Modern painting, hardwood finishing and sign writing

Class _XIjL^X

Book .Mn

CopightN?_— ^1^ ^

CQ£ffiIGHT DEPOSm

Modern Painting, Hardwood
Finisliing and Sign Writing

PAINTS AND PAINTING

This important subject is thoroughly covered with full ex-
planations of how to test paints for adulterations, causes of
blistering, colors, brushes, calcimining, carriage painting,
color harmony, color mixing, color testing, exterior paint-
ing, gilding, graining, house painting, marbling, oils and
driers, etc., including valuable hints on scene painting.

WOOD FINISHING

Under this head is treated the subject of filling, staining,
varnishing, polishing, gilding and enameling woodwork of
all kinds of woods, both hard and soft. It also treats on
renovating old work.

MODERN UP-TO-DATE ARTISTIC SIGN
PAINTING

Describing Plain and Ornamental and Ancient and Mediaeval
Lettering from the Eighth to the Twentieth Century, with
Numerals. Including German, Old English, Saxon, Italic,
Perspective, Initials, Monograms, Etc.

FULLY ILLUSTRATED

By ARMSTRONG, HODGSON AND DELAMOTTE

Special Exclusive Edition
Printed by

FREDERICK J. DRAKE & CO.

EXPRESSLY FOR

SEARS, ROEBUCK & COMPANY

CHICAGO, ILL.
1918

Copyright, 1918-1914 and 1910
By Frederick J. Drake & Co.

Copyright. 1910
By Frederick J. Drake & Co.

Copyright, 1914
By Frederick J. Drake & Co.

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INTRODUCTION

The Modern Painter's Cyclopedia is not merely the
compiling and putting together the stale writings and
antiquated methods which have been put to use by many
persons to make up a book to sell, but has been com-
pletely rewritten and the subject matter handled in
such a way as to describe the latest methods used in
performing the work. Owing to the great number of
subjects handled the descriptions given are necessarily
brief. The more important ones will be treated more
at length than those of minor interest to the general
reader, as for instance "China painting," etc; to treat
the subject in a thqrough manner would of itself fill a
good sized volume, while the majority of readers would
probably pass it by as of no interest to them, w^hile they
would naturally look for at least concise, full informa-
tion on colors, house, carriage or sign painting and kin-
dred subjects in which the big majority of readers are
interested.

The alphabetical arrangement of the "Painter's Cy-
clopedia" has been preserved and the subject matter de-
scribed will be found thus more readily. While this ar-
rangement has many advantages, it must be admitted
that it has its faults in that the various operations in
painting are rather scattered without regard to sequence

3

4 Modern Painter's Cyclopedia

or any gradation upward from the simpler to the more
difficult parts.

This defect has been greatly minimized by number-
ing each paragraph and to keep them sufficiently pointed
to differ from the preceding or succeeding ones.
Throughout the work wherever the necessity occurs,
reference by number will be made to such paragraphs
in other parts of the book; this will make the subject
matter more easily understood without the necessity of
repeating; saving much space. Thus operations which
are common to many branches of painting are only de-
scribed once and the reader will be referred by number
to where the additional information can be found. This
it is hoped will reduce the defect mentioned above to its
lowest limits.

Besides a very copious index has been prepared
which will enable the reader to find readily every phase
of any subject treated.

To enable students to memorize or recollect the sub-
ject matter of each heading, a series of questions will be
found at the end numbered to correspond to that of the
paragraphs containing the answer. This will enable
the student to determine for himself the correctness of
his own answer.

As many persons no doubt will buy this book with a
view to educating themselves upon one or more
branches of the trade — in a manner it will take the
place of the correspondence school to such — at a greatly
reduced cost.

Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 5

In organized, practical trade schools, it is hoped that
it may prove a valuable nelp, not only to the students
but also the instructors — in that under classified head-
ings any or at least most of the subject matter relating
to the branches taught will be found treated and the
questions which are added at the end of each heading
will permit its use as a text book in such schools.

It makes no claim to be able to lead the student along
as fast nor as well as he would under the personal sur-
veillance and advice of a capable instructor who can
demonstrate an error in a practical way — but where
it is used as an adjunct to his oral instruction and as a
book of reference by the student, it will greatly facili-
tate the acquiring of knowledge.

The lack of such a book for the purpose indicated
above, is one of the main reasons for its publication —
aside from the need of a manual covering the ground
and subject matter treated in a late and up-to-date
manner.

Again it is repeated that many branches of painting
require appliances, tools, colors, etc. To save repeti-
tion, each of these are treated fully but once, under
their several headings, and if the reader will care to
inform himself more fully in regard to any of these, he
can readily do so by referring to the paragraph num-
ber indicated as cfescribing such.

With the above synopsis of the scope and manner of
handling- the subject matter of the book, it is presented
to the world — not as the acme of perfection, which un-

6 Modern Painter's Cyclopedia

fortunately is unattainable, but as a helping hand to the
student or others seeking general information on the
paint and kindred trades — with the hope that many
may be benefitted by its perusal, study, or use as a ref-
erence book.

F. MAIRE.

MODERN PAINTER'S CYCLOPEDIA

ADULTERATION -

I. There is much less need of an extensive knowl-
edge of the "how to detect" adulteration in painting
material today than was necessary only a decade ago.
Thanks to the wise action of the general government
and that of many of our state legislatures, the gross
adulterations to which all such material had been sub-
jected then, has been greatly curtailed since. At the
present time it is possible for one to know to a cer-
tainty the composition of any color, or what are the
contents of any barrel, can or other package containing
paint, varnishes, vehicles, etc. The law in many of our
states forcing the manufacturer to state upon the label
the name of every ingredient entering into the compo-
sition of the contents. So if the name of a desired color,
say Chrome yellow, medium, is printed upon the label
as pure, and the name of the manufacturer appears
upon it too, one may be safe in buying it for what it is.
The greatest danger is in the buying so-called second
quality goods. In the above instance suppose the label
said ''Chrome yellow — medium. Contents, chrome yel-
low and barytes. Of course this indicates that it is not
pure — but how much pure? It may contain 25% pure

8 Modern Painter's Cyclopedia

chrome yellow and 75% barytes which is about the
average in the better grade of off colors, or it may be
10% chrome yellow, and even much less, and the rest
barytes. And in the dry colors many run as low as 3%
actual colors to 97% barytes chalk or other adulterants.

2. In colors or pigments dry or ground in oil, water
or japan, there is a possibility of greatly adulterating
most of these without any remarkable change in the
looks of the goods themselves, so that it requires a
knowledge of the principal ingredients used in adulter-
ating to understand how to detect them.

3. Heavy weight colors are usually adulterated
with some substance of as near the bulk or weight as
their own; besides the adulterant must be as clear or
colorless as possible, so as not to change materially the
color or tone of the pigments they are added to. If
much lighter in weight the usual size package used to
pack the pure color would have to be greatly increased
to accommodate the larger bulk of the adulterant needed
to make up the weight. This would at once give it
away in the mind of one who is at all familiar with the
customary packaging of pure goods.

4. a. What is known as Barytes or Barium Sul-
phate is the most common adulterant used in the sophis-
tification of all heavy colors. This substance seems em-
inently well fitted for this purpose as when mixed in
oil it is so very transparent that it may be painted over
new wood in several coats without hiding the grain of
the wood much more than so many oilings would have

Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 9

done. This great transparency enables the color (?)
manufacturer to add it in nearly any proportion de-
sired to colored pigments. But it is after all mainly as
an adulterant of white lead and zinc white, that it shows
lip to the best advantage — as an adulterant. It is the
nearest substance in weight to white lead, being very
heavy, and known as heavy spar in lead mines where
it is frequently found. This great density permits the
use of a package for the adulterated lead little greater
than that used for the strictly pure article. It is said
nearly — but not quite. An expert will detect even the
slight enlargement of the package necessary to contain
a given weight.

b. Some of the colored pigments themselves are
adulterated with barytes to an extent and degree in-
credible to the uninitiated. Some of the stronger ones
are frequently met with — especially in the dry state,
containing as much as ten or twelve times their own
weight of barytes, while in such pigments ground in
oil the proportion ranges from '75% to 500% in ex-
treme cases.

r. The pure food laws, so called, are of doubtful
utility in that in most states the percentage of each sub-
stance or ingredient in a compound is not stated, but
the adulteration is only indicated by the mention of its
presence. So one is left to guess at it. In the preced-
ing paragraph 4 b. it is stated that the proportion may
be any\yhere from 75% to 500%. Seventy-five per
cent., high as that may sound (i part color to 3 parts

10 Modern Painter's Cyclopedia

adulteration) is legitimate for many colors that are very
strong arid w*hich cover well in the self color, or which
are very seldom used for tinting purposes. Chrome
green and all the fancy named proprietary greens, by
common consent and custom have sanctioned it, are all
made on that basis. The pure color used in painting
in its self color will cover very little more surface than
the commercial, which is adulterated in the proportion
stated of 3 to I. In that it cheapens the cost of the
goods, it really becomes a benefit to the consumer, that
is when confined to the well known trade custom limits
— but unfortunately it is not always done, and in the
dry colors especially, the coloring matter contained in
some goods is little more than that used in the pre-
paring of colored chalk.

5. To detect the amount of adulteration present is
not so difficult as may be supposed it is. There are two
very distinct methods of doing this. First, by a chemi-
cal analysis (quantitative) which, if properly made, will
give a complete tale of the quantity of each ingredient
entering into the compound. As most of the readers
of this book are not chemists and as the cost of an anal-
ysis properly made will usually cost far in excess of the
value of the material under examination, it must be
waved aside as impracticable to most people.

While without question a chemical analysis is the
most satisfactory, and only correct manner of deter-
mining adulteration accurately, fortunately there is a
way of approximatively fixing the amount of it in any

Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 11

goods that no one need buy adulterated goods without
knowing very nearly just what he is paying for; nor
has one any need of a knowledge of chemistry in mak-
ing the test.

6. This test is called the "Scale test." To make the
test all the implements required is an accurate pair of
scales with weights in grains or grammes. What are
known as army surgeon's scales or any of the apothe-
caries' pocket scales will do. A few sheets of waxed
paper. A few pieces of glass, well cleaned, to lay the
colors upon. A palette knife to triturate the colors with
and some blotting paper to absorb the oil out of colors
so that each may have the same consistency. The above
or equivalents are all the appliances needed to equip one
for testing.

7. The testing is made in the following manner:
The person wishing to make a test should have a sam-
ple which is well known to be genuine to use as a stand-
ard to judge of the value of a similar color about to be
tested. These standard colors can easily be procured
at any color or painter's supply store, by procuring tubes
of Windsor and Newton's artist colors in tubes. These
are standard colors of known purity and while there
may be a number of others as good as they, none will
surpass them and they will be found better, while many
will be found inferior to them. So that if W. & N.'s
are not procurable any other made by a reputable house
will be found sufficiently good for the purpose.

Now it stands to reason that if two similar colors to

12 Modern Painter's Cyclopedia

be tested are equally pure that an equal weight of each
color when triturated with two batches of white lead
both also of an equal weight it follows that when the
two colors have been mixed each one separately with
the lead — that the tint made will be very nearly of the
same strength of tone if both are equally pure, but that
if one has been adulterated then it must lack in coloring
matter to about the same quantity or percentage as had
been added of adulteration to the pure color in the first
place.

Thus if one grain or gramme of say — chrome yellow,
is carefully placed upon a small square of waxed paper
(about }i inch square) and afterward weighed care-
fully upon the balances, then placed upon a piece of
glass, rubbing the waxed paper over the glass to remove
all traces of color from it; then triturated with say 50
grains or grammes of white lead, also placed on waxed
paper and carefully weighed, the tint resulting from the
triturating should be spread out on the glass, bringing
it quite to one edge of it on one side, so as to permit of
an easy inspection of each sample when placed side and
side together; then afterward doing the same with the
other color in each case in like manner, that if there
be no adulteration that there will be but very little dif-
ference in the tints made.

If the color examined has been adulterated, the titit
it will make with white lead will be much weakened as
stated before. Now to determine in a sufficiently ac-
curate manner what the proportion of adulterant has

Modem Painter's Cyclopedia 13

been added to it— all that will be necessary will be to
add more white lead to the tint made by the stronger
color until it is reduced to the strength of the tint made
by the weaker color. The tint made by the addition of
more white lead should be reweighed.

Thus if one grain of color and 50 grains of white
lead produced a tint that is fully equalled by one grain
of another color and 250 grains of white lead, it must
be that the color which is the weakest has been adulter-
ated with four times its own weight of some kind of an
adulterant which has lessened the proportion of color-
ing matter to the same proportion that the adulterant
contained in it bears to the pure.

This test is especially valuable for all chemically made
colors having well known formulas. It is useful, how-
ever, to determine the relative value of most all the
earth colors also with the exception of some very few
transparent ones whose chief value consist in this very
transparency and their brilliancy of tone. In the latter
case the mere strength test is of little value. Under
the subject head of colors by referring to paragraphs
61 to 74, fuller information is given regarding their
value and really substitution takes the place of adulter-
ation for such.

8. To test adulteration in white lead made by the
Dutch process or the hyd.-carb. of lead, a very simple
test is made use of to detect such. Place a small bit of
the lead to be tested upon a sliver of pine wood, light a
match, bring the flame from it in contact with the lead

14 Modern Painter's Cyclopedia

on the stick. In a very short time, if the lead is pure,
some very fine globules of metallic lead will appear
upon it. It may possibly take a couple of matches to
make the test satisfactory, if one has been careless in
not getting the full force of the flame in the first one.

The blow pipe test is more satisfactory but it some-
what more difficult to make ; requiring also a blow pipe
which is a tube curved at one end and a piece of char-
coal. A candle is also necessary. Place some lead in
a small cavity prepared in the charcoal, put the char-
coal with the lead on it in the left hand and near the
candle, then blow the pipe upon the flame of the candle
in such a way as to deflect the blue flame resulting from
the blowing upon the lead. This will burn up the oil
and in a minute the lead, if it is pure, will have resolved
itself into a small metallic globule of pure lead.

If the lead has been adulterated with as small a
quantity as io% of barytes zinc clay or silicate earth,
it will not reduce to the metallic state and as no one
would undertake to adulterate lead with as small a
quantity of barytes as that for it would not pay, it will
be easily understood that if it will not reduce, it is
surely adulterated much more than that.

It may be well to state here that the above tests will
not apply to any other form of white salts used as paint
which are derived from lead. Sublimed lead, for in-
stance, will not be reduced by it, being a basic sulphate
of lead. It would need fluxing and a very high degree
of heat to reduce it and such a test is not to be thought

Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 15

of to a novice or others unfamiliar with the process nor
equipped for it.

The described scale test reversed will give a fair in-
dication of the amount of adulteration in any sample
of white lead. To make the test — only the one color
must be used taken from the same can. Weigh one
grain of color, which place on glass — repeat this and
place the color upon another glass; then weigh 50
grains of lead which place with the first grain of color
weighed out ; repeat this but use 50 grains of the white
lead you wish to test. The first having been taken from
a keg which is known to be pure ; the other being the
suspicioned one. Triturate each upon their separate
pieces of glass, if one has been adulterated, it will lack
in opacity and body and the color will be able to tint
it to a very much deeper tone than it has been able to
do with the pure lead, which being more opaque, will
hide the coloring matter much more than the adulter-
ated sample has been able to do. In other words the
stronger the lead — the less will a given weight of color
change its color.

Now to return to the practical side of the test; if
one grain of Venetian red has been able to color 50
grains of lead known to be pure then it will be safe to
infer that the first contains 33 1/3% of white lead and
66 2/3 barytes or other adulterant; or i part lead, 2
parts adulteration.

While- the above tests are all approximative, they
are practical and easily made, being within the possibil-

16 Modern Painter's Cyclopedia

ity of everyone, requiring no knowledge of chemistry
and while not conclusive as to what the adulterant
really consists of, in reality this knowledge is not very
important to the purchaser of color. It shows him how
much valuable material is contained in the various sam-
ples tested and after all that is the main thing for him
to know. He can know to a certainty whether he is
paying a right price for his goods or whether he wants
them at all or not.

QUESTIONS UPON ADULTERATION.

1. What can be said generally about the adultera-
tion of colors, etc., at the present time?

2. Are adulterated colors readily distinguished
from those that are pure ?

3. What kind of an adulterant is required for
heavy and light colors respectively?

4a. What adulterant is mainly used in white lead?

b. Is barytes used in adulterating colored pig-
ments ?

c. Are the pure food laws a complete protection
against the adulteration of color ?

5. How is the amount of adulteration detected?

6. What is needed in making the scale test?

7. Describe the manner of making the test.

8. How can strictly pure white lead be tested for
purity ?

THE BLISTERING OF PAINT.

- 9. There are several causes which produce the blis-

Modern Painter's Cyclopedia . 17

tering of paint, but only two principal ones are worthy
of any attention, as all the others are variations of the
following two agents, to-wit : Moisture and heat.

10. Moisture is the principal direct cause produc-
ing nine-tenths of all the blistering of paint on the out-
side of buildings.

11. But it cannot really produce a blistering of
paint without the concurring assistance of heat,

12. With the numberless essays which have been
written and the endless discussions which have taken
place at Painters' Conventions and elsewhere relating
to the blistering of paint, it must be acknowledged that
there are many points involved in this relation which
are as yet but improperly understood.

MOISTURE.

13. Some parts of its action upon paint is very
plainly to be seen, so that nearly every one who has
given the subject a thought, one would suppose some
uniform explanation would be given of it, yet upon the
very plainest action of moisture many intelligent men
differ materially in explaining its action upon paint.

Moisture in the paint itself very rarely injures the
painting done with it, however strange it may sound
for one to make the statement. Thus emulsated paints
properly prepared will last fully as long as paints
which have not been prepared by emulsion — but they
must have been prepared scientifically or they usually
will be found short lived enough.

18 Modern Painter's Cyclopedia

a. If moisture is present in the wood over which
paint is appHed or that can be sucked up from the earth
by capillary attraction as in stone, brick and cement
structure, then there is great danger that the paint
will blister sooner or later.

b. As stated before there must be heat present to
help moisture in producing a blister. Heat acts upon it
in this way : Moisture may and does remain confined
for a long time when there is no way opened for it to
escape. So long as it remains in the state of water it
will never produce a blister. For this reason one never
hears of blistering in late autumn, winter or early
spring.

c. But when that water becomes heated by the hot
sun it is turned into steam ; as it is prevented from evap-
orating by the impervious coat of paint. In expanding
itself into steam it forms a blister large enough to hold
it under the paint which has been softened by the heat
of both steam and sun from both sides.

d. This skin may or may not break out so as to
let the steam escape into the atmosphere. When it does
not do so, as soon as the atmosphere becomes cooled the
steam is condensed into water again. Anyone can
easily prove this to his perfect satisfaction by pricking
the bubble with a pin when the water will at once run
out.

e. It is very seldom that blisters caused by moisture
can ever be seen except upon the south side of build-
ings, the west and the east but mostly on the south, then

Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 19

next in number on the west and least on the east with
none on the north. This order verifies the theory ad-
vanced that moisture without the aid of heat will not
cause blistering of paint as the south which receives
the sun's rays nearly all day shows the most blisters,
the west next and the east its weakest as it receives
early morning rays and the intense ones only for a
short time about lo to 12 noon exhibits the smallest
number of blisters

The above applies to wood, brick, stone, or cement
buildings alike, if they absorb moisture — the wooden
from imperfectly seasoned lumber and the others by
capillary attraction from the earth or by defect in the
roof or eaves, causing moisture to run down behind the
paint.

HEAT.

14. We have seen its action in the foregoing para-
graphs in conjunction with moisture.

a. Heat alone, if it be great enough, will blister
paint and the best proof of it is : That most of all old
paint removed from overpainted surfaces, is chiefly
taken off by the aid of the paint burners which heats
it and softens it into heat blisters.

b. There are other instances where blisters are pro-
duced directly by the action of heat without the aid of
moisture: ist where a very dark paint has been applied
to a surface which before had been coated over with
a very light tint. It is explained in this way : Light is

20 Modern Painter's Cyclopedia

reflected by white and all light tints, and absorbed by
all dark ones; therefore the dark coat will absorb the
sun's rays readily, but it stops at the light color under-
neath and instead of further penetration the reverse
takes place — it is there reflected. The heat having
softened the linseed oil contained in the upper coat
which from its having been put there more recently is
yet full of elasticity, will swell cut from the pushing
away influence it receives from the heat and light re-
flected by the light under coat and gradually loosen itself
from it far enough away that there is no more expan-
sion needed. These bubbles or blisters are always dry
when pricked through, showing no moisture and are
always seen above the light tinted coat underneath,
leaving that intact upon the building. This class of
blisters are very similar to the ones formed upon paint-
ed surfaces too near a stove and other places subject to
overheating.

c. There is another instance where an upper paint
coat will separate from an under one — this is due to
the action of moisture — not in the wood, brick, stone
or cement — but from its development in the under coats
of paint. It can be traced as readily as the former and
as easily understood.

It is a well known fact that clay will absorb and give
out moisture. Some pigments like our American
ochres, for instance, are composed mainly of alumina
(clay) colored by ferric hydroxides. They may have
been very thoroughly dried before grinding in oil and

Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 21

all the care possible taken to have the article in good
condition and as the oil used as a vehicle remains sound
and impervious there will be no trouble between the
clay ochre priming or sub-coats and the superadded
ones, as in that condition an air-tight overcoating of the
upper layers of paint protect it from moisture; but as
soon as the natural decay of the linseed oil has fairly
commenced, then the trouble commences, although it
is imperceptible at first. The oil having lost all its
glycerides, their place forms very fine pores or con-
duits through w^hich the moisture will find its way to
the clay based ochre underneath and as it, too, has felt
the effects of the decay in its own coat of oil, this
moisture is absorbed by the clay in wet weather and as
freely parted with in dry hot weather. The sun soften-
ing the oil of the upper coat makes it impervious again,
its action upon the moisture contained in the clay ochre
is to turn that into steam — ^that of steam is to expand
and to vaporize and become absorbed by the atmosphere
but being prevented by the softened coats of paint above
it, it expands itself into a blister large enough to hold
it. Then either of two things happen: ist the blister
will burst and the condensed steam in the shape of
water will run out; 2nd, or it will not burst and the
condensed steam water will be held a prisoner under
the blister till released by the breaking of the bubble or
reabsorbed by the undercoat of clay ochre.

This is. a form of blistering well known to every
experienced painter in the land, but frequently misun-

22 Modern Painter's Cyclopedia

derstood by them. They know the effect, but many are
not aware of the cause of it. It has led many to reject
ochre altogether for priming. For a more extended
notice of this peculiarity of ochres the reader is referred
to paragraph 79. The above two reasons why under
which 99% of all cases of blistering can be traced will
suffice to explain the troublesome phenomena of blis-
tering. As to the remedy, alas! there, is none but a
removal of the cause.

QUESTIONS ON BLISTERING OF PAINT.

9. How many principal causes why paint blisters?

10. Name the principal one.

11. Name its accessory.

12. Are the causes of blistering well understood?

13. Describe how moisture affects paint in sub-sec-
tions, a, h, c, d and e.

14. Describe how heat affects paint in sub-sections
Gj h and c.

BRUSHES.

15. Brushes are one of the most important line of
implements used by the paint trade in all its branches,
from the coarsest down to the finest of artists' work
and next to skill in guiding them take the lead as help-
ers to users of paint.

In the description of all the various brushes used by
the paint and paper hangers' trades which follows in
the course of this heading, precedence is given to the
larger, which will be reviewed first and downward to

Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 23

the smaller ones and this will be the case for each one
of the raw material from which they are made — as
bristle brushes are those which are used the most of all,
brushes made from that material will be reviewed first
from the largest to the smallest and the same course
will be taken with all the other sorts as much as possi-
ble, giving those which are mostly used in sequence.

It is lucky that under the alphabetical arrangement of
the subject matter of this book that brushes come in at
the beginning of this manual, as there will be no need
of any explanation under the various headings other
than a reference to the figures and their number, thus
showing at a glance the particular tools each branch
requires.

It will be in order here to state that the manufactur-
ing of brushes has progressed along and kept up with
advances made by other lines toward perfection, which,
however, it has not yet attained — but great improv-
ments have been made over the past.

It is not intended to go very deeply into details con-
cerning the manufacture of brushes. This would lead
into an infinity of details requiring full and minute de-
scription to be intelligently understood and really be-
longs to a treatise devoted entirely to that industry.
Nor would such details be of much interest to the users
of brushes.

1 6. The material from which brushes are made con-
sists of the hair and fur of various animals, usually set
in cement or in glue or in rubber^ and bound onto the

24 Modern Painter's Cyclopedia

head which is usually of wood by either thread, cord,
wire or nailed metal strips or leather or a solid metal
casing or vulcanized rubber.

As has already been stated the brushes will be classed
and described according to the raw material that they
are made from and as near as possible in the order of
their greatest usefulness.

BRISTLES.

Boar or hog bristles being by far the most important
of all the raw material used in brush making, is en-
titled to being noticed first of all. It enters into the
manufacture of nearly all the brushes used in general
painting.

All the larger brushes flat, round or oval, are made
of the very highest priced Russian bristles for the first
qualities. It is claimed that the best of these are pro-
cured from the wild boar. There is no doubt but that
some bristles are obtained from that animal, but it
seems doubtful if the crop of bristle from that source
would go very far in supplying the quantity required
for the consumption of the whole world.

The semi-tamed Russian hog produces, fortunately,
bristles that are little inferior to that of the wild hog.
Those borne upon the crest of the neck of the animal
being the most valuable, being strong, elastic and longer
than upon other parts of the body, although the other
parts also produce very good but shorter bristles. Their
market value diminishes according to length from the

Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 25

longest to the shortest. But even in the smaller sizes
the Russian hog bristles are superior to all others in
elasticity and wearing qualities.

The so-called French bristles into which class nearly
all other European bristles may be placed, furnish a
very good next quality to that of the Russian and for
the purpose of making varnish brushes or fine brushes
to lay color for the carriage trade, they even surpass
the Russian on account of their greater fineness and
smoothness. The black bristles known as Chinese bris-
tles, do not all come from the Orient as their name
would indicate, but most of it comes from many other
countries in Asia and Europe, beside what is furnished
by our own packing houses where everything belonging
to the hog is carefully saved excepting the squeal it
is said.

Our own packing houses furnish the bulk of the
bristles used in making brushes and their output is not
confined to black bristles only, but to all the colors which
the many breeds are characterized with. But while
some very good bristles are originated here, it must be
admitted that they are few and come from that now
nearly extinct specimen — the razor back. High breed-
ing seems to deteriorate the bristle so that while the
flesh and fat producing has greatly improved, the hair
is much inferior to the old native and the great bulk
of American bristle is inferior to the European impor-
tations.

26 Modern Painter's Cyclopedia

SIBERIAN ox HAIR.

i8. Siberian ox hair of the best quaHty is said to
be the clippings of hair from the inside of the ears of
the Siberian ox. Whether other parts of the growth
on the body is not also used seems doubtful as the quan-
tity of brushes which are sold under the name would
indicate that if only the inner part of the ear produces
all that is used then they must have enormous herds of
oxen in that country. The probabilities are that not
only Siberia but America as well is called upon to fur-
nish the material required for the brush matter sold un-
der that name.

The best quality is unusually springy and varnish
brushes made from it are very highly prized by the fur-
niture wood finishing trades for certain kinds of work.
The sign painter also uses them largely in both the quill
bound and flat sizes for the one stroke letter shape so
much in demand now days.

BADGER HAIR.

19. Badger hair is the product of several animals
belonging to the same family, "the marmotte' or ''mar-
mouse" to which the badger and our famous weather
prophet "the ground hog" belongs. It is long and while
soft, it preserves its shape well. Finishing and flowing
varnish brushes for both the wood finishing and car-
riage trades are made from it. Gold tips and gold
dusters for gilders. Blenders for the graining and
marbling trades all prize it highly; nothing has been

Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 27

devised for that purpose that Is anywhere equal to
badger hair.

BEAR AND FITCH HAIR.

20. These two may be bracketed together as both
are used mainly for the purpose of making flow^ing var-
nish brushes. They make most excellent brushes for
the purpose either alone or mixed together in certain
proportions which is thought to make them better by
some wood finishers. Many carriage painters having
become used to sable hair claim them to be better than
anything else.

SABLE HAIR.

21. Sable hair of both the red and black variety
are very highly esteemed by artists, decorators, sign
v^riters and stripers. They are rather expensive but as
they are much more durable and for the laying of heavy
bodied colors are so much better adapted to the work
than camel hair brushes are that the latter are losing
ground for use in heavy weighted pigments w^ith all
discriminating users.

CAMEL HAIR.

22. Camel hair is a misnomer as the squirrel fur-
nishes the bulk of it, however, as it is known only under
that name, it is likely to stick as long as the English
language lasts.

It is very soft and lays color very smoothly and when
carefully done little if any brush mark will show. The
better made brushes of that material are excellent and
It would be a sad day for many workmen if the supply

28 Modern Painter's Cyclopedia

should suddenly be stopped as many would be com-
pletely lost to know what to do in replacing them. They
as well as all good things have a great fault in that
being very soft, they have little elasticity and if used in
heavy colors they are likely to bend and become de-
formed. The carriage trade, the wood finisher, sign
Writers, stripers, decorators, enamelers, lacquerers, art-
ists, etc., all use them to a greater or lesser extent.

2^. This concludes the list of raw material from
which brushes are made for the paint trade with the
possible exception of *'Tampico," which may be con-
sidered as an adulterant and which is used chiefly in
making up the cheaper grades of bristle brushes. It
possesses not an atom of value other than to fill up a
given space and takes up that which should be occupied
by better material. It can scarcely be called a fraud be-
cause such brushes are made for a class of trade who
want to buy something for nothing and they must be ac-
commodated. But the advice given to those who buy
brushes is to buy the best only. The first cost of a brush
may be large in comparison to the poor tool, but it is
actual economy to buy the best, as they last much longer
and enable the workman to do his work in a creditable
manner, which is nearly impossible to do with poor
tools.

BRISTLE BRUSHES.

24. Under this head all bristle brushes made for
the general paint trade, including the decorators, etc.,
will be reviewed and an illustration of each kind given,

Modem Painter's Cyclopedia

2S

Fig. 1 — Kalsomine Brush.

m

Modern Painter^s Cyclopedia

which will show the shapes. As, however, all or most
of them are made in several qualities and sizes, it will
be impossible to give all these in ''illustrations." In
the description the various sizes that each is made up
in will be given. >

a. The calcimine brush is probably the largest and
most expensive brush made for the paint trade. The
best are made from long springy Russian stock and on
downward to clear Tampico. They are made on a flat
wooden head with a wooden handle and are bound in
metal nailed on to the head, usually galvanized iron is
used for the purpose. They are made in three sizes:
6, 7 and 8 inches wide. See Fig. i.

Fig. 2— Extra Wall Stipplers.

6. Wall stipplers are long bristle brushes made
upon an oblong square head usually in two sizes, 3^x
8 and 3>^x9 inches. These brushes are used only in
following up wall painting to obliterate brush marks
and producing a uniform grained finish to the work,_ by
beating the painting evenly all over. The head is a
wooden one and the finished tool looks like a mam-
moth cloth brush. See Fig. 2.

c. Flat wall brushes are made up in all qualities

Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 31

and widths of head from 3 to 5 inches wide, and are
bound to a wooden head and handle by a metalHc
band or by a leather binding when they are then known
being set in a rubber head and vulcanized. This pre-

Fig. 3— Stucco Wall Paint Brush,
vents the losing of hair. See Fig. 3 for the shape of
as "stucco wall" brushes. Some are also made by

Fig. 4— stucco Wall Paint Brush.

metal bound wall, and Fig. 4 for the "stucco or leather
bound."

d. Round bristle paint brushes are made in many
qualities, weights and lengths of bristles ; in open cen-
ters, semi-open centers or full stock, besides a number
of patented arrangements each claiming to be ''it/'
The binding is usually wire or cording or set in a solid

32 Modern Painter's Cyclopedia

rubber head. The sizes run by o from i.o the smallest
to 8.0 the largest. See Fig. 5.

e. Oval bristle paint brushes only differ from the
above by the shape of the make up which as the name
indicates is oval instead of round. In qualities and sizes
they are similar to the round brush described in the
preceding sub-section. See Fig. 5, which also repre-
sents it fairly well only that the handle is flatter than
in the round brush.

Fig. 5.

/. Painters' dusters, either round or flat, and in
many qualities of white or black bristles. The best
quality is that known as the coach painter's duster and
are made in white bristles only. The length and thick-
ness of hair make the selling price higher and lower
running from 3^ to 5 inches long. See Fig. 6 for the
round. The flat is shaped like Fig. 3 only more loosely
put together.

g. Before closing up on the large bristle brushes it
will be well to note ''the whiteivash heads" as some-
times tne painter is called upon to do that kind of work ;
besides being an excellent tool to do calcimining with

Modern Painter's Cyclopedia

33

Flat Painter's Duster.

Round Painter's Duster.
Fig. 6.

Fig. 7.

34 Modern Painter's Cyclopedia

also in apartments where furniture, carpets, etc., en-
cumber a room so that stepladders and scaffolding is
not to be thought of, a long handle can be set in the
whitewash head and the work of calcimining a ceiling
done from the floor. They come in widths ranging
from 6 to 9 inches. They are bound to the wooden
head by either metal bands or leather. The illustration
shows the leather bound. See Fig. 7.

li. Sash tools are made either round or oval full
length of bristle or chisel edge. They are bound by
cording, wire, a solid metal head or set in a hard rub-
ber head and in many qualities of material. They come
in numbered sizes. No. i being the smallest, to No. 10
the largest. See Fig. 8 for the full length hair and
Fig. 9 for the chisel edge shapes.

i. Coach pointers' spoke brushes run in sizes from
No. I to 3 and are used chiefly by the carriage trade,
but they are also very useful for a number of purposes
in general painting where a long but slim brush is to be
used. Decorators in water colors will also find them a
handy tool for coves, etc. See Fig. 10.

y. Glue brushes are usually metal bound and well
set. They run in sizes from 000 to No. 4 or from ^
inch to ij^ inch in diameter. See Fig. 11. They are
also made flat, metal bound, and from i inch to 6
inches wide. The flat brushes are also made chisel
edged. See Fig. 12.

k. Painter's car scrub brushes are made from very
stiff bristles and run in sizes from No. 4 to No. 6. It

Modern Painter's Cyclopedia

35

Fig. 8— Sask Tool. Fig. 9— Sash Tool, Chisel Edged.

36

Modern Painter's Cyclopedia

is a very useful tool to the carriage painter. See
Fig. 13.

BRISTLE VARNISH BRUSHES.

/. Bristle varnish brushes are usaully made oval

Fig. 10— Coach Painters' Spoke Brushes.

and are bound with wire or by solid metal heads and
with full length of bristle or chisel edged in many qual-

Fig. 11 — Round Glue Brushes, Gray Bristles.

Fig. 12— Flat Glue, Gray Bristles.

ities and sized by o from i.o the smallest, to 8.0 the
largest. All have flattened wooden handles, Fig. 14
showing the full length and Fig. 15 the chisel edge
shapes. Fig. 15 also shows the solid metal head.

There are also a number of different qualities of flat

Modern Painter's Cyclopedia

37

varnish bristle brushes from very good to very poor
single thick, double thick, full length bristle to chiseled
edge. The shapes vary very much as well as that of

Fig. 13— Painters' Car Scrubs.

the handles. The two Figs. i6 and 17 will suffice to
show the leading shapes. Like all flat brushes they are
sold by the inch, being made from i inch to 4 inches,
graded by half inches between.

Coach painters and many others use a brush made up
very much like the one shown in Fig. 15, and which is
known as a coach painter's color brush.

m. Stencil brushes are used for the purpose indi-
cated by their name. Like, all the rest there are many

Fig. 14 — Gloss Oval Varnish Brushes.

qualities. They are bound with wire or set in a solid
metal head or band. In size they run from i inch to
2>^ inches in diameter. Figs. 18 and 19 illustrate the
two bindings.

n. Artists and decorators in both water and oil
colors use a number of round, flat and triangular shaped

38

Modern Painter's Cyclopedia

Fig. 15— Oval Chiselled Varnish Brush.

Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 39

small brushes with either short, medium or long bristles.
According to what they have been designed for they
are called a multitude of different names, as marking
brushes, artists* ' round and flat bristle, fresco round

Fig. 17 — Badger Hair Flowing Brush,
and flat, these cover about all the varieties. They are
all metal ferruled with a long slim handle. They usu-
ally run in numbers from i to lo for the round and
from % inch to 1 34 inch wide for the flat ones, by yi
inch gradations. Fig. 20 illustrates the round and
Fig. 2 1 the flat sorts.

40

Modern Painter's Cyclopedia

0. Weighted brushes for poHshing waxed floors for
or waxed varnished ones, are extensively used at the
present to imitate dead rubbed poHsh. They are shown,
in Fig. 22.

p. The wood finishing trade uses many of the bris-

Fig. 18.

Fig. 19.

Stencil Brushes.

tk brushes which have been described for filHng, shellac-
ing, etc. They buy those under the special names that
they are wanted for, but differ so slightly from many
of the flat stucco wall brushes that Fig. 4 will give one

Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 41

Fig. 20— Fresco Bristle Brushes.

42 Modern Painter's Cyclopedia

a good idea of their shapes and sizes. However, the
furniture trade uses a brush known as rubbing brushes
which is illustrated in Fig. 23. This brush comes in
many shapes or forms with enough variations to suit
all the views of the finishers.

The brick liner, a tool used to color the mortar line
on painted brick being shaped very nearly as the above
only that it contains only a very thin row of hair, it will
not be necessary to describe it more.

PAPER hangers' bristle BRUSHES.

q. The paper hanger's paste brush is specially made
so as to rub out paste easily, but many paper hangers
use a worn out calcimine brush instead. It is illus-
trated in Fig. 24.

r. Paper hangers' smoothing brushes are made
from one to four rows of stiff bristles, wire drawn, in
several qualities and are sized according to the length
of head from 10 to 14 inches wide. Fig. 25 shows the
ordinary smoothing brush and Fig. 26 the combination
smoothing brush and seam roller.

GRAINERS" BRISTLE TOOLS.

s. Grainers use a few bristle brushes which are
shown by the following illustrations: Fig. 27 shows
the stippler used in putting in an all over coarse grain
as in walnut, chestnut, etc. Fig. 28 shows the fantail
overgrainers which are sized according to width of
head from i inch up to 4 inches wide by half inch grad-

Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 43

Fig. 21— Artist's Bristle Brushes.

44

Modern Painter's Cyclopedia

ations. Fig. 29 shows a grainer's mottler and Fig. 30
a bristle piped overgrainers, etc.

BADGER HAIR BRUSHES.

25. a. The badger haired Hozving varnish brushes
are the principal ones used by the carriage and car
painting trades and are also well liked by some wood
finishers. They are all made chisel edged and bound in

Fig. 21a.

metal on a flat wood head or a continuation of the metal
binder into a head with wooden handle attached. They
are made single and double thick, ranging in sizes by
y2 inch gradations from y2 inch to four inches wide.
Fig. 31 shows both the single and double shape.

b. Gilders tips are made from either badger or
camel's hair or a mixture of both as the squirrel is usu-
ally too flimsy by itself. See Fig. 7^2.

Modern Painter*s Cyclopedia 45

c. The knotted honehead badger hair blender of the
grainer's trade, is an indispensable tool ; it is used also
by marblers and all painting requiring good blending.

Fig. 22— Angular Bristle Fresco Brushes.
It is sized according to width by half inch grad^trms
from 2 to 5 inches wide. See Fig. 33.

d. Round badger haired blenders are used princi-

Fig. 23— Furniture Rubbing Brushes,
pally by artists and as a duster by gold leaf workers.
They are bound in quill and of various sizes grading
by numbers from No. i to No. 12. See Fig. 34.

ox HAIR BRQSHES.

26. a. Ox hair flowing varnish brushes are very
highly prized by many wood finishers. They are made
single and double and come in sizes and shapes same
as Fig. 31, which see.

46

Modern Painter's Cyclopedia

b. Ox hair fiat sign writers' brushes are made to
supply the demand for a one stroke letter in a cheaper

Fig. 24 — Paperhanger's Paste Brush.

material than sable capable of carrying heavy colors.
The size ranges by }i inch gradation up to i inch wide.

Fig. 25 — Paperhanger's Smoothing Brush.

Fig. 26.

Modern Painter's Cyclopedia

47

See Fig. 35, which also illustrates all other makes from
other material.

c. Ox hair is also used in the make up of full lines
of lettering and striping brushes, either bound in quill
or metal. The illustrations shown below will also illus-

Fig. 27— Walnut Stipplers.

trate all other makes as shapes and bindings are about
the same. See Fig. 36 for lettering and Fig. 37 for
striping brushes, and Fig. 38 for metal bound handled.

Fig. 28.

The sizes in all kinds are numbered alike from No. i up
to No. 12. Many kinds are only numbered to No. 6.

RED AND BLACK SABLE BRUSHES.

2y. a. Black and red sable brushes to all intents

i

Fig. 29— Mottlers.

48

Modern Painter's Cyclopedia

and purposes may be classed together, as they are nearly
alike in working qualities. As they are very springy
and soft at the same time, they make up a very valuable

Ilia

Fig. 30— Piped Overgrainers, Etc.

flowing varnish brush which is highly prized by coach
painters and wood finishers. They are made up in same
sizes and shape as shown in Fig. 31, which see.

Modern Painter's Cyclopedia

49

b. Black and red sable sign writers, flat one stroke
{ettering-, are the best of the kind for heavy colors.

Fig. 31 — Badger Hair Flowing.

While costing more than any other, they last so much
longer in good condition if taken care of that they are
the cheapest in the end. Same sizes and shape as shown
in Fig. 35, which see.

c. Sign writers' quilled and ferruled letterers are
the same in size and shapes as shown in Fig. 36.

■■liiiiiiiii

Fig. 32— Gilder's Camel-Hair Tips.

d. Striping brushes of this material are indespensa-
ble for use in heavy colors. See Fig. 37 for shape
and sizes.

50 Modern Painter's Cyclopedia

e. Red sable artists' b rushes are well known the
world over. No other material could well replace it
for use in heavy colors. They come both round and

Fig. 33— Flat Knotted Badger Blender.

flat, ranging in number from No. i the smallest, to
No. 12 the largest. See Fig. 39, illustrating both.

FITCH BRUSHES.

28. The Fitch Hozving varnish brush is the only
valuable brush which comes under that name. It is
w^ell liked by some carriage painters and to some extent

Fig. 34 — Round Badger Blender.

Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 51

by some wood finishers. See Fig. 31 for shape and
sizes.

29. Bears hair flowing varnish brushes are very
valuable either when made up of that material alone or
when mixed with some other material, which is too

Fig. 35— Flat Black Sable Lettering Brushes,
stiff by itself as a corrective. The wood finishing trade,
especially the better class of furniture manufacturers,
use it in great quantities. It is made up in same sizes
and shape as shown in Fig. 31, which see.

CAMEL^S HAIR BRUSHES.

30. a. Camel's hair varnish brushes are used for
many purposes and by nearly all branches of the paint-
er's trade. They are very soft and lay varnish very
smoothly. They all are made flat on somewhat vari-
ously shaped heads with shorter length hair than var-
nish brushes from other material are usually made as
otherwise they would work too flabby. Their sizes are
numbered according to width in >^ inch gradations
from >^ to 4 inches. See Fig. 40.

b. The earners hair mottler is a somewhat similar
brush, but longer haired and thicker than the varnish
brush. The mottler is used by many carriage painters
as a color brush, but is specially made up then with
thicker liair than the ordinary mottler used by grainers,
stainers and others. They are metal bound and sized

52

Modern Painter's Cyclopedia

Fig. 36— Lettering.

Modern Painter's Cyclopedia

53

according to width from i to 3 inches by J4 inch grad-
ations. See Fig. 41.

c. Camel hair lacquering brushes are used by all
trades where lacquering is done. They come both

Fig. 37 — Striping Pencils.

round and flat. Both are metal bound. The round are
sized from No. i to No. 6. The flat according to width
by % inch gradations up to i inch wide. See Fig. 42.
d. The camel hair quill bound and ferruled letter-
ing— the flat one stroke letterer and the striping brushes

Fig. 38— Round.

of that material, are excellent tools to work in the
hghter weight colors. See Figs. 35, 36, 37, 38 and 39
to illustrate the shape and sizes of the several brushes
mentioned.

e. The camel hair dagger striping brush is a shape

54

Modern Painter's Cyclopedia

well liked by many stripers, as much longer lines can be
carried through without filling than with other shapes.
See Fig. 43. They come numbered from No. i to No. 4.

QUESTIONS ON BRUSHES.

Generalities ?

15.
16.

17.

What material is used in making brushes?
What can you say concerning hog bristle ?

Fig. 39— Artists' Red Sable Brushes.

18. What can you say regarding Siberian ox hair?

19. What can you say regarding badger hair?

20. What are bear and fitch hair brushes mainly
used for?

21. What kind of brushes are made from red and
black sable?

Modern Painter's Cyclopedia

55

22.

23-

24.

What can you say regarding camel hair?

Is Tampico useful as brush making material?

a. What kind of brushes are made from bris-

tles ? b, c, d, e, f, g, h, i, j, k, I, m, n, 0, p, q, r, and ^ ?

Fig. 40— Camel's Hair Mottler.

25. a. Describe the flowing varnish brushes.
h. Describe the gold tip.

c. Describe the knotted bonehcv^d badger

blender.

d. Describe the rounded blenders.

Fig. 41.

