Full text of "The modern homestead : its arrangement and construction"

See other formats

THE

MODERN HOMESTEAD

ITS arrangeme:

AND CONSTRUCTICM'-^'**'!

RICHARD HENDERSON

MS''

'.'v'> ^

ft*>S

>«;'v:vi^;v'./;-:v.

kr:^ ■-/;>;■,.■■ :

V ' ■-

THE ESTATE LIBRARY SERIES.

THE MODERN HOMESTEAD

BV PERMISSION. THIS BOOK IS
DEDICATED TO

HIS GRACE THE DUKE OF PORTLAND,

WHOSE ESTATES.

BOTH IN ENGLAND AND SCOTLAND,

LIKE THOSE OF MANY OTHER LANDOWNERS,

ARE CHARACTERISED BV

WELL-APPOINTED AND EFFICIENT HOMESTEADS..

THE

MODERN HOMESTEAD

ITS ARRANGEMENT AND CONSTRUCTION.

RICHARD HENDERSON,

MEMBER (by EXAMINATION) OF THE ROYAL AGRICULTURAL SOCIETY OF ENGLAND,

THE HIGHLAND AND AGRICULTURAL SOCIETY OF SCOTLAND,

AND THE SURVEYORS' INSTITUTION.

AUTHOR OF " THE YOUNG ESTATE MANAGERS GUIDE. "

WITH INTRODUCTION BY

JAMES MACDOXALD, F.R.S.E.,

SECRETARY OF THE HIGHLAND AND AGRICULTURAL SOCIETY OF SCOTLAND.

THE ESTATE LIBRARY SERIES.

LONDON :

THE COUNTRY GENTLEMEN'S ASSOCL\TION, LTD.,

i6, COCKSPUR STREET, PALL M.\LL, SAY.

HRAHBUKV, AGNKW, & CO. LD., PKINTKHS,
LONDON AND TONBRIDGE.

INTRODUCTORY NOTE.

There is need — and in many cases there is room — for greater economy
in providing the buildings necessary for agricultural holdings. At the
present day neither the owner nor the occupier of land can afford to
spend money lavishly or thoughtlessly in any form of farm equipment.
The time for lordly estate or farm management has gone past, probably
never to return. Even when the strictest economy is observed it is no
easy matter for landowners or farmers to draw from land anything like
a reasonable return for their capital employed upon it. With these
significant circumstances in view, one all the more heartily welcomes
the appearance of such a work as Mr. Henderson offers to the public
in the volume entitled " The Modern Homestead."

For the preparation of this volume Mr. Henderson has exceptional
qualifications. His tastes, training and experience have all combined
to fit him for such an undertaking. He is familiar with the numerous
types of homesteads to be seen upon present-day farms, and has made
it his business to study their peculiar features, their weak points, and
their strong. He has had extensive and varied practical experience
both in the erection of new homesteads and in the repairing and
remodelling of old. Armed with this knowledge and guided by a clear
and commendable conception of the principles which should be upper-
most in the minds of modern farm architects, he set himself to the
preparation of a work which cannot fail to be of great service both to
owners and occupiers of land.

An outstanding feature in "The Modern Homestead" is its con-
sistent and thoroughly wholesome inculcation of the principle of the
strictest and soundest economy. Unnecessary or unremunerative out-
lay of money is carefully guarded against at every point. A minimum
expenditure, consistent with efficiency, is an object which Mr. Henderson
has kept constantly in view. Economy in labour is another point of
prime importance in the designing of farm homesteads, and to this
also Mr. Henderson has given careful attention.

The author is a skilful draughtsman and has done well to make free
use of this accomplishment. The many excellent sketches and plans
it contains enhances greatly the practical usefulness of the book.

JAMES MACDONALD.

PREFACE.

It is undeniable that much inconvenience results to agriculture in
general on account of the want of system displayed throughout the
country in the arrangement of farm buildings. Besides this incon-
venience, which means increased labour to the occupiers, there is often
discomfort to the animals to be reckoned with ; and sometimes in
addition there is direct loss to the proprietors in the erection of buildings
for which there is no need. The reason of this is not far to seek.
Trained architects are seldom called upon in connection with farm
buildings, and when they are, their want of touch with rural matters
leads them astray. Indeed, they are usually the greatest sinners in the
way we refer to. Failing their assistance, the property manager takes
the matter in hand himself. In the majority of cases, however, he has
not had the training or undergone the experience requisite to enable
him to do the work satisfactorily. He may have a subordinate whose
duty it is to attend to the buildings on the estate, but as a rule that
official will have acquired his skill from an architect, and like the latter,
will not be fully in sympathy with agricultural subjects. There are
of course architects well qualified to deal with estate work, no matter
how elementary to the profession it may happen to be. There are also
estate agents possessed of the double qualification of intimacy with
the requirements of farms and a knowledge of building that is needed
in the planner of efficient farm homesteads. And where estates have
employment for clerks of works some of these are w^ell fitted to
identify themselves with the special requirements of country life, and
to leave their mark for the good of the district in which their duties
lie. But these only serve to prove the case we started with — that,
taking the country as a whole, there are few farm homesteads to be
met with that approach perfection in their own peculiar line. The
generality of them point to a want of aim in their arrangement, and a
disregard of simple sanitary laws. Agent, occupier, and country
tradesman seem all to have had a hand in the promiscuous adding of
house to house or building to building and the jamming of shedding
into every available corner, or the leaning it against any clear
wall space.

It is only right to consult the occupier with regard to any accommodation

viii PREFACE.

that is about to be provided at the homestead. The buildings will be
there, however, long after he has gone over to the majority; therefore
it is advisable to keep this in view when arranging for their erection.
Many tenants may have to make use of the homestead, but it can
serve only one farm. What may come up to the notions of one tenant
may not to any of the others. It follows, then, that it is hardly possible
to make the original set of buildings suitable to the purposes, either
real or fancied, of a series of tenants, and that each change of occupancy
implies alterations and additions to the available housing. Still, where
the necessary skill is forthcoming a good deal can be done towards
minimising these periodical outlays in answer to the wishes of fresh
lessees. There is a type of homestead or farm-steading that is peculiar
to each of the different agricultural districts of Great Britain. If this
be carefully noted and followed out when a new place is about to be
established, there is less chance of many calls being made for future
alterations on a homestead so arranged than with one that has
evolved on no fixed principle. In Scotland, for instance, there are
but three leading types of homesteads — that of the arable land on
the east side of the country, that of the dairying tracts on the west,
and that peculiar to the sheep farm proper. We may find each of
them blended with one or other of the remaining pair according to
circumstances, but these three are easily capable of differentiation.
To begin with, therefore, if one keeps close to the single characteristic
type of his district, or to the admixture of the pair that may otherwise
apply, he is not far from the mark. A homestead erected on these
lines lends itself easy of adaptation to the limited demand for change
in arrangement that is likely ever to arise. It is possible even to lay
down a single type that is capable of including the strictly arable-
farm one of the east coast — the Caithness " square," the " toon " of the
north-east, the "mains" of the Lothians, and the " on stead " of the
Border Counties and Northumberland — and the one devoted specially
to dairying.

But these are matters that we shall seek to demonstrate as the body
of our work proceeds. Our present object is to lend a helping hand to
those who are in search of guidance on questions of the kind. A lead
in this respect is not as yet readily available. The branch of architec-
ture involved therein is, as we have said, usually so intermittent in its
calls on the professional exponent of the art as to be hardly worth
his while to devote full attention thereto. And the layman who has
had opportunity to master the subject seldom will take to print to
enlighten his less experienced fellows. There are not awanting in
this connection, as in other departments, instructors who have more of
the fluency of the ready writer than the wit of the man of experience
to recommend their productions. More stone than bread, hoAvever,
is generally found in their baskets. We claim to have had rather

PREFA CE. ix

exceptional opportunities of becoming acquainted with the subject, and
in the following pages seek in a plain way to put, more especially,
though not solely, young enquirers on the right track for picking up
some knowledge of the underlying principles for themselves, so that
they may in future be able to act in accordance therewith. The
various diagrams relating to the actual work of building construction
at the homestead we have purposely made simple and easy, in order
that beginners may not be deterred from venturing forward on their
own account.

If we succeed in some measure in helping either to lessen or make
more efficient the outlay on the part of proprietors, to lessen the too
frequent inconvenience and simultaneously reduce the labour bill of
occupiers, and at the same time do something towards increased comfort
and health of the live stock, we shall have done our little in the
furtherance of the interests of the parent industry.

RICHARD HENDERSON.

^jst July. 1902.

CONTENTS.

CHAPTER I.

THE ESSENTIALS OF A GOOD HOMESTEAD.

Interests affected in its erection — Landlord's interest — Tenant's interest — The interests
of the two almost identical — Economy in building never to be pressed at the
expense of efficiency — In what manner our homesteads might have developed
had the reaping machine evolved on certain lines — Next to economy and efficiency
in the erection of the homestead comes the easy staffing of the place — Plan I. (for
the corn-growing and cattle-feeding farm) — It affords a suitable type of home-
stead for British farming generallj^ — Conditions that govern choice of site of the
farm homestead — The leading features of the plan — How the plan might be
modified — Plan II. (for the partly-dairy farm) — Plan III. (for the dairy farm
proper — Plan IV. (for the sheep farm) ...... pp. i — 20

CH.\PTER II.

THE WALLS.

The materials for their construction — Stone — Brick, wood, and iron — The dressing
given to the stones — The founding of the walls — Concrete in some cases a valu-
able aid — The foundation trenches — The reason why walls must be built plumb
— Ordinary mortar — Its preparation — The "setting" or hardening of mortar —
Portland cement — Arden lime— Building stone walls — Rubble work — Best class
of stones for the purpose — Finishing of corners and of door and window openings —
Lintels — Sills — Damp course — Thickness of the walls — Headers or throughbands
— Bedding the stones — Bond in building as exemplified in brickwork — Standard
size of bricks — Pointing the outer face of walls .... //■ 21 — 44

CHAPTER III.

THE ROOFS : THEIR FRAMEWORK.

Less choice of materials for roofing than for building — The hard-woods — The soft
woods — British forestry of small moment in the timber market — Some of the
positions where home-grown timber can be advantageously used at the home-
stead— Fir and pine wood in general — Red pine — The seasoning of wood for
building purposes — How wood forms — The ordinary Scottish or " couple " roof of
the homestead — The principles involved in its construction — The pitch of roofs
— Size of the spars of the common roof — Some of the disadvantages of this class
of roof — The "principal " roof better — The wall-plate — The roof-truss or principal
rafter — The piecing together of the principal roof — An iron king-post substituted
for one of wood — Another sort of roof — Sound, economy to fill up the angle
formed between wall-head and roofing-boards — Advisable to plane all interior
exposed wood surfaces ....... ■• //• 45 — 69

j^ii CONTENTS.

CHAPTER IV.

THE roofs: their covering.

What the outer covering of a roof has to face-Wood alone not fit for the ordeal-
Which of the metals are— Slate the best natural material for the purpose— The
basis for the attachment of slates— Roofing-boards for slates-The admission of
light by way of the root— A suitable size of roof-light— The advantages of the
roof-light — Other operations preparatory to slating— The eaves-gutters— No
building should be without them-The manner of fitting up the eaves-gutters—
The centre gutter to be dispensed with wherever possible — The valley, the
flank and the piend-The securing of lead on the roof-Cast-iron centre gutters
-The construction of the valley -The raggle-The junctions with chimneys-
The fewer breaks in the roof-line the easier is the roof maintained watertight—
Not wise to range two buildings together— The choice of slates-The slate nails
—The manner of arranging the slates on the roof— The lap or " cover " of the
slates— The tilt or "bell-cast" of the slates— The finishing of the ridges and
piends— The finish at the gables //■ 70—95

CHAPTER V.

FLOORS AND DRAINS.

The ordinary available flooring materials— What is required of a first-class flooring
material— Portland cement concrete one of the best materials for farm floors-
Tar macadam very suitable in some cases— The method of laying tar macadam
—The method of laying concrete— Other materials and how to deal with them—
Solid walls and concrete floors keep rats at bay— Wood floors— The sleepers, or
floor joists -The flooring-boards— Ventilation beneath the wood floor to be
unstinted— Doorsteps— Overhead floors— A combined floor and ceiling— The
drains— Two sets of drains required at the homestead— The drain-pipes and
method of laying them — The rain-water drains— The sewage drains— The ter-
minus of the sewage drain to be either in the dungstead or in a liquid-manure
tank— The liquid-manure tank //. 96— 115

CHAPTER VL

DOORS, WINDOWS AND VENTILATORS.

The door styles and lintel — The arch stronger than the lintel for the doorway — The
wood beam as lintel — The iron girder as lintel — Fitting up the doors : the hinged
large door — The door on wheels — Hanging the smaller doors — Mounting the
sliding-door — Various types of doors — The sliding-door rails — Other fittings of
the sliding-door — Modifications of the door— Handles, latches, locks and bolts —
W' indows^The ordinary sash window rather at a disadvantage at the homestead
— Casement windows — Iron-framed windows — Ventilators : the common kinds
at the homestead — The double-horned zinc ventilator — Craig's ventilator —
Taylor's ventilator — Fresh air inlets — The fresh air inlets ought to be controll-
able— A simple method of accomplishing this — How the ridge ventilator may
be controlled if considered necessary ...... //. 116 — 142

CHAPTER VII.

SANITATION AT THE HOMESTEAD.

What sanitation at the homestead implies — The two classes of live stock that suffer
most from defective sanitation — Why the cows are apt to be the greater sufferers —

CONTENTS. xiii

How the seeds of bovine disease are spread in badly ventilated byres — Our atmo-
sphere— Its composition— Oxygen — Nitrogen— Other substances contained in the
atmosphere — Carbon di-oxide— Ammonia and the oxides of nitrogen — Moisture
— Microscopic organisms and dust — Fresh air in many ways essential within the
farm buildings — The difficulties in the way of providing this— Artificial heat
recommended by some sanitarians for application to byres — This only admissible,
however, in the case of the cows yielding milk — No need for it where other classes
of stock are concerned — The usual condition of the atmosphere within the stable
— County bye-laws with regard to farm sanitation —Why the central authorities
have sought to regulate the size of cowhouses — Some of the anomalies which
have arisen out of that interference ...... pp. 143 — 162

CHAPTER VHI.

THE WATER SUPPLY : IN THEORY.

Good water and plenty of it essential at the homestead — Absolutely pure water not
met with in nature — The composition of water — The three physical conditions
of water — Latent heat as exemplified in the case of water — Water as the universal
solvent — The suspensory matters in water — What happens to rain when it
touches earth — What the sea receives back in the rain-water it gives forth to the
atmosphere — What surface water generally contains — Filtration not very practic-
able at the farm — Dissolved matters more to be considered than substances in
suspension — Lime the most abundantly represented of dissolved matters — Hard
water and soft water — Temporary hardness and permanent hardness of water —
The solvent powers of water increased by the presence of carbon di-oxide therein
— The chemist should be consulted when doubt exists over a new water supply —
A rough-and-ready way of gauging the hardness of water — The presence of
organic matter in water to be viewed with suspicion— Examples of water
analyses pp. 163 — 181

CHAPTER IX.

THE WATER SUPPLY : IN PRACTICE.

The rainfall on the roofs as a source of supply — The construction of the storage
tank — Not very practicable to annex a filter to the tank — The size of the tank —
A pump a necessary adjunct of the tank — The ordinary horse and duck pond —
How it may be turned to better account — The surface well — Water from a bore —
Boring for water on the small scale referred to usually rather uncertain in
results — Gravitation supplies — Collecting water from surface springs — The
nature of the collecting tank — Its construction — How to place it in order to
lessen digging — The water pipes leading to the tank — The supply pipes : lead
piping — Iron piping — The effects of soil and of water on iron pipes — The effects
of the same on lead piping — Points to be observed in laying supply pipes —
Sometimes practicable to apply the syphon to the purposes of the water supply —
The ordinary lift pump — Providing water in the fields . pp. 182 — 203

CHAPTER X.

"power" at THE HOMESTEAD.

The forces available for power at the homestead — The first principles involved in the
subject — The force of gravity — The centre of gravity of a body — Density of a body
— Specific gravity of a body — The action of bodies under the force of gravity
— Newton's first law of motion — The forces that bear upon bodies in motion —
The momentum of a moving body — Newton's second law — Newton's third law
— No loss of force in Nature, but easily convertible from one form to another —

xiv CONTENTS.

Man's first machines for turning forces to his service— The pulley— The lever —
The inclined plane— The screw— The wedge — What man was enabled to do
with these simple machines— Force derived from heat— The expansive property
of gases a source of much power— The use of coal in this connection— The
tendency of heat and force alike to come to a state of uniformity or dead level-
Summing up— The retardative effect of friction in machines— What a horse-
power represents ....•••■ //• 204 — 226

CHAPTER XI.

•'power" at the homestead — continued.

Power now in demand for many more purposes than formerly at the homestead —
Horse-power now all but obsolete — The advantages of water-power — The
three modifications of the ordinary water-wheel —The undershot wheel— The
overshot wheel — The breast wheel — The mechanical advantage of the ordinary
water-wheel — A drawback of the water-wheel — The turbine water-wheel — A
representative form of the turbine — The wind-wheel — The water-ram— The
expansive force of gases as power — Steam — The steam-engine — Engine boilers —
The Cornish boiler — Combined engine and boiler — Locomotive engines — Steam
for heating, scalding, and cooking purposes -The petroleum-vapour or oil-
engine— The gas-engine — The differences in principle between these engines —
The piston and crank of the engine — The fly-wheel ••■//■ 227 — 255

CHAPTER XH.

THE BARN RANGE.

The barn range the centre of the group — The position of the barn door — The usual
arrangements for thrashing — The itinerant thrasher — The position of the fixed
thrashing mill — The barn windows — The ground floor— The upper or granary
floor — The straw-house attached to the barn — The style of roof best adapted to
the range — The granary — Side ventilators for the granary —The finishing of the
roof — Light to the granary — Ridge ventilators to the granary — The granary
stair — Conveniences for filling and emptying the granary — Trimming the joists
for hatchways in the granary floor— Provision for loading and disloading carts
in connection with the granary — Outer stairs and doors of granaries generally
troublesome — Arrangements for the delivery of food-stuffs by gravitation from the
granarv — The buildings subsidiary to the barn — Different plans of arranging
these buildings — Their construction : the walls — The roof — The floors — Light
and ventilation .......... pp. 256 — 278

CHAPTER Xin.

BUILDINGS WEST OF THE BARN.

The nature of these buildings — How the cow fares for room in her winter quarters —
The byre floor — The grip — The lairs to be as level as practicable — Underdrains
in the byre to be avoided as much as possible — The byre passages — The byre
with a central feeding passage — The single byre with one passage — The double
byre with single passage — Communication between byre and barn — The byre
fittings ; the troughs — The travises — The wood travis — The various methods of
arranging and fixing the posts — The usual size of the travis — Travises with iron
posts — A fodder-rack seldom fitted up in the cow byre — The air space of byres —
The floor space — Byres for larger cows than Ayrshires — Byres for fattening
cattle— Variance in the methods of housing fattening cattle very much a matter

CONTENTS XV

of custom — The loose-box advantageous — The arrangement of loose-boxes — Their
manner of construction— Supplying water in the byres and boxes — How the
single row of boxes may be doubled ...... pp. 279 — 302

CHAPTER XIV.

BUILDINGS EAST OF THE BARN.

The power or motor-house — The placing of the doorways thereof — The floor of the
motor-house — The implement shed — Other purposes to which the implement
shed and the hospital may be occasionally put : the dipping of sheep for
instance — Arrangement of the inner doorways of this range — Too many inner
doorways often a source of danger during an outbreak of fire — The outer door-
ways of the implement shed— The outer doorway of the motor-house— The roof
of these buildings — The roof of the shed supplementary to the motor-house — The
sheep-dipping tank — The dimensions of the tank — A drain from the bottom of
the tank almost necessary — The formation of the drain— How it may be trapped
— How to deal with the effluent from the tank — The hospital — The loose-box —
The hay-house — A hay-shed in connection therewith — The stable : the floor
thereof — The drains — The dip of the floor — The usual form of travis — An
improved form of travis — The stall fittings — .\ hay-loft over the stable not at all
desirable — The ridge ventilators — The harness-room — -The cart-shed — The odd
place //. 303—326

CHAPTER XV.

THE DAIRY BUILDINGS, PIG-HOUSE, AND DUNGSTEAD.

The position of the dairy buildings with regard to the other houses — The scullery —
The vat-room, or churning-room — A drain for leading the whey to the pig-houses
— The milk-room — The floor of the milk-room — The walls — The windows — The
ventilation of the room — The shelves — The ceiling — The cheese-room — The
side walls and the ceiling thereof — The windows — The ventilation of the room —
All well-appointed cheese-rooms nowadays fitted up with reversible shelves — A
description of these shelves — Heating the cheese-room — The pig-house — May
be either double or single ; and how arranged — A good kind of trough — The pig-
house floor — The partitions between the pens — The pen doors— The dungstead —
The formation of the bottom or floor — A liquid manure tank a desirable accessory
to the dungstead — .\ cheap and simple method of roofing the dungstead.

PP- 327—350
CHAPTER XVI.

THE CATTLE COURTS, THE HAY AND SHEAF SHEDS, AND THE SHEEP "FANKS."

The cattle courts require a favourable exposure — The number and size of the courts
at the homestead ruled by the amount of straw available — The construction of
the courts of an inexpensive nature — No artificial flooring needed — A section of
a court and shed — The arrangement for supplying the wants of the animals in
the courts — Food stores in connection with the courts — Supplying water in the
courts — The fittings of the court shed — The troughs — The fodder-racks — The
court gate — The kind of timber that may be used in the construction of the shed
— The hay and sheaf sheds : home-grown wood eftective as pillar or post — The
fixing of the posts — Height of the sheds — Their width — Their roofs — An impor-
tant point is to keep the roof as clear of ties as possible — The iron pillar — Com-
mon tj-pes of sheds — The slated shed usuall)- hampered with roofing timbers —
A little ventilation in the roof beneficial — Eaves-gutters and conductors essential
— The lining of parts of the sheds — The position of the sheds relative to the
homestead — Other kinds of shedding at the homestead — Conveniences for the
handling of sheep — The fanks or mustering-place of the sheep — The fence of
the outer enclosure — The pen divisions — The floor of pen and alley //. 351 — 375,

fi-

9-
8-

• -
a-

vn O

i_i

£0

I M I

Plan I

•c

•

if)

<a-

! >>

1 o

i 31

'^i

n i

•a 1

"~i

J |_£LJI

=PP=P°P

3L-----u:"V.--:-::i|:T-r:i-:|:-:j--

i^bttK

Plan III.

Plan IV.

THE MODERN HOMESTEAD.

CHAPTER I.

The Essentials of a Good Homestead.

J The interests involved in the planning and erection of

affected in a farm homestead or steading are threefold, affecting as

Its erection. ^j-^gy Jq landlord and tenant and the domesticated animals.

On the proprietor's behalf, one has to take care that the set of buildings

is in keeping with the requirements of the holding. The same, of

course, holds good with the tenant. If the liousing does not enable

him unrestrictedly to make the most out of the farm something is

wrong. And concurrently with these runs the welfare of the animals

whose accommodation is provided for. It goes without saying that if

they are not comfortable a full return cannot be expected from them.

As regards the landlord's interests, the first principle

Landlord's involved is to guard against the erection of what is
interest. " ^

not absolutely necessary to the profitable working of

the farm. Building is an expensive item in the estate accounts, and
requires a tight hand over it. It ought always to be well done ; but it
can be simple as well as thorough. The second leading principle is the
arrangement or grouping of the respective houses in such a way that
the purpose of each can be slightly modified at any time to meet the
demands of prospective tenants. When this is done much unneces-
sary intermittent outlay in alterations and additions is obviated. Some
system is then being followed, and an occasional improvement may
easily be effected either without sacrificing work already completed
or marring the symmetry of the whole. In this direction, more
than any other, perhaps, does the special skill of the estate manager
reveal itself.

Up to this point the interests of landlord antl tenant are

Tenant's nearly identical. So long as it answers the end, the tenant

interest.

is pleased with something that is strong and substantial

and that calls seldom for repair. He can hardly, however, be expected

to have an eye towards the adaptive character of the homestead, such as

M.H. B

2 THE MODERN HOMESTEAD.

it is natural to look for in the proprietor. Provided the place meets the
wants of the tenant in possession, he is content witli things as they are.
How it may affect his successors in the premises is not his business.
^Vhat he is most concerned about is the suitability of the housing to
his method of working the farm. This implies that the steading can
be used by the tenant at the least expenditure of labour practicable
under the circumstances that apply to places of the kind. Further,
th.it it be htted to accommodate his stock, whether live or dead— both
animals and implements— without detriment to either.

The interests of landlord and tenant thus being almost alike
IhVJ'^^J^^^^ in the matter of homestead accommodation, and those of
almost the tenant and his stock being wholly so, it therefore

identical. comes about that the interests of the three are not very

antagonistic. What room for difference there is lies between the first-
mentioned two. It goes no farther either than the occupier, in some
cases, seeking for more accommodation than the landlord thinks fit to
burden the farm with. It may sound strange in some ears to use the
word " burden " in this connection. But what direct return is ever
available for outlay on the buildings proper of the farm ? Does the
efficient nature of the steading ever induce the off'erer for the lease of
a farm to allow an extra shilling per acre therefor ? We have heard
theorists say that such is the case, but we never came across it on the
part of the rent-paying farmer. It cuts the other way occasionally, as
some of us can tell from experience ; at least, it affords a certain class
of offerer an opening to belittle the advantages of a farm possessed of a
well-appointed set of buildings (these implying, as he will maintain, much
cost in upkeep) if negotiations necessitate interviews between parties.
We do not wish to infer that the farm is as valuable when the steading
is unserviceable and out of repair as when it is in good order and well
adapted to the development of the place. All the same, it must be
apparent to any one that in a business of this nature there is ample
room for the exercise of the maxim that induces efficiency with
economy.

We would not unduly press economy — never, at any

Economy rate, at the expense of efficiency. Nor would we be too

in Building . i • r i • ^^

never to be conservatne on the pomt oi accommodation. On

pressed at the contrary, we are inclined to think that custom

of Efficiency, deals rather hardly with the tenant in this respect. The

conditions under which agriculture is prosecuted have

changed very much in recent years, and are likely to keep changing.

Labour is so much dearer now that it has to be economised in every

shape and form. Farm implements are now more costly tlian they

used to be, and proper storage room must be afforded them at the

steading. And every opportunity should be given to the tenant to

enable him to secure his crops as quickly and as cheaply as possible.

THE ESSENTIALS OE A GOOD HOMESTEAD. 3

Shedding should be at the service of his crops as well as his animals.
When labourers were plentiful and easy to pay, the storing of hay and
corn in ricks was looked upon as the one method available ; but now,
when harvesters are in some places hardly to be met with, the farmer
who has neither hay nor sheaf shed at his disposal is at times sadly
handicapped in the ingathering of his crops. He is able with the help
of mowers, tedders, and self-binders, to face the difficulty of se\ering
them from the ground ; but when it comes to the time of carrying them
home and ricking them in the stackyard, he is often at his wits' end how
to overcome the work. He is obliged sometimes to build a range of
stacks in the newly-reaped cornfields, which seems always to us a
slovenly proceeding. In fact, the ricking of hay and corn at the
steading, other than in sheds of some sort, will, in our opinion, soon
be seen at none but those farms that are held from and by the least
enterprising landlords and tenants. Affairs may be hardly ripe yet
for that state of matters, but we are inclined to think that it will soon
take place. Already tenants are frequently provided with shedding of
the nature referred to on payment of interest on the outlay involved ;
seldom, however, to the full extent that the circumstances of the farm
warrant. The demand for accommodation of this kind is growing,
however, and before very long we may expect to see provision being
as freely made for the housing of hay and corn crops as for the cattle,
and equally a matter of course.

We often picture to ourselves the changes there would
manner our have been at our homesteads had the reaping machine
Homesteads evolved on the line of securing the ears of grain irrespec-

might have . ^ . . . 11 i-

developed tive 01 the straw. Had it, tor mstance, developed mtc

had the something after the description of the Australian stripper.

Machine what a saving would have resulted to agriculture

evolved on generally. Were it practicable to make sure of the
ears first and afterwards to deal with the straw as
occasion offered, British agriculture would be completely revolu-
tionised. To begin with, the range of barn buildings, usually the
biggest about the steading, could then be cut down considerably.
Thrashing would, under these conditions, be a comparatively simple
operation. At present every sheaf, every straw indeed, has to be
beaten unmercifully in order that grain and stalk may be effectually
separated. Much power, a good deal of machinery, and roomy
buildings are required for the operation. How different it would be
had the farmer the ears of corn alone to deal with in this way. A
tithe of the motive power would be sufficient. Thrashing would then
be done by a rubbing instead of a beating motion, and, considering
the difference in bulk of the matter to be handled, the sheaf-loft, a
good deal of the machinery space, and much of the granary room
could be dispensed with. The operation of separating the grain from

B 2

4 THE MODERN HOMESTEAD.

the ear and husk would be about as simple as that of chaffing or
chopping hay and straw, or of bruising oats. It would, in fact,
require less expenditure of force than either, and might be done in a
space as circumscribed as generally is allotted to one or the other.
The donkev-engine could be substituted for the one of many horse-
power. In these, as in some other directions which will occur to the
mind of him who is at home in such matters, would building be saved.
There would, of course, have to be storage room of some kmd for the
ears of corn, but rough shedding would suffice — some sort of building
that would allow the wind to whistle through while it stopped the
advent of rain, would do. On the other hand, much less granary
accommodation w^ould be called for. The grain would keep better
in the ear than when detached therefrom, and the separation of the
two being so easy, and so capable of quick performance, that operation
would be delayed until the grain was actually wanted.

The advantages of such a system as we refer to, could it be instituted,
would, however favourable they might be to the proprietor, be even
more marked in the case of the farmer himself. His labour bill would,
it is needless to say, be very much lessened. He is at all times at the
mercy of the elements. But under the conditions we are presuming he
would, at any rate during harvest season, be comparatively easy in
mind on that point. Not having to wait on the straw until he could
make sure of the ear, he could then laugh at the weather, as it were. At
present, should it be unfavourable, he is obliged to wait on patiently
until the straw has become sufficiently seasoned to admit of its keeping
in bulk, while all the time, it may be, the grain is daily decreasing in
value. Were the straw by itself it would matter little or nothing what
sort of weather it had to face. It would be seasoned in time. It could
be seasoned, too, and much quicker, without having recourse to the
slow and troublesome process of binding it into sheaves, and placing
these on end in small groups, as is customary. It could be left lying
as it fell behind the mower. If not likely to season as it lay, a round
of the tedder would put it out of danger. Afterwards, were a baler
at disposal, how handy it w^ould be could the straw, thus tidily put
together, be stored in a shed until required. What was to be used as
litter for live stock would, of course, be dealt with more summarily.
It could simply be carted to the steading and be piled up in shed, or be
packed together in long ricks. In the meantime the ears of corn, safely
housed, would be seasoning under the most favourable circumstances.

How different, we repeat, is all this from the prevailing method of
harvesting our grain crops ! \\'e have to undertake the laborious
operation of severing the crops from the ground and tying them into
small bundles as we proceed, taking care to keep the ears at one end
of the sheaf. Of recent years this work has, indeed, been considerably
lightened. Since the days of the sickle much improvement has certainly

THE ESSENTIALS OE A GOOD HOMESTEAD. 5

been made in harvesting appliances. First came the manual-deHvery
reaper, next the self-delivery, followed later by the self-binder. Each
of thebc was a most decided advancement on its predecessors. But
still the ad\ancement was in the contrary direction to what we would
ha\e had it go. And while we are enabled to reap more readily
than before, the ad\antage is gained somewhat at the expense of the
"winning " of the corn. Machine-cut corn packs closer together than
either sickle or scythe-cut corn, and machine-bound corn closer still.
We get it cut and tied much quicker, but then, packed more regularly
and tighter than before, the straw takes longer to dry. What a blessing
it would be therefore to agriculture could we fall upon a feasible method
whereby we could separate the ear from the straw, carrying the former
away to the steading at once out of all risk of damage from exposure,
and lea\ing the latter by itself to mature at leisure ! It can stand what
the other cannot. As things go neither gets a proper chance. The
grain has to wait on the straw ; and lest the grain suffer too much the
straw has often to be taken before it is ready, with the consequence of
heated ricks and damage to straAv and corn alike.

It may not be practicable for us to adopt the '• stripper" method of
harvesting grain. Our corn crops are usuallv too much knocked about
for them to be on their feet at harvest time ; and to comb out a tangled
mass of laid corn would be a hopeless job. The separation of the two
parts of the plant might be attained by a modification of the self-binder,
under which, instead of binding the bunches of corn, it decapitated
them, afterwards shaking out and releasing the straw, but retaining
the ears. These, the machine that can tie up corn could no doubt
be modified to secure in bags and deliver at stated intervals. Our
corn crops are heavier than those grown on the continents either of
Europe or America, or in Australasia, where the self-binder and the
stripper consequently work easier in the thinner and more upstanding
stuff. If not possible for us, however, to retrograde in the way of
thinner and much shorter crops, it is open to us, as instance the results
obtained by the Messrs. Garton, to help matters by paymg attention to
the selection of \arieties of corn of medium length, but stout enough
in straw to carry its head erect until delivered over to the reaper.

Such a departure from the existing methods of procedure would, of
course, necessitate the erection of more shedding accommodation at the
steading. As we have indicated, storage room would be required for
the loose ears. These would keep securely in considerable bulk, and
the grain improve all the time. The several grams would be kept apart,
and air, if allowed access all round, could freely circulate throughout
the mass. A shed after the nature of an ordinary hay-barn, but with
a wood floor raised a little from the ground, and the sides and ends
enclosed with some perforated material, such as fine-meshed wire net,
and protected from rain by means of louvre boards, would answer

6 THE MODERN HOMESTEAD.

admirably. Provision would also have to be made for keeping the
straw secure. Seasoned loose, it would more than ever be needful of
house-room of some kind at the steading. It is bad enough when the
sheaves have to be secured by themselves in the absence of sheds, but
much more labour would be required when loose, or e\"en trussed,
straw had to be handled. But even had much extra shedding, of the
kind spoken of, to be put up, buildings of that nature are not neces-
sarily very costly. They would prove to the proprietor a favourable
set-off" against the more expensive group that at present embraces the
thrashing-barn and granaries. These we do not mean to infer would,
under the change of circumstances we have been assuming, be alto-
gether dispensed with. They would, however, be considerably curtailed,
so much so indeed as to clearly outweigh any outlay on extra shedding.
Besides, we are inclined to maintain that there is already too little
shedding of the kind at the farm steading. We advocate roofage for
both corn and hay. Had the farmer abundance of this, harvest labour
and anxiety Avould both be lessened. And had he further ease from
these in the way we have been seeking to point out, his lot would
be vastly impro\ed. We have been digressing a little, perhaps, and
that, too, on the very eve of our work. But our end in view being the
furthering of rural economv, and the better organisation of labour being
apparently one of the most vital present-day aids to agriculture, we
need offer no excuse. This, in fact, with a care over the proprietor's
interests, will be our keynote all through.

It may have been gathered, then, that next to economy
economy and ^^^ efficiency in the erection thereof, the great matter to
efficiency in be kept in view, when grouping together the buildings
the Homestead *^*^ ^'^^ homestead, is the easy staffing of the place — the
comes the rendering it capable of being worked at the least expense

oAlie place" ^^^ labour. It is not difficult to lay down rules in this

connection. The observance of these is, however, quite
a different affair. When it comes to putting them in practice, hardly
two cases are to be met with that are on identical lines. We may in
many instances manage to follow out one or two of the leading ideas
bearing upon the arrangement of the buildings. As a rule, howe\er,
the more subsidiary of these have to accommodate themselves to the
circumstances of the site. More especially is this true when we have
an old set of buildings to deal with. This, we need hardly say, is of
commoner occurrence than the erection of the homestead anew. Besides
being obliged to conform to the exigencies of the site, we are in these
cases held in check by the position of the main buildings relative to the
steading as a whole. The skill of the planner of farm steadings comes
out more prominently in the re-arranging and improving of old sets
of buildings than in the erection of completely new places. Tlie
fundamental laws that govern a good steading can be easily observed in

THE ESSENTIALS OE A GOOD HOMESTEAD. 7

the erection of a new one : but in the altering of an old one tliese have
to be modified in various ways as circumstances will admit.

What these laws are may be put as the placing of the straw-house
in as central a place as possible for the serving of the live stock. Next
to this comes the placing of the dungstead, or manure-pit, in an equally
central position as regards the buildings that have to be regularly cleared
of soiled litter. The principal labour at the steading consists in these
two operations — supplying the animals with straw and the removal
of their droppings, together with the straw they have messed. \\'hen
matters, therefore, have been adjusted so as to make the accomplish-
ment of these aims as convenient as possible, a considerable reduction
of labour has been attained. \\'hen, in addition to these facilities
towards the economy of labour, it is possible to place the hay-barn,
the turnip-house, the cake and meal store, and the food-preparing shed
equally handy for the purposes they are there to serve, little more can
be done in the way of conserving the tenant's interests. The little
there is lies in constructing the buildings in such a manner that they
are easily kept in repair, and at the same time making them conducive
to the health of the live stock housed therein. Constructing the build-
ings plainly, but substantially, ensures the former condition, and
attention to the elementary laws of sanitation provides for the latter.

There is no necessity for spending more money in the erection of
the homestead than is absolutely needful. We do not, however, advocate
the pushmg of economy to the verge of ugliness in all that pertains to
the steading. The buildings may be plain and serviceable, and yet not
altogether objectionable from an artistic point of view. Neither, on
the other hand, \\ould we sacrifice utility and economy for the sake of
appearance. A little money judiciously spent will take away the bare-
ness, if nothing else, from the harshest place of the kind. But first of
all let us arrange the houses in such a manner that each one separately,
and as a part of the whole group, will serve its end at the least outlay
of labour. Following on this we have to make sure that the animals
proposed to be confined within the buildings will have the opportunity
of being comfortable as well as healthy. Then we must see to their
erection for the least amount of money without sacrificing either
efficiency or permanency. After that, or at any rate after the probable
cost of that has been arrived at, comes in what those who control the
purse are willing to spend gratuitously in improving the appearance
of the countryside, or at least toning down somewhat the too frequent
ugliness of these excrescences on the landscape.

On Plan I. we give the ground plan of a steading which will serve to
illustrate the principles of the saving of labour which we have been refer-
ring to. It is one after the type characteristic chiefly of North Country
arable farming. As we shall see further on, it is capable of adaptation to
suit the varying practices of other parts, whether of rearing or fattening

8 THE MODERN HOMESTEAD.

live stock or a combination of both. The plan shows the range of barn

buildings — the thrashing-floor and straw-barn with granary

Plan I. (for aboAe — situated with one end convenient to the stackyard,
the Corn- . . •' '

growing and and the Other projecting far enough mto the courtyard to be

Cattle-feeding }-,3^j-^jy fQj- j-}^g delivery of straw to both cattle and horses.
Farm). ■' . ...

The manure-pit occupies, it will be seen, an equally con-
venient position at the opposite end of the steading. The sheaves are
thus handed in at the north side to be stripped of their grain, after
which the straw is passed on to both byre and stable, eventually to find
its way, in one shape or another, from these places to the manure heap.
Each place is in turn brought within easy i^each of the other, and time and
labour, both of which are suggestive of money, are in this way economised.

The rickyard Ave have represented by a range of shedding supposed
to be capable of holding the average annual corn crop of the farm.
These sheds are separated from the sheaf-barn by the breadth of a road
only. The sheaves can be carted directly into the barn and be tipped up
on the floor, or it can be so contrived by laying a series of tram-rails that
they can be delivered at the feeding board of the thrashing mill in hand
trolleys. No horse is needed under a system of this kind. A woman
or a boy can fill, wheel, and discharge a trolley by her or himself; and
two, or three at the outside, of these wheeled conveyances are ample
under ordinary circumstances to keep the mill going. The sheaves
are not always so handy to reach, however, but that it is advisable to
have the services of a youth in helping to load the trolleys. Or by means
of a travelling endless band the sheaves may be carried direct from shed
to mill-board.

Built against the part of the barn that projects into the courtyard on
one side is the engine-house, whether steam or vaporised oil be the
power employed to drive the mill, and at the other the food-preparing
sheds, where pulping, corn bruising, cake crushing, and allied operations
go on. And at right angles to this range are produced on the south-
east side the implement shed and places connected therewith, and on
the north-west side the cow-byre and any other house there is room for
in the same row. Down the west side of the square is led the housing
of the cattle, whether in the shape of loose boxes or byres, or a combina-
tion thereof. On the opposite side we have placed the stables, cart-
shed, and other accommodation of the kind. Placed in the centre of the
open side of the courtyard is the dungstead, leaving ample space in
which to pass by it at each side. Room for the pigs is found against the
back wall of the building. The dungstead is alongside the main road
to the homestead, and in consequence its contents are all the more
easily discharged. At the other side of the road we have the open
courts for cattle — the curtains, hammels, and so on, as they are vari-
ously termed. A hayshed might be placed parallel to the outer wall of
the east side of the square, handy to the stable, and then we have done.

THE ESSENTIALS OF A GOOD HOMESTEAD. g

This affords a good typical farm homestead where British
It affords a -i^ • . .

suitable type ^iS^ricultiire IS concerned. We do not claim perfection

for British for it. We maintain, however, that it is on the right
ge^nerany. hnes for conforming with the principles we started upon,

and few, we think, will dispute the correctness of them.
If nothing more, it gives a lead that way which many, after hearing us
out to the end, may be glad to follow. There is no crowding anywhere ;
and fresh air and sunlight are allowed free play. As we proceed we shall
point out the simplicity of its structure, and how few repairs it requires
to keep it abreast of the ordinary tear and wear of the affair as a whole.
It will be admitted, we have no doubt, that it is a place that can be
easily manned. Some are loud in the praises of homesteads either
partially or entirely covered in. Our preference always lay for such
a one as we are setting forth. Each building gets a fair chance of sun
and air, both of which are conducive to the welfare of building material
and animal life alike, and there is a large yard in which animals have
freedom to frisk and romp in or to show themselves to the advantage
of their owners. There they can be let loose to drink their fill or be
made to show their paces without let or hindrance. Farm fires are
a source of loss even to the fully insured business-like tenant, and
every one is anxious to nip them in the bud. An outbreak of fire once
fairly started makes sad work with a covered-in steading. There is no
keeping it within bounds once the flames obtain the mastery. But at
the open place we represent fire may under many circumstances rage
uninterruptedly at one part of the steading until it burns itself out
without causing hurt to other parts. And as regards initial cost,
the subsequent cost of upkeep, and the general duration of the estab-
lishment itself, which of the two has the advantage is capable of
proof without much demonstration. A Hash of one's own brain is
sufficient to clear up doubt on these points. The slater and the
plumber are bound to be frequent visitors to the homestead that is
roofed over.

It is not of course in every position that a place so planned can be
carried out to the full. All depends on the site that may be at disposal.
Many things have to be taken into account in deciding upon the site of
the homestead. Generally speaking, more foresight is shown in the
selection of the site than in the arrangement of the buildings it has been
set apart for. This is, more than likely, due to the fact that the matter
of placing the steading with a view to its being convenient to the
requirements of the farm comes more directly home to the agricultural
mind than does the more technical work of grouping the houses to the
best advantage. The one appeals to the general intelligence of those
who have to do with country affairs ; the other is more in the province
of the man who can narrow his ideas and exercise the patience and
painstaking necessary to deal with details.

lo THE MODERN HOMESTEAD.

Conxenience with regard to the farm in all its parts is the
that eovern ^^^^ consideration bearing on a choice of a proper site for
Choice of Site the homestead. There are. however, many counter\"ail-
HomesteaT ^"» circumstances bearing thereon that are apt to be

overlooked. A plentiful as well as efficient water supply
has to be kept in view when the site of a homestead is in question.
And the counterpart to this in the form of a ready way of getting rid of
sewage has also to be borne in mind. The frequent behests of the
sanitary officer of these times on matters of water supply and defective
drainage emphasise that these points have too often been overlooked in
the past. Easy access to some good through road and proximity to
a railway station are also important points in this connection. So, too,
is the availability of a good head of water as a source of motive power
at the steading. A plentiful supply of water power at the farm is an
immense advantage to the tenant. Where it is available no expensive
engine has to be there to lock up capital in. Neither is there the
constant expense for fuel and attendance connected there '.vith to be
faced.

A head of water means more or less irregularity in the outline or
configuration of the ground, a condition which is against the finding of
many situations otherwise suitable that would give the amount of fairly
level ground on which to build our suggested homestead. As repre-
sented it is supposed to be on ground almost level from west to east,,
but with a slight " hang " or slope from north to south. This admits
of the floors in each range being nearly all kept on the one respective
rake or incline. \\ hen we come to deal with ground of irregular outline
a certain amount of latitude can be given by extra building and making
up of the surface where this is necessary. Taking the north-east side first,
so long as we get the byre and barn floors to a mutual level it is easy to
deal with the remainder of the row should the ground be either above
or below that on the other side of the barn. It can either be made up
or be excavated as circumstances require. If the former, extra build-
ing to a corresponding height is a necessity. It may happen, of coarse,
that the ground on the opposite side is that requiring to be altered.
Down both the long sides of the rectangle it is evident that it is
practicable to build on ground with a gentle slope. Where the cattle
are located the continuous floor is laid with a run corresponding to the
ground outside. At the other side the stable floor is of necessity kept
level longwise and with it, in order to prevent the inconvenience of
steps, the hay-house at one end and the harness-room at the other.
But these three places together do not occupy so much of the row as to
give trouble in this respect. The loose box at one side of them and
the cart-shed at the other readily adapt themselves to the adjustment
of the floor levels of that row to the rake of the courtyard surface. All
artificial levelling means, however, extra cost — that of altering the surface

THE ESSENTIALS OF A GOOD HOMESTEAD. ii

and the extra building whicli this impHes at some part or other of the
different blocks.

The principal point to be kept in mind is to have a site that will
admit of an easy slope from barn to byre and stable, continued from
these to the dungstead. The produce consumed at the homestead and
the waste and spent materials resulting therefrom are all coming this
way, and it is easier to bring them down hill than to carry them up.
It is the natural way, too, for the drainage matters, whether from the
interior of houses, from the housetops or from the courtyard — all should
pass to the end where the spent material finds exit. The clean pro-
vender comes in at the head, and as it serves its end is passed on to the
foot ; and with it should go waste water and sswage ; not necessarily
together these two, however, but the one to be let loose and the other
retained.

^. , ,. From the elevations delineated on Plan Ia. (which is

Tiie leading )

features of sufficiently representative of the two succeeding plans
we give to allow us to dispense with repetitions amended
to the slight modifications they imply) it may be readily grasped how
simple are the roof lines we suggest. The simpler these, the cheaper in
construction, the more effective in purpose, and the easier kept in order
will they be. The fewer breaks and joints therein the less risk will
there be of rain finding an entrance.

The walls are not high, nine feet to wallhead being in one-storeyed
places about the limit we care to reach. This in byre and stable, if both
are open to the roof, as we think they ought always to be, gives head-
room and to spare within. If this be granted it is waste to carry the
walls higher. We would have no animals housed in a building with
floor overhead. \\'here two storeys are in one house the height of the
lower one from floor to floor should never be less than nine feet, as before.
But we show none of the buildings having two storeys excepting the
thrashing-floor with the granary above. Here nine feet of headroom is
too little for the kind of work that goes on. It is advisable to have
room enough to enable a cart to be tipped up, and also to allow a goodly
pile of sheaves being packed within, should this be at any time thought
an advisable proceeding.

Some would prefer the granary to be over the straw-barn instead of
the sheaf-loft, while others again would have it extend over both from
end to end of the barn range. It is best, therefore, to make the range
so that the lofting or granary space could be laid over all or part as
circumstances at the time of erection or at later dates might make
justifiable demand.

The foregoing is a homestead typical, we have said, of the requirements
of the well-managed arable farm. Setting aside the cattle accommoda-
tion in the meantiriie, the other buildings are, as shown, suited to any
part of the country. It might be necessary, in order to meet fully the

12 THE MODERN HOMESTEAD.

wants of a horse-breeding district, to proxide one or two extra loose
boxes about the place. There might in that case be one taken off the
implement-shed, and what is marked as the artificial manure store might
also be sacrificed to the same interest. Rather than this, however, it
would be better to erect a range of these, of more perishable material
than stone and lime, at some convenient place handy to the other build-
ings. Even in a district where horse-breeding predominates it is not
every farmer thereabouts that goes into the business very extensively.
When, therefore, a real demand for several of these arises, it is better
to provide a few supplementary to the steading than to turn other
buildings away from the well-defined objects of their own. Now that
increasing capital is being invested in labour-saving implements, it is
but right that serviceable keeping-places be set apart for them.
Further, it is due to the farmer who spends much money on artificial
manures that he is provided with a proper place in which these can be
housed and mixed, or otherwise dealt with. True, it is only for a
month or two in the year that artificial manures are in evidence at the
steading, but during the other months there are plenty of useful pur-
poses other than sheltering animals to which it can be turned to account
by the " managing" farmer.

More granary room might be required in one district than another,
but the 60 feet by 18 feet or 60 feet by 20 feet floorage available in the
barn range, if taken advantage of to the full, implies a considerable
storage area. The straw-barn as marked off might, indeed, be small
enough for the requirements of some districts, especially such as those
where it is common to see an endless web transporting the straw, and
alongside a foot-bridge or rail for allowing the attendant to pass to and
fro and deliver the straw from side to side and fill up the house in a
regular manner. \\ ere this to be practised, there would not be head-
room left if we ran a loft over the straw-house. At a pinch, howe\"er,
there is the implement-sl:cd to have recourse to. There are no live
stock in it, and granary accommodation could be proxided by adding
half a storey thereto. It would hardly do not to carry the granary the
full length of this range, but running a loft over the hospital would not
be a great infringement of our rule never to house animals in buildings
not open to the roof. Standing at a corner, the hospital could easily
be well ventilated, although it did happen to be under the granary.
But there is nothing to hinder the enlargement of the barn range both
in length and breadth to suit the requirements of any farm, and thus
keep the granary within the bounds of its own department.

The stable, with hay-house communicating at one end and the
harness-room at the other, would come up to the requirements of any
district ; and so without doubt would the adjoining cart-shed. The
dunghill, too, would be equally accommodating, as also would the
pigsty abutting thereupon.

THE ESSENTIALS OF A GOOD HOMESTEAD. 13

Coming now to the housing space for the cattle, while the parts of
the homestead we have just been dealing with are capable, as we have
planned them, of almost universal adoption so far as Britain is con-
cerned, it is very different with this division of the buildings. In the
extreme North of Scotland, for instance, the arable farmers work almost
wholly with store cattle, rearing these to a certain age, on attaining which
they are disposed of to be fattened by farmers more favourably situated
as regards weather. In the north-east counties the rearing and fattening
of cattle are more or less combined. Further south, again — in Fife, the
Lothians, and the Border counties — the rearing of cattle is almost dis-
pensed with, the " stores," or young, raw animals, being imported for the
purpose of getting finished off or being manufactured into beef. This is
not all, however, for while the north country beef producers tie up their
fattening animals, those further south mostly lodge the animals in
open sheds, with courts attached. Usually a few loose boxes are set
apart as well. At some places there are many courts and few loose
boxes ; at others the latter predominate. From this it may be implied
that, taking the country at large, there is more diversity in the arrange-
ment of the part of the steading set aside for cattle than occurs in all
the rest put together. Even in the one department of beef preparing
there is much disparity in the matter of housing the cattle during
their enforced spell of gluttony.

The "custom of the country"' has as much to do with this variance
in the quartering of stock being made ready for the butcher as anything
else we are aware of. In fact, we can think of nothing else bearing on
this, unless it be the amouni of straw available. That, however, could
only affect the choice of open courts if balanced against the other two.
The tied-up animal will spoil or tread down as much straw as the one
confined in a loose box ; therefore there is little between the two in that
respect. It is easy to understand that the treatment in this respect of
growing stock will naturally be different from that of animals kept for
the laying on of beef ; and that the treatment of cows will differ from
either. But why in one district fattening animals should be tied up by
the neck like milch cows, and in another they should have comparative
liberty in loose boxes, while not far from either we come to where it is
customary to give them the freedom of open courts, it is difficult to tell,
unless it be due to what we have suggested. And the custom of an\-
particular district has, we suspect, originated in the class of buildings
at the disposal of the farmers thereof at the time they took up this
branch of their industry. It is not so very long since the art of fatten-
ing cattle at the homestead sprung into universal practice in the best
agricultural districts of our country. Until root crops became a fixed
part of our rotations, and artificial feeding stuffs followed later on, it
was impossible to adopt the system. There was little except hay and
straw then available as winter food for cattle. There were the various

14 THE MODERN HOMESTEAD.

grains at disposal, of course, but oats and beans, dry of themselves, need
to be qualified with much pulpy food ere they can be turned to useful
account by the domesticated ruminant. It was hard to keep on until
the following spring a modicum of the flesh gained by the animal during
the grazing season.

A few cattle could, no doubt, by the aid of cooked messes of one kind
or another, be advantageously tided oxer the lean season of winter and
early spring at nearly every farm. The cows are an instance in point.
There cannot have been many, however, at the ordinary kind of home-
steads. But the manner in which these few were then housed would
un(]uestionably govern the after method of so disposing of the increased
number of winter-fed cattle. Custom dies hard, and the mixture of
method we speak of still prevails. There must be one system better
than another, one would think. If so, it is reasonable to maintain that
the one under which the animals are most comfortable is the best. It
can hardly be that according to which the "beasts" are tied by the
neck and obliged to stick to almost one position, whether standing or
lying. Never at liberty to use its tongue, either as a counter-irritant or
as an aid to toilet making, and at no time free to assume any sort of
position in accordance with ease or inclination, an ox or a heifer so
situated cannot be said to be under conditions of the most comfortable
nature. Confined in a loose box, it can lie where and how it likes, and
it can use either tongue or foot when any part itches. And if unable to
reach the spot with these organs, there are the walls and rails that
border the box to rub against. Somewhat similar are the conditions of
its confinement in the open court. It is apter there to have masterful
companions and to feel changes of weather, but it gets more air and has
the chance now and again of basking in the sun's rays. The best of
the three for placing the animal under circumstances most likely to
make it grow fat is unquestionably the loose box, where distractions
are limited, the air is warm, hunger is unknown and repletion
encouraged, and a soft bed is ever at hand.

There is but the one plan adopted in housing the cow. She has to
be tied by the neck in a line with others, her head against the wall, or
against a breastwork of boards if there be a feeding passage in front of
the row, and her hind feet at the edge of the " grip " or channel which
collects the droppings. This allows her, in accordance with the breed
she is of, from 7 feet to 7 feet 6 inches from head to tail, and all the
breadth slie has in the rank is from 3 feet to 3 feet 6 inches. This is
the limit of her bed. In it she has both to lie and stand. On foot she
cannot edge to the right or to the left without encroaching on her
neighbour's room, and laid down she has to content herself with almost
one position. There is no tossing to and fro and stretching limbs in
bed with her. Jammed up thus in line, she can neither stretch nor
lick herself, nor can she satisfy much of her mild curiosity as to what is

THE ESSENTIALS OF A GOOD HOMESTEAD. 15

going on around her. But had she more elbow-room, she would mess
her bed and annoy her neighbours in her endeavours to see better
round about. Were her head-gear looser, she would soon have her tail
where her head ought to be. As it is, the present close packing has to
be supplemented by short barricades (the travises), so as to stiffen up
the row. She knows no better, however, and gets along somehow.

Taking the cows into account, our provisional plan allows for all
three methods of lodging the animals. We pillory only the cows,
however, and that because there is no other method practicable, bad in
theory though it be. We have given space for twenty. That may be
too many for some farms. Where it happened so, the spare stalls could
be occupied with fattening heifers. We next provide a range of loose
boxes for cattle, each capable of holding two at least. And separated
from these by the breadth of the road that passes the low end of the
homestead we have planned a series of open courts. This affords a
fair variety of cattle accommodation suited to the wants of the different
classes and ages of stock. The young, as well as their good-natured
seniors, could have the run of the courts, while the more quarrelsome
or excitable were placed under the more pacific influences of the
loose box.

We have shown no part as being specially set aside for calves. But
the loose box or two nearest to the cow-house or byre would always be
at their service. If these could not be spared, then it would not be
difficult to locate a shed somewhere within handy reach of the byre.

, ^, Here, then, we repeat, is a homestead which we consider is
How the Plan > . t- > . .

might be typical of the requirements of the British farmer ot arable

modified. land, easily capable, as we have laid it down on the plan,

of adaptation either to the varieties we find in that class of farming or
to the different-sized farms which it may include. With little or no modi-
fication, except enlargement as needful, it will meet the wants of such
advanced farmers as those of Berwick and Roxburgh, of the Lothians
and Fife, Forfar, Aberdeen, Banff, Moray, Inverness, and Easter Ross
and Cromarty. And as regards Caithness, where the stores are hoTised
similarly to their dams, all that is requisite to make it equally suitable
in that stormy part is to fit up the easterly range as a byre instead of a
set of loose boxes, and dispense with the open courts, should they in the
circumstances be deemed superfluous. It is a type, moreover, for which
we lay claim to capability of being worked at a minimum outlay of
labour, and of being erected at a comparatively small outlay in money.

And, still sticking to the North, very little alteration, as
(for the partly- shown on Plan II., is needed to make it equally suitable to
Dairy Farm), ^i^^ ^jg ^^[^y farms of Galloway and Dumfries, where dairy-
ing and arable farming are combined. The homestead could remain as it
is, with the exception that room be made for more cows, and that dairy
offices be provided. From forty to a hundred cows are kept on the

i6 THE MODERN HOMESTEAD.

average farm of this class, usually sublet to a niiddleman called
'* the bower." The extra accommodation for cows could be met by
making the byre a double one, whicli would then admit of forty being
housed therein to start with. As much of the loose-box range as
necessity called for could be similarly dealt with, and the remainder
be set aside for the younger stock.

Shelter for an increased number of pigs would now become a
necessity. A good place for this might be where the open courts
are ; or, better perhaps, the pig-houses might be, as we show them,
in one at right angles to the dunghill up the centre of the yard. This
would block up the court a little, and go to divide it into two. But a
division of this kind at a place where, so to speak, there are two interests
concerned — the bower at one side taken up with the welfare of the cows,
and the tillers of the soil at the other — is rather an advantage than
otherwise. \\'here we have draw^n them on the plan they are within
easy reach at one end of straw-barn and cooking-shed, and of the dung-
stead at the other. An underground earthenware pipe would serve to
convey the whev from the dairv to some convenient part of the
pig-house.

The site we choose for the dairy buildings keeps them well a^\•a^• from
the tainted air that proceeds from the cooking-shed, the pig-houses, and
the dunghill ; and while we thus keep them thoroughly isolated in this
respect, they are at the same time quite convenient to the byres. It is
but a step from byre to dairy offices, yet the one is quite cut off from the
other so far as the odours prevalent in the byre are capable of affecting
the delicate work that goes on in the dairy. ^Moreover, these offices are
in their right place at the cold corner of the homestead.

At the farm where the cows are hired to a bower, the tenant requires
an odd place in which to keep a cow or two for his own household wants,
and perhaps accommodation for a pig or two as well. This he likes to
be entirely away from the bower's department. It can be got without
much trouble somewhere at his own side of the steading ; or near to the
farmhouse, especially if the establishment is of any importance, might
be the proper place for it. There would need to be a two-stalled stable
and gighouse beside the farmhouse at any rate, and the lot would go
together.

Coming to the dairy farm proper, such as prevails in
(for the Dairy Ayrshire, Renfrew, Bute, and parts of Lanark, and is
Farm proper;, occasionally found in some districts near to these, w^e are
face to face with an entirely different class of homestead. The dwelling-
house forms part of the block. The farms are small, and the tenants
and their families do the big share of the work, and naturally prefer to
live close to the seat of operations. The housewife likes, indeed, to be
within earshot of her charges even by night, so that either she or her
husband can attend at once when sounds of distress are heard. It is

THE ESSENTIALS OF A GOOD HOMESTEAD. 17

satisfactory to her also to know that her husband, when rising frequently
in the night time to attend to some ailing animal, or to note the condition
of some one of them under suspicion, is not unduly exposed to the night
air when scant of garment. And in those instances where the " grey
mare is the better horse " and trusts but little to deputy in times of
emergency, it is well, too, that such exemplary individuals are not
put to too much risk in the same way. The health officer and his
subordinates, the sanitary inspectors, are generally bitter against house
and byre being in such direct communication, and not altogether without
cause either. It is better policy, however, to ameliorate as far as possible
rather than to break down completely an arrangement that has served
its end so well in the past, and helped to make the people we are
referring to the best managers of dairy cattle in our own country, if
not. indeed, the world o\"er. It is not difficult to arrange matters in
such a way that the owners of the animals are in close touch with
them, and yet sufficiently isolated therefrom as to transgress the laws
of sanitation but slightly.

On Plan III. we show, as we have said, a place suitable for a dairy
farm characteristic of the districts we have referred to. W'e still stick
to the fundamental law we started with — that of keeping the straw- barn
and dunghill within easy reach of the live stock, seeking in this way to
minimise as far as possible the labour of attending to the animals. As
we remarked at the beginning of this chapter, most of the work con-
nected therewith is the carrying of fodder to them and the subsequent
removal of their soiled litter and excrement, consequently the easier
we can make the carrying out of these operations the better for all
concerned. The art of reducing labour at the homestead is, in fact, the
placing of the live stock quarters in close touch on the one hand
with the commissariat department, and on the other with the refuse
depot.

We keep the part of the steading east of the barn range much as
before, because the needs of the arable farmer are much the same in all
our respective districts. It is at the other side where we come to mark
off the peculiarities of the Scottish dairy farmer.

We place the house at the north-east corner so that it may be handy
both to the byre and the dairy offices. We keep it clear of the barn by
introducing the small one-storeyed storehouse between the two. It
might be practicable to have had house and barn joined to each other,
but we prefer the arrangement given on the plan.

The cattle accommodation takes up the west wing of the steading,
following out much the same arrangement as we give on Plan II. It is
cut off from the house by means of the open passage shown on the plan.
The currents of air are likely to be always tending from one end to the
other of this passage, carrying with them both the odours that are apt
to issue from the byre door at one side and the smells following on

M.H. c

1 8 THE MODERN HOMESTEAD.

cooking that emanate from the kitchen at the other. Both are in
addition effectually cut off from the dairy offices in so far as tainted
air is concerned by placing these buildings in the manner indicated.

Dungstead and pig-houses we also incline to place in accordance with
the arrangement on Plan II.

Both in this and the preceding instance some calf pens would be
essential. In this, part of the space allotted to food preparation might
be spared for the purpose. In the other, the root house might be taken
if an opan root store, as on Plan III., were substituted.

It is necessary that ample accommodation for poultry be provided in
this instance. Something of the kind is of course needed at the other
types of homestead, but not very often in the proportion found necessary
on the smaller dairy farm. Poultry-keeping is a fruitful source of
income to the dairy farmer's wife, because she is favourably situated for
looking after the birds, and it is but right that she gets the chance of
developing this branch industry to the limit of her powers. It is a
shame that the poultry are to be found so often stowed away in a loft in
the byre. The cows are thereby robbed of their already scrimp enough
air-space, and the poultry placed under very adverse circumstances as
regards pure air and cleanly surroundings. There is often no proper
way of access for women folk reaching the loft, and after more or less
scrambling the floor has been gained, it is only towards the centre of
the place that one can stand upright. Under these circumstances it is
hardly likely that much attention can be paid to the periodical cleaning
out of the place. It is enough to overtake the egg-collecting wathout in
addition having to stir up latent dust and smells in a general turn-over
of the place. The hens are kept warm in winter, which is to their
benefit if accompanied with even fairly fresh air ; but this condition is
entirely wanting when they are perched among the spent and vapour-
laden air of the cow-house. And in summer, on account of their house
being so close to the slates and little if any means of ventilation being
left in the roof, the condition of the air within is sometimes really
shocking.

Something better than this ought, we maintain, to be at the disposal
of the thrifty housewife. Such a condition exists because nothing better
is placed to her hand. Give her suitable houses to start with, and the
backward state of poultry management that characterises our agriculture
generally will begin to improve. The sanitary inspector, where he can,
is gradually interfering for good in this respect, but the matter might
be rectified without waiting for his suggestions. What is given must
further be convenient to the dwelling-house — somewhere adjoining
the rickyard, perhaps. On the arable farm, what of this kind of
accommodation we provide will for convenience be near to the farm
kitchen, somewhere beside the small byre and stable. There is less
need, however, of pro\iding in this way for the requirements of the

THE ESSENTIALS OF A GOOD HOMESTEAD.

bigger farmer. If he condescends to poultry-keeping, and has a taste
that way, he will no doubt have movable houses for the majority of
his feathered friends, so that he can both keep the separate breeds apart
and give any of them a change of ground as he thinks fit.
p. jy There remains now the sheep farm pure and simple to

(for the Sheep attend to. What is needed here is hardly worth a plan
Farm). ^^ itself, and might be delineated as we go into detail

over other matters in the following chapters. All the same we will do
by it as with the others. What is really wanted on the moorland or
hill farm, however, is, in fact, more or less of a miniature steading, and
may as well be depicted in company with the others. Setting aside the
farmhouse and the shepherd's cottage, what may be looked for at the
place are the barns, a stable, and a cart-shed, room for a few cows and
some young cattle, a pig-house, and plenty of shedding. The latter is
wanted both for the temporary storage of wool, and for the handling of
sheep on the great occasions of smearing or dipping, clipping, and the
separation of the lambs from the ewes, and ought accordingly to be
made inter-communicable. And in connection with the sheds there
must be suitable pens or " fanks " in which to classify the sheep and
retain them, as may be desired. When the steading is of any size,
both a corn and a hay-shed are useful adjuncts thereto. They enable
the respective crops to be easily and expeditiously made safe for the
winter ; and to be able to abstract a few sheaves from the one or a
bundle or two from the other without having to break into a rick of
either, and thus make it vulnerable to the next high wind, is a great
boon at a place of the kind.

The farm may be so large that one gathering-place is not sufficient
to serve the different " hirsels " or separate " gangs " of sheep. In that
instance supplementary fanks and sheds must be put up at the most
convenient places, besides the cottages of the more outlying shepherds,
perhaps. Sheds and barns to any very appreciable extent can hardly,
however, be called for at many of these isolated places.

On Plan IV. we have, therefore, laid down the arrangement of a
miniature homestead, typical of the wants of the class of farm it refers
to — the simplest, yet to us the most interesting homestead of all — the one
that calls to memory the pleasant pastoral sounds connected with the
sheep-walk, as well as those associated with the lonely moor. It brings
us in mind of the annual gathering of the flocks, whether to dress or
wean the lambs, or to shear or dip their dams. And we hear in the
ore connection in endless medley the shouts of the men and the laughter
of the girls, the yapping of the dogs, the thick " baa " of the ewes, and
the tremulous bleating of their offspring ; and in the other the wail of the
whaup, the bumming of the snipe, and the " kuck-kuck " of the grouse.

We have now exhausted the list we led off" with, and it remains to
go closer into detail. To do this the more thoroughly our idea is to

c 2

■20 THE MODERN HOMESTEAD.

discuss separately the several buildings that make up the homestead,
paying close attention to the fittings and other peculiarities of each as
we go along. In that way we would seek to make matters clear, and
help to spread a sound knowledge of this branch of rural economy.

First, however, there are fundamental points common to each of tlie
buildings — the walls and roofs for instance — which, for the sake of
learners principally, we propose to take up at this stage and have
done with, in order to steer clear, as far as we can, of unnecessary
repetition. These subjects will occupy us long, but some acquaintance
with them is essential on the part of him who has to do with the
arrangement and construction of farm buildings.

CHAPTER II.

THE WALLS.

The Materials ^^ ^he construction of these we are led of necessity in
for their con- a climate such as ours to make use of materials that are
struction. capable of witlistanding exposure to sun, rain, and frost.

Nature provides us at first hand with stone, a material which in every
way answers the purpose. It is impracticable, however, to handle it
in bulk and form a building out of it devoid of joint or seam. But our '
progenitors early discovered that fragments of stone could be built up
to form walls of considerable stability. These were at first thick and
uuAvieldy. The workers' tools, if any were then forthcoming, must
have been few and of small account, and as likely to harm the handlers
as have much effect on the stones. In time, with the growth of intelli-
gence and experience on man's part, he took to the piecing together of
handy-sized stones by means of mortar or plastic stuff that would
eventually harden more or less and knit all in a piece. Neater walls
were thus obtained, their lasting powers being determined by the nature
of the mortar used. Mud of a clayey texture — still necessary to the
house-building swallow and to the man in embryo (the savage as well as
the child) — was the first sort of mortar man turned to account. Nowadays
we have mortars that will become as hard as the stones they are set to
bind together. Walls constructed of building stone and a mortar of
this class, if properly put together, are more efficient than if they were
cut out of solid stone, could such a thing be done.

Stone of one kind or another is readily met with in most
districts of the British Isles. In some it is too far under-
ground to be readily available. Where this happens recourse is had to
brick, which is simply artificial stone. The situations devoid of build-
ing stone are happily those that are generally well supplied with brick-
forming clay. This, mixed with a due proportion of sand in order to
form a slight fiux, is formed into bricks which are roasted in kilns and
thus rendered as hard and impervious to moisture as stone. In no part
of our country, therefore, have we far to go for material, whether it be
stone or brick, with which to erect the walls of our various buildings.
And in this way it occurs that the nature of the walls of a homestead
take after the geological formation indicated by the outcropping rocks
of the neighbourhood, or it may be by the absence of any such. Here

22 THE MODERN HOMESTEAD.

we come across one built of whinstone that has either been quarried or
found in boulders ; there one of granite similarly obtained ; another we
pass constructed of freestone. Further afield we may come upon one
the walls of which are of limestone, and by-and-by, as we proceed, find
another where brick alone has been used. These different types tell
plainly the nature of the crust of the earth around their respective sites.

So far as efficiency goes it matters little what kind of stone is used in
the construction of the buildings. One is as good as another, provided
of course that it be a good specimen of its class. Generally speaking,
the stone from stratified rocks such as our various sandstones succumbs
sooner to weather than granite, whin, and stones of a similar nature do ;
but it is a very poor stone indeed that cannot be turned to useful pur-
pose in farm buildings. No such sharp, well-defined corners are looked
for in these that one expects in a dwelling-house or town building. All
the same we do not advocate the use of poor stone in this connection.
It is, however, bad management fetching either brick or stone from a
distance, if the available stone of the immediate neighbourhood, though
perhaps not so good as either, is capable of being formed into a good wall.
The dry-stone dykes or walls of any district give one a good idea of the
weather-resisting qualities of the easiest obtained stones of the country-
side. Stone gets well tested in these erections ; consequently when we
meet with an oldish dyke the stones composing which are still compara-
tively sharp on the edge and not much crumbled on face, it may safely
be taken for granted that stone of the same kind is quite good enough
with which to serve the builder at the homestead.

Although the various kinds of stone found in agricultural districts are
much on a level as regards efficiency, they vary considerably in matters
such as texture, density, their form of cleavage or fracture (how they
split up into pieces that can be manipulated first by the quarrymen and
next by the mason), and so on. Stratified rock, be it sandstone, lime-
stone, or shaly stuff, or any of the innumerable gradations and admix-
tures of these, can as a rule be readily quarried along the natural bedding
planes of the rock. At one time horizontal, these, as the result of the
subsequent crumpling and twisting, are now found running in all
directions corresponding with the degree of disturbance the respective
strata have undergone. The primary rocks, those composing the ribs of
our sphere, such as granite and the early ones laid thereon that have now
lost trace of their origin, as well as the intrusive rocks, whin, trap, and
allied kinds, those that have been thrust up through the sedimentary
rocks of later time, are more homogeneous in bulk. The first-mentioned
contain many flaws or lines of easy fracture, while the others have few
weaknesses of that nature. The one quarries out in longish blocks or
in cubes, but the other gives way to the labourer only in jagged junks
of irregular fracture. Every time the steady deposit of rock-forming
material in the sedimentary rocks has been temporarily checked or been

THE WALLS. 23

entirely replaced by some other one, a fresh bed or easily-defined joint
represents the change. These joints between and among the several
beds afford a ready line of separation between the respecti\'e beds, or,
when such occur, between the different layers of single beds, of which
quarrymen are able to avail themselves. But nothing of the kind is
there to help them in their attacks upon the real framework of mother
earth. Some of the sedimentary rocks are further rendered easy of
upbreak by means of frequent fractures along the short plane of the
stratification, that is, at right angles to their bedding, caused by crump-
ling and contortions of the earth's crust as it adapted itself to varying
strains during the cooling and lessening bulk of the globe. This and
other causes have in many places similarly reduced the primary rocks
to a more or less shattered condition, and, if nothing else, given quarry-
men a clean-cut side or sole to work from and so render his labour
easier, or, at any rate, more symmetrical in its development.

Failing available stone, brickwork takes its place. This,
"■^j' °° ' w^hen of good quality, is about as permanent as good

stonework. Wood is but a makeshift as a wall-forming
material at the homestead. Galvanised iron is hardly so serviceable.
Wood, if kept clear of the ground and put together in such a way that
moisture can freely drip from it and air have liberty to play on it, will
indeed last a considerable time. But the place for galvanised iron, if
used at all, is the roof, under which head we shall duly treat of it.
The Dressine ^^^^ stones used in farm buildings are never dressed into
given to the symmetrical blocks more or less polished, such as we are
°^^^- accustomed to see in the better class buildings of towns

or in country mansions. All they usually receive at the hands of the
mason is a chipping off or rough "clour" of sharp edges and corners
by means of his single-handed hammer. The great matter to keep in
view is to avoid stones of a wedge shape. Every one who thinks must
know, this is the w^orst form anything that has to be laid on or against
others can have when stability of the structure is essential. The Avedge
leads to sliding and outward thrust ; but every particle in a theoretically
perfect wall presses downwards to the earth's centre within the narrow
space defined by the outer and inner faces of the wall. The art of the
mason lies, therefore, in his skill in first knocking the stones into suitable
shape, and thereafter placing them in position in such a way that they will
lie steadily each one as part and parcel of the whole. Each must be
able to bear its share of the weight above without flinching. Once the
mortar has become hard and stone-like in itself it serves to bind all the
different pieces of stone together as one. This we have all seen in the
ruins of castles and abbeys. It is a slow natural process, however, and
in the meantime the wall, as a patchwork of separate pieces of \arying
size, has to stand.

It is evident that the nature of the stones available has much to d->

24 THE MODERN HOMESTEAD.

with arri\ing at a state of stability of the wall. Flat stones "bed"
well because they have little tendency to shift. They bear equally on
those beneath and they afiford good footing to those above. Others
that are all angles act as so many compound or many-sided wedges,
neither steady themselves, because lacking in breadth of base, nor of
advantage to others adjoining them above and around. Bricks are
entirely different in this respect. If laid both level and plumb each one
is bound to distribute its own weight as well as the burden it sustains
equally at all points of its base. But from their comparatively small and
uniform size a brick wall has of necessity a large number of joints,
which are all so many weak points in the structure. We shall see as
we proceed how the bricklayer counteracts this defect. Meanwhile it
will be w-ell to observe the proper sequence and first discuss the
foundations of the wall, and next the matter of the mortar that holds
the stones or bricks together.

In order to make sure of a firm foundation the wall
of the°Walls^ must be based either on rock or on unyielding subsoil.
The aim in view is to secure uniform pressure at every
part of the foundation. This it is impossible to arrive at absolutely.
One cannot make certain that even the bottom of a trench cut down
to the rock will be eqvially firm from end to end. Were we to
cut far enough into the rock, provided the same kind held good over
the area embraced by the foundations of a building, a close approach
to the ideal of equal resistance throughout might be obtained. The
architect of farm buildings has to rest content with less, however. He
has to be satisfied with a trench cut down to the undisturbed subsoil.
And this, if level in bottom, does well enough, and without being very
deep. Level it must be, however, else the weight of the wall will be
unequally distributed over the foundation, and undue strains will
eventually throw it out of shape. There must be no compressible soil
that has either been disturbed by recent excavation, or " spoil " that has
been deposited on the place between the foundation stones and mother
earth — the stuff that has not seen daylight since it was carried hence
by natural forces and deposited over the site of our proposed building.
Any sort of medium, other than the natural subsoil, be it cultivable
soil, " forced " stuff of any kind — soil laid there artificially — moss or
similar organic accumulation, must be cleared out " down to the hard "
before a satisfactory base for the foundation can be ensured.

Sound boulder clay and firm sand make the best of foundations.
But there must be a sufficient thickness of either. If there is merely a
seam of one or the other lying upon a bed of yielding matter, of a
mossy nature, for instance, only an unstable base can be expected.
Given on the other hand a fair depth of boulder clay or well compacted
sand, we have at once a bottom of uniform resistance on which to start
the rearing of our walls. It is not necessary to go far down in either

THE WALLS.

Concrete in
some cases ;
valuable aid

Fig.

substance to make sure of a base that practically speaking is fit for any
ordinary purpose. Here, in fact, we are nearer the ideal of a trench of
unvarying consistency than in almost any other medium.

Cement concrete is a valuable aid towards strengthening
weak foundations or rather in safeguarding against bad
results likely to happen from these if treated in the usual
manner. The weak points of a foundation betray themseves as the
weight gradually begins to increase with the height of the walls. They
may not give way until
after the completion of
the building, but sooner
or later they are bound
to be found out.
innumerable strains
come into play in a
building before it
fairly settled down
stability give many a
thrust and counter-thrust
ere each can be merged into the central one of all — ^gravity. It is
generally not till after this has been accomplished that the weaknesses
referred to begin to show ; and then too late to be remedied at the
seat of the evil. There is no getting down then beneath the

foundation to make
good defective parts.
Concrete possesses the
good quality of being
itf-^fff^; able to be turned to
■-:>/-". account in bridging
:'•. V '. over the inequalities
'^y.-T' of an inferior kind of
foundation. Itformsin
the foundation trench
when properly laid a continuous solid mass from end to end capable of
spanning these weak places without yield or break. Thus an irregular
base is converted into one steady and solid, on which to erect the fabric
of a building. Where mother earth is sound at surface and good big
stones are abundant, nothing further is needed. Where, however, these
conditions either together or singly are absent, concrete is of great
advantage in this connection. In a brick district, too, it may be the
cheapest thing to use even under good circumstances as regards subsoil.
We have already emphasised the necessity of forming
the bottom of the foundation trench as level as possible.
A wall built on a foundation with a rake as in Fig. i cannot
be considered very stable. It may not be practicable to cut the whole

^-^— '' — 1 ''

r^~T ^""^

=E^

1(1

V-

' •

. h - • ■ • ■

'.»

Fig. 2.

The Founda-
tion Trenches

THE MODERN HOMESTEAD.

length of the trench on one level. Irregularity of the surface may
prevent the thing being done. When the trench follows the inclination
of the slope it can be done at no point, that is to say, keeping economy
in view. It can be done, as Fig. 2 shows, by cutting deeper at the high
end of the trench, but if the inclination is (juick it can easily be seen
what a serious amount of extra building is implied under this manner

of working. The
same end can be
obtained by the
easier and sim-
pler method set
forth in Fig. 3,
which is equally
serviceable with
that of Fig. 2 ;
and out of
question consi-
derably cheaper.

Every change in level of the bottom of the foundation trench must be
followed up in the same way by one or more steps. If this is not observed
there must be unequal distribution of strain in the wall. In a well-built
wall the strains are allied into the perpendicular by gravity, and pass down
parallel in accordance with the arrows on Figs. 11, 13, 14 and 16, and
Avithin the outer and inner faces of the building. But the wall must be
plumb and the foundation equal in resistance throughout to allow of this.
\Mienever the bottom of the trench varies in level, at these points there

Fig. 3.

Fig.

is, as Fig. 4 shows, a break in the uniform resistance of the bottom of
the trench and a consequent change in the distribution of the weight.
At points a, b, and c, the respective portions of wall raised on these are
bound to bear to the side which dips lowest and therefore to press
against the part of the wall there. Each portion of the wall, however,
is supposed to have its own duty meted out to it without having to
buttress adjoining parts in addition. Instead of the pieces we are
instancing being given a chance to stand strongly up to their work.

THE WALLS.

their foothold is weakened by being placed on an incline down which
they would slide were they not arrested by the nearest part on the level.
In Fig. 5, we draw attention to the danger of carrying a foundation
that follows the face of rising ground too near the edge thereof. It is
a kind of foundation, however, that one is not often brought face to

^^^<<U^'

Fig.

Fig. 6.

face with at the homestead. Still it has sometimes to be encountered,
and to be forewarned is generally to be forearmed. In a case of this
sort the wall must be kept in from the face beyond the point where the
outer side support of the section of soil on which the wall rests comes
to be non-effective. There is bound, of course, to be some outward
pressure from this section, becoming less as we descend. This is

fe,

Fig. 7.

Fig. S.

Fig. 9.

represented in Fig. 6. It will not do, therefore, to go so near to the
face of the incline as to pass the point where there is too little bulk of
soil on that side to counterpoise the outward pressure referred to. If
we do the foundation will soon slip to that side and collapse. A
retaining wall such as in Fig. 7 will strengthen matters a little, but
not much more than results from the good effect of preventing the
soil from crumbling away through natural cause or otherwise being

THE MODERN HOMESTEAD.

disturbed. It will prevent the exposed bank from being eaten back to
the dangerous point. Were it made sufficiently thick it would come
to take the place of the section of soil that was then wanting to bring
the surface to a common level, as ticked in on Fig. 8. Its weight would
then prevent its being readily thrust. But to make it so thick would
be expensive and add much to the cost of the building. On a bank of
firm rock we could come to the edge of the bank, the closeness thereto
being governed by the power of the rock to withstand the wear and
tear due to weather. Were it strong in this respect we could without
danger build on the brink, the one precaution being observed to cut
a level foothold for the wall as showm in Fig. 9.

That a wall to be as perfect as possible must be built
plumb is on account of the law of physics that a body,
through whose centre of gravity a perpendicular line passes
outside the figure formed by the several points on which
the body rests when in equilibrium, must have the aid of other
support else it will fall. Take
for instance a square board, say
twelve inches square and an inch
thick. Lying on its flat side, as
in Fig. ID, the board is in stable
equilibrium. So far as itself is
concerned it has no tendency to
change its position. Its centre

The reason
why Walls
must be built
Plumb.

W^^

':y////^/y/-/'^

■it

Fig. 10.

Fig. II.

Fig. 12.

of gravity may be taken as lying at the point of intersection of its two
diagonals and therefore well within the figure described by the lines joining
its outer points of support. In this case the figure is a twelve-inch square
with the line through the centre of gravity right in the centre thereof —
a condition of perfect stability. But set the board up on edge. It will
stand thus, but in a position of unstable equilibrium as compared with
its former one. We are nearer the figure of our wall now, and the one
may be compared wdth the other.

Standing on edge on a level surface, as in Fig. 11, the board is
consequently plumb, and the vertical line which passes through its
centre of gravity falls within the figure defined by the points of its
support, this time a figure twelve inches long by an inch broad. Now,
however, a very slight cant of the board to one side, in accordance
with Fig. 12, throws the vertical line outside of the figure formed by
the base, with the effect of its toppling over and lying flat. Flatwise
it is in stable equilibrium ; on edge it is in a condition of unstable

THE WALLS.

equilibrium. A body at rest with its centre of gravity situated as low-
as it possibly can be placed is in a state of stable equilibrium. The
same still at rest, but with its centre of gravity at the highest point
attainable, is in unstable equilibrium, and very
little will serve to set it seeking the more stable
position. The board when on its side is, as we
have said, in stable equilibrium, and not to be
shifted easily out of that condition ; but on edge it |^

is never, so to speak, easy, and is ever ready to
assume the more fixed one. Were the board
thinner it would have the greater difficulty to
maintain the upright position. And so would it
were we to enlarge the board without altering its

thickness. In each case we are conducing to the

same adverse effect on the stability of the object. yig,. 13.

In narrowing the base, as in Fig. 13, we are

making it the harder for the vertical line through the centre of gravity to
keep within the side lines formed by the base. Enlarging the board with-
out adding to the thickness, as in Fig. 14, we are doing the same thing.

Fig. 14.

Fig. 15.

We are here again increasing the ratio of the height of centre of
gravity to breadth of base. A very slight sway to the side, as in
Fig. 15, would now throw the vertical line outside the lines which

THE MODERN HOMESTEAD.

defined the base, and bring about the fall of the board. As small a
force would upset it as would do so in the case of Fig. 13.

The wall conies under the self-same laws. It must first, however,
be knit together in all its parts as one continuous fabric. Until this
occurs each stone in the building has to be taken on its own merits.
It can hardly be said that each piece is a separate mass of matter on
which the laws of gravitation are free to work their will. In the
course of erection this is so to a considerable extent. But even when
the building is at its greenest the individuality of the several stones
that compose the same is much curtailed through the adhesive action
of the mortar, and the weight of the part of the wall that happens to
be above them. These other forces bring an entirely different state of
matters into play from what takes place when the stones are left to be

dealt with singly and without the
interference of other forces than
gravitation. Placed together in
the wall, one either bears upon or
leans against another, and is thus
prevented from changing its
place, the mortar further tending
to prevent separation of the
component fragments. It needs
little reflection to understand
why it is that, notwithstanding
such aids to stability as the
adhesiveness of the mortar, those
stones that are shaped nearest in

outline to our assumed board and

laid on their face are the least
liable to shift, and go to form
the strongest wall. They, like
the board, are in stable equilibrium, and have no inclination to shift in
any direction except steadily downwards. Not only do they lie securely
themselves, they help others lying above them to do so ; they press
equally on the area beneath them, absorbing in themselves any dis-
ruptive tendencies that ill-shaped or badly bedded stones immediately
overhead are causing. As we shall find, it is customary to stipulate
that numbers of stones approaching the shape variously termed
"headers," "throughbands," and so on, be distributed throughout the
wall as it proceeds.

Once the mortar has " set," and the wall has become a whole,
arrowing stronger (internally at least) with years, it may be held as
analogous to the board aforesaid. Turning then to Fig. 16, and
leaving out of account the part of the wall underground, the erection
will take no harm ; it will not fall, at any rate, until the line, as before,

33;

THE WALLS.

passing down through the centre of gravity of the wall, goes outside
the edge of the base of the figure. But in practice the foundation
counts — it does at any rate when put together with mortar and made
continuous with the wall, and this being usually wider than the wall
itself helps the stability of the structure. The centre of gravity is now
brought nearer the ground, and the base is widened. A concrete
foundation does not tell in this way, because the cement is " set " before
building takes place upon it, and therefore, foundation and wall cannot
be continuous. And, to a certain extent, a damp course will serve
to break the bond of union between wall and foundation. There is
not, indeed, much danger of a well-built wall, given fair play, e\er
swaying over to the falling point. A poorly-built one, it is needless to
say, will lighten itself long before the critical point of a good one is
reached. How long a good one may keep its feet, even when con-
siderably off the perpendicular, we have the famous example of the
leaning tower of Pisa. But we look for nothing but plumb-walls at
homesteads. They are rarely so high that any excuse can be advanced
for their going to one side.

The mortar of every-day use is an intimate mixture of
r inary IJnie and sand made into a thin paste with water. The

lime is burnt limestone, the principal natural form of
carbonate of lime, or, to speak more technically, calcium carbonate.
Roasted in kilns, the carbonic acid or carbon di-oxide is driven ofif as
gas from the limestone by the heat generated, and lime or the oxide
of calcium left. In practice the quarried pieces of lime are thrown
together with a certain portion of coal into the open limekiln. Provision
is made for fire being applied at the bottom of the basin-like building,
and for a sufficiency of air to promote combustion being admitted at
will. On cooling down, the contents of the kiln are thrown out as lime
•shells, in a state of purity corresponding to the quality both of the
limestone and the coal dealt with, and to the thoroughness of the
process. If the limestone prove inferior the proportion of effective
shell to the initial stone will be the less ; if the coal be indifferent a
good deal of unnecessary cinder will be in the shell ; and if the process
is not thorough the best will not have been made either of limestone
or coal, W'hether one or both be bad.

Lime shells are known as quicklime. They have
xiorF^^"^^^^' great avidity for moisture. Whenever they come in
contact with water they absorb it greedily and enter into
chemical combination therewith, evincing much heat at the time and
crumbling to powder. The mason, on delivery of the shells, at once
sends a labourer to attend to them. The labourer arranges them in a
heap, surrounding the base with a proper quantity of sand, then pours
water over them until they are thoroughly drenched or " slaked," as
the term goes. This finished he envelops theheap in sand and allows

32 THE MODERN HOMESTEAD.

it to remain undisturbed for some time. It is all the better to be

untouched for two or three weeks. In that time all the particles in the

heap may get a chance to be moistened, and the whole contents to

become well " soured," as the tradesman says.

About two parts of sand to one of lime is considered the standard

proportion in making mortar. It is impracticable to heap all this

quantity of sand on the shells at the time of slaking. No more

than will cover the shells and to some extent retain the moisture is

required to begin with. The full allowance of sand is added when the

mortar is being prepared for the builder. Preparatory to this, the by

this time quite dry contents of the heap are passed through a sieve

or riddle which ensures that no hard pieces of matter get into the

mortar, then water and additional sand are added and the stuff

made ready for use.

_, . ,, The mortar gradually dries and hardens in the wall,

The "setting _ o -' . _ '

or hardening binding all, stones and lime, into one solid piece. This
of Mortar. takes time, however, according to the circumstances

that affect each case. Some take a short time, others a long time. In
any case it does not do to scamp the proper bedding and locking
together of the stones above referred to, trusting to the mortar to
correct the evil. When the latter has reached the stony stage it is
then able to hold the weak parts in place, but there flaws would need
long as well as careful bolstering ere the mortar were fit for that
purpose.

z\.ccording to theory, the hardening of mortar in the wall is due to
the reconversion of the oxide of lime to the carbonate. It absorbs
carbonic acid from the atmosphere and reverts to carbonate of lime.
This takes a considerable time. The lime dries as it hardens. If
subjected to the influence of more moisture than was added when it
was being prepared, the natural process of the hardening of the mortar
is hindered, and if this be continued too long it will lose the power of
"setting." Unlike Portland cement, it will not cohere at all under
water. Some of it will dissolve and a larger portion be taken up in
solution by the water, the remainder will become disintegrated and be
turned into sediment.

The quality of the mortar depends much on the nature of the sand it
is made up with, assuming, of course, that the lime is good to start
with. It is argued that since there is much silica in sand, this unites
with the lime to form silicate of lime. But the chief part taken by sand
in the partnership seems to be that the separate grains or particles
afford suitable media round which the slowly forming carbonate of lime
can crystallise. Each constitutes a nucleus or rallying point for the
carbonate as it generates. The cleaner the sand —the freer it is of
mud or earthy matter — the more effective the part it plays in mortar.
The grittier, too, the better. It is no uncommon thing to find it in the

THE WALLS. 33

ruins of some ancient castle more after the nature of gravel than sand.

There is a happy medium, however. When it is too coarse in grain

the resulting mortar is not conducive to close bedding of the stones.

But this is of less moment in the country than in the town. In the

town square polished stones are much dealt with, and these have to be

accommodated with close-textured mortar ; and brickwork requires

a mortar less gritty than answers for roughish stonework. In towns,

or where\er big jobs justify the use of the pug mill for mixing mortar,

we find the labourer throwing all manner of stuff into the tub or trough

— brickbats, chips of stone of all kinds, sand (earthy and otherwise),

and not a little soil at times, and yet turn out the best of mortar. This

seems to belie what we have been saying, yet there is bovmd to be truth

in both rather contradictory facts. In the pug mill the miscellaneous

contents are subjected to treatment that converts the whole into a

mixture more after the nature of a cement than ordinary mortar

composed of lime and sand pure and simple.

Here may be a suitable place to warn beginners against the use of

sand that has been recently under the influence of sea water in buildings.

Such sand is ever absorbent of moisture from the atmosphere, and

buildings that contain it are never really dry. It is possible to wash

out the salt of sand thus contaminated from a builder's point of view ;

and sea sand from far above high-water mark is not liable to have much

of it in its hold ; but it is advisable to keep clear of both when possible.

Portland cement is another substance occasionally put

Portland ^^ ^^^ ^^ mortar — only under special conditions, how-

Cement. .

ever. It is not well adapted to the every-day purposes

of the builder. It sets too quickly to be effective as mortar for wall-
bailding. In the case of ordinary mortar, for long after the building
has been completed the lime will be found comparatively soft and
yielding, therefore capable of adaptation to a considerable amount of
compression. Matters would be different were Portland cement the
mortar that held the stones together. Before many courses were laid
the mortar in the first one would be set hard as stone, with the conse-
quence that instead of its being able to pack closely into the internal
crevices, holding the stones tighter together as the rising wall increased
in weight, it would have to find relief in cracking and splitting. But
were it the equal of lime for building with, its price would forbid its
general application to the purposes of the mason.

Portland cement is largely taken advantage of at the homestead in
the manufacture of concrete for floors. It is of much avail too in
the construction of watertight tanks of stone or brick ; and in some
positions it serves well to point with, and to plaster parts of walls
much subjected either to wet or to hard knocks.

It differs from lime in being more complex in composition. In the
process of its setting mor^ forces would seem to come into play than

M.H. D

34 THE MODERN HOMESTEAD.

are supposed to be concerned in the hardening of lime mortar. We

have already mentioned that Portland cement will set as well under

water as in any ordinary place elsewhere. In fact, it begins to set of

its own accord, and that without the help of sand or other partner of

the kind whenever affected by moisture. On this account Portland

cement cannot be safely stored in a damp place. Of course, if exposed

to rain it will harden right off and become usless as mortar. It can be

used either with or without sand as circumstances decide. It is nearly

always advisable, however, to mix it with more or less sand. There

is not much risk of giving it too much, because, speaking generally, it

can carry more than lime is capable of doing.

Lime is the most fully represented body in Portland cement. A

certain percentage of clay is also present in the substance. It is not

altogether a natural product, although it can be manufactured almost

entirely from special kinds of deposit of a more or less rocky description.

Unlike the simpler lime, it is ready for the builder as it leaves the hands

of the producer.

Another kind of mortar lying, as regards composition,

somewhere half-way between lime and Portland cement

is known under the name of Arden lime. It, too, is ready for use when

it reaches the builder. Very seldom does Arden lime take the place of

ordinary lime in wall-building ; it does not at the homestead, at any

rate. Pointing is the principal end it serves.

We have now got our stones and mortar, and may pro-

uiiding ceed to the erection of the walls. The foundations are

Stone vValls.

usually laid six inches or so wider on each side than the
walls. This extra width where it finishes at the surface and forms a
ledge or shelf at either side is termed the scarcement. Large flat
stones make the best material for a foundation. Sometimes these are
laid one upon another without the addition of mortar. This we con-
sider is not economical. A more satisfactory basement for the wall
will be afforded where all the joints and crevices in the foundation have
been toned down by the means of mortar. Where mortar is not too
scrimped in application it will take upon itself many of the strains
that affect the wall, and in its yielding before these, by pressing into
places where tension is slightest, in this way serve as a sort of elastic
packing to equalise the pressure throughout the whole. But whatever
the kind of stones turned to account in the foundation, and whether
we leave scarcements or not, or leave out the lime, we must, without
fail, observe what we previously enforced regarding the bottom of the
trench. At no part must it be so left that any piece of the wall,
not even a running foot of it, can have other than a straight down
pressure — parallel with the plumb-line. The matters of the class of
stones, and that of mortar, are not of such vital importance as this one —
that the wall must, over the whole area of its foundation, press down

THE WALLS. 35

at right angles to the l)ottom of the trench, and this it cannot do unless,

to begin with, the latter he everywhere strictly horizontal.

„ , , , , The walls of farm buildings where of stone are built

Rubble work.

after the style known as random rubble work. The

stones are taken as they come and fitted together in the manner they
are likely to lie most conformably one with the other. There is no
exact squaring of corners observed previous to the stones being laid
near at hand to the builder. The builder and hewer are one and the
same person at this style of work. Before starting to build at any
time he first o\-erhauls the stones, selecting the best for the outer face
of the wall, and laying them to one side. Each of these must have one
smoothish face to present to the world. If no suitable face is already
on the stone one must be given it. This is accomplished by means of
hammer and chisel or hammer alone in accordance with the texture
of the stone. At the same time, the sharpest of the corners are knocked
ofT, and what of the edge surrounding the face that requires it is
dressed back at right angles to the same, the part behind being brought
into conformity therewith. When this is done the stone is of itself
assured of a good bed, while it offers the same to those that are to be
both against and above it, and all present close-fitting joints to the
exterior. Less regard is paid to the stones that are to form the inner
face of the wall, although some measure of the same kind has to be
meted out to them. Those that are to be consigned to the interior of
the wall are taken as they come and filled in as they are required, small
regard being paid as to how the hammer affects them so long as they
yield before it.

Best Class of Stones of the nature of sandstone — the various freestones
Stones for the — are of all kinds handled by the mason the most readily
put in shape for building purposes. Limestones and
some of the shaly rocks are not far behind them. Granite is not so
bad either. But hard trap rocks such as whin which fracture at sharp
angles are difficult to coax into shape suitable for a good w^all. With
hammer alone an expert mason can work wonders on them, yet it is
easy to understand how^ hard it is to dress a stone of this class into form
that will afford all round the outer face that uniform and effective joining
with contiguous stones referred to above. For this reason these stones
are not very well adapted for rubble work, at least of the kind seen at
the ordinary steading. It is not easy to build a wall with these that
will keep out rain. With hammer and chisel they can be dressed into
blocks having good beds and side joints, and in this shape be built to
form an excellent wall, pleasing to the eye as well as impenetrable to
rain. But this implies increased expense compared with ordinary
building. With care, however, it is possible to have a dry wall even
with these hammer-dressed alone. It may be thought that the home-
stead walls have no need to be so carefully erected as the walls of

D 2

36 THE MODERN HOMESTEAD.

dwellings. They must, howe\er, be dry as well as strong, and neither
consummation can be attained witliout the exercise of care and pains-
taking. Boulders are sometimes the most readily available source of
either granite or whinstone and their allies. A mason experienced in
the handling of these can quickly knock them into shape, and a
wonderfully good wall they make under a man of this kind.
Finishing of The corners of walls and the outer sides of the various

Corners and openings therein — doorw^ays and windows — require to be
of Door and ,.,,.,, . ^ . ., . _ .

Window finished with dressed stones of a uniform size. This

Openings. affords solidity and strength to these parts, which they

would not have were they merely a continuation of the rubble wall. The
corner stones are hewn level above and below, and squared at the sides.
This gives them a uniform bed all over the breadth and length of the
stone, and allows them to sit solid irrespective almost of mortar as an
aid. The remainder of the wall has to await the time of the mortar
before it becomes really solid. Secure corners thus keep the w^all
together while it is green, and are ever after solid buttresses guarding
the flanks and angles of the building. They serve as a sort of firm
framework in which to set the remainder while in its incoherent state.

It is possible, of course, by exercising special care, to finish off the
corners and the sides of the various openings without any special treat-
ment of the kind, and thus make them uniform with the rest of the
building. But done in this way they can never be strong, and certainly
they are neither so sightly nor so symmetrical-looking as when com-
pleted after the ordinary fashion. The sides of doorways are often
built in this rather primitive way, but seldom the sides of the windows,
or the corners of the buildings, unless indeed the work is of the crudest
description. Doorways finished so are spoken of by the Scottish trades-
men as being " scuntioned," the term evidently applying to openings
in the wall not edged with stones hewn to a uniform shape and size.
The inner part of the sides of windows, the part splayed inwards to
allow the admission of as much light as possible, as well as the inner
corners of door openings, are on the same account termed " scuntions."
These, in dwelling-houses, are hidden behind the plaster, and so long
as they are made strong, have no need to be finished in hewn stone.
But at the steading " scuntions " such as we are discussing are left as
they develop under the mason's hand, he just taking a little more trouble
in the selection of stones for these positions and in the fitting of them
together, and in their pointing afterwards. Inside, a corner constructed
in that way may last for long enough, while outside it might early show
signs of decay. Notwithstanding this, it might prove serviceable enough
long after appearances were against it. Experience, however, has
taught the builder that it is economical to use dressed stones of the
kind referred to in the construction of the rubble wall at the homestead.
In brick buildings nothing of the kind is necessary, because each brick,

THE WALLS.

each unit that is in the composition of the wall, is of uniforni size and
shape, and at any part thereof a break can be made the sides whereof
are as strong as the rest of the wall. The rectangular ends of the
bricks make ever sure of a hard, clean-cut solid corner either at gable
or opening through the wall.

In Fig. 17 the hewn or dressed corners show themselves in contra-
distinction to the plain rubl)le building. The stones of a similar
kind used for the sides of
doors and windows as repre-
sented in Figs. 18 and ig
are technically known as
" rybats." These, it will be
observed, are built alter-
nately with side and end
outwards, in order further
to bind and keep together
the irregular stones lying
near to them. "Inband"and
" outband " are the terms in
use for this arrangement of
the stones, the iirst implying
that the stones are laid
lengthwise across the wall, the other that their length runs with the
face of the wall. The corner stones are similarly laid in this alternate
fashion so as to tie the corners firmly to the whole fabric.

, . , , The door and window openingrs require, further, to be

Lintels. . . f & n > '

bridged over. Asmgle stone known as the " lintel," marked
rton Figs, lb and 19, accomplishes this. In some cases it is practicable to
arch over a wide opening, which is a stronger method than lintelling

Fig. 17.

llG iS.

