" Sia rrjv (according to Aristotle) 0,77877 rwv <f>06yy<j>v TrpoafioXriv"
Finally, the forms yepaKapatas and yepa/ov = tepa/capea? and
tepaKwi/, and others we might enumerate show that the letter
y ought never to be sounded like the hard y of the English.
EXAMPLES OF PRONUNCIATION.
FaXttKTOTToo-ia, glialaldoposiali.
FaXarm, ghalateah. F^aXe'oy, yethaleos.
FaXaKTooo-ts-, ghaldktosis. FeC/xa, yevmah.
Twos, ghonos. Tfixris, ye/sis.
TovoKToveco, ghonoktone'oh. TVO-TIKOS, yefstikos.
Fo/x^oy, gomphos. Felcroi/, ye'son.
/to, ghoneah. Feiroi/ia, yetoniah.
0$-, gholeos. Foi, i/ee.
os, ghoniasmos. "Ayyapos, dhngharos.
Fai)po9, gdvros. 'Ayyetoi/, ahngheon.
Favpa^, gMvrax. y Ayye\ia, ahnghelia.
Tav\6s, ghavlos. 'AynvXos, ahnghelos.
Fowos, ghoun6s. *AyKvpa, dhnglierah.
Fovi/ara, ghotinatah. 'AyicuXo/ccoXoy, ahnghelokolos.
rowoTraxys, ghounopahes. "Ay^is, dhnxis.
Twos, yenos. 'Ay^tro/coy, ahnchitokos.
;, yentiane. 'Ay^or;, ahnchoe.
i, yenemah. 'Ay^oi//;, ahnch6ne.
Trjdtov, yethion. 'Ay^oraros, ahnchotatos.
172 THE CONSONANTS.
is pronounced like th in this, that. The use of 0-8, 88, 8, in-
stead of , as in Ko>/x/xa88ctv, Xa88otro, /x,oi;cri88et (= /xv^t^ct), TrAa-
yiaSSovre?, </>atpi'8Se/ (o-<aipietv), /xa88av, xprySSerai, etc.; 28evs
(Zcvs), crSuyos, crSeuyAa, o<r8os, Kw/xa(r8(0, </>poi/TtcrSa>, ovo/x,u(r8u>,
ct/cao-8w, etc. ; 8vw, 8v/xov, AU9, etc., which forms were in
use among many tribes of ancient Greece, such as the Spar-
tans, the Megarians, the Boeotians, as well as the ^Eolians
and Dorians, proves most conclusively that the pronuncia-
tion of 8 used by the modern Greeks was prevalent among the
tribes we have enumerated, long before the time of Alexander.
As had a "hissing sound" (o-vpwrriKos), its dialectic substi-
tute 8 should have a similar sound (6//,oio'<0oyyos) ; but if 8
were pronounced as a d, it could never be interchanged with .
But we cannot agree with Oekonomos that the pronunciation
of 8, as pronounced by the modern Greeks, was prevalent
" throughout Greece," in the very acme of the Hellenic lan-
guage. On the contrary, we have reason to believe that this
soft (douce\ so to speak, pronunciation of 8 was simply dia-
lectic and not general. There are many words in modern
Greek, in which 8 sounds exactly as a d, from which it seems
to us that originally the pronunciation of 8 as a d was not
uncommon among the ancient Greeks. For instance :
Aei>8poi>, pronounced the'ndron.
"Avdpas, " dndras.
*Av8pos, " dndros.
" andriotes.
" andriomenos.
Now, whenever the letter 8 is preceded by a v, the modern
Greeks pronounce it as a c?; in every other case it has its soft
soundly The different changes of the letter 8 into various
consonants are still prevalent in modern Greek. In ancient
Greek we get the forms o-av8aXov changed into o-a/xy&xAov,
for o/3cA.ds, Aci>s for Zeus, dpt^Xos for dpufyAos, 8e'A.oo for
THE CONSONANTS. 173
0e'A.(o, 77800 for yrj#co, etc. In modern Greek we get ,opKaSiov for
SopKaSiov, yie/oos for Siepds, etc.
EXAMPLES OF PRONUNpIATION.
In giving these examples we thought that it might be of
interest to the scholar to give a few words peculiar to the
conversational style of the Greeks. Now, it must not be sup-
posed that these words or forms are in common use in the
language of literature and of educated men. The cultivated
language for the most part, as Geldart affirms, preserves the
grammatical forms of the age of Thucydides, avoiding most
of the innovations of the later Attic dialect, as, for instance,
OaXarra for Od\ao-(ra, or Xeppovr/<ros for Xepo-dvr/cros. The scholar
familiar with classical Greek, by using the modern Greek pro-
nunciation and observing the following peculiarities chiefly
noticed in the language of the common people, will find him-
self able to converse easily with those to whom the Greek is
vernacular.
a') Strictly speaking there are but four cases in the lan-
guage of the PEOPLE. The Nominative, Genitive, Accusative,
and Vocative.
j3') 8o'a and words like it make in the Genitive rfc Soa?,
and are declined as follows :
S. N. V. 8oa Mova-a P. N. A. V. Sou( MoOo-at(s)
G. 86as Movcras G. doa>v Mov0>v
A. doga(v) Movcra(v)'
Honor. Opinion.
S. N. V. Tt/^ TV&M
G. TI/JL^S Tva>/j,r]s
A. Tikis')
P. N. A. V. Tijatu'O)
G.
y) A host of nouns belonging to different declensions are
made to follow but one : thus, Ta/xta?, "A/Vus, Maprts or
174 THE CONSONANTS.
etc. are in the Singular number all declined alike ; namely,
by cutting off the sign of the Nomi. ative -?, in the Genitive
and Vocative, and changing it to v in the Accusative. This
v is dropped in pronunciation when the phonetic laws of the
language admit it (Geldart).
8') All adjectives in os have three endings : 05, 77, ov. When
os is preceded by a vowel, the Feminine ends in a. The ac-
cent of adjectives in os always retains its original place:
S. N. (ro(f)6s
(ro(j)f)
(T0<p6(v)
G. <ro(f)ov
(ro(f)rjs
ao(f)ov
A. (TO(f)6(v)
<ro(f)r)(v)
(T00o(l/)
V. (TO&
p.
N. A. o-o0oi
o-o0ai'(y)
<ro(j)d
O rfi "
<ro(f))v
vofyoav
A. (TO(pOVS
cro^ay
o-o0a
S. N. fioVos-
P.OVTJ
lrivo(v)
G. JJ.OVOV
fiovrjs
JJ.OVOV
A. n6vo(v)
fj.6vrj(v)
poi/o(i/)
p.
N. V. p.6voi
p.6vai(s)
/noi/a
G. p.6va>v
IJLOVVV
/noi/aw
A. fiOVOVS
fjiovas
(lava
f) The Plural of many words, especially of those of foreign
origin, is formed by adding -8cs to the stem, as TrcuraSe? from
7rao-a9, /ucujuo^Se? from 17 fjidi^ov (monkey). These Plurals are
always paroxytone, whatever the accent of the word in the
Singular (Geldart).
^) The comparative is sometimes formed by means of
TrXeov, more-) as TrXeov //-eyctAos = greater, 7rA.eov TrAovo-tos =
richer. '
f]') Metaplastic nouns or secondary formations are common,
as rj tttya (the goat), 6 TraWpas (father), 6 ySao-tAeas (king) :
S. N. Trarepa? (SaffiXeas
G. Trarepa /3ao-tXea
A. TrciTpa(v) /3uo-i\ea(i>)
V. narepa /3ao~iXea
THE CONSONANTS.
175
P. N. A. V. Trarepes /3a<nXees
G. Trarepooj/ /3acriXecoi/
The classical forms, however, 6 -rrar^p, Trarepos, and 6
?, etc., are still more prevalent.
&) Of the pronouns e/xe often appears as e/xeVa, o-e as eo-c and
; ry/xets often becomes e/xets, and in the Accusative both
as and /xas. The latter, used as an enclitic, supplies the
place both of ^/xag and vj^Juxv. 'Y/xets becomes <ms and eVei9,
Accusative and enclitic possessive ems, o-a?. The article, as
enclitic and proclitic, is used for the personal pronoun in
oblique cases (Geldart).
Personal Pronouns.
S. N. eyo>,
G. e/ie'ra,
A.
P. N.
G.
A. f)p.as,
The verb d
ya>.
(pas,
tiozX
/xas.
ecra?,
eVay,
a-fi/a,
(Ttva,
eras
tras
(TOV.
ere.
is thus conjugated :
S. ef/zat, etcrat,
P. ei'/Me^a, ia0,
S.
P.
five.
Imperfect Indicative.
Future Indicative.
S.
P.
Also,
S. ^e'Xa) elarQai, ^eXfi? flcrQai,
P. 6e\op,fv ficr&ai, OeXere eiio-^nt,
QeKfi ei(r0ai.
6e\ovv d
Subjunctive.
S. ^/zat, ^o-at, ^i/e.
P. rjp.f6a, r)0<7, rjvc.
176 THE CONSONANTS.
Future Subjunctive.
S. rjBfXa ei<r$ai, fjdf\cs eia~6ai, fjQfXfv elcrOai.
P. r)6f\ap.fv fladai, rjdeXfre eur&u, rjdikav flvdai.
Also,
P. 6a fjpeOa, 6a ^<r^e, 6a rjvav.
Imperative.
S. eo-o, as fa.
P. as fa.
Infinitive.
Present efo-0ai or ecorac, only after the auxiliary 0eAo>.
Participle.
Present ovras, indeclinable.
becomes ypd<j>ow ; for eypa^ov we have eypa<a ; for
?, eypai^e?; for eypai/^are, eypai/^ere. In the passive in-
stead of ypd<f>rj or ypdfat. We find ypdfaarai ; for ypa^>OjU,e^a, ypa-
In like manner for Xeyo/^e^a we find Aeyo/xeo-re, Acyo-
/, and various other forms down to the tragic
For eypd<f>@r]V we get eypdffaOrjKa j for eypou^T^ev,
jw,vj for ypd(f>@r]<raV, cypdffrOrjKav.
In the present tense of contracted verbs in aw, w, the third
person is often uncontracted, as dyaTraet for ayaTra. Tt/^wo-t
appears sometimes as rt/x,ow or TI/AOWC. TL/JLOV^I/ appears
sometimes for ri/xw/xev.
Such are the main features of modern Greek accidence.