26. a. Describe the Siberian ox hair flowing var-
nish brushes.
h. Describe the ox hair flat sign lettering

brushes.
c. .Describe the quilled and ferruled ox hair
lettering brushes.

56

Modern Painter's Cyclopedia

27. a. Describe black and red sable flowing var-
nish brushes.
b. Describe the sable one stroke lettering
brush.

Fig. 42 — Camel's-Hair Lacquering Brushes.

c. Describe the quilled and ferruled sable let-

terers.

d. Describe the striping sable pencils.

e. Describe the sable artists' brushes.

Fig. 43— Champion Sword Stripers.

28. Describe the Fitch flowing varnish brush.

29. Describe bear's hair flowing varnish brushes.

30. a. Describe the camel hair flowing varnish

brush.

b. Describe the camel hair mottler.

c. Describe the camel hair lacquering brushes.

d. Describe the camel hair lettering brushes.

Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 57

e. Describe the camel hair striping brushes.
/. Describe the camel hair striping dagger.

CALCIMINING.

31. Under this appellation will be considered all
plastered wall painting done in water colors and dis-
temper, except the more artistic and difficult section
better known under the name of fresco painting.

There are several ways of spelling the name used in
describing the process such as : kalsomine, calsomine,
distemper work and so forth, but all are one and the
same thing. The root word calc — being taken from the
Latin for chalk, which is the main material used in
preparing it.

Calcimining in one form or another has been used
from time immemorial, probably ever since walls have
received coats of plastering to make them more level
and pleasing to the eye than the naked rough stone
finish did. As this of itself was already a step towards
embellishment it is but fair to infer that the same desire
for the beautiful must have prompted the uniform
coloring of the plastering at nearly about the same time
for the purpose of still further embellishing the interior
of dwellings.

Walls covered with coatings of water colors and
lime are and have been unearthed in Asia Minor and
Egypt, which are nearly as old probably as the begin-
ning of civilization in man. One must look for prehis-
toric remains where everything is blank for a time when

58 . Modern Painter's Cyclopedia

painting in some form with water colors was unknown
as remains of it are to be found with the oldest records
existing of all the ancient civilizations. Nor is the old
world the only place where such records exist for the
Aztec civilization existing in America previous to its
discovery by Columbus is particularly rich in fairly well
designed and colored remains of its most ancient
periods.

At the present time fully 98 per cent of all wall color-
ing and embellishments consist of water color painting
or printing which are either used upon the walls direct
or pasted upon them in the shape of wall paper, which
after all, is but — watercolored paper.

Many persons become confused by the same thinef
being called by so many different names. The decor-
ator hardly likes to have his work known under the
name of calcimine (which is all it is in fact) as the
name sounds too common, so he dubs it fresco, which
it is not, or distemper or watercolor painting, which it
is in common with plain everyday calcimining ; but the
other names sound more aristocratic and under those
names he can command a very much larger price than
he could under the other and he can hardly be blamed
for it.

The name distemper is taken from the French
"d'etrempe" or colors mixed with w^ater (drenched).
The name is certainly very appropriate for the French
at least ; but why should English speaking nations call
it that when the words "water color" are well under-

Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 59

stood to mean the same thing and are never misunder-
stood by anyone.

It is hoped the above will remove any misapprehen-
sions any one may have had as to these various names
meaning different sorts of wall painting— they are all
one and the same.

TOOLS NEEDED FOR CALCIMINING.

32. a. Galvanized pails holding about 12 qts. can
be found at any hardware store. A strip of tin or
wire should be soldered across the top about. 2/3 of the
distance of its diameter, this simple contrivance will
be found very convenient for the purpose of removing
any surplus color not wanted on the brush, it will also
act as a support for the brush when not in use, keeping
it flat and in good shape. However, it is only a con-
venience but not a necessity. Besides there are many
specially contrived pails for sale at the supply stores
which are tony looking affairs, but none will be found
much superior to a good galvanized pail with a wire
soldered across its face and these will cost much less.

h. An iron stand to rest the pail upon in order to
raise it to a convenient height to dip the brush into
when working on a scaffold is a necessity, and will
quickly pay for itself in time saved bending down to
the floor each time color is wanted and will save many
a backache. A fair but a much more clumsy substi-
tute can be- made by using a wooden box of about the
proper height.

60 Modern Painter's Cyclopedia

c. The calcimine brush (see Fig. i). Buy only the
best — others lare mere makeshifts. The first cost of a
brush, well made and fitted to this work, will more than
be repaid over the price of an inferior one in a single
day's work by the increased amount of work that can
be done with it — to say nothing of the ease of spreading
the calcimine and the certainty of a good looking job
when done and of the cleanliness made possible by their
use. A good workman can take a high grade calcimine
brush and work over carpets without dropping any
color upon them — if careful. This, of cours-e, is not
advisable and carpets, furniture and everything that
could possibly be injured should either be removed or at
least covered over — but it is within the possible to not
drop anything upon them.

d. A number of smaller flat and round brushes will
be needed by the decorator in lining off his work and
in hand work decorating also for reaching into coves
and mouldings where his larger brush could not be
made to reach. For shapes and sizes of these see Figs.
lo, i6, i8, 19, 21, 22.

e. Step ladders (see Fig. 78).

/. Tressles and planks (see Fig. 79).

g. Chalk line and plumb bob to lay out work with.

h. A small portable stove to warm or boil water
upon to melt glue with. In fact all paint shops need
one as there are many uses to which they can be put.
A small gasoline stove is probably as convenient and as
cheap as any thing that could be got.

Modern Painter's Cyclopedia

61

Plate r.

i^? Modern Painter's Cyclopedia

u A glue pot to melt glue in although It is not a
necessity especially if the glue has been soaked up in
cold water some time before, as when it is swelled up
warm water will quickly dissolve it without bringing
it to a boil.

/. A T-square, some lining straightedges, a 2-foot
rule and an awl to hold the chalk line are needed wher-
ever any attempts are made at decorations.

The above comprises about all the most essential tools
needed in applying calcimine. A number of others will
be needed by the decorator in water colors, and will be
treated more fully under several headings where water
colors are employed in the more artistic branches of dis-
temper work.

33. a. The material required for calcimining i^
fully described under the heading of colors (see para-
graphs 61 to 84) it will only be necessary to state that
whiting is the mostly used base upon which are added
the coloring pigments necessary to produce the tints
required. Under heading of color mixing (see para-
graphs 61 to 84) full directions are given for making
them. It will be useless even to name over the colors
which are used in water color painting as nearly every
pigment known can be mixed for use in water color
painting. The base is the most important of all. The
whiting should be of good quality, well washed of sedi-
ments and the colors of pure tone, so as to produce
clean looking tints. Some prefer to mix their tints on
a zinc white base, claiming that the tints so mixed are

Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 63

clearer toned and cover better in one coat. It increases
the cost somewhat, but that will not count on first class
work.

h. Glue is used more extensively than any other
substance to bind the colors with, for it is both cheap
and convenient to handle. Some of the decorators use
gum arabic to mix the higher priced colors used on the
finest work. There are also a number of patented sizes
on the market for which superlative excellence is
claimed, which probably will be found convenient but
none so far have been able to supplant good glues for
general use.

THE WALLS.

34. Calcimining or water color painting is chiefly
done on plastered walls. To a great extent it depends
upon their being in a proper condition as to whether
the work shall look good or bad when completed.

An ideal wall to work upon is one that will be suffi-
ciently hard to have but little suction, nearly but not
quite non-absorbent. The patent plastered walls left
either in a stipled rough state or covered over with a
skim coat of plaster paris make an excellent surface to
calcimine upon.

But — alas! all walls are not in such a condition.
With all the cheap John sort of plastering that is being
done by contractors at a price which would mean a
sure loss to them if they used good material, but which
must be done so as to make a profit anyhow, many of
the surfaces the calciminer has to deal with will be

64 Modern t^ainter's Cyclopedia

found very porous and absorbing, having a great deal
of suction ; in many instances so much so that the calci-
mine will be absorbed from the brush as soon as it is
laid upon the wall so that it will not be possible to
spread it any distance from where the brush first
touched it. Such walls are called in the vernacular,
*'hot walls." They constitute the most troublesome
and disagreeable feature of any of the ills belonging to
the calcimining trade.

35. The only sure way to enable one to do good
work upon such walls is to stop this suction. There
are several methods employed to do this. The old
timers used to do this by using sizing, double sizing,
etc., but it never was an entire success in that glue ab-
sorbs and gives out moisture with the result that decay
of the glue soon commences and cracking of the glue
underneath the calcimine which is soon followed up by
the scaling of the whole thing in flakes like bark coming
ofif a sycamore tree. This will not always follow sizing,
but the chances are that it may, so that today there is
but little sizing of walls being done with glue.

The better way is to give the walls a coat of what is
known to the trade as a siirfacer.

36. A surfacer in reality is a varnish specially pre-
pared with a view of filling and stopping suction. It
enters the porous plaster, forming an impervious coat-
ing upon them over which one good coat of calcimine
usually makes a good looking even finish.

Many surfacers are placed upon the market with

Modern Painter's Cyclopedia S5

astounding claims and loaded down with superlatives
and adjectives sufficient to cause an ordinary circus
poster to blush; nevertheless they usually do the work
of stopping the suction and that is the main thing re-
quired.

Any quick, hard drying varnish will do the same
thing and it is even intimated by some that gloss oil
will do so. While this may be true iri some instances,
no one should be advised to put their trust in it and at
best it should not be used if anything better can be had.
Furniture, No. i coach and the cheaper so called ''hard
oil" varnishes will be found much safer than gloss oil.

37. The surfacing coat being thoroughly dry, which
requires from 10 to 24 hours according to the composi-
tion of the surfacer, the walls are ready for the calci-
mine. (For its preparation see paragraph 96.)

If the rooms or halls are large and high ceiled, it
will be much better to have tressles of the proper height
with a flooring of 2-inch walking boards across them,
sufficiently close together that the workmen will not
have to waste any of his precious time shifting the
boards about while he should be at his work busy on
fresh edges upon which he can join before they have
set, thus preventing an ugly lap line, showing at the
end of every stretch. It should be remembered that the
quicker the work can be done and finished from the
time it has commenced to completion the better the job
will look anjd the less likelihood of the surface showing
brush marks and laps.

66

Modern Painter's Cyclopedia

Plate II.

Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 6*7

The calcimine need not be rubbed out and laid off
like oil paint. It will be sufficient that the color be laid
on so as to cover every portion of the work without
skinning it or leaving any holidays upon it (holidays in
painters' parlance means a spot left untouched by
paint). To insure having gone all over the surface of
the wall, the better way is to first lay the color all over
cross ways of the stretch then to brush it the long way
of it. In this manner should there be any pin holes or
places left untouched by the first cross brushing, the
second will be almost sure to catch it unless the work
is done in some very dark place where it is impossible to
see what is being done.

If the suction has been properly stopped and the
calcimine properly mixed the job will present an even
and perfectly covered appearance of a beautiful flat
finish entirely free of brush marks and laps ; but it some-
times happens that the suction has not been perfectly
stopped or that the calcimine has been imperfectly
mixed. In that case it will be necessary to give the job
another coat. To give this second coat one should pro-
ceed in exactly the same manner as has been described
for the putting on of the first coat.

Where there has been no stoppage of the suction of
the plastered walls and they are "hot" or in an absorb-
ing condition, it is possible to go over them in a "way"
which reduces the suction trouble to a minimum. It is
this : to calcimine mixed in the ordinary way add about
4 ounces of glycerine to the gallon pail. One ounce of

68 Modern Painter's Cyclopedia

powdered alum previously dissolved in warm water
with just enough of that to dissolve it added for each
gallon of calcimine, will also help. Some add a J^ pint
of molasses to the gallon. The idea in all these addi-
tions is to retard the drying in of the water paint on
the plaster long enough that the next brushfull ap-
plied will still find the spot covered by the previous one
wet enough to blend in with it without rubbing up.
Glycerine has a great affinity for moisture and will
retain it, so has molasses to some extent, but in a much
lessened degree. A little soft soap is also of good
benefit in retarding the drying in, beside giving to the
calcimine much easier spreading properties.

38. It is usual to count all ornamental work even
that done in stencils over distemper painting as ''fresco
painting," but it is hardly proper to call by that name a
paneled ceiling or walls stenciled with some simple
designs or even with a stenciled center piece, corners
and brakes. While properly speaking there is no fresco
painting done in the United States, the name stands for
a higher and more artistic class of work than that
spoken of above. Every calciminer should be able to
do this simple ornamentation without trouble.

To lay out a ceiling with a center panel with stiles
surrounding it in different color requires but little skill.
A chalk line should be used to mark out the outlines
accurately and the various colors carefully cut in up to
the line. When dry it is ready to be lined up with
such line work as is necessary and stenciled in appro-
priate colors.

Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 69

Under the heading of stencils a full description is
given of the ''how to make them" beside the proper
way of using and taking care of them. (See para-
graphs 290 to 302.)

QUESTIONS ON CALCIMlNlNG.

31. What is calcimine and calcimining?

32. a. What kind of pails are necessary?

b. What support is required for them ?

c. What is the main brush used in laying it

on walls?

d. What other brushes are necessary?

e. How is the work reached?
/. What other means ?

g. How is work laid out?

h. What are the best means of heating water

i. What is required to melt glue in?

y. What other tools are useful ?

33. What material is employed in mixing calcimine ?

34. What has been said regarding walls ?

35. How can suction be stopped in hot walls?

36. What is a surfacer ?

37. How is calcimine applied?

38. How are walls and ceilings laid out into panels,
stiles, etc. ?

CARRIAGE PAINTING, CAR AND COACH
PAINTING.

For all practical purposes, all the above stand upon
one and the same footing. The underlying principles

7^' Modern Painter's Cyclopedia

and the reasons why of everything connected with them
all being the same and having the same foundation.

Why is it that carriages, cars, coaches, and all vehi-
cles, delivery wagons, automobiles, in fact all vehicles
making any attempt at brilliancy by a polished varnish
surface and which are used out of doors for a great
part of the time, subject to all the vicissitudes and hard-
ships, great changes of temperature resulting from the
inclemencies of the weather, why is it that such vehicles
are painted in an entirely different manner than that
used for the painting of buildings which have to be out
in the weather all the time, summer and winter when
the heat will almost boil water or get down below the
o mark until mercury will freeze solid?

At first sight one would think that what was good
enough for the painting of buildings which have to
stand so much more hardships from the weather than
vehicles usually do, that the same treatment applied to
vehicles would be just the right thing for them.

All are well aware that house painting is chiefly done
■by using linseed oil as a binder and vehicle of the pig-
ments used in doing the work and really it is by this
use only that a lasting job of painting can be done at all
upon these while in the painting of carriages and other
vehicles linseed oil is dispensed with in all but the first
priming or foundation coats. Even if that first priming
coat could be put on with any other liquid vehicle that
would do the same good that is expected of it — it is
more than likely that there would be none used at all.

Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 71

Plate Til.

72 Modern Painter's Cyclopedia

This seeming inconsistency and variance is due to the
fact that a perfectly level surface has to be made up for
a carriage before it is Colored and varnished, which is
non-elastic or very slightly so or at least no greater
than that of the varnishes themselves is. It is neces-
sary that all coatings going onto the vehicle conform
themselves to this end: the making of all the
coats as near as possible, of each being as near like the
others in contraction and expansion. Now if after
the priming, linseed oil was used instead of japan and
varnish as binder and vehicles, the varnish, which is
composed mainly of hard gums would be unable to fol-
low the greater expansion and contraction of the under-
coats where the linseed oil was used with the conse-
quence that it would have to give or crack, which means
the same thing, to accommodate itself to its more pliable
neighbor and the job would soon be an eyesore — be-
sides oil coats have usually the very bad habit of sweat-
ing through the varnish coats and stickiness would en-
sue, which would catch all the dust and dirt it could
:arry and hold it there. So that what was once a thing
of beauty would soon become an eyesore to look upon.
It can thus readily be seen why it is not employed in
carriage painting.

THE TOOLS REQUIRED.

40. a. Round or oval bristle brushes to do the
priming with. It does not matter so much about size
or shape. It should possess sufficient elasticity and firm-
ness that the oil can be well rubbed in with it.

Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 73

b. A fair sized flat wall brush rather stiff but elas-
tic, to put on rough stuff with, with some smaller ones
to use in places where the larger ones would not readily
reach.

c. Some good heavy camel hair mottlers to lay color
coats with somewhat identical in shape to Figs. 31 or
41. Also some oval bristle chiseled edge varnish
brushes which are used for the same purpose. (See
Fig. 15.)

d. Some badger, fitch and camel hair brushes to
use in flowing, rubbing and varnishing running gear
parts. (See Figs. 31, 40, 41.)

e. Coach dusters, preferably made of white bristles
fine and soft, to clean all dirt and dust with. (See
Fig. 6.)

/. Spoke brushes, which are long and slender, to
reach down to the hub of wheels. (See Fig. 10.)

g. A number of various sized kinds of lettering,
striping and artists' brushes for ornamenting, in both
camel hair and sable. (See Figs. 36, 37, 39.)

EQUIPMENT USED IN CARRIAGE SHOPS.

41. a. Every shop aims to adapt its contrivances
to do work with in accord with its own particular needs
and requirements. The ones described below need not
be after any set pattern. Almost anything which will
answer the purpose intended for will do from the crud-
est to the very costliest, if they permit the painter to get
at his work and do it without loss of time and con-
venience.

74 Modern Painter's Cyclopedia

h. The most important are good tressles of proper
height or adjustable, to lay bodies upon during the
painting and drying operation and some others for
carriage parts.

c. Varnishing stands made to tilt are the most con-
venient and require special mention. They need not
be very expensive either, 3 legs and a tilting top 12
inches square is all that is needed. This arrangement
permits the workman getting all the way around the
job without any hindrance from the tressle legs.

d. Wheel jacks, which may be simply a post with a
projecting peg to hang the wheel upon and turn it grad-
ually while it is being painted or varnished.

e. Frames for bodies, gears and seats, each spe-
cially designed for the particular parts they are wanted
for.

/. Some good brush keepers — some for color
brushes, others for the different brushes used in var-
nishing, preferably one for each brush to hang in its
own kind of varnish. There are a number of very good
ones on the market that are patented and in which
brushes can be suspended without touching the bottom
and with covered tops to prevent dirt or dust entering
the keeper. One can make a very good individual brush
keeper by going to the refuse heap, picking up some of
the smaller sizes of tins wherein fruits and vegetables
had been previously packed. Melt the top off, have a
wire soldered on long enough to bend it so one end
will act as a peg to fit a hole bored in the brush handle

Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 75

so the brush will hang free of the bottom of the can,
then put the can into a large glass jar, some of the
fruit packing jars will answer, and after the top has been
screwed on one has an air tight and convenient brush
keeper at small cost. The wire projecting above the
tin itself will be found very convenient to lift it by, serv-
ing as a handle when it is desired to take it out of the
can.

g. Putty knives in various shapes and widths, stiff
and flexible square pointed and triangular. Spatulas
for triturating and lifting paints and putties ; some good
paint strainers for straining not only paint but var-
nishes, compose the most necessary small and large tools
of the hardware variety.

THE MATERIAL USED.

42. Nearly all the pigments used in painting are
available for coloring carriages and wagons, etc., as
colors or pigments are fully described in following
pages under the heading "Colors," it will be unneces-
sary here to repeat the same and the reader is referred
to paragraphs 61 to 84 for full particulars concerning
these.

White lead either ground in oil, japan varnish or dry
is probably the most important on the list, ochre and
filling material next in preparatory work and blacks
by long odds the most important in coloring coats, with
a variety covering the whole chromatic scale in wagon
and car painting.

76

Modern Painter's Cyclopedia

Plate IV.

Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 77

THE WORK PROPER THE PRIMING.

43. This is the foundation upon which the whole
superstructure will either make good or fail, therefore
one should well understand its principles and take ^he
utmost care in its performance in a good workmanlike
manner.

It has already been mentioned that the priming or
foundation coat is the only one in which linseed oil
should be used and the reasons therefore given.
Under the name of priming, however, it is not meant
the first coat (which is merely an oiling) but all coat-
ings of the foundation for rough stuffing must be under-
stood as forming a part of the priming.

The first operation for the priming is the mixing of
the color. This should consist of white lead colored to
a deep gray with lampblack or white lead and ochre in
various proportions also tinted with lampblack, which
should be greatly thinned with raw linseed oil to which
has been added a little dryer. The pigments themselves
are understood as having been finely ground in oil and
to have been so thinned, that the application of the
priming may be said to be the giving the job a coat of
colored oil. While the coating is thin the going over
the parts painted must be plainly seen to have been
colored by it. The work of its application with the
brush must be thorough and put on with plenty of elbow
grease, well brushed in — not simply gone over.

The primed parts should be laid aside where they
will have a chance to dry well and ample time should

78 Modern Painter's Cyclopedia

be given it for the same. The priming and for that
matter all painting done with linseed oil may feel dry
and seemingly hard under the touch of the finger, this
is not an indication, however, that it is through dry-
ing. It is not one day nor two days that it will take
for the oil to be dry, but — certainly no less than a week
should be allowed and two weeks would be better.

Under the high pressure system in vogue, this is now
seldom done, but when it is a well known fact that
linseed oil keeps absorbing oxygen from the atmosphere
for about lo days and that during that period it is
undergoing changes of both form and bulk — it in-
creases about io% and it is not to be considered as dry
until this change shall have taken place. It must
readily be understood that another application of paint
over the priming before the changes due to drying are
completed that it will be imperfect and incomplete and
greatly hindered by the application of another coat from
access to air from which it draws oxygen which be-
comes combined with it and forms a gum resin during
the process of drying.

44. a. This coat being dry should be followed up
by applications which are best known as the lead coats.

THE LEAD COATS.

44. h. This is composed of white lead which has
been colored with lamp black to a light slate or dark
qray. The lead is what in carriage painting is known
a5 keg lead or white lead ground in linseed oil, and

Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 79

hereafter when that term Is used, It means white lead
in oil only. This should be thinned with about }i lin-
seed oil and }i turpentine to a proper consistency for
applying with a bristle brush, in a smooth even manner.
Some painters prefer a flat lead coat or one which
contains just enough linseed oil to bind it on, the thin-
ner consisting chiefly of turpentine.

THE RUB LEAD.

45. This Is without doubt the better way of prepar-
ing the job for further operations. It consists in mix-
ing dry white lead to which a little lamp black has been
mixed in about % parts of raw linseed oil to which J4
part of japan has been added, to a stiff paste and the
same ground up In a shop paint mill and afterward
thinned in the same proportion of linseed oil and japan.
It should be applied as stiff as it can be worked, with
a half worn out stiff bristle brush. After It has been
spread let it stand a few minutes, just enough to let it
take on a tact^ when the lead rub coat should be rubbed
over with the palm of the hand. It Is needless to say
that this rub lead coat should not be applied over the
lead coats mentioned in paragraph 44, but Instead It
takes their place and should be applied directly over the
linseed oil priming first described. This requires some
little time to harden sufficiently for further operations,
and for that reason Is considered too slow in many
shops, although It is undoubtedly the 'Very best w^ay"
to proceed in surfacing the priming.

80 Modern Painter's Cyclopedia

KNIFING IN LEAD.

46. Knifing in lead is a quicker way of surfacing"
the priming coat. The lead used for this purpose is
specially ground in japan for that purpose, but many
prefer to mix it themselves from dry white lead mixed
in various proportions of rubbing varnish, japan and
turpentine. As the name indicates, it is spread with a
knife. It requires careful manipulations so as to level
up everything perfectly and it should be well pressed
into any cavity or depressions. As work which has
been "knifed" is seldom rough stuffed afterward it
should be done so well that it will in a manner take the
place of that operation. In fairly good work it is never
used on bodies or wagon beds, but for the cheaper and
medium grades even the bodies are "knifed in."

PUTTY AND PUTTYING.

47. The next operation in order after the rub lead
has become hardened sufficiently is to putty up the job
previous to rough stuffing. It is made by triturating
together dry white lead, rubbing varnish and japan in
about equal quantities. The consistency is somewhat
variable for the different purposes that it may be
wanted for, but for general purposes it should be suf-
ficiently thin that it can be made to enter readily into
any opening about to be filled, but also thick enough
that the putty knife will made a clean level cut over it,
as otherwise such parts will be eyesores, especially if the
job is not to receive any rough stuffing.

Modern Painter's Cyclopedia

81

Plate V.

52 Modern Painte/s Cyclopedia

SAND PAPERING.

48. After the puttying has dried and hardened suf-
ficiently, the job is ready for the sand papering. This
should be very carefully done with fine sand paper to
level up any of the putty which rises over the parts sur-
rounding it. Great care should be taken that in using
the paper too energetically, the lead coats may not be
cut through, therefore it should be confined to the parts
where it is needed and the rest very lightly gone over,
merely to assure one's self that no roughness has been
overlooked.

THE ROUGH STUFF.

49. a. It would be impossible to produce that
piano-like smoothness of finish which constitutes the
chief beauty of a carriage body, without rough stuffing
it. Therefore the operation of rough stuffing consists
in the perfect leveling of the surface over which it is
applied. It fills up whatever inequalities may be upon it,
small pores, etc., until it is as level as a slab of polished
marble.

b. The material used consists mainly of coarse min-
eral paints which all the supply stores sell under the
name of fillers, and these are combined with white lead.
They are mixed in the proportion of 3 parts of the filler
to I of keg lead, by weight, into a stiff paste in a thinner
composed of equal parts of quick rubbing varnish and
japan, thinned to the proper working consistency with
turpentine. There are a number of other methods of

Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 83

mixing rough stuff, but the one given is that which is
chiefly in use and will be found satisfactory.

c. It should be put on carefully and leveled up with
as much attention as in any of the other applications,
but somewhat thicker than is required for color coats.
While rough stuff should be thicker than those, yet it
should be thinned sufficiently so as to allow of the
proper brushing it out without dragging, and a good
chiseled edge bristle varnish brush should be used
which has been broken in but not much worn. (See

Fig. 15.)

It is a much better policy to give the job 3, 4 or even
5 coats of rather thin coats than to try to accomplish
the came object with two coats which are too heavy.

The mixing formula given requires 24 hours drying
before a next coat be applied.

d. When giving the job the last coat of rough stuff,
the latter should have a little Venetian red mixed up
with it and should be thinned more liberally with tur-
pentine than was used in the preceding coats.

RUBBING THE ROUGH STUFF.

50. a. If the rough stuff coats have been carefully
put on, the work will now be in proper shape for "rub-
bing down."

There is nothing better for the purpose than the rub-
bing brick which may be found in all the supply stores in
the United States, ready prepared. The fine Italian
natural blocks of pumice stone, well leveled, is still used
where an extra fine job is desired.

84 Modern Painter's Cyclopedia

b. While the rubbing is being done the surface
should be kept well wetted with clean water and often
sponged off to keep it from gumming.

c. And here is where the last guide coat prepared
with Venetian red puts in its good end. If the work
of rubbing the rough stuff has been carefully and sys-
tematically done by rubbing the surface with strokes
leading in one direction back and forth, without wig-
gling or going over the surface in a haphazard way,
when the guide coat has been cut through the surface
will be level. Yet the cutting through of the guide coat
is not always an indication that the work has been prop-
erly done or leveled. The skilled workman however
can readily ascertain this by passing the palm of his
hand over it, and his fine sense of touch will readily
give him notice of any imperfectly leveled parts. Time
and experience alone will enable one to become a good
judge as to whether the work has been well done or not.

THE COLORING AND GLAZING COATS.

51. a. Generally speaking concerning the applica-
tion of the color coats, it must here be stated that it re-
quires a good degree of workmanship to do it well.

b. As to the tools used, nothing but a camel hair
mottler or color brush should be used, (see Fig. 41) as
the color should be laid very evenly and without brush
marks. One thing the novice should learn to guard
against is the brushing his work crossways at the ends.
This should be avoided and it should be done by work-

Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 85

ing the brush back and forth in one direction only and
with an easy and even motion.

h. Each color requires a somewhat different man-
ner of handling, but on the whole this much can be said :
never to put them on too thickly, and if the color is very
transparent it is better to give the job more coats than
to risk spoiling the smoothness of the surface of the job
produced upon it by the rough stuffing process.

c. It goes without the saying it again that no lin-
seed oil is permissible in the application of color coats
and that the thinner used for binding them should be
varnish thinned with turpentine.

d. While jobs require special treatment of their own
from the ground up, they should first be cleaned of all
dirty marks on the bare wood, then carefully oiled over
with clear linseed oil, sand papered and painted over
with a keg lead coat, thinned with i part of raw linseed
oil with 3 parts turpentine. The puttying should be
done on this coat, then it should be followed up with
another thinned with only half as much raw linseed oil
as the first had, with a corresponding increase of tur-
pentine; then after lightly sand papering it, apply a
coat of flake white thinned sufficiently to work freely
under the brush. This flake white coat should be thinned
with hard drying finishing varnish. These coats
should be very smoothly and evenly put on and should
be followed up with hard drying finishing varnish in
which a little of the flake white has been added to hide
the yellow tinge of the varnish. When dry rub with

86

Modern Painter's Cyclopedia

Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 87

pumice stone and apply another coat of the same var-
nish, which should be treated as before.

THE ORNAMENTATION.

52. a. Some coach painters do the ornamentation
and striping upon the last coat of color, but it is much
better and safer to first give the job a coat of quick dry-
ing rubbing varnish and to lightly rub it down with
pumice stone, being careful not to cut it through into the
color. This will act as a protection and prevent fatal
results upon the surface as mistakes can be cleaned off
the varnish coating which it would be impossible to do
over the color coat itself.

The ornamentation consists in fine, medium and
broad lines or striping, scroll work, coat of arms and
other ornaments, lettering, etc., etc., according as to
what the job is; each having its own fashions as to the
decoration, be it a coach, carriage, car, business wagon
or whatever other name and kind the vehicle may be.

b. The striping requires skill, so a novice will do
well to acquire considerable of that before he under-
takes the striping upon a good job, for he must have
that and a good amount of confidence in himself to
make a success of it. For the tools needed to do the
work with the reader is referred to Fig. 37 for the
shape of quill bound striping brush and to Fig. 43 for
the sword striper, which is used in making fine lines.

Colors for striping should be mixed with varnish,
japan and turpentine, tempering these to suit the job

88 Modern Painter's Cyclopedia

and color used upon it, some colors requiring a lit-
tle more of one and less of another than some others
would.

c. A great deal of the ornamentation done upon ve-
hicles is by means of transfers. These transfers are
printed in colors upon a specially prepared paper which
is applied face downward upon tacky varnish on the
job, or sometimes the varnish is applied to the ornament
itself and then applied to the place wanted. After
smoothing over the transfer, the paper is sponged on
the back with clean water which it will absorb and swell,
when it can be slipped about and off the job, leaving the
ornament upon it held tightly by the varnish under it.

d. Hand ornamentation requires both skill and time.
Only such as possess the first should undertake it, as an
eyesore and loss of reputation would surely result from
a botched job. All colors used in ornamentation re-
quire the same thinning and treatment as was described
in Sec. B of this paragraph.

Sign writing upon vehicles, aside from the fact
that it is done in coach colors thinned in the same man-
ner as stated in section b of this paragraph is done in
very much the same manner as is fully described under
the heading of Sign Painting, so the reader is referred
to paragraphs 260 to 277 for fuller information.

THE VARNISHING.

53. a. The varnishing of vehicles is a very partic-
ular branch of the coach painter's trade. It is almost

Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 89

needless to have to warn against varnishing a job where
it will be subjected to dust, changes of temperature and
the thousand and one other causes which will make
varnish go wrong. Only those who are familiar with
the host of *'make-varnish-go-wrong-agencies" have
any idea of their multitude and extent. It also seems as
needless to say that it requires skill and experience.
Under the heading of varnishing, fuller directions are
given as to the "how to do the work" and the reader is
referred to paragraphs 312 to 317 for fuller informa-
tion, but there are some peculiarities about the varnish-
ing of vehicles which are their own and which are noted
below.

The skimpy, skinny manner of putting on varnish
some workmen have who are always afraid of putting
on too much and who brush out the little they put on
to the last limit, will never make good carriage var-
nishers. Even the rubbing coats are the better for hav-
ing been flowed on, and they should be so put on es-
pecially in shops where jobs can be tipted.

It is necessary to caution especially against doing the
varnishing in any place where dust cannot be kept
out and where the temperature be regulated with uni-
formity in cold weather.

THE RUBBING COATS.

54. a. The job should receive two heavy coats of
rubbing varnish which is much better than double that
number of coats put on thinly. As soon as dry, which
will require two days, the rubbing may be done.

90 Modern Painte/s Cyclopedia

b. The needed material consists in a rubbing pad
of felt which can be bought ready made at supply stores.
These pads are prepared specially for all sorts of pur-
poses in varnish rubbing. It is made of felt of different
degrees of hardness and texture and varies in thickness
from 34 to 2 inches. Chamois skins, sponges, pails for
water and o or oo pumice stone. The Italian kind is
much the best, running even and free of grit. Some of
the American is very poor and especially gritty, for that
reason it should not be employed in carriage rubbing as
it would scratch the life out of a job.

c. The job should be washed perfectly clean and
dried by rubbing it over with a chamois skin, then it is
ready to be rubbed. This operation is done by first' dip-
ping the pad into clean water then into the box holding
the pulverized pumice stone ; then proceeding to rub the
mouldings and outside edges of panels, then proceed-
ing towards the center where the rubbing should end.
The rubbing should all be done in one direction, or as
much as possible at least, and should be very carefully
made. After the operation has been completed the job
should be well washed and cleaned of the pumice stone
and again dried with chamois skin. When all moisture
has been completely dried it is then ready for the flow-
ing finishing coats.

THE FLOWING FINISHING COATS.

55. As the name indicates these coats should be
^'Howed" on for good results, or the mirror like surface
which all the previous operations have led to step by

Modern Painter's Cyclopedia

91

r

I!
I

92 Modern Painter's Cyclopedia

step, will have been done to no avail. In putting on the
flowing coats do all the parts adjacent to the panels first,
finishing the wide panels last. The brush should al-
ways be loaded full of varnish for in that condition the
job can be gone over more quickly and easily. It should
be cross brushed lightly before finally laying it off.
See paragraph 312 to 317, under the heading ''Var-
nishing," for fuller information.

56. The varnishing of running gears is somewhat
easier to do properly than that of bodies, but requires
skill too. Only a small surface should be gone over at
a time before laying off and it takes a watchful work-
man to put it on. Much care should be taken to prevent
dust and good cleaning done before and after each op-
eration. In putting on rubbing varnish on the wheels
always lay it off after having gone over half a dozen
spokes or so.

QUESTIONS ON CARRIAGE, CAR OR COACH PAINTING.

39. Give a synopsis of the difference between car-
riage painting and ordinary out door oil painting.

40. a. What kind of brush is used in priming?

b. What kinds of brushes are used in rough

stufling ?

c. What kinds of brushes are needed for color

laying?

d. What kinds of brushes are used for var-

nishing?

e. What kind of brush is used fo^ cleaning-?

Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 93

/. What tool is used in painting spokes ?
g. What brushes are needed in striping and
ornamenting ?

42. What is said regarding the material used?

43. What is priming?

44. a. What are the lead coats? b. What is a
flat lead coat ?

45. What is a rub lead coat?

46. What is knifing in lead ?

47. How is carriage putty made and applied?

48. How is the sandpapering done?

49. a. What is rough stuff?

b. What material is chiefly used in mixing

rough stuff?

c. How should it be put on?

d. What is a guide coat?

50. a. How is rough stuff rubbed ?

b. How is rough stuff made ?

c. How is it performed ?

51. a. What is said in a general way concerning

the color coats ?
b. Are all colors used in color coats to be used

in the same manner?
C, Should linseed oil be used in the painting of

color coats?
(f. How would you proceed to paint a white

job?

52. a. What is said regarding ornamentation?
b. How is striping done?

94 Modern Painter's Cyclopedia

c. What are transfers?

d. What is said of hand decoration?

e. What is said of sign work on vehicles ?

53. What is said generally of varnishing?

54. How is rubbing done?

55. How is flowing varnish put on?

56. How are running gears varnished?

CHINA PAINTING. "

57. China painting differs radically from any other
sort in a number of ways.

It is of course out of the question to think of using
linseed oil and ordinary artists' colors mixed with it, as
then the painting would be subject to many vicissitudes,
it would be easily scratched, marred and even rubbed
off, besides it would be impossible to use them
upon the table as food carriers or holders, for
many of the colors are poisonous and none of
them very appetizing, and most persons w^ould as soon
have them remain upon the platters or plates, much
rather than having them mixed up with their food. At
best such painting would render the article so painted
good for show only, but unfitted for use ; to be hung
upon the wall or placed on a shelf to look at, the same as
any other oil painting done on canvas.

The requirements of china painting are that both the
colors and the medium used in their application
shall be vitrifiahlc and assimilate or be capable of being
incorporated with the blank china upon which the

Modern Painter's Cyclopedia $5

painting is done that the two shall form but one in-
separable whole and become one integral part of it.

Therefore to accomplish this the colors must be either
vitrifiable of themselves or be made so by a flux mixed
with them that will attach them with an artificial coat-
ing under the influence of a high degree of heat which
melts it.

As the coloring matter of many of the colors used in
china painting are not developed until the china has
been fired (put into a kiln and burned) it can easily be
understood that in that alone it would differ from any
other painting and must cause a novice some anxiety at
first as to just what will be the results of his labor, as
he cannot always perceive what progress has been made
or whether the painting has been rightly or wrongly
done. At best he is likely to spoil a few pieces in learn-
ing by experience just how to handle these changeable
undeveloped colors. This is probably the most trouble-
some point of difference between china painting and
any other.

MATERIAL REQUIRED.

58. There are to be found at the present time a
great number of ready prepared colors with plates show-
ing the exact coloring of each, just as they will appear
after the firing. This simplifies the otherwise difficult
task of knowing what color one must select for obtain-
ing certain results. These ready prepared colors have
the flux ready mixed with them or are in the shape of

96

Modern Painter's Cyclopedia

1

Plate Vni.

Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 97

powders to which the flux must be added. Upon the
whole it will be best for novices, as well as others, to use
moist vitrifiable colors in tubes. These are nearly all
the go now among amateur and professional china
painters. They save the tedious and annoying methods
of goneby days when it was necessary to prepare the
medium by the slow processes of evaporation of spirits
of turpentine and of oil of tar to make the fat oils of
each. Everything can be bought ready prepared and
ready to use. It has rendered a great service to the
many who have taken up the painting of china as a
pastime and for the many who now find pleasure from
this employment of their spare time who would have
been deterred from the undertaking but for this saving
of drudgery.

Small slabs with depressions upon them to lay colors
upon and to hold fluxes, mediums, etc., should be pro-
cured. Gold, platinum, etc. Gold and other metals
used in decorating china can also be bought ready for
use in all the shades of the metal and the different
alloys.

One should also be well supplied with many different
sizes of camel's hair brushes to lay the colors with; a
list of useful accessory tools and appliances would make
up a fair sized pamphlet. As the description without
the illustration of such by cuts would be more likely to
be misunderstood than otherwise, the reader is advised
to send to some of the art stores in our larger cities for
an illustrated catalogue which will give him, for the ask-

98 Modern Painter's Cyclopedia

ing, a very full understanding of all the tools, brushes
and appliances needed in china painting, besides giving
him the price at which each is sold.

THE PAINTING.

59. Either outline the design upon the china with a
lithographic pencil or with black leads. Some use India
ink in outHning as it burns out entirely during the firing
process, leaving the design painted free of outline
marks and for that reason it is preferred by many.

After the design has been laid out, proceed to paint it
on by mixing the colors needed with the medium and
applying them with a brush.

The powder colors should be laid on a slab and be
worked into a stiff paste with the fat oil which is after-
ward reduced to the proper working consistency by
thinning with spirits of turpentine.

Those in tubes should be thinned according to direc-
tions.

60. After the ware has been painted it is necessary
that it should be fired in an oven to vitrify the colors
and bind them to the china. These ovens are portable,
many of them, and are made small enough to suit the
requirements of those who do not paint china in a com-
mercial way. Again as in all our larger cities persons
are found who fire china for an amateur clientele, many
of these prefer to patronize them to save the expense
and trouble of owning a furnace.

Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 99

QUESTIONS ON CHINA PAINTING.

57. What is said about china painting in general?

58. What material is required ?

59. How is the painting done?

60. What must be done to vitrify the colors ?

COLORS.

61. Colors or pigments are of the utmost impor-
tance to the paint trade and it should be a subject of
great interest to every one who handles a brush. They
should be well understood by men who make daily use
of them, for without an intimate knowledge of their
properties and peculiarities the painting done with them
may or may not be all that it should be. Many a good
job well brushed on has gone wrong because of the ig-
norance of the painter who mixed the paint.

It will be impossible in a work of this size to devote
as much space to the subject as it requires, but of all
the most important at least, an explanation of their
derivation, composition, manufacture and uses will be
given. Their chief properties will be considered and
warning given of their antipathies for other pigments.

For the purpose of examination the colors will be
placed in groups — not because of nearness of relation
to each other, nor of their chemical composition, be-
cause colors with but little difference in their chemis-
try may be of an entirely different color as the ferric
oxide colors show — ochre being yellow, while the Ve-
netian reds are red. So the colors will be grouped ac-

100 Modern Painter's Cyclopedia

cording to their coloring regardless of their composi-
tion.

62. Pigments are derived from each of the various
kingdoms according as they are most important to the
trade. First, those derived from the metals, as the
leads, the ferric oxides, the zinc whites, those of copper
origin, etc. Second, that numerous branch derived from
the mineral kingdom, as the ochres, umbers, siennas,
whiting, gypsum, etc.

Third, those derived from the vegetable kingdom, as
most of the lakes.

Fourth, those of animal origin, as carmine, etc.

63. While pigments can thus be classed according
to their origin, they must be reclassed again for the pur-
pose of examination and grouped together not accord-
ing to their formation but according to their color.

This will not only greatly facilitate the work but a
comparison with others of the same color can be made
more readily. Therefore they will be placed together
into seven general groups. In each group the pigments
which come nearest to its color will be classed. It is
true that a few pigments will seem out of place as they
border so near to another group that it is hard to tell
which has the most claims for it, but only very few
such cases will need bother one — the orange chrome yel-
lows— some of the deeper one are really more red than
yellow — and but for the fact that under the name of
chrome yellow remarks are made which belong to the
whole range of color of those yellows, no matter what

Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 101

their tone may be, they would have been included in the
red — but for reasons stated they are best placed with
the yellows. It saves useless repetition or the need of
referring the reader to the proper paragraphs giving
the explanations.

64. a. For convenience sake then, the various pig-
ments of real value to the painter have been classed in
the seven following groups :
I. The whites.

The reds.

The yellows.

The blues.

The greens.

The browns.

The blacks.

b. As each pigment varies in character from others
and better adapted to some uses than to others — some
being worthless in oil, while they may be invaluable as
water colors and vice-versa, they must not be judged
by their unfitness for work to which they are not
adapted.

THE WHITES.

65. a. As the whites are by far the most important
of all the pigments used in painting, it is fitting that
they should be placed at the head of the list. This is
due to them, not only because of their self color, in
which they are used in enormous quantities, but also
because they are the dominant pigment or base upon

102 Modern Painter's Cyclopedia

which all light tints made by the addition of other col-
oring pigments are effected.

b. Whites are chiefly the products of the salts of the
metal lead and that of zinc (its oxide and only white
form). The rest of the whites being natural earths of
various composition and extraction. In examining
them the metallic whites being the ones mostly used will
be placed at the head of the list.

THE METALLIC WHITES.

66. a. White lead heads the list by undisputed
right, it being heads and shoulders ahead of any of the
other whites, many times over more than all the others
put together for out and indoor oil painting and well it
deserves it. Its great covering power due to its opacity,
(when the word covering is used in connection with a
pigment it does not mean its spreading capacity so
much as its opaqueness in hiding the coats of paint over
which it is applied).

b. Its peculiarities are that it forms a linoleate lead
soap with linseed oil which renders it smooth and easy
of application. This saponification does not extend to
all the oil necessary to its application and it is a pity that
it does not, as when dry the lead soap thus formed is
insoluble.

White lead should never be used where sulphurous
fumes are generated, especially where sulphuretted hy-
drogen gas is developed, as it greedily assimilates it and
is turned into a black sulphide of lead. This change

Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 103

will sometimes occur over night. The atoms composing
the lead seem to have no affinity for one another and it
is no doubt due to this reason that whenever the linseed
oil commences to decay that having nothing to hold
them on they dust or chalk off, as under the name this
peculiarity is best known. It is true that white lead,
even the best of it, chalks, but if the painting has been
done with good linseed oil the chalking will not com-
mence so soon, nor really is this peculiarity worth men-
tioning as a fault. A good coat of paint given soon
after the lead is noticed to chalk will rebind on all these
particles and the surface even when let go for sometime
after that will always be in a good condition for re-
painting as white lead never scales off that has been ap-
plied with raw linseed oil.

c. The best qualities of the white lead of commerce
known to the paint trade as "strictly pure" is that cor-
roded by the ''Dutch Process." This means that di-
lute acetic acid, carbonic acid, oxygen and hydrogen
are furnished to the lead in more or less ingenious ways
and that those agents corrode and combine with the lead
and that the product of the combination is what is
known as white lead. White lead is a basic carbonate
of lead, or to be more correct, an hydrate oxide carbon-
ate of lead. The proportion may vary somewhat, but
that agreed upon as being the best is about 1/3 hy-
droxide of lead and 2/3 carbonate of that metal — more
of the hydrate means better opacity but more chalking

104 Modern Painter's Cyclopedia

propensity. More carbonate means less opacity but also
less chalking.

d. There are two methods of corroding lead under
the "Dutch Process" so called system, the stack and the
cylinder methods.