Fig. 19.

with stone. W'he 1 the opening exceeds a certain width either wood or
iron must be used : stone is not fibrous enough -to withstand fracture
when placed under a strain of this nature. It will bear compression or

38 THE MODERN HOMESTEAD.

a squeeze to almost any degree, but compared with either wood or iron
it is weak under contortion or twisting. The ordinary-sized openings
of either doors or windows are, however, well within the minimum that
stone can be relied upon to bridge over with safety, and it gives us a
material that will prove co-existent with the building. The same
cannot be said of wood nor yet of iron. The latter with care might be
made almost as lasting. But continuous care of this kind is not usually
exhibited at the homestead.

^... The window openings have to be provided with still

another dressed bordering, the sill, b on Fig. i8 ; and
in the generality of cases so have the doorways, with steps. The
window-sill is necessary by way of a level support for the window-case
as well as to ensure a watertight base for the exposed part of the open-
ing. Something strong is needed in each instance, and in a single stone
we find a proper medium.

^ ^ A damp course is a necessity in the walls of a dwelling-

Damp Course. .

house of any kind. It is not, however, usual to put them

in farm buildings, though the cost thereof is so small compared with the
benefit likely to be derived therefrom that we consider their use
justifiable economy in a great many cases. The object a damp course
serves is to cut off from the wall all direct communication with the
ground damp that is open to affect the foundation. A little above the
level of the ground surface a so-called watertight course is laid all round
the w^alls. Sometimes one material is used, sometimes another. A
row of slates embedded in Portland cement is a common form of damp
course, or it may be the same cement used alone. Asphalt makes one
of the best. The stuff is melted and perhaps sand added : it is then
ladled out of the cauldron and laid along the level surface in one con-
tinuous sheet an inch or so thick and the full breadth of the wall.
When this coating has become firm the wall is begun upon it and
carried up as usual. If effectively done it completely prevents ground
damp rising in the wall, whether under capillary attraction or the
influence of other forces. Asphalt is a material less likely to fracture
under pressure or irregular strain than Portland cement. The latter,
as we indicated pre\'iously, hardens before the wall has had time to
adjust itself to the various strains that play upon it and settle down to
stable equilibrium. On that account the cement gets fractured. It
cannot adapt itself to changing strains like a softer material can, and in
consequente has to break instead of bend. Every break means a crack,
and up a crack ground damp, if present to any extent, will readily find
a way. Asphalt, on the other hand, is elastic, or yielding, and capable
of giving \yay to pressure without fracturing, and it is quite as imper-
vious to moisture as Portland cement. We sometimes have prepared
paper and various felty materials brought under our notice as likely
substitutes for damp courses? But something of a more tangible nature

THE WALLS.

than either of these is required in the make-up of what has to hold its
own in the life history of the outer shell of a building of stone and lime.
We hinted above that a damp course might be apt to break the bond of
continuity between wall and foundation. There is not much in this,
however. To push it home would be like making a mountain out of a
molehill. A course of the description last referred to might break the
bond, but hardly either of the other two. Even if they did, we could
look for the wall still to perform its duty.

\\'e are now free to discuss the wall proper. The usual
the^Walfs ° thickness of the rubble wall as we find it at the steading

is 21 inches — i foot 9 inches. When bricks are used the
hickness of the outer walls is g inches, or at the outside 14^. The
reason of a thinner wall being allowable when bricks are taken in place
of stone ought now to be somewhat apparent to those of our readers
hitherto unacquainted with such matters. Unlike the irregular-shaped
stones that go to form rubble, the bricks are identical in size and
shape, and can be fitted close together with little effort and without
ha\ing recourse either to hammer or chisel. Each brick comes to the
builder's hand ready shaped, to bed easily and firmly with what have
already been deposited, and in turn to form an equally firm bed to what
have still to be added to the structure. In like manner do they lend
themselves to easy combination with those either to right or left of them.
With stone matters are entirely different, unless of course the pieces
happen to be blocked out and hewn into rectangular form like bricks as
we see in some of the better kinds of mason Avork. Even then, how-
ever, it is usually but as an outward veneer to the wall, the rest of it
being built of irregularly-shaped stones. But with the rubble wall pure
and simple we are at the antipodes of building from one of brick. The
corners and sides of openings are, as we have seen, something on the
line of brick building, but the remainder of the wall, with the exception
of its outer skin, is more of the nature of coarse concrete than anything
else.

In order to distribute as equally as possible throughout

'Tu ^^ l^u' T^ the wall the pressure of its own weijjht, and what in turn
I nrougnbanas. ^ '^ '

it supports, which is no slight matter in an incoherent
erection such as a raw or newly-built rubble wall, experience teaches
that the frequent introduction of large stones that reach right across
the breadth of the wall help to stiffen the mass into one coherent whole.
In Eig. 20 it can be seen how these throughbands, or " headers " as stones
thus put to account are termed incline to do this. They begin afresh,
as it were, with a sound base on which to lay the smaller stones. Every
other throughband is, as it were, a renewal of the foundation. If one
compares Fig. 21 with Fig. 20, it is easy to see the impqrtance of this
point in building. In Fig. 21 the stones are so arranged that there is
little to keep the wall from splitting should it exer come to be subjected

THE MODERN HOMESTEAD.

t£

"T-r

~rF

Fig 20.

Fig. 21.

to strains tending that way. A badly-put-together roof, as we shall
see under that head, may bring about strains of this kind. The ties, or

throughbands, in Fig. 20
entirely prevent this. If
judiciously distributed
throughout the wall, they
bind the several pieces of
the fabric as one, even when
the other stones are small
and not well shapen for
building. They equalise the
strain due to gravity as well
as those that incline to
thrust it beyond the plumb.
It is usual to stipulate that
so many of these are to be
built in a certain area of the
wall, and that they be placed alternately as regards their vertical position.
Those of one row^
must not be laid
directly over those
in the next row
beneath. They must
be distributed as
equally as prac-
ticable over the
superficial area of
the wall. Fig. 22,
which shows the
ends of the throughbands in thicker lines than those of the surrounding

stones, represents the point in hand.

Flat stones, we need hardly state, make a
better wall than either angular or roundish
ones. A wall constructed of flat stones, as in
Fig. 23, has not the same need of through-
bands as one after the nature of that shown
in Fig. 21, which perhaps is rather an
extreme example made to point a moral.
The wall of flat stones is nearly all through-
bands together. It can be so built at any rate
as to make it quite possible to dispense with
these being introduced specially.
Builders of rubble work can
hardly refrain from setting up

They

Fig.

Bedding the
Stones.

Fig. 2j.
the stones on ed<re rather than beddinj/ them flatwise in the wall.

THE WALLS.

are so intent on getting ahead with the outer face of the building, the
most finicking part, that they will readily sacrifice efiiciency of the
interior of the wall to this motive. A flattish stone set up on edge makes
sure certainly of a goodly addition to the outer skin. Its shallowness,
however, or rather its thinness, makes weakly the joints of such armour,
and rain when beaten against it will very soon find its wav behind. The
same stone laid flat adds little in comparison to the outer face, but adds
far more to the efficiency of the wall than the other instance. It makes
it stronger, and it defies rain to find a way easily into the interior of
the wall so far as the joints of its armour are concerned.

A leaky wall brings mischief in its train. The rain, once an entrance
is gained, seeks down for an outlet, and no one can tell where that is
likely to be. It may be inside, it may be outside ; as likely as not it
will appear in a steady drip from the lintel of door or window. But
wherever it goes
harm is resulting
to the wall and bad
effects are apt to
follow on either
man or animal
housed thereby.
The lime can never
set properly vinder
these circum-
stances ; in fact, if
nmch rain finds
passage into the
wall, it in time
carries a good deal away in solution, as one can see from the
rudimentary stalactites or limy deposits that gather al)out the points
of exit.

A badly jointed wall — that is, one the face joints whereof go no depth
inwards — can hardly be kept dry if it stands exposed to gales of wind.
The driving rain is certain to find a way through the outer surface,
more especially if the heart of the wall is not well packed, and more-
over is devoid of its due measure of mortar. Wind will then get into
the wall and with it rain when the two assault in company. Looking
at the stones a, b, c in Fig. 24, one can grasp the defective jointing of
each at a glance. Wind and rain have only to beat long enough at the
weak part of each to gain entrance beyond. Compare these now with
the section of a brick wall as represented in Fig. 25. Here we ha\e
the perfection of bedding and jointing, an even and level bed extending
over the whole area of each brick above and below and similarly with
its jointing faces at sides and back, these touching uniformly at all
parts the same shaped bricks at either side and behnid. Built with

^■

Fig.

Fig. 25.

THE MODERN HOMESTEAD.

Bond in build
ing as exem-
plified in
Brickwork.

good mortar, it is easy to see that wind and rain Avill hardly be able to
drive rain through the joints of such a structure.

A demonstration in the interlocking of bricks in a building,
or "bonding'" as the technical term goes, brings home at
once to the tyro the importance of the matter of placing
the stones of a wall on the lines we have been seeking to
make plain the reason thereof. There are various systems of doing
this, but they are mostly modifications of the best known two, viz., the

old English bond and the
Flemish bond. Fig. 26
shows the arrangement
of bricks in the former
and Fig. 27 that obser\ed
in the latter. In the old
English bond a row or
course of headers — bricks
laid crosswise, through-
bands, in fact — alter-
nates with a course of
stretchers — bricks laid longwise or stretching along the face of the wall.
Thus the side or end joints of one course never coincide with those of the
course immediately beneath or of the course immediately above it. Tlie
bond is "broken," as the term runs. The joints of one course strike the
solid bricks of the course next below, and in this way the points of least
resistance to shearing: force are

A III III'

/ 1. 1 1 1 M 1 1 1 1 ' 1 1' 1 -

U ■ '1 ' ' ^' 'i ' ' 1' 1 1 1 ', '

1 r 1 I'l 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

T 1 1 ! 1 , 1 ( '

1' 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 M 1 1 1 1

1 1' 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 h

1 1 1 1 1 1, 1 1

II 1 1 1 1,1 1

ri 1 II 1 1 II II II 1

1 1 1 1 1 1 1

' 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 i 1 1

1 .1, |l, I'l I'l |l| ,1,

-H-'-i' '1' '1' ',' '1' '1' '

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 , 1

1 1 1 1 1 1 1

Fig. 26.

I '1 . . I I

I I I I

^^=5^

I III

^T— r

=^=tr^

III

1 I

xn.

,1 I,' ,1

JZL

JZl

T-t

I I I I

3I-C

I, :i I

Ml I

Fig.

equally distributed throughout

the area of the wall. This is

tlie aim underlying the different

varieties of bond, and whichever

comes nearest the mark is the

most eflfective. There is not

much room for choice of either

before the other of the examples

represented. To make tor

strength in the wall there ought

to be more headers than stretchers ; but the bricklayer nearly always

steers clear of headers until appearances fairly force him to introduce

them. Like the mason "setting the flat stones on edge, he gets along

speedier with the stretchers than with the headers.

The standard size of bricks is g inches long, ^^ inches
broad or wide, and 3 inches deep or thick. They are
indeed barely 4^ inches broad. Were they made the

full width mentioned, there would be no room left for the mortar joint

when the headers came to be placed over a stretcher, as in Fig. 28 ; or,

what is the same thing, they would fail to maintain with the almost

Standard Size
of Bricks.

THE WALLS.

Fig. 28.

mathematical precision we usually see in a brick wall the relative
position of the joints in alternate courses. The headers would gain on
the stretchers and the joints of the former would strike the latter at all
parts as well as the centre of the bricks. The joints too of the two
courses would come to coincide in their regular turn.

Either when starting from or finishing up at a corner it is necessary
to introduce " closers," or bricks reduced to a size that
w'ill gradually lead the bricklayer into the regular rhythm
of his work as regards the due measure of the bond he
essays to keep. Fig. 29 will serve to make plain what
we mean. \\'ere he to lead off with whole bricks as in
the lowest part of the fig., he would never be able to
break bond. Starting with a course of stretchers and
following with one of headers, the joint of the second
two of these would coincide with the edge of the stretcher beneath.
Halving the second header, as in the middle portion of the fig., would
let the bricklayer out of the difficulty, and with a little chipping off the
succeeding two or three would bring him to the desired symmetry.
When the wall is a single one, of stretchers alone, the difficulty is simply
got over, as in the uppermost portion of the fig., by halving a brick in

every alternate course. A
reversal of these processes

has to be observed in wind-
ing up or breaking the line
at a corner as represented in
Fig. 30.

Bricks come in handy for
erecting some of the parti--
tions of a rubble-built home-
stead, seeing that a brick
partition takes up less room
than a stone one, and con-
sequently saves outlay in
roofing, and in front and
back walls as Avell. In some
cases a 4^-inch dividing wall
suffices ; in nearly all others
a g-inch one wdl do. Sometimes it is practicable to reduce one of the
last mentioned breadth to one of 4^ inches after the level of the wall
head has been reached.

Pointing- the ^^ hen the wall is erected the joints of its outer faces are
Outer Face afterwards carefully pointed either with common lime
of Walls. niortar or with Arden lime mortar, or it may be Portland

cement. The original mortar is first raked out of the joints, whether
the wall is of bri'ek or of stone. The workman opens the joint from

THE MODERN HOMESTEAD.

I'l' iT~TT~'li

Ml 1 1 '

III II !l

__,! 1 II II •

_l 1 1 II 1

II II II

half-an-incli to one inch deep and fills it up with the pointing material,
leaving it neat and ship-shape on the outside as he proceeds. He has
various ways of finishing it off", which differ mostly in accordance with
the character of the building material, but the one that sheds ofT water
most readily is bound to be the best. Rain is the assailant that has to

be withstood. If the
heart of the wall be fairly
solid, there is less fear of
rain gaining an entrance ;
and, on the other hand,
good pointing will go con-
siderably to make up for
defects under this head.
But each has sufficient to
do in performing its own
part, and, if possible, it
should be seen that this
is carried out in practice.
It is unwise to allow pointing to be done near to the season in which frost
is liable to come on, either too late in autumn or too early in spring. If
a sharp frost gets the pointing in its grip before it has had time to set
firmly, most of it will need renewal. The inner joints are smoothed off
as the building proceeds and no more attention is paid to them. It is
practicable sometimes to finish off the outer face of brickwork as the
building proceeds — onlv, howe\er, in second-rate work and in seasonable
weather.

CHAPTER III.

The Roofs — Their Framework.

Ix the construction of the framework of these we have

ctx ':"°.'" less choice of materials than we find available for buildinsr
of Materials . *=>

for Roofing the walls. True enough we have only brick and stone as

^^^J°^ the cfroundwork of the latter, but then while the stones

Building. 's ' . _

are of many sorts, the wood made use of is of pine and fir
alone, and only one or two species of each. These are the soft woods
in contradistinction to the hard woods, such as oak, ash, beech,,
elm, &c.

The hard woods are deciduous in habit : they shed the
Woods^^ whole of their leaves on the approach of winter and

develop a new set in spring, fresh and green, in the
delicate network whereof the slowly coursing sap gets full and free
exposure to the light of heaven and the surrounding air. The soft
woods — the pines and firs, and their allies — with the exception of the
larch, retain their spine-shaped leaves through winter. In spring they
part with some as others make their appearance ; but they do not
change the lot at the short stated periods coincident with the altering
seasons as do the bigger leaved forest trees and shrubs. It is with
their leaves something as with the covering of our heads when in the
vigour of manhood — hairs are constantly dropping out, but others soon
take the vacated places. The larch resembles the first-mentioned leaf-
shedders in so far that it parts with the whole of its leaves at the advent
of winter and starts afresh in spring with an entirely new investiture.
And there are evergreen members of the deciduous family called so
because they retain their leaves from springtime till springtime —
sticking to them all winter and parting with them just as the fresh lot
are about to burst the buds.

The soft woods are of quicker growth than the others.
The Soft They, at any rate, come earlier to maturity. They are

lighter, more easily manipulated, and cheaper, and, at the
same time, well adapted to the purposes of the carpenter and joiner in
building, hence their general use in that connection. i\.nd not only are
we limited to the use of the pines and firs as a whole, but we are further
limited to those of foreign growth. There is abundance of home-grown
timber in Britain fit to do '''ood service in building were it cut into

46 THE MODERN HOMESTEAD.

proper sizes and seasoned. Timber for building purposes can still,

however, be sent to us from abroad cheaper than we get home-prepared

stuff, and so long as that is the case with our forest products will we

have to rest content with matters as they are.

The foresters of Britain, like the farmers thereof, are still

ritish \-ictims to foreign competition, but unlike the latter, they so

Forestry of . .

small moment far have failed to make themselves felt in the available

M k 7^'"^ markets of their respective neighbourhoods. Forestry
with us is, generally speaking, on too small a scale to be
practised systematically and on strict commercial lines. On a few large
estates which embrace the class of land which it is considered profitable
to plant there is scope for the full practice of forestry as an art, and on
some we find this going on. But these are few and far between, and
the timber raised therein is unknown in the home markets for building
material. The most of it, indeed, is used up in other directions before it
attains the dignity of timber. The mature residue, however, is never
available to the builder. Much of it there is no doubt is bound to be
equally good with the foreign supply ; but, unfortunately, it is produced
in so small a quantity, and so intermittently, as to have no distinct place
of its own in the catalogue of the builder — it has no place there at all,
in fact. Rural economists are awaking to this state of matters, and
British foresters will now get a chance to keep their profession abreast of
others. They ha^■e slow and stern work before them, however.

A somewhat similar relation to that which forestry in general bears to
the building trade exists on the smaller estates with regard to their being
self-supporting in the matter of wood for the erection of farm buildings.
Even with good growing timber available on the ground the builder has
to look elsewhere than on the estate for what he wants even in the
elementary department of roof-making. He can get it cheaper and in
better condition as imported from the Continent or from America than
he can from the woods on the estate. This arises, it is but fair to state,
from the fact that on the small estate there are neither the appliances
for manufacturing timber into the stock sizes customary to the building
trade, nor the accommodation suitable to the tedious process of seasoning
the wood, without which preparation it is more profitable to use it as fire-
wood than in the roofs of buildings with the slightest claim to permanency.
There are parts of the homestead where it can be used
poshlo'ns' ^ ^° advantage without any very elaborate preparation
where home- being bestowed on it. Failing larch or oak, Scots pine
can^" ad^an- J^^^kes quite a serviceable wood for shed-posts. In this
tageously used case all that is wanted to begin with is to make sure

at t e ome- ^j ^ ^j wood is sound and fairly dry. If care is then
stead. -^ •' _

taken that the end of the post inserted in the ground be

embedded in Portland cement concrete, it wmII, so long as the stick is

given fair play, last a considerable time. And timber derived from

THE ROOFS— THEIR FRAMEWORK. 47

most of our forest trees, provided the wood is matured and seasoned,
is as good as imported timber for " safe " or inner lintels. Providing
these for the builder implies no saw-mill or other timber-converting
machinery. The fencers alone with axe and cross-cut saw could see
to their being forthcoming. \\ here the forester is in evidence, and
good trees are about — and a few are to be found on nearly e\^ery
estate — it says little for the management of the estate when crude
timber, such as we have been referring to, is not available when
additions and repairs are going on at the different homesteads thereon.
It seems far from creditable indeed that each landed estate cannot
be self-supporting in such rude materials as the roofing timber of the
homestead — the rough rafters and covering boards — and the divisions in
stables and byres. A very elementary sawing apparatus would do the
work of conversion, and if other motive power were not available, an
oil engine is not an expensive item to charge against the upkeep of the
estate. Imported timber ready for use is, as we have said, easily
obtained anywhere, and at prices that cannot under usual management,
even with the trees at hand, be quoted on the great majority of estates.
There is room for enterprise here apparently, and for the encouragement
of rural labour in our home districts. We may enlarge on the subject
further on ; meantime we may say that spruce and silver fir make
excellent boarding suitable for homestead purposes, and they also,
together with Scots pine, are equally good for roofing baulks, door-
stiles, lintels, &c. And there is nothing better than larch for posts of
all kinds, Scots pine not being far behind where it is not likely to be
exposed to weather. Larch does either outside or in, and will for long
withstand the rigours and quick changes of our climate irrespective of
paint or other artificial protection.

Strictly speaking, most of the white pine of daily use is

Fir and Pine j-jot pine-wood at all. It is got from the spruce fir. Red

Wood m . . ^ ^

general. pme IS the wood of the Scots pine tree. But our carpenters

include the timber of different species of trees under these
two heads. What we say is correct so far as it applies to our timber
supplies from the shipping ports on the other side of the German ocean.
From America we receive large quantities of wood of various kinds
Avhich is classified under the two heads of red and Avhite pine as above.
Pitch pine is another wood now much in vogue among country carpenters,
but there are few jobs at the homesteads in which its place cannot be
as well taken by red pine or larch. This is a product of warmer climes
than suit either the spruce fir or the Scots pine. Yellow pine is another
of the soft woods much taken advantage of by joiners. It is clean and
close in grain and easy to work, and makes excellent finishings in house-
work. This being its special province, we consequently see little or
none of it at the homestead, except, of course, at the farm-house, and
may be in a partial manner in the cottages.

48 THE MODERN HOMESTEAD.

Ked pine is fuller of resinous matter than the whiter wood
Red pine. . , ,- t r i r i

of the spruce lir. In tact, the presence of that accounts

for the reddish colour of the wood. The woody fibre is closer and

apparently better packed in the red than in the white. That, together

with the turpentine and resin contained in the substance of the wood

of the red pine, enables it to resist the effects of weather longer than

white pine can do. But where the two are placed under conditions

that ensure dryness, and are otherwise favourable to the welfare of

timber, the one that in our comparison has come out unfavourably will

have as long a life as the other. For doors and windows and other

fittings that are either wholly or in part exposed to weather, or for

posts partly inserted in the ground or with an end resting thereupon,

red pine is the proper wood to use ; but where the fitting will be

altogether inside, white pine or fir is quite good enough. For roofing

purposes, therefore, the latter is not far from being equal to red pine,

and it is cheaper.

But whatever the kind of wood we elect to use it must
The seasoning . , .

of Wood for '"^ seasoned to start with, whether it be tor the roofs or

building pur- ^^ly other part of the buildings. The sap must be dried
out of it, and no part must be of the nature of newly-
grown wood ; it must be mature. \\'ood to begin with is formed of
soft cells full of moisture. In time these elongate and cohere in the
stem and branches of the tree to form the fibre of wood. As this is
taking place, the cell contents are gradually being absorbed, or at any
rate becoming changed in character. In the young wood there is
exchange of matter from one cell to the other, and in this way a general
circulation throughout the mass goes on. But with age the cellular
matter becomes firmer and takes part in building up the tough fibrous
matter and this sort of circulation stops. The cells have then lost their
individuality and become incorporated as part of the wood. The older,
or rather, the riper the wood, the less of the original cell matter does it
contain, and the less apt is it to decompose. The cell contents are
soluble matters that readily break up into simple compounds, which
implies decay or death of the cell, and with it of the mass of which it is
a component part. The growing parts are all cellular, while the inner
or mature parts have lost the cellular construction and are fibrous and
tough.

To make use of wood therefore that is either in the cellular condition
or has sap in its interior (for even with mature wood more or less sap
penetrates by means of channels or open vessels that can easily be
detected by the luagnifying glass) is to court decay in the same. The
newly grown sappy cellular stuff will soon break up ; and so ere long
may good, well-ripened wood that contained sap at the time of its use.
Cut at any time of the year, be it summer or winter, sap will be present
in the interior of the tree — much more of course in summer than in

THE ROOF S-T HEIR FRAMEWORK. 49

winter. No one fells trees in summer on this account, but even timber
secured in winter holds sufficient sap in its interior to cause premature
decay if steps are not taken to counteract this. The sap must be
thoroughly dried out of it, or, to put it in a more scientific way, the
soluble matters must be fixed or rendered insoluble before the wood is
fit to be put into work that is meant to endure for a reasonable time.

The trees of our woods and plantations, in common with
forms °° those of the forests of countries with climates like our

own, deposit the new wood of each year's growth at the
outer circumference of stem and branch. The outer part of the wood
is, therefore, as we have been hinting, more cellular than the inner,
and, in consequence, is to be avoided as much as possible. But as the
trees approach maturity their annual increase of wood becomes less,
and the proportion of young or sap wood to the more fibrous material
within lessens considerably, until a very small ratio is attained. The
wood from matured trees not only shows a smaller proportion of sap
wood to the proper fibrous material, but in addition the w^ood is of a
more stable nature than we find it in the immature tree. Much more
of the organic matter from the original cell contents remains unaffected
in the younger timber. In old trees it has almost completely given
way to inorganic — that is, earthy or mineral — matter, and then we have
almost insoluble matters to deal with ; they are such at least that have
little tendency to break up into other combinations, inducing the woody
fibre that harbours them to follow suit. The centre of a well-grown
oak tree — a piece of heart of oak — is a good example of what we mean.
The original cells are there represented by hard fibrous matter impreg-
nated with earthy stuff that enables the wood to withstand for long,
and without protection, the utmost rigours of our climate. The red-
coloured inner wood of a good larch tree is of a similar nature.

In the expression "well-grown wood" is implied wood from a tree
that has added to its circumference steadily and not too quickly. A
cross section of one of our trees reveals a series of concentric circles, or
zones, widening outwards from the centre, each of w-hich represents a
year's growth of the tree, or the annual addition of wood thereto.
Usually some are wider than others, telling thereby of varying seasons —
of one that happened to be favourable to vegetation, on account of
much sunlight, or it may have been much moisture, and during which
more wood than usual was made, and of others, cold and bleak, that
interfered with growth. Others show the zones fuller at one side of the
tree than the other, indicating that the side of the tree where they were
situated was more fully exposed to sun and air than the other. These
circlets of wood grow less as maturity of the tree is reached, after
W'hich they cease to form and the general decay of the organism begins.
In well-grown timber these rings of annual growth are thin and well
compacted. They are regular, too, not thick at one side and thin at

M.H. E

THE MODERN HOMESTEAD.

the other. Our native or home-grown timber is very defective in this
respect ; this is due, it is now generally believed, to our system, or rather,
want of system, in growing trees. We give them too much elbow-room,
which allows them to slouch and take on bad shapes, as well as exposes
them irregularly to air and light. Continental foresters, following
Nature's teaching, keep them close together, obliging them to stand
straight and stretch up their heads to where alone air and light is to be
found. They find neither at any side of them, but have to look up for both.
Trees situated so are long, tapering, and branchless ; and their separate
rings of wood are thin, well packed, fibrous, and of a regular thickness.
Mature wood of the latter kind is not difficult to season. The whole
tree left as felled would require some time before it was dry right into
the centre, but whole trees are rarely wanted for service. The trees

are sawn up to the
sizes that are most
likely to be in demand
and the pieces laid
aside to be seasoned.
Exposure to air is all
that is needed to effect
this. Rain will not do
much harm provided
it runs off as it falls,
but the boards must
not sit in wet ; they
must sit free of the
ground, and each piece
must be separate from the other, except of course at the points of support.
Stacked up in this way, wuth wind free to bear upon them, the pieces of
timber, if from well-grown and mature trees to start with, will soon
become seasoned and be fit for the manufacture of doors and windows
that will hold together without shrinking or warping. Wood used too
soon simply undergoes seasoning in the door and window instead of in
the original deal or batten. It is advisable, however, to have the ulti-
mate contractions and expansions incidental to the seasoning of wood
taken up and done with before the boards are put in the hands of
the joiner.

The commonest framework of roof at the homestead,
at least, throughout the North Country, is the exceed-
ingly elementary one depicted in Fig. 31 : a and h
two rafters set to form a more or less acute angle
and nailed together, and further held in position by means of a
cross piece c up a little from the free ends of the sticks. The cross
piece, as we shall by-and-by see, is very often placed too high up for
strength ; it is there to prevent the feet of the " couple," as a and h

The ordinary
^' couple "
Roof of the
Homestead.

THE ROOFS— THEIR FRAMEWORK.

together are technically named, from spreading or straddling too far.
The tendency of the couple feet, it is easy to see, is to widen the space
between them, and the tie c, the "couple baulk" of homely phrase, is
there to counteract this ; the lower the tie is placed the better will it be
able to hold the pieces together. In Fig. 32 we show a roof frame
with the tie nailed on level with the free ends of the couple. Bound
thus, the feet can straddle no further than the stretching limit of the
tie beam, or baulk.
But then, if the sides
of the couple are long
in comparison to their
"scantling," or size in
section, they will in-
cline to yield to the
weight of the slates
they are there to sup-
port,and bend inwards,
showing an unsightly
hollow where all should
be on a regular incline
from ridge to eaves.
One or more supple-
mentary ties as dotted in would of course prevent this; they could hardly,
however, in this instance be correctly termed ties : they would be
stiffeners or supports more than anything else. The tie proper hinders
stretching of the couple legs, but their purpose would be to keep them
asunder ; thus there would be the absurdity of ha^•ing both a tie and a
stretcher in this simple petty triangular affair.

In a simple combination of this kind the forces must be
The Principles go balanced that the part of the couple leg from the tie

involved in its , , . ...

Construction, upwards to the top must not be given more to do than it
is easily capable of accomplishing for the sake of making
matters at the wallhead doubly sure. A safe position of the tie is that
its lower edge be about eighteen inches above the level of the wallhead
on which the couple feet rest, or, what is the same thing, eighteen
inches above the level of the soles or ends of the latter. Couples of a
span of say fifteen feet wide are quite efficient if tied with one baulk.
For greater widths we must begin with another tie (or rather, half tie
and half strut) placed perhaps half way between the apex of the
triangle and the lower tie ; but beyond a certain width of span this
manner of roof is incorrect in principle.

In Fig. 33 we give the side elevation of one of the couples of a
building fifteen feet wide inside. The sides of the couple, taking their
extreme length — that of the outside line, which gives the length of
the spar before it was fitted into shape — are 1 1 feet 6 inches each.

E 2

THE MODERN HOMESTEAD.

The extreme height of the apex of the couple — the juncture of the
two sides — above the level of the wallhead is 7 feet 6 inches, it being
usual to keep the perpendicular height somewhat less than half the
full width of the building about to be roofed over. Judging by eye
alone, this gives a sufficiently well-proportioned " roof truss," as the
technical name of the couple or similar combination runs. The tie is
apparently in a good position for preventing the feet of the couples
from becoming further apart ; and the part of each of the couple sides,
from tie upwards to apex, seems not to be set a difficult task in having
to bear up its share of the burden of boards and slates without sagging.
Framed accordingly the truss would in turn exert a fair downward
pressure on the wall, the one the latter is built to bear. Taking the
tie and the two sides above it, we have a triangle the base of which,
taking the extreme or outer length, measures 14 feet 3 inches, and
the sides each g feet 3 inches, the Avhole firm and unyielding,

supported steadily on the
walls by two short, stiff
legs which cannot be forced
apart without fracture, there
being little or no elasticity
or spring in so short pieces.
If for the sake of economy
we provide a shorter piece
of wood for the tie, it must
be placed higher and the
well-balanced parts we refer
to lose their symmetry. In
a work of this kind one
cannot demonstrate to a point where the line of safety lies, beyond
which it is dangerous to stretch the relationship of the different parts
of the roof we are dealing with ; nor would we care to waste our time
in that way had we the chance. Brains and common-sense tempered
by observation are satisfactory enough guides here, and will, we daresay,
serve to convince intelligent minds anxious to learn that we are not
leading them astray over the import of the simple facts we are seeking
to set forth.

It is customary to keep roofs of this sort at a pretty
jjQQfg high pitch. North country carpenters speak of from

eighteen inches to two feet below the " square " as being
a fair height of ridge above wallhead. Turning to Fig. 34, we can see
what this means. It is the section of a building eighteen feet across
inside, having its roof two feet below the " square." The walls being each
twenty-one inches thick, they consequently add 3 feet 6 inches to the in-
side width for the extreme outside measurement of the section. The
latter is therefore 21 feet 6 inches and the half thereof 10 feet 9 inches.

THE ROOFS— THEIR FRAMEWORK.

Were we to make the apex of the couples lo feet 9 inches above the
level of the wallhead, then the roof, as ticked in on the figure, would
be formed to the square represented by the two sides produced in ticks.

The pitch of a roof is, to speak correctly, the degree of inclination
of its sides to a line level with the wallhead. The perpendicular
forms of course with this line a right angle at either side. A right
angle is, as we all know, one of ninety degrees, which leaves other
ninety degrees to be accounted for in either triangle which forms half
of that represented by the roof frame, there being one hundred and
eighty degrees in every such figure. Further, two sides of the triangle
being the same length, necessitates the angles which these respectively
form with the base — in this case the side of the roof — being the same.
There being ninety degrees to dispose of, each must, therefore, be one
of forty -five

degrees. The f^q"

ticked line on
the section in-
dicates in con-
sequence an
angle of forty-
five degrees at
the point in
question, which
in this connec-
tion speaks to
steep slope.
The angle of
the ridge is a
right angle —

one of ninety degrees, seeing it is made up of two forty-fives ; or other-
wise, since the angles at the eaves are forty-fi\"e degrees each, thus
taking ninety of the total one hundred and eighty, the remaining one
must be ninety degrees.

Reducing the degree of the pitch of the roof is equivalent to increasing
the angle at the ridge, which, as it grows greater, means the lowering
of the height thereof above the level of the top of the walls. The
lower the ridge the shorter are the spars that make up the couples,
and this tends towards economy. Six inches or so less in the length
of these spars implies over a considerable amount of roofing (even
though the rate per running foot of these should be little more than
twopence), a saving in material that is not to be despised. Not only
does it mean a reduction in the quantity of wood needed, but it means
fewer slates and less labour in the putting of them on. But the nature
of the roof framework which we are discussing is against its being set
to a low pitch. The more upstanding it can be kept the less seA'ere

Fig. 34.

THE MODERN HOMESTEAD.

will be the strains that go to thrust the legs apart. The forces are
then more directly downwards than slanting to the sides. A reference
to Figs. 35 and 36, showing in outline a low-pitched and a high-pitched

Fig. 35.

Fig. 36.

roof ranged alongside each other, will make this clear without further
demonstration. The weight bearing upon each is represented by balls
hanging from the couple legs at the same dis-
tances apart. It is not difficult to tell which of
the two stands the better to its work. As we
raise the pitch the point of attachment of the
several balls draw apart from each other but at
the same time run more with the length of the
stick than across it. A stick placed in a half
upright position, its foot on the ground and its

head resting
against the wall as
in Fig. 37, will

carry a greater

weight hung free
from its centre
point than it can do if laid flat and supported at each end only as in
Fig. 38. Were we to support it in a perpen-
dicular position, as in Fig. 39, its carrying
power would be vastly in advance of what it
would be capable of exerting when acting as
a bridge from one supported end to the other.
Somewhere halfway between these e.xtremes
comes Fig. 36. So with the framework of our
roof, the steeper we make its sides the firmer
and stronger it will be. But there is a limit
to this as to most things. Pitched to be two
feet or so " below the square '" is, however, Fig. 39.

Fig. 37.

Fig. 38.

THE ROOFS— THEIR FRAMEWORK. 55

a safe standard to observe in roofs of this kind at the homestead. Two

feet " below the square " is equivalent to a pitch of thirty-nine degrees.

_. r , Spars six inches by two inches form a common scantlinir

Size of the . .

Spars of the observed in constructing the framework of roofs of this

Common class. The ties are usually of the same size. Sometimes

Roof. . ...

they are a little less, but this is doubtful economy at the

farm. If adjusted to the critical place, they might do a little lighter,

but those who know the ways of farmers would be more inclined to

have them stronger instead of lighter. Handy places for storage are

these couple baulks, and much miscellaneous stock, both bulky and

heavy, finds a resting place thereupon. Where an extra tie is used it

can with more safety than applies to the lower one be a little lighter.

^ ^ We can, of course, gain strength to the couples, and
Some of the ' ' ° ? . ^ '

Disadvantages make them better fitted to resist the strains that they

°f T?^^f^^^^^ are subjected to, by increasing the scantling, and similarly
with the ties ; but this is merely adding to what we take
to be one of the disadvantages that accompany these roofs. That in
our opinion is the great amount of wood they project into the building
they are set to cover. With only sixteen inches between the trusses,
what an obstruction so many of these are to the free circulation of air
and to the rays of sunlight ! How can one or other have free course to
shed forth its vital influences among such a dust-laden and spider-web-
festooned forest of baulks as so many roofs of this nature develop into ?
That by itself condemns the application of this roof to buildings wherein
live stock are to be housed. Neither is it in our opinion good for many
of the other houses. In some its use can hardly be avoided, but we
would have it erected as seldom as possible.

While not favourable, therefore, from a sanitary point of view, this
roof is certainly inferior from a constructive one. Unless carefully
adjusted, it is, as we have seen, both sore on itself and severe on the
walls. We have come across a badly built wall split fairly up the
middle for a great part of its length on account of the spreading effect
of couples tied too high up. And it is quite common to see the walls
of buildings pressed over the plumb from the same cause. The walls,
as we sought to impress when treating thereof, are not built to stand
lateral pressure. If they were, they would have to be constructed on a
different principle. They would require to be thicker all the way up
or be built with a gradual slope or batter. They are intended to
support a down-bearing pressure and no other, and the roof they
support .should be framed accordingly.

And too often, as we have hinted, do roofs of this kind act as a
temptation to the farmer as a store for all manner of stuff, from
implements of various kinds down to sheepskins and sacks. The
thriftier he is the more does he deposit in these quarters. On the
baulks he stows away sowing-machines, sheep-troughs, and appliances

56 THE MODERN HOMESTEAD.

of a like nature ; and when he has the advantage of an opening in
some gable, a capital place he finds the top of the baulks on which
to lay out his long ladders. If he cannot avail himself of an opening
already made suitable for sliding them in, he soon makes one. The
worst of it is, whether from want of knowledge of the principles of
mechanics or because there is most room there — we suspect it is the
latter— he places his property at the centre instead of towards the ends
of the baulks. This is their weakest part ; but then, there is head room
about the middle, but none at the sides. What he is unable to get up
through and lay on the top of them he will, not infrequently, lash to
the bottom of the baulks. The carcase of a slaughtered animal even at
times gets hung up therefrom to cool down. ^^'orse than all, the
dairy farmer, as previously pointed out, up till now has looked upon
the couple baulks over his cowhouse as the proper position for the
henhouse. Among other effects thus put out of reach at the small
farms, it is not uncommon to see the spinning-wheel silently rotting
away.

The "princi- "^ niuch better style of roofing than the one we have
pal" Roof described is that found prevailing at English homesteads.
There is not near the amount of spars stuck across the
roof space under this system that we are accustomed to at the Scottish
and North of Ireland steadings. Moreover, it is most decidedly fairer to
the walls. A strong, well-bound truss is put up at every nine feet or so.
These rest on a strong wall-plate which serves to distribute the weight
more equally over the length of the wallhead than where it is want-
ing. For the same reason a wall- plate is also used in connection with
the roof just spoken of. Across these trusses, as we shall describe the
whole roof more fully afterwards, are placed in position, running
parallel with the length of the house, a series of spars called " purlins " ;
and bearing on these in their turn are laid the rafters, which are
equivalent to the couple sides of the foregoing pages, and come in at
the same distances apart. These rafters are joined together at the head,
but, unlike the couple sides, have no further direct communication.
There is no special tie for each pair. They are fastened to a board at
the top — the ridge board, which runs the whole length of the building.
This board is supported on the trusses, and as each rafter is fixed in
position one opposite another, it becomes jammed between the heads of
these and is there held firmly in its place. The rafters, we repeat, have
no other connection one with the other. They simply bear on the
purlins, while their heels rest upon the wall-plate. These, we need
hardly say, can exert very little outward thrust on the walls. The
purlins take this upon themselves and pass it on to the trusses.

Here, then, we have something on a better principle than the primi-
tive affair we started with. True, the weight of the roof is not so
uniformly distributed over the length of the wall in the one as in the

THE ROOFS— THEIR FRAMEWORK. 57

other. With the first-mentioned the weight is appHed equally at the
short intervals of sixteen inches ; with the other, the points of contact
of the forces of weight in the roof and of resistance in the wall are
about nine feet apart. There must, of course, be a certain amount of
weight at the foot of each of the rafters in the latter, but the large
proportion of the weight of the roof undoubtedly falls to be borne by
the trusses. The wall-plate of both roofs enlarges the respective points
of contact, but it needs little reasoning to lead one to understand that,
as a short space is easier to bridge over than a wide one, so is it easier
to distribute weight over an extended area when it touches it at many
points instead of few. Increasing the scantling of the wall-plate
brings matters to a sounder footing, but beyond a certain limit it is
hardly practicable to go far in this way. But when all is said and
done it is found in practice that these somewhat fine-drawn though
perfectly sound theories may, without any resulting harm, be almost
entirely left out of sight. Danger or risk there can be none in the
usual practice, but, the balance being the other way, there remains to
be answered the implication of false .economy in making the side wall
of a house all the same thickness, while all that is really required are
so many pillars on which to rest the ends of the trusses, and a strong
lintel from one of these to the other to bear up the ends of the rafters.
A set of pillars and a screen wall in the spaces between would answer
the requirements of the case. In practice, however, it is easier, as well
as more expeditious, to build the wall of one thickness from end to end.
Besides a wall all angles and corners at the inside would never do for
a farm building of any kind. What is more, such an arrangement,
whether outside or inside of a wall in rubble work, would cost more
than one of an equal thickness throughout. It comes to this, therefore,
that it would be no saving to make a rubble wall thick and thin in
places in accordance with the more or less widelv distributed points
upon which the weight of the roof was intended to bear. \\'ith a
brick wall it is different ; and where experienced men have a hand in
the management of the estate it is quite common to see the walls of a
brick- built homestead dealt with after the manner indicated in order to
save materials. A nine-inch wall which swells to one of fourteen and
a half at the parts intended to support the trusses means a considerable
saving in this way over one fourteen and a half inches thick all its length.

It is not, as we have said, very practicable to increase
. ^ ^ " the size of the wall-plate beyond the usually accepted

standard. Nine inches by one is a common size for the
ordinary couple roof, and it answers well enough, seeing how compara-
tively close together are the points of application of the weight of the
roof. Such a one is not always laid on the wall-head, indeed. And
rarely is a larger one used in connection with the truss roof. As in the
other case, it is often thinner than as thick as that quoted. To ha\'e a

THE MODERN HOMESTEAD.

inucli thicker wall-plate implies the propping up or elevating the frame-
work of the roof too much above the wallhead, leaving odd places to
be filled up somehow or other with stone, mortar, or wood. There is
not much room for a " body " of either of the first two substances, and
the less wood we leave exposed to the atmosphere the better. It might
do to build the wood flush with the top of the wall, sinking it in the
latter till the tops of each were level. That, however, w^ould be
burying the wood almost entirely in the heart of the wall, which is not
a good thing to do. It gives the wood a bad chance for preservation,
and goes to the splitting of the wall at the top. At any rate, the wall-
head is virtually coincident with the bottom side of the wall-plate. The
thickness of building above this to the upper side of it is simply laid
on ; and it has little real connection with the wall. In fact, the wall-
plate, although originally intended for the better distribution of the

weight that
, C-' bears upon the

wall,doesbetter
service in keep-
ing both the
trusses with
their accom-
/ panying rafters
and the couples
free from con-
tact with the
stones. And
while it acts as
buffer to these

Fig. 40.

and keeps them so that air gets about them, sitting free itself, it, too, has
some chance in the same direction. If, therefore, the wall-plate does
not completely fulfil its original otfice, it does good in other ways. Still,
it must to some extent help to distribute the weight of the roof equally
along the length of the wall. And another end it serves well is
admitting of a level and steady bearing both to truss and rafters and to
the couples, one far more uniform than is likely to be obtained on the
wallhead itself without the intervention of the board. On the bare
wallhead one couple might happen to rest on a stone, and the next one
upon a daub of mortar certain to yield to pressure more readily than
the stone. This bridging over weak places, however, brings us back
pretty close to the chief end of the wall-plate.

In Fig. 40 we show the construction of a truss or principal
The Roof- roof, suitable for a small span, up to sixteen or eighteen feet

Truss or" prin- '^ . ' . "

cipal Rafter." ^^Y- J^ he purlms a shown m cross section stretch irom

truss to truss and bear up the rafters h — the equi\alents

of the couples previously described. They are slightly checked, and

THE ROOFS -THEIR FRAMEWORK.

sometimes, in addition, mortised into the trusses. In this fig. they are
shown flush with the upper edge of the sides of the truss, but, as we
shall afterwards point out, there are many other methods of connecting
the two. The ridge board c is for the purpose of butting the intermediate
rafters against, and d is the wall-plate.

Coming to wider spans, up nearly to thirty feet inside, which is the
W'idest we show in any of the plans of our supposititious homesteads,

Fig. 41.

Fig. 41 is a suitable one. It differs little from the other one except that,
being a larger affair with longer sides, these need some stiffening and
bracing to give them rigidity. The upright piece a which bisects the
figure is, in technical terms, the " king " post ; the two that spring from

either side of the base of the post and are attached to the " principal
rafters " h, as the sides of the truss are termed to distinguish them from
the small or common rafters {h on Fig. 40), are the struts c. The other
parts are as befiore, viz. : wall-plate, purlins, and ridge board. In this

THE MODERN HOMESTEAD.

and the follo\ving case we dispense with the common, or intermediate
rafters, and secure the roofing boards directly to the purUns. The king
post, held up by the tie d, steadied at the same time by means of the
struts c, gives support to the ridge and the sides of the truss or principal

rafters h. But the latter in turn props up the head of the king post and
thus helps to keep the tie from sagging.

It is the general plan to let the struts spring from the king post, as in
Fig. 41 we show them doing ; but in our opinion more good is got from

Fig 44.

the strut when it springs fron:i the root of the king post, as in Fig. 42.
There it is applied to the principal rafter at a better angle than in
Fig. 41. It gives a better support because it is more upright in posi-
tion, and springing thus from the king post, there need be none of the
waste of wood in this part that is implied in that fig. The latter is

THE ROOFS— THEIR FRAMEWORK.

certainly the more picturesque of the two, but economy with efficiency
is our first maxim in the erection of farm buildings. Reducing the post
in the manner represented brings its strength down to that of the
thinnest part, so it may as well be no more than this all through to
start with. The strut we recommend is longer than the other, but the

extra length is counterbalanced by the continuous smaller scantling of
the king post it is related to compared with that in Fig. 42.

Figs. 43 and 44 show the truss on a larger scale than before. Typical
sizes of the parts are : the principal rafters (the sides of the truss ) and
the ties, 9 inches by 4 inches ; the king post, 6 inches by 4 inches ; the

/ I I r

/ I I

t I I

, I . ' I

I I 1.1'

T-)"

J L

I / I i

( ( ( ( ( I t i i ] , ■ I

Fig. 46.

Struts, 4 inches by 4 inches ; the purlins, 3 inches by 4 inches ; the
common rafters, 4 inches by 2 inches; the ridge board, 10 inches by
ih inches ; and the wall-plate, 12 inches by i inch. In Figs. 43 and 44
the purlins are shown placed flush with the bottom of the principal rafters,
being let in between these and checked thereto ; while in Figs. 45 and 46

THE MODERN HOMESTEAD.

they are shown passing directly over the purhns and bearing thereupon.
In this case it is necessary that the purhns be either checked a Httle
into the principal rafter, or be held in place by brackets as shown in
Figs. 47 and 48, else they Avill tend to overturn. The purlins, it will be
seen, are more numerous in Fig. 45 than in Fig. 43 ; in fact, in the
former instance they are serving the purpose of common rafters as well
as of purlins, the roofing boards, as we show, being nailed directly
thereto. In a roof constructed according to Figs. 43, 44, and 49, the
upper edges of the common or intermediate rafters sit flush with the
upper edges of the principal rafter, and the roofing boards are fastened

Fig. 47

Fig. 49.

to principal and common rafters alike, thus bringing the upper edges of
all continuous with the under side of the boarding. But with a roof put
together after the plan indicated on Figs. 50 and 51, the principal rafters
have a common one between them and the boards ; at least, a space
equivalent to the depth of a common rafter intervenes between the two,
for it is not necessary that the small rafters span so that one exactly
coincides with, or rests upon, each principal rafter.

We prefer, when the common rafter is left out, to have
together of the the tops of the purlins flush with those of the principal
-" principal " rafters, as in Fig. 52, not passing over them at all, but let

down between each pair, there being a slight check made
in the sides of the rafters so as to hold the purlins firmly between. When

THE ROOFS— THEIR FRAMEWORK.

thus fitted to the rafters a very shallow check is as good for securing the
purlins as a deep one under the last-discussed arrangement where they
rest on the upper edge of the rafters, because in the one case there is not
the same tendency to cant that holds good as we saw with the other.

We like, where possible, to steer clear altogether of this checking or
mortising of purlins into the rafters. All work of this sort is in the

Fig. 50.

Fig. 51.

Fig. 52.

direction of weakening the pieces so manipulated. It is better to make
use of lighter timbers and join them without taking from their strength.
Theoretically a well-made joint may not cause any weakness of the parts
cut into. The vacancies in one piece ought to be almost more than
counterbalanced by the outstanding pieces of the other that are inserted
therein. It may be so when the joints are afterwards kept from influences
apt to cause disruption. But exposed in such a way as the roof timbers
of farm buildings usually are, slackness in the joints is not easily

64 THE MODERN HOMESTEAD.

prevented. On this account the carpenter whose branch of the trade is
the one ahnost dependent on spikes and nails for holding his handiwork
together is more in evidence at the steading than the joiner who trusts
to his skill in making cunningly-devised joints for the framing and fitting
together of what falls to be turned out of his department.

To avoid the necessity of cutting into the rafters to form these joints
between purlin and rafter we have frequently made use of cast-iron shoes
in which to insert the ends of the purlins. This means a little extra cost,
but it is worth it, we consider. An arrangement of the kind is shown in
Fig. 5 1 . The shoes are fixed to the rafters by means of screw bolts passed
through, which, when tightened up, hold them firmly in position without
in any way weakening the pieces of timber to which they are attached.
When finished in this way the purlins and rafters can then be left flush
on top and the whole has a strong and ship-shape appearance. There is
one drawback to the shoes, however. Subjected as they are sure to be in
their position at most parts of the steading to moist air, rust will soon
disfigure them and the adjoining wood as well unless they are frequently
attended to in the way of a little scraping and painting. This attention,
unfortunately, they will but seldom get. But galvanizing them adds very
little to their original cost, and after undergoing that process they are
independent altogether of the farmer and his paint-pot.

When the purlins, as in Figs. 45, 46, 47 and 48, pass right over the
principal rafters, the small or common rafters can then, as we have
already said, be dispensed with and the roofing boards be fastened to
them directly. In this instance the purlins are already too high above
the principal rafters to allow of the intervention of more space between
them and the boards. There would not at any rate be room between
the two to admit of the insertion of the common rafters. If, how^ever,
we dispense with the common rafters, we must, as we have seen, allow
for more purlins, else we deprive the covering boards — the " sarking,"
as it is termed in the North — of their due support. The accepted spacing
of both common rafters and couples along a roof is to place them at
eighteen-inch " centres " as the expression goes. The centre of each,
no matter the thickness of the pieces, although there is little range in
this respect, is in accordance with this ruling set up eighteen inches apart
from the centres of those next to it ; or, beginning at the gable, the first
rafter or couple if say two inches thick, is set up with its side sixteen
inches from the face of the wall ; the next is placed sixteen inches from
it, and so on until all are in position. The length of the building may
be such that it is impracticable to divide it exactly into this spacing ;
but with a little contrivance to begin with either the excess or the
shortage can be equally applied to the set of spaces without revealing
any sensible departure from the standard quoted.

The purlins, in the absence of common rafters, do to be set a little wider
apart than at eighteen-inch centres. From their position, which causes

THE ROOFS— THEIR FRAMEWORK. 65

the covering boards to be laid down the slope of the roof instead of across
it, they can afford this wider spacing. A board laid lengthwise on the
slope having the same support as one laid crosswise is the stronger of the
two. It will sagg less. To space the purlins at eighteen-inch centres
measured on the level — horizontally that is, instead of up the slope —
would bring the two into closer relation. And this rule may be
observed by way of guide in this connection.

Our preference is, however, for fewer purlins and the introduction of
common rafters into the framework of the roof. The roof then looks
lighter and more finished. There is not a great deal of difference
either in the cost of the one compared with the other. The extra
purlins in the one, together with the whole of them ha^•ing to pass over
the principal rafters in place of being let in between each pair, helps
considerably to meet the cost of the common rafters. W'e get more
good out of the wall-plate, too, when we have the common rafters heeled
against it. Similarly with the ridge board. It is kept firmer and
steadier when jammed between the opposing heads of these pieces than
holds good when only sarking boards butt against it. All this tends of
course to equalisation of strain and general stability of roof, which when
it is coupled with a more pleasing appearance, ought to tell much in
favour of the arrangement of roof we are referring to. It causes an
increased number of projecting pieces into the air space within, but
these stand out in such a manner as to be less a drawback in this
respect than the purlins. One of the latter will interfere with the
air currents up the inner sides of the roof to a greater degree than
many common rafters will. These run up the slope and guide the
currents, we may say ; the others stretch across and, if we are right
in judging from analogy, hinder the currents. And there are more of
them when we leave out the small rafters as part of the roof A
reference to Figs. 44 and 46 will make our reasoning clearer.

The spacing of the trusses may, as hinted above, be such that it is
not practicable to give the common rafters their ordinary room, and yet
keep them running in union with the principals. It is so much more trades-
man-looking to have these so arranged that one always falls coincident
with each principal rafter than to have them coming in at no regular
rotation to the same that it is pardonable to practise a little come and
go to gain this. A nine-foot spacing of the principals makes a very
suitable one as regards strength of roof; and it lends itself also to the
standard spacing of the common rafters while making these obser\-e
due coincidence with their stronger fellows.

^ ^ _. Sometimes, as in Fig. 53, iron is substituted for wood

An Iron King . , . . , , .

Post substi- 11^ the construction of the kmg post. It makes a much

tuted for one lighter-looking as well as an airier roof no doubt, and
of Wood. . .,, , .^ . , -

It will be as strong, it not, indeed, stronger. With a

screw and nut at the bottom and the prongs or clamps at the top as

M.H. F

THE MODERN HOMESTEAD.

depicted on the fig., the whole frame can be tightly screwed up and
lield firmly together. But we dislike to have much exposed ironwork
about the roofs of farm buildings, more especially in those houses that
are occupied by live stock. The cold iron condenses the moisture from
the warm vapourdaden air within the house, keeping the metal nearly'
always wet and allowing it to drop therefrom either on to the adjoining
timber or the floor beneath. At times, of course, the iron is at a
similar temperature to the air in the building, and no condensation
takes place. Oftener, however, it is at a lower temperature, with the
result we ha.ve mentioned. Keeping the iron well painted will prevent
harm befalling it from this cause. But it does not hinder the conden-
sation we speak of, which is capal)le of causing harm to the woodwork
in touch with the iron. Besides, the matter of painting is generally a
frail reed to depend upon. If under circumstances where no one

grudges the work it is so often overlooked, what can we expect in
those where it is shirked on every occasion ? There is galvanizing
to fall back upon, but that is not always practicable, and the
moisture still has to be faced.

In Fig. 54 we have a description of roof occasionally met
Another sort ^^,j^j^ ^j^^^ -^ ^^^^ ^f j^^j£ between the two classes of

of Roof. -'

roof that we have hitherto been dealing with. It has the
merits of both, and the faults too of each. It is airier than either,
because what ties there are find a place close up to the ridge. There
are as many as we find in the ordinary couple roof, but so high as not
to interfere much in the circulation of the air. They are so far above
the level of the wallhead as to be useless for holding together the feet
of the couple each one is connected with. To counteract this a thick
wall-plate is left for them to butt against. The heels of the couples are
checked into this so that they cannot widen the distance between

THE ROOFS— THEIR FRAMEWORK.

each pair without shifting one or both of the wall-plates out of position.
The wall-plates, it can easily be gathered, from what has gone before,
have a great strain thrust upon them judging from the distance
between the feet of the couples. If simply laid on the wallhead,
whenever the framework of the roof began to adjust itself to the
\arious strains, it would be pushed off as the couple ends increased
the distance from each other. We miglat fasten the wall- plate by
means of bolts built down into the wall, and their heads so made that
it could be screwed down firmly. But this would be throwing upon
the wall a burden that it was not intended to bear up against, its
construction being such as to warrant its subjection to downward
pressure alone. The consequence would be that shortly after its
erection the top of the wall at one side or the other, perhaps at both,
would be thrust aside. To guard against this the iron tie rod a is

Fig. 54.

introduced at spaces of ten or twelve feet. On these, therefore, falls the
brunt of keeping the whole together. They are not so thick but what
they come and go with change of temperature which cannot be other-
wise than prejudicial to the roof as a whole. And then we see how
comparatively frail the whole area of the roof between wall-plate and
tie is. If the preceding part of this chapter has gone for anything with
our readers, we need hardly here point out to them in wearying
reiteration what w'eakness there lies in the long leg unsupported from
wall-plate to tie.

In short, it is not a roof that one can recommend. The extra thick
wall-plate is not in its favour; neither is the unstable manner of holding
that in its place, and the length of unsupported couple induces liability
to bending, if not fracture, in these. Its good point is its airiness. It
possesses another in minor degree. In company with the principal roof
it forbids application to storage purposes, more strictly so indeed than

68 THE MODERN HOMESTEAD.

the other. At either side of the king post it is practicable to stow long-
shaped articles that will do with bearings nine feet apart, of which, how-
ever, there are not very many about the homestead. But nothing hardly
can find a resting-place along the iron ties, and the wood ones of this kind
of roof are too far out of the way and afford too little room to act as
the basis of a store. The iron ties, in fact, need support themselves,
as we see from the rod b shown in the fig., passing from the tie
up to the apex of the roof were it is attached in order to keep the
cross rod up to its work.

It is sound economy, we think, to have the angle formed
Economy to ^^Y ^he wallheads and the roof filled up. This space if
fill up the left open affords a lodgement to dust and to matter out

between Wall- '^^ place in general, even if beyond reach of the farm
head and Root- hands. When it happens to be within reach all manner

of odds and ends get laid there, with the intention no
doubt of getting them when wanted; but an article that is worth
keeping should find a more business-like place of storage, and doubtful
ones had better be thrown away than placed there, helping to gather
more dust and dirt. When masons build up this angle they speak of
" beam-filling " the wallheads. It certainly adds to the appearance of
the interior of a building to finish it in this way. And it must help
to make it a little more sanitary as well. Every settling-place for dust
means a harbourage for germs, whether of a harmless or harmful
nature, and the more we keep clear of the latter the better. They are
thick enough in the air withou-t our providing lurking-places for them.

It is questionable if the filling up of the space with stone be a good
one. It confines the wood too much — shuts it out too much from'
access to air. This undoubtedly tells on the durability of the wood.
The more air it gets about it the better able is it to withstand the
ravages of time. Enclosed in dry stone and lime it is more favourably
situated for lasting than if it were embedded in any other ordinary sub-
stance— dry sand or soil, for instance. Longest of all it endures when
open all round to the air and not allowed to remain damp should it ever
happen to get wetted. We can close in the angle with wood instead of
stone and so get beyond the difficulty. It is easy to fit a board or
boards into the place. A fillet on the sides of the couples enables us
to butt it against these and fasten it thereto. It will be resting on the
wall-head too flush with the face of the wall which will give it firm
support ; and if the wall-plate be the same distance back from the face
of the wall as the thickness of the board to be made use of for filling up
the angle the board can in addition be nailed thereto. Where the
principal roof is in question, attachment to the wall-plate and to a fillet
fastened to the underside of the roofing boards would have to be the plan
adopted for fixing the board. It could stretch in one piece from truss
to truss, being checked out where necessary to fit over the common

THE ROOFS— THEIR FRAMEWORK. 69

rafters or kept entire where these were absent. The board would never
fit so tight that air could not gain access into the angular space behind,
and the roofing boards never fit so close to the wall as to stop air from
getting in at the ea\es. There is thus assurance of a draught of air
playing on the couple ends and wall-plate and maintaining them in good
condition.

The same cannot be said of beam-filling by the mason. He buries up
the wall-plate and completely surrounds parts of the couple ends.
These and the wall-plate are consequently deprived of air and left liable
to succumb to the results that may follow thereon. Still, we would
rather have it so than have the angles left open.

We strongly advocate the planing of all the exposed
plane all surfaces of wood within the farm buildings, in the barn,

interior ex- as well as in the byre. This extra work, which does not
Surfaces amount to a great deal, seeing that it can either be done

bv the apprentices or quickly accomplished by the wood
merchant's machinery, is, we consider, well worth the money it involves.
If nothing else, it adds much to the appearance of the different places.
It is from a sanitary standpoint, however, that we look for most benefit
from it. The rough, unplaned surfaces are all so many lurking-places
for dust and sort of shelter-beds to the countless representatives of the
microbic world that none should be suffered within the farm buildings.
The other conditions that render these buildings fa^"Ourite haunts to
bacteria — their moist, warm atmosphere, the habits of the animals they
contain, and so on — are all sufficiently conducive to the welfare of
minute organisms without our affording them places well adapted to
their perpetuation. The doors and the travises are planed smooth ;
why, therefore, should the same not be done with the roof wood — that
which sins most in this connection ? And we strongly recommend
galvanizing the nails to be used in putting together the roof wood of
the \arious buildings, more especially those set apart for the housing of
the animals.

Hitherto we ha\"e dealt with the more permanent buildings of the
homestead. There remain the \arious sorts of shedding that come in
auxiliary to the main block — the lean-tos, the corn and hay sheds, and
other constructions of a like nature. These we shall discuss in a
chapter by themselves.

CHAPTER lY.

The Roofs — their Covering.

Slates, and in a few cases pantiles, are the accepted
Outer Covering material for the outer covering of Scottish and North of
of a Roof has Ireland farm buildings that are built with a view to some

t O iSi c c

degree of permanency. England, on the other hand,
seems to have as many tile-roofed as slate-covered homesteads. There
is no other natural material that can show the slightest approach to the
properties slates possess of answering the purpose to which the}^ are
put in keeping our roofs Avater-tight. The requirements expected of
them are arduous in the extreme when we consider what they ha\ e to
contend against during their exposure to all the \icissitudes of our
changeable climate. One day they are so hot under the sun's rays that
we can hardly bear to place our hand upon them. On another, a month
or two afterwards, their temperature may be at zero. And between
times rain-water has poured over them in tons ; they have lain for days,
or weeks, smothered in snow, and occasionally they ha\e been peppered
with hailstones. Yet through it all for a hundred years or more are they
capable of holding their own, and still presenting a good front to the
wear-and-tear effects of the elements.

Wood alone ^^ what other material can the same be said ? None of
not fit for the our woods naked and unprotected are able to go through

such an ordeal. Nor would they for any length of time
even if fortified with paint or any of the preser\ati\"es that are some-
times applied to them. Under strong heat, as well as on account of
dry wind, they would curl and shrink if they did not also split. Rain
and damp winds would cause them to swell and force each other out of
place in the row. \\'hat, therefore, with being contracted and shrivelled
up at one time and puffed out with too much moisture at another, they
would soon lose their recuperative powers and come to fall away. The
shingle, or wooden slate of the United States and Canada, proves that some
kinds of wood can be turned to account in this way; but we ne\er heard
otherwise but that they are a sort of makeshift, and never had recourse

to where slates can be obtained at a price that does not
Which of the ,- i ■ i i • -n • i i • i r i i

Metals are ? lorbid tiieir use. W e have no metal either oi a reasonable

price that can take the place of slate on our roofs. For a

metal to be able to withstand what slates are subjected to on a roof

THE ROOFS— THEIR COVERING. 71

it would need to be proof against the oxidising effects of the atmospherev
be all but insoluble, and be not liable to expand very much under the
influence of heat. Were it one that encouraged the attentions of
oxygen, it would soon succumb to that busybody among the chemical
elements. Were it ever so slightly soluble in water, rain in time would
eat it away. If not liable to be dissolved in water of itself, but sure to
be in water containing acids, then there would be every chance of its
falling in the way of such a combination, because rain, even in the
country, is not wholly free of such a taint, while near populous places, or
in the neighbourhood of factories of various descriptions, it cannot escape
this contamination. And were it to expand to any considerable extent
under heat, as all metals do more or less, the result would be rather
detrimental to the efficiency of the roof. With clear spaces between
the metal slates or scales at one time, and at another, each jamming so
hard against the adjoining ones as to be difficult to keep in position, the
conditions would be such as to try the fastenings very severely. In
contrast to this the slate defies both air and rain ; it neither contracts
nor stretches, neither does it exert any strain on the nail beyond its
tendency to slip over the eave, except under the times of storm and
stress when it lies direct in the teeth of a gale, or, what is sometimes
even worse, when it gets caught in the suck of the whirling eddy that
so often strips off the slates when once a weak spot has revealed itself
and laid them open to unfair attack.

\\ G can mention four metals that come up to the requirements we have
just stated. These are gold, copper, lead, and zinc. The first of these
is all-round the best. It resists oxygen, is practically insoluble, and does
not come and go to any appreciable extent with change of temperature.
Old-fashioned chemists on account of these properties of gold classed it
as one of the " noble elements." But its price puts it out of count, and
we may leave it to serve more noble if not always as useful purposes.

Copper slates are used in exceptional cases, from which it is apparent
that copper is capable of ensuring the requirements referred to. It
does not so fully, however, as the metal just mentioned. The atmosphere
has a slowly corrosive effect on it. Both the oxygen itself and the
various acids found in air make a prey of it and in time eat it away.
Pure rain-water does not dissolve the metal, but rain, as hinted, quickly
picks up any acids that happen to be in the atmosphere. Copper
comes and goes too with its temperature.

Lead is less soluble than copper — at least, the combinations it forms
through exposure to air, to oxygen and atmospheric acids, are. Some
of them, in fact, are amongst the least soluble of the metallic compounds.
Lead was in time past extensively used as an outer covering for roofs.
Until slates were introduced we expect there was little else available
for roofing than thatch and lead— lead for church, abbey, castle, and the
rich man's house, and thatch for that of the man who could afford no

72 THE MODERN HOMESTEAD.

better. Many a noble edifice was laid open to ruin through the stripping
of lead from the roofs for bullet-making in the times of the civil wars.
Lead is much used yet in roofing, but only in a subsidiary way. It
lends itself easy of application to the nooks, corners, and angles into
which slates cannot be moulded or trimmed, and as a means of con-
necting the slates to various parts of the building and making these
places watertight. Lead is never used in the form of slates, but is
always applied in the sheet form, cut to the size wanted. It is too
expensive to be used as slates are, although quite capable of being
applied in that way and taking their place. On many occasions it is
still the medium taken to cover over flat roofs, and now as formerly it
is laid in the sheet. Lead is little affected by changes of temperature
as compared with other metals. The little there is, however, waxes big
when a large sheet of it is in question, and possessing as it does little
elasticity, it needs care in laying, else tears or rupture will be induced,
and its effectiveness be spoiled. It must be laid in such a manner that
the sides and ends of the sheet are free to follow contractions therein
and give way before expansion in the mass when affected by heat. It
will not bear the restriction of being nailed down like a carpet.

Zinc could be manufactured into the shape of slates and take the
place of the real article were it not for the expense involved. The
appearance of such substitutes would be against them, however. They
would resist weather sufficiently well, and otherwise be answerable.
Zinc, like lead, but in less degree, is already put to service as a
subsidiary to slates. It makes a good material for finishing off the
ridge angle with ; and sometimes is turned to account in the manu-
facture of eaves-gutters, or "rhones," as these are often called. It is a
common medium, too, as we shall find, for the construction of ridge
ventilators. It is too brittle, however, to take the place of lead in
covering the open joints in slating or finishing off where slates abutt
against walls, and in situations of a like nature. Lead, being soft and
ductile, can be easily dressed or moulded so as to lie fiat upon or close
against either wood, slate, or stone, which with its other good qualities
as a resister of weather effects, render it very valuable in this respect.
Zinc is not so accommodating, and will crack at once if meddled with in
the manner that lead is pulled about and beaten in this connection.

That zinc is endowed with a fair amount of weather-resisting qualities
is proved from the fact that it is now so much used in the protection of
iron that is exposed to the atmosphere. The galvanizing of iron is
simply the coating of it all over with a thin skin or film of zinc. The
process is somewhat similar to that of electro-plating — the covering of
articles made of nickel or some similar composition of the baser metals
with a coat of silver, and giving them the appearance of being made
entirely of that beautiful metal. In this case, however, the iron articles
are simply dipped in molten zinc, and in that way coated over with

THE ROOFS^THEIR COVERING. 73

protective material. Were the zinc wanting, the iron would at once

be attacked by oxygen. It might escape if there was little moisture

about, but once let dew or rain or other form of dampness get in contact

with it, then oxidation takes place at once and rust is the result. So

long as it is protected by a film of zinc it is secure from attack by

oxygen. Paint, could we apply it as closely as the zinc, might be

equally effective in keeping oxygen at bay, but we cannot bring about

such a close relationship between the paint and the iron as exists

between zinc and it under the process of galvanizing. Paint cannot be

applied so intimately to the iron as zinc can, nor does it last so long when

applied. The zinc appears to enter into a sort of chemical combination

with the iron and be merged into its substance at the point of application

•of the two. It is different with paint, which at the best is but smeared

over, leaving dust and other matter between it and the metal, there being

more or less of this in accordance with the condition of the latter. Could

the paint be applied to the metal when its surface was thoroughly

clean, a close connection would be gained, but this is seldom practicable.

Zinc is not altogether proof against the effects of exposure to the

atmosphere. It is less so than either copper or lead, but is cheaper

than these. It scores considerably, however, on account of its gahanizing

capabilities.

We might have included tin among the other four as a metal fit to be

manufactured into roofing scales or squares after the fashion of slates.

But were the price not prohibitory the appearance these would bear

would in itself put them out of court. Tin resists weather stoutly.

Tinned goods, as most of us are aware, are made of sheet iron coated

with tin. So long as the tin stands good, so will the iron, but whenever

the tin film is rubbed off or worn through rust attacks the iron and the

usefulness of the article is destroyed. It is mar\'ellous how thin a sheet

of iron and how delicate a skin or envelope of tin can together be turned

out by the manufacturer. And aluminium has, we suspect, a future

before it, in connection with parts of our roofs.

_. , There is nothing therefore in nature to equal slates for

Slate the , . '^ . ^ , ,. ^ , ., ,. _

best Natural ^"^ exterior covermg or the roots or our buildmgs. Com-

Material for posed of inert earthy matter that affords no attraction to
the Purpose. , , ,1 , 11 •,

the meddlesome oxygen that surrounds us, they can easily

resist the other trials that follov/ exposure. Sun and rain have no

appreciable effect on them, neither has frost. At any rate, they take

a long time to show much result from their continual siege. It seldom

slackens, one being ever ready to begin as another leaves off. Some

kinds there are of course that show no such powers of endurance ; but

plenty are to be had, and at a reasonable price, quite capable of lasting

after the manner described.

The English roofing tile of the best quality is not, indeed, far behind

slate as an external roof cover. Not so fibrous and tough, perhaps, it

74 THE MODERN HOMESTEAD.

is still very inert under weather influences. A roof covered with these
tiles is, in fact, one coated with brick.

But preparations have first to be made for securin,t( a firm

The Basis ]^^,^gjg f^j. ^.j^^ attachment of the slates or tile:^ We left oft

for the

Attachment last chapter at the completion of the skeleton or framework

°^ fl^^-f ^ intended for support to what has to e^ive a foothold or bed

and Tiles. . . . ^

for the outer covering. English builders follow the practice

of fastening both slates and tiles to spars or laths nailed to the rafters

at distances spaced to suit the size of the slates being made use of. In

Scotland such a practice is rarely observed. There the prevailing

system is to co^•er the rafters with rough boarding and attach the slates

thereto. The more boisterous nature of Scotland's climate is sometimes

advanced as a reason for this difference of practice. There can hardly,

however, be so much difference between countries so close together.

There are bound to be parts of England more tempestuous than the best

sheltered parts of Scotland, and what stands good in the one will surely

in the other. The class of slates available in the respective countries

seems to us to be at the root of the matter. Slating on spars makes it

obligatory that the slates are nearly all of one size and large. It does

not, of course, make the rule absolute. On boards, however, it is much

more practicable to use slates of assorted size than it is on sparring, the

spars affording too little range in spacing to be readily adaptable to the

change in cover or lap that is implied in tlie use of slates of different

length. The slates native to Scotland are generally sent from the quarries

in various sizes, due, no doubt, to the fact of their being sold by weight.

It is out of this, we suspect, that there has arisen in Scotland the practice

of providing a continuous covering of boards for the slater's field of

operations. And accustomed to this kind of slate to start with, Scottish

builders have seldom sought for a better. W'e rarely, at any rate, see in

Scotland the best kinds of Welsh and English slates. Scotsmen seem

to import only the inferior sorts. The English builders keep the best to

themselves ; they keep the big smooth ones, and send north the smaller and

coarser sorts. These suit, however, otherwise they would not be taken.

o^^fi.,^ The boarding for slates is, as we have mentioned, techni-

Koonng fc> ' ' ^

Boards for cally known as "sarking." These sarking boards are nine
^^^^' inches wide by five-eighths of an inch thick, and vary in

length in accordance with the tree they are sawn from. They are used
rough from the saw, but squared at sides and ends of course. They are
firmly nailed to the rafters, as close together as they can be placed by
hand assisted by an occasional tap from the hammer. There should never
be less than two nails in each of the boards at every rafter. We have, as
already expressed, a preference for galvanized nails for this purpose, espe-
cially in the roofs of byres and stables. They cost \ery little extra, and
serve to make things more secure. We have seen so much harm occur irom
nails becoming rusted through exposure to the atmosphere of such places.

THE ROOFS— THEIR COVERING. 75

and giving way, and thus allowing the boards to sHp, that we find it well
worth while to guard against that by taking this slight precaution. It
may be said, and with some show of truth, that it would be more satis-
factory to guard against the cause of this decay by taking steps to prevent
the implied foulness of air in these situations. In the due course of our
work we shall recommend that too, but carrying it out is by no means
such an easy matter as it can be made to look on paper. The matter
of substituting galvanized nails for those ordinarily in use is a simple
one, however, and once completed it looks after itself.

The rafters, as we pointed out in last chapter, are set to leave a space
of about sixteen inches between them. It seems about enough one
would think to expect to be bridged o\er by boards only five-eighths of
an inch thick with their load of slates. But there would appear to
be no reason for seeking improvement in this direction. The arrange-
ment so far as it goes answers well enough apparently. Por our part
we would rather ha\e thicker boards and have the rafters a little wider
apart. When the boards are so thin the ends of the slate nails project
through and are unsightly and give an unfinished look to the job. If,
however, we go to the expense of planing all the wood that shows
inside the roof of the buildings, as we have already recommended
should be done in the instance of byres and stable, we mav as well at once
have the rafters covered with

ii-inch flooring boards. These »4 ■■.':'". ^^.^ ' 77^^ U{/////;///////tt///^
give us a smooth surface on F,g 33.

the inside of the house and

at the same time provide us with a thicker board. The increased thick-
ness will, if we think fit, enable us to set the rafters farther apart and
so help a little to counterbalance the extra cost. It will also almost
entirely hinder the points of the slate nails showing themselves. The
sarking boards are to be had "half-checked" as in Fig. 55, which shows
a section through two of them placed near each other. There is not
much use for this as regards farm buildings, although, seeing that we do
board in the roofs, it may as well be- done effectually. It is argued that
the more chinks there are in the boarding of the roof the better chance
is there of some ventilation being assured. But we prefer to place the
ventilation of a building on a surer basis than leakage through the sides
of the roof. Checking the boards helps somewhat to keep the joints closer,
but not to the extent one might readily suppose. The sarking boards are
seldom seasoned to the extent we ha\e a right to look for. They are
too o^'ten cut out of bulk and dispatched right off to the carpenter.
Hence it comes that these boards frequently shrink to a considerable
degree. In this way the check very often becomes of little avail.
Flooring boards are supposed to be better seasoned, and generally
speaking, they are, and with them we are sure of a closer joint than with
the others. They are tongued and groved as Fig. 87 shoAvs. This

76 THE MODERN HOMESTEAD.

ensures a tight joint so far as the passage of wind is concerned, but

we are thinking more of their presenting a close surface joint to the

interior of the building. But even if the boards do shrink a little, which

in every probability they will, and form wider joints than we care to see,

it is good to have the exposed face of the boarding — that next the house

— smoothed down by the plane. The why and wherefore of this we

have already hinted at and shall revert to and take up in fuller manner

when we come to touch on sanitation at the steading.

Whatever the class of boards chosen as a foundation for
The admission . , . , , n • ^ i

of Light by the slates is, whether sarkmg boards or tioormg boards,

way of the there is a good deal to do besides nailing them on before

Roof. , . 1 , T , 1

slatmg can be commenced, it may have struck some oi our

readers that when referring to the walls we made no special reference

to window openings therein. We did not for the reason that we prefer

to light all farm buildings by way of the roof instead of through

openings in the wall. Side windows in farm buildings are often in the

way. They are seldom kept clean, and the window sills, like the

wallheads when within reach and not closed in, become so many places

of deposit for rubbish. When the lights are up in the roof they are out

of the way and the glass has less chance of being broken. The glass is

sure to be washed on one side whenever rain falls, which cannot be said

of it when in the side window, and no other agent ever cleanses it — at

least, we never saw the window of a farm building being cleaned.

Moreover, more of the sun's rays wull penetrate the building through

roof lights than side lights. Up in the roof the windows see more of

the sun and its reflected light than it is possible they can do when

built into both sides of the building ; they can never be so much out Of

sight of the vault of heaven as those in the side w^all. The latter have

only while the sun is about level with the eave they pertain to in which

to get a direct glance, but the skylight, as its name conveys, is ever

looking heavenwards, and has the fullest chance of obtaining light for

the interior. First those on the one side and next those on the other

follow the sun in its daily course almost from horizon to horizon.

Another point in favour of the roof light is its cheapness in comparison

to the side window. It saves sill, rybats, and lintel, which together

account for more than the extra rubble work taken to fill up what

Avould have been the window opening. Safe lintels are also dispensed

with, and the framework of the roof light can be had for less than the

framework of the side window, and it will last longer, there being no

wood to decay, and from its position placing it out of harm's way.

A common size of roof light is thirty inches long by

A suitable sixteen inches wide — of glass, that is to say. This size

size of Roof ,..,,., ^ . . , , , ^

I^ight. admits or the light fitting in exactly between the ratters,

the usual distance between them being as we saw sixteen

inches. The frames of these lights are of cast iron, and they are made

THE ROOFS— THEIR COVERING.

Fi(

The Advan-
tages of the
Roof Light.

either as dead lights, in accordance with Fig. 56, or with hinges, as in

Fig- 57' that allow of their being opened at pleasure. We always

advise the use of opening skylights ; they are essential, we think, to

the houses meant for live stock, and in the other places we consider

them preferable to the unopening ones. The frame of the roof light is

screwed to the roofing boards over the hole sawn out of these for the

purpose. The slates lap

over the frame at top

and at the sides, and the

tail or bottom of the frame

laps over them, thus

keeping all shipshape and

dry. The roof lights have

therefore to be fixed up

coincident with the slates; they cannot, it is evident, be put in position

until the row of slates that comes within touch of the bottom of the

opening left for the roof light has been secured.

Our advocacy of roof lights may at first thought seem a
little self-contradictory. We have hitherto been against
the introduction of iron into the interior part of the
roofing of farm buildings on account of its liability to
condense moisture out of the warm air of these places, bringing harm to
itself and to the adjoining wood as well. But, notwithstanding the
framework of the roof light being of iron, there is so little of it exposed
to the interior of the building, almost the whole of it resting on the
outer surface of the roofing boards, that but small harm can ever result
from this cause. Moreover, the glass is so fixed that what moisture
happens to condense on the inner surface of the glass escapes at the

tail of the frame on to

the apron or bottom end

of the frame of the roof

light. We have already

pointed out that rain kept

the outside of the glass

clean ; here on the inside

we find the same service

being done, though not

so thoroughly perhaps^

by the condensing

moisture of the interior.

But the rain that

w^ashes the glass rusts

the iron frame which holds it — at least, the part that is exposed — and this

means the application of paint pretty frequently if the roof light is to be

maintained in jjood order. Left to itself after the initial rub over which

l-K

78 THE MODERN HOMESTEAD.

it is supposed to get, it will grow rusty and become difficult to open.
The putty will crack and eventually lose hold and drop off. But if kept
regularly pamted the iron-framed roof light will last an indefinite time.

We would fain of course be rid whenever possible of the necessity of
having to paint. This proceeding is, we repeat, so apt to be overlooked at
the homestead that any parts of the different buildings that depend on
paint for protection from the weather are nearly always in a precarious
condition. There is excuse for a roof light being overlooked in the
matter of paint ; there is none, however, when the side window,
generally within easy reach, is found bare and weatherbeaten. A door
or a beam, if the wood is sound to begin with, once it is seasoned, will
last for long without the aid of paint. With, a window it is different.
There are so many joints in the latter into which rain can enter and
cause decay if they are not safeguarded with paint that two or three
years of neglect in the way we refer to puts it past repair. If the putty
gets slack, rain gets in behind it to the serious harm of the wood. Paint
alone will keep the putty from shrinking and cracking.

But if we find the side window so much neglected in this respect,
what need we expect regarding the roof light ? The framework of it
too might be galvanized and thus be made sure of. There would still,
however, remain the putty to be dealt with. But if that were well
attended to at first it might not need looking to for a long time after-
wards. There are indeed methods in vogue of glazing roof lights
without the aid of putty which, if adopted in connection with the
suggested galvanizing of the roof-light frame would make matters about
perfect in this connection. But, should these precautions be thought a
little far-fetched, then let the ironwork receive three coats of good paint
before being placed in position, and after glazing let the putty be well
coated also, when the whole will be in good condition to start with,
after which they must trust to events for after-attention. We cannot
provide for self-upkeep and protection altogether, although at the
homestead, if anywhere, automatic, or rather, self-renewing apparatus,
would have an undisturbed field to practise themselves in.

We have been a little premature with the roof lights.

Other Opera- They are put in position concurrently with the slates ;

tions prepara- . .

tory to Slating, but previous to the commencement or slatmg there are

some important, if slight, operations in the way of plumber-
work to be seen to. Hooks for the rhones, eaves-gutters, or spouts, as these
are variously termed in different districts, have to be fixed to the roofing
boards ; and Avhenever lead has to be introduced and be partly covered
by the slates, it must be put in its place before the slates can be laid.

The rhone hooks (see Fig. 58) are put on at three feet
The Eaves- apart, and fastened to the sarking boards with slate nails.

The rhones themselves are in six-foot lengths ; thus each
one gets two hooks for its support. We are assuming that cast-iron

THE ROOFS— THEIR COVERING. 79

rhones ^viIl be used. Both lead and zinc are, in some districts, put to
the purpose of forming these eaves-gutters. Lead is too expensive for
this, however, and neither of them is so serviceable as cast iron. The
bangs that these gutters sometimes receive when clumsy fellows are
setting ladders against them with a view to repairing roofs or mounting
thereon, necessitate their being made of a sturdier stuff than either lead
or zinc. There is no soldering needed in the case of cast-iron rhones.
They fit on to each other, end for end, on the principle of spigot and
faucet pipes. The faucet is lined with putty, upon which is laid a
corresponding spigot ; a screw bolt is passed through the hole common
to each piece, the nut is screwed home, and the two lengths are as one.
A new length can at any time be submitted for a fractured one. With
lead or zinc it is different. Eaves-gutters of either material take longer
to fix up, and they take far more trouble in time of repair. Neither
needs paint, but the iron rhone brings us face to face with this diflficulty
once more. Here, however, we can with even greater confidence than
in the previous instances recommend the troublesome metal to be dis-
guised in zinc. The
hooks are n o ^\•
almost always gal-
vanized. They are
troublesome to re-
place, and experience ^==;5---__-;:;i^ Fig. 58.
has taught that this is
the best method of safeguarding them against weather. To do the same
by the rhones or drop-pipes or conductors, although it adds to the first
cost thereof, is eventually well-spent money. After that they are for all
time coming independent of paint. It would be well indeed could we
say the same of all exposed perishable materials that take part in the
fabric of the homestead.

We have been taking it for granted that everyone

No Building interested in the construction of homesteads allows the
should be .... ,.,.,,.

without them, necessity there is tor eaves-gutters to the various buildings

that form the group. When these are wanting the side
walls are certain to suffer. Every shower means a wetting to the
foundation. Over and above what falls to the share of the surface at
the base of the side wall of an}- of the buildings, it gets what rain
•descends on half of the area of the building, the other half leading down
the slope on the other side of the ridge. And this extra share is not let
down in the manner characteristic of rain. It comes like a cascade,
splashing upon the base of the wall and wearing away the soil there-
from. Outer walls of buildings provided with eaves-gutters are kept
damp by the atmosphere, so that where these are not erected it can
easily be imagined that the condition of such walls is made worse in
that respect. A damp course, it can be understood, will have its

THE MODERN HOMESTEAD.

Fig. 59.

beneficial effects hindered very much when eaves-gutters are denied to
the buildings. But if solely on the ground of discomfort to man and
beast we would ad\ocate their adoption. How unpleasant it is in times
of rain coming out and in of the doorways of buildings that have none
of these appendages to the eaves, especially if the
doors happen to be stiff, or their fastenings are out
of order and want coaxing to be led in the way they
ought to go ! On a dark, wet, windy night, the
lamp difficult to keep in, uncertainty which key
is the right one, and the mimic waterfall free to find our neck, there
arises for us no slight trial of temper. The very horses wince, and seek to
force the passage as they come under the rude shower-bath. Melting snow
helps when there is no rain to prolong the discomfort from this cause.

The Aarious objects on Fig. 60 make plain how con-
veniently the cast-iron rhones or eaves gutters are manu-
factured for being put up in any sort of position. Each
ordinary part of the gutter is, as mentioned above, six feet
long, and one fits to the other — the plain end of one into the faucet end of
another, or of an odd piece. A little putty is bedded round the faucet.

The Manner
of fitting up
the Eaves-
Gutters.

Fig. Go.

and the junction is made thoroughly secure by means of the little screw
bolt and nut. Any piece can be easily procured, so that repairs are easily
effected. On each edge of the gutter, as on Fig. 59, is a bead or thickening
of the metal, which gives additional strength to that part. The rhones are
given an inclination to the various points abo\e where the water is to be
led to the ground. There offset pieces are introduced which are connected
to conductors or drop-pipes. Rhones four-and-a-half inches across are
a good size to use. A three-inch conductor is ample to serve these,
provided, of course, each conductor is not given too much to do. As

THE ROOFS—THEIR COVERING.

may be gathered from Fig. 6i, these pipes are also of the spigot and
faucet pattern, and are, consequently, easy of connection. A faucet
end is slipped over the nozzle of the rhone. That length of the con-
ductor is fastened to the wall by means of a hold-fast a on the fig.
driven into the wall close up to the faucet. Another piece has its faucet
slipped over the free end of the piece just fixed in position and made
fast in the same way, and so on until the ground is reached. Xo packing
of the joints is necessary. If meant
to deliver the water on the ground
clear of the wall, a shoe piece h is
generally finished off with, but if it
has to be led directly to the drain
the free end is carried below the
level of the grating of, a Hart or
other trap afterwards to be described.
Swan-neck pieces c are made use of
when it is not practicable to place the
nozzle directly over the mouth of the
conductor, or vice versa.

Wherever practicable
centre gutters are to be
avoided. They are out
of sight, therefore all the
more likely to be neg-
lected. What is daily in view is apt to
be overlooked ; what cannot readily be
seen has less chance of bemg attended
to. Leaves, if trees are about, lodge in
centre gutters ; and straw too that gets
whirled up on the wind lands there.
These accumulations if undisturbed
come to obstruct and by-and-by to
choke up the waterway, with consequent
flooding of the hollows and evil results
to the wood affected. And snow under

certain conditions of the weather if left to itself in the centre gutter often
causes flooding there.

P'ig. 62 tells what a centre gutter is. It serves also for
us to point out some of the other parts of the roof that
the plumber must attend to before the slater can com-
mence operations. The centre gutter a is the angle
formed where the two roofs meet on the mutual wall. Two roofs
converging as at h form a valley. A roof running into a wall as at c
forms there a flank, with its accompanying raggle or raglet. These
parts require the intervention of sheet lead to make them watertight.

M.H. G

The Centre
Gutter to
be dis-
pensed with
wherever
practicable.

Fig. 61.

The Valley,
the Flank,
and the
"Piend,"

THE MODERN HOMESTEAD.

The part marked d, wliich is the reverse, as it were, of the valley, is
termed the hip or "piend." It, like the ridge, is the water-shed, and the
two are finished off similarly — the one, in fact, being but a continuation
of the other. Zinc is the usual material for finishing off with here.

Both in the centre gutter and the valley the lead must
be laid sufficiently far under the slates to make sure
that water running down the roof cannot gain entrance
between the two. In Fig. 63 we show a section of a
centre gutter in order to make the matter plainer. It is advisable to
make the gutter a fair breadth ; one has room then to move about

The Securing
of Lead on
the Roof.

Fig 62.

thereupon without breaking the ends of the slates. A platform, or sole,
n, is first laid on which to bed the lead. Bearers for this are attached
to the rafters. The joints between the boards of this sole must be close,

else they will subject the lead to a likelihood of being rent or torn. It
is well therefore to use flooring boards for the purpose. The broader
we make this platform tlie higher we raise it above the level of the

THE ROOFS-^THEIR COVERING. 83

wallhead. But this does not necessarily affect the appearance inside
either of the buildings, the roofing boards generally being carried down
to the wallhead as usual. They could of course be dispensed with
beneath the level of the gutter sole ; but then an unsightly as well as
insanitary space would be left. If the wallhead angles are to be filled
in on the principle we suggest at p. 68, the roofing boards need,
however, be carried no further down than will clear the room required
for this.

With the sole in position the laying of the lead is then gone about.
It is carried far enough up the slope of the roof on each side as well as

1=^

lt i:j « Q ~

Fig. 64.

at the head to allow the gutter to contain two or three inches of water
without any getting over the edge. At the edge it is dressed o\er a
small angular piece of wood h, known as a tiltmg fillet. This fillet,
while it checks the progress of water that might, were it absent, be
drifted oxer the edge of the lead, gives the necessary tilt, afterwards
to be referred to, to the tail of the first row of slates.

Lead, as we have already said, will not suffer the restraint of nails.
It must have free course to come and go as temperature dictates. But
in positions of the kind we are dealing with it needs no such curbing.
It will lie still enough except for its own molecular motion. This,
however, though barely perceptible to observation, if interfered with is

Fig. 65.

enough to destroy the efficiency of the watertight sheet. It hinders
us from using large continuous sheets of the metal. In consequence
the gutter has lengthwise to be broken up into several sections accord-
ing to how far the combined roofs stretch. The breaks are introduced
in a series of steps as in Fig. 64, due care being taken to overlap the
connecting lead in such a way that water will not penetrate at the
junction. As we gain the top section of the gutter it broadens out
on account of the slope we are obliged to give each of them as well as of
the steps that mark one from the other. The joining of sheets on the
flat, which here may only be done parallel with the slope, is accomplished
by means of a roll as in Fig. 65. But at the farm the sheets of lead
applied to roofing are rarely so broad as to call for this. The centre-
gutter may dip both ways and thus afford escape to the water if both

G 2

«+

THE MODERN HOMESTEAD.

ends are free — it no buildings abutt against either end of the conjoined
buildings. If only one end is free it will dip thitherwards. Tlie water
ought never, if possible, to be drained down through the buddings. If
it is, mischief is certain to result at some time or other.

Cast-iron centre gutters such as in Fig. 66, ot which
there are many modifications, are occasionally made use
of in connection with farm buildings. The respective
lengths are put together m the same way as the rhones
referred to. They are strong, and so long as in good order quite
effective. They ha\e one serious fault, however ; wherever moist air

Cast-iron

Centre

Gutters.

Fig. r.r>.

gets access to them they, when cold, act as condensers. If they happen
to be in buildings that contain live stock, water is constantly dripping
from them. From this cause they are liable to become a source of

Fig. 67.

damage. Shrouding the outside of them in felt or encasing them in
wood prevents the dripping. But it is not always practicable to do
this. Felt would fall away in time, helped, perhaps, by rats in want
of a lining for nests, and unless the wood be close home against the
iron, condensation would still take place. They are cheaper than lead
gutters, but we would ne\er recommend them for situations where they

THE ROOFS— THEIR COVERING.

The Con-
struction of
the Valley.

would be subjected to the lung exhalations of animals. Lead would

act in much the same way were it not hindered by the closely-fitting

boards on wliicli it rests in the gutter. An iron gutter may be ser\ice

able enough in connection with open shedding, but it should never be

used as part of either byre, stable, loose-box, or any other place that is

set aside for the housing of live stock.

Fig. 67 gives a section of how the valley is constructed.
It, too, is provided with a closely-fitting wood sole and
a tilting fillet at each side. This sole is, of course, a
narrowish one, simply being there to keep the lead from

liability to split through being forced into the otherwise acute angle at

the junction of the

roofing boards. The

lead is broad enough

to fit to the sole and

be dressed over both

fillets. The latter do

to be smaller here

than at the sides of

the centre gutter, their

purpose being mostly

that alone of confining the water to the channel. In the centre gutter

they have in addition to give tilt to the slates, although e^■en here they

ha\e also something to do in that way.

The flank and raggle differ somewhat from both the
The Raggle

gutter and the valley. Figs. 68 and 69 show one method

ot finishing the flank. This, indeed, resembles the valley. It resembles

one halved. The sole is just the roofing boards. A tilting fillet is there,

too, on the side next the roof. At

the other side the lead is dressed

up the wall three or four inches

and then inserted at right angles

into a narrow groove worked in

the stone. This groove is the

raggle or raglet proper, and is an

inch or an inch and a half deep.

The lead is finished off therein

with a slight curl of the lead back

on itself. \\'hen the lead has got

its proper set the remaining space

in the groove is filled up with

cement and neatly smoothed oft". This is generally left over until the

slating has been completed. When the raggle is completed no water can

get between the lead and the wall. This form is sometimes termed an

"open gutter. ■■

THE MODERN HOMESTEAD.

Fig. 70 shows another method of finishing the raggle. In this
instance the part of the lead that projects on the roof, instead of
being put under the slates, lies over them, they being laid close

against the wall. The

Fig. 70.

remainder of the lead

is fixed as before.

The slates require a

tilting fillet to them-

sehes in order to lay

them so that the Avater

they pass on may be

diverted from the wall.

The former, if the more

troublesome to complete,

is much the neater as well as the more thorough of the two.

Sometimes it is practicable, as in Fig. 71, to finish off a raggle without

the intervention of lead at all. But the grove in the wall needs then

to be a wide one, with the slates projected a little into it, and bedded in

cement. When the slater has finished, the gap remaining in the

raggle is filled up with cement and a good coat of it, projecting well

over the slates, is firmly laid on. This answers for a time : if away

from the stormy side it may be for a long time, but we prefer to have

lead in all cases. The tiled roof and the roof covered with flag-like

slate, lend themselves to be finished off with either cement or lime in this

manner much more effectually than the ordinary description of slated roof.

Where chimney heads pass up through roofs, or are in

'^^^ J^"^*^°"^ the gables thereof, the junctions between them and the
with Chimneys. ^ ^ . .

slates are finished in a manner similar to these flanks and

raggles we have been discussing. Fig. 72 shows a chimney-head
finished thus, one side with an open gutter as in the flank represented
in Fig. 68, and the other as in Fig. 70, with an apron of lead over the
slates. The ends of

the chimney are finished *^ ' .

like the latter men-
tioned of the two sides,
with aprons projecting
over the slates. Chim-
ney-heads usually being
of brick and a raggle
being difficult to cut

in such hard material, Fig.

the skirting, or the

•' flashing," as it is sometimes termed, of lead is stepped as shown
in Fig. 73. In rough work they may be safeguarded with cement
alone, as with the flanks mentioned as beingf so done in some cases.

THE ROOFS— THEIR COVERING.

^, , It may be gathered from what we ha\e been describin'r

The fewer 1 1 r 1 1 1 • •

Breaks in the t'^^' ^^^ lewer breaks and junctions there are in the roofs

Roof-Line the of a group of farm buildings, the better will it be for all

more easily is

the Roof main- ^""cerned. By breaks we mean any change m the

tained water- continuity of the elevation or sky-line of any of the sides
tight.

of the homestead — differences in their level, in short, and

by junctions the duplication of buildings, or the placing of two together

in such a way that the dividing wall is mutual to both. Breaks

Fig. 72.

necessitate lead joints between the roof of the lower building and either
the gable or the side wall of the higher. Each joint of the kind is
e.xpensive to begin with and by no means cheap to repair when flaws

Fig. 73.

88 THE MODERN HOMESTEAD.

begin to appear. I'luniheis' wages are high, and much of their time at
country repairs is taken up in journeying to and fro.

The ranging together cheek by jowl of buildings of equal

Not wise to iiei<'-ht means expensive centre gutters between the
range two o r .

Buildings parallel roofs. Oftener than otherwise this arrangement

together. ^^ ^j^^ result of seeking to make one wall answer for two.

We (juestion, however, if this is sound policy. It can hardly be
avoided in many cases ; but where it arises from no other cause than
the a\oidance of an e.xtra side wall it is a mark of false economy.
When finished in a thorough way there is not so much saving after all,
and the place is left with a weak part that is almost certain to be
neglected until the decay it may happen to be responsible for obliges
someone at last to take it in hand. Another bad effect, but one more
of a sanitary nature afterwards to be discussed, of this duplication of
buildings is the interruption which it causes to the easy and effective
ventilation of the space covered, unless of course the two buildings be
treated as one. But when the two are separate, instead of each being
in contact on both sides with the outer air, there is but one side thus
advantageously situated.

The slater has now a free course. The slates chosen for
The Choice of j^-j^ ^^,jjj^ ^g ^^,g \-^^yQ already remarked, depend very

much upon the kind most easily procurable in the district
surrounding the homestead being built. These may indeed be of a
description that one does not care to use, which leaves it open to
him to make a wider selection. Scottish slates are roughish, but
hardy and long-lasting. Both bulky and hea\-y, they become com-
paratively costly if transported long distances. Welsh slates are the
most generally prevalent of all our British sorts. They are thin, and
many go to the ton, and in consequence the carriage of them does not
amount up to the figure payable for the bulkier kinds. There are good
slates too to be had from quarries in the North of England — in West-
moreland and Lancashire. The Westmoreland slates are, however,
more of a fancy nature. This and the limited supply thereof put them
out of count so far as the steading is concerned. The best of them are
of a nice green colour. The Lancashire slates make a first-class cover
for roofs. Both they and those peculiar to Westmoreland are thicker
and coarser in grain than the Welsh kinds, but a little less so than the
Scottish. It is only therefore wdthin a reasonable distance from the
source of supply that we find Lancashire slates on the roofs of home-
steads. But all over the country we find the W^elsh product in
evidence. Their supply seems endless, and the situation of the rock
that yields them being close to the sea, all ports ha^■e an easy as well
as cheap communication with the quarries.

Puit whatever the slate selected let it be good of its kind. We have
a liking for a stronger sort of slate than the Welsh— at least, the sort of

THE ROOFS— THEIR COVERING. 89

Welsh that is sent North — for use at the steading. And of the remaining
two that are axailable we prefer the Lancashire to the Argyleshire, as
being of a little smoother exterior. When farm servants mount the
roofs of the buildings for some purpose or other, the slates require to be
strong to withstand their tread — and even tradesmen, whether
painters or plumbers, in their angel-like visits, can hardly a\oid
cracking a few slates as they pass up and down the roofs. But on a
cover of good stout Lancashire slates one can mo^•e about with freedom
so far as a dread of fracturing them goes.

The other extreme from the thin \\'elsh slate we meet with in districts
Avhere rocks of a flaggy nature crop out. From the west of Yorkshire
up to Carlisle and west over the Border a little to near Dumfries we
find semi-flags doing the duty of slates. In Forfar and then away in
the extreme north of Scotland — in Caithness —we come across them
again. It is in the latter district that we find these sort of pavement
roofs in perfection. One can perambulate them without fear of
consequences — to the outer covering, that is to say.

In dealing with these large-sized slates it would of course be waste of
material to cover the roof with sarking boards. Two-thirds of these
would never have a slate nail driven into them. Good stout spars are
used to bear up the slates, or flags, rather, and form a catch for the
attaching nails.

We have already adverted to the fact that Scottish builders never

take kindly to the English practice of slating on laths instead of on

boards. The slates native to the country as well as those imported

being both small and irregular in shape has much to do with this, we

consider — much more we suspect than that other cause, the stormier

climate of the North, which is sometimes advanced as accountable for

this difference in detail. Where followed out in its entirety of having

the inner side of the slate cover between the laths rendered — that is,

coated more or less smoothly w'ith haired plaster lime — an efficient cover

is obtained. It is one, howe\er, not easy of repair once wear and tear

begins to have effect, or should accident overtake it. A stone or a

chimney can falling from any distance upon a roof cover of this nature

would go through it almost unchecked. A^ roof slated over on sarking

boards is capable of giving a better account of itself. Moreover, how

easy of repair such an one is ! The English finished roof, with its larger

and more symmetrical slates, is pleasing to the critical eye. But for

standing the e\eryday usage and the storm and stress common to the

lot of the homestead north of the Border, commend us to the more

rugged Scottish one, with its stronger inner shell.