Professor Geldart states that even with these peculiarities
the modern Greek may be called the logical result of ancient
Greek. " For turning to the pronouns we observe that e/xeVa
and eo-eVa, for e/xe and o-e, preserve the original v (in Sanscrit
m, mum and tvum) of the Accusative. 'Eyaets is referred to by
Plato (Oat. 418, c) as an older form for ^/xets. As to the
enclitic and proclitic use of the article it is (except for the
THE CONSONANTS. 177
accent in the latter case) the same as the Homeric usage,
e. g. TOT/ eo-KOTwcre, he killed him ; dTreo-uXT/o-e TOUS, he spoiled
them. Passing to the verbs we find in Xe'yow (Xeyowi) or
Xeyowe the traces of the old form Xeyoim (tx VL > Professor Gel-
dart thinks, is quoted by Hesychius as a Cretan form). In
the passive voice the forms Xeyeo-cu, 2d person present, Xeyo-
fittcrTe or Xeyd//,e#a, as well as Xeyo/xetfev, are so plainly Archaic
forms that they need no explanation. In St. Paul's Epistle
to the Romans we have Koa^ao-at, thou boastest. In the im-
perative aorist active Xe'c for Xeov is Homeric. As to the
imperative aorist passive Xeov, I cannot but agree with Dr.
Mullach " that it is the classical middle 1st aorist imperative
of a verb in pi used as a passive, there being no middle voice
in modern Greek. Few who compare such forms as crracro
with the corresponding modern o-rao-ou, Seov, etc. will be able
to doubt this." We now proceed with our examples of pro-
nunciation :
(com. for 8Ki/uo>), thechno.
prune, thamdskenon.
a small tree, thendrdke.
Aepvco, to strike, thcrno.
Afo-TToira, mistress, thespena.
A^oStSao-fcaXos, a teacher of a common school, themothithdskalos.
Aia/SoXos-, devil, thedvolos.
Ata/SoT/Toy, famous, theavoetos.
Aiayooyi), conduct, theagoye.
Classical.
Af^//ii;Xoy, theximelos. Aiaa-rjKoo), theasekoo.
AtaTrorrioy, theap6ndios. Aidvoia, thednea.
Aian\T]<T(ra), theapleso. Aicz^erpoy, thedmetros.
Ata7TLiJ.7r\TjfiLi, theapimpleme. Aiepxop.ai, thee'rchome.
Aiappu&ai/, thearrethdn. Ai/catos-, thekeos.
Aia.arjfj.aivo), theasemeno. AtKatoTroXts, thekeopolis.
is pronounced like z or like the French s in the word rose.
Dionysius of Halicarnassus and Sextus Ernpiricus say that
178 THE CONSONANTS.
results from o-S, not So-. Thus the forms 'A0?Jvae, rj/?ae, Ov-
pae, xa/*tte, ySv^v, evidently resulted from 'A^vao-Se, ry/3acrSe,
@vpao-& xa/xao-Se, ftva^rjv. The followers of Erasmus maintain
that results from So-. It is quite probable that they were
misled by the supposed resemblance to the Latin 2. It is
worth while, however, to consider that Quintilian remarks :
" The Latin language has no letter by which to translate the
Greek , because the of the Greeks sounds melodious and
sweet, but that of the Romans, rough and unmusical ; and
the sweet-sounding words Zuirvpov and Ze^vpos, translated in
Latin Zopyrum and Zephyrus, emit but a harsh and bar-
barous sound."
However, the truth is that not only the Erasmians, but
Dionysius of Halicarnassus and Sextus Empiricus are alike
mistaken in their views of . The letter is not a double
consonant, as is evident from the following Homeric pas-
sages: II. /?, 824, 01 Se Ze'Xaav; 634, of re Z^KwOov ; S, 103, 121,
aarrv ZeXcfys ; Od. I. 24, vX^crcra ZdicwOos ; etc., in which has
the force of a single letter and, consequently, does not render
the syllable long by position. Nor does it seem etymolog-
ically to have resulted from So-, because if this was true we
Ought to have from the forms cAirtoVt, TroScri, rJATriSo-a, e'/co'/uSo-a,
etc., eX7rti, 7rot', r^ATTi^a, eKo/xta, and not, as we have, eA/Trt'o-t,
woo-/, -^ATTto-a, cjco/uo-a. Finally, Professor Mavroph redes says
that the only forms in which seems to have resulted from
two letters, e. g. o-S, are simply those mentioned by Dionysius
and which we have already enumerated. Schleicher also
completely discards the notion of pronouncing as So- or o-S.
The ancient Greeks used to boast of the pretty sound of
(Dion. Comp. 14, p. 172, Scaf.), and a comparison of the Greek
pronunciation with that of the Western nations will convince
anybody that the modern Greek pronunciation is by far the
softer, and consequently it distinctly verifies the statements
of both Quintilian and Dionysius. The forms
Tpta), /xacrSos,
THE CONSONANTS. 179
are still prevalent. Again,. the Ows (0eos) and Aiev?, Lat.
Deus, for Zeus, apifyXos for apt&fXos, etc. show how easily the
letter passed into 8. These different changes are very com-
mon in modern Greek and we also get the forms 8taraw for
Siarayuo, TttAa&os for FaXayto?, etc. The change of o- into
, as mentioned by Licldell and Scott, is evident from the
examples Zt^iV/y, ^LJ3wfj ; Z^tvpva, 2/x,vpj/a ; etc.
Professor Geldart says the fact that o- before ^ invariably
sounds as in modern Greek ought to prove the identity of
the sound of in ancient and modern times. But Professor
Geldart must certainly be mistaken, since the letter o- does
not always sound as before //, ; and with the exception of
the word ^/jLvpvrj, where the sound of o- approximates that of
, we know of no other instance in modern Greek where the
letter cr is sounded like a . For instance, the words S/^i/os
(smenos) and 2/xvpvaios (smerneos) show decidedly that the
letter o- is not sounded like a ; if there are any instances in
which a- sounds like a before /x, these instances are certainly
dialectic and not general. On the contrary, the similarity of
the changes of the letter in ancient and modern Greek, and,
moreover, the softness of its pronunciation by the modern
Greeks, prove the identity of the sound of in ancient and
modern times.
EXAMPLES OF PRONUNCIATION.
Modern Greek.
Zu>ov, animal, zoon.
ZavTavos, alive, zondanos.
Zvdos, beer, zetlios.
Zwrjpbs, quick, lively, zoeros.
Zf]TT]fjia, question; TO 'Ai/aroXiKoi/ ^rq/xa,
the Eastern Question, t6 anatolikon zetema.
Za^apt, sugar, zdhare.
Zeoroy, 77, ov, warm, zestos.
Zop<d8i (77 Aopjcas), zorkdthe.
loss, damage, zemiah.
180 THE CONSONANTS.
Classical.
ZaMHTTao-iov, zoostdseon. Zofapos, zopkerds.
Zcaoyovos, zoogonos. Zrj\rjfj.a)v, zelemon.
Zoxxjfxiyoy, zoophdgos. ZrjXofjiavrjs, zelomanis.
Za>poy, zoros. ZrjXorvnos, zel6tepos.
zoster.
is pronounced like th in the words thin, thicJc^ think. was
changed into a- in the Laconian dialect. We have, for
instance, in Aristophanes, Thucydides, and several other
authors*' the forms creAei, (rerw, (rrjpoKrove, ariyrjv, dyacros, opera,
'Aaara 'Ao-ttvatot, " TO> o-tw crv/xaros," SctSe/cra
TTOS, instead of the forms fle'Aei, fleroo, ^poKTOi/,
'*;, 'A$ai/a, etc., roO ^cov ^v/xaros, eoSc'/cras, eoTro/xTros,
In modern Greek we have d/cavTo-o^otpos for a.Kav66xoipo<s,
etc.
Besides this pronunciation of th the letter must have been
also originally sounded among some tribes of ancient Greece
like rrj, judging from the fact that this pronunciation of TV) is
even to this day preserved in a number of "words, especially
" ev rots o-wSvaoyxots " ^T, <r, (TT, instead of x^> ^>^j o"^ j for in-
stance :
eplecteka, instead of
'S-, echte's, "
, phtdno, "
, egrdphteJcah, "
egnoristeka,
, astenes, " 'AcrQevtjs,
os, ochtros, "
Again, in the Latin language is rendered by A, e. g. Ther-
situs, Thyesta, Theopompus, ^Egisthus. It must be in-
teresting to the reader to notice how faithfully the modern
Greeks have preserved the pronunciation of their ancestors,
THE CONSONANTS. 181
so that traces of the various dialectic sounds of the letters are
still in use.
EXAMPLES OF PRONUNCIATION.
Modern Greek.
ia, aunt, thea. Gp^/ma, religion, threskea.
s, chamber, tlidlamos. Opovos, throne, thronos.
s-, tumult, tho'revos. Gu/xoy, anger, themo's.
Qpffvos, lamentation, threnos.
Classical.
GjyXvyXojo-crop, theleglossos. QvpoKoneco, therokopeo.
Qr)\v8pias, thelf.thrias. Gupo/coTro?, therokopos.
e/7\ao>, theldzo. Gvp<raxQf)s, thersachthis.
QVKTOS, thektos. Ovvvos, thenos.
before a, o, w, av, ov is pronounced like k\ but before e, t, v, 17,
at, , 01, and before liquids it becomes much softer and has
a guttural sound. This letter was interchanged in ancient
Greek with r\ for instance, we have Tt/x,wv (Timori) for
Kt]uo)v (Ji?mcm), 7TOK6 (poke) for TTOTC (pote), /ag for rts (^5).
So in modern Greek we have the forms o-/aA/3oo> (skilvoo)
for o-TiA/2oa> (stelvoo), cpKvdpiov (phJcedriori) for <prvdpiov
(phtedreon), etc. The old Attics often changed x into K:;
thus, x^o'os and KI/OO?, etc.; this peculiarity is still prevalenfr-
among the modern Greeks. The change of * into /?, as men-
tioned by Liddell and Scott, is more rare as in TTJKW, Lat. ta-
beo. In a few instances TT and K are also found interchanged
in ancient as well as in modern times, but these forms are
comparatively rare.
EXAMPLES OF PRONUNCIATION.
Modern Greek.
KopSe'XXa, ribbon, korthela.
Kop(o?, bosom, korphos.
182 THE CONSONANTS.
Kop/u (cra>fjLa), body, komie*.
Kou/3aX&>, to move furniture, koovald.
Korra (opi/i#a), hen, kota.
Kpcj3art, led, krevdte.
Classical.
Ka0ap7raa>, katJiarpdzo. KXr^typnv, klepsiphron.
Ka&'Xica), kathe'lko. KXe^ivoos, klepsinoos.
kathexis. KXc^-ippvros, klepsiretos.
, kdthema.
is pronounced like an Z. Of the so-called liquid letters the
letter p is both the oldest and hardest, but X is what Profes-
sor Mavrophredes terms " /xerayei/eo-repos " (more recent) and
" /AttXa/ooTepos " (softer). Plato attributes gliding or slipperi-
ness to X. " The sweetest of semivowels," says Dionysius of
Halicarnassus. "'HSwei /*/ yap (TT)V CIKO^V) TO X Kat ccrrt raiv
yXuKvrarov rpa^wet Se TO p /cat co-Tt TOJV 6//,oyevcoi> yev-
(?r. o-w^. ovo/x. 14.) Compare Eusthatius, p. 1106.