The stack method consists in placing what are known
as buckles (these are thin perforated discs of metallic
lead) into porous earthenware pots of somewhat the
same texture as flower pots. These have a space at the
bottom to hold dilute acetic acid of the strength of or-
dinary vinegar and, along the sides are projections serv-
ing to keep the buckles apart. This and the perfora-
tions in the disc permits the acetic vapor and the car-
bonic acid gas to come into contact with the lead. First
a floor of manure or tan bark or a combination of the
two is laid down at the bottom of the stack, then a row
of empty jars which are afterward filled with buckles to
nearly the top, then dilute acetic acid is furnished to
each jar through a hose with a nozzle. Then the tier
is covered over with boards which again are covered
with manure or tan bark and the same operations are
repeated until the stack is completed to the top. The
stack starts from the ground upward to what might be
called the second story, but which in corroding houses
is known as the working alley, as all the material is first
received there to be placed in the stacks, a row of these
extending on both sides of it to any length desired. The
compartments called stacks being about 8 or lo feet
wide by about 12 to 16 feet long. There are stacks in

Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 105

the corroding houses in all stages of completion. Some
finished and the jars containing corroded lead being
taken out, others being filled, and so on. It requires
about three months to complete the corrosion, which
goes on as long as any acetic acid remains and enough
heat in generated by the manure to evaporate it and
furnish carbonic acid, the main element absorbed by the
lead to make itself what it is — a basic carbonate of lead.
Were it not for carbonic acid being present and the lead
having more affinity for it than for the acetic, then it
would simply become an acetate of that metal— of no
value whatever as a pigment.

c. The cylinder method is an entirely different sys-
tem of applying the same elements entering into the lead
corrosion, i. e., acetic acid, carbonic acid, oxygen and
hydrogen, than that of the stack system, and produces a
lead of the same chemical composition.

The lead in place of being cast into buckles is melted
and while it is being poured out, a jet of live steam is
played against it, reducing it to very small globules of
about the fineness of ordinary sand. This sand is
placed in revolving cylinders (hence the name of the
system) which are connected with generators which
furnish it with acetic acid vapors, carbonic acid gas,
oxygen and the proper moisture for hydrogen. These
cylinders revolve slowly all the time and the particles of
lead being very fine are soon acted upon and the whole
mass becomes pretty thoroughly corroded inside of
three to six days. Besides the corrosion is nearly com-

106 Modern Painter's Cyclopedia

plete, there being very little if any uncorroded blue or
metallic lead remaining after the operation is over —
which cannot be said of the stack process.

/. Space forbids giving an extended description of
the various handlings of the lead after it is corroded,
before it is finally ground and packed ready for con-
sumption in the way the painter is accustomed to buy it.
There is no material difference between the two leads
produced by either system. The difference is in the ap-
plication of the corroding agents and time required
with which operations the manufacturer is more con-
cerned than the painter. The cylinder system does
away with the application of manure, heat and carbonic
acid being furnished from other sources. This manure,
or rather fine particles of it, are very hard to keep out
entirely in the stack system of corrosion. It is true that
infinite pains are taken by conscientious manufacturers
by repeated washings in water and fine silk gauze strain-
ing to get all such out, but even with such precautions,
either through neglect or the human depravity of some
of the workmen, it is not unusual to find little specks of
it occasionally in some of the lead corroded by that
system of which the cylinder lead is entirely free.

No one should be deterred from using either as the
difference is immaterial; it is of course possible to make
very poor pure lead by both systems and to have it off
color and badly ground or packaged, but of that neither
methods are responsible for.

Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 107

SUBLIMED LEAD.

6y. Sublimed lead is white and but that it would
create confusion in calHng it "white lead" because it
would then be confounded with what has become a well
known article, which, when it has been labeled "strictly
pure" is supposed to mean, "hyd-carb. of lead" and
nothing else, but for confusing the two it would be en-
titled to the name. But it would be unwise to open up
a door which would break up the distinction between
the two and to return to that state of uncertainty which
in the past was so annoying and which it took so much
fighting for, to establish upon the firm foundation it
stands upon today.

Sublimed lead is a basic sulphate of lead containing
in its composition some lead oxide with a small per-
centage of zinc oxide. It has much to recommend it
for many purposes to which it is well adapted. It is
extremely fine, so much so, that its particles float in oil
without readily settling, making it an ideal dipping
white paint. It is not affected by sulphureted hy-
drogen gas, fatal to most all other salts of lead. It is
somewhat less opaque than Dutch process white lead,
therefore does not cover quite so well. It is produced by
the vaporisation of lead ore. These vapors are con-
ducted to chambers above where they come in contact
with oxygen contained in atmospheric air, combining
with it, form the oxy-sulphate of lead. This transfor-
mation takes place in a somewhat similar manner as that
which is described for the manufacture of zinc white

108 Modern Painter's Cyclopedia

(see paragraph 69). At the present time it is being
used in large quantities by manufacturers of ready
mixed paints and color grinders, but so far it has not
appeared under its own name in its white state, but is
found in many of the compound whites manufactured
by color grinders.

68. There are several other salts of lead that are
white, such as the white oxide of lead and some other
compound salts of that metal, none of which, however,
have proven themselves formidable rivals of ''white
lead" all having so many faults that the ones related as
appertaining to Dutch process white lead seem "venial"
when compared to theirs.

ZINC WHITE.

69. a. Is the white and only oxide of that metal.
For painting material it is a very valuable pigment and
after "white lead" is next to that, the most exten-
sively used of all the white pigments by all classes of
painters with the exception of the carriage trade.

Its peculiarities are all its own and differ widely
from those of white lead. It has more spreading power
and absorbs more oil. It is not so opaque and in con-
sequence does not cover so well as that pigment, but if
its spreading power be taken into consideration, a given
weight of it would probably cover over as much and as
well as the same quantity of white lead would if
thinned out sufficiently to cover as many square feet of
surface as the zinc did. Zinc white cannot be applied

Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 109

with the same amount of linseed oil as would suffice to
render the white lead thin enough to work well with the
brush, as it is much lighter in weight.

One of its peculiarities, is the great affinity existing
between its atoms for each other, it is so great that after
the oil has decayed they will hang together into a scale
but never chalk off. In this respect it is the very oppo-
site of white lead whose atoms we have seen have no
affinity and which fall singly in what is known as
chalking when the oil holding them together has de-
cayed. But while this great adherence of its particles is
good in some ways it has its faults too, in that when
the oil has decayed instead of falling off single or
chalking they hold together until they fall off as scales.

Zinc white therefore is a good corrective to combine
with white lead for outside painting while the lead
itself is a good corrective for the too great affinity of
its own particles. The zinc preventing the chalking
off of the lead and the lead its scaling propensities.

b. Zinc white is a very fine pigment to use in dis-
temper, covering well and the tints made with it when
used as a base are invariably cleaner and purer toned
than those made with any other white as a base. The
above also holds true for any tint made from it as a
base with colors in oil.

It IS invaluable for all enamelling work when ground
in varnish. Some of the better kinds of French
i3ffOcess made zinc whites are so very white in tone

110 Modern Painter's Cyclopedia

that ordinary white lead shows a yellowish tone when
placed side by side together.

Zinc white is the oxide of that metal and is made in
two different ways — but by the same process of oxida-
tion. These two methods are known as the "French"
and as the ''American." The zinc white made by the
so called French process is manufactured from the
metal, while that named American from the zinc ore
instead.

THE FRENCH PROCESS.

c. Zinc white made by the French process is pro-
duced by placing metallic zinc in retorts or ovens where
it is vaporized by heat — this vapor is conducted to
upper chambers which are supplied with fresh atmos-
pheric air for which the zinc has a great affinity in the
state of vapor and with which it instantly combines
when it comes in contact with it. From the ceil-
ings of these chambers hang long sacks with their
mouths opened and closely fitted together into which
the floculent feathery oxide rises up and is caught up
in these. The oxide which is caught the farthest away
from the openings through which the zinc vapor arises
from the retorts is the whitest and best — that which is
caught nearest the openings usually containing more
or less of foreign matter in the shape of dust, etc.,
which finds its way from the retorts into the chamber.
This feathery mass is next subjected to a powerful
compression when it is then ground up and packaged

Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 111

ready for the market in a dry state or to be ground
up in oil or varnish.

THE AMERICAN PROCESS.

d. The American process of making zinc white is
essentially the same as that related for the French,
differing from it only in the shape of the raw ma-
terial. Instead of using the metallic zinc, zinc ore be-
comes the provider. That is placed in the retorts and
vaporized in the same manner as related for the French
process. However, as the ore contains so much more
foreign matter and impurities the zinc white thus ob-
tained is inferior in whiteness and quality to the first
and is sold for less money than the other.

e. The name of French zinc has lost its significance
as to being an index as to the source of supply of that
article as today there is as good a quality of French
process zinc made in America and which commands
as good a price as any zinc white imported from
Europe.

In both the French and American zinc white the
first and second qualities are designated as green and
red seal respectively. The green denoting the best qual-
ity— the red the second.

THE EARTH WHITES.

70. a. Earth whites so called are all of mineral
origin and according as they contain as a base either
lime, clay, or sand are known as cretaceous, aluminous

112 Modern Painter's Cyclopedia

or silicious. All possess somewhat different properties,
each being better than any of the others for certain
specific purposes.

b. Cretaceous earths are chiefly used in water colors
and for that matter all earth whites are at their best
in distemper and have that much in common, excepting
when they are used in oils as adjuncts, correctives or
adulterants for the metallic whites or any of the color-
ing pigments where each differ materially from the
other.

The principal pigment with a cretaceous base is
whiting or the carbonate of line, all others being
simply variations of it more or less impure. Whiting
is used in immense quantities as a base upon which to
make the tints used in the printing of wall paper. As
the main base in mixing tints for calcimme or in its
self color, it reigns supreme and nearly all the ready
prepared calcimine found on the market contain it as the
main ingredient in their preparation. As an adjunct
to graining colors in oil it is highly valued as it enables
the grainer to reduce the strength of his colors so they
can be thinned much more than would be possible but
for the addition of the whiting.

The only other cretaceous pigment of value which
differs from whiting materially is Gypsum or the sul-
phate of lime. It does not work quite so well as whit-
ing in water colors and is seldom used as such without
a special preparation which is patented and too intri-
cate for use by the general painter. It is the base used

Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 113

in all the so called anti-kalsomine paints patented prep-
arations. It is too transparent in oil to be of any use
as a self paint but is valuable in the preparation of
Venetian red where it becomes its base. It is also use-
ful as a corrective in many of the other colors and
in the compounding of white paints.

There used to be a number of whites in the markets
some years ago such as Spanish white, London and
other fancy named whites, which were prepared from
whiting and from which they differed only in the form
given it of pyramidal drops or cakes.

c. The only pigment with an aluminous base is
''China clay" which is worth mentioning. It possesses
more body in oil than those of the preceding class and
when well cleaned of foreign matter makes a good
water color paint. On account of its body, if such may
be called a semi-transparent muddy looking stuff in its
self color in oil it is used as an adjunct and corrective
in many white paints which come ready prepared but
it is used most frequently as an adulterant.

d. The silicious whites are represented by the white
silicate earths. Some are found that are of a clean
white but most of them are generally off color. The
white ones are used in the preparation of "English
kalsomine" and used as water colors but they
are very inferior to whiting for such a purpose. Their
greatest utility as pigments lays in the silicate earth's
use as correctives to the white metallic pigments and
as such also for several other colors. For such a pur-

114 Modern Painter's Cyclopedia

pose they are used in very large quantities by the paint
grinders, but are seldom bought as such and com-
pounded by the consumer.

BARYTES.

71. a. Last but not least among the whites comes
Barytes. Barytes in its native state is better known
as heavy spar. This is ground, washed and is pre-
pared for market according to the qualities it may
possess. It is very heavy and in its natural state as
clear as quartz.

h. Its utility as a pigment is, to say the least,
^'questionable." From its transparency one may infer
that as an oil color it would cover very little better than
the linseed oil used in spreading it and for water colors
it is inferior and more costly than whiting. It is true
that when it has been prepared to the condition when it
takes the name of ''Blanc-fixe" it is highly prized by
artists for use as an indestructible white in water colors
• — but then it is not in the same shape as the barytes of
commerce. In the latter shape barytes is an intimate
friend of almost every color and every package of
adulterated color or cheap ready mixed paint contains
a good proportion of it. Its great clearness and trans-
parency permits its use in almost any percentage that
the greed of the manufacturer would suggest to him
that it should be used or that the ability to unload it
upon an unsuspecting public would permit.

Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 115

THE REDS.

y2. The red constitute a numerous class of pig-
ments.* They are derived from the metallic, mineral,
vegetable and animal kingdoms. They comprise a
range of color tones varying from a red brown to the
most brilliant scarlet reds bordering on the yellow.

They will be reviewed according to their origin as
derived from a metallic, mineral or vegetable kingdom.

THE METALLIC REDS.

y^. a. Red oxide is the most common form of
the red pigments derived from iron. It enters into
the make up of a number of various reds and in its
pure state all by itself is most excellent. It is seldom
sold under that name in a pure state nor is it neces-
sary that it should when it is considered that 20 to
25% of the pure color when added to any transparent
base will cover solidly over any color black or white.
It is so strong that unless it should be used for tinting
it will bear reducing very much and still cover well.
This addition of a cheaper material is legitimate under
such a circumstance when it is known to the buyer and
the cost of the paint reduced to him.

b. Venetian red is supposedly a natural color, but
that which is found upon the market today is certainly
not of that character. It is made artificially and is
much better for it, as then it can be made uniform in
tone and texture which is not the case with any natural
earth color. It is made upon a base of various kinds,

116 Modern Painter's Cyclopedia

the chief of which are barytes, whiting and gypsum to
which red oxide of iron has been added. That made
with a gypsum base is much the best and the quahties
known under the name of EngHsh Venetian red are
usually of that quality. It contains about 25% of iron
oxide and that is enough to enable it to cover over any-
thing. That made upon a gypsum base is very perma-
nent and the change noticed in pure red oxide due to a
tendency to become hydrated making it more yellowish,
is reduced to the minimum. Thus made it is permanent.

Turkey red, Pornpeian reds of some, with others of
many names really are only brighter specimen having
been made by the addition of some very bright toned
oxide of iron on bases similar to Venetian red and
they should all be classed under that head and name.
Besides the names are used by some manufacturers to
designate an entirely different class of pigments es-
pecially that known as Turkey red which is a dark
purplish red of a rich lakey tone.

All the reds derived from red oxide of iron made
on a gypsum base are permanent or so nearly so as to
warrant their being so called. All are useful in oil,
japan and water colors and are used by all painters,
decorators and artists.

c. The Indian reds derive their coloring matter from
the peroxide of iron. At one time they used to be
imported but now they are altogether of home manu-
facture, being much more even in texture and coloring
matter than those which were mined and prepared

Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 117

from the Asiatic ore. Indian reds have a range of
tones of an entirely different order from that of the
Venetian reds, being of a purphsh shade of red ranging
from pale to dark. They are very useful in producing
tints with white. The light toned Indian red produc-
ing tints of rosy lilac while the dark produce tones of
a violet lilac. They can be used in oil coach and water
color work. They and their shades are permanent.

These are all the red pigments derived from iron.
It is true that there are a number of reds for sale
in artists' colors especially which owe their coloring
matter to either ferric oxide or the peroxide but not-
withstanding their high sounding name they can all
be classed as shades of either Venetian or Indian reds.

d. The Tuscan reds are included with the metallic
reds because their base is usually Indian red plus some
of the whites. They owe their beautiful tones to a dye
in which they are plunged and which they absorb. If
they have absorbed much of it they are classed after-
ward as deep Tuscan — if less as light Tuscan reds. It
depends upon what the dyeing agent is, as to the beau-
tiful tone being permanent or not. If made rich by a
cheap aniline dye they will fade quickly — if from an
alizarin one they will be permanent. They, like the
Indian red, of whose nature they mainly partake, are
useful for all sorts of painting in oil, japan or dis-
temper but unlike the Indian red they do not produce
very good tints with the whites.

118 Modern Painter's Cyclopedia

THE RED PIGMENTS DERIVED FROM LEAD.

74. Red lead is the bi-oxide of that metal. It is
made by roasting in retorts either the monoxide of lead
or white lead or even the metal itself. They are kept
in those revolving retorts until they acquire the. proper
amount of oxidation. Red lead while permanent in its
constituent parts, fades to a lighter tone of yellow red
as it has a tendency to return to a monoxide — its more
natural condition. It is one of the best pigments known
for the priming of iron and all metals and for such a
purpose is used in enormous quantities.

75. a. Orange mineral is the ter-oxide of iron and
is usually made from white lead which is off color
from one* cause or another. It carries more oxygen in
its composition than red lead and is of a richer tone,
but it alsc is not permanent, and will loose its extra
oxidation and return to the monoxide. Both are sub-
ject to that foe of all lead salts except the sulphate
— sulphur eted hydrogen gas.

b. American vermillion is a pigment made from
white lead and bichromate of potash. It is crystallic
in form and should not be ground fine as that de-
stroys the color. Since the advent of the vermillion
reds it has lost ground until it is little known to the
present generation of painters.

ENGLISH VERMILLION OR QUICKSILVER VERMILLION.

y6. a. English or quicksilver vermillion in the
shape of native cinnabar which is a sulphuret of mer-

Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 119

cury is found in all parts of the world where quick-
silver is mined. Yet little if any ever finds its way to
the market as such. All the quicksilver vermillion is
artificially made. The process while easy to understand
is nevertheless somewhat intricate and too lengthy to
describe fully enough to be understood in the space
available. It is first made into a black sulphuret by the
addition of eight parts of sulphur to one of mercury
which turns it into a black sulphuret which is its natural
condition and afterwards it is sublimed when it is
changed into the red which is an artificial condition for
it, hence its tendency to darken as it seeks to return to
its natural condition and it will quickly do so if left
unprotected by varnish from atmospheric air.

h. It is used for a great many purposes but not
to the same extent today that it was previous to the
introduction of the para reds and other imitation ver-
million reds. None can compare with it for richness or
brilliancy of tone — but for its fugitiveness it would
be the king of the reds. There are two varieties of it,
one called the pale which is of a bright scarlet tone
and the deep which has a bluish tinge and is of the
amaranth order. The pale has a much better body or
opacity than the deep and cannot be replaced by any
other red for striping as it will cover solid over black
which no other scarlet red will do in one coat. It is
used chiefly by the carriage trade in a self color or as a
ground to be. glazed over with a carmine glaze. When
well covered over by varnish and ground up in it, it

120 Modern Painter's Cyclopedia

will preserve its beautiful tone a long time before
changing its color.

THE IMITATION VERMILLIONS OR VERMILLION REDS.

yy, a. Imitation vermillions, or vermillion reds as
some know them, must not be confounded with Amer-
ican vermillion as some erroneously call them. (See
paragraph 75 b.) They are not chromates of lead, but
are made some of them at least upon a white lead or a
chromate of lead base upon which is thrown a dye
from which the base absorbs the rich coloring matter
giving them the rich tones which make them near rivals
of quicksilver verrhillion; but there the resemblance
ends. The dyes used in giving them their tones vary
very much — some of the cheaper reds being colored
with the cheapest of aniline dyes, which are fugitive
while the better grades are colored with cosine and
the best with alizarin. In the best of the vermilion
reds such an excellence has been attained that they are
much more permanent than quicksilver vermilion, if
not quite so rich nor opaque.

b. These reds are used for an infinity of purposes
especially by coach painters, by agricultural implement
manufacturers and all builders of machinery. They
are as well adapted to water colors as they are to
oil and japan work. They are known under an in-
finity of proprietary names and come in all qualities as
well as tones from scarlet to purple red.

Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 121

THE RED LAKES.

yS. a. Lakes usually are transparent colors thrown
upon a transparent base. They are chiefly used as
glazing colors by artists and coach painters. Some of
the lakes are only semitransparent and are used as self
colors or in tinting — only more coats are required to
cover solidly with them.

It depends upon the bases used in some degree and
to a greater degree still to the coloring agent used in
giving them their color as to whether the lakes are
good or bad, permanent or fugitive. The range of tone
for the red lakes is great varying from a scarlet and
carmine down the scale to a reddish brown. Carmine
itself is derived from coloring obtained from cochineal,
an insect. It is too fugitive for work requiring per-
manency and has become supplanted by alizarin made
lakes which are much more permanent and which equal
the ones derived from madder.

THE YELLOWS.

78. a. The family of yellows is about of equal im-
portance and to the house painter of greater value than
the reds. The various yellow pigments are derived
from the metallic, mineral and vegetable kingdoms while
some are derived from a combination of these.

THE OCHRES.

b. Ochres while not the brightest in tone of the
yellow pigments are by long odds the most useful of

122 Modern Painter's Cyclopedia

that color. They are permanent and are used in their
self color or combined with the whites to make a wide
range of tints from an ivory or cream to a buff and
combined with other colors to make an infinity of
tints. They may be placed in two general classes :
the argillaceous and the silicious according as to which
predominates in their base. The first are chiefly de-
rived from America while the second comes from
Europe. The argillaceous ochres are best adapted to
water color work while the silicious ochres are much
the best for oil painting especially if exposed out of
doors. All ochres are natural earth products with
an earth base colored with hydrate oxide of iron. They
vary very much in the quality of this iron hyd-oxide.
A volume could be written upon them and their pecu-
liarities without exhausting the subject. The general
house painter should never use the American or the
argillaceous ochres for solid self painting nor priming
for reasons assigned under heading entitled "Blistering
of paint" (paragraph 4 c, which see). The silicate
ochres or the genuine French and English are the only
safe ones to use for such a purpose.

CHROME YELLOWS.

79. a. Chrome yellow or the neutral chromate of
lead is the only one of all the shades and tones
classed under that name which is really entitled to it as
all other shades varying from it are either alkaline on
one side or acid upon the other; the canary and range

Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 123

of tones on the lemon order owing their lighter shade
to sulphate of lead or rather to sulphuric acid which
turns the lead to a sulphate and the range of the
orange toned ones to lime or some other caustic alkali
which turns them reddish. All shades owe their yellow
tone to bichromate of potash which combines with the
lead base to form the neutral and the other shades
by the additions mentioned above.

b. Chrome yellows are used in oil, coach or water
color painting. It is well adapted to all kinds of paint-
ing. The only limitation to their use is that under
certain conditions they fade slightly or change their
tone. Sulphureted hydrogen gases are as fatal to them
as to white lead — that being a part of their make up.
The sun's rays too have a tendency to cause them to
change somewhat. But with all their faults there are
no yellows so useful to the general painting trade.
Should they disappear they would be sorely missed.

The chrome yellows with their extended range of
shades and tones comprising the whole gamut of yellow
tones from the palest of canary to the deepest of orange
have nearly driven out of the market a number of
other yellows which were extensively used a few years
ago such as orpiment, Naples yellow, etc. While fugi-
tives they are less so than those they have replaced.

80. A simple naming of the other yellows is all
that will be necessary as their use has dwindled down
to very small- quantities and that mainly among artists
and decorators of the old school. The only one of any

124 Modern Painter's Cyclopedia

great intrinsic value is lemon or baryta yellozv. This
is permanent and but for its greater cost and of its
being more transparent than the lemon chrome yellow
it would be used more than it is.

Aureolin is a cobalt yellow very transparent even in
water and difficult to handle.

Gamboge, an old standard in oil colors, transparent
and very fugitive.

Indian yellozv is of animal origin and when well
prepared is of value to the artist.

Dutch pink. A yellow lake derived from grinding
tree barks of various kinds — arid dyeing some base with
them — of no great value even to the decorator in water
colors.

Naples yellozv. Not to be relied on, as it is fugitive :
besides it is no good as a water color and some varieties
of ochre mixed with whites will closely reproduce its
tone.

Vanadium yellozv — Kings yellozv besides being poison-
ous is not permanent.

Yellozv lake under which name most anything that
is transparent and will do for glazing is sold — all being
fugitive and of little value to the general painter.

Under various fancy names the artists' catalogues
are burdened with a host of proprietary named yellows
belonging really to the ones already enumerated.

Modem Painter's Cyclopedia 125

THE BLUES.

8i. a. The blues are derived from metallic, min-
eral, vegetable and animal sources and combinations of
these. Outside of ultramarine blue, no blues are found
ni a natural state.

h. Prussian blue in both the soluble and insoluble
form are chemically about the same. The first is better
known as Chinese and as soluble blue. Both are prus-
siates of iron and are very useful in water or in oil
colors. They will loose their color entirely by con-
tact w^ith fresh lime and are not entirely permanent
in sunlight. They are very strong in coloring matter.

c. Ultramarine blue is the most remarkable blue on
the list. As said before it is the only blue found in
nature in a developed state, but is difficult of extraction
from its matrix ''Lapis Lazuli," a semi-precious stone,
so it was sold at an enormous price and royalty only
could enjoy its use. It is produced artificially at a very
low cost fully equal in quality or tone to the genuine.
It is entirely permanent in sunlight or in contact
with lime and has a range of tones from a greenish
blue running to clear blue and on to a purplish cast of
blue, the latter being much inferior in tone to the true
blue. Ultramarine blue is made use of in all kinds of
painting ground in oil, in japan or in water and all
painters praise it highly. It is not nearly as strong in
coloring matter as Prussia blue.

d. Cobalt blue is a very pretty tone of light blue
which when pure (which it is difficult to find) is de-

126 Modern Painter's Cyclopedia

rived from cobalt. It is universally made now by
simply mixing enough zinc white to a clear blue ultra-
marine to reduce it to the tone of the true cobalt blue
so that practically it is only a tint of those two pig-
ments. It is so easily made by admixture that few sup-
ply stores carry it in stock. It is fully as permanent
as its parents.

e. Cerideum is another cobalt color which can be
readily imitated by using the greenish blue ultramarine
reduced with zinc white.

/. Indigo blue is derived from a plant and its use in
either water colors or oil is confined to a few artists.
With so many better blues to choose from, its name as
a pigment might as well be forgotten. The scene
painters use it mostly.

The above comprise all the useful blues. Yet the
manufacturers of artists' colors persist in loading down
their catalogues with a long list of names to confuse the
public with the false idea that such are distinct pig-
ments when they are not.

THE GREENS.

82. a. A wide range of greens are found in the
market but they can be all classed in two groups, those
whose tones incline towards the yellows and those which
incline towards the blues. Green is a secondary and
a compound color made from yellow and blue, so there
is nothing very remarkable in the fact that its tones
should incline one way or the other toward the parents.

Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 12?

Greens are all made chemically, yet some dirty greenish
black earths are found and classed as greens in some
catalogues.

b. Chrome greens as they are known in America
are by far the most used of any of the greens. They
are made by various combinations of Prussian blue
and chrome yellow or their chemical equivalents and
precipitated. Their range of tone is great from very
light tender grass green nearly as bright as Paris green
down to the deepest tones bordering on black. While
not absolutely permanent, they are fairly so. Of course,
lime will destroy the Prussian blue it contains. On the
continent and especially in England chrome green is
the named applied to the green oxide of chromium, a
color little known or used here, but fairly permanent.

c. Cobalt or ^inc green, as some call it, is derived
from that metal. It is permanent but as it can be very
nearly duplicated by using a good green ultramarine
and zinc white one might just as well call it a tint of
those pigments and prepare it from them when needed.

d. Viridian is an invaluable green to the artist but
its great cost will hardly permit its use to the general
painter. Much of it is adulterated and it is better to
buy it only under the label and name of well known
makers of artists' colors.

e. Paris or emerald green as it is known in Eng-
land is a very poisonous arsenical product. It is very
transparent and only fit to glaze with. It should be
discarded entirely.

128 Modern Painter's Cyclopedia

f. Verdigris. Another poisonous pigment derived
from copper. It was used in the past much more than
it is today. It is said to possess anti-fouHng properties
and is used by a few in the painting of boat bottoms.
A few old time carriage painters still use it as a glaze
but many general painters today die without having
ever seen it and never miss it.

Beside the above are to be found a large number
of greens sold under proprietary names — all are various
shades of chrome greens to which manufacturers have
attached a trade mark name of their own. This creates
confusion, leading people to think that such are some
different production — besides there is the usual array
of fancy named greens of the artists' color catalogue,
none better if as good as the well known colors de-
scribed above.

THE BROWNS.

83. a. The Browns are produced in abundance in
the natural state by mother earth. There are also to
be found of metallic origin. To facilitate the under-
standing of some of the brown earth pigments, it will
be well to note that the burning of them has a tendency
to change their tone. Those containing ferric oxide
will become redder than they were in the raw state.
Those containing manganese will become darker in
tone. Nearly all the brown earth pigments are valu-
able for one purpose or another in water colors to pro-
duce neutral tint and for the same purpose in oil paint-

Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 129

jng or in japan for the coach painter. Some are very
transparent, others only semi-transparent and such are
of value to the grainer or for glazing to the carriage
painter, artists and decorators.

b. Umber, raw and burnt, vary very much in their
composition. The best come from Asia Minor and are
sold as Turkey umber. The raw is of a greenish brown
and by burning is changed into a rich clear toned
brown which in good umbers will be free of redness —
they are semi-transparent. They are useful in all kinds
of painting and in all mediums.

c. Siennas, raw and burnt, like the umber vary
greatly, so much so as to be hardly recognizable as
being of the same nature — the poor, showing a muddy
brownish red tone in the burnt, while the good has a
rich subdued red which has a clear lakey transparency.
For this reason the siennas are invaluable to the grainer
and artists, who could not get along without it. It is
used in oil, japan and water color painting.

The raw owes its yellowish brown tone to its ferric
oxide which is hydrated and which looses by burning,
becoming red after that.

d. Vandyke brown is a natural bituminous color
found chiefly in bogs. It is known as Cassel earth,
from the town in Germany near which it is produced.
It is very transparent. It is useful as a glazing color in
carriage painting and as a graining color to the grainer.
It is not entirely permanent and for that reason, besides

130 Modern Painter's Cyclopedia

of its being a very poor dryer in linseed oil, it is not
as extensively used now as it was.

e. Asphaltum or mineral pitch, when well refined is
useful as a glaze, it being very transparent. As it is
liable to crack it is more useful in show card painting
or for the painting of iron gratings, heat registers and
such than for anything else.

/. Metallic brozvns. Under that name a number
of raw and calcined dark iron oxide paints are
marketed, some becoming quite reddish by calcination,
some being of that tone naturally. They have an ex-
cellent body or opacity but that the tone of their
color is not very attractive nor the tints made from
them they would be used still more than they are.
For freight car painting, bridge work, barns and the
cheap outbuildings, roofs and all kinds of structural
iron work they are used in immense quantities.

Under the name ought to be included such old time
colors as Spanish brown, etc., which designation is still
used on the eastern seaboard while it has become ob-
solete in the middle west.

THE BLACKS.

84. a. The blacks play an important role in every
department of painting. It is used largely as a self
color in the painting of iron work, steam and other
ships and carriages, coaches, etc. While as a tinting
color with whites and as an adjunct to other colors to
4arken them they are invaluable as tint producers.

Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 131

Most of the blacks are of carbonic composition pro-
duced in a natural state in black lead; derived from
fats as in lampblack or from the calcination of the
bones of animals as ivory black and again the product
of the calcination of woods as in Brunswick black.

b. Lampblack is produced by the incomplete com-
bustion of fatty substances. It is very strong in color-
ing matter, but only moderately black in tone. It pro-
duces clean toned grays with whites and is the best
black to use for the making of tints with any other
colors. It is used more than any of the other blacks
by sign and house painters and by the carriage trade
for priming coats. It has more opacity than any other
black excepting gas black.

c. Gas black or carbon black is also a black pro-
duced by the incomplete combustion of natural gas.
It is more intensely black than lampblack and used as
a self color it is a close rival to the bone blacks for
its jet black tone. As a tint producer it is very poor —
the tints being rusty with none of the clearness of lamp-
black. It is used to improve the tone of that pigment
in sign writer's black and since the grinders have dis-
covered a way of grinding it so that it will not liver
with linseed oil, it is highly prized for solid black paint-
ing of all kinds. It is also substituted for drop black
in the cheaper colors ground in japan as it will bear
adulterating lo to i and still be as strong as ivory
black.

d. Ivory, drop and coach blacks are all one and

132 Modern Painter's Cyclopedia

the same article under different labels it Is true but —
the same. They are bone blacks which vary greatly in
quality according as to the kind of bones, hard or
soft, used in calcination and also in the carefulness in
conducting of the process. All are useful in oil, japan or
water colors. It is used in all kinds of painting, but
the carriage trade consumes the most of it.

e. Brunswick black is the charcoal produced by the
combustion of twigs of trees and vines of various
growths. It is very transparent and useful only in
water colors.

/. Black lead or plumbago is a natural carbon pro-
duced by nature and it is mined in many parts of the
world. As a pigment it is permanent and but for its
indifferent tone, would be used more extensively than
it is. It is chiefly used in oil for the painting of roofs,
iron structures and out door painting.

This ends the list of useful pigments.

QUESTIONS ON COLORS.

6i. What is said regarding colors in general?
62. In how many main classes can pigments be
divided?

6^. How are pigments grouped for convenience?

How many groups of colors?

What is said concerning their characters?

What is said of the whites generally?

Give their derivation?

What is said generally of white lead?

64.

a.

b.

65.

a.

b.

66.

a.

Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 133

b. What are its peculiarities?

c. What is the ''Dutch process" or corrosion?

d. What is the "stack" system of corrosion?

e. What is the "cyHnder" system of corrosion?
/. Does one system make a better white lead

than the other?

67. What is "sublimed lead" ?

68. Are any of the other salts of lead that are
white useful as paints ?

69. a. What is said of zinc white and its pecu-

liarities ?
b. How many processes are used for making zinc
white?

c. Describe the French process?

d. Describe the American process ?

e. Are French zinc whites made in France

only?

70. a. How are the earth whites divided ?

b. What are the pigments with a cretaceous

base?

c. What are the pigments with an aluminous

base?

d. What are the silicious whites ?

71. a. What is barytes?
b. What are its uses?

72. What is said of the reds generally?

73. a. What is said of red oxide of iron?

b. What is said of Venetian red, Pompeian
red, Turkish red, etc. ?

134 Modern Painter's Cyclopedia

c. What is said regarding the Indian reds?

d. What are Tuscan reds?

74. What is red lead and what are its uses?

75. a. What is orange mineral and what are its

uses?

h. What is American vermillion?
y6. a. What is English or quicksilver vermillion?

b. Where is it mostly used?
yy. a. What are imitation or Vermillion reds ?

b. What are their uses?

78. What are lakes and what are their uses?

79. a. What is said regarding the ochres ?

b. What are chrome yellows ?

c. What are their uses?

80. What other yellows are they ?

81. a. What is said of the blues in general?

b. What is Prussian blue and what are its

uses?

c. What are ultramarine blues and what are

their uses?

d. How is cobalt blue made ?

e. What is ceruleum and how is it imitated ?
/. What is said of indigo blue ?

S2. a. What is said of greens in general ?

b. What are chrome greens ?

c. What about cobalt or zinc greens ?

d. What is said of viridian?

e. What of Paris or Emerald green ?

83. a. What is said generally of the browns?

Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 135

b. What about raw and burnt umbers ?

c. What about raw and burnt sienna?

d. What is Vandyke brown?

84. a. What is said of the blacks generally ?

b. What is lampblack and what are its uses?

c. Where does gas black differ from lamp-

black?

d. What is Brunswick black?

e. What is black lead or plumbago?

COLOR HARMONY.

85. Exterior and even more so interior painting no
matter how well it may have been done nor how well
planned, the decorations will have that undefinable
"gingerbread" look to it as the painters would call it,
if the coloring lacks in harmony, and even if well done
and harmonious, if the draperies, furniture and car-
pets are not in harmony with the painting, that will
suffer in consequence of the latter inharmonious
neighborhood.

It is said that poets are born but not made; this to
a certain extent can be said of a good colorist. It is a
lamentable fact that 10% of men are at least partially
color blind and incapable of judging the effects of true
harmony. Some are totally color blind and can only
recognize shades of black and white — the latter case
is much more rare but railroad companies are forced
to reject a large per cent of applicants for positions
where the quick recognition of certain colors is a "sine
qua non."

136 Modern Painter's Cyclopedia

But while poets are not made, persons who so de-
sire may educate themselves into certainly not becom-
ing good colorists but into a knowledge of the laws
governing coloring and when they understand them
fairly well they will be able to design color schemes
which will not be an outrage upon the vision of persons
of taste who are naturally able to recognize harmonious
coloring.

86. The subject of color harmony is too deep a
topic to elucidate in even a desultory manner in the
small space which can be devoted to it in a manual
which is to treat of the whole subject-matter of paint
and painting. All that can be done is to point the
reader the way to a deeper study of harmony in books
devoted to the subject of which many have appeared
recently.

To understand how to harmonize colors one must
first of all become acquainted with a knowledge of
what colors are. These are the result of decomposition
of light which is white and which is the result of the
perfect union of all colors. The rainbow with its beau-
tiful coloring does on a large scale what a glass prism
breaking the sun's rays does on a smaller scale; it
decomposes the rays into the various colors of the
spectrum.

This decomposition of light shows in reality to the
naked eye but three groups of three colors each, the
last three but faintly, however, while the first three
alone cannot be divided and therefore are called the
primary colors; they are : Red, yellow and blue.

Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 137

Sy. Secondary colors, also three in number, are
formed by the mixture of any two of the primaries,
thus: Red and yellow gives orange , red and blue
gives purple and yellow and blue gives green. So
orange, purple and green are the secondary colors.

88. A third trio of colors is produced by the mix-
ture of any two of the secondaries thus: Orange and
green gives citrine; green and purple gives olive and
orange and purple gives russet. So citrine, olive
and russet constitute the three tertiary colors.

89. The further combination of the tertiaries pro-
duce an infinity of neutral grays with an addition of
white or black.

It must be born in mind that to produce a perfect
harmony that the primaries or their equivalents in
secondary or tertiary colors ought to be present to pro-
duce a perfect harmony in about the same proportion
as they exist in the spectrum and in which they unite
to produce perfect light or white.

90. But other harmonies can be produced by graded
shades of the same color. Such an harmony is always
pleasing to the eye and are always in good taste, so
that a person can hardly err in giving satisfactory re-
sults if he treats his decorative scheme in this way.
This is called harmony by analogy.

91. Harmony by contrast is much more difficult to
master, as it is not only the coloring used in the decora-
tion that must be taken into consideration but that of
the furniture and draperies. Besides there are a great

138 Modern Painter's Cyclopedia

many things which must be well understood which en-
hance or detract from the effects to be had from the
use of any color.

A good general rule to follow, is : that the comple-
mentary colors (as are called the contrasting opposites)
should be used in about the same proportion as the
three primary colors themselves stand in the forma-
tion of pure white. The primary colors stand in the
proportion of three parts red, five parts yellow and
eight parts blue in the make up of white light; then
if the leading color used in the decoration is blue, it
follows that red and yellow or the product of their
combination, orange is the complementary color of blue
and either that or the color value of these in others
either secondary or tertiaries must be used in about
the proportion needed of the primaries in making them
would have stood to make white light. If yellow is the
main color ground, blue and red or their tertiary equiv-
alents or secondary, which is purple, must be the comple-
mentary color to use. If the main color be red then
green, which is the result of the union of blue and
yellow, is the contrasting color of red.

It does not follow however that a pleasing contrast
will follow even by a proper use of opposites, unless
these are of the right tones and shades and as these de-
pend upon a number of qualifying circumstances which
will have great influence in the making of a perfect
blend, the laws of color relation to each other and of
the effect of neutrals and of black and white must be
well understood.

Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 139

92. The secondary and tertiary colors are simply
combinations of the primaries and their source must
be carefully noted, so that the equivalent of the oppo-
sites may be furnished as they are necessary to form
a good harmony by contrast.

93. The rules given are general and must be very
incomplete even then as so much must be taken in con-
sideration as influencing the results in the use of color
that the reader must be referred to some good treatise
on color harmony treating the subject-matter fully.
Then only can one understand why it is that after
having chosen proper complementary colors, that the
contrast seems dull or out of harmony. The knowledge
of the effect neutral tones have in heightening or de-
pressing colors or why certain tones should be used
instead of others of the same color will then be un-
derstood and even a partially color blind decorator will
not commit any unpardonable sins — in harmonizing
colors.

QUESTIONS ON COLOR HARMONY.

85. What is said of color harm.ony?

86. What are the primary colors?

87. What are the secondary colors?

88. What are the tertiary colors ?

89. What are further combinations called ?

90. What is harmony by analogy ?

91. What is harmony by contrast?

140 Modern Painter's Cyclopedia

g2. What is the harmony of contrast of the second-
ary and tertiaries?

93. What is further said regarding harmony?

COLOR MIXING.

94. The mixing of tints requires some care and
attention but is not as difficult to understand as many
suppose it to be. If the rules given below are strictly
followed, even a novice will come very near to the
matching of sample tints — at least of such as are mostly
used and with the tones of which he is familiar.

There is a wide difference between mixing tints in
oil or in water colors. In the former a person can
see for himself just what the mixture is all through
the stages of the mixing but in water colors the tints
show so much darker than they will be when dry ^hat
somewhat different rules must be adopted to mix
the two.

RULES FOR MIXING COLORS IN OIL.

95. a. The base color is always the most impor-
tant one. It may be any color and here is where some
good judgment is at times required to determine what
that is, when one has to choose it for himself in trying
to match certain samples. Usually it is a white if the
tint is at all light in tone. If it be a dark one, the
mixer should be sufficiently well acquainted with colors
to judge at a glance which must be used as having
the prevailing importance in the make up of the tint
and that is the base.

Modern Painter's 'Cyclopedia 141

b. This base should be well broken up in linseed
oil but not nearly as thin as it should be for application
with a brush. If it be white lead, the most usual base
for all light tints, it is better to have it well broken up
the day before as then all small lumps will be dis-
solved and when it has been well stirred up, it will be
uniform throughout — a very important requisite.

c. The tinting pigments or colors which it will be
necessary to add to the base for producing the tint
should be pretty well thinned with linseed oil and tur-
pentine half and half. It is of great importance that
no lumps or specks remain undissolved in these and
they should be thinned somewhat more than stated for
that of the lead base. If necessary they should be
strained through a fine meshed paint strainer.

d. The pigment entering in the largest quantity in
the make up of a tint aside of the base should now be
mixed with it — not by pouring it in all at once and
thus overshooting the mark, but very gradually and
should be well stirred up to insure uniform incorpora-
tion. It should not be added to the full extent needed
for the tint, but just short of it. Proceed next to add
in the other colors needed in the same manner as stated
above. When all the pigments required have been well
stirred up, if the mark has not been overshot, the re-
sulting tint will be very near to the color wanted and
by a further addition of this or that one, the tint will
be brought up to just where it is wanted. If too much
coloring pigment has been put in however it is easy to

142 Modern Painter's Cyclopedia

understand that it cannot be taken out. Then the
only remedy is to add more base to counteract the too
great quantity of color used and also of the rest of the
tinting colors and this usually means loss of material
where too much has been mixed.

e. A list of principal tints is given further on.
Many are so very closely related that but some who
desire to make them, might be misled, they might as
well have been left out. Another word — what one man
understands as an apple green may be very different
from what another's idea of what an apple green ought
to be and so on all through the list. For this and other
reasons the quantity of each is not given. The other
reasons are that some colors of the same name bought
of various manufacturers may be twice, thrice and
even four or ten times stronger in coloring than others
and a tint would be utterly ruined if quantities were
given. The colors are named according to the im-
portance they occupy in making the tints. The more
important being named after the base and the least —
last.

96. Tints in water colors require about the same
coloring pigments to produce any given tint as in oil
and the same advice about not overdoing the addition
of the pigments to the base is even more needed. The
base for tints is usually whiting or some other earth
white which has been properly thinned with glue water.
But after colors also thinned with glue water have been
added, as the tint appears much darker than it really

Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 14^

is, it will be necessary to ''try" it. Dip a small piece
of paper in it and place it in the sun or upon a stove
and dry it. As soon as dry the true tone of the color
will show up and any colors lacking can be added —
gradually, well stirred up and tried by heat again,
being always careful to have it just a trifle under than
above the mark. This trying is tedious, it is true,
but much less so than having to throw away the whole
batch and commence the mixing all over again — and
less expensive too.

LIST OF TINTS.

97. Acacia. Lampblack for base, colored with
Indian red and tinged with Prussian blue.

Acorn brown. See Chocolate as it is nearly the
same but lightened up with white lead.

Alderncy brozvn. Lampblack, orange chrome yel-
low, French ochre, white lead.

Alabaster. White lead for base, add enough me-
dium chrome yellow to very slightly tinge it.

Amaranth. Tuscan red and vermillion for base, add
enough ultramarine blue to shade wanted.

Anemone. Vermillion red for base, add Prussian
blue to suit shade wanted and a trifle of black and white
lead or zinc which is better.

Antique bronze. Orange chrome yellow for base,
add ivory black. Lampblack can be used but shade
will not be so bright.

Antzverp blue. Ultramarine blue for base, add

144 Modern Painte/s Cyclopedia

chrome green to shade wanted, lighten up with zinc
white.

Apple green. White lead for base, add light chrome
green and orange chrome yellow.

Apricot. Medium chrome yellow for base; Vene-
tian red and carmine lake. If a light shade is wanted
lighten it up with zinc white.

Armenian red. Bright Venetian red for base, light-
ened up with French ochre.

Asiatic bronze. Raw umber for base; medium
chrome yellow to which add sufficient white lead for
shade wanted.

Ash gray. White lead for base ; tinge with lamp-
black ; add a bit of French ochre.

Autumn leaf. White lead for base; to which add
French ochre, orange chrome yellow, a trifle Venetian
red to tinge it to tone of red desired.