_, ^, ^, ., The nails used for attaching the slates ought in e\ery

The Slate Nails. . /^ . •,,,,,•

case to be galvanized, and of a size suitable to the class of

slate selected. Thin composition wire nails do for the smaller \\elsh

slates, but stout wrought-iron ones are required for the larger and

THE MODERN HOMESTEAD.

thicker kinds of slates. A single nail is sufficient for the smaller sorts,
hut two at least are needed for the larger. Sometimes it is stipulated
that every third row shall be double nailed. This arrangement allows
the slates in the other rows to be shed apart in such a manner that the
nail-holes of all can be exposed with a view to repairs. Were all double
nailed it is obvious there could be no shedding of them.

Turning to Fig. 7.}, we see how the slates are arranged in
arrangin^^the Position on the roof. The first row is double, the upper-
Slates on the most slates being laid over the joints of those abutting

underneath. Were this precaution not taken rain would
get in at the unprotected joint between the tail of the second row and
the eave. The space on each side of a joint covered by a slate laid over
the same is termed the " bond." The cover is the lap that each row has
over the nail-holes of the alternate one beneath it. Were these nail-
holes not covered o\-er by the row of slates second above it, there is
nothing, it is easy to see, to hinder water on its way down the slates

(

Fig.

entering the roof thereby. It is this that calls for so many slates being

used in making a roof thoroughly watertight. Wonderfully little cover

does when the roof has a (juick slope and there is no wind to check the

water as it flows thereon. But let a gale play upon that roof, blowing

upwards at times and retarding the flow, or let fine snow come drifting in

the wind that swirls about the roofs, then will soon appear cause for regret

that greater care was not observed on this head. With roofs such as we

have demonstrated on our plans of representative steadings, the usual cover

arranged for is to start with three inches or two and a half at the eaves and

diminish gradually to one of two or one and a half inches at the ridge.

Fig. 75, which gives a section of part of a roof, enables one

The Lap or better to understand this matter of cover, and it may further

" Cover, of , 1 , •

the Slates. perhaps make plam what purpose the tilt at the eave

serves. The latter serves to gi\-e the first two or three

rows of slates a grip at the tails as well as at the heads of the slates.

\\ ere they nailed on without any such tilt as in Fig. 76, then the tails

of the slates would sit free and out of touch with the slates immediately

beneath them, witli the consequence that, cocked up in the air in this

THE ROOFS—THEIR COVERING.

way, tliey would offer such a

Fig. 75.

gain tilt much in the same
svall-plate, as in Fig. 78.
In higher class brick-
work than pre^•ails at
the Scottish homestead
this is obtained by
working in a plinth in
various arrangement of
the bricks. In Scotland
tradesmen speak of this
tilting up of the slates
as " bell-cast," from its
resemblance to the splay
of the mouth of a bell,
we presume.

le\erage to the wind as to be easily
stripped off thereby, and
rain and snow would at
times be driven up past the
point of safety. Fig. 75
shows, as we ha\-e said, an
efficient tilt being afforded
by the outer edge of the
wallhead, the roofing boards
being far enough in from
the edge to admit of this.
Sometimes a dressed free-
stone plinth is added to the
wallhead, as in Fig. 77, to
constitute a more thorough
tilt; but when the outer
edge of the wall is finished
off with good material, there
is no need for this extra
expense. Where the wall
is narrow, as when built of
brick, it is practicable to
way by adding to the breadth of the

The Tilt or
"Bell-Cast"
of the Slates.

/ 0
shows the
slates
started
with a sufficiencv of
" bell-cast," and in con-
sequence gripping
together at the proper places,

Fig. 76.
and in addition having ample cover,

THE MODERN HOMESTEAD.

V/'/AW/A

the nail-holes of each row being rendered secure by the overlap of
the second row next above. Were it enough to overlap the nail-
holes of one row with the slates of the next, there would be an immense
sa\ing of slating matter. More is required, however. Turning again

to Fig. 74, we can see at a glance that it
is by reason of the side joints of the
zj , I slates that two superincumbent rows of

J ' I ■ I slates are needed to make one row water-

M I tight. Moreover, were the slates not

^.^"^ k I brought down as far over each other as

~^ Figs. 75 and 76 show them to be, then the

^'"^'•77- Fig. 78. ^yj^ter that got in between the joints of

the second row of any three would find its way through the nail-holes of
the third. If the rows could be continuous, like strips of felting laid
parallel to eaves and ridge, there would then be no call for this triple
arrangement ; each row
would require to pro-
ject no further over
that beneath it than
would securely cover
the nail-holes in the
same.

Several kinds of
slates are not dressed
square up to the head.
With these care must
be taken that if the nail-holes are above the scjuared part of the slate,
the cover must tlien apply to its relationship with the top of the squared
part instead of with the nail-hole. Hardly any slates but those from
Wales are delivered ready dressed. The others have to be dressed
more or less, and in all cases be assorted into the various sizes, so that
the biggest may be started with and the smallest ones find a place at
the ridge. Both Welsh and others have to get nail-holes formed in
them after delivery.

In some instances tlie \'acancies left by tliese rounded shoulders are
filled up with plaster lime, thus bringing the head of the row to a uniform
level. "Shouldering," this is called. It is not a good practice to observe
in buildings occupied by live stock, because the moist air of such places
keeps the lime damp, and this tends to corrode the nails that are in
contact with the lime.

The slates being attaclied, the ridgin^: and the " piends" fall

ofthe R^dees *■" ^'^ 'inislied off. Zinc is now more commonly used than

and " Piends." any (jther material. Fig. 79 gives a cross section of the

form this ridging takes when finished. The zinc measures

twelve mches across and is manufactured in six-foot len^rths. It is shown

THE ROOFS -THEIR COVERING.

Fig. So.

in position fitted to a ridge pole about two inches in diameter, spiked to

the apex of the roof. Galvanized iron hold-fasts or clips of a similar

section to the zinc, and which accordingly fit it close, are nailed at two

feet apart to the

ridge pole and

thus hold the zinc

firmly in position.

'J' h e slovenly

method of attach-
ing a squared

piece of wood

instead of the roll

has crept into

practice. It is

evident, however,

that the latter

gives the zinc a far better hold. It should, therefore, always be insisted

that it is supplied.

At the time the ridging is being put on, the ventilators we shall

afterwards describe are also fixed up, the zinc being fitted close up to

these and holding them in their places.

An important matter which we have not touched on yet

the Gables. ^^ ^^^^ finish of the slating at the gables of the building.
Where the gable is carried no higher than the general

level of the wallhead, and the roof, as in Fig. 80, takes upon itself the

duty of closing in the opening at that end there is of course no difficulty

in the matter, there being no junction of slates with wall of gable. The

slating is merely
continued at right
angles round the
corner. "Fiends"
are the result of
this class of roof
— the pavilion, or
" hipped " roof as
it is called — but
these are easdy
dealt with, being
but a continua-
tion of the ridge.
There is more

trouble where the gable is carried up in the ordinary way as in

Figs. 81 and 82. There the slating is shown as finished with a

" skew." This, in our opinion, is not a very satisfactory method. It

is difficult to keep the joint between the slates and the skew stones

Fig. 8r.

THE MODERN HOMESTEAD.

Fig. 82.

watertight. Generally tlie slates are simply butted against the " skew,"

and the angle is filled with either lime or cement. The latter cracks or

falls away and rain gets in. It will do so by a very slight crack— one

that cannot be observed from the ground even when within the range

of vision. Sometimes more or less of a raggle is formed in the "skew "

and the mortar inserted therein ;
and lead is occasionally had
recourse to by way of a flashing.
Either is an improvement, but
with so little room to work upon,
each is very liable to displacement
with consequent leakage. \\'hen
finishing against a " skew," in
either of these ways, it is usual to
have a tilting fillet under the
slates for the purpose of diverting
water from the raggle or joint.

But even with this joint tho-
roughly secure, the skew stones

by themselves are very apt to draw water. It works its way down

between the joints. If the latter happen to remain tight, it will in the

case of many kinds of stone find its way down through them even.
We can seldom be confident, in fact, that the gable is dry unless the

slates are carried right over beyond its outer face as in Figs. 83 and 84.

No water can then gain admittance at the head of the gable. But

having gained this advantage, we are met with the difficulty of how to

finish the exposed

sides of the slates

that project over

the face of the

wall. If we carry

these too far over,

we lay them at

the mercy of the

wind. The first

gale that strikes

the gable will,

very likely, tear

oflf the projecting

Fir,. 83.

slates and leave matters in a mess at that critical part. If we keep
them too close in to the gable, we leave a weakly place between the two
where rain may be driven in. The joint is pointed on completion of the
work, but the mortar soon falls therefrom.

There is, however, a way of finishing off here that enables us to make
matters secure without either contingency occurring. If instead of

THE ROOFS-THEIR COVERIXG.

finishing ofT the gable-head level, as usually is the case, we raise two

or three inches on the outer edge up to the level of the roofing boards,

r.s in Figs. 84 and 85, w^e can

then dispense altogether with

pointing at the outer angle

between slates and gable.

This can be done with cement

as the slating proceeds, which

will allow the slates to bed

themselves down in the ma-
terial while it is soft. The

boards must, of course, come

as near to the edge as will

allow of the proper nailing of

the slates, which here ought

in all cases to be double

nailed. A finish of this simple

description will make sure of a dry gable and at the same time a secure

edge to the slating, two matters which are of considerable importance.

This is a part of the roof that is rarely out of trouble, is seldom paid atten-
tion to, and when it is, mere patching
is all that it gets. Radical treatment
gives the impression that a great deal
is being done for a small end, there-
fore it is seldom adopted. A little
pointing staves off the business until
some other occasion, but pointing has
no secure foothold and it soon drops
off. With wood behind slates at one

side, and stone at the other, all differing in temperature and in degree

of expansive property, the lime or cement gives way on account of these

disruptive tendencies of its supporters.

Fig. 5^.

Fig. 8^.

CHAPTER V.

Floors and Drains.

Thic doors of the poorer class of homesteads still depend
available to a large extent on the nature of the material that is

Flooring available in the district of which they are representative.

The floor paved with small boulders prevails in those
parts where flags are not to be had, where fire-clay is not a natural
commodity, and where whin or granite is not at the surface. Flags, as
a rule, make excellent flooring material for most of the farm buildings.
As to be had in Caithness and Forfarshire and in parts of Wales,
material of a better sort is hardly to be wished for. With their edges
sawn they can be laid closely together to form a suitable floor for nearly
all the houses composing the homestead. Almost the same may be
said of the fireclay bricks that are manufactured in nearly all the coal-
producing districts. They can be turned to account in every place
where flags answer the purpose. They can further be used in the
stalls of stables, a situation for which flags are not suitable. Granite
and whin setts (square dressed blocks) are both material of the very
best nature for the latter purpose. At places where they are plentiful
they are frequently turned to account as a substitute for more suitable
stuff in other parts of the buildings, though there are few where this
cannot be done. The rounded boulders, or " kidney " stones, whether
gathered from the fields, the river bank, or the sea shore, we find
forming the complete pavement of byres, stables, cattle-courts, and
loose-boxes. It is one, however, which comes far short of what is now
required of a proper floor.

\\'hat is required of such it may be as well to tell here as
required of a anywhere else. To begin with, we want one that will

first-class stand some tear and wear. We want it to be smooth.

Flooring ^ , ,. ,,, , ,

Material. Y^* by no means slippery. We want it smooth enough

to afford a comfortable bed for animals that have both to

stand and sleep thereupon ; smooth enough to allow water to flow along

its surface unimpeded ; smooth enough to be easily swept, and to allow

shovel and scraper to glide over its surface while the working edge of

either all the time fits closely to the floor. We want it to come up to

this standard, and yet be able to allow either horse or ox to move about

upon it with freedom and sure foothold. What is more, we want it to

FLOORS AND DRAINS. 97

be jointless so that moisture from the surface cannot percolate to the
soil beneath, neither can ground damp ascend from below. Nor are we
content with that even : we must have the floor material impervious in
itself, and one continuous watertight sheet. And over and above being
able to hold water in check it must be capable of resisting the burrowing
powers of rats.

Which of the different materials we have just mentioned comes up to
this standard ? Not the last one, certainly. It is all joints together.
The animal that sleeps on a floor of this kind is almost in direct com-
munication with the soil. Its droppings drain therein until it can
absorb no more. The irregularities of the surface of the floor in time
become packed with excrement — they get rounded off" with dirt which it
is impossible wholly to remove by means of broom, shovel, or scraper.
The foothold is good, but alas for the comfort of a bed having this for a
basis unless the stones be small and exceptionally uniform ! " The
clartier the cosier" holds good in this instance, for the dirtier it becomes
the more effectively will the spaces between the stones be levelled up.
Its lasting powers cannot, however, be gainsaid.

Setts, whether of granite or of whin and its allies, are as lasting.
They are smooth and afford a more comfortable bed. But they have
almost as many joints. Bricks are even better than the latter in the
way of comfort, but they have even more joints, and are not nearly so
lasting. The floor can be more easily cleaned, however. Flags are
better than either. If the right sort, they last long. They are com-
paratively smooth on surface and have far fewer joints. Not one of the
three, however, can keep rats in check. These sappers and miners of
the four-footed world look on floors constructed of these materials as
safe retreats and bases of operations rather than as serious obstacles to
their free run of the homestead.
„ Where, then, if these widely prevailing materials fail us,

Portland r \ ,,,-,, i , j j

Cement are we to find one at all likely to reach the standard we

Concrete have quoted? W'e have it in Portland cement concrete,

one of the .... , . ., • 1 j

best Materials a material that is not very costly, is easily manipulated,

for Farm ^^^^ answers in a satisfactory manner the requirements

Floors. . .

we set forth. No rat can force its way through concrete.
It is impervious to water, whether seeking away down or a passage up.
It can be laid in one continuous sheet, covering over, without crack or
seam, the whole surface area within the walls ; consequently there is no
chance of the subsoil ever becoming contaminated by excrement, either
solid or liquid, and henceforth diffusing ill-favoured emanations through-
out the place. A floor laid with this material can at any time be
swilled out with water, and yet be fit for occupation in a minute or two
thereafter. It affords a smooth and level if a hard bed for cattle. For
horses of the heavier kind it is by itself hardly so suitable. It is, indeed,
quite in place and thoroughly effective in all parts of the stable excepting

M.H. H

c,8 THE MODERN HOMESTEAD.

the two or three feet at the ends of the stalls with which the hind feet of

the horses come in contact. The calkins on the shoes are too much for

the enduring powers of the concrete. What with the wetness there and

the frequent poundings, and constant grinding or boring force of the

horses' heels tliat the concrete is subjected to, it soon gives way. The

forefeet of the horses are not nearly so severe on it, and under them it

Avill stand for long. But in this critical place the concrete can be

supplemented with whin or granite setts. Elsewhere in the stable it is

as desirable to have it as in the other buildings of the farm.

In the barn, where no wet or moisture is supposed to be, concrete

makes as acceptable a floor as in the places above mentioned. Grain

is easily swept up or lifted by shovel therefrom, and no vermin can

undermine it. In the cooking shed, the meal store, and the root house

it is equally desirable and effective ; likewise for pig and poultry

houses, and the dairy premises generally. In fact, there is hardly a

place about the homestead that is worthy of a floor in which concrete

does not serve as a material of the first class.

Unless it be the so-called tar macadam stuffs, we know

Tar Macadam of no other material that has the slightest approach to
very suitable .... n ^ ■ -11

in some Cases, equality with concrete as a lioor-laymg material at the

farm homestead. In some respects tar macadam is even
superior to concrete. It is softer, or more elastic, and makes a more
comfortable bed for animals, and is warmer to the touch. It is not
inclined to be slippery like concrete. Wherever concrete can be turned
to account in floor-laying so can this material. It too is hard, continuous
in surface, and is equally impervious to damp. It also is proof, in no
small degree, against rats. It comes behind concrete in so far that it
is not strong enough to make a corner of itself. With concrete we can
mould the surface as we like, forming raised walks, gutters, beds, and
steps, all without the aid of other materials to stiffen the corners or
sharp edges. But with tar macadam we need kerb-stones alongside
the grips, " settle stones " along the foot of the beds, and stone steps at
the doorways as a strong bordering to the stuff. It is a cheaper
material than concrete, and as easily laid and repaired. It is not one,
however, that the country mason can manipulate. It requires to be
taken in hand by men accustomed to work with stuff of the kind.

Tar macadam is tarry matter and broken stones similiar

The Method of ^q road metal well mixed together and firmly pressed
laymg Tar ^ J ir

Macadam. down over the surface it is meant to cover. The soft
substance is the thick residue left in the process of tar
distillation. It resembles asphalt, and, like the latter, requires to be
melted before it will mix with the stones. It can be laid in two layers
or in three — the first one containing larger stones, the second smaller,
and the upper mere chips or rough sand. Each layer is well compressed
with a hea\'y roller. The floor soon sets and is then ready for use. It

FLOORS AND DRAINS.

is a floor that is not much known as yet, but judging from its capabilities
it is one that promises to be widely turned to account. Our experience
of it has hitherto been more in connection with streets and footpaths
than farm houses. A material that can stand the wear and tear incidental
to these situations, while very suitable in other ways, is well adapted,
one would think, to bear any stress it may be put to at the homestead.
It is available at only few places, however, without running to expense
in the matter of transportation, tools, of materials, and experienced
manipulators thereof.

Both concrete and tar macadam are laid abont the same thickness —
five inches or so. A basis either of land-strewn or quarried stones,
broken tiles, or brickbats packed well together and broken to form a
smoothish surface is prepared on which to lay either. This is
better than laying it directly on the sub-soil. It affords it a more
uniform bearing, and at the same time cuts it off from direct com-
munication with mother earth, thus acting both by way of cushion
and non-conductor.

Most country masons are now able to lay concrete floors

The Method {^ a satisfactory manner without the aid of the plasterer,
of laying .

Concrete. Formerly that tradesman's assistance was thought

essential in this job, especially the laying of the last
coat. But the floors are not wanted to be finished so smooth as the
plasterer is accustomed to complete his work. Concrete floors are
laid in two coats, the first three-and-a-half or four inches being of rough
material, and the remainder of cement and sand alone. The first layer
is beaten down with a broad-faced rammer ; the second is spread over
it by means of trowel and float.

One part of good Portland cement, four of broken stones, similar in
size to road metal, and one of sharp sand, make a good mixture for
concrete. The best job is made when the different materials are mixed
on a wood platform. There is no danger then of mud or dust getting
amongst them, and every chance is afforded of a thorough mixture of
the different bodies being attained. It is advisable to turn the heap
twice before wetting it. Water is added at the next turning, and this
is repeated until the concrete is plastic enough to be spread out as
required. It is then in condition to pack closely together.

Broken whinstone constitutes a capital medium for the cement to
merge upon and harden against. But granite and hard freestone will
also serve the purpose sufficiently well. Anything of a crumbly nature
had better be rejected. Gravel, where plentiful, is made to do service
instead of chipped stone, and apparently with good effect. We prefer
the angular to the round stones, but would never think of going to the
expense of obtaining these when gravel was plentiful.

Portland cement, unlike lime, will set without the aid of sand, but it
is none the worse for a fair proportion of that in the mixture. There

H 2

loo THE MODERN HOMESTEAD.

might, if it is good, safely be at least two parts of sand to one of
cement. The fragments of stone or other material simply serve, as we
have said, for the semi-fluid mixture of cement and sand to cohere to,
embracing these in its grasp, which gradually tightens as the cement
hardens. They are thus bound into a solid mass by reason of the
cement eventually growing as hard, if not harder, than themselves.
They have no such intimate relation to the cement that the sand bears
to it, therefore they may be left out of reckoning on that liead. It is the
sand alone that effects the strength of the cement. If clean and sharp,
two, as we have said, or even in some cases three, parts of sand may be
allowed to one of cement, and the concrete will be all the better. It
must be good, however, else the result is sure to be disappointing.

The mixing thereof is a most important point in the preparation of
concrete. If there is more cement at one part than another, the
concrete cannot be of equal strength. At the parts where there is
least of it the chips or fragments of stone will be more loosely held
together than where it is plentiful. Some of the pieces will be lying
against each other with little or no cement between them, consequently
devoid of coherence. It is true that when in the form of a homestead
floor there is not much pressure put upon concrete, and what there is
usually happens to be uniform. But it serves no end other than the
encouragement of carelessness, with its train of evil results, to allow
work to be done in a slipshod manner. In a job of this kind it is well
to begin with the clear understanding that there is to be no undue
hurry over the mixing of the various ingredients. Unless sufficient
work be given to it at the start, we can never be certain that we deserve
to earn the full benefit from our materials let them be ever so good.
With regard to tar macadam, there is not the same likelihood of harm
resulting from improper mixing of the components. The tar is melted
in a large cauldron affair. As it becomes thin the chips of stone are
added to it and all stirred about like thick porridge. There is little
chance, therefore, of the prepared stuff varying much in consistency.
All the stone gets the opportunity of being thoroughly enveloped in the
sticky matter. When it has reached the right degree of consistency it
is ladled into iron wheelbarrows and conveyed to the seat of operations.
_ , Failing one's being able to avail himself of either of these

Materials and desirable materials for the formation of floors, there is
how to deal nothing for it but to fall back upon the best of the others

with them. , ^

that happen to be obtainable. Whichever it is, let it be
laid in the best manner we can accomplish. If carefully assorted accord-
mg to size, one class to be used at one place and a different one at
another, to begin with, and pains to be taken to bed them uniformly,
even boulder stones of a suitable kind can be set to form a surprising
sort of floor. It is out of count of course in the majority of the houses.
In the barn the bare eartli trodden flat is preferable, and so would it be

FLOORS AND DRAINS. loi

in other places the floors of which need to be easily swept and must offer
no resistance to the free movement of the shovel. In the pigs' house a
floor of this nature would not resist the snouts of the animals for a day.
And pity the attendant who has to keep clean the floor of a byre paved
thus, but pity more the cow that has to stand and lie upon it ! The
stable and loose-boxes are about the only houses regarding which it
can be said to be suitable. It gives a firm foothold to the horses,
and with sufficiency of beddmg affords them a comfortable bed enough.
There is never so much semi-liquid filth about these places either but
what the floors, no matter the kind, can be easily cleaned up. When
well laid with stones of a uniform size it makes a capital pavement for
a courtyard. And the passages in front of the cattle-boxes might
on a pinch be so paved.

But whether cobble-stones, bricks or flags are being dealt with it is
essential that a firm, level base be prepared for them ; whatever it
consists of, it must be well consolidated. Over this is spread an inch
or two of sand or fine ashes on which the paving material is at first
laid gently down until some yards have been covered, when it is gradually
beaten down to its proper level. The loose sand or other stuff used
spreads out from beneath the bricks and flags to the free side, and thus
enables them to be brought to a firm yet elastic sort of bearing.
Without this soft cushion between them and the unyielding sub-soil it
would be impossible to lay either bricks or flags evenly. Were the
foundation of equal consistency throughout and absolutely level, or at
least regular in gradient, conditions, which, under the circumstances
are impracticable of attainment, there would be no necessity for the
free layer above it. In the absence of the latter, however, neither the
bricks nor flags could have a uniforna bearing. One part might be
hard home on the unyielding sub-soil while another was sitting free.
The result of this, taking the floor as a whole, would be an unequal
surface. The flags especially, because the larger, would be constantly
at the risk of fracture. Let any force come down suddenly on the
unsupported part of the stone, then in all probability it would snap
there. More than likely, however, such vacancies beneath the flags
and bricks would be filled with liquid matter that had leaked through
the joints and thus be offending against the sanitation of the house.

The intermediary layer both gives a level bearing and hinders the
accumulation of noxious matter in places by themselves. The sand or
the ashes may in time become more or less sodden with offensive
organic matter, but the latter will be uniformly disseminated consequently,
well watered down, and not present in pools here and there, which it
might if the sand is wanting. But the interposing sand offers an easy
mine to rats. It is next the walls, however, where these engineers elect
to break ground, and if these parts be fortified for a foot or two out
therefrom with concrete check is given to these bold depredators. The

I02 THE MODERN HOMESTEAD.

most vulnerable part of all in this respect is along the foot of the stable
wall at the horses' heads. It is under the mangers, pretty well out of
sight, and corn is nearly always to be picked up there, therefore a
common haunt of the rat. When this part is protected in the way
mentioned the stable floor is pretty secure against these vermin. The
floor of the straw barn being nearly always covered over, needs protection
in this way all round the walls.

Occasionally the joints between the bricks are grouted, or filled up
with lime or cement. When this is done the bricks are laid a little
apart from each other in order to allow room for the grouting material
to get a good catch. The object in view is to give the bricks a firm
hold and at the same time render the surface watertight. It is wonderful,
liowever, how little moisture penetrates by the joints when the bricks
are merely laid in sand or ashes. Once the sand has consolidated the
exposed portions seem to skin over and become watertight. This can
be seen when a well-laid floor of this kind is being lifted. If the bricks
grow slack, there is of course no hindrance to the percolation of liquid
matter downwards through the floor. It is disgusting to have to do
with a byre wherein the bricks are loose and the filthy water beneath
goes squelching out at the joints as one puts down his foot.

It is impracticable to grout a boulder-laid pavement, and it is hardly
worth while going to that trouble with one of flags. These are so
much larger superficially than bricks, that there are not many joints to
deal with ; and the flags being so much thinner, they allow but little
depth for grout. Rats have less freedom at the start with a flag than a
brick floor ; they find it easier to circumvent a brick than a flag ; but
once a passage underneath has been forced they have more of their own
way under the broader cover of the latter. A flag bridges over an
excavation such as they form, while a brick subsides thereinto. Under
a flag floor nests can be formed and galleries be led to turn the fortifica-
tions of adjoining houses, but not so with a brick floor. In them at a
rat-infested homestead the runs of these destructive creatures can be
traced in the disturbance of the surface-level of the pavement.

It is we say at the wall sides of the flag floor as with the others that

rats gain access beneath. If the floor is rendered secure there, they may

be kept at bay. A row of slates laid against the base of the wall at the

four sides effectually cuts off their burrows from communication beyond

the boundaries of the house. With this precaution, and the flags fitting

tightly against the walls, there is then little chance of the floor being

undermined from any base by the pests referred to.

o i-o t.r ,1 Solidly built walls and floors of the nature of concrete,

Sohd Walls

and Concrete '^^^d we may add of tar macadam, though perhaps less

Floors keep restrictive, are, it will have been inferred, the most thorough
Rats at bay. 111,

and reliable preventives against the attacks of rats. The

heart of the wall and under tlie floor are their favourite positions.

FLOORS AND DRAINS.

103

These afford them, retreats in touch with where their food is to be found
and from where they are free either to range the other buildings or to
gain the outside. There, too, they increase and multiply as they can so
quickly. But deprived of these strongholds they are powerless for evil
and are obliged to migrate to a homestead where matters are more in
accordance with their habits. It is not enough that they can gain
admittance by door or window, and be able to leave by the same.
They are too proficient at skirmishing to break cover in that manner.
If they have not the places mentioned to fall back upon, buildings so
constructed are not for them.

Floors of wood are hardly ever represented on the ground
floor of the steading. If there happens to be a bothy, or
room for the lads on the ground level, it perhaps may be laid with
wood, and may be the harness-room may profitably be floored with the
same material. With these exceptions a wood floor is seldom made
use of in the situation indicated. Overhead nothing else is of course
very readily available.

In laying a ground floor of wood it is essential that there be free
circulation of air beneath. The flooring boards are laid on sleeper

"M"

Fig. 86.

joists which in turn bear on sleeper or dwarf walls. The sleeper walls
stand a little above the ground, and thus keep the sleeper joists from
contact therewith ; air-holes protected by galvanized iron gratings which
guard the mouths of these openings allow free passage to air, but none
to the enterprising rat. Fig. 86 gives a section showing the arrangement
we are describing. The side walls show on their inner sides a shelf or
scarcement on the same level as the tops of the sleeper walls. These
scarcements support the ends of the joists, and the sleeper walls take
up the weight where they are placed. Scarcement and sleeper wall are
alike provided with a wall-plate in order to gi\"e uniform bearing to the
joists. The wall-plate is sufficient if an inch in thickness, and from four
to nine inches in breadth, according, of course, to the thickness of the
sleeper wall. It is bedded on lime to make the bearing as equal as possible.
The space between the sleeper walls is ruled by how the breadth of the
building will best divide. Four or five feet apart is a safe minimum to
observe. A sleeper wall of single brick — four-and a-half inches wide,
that is to say — is ample in many cases, but a nine-inch one is more
satisfactory if there is likelihood of much weight at any time being
placed upon the floor.

104 ^^^ MODERN HOMESTEAD.

The sleeper joists are arranged at eighteen-inch centres as
The Sleeper or ^ standard. These need not be much heavier in scantling
Floor Joists. ^^^^^^ ^^^^ ^.^ inches by two inches. Their bearing points are
abundant, and the strain upon them diminished in corresponding ratio.
It is advisable to use red pine for sleeper joists. On the ground floor
there is more call upon the constitution of the wood than is the case of
that in the overhead floor. The overhead joist has freer access to air
and more of sunlight than falls to the share of the sleeper joist.
For similar reasons we would have the boards of the ground floor
to be of red pine.

Flooring boards, it is almost unnecessary to say, are made
The Flooring ^^ ^]-,g u tongue and groove " principle, the tongue on one

side and the groove on the other. By this means the
boards, as in Fig. 87, are so locked together that they can neither twist
nor buckle. Usually they shrink considerably and gape at the joints.
It is almost impossible to avoid this. Boards seasoned long enough to
have done with shrinking are not to be had ; therefore the best we can get
will contract a little. The narrower the board the less in proportion will
the joint spaces be, so if we would avoid very open joints, we must use
narrow boards. But narrow boards are the dearer, and circumstances may

Fig. 87.

not be such as to justify their use. They are not in respect of the ground

floor at the homestead ; neither are they as regards those of the first storey.

Six inches is the maximum width of flooring boards as manufactured

nowadays, and three the minimum. The latter is the size used in houses

of a good class. The former serves well enough for farm buildings.

Such comparatively close joints as one is justified in looking for in a

house is not a necessity at the homestead.

The ventilation underneath the ground floor must be as
Ventilation ^ . j . ., , ^^ , . ,

beneath the ^^^^ ^'^d unstmted as IS possible. The more the wind

Wood Floor to blows through between ground and floor, the longer will
be unstinted. . , 1 , rr 1 • 1 , • ,• •

the wood last. It the air beneath is stagnant, conditions

arise that are fa\-ourable to fungoid grow^ths establishing themselves on
the planks and boards, and these will flourish at the expense of the
wood. Damp it will be as well as stagnant, and dampness alone wuU
set up decomposition of the woody fibre. If dry rot gets a foothold, it
will soon bring matters to a crisis. It is so named, not because it
thrives in a dry atmosphere, but on account of the dry, snuff-like condi-
tion of the wood when the fungus has had its will of it. It thrives in
out-of-the-way corners, where the air is both stagnant and damp, and
its work of destruction is often accomplished ere the inexperienced are
aware of its presence.

FLOORS AND DRAINS. 105

Steps are a necessity at the outer doorway of each of the

farm buildings. In some of those finished with concrete

the steps may, if thought advisable, be of the same material ; but in the

others stone has to be had recourse to. The harder and closer-grained

the stone is the more enduring is it likely to be.

Ascending to the next floor, there is nothing for it but to

Overhead construct it of wood. There is no other choice justified.

Floors. _ . ■'

We could, of course, have it of iron and concrete, but

then, the cost to be faced ! The joists of the upper floors require to be

heavier than the sleeper joists. In addition to their extra size, it is

necessary, wherever possible, to contrive a centre support for them.

Spanning over sixteen to eighteen feet, and carrying, at times, a heavy load

to boot, is giving them too much to do. Many an accident occurs from

this cause. It is no uncommon sight to see a big heap of corn piled up

along the middle of the granary floor. This means many tons bearing

upon the joists at their weakest part — their centre point. The wider

the building, all the more danger is there of collapse. The cautious

farmer grows frightened occasionally when he sees the joists showing

an ominous bend, and slips a support in here and there. Others, less

careful, go on until disaster arises. We have known the floor of a new

granary collapse in the first season simply through overloading. The

builder, to whom was left the planning as well as the erection of the

house, took no thought of what was required of the floor ; the farmer

never for a minute questioned that the granary was not capable of

holding a full supply of grain, the consequence being that one morning

the joists gave way, and floor, corn, and all were precipitated into the

barn beneath. Luckily, no one was under. But cases have occurred

where lives were lost through carelessness, or want of experience on

this head.

Undoubtedly a centre support should be under the joists of all
granaries. The granary is there for storage purposes, and the floor is
expected to be capable of holding a goodly store at a time ; if it cannot,
the place is inefficient. A little management can provide for pillars
being erected to sustain a beam or girder for support to the joists, and
partition walls often come in handy for the purpose.

The joists of the granary cannot safely be of a less scantling than
nine inches by three inches. The ends should be let well into the wall, and
there rest on a wall-plate. In a badly built wall — one that does not
turn rain very well, and consequently is damp in the interior — the ends
of the joists are apt to become decayed before very long. If the building
itself is damp inside, and air has little circulation within, which condition
is usually mother to the other, the same may happen, although the walls
are sound on the outside. Precautions must be taken to guard against
either contingency. When the ends of the joists become affected in
this way they grow slack in their holes, and the floor gets misplaced and

io6

THE MODERN HOMESTEAD.

put off the le\el. We have already spoken against inserting wood into
building, or, what is much the same thing, the building up of the cre\'ices
on the wallheads between the feet of the rafters. The two cases are,
however, hardly on the same footing. The couple feet are in the
majority of instances in an atmosphere Avhich consists of spent air that
has recently done service in the lungs of animals, and is, in consequence.
both warm and moist. Under such conditions wood and mason work
are better apart. This is a state of matters scarcely to be avoided. But
there is no necessity for circumstances that are adverse to the two
existing harmlessly together arising where the joists are inserted in the
wall. The conditions we have mentioned are either of them apt to be
the cause or the result of carelessness combined with roguery in the one
instance, and carelessness alone in the other. Neither needs to be
taken as a non-preventible condition. Granted a firm, dry wall and a

well-aired room inside, there
should be nothing whatever
to prevent the ends of the
joists remaining sound for
an indefinite time.

Boards i^ inch thick
and six inches broad will
answer for the floor. Both
boards and joists may, for
reasons already stated, be
of white pine.

pmn^li}»kmi>jiim,ijjj,>,f>,,i,mj/>,v,

-m ■ =^

"TTrTTTTTrrrr^

A wood floor
is hardly
complete
Fig. 88. without a

skirting
board along the base of the wall as in Fig. 88. It securely covers the joint
between wall and floor, and it gives the job a more finished appearance.
\'ery often, instead of a skirting of wood, one of cement, as being proof
against mice as well as rats, is fixed up. On the ground floor it is an
equally necessary finish. Some of the concrete floors, too, such as the
dairy scullery one, are all the better to have it.

Should there be a storey over the dairy offices, providing
FlooI^anT'^ for cheese-room and other accommodation, a good sort
Ceiling. of floor for it is one of two layers of boarding with felt

between. A floor of this description serves as a ceiling
to the rooms beneath. Fig. 89 shows how it is arranged. There is a
good deal of moisture in the dairy places arising from the hot water
used in the scullery and vat room, or churning room. This, together
with the storage of cheeses overhead, and the consequent changes in
strain which that implies, is rather trying on a lath-and-plaster ceiling.

FLOORS AND DRAINS.

107

It is annoying when the plaster in these situations begins to drop off
here and there. After that, one is never sure but damage may be done
at some time or other through plaster falling into milk or cream. An
overhead floor, such as we are drawing attention to, puts an end to all
that sort of thing. Of planed wood beneath, varnished if considered
necessary, there is nothing to fall from it that can do any harm. It can
lodge no dust, so even that cannot float down from it. The two
thicknesses of wood with an intervening layer of felt make it a good
non-conductor. It is also much stronger than an ordinary floor, which
is a good point considering what it has to carry at times. It does not take
many sixty or seventy-pound cheeses to make a ton, and they pack closely
together on the tiers of shelves. The fig. shows the top layer running
at right angles to the under one. The under one may be laid diagonally
on the joists if a little better appearance is wished for, but this means
some waste of wood, small, no doubt, but all the same hardly justifiable
in the majority of cases. Care must be taken that the felt made use of

m
m

^<^

Fig. 89.

is inodorous — has no tar or stuff of that nature likely to raise an
offensive smell at any time.

Another good point that this combined floor and ceiling possesses is
that no harbourage such as there is in the space between floor and
ceiling of the usual type is afforded to mice. These do serious damage
when they command an entrance to the cheese-room, not on account of
what they consume, but what they disfigure and lessen in value. Cut
off from this retreat, these little creatures have the side walls alone
to shelter in, places that are much easier made impregnable to
them than it is.

From floors to drains is quite a natural transition. The
e Drains. ^^^^ ^^^ closely related so far as regards the majority of
the houses, most notably in the byre. Drains have, according to all
accounts, a good deal to answer for. There is no cause, however, if
well constructed at the start, why they should give trouble. But better
by far that there be no drain than a scamped one be palmed off upon
us. There is nothing very deleterious about the drainings of a byre
that are turned out on the surface to seek a lower level on their own
account so long as they have air about them. What effluvium does
escape therefrom dissipates harmlessly into the surrounding atmosphere.

io8 THE MODERN HOMESTEAD.

It is different, however, when the drainings are concentrated in a fauhy
underground channel — one that is neither able to pass the stuff along
readily, nor to hinder them from escaping at the joints before doing
duty as carrier of the thick or solid part. Here the stagnant or slowly-
moving excreta blocked up in the passage gradually decomposes, and in
the absence of a full supply of air the more lowly organised ferments get
the upper hand. These produce more foetid odours than result from the
process of decomposition as it takes place in full face of the atmosphere
with its liberal supply of oxygen. There being few outlets whence
these odours can escape, where they do, they make their presence felt.
Besides these comparatively harmless gases, that issue from an
attenuated cesspool such as we are speaking of, there is a far greater
danger attending an offensi\e drain of this kind, in the probability of its
acting as a breeding-ground for disease-causing microbes. In this
direction lies the risk of defective drains at the homestead.

There is no need, however, because the drain is to be out of sight,
that it should be laid anyhow. iVnd this is, fortunately, being better
acted up to nowadays. Were it to serve any purpose, we could here
launch out in cxtenso on such a fertile subject as defective drain-laying
and what annoyance and much more serious results we have known to
arise from the same. It is one over which a person can easily wax
virtuous and self-righteous. But wherein lies the good ? To bring both
proprietor and builder to realise that drains are an essential department
of a building, which requires as much attention as either walls, roof, or
floors, and one that must be paid for accordingly, will be more beneficial
than harping over the question how this branch of building has been
neglected in recent years.

Both architects and tradesmen, fearing that they might frighten the
prospective builder, were inclined to keep back from him the necessity
of providing a sufficient margin to defray the cost of the drains in a
manner they were well enough aware these underground passages
ought to be constructed. The consequence was that, failing the neces-
sary money being forthcoming, the drains were obliged to be scamped.
The impression that the completion of a building embraced the three
branches above referred to prevailed so widely that, until lately, drains
were thus kept quite in the background. The few professional men
bold enough to face this state of matters were apt to be steered clear
off. But the money that ought to have been spent at the beginning had
eventually to be produced, nearly always with a considerable addition
thereto.

The workmen who laid the drains that would not nowadays be
passed did not do so witli intent to bring harm upon their fellows-
mortals. They were not accustomed to do otherwise. The men who
lent themseh'es to laying a drain devoid of any outlet, or of another
Avhose le\'el rose and fell in accordance with tlie ease the track could be

FLOORS AND DRAINS. 109

excavated, were, of course, on a level with criminals. But those who

joined the pipes in a well enough cut track, may be without a thought

of their being watertight, simply did as they were wanted. If they

were the means of causing future trouble on that account, it was through

no wilful neglect on their part.

But matters are fortunately on a different footing now, and drains are

being constructed on fixed principles. A drain worthy of the name is a

watertight underground channel of regular gradient or gradients. The

making of such means the possession of suitable materials, and the

expenditure of both time and trouble. These conditions imply money,

so that nowadays drains rank as an important item in building. We

are not content now with a neatly pointed joint round the top and sides

of the junctions of the pipes, while the undersides, which are out of sight

and not easily got at, are left unfinished. To make sure that all is right

we allow no pipes to be covered over until the whole length of the

drain, or sections thereof, have been thoroughly tested and otherwise

inspected. We are not speaking, be it remembered, of field drains.

_ Two complete and distinct sets of drains are required at

Two Sets of , , ^ , ^, , ^ ,

Drains required the Ironiestead. i here must be one to carry away the

at the Home- rain-water from the roofs and courtyards, and another to
stead. . . . .

lead away the liquid matter and swillings from the

various buildings occupied by live stock.

It is common to provide an ordinary field-drain tile or
Pipes and pip^ ^^"^ the rain-water, but in our opinion both drains

Method of should be laid with socket or spigot and faucet glazed

fireclay pipes. Fig. 90 shows what we mean. The
wide-mouthed part a is the socket, or faucet, and the opposite end of
the pipe h is the spigot. The
spigot of one pipe is inserted into
the faucet of another. There
is sufficient room between the
two to admit of a packing of
cement being inserted. But pre-
vious to the insertion of the cement packing, a round or two of ropeyarn
is forced home with a caulking iron. The ropeyarn is intended to prevent
the soft cement mortar gaining admittance to the pipe. And further, it
serves to keep the centre of one pipe in line with the centre of the other,
and so leave an equal space all round between spigot and faucet. The
cement mortar, composed of, say, one-half of cement and one of sand, is
then pressed in all round below as well as above, and the joint neatly
pointed and left to harden against the time of testing, and so on with
each pipe until all are laid. The faucet ends of the pipes are kept up the
hill, which necessitates their being laid from the low end upwards. This
arrangement is obviously of less importance in the case of a thoroughly
jointed pipe than with one laid in the happy-go-lucky manner referred

Fig. 90.

THE MODERN HOMESTEAD.

Fig. 91.

to above. In tlie first, li(]uicl matter has no choice of outlet ; it must
emerge at the one provided for it. In the other, when pressed, it finds
reUef at the several joints. But pressed or not, it is easy to see that

when flowing towards the faucet end
of the pipe instead of away from it,
the tendency is for the liquid to
spread out there and to escape more
readily than it could when being
delivered into the mouth of the
faucet from the spigot of another pipe.
The impetus given to the liquid in its
narrower channel helps to tide it over
the critical junction. But when the
liquid is coming the other way its flow
is hindered by the ends of the spigot
and other obstructions due to defective jointing, and it is led aside, to
escape by the widening- out part of the pipe represented by the faucet.

The rain-water drain should be led away clear of the
Water^Drains homestead entirely. There is not half the puddle and
mess about a steading that is completed in this way in
comparison with another whereat the rainfall is left to its own resources
to find a way downwards. The best arrangement is to lead the rain-
water conductors directly into Hart traps, or some other contrivance of
the same description, taking care to have these in positions likely to be
out of the way of carts. The drain need not of necessity be close against
the wall. Connections have to be made, at any rate, between traps of
the kind referred to and the drain, and
these require room for themselves. Figs. 91
and 92 represent one of these Hart traps.
The end of the conductor, it will be noticed,
is continued beneath the level of the grating.
This prevents any water being spilt on the
surface, whether by wind or on account of
obstruction at the grating. The trap cuts
off connection with the drain proper, and
what is of more importance in this assistance,
it arrests sand and other matters that might
interfere with the efficiency of the main
channel. It can be cleaned out at any
time. When the grating is removed the trap is easily accessible to the
hand. An arrangement of this sort is ship-shape, is easily kept in order,
and is not costly. This trap is also made in one piece, but when in two
it is more adaptable to wayward conductors. Figs. 93 and 94 represent
traps of a similar description.

A sufficiency of inlets is required to absorb the water from the court-

*RAIN PIPE
•^ GALVANIZED
IRONJSRATING

Fig. 92.

FLOORS AND DRAINS.

GALVANIZED
J^IRON GRATING

Fig. 93.

Fig. 94.

yards. These need to be big in order to swallow with ease the results
of heavy downpours, and to be strong
enough to bear up carts and heavy imple-
ments. The gully traps and gratings
that are used in streets are the best for
the purpose. Fig. 95 shows what we
mean. The trap is of fireclay, is thirty
inches deep, eighteen inches in diameter,
with the sides a proportionate thickness.
It gives room for a large quantity of
sand, stones, &c., before its outlet can
be interfered with. The heavy iron
grating (Fig. 96) which covers it is
capable of resisting very rough usage. With enough of these distributed
about the steading there is little fear of flooding
taking place even at the times of violent
thunderstorms. It is too true that as a rule it
requires occasions of the latter kind to tell us
when the traps want cleaning out. But it is
impossible, as already we have so often hinted,
to make things about the homestead quite auto-
matic. The occupier must be left to do a little
hiniself in this way. Many would prefer to have no gullies, but to let the
drain swallow all and take its chance. It seems
as though they would rather have one final
cleaning up when the drain had become packed
full than be bothered with the periodical attention
to traps. It is wonderful, however, how long-
suffering in this way drains are. And when the
worst has come to the worst, the landlord or his
agent may in the end have to father the business.
A six-inch drain may be large enough to cope
with the requirements of the homestead in this
respect. But all depends on circumstances.
A nine-inch pipe, and e\en a twelve-inch one
may on occasion have to be laid. Nothing
under six inches should ever be had recourse to.
Four-inch connections between the various traps and gullies and the

parent drain are ample when there
is no very severe call upon the
drain. Where, however, the de-
mand on the gully is apt to be
greater, a six-inch connection is
requisite. A four-inch connection
Fig. 95. serves at any time for the Hart trap.

Fig. 95.

112

THE MODERN HOMESTEAD.

Fig. 97.

It may liappen that circumstances necessitate tlie storage at the
homestead of all the available rain-water. Only that obtainable directly
from the roofs is permissible of use. No one would think of storing
what had first fallen upon the ground. Of this method of obtaining
water we"shall have more to say under the head of water supply. But
where it becomes a necessity in laying our drains,
we have to separate the roof water from the
surface-water, that which has collected on the
surface of the ground. The various Hart traps at
that rate, instead of being connected to the main
drains, lead into branches that converge towards
and feed into a large underground watertight tank.
They have no connection with the drainage
system proper other than the overflow of the tank
they supply is led into some part of it.
The different branches of the drain ought so far as possible to be cut
in straight lines. Whenever the line diverges an
inspection eye should be fixed at the angle. This
simple contrivance, arranged as in Figs. 97 and gS
by carrying a branch of the drain upwards at right
angles to its course, enables us to tell with little
trouble what is going on in the main. It need not
be carried up the whole length to the surface. It
may be stopped three or four inches beneath. The
mouth can then be securely covered with a flag,
with gravel or earth above to bring it to uniformity
with the surrounding surface. Or the place can
be marked by a " toby," as a cast-iron cover such
as we see set over an underground tap or valve is
called. With inspection places such as these at
our command, it is an easy matter to locate an
obstruction should such at any time occur at any
part of the drain. It is well worth while, indeed, to have two or three

such as Fig. 99 displays inserted
here and there on the straight
sections of the drain.

These precautions to provide
for inspection are even more
necessary in respect of the drain
Pj(j „ that has to carry off" from the

buildings the liquid excreta of
the different animals. It is advisable, indeed, when dealing with
them to have manholes instead of simple expection eyes built in at
the angles of divergence in the course of the drain. These can easily
be so constructed that while offering no resistance to the discharsje of

Fig.

FLOORS AND DRAINS.

113

matter through the drain, they afford us a ready means not only of
inspecting the drain, but also of clearing out obstructions in any section
between two manholes. The several sections being straight, it is an
easy matter at any time by placing a light at one end and holding a
mirror at the other to obtain a view of the interior from end to end of
that part of the drain.

These manholes require to be constructed either of brick and cement
mortar or of concrete. Three feet long by two feet or even eighteen
inches in width affords a very convenient size for a man to get down
into and to move about in. The foundation or base of the manhole
is of concrete, and a channel w^orked in this continues the drain and
leads it off in the direction it requires to go in the next section. There
need not necessarily be many of these about the homestead. But all
depends of course upon the natural features of the site of the steading,
and the arrangement of the buildings composing the same. Seeing that
access to the manhole is not often wanted, it, like the inspection eyes
referred to above, may be finished off before reaching the surface. A
good thick flag is needed for service as manhole cover, which mav be
blinded as before with gravel or soil. Some mark, however, ought to
indicate its position. These matters are quickly forgotten at the farm
as elsewhere. Not exactly forgotten, perhaps, but changes are con-
stantly taking place, and the few who knew the whereabouts of these
arrangements pass away without handing on the information. A
distinctive mark on the nearest wall is the best method of recording
information of the kind. We see this done in towns with regard to
indicating the location of hydrants and valves of various sorts.

Where a branch joins the main at some other part than the manhole,
it is a good plan to have an inspection eye on the former quite near to
the junction, as in Fig. 98. This reveals to us the condition of the drain
close up to its junction with the main, and the main we already have
the means of inspecting thoroughl_y.

There must be no drains led into any of the buildings.
Drains^.^^^^ Surface gutters must do the work of affording an easy
way out for the different kinds of liquid matter. These
we shall refer to more fully when we enter into detail with the different
buildings they bear relation to. Outside the building gullies must be
pro\ ided to receive w^hat issues therefrom. For the byre we know of
nothing better than those we have already described. Some persons
may consider them too large for the purpose. It is not uncommon to see
a much larger pit of unknown shape — covered with an old door, perhaps —
doing duty. Oftener we see a small, roughly put together brick gully,
capable of holding but a small quantity of what it is there to retain, were it
able to do so, either minus a grating or with one utterly unsuitable. In
one of the kind we have been recommending we have a strong receptacle
that can hold a considerable quantity of matter, guarded by a strong

M.H. I

114 '^^^^ MODERN HOMESTEAD.

grating easily removable when the gully has to be cleaned out. At those
places where the gully has little chance of being cleared until it has
become so charged with solids that it refuses to take in more semi-liquid
it is advisable, if the drain will admit of it, to dispense altogether with the
gully and leave the whole stuff to find its way as best it can to the outlet.
In short direct lengths it may safely be left out. But where the drain has
far to go, or has to pass through a manhole, the gully is indispensable.

So little fluid emerges from the stable that there is scarcely enough
at times to keep the gully trap efficient. On that account care should be
taken that some surface-water finds its way into the gully connected
with the stable. Not very much, however, else w^e shall bring about
over dilution of the liquid manure. Hardly any escapes from the horse
loose-box. It seems all to become absorbed by the litter. There is not
much use therefore in carrying a branch to these places.

The pig-house — that is to say, the dairy-farm pig-house — is a fertile
source of supply to the liquid-manure tank. The gully trap might
almost with safety be dispensed with here, although to make matters
sure it is better to be present. Whey and butter-milk are so liberally
dealt out to the pigs that a constant dribbling goes on. The non-
absorbent floor forces the speedy exit of the liquid drainwards.

The size of pipes to be selected for this department of the homestead
drains, as with the other one, depends of course on the configuration of the
ground on which the buildings are erected and the distance to be covered.
A six-inch pipe all through will be ample in the majority of cases. In
others it may be needful to enlarge the main, as it draws to a finish, to
say a nine-inch pipe. The proper terminus of the drain is a good-sized
watertight liquid-manure tank — the " aidle " tank of the Scottish
West Country farmer.

It is practicable occasionally to lead the liquid-manure
of a Sewage drain directly into the manure pit. But even where this

Drain to be can successfully be accomplished it is, we consider, doubt-
either in the r 1 l- i • ■ 1 rr i r l 1 1

Dungstead or ^^^ policy to act on that prmciple. It the tarm be devoted

in a Liquid- to dairying, the contents of the dungstead will be sappy
Manure Tank. / /, ,,,.., '^^ ,• • ,

enough without the addition thereto or more liquid matter.

It may answer on a farm where cattle-keeping is the leading industry,

and straw is plentiful. Much of the latter, almost unpolluted, finds its

way to the midden at a farm of that sort. In these instances the addition

of liquid manure to the contents of the dungstead, w^hen it can be

accomplished in a satisfactory manner, may be an advantage. It is

difficult, however, to accomplish this satisfactorily. The drain, to begin

with, must have its outlet above the high-water mark, so to speak, of

the midden, in order that it may be always free. It is not sufficient

afterwards to leave matters altogether to the course of events. If

arrangements be not made for distributing the liquid in a sort of uniform

manner over the dungheap, it will simply form a pool near to the exit

FLOORS AND DRAINS.

j"r^ /7.V/://.V//7/'/'/-^/7y // .

of the drain. If the whole heap is therefore to receive somewhat equal
benefit from the effluent, something must be contrived whereby it can be
run to different parts as wished. There is not much trouble implied in the
performance of this, one w'ould think. A movable wood or iron runnel
serves w^ell enough to distribute the stuff over the length and breadth of
the midden ; but then, wdiere labour has to be economised, it is these odd
jobs that are constantly being left over till a more convenient season.

The better plan is the one we started with — to construct
Manure^Taiik ^ tank. The best position for this is somewhere in the
neighbourhood of the dungstead. Situated there, it is
convenient for the stuff being occasionally pumped up and distributed
over the dry midden. The latter has a better chance of profiting from
the liquid when applied to it in this way than in the manner just referred
to. Adjoining the midden it answers, too, as a catch-basin for the over-
flow therefrom, should there be any such. Such there is likely to
be at times from the dairy-farm dungstead, especially if it has no
roof, which it rarely has.

The proper place for the
tank is, we consider, along-
side the outer wall of the
dungstead, as ticked in on
the respective Plans. We
have it long and narrow,
as in Fig. loo, which gives
a section thereof. The
narrower it is the more
easily and securely can it be covered over. Its depth and length must be
governed by the circumstances that apply to it — the depth more in accord-
ance with the nature of the material to be excavated than with the amount
of stuff available ; the length, on the other hand, entirely by the latter con-
dition. To get full benefit from the tank it would require, as hinted above,
to be so constructed as to act the part of overflow^ receiver to the dungpit ;
therefore its surface would have to be fixed in accordance with the overflow
point of the pit. Built at the same time as the dungstead walls, it would be
part and parcel with the same, and one wall would be mutual to the two.

The bottom would be of concrete, and the outer and end walls of
brick and cement, floated afterwards on the inside with cement. The
mutual wall would be of the same material as the remainder of the
dungstead boundaries. The cover would be of strong flags as depicted
on the section. The flags, in turn, would have a covering of soil or
gravel. There would be little use for an overflow exit, but some means
of telling how much stuff was in the tank at any time would be required.
In connection with the tank there would be fixed up a chain pump by
means of which the contents thereof could be pumped on to the midden
or into a barrel or tank on wheels for removal direct to the fields.

I 2

CHAPTER VI.

DooKS, Windows, and Ventilators.

^, -- Thi; doorway is nearly always bordered with wood.

The Door ^ ^ -^ . -' -'

Styles and That up the sides forms the styles, and the top piece
^'"^^*' the lintel. In brick partitions the styles and lintels of

doorways are fastened together and placed in posit. on previous to the
erection of the brickwork. The bricks are then fitted closely to the
framework as the building proceeds. The door lintel is not strong
enough in itself to support the superincumbent bricks. To make
matters secure here the bricks must either be arched over the door-
way or a sufficiently strong lintel must be built in to bridge over the
opening. In this way the w^eight of the building above the doorway is
prevented from bearing upon the door lintel, and the latter is left free
to perform its own duties. These are simply to help in keeping the
styles in their places, and together with them to afford a close-fitting
frame above and at the sides for the door. At the bottom the door is
bordered by the steps and the floor.

In outer doorways, as, indeed, with those generally tliat lead through
stone Avails, the styles and lintels are inserted after completion of the
buildings. In forming these openings wood lintels serve for those in
the inner walls. They serve also for the inner portions of the tops of
doorways in the outer walls. But we have already dealt with these
points under the head of " Walls."

The outer face of the top of the ordinary doorway in side wall or
gable is almost always of stone, so that the attacks of weather may be
withstood. Stone is too brittle to act as lintel over a wide doorway.
Five feet is about as wide an opening as it is safe to bridge over in this
way with stone. As we remarked when treating of walls, once the
building has set together — once the lime has hardened and bound the
several stones as one in its embrace — the burden of supporting the
building above it has been withdrawn from the lintel, and it can be
dispensed with. Were it not then wanted as a neat and strong border
or finish to the ragged edge of the rubble work, it could safely, so far as
danger of the wall collapsing is concerned, be taken out. But, then,
this binding of the walls is only slowly brought about, and meantime
the stones have to be held together.

DOORS, WINDOWS, AXD VENTILATORS. 117

_ It is of narrow opening:s we are speakinff. When it comes

The Arch . . . , . ^ . ,

stronger than ^^ those trom nine to twelve teet or so wide, matters are

the Lintel for diflerent, and we are straying beyond the bounds of safetv.

the Doorway. . ....

1 o spring an arch over an opening ot this natm-e is, as
regards strength, the correct method to adopt, but this is not in every
case practicable. Generally there is not height to spare, for the arch
takes up a good deal of headroom. It can best be got in either at the
end or the side of a building that is open to the roof. But it is not
suitable to ever}- one of these, even. In fact, the cart-shed is about the
only building to which the arched doon\ay or opening can be applied.
It would be as applicable to the root-store or manure-shed. These.
howe\ er, unlike the cart-shed, require to be supplemented with doors,
and doors are both awkward to fit to arched openings and not easily
kept in repair when there. At first thought one would be inclined to
recommend arched doorways as the proper thing for the bams, but
that is the worst kind of opening that can be selected for a passage to
admit carts laden with either sheaves or straw. If the cart is not kept
directly in the centre of the ojjening, the stuff is unceremoniously brushed
off. E.vtra height prevents this, but it leads to other annoyances related
to the matter of unmanageable doors and suchlike.

The upper floors, where existent, entirely rule the height we can go
in the forming of arched doorways into the ground flat of two-storeyed
buildings. And so, of course, does the height of side wall in the single-
storeyed ones. In the gables of the latter we can get what room we
want. Assuming that the side wail is nine feet in height, there is very
little naargin here for the construction therein of a suitable arched
opening. We could not have much more than six feet of headroom
where the arch sprang from at each side. That would never answer,
except, as we have said, in the case of a shed that is meant for the
protection of the farm carts from weather.

Our use of the arch in the erection of the homestead being limited to

the cart-shed, and even then not being entirely suitable, we are obliged

to fall back on the lintel. This method of bridging the openings, if

neither so strong nor so elegant, gives us at any rate the full advantage

of the doonvay. The same height from side to side, it allows the

square-topped load of sheaves, straw, or hay to pass out and in

unscathed. Stone, we have satisfied ourselves, while being strong

enough to bridge the usual single-door openings, so to speak, is too

brittle to do the same by the wider ones.

'ru Tw J Wood is the usual material had recourse to for the kind
The Wood . ...

Beam as of lintel we are discussing. But it is a trying position tor

Lmtel. wood to act as an outer lintel exposed to sun and rain

and other severe conditions due to weather. If the best of stufl be

obtained to begin with, it may last an indefinite time, as we see

exemplified in the old lath-and-timber houses of the Early English

ii8

THE MODERN HOMESTEAD.

1 — r

1 J

1 r

style of architecture still to be met with here and there in different

parts of England. But such material is hardly to be got nowadays ;

at least, it is never looked for. A red or a pitch-pine beam is as far as

the builder is asked to go in searcla of. Either of these, if well seasoned

to start with and duly kept painted thereafter, will be there during many

changes of occupancy ; but these are conditions uncertain of fulfilment.

^ , In these days, when either iron or steel beams are easily

The Iron , • , , , j i • , • , • •

Girder as obtamable, we would advise their use m the position

Lintel. referred to in preference to beams of Avood. There is

no fear of dry rot, neither of fungus, nor of weevil, where they come,

and sun and rain have but small effect upon them, if kept painted.

They need not, however, be exposed to the latter

influences. It is not at all impracticable to keep

them in from the face of the wall in such a way that

they can be faced with stone, and so be kept com-

pletelv immune from weather influences. We

show in Fig. loi how this can be done without

much trouble. The outer girder is so shaped that it

holds the stone facing in position by affording it a

ledge to rest upon, and sufficient depth at back to

enable it to be packed in mortar. The inner

girders may be of any shape considered best.

Wood may, of course, be used for inner lintels,

but our preference is for iron wherever practicable in this connection.

As a rule, the large doors are too hea\y to be hung by

means of hinges in the ordinary way. The common plan

is to fix them up in two halves with iron straps stretching

well o^■er the door and having at the heels or bases eyes

that fit over supports which are either firmly batted with lead into the

rybats of the doorway or are fastened to the styles as in Fig. 102.

This method obliges us to keep the door almost flush with the face of

the wall if we want it hung so that it will open out and fold back against

the side of the building. No other method of opening the high doors is,

in fact, satisfactory at the steading. It would never do to have the doors

of any of the places made to open inwards. Neither would it answer

to have them standing out at right angles to the walls when opened

up to the full. If not constructed so as to be capable of folding back

flush with the outer walls when required they are constantly in the

way, and sure to come to grief when carting is taking place in

connection with the house.

The best plan of vA\ with regard to hanging the doors at

the homestead is that in accordance with which they slide

backwards and forwards suspended from wheels that run

on a rod or flange attached to the wall. Doors fitted up in this way are

easier both on themsehes and on the walls than others are wlien hung

Fig. ioi.

Fitting up
the Doors :
The Hinged
large Door.

The Door
on Wheels.

DOORS, WINDOWS, AND VENTILATORS.

119

from the sides. Unlike the latter, they are never the sport of wind that
one minute blows them open and the next slams them back. What with
banging against the walls on one side and on the checks against which
they shut on the other, they ha\e more at times to withstand than they
are fitted to resist. The door that is hung froni the top escapes all these

Hr^-^^Bi::^:!^

ii i/ 1

Mi''

■

1 ^'^\ 1 ,1' '•

- .

^ . " ."J,

S.,,,r-i >

' 1 ■ ■ ■''' '*■' 1

— ^ :;''":!!:! ':

', 'M^'i'T

1111:':^'

- -— 'M"\'^^

i * * •

. - .

— m\%

Fig. 102.

ordeals. It is proof against the wind, because it never can be banged

about. It can be pushed aside wholly or in part, just as w^e wish the

size of the opening for the time to be, and it will remain so in spite of

wind as long as we choose. It is the more expensive method of the two

to start with, but it is much the cheaper in the long run, as w^ell as by

far the most convenient at all times.

Reverting to the smaller doors, those up to four feet or

SmaUer^Doors ^° wide, that are hung in the ordinary way to the accom-
paniment of styles and lintel, these latter are not complete

without the stops or checks indicated on Figs. 103 and 104. These

stops a, as their

name indicates,

are there to afford

something for the

door to shut

against. Were

they wanting, the

door, if one that

opened inwards,

would project

beyond the build-
ing because

nothing was there

to keep it back. Fig. 103.

1
—

— 1 — 1

. . . c . •- •

1_J~

I —

■

I i

I20

THE MODERN HOMESTEAD.

The hinges would, to a certain extent, but their attachments would be too
weak to hold the door in check. The leverage of the door would put too
strong a pressure upon them. The ordinary size of lintel and styles,
b and c in the figures, for a single door is five inches broad by six inches

Fig. 104.

thick. The styles are nailed to plugs of wood, driven into the sides
of the doorway. The Scottish tradesman speaks of these plugs
as " dooks." In place of driving in these plugs, which is at no
time a commendable practice, blocks of wood are occasionally built in
the wall for the purpose. In brickwork pieces of wood of the same
dimensions as a brick, termed " belgates," are built in as the work
proceeds. These are all right for inside work, but for an outer doorway
they are not suitable. It is common to see these bricks of wood at the
sides of an outer door rotting away, and the styles quite loose. It is
not so convenient, however, to build wood
blocks into the sides of the doorway when this
is built of stone, and in the generality of cases
the plug has to be called into requisition.

Half an inch is a sufficient thickness for the
stops. Their width is governed by the thickness
of the door. If the door is flush with the edge
of the style, the full breadth of the style minus the
thickness of the door will be taken up by the
stop. The stop, it is evident, is fixed upon the
sides of the opening, contrary to the direction
in which the door opens.

A usual kind of hinge is the one represented
in fig. 105. It is known as the batt-and-band,
or T hinge. The band, which is not shown to its
full extent in the fig., stretches well across the door as we see in Figs.
102 and 104, helping thereby to distribute the strains pretty uniformly.
Occasionally, however, stronger made articles, but of the same type as
in Fig. 106, known as the hook-and-band hinge, are set to do service.

Fig.

DOORS, WINDOWS, AND VENTILATORS.

121

©I

Fig. io6.

The hook is attached in \arious ways, as the Figs, from 107 to 109

shoAV. These indicate attachment to wood, but when styles and hntel

are dispensed with, the hooks are attached
directly to the rybats if these are present,
or to the scuntion stones, if these are
placed suitably for the purpose — being run
in with lead. This, indeed, is the rule
rather than the exception with regard to
byres and stables. The doors of the
stores, granaries, and the inner ones
relating to the barn, are always of neces-
sity mounted on styles. A closer fit is
required at these places than serves at the
houses occupied by animals. The latches,

or "snecks" for fastening the doors are of all manners of type, one being

peculiar to one district, and some

other to a neighbouring one. Fig.

no, the Norfolk latch, is a usual

pattern for the style-fitted door.

Simpler than any
Mounting: the r ^u
Sliding Door. ^^ ^hese IS, as we

have said before,

the door that is hung from wheels.

In Fig. Ill we represent the

elevation of a door hung in this

manner, showing the position of the wheels and the rail upon which

these move from one side to the other.
This system of door-hanging is equally
applicable to small doors as to large ones.
The rail and the wheels at the top, two
guides and a stop in the ground at the
foot, a handle at the outside edge to slide
the door open with, and a catband or
catch inside to fasten it therewith, are all
the fittings a door of this description
a section showing the nature of the rail that
The latter have, it

Fig.

Fig. 108.

needs. Fig. 112 is

supports the wheels.

will be seen, an uninterrupted run from

end to end of the rail. The sort of girder

or plate of which the rail is a part juts out

from the wall far enough to protect the

top of the door from rain. The whole

affair, it is needless to say, requires to

be firmly attached to the face of the wall. Where a beam is doing

service as lintel, this is not such a difficult matter. The lintel does not

109.

THE MODERN HOMESTEAD.

stretch tlie whole lengtli of the plate, otherwise tlie latter would be
firnilv fastened to it by means of large "wood" screws. So far as it
goes, however, the wood lintel can in this way be taken
advantage of. Beyond its stretch it is needful in order
to make sure of a proper grip that bolts be passed through
the wall and be screwed up tight inside, as in Fig. 113.
Where no wood is present bolts of this kind alone can be
used. Not many are needed, however, seeing they are
so effective. To save after boring of the walls it is
sometimes practicable to leave provision for the bolt-
lioles at the time of building. This can be done
either by building in stones already bored or that
can be easily done afterwards, or as the work pro-
ceeds building in rods that can be substituted by the
proper article when the time comes for fixing up the
plate. The iron lintels need, of course, to be bored
before they are put up. The suggested stone facings
of these would necessarily be bored at the time of their application.
Three wheels may be required if the door be a very large one. As a

Fig. hi.

rule two serve the purpose. The big door may be in two, the'respective
hahes opening away from each other.

,, . ^ Doors hung from above can safely be made of a heavier

Various Types 1 • • , , .

of Doors. description than those intended to be hmged at the sides.

The latter method of attaching doors gives the hinges so

much to do in bearing them up that, without loss of efficiency, the

DOORS, WINDOWS, AND VENTILATORS. 123

lighter they can be made the better. There is no danger on this head,
however, when the doors run on wheels. The ordinary hinged
door is constructed according to Figs.
114 and 115, the first portraying the
front and the second the back thereof. It
simply consists of flooring-boards held
together by being nailed to the cross-
bars at the back. The boards are usually
3 inches broad by i^ inch thick. The
bars, either three or four in number,
oftener three, however, are from 6 to 9
inches broad and i inch thick. The ex-
posed edges are chamfered more or less.
The face boards are nailed firmly to
these cross-bars and the door is com-
pleted. For the sliding doors a frame
has first to be made, and on the face of
this boards as before are fixed. The
larger we make the door the greater care we have
to take that it will be stiff" and unyielding. To
accomplish this struts have to be introduced here
and there. From Figs. 116 to 119 we give some
examples of how these doors are put together. It
is us'jal to finish the framed door with a thin beaded
edging as shown in the figures.

It is not a good plan, in so far as the welfare

of the big door is concerned, to make a smaller

one therein. So many more joints are caused

and these are so manv extra attacking points for weather to

1-IG. 113.

there b}

seize upon — that the
door is certain to suffer
on that account.

The rails
The Sliding- r 1,

Door Rails ^"^ ^^^^^^^

doors

can be cast in a single
piece. Those for larger
ones can be cast in
sections. This makes
them easier to handle,
and if carefully put up,
by no means interfere
with their efficiency.
The ends of the rails,
it will be noticed from

Fig. 114.

Fig. 115.

124

THE MODERN HOMESTEAD.

Fig. Ill, are turned clown at riglit angles for two or three inches.
The object of this, it is easy to understand, is to clieck the further

rnr

'^^

^"'

!=^

rrnn

i ,

1 ■

)

f
7

=^^^=^I=:=-=^E

'Ml

iV,

j 1

;

i
11

;

[■

ili^^

:^iii ^^~?

Fic. ii(>.

l"iG. ii;

progress of the door when it has cleared the opening. Care has to

be taken that the door when erected hangs plumb, otherwise it will either

grate on the wall or, on the other hand, tend to keep aw'ay from it and rub

hard on the guides at the

foot. If plumb, however, it

will run easy without rubbing

on the wall behind or the

guides in front, and still be

near enough to the building

to afford proper protection to

the opening. To further the

latter aim, the chief end of

the door, the door has to be

made wide enough to overlap

the doorway at least three

inches on both sides.

A strip of iron

Other Fittings about an inch
of the Sliding- , , ,

Door. I'road and a

(juarter of an

inch thick, rounded off at

edges, may with advantage Fio. nS.

be screwed to the face of the

door about an incli or two from the bottom. It will iielp considerably to

resist the wear and tear of the door due to any friction betweeh it and

DOORS, WINDOWS, AND VENTILATORS.

125

the guides. The latter may be either of wood or stone. One of these
at each side of the door and another near to the point which the off side
of the door reaches when pushed aside to its full limit, as on Figs, ii i
and 113, are sufficient for ordinary sized doors. Large ones may need
more, for these are the sole checks against their being pushed out
at the bottom. But these are details that have to be faced as each
special occasion arises.

It is a good plan when screwing home the plate to insert some plaster,
lime, or cement and sand between it and the wall. This makes a

Fig. 119.

watertight joint, preventing water getting in between the two and down
upon the door-head.

It is no uncommon occurrence to find sliding doors fitted up with the
wheels undermost. The arrangement may be cheaper, but it is in no
way so satisfactory as the previous one. The rail must be small if it
is not to constitute a constant nuisance ; but being on the ground level,
even a thinnish rod gathers rubbish at each side. Obstructions to the
free run of the door are in this way frequently happening, and occasion-
ally the door gets derailed, when it may come down with a flop, at the
risk of harm to itself, and it may be to man and beast as well. And any-
thing in the form of a rail laid on the threshold of a house is not conducive
to its being thoroughly swept out.

126

THE MODERN HOMESTEAD.

The door of the loose-box is generally divided into two
^f°thi^Doo°n^ parts horizontally, as in Fig. 120. The upper half is the

smaller, so that the animal which is confined in the house
may have the liberty of projecting its head, but nothing more, from the
interior, to breathe fresh air and see what is going on outside. When
small doors were commoner in connection with the barn these also used
to be in two parts horizontally, about equal in this instance. The
arrangement originated, perhaps, as much through a desire for light as
on any other ground. In the days when much hard labour had to be
performed — thrashing, winnowing, and so on — in the barn, light was
admitted by way of the half-open door, or, more strictly speaking, the

-'=- — 1

1 1 r -iirniMiff.iMnrww/i'fiiuoT

F=^- — ^-■\— ^^^^il

1' ^ ^

1 / '

1 \

%
r

- _

i- -- ----. -- _ - ti

r, ,1 ii ,r .1. 1 1 1 '1 '1 n^i'.-

7—

{ '
1

\
1

i
If

f "

1^ ^

^' _ __

r^'- • 1

—

1*'
1'

—

■

—

Fig. 120.

door with one half open. Light came in, as we said, by the open upper
half, while the closed bottom half kept hens and prowling pigs from
gaining admittance.

Where hinged doors are fitted to stables and byres they are often in
halves, vertically this time, however, as in Fig. 121. This is done to
prevent the door getting too far into the inside of the building. Or,
towards the same end, they are hinged up the middle as well as at one
side, as in Fig. 122, so that they may chng close to the wall. Both
contrivances are clumsy, however. Neither is so handy or so safe as
the sliding door. The latter cannot, like the one or the other referred to,
or like the ordinary hinged door, ever be blown to just as an animal is
emerging and thus induce a catastrophe. There is risk even, with any

DOORS, WINDOWS, AND VENTILATORS. 127

Fig. 121.

one of these, of a horse's harness pulHng the door shut as the animal is

passing through the opening,

with disastrous results. Noth-
ing of this kind can take place

with the sliding door. No

animal will seek to pass through

until the doorway is sufficiently

clear to allow its head and neck, at any rate, to get through. It may stick

there, without suffering
much harm, if it cannot
get any further. The pro-
bability would be, how-
ever, that its struggles

Fir,. 122.

Handles,
Latches,
Locks, and
Bolts.

would widen the openuig.
Whatever took place, it
is evident that the door would not tend to lessen the opening ; it would
slide away from where the pressure was, and although
most of the force would be exerted outwards, some of
it would be sure to bear sideways.

Care has to be taken that the handles,
latches, and locks or bolts which we
apply to the doors of stables, loose-
boxes, and byres are not of such con-
struction that harness can catch on to them, or that
they can harm animals knocking up against them.
A combined latch and handle, such as the one repre-
sented by Fig. 123, would afford no point to which
harness could attach itself, or that could tear or other-
wise hurt an animal. The handle folds to either side
and then becomes almost flush with the door, and
there is no projecting thumb-piece as in the ordinary
Norfolk latch we have depicted in Fig. no. The
thumb-piece is, it will be seen, substituted by a
push-in knob. There could be no disparagement of this latch for the
byre door ; and for the stable, if a safer thing were wanted, we
have it either in Fig. 124, or in Fig. 125. A plain handle, such

as in Fig. 126 or in
Fig. 127, is all that is
needed for the outside
of the sliding door.
If anything of the kind
is required on the in-
side of the door, it must
be sunk in flush with
Fig. 124 Fig. 125. the surface.

Fig. 123.

128

THE MODERN HOMESTEAD.

Windows.

Coming to windows, we have not much to say on that
head. We liave already expressed our preference for roof

Hirlits, and driven our reasons therefor. It

is hardly practicable, however, to have

all the lights at the homestead distributed

amongst the slates. There are bound to be

places at nearly every group of farm build-
ings in which side windows are a necessity.

The ordinary I^'ew realise what an impor-

Sash Window tant work of art on the part

rather at a Dis- ... ,

advantage at of a jomer a common sash

the Homestead. -window really is. In the
South casement windows are the rule.
These are hinged at one side, and open
and close in the same manner as an hinged

Fig.

127.

Fig. 128 a.

Elevation ot part of interior (the inside

lining having been removed).

^ Fig. 126.

door. North of the Border, how^ever,
the sash window prevails. It is in two
halves, which slide up and down in
side grooves. One half — the upper
one — slides in front of the other
parallel to it, separated by the bead a,
in Fig. 128, which is slipped into the
side of the window frame or case.
This bead or slip is termed the
"parting bead"; it does not pass
through the case, neither is it nailed
to it, but is fitted neatly into a square
groove sunk a quarter of an inch or
so into the side of the window frame.
It can be easily taken out, and when
it is removed there is then nothing
behind to hold the outer or upper sash
in its place.

If we turn, however, to the different
divisions of the figure, and take
note of the window as a whole, we
can better understand the several
parts that constitute a sash window,
and the relation they bear to one
another. The sill h is the thickest
part of the case; the sides c are
mortised thereto. At right angles
to these side pieces are, so to
speak, the wings (the facings) d
and c. When the window is m

DOORS, WINDOWS, AND VENTILATORS.

129

position these three pieces-the side and the Avings-to-ether with

the wall bordering the window

Fig. 128 b.
Vertical section.

opening, form a sort of well or
recess, in which the weights that
balance the sashes move freely up
and down. The ropes connect-
ing the weights play over the
pulleys / that are mserted into
the side of the case. The outer
wing projects half an inch or so
over the side of the case next to
the window. The upper sash plays
between this projecting part g and
the bead a already referred to. The
under sash in turn plays between
the latter and a movable batten, h,
which is screwed to the inner edo-e
of the window case. This batten
is the key of the situation ; without
Its removal neither of the sashes
can be unshipped. It holds all in
place. In spla}'ed openings the
inner wings of the case are broader
than the outer ones, thus giving it
the wedge shape necessary to fit
closely into the space. The upper
surface of the sill is bevelled out,
the better to free itself of rain, the
under edge of the inner sash being
bevelled in to fit close to the sill.
The two sashes fit together Avhen
each is home. The top part of the
frame of the lower sash is so much
thicker or broader than its other
three sides, as well as the four
sides of the frame of the upper
sash by the thickness of the inter-
A-ening slip bead a, that when both
sashes are closed the parts that
come into side contact are close
against each other. These two
parts, the top bar of the under
sash, and the bottom bar of the

upper sash, are together called the "meeting-rail." Were the frame of
the lower sash of the same thickness throughout, there would be a
vacant space equal to the thickness of the slip bead a between the

M.H.

THE MODERN HOMESTEAD.

sashes where they adjoined, but the enlargement of the sash referred to
obviates this. Sometimes this extra breadtli is divided between the
two. The sashes are divided up into panes by means of wooden
divisions termed " astragals," moulded and so checked as to retain the
glass on their inner sides, and to hold putty in front.

Hardly any other portion of a building so soon betrays the fact that
unseasoned wood has been used in its construction as do the windows
thereof. To begin with, the wood, if unseasoned, swells when it is
affected by damp. All wood, of course, does ; but unseasoned wood is
more readily affected by this cause. Before the house is occupied, then,
tlie windows, if made of improperly seasoned wood, have begun to swell.
Comparatively dry when they left the joiner's shop, their after subjection

Ou^sitie

^^^f i^ ^ '/'^■v

to the damp emanating from the newly-plastered walls causes the w^ood
to expand, and the sashes get jammed. By-and-by a shaving is taken
ofif the sides of these with the plane. As time goes on the building
becomes dry, a condition which eventually tells upon the windows. The
sashes, in common with the otlier parts, shrink, and in the end become
too loose. Most of us know the annoyance, due to this, of rattling
as well as draughty windows. Had the wood been well seasoned to
start with, it would not have expanded so much as to interfere with the
sliding of the sashes. No planing would then have been called for, and
planing in the instance above assumed was simply paving the way for
an aggravated state of matters. When shrinkage set in the misfit would
be all the worse on account of what wood had been stripped from the
sides. Moreover, with the properly prepared wood, when the circum-
stances conducive to shrinking set in, the window would be comparatively
little affected. At any rate, it is open to easy conception that a piece of
work sucli as a window w^ith so many separate pieces taking part in its

DOORS, WINDOWS, AND VENTILATORS.

131

constitution must give very much better results when made out of
sound, well-seasoned timber than with raw stuff, if we may use such
an expression.

The window serves further to bring home the ground for our already
often repeated objection to the making use of appliances or parts of the
buildings at the homestead that have to depend on the frequent applica-
tion of paint for protection against weather, ^^'ith its many corners
and joints into which rain is ever ready to seek an entrance, once these
begin to open, decay is certain ere long to make its appearance. Paint
alone, frequently applied, can keep the window in a sound condition.

i ' 1 *'l 1

Fig. 129.

Fig. 130.

Even the putty, as we mentioned when speaking of roof-lights, cracks
and falls away when paint is denied the window. But painting at the
homestead is by no means a frequent proceeding. The less, therefore,
there is left about the place to paint the better for all concerned.

Once the windows have room to rattle, there is little
chance of a remedy. With casement windows there is
little or no rattling. They are easier of construction,
But then, they are not so convenient. They require too
much room in opening and shutting. And, further, unless made to
open outwards, which is not always desirable, it is difficult to keep
them watertight if they are exposed to pelting rains. It seems a
little strange, all the same, that the simple, easily constructed casement
window should so seldom in Scotland be substituted for the more
complicated sash window.

K 2

Casement
Windows.

and cheaper.

132

THE MODERN HOMESTEAD.

Other sorts
of Windows
in use at the
Homestead.

l)Ut the windows such as we have been referrin<,f to come more
under tlie head of Houses and Cottages than of the buildings proper
to the liomestead. Still, as already
remarked, there are places here that
require one or more windows of the kind
just discussed. There may be a bothy
about the homestead that requires a
window of either sort ; or the harness-
room may be so situated that such a
window is the proper one under the cir-
cumstances. But if unsuitable in the
cottage the sash window is less so here.

As regards the stable and
other buildings, the windows
of which are not wanted to
be so well finished as are
the two classes above referred to, the kind
of window — half window and half venti-
lator— shown in Fig. 129 is a common one in this connection. The
glazed upper half is fixed ; so, indeed, is the whole frame. But behind
the fixed vertical laths or spars of the bottom half is a similar series of
spars, the frame of which is slideable to the extent that the openings
can be covered in whole or in part or left entirely open, just as one

wishes. A somewhat
similar window is that
in Fig. 130. Instead of
the "hit-and-miss" ar-
rangement of spars cha-
racteristic of the window
in Fig. 129, two doors
or shutters, each hinged
at the side and folding
against a centre upright,
take its place. Neither
of them, however, is a
long liver, and, therefore, not to be recommended.

Iron window-frames seem never to have gained ground
Wiridows^ ^^ ^^^^ homestead — perhaps on account of their being
thought very easy of fracture and difficult in replace-
ment. But they can be no more liable to fracture than wood frames,
and we seldom see accidents of this kind happen to windows. As to
replacement, articles of this class are only made by the leading
founders. They are in a position to store their patterns, and at
any time to produce articles listed in their catalogues which they
do not happen to have in stock.

' 1

Fig.

132.

DOORS, WINDOWS, AND VENTILATORS.

133

Iron side windows are, perhaps, more suitable for brick than for stone
buildings. Still, there is nothing to hinder their satisfactory application

to stone-built houses. In

fact, a very good job, both
neat and strong, can be
made of them with brick
facings in a rubble wall.
Sills, rybats, and lintels
can be dispensed with
A\- hen brie k s properly
moulded for such openings
are available. If the sill
bricks be laid on a bed of
cement, and be closely
jointed and pointed with
the same, a perfectly
watertight ledge is the
result, and this is about
all we look for in the free-
stone sill. If we dispense
with the lintel, we are

rs /~\ r>i /^

j
i

1
U W VJ v^

Fig.

133-

obliged to build the bricks in the form of an arch. Most of the
catalogued homestead iron windows are of the arched pattern. In
Figs. 131, 132, 133, and 134 we give examples of these. A window of
arch shape at the farm may seem incongruous to some : but it is onlv
a matter of prejudice. A " flat "
arch is handsomer than a square-
topped opening. The brick facing
is checked all round the sides and
top two or three inches back from
the face. The inner casement,
faced with cement, fits close into
this, where it can be firmly wedged.
Tiie sill dips outward from a slight
check for the base of the window
to rest against ; at sides, and top
the clieck is in front of the frame ;
at the bottom it is behind it. The inner part of the opening can be
finished off with cement plaster. Completed thus, we have a window
which, if a little out of the ordinary run where North Country notions
are concerned, is both cheap and strong, and, better than all, one capable
of holding out in the midst of neglect. \'erv little paint serves the turn
of the iron frame. \'ery good windows of this kind are represented by
Figs. 134 and 135. They are to be had square-topped as well as arched.
They are fixed against the interior of the wall. Either is suitable for any

134

THE MODERN HOMESTEAD.

stable, loose-box, or bvre, where side light is considered preferable to
that deri\ed h\ way of the roof. The former is not \ery large, but on
that account all the more of them

can be used. It opens nearly to
its whole area under a simple and
easily controllable arrangement.
Fig. 136 shows a larger window
of the same description suitable for
the buildings that require windows
more after the ordinary type. Tlie
opening part is regulated on the same
easy principle as obtains with the
other two. Besides these there are,
of course, endless varieties of others.
The commonest sort

^hfin^T^^nn ^^ ^^of ventiktors,
1 he common '

kinds at the where such form a

Homestead. p^^^ ^^ ^^^^^^ |^^-j^_

ings, is the lou\re-board lantern
affair, Figs. 137 and 138, something like a small dog-kennel, placed on
the ridge, and the arrangement as in Figs. 139 and 140, whereby a part
or parts of the roof are tilted up a little above the general level and

I open spaces made in

1 r^ PI ' I I \ p' this way. Neither is very

I |v'^^^^^^^^^J||^g|jS^MSS^^^^T' satisfactory. The hrst,

being usually of wood,
very soon gets out of
repair. Wood is placed
in a trying position in this
instance. Exposed on
the outside to all ex-
tremes of weather, and
the inside parts subjected
to warm, moist air, it has
more to withstand than
it can really be expected
to bear for any length of
__ _ time. Even with frequent

J — r- — r~^ ^ "'J-^'T^ ^T 'i^dministrations of paint,

' ) i _____J. — -"X""^ J J'—x^' a thing of this description

1-ic;. ijo. cannot be expected to last

long. It is but a makeshift, in fact. Occasionally we come across them
made of iron, but so small as to be rather ineffective. But iron, also, is
in too trying a position when taken in this connection. Paint would
keep it riglit, no doubt, but that is not always forthcoming.

DOORS, WINDOWS, AND VENTILATORS.

^35

The slit in the roof, when properly made, is free of these objections,
but it is not so efifective as a ventilator. The lantern sits clear of the

interior of the

building alto-
gether, and
foul air that
reaches it is at
once swept out
between the
spars at one
side or the
other. It is
bound, there-
F"^- ^37- fore, to be a

better means of withdrawing or extracting the spent air of the building,
or of allowing it an unobstructed
exit, than the slit, which is some
distance below the apex of the roof.
The air may get locked, as it were,
under the latter arrangement. It
cannot, however, with the lantern.
As it fills into this it is virtually
mixing directly with the outside air.
A fault common to both, however,
is that birds are free to come and go
through the openings. This is no
fault, indeed, when the welcome
swallow is the one that takes advan-
tage of these passages. But when
the sparrow is the intruder he
becomes a nuisance, especially if he
elect to set up house in the ventilator itself. He and his partner are
slovenly builders, and having to make up for want of neatness with in-
creased quantity of material,
they soon interfere with the
usefulness of the opening.

But, worse than the
sparrow, both kinds of
ventilators admit drifting
snow. They are easily con-
structed so as to forbid the
entrance of rain, but wind-
dri\en snow sails in with ease. This may not often happen ; but a
building that is liable to allow such a state of matters is imperfect as
a shelter for stalled animals.

G. 13<j.

uc.

THE MODERN HOMESTEAD.

The double-
horned Zinc
Ventilator.

Better than these, in our opinion, is the double-horned
zinc ventilator shown in Fig. 141. It is simplicity
itself. Nothing about it can go out of order. No
painting is needed where it comes, zinc being capable of resisting
the attacks of weather. Rain cannot gain admittance through its
openings ; neither can birds, nor
snow. It may, however, be
hardly so effective as the louvred
lantern. It stands, like the latter,
above the level of the air within ;
but, on the other hand, unlike the
lantern, there is the downward
curve in it that must to some
extent retard the free e.xit of the ' ^"^°'

inner air. But when it is fitted with the diaphragm, or division,
the position of which is indicated by the dotted line on the figure,
this obstruction or retardation of the outward passage of air is con-
siderably obviated. The circulation of air through the ventilator goes on
freer with the passage divided into two than it does with the opening
left as one. The air is apt to be locked in the undivided ventilator,
similar to what takes place with it in the slit-in-the-roof arrangement.

A roof fitted up with one or two of these ventilators insures a good
circulation of air within the building it covers. More are, of course,

required in a building that con-
tains live stock than in one set
apart for other purposes. One or
two Avill do in barn or granary,
while thrice as many may be
needed in a byre of the same
length. And fewer will keep the
stable comparatively well aired
than can do the same wath regard
to the byre, the horses, though
larger, being less closely packed
together. They are not expensive to begin with, and their maintenance
is a small item. They are easily fixed, and not liable to be thrust out
of position. As the figure shows, they have lead flanges, or aprons of
lead attached. These are made to suit the pitch of the roof, and to
cover a sufficient area all round the opening into which the shaft fits to
make sure that no rain can gain entrance. The shaft passes into the
interior of the building far enough to clear the roofing boards. There
is little use in inserting it further. The shorter distance it dips into
the interior the better will it be able to draw off the spent and heated
air that seeks the inner apex of the roof. Air in that quarter that might
be slow of exit through a single opening is, as remarked above, set

MI.

DOORS, WINDOWS, AND VENTILATORS.

137

agoing more briskly if the opening be divided into two. The cold air
may be struggling to get in from above while the warm air within is
at the same time pressing up from beneath, both, in this way, being
hindered the free use of the passage. But when the passage is divided
each gets a road to itself, and the exchange of the air from without for
that from within can go on without let or hindrance. The division in
the ventilator acts like mounted police or cavalrymen when slowly
patrolling the centre of a street crowded with people going in opposite
directions, to make sure of keeping each current in its own channel.
Were the crowd left to its own devices, a block would ensue, and little
progress could be made ; but so long as those desirous of proceeding in
one direction were kept to one side of the street, the other being left for
those bent on going the contrary way, all confusion would be avoided.

The roof ventilator is generally supposed to be constructed for the
purpose of allowing foul air to escape, openings whereby fresh air can
get in being made lower down in the building. This holds good with
the louvre board lantern. x\nd so it does with the slit in the roof
referred to, although in lesser degree. No doubt the same can be said
of the horned ventilator. But the construction of the latter, which
necessitates a curve downwards at each exit, retards, as we have said,
the outward current. The heated air seeks to rise, and its progress out-
wards is sure to be hindered where it has to dip downwards a little
before it can escape from the building. Besides, however, acting almost
solely as a discharger of used-up air, as happens with the lantern and the
slit, our double-chambered affair serves likewise as an inlet for fresh air.
Cold air gains admission by one opening, helping, as we explained above,
to make easier the exit of the heated and already breathed air within.

Acting thus, as it were, in two capacities, a ventilator of this kind is
admirably adapted for the granary and similar places. In these, while
there is little call for
a constant replacement
of the air contained
therein, all the same,
there is need for a cer-
tain amount of circu-
lation of air within the
building. Where air
is stagnant as well as
damp, which it is bound
at times to be in an
unfired building in our
climate, moulds and

fungi thrive, .and most - — 7-

of its contents grow - ^ — - —

mouldy and musty Fig. 143.

I3S

THE MODERN HOMESTEAD.

preparatory to decay. But if the air is kept nioxing, there is even at the
dampest times of the year not half the harrti Hkely to arise from these
promoters of decay. A \entilator such as we are speaking of answers
well, therefore, to keep the atmosphere of the buildings referred to in
wholesome condition. One or two in the roof of each keeps the air
within the building in close touch with the atmosphere itself, at the
same time keeping at bay the rain and snow that are every now and
again emanating from the latter. The' advantages of this in connection
with houses the doors and windows of which are seldom open are
surely too obvious to require further dwelling upon.

It is none the less suitable either as a circulator of air within buildings
of which horses or cattle are the occupiers. If it does admit air with

one hand as well as withdraw it
with the other, matters are thus
made all the more satisfactory, for
as a rule the fresh-air inlets are
in no wise satisfactory.

There are, of course, many
patented ridge ventilators in the
market. INIost of them, however,
are rather too complicated, or, at
any rate, too expensive, for the
simple requirements of the home-
stead. Those on the system of
Boyle's patent might suit the
steading. They are simple, having
no movable parts likely to go out
of order, and being made of zinc,
need little attention of the kind
Their underlving principle is that of
automatically maintaining a constant movement up the shaft of com-
munication between the building and the outer air. But they are more
expensive than those we ha\-e been reconimending, and we question
if they are a bit more effective. Moreover, thev are not so simple in
construction, therefore not so easily kept in repair. In fact, those we
advocate approach the primitive type — the more primiti\e the better,
howe^•er, so long as they perform their part.

A really good ridge ventilator is the one patented by
Venfilator ^'^^" ^^^^S' Langbank, Port Glasgow. It has all the

ad\antages of the louvre lantern without possessing any
of its defects. Mr. Craig has been so long connected with landed estate
work that he knows well what is required of an article of the kind that
has to do duty at the homestead. His ventilator is constructed either
of cast-iron or of wood covered with zinc. At top it opens clear to the
outer air without let or hindrance. In Figs. 143 and 144 we represent

Fig. 144.
we ha\"e so frequentlv hinted at.

DOORS, WINDOWS, AND VENTILATORS.

139

this \entilator. It shows a diaphragm dividing the shaft proper into
two, as we have adopted in the case of the zinc one above referred to.
Any rain that gains admittance at the top as well as what snow gets in
there is caught in the tray or trough a. The latter leads to each end of
the ventilator, and passing through it a little, delivers its moisture on the
roof. The top is covered wath wire netting in order to prevent sparrows
from making a convenience of the thing. It is both serviceable and
effective, and can be easily fitted up. Although made of iron as well as
wood, there is nothing to hinder the former being galvanised if wished.
Its effectiveness in affording a free communication between the air with-
out and that within enables one to do the work of two or three of the
kind we haA'e spoken of as favoured by ourselves. They are rather too

Fresh Air
Inlets.

Fig. 145. Fig. 146.

effective for being put to service in barn and granary, but for byre or
stable they are eminently suitable.

Figs. 145 and 146 represent a somewhat similar type of

Ve^tn"^ t \entilator to Mr. Craig's. It is patented and manufactured

by Mr. Taylor, Nether Leask, Ellon, N.B. We cannot

speak of it from experience, but froni the appearance it seems to follow

the lines Ave advocate.

Fresh air inlets are generally made somewhere towards
the le\el of the wallhead. They would be more effective,
perhaps, were they constructed nearer the foot than the
head of the wall. But there are difficulties in the way at the bottom of
the wall that do not apply at the top, and on that account the upper
part of the wall is chosen in which to make the necessary openings.
The nature of these differ with the district. In some places a series of
vertical slits widening inwards like the loopholes of old do duty. At
others mere round holes are formed in the wall. At many places there
is nothing of the kind, fresh air being left to find a way in for itself

It is becoming common now to build glazed fireclay pipes in about
the top of the wall. These make neat and unimpeded channels for the
passage of air. When they are built in with a slant upwards, rain can-
not beat through, and, in addition, the inward passing air is given a

I40 THE MODERN HOMESTEAD.

current upwards and impelled well into the building and made to mix
more uniformly with that already in the place. The probabilities are
that the incoming air, when introduced in this manner, will have a
better effect than it would if allowed to blow directly in through the
ordinarily constructed inlet. If it blew in, it might indeed clear the
animals that were near to the opening, but draughts would be induced
rather close to the floor level. These, if they did not interfere directly
with the comfort of the animals, might in the end come to hurt the health
of many of them.

Danger to the health of the animals is one of the strongest arguments
against admitting outside air at the level of the floor or thereabouts. It
is almost impossible to admit air by way of openings in the floor itself
without causing draughts that will afifect the animals. And if this
difficulty be o\ercome, we are met with the other of how to keep these
inlets in the floor clear of obstruction. How is it possible to sweep the
floors without allowing matter to get through the gratings ? In the act
of carrying straw about or pushing it along the floor in front of one,
both straw and chaff will find their way down the grating. Little better
is it to have openings at the foot of the wall so much above the floor as
to avoid risk of impediment to the free action of the passage. These,
unless on a principle rather complicated for the somewhat primitive
practices of the majority of the occupiers of our homesteads, could not
be placed at the heads of the animals. On the other hand, if placed in
the wall behind the animals, the latter are certain to feel the effects of
the draughts that must arise therefrom.

If we cannot make sure of these side openings when placed in the
floor itself or in its vicmity, we may as well at once place them near
the wallhead where they are out of all risk of obstruction and are quite
effecti\e enough for ordinary purposes. They may as well be there, at
any rate, as at the head of hollow pilasters against the wall which act
as conductors up the side thereof from openings leading to the exterior
at the base of the wall. These only take up room, and are for no other
use than by way of ornament, which, it is needless to say, is at a
discount in the byre and stable of the economically conducted estate,
whatever the farm may be.

\\"ith air inlets in the shape of pipes at the wallhead, and
The Fresh Air r- r r

Inlets ought ^^^^ ^^^^ ridge ventilators we have been saying so much
to be con- about, or those of Craig's, we have at our command a

trollable. . , , , ^ . . . , . ...

sunple method of mamtammg a change ot air witliin our

byres and stables. It is rather a crude system, perhaps ; still, it is one

that answers the end in \ iew. It is fairly automatic, a condition that

is, as we have so often repeated, greatly in favour of any arrangement

that applies to affairs at the homestead. But unless the wallhead

openings are under the control of the attendants upon the animals, or

of the overseer or the farmer liimself, our arrangement is little better

DOORS, WINDOWS, AND VENTILATORS. 141

than what constitutes the ordinary state of matters — some holes in the
side-walls, with may be openings in the roof and may be not.

With some simple and ready means of regulating the size of the wall-
head openings at our disposal, we can suit these to the conditions that
rule either outside or in. When it blows a gale we can close entirely
those at the weather side of the house and leave open those on the
lee side as much as we think necessary. On a still, frosty night when
there is no movement in the atmosphere, and the air within the building
can hardly be stirred, we can open the inlets to their fullest extent and
so induce some slight draught through the place. And if the occupier
of the farm be far-seeing, he will, on occasions of this kind, have the
opening roof lights in such a condition that he can press them into
service as effective aids towards the circulation of air within the building.

\\'ithout the means of controlling the action of the side openings the
farmer is in the position of having his building so constructed that its
ventilating properties are a fixed quantity. Its \entilating capabilities
are devoid of adaptability, and yet they have to face the weather that
is embraced between the fierce, cold blasts of winter and the occasional
mild breezes of spring. All that can be done to mitigate the piercing
winds of January and March is to stuff the most exposed openings with
straw, and there it remains blocking up the passage when it may be
wanted in a time of calm and a high barometer. Before the offensiveness
of the air of the house has made itself manifest to the men or women who
look after the animals, these, which have been breathing it continually,
must surely have felt oppressed.

In Fig. 147 we represent a cheap, simple, and easily
Method of workable arrangement for regulating the admission of
accomplishing air by the wallhead openings. It is simply a round
piece of wood, or, to speak more definitely, a circular
board, a on the figure, large enough to cover the inner mouth of the
opening. To this is fastened the long leg or lever b. The whole
moves on the pin r, which acts as a fulcrum as well as the point of
attachment. The lever is w'orked by means of the string d, hanging
from its free end. When this end is pulled down, the circular board
clears the opening. When it is released, the board, being heavier than
the handle, tends downwards, obstructing the opening. It is arrested
by the stud e w^hen the opening is completely covered over, and there it
remains so long as it is not interfered with. To open completely or in part,
all that one has to do is to pull the string attached to the lever until the
desired size of opening has been attained, and secure it to a nail or cleat
put in the wall for that purpose. To shut up the hole entirely nothing
more is needed but to free the string and let the end of the lever go up.

This is surely simple enough viewed either as matter of cost or as a
saver of trouble. No one with such an arrangement at hand can say,
what is so often true in this respect, that he is powerless to adapt the

142

THE MODERN HOMESTEAD.

provision for ventilation that liis buildings are supplied with to the
almost daily changes that take place in our climate. It affords him a
ready, as well as fairly effective, means of coping with changes of weather
without ha\ing recourse to complicated arrangements for ventilation,
which in nine cases out of ten at the very least would if fitted up never
be appreciated, not to speak of their receixing due attention.

If to be under control in the way we have suggested, we can safely
make the wallhead openings of a much larger size, or make more of
them than usually happens. We are then in a position to aerate the
house fully during spells of anti-cyclonic weather, as we are to close
our port-holes in times of storm and stress. But how often do we see
the side-walls of stable and byre, instead of being left free to ser\e their
original purpose, turned to account as the back wall of some lean-to
building. It is folly to speak of holding control over the air of the

Fig. 147.

building when this is the case. Each building of the kind should stand

free from others. It matters not about the gables, but the side- walls

should be free of all encumbrances in the shape of sheds of any kind.

The wall alone, if we are to be free in our simple way to supply fresh

air to the animals within, must be between them and the outer air. More

complicated methods can, no doubt, be adopted irrespective of the position

of the buildings, but simple methods alone are justifiable at the homestead.

We have made no mention of applying control to the

Howt e Ridge ^^^„q ventilators. That, we consider, is hardly necessary.
Ventilator may '^ ' ' •' -'

be controlled if Assuming, for instance, that all the side openings were
considere closed, what air did enter the building by its roof openings

necessary. ' . f rs

would in all probability under these circumstances be no

more than was needed. If this be correct (it is at least reasonable) we

can, by regulating the side openings, indirectly control those on the roof.

But should direct control of these be desired, its accomplishment need

be no very difficult matter. Zinc flaps could be hinged to the internal

openings of the ventilator shafts, and by means of a pulley and a cord

each flap would be under separate control. But all this means so much

likely to go out of order, which is a condition of affairs strictly to be

guarded against at the homestead. We see the principle applied to the

ventilator in Fig. 146, but in this case at the top instead of the bottom.

CHAPTER Vll.

SaXITATIOX at the HONfKSTEAD.