The letter X is often written instead of v and p, e. g. ^#oi/
<piVraTos for ^X0oi> ^>L\raro<s, Kpi/5avos for K\ipavo<s. In some
words y and X are interchanged, i. e. /xoyis and /xoXis. These
changes are not uncommon in modern Greek.
That the letter X is not as old as the letter p is evident
from the fact that the latter is more generally used in the old
languages, such as are related to the Greek and Latin, as well
as from its extensive use in many hard and, so to speak,
rough-sounding dialects. We are indebted to Professor
Mavrophredes for the following examples which decidedly
prove that instead of the Greek and Latin Xav0dV<o, lateo /
<Xeya), fulgeo / XetTra), linquo / TrXe/cw, plectO / TreXcKUS, XVKOS,
lupus / 0X05, TOV OCTKLKOV, sollus / TrXaTT;?, latUS / ^Xto?, SOl /
TroXvs, TToXt?, etc. we have the Sanscr. rahdmi (cy/caTaXetVo)),
bhragami, rek'dmi, prnah'mi, para$us, vrkas, sarvas, prthus,
surjas (from svdrjas), parus, puri. In like manner we get
THE CONSONANTS. 183
in Greek from the one root Kpv the two words K\VO) and d*po-
w/xat (= a-K-poF-a-o/xat) ; from the root irpa (TrXrjpovv) we have
7ri/x7rX?7/>u and 7ri/A7rpr7/Ai ; from pay, dpKeco (dpr/yw) and dXeeo ;
from /*apy (Sansci\ mrg'} we have d/xepyw (modern dpyu,e'yw)
and d/xe'Xya>; from the root pv/c we have X^os and p^x vo?
(this latter form is peculiar to the inhabitants of the island
of Ohio) ; from yap we get yapuw (yT/pvoo), ypajo-o-a = yXtoo-o-a
(in the Tsakonian dialect) and ycXdw, etc. These examples
show that p is an older and harder letter than X.
EXAMPLES OF PRONUNCIATION.
Modern Greek.
AOO-TTT;, mud, Idspe. Aepo'i/o), to soil, lerono.
Aarpe/a, adoration, latrea. AVOJ/O), to dissolve, leono.
co, faint, iipothemo. AUTTJ;, sorrow, lepe.
i, lemon, lemdni.
Classical.
leplikania. Aaorpofos, laotropJios.
), lepo. AavOdva), lanthdno.
Ae'crjStoy, lesvios. Adnr}, Idpe.
Aa-napos, laparos. Ado-avov, Idsanon.
M
is pronounced like m in man. There is no dispute concern-
ing the pronunciation of this letter and the same dialectic
changes which occur in ancient Greek, such as /x into TT and
//, into /?, i. e. /^pord?, /xopros, etc., are not uncommon in mod-
ern Greek.
EXAMPLES OF PRONUNCIATION.
Modern Greek.
Mfrai>, meanwhile, etc. metaxi.
to translate, metdphrdzo.
, midnight, mesdnecta.
Mera/3d7TTco, to paint over, _ metavdpto.
, o man of no importance, mithaminds.
-, length, me'kos.
184
THE CONSONANTS.
Classical.
t, minitis.
MrjvvTpov, minilron.
minima.
j, miniskos.
i, mitiome.
, mitis.
, mistor.
miriome.
Mrjrpa, mitra.
Meya0u/zos, megdthimos.
N
is pronounced like n in now, never. There is no difference
of opinion as to the pronunciation of this letter, and the
euphonic changes, such as v into y before the palatals y, *, x
and , and v into /x before the labials /?, TT, <p, ^, and v into A.
before another A, and v into p before another p, etc., are still
prevalent in modern Greek.
EXAMPLES OF PRONUUCIATION.
Modern Greek.
r, sink, nerohetes. Ni^i, nail, nelii.
water, neron. Novi/os, godfatJier, nounos.
NITTTO), to wash, nipto. Nuoraa>, to be sleepy, nistdzo.
p, baby (silly), nipios. Ne*pds, a dead man, nechrds.
Classical.
NaoTroAor, naopolos.
Nao<puXa^, naophe'lahx.
NapSirT;?, narthitis.
NapSop, ndrthos.
. wa^e.
Nap/ci<ro-os, ndrkissos.
Na/^a, ndma.
v, nanion.
3
The common sound of this letter is that of a; in axiom, but
much harder. After y, v, /* it generally has the sound of gs,
e. g. TOV eVov (pronounced o^ gsenori). The pronunciation
of 4 , and ^ by the modern Greeks entirely verifies the
statements of Dionysius of Halicarnassus and of Phrynichus.
Dionysius says : " Tpion/ 8e wron/ rwv aXXwv ypa/x/xarwv a &rj StTrAa
KttA.tTat, TO /xev /xaAAoK v;8wet r^v O.KOVJV TCOV erepwv TO />tev yap
THE CONSONANTS. 185
SLCL TOV K, TO Se i^ Sta rov IT rov o~opiypJov a7roSi<$a)(n, 1/aA.wv oi/rwv
dfjL^orepw ..... Phrynichus says: "Nam multo molliorem
sonem habet ty quam PS vel BS sicwtf en/o ^ melius (molliusf)
sonat, sic etiam x quam GS vel cs. Its dialectic changes,
especially transposition in the ^Eolic and Doric, of the con-
sonants which form , as ^1^09, i</>$>ptov, Dor. cna<os, CTKL^V-
, are obsolete in modern Greek.
EXAMPLES OF PRONUNCIATION.
Modern Greek.
), to vomit, xerno. Sypaivo*, to dry, xire'no.
os, dry, xiros. Seo-Kerraoros, uncovered, xeske'pahstos.
Sotvus, sower, xenos. SeTrepva), to surpass, xeperno.
Classical.
Sdvdos, xdnthos. Svvos, xinos.
EavOoovXos, xanthooulos. Svvrjwv, xinion.
si xenotimos. SuXo^a^ff, xilophanis.
, xenotropheo.
n
has the power of an English JP, but when it follows //, or v it
takes the sound of b. In modern as in ancient Greek it is
sometimes interchanged with soft /?, as in TroAAw, /3oAAw, and
the aspirate </>, as Travos,
EXAMPLES OF PRONUNCIATION.
<j| Modern Greek.
Kapa<f)pov>, to despise, paraphron6.
Uapcia, cheek, paria.
HapfK\t](riov, a country-church, pareklesion.
IlapaTroprt, a back-door, paraporti.
Ilapatra), to give up, pareto.
, grandfather, pdpos.
, everywhere, pandou.
a), to neglect, paravle'po.
a brave young man, palikdri.
186 THE CONSONANTS.
Classical.
r), paratrive. IIapaxop8<'a>, parahorthizo.
parateposis. Ilapa^ea), paraheo.
), paratrope. Hape'*, parek.
IlaparpT/Tos, pardtretos. IIapeK/3euV(, parekveno.
Ilaparpe^o?, paratreho. Hapex/Sacris, pare'kvasis.
naparpe<a>, paratrepho. IlapeK/SoXjj, parekvole.
napcn/raXta>, parapsalizo. IJapevo^Xiyo't?, parenochlesis.
Hapa^aXXw, parapsdllo. Uap^o\rj t paremvole.
is pronounced like the English r, but with more force. Plato
says that in the utterance of p the tongue is in a state of
vibration. Dionysius calls it a "rough letter": "Tpa^wet Se
TO p Kal eori TW ofjioyev&v yewatorarov."
The letter p was always sounded Aarc? at the beginning of
a word, with the exception of the two words papos and pdpiov
("Y/AI/W cis Ar;/x,, 450), both of which have the smooth breath-
ing. This is evident from the fact that the letter p, when
at the beginning of a word, always had the rough breathing,
as well as from its doubling when preceded by a vowel, e. g.
ptTTTw, paTTTto, pryros, epptTTToi/, cppai^a, appr/To?. A scholar inti-
mates that the rough breathing received by this reduplication
a certain " solidity and concentration."
Hence it becomes evident that the rule of the grammarians
" To pw eav 8i(T(rov yevrjTai eV fJ-eo"fl X.eei, TO /xei/ TrpwTOv i^tXov-
Tat, TO & Scvrepov SacrvvfTaL : otov 7rtpp>7/xa, appwo-T09,
etc., \f/i\ovrai 8e TO /xev TrptoTOv, SIOTI ovSeTTOTt <rv\\a/3rj
Xe^ews ets 8ao~v X7/y. To 8e Beurepov 8ao~v^eTat, SIOT
eo-Ttv 17 8ao-eta ! " is not after all, as a modern Greek inti-
mates, much of a rule. Because, whilst the letter p at the
beginning of a word, both by its rough breathing and hard
sound, renders the final vowel of a preceding word in the
dactylic hexameter and the iambic trimeter of the dramatists
as well as in the anapaBsts long by position, as in II. w, 755 :
" IToXXd pvffTdfca-Kev eoO irepi <rij[j.' crdpoto ! "
THE CONSONANTS. 187
it often happens that for the sake of the meter in the same
word the letter p is not doubled though a vowel precedes it,
as is evident from the Homeric peov, epee, d/x^tprV^ ; also in
Soph. Antig. 950 :
" Kal Znjvbs ra/iiei/eoTce yovas XP VO " O P 1 * TOV S|"
and in Aristoph. ecr/x. 655, otdpuf/o^ and so on.
The rough breathing of p at the beginning of a word has
often, as Professor Mavrophredes asserts, an etymological
signification ; that is to say, it takes the place of some omitted
consonant, e. g. peVtu = Sanscr. sarpami, Lat. serpo / po<eo>,
Lat. sorbeo ; p-faw^i, Lat. frango ; piyeo>, Lat. frigeo ; piV(s),
Sanscr. ghrdna-m; pi7ros = Lat. scirpus ; poSov, .^Eol. /?poSov;
pu/o? = Fpivo's ; peyx<jt> = F P Vx w 5 ^ a ^' ru 9^ / e ^C.
In modern Greek, although p is pronounced more strongly
than the English r, the rough breathing of the letter p at the
beginning of a word is entirely lost.
EXAMPLES OF PRONUNCIATION.
Modern Greek.
'Pa;^;, back, rdhe.
'Po^aXi^co, to snore, rohalizo.
'Podaiuvov, peach, rothdkinon.
'Pov^iKa, clothes, roohikd.
'Pona\ov, a club (to strike with), rdpalon.
, seamstress, rdptria.
Classical.
rathemia. 'PaTrrrjs, rdptis.
'PaStos, rdthios. 'PaTrroy, raptds.