Azure blue. White lead for base, but zinc white is
better; add Prussian blue to shade of it desired.

Bay. Lampblack for base; add Venetian red and
orange chrome yellow.

Begonia. Vermillion red of a good scarlet shade for
base ; tinge with Prussian blue and lampblack.

Bismark brown. Burnt sienna for base; add burnt
umber and orange chrome yellow ; lighten slightly with
white lead to suit.

Black slate. Lampblack for base; Prussian blue;
slightly lighten it up with white lead.

Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 145

Bordeaux blue. Lampblack for base ; Prussian blue,
orange chrome yellow.

Bottle green. Lampblack and Prussian blue for base ;
lemon chrome yellow; to obtain this color at its best
glaze it over with a yellow lake.

Brass. White lead for base; add medium chrome
yellow and French ochre to shade of it wanted.

Bronze blue. Lampblack for base ; tinge with Prus-
sian blue and slightly lighten with white lead.

Bronze green. Extra dark chrome green for base;
add lampblack. For a richer tone of it : medium chrome
gieen for base, add ivory black and a trifle of raw
umber.

Bronze red. Vermillion red for base; add orange
chrome yellow and a trifle of lampblack.

Bronze ycllozv. Medium chrome yellow for base;
raw umber, lighten up to suit with white lead.

Brick color. Yellow ochre for base; add Venetian
red to suit ; for very light shades add white lead in very
small quantity.

Brown stone. Tuscan red for base; add orange
chrome yellow; lighten up to suit with white lead.
Some shades of it require a bit of ivory black.

Brozvns and Brown drabs — all shades. Venetian red
for base; add French ochre and lampblack in various
proportion according to shades of brown wanted. For
the brown drabs add white lead to reduce the above
brown tints.

146 Modern Painter's Cyclopedia

Buttercup. White lead for base ; add lemon chrome
yellow to suit shade wanted.

Cafe au lait. Burnt umber for base ; add white lead,
French ochre and Venetian red.

Cambridge red. Vermillion for base; add Prussian
blue to suit.

Canary. Use chrome yellow of that name or lemon
yellow for base, lightened up with zinc white.

Carnation. English vermillion for base; add good
madder lake or carmine. If wanted very light, add
zinc white.

Celestial blue. Prussian blue for base ; chrome green
and zinc white.

Cerulean blue. Zinc white for base ; add ultramarine
blue of good tone to suit.

Chamois. White lead for base; add French ochre,
medium chrome yellow to suit, redden it with a little
burnt sienna.

Chamoline. White lead for base; add raw sienna,
lemon chrome yellow to suit.

Chartreuse. Medium chrome yellow for base; add
some medium chrome green.

Chestnut. Venetian red for base; add medium
chrome yellow, French ochre and lampblack to suit.

Chocolate. Burnt umber for base ; add rich crimson
vermillion red or lake. Another which is cheaper but
not so rich : French ochre for base ; add lampblack
^'^ Venetian red to suit.

Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 147

Cinnamon. White lead for base ; add burnt sienna,
French ochre, medium chrome yellow.

Crimson. Deep English vermillion or any of the
crimson shades of vermillion reds. If desired very rich,
add some of the crimson lakes or glaze with them.

Claret. Madder lake and ultramarine blue for base,
to which add English vermillion and ivory black.

Clay bank. French ochre for base ; add orange chrome
yellow, lighten up with white lead to shade desired.

Clay drab. White lead for base; medium chrome
yellow, raw and burnt umber.

Cobalt blue. This is a solid blue. Good ultrama-
rine blue ; lighten up to suit with zinc white.

Cocoanut brown. Burnt umber for base; lightened
up with white lead.

Colonial yellow. White lead for base ; add medium
chrome yellow, tinge with a trifle of orange chrome
yellow.

Copper. Medium chrome yellow ; tinged with burnt
sienna.

Coral pink. Vermillion for base ; white lead, medium
chrome yellow.

Cotrine. White lead for base; add orange chrome
yellow and lampblack.

Cream color and all the buffs. White lead for base ;
add some good French or Oxford ochre to make the
shade of them wanted. More or less of the ochre added
to the base will make an affinity of shades of that
order.

148 Modern Painter's Cyclopedia

Dove color. White lead for base; add ultramarine
blue, Indian red and lampblack.

Dregs of wine. Dark Tuscan red for base ; add white
lead and a trifle of zinc white.

Ecru. White lead for base ; add French ochre, burnt
sienna, lampblack. The tint has a wide range of tones.

Electric blue. Ultramarine blue for base ; add white
lead and raw sienna.

Emerald. Paris green as it is, or better an imita-
tion of it, in very light chrome green.

Egyptian green. White lead for base ; add raw um-
ber, lemon chrome yellow, Prussian blue to suit.

Fawn. White lead for base; add medium chrome
yellow, Venetian red, burnt umber.

Flesh color. White lead for base; add medium
chrome yellow, French ochre and Venetian red.

Fog blue. Burnt sienna for base ; add Prussian blue,
then lighten up with white lead to suit.

French blue. Ultramarine blue for base ; lighten up
with zinc white to shade wanted and tinge it slightly
with light chrome green.

French gray. White lead for base; add ivory black
with a faint tinge of ultramarine blue and madder lake
or carmine.

French red. Indian red for base; add English pale
Vermillion to brighten it, then glaze with madder red or
carmine.

Gazelle. French ochre for base; add Tuscan red,

Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 149

Venetian red, lampblack, lighten up to suit with white
lead.

Geranium. Vermillion red for base ; add Indian red
and a trifle of ivory black.

Gobelin blue. Ivory black for base ; add white lead,
Prussian blue and a trifle of medium chrome green.

Gold. White lead for base ; add medium chrome yel-
low, some good bright French ochre and a very little
English Vermillion or vermillion red of good tone.

Golden brown. French ochre for base; add orange
chrome yellow, lampblack . Lighten up with white lead
to suit.

Grass green. Extra light chrome green just as it
comes from the can or lighten up the light chrome green
with canary chrome yellow.

Gray green. White lead for base; add ultramarine
blue, lemon chrome yellow, lampblack.

Granite blue. White lead for base ; lampblack, Prus-
sian blue.

Green stone. White lead for base; add medium
chrome green, raw umber, and French ochre.

Gray stone. White lead for base; add lampblack,
Prussian blue, Venetian red.

Gray drabs — all shades of them. White lead for
base ; add lamp or drop black with a little burnt umber
in various proportions according to the depth and shade
of drab wanted.

Grays, all shades. White lead for base ; lampblack in
various proportions to suit shade wanted.

150 Modern Painter's Cyclopedia

Hay color. White lead for base ; add orange chrome
yellow, light chrome green, Indian red.

Heliotrope, Zinc white for base; add bright Ven-
etian red and ultramarine blue.

Indian pink. White lead for base; add Indian red.

Indian brown. Indian red for base; add lampblack,
French ochre.

Iron gray. Lampblack for base ; add white lead and
a trifle of orange chrome yellow.

Ivy green. French ochre for base; add lampblack,
Prussian blue.

Jasper. Lampblack for base; add medium chrome
yellow, light Indian red.

Jonquil. White lead for base; add medium chrome
yellow to which should be added a tinge of red with
English pale vermillion.

Lavender. White lead for base; add ivory black,
ultramarine blue, tinge with carmine or madder lake.

Leaf buds. White lead for base ; add orange chrome
yellow, light chrome green.

Lead color. See Grays,

Leather, French ochre for base ; add burnt umber.
If a warm tone is wanted add Venetian red.

Lemon. Use the chrome yellow of that name.

Lilac. White lead for base ; add dark Indian red to
suit.

London smoke. Yellow ochre for base; add ultra-
marine blue, lampblack, lighten up to suit with white
lead.

Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 151

Magenta. Vermillion for base; add carmine or
madder lake with a tinge of ultramarine blue.

Manila or deck paint. White lead for base; add
French ochre, medium chrome yellow.

Marigold. Medium chrome yellow for base; add
white lead, orange chrome yellow.

Maroon. Carmine or madder lake for base ; add
ivory black and a bit of orange chrome yellow. A
cheaper way : Tuscan red for base ; add orange chrome
yellow and some ivory black.

Mastic. White lead base; add French ochre, Ven-
etian red and a trifle of lampblack.

Mexican red. Bright Venetian red for base; add
red lead.

Mignonette. Medium chrome green for base; add
Prussian blue, medium chrome yellow, lampblack.

Mascot. Lampblack for base; add Prussian blue to
suit.

Mauve. Ultramarine blue for base ; add zinc white,
tint with madder lake.

Methyl blue. Ultramarine for base; add medium
chrome green and a tinge of red.

Moorish red. Vermillion red for base; add madder
lake.

Mouse color. White lead for base; add lampblack,
a tinge of Venetian red and burnt umber.

Moss rose. Lemon chrome yellow for base; add
medium chrome green; lighten up with white lead to
suit.

152 Modern Painter's Cyclopedia

Mountain blue. White lead for base; add madder
lake, ultramarine blue.

Navy blue. Ultramarine blue for base; add ivory
black.

Neutral blue. Prussian blue for base ; add raw um-
ber and lighten up with white lead to suit.

Nile blue. White lead for base; add Prussian blue
with a trifle of medium chrome green.

Normandy blue. Medium chrome green; ultrama-
rine blue, a trifle of white lead.

Nut brown. Lampblack for base ; add Venetian red,
medium chrome yellow, French ochre.

Oak color. Light and dark shades of it. White lead
for base ; add French ochre and a small quantity of
Venetian red; vary quantities to suit light or dark
shades.

Old gold. White lead for base ; add medium chrome
yellow, French ochre and a little burnt umber.

Olive. Lemon chrome yellow for base; add about
equal parts of Prussian blue and lampblack. Some
shades of olive can be made by substituting French
ochre for lemon chrome yellow, when, of course, the
tone will not be so bright. A trifle of lemon chrome
added to the ochre will improve it and still make an-
other variety of it.

Olive brown. Raw umber for base; add lemon
chrome yellow. Vary the quantity to suit depth of tone
wanted.

Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 153

Opal gray. White lead for base ; add burnt sienna,
ultramarine blue.

Oriental blue. White lead for base; add Prussian
blue, lemon chrome yellow.

Oriental green. Raw umber for base; add lemon
chrome yellow to suit.

Orange, Orange chrome yellow as it comes from
the can.

Orange brown. Orange chrome yellow for base ; add
raw sienna, a trifle of burnt umber.

Peach blossom. White lead for base; add pale
Indian red to suit. A tinge of madder lake will enrich
it.

Pearl. White lead for base ; add ivory black and a
trifle of ultramarine blue and carmine lake. This is
a very light shade just off the white. It must not be
overdone.

Pea green. White lead for base; add medium
chrome green to suit.

Peacock blue. Ultramarine blue for base; add extra
light chrome green and zinc white to suit.

Persian orange. Orange chrome yellow for base;
add French ochre, white lead.

Pistache. Ivory black for base; add French ochre,
medium chrome green.

Pink. Zinc white for base ; add madder lake or car-
mine or the crimson shades of vermillion.

Pompeian red. Vermillion red base; add orange
chrome yellow, a bit of ivory black.

154 Modern Painter's Cyclopedia

Pompeian blue. White lead tfese; add ultramarine
blue, Vermillion red, French ochre.

Plum color. White le?ad for base; add Indian red,
ultramarine blue.

Portland stone, French ochre for base; add raw
umber ; lighten up to suit with white lead.

Primrose. White lead for base ; add lemon or med-
ium yellow chrome, according to the shade wanted.

Purple. White lead for base; add dark Indian red
and a trifle of light Indian red to suit.

Purple brown. Dark Indian red for base ; add ultra-
marine blue, a trifle of lampblack and white lead to
lighten up to suit.

Quaker green. White lead for base; add French
ochre, lampblack and burnt sienna.

Roan. Lampblack for base ; add Venetian red, Prus-
sian blue ; lighten it up to suit with white lead.

Robin's egg blue. White lead for base ; add ultrama-
rine until the shade is a deep blue, then add some pale
chrome green to suit tone desired of it.

Russet. White lead for base; add orange chrome
yelloj^, a trifle of lampblack and Prussian blue.

Russian gray. White lead for base; add ultrama-
rine blue, pale Indian red and lampblack.

Sage green. White lead for base; add medium
chrome green until the tint is nearly but not quite a pea
green, then add lampblack to tinge it the sage tint.

Salmon. White lead for base; add French ochre,

Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 155

burnt sienna, with a trifle of English vermilHon or a
good vermilhon red.

Sapphire blue. Zinc white for base ; add ultramarine
blue.

Sap green. White lead for base ; add medium chrome
yellow, lampblack.

Sea green. White lead base ; add Prussian blue, raw
sienna.

Seal brown. Burnt umber for base ; add good French
ochre and a trifle of white lead.

Scarlet. Pale English vermillion or any of the scar-
let toned vermillion reds.

Shrimp pink. White lead base; add Venetian red,
burnt sienna and a trifle of vermillion.

Sky blue. White lead for base ; add Prussian blue to
suit.

Slate. White lead for base; add raw umber, ultra-
marine blue, lampblack.

Spruce yellozv. French ochre for base; add Ven-
etian red ; lighten up with white lead to suit.

Snuff color. French ochre for base; add burnt um-
ber and a bit of Venetian red.

Strazv color. Medium chrome yellow for base ; add
French ochre; a bit of Venetian red; lighten up with
white lead.

Stone color and yellow drabs. White lead for base ;
add French ochre ; tinge up with medium chrome yellow
and burnt umber. By varying quantities all shades of
yellow drab can be made.

156 Modern Painter's Cyclopedia

Tan. White lead for base; add burnt sienna and a
trifle of lampblack.

Tally-Ho. White lead for base; add French ochre,
Venetian red, dark chrome green with a bit of ivory
black.

Terra-cotta. French ochre for base; add Venetian
red and white lead. Some shades of it require the
addition of Indian red. If some rich shades are wanted
use orange chrome yellow in place of French ochre;
add Venetian red and a trifle of burnt umber to suit.

Turquoise blue. White lead for base, or better zinc
white and cobalt blue ; Paris green or pale chrome
green.

Vienna brown. Burnt umber for base; add Ven-
etian red, French ochre, and lighten with white lead to
suit.

Violet. White lead for base ; add pale Indian red, a
trifle of dark Indian red.

Willow green. White lead for base; add sufficient
medium chrome yellow to make a pretty deep shade;
then add a small quantity of raw umber and ivory black.

Wine color, English vermillion or scarlet toned
Vermillion red for base; add madder lake or carmine,
ultramarine blue, lampblack.

Another way : Dark Tuscan red of good quality to
which add a trifle of ivory black.

Water green. White lead for base ; add raw sienna,
dark chrome green.

Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 157

Yellow bronze. Lemon or medium chrome yellow
for base ; add French ochre and a trifle of burnt umber.

QUESTIONS ON COLOR MIXING.

94. What is said about color mixing in general ?

95. a. What is a base for a tint ?

b. How must the base be prepared?

c. How are the tinting colors prepared ?

d. How must one proceed to mix the tinting

colors with the base ?

e. What advice is given in this section?

96. How are tints in water colors made ?

97. Pupils should familiarize themselves with the
tints given and refer to them when they want to know
how to make them.

COLOR TESTING.

98. Under the heading of "Colors," paragraph 71 b,
the reader will have noticed probably what has been
said concerning the chief role played by barytes in the
paint world. He may have noticed also w^hat is said in
paragraphs 5 to 7 inclusive, under the heading of
"Adulterations in relation to the scale test as indicating
the relative strength of coloring matter contained in
pigments." As a fairly full explanation of the test is
there given, it may be well to read that portion over
again as it is not necessary to repeat it here, and it
plays a very important part in testing the value of
many pigments.

158 Modern Painter's Cyclopedia

There is no better test for nearly all manufactured
colors having a recognized chemical formula and be-
sides it nearly always indicates (indirectly) the quality
of tone in the tints made while making the test; but
after all this test does not show everything connected
with the testing of colors nor is it applicable to a large
number of valuable pigments, therefore the subject mat-
ter of this heading will be considered from the several
points which have a bearing upon enhancing or depreci-
ating the value of pigments.

The following are points which are recognized uni-
versally as having something to do in determining
values; some for one class of pigments, others for an-
other class and some are applicable to all :

1. Purity of material.

2. Purity of tone, brilliancy, richness.

3. Fineness of grinding and preparation.

4. Spreading capacity.

5. Its body; applying only to opaque or semi-
opaque pigments.

6. Its staining power or tinting strength with white
lead.

7. The quality of purity of their tones with whites.

8. If a paste color the consistency of the paste.

PURITY OF PIGMENTS.

99. All chemically prepared pigments which have a
well known formula which is recognized among color
men as such, have that for a standard of purity. White

Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 159

lead, zinc white, Prussian blue, the chrome yellows,
greens, etc., belong to this class. The word pure here
means only this : that they contain no adulteration, but
it does not take into consideration, the quality of tone,
fineness of grinding, brilliancy, etc., each of which is
an important factor in determining the relative value of
pigments. The scale test is very valuable in determin-
ing the strength of this class of pigments and usually
this is the most important point in the judging of val-
ues. A color may be very pure and still be very poor,
but the above statement applies with more force to the
earth or natural pigments than to those that are chem-
ically prepared. Yet it is sometimes necessary to have
recourse to all the points named in the preceeding para-
graph to fully determine the true value of a pigment.

PURITY OF TONE OF PIGMENTS.

100. This test is applicable to all classes of pig-
ments and the chemically prepared colors should have
it applied as well as the others for a Prussian blue or a
chrome yellow may have such a poor tone as to be val-
ueless and still be chemically pure and for the natural
or earth pigments this test is of the greatest importance
and leads all others. In paragraphs 3 to 8, good advice
is given in relation to chosing some good standard col-
ors to judge others by. The reader will do well to
keep a supply of all such as he is likely to need in testing
other colors by and comparing their tones. Brilliancy
is as desirable as purity of tone and usually the two are

160 Modern Painter's Cyclopedia

inseparable for it is inconceivable of a pigment of a
good pure tone that it has not brilliancy also, so that
there is no need of a separate test for it. Richness is
also an inherent quality belonging to purity of tone and
it must be inferred as it cannot be separated from it.

FINENESS OF GRINDING.

There are several methods of determining the fine-
ness of grinding of pigments. The fineness of grinding
of any color but those of crystallic formation is very
important as it gives them more spreading power,
makes them more absorbent of linseed oil, which in out-
side painting means more durability and as finely
ground pigments can be spread more smoothly, it also
means additional beauty. For the earth colors such as
the siennas, the umbers, Vandyke brown, etc., especially
if used in their self tones, as they are in graining or in
glazing — fineness of grinding is of much importance
as it will prevent speckiness, a fault for which the repu-
tation of a carriage painter or grainer using them may
suffer much on account of the poor quality of work
turned out with such. The following methods may be
used in judging the fineness of grinding:

The simplest and easiest of all is to place a little bit
of the pigment upon a piece of clean glass and to re-
duce it with oil until very thin, then to spread it out
upon the glass very thinly, then looking through the
glass holding it so the light will go through it, it will
show any speck or imperfect grinding. Another way

Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 161

is to thin out the pigment with turpentine and paint it
out thinly upon the glass and doing the same with some
of the standard which is known to be very finely ground
and which is thinned with the same quantity of thinner,
and which should be painted alongside of the color be-
ing tested. When dry the painting will clearly indicate
the relative fineness of the two samples.

The following method is probably as good as any or
better rather than any, but it requires a little more time
to make the test: Weigh out equal parts each of the
colors being tested, after having first taken the precau-
tion to place each upon a piece of blotting paper to re-
move the oil as one might have more than the other,
then after weighing place each sample in a graduated
test tube, putting in each tube the same quantity of tur-
pentine to thin them, after which shake them up thor-
oughly. It will be easy to see which precipitates first,
as the heaviest will go to the bottom first always and
the finest or lightest will be held in suspension the
longest. But even this test would become worthless for
colors which have been adulterated with a very fine
atomed adulterant or for white lead which contains
sublimed lead as that is much finer than Dutch process
lead. In either case, however, if the scale test has been
used, it will have given away the pigment at fault and
one can give a pretty good guess as to what the
adulterant may be.

162 Modern Painter's Cyclopedia

SPREADING POWER OR COVERING POWER.

1 02. The spreading power or covering power of
pigments are not controvertible terms and they are not
identical, as between zinc and white lead for instance,
and one of great opacity may not have much spreading
power. But in pigments which are being tested with
another of the same name and composition to all in-
tents and purposes, and for comparison it may be
assumed that the two are identical and that spreading is
due to the opacity of the pigment, and that they should
go hand in hand in helping to determine the value of
the samples tested. It would not be fair nor conclusive
to apply this test to any of the transparent or even the
semitransparent pigments, but is applicable only to
white lead and other opaque pigments.

THE BODY.

103. The body of a pigment lays in its opaqueness
or its capacity to hide from view, the coats of paint
over which their covering properties are being tested.
It is nearly related to its spreading so that what was
said in the preceding paragraph applies to that also.
A pigment having a better body than that of another
of the same name, can be spread further, to cover as
well as one lacking in body, each hiding the surface
over which they are applied as well in each case. For
instance if to cover over a certain number of square feet
of surface painted black requires one pound of white
lead to do as well as one and a half pound of white

Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 163

lead of another sample did, then the first is worth 50%
the most and has 50% more body and the spread helps
to determine its body.

TINTING OR STAINING STRENGTH.

104. This is determined by the "scale test" which
has been explained under the heading "Adulteration"
and the reader is referred to paragraphs 5 to 7. This
test is an infallible one in detecting the lack of color-
ing matter in any pigment.

THE PERMANENCY OF PIGMENTS.

105. This is a very important test but it takes a very
long time to make it. There is nothing else to do but
to wait for results after having painted over two or
more pigments being tested for permanency upon a
board side by side, the board being the same and the
ground coats being alike, and the exposure the same
for each. Each pigment has a permanency of its own
and therefore the term is only a relative one. White
lead should not be tested by the permanency belonging
to lampblack for instance, but by that of samples of
other white lead and time will decide which of two or
more white leads is the most permanent. Under the
heading of "Colors" is given their peculiarities and in
the leading ones especially a list of conditions under
which they should not be applied and which would
shorten their permanency.

J 64 Modern Painter's Cyclopedia

QUESTIONS TO COLOR TESTING.

98. What is said generally of color testing ?

99. What about the purity of pigments ?

100. What can you say regarding the purity of
tone ?

10 1. How can the fineness of grinding be detected?
test is an infallible one in detecting the lack of color-
ering power of pigments and to what class of pigments
is the test applicable?

103. What is the body of a pigment?

104. How do you test for the amount of coloring
matter contained in pigments?

105. How is the permanency of pigments tested ?

ESTIMATING.

106. There is nothing pertaining to the business of
painting or decorating which is more puzzling to the
beginner and if you please, to many veterans than ''how
to proceed in making an estimate upon an architect's
specifications or even for the repainting of an old build-
ing where all the work is in full sight, just as it is." It
requires a minute understanding of everything to be
done and of the time that will be required to do it, be-
sides making a liberal allowance for time lost or
wasted on account of delays occasioned by the thou'
sand and one causes which the experienced contractor
alone knows of.

Some men go to work with paper and pencil, reduce
every board, molding, etc., into inches and square feet,

Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 165

counting parts requiring more time than plain square
surfaces 50, 100 or even 200 per cent more than that
for the extra trouble. Others again will simply average
up the number of plain, molded and transomed doors
and their casings; so many windows of various sizes
and their casings; base boards, wainscoting, etc. For
the outside they square it up adding a fifth for under-
side of weather boarding, etc. But it seems to be an
intuition with some men to know just how much to
charge for each job by just "looking it over," without
ever so much as taking the pencil out of the vest pocket.
Nor will their figures usually vary as much as those of
the men who toil and sweat over long rows of additions
made necessary by the carefully itemized account they
have made of every board in the house.

How it is possible for people who figure a job so
closely to vary so much in their estimates is a puzzle for
the Philadelphia lawyer to solve. The opening up of
the bids is such a joke that one may look out for any
kind of a surprise in the figures named for doing the
painting. The results would indicate that reckless
guessing was more prevalent than sober judgment in
naming the figures as these show variations of from 10
to 150 per cent sometimes. Variations of from 10 to
20% are to be expected — but the others?

Common sense and a thorough knowledge of the
"How to bid" should be the motto of the contractor.
They generally go hand in hand, but this knowledge is
gained only by cool, careful comparisons made as to

166 Modern Painter's Cyclopedia

what former jobs of about the same amount of surface
have cost and in time a man is able to name a price off
hands for nearly all kinds and sizes of ordinary build-
ings by making a proper allowance for the safe side.
But the novice who has no such retrospective experience
to lean upon and also the men who do not accumulate
experience from past transactions, need to square up
everything to be able to bid intelligently.

The National Master Painters' Association some
years ago adopted a system of measurement which,
while it was not to be binding upon its members, was
to be used as a guide in the making of estimates, but
more especially to establish a price for all kinds of
painting which had to be established by law, where the
settlement for the painting of a job had to be done
through litigation, but it did not work. The associ-
ation had it made up into pamphlet form and placed it
on sale with its secretary and while it was well ad-
vertised it took several years before it was sold and
given away together. No new edition will ever be
made of it.

The Pittsburg local association of Master Painters
recognizing the need of a guide in making estimates
adopted a price list which is given below. This list is
a fairer one than that adopted by the national associa-
tion, but it is not binding upon the members either.
It serves merely as a guide and members can cut it in
two if they like.

Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 167

THE PITTSBURG PRICE LIST.
SQUARE MEASURE.

107. Plain weatherboarding, close fencing, ledge
doors, partitions, paling fences, etc., all common colors,
viz : White, light yellow, slate, pearl, light buff, light

drab or cream color, per yard for each coat 8c

Each coat of varnish, per yard loc

PANEL WORK.

Flush panel work, panel doors, recesses, etc.

All the above colors, for each coat, per yard loc

The same in two colors, per yard 12c

The same in three colors, per yard 14c

Striping after other work is finished, lineal meas-
ure, per foot ic

For expensive or unused colors, additional, per yard ic

For each coat of varnish, per yard ^ 12c

For each coat of shellac, per yard » 12c

BRICK WORK.

First coat, per yard 15c

Second coat, per yard 12c

Third coat, per yard loc

Pencilling, per yard 15c

Mastic on cement, per yard 20c

Addition coats on that same as brick.

INSIDE WALL PAINTING.

First coat, per yard 12c

168 Modern Painter's Cyclopedia

Second coat, per yard loc

Third coat, per yard 8c

STOPPING AND CLEANING.

Ordinary puttying, charge price of first coat for the
several kinds of work. Puttying longitudinal joints in
ceilings, siding, floors, etc., to be charged two to four
times the price of first coat for the several kinds of
work at the discretion of the measurer.

SURFACING, STAINING AND VARNISHING.

Each coat of surfacing, per yard loc

Each coat of stain, per yard 8c

Each coat of varnish, per yard I2c

LINEAL MEASURE.

Pillasters, architraves, frames, jambs, base mold-
ings, etc.

Per ft. Varnish

Girth I to 4 inch, each coat, ^c J4c

Girth 4 to 6 inch, each coat }ic ic

Girth 6 to 8 inch, each coat ic ij^c

Girth 8 to 10 inch, each coat i>^c i>^c

Girth 10 to 12 inch, each coat i>^c ij4c

Girth 12 to 14 inch, each coat i^c 2c

Girth 14 to 16 inch, each coat 2C 2^c

Girth 16 to 18 inch, each coat 2>^c 2>^c

Girth 18 to 20 inch, each coat 2><c 2^c

Girth 20 to 22 inch, each coat 2^c 3c

Girth 22 to 24 inch, each coat 3c 3j4c

Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 169

Larger dimensions taken in square measure.

Column mantle as above.

Panel jambs, door casings, etc., to be measured by
the above rule.

Plain rosettes — add one foot to the length.

Carved rosettes — add two feet to the length.

Other carved or ornamental work at the discretion
of the measurer.

MODE OF MEASURING.

Begin at wall, press line in all quirks to bead at edge
of jamb casing for girth. For jambs, take inner sash
rabbet to corner bead, double the height and measure
between jambs for length.

STRING BOARDS^ ETC.

Plain, each coat, per foot 2c

Bracketed, each coat, per foot 3c

Carved, each coat, per foot 4c

Staff heads, each coat, per foot j4c

Edge of shelves, each coat, per foot J^c

CORNICES AND COLUMNS, PLAIN.

Girth I to 2 feet, each coat 3c

Girth 2 to 3 feet, each coat 4c

Girth 3 to 4 feet, each coat 5c

Girth 4 to 5 feet, each coat 6c

Plain caps on columns — add to length two feet.

Ornamental caps on columns — add to length four
feet.

170 Modern Painter's Cyclopedia

CORNICES WITH BRACKETS.

Girth I to 2 feet, each coat » . . „ 4c

Girth 2 to 3 feet, each coat 6c

Girth 3 to 4 feet, each coat 8c

Girth 4 to 5 feet, each coat loc

Girth 5 to 6 feet, each coat . 12c

Larger dimensions in proportion.

Dential cornices same price as brackets.

MODE OF MEASURING.

For girth begin at the top, press line into all quirks
and over each member at bottom and to the length add
one-half the medium girth of the brackets multiplied by
their number.

PRIMING OR TRACING AND GLAZING SASH.

Priming or New Old Glazing

Tracing Glazing & Glass S.S.

8 to 10x12 to 14 i>^c 5c $0.20 S. S.

8 to 12x16 or 18 ij^c 8c .35 S. S.

8 to 14x24 2c IOC .40 S. S.

8 to 18x24 3c 14c .50 S. S.

8 to 24x30 5c i8c i.oo D.S.

8 to 26x36 6c 20c 1 .30 D. S.

8 to 30x36 8c 25c 1.65 D. S,

8 to 36x40 IOC 30c

Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 171

8 to 40x44 I2C 35c

8 to 40x50 14c 40c

8 to 40x56 i6c 50c

8 to 50x60 i8c 60c

8 to 50x70 20c 75c

These prices do not apply when called out to glaze
one or two lights.

For back puttying add one-quarter and for bedding
add one-half to above rates.

In new glazing cost of glass is not included. All
breakage at the risk of owners, if glass is furnished
by them. To all bills of glass furnished by the trade,
20 per cent will be charged additional.

PLATE GLASS.

Sizes same as table above at same prices. Sizes
above up to 90 square feet 5 per cent on net cost de-
livered; 90 to 108 square feet 8 per cent; 108 square
feet and upward 10 per cent.

Removing old glass same as above. The owner to
pay cost of taking up large glass above first floor.

Unless otherwise provided for the glazier puts glass
in at his own risk of breakage, but cutting will be
at owner's risk.

SANDING.

First coat of sand equal to two coats of paint in
addition to paint coat.

172 ' Modern Painter's Cyclopedia

Second coat of sand equal to three coats of paint in
addition to paint coat.

GRAINING SQUARE MEASURE.

Plain Oak, per yard $0.40

Plain Walnut or Ash, per yard 70

Plain Satinwood or Maple, per yard 70

Plain Mahogany or Cherry, per yard 70

Shaded Oak, per yard i.oo

Pencilled Oak or Ash, per yard i.oo

Pencilled Chestnut or Cherry, per yard i.oo

Pencilled Walnut, per yard i.oo

Rosewood, per yard i.oo

Oak or Walnut root, per yard 1.50

LINEAL MEASURE.

Grain- Varnish-
ing ing

Girth I to 4 inches, per foot 3c ^c

Girth 4 to 6 inches, per foot 4c ic

Girth 6 to 8 inches, per foot 5c i34c

Girth 8 to 10 inches, per foot 6c ij^c

Girth 10 to 12 inches, per foot 7c i J4c

Girth 12 to 14 inches, per foot 8c 2C

Girth 14 to 16 inches, per foot 9c 2}ic

Girth 16 to 18 inches, per foot loc 2}^c

Other members in proportion.

Graining edges of shelves, per foot, ij4c.

Graining sashes double the price of plain painting.

Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 173

MARBLING SQUARE MEASURE.

White Marble, per yard $0.75

Other kinds, per yard i.oo

Varnishing, each coat, per yard 12

LINEAL MEASURE.

All members Marbl- Varnish-

from . ing ing

I to 8 inch girth, per foot 8c ic

8 to 10 inch girth, per foot 12c i^c

10 to 12 inch girth, per foot i6c i^c

12 to 14 inch girth, per foot i8c 2c

14 to 16 inch girth, per foot 20c 2j4c

Larger members in proportion.

CLEANING AND CALCIMINING.

Ceihng and walls, per yard i6c

Plain cornices, i to 2 feet girth, per foot 2c

Plain cornices, 2 to 4 feet girth, per foot 3c

Add to the above for each color if more than one,
per foot IC

QUESTIONS ON ESTIMATING.

106. What is said in a general way of estimating?

107. Tables of reference regarding prices of paint-
ing to be referred to when needed.

174 Modern Painter's Cyclopedia

EXTERIOR PAINTING.

1 08. The treatment of painting exposed to the
tender mercy of the elements such as exterior painting
has to go through naturally implies a good understand-
ing of what these conditions are and also a good knowl-
edge of how to adapt the material used in doing it so
as to best meet them. Therefore it will be best to first
review what these are and this will enable us to be
better prepared to devise a suitable remedy, so that
whilst decay must in time destroy it, at least that time
ma}^ be longer delayed.

CAUSES OF DECAY.

109. Nature seems very busily engaged in trying
to reduce all compound substances into its simpler con-
stituent elements or in recombining them with others
for which they each have a greater affinity and this
causes a constant changing or terminating of one part-
nership and the forming of others. If the reader will
remember it was said of red lead and of orange mineral
— one being the bi-oxide and the other the ter-oxide of
lead that each being overloaded with oxygen had a
natural tendency to return to their simpler forms of a
monoxide or litharge; also that English or quicksilver
vermilion had a tendency to return to its more natural
form of a black sulphuret of mercury. These are but
samples of what is constantly taking place in nature.
The constant changes caused by linseed oil or any of

Modern Painter^s Cyclopedia 175

the other fixed oils coming in contact with the oxygen
in the atmosphere will no doubt have been noticed by
any one who has taken the pains of so doing. Yet
while all this is in plain sight how few who have really
thought anything about it or lost a single moment in
making any inquiries as to the why and how these
changes occur. The phenomena of oil drying is won-
derful and full of interest, yet produces but little in-
terest or inquiry about it from the great army of those
who daily use it and the zvhy and z(jherefore never
bothers them. But there are many who are interested
and it is due to these, that experimenting has been
carried on and that some progress has been made in
the knowledge which the world at large has of it. The
ignorance regarding the drying of linseed oil is such
as to hardly be thought possible and Tike as not half of
the painters when asked as to the hozv it occurs will
likely as not tell you that it evaporates itself dry. Such
an explanation of it was once given in a trade paper
by a man whose name usully carries some weight when
he writes about the technical application of paint which
he does know — as he is an expert. When such a man
can give such a reason as that, it is not to be expected
that the others not nearly as well posted should be so
ignorant of it.

The various- elements composing the air with which
exterior painting is in constant companionship are all
invisible, being subtle gases which while when joined
together in the proper proportions are endued with

176 Modern Painter's Cyclopedia

life giving properties are deadly to all life when sep-
arated and alone.

Oxygen, one of the main constituents of our atmos-
pheric air, is one of the principal component parts of an
innumerable number of substances and it combines
readily with most other elements to form compound
substances. Its action upon the drying of the fixed
oils is very beneficial — up to a certain point, but after
that point has been reached, then it becomes harmful,
as after that point has been past the further action of
oxygen upon it causes decay. This action is promoted
and also retarded by many accessory agents and greatly
accelerated by the presence of another constituent of our
atmosphere :

Hydrogen which causes the decay of exterior paint-
ing by accelerating the action of oxygen and also by
that of its own beside. But moisture alone without air
will not cause decay readily nor will it act even in the
open air without the aid of heat. We have already
seen what its action is when present either in the paint
itself or in the surface over which paint is applied ; the
same being fully explained in paragraph 13 a to ^,
which see.

Sunlight and heat may as well be bracketed together
as they are usually inseparable. Yet each has its own
particular function as destructive agents of painting.
Sunlight causes many pigments to fade away but the
heat which its rays also produce causes it to act much
more quickly, so that sunlight is much less destructive

Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 177

to color in the winter than it is in the summer. Light
and heat and moisture are the accessories which help
hydrogen accomplish its work of destruction and after
oxygen are the principal factor which cause paint to
decay.

These same agents are also very active in causing
the destruction of the fibres of the woods and for this
reason it is mainly — after that of beautifying — that the
painting of exterior surfaces is used to protect them.
*'How" it does this will have to be understood in
order to apply the remedy more effectually.

It would require a larger volume than this devoted
entirely to the subject to enter minutely into a relation
of the details which enter into what constitutes the bene-
ficial action of the elements or their destructiveness of
painting material and "how" this beneficial and destruc-
tive agency occurs. As much of it could not be under-
stood by the reader who is not familiar with chemistry,
mere generalities will be all that can be indulged in.

PAINT AS A PROTECTION TO SURFACES.

III. Not only wood fibres but, metals, stone, brick,
in fact everything movable or immovable is subject to
the action of some of the gases which compose atmos-
pheric air and to others also which are disseminated
here and there in it. The metal "iron" which is chiefly
used in large architectural structures, bridges, ships,
etc., eagerly combines with oxygen to form oxyde of
iron or rust. Limestone, marbles, and other form of

178 Modern Painter's Cyclopedia

lime are very hungry for sulphurous acid fumes of
which moisture carries quantities in solution in certain
localities and which combines with them to quicken
them on to dissolution. The whole list of stone, in-
eluding sand or even granite are more or less quickly
acted upon by some form of the elements or some gases
carried by the air.

As the beauty of uncut or cut stone depends upon its
natural setting and dress it will not be necessary to say
anything further concerning them as they are seldom
painted as it destroys their natural beauty and charm.
But iron which next to woods is fast becoming the chief
material used in house construction and which prob-
ably in the near future will become the principal, needs
to be well protected in order to prevent as much as pos-
sible the injurious action of the elements upon it. Hav-
ing no beauty of its own to plead, it has to depend
upon its protector in a large degree for any artificial
beauty which that can impart to it, besides the pro-
tection that it gives it.

As the principles upon which paint benefits exposed
surfaces generally speaking are the same for all kinds
of surfaces let them be iron, steel, wood, brick, stone
or cement it will be unnecessary to review them sep-
arately as they apply sufficiently near to each of them.

Iron, brick, stone or wood are all porous, some so
much so that these pores can be detected by the naked
eye. Under a powerful microscope their surfaces ap-
pear as a huge sponge. It is through these openings

Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 179

that moisture, that greatest enemy of them all — for it
is mainly by its aid that other destructive agencies are
able to do their worst — enters and with it all the others
too. It stands to reason that in order to be able to
afford protection to this valuable structural material that
these pores must be closed up effectually in order to
keep out moisture and the other destructive elements.

This is the protection that is given them by the
use of paint properly mixed and applied. The paint
itself must be finely ground in order to penetrate with
its vehicle into the pores of the surfaces over which
it is applied ; therefore the practice of many to use dry
pigments, such as ochre, Venetian red, etc., is a perni-
cious one and must be unequivocally condemned. Many
painters act upon the theory that anything is good
enough for priming; instead of which they should adopt
the motto that : Nothing is any too good for it nor too
finely ground. If any unground pigments must be used
upon a job, let its place be upon the finishing coat but
never upon the first. It is the very poorest, foolishest
of economy to use such for the purpose of priming or
for any other for that matter as dry pigments soaked
up in oil and unground is unfit for any kind of painting.
So that while it is said that it is better to use such on
the finishing coat rather than the first is to be taken in
the sense that such would be less harmful there than
in the priming coat, but not as an indorsement of them
for that or any other use in painting.

The action of the vehicle is beneficial in two ways,

180 Modern Painter's Cyclopedia

if it be a proper one well fitted for the purpose. It
binds the particles of the pigment together and holds
them in its embrace and it penetrates even to where
the finest ground pigment could not enter. It must not
however be so penetrating that it will filter through out
of sight and leave the pigment entirely. Besides it
must be able to solidify without any shrinkage of its
bulk as that would imply some room left open for the
passage of air. It must also be water or moisture proof
and that the latter cannot dissolve it nor wash it out.
So the reader must see at once that the vehicle even
more than the pigment has a mission to fulfil that re-
quires a number of good qualities to fit it for the pur-
pose.

112. Of all the many liquid substances which can
be used for the binding of paint or of dry substances
which when dissolved in water are used as vehicles for
pigments (as gum arabic or glue) none fulfil the con-
ditions enumerated in the preceding paragraph as well
as ''Linseed oil/' the king of the fixed oil and what is
of enormous importance — as cheaply as that will. It is
the painter's best friend.

Linseed oil in common with all other fixed oils
possesses the quality of absorbing some oxygen from
the atmosphere and by that subtle gas aid, to solidify
after having formed a union with it into a waterproof
rubber-like gum which is elastic and which lends itself
to the contraction and expansion of the material over
which paint has been applied so that while solidification

Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 181

takes place, it is not caused by evaporatiorx out rather
by absorption without loss of bulk, but rather with a
slight increase of it as it actually does so when it
combines with oxygen some 8 per cent, thus swelling
up tightly into every nook in the side of the pores
through which it has become absorbed. So that it
not only binds but fills at the one operation.

The life of linseed oil is prolonged or shortened by
the action that is produced upon it by the pigments
with which it has been mixed.

Some pigments are neutral ; that is, neither acid nor
alkahne and such have no effect whatever upon it other
than the separation it produces between its atoms.
Others again are active in that many of them are alka-
line, in such a case the alkali will turn the linseed oil
into a soap which when dry may be or may not be
soluble and which according as it is one or the other
may or may not be beneficial to its longevity.

113. This needs more explanations. Red lead for
instance is an active pigment, turning the oil into an
oxy-linoleate lead soap, when dry it becomes insoluble.
This soap becomes the best of cements to join two
pieces of glass together and makers of aquariums use
it for that purpose. This is certainly a very good proof
of its insolubility. Another proof is the use made of
it not only as first but as finishing coats for iron ships
below the floating line where it remains continually sub-
merged ; it stands that where the neutral pigments
would surely fail.

182 Modern Painter*s Cyclopedia

As a primer for iron it stands head and shoulders
above any other pigment. It lends itself to all the con-
tractions and expansions of that metal without cracking
or checking. So the reader will see that the proper
kind of an emulsion is not harmful but the reverse.

An emulsated oil, be that a good one or a bad one,
will not be subjected to any other changes but dries out
its water of emulsion by evaporation leaving the lino-
leate soap to dry in its accustomed manner. But it is
not iron and steel alone which are benefited by the red
lead priming, nearly all other metals needing paint as a
protection or as an embellishment are greatly benefited
by having been primed with it — when afterward as its
color is objectionable for many purposes they may re-
ceive over that any other color wanted. Galvanized
iron either on plain surfaces or on cornices which have
been primed with the ordinary mixtures of paint used
for the rest of the buildings usually scales off in a short
while, but let it be painted with red lead for first coat
and there is no more danger of paint scaling after-
ward than upon any other part of the house.

114. For wooden buildings there is nothing better
than a coating of white lead or one of half white lead
and half French ochre which has been finely ground.
Both should be greatly thinned with linseed oil, just
enough pigment being added to that to fairly show
when applied to the building.

115. For brick, stone and other porous mineral sub-
stances finely ground English Venetian red is excellent

Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 183

as a primer but if the finishing coats are intended to
be painted white or in Hght tints white lead and French
ochre half and a half — both being also finely ground in
oil will be better. If the brick or stone is soft the color
should be as thin as for wood but if the brick or stone
is very hard and non-absorbent the color should be
mixed with more pigment and well rubbed out to keep
it from running.

Cement which has recently become in almost general
use in all kinds of house construction and which from
its being so well adapted to such use is very likely to
grow into becoming the leading material in the near
future seems to require a long time to ripen and un-
dergo certain changes during which time it exudes
certain salts which have the property of staining
through paint, thus greatly damaging not only its ap-
pearance but in disintegrating the coating also. Here-
tofore it has not been considered safe to apply any
paint to it until all the deleterious matter it contains
had come out or was washed away. Many painters
were afraid to undertake the painting until a cement
building had been exposed a couple of years at least.
Thanks however to Mr. Charles MacNichol of Wash-
ington, D. C, who very disinterestedly made known to
his brother master painters in convention assembled the
results of his experiments which enables him to paint
over cement as soon as he would over any other kind
of material. It is very simple and consists in dissolving
equal parts by weight of sulphate of zinc and water and

184 Modern Painter's Cyclopedia

of painting the surface of the cement with the solu-
tion applying it as any other paint. From all reports
of those who have tried it it seems to do the work.

THE PAINTING OF EXTERIOR SURFACES.

* II 6. a. Considerable space has been devoted to
noting the various conditions and building material over
which exterior painting is usually done; each kind of
material we have seen, having its own peculiarities, in
the form of its atoms, their sizes, closeness of adherence
together, etc., requiring in some instance a difference in
the treatment they should receive in the ''priming" as
it is the coating which unites the paint to the surfaces
any number of subsequent coats may be put on. The
importance of its being well done in a workmanlike
manner warrants all the space that has been taken up
in the telling of it, if it will induce the reader to do it
well — and more. As to the manner of the application
of the paint, it is supposed that the reader is sufficiently
acquainted with the ''Modus operandi" of the handling
of the brush to need any lengthy advice as to the how
it should be done; nor would it be very easy to show
him how it is done "under printer's type" ; but a few
words will be said in the following sections regarding
priming and the application of the second and third
coats of paint upon various surfaces.