Her]-;, as obtains somewhat similarly elsewhere, sanita-
What Sanita- . . , ^ , , ^ , i- " • i i ,

tation at the ^^^"^ '^ the tworold art or so ciealmg with the members of

Homestead the microscopic world, that they are kept from workine

implies. , i r . i • i i- i ■, , ^

harm on the larmer s stock, either live or dead, and of

insuring that the air within the various buildings is so far as possible
kept in a wholesome condition. The former comes under the head of
Cleansing, and the latter under that of Ventilation. Cleansing is carried
out by means of drains for the conveyance of liquid matters, and with
broom and shovel the solids — the dung and the soiled litter — are
removed ; and to ventilation we have to look for the maintenance of a
due standard of atmosphere.

Out in the open, and well aw^ay from populous places, as nearly all
homesteads are, there is little need to bother about such matters, one
would naturally think. With sun, rain, and wind, each free to make its
influence fully felt about the place, why trouble about sanitation ?
They are the best sanitarians ; and their services are free. But the
animals must be kept warm when in winter quarters, and rain and wind
must be excluded to make sure of this. As we hinted towards the end
of last chapter the wind is usually so thoroughly excluded from the
farm buildings that a proper exchange of air from without inwards is
rendered all but impossible. Coupled with this we have, when the
drains are defective and cleanliness is not otherwise well observed, a
condition of matters that indicates on the part of both proprietor and
occupier ignorance of the first laws of sanitation. When, for instance,
along with the warm, impure air of an unventilated byre, we have a
large proportion of excreta ever present in the building, and this placed
under the most favourable circumstances for rapid decomposition, the
occupier of the place would seem to be courting disaster upon his animals.
But one can with impunity do in the country what he cannot in this con-
nection do in the town. Isolated in the country, he is removed from the
reach of the more harmful microbes. These are either gregarious them-
selves or like best to be where the big numbers of the animals they most
effect are congregated together. At any rate, they are more virulent
under these conditions. And even into the most insanitary country places
a fresh whiff now and acfain grains admittance and turns the balance.

144 ^"^^ MODERN HOMESTEAD.

Not\vitlistaiKlin,L,f the penalty that is certain to follow any
Classes of Live breach of the law of sanitation, as well as of other sciences,
Stock that !(- jg wonderful how long farm animals when in winter

suffer most , . r • . •• • ^i i- ^ ^

from defective (juarters evade the consequences ot mtnngmg the dictates

Sanitation. ^f sanitarians. Only the cows and the horses, however,

run any great risks on account of improper observance of sanitary laws.

They are kept so long as they are fit for duty, and in consequence have

recurring periods of these adverse circumstances to go through, while

the other classes of stock, such as the pigs and the beef-producing cattle,

are despatched from the homestead before the ordeal has had time to

show its influence upon them.

Of the two classes of stock most liable to suffer from the

are apt t^o be^^ cause we are discussing, the cows feel its effects in the

the greater greater degree. The horses, if half suffocated by night,

u erers. -^ their stuffy stalls, are out nearly all day under the

vault of heaven, breathing the purest of air. But not so the cows.

From October until May not only are they housed by night in their

very often noisome houses, they are there all day as well. Towards the

beginning and the end of that period they are, of course, out of doors

for a good part of the day, according to the state of the weather. In

the dead of winter, however — in December, January, February, and

March — they are little out of doors except for a short run to water and

back. What is more, the}', unlike the horses, must be out of condition

muscularly, or bodily. The horses are kept in good condition because

they are hardly ever completely off duty for longer than one or two

days at a time all the winter through. But the cows have not even

exercise during many consecutive months of the time they are housed.

In summer their exercise is not to say of a very thorough description.

Still, the work of finding and of cropping their daily supply of grass

implies no small amount of muscular effort, which, together with their

walk to and from the steading to be milked, and their endeavours to

keep insects from alighting upon them, is sufficient to keep them in

good tone physically.

, ^ ^ It is during winter that the cows run the risk of the seeds of
How the Seeds °

of Bovine tuberculosis being imbibed into the system. The annual

Disease are recruits to the company are rarelv found to be affected

spread in badly- . . . ."'...

ventilated With the disease previous to their joining the ranks of

Byres. motherhood. They are more in the open air during their

first year or two of existence, and less crowded together. At any rate,

they have more freedom and exercise. And if they are packed closely

at times, it is in company with fellows showing a clean bill of health.

When it comes, however, to their taking place with their elders the

danger begins. There are bound to be one or two cows in the house so

far advanced in the disease as to be centres of its dissemination. And

the conditions under which the animals are housed are such that there

SANITATION AT THE HOMESTEAD. 145

is hardly any chance of their escaping the malady. With little room, as
we have pointed out, in which to move about in — pilloried, in fact, in a
row of others — the animals are under constant bodily constraint. Never
free to stretch body or limb, as they are at liberty to do whenever
inclined at pasture, but kept to one position almost, the additions to the
herd must at first feel the effects of their close confinement and
restrained position. Neither able to lick nor to scratch themselves as
they are wont when untied, and not even a-ble to lie down exactly when
they want, are, one might conjecture, conditions by themselves enough
to place the youngsters at the mercy of those germs that take advantage
of lowered vitality, even of a temporary nature, to gain hold of the
constitution.

But to conditions of this kind the junior cows seem soon to grow
accustomed, their apprenticeship of former years having prepared them
to a certain extent to face these with impunity. They can stand all
that without serious harm apparently. It is to the noisome state of the
atmosphere they are subjected to that one has to turn his attention as
the most dangerous medium of inducing the contagion of this form of
lung disease. Hot, moist, and laden with emanations from lungs and
skin, together with the odours from excretal matter as the air of the
average cow-house is, little wonder many of the young animals soon
fall victims to tuberculosis. Having to breathe an atmosphere of this
sort almost continuously for months at a time is certain to lower their
vitality. Such an atmosphere is of the most favourable nature for the
transmission of the disease germs from affected to healthy animals.
Once these enter the system of an animal placed under the conditions
we are describing, but hitherto immune, there is small chance of their
being thrown off. They are not so diflficult to resist, we are told, when
the animal is in the field most of its time. The infecting germ may
then be destroyed in the system before it has had time to implant itself
where it can increase and work harm.

Much depends, as we have hinted, upon the condition of health of
the animal at the time the disease germs gain admission to its organ-
isation. If strong and vigorous at the time, the ill-sown seed falls on
stony ground and has no effect. But if out of sorts or down in condition
at the time the germs come its way, the seed falls on deep ground and
returns a bountiful crop. Both states, as is generally believed, are
further ruled somewhat by the general constitution of the animal. One
may be so constituted that it is more susceptible to the disease — it
affords a more congenial soil to the germs — than others of its kind
happen to be.

No matter, however, the degree of susceptibility inherent in the
respective animals that are annually introduced into the cow-house,
every one of them is placed in circumstances which almost inevitably
brings it into the clutches of tuberculosis. The affected animals

M.H. L

146 THE MODERN HOMESTEAD.

spread around them abundance of the germs. Tliey cough them up
and scatter them about in the saHva with which they beslabber
whatever comes in their way. A turnip may be lying on the road as
she goes to water. This she makes a snatch at, biting a piece off
perhaps. Whatever she leaves behind of that she has mouthed in this
way is now sufficient to infect the next healthy animal that gets hold of
the remainder of the root. The same is, of course, liable to happen in
the pasture-fields. Grass at* places may be rendered dangerous in like
manner. And it is common to see one cow, when the needs of her
stomach have been attended to, helping another in toilet matters. On
occasions of exchange of courtesies of this nature there is every likeli-
hood of the disease germs being passed from one to the other. But at
grazing time the animals are, as we have said, under conditions less
liable to render them susceptible to the seeds of the disease.

We do not often, however, see such a good understanding existing
between seniors and juniors as to admit of so much familiarity. The
matrons are bullies of the first water, and show no mercy to those who
shrink from them. But the juniors have ample opportunity of meeting
the disease half way without actual contact of this kind with their elders.
It may so happen that the young cow may, on admission to the ranks
in the byre, be stalled with an aged one that has contracted the disease.
If this be the case, there is little chance of her escaping the malady.
Although the animals are tied up in such a way that - they cannot assail
■each other with hoof or horn, still, the individuals of each pair can reach
with tongue to the edge of each other's trough. And portions of the
food belonging to one may be pushed aside within reach of the other,
which she will avail herself of before consuming her own share. Her
neighbour on the other side of the travis is so near that she may cough
almost in her face. On both sides, therefore, is the hitherto unaffected
young cow liable to be subjected to contagion when introduced to the
amenities of cow life in winter-time.

Even if her neighbour on either side should be clear of the disease,
the stance taken up by the young one may previously have been
occupied by one that was victim to it, which, under ordinary circum-
stances, is about as bad a state of affairs as being alongside diseased
animals. The usual kind of byre with the wall in front of the cows,
rough and full of holes and crevices — at any rate, not pointed and
smoothed as it might be — affords lurking-places in which the disease
germs find safe harbourage. Deposited inadvertently by the diseased
animal, and becoming dislodged thereafter in front of the newcomer, the
latter gets opportunity of absorbing them into her system ; or they
may issue from crevices in the travis or from about the troughs.

In these and in many other ways have the young cows to run the
gauntlet of the disease on admission to the byre. The atmosphere of
the place is, as we have been endeavouring to make plain, conducive to

SANITATION AT THE HOMESTEAD. 147

the dissemination of the seed thereof, and also is favourable to the pre-
paration of the soil for its reception. Warm, moist, and charged with
organic matter, it favours the spread of the germs of the disease, while,
on the other hand, it lowers the tone of the animals that have to inhale
it, and makes them more receptive of the germs, and a better field in
which they may flourish. With good air to breathe the animals would
not so easily fall under the bane of tuberculosis ; neither would the germs
thereof be so freely spread about in a purer medium than usually prevails
in our cow-houses. We should endea\-our to bring the air of these
places near to a par with what we find in the open.

Our atmosphere is a vast gaseous sea of unknown depth,

P""" , enveloping: the land and water that constitute our sflobe.

Atmosphere. . .

Unlike the fishes, which are free to ascend and descend in

their sea, we are obliged to confine ourselves to the bottom of ours,

which is its densest part. But although the fishes elect the waters for

their habitat and we the dry land, both of us exist alone by reason of

making use of the oxygen of the atmosphere — they obtaining it from

solution in the water, and we direct from the air itself. If one of either

of these representatives of animated nature be deprived of oxygen, it

ceases to exist.

Oxygen, as nearly all of us know, but are nothing the worse for being

reminded, is the great instigator and supporter of life. It is due to the

endless pertinacity of this chemical element that life goes on ; but for

it no manner of vital force could ever exert itself.

The atmosphere consists almost entirely of a mixture of

J^ ... the two gases nitrogen and oxygen, four parts bv bulk-

Composition. " *=> . .

of the former to one of the latter. Nitrogen is as loath to
combine with other elements or combinations of these as oxygen is ever
ready to combine with them separately, or to have a finger in any pie
that may be concocted of these. Thus we have one of the most active
of the elements mixed with one of the most inert. No other, however,
could serve so well to dilute the virulent oxygen. Ordinary combustion
is but the oxidation of the substances being consumed. New combina-
tions are formed, some of them gases and others solids. The gases
escape in the atmosphere, the solids remain behind as ash. Much the
same occurs in our individual organisms. Heat and force are de\'eloped
therein by oxidation of the bodily tissues. The waste due to this
constant combustion is made good by the food we consume. Our food
is the fuel that keeps the lire going. We inhale diluted oxygen into
our lungs ; this is passed on to the different parts of the body by the
blood as it circulates through the system, and it keeps the fire going as
it proceeds. The waste products of the fire find their way into the
return stream of the blood, eventually to be cast forth as excreta, or
given off as gaseous emanations from various parts. And not only is
this marvellous machine self-stoking— both as regards replenishing with

L 2

148 THE MODERN HOMESTEAD.

fuel and the removal of the resulting ashes — but it automatically

regulates the degree of heat to be attained, and guards against any

marked variance therein.

Pure oxygen would be too strong for life as at present

ordered on our globe. Were we to be exposed to it we

would probably be burned to cinders in a very brief time. IMost of

the elements take fire spontaneously in an atmosphere of undiluted

oxygen. Iron filings thrown into it emit an intense light due to

their combustion. A glowing ember inserted into it blazes forth

at once. But Nature has enshrouded it in a thorough wet blanket :

this everlasting busybody is severely effaced by the extremely

negative nitrogen.

Nitrogen, notwithstanding its slowness to move, is a most
Nitrogen. . , , ,.^ . , \ .

miportant element where lite is concerned. It is an

essential element in all the most vital tissues and organs both of plants
and animals ; no cultivated plant can thri\'e unless there be abundance
of it at its disposal in the soil. It does not suffice for them, however,
that it be there in its simple form ; plants can make no use of it in that
way. It must be in combination with other elements before they can
turn it to their own purposes, and even then as one certain compound —
as a nitrate, one of the salts of nitric acid. In its elementary form plants
are all their lives waving in the midst of it, yet unable to avail them-
selves of any. There is air, too, about their roots, and consequently
nitrogen is within reach of these organs as well as of the leaves and
stems. But they also are helpless in regard to laying hold of nitrogen,
although it is by way of their roots solely that plants obtain their needed
supply. If the soil be devoid of nitrates, plants may therefore starve in
the midst of plenty.

Nitrogen is among the most plentiful elements in nature, but nitrates,
as most of us know, are dear. Nitrogen in this form costs the farmer
about sixpence a pound — and all on account of the exclusiveness of
this element. Nitrogen is too coy for oxygen to induce it into partner-
ship. Stronger influences than oxygen can put forth alone are required
to bring about such a consummation. It goes on steadily all the same,
steadily but imperceptibly. Under the influence of electricity the two
are brought together to form the oxides of nitrogen, and then in time,
with the addition of water, to form nitric acid. The latter finds its way
to the soil, to serve as an important plant food.

If the plants are unable to make use of the free nitrogen of the air, we
are less so. We cannot even turn the nitrates to account as suppliers
vl the nitrogen we need to maintain our bodies with. They must first
be built up by the plant to the more elaborate substances Avhich are
embraced under the head of Albuminoid Bodies. The plant stores up
these in the organs that are in future to serve as propagators of the
species to which they belong.

SANITATION AT THE HOMESTEAD. 149

These two, then, the optimist oxygen and the pessimist
sibstances nitrogen, form the great bulk of the atmosphere; but
contained there are important substances present along with these

Atmosphere. ^" ^^^^'^ ^^^' ^^^^ atmosphere is, of course, the great
receiver of all evaporation and emanations that arise from
sea and land, but only those are suffered to remain therein that are
natural to it. Over populous places the atinosphere is bound to become
the recipient of many gases and vapours and more dust particles than
ascend into it from places in the country or away from the haunts of
man. But these, unless of the kind that are characteristic of air, are
soon returned to earth. Oxygen lays hold of any that are susceptible
to its influence : rain carries the bulk of them back to mother earth.
Eventually the air is cleared of them, either on account of the solvent
powers of rain or of the action upon them of oxygen. The latter may
cause those it has any influence over to assume a semi-solid state and
settle out as a sort of precipitate ; or it may render them more soluble.
At any rate, the air soon clears itself of all impurities that reach it in
this way. As the sea maintains its characteristic composition because
it is obliged to stick to the more soluble of the stable substances that
water from mother earth brings to it in solution, somewhat in the same
way but inversely does the atmosphere maintain its standard composition
by a process of rejection. What is not natural to sea-water, what cannot
be held in permanent solution, is precipitated as a solid at the bottom ;
what is unnatural in the composition of the atmosphere is washed there-
from by rain or deposited as dust on the surface of the earth.

Next in importance, from a chemical point of view, to the two gases
above mentioned as contained in the atmosphere are carbon di-oxide,
commonly called carbonic acid, and ammonia, together with the oxides
of nitrogen. There are present, too, the vapour of water as essential to
the economy of life, and such w^ayfarers as microbes and dust particles.
As compared with nitrogen and oxygen, carbon di-oxide is present in small
quantity, from three to six volumes of it to ten thousand of the mixed
gases being the accepted standard. This seems a small proportion rela-
tively, but actually it forms a large quantity. This is the source whence
vegetation derives its enormous supply of carbon. Fully half of the com-
bustible matter of plants consists of this element. Coal is the fossilised
remains of dense \egetation, overwhelmed and buried under sediment
borne along by water ere ever the organic matter therein contained had
time to decompose in a natural manner under the influence of oxygen.
Shut off from the action of oxygen by the accumulating strata of rocks
under which the coal seams now he buried, the carbon stored up by plants
in these remote ages has thus been reserved till the enterprising man
of recent times began to understand its value as a heat and force
giver.

Plants depend, we have said, on the atmosphere for the carbon with

I50 THE MODERN HOMESTEAD.

whicli they build up their tissues. Slowly but steadily they absorb it
from the air that laves their leaves and stems. This they are able to do
under the influence of sunlight. If the rays of the sun are denied them,
this faculty is paralysed. By night it is in abeyance entirely, and instead
of the plant then making use of the carbon di-oxide of the air, it is
giving oft' that substance as the result of changes taking place in its
constitution. Only slightly, however, does this retrogressive progress
go on. Plants, unlike animals, are independent of internal heat, and
using up tissue on their own account is therefore unnecessary as regards
their internal economy.

In the animal system, as we have seen, the internal fire is never
(juenched so long as it holds together. Carbon is the fuel proper to the
machine. We are consumers, not producers, of the commodity, and to
plants we look for the needful supply. We put to waste in this way
what they slowly and laboriously build up. They lay hold of the carbon
di-oxide of the air, assimilating the carbon and letting loose the oxygen.
The carbon they introduce to hydrogen and oxygen, which they derive
from water, and the three unite in varying proportions to form woody
fibre, starch and sugar, and the innumerable compounds allied to them.
The wood warms us externally when we set it on fire ; the starch and
the sugar support the internal combustion of the individual. Heat is
given off whenever chemical union between bodies takes place. In both
cases instanced the result is the same — the carbon, which is so largely
represented in wood, is being oxidised or converted into carbon di-oxide,
and so with the carbon in both starch and sugar. In each instance the
carbon is uniting with oxygen, or vice versa, seeing the general aggressor
is in question, and heat is being evolved. In both cases, too, the
resulting carbon di-oxide is returned to the atmosphere ; in the one
directly from the glowing wood, in the other along Avith the exhalations
from the lungs, and in lesser degree from the skin, the carbon di-oxide
of the burnt tissue entering the blood that is returning to the lungs,
there to be got rid of along with the excess of moisture. In this way is
the balance of carbon di-oxide contained in the atmosphere maintained.
Plants absorb it therefrom and animals in the act of developing heat
and force return it. Every act of combustion, either slow as in imper-
ceptible oxidation, or violent, as in fire, means the return of carbon
di-oxide to the atmosphere. And so does all splitting up of organic
matter — the remains of animals and plants — whether by reason of
ferments or microbes or under the direct influence of oxygen. In their
case, however, the contained available hydrogen is also oxidised, water
this time being formed. So, of course, with the hydrogen in the starch
and sugar already instanced.

It is wonderful how closely the proportion of carbon di-oxide in the
air is observed by Nature. Out in the open it is found almost unvarying.
It is different, of course, with the atmosphere which envelops towns and

SANITATION AT THE HOMESTEAD. 131

cities. There, many men and many fires are giving off much of this
gas. Where the wind gets free play the polluted stuff" is soon wafted
away, to be replaced by air of a normal nature. But for all that,
numerous are the nooks and corners that interrupt the air-currents and
form eddies in which the foul air is at times free to lurk awhile. If this
be so outside of houses, matters must be worse in places enclosed by
walls and roof. There, of course, wind is not so free to replace the air
that may be overladen with carbon di-oxide as it is to sweep the same
out of street or court when it gets a chance. Besides, the building
depends on street or court for its supply of air, which, under the existing
circumstances, may not be altogether fresh.

Ammonia and the oxides of nitrogen as components of the
and the atmosphere are, like carbon di-oxide, of more importance

Oxides of to the vegetable than to the animal kingdom. They

Nitrogen. c ^ ^ r 1 • 1

serve no useiul end so tar as the annual economy is con-
cerned. Indeed, there is so small a quantity of either of them present
in the air as to be imperceptible to our senses except on the rare
occasions mentioned below. It is from these, however, that soil in a
state of nature receives its supply of nitrogen. Rain washes them out
of the air and carries them to the soil. There, under the influence of
oxygen, they are eventually converted into nitric acid, which, with lime
or other base, forms the nitrate that yields nitrogen to the plant. Fixed
nitrogen has, in this and other ways, been accumulating in soil that has
never been disturbed by man. At the start it had no other means of
obtaining nitrogen capable of acting as plant food than what came to it
in the rainfall. Gradually, however, it became the receiver of fixed
nitrogen, resulting from decayed plants that had been borne on its
surface. A little would also be derived from the remains of animal life
that in some way or other found a location therein. As time passed,
when circumstances were suitable, tracts of soil in these ways grew rich
in nitrogen. To all, however, whether spendthrift or saving, came, as
it still comes, the annual supply from the atmosphere. The late.
Sir John Bennet Lawes, of Rothamstead, in his time the great British
authority on such matters, tells us that the soils of England annually
receive from the skies about fifteen pounds of fixed nitrogen to the acre.
Ammonia is a compound of nitrogen and hydrogen, while the oxides
referred to consist of nitrogen and oxygen. Electricity gets credit for
thus bringing the free nitrogen of the air into the latter of these forced
companionships. The great heat of the electric fluid as it passes through
the atmosphere forces the union. The peculiar smell one sometimes
feels after lightning is due, it is said, to the presence of these oxides.
Some ammonia may be formed in this way, too, but the most of it
ascends from the surface of the earth. All decaying organic matter that
has nitrogen as one of its component elements gives off ammonia.
Soil absorbs what of it is set free in its midst, but what is given off from

152 THE MODERN HOMESTEAD.

matter on its surface escapes into the atmosphere. The constantly
recurring evaporation of Avater is also supposed to be responsible for
some of the annnonia of the atmosphere.

The vapour of water — that is, water in its gaseous form —
Moisture. -^ ^j^^ j^^^ ^£ ^j^^ special substances characteristic of the

atmosphere. Although last referred to here, it is one of far-reaching
importance. Water is in this form drawn from the oceans and carried
away on the winds of heaven, to be dropped again by-and-by, and thus
give vegetation a chance of receiving moisture. At sea le\el the weight
of the atmosphere is equivalent to a pressure of 15 lbs. to the square
inch. Were this weight removed, water would be free at once to change
from the fluid to the gaseous state. Applying heat to water, and so
raising its temperature, we bring it to a point at which its internal heat
enables it to cope with the pressure of the air. While maintained at
this temperature, 212° F., it continues to go off as gas until all has
become vaporised. This is known as the " boiling point " of water.
At this stage the vapour escapes violently in little bubbles of gas set
free from the points of application of the heat. But at all stages, from
this one down to its ice-forming stage, water is constantly, although
imperceptibly, being absorbed into the air as vapour.

It cannot be so, however, without first assimilating to itself the
amount of heat necessary to maintain it in the gaseous form. Heat
impels the molecules of matter to assume the active form they reveal
when it is in the gaseous condition. They are comparatively dormant
in the solid, rather sluggish in the fluid, but full of restless energy in the
gas. Both cold and pressure, on the other hand, force the molecules into
a state of quiescence. Such a strong natural tendency has water to
escape into the atmosphere as a gas, that in order to do so it will rob
all surrounding objects possessed of heat of as much of it as they are
capable of yielding. When after a wetting we feel chilly in our damp
clothes, this is due to the water evaporising at the expense of the heat
of our bodies. In the same way are wet and undrained soils kept cold.
When they do become dry it is mostly under the influence of evapora-
tion, which can only be accomplished at a certain outlay of heat. The
necessary heat must either be derived from the soil itself or at the
expense of heat that the soil would be free to apply to its own benefit
Avere there not an undue amount of water contained in it ready to lay
hold thereof. Wet soil can derive little benefit from the genial sun-rays
so long as the surplus water it holds in its embrace claims to be first
served.

The amount of water contained in the air is ever varying. The
warmer the air the more moisture is it capable of absorbing. Air is
said to be saturated when it holds the full amount of the vapour of
water it can absorb. As the temperature of the atmosphere is con-
stantly changing, it follows that there is considerable range in the

SANITATION AT THE HOMESTEAD. 153

atmospheric moisture. It is constantly running up and down the scale
— at one time free to expand without limit, at another squeezed close to
the critical point and on the verge of the fluid state. A current of warm
air encountering or passing through some cold strata has its temperature
lowered, and in consequence its retaining power over vapour is lessened.
All excess of moisture is then obliged to resume the fluid state and fall
earth or seawards. The warm air of the Tropics absorbs an enormous
quantity of w^ater as vapour from the sea. Much of this moisture-laden
air is driven into colder latitudes, where as it begins to lose heat the then
superabundant vapour condenses to form either rain or snow.

In a warm, moist atmosphere we feel languid and oppressed. Exer-
tion becomes difficult because our energy grows dull. The fully charged
air is slow to accept of more moisture, and we can hardly get rid of our
bodily moisture that seeks escape in evaporation. This disturbs the
balance and throws the bodily machine out of gear, giving one organ
the work of some other one in addition to its own. In a badly ventilated
building, whether occupied by men or animals, if filled to its capacity,
the vapour of water is usually present in excess. This alone is not
good. But when we add to it the other drawbacks we previously hinted
at as being characteristic of the byre — the excess of carbon di-oxide, the
gaseous emanations from the animals, the smell of the excreta, and
relative nuisances — matters are bad indeed. They may not directly
cause harm, but together they cannot but tend to the detriment of the
animals that are for long stretches of time subjected to their influence.
If nothing else, they together lay the animal open to become, as we said
above, an easy seed-bed for the germs of disease-causing microbes that
are apt to abound Avhere crowding takes place.

Microscopic These microscopic organisms deserve more than a passing
Organisms notice in this connection. The substances we have just
been describing are inseparable constituents of the atmo-
sphere. Excepting the two fundamentals nitrogen and oxygen, the
proportion they bear to the whole may vary in accordance with circum-
stances. The amount of water, w'e have seen, varies in accordance with
the temperature of the air and that within a considerable range. The
proportion of carbon di-oxide varies perhaps least of all among these
fixed accompaniments of the atmosphere. Ammonia and the oxides
of nitrogen are more largely represented in the atmosphere of tropical
countries than of the temperate and cold parts of the world. Where
the sun has the greater influence, atmospheric disturbances are more
frequent, as well as more violent and decided, and in consequence the
substances referred to are more in evidence. But coming to the more
adventitious constituents of the atmosphere, such as the germs and dust
particles, we find the quantity of these varying considerably. These,
as one would expect, are the most plentiful nearest to w^here cities and
manufactories are situated. Away from mankind and their various

154 T^^ MODERN HOMESTEAD.

works the air is coniiparatively free of them. Nature herself, however,
occasionally acts as a pollution in this respect. Volcanoes emit immense
quantities of gases and dust. It is wonderful how far such dust is
carried on the air. Out in mid-ocean it can be detected by means of
proper apparatus. In the same way as dust particles are spread abroad
in the air, the germs of living microscopic organisms are disseminated
far and near. Nansen tells of the presence of microbes in the pools of
melted snow or ice as near to the North Pole as he was able to attain.
There, if anywhere, we would be inclined to regard the atmosphere as
absolutely pure. But the atmosphere is never stagnant. No bulk of
it can ever be at peace for any length of time ; one portion gets
chilled and therefore reduced in volume and in outward pressure ; the
surrounding air presses in to restore the balance. A stratum next the
warm earth expands under the influence of this heat, and thus becoming
lighter, rises, its place being taken by streams of colder air ready to move
in as it finds room. In ways like these arising from such causes is the
atmosphere being continually stirred up and its contents, whether natural
to itself or accidentally added thereto, pretty well distributed out over the
face of the globe.

x\lthough dust and germs are plentiful in the air at all parts adjoining
the earth, it is not to be inferred that the latter are every one of a viru-
lent or disease-causing order. The germs found free in good air are of
the harmless sort so far as man and animals are concerned. Many
of the everyday processes of life with regard to both plants and animals
are supposed to depend for their proper fulfilment on the organisms of
which these free germs are either the seed or the representatives. In
fact, we are only becoming alive to the all-important, if not vital, part
the microscopic members of the world play in promoting the welfare
of the more visible members of creation. Not a few, as we know too
well, fulfil their own ends at the expense of our lives, each species of
plant and animal having apparently one or more that are specially
adapted to make it a world to themselves regardless of the consequences
to their supporters. But it is the minority (the more specially developed
ones), it would appear, that bring harm in this way to their hosts. The
widespread organisms are common to groups of beings, either plant or
animal, and work for their good rather than their ill. From these we
have nothing to fear.

Those of evil omen, if no less virile in themselves, are fortunately
unable to let loose germs so tenacious of life as are those that drift
about in the atmosphere. Once established in a congenial soil, they
increase at an enormous rate, but the seed is not capable of withstanding
circumstances that act adversely to it. Sunlight and fresh air are both
detrimental to it. Filth, either semi-solid or liquid, and foul air are
good nurseries for propagating these, to us, harmful little foes. Thus it
is that in badly lighted, unventilated, and crowded places we find the

SANITATION AT THE HOMESTEAD. 155

disease-producing micro-organisms thoroughly at home. In house,
stable, or byre, it is all the same. Not only, therefore, as we have seen,
do places of this description lower the vitality of animals for long confined
therein, and thus lay them open to attack by their insidious foes, but
they serve to propagate these foes and to conserve the germs or seed
thereof under circumstances most suitable to the purpose.

The woodwork of the buildings in which the air is suffered to remain
in the condition just referred to is also severely tried thereby. The
heat, together with the excess of moisture, is badly against the keeping
powers of the wood. Matters are worse if it has not been well seasoned
to begin with. Any remains of the sap that have not been got rid of
will, under the circumstances Ave are dealing with, be sure to decompose
and induce disintegration of the woody fibre.

Fresh Air in There are, it will be seen, many interests at the homestead
many ways demanding that some attention be paid to maintaining the
with?n^^he ^^'^ "^^'ithin the several buildings as pure as it is practicable

Farm to accomplish. \Ke could, of course, easily maintain it

ings- about as pure as it is outside by simply leaving enough

of openings for currents to play throughout them ; but then, the animals
have to be kept warm as well as dry. Neither of these conditions could be
attained under such circumstances. In the open air one can stand without
inconvenience a degree of cold that he cannot face when wind is an accom-
paniment of the low temperature. A calm frost, even when intense, is
often pleasant, but a blizzard never. When the air is calm the heat of
our bodies radiates more slowly than it does when wind blows upon us.
In the first instance, we are consequently parting with our heat slowly ;
in the second, it is snatched from us almost before it reaches the
radiating points, and we are "chilled to the marrow" in a brief time.
That is why we house our cattle in winter. The food they would
require to consume in order to replace the heat necessary to maintain
the temperature of life against the vicissitudes of weather we wish
them to devote to the laying on of beef or the production of milk, and
provide them with shelter accordingly. But in doing so, and thereby
subjecting them to restraint and crowding, we cannot avoid subjecting
them to a more or less polluted atmosphere, with all the evils
that follow thereon. Neither man nor animal, as we have been
endeavouring to point out, can breathe the same air repeatedly without
risk to health.

Air that is breathed and rebreathed gradually loses the proper
proportion observed between its respective constituents. Both carbon
di-oxide and moisture gradually increase in quantity, both chiefly
emanating from the lungs of the animals. But they emanate, too,
from the pores of their skins. What proportion of carbonic oxide
in air beyond the natural one an animal can inhale with impunity
has never, so far as we know, been discovered. By itself, the gas

136 THE MODERN HOMESTEAD.

is a deadly poison to the animal constitution. The choke-damp of

mines is none other than carbon di-oxide. Perhaps it would hardly

be possible to so pollute the air of an ordinary building such as we

find about a homestead with this gas emanating from the animals as

to reach the danger point to hfe. Doors and windows are never so

tightly fastened but what some change of air takes place within the

house. But there is slow poisoning as well as the quick process, and

a long course of dilute poison may kill in the end as certainly as a dose

of the concentrated stuff. At any rate, we find it oppressive to breathe

air that has done service frequently. How much more offensive this

becomes when accompanied by animal odours and the gases from

decomposing excretal matters one is not long in discovering should

he happen some bracing day in midwinter, after a turn in the fields,

to enter directly into a byre of the ordinary stamp. In some instances it

is literally appalling to feel the contrast between the two. After a while,

if the case is not extreme, one becomes a little accustomed to it. But

how different an effect must the one — the clear, crisp fresh air — have on

the animal organism in comparison with the other, the one that at first

taste gives an impression of foul suffocation impending over his head !

That the animals do become accustomed to their surroundings and

evidently thrive therein, so far as rapidly becoming fat or yielding

milk amply may be held as thriving, can hardly be denied ; but this

does not imply that such is taking place under healthy influences.

If placed under the latter, it is reasonable to suppose that the results

would be even better.

The difficulty, however, is, as we have already stated, the

,f. ^ \, reconciliation of a free circulation of air throughout the
culties in the '^

way of pro- house with the maintenance of a proper temperature
viding this. ^yithin the same. If we let in much fresh air, which
in winter is certain to be cold, we are bound either to let out much
heat, or, what is the same thing, lower the temperature of what it mixes
with. And warm either cow or fattening beast must be kept if we are
to derive a full return for the food administered to it. And it has to be
remembered that only rather primitive apparatus, such as described in
last chapter, for facing the difficulty with are at our disposal. But even
with these we hold that at the expense of a little care and watchfulness
on the part of the attendants a medium may be struck whereby a com-
paratively sweet atmosphere can be maintained without undue sacrifice
of the heat of the place.

The problem is hardest to soh'e with regard to cows giving milk. It
is asserted, and the belief is almost universally acted upon by dairy
farmers, that in order to get the most out of the cows the temperature
of their house must be steadily maintained at about 60° F. — at least, it
must not be allowed to fall below that. This can only be done in a
smallish place, and then by reducing as much as possible the several

SANITATION AT THE HOMESTEAD. 157

openings in the walls and roof — carefully excluding fresh air, in fact.
But there are many changes in the weather within a week, if not in a
day, and what, as -sve observed previously, may suit one kind of weather
will not another. The house can hardly be so situated as to be altogether
cut off from outside influences. If the beasts within are comfortable when
the blizzard rages without, what must they be in the muggy November
nights, when fogs settle down and stifle all air movements in their
embrace ? Little wonder tuberculosis is rampant when such a
fa\ourable field is placed at its disposal.

Artificial Heat Some of the leading sanitarians, with a notable disregard
recommended of the practical side of the question and of ways and
tarfans^for^"' means, advocate the introduction of hot-water pipes
application into the byre. But where the pipes, if forthcoming,
o yres. could be stowed away in the buildings as we know

them would puzzle most folks. Every ordinary byre would require
to be remodelled ere room could be found within for the pipes and a
suitable place obtained for the furnace and boiler connected therewith.
Neither the cost of fuel nor the amount of labour necessary to keep the
heating apparatus at work would be much felt by the tenant. These he
could provide without any strain ; but unless he attended to the matter
himself he might perhaps have difficulty regarding the steady, if slight,
care and attention that is needful to keep such an affair in order. In
the case of a byre fitted up with a heating apparatus such as we refer
to, one would certainly be at liberty to promote a freer circulation
of air between the house and the outside than would be advis-
able in one where the heat that radiated from the animals required
to be conserved.

This only ^^ ^^ only the COWS giving milk, however, that need to be

admissible, coddled up in this manner during winter. Those in calf
the^case'oT *'^^' '^^'^^h benefit to themselves, be subjected to a more
Cows yielding Spartan treatment. But in order to make matters right
' ■ for the few that happen to be yielding milk, the others

whose turn of motherhood has not yet come have to undergo all the
inconvenience and risks to health above referred to. They may have to
be semi-suffocated and nearly parboiled for weeks on end for the sake
of the few. If the milk-giving matrons must be kept extra warm, it is
surely bad policy doing so to the hurt and detriment of the remainder
of the herd housed along wdth them. The way out of the difficulty is
to have, an artificially heated house constructed and set apart for the
cows in milk during winter. It need not be large, because it is the
exception for many of the cows at the ordinary sort of dairy farm to be
brought to calve in winter-time. Where wanter milk-selling is a practice
of the farm the place would, of course, require to be larger. But holdings
where this is observed are generally near towns, and rather out of the run
of the usual type of homestead.

158 THE MODERN HOMESTEAD.

^^'ith tlie actual milking stock thus pro\ided with
No need for heated quarters where air is freer to come and go than
other classes can be permitted under prevailing circumstances, we
of Stock are ^,^j-, jg^j niore liberally in the matter of air supply
with those they have been parted from. The latter)
not now requiring to be put in purgatory for the sake of the
few that are being treated something like invalids, may be dealt
with in a rational way. They can do with a cooler atmosphere ;
therefore, a freer exchange of air can be permitted in their house
of detention.

The same applies to the fattening cattle. Some managers believe in
keeping them in almost as warm a temperature as we quoted in connection
with the milk cows. This is surely unnecessary. It is bad management,
on the other hand, to subject them to cold. But there is a happy medium
in this as in other things, and it can be obtained without shutting up
every crack and crevice in the walls of their house. Many a good beast is
turned out of the sheltered cattle courts during the season. These get
air at first hand; but then, unlike their stalled fellows, they are, of course,
free to move about at pleasure and assume almost any attitude they
choose. Those confined in the covered boxes come betw^een the latter
and the tied-up ones as regards the degree of heat adapted to their
comfort and well-being. They too are free in the matter of attitude,
and to move about, although in a far more circumscribed space. They
are too much restricted in mo^'ement, however, to be left without some
attention being paid to keeping them warmer than they would be if
left outside.

But the stalled oxen or heifers, which in common with the cow have
barely enough room in which to stand or lie, not to speak of being able
to move about therein, need to be in an atmosphere at a temperature
between 50° and 55° F., if food is not to be wasted in keeping
them warm. A pretty liberal exchange of air can safely be allowed
without interfering with this arrangement — a freer one, at any rate,
than can be permitted with regard to the byre containing cows in milk.
Even with it, however, some of the heat radiating from the animals has
to be conserved for the purpose of keeping the air of the house warm.
What suits the requirements of the fattening animal is, we maintain,
sufficient for the interests of the cow^s in calf until their time of crisis
arrives, when they can be relegated to the heated house above
suggested unless the season be so far advanced that this is hardly
worth while.

It amounts to this, therefore, that the in-calf cows, the fattening
animals, and the juniors of the two classes, all of which, when confined
in byres, thrive under a moderature temperature, may be allowed a
liberal supply of fresh air. This can be given to them without fear of
making their enforced quarters too cold. And with the simple arrange-

SANITATION AT THE HOMESTEAD. 159

nient we propounded in last chapter for enabling the attendants to
govern the admission in accordance with atmospheric conditions
fitted up, there is not much excuse for some degree of regularity not
being observed in the aeration of the buildings that contain those
classes of cattle.

Coming to the horses, it is very common to find them in
Condition of ^" overheated atmosphere in the stables. Unless the
the Atmos- stable be wide and lofty and freely ventilated, the animals,
the ^Sta^ble^'^ ^^ confined therein for a few hours, soon render the air of

the place both obnoxious and warm. There is no
necessity for keeping the horses unduly warm in the stable. Farm
horses are seldom clipped and their coats in winter are heavv. If
during the night their house becomes too hot, they perspire, and by
morning the pores of their skins are relaxed and their coats damp.
When morning arrives they are taken out in the face of hard frost,
pouring rain, or it may be the cutting east wind. It requires a horse
with a strong constitution to face circumstances of this nature very long
with impunity. Much healthier are those horses which are stabled in
roomy buildings wherein air is comparatively free to circulate. They
turn out in the morning better fitted to face the weather, whatever it may
be, whether cold, wet, or windy. The A'et. is seldomer in evidence
about stables of the latter than of the former description. The arrange-
ment recommended for aerating the byre answers equally well with
respect to the stable.

Officialdom has begun to concern itself over the matter
laws with of fresh air for the animals of the farm when housed. It

regard to Farm does SO directly in the case of cows connected with the

milk supply of the public, because the owners of these
come under the provisions of the ]\Iilk Shops Act. And indirectly it is
beginning to gain a more comprehensive control on account of the right
of interference that County Councils, through their health officers, now
have in respect of farm buildings. These men in authority cannot
enforce their by-laws at farms that do not come within the scope of
the xAct referred to, unless, of course, the homesteads are a menace to
the health of the people about the place, and a nuisance generally ; but
in one or two counties advantage is being taken of statutory powers,
and no building can be erected or alterations made in existing ones,
without plans of the same have been first submitted to and approved
by the health officers of the Council. This departure, when it becomes
general (for it can be universally adopted at any time), is bound to tell
its tale. But knowledge of what is needful under such circumstances,
as well as the use of common-sense and tact in expressing the same,
will be needed on the part of those who are to ha\-e such large discre-
tionary powers if heart-burning is to be avoided and much money
prevented from being wasted.

i6o THE MODERN HOMESTEAD.

Hitlierto the central authorities in such matters not being"
Whythe .

Central Autho- able to enact any system of ventilation which would

ritieshave serve for universal application, and further make sure

sought toregu- , . ^ . , , , , , , ,

late the Size of that when m force it would be attended to, have been

Cow-Houses. obliged to content themselves with providing that byres

devoted to milk-cows shall be of such and such a size. So many cubic

feet of air space must be set apart for each of the cows, the amount,

however, being left to the discretion of the respective County Councils.

But this has not improved matters very much. It does not imply that

because one byre embraces more space within its walls and roof than

another of equal accommodation, but neither so wide nor so high, that

the air of the former is always the purer of the two. Indeed, it is often

the other way about. Here as before heat is the crux of the question.

The air within the larger place will be the more difficult to keep warm,

and in order that this may be done as effectually as possible, there must

be the very minimum of outside air allowed entrance. The tighter

closed all openings are kept the warmer will the interior of the house

be. More or less fresh air may be admitted into the small building,

but it must be jealously excluded from the large one in the endeavour

to maintain some degree of heat therein.

It is apt to be inferred, because we generally feel the
Some of the f r , , , , rr • i . • •

Anomalies atmosphere of the larger place less onensive, that it is

which have ^j-jg purer of the two. When it is less obnoxious, the

arisen out of ^ . . .

that Inter- true cause is usually due to its being lower m tem-

ference. perature. Used up or polluted air of the kind referred to

is less offensive when cold than when warm. We can put up with a,

tighter closed bedroom in winter than we can in summer. We are

using as much air too in the winter — in fact, more, on account of the

greater demand on oxygen to promote the increased internal combustion

to cope with the greater loss of heat through radiation from the surface

of our bodies.

To begin with, the animals in the larger byre are assured of more air

than those in the smaller. But air is not like more material substances

that can be consumed part by part, the last remaining unchanged until

its turn to be made use of comes round. Once a beginning is made to

inhale it whatever comes forth in the succeeding exhalation is diffused

at once throughout the bulk of what is being started on. This property

of matter when in the gaseous condition distinguishes it entirely from

fluids and solids. Solids reveal no trace of it, and fluids hardly any.

Different fluids do show a tendency to form a homogeneous mixture

when brought together, and when a solid is dissolved in a fluid it

inclines to affect the whole medium into which it merges, but all the

same the fluid tends to settle in strata or layers of different densities.

From this there can be no such continuity of substance in a mixture of

fluids that is found to obtain in a mixture of gases. When two or more

SANITATION AT THE HOMESTEAD. i6i

of the latter, no matter their difference in density, are brought together
and left free to commingle, each at once begins to lose itself among the
others, reaching to the farthest limits that bound the whole. This law is
known as the diffusion of gases. No two gases can be brought together
without each losing itself in the other, the eventual mixture being
thoroughly homogeneous in all its parts. This is, of course, the prime
means whereby the atmosplaere maintains its original character under
all circumstances. It is no doubt helped, as already pointed out, by the
various phenomena that cause currents and disturbances in the aerial
ocean that envelops us all. There is thus no reserve of absolutely
fresh air possible in either building. The air of both alike begin to be
polluted when the first breath is taken in either. It is simply a matter
of degree in the rate of the pollution. And once the air of the larger
place has become spent (if such a word may be used here), or
obnoxious, the initial advantage over the smaller one possessed by this
building in its being able to hold more air at the start and so take
longer to become offensive is lost, and the beam turns against it over
the matter of temperature. Communication between outer and inner
air must now be rigidly cut off if a due amount of heat is at all to be
maintained in the place. But with the smaller one, even in times of
storm and stress, an occasional sniff may be allowed in without much
heat being lost, while at ordinary times a fair amount of circulation
between the pure and impure may without fear of the consequences
be permitted.

It follows, therefore, that while the larger place must necessarily be
the colder, it by no means holds good that it is the better aired of the
two. If our reasoning be correct, then it must be waste to go to the
expense of building byres beyond a medium size. We may make them
large, and at the same time be free to ventilate them without stint, if
we fit them up with hot-water pipes, but the "if" here presupposes what
cannot be got over in conditions where sound economic principles
prevail. The landlord would be spending extra money for which there
was no call, or at least from which he could hardly expect to receive any
return ; and the tenant would be put to extra outlay that might be
dispensed with. A medium-sized house, such as we shall afterwards
describe when we discuss the byre more in detail, fitted with the simple
contrivances for regulating the circulation of air, can, as argued above,
be made to answer the purpose effectually, especially if it be supple-
mented with the casual ward referred to for the use of the animals
giving milk.

In the department of ventilation we have been dealing with, one
would think that we have been treating the pure outer air as a thing to
be avoided on the whole, and, as it were, kept at arm's length and only
allowed access to the houses in small quantities at a time. So indeed
are we almost obliged to act with regard to the animals when in winter

M.H. M

1 62 THE MODERN HOMESTEAD.

<iuarters. Witli the dairy buildings, on the other hand, we are free to
flood them with fresh air. This is partly in order to keep down the
temperature, but principally to prevent stagnation of the air anywhere
within the buildings. Stagnant air, as we have already remarked, is
conducixe to the well-being of moulds and other lowly organisms, all of
which are inimical to the products of the milk-house. The dairy worker
is more ali\e to promote the interests of the microbes that act on his
behalf. The best of these, so far as he is concerned, thrive most in
surroundings where the air is pure and free to circulate. About this
we shall have more to say when dealing specially with the dairy
premises. In the other buildings composing the homestead we ventilate
for the purpose of keeping the air moving on, and avoiding the evil
consequences that follow on its non-observance.

CHAPTER Vni.
The Water Supply — In Theory.

It goes without saying that good water, and plenty of it,

^°°^^f^^^ is essential at the homestead. It must, like Cesar's
and plenty ot . '

it, essential at wife, be above suspicion so far as contamination from

the Home- what proceeds out of the abodes of men is concerned,
stead. '^.

But this is no easy matter even in country districts.

Wliere the land is chiefly pastoral, man and his works are less in
evidence, and there is not so much risk in this respect. Scarce and
well scattered, however, comparatively speaking, as are men's habita-
tions in the strictly arable parts of the country, there, little as the novice
would think, one has to be wary in selecting water that has to act for
domestic purposes. The burns or streamlets are liable to receive
drainage matter from cottages, either on the farm which the homestead
serves, or from others on neighbouring farms situated on higher ground.
Should they escape contamination of this sort there is still the risk of
what may have been added to the ground in the way of manure to be
faced. And where police manure — the sweepings of streets, contents of
middens and ash buckets, and so on, mixed together — is put to use in
this manner, the danger is no imaginary one. Wells that are independent
of surface water and far enough remoA'ed from houses to be out of reach
of any manurial matters that might thence find their way in are the
safest source of supply. No well is independent of surface water, of
course, seeing that the water all comes from above as rain. But the
source of a well can be deep enough to be independent of tlie
immediately overlying surface for its supply of water. The latter
may be drawn from either a widespread or remote area, the water
having to descend far ere it can affect the well in question. It is
this indirect connection with the surface, therefore, that makes for
the purity of the water. It has to pass through much earth or
porous stone in its way to the well, which means that it undergoes
the process of filtration. Should it be polluted or contaminated to
begin with, it becomes purified as it percolates the earth. In losing
the one form of impurity, however, it is almost sure to take on
another, but one that it is not at all vital such as the other is liable
to be. To understand this it is necessar}^ to make clear what pure
water is.

M 2

1 64 THE MODERN HOMESTEAD.

Absolutely pure water is not to he met with in nature.
m!re°Wa^ter not I^^ii"' hefore coming in contact with the earth, is the
met with in nearest approach to it we have. But we saw in the pre-
^^^^^- ceding chapter what rain is apt to wash out of the air as it

condenses therein. It brings with it to the earth dust of various kinds
and several gases, air itself in small quantity, together with those we
mentioned as being natural to the atmosphere, and occasionally others
that find their way there either as the result of man's work or of some
abnormal terrestrial conditions. And once the earth is reached its original
comparative state of purity disappears. The distilled water of the
chemist may be accepted as almost pure. In the process of distillation
the water being dealt with has the gases that are dissolved therein
driven off as the heat is applied to it. At boiling-point the water passes
away as vapour, to be cooled down and condensed again into fluid, this
time rid of all extraneous matter that was previously mixed up with it,
the gases returned whence they came, and the solids left behind in the
vessel wherein the water was boiled.

Water pure and simple is composed of the two elementary

The Composi- substances, hydrogen and oxygen, the former as well as
tion of Water. . . .

the latter being, when free and subjected to ordinary

circumstances, a gas. This time the busybody oxygen is completely

disguised in the fluid. \\'ater is a chemical compound, not like air, a

mixture only. In the compound the substances which take part therein

lose their identity — the individual merges in the state. In the mixture

each is as it was before the mingling took place, although in looser

union and, consequently, diminished force, on account of the watering.

down due to the crowd of strangers in its ranks. Oxygen is still oxygen,

although, as we know it, in the air it is pretty well smothered by the

wet blanket nitrogen. But oxygen as a component of water has totally

parted with its individuality. Another property thoroughly marks off

the compound from the mixture. The components of the mixture make

no demonstration when shuffled together, but the components of the

chemical compound, when brought in contact, go through more or less

violent disturbance, beat being always concerned in the business. Heat

is made manifest when the bonds of the compound are being entered

into, and conversely the application of heat is required to break the

compact and liberate the parties thereto.

Two volumes of hydrogen go to one of oxygen in the formation of

water. All gases are physically built up of molecules of equal size, like

as sandstone is built up of grains of sand. But the grains of sand are

stable, while the gaseous grains — the molecules — of the gas are mobile

and restless. The molecules of a gas are for ever striving against

pressure. The slighter the pressure they are put to the more do they

expand ; and this will go on until the last degree of tenuity — whatever that

may be — is reached. On the other hand, the pressure may be made so

THE WATER SUPPLY— IN THEORY. 165

great that the molecules of the gas, being squeezed into so small a space,

can no longer hold out against it, but are driven to take up the fluid

state. Fluids yield comparatively little in bulk under the influence of

pressure. In proof of this we ha\e the steady, enormous force that is

available in hydraulic machinery, which is simply the turning to account

at one point the pressure exerted on enclosed water at another. The

molecules of the gas rendered liquid are still freer to move in the mass

than in the solid body, although more cabined and confined than they

were before being squeezed out of their original condition. Increased

pressure, it is evident, will not coerce them into the sluggish state they

pass into when the solid form has to be assumed. But lowering their

temperature will. If we reduce the temperature of the molecules in

water to a certain degree, they can no more hold out against this than

could the molecules of the gas against the critical degree of pressure.

Reducing the temperature of water to the freezing-point brings the

molecules thereof to the torpid state they are driven to in the solid.

^, , All matter, whether simple or compound — whether con-

The three . . ' ^ ^

physical con- sisting as one of the elementary substances by itself,

ditions of oxvgen, for instance ; or made up of two or more of these

Water. .

to form a chemical compound, as water, by way of example

— takes on in accordance with circumstances the three states of solid,
liquid, and gaseous. P'ew elements or compounds assume the three
forms under everyday sort of conditions, the bulk of them having a
wider range between the various stages than is included between the
extremes of even our variable climate. Water is one of the substances
that does. At all temperatures between 32° and 212° F. water remains
fluid. The pressure of the atmosphere due to its weight is sufficient to
withhold the molecules from bursting forth unfettered in vapour. True
enough, water is always emitting more or less vapour into the atmo-
sphere in accordance with the condition of the latter. But what escapes
in this way is little in comparison with the water yielding it. If we
place water in a \acuum the pressure of the air is removed from it, and
the molecules are freed and the fluid takes on the gaseous form. We
do something equivalent when we heat water up to boiling-point. The
heat puts energy into the molecules sufficient for them to cope with and
overcome the resistance to their liberty caused by the pressure of the
atmosphere, and to burst forth as steam or gas in spite of this.

At 212° F. water passes into the liquid form of matter ; cooled below
32° F. it solidifies into ice. These figures refer to sea level and average
atmospheric pressure, conditions which speak to a pressure of fifteen
pounds to the square inch. As we rise above sea level the pressure
decreases, the air becoming less dense as we ascend, and in consequence
water will boil at a lower temperature on high ground than it will at sea
level. Not so long ago this fact was turned to account in measuring the
height of mountains.

1 66 THE MODERN HOMESTEAD.

Neither oxygen nor hydrogen by itself can be forced so easily to take
upon itself the three forms of matter at the will of man. It is only
recently that either could. Both enormous pressure and a most
excessive degree of cold are together required in the accomplishment
of these feats in chemistry. But water (the two combined) we see
can be put through these phases by means compatible with ordinary
workaday conditions.

Water when at the point of passing from the solid to the
as^exem^Hfied liqi-iid form — from ice to water — absorbs a large amount
in the case of of heat of whose presence it makes no sign. One pound

^^^^' of water at a temperature of 144° F. added to one pound

of ice is just sufficient to turn the ice into water, without, howe^•er,
raising it to a higher temperature than 32° F. — that of melting ice or
water at the point of freezing. But add a pound of water at 144° F. to
another pound at 32° F., then the temperature of the mixed water will
be 88° F., or the average of the two. What then has become of the
144° F. of heat in the first instance, which is absorbed without revealing
any outward trace of its effect ? It has gone to give the molecules of
water the energy necessary to enable them to maintain against external
pressure the state of fluidity. All the heat beyond that amount received
by water becomes apparent to our senses in its rise of temperature. If
heat be steadily applied until a temperature of 212° F. is attained,
another disappearance or absorption of heat takes place. This is the
point at which water takes on the gaseous form.

But water when about to pass from the liquid to the gas drinks up
much more heat than is lost sight of when passing from the solid to the
liquid. About one thousand times the amount of heat required to raise
a pound of water one degree in temperature is needed to fortify the
molecules in that weight of water in assuming the free state represented
in the gas. It takes nine hundred and sixty-seven thermal units to
convert one pound of water at 212° F. to steam at the same temperature.
In other words, if to be had, one pound of steam at 967° F., if added to
one pound of water at 212° F., will give us two pounds of steam
at 212° F.

Tlie heat tliat in botli instances thus disappears is termed latent heat.
But although latent or hidden, this heat is by no means lost. Every
portion of it is duly returned when the reverse processes take place —
when the gas returns to tlie fluid and the fluid reverts to the solid. A
knowledge of these facts regarding the physical properties of water
brings home to one's understanding the important part that is taken
by this homely substance in the economy of nature. The heat of the
tropical sun draws, as we have already mentioned, enormous quantities
of water from ocean surfaces in the form of \apour, to be wafted far and
near throughout the atmosphere. Wherever this vapour is condensed to
rain, gaseous water is being changed into fiuid and the latent heat shed

THE WATER SUPPLY— IN THEORY. 167

abroad in the surrounding air. Every inch of rainfall means a hundred
tons of rain to the acre. In each inch of rain, tlierefore, let loose from
the atmosphere, there is liberated in that medium about a quarter
of a million heat units. Water thus serves to distribute the heat of the
sun more uniformly over the globe. We find it of great use in
our concerns as a carrier of heat. It rises readily in temperature, and
parts steadily witli its heat between the range of its minimum and
maximum points of fluidity. But nature is able to deal with it in the
highest phase — the wholesale one, as it were — and get the ad\antage of
the bigger deals.

Falling snow, as most of us will have obser\ed, is warmer than sleet,
because snow is not robbing the surrounding air of heat to anything
like the extent that sleet is. As regards the latter, it is half-way between
the solid and the fluid, but tending towards fluidity and hungry for the
heat that will enable it to rise in the scale. The snow, on the other
hand, is not so grasping of the heat of surrounding substances, and they
are not called upon to pay tribute to it so much as to the sleet in its
search for the necessary heat wherewith to subsidise the greedy molecules
it contains.

Water in its solid form also plays into our hands on occasion. It

slightly contracts as it decreases in temperature until within a few

degrees of the freezing-point, when it begins to expand until it passes

into the solid. On this account ice is lighter than water, and freezing

takes place at the surface instead of the bottom of any sheet of water.

Were it otherwise, mundane matters would not go on as at present

arranged. It is in accordance with this law whereby water expands

on freezing that frost ameliorates our soils and weathers down rock

surfaces in preparation for fresh soil-making material.

It is, howe\-er, with water as the great solvent that we
Water as the ^.

universal are here most concerned about. It is on account of this

Solvent. solvent property of water that there is so much difficulty

in obtaining it pure. Before it reaches the earth it has, as we pointed
out, laid hold of the gases of the atmosphere — air itself, carbon di-oxide,
ammonia, some of the nitrogen oxides — and of the dust and other suspen-
sory matter that may happen to be floating therein. But with all this
it is comparatively pure when it touches earth. Indeed what it has
picked up from the atmosphere increases its solvent powers. The
carbon di-oxide it absorbs in passing from the air to the earth enables
it to dissolve solid matters of the universe on which it would otherwise
have little efifect. No sooner, therefore, does it fall upon the earth than
it loses the comparative purity it came with.

Next in purity to rain-water comes the water of lakes, and following
it that of ri\ers. Running water has more matter in suspension than
lake-water. The one has time to settle and let fall to the bottom any
fine matter it may have held in this way. But the ever onward course

168 THE MODERN HOMESTEAD.

of ri\er-\\ater prevents its loitering by the way to clear itself of what it
is bearing along. Rivers that form lakes as they lead their waters to
the sea emerge from the lakes purer than they entered, just because
their course has therein been arrested for the time and the suspensory
matter gi\en a chance to gain the bottom of the water.

This suspensory matter, it has to be borne in mind, is
sory Matters entirely different from the matters held in solution by the
in Water. water. The dissolved substances, whether solid, fluid, or

gaseous to begin with, lose themselves for the time being in the body
of the water and take part with it in the various phases it may have to
pass through. But although they lose their identity to this extent they
still make their influence felt. Different substances have different points
at which the physical changes in matter take place. So long, therefore,
as these relating to water and what it holds in solution do not clash, the
two act in unison physically while each is free to exert its own peculiar
influences. In the distillation of water, for instance, we get rid of what
it contains by acting in accordance with these simple principles. The
air contained in the water to be purified in this way is driven off as the
water begins to boil. Other gases may also then go. For a little time,
therefore, the water may be allowed to boil and the \apour to escape
without our seeking to condense it. In the latter process we simply
lead the vapour into a cooling pipe or chamber and collect the resulting
Avater. We rob the vapour of its heat and oblige it to revert to the
fluid state. Those substances dissolved in the water that do not vaporise
or pass into gas at 212° F., the point at which water does, are consequently
left behind when all the water has been boiled away. Were some
other fluid dissolved in the water taken to be distilled it would, if its
vaporising point were lower than that of water, ha\e escaped before the
water began to boil, but if it happened to be higher, then it would remain
as part of the residue in the \'essel wherein the water was boiled.

There is, howe\er, no such firm bond between the matters in suspension
in water and the water itself as exists between water and what it contains
in solution. The right relations between the latter two are in fact not
yet clearly understood. They are not in direct chemical combination,
but that there is some slight approach to this is e\idenced by the heat
that is exinced when some substances are dissolved in water. Dissolved
matter is difficult of withdrawal from water. The separation of the two
has to be attained in roundabout ways, taking advantage of the laws
that bear upon chemistry ; but the matters in suspension can directly, by
simple mechanical means, be removed from water. What will not settle
down of its own free will when water is allowed to remain undisturbed
and gra^•ity is given a free hand to assert itself, can easily be abstracted
by filtration. If water be allowed to drain through porous strata of
some kinds, the solid matters it contains are arrested as the water
penetrates, they being unable to pass through where it can. This fact

THE WATER SUPPLY— IN THEORY. 169

is turned to account in the artificial filtration of water. On the large

scale water is filtered by passing it through layers of gravel and sand.

We see the chenaist doing the same thing in a small way by letting

Avater soak through a sort of porous paper resembling blotting-paper.

The filter has no effect whatever on the matters that are dissolved in

the water. They go with the water to where\'er it penetrates.

It is evident that rain-water, with its great solvent powers,

Y^^^^ no sooner comes in contact with the earth than it rapidly

happens to . . . ...

Rain when picks up matter and carries it along either in solution or

P touches -j^ suspension. The rain that does not immediately enter

the soil makes at once along the surface in search of a
way to seek the level of its parent, the sea. In many cases this is a
long and troubled journey. At one time the way may be gradual and
unobstructed ; at another precipitous and in a channel both tortuous
and jagged. The raindrops unite in the ground, and as they accumu-
late their combined weight becomes sufficient to urge them on in
obedience to gravitv till equilibrium is gained in the ocean. The
nearer they get to their journey's end the larger the stream of others
they fall in with, all bent on the same errand of returning whence they
started. They left empty-handed, but they return laden with spoil,
some of it bound closely in solution and some merely held in suspen-
sion. The stronger the velocity of the converging streams the more of
the latter there is likely to be. But a good deal depends, of course, on
the nature of the district watered by the streams for the quantity as
well as the quality of both dissolved and suspended matter contained in
the seaward-bound water. If the earth and rocks be of a friable nature,
a great deal of matter is borne along bv the running water. In the
same way, if, for instance, the district traversed by the water is one
where limestone predominates, the water will have dissolved much
lime during the time it took to collect and pass on.

When the sea is reached the stream slows down, and the suspended
matters begin to fall. The heaviest material is dropped first and the
finest last, the interval between being taken by the intervening grades.
Geologists tell us that the earth's surface is being slowly reduced through
these two actions on the part of rain-water — its solvent action and its
action of carrying along with it loose matter that is unable to resist its
power when brought within its reach. It is the latter action, however,
which tells most in wearing down the earth's crust, and tending to bring
all under the surface of the sea. It gets credit amongst scientists for
having to a great extent moulded the surface of the earth as at
present revealed. Dreadful contortions, uphea\als, and subsidences
have undoubtedly often put new shapes on the earth's surface when
adapting itself to changing pressure due to the more rapid cooling
down than now takes place ; but rain is allowed to have, in recent
geological times, done more in eating awav the uncovered crust of

I70 THE MODERN HOMESTEAD.

the earth than all other agencies of the kind put together. It has
eaten out the passes and valleys, and slowly rounded off the ruggeJ
outlines of hills, and cut deep furrows into the mountain sides. This
action of rain tends to level down the crust to a more uniform outline,
if not to carry all seawards. But tlie crumblings of the elevated peaks
do not all get the length of the sea at once. The bulk of them go to
raise or at least extend the lower-lying lands. They, too, however, arc
constantly paying tribute to running water, and paying with one hand
as much as they are receiving from higher lands in the other. The
process is a long and almost imperceptible one, but steadily the sea is
gaining mastery of the land and reducing it down to its own dead level.
The sea gi\es off into the atmosphere its moisture in the
Sea^eceives ''^^''^ ^^ vapour, much of which falls upon the earth as
back in the rain, more or less of it returning once more to the sea.
itg\ves^forth ^^"-^^ '^^ brings to the sea, as we have said, matters
to the dissolved from earth and rocks and others worn there-

tmosp ere. j^-q,-,-,^ which, though unable to dissolve, it is capable
of bearing along with it in its descent to the universal level. W'liat
it carries mechanically it lets drop when it reaches the sea. And
what it brings with it in solution the sea absorbs, if able to retain
the same. If not of a kind o\ er which sea-water holds a permanent
sway, it will be rejected from solution, and it, too, will find a resting
place on the sea bottom. But the sea will hardly reject what river-
water is capable of holding in solution. The salts of sodium, calcium,
potassium, and magnesium are the leading chemical substances that
rain-water robs the earth of, making the sea the resetter. Neither river
nor sea-water holds such solvent powers over other earthy matters
as over these, consequently the salts referred to are the substances that
characterise sea-water. Common salt — chloride of sodium, formed by
the union of hydrochloric acid witli sodium — is the predominant sub-
stance in sea-water, and the one which gives it the characteristic taste
we all know so well. It is this selective power on the part of water
over what it will hold in solution that enables sea-water to retain its
distinctive character without appreciable change. Sea-water, taken on
the whole, is bound to be growing Salter. Enormous volumes of fresh
water are ever pouring into it, but that water originated from itself,
leaving it pure, while it returns with other substances in its grasp. A
point there is beyond wliich water can absorb no more of any separate
substance, the point in (juestion \arying with each. That point is the
point of saturation of water with regard to any of the soluble sub-
stances. When it is reached, no more of the special substance can be
dissolved. Ordinary sea- water is as yet far from saturation, and
therefore still has room in its embrace for much of the salt of the
earth. In the Dead Sea, o\er wliich evaporation is freely exercised,
and into which little or no river-water finds its way, the point of

THE WATER SUPPLY— IN THEORY. 171

saturation is near at hand. From similar causes the sea-water under

the tropics is Salter than that near to the poles. At the one place

evaporation is constant and rapid ; at the other there is little

evaporation, while snow and ice, unsullied as regards contact with

the earth, though derixed from atmospheric moisture, are steadily

returning to the sea-water almost as fresh as the vapour that

escaped therefrom under the heat of the nearly \ertical sun.

What is picked up by water as it runs along the surface
What Sur- r .i_ , 1 l , ■,

face-water °^ ^"^ earth, or percolates by short cuts underground to

generally appear at lower levels, is not as a rule harmful to man.

In the first case is included brook, ri\er, and lake-water,
and in the other that of springs and deep wells. The water of the
former class is characterised by the foreign matters they contain being
more in suspension than in solution ; that of the latter, on the contrary,
being almost wholly in solution. The reason is plain enough when we
consider that the one journeys along amongst loose material and open
to whate^•er is wafted its way by the wind or is dropped from cliff or
bank as it is impelled onwards ; and that the other, as it seeks downwards
through earth and rock, while offered many chances of dissolving such
earthy salts as those above referred to, has no opportunity of carrying
away solid matter in suspension. The matter beneath the surface is
too well packed to admit of much being abstracted in this way. It
may encounter strata which if by themselves and exposed it could
successfully attack and disintegrate, bearing the fragments with it ;
but when these are sandwiched between others of stronger cohesion
and are but part of a group, water is able to affect them by means of
its solvent powers alone.

The big continental rivers, long ere they approach the sea, are
discoloured by the matters they are bearing along in suspension.
So, too, are our rivers in their times of flood. It is not to these,
however, nor to lakes, that homesteads e^•er have to look for their
water supply. When surface-water is the source of supplv, it is
usually among the tiny tributaries to the parent stream of the district.
The water in these has not travelled so far as to be so smirched from
contact with the earth as to be unacceptable at the homestead. Where
artificial filtration is practicable the matters in suspension, provided the
water is good, are no obstacle to its use. They can be readily remo\ed

by this process. But at the farm it is not practicable,
not^^e^rv'^ It is an operation that requires close attention by men

practicable experienced in the work. An ill-kept filter, especially
at t e arm. g^^}-^ ^ ^^^ .^^ ^^.g should be likely to find at the home-
ste^id, is more dangerous than unfiltered water — the water is safer
before than after it has been passed through. The water supplies
of populous places are always filtered before use, but this is done
on a large scale and on fixed principles such as can hardly be

172 THE MODERN HOMESTEAD.

obser\ed at the ordinary lioniestead. It is wise, therefore, m
selecting a supply of water for the homestead, to fix on a source
the water from which is sufficiently free of suspended matter to
render filtration unnecessary.

\\'ater from deep-seated wells needs no filtration. When one of these
is available to get the water handy therefrom, it is a fortunate circum-
stance for tlie occupier of the farm. He is then sure of water of a clear
character. It mav, indeed, ha\'e much matter in solution, but there
will be little, if any, in suspension. The water will have had to per-
colate too far for any matter of that kind to have been able to accom-
pany it. Surface wells, like open streams, are apt from their situation
to receive all manner of loose material, and, what is worse, drainings
that bring with them deleterious matters either already dissolved or
ready to enter into solution. The nearer the surface we come we
get more into the part of the ground ^\'here waste vegetable and
animal matter is undergoing decomposition, and thus water that lies in
that position is almost certain to receive more or less of the matters
resulting from this never-ceasing process of decay.

It is not, however, usually the matters in suspension in

Dissolved water that we have to be on our guard against. Those

Matters more ,- ^, ^ . ^ j .1 4-

to be con- '" solution are the aptest to render water dangerous to

sidered than mankind. But as a rule it is only those matters, whether
Q^^^^t'I?^^ ^" suspended or dissolved, that can be traced back to man
himself that render water containing them dangerous to
his fellows. It is in the fact that water which has been in direct con-
tact with man, or has been the recipient of matters that have been
derived from him in some way or other, may contain germs of various
diseases, where lies the danger of its use by others of his kind. Even
if it has kept clear of these dangerous guests, the other matters it is
likely to contain on account of its connection with man and his doings
make it a favourable nursery-ground to these should they at any time
effect a lodgment therein. Organic matter derivable from man and
his doings is, therefore, the worst kind we have to do with in water.
But organic matter being represented either by the decayed fabrics of
bodies that have been quickened by life in some one or other of its
phases, or the result of the waste of these while ali\'e, it follows that the
vegetable as well as the animal kingdom has also a considerable hand
in the contamination of water. Organic matter, however, which is
traceable to animal life is, as we have been saying, more than the other
to be feared in relation to water that has to be turned to account by
man. The effective filter is capable of remo\ing these dangerous
sul)stances, that is to say, those in suspension, be they derived from
animal or vegetable, and disease germs as well if present. The
filter, however, we maintain, is not practicable in connection with the
homestead.

THE WATER SUPPLY— IN THEORY.

173

If we can manage to avail ourselves of a source of supply that is
well reino\ed from dwelling-places, or otherwise free of contamination
therefrom, we have little to fear from the danger of disease germs
peculiar to mankind ; and further, if the burn, well, or spring be com-
paratively free of matters in suspension, we are fortunately situated as
regards water for man as well as for beast. We. may, without fear of
evil results, use it as we find it, and be thankful. It will of course
contain, in accordance with its opportunity of picking up the same, more
or less of the earthy salts and other matters that water derives from
the soil and rocks. Rarely will it contain any that render it dangerous.
Its solvent powers may, in consequence of what it already has assimilated,
be slightly impaired. The more matter it already holds in solution the
less will it be inclined to add thereto as it keeps pressing on to find a
resting-place. It will seldom, however, have its solvent powers affected
to the extent of seriously interfering with its usefulness.

Among the earthy salts already mentioned as those most

Lime the likely to be dissolved in water that has percolated far

most abun- - ^

dantly repre- underground are those of lime. \'ery seldom do any of
sented of ^j^g others put their stamp effectually upon water. In

Matters. the rare instances they do, they render the water offensive

to taste, and sometimes to smell, and therefore useless at
the homestead. Neither man nor animal will, unless hard pressed, face
water that either tastes decidedly or smells of any matter that it holds in
solution. And if water be unpalatable in drinking, it will never answer
for cooking. Iron is, in many districts, a frequent cause of rendering
water unfit for domestic purposes. It is present in nearly all water
that has been much underground, but onlv in exceptional cases to such
an extent as to be a nuisance as far as our wants go. Well-water, as
we all know, is more sparkling and palatable than either river or rain-
water ; and this is by reason of its containing more gases as well as
earthy matter in solution than either of the other two. Rain-water is
almost devoid of the earthy or mineral matters referred to in the instance
of spring-water, and it is extremely insipid to the taste. Lake and
river- water come in grades between the two just mentioned. They
ha\'e neither had time nor opportunity to pick up what the spring- water
has, both as regards gases and salts ; but they have improved on the
chances of rain-water in this respect. So long, therefore, as spring-
water is able to observe a due proportion in what it abstracts from the
soil — nothing of this, of course, being dangerous — and no substance is so
prominent as to assert itself over the others, we have the most palatable
of all waters at our disposal. It may not be the best one theoretically,
seeing that its solvent powers are already so well exercised, and the
place of water in natural economy being the great solvent agent. But
spring-water is hardly ever so well supplied with dissolved matters
that it has not a considerable reserve of its solvent powers left intact.

174 ^^^ MODERN HOMESTEAD.

Much depends, we need hardly say, on the geological features of the
district for what the spring-water of any place is likely to contain.
Where one or more of the substances are so prominent as to make
their presence easily felt, we are in touch witli tlie so-called mineral
springs.

We speak of one sample of water as being hard and
Hard Water another soft. A soft water is one containing com-
Y/g^ei-. paratively little mineral matter in solution ; and on this

account rain is the softest natural water at our disposal.
Starting from rain-water as the bottom of the scale, therefore, we go.
through the various degrees of hardness in lake, stream, and lastly
spring-water, in which kind of water we find, as we have said, the
largest amount of mineral matters dissolved. Rain-water, being the
softest of all, is dear to the heart of the housewife. Its high standard as
a solvent makes it the best of all water as a cleanser. Its use saves
soap as well as much hard rubbing on washing-day. Hard water, on
the other hand, will not dissolve sufficient soap to penetrate thoroughly
among the fibres of the material being manipulated in the washtub.
We know for ourselves how much easier it is to wash hands and face
in a soft than in a hard water. In the latter it takes some trouble to
raise a lather ; in the former the trouble is to get rid of the soap from
our skin when the wash is completed. No rough-and-ready test as to
the degree of hardness of a water is so decided as the effect soap has
upon it. On sea-water ordinary soap has no effect whatever. It is
impossible to obtain a lather therein. There is so much mineral matter
dissolved in sea-water that it cannot dissolve so much of the soap as
will give any appreciable effect.

Rain-water, however, is insipid to drink. It ought, one would
think, to be more effective when imbibed than a hard water can be.
The hard water is pleasanter certainly both to sight and taste, but it
is hardly likely to be more acceptable otherwise to the animal economy.
It is hardly questionable that soft water is the better assuager of thirst.
The salts of lime are, we repeat, the most prominent of
HardneTs^and ^^^^ earthy matters contained in ordinary spring- water —
Permanent spring-water, we mean, that is adapted to domestic
W^at'er^^^ °^ purposes. It is the amount of these dissolved in the
water that rules its degree of hardness. P'rom this it
can be implied that the salts of lime may be present in water to a
much larger amount Avithout destroying its usefulness where we are
concerned, than those of other minerals apt to be picked up by water.
The lime salts affect water in two ways. One of the salts, the
carbonate, causes temporary hardness ; and another, the sulphate,
brings about permanent hardness. The temporary hardness is remov-
able— it can be obviated to a considerable extent ; but the otlier
cannot.

THE WATER SUPPLY— IN THEORY. 175

The solvent powers of water are increased when it

P w rs of"' holds carbon di-oxide in solution. Rain, we pointed out,

Water dissolved this f(as out of the atmosphere, and when it

increased y touclies earth it has other opportunities of gainintr more.

the presence . ^^ o

of Carbon Aided by this co-partner, water is able to take up an

1-0x1 e extra amount of mineral matters, lime amongst the

therein. ' .

number, as it percolates down in the soil. But if the water

is forced by any means to part with its share of carbon di-oxide it must

also liberate the increased quantity of lime which, by help of the gas,

it was able to retain. When water that is temporarily hard is boiled

the carbon di-oxide is driven out from it and the extra lime falls to the

bottom of the vessel. Most of us know the effect that some kinds of

water ha\e on boilers and kettles wherein they are boiled ; how in a

short time the boilers become coated inside with a mineral deposis

and the tea-kettle in time becomes so encrusted witli the stuff that water

can hardly be poured from the spout. A marble is, in many houses,

a not uncommon inmate of the kitchen kettle. It is there to keep the

flocculent precipitate of lime from settling down to form a scale on

the metal. As it rolls about it stirs up the sediment, giving it a chance

to escape by the spout when the last of the water is being drained

thereby ; at the same time it is probable that the marble gets coated

in turn.

I->V adding a little lime-water (water with lime dissolved in it) to a
temporarily soft water, we can fix the free carbon di-oxide contained
in it, and, as before, liberate the carbonate of lime it was able to hold
through the agency of the di-oxide. We shall then have two precipitates,
the one we have already been discussing, and the new carbonate,
that due to the combination between the added lime and the carbon
di-oxide dissolved in the water but otherwise isolated from the other
substances it happens to be in close relationship with. For a somewhat
similar purpose the experienced housewife adds a pinch of bi-carbonate
of soda to the contents of the teapot when the water is hard. She
knows that hard water is not well suited for tea-making, and has
learned that a little soda improves it in this respect. The soda serveS)
no doubt, to fix the carbon di-oxide that has not been driven off during
the heating of the water, and thus let free some of the lime ; and in
this, as well as in other ways of a similar description, to render the
water softer.

Permanent hardness is due, as we have said, to the presence of
sulphate of lime in the water. This we cannot reniove by the same
methods that enable us, as we have just seen, to get rid of much of the
carbonate. Other salts there are, of course, that induce permanent
hardness in water. Common salt (sodium chloride), for instance, will,
but then, as we have been seeking to point out, waters with other salts
than those of lime predominating therein would never be selected for

1-6 THE MODERN HOMESTEAD.

supplying the homestead. The hme sahs are those that least deteriorate
water as it affects man and animals. Were it not on account of the
hindrances it places on the solvent properties of water its presence
would be rather acceptable than otherwise. It has been argued, in
fact, that for cooking and drinking purposes it is essential towards the
health of human beings, especially when young, that the water at their
disposal ought to contain a fair percentage of lime. ^luch. lime is
needed in the building up of the animal frame, and if some be available
in the water consumed by the growing organism, there is less chance
of its being at a loss where to obtain the needful amount.

But to food, not to drink, one ought to look for the necessary supply
of mineral matter. Water's place in nature is as a general solvent. In
our bodies, as elsewhere, we should look upon its mission as being to
that effect. As regards plants, nearly all their mineral food is supplied
to them dissolved in water. But our bodies are different. Our com-
plicated digestive apparatus is competent to put before our \arious
tissues matters suitable for their daily requirements as well as for
general upkeep, without having to rely upon water for bringing lime
along Avith it. We may as well turn to it as a medium for supplying
us wath salt. What we want water for is to act as a soh'ent capable of
carrying life-supporting matters from the various organs that elaborate
these and send them out for use throughout the body generally ; and in
addition bring back to the other organs, whose duty it is to get rid of
spent or superfluous matter, what the tissues are either done with or
have no need of. If this be the case, the purer the water at our
disposal the more effective will be the results following upon its use.
Let the body be supplied with pure water, it has then at its disposal a
proper distributing medium wherew'ith, on one hand, to send out the
matters with which it supports life, and, on the other, to drain off w'hat
would otherwise clog up the system and retard useful work in its several
branches. Further, let the body have enough of food to keep all going.
Let the water be devoted to its own proper end, and the food likewise.
There is plenty of lime in milk, meat, and bread, wdthout looking to water
for it. The water is wanted in the animal economy for making the food
matters in them fully available ; nothing further need be expected of it.
So in theory, but in practice we have to take things as they are, and
. act accordingly. If rain-water be the softest at our command, although
we know it be the most serviceable, still it is not the most palatable,
and we cannot have two full supplies at the one place. Where other
water is to be had, rain-water is never made the source of supply at
the homestead. It is always competent to the thrifty housewife to
make provision for the storage of as much rain-water as will keep the
washhouse going. More than this, however, can hardly be looked for
when provision is made for a supply of water from some other source
than the rainfall collected from the roofs of the buildings.

THE WATER SUPPLY— IN THEORY. 177

Tu nu ^- .. It is advisable, whenever there is doubt in the matter, to
1 he Chemist ' '

should be con- consult a chemist with regard to water about to be chosen
Doubt exists ^'"^'^ supplying the homestead. The water selected may be
over a new pure so far as one's eyes can tell. It may be clear and

ater upp y. gpj^j-i^-Jii^^r^ and yet contain substances both in solution and
suspension that render it unsuitable as a chief source of supply, and
even it may be positively dangerous to the health either of man or
beast. The matters in solution may be such that at one homestead
they may have no ill effect, while at another they may render the water
quite unsuitable for some important operations at another one. At an
ordinary arable farm, for instance, a water highly charged with the salts
of iron, say, may be quite acceptable at the place ; but at a neighbour-
ing one, where butter-making is the leading industry, a water of this
nature may be entirely unsuitable in that connection. At the one place
the water might answer all requirements, at the other it would be rejected
as being prejudicial in the preparation of the principal commodity of the
farm. Hard water, if otherwise good, is acceptable at the dairy.

Taste is a very good guide in some respects. When too pronounced
in a sample the source thereof is to be avoided. The salts of lime can
hardly be distinguished in this way. Neither can those of sodium,
unless present to a large extent. Common salt we mentioned above as
being the chief of these. But few of us ever come across an inland
spring so strong of ordinary salt as to give the unmistakable taste.
Potassium salts are equally difficult of recognition. The salts of
magnesium are more readily revealed when present in water. But of
the most prevalent substances found dissolved in water the salts of iron
are perhaps the most readily recognisable by the tongue. And some of
these are the most objectionable among the lot. They give the water
a decided taste. ^Moreover, when allowed to stand in a vessel for some
time, it in many cases develops an offensive odour. A scum appears on
the surface and a rusty sediment gathers at the bottom. A water of
this kind is entirely unsuitable as a source of supply to the homestead.

It will be a strongish water indeed that makes the average man
suspicious of it through taste alone, more especially if the flavour thereof
is not due to the presence of iron. The others seldom go alone, or, what
is perhaps more exact, we rarely find one group of the various salts,
excepting that of lime, predominating over the rest to any marked
degree. When this is so, we are then, as we said above, dealing with
what may be truly termed a "mineral spring."

The degree of hardness in a water we can tell approxi-
read"^'^" f ™3,tely by the rough-and-ready method referred to above
gauging the of trying what effect soap has upon it. Doing so with the
W^at '^^^^ water both as it is and after being boiled will reveal to us

relatively how much of the hardness is "temporary " and
how much " permanent."

M.H. N

lyS THE MODERN HOMESTEAD.

But the chemist who is experienced in water analysing will clear up
all these matters without further ado, and provide us with a tabulated
statement of the principal substances that are dissolved in water. It
may be wise, therefore, in every case, whether there be room for suspi-
cion or not, to submit a sample of the water that is considered likely to
serve the homestead to be dealt with in the laboratory. For not only
will the expert furnish us with full particulars of what the water contains
in the way of mineral matters, but in addition he will point out (what
we are unable to tell even the existence of therein) the amount of
organic matter dissolved in it. This organic matter may have its
origin either from vegetable or from animal sources. It may arise
from the decay of herbage or from the remains of animals in the
soil, in either case washed out by the rain. It may have resulted,
too, from matter brought more or less direct to it from where either
man or animals were housed.

_, No matter whence derived, however, the presence of

The presence ' ' r

of Organic organic substances in water is, as stated above, more pre-

M alter in iudicial than the earthy substances referred to. The latter

Water to be ^ _ •'

viewed with cause inconvenience rather than carry danger ; but it is
Suspicion. different with the former. So long as the organic matters

are not acting the part of host to disease-causing microbes, their presence
in the water has little or no effect thereon. It is almost alone in respect
of their being accompanied by these dangerous organisms that the
organic matters present in water have to be carefully watched and kept
at bay. The organic matter that arises from decay going on in the
soil has a fairly clean sheet in this respect, unless under exceptional
circumstances. Instances of these may arise, as already hinted, in the
manuring of the land, and in the burial of carcases near enough to the
collecting area of the water to affect the same. In these, as well as in
many other ways, which will readily occur to the man who knows
something of rural affairs, may the w^ater supply be rendered unsafe.
Most of them may, however, be guarded against, and the gathering
ground of the water be kept clear of danger in this respect. But there
remains the fact that should the water by any means come to contain
any of the microbes that are prejudicial to the health either of man or
animal, the organic matter we are referring to will be favourable, if not
to their propagation, at least to their maintenance in the fluid. The
less of this the water is known to contain the more security therefore is
one justified in feeling that his water supply is beyond suspicion.

But with organic matters derived from the other source mentioned —
from the waste of man and animals — w^e can never have the satisfaction
of knowing that they are free from dangerous organisms. And we
repeat once more, it is these we have to dread as accompaniments to our
water. And what makes the danger the greater, neither the taste, the
smell, nor the appearance of the water w'ill reveal the presence of these

THE WATER SUPPLY— IN THEORY. 179

when it is fully charged therewith. The water may be all that is
desirable, and yet be poisonous on account of its harbouring countless
organisms far beyond the powers of our senses to distinguish. For all
we can tell, they may be abundant in the water at one time and completely
absent at another.

It must not be inferred from this that water is ever altogether free of
the microscopic life w^e refer to. No water, unless what has been newly
distilled, or that has been sterilised, ever is. We question if even dis-
tilled water has shaken off all the organisms that were in the water from
which it was prepared. Some of the organisms that live in water can
survive a light boiling such as takes place in distillation. But under
the process of sterilisation, whereby water is heated to a higher tempera-
ture than boiling-point (which can be done under pressure), there is
small chance of any surviving the ordeal. On occasion, when dealing
with special fluids — milk, for instance — the process may have to be
renewed. What will kill the mature organisms may not harm the
spores or germs thereof. When these have had time to develop after
the cooling down of the fluid, another heating disposes of them ; and so
on with successive crops.

The analytical chemist may, as we have said, indicate the special
substances contained in any sample of water, and the comparative
quantities of each. He might be able also to give us some idea of the
amount of microscopic life it contained. But even if he did, what
would be the good ? W^ater is never free of the organisms we speak of ;
and the evil-disposed ones may show themselves at one time and not at
another. Besides, the work that is involved in the separation, or rather
the identification, of the different species of these organisms is out
of the sphere of the analytical chemist. It comes under the province
of the bacteriologist, with his high-power microscopes and gelatine
preparations.

It is enough for us to be told that there is almost no trace of animal
organic matter in the water, or at any rate to know what organic matter
does reveal itself is in all likelihood derived from a vegetable source.
The chemist may be misled on this point, but we who happen to know
the physical conditions of the gathering-ground of the water can satisfy
ourselves on this head. If the water be out of reach of drainage from
hamlet or homestead, and of surface-water that has been in contact with
midden manure, and the chemist otherwise testifies favourably regard-
ing its composition, we may accept of it wath confidence as a suitable
source of supply of water to the homestead.

Specimens of Below w^e give two reports by Dr. Aitken, chemist
Water to the Highland and Agricultural Society of Scotland,

na yses. ^^^ some samples of water submitted to him for

analysis.

The first embraces waters from three different sources, which were

N 2

i8o

THE MODERN HOMESTEAD.

looked upon as being likely to answer the requirements of several

homesteads : —

" Parts per 100,000.

No. I.

No. 2.

No. 3.

Solids dissolved ....

Chlorine ......

1-6

1-4

Free ammonia ....

•0048

•0045

•0035

Albuminoid ammonia

•0214

•0300

•0132

Nitric acid

•I

trace

^^ , ( Removable on boiling .
Hardness -^^ ^ , ,

I Not so removable .

8-1

8-0
5-i

7-2
4-6

" Waters No. i and No. 2 are very similar — they are dull, turbid
waters, containing a good deal of vegetable organic matter in solution.
It does not seem that the organic matter is either of a kind or quantity
to render the waters unfit for use for domestic purposes. They are
third-rate potable Avaters.

" No. 3 is rather better than the other two as being less contaminated
with organic matter. It is a somewhat hard water ; the hardness is
such as to cause boiler incrustation, but I have no doubt of its being
quite wholesome. ,, j^ p Aitken."

The somewhat muddy state of the water which is implied with regard
to Nos. I and 2 w^as due to the samples having been taken before the
water had settled down properly after excavation, and to a heavy rain-
fall coming on the back of the same.

The next report is with regard to a sample drawn from a well within
the precincts of a homestead. It was the only source of supply at the
place. It had been complained of for some time, and was gradually
becoming worse, at which, judging from the following, there is little
wonder : —

"Parts per 100,000.

Solids dissolved .......

ii6-o

Chlorine ........

17-0

Free ammonia

•0184

Albuminoid ammonia ......

•0166

Nitric acid ........

•6

TT , f Removable on boiling
Hardness J , , , ^

( Not so removable

26-5
IO-5

" This is a sample of very hard water — too hard to be recommended
for household use, and quite unfit for a closed hot-water supply.

THE WATER SUPPLY— IN THEORY. i8i

" It is at present polluted with organic matter, probably accidentally
introduced from interference with digging, draining, or working about
the works or the pump, or the like that may be there.

" In the absence of all knowledge of the source and surroundings of
the water, I am unable to say if the organic impurity is of a kind to
make the water unfit for drinking. ,c \ -d \

° "A. F. AlTKEX.

Fuller reports than these are, of course, to be had of the chemist, but
the foregoing, read in the light of local knowledge, are explicit enough
as guides whether a certain water can with propriety be turned to
account for homestead purposes.

An undue amount of chlorine present in water is Aiewed, as we have
already said, with suspicion, as likely to arise from the break-up of
organic matter. In fact, its presence is suggestive of some connection
with excretal matter. And similarly with the two forms of ammonia
quoted, and with the nitric acid. The organic matter referred to in the
first report, and bearing on samples Nos. i and 2, was due to vegetable
rather than animal sources, and, therefore, comparatively harmless.
The water from each source now supplies several homesteads, that of
No. 2 some half-dozen at the least, and at every one the water is most
acceptable. In both cases it is clear and bright, and gets no filtering
of any kind.

The water involved in the second report had evidently been receiving
all sorts of stufif from the subsoil of the farmyard, and its character as
revealed by the chemist at once put it out of count. Fancy having to
cook wath this water, or to wash ! It already held so much matter in
solution that its solvent power was about exhausted. It had no
stomach for more, either solid or liquid.

It is well, therefore, to make certain of a matter of the kind by sub-
mitting Avater over which there is a doubt to the searchlight of the
chemist.

CHAPTER IX.

The Water Supply — in Practice.

The rainfall from the roofs has in many situations to act
The Rainfall , ^ , ^ , , , ^ .

on the Roofs ^s the source or supply or water to the homestead, it is

as a Source Qj^g^ however, that ought to be evaded as far as possible.
There are so many difficulties and draAvbacks connected
with a supply of this sort that it has always to be treated with sus-
picion. To begin with, the water requires to be stored so close to the
buildings that it is almost impossible to avoid offensive matters now
and again gaining admission to the tank. The top of the tank has
perforce to be pretty near the surface of the ground, and leakage there-
into is consequently difficult of prevention. And Avhen the tank is
sound in this respect there is still the danger connected in this way
with the piping that coiiAeys the water to the tank. These may be
Avell enough laid to start with, though to insure this alone the closest
supervision of the tradesmen is required. And even when a good job
has been secured the pipes after they are covered up are liable to suffer
from accidents. One or two may easily be fractured without the
waterway being interfered with, or any other indication of the damage
being revealed, but these flaws will, until remedied, be a constant
source of danger to the purity of the water.

But jobs of the kind have to be faced sometimes, and
The Construe- then there is nothing for it but to make the best of the
Storage Tank business. ^luch depends upon the nature of the subsoil
as to how deep the storage tank will be. If hard rock
comes near to the surface, we may be sure it will not, under this circum-
stance, be constructed A-ery deep. For our part, Ave aa'ouIcI rather haA'e
the tank narroAv and deep than broad and shalloAV. The one is far
more easily coA'ered ovev than the other ; and the top is the most diffi-
cult part of the tank to construct properly. The A\'alls — the sides and
ends — of the tank may be of brick or of concrete. Either can be made
thoroughly AA^atertight. The bricks may be built Avith lime mortar, and
afterAA'ards be all faced over inside Avith a continuous coat of Portland
cement plaster ; or they may be built Avith cement mortar and made
Avatertight as the building proceeds. The former method is the more
advisable of the tAvo. The bottom of the tank is generally left until the
sides and ends have been built. It is practicable sometimes to lay tlae

//'■/ ■/'■■///' ^'/'fu///''//////^f ///'////

}

THE WATER SUPPLY— IN PRACTICE. 183

bottom first, making it both wide and long enough to afford a scarce-
ment for the walls to bear upon. But the walls usually have a sound
enough foundation in the subsoil without this being had recourse to.
And where water proves troublesome during the excavation, it is
necessary to have done with the walls before completing the bottom.
If there is much water to contend with, this is often a very troublesome
operation. When the water can be drained away from a \e\el
below the bottom of the tank matters become easy. But this can
seldom be done. If a corner happens to be near dipping ground, a
trench may be cut from there down to a lower level than the base of
the trench, and so draw the water from where it is in the way. As a
rule, however, at those places where tanks have to be made for the
storage of rain-water there is not much underground water to trouble
one in the construction of these. Were underground water so plentiful
as to prove an obstruction in this way, it could surely be turned to
account as a supply in itself. If
there v/ere abundance of water
near the surface adjoining the
buildings, there would, in all pro-
bability, be plenty available far
enough from the steading to be
out of reach of pollution therefrom,
yet near enough to be readily avail-
able thereat. Rain-water would in
all likelihood be the only water left
to deal with, and it would not be
difficult to encounter. At any rate, there would not be any more water
to cope with than could be mastered by means of baling with pannikin
and bucket.

The top or cover of the tank is, as we remarked above, the most
difficult part of the affair. Arching it over with brickwork as a con-
tinuation of the walls makes the strongest job. Where, however, there
is not much chance of heavy weights, such as loaded carts, and it may
be an occasional traction-engine or itinerant thrashing-machine, a flat
cover may do. Here, again, concrete comes in as a suitable material.
T-shaped angle iron or steel beams are laid across the tank a foot or
two apart, and sheets of concrete laid between, as in Fig. 148. Boards
propped up from underneath keep the concrete in position until it sets,
after which they are taken out. This makes a capital cover and a
watertight one. The flat cover enables us, as a comparison of the last
fig. wath Fig. 149 will show, to have more water storage for the sam'e
depth of excavation than the arch-covered one permits of. The arch
takes up more room than the lintel or flat cover, and each must have
a certain amount of soil over it. We advocate, as already said, deep
and narrow tanks in preference to broad and shallow ones. If it is

Fig. 1/

1 84

THE MODERN HOMESTEAD.

impracticable to ,qo deep, then the loss in this direction must be made
up in length. Tiiere is a limit here, too, however. But we can
duplicate the narrow tank with another alongside, as in Fig. 150. We
may, in fact, widen the tank to any size in this way so long as we have

partitions near enough to allow
, \\\\ii^^xT"^*TTTT2;2'/'- °*^ strength either to arch or lintel.

The partition may either be of
brick from top to bottom, with
abundance of openings therein for
the water to pass to and fro, or it
may consist of brick pillars with
a girder on top ; or the partitions
may have arched openings therein.
Somewhere in the top there
must be provision made for gain-
ing admittance to the tank for its occasional inspection, as well as for
cleaning it out and repairing it. The sides of this opening ought, of
course, to be carried up clear of the ground, completely watertight, and
stand a little height above the same and be closely covered over. It
must be after the nature of and as effective as a ship's hatch, in fact.

A tank constructed on these lines will be capable of retaining
unharmed, so far as it is concerned, the water that may be delivered
into it. It will be no cheap affair, however. In order that the water
may be carried to it as led from the roofs the conductors or drop-pipes
must all communicate with Hart traps in the manner described on
page no. The Hart traps in their turn have to be carefully jointed to
the spigot and faucet fireclay pipe drain that leads to the tank. These
drains, how many soever there be, must, when laid, be thoroughly
watertight from one end to the other — from the Hart trap to the tank.
They should enter the tank as near

ji^i

the top as possible in order to

make the most of the storage room.

To make sure that the drains will

be out of harm's way from ordinary

traffic overhead, they should have

at least eighteen inches of cover;

but generally more than this

will have to be allowed on account

of affording a sufficient cover

of soil over the top of the tank.

It is not practicable to fit these tanks with filters that
Not very
practicable to \v()uld liave any marked degree of efficiency. \\'hen the

annex a Filter uater is delivered into a tank of the kind it is often in

to the Tank. , , , /- , ,- 1 rr ^ ^

such \()lunie that only a hlter 01 tlie coarsest stun would
admit the water as fast as it came. It is by paying proper attention to

/," ■/,'., ■'//
Fig. 150.

THE WATER SUPPLY— IN PRACTICE. 185

the <:(eneral cleanliness of the various roofs that we can best promote the
purity of the water in this instance. If the work be efficiently done on
the lines above suggested, all the filter required would be a grating over
each of the inlets from the rhones to the conductors. Nothing could
get into the water from the ground level, and these gratings would keep
back leaves and straws that had found their way to the roofs, the only
place left to be guarded against as likely to pass odd matters along with
the water that fell thereon.

An overflow drain from the tank is an essential adjunct. If the tank
were large, the overflow would not often be called into service ; still, the
tank could not be considered effective unless provision were made
for its relief during a time of pressure. A run-ofif or scour-drain is, in
order that the tank be complete of its kind, even more essential than
the overflow. The tank can never in the absence of this be thoroughly
cleaned out. Rarely, however, is such a convenience provided. Its
construction generally means so much trouble and expense that it is at
times rather meanly passed over by those who ought to know better.
Once let the contents of the tank become polluted by disease-causing
microbes, it is difficult to see how it could be properly cleaned and
disinfected failing such effective aid as a flushing or scouring drain
affords on these occasions.

A tank of this nature requires to be of a considerable size, else it will
often be a source of discontent ; it will be found empty at a time Avhen
water is most needed. ]\Iore especially is this so in the dairying districts.
In spring the roots have become scarce about the place, the cows have
begun to calve, and in consequence much sappy food has to be prepared.
That means the use of a good deal of water daily. But this is at the
time of the year when the rainfall is light, and the stored rain-water is
decreasing rapidly. If the tank be not, therefore, of a fair size to start
with, the supply of water from such a source will frequently fail at the
time it is most wanted.

Storage for no less than a six-weeks' supply ought properly to be
provided. March, April, and May are the trying months. During
these, e\'en in times of phenomenal drought, it seldom happens that
there are not frequent showers now and again. But these may not be
heavy enough to weigh against the daily demand on the dwindling store.
It is not a very difficult matter to settle on the size of a

the^Ank °^ ^^"^ ^^^^^ ^""'^^^ ^^°^^ ^^^^ quantity of water we have just
mentioned. Allowing fifteen gallons a day for each cow,
and assuming that there is a herd of fifty to be catered for, this means
750 gallons a day for the cows alone. But there are the horses and the
other live stock at the homestead to be kept in view ; and there is also
the house to be provided for. Say that we allow 200 gallons dailv for
these inclusive, the total comes up to 950 gallons a day ; but let us fix it
at 900. W'e ha\e forty-two days in the six weeks, which at 900 each

1 86 THE MODERN HOMESTEAD.

amounts to 37,800 gallons in all. Now, it takes six and a <iuarter
gallons of water to make a cubic foot of the fluid ; consequently we have
a tank of a capacity of 6,048 cubic feet to construct. This is no small
affair when it comes to be looked into, either on paper or in reality.
We can give no rule for the shape of the tank. That must be governed
completely by the circumstances of the case, no two of which are alike.
If the proposed site of the tank is on rock or other stuff difficult to
excavate, or in a place where underground water is apt to be trouble-
some, or over ground that would need much propping up while the
excavation was being proceeded with, depth would ha\e to be evaded
and the size made up either in the length or the breatdh of the tank.
Suppose it were inad\isable to sink no deeper than would give us a tank
five feet deep, then if we made it ten feet wide, it would, in order that it
possessed the capacity specified, have to be within an inch or two of
121 feet long. It can, of course, be made wider than ten feet. It may
be twenty feet or it may be fifty feet in width as circumstances dictate.
But whatever the width, we would make it some multiple of five, in
order that the partitions therein were no further than five feet apart.
The arch over this space can be kept flattish without loss of strength ;
and it is not a stretch to test too much the powers of the lintel. Seldom,
however, is a tank of this size constructed. Affairs of the kind are too
often made on more restricted lines, with the result of an occasional
water famine. But when rain sets in, the past inconvenience is for-
gotten ; and the following spring may be a wet one and allow matters
to drift on.

When the tank is arched over it is the outside part of the brickwork
that needs to be made watertight. There is no chance of water forcing
its way upwards through the brick covering, but plenty will leak in if
it can gain an inlet. There is little use therefore plastering the inside
of the arch in the same manner as we suggested the walls should be
done. The inner plastering might be continued for five or six inches
above the level of the spring of the arch, but no more is needed. The
outer plastering, however, is the better to be carried a few inches down
from the level of the wallhead. Finished thus, the tank is capable of
retaining what is brought to it by the feeders laid for that purpose, and
of rejecting whatever seeks an entrance at other points. The concrete
of the flat-covered tank, if laid a little thicker than the depth of the angle
iron, so as completely to embed the top therein, will be one continuous
sheet impervious to water.

It has to be remembered tliat, unless where it is so con-

A Pump a 111 r r 1 -1 1- •

necessary tnved tliat the roof water of any buildmg is set apart for

Adjunct of the special use of the inmates thereof, and stored at a
the Tank. 1 1 , • 1 , • , • , . , . .

level high enough to gravitate to the points at which it is

wanted, every drop of water from a supply of this kind has to be pumped

up from the tank. That alone is a serious drawback to this method of

THE WATER SUPPLY— IN PRACTICE. 187

securing a supply of water. It is little thought of by those accustomed

to scarcity of water ; but when the water is assured the constant labour

implied in ha\ing to pump up all that is required for hourly and daily

use grows irksome. Unquestionably it is an item of labour which so

far as lies in the power of the proprietor ought to be spared the occupant

of the farm. But there are situations where it cannot be avoided, and

a homestead that is dependent for its water supply on what falls upon

the roofs of the houses is one of these. Others there are which we shall

touch upon further on.