'Pao-o-a), rosso. *Pa/i0i7, ramphe'.
'PcKfriSoOrjKr), raphithothcke. *Pdpvos, rdmnos.
c Pao-/xa, rdsma. 'Pcn-u, re'po.
is pronounced like s in soon, see. Plato calls a- an aspirate,
and Dionysius a hissing and disagreeable letter.
188 THE CONSONANTS.
A scholar says that in modern Greek the letter o- before a
semivowel (/?, y, S, , X, /A, v, p) is sounded like a . So also
in the proclitics TOT;?, ras before the same consonants; TOVS
/3a<TL\L<s TTJS yJJs = 02/2 vaseles tez ghes.
But this is not so. The letter a- does not sound in modern
Greek like a before the letters mentioned. The statement
in "modern Greek" is too broad. This pronunciation is
simply dialectic and not general. Now, the letter o- was pro-
nounced like a among some tribes of ancient Greece especi-
ally before the letters y, 8, /?, and before the* liquids A, p, p.
Thus, we find in many inscriptions belonging to the first
century A. D. many words written with a instead of a a- ;
e. g. Z//,apaySo9, Z/avpv??, Z/u/cpos, Z/^eVai. The writer Lucian
also in his " CK -717 81/07 TWV ^XOV^O/TOJV " represents the letter o-
as complaining of and saying, "on 8' di/e^ucaKoV et/u
juapTvpetTC /xot /cat avroi, /xrySeTrore eyKaXeo-avrt TO) ^r
a.7roo-7rao-avTt Kat Trao-av a^eXo/xeVw Tr)v Sjivpyiiv." Compare
Eustathius (pp. 217, 228) and Sextus Empiricus, etc. We
must not omit to mention that we have no proof that this
dialectic pronunciation of o- was prevalent among the tribes
of ancient Greece, and in the very best period of the Hellenic
language. Now, this dialectic pronunciation of o-, which pre-
vails in some sections of modern Greece, certainly proves that
the modern Greeks have not only preserved the pronuncia-
tion of their ancestors, but even their dialectic variations.
EXAMPLES OF PRONUNCIATION.
Modern Greek.
, to twist, strepho. 2roXoj, a fleet, sfolos.
, a bet, ste'hema. ^vy^va-is, a confusion, senhesis.
2rep<5, to deprive, sterro.
Classical.
2ic\T]p6s, skleros. SKivdapifa, skiniharizo.
2/aprao>, skirtdo. 2*ti/8aAafioff, skinthdlamos.
2*apa0oi>, skirdphion. 2*ipas, skirds.
THE CONSONANTS. 189
is pronounced like t in tell, task, tin. After v it is generally
sounded like a d, as ei/ro/xos = endomos. This pronunciation
of the letter r as d after v is very old, judging from the fact
that in an old Latin inscription (see Scalig. Yetust. Rom.)
we find "Sta Travrwv" written dia pandon. Again, as regards
" expression of sound " and " euphony " the reader, if he pro-
nounces the following Homeric line:
" IloXXd 5' &VO.VTO,, K&TavTO., irdpavrd re, 56%/ua T TjAflov,"
will observe that the sound of T as a d after v is much more
" majestic " and " expressive."
EXAMPLES OF PRONUNCIATION".
Modern Greek.
TOKOS, interest (on money), tokos.
TtVoTf, nothing, te'pote.
TtTToreVtos, good for nothing, tepotenios.
Ti/zow, rudder, temdni.
Tp/o>, grind, trezo.
), to catch, tsakdno.
Classical.
Tapo"os, tar sos. Tapao-o-to, tardso.
Tapo-oa), tarsdo. Tapaf-is, tdraxis.
, tarve'o. Taptxe'/iTropos, tariheniboros.
is pronounced like ph in philosopher. In some parts of an-
cient Greece, especially in the Peloponnesus, the letter < was
often used instead of K ; therefore it is highly probable that
the letter e was originally pronounced by some as a K; that
is to say, like the Latin q. In many ancient inscriptions we
find the letter cf> used instead of K, as for instance op<ov = op-
KOV, Mev(Ti<paTOvs =
190 THE CONSONANTS.
Now, this hypothesis which we advance concerning the
pronunciation of < (as a K) is rendered highly probable from
the etymology of some words. For instance the word ird-
<po>v, a scholar asserts, is akin to the Sanscr. pakdmi; in the
word Av<o8o/3K05 we see that the first part, XVKO-S is akin to
the Sanscr. vskas, Lat. lupus, which perhaps came from lu-
quus; in this example we see plainly that $ = to the Latin q.
Whether there are any traces of the pronunciation of < as a K
among the modern inhabitants of Peloponnesus, we have not
been able to ascertain.
EXAMPLES OF PRONUNCIATION.
Modern Greek.
&6d(rip.ov, arrival, phthdsimon. $Xoya, flame, phloga.
$6r]va, cheap, phthend. 3>uAXaSioi/, pamphlet, phildthion.
(TO), cup, phletzdni. 4>a>Xfa, nest, plioled.
Classical.
, philakoloothos. <$>tXap/uaros, pJiildrmatos.
, phildthelphos. &i\r)peTp.os, phileretmos.
&&QVOS, phthonos. 3>iXo%)ia. philotheria.
/, philemon. ^iXoSouTroy, philothoopos.
y, phUenthotos. 4>iX65a0j/oy, philothaphnos.
&i\dpyvpos, phildryeros.
is pronounced like the English h in the word house, or much
more like the German h in the word haben. x an( ^ K are
often interchanged both in ancient and modern Greek, e. g.
Sexojjiai = SeKo/xat; we also find it interchanged in modern
Greek after a-, as o-/ao> for
EXAMPLES OF PRONUNCIATION.
Modern Greek.
w, to spoil, halnd. Xaprt, paper, harti.
Xa/xevoy, lost, hamenos. Xax/^ta, a mouthful, hapsid.
Xapa, joy, hard. Xavvos, lazy, hdvnos.
THE CONSONANTS. 191
Classical.
Xoi>7, hoe. Xvoos, hnoos.
Xoipdsj herds. Xopftorovos, hortholdnos.
Xvoaa>, hnodzo.
*
sounded like TTO-, e. g.
Modern Greek.
os, roasted, pseto's. aXi'St, scissors, psalithi.
kase, psonizo.
Classical.
0?, psaphards. ^apA6r), psamdthi.
sao. ^aXXco, psdllo.
-, psdmathos.
CHAPTER VI.
COMBINATIONS OF CONSONANTS.
r
before *, y, ft x is pronounced like v (ng). For example:
before K, as in dyKiW, pronounced ankeon ; before y, as in
ayyeXog, pronounced dng-gelos ; before ft as in ayi?, pro-
nounced dnxis ; before x? as in dyxovr;, pronounced anhone.
MH
in middle syllables is pronounced like m b ; as a/x7reAog, pro-
nounced dmbelos.
NT (
occurs only in middle syllables in pure Greek words ; when
v ends one word and r begins the next, the latter takes the
sound of d\ for example: rov ravpov, pronounced ton ddvron /
TOV ra^ov, pronounced ton ddphon.
K
in the middle of a word and after y or v in the same word or
in consecutive words partakes of the sound of y (very soft) ;
for example, eyfce<^aXos, pronounced eng-gephalos / TOV KT/TTOV,
pronounced ton ghepon.
n
at the beginning of a word which follows one ending with v
is sounded like a b ; for example : TT)V TroAu/, pronounced ten
COMBINATIONS OF CONSONANTS. 193
bolen. It likewise takes the sound of b after /x in the middle
of a word ; e. g. rv^ovov^ tembanon.
3 (dialectic pronunciation)
before /?, 8, p, is pronounced like a z or like the French s in the
word rose; for example: before /?, as in o-/3ecmjp, pronounced
zv ester ; before 8, as in 'Atr8pov/3as, pronounced aztfirouvas /
before p, as in 'lo-parjA, pronounced izrael.
CHAPTER VII.
EXAMPLES OF MODERN GREEK PRONUNCIATION.
FOR the purpose of connected illustration, and that the
'modern Greek pronunciation may be presented to the student
as definitely and clearly as possible, we give here selections
from ancient and modern Greek authors, putting under each
word of the original text the English symbols required to
represent accurately the modern Greek method:
From Xenophon's "Anabasis."
"E-TTciTa 8e, ava/x,v^<ra> yap v/xas /cat TOVS rtov Trpoyovan/ rwv
Mpita thai, anamniso ghar emds ke toos ton proghonon ton
^acreptoi/ /ctvSwous, Iva ctSr/TC ws ayaOoLS T v/uv wpoo-TJ/cet etrat
emeteron kinthinoos, ena ithetai os aghathis te emin proseki inai
(TCU^OVTat T (TVV TOtS ^OtS KOL K TTOVV SetVWV Ot aydOoi. 'EA^OVTWV
sozonde te sin tis theis ke ek pdni thinon e aghathi. Mthondon,
fjiev yap Ilepcrwv Kat TWV arvv avrols TrayaTrX-^^et oroAa) ws d<^>avt-
men ghar Person ke ton sin a/Us pamplethe stolo os aphani-
OVVTWV TOIS 'A^ryva?, VTroo-Trjvai avrots 'AOrjvaiot ToA/^cravres iviK-r]-
\oondon tas Athinas, ipostene aftis Athinei tolmisandes enike-
crav airrovs /cat cv^a/xcvot ry 'Apre/xtSt OTrocrov? Kara/cavotcv TWV
san aftoos ke efxdmeni te Arthemithi oposoos katakdnien ton
TToAe/xttov Tocravras ^t/tatpas K.araOv(Tiv ry ^ew, CTTCI OVK et^ov
polemion tosdftas himeras katathisin te theo epi ook ihon
tKai/as et'peti/, eSo^ev avrot? /car Iviavrov TrevraKocrLas 6vciv, /cat ert
ekanas evrin, ethoxen aftis kaf eniafton pendakosias thi'in, ke eti
Kat vvv airoOvovo-iv.
ke nin apothioosin.
EXAMPLES OF MODERN PRONUNCIATION. 195
From " UXeiTttvos 'AiroXo-yfa SwKpdrovs.