PRIMING.

b. For woods, use white lead or white lead and

Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 185

French ochre, both 'to be finely ground in oil and heavily
thinned with raw linseed oil. In cold weather if the
oil is at all viscid, it will be well to add as much as J4
of turpentine or benzine to it as it will be necessary to
render it more limpid. It should also have in addition
a tablespoonful of some good liquid drier to the quart
as otherwise it might take too long to start it to dry-
ing and it might become fatty and sticky. No such
advice as to adding either is given for priming in warm
weather as then neither volatile oil nor drier is needed.
Then oil is very fluid and will penetrate into the pores
but when cold renders it viscid, it becomes sluggish and
is not sufficiently fluid to penetrate as it should. Prim-
ing thus treated will penetrate where otherwise it could
not and really more linseed oil thus thinned out
can be crushed into the pores than would be possible
when it is in a viscid condition without the addition.

It is superfluous to say that the surface of the job
must be well cleaned and the dust well brushed off be-
fore the priming is applied. The lumber should be dry
also. The pernicious practice of following up the car-
penter with a brush and of priming a board as quick
as he has hammered in the last nail, may serve his pur-
pose in preventing any shrinkage on his work. Such a
practice is all right enough when the lumber is good
and dry and when there is little moisture in the atmos-
phere, but during wet weather it is the reverse. It i?
better to let the lumber have a day's drying rather than
to paint it damp. It may check, that is true, but better

186 Modern Painter's Cyclopedia

have a few checks which -can be puttied up than blisters
and paint cracking.

c. For iron. If the iron is new and free of rust
which is seldom the case, it will be fit to be primed after
a good cleaning of dirt and dust, etc. ; it may have
scales and these should be removed with a putty knife
and a stiff wire brush, as otherwise the priming coat
will not penetrate into the main body of the iron and
such unpainted parts would soon rust. If as usual the
iron or steel has already started to rusting, a good free
use of the wire brush will remove it, and a good dusting
from the painter's duster will fit it to receive the prim-
ing. As it has been already said, there is nothing
better, if as good, for the priming of iron, steel and
other metals than red lead. This pigment cannot be
bought ready ground up in oil and must form an excep-
tion to the advice given — never to use colors in a dry
state in the covering of surfaces with linseed oil paint.
Red lead has the property of turning linseed oil into a
soap as noted before, but it has another also
whic'h prevents its preparation in advance by grind-
ing in oil as other pigments in that it has the
property of becoming hardened in it. This would
render it useless for brushing out, this hardness
in time being nearly that of the metal itself,
therefore it. is better to mix it up in oil as wanted
on the job and still better after having so mixed it to
run it through a hand paint mill. When put through
the mill more oil can be used with it without its running

Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 187

than possible by a simple addition of it to the dry pig-
ment. If put on without the grinding it will have to be
applied much thicker than any ordinary pigments used
for priming would have to be otherwise the lead being
coarser and heavy will separate from the oil and run
in streaks down the sides of the job. It should there-
fore be put on thick and rubbed out thin which will
if carefully done prevent the separating of the red lead.
d. For brick and stone. If the brick work is in
good condition and the mortar lines solidly filled and
the sun has been shining good and bright for a few
days, so that there is no possibility of any moisture re-
maining anywhere upon the surface to be painted then
it is ready for the priming, after having first been well
cleaned up with the duster. But if the building is an
old one and has never been painted before it is very
likely that some of the mortar joints may have to be
filled up to the same level as the rest of it. This
should be attended to some few days ahead of the prim-
ing in order that the moisture may pass entirely away
before it is applied. The job dusted and cleaned pro-
ceed to coat it over by a good, faithful brushing in of
the priming which for a red brick finish or any other
dark colors may consist of good English Venetian red
and for light colors of half and have T^rench ochre and
white lead; neither should be thinned quite so freely
as stated for wood priming — but it should not be nearly
so thick as used generally for the finishing coats on
wood but more like the consistency of that used for

188 Modern Painter's Cyclopedia

second coating on three coat work on wood; but no
very fixed rule can be given for the reason that brick
and stone vary greatly in their absorbing power — a soft
brick being very much more absorbent than a hard one
and the same may be said of stone. The priming will
necessarily have to be adapted to suit the particular
job it is applied upon and the thinning will need to be
much more freely done for the softer surfaces than
for the hard ones where there is little absorption and
where consequently the priming must be put on thick
and rubbed out thin.

e. Cement. After the cement or cemented surface
has received its coat of sulphate of zinc and water and
the latter has evaporated away as described in the pre-
ceding paragraph then it should be primed with a good
medium heavy coat of white lead and French ochre
half and half of each which must be well rubbed in and
brushed out, as cement is not very absorbent being in
that respect very similar to a hard burnt brick and there
would be some danger of the priming running if put on
too thin.

THE SECOND COAT.

117. It is becoming quite a custom to give new
wood work only two roats of paint and to wait a year
or so before putting on any more paint on the building.
This is a very foolish practice to say no more about
it and the architects who so specify must be hard up
for a place to save their client's money as to want to

Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 189

mar the beauty of finish of a building they have planned
and which would be more creditable to them if turned
out with the best looks possible than the measly looking
things it is possible to make of them in two coat work.
But they have not only hurt the look of it by so specify-
ing but have deliberately planned to ruin all the future
painting that may be put on the building.

The reader will remember the reasons given for a
thin priming for wood structures. Now if the job is
to be finished in two coats such a thin priming as rec-
ommended is an impossibility, because if so given the
second which is to be the finishing coat on such jobs
will not cover suf^ciently well and both the architect and
the owner would make a kick about it, so of necessity
the priming coat has to be given too heavy and thus
become a pretty sure cause for future trouble. It
seems that any one would or should know that in a
heavy coat of priming much of the oil used in spread-
ing the pigment will be absorbed away from it by the
pores underneath and that what is left has an insuf^-
cient quantity of oil which will leave the priming dry
and porous. Priming cannot be both a penetrating coat
and a binder for a surface coat at one and the same
time. But this is what is required of it if the second
coat of paint is to be the last. As to the supposed sav-
ing, it is not worth considering — the three coats neces-
sary to good work will take but little more material
than the two heavy coats given and the saving will
be in the application only. But no matter how heavy

190 Modern Painter's Cyclopedia

the first coat may have been appHed, it cannot stop the
suction evenly and the second coat must dry uneven in
appearance over it, as it will sink in, in the soft parts
of the wood, and in the parts where there is no suction
it will be glossy, giving a sort of arlequin look — any-
thing but what is should be — certainly not a credit to
the painter who puts it on.

THE PAINTING OF THE SECOND COAT.

1x8. a. Before proceeding to the painting of the
second coat — the puttying should be done. It is sup-
posed that a reasonable time to dry has been given the
priming coat. The word dry means something else
besides that it will not rub off when it is touched.
It means that the oil has undergone all the changes
during the time it absorbs oxygen. This it does while
it feels dry and for some days after, so that there should
be eight or ten days allowed before it is real dry.

b. Nail holes, joints, cracks and checks or any de-
fects in the carpenter's work should be carefully gone
over and stopped upon the priming coat and should
never be done before the priming has been applied;
for then the cracks, nail holes, etc., have been filled up
with oil and the putty will stick to it, which it would
not do if it had been done before for then the pores,
cracks, etc., would have pumped all the oil out of it,
leaving it oilless, showing fine lines all around it which
could be seen through the several coats of paint ap-
plied over it.

Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 191

c. The painting of the second coat — if that must be
the last one, should be as heavy or even heavier than
it is usual for the third coat where three coats are
given. As the wood is not properly filled up, some of
the oil of this second coat will be absorbed by the first
coat, especially as that has been put on too heavy and
that it has become porous from having its pigment left
with an insufihciency of oil. This of course will make
the paint flat from having to part with some of its oil
to the pigment of the first coat. But as the knotty parts
have little absorption, these localities will have a gloss
with the result already mentioned that it will not look
uniform.

While the above is said concerning wooden buildings,
it will also apply to brick and stone structures, as usually
they absorb even more oil (being more porous than
wood) and if the brick is at all soft it will absorb much
more. Cement of course is less absorbent but still even
upon that it is not always possible to make a good even
looking job in two coats of paint. The puttying, if any
be required, should be done before the application of
the second coat as was related for that of wood.

The second coat should be about the same as for
wood, thinned to suit the job which may be so very
porous as to be still absorbent in which case it can be
thinned more than if it is to be the last coat; if it is
to be followed by a third coat, it should be of nearly
the same color as the finishing coat, just a shade darker
to serve as a guide for the third coat, as then one can

192 Modern Painter's Cyclopedia

readily perceive if the whole of the surface has been
gone over. The above will apply with equal force to
all kinds of painting although it is not absolutely neces-
sary. If the weather is cool, a little turpentine added
to the second coat of paint will make it work better and
will not harm it — but it must not be over done.

THE THIRD COAT.

119. After the second coat has become quite hard
which will take about as long as the priming, it will
be ready to receive the third or last coat. Before it is
applied the surface should be slightly sandpapered to
cut down any uneven streaks or dust and dirt which
may have blowed against it while it was fresh. This
sandpapering can be done as each stretch is being
painted and while the ladders or scaffolding is being
used for that, as it will save a needless moving of these.

All new work after having received two coats of
paint will be well filled and will have become non-ab-
sorbent or very nearly so; consequently the third coat
will dry upon the surface of the second without part-
ing with any of its oil and will dry with a full uniform
gloss. This seals up everything from the injurious
action of the elements and will afford the protection
that good painting is expected to give the surfaces over
which it has been applied.

For third coat the paint should be mixed middling
heavy for all kinds of surfaces, wood, brick, stone,
cement or iron and the thinner should consist entirely

Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 193

of linseed oil. No turpentine should be used, as it
will need all the oil it should carry to bind on the pig-
ment. Being rather thick and heavy it should be well
brushed out but it should not be skinned on.

REPAINTING OLD WORK.

1 20. a. All that has been said in the previous par-
agraphs concerning the painting of exterior surfaces
supposed these to be new and to have never been painted
before. The painting over of surfaces which have
been painted before is somewhat different than that of
new work, yet in many respects it is similar to that.
The thief difference being in the priming coat, which
will not be necessary for old work.

If the repainting has not been delayed too long there
will be no difficulties. The linseed oil of the previous
painting may have become porous but unless the paint-
ing is very old, it will not absorb as much oil as the
priming did when first put on.

The surface should be well cleaned up and dusted
and puttied up and two coats of paint applied over it
which will make the job as good as ever again.

But the paint may not be in good condition. From
various causes it may be scaling or may have had so
many coats put on it that it would be dangerous to
apply any more to it. There is but one thing to do
under such circumstances and that is to burn it off with
a good gasoline torch following it up with a wide putty
knife. Some are afraid tc undertake it. but with a

194 Modern Painter's Cyclopedia

little care it is safe enough and much the easiest
way to remove old paint upon weatherboarding. Then
the job should be sandpapered, primed anew, second
^nd third coated as for new work.

If the job is very old and weatherbeaten it may be
necessary to fill it, for it will have become so absorbent
that the oil will seem to soak clean through the boards
and out again.

b. Such old weatherbeaten surfaces are dreadful
and will require more paint and oil than they are worth
— if put on in the ordinary way.

They should first be filled. A very good way to do
that is to make an emulsion of the first coat of paint
in this way : Take 25 lbs. of white lead and add this
to 10 lbs. of whiting which has been previously mixed
up to a stiff paste with water. Mix the white lead with
it, paddling it until it has formed into a stiff paste. In
a short time the whiting which is carbonate of lime will
have emulsated the oil and the two will mix readily.
Now thin this with half linseed oil and half sweet milk
— putting in the sweet milk first, a little at a time — so
that it may become absorbed before any more goes in
when about half a gallon has been absorbed add about
the same quantity of linseed oil. This may require a
little more thinning for that quantity of material, if
needed use more milk and oil in the same proportion.
Apply this with a brush as any other paint when it
will be found to slide over the old boards with ease,
whereas before a brush full of all oil paint would hardly

Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 195

paint a surface larger than where it first touched the
board. When gone over the surface will be much
smoother than it would have been possible with an oil
paint and a good coat of all linseed oil paint given
over it will make out of it not only a nicer looking job
of it but a much better one as well, much better in fact
than it would if a whole barrel of linseed oil had been
wasted upon it.

No one need to be afraid that the above will go
wrong with them for it zvill not. The writer is so sure
of that that he is willing to stake his last cent on it —
as not only being as good but better and that the finish
will be smoother. Any one who has had such old jobs
to paint will comprehend what is meant by that, es-
pecially if he has done the painting in the ordinary way
— to such this smooth finish will be a revelation and
will astonish them.

As stated before two coats are usually enough for re •
painting any old work excepting when it has been
burned off.

QUESTIONS ON EXTERIOR PAINTING.

io8. What is said of exterior painting in general r'

109. What are the causes of decay in exterior
painting?

1 10. How does paint protect surfaces ?

111. What action performs the vehicle in surface
protection?

112. In what way does linseed oil fulfil the require-

196 Modern Painter's Cyclopedia

ments needed as a vehicle of pigments in exterioi:
painting?

113. What is said of red lead as an iron primer?

1 14. What is the best wood primer?

115. W'hat pigments are best for priming brick,
stone, etc.?

116. a. What is said of the painting of outside

work in a general way?

b. How should wood buildings be primed ?

c. How should iron be primed ?

e. How should cement be treated and
primed?

117. a. What is said regarding finishing the ex-

terior painting on new work in two
coats ?
b. When should the puttying be done ?

118. a. When should the second coat be applied?
b. How should the painting of the second

coat be done ?

119. How should the third coat be mixed and
applied ?

120. a. What is said regarding the painting of

old buildings ?

b. How would you treat old weatherbeaten

buildings ?

c. How should paint be mixed for repaint-

ing?

Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 197

ENAMELING.

CHINA OR PORCELAIN FINISH.

121. China, Porcelain or Enamel painting are con^
trovertible terms for the same thing. It is a most
beautiful way of painting the interior wood work of
rooms. It may be done in any self color without orna-
mentation or it may be used in connection with gold
upon some member of the moulding, but it looks best in
white or light tints.

In the white or in very tender tints such as ivory
white or pearl white only will it show its beautiful effect
of solidity yet with an indescribable transparency which
is so much admired. The gloss without this transparency
would be apt to clog and look heavy when done in dark
tints or colors. As 95 per cent of enameHng is done in
white the process described below is mainly applicable
to that and other very light tints. For dark colors the
number of coats can be reduced, as no such care will
be required to build it up.

122. When the job is new and has never been painted
before the wood work should be carefully dusted and
the room swept clean of dirt and dust before commenc-
ing operations; then it should be primed with white
lead and linseed oil, put on somewhat thicker than rec-
ommended for the priming of the exterior of wooden
buildings.

This priming coat should be allowed fully one week
before it is painted over with the second coat. The

198 Modern Painter's Cyclopedia

puttying up of all nail holes, depressions, cracks and
any hollow defects should also be done now with putty
prepared as described in paragraph 47, which see, as
that will sandpaper smooth.

123. The second coat should be mixed from flake
white and zinc white half and half of each by weight.
If fl^ke white is not readily obtainable, some good
white lead — that is white may be used instead. This
should be thinned with linseed oil and turpentine half
and half of each and applied smoothly. When dry
which should take another week if the time can be
spared, if not then in not less than three days, the coat-
ing will be ready for sandpapering and dusting after-
ward. Should any imperfections have been overlooked
in puttying up on the priming coat, it should now be
attended to as it is the only time when it can be rem-
edied by leveling up with the same kind of putty as
was used before. The second coat should be mixed
also a trifle heavier than it is usual to do on outside
work which is to be followed up with a third coat.

124. The third coat should consist of zinc white
ground in poppy seed oil for the best class of finish,
although a good green seal French process zinc ground
in bleached linseed oil will answer nearly as well. No
white lead should be used on this coat. When good
genuine French process zinc white has been used and
it is thinned with %. of poppy seed oil or bleached lin-
seed oil and ^ turpentine put on rather thick and well
rubbed out, the job should look solidly and uniformly

Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 199

white carrying a fine semi-gloss. If however for any
reason it should not look perfectly white and uniform
then give it another coat.

125. Fourth coat mixed as described for the third
and the job should be gone over with it in the same
way. This will assure a full, uniform finish all over
the surface alike. It always pays in the end to give
this fourth coat even when one feels reasonably certain
that the third is all it should be.

126. The fifth or the flat coat should be mixed from
green seal French process zinc white and should be
thinned with turpentine only with just enough very
light colored varnish to bind it on and this should be
laid with a camel's hair coach color brush — after the
previous coat has been carefully sandpapererd and
dusted ofi and the room swept clean, with all windows
and doors shut to keep the air out so that the coating
may set as slow as possible in order to have time to
make joints on the work without doubling up and show-
ing laps. This coat dries rapidly and usually will be
ready for the next in twenty-four hours.

127. The sixth coat should consist of green seal
French process zinc white ground in damar varnish,
thinned with half damar varnish and half turpentine
and should be very evenly applied with a camel's hair
coach color brush.

128. The seventh and last coat should be damar
varnish of ^ood quality into which just enough zinc
white has been added to tinge it slightly — this is done

200 Modern Painter's Cyclopedia

in order to remove any tinge of yellowishness that
might be present in the damar varnish and it will also
prevent any cloudiness on the finish, but it must not
be overdone as the less color used the better it will
be. It goes without the saying it that nothing but a
camel's hair brush should be used in applying it. While
it must not be flowed on as in finishing carriage work,
it should be put on full and not skinned on.

This sort of finish requires seven coats as narrated,
but if the third is good enough the fourth may be
dispensed with reducing it to six. The extra coat,
however, is best to be put on and where economy need
not be practiced it is better to always give it to make
assurance doubly sure.

When tints are used instead of white alone a good
copal varnish of pale tone can be advantageously sub-
stituted for the damar as that is softer and less water-
proof than the other; besides it will stand harder usage
in cleaning than that too.

This makes a beautiful finish with a soft porcelain
or china look which shows transparency and opaque-
ness combined — a depth of tone similar to some that
are obtained by the coach painter in over glazing and
it carries a look which is unobtainable by any other
method. The "modus operandi" may be thought irk-
some, but after all it is not so very difficult as many
suppose it to be. Neatness and cleanness throughout
all the operations is the main thing and plenty of
time so that no part need be hurried onward before

Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 201

it is fit for the next move. When disasters happen and
sometimes they do, they can always be traced to the
above two causes aside of that of the use of improper
material for which there is no excuse. Of course it
would be possible for a botch to so apply the china
finish that an uneven surface would be produced and
that instead of a joy producing affair might be made
an eyesore, but no professional painter used to brush-
ing out his paint evenly need be afraid to tackle it.
129. On old work enameling. There is but little
difference between the manner of doing that except
in so far that the filling and priming coats having al-
ready been done, this will be unnecessary. If the work
has been painted white or very light tints after putty-
ing up, sandpapering and cleaning it up properly a good
coat of white lead should be given it thinned with
J4 linseed oil and % turpentine, after which the mix-
ing recommended for third coat for new work should
be put on and the flat coat over that as this ought to
make it very solid and opaque. Then the rest should
be put on just exactly as recommended for the treat-
ment of new wood.

QUESTIONS ON ENAMELING. ■

121. What is said of enameling?

122. How should the wood work be primed?

123. How is the second coat mixed?

124. How should the third coat be mixed ?

125. Is a fourth coat always necessary?

202 Modern Painters Cyclopedia

126. How is the fifth or flat coat apphed?

127. How is the sixth coat prepared ?

1 28. How would you apply the seventh coat ?

129. Wherein does enameling old work differ from

new:

FLATTING.

130. The flatting of paint upon wod work at least
is usually done upon the inside only. It is by far the
prettiest manner of finishing it. Flatting has a soft-
ness of finish and reposeful look to it which cannot be
obtained from gloss coats such as are given to the out-
side of buildings. The preceding paragraphs give the
method used in painting wood work in enamel which
certainly carries a gloss too and the statements made
under that head seem at first to be at variance with
those made here ; but there is a wide difference between
a glaring gloss such as linseed oil produces on the out-
side and the softness of finish of an enamel such a
was described — but even the subdued and toned down
glare of an enamel coat would pall upon most persons
if every room in the house should be done with it. As
only a few such are done in most houses the change
from the flat to a well done enamel is pleasing by con-
trast. A whole house alone in enamel would tire out
its occupants much quicker than if it had all been done
in flat work.

If anything could make a person walk about with a
chip on his shoulder looking for some one to touch if

Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 203

in order to find an excuse for knocking him down, that
person is surely living in a house where glaring colors
on walls and wood work stare him in the face the live
long day and it would surely put an average man on
the warpath. It acts upon him precisely as a red flag
is said to act upon the optics of a bull, rendering them
desperate.

While glaring gloss paint possess this exasperating
quality — if quality it be; flat or dead painting has just
the contrary effect, it produces a quieting effect upon
the mind.

131. To flat wood work which has been painted
before, it should have had at least three coats including
the priming.

There is a rule in flatting paint which applies with
equal force upon all kinds of material or surfaces over
which it is put to wit : That the flat coat should be put
on over a gloss coat or that if a gloss coat is desired
that it should be put on over a flat one. If the reader
will bear this in mind, he will never have trouble in ob-
taining a good flat or gloss upon any kind of surface.

If the wood work is old and has been already finished
flat or semi-flat and it is to be refinished in flatting so
much the better as one coat of gloss can be applied over
it which will make a good ground for the flat and will
help hold it on, if the flatting is not delayed too long.

To produce a dead Hat the paint must be thinned with
turpentine only. Usually most pigment ground in lin-
seed oil contain enough of that to bind them on, but

204 Modern Painter's Cyclopedia

white lead is not ground with enough of it to bind it
on as good as it should be and it would soon wash off
with the ordinary cleaning painting receives in most
households and it is much better to add a trifle of linseed
oil to it in order to bind it better. This will make it carry
a very slight gloss, barely noticeable, called an tgg
shell gloss — but it must not be overdone, one table
spoonful to the pint of paint will suffice. This is ad-
visable as better than a dead flat for the wood work
which is subject to being touched by greasy sweaty
hands and what not — in unavoidable accidents.

In warm, weather all flat paints being thinned with
turpentine evaporate very fast and set quickly so that
to do good work, it must be put on very quickly so
the painter should be very careful when painting the
panels of a door not to run the paint over on the rails
or stiles or in painting the rails to square up pretty
even to the stiles in order that there may be no set
paint upon such parts when he gets to them in the
course of his painting. If he accidently does run over
them he should wipe it off with a clean rag.

Great care must be taken to close up all openings
which might let in the outer air such as windows, doors,
etc. This will prevent in a measure the too sudden
evaporation of the turpentine and usually will give a
person time to do the work before it sets.

132. Flatting walls and ceilings demand exactly
the same treatment as is required for wood work, to
wit: a good gloss coat for underground. The same

Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 205

care to keep out drafts of air and air itself as much as
possible. One person should never undertake to flat
the walls or ceiling of a room alone, but should always
have another man to help him.

On the ceilings of most ordinary sized rooms, the
work can be divided up in two stretches. The first
man commencing the painting at the side of the room
on to the center when the other man takes it up on to
the opposite side, continuing in this way until the ceil-
ing is done. If the ceiling is very wide, in halls and in
stores, three and even four or more irjen will be needed
to carry the full width along through.

On an ordinary sized room the walls can also be
divided up in two strips, with one man to take the
lUpper strip from the ceiling down to the middle from
a step ladder while the lower man can do the rest of
it from the floor. Where the walls are above lo feet
three or more men will be needed according to height.

If the job is to be stippled as it should be, it will be
better to have the previous gloss coat also stippled as
one coat only is apt to look uneven. On the flat coat the
stipplers should be right behind the men who apply the
flatting and should never allow the flat paint to become
set before the stippling has been done for no good
stippling can be done over paint that has set.

133. Brick flatting is not so difficult to execute as
the same kind of work on wood or plaster because the
painter cah stop his painting anywhere, if he squares it
up to a brick joint either at the bottom or side of a

206 Modern Painter's Cyclopedia

stretch. It requires carefulness mainly. The flatting of
brick work on outside or exterior surfaces can have
but one excuse which is to imitate pressed brick by
producing an even dead flat surface. This it very
closely does.

Like all flatting the ground to hold it should be pretty
glossy and oiled and to have been painted but a couple
of days previous to the application of the flat coat for
the reason aready given and another very good one be-
sides which is that the gloss coat being still tacky will
dry and hold the flat coat very fast and this it sorely
needs as the turpentine thinner which was used in its
application could not be of any help in holding it on
with the battle it must endure against the warring ele-
ments which would otherwise make short work of it
and wash it off. But if done as recommended before
the gloss coat has completely hardened the two prac-
tically become one coat only, drying together.

QUESTIONS ON FLATTING.

130. What is said of flatting in general?

131. How is the wood work flatted ?

132. How is flatting done on plastered walls?

133. How is brick flatting done ?

FRESCO PAINTING.

134. True Fresco such as practiced the great mas-
ters of the Renaissance period and of which the greatest
of them all Michael Angelo has left such numerous and
shining examples, may be said to be a dead art today as

Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 207

few if any practice it even in an amateurish way. This
no doubt is due to the fault of this age '"Hurry." The
present times require speed and to be just — to the many
new ways and inventions in pigments as well as in the
methods of their application which were unknown in
the days when it flourished.

True fresco is very far removed from what is now
understood to be that art under the same name. Fresco
in Italian means fresh and it indicates the character of
the painting it designated, i. e., painting upon fresh
laid plaster. In fact it was a part of the plastering itself
as the frescoer in those days had to do it himself and
no faster than he could color it and put it on. So the
fresh lime and sand served him both as surface and
binder. Naturally he was restricted in the use of pig-
ments to such as were not affected by lime and one
can well wonder today at the knowledge of effects they
must have had to judge of the right mixture to make
the variations in their shadings to produce such Hfe like
pictures as they did with the limitations of such re-
stricted palettes as they possessed then.

True fresco will have to be dismissed with the few
outlines of it that are given above, as such it is now
too near obsolete to warrant any more details concern-
ing it. A few artists have tried hard to renew it but
its revival never extended beyond a narrow circle and it
was not a success. It had its days and our age will
^ave none of its slow methods and limitations of
colorings.

208 Modern Painter* s Cyclopedia

135. Fresco painting or the decorative painting
which is known under that name in America today is of
two kinds to wit : ist. Fresco painting in water colors
or distemper. 2d. Fresco painting in oil colors on
flattened walls and ceilings.

136. Fresco painting in water colors or distemper is
very popular and a number of our largest churches,
halls, theatres, and private residences as well as public
buildings are decorated in that manner. As the prep-
aration of the walls and ceilings is similar to calcimin-
ing the reader is referred to- what is said in paragraphs
31 to 38 for full information concerning this as it is
the same up to the point where the decoration com-
mences. As the decoration and the manner of execut-
ing it is very much the same for both water color and
oil painting aside of the difference of mixing the colors
and their manipulations previous to their application,
this will be considered together making due allowance
for their difference.

137. a. Fresco painting in oil requires a proper
preparation of the walls and ceilings with oil paint to
fit them for receiving the decorations. Fresco painting
in oil is by far the most satisfactory and the most per-
manent way of doing this work. Unlike water color
fresco, the walls can be washed with water and ordinary
dirt can be easily cleaned off from them without injury
to the decorations therefore it should be encouraged
more than it is. It is very true that on account of its bet-
ter flatting properties that water color frescoing looks

Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 209

best for a while at least — but when a person takes in
consideration the great danger of having the whole work
spoiled it is questionable if the difference in looks will
warrant one in taking such risks. The superior finish
and transparent effects of the decorative painting done
in oil colors too, will more than balance the lack of
perfection in the flatting of the walls. While the prepa-
ration of the walls is much cheaper in water colors
than in oil the cost of the decorations which is really
the main item of expense to be considered is very nearly
the same for both and if this is at all intricate the dif-
ference will be slight in the making up of the total.

PREPARATION OF THE WALLS FOR OIL FRESCO.

b. There are three methods employed in preparing
walls so that they may be decorated in oil fresco, which
are as follows:

1st. To size the walls with glue size or a sur facer
with a glue size over it and to give them one coat of
gloss paint followed by a flat coat upon it.

2d. To paint one coat of linseed oil paint over the
walls, then give one coat of glue size over it to be
followed with one coat of gloss and another of flat
paint over it.

3d. The last is the best way. It consists in paint-
ing the walls with three coats of oil paint and to follow
this with another of flat paint.

The first method answers fairly well, when there is
Ho danger of moisture or water coming through the

210 Modern Painter's Cyclopedias

plaster. If there is and there always is such a possibility
in accidents, the glue will swell and surely crack and
peel off.

The second is much less likely to suffer from such
a cause, but yet it is not entirely immune from injury
from that cause. Water if present for a long time
will filter finally through the one linseed oil coating
and the sizing will also flake off.

But the third is a dead sure thing and a perfect
guarantee can be given with it from any such a cause
and that it will last as long as the plaster is not knocked
off or other injuries received from the outside.

Some plastered walls have very persistent fire cracks
as they are technically called by fresco painters. These
fire cracks do not appear usually until after the painting
of the first oil coat. They run in all directions and seem
to absorb oil "ad libitum" nor to seem to know when
they have enough of it. Ordinarily three coats of oil
paint plus one flat coat over them suflice to stop this
suction but then again sometimes it will not. In such
a case there is nothing to do but to give another
coat after the third and in some very bad cases even
another may be needed to stop this suction as it would
mar the finish. This is hardly ever necessary and as
said before three coats plus a flat one is usually all that
is needed and where so much expense has been incurred
an extra coat should not be dispensed with if necessary
to insure a good finish.

Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 211

THE TOOLS NEEDED.

138. Level and plumb, straight edges, T square
dividers of various sizes, some long legged wooden
ones, chalk lines, etc., a number of various sizes of small
bristle brushes of round, flat and triangular shapes (the
latter for angles), see Figs. 18 and 19. The large cal-
cimining brush (Fig. i) and various sizes of water
color camel's hair brushes. For very fine work in oil or
water colors, a full set of artist's brushes in sable, ox
hair and camel's hair will also be needed.

For oil work there will be needed for the preparing
of the walls some good wall brushes, as shown in Figs.
3 and 4 and a stippling brush Fig. 2.

Step ladders, trestles and some two inch thick walk-
ing boards. Some few 12 quart galvanized pails for
use in distempering, some one gallon tin pails for col-
ors used in painting the walls in oil, and a number of
small tins to hold the colors needed for the decorative
portion of the work. Glue pot, strainers, etc. These
are the principal tools and appliances needed. To these
however, every decorator has some pet tool or another
that he would wish to add to the list.

MATERIAL USED.

139. a. For distempering: Whiting is the prin-
cipal color used as a base for tinting. For self coloring
or for the preparing of tints, all kinds of dry pigments
excepting such as are noted as unsafe to use in water
colors under the heading of "Colors." Gum arable

212 Modern Painter's Cyclopedia

glue, and gold leaf besides all the bronzes, metallics,
flitters, etc.

b. For oil work : White lead and zinc white ground
in oil. All the various pigments which are to be found
ground in oil may be used in decorating.

THE PAINTING.

140. Painting the walls in distemper and preparing
the colors for the same is identically the same as fully
described under the heading "Calcimining," so the
reader is referred to paragraphs 34 to 37 for the in-
formation required.

141. This work in oil as it was seen, is entirely
different from that done in water colors. See para-
graph 125, as that explains the various methods suffi-
ciently and needs not to be repeated here.

THE DECORATING.

142. This is a big subject, so it will be impossible
to do it justice in the space available, for it must cover
the whole field of designing in lineal, mechanical and
free hand drawing, each of which by itself, alone,
would more than fill this volume.

For the cheaper work, most of it is done with sten-
cils in one, two, three or more colors, either in dis-
temper or in oil with a few hand painted lines. The
ceilings being usually divided in panels and stiles, the
latter of a different tint, bordered by a narrow divid-
ing line from the panel. Some small stencil bordering

Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 213

is sometimes used and also in other cases a stenciled
center piece with corners and a break between. The
walls receive a stenciled border or frieze. The reader
is referred to that portion of this manual treating spe-
cially upon stencils for fuller information regarding
them.

Much hand decoration can be made by persons who
know little of drawing, if they buy some of the deco-
rative schemes that are for sale or which they can copy
and enlarge from books on decoration, to be had from
most art stores. They must not undertake anything
too intricate at first but gradually work their way up-
ward. Much of decoration even in hand work is repe-
titions of a few designs. These can be enlarged to the
exact size desired upon a sheet of manilla paper. When
the design has been copied to the satisfaction of the
decorator, it should be run over all its lines with a
tracing wheel or in default of it, pricked through with
a coarse needle. The better way to do this is to place
the sheet upon a cushion or some blanket or cloth so
that the needle will pierce it more easily. When so
pricked the holes will not readily clog up. The pounces
so prepared can be used to duplicate a design any num-
ber of times wanted. It is held in place upon the
ceiling or walls by means of small thumb drawing tacks
with wide heads and small short points. A small piece
of muslin, not too closely woven, in the center of which
has been placed a few spoonsful of powdered charcoal
or some dry color which can be seen on the wall, and

214 Modern Painter's Cyclopedia

the side of the rag drawn up tight around it, after tying
some string around it, the pricked design is pounced
over with this color bag and it will be found that it has
sifted through the holes in the design onto the walls
and marked out an exact duplicate of the design pricked
on the paper, which can be traced out with a brush and
colored to suit, in as many colors as desired.

The whole ceiling should be laid out true and
squared up for the paneling, center, corners and
brakes, and their true position mapped out, and then
it is ready for the painting of the decoration.

While the beginner is not advised to undertake to do
a class of work which requires much previous training,
there is much very pretty, neat decorations which he
could do and with some practice gradually grow up into
the more intricate parts of the business. He should
study drawing and the harmonious use of color, for
without that the ability of a Michael Angelo would be
of no avail and his best work would look — Bum.

QUESTIONS ON FRESCO PAINTING.

134. What is true Fresco?

135. How many sorts of Fresco (so called) ?

136. What is Fresco in water colors?

137. a. What is Fresco painting in oil colors?

b. How are walls prepared for frescoing in
oil?

138. What are the tools and appliances needed?

139. a. What material is needed for distemper

work ?

Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 215

b. What material is used in oil Fresco ?

140. How are walls done in water colors?

141. How are they done in oil colors ?

142. What is said about the decorating?

GILDING AND BRONZING.

143. a. Gilding is the name used to designate
the art of laying on of gold leaf and binding it on to
surfaces for the purpose of ornamentation. It is not
a new art by any means, as it was practiced in very
early days. Many persons who will read this have no
doubt had the privilege of examining some of the old
manuscript books preserved in the larger libraries with
so much care, and must have witnessed with astonish-
ment, the wealth of coloring with a profuse use of gold
in the illustrations, that the Monks of the middle ages
patiently wrought out in the making up of annals,
chronicles and especially missals. One can hardly real-
ize that such beautiful capitals and headings could
possibly have been done during a period which many
of us have been taught that ignorance reigned su-
preme in the land. The pseudo historians who would
have the people believe thus, however, cannot well hide
the living witnesses to the contrary, in stone, paint-
ings, gildings, carvings, in the shape of stately cathe-
drals, churches, castles and public buildings and during
that period the handicraft of the gold beater and gilder
was probably as much used, according to the wealth
of the times, as they are today. Much of the lacelike

216 Modern Painter's Cyclopedia

tracery of the sculptured woods which then was the
covering — with tapestries used in the best rooms over
the bare stone walls — were decorated with gilt upon
some members of moulding or to emphasize some par-
ticular ornament.

The use of gold in decoration is nearly as old as
civilization itself and it would be hard to find some of
the recently discovered remains of their vanished civil-
ization without also finding that gold was used in
some way or another in their ornamentation.

The goldsmith and gold beater no doubt was known
hundreds of years before western Europe was more
than a vast forest broken up here and there with a lit-
tle open ground which afYorded pasturage to a few
herds belonging to the tribal people whose descendants
today claim more culture than any other nations of the
world.

With the great wealth which has resulted from the
discovery of America by Columbus, and from the prod-
uct of its numerous gold mines, has been continuously
adding to that year by year ever since, gold becoming
so plentiful, it is little wonder that its employment in
decoration has been making a constant gain and that
at the present time there are few if any of the dwellers
of the land who do not have more or less gilding or
gilded objects in their home, let that be as humble as
it may. If upon nothing else than a picture frame, or
gilt-edged book or china cup. The use of gold leaf is
enormous and it is not confined to the decorations of

Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 217

the interior alone by no means, but exterior decora-
tions and embellishments are done with it on an
enormous scale. Domes of the largest size are entirely-
covered with it on statehouses, churches, halls and
ether public buildings, producing most brilliantly lighted
effects which please the eyes and civic pride of the
millions who live in the cities containing them. Many
private residences decorated with wrought iron crest-
ings have their most prominent parts emphasized with
gold leaf, mouldings of outer doors and what not. But
the most profuse use made of it upon exteriors is by the
sign writer for gilded signs on wood or upon the glass
fronts of stores or other public buildings.

There must be some very potent reasons why gold
has been employed for so long a time and for that of a
constantly increasing use in ornamentation. In the
first place, gold being very bright, of a rich tone, it
illuminates everything it comes in contact with. It
does not oxidize and with aluminum, another metal
having the same property, it remains unchanged amidst
the constant changing with which it is surrounded on
all sides, so that while its first cost appears great when
compared with the cheaper metals, its greater dura-
bility to say nothing of its embellishing property, re-
duces this in the end. The cost of application being
the same if gold lasts as long as the object over which
it is placed does and which would have had to have
been done over many times over again with any other
finish, the higher first cost will not appear so great
after all and may really be the cheapest in the end.

218 Modern Painter's Cyclopedic

In interior work and ornamentation it is used even
more extensively than upon the exterior; all kinds of
wall ornamentation being adorned with it, even wall
paper of the better sorts has some gold tracery upon it
and in the higher grades it is put on by hand. Mould-
ings and sculptured and carved parts on woodwork
especially in the tasty and dainty — white and gold
enamel finish. It imparts richness to water- and oil
color work so that the fresco painter must be a good
gilder if he wishes to obtain good results from his
work. Even the dinner table bears it up at least as
the ornamentations on china platter, plate or cup bears
witness.

b. Gold is one of the most ductile of the metals and
this is what makes its use possible to the extent it is for
if gold could not be beaten out in sheets thinner than
iron can be there would be but few persons so fortun-
ately situated as to be able to afford to use it on account
of its great cost. But its ductility permits its being
beaten to a very remarkable degree of thinness and still
leaving it entire and solid. It is possible to beat it so
thin that it would take 350,000 sheets placed one upon
another to make a pile of them one inch in height and
one single ounce of gold will beat out into 2,500 leaves
3^4 inches square, besides the tailings cut off to square
the sheets and which are remelted again.

144. a. Gold is alloyed with many other metals
and in many different combinations with them to pro-
duce the various colors of it demanded by certain in-

Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 219

dustries for special objects. The colors of it that are
best known and which all the supply stores handle are
the "pale gold" which as the name indicates is of a
light tone, to "deep" and "extra deep" which give the
rich gold tones and which are mostly used.

Gold leaf comes in books containing 25 leaves 3>4
inches square and a pack contains 40 books or 1,000 •
sheets. Gold leaf is placed between the paper leaves of
a book hence the name. The leaves having been
rubbed over with red chalk or bole to keep the leaf
from sticking to the paper as otherwise there might be
some greasy spots which might hold the gold when it
would be broken to pieces when an attempt is made
to remove them from the book.

b. All gold leaf manufacturers now also pack it
by first attaching each sheet of gold upon a sheet of
paper just a trifle larger upon which some substance has
been rubbed which gives the paper a slight adherence,
sufficient to hold the gold leaf when these are placed
inside of the books in the same manner as the loose
leaves are. This is a good thing especially so to those
who have to do any outside gilding as one may well
infer, when even indoor the least breath of air will send
it flying about like feathers. If the manufacturers
would only use as good a quality of leaf for what is
known as their "Stuck leaf" it would be all that could
be desired, not only for outside where it can be used
with impunity in any wind, but for inside also— except-
ing always water and glue sizes for which they would

220 Modern Painter's Cyclopedia^

not answer. The better way is to use paraffine wax to
rub over sheets of paper and stick the gold on it that
is packed loose, it can then be cut with little or no waste
and the leaf will have all the density that the loose leaf
has usually to a greater degree than the "Stuck" or
"Patent."

145. The term "Gilding" has come to be used in-
discriminatively so that now it covers all metal leaves
as well as gold, so that silver, aluminum, imitation
gold, Dutch metal, etc., are all included in under the
title, at least in so far as that title applies to the applica-
tion of the leaf, so that it is perfectly proper for a man
to say that he is about to gild a surface in aluminum,
however absurd it may sound to the uninitiated.

146. a. Gilding in oil on wood and other surface^
is the method most usually adopted for gilding any
kind of a surface exposed to the elements, a size must
be used to cover all the parts to be covered with gold. It
will depend upon what the size consists of and of how
it has been prepared, as to the resulting permanency
of the work. Where pure gold leaf is used the size is
protected from the injurious effect of the elements by
the gold leaf itself, which we have seen, is not acted
upon by oxygen.

In order that the gold leaf may be applied easily and
preserve its full lustre the sizing must be tacky. Tacki-
ness does not mean stickiness, however, and gold
should never be applied to a surface that is still wet
or from which the size can be removed by placing 'a

Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 221

finger upon it and to which it would stick. It is a stage
which oil painting acquires just before it becomes hard.
In ordinary oil painting that stage is of very short
duration and the proper time would be very hard to
catch so that unless but a very limited quantity of gild-
ing is to be done, such would become too dry before
it could be completed and it would not hold the gold
tightly or if the gilding was done just on the border
of tackiness, then some parts probably would still be
too wet and the oil would come through the gold mat-
ting it and causing it to darken.

But linseed oil may be so prepared tbat it will hold
a tack on much longer than it is" usual for it to do
naturally — even for several days after it has set suffi-
ciently hard to become tacky, thus allowing ample time
for the completion of a very large amount of gilding.
It is prepared in this way: Take shallow dishes into
which pour raw linseed oil, then cover them with
cheese cloth to keep out insects and dirt, but not air.
Place these dishes upon a shelf inside next to a window
where sun and air will have free access to them — but
rain must be kept out. A few months of such an ex-
posure will render the oil fatty — in other words, the
oil will have been in constant contact with oxygen for
so long a time that it has lost its power of absorbing
much more and when painted out thin, even when
driers are used in combination with it, it will dry a? far
as to become solid, but it will take a long time before
it becomes bone hard.

222 Modern Painter's Cyclopedia

When a supply of fat oil has been obtained it should
be bottled and kept for future use. It should be tried
by itself to know how long it remains in good con-
dition for gilding when used alone, than with various
quantities of liquid driers to know how long it will
take before it is ready for gilding and how long it re-
mains in the proper condition. This description and
mode of preparation will hardly suit the man who has
a job of gilding to do in the near future, but he should
take care to prepare some of it, for if he does not, he
will have to depend upon such as all supply stores
handle ready prepared and none are as good — certainly
none can be any better than that which he can prepare
for himself. The ready prepared fat oils of the stores
come usually in three varieties : The quick fat oil size
that will dry in twenty-four hours ready for gilding
and hold a tack five or six hours. The medium fat oil
size which suits the majority of gilders best of any, this
usually dries in 24 to 30 hours ready for gilding and
will hold a tack for twenty-four hours or longer. The
slow fat oil size which requires 36 to 48 hours to dry
fit for gilding and will hold a tack for several days.
This is too slow for any purpose except upon very large
surfaces and where the greatest solidity is desirable as
the slow fat oil size has but little if any driers added
to it and as it dries more naturally, it will have more
life and elasticity to resist injury from the action of
the elements.

b. The surface to be gilded should have become

Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 222

very dry by exposure to the atmosphere for several
weeks after it has been painted and should be perfectly
free from tackiness, for if it is not in such a condition it
will probably hold the gold in many places where it is
not wanted to stick. The surface should be well
cleaned with soap and w^ater and afterward rinsed with
clean water to free it of any greasiness which may have
gathered upon it from any cause. If it lays with its
flat side up it should be sprinkled over with bolted whit-
ing which should be well rubbed over it. Gold will not
stick to it and such a surface being flat and whitish
makes an excellent ground to size up with size which
has not been colored up as that sometimes makes it
specky, unless great care has been taken in preparing
it. The size will show blackish and shiny. If the ground
is very dark or the gilding is done on the side of a wall
where the whiting cannot be used, a little chrome yel-
low^ medium ground in oil should be added to the size
and after having mixed it thoroughly, should be
strained through some fine cloth. Previous to sizing
such part it will pay well to go over all the parts
adjacent to where the gilding is to be done with a
freshly cut raw Irish potato, cutting off a fresh surface
as needed. There will be a thin film of its juice left to
which the gold will not adhere. After this is dry
which will require but a few minutes the sizing can
proceed. It should be applied with a camel hair brush
and laid on evenly ; in running lines care should be taken
10 make them true and even sized without ragged edges

224 Modern Painter's Cyclopedia

and to bring them to the ends perfectly square. It is
proper attention to these details that marks the work-
man from the botch. It is now a matter as to whether
the size used was a quick or a slow one as to how long
the gilder will have to wait before laying the leaf but
under the greatest temptations of hurrying up, he
should hold his peace and wait till it has reached the
full stage of tackiness as it is then only that he will ex-
perience no trouble nor difficulties in laying his leaf
properly.

c. There can be several quick sizes made which
answer the purpose fairly well, especially if the gilding
upon it is not expected to last forever. Japan (so
called) gold size thinned with half its bulk of turpen-
tine or the same mixture of quick drying varnish and
turpentine, can be used for a quick gilding size; but
as it has already been stated the gilder is sometimes
sorely disappointed in not having caught the very short
time when the size was in a proper condition to re-
ceive the gilding and then he will have had all his pain
and labor for nothing.