It rarely occurs even at those places where rain-water is

The ordinary turned to account as above described that there is not

Horse and

Duck Pond. some pond or other watering-place which in so far as

the animals are concerned helps to eke out the main
supply. Too often, however, the pond is suffered to become a nuisance.
If ducks and geese have free access to it, they help to make matters
Avorse ; they stir up the loose sediment and keep the water muddy.
When the pond is merely the accumulated surface-water of the
surrounding ground it may be empty for long periods, the contents
as it approaches ebb being thick mud. But if fed by a streamlet the
pond is generally capable of being kept wholesome for most of the
year. The outlet of a main drain is often the sole tributary to the
pond, contributing liberally in the wet seasons, but not a drop during
drought.

Even the pond that is merely a widening out of some passing stream-
let dries up in summer. But it is not during summer that the homestead
pond is most in requisition. The live stock are then away in the fields,
where they are supposed to ha\e water as well as grass to come and go
to at pleasure. It is at the time of hand-feeding, from October till May,
that the pond is serviceable, and usually it contains water during this
period. At the dairy farm the homestead pond, if available, is visited
morning and exening all through summer by the cows as they pass to
and fro at milking time. It is at the dairy farm, if anywhere, therefore,
that the pond must be attended to. If other water is to be had there,
the pond should be abolished. So indeed it ought to be elsewhere, if
it be practicable to dispense with it, although horses may safely be
treated to water which it would be bad policy to present to milk cows.
But we are speaking of it here as supplementary to a ram-water supply.
The rain-water supply is rather against there being a large trough con-
structed whereat all kinds of stock can drink their fill without making
the water filthier for those who come after them, as they are so apt
to do when they have to wade into the pond to get a proper mouthful.
When the trough is dependent on the pump for being kept full the
arrangement never answers well, and this is the reason why a good
supplementary watering pond is a good thing to have in connection
with a homestead so situated as regards water.

1 88 THE MODERN HOMESTEAD.

If, however, the pond is to be an adjunct of the homestead,
b t^rned^^ let it, no matter how fed, be constructed in such a way
to better that there Avill be a i\iinimum of mud at the bottom and

Account. ^j- g^j^ji^^ ^^ ^Yie top. Let tlie bottom be of some hard,

impervious material smoothed off in such a manner that it can easily be
scraped when it comes to be exposed during drought, or for that part at
any time it may be con^•enient to withdraw and divert the water there-
from. Let the banks or sides be similarly of a material that will not
crumble away under the influence of every mimic wave that spends
itself against them. Constructed thus, the pond, whether filled witli
surface-water, with the effluent of a main drain, or with water from a
passing streamlet, will keep its contents comparatively sweet and whole-
some, will be capable of at any time being easily cleansed, and at no
tmie, unless when gross carelessness and laziness prevails at the place,
will it ever become a nuisance. Ducks and geese may be left to their
own sweet wills in a place of this kind. \Mien the silly mood overtakes
them and they rush with flapping wdngs from one end to the other, one
minute above water and the next beneath, the water will be little the
worse for their strange evolutions. It will not, like what liappens in the
ordinary farm pond when " the devil enters the ducks," be left as though it
were some spent part of a spate.

In some parts of England, in those districts w^here the subsoil is
pervious to water, and none is to be looked for from that source, great
care is taken in the construction of watering ponds. Not only is the
bottom of the pond carefully scooped out and made firm and smooth,
but in addition it has to be left thoroughly watertight. If it were not
capable of keeping the water from passing to the subsoil, none of it
would remain in the pond. At most places the subsoil is sufficiently
retentive to enable us to dispense with this operation. Were it not so,
the farm ponds would, we suspect, be very different affairs to those
which the most of us are familiar with.

When water other than that from the roofs of the buildings
w ^11 is selected for the wants of the homestead the occupier is

nearly always saved the labour of pumping by hand. If
the water will not come to the place by gravitation, but has to be lifted
from a lower level, then, in the latter case, it will be too far away to
admit of hand-pumping, for it would never do to have a well sunk so
near to the homestead as that implies. A well, unlike the rain-water
tank above described, is not an affair intended only to hold water until
wanted. The tank admits no water either at side or bottom ; it must
come in at the top, without having once touched the soil. But the well
is simply an artificial opening underground, sometimes deep and some-
times shallow, into which the water in the surrounding subsoil can
drain and collect. The rain-water tank, if well constructed, can be
ranged alongside the dungstead without liarm to its contents. Were

THE WATER SUPPLY— IN PRACTICE. 189

the well put there, however, its contents would be on a par with the
liquid manure tank. There would be nothing to hinder the drainings
from the dungstead finding their way into the well. The well, there-
fore, having a " crop for all kmds of corn," is not a safe contrivance to
be placed anywhere in or adjoining the homestead. Being no dis-
criminator, but ready to welcome all comers, it is easily seen that the
subsoil that comes within the influence of the homestead is no place in
which to sink a well. We get an instance of this at the close of last
chapter, in the latter of the reports by Dr. Aitken. How near it may be
with safety to the homestead is entirely dependent on the circumstances
of each case.

It is different, as we mentioned in last chapter, with

Water from regard to water derived from a source deep down in the
a Bore. ^ . ^

ground. In boring, we seek to tap a supply far beneath

anvthing with which the water in the subsoil at the mouth of the bore
has to do. If successful, we have delivered at the surface cool w'ater
that has undergone the perfection of natural filtration. Surface-water
to begin with, the deep-seated water that rises in the bore as it per-
colated through earth and rock in its downward course, gradually got rid
of all that it carried in suspension. But while doing so it was dissolving
substances from the different strata, hard and soft alike, that it penetrated
on its way downwards. We may therefore look for the water from a bore
to be thoroughly pure as regards matters in suspension, but, as a rule,
considerably hard. It will have cast off what solid matters joined com-
pany with it in the air and on the ground — dust, microbes, mud, and all ;
but it will be pretty heavily charged with the various salts of the earth
that are unable to resist the solvent property of water.

This will not hold good unless the bore-hole be protected for the first
twenty feet or so at the top. If bordered there by the earth or rock alone,
unless the latter is dense and homogeneous, then therS is nothing to
hinder the water in the surface soil from draining into the bore as it
does, although in a freer manner, into the cavity of the well. But to
guard against this the upper end of the bore, from the surface soil to
where the rock, at any rate, is struck, is rendered secure by means of
zinc tubes fitted closely therein. This precaution enables the water
from the bore to be obtained quite free of contamination from the
surface soil.

At this rate the bore could, so far as immunity from contamination
therefrom is concerned, be sunk alongside a dunghill. But the bore, if
formed beside the buildings, leads, as the well does, to the obligation
of hand-pumping on the part of the farm hands. It is not suitable,
therefore, to place it there if the farm be large and much water in con-
sequence be required. At the small homestead, however, the bore may
be within hand-reach of the kitchen door. We have in our mind"s eye
two or three instances of homesteads where the bore is so situated, and

I go THE MODERN HOMESTEAD.

always ready to respond to the pump-handle with a delivery of clear,
sparkling, and cool water.

W'e have in our mind some others, too, sunk at some little distance
from the homestead, and at a higher le\ el, the water from which
gravitates in a steady " pirl " day and night all the year round down to
the steading without aid from pump or other mechanical contrivance.
It is in cases like these where the bore is the most serviceable. It can,
when thus situated, with regard to the farm buildings, be made to yield
a steady supply without the labour of pumping. The kind of bore we
speak about rarely, however, delivers water over the sides of the opening
at the surface. The w^ater generally rises no higher inside the bore than
the water-level of the surrounding ground. But if the ground in which
the bore is sunk be a little higher than the site of the homestead it is no
difficult matter to run a drain or lay a pipe from a little below- the water
level in the bore down to the steading, along which the water can
crravitate freely. Although the bore is but a small opening, usually no
more than three inches in diameter (generally four from the surface
until the rock is tapped and three thereafter), yet, if a successful one, it
is in direct communication with water-bearing strata that are ready to
avail themselves of the relief that an expansion pipe such as the bore
resembles yields to them, and in consequence is almost certain to be
kept constantly supplied with water. Hard pumping has little or no
effect in lowering the water-line of the bore.

If, therefore, it is competent to get the supply pipe connected to the
column of water in the bore sufficiently far below- the water-line referred
to, we are insured of a steady supply of good, wholesome water. It may
be hard, but it will be free of the kinds of pollution that are characteristic
of water obtained from the surface of the ground, or from the subsoil
not far beneath. Sometinjes it answ^ers better to form a watertight tank
at the head of the bore and carry the supply-pipe therefrom. This is
advisable when the yield of the bore is not very strong as affording a
store in advance of the ordinary issue from the orifice. Or, for that
part, there may be a receiving tank dow^n somewhere in the neighbour-
hood of the buildings, with pipes led therefrom to the \'arious points of
the homestead where the delivery of w-ater is required. But these are
details regarding w'hich there can be no fixed rules laid down, for each
case must be dealt with according to surrounding circumstances.

Boring for water in the small way we have been discuss-
Watef on'^the '^^" ^^' unfortunately, very uncertain work. On the big
small Scale scale of which we read about it being done in connection
usualfy rather ^^"^^^'^ artesian wells there is no uncertainty about the
uncertain in matter. The latter are sunk on principles which are
^^" *^' ruled by the geological features of wide areas of country.

For every hundred feet we go down, by means of our hand-worked
drill, the artesian well sinker, with his efficient machinery, penetrates a

THE WATER SUPPLY —IN PRACTICE. 191

thousand, until he taps the locked-up water of some stratum which is
ever on the watch for an outlet, and will, when the opportunity occurs,
rush up the bore-hole with a force sufficient to lift itself some feet clear
of the surface. The pent-up water may be collected in a large hollow
or fold in the strata that affects a large tract of country. Nearly the
whole of the rainfall that is imbibed by the latter eventually collects in
the hollow or fold in which there is certain to be some stratum or other
impervious to water, and beyond which it cannot descend. In this
hollow, tlien, the water has to lie, all the relief it is ever likely to get,
under ordinary circumstances, consisting in spilling over the edges in
the times of plenty. A bore let down into a water source like this is
pretty sure of an endless supply of good, pure water.

The geologist can tell when the conditions favourable to artesian
well-making exist, and, once assured on this point, the well-sinker has
no doubt of water plentifully rewarding his labours. But it demands
no great stretch of intellect to foresee that these conditions will not hold
good where the rocks of a country, favourably situated otherwise for the
purpose, are traversed by fissures or cracks. These would turn our
hollows into cracked basins, as it were, and water would not lodge
therein. The conditions favourable to this method of water-procuring
are, therefore, only met with where the geological formation of the
district are either of a comparatively recent origin, and therefore little
knocked about, or, if far back in the earth's history, has been but to a
slight extent the sport of the forces that have torn and twisted tlie
earth's crust into its present shape.

But the boring likely to be undertaken in the interests of a homestead
is a small affair in comparison with one viewed in connection with the
lie of the rocks within a wide area. In one case the bore is but a pin-
prick to the long probe that affords an outlet to the deep-seated waters
that are set at liberty in the case of the artesian well. The latter, as we
have already said, takes into account the geological formation of the district,
w^hereas our undertaking is no wider in its reach than a few acres at the
outside. It is, as a rule, all guess-work with us. We may be success-
ful in finding water or we may not — all according to circumstances that
we are not in a position to cope with, ^\'e may at one time strike
water at an early stage of operations, but towards the termination of
the job, having to penetrate a fair depth when about the business so
that a good supply is made sure of, may lose the whole of it by coming
in contact with a seam that will absorb the water or give it free passage,
without its having to rise to the water-level in the opening. A hole is
then knocked in the bottom of our cask with a vengeance. Or we may
find after driving the drill a hundred feet or so down that from some
similar reason the water will not rise high enough in the hole to be
available at the surface, even with the aid of a pump. We cannot help
smiling to ourselves at an incident that happened during the sinking of

ig2 THE MODERN HOMESTEAD.

a bore with a \ iew to supplying a dairy-farm homestead with a supply of
water. Water had been found and lost as aboxe, but the leak had been
made ti^-ht by means of zinc casing, and hope was high that the work
would, after a little more sinking, be successful. Sunday then inter-
vened. During the long, idle day the farmer betook himself to sounding
the well. His apparatus was primitive, consisting of one of his beam-
scale w-eio'hts with a string attached to the ring. But the well was deep
(between ninety and a hundred feet), and the impro\ised line was so
weak at places that it parted under the strain of withdrawal, and there-
after the weight most effectually barred the way to further operations
in that bore-hole.

Borino- was then given up in disgust and attention turned to an
excellent spring half a mile or so from the homestead, but eighty or
ninety feet lower down. To sink another bore where it w^as known the
chances of obtaining water were doubtful seemed questionable policy.
Had the result been less uncertain, it would nevertheless have been
faced before the spring was taken in hand. The spring-water was both
abundant and of good quality, and was well away from the risk of any
serious contamination. There being no other source of water available
(all parties being against having recourse to the roof water), there was
nothing for it but to pull or push the spring-water along uphill to the
homestead. A Avindmill was set to do the work, and admirably it did
it. A small gathering basin, or well, was constructed at the spring.
This consisted of two or three large fireclay plain pipes, one on top of
the other, sunk so as to enclose the eye of the well, and finished with a^
flat stone on top. Into this well an end of the pipe was led, the other
terminating in a tank situated among the farm buildings. The wind-
mill was erected at a point on the line of the pipe w' here it was considered
there would be a draught so long as there was any motion at all in the
air thereabouts. From this coign of vantage it kept agoing the pump
that w-ith one hand drew water from the spring while with the other
it forced it to the level of the homestead. A 2Vinch iron pipe
was laid from the w^ell to the pump, and a 2 -inch one from the pump
to the storage tank. The storage tank was made large enough to hold
a week's supply of water, and was placed at an elevation sufficient to
allow the water to run by gravitation to the several points where it was
required. The tank in this instance was made of wood, lined inside
with sheet lead, and it had a complete cover of galvanized iron. This
is a method of securing a supply of water that in the event of a
gravitation supply not being practicable can often be fallen back on.

The first essential of a gravitation water supply after that

Gravitation ^f quality of course is, as tlie name implies, that it issues
Supplies. ^ -^ . . r >

from a source situated high enough above the homestead

to allow it to run thereto of its own accord when afforded a proper

channel to course along in. If the source be a tiny rill, the channel

THE WATER SUPPLY— IN PRACTICE.

193

thereof must be deepened and ^videned out so as to form a collecting
space or head of water into which, near to the bottom, the conducting
pipe can be introduced. When one is sure that the inlet of the pipe
will always be covered by the pent-up water, tlais may answer well
enough ; but if there be doubt on this point it is advisable to divert
water from this rill to a storage tank and make it the head of the water
supply. The tank may be placed close to the rill or at some distance
just as circumstances admit. This gives us a more satisfactory system.
Running the water to the tank before admitting it to the supply pipe
enables us better to arrest any sand or fine gravel that happens to
accompany the water being drawn from the rill. The mouth of the pipe
is placed in the side of the rill so as to avoid the sediment at the bottom ;
still, there is certain to be more or less at times drawn into the pipe.
The tank will retain the heavier of the suspended matter, more especially
if we provide it with diaphragms such as are represented in Fig. 151.
The water is admitted at one end of the tank and drawn off
at the other.
x\ny sand or '^ ' ^
similar matter
that is carried
in from the rill
will as the run
of the water is
checked when it
encounters the
contents of the

tank tend to settle. At any rate, only the lightest of the matters in suspen-
sion will be carried over the barrier. The outlet pipe is kept, it will be
noticed, an inch or two above the bottom of the tank in order to be clear of
any sediment; so be fore the water escapes from the tank it must be carrying
less along with it than it was doing when it constituted a part of the rill.
Were we to pass the water through a layer of gravel or stone chips,
roughish to begin with and finer towards where the water issued, a good
deal of the lighter and more minute matters in suspension would no
doubt be arrested. But unless these contrivances are regularly attended
to they are better omitted from the homestead water supplies. They
too often serve but to concentrate noxious matters which, if allowed to
pass with the water, are never noticeable to our senses, and are so much
diluted or show so small a percentage as to be comparatively harmless
otherwise. But arresting these matters at a certain point and allo\\'ing
them gradually to accumulate, and all the time forcing the whole of the
water to find a passage through the mass, is a mild form 'of "poisoning
the water at the fountain." It is giving any dangerous organism that
has found its way into the source whence the supply is drawn a capital
forcing ground, as well as ample sustenance which in the absence of

M.H. o

Fig. 151.

194 T^^ MODERN HOMESTEAD.

this concentrated supply it might have difficulty in findinj; when the
various matters are sparsely scattered throughout the bulk of the water.
The filter at the farm is therefore, as we remarked before, better to be
left out of reckoning. For one who will attend to it there are nineteen
who will not — if indeed they know in what form this attention has to be
gone about, and why.

Much the same, so far as collecting the water preparatory
Walter from ^o allowing it entrance to the supply pipe is concerned,
Surface applies when we have recourse to the water of surface

prings. springs. These are as a rule not very difficult to locate.

A practised eye can soon tell where a spring can be struck. Oftener
than otherwise the water is unable to force its way to the surface of the
ground directly over the " eye " of the spring, and appears at the top, at
a distance which varies according to circumstances. But it is seldom
difficult to trace up a surface spring from where the water makes its
appearance to its originating point. Indeed, the observant man can,
judging from the natural features of the ground, usually take upon
himself to say " If you sink here, I am almost certain you will catch a
spring." We have never come in contact with a water expert — such an
one, we mean, as makes use of the twig, or so-called " divining rod." We
know plenty of men, however, who, while ignorant of geology as a
whole, are sufficiently well versed in the nature of that part of the
earth's crust that comes within their ken as to be able to act as pretty
accurate guides in a hunt for effective springs.

It is not, however, so much the difficulty of tracing springs home to
their sources that gives us trouble in finding water suitable for the
homestead as making it easily available thereto when found. The
spring or springs selected must, of course, be well out of reach of the
influence of contaminating matters either from the homestead or from
dwelling-houses of any kind. It saves trouble and otherwise is more
satisfactory when we can build our well or gathering-place right
over the eye of the spring. This ensures immunity from surface
contamination. We are then able to bring spring and homestead into
direct communication, as it were, without the w^ater ever seeing day-
light. Generally speaking, however, it unfortunately happens that this
is only practicable in those flatfish positions that are found at a lower
level than the site occupied by the homestead, which means forcing up
instead of leading down the water. But when it can be done in this
way for a gravitation supply the job is more effective than where the
w'ater is to be led to a gathering tank as above, and thence to the home-
stead. The water is more in contact with the soil, or at any rate more
under its influence, in the one way than in the other. When we are
fortunate enough to meet with a good spring well above the level of the
homestead it is usually found issuing from rock, or from the side or
immediate base of a slope, therefore not easy of imprisonment in a large

THE WATER SUPPLY— IN PRACTICE. 195

enough well of the kind above implied. In this case we are obliged to form
the reservoir away a little from the spring. It is not always impracticable,
however, even on the high ground to have spring and reservoir in one.
The nature of the tank or reservoir to be formed for the

The Nature of purpose of collecting the overflowings of a surface spring
the Collecting , ^^ ,. , ^ ■, r r t -i

Tank. ^^^ anordmg a good store or head of water for distribu-

tion at the homestead depends, of course, \ery much on
the surrounding circumstances. But something on the same lines as we
suggest at the beginning of this chapter in connection with the storage
of roof water applies here also. It does not require, however, to be any-
thing approaching that in size. What is needed in this case is more in
the way of making sure that the pipe which conveys the water to the
homestead will be always full than anything else. Were the tank
a wanting, there would be nothing but what issued regularly from the
spring to keep the pipe agoing, which it might not be able to do unless
of exceptional volume. But gathered together in a reservoir, the units,
so to speak, which, as they issued from the spring, were impotent by
themselves, now joined together in force, are capable of acting as a
volume of water does.

The stronger the spring the smaller the reservoir requires to be so far
as serving the part of reserve to the spring is concerned. But then, on
the other hand, we have to keep in view the quantity of water that is
likely to be drawn in a short space of time or in one spell at the buildings.
The strong spring, however, will be able to deliver almost as much
water into the tank as can be withdrawn from it, while the weak one,
unable to keep pace with the outgoing supply, requires a long start, or
what is the same thing, a large reservoir somewhere between the well
and the homestead. But these, as we have so often repeated in this and
in other connections, are matters that must be decided on the spot.

Whatever the size fixed for the tank, we would build it.

Its Con- ^g before, of brick — the bricks bedded either in lime or

struction.

cement ; if the former, the whole inner surface of the

walls being plastered with cement. The bottom we would have con-
structed of concrete. Where the circumstances are favourable it may
be wholly constructed of concrete. For the sake of making it easy to
cover over it is advisable to make it long, narrow, and deep, rather than
short, shallow, and wide. Two-and-a-half or three feet wide is an ample
size for a thing of the kind. It is not like when we are constructing a
reservoir that catches water only now and again, as happens with the
rain-water one. At present we are dealing with one into which water
is being constantly delivered. The delivery may at times be small, but
never nil, else a mistake has been made in selecting the source of supply.
In no instance in a supply of this sort need the reservoir be larger than
will contain a full day's supply for the homestead. The tank will make
up by night what it loses by day.

o 2

196 THE MODERN HOMESTEAD.

Flagstones answer well enough to cover a tank of this description.
If allowed to overlap the sides a little, tlie workmen can easily remove
them and lay bare the whole affair at any time this is wanted. And the
flags can be laid close enough together to prevent soil or other matter
dropping into the tank. These are better left rough at the edges than
sawn, because it is advisable to plaster the joints wnth a little lime, and
the rough joint renders this easier than the smooth one. The top may
then.be earthed over, and all is out of reach of sun, wind, and frost.
When the water supply is on a larger scale than our description implies
the tank or reservoir may, with advantage, be roofed o\er — ha\e a house
or shed erected over it, in fact. When this is done the tank is at all
times open to inspection by the one whose duty it is to attend thereto.
But an expense of this kind is not considered necessary in regard to the
homestead supply.

If it is practicable to place the tank on sloping ground in
How to place such a w^ay that an end or side can have a drain led into
lessen^Dlgging. ^^ without much deep cutting, unless when close up to the
tank, being necessitated, much work is saved. The exit
pipe has to be placed near to the bottom level of the tank — not exactly
at the bottom, but two or three inches above, for the reason already
given, and this means considerable cutting in forming the pipe track.
But over and above the exit pipe it is advisable to provide this tank also
with a scour-drain, by means of which the tank can be completely emptied
when it is thought necessary to give it a thorough cleaning out. This,
it is needless to say, requires to be carried in below the level of the
base of the tank, which implies a deeper track than serves for the
supply pipe leading to the homestead. Moreover, the scour-drain must
have a clear fall to its outlet, whereas it is competent, once we are well
clear of the tank, and so long as we do not rise too near to the level of
the water in the tank, to raise the supply pipe and ride over obstacles
that intercept its path. But the scour-drain must go direct to its
destination in one or more steady gradients. This is perhaps rather
extreme. There are few instances where the scour-drain would \\^.x& to
be carried very far to ensure it a proper outlet. Where this did happen
the drain would in all probability be dispensed with. It is, in fact,
oftener omitted than made a part of the arrangement, even where
circumstances are favourable to its adoption. At any rate, the less
deep drain-cutting it is necessary to do in connection with the tank the
better for all parties concerned. If one bears in mind that six feet or so
will be about the depth of the excavation preparatory to tank-building,
it is easy to see how much the cutting of the drains adds to the expense
of constructing the tank. A minimum of two feet deep from the surface
of the ground does for the position of the supply pipe once it is clear of
the tank. This keeps the contents safe from frost in winter, and prevents
the sun's influence being felt in summer. But unless the nature of the

THE WATER SUPPLY— IN PRACTICE. 197

ground favours a quick approach to the surface on the part of the scour-
pipe, the deeper of the two to begin with, a long deep pipe or drain track
is the result.

It is well to have some contrivance whereby the water can be diverted
past the tank or cut off therefrom at any time this is desired. It is
necessary to do so when the tank is being cleaned out or is needful of
repair. A side drain into which the water running towards the tank can,
as wanted, be diverted and led round the side to the exit end of the tank,
and there be joined either to the scour-drain or the drain that leads away
the surplus water, gives one the necessary control over the feed pipe.

It is essential to provide the tank with an overflow pipe of some sort.
If the spare water issuing therefrom is to be used for supplying live
stock in the fields, it had better be led to them in a covered drain. If
suffered to run into an open ditch, it will soon be converted into puddle.
But in whatever way it is to be made a\ailable to the animals, it should
not be placed at their disposal until it has been led away some distance
from the site of the tank. If the distance is not too great, it serves a
good end to lead the overflow water to the neighbourhood of the home-
stead, there to act the part of tributary to such a pond as we described
a few pages back.

Ordinary drain-pipes are good enough for laying both the
The Water- scour and the overflow^ drains w"ith. But for leading water
to the Tank from the spring to the tank only jointed fireclay pipes, as
before described, ought to be used. And the joints should
be rendered tight, as before, with cement. If this is overlooked, roots
of various kinds will insert themselves through the joints into the pipes,
and eventually come to interfere considerably, if not entirely obstruct
the bore of the channel. Sometimes these jointed fireclay pipes are
pressed into service as supply pipes for the homestead. This is generally
done to save expense, but it never answers where any pressure is put
upon the pipes. So long as thev are laid with a slope from the head of
the drain to the foot, and an open end is left at the latter point, they do
well enough, but tliey will not bear a closed end. They act admirably
as a channel through which water is obliged to run along and evacuate
at once ; but they fail entirely when made to do duty as a retaining
medium as well as a conduit or aqueduct.

^, ^ , Lead and iron are the two materials in use for water

The Supply

Pipes : Lead supply pipes that have to resist pressure. Lead pipes

Piping. \rA\G few joints, the metal being capable of elongation

into continuous lengths of piping limited only by their handiness for

manipulation. Each coil can be rolled out in the pipe track as it comes

from the manufacturer, joints only being needed between the respective

coils. No other w^ork is needed. No preparation is applied to the lead

by way of protecting on one side from corrosion in the soil or from the

action of water on the other. The few ends are soldered together and

198 THE MODERN HOMESTEAD.

the pipe is ready for service. The weight per running foot rules the
price of the pipe, consequently either increased thickness of the lead or
enlargement of bore makes it dearer.

Iron is the more generally used of the two. It is much
ron iping. d^eaper than lead, which fact allows us to make use of
larger bore piping than the price of the latter would justify us in adopt-
ing. A two-inch iron pipe can be laid as cheaply as a half-inch lead
one, and this is a great advantage, because a biggish supply pipe holds
a considerable store of water to begin with, and allows the water to run
through it more freely. The iron pipes are manufactured in lengths
running from six to twelve feet. They are cast in moulds standing
upon end, and have spigot and faucet or socket joints. In some cases
the joints are made smooth and tight-fitting and in others are left rough
and loose, something like those of the fireclay pipes. The former are
simply jointed by inserting the small and slightly tapered end of one
pipe into the correspondingly enlarged end of another, and tapping the
pipe hoTne with a sharp knock or two of a wooden mallet. The formation
of rust on the clean faces thus brought together is thereafter trusted to
as the bond of attachment between the two. The pipes with loose
joints are fastened together by means of rope yarn and lead forced in
by hammer and chisel between the faucet of one pipe and the spigot of
another. The lead is first run in molten and afterwards hammered
home. The joints are caulked, as it were, with lead, the rope yarn being
first inserted to form a sort of cushion for the lead to bear against, and at
the same time hinder the lead from being forced into the freeway of the
pipe — for a similar purpose to which we saw it was put in the joining
together of the fireclay pipes we referred to in a previous chapter.

_, ^„ ^ Iron, beinsf less capable than lead of withstanding the

The Effects of ' . ^^ ^ . °

Soil and of corrosive effects both of soil and water unless protected

Water on Iron jj-^ gQ,-,-^g -way, is apt soon to wear out. In fact, a two-inch
Pipes. . . -^ ^ . .

iron pipe runs greater danger of rusting up or becommg

choked witliencrustation of some kind or other than a half-inch lead pipe
runs a chance of becoming obstructed by deposits on its internal surface.
It is usual, therefore, to dip iron water-pipes in a solution resembling
thick black varnish, and thus coat them within and without with a
material that helps them considerably to resist the action of water on
one side and the various agencies at work in the soil on the other. The
only drawback to this varnishing of the pipes is the sort of tarry taste
it gives to the water that at first passes through them. But this soon
dies away. In a few weeks if much water be drawn it becomes gradu-
ally imperceptible. Water pipes of wrought iron galvanized are to be
had, but these are of small bore, and are used for distributing water
throughout houses and other buildings in place of lead piping. These
are not intended for underground use, but not infrequently we see them
doing duty there. That is bad economy, iiowever.

THE WATER SUPPLY— IN PRACTICE. 199

The Effects of Some soils are more severe on lead than others. This
the same on depends entirely on the nature of the emanations there-
iping. fj-Qj^-^^ either gaseous or liquid. Both carbonate of lead and
sulphate of lead are among the most insoluble salts of the metal, conse-
quently it stands to reason that neither the presence of much carbon
di-oxide or carbonic acid nor sulphuric acid in the soil can have much
corrosive effect on lead. If either had free access to the metal, the result
would in all probability be the formation round the pipe of an insoluble
coating, proof against the constant attacks of the universal solvent already
dealt with. But in a soil where nitric acid may come in contact with the
lead the piping has less chance of keeping itself intact. Nitrate of lead is
one of the soluble salts of lead, and were it formed on the exterior of the
pipe, that coating would soon disappear under the influence of water.
When it went another would be formed, and ere long the pipe would be
too thin to hold its contents within bounds. Acetic acid, if present in
the soil, would have a similar effect on the lead. Acetate of lead — sugar
of lead as it is popularly designated — is another soluble salt of that
metal, and there is every probability of acetic acid, although in small
quantities, being present in some classes of soil. In fact, it has every
chance of being near at hand wherever there is much nitric acid about.
Both are accompaniments of active decomposition of animal and
vegetable matter in the soil.

The same holds good in the interior of the pipe. If nitric acid be
present in the water that passes through it, the lead will become affected
as before. Nitrate of lead will be formed and become dissolved in the
water and in this way the pipe will be gradually eaten into. But in prac-
tice these eventualities rarely reach perceptibility. We are not supposed
to make use of water that shows more than a trace of nitric acid. The
water is more likely to contain sufficient free carbonic acid to form an
insoluble skin of carbonate of lead throughout the bore of the pipe.

_ . , The piping, whether it be of iron or of lead, is apter to

Points to be , , r • 1 •

observed in cause trouble on account of miproper laymg than by

laying Supply reason of fallinsr under the sway of chemical action either
Pipes. . . ^. ^ . .....

m the water it gives passage to or in the soil in which it

is buried. There is no necessity for the pipe being laid in one gradient.

In fact, this can rarely be accomplished. It may be led up and down

as in Fig. 152, provided none of the crests of the waves or curves of the

undulating length of piping rise above the level of the outlet from the

tank, else there will be the certainty of the water refusing to run

whenever its level within the tank coincides with the top of the curve. In

the troughs between waves, however, there it is easy to understand will

sediment accumulate, more especially if for one thing the water moves

a little sluggishly through the pipe, and for another the depressions

be abrupt and not wide across. Care must be taken therefore to flatten

out as much as possible all sinuosities of this sort, to keep down the

200

THE MODERN HOMESTEAD.

crests and keep up the troughs. They can seldoni be a\oided, but in
this manner they can be rendered comparatively harmless.

In the worst of the hollows it is advisable where it can be managed
without much trouble to fit scour-cocks on the pipe by means of which
any sediment that collects in these situations can, when water is plentiful,
be washed out of the waterway. A main drain or a ditch sometimes
comes in handy as a way of escape for the water so discharged from the
supply pipe. If such or something equivalent is not immediately within
reach, a branch pipe can be carried thereto. The scour must at any
rate have a clear outfall, therefore its emptying-place must be some
inches beneath the level of the supply pipe.

And at the crests of the undulations it is good policy to have air-cocks
fitted to the pipe. Where these are awanting from a supply pipe that
goes up and down as we are assuming, it takes a long time to get the
air expelled therefrom and its place taken by the water, even with a

Fig. 1=52.

good head to fall back upon. The water is unable to force the air
over the crests. When the pipe is on one gradient, or closely approach-
ing thereto, the water Avhenever admitted clears the air before it as it
rushes for the open valves at the foot. But where there are heights and
hollows in the way it cannot so readily push along the air in its front.
The air, a gas, and light in weight, will ascend readily enough. It
naturally makes for the highest parts of the pipe. It will then pack
into small space under the force of the water endea\ouring to push its
way over the ascent, but eventually will have to yield to circumstances
and seek room for expansion on the other side of the rise. If, however,
the rise and fall make but a narrow fold, the air can hardly be forced
out of the crown thereof. The sides are so steep that unless exceptional
pressure is at our disposal the confined air will not be driven down the
opposite side by the advancing water. But with air-cocks attached to
the pipe at the critical points we are referring to all we have got to do.
while filling the pipe with water, is to open the first cock and let the air
escape, and when water begins to flow from it to shut it off, and so on

THE WATER SUPPLY— IN PRACTICE.

20I

until the pipe is full from end to end. Without their aid it is often a

tedious business to get the pipe filled.

It is sometimes practicable to syphon the water out of a
deep-seated well and lead it to a lower level. Usually,
however, this is practicable only in regard to small
supplies. All the same, there is nothing to hinder its
application to the class of supplies we are discussing.
'I'he water of a steady spring capable of supplying a

homestead could easily be syphoned to the buildings and there be stored

in a tank large enough to hold an ample reserve. But a ball-cock

Sometimes
practicable
to apply the
Syphon to the
Purposes of
the Water
Supply.

Fig. 153.

would be needed at the end of the pipe, otherwise the well would be
emptied right off. The adoption of the syphon saves much mitial deep
cutting ; for instead of having to cut a track for the pipe away from near
the bottom of the well, all we have got to do, as we represent in Fig. 153,
is to lead the pipe over the side. The principle of the syphon, it is
almost needless to say, is, as
depicted in Fig. 154, that
water contained in any vessel
or cavity can be drawn there-
from by means of a pipe, one
end of which is inserted in
the water, the other, the
longer of the two, dipping
over its edge and liberating
the water at a lower level.
In this instance the operator
is able to run off .a decoction
free of lees, or sedmient, with-
out moving the vessel. The Fig. 154.
bend of the syphon must at

no time be at a greater height above the surface of the water in the
well than is equal to a column of water that can be sustained in a

202

THE MODERN HOMESTEAD.

tube forming; a vacuum by the pressure of the atmosphere. It must
be a little lower, in fact, to allow for friction between water and
pipe, and for eventualities. The syphon, therefore, cannot be expected
to be reliable if the short leg, as in Fig. 153, the one that dips into the
well, is longer than tliirty feet— that is to say, from where the pipe bends

over the side to the
bottom of the well.
We cannot adapt the
syphon to the rise and
fall of the contents of
the well, and conse-
quently are obliged to
take the bottom of the
water as the standard
whereon to base the
proportions of our
apparatus.

The air must of
course be withdrawn
or ejected from the
syphon pipe before the
water will flow through
it. It would be enough
to begin with to get the
pipe filled with water
between a and h. The
latter point is a little
the lower of the two,
and therefore the limit
it represents is the
heavier, and so cap-
able of drawing up
the other, after which
the automaton begins
to work. An air-pump
attached to the lower
end of the supply pipe
will soon exhaust the
air in the pipe suffi-
ciently to induce the
water to take its place, and once the pipe is full there is no more
bother with the affair so long as the water holds out and no harm
comes to the pipe. But once air gains admittance, either at
the high end of tlie pipe, on account of water running short,
or anywhere m its length between the points a and h, so tha

Fig.

THE WATER SUPPLY— IN PRACTICE. 203

the continuity of the core of water is broken, the syphon ceases to

act. It is a good plan to have an air-pump attached as a fixture to the

syphon pipe. This makes one independent of professional aid when the

core of water gets broken through other causes than the fracture of the

pipe. Lead, it can easily be understood, is the best material for the

construction of a pipe of this kind.

The ordinary domestic suction-pump (Fig. 155) resembles

The Ordinary ^|^g syphon pipe in SO far that, like the latter, it is of non-
Lift-Pump. J f f f

effect in raising water to a greater height than the air is

capable of supporting it in an inverted tube or vessel forming a vacuum

internally. We work the pump and exhaust the air within the pipe

leading down therefrom into the water we are seeking to raise. The

pressure of the air upon the water forces it up the pipe ready for

delivery at the under valve of the pump ^vhenever we bring the handle

into play. But the air will force the water no further up the pump-pipe

than it will up the short leg of the syphon — hardly so far indeed. This

height varies with the pressure of the atmosphere. When the barometer

stands at twenty-eight inches the air is supporting a column of mercury

that length. Mercury is thirteen-and-a-half times heaA'ier than water,

therefore a water barometer used under the same conditions would

hardly on the same footing as regards finish, &c.

D „ -.a; r. Providing a supply of water in the various fields is often

Providing * ff j

Water in the a more momentous work than making sure of the same at

'^ ^' the homesteads, and one which to a greater extent than

the other calls upon the resource and skill in interpreting local signs
of the water-finder. It is one, however, that is hardly within our
province at present. But we touch on it merely to say that in this
connection alone is it pardonable to put to use the old-fashioned surface
well excavated in the first place as a wide, circular hole and completed
by filling it up again with stones packed loosely therein, but leaving a
circular opening in the centre. The clear opening is the well proper,
although the interstices of the loose building are there in its company to
serve the purposes of storage. Failing brooks, burns, becks, and surface
springs, there is often nothing for it but recourse to the " cradled well,"
as an arrangement of the kind is termed. It is good management to
make one serve several fields if such can be accomplished. A well of
this sort is pardonable in the field but not in the vicinity of the home-
stead. It lays itself open for pollution in any situation where such is
likelv to arise, and once afl'ected it is almost past purification.

CHAPTER X.

"Power" at the Homestead.

Now that horse-power is nearly obsolete, there are as yet
Available for ^^^^^ the three great forces, wind, water, and the expansive
"Power" at the power of gases as exemplified in steam and oil engines
made much use of for motive power at the homestead. The
first mentioned was at one time more popular than nowadays. It is too
uncertain, however, to be depended upon to perform work at stated times
— to be ready when w^anted, in short, — and in consequence has become
obsolete as a motive power for thrashing, which is the one operation at
the homestead that requires very much expenditure of force. But it is
coming into favour again as a force for doing work that does not require
to be performed at stated intervals, pumping up water, for instance —
work than can be done any time within certain periods so long as a
certain amount is carried out during these times.

Water is very different in this respect. Where it is available in
sufficient quantity it is the most serviceable of the three for the require-
ments of the steading. It is ready the minute its services are needed,
and it can be turned off without more ado when the work is done. Its
installation is seldom expensive ; and if this is thoroughly done the upkeep
is trifling.

With steam, on the other hand, the installation is costly, and the
upkeep considerable. Moreover, a skilled attendant is needed for the
engine, and the cost of fuel is an accompanying item. It is available
when wanted, however, and is not, like w'ater, somewhat dependent
upon weather. In time of drought the water may fail, but never the
steam. But the times of drought come usually when the machinery at
the homestead is at a standstill for a season.

Oil-engines are now gaining ground as agencies of motive power
at the homestead. At first they were introduced for the purpose of
working the lighter machines, such as pulpers, corn-bruisers, and
cake-crushers, but now they are being manufactured of a sufficient
power to cope with the thrashing-mill. Petroleum is the medium
turned to account for the development of power in these engines.
The oil is vaporised and volumes of the gas periodically ignited and
the expansive force thereby generated is the power that they are

^'POWEir' AT THE HOMESTEAD. 205

made capable of turninf( into work that can be made useful under

the guidance of man.

But before we take up the practical features of the
The First . \ 4.- a -^ a

Principles motive powers we have mentioned it may serve a good

involved in end to clear up the first principles that are involved in

the subject. When these are understood it is easier to

follow up what succeeds. Commencing near the root of the subject

therefore, it is beyond dispute that all matter on our earth tends towards

the centre thereof, being irresistibly drawn thereto by the natural force

known as gravitation. At the poles the amount of matter that with us

constitutes a pound in weight will there weigh more, because at either

pole the surface of the ground is nearer to the centre than it is at any

other part. At the equator it will weigh less, for there it is farther

from the surface to the centre of the earth. These facts, the one being

corroborative of the other, although inversely so, go to prove that as

we approach the centre the stronger becomes this attractive force.

The mass of matter we speak of as representing a pound

The Force -j^ weight is so called because it takes a certain amount of

of Gravity. '^

force to counteract the attraction of gravity that bears it

downwards. Hung from a spring balance, what it registers therein is

the amount of force that gravity is expending upon it in dragging it

towards the centre of the earth, or what is the same thing, the force that

is capable of resisting the attraction that the earth has towards the

particular mass of matter being dealt with.

Irrespective of the law^ of gravitation as above defined, masses of

matter are mutually attracted to each other, and, if free to move, soon

come together, and, further, are under fixed rules as regards their

respective rates of motion. Each one attracts the other with a force

that bears a fixed proportion to the amount of matter it contains. The

larger one advances towards the smaller, but of course at a slower rate

than it. Ships becalmed show a tendency to draw together. On a

small scale floating objects in a bowl of water, if placed apart from each

other, soon yield to this attraction, and are mutually attracted or drawn

one to another. In these instances the action is slow, both air and

water obstructing it. On a small scale we might exemplify it clearer if the

pieces of matter be dealt with in vacuo. On the large scale the action

has much to do with the behaviour of the heavenly bodies. They^

move about in the ether unhampered by friction, completely under the

influence of the laws that govern the motion of matter in mass. Coursing

along in unresisting medium, they are fully susceptible to these laws,

and so situated as to be able to respond at once to their dictation.

The Centre ''^^^ coming to earth again, we have to deal with matter

of Gravity in its relation to the parent globe, and gravitation as a

° ^' terrestrial phenomenon, we may state, is simply a phase

of this attraction of separate masses to one another. We referred to the

2o6 THE MODERN HOMESTEAD.

centre of gravity of bodies when discussing the erection of walls and
their stability, pointing out that when the centre of gravity of a body
was supported the body was at rest. The centre of gravity of a body,
we said, is the point within that separate mass of matter through which
a single force equivalent to the many forces represented by the weight
of the various molecules of matter that together make up the combined
mass would act. A set of forces, not necessarily equal in degree,
equivalent to the combined w^eights of the molecules of matter composing
the body, and acting in a contrary direction to these, would keep the
body at rest against the force of gravity. So too would a single force
equal to the several, but it would need to be applied to the point we are
referring to — the centre of gravity of the body. It does not matter
where the separate forces apply so long as the line of the centre of
gravity passes down, as we saw before, within the figure formed by
a line joining the outer points of its basis of support. When this
holds good the body is at rest ; and where it does not the body will
move about until matters so adjust themselves as to give it this
stability.

When a falling object strikes the earth it is there supported against
gravity and can proceed no further. It cannot force its way in towards
the centre of attraction because the matter it comes to rest upon blocks
its way. All the matter on the surface of the earth is bound on the
same errand, being drawn irresistibly to the centre point thereof.
Any solid body that is denser than water will press down through it to
the bottom. The molecules in fluid matter are less cohesive than in the
solid, and therefore more easily pushed aside. But even in sand or soil
a body much denser than either cannot penetrate far if under the
influence of gravitation alone. Solid matter reduced in texture to the
fineness of either sand or soil has certainly lost much of its property of
cohesion, but the various particles maintain their property of inertness
or disinclination to move under pressure. In the same way even a ball
of lead will not be able to sink far down if laid on a heap of feathers.
Its weight — that is to say, its downward pressure towards the earth's
centre — fails to enable it to make way through the fluffy material that is so
much lighter than itself. The feathers give way so far as elasticity is
concerned, and the force gets spent in that direction ere it can serve as
an aid to penetration. Conversely to the action that takes place in
these instances, the balloon rises in the air because its bulk is lighter
than the air which it displaces or whose room it takes up. If allowed, it
will rise until it reaches a height where the two are equal in weight,
when its upward course will cease.

The density of a body means the amount of matter it
Body ^ contains in a certain mass as compared with that of

other substances. A cubic foot of lead, for instance, is
denser than a cubic foot of water. There is more matter in the one

^' POWER'' AT THE HOMESTEAD. 207

than the other. The cubic foot of lead is better packed together than
the cubic foot of water. The one weighs heavier than the other.

The term "specific gravity of a body" is simply another

Sjpecific Gravityj.-^j.j^^ ^£ speech wherewith to express the density thereof,
of a Body. ^ "^ -^

It implies the density as the latter governs weight.

Specific gra^■ity, in fact, is but comparative weight of different sub-
stances. Water is taken as the standard substance for comparison.
A cubic foot of distilled water at 32" F., under a pressure of 28
inches on the barometer, as at sea level, represents the starting point of
measurement. We therefore begin at i with water, and rise or fall
accordingly as the substance to be compared therewith is heavier or
lighter than water. Water being i, lead is ii'352, and wood, say
seasoned fir wood, -556. Lead accordingly under the influence of gravi-
tation sinks in water till a firm bottom is gained. Somewhat like the
balloon, wood of the description mentioned, on the other hand, floats,
the power of gravitation not having power to draw it to the bottom. It
is not so dense as the water that sustains it, and were both free to rush
inwards the water would proceed faster than the wood.

The action of bodies under gravitation can be observed
Bodits unde°/ ^y ^''^ising them to a height and then allowing them to fall
the force of therefrom. To the eye alone little is revealed, except that
Gravity. ^^i {^\\ ^,x\t]\ an increasing velocity. This much, however,

is patent to any one, that it is exceedingly difficult to throw anything
far up in the air. In one's cricket-playing days it is possible to sky a
ball with some effect, but further on in life it takes it out of a person
when he tries what can be done in this way. The ball or stone that he
essays to send aloft soon loses the initial speed at which it left his hand
and gradually slows down until a dead stop takes place. Then at
once its descent begins, the rate of its drop increasing at a regular ratio
until its course is arrested. A falling body, under the influence of
gravitation falls through space at the rate of 32 feet each second it is on
its way. Were it to take a full minute to reach the ground, it would by
that time be travelling at the speed of sixty times 32, or 1920 feet in a
second. A body moving along at this rate is, it is needless to remark,
capable of exerting a considerable force.

It requires no reasoning to convince a person that the heavier the
falling body is the greater force will it be able to bring into play. The
degree of force of a falling body is therefore dependent on the amount
of matter it represents, and that multiplied by the speed gives us the
momentum, or moving force, of -a mass of matter in motion. But the
weight of the mass must be considered in relation to its density, for it
is truer to say that the density rather than the amount, as regards
bulk of matter, rules the momentum of a falling body. Density implies,
as we have seen, close packing, and the tighter put together or closer
packed of two equal weighing masses of matter will of the two be the

2o8 THE MODERN HOMESTEAD.

lesser impeded by the air as it rushes along. A ton of stone will reach
earth before a loosely trussed ton of straw let fall at the same instant as
it from any height. And much sooner will a marble touch ground than
say an equal weight of ostrich-feathers attached to one another let loose
at the same time. The one takes up so small room that the air offers
but little resistance to its progress, and although the acceleration of
speed that is gained by falling bodies as quoted is based on what occurs
in vacuo or in the absence of air, the marble shows almost as good a
record as if it too were performing in a vacuum. The feathers, how-
ever, are so differently built up and, on that account, so buoyant and
balloon-like that they can hardly be induced to settle on mother earth.
They will not, at any rate, come down direct and plump like the marble,
but will drift about in the air should currents be forthcoming. At the
best their descent will describe a zig-zag course. For the same reason
can the aeronaut with parachute on hand drop from a balloon to
mother earth with impunity. The formation of the parachute hinders
so much its passage through the air that it can retard the velocity of
his descent to a rate that is not inconvenient to him. ^\'ithout this
drag he would be precipitated to earth like a bolt from the blue
at an accelerated speed that would be but little affected by the
resistance of the atmosphere.

The first axiom laid down by Newton in connection with

Newton's first j j-i-,otion of matter in the mass is that " Every body
Law of Motion. ...

perseveres in its state of rest or of moving uniformly in a

straight line, except in so far as it is made to change that state by
external forces." But no single body can have a sphere for its own
uses alone, neither can any constellation have the heavens to itself. If
the former case were possible, then bodies at rest would remain so,
and those in motion would move gently on without variance, or rush
ahead at lightning speed just as they had been set in motion by the last
force that had borne upon them. One body is, however, so much
dependent upon others that individual action is circumscribed on every
side. Were nothing to hinder the passage through space of say a pro-
jectile discharged from a piece of artillery, it would move on without
ceasing in a straight line at the rate with which it issued from the
muzzle of the gun. It no sooner leaves the gun, however, than another
force exerts an influence over it. It then comes within the power of
gravitation. While it remained in the gun it was borne up against the
force of gravitation, but once discharged therefrom, although at a
marvellous speed, it came as surely under the grip of that force as if
allowed to drop gently out of the mouth of the gun. The resistance of
the air comes in too to retard the motion of the projectile, but only
slowly it is true. The latter is so constructed as to pass through the air
with the maximum of piercing power. That some resistance exists is,
if in no other way, fully manifest in the ominous "hum" of the projectile

''POWER'' AT THE HOMESTEAD. 209

as it proceeds on its message of destruction. But this resistance of the

air, if apparently weak to start with, is strong enough to win in the end.

The force of gra\'itation on he one hand, and the retarda-
TheForces ,■ ,• r .1 • .1 .1 1 . 1

that bear ^^^'^ action or the air on the other, between the two serve

upon Bodies ere long, as we have said, to stop the career of the pro-
jectile. Could the former force be kept in abeyance for
the time, the air by itself would be a long time in slowing down and
stopping the speed of the body. It would be a case of accelerated
retardation or application of the brake. That is, of course, if the air
were calm. Were it disturbed, side issues would be brought into play.
A head wind would increase the friction, and cross ones would deflect
the projectile from the straight path it entered on. We have all heard
mention of the "allowance for windage" that marksmen competing
with rifles have to take note of when shooting at the target from long
distances.

But air or no air, it is much the same to the force of gravitation.
The greater the retardation of the air on the object, it no doubt all the
sooner falls to the clutches of gravitation. But gravitation will soon
have it for its prey whether there be little or no retardation in this
respect. It cannot proceed very far before gravitation draws it down
to the surface of the ground, after which, though its velocity be far from
being spent, it cannot force its way much further. If the ground be
hard, it may rebound or ricochet therefrom, its initial velocity enabling
it in this way to gain a little respite from gravitation, but its momentum
is lessened and its message all but delivered. If the ground be soft or
loose, the energy of the projectile is absorbed therein by the inertness
and inelasticity of such a medium.

So long therefore as the projectile is kept from striking the earth, its
effectiveness in the way of destruction is but little impaired as it is
impelled on its way. To keep it above ground and thus secure a long
range it is necessary either to give it an upward direction as it leaves
the muzzle of the gun, and so increase the distance of the point where it
must at last yield to gravitation and come to earth, or to send it forth
from the muzzle with such an increased velocity that gravitation is
long in overtaking it. Before our weapons had reached such a degree
of perfection as now prevails the former course had to be followed up.
The " Brown Bess " musket with which Wellington's soldiers were
armed, if aimed at the head of a foe a hundred yards or so off, might
land the bullet in his chest or stomach. " Aim high " was the order in
volley-firing — to make sure that the bullets found a billet elsewhere
than in the ground. But the modern rifle, with its small bore and more
effective charge, can send off its messenger at a reasonable elevation
with sufficient velocity to keep it above ground for a mile or thereabouts
before it succumbs to gravitation. It can be ejected with so great
speed as to be pulled but a small way downward by the time it has

M.H. p

2IO THE MODERN HOMESTEAD.

reached tliat distance. It has to be given a certain amount of elevation

as it leaves the rifle, but much less for the mile than was allowed in the

case of the smooth-barrelled, big-bored musket for the hundred yards.

_ The (luicker the projectile travels the greater will be its

TheMomen- ^ , , ,, . ^ . , ,.

turn of a momentum. A bullet one ounce m weight, speedmg

Moving Body, ^{q^^ ^{ the velocity of 960 feet a second, has the same

momentum as a ball weighing one pound going at the rate of 60 feet

per second. The momentum gives the amount of energy or power of

performing work on the part of each moving body. It will take that

same amount of energy, exerted in an opposite direction, to resist and

stop the body. The resistance may be either immediate, intermittent,

or gradual. Still holding by our projectile, it will be stopped dead if it

strike straight against a thick plate of iron firmly stayed in position —

a strong target for instance. But in this action the plate will have to

put forth an equivalent amount of energy to what is represented by the

velocity of the projectile. If it is incapable of doing this, it will either

be overturned in the atttempt, or be pierced through if the projectile be

hard enough to rend asunder the texture and continue on its way with

what momentum it may still have left.

The resistance may in many ways be intermittent. The projectile
may, as in the last instance, pass through some obstructing body at a
considerable expense in energy no doubt this time, but yet with enough
left to carry it through several other obstructions of a less serious
nature, each time, of course, emerging beyond with lessening vigour
until forced to yield up its power entirely.

Tlie projectile, again, may, if it meet with no obstacle in its path, be
gradually brought to the pass that the energy it had given it at the
start is no longer sufficient to keep it skimming above earth in spite of
gravitation, when it will touch ground and be brought to a standstill
either at once if it penetrate the soil, or at the end of a series of
rebounds if the ground be firm and the angle of impact suitable.

But whether brought to a stop by impediments in the
Newton s ^^.^ ^^ simply because it has run its career without let

Second Law. .

or hindrance and can go no further, in some way or other
an amount of energy equal to what the body was sent off with has been
expended upon it in accomplishing this. Had no antagonistic force or
forces interfered, it would, in the words of Newton, have persevered in
its state of moving uniformly in a straight line. But the air through
which it had to pass disputed its passage, feebly, no doubt, but steadily
all the same ; and another and stronger force, gravitation, was all the
time diverting it from the straight course and with a strong pull
dragging it downwards towards itself; for, as Newton's second law
says : " Change of motion is proportional to impressed force, and
takes place in the direction in which the force acts." The air,
then, before the energy of the body had become spent, had met it

''POWER'' AT THE HOMESTEAD. 211

with an equal amount in the form of resistance to being pushed out
of the way. The target barred the passage of the bullet promptly,
while the air took a long time to do so ; but the amount of resistance
offered in each case was the same, and equal to what the body possessed
at the beginning of its journey.

Newton's third law of motion is that: "Reaction is
Th'^ri°T' ^ always equal and opposite to action — that is to say,

the actions of two bodies upon each other are always
equal and in opposite directions." The bullet and the target meet
each other straight, and what the bullet delivers upon the target is
returned by the latter, not with interest neither with shorter measure,
but plain tit for tat, which turns the missile outside in and flattens it
like a button. Were the target not equal to the occasion, and the
bullet either got through or glanced off it, the reaction of the one
not being in the first case equal and in the other not opposite to the
action of the other, the bullet would go on its way with what action it
had left until brought to a halt by some other body or bodies that would
meet its action with an equivalent in reaction or opposition. In the
body at rest, too, the action and reaction between it and the body that
supports it are equal and act through the centre of gravity of each^
through that of the boulder which rests on the outer skin of the globe
as well as through that of the globe itself.

All this would appear to be in direct contradiction to the
Force in ^^^^t that there is never any loss of force in Nature. The

Nature, but bullet put forth a considerable force as it smote the target,
vertible from to which the target responded with no less vigour as it
one Form to knocked the bullet shapeless. What, therefore, has

become of these two forces after the contact between
the two opposing bodies has taken place ? The target remains intact
in its old position, the flattened bullet lies flat at its foot, and motion
has ceased. Lift the bullet, and it will, perhaps, tell a tale. It is so
hot that one can hardly hold it in the palm of his hand without
wincing. Where has it obtained the amount of heat sufficient to
raise it to so high a temperature ? Not in the gun, at any rate, for
it sped forth from the barrel in advance of the expanding gas let loose
from the ignited charge ere it had time to absorb any of the heat thereby
generated. Nor did it derive that amount of heat from the atmosphere
as it sped along. No, it received nearly all of it at the moment of
impact upon the body which it was unable to clear out of its path, and
on account of the force of motion thus suddenly arrested being converted
into that of heat. Were it possible to collect the whole of the heat
developed in this way, we would obtain an amount capable of doing as
much work or of setting free as much energy as apparently become lost
when the missile was in an instant stopped dead ; and heat, as we shall
afterwards point out, is a potent source of energy or force.

p 2

212

THE MODERN HOMESTEAD.

The energy of bodies in motion, if it can be turned to account in a
practicable manner, is perfectly capable, as we see every day, of doing
man's work. Instead of applying his hand to lever or wheel, he can
enlist the wind or mo\-ing air, running water, and lieavy weights of

solid matter into such service ; and further still,

A^^ ^^^^:;r^^ he can impress the force that is connected with

the expansion of gases, those that have to do
with chemical action, and that are bound up in
electricity, to be his bondsmen. Man, we can
now realise, gained an irretrievable start over
other animals when he realised that he could
turn the forces of Nature to account in doing
useful work in his own interest. When he first
wielded a stick either in attack or defence he
.^^ increased the length of his arm and the efficiency

of that organ of his body as a lever, and his foot
'^'" ^^ ■ was on the first rung of the ladder that led the way

to his being the lord of creation. Armed with a stone alone, he added to
the weight as well as to the hardness of his fist, which gave him an
immense advantage when in confiict with his fellows or with other
members of the animal kingdom trusting to their unaided powers alone.
A stone-weighted fist or a heavy-headed stick in hand gives one a strong
pull over an unarmed antagonist. To these simple, though most effective,
advantages in close-quarter strife he by-and-by added the bow as a
means of projecting his missiles. These he had all along, from the
time he first thought of picking up a
stone and shying it in the face of some
man or beast that threatened violence,
been gradually perfecting in so far as
increasing their range went, and, in
company with the original stick or club,
had developed the longer and lighter
thrusting one into the spear or lance.
Thus in time man, who was the first of
the animals to learn to profit by the
use of Nature's more simple forces,
stepped so far ahead of his fellow-
creatures of the animated kingdom as to
make one and all subject to his dominion
— to be wielded, alas ! indiscriminately by foolish and wise alike.
Man's first Man's first invented machines for converting force or
power at his disposal into useful work were all so many
modifications of the pulley, the lever, and the inclined
plane, machines which are put to use in overcoming
the force of gravitation. In the first the distance through which

Fig. 157.

Machines
for turning
Forces to
his Service.

''POWER'' AT THE HOMESTEAD.

213

The Pulley.

Fig. 158.

the power moves in relation to tlie fixed point or axis which

supports the arrangement bears a distinct ratio to that through
which the weight does. With the single pulley
(Fig. 156) there is no difference between the power and

the weight, and, therefore, no gain in

the use of the machine, unless by way

of convenience in handling different

commodities. In raising any body by

its means as much force has to be

exerted by the raiser as the weight

bears down on its side. But power and

weight move through equal spaces.

No more rope is pulled down by the

operation than measures the distance

that the weight has been raised. With

the double pulley (Fig. 157), one fixed

and one movable, the same pull as in

the last instance will lift twice the

Aveight the same height, but there will

be double the rope to drag in. \\'ith a

three-pulley arrangement, as in Fig. 158,

the same pull will raise four times the weight and give four lengths of
rope to dispose of. This combined arrange-
ment of a fixed and one or more movable
pulleys is termed "the first system" of pulleys.
In practice what is known as the second system
is the one adopted. An upper and a lower block
are used, each containing one or more pulleys, or
"sheaves" as they are called, in the combined
pulleys or blocks, the upper block alone being
attached to a fixed point. In Fig. 159 we
represent a four-sheaved arrangement. Usually,
however, the sheaves of each block are similar in
size and placed together in one case. In this
four-sheaved arrangement, although one more
pulley is used than in the last mentioned, the
same pull will lift no more weight and the same
length of rope will be pulled in. It is, perhaps,
necessary to say that we are leaving out of

account the weight of the mo\able blocks, and, what is more important,

the friction on the axles of the sheaves or pulleys of the blocks.

I'he lever acts as a rigid rod supported at some part or
other wdth the power and weight acting in contrary

directions to one another. The point on which the rod or lever is

supported is called the "fulcrum" thereof, and tliis, it is easy to see,

The Lever.

214

THE MODERN HOMESTEAD.

must be capable of resisting botli of the forces that bear upon the
lever. A beam Aveighing-machine is simply a modification of the
lever. Its arms are of equal length ; therefore, in order that it may

Fig. i6o.

maintain a horizontal position, each arm must be equally weighted —

the weight in one scale or pan must be counterbalanced by an

equal weight of matter in the other — and the points or fulcrum upon

which the beam plays supports

the latter and the matter in both

scales as well. The pulley is, in

fact, a form of the lever. If we

refer to the single pulley, the axle

thereof, we shall find, forms the

fulcrum, and so long as the forces

applied to the wheel are equal

there will be no motion of the

pulley. The diameter of the wheel

is equally halved by the axle,

seeing the latter is the central

point of the wheel ; therefore, in

this case we have, as with the

beam weighing-machine, a lever

with its arms of equal length, in

which machine, in order that

motion may take place, there must

be difference between the forces that apply to such arms thereof. The

windlass (Fig. i6o) is an application of the same principle, as we shall

see by paying attention to Fig. i6i — the wheel and axle modification of

''POWER'' AT THE HOMESTEAD.

Fig. 162.

the windlass. Here, again, tlie fulcrum lies in the centre of the wheel,
this time represented by the roller round which the rope is wound,
a on the Fig. Now, as a h, the distance between the matter to be
moved and the fulcrum is less
than a c, the distance between the
fulcrum, and the force applied to
move the windlass, so in propor-
tion is the latter less than the
former. The smaller the drum,
or roller, therefore (the distance
between a and h), and the longer the arm of the windlass (the distance
from a to c) the more powerful it is.

There are three modifications of the lever proper. In the lever of
the first class the fulcrum, as in Figs. 162 and 163, is between the

applied force and
the weight — be-
tween the force that
is set in motion to
displace the ob-
stacle to which the
lever is applied and
the obstacle itself.
The force we apply
bears the same ratio to what the obstacle has to resist at the hand of the
lever that the length of the one arm of the lever, the one we push or draw
down, bears to the other. If we force down the free end of the lever with
a pressure equal to a hundredweight and the free end of the lever be ten
times longer than the other, then we bring to bear upon the body affected
a force or pressure equal to half a ton. The longer, therefore, our end
of the lever in comparison with
that at the other side of the
fulcrum, the more effective is the
machine at our disposal. And
proportional, of course, to the
length of the arm of each
division of the lever as to the
separate forces applied will be
the space moved by the respec-
tive points of application of the
force we put forth and the weight
we disturb.

Fig. 163.

Fig. 164.

The lever of the second class has, as in Fig. 164, the force at one end
of the rod, the fulcrum at the other, and the weight between the two.
The force in this case is hardly likely to be so advantageously situated
as in the lever of the first class. It is capable of being applied as

2l6

THE MODERN HOMESTEAD.

forcibly, however, but not to the same extent as the other. There
are fewer cases w^here it is applicable. It can be used to disrupt or
draw a body into separate parts. It is shown in Fig. 165 as put
to the purpose of withdrawing a peg from the ground. An ordinary
nut-cracker is a double arrangement of this class of le\'er. The

Fig. 165.

humble wheelbarrow, Fig. 166, is a modification of it. The fulcrum
is the axis supported on the wheel so as to be capable of being
transported or pushed along at a minimum expenditure of force
against friction.

The lever of the third class, Fig. 167, has the applied force put in
action between the fulcrum and the resistance or weight to be moved.
In this instance the applied force must always be the greater of the two.
It is, in fact, simply a reversion of the conditions that govern the second
lever. The applied force in the latter is the weight in the third variety
of the lever. It is of no use of course as a mechanical advantage by
way of giving us increased force against any body Ave are dealing with;

but it affords means of
obtaining an increased
range of movement by
the free end of the
lever. Nature has in
this way turned it to
account in giving such
a wide range of move-
ment to our forearm.
The elbow, as shown
in Fig. 168, is the
fulcrum, the hand the
free end of the lever;
and the contraction of
the biceps the source of the applied force that sets the contrivance in
motion. What an expenditure of force must at times be called forth in
the working of that organ we may form some idea of when we consider
how close to the fulcrum (the elbow) the biceps muscle (the motive
force) is applied. When one displays his thews and with satisfaction

Fig. 166.

'^ POWER" AT THE HOMESTEAD.

Fig. 167.

The Inclined
Plane.

shows how his biceps swells as he slowly raises a hea\y weight from
the horizontal, resting on outstretched palm to the level of his shoulder,

he little knows what force is
being developed at the expense
of the contractibility of the
fibres of the muscle of which
he is so justly proud. A much
greater force, however, is ex-
pended in getting the forearm
from a hanging to the hori-
zontal position. ]Man's jaw-
bone is another common
illustration of the application
by nature of the third lever to the everyday affairs of life. The fulcrum
plays on the skull a little beneath the ear, and the muscles embedded
in either cheek are the applied forces that move the lever and bring
the lower teeth into action as
crushers or grinders of food
against the upper set.

The next of the
simple machines,
the inclined plane,
supplements the applied force by
enabling the weight on which it
bears to be slid up a gradually
rising path in place of its ha^■ing
to be lifted bodily up a height Fig. 16S.

equal to that which the head of

the path or plane attains. How much easier, for instance, is it to
wheel a cask (one, say, that we can just manage to raise breast
high) up a plank from the ground to a lorry than to lift the article
direct from the ground and deposit it thereupon. The cask has a longer
journey to take by way of the plank than it has straight from the ground
to the vehicle, but an easier. Here again, as happens in the case both
of the pulleys and the levers, that Avhat we sa^•e in the applied force we
have to make up for in the increased space that the point of application
of that force has to mo\e. The longer the plank the longer is our plane
and the more easily can the cask be rolled up the same.

The stair is simply an adaptation of the inclined plane. It is an
inclined plane with horizontal footholds attached at regular intervals, it
being easier of ascension when provided with these on account of their
enabling the body to be kept erect without undue strain on the muscles
of the legs and back. As we are all aware, the angle at which the stair
is set rules its degree of comfortable use. The gently-sloping stair is a
pleasure to move up and down upon in comparison to another of a steep

2i8 THE MODERN HOMESTEAD.

slope. Wg lia\e the longer distance to go in connection with the former,
but it can be done with less muscular effort. We do not feel we are
climbing when ascending the long, slowly-rising one ; neither do we
need to hold back when retracing our steps. Were the stair removed
for a time we would soon realise its advantage as a machine for circum-
venting gravitation, as it affects us in our efforts to keep up communi-
cation between the separate flats of our houses in a perpendicular
direction. \\"e would certainly have less distance to traverse, but then
more force has to be expended, a result that no doubt would soon set
us about contriving something after the nature of an artificial lift. It is
with ourselves as it was with the cask. In carrying our bodies against
gravitation, the easier we make the process the longer time w-e are
obliged to take to it, or at least, the further we have to go. The
mechanical advantage of the inclined plane is the product obtained by
dividing the length of the incline by the height thereof.

The screw is a modification of the inclined plane. In
fact, it is nothing more or less than a spiral inclined plane.
As most of us know, the closer the threads of the screw are the more
powerful it is. We have more turns to gi\e it because, as we have so
often repeated, the greater is the mechanical advantage of a machine,
the more distance has the applied force to describe. The screw is a
powerful help in moving heavy weights through short distances. And
we increase its power manifold as we add to the length of the handle we
make use of in turning the screw. By doing so we introduce the lever
between the applied force and the inclined plane, and thus obtain the
further aid of the mechanical advantage that it supplies.

The wedge. Fig. i6g, is another application of the principle

' that underlies the inclined plane. Instead, however, as

in the case of the inclined plane of the bodies being slowly applied

thereto as a means of raising them against gravitation, the wedge is

called into service by being applied under a
series of blows to bodies, and made to do
work either in rending them asunder or raising
them slightly from their points of attachment
to the ground. It is the sudden impulse of
tlie heavy blow bestowed upon it that gives
the wedge its great power. A certain force
borne gradually on the wedge might have
small effect, but the same coming upon it with
the speed of lightning would tell a different
tale. Something would then have to go. The
reaction of the block or body against the action deli\ered by the wedge
is not, under tlie peculiar circumstances of the case, sufficient to serve
both wedge and hammer as the target served the bullet, for the wedge,
when once inserted, cannot as a rule be shaken off bv the bodv, and

''POWER'' AT THE HOMESTEAD. 219

until it lias ^^ot a grip it is not struck hard. Once it bites, ho\ve\er,

the pressure of the body on its sides holds it as in a vice, and it is

then, so far as reaction goes, now a part of the block. The reaction

of the body is then manifest in the rebound of the hammer from

the end of the wedge.

When man had become master of these simple mechanical

What Man contri\ances he was fairly on the way to turn the avail-
was enabled / . ■'
to do with able forces of Nature to his own interests. To begin with,

these simple |-,g ^^.^g ^|^jg ^^ move and break up heavy blocks, either
Contrivances. r j >

of wood or stone. He was in no hurry — at least, he could

afford time ; and it did not matter to him that what he gained in force or

power he lost in speed of execution. It was enough if he could move

about and break up what before he was all but powerless to deal with.

Afterwards he fashioned the windmill, and thus took advantage of the

wind to grind his corn or do other work of a similar nature. Earlier,

no doubt, he took advantage of the air-currents to waft along the boats

and vessels that took hard labour to move by means of paddle or oar.

By-and-by he enlisted water on his side, thereby gaining for many

purposes a more reliable and steadier servant than the uncertain wind.

After a while he discovered the virtue of fossil fuel, and with coal as his

friend he had Nature very much at command. The sun is the mother

of all the forces that are connected with our universe, and in coal he

had unearthed a vast reserve of them. It represents the stored-up rays

of the sun that were directed on the earth for ages. It is, in fact, bottled-

up sunshine, as Stephenson so pithily put it.

Coal represents the force to be derived from heat. We

Force derived \^^yQ spoken of the force derived from motion as being

from Heat. ^. °

convertible into heat, and conversely of the force of heat

being convertible into that of motion. The force that seemed lost when

the bullet we instanced above came to an instant stop against the

target developed, as we tried to explain, into heat. The head of the

iron wedge becomes hot under repeated blows from the sledge-hammer ;

and so does the brake as it presses hard against the wheel, and retards

its movement. Hitherto we have dealt with force in relation to the

amount of bodies or masses of matter under the influence of gravitation,

excepting, of course, when air-currents over which gravitation has little

influence are taken advantage of. But a different class of phenomena

manifests itself when we deal with the forces arising from heat. Heat

takes to do with the molecular composition of matter, with the internal

component particles that constitute a body. W^e have already noted

how these change their state accordingly as matter takes on its three

different physical conditions. In the solid they are quiescent and at

peace, as it were. In the liquid they are mobile, but still willing to club

together and be at rest once they are adjusted to gravitation. But in

the gas each is for itself, regardless almost of gravitation, and had it all

220 THE MODERN HOMESTEAD.

space to itself would seek to fill it. In the solid the molecides content
themselves within the bounds described by the body and each keeps xtxy
much its original position therein. In the liquid this bond of integration
is broken, and cohesion is virtually gone. The body is now shapeless and
without bounds of its own, and unless held together in the mass, each
molecule will, regardless of its neighbour, start to carry out the behests
of gravitation. In the solid all work as one so long as the body holds
together. But in the liquid there is no such bond of union ; each
molecule is a body to itself. These two conditions of matter somewhat
resemble the well-built wall and the ill-built one already instanced.
The separate stones in the former are bound together to make a firm
and compact whole capable of resisting gravitation otherwise than it
applies to the body corporate. As regards the other, however, the
whole is so loosely knit together that each component part is apt to
become a law to itself and fall away from the union that alone gives it
strength.

In the gas not only are the molecules detached from each other, but,
unlike their behaviour in the li(}uid, in which state thev are content in
each other's company, they repel one another in their struggles for elbow-
room. The li(]uid can be kept within bounds so long as the bottom and
sides of their storage-place are imper\'ious to water. It matters not
that its surface is exposed to the heavens. It will remain there until
wanted. Water is, indeed, one of the exceptions in the last respect ;
for in time if thus exposed, it will be absorbed in form of gas by
the air, there to perform its most important part in the economy
of nature. But with the gas it is different. It must be confined all
round, else it will speedily vanish into space. There are heavy gases
and light gases : the latter will be the first to disappear. Some are
even heavier than air. These, one might naturally think, would be held
down in a vessel of gravitation similarly as it affects a fluid. It does
for a time, but only apparently, for from the beginning of the exposure
of the gas the law of diffusion is at work, and the molecules of gas,
heavy in comparison though they be, are being disseminated through-
out the atmosphere, and with others left free to knock figuratively
against the gates of heaven.

Heat, as already explained, is the controller of the different conditions
of matter. By its application to the solid the molecules thereof are
forced to assume the liquid state. A further application raises the
liquid to the gas and sets the molecules into movement. The tendency
of these is, we have seen, to demand room and space. Without these
they cannot expand, and expansion is as the breath of their nostrils. It
takes force to curb their aspirations. Were the pressure of the atmo-
sphere suspended for a little, were it moved out of the way and its
weight lifted off the surface of the earth for a time — for it is simply its
weight or its obedience to gravitation tliat makes it press so heaA-ily

''POWER" AT THE HOMESTEAD. 221

upon us — water for one liquid would tliere and then without assistance

from heat pass into the gaseous state. Other bodies would we daresay

do the same before it came to water's turn. Thus it is that before

water can be brought to boiling-point we must bestow on it as much

force in the form of heat as will enable its component molecules to cope

with the weight of the air that tends to hold them in thrall. After that

stage has been reached the molecules are free to take up their ethereal

form and search through the atmosphere at will almost.

It is only at the expense of much counter-pressure that gases can be

kept from expanding themselves. The heat and the pressure serv^e, as

we have been saying, to counteract each other. On the one hand heat

supplies the force necessary to their expansion, and on the other the

sides of their enclosure keep them so cabined and confined that they

have not room to stretch. Close confinement even for a long term does

not impair their vitality of movement, unless it be that they are again

deprived of a certain amount of heat. With heat goes their force.

Keeping this in view, chemists, as we have already pointed out, have

been able to reduce the most stubborn gases to liquids by placing them

under circumstances whereby intense cold and immense pressure are at

one and the same time brought to bear thereon.

It is clear, therefore, that having at command a body of

TheExpan- g.^^^ closely confined under great pressure we possess a

sive Property ^ ■' . .

of Gases a fund of power that is capable of being put to useful

Souice of purpose if it is possible to apply the force to a machine

much Power, t- r r rr j

by means of which it can be turned to profitable account.
Machines of the kind we now possess in plenty. By their means force
of the nature we refer to is now turned to account as readily as that of
running water or the hand of man can be — much more readily, in fact.

In a store of gas under pressure we have a reserve of force, just as
we ha^■e one in a good head of water dammed up in a reservoir. In
the water thus held back against gravitation we have a store of latent
energy ready to be turned into the active energy of motion, as, when
released of the sluice, it rushes down to a lower level in search of
another resting-place. In like manner we have an accumulation of
latent energy contained in the compressed gas ready when liberated
to bestow upon the machine it is connected to the energy of motion
as it seeks a passage into space, there to obtain relief from its
straitened position.

The Use of Without coal as a promoter of heat man could never
Coal in this have developed manufacture to the extent it has reached
Connection. g^^ce he became alive to the possibilities that lay latent
in that commodity, and turned it to the production of power.
It enabled him, moreover, to make machines at the same time that
it afforded him the means of obtaining the moti\e power necessary
to keep these effective. The property possessed by water of being

222 THE MODERN HOMESTEAD.

easily converted into gas, together with the general plentifulness of the
fluid, early stamped it as the medium through which to utilise the heat
that lies latent in coal. With these two substances, therefore, man was
able to evolve steam, and steam as a force capable of being turned to
man's interests was the fundamental cause of the great progress made
for one thing in quick transit, and what is implied, both in the attaining
and carrying on of the same, that will for ever characterise the
nineteenth century.

It was fortunate for man that Nature stored up so vast a supply of
concentrated force-supplying matter. True, she afterwards suffered
enormous quantities to be either shorn away or crumbled down from
their places of deposit in the course of changes in the geological features
of the earth's crust, and only patches remain of the original widespread
coalfields. But enough was left for man wherewith to enable him to
obtain and keep in easy touch with all parts of the globe, and to develop
arts and manufactures in a mighty way. This is being carried on,
however, at a tremendous expense as regards eating into the supply of
coal. Future generations may have reason to regret the manner
in which we dip into this precious store of heat and force. We cut and
come again regardless of those who are to succeed us. Woe betide man
when the inevitable stage of universal scarcity, not to say want, of coal
has been reached ! He will neither have sufficient fuel to give out heat
for his own comfort, nor enough to provide the higher kinds of motive
power. Thenceforward, judging from analogy, he will perforce be
obliged to confine himself to warm latitudes, and to fall back on wind
and water as force suppliers.

The sun itself must in time cease to give forth enough of heat to

maintain our globe in its present condition. Since the vegetation the

remains of which compose the deposits of coal grew the sun's power

has evidently lessened, because nowadays, among other proofs, plant

growth is far less vigorous, partly due no doubt to loss of heat in the

earth itself. What with increasing multitudes of people, the sun

declining in power, and coal practically used up, habitation of the earth

in the remote future does not call up a pleasant picture.

Every display of force that manifests itself on earth is
The Tendency , ^ . , . , , ^ ,,

of Heat and ^^^^ ^ see-saw movement m the universal tendency of all

Force alike to things to come down to one dead level. It is the same
come to a • i i ■ i • • , ,i , ,

State of witli heat as with gravitation. All matter on our globe

Uniformity or seeks to wind its way towards the centre. Whether solid,

liquid, or gas, all forces are alike. The densest stuff gets

the furthest in, and the nearer the centre the more tightly is the matter

packed together. That, at any rate, is the lesson unfolded in the earth's

crust so far as it has been penetrated. The fluid matter apparently can

only force its way a little distance into the crust, and has to content

itself with pressing against the outer skin thereof, collecting in volume

'' POWER'' AT THE HOMESTEAD. 223

where it can in the depressions on the surface that are available. The
gases, being the lightest, have to rest content with the outermost circle,
where, like Mahomet's coffin, they exist, as it were, between heaven and
earth. On one hand their molecular expansive force would lead them
heavenwards into the starry space, were even they, etherealised matter
though they be, not in manner similar to more materialised matter,
completely under the grasp of gravitation. The earth allows them full
scope to swell out to their utmost limit, but withal they are unable to
break loose from the tie that binds them to the globe in its giddy
whirling course in the ether. So tight a grip does the earth keep of
her airy mantle, or rather, so closely does it cling to her, that it presses
around her, as we all know, with a force equivalent to a weight on her
surface of 15 lbs. to the square inch.

A mass of solid matter will, if left free to obey gravitation, fall through
air for a similar reason that a stone sinks in water, because, as we have
already indicated, gases as well as liquids fail to support compact
masses of matter of a greater density than themselves. Denser solid
matter, as exemplified in boats and balloons, can be fashioned into such
form or be so balanced and assisted as to float in water and drift in the
air ; but we are speaking just now of matter in the lump. If free to
slide or roll down a hillside, it will similarly set out in obedience to the
same influence and keep on its way until checked. In the same way, as
we have so often repeated, will water take the first advantage to run or
slide down to a lower level. All matter, even when in the gaseous
condition, is, indeed, ever on the watch to evade obstructions that come
between it and its inherent desire to be off on that errand of Nature's
bidding to find its level. Once all matter has under this law — that of
gravitation — found its level, what is there that can disturb the balance
again, and so afford us some opportunity of turning to useful account
the force expended in restoring the equilibriuni ? It is evident that
falling masses of solid matter and water seeking a lower level would be
capable of performing useful work for us could we succeed in applying
their energy of descent to a machine that can convert force of this
nature to a useful purpose. But it would take as much force to raise
either to a position of vantage whence they could yield energy as what
it would be capable of exerting on its way down again. That process
would therefore simply be robbing Peter in order to pay Paul, and
could serve no profitable end. It would, at any rate, be impracticable in
cases where much expenditure of force was in question. In several minor
afifairs of life it is an accepted mode of deriving force. Clocks, for instance,
that depend on weights for giving motion to the machinery, afford a well-
known example of this method of turning gravitation to account.

We have nothing advantageous, then, to look for from the falling of
solid matter in the way of obtaining useful force ; and well, perhaps, it is
so ; for the placing by Nature of solid matter in places of the kind would

224 ^^^ MODERN HOMESTEAD.

imply such convulsions and upheavals of the earth's crust as would
make it a very unsuitable field for our operations. Thanks, howe\-er,
to the sun's influence, water, in spite of gravitation, is constantly being
raised in \apour, afterwards to be let loose as rain, which, when it
accumulates on sites at all elevations, gives man a never-failing source
from whence to derive force that can be put to service in manifold ways.
Only a small fraction of the immense power that Nature in this way
develops is taken advantage of by man. But now he is recognising its
adaptability to many of his purposes, and is beginning to avail himself
of it on a much larger scale than of old.

As all matter tends to find its level, so, as hinted above, does heat
incline to come to an equal temperature in all substances. When a hot
and a cold body are placed together, in time they will be of one
temperature. The hot body will have yielded heat to the cold one until
the latter was of a like temperature to itself ; and further, these two will
do likewise with surrounding objects, if not with the air itself, and then
there is stagnation in so far as force is concerned. But even with coal
all spent, so long as the sun is there to rule by day we have a head of
energy that can effectually kick the beam and disturb any balancing of
this sort. While the prime source of terrestrial heat maintains its pro-
minence, there is little fear of a general levelling up of force in that respect.
The vulgar interpretation of socialism which implies equal shares all
round of the world's gear has no counterpart in Nature's economy. Her
fundamental laws are based on inequality and opposition ; and when a
general peace on the part of her forces that rule the earth is at hand the
end of the globe as an animated stage, if not then reached, is very near.
Gathering together the threads of our discourse, the sum
and the substance of what we have been seeking to make
plain in this chapter is that man is able to put to his own uses many of
the forces of Nature as represented in the movement of matter. In our
present connection — that of the homestead— there is hardly need to
touch on the more subtle forces, such as those of chemical reaction and
electricity. It is only the simpler ones that as yet are of moment at the
farm. The movements of air and water in the mass and of the expansion
of gases as exemplified in the generation of steam in the steam-engine,
and in the sudden expansion of petroleum vapour in the oil-engine are —
never of course forgetting the assistance of our invaluable serf the horse—
the only sources of energy that farmers find practicable for the hitherto
rather cumbrous sorts of machinery that are in evidence at the home-
stead. These the agriculturist finds it easiest to enlist into service in thd
working of his fixed machinery.

In the simple machines that we referred to and described, viz., the
pulley, the lever, and the inclined plane, we saw that when we sought to
concentrate the power at our command, whether strength of arm or
weight of body, or, as it were, make it more effective and do more work

''POWER'' AT THE HOMESTEAD. 225

at the other end, we had either to cause it to move through a greater
space than the point of appHcation did, or make it move at a greater
speed, usually indeed both. What we gained in efficiency we sacrificed
under these two heads. Coming now to the application of force to the
machinery representative of the homestead, we find the position of
matters somewhat reversed. The stronger force is now the one that
is applied to the machine. We are now, so to speak, working from the
wrong end of the lever, the one that moves the slower and for the
shorter distance of the two. But ere we get our motive force fairly to
bear upon the part of our machines that do the useful work, much of
it is unavoidably rendered non-effective. There are almost necessarily
so many parts through which it has to be transmitted that a great deal
is swallowed up in passing from one point to the other.

The inertia or unwillingness of the matter involved in the construc-
tion of the machine to move has, in the first place, to be overcome.
This, however, disappears as a factor of resistance when proper way
has been gained on the machine — these two incidents illustrating rather
patly Newton's first law quoted on page 208. It takes, for instance, a
considerable effort to set the thrashing-mill going ; and once it is in
full swing, it takes as much to bring it quickly to a standstill again,
assuming, of course, that no corn is being fed into it. It would
gradually come to a stop of its own accord, pro\'ing that there was
much resistance against its " moving uniformly " on its course.

None of the force expended in giving motion to the mill is lost,
although it does not give a full account of itself at the further end.
What disappears on the way thither is lost in the many changes in
direction that are given to the force in leading it to the point of
application. Every change of this kind means resistance in the form
of friction. When a body is made to move against or to glide over
another the attraction one to the other causes some degree of resistance
to this movement. When the faces of the bodies in contact are rough
there is greater resistance than if smooth, and if soft and yielding, more
than if hard and firm. Force exerted against friction is converted into
heat ; but heat that we do not wish for is no compliment. Perfection
of workmanship in the construction of the mill, together with due
lubrication of the bearing parts, reduces friction to the minimum point.
The parts that rub together during motion are made hard and smooth,
and are in addition kept from complete contact by means of the
lubricating medium employed.

„, _ , The great art in machine-making is, of course, to make
The Retarda- ° o '

live Effect of the machine so smooth-working that as much as possible

Friction m ^f ^^le force bestowed on it will be transmitted to the

Machines.

working point. The amount of power that is taken up

in overcoming friction in a home-made or crude sort of machine as

compared to a well-finished one would astonish any one who has never

M.H. Q

226 THE MODERN HOMESTEAD.

considered these matters. It comes home to him when we draw his
attention to the extra force a horse has to put forth in drawing a load
o\er a newly metalled road not yet rolled beyond what is needed at
another part that is firm and smooth of surface. It is on account of
friction being reduced to the lowest point that the railway is such a
perfect road for the transportation of goods. The polished unyielding
surface of the steel rails affords such an easy path for the equally
smooth-tired wheels to roll upon that between the two similar surfaces
there is only the minimum of friction involved. The traction power
put forth to draw a heavy train would not have much effect in dragging
the same along an ordinary road. It would be a very small part
indeed of the train that it could even manage to give a start to.

The part of the motive force applied to any machine which is
swallowed up in overcoming what we may call the inertia of its various
parts is called the co-efficient of that force, the other factor being its
mechanical efficiency. The less the co-efficient, the less, other things
being equal, is the motive force needed to make the machine perform
its work. As we shall see in the course of the succeeding chapter,
there is considerable room for improvement in this respect as regards
the usual class of machinery put to work at our homesteads.

It is usual to speak of force-producing machines as being

yvhat a q£ gQ many horse-power or even a fraction of that

Horse-power -^ ^

represents. measure. We may have, for instance, an eight-horse-
power steam-engine or a half-horse oil one and so on.
This, no doubt, has arisen from the fact that horses have to so large
an extent been devoted to the purpose of providing motive force. One-
horse-power is equivalent to a force that wall raise 33,000 pounds of
matter one foot high in the course of a minute in opposition to the
force of gravity.

CHAPTER XL

" Power " at the Homestead — continued.

"Power "now On'ce upon a time the thrashing of the corn crops was
for^^T'^ the sole operation at the homestead that had other than
more Purposes manual power provided for its execution. Now, how-
at^he°Home- e^^'^r, there is pulping of turnips and mangolds, corn-
stead, bruising, cake-crushing, and very often coarse grinding
of grain all to be provided for. In the earlier days at
the small farms even the thrashing was done by hand. In fact, the
noise of the flail is occasionally to be heard at this date. It is not,
indeed, so long since the thrashing-mill came to be an essential at the
big homesteads. Before its introduction there was nothing for it but
to beat the crops on the thrashing-floor.

When the thrashing-mill was introduced, in the absence of a head
of water for its motive power, there was only the wind or the never-
failing horse to press into service in this way. And because of the
rather wayward nature of the wind it was seldom turned to account.
To the steady horse, therefore, fell this addition to its already full
round of labour. This extra branch of labour formed a heavy burden
on the horse-power of the farm. Heavy, unremitting, and most
monotonous work in the mill-course took the spirit sadly out of the
poor animals. The farmer, obliged to make use of his horses for
driving the mill, had good reason to envy his neighbour who had water
at command for the same purpose. Notwithstanding its cost, he gladly
turned to the steam-engine when it appeared in the market as a
practicable aid at the homestead.

In those districts, where, as a rule, the farms are

Horse-power gniall, even there the horse - driven thrashing - mill is

all but Obso- . . ° . .

lete. now being often left to fall into decay. The itinerant

thrashing-mill is at the farmer's disposal, and he prefers

paying for its help to " taking it out " of his horses. But this is a plan

that, in many cases, is conducive both to untidiness and waste. It

usually implies heaps of loose straw about the place. The straw thus

yielded in large quantities at a time is never put together so neatly as

the sheaves are to begin with. It could be, no doubt, but as it has to

be used soon the labour spent in doing so would generally be looked

upon as lost. With so much at hand there is certain to be less

Q 2

228 THE MODERN HOMESTEAD.

economy in the using of it ; and being so much exposed to air and
weather, it loses not a little of its freshness as fodder. These, however,
are points of less moment at the big arable farm, where often the cry
is how to get enough of the straw trodden underfoot, than they are at
the dairy farm, for instance, where the straw is held as an article of
fodder. Asking recently the tenant of a North-country farm of the
latter class, whose horse-mill was fast becoming useless, if he now
depended entirely upon the travelling mill, the reply Avas, "'Deed no;
I get it as seldom as I can ; it makes sic a waste." " What do you do,
then?" we incjuired. "Do you handle the flail ? " " Oh, I daud a few
sheaves against the rungs of a ladder every morning," he answered. And
not a bad idea either. If the sheaves are not clean thrashed, the cows
and the horses enjoy them, and consequently profit by them, all the
more. They are served to them for being eaten, not for being slept upon.
So great is the advantage of having water power at the
Advantages homestead, one has reason to be surprised that this has
of Water been so often overlooked. That we find so few home-

steads provided in this way is, perhaps, due to the fact
of their respective sites having been chosen at a time so far back that
there was then no machinery calling for motive power other than manual
labour could cope with. It is not, however, to long-established home-
steads alone that this neglect on the part of those who planned them in
seeking the aid of water power is applicable. The same can be advanced
against many of recent date. It is only, of course, in certain districts
that water is available in this way. In some of the wide level tracts of
good cropping country, where thrashing is such an important operation,
water is too scarce for the purpose ; and were it more plentiful, the
configuration of the ground is usually of such a nature that it cannot be
fully turned to account. There is generally a difficulty in giving enough
of fall to the water to allow much work being got out of it. We are, unfor-
tunately, likelier to meet with water available as power at the homestead
in those districts where corn growing is more a subsidiary branch than the
almost all-absorbing one it is in the strictly arable parts of the country.
But wherever power is needed at the homestead, whether on the half
arable or the wholly arable farm, water when available in this respect
should be taken advantage of. And whenever it falls to one's lot either
to select the site for a new homestead or to give advice thereon he
should bear in mind the great importance of securing so valuable an aid
in the performance of work at the place. A homestead well supplied in
this way ought certainly to add to the letting value of the farm. We
question if it ever did so in the past, but the cost of labour, whether
manual or mechanical, is not now what it used to be in country districts
any more than in towns ; and the time is approaching when a cheap
source of power, such as water in many cases can be made, will be taken
at its proper value.

''POWER'' AT THE HOMESTEAD.

229

^, , There are three modifications of the vertical water-wheel.

The three • 1 j 1 1

Modifications viz., the undershot, the overshot, and the breast wheel.

of the Ordinary i-^ the first-mentioned, as Fi^. 170 shows, the force of
Water-Wheel. . . ,• , 1 ,

the moving water is applied to blades which are attached

to the circumference of the wheel, and in turn as it revolves dip into the
water. The running water strikes against these blades, its momentum

as applied to them serving
to give motion to the
wheel. A wheel of this
kind is applicable in cases
where water is so plentiful
that there is not much
need to economise it.
Almost all water power
derived from pent-up
streams is utilised in this
manner. In fact, it can
hardly be applied other-
wise, unless the bed of the
stream happens to have a
steep declivity. With a lowland stream there is usually so slight a fall
from where the water is diverted into the mill lade or lead and the point
at which it rejoins the stream that no other class of wheel is practicable.
But the abundance
of water in these in-

stances makes up for

the deficiency in the

fall of the stream.

The
The Under-
shot Wheel.

Fig. 170.

under-

s h o t
wheel acts in a
directly opposite
fashion to the paddle-
wheel of a steam-
boat. In the latter
the blades of the
wheel strike the
water, and in this w^ay impel the boat onwards, but with the under-
shot wheel the water is this time the moving agent which, as it
strikes against the blades, causes the wheel to revolve.

The overshot wheel, on the other hand, is utilised where

u. ?Ju^' 1 water is not so plentiful, and where, in addition, it can be
shot Wheel. . . ...

afforded a considerable drop in order to give it increased

impetuosity. The water, as indicated in Fig. 171, is led on to the top

230

THE MODERN HOMESTEAD.

The Breast
V/heel.

of the wheel, and is caught in the series of buckets that in this class
takes the place of the blades or paddles that characterise the undershot
wheel. Not only does the water tend to force round the wheel as it is
arrested in its course by the constantly succeeding buckets, but its
weight as these become filled adds to the w^eight of the rim of the wheel,
and thus, under the law of centrifugal force, increases the momentum of
that part. The buckets empty themselves before the water can become
an encumbrance by being raised on the other side against gravitation.
The breast wheel is a sort of compromise between the
other two. It is used where a shorter drop is given than
in the case of the overshot wheel, which, of course has to
be compensated by a fuller body of water. The stream of water
is led on to the side of the wheel, or, perhaps, the shoulder rather

than the side. But a
reference to Fig. 172 will
explain the arrangement.
This wheel, it will be seen,
turns in the same direction
as the undershot wheel,
but contrary to the over-
shot. The water is dropped
between the end of the
shoot and the wheel, and
falling upon the latter, fills
the buckets, which, as with
the overshot wheel, are
fixed upon its circumference, and so carries it round by sheer weight.
Where water is plentiful paddles are substituted for buckets.

The water-wheel not only enables us to transmute the

motion of the water to other points more convenient to

our purposes, but it also serves the part of a simple

mechanical advantage. It is a modification of the lever,

as exemplified in the wheel and axle, P'ig. 161. The

length of radius of the wheel multiplied by the momentum of the water

(the sum of its weiglit and velocity) gives us the amount of power

we have at command at the axis of its axle.

Sticking to round figures — for mathematical accuracy is hardly
practicable in the every-day affairs of the farm, and in consequence
is seldom run after — a cubic foot of water weighs about 62^ pounds.
In a cubic foot of fluid, as we have seen, there are about 6^
gallons, and a gallon of average surface - water weighs rather
better than 10 pounds, but for our purpose may be taken at that figure.
These figures are sufficient to prove the comparati\e accuracy of our
statement, and they are easy to remember. With this knowledge for a
start, what is needed in addition to enable us to calculate approximately

Fig. 172.

The

mechanical
Advantage of
the ordinary
Water-Wheel

'^ POWER'' AT THE HOMESTEAD. 231

the power of any water-wheel is the quantity of water that can be
steadily applied to the same, together with the distance which the water
falls while it is in contact with the wheel.

In addition to this, however — at least, as regards both the undershot
and the overshot wheels — there comes in the momentum (the quantity
and rate of motion or velocity) of the body of water as it impinges upon
the floats in the former case and against the buckets in the latter. In
fact, as regards the undershot wheel, the somewhat primitive data given
above is not sufificient for guiding us to a solution of its power. Some-
thing besides what we have stated is required to lead us to any degree
of accuracy on that point. The running water is in contact with each of
the floats as its turn comes but for an instaat, and only a proportion
of the passing water gets a chance to bear upon the wheel. The floats
are never so large as to take up the whole area of the channel.

But with the other two respectively, when matters are properly
adjusted, nearly every drop of the water led forward is applied to the
wheel, and accompanies it in a part of its revolution in the overshot for
half a turn, and in the breast wheel between a half and a quarter turn.
x\pplying now our data, suppose we have available a supply of water
capable of playing upon a wheel, 20 feet in diameter, at the rate of
300 cubic feet in a minute, and that it keeps in contact with the
wheel while it descends, say, 10 feet. Here we have 300 cubic feet
of water, weighing 18,750 lb., which, multiplied by 10, the number of
feet it falls while doing work in connection with the wheel, gives us a
force of 187,500 lb. applied at the rim of the wheel. This represents a
motive force of 187,500 foot-pounds. A horse-power we noted at the
end of last chapter as being equivalent to 33,000 foot-pounds. We
have, therefore, with our assumed wheel and available water supply at
our command, a working force equal to a little over five and three-
quarters horse-power.

This is only theoretically, however. In practice the farm water-
wheel is too clumsy a contrivance to transmit a very large proportion
of the motive power to the working point. Only about -60 of it comes
to be effective. Ten times the initial force playing in this case upon
the circumference of the wheel comes, we must bear in mind, to act at
the central point of its axle.

A reference to Fig. 173, taken from Stephen's " Book of the Farm,"
and which explains itself, makes clear how simple in all its parts, as
well as in the application thereto of the force, is the ordinary water-
wheel. Simple in construction, easy of control, and not readily put out
of order, it is a mechanical appliance admirably adapted to the uses of
the farmer. The figure represents a breast wheel, the water being led
on about forty-five degrees from the top. It is shown made all of iron,
excepting the buckets and the rim to which these are attached. Some-
times these parts of the wheel are also of iron, but wood is, perhaps.

232

THE MODERN HOMESTEAD.

the preferable material with which to fit them up. A bucket made of
wood can be more easily repaired or replaced than one of iron. The
wheel is cast in separate pieces, which can at anytime be taken asunder
for repair. The simplicity of the arrangements for letting the water
when not required past the wheel and for regulating the quantity to be
applied is self-apparent.

A Drawback '^^^ °^^ drawback to the water-wheel is the introduction
of the Water- in connection therewith of so much water about the
^^ ' place. As a rule places of the kind are damp enough

without adding to that condition by introducing an underground stream
alongside some of the buildings and beneath others. The wheel pit, in
order that the power may be nearer its work, is usually placed alongside the
barn wall in line with the thrashing-mill inside, and, on account of so

Fig. 173.
much water being splashed about it, that part of the wall is constantly
dripping. If the side wall of the barn be badly built— loose and hollow
inside, as so often happens — there is little wonder that the barn itself is
damp, and not infrequently infested with rats. But there is no reason
why the water-wheel cannot be prevented from becoming a nuisance in
this way. If care be taken in providing for the introduction of water to
the homestead as a source of power, and its installation be carried out
properly, there need be nothing to fear in that respect. With large-sized
fireclay pipes now so readily available, the water can easily be provided
with a watertight channel, if not all the way from the dam to the wdieel,
at least as far back from the latter as will safeguard the homestead from

''POWER'' AT THE HOMESTEAD. 233

the effects of leakage as the water approaches the buildings. And what
with fireclay bricks and cement easily procurable, it need be no difficult
matter to render the sides of the pit watertight ; and with concrete to
put the bottom thereof in like condition. And if pipes are not
practicable in the construction of the tail-race or exit from the pit,
bricks and cement will serve to keep it from being a source of dampness
until it is clear of the buildings.

Through neglect of the former of these precautions, that of making the
lade or conducting channel from dam to mill-wheel watertight, we have
often seen parts of homesteads rendered worse than useless. The
places so affected got the name of sheltering or housing cattle ; but
while affording this they lay the stock open to diseases which they
would never contract if left out in the open without other shelter than
fences, and perhaps an open shed to which they could retreat in times
of stress. And not only does the stock of the occupier suffer under
conditions of this sort. The woodwork of buildings so situated very
soon becomes a prey to the lowly organisms that breed and flourish in
the mouldy corners characteristic of buildings which are subjected to
a constant state of almost stagnant dampness. But the mill-pit is
generally the greater sinner of the two in respect of introducing damp-
ness to the homestead. In neither case, however, need there be room,
as w^e ha\e already said, for any harm to arise from water as the motive
power to the homestead. It is as easy to make a satisfactory job here
as in any other department of the buildings. Careful, though bv no
means necessarily expensive, work is no doubt required here, but the
same applies to all the other parts. Something like what holds good
with the drains, however, is apt to be the case with the water-power
installation. Because it is to be out of sight it is thought less care may
be taken with it than with work that will be abo^■e ground and always in
view. The laying on of water for this purpose is undoubtedly a consider-
able addition to the cost of building the homestead, but, as we have said,
it is seldom taken account of in estimating the value of the farm it is
intended to benefit. This extra cost has, we suspect, much to do with the
number of places unprovided with water power that might easily have
been served with so great a convenience. But estate managers stand in
the light of the interests of the estates they control when they curtail ex-
penses that would confer so great a benefit on the occupiers of a homestead.

It is not necessary, of course, that the water-wheel should be absolutely
alongside of the barn wall. There is nothing to hinder it from being placed
some distance away from the buildings so long as it is practicable to
transmit the power to the point where it requires to be applied. But this
implies shafting and allied means of passing the force from the wheel to
the thrashing-mill, all of which add to the cost of installation. ^Nlore-
over, a good deal of force is sure to be dropped by the way in overcoming
the friction between the various parts that serve to transmit the force.