TeAevrwv ovv CTTI TOVS x L P OT ^X va<s fi a ' t/Aavrw yap
Telefton oon epi toos hirotechnas ed. emafto ghar xinithin
o'uScv eTTtcrra/xej/a), ws ros ciTreti/, TOVTOVS 8e y TjScw 6Vt evprjcroL-
oothen epistameno, os epos ipin, tootoos thai gK ethin oti evrisi-
IJLI TToXAa /cat /caXa eTrtcrra/xei/ous * KCH TOVTOV /xev OVK e^ei;-
mi polla ke kala epistamenoos. ke tootoo men ook epsef-
O-OTJV, dXX' ^TrwrravTO a eyw OVK ijTrurra^v KOL /xov Taw*;
sthin, aV epistando a egho ook ipistdmm ke moo tafte
cro(coTpdi v)<rav aXA', ai aVSpe? 'AOrjvaloL, ravrov /xot eSo^av e^eti/
sophoteri isan. all\ o dndres Athinei, tafton, me ethoxan ehin
a/xapr>7jua, OTrep Kal ot Troi^rat, /cat ot dya^oi Brjfjaovpyoi 8ta TO
amdrtema oper ke e piete, ke e aghathe themioorghe. thia te
rrjv Texyyjv KaXois e^cpya^eo-^at CKacrros fj^iov /cat T* aAXa TO,
# tehnin kalos exerghdzesthe ekastos exioo ke f alia ta
jU-eytcrra o~o^>wTaros etvat, Kat avrwv avrr/ 17 TrX^/xeActa e/cetVryv
megista sofotatos ine, ke a/ton afte e plimmelia ekinin
rrjv <TO$iav aTreKpvTrrev * WOT* e/xe efjiavrov ai/eptorav vTrep TOV
^m 5o/"^ apekripten. 6sV erne emafton anerotdn iper too
hrismoo potera thexemin an ootos osper eho ehin, mete te sophos
a
o^ ten ekinon so/tan mete amathls ten amdthean, e amphotera a
Ktl/Ot ' )(OV(TW X tV * <*-' jrf - K pW ( *<lJi.-Y)V OVV /XaVT(5 Kttt TW XP^O"/^, OTt
<9^/w?. ehoosin ehin. apekrindmin oon emafto ke to hrismo, oti
fJLOL XvcrtreXot wcnrep ex w ^(tv.
?e lisiteli osper eho ehin.
From a Greek Newspaper, October 18, 1876.
To 8oy/>ia TT}? crwray/AaTt/c^s ^ecopta? txi/Tt/cetrat /cat ets r^v tfrvcrw
To thoghma tis sintagmatikis theorias andikeie ke is ten phisin
TOV dvOpwirov Kat et? T-^V (frvcnv TWV Trpay/xaTwv. *H Sevrepa /tcyaXi;
00 anthropoo ke is ten phisin don pragmdton. E theftera megdli
Swa^tts r^s o-wray/jtariKTys ^ewptas cu/e 17 ai/TtTrpoo-coTrcta. O ^ov-
thinamis tis sentagmatikes theorias ine e andiprosopia. voo-
196 EXAMPLES OF MODERN PRONUNCIATION.
\vri]<s t%i aTroXvTOv e^ovcriW va. SuiOeoy T-^V TI/XT/V rrjv Treptovcrtav
leftes ehi apoliton exoosian na thiathese tin dimin tin perioosian
evos e/cttTo//y>ivptov /cat TrXeov aV$pa>7r(ov, ^u>pt9 va 77 vTTOYpeco/xevos va
tf#0's ekatommirioo ke pleon anthropon, horis na e epohreomenos na
Bwo-y Trepl TOVTOV Xoyov. 'Evvovo-t TOLOVTOV crv/x^8oAatov 01 avOpwTroi
those peri tootoo logon. Ennooosi tiooton simvoleon e dnthrope
rov 8i/catov; KrySepv^crts eV erwray/xaTiK^ TroXtreta tvc ot vTrovpyot.
^oo thikeoo? Kevernisis en sindagmatike politia ene e epoorge.
TlptinvTrov fteyaAov TrpwOvTrovpyov ev 'AyyAm ccrrt 6 XopSos OvaX-
Protepon megdloo prothipoorgoo en Anklia esti o lorthos Oodl-
Trept ov Xeyct <rvyypa<f>cv<s TIS o Tt " CTTI r^s KU/3epj/>jcre<D? roO
?' oo leyi singrafefs tis o ti " epi tis kiverniseos too
rj 8ia<f>@opa Kar^vr^cre orvarTrjfJia Sttupyavtcr/xevov," erepos
Oodlpol e thiafthord katindise sistema thiorganismenon" eteros
Se ort " ovSets Ko.6* oXov TO BacrtXetov r^5 'AyyXtas vTretrr^pt^ev
#^ oti " oothis katV olon to Vasilion tis Anklias ipesterizen
avrov IK TrfTroiO-qo-ew;."
a/ton ek pepithiseos"
A Modern Greek Prayer offered before performing the Sacrament
of the Eucharist.
Apros Zonys, CLiwvL^ovcrrjs yevecrvo) JJLOI, TO 2wyu,a o~ov TO aytov,
Artos Zois, eonizoosis genestho me, to Soma soo to dghion
evo-TrXay^ve Kvptc, /cat TO Tt/xtov AT/xa, /cat voo-wv TroXirrpoTrwv aXe^ry-
efsplachne Kirie, ke to timion ma, ke noson politropon alexi-
terion.
Be/?r;Xa>0et9, Ipyot? aTOTrot? 6 SetXatos, TOT) crov a^pavTOt;
Vevelothis, erghis atopis o thileos too soo achrdndoo Soma-
TO5, /cat 0etov At/x,aTO5, ava^tos VTrdp^o), Xpto~Te -nys fjitrovo-Las, rj<s
tos, ke Thioo lEmatos, andxios epdrho, Christe tis metoosias, is
p. a^tcuo"ov ..... Aa/cpvan/ yaot Trapdcr^ov Xpto"Te pavtSa?, TOV PVTTOV
me axioson. Thakrion me pardshoo Christe ranithos, ton ripon
TT}S /cap8ta? /xov /ca0aipovo-as, ws ai/ evofvetSoTw? /ce/ca^ap/xei/o?,
^'s karthias moo katheroosas, os an efsinithotos kekatharmenos
EXAMPLES OF MODERN PRONUNCIATION. 19 J
Aetrrrora, lv rfj
pisti proserhome, ke phovo Thespota, en te metalipsi ton Thion
thoron soo.
Ets a</>eo-iv yevtcrOdi /u,ot TUV 7TTat(r/>taT(ov, TO a^pavroy <rov
/5 dphesin genestho me ton ptesmdton, to dhrandon soo Soma
Kat ctov At/xa, cts IIvev/xaTOs 'Aytov re Koii/toj'c'av, Kat cts atwvtov
:7%/o# J^'ma, M Pnevmatos Aghioo te kinonian, ke is edition
iorjv <j>i\dv6p(D7r, KOL TraO&v feat Q\L\}/ewv aAAorptWiv.
zoin Jildnthrope, ke pathon ke thlipseon allotriosin.
APPENDIX.
APPENDIX.
BREATHINGS.
THERE are two breathings. The rough breathing e (spiri-
tus asper) and the smooth breathing ' (spiritus lenis). They
are indicated by the marks ' ' placed over the initial vowel.
Words beginning with a diphthong take their respective
breathings over the second vowel : awfy^os, etSos, cvSw. But
in the improper diphthongs L never takes the breathing, even
when it stands upon the line : 'fitSelov = wScioj/.
The following words have the rough breathing:
1. The initial consonant p: thus, prJTwp; except 'Papo?,
Earns ; 'Papios, a, ov,from Raros, Rarean : esp. the Rarian
plain near Eleusis ; 'Papos, a child of premature birth / but
pp appears in most editions pp: TraXtppoia.
2. All words beginning with v : thus, vSwp, vcXos.
3. The articles 6, ^, ot, at.
4. The relative pronouns and the relative adverbs : os, 17, o,
OtO5, OCT05, T^AtKOS, tt>?, OTTOS, ^VtVtt, CtC.
5. The personal pronouns of the first and second person
Plural and the third person Singular : ^/xets, ov, ot, c, etc.
6. The possessive pronouns which are formed from the
stem of the personal pronouns ^/xeVepo?. So also the reflexive
pronouns of the third person tavrov, cairnys.
7. The numerals ct?, t, cTrra, e/carov, and all their deriva-
tives, e. g. eviatos, /3So/^09, cTrraKOo-tot.
REMARK 1. The following words, which are alphabetically clas-
sified, and their derivatives have also the rough breathing :
202
APPENDIX.
aftpa, a favorite slave.
afipbs, graceful.
ayios, devoted to the gods.
dyvbs, holy, sacred, etc.
"Ayvcw or "Ayvwv, Hagnon (a
proper name).
oyoy, o?, reverence.
dyco for a eya>.
afie, 3 sing. aor. 2 of dvddva>, Horn.
inf. dSeli/.
0877?, the nether world.
adov for Zadov, aor. 2 of &v8dva>.
, Dor. for TJO'VTTVOOS.
ddvs, Dor. for rjSvs.
aopai. to stand in awe of.
aifjia, blood.
atfiviov, a basin for*Uood.
Alcoves, ow, the Hcemoneans (in-
habitants of Haemonia).
Alfjiovios, H&monios (a proper
name).
alfjios or aipos, oO, prob. any scratch-
ing point, as of thorns.
p, Hamus (a mountain).
winning.
eto, /o Aaye /Ae <ee/A o/i edge.
o?, = 5a(/xo)i/, knowing,
skilful
Ai/xa>i>, Hcemon (a proper name).
au>o>, <o si/i 1 , to winnow.
cupeffts, a taking, conquering.
aipca>, to grasp, to seize.
a\as, salt.
dXe/a, Jishing.
aXerai, Ep. for aXiyrat, subj. aor. 2
of aXXo/xat, to leap.
c'coy, adv. from dXiJy, Hipp.
"AXta, a festival of the Rhodians.
'AXt'a, as, Ion. for 'AXi'i;, Halia (a
Nereid).
a\ia, Ion. dX/;, an assembly.
'AXtai, S>v, Halice, (a city).
'AXiapros, Haliartus (a city).
'AXias-, the territory of H alias.
dXt/3Sua> for dXtdua), to smA: in i/ie
vs, a fisher.
t'^o), to gather.
, Halizonium (a city).
'A\i0fparr}s, Halithersis (a proper
name^.
'AXiKapvaacros, Halicarnassus.
dXtfci'a, Dor. for i^Xi/aa.
'AXt/cvai, oii/, Halicyce (a city).
'AXiKvpva, Halicyrna (a region of
^Etolia).
, Halimede (a Nereid).
, Halimus (a deme of the
Attic tribe Leontis).
aXios for ^Xtos 1 .
aXios = fidraios, fruitless.
"AXto?, Halius (a proper name).
oXis, in ^eop.s.
'AXiVapra, Halisarna (a city).
dXio-yeo), eo, to pollute.
dX/(r/co/Ltai, to fe taken.
c AXr6S?7/Lioff, Halisodemus (a poet).
aXXo/icu, to spring, leap.
aXfi7, sea-water.
"A\p.os, Halmus (a proper name).
dXovpyi'ff, a purple robe.
aXovpyos dyed with sea-purple.
dXoa) = dXtV/co/xat.
aXy, a <jrram or Zwm/> of salt.
oAvo-ty, a chain.