After all there is little to be gained and very much
to be lost by using any of the quick sizes and nothing
but a case of absolute necessity and hurry will justify
any one in taking such risks. The fat oil sizes can be
quickened so they can be used over twenty-four hours
after they have been applied. That is quick enough
and then they lay in condition for several days.

147. For gilding in water colors usually one should

Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 225

prepare two kinds of sizes — one that will permit of
burnishing and the other which will make the gold
look flat or matt it, as the gilder's technical name for
it.

The burnishing size is made from pipe clay and
plumbago to which a small quantity of mutton suet has
been added while they are ground up on the slab.
These sizes require to be prepared as wanted and should
be thinned with glue water of medium strength.
There is so little gilding been done in water colors at
the present time, that it will be better to buy it ready
prepared when wanted as it will save the trouble of
preparing it every time it is wanted. Those are spe-
cially prepared so as to keep and probably have anti-
septics added to them which prevent the suet from
becoming rancid and ill smelling. This size takes on
a good polish and will burnish, which operation should
be performed with an agate burnisher.

The second or matt size and Armenian bole, and is
also thinned with glue water as stated for the previous
one. It too can be bought ready prepared for use and
this is much more convenient than preparing for one's
self every time it is needed. It will not burnish and
can be relied upon to dry ''matt."

148. More water color gilding is done upon picture
frame molding and room molding than upon anything
else and all things else put together.

Picture frame makers use whiting sized up with glue
for the purpose of filling and surfacing their moldings.

226 Modern Painter's Cyclopedia

They gve them an indefinite number of coats as some
forms require more than others, which they continue un-
til they obtain a good body to rub on and this they pro-
ceed to do. This levels up the surface of the moldings
smoothly and fits them to be burnished. They use both
the burnishing and the matt size and they apply 5 or 6
coats of it, which are rubbed smooth after each coat has
dried, when they are ready for gilding by simply apply-
ing water to the molding with one hand and with the tip
holding the leaf letting it down to where the water will
carry it level on the molding, the water acting in much
the same way as when gold leaf is applied to glass in
glass gilding. When dry the gold is either burnished or
remains matt according as to the size used. It requires a
little practice to become ef^cient as to the proper way to
handle gold for this work. One must acquire a certain
deftness of motion in order to be able to do the amount
of work which is considered a day's work in that trade,
and the only way to gain this experience is by constant
practice.

GILDING ON GLASS.

149. This kind of gilding is used mainly by sign
painters and more will be said under that heading, as
there are several ways of using leaf on glass which apply
to sign work exclusively. But all styles and modes used
for applying gold to glass require the same sizing which
is that kind of glue known as Isinglass. This glue is
very thin and nearly as transparent as glass and as much

Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 227

at least as mica, so it will not dull the gold when coming
between it and the glass. It should not be made too
strong either as then the gold will not burnish so well.
A small piece the size of a nickel or a quarter of a dollar,
should be soaked up in cold water until it has absorbed
all of that of which it is capable, then it should be
melted in warm, but not boiling, water which should not
exceed much over a pint in quantity, to which should be
added about a gill of grain alcohol. It should be
strained through very fine silk cloth into a bottle which
should be labeled and from which it can be used until ex-
hausted, as the alcohol it contains will keep it from sour-
ing.

The glass to be gilded should be washed very clean
with soap and water, rinsed wth clean water and again
sponged with clear alcohol and dried carefully. This
will remove any greasiness, fly specks or any other dirt,
leaving the glass clean, and through which the gold will
appear full of brilliancy and at its best.

The designs to be gilded should be roughly sketched
upon the outside so as to act as a guide in applying the
[^old and to show the gilder if enough has been put on to
afterward paint his design upon. Gold leaf is very frag-
ile and much of it, even in the book before touching it,
will be found either with small pin holes or even larger
ones through which light can be readily seen and
through which the paint used in backing it will also show
through, for the above reasons it is always best to give
a double coat of gold leaf. As soon as the first coat is

228 Modern Painter's^ Cyclopedia

dry, which Is, say, half a day or more, if there is no
hurry, the second coat can be put on in the same manner
as the first, which is to keep the surface of the glass well
wetted with the isinglass size just ahead of the appli-
cation of the leaf which should be transferred from the
book with a gilder's tip. (See Fig. 32.) If sufficient
size is on it will flow the leaf perfectly level on to the
surface of the glass. Owing to the much wettings which
the underparts receive, it should always be commenced
at the top and the application continued downward,
taking care to allow about 1/16 of an inch lap to insure
a close fit between the pieces of gold. Where the mem-
bers of the design are small and not closely clustered to-
gether it will be well to cut the leaves up to the required
width with a small margin allowance of it, but if the de-
signs are clustered close, then it will hardly pay to cut
the leaf up and it can be applied in full. The second
coat is applied over the first in the same way.

As glass gilding is usually done inside, there is usually
no difficulty in protecting one's self against draughts of
air, but sometimes it may be necessary to do so and
screens should be put up to prevent it. A gilder's cush-
ion which is simply a board through which a round
handle to hold it up by is nailed some strips of felt should
be glued on the upper side of it and upon that a chamois
skin. All around it except in front a strip of stif¥
leather should be nailed on the side and one-third of
the back part of it should be hooded. The gold leaves
can then be stowed away underneath it, protected from

Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 229

air and can be pulled out with the tip upon the front part
where they can be straightened and cut up with a gold
knife into the required size. This gold knife need not,
in fact should not, be sharp and it need not be pressed
down upon hard as that would uselessly injure the
chamois skin, it should be used like a saw, with a for-
ward and backward motion, otherwise the gold will be
ragged edged and will stick to the blade.

The gilder's cushion can be bought ready made, but
any one can make one for himself without being much
of a mechanic, either. It is needless to say that its use is
not confined to gilding upon glass, but that it is useful in
oil gilding on wood, or in water color work as well.

The design which is desired to appear in gold on
glass should have been drawn upon a piece of manilla
wrapping paper and holes pricked through it with either
a tracing wheel or a needle, so as to allow it to be
pounced upon the gold previous to backing it up with
paint, as it will furnish the proper outlines for that op-
eration. The paint should be mixed from coach colors
ground in japan or varnish, but never from colors
ground in oil ; they should be thinned with varnish and
turpentine about half and half of each. It is best to give
two coats of backing and this should be mixed exactly
as directed for the first. When thoroughly dry the sur-
plus gold can be washed off the glass. The backing
coats of paint preserve the design from the water, but
the gold which has not been coated over with it will
wash off. If the sizing was strong, the water used in

230 Modern Painter's Cyclopedia

the washing should be warmed and then it will soon soak
up the glue sizing so that it will come off. In washing
surplus gold off of glass the water should be applied with
a soft sponge only, as anything harsh might damage the
clean cut edges made with the backing. Many begin-
ners are in too great a hurry to wait until the backing is
hard enough and commence the washing too soon, with
the universal result that the edges curl and the perfect
look of the work is damaged.

BRONZING.

150. Bronzing is not gilding although its main ob-
ject and purpose is to create an impression in the mind
of others that it is. It is a sham, but such a sham as
false teeth and other false things which have become so
common, that, notwithstand that no one is fooled by
them it is broadly done and admitted as a matter of
course. It permits the vanity common to human kind,
a mild sort of outlet in making believe something that
nobody believes. It enables the lady to buy a loc store
plaster of paris statue to be daubed over with another
IOC worth of gold (?) bronze, and made to represent
an ormolu worth loc worth $50.00. La Fointaine in
one of his fables tells of an ass who thought of scaring
all the other animals he was chumming with — taking a
lion's skin and dressing himself with it to procure the
effect he desired but he had miscalculated the length of
his ears nor did his bray correspond to the roarings of
the genuine, so that no one was fooled after all.

Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 231

Bronzes are to be found in all colors imaginable, and
in such when used to produce certain metallic reflections
in colors otherwise not obtainable in decoration they
have a legitimate and even artistic look to them, and the
ironical sayings just indulged in at their expense is only
directed at their misuse in trying to imitate something
which it is not. They are made from all sorts of com-
poundings of metals, powdered glass and what not.
The processes some of them undergo, are carefully
guarded, so that the public usually is not invited into the
manufacturer's sanctum sanctorum, especially when he
has hit upon a happy combination which permits him to
control the market upon it after a demand has been cre-
ated for it. The cheaper inferior sorts quickly tarnish,
but the good grades of it are remarkably permanent
(some of them) and it is of these and of the manner of
their preparation and of fixing the permanency which is
kept as secret as possible. Chemists may find out their
composition but the manner of keeping the fade out of
them, is beyond the power of analysis.

Bronzes are sold according to their fineness at least
all the ordinary sorts are. Bronzes sell at from 50c per
pound to $8.00. No doubt but that a good portion of
the price paid for the higher grades by the consumers
goes to the manufacturers to pay for the "know how.'*

151. Bronzes may be applied with any kind of a
size that carries a little tack so as to hold it on. If an
object is to be bronzed all over, the size can be put on
as a paint coat would be over it and when it has set suf-

232 Modern Painter's Cyclopedia

ficiently to have a tack, the bronze powder may be
dusted on to it or better rubbed over it with a piece of
cotton batting which has first been dipped in the bronze
powder. In that way there will be little or no waste of
the bronze. If only a certain design in bronze is to ap-
pear upon the surface the object should be carefully
washed and cleaned free of grease spots for if any tack
caused by greasiness remains the powder would adhere
to it. The oil, japan or varnish sizes must be put on in
the same manner as related for gilding. But there is a
better way and a much safer way and that is to mix the
bronze powder with a good vehicle which will bind it on
the same as any other pigment. Many manufacturers
put upon the market bronze sizing japans, etc. ; some are
fair but many worthless. The best known and mostly
used bronze sizing to be used for mixing those with it,
is called ''Banana Oil" of a strong, pungent, disagree-
able odor of that fruit. For those who can stand that
odor it is the best there is, as unlike the japans it leaves
the bronze with a full undulled metallic luster which is
as bright after mixing as it was before, which cannot
be said of the others. In fact it is mainly for that reason
that objects which are solidly bronzed are sized all over
and the dry powdered bronze applied over it — in ordei"
to preserve the full metallic reflection.

Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 233

QUESTIONS ON GILDING AND BRONZING.

143. a. What is said generally of the use of gold ?
b. How is gold leaf made?

144. a. How many kinds of gold leaf are there?
b. How is gold leaf packed ?

145. Is the term "Gilding" applicable to gold

only ?

146. a. What is said of gilding in oil?

b. How is it applied?

c. How are quick sizes made and used?

147. How are water sizes made and used?

148. How do picture-molding makers prepare them

for gilding?

149. How is gilding on glass done?

150. What is said regarding bronzing?

151. How is bronzing appHed?

GLAZING.

152. The technical term "Glazing" is in itself a
very good description of what the operation it desig-
nates consists of, so that its name is appropriate.

Glazing, to painters, has a double signification, es-
pecially to such who conduct a general business and
who are glaziers as well — but to the coach painter, deco-
rator or artist it has the signification which is given
it here. It means with them the application of a coat of
paint, giving to an already painted surface an artificial
look of transparency and depth which appears some-

234 Modern Painter's Cyclopedia

what as if the previous coating of paint had been cov-
ered over with a sheet of glass — hence the name.

It imparts to pianted surfaces an undescribable look
of depth and effect which can be obtained in no other
manner. As stated before the glazing coat must have
another one of solid color under it. It must be made
up with a transparent lake, or some of the transparent
colors, or with a solid color which has been made trans-
parent artificially.

These glazing colors need not always be of the same
tone as that of the solid color over which they are
placed, and some of the richest effects are produced by
glazing certain colors with a lake of a widely different
tone. But some very pretty effects are obtained by
glazing over colors with a glaze coat of a color of the
same order, but of a different tone of it; for instance,
for a carmine glaze a solid English vermillion coat is
given, which when followed with a carmine glaze par-
takes of the character of both, the vermillion tone being
reflected through the transparency of the- carmine
glaze, but the carmine itself also showing its own par-
ticular richness of tone. Thus a double tone is really
produced.^ This is very pleasing to the eye, and this is
why this effect is being used upon all first-class carriage
work other than black. This is imitated by a blend of
solid colors for cheaper work, but, like all imitations, it
falls far short of the genuine.

In carriage work the glazing coat follows immedi-
ately after the last coat of color has been put on and just

Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 235

previous to the safety coat of varnish used to decorate
upon.

Decorators use glazing colors also, and for the very
same purpose as the carriage painters do : that of pro-
ducing certain depth of tones which they could not ob-
tain in any other way.

Artists, likewise, are very familiar with the use of
glazng colors and have recourse to it on many occa-
sions.

QUESTION ON GLAZING.

152. Give a description of glazing.

GRAINING.

153. Graining is not a very old art and it Is very
doubtful if it was known at all two centuries ago. It is
very true that artists had occasion to represent various
woods upon pictures, but only in so far as the wood
represented was necessary in the make up of their pic-
tures— not as graining. Graining in a commercial way
as it is known today was, therefore, unknown previous
to the time related, and the artists who imitated woods
upon the canvas had no idea as to how the grainers
execute their work, nor of its methods, and such a
knowledge would have been useless to them as a pic-
ture would have been nofield where such could have
been practical.

Graining began to flourish about the commencement
of the eighteenth century, and from that period until

236 Modern Painter's Cyclopedia

the middle of the nineteenth it increased greatly until
the first class grainer became an mportant character in
all communities where such existed, and their renown
usually spread all around them. Such as had a wide
acquaintance, and grainers were never slow in blowing
their horns, were sent for quite long distances from
their home towns. The British Isles — England, Scot-
land and Ireland — seem to have produced the best and
most renowned grainers. The Continental countries
of Europe, especially the more southern, had the best
of Great Britain in the production of good colorists and
decorators but that country bore the palm in its grain-
ing and the men who did it. The traditions which have
been handed down and reached our times give accounts
of the feats of the renowned ones who had made en-
viable reputations during the first three quarters of the
last century, which ends the flourishing period of that
art. It very suddenly came to an end about the middle
of the seventies with an occasional spasmodic revival,
which did not last long, however.

Without a doubt, this was due to the introduction of
hardwoods in house construction. The supply of white
pine finishing lumber giving away about that time, its
cost began to rise up so high that it became as cheap or
cheaper to use hardwoods for the purpose. As the
hardwod is usually better than the imitation the skill of
grainers became less and less needed, and with the re-
sults that the great grainers of the past have few if any
successors in the present generation. The discrimi-

Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 237

nating customer of ''ye olden times" was willing to
pay a pretty good price for the graining of a double
front door and vestibule or a library, dining-room, or
even a parlor, hall, etc. ; that would beat some neighbor
because good graining was then regarded as an art— -
which it really was. It deserved good remuneration
and it received it as the artist does — not at so much a
day— but for the artistic effects produced, regardless of
the time consumed. For no one but an artist could re-
produce the woods in such natural imitations that it
frequently fooled good judges of woods.

The great diffusion of wealth since that time, too,
has been another factor militating against graining be-
cause it has enabled the great middle class to procure the
genuine wood in place of the imitation. So high priced
white pine finishing lumber plus the high prices hereto-
fore paid for artistic graining made the imitation come
higher than the natural wood, and the cheap, hurry-up
kind of graining could not hold out sufficient induce-
ments to tempt artists to devote their life work to do
this cheaper class of work : there is little wonder that
such were deterred from adopting it as a calling, and
that the field is so bare of really good grainers.

But a reaction is taking place now which promises
to advance this branch of work again. It must not be
expected that it will ever reach the high planes of the
past, but the first class grainer today finds that room for
his skill is increasing. This, no doubt, is due to the
fact that it is now the universal practice of finishing

238 Modern Painter's Cyclopedia

flats, etc., in varnished yellow pine and that that sort
of a finish does not satisfy owners nor tenants after a
few years, as they darken and become very dingy. The
only remedy is painting them over every year, or grain-
ing at a little greater expense at the start, but much
cheaper in the end, as it need not be renewed yearly to
be in good condition.

There is, therefore, a good future in sght now for
good grainers and this art is bound to grow into favor
again. Possibly there may not be so much oak done as
formerly, although that will still remain at the head of
the list, but mahogany and maple for bed rooms, with
the former for anywhere, as its place is suitable to any
room is even now having quite a run, and while it is
a bit dark, its richness of color lightens it up and that
is overlooked on that account.

It is not intended to give a lengthy account of "how
to do graining," but the subject is of sufficient import-
ance to warrant giving enough details as to the ''how"
to proceed to grain all the principal woods.

THE TOOLS NEEDED.

154. Oval or flat wall paint brushes to paint the
ground coats with (see figs. 3, 4, 5). Some partly
used oval varnish brushes or any other fair sized wall
brushes, not too nearly worn out to be stiff or scrubby.

Oval varnish brushes 4 to 8° (see fig. 15), some mot-
tiers (see fig. 29), floggers (see fig. 28), fantail over
grainers of various sizes (see fig. 2y), bone-headed bad-

Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 239

ger hair blenders (see fig. 33), with a good assortment
of lettering camel's hair brushes for putting in veins;
also a line of various sizes of sable artist's brushes for
fine detail work.

Sponges of various sizes and texture.

Rubbers for wiping out.

A set of steel graining combs. Fig. 44.

A set of rubber graining combs. Fig. 45.

A set of three rubber graining cylinders. Fig. 46.

A set of rubber graining rollers or rubber spring.
Fig. 47-

Sectional grainers as shown below.

A check roller for putting in weather checks in oil.
Fig. 48.

Some clean, soft cotton rags. The above are the
essential tools. No doubt the professional grainer
may have some pet tool or another of his own inven-
tion which he may want to put into the list — but the best
of graining can be done without any other. The piped
overgrainer, etc., have been cut out of the list as un-
necessary; also some forms of mottlers.

THE MATERIAL USED.

155. For paintng the grounds suitable for the
graining of the various woods upon the following list
of pigments required is given : white lead is usually the
principal pigment used for the base of all light-tinted
grounds, and to that is added the colored pigments re-
quired to produce the right tints. These are : Venetian

240 Modern Painter's Cyclopedia

red, Vandyke brown, raw and burnt umber, raw and
burnt sienna and ivory, all to be finely ground in lin-
seed oil.

For thinning: raw and boiled linseed oil, japans and
varnishes.

For graining in oil the above named oil colors
thinned properly can be used, or graining colors all pre-
pared, ready for thinning, can be bought for almost any
of the woods, and in light or dark tones of them.

PREPARING THE GROUNDS.

156. Break up some white lead ground in oil rather
stiff in a little linseed oil, add to that the pigments
which are named under each wood for the preparing of
the right ground for them. These pigments, finely
ground in oil, should be thinned much more than the
lead, previous to their being mixed with it ; stir the mix-
ture well to insure the bottom of it being equally as
deep toned as the top. Do not add too much pigment
all at once, but add them very slowly until the tone
wanted is obtained. The ground color being ready, it
should be thinned with raw linseed oil and turpentine
sufficiently for application. A little drying japan can be
used also to insure proper drying. If two coats are
necessary, which is usually the case, give the first one
with more oil than turpentine, and the last one with
more turpentine than oil so as to have it semi-flat.
For graining in water colors the grounds of all woods
so to be grained should be a little flatter than for grain-
ing in oil.

Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 241

There is a great variation in the same kinds of natu-
ral woods as to their color when finished and varnished
so that a man can hardly err if he comes anywl.\ere
near to what it should be. No two grainers would se-
lect from a line of tints the same shades of them for the
graining of any given wood. Of course there is a limit
— but it would be very hard to define it. In trying to
match some natural wood in the same room, always
make the ground for graining about as light as the
lightest parts of the wood shows, and when the top
graining color is wiped out, it will show an average tone
of that of the natural wood it is called upon to imitate.
For practice one should have a few sample boards of
various toned woods and by a proper selection of
grounds and grainng colors, he will soon be able to
judge at sight of the right shade to make for any sort
of toned wood.

Below is given a few simple directions for the selec-
tion of colors needed in making grounds. The tone and
depth of shade must be left to the judgment of the one
who prepares them.

LIGHT OAK.

Whit 'i lead for base. Raw sienna or French ochre.

DARK OAK.

White lead for base; raw sienna; raw umber, some
little ivory black if required for as dark a shade as an-
tique oak.

242 Modem Painter's Cyclopedia

GOLDEN OAK.

White lead for base, raw sienna or ochre and a tritie
of burnt sienna to redden it.

WALNUT.

White lead for base ; Vandyke brown or burnt umber
ochre ; Venitian red ; a trifle of ivory black.

MAHOGANY.

White lead for base; ochre and Venitian" red.

CHERRY.

White lead for base; raw sienna, tinged with burnt
sienna.

MAPLE.

White lead; add just enough raw sienna to make it
an ivory white.

SATINWOOD.

Requires a ground of about the same tone as stated
for maple.

ASH, CHESTNUT AND SYCAMORE.

Requires the same kind of a ground as a medium oak
does.

Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 243

ROSEWOOD AND DARK MAHOGANY.

Venetian red for base ; orange chromo, yellow ochre
and burnt umber. It may be required to lighten it up
with a little white lead.

The above are about all the woods that are imitated ;
yet it may be necessary sometmes to match something
different than the ones named as in a room finished in
hard pine, and where a closet or addition is made from
white pine or cypress and one has to grain it to match
the rest of the room. It will be an easy matter to make
the right ground by following the rule given as to the
lightest tone shown by the natural wood and the top
graining color will be easily picked out.

PAINTING THE GROUNDS.

1 57. If the house is new, proceed to prime it with an
all oil coat with a little white lead in it ; when dry putty
it up and follow with a coat of color suitable for ground
for the wood to be grained over it; this second coat
should be middling heavy and well rubbed out. It
should be thinned with half oil, half turpentine. When
dry, sandpaper it and it will be ready for the third and
last coat. This, like the preceding one, should be a
suitable tone for the wood to be grained; it should be
thinned with J4 Hnseed oil and ^ turpentine. When
dry it should present a smooth, uniform egg-shell gloss
or just a trifle more gloss than that.

Old woodwork that has been painted or varnished
a reasonable number of coats, not to exceed seven or

244 Modern Painter's Cyclopedia

eight, will be safe enough to work upon, but, if, as
is frequently the case, it has had from a dozen to twenty
coats or more, as in some tenement houses one finds
them, it is better to remove the old paint as there is
great danger of blistering if painted, overgrained and
varnished. When it is not necessary to remove the
paint, two coats of ground color is enough to make a
good solid surface to grain upon; otherwise it should
be treated as stated for new work.

GRAINING OAK.

158. Oak is one of the most beautiful of our native
woods and it has such a wealth of variations that it
takes a pretty good head to remember them all. This
is the reason why probably so many grainers, without
exception, adopt some styles of it; which, while not a
single one will be a duplicate of a-ny other which they
may have grained before, will have a certain family re-
semblance with all of them because they cannot help
working along certain grooves which are peculiar to
themselves only, and which one who is at all familiar
with their style of graining will recognize at once, and
some will go so far as to infallibly give the name of
half a dozen grainers who may have done as many
rooms on the same jobs, if acquainted with them. It
is the same as a handwriting expert would do and no
more. The sign writer cannot .hide his style of work
either. So, if a good grainer is recognized in his work
he need not be ashamed of it.

. Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 245

Oak is grained in water colors and in oil, or in com-
binations of the two. Some grainers excel in the one or
the other, but rarely in both. In either ways of grain-
ing it is divided up into heart growths and in quarter-
sawed. In color it varies in the natural tones of it,
and greatly so in the many dyes of it, whch are fads, and
which the grainer can adapt his colors to— the coloring
having nothing to do with the manner of graining it.
Besides the heart growths and quarter-sawed oak,
there are some root growths and the pollard oak both
of which differ very much from the two first. There
is so much variety and choice in these that there is only
the embarassment of the choice from such.

The beginner who has just started to learn graining
should procure as many veneers as possible in all vari-
eties of growths of it to familiarize himself with them
by copying them for practice. The above advice holds
good and applies with equal force to all other kinds of
woods. There is nothing equal to it for the purpose of
learning their variations, and a few dollars invested in
such will be money put in a savings bank at a high rate
of interest.

OAK GRAINING IN OIL COLORS.

159. Under Paragraph 155 the material required
for graining oak in oil is given and it is stated there
that the colors can be bought ready prepared for thin-
ning, or that they could be prepared from colors in oil
by the grainer if he so desired.

246 Modern Painte/s Cyclopedia

The professional grainer who does nothing else can
prepare his own megilp, as the old English grainers
call the prepared graining color, to better advantage
than one who probably may not be called upon to do
a job of graining again for weeks; such can use the
ready prepared graining colors in oil to better advan-
tage than to make up the little he will use on his one
job. As every manufacturer of colors mixes his own
graining colors according to his own formulas, for best
results in using them the grainer should become well
acquainted with their several differences in working so
as to know how to use them rightly, and when he has
found the one which he can work to the best advantage
with, he should stick to it.

It requires some little time to prepare them for one's
self. The colors should be pure, rich-toned and as
transparent and fine ground as possible. Beeswax,
which has previously been cut fine and soaked in tur-
pentine for 12 hours, will dissolve it at a very low heat
in that and can be incorporated readily with the thinner
oil color, which has been warmed also. Take care not
to put too much in it, about the value of a teaspoonful of
the wax to a half a pint of the thinner color. The color
itself should be thin, with J4 raw linseed oil plus a
trifle of driers and }i turpentine. Frequently the
graining color has to be applied too thin to comb or
wipe out well in order that the ground may not be coated
over too dark; in order to remedy that, fine, bolted
whiting, which has been well triturated with linseed oil

Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 247

should be added to the color, and then it may be ap-
plied heavier with little danger of making it too dark
as the whiting makes it more transparent.

It is then ready to be rubbed in, the technical name
used for the aplying of it upon the ground coat. This
can be done by the grainer himself, but he will usually
prefer to have a man known as the rubber-in to go
ahead of him and leave him to do the graining. A half-
worn, oval varnish brush makes a good tool for its ap-
plication, but it can also be done with any other kind
of brush of fairly good size that is not too new. The
rubber-in should put it on equally all over, but not too
heavy for it to run when combed or wiped out. Again,
it must not be rubbed in too dry as it would not wipe
out well. If the colors have been well tempered and
thinned there will be no difficulty in so doing. The
panels should be done first, then the inner stiles, then the
upper, middle or lock rail, bottom rail, finishing a door
with the long side stiles.

The grainer will proceed to wipe out and to comb
his panels to suit the style of graining he proposes to
execute. Directions as to the ''how to do that" would
never teach one how to proceed. The beginner should
at least see some grainer at it to form an idea of how it
is done. Some use their thumb, covering it with a
clean rag to do their wiping out ; others again make an
artificial thumb out of rubber, which they also cover
with cloth, sliding that along as the work proceeds in
order to always present a dry, clean surface to the

248 Modern Painter's Cyclopedia

ground about to be wiped; if this is not done the color
will slide along in ridges which will give the graining
an unnatural and forced look.

For the cheaper graining the use of graining rollers
has largely displaced hand work in graining oak either
in oil or water color This, however, applies only to
plain growths. Quarter-sawed oak will have to be
done by hand as the rollers will not do this right — at
best where they are used much of it will have to be
finished by hand. These rubber rollers will do the
graining wonderfully quick and a great many variations
of heart growths can be made with them when they are
properly understood and worked.

i6i. The advice given above as to the rubbing-in of
colors and of graining them by wiping or with graining
rollers is applicable to all kinds of graining in oil where
the graining is done by wiping out; therefore it will
not be necessary to repeat it over again under each
wood. Should the reader forget let him turn back and
read these directions over again.

162. Graining oak in water colors is very much
different than the preceding. For the graining colors
one should procure them either dry, or, which is prefer-
able on account of their greater firmness, ground in dis-
temper or water. They are found for sale put up in
small glass jars with a tin top cover at all supply stores.
The color should be taken out of the jar, put into a
clean tin can and thinned with beer to a proper working
consistency, and they should be frequently stirred up

Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 249

while being used as they settle much faster than colors
in oil do. If beer is not handy a very good binder for
them can be made by using J4 vinegar and }i water
with a little brown sugar dissolved in it, or a weak glue
size; in short, most anything which has a gelatinous,
sweetish tack when dissolved.

To grain heart oak growth for the better kinds of
graining it should be done by hand. Run the panels
over with the check roller, using some dark color —
either raw or burnt umber or ivory pink, according to
the color of the oak to be grained ; then proceed to pencil
in the veining with a camel's hair lettering brush of
suitable size, taking care to use the badger hair blender
freely while the color is still wet or else it will be too
late and the unblended veins would be harsh looking.
The blender should always be used outwards from the
growth lines — never blended inward. Only run a few
lines, therefore, before blending them, and proceed
thus until all the panels have been done. The rails
and stiles can be done plainly combed or veined with a
fantail overgrainer, taking a dry one and using it over
the lines to split them while wet, instead of a blender.
The water color can be sponged on and the rubber
combs used on it while wet.

The rubber graining rollers can be used as easily or
even better over water colors than over oil. The panels
should be sponged over with the color the same as the
stiles and rails and the rollers used while wet. A little
practice will soon enable the operator to turn out neat
work with them.

250 Modern Painter's Cyclopedia

For quarter-sawed oak, sponge the color over the
panels, comb and proceed to wipe out the champs or
flakes with a chamois skin doubled over the thumbs
or an artificial rubber thumb. This can be as well or
better done after the color has set; it will be nec-
essary, however, to wet the chamois skin and to go over
with that the flakes which will need finishing with a
dampened rag afterward. A very nice effect is to touch
up a few with the graining color and to put in a few
dark flakes with a camel's hair brush which make a
pleasing variation.

The better way is to grain quarter-sawed oak in oil,
however, and when dry to overgrain it with water
colors, putting in the dark flakings where wanted and
in burled and knotty growths, to line up gnarled veil-
ings and emphasize knots.

Some of the finest and most natural-looking grain-
ing of quartered oak can be done by combining oil and
water color work.

When dry both oil and distemper graining of oak
can be improved by judiciously shading the tone of
colors used, but it must not be overdone as then it will
appear ridiculous.

163. Oak root and pollard oak graining may as well
be bracketed together as to the graining for both are
gnarly growths and are best done in water colors. Oak
root resembles a hugh sponge full of little round open-
ings or circles with a system of fine veins intermingling
among them, some parts being very close together; in

Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 251

others again being separated from each other by a few
inches of vein veinings. Pollard oak is very similar,
the unevenness of the surface being caused by cutting
over the branches of the trees at the head for a number
of years until an abnormal growth of gnarled projec-
tions are the result; these sawed into veneer produce
what is known as pollard oak. The knots in pollard
oak are larger than in the roots where really there are
no knots but the appearance of circular openings re-
sembling them where the circling veining has been cut
through by the saw. The ground for oak root or pol-
lardized oak is best made in several shades or tones of
the ground color as this will greatly help the graining;
it should be put in in clumps according to the graining
which is to go over it. The grainer who is to do the
work should make his own grounds to suit what he has
laid out in his mind's eye. The graining is done with a
sponge and blended as the work proceeds; most of it
can be characterized with the sponge, to be after-
wards emphasized with the camel's hair brush and fan-
tailed overgrainers. The colors used should be very
near, or at least in touch with that used on the stiles
and rails, otherwise if there is too much contrast the
work will appear incongruous.

All water color graining should be oiled soon after
the completion of the graining as that will preserve it
against harm, for after oiling it will be permanently
fixed — becoming, in fact, oil graining.

164. What has been said under oak graining re-

£52 Modern Painter's Cyclopedia

garding the use of water colors and their application
with a spong-e and camel's hair pencils should be re-
membered as all other woods done in distemper are
treated with them in the same manner, barring the dif-
ferences between them in color and form of veining.
This difference the grainer can readily adapt his colors
to, and the style of his graining to suit the difference of
forms. Where there is a real difference in the manner
of using them, this will be noted under each wood and
the same explained.

WALNUT.

165. At one time there were few double front doors
and vestibules in our Eastern seaboard cities which were
not grained in imitation of walnut — usually with burled
walnut panels and the rest in plain black walnut with,
possibly, the lock rail veined. Halls, libraries and
sometimes parlors were also grained in that wood, and
then all at once it disappeared. The introduction of
hardwood doors did it, and where an imitation in grain-
ing was substituted it became golden or some other kind
of oak. Walnut, being such a dark wood, is not suited
to all places as its somber aspect is not conducive to
cheerfullness. The Italian or English walnut is not
quite so dark as our American black walnut and the
burled markings are so pretty that more of it should be
done than is the case today.

166. Walnut is usually imitated in water colors or
in a combination of water colors and oil. For either

Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 253

methods it should be stippled first. This is best done
by applying some walnut distemper color (either Van-
dyke brown or burnt umber), with a brush or sponge,
and by beating it upward with the flogger (see fig. 28).
This divides the color into little short-like pores, which
that wood is filled with in all its growths but the burled
and with more prominence in the American than in the
Italian. The burled walnut is done in the same manner
as related for the graining of oak root and pollard oak,
the arrangement being somewhat different, however,
and the grainer must know ho\^' to bring out the details
so as to make the imitation look natural.

CHERRY.

167. There is quite a variation in the coloring of
this wood and much more in the colors it is grained in
than in the natural wood itself. Some people are not
satisfied with its rather plain and non-assuming charac-
ter, and are not satisfied with anything short of the
color of its fruit ! This is really ridiculous, but they will
tell you : ''Why, no more so than masquerading oak
with a green or blue stain," and how can one blame them
when that is tolerated ? The natural cherry wood has a
very plain growth with quite a few pores showing
through, which should be stippled in with a color com-
posed of raw sienna, burnt sienna and burnt umber, but
which should not be made nearly as strong colored as in
walnut as they show very much more subdued and
lighter. The veining is not very prominent either, the

254 Modern Painter's Cyclopedia

veins being separated far apart, but are fine-lined, for
all such woods it is better to mark out the veinings with
a pencil of the right color, which, in this instance, is
one made of raw sienna and burnt sienna. These pen-
cils can be bought at most of the supply stores and are
catalogued in artist's supply houses. There are some
fifteen or twenty different tints made of them. They
are encased in wood ; the wood being colored with the
same color as that inside of them it is easy to pick out
the right shade at sight.

MAPLE.

1 68. Maple is one of our most beautiful woods and
well deserves the use made of it in house construction,
especially for the wood work of bedrooms, for which it
is so well fitted. The veining in plain maple is very thin
and simple and it owes its chief beauty to its mottlings.
Its pores are very small and not sufficiently prominent
as to require them to be taken into consideration in
making an imitation of that wood. The veining, as
stated for cherry, is fine-lined and of but little promi-
nence, and is made best with a proper colored pencil or
with an artist's brush and raw sienna in distemper. The
ground should be nearly white.

Curled maple is very richly marked with markings
called mottlings, of a rich darker color than the rest
of the wood and is done by using the mottler and water
colors and blending them with the badger hair blender.
It can be imitated in oil but will not look so rich. Bird's

Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 255

eye rt.aple is the richest of all, and it, too, is best imi-
tated in water colors. Raw sienna darkened just a trifle
with raw umber to kill its too great yellowness is best
for the graining. The mottlings having been put in,
it is the practice of some to dip the end of their fingers
in the graining color and to put in the eyes by pecking
their fingers against the ground. The above is easy
but is not nearly as good by long odds as the following :
Take a fine-pointed red sable artist's brush and put
them in — not by dabbing them in solid but by making
small circles with it for the natural bird's eye has usually
an open center. After these have been put in their
proper places, and this is very important and nothing
but a close study of the natural wood will teach one
where they really belong, proceed to put in the veining
with a proper colored pencil as stated for plain maple
when it will be ready for varnishing. Bird's eye or
mottled maple might be imitated in oil colors but it
takes much more time and is more difficult as well — •
and when finished would not look as well.

ASH.

169. Ash is grained in much the same way as oak
heart growth. The color of the ground is very much
the same. The growth is more regular and somewhat
coarser than that of oak. It is easily imitated with the
rubber graining rollers. It can be grained in both oil and
water colors — the first by wiping out and the latter by
penciling on the veining. The variety of it known as

256 Modern Painter's Cyclopedia

''Hungarian Ash" has a very peculiar growth which
looks as if some one had blowed in the lower part of
the log and the veining had been swelled out in circles
more or less oblong in form. This wood is the most
showy of the family and like the plain heart growth is
best imitated in water colors.

SYCAMORE.

170. There is but little of this wood imitated by
graining. Why that is so is hard to tell. There are in-
dications that more of it will be done in the future than
in the past as sycamore lumber is being used more now
in house finishing than formerly, and justly so, for it
has fine and peculiar markings all its own. These mot-
tlings are small and irregular all over the growth.

It is easily imitated in water colors with a sponge and
blender. The ground coat should be about the same as
that of dark oak, just a trifle lighter. The graining
colors are raw sienna and raw umber. It can be easily
imitated with the rubber graining rollers intended for
quarter-sawed oak, rolled over quickly over water colors
and well blended, and instead of that name they should
be called ''sycamore rollers," as they are better fitted
for that than for the other.

MAHOGANY.

171. Mahogany is one of the richest of woods and
it well deserves the great popularity it now enjoys for
both furniture and house finishing. It is the richest

Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 257

toned wood of them all and while rich it is not loud;
even that with the richest of marking is never gaudy or
suggestive of vulgarity. In shades and tones it runs
from a yellowish buff with darker brown mottlings to
a rich burnt sienna red with dark brown and some
nearly black featherings of great beauty. A wood hav-
ing such a range of color can have no set tint for a
ground color and as to the tint that the ground should
have will depend entirely upon the character of the sort
of mahogany that is wanted. If a yellow-toned ma-
hogany is desired the ground will have to be made more
yellow and lighter toned than for aged mahogany,
which will require a deeper reddish-toned ground.
While mahogany can be imitated in oil graining, it is
much easier and better done in water colors.

The character of the wood should be sponged in and
well blended more strongly than for woods of fine vein-
ing; this will feather out the edges in both directions.
When blended and dry, the details, if any are desired,
can be added with either a camel's hair pencil or a fan
tail overgrainer, and well blended, too. When dry it
should be coated over with linseed oil and turpentine.

ROSEWOOD.

172. Rosewood is a very dark wood and for that
reason is seldom used in such large a quantity as for in-
stance a whole room would demand. It is one of the
most expensive of the woods. Its use is chiefly con-
fined to piano cases and small artistic objects, and in

258 Modern Painter's Cyclopedia

furniture. As its darkness and high cost prevents its
being used largely its graining, too, is very limited for
the first reason given — too dark. Many small objects
are grained in imitation of it, however, which is usually
done in factories where they are made. The ground
for it is about the same as that of dark mahogany, only
more red. The graining is best done in water colors.
Drop black applied with a sponge in erratic heavy lines
to be blended slightly but not feathered as in mahogany,
then followed with a fantail overgrainer filled with the
same color ; put in the fine lines which nearly cover the
w^hole wood, leaving but little, here and there of the
ground to show through. It is very easily imitated
when one has a good conception of its character in
mind; but it is also easily spoiled if its average mark-
ings are misrepresented. The greatest trouble with the
novice is that he tries to put in too many details, and
these in the natural wood never force themselves upon
the attention, but they have to be closely looked for to
distinguish them.

QUESTIONS ON GRAINING.

153. What is said regarding graining?

154. What are the tools required?

155. What material is used?

156. What is said about preparing the ground?

157. How many coats of ground color should new
and old wood receive ?

158. What is said in a general way about oak
graining ?

Modem Painter's Cyclopedia 259

159. How are graining colors mixed for graining
oak in oil ?

160. How IS the graining color in oil rubbed in and
how is the graining done ?

161. Is what is related in Paragraphs 159 and 160
applicable to other woods as well?

162. How is the graining color in distemper for
oak prepared and how is the work done ?

163. How is oak root and pollard oak grained?

164. Is what has been related of the water color
graining of oak applicable to other woods ?

165. What is said of walnut graining in general?

166. How is walnut grained?

167. How is cherry grained?

168. How is maple grained?

169. How is ash grained?

170. How is sycamore grained?

171. How is mahogany grained?

172. How is rosewood grained?

HOUSE PAINTING.

173. House painting is of two very different kinds
— exterior and interior.

Both exterior and interior of buildings are painted
for a twofold purpose : first, as a protective covering to
the material used in house construction, and secondly,
as a means of beautifying its surface.

Under the heading of ''Exterior Painting" (see
Paragraphs 108 to 120), the reader will find a full

260 Modern Painter's Cyclopedia

explanation as to the best manner of treating all the
various material used in the construction of houses,
therefore it would be useless to repeat the same here.

174. The painting of interiors has also been fully
reviewed in all the several methods used in doing the
same, such as in water colors or distemper under the
heading of "Calclmlning" (see Paragraphs 31 to 38),
also the same under the heading of *Tresco Painting"
(see Paragraphs 134 to 142), and in oil under the
heading of "Flatting" (see Paragraphs 130 to 133),
also under the heading of "Enameling" (see Para-
graphs 121 to 129), besides such as is finished in
"Graining" (see Paragraphs 153 to 172) and "Mar-
bling" (see Paragraphs 173 to 192). The above cover-
ing all the various ways used in finishing up Interiors
will suffice without repeating it and the reader can
readily find what he is looking for under the several
headings mentioned.

QUESTIONS ON HOUSE PAINTING.

173. What is said of exterior painting?

174. What is said of Interior painting?

MARBLING.

175. The Imitation of marbles and other variegated
stones is a very attractive and Interesting section of the
painter's trade — one almost feels like saying art; for to
produce a good Imitation of them Is artistic. To be
able, then, to imitate them the student should have a

Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 261

good conception of it formed in his mind ready to be
transferred by his good right hand by the proper hand-
ling of the tools that will reproduce what his head has
conceived upon the surface he desires to ornament.
Should he spend a whole week in going about from
building to building, examining good natural specimens
of marble in the great office vestibules, corridors, etc.,
or in public buildings, churches, in any of our larger
cities, it would be time well spent with him as this
would do more to fasten up in his mind a good under-
standing of their forms and the great variations of these
in the several marbles which are so profusely used at the
present time. Reading about them will not learn him
anything, and he might read till he was gray headed be-
fore he could have as clear an understanding of them
as a good square look would give him — at the marble
itself.

Nor need this study be commenced over for every
kind of marble he hears about, nor will he need to
make a study specially for each kind of marble as the
grainer has to do to understand the peculiarities of each
kind of wood, for all marbles, while each has some pe-
culiarity too, can be in reality divided into two general
groups : Fissured marble and the other — conglomerate
marble.

All the fissure marbles have a great family resemb-
lance ; the main difference being in the frequency of oc-
currence and the fineness of the fissures, the more or
less of their transparency, and mostly in the coloring

262 Modern Painter's Cyclopedia

itself. There are a great many names given to certain
colored marbles, yet as the chief difference lays in the
colors used in executing them, this need not worry the
marbler very much.

During the week which he has been advised to spend
in examination of various specimens of marbles he will
have come to a seemingly contradicting opinion "that
they are all alike" and "that it is impossible to find two
pieces of marble a foot square that are exactly alike,"
that is in the fissured marbles, for the solidly colored
ones need not be considered, so far as being counted in
— they are not imitated. This seeming contradiction —
as to their being all alike and yet as being all different —
lies in that when one color of fissured marbles has been
well studied and understood, all the others, barring the
color, will be understood also and their minor differ-
ences can be readily taken care of. Their variations are
infinite, however, so that the statement that no two
pieces are alike is true also.

176. To make a good imitation of marbles a person
needs to have an intimate knowledge of colors and of
the "how to handle them" by blending them properly
so as to make them appear transparent if he wants them
so, or solid if he desires it. He will find numerous speci-
mens of markings and veinings in the natural marble
that he should not try to imitate because if he did he
would be laughed at for his pains. Nature misses it
at times and produces some unnatural looking specimen
but the marbleizer is not supposed to reproduce them.

Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 263

It IS the same in the various woods ; only those of pleas-
ing- forms are copied and the abnormal should be
shunned as no one wants them. The pleasing forms of
marbles are so numerous that if a person was to imitate
them daily for a lifetime it is doubtful if he would
reproduce any former design; yet, as in graining, every
person will adopt certain forms and peculiarities and
unconsciously he will put on some of this individuality
into his work and these "personal marks" will be recog-
nized by other painters who are familiar with his pe-
culiarities, and a look will suffice them to enable them
to name the person who did the job.

176. The tools needed for marbling are few. Some
brushes to lay colors with ; these may be of any shape,
but as only rather small surfaces are laid over with
colors at one time, they should not be too large. Some
few flat and round fresco bristle liners; some camel's
hair pointed lettering brushes and a few artists' brushes
to put in fine lines and outlining with. Some bristle
blenders and some badger hair blenders ; some feathers
to put in fine veins with. Sponges for water colored
work and some soft, clean cotton rags. The material
used for marbling in oil is : white lead, which is usually
the base or principal color in the foundation of all the
lighter tints of marble, and for coloring it or for using
singly or in connection with other colored pigments;
raw and burnt sienna ; raw and burnt umber, Oxford
and French ochre; Indian red, Prussian blue, ivory
black, etc. As marbles can be found in nearly all colors,

264 Modern Painter's Cyclopedia

it is hard to say where the naming* of the list of colors
used should stop as neairly all of them can be put to
use.

For marbling in water colors all the same colors, dry
or ground in distemper, can be used with the exception
of white lead for which whiting must be substituted.

By long odds the better way of imitating marbles is
with oil colors — and the easiest, too. The blending of
the colors in distemper is very much more difficult to
do properly, and usually it is used only upon the very
cheapest of wall work that any of it is ever attempted.
A person cannot judge rightly of the value of the
colors used as they dry so much lighter than when first
put on. It requires quite an expert to imitate marbles
properly in distemper. Some few do obtain very good
results in work done in that way, but mostly in scenic
painting, and their work while pleasing at a distance
will not usually bear a very close inspection.