234 THE MODERN HOMESTEAD.

There is a class ot water-wheel which, in our opinion, is

The Turbine j^^^^ ^^ much taken adxantaL^' of at the homestead as it
Water- Wheel. -

ought to be; we mean the turbine wheel. One can turn a

head of water, whether it be a plentiful one with a short drop, or one
small in quantity but with a long fall, to far better account with the
turbine than with any of the other kinds of water-wheels. This form
of wheel takes up far less room than any of the others we have
mentioned. It sits horizontal and immersed in the water of the tail
race. The water is led on to it in an iron pipe, fixed vertically above
it, and parallel with the shaft or axle of the wlieel. With the older
sorts the water pours down the pipe into the wheel, entering it at the
centre and escaping at the circumference, but those of later construction
reverse the process by admitting the water at the circumference of the
wheel and allowing it to escape at the centre. Internally the wheel is
vertically divided into watertight compartments radiating from the
central point to the rim — not straight, however, like the spokes of a
wheel, but at a tangent, with a certain twist or sweep that impels the
wheel round as the water in its eagerness to escape impinges upon the
walls of these compartments. The whole arrangement is of necessity
so compact and so well constructed that this method of utilising water
as a motive power cannot lead to much dampness in connection with
the farm buildings. Its installation may be more expensive than is the
case with the others, but so much depends upon the site of the home-
stead and the general configuration of the surrounding ground that
comparisons of this kind in the absence of reliable data are aimless as
well as unsatisfactorv. At any rate, a much smaller supply can be
made to do useful ser\ice in conjunction with the turbine water-wheel
than with any of the others.

It is so well adapted for developing small powers that we often
feel surprised tliat it is not oftener made to do duty in this direction.
A three- or a four-inch pipe is sufficient to keep going a well-appointed
turbine wheel capable of developing a force in accordance with the
available fall of the water. Even at a large homestead supplied with
ample steam power a subsidiary power such as we refer to would prove
a great boon. The lighter machinery, that used for preparing food for
the different classes of animals, could be kept going thereby. Some of
the machinery in that department is at work on most days of the week —
at least, it would be if power were available. But when there is
none other at the homestead except the strong power that has been
provided to deal with the thrashing-mill, putting it to do these petty
jobs is like setting three men to do a boy's work. Instead of doing
so, however, it is usual to put off the minor jobs until the thrashing
day comes round. This is equally the case where water instead of
steam is the prime power. And then too, when the water-wheel is one
of so powerful a nature that its use in connection with the minor

''POWER'' AT THE HOMESTEAD.

235

machinery savours of mockery it would not be bad economy, if matters

warranted sucli a step, to pro\-ide a small turbine as a subsidiary source

of power. But there

is less likelihood of

that being required at

those places that de-
pend upon water power

than there is where

steam is the force-
giver. We can limit

the amount of water

being led to the wheel

until it is just sufficient

to keep the wheel

moving and little more,

and in this way bring

the giant's force down

to child's work. We

cannot very well do the same with an eight-horse-power steam-engine.

This is a matter, howe\'er, on which no one can dogmatise. No rule

is in this respect of
general application.
Few homesteads are
placed under similar
circumstances, and
there are many thou-
sands of them scattered
over the face of our
country. The fact re-
mains at any rate that
in numerous cases it
might easily liave been
practicable to lay on
water power to home-
steads that are de-
prived of so cheap and
easily managed a help

towards executing the heavy work that goes on there. In no instance

ought water power to be overlooked, whether it be plentiful enough to

serve the ordinary wheel, or so limited in quantity as to be only sufficient

for the more ingenious and less exacting turbine.

A D«>^..„^ In order to make clearer the matter of the turbine wheel

A Kepresen-

tative Form of we represent in Figs, from 174 to lyg the one known as
t e Turbine. ^.j^^ ,, vortex " turbine. It was invented by Professor James
Thomson, and is manufactured by Messrs. Gilkes, Kendal. Since it

236

THE MODERN HOMESTEAD.

was put on tlie market it has been applied to falls ranging from three
feet to five hundred feet. It consists of a movable wheel (Fig. 176) with
radiating vanes, which revolves upon a pivot, and is surrounded by an
annular case, closed externally, but having towards its external circum-
ference four curved guide passages. The water is admitted by one or
more pipes to this case, and entering through the guide passages, acts
against the vanes of the wheel, which is thus dri\en round at a velocity
depending upon the height of the fall. The water, having expended its
force, passes out at the centre both above and below the case. In
Fig. 174 the case is complete as usually placed at the bottom of the
fall ; in Fig. 175 it is shown with the cover removed. The wheels range
in diameter from six inches upwards. In this instance A is the revolving

wheel keyed on the shaft C.
B represents one of the
guide blades for regulating
the amount of water ad-
missible to the wheel ; and
D the bell cranks and shafts
connecting the guide blades
with the outside bell cranks
and coupling rods E. F is
the guide blade gear (kept
out in this instance, but
easily discernible in Fig.
177) ; G the bracket and
screw for raising the pivot ;
H the wheel cover ; and I
the supply pipe by which
the water enters the case.

Fig. 177 shows a wheel
of the kind fixed in position,
the top of the case being le^•el witli the floor of the tail-race, so that any
loss of fall is avoided. The water in this case has a fall of eighteen feet,
and it develops a force of fifty horse-power. The wheel rests upon
three large stones with an opening towards the tail-race for the escape of
the water from the under side of the wheel. The lever end of the shafc
works upon a lignum vitae pivot, supported by the bridge or bracket
seen below. A lever, with a rod rising to the surface of the tail water,
is provided for raising the pivot when worn. Above the case are
shown the cranks and rods for working the guide blades, which are
moved by a worm and segment, seen towards tlie right-hand side of the
fig. A part of the strainer box (intended to keep sticks, &c., from
gaining access to the wheel) is broken away to show the arrangement
of the strainer and bell-mouth entrance of tlie pipes. The power
is transmitted from tlie upright shaft of the turbine by a pair of

Fig. 176.

"POWER'' AT THE HOMESTEAD.

237

bevel-wheels to the horizontal shaft which passes through the wall
into the mill.

It is practicable, as we see in Fig. 1 78, to construct the " vortex " so that
it can be fixed in a vertical position. And this form of the wheel admits
of being placed without much loss of power at any height above the
level of the tail-race not exceeding thirty feet, or the length of a column
of water which the atmosphere pressure is capable of supporting in a
tube with one end closed and the air abstracted therefrom. We see the
principle put to practice in Fig. 179. The principle is that the water
in the pipe between the wheel and the tail-race is drawing round the

Fig.

wheel with about as much force as it would push it round were the
wheel placed at the bottom of the column. The water in the pipe below
the wheel is still in this case a continuation of the head of water between
the reservoir and the tail-race. At more than thirty feet beneath the
wheel the column of water disconnects ; therefore beyond that distance
the water has no draw, or suck, on the wheel it has passed through.

It is in respect of acting as a water supplier to the
turbine, if in any, that we think the windmill can be
called into service as an auxiliary power at the home-
stead. It is too uncertain, as we have said, to serve as a prime power.
In accordance with the perversity that is so often displayed in human

The Wind
Wheel.

238

THE MODERN HOMESTEAD.

affairs it is apt to fail us at the times it is most needed, and be rampant
when not required. But if taken in connection with water and bound
in partnership to that less wayward medium, it is (juite practicable to
blend its extremes into a steady average force of almost automatic
habit. While in many cases it is utterly impracticable to avail oneself
of a head of water to give motion to the fixed machinery of the farm, in
not a few of these is the project quite feasible of pumping up by means
of wind power to a level where it can be utilised to drive a turbine

Fig. 17S.

wheel. That form of wheel, we repeat, is not exacting in its contribu-
tion from water, and there are places without count where water of
some sort or other — either running or stagnant — is available for the
purpose indicated. By means of a suitable wind-motor it is easy to
raise water from a level lower tlian the site of the homestead to one
equal to or above it. And it is no difficult matter, and need be no
costly one, to form a reservoir capable of supplying the requirements of
the wheel. This is, we consider, the only feasible way we can contrive
to turn wind to account as a help at the homestead. The windmill will

^^ POWER" AT THE HOMESTEAD.

239

often be idle, but it will be oftener on the move, and, like Cuddie
Headrig's tree, it will during most of its existence be making progress in
its way while we are sleeping. If the installation is well planned, the
reser^'oir, provided that the pump never sucks, will always be prepared
to meet its calls.

Thanks to makers in the United States, followed now by those of our
own country, we ha\e ample choice of easily erected and easily main-

FiG. 179.

tained wind-motors suitable to the purpose we suggest. Fig. 180 is
an example of one of these useful machines which are familiar to the
readers of agricultural journals as being prominent in the advertisement
columns of these, and to frequenters of agricultural shows as figuring
among the groups of machinery exhibits. Some are of wood, excepting,
of course, the axles and allied parts ; and others are wholly of
metal, the most being galvanised. They are so constructed as to a
certain extent to be self-regulating. When the wind increases to a
pressure that is too severe for them, they come almost to a standstill,

240

THE MODERN HOMESTEAD.

patiently waiting their chance to resume operations in a normal way
when the gale has blown itself out. When the wind reaches a certain
pressure, or, what is much the same thing, when the wheel attains a
certain velocity, it brings a lever into play that so affects the rudder or
tail-piece, whose prime duty is to keep the wheel dead on to the passing
air-current, as to cause it to throw the wheel out of the eye of the wind —
to " luff" as a sailor would say, and thus reduce its rate of revolution.
The harder it blows the more does the rudder force the wheel to keep its
full face from the wind, and to turn sideways thereto, until at last the
rim of the wheel is presented to the gale and the machine is brought to

Fig. 180.

a full stop. When the force of the wind moderates the rudder is eased
from this abnormal duty, and the wheel begins to face up to its work
again. By reason of this simple contrivance therefore are these machines
prevented from racing and coming to untimely ends. Its application
thereto enables them to maintain a steady pace which is a favourable
condition as regards wear and tear. It is practicable further to fit up a
simple automatic arrangement whereby when the reservoir becomes
full the wheel can be thrown out of gear, and thus be sa\ed from doing
unnecessary work.

''POWER'' AT THE HOMESTEAD.

241

Fi(,. iSi.

We have spoken, under the head of Water Supply, of the utihty of
such a wind motor as we are dis-
cussing in raising drinking-water
to a height that will admit of its
being distributed at \arious points
of the homestead. What applies
to it in the instance of raising
water to afford power at the home-
stead applies to it also in raising
water to supply the demand for
it there on the part both of man
and beast. It is a most useful
aid in either case when water at
a lower level than the building is
to be had for the lifting any dis-
tance that is not beyond prac-
ticable means.

While on the sub-

The Water ^^^ ^f forcing

Ram. ■' . . -

drinking water to

a higher level it may be oppor-
tune to look into the action of the hydraulic ram, under the influence of

wdiich a moving body of water is
made to force part of its own
volume to considerable heights
if wished. Fig. 181 shows the
apparatus as supplied by the
Glenfield Company, Kilmarnock,
viewed externally. It looks
simple, and it does not belie its
appearance. The section of the
ram given in Fig. 182 enables one
to understand the principle of this
useful appliance. It is fed through
the pipe D P which leads the water
into the body of the ram. The
latter has no other outlets than the
opening at D V, leading direct to
the exterior, and that at C V, which
leads into an air chamber. Both
openings are, it will be seen, pro-
vided with \alves that can efiec-
tually bar the passage of water
through either, except in the
direction desired. Further there

M.H. R

O.P.^,

242

THE MODERN HOMESTEAD.

is led away from the air clianiber the rise or supply pipe R P, which, it
will be observed, is much smaller in bore than the drive pipe. S V is
the snifter valve for the admission of sufficient air into tiie chamber
to replace what is carried therefrom b\- tlie water tliat passes through
or past it ; and M H is the manhole cover whicli allows access for
examination of the clap-valve at times.

\\'hen the body of the ram is emptv the drop-\alve D V, which sits
bottom downwards, leaves the opening tree. The clap-valve C V
sits the reverse way, closing up the passage that communicates
with the air-chamber A V. If we turn on the water into the drive-
pipe D P, it forces its way down the pipe and seeks to escape past the
valve D V. But the rush of water to the opening there carries up the
\alve, which now suddenly blocks the opening, and in consequence the
momentum of the water stops with a sudden jerk which reacts on the
water, and seeks to force it back. It cannot, however, force the water
back up the drive-pipe, but it is strong enough to press up the valve at
C V, and force some of it therein. The air within the chamber acts as
a cushion in giving way before the water that is suddenly ejected into
the chamber, and in its turn forcing it into the rise pipe R P that is led
away to the point of delivery. Meantime the balance within the body
of the ram has been redressed, and the Aarious forces have come to a
momentary pause. There now being nothing to withhold the valve D V
against the force of gravitation, it falls to its original position, and once
more the water begins to flow down the drive-pipe and out at the
opening thus afforded. But headway has no sooner been gained than the
valve is again carried in the upward rush, with the same result as before —
an instantaneous check to the movement which spends itself in forcing open
the valve C V, and forcing some water into the chamber whence through
the elastic force of the compressed air it is pushed along the rise-pipe
which leads therefrom. And so when the A'arious parts of the ram are
properly adjusted does this combined and automatic action proceed with
regular beat day and night without attention from anyone. Floods and
frosts may, of course, come to interfere with the steady performance of
its work, but how these will afTect it is simply a matter of situation. The
ram may be so placed that it is out of the way of frost ; and the rivulet
may be of such a description as not to be much liable to flooding. A
flood would not harm the ram so long as it was not submerged — so
long, at any rate, as the opening at D \' was above water, and the valve
liad free play.

With rams of a higli power it may be feasible under certain conditions
and in suitable circumstances to raise water to the homestead, there to
be turned to account in developing power capable of giving motion to
machinery. But these would be exceptional cases. The place of the ram,
so far as we are presently concerned, is as a carrier of water for drink
either to man or animal, and even in this department of farm economy

''POWER" AT THE HOMESTEAD.

243

Steam.

only to a very limited extent. In Fig. 183 we show a contrivance
capable of doing work similar to what the ram is put — a small water-
wheel driving a pump. It is forcing up water from that which supplies
it with motix'e power.

Failing the means of obtaining water power at the home-

The Expansive stead, there is nothing for it at the big arable farm but to
Force of Gases , , , • r , .

as Power. ^urn to the expansive property of gases as the motive

force for thrashing the corn crops. The oil-engine, we

have hinted, is now being put forward as both a handy and cheap agent,

well adapted to the end in view ; but it has hardly become popular yet.

The steam-engine was the only one a\ailable when horse power was

being discarded as wasteful and behind the times, which, no doubt,

accounts for its general adoption. Had any other more handy source

of power been at command, this cumbersome and expensive one would

not have been in such demand.

Steam, as w^e remarked in the last chapter, brings us to a
different kind of energy or source of work than we ha\e

to deal with in respect of the power either of wind or of water. The

source of power

in these is the

momentum of

moving bodies.

We erect our

wind motor in

face of currents

of air, and the

latter, as they

seek to force it

out of their way,

impart motion

to it. In like

manner, we set

our wheel in the

path of water Pi^ jS^

running to a

lower level while it may, and the wheel, receiving the impress of the

stream, has some of the momentum of the moving water imparted to it.

As regards steam, however, we have, we repeat, to do with the molecular

forces of the water we take in hand, not with the body itself in motion.

We get our force now out of the tendency of the body to expand, not to

be set in motion itself and carry other bodies with it. W'e enclose water

in a strong boiler and heat it until it is converted into steam. Steam

being the gaseous form of water, its component molecules are, in that

condition, free, if not too stoutly opposed, to expand towards infinity.

F)Ut opposed to them are the thick iron plates of the boiler, which bids

R 2

244

THE MODERN HOMESTEAD.

defiance to their strivings after liberty. Thick though these be, liowever,
it is possible, if we apply great heat to the boiler, to rend them asunder.

It is this expansive force of water turned to gas that the steam turns
to account as useful work. The steam is utilised by allowing it to
escape into a chamber — the cylinder — in which works a piston, the
head of which fits close to the sides, but can easily be moved from one
end to the other. The handle, or rod, of the piston projects beyond the
cylinder through a close-fitting hole at one end, and the motion of this
as the piston moves to and fro, taken up by crank and fly-wheel,
constitutes the moti\e power of the steam-engine.

Fig. 184 demonstrates at a glance the principle on which the steam
is brought to play upon the piston within the cylinder. A is the cylinder
as a whole, and h the head of the piston ; r is a supplementary part of
the cylinder into which the steam is admitted through d, preparatory to
being brought into action upon the piston head. As the piston moves to
and fro this reciprocatory motion, with its sudden stops and starts, is
converted into a circular one by means of the crank e keyed to the shaft,
which is attached at its other end to the fly-wheel — which is not shown,

Fig. 1S4.

however. Attached to this same shaft is what is termed the " eccentric,"
/, the rod of which, g-, moves backward and forward the port-cover /;,
which regulates the admission of steam into the cylinder through the
two ports i. By this arrangement, while steam is being admitted to
one side of the piston head a way out by the escape pipe is being left
for the steam at the other side of the piston head.

The forms in which steam-engines are now manufactured
The Steam- ^j.^ igg^Q^^ and successi^•e makers, profiting by accumu-
lated experience, are able to produce machines that can
almost be termed perfect of their kind. One of a simple description,
however, is the best suited for the requirements of the homestead.
Skilled men are not readily available at country places, and during the
part of the year that it is needed for one day the engine is idle four or
five ; while from the end of spring to late in autumn it is wholly at rest.
A strong, simple machine answers treatment of this kind more satis-
factorily than a complicated one, well balanced, no doubt, in all its
parts, but ill adapted to withstand inattention of any kind. Those of
the latter description are made with a view to economise fuel as far as

^' POWER" AT THE HOMESTEAD. 245

possible, and to turn the steam thereby generated to the best account.
Still, conducted as the affairs of tlie homestead have usually of necessity
to be, it is better to lose a little in extra fuel at the hands of an easily
maintained engine than run the greater risk of rendering the more
perfect one ineffective.

At the more important liomesteads it is usual to find the engine apart
from the boiler, the latter built up in a house by itself. This arrange-
ment saves the engine from exposure to the dust and moisture that arise
in the boiler-house from the work connected with attending to the
furnaces and the escape of steam from the boiler. The fixed boilers
necessitate a tall chimney-stack such as we see in connection with manu-
factories, but on a smaller scale than these, of course. The tall chimney
is necessary in order to promote a strong draught in the furnace. With-
out it the fire would not burn briskly enough, nor could the heated gases
and air arising therefrom be led along the boiler in the manner best
adapted to heat the water to ad\'antage. The higher we make the
chimney the more effecti\e we make the furnace, but there is a medium
point beyond which it is unnecessary to go. This depends, it is needless
to say, on the circumstances peculiar to each case, and we seldom find
two alike. In no case, ho\ve\er, need the homestead boiler house
chimney be made to compete in height with the factory chimney. The
factory furnace is generally fed on dross, which requires a powerful
draught to digest it ; but the farmer is usually obliged to deal out good
coal to his, and it burns with less coaxing. Further, the manufacturer
is compelled by law to deliver the smoke that emanates from his boiler
furnaces well above the heads of the lieges or else his place of business
will be declared a nuisance.

There is about as much ingenuity displayed in making
Engine Boilers. , ^ , , ., , i i i ■ i • i

the most or the boiler as we have already hmted is the

case regarding the engine. At many homesteads there is to be seen the

primitive long tubular, egg-ended boiler, with the furnace underneath. It

takes a long time to get up steam in a boiler of this description. There

is so small a quantit}- of water in proportion to its total bulk in contact

with the heated surface, that before all has been raised to boiling-point

much time and patience, as well as fuel, have been expended. More

heat goes, we suspect, up the chimney than can be imparted to the water

under an arrangement of this kind. The man whose duty it is to attend

to the furnace must be at work o\-ernight if the engine has to be agoing

next morning. This simple old sort of boiler forms a striking contrast

to the one, for instance, that is typical of the locomotive. In it are

inserted in the body of the boiler numerous tubes running its whole

length at equal distances apart and open at the ends. Briefly, it is a

series of parallel open tubes encased in a water-tight box of boiler

plating. The water fills the interstices between the exterior of the

tubes. One end of the latter connnunicates with the fire-box and the

246

THE MODERN HOMESTEAD.

other witli the smoke-stack ; tlie tubes, in fact, are but a continuation
of the furnace. They are the big tiue of the old boiler cut up into small
branches and led through the heart of the water instead of the original
cavernous opening that led from the furnace along the bottom of the
boiler more or less direct to the chimney. The heat, instead of playing
upon a small surface of water as it hurries past to the chimney under
the old arrangement, is here distributed uniformly throughout the bulk
of the water, with the result that the same amount of fuel will, in the
one case, give a very different account of itself to what it can in the
other. So much progress has been made in these niatters during recent
years as to justify the statement we recently noted that at the beginning
of the late Queen's reign a ton of coal was equal to twenty horse-power,

Fig. 185.

in 1853 to forty horse-power, while to-day the power represented by a
ton of coal is sixty-three.

A great improvement on the old round boiler is effected
Bofler°'^"'^ by placing the fire-box or furnace in the centre thereof

instead of having it underneatli. It then forms a central
tube or box, as it were, right through from end to end of the boiler. The
flames and heated air from the fire pass along the tube, which represents
a water surface all round throughout its entire length. Under this
arrangement the water, it is easy to see, will be more easily heated than
it can where the big boiler sits o\er the fire like a kettle in the kitchen
grate. Fuel will be saved, and steam will be raised in a much shorter
time. And the boiler made on this principle, known as the " Cornish "
boiler (see I'^ig. 183), is as safe as that of the original type. Other

''POWER- AT THE HOMESTEAD.

247

improvements have been wrought on the same Hnes, but for homestead
use the boiler we ha\e described is quite advanced enough.

It is becoming common to construct boiler and engine in
one as indicated in Fig. 1S6. This is a very handy
arrangement. It economises room at the homestead, and
it saves the erection of such a large chimney as the fixed
boiler necessitates. Here again it is practicable to have the furnace or

Combined
Engine and
Boiler.

Fig. 1 86.

fire-box placed in the heart of the boiler, and so make as much as
possible out of the fuel consumed, as we see in Fig. 187, which gives
the section of a detached boiler such as we are describing. The furnace
box is jacketed round with a thin sheet of water encased between con-
centric plates reaching to the base block on the ground. A little above
the bars, high enough, of course, not to hamper the fire, tubes (known
as " Galloway " tubes) cross from one side to the other of the Avater skin,

248

THE MODERN HOMESTEAD.

Locomotive
Engines.

while, finally, the heated <:jases pass up tliroii<4ii the dome in which the
circular jacket-shaped boiler culminates. The bulk of the water is in
the upper part of the boiler over the dome in the part in which the heat
vibrations strike hardest, and the entrance to the chimney being up
through the centre of this, the very most almost can be taken out of the
coal that is burned on the furnace bars. The fire, together with part of
the chimney, is almost completely surrounded by water, and, further,
several cores of the same cross the heated chamber between firebox and
flue, so that the water is spread over a wide surface exposed to the
influence of the fire — very difTerent, indeed, from the state of matters we
spoke of as prevailing with the huge circular
boiler, in connection with which the flames
crawl along the bottom in a half-hearted
sort of way, seemingly aware that the work
in hand is too much for them in any
reasonable time.

On a few exceptional farms

traction-engines are put to

service for thrashing. They
are employed in haulage work of Aarious
kinds, and on thrashing days are drawn up
near the barn in a position handy for
transmitting power to the mill. There used
to be more engines of tliis kind seen about
farms. Twenty years ago much ploughing
and culti^■ating generally was done with
their aid. But since then agriculture has
fallen on bad times and undergone severe
straits — so much so as to put out of count
all such costly investments as are implied
under the head of steam tillage. Machines
of the kind are too cumbersome as well as
costly ever to gain an important place of their own at the farm. Could
a handy traction-engine, suitable for farm use, be introduced, it would
soon gain hold. We mean such a one that would not cut up both roads
and land as the one that we have hitherto had to rest content with. The
heavy and unwieldy traction-engine we are accustomed to requires better
bottomed roads than prevail at the farm, and when taken on the fields
they poach them in a most distressing manner. But we are on the eve, we
suspect, of a great change in this connection. Motor machines are making
progress towards practicabilitv, and ere long attention will no doubt be
paid to motors suitable to farm roads and fields. What with india-
rubber tyres ; and with mineral oil as a force-giver, and, more important
still, liquid air witli its immense head of expansixe force, there is no end
to the possibilities that may be attained by means of motors. Lightness
and mobility will have been secured to start with, after which handiness is

Fig. 187.

'^ POWER" AT THE HOMESTEAD. 249

but a matter of detail. We see nothin.u: to hinder tlieir coming even-
tually to supersede our patient friend the horse in tlie work of cultiva-
ting the soil, hauling manure to the fields, taking home the matured
crops, and otherwise transporting farm produce. A handy little motor,
with plough attached, might be made to perambulate a field as easilv
and with as little detriment to the soil as occurs with a team of horses.
America has already produced one combined with a self-binder reaper.

The traction-engines we see at the farms have boilers of the same
class as are typical of the railway locomotive — a bundle of tubes, as it
were, encased in the boiler and surrounded by water whereby the heat
of the fire as it courses along these is carried right into the heart of the
water. Some of the engines of this class meant for colonial use are
made with a fire-box that will consume straw and chaff as auxiliary
fuel. These are intended for the vast corn-growing farms. Coal is
scarce thereaway, and straw and chaft' both plentiful and \-alueless. An
engine, therefore, that can utilise this waste crop must be a welcome
machine. But the stoking of such will surely be a terrible as well as a
continuous strain on the attendants.

At some homesteads, more especiallv those of dairy
Steam for Heat- r ^ r ■ ■ " ■, ,

ing, Scalding, i^rms, a supply 01 steam is m constant demand, not so

and Cooking much, however, for moti\e purposes as for heating water.
Purposes.

cooking food, and scalding utensils. In these instances

copper fires are dispensed with, the food being steamed instead of
boiled. Much labour, one can understand, is saved by this arrange-
ment. Instead of several copper fires having to be lighted and attended
to, there is here but one, that which generates the steam. Along with
the saving of labour that this invohes, the risk from fire is lessened
The copper fires are kindled with IWe coals eitlier from house or farm
under some other boiler, and on a windv day to carry matter of this sort
about the homestead is anything but fair to insurance companies. We
remember a case where a shovelful was emptied b}' a violent gust and
blown against the end of the season's hay packed in a new shed o\er a
hundred feet long, with the consequence that in a few minutes hay,
shed and all were enveloped in flames and soon thereafter reduced to
ashes.

Steam for the purposes mentioned can of course be derived from the
boiler of the power-giving engine, if there be such about the place when
steam is raised therein. The former is wanted e\erv day, however,
while the latter may not be ; and to heat up the latter daily for the sake
of obtaining, so to speak, casual steam, would be bad economy. The
engine in question may happen to be of so small power that it would be
wise enough policy to turn it to account in the manner referred to. But
when the circumstances are otherwise, a supplementary boiler is neces-
sary. It need not be a very large affair, neither need it be so strong as
one connected to an engine. Such a one as shown in Fig. 188 (of which
P'^ig. 187 is a vertical section) is very suitable for the purpose. It being

^5°

THE MODERN HOMESTEAD.

wanted merely for discluirging jets of steam here and there, no great
amount of pressure is ever brought to bear upon the phites that form the
shell thereof. Very few pounds of pressure serve the end in view, and
the escape vah'e being set accordingly there is in consequence a very
small strain upon the casing of the boiler. Indeed, experienced persons
maintain that steam issuing forth from an orifice under easy pressure,
and therefore close to the boiling-point of water — 212^ F. — is a far more
efitective scalding medium than steam under high pressure which means
steam at a higher temperature than the boiling point of the water which

it arises from. They say that dairy utensils
can be more effectively plotted with one than
the other. This statement, coming from men
wliose opinions can hardly be gainsaid, has
sorely puzzled the quidnuncs of agricultural
science. It is more than likely that this paradox
arises from the fact of steam at 212" being at a
temperature that allows it at once to revert to
the liquid form, and in so doing liberate the
great amount, comparatively speaking, of latent
heat that we reverted to when discussing the
physical properties of water. The hotter steam,
one would think, would soon cool down
to the critical point, and then part with its
latent heat, but by that time a good deal of it
might have escaped. Much of it would be
bound to do so under the circumstances to
which the paradox applies— the steaming of
dishes, milk-butts, etc. At any rate, in making
use of steam for the above purpose, it is a
waste of fuel to raise pressure in the boiler to
anything beyond what will deliver it freely
at the points where it is wanted. High-pressure steam is not called for
in these operations ; and raising steam abo\e its initial temperature is
all so much waste of heat in the fire-box.

The pipes required for leading steam to the dififerent coppers ha\'e no
need to be of larger diameter than from a half to one inch ; neither need
they be of any extra thickness. The respective pipes are led from the
main one to Avithin an inch or so of the bottom of the copper each has
to ser\-e. The free end is left open, but within easy reach of the hand
there is fitted to each, close to its junction with the main pipe, a
shut-off valve with which to control the steam. A curious coincidence
sometimes happens in this connection if care be not taken to close the
\alve before the boiler cools down on the one hand, and before the
contents of the copper have been removed on the other. As the water
in the boiler cools the steam therein condenses and the space it occupied
forms a vacuum, with the result that the contents of the copper — at

Fig. 1 88.

"POIl'£/?" AT THE HOMESTEAD. 251

least, those that are plastic or fluid enough — are forced along the steam-
pipe into the boiler ; the boiler sucks the lot into its maw.

When we think of the heat that is held in reserve by steam we can
easily understand what a potent agent we possess in having its services
at command in this connection. Among other advantages that can be
claimed for its adoption in this respect is the saving in the erection of
the coppers. No furnace has to be built under them and no chimney-
stack above. P'urther, in the absence of the furnace, they do not require
to be placed so high above ground. They can be fitted either in or as
near the latter as will best suit the convenience of the operator.
_. p . The oil-engine, as already remarked, is rapidly taking the
vapour or Oil- place of the steam-engine as a provider of motive power
Engine. ,^j. j.|^g homestead. It is now being manufactured to

develop high powers as well as small powers. One can be had fit to
drive the thrashing-mill witli ease, and another that is only capable
of coping with, say for instance, the cow-milking machine. This engine
is certainly an advance on the steam-engine for farm purposes. It is
not nearly so cumbersome. Fig. i8g represents one of nine horse-
power. How much less room it takes up in comparison with a steam-
engine of equivalent power, especially if it be one of which the horizontal
boiler forms a part. The oil-engine is ready for work in as many
minutes as the old-fashioned egg-end boiler takes hours almost ; and it
takes up but little room, and necessitates no factory-like chimney being
erected. Neither, of course, as we saw, does the vertical steam boiler
already referred to, which also sa^■es room compared to the horizontal
one. But the oil-engine takes up less space than it even, and is ready
for work in a few minutes after a light has been applied to it. There is
no coal to be carted in order to keep the oil-engine going, nor ashes to
be removed when it has done a spell. Neither is there smoke about ;
nor do sparks issue forth. When its work is finished for the time the
oil has simply to be turned off and the light extinguished. The stoking
consists in keeping the oil-tank supplied and attending to the taps that
regulate the quantity to be consumed. The consumption of ilb. of oil
is capable of maintaining one horse-power for an hour, so that the
cartage of fuel with which to maintain the oil engine is but a small item
in the labour bill in comparison to what is needed either in the case of
the old-fashioned horizontal boiler or in its recent modifications, and
even as regards the more scientific vertical boiler.

The principle on which the oil-engine works, similarly to

The Gas- ^j-,^j- ^yhjch underlies the steam-engine, and the gas-engine

Engine. . - i i i

as well, is, we repeat, the force that is put forth by the

expansive power of heated gases. The oil-engine is, however, more
closely related to the gas-engine than the steam-engine. In the last-
named we have first to produce gas (the steam) from the boiler, and it
is this that causes the extra plant we have in this connection. As
regards the gas-engine we draw the gas already made from the nearest

252 THE MODERN HOMESTEAD.

main connected with tlie gas-works, thereby escaping the necessity of
providing ourselves with gas-making apparatus. But it is only in
populous places that coal gas is available. \\'e cannot look for it at
the ordinary homestead. There, if we want it, we must make it our-
selves, therefore we are obliged to dispense with it. The oil-engine was
happily introduced to meet the cases where coal gas is not procurable.
It is an ad\ance on the gas-engine in so far that it provides itself
^\■itll the gas that is needed to supply it with the requisite motive power.

There is this difference between these three engines, that
The Differ- , ., . , , . , ... , V

ences in wliile steam is led mto the cylmder ready tor action

Principle be- against the head of the piston, both the coal gas and the

tween these , , ^ . ,,,.,.,.

Engines. Oil vapour have to be e.xploded either m their respective

cylinders or in chambers closely connected therewith.
Steam acts with a steady pressure, but the other two in a series of
impulses or jerks. The heating is done in the boiler of the steam-
engine and the gas passed therefrom to the cylinder, but both in the
gas and the oil-engine the heating is done in the cylinder, with the
result that boiler and furnace are dispensed with. The steam in its
struggle for elbow-room is ready to seize on any wc:.l; place in its
prison walls that offers a chance for expansion. Admitted to the
cylinder, it tries conclusions with the piston, which, if found movable,
is kept going to and fro by the endeavour of the steam to gain an
outlet. It presses equally on the different surfaces that hold it in
control — those of the boiler plates, the pipes it is led into, and of the
cylinder itself But with the other two engines the expansive force of
the gas is felt in the cylinder alone.

In the gas-engine coal gas mixed with air is exploded in the cylinder,
and the great heat developed thereby gives a great expansive or explosive
force to the new gases formed under the chemical reaction that takes
place in the process. This drives the piston before it. And likewise
with the oil-engine : the vapour of the oil and the charge of air are
exploded by means of the ignition tube, and so drive the piston forward.
The piston returns under the impulse of the fly-wheel, forcing out
through the exhaust pipe the gases that result from the explosion.
Once more it is carried forward, oil vapour and air filling up the space
behind. On its way in again it compresses and forces them in intact
Avith the ignition tube, causing another explosion and a renewal of
\igour to the piston. Unlike the action of steam, therefore, which plays
alternately on each side of the piston in these engines, the action is on
one side alone of the piston and not at every stroke of the same either.
The governor is so arranged, indeed, as to regulate the action of the
exhaust val\e, and thereby adjust the explosions in accordance with
the \arying resistances the engine has to overcome. But there is a
\ ital difference between the gas-engine and the oil-engine, in so
far that with the former we have, as we said, gas ready made to
deal with, whereas in this we have first to vaporise the oil into gas

POWER" AT THE HOMESTEAD.

253

before it is on the same footing as the other. This, ho\ve\^er, is accom-
plished without having to make the oil-engine much more complicated
than the one that depends on coal gas as the explosive substance.
Mineral oils are, as we all know, very easily vaporised — too easily under
certain circumstances, as the many accidents through tlie careless
handling of lamps fed therewith testify.

A state of most intense heat prevails in the interior of the cylinder
both of the gas-engine and the oil-engine, far beyond what is developed
in that of the steam-engine, and on that account the cylinders of these
two are surrounded by water-jackets. No chemical action takes place
within the cylinder of the steam-engine, and the temperature of the
interior coincides, therefore, with that of the steam which is admitted
therein. Within the other two the action of combustion takes place

Fig. 189.

through the hydro-carbon substances of the gas and tlie oil respectivelv
becoming oxydized by the oxygen of the air that is allowed to mix
with them as they enter the explosion chamber. We obtain heat and
light by the slow combustion in tlie air of either coal gas or mineral
oil. The bodies referred to, while undergoing oxidation as they emerge
from the gas burner or from the lamp burner, give forth much heat at
the same time that they shed abroad light. At these points they are
being consumed slowly, but in the explosion chamber of either the gas
or the oil-engine they are being consumed instantaneously in quicklv
recurring instalments. It is, however, this strong force of heat that
lends motive power to the engine of either class. The igniting of
the gas in either case is like sending a spark into a charge of gun-

254

THE MODERN HOMESTEAD.

powder. In that instance, the spark sets free the gases that are loosely
held together in the cunningly-devised mixture, and the ever ready
oxygen laying hold at once of the carbon compounds thereof, de\"elop
so much heat that the gases expand to such an extent, and that so

suddenly, as to send forth the
missile with a tremendous force.
The unremitting explosions in the
cylinder of such an engine as we
are dealing with are just so many
shots being fired, the piston in this
case representing the projectile.
A gun of any kind becomes after
much shooting untouchable on the
barrel by the naked hand, which
will give some idea of the heat of
the interior of a gas or an oil-engine
when in action. The explosions
in the latter are not, of course,
so violent as in the gun-barrel,
but they proceed more steadily
and continue for long spells.

Figs. 190, 191, and 192, taken

Fig. 190.

together with Fig. 189, enable one to grasp the working principle of the
oil-engine. These are illustrations of the Campbell Oil Engine, and are
taken from the report on the trial of oil-engines given in the "Transactions
of the Highland and Agricultural Society, 1900." We have selected
those bearing on the engine in
question for no other reason than
their apparent simplicity. The
first is the front end view of the
working parts with the interior of
the vaporiser laid open ; the second
gives a vertical section of a portion
of the same end ; and the third a
corresponding horizontal section.
The requisite oil is placed in O C.
the oil cistern, w'hence it is allowed
to trickle through the pipe O into
the vaporiser V, which communi-
cates with the inlet valve. " This
valve is automatic in its action and
opens when the piston makes a
suction stroke — provided the ex-
haust valve E is then closed ; the
oil can then flow through past the
valve into the vaporiser ; at the same time, air also is drawn in, and

''POWER'' AT THE HOMESTEAD.

^55

spreads or sprays the oil aj^ainst the heated sides of tlie \aporiser. The
oil thus completely \aporised and mixed with sufficient air to form an
explosive mixture is drawn into the cylinder, and finally ignited at the
end of the compression stroke through contact with the heated ignition
tube I." The following is the key to the lettering of the several parts
illustrated by the diagrams : V is the vaporiser ; O C the oil cistern ;
O the oil supply-pipe; F the oil-cock; L the oil supply-pipe to vaporiser
lamp ; A the stem of air and oil inlet valve ; E the exhaust valve ; I the
ignition tube ; H the exhaust pipe ; M the water inlet pipe (to jacket) ; N
the water outlet pipe (from jacket) ; W the water jacket ; and P the piston.
The reciprocatoryorback and forward motion of thepiston-
The Piston ^.^j ^f ^j^^ engine is
and Crank of ^

the Engine. turned, as we have

seen, into a rotary
one by means of the mechanical
arrangement termed the "crank " e
in Fig. 184. There is a feature in
connection with this arrangement
which is worth noting here. It
may be observed from the fig. that
when the piston has made its full
thrust it, for the moment, has no
power whatever over the crank. It
has reached its limit, and for the
time is neither pushing nor pulling
against the pin. The same thing
occurs when the piston is home at
the inner end of the cylinder after
dragging the pin back with it.
These two stages in its movement
are called the dead points of the
crank, for the very obvious reason
that at each the motion of the

Fig. 192.

The Fly
Wheel.

piston is for less than a second arrested — the forward movement has to be
checked and changed to a backward one and vice versa. But both checks
take place at the points where the piston is powerless over the crank.

In the fly-wheel of the engine we have the means,
however, of efTacing the dead points. In the mass of
metal it is composed of, bulking largest at the rim, once
this wheel is set going the momentum attained thereby serves to tone
down the irregularity of motion in the piston due to the back and
forward motion above described. This formidable body, part of the
crank shaft be it remembered, is quite competent to persevere in its state
of moving uniformly without being put out in the slightest by such
breaks to continuity of motion as occur at the dead points referred to.

CHAPTER XII.

The Barn Range,

V\'e have now, we hope, cleared the way sufficiently for us to take

up the different parts of the homestead in detail. It has cost time and

space, but our race loves to be logical, and is fond of the fundamentals.

If our readers have followed us, the remainder of our work ought to be

to them both easy and interesting.

^, „ We have chosen to start with the barn range as being

The Barn , , ., . ^ ^ . ^

Range the the central buildmg of the group, the one near to which

Centre of the j^ jg desirable to place all those that accommodate live

Group.

stock in order that the straw may ha^•e to be carried to
the animals as short a distance as possible. We have already pressed
the importance of this matter, and need hardly say much more on that
head. To begin with, we would have the door of the thrashing-floor
in the gable. It may either be in the centre of the gable or a little to
one side. Having it at one side allows storage-room for sheaves at
the other, while if it be placed right in the centre neither corner is
then of much avail in this respect. The door we would elect to be a
sliding one, and when the doorway is in the centre of the gable it is
competent to have it made in halves, one to slide one way and the
other in a contrary direction. With the doorway up to one corner we
are obliged to have the door in one piece. It is an advantage, no
doubt, to have the door halved. In this way it is both easier to work
as well as easier on itself and its supports.

\\'here the storage of sheaves on the thrashing-floor is
The Position an important matter, more may be gained in this way
j^QQj.. by having the door in the side-wall of the building than

in the gable. If thus placed nearer to the mill than to
the gable, it allows considerable storage room between it and the end
wall. At some farms it is usual to fill the available space referred to
with sheaves which are thrashed at convenience, not necessarily on tlie
day they are carted in. What space of this kind there is to be provided
for, however, ought to be arranged to accommodate the contents of
some fixed number of ricks, be it one, two, or three, so as to have no
broken stacks left liable to damage through exposure to the elements.
The carts loaded with sheaves are backed into the barn and tipped up
on the floor and roughly lieaped up by any odd hands wlio are to spare

THE BARN RANGE.

257

for the job, and the thrashing done as circumstances arise. In this way

fewer hands are able to overtake the work. Those who filled the barn

beforehand are so many extra hands to attend to the mill on thrashing

day ; and with the thrashing-floor full the beating out of the grain can be

taken in hand when a storm arises and outside work is interfered with.

There is nothing of this kind, however, at the big arable

The usual farm. There the w^ork of thrashing is a more momentous

Arrangements _ _ °

for Thrashing, affair. But girls and lads are more plentiful at these

busier places, and the bulk of the business is seen
through by them. An experienced and trustworthy man is required
to preside at the feeding-board of the mill and to see generally that all
goes right with the latter. And perhaps another is needed at the other
end of the mill to see that the straw is cleared away briskly and stowed
properly. The hired girls and a lad or two usually attend to the rest.
The odd horses — the old and the halt — which are kept for doing the
miscellaneous cartages incidental to the daily wants of the homestead
are retained on thrashing days for conveying the sheaves from the
stackyard. Managing in this way, neither the ploughmen nor their
teams are taken away from the tillage operations of the farm. A
whole day is then usually devoted to thrashing, if steam is the motive
power, that is to say. Where water is the power the spell is ruled by
the length of time that the water will hold out. It would hardly be
worth while getting up steam, more especially in the case of the old
round-ended boiler, if a day's work were not to be the result. It is
different, of course, with respect to the vertical boiler, and more so
still when the oil engine is in question. The latter, as we have said,
can be set going while one waits, and be stopped when wanted, without
our grudging the loss of heat that takes place when a steam-engine is
brought to a standstill while there is yet a considerable reserve of both
heat and steam at disposal.

Thrashing by means of the home appliances is thus

The Itinerant arranged to fit in with the routine work of the farm
1 hrasher. . ^

without disorganising it in any way. It is different,

however, when the aid of the itinerant thrasher is called in. A
considerable addition to the ordinary staff of attendants thereat is
then required. Both the grain and the straw, in the absence of the
elevators and similar contrivances that do service in the barn, have
to be handled and conveyed to shelter. The mill in this instance is
taken to the ricks, instead of, as with the home one, the sheaves being
carried to it. On the other hand, the grain and the straw are corre-
spondingly withdrawn from the arrangements set apart for delivering
them in their proper quarters. And, further, mills of this description
are capable of dealing with such large quantities of stuff" in a day that
the handling of the same, taken together with these other causes,
necessitates, as we have just remarked, a large number of workers being

M.H. s

258 THE MODERN HOMESTEAD.

in attendance. These movable mills show a great advancement alike
in labour saving and in construction over the fixed mill usually seen at
the homestead. They deliver the grain much better dressed, and turn
out the straw bound up in trusses or lead it away loose on elevators
and deliver it to the rick builders to be tramped under foot. It is not
uncommon, indeed, to see the fixed mills provided with arrangements
after the nature of an endless web or band on which to convey the
straw, so that it can be stowed at all parts of the barn ; but it is,
to find one fitted up with a self-trussing arrangement. We can
instance a case where a movable mill, such as above referred to, is
dismantled of its wheels and fixed in position in the barn as the every-
day mill of the farm, partly on account of securing the advantage of
having the straw trussed up as it quits the thrasher.

Both engine and mill, however, are matters that lie more
of^rhe°fixed" in the province of the tenant than the proprietor, seeing
Thrashing they are usually fixtures that pass from the tenant to his

successor. But the homestead must be so planned that
a due amount of room is afforded both one and the other. The mill is
handiest on the ground floor, unless, of course, the configuration of the
site of the homestead is such that it is practicable, or it may be necessary,
to have the second storey of the barn somewhat on a level with the stack-
yard, in which case the sheaves can be carted direct to it as the thrashing-
floor. It is always the most convenient to have the mill so placed that
it can be fed with the minimum of labour, and whether that is better
accomplished on the one floor or the other is very much a matter of
circumstance. In the foregoing instance of the movable mill dis-
mounted from its wheels and fixed to the barn floor, it would, of
course, be a great saving of labour could the sheaves be carted to
the upper floor and be tipped thereon within easy reach of the person
or persons who feed sheaves to the mill. A mill of this description is
fed on a level with the attendants' feet, and when the sheaves can be
tipped directly out of the cart upon the floor on which they stand all the
labour of having to pitch them up to their Xaxel by fork is avoided. In
a case of this kind, should the levels forbid a natural cart access to the
upper floor, it is worth v.'hile indeed to construct an artificial one. It is
not uncommon to find the mill on the top floor, and all the sheaves
being forked thereon from the carts drawn up alongside on the base-
ment level. Two separate forkings of the sheaves are thereby entailed
— one from the rick to the cart and another from the cart to the thrashing-
floor. One of these is saved wherever the cart can be tipped up at a
level to suit the purposes of the person who feeds the mill. One man
with a couple of girls to untie the sheaves for him can keep the ordinary
fixed mill going. It requires to be steadily fed, the sheaves having to
be Avell shaken out and the whole length of the rollers to liave an
ecjual bite. The movable mill has a more capacious maw, and is less

THE BARN RANGE. 259

particular about the form and size of its mouthful, which it almost
instantaneously licks into a shape that can easily be dealt with in
its passage through the mill. More than one feeder is needed to
keep pace with its capabilities. But the sheaves can be dropped in
whole almost ; therefore the girls, whom we spoke of above as untying
the sheaves and passing them to the feeder of the common farm mill,
can drop them in on their own account w^hen the improved mill is
the one in action.

The hand-trolley system of conveying sheaves from the stackyard to
the mill, which we hinted at towards the beginning of our work, is
calculated to prevent much unnecessary handling of the sheaves, and
consequently to go far to economise labour generally. It would save
both hand and horse labour. Horses could, as we have said, be
altogether dispensed with where it was installed. Three, or at most
four, girls could keep the ordinary mill supplied wdth sheaves. They
could, we mean, keep the hands at the feeding-board in full supply.
The system could only, however, be worked to advantage where
sheds were erected for holding the sheaves. Trolley rails could be
run alongside a shed, but they could hardly be laid so that a wide-
spread group of ricks could be severally assailed therefrom. But
this is a detail that affects the occupier rather than the proprietor. If
the former saw it was to be to his advantage to adopt such a system, he
would find the rails and make use of them in his own way. Movable
contrivances of the kind are in the market, and such plant might be
turned to useful account at the homestead in many various ways.
Considering the barn range is two-storeyed, side windows

The Barn would be a necessity. On thrashing days the h'lQ, door

VVindows. ■' o J G

would be open most of the time, so that the place would,

to a certain extent, be independent of window light ; but there might

be work to do on other occasions when it might be inconvenient to

have the door open. Stormy weather, too, might compel the shutting

of the door between the times when sheaves were being admitted ;

and then we ha\'e to keep in mind the thrashing as conducted at

those places where the sheaves are housed previous to starting the

mill — one or more days beforehand. We have not marked positions

for them on the ground plan of any of our typical homesteads.

Their place in the wall would have to be arranged in accordance

with the character of the farm which the homestead was being built

to serve. If they were placed in such a way as likely to be interfered

with by the stored-up sheaves, care would have to be taken that the

glass was protected from damage. Stout wire-netting or some iron

bars would meet the end in \iew.

We are somewhat prejudiced against large windows being built in

places like the barn. Our preference is for a wdndow after the pattern

of P^ig. 193 put well up in the wall. They, no doubt, help to light

s 2

26o

THE MODERN HOMESTEAD.

the floor better tlie lower down tliey are, but if tlie inner sill is given
a quick slope, as in Fig. 194, the light will strike down to the floor
without lea^•ing nauch shade along the foot of the side wall. And
when well up from the floor they are better out of danger. It is

with us a mat-
ter of Hobson's
choice, how-
ever. We are
obliged, ac-
cording to our
various plans,
to keep the
windows high.
The side sheds
preclude their
Fig. 193. being in any

other position. It may be necessary, perhaps, to have a window put in
at a lower level than the others, somewhere adjacent to the feeding-board
of the mill, even though the light be borrowed. It need not be a large
one, however, neither need it be an opening one. Our recommendation
of the kind of window referred to is largely based on the getting rid of
one after the pattern of those used in houses. Such, as we have
already said, are not at all well adapted for the ordinary farm
building. They are so apt to be neglected that they soon fall into
disrepair, and nothing looks so untidy about a building as broken
and decayed windows. As we pointed out when discussing windows
at length, the opening window, at least the case and sash one, is far
too delicate a work of art to be put to the rough-and-ready usage

Fig. 194.

that prevails at the farm. Tlie fixed wood window is not so liable
to suffer harm through neglect, there being fewer parts and less

THE BARN RANGE. 261

workmanship concerned therein. But in the barn we want an
opening window — if not to let air in, at any rate to let dust out.
The kind of window we suggest can be so built in as to give
sufficient light ; and with the glazed part made to open as shown,
dust can find an easy exit. The case is of iron. The sides of the
opening can be finished with brick, the outer part of the sill with
freestone, and the inner bevelled part of the same with cement
plaster. This class of window is well clear of the floor, and con-
sequently in no wise interferes with full advantage being taken of
the area within the barn. And protected with netting or bars, they
are not in the way as regards the storage or piling up of sheaves
against the walls.

Were no granary erected over the thrashing barn we would, of course,
have the place lighted from the roof, using the kind of window described
in an earlier chapter. But whether or no there happened to be a second
floor in the barn, some skylights would require to be in the roof. They
Avould be there to light the barn in the absence of a granary overhead,
and were there a granary they would be needed to give light to it.

The ground floor, we need hardly say, we would have of
The Ground concrete. It is not necessary to have such a finish, but a

cement skirting about nine inches deep all round the base
of the wall is an improvement. ]\Iade an inch in thickness and bevelled
off at the top, it is not at all in the way. Its presence serves to make
the place look neat, and it forms an additional check to rats and mice
seeking a base of operations in the wall. At the doors the floor would
require protection against chipping, either by means of a granite or a
whinstone step. Or a border or edging of cast iron would do. Some-
thing of this nature is needed, because concrete corners are easily
fractured. The body of the concrete will stand wear and tear, but the
edges of any sheet of this material soon crumble down under traffic,
more especially if wheeled vehicles come to play upon it. At the big
doorway alone will there be carts passing in and out ; but at the others
sack barrows and such like will frequently be made use of. An edging,
therefore, of some more durable material in this respect than the con-
crete is a necessity to protect the same from being worn away where it
finishes in doorways. A kerb or step of granite is the best of all where
carting is practised. At the smaller doorways freestone, if hard and
close grained, will do.

The upper floor must of necessity be of wood — of joisting
The Upper or ^j^^^ flooring, as already described. The joists would

require to be of considerable strength, not less in section
than nine inches by three inches, set on edge of course, and running the
short way of the building, across it that is to say. One ply of flooring
would be ample were the place to be for the storing of grain alone. If,
however, the upper floor were to be the thrashing-floor, a two-ply floor

262 THE MODERN HOMESTEAD.

would be called for. It might not be requisite all over the floor space,
but it would ^vhere^•er the horses Avere likely to tread or the cart wheels
to bear thereupon. Felt between the two layers, as recommended in
connection with the dairy buildings, would be unnecessary in this instance.
The extra ply is recommended here principally for the purpose of acting
as buffer between the under boards and both the horses' feet and the cart
wheels. The extra strength afforded thereby is indeed almost essential,
especially if the bottom boards are to suffer the wear and tear as well as
do the supporting of such trying burdens as horses and carts. But the
top boards alone come in for the wear and tear proper, and would be
certain of renewal or repair long before the boards beneath came
under the direct action of the heavily-shod feet and the iron-rimmed
wheels.

It is not always convenient to give a centre support to joisting. To
make this effective pillars or posts of some description are a necessity in
the space beneath, and these are apt to be in the way — to somewhat
interfere with the floor area of the part of the building where they are.
But in some way or other the joisting of a floor that has to carry loaded
carts requires support of this kind. No risk of disaster in this con-
nection must be run. A six or an eight-inch square beam borne on
cast-iron pillars would enable a floor such as we are describing to carry
Avith safety any weight that under the usual circumstances would be
brought to bear upon it. The beam to be made effective as a support
would require to run down the centre of the building so as to apply to
the joists in the centre of each. The space bridged across by the joists
would then be half the distance they Avould stretch over in the absence
of the beam, and their strength would be proportionately increased at
a far higher ratio, be it understood, than the double thereof.

Even w^here the loft or upper floor is to be devoted to granary purposes
alone it is advisable, as we suggested, when dealing with floors under their
proper head, to stretch a point towards providing the centre support
now being discussed. This means, of course, the erection of pillars in
the straw barn as Avell as in the thrashing barn. But perhaps these are
less in the way in the former than in the latter. Carts are less likely,
one would think, to have business in the straAV barn, although it might
at times be a convenient arrangement were they at liberty to be loaded
directly from the mill instead of the straw having to be carried outside
to them. There is nothing, however, to hinder this being effected,
although pillars are in the straw barn. In the off season, Avhen straw
takes little or no part in the daily operations at the farm, the straw barn
comes in handy for odd purposes other than those of storage. It is, for
instance, a convenient place for rolling and packing fleeces at sheep-
shearing time. No matter, however, what end it may be put to serve,
there is none, we think, that the presence of the pillars we refer to will
seriously interfere with. And the same may be confidently said with

THE BARN RANGE. 263

regard to the thrashing barn as well. A little forethought should
enable them to be placed where they will not be much in the way.

A partition or division wall shuts off the one barn from the other.
The mill communicates with each. In the one, indeed, it is wholly
situated, but its end opens into the other so that the straw may be
delivered therein. A doorway at the other end of the partition affords
communication between the two places, the door from choice being a
sliding one. The partition is carried to the upper floor if there is a
loft overhead, and to the roofing boards if there is not.

The straw barn is even more devoid of fittings than its
House sister building. Doors and windows are all that we have

attached to to provide for over and above the walls, roof and floor.

The floor Ave would arrange to be of concrete. The doors
w-e would have hung on rails. And the windows we would stipulate to
be the same as in the thrashing barn.

In Fig. 194 we give a section common to the combined barns.
Eleven feet we consider the minimum height from floor to ceiling (the
under side of the flooring boards) of a good barn for the homestead of
an arable farm of the ordinary type. Where neither place happened to
have a loft overhead a lower side wall might be sufficient ; but either
one or other is usually covered oxer in this way, and the roof being
continuous so must the walls be.

The granary we are obliged to roof on the couple
Roof best pattern in order to gain head-room without unduly

adapted to heightening the walls. At least six feet six inches of

head-room is required in the granary. Five feet of side
wall will enable us to get this, because the bottom couple tie or baulk is,
as we have seen, in a good position for strength when eighteen inches
above wall-head level. Were it to be roofed on the king-post principle,
the tie sitting, as it then would, on the wall-head, would cause us to add
other eighteen inches to the height of the walls. In fact, the clear head-
room in the granary is all the better to be six feet nine inches. This
only means an additional three inches of building to that we have
indicated. Allowing for that in the section, the walls thereof show a
height of sixteen feet three inches from inside floor level to the top of
the Avail. Eleven feet in height of the Avail are apportioned to the barn,
and five feet three inches to the granary. The barn being eleA'en feet
clear to the flooring boards, the thickness of these falls to be deducted
from the granary head-room, but then the A\-all-plate raises the couples to
almost an equiAalent degree. EleAen feet may be considered an undue
height to make the barn, but in many A\-ays much head-room is an
advantage there ; besides, AA'e need it in order to gain light.

The granary is usually characterised by the naked

simplicity of floor. Avails and rough roofing timber.
For our part Ave incline to the mild extravagance of haA-ing the side

264

THE MODERN HOMESTEAD.

walls lined right up to and hard against the roofing boards. This saves

the expense of beam filling the wall-heads, while, at the same time, it

renders the granary far more efficient. Grain can at any time be heaped

against the side walls with

impunity when they are

lined ; it cannot always

be so when they are bare.

The advantages of lining

the walls in the manner

suggested, irrespective of

tidiness and cleanliness,

are the counteraction of

the dampness that more

or less is inseparable from

a bare wall surface, and

its playing the part both

of a skirting to the floor

and as an efficient beam

filler. A skirting to the

floor is a necessity to

keep grain from trickling

through the crevice that

is "sure to be left or to

form between the wall and

the boards. Filling the

wall-head angle, though

not perhaps essential to

usefulness, is a precaution

that no man who cares for

efficient work will leave

out of count.

The lining need not be
thick. It will do capitally
if five-eighths of an inch
in thickness ; in fact, half
an inch if the boards are
carefully put on is ample.

Fig. 195.

The best way to do this is to have strips of w^ood, say three inches
broad by one inch thick, built in the wall as it is being erected.
One would require to be placed a little above floor level. Other two
between that and the wall-head are all we need to make sure of the
boards ha\ing the chance of a firm attachment to the wall. A fillet
may be required to be fixed to the roofing boards so as to ensure a good
backing to the tops of the lining boards. This can be dispensed \\ ith.
but its presence makes a more satisfactory job. Fig. 195 gives a section

THE BARN RANGE.

265

of the wall finished in the manner we advocate, and will make matters
plainer. The rail or rod a, attached to the couples in the position
shown, is a useful acquisition in the granary for hanging empty sacks
thereon.

It is well, of course, to secure as dry wood as possible for lining the
walls. The joints will then shrink less than if unseasoned wood is taken.
To make certain of a good job the wood built in the wall (bond timber
as this is called) should project say a
quarter of an inch beyond the face
thereof, and, previous to the boards
being nailed on, this space be brought
up flush with the edge of the bond
timber by means of Portland cement
plaster. The boards will thereby have
an even and solid backing, and one that
is thoroughly dry, and behind which it
is impossible either for rats or mice to
gain entrance from any direction.

o;^« -^r^^*:! Side Ventilators are some-
biue Ventila-
tors for the times inserted in the wall,
ranary. ^ £^^^, inches say, above the

level of the floor. W'e show^ one in the
section represented in Fig. ig6. It is
questionable, however, if these are worth the trouble and expense they
cost. Not, as we shall see, that there is much of either involved, but
in most cases there cannot be much need for them. In districts where
the corn crops are at times diflicult to " win " thoroughly, it must
undoubtedly be an advantage to command at will cross currents of air
to bear upon the grain that lies on the floor or heaped against the wall ;
the grain must be all the better for the air that will circulate through
its bulk by way of these openings. If called for, howe\-er, they can
be easily constructed. They are not in the way when not wanted.

The passage through the wall is handiest formed with the aid of
plain jointed fireclay glazed pipes, say six inches in diameter, laid with
a good slope outwards. To save the bevelling of the ends that this
slope implies, the maker of the pipes will, if requested, supply pipes
specially manufactured for the purpose, which ensures a much neater
job than having recourse to chipping the pipes as their fitting in takes
place. At the outer end the opening requires the protection of a
galvanised iron grating of such a shape as to interfere as little as
possible with the area of the pipe. If not guarded in this manner our
cheerful little friend the sparrow will speedily set up house therein.
He is a rough hand at building construction, but spares not material.
?o that by the time he has established himself comfortably the usefulness
of the passage as a ventilator is altogether in abeyance.

266

THE MODERN HOMESTEAD.

The grating may either be left flush with the face of the wall or it
may be kept in a little, whichever way it is considered the better job
can be made. The only danger connected with the opening is the
chance of water thereby gaining access to the heart of the wall. It
cannot gain admittance to the granary without being forced upwards,
which is nowise probable, but it will readily take any advantage of
chink or cranny that may happen to be about the sides ot the outer end
of the opening to penetrate within the wall. The grating can be made
securest when a proper opening, bordered either with brick or with
freestone, is made for it to fit into. If of freestone a solid block
thereof can be turned to account, after which there need be little to
fear from the cause referred to. The grating can be checked into the
stone and thus be kept back from the face of the wall a little. The
bottom part, whether the opening be round or square, can then be
bevelled or "washed" off", and thus make surer of rain being quickly
cleared away.

On the inside all the finish required is a piece of copper wire-netting
of small mesh placed over the mouth of the pipe behind the boarding.
The end of the pipe is supposed to be flush wdth the thin coat of cement
and coterminous with the back of the lining, therefore the wire-netting

will be kept securely in position. It

might, for that part, be tacked on over

the opening on the inner face of the

boards, but we prefer it to be placed

where we have indicated. It is more

out of harm's way there ; moreover,

we consider it advisable to provide a

covering to the opening in order that

it may be used or shut off as desired.

This we accomplish in the simple

biG. 197. manner indicated on Fig. 197, which

speaks for itself. A flap or some sliding arrangement can be contrived ;

but what we illustrate is as simple as effective, and as little in the way

as any of these is likely to be.

It may be desirable to divide the range of granary room into two or
more places. There is no need, however, for other kind of partitions
than boarded ones, and we need hardly spend much time over these.
Upright pieces, say four inches by two inches, set up three feet apart,
fastened to the floor or the joists at foot and to the roofing timbers
above ; and with runners, say four inches by one-and-a-half inch, checked
into them horizontally, also at three feet apart, would make a strong
framework upon which to fix the boards. Lining boards seven-eighths
of an inch thick are strong enough for a division of the kind. A door-
way, it can readily be understood, is easy of construction in a partition
put together in this manner.

THE BARN RANGE. 267

W'itli regard to the roof of this range the remarks we have
f th R^ f^^ made on roofing generally may be applied to this as well as

to any other one in particular. We strongly advocate
having the roofing timbers planed smooth. There is not much extra
cost concerned in this. We wish grain in store to be kept free from
dust. Quite enough develops in the grain when in bulk without having
it exposed to dust that arises from other sources. We have already
drawn attention to the secure lodgment which rough surfaces of wood
afford to dust. It is not easy to sweep it off places of this nature even
when one tries. The trial is seldom made, however, and consequently
dust and cobwebs are allowed a free and undisturbed domain into which
the fear of cleaning day never enters. When the wood surfaces are
made smooth a less firm foothold to dust is the result. It may
accumulate on the upper surface of a beam, but it cannot do so to any
appreciable extent on the sides as it will, and even on the under faces,
where the wood is used rough as derived from the sawmill. The same
of course holds good with the roofing-boards. In the case of the
granary we incline to use flooring-boards in covering it in. These laid
with the smooth face downwards make an excellent finish to the inner
side of the roof.

As to light, w^e need hardly repeat that we would use
Light to the opening skylights of the kind previously referred to.

Thirty inches by sixteen inches is a suitable size of roof-
light to adopt. Sixteen inches is the distance across from one rafter to
the other, which, coinciding with the breadth of glass, makes the most of
the space there is to spare, A lesser breadth of glass would be a waste
of space in so far as the position of the rafters goes, and a wider one
would mean waste in the form of the glass projecting on the boards at
one or both sides. Besides, the frame of a skylight of the breadth
quoted has its bearing directly on the two rafters that border the
opening made to suit it. This is not a point to make much capital out
of, perhaps, and one hardly worth advancing.

The window placed in the roof of the granary is clearly in a more
advantageous position than when built in the side wall thereof. As a
rule, no sufficient height of window can be secured in the side wall. It
could not, at any rate, with our five feet three inches of building. But
room or no room, we maintain that side windows completely destroy the
continuity of the walls of the granary, and very much mar the usefulness
of the place. Little or nothing can be thrown up against the sides of
the store. Grain in bulk cannot, nor can bags filled Avith it be ranged
for any length in continuous rows against the wall. If they are, the
light is shut out and the windows had as well been omitted while the
building was being constructed for all the good they then perform. Up
on the roof, however, they cannot be interfered with either by grain in
bulk or in sacks ; and whenever it is considered advisable they can be

268

THE MODERN HOMESTEAD.

thrown open to their full extent, whether for the admission of more air
or for the outlet of dust that is being driven from the grain as it is
being passed through the cleaning-machines. The undesirable dust will
escape more readily by way of an opening in tlie roof than it will
through a window opening not much abo\e the level of the floor, and
rather below than above the winnowing-machine. The side window is
in the way when sound and effective so far as it goes, but when out of
repair it is a source of harm. It opens a road for water to get into the
wall, and also allows it to reach the barn floor, to the general hurt of
the building, and to the damage of what may be stored therein.
Ridge Venti- ^^^ have still the ridge ventilation to provide for, after
lators for the which our granary is about complete. These we would

have to be of the description already advocated — the
double horned zinc arrangement with the diaphragm up the centre. A
due number of these fitted into the roof would keep up the circulation
of air that is necessary to maintain the wood-
work of the roof in good condition, and at the
same time to keep the air within the granary
in a wholesome state. Fewer would meet the
end in view here than in those buildings in
which animals are housed. \\'hat the number
of these ought to be in connection with the
granary depends on local circumstances and
must be based thereupon. One to every
twelve or fifteen feet of length of ridge ought
to meet the requirements of average cases.

Where the stair leading from
St^alr^'^''^'"^ the thrashing - barn to the

granary should be placed
depends upon the exigencies of respective
homesteads. We show it on the several
ground plans in the corner beside the door-
way that is mutual to the two barns, at the
corner opposite to that occupied by the mill.
The stair need not be other than a simple
affair, something after the nature of a trap
ladder or gangway. Three feet three inches
would afford an ample breadth of stairway.
The steps would do very well if nine inches
broad and an inch and a half or so thick.
Risers would not be required, the steps being simply attached to the
side pieces or stringers that stretch on the slant from one floor to
the other, the steepness of the whole depending on the length of the
inclined plane. The longer the slope and the nearer together the steps
are placed, the easier of course will be the stair as a means of ascent.

Fig. igS.

THE BARN RANGE.

269

Conveniences
for filling and
emptying the
Granary.

And it goes without saying that an easy stair is a boon to those who at

times have heavy loads to carry up and down thereon.

But it does not follow that all the grain, seeds, and other
commodities that are taken to the granary have to be
carried up on men's shoulders, or, on the other hand, that
they have to be taken out by the same exit. The mill of

course deli\ers the grain on the upper floor by means of mechanical

elevators. And there is nothing to hinder what other substances are

independent of the mill (feeding-stuffs, for instance)

also being hoisted up by mechanical means. Some

pulley arrangement is quite easy of contrivance by

which full bags can be raised to the upper floor

without their having to be carried upstairs pick-a-
back. One of the description depicted in Fig. ig8

is somewhat suitable to the purpose. It is known

as the " differential pulley." One person can work

it by him or herself. The motion can be stopped at

any point and the load will remain there as long as

one wishes. They are made of different powers, so

that half a ton, for instance, can easily be raised by

one person with a pulley of this nature at his dis-
posal. The progress of the load is correspondingly

slow, and the distance travelled by the working

point considerable ; the reason why our readers

ought to know. A simpler arrangement still, and

one more adapted to the farm generally, is a

hoisting apparatus such as we show in Fig. 199,

which is an application to practical purposes of the

principle of the wheel and axle discussed on page 214.

Unlike the last mentioned, however, if one lets go the

chain, the load drops. But while we raise the load

the free end is descending in readiness to be

attached to another when the former has reached

its destination, thus saving all waste of time in

reversing the tackle.

Contrivances of this kind, however, are movable

fittings such as the occupier sees after for himself.

But we are not going very far out of our way if we

provide a place convenient for the working of such

an apparatus. It is easier, as well as more satisfactory, to make a

suitable hatch when the floor is being laid than to cut up the place

afterwards. At any rate, if it is decided at the beginning that the

floor is to be formed as a continuous whole, we can make provision in

setting the joists for there being a hatchway therein at some future time.

In this connection it simply means cutting a piece out of the length of

Fig. igg.

270

THE MODERN HOMESTEAD.

one of the joists and supporting the free ends or cross-pieces stretching
from the complete joist on one side to that on the other side, as
in Fig. 200, the various pieces being firmly fastened together. The
respective ends are usually half-checked into the side of the joist they
abutt against, and they are in addition spiked through from the opposite
side of the joist, and thus firmly held in position. Even if floored over
to start with, it is easy, should it be wished thereafter, to form at any

time a suitable hatch-
way to serxe for the
purpose we indicate.
The width at Avhich
the joists are set binds
us to a breadth of
hatchway of thirty-nine
inches, unless of course
we cut into two instead
of a single joist. But the
width mentioned is quite
sufficient, and we are
not bound down in the
matter of length. We
can take whate\er we
consider practicable.
From three to four feet
would be ample to afford
a hatchway that would
admit the passage of
anything that had to be
hoisted to the granary
in bags. But how handy
one, say twice the extreme length quoted, would come in for the operation
of packing fleeces !

_ . . ,, Carpenters speak of this manipulation of the flooring
" Trimming
the Joists for timbers as " trimming the joists." It has to be done more

Hatchways in ^^^ jg^g w'ith all upper floors. In the dwelling-house the
the Granary ^^ ,.,.,.

Floor. places for the hearths have to be trmimed m this way

because of the danger that results from carrying beams near to fire-
places. And the staircase has similarly to be dealt with. So indeed
has the hatchway for our granary stair. This necessitates the inter-
ference with more joists than are affected by the hatch set apart for the
hoisting up or lowering from one floor to the other of sacks of grain.
Four or five of them at least are cut into by the stair hatchway.
Fig. 201 represents a plan of the framework of this opening in the
floor. It is evident therefrom that the joists a and h, besides having
their own parts to perform, are saddled with the upkeep of the joists

Fig. 200.

THE BARN RANGE.

271

which intervene and are attached to the cross piece c, seeing that they
have to act as supports to the latter. The joists a and h can of course

Fig. 201.

be made heavier than the others ; but the better plan is to place supports

bearing upon
the floor under-
neath below
each end of the
cross piece
where it joins
these joists.
Or should two
be inconve-
nient, one
placed under
the middle of
the cross piece
will have about
the same effect.
It will have
more pressure
to bear than
either of the
pair, and ought
therefore to be
stronger than
they.

272

THE MODERN HOMESTEAD.

„ . . f It is even more essential to provide a place whence carts
Provision tor .

Loading and can be loaded direct from the granary floor than one by
Disloading ^^ ^f which the various farm commodities can be passed

Carts in connec- ^_ '^

tion with the Straight from cart or waggon to the granary, because it is
Granary. easier for men to carry loads on their backs up a stair

than to come downstairs with similar burdens-so disposed. In fact, it
is out of the question nowadays to set the farm hands to do porters'
work. Labour has become too valuable for this. If the hatchway first
referred to happens to be in an
impracticable position for filling
carts as well as emptying them,
then a special one must be arranged
for furthering the first - mentioned
operation. Sometimes, indeed, this
can be managed if there is a door-
way below the level of which a cart
can be drawn up alongside the wall.
It is easy then to slip or drop bags
into the cart and thus make up the
load. Failing a convenient door,
however, the hatch has to be
resorted to. It should be placed so
that horses and carts have to tres-
pass as little within the barn as
possible. There is no use in allow-
ing more traffic of this kind on the
barn floor than is absolutely neces-
sary. In either of our barns there
is ample head room for loading carts
from the floor overhead. But in-
creased granary accommodation may be called for, and it might not be
practicable to obtain it over so lofty places as those we are dealing
with, and it is well to bear in mind the danger that lies in working
with horses in a building scant of head room.

Hatchways of the kind referred to should, where possible, be avoided
in situations of the latter description. If a door can be constructed
suitable for carts being brought close enough to it to be loaded and un-
loaded thereat, this is a safer arrangement. A door in the gable is often
made serviceable in this way by erecting a pulley above the lintel by
means of which bags can either be raised or lowered to or from the
granary floor. To effect the same at a doorway in the side wall generally
means the formation of a pediment roofing over the door, as in Figs. 202
and 203, for in nine cases out of ten the side wall will not be high
enough to enable the doorway to be got in under the level of the
Avallhead. But breaks in the roof, such as the figure represents, are

Fig. 203.

THE BARN RANGE. 273

better avoided. They are troublesome to make, and they always
remain so many places that are readily thrown out of repair, and
which, if not speedily attended to, thereafter bring harm upon the
rest of the building.

Outer Doors ^^"^ °"^ P^"^^' ^^though we show one on Plan La, we seek
of Granaries to steer clear altogether of outer doors in granaries.
uo"ubfiiome. ^ '^^-' ^^^ generally so many inlets for rain and snow.
•\\'hen one happens to be in a part of the building that is
exposed to a stormy point of the compass, it is almost impossible to
make it capable of keeping out rain or fine snow when either is beaten
upon it by a gale. In consequence the water is dri^•en along the floor
to the detriment of what may be stored therein, and to the exentual
decay of the woodwork. If, therefore, there is to be an outer door
in the granary, let it, if possible, be in a position of least exposure
to the prevailing winds of the district — those that are aptest to
lash rain against the door. We have no liking, as we have said, for
outer doors, nor have we for outside stairs in connection with
granaries. But where the conveniences we have just described are
pro\ided, there is need for neither.

Arrangements '^'^^ "^'^^ automatically delivers the grain on the granary
forthe Delivery floor, and the hatch wavs and doorwavs pro\-ide for the

of Food Stuffs transmission here and there of grain in sacks. But to
Dy vjisvitSLion

from the further economise labour provision has to be made for the

ranary. deli\ery at points on the ground floor of grain intended

for consumption at the homestead. It would be poor management to
sack up this and send it down the hatchway from under which to be
wheeled to the desired place, whether to the stable direct or in the first
instance to the food-preparing room to be passed through the corn-
bruiser before being served to the animals (or if for the cattle to be pre-
viously ground into meal), when it is possible to deliver the grain at a
point handy for the stable and to feed it direct either to bruiser or
grinder.

The latter arrangement is not very difficult in contrivance. A hopper
fixed against the side wall and communicating with a shoot, which may
either be of metal or wood, leading to the desired point, whether on
the floor beneath or in an adjoining shed, is all that is required. The
shoot must of course be given the due amount of slope necessary to allow
the grain to slide along under the force of gravitation. A wood shoot
will answer well enough where the point of delivery is in the barn
underneath. \\'hen it is in an adjoining building, however, one of
metal lends itself more readily to taking a curve through the wall of one
house into the other, or of turning a corner for convenience sake. Were
we to make a shoot of this devious nature out of wood, the resulting
corners would retard the passage of the grain, and often choke the affair
altogether. But piping is easily to be had that will follow all the

M.H. T

274 ^^^ MODERN HOMESTEAD.

twistino-s that are likely to be comprised in such an arran.t^enient as
we are referring to, and consequently allow the grain to slide along
without difficulty.

It would indeed be almost entirely in the food-preparing sheds
that the loose grain sent down from the granary would be sought
delivery of. A shoot would be handy also to deliver corn for odd
purposes in the barn at some convenient point. In connection
with the bruiser, and the grinder as well, not only is it a handy
appliance, it is a necessity. Each of these apparatus must indeed
have a hopper and shoot to itself. A four-inch, or, at the out-
side, a tive-inch thin cast-iron pipe, will make an efficient shoot.
It is easy, we repeat, to fit up piping of this description. It
is manufactured, as we ha\-e hinted, as well in straight lengths
as in pieces of varying curves or bends which make it quite easy
to be led in almost any direction wanted — any one reasonably
practicable in this respect, that is to say. We need hardly indicate
that the shoot is imperfect unless fitted with some arrangement
whereby the delivery therefrom can be regulated. The nature of
this we must leave to individual ingenuity.

With regard to the buildings we have shown on the
The Build- . '^ , i • r ^ ^i i i n i

ings subsi- respective plans as subsidiary to the barn, we shall only

diary to the j-|(..^i \^ ^]jig chapter with those that are directly related to

the commissariat department. As catering for the cattle

is the leading operation at the homestead, it is only natural that the

food-preparing sheds should be at the side of the barn nearest to the

byres and loose-boxes. We show two sheds in position there. One we

set aside for the preparation of grain and cake, and the other for the

preparation of roots and the chopping of hay and straw. Which is to

be which is a matter of choice. Either will do for one or the other

purpose. The power-shed being at the opposite side of the barn easily

admits of motion being given to the various machines in these two

sheds by means of shafting passing through the main building. Our

choice would be to have the grinder and cake-crusher in the end shed,

and the pulper and chaffer in the corner one.

On the plan of the homestead for the cattle-feeding farm we show

these sheds of an equal size, while in that for the farm where dairying

is an additional branch we show the corner shed the larger of the two.

Where dairying is prosecuted there is usually less cake-crushing and

grain-grinding going on than at the former class of farm. Chaffing is

not much in vogue, either, where dairying is concerned. It is well,

howe\er, to afford the place the use of the two sheds in (question. The

smaller can at least ser\e either as a cake or meal store ; or for that

part do to house both substances. And the larger one is there,

should the occupier wish house room for any of the appliances

mentioned.

THE BARN RANGE. 275

We ha\e taken further achantage of the barn to place two smaller
slieds against it on the other side for the purpose of affording accom-
modation for horse provender and the preparation of the same. One
may be turned to account for hay-chopping, and tlie other for corn-
bruising. They, too, are conveniently situated as regards the power-
shed, and not far from the stable door. If hay-chopping should not
happen to be practised by any occupier the shed is there as a useful
store for some kind of dead stock. And should corn-bruising be con-
sidered unnecessary by him, the other shed is there as a cornstore, in
which delivery can be taken of the grain direct from the granary
which it adjoins. Where chopping was carried out extensively the more
economical plan would be to do the work in the granary itself ; and so
with corn-bruising, and grinding, and cake-crushing. It would be a
simple method to raise the hay and straw and the cake from the barn
beneath in ele\ators to the upper floor, there to be dealt with and
thereafter dispatched down a shoot for use either by cattle or horses.
Indeed, were a portion of the second floor set apart for these operations
tiie roots might also be elevated to these quarters in order to be pulped,
and the resulting stuff be sent down as before, ready for use.

Where dairying proper is conducted, as at the homestead
PUns^of delineated on Plan III., we not only keep the sheds as

arranging first arranged, but add another between the dwelling-

ines^ ^' " bouse and the barn. This makes a capital place for a
meal and cake store. In the shed next to it pulping,
chopping, grinding, and cake-breaking, or such of them as may be
thought desirable, could be carried on, while the end one could be
de^■oted to scalding or boiling or otherwise preparing the sappy messes
that are considered necessary to the welfare of the cows at certain
stages of their physical condition. It strikes us, however, that one or
other of these houses would at times be turned to account as a store
for oat chaff. This is carefully collected during winter with an eye to its
being the principal ingredient or rather the basis or thickening medium
of the aforesaid concoctions that are given to the cows between mid-
winter and spring as a substitute for roots on the one hand and grass
on the other. Roots do not play the important part at the dairy
farm that they take up so prominently at the combined cattle and
sheep-raising holding, and are never much in evidence thereat.
Were they looked upon as essential in this branch of farming more of
them would, no doubt, be forthcoming. But they are not considered
indispensable thereat, and this, together with the trouble and expense
involved in their cultivation, almost entirely throws them out of court.

The end shed would be the proper one in which to ha\e the
coppers fitted up. There they would be con-v-enient both to byre
and piggery. To that end a short chimney stack would be required
in the side wall where indicated. But if steam were to be used

276 THE MODERX HOMESTEAD.

in tliis connection such an erection would not be needed. The
steam would be derived from the power-shed on the opposite side
of the barn, whether from a subsidiary lx)iler or from the vertical
engine, wiiich we presume would be the prime motion dexeloper
of the homestead. It is no difficult matter to convey a small steam
pipe the distance suggested. Wrapped in felt or some similar non-
conducting material very little heat would be lost on the way, and its
proximity to any of the wood-work of the barn would cause no harm.

The buildings we are discussing are set forth on the \arious plans as
leaning against the side walls of the barn. We haxt already e.xpressed
disapproval of ranging one building against another in this manner.
l)Ut we were referring then to making the houses occupied bv li\e stock
act as main props to smaller ones. The case of the barn is on a
different footing. So long as we are able to get the interior lighted
and ventilated it matters little how or in what way the building is
surrounded. The building occupied bv animals, howe\er, needs all
the air around it that can be obtained.

_, . ^ Figf. IQ4 gives the outline of these sheds in section.

Their Con- o ^-r o

struction : In order that we may be able to admit sufficient light

the Walls. jj-^^^, ^^^^ barn we must not keep the roof of the sheds

too far up the side wall of the main building. If we leave two
feet clear between the under-side of the granary floor and the outer
finish of the shed roof, there is room therein for the insertion of the
kind of window we recommend for the barn. We ha\ e allowed nine
feet as the limit of height to which the sbed roof may be carried up the
side wall. The front wall of the sheds we have put down as of brick-
work. This takes up less room and reduces the length of the roof,
which is an important point where there is likely to be a deficiency in
the slope of the same. In this we are confronted with that contingency.
At the back wall the shed is nine feet high over all. Now, if there is
to be enough of head-room to allow of effective doorways in the front
wall it must be at least seven feet to the line of the outer co^•ering.
The shed is nine feet inside, and the outer wall is nine inches in thick-
ness, consequently we are left with only two feet of fall to clear away
the rain over a space measuring nine feet nine inches across. This is
too little for the purpose if slates are to be used. \\'e might increase
the slope either by raising the back wall or lowering the front one, or
by both methods. But raising the back wall means interference with
the lighting of the barn, and lowering the front one renders access to
the sheds inconvenient. A building is not thoroughly efficient so long
as we are impeded in taking the full advantage thereof ; and low
doorways are always obstacles in this respect.

_. „ We can get out of the difficulty by adopting corrugated

galvanised iron sheets as the roofing medium here. A

roof of this description will do with far less slope than ser\'es for a

THE BARN RANGE.

■■II

1m(>. J04.

slated one. We ha\e no liking for a coxering of the kind for the

permanent buildings of tlie homestead, it being perhaps rather too much

of a makeshift at the best. But under the
circumstances we consider its use quite
justifiable here. The front wall may even
be obtained a little higher than the seven
feet spoken of. If, howe\er, we manage
to get a doorway, say six feet three
inches high, and still leave room for the
wheels of the sliding doors to clear with
ease the eave gutters, then we ha\e all
that is required to make a satisfactory
job of that part of the building. The

width and the position of the respecti\ e doorways are matters that it

is needless for us to enlarge

upon here. Thev fall to be / T T Y T IT

decided in accordance with

the type of homestead taken

in liand, and the class of

live stock likeK- to be

maintained thereat.

The flooring
of the sheds

in question would, of course,

be directed to be of con-
crete. The brickwork of

T 7 I /

T^T~~Y^T^

I I I I

\ r\ \

The Floors.

t^4tti^Mliii%%i^%%\

2^22^>^

Fig. 205.

outer wall and partitions, if brush-pointed with Portland cement mortar,

would form a hard, smooth
surface that needed no further
finish. And were the surface
of that part of the barn wall
included in the slieds plastered
over with a thin coat of Portland
cement, the interior of those
places would afterwards leaAe
little to be desired from the
points of withstanding wear
and tear and being easily kept
clean. The floors would not
admit of being much above the
level of the surface of the
courtyard. It would be all the better to be a little higher, however, if
only an inch. There would be no likelihood then ol surface-water
finding its way into the shed. The floor could be kept so much
higher than the yard bv simply be\elling back the outer edge of the

Fig. 206

278 THE MODERN }IOMESTEAJ).

step or stone finisli to the concrete of the tloor to the extent tluit the
difference of level would not interfere with tlie passage of a wheel-
barrow or similar contrivance for the conveyance in and out of the
stuff peculiar to these sheds.

Sheets of corrugated iron roofing are now to be had with

Light and hghts fitted therein, so there is no difficulty in lighting

Ventilation. "^ ' r ^r-, i- , r .

the sheds by way of the roof. 1 lie lights referred to,

as Fig. 204 reveals, are similar to the ordinary skylight already
referred to. These, seeing they can be opened at will, may be con-
sidered sufficient for ventilation as well as for light. But the method
we point out in the section of the shed, and more in detail in Figs. 205
and 206, of protecting the junction of the roofing sheets with the barn
wall enables the place to be kept well aired at all times, irrespectixe of
opening skylights or other arrangements. The sheets of iron, it will
be seen, butt against the wall, while close abo\-e them, resting upon
them, in fact, is an apron of zinc with one edge let well into the wall and
the other lapping over the iron for a few inches — as far, indeed, as will
guard against the inlet of drifting i-ain. When tlie barn is being built
there is nothing to hinder the raggle for this apron being formed in
the wall. A strip of wood might be built in the desired place in such
a manner that it could be removed when the zinc was about to be
inserted in the wall. The raggle would require to be formed with
an inclination to suit the final position of the zinc, for the latter, unlike
lead, is a metal that will not stand bending or twisting without soon
showing signs of fracture. The zinc flap rests upon the crests of the
corrugations, while beneath it, in the troughs thereof, there is room for
air to pass to and fro and round the heads of the sheets into the shed
itself. Sliould this not meet the requirements of the shed wlierein the
coppers are contained, it is an easy matter to keep a sheet or part
thereof clear up for an inch or so from the others it is in touch with.
A few extra washers between the sheets in question will effect what is
required in the matter of aftbrding a ready outlet to the \apour that
arises from the cooking-pots.

CHAPTER XIII.

Buildings West oi- thi: Bakx.

^, ., West of the barn block we place on Plans I. and II.

The Nature . ^ .

of these tlie byre or cowhouse — in the former instance a single

Buildings. byre, and in the latter, since it is connected with dairying,

a double one. It is a chance, in fact, if many cows are kept at the class
of liomestead of which No. i is typical. The byre is there, however,
and, if not required for cows, it can be put to use for housing fattening
heifers. One or two cows, at any rate, will be kept, and there is nothing
to hinder their being kept under the same roof as their shorter-lived
virgin fellows. If they must be kept separate, a wood partition will enable
this to be done. The byre in each of the two instances occupies all the end
of the homestead west of the barn. And at right angles thereto runs the
range of building which occupies the whole of the west side of the estab-
lishment. This side in the first instance is, with the exception of a root
house at the extreme end, wholly taken up with cattle feeding-boxes. In
the second instance it is set apart as additional accommodation for cows
and other dairy stock ; part, if necessary, to be used in connection with
beef-raising cattle. And the adjunct to these byres, in the form of dairy
offices, are, it will be observed, placed in isolation near to the outer
angle of the two ranges we are now about to discuss.

On Plan III., that of the homestead for a pure and simple dairy farm
instead of the byre we started with in both the above cases, we set down
the dwelling-house separated from the barn by the small storehouse
referred to in last chapter, along with the sheds built against the barn.
And at right angles thereto, as before, comes accommodation for the cows
and for the younger animals destined to fill the stalls of their elders when
the latter are dri\en ofif to furnish, if not beef itself, then beef e.xtract,
or, at least, sausage meat and gelatine. The dairy offices, as in the last-
(^uoted instance, are also isolated from the main group of the buildings,
but, notwithstanding, placed convenient to house and byre alike.

Figs. 207 and 208 show sections of a single and double

How the bvre respectively. These, however, are representative

Cow fares for " . - .

Room in her of the requirements of the Ayrshire breed of dairy

)y*"'^^'^ cows, and the sizes they indicate would in consequence

Quarters. -^ '^

render the accommodation too restricted for other classes
of cattle. For tlie Ayrshire cow, from se^•en feet to seven feet three

28o

THE MODERN HOMESTEAD.

inches, ineasuriiifi^ from side wall of byre to ed<fe of ,<,^rip or ,<,"utter, is
the length of lair allowed ; but throughout the south-west of vScotland

one will meet with more
of the lesser than of the
greater length. The
proper length is the one
that allows the cow to
stand and move about
without having to place
her hind feet in the grip.
She is wanted to be
close to the latter with-
out being obliged at
times, for the sake of
gaining more room, to
place her hind feet
therein. The grip is
there, to use plain terms,
to catch her droppings,
and the nearer the two can be brought together, so long as the cow is not
restricted in the length of her stance, the more cleanly can the latter be
kept. In a byre well fitted to the size of the cows it contains, or the other

Fig. 208.

Avay about,say,the droppings, both solid and liquid, of the \arious animals
will invariably be deposited in the grip without messing the lairage in
the slightest. This only holds good, of course, so long as the animals
are kept at right angles to the side wall, and this posture on their part

BUILDIXGS WEST OF THE BARX. 281

can, as we stated at an eaiiv stage of our work, only be maintained hv
dint of close packing. Three feet is almost the invariable width of
elbow-room allowed to the Ayrshire dairy cow. Perhaps it is truer
to say that six feet is allowed to each pair of cows, seeing that the
travises or stall divisions are fixed up six feet apart and each space
divided thereby holds two cows. Seven feet by three feet, or at the out-
side seven feet three inches by three feet, is truly a small space for such
a large animal as a cow. About as much as that is allowed to man's
remains when '■ dust to dust " is enacted. The remains rest undis-
turbed, however ; but the cow has to stand and lie in her allotted space
through many months in each year of her life. From October till April
has she, who has roamed at liberty in the fields during the rest of the
year, to content herself witli the close quarters noted. In fact, slie has
less room than the figures indicate, because the breadth of the travis,
in whatever manner constructed, falls to be deducted therefrom. The
breadth of the double stall is measured from the centre line of one
travis to that of the next. Necessity decided the point, however,
and the lessons derived from such a teacher usually leave little
room for question. Had the cow more lateral space at her com-
mand she could hardly, we repeat, be kept so passably clean as we
see her under existing circumstances. She cannot when ranged up
in the manner indicated make so free with her tongue as a toilet
appliance as she can when at liberty out of doors, but this does not
seem to have any influence for evil upon her, and then there are no
flies in the bvre to annoy her and keep her on the fidget.

If we cannot help lier in the matter of room, we can.

The Byre however, make her lot in confinement a little easier by

Floor. . . -

seeing that her stance is made smooth. She will then

be able to stand as well as lie in comparative comfort, which cannot

be the case when the surface of the lair is rough and irregular. It

becomes painful to stand as well as to lie on a surface of the latter

description. Concrete, as we have already pointed out, comes in

here again as a suitable material for a floor on which to station

cattle. In addition to its other good properties, both in keeping

ground-damp from rising through it and pre\enting surface moisture

from being absorbed instead of run off, and checking the inroads of

rats, the concrete floor affords the animals an easy place to stand

upon as well as a smooth bed to lie on.

The Position '^^ ^'^^ sections show, the feeding-troughs are placed on

of the the floor — on the top of the concrete. Some are inclined

roug s. j.^ omit the concrete under the troughs, laying the latter

upon the soil, as it were, but this we consider mistaken policy. One

might think that it would give greater comfort to the animals if the

troughs were placed higlier. It seems to be otherwise, however. The

universal custom is to place the troughs on the floor of the house. The

282 THE MODKRX IIOMESTKAI).

cow and the o\ lia\e to tear their food tVoin tlie surface of the <;round
in the act ot cropping grass and herbage of a lo\\l\- liabit ; and in
feeding them at troughs not raised from the ground we are but con-
forming to nature. It is good practice to keep the troughs back a
little from tlie wall. If set close to the wall some of the animals
have difficulty in rising without touching it with their horns. There
is not much in this, perhaps, but a well-bred animal looks blemished
a bit if her horns are worn down e\er so little. In time the wall, too,
suffers. It is a good, plan, therefore, to keep the troughs back from the
wall as far as is equivalent to the breadth of a brick. If bricks are not
difificult to get, these mav be bedded between the trough and the wall.
If they are, then concrete or any other material will answer equally well.
But whatever material is used the angle formed by the upper edge of the
trough and the wall should be filled with cement, given such a slope that
nothing can lodge upon it. It is advisable, also, we think, to add a thin
coat of cement plaster to the walls in front of the cows, carried up to be in
line with the top of the travises, perhaps. This ensures a good hard and
smooth surface to the wall directly in front of the animals, which must
obviously conduce somewhat to the impro\ ed sanitation of the building.
We see no need for carrying the plaster any higher than we have noted.
The noses of the animals are seldom elexated so high, and it is with the
view of there being few chinks and crexices and little roughness of surface
on that part of the wall upon which the breath of the animals is likely to
play that we are inclined to suggest this skin of cement being applied thereto.
There is less chance of pathogenic matters expired from the lungs of some
unsuspected unhealthy animal that may be in the rank gaining a foot-
hold on a smooth, hard surface such as we recommend, than upon one
characteristic of the ordinarv rubble-built wall. A brick wall, tliat is to
say, one built of smooth, hard bricks with sharply defined edges, not one
of what the trade knows as partition bricks, has no need of any additional
finish of the kind. Such a one, if neatly pointed with a good mortar,
forms an almost ideal wall surface for the interior of farm buildings.
One of the best finished and most substantial homesteads we ha\ e had
the pleasure of inspecting has the walls e.\ternall\- of strong red sand-
stone rubble work, and inwardly finished with warm-looking red bricks
of the faxourable description just quoted. The cement coating we refer
to, in addition to its benefit from a sanitar\- point of view, gives a more
pleasing appearance to the otherwise bald-looking byre ; moreover, it
helps to withstand tear and wear a little.

The grip should never be less tlian eighteen inches in
The Grip. , ' ,,,.,. .- ^,

breadtli. 1 hat breadth suits the circumstances ot tlie

average countrx' dair\- farm. The cows undergo no forcing treatmeiil

there. At the farms where they do. however, the grip is all the more

effectixe if made a little wider. It mav with adxantage be increased to

the width of two feet. The bottom is laid with a sli'dil hang to tlie

BUILDINGS WEST OF THE BARN. 283

edge next the walk. This allows the fluid excreta to drain to that side
of tlie channel and f^et away past the solider stuff, which for most part is
deposited close to the other side. To put it plainly, therefore, the widtli
of the f,frip should be ruled by the amount of excreta that is likely to be
deposited therein between the times of cleaninf^ out the byre. The
narrower breadth mentioned is sufficient in the case of Ayrshire cows
under ordinary management, while the greater is needed where the
same class of cows is more generoush' dealt with than usual. The

atter is also needed to meet the case of breeds of bigger cows than the
Ayrshire, as well as for animals which are being fattened. One cannot
pretend to construct a building that will adapt itself to the niceties of
hypothetical cases, so perhaps the best thing to do, when the breadth
of the grip is matter of debate from an ordinary dairying point of
view, is to strike a medium and make the channel one foot nine inches
across.

As regards the depth of the grip, six inches at the side next to the
animals and four at the other is a workable conformation. This
enables the walk to be kept three inches or so below the lexel of the
lairage. The two inches of difference between the depth of the
respective sides, together with the fall outwards of the bottom of the
grip, makes up the difference, whatever it amounts to, in level between
the walk and lair. Stock owners prefer to have their animals elevated
n this wav a little above the standing-point of those who come to have
a look at them either in a friendlv wav or with a view to a deal.
The different '^^^^ '^^'^ "^ difference of level in the sole of the grip
Inclines ofthe lengthwise is one that cannot be dictated with the same

yre oor. amount of confidence that can be applied to the lateral
dip. ^^'hile one inch may be laid down as sufficient allowance in
respect of the latter, the other is ruled very much in accordance with
the configuration of the ground occupied by the byre. An inch of fall
to every six feet, or the breadth set apart for each pair of cows, would
serve sufficiently to drain the urine to the outlet. Should the byre,
however, be built on sloping ground, more than this would be appor-
tioned in the fall of the gutter.

The Lairs to -^^'-^^ the leveller, comparatively speaking, that the byre
be as Level as can be constructed, the better will it conform to the
comfort of the cows that come to be housed therein.
Tliere is no necessity, so far as the animals are concerned, for the lairs
to be off the level either in the length or in the breadth. Vox an animal
constituted like the cow, the leveller is her standing-place the better is
her cliance of maintaining health under the rather unnatural circum-
stances she is subjected to. It cannot be conducive to an animal whose
bulk is carried largely in the hinder half of her frame to stand in such a
position that her hind feet are constantly at a lower le\el than the fore
ones; more especiallv when we bear in mind tliat the organs of an

284 THE MODERN HOMESTEAD.

animal such as she are so large and \ascular and so slackly knit to her
carcase. In fact, if there is a difference at all it ought in accordance
with analogy to be in the other direction. There is little risk, as we
have said, of urine falling on the lair occupied bv a cow, therefore there
is no need of giving it an inclination from the wall to the grip with the
view of keeping it dry. At any rate, if any is allowed it need only be
the very minimum — an almost imperceptible difference in le\el will drain
oflf any liquid that may happen to find its way on this part of the byre
floor. None is, indeed, likely to do so unless when the place is being
swilled down.

If slope can be dispensed with in the length of the stance, much more
so can it be in the breadth, for should it get wet the liquid will be all
the longer in gaining the grip. Instead of running or trickling direct to
the part of the grip immediately connected with the affected stance it
will, before it reaches the gutter, have crossed more or less of the others
on its lower side. But each stance should as far as possible be inde-
pendent of the others. To a certain extent, however, the lairage of the
byre must be given a dip broadwise even when the house has the chance
of a level site. The grip is not fully efficient if water will lie in it, and
the floor of the byre must conform to the run that is gi\en to the grip.
It would not answer to have the sides of the channel deeper at one part
than another. The channel must be of the same depth all through, and
the remainder of the byre must be in conformity therewith. I'^or sake
of the animals, howe\er, the dip given to the grip should, like that
given to the lairs lengthwise, be the least that will admit of efficiency.
This is, perhaps, a less important point than the other. Standing at an
angle to a slope can hardly be so prejudicial to the cow as standing
parallel to and facing the slope. And in Iving down under the former
conditions the animal has opportunity of reversing matters, for while on
one side her bod\- be downhill, on the other it is against the incline.
But the one circumstance helps to aggraxate the other ; and when both
are well pronounced we have the animal all the time she is on her feet
not only down in the stern, as a sailor would say, but, as he would add,
with a heavy list. The list is the lesser e\il, which is fortunate, because
it is the one less easily avoided.

This lateral hang being then unavoidable, nothing remains but to
take the sting out of it so far as we can. All that we can do, however,
is to reduce both inclinations, one as already suggested almost to ;///,
and the other nearly to the minimum that will cause water to flow.
Very little inclination in the channel will ser\e this end, and here comes
in one ad\antage of making the channel a little wider than usual, for
the wider it is the less likelihood is there of the solider excrement block-
ing up the waterway therein. A broad grip, therefore, allows us to do
with less inclination lengthwise in the building than we would be
obliged to provide for in the case of a narrow one.

BUILDINGS WEST OF THE BARN.

28:

Under-drains
in the Byre to
be avoided
whenever
possible

Were it allowable to ha\e under-drains in the byre the
difficulty in question could easily be overcome by havinj^^
a drain running underneath the grip, and making con-
nections between the two at short inter\als. A series of
gratings in the bottom of the grip would allow the liquid
matter to disappear to view ere it had proceeded far ; and so long as
tlie drain liad ample fall the grip might be kept almost le\el. But then,
as already pointed out, co\ered drains either in byre or stable are
inadmissible. It serves a bad end to get rid of the liquid excreta in
this hidden manner. To render matters safe we must keep our eye on
it until it gains the side of the doorway outside. We must deal with it
as we would with suspicious characters found prowling around our

2/ 3% -2/

premises. Under every circumstance, therefore, we ha^"e to face the-
longitudinal slope of the byre floor. Whether the site of the byre be
on sloping ground and running with the decline, or whether it be on
level ground, it is all the same — we have to provide for the difference of
level under discussion. In the one case we have to tone down the
natural slope ; in the other we have to make a slope for ourselves.

The walk or pavement behind the cows we would
advocate not to be less than five feet wide. It might be
better if made wider, but all that can be saved in this
way means reduction in the item of roofing as well as in flooring and
wall-building. If the byre be of the type represented in section on
Fig. 2og, four feet would be a liberal allowance to set apart for each of
the side passages, seeing their purpose is principally for the removal of

The Byre
Passages.

286 THE MODERN HOMESTEAD.

droppings. They are, in addition, tlie ways of access bv whicli the

animals pass to and from their respecti\e places in the row. But the

breadth we ha\ e figured, three and a half feet, is quite sufficient for

either purpose. Feeding is overtaken from the central passage, which

necessitates that five feet at least be allowed for it. Here we have

thirteen feet of the breadth of the byre set apart for passages alone —

little short of what is occupied by the cows. The stalls, however, can

in this type of byre safely be made a few inches shorter than in the

other two, the cattle being better able to stand well up in them.

_, „ . , This bvre, it is needless to say, is much more expensive

The Byre with . -. ■' ...

a Central Feed- in erection than the other two, the sections of which are

ing-passage. depicted in Figs. 207 and 208. Without doubt it has

advantages o^•er the others, but it is possible to pay too dearly for these.

It means saving of labour to be able to feed the cattle from a central

passage instead of having to pass up between each pair from behind.

The fodder can be tipped over the boarding at either side of the central

passage, and the roots and the prepared food be slid down the sloping

shelf into the troughs right and left, as one proceeds along the byre

with barrow in front. The animals, too, one would think, are under

healthier conditions when ranged with their heads in the part of

the building where the column of air is highest. It must be better for

them to be placed so than face to face with a cold wall. Towards the

centre of the building the expired air has room to spread out, but close

to the wall, before it can get far away, the animal is inhaling some of it

over again.

This in fact is, in our opinion, tlie one ad\antage that tells in fa\-our

of byres arranged in this manner. We question very much if the cattle

settle so well tied thus as they do when facing the wall. They are full

of curiosity, and there is more to be seen in the former position. Exery

movement in the passage at their heads is suggestive of rations, and

therefore conducive to distraction — mild, no doubt, but unsettling all

the same. And, after all, the saving of labour is more apparent than

real, at least when we compare it with the double byre with the one

passage, that in Fig. 208. The one with the feeding-passage down the

centre of the byre has tlie advantage at meal times, but it necessitates

more coming and going in the work of cleansing. It comes to this,

therefore — is the extra expense involved in the erection of the larger

byre worth gaining what, after all has been said and done, is but a

liypothetical point ? for it has never been proved that healthy cattle

suffer on account of being housed after the manner implied in Figs.