'AXwa, a festival of Ceres.
APPENDIX.
203
r, one who works on a thresh-
ing-floor.
, Ep. for dX, 3 sing. subj.
aor. 2 of dXio-Ko/zcu.
dXauos = dXeoeij'd?, wsec/ in a thresh-
ing-floor.
'AXans- = 'AXwas, Theocr. 7, 155.
dXa>/cai'Ti, Dor. for eaXa>Kacrt, 3 pi.
perf . of dXiWo/zai.
dX&>/zei/ai, Ep. for aXeorai, inf. aor. 2
of dXi'ovco/zeu.
aXcoi/, <oi/oy, 77, = uXcos.
dXoJi/at, inf. aor. of dXiWo/zeu.
dXa>i>evo/zeu, dep. to wor& on a
threshing floor.
aXtoy = a threshing-floor.
dXdxa, Ep. for dXa>, subj. aor. 2 of
a/j,a, adv. at once.
y, usu. in plur., the Hama-
dryades (nymphs).
y, a yine trained on two
poles.
a/uaa, a ^eayy wagon.
c A/zat'a, Hamaxia (a city).
}, adv. together.
d'/ziXXa, a contest.
afus (KOI a/zty), a s^zp.
a/i/za a &no.
di/Sai/a), to please.
dn-aXo?, tender.
aTrai/TT/, everywhere.
aTrdi/rore, always.
a7ra, once.
Cs-, simplex.
zc^: o/a Zamp.
, to fasten.
, hunter's net.
ap/za, a chariot.
tory).
, Harma (a city).
Harmatus (a promon-
name).
, Harmatus (a city).
to join.
Harmonides (a proper
to carry off.
'ApTraXiW, Harpalion (a proper
name).
name).
name).
Harpalus (a proper
Harpalycus (a proper
a rojoe.
e^ia, a hedge.
, Harpina (a place in Elis).
'ApTroKpa.TT)s, Harpocrates (a proper
name).
iW, Harpocration (a
proper name).
"Apnviai, the Harpies.
, fastidious.
a tying.
E.
ea5a, perf 2
, perf. of d\i(TKop.ai.
for /eei/ai, inf. perf. of
dXttr/co/zai.
cavrjcpopos, a thin, light robe.
eavos, r), bv, fit for wearing.
earat, 3 pi. pres. from ^/zat, Ion.
for rjvraL.
eavroC, ^f, of himself.
fd(p0r), Horn., only found in E. y,
543, and ^,419.
e/38o/zos, ?Ae seventh.
204
APPENDIX.
"Efipaios, Hebrew. N. T.
"Eftpos, the Hebrus.
fdavos, epith. of oil in Horn.,
pleasant.
cdva, nuptial gifts.
c8os, stool.
fdovfj.cn, fut. of fofuii.
e&pa, a chair.
eeWaro, 3 sing. aor. mid. Ep. of
cearo, 3 sing. plpf. pass. Ep. of
evvvfu.
eb/iat, to sit.
crj, fern, of e'or, his, etc.
cj;Acf, Ep. for rjKf, 3 sing. aor. 1 of
ITJfU.
erjvSave, Ep. for rjvbavf, 3 sing.
impf. act. from dv&dv<o.
0v, Ep. and Att. poet. gen. for
?o ov. masc. and fern, his, her, of
him, of her.
tBrjv, aor. 1 pass, from infii.
eiai>o$, Ep. for eavor.
ftX7, ^Ae 5wn'i* warmth.
, poet, for cAry/*a.
t, perf. pass, from cXtWo.
Ion. 3 pi. plpf. pass, from
eXt o-o-o).
, aor. 1 act. of eX/ta>.
v, aor. 1 pass, of eX*a>.
fiX^a, less usu. aor. 1 act. from
eX*a> than clXxvaa.
el\ov and etXo/i^j/, aor. 2 act. and
mid. of atpe'o).
/, rarer form for 6fi\6-
v, a sunshiny place.
^o), to wind.
ff, Helot.
, a Jress.
, fate,
elpev, 1 pi. aor. 2 opt. for cuf/icy of
tyu.
eipevos, part. perf. pass, of evvvpi.
aor. 2 opt. mid. of tiy/u.
, poet, for eve/ta.
efos-, Ep. aor. for W.
ipyvvfjii, to shut in.
clpKTrj, prison.
(Is, pia, civ, one.
eiy, part. a6r. 2 of infii.
flcra, I put, placed,
eio-dpnv, aor. mid. of ela-a, Att.
tiro, 3 sing. aor. 2 ind. (also opt.)
mid. of iTjfju.
f1a>s. Ep. for eW, constantly.
'Etta^n, Hecuba.
'Eicd\T), Hecale (an Attic borough).
'EKap.r)8r), Hecamede (a proper
name).
ficas, afar.
every one.
, each of two.
v, a hundred.
, by means of.
, sixteen.
"E/crcop, Hector (a proper name).
CKGW, willing.
eXeiai, meadow-nymphs.
EXeioi, the Helei (a people of Ara-
bia; Strabo).
Aetoy, the dormouse.
, Helen.
, Helenus.
e\(<T0ai, inf. aor. 2 mid. of cupe'o>.
eX?;, /Ae 7^ea/.
fXj/, 3 subj. aor. 2 of utpcco.
, Ion for eXy.
, Helice (a proper name).
APPENDIX.
205
'EXt/ean/, Helicon.
cXivvat, to rest.
!Xi, anything twisted.
cXicrao), to turn round.
cXKos, a wound.
cXKvco, to draw.
'EXXcy, Greece.
eXXe'/3opos, hellebore.
v, a Greek.
is, the Hellespont.
c\fj.ivs, a worm.
eXoifu, cXoifj.r}v, opt. aor. 2 act. and
mid. of cupeeo.
^EXo?, Helos (a city).
eXoy, ivet, low ground.
CJJLCV and cpevai, poet, for flvai, inf.
aor. 2 from fy/u.
ffjievos, part. aor. 2 mid. of fy/u.
evoff (xai ej/oy), a year oW.
evorrjs, unity,
evwfju, to clothe one's self in.
(r)s, in order.
co, Ep. gen. of the pers. pron.
3 pers. for ov.
ol, Ep. dat. sing, of pers. pron. ov
for of.
eolo, Ep. gen. from coy for eoO.
cols, dat. pi. from cos.
coprr), a feast,
cos, cf], cov, Ion. and Ep. for os, rj,
, Ion. imp. from
ciro(j.ai, to follow.
CTTTO, seven.
ZpKos, a fence,
fpfta, a prop, support.
fpfjiT}Vva>, to interpret.
^?, Hermes.
, to creep.
(<al (parr)), dew.
es, imp. aor. 2 from tTj/m.
o-/xa, a stalk.
foyios, anything let loose, esp. a
swarm of bees.
fwnepa, evening.
"Eo-Trepos, Hesperus (a proper
name).
eo-o-<Bi/, Ion. for rj
toraa, pf. 2 of to
eo-ra/ca, transit, perf. of tonj/zt.
fovdpfv, effTapfvai, Ep. for eorai/at,
inf. perf. syncop. from to-rjj/u.
, 1 pi. perf. syncop. of
, pi. from
fo-rao-ai/, 3 pi. plpf. syncop. of
eorao-t, 3 pi. perf. syncop. of
eorrare, 2 pi. perf. syncop. of to-rq/u.
c<TTT)Ka, perf. act. from u
, inf. fut. from IO
^Ae hearth.
to entertain hospitably.
e OTO, 3 sing. plpf. pass, of evvvp.i.
cicrrcop, a joe^r.
eratpo?, a comrade.
erepo?, $e o^er.
, at hand, ready.
, to find.
<j)66s, boiled, dressed.
ecu, gen. and ace. sing, from cc
the dawn.
cat, Ion. subj. aor. 2 of trjfju.
ew, dat. from cos, Horn.
206
APPENDIX.
f(o\os, a day old.
toapa, 3 sing. imp. act. from opaeo.
ea>pa/ca, perf. act. from optioo.
W, so long as.
H.
fjpdo-Kot, Lat. pubescere.
77/3?;, manhood,
ripe.
/, Hegemon (a proper name).
'Hyrjaraios, Hegeso2us (a proper
name).
'Hyrjo-ai/Spi'Sa?, Hegesandridas (a
proper name).
'Hyrjvidvag, Hegesianax (a proper
name).
'Hyncrias, Hegesias (apropername).
'Hyrjo-iKXens, Hegesicles (a proper
name).
'Hyrjo-ivovs, Hegesinus (a proper
name).
'H-yj/o-iTnror, Hegesippus (a proper
name).
i, to go before.
, fern, from oe.
to delight.
'H8v\eiov, Mt. Pledylius (in Phocis).
T)8vs, fjdfla, r)8v, sweet.
r]Ka, aor. 1 oftrjfjii.
fJKKTTos, the least.
T?KG>, / am come.
i)AiKL<i, age.
r/AiW, as big as.
r;Xi, in the prime of life.
rjXtos, the sun.
fjXio-Kos, dim. from 77X0?, a little nail.
r)\ns, a nail.
rj/icu, to be set.
epa, day.
fjfjiepos, tamed.
fjfjiTjv, impf. from r
T)p.iovos, a half-ass, i. e. a mule.
, a half.
, perf. pass, from a7rro>.
ia, Ion. for at/ia>Sta.
j a darter.
fjv, ace. sing. fern, from relat. pron.
Off.
fjvia, i<ov, ra, the reins.
i7//a, as, r;, the bitted bridle.
rjviKay adv. when.
T^Trap, the liver.
*Hpa, Juno.
, Hercules.
, Heracon (a proper name).
'Hpeas, Hereas (a proper name).
'HpoSi/cos 1 , Herodicus (a proper
name).
'HpoSoros, Herodotus (a proper
name).
, Her odes (a proper name).
, a hero.
r^o-a, aor. 1 from rJSw.
r^o-ai, 2 sing, from r//xat.
'Ho-atas, lesaias.
Ep. 3 sing. aor. 1 from
rj(reiv, inf. flit, of irj/u.
r)<r6at, inf. from r^/xat.
'Ho-ioSos, Hesiod.
j^o-o, 2 sing, imper. from rj/iai, Horn.
r/eraao/icu, ^0 &e worsted.
rjo-o-tov, to be less.
r^crrat, 3 sing, from
T^O-TO, 3 sing. impf. of
fj(Tv\oS', calm.
fj(TO>, f Ut. Of l?7/U.
"Hcpaio-ro?, Hephaistos.
APPENDIX.
207
lacri, 3 pi. pres. from trjfu for iea<ri.
ipitTKosj Lat. hibiscus, a kind of
marsh-mallow.
I8p6a>, to sweat.