DOVE MARBLE.

178. The ground for dove marble should be a warm
gray composed of white lead, lampblack and a trifle of
red to warm it up. When dry go over it with a trans-
parent gray made of zinc white, black and whiting to
give it transparency and further spreading; put in the
darker gray tones in places where desired ; then blend
them in with a bristle blender. Then run in the vein-
ing in white, which blend with the badger blender to
make them transpairent and look as if disappearing be-

Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 265

low the surface. Then finish up by putting in the high
hghts on the veining with white. This makes them ap-
pear as if they had continued from below to the top of
the surface through the transparent ground. The
painter will find it one of the easiest to imitate. The
broader veins or layers, as some call them, can be put
in with the bristle fresco liners and the finer with artists'
brushes, or still better with feathers dipped into the
color ; with the feather can also be applied the network
veining in clumps where they usually center and divide
out from. It is very quickly done and the quicker the
better the work will look as hesitation always causes
veining to be harsh. Far very good work it is better to
accentuate details with a camel's hair artist's brush to
put in a trifle of dark shading upon spots on one side
and to lighten up on one side the lighter shades. This
helps to produce a more transparent effect to the mar-
bling.

As many of the above details are applicable to the
imitation of all kinds of marbles it will not be necessary
to repeat them again, so the reader should bear them in
mind.

BLACK AND GOLD.

179. The ground for this marble is black and the
veining is gold colored as the name indicates. Some
large veins of straggling character run in zigzag fashion
in all directions; these are made of yellow ochre, raw
umber and Venetian red and are to be blended in with

266 Modern Painter's Cyclopedia

the black and gold veining. After the color has set a
bit, the high light gold veining is put in again but not
over the first ones which were blended and no attention
should be paid to them; they appear as if they were be-
low the ground through the transparency of the sur-
face. Only a portion of this last veining must remain
as "high lights," the rest must be carefully blended to
make them look as if they were gradually disappearing
and give still greater transparency to the job.

EGYPTIAN GREEN MARBLE.

1 80. The ground for this marble is an invisible
green made of black and yellow. When the ground is
dry, paint over the whole surface with a green which is
suitable, putting in the black masses here and there and
with a feather putting in some of the green in veins
through these which should be blended. When dry run
over the work with blocks of black to give it its proper
character. The white masses should now be put in and
one side of them should be made sharp by touching
them up with a camel's hair pencil.

When stones are cut and polished they are frequently
so transparent that we seem to look beneath the sur-
face, and crystallized masses may be observed distinct
from the substance which forms the matrix. These
crystalline bodies may present their sides or may be cut
angularly, thus giving a singular variety of form and
great transparence to the mass. This is where the
painter can display his skill by imitating it. The novice

Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 267

will, no doubt, find it difficult at first but perseverance
will reward him with success.

VERD ANTIQUE.

i8i. Black is the ground for verd antique marble.
Mix in a small can some Prussian blue and yellow ochre
so as to form a brownish green. Then, with feathers,
put in the colors — blue and yellow — which blend with
a bristle brush, afterwards touching up the same with
blue and yellow by means of a camel's hair pencil.

This marble is of the same general character as the
Egyptian, its chief distinguishing features being that it
is more blotchy.

SERPENTINE MARBLE.

182. This marble resembles the above, being some-
what more veiny and less blotched. There is also less
conglomeration showing through it. The green is also
lighter toned but otherwise treat it as described for the
others.

BROCATELLO.

183. The ground for brocatello is a light, warm
yellow of the same tone as that commonly used for
sienna marble and is formed of ochre and white lead.
Take raw and burnt sienna and add enough whiting
to make them spread out very transparent and glaze
over the job with it; when this color has set, sprinkle
it over with turpentine, using a sash tool for this pur-

268 Modern Painter's Cyclopedia

pose. It will cause the color to flow and the yellow
ground to show through. Then shade the larger hlots
with a light yellow ochre to show the angular fragments
and to give it greater depth. A suitable color made
of Prussian blue and vermillion is then prepared, and
with a pencil it is used to put in veins around the an-
gular parts, but care should be taken not to carry the
dark lines through the blots.

ITALIAN PINK MARBLE.

184. This ma>rble is somewhat of the same general
character as that described under sienna marble, and in
reality it is only a variation of that. The chief distinc-
tion consists in its being more rosy in tone and of a less
yellowish red. The painter can follow directions given
below, changing the colors to suit this.

SIENNA MARBLE.

185. This marble has a great variety of character
and is also known under a variety of names in many
places. The tendency now seems to be the placing of
all marbles of that character together under the name
of sienna and to designate the color of it wanted. One
slab will have a dark hue, tending to an umber tone, and
another from the same quarry will be a bright yellow.
When it is imitated the ground is made a light yellow.
After the ground is dry the work should be gone over
with a transparent yellow made so by the addition of
whitihg. While the color is still wet the character may

Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 269

be formed with a No. 2 black drawing crayon and the
same blended with the color with a badger hair blender.
The painter will now display his taste by choosing the
proper shades and the placing of his colors which are
raw and burnt sienna ; raw and burnt umber and Vene-
tian red with which he will fill up the spaces left open by
his crayon, when the several colors should be blended
together. When this is dry the shades should be put in
with a darker color; then the work should be thinly
glazed here and there and well blended with a badger
blender.

Some painters in finishing sienna spot it with pure
white. The novice should study this marble well, as it
is one which is suited to many situations and which is
nearly always pleasing to look at.

WHITE VEINED MARBLE.

186. This is one of the commonest of the marbles,
and the painter has frequent occasion to imitate it, but
it does not usually require the services of an expert to
distinguish between the imitation and the real article.
As simple as it looks, it is the hardest marble to imitate
of the whole list of them. The man who can fool any-
one into believing that his imitation is genuine marble
can turn out to perfection any of the colored marbles.

The ground for this marble is a pure white. When
it has been applied and is dry ; mix white lead and tur-
pentine, adding some whiting to make it more transpar-
ent and with that paint over the work. While the color

270 Modern Painter's Cyclopedia

is wet, form the veins with a black crayon and with a
bristle blender soften the veins with the ground. Sim-
ple as it is, it is not an easy thing to make it look natural.

FLORENTINE MARBLE.

187. The ground for this marble is white lead,
tinted up to suit with Indian red or Tuscan red and
black to produce a rather light neutral red tint. Put in
the veining with burnt umber and burnt sienna, a few of
each, running in all directions without any show of reg-
ularity. This veining must be done while the ground is
wet. Sometimes these veins run in clumps and seem to
break forth, leaving patches here and there nearly free
of any veinings, and then suddenly to make a network
of them as intricate as those upon the rind of a nutmeg
melon.

AGATE.

188. Agate is a conglomerate and really not prop-
erly a marble, partaking more of the nature of quartz
than it does of lime formation. As it is sometimes imi-
tated it is well to place it with the other stone imitations,
along with jasper, porphyry and other forms of granitic
formation which the skill of the painter is frequently
called upon to imitate. The ground for agate is made
of white lead, and the character of the work is put in
with a feather, which has been dipped in a transparent
crimson lake color and blended. When dry it should be
run over with the crimson- lake in spots and between

Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 271

these put in other spots with a medium tone of green
made from Prussian blue and yellow ochre, and when
the work begins to set, it should be sprinkled with tur-
pentine, whch will cause the three colors to run in all
directions and afterward they should be touched up in
places here and there with some of each of the colors
with a camel's hair pencil.

RED PORPHYRY.

189. Red porphyry is of granite formation: it is of
a dark redidsh tone and the ground should be made
from Vermillion and black. Sprinkle the ground with
Vermillion, dulled with a little white lead, taking care
that it does not run on the ground but present each spot
separately and distinctively. This done, the work should
be sprinkled in the same way but with a still lighter
shade of red.

SWEDISH PORPHYRY.

190. The ground for Swedish porphyry is a grayish
stone color, formed of white lead, black and raw umber.
The work should be sprinkled in shades of gray in a
similar way to that stated for red porphyry.

SWISS PORPHYRY.

191. This is considered the most valuable on the
list. The ground is black; sprinkle it with two shades
of color made from black and red, but the sprinkling
should be done more liberally than in the two former

272 Modern Painter's Cyclopedia

ones, so that they may run into each other. Afterward
sprinkle a Htle white over the whole w^ork; the white
spots should be small.

JASPER.

192. Is a fancy stone which is seldom used in large
masses except by imitation. The ground may be made
in color that is suitable to the style or color of jasper to
be imitated or to the situation, but usually it is a gray or
a yellowish stone color. The ground being dry, paint
over a certain portion of the work with an opaque color,
made of burnt sienna and a little Indian red. In about
half an hour it will be set and then it should be sprinkled
with turpentine and whiting; a clean brush being used
for the purpose, and wherever the moisture falls large
spots will be formed. Then the character must be laid
out. This is done with a yellowish grey color by intro-
ducing it among the red masses. The work must be
then heightened with a pure white color. The peculiar
ribbon structure or waving line must be afterward in-
troduced, which is done with the feather of a quill. It
has the effect of uniting the red and the other colors.
This is done with pure white lead thinned with turpen-
tine, a little inside varnish being added to give it bind-
ing. The work is afterward finished in with a camel's
lair pencil in light touches.

Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 273

GRANITES OF ALL KINDS.

T93. Granites of any color can readily be imitated.
Proceed as stated under porphyry. Prepare the ground
of the predominating color of the granite and then
sprinkle on the remaining colors so as to spot large or
small, according as it is wished.

QUESTIONS ON MARBLING.

175. What is said of marbling in a general way?

176. What should a person be required to know to
become a marbler ?

177. What tools and material are needed?

178. How is dove marble imitated ?

179. How is black and gold marble imitated?

180. How is Egyptian green marble imitated ?

181. How is verd antique marble imitated?

182. How is serpentine marble imitated?

183. How is Brocatello marble imitated?

184. How is Italian pink marble imitated?

185. How is sienna marble imitated?

186. How is white veined marble imitated?

187. How is Florentine marble imitated?

188. How is agate imitated ?

189. How is red porphyry imitated?

190. How is Swedish porphyry imitated?

191. How is Swiss porphyry imitated?

192. How is jasper imitated ?

193. How are granites imitated ?

274 Modern Painter's Cyclopedia

OILS AND DRYERS.

194. There are several different kinds of oils, each
having peculiar properties belonging in general to their
class besides each one of the class having some distin-
guishing traits belonging to them only and not to the
others. All classes of oils are useful to man for some
purpose or another. For the painter's use, however,
there are only two kinds which are of interest to him
as related to their business and employed by him in his
work, to wit : The ''fixed oils' and the ''volatile oils."

THE FIXED OILS.

195. The fixed oils have the property of solidifying
during the process of their drying into a rubber-like
gum, which is waterpoof. This property is invaluable
to the painting of exteriors, as without such a quality in
the liquid used in the application of paint, it would be
impossible to hold the pigment of the paint upon it and
its stay there would be limited to dry weather, as rains,
moisture, hail and beating storms would soon make
short work of it and wash it off and the pigment having
nothing but its own adhesiveness to hold it on, would
soon all be at the bottom of the house, leaving the build-
ing in no better condition, if as good, as it was before
the painting was done. There are no liquids or sub-
stances that will render liquids waterproof, known at
the present time, with which pigments could be mixed
and applied over surfaces with as vehicles of them which
will render the hard service which is demanded of them

Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 275

and which will turn itself into a waterproof covering"
but — the fixed oils.

It is not the purpose of entering* into any great details
in reviewing the fixed oils, and some of them will not
even be mentioned, as they are either too scarce or ex-
pensive to be thought of for use in painting. All fixed
oils have the same general properties characteristic of
their class in a greater or lesser degree — which is, that
they absorb oxygen from the atmosphere and that dur-
ing this absorption they become solidified into a rubber-
like waterproof gum; but besides this general charac-
terizing property of the class which belongs to this
group only, they have each of them their own.

All fixed oils gain in weight from the oxygen which
they have absorbed, yet the gain is nearly, but not quite,
ofTset by the evaporation of the moisture contained in
•them and the loss of some certain volatile ethers which
are evolved during the wonderful process of their dry-
ing.

The drying of the fixed oils is a very interesting study
for those among the painters who have a love for knowl-
edge, and to such the study of such works as "Chev-
reuil's" on the drying of oils, will well repay them for
the trouble. A good knowledge of the material they
use will greatly help them to understand the why and
wherefore of things and no one can know too much
about his own business or any of the material used to
carry it on.

276 Modern Painter's Cyclopedia

LINSEED OIL.

196. Of all the drying fixed oils, no others pos-
sess as many of the qualities that are desirable in them
for the purpose of a paint vehicle and as a preservative
of surfaces nor to as high a degree of perfection as Lin-
seed oil does.

Besides that it is so much superior to the others in
quality, it is far cheaper than the next one to it in cheap-
ness. All things being equal, that of itself would suf-
fice to make it the most popular, so that when the fact is
taken in consideration that its qualities are superior to
the others in all but a few immaterial points for outside
painting at least, and for interior painting excepting in
a very few instances, such as white enameling, etc., it is
no wonder that it holds first place and stands far above
them all.

It was stated in the preceding few lines that linseed
oil was the cheapest of all the fixed oils and so it is.
Linseed is a Frenchified word for flaxseed, which it is,
and it is known under that name all through its growth.
The change to linseed only occurring after the oil has
been expressed from it upon the same principle that a
calf becomes veal after its death. Flax is one of the
most useful of all the plants to the human family. When
it is wanted for its fiber, however, it is grown in a dif-
ferent manner. Then it is sown much more closely to-
gether, which prevents it from going to seed properly,
and to branch out, when it is pulled and from such no
seed is obtained.

Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 277

For seed it is sown farther apart, which gives each
plant a chance to spread and make a good head for
seeds and to become a perfect plant fitted to ripen its
seeds properly. This makes its fiber much coarser and
it unfits it for all the finer uses made of that raised
specially for its fiber; for the weaving of linen cloth, etc.
The coarse linen tow which is now extracted from the
flax straw is of but little commercial value.

To make good oil — that is to say, to make the very
best possible out of it, the flax should not be cut until it
has commenced to ripen its seeds and such is the way
that it is harvested in India, where labor only costs a
few cents per day. In that far-ofif country the flax is
pulled by hand and all the manipulations are hand work.
The seed consequently is very plump and rich in oil, the
juices having been perfectly elaborated by the natural
process of ripening. This seed from India produces an
oil that is highly prized by varnish makers and all
others who must have linseed oil at its best and as good
as can be made. It is for this reason that Calcutta seed
linseed oil is so highly esteemed and that these varnish
men, who are the best judges of linseed oil in the world,
are willing to pay more for it than the price asked for
the home grown linseed oil.

But the system of harvesting flaxseed in India cannot
be practiced here in the United States nor in the South
American countries where it is also raised, not even in
Russia, where a good quantity of flaxseed is grown.
Such slow processes would raise the price of the seed

278 Modern Painter's Cyclopedia

away beyond the limit. With the large acreage which
the American farmer devotes to it, the harvesting of
flaxseed would be a hard problem to solve, in fact, it is
one that bothers them now under the rapid methods
they employ, and what would it be, if they were to un-
dertake the slow ways of India ? In America the flax is
cut by machinery, in the same manner as wheat — but if
the farmers waited until the seed had begun to ripen to
cut it, much of it would shell out and be scattered over
the field and be wasted from the violent shaking it re-
ceives when struck by the harvesting machine; so to
prevent this loss, it is cut while the seed is in the dough
as it is called, just previous to its hardening. There can
be no question but that it becomes solid and that it
ripens after the cutting, but it is not so good for it as it
does not receive the juices which it would have drawn
from mother earth during the finishing of its ripening,
and much of it is cut so green that it produces an infe-
rior seed. When the season happens to be a dry one,
the seed produced is generally fair, but when, as it some-
times happens, it is rainy and muggy, much inferior
seed is the result, which contains more than the average
of mucilaginous matter and it cannot be as good for
painting purposes as it should be. There is no question
then that it would pay owners of buildings being painted
on the outside, to pay double the price asked for the in-
ferior oil for a good oil to spread the paint upon them,
than it would to use the poorer — but they will not, and
who is to blame if poor painting is done ?

Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 279

It is not intended to convey the idea that all American
linseed oil is poor ; far from it, for some very good oil is
made here, but only that much inferior seed is raised
and sold and that such will not make good oil.

Much poor painting is done — all are aware of that —
some contractors use snide oils knowingly, and again
some have doped linseed oil palmed off upon them, and
again some careful men have an occasional job go
wrong, for which they rack their brains to find a cause
for ; but seldom do they ever think that it lays where it
really does — the quality of the linseed oil. Good lin-
seed oil is the life of paint.

THE MANUFACTURE OF LINSEED OIL.

197. Not SO very many years ago, nearly every lo-
cality had its linseed oil mill, its wool carding machine,
etc. ; many other industries that have all taken wings
and left for the great cities, and there are still plenty
of men who are living to-day who will recollect them.
These local presses bought the seed raised in the neigh-
borhood, crushed it, expressed the oil out of it, tanked
it and when settled, sold it far and near. The name and
reputation for honesty of the manufacturer was one of
the biggest assets of the concern — but those days are
gone. These old time crushers did not get near as
much oil out of the seed then as is done now and if some
of them could go to the present day linseed oil factories
and see what is done in the way of extraction, they
would hardly believe it possible. Then, under their

280 Modern Painter's Cyclopedia

crude system of crushing the seed under the chasers and
of pressing it with little better machinery than that
used by the cider mill next door, perhaps.

The principles of making linseed oil is much the same
to-day as then, but their application is different. There
is no waste of anything under the new system — but that
of the quality. We hear and read a great deal about
cold pressed oil, etc., but with the powerful hydraulic
presses in use it does not matter so much as to whether
the flaxseed meal has been slightly heated or not as to
the resulting quality. The only real difference will be
that heated seed will make a somewhat more highly col-
ored oil from some of its coloring pigments being re-
leased by the process, but that this injures the binding
quality of the oil is very doubtful and much of this col-
oring matter is thrown down during the settling pro-
cess. Considerably more of the mucilagenous parts of
the seed is expressed under the new system than under
the old and how much more of this is held in solution by
the oil or how much of it is precipitated during the set-
tling and clarifying process is the question, and it has
not been satisfactorily answered so far.

Linseed oil after having been pressed out in the days
that are gone, used to be put into settling taiiks and
good old father time set to work to do the precipitating
of all the impurities to make it limpid and fit for use.
This took several months. The foots and settling re-
mained behind and — pure linseed oil was the result —
such oil as old time painters loved to work with and they
did good work with it — work that stood.

Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 281

These old time retrospects are not colored by fancy
or sentiment — no, they are not wanted to come back
again and the present has much to be proud of — but its
methods certainly do not give us as good linseed oil as
into tanks where it is agitated with sulphuric acid
as that which we used to get.

Linseed oil today, after it has been expressed, is run
into tanks where it is agitated with sulphuric acid,
usually, which hastens the precipitation of its impuri-
ties. Some mills use chemicals to produce this precipi-
tation and in one week of such treatment, the oil is lim-
pid and ready to be barreled — but is it as good as that
settled naturally by 90 days of tanking?

The above is the most usual method of obtaining the
linseed oil from flaxseed, but there are other methods,
one of which only will be described as it seems to have
a sensible way of producing oil, it differing in every re-
spect from that of expressing. It is called the "perco-
lation process."

By the percolation process the oil is not extracted by
expression but is dissolved from the seed with a solvent
in the following manner : After grinding, the meal is
conducted to the top floor of rather high buildings,
through the several stories of which to the top floor
also, has been built percolators reaching from top to
bottom. Into these the flaxseed meal is thrown and
solidly packed ; then benzine is poured in at the top and
percolates tjirough the flaxseed meal, dissolving all the
oil in it on its flow downward and holding it in solution

282 Modern Painter^s Cyclopedia

carries it down to the bottom with it ; there it flows into
pipes hich are heated. Benzine being volatile, vaporizes
at comparatively low heat, escaping in that shape into
condensing pipes and drums where it is cooled and re-
turned to its liquid state to be used again and again in
the same manner — as an agent of extraction. The oil
itself is entirely freed of benzine and is conducted to
clarifying tanks where it receives the usual treatment
to clear it. Benzine no doubt dissolves some other sub-
stances, such as coloring matter, etc., that is undesirable
in a paint oil — but it has no affinity for mucilage and
other baneful substances which are expressed by the
other methods and no doubt but that during the process
of clarifying much of these foreign substances are elim-
inated. Some claim that some of these remain which is
not thrown down and that it injures the oil — it may be
so; as most of these statements seem to orginate with
people whose interests are connected with linseed oil ob-
tained the other way may it not be possible that many
of these may have been sugegsted by self interest?
While not Missourians, there are several persons who
have used both who affirm that they would have to be
shown if there was any material difference between
them in the use they have made of them in their practical
painting experience.

Linseed oil is at its best in the "raw" state only, and
it is only in that condition that intelligent painters use
it and that it can be recommended for the painting of
exteriors of buildings or even for the interiors. In its

Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 283

raw state it is elastic, which permits it to expand and
contract along with any kind of surfaces it is spread
over, be they wood, brick, metal or stone. Raw linseed
oil is also penetrating, unless in very cold weather, when
it is viscid, which enables it to reach down into the pores
of any material it is applied upon, with the exception of
glass — as all other material used in house construction
is more or less porous even to iron and steel. Linseed
oil painting thus forms little rootlet like connections
with the material it is placed over, which gives it a firm
anchorage to its under surface and from which it can
be forced only by moisture or the decay of the linseed
oil in time. Pigments having a great tenacity between
their atoms will usually pull themselves off from sur-
faces in the shape of scales when they have been used in
the priming and these scales will show these rootlet-like
projections very plainly.

BOILED LINSEED OIL.

199. Boiled linseed — that has been boiled — which
is far from being the case always, has lost its elasticity
by the process of boiling it and nearly all its penetration.
Boiling it, turns it into a varnish and really it partakes
more of that character than that which has been de-
scribed under raw linseed oil. As it cannot contract and
expand itself to accommodate the nature of the surface
it covers, it must in time give to the strain given it by the
contraction" of the surface it is painted over, with the
result that it cracks to accommodate it. White lead.

284 Modern Painter's Cyclopedia

which the reader will recollect is not given to scaling on
account of its atoms having no affinity for each other,
which chalk off with raw oil after that has decayed —
will crack and scale when mixed with boiled oil and all
painting of any kind done with it will do the same ; only
more so.

Then again as nothing short of an expensive chem-
ical analysis can possibly determine its purity the door
is practically thrown wide open for the possibility of its
adulteration. Few retail dealers buy it in a pure state,
although they may believe it to be so and buy it for such.
Many others, knowing that the probabilities of obtain-
ing it pure are rather slim, and that some jobbers dope
it or bung hole boil it, conclude that they may as well
have a finger in it themselves and to know just how
much of it they have in it, so they usually take out 5 or
10 gallons of the raw oil from a barrel usually averag-
ing 50 gallons and fill it up with 10 gallons of benzine
dryers, a cheap manganese wash, dear at 25 cents per
gallon in barrels lots, which gives the oil the proper
color and drying qualities of boiled oil and uncon-
sciously perhaps, but surely, the customer is benefitted
thereby as that oil so treated is fully as good, if not
better, for painting than pure boiled oil — tJiat has been
boiled. Bung hole boiling as the above described sub-
stitution is called, has become a byword common to
every user of linseed oil.

Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 285

REFINED AND BLEACHED LINSEED OIL.

200. As the refining of oil bleaches it and the bleach-
ing refines it, these two designations should go hand in
hand as they practically mean one and the same thing.

Linseed oil contains some coloring matter in solution
which is extracted with it from the flaxseed, either by
the hydraulic system of pressing or that of percolation,
as it was seen. It parts with a portion of it while it is
settled but still holds a quantity of it after that. Now
certain light tones of colors and especially the zinc
whites, which require much more oil to grind them than
white lead, are apt to gain a yellowish tinge from ordi-
nary oil. Varnish manufacturers too, who put out ef-
forts on all sides to make as light and clear toned var-
nishes as possible, must get rid of most, if not all, this
coloring matter contained in the oil used in grinding
such colors, or in preparing varnishes. Such either buy
the oil already refined or refine it themselves.

The process of refining and bleaching linseed oil is
simple enough ; it is : Further agitation of the oil with
sulphuric acid and exposure to sunlight for a few days
in shallow vessels covered so as to exclude dirt, but ad-
mitting light, but little if any air, as that might have a
tendency to fatten it.

Linseed oil which has been treated so is nearly as
light toned (not quite) as poppy seed oil, but it will not
nor cannot take the place of that and nut oil for artists'
use because — all linseed oil, no matter how carefully
coloring matter may have been extracted out of it —

286 Modern Painter's Cyclopedia

will darken with time. Even the others do, but not
quite to the same extent as it will. This darkening of
oil is what causes the darkening of old oil paintings.

Let linseed oil's faults be what they may, there is
nothing better made for painting purposes, and it is
better and stronger than any other of the fixed oils.

POPPY SEED OIL.

201. As its name indicates, this oil is the product of
the poppy plant. Some varieties of it produce very
large seed heads and are raised in fields in a commercial
way for its seeds. They are harvested in baskets as the
head ripens — which they do not do all at once, so that it
requires several goings over the field to get them all in.
This is a slow process, hence this paint oil can never be
cheap. The seeds are crushed, the oil drawn out by
pressure in much the same way as related for linseed
oil. The oil produced is very light and clear, and it is
highly esteemed by artists as it does not turn dark with
age as linseed oil does, although it will too, (in a lesser
degree.)

It does not dry very readily, nor has it the tenacity
of linseed oil, and as its cost is so much greater, there is
little danger of its ever becoming a very dangerous rival
and its use is mainly confined to artists.

The main uses are in the grinding of zinc white, but
even for the grinding of this the use of it is waning —
even artists are beginning to shun it as the cleaner tone
obtained from its use applies to whites only, and as with

Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 287

time It darkens also, there is but little gained by its use
after all, especially for those who are working for pos-
terity.

NUT OIL.

202. Nut oil is produced mainly from the meats or
kernels of the English walnut, so called no doubt be-
cause most of them come from Italy, France and Spain.
These meats are crushed and the oil expressed in much
the same manner as stated before for linseed oil. This
oil is very light and clear with just the slighest sus-
picion of yellow and is the cleanest toned that can be
had for mixing with pigments and for that reason is
most highly esteemed by artists who cater mainly to the
sale of their painting to the present and do not care to
have their work endure forever, for unfortunately the
old adage holds true for it : 'Tretty is who pretty does,"
it has not got the tenacity of linseed oil and the decay of
the oil will in a comparatively short time loosen its hold
upon the pigments. So with a prohibitive cost in the
first place, which artists only can stand — as a little goes
a long ways with them — there is little danger of its ever
being as much as spoken of in general paint shops.

THE VOLATILE OILS.

203. These oils are so named because of their hav-
ing great evaporating qualities. When exposed to air,
especially under heat, which accelerates the process of
evaporation, they vanish entirely away in vapors. All

288 Modern Painter's Cyclopedia

the volatile oils have an extremely pungent small which
is peculiar to each, and by which each class of them is
easily recognized by the nose to any one accustomed to
their use. Their action in connection with paint and its
application is to render it more fluid. They can be
mixed in any proportion with linseed oil and are perfect
solvents of it.

204. They are indispensable to the proper mixing
of paints and without them it would be impossible to do
many kinds of painting. By their admixtu**e they ren-
der linseed oil more fluid, more penetrating, helping to
make it set more quickly. This quicker setting renders
possible the application of heavy pigments which would
otherwise quickly separate from linseed oil alone as that
would not commence to set for a much longer time.

The volatile oils have no binding properties what-
ever, and their beneficial use for outdoor painting is al-
together mechanical as adjuncts to linseed oil and for
specific purposes only. When enough has been used of
them to accomplish the purpose intended not a drop
more should be added — for then they become harmful
instead of beneficial.

205. They are chiefly used for interior painting and
it is well that it is so, as being in a manner protected
they can be used in much larger quantities than for out-
door painting and for flatting instead of being the ad-
junct to linseed oil, they are the principal thinner and
linseed oil enters the compound simply because of its
binding property and not because it is desirable. All

Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 289

through this manual has been given under their proper
headings, directions as to how the various coats of paint
should be mixed with them.

Volatile oils are extensively used in the preparation
of varnishes and for tempering them for application
when they need it. They are good solvents of the fixed
oils and having detergent properties are useful to clean
paint brushes, etc.

TURPENTINE.

206. This is the product of the conifers — all pine
and resinous evergreen trees contain it in some form,
but our own southern long leaf yellow pine produces
more of it than all the other pines of the whole world
put together. The trees are scarified and the crude tur-
pentine exudes through the wounds, gathering at the
bottom of the cut out and hollowed in grooves called
''the box." This crude turpentine solidifies into a soft
gum which is distilled when the spirits of turpentine of
commerce as we know it is separated from its solid por-
tions which remain behind as rosin.

Turpentine is by long odds the most useful of the vol-
atile oils used in painting. Its odor while very pungent
is not disagreeable to most persons, and while when it
is used in large quantities as in flatting, when a person
will absorb large quantities of it by absorption and
through inhaling it, it will act excessively upon his kid-
neys when used in a moderate way or out of doors it will
not be very likely to injure him.

290 Modern Painter's Cyclopedia

BENZINE AND NAPTHA.

207. Benzine and naptha are both volatile oils
which are obtained from the distillation of crude pe-
troleum oil. They are so nearly identical in composi-
tion, working qualities and everything else, that they
are joined together in this review as everything that can
be said of the one applies to the other also. Their odor
is extremely pungent and disagreeable to most persons.
They are very dilutent and their effect and action upon
paint is very similar to that of turpentine. Few people
can remain shut up in a room where they are used in
flatting, for few men can stand their fumes long at a
time. This is their worst fault, and after all this is the
chief reason why they are not used more extensively
than they are — without the having to give any other
reasons which usually are not to the point and which
cannot be made to stand investigation. The time is near
at hand when painters will be forced to use them as the
turpentine fields are narrowing up every day more and
more and in a very few years there will be little more
left than will be needed for pharmaceutical preparations
in compounding medicine and it will have become so
high priced that it will have to be benzine and naptha or
nothing.

It is hoped that preivous to that time, chemistry will
discover some remedy to remove or disguise the
"smell." It is to a great extent minimized now, and the
barrel heads say : deodorised benzine, etc., but there is

Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 291

room for still more of it to kill it entirely and much re-
mains to be done.

OIL OF LAVENDER (oiL OF SPIKE.)

208. This is used only in china or porcelain paint-
ing, where owing to its fatty and lesser volatile condi-
tion than the others which have just been noticed — it
prevents the colors from running and gives plenty of
time for their application. This is never used in gen-
eral house painting.

DRYERS.

209. Linseed oil, unless under very adverse circum-
stances, would dry naturally. Some pigments when
mixed with it have the property of rendering it more
drying and help it to dry more quickly than it would by
Its lone self — but others again are anti-drying and
greatly retard the drying of the oil. Again the weather
conditions may not be propitious to the proper drying of
the oil, so that when a person has some outdoor painting
to do unless the weather is fair, settled and warm, he
will need to use some dryers to hasten the drying of the
paint as it would not do to trust to luck and the weather
and have the painting spoiled.

The above must not be construed as an endorsement
of the unlimited use of driers in paint. No, far from it.
There is no one cause why so much linseed oil painting
goes to pieces in a hurry than can easily be traced to the
abuse of driers. The word abuse is used purposely and

292 Modern Painter's Cyclopedia

underscored because the proper use of driers is allow-
able.

Nearl all the driers in the market today are com-
pounded from the oxides of manganese and are
naturally dark colored on that account. They are pre-
pared and sold under a great variety of names, as japan
driers, liquid driers and with a host of fancy proprie-
tary names and at prices where no painter can afford to
fool his time away in preparing them himself.

There is a queer thing in connection with the use of
the liquid driers and it is that a small quantity of it will
sometimes act quicker than an overdose of it, and that
when it is used in overdoses it will retard instead of
hasten the drying of oil. One tablesponful of any good
liquid drier will be sufficient to dry a quart of paint or
more.

There are some special driers prepared for use with
zinc white — these too are best bought ready for use,
ground up in paste form, as the time required and the
special facilities needed for grinding, mixing, etc., are
not to be had in every shop.

QUESTIONS IN OILS AND DRIERS.

194. How are oils useful in painting divided?

195. What is said of fixed oils in general ?

196. What is said concerning the production of
flaxseed ?

197. How is linseed oil manufactured?

198. What is said of raw linseed oil?

Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 293

199. What is said of boiled linseed oil?

200. What is refined or bleached linseed oil ?

201. How is poppy seed oil produced?

202. What is nut oil?

203. What are volatile oils?

204. What action do they exert in paint ?

205. Where are they most useful?

206. What is turpentine and how produced?

207. What is said of benzine and turpentine ?

208. Where is oil of lavender mostly useful ?

209. What is said regarding driers ?

PAINTING IN OIL ON GLASS.

210. Most of the painting done in oil on glass is
that done by "Sign Painters," and as this branch of the
business will be treated at length in subsequent pages,
the reader is referred to that subject where he will find
full directions given for the same. See paragraphs
275 to 276.

There is, it is true, some little amateurish painting in
oil upon glass, but such work stands to true art in very
much the same relation as "doggerel" verse does to
poetry.

On account of the difihculty of judging the effects of
colors from the back side of the glass where the painting
must be done in order to produce the solid and enameled
effect which is the only excuse people can have for doing
any painting at all upon such fragile material, for if the
glass be painted on its front side then it would in no

294 Modern Painter's Cyclopedia

wise differ from any other painting done on canvas or
wood and there could be no excuse given for not using
those insetad. For painting on glass from the reverse
side, the subject must be outlined and all the prominent
dark colors must be put on first, for otherwise they
would not show if applied over white and other light
tints ; then when dry the next prominent dark tints and
others which must be blended into them to make graded
tones. This is where the great difficulty comes in — to
blend them properly — even when well done, which is
seldom the case, it cannot possibly be done as well as
upon surface work and with its outlines, etc., must pre-
sent a gingerbread appearance which is in bad taste, to
say the least, and which will set an artists' teeth on
edge. Such attempt must always be crude and unsat-
isfactory.

QUESTION ON PAINTING ON GLASS.

210. What is said concerning painting in oil on
glass ?

PAINTING A BATH TUB.

211. The painting of a hath tub, or rather the re-
painting of them, is not a very difficult operation — but
the preparing and getting ready for it may be so; es-
pecialy if the painting is expected to stand any length
of time.

The paint on a bath tub is subjected to considerable
more hardship than any other kind of painting has to *

Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 295

unless it be that done upon steam pipes and radiators.
The great heat at which hot water is sometimes turned
on and the suddenness with which ice cold water fol-
lows it to cool it is very much harder on the paint than
anything it would have to stand from the elements out
doors; in order to stand all those extremes it must be
mixed in an entirely different manner from that in
which exterior oil painting is done, as ordinary linseed
oil paint would peel off in no time under the strain it
would have to bear.

New bath tubs are painted with a specially prepared
varnish paint where the pigment is mixed with what is
called ''baking japan.'' After the painting they are
placed in an oven and subjected to a great heat which
causes the japan paint to flow level and this leveling
frees it of brush marks and causes it to dry very hard,
nearly as hard as the iron over which it is applied. After
having gone through this baking process, water and
heat — such at least as it is subjected to in a bath room —
have no effect upon it.

212. But when a bath tub is -repainted the above
process cannot be employed unless the tub is returned
to some establishment where they are prepared to do
such work with ovens sufficiently large to bake the tubs.
This would be much the best way — but such concerns
are not to be found everywhere and it is well to know
what is the "next best" way to effect the repainting of
it "where it stands in the bath room." The "next best''
as in most all other things, is not as good as the origi-

296 Modern Painter's Cyclopedia

nal but answers the purpose fairly well. It will have to
be mixed so that it will air dry and as no heat can be
applied which will cause it to flow level it can not be as
level as in the original painting.

In the first place all the chipped or loose paint must
be carefully removed and sandpapered; then the surface
should be run over with a very stiff bristle brush to re-
move any dirt which may have found a lodgment any
where, especialy between the chipped places. The
whole of the inside of the tub should be now washed
with a solution of sal-soda which should be afterward
carefully rinsed off with clean water and afterward well
dried by friction with dry cotton rags, when it should
be left several hours to become free of moisture when it
will be ready to receive the paint coats.

This is prepared from white lead and turpentine. The
white lead should be ground in japan as no oil at all
should be used. Go over the bare spots first of all, in
order to level up the surface as much as possible; be
careful to wipe off the surplus color which will find its
way on the adjoining surface of the paint and would
make a ridge if not wiped off. It will take two coats of
the filling to fill these places. These coats dry quickly
and two or three coats can be given in one day. When
the filling to fill these bare, places. These coats dry
quickly and two or three coats can be given in one day.
When the filling up has been completed, give the whole
inside of the tub two coats, prepared as for the filling.
This should make a pretty fair job if the brushing has

Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 297

been carefully done. It will, however, look flat and a
protecting coat of good varnish must be given the paint.
It must be a hard drying varnish and moreover it must
be of light color. This is sometimes difficult to find in
many localities. Upon the whole it will be much better
and safer to employ the following system in repainting
a bath tub : Clean up in exactly the same way as stated
before, then buy some ready prepared bath tub enamel.
It is mixed, ready thinned for application with the right
kind of varnish by the manufacturers, who are usually
better judges of the right sort of varnish to use than the
average painter is and these have a reputation to make
and sustain and they have to use all possible precaution
in preparing them so as to do all that such a paint is ex-
pected to do. As some manufacturers prepare these
bath tub enamels differently from others, each having
their own formula, it will be best to follow the directions
printed on the label of each can — and the painting will
be the better for it.

QUESTIONS ON PAINTING OF BATH TUBS.

211. What is said about the painting of bath tubs
in general ?

212. How are bath tubs to be prepared and re-
painted ?

PAINTING OF STATUARY.

213. Few persons have any idea of the extent of
this branch of the painter's art — for it is at least a semi-

298 Modern Painter's Cyclopedia

artistic occupation. Statues in city and country
churches and statuettes in numberless quantities are
used in nearly every home, no matter how humble it
may be, either as religious objects or in the bric-a-brac
shelf or chimney mantle, besides the ornamentation in
bed rooms, etc. Some is done in china factories and the
greater part of the statuary painting is done in Euro-
pean establishments. Many have commenced the man-
ufacture of statuary in this country. But it is not so
much of the painting required in their manufacture
which will be referred to in this article as the repainting
of them, as in all our larger cities the repainting has to
be done again and again, owing to the smoky atmos-
phere which soon makes them dingy. This furnishes
lucrative employment to many painters aside from what
is originally done in factories where statues are manu-
factured.

214. The statutes are cast in plaster par is from
moulds. The plaster having been mixed with fiber
very similar to well picked oakum but somewhat coarser
and longer; this is done In order that they may not
break so readily and upon the same principle that hair
is added to mortar for plastering.

After the statue has been cast and well seasoned,
they must be filled, but previous to the filling it should
be primed inside with linseed oil. The statue should be
placed upside down as they are usually cast hollow, they
should be carefully propped up and guarded from in-
jury from falling and then linseed oil should be poured

Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 299

into the opening up to the top of it. After an hour the
linseed oil should be poured back as the statue will have
absorbed all it is capable of in that time.

The above applies to busts and statuettes really more
than to statues as the valuable ones of these are fre-
quently cast solidly.

They are then placed upon &. receptacle to drip and
dry, which will require a week as the linseed oil should
be raw and used without any drier.

When dry they should be placed upside down again
in the same manner as before, being filled with oil and
should be filled with plaster paris made sufficiently li-
quid to pour out. But little at a time should be added
as there is considerable heat evolved during the setting
and also some swelling, and the statuette might be
cracked from that cause. Pour a little at a time, wait-
ing two hours before pouring in any more and con-
tinuing doing so until it is completely filled up. This
will make it as solid as if it had been cut out of stone
and about as heavy. No more plaster should be mixed
up than can be used at one pouring as otherwise it
would set very hard and be lost.

According as to the size of the statues it will take
from one to three weeks for the plaster to part with
all its extra moisture and to become sufficiently dry to
begin the painting. If the painting should be com-
menced before the drying is thoroughly accomplished
there would be great danger of its peeling.

215. The statuettes should now be well rubbed

300 Modern Painter's Cyclopedia

over with a coat of clear linseed oil, brushing them over
and over again two or three times as the oil will soak
into them quickly. They should now be laid aside to
dry and given eight or ten days for the oil to harden
up thoroughly, when the painting proper may begin.

The first coat may be thinned with half oil and half
turpentine and the coloring should be nearly the same
as that intended for the finishing, but no attention-
need be paid to any of the details.

After two or three days' drying the finishing coat
may be applied. This should not contain more than
1/5 linseed oil and 4/5 turpentine for the thinner of the
pigment. About %. ounce of beeswax (bleached)
should have been previously melted for every pint of
turpentine used and mixed up with that warmed up.
This makes a beautiful, soft flat finish with a delicate
transparency of tone unobtainable in any other way.
The statues or statuettes are now ready for the details,
etc. ; and the gilding also should be applied as soon as
it has well dried, which will take from 24 to 48 hours.

QUESTIONS ON THE PAINTING OF STATUARY.

213. What is said of painting statuary?

214. How are statues and statuettes prepared for
painting ?

215. How are they painted ?

Modern Painters Cyclopedia

301

PAPER HANGER S TOOLS.

2 1 6. One of the most important tools to the paper
hanger is a good table and supports for it to cut paper
upon and to spread the paste on it.

Fig. 49.— Folding Paste Table.

The above is shown not so much as that some other
form of pasteboard and tresoles may not answer the
purpose; but that this is a very convenient and handy
one which folds up into a small space when not in use.

The paste brushes shown below will suit the re-
quirements of any paperhanger. Fig. 50 has a grip

Fig. 50 — Paperhanger *s Paste Brush.

302

Modern Painter's Cyclopedia

handle and Fig. 51 a slim, oval handle easy, on the
liand.

Fig. 51 — Paperlianger 's Paste Brush.

Under the heading of ''Brushes" see Figs. 25 and
26, which show two styles of smoothing brushes, Fig.

Figs. 52 and 53 — Paperhanger 's Smoothing Brushes.

26 showing one which is a combination tool, having a
seam roller at one end.

Modern Painter's Cyclopedia

303

Seam rollers are shown below in Figs. 54, 55 and 56
of various forms under the letters A, B, C, D, E, F, G,
H, J, K, L, M.

B

D

Fig. 54— Seam Rollers.

304

Modern Painter's Cyclopedia

ra F;

H

Fig. 51 — ^Paperhanger*8 Seam Rollers.

Modern Painter's Cyclopedia

305

K

M

Fig. 56— Paper hanger'a Seam Rollers.

306 Modern Painter's Cyclopedia

Smoothing rollers are indispensible in smoothing
embossed and other high priced paper as the ordinary

Fig. 57 — Smoothing Roller.

.smoothing brush would be apt to obliterate the em-
bossing. Two kinds are shown in Figs. 57 and 58.

Fig. 58— Smoothing Roller.

Modern Painter's Cyclopedia

307

A good machine to trim paper is useful for the
trimming of all the cheaper papers and can be made
to answer fairly well for the better grades also if care
is exercised in the trimming with them. Fig. 59 shows
how one is operated.

Fig. 59— Machine Trimmer.

Straight edges to trim paper by with the knives, also
to split same, are usually made of narrow strips of dif-

tto. I Br«9i Bound Trimmer Striithlcdl* -

Fig. 60— Straight Edges.

ferent kinds of wood glued together,
how they are put together.

Fig. 60 shows

308

Modern Painter's Cyclopedia

Paper hangers as a rule are very fastidious about the
shape of the knives they use in the trimming of paper.
It is a matter of custom and habit which may be grati-
fied, as our Fig. 6i shows all kinds of shapes of them

'''■""||l|!|jil,i- .[.yyARPa^^TEr)

iiiiiiip

ft A

B

Fig. 61 — Paperhanger 's Knives.

Modern Painter's Cyclopedia

309

And of the rotary knives an equally large variety are
shown in Fig. 62 under the letters A, B, C, D, E, F, G,
H.

^liiir

B

^^^^^^

Fig. 62 — Paperhanger 's Wheel Knives.

310

Modern Painter's Cyclopedia

E

H

Fig. 62— Paperhanger's Wheel Knives.

Modern Painter's Cyclopedia

311

An excellent and handy tool to have is a combination
casing and corner knife such as is shown in Fig. 6^.

Fig. 63 — Paperhanger 's Wheel Knives.

Some very handy rotary trimming knives are now
made which run in a grooved straight edge, which pre-
vents the wheel from slipping or getting off the track.

iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiii iiiiiiiiiimiimiiiillii

Fig. 64— Wall Paper Trimmer.

Fig. 64 illustrates the manner of using them and shows
the groove -on the straight edge into which they are
fastened and held.

312

Modern Painter's Cyclopedia

Another excellent tool is the graduated plumb and
level. Fig. 65 gives a good illustration of the tool.

Fig. 65 — Graduating Plumb and Level.

The old fashion plumb bob is also very useful and
is too well known to need illustrating.

A few twelve or fourteen quarts galvanized iron
pails to hold size and paste in, a supply of step ladders,
ladder trestles and strong 2-inch walking and scaffold
planks complete the list.

QUESTION ON PAPER HANGER S TOOLS.

216. Use the above to refer to as you have need for
the same.

Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 313

PAPER HANGING.