207 and 208. We hardly think it is. If the byre is finished on the

lines we are suggesting, the cows are not exactly close to the wall, and

the wall being hard and smooth on the internal surface is easily

maintained in a sanitary condition. And what the combined passage

of the two-rowed wall-facing byre loses in the matter of feeding the

BUILDINGS WEST OF THE BARN. 287

animals, it gains, as we have said, at cleaning time. On the whole the
balance in respect of economical working is in favour of this byre.

We sometimes see a feeding-passage between the cows and the side
wall in byres after the plan both of Figs. 207 and 208, but unless it
serves to keep the animals back from the wall, we fail to see its use as
an economiser of labour. Another four feet added to the breadth of
Fig. 207 brings it within five feet of the width of Fig. 208, which may
as Avell be o\ertaken, and the benefit of a double byre be obtained
thereby. And to form passages of the same sort in Fig. 208 brings us
to the same width as Fig. 209, with no advantage o\er the latter. A
passage of the kind is shown in Fig. 212 and in Fig. 213.
The Single ^ '^*^ one-row byre is the least efficient of the three

Byre with represented. It is one we would never recommend

assage. ^j-,iggg Qj-,iy ,^ f^^^. animals were to be accommodated
therein. Exactly twice the distance has to be tra\elled up and down
the service passage of the one-row byre that has to be gone over in the
two-row one, both in the work of feeding the animals and cleanino"
up after them. On Plan I., indeed, we show a long single byre
immediately to the west of the barn. In this instance the building is
likelier to be filled with fattening heifers than with milk cows. Not
that this makes much difference as regards the working efficiency of
the byre. In fact it makes matters worse in that respect. More food
has to be handled when beef is being produced, and, of course, more
stulThas to be wheeled to the dunghill. And fattening cattle are rarelv
denied a good littering, while it is the exception to see dairy cows
lying on straw.

^, ^ , , There is nothing, however, to prevent the sing^le bvre
The Double . ^ ^ o .

Byre with referred to being doubled as on Plan II. This would

Single reduce the adjoining food-preparing sheds a little, but

not very much, it we brmg the side wall towards the
north flush with the barn gable. By doubling the byre, a part of it at
the west end might be spared to ser\e as a root-house, and in con-
sequence be able to dispense with the one shown against the side wall
of the loose-boxes ; and the coppers, did such happen to be in
use at the place, might be placed there. We show it doubled
on Plan II., because it is meant to be typical of a homestead where
both fattening cattle and dairy cows would be kept. And we ha\e
the byres doubled at the farm where dairying is the leading agri-
cultural industry practised.

In both cases we show a doorway between the byre
Communica- , , , ,r hi- 1 ■ ^ • • ■

tion between '^^d tlie barn, jlany will object to this. At times it is

Byre and bound to be a convenience. If such a communication,

however, is undesirable, the door can be kept locked, or,

for that matter, the opening can be bricked up. Straw could be

brought that way under cover, which is a boon in stormy weather ;

288

THE MODERN HOMESTEAD.

and temporarilv stored cake or meal could sometimes be fed directly
from the barn by the doorway in question. These conveniences would
cause even the greatest sticklers for keeping each place to its own
uses, and observing general order, to stretch a point in these little
trespasses.

Fig. 210.

On Plan III. representative of the homestead for a dairy farm
we place the dwelling-house in the corner filled by the byre we have

Fig. 21 t.

been speciall)- dealing with, the cattle acconnnodation taking up the
adjoining side of the square. This arrangement gi\es the occupants
of the house easy access both to byre and dairy.

BUILDIXGS WEST OF THE BARN.

289

Fig. 212.

The Bvre ^^^ lia\e little to add liere with regard to the fitting

Fittings : The up of the byres. We ha\e already gone fully into the
"^^"^ ^' matters of flooring, roofing and lighting under their

respecti\e heads, and about all that remains to be discussed is
the subject of the stall and its fittings. We gave our preference
for a concrete
floor and the
reason thereof.
And so with
the roofing and
lighting. Feed-
ing - troughs
we have not
touched upon.
It will h a \' e
been gathered,
h o w e \' e r , b }"
our readers,
that our pre-
ference lies
towards those

manufactured out of fireclay. These are made with a glazed surface
which renders them impervious to penetration on the part of food matters,
either liquid or solid. In consequence, they can never be permanently

tainted. When
the surface is
clean they are
fresh and pure
as articles of
that kind go.
And they are
not difficult to
clean. A wisp
of straw care-
fully applied
leaves little
behind it. But
far more effec-
tual in that way
is the tongue of

the cow or other member of the cattle classes. When judiciously fed it
would take a good eye and a sensitive touch to find much in the trough
after the animal has licked it out. There are no corners where particles
can lurk. In addition to all this, the troughs are strong and easily set
and maintained in position. And given fair play, their resistance of wear
>r.H. u

Fig. 213.

290

THE MODERN HOMESTEAD.

The Travises.

and tear is iinincible. Wood cannot compete with fireclay in any one of
the points mentioned ; stone can do so but in the one of easy setting ;
iron approaches close in some, but unless the byre is planned to be
fitted throughout with cast-iron appliances, troughs of that material are
inapplicable by themselves. Complete appliances of that description
are, however, in our opinion, far from being suitable to the a\erage
homestead. They make a neat job, however, and are well adapted to
the home farm and similar places where money is not scrimped in these
matters. In Figs. 210 to 213 we show some good examples of these as
supplied by Messrs. Steven, Glasgow. In the first two the cows are
ranged close to the wall, in the others a feeding passage runs alongside
the wall. One of each pair shows a fodder-rack in front.

Coming to the ordinary byre, the travises or partitions
that divide the lairage into the several compartments
that each hold a pair of cattle are, we consider, best when made of
wood. \\'e have no objection to iron posts, but the remainder of the

erection we would ha\e of
boarding. Stone, unless it be
of the nature of Caithness flag
or Welsh slate, we do not care
for. Stone of a kind other than
these two requires to be so
thick in order to withstand the
bumps it so often receives
when set up on edge in the
position indicated, that, besides
being clumsy, it takes up too
much of the room that the
cattle have at best little to spare
of. The six feet we mentioned
as being allotted to the pair of
cows measures, be it remem-
bered, from centre to centre of
the travises. The thicker, therefore, the travis is made, the less
room each cow has at her disposal. Concrete we see occasionally
in use as a travis-forming material. But it possesses similar faults
to stone in this connection. Concrete, like the class of stone that
can be put to service in this way, is too brittle for the purpose.
Either, when in bulk, will withstand enormous compression, but
when set up in comparatively thin sheets, as in this case, they are
easily snapped under cross pressures. From their thickness they are
apt at times to act the part of masses of cold material intervening
between the animals. Moreover, the surface of either is rough and
therefore objectionable. The cement surface can, of course, be polished
pretty smooth, but there still remains the objectionable thickness of the

Fig. 214.

BUILDINGS WEST OF THE BARN.

2gi

erection. Flag and slate, when of good quality, that is to say, are
tougher than either stone, such as we are referring to, or concrete, con-
sequently thinner sheets of these can be used without risk of their
being fractured. The surface of either is easily made smooth ; and the
thinner sheet is not so cold, neither does it take up so much space

Fig. 215.

laterally. But it is only in exceptional localities that it is practicable
to turn flag or slate to account in the manner referred to.

Wood is procurable everywhere, and it responds better
to the general requirements of the situation than any
other material. It is easily put together, and in such a
way that it will not occupy an undue share of the space at disposal ;
and, another thing, it will never chill the animals.

The board travis is usually set up in connection Avith
two posts as in the Figs, from 214 to 216. One of these
— the one nearer the wall — is termed the shoulder-post,
and the other the hind or heel-post. In Fig. 216 both of
the posts are carried up and secured to the roofing
timbers, being fastened to a runner, a beam or batten which stretches
along under the bottom edge of the rafters. One end of each of the

u 2

The Wood
Travis.

The various
Methods of
Arranging and
Fixing the
Travis Posts.

292

THE MODERN HOMESTEAD.

posts is slifi^htly cliecked into a dressed stone with the top just clear of
the ground, and the other is made fast to the runner o\ erliead. This
makes a strong enougli erection, but it offers one great objection in so
many posts being stuck up interfering with the circulation of the air
within the house and blocking one's view of the byre and its inmates
as a whole.

As arranged in I'ig. 214, the objection referred to is got rid of. The
ends of the posts are sunk about three feet in the ground, and they
stand no higher than to clear the uppermost board a little. The hole
for the reception of the posts is made large enough to allow the posts
to be embedded in and surrounded by a body of Portland cement
concrete. This, while it most effectually preserves the wood, at same
time gives stiffness and stability to the post. And if the cement be
carried up an inch or two above the floor all round the post, the latter
will not be likely to succumb to decay induced by wet. It is at the

neck of the post that air

and moisture together set
up decomposition of the
wood. Most kinds of wood
can resist the attacks of
either of these agencies
acting singly, but when
they combine it takes stuff
of the nature of heart of
oak or prime larch to hold
out against them. The
part of the ordinary post,

~7 — r~
ZlJtZ =■

rz5— "tzi^

Fig. 216,

that has been long in use, sunk furthest in the ground, will be found far less
affected than that which adjoins the surface. Thus the two extremities,
the one buried in the soil and the other exposed to the air, are longer
lived than that part of the wood that is half and between as it were.
Down in the ground there is plenty of dampness but little air ; clear of
the ground there is air all round but no appreciable quantity of moisture
(it does not get leave to remain long enough to do harm) ; where, how-
ever, the two merge, there is sufhcient of both to promote chemical
reaction and decay in the wood. This applies, perhaps, more strongly
to wood in the open than to wood under cover of a roof, as in the
byre. But the conditions are similar in the two cases, only a little
slower in the latter. The casing of concrete puts matters on a different
footing however. It keeps the buried part of the post quite free of damp,
and if continued upwards for an inch or two round the neck, as we
indicate, the upstanding part of the wood is out of danger from moisture
that may be spilled upon the floor. Not that there is ever much of this
about in the byre lairs ; it is only, indeed, when the byre is being
washed out that there is likely to be any.

BUILDINGS WEST OF THE BARN.

293

Size of the
Travis.

Fig. 21-

Fig. 215 shows a compromise between the two methods we liave
been describing, but in our opinion a lialf-hearted one. Sometimes in
this modification it is the hind-post tliat is continued to the roof, but
oftener the arrangement is the one illustrated.

The usual '^'"'^ customary size of the travis in Scottish dairying

districts is four feet long, inclusive of hind-post, and four
feet high. Five inches square, or its equivalent if round,
is a suitable scantling for the posts. The square
hind-post is chamfered (has the corners planed
off) something in accordance with Fig. 217. The
latter shows, too, how the boards are secured to
the post, being let into a groove in the front part
of the same. Held thus behind, and butting
against the wall at the other end, the boards are
effectually pre\ ented from moving backwards or forwards lengthwise ;
and to keep them equally firm against lateral movement the fore-post
is made of two pieces, each fi\'e inches by two inches, set wide enough
apart to fit close to the boards, as in Fig. 218. It makes the firmer job
when the two parts of the fore-post that are sunk in the floor are joined
together. This necessitates a piece of wood the same thickness as the
travis boards being placed between them. It is an easy matter, once
the posts have been fixed, to slip the boards into the groove on the hind-
post, and between the tw^o halves of the shoulder-post. And all that
remains thereafter to complete the job is to bolt the separate parts of
the shoulder-post together and fill up the blank between the two where
they project above the top of the boards (as we suggested could with
advantage be done with the posts underground). When the fore-
post reaches to the roof one half is erected, after which the boards
are put in position and the other half of the post fixed up. In this
case, too, it may be ad\isable, though it is not altogether necessary, that

the vacancy between the posts be filled up as
before. At the bottom of the post there is
none of course, the end being coincident with
the floor of the byre. What ^•acancy there
is in this instance lies between the upper-
most of the boards and the runner to which
the halves of the post are attached.

Boards from three-quarters to one inch in
thickness, supported as above, form a sufficiently strong barrier to
separate tlie cows into pairs. These as well as the posts we would
advise, for the reasons already advanced, to be planed on their exposed
surfaces ; and so, we repeat, would we have done with all the roof-wood
surfaces exposed to the byre.

Traviseswith Iron posts are sometimes substituted for those of wood.
Iron Posts. ^t least as regards the hind-posts. These are provided

Fig. 218.

294

THE MODERN HOMESTEAD.

c:\

with strong bases for sinking in the ground and thereby ensuring
their rigidity. Flanges are cast on tlie posts for the purpose of
fixing the ends of the boards. The shoulder-posts put to use Avith
these are of wood, either the same as or something after the style of
those above described. The shoulder-post part of the travis might be
dispensed with, and some contri\ance for fixing the boards against the

wall be substituted were it not
necessary for it to be there as
a point of attachment against
which to secure the cows. The
boards could be so arranged as
to be rendered secure and fit
to do their part in the way of
dividing the byre were they
fixed at each end, but something
more is needed when in addition
they have to hold the cattle
in their respective places.

\\"e have introduced an ar-
rangement whereby the travis
can be erected Avith a shoulder-

^^=^.=^^=fe'^

3"Iji---==^'-'

"l^-^^^

^?^§^

^^^^IT

;S^^

-^^^^^

P^^==^;-^~

^^■.

Fig. 2ig.

post alone, and a most efficient one it makes. Fig. 219 gives the side
elevation thereof, and Fig. 220 a horizontal section through the same.
The hollow post, it will be seen from the latter, is cast with a slit that cuts
it above ground into two equal segments. The boards fit into the slit,
their heads at the same time dovetailing into an iron plate attached to
the wall. An iron cap, which may be a little ornamental if required, fits
on the top of the divided posts and holds the two parts tightly together
with the boards between. The bolts which secure the tra\ellers up and
down, which slide the ends of the chains that hold the cows to the posts,
when tightened up help further to stiffen the erection. Boards a little
thicker than those already
quoted are needed, seeing
that in the absence of the
hind-post there is no
stifFener at the free end
of the travis. Inch-and-
half boards are strong
enough for the purpose.

A travis of this kind may be more expensive to start with, but it will
be the cheaper in the long run. It is one eminently suited to tlie
concrete-floored byre. Gi\en fair play, the iron post may last indefinitely.
The wood may need renewing in the course of time, but if the boards
are well selected to begin with even tliis will be a remote eventuality.
And another adAantage that goes with this tra\is is tliat it leaves a

Fig. 220

BUILDINGS WEST OF THE EARN. 295

little more room for the animals when they lie down. A five-inch post

takes considerably more from their bed space than an inch-and-a-half

board is likely to do.

It is seldom one sees in Scotland fodder-racks fitted up

Rack seldom ^'^ front of dairy cows. And the seldomer the better', we

fitted up in think. The cows are generally fed in such a way that

^ ^^ ' little remains o\er from one meal to another. With a

rack for ever more or less full the fodder cannot at all times be sweet ;

and an obstruction of the kind attached to the wall in front of the

animals is bound to interfere with the wholesomeness of the building.

The air exhaled against the wall we liave spoken of as apt to be

hampered in the act of diffusion, and some of it ere time has been given

it to spread out has been inhaled again. How much Avorse, tlierefore,

must matters be when a rack is fixed up on the wall not far above the

level of the muzzles of the animals as they stand eating therefrom.

There is less to say against it when fitted up in a byre with a centre or

a side-service passage. It is less in the way there. And where fattening

and store cattle, in loose box and court, with plenty of room to spare are

concerned, it is almost a necessity. And so too, perhaps, in respect of the

tied-up animals which are being fattened. But the milk cow under the

straitened circumstances of confinement that apply to her is better

without such an adjunct to the byre.

So much uncertainty and so many conflicting ideas

The Air Space pj-g^j,^il o\er the matter of pro\iding a due amount of
of Byres. ^. . , . .

air space for each of the cows housed m a byre that it is

hardlv one to enter upon here. The subject is still in the early stages of
evolution. Authorities, in their very praiseworthy anxiety to make
sure that milk-yielding cows are placed under sanitary conditions in
order to be certain that for one thing enough of good air will be at the
disposal of tlie animals, seek to enact that each must have so many
cubic feet of air space within the building in which they are housed.
But once, as we ha\e seen, that we pass a certain limit in this direction
we begin to render tlie house too cold for the welfare of its inmates. And
the limit is usually far under the proclaimed figure. And what makes
matters more unsatisfactorv is that separate authorities differ over where
the limit ought to stand. It is impossible, of course, to fix a limit that
will suit all circumstances. What breathing space is little enough for a
cow housed among close packed streets or lanes may be quite out of
proportion to the wants of anotlier tied in a byre on some upland
wind-swept farm. MoreoAer, on what assumption as regards atmo-
spheric conditions is the limit for any special locality to be based ? As
the two byres we have instanced are under totally different weather
conditions, even more so do the conditions which affect any single byre
vary from day to dav. A windy day succeeding a calm one renders as
mucli change in the atmospheric conditions of the indi\idual byre as

296 THE MODERN HOMESTEAD.

takes place generally between those that affect the former two. The
authorities in question are on the wrong lines when endeavouring to
mend matters in this way. The right direction lies along the path that
leads to a controllable system of ventilating the byres and thereby
making them easily adaptable to the continually \arying phases of our
fickle climate, a point which we have already gone pretty closely into,
and therefore need not follow up again.

Before leaving the subject, however, it may be interesting to note what
air space each of our respective sections of byres are indicative of. That
in Fig. 207, according to the various dimensions figured, affords 54375
cubic feet of air space to each cow. Section Fig. 208 gives 491-25, and
the one in Fig. 209, 686-25. It is evident there is more outcome in a
byre after the type of the last one than in the others. Adding to or
taking from the width of the separate passages gives us more scope to
come and go in than is the case with the other two. They ha\'e but the
one passage each which, on the one hand, will hardly stand any curtail-
ment without loss of efficiency, and on the other if enlarged much
beyond what we ha\e set down simply means a waste of room and
more work for the attendants. But with the three passages, and these
more elastic, so to speak, than the single one, it is easy to stretch a point
and enlarge the cubic contents of the building. A foot more than we
have allowed added to the respective passages will not aftect them
adversely from a working point of view, while it swells out the air
capacity of the building. And, similarly, if we add to the space by raising
the walls a little more, that which is broadest to begin with responds
soonest in the way of increase. This is the one, therefore, that is best
adapted both to those places where it is compulsory to have much air space
in the byre and to those where some considerable show is desired. It is
the one for the suburban dairy, as well as for the home farm perhaps.

The floor space of these several byres is respectively 42,
The Floor ^^^^ ^^^ ^_^^ £gg^ ^q each cow. The floor space, however,

is a matter of minor importance. So long as the animals
have room, and so long as the attendants are not hampered in their
movements, and the building is efficient otherwise, nothing further is
required. It is better to provide for air space beyond the customary
amount, by heightening the walls, than by putting them further apart
than is needed for the general efficiency of the byre.

The byres we have been describing, we need hardly
Byres for mention, are such as are adapted to Scottish dairying.

th^Ayrshires. Cows of the Ayrshire breed are the all-pre\ ailing animals

used in that industry. But a byre that suits them only
needs to have the travises set further apart and the lairage lengthened
between wall and grip, in order that cows of a bigger frame may be
accommodated. We do not for a moment wish to infer that those we
have been recommending are capable of being remodelled in this way.

BUILDINGS WEST OF THE BARN. 297

They are put together too substantially to admit of that ; and they must
continue to house the same class of cattle that were in view when
planned and constructed. Concrete floors, once they have become firm,
cannot be cut and car\ed to suit one size of cow one season and a
different one at another. If erected according to the rules we have laid
down, the cattle will ha\'e to be adapted to suit the byres, not the byres
to fit themselves to varying sizes of animals. The houses will not
permit intermittent modification of beds. There are big and little, ill-
favoured and good, specimens in all breeds, of course. The conforma-
tion of the byre, however, will cope with this without annoyance to man
or inconvenience to beast.

But it is different when we take other breeds, either larger or smaller,
into account. A smaller breed we may leave out of count, not forgetting,
all the same, that it is necessary to lodge the young females in quarters
adapted to aninials of their years. They may be allowed to go loose in
a shed during their first winter, but in those that intervene between that
stage of their existence and promotion to the byre proper (other two,
say) they are ranged in line similarly to their elders. Thus we have
two supplementary byres in connection Avith the main building of the
kind. The two may be in one, or, what is the same thing, one building
may be arranged with lairs of two sizes, one to suit the younger lot and
the other the more ad\'anced heifers.

g ^ J J. Larger breeds are the exception Avhere dairying is

fattening concerned, but the animals which are tied up for beef

^^"^^' production in nearly every instance need more room

than is allowed the national dairy cow. It is only, however, in few
parts of the country that fattening animals are tied by the neck.
In Scotland, Aberdeenshire and the adjoining counties are perhaps the
only places where it is practised to any considerable extent. Elsewhere
they are privileged to go loose either in court or box. There is little to
be said against the tying up of heifers during the fattening process, but
when it comes to bullocks being thus managed it is usually a dirty
business. With them tlie flat beds we have been advocating would
prove a snare. The constant dribble they maintain, if not drained
away quickly, makes a sad mess of the litter they are supplied with.

It seems, as we ha\e already pointed out, nowadays very
Variance in , . 1 • •• ^1 r

the Methods much a matter of custom, this variance m the manner ot

of Housing housin<:{ beef-producing cattle, that marks one district
Fattening ^ ,.,, ,1 1 i.i.

Cattle very from another. And the reasons that have brought about

much a Matter these differences of custom seem to us to have been, on

us om. ^^^ hand, the amount and kind of fodder, or rather litter,

available, and on the other, the house accommodation at disposal.

Where straw was abundant and not all of it fit for fodder, it could never

all be converted into farmyard manure unless it were trodden under foot

by cattle in open courts. \\'here all the barley straw and what of the

298 THE MODERN HOMESTEAD.

wlieat straw tliat could not find a market, which, we daresay, in earher
times than tlie present, meant the whole of it, was made into manure of
a kind, the oat straw, ere it reached that stage, had first to serve as food
and run the course of the alimentar}' canal. Where straw was less
abundant, and where oats was the principal, if not the sole, cereal crop
of the farm, and, further, where farms were smallish, the open court was
found too wasteful an institution, and recourse was had to closer con-
finement of the cattle. Failing loose-boxes, which imply more building
than suffices for byres, no other method remained but ranging them rank
and file. Customs die hard, and now that different conditions apply than
when they came into force, they still stick to their respective places of
origin. The loose-box is perhaps less urgent in its demands for litter
than even the byre, and the dung formed in the one is superior to that
deri\ed from the latter ; at least, there is less chance of waste in the
box manure, which need ne\-er be exposed to sun or rain until the time
is opportune for its coineyance to the fields.

The wants of the cattle are unquestionably more easily

The Loose-Box -attended to in the box than in the byre ; but then, as
Advantageous. . -^ .

already remarked, more space is needed m the box than

in the byre system of treatment, and, consequently, more building

material is needed. The fittings proper of the box are certainly less

expensive than those of the byre, but the enclosing shell of the former is

much the larger of the two, and if well constructed, the floor is no less

expensive, while it, too, is bigger. Once, or at most twice, in the

season have the boxes to be cleaned out, whereas the byre lairs have

to be attended to twice or thrice a da\-. ^lore ground has to be

traversed by the attendants on animals in boxes, seeing they are

thinner on the ground than is the case in byres, but this distinction is

perhaps a little fine drawn. At any rate, few, we think, will dispute

that the loose-box is preferable to the byre for the accommodation of

cattle undergoing the process of fattening. When the byre is still

observed as the field of operations in beef producing, it is either because

boxes are denied by the proprietor, or through force of habit the farmer

prefers the byre, and expresses no wish for a change of system.

On Plan I. a range of loose- boxes for cattle forms the west side of

the scjuare. Besides tliis, howe\er, we have a set of open courts south

of the homestead, and completely detached therefrom. We have set

down only a single row of boxes. There is no reason, howe^■er, why

the row should not be doubled if increased room is imperative. There

are ten boxes in the row, each twelve feet square, and capable of holding''

two animals and two root-houses, one towards each end of the block.

One or either might be dispensed with perhaps, but to have both would

be advantageous. The upper one would serve the byre that connects

the head end of this range with the barn as well as the boxes adjoining

it. Or if pulping of roots was exclu5i\ely practised, the shed in the

BUILDINGS WEST OF THE BARN.

299

angle could be used as a subsidiary store for straw, being filled up on
thrashing days. Yet again, if both pulping and " chaffing " were the
rule, the building in question could be set to serve as a temporary store
for the different stuffs so treated. It is there, too, on account of its posi-
tion, well fitted to serve the ends of a calf-house should such be in
demand. As for the one at the end of the range, should it not be con-
sidered necessary, there are many useful purposes it can be put to if its
space is not thrown into a continuation of the boxes. We are not, of
course, tied to the size of box mentioned. By widening the house a little
we can make them large enough to accommodate three animals each.
The Arrange- ''^^ ^^^^ boxes are represented on the plan, they are
ranged against the back wall of the building, a service
passage, four feet wide, running the whole length
thereof in front of them. The frontage of the boxes and the par-
titions as well are almost always of wood. The front is sometimes
formed of boards within toucli of each other. At other times it is

ment of the
Loose-Boxes.

V/A/^Ay>/)// /////// / y ,''//'// / ^

Fig. 221.

formed of stout rails ; and nearly always the partitions are constructed
in like manner. Either a gate or door is necessary in the front, and
also some form of shoot or inlet in the same, through which the feeding-
trough within can be replenished. A fodder rack is also a necessity.
It is possible to arrange the racks so that one can be common to two
boxes. These can be filled from the passage, and one big one is easier
attended to than two small ones, with the same joint capacity.

^, . .. The floor, as Fig. 221 will show, is at a lower level than

Their Manner ^ f^ ^

of Construe- the service passage on one side and the general level of
*^°"' the outside ground surface on the other. This is necessary

to allijw for the </raduallv accumulating litter as it becomes trodden

300 THE MODERN HOMESTEAD.

underfoot bv the cattle. The tioor of these pits, as Ave may call
them, and that of the passage we would lay with concrete — the concrete
of the passage floor to withstand the wear and tear incidental to the
working of the place, and that of the boxes to prevent the liquid matter
of the box-made manure from being absorbed by the subsoil. The
floor of each box is cut off from those adjoining it by means of brick-
built partitions carried up to the level of the passage floor. Above that
level, because then pretty well out of reach of the dung, wood makes an
efficient division. One or more supports for the dividing rails (which
at one end are secured in the wall and at the other to a post in the front
line) can be in the line of the partition, their ends sunk far enough below
the level of the floor to give them stability, and, like the travis-posts
above, well safeguarded with concrete from the soil up to above dung
level. The inner sides of the back walls of the boxes would require to
be plastered with cement as far up as the top level of the brick under-
partitions, this coat of plaster being merged into the concrete of the
floor. There being no way of escape for the fluid at the other sides of
the pits, the same precautions against leakage need not be observed.
That next the walk would, of course, have to be faced up either with
stone or brick.

But Fig. 221 further shows a better method of fitting up the wood
part of the divisions between the boxes. A wall-plate is laid on the
brick partitions, and uprights attached to it at foot and to runners over-
head fixed to the principal rafters. These uprights give support to the
crossbars of the division. Finished thus, all woodwork sits clear of the
manure.

The walls and roof of the loose-box range we would ha\e constructed
on the general lines we have been advocating. With regard to the
former, however, it would be of great ad\'antage were there doorways
formed in the back wall — one opposite each of the boxes — for the purpose
of loading the accumulated manure directly into carts. These are not
shown on the plan, but all the same their presence in the completed
building would render it much less exacting of labour.

The place would be lighted by way of the roof. Dead-lights would,
however, be sufficient in this instance. Fewer than usual would be
required because subdued light is more conduci\'e to animals settling
down peaceably than a full glare is. We do not advocate semi-darkness,
but a medium state of light.

But as many ventilators w^ould be required here as in any other of
the buildings containing live stock, and preferably of Craig's pattern.
And in the front wall we would have a series of the wallhead
openings described on p. 139. When doors are in tlie back wall there
would be little need for these wallhead openings at that side of the
building ; but failing the former, we would be inclined to ha\e them
there, too.

BUILDINGS WEST OF THE BARN.

3or

On Fig. 222 we show an ele\ation of part of the front of the boxes as
these face the passage, finished in hke manner to the partitions. Some-
times, as we have said, the front is closely boarded, but for our part
we would ha\-e it railed as depicted. Less wood is then required, and
the end equally well attained. Unplaned wood generally does service
in this connection, but here, as elsewhere about the liomestead, we have
tiie woodwork made smooth of surface. Estate-grown timber, if avail-
able and of a fitting quality, properly prepared, would here come in as
a very suitable substitute for imported wood. Larch, Scot's pine, silver
fir, and spruce would either singly or together make efficient fittings for
the boxes. But then, as already hinted, in the absence of proper
facilities on the estate, which is the rule, taking the country as a whole,
imported converted timber is cheaper than the home-grown article.

It is essential that the feeding-troughs be so fitted that they can be
raised or lowered in accordance with the amount of manure there is in
the box. This can easily be managed by having the boxes in a frame,
the latter fitted at each end to a vertical post in such a way that it is
capable of a certain
amount of play up and
down its supports.
Holes at fixed distances
through the parts of the
posts on which the frame
is movable, and pins to
insert therein, give us a
ready means of adapting
the height of the troughs
to changes of level of the floor of the box. There is nothing to hinder
fireclay troughs being fitted up in the manner hinted at. One, of course,
is requisite for each animal the box is supposed to accommodate.

It is hardly so practicable to make the fodder-rack on the same
shifting principle as the troughs, but that is a less important matter.
Only for the first week or two after the manure has been remo\'ed out
of the boxes will the cattle have to stretch very far up in order to draw
fodder from it. Gradually, therefore, will they be able more easily to
avail themselves of the contents of the rack ; and by that time if all is
going well with them they will be lazier, and not so disposed to expend
exertion in reaching for food.

We ha^■e said nothing in respect either of byre or box
with regard to supplying water to the cattle confined
therein. To lead water directly to the several animals in
their winter quarters is easy enough, no doubt, where the
expense is not considered ; but it seems a little out of place in con-
nection with the types of homestead we are dealing with in these pages.
Doing this implies so much extra outlay to start with, so considerable a

Fig.

Supplying
\A^ater in
the Byres
and Boxes

3C^.2

THE MODERN HOMESTEAD.

cost both in money and attention in the upkeep, and withal the resuhs
are usually so disappointing, that we tliink it almost unnecessary to
discuss the matter. \\"\X\\ enough of roots at disposal cattle have little
need for water when in confinement. At the dairy farm, where roots
are scarcer than where fattening cattle are concerned, the cows are daily
turned out to water, but generally as much for the sake of a little exercise
as on account of necessity.

If the single row of boxes should be considered rather
Single Row of short measure, it is, as we have said, a simple busi-
Boxes may ness to double the same as on Fig. 223. Here we keep

the service passage in the centre of the building, and
have a row of boxes the same as before on each side of it. A double
house of the kind is certainly easier worked than a single one ; and its

0=3

Box.

/////'/'//////>///////'/ /// ' 1/

Fig. 223.

erection costs less in proportion than the narrower one. The same
number of boxes are easier attended to in the matter of food supply
when arranged along both sides of a passage than when strung out
along one side thereof. Some readjustment of the root-sheds would be
necessary, and also an access through from the outside to the passage
for the purpose of conveying straws or hay thereto. Doors communicating
with the boxes would then be in the side wall next the courtyard as well
as in the outer wall of the building. We sometimes think if the cattle in
the boxes were bedded with roughly chopped straw, how easily the
resulting manure could be removed from them when emptying-time
came round ! How easy too would it be to spread manure of this
nature when deposited on the land !

CHAPTER XIV.

Buildings East of the Barn.

These to bejjin with until the anerle is turned we set
Motor-House.

The Power or ^^p^rt as the power or motor-house, the implement-shed.

and the hospital or loose-box for animals out of sorts.
The first-mentioned is continuous with part of the shedding built against
the bam, and, on the other hand, it is more or less in touch Avith the
implement-shed. But these are details which will evidently be ruled by
the form of moti\e power that circumstances render adaptable to the
requirements of the homestead. Alongside that part of the barn, however,
one would naturally think was the most suitable place either for engine or
water-wheel. The room we provide is, no doubt, scant enough for the
old-fashioned horizontal boiler and detached engine to which we haAe
referred. But it is very unlikely that in these days of oil-engines, and
when the application of electricity and condensed air to country work is
beginning to exercise the minds of engineers we shall see many more of
these cumbersome installations of power introduced at homesteads. At
any rate, we have left no space on our several plans for their accommo-
dation. There is room and to spare for the oil-engine in the portion of
the range set apart for storing the source of power. There is room, too,
for an upright steam-engine if such be selected, and for a subsidiary
boiler as well if steam be wanted for cooking and cleansing purposes —
for steaming food, or bringing water to the boil, and for scalding dishes
in the dairy, and so on. And should a traction-engine be in use on the
farm, there is ample room for it to back in and set to Avork alongside the
barn. In the event, too, of the feasibility of leading water past the
homestead and deri\ing power from it there, it could be led through the
part we are discussing as easily as elsewhere ; and the wheel, whether
of the ordinary type or a turbine, could be housed in the space we are
referring to. Besides, it is easy to encroach on the implement-house a
little should more room than is shown be required for power-giving.
The placine ^^^^ arrangement of doors and partitions would, of course,
of the Door- largely depend on the power that was in force, and might
ways t ereo . -^ consequence differ from that shown on the respecti\e
plans, because no plan can be adaptable to all manner of conditions.
It might, for instance, be essential to separate completely the power-
house from the implement-shed. As laid down, however, the fact of

304 THE MODERN HOMESTEAD.

the two being mutual, as it were, enlarges the scope of both. It would
be a convenience to ha\e a way of communication between the barn and
the motor-house. This, in fact, is almost a necessity, and ought to have
been referred to under the head of The Barn Range. It could be placed
near to the feeding-board of the mill, and thus be free of interference
with the storage of sheaxes. The doorways of the implement-shed all
lead to the courtyard, but so long as this place is common with the
outer portion of the motor-house, it has communication with the road-
way between the north side of the homestead and the rickyard. It
might, of course, be a convenience to pro\ide the implement-shed with
a big door of its own at this side, especially should it be separated from
the motor-house ; but we would not recommend one. The majority of
the implements are not housed during the season they are called into
action, and it is no hardship having to take them round by the yard
twice or so in a year. There might, however, be one in the partition
dividing the hospital from tlie implement-house for the purpose which
we Avill hereafter mention.

^, ^, ^ The floor of the motor-house we would have made of

The Floor of

the Motor- concrete as before ; and we incline to recommend the
House. same in the implement-shed. The latter might, of course,

be done off with gravel or with sand, but this is a house that is capable
of occasionally being devoted to some temporary purpose other than its
original one. Wt have not hitherto referred to any places about the
homestead wherein sheep could be dealt with at such times as dipping
and shearing occur. This shed, we consider, might easily be set to
fulfil this end as well as to protect the implements of the farm from
the effect of weather when not in use. The implements that were
in store could readily be drawn out and left to take their chance for
the short time the shed was required for handling the sheep. Those
that might take harm from exposure could be run in temporarily
somewhere else.

.p. The implement-shed, as so many of us know, is not a

Implement- usual accompaniment of tlie homestead. It is full time
^ ■ now, however, that it be considered an essential part

thereof. The various miplements concerned in the work of the farm
are both more complicated and more expensi\"e than they used to be,
and it will not do to leave them outside exposed to the elements as,
until lately, was so often the case. The implements of tillage are,
perhaps, not very susceptible to damage due to the effects of weather,
but even they — the ploughs, harrows, grubbers, and rollers — are surely
more lasting if kept under roof when not in use than if left alongside
some fence among long grass and other rubbish. If they are the better
for shelter, how much more will the implements that have to do with
seeding and the still more complicated machines that take part in har\est
operations repay attention of the kind ! We gi\e the carts a fixed place of

BUILDINGS EAST OF THE BARN. 305

shelter at the homestead. The cart-shed has always been a well-known
building in the group. In future, therefore, the implement-shed will
have to acquire an even more important position among the buildings.
It speaks ill for proprietor and occupier alike to see a self-binder, for
instance, huddled into some odd corner of the buildings, a prey to damp
at one time of the year and to dust at another, and all through liable to
be speckled by the poultry by day and by the sparrows by night.
Worse still, is to see one housed where the mixing of artificial manures
is in full force. It is bad enough when the manures are merely being
stored in the same place until the crop or the ground is at the proper
stage for their reception. Then, even, the close presence of so much
stuff, most of it highly charged with sulphuric acid, is detrimental to
the machine ; but when mixing proceeds matters become much worse
in this respect, and although noiselesslv accomplished, more tear and
wear results to the machine therefrom than can happen to it during its
short season's work carried out under ordinar\' circumstances. There
are men, it is true, who, if supplied with proper accommodation of
the kind, will not think twice about turning it to account in some
other way — withdrawing the implements and stocking the shed
with pigs, it may be. But the many need not be \ictimized on
account of the few.

\\'e oursehes are advocating the adoption of this shed to
poses to which other than its original intent, but only in a mild and very
the Implement- temporary fashion. A day or two now and again (twice
Hospital may ^^ thrice a year) would be all we would make requisition
be occasion- of. Constructed, however, as we would have it, no harm
Dipping of would result either to the building or to the implements
Sheep for from the occasional short turn aside from its regular

sphere of usefulness. The fioor being hard and smooth
could speedily be got rid of all traces of the presence of sheep thereupon,
consequently no harm need afterwards come to the implements on that
account.

In order that full advantage could be taken of the building in its
combined functions of implement-shed and occasional house for the
handling of sheep, it would be necessary to construct a dipping-tank
somewhere in the floor. Our idea would be to have it where we have
dotted it on Plan I. In that position it would be possible to pass the
sheep direct from the tank into the hospital, making the latter serve
for the time the purpose of a dripping pen. The dipping-tank, being
sunk below the level of the floor of the shed, would offer no obstacle to
the full use of the shed for the storage of implements. The tank and
the side pits would be covered with close-fitting boarded lids or hatches
when not in use, hence their presence in the building would offer no
impediment to the moving about of implements and machines on the
floor.

M.H. X

3o6

THE MODERN HOMESTEAD.

Arrangement
of the Inner
Doorways of
this Range.

We are rather against the idea of liaxing a door in the
partition tliat divides the hospital from the implement-
shed. The door proper of the former we have placed in
the outer wall of that corner of the homestead, so as to
render tlie isolation of the place as complete as possible. The making
of an additional one, however, rather mars the isolation of the house ;
but not, we daresay, to any very serious extent. This extra door is
certainly not far from the door of the adjoining loose-box, but when the
shed doors are closed there is little chance of the occupant of one box
being influenced by the one pertaining to the other.

It is well to remember in this connection that so many
doorways leading from one building to another are all
additional sources of danger should an outbreak of fire
take place. But one is hardly justified in letting fear of
that rather remote contingency override the matter of
convenient, and therefore economical, working of the group
There is nothing, of course, to prevent these casual doors,
one last

Too many
Inner Door-
ways Often a
Source of
Danger during
an Outbreak
of Fire.

of buildings,
such as the
referred to and those
giving access to the
barn from the wing at
each side — from the
byre at the west side
and from the motor-
house on the east side
thereof — being made
of stoutish sheets of
iron attached to a
wrought - iron frame,
something after the
style of Fig. 224 or
224A, according to the
width of the opening.
Doors of this descrip-
tion would effectually
check the passage of
flames from one build-
ing to another by way
of these openings in
the wall. Only where
there is a break in the
roof, however, is there
likely to be much
chance of fire being arrested once it has caught hold effectually of any
separate portion of the homestead. IJy a break in tlie roof we mean

Fig. 224.

BUILDINGS EAST OF THE BARN.

307

either where a partition is carried up clear of the slates, or where it stops
against a higlier wall without communicating with the roof in connection
with the latter. We have an incomplete example of the latter at each
side of the barn range, where the respectixe one-storey buildings run into
it at right angles. These two roofs are a little too high for their ridges to
strike the barn beneath the level of its wall-head, therefore the roofs of
all three communicate slightly. But, as we remarked at an earlier stage,
breaks in the roofs of the homestead mean weak spots in defence against
the elements and places that are difficult to keep in repair ; and we took
credit for a minimum amount of these being shown on our plans.

As regards the outer doors of the implement-shed — those
Doorways of communicating with the courtyard — nothing beyond what
the Implement- will indicate that there
Shed. . • w f

is no nglit or way

within, no admission except on busi-
ness, is called for. Air is to be freely
welcomed within, but rain and tres-
passers generally to be hindered
entrance. A sparred door will do ; but,
better still, one constructed of a
light skeleton framework, with small
meshed wire netting tacked to the
face of it. This will keep men, beasts,
and birds from gaining admittance
(unless, indeed, the first two are not
averse to use violence), and nothing
further is required. It could not turn
rain very effectively, but on account
of their sheltered position in the
corner tlie doorways would rarely
be affected by rain.

Something more sub-
The outer • 1 • • ,

Doorway ofthe stantial is essential at

Motor-House the outer doorway of

and ofthe ^1 ^ 1 , FiCr. 224 a.

Hospital. the motor-house ; and

also at the north side of the implement-shed should it be

decided to have an opening therein. At each of these places a good

stout door, framed in accordance with the size of the opening, and

hung from the top on wheels, would be the suitable finish. And the

hospital door, the one leading to the outside of the courtyard, would be

such as we show in Fig. 120, p. 126. This is divided horizontally into

two, the under portion being made the larger. The horse, if not

so inquisitive as the ox and the sheep, is equally loth to be left in

isolation ; and the door in question, when the upper part is undone,

enables the animal to get its head out and have a look about, if nothing

3oi^ THE MODERN HOMESTEAD.

further. It admits of this and also insures a sniff of fresh air when
sought for, while at the same time it retains the animal in its allotted
quarters. The two parts of the door open outwards. The fastenings
are on the outside of the door, and it is well to take care that the one
which secures the lower part is of sucli a description that an}- knowing
old horse is not able to undo. Some of them lia\e a wonderful knack
of opening gates and doors.

^, _ , . The roof of this range we would continue on the same
The Roof of '^

these principle of construction as before. It might, for the

Buildings. g,^j^g qJ- gcQnomy, be made a couple roof, but the difference

between the two is so small that we would stick to what we started with.
And, as before, we would have all the exposed surfaces planed smooth.
We would have it ventilated as usual, using the zinc ventilators shown
on Fig. 141 for the implement-shed, and that represented on Fig.
143 for the motor-house and hospital. Here, too, we would have
all the lights in the roof. Dead lights would do for the implement-
shed, but opening ones would be an advantage in the other places we
are dealing with.

The roof of the shed which forms a continuation of tlie
the^hed ° motor-house would, perhaps, under some circumstances.
Supplement- almost require to be slated to ensure any degree of per-
Moto°r-House m^nency. We have spoken of the sheds that lean against

the barn at each side as being roofed Avith galvanized
corrugated iron. But if this part of these sheds happened to contain
either an oil engine or a steam engine, galvanized iron might not be a
suitable material to cover it in with. Escape pipes and miniature
chimneys of some sort or other are certain to be carried up through the
roof, and the proximity of fittings of this kind is \ ery prejudicial to iron
roofing. The galvanizing w'ill keep intact for a long time provided it
get full play, but when in touch with iron pipes that jut through the
roof and at times are pretty hot, the zinc near thereto soon succumbs,,
leaving the unprotected iron sheeting a ready prey to the elements.
What is emitted from these outlets is also trying to the zinc upon wdiich
it falls. Iron roofing, therefore, is not a good material to use at places
where it is liable to receive much soot from chimneys, or the ejected
matters that more or less emanate from the escape pipes of either oil or
steam engines. Where pipes are projected through the roof, and
where the roof is liable to receive emissions from these, it had better be
covered with slate. But head room here is limited, and slating
hardly practicable, consequently the most would have to be made of
matters as they stood.

The sheep-dipping tank being by way of convenience in

The Sheep- handling the sheep, and in this instance, for sake of being
dipping Tank. o r; ' o

out of the way when not in use, sunk with the top flush
with the floor of the shed, it is requisite that a pit, in wliich a man can

BUILDINGS EAST OF THE BARN.

309

stand, so as to ha\e comiiiand of the tank in so far as beinjj^ able to
reach easily from one end to the other, be formed at each side tliereof.
Fig. 225 shows a plan of the tank and pits, which may be considered in
its relation to the implement-shed and the liospital, as ticked in on
Plan I. ; and Fig. 226 is a cross-section
of the tank and pits.

Sawn slate or flag makes an excellent
tank. Good ones of a small size are now
to be had, made of glazed fireclay, as in
Fig. 227. It is so difficult, however, to
bake articles of this nature without their
becoming twisted during the operation, that
large sized ones manufactured out of this
material are hardly to be looked for. But
with brick and cement as good a tank can
be constructed as need be wished for. If
enamelled bricks are used to line the interior,
a smooth and easily cleansed surface is
obtained. These are, of course, much dearer than ordinary bricks,
but not very many are required, so this extra need hardly be questioned.
Only the end and the sides are built with brick. Concrete does for the
bottom of the tank proper, as well as for the sloping continuation of the
same that leads up from the tank. This part, if grooved, as in Fig. 225,
allows the sheep foothold as thev emerge from the dip stuft, without
hindering the return flow of the liquid as it drips from the sheep.

The breadth of the tank need be no more than v/ill admit
a full-sized sheep easily, without, howe\ er, its being able
to turn end for end therein. \'ery little, indeed, suffices,
for a sheep is not very broad. In length a little more room has to be
given. The sheep is introduced feet upwards, and when liberated its
position is reversed and its forefeet applied to the inclined plane which

ascends from the bottom

1
I

21'

18"

1 1

Fig. 225.

The

Dimensions
of the Tank.

777777777,

~ iS"

Fig. 226.

cf thetank. This slope, it
will be seen from Fig. 228,
which is a longitudinal
section of the tank, ser\-es
to lengtlien the tank. The
fuller the tank liappens to be filled tlie longer it becomes. There is no
use, therefore, in ha\ing the le\el portion of the bottom thereof any longer
than will serve easily to dip a sheep when the tank contains sufficient of
the solution to cover the animal effectually. If the exit be made too
steep, it causes a great strain on the animals as they struggle upwards
under the heavy burden of their moisture-laden fleeces. A suitable
relationship of the various sizes would seem to be something like what
we have figured on the plan and sections.

3IO

THE MODERN HOMESTEAD.

The pits need be no lonj^^er than the level part of the bottom of the
tank. Past that the sheplierd at either side can when necessary reach
far enough to guide the animals clear of the tank as they flounder and
stagger upwards. And otherwise the trench, if so constructed, affords
him room to grasp the unwilling sheep and drag them forward to
undergo the ordeal of the bath. We show the tank twenty-one inches
in breadth, and eighteen inches is a suitable width to make the pits or
wells. The latter may be faced up at sides and ends with brick neatly

pointed with cement, and be bottomed with concrete. The coping of
the sides of the tank may be worked out of concrete, and be very
efficient. But we prefer a finish of wood there. The men press on the
cope as they bend over the sides of the tank, and a surface of wood
is less se\ere on their bones and muscles than one of such a hard
material as concrete. Stone is not very suitable for the purpose. It
is quite practicable of course to ha\'e a portable wood cope on either
side, which is, perhaps, the preferable plan. At that rate the top edge
of the sides of the tank finishes with the brick (or slate or concrete,
it may be). And when the tank is about to be used, the wood cope

^rrrvrTTTTTJT'

Fig. 228.

can easily be adjusted in position by means of clips, which embrace
the bricks (or other material) and hold it firm. The movable cope,
when lifted, enables the lid or hatches to fit down close on the top
of the bricks when the tank is not in use. The sides of the tank — that
is to say, the portions dividing it from the walls or pits — we have set
down as being nine inches thick. Four-and-a-half or single brick thick
might be sufficient, but it is better to err on the safe side, and have the
bath sides strong. ]3esides, the broader the cope the easier is it on those
who ha\ e to bear their bodies against it as they stretch o\er. Should

BUILDINGS EAST OF THE BARN. 311

the tank be constructed of some other material than brick the tliickness
of the sides \\\\\ of course be governed by the nature of the materiaL

One drawback there is in having the dipping tank in the

A Drain from ^q^^. ^f ^j^^ implement-shed, and that as regards the

the hjottom _ . .

of the Tank draining away the Hquid botli from the tank and the

almost Avells. Their efficiency is much impaired where this is

Necessary. ■' ^

impracticable. It is possible at any time to bale out the
liquid contents of either place, but this is a tedious process when they
have to be carried away to a suitable place of disposal — at some distance
more than likely. Not that there is any chance of much liquid ever
finding its way into the pits, unless what happens to be spilled therein.
The bottom and sides of each are watertight, therefore no water can
leak in from the soil, should it be of so wet a nature as to render this
possible, which is hardly very probable. In the tank there is a residue
of the solution left after every occasion of dipping, as much indeed as
sufficed for the immersion of the last sheep. It is not perhaps necessary
that the tank should be emptied at all times after use, but if not done
so pretty frequently, what remains therein is sure to be oflfensive on
account of what has returned to the tank in company with the drippings
from the fleeces. From the same cause it is bound to ha\e lost much
of its original efficiency. It is evident, therefore, that in order
to derive full benefit from the tank, it requires to be provided
with a drain that will ser\e to empty it completely of its contents
when this is desired.

The forming of the drain need, however, be no serious

rt ?^™^^^°'^ obstacle against the construction of the tank. This can
of the Dram. _ *

be kept in view when the foundations of the shed are being
laid, and a passage accordingly be left for the pipes beneath the wall. The
laying of the pipes would precede the formation of the fioor. We have
been condemning any but surface drains in the several buildings of the
homestead, but this is one of the exceptional cases, and with due care
the drain under notice can easily be rendered innocuous. The drain will
be in ser\ice only some three or four times in a year, and although there
is a large proportion of animal excrement in what flows through, it is
pretty well disguised in the constituents of the dip, and not at all like
what passes from the byres. A three or a four-inch fireclay glazed
spigot and faucet pipe drain carefully jointed in the manner already
mentioned answers the purpose well enough. This, communicating on
the one hand with the bottom of the tank in such a way that the latter
has a clear drop into it, and on the other led clear of the building, is an
easy matter to see through, and all that remains to make it harmless
so far as being a nuisance goes is to fit it with inspection eyes and a
disconnecting trap. The latter shuts it off from the drains outside the
building, or at any rate from the one it is joined to. Shut off is hardly
the right expression to make use of. It is shut off from the outer drain

31^

THE MODERN HOMESTEAD.

only in so far as gases are concerned, not, lio\ve\er, in such a way as to

interfere with the passage of water from one drain to the other.

A trap of the description of the one shown in Fig. 229,

How It may whicli is known as Duchan's trap, is a proper one to
be Trapped. . , ,

use in a situation such as the one ni hand. I he diagram

ahiiost explains itself. Any gases that originate in the outer drain fail
to get past the water which lies in the hollow formed by the bottom of
the trap, l^ut water coming from the inner drain flows easily through
the trap into the outer drain. The water that flows in at one side of the
depression forces the water that lies therein over the other side into the
escape drain, and thus the flow is maintained. And so long as tliere is
water contained in the trap — sufficient to keep the tongue a immersed
a little — gases cannot escape that way. But the trap offers no obstruc-
tion to the entrance of air into the inner drain h by the opening c. It
is so arranged, in fact, as to encourage the passage of air through the same.

Traps of this kind were in\ented
to prevent the access of gases from
the outer drains or sewers into the
drains that empty into them .from
dwelling houses. The soil pipes or
inner drains are fitted with shafts that
are open to the atmosphere, which
have the effect of maintaining a con-
stant through current of air from the
trap to the outlet of the shaft, which
is usually well up on the roof, and clear of windows and other openings
into the house.

A trap of this kind, therefore, shuts off communication between the
outer and the inner drains so far as gases are concerned, while it in
nowise interferes with the flow of water from one to the other. Conse-
quently it is well adapted to the end we have in ^•iew of breaking
communication between the outer drains and the tank. In this case,
however, there is no need for a shaft leading from the head of the inner
drain to the outside of the building. The drain will be short, and what
it affords delivery of is not of a fermentatixe nature like the stufif that
pertains to house drains, hence there is not the danger that follows tlie
latter when they are either faulty in construction to begin with or
allowed to get out of order. W'e would, in fact, let the outlet of the
tank communicate directly with the drain. A bent pipe could be made
to join the two, the faucet thereof being made flush with the surface
of the concrete bottom of the tank. There would be little chance of
leakage from the tank were the pipe thus embedded in the concrete.
And a wood plug or a good-sized bung inserted in the faucet would
keep the contents of the tank from escaping down the drain. A bent
pipe arranged similarly would ser\e to keep dry each of the pits or

Fig. 229.

BUILDINGS EAST OF THE BARN.

?>^i

■\vells, the mouth being covered by a grating of some suitable sort. A

three-inch pipe drain, or at most a four-inch one, would be of ample size.

An inspection eye attached to the drain close to the last of the junctions

of the pit drains, continued to the surface of the floor, would, together

with the "Ikichan"' trap outside the building, enable one at any time to

see if the drain was clear between these two points. And the inspection

eye would serve to do the same with regard to the continuation of the

drain, both to the tank and to the two side pits. The air would be at

liberty to course through the drain from the trap to the three openings

inside, but that would be no drawback in a building such as the

implement-shed. It is an action that ought, indeed, to be encouraged,

therefore the hatches that cover tank and pits need not be very close fitting.

The three places will keep all the more wholesome the brisker the air

circulates through them, and the implements will not suffer from draught.

The drawback connected with this drain does not, as we
How to Deal , ...... , , , .• -it

with the have said, lie iii the part we have been dealing with. It

Effluent from lies more in what has to be done with its effluent. \\'hat
it discharges is almost always of an extremely poisonous
nature. Some few sheep-dips are non-poisonous, but the great majority
of the dip solutions are too dangerous to be left exposed about the
homestead. The waste substances from the dipping tank require to be
disposed of somewhere out of reach of the live stock of the farm. It
does not do to let them into the other drains about the homestead if
that can be avoided. Indeed the drain where we are planning it will
be deeper than the other drains, therefore it will be impracticable to lead
it into them, at least to those near to it. But all depends, of course,
on the configuration of the ground. P^ailing, however, any suitable
means of disposing of the stuff, it is sometimes practicable to lead it
into a hole or well filled with stones, through which it may percolate
into the subsoil, and in that way be got rid of.

The sheep-dipping tank is sometimes constructed on the principle of
making the sheep walk through it in single file. \\'hen this is the case
both ends require to be inclined planes. But it is only at the big
pastoral farm that this occurs. At the homestead we are dealing with
the handling of sheep is on a much smaller scale. The numbers are
comparatively so small that they can be accommodated within the
buildings we are referring to, which is a considerable convenience.
\\'hen the dipping place is situated away from the homestead there
is none of this trouble with regard to drains that we have been dis-
cussing. It is easier on the hillside or on the rough ground of the
farm to let loose Avith impunity the lees of the dipping solution than
it is within the immediate precincts of the homestead.

The hospital is intended for the reception of anv animal
The Hospital. , , ,- i • r / ^ ■ ■, ■

that shows symptoms or being out or sorts, and which it

would be desirable to isolate until its trouble could be declared. It is

314 THE MODERN HOMESTEAD.

advanta<:^eous to have a place of this kind in whicli to house an animal

sufferinfjj from some contagious malady away from contact with its

fellows ; or one that is under necessity of being lodged in quarters

out of touch with the stir of the homestead. The finishing and

furnishing of the hospital is on the same footing as applies to the

loose-box succeeding.

Following up our present group of buildings and turning

The Loose- ^j-,g corner, we come to another loose-box for horses,

box. ,

either young or old — a place meant to be oi general

con\enience in this respect. The doorway thereof is next the court-
yard. The floor of this place may be either of rough -surfaced concrete or
be pa\ ed with suitable hard clinker bricks. It is not usual to provide for
drainage from the horse loose-box. The litter is generally plentiful
enough to absorb the urine voided by the animals, so that there is
seldom anv fluid matter to be led therefrom. But if provision be
made for this, no underdrain should be laid. Let the floor be laid
with a hang to the doorway, or, better perhaps, to one of the corners,
so that liquid will trickle there and make its escape, a pipe being led
through the wall at the latter place a little below floor level. An
underground drain is a dangerous contrivance to have in a place of
this sort. There would never be sufficient fluid to cause a flow
through the drain, and in consequence the pipes would very soon
get so full of semi-fluid matter that the channel would be incapable
of acting when licjuid did find its way to the inlet thereto.

\'ery few fittings are required in this building. Two fireclay troughs
built on brick foundations, one at each side of the doorway close up to
the corner, and a fodder rack between it and the door, comprise the
lot. The rack may either be low set with its top on a level wath that
of the trough, or it may be attached to the wall pretty high up from the
ground. It matters not very much which plan is adopted. The former,
however, allows of the tying up of an animal at an odd time when stall
room is scarce. And a horse feels more at home tied to the front of a
manger (which the former arrangement corresponds more closely to than
the other) than it does to a ring fastened to the bare wall. The loose-box
thus fitted is capable of housing a single animal or a pair of young ones.

The door we should ha\e made on the same principle as for the
hospital. The building would, of course, be open to the roof ; and
the wood thereof, as hitherto recommended, planed smooth. Dead-
lights in the roof would be efifective enough — one being in each side.
One ventilator of the pattern shown in Fig. 143 we would have on the
ridge, and we are done.

Next in order comes the hay house, which is even simpler

The Hay jj^ detail than the last mentioned. A concrete floor, one

House. ... ...

dead skylight, a zinc ridge \entilator, and two sliding

doors are all that we need enumerate here. The wide door at the back

BUILDINGS EAST OF THE BARN.

315

is to allijw of the tippinj^ up of cart loads of liay witliin tlie place. This

might, without blame of extravagance, be supplemented with a narrow

one in front to admit of an occasional armful being taken out at the

courtyard side of the house. The doorway leading into the stable is,

of course, put there to place the hay house in direct communication with

the stable, for the con\enience of serving which it has its position as

indicated on the various Plans. The wider door we place at the back of

the house, as there being nearer to the rickyard than it would be at the

other side. \\'ere we to have it at the courtyard side one outer door

would suffice. Indeed, the suggested front one might be dispensed with,

and anv hay wanted in the courtyard be carried through the stable. But

we prefer the additional door. Tlie back door, we may say, we have in

\iew to work in unison with a special hay shed large enough to supply

the wants of the stable, can such be got. Ranged alongside that building,

or, better even, end on to the hay house door, much saving of labour

would thereby be ensured. There would be no need then for a wide

door. What would easily let through a goodly armful of hay would

suffice. A four-foot doorway would do that.

. ^^ r-T- J With the shed so placed the hav house would, indeed, be

A Hay Shed ^

in Connection almost unnecessary. It could then be narrowed down to

therewith. ^ mere passage from the hay shed through to the court-

yard. No wide door would then be required. The two outer doorways
would coincide with the passage, or. like them, it would be four feet in
width. More con\enient still, it might be left as on the Plans, but with
wide doors at each side, so that hay could be carted from the shed right
through to the courtyard. Hay might occasionally be wanted at the
other side of the courtyard, and to be able to cart it there would mean
economy of labour. A great deal of hay is consumed at the dairy
homestead, but it is of a different kind to that given to the horses,
therefore this cart passage would not be of much benefit there. The
cows in this case need a shed to themselves, whether or not the horses
get one set apart for them. The former is, indeed, the more needful of
the two, the cows- consuming so much more than the horses. The
latter are given hay made out of rotation grasses, while the cows get
so-called meadow hay — the meadow in this instance being ground of a
half marshy description occupied by a very mixed group of plants,
many of them without any claim of relationship to the family of
grasses. If the dairy byre is accordingly to have a hay shed as
tender, this must be placed in some position as handy thereto as we
are proposing to place the one in connection witli the stable. But
whether the place is to be a hay house or merely a passage, we
would have means of communication between it and the stable. We
have spoken of a sliding door for this position, but, perhaps, a hinged
one openi-ng into tlie stable back towards the front wall would be less
in tlie wav. Of necessitv, the sliding door would be at the hay house

31 6 THE MODERN HOMESTEAD.

side of the partition, wliere at times it niiglit become obstructed by the

hay. In the passage it would be less apt to be interfered with in this

way. If at all practicable, however, we would here, as we lia\e often

implied elsewliere, give our vote for the sliding door.

^, „ ^, We are now at the stable. Commencing with the floor,

The Stable : . , y rr • ^■

The Floor concrete, while a thoroughly eflfective medmm to use for

thereof. la) ing the passage behind the horses, is not, as we said

under the head of " Floors," to be recommended for use in pa^•ing the
stalls, at least on the parts thereof on which the horses stand. The rough
and heavy shoes of the work horses are too trying on concrete for it to
withstand such a severe ordeal. Granite or whin "setts" — that is, handy-
sized square blocks — make the best job here. Placed close together
on edge, end, or bottom, according to the shape of the blocks axailable,
on a bed of fine ashes or sand, these hold out a long time against the
wear and tear due to the frequent pounding and friction caused by the
horses' heels. But at the head of the stalls, where the feet of the liorses
have not mucii effect, we would again have recourse to concrete. It is
there, as we have seen, that rats love to frequent, or, at any rate, like to
have the run of. They fight shy of tliat quarter, liowex'er, wlien they
are not at liberty to burrow there. And nothing prevents this so com-
pletely as a floor of concrete. All along the back wall of the stable,
therefore, in front of the horses we would lay a border of concrete at
least eighteen or twenty-one inches broad. The rats would be powerless
against this, and they would not venture on a footing out from the wall
beyond the distance we have stated. Were the stone blocks continued
up to the wall, we would have no surety against rats establishing them-
selves under the mangers, because they can easily circum\ent obstacles
of that kind.

Failing convenience in obtaining these blocks of whin or of granite,
there are the clinkers we have already spoken of to have recourse to.
Unless, however, these are of the best quality, they will not stand the
test of the situation very long. The ordinary paving bricks that we
sometimes see doing ser\ ice in byre and pighouse are of no use in
the stable. They are out of place, we consider, e\en in the passage
behind the horses.

The blocks or clinkers which happen to be selected for the pavement
of the stalls should be continued to form the gutter. This is a very shallow
affair compared to the grip of the byre. 1 Uit the liorse when stabled
receives dried food, and in consequence the waste matters it \ oids are
scant in comparison to what proceeds from the cow or ox which is
being fed on the sappy food tjiat is characteristic of the byre. In fact,
all that is needed by way of gutter in the stable is the sliglitest depression
in the floor, as much for the purpose of forming a line of demarcation
between the stalls and the passage as for anything else. Iron gutters,
sucli as are represented on Fig. 230, are a common accessory to the

BUILDINGS EAST OF THE BARN.

317

The Drains.

better class stable for harness and saddle liorses. These are fitted, it will
be seen, with gridded covers set flush with the surface of the floor, thus
leaving the latter continuous in its gradients. But unless these gutters
are frequently flushed with Avater, they are certain to become objection-
able. As we remarked when speak-
ing of the horse loose-box, there
is never sufficient liquid draining
away from the stalls to keep these
channels clear. Indeed, what
does find its way therein evapo-
rates before the outlet is reached.
Should there be enough to begin
with to run unobstructed the
course of the gutter, it is stopped on the way by the matter that has.
dropped through the openings in the covers while the stable was being
swept out, or the litter was being tossed up and re-arranged.

It is clear, then, that in the stable where the surface drain
will hardly act, or, rather, where the excretory matter that
proceeds from the animals contains too small a proportion of fluid to
force the whole along the gutter, an underground drain is altogether
out of the question. Where it is introduced it can but act as a receiver
for stuff that ought to be removed from the stable by means of broom
and shovel. A festering sore of this description, if we may use such an
expression, wherever it has been allowed to develop should be eradicated
at once.

The covered iron channel, such as in Fig. 230, is now gi\ing way
before the open one, after the principle of that in Fig. 231. This is a
much better arrangement than the covered one. Decomposing matter
has every chance of lurking unobserved in the latter. But the former
is constantly open to inspection, and always accessible to the broom.

Besides its utility, it makes a neat
distinction between the stalls and
the remaining part of the floor, what-
ever these respective parts may
happen to be paved with. And it
serves as a well defined border
against which to finish either pave-
ment. This is quite a strong
enough article for introduction to
the work-horse stable. It is common

Fig. 231.

to run. as the two figs, show, a branch from the gutter a short distance
up each stall. This makes sure that the animals of the male sex will
at all times have a dry bed.

It seems rather absurd to particularize about the gutter, and yet
make no pro\ision for an outlet thereto. Seeing that we are altogether

3iS THE MODERS HOMESTEAD.

discarding the underground drain, we are completely breaking off com-
munication between the channel and the exterior of the building.
Were it absolutely necessan.- the open gutter might be continued at
right angles down alongside one or other of the partitions, and thence
through the outer wall. In our case, however, this is not ven*- feasible.
It is impracticable to lead it out under the manger, and to take it the
other way means p>assing over a gutter even^- time one enters either
the hav house or the harness room. It is quite practicable, however, to
cover, as in Fig. 230, the part of the gutter that passes in front of the
door either of hav shed or harness room. But the gutter, as we have
said, reailv acts more as a break to the end of tlie stalls than as a
drain projjer. There is, it wiU be found, httle or nothing to drain
awav. And what does at times happ>en to collect in the channel, can
almost always be sopped up along with the soiled litter. A little saw-
dust or prepared peat litter sprinkled in the channel is generallv always
sufficient to drink in the urine that trickles into and along the gutter.
But this is a precaution that is hardly to be looked for in the farm
stable. It is further practicable, of course, to form a bhnd cesspool —
one with no outlet — at the low end of the channel, in which liquid that
got so far could collect. A suitably constructed one would be easv to
clean out. For our part, we would dispense with it. and leave the open
channel to be dealt with alone. Unless attended to frequently the cess-
pool would degenerate into a nuisance. It would never be so dangerous
a one. however, as the underground drain is capable of becoming.

There is no necessity- for much fall backwards in the
Tne Dip o length of the stall floor. What will ensure the passage

of urine channelwards is sufficient. It may not be so
detrimental to the horse as to the cow to be kept standing Avith the
forequarters at a relatively higher level than the hind ones, but whether
or not, there is no use in making a greater difference in this respect
than series to keep the floor dn.-. The difference in level lengthwise
of the stable need similarly be no more than to keep the liquid that can
run mo\-ing to one or other end. If, however, it be not provided with
an outlet, it may be kept level. Preferably we would give it an easy
dip to an exit leading through the wall to a gully trap outside in con-
nection with the sewer drain, so that should any stuff ever get so far
it has then a way of escape without causing a mess.

A little over ten feet from the front wall is a suitable length of stall,
inclusive of gutter, for the farm stable. And si.x feet from centre to
centre of the travises gives breadth enough for the horses' comfort, and
room for their food to be carried to them.

T,, TT , The travis, if nine and a half feet long inclusive,
The Usual ' . .

Form of keeps the horses from plying their heels at one another

Travis. when so disposed. The hind-post is thus bordering

upon the edge of the gutter, which will run about nine inches in

BUILDINGS EAST OF THE BARN

319

breadth. Fig. 232 gives a very common pattern of travis. This is on
the same principle as some we referred to when discussing the byre
divisions. \'ery often, however, both of the posts are carried up to
the roofing timbers. In that case the bases are let slightly into stones
sunk almost flush with the pavement. The hind-post is always solid
with a check in front, as in Fig. 217, for retaining the ends of the
travis boards, while the fore one or shoulder-post is in two parts bolted
together, as in Fig. 218, with the travis boards held tightly between.
The hind-posts, if square, require to be about six inches on the face :
and if round, sometimes of a corresponding scantling or cross area.
The pieces which form the combined fore-posts are six inches by two

Fig. 232.

inches or so, the space between them — from the travis boards upwards —
being filled up by a piece of wood of the right thickness.

But this seems a cumbersome arrangement for stable as well as for
byre. The short hind-post arrangement we show is preferable, we
consider. The better looking plan, howe\'er, is to carry neither post
to the roof. This requires the posts to be sound and stout and firmly
fixed in the ground. The horses sometimes press hea\"ily against these
stall divisions, and it takes some degree of stability to withstand such
pressure as they can exert. But if the posts are set up in the way we
suggested for those in the byre they can easily be made firm enough to

THE MODERN HOMESTEAD.

resist the side thrust they are apt to encounter from the horses. In
this case the posts should be at least three feet in the ground, with
abundance of concrete both under and around them.

, IniDroved travises of wood and iron coml)ined are
An Improved ^ ■ i i , ,

Form of nowadays readily available. \\ ith these the shoulder-

Travis. pj_|g^ jj. dispensed with, a short heel -post of iron

tof'-ether with both a top and a bottom runner for the attach-
ment of the boarding forming the complete framework of the
travis. Some persons object to iron posts in the farm stable as
their opinion, being sufficiently strong. Kicking horses

to break tliem, they say. \\'e never saw one broken

that cause. And certainlv thev

not, m
are apt

through

will last long enough
otherwise. We ha\e
known them turn slack
in their fastenings to the
stones that acted as
bases. Where properly
attached to the stones
this will not occur.
Better than stone bases,
however, are now being
afforded them in the
shape of iron ones con-
structed so as to give
the posts a firm hold
of the grovmd. Tliey
go deep, and are wide-
spread as well, and con-
sequently strong against
o\erthrow.

A good travis of the sort depicted in Fig. 233 is fitted with a ramp
rail B, and a sill C (the runners above referred to), both attached at
one end to the post, and at the other to a half post or pilaster fixed
to the Avail. These stiffen the erection, and at the same time hold
the boards in place. In each there is a grooxe for the latter purpose.
Part of one edge of the groo\-e in the sill D is mo\able for tlie purpose
of arranging the boards in their place, which manner of doing so can
be inferred from the fig. \\'hen the boards are all home the piece D
is again screwed on, and the travis is complete. The sill is perhaps
the weak part of the arrangement. We confess to have seen instances
wherein it was fractured. It can be made extra strong, however, if
called for. For one thing, tliere is less strain on tlie boards under this
plan. Placed according to the first methods we referred to, the boards
run the whole length of the travis, each being about nine feet long.
-Vs arranged in the latter, they run from between four and fi\e feet at

Fig. 233.

BUILDINGS EAST OF THE BARN.

321

the hind post to se\-en or so at the wall. In the former case the shoulder-
post comes in, of course, to stiffen them, but even with that support
they are much less favourably situated for withstandinf^ side pressure
than the shorter ones
set upritj^ht and fixed
both at top and bottom.
The latter kind of
boards suffer quicker,
however, at the heels of
kicking horses than do
the others which have
more spring about them.
Thinner boards are, not-
withstanding, almost
always used in con-
nection with the ramp
rail and sill than according to the more primitive double-post system.
Extra thin boards are now and again fortified by means of slanting
runners stretching from fore post to hind post. Boards an inch and five-
eighths or an inch and three-quarters thick answer for the older plan, while
boards one and a half inches or even slightly less do for the newer.

The remainder of the stall fittings are few, and like the
travis itself, exceedingly simple. Something is wanted
to secure the horse to. It, therefore, and two feeding
places, one for corn and another for hay, comprise the lot. We prefer
to have these as simple and inexpensive as possible. The hay-rack
and the corn-box we place on a level coincident with the top of the
biting-rail or cross-piece which holds the ring through which the

halter-rope or chain is
passed. This rail
stretches across the
stall about eighteen
inches from the wall
and thirty inches from
the floor, its ends being
secured to the travis on
either side. In that
position it both serves
for the attachment of
the animal and acts as
front to the mouths of
the corn-box and rack. In Fig. 234 we represent the front elevation of
the head of the stall, and in Fig. 235 we give a section of the fittings
there. It may be noted, howe\'er, that although we show the corn-trough
at the near side of the stall, it is found oftener at the oflf-side thereof in

M.H. Y

The Stall
Fittings.

Fig. 235.

322 THE MODERN HOMESTEAD.

the homestead stable — the latter position ,t;i\inK' the men more freedom
to strij) the animals durin,c: their f;Teedy attention to the corn.

The hav-rack we keep below instead of above the level of the horse's
breast. The horse, like the cow, prefers to eat with his head down.
At least, he does the greater part of the mastication of his food in that
position. When he happens to be confronted with an o\erhead fodder-
rack we do not see him chewing the hay with his head in the position
he is obliged to hold it while plucking the fodder from between the
spars. He raises his head to snatch a mouthful and then lowers it to
the pendent position. The o\erhead rack is only permissible in those
stables that carry a loft. It is convenient, no doubt, to fodder the
horses in such a simple manner as forking or throwing the hay from
the loft floor directly into the racks implies. But the opening at the
liead of each stall down which the hay is pitched remains there to
allow the spent air and the unpleasant odours of the stable to ascend.
This state of matters is bound to affect the quality of hay that is
subjected thereto for any length of time. Most horses are very sensitive
with regard to the condition of their fodder, and it is not fair, nor is it
good policy, to feed them with stuff that already tastes of the stable.
P'conomy of labour in this instance runs contrary to the welfare of
the animals.

For the latter reason alone is the presence of a loft in the
the Stable ^ stable to be condemned. It is wrong, too, we maintain,
not at all on sanitary grounds generally. Proper ventilation

cannot in the majority of cases where it is met Avith be
maintained. It is in some, but not at the ordinary run of homesteads.
When built, as we suggest, without obstruction between floor and roof,
it can easily be kept in good sanitary condition by following along the
simple lines upon which we have been recommending that it and the
adjoining buildings should be constructed.

In the absence of a loft one would never think of erecting an over-
head fodder-rack. Such a step would only be leading to extra labour
for which no reason existed. The fodder would all ha\e to be raised
by fork into the rack to a position wrong in principle. The one
indicated in Fig. 234 can be filled by hand, and in it the fodder is
placed more in accordance witli the habits of the animal than is the
case with the other.

The corn-box is best when constructed of glazed fireclay similar to
the feeding-troughs for the cattle. It can be fitted in between the
biting-rail and the wall at the near side corner. The remainder of the
space at the head of the stall is taken up by the hay-rack, the biting-
rail serving as the top edge thereof. As Fig. 235 shows, the rack slopes
back in front as it is carried to the floor, thus being deeper at top than
bottom. This keeps the horses' knees clear of the front of the rack
while the animals are eating therefrom. The bottom of the rack is

BUILDINGS EAST OF THE BARN. 323

kept clear of tlie floor. The travis forms one end of the rack, ghing
support to the framework there, while the other end of the framework
rests upon the floor. 13ut there is little framework required. The
biting-rail does for the top, and two rails, one in front and another next
the wall, constitute the bottom part. These rails, as we have said, are
secured at one end to the travis, while at the other they are born on
upright pieces that rest upon the floor.

It is usual to spar both the front and the bottom of the rack. But
the front, so far as we can judge, may as well be boarded. The horses
never reach down to pluck fodder from between the spars ; they always
eat from the mouth of the affair. The idea may be to make the
manger look lighter, or perhaps to let air into it and keep things in a
more wholesome condition. Likelier than either reason, however,
spars may have been preferred on account of their re\'ealing how the
rack stands at any time as regards contents. It is wise, however the
front is finished, to ha\e the bottom sparred, and in that wav let sand
and refuse escape from the rack. If the bottom is six inches or so
clear of the floor, any rubbish that falls through can easily be removed.
The rack may taper from eighteen inches in depth at the top or mouth
to nine inches or so at the bottom. The breadth will, of course, depend
on the length of the fireclay trough. This had better be of good size
in order to be capable of holding a fair amount of chaff when such is
administered to the horses.

It is necessary that a cross piece, either of wood or iron, be fixed on

the top of the manger between the biting-rail and the wall. When

this is awanting the horses are almost certain to toss out a great deal

of fodder from the rack. They cannot settle down to the steady work

of reducing the hay to pulp without first investigating the lot and

making sure that it is all good alike. If they belie\e it to be better at

the bottom than at the top, then, in the absence of the check we suggest,

they will soon, with a side jerk of the head, toss out the inferior stuff,

and perhaps trample the most of it underfoot. But the check referred

to prevents this improvidence. A similar check is an ad\antage in

connection with the corn-trough. A fastidious horse often acts with his

oats or other feed in the same way as he inclines to deal with his hay.

If, however, the trough be of a fair size, he has less chance of being able

to dislodge its contents in any other manner than the one intended.

Two ridge ventilators of Mr. Craig's pattern, Fig. 143, to

\T^1*\^ ^^^ three horses, taken in connection with the wallhead
Ventilators. '

openings referred to in Fig. 147 (two say for each horse
that can be accommodated — one at each side of the house), would per-
mit of a good circulation of fresh air throughout the stable. At that
rate dead lights would suffice. One for each pair of horses might be
sufficient. But this is a matter that would fall to be decided by
circumstances. It is better, however, to err on the side of plenty than

Y 2

324 THE MODERN HOMESTEAD.

of scarcity in this instance. Lif^dit, as we indicated before, is an enemy

to dirt, tlierefore a friend to liealth.

A\'e make no provision for the stowing away of harness

The Harness- ^^.;ti-,jj-, ^\^q stable. The harness-room is there for that
Room.

purpose, which is an advantageous arrangement for

horses and harness alike. Harness hung up in the stable is placed
under circumstances anything but conducive to its being maintained
in good order. Even Avhen hung up dry it will soon become damp in
the humid atmosphere of the place. But when put away against the
stable wall damp, either on account of rain, or because of the per-
spiration it has absorbed, it is there a sure prey to causes of early decay.

The harness-rooni ought, we consider, to have a boarded floor with
efficient \entilation as described on page 103. And the walls all round
we would ha\e covered with lining boards. The wood surface of the
walls ensures a dry background for the harness, and at the same time
makes it easy to attach shelves and pegs thereto wherever wanted.
The method of lining the walls of the granary w^e ga^'e on page 263 is
suitable to the harness-room also. Seeing that the harness-room has
usually to do duty as club-room for the ploughmen and other men
about the place at odd times of the day — is, in fact, the only shelter
they have at disposal on w^et days when outside labour is at a stand-
still and they are kept hanging on, waiting events — it is but right that it
be made somewhat comfortable. To this end a proper fireplace is
necessary. A sto\e is often made to do ser\ice, but an open fireplace
is more satisfactory.

The room will be more comfortable, too, if in this case we erect a
ceiling about wallhead level. When the room, therefore, is not to be
open to the roof the latter may as well be of the ordinary couple and
baulk type. This will enable us to make the under edges of the bottom
collars or ties serve as the framework of the ceiling. The consequence
of this will be that, as Fig. 236 shows, the ceiling will, as it follows the
outline of the couple feet and the ties, be above the level of the wall-
head, which, however, is rather beneficial than otherwise. Lining
boards, similar to those applied to the walls, nailed to the ties, will
ansAver admirably, and when the job is finished give a neat and com-
fortable appearance to the place. A controllable ventilator between
ceiling and ridge is almost essential. A zinc ventilator, same as
I'^ig. 141, will be suitable in this instance. The shaft will require to be
continued down to the ceiling, where the opening can be controlled by
means of a sliding cover made movable by means of string and pulley.
A mantelshelf may be erected over the fireplace ; and a strong grate
with side hobs and brick back be fixed in, after which we ha\'e a
decent sort of place both for men and harness ; in which the " orra "
or handyman may take his piece, and both he and the ploughman
take a smoke at any off-time.

BUILDINGS EAST OF THE BARN.

325

'J"he door will ha\e to be a hinged one opening back into the stable.
And since we ha\ e blocked out all chance of light by way of the roof,
a side window looking to the courtyard is a necessity. An ordinary
sash window with both parts hung is the proper kind. Should, how-
exer, the walls be of brickwork, an iron casement window would be
quite applicable here.

The cart-shed is the simplest building of the whole group.
It needs a no more expensive floor than one of gravel or
of ashes, and no doors are required. It may perhaps be
too much to leave the openings the whole height of the side wall minus
the depth of the lintel, whether it be of wood or iron. It is handy, no
doubt, to have a place in the courtyard into which a loaded cart can be
backed and the contents be protected from rain, but it would be bad

The
Cart-Shed

Fig. 2j6.

policy in order to attain this to subject the housed carts to the influence
of drifting rain. Much depends, of course, on the exposure of the front
of the cart-shed. If it be such that wind and rain can beat upon it, then
it is necessary to keep the openings lower than would be quite efficient
in a more sheltered situation. The carts nearest to the openings would
be certain to get wet more or less where the latter were high and rain
occasionally had that side of the building at its mercy. Seven feet, or
at the utmost se\en feet six inches, would be height enough for these
openings in walls that were any way exposed.

The lowering of the openings does not imply much extra cost. A
beam or girder is essential, whether it has to act as support to the roof
alone or to the extra building o\er the openings in addition ; and there
is very little in the latter item. W'e would prefer an iron or steel girder
to a beam of wood, for the reasons we mentioned on page 118.

The supports to the beam or girder may be of stone, brick, or iron.

326 THE MODERN HOMESTEAD.

A stone pillar takes up most room, a cast-iron colunm the least. Our
choice would be the iron column. This, it is needless to say, needs a
large and properly-dressed stone for base.

No roof lights are required here unless it happened that doors for
some valid cause were fitted to the openings ; but we should erect two
or more of our ordinary zinc ventilators in order to make sure that the
roofing wood was maintained in good condition. Here, if anywhere
about the buildings of the homestead, ridge ^■entilation might be
dispensed with, but we would prefer to have it even here ; and the
wood surfaces we would ha\e as before.

^, ^ , , ^, ^^'ith the odd place at the corner tliis trroup of buildings
The Odd Place. . . . or- o

comes to a finish. A sliding door, a concrete floor, open-
ing roof liglits, and one of Craig's ventilators, are about all we can
specify for it without knowing further what its uses are likely in
reality to be.

CHAPTER XV.

Thk Dairy Buildings, Pig-House, and Dungstead.

We have now been the round of the homestead proper. But there
still remain the dairy buildings, the pig-house, and the dungstead. And
besides these are the various subsidiary sheds. The former by them-
selves are sufficient to afford matter for a chapter, and this one we shall
accordingly set apart to their discussion.

Tile dairy buildings are set down on Plan 1 1 . and Plan 111.
of the Dairy" ^^ '^'^^ north-west corner of the homestead. In that position
Buildings with they are not far removed from the byres, nor from the
mhYr Houses, ^^o'-ise on the dairy farm, but still far enough to be practi-
cally isolated from the remainder of the buildings. Thev
are handily situated enough in relation to the latter for economy of
labour, and yet cut off from them as regards their tendencv to react
unfavourably on milk and the products of the dairy that come under
their influence. Where we place them they are prettv well out of reach
of the odours that are liable to arise from the dungstead, pig-house, and
cooking-shed, which three are the worst offenders in this connection.
Neither can the byre in the one instance, nor the byre and the house in
the other, have any adverse influence over the dairy affairs.

In both cases represented the arrangement of the dairv is the same.
We have the scullery or washing-up place to begin with. This leads
into the churning and making-up-room if butter-making is the method
of utilising the milk, or the -vat and press-room if cheese-making is
adopted. At the other end of this, and furthest from all the other
buildings, is the milk-room. Another place is wanted should cheese-
making be the industry selected, viz., a ripening-room. This w"e can
best obtain by adding a half-storey or loft to the milk-room.

^^ ^ ,, The scullerv makes small demand in the matter of fittings

The Scullery. - . . .

One or more coppers are essential for the heating of water

wnth wliich to scald the dishes, either steam or fire being applied for the

purpose. Another is needed for a supply of hot water to the jacket of

the milk- vat. This one is sometimes placed in the vat-room itself It

is better, however, to have it in the scullery. The latter is rendered no

worse by the extra vapour this arrangement implies, and the vat-room

is kept rid of this form of moisture. It is easy to obtain a copper, such

as shown in Fig. 237, fitted with an offset or outlet at bottom from

328 THE MODERN HOMESTEAD.

which the water can be drawn as wanted at the other side of the wall.
It shows a better class, being of tinned copper, than is likely often to be
used, one of cast-iron being good enough in most instances. A hose
can, if required, be coupled to the offset and to the vat and direct
communication thus be made between the two. Where steam is used
in the dairy the arrangement referred to is unnecessary, and one copper
is enough in the scullery.

The walls of the scullery, if built of stone, are better to be plastered
with cement. They will then be able to withstand the knocks that are
likely to fall to their lot at times. They will also be smooth enough to
hinder the accumulation of dust or dirt of any kind. Dust will not often
indeed ha\e a free hand in the scullery ; there is too much moisture
about for it to be able to manifest its presence in the house when the
customary operations are in force. On the other hand, the impervious
surface of the cement plaster will suffer no harm from the abundance
of moisture that characterises the interior of this room. If built of good,
hard, well-formed bricks, it is quite sufficient to leave the brick surface
unprotected otherwise than by having the joints thereof neatly pointed

with cement. This also gives us a firm
and smooth wall surface. There are no
openings other than the doorways required
in the walls. We would ha\e it lighted by
way of the roof. The floor we would have
of concrete, but no drain therein. The
floor should be laid with a hang towards
T7,^. ^,^ "^^ the outer doorway, so that all water that is

r IG. 237, J ^ ^

spilled upon it may gain an outlet in that
direction. Outside it could be gathered in a gutter and led along it to
the nearest gully trap. The room we would have open to the roof as so
often referred to, and the roof wood we would, if practicable, ha\e cleaned
and varnished. Three opening roof lights — two at one side and one at
the other — and one of Craig's large-sized ventilators, not forgetting the
doors, complete the place.

^, ,, ^ The midroom, whichever of the two purposes it is set to

The Vat-Room, ' ... r t-

or Churning- fulfil, may be almost identical in character to the scullery.
Room. Floor and walls may be the same. It too may be devoid

of ceiling and be lighted and ventilated in similar manner to the last
mentioned. There is not so much w^ater being spilt on the floor of this
room as in the scullery. Almost the only water that is introduced
into the place in cheese-making is in connection with the \at. What
is run into the false bottom and sides of the vat must of course ha\e a
way of egress appointed for it. But there need hardly be a drain formed
for this alone — not one in the floor, at any rate. There must be no
chance of odours arising from drains within the dairy buildings, and the
most eflfectual manner of preventing this is to ha\"e none inside the

DAIRY BUILDINGS, PIG-HOUSE, AND DUNGSTEAD. 329

premises. An opening tlirough the wall at floor le\el will admit of a
hose connected to the outlet of the jacket that encloses the vat discharg-
ing into an open gutter outside and the water being led away as before.
In butter-making there is certainly more water thrown about, but as
with the scullery, the level of the floor can.be so arranged that water
will run therefrom to the outlet just mentioned.

^ ^ . ^ But cheese-making renders necessary another kind of

A Dram for . . . . . -'

leading the dram m connection with this room. The by-product

Whey to the \vhev is Utilised as food for the pigs. And in order to
Pighouses. " . . .

economise labour it must be led to their quarters by way

of an underground drain. To have to carry it all from the dairy to the
pig-troughs would be a serious matter — more than it was worth in many
cases. A watertight drain is essential for the purpose. Either a three
or a four-inch spigot and faucet cement jointed drain answers well. At
the far end it is requisite to have some kind of tank in which the whey
can accumulate and be used out of as needed. It may be constructed
with such a covering or lid that the attendant can lift the whey with a
can or bucket and pour it into the pig-troughs. In some instances the
tank is substantially covered and fitted with a hand-pump for raising
the whey. Like the other drain, the inlet to this one needs to be placed
outside, and then no ill effects as regards operations in the dairy can
arise therefrom. A hole in the wall will as before admit of a runnel
discharging the whey from the vat into the head of the drain outside.
The drain can be led where it is least likely to do harm should it ever
require to be lifted. But if well laid at the start this eventuality need
not be dreaded. It is wise, however, to have it fitted with inspec-
tion eyes wherever these are practicable. Accidents may arise to
interfere with its efficiency, and inspection eyes here and there will serve
to locate the fault.

The milk-room of necessitv gets more money spent on it
The Milk-Room. , , 1 1 ' 1 Tin

than does to complete the others. It hardly answers to

dispense with a ceiling here, and thereby leave the room open to the
roofing boards as with scullery and midroom. In their case it answers
better to have the extra space thrown in. They can then be lighted
through the roof, which is cheaper than having recourse to side
windows, and they are so much more easily ventilated when ridge
openings are a\ailable. The rough-and-ready ventilation that door and
ridge ventilators afford suits the nature of these respective rooms, more
especially the scullery where so much water is vaporised. In the milk-
room there is no less demand for ventilation, but on a more refined
scale so to speak. So long as the air in the milk-room is kept from
stagnating not much else is required. We do not want it left at the
mercy of the wind altogether. If a steady exchange of air in the room
is maintained, nothing further is called for. This can perhaps be better
obtained with than without a ceiling in the room. But the ceiling is

^^o THE MODERN HOMESTEAD.

more efFecti\e in giving one control of the temperature of the air w ithin
the room, and that is its principal office in this place. The slates and
roofing boards quickly heat up under the sun's influence ; and on sunny
days the air of a room that is devoid of ceiling soon responds to the rise
of temperature in its covering. The open door and the slit in the roof
give the air in the scullery and the midroom little time to be in contact
with the I'oof. In the milk-room, however, sucli vigorous ventilation
would not answer. Live things, both big and little, would avail them-
selves of the free access which it implies. Small things innumerable
come and go constantly, for without their presence our various methods
of turning milk to useful account could not be carried on. We do not
refer, however, to these invisible entities, but to those of a grosser being
which closed doors and wire gauze can keep out, and to dust and dirt
in general as well.

Provided with a ceiling, the milk-room is then less at the mercy of the
sun, and the air thereof can accordingly be more easily maintained at a
comparatively regular temperature. The ceiling, while it shelters the
room from the sun, on the other hand goes to hinder the loss of heat
therefrom by radiation in times of cold. Jkit the latter condition is of
less importance than the other. The milk-room is often too hot inside,
seldom too cold. Thatch is the ideal roofing material for a milk-room,
but one hardly practicable at the modern laomestead.

The fioor of the milk-room is, like so many others at the
u »;-,?°i° homestead, best when of concrete. There are, as we have

the Milk-Room.

so often repeated, no joints in a fioor of tliis description

into which spilt milk can penetrate, there to become sour, and encourage

the production of low-class bacteria and taints and odours generally.

It is impervious to damp from above or below and is easily wiped clean.

These are qualities that, even were it costly, recommend it strongly for

a place in the milk-room.

The walls, if of stone or of brick, built in the ordinary

manner, should be plastered on lath. There must be no

damp spots or patches on the walls of the milk-room. These become

centres for the dissemination of minute fungi that work harm in milk

and cream. It is ail-but impossible, however, to avoid damp places on

the wall surfaces if the latter are not plastered on laths. When spread

on these the plaster is completely insulated from the stone and lime of

the wall, and therefore out of reach of any dampness that can arise

from the outer shell of the fabric. Thick though tlie latter is, it is

bound to feel on its inner side the effects of what the outer face has to

endure at the hands of our variable weather. Sun, frost, wind, and

rain all have at it in turn, tlie last two sometimes in company, and it

requires good workmanship to withstand these without occasional hurt.

.\ctual wet need not find its way into the mass before damp shows

inwardly. It will appear on the painted or whitewashed surface of the

DAIRY BUILDIXGS, PIG-HOUSE, AND DUSGSTEAD. 331

niilk-rooiii wall that is unlathed wlien there is nothing \isible outwardly
to account for its presence. The mass of stone and lime forming the
wall absorbs more or less moisture according to the amount in the
atmosphere. Seldom does a good wall absorb so much as to become
apparent on its inner surface. But what may not readily reveal itself
on the rough, unplastered surface will quickly do so on the plastered
one where no lathing intervenes. When the laths are there the plaster
does not touch the wall, so that even w^hen the wall happens to be
damp enough to affect plaster applied to it directly, that which is
applied to it through the medium of laths remains unaffected. All the
same, care has to be taken that the inner surface is no damper than is
due to the state of the atmosphere. If dampness due to defects in the
building is suffered to exist for long, the straps to which the laths are
attached, and in turn the laths themselves, are bound in time to feel its
effect and become prematurely decayed.

If the walls are built of brick and have a hollow space within from
top to bottom, there is tlien no need for lathing. The hollow keeps the
inner part of the wall thorouglily insulated from the outer part in the
same manner that the lathing keeps the coat of plaster apart from the
solid wall whether it be of stone or of brick. It does this more
thoroughly, in fact, because the straps are attached to wood plugs
driven into the wall, whereas the two parts of the brick wall are tied
together with galvanized wrought-iron clips along or through which
damp cannot pass from the outer to the inner portions of the wall.
Damp may pass from plug to strap and from strap to lath, but it cannot
pass from one part of the hollow wall to the other by way of the clips or
ties. And the space in the heart of the wall lessens the conductiveness
of the latter. Heat passes slower through a wall so constructed. If the
bricks of the inner part of the hollow wall are hard and well formed,
plaster may be dispensed with and neat pointing take its place. Even
then, however, the surface may be a little rough, and therefore conducive
to lodgement of dust thereon, which is not a favourable condition of
matters in the milk-room. One may be pardoned, we think, if he
makes use of enamelled bricks for the inner portion of the walls of the
milk-room. \'ery little dust will effect a foothold on their surface ;
what does can be easily wiped off. Xo plastering is then required, so
after all the extra cost of the glazed bricks does not amount to so very
much as to render it prohibitive.

The side windows shown on the Plans II. and III. afford
in ow . ^^^j^ light and air to the room. Sash windows do not inter-
fere with the space of any room they are fitted into, therefore they are
the best to use in connection with the milk-room. Were the windows to
project into the room every time they were opened, they would interfere
with the storage capacity of the slielves, which usually are placed
against the walls. Casement windows to open out could of course be

332 THE MODERN HOMESTEAD.

used, but these would pre\ent the windows bein.i,' safej^uarded with
perforated zinc or copper-wire gauze on tlie outside. Sash windows
are therefore clearly the best kind for application to the milk-room.
They can be opened and shut without first ha\ing to clear parts of the
shelves on the one hand or to remove the screens on the outside.
Screens of the material referred to are essential, otherwise flies and
winged insects generally have free entry whenever a window is opened.
A light wood frame made to fit closely into the window and co\ered
with either of the materials mentioned, makes an efficient screen. Ikit
this is an item that falls to be provided by the tenant rather tlian the
proprietor. So also the blinds, should any of the windows re(|uire a
fitting of the kind.

Th V t"l "'^ ° augment the means of ventilation it is well, if it can
tion of the be managed, to ha\e an opening in the ceiling leading

°°^- therefrom to the roof and terminating in some suitable

form of protected outlet. This may not be \ery practicable should a
cheese-room be placed overhead. Still, even then it can sometimes be
arranged to make room for such an air-shaft as we suggest. And near
to floor le\el a few air inlets such as are usually constructed to promote
circulation of air under floors of wood, made through the walls, help to
keep matters wholesome under the shelves. Without these air is
almost certain to stagnate in the corners at that low level. Stagnant
air is, in our climate, almost certain to be damp, and this is the con-
dition that favours the growth of the bacteria and moulds referred to
above that work ad\ersely in the interests of the products of the dairy.
A few of these inlets prevent the air lurking undisturbed and favouring
the spread of harmful organisms. The inlets can be controlled either
outside or within the building. An ordinary "hit-and-miss" covering,
such as used to gi\'e control of openings of the kind, is placed at the
end chosen to be regulated from, and the other, similar to the windows,
is protected with perforated zinc or wire gauze. It is the better plan,
where practicable, to have the controllable end of the opening at the
outer side. It is easier got at there than under the shelves inside. A
fireclay pipe is the best form of channel to carry through the wall.
Laid Avith a slope outwards, there is no danger of rain being driven
through. If the walls are hollow, the pipe must, of course, be continued
intact across the hollow, else the incoming air will lose its way in the
latter and fail to carry a direct current into the room.

^, „. , The shelves are usually of either sandstone or thick slate.

The Shelves. ,,,, .

i lie latter is the better material. It is harder and less

absorbent, and can be polished smooth enough to be easily wiped clean.

Sometimes the shelves are fixed upon upriglit slabs of tlie same material

or on brick supports, but iron legs are better. The former obstruct the

circulation of air between the shelves and the floor, but the latter have

no effect in that way, as may be seen if we compare Figs. 23S and 2y).

DAIRY BUILDINGS, PIG-HOUSE, AND DUNGSTEAD. 333

»/

Fig. 23S.

The Ceiling.

" T " angle iron or steel as arranged in the latter figure takes up so

little space as not to interfere with air-currents. But the solid divisions

represented in Fig. 238 act as so many partitions in dividing the space

under the shehes into a series of bunkers. They are but bulkheads, in

fact, round which the air must pass

from one cell or compartment to

another. But not only the shelf

supports would we ha\e of a kind

that would not stand in the way of

air mo\ement ; we would have the

shelves themsehes constructed on the

same principle. Instead of having

them solid as at present, we would

prefer to have them grated or trellised.

A thin latticed iron or steel shelf

would answer admirably. It would offer little or no obstruction to

air-currents, and would effectually hinder the stagnation which is so

apt to take place under the solid shelf. Such a thing could be got

with an enamelled surface if pressed for ; at any rate, it might easily

be had galvanized.

No matter how the walls are finished on the inside
surfaces, whether plastered on lath, or on the solid brick-
work of a hollow wall, or lined with enamelled bricks, the ceiling, if the
building is one-storied, had best be of lath and plaster. A ceiling of
wood does not answer xexy well. The wood eventually shrinks, and
dust from above comes through the cracks and may fall into the milk.
The plastered ceiling contains no cracks — none at any rate that will
suffer dust to pass, else it is but a makeshift — and here as in the house

makes the best of all overhead enclosures.
If, however, the cheese-room is placed
above the milk-room, the combined floor
and ceiling recommended on page 106
and represented in Fig. 89 may with
advantage be used. The floor of the
cheese-room is put to severe strain at
times, and this comes to tell on the plaster
ceiling that is attached to the underside
of the flooring joists. The turning of the
cheeses and other operations that go on
in the cheese-room give sudden shocks
to the joists, and the hea\y weight these are set to carry as the
shelves begin to fill up are apt to cause the ceiling to yield and gi\-e
way in places. But the double floor just referred to affords increased
steadiness in the room above, while at same time it acts as an efiFecti\e
ceiling to the room below. No dust can penetrate from one room to

Fig. 239.

334

THE MODERN HOMESTEAD.

tlie other, because if a crack in the upper boards should happen to be

opposite another in the lower set, the felt between tlieni effectually pre-

\ents conjunction between the two. And when the joists and underside

of the boards have been cleaned and \arnished, little dust can settle

thereupon, and what does can be easily brushed or wiped off. And let

the floor above be thumped and strained to any reasonable degree, the

contents of the niilk-rooni will not be effected thereby.

The cheese-room is the room in which the cheeses are

The Cheese- arranged on shelves to undergo the process of ripening.

Room. '^ ,, r . ^

ror the sake of economy, as well as of convenience, we

place it in this instance over the milk-room. Fig. 240 gives a section

of the two. Access is given to it by means of a trap stair or ladder

Fig. 240.

leading from the vat-room. Each cheese can then be taken directly
from the chissel in which it has been pressed to the ripening-shehes.
And if a door can with advantage be made in the gable of the cheese-
room the ripened cheeses can therefore be straightaway loaded into carts
drawn up alongside the wall beneath the same. It is not essential that
the cheese-room be placed in the second storey. Some of the best cheeses
ever manufactured are ripened on the ground floor ; but as good ones
and perhaps more in number are matured in the "cheese-loft" situated
overhead of some other building. The situation of the room as regards
relation to ground level or first floor is therefore seemingly of small

DAIRY BUILDINGS, PIG-HOUSE, AND DUNGSTEAD. ^^s

The Side
Walls and
the Ceiling
thereof.

importance, and may be left to be decided by the matter of con\enience.
This, it must be borne in mind, appHes to the manufacture of Cheddar
and other liard kinds of cheese. A ground floor apartment, if not
indeed an underground one, is a necessity in the manufacture of soft
cheeses. And therein provision needs to be made for the maintenance
of a duly warm and moist temperature. At parts of the sunny South, a
basement milk-room is considered a necesssary part of the farm house.
The side walls of the cheese-room shown in section in
I'ig. 241 are not carried up so high as to admit the
ceiling being on one level. So long, however, as they
are high enough to allow headroom along the wall side,
no more is required in that respect in the camp-ceiled room. With this
height the revolving shelf cases have room to work by reason of their
being out from the wall a foot or two, because then they are brought
nearer to the level part of the ceiling, and further from the co\ed side.
There is no doubt, however, that the upstairs cheese-room is better to
be so high in the side wall as to enable the ceiling to be on one level as
in Fig. 240. And
the reason of this is
apparent if we com-
pare the two. The
more equable we
can keep the tem-
perature of the room
it will be the better
for the favourable
development of the
cheeses. But the
room with the camp
ceiling has a vulnerable part a at each side which does not exist in
the one with the straight ceiling. At a there is not much thickness
of material between the room and the sky — just the slates and the
roofing boards joined together, a little air space, and the thin sheet
of plaster. The sun, when it strikes on this part, makes its influence
felt inside when perhaps the air of the room is o\er the mark to begin
with. - In cold weather the balance tells the other way, and radiation
follows suit. The warm air of the room can part with heat to the cold
air outside through a at a much quicker rate than it can directly through
the walls or upwards into the enclosed air space above. The roof with
the straight ceiling. Fig. 240, has no weak parts in its armour such as
the other has at a. On the one hand, the sun's influence on the J:lates
in summer is counteracted by the air-cushion contained between roof
and ceiling ; and on the other this body of air hinders radiation upwards
from the room in winter. This body of air is in that position an
effective non-conductor of heat, and in Fig. 240 it covers the whole

336 THE MODERN HOMESTEAD.

ceilings which is onl}- partially the case in Fi<^. 241. It is atKisable to
put felt between the slates and the boards of the cheese-room roof.
This further hinders the two actions thereon referred to — the radiation
of the sun's heat inward, and the radiation of the heat of the room
(Hitwards.