I8pva>, to seat.
idpu, ace. from idpvs for idpara.
tSpwa, pustules.
iSptos, sweat.
ift, 3 sing. impf. Ion. and Att. of
7/M.
if is, iflcra, lev, pres. part, from tr)p.i.
te/iuu, pres. pass, and mid. from fyfu.
te'/ufi/, iepcvai, Ep. pres. inf. from
irjfjLt for tf'j/at.
tcv, JEiol. for larav, 3 pi. impf. from
ir)p.i.
'If pa (vrjaos), Hiera, one of the
Lipari islands.
lepa, a hawk.
icpbs, sacred.
idvG> (tC 40 )? t make to sit, seat.
Irjfju, to set agoing.
iKavbs, able.
, to come, to arrive.
6Tr]s, a suppliant.
2 sing. subj. aor. 2 from
to arrive.
t<o), to come.
i\aos (Att. tXecoy), soothed.
IXdpia, a festival of mirth.
t\ap6s, cheerful.
i\a<r6r]Ti, aor. pass. imp. of l\a-
tXdo-ifo/Mu, to appease, soothe.
i\r)Ka>, to be gracious.
1/j.as, a leathern strap.
apiece of dress.
, longing.
ira, in order that,
'imrias, Hippias.
oQ)!/, Hippocoon.
, Hippocrates.
aKprj, promontory of Hip-
polaus.
, Hippolochus.
vTT], Hippolyte.
ITTTTOS, horse.
tTrra/xat, to fly.
io-Ti;/it, to stand.
'lanaia, Histicea.
los, Histiwus.
, the chief offerer.
'KTTIOV, a sail,
io-ropia, history.
IO-TOS, a ship's mast.
O.
076, rjyf, royf, the demon str. pron.
he, she, it.
68e, iySe, roSe, the demonstr. pron.
Lat. hicce, hsecce, hocce.
68r)y6s, a guide,
oftomopos, a traveller,
odbs, street,
odev, whence,
olov, neut. from ofoy.
oiovavci, for olov av ft, just as if.
olos, a, ov, such as.
oX/cay, merchantman.
oX/cea), to draw.
oX/uoy, a round, smooth stone.
oXoKaure'oo, to bring a burnt-offering.
0X09, whole, entire.
oXcuo-ts, a making ivhole.
, a noise.
208
APPENDIX.
6/LtaX6s, level, smooth.
opdpiov, temple of Jupiter.
o/iapreto, to meet.
opaprrj, adv. together.
6(j.ds, the whole.
6fj,r,yvpts, an assembly.
6/AJ)Xt, of the same age.
"Opijpos, Homer.
hostage.
, a throng of people.
s, similar.
o/iOKXeo>, tO call OUl.
opos, one and the same, common.
6/LtoC, together.
opms, equally.
opo>s, nevertheless.
owX?), a 7oo/.
OTT\OV, implement.
onoQfv, whence.
OTTOI, adv. whither.
cnrolos, of what sort*
OTTOCTOS, /, oi/, as many.
OTTOTCLV, whensoever.
oTroTfpos, which of two.
OTTOU, zt'Aere.
OTTCOS, in w/ia manner.
6paa>, /o see.
op/;ai or opfjai, 2 sing. pres. mid. of
opaco.
op//Lii, ^Eol. and Dor. for 6poo>,
hence inf. opfjv.
REMARK 2. When two words have the same form, but are of dif-
ferent meanings, the ancient Greeks often indicated the difference
by placing a breathing over the vowel or p in the middle of a word ;
thus, fo-fjXaro (aorist of ffcroXXopuu, eVaXXojucu), but tV/jXaro (aorist of
, KOTv\\rjppvros (KOTV\TJ pe'co), but KorvX^pvros (KoruXj/ dpva>).
opTjro or opijro, 3 sing. impf. mid.
of 6pa<u.
6pia>, to divide (as a border),
op/cos, Ae witness of an oath.
6p/zaa>, to se in motion, urge.
op/ifaro, Ion. for cap/^i/ro, 3 pi.
perf. pass, of 6p/uaco.
6p/iea), to fte a anchor.
rj, attack, violent pressure.
to bring to a safe anchorage,
oppos, a necklace,
opos, a boundary, limit,
os, rj, o, who, etc.
6o-?7/iepat, daily,
oaios, hallowed,
oa-os, as great as.
oo-wpai, every hour.
OOTIS, whosoever.
orai/, adv. whenever.
OT, when,
on, for that, because.
&8e, Att. <5i, from o5e, in this wise.
w/itXXa, a kind of game.
&pa, hour, season.
wpatos, beautiful, etc.
wptos, timely.
a>s, adv. /^MS, so, etc.
, adv. eyen a.v, JMS as.
, adv.ybr, so that, in order.
APPENDIX. 209
ACCENT.
THE accents are three. The acute ', the grave \ and the
circumflex ~. The acute can stand only on one of the last
three syllables of a word ; the circumflex, on one of the last
two ; and the grave, only on the last syllable.
In case of a diphthong, the accent stands over the second
VOWel ; thus, Travo-w, ravra, eKCtWj?, *et, etc.
The acute may stand either on a long or a short syllable ;
thus, Tpe'xw, Xoyovs, e'/ceu/ovs. The acute only can stand on a
long penultima, followed by a long ultima : ^KOV^ yAoW^s.
When the Nominative and Accusative of un contracted nouns
are accented on the ultima, said cases are oxytone: fj TI/*,?}, T^V
Ttjar/j/, f) x a P^ r ^ v X a P < *- v i atwv, 6 KapTro?. When a word is
accented on the antepenult, said syllable is always proparoxy-
tone : /^curtAcvovTos.
Words ending in ev and ov, when accented on the ultima,
are perispomensi; thus, e*, TTOV- except tSov, tov, and ov.
When the Vocative of nouns in eus and w of the third de-
clension ends in cv and 01, said case must be perispomenon
if accented on the ultima : o> /foo-iAcu, w aiSoi, w O-OLTT^OI.
When the Genitive and Dative of nouns end with a long
syllable, said cases must be perispomena if accented on the
ultima I r^s TI/A^?, rfj TL/JL^ TOV KapiroV) r<3 KapTrw, rwv TI/XWV, rots
A contract ultima is always perispomenon, if the acute
stood on the penultima before contraction : rt/xw (rt/taw), TrXa-
KOVS (TrXa/coets). Adverbs in w?, if accented on the ultima, are
perispomena: KoAois, vo-e/3oj5.
REMARK 1. The circumflex stands on the Nominative and Accu-
sative of many monosyllabic words ; thus, ypavs, vavs, $ovs, ^ovs, JJLVS,
dpvs, (rOy, ov?, vrvp, criccop, efs, Trap, TTO.V, etc.
REMARK 2. The circumflex stands also on many monosyllabic
adverbs and conjunctions; thus, eu, <ei), o>, au, vvv, ovv, yovv, ^, /xwi/,
Try, not, TroO, nai?, etc.
210 APPENDIX.
In accenting a word, a syllable long by position is treated
as short ; thus, Aei?, rats (but 7rpai9, 7rpay/xa, because the let-
ter a in these words is long not by position, but by nature).
Final at and ot have the effect of short vowels on the accent
of the penult and antepenult : Avovrat, av^pawroi, TroAirat, v^troi,
etc.
Not so, however, in the optative mode: TraiSevot and the
adverb ot/coi, at home.
When the ultima is long, the antepenult is not accented :
di/0pco7rou, avOpw. The Genitives Singular and Plural of
some nouns of the third declension are exceptions, e. g. TroAew?,
TroAecov, TT^ew?, TrT^eofl/.
Primitive words accent the syllable belonging to the root ;
thus, <t'Aos. Derivative words accent the syllable which
specifies or defines; thus, </>iAiKo's, a</>iAos. Hence we have
the following rules:
Whenever a new syllable is prefixed to a word, the accent
is thrown back if the ultima permits it ; thus, Av'w, fXvov.
When a new syllable is affixed to a word, the accent is
thrown forward if the ultima requires it; e. g. 7rapaSeiy/Aa,
Final and ^, after a short vowel, exclude the acute
from the antepenult, but not the circumflex from the penult ;
thus we have ^At, but w/cTo<vAa instead
SPECIAL RULES (FIRST DECLENSION).
Endings.
The following Masculine nouns in 7/5 are of the first declen-
sion:
1. Proper patronymic nouns in 8775 ; thus, 'ArpetS^?, son of
Atreus ; Nco-ropwfy?, son of Nestor.
2. Common nouns in -n/s ; thus, TroAiVry?, a citizen ;
a robber.
3. Nouns (common or proper) compounded with verbs;
APPENDIX. 211
thus, yew/xeV/^s, a geometer ; /^t/SAioTrwA???, a book-seller. Ex-
cept nouns compounded with ^atvo/iat, to appear ; thus, 'A/ot-
oT-o^ai/rys, Aristophanes ; Ac&^an??, Lexiphanes ; and a few
foreign nouns.
4. Nouns compounded with Feminine nouns of the first
declension ; thus, 'OAv/ATnovt/o/s (VLKYJ), a conqueror in the
Olympic games ; 'Apxt&'/o;? (Si'/oy), chief judge.
Accent.
1. Nouns of this declension form the Genitive Plural per-"
ispomenon.
Three masculines have an irregular accent in the Gen. PI.:
X/jcrT?7s, u'surer, Gen. PI. xpW Tlt >v (but xpW T ^ Gen. PI. of
the adjective xPW^ good), x^ ou/I "7^ living or feeding alone,
Gen. PI. xAowwv (but y\oww, Gen. PI. of the adjective yXov-
vos, epith. of gold in Hesychius (Lexicographus), and enprtat,
annual winds, Gen. PI. er^o-tW. So also the Feminine d</>ur/,
anchovy, Gen. PL d<uu>i/ (but d^vwi/, Gen. PI. of the adjective
OL^vrfs, dull).
2. Adjectives whose Masculine is of the third declension
have the Genitive Plural Feminine perispomenon ; thus, 6 -
<0et9, 17 Tv(0ta-a, T<OV ru<0eio-a)v. Adjectives whose Masculine
is of the second declension accent the Genitive Plural Femi-
nine regularly (rule 1st) : 6 ay to?, ot aytot, Ttov dyiW, 17 dyta, at
aytai, TWJ/ dytcuv.
Case-Endings.
1. Nouns ending in a pure or pa and a few proper nouns
like A.rj8a, Leda, TeAa, Gela, <l>tXo/ArJAa, Philomela, 'AvS/oo//,e'<$a,
Andromeda, and contract substantives and adjectives in a
retain the a in all the cases of the Singular number.
2. Masculine nouns in a?, with the exception of the Geni-
tive Singular, follow the same rule.
3. Masculine nouns of this declension form the Accusative
Singular by changing o- of the Nominative to v. The Femi-
nines by affixing v to the Nominative Singular.
212 APPENDIX.
4. Masculine words in 779 form the Vocative Singular in 77.
But nouns in rr)<s and 73-779 and names of nations and words
compounded with TrwAw, to sell, Tptfiw, to rub, /xerpco, to meas-
ure, apx w > t be first, <0i/ov/j,at, to purchase, and Aarpevw, to serve,
form the Vocative Singular in a short ; thus, 7roAn-a (Nom.
7roAiT779, flf citizen) ; yeu>/x,eTpa (Nom. ye<o/AeTp?79, a geometer) ;
/36/3Aio7rwAa (Nom. /^AioTrwAr/s, a book-seller) ; etc.
5. A few Doric nouns in as form their Genitive Singular
in a by omitting the termination o ; thus, HvOayopas TOV Hv@a-
yopa, o Aeon/iSas TOV AewvtSa (from the Doric Gen. HvOayopao,
Acwvi'Sao). In the same way many proper foreign nouns and
many nouns of the Hellenistic Greek form their Genitive Sin-
gular ; thus, TOV 'AwLfia, TOV 'OpoVra.
Quantity of Final a.
The following Feminine words in a have the final a of the
Nominative Singular long :
1. Adjectives whose Masculine is of the second declension;
thus, aytos, sacred, dytoi. Except TreTretpo?, TreVetpa, Lat. matu-
rus, and nouns which suffer contraction in the penultima;
thus, oTio?, 8109, ola (of Jupiter), holy, pure; Xii'o?, Xio?, Xia
(of or from Chios), Chian.
2. Paroxy tone nouns in ta ; thus, KOLKLO., wickedness ; a-o^ia,
wisdom.
3. Dissyllabic nouns in eta and nouns in eta derived from
verbs ending in evw; thus, /tveca, memory ; ySao-iAct'a, kingdom
4. All oxytone nouns ; thus, x tt / a/ ? jy > ^-a^ta, speech.
5. Dissyllabic nouns in pa which have a vowel in the pen-
ultima; thus, wpa, hour / 07Jpa, ?Ae chase. Except Trpaipa, a
ship's prow ; x^ T p ^^ earthen pot ; o-</>vpa, a hammer.
6. Paroxytone nouns in oa and ca; thus, xp'> ^Ae skin;
Trod, grass ; ^Aed, a^ apple-tree; Teyea, Tegea.
7. Nouns of more than ^00 syllables in ata ; thus, eAata, ^Ae
olive-tree ; Kepata, Aorw. Except the names of a few cities;
thus, 3><oK<ua, Phoccea ; nAarata, Plataea.
APPENDIX. 213
The following words have the a short :
1. Feminine adjectives whose Masculine is of the third
declension ; thus, Tras, Trao-a, every (whole}.
2. All disyllabic nouns in <ua; thus, /xata, good mother ;
ypcua, an old woman.
3. Common nouns in a which are derived from common
nouns in cvs; thus, iepeu?, Upeia, a priestess ; 'AAe^avSpcus, 'AAe-
^avSpeia, Alexandria.
4. Abstract nouns in ta which are derived from adjectives
in 779 of the third declension; thus, evyevijs, evyeVeia, nobility.
5. Abstract nouns in ota derived from adjectives in oos, ovs ;
thus, ewoos, evvov<s, cwom, ^ooc? toiT?.
6. Substantives in via ; thus, pviay a ^/. So also the oxy-
tone nouns opywa, strictly the length of the outstretched arms ;
ayvta, a way.
1. All nouns which in the Genitive Singular change a into
17; thus, Mo9cra, Muse; yXwo-o-a, a tongue.
8. Dissyllabic nouns in pa which have a diphthong in the
penultima; thus, o-^atpa, a sphere; Tretpa, a trial. Except
at$pd, a clear (bright) sky ; $ai'Spa, Phazdra; avpd, breeze;
Aavpd, cm alley ; o-avpd, a lizard.
9. Nouns in rpta and retpa derived from nouns in r^s and
TpML and all proparoxytone nouns ; thus, Trooy-nys, TrotTirpta, a
poetess; a-oar^p, o-wretpa, frequ. an epith. of protecting god-
desses; Tpa7rea.
SPECIAL^RULES (SECOND DECLENSION).
Accent.
1. Nouns compounded with voos and TrAoo?, even when con-
tracted, are paroxytone ; thus, TreptVAoo?, TrcpiVAov?, TrcptTrAooi',
TreptVAov, & sailing round ; ewoos, cvvov?, cwoov, ewov, kind-
hearted. The termination oa, however, always remains un-
contracted : cwoa, cvTrAoa.
REMARK. "OySooy, /Ae eighth, and Xt#odo?, a stone-mason, dre never
contracted ; but aiTi'oo?, hostile, dopvgoos, spear-polishing, and
214 APPENDIX.
a pitcher, are contracted ; thus, dvrit-oos, diwiovs, dvri6ov, dvrtt-ov,
Trpo^oov, Trpoxov. These nouns, however, sometimes drop o of the
stem ; thus, avrios, ftopvl-os-
Peculiarities of Gender.
1. Many nouns in changing their gender change their sig-
nification, e. g. 6 vyos, the yoke, rj vyo?, the scale ; 6 ITTTTOS, a
horse, rj iTnros, a mare.
2. Many nouns of the Masculine or Feminine gender in
the Singular are Neuter in the Plural; thus, 6 SCCT/AO?, TO.
z, fetters ; fj KthcvOos, TO. KeAcv#a, a road (ways) ;
"
SPECIAL RULES (THIRD DECLENSION).
Accent.
1. Monosyllabic substantives are oxytone, e. g. ^v, a
month; Orjp, a wild beast; ^e/p, a hand. Nouns, however,
which have lengthened their stem-vowels, or whose Nomina-
tives are contracted from barytone or oxytone nouns, are per-
ispomena; thus, //,vo?, /xvs, a mouse; Trvpo?, 7n}p, fire; (ooaro?,
w?), ovs, the ear. Two nouns, TO (fxp> (from <^a>t9, a man) and
8as (from Sai?, afire-brand), are oxytone.
REMARK. The vowel which results from contraction, if accented,
must be perispomenon ; thus, yca-yi), earth. ^Except, (a) when the
vowel stands before a long ultima ; (b) when it stands before the
antepenult ; and (c) when the second of the contracted vowels is
oxytone, e. g. eVraeoy, e<rra>y.
2. Monosyllabic words of this declension accent the Geni-
tive and Dative of all numbers on the case-ending; the other
cases are accented on the stem. Except,
(a) Participles of one syllable, which always accent the
Stem, e. g. 0a5, 0eWo9, Own, Oevra.
(b) The Genitive Plural of the following nouns : Trat? a
boy, girl, Trai'San/; rj Sa?, torch, SaSwv; rj <ok, blister,
Kpa?, the head (Nom. obsolete), Kparan/; ofo, ear, dmm/;
a slave; Tpw?, a Trojan, T/xowv; TO ^>ais, light, ^XOTCOJ/; dws, the
APPENDIX. 215
jackal, 0oW ; 6 o-/J?, moth, o-eW. The word <<OTOOV (of men)
has for its Nom. Sing, c/>w?, Gen. Sing. ^WTOS.
(c) Some words which have been contracted from disyl-
labic stems, e. g. cap, spring, Gen. capos or ^pos, Dat. eapt or f/pi.
4. Nouns whose final stem-letter is 8 are oxytone ; thus,
eATi-t?, Ao/?e, eATrt'Sos. Except the noun cpts, strife, cptSo?, and
Feminine common nouns in ns, whose Masculine ends in
thus, 6 Trpoc/^T/;?, prophet, rj
Adjectives.
Adjectives are either of three endings, of two, or of one.
The following adjectives in 05 are of three endings:
(a) Verbal in ros and TCOS ; thus, ACKTOS, rj, 6V, chosen.
(b) Adjectives in i/cos, Aos, vos, po?, and Aco?, e. g. voyu-iKo?,
IK!;, tKov, a lawyer / o-ty^Ao?, A-j, Aov, silent; Setvo?, vrj, vov, fear-
ful; awrxpos, pa, poV, causing shame; etc.
(c) Comparatives and superlatives ; thus, AvTr^porepo?, orepa,
orepov; AvTTTjpoTaTOs, ordrrj, orarov, from AvTnypos, sorrowful.
Except a few superlatives which are found of two termina-
tions among poets and Attic writers ; thus, Svo-eK^oAwraros 17
AoKpis (Thuc. e' 101), TT/V \nrarov o-PX^ (Dion. Hal. 'Pv/x. ap^.
r' 1), oAowraros 63^ (Od. 8, 442).
The following adjectives in 05 are of two endings:
(a) Compounds and those which are derived from verbs
already compounded ; thus, 6 /cat 17 OO-KOTTOS TO aorKoirov, impru-
dent.
(b) Positive and comparative adjectives in wi/: 6 /cat rj ev-
Sat/xwv TO evSatjuov, happy, prosperous.
(c) Many adjectives compounded from substantives in t?,
v?, and ovs; thus, 6 /cat y ev^apt?, TO c^x a P l charming ; 6 /cat 17
TroA^TTov?, TO 7roAv7row, many-footed.
(d) Words compounded with ye'Acos and Kepa?, which are
also declined according to the second Attic declension ; thus,
o Kat 17 TroAvyeAxoc, TO TToAvyeJW, rov TroAvyeAw Kai iroAvyeAwTO?,
laughing much.
216 APPENDIX.
The following adjectives are of one ending:
(a) Adjectives which have been compounded with sub-
stantives keep the latter unchanged even after composition ;
thus, 6 /cat 77 aVais-, childless; /xaKpo^etp, long-armed.
REMARK. The Genitive and Dative Plural of these adjectives are
found among the poets in the Neuter gender also.
Feminine Endings of Adjectives in os.
The following adjectives, in os of three endings form their
Feminine :
(a) In t), if there is no vowel or p before the termination ;
thus, ctya0os, aya&J, kind.
() In a, if they end in a pure or in pos, poos, and pcos ; , thus,
ayios, dyia, holy j Ka#apds, /ca#apa, proper, dean.
Neuter Endings.
Adjectives in os form their neuter in ot/; thus KaAo's, /caXi},
KaXov, good. The following form their neuter in o:
(a) aAAos, aXXrj, aAAo, another; os, $, o, who, which; avros,
avrrj, avrd, self (Lat. ipse) ; CKCIVOS, tKetViy, eKetvo, there (Lat.
ille) ; OVTOS, avr?7, TOVTO, this, that.
Demonstratives of quality, quantity, and age form their
neuter in the following manner : TOO-OVTOS, roa-avrr], roa-omo(v),
such (in quantity or number); rotoOros, roicurny, Totovro(i/),
such (in quality) ; -njAiKovros, T^XtKavTTy, TT)\LKOVTO(V), such (in
age or size).
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