This may be considered a little fine-drawn, but it is really annoying'
when in the dog days the temperature of the cheese-room rises to a point
that makes the cheeses perspire and shine. This will hardly occur in a
room of which Fig. 240 is a representation. It may readily happen,
however, in one after the plan of the other ; and the latter is a
favourable example of its class. Many a one in actual use has much
more coving than it shows. This is a defect of which the ground-
floor cheese-room is quite free. The temperature in one of these is
less apt to fluctuate on account of the reasons given than in one on
the upstairs floor. But then the ground floor is more apt to be damp
than the other. A good deal, however, depends on the situation of
the dairy. In one a coved ceiling may answer well enough ;
in another it may be mistaken economy to keep the side wall lower
than the ceiling.

Side windows, we need hardly say, are the proper sources

The f^f lifrht to the cheese-room. Those on which the sun

Windows. . .

plays can be mounted with blinds. 1 he sash window is

suitable as being easily fitted in that respect, either inside as a protection

from the sun or outside as a guard against tiny intruders, and readily

adapting itself to the requirements of ventilation, as we pointed out in

connection with the milk-room. We belie\e in abundance of light here.

This is allowed to be a condition rather unfavourable to the propagation

of germ life, and the busybodies of that field of existence have a hand in

what goes on here as well as in the milk-room beneath. Their work

is deeper seated and more gradual in the hard-pressed curd, howe\er,

than is that which is overtaken by those infesting milk, therefore a

little extra light in the room cannot be prejudicial to them. Neither

can it in the milk-room ; for those that induce the characteristic changes

in milk are ever ready on the shortest notice to turn out in their

thousands upon thousands, irrespective of the effect of an ordinary

amount of light.

As a furtlier aid to the \entilation of the room (for here,

Ventilation as in other places, air that is allowed to remain still

of the Room, f-^yours the generation of moulds and such like) it is well

to have an air-shaft from ceiling to ridge, finished at bottom with a

controllable flap or slide, and at top ending in a large double-horned

zinc ventilator of the description referred to further back.

The inner surface of the walls should here, too, for tlie reasons

already advanced, be plastered on lath if the wall is not hollow built ;

and it may be understood that lath and plaster will constitute the ceiling.

DAIRY BUILDINGS, PIG-HOUSE, AND DUNGSTEAD. 337

All well-
appointed
Cheese
Rooms are
Nowadays
fitted up with
Reversible
Shelves.

All well-appointed cheese rooms are now fitted up with
revolving or reversible shelves. The cheeses have
regularly to be turned end for end at least once a day
during the height of the season, and as the shelves begin
to fill it is no joke, in the absence of reversible shelves,
having each cheese to turn over. But Avith reversible
shelves at command, in single minutes for each ten it took
before they were available, the operation can be accomplished, and at the
exercise of little or no exertion. These kind of shelves are arranged in
a series of boxes or cages, as in Fig. 242, which shows the ele\'ation of a
set of six boxes, in vertical pairs. The number of boxes in a line is
of course ruled by the length of the room, as the number of rows is by
the breadth, and the number of shelves one above tlie other by the height

•

(
/

: =

■

1 "

:f'

(

■1 ■

■'

' 1

»i^+ , |,|

(

Fig. 242.

thereof. Whatexer the height of the room, however, it is hardly practi-
cable in most cases to have more than two sets between floor and ceiling.
A third one Avould be out of reach of a person on the floor. But this
depends on the depth of the cheeses made. Where flat cheeses are
made the boxes are shallower, so that either an extra shelf can be
introduced in the box, or if not an additional box, provided there is
room, may be placed above the two.

Reverting to Fig. 242, the top set of shelves have the
front outwards, and the bottom set the back. The spars at
the back of each box are there for the purpose of holding
in the cheeses as the shelf is turned bottom up or reversed. Then-
purport will be better understood by referring to Fig. 243, which is a
single shelf to hold four cheeses, drawn to a larger scale, the position of
the cheeses being shown by the dotted lines. The inner sides of the
spars, it will be seen, are shaped to fit to the cheeses so that they cannot

M.H. z

A Description
of these
Shelves.

33^

THE MODERN HOMESTEAD.

mark them wlien their wei.tjjht comes to bear upon the spars. They
take up the weight of the cheeses as the box begins to tilt and throw
them on their sides, and they support them until the box has passed the
horizontal and what was the top of the cheeses is now becoming the
bottom, and they are sliding into their new position. It is e\ident that
the less difference there is between the depth of the cheese and the space
that divides the shelves, the less violent will be the shock to the respec-
tive cheeses as they alight upon their new support. So long as sufficient
room is left for air between the tops of the cheeses and the shelf above,
the smaller the difference referred to the better. And the same applies,
although for different reasons, to the side room afforded the cheeses. So
long as air has room to circulate around them any further room is just
so much waste of material. There is waste of material, too, in placing
the shelves further apart than is necessary for the free access of air; but
there is further, as already stated, the risk of damage to the cheeses in
giving them too long a drop.

In the Fi.£:s. bearing on this subject we have taken, by way of example.

Fig. 243.

the shelves as fitted up in the cheese room of the West of Scotland Agri-
cultural College, at Kilmarnock Dairy School. There the shelves are
14I- inches broad, i^ inch thick, and the space between each is 16 inches.
The length of each box of three shelves is 64 inches inside measurement.
The size of the cheeses made at that institution is 14 inches deep by
14 inches in diameter, each one forming a perfect cylinder. At this rate
the cheeses have two inches clear space between their tops and the shelf
next above, and they sit two inches apart. The end ones, however, are
only a single inch from either side of the box, which seems barely
enough. Were the boxes lengthened two inches it would allow each
cheese in the row the same air space around it.

A free and full distribution of air no doubt being as essential to the
favourable development of the contents of the shehes in the cheese room
as it is to those on the milk room shelves, we would incline to have the
shelves of the former place also made of lattice work. The bottom, top,
and sides of each cheese would then be on a pretty equal footing as
regards exposure to air, liglit, and heat. There would still, however,
exist the necessity of periodically turning the cheeses. This is needed
as much perhaps to ensure homogeneity in the cheese as for the other

DAIRY BUILDINGS, PIG-HOUSE, AND DUNGSTEAD. 339

purposes referred to. Were
occasionally, they would tend
to become denser in some
parts than in others, and con-
sequently ripen irregularly.
It will be seen from Fig.
243 that the vertical spars
on the boxes are checked
into the shelves, to which
they are also screwed, thus
serving to stiffen the latter,
as well as keep the cheeses
from falling out when being
reversed. A single strap
put on in front helps further
to brace the shelves and
hold them in position. The
shelves are dovetailed to the
ends or sides : the top and
bottom shelves ought to be,
at any rate ; the inner ones
may be checked thereto.
Either white or yellow pine
does for the construction of

the cheeses not made to change ends

Fig.

244-

the boxes.

thickness as the

The ends may be of the
shelves — one-and-a-quarter

Qzmi

Fig. 245.

same
inch.

Fig. 244 shows the end elevation of two rows of
three shelves. This makes plain that the rows can
be placed pretty closely together. Overcrowding is
a disadvantage, however. But this is a matter that
will be ruled by the storage room required, and the
space at disposal. Fig. 245 gives a vertical cross-
section of two rows of shelves — two boxes.

Fig. 246 shows how the boxes are fixed at each
end to the standards ; and how they are held steady
by means of latches.

In Fig. 247 are represented the iron mountings on
the respective ends of the boxes. These consist of
catches which enable the latches, such as shown in
Fig. 246, to intercept and hold the box from making
a complete rotation, and a central pivot. Should
the latch happen to clear the catch and allow the
box to make more than half a turn, the result is the
pitching out of the cheeses upon the floor. The

pivot fits into a corresponding socket attached to the standard.

z 2

340

THE MODERN HOMESTEAD.

Although we have somewhat fully described the shelving that is reciuired

to complete the cheese room,

it is often an item that falls

to the tenant to fit up.

TT »• And so, very

Heating ' -'

the Cheese often, is the

^°°"'- item of pro-

^•iding some arrangement
for heating the room. Hot-
water pipes are acknow-
ledged to be the best medium
for accomplishing this.
Steam, when available, is
sometimes substituted for
heated water, but it is hardly
so satisfactory. A stove is
out of the question in the
majority of cheese rooms.
But even where practicable
it is irregular in action, and
therefore unfit for the pur-
pose. The most suitable
place in our Plans for the

Fig. 246.

position of the saddle boiler for supplying the pipes with hot water is
somewhere in the scullery, near to the copper
furnaces. This implies a little extra piping, but
it keeps the furnaces all in one place, and
properly under cover.

We have placed the pig-house
e ig- ouse.^^ 1^^ .^^ touch with the dunghill,

and within easy reach of the cooking shed. It
is not far from the straw barn either. That,
hoAvever, is a less important matter, because the
pigs are not, as a rule, treated to very much
straw by way of bedding ; and they cannot
make use of it as a food. They can turn a
sheaf to good account by chewing ofif the ears
of grain, but the straw itself is not sufficiently
concentrated to answer the rather exacting
requirements of the alimentary canal of the pig.
Either Double ^^^^ house may either be made
or Single, and double, as in Plans II. and III., or
how Arranged, ^jjg as in Plan I. In the

Fig. 24".
latter case the house is built as a lean-to

against the side wall of the dungstead, the latter being heightened for

DAIRY BUILDINGS, PIG-HOUSE, AND DUNGSTEAD. 341

that purpose, or it may be the contrary way, witli the higher wall next
the court and the lower the side of the dungstead, as shown in the section
given in Fig. 248. The pens are arranged against the lower wall, and
suitable holes or openings are left therein for allowing the manure to be
pitched directly into the
dungstead. The liquid ex-
crement can be led directly
therein by means of an
easily accessible channel or
drain either inside the house
or round the outside corner
by preference. A feeding
passage with a door at each
end, or with one, if con-
sidered sufficient, runs in

■ 1 ' I'l'i '■ ' I ■ '■ 'I'l "~r~

Jill I I It.

'i'i'i'i'iViVi

Fig. 248.

front of the pens. Fig. 249 gives the plan at cope level of the pens of
such an arrangement as we are describing. Each pen measures twelve
feet long by nine feet wide, and trough space is afforded for seven
animals, which number the pens are severally easily capable of housing
with comfort to the inmates. A trough for each animal is almost essen-
tial. If the swilly food which falls to the lot of the pigs is poured into
fewer troughs than there happen to be animals confined in a pen, we all
know the result. If poured into one common to all, or e\en into two,
none gets a chance of taking its food in a rational manner. One to

Fig. 249

make sure of room may get in on all fours, while nearly all the others,
to make a good resistance, strive to plant their fore feet in the trough.
Peace there is none, at any rate until the trough is emptied, or until the
majority are satiated. It is easier, howe^■er, to fill one or two troughs
than seven, besides, such a number of single troughs cannot be accom-
modated, therefore the pigs must adjust themsehes to circumstances.

342

THE MODERN HOMESTEAD.

We have now, however, a trough in tlie market tliat

^,|P°'^H^"'^ effectually overcomes these difficulties against making
of Trough. -^ r , , , . r ,• •

matters more comfortable to the pigs at feedmg tmie.

There are single troughs to be had, of which Fig. 250 is a representation,

so divided that each part thereof serves as a separate trough, and yet

all being continuous at bottom, no one can be fuller than another. So

long as it sits level, each division holds the same amount of fluid or

semi-fluid food. The pig that, in the absence of others, essays to empty

any one compartment, must deal with the whole contents of the divided

trough. The trough we refer to is made of fireclay, and glazed similarly

to the cattle troughs and horse mangers we have so often referred

to in earlier pages. The sloping divisions and the high back of the

trough are important points. The former keep the pigs apart most

effectually. These obstructions prevent the animals seeing each other

when engaged feeding, a condition which makes for peace to start with.

Fig. 250.

Instead of spending energy in seeking to shoulder aside a neighbour it
cannot see, and can only feel behind a point that does not react by way
of strife to jostling, the individual pig is more intent on overmatching
the snout it hears and may see at one side or other at the bottom of the
trough, but which it cannot reach, nor can others it. No doubt it
thinks itself king of the w^alk so long as it has part of the dish to itself,
and in this way each of the animals can partake of its food in a compara-
tively calm and philosophic mood, utterly different from the frantic
manner in which it gulps the stuff over when many mouths, not to speak
of feet, dip in the one dish. The high back, while it acts as a filler down
which the food, as delivered from tlie pail, slides to the bottom of the
trough, comes in as a barrier at that side of the pen. It is a barrier
barely complete in itself, but one, or at most two, iron rods, as in
Fig. 251 (which shows the elexation of this part of the pens), stretched
parallel with tlie tops of the troughs between them and the wood lintel
which runs le\el with the tops of the di\isions, as in Fig. 249, serve
effectually to keep tlie pigs from getting out at this side of their enclosure.

DAIRY BUILDINGS, PIG-HOUSE, AND DUNGSTEAD. 343

The wood lintel may be dispensed with, and an iron rod or pipe be taken

as substitute therefor.

The floor of the house we would have laid with Portland

The Pig-house cement concrete. Tar macadam is a likely material for a
rloor. J

pig-house floor. It requires a good stuff to withstand the
snouts of the pigs. Any crack or soft part in a floor of other materials
than these affords a starting point from which to undermine or overturn
the surface, of which the pigs are not slow to avail themselves. But
neither of the two substances mentioned is open to destruction in this
way. The one — concrete — is too hard and unyielding, and the other —
tar macadam — too elastic to allow of sap and mine by the pigs. The
floor of each pen must have sufficient inclination to run all liquid off to
one side. The preferable plan is to give the floor a good hang towards
the troughs. There, at any rate, the bulk of the mess will be, what
with spilled food and dribblings and droppings from the animals as
they stand expectant alongside the passage. The troughs may be raised
a little from the floor in order to let liquid matter escape beneath them,

Fig. 251.

and a gutter along the side of the passage will catch all this and lead it
out of the building, and round the corner into the dungstead. Unless,
however, the place is well kept, matters are better when the troughs are
bedded on the floor, and no liquid alloAved to pass beneath, for if the space
between trough and floor be not regularly cleaned out, the matter therein
is apt to become offensive. Besides, if they stand too high above the floor
the pigs are tempted to seek their overthrow. A shallow gutter in front
of the troughs (inside the pen, that is to say) will serve to carry liquid
stuff" to the door, by means of which it can escape into the gutter at the
side of the passage. Occasionally part of the floor of each pen is raised
a little above the remainder for the purpose of keeping that part dry
and clean ; but this breaks the continuity of the floor too much for our
liking. With a pen of the size we have quoted, and with the floor
arranged as described, there is ample room for the pigs to choose a
corner well away from the neighbourhood of the troughs.

Trough accommodation for seven and the narrow door take up the
length of the pen. A single trough might, no doubt, be made to afford
the seven spaces, and thus take up a little less space. It is better, how-
ever, to have two troughs, one of four di\-isions and one of three, because

344

THE MODERN HOMESTEAD.

it might happen at a time that only two or three pigs occupied the pen,
and to part the food of tliree into dishes for seven is a httle ridiculous,
as well as wasteful.

The partitions dividing the pens are of nine-inch brick-
The Partitions work. The cope may be of bricks set on edge or of
Pgjjg cement, just as one chooses. The brick partition, when

neatly pointed with cement, is quite capable of putting
piggy's snout at defiance. Indeed, we would ha\e none of the walls of
the pig-house built of other materials than bricks and mortar. Rubble
work offers too many weak parts in its armour to remain long unscathed
from the attacks referred to, and once a start towards defacement is
achieved, the wall soon becomes unsightly. It is not at all times practi-
cable, howe\'er, to avoid rubble work in the erection of the pig-house,

Fig. 252.

more especially when, as in this instance, it is being built against the
dungstead wall. But cement can here as elsewhere at the homestead
be turned to good account.

In the other instances represented we have the pig-house standing
separate from other buildings, and as regards these there is nothing to
hinder their being built with brick. With them we stick to the same
relative position in the steading as before. More accommodation being
required, we double the house, as it were, by having, as in Fig. 252, a
central passage with a row of pens at each side. And instead of our
keeping them broadside to the dungstead, as with the single one, we
place them end on to it, so that each row of pens, with its gutter in front,
is on the same footing with regard to convenience of access to the
manure heap. And placed thus the pig-house has its other gable in the
best position possible for con\enience of service from both cooking house
and straw barn. Otherwise the two kinds of houses are alike. Althou<rh

DAIRY BUILDINGS, PIG -HO USE, AND DUNGSTEAD. 345

the double pig-house is sliown detached from the dungstead, there is
nothing whatever to hinder their being united as with the single one.
The gable would be coincident with the dungstead wall, as in Fig. 253.
This allows more room in the court, and renders the house easier of
cleansing, though it hardly adds to the salubrity of the latter.

In Fig. 252 we give a section of the double pig-house. We make
the side walls eight feet in height. Less might do, but it is as well to
allow the animals plenty of air so long as the house is not thereby apt
to be unduly cold in winter. Here, too (in the single as Avell as the
double house), we would ha\e the roof wood planed smooth. Two at
least, but better three, of Craig's ventilators would be required on the
ridge of the double house. And four or five skylights would be needed to
light the place ; the single house being dealt with in proportionate lines.
The skylights we would ha\-e hinged, so that when the weather was
warm or close they could be opened at will. Air inlets in the side wall,
as prescribed for byre and stable, are hardly needed here. One or

Pi'/-Jioufir.

L^.

DuDjIfill'dd.
Fig. 253.

The Pen
Doors.

other, and at times both, of the doors can be left open when extra air
flushing is desirable. \\'ith a door at each end it generally turns out
that one is sufficiently in the lee to allow of its being left open without
harm to the pigs.

The simpler the pen doors the better. Two layers of
boards nailed firmly together, as in Fig. 254 (which
gives the two sides and end of such a door), answer
better than a door of the pattern given in Figs. 114 and 115. The out-
standing boards on the latter offer a purchase to the pigs' teetli, which
is speedily turned to account to the detriment of the door. It is
possible, of course, to keep the smooth side of the door inwards, but
this is too untradesmanlike a proceeding to be recommended. The
door that is smooth on both sides is the more suitable ; and it is much
the stronger of the two. Strong and simple ironmongery suits the pig-
house door. It is as well to have both styles of stone. Wood could be
used for the one to which the door is hinged, but wood is not lasting
enough for such a position. Strong hook-and-band hinges — the hooks
batted to the stones with lead, and a simple slip bolt outside do very

34^^

THE MODERN HOMESTEAD.

^vell. Tlie door should fit pretty closely to the floor, so that little

leverage is afforded to the investigating snouts of the prisoners ; and for

the same reason that leads us to discard the cross pieces of the single

door, the side of the door that is vertically boarded should be on the

inner side. The outer doors would be sliding ones, such as recommended

for the generality of the buildings.

The whey tank already discussed would fall to be placed in a position

handy for the administration of the stuff. Some place apart from the

pig-house proper is a necessity in the case of the littering of sows, when

such form part of the li\-e stock of the farm. But accommodation of

this sort need not be difficult to find.

The dungstead we would enclose within walls, as

The Dung- shown on the three Plans. On each we hiwe it the
stead. . ^ . . . 1 J r 11 1

same size. But its size is a matter that would tall to be

decided by the circumstances that characterized the farm. At a home-
stead where cattle-boxes and open courts are provided, the dungstead is

1 i:

i i ■ '

1';

1.^ ' ^ ' >
1 jr

'f'

yll

1/'^ ' i'

'■1

1 ;

/i"

■ 1 ! ' \

' \

Fig. 254.

of comparatively less importance than at one intended to meet the
wants of dairy farming. At the former, the litter from only a small
proportion of the animals finds its way to the dungstead ; at the latter,
it nearly all is thrown therein before it reaches the fields. The dung
that collects in the boxes and in the courts is carted direct from these
places to the fields ; and the greater bulk of the straw from the cropping
farm is trodden down in box and court. But at homesteads where
neither boxes nor courts are made use of, the dungstead is the general
collecting depot for all the manure produced about the place. At the
average arable farm, therefore, the dungstead does to be comparatively
smaller than on the strictly dairying one. It has to be borne in mind
in this connection, however, that dairy cattle, at least as managed in
Scotland, produce less bulk of manure than is left by beef producers.
\\'e have already referred to the thinness of the contents of the dairy
farm midden. Walls are, in fact, essential to keep a midden of this

DAIRY BUILDINGS, PIG-HOUSE, AND DUNGSTEAD. 347

description witliin bounds. A slight depression in the ground will
serve to keep the drier affair in a reasonable space, and pre\'ent the
unsightly oozings stretching all round therefrom ; but unless the fluxy
accumulations at the dairy farm are stricter dealt with, they will in time
spread out and settle down as a thin cake over the ground. It would
never do, however, to have even a mildly straggling midden, far less a
sort of cold lava-stream affair, such as the last-mentioned, taking up the
side and entrance to our otherwise well-planned and effectively con-
structed homestead. An enclosed dungstead is, therefore, an essential,
whether at the cattle-feeding or the cow-milking homestead — the size
thereof to be regulated- in accordance with the requirements of the farm.
The Formation ^^^^^ bottom of the dungstead must be dished or hollowed
of the Bottom in such a manner that moisture will collect therein, and
°^ °°'^' not ooze away from it here and there. And the bottom

must be rendered impervious, so that the liquid matter may be retained.
As a rule, the necessary exca^'ations leave a surface that pro\es water-
tight without further treatment. If we happen to strike the till or
boulder-clay there is no fear of anything escaping down through it.
Rock may ha\'e to be excavated, and if on edge and seamy there is
risk of loss here. But whether the bottom of the dungstead be in sub-
soil as distinguished from rock, or in rock itself, of which the watertight
effect is doubtful, a preventi\'e against the latter condition can be had
without going to much expense. A coat of clay and broken stones,
or till alone if it can be had, will make matters right in the first
instance. A coat of this description would not be long upon rock.
The horses" feet and the Avheels of the carts would work- it away there-
from. But a thickish mixture of Portland cement and water, run over
the weak parts and brushed therein, would prevent leakage. In any
case, there need be no recourse to such expensive precautions as laying
concrete, unless, of course, exceptional circumstances rendered the use
of that or of some other form of pavement necessary.

It must not be expected, however, that the mere hollowing out of the
bottom of the dungstead is sufficient to make it capable of retaining all
the liquids that generally find their way there. The shallow basin thus
formed is meant to collect and save the natural drainings alone of the
dung, as wheeled from byre or stable to the dung heap. Anything
beyond this it is not supposed to accommodate. Both the ordinary
rainfall and the contributions from the grips should be led elsewhere, if
the midden is not to be overloaded with wet or unduly diluted, with the
consequence that some of its manurial matters are certain to be lost so
far as the fields are concerned, ^^'hen the basin is full the liquid con-
tents are bound to spill over, and while contributing to waste they mar
the appearance of the homestead, and are offensiye to the passer-by.

Often, no doubt, the contents of the dungstead at some arable farms
are too dry, and would be impro^■ed by wetting ; not, however, by

348 THE MODERN HOMESTEAD.

merely passing liquid through the mass, as would happen were the
bottom leaky or were the bottom of such a shape that no water would
lie thereon. Tliere would be little good done endeavouring to keep a
midden of this nature in a moist condition. Both water and liquid
manure would pass through, and make their escape either at bottom or
at sides. Walled in, however, and bottomed in the" manner we suggest,
the midden is (juite capable of retaining a due amount of moisture.
But one must be able fully to control matters in connection with the
treatment of the manure that is naturally prepared in the dungstead.
It is not enough just to empty the stuff therein and let it take its chance.
He must be able to relieve the half-drowned one ; and, on the other
hand, be able to administer moisture in proper amount to the dry and
fusty one. The possession of a liquid manure tank enables him to
accomplish the first, and a roof o\er the dungstead helps him materially
in the latter aim.

. J. . , The possession of a tank of this kind allows the farmer

Manure Tank at one time to keep his midden free of superabundance

a desirable ^^j: ,i-jQisture, and at another to apply liquid manure

Accessory ' . T ,

to the to the too dry and therefore chemically inert fibrous

Dungstead. niatter of the moistureless midden. The tank enables
the farmer to lead tlie liquid directly thereto, as well as acts as a relief
to the midden when it is inclined to become waterlogged. And its
contents further enable him to distribute a most efficient quickener over
his dungstead when it shows signs of the want of such. The place for
the tank, of which we have already spoken, is one handy for the liquid
being pumped either into water cart or on to the midden ; account first
being taken, of course, how its proposed position will suit the flow of
the drains that will empty into it, and answer for draining into itself the
superfluous or overabundant moisture of the midden. Long, deep, and
narrow, we suggested the shape of this tank as being one more readily
kept out of the way, and easily, as well as more securely covered in.

Care being taken that no rainwater drains empty them-
Simpk Method selves into the dungstead, and no eaves-gutters near at
of Roofing the liand discharge therein, and further provided with a roof
ungstea . ^^ itself, the farmer has then full control of the midden,
and is therefore free to manage it according to enlightened ideas. An
inexpensive roof answers as well for the purpose in view — the turning
aside of rain — as a costly one. A corrugated iron roof is less expensive
than a slated one ; but cheaper still is one of wood. An ordinary board
roof is not usually a long liver, even when tarred or felted; but one
constructed as after described will last as long as an iron one without
assistance either from tar or felt.

The roof we refer to is called the open-board roof. The boards com-
posing it neither overlap nor do they touch each other. Neither do
they rest solid in the purlins, but on gahanized studs (hobnails or

DAIRY BUILDIXGS, PIG-HOUSE, AND DUNGSTEAD. 349

tackets) driven into the latter. The secret of the long life of the boards

framed in tliis manner is the keeping of the wood surfaces apart from

eacli other. Tliere are no joints in which water can lodge and set up

decomposition. Water runs from the roof at once, and the wind is free

to whisk round e\ery board and whistle through every joint at pleasure.

Situated thus

the boarding

is under ideal

conditions for

seasoning, and

can hardly

e\er s u ff e r

se\erely from

weather. One

n a t u r a 1 1 y

thinks at first

sight that rain

must fall

through the slits between the boards, but what gets through is hardly

appreciable, not, at any rate, so far as the dungstead goes. The boards

attract the raindrops to themselves, away from the openings ; and to

safeguard the latter from water escaping down these small grooves, as

Fig. 257 shows, are formed close to the edges of the boards.

Fig. 255 represents a simple truss suitable for this class of roof. Nine
feet or so apart is a suitable distance to erect these at. Pillars may be
raised on the side walls of the dungstead for their support, and a strong
wallplate be carried all along the sides from one pillar to the other.

Twenty-five feet is

about wide enough for
a single span. More
than one span neces-
sitates centre gutters
and supports or pillars
inside the dungstead.
Fig. 256 shows
how the boards are
arranged in the frame-
work of the roof. •
Beyond a certain
length of boarding it is not ad\isable to go, because by the time the foot
of the boards is reached the accumulating raindrops have grown into a
streamlet ready on small occasion to burst its bounds and take short cut
through the slit on either side. But boards of a length to suit the span
quoted above, and laid on at an angle of 40 degrees at the eaves, do not
constitute conditions of a too exacting nature. Eaves-gutters may be

F\(,. 2iG.

350

THE MODERN HOMESTEAD.

huiifjj on gahanized hooks attached to tlie boards ; or, perhaps better
still, be hung on hooks screwed to the wall plate.

L^ig. 257 is part of a purlin with three boards attaclied thereto, all on a
larger scale than the others. The purlin itself is marked a ; h represents
the roofing board ; c, the stud ; d, one of the wire nails that fasten the
boards to the purlin ; e, the slit between the boards ; and /, the side

d Q.

1-IG

groove in the latter. The boards used are simply the ordinary sarking
boards we put on preparatory to slating, nine inches by five-eighths of
an inch in size. Selected boards should, of course, be chosen — those
free of knots and flaws generally — and they should be planed on what is
to be the exposed side. The boards are placed about one-eighth of an
inch apart. Each one bears on the respective purlins on three studs
driven therein, and is attached to the purlin by means of four wire
nails, all as shown in the last Fig.

CHAPTER X\'I.

THE CATTLE COURTS, THK HAY AND SHICAF SHKDS, AND THE SHEEP

FANKS.

The cattle courts (the "courtins" and "haiiimels," as tliev
The Cattle . , , • , ^ ,- , •'

Courts require '^-^e variously termed in places), on account ot their

a Favourable openness, need a fa\ourable situation as regards both
Exposure. i , i ,,-, i , ,

aspect and shelter. W here we place them they are in

the best position at the homestead in these respects. They lie open to

the south-west, and have the main establishment between them and the

north-east. A good broad road separates them from the rest of the

buildings. And this being the main access to and from the fields, puts

them in easy communication either with the farm or the highway.

Although detached from the other houses, they are not so to such a

degree as hinders close enough contact between the two groups. The

cattle courts are not so very far removed from the commissariat

departments of the homestead but what, if desired, the cattle can be

catered therefrom. It is no hardship the courts being at some distance

from the straw barn. The straw as litter is usually supplied to the

courts in big quantities at a time, as much, at any rate, as will do from

one thrashing day to another, and is carted direct from the mill into the

several courts, so, under the circumstances, a few extra yards distance

cannot tell much on the labour bill. Besides, the courts can easily be

pro\'ided with storage for roots, and hay and straw, and thus be rendered

for a time almost independent of the homestead proper. There would

then remain only the cakes and meals and the cooked food to be dealt

with, which is no great hardship. The place of preparation of these,

and the place of their consumption, as here represented, are not so far

apart as to make their periodical conveyance from one to the other in

bag or in barrow a serious matter.

The number of the courts and the size of each will be

The Number J-^lgJ 5,. ^he circumstances of the farm. There may, for

and Size of -'

the Courts at instance, be more straw available than can be turned to

the Homestead .^^count for fattening cattle, and a number of stores or

ruled by the *

Amount of younger cattle may in consequence have to be kept.

^""^.Y , , This would, of course, call for extra room both in number

Available.

of courts and in their size. But these are points that
need not be pressed. So much depends upon the class of cattle that are

352 THE MODERN HOMESTEAD.

kept, the custom of the district, and so on, that what suits the require-
ments of one place may be considered unsatisfactory at another. Even
the space to allow for each occupant of the court, and what proportion
of the same of roofed to open tliere sliould be, it is needless to discuss.
Ikit the broad lines that include tlie subject are uni\ ersally applicable,
and thev are few, and easily followed.

Neither the framework nor the fittings of the cattle

The Con- courts are of an expensive nature. Simple and strons^

struction of .. ^.

the Courts of are the qualifications looked for liere. It is necessary

an Inexpensive ^j^^|. ^.j^g outer walls tliat include three sides of the whole
Nature.

be hip^li and strong. Good rough rubble Avork is

perhaps the best. Tlie remaining barrier, the one next the other
buildings, is more convenient when constructed of wood. The various
kinds of food would be administered at this side, and wood lends itself
more readily than stone to convenient arrangements for this purpose.
Inside the block the division between shed and yard would be similar to
the outer walls, while those that portioned off the whole could either be
of wood or stone. Stone is, on the whole, the more satisfactory. Wood,
however, could be made to do service for a long time, more especially
under roof. And it lends itself more readily than the other to a remodel-
ling of the block, should this at any time be desired. Were the wood
divisions railed, they would be more serxiceable than if constructed in
the manner of boarding. But barriers that allow cattle to see what is
going on throughout the block may interfere with the well-being of the
animals (it will with some kinds, no doubt), and, therefore, be rather out
of court at places. Old railway sleepers would make a sufficiently close
fence for this purpose. Set up in the usual st\'le they would last a
considerable time, and they would effectually curb the curiosity of cattle
unduly disposed in that direction. But a stone fence would be cheaper
in the end. It would take up more room than a wood one, but space is
not expensive at this part of the homestead.

,, ^-c • 1 No artificial floors are called for in connection with the
No artificial

Flooring cattle courts. If we except a part along the front of the

"^^ ^ " wall or partition next the road at which feeding would

take place, which in fact is hardly a part proper of the cattle courts, the
whole floor space of the latter is sufficiently good if it comes up to the
standard we laid down for that of the dungstead. Each division should
be constructed to retain tlie moisture that falls to its share. Accordingly,
therefore, the floor of each must be basined.out to a certain extent, so
much so that it will not spill over into other divisions, but when over-
charged relieve itself by way of the entrance gate. The degree of
hollow given to the bottom of the court wMll depend of course almost
entirely on the rainfall at the place. \\'here it is heavy the bottom will
have to be all the more scooped out. The floor of the shed had better
be gently inclined from all sides doorwards, and be well above the

CATTLE COURTS, HAY AND SHEAF SHEDS, ETC. 353

le\el of tlie floor of the yard, so tliat it may be able to relieve itself of
excess of moisture in tliat direction, and be fitted to aflford a dry bed to
the cattle. It looks bad to see a thick brown effluent stealing away
from beneath the gateway of each courtyard, and it is no doubt wasteful
to allow this. If the courts are contrived as Ave suggest, however, there
will not be much of this going on. The wetness in the deep part of the
basin will call for additional straw, which will absorb the liquid and
keep it from draining outwards. It will be advisable to keep all water
from gaining access to the courtyards other than falls from the skies.
The rain that falls upon the roofed part of the court should even be
diverted from the yard, at least in wet districts. And water from
beneath must be guarded against. There must be no springs suffered
to contribute water to the floors of the yard. If there be such
within the site of the cattle courts they must be intercepted outside,

Fig. 258.

and a passage given that will prevent their doing harm in the

manner indicated.

. e V- f In Fig. 258 is gi\-en a cross-section of the cattle courts.
A Section of '^ -^ *=■

a Court and The sloping bottom of the inner floor and the dished one
of the outer is easily observable. The roof, it will be
noticed, we carry beyond the side wall far enough to cover the path
alongside and protect it from rain. The path might further be railed
off from the road, which would permit fodder and other cattle foods to
be left secure there until wanted to feed the animals with. The section
shows a roof intended for slates. The open-board roof is in some
cases perfectly practicable, however, and so is a corrugated iron one.
Six feet ought to be ample height for the courtyard walls. The end
ones, that is the outer side wall of each of the end courts, might with
advantage be built a little higher, as a screen from the wind. A close-
boarded gate or door would be the consistent finish of the gateway into
the court. But Avhere the ordinary field gate is considered sufficient,
the one given in Fig. 259 is a more serviceable affair than the hung one,
more especially as there is little traffic out and in of the court this way.
No gate is required between shed and court, the cattle being at liberty to
go from one to the other, whether influenced by whim or moti\-e. Two
narrow communications might be better than a single wide one. They

Af H A A

354

THE MODERN HOMESTEAD.

would make matters easier for some of the animals, at any rate. When
the bully came in at one opening the diffident ones could slip out by the
other, and should he take it into his head to lie down in the doorway, the
others would still have way of ingress and egress. But the one opening
is the more convenient when it comes to the removal of the manure.
And perhaps it makes the more comfortable shed. If the court and
shed are both of extra size, two openings might be of advantage in every
way, but in ordinary cases the one is sufficient. Sometimes shed and
court are in one, as it were, there merely being a part of the yard
protected from rain by means of a sort of roof or covering projecting
over the top of one of the walls. There is not much shelter from the
blast under an arrangement of this kind, however. It may do in

Fig. 259.

The Arrange-
ment for
supplying the
Wants of the
Animals in
the Courts.

exceptionally sheltered and mild situations, but these are few and far
between in our climate.

The cattle being fed from the road, the troughs and hecks
are arranged along that side of the shed. It is quite
practicable to fill both trough and heck without the
attendant having to enter the shed. All the same, it is
as w-ell to have a wicket entrance at that side. It will be
a handy place to get in by when a close inspection of the cattle is
wanted. What is even more important is its being there to allow of
access to clean out the troughs now and again, which it may not be easy
to do from the outside of the shed. It is necessary, in order to gain full
advantage of the shelter afforded by the shed, that this side should be
pretty well closed up, consequently flaps are almost essential o^■er the
several openings through which the food is passed inside ; and that the
partition be boarded close up to the roof. These flaps are generally an
annoyance to the attendant, but they may be dispensed with if we board
up or build up the barrier between the path and the road, and thus
make it a complete passage as part and parcel of the shed itself. When
this is done and doors are fitted up at either end of the passage, we may

CATTLE COURTS, .HAY AND SHEAF SHEDS, ETC. 355

Food Stores
in Connection
with the
Courts.

L-

U-;

~1.

Fig. 260.

then take ,t^reater liberty with the partition between it and the shed. A
sparred partition, such as we suggest for the bo.xes, or at any rate a
boarded one, would then suffice to di\ide the passage from the shed.
This would enable anyone to see what the cattle were after. The
closed-in passage would be much impro\ed, too, as a good temporary
store for fodder and other cattle food.

A fair-sized store for roots might be built at one end of
the block ; and another for fodder at the opposite end, as
in Fig. 260. But a better plan still, did it not mean too
extensive an affair, would be to widen the passage side of
the shed, as in Fig. 261, to such an extent that it would serve for regular

storage as well as for passage.
Carts could then be backed in
and discharged of their contents.
Where the courts were numerous,
too much room might be thrown
on one's hands — more, at any rate,
than was needed as service accom-
modation for the cattle courts. But
this might be got over by placing
the extra width towards the middle
of the range, and narrowing the
remaining space towards each end.
The widening of the shed would mean, of course, shifting the whole
block a little further away from the remainder of the homestead than is
shown on Plan I. It is as well to ha\e a good wide road here, and it
matters little to keep the yards

a few more feet further from the i ,— ZZ .. ^

central department, while we are
making affairs easier at the side
where nearly all the constant
work in connection therewith
is carried on. When a con-
siderable number of courts
happened to be in demand, the
double arrangement, such as we show in Fig. 262, would answer well.
The courts still maintain the relation to the homestead we have assigned
them all through ; and the centre place roofed with iron gi\ es a com-
modious service passage and store in one, from which the cattle on either
hand would handily be attended to. The side walls of the sheds would
in this case run at right angles instead of parallel with the road, as before.
No light in addition to what proceeds by the openings to the yard is
required in the shed, but lights are needed if the shed roof is extended
on the other side. If merely the passage is covered and it is only railed
oif from the road, it will be light enough without windows. But

A .\ 2

Fig. 261.

356

THE MODERN HOMESTEAD.

should the side of the covered passage next to the road he buih up

close, a roof light or two are then required ; and if extended to form

both passage and store-house, more in proportion must be fitted on this

mutual part of the roof.

_ , . A supply of water in the cattle courts is sometimes con-

Supplying rr J

Water in sidered essential. If it can be dispensed with, however,

the Courts. ^^^ -^ ^^.^jj clear of it. When it happens to be laid on it
usually leads to constant bother to the tenant. Pipes get broken at one
place and choked at another, and frost, should it get them under its
clutch, brings all to a standstill. And troughs and fittings are con-
tinually getting out of order. When roots are in abundance there is no
need for water being put before the animals. But when roots are scarce
and the food on that account dry, the cattle require an occasional drink.
It is almost a pity, however, to go to the expense of installing a water
supply in the courts even when water is freely available. The initial

Fui. 262.

cost will not be trifling ; and as we have been pointing out, the upkeep
thereafter, if not ^■ery serious, is certainly annoying. If one can be sure
that water will be only occasionally wanted in the courts, fitting up a
special supply for them would be mere waste. It could be carried to
the cattle at these odd times. When, however, it is likely to be almost
constantly wanted, the matter must be faced, and its accomplishment
gone about in a proper manner. Pipes and troughs are safer in the
shed than out in the yard. Frost, their arch enemy, has less power
inside than out in the open. The presence of a water trough in the shed
means the spilling of a certain amount of water round about it, which is
the worst fault we have against its introduction there. It can be so
arranged, however, that one trough will ser\'e two sheds. A hole in the
mutual wall will admit of an end of the trough being in one shed and
the other in the next ; and if provided w^th a ballcock there need not
be so much spilling and throwing about of water after all. Or the
trough may be let into the wall in such a manner that cattle at each
side of it may be able to drink therefrom without being able to butt one
another. This plan enables the trough to be kept flush with the two
sides of the wall, doing away with projecting corners in the respective
sheds. Wlien it is decided to dispense with water pipes inside the

CATTLE COURTS, HAY AND SHEAF SHEDS, ETC. 357

courts, we would prefer to fix up the trouj^dis intended for an occasional

supply out in the open courts, somewhere against the end Avails. A hole

in the wall and a sort of hopper or filler apparatus would make it quite

easy to fill the trough from the outside, either out of water barrel or

bucket. And here, as inside, one trough might, in somewhat similar

manner, be made to supply two courts.

The Fittings '^'^^ fittings of the shed are not of great moment, not as

of the Court regards expense, we mean. They are of moment as well

as those of the other buildings we have gone through,

but almost solely from the point of economical working. The

courts need none beyond some outer gate or door already referred

to. And in the shed, if we except the front barrier, there are merely

the troughs and the hecks to provide. Either one or two troughs

common to all is the usual arrangement here. It depends on where

we place the door or wicket between shed and feeding passage whether

we make the trough in two or in one. If we place the wicket at either

side of the shed the trough may then be continuous ; but we prefer to

place it in the middle, therefore the trough is divided in two equal parts.

If we are to have an opening at this side at all it is better, we consider,

to place it thus, and thereby make matters pleasanter to the cattle.

They will get along all the friendlier and jostle each other less when

there are two troughs in place of one, e\en though it be a long one

indeed. Wood is the common material out of which the trough is made.

Stone is sometimes used. But here again glazed fireclay is superior to

either. It is to be had in lengths with open ends, which can be butted

closely together. Any length of trough can thus be put together.

Pieces with closed ends are manufactured to go with these when

desired. An end piece can, if wished, be dispensed with next the wall

at either side, but bordering the gap at the wicket end pieces

would be necessary.

_, _, ,. It is open to have the troughs laid upon pillars, or on a
The Troughs. . ^ . . ^ r r '

solid built bed running the whole length of the trough,
just as one thinks fit. It is not practicable to have a trough of this
description made to slide up and down in accordance with the amount
of straw that comes to be trodden underfoot by the cattle. Wooden
troughs may be so arranged that this can be done. But we question
the need of such a proceeding. The troughs may be put up a little
higher than usual. This, if perhaps a rather awkward looking arrange-
ment to begin with, is daily impro\ing as the tramped down straw
accumulates. By the end of the season the cattle may find the trough
as low set as it was high when they were ushered into their winter
quarters, but this is a less inconvenient state of matters than the
former, cattle, as we remarked in a previous chapter when discussing
a similar subject, being accustomed to pick up their food from about
the level of their feet.

358

THE MODERN HOMESTEAD.

The fodder rack or lieck is easily made moxable, if this is
R k considered advisable. The latter plan, howe\er, is to

ha\e it a fixture, because fixed fittings are both simpler
to make and they last longer. \\'e prefer it fixed above the trough on
account of its being more easily filled there from the feeding passage
than it could be anywhere else. If placed against either of the side
partitions, or against the side or outer wall of the shed, all fodder would
have to be carried into the shed before the heck could be reached. But
placed as we suggest very little of either trouble or time is taken in
replenishing it from the feeding passage. The fodder can be filled in
with the hay-fork direct from the heap lying in the passage or store, or
from the barrow as it is brought along the covered path.

Fig. 263 represents the elevation of a boarded barrier between
passage and shed, assuming that the sheds are erected in such a
manner as to admit the barrier being comparatively fragile and open

Fig. 263.

in structure, without fear of the cattle suffering from the exposure which
such a method implies. It can be kept close as high up as will prevent
the cattle seeing what takes place in the passage side thereof ; and
above that be merely sparred, or it may be boarded up the full height,
as we show. It may indeed, if wished, in some places be left open
altogether above trough level without prejudice to the cattle enclosed.
When the doors of the passage or store are closed, the cattle are as
completely shut off from draught at that side of the shed as if the
barrier was carried up as a close partition to the roof.

The wicket may be of open construction, or a door may
Gafe °^^^ ^^^^^ '^^^ place if considered more suitable. A wicket

that one can see through might be allowed in the
boarded barrier, for all the width of view it would afford (two feet or
two-and-a-half at the most, being meant only for occasional use by the
attendant or the farmer) would hardly tend to distract the cattle which
happened to gain a peep thenceforth.

A slide or hopper arrangement for guiding food into the troughs
when delivered from the passage is an essential fitting at that side of
the barrier. Each trough requires a thing of the kind, and it nuist
be carried along the whole length of tlie same. I5ut it is a simple

CATTLE COURTS, FLAY AND SHEAF SHEDS, ETC. 359

contrivance, only an inclined shelf or board supported on brackets on

which the contents of bucket, box, or basket can l)e emptied with the

assurance that they will find their way into the trough in the shed.

The kind of '^"ch are the simple fittings of the cattle courts. Rough

Timber that unplaned wood is quite good enough for the timbered
may be used , -... .... 7 -

in the Con- parts. Here, mdeed, is the first part of the homestead

struction of where estate-grown timber can, we consider, be used to
the Shed. , ^ , , ,, ,

advantage ; and we have all but completed our round

of the buildings. If matured and well-seasoned it matters not

much what kind of wood it is — oak or sweet chestnut among the

hardwoods for posts ; and larch, Scots pine, spruce, or silver fir

among the soft woods for boarding (the former two for either). But if

neither well-grown nor properly seasoned, it had better be used for

firewood than put to the purpose indicated. If the estate on which the

homestead is being erected is one of the larger sort, and is well planted

and well manned, there can surely be no difficulty in turning out some

suitable wood for finishing the interior of the cattle courts. We do

not advocate its use in the framework of the roof (though even that is

also capable of accomplishment), but only for the rough fittings we

have been referring to.

T,, TT J In the construction of the hay and sheaf sheds, which are

1 ne nay and -^ '

Sheaf Sheds: the next erections to claim our attention, we come to

lA^'^^j^^i?^?- another set in which it is quite practicable, to a consider-
Wood effective ^ '^

as Pillar or able extent, to make use of estate-grown timber. Larch
or Scots pine make excellent posts for these sheds. So,
of course, does oak; and perhaps sweet chestnut might do too, but we
cannot speak from experience on that head. Larch and Scots pine
have this advantage over the others, that if the trees selected be sound
and well grown, and are seasoned somewhat, the trunks can be used as
posts just as they grew. It is sufficient to strip them of their bark, and
erect them in the positions they are intended to occupy. The outer skin
of wood soon hardens, and if the trees happen to be straight and regular in
taper, we have a range of cokunns far pleasanter to look at than cast-iron
ones. They are better fitted, too, to stand the hard knocks that these sort
of erections have occasionally to put up with. A wood post is quite capable
of standing a knock from a cart that would fracture a cast-iron column, or
bend a rolled one. And it is a simple matter to fix them up in such a way
that they will be subject alone to the gradual forces that induce decay in
timber. By the exercise of a little precaution to keep them dry at ground
level, there is not much danger of rot attacking them at any other part.
They could be fixed to heavy stones sitting clear of the ground, and in
this way kept clear of stagnant dampness at bottom. \\'ere we to do this,
however, they would then serve as mere carriers of the dead weight of
the roof; they would offer no resistance to side pressure, and a stiff wind
might upset the shed. Side stays would be required to counteract this

36o THE MODERN HOMESTEAD.

weakness. But these, to be of much use, must project far out, which
means their being in the way. If we sink the posts three or four feet in
the ground, however, the shed will not upset so long as they hold tlieir
own. Sinking them unprotected in the ground means a short life to the
parts at and near the surface, for there tliey are certain to give way very
soon to decay. If the underground part be embedded in and surrounded up
to a little abo\e ground level by a good body of concrete, it will last as
long as the rest of the stick. But the end that stands in the concrete must
be dry and thoroughly seasoned, otherwise it may easily succumb to rot.
Should oak be chosen for the posts, it is not practicable to use the
trunks in their natural form. There is always a large proportion of
unmatured wood on the outer circumference of the stem of the oak, so
that, if the naked trunk be set up exposed to weather, this decays,
leaving, however, the ripe wood of the centre untouched. This inner
part — the well-known heart of oak — will stand the weather undaunted
for a long time. Many of us are familiar with old ship timbers that
have done duty as gate posts as long as we can remember, and
apparently little the worse for wear whether in or out of the ground.
If w-e set up the oak stems as posts, the unmatured wood we have referred
to will keep mouldering away ; at some parts quicker than others, but
the posts will go on reducing in size until the ripe wood is reached.
There can be no assured stability of the erection under these circum-
stances. The post may soon become loose in its setting, and matters
thus be aggravated by water getting down between the wood and the
concrete ; and other pieces of the structure that may be attached to it
are liable to become loose too. Instead, therefore, of allowing natural
causes to remove the outer casing of imperfect timber from the post,
thereby, as we are pointing out, endangering the strength of the building,
it is necessary to remove this source of danger before we set up oak
posts as pillars of support to the hay or slieaf shed. This implies a
much thicker tree to begin with than would be required were we deal-
ing with larch or Scots pine. The oak trunk would have to be run
through the uprights in the saw mill before the sap wood could be got
rid of, and by the time this was effectually done the trunk would be
considerably reduced in section. But once the bone was well exposed,
we have then a subject that is well qualified for the position we are
assigning to it. The same applies, though in lesser degree, to the sweet
chestnut. On many English estates it is turned extensively to fencing
purposes, which speaks well for its weather-resisting properties. This
is a tree, howexer, that is hardly representati\'e enough on Scottish
estates to be taken into account in the present connection. The larch
and the native pine ripen their wood as the concentric layers become
deposited ; at any rate they keep better.up to date in this respect than
the oak, and we can safely use them as posts in their natural form,
Avithout the risk that is run in doinj? likewise with the other tree.

CATTLE COURTS, HAY AND SHEAF SHEDS, ETC. 361

The side posts or columns of the shed are, as we have
the^Posts.^ ° ^^^^' l^etter to be sunk in the ground about three or four

feet. Set up in this manner the posts make the erection
quite stable enough without the aid of cumbersome side stays. If tlie
concrete by which the ends of the posts are surrounded is continued till
well clear of the ground, there is little chance of damp causing harm to
the wood at this critical part. It is there, we repeat, rot first begins on
the post that is set in the ground without a safeguard such as concrete.
As a rule the part of the post that is farthest in the ground keeps best.
It will be wetter there than nearer the top, but is further removed from
air, and it is the two together which induce rapid decay. At a point
just beneath the surface the post is neither very wet nor is it dry, and
air has almost full effect upon it. There it is, therefore, that the sunk
part first succumbs to decay. The air and the moisture combined are
too much for the woody fibre to cope with, and decomposition sets in.
But with concrete to sit upon, and surrounded by the same as described,
the buried end of the post is kept clear of the damp earth, and out of
harm's way therefrom. Were it not set on as well as in concrete, the
end of the post would be in contact with the ground, and damp would
be free, under certain circumstances, to ascend among the fibres of the
wood. It might be long before this brought harm to the part invohed,
but the slight precaution of having a little concrete underneath the end
of the post is worth taking in order to make sure on that head, and so
leave nothing to chance.

The height the shed is to be will depend, of course, on

Height of |-j^g length of the available posts. Assuming we are to

the Sheds. ^ '^. ^ ,

make the shed fourteen feet high to the underside of the

wallplate, this means posts eighteen feet long. It is needless to say

that this implies some shapely trees if we are to be supplied from the

estate, a condition which will bear a little heavily on the rather slipshod

methods of sylviculture prevailing on the average class of estate. It is

an advantage, however, to keep the roof well up. Adding to the height is

proportionately far less expensive than increasing the length of the shed.

Sixteen or even eighteen feet is not too great a height for the side of the

shed. The sheaf shed, it is true, has a limit above which it is not very

practicable to go, seeing the sheaves have to be pitched up by means of

hand forks. It is different, however, with the hay shed, for by the

aid of a horse fork it is competent to lift half a cart load or so at

once, and run it along suspended from the roof to the part that is

being filled up at the time.

The width of the shed, whether meant for the storage of

sheaves or of hay, is ruled as much by the weather that

prevails in the district as anything else. If the, climate be a moist one

neither corn nor hay will suffer to be put together in the same bulk it

is feasible to pack them where the air is dry, and crops are nearly

362 THE MODERN HOMESTEAD.

always easy to win. From sixteen to twenty-two feet runs tlie width
of these barns. It is exident that the broader tlie sheds are, no matter
-what the heiglit is, the greater is their stability. But a shed of this kind,
if well put together, can defy wind pretty effectually. It is when empty
that they are put to the greatest stress. \\'hen the shed is filled up the
wind has no separate part to lay hold of, but when empty, or partially
so, the tendency of the wind is to lift the roof from its attachment and
overthrow it. But with the posts secured in the ground in the manner
described, and the wallplate firmly attached to these, and the frame-
work of the roof in turn well fastened to the wallplate, the shed,
whether full or empty, can with confidence be left to hold its own
with the stififest of gales.

These buildings are for the most part roofed either with

galvanized corrugated iron or with wood and slate. The

wood or the iron pillar is suitable for both kinds of roof. Our preference

is for the wood pillar when there is a pick of trees to be had. \\'hen it

comes to buying the pillars, howe\er, the price ought to rule the selection

of the material. It is quite competent to build brick pillars when the roof

is to be slated ; and in some situations these may be cheaper than either

wood or iron ones. If built fourteen-and-a-half inches thick and, say,

two or two-and-a-half feet broad, they would be quite strong ; and were

the corner bricks rounded off or "bullnosed," the pillars would look neat

and tradesman-like. The brick pillar is not so well adapted to the iron

roof. The latter is so light, and, therefore, so easily uplifted by the

wind when in dangerous mood, that it requires to be bound down

firmly to the pillars. The slated roof is so much heavier that its own

weight alone is almost enough to hold it steadily in position. Even it,

however, requires more or less firm attachment to the pillars. If the

latter are of wood it is sufficient that the wallplate be well spiked to

them ; and the couples or rafters being fastened to the wallplate, the

whole erection is tlius kept bound together. It is easier, however, to

make a firm attachment between the wallplate and the wood or iron

pillar than the brick one. There are many Avays of fastening it to

either of the former two, but the only practical way to secure the

wallplate to the brick pillar is to build in a bolt in the centre of the

pillar. This, terminating at the free end in a screw and nut, enables

the wallplate to be screwed tight down on the heads of the pillars.

But the cross-section of the pillar is not so large in area as to afford

much weiglit or much resistance to a snapping force. It is different

when a bolt of this kind is built in a wall. We then have a strong

point of resistance against both a lifting and a pushing-over pressure.

Considering the weight of tlie slated roof, however, such strength of

attachment as we are able to obtain from the bolt built in the pillar is in its

case ample to give the necessary degree of stability. But it is different

witli the iron roof. It needs a firmer anchorage than the bolt in tlie brick

CATTLE COURTS, HAY AND SHEAF SHEDS, ETC. 363

pillar yields. Roof, wallplate, and all will on occasion be ri\en away from
the posts, if the attachment is not of the firmest kind.

If the posts be set up at twelve feet apart ample room is thus allowed
for the getting in and out of loaded carts, and for the running in of rick

Fig. 264.

lifters with their loads direct from the fields. The height of the shed
and its breadth will, as we have said, be ruled by local circumstances.
Nine inches by three is, perhaps, as small a scantling for the wallplate
as it is advisable to use. With the posts at twelve feet apart the wall-
plate is given a good space to bridge over, more, indeed, in the case of

Fig. 265.

the slated roof than it is right to subject them to, unless they are sup-
ported by side struts, as in Fig. 264. The struts are advantageous, if not,
indeed, necessary, even in the instance of the iron roof. Its own weiglit

364

THE MODERN HOMESTEAD.

is sufficient to cause it to sa<^ down a little between the posts ; and

besides counteracting this, the struts help considerably towards holding

the wallplate down firmly.

A„ • » » It is a most important matter to keep the roof as clear of

An important '^ ^

projecting ties and stififeners as possible. These are much
in the way when it comes to filling up the upper tiers
either of sheaves or hay, and they prevent the use of the
horse fork in filling the shed. In Fig. 265 we show an
excellent form of roof girder (the one in connection with Fig. 264),

Point is to
keep the Roof
as clear of
Ties as
possible.

Fig. 2fJ6.

which serves to keep the shed entirely clear of all impediments such as
we refer to. It is of T angle malleable iron, three inches by two inches
by three-eighths of an inch, and wrought to the form the roof is intended
to take. One of these sits over each opposite pair of posts. They are
fitted with plates, by Avhich they are screwed firmly to the wallplate.
And to further strengthen each there is a supplementary girder fitted
under the crown of the main one, the two held together by a central
fishplate and two gussets of three-sixteenths-of-an-inch steel plate.
This, we consider, can easily be dispensed with in narrowish spans.

'^St^^S'i'i^^s-rr:-'

The one depicted is for a shed twenty-two feet in width. The purlins,
three inches by two inches or so, bear on the girders, being screwed
thereto, and to them and the wallplates in turn are screwed down the
sheets of galvanized iron. In passing, we may remark that no less a
gauge of sheet than twenty-two should be used for circular roofs.
One of twenty we would prefer ; and for ridge or pitched roofs we
would advocate the same.

CATTLE COURTS, HAY AND SHEAF SHEDS, ETC. 365

The circular roof, of which this is a representative, is, in our opinion,
superior to the ridge roof for shedding in which shea\'es and hay are to

T/i/j End
dad fa £aves

15 O'

Elevation'.
Fig. 268.

be stored. The circular roof gives much more headroom than the

.LI PURLIN

Elliptical
Eaves Girders

v.////////////'. INTERMEDIATE CROSS 5ECTI0N-%^'^^^,
Fig. 269.

Other, and enables the shed with ease to be filled almost up to the
centre part of the roof.

366

TFIE MODERN HOMESTEAD.

The Iron
Pi]lar.

3 h Steel

The round iron column, when used, is generally bolted to
a hea\ y stone at the base. At the top of the column
there is usually a broad flange, upon which the wallplate

can get a good bearing and be screwed down to ; and lug pieces are

formed on it for the support of struts

with which to stiffen the wallplate.

H angle-iron is now common as a pillar

of this kind. They are usually set in

concrete, after the manner of the wood

post as described. The concrete pro-
tects the buried end from rust, at the

same time gi^■ing it increased weight

and stability. It has no need to be

sunk so far in the ground as the Avood

post. All we want is to give it a sure

foundation. It is impracticable to attach

it to a flat stone on the surface, as we

do with the round column ; in place of

this we sink it in a concrete block

embedded in the ground. The angle-
iron column has less adaptability for

attachment to the wallplate. Some sort

of flange has to be fitted to it in order

that the two may be securely joined

together. A column of this sort is, in

factj better adapted to a barn or shed

that is wholly constructed of iron.

n,.r^^r.^ Figs. 266 and 267 are

Common c> /

Types of common types of shed,

^ ^" all of iron The arrange-

ment of the roof supports are against
its utility, however. But the manu-
facturers of these are beginning [to recognize this, as Figs. 268, 269,
and 270 manifest. This shed, as manufactured by Messrs. Main,
Glasgow, seems almost to have reached the limit of cheapness with
efficiency. It can be erected for about £\ a running foot, in
accordance with the distance which the materials have to be sent,
and the amount of sheeting or lining placed on the ends and along
the sides of the erection.

Our preference inclines, however, to the composite shed — the one
partly of wood and partly of iron. We prefer to have it all of wood,
excepting the roof proper — wood posts, wood wallplate, wood purlins,
and wood lining ; the only iron parts being the girders, the roofing
sheets, and the eaves-gutters and drop pipes. The wood posts lend
themsehes very readily to the fixing up of lining and the putting in of

Column and End of Roof-
girder ENLARGED.

Fig. 270.

CATTLE COURTS, HAY AND SHEAF SHEDS, ETC. 367

supports, and so on, and can stand a bump without much ado ; and to

us a shed of this kind ne\er looks so harsh and out of place as the

complete iron aftair. If the wood posts have to be bought, very efficient

ones can be made out of either pitch pine or red pine, say, nine inches

l)y four-and-a-half inches, which, if hxed as abo\e suggested, lea\e

little to be desired.

The Slated I'le slated shed is usually hampered with the roofing

Shed usually timbers overhead. One with the roof framed in the

hampered with . .

roofing ordmary manner, as m Fig, 271, is xevy unsuitable, as

Timbers. interfering seriously with the axailable head room. A

principal roof, with the trusses bearing on the opposite pairs of

pillars, is generally the adopted plan. But the resulting tie is both

a source of annoyance when the shed is being filled and a source
of danger to the stability of the shed when it is standing full. If the
shed is filled well up to the roof, it is almost impossible to keep the
sheaves or hay clear of the tie, and as the stufl begins to settle down great
stress is at times brought to bear on these ties, much to the detriment
of the erection. The section in Fig. 272, which shows a modification
of the couple truss, affords a class of roof that is less apt to come
under this risk. Its tendency, however, is to thrust out the Avallplate
but if the several pieces constituting the truss be firmly bolted together,
and the pillars be made stable, this can be fairly well counteracted
Comparing either of the last sections with the previous sorts depicting

368

THE MODERN HOMESTEAD.

tlie circular type of roof, brings clearly home to one the truth of our
remark that the latter gi\es more storage room than the other. The
men's heads are bumping against the roofing-boards of the ridge roof,
unless almost on the \ery centre thereof, long before wall head level is
reached. The rounded roof gives far more freedom in this respect, and
can be filled nearly to the iron slieets with a minimum of work on all
fours. Figs. 270 and 271 serve also to demonstrate the advantage of

sinking the posts in the ground o\ex setting them on stones and falling
back on side stays for their support.

.,.,,- . A little ventilation is almost essential in the roof of the
A little Venti-
lation in the shed, especially if it be an iron one ; but it must be of
Roof beneficial. g^,,j^ a nature that snow cannot drift into the shed
thereby. A sheet here and there may, by the aid of washers, be so
raised a little aboAC the others that a slight draught may be induced,
and yet rain and snow be refused entrance.

^ ^ Eaves-gutters and conductors are clearly essential. It

Eaves-Gutters " -^

and Conduc- would never do to allow the roof water to run down the
tors essential, ^i^y ^^^ straw. This occurs in the case of the rick, but
the thatch yields it gradually, while the slates and the iron sheets run it
oflf at once. Moreover, the contents of the shed are not usually so well
stowed as those of the rick, and the exterior of the one may not therefore
be so able to ward off the aggressive attacks of wind-impelled water,
consisting not only of rain pure and simple, but with drippings from
the roof in addition.

^, , . . , In nearly every case the shed is lined down a foot or so
The Lining of -^ •' ,,,..,

Parts of the from the eaves, and round the gable ends m unison, the

Shed. ^Qp5 Qf ^i^g latter to wallplate level being, of course,

closed in whether or not. This lining at the eaves is almost a

necessity, because as the contents of the shed settle down into smaller

CATTLE COURTS, HAY AND SHEAF SHEDS, ETC. 369

bulk an open space is apt to show below the wallplate. This does not
matter so much in the case of hay, although even as regards it rain and
snow may be blown in at the vacant places referred to ; but with sheaves,
birds, as well as barn-door fowls, are not slow to avail themselves of the
opportunity thereby afforded of gaining both shelter and food. In
exposed districts it is usual to see one side and both ends of the hay-
sheds completely boarded up ; in the case of iron sheds these are usually
lined with corrugated sheets. The Ayrshire farmer very often has his
hay shed completely closed in, entrance thereto being gained by means
of large doors. If hay is being daily taken from the shed, there is
certainly less waste under an arrangement of this sort ; and tramps are
prevented taking free quarters in the place at will. It is unnecessary
to put this extra expense on the corn sheds. If they are kept right
about the eaves in the manner suggested, they need nothing further in
respect of lining or enclosing. Sheaf sheds are not yet, however, much
in evidence at our homesteads. We are bound to see more of them ere
long. As we remarked towards the setting out of our present work,
labour is now becoming so scarce that the building of sheaves into ricks
and the after thatching of these is yearly growing a greater strain upon
the resources at the command of the farmer. The erection of a series
of these sheds on the lines indicated above, means a considerable addi-
tion to the cost of a homestead ; but it is one, we suspect, that will have
to be faced before very long, whoever has to shoulder the burden, whether
it be the landowner himself or he and the tenant between them. A lighter
and less substantial affair than we have been advocating might do for the
storage of sheaves. What we have been dealing with is more for hay than
for sheaves. North country farmers can do with a narrower shed for
corn than is required for hay. One, say, 16 feet wide could be erected
for a good deal less money than another 22 feet wide. With pillars
at 12 feet apart, a wallplate 6i inches by 2 inches, a T angle girder
in one piece, three purlins 2^ by i^ inches, and sheets of 22 gauge, an
efficient yet effective shed would be the result. But once either our
farm implement manufacturers or the makers of hay and sheaf sheds
become alive to the demand for such an article, we may perhaps
see something developed on the lines of a movable shed or barn for
the storage of sheaves.

With regard to the position of the hay and sheaf sheds
The Position of , , ,,.,.. ,

the Sheds rela- ^^ ^he homestead, their place is, of course, near to where

live to the their respective contents are to be disposed of. The site

of the sheaf sheds we have already referred to under the

head of the thrashing floor. Where we show them on the different

Plans, they are handy either for the farm mill or for the itinerant

thrasher. It is not so easy to locate the hay shed. At most places, in

fact, it is, as we have already noted, more convenient to have two sheds

instead of one of their combined capacity. Dairy cows, if they form

M.H. B B

370 THE MODERN HOMESTEAD.

part of the live stock, consume a large amount of hay of one kind or
another, and almost need a shed to themselves ; at least it would be a
saving of labour were the hay shed placed nearer to the byres than to
the stable. The cows consume more than the horses, therefore more
has to be carried to the former, and the nearer the shed is to them
there is all the less labour spent in that operation. It may be different
when all the hay is chopped before it is given to both cattle and
horses. Then the proper place for the shed is somewhere near
to the chaff-cutter. At the dairy farm proper, however, meadow
hay is saved for the cows and given whole. In a case of this
kind, therefore, it is the better plan to let the cows have a shed
to themselves, and the horses another, A smallish one may
serve the horses' wants.

There can hardly be much need, one would think, for
of Shedding other kinds of shedding about the homestead. We have
at the been dealing pretty freely, we consider, in the matter of

accommodation for farm stock, alive as well as dead.
Any tenant who gets what we have laid out for him in the past pages
need not grudge the expense of any additional casual room he may think
necessary in his special case, and we can safely, without blame to our-
selves, leave him to his own resources in this connection.
Conveniences before we finish, however, we think it but right to say
for the hand- something more on the head of conveniences for the
ing o eep. i^a.ndling of sheep stock. In discussing the implement
shed we pointed out how it was feasible to turn it to account occasion-
ally for this purpose— at clipping time and for dipping. But there are
other occasions on which the sheep, if a breeding stock be kept, have to
be mustered and examined individually, a process that cannot well be
conducted within a building. The ewes and lambs have to be gathered
together not long after the birth of the latter, in order that the little ones
may be subjected to the mild mutilations that follow on their domestica-
tion. Again, when the weaning season has come round, dam and
offspring have once more to be penned for close inspection and
assortment into classes of different sex and quality. At other times the
ewes themselves have to be collected and graded, and otherwise dealt
with as the management of sheep renders necessary. Operations of this
nature cannot very well, as we have said, be carried out in such close
quarters as an ordinary building affords. Plenty of room is required
within the muster ground proper, but connected therewith must be
numerous pens in which the sheep can be closely packed, so as to be
easily within reach of one's hand. And these pens must be so arranged
that each can be made to communicate as desired with one or more of
the others. Without convenience of this sort it is, of course, utterly
impossible to handle a large sheep stock in the manner dictated by gocd
management.

CATTLE COURTS, HAY AND SHEAF SHEDS, ETC.

This mustering place of the sheep is termed by the
lAhe ^^"^^'" ^^^P^^^^ the "fanks." But before we go further
Mustering with their description and suitable mode of erection,
it will make matters easier if we show a plan of a
suitable place of the kind. We represent one in
There is first the collecting court (the figure shows one

Place of the
Sheep.

273-

at each end, which is,
perhaps, a little extra^•a-
gant), which requires to
be of a considerable
size. The sheep are not
handled in it, therefore
there is no use in crowd-
ing them unduly. It is
only when we want to
be able to touch and
closely inspect the animals
at our leisure that they
need to be packed a
little tight. One can
then follow up any in-
dividual sheep without
much exertion, and if
thought necessary draw
it out from the others
and place it in a separate
pen. Without some
arrangement of the kind
it is, in fact, impossible
to deal thoroughly with
a large flock ; and a
well-planned and commo-
dious one makes matters
easier, both to man and
sheep. The work of in-
spection and assortment
can be gone about in
suitable enclosures at a
minimum of bustle and

GATHERING
COlJS^T

r h

PLti

*lll/

PEt^

^LltY

PE^f

c^Tl-^ER,lNG

COURT

Fig, 273.

noise on the part of the men, and of hustling and terror on the part
of the sheep ; not to speak of the Acry subsidiary place the fussy
dogs have then to take, much to the peace of mind of the operators
and to steadiness of nerve of the operated upon. In touch with
the outer enclosure are the various pens which are needed for the
assortment and separation of the sheep. At the majority of places —

B B 2

372 THE MODERN HOMESTEAD.

at nearly all the hill farms, we may say — the clipper forms an
adjunct of the tanks. Its position will of course be where likely
to be most convenient. In not a few cases, indeed, clipping also
takes place at the fanks, which means either that they are supple-
mentary to the hill farm homestead, or, if at a distance from it,
that there are some sheds erected in connection therewith. These
are points, however, that are settled in accordance with local cir-
cumstances, and do not lend themselves to be dogmatized about.
But a good set of fanks is a great boon, no matter whether in close
connection with buildings or standing alone. A less complicated
set of enclosures answers the end on the arable farm because the
lowland sheep are more domesticated and easier handled than their
wilder fellows that gain a living on moor and mountain side. Some
of the buildings can, as we have seen, be used on some occasions for
the mustering of the sheep ; and for the other occasions on which they
have to be penned a very modified series of enclosures, compared with
the fanks proper, answers the end.

The Fence ^^^^ fence enclosing the collecting court — the outer corral

of the outer of the ranche — is, perhaps, as suitable when in the form of
nc osure. ^ dry-stone dyke or wall as any other. It needs to be of a

fair height if hill sheep are to be gathered and retained within the court.
Both the Blackface and tlie Cheviot are nimble, and if they have been
allowed to acquire the bad habit of scaling fences, which they very soon
do where the dykes are suffered to become dilapidated, it then requires
a very high one, even if pretty plumb and built regular, to keep an old
ewe within bounds. And if one gets over, many others will follow
suit ; they will try, at any rate. A wire fence, or a post-and-rail one of
medium height (say three-and-a-half feet), will restrain these active
breeds of sheep better than a rough dyke five or five-and- a-half feet
high. But the dyke has the advantage of preventing the sheep from
seeing beyond the court and thereby adding to their distraction. They
settle a little better when unable to see the paths to freedom at the other
side of the fence.

The wall needs to be more smoothly faced on the inner side than
usually falls to the lot of the dyke. There must be no ends of through-
bands left sticking out to show what they are. These would hurt the
sheep when squeezed against the wall by their fellows in some frantic
rush. Pains must, in short, be taken to build the inner side of the wall
as smooth and free of projecting points and corners of stone as possible.
These, as well as the throughband ends, while apt to injure the sheep,
are at the same time so many points of vantage to any of them that are
prepared to scale the obstacle. A ewe well practised in that sort of
work will run sideways at a rough wall, making use of the projecting
stones, and thus surmount what she would be helpless in undertaking
were it built without any projections that could afford her foothold for

CATTLE COURTS, HAY AND SHEAF SHEDS, ETC. 373

the moment. To point the joints of the inner face of the wall is in

many cases worth the expense it involves.

A wall is not a suitable fence, however, for the smaller

The Pen enclosures. Pens divided by means of dykes become

Divisions. ■' _ ■'

close and stuffy when filled with sheep. No air can get

in amongst them, and the thick-coated animals suffer in consequence.
Open partitions, such as those of wood and wire, and post and rail, allow
air to play through them, and in this respect have a very distinct
advantage over the dyke. Best of all is a fence after the description of
those we see in our large public cattle markets. They have no pro-
jecting parts, such as the posts that distinguish the two just referred to.
But they are rather expensive for the farm. The posts are no doubt a
drawback to the efficiency of both the wire and the wood fence. It is
possible, however, at a little extra cost, to qualify that disadvantage
simply by doubling the fence, having wires or rails on both sides of the
posts. This need not be done at all parts. Only those w^here sheep are
liable to be pushed against need such protection, although when one
looks closely into the matter there are few parts of the fanks where this
does not occur.

The post-and-rail fence is superior to the post-and-wire fence in this
connection. It does not yield so much to pressure, and a sheep pressed
against a 4-inch flat rail is not so liable to derive harm as one jammed
hard against thin wires. A fank fitted up with posts and rails, the latter
doubled where necessar}^ and chamfered at the edges, forms an ideal
one. The sheep get the benefit of all the air that is going, and the
shepherds, without having to climb over obstructions, can see at a
glance what is taking place in each of the enclosures. If the principal
posts be set in concrete, and they and the rails are creosoted before use,
the woodwork invohed will last a long time.

In some of the narrow alleys of the fanks it is all but impossible to
open and close the various gates when the sheep are closely packed
therein. It is a good plan, therefore, to have those that are most
encumbered in this way hung so as to move up and down vertically,
after the manner of a Avindow sash. This is a great convenience at
some points of the fanks. The gates are narrow, therefore of no great
weight, and no expensive arrangement is, in consequence, required for
fitting them up in this style. Nothing further is needed than the
lengthening of the posts, attaching guiding fillets to these to guide and
control the movements of the door, fixing pulleys on the top of each
post, providing the door with a rope and weight at each side, and the
thing is complete. Door, ropes, and weights can be taken down and
stowed away under shelter after each occasion of their use. At other
places little wickets, hung in the ordinary way^ serve to introduce the
sheep separately from the sorting alley or conversely, while larger ones
guard the openings that lead direct from pen to gathering yard.

374 THE MODERN HOMESTEAD.

It is ad\antageous, where it can be accomplished, to have

The Floors of gome firm unvieldinK floor in the pens and alleys of the
Pen and Alley. ■' '^ ,,.,,..

fanks. If the ground beneath the annuals feet is soft,

the different places soon become coated with mud ; if dry, the animals
are not long in stirring up a dust, and making matters unpleasant both
to themselves and their attendants. The court floor is not so important
so long as it is neither unduly wet nor dusty. The sheep have more
room to move about in it than within the smaller enclosures, and, there-
fore, the floor or surface of the same is less liable to be cut up. But in
the closely packed alley the innumerable footprints of the many small
hoofs are not long in taking effect.

Here, again, we are face to face with concrete as being a suitable
niedium for floors at the homestead, this time at the sheep fanks, the last
department we have to deal with. It need not be so heavy here as at
the other places we have discussed in the pages behind us. All we want
is a thin coat that will resist the action of the sheeps' feet. What will
do this will bear the weight of the shepherds as well, for it is hardly
practicable to form a coat of concrete that Avill not conform to both
requirements. Four inches of sound bottoming, with i^ inches of
Portland cement and fine gravel laid thereon (one to five), would serve
the end' in view admirably, and would not be expensive. Alleys and
pens floored in this manner can easily be kept clean. A hard broom or
a scraper and a bucketful or two of water enable one to clean out alleys
and pens in a very short time. In fact, if left to rain alone they will be
found well washed between the different times of using. A clean floor
such as we are advocating is of great advantage at a place where the
process of dipping is carried on. A'ery little dirt can be carried there-
from on the feet of the sheep into the dip tank. From an ash laid floor
or a gravel strewn one a good deal of extraneous stuft' can be conveyed
on the " trotters " into the tank, and much more from a muddy one.
Besides, when the sheep happeri to be gathered together, in order to
have their feet attended to, what a benefit it is to be able to have a clean
and firm surface for them to stand upon, both before and after treatment.
It is heartless work dressing diseased hoofs that have just been in con-
tact with either dusty or dirty floors, and being obliged to turn them
back into dust or mess after treatment is not very conducive to quick
recovery. Tar macadam seems a suitable material for the floors of
these places ; but concrete is within everyone's reach, and easy of
application.

The floors must, of course, have as much hang or incline as will
prevent water lodging upon any of them. Each must be able to clear
itself of its own share and what may come from another in such a way
that the various enclosures as a whole may be kept free of water. And
the pen which contains the dipper must have the floor so arranged that the
drippings from the sheep operated on will gravitate back into the tank.

CATTLE COURTS, HAY AND SHEAF SHEDS, ETC. 375

Care must be taken, however, that none of the pens or alleys have
too much incline. Tight packing for a little upon the level will not
harm the animals, but if jamming takes place towards the lower end of
a floor with much inclination, there will be more or less trampling as
well as jamming. Some of the sheep at the foot of the incline are
certain to be pushed down and trampled under foot by the others,
Avhich, if not soon relieved, may be seriously hurt, if not there and then
made ready for classification under the head of loss — total loss, we may
say — not even " braxy."

INDEX.

Abundance of fresh air within the buildings an essential, 155
Action of bodies under the force of gravity, 207
Air-cocks on water-supply pipes, 200
Air-inlets at wallheads of buildings, 139

a method of regulating these, 140
Air-space within byres, 160, 295

anomalies arising from the restrictions regarding this, 160
Ammonia in the atmosphere, 151
Analysis of water, 179
Aprons of lead, 86
Arched doorway, 117

window opening, 132
Arden lime, 34

Arrangement of the loose-boxes for fattening cattle, 299
of the doorways of the implement shed, 306
of the doorways of the motor-house, 303, 307
of the buildings subsidiary to the barn, 275
Arrangements for thrashing at the homestead, 257, 259

for the delivery of food-stuffs by gravitation from the granary,

273
Artificial heating of byres, 157
Asphalt, for damp-course, 38
Atmosphere, the composition thereof, 147

ammonia contained therein, 151

carbon di-oxide therein, 149

microscopic organisms and dust therein, 153

nitrogen therein, 148

oxygen therein, 147

vapour of water therein, 152

the usual condition of the atmosphere inside the stable, 159

Barn-range of buildings, 256

position of the outer door of the thrashing barn, 256

the barn windows, 259

the ground floor, 261

the roof of the range, 263

the straw-house or straw-barn, 263
Batt-and-band hinge, 120
Belgates for door styles, 120

378 INDEX.

Boards for roofins;, 62, 74

for floors. 103
Body, the centre of gravity of a body, 205

action of a body under the force of gravity, 207

density of a body, 206

forces that bear upon a body in motion, 209

fi-iction between bodies, 225

momentum of a moving body, 210

specific gravity of a body, 207
Boilers, engine boilers, 245

for providing steam for cooking food and scalding dishes, 249
combined engine and boiler, 247
the Cornish boiler, 246
Bond in building. 42

English bond, 42

Flemish bond. 42
Boring for water, 190
Boulders for floors, 98
Branch-pipes for drains, 112
Bricks, 21

" bond " of bricks, 42

" closers" in brickwork, 43

for floors, 96

partitions of brick, 44

standard size of bricks, 42
Building stone walls, 34

best stones for the purpose, 35

" bonding " the stones, 42

placing the stones properly, 40

pointing their outer joints, 44
Buildings connected with the dairy, 327
Buildings east of the barn, 303

the hospital, 313

the implement shed, 303

the motor-house, 303
Buildings subsidiary to the barn, 274

different plans of arranging these, 275

the flooring of these, 276

their lighting and ventilation, 277

their roofing, 276

the walls thereof, 276
Buildings west of the barn, 279

arrangement and construction of the byres, 280

arrangement and construction of the cattle-boxes, 299
Byres, air-space within, 160, 295

artificial heating of byres, 157
for fattening cattle, 297
the feeding-troughs, 289
the floors, 281
floor space, 296

INDEX. 379

Byre s — conti n tied.

fodder racks in byres, 295

the grips or channels, 282

iron fittings of byres, 289

passages in bj-res, 285, 286

position of feeding-troughs in the byres, 281

sections of byres, 280, 285

travises or stall divisions of byres, 290

under drains therein objectionable, 285

Capacitv of the rain-water tank, 1S5
Carbon di-oxide in the atmosphere, 149

increases the solvent property- of water, 175
Cart-shed, 325
Casement window, 130
Cattle-courts, 351

elevation of barrier between sheds and passage, 358

fittings thereof, 354

food stores in connection therewith, 355

gate for court, 358

kinds of timber suitable for the sheds and divisions, 359

sections thereof, 353, 355

supply of water therein, 354

troughs within the sheds, 357
Ceiling of milk-room, },},i

of cheese-room. 335
Cement (Portland), ^^
Centre of gravity of a body, 205
Centre-gutters, 81

of lead, 82

of iron, 84

section of, 82
Chain-pump for liquid-manure tank. 115
Cheese-room. 334

roof, 335

shelves, 337

shelves, reversible. 337

side walls and ceiling. 335

windows, 336

ventilators, 336
Choice of wood for roofs, 45

of slates, 88
Combined engine and boiler, 247
Composition of water, 164
Concrete (Portland cement). 25

as an aid in the •• founding " of walls, 25

for floors, 97

for travises in byres, 290
Conductors (rain-water) or drop-pipes, 81
Construction of loose-boxes for fattening cattle, 299

38o INDEX.

Control of wall-head air-inlets, 140

of rids;e ventilators, 142
Conveniences for filling and emptying the granary, 270

for the handling of sheep, 370
Corner stones, 36
Cornish boiler, 246
Couple roof, 50

baulk, 51

the principle of its construction, 51
Covering of roofs, 70
Cover of slates, 90
Craig's ridge ventilator, 138
Crank of the engine, 244, 255

Dairy buildings, 327

cheese-room, 334

churning-room or vat-room, 328

milk-room, 329

scullery, 327

their position relative to the other buildings, 327
Damp-course of walls, 38
Density of a body, 206

Difficulties of providing fresh air within the buildings, 156
Doors,

arched doorways, 117

granary door, 272

handles for doors, 127

hinged doors, 118, 122

hung on wheels, 118, 121

hospital door, 306

implement-shed door, 307

iron doors, 306

loose-box door, 126

motor-house door, 303

pig-house doors, 345

section of wheel and rail for supporting door, 123

steps at doorways, 105

stops for doors, 119

stones for doorways, 36

styles for doors, 116

types of doors, 122
Drains,

branches thereon, 112

byre drains, 285

gully traps, 11 1

inspection eyes thereon, 112

manholes thereon, 113

pipes therefor and how to lay them, 109

rain-water drains, 110

rain-water supply drains, 184

INDEX. 381

Drains — continued.

sewage drains, 113

sheep-dipping tank drain, 311

stable drain, 317

two sets of drains required at the homestead, 109

whej^-carrying drain, 329
Drop-pipes or rain-water conductors, 81
Dungstead, 346

cheap and simple roof therefor, 348

floor or bottom thereof, 347

liquid-manure tank in connection therewith, 348
Dust in the atmosphere, 153

Eaves-gutters or rhones, 78

fitting them up, 80

hooks for their support, 79
Elevation of sliding door, 122

of barrier between cattle-sheds and passage, 358
of front of loose-boxes for cattle, 301
Engines, 244

boilers in connection therewith, 245

fly-wheel of the engine, 244, 255

gas engine, 251

locomotive engine, 248

oil engine, 251

piston and crank of the engine, 244, 245

steam engine, 244
Expansive property of gases as a source of power, 221, 243

Fanks, or mustering-place for sheep, 371
fences therefor, 372
floors of pens and alleys, 374
pen divisions, 373
Fattening cattle, byres therefor, 297

various methods of housing, 297
loose-box accommodation therefor, 298
Feeding-troughs in byres, 281, 289

in the pig-house, 342
in the cattle-courts, 357
in the loose-boxes for cattle, 301
Filtration of water not very practicable at the farm, 171, 184
Finishings of the interior of the granary, 263

of the granary roof, 266
Fireclay drain-pipes, log
Fittings of the stalls in stable, 321

of the cattle-courts, 354
Flagstones for floors, 96
Flanks of roofs, 81, 85
Flashings of lead, 86
Flooring boards, 103
section of, 104

382 INDEX.

Floors,

barn ground-floor, 261

barn upper-floor, 261

brick floors, g6

boulder or kidney-stone floors, 96

concrete floors, 97

dungstead floor, 348

flag floors, 96

floors of buildings subsidiary to barn, 276

floors of the pens and alleys of the sheep fanks, 374

granite-block floors, 96

milk-room floor, 330

motor-house floor, 304

overhead floors, 105

pig-house floor, 345

requirements of a first-class flooring material, 96

section of an overhead floor, 107

section of a wood floor, 104

stable floor, 316

tar macadam floor, 98

ventilation of space beneath wood floors, 104

whin-block floors, 96

wood floors, 103
Fly-wheel of the engine, 244, 255
Fodder-racks in byres, 295

in cattle-courts, 358
in loose-boxes for cattle, 299
in stables, 322
Food-preparing sheds, 273
Food stores in connection with barn, 274

in connection with cattle-courts, 355
Forces available for power at the homestead, 204

bearing upon bodies in motion, 209

force of gravity, 205

force derived from heat, 219

man's first machines for turning these to account, 212

no loss of force in nature, 211

tendency of both heat and force to come to a state of dead level, 222
Foundations of walls, 24

concrete an aid thereto, 25

trenches therefor, 25
F'ramework of roofs, 46
Friction between bodies, 225

its retardative effect on machines, 225
I'resh air within the buildings essential, 155

the difficulties of obtaining this, 156

Gables,

finishing of the slating thereat, 93
with skews, 93

INDEX. 383

Galvanized-iron rhone or eaves-gutter hooks, 79

gratings for ventilator openings, 103
ridge clips, 93
Gas,

the expansive property of gases as a source of power. 221. 243

the gas engine, 251
Gate of cattle-court, 35S
Granary,

arrangements for the delivery of foodstuffs therefrom by gravitation, 273

conveniences for filling and emptying the granary, 268

doors, 272

the floor, 261

the floor joists, 105, 270

the general finishings of the granary, 263

lighting the granarj-, 267

provision for loading and disloading carts at the granary, 270

roof of the granary, 266

stock, 268

ventilation in connection with the granary, 264, 267
Granite " setts" or blocks for floors, 96
Gratings for ground-floor ventilators, 103

for gully traps, 1 1 1
Gravitation water supplies. 192
Gravity, the force exerted thereby, 205

action of bodies under the influence of gravity, 207
centre of gravity of a body, 205
" Grip " or channel in byre, 282
Ground floor,

boards therefor, 104

scarcements, 103

section thereof, 103

sleeper joists, 103

sleeper walls, 103

ventilation underneath, 104
Gully traps, iii

gratings therefor, iii
Gutters (Eaves-) or rhones, 78

centre gutters, 81

open gutters, 85

Handles of doors, 127
Hardness of water, 174

a rough-and-ready method of testing this, 177
Harness-room, 324
Hart trap, 81, no, 184
Hay-house attached to stable, 315
Hay-loft over stable not a desirable arrangement, 323
Hay-shed in connection with the stable, 315
Hay and sheaf sheds, 359

their height and width, 361

384 INDEX.

Hay and sheaf sheds — continued.

iron columns or pillars, 364

kinds of wood that may be used in their construction, 359

methods of fixing the side posts or pillars, 361

parts to be enclosed or lined, 368

their position relative to the homestead, 368

their roofs, 362

ventilation thereof, 367
Headers or throughbands, 39

Heat — its tendency to come to a state of dead level, 222
Hinge, the batt-and-band hinge, 120

the hook-and-band hinge, 120
Hinged doors, 118

Hip or "piend " or pavilion roof, 81, 93

Home-grown timber, its place in the construction of the homestead, 46
Hooks for eaves-gutters or rhones, 79
Horse-and-duck pond, 187

how it may be turned to better account, 188
Horse-power now almost obsolete for thrashing purposes, 227

what a horse-power represents, 227
Hospital for sick animals, 313
Housing fattening cattle, 297

Implement shed, 304. 307

Inclined plane, 217

Inspection eyes on drain pipes, 112

Interests involved in the planning and erection of a homestead, i

Iron doors, 306

fittings of byres, 289

girder or lintel, 118

king-post, 65

posts or pillars for sheds, 364

roof lights, 76, 277

travis posts, 293

window frames, 131

Joists or sleepers of ground floors, 103
of upper floors, 105
of granary floor, 105

KiN"G-POST of roof, 59
iron king-post, 65

Landlords, interest in the planning and erection of a homestead, i
Lap of slates on roofs, go
Latch, the " Norfolk," 121

other sorts, 127
Latent heat of water, 166
of steam, 166
Lead as a roof covering, 72

centre gutters and valleys, 82
flashings and aprons, 86

INDEX. 385

Levers, 211

Lighting the buildings in general, 76, 128
the barn, 259

the buildings subsidiary to the barn, 277
the dairy buildings, 328
the granary, 267
the pig-house, 345
Lime, 31

arden lime, 34

lime contained in ordinary water, 173
quick lime, 31
shells, 31
Lintels of doors and windows, ;^'j, 116
Liquid-manure tank, 114
Locomotive engines, 248
Loose-box door, 126
Loose-boxes, their arrangement, 299
their construction, 299
elevation of front, 301
for fattening cattle, 298
for horses, 314
section of, 299
section of double row, 302

Machines, man's original machines, 212

effect of friction in the working of these, 225
Manholes of drains, 113

Microscopic organisms in the atmosphere, 153
Milk-room,

ceiling, m

floor, 330

shelves, 332

ventilation, 332

walls, 330

windows, 331
Momentum of a moving body, 210
Mortar, 31

arden lime mortar, 34

ordinary lime mortar, 31

Portland cement mortar, 33

proportion of sand in mortar, 32

setting or hardening of mortar, 32
Motion,

Newton's first law of motion, 208

second law of motion, 210
third law of motion, 211
Motor or " power " house, 303

the doorways, 303

the floor, 304

M.H.

386 INDEX.

Nails for attaching slates to roof, 88
Newton's first law of motion, 208

second law of motion, 210

third law of motion, 211
Nitrogen in the atmosphere, 148
" Norfolk " latch, 121

Oil-engine, 251

Organic matter in water, 178

Overhead or upper floors, 105

joists of same, 105
Oxygen in the atmosphere, 147

Passages in byres, 285

in cattle courts, 355
Physical condition of water, 165
Piecing together the framework of roofs, 62
" Piend " or hip or pavilion roof, 81, 93

finished with zinc, 82
Pig-house, 340

doors, 345

floor, 343

light and ventilation, 345

partitions, 344

troughs, 342
Pine or fir woods, 47

white pine, 47

red pine, 48
Pipes for drains, log

for water supplies, 197

of iron, ig8

of lead, 197

how soil affects both, 198

points to be observed in laying them, 199
Piston of the engine, 244, 255
Pitch of roofs, 52
Plan I. (for the corn-growing and cattle-feeding farm), 8, 278

II. (for the partly-dairy farm), 15, 17, 278

III. (for the dairy-farm proper), 16, 17, 278

IV. (for the sheep farm), 19
Planing the roof timber advisable, 69
Plinth of wall, 91

Pond, the ordinary horse-and-duck pond, 187

how it may be improved, 188
Portland cement, ^^

for damp course, 38
concrete for floors, 97

for foundations, 25
Position of the thrashing mill, 258

of the hay and sheaf sheds, 369

INDEX. 387

Posts or pillars for sheds, 359, 364
Power or motor house, 303
Power at the homestead, 204, 227

advantages of water-power thereat, 228

coal as a source of power, 221

derived from the expansive property of gases, 221

steam as a motive power, 243

what a horse-power represents, 226
Provision for loading and disloading carts at granary, 270
Pulleys, 213

Pump required as an adjunct of the rain-water tank, 186
for the liquid-manure tank, 115
the ordinary suction or lift pump, 203
Purlins of roof, 56

Raggle or raglet, 81, 85
Rain-water conductors or drop-pipes, 81
drains, 110

as a source of water-supply, 182
the purest natural water, 167
storage tank, 182

what happens to it when it touches the earth, 160
what it returns to the sea, 170
Rhones or eaves-gutters, 78

hooks for their support, 79
Ridge-ventilators (the commoner sorts), 133
of zinc, 135

how they may be controlled, 142
Ridge-board of roof, 59
Ridge-pole of roof, 93
Ridging of zinc, 92
Roofs,

choice of material for their construction, 46
their framework, 46
ordinary or " couple " roofs, 50
the outer covering of roofs, 70
piecing together the roof, 62
pitch of roofs, 52
the principal roof, 56
space or open-board roof, 349
spacing of couples and rafters, 64, 75
spars of the couple roof, 55
strains in roofs, 54
varieties of roofs, 66
Roof boards or " sarking," 62, 74
centre-gutters, 81
common rafters, 58
eaves-gutters, 78
flanks, 81, 85
flashings and aprons of lead, 86

388

INDEX.

Roof — continued.

gables, 93

king-post, 59

lights, 76, 277

open gutters, 85

" piend " or hip, 81, 92

purlins, 56

rafters, 56

raggle or raglet, 81, 85

ridge-board, 59

ridge-pole, 93

skews, 93

struts, 59

ties, 60

trusses, 56

valley, 81, 85

ventilators, 133

wall-plate, 56, 66

of the barn range, 263

of the buildings subsidiary to the barn, 276

of the buildings east of the barn, 308

of the buildings west of the barn, 280, 285, 289

of the dairy buildings, 328, 334

of the dungstead, 348

of the hay and sheaf sheds, 362

of the pig-house, 345

of the shed adjoining the motor-house, 308
Rubble walls, 35, 57
Rybats of doors and windows, 37

Sanitation at the homestead, 144
Scarcements of walls, 103
Section of cattle-courts, 353, 355

of centre gutter laid with lead, 82

of centre gutter of cast-iron, 84

of cheese-room, 334

of a double byre, 280, 285

of a double row of loose-boxes, 302

of flooring boards, 104

of a ground-floor of wood, 103

of liquid-manure tank, 115

of loose-box for fattening cattle, 299

of ridging, 92

of sheep-dipping tank, 309

of a single byre, 280

of an upper floor, 107

of a valley laid with lead, 85

of wheel and rail of a sUding door, 122
Sewage drains, 113
Shed for carts, 325

INDEX. 389

Shed — continued.

for implements, 304

for sheep-dipping tank, 305
Sheds for hay and sheaves, 359
for food preparing, 273
for odd purposes, 370
Sheep fanks or mustering place, 371
Sheep-dipping shed, 305
tank, 308
Shelves in milk-room, 332

in cheese-room, 337
Sills of doors and windows, 38
Skews and skew-stones, 93
Skirting or base boards for wood floors, 106
Skylights, 76
Slates,

their bases of attachment to the roof, 74

choice of, 88

of copper, 88

their " cover " or lap, go

their finish at gables, 93

laid on boards, 74

laid on laths, 74

manner of arranging them on roofs, go

nails for their attachment, 8g

shouldering thereof, 92

their tilt at eaves, go

their weather-resisting properties, 70, 73

of wood, 70
Sleeper-joists, 103
Sleeper-walls, 103
Sliding doors, 121

elevation of a sliding door, 122
of iron, 306

section of wheel and rail, 122
Softness of water, 174
Solvent property of water, 167
Spacing the couples and rafters, 64
Spars of the " couple " roof, 55
Specific gravit}- of a bod}-, 2og
Spigot-and-faucet pipes for drains, log
Springs, collecting water from surface springs, ig4

collecting-tank for water of this description, ig5
Stable,

drains in connection therewith, 317

the floor thereof, 316

hay-house attached thereto, 315

hay-loft therein not advisable, 322

hay-shed in connection therewith, 315

latches for doors, 127

390 INDEX.

Stable — coutuuicd.

stall fittings, 321

travises in stall divisions, 318

usual condition of the atmosphere therein, 159

ventilators, 323
Stairs to granary, 268

Steam for heating, scalding, and cooking purposes, 249
latent heat thereof, 166
as a source of power at the homestead, 243
the steam-engine, 244
Steel girder as lintel, 118
Steps for doorwaj's, 105
Stone. 21

" bonding " the stones of a wall, 42

for corners, 36

for doorways, 36

dressing usuall}' given thereto, 23

kinds used for farm buildings, 22

proper placing of the stones when building, 40

skew stones, 93

for window openings, 36
Stops for doors, 119
Strains in roofs, 52
Straw-house or straw-barn, 263
Struts of the king-post roof, 59
Stj'les of doors, 116

Surface-water, what it usually contains. 171
Syphon as an aid in water supplies, 201

Tank for collecting water from surface springs, 195
for dipping sheep. 308, 371
for gravitation water supply, 193
for liquid manure, 114
for rain-water from the roofs, 182, 185
Tar macadam for floors, 98
Taylor's ventilator, 138

Tenant's interest in the planning and erection of a homestead, i
Thrashing,

itinerant thrasher, 257

position of the door of the thrashing-barn, 256
position of the fixed thrashing mill, 258
usual arrangements for thrashing at the homestead, 257
Throughbands or headers, 39
Tilt of slates on roof, 90
Timber (home-grown), its place at the homestead, 46

■ kinds suitable for construction of the cattle-courts, 359
kinds suitable for construction of the hay and sheaf sheds,
368
Traps on rain-water drains, 81, no, 184
on sheep-dipping tank drain, 312

INDEX.

Travises or stall divisions,

byre travises of concrete, 290
of stone, 290
of wood, 291

of wood and iron combined, 293
stable travises of the ordinary form, 318
of an improved form. 320
Troughs for the byre, 281, 289

for the cattle-courts, 357
for the loose-boxes for cattle. 301
for the pig-house, 342
Turbine water-wheel, 234

Valley (roof), 81

section thereof, 85
Ventilation beneath ground floors. 104

of byres

of cheese-room, 336

of milk-room, 332

of stable, 323
Ventilators (roof),

common sorts, 133
Craig's, 138

double-horned zinc, 133
for buildings against barn, 277
for cheese-room, 336
for the granary, 267
for the milk-room, 332
for the pig-house, 345
for the stable, 323
Taylor's, 138
Ventilators at wall-heads, 139

in side-walls of granary, 264

in side-walls of milk-room, 332

Walls,

beamfilling the wall-heads, 68

best kind of stones for wall-building, 35

of buildings against barn, 276

of cheese-room, 335.

corners, 36

damp course, 38

distribution of the weight of the roof thereon, 57

foundations thereof, 24

materials for their erection, 21

of milk-room, 330

plinth, 91

pointing the outer joints, 44

reason why they must be built plumb, 28

rubble walls, 35

scarcements. 103

391

392 INDEX.

Walls — continued.

sleeper walls. 103

standard thicknesses thereof, 39

wall-head air inlets, 139
Wallplate, 56, 66
Water,

a rough-and-ready method of gauging the hardness of water, 1 77

as the universal solvent, 167

collecting water from surface springs, 194

composition thereof, 164

filtration at the farm not very practicable, 171

for grazing animals, 203

from a bore, i8g

from gravitation supplies, 192

from the roofs, 182

from surface wells, 188

its dissolved matters more to be suspected than its suspensory substances,
172

its hardness and its softness, 174

its solvent powers increased by the presence therein of carbon di-oxide,

175
latent heat of, 166

lime the most prevalent substance in solution, 173
organic matter present therein, 178
points to be observed in laying supply pipes, 199
purest in the form of rain, 167
specimens of analyses thereof, 179
storage tank for gravitation supplies, 193
supply pipes, 197

supplying water in byres and loose-boxes, 301
supplying water in cattle-courts, 356
suspensory matter therein, 168

syphon applied to the purposes of water supply, 201
the three physical conditions of water, 165
to be both good and plentiful at the homestead, 163
what happens to rain-water when it touches earth, 169
what rain-water returns to the sea, 170
what surface-water generally contains, 171
Water-power, its advantages at the homestead, 229
Water-ram, 214

Water-vapour in the atmosphere, 153

Water-wheel, modifications of the ordinary water-wheel, 229
the breast wheel, 230
the over-shot wheel, 229
the under-shot wheel, 229

the mechanical advantage of the ordinary water-wheel, 230
its one drawback, 232
the turbine water-wheel, 234
Wedge, 218
Well, the surface well, 188

INDEX, 393

Well, the "cradled" well, 203
Wheel-hung door, iig, 306
Whin " setts" for floors, 96
Windows,

casement windows, 130

barn windows, 259

cheese-room windows, 336

lintels for window openings, 37

in sides of buildings, 128

iron-frame side windows, 131

milk-room windows, 331

other sorts of windows, 131

rybats for window openings, 37

sash windows, 128

sills for window openings, 38

stones for window openings, 36
Wind-wheel or windmill, 237
Wood beam as lintel, 117

choice of wood for the framework of roofs, 45

fir and pine woods, 47

floors, 103

hard woods, 45

how wood grows, 49

post for sheds, 359

seasoning of wood, 48

soft woods, 45

Zinc as a roof-covering material, 72, 92
for the "piend" or hip, 82
ridge ventilator, 135

THE END.

BRADBURY,' AGXEW, & CO. LD., PRINTERS, LONDON AND TONBRIDGE.

M H. D D

A/A

$aod

THE LIBRARY
UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA

Santa Barbara

THIS BOOK IS DUE ON THE LAST DATE
_, STAMPED BELOW.

\/\/\h

^'■ZT^ JUM141975

Series 9482

Internet Archive Audio

Featured

Top

Images

Featured

Top

Software

Featured

Top

Books

Featured

Top

Video

Featured

Top

Mobile Apps

Browser Extensions

Archive-It Subscription

Save Page Now

Full text of "The modern homestead : its arrangement and construction"

See other formats