217. Paper hanging has become such an enormous
factor in the decoration of interiors as to be used by
every family in the land from the very poorest shack or
hut to the palatial residence of the millionaire. It is
no wonder, then, that it gives employment to such an
army of men. Probably 95 per cent of all painters who
call themselves general workmen are paper hangc-s
also.

Wall paper certainly is the poor man's friend as some
of it is so cheap as to be next to nothing per roll. This
makes it possible for any person having a desire for
clean and cheerful looking rooms to indulge the fancy
at a cost so small that it is not a burden.

Some years ago there was much space taken up in the
papers about persons having been poisoned by sleeping
in papered bedrooms and the fault had been laid to the
employment of arsenic and other poisons in the printing
of the wall paper. One hears but little of this now, so
the presumption is that whatever may have been the
practice of w^all paper manufacturers in the past, that
now, at least, there are no poisons used in the colors
used by them. As they have always strQnuously denied
that they used arsenic when they were accused of it,
it is a matter of great doubt if they ever did resort to it
as the purpose for which it might be used can be sup-
plied at a lower cost by non-poisonous compounds. Hu-
man nature is much the same in wall paper printers as it
is in any one else. They certainly would be fools to

314 Modern Painter^s Cyclopedia

pay more for doing something which they could all
know would be hurtful to that business.

Everything under the sun that has ever been used
as wall covering is now imitated by wall paper, and
that so cleverly as to appear to be the very kind of ma-
terial they are imitating — tapestries, draperies, canvas,
burlap, buckram, laces, leather — there is nothing or
no effects which they do not reproduce and the imitative
powers of wall paper artists is wonderful to behold !

The wall paper trade has so systematized and ar-
ranged things that a good, tasty selection is made possi-
ble even for people who are color blind. The arrange-
ment of sample books which show combinations of ceil-
ings, walls and frieze, all colored and designed purposely
for each other, are all so good that no one can go far
wrong in making a selection. Besides these already pre-
pared tasteful combinations there is a limitless quantity
of independent designs which give the tasty person a
chance to select something which will show individuality
of arrangement, and where he can give his own artistic
tastes full play in arranging his decorative schemes.

When selecting wall paper several things should be
taken into consideration in order that there may not
be any incongruities. The location of the room as to
light, the character of the house itself, the prevailing
tone of the furniture and carpets, and the social position
of the occupants of the house, etc., etc.

A sunny room with plenty of light usually requires
cool-toned paper as warm-toned hangings have the ten-

Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 315

dency to add a feeling of increased heat ; this is imagina-
tive it is true, but existing just the same, and no amount
of reasoning takes it away, either.

Likewise, for the same reason, but reversed, warm-
toned hangings should be selected for rooms which have
no sunshine and are in constant shadow. The warm
coloring adds a feeling of warmth. Thus by judicious
selection an evenly balanced whole will be secured where
the difference in temperature will not be so keenly felt
as it would be otherwise. The coloring of the carpets
may greatly mar an otherwise prefectly combined
scheme for the walls and these should always be con-
sidered in making a selection.

Now, as to the social position, many would say:
"How can that possibly affect the selection of wall
paper?" The right of selecting any kind of wall hang-
ers is not denied to any one for we are all born equal
and free(?) but sometimes exercising the right may
render people ridiculous. A man has a perfect right to
wear a swallow tail dress suit on the street and with
that put on a chauffeur's cap, but they seldom exercise
it. So a person earning $12.00 per week who would
select silk hangings with hand made gold leaf decora-
tion on it to match a 75-cent-a-yard ingrain carpet
would have as good a right to it as the man whose
weekly income is as great as the first earns in a whole
year — the $12.00 man should not exercise his rights,
that's all. Happily wall paper has tasteful selections to

316 Modern Painter's Cyclopedia

suit the pocket books and taste of all sorts and condi-
tions of people.

218. The proper conditions for hanging paper upon
the walls requires them to be hard and smooth. If
they are not so naturally they should be made so — at
least as near as it is possible to do so, before the hang-
ing is commenced.

In new houses and for new work everything usually
works lovely and easy, seldom presenting any diffi-
culties and so such need no special mention as to how
to prepare the walls and are ready for hanging.

219. If the house has been papered before, it is al-
ways best to wash off and remove the old paper before
applying the next coat of it, yet some people will keep on
hanging paper on walls repeatedly without taking off
the old. If wall paper is hung anew every year or at
most, every two years, it would not be especially hurtful
if two thicknesses of it is left on, provided that it be
surely taken off before the third one goes on — but
usually persons who form the bad habit of hanging new
paper over old hardly ever stop on two coats and the
habit in time becomes incurable — or till the myriads of
bacterial colonies breeding all the diseases human flesh
is heir to — fastens some deadly disease upon a mem-
ber of the family and sends him to an untimely grave.
No doubt but that decaying wall hanging furnishes a
medium through which many a disease germ has been-
carried to persons who live in houses where coat after
coat of paper have been put on, one on top of another,

Modern Painters Cyclopedia 317

for years and years. Probably all the poison cases we
used to hear about were due to this same cause — decay.

The moral carried by the above is : Always take off
the old paper in a room before hanging the new, that
is if you value your own or your family's health.

After taking off the paper the walls should be sized
over with glue size made antiseptic by the addition of
a few drops of carbolic acid. If the smell is objection-
able, by the addition of a few grains of corrosive sub-
limate, which is still better. This protects the underside
of the paper from becoming the habitation of visible as
well as invisible insects and bacteria.

In very old houses some of the old-time plastered
walls can frequently be found which are in such dilapi-
dated condition that one may well wonder why the
plasterer had not been called in ahead of the paper
hanger to do patching, which, in some instances, amount
to as much as a fourth of the whole surface to be pa-
pered— but the paper hanger is suposed to cover the
old walls and make them look as good as new.

All paper hangers should be at least two-third plas-
terers, too, and carry a kit of plasterer's tools with
them, at least a pointing trowel and even a large plas-
tering trowel will be needed to patch up some of the
"grand openings" on the walls. With the ready^to-use
prepared plasters, which can now be found everywhere,
it is not such a very difficult job to fix up walls, after all,
and they can be gone over in a very little time, ordinar-
illy. Cracks on plastered walls require more time to fill

318 Modern Painter's Cyclopedia

them properly than bigger holes do, especially where
they are numerous and small. A preparation of plaster
paris thinned with glue water will be found best for all
the smaller openings as that will set slowly enough to
allow plenty of time to do the work, and there being
no caustic lime in it, the color of the wall paper will
not be injured. As soon as the cracks and holes in the
plastering have been repaired, go over them with the
size mentioned before and the room is then ready to be
papered.

220. Sometimes the paper hanger is called upon to
hang paper in the back rooms of stores and elsewhere
where one or more sides of a room are wooden parti-
tions. Wall paper hung upon bare wood will soon
crack, as the paper is inflexible and cannot give with the
wood's contraction in cold, dry weather or its expansion
during a hot, moist spell. To prepare the wooden sur-
face so the wall paper will stay on it, they must be
canvassed over with muslin. The best way to do this
is to sew together enough widths to cover the side of
a wall to an opening cut to the proper lengths ; then it
should be tacked first at the top, then at the bottom and
sides. Then tack it through the center and elsewhere
so that it will not bag anywhere, but lay flat.

Some paper hangers prefer to size the partitions and
to paste the muslin, laying it on in strips the same as.
wall paper. This method has the advantage of making
a solid job of it, but the beading of the boards is likely
to show through the paper after it is hung over it. It is

Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 319

also more difficult to hang the wet, limp muslin and it
will require two men to handle the wet pieces — the ex-
tra man to pull the strip of muslin off the boards until
the other has brushed it down.

HANGING THE PAPER.

221. The paper which is sent on the job is some-
times machine-trimmed at the shop before it is sent out.
With a little care in the pasting of it, paper trimmed be-
fore hand answers very well for all ordinary work;
but much the better way is to paste the wall paper, fold
it both ways and trim it with a knife and straight edge.
These knives come in all sorts of shapes and are shown
in Fig. 6i. Some paper hangers prefer a rotary wheel
knife and a good variety of these are shown in Fig.
62. But the surest of these, and the handiest, too, is
shown in Fig. 64.

222. There are many different kinds of paste in
the market which are offered ready prepared. Some
are made from flour, steam cooked, and put up in barrels
and half barrels. Some antiseptic preparation is usually
added to it to prevent its souring as quickly as it would
otherwise. The steam cooked paste is put up very thick
and requires thinning with cold water. It works
smooth and nice, but it has its faults — the greatest one
being that when it has to be shipped from a distance
the freight on the water it conains, and he cost of the
package, count up heavily, making its cost too high.

The cooked and dried paste in powdered form, only
requiring thinning with cold water or even with warm

320 Modern Painter's Cyclopedia

water, are excellent. They keep indefinitely, there is
no freight to pay for water. They are handy to send
out on a job, being always ready to be thinned as
wanted, and enough can be carried in the coat pocket to
do an ordinary room.

Then again there are preparations which resemble
dextrine somewhat, but which make a stronger paste
that dries harder, which are made out of some of the by-
products of starch and glucose factories, which come
cheap and are very efficient. They do not make as
white a paste as flour but they do not strike through
the paper, and paper pasted with it will slide better than
the ordinary flour paste would permit ; they are readily
dissolved in cold water and for that reason are pre-
ferred by many paper hangers, but warm water is bet-
ter.

Some, again, prefer to make their paste from starch.
This, of course, makes a very nice, clear smooth paste-*
but it is not considered as strong as flour paste.

While prepared pastes and powdered paste are very
handy, etc., it frequently happens that they cannot be
bought in certain localities and for that and other rea-
sons every paper hanger should know how to make
his own paste from flour, either wheat or rye. The fol-
lowing directions will make good, smooth paste if the
directions are carried out ; to make an ordinary pail of
paste, take 2)4 pounds of flour. It need not be the
highest quality as the lower grades make a stronger
paste than the whitest does, and the color of paste does

Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 321

rjot hurt it any. Put the flour in the pail you intend to
make it and cook it in. Then pour in enough cold
water to make it up into a stiff dough as for bread. Stir
it up well until you are tired of it and some more. When
well worked up pour in a little more cold water, stir
as before, only that it will be a little thinner, and keep on
adding a little water and stirring well until the
whole mass is about of the consistency of thick pancake
batter. This batter should be of a uniform texture if
it has been properly stirred up. While preparing the
flour, plenty of water should have been provided and
put on the stove to boil. Then pour some of the
boiling water into the batter slowly, stirrmg it well, and
keep on pouring with one hand, stirring it well, and
until it is cooked, which you will soon find out as the
paste thickens and changes color when cooked. Be
sure to have enough boiling water or you may not have
enough, and the batch will be spoiled, as it must be
cooked then or never. As the paste thickens in cooling,
it should be thinned with enough water to make it
rather thinner than it needs to be for the pasting on,
but even then when it cools it will be likely to be loo
thick for use and probably will require to be thinned
with more water. Should it be lumpy it will show
that it has not been properly stirred up in the dough
or in the batter before cooking it ; in that case strain it
through a calcimine strainer or through cheese cloth,
and it will then be fit for use,

322 Modern Painter's Cyclopedia

22^. Paste should be applied to the wrong side of
the paper, never on its face. This advice may sound
simple and foolish to most persons, but that is where
many paper hangers who are good at hanging manage
to get more on than they intended. Good pasters among
paper hangers are not as plentiful as they ought to be,
and many an otherwise well executed job is marred by
paste spots showing here and there or along the edges.

In pasting the paper the outer edge is usually easily
taken care of by bringing it over the edge of the board
beyond the rest of the paper so that the paste brush will
not touch the understrips; it is the back edge which
gives trouble. The better way is to run the paste brush
on the body of the paper to within ^ of an inch of the
edge and when the strip has been all pasted but that to
slip the hand under the strip being pasted and to slide it
along ahead of the paste brush so that the brush can
slide over the edge of the paper while it is lifted by the
left hand clear of the board. In the ready trimmed pa-
per, extra care should be taken that the edges are not
given too much paste as it would squeeze over while be-
ing smoothed on the wall.

When the first half of a strip of paper has been
pasted, fold it over carefully and pull up the rest of the
strip on the paste board, which proceed to paste the
same as directed; then fold it together. Folding it in
that way prevents the paster slide coming in contact
with the hands while handling it, and makes it easy to
carry about as only the dry side shows.

Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 323

For very long strips the paper may have to be doubled
over again and again in order to get it all pasted on
the ordinary 7 or 8-foot board. In such cases it must
be machine-trimmed beforehand as it would be a very
difficult and annoying job to unfold it and trim it piece-
meal with a knife, or it may be dry trimmed by hand
with shears as is the general practice in England today.

224. For very good reasons ceilings are usually pa-
pered first. This can be done in two ways : First, with
a scaffold, supporting walking boards, which may be
ordinary horses of the right height, which can be
pulled along on the floor to the end of the room or from
a walking board supported by a couple of ladder tres-
tles. If the room is not square, a chalk line should be
used in order to mark out the edge where the first strip
of paper is to be placed; this should catch all parts of
the ceiling between it and the side wall. If the wall is
not true, some portions of the first strip will lap over
on the side wall, but that does not matter as the frieze
will cover it. Then continue, strip by strip, to the end.
The first strip being right, all the others must be, too.

Dropped ceilings are so called in wall paper parlance
when the ceiling paper is extended over on the side
walls either one-half or the width of a whole strip or
more.

Cheap papers are usually trimmed only on one side
and lapped over the selvage of the other.

The better grades are usually ''buffed/' or both edges
are trimmed off and a joint made, as the name indicates,

324 Modern Painter's Cyclopedia

by abutting the two sides together when they are rolled
over with the seam roller, and the rest of the strip with
the smoothing roller.

In the hanging of ingrained paper great care must be
takefi to have the ceiling and walls sandpapered smooth,
as a single sand speck will show through it. Also great
care must be exercised in trimming the edges for they
must fit up close or the plaster will show through. If
the ceiling is uneven it will be impossible to make a
good job with it except by matching up some distemper
color as near like it as possible, and painting a strip an
inch wide where the seams should meet; then, if, per-
chance, the perfect fitting of the edges is impossible, the
plaster will not show through and nothing but a criti-
cal investigation will show it to the observer.

225. As nearly everything said above concerning
the hanging of paper upon ceilings applies with equal
force to the hanging of paper upon the side walls, it
wnll be unnecessary to repeat it here again. The only
difference is in the manner of doing the work of apply-
ing it, which for side walls is done from a step ladder.
Commencing at a point where, after going around
the room should there be a miss-match where the paper
comes together, there will be the less likelihood of its
being noticed; the work is continued, strip by strip,
until one reaches the starting point. Windows and
doors should have the design carried through over
them, and the windows under them also. All corners

Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 325

should be cut out, making an allowance of ^ an inch
of paper for the lap over.

It is immaterial as to which way a man turns around
the room in hanging wall paper, and it is altogether
a matter of habit, as it cannot possibly make any differ-
ence. The pieces should have been cut long enough so
that the border will catch all of it at the top and a
trifle over, and that it will reach down on the base
board with a little to spare. The paper itself should be
hung perfectly plumb. The paper hanger should always
carry a plumb bob with him on every job for the pur-
pose of knowing that his work is done properly. A
good casing and corner knife will be of great help and
a time saver in helping him to fit the end of his pieces.
It requires good judgment at times in papering rooms
in some of the old houses, where they are not properly
trued, and where, sometimes, even the doors and win-
dow frames are out of plumb. He has to so plan the
hanging of the paper that it may partly hide these de-
fects; as he could not follow the door frames in their
wobbling. Under such conditions never use stripe pa-
per nor paper showing a prominent geometrical design,
as much as possible select paper having a design with
little striking features on it.

226. Borders come in half strips , whole strips, and
again in any number of strips to the width of the roll.
These smaller borders are used mainly in decorative
paper hanging, in panels, etc. Dropped ceilings usually
have a picture molding nailed on at the point of June-

326 Modern Painter's Cyclopedia

tion of the side wall paper proper, but there are imi-
tations of these now made in paper and many use it
in place of the real molding. In most rooms the wide
borders or friezes are usually hung where the ceiling
and sidewall come together or on half-strip dropped
ceilings, just below that.

There are several ways of hanging borders, the
most usual is to cut the border up into lengths just
about wide enough for the paper hanger to fit on the
last one hung, and to reach as far as his other hand
can brush it on the wall with the smoothing brush from
the top of a step ladder, which is then moved on for the
hanging of the next stretch.

Another way: Where there is a walking board to
reach from one side of a room to another, or where
a scaffold has been put up permitting to go all round
the room, which is to have the border trimmed on both
sides with a machine trimmer; to paste it, folding it in
short folds six to eight inches wide, one fold on top
of another, the folds being carried in the left hand, the
right fits the border at its beginning, and with the
smoothing brush, brush the border tightly to the wall,
the left hand letting out the folds as desired to the end.
Where a ceiling is straight and the proper walking fa-
cilities exist this is much the best way as no laps are
shown — but good work can be done by either way.

227. Hanging burlap requires a little more care all
the way through than wall paper does. It is much
heavier than the heaviest of paper and must be butt-

Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 327

edged. Both selvedges must be knife-trimmed as they
-are more or less dirty. This should be done with a
very sharp knife in order to get a clean cut, without rag-
ged edges, which would prevent the two edges coming
closely together. It will be well to read over the direc-
tions given in Paragraph 224 as to the painting of a
strip under the junction point where the two edges
come together so as to prevent any of the plaster show-
ing in places where an imperfect union is made, either
through carelessness or, sometimes, unavoidably on ac-
count of imperfect walls.

The walls should be sized with glue size in which a
little brown sugar has been dissolved, or with some
of the prepared glue sizes made especially for the pur-
pose. A strong paste should be made into which about
one ounce of glue to the ordinary pail has been dis-
solved.

228. It frequently happens that the ceilings and
walls of a room become very dirty and smoky, especi-
ally in our larger cities ; where illuminating gas is used,
the ceilings will surely become blackened by it and else-
where the smoke nuisance from the factories will find
its way to the interior so that in a comparatively short
time the paper begins to show signs of dinginess.

Such can be readily cleaned and restored to their
original brightness nearly by the "cleaning" process
given below; Take flour and mix it with water to the
consistency usual for dough for bread ; then knead into
it enough plaster paris to make it up into a stiff dough,

328 Modern Painter's Cyclopedia

which will not leave any traces of its component parts
on the walls. Then go over these with a back and forth
motion, overlapping each time so that no parts may be
left untouched. This must be done in a thorough man-
ner, the hand kneading the dough all the time in order
to incorporate the dirt on the wall into it. The ball
will become pretty black in time, but as long as the dirt
is well worked into it, it will not soil the paper. If the
rooms are very dirty and large, it may be well to
change occasionally and to prepare another clean ball
of dough, as it is inexpensive and can be quickly pre-
pared.

The market is full of patented wall paper cleaners,
but none will do the work any better than the one in-
dicated above.

Dirty wall paper can also be cleaned with the inside of
fresh bread which has first been kneaded into a ball in
the same manner as described for the flour dough, leav-
ing out the plaster paris. This is employed by many
cleaners and there is but little difference between the
two.

QTTESTIONS ON PAPER HANGING.

217. What is said of paper hanging in general?

218. What condition. should the walls be in for pa-
per hanging?

219. How are walls prepared for hanging wall pa-
per?

220. How are wooden partitions prepared?

221. How is paper trimmed ?

Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 329

222. How is paste prepared?

22^. How should the paste be applied?

224. How are the ceilings hung?

225. How are the side walls hung?

226. How are the borders hung?
22y. How is burlap applied to walls?

228. How is smoked and dirty wall paper cleaned ?

painter's tools and appliances.

229. Painter's tools may be divided into two
classes: First, those which are required for the appli-
cation of the paint, and, secondly, the tools and appli-
ances necesary for the painter to get at his work with
with ease and safety.

Many of the tools belonging to the first class were
reviewed under the heading of "Brushes," for which
see Paragraphs 1 5 to 30, and those are the most import-
ant of that class ; the rest, which will be noticed below,
are merely adjuncts of these — to take care of them,
etc. Some few are indispensible but several could be
dispensed with by the use of others equally as well
fitted as they are to do the part wanted of them. So
that a proper substitute may replace any of them, with-
out the painting being made to suffer for it.

230. Brush keepers are of this character. Brushes
are expensive and must be taken care of as otherwise
they will not last long nor work as well as they should.

Really any empty vessel wherein a brush can be hung,
but not laid, suspended so that the hair will be sur-

330 Modern Painter's Cyclopedia

rounded by water, linseed oid or varnish, according
to the character of the brush — but in which the brush
will not touch the bottom, will make a brush keeper for
ordinary brushes used in house painting. A wooden
pail can have wires driven into its sides, forming an ex-
tended projection on the inside and upon them may be
hung the brushes after having had a hole bored into
their handles at a proper height, which will keep them
from touching the bottom. Or a stout wire may be put
through the center to which can be fastened a spiral
spring coil of wire of sufficient strength to hold up the
brushes where they are placed into it. The last is still
better, as no hole need be bored into the brush handles.
Under Fig. 66, following, is shown a brush keeper
made somewhat upon the above described plan but a
galvanized iron pail is used instead.

Fig. 66 — Brush Keeper.

Under the heading ''Carriage Painting," a cheap and
efficient varnish brush keeper is described which is

Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 331

used as an individual keeper, as all good varnish brushes
should be, and under the following Fig. 67 is shown one
where several can be hung together and kept free from

Fig. 67 —Paint Brush Holder.

dirt and dust. It has a false bottom, where all dirt
can settle.

231. Under Fig. 68 is shown what is known as
painter's tinware, consisting of a calcimine strainer, cal-
cimine pail and a paint strainer, with a pot to use paint

PAINTERS' TIN WARE.

Paint Pails. Paint Strainers.

from — this" last holds one gallon and has no ears stick-
ing up at its sides to catch brush and paint.

332 Modern Painter's Cyclopedia

A wire should be soldered on about one-third of the
way across the top, to wipe any surplus paint off the
brush and to keep its sides clean; or a handy contri-
vance can be bought ready made which can be put on or

Fig.

taken off at will — in a moment — which is still better,
as it permits the cleaning of the pots without any inter-
ference with the wire. This handy affair is shown in
Fig. 69.

232. Under Fig. 70 is shown a sanding bellows

Fig. 70.

which will be found a time saver over the crude and
primitive way of throwing it on either by hand or with
the old fashioned sandthrower. Besides it will soon
pay for itself in the cost of material saved by its use.

Modern Painter's Cyclopedia

333

2^^. Scraping knives in various sizes and shapes
to suit any reasonable desire are shown in Fig. 71. and

B

Fig. 71 — Painter's Scrapers.

334

Modern Painter's Cyclopedia

Fig. y2 which show an equal variety of stiff and elastic
putty knives.

Fig. 72— Painter's Putty Knives.

Some triangular putty knives are made but one can
grind them better to suit such bevels as are desired.

Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 335

234. Fig. y^ shows a gasoline torch to burn off
paint with. It is an indispensible tool to have and
should have a place in eyery well regulated paint shop,
as it will save money over any other method that can be
used in removing old paint over large surfaces.

Fig. 73.

235. There are, no doubt, a number of other time
saving and helpful devices which are being used in
many paint shops besides the ones enumerated above,
still be incomplete. Those reviewed cover about the
most essential and the list of such could be increased
indefinitely and whole field of the ones that are neces-
sary to do good work with.

236. The next class of tools are in reality more ap-
pliances useful to get at the painting; but are as es-
sential to the painting trade as those of the former
class.

237. Ladders stand first in the list as they are the
most important and are required by all painters to
get at their work. These come in many forms and vari-
'^ties suitable to certain situations or to do a certain

336

Modern Painter's Cyclopedia

kind of work. The ordinary short length single ladders
are too well known to require illustrating. They run
from 10 feet upward in 2 feet graduations to 20 feet.

All ladders should be made of light but strong Nor-
way pine sides with hickory rungs screwed into them.

Fig. 74.

241. Fig. 74 illustrates the better grades of exten-
sion ladders and the way they fasten together. They
are made in two lengths from 26 to 38 feet, and usually
in three lengths, from 40 feet upward.

Choose them with rollers as these assist in pushing
them upward.

Modern Painter's Cyclopedia

337

242. Fig. 75 shows the block and falls. Like the
ladder, it can scarcely be dispensed with even in two or
three-story buildings, as they save so much time in
moving ladders besides being so much more conveni-
ent to do work from than ladders. They are indispensa-
ble for all buildings over three stories high. The rig-
ging consists of two double blocks for the top and of
two single blocks for the bottoms. The ropes should be
of the very best manilla not less than % inch thick, but

Fig. 75.

% or even one inch is better and certainly safer, espe-
cially for long falls. A platform 18 to 22 feet long and
two supports for same, which also serve to hook on
the single blocks, and which have a wheel fitted in one
end to roll down against the building sides without in-
juring them. Two large Swedish iron roof hooks into
which the double blocks are fastened complete the
"swing scaffold," as it is best known in many localities.
It seems superfluous to say that nothing but the best of

338

Modern Painter's Cyclopedia

material should enter into their construction, as life and

limb are in constant jeopardy while they are being used.

243. Fig. y6 shows the ladder jacks of which there

are a number of various shapes and forms, differing

PATENT PENDING

Fig. 76.

but little, however, as to efficiency if well made from
good, soft charcoal iron. Two of these make one set.
They are placed on two ladders and a walking plank
put between them, resting on the jacks, making a bridge

Fig. 77.

between the ladders from which the painting can be
done.

244. Fig. yy shows a roof ladder. This is attached
to the end rungs of a ladder and then it can be thrown
over the roof ridge which holds it firmly in place.

Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 339

245. For inside painting, good strong, well braced
step ladders are needed of various sizes from three
feet upward. A poor step ladder is dear at any price
and none should be too good if life and limb is worth
anything to the men who have to use them. Some of
the flimsy traps for eternity sold in many stores because

Fig. 78.

they are cheap may do for some ruralist to go up to
glory with, but the painter has no use for them. Fig.
78 shows one that is well braced and which will not
vviggle.

246. Painter's trestles are double ladders joined
together at the top and wfiich when spread out brace
each other, making a solid support for walking planks

340 Modern Painter's Cyclopedia

to be set upon two of these, which make one set. Fig.
79 shows a pair supporting an extension walking board,
an ingenious contrivance enabHng the workman to
lengthen or shorten it to suit the situation and side of

Fig. 79.

the room where they are used. When done with, the
board can be compactly drawn together.

Fig. 80.

247. Fig. 80 illustrates a plank supporter which is
very useful in interior work as it can be placed where
ladders cannot be set up or anywhere a board can
be set up. It fastens itself to any sized board that will

Modern Painter's Cyclopedia

341

go through its jaws and at any height desired upon it
and gives a firmer support to the walking board which
may rest upon it and a step ladder.

243. Under Fig. 81 is shown an adjustable scaffold-

Fig. 81 — Paperhanger's Table.

ing jack which should be extensively used, as they will
save much time and money by doing with a few sets

342

Modern Painter's Cyclopedia

what would require a large number of old fashioned
**horses" needed to support walking planks for the
painting and decorating of interiors of buildings. They
are made in three sizes, ranging from the lowest — 3
feet — to a possible extension of 1 1 feet for the highest.
249. Fig. 82 illustrates a shop paint mill which is
an excellent piece of machinery for every paint shop to
be equipped with. While it may not be considered as ab-

Fig. 82.

solutely necessary as now all pigments can be bought
ground in oil cheaper and better ground than one can do
it for himself. When the mill is handy it would pay to
run it through many a mixture, which would be the bet-
ter for having been put through the mill.

The above comprises all that is required to get at
any work to be painted either upon the exterior or in-
terior of buildings.

Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 343

QUESTIONS ON PAINTEr's TOOLS AND APPLIANCES.

229. How many classes of painter's tool are there ?

230. What are brush keepers?

231 to 249. Should be used to refer to.

PIGMENTS.

250. Pigment is a synonym of color. As under
that heading every pigment of any value and its pe-
culiarities, antipathies, etc., are treated upon fully, the
reader is referred to Paragraphs 61 to 84 for the in-
formation required concerning them.

SCENE PAINTING.

251. Scene painting is an attractive branch of the
trade and calls for considerable artistic ability, requir-
ing special study and which if an individual once makes
it a success, generally becomes a lifetime calling.

The painting of theatrical scenery, drop curtains,
wings, etc., is usually done in water colors as it looks
much better in that medium than when executed in
flatted oil colors. Distemper dries perfectly flat and
dead, which is hard to get from oil work as so much
of the work has to be brushed over and over again,
which would make it shiny in places. Were it even
posible to make the oil painting look as good in the
flat as the water color does, it would not have any ad-
vantage over it. To make the oil painting look as flat
as the water colors would require them to be thinned
altogether .with turpentine; then it would not be as
well bound as the water colors are, for these have a

344 Modern Painter's Cyclopedia

strong glue binding which will hold it on well, while the
all-turpentine colors would dust off after a thorough
drying from the rolling up and down of the scenes.

252. A scene painter should know many things
more than is required in most branches of the painting
trade in order to be able to represent whatever is re-
quired truly and naturally. /

He must possess an ultimate knowledge of colors,
not only such as all decorative painters should have, but
also of their effects upon the vision at great distances
from the object painted, and also of the effect that gas
and other artificial lights have upon them. He must
know beforehand what effects the blending of the colors
will be when seen from the audience ; for this blending
will appear very much different to the man in the back
part of the balcony than it will to the man on the stage
even in daylight when there is no artificial light to
change the color of the pigments, so he must be able
to arrange his coloring schemes entirely different from
what they look to be from the spot where the painting
is done. This study of distant effects must be acquired
beforehand or the finished work will be a failure from
the artistic standpoint at least.

He should also make a study of the effect of gas and
other artificial lights, as has been already intimated.
For if he does not possess an intimate knowledge of
these effects upon the various colors, some of them he
will find so much changed as to be hardly recognizable
at night.

Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 345

It goes without the saying it that he must be a good
off-hand designer or he will be apt to put out caricatures
where such are not in demand. It is, of course, ex-
pected that every decorator should have a good knowl-
edge of drawing, but the scenic painter's must be of a
higher character than that of any of the others. The
eyes of the whole audience is focused, as it were, upon
his work during most of the play and every portion of it
will be examined and any fault in the details or incon-
gruous coloring wil be noted and commented upon.
Much of which would pass unnoticed in ordinary pic-
torial work, which one examines at a close range, and
where the observation is not constanjt, as it is apt to be
from the audience to the stage.

253. The material needed for scenic painting com-
prises nearly everything in the line of pigments that
can be used in water colors besides glues to bind them
on, metallic leaves such as Dutch metal, aluminum,
silver leaf, and, sometimes even gold leaf, the metallic
foils, tinsels, bronzes, flitters, brocades, with the various
liquid sizings required for their application.

Whiting is the principal color used for either paint-
ing white or as a base upon which to build up light tints
of any colors or by mixing in small quantities with these
to render them more opaque. The mixing of tints also
requires a greater knowledge of effects of colors than is
necessary for decorators whose work is examined at
close range. ^ So the scenic artist in preparing his tints
is forced to make them much stronger than is required

346 Modern Painter's Cyclopedia

for nearby work. At first he will be very likely to err
in making his contrasts too weak, although they may
appear unusually strong to him from the painting floor.
As in the course of time the scenic artist will make use
of nearly every pigment know^n, the reader is referred
to paragraphs 6i to 84 regarding any information he
may require concerning these. In subsequent para-
graphs will be given a list of colors best suited to pro-
duce certain effects and for certain purposes.

To lay out the design of a scene nothing better than
good French charcoal crayons will be found as the lines
can be whipped out with a flogger while chalk lines will
not always be easily effaced, retaining a faint outline,
wdiich is anything but desirable and which are mortify-
ing when appearing upon otherwise well done work.

254. Glue is the material used as the binding ma-
terial for the water colors. It is a matter of the first
importance than that it should be of the best quality
and of light color, at least for all light tints or colors
with clear tones, otherw^ise the darker glues would
change it or muddy it. The best glues to use are the
thin-flaked ones known as calcimine glue. The ones of
an ivory tone, nearly clear but not quite so, which are
tough and do not break off short with an easy frac-
ture, are the best. Avoid the opaque-looking white
flaked glues; they might possibly be all right, but the
chances are that they have been weighted down with
some adulterating make-weight stuff. This can easily
be ascertained by soaking the glue, melting it, diluting

Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 347

it with water and letting it stand awhile as this white
stuff will be precipitated down to the bottom of he
vessel.

Glue should be of the consistency of a trembling jelly
to mix with the colors, but should be melted and mixed
hot or at least warm enough so as not to jell ; so, when
trying a new kind it will be well to weigh it, soak it in
cold water over night, and melt it with the usual quan-
tity of hot water and set it aside to jell ; if it is about as
thick as usual, it shows that the glue is about of the same
strength — if it jells any weaker, then it shows lack of
strength. It is well to weigh out any quantity of the
glue needed as then the average quantity of water used
ordinarily, proportionate to the weight can be added
to it and the glue water kept up to a uniform strength.

Good glue will take up seventeen to eighteen times
its own weight of water while soaking up over night
and will swell to many times its former bulk, so the
package should be much larger than needed to hold the
dry glue. The amount of water absorbed is of itself a
very good indication of the value of a glue, as poor glue
has not as great absorbing power as the better kinds
have.

The glue water should not be much stronger than
that of a trembling jelly, for there is danger that if it
be made much stronger of the colors showing up shiny
when they dry. Again, one should guard against the
opposite danger of having it too weak to bind the colors
sufficiently to hold them on well.

348 Modern Painter's Cyclopedia

255. The tools used in scenic painting do not differ
materially from those used by other decorators.

For the sizing of canvas and the layin in of ground
colors a good calcimine brush 6 or 7 inches wide make
an excellent tool.

For the laying in of large bodies of color 2, 3 and
4 inches flat, double varnish bristle brushes with a few
assorted sizes of oval chisel pointed sash tools will 'suf-
fice.

A few dozens of round, flat, triangular, long and
short fresco bristle lining brushes will be needed as
nearly all the details of the decorative work as well as
the lining up will be done with these. No finer
brushes will be needed, such as artists' or decorators'
camel's hair pencils, as the work must be coarsely done
and the bristle fresco liners are good and small enough
for any purpose. Some of the leaves, grass, etc., can
and must be done with the sash tools and even larger
brushes.

Pallet knives and a marble slab and stone muller to
grind down coarse colors with which cannot be ob-
tained ready ground in distemper as is sometimes the
case in the smaller towns. The above will not apply in
the larger cities, where usually all colors can be bought
ground up in distemper. It is true that many colors
can be procured ground fine dry; such should be
bought in that way as they are cheaper and answer as
as well as those ground in distemper, but many are too
coarse in their dry state and must be ground with the

Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 349

muller where it is impossible to buy them properly
ground.

Straight edges with beveled edges of various sizes
such as fresco painters use in lining are needed, some
longer ones for laying out a level and plumb bob, T
squares and triangles, large wooden leg dividers, chalk
and chalk lines ; also some charcoal for chalk line. Flog-
gers to whip out charcoal marks and a palette board to
hold colors. This palette board naturally must be made
upon an entirely different plan than the common flat
form of the ordinary one. It must be made with an
edge on three sides to retain the cups into which the
colors are put. Some advise a complicated affair with
compartments in it to hold the colors in, but they give
much trouble to clean. If a compartment becomes dirty
the rest may need no cleaning; it is next to impossible
to do it properly. The better way is to have tin vessels
of proper size which can be lifted out singly as needed
and the raised edge will keep them from slipping off
the board when the palette is tilted up, as it sometimes
requires to be. The vessel holding the glue water
should be of different shape so as to be easily recog-
nized and it will be well to have three or four of them
so that the brushes used in different groups of color may
not muddy it up and render it unfit for use for colors of
a different tone.

The above are the principal tools needed for doing
the work ; no doubt that many more might be added to
the list but it is possible to do the best of work with the

350 Modern Painter's Cyclopedia

ones mentioned. In the following paragraph will be
described a few appliances necessary for the proper
equipment of a scenic studio.

256. The location of a studio is very important to
the professional scenic painter. The amateur who only
has an occasional job to do will have to necessarily con-
tent himself with such accomodations as he may find in
an ordinary paint shop, but the latter are unhandy for
such work and they will be much hampered in getting
at their work as they will have to do the pal'nting from
cramped and uncomfortable positions, which usually
tell more or less upon the quality of the work done.
Few ordinary paint shops have ceilings of sufficient
height to accomodate the frame of a large scene or
of a drop curtain. Even in many of the theatres and
opera hous^es there are no special arrangements made
for the painting or repairing of scenery, although the
majority of the newer built ones have arrangements
made for this at the back part of the building.

The studio, however, which is built with a special
view of being used as a workshop where scenic painting
is to be the exclusive business carried on should be
built according to the requirements needed for the
speediest and easiest methods of executing the work.
The building should be three ordinary stories in height
and should be well lighted on the top floor where all
the painting is done. The lighting should all come
from above, from skylights in the roof, as only untrare-

Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 351

meled, direct light will do and no side light should be
allowed, so that the third story will be windowless.

The floor itself should be so built that it will not
touch the walls around the room by about twelve inches,
leaving an empty space of that width all around it. The
same arrangement should be carried out upon the sec-
ond floor, too. This will permit of the largest sized
scenery and drop curtains to be raised and lowered at
will from the top to the bottom on the first floor. It
is needless to say that the second and first floors may
have as many windows as may be desirable for them
to have, as no painting will need to be done on those
floors.

The top floor must be equipped with machinery to
raise or lower scenes quickly and there are several pat-
ented capstan-like rolling machines which do the work
handily and quickly. But any handy carpenter can
readily make up a homemade affair that will do the
work nearly as well as the others and at much less cost.
The above arrangements will enable the scene painter
to stand erect at his work in executing the painting.
Being secure and feeling so on a solid floor, this as-
surance will enable him to do twice as much work or
more with greater ease to himself than he could possibly
do in any other manner.

257. The amateur will be under many disadvan-
tages in doing his work, but frequently special scenery
is wanted in. the smaller towns where there are no fa-
cilities provided other than such makeshifts as may be

353 Modern Painter's Cyclopedia

found. The painter should secure a place high and
wide enough to accommodate the frame upon which the
canvas or muslin upon which the scenery is to be
painted, will be stretched. This canvas should be a
few inches wider and longer each way than the size of
the finished scene is to be. It should be evenly stretched
upon the frame and all wrinkles removed, then securely
tacked on, when it will be ready for the sizing.

The sizing should be ratker stout. Soak glue of a
good quality until it has absorbed all the water it is
capable of, then melt it over a slow fire and in the pro-
portion of about one gallon of water to eight ounces of
dry glue so that one pound will make about an ordinary
i2-quart pail full of sizing when melted; then proceed
to apply this size to the cloth on the frame but do not
touch the size to within one inch of where it is tacked
on to the frame, leaving one inch of it unsized all the
way around the frame (top, sides and bottom being left
unsized for one inch). This is very important as other-
wise the cloth would not dry evenly but wrinkled and it
would be very difficult to take them up even after re-
tacking it over ; in fact it could hardly be done while the
unsized cloth on the frame and the inch of it left unsized
will take up the strain and the cloth will dry evenly and
tight.

When dry, proceed to fill the cloth or canvas with a
good, solid coat of whiting, which has been strongly
sized with glue water. This coat should be well worked
in, cross brushed and laid off, so as to insure a perfectly

Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 353

well covered ground to work upon. If this ground
coat has not been properly done there will be trouble
afterwards in doing it over, besides loading the canvas
with the unnecessary weight of another which will
make further trouble in causing suction so that the
painting of the details of the scene will be more difficult
than over one coat ground well done.

258. The painting proper of the scene is very much
the same as that of any other similar kind of decorative
work either in perspective, lineal or free hand painting
and will present no great difficulty, especially to one
who is used to free hand decoration in distemper, that
is, at least, in so far as putting on the colors goes, as that '
is about the same ; in fact it is less difficult in that there
is no great preciseness required — but the very seeming
freedom and carelessness in the execution of daubing
on the painting is all calculated upon and the results of
it are as well known in the mind of the scenic artist as
the most precise is to the decorator who paints for
near-by effects. This very coarseness is discounted be-
forehand with a full knowledge of certain effects it will
produce at a distance and the seeming carelessness is
all in the eye of the onlooker.

Scene painting has to be made bold and the colors
must be put on strong without regard as to their looks
in the immediate vicinity. Colors at a distance blend
together so that if they are gradually shaded as for
work which is to be closely seen, they would appear very
tame either not shaded at all or as a solid shade or tone

554 Modern Painter's Cyclopedia

of one color all blended into one. For the same reason
the details too must be put on much stronger colors than
for near-bj^ painting. This requires quite a study of
distant effects and all amateurs are timid and afraid of
going too far — they have to catch on to it gradually
when experience will teach them to become more bold
in the use of strong coloring and every mistake made
becomes an instruction which will eventually make the
amateur's work better on the next job he undertakes
after he has noted the tameness of the combination used.

There is another phase in the painting of scenery
which will give beginners trouble at first and that is the
changed appearance of some colors under artificial light
such as gas, kerosene or gasoline illumination and in a
lesser degree under electric lighting. In a subsequent
paragraph is given a list of colors to use to produce the
best effects for the painting of various shades and for
special purposes which will look well under artificial
light. The combinations can be made from such as are
named to suit the ideas of the painter.

259. Colors can be used either opaque or transpar-
ent when they are naturally so. Some of the transpar-
ent ones can be made more opaque by the addition of
whiting, but it will somewhat change the tone making
them a little lighter, so it must not be over done. If a
full deep opaque tone is wanted of a naturally transpar-
ent color, it will have to be made by mixing several pig-
ments together that will produce a similar color to the
one desired. To explain ; If a solid burnt sienna brown

Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 355

is desired, the natural burnt sienna being transparent
and as whiting would reduce its depth, it should be made
artificially from solid and opaque colors and a similar
color made from Venetian red, ochre and black and this
would be solidly opaque.

The blues seem to give the most trouble of any as
most of them appear greenish under artificial light.
Some of the ultramarines have a greenish tone even in
daylight and when used should be very carefully se-
lected as the true blue shades of it are after all the best
blues to use in making up blue tints for scene painting.

The chrome yellows become much lighter under gas
light so that the painting done with those yellows must
be made much deeper if the scene is to be used where
the lighting is done with gas.

259. Purples are readily made by mixing some of
the blue and Indian red taken from the palette and
mixed on the mixing board to which can be added whit-
ing to produce the shade of it wanted.

Where considerable color of one tint is wanted as for
skies, etc., it is better to prepare it ready for use in a
separate can or pot.

For skies — they should be first put on with the solid
color and then the brush can be dipped in this and that
color and applied where wanted, and blended in while
wet and as many variations produced as wanted.

Foliage greens should not be made from chrome
green as these contain chrome yellow and under gas-
light would appear much lighter toned; besides, that

356 Modern Painter's Cyclopedia

no good foliage green can be made from them as they
are too positive. They are best made from ochres, raw-
sienna, Prussian blue and glazed with some green lake
where a rich effect is desired. The chrome yellow may
be used but they must be made deeper in order to pro-
duce the effect wanted and this would look unnatural by
day light.

For clouds mix verditer and orange chrome. For
cold gray clouds add a litle black. For lights in -clouds
mix yellow ochre and madder lake, or any other good
crimson lake, or yellow ochre and orange chrome.

For sea zvater use Dutch pink alone or raw sienna
and black Prussian blue. Water reflects the color of
the skies and the image and coloring of near-by objects
such as houses, trees, etc.

For moonlight skies a good tint is made from ver-
diter or indigo or its equivalent in Prussian blue and
black, lightened up with whiting. For clouds add black
and more blue.

For rocks, stone, etc., raw and burnt sienna, In-
dian red, chrome greens and black, vandyke brown, ul-
tramarine, rose pink and ochres. Black and Venetian
red toned down with a little whiting makes a good stone
color for many purposes.

For distant foliage, Dutch pink alone or raw sienna
and black, or raw sienna and a trifle of Prussian blue.

Gold tones are best made from ochres and Dutch
pink, raw sienna and Vandyke brown. For the lights

Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 357

use flake white and lemon chrome yellow or medium
chrome yellow according to the shade of it wanted.

For trunks of trees and branches according to spe-
cies and tones desired, Prussian blue, yellow ochre, raw
and burnt sienna, ultramarine Dutch pink, raw and
burnt umber and maroon lake for an overglaze.

For grass the chrome greens in all shades of it, using
extra light chrome green for the high lights, mixed
with pale chrome yellow or medium chrome yellow.

For dead leaves, raw and burnt sienna, raw and burnt
umber.

For stone buildings, yellow ochre, raw sienna; raw
and burnt umber; ultramarine blue, Venetian red and
black.

For brick, Venetian red, and for shadows add ultra-
marine blue.

For fire reflection use orange mineral. In all the
above it is understood that whiting is used to make"
proper shades of all the tints wanted.

In making out the above list all the colors useful in
making the tints are given — not that all should be
mixed together, but such should be selected* from them
to mix the shades wanted. Some of them, as Prussian
blue, lampblacks, etc., are very strong and but little of
such should be used as little is needed to produce much
effect. It is better to add several times if needed in
mixing a tint than to spoil the shade by adding too much
at the start of making them. It is only by many trials

358 Modern Painter's Cyclopedia

that a beginner can expect to produce proper shades at
once. All such should carefully try the shades by dry-
ing them as recommended before.

QUESTIONS ON SCENE PAINTING.

251. What material is chiefly used in scene painting
and why ?

252. What should a person know in order to be-
come a scene painter?

253. What material is chiefly used in scene paint-
ing?

254. What is said about glues?

255. What tools are needed for scene painting?

256. How should a scene painting studio be ar-
ranged ?

257. How should the cloth or canvas be prepared
for the painting ?

258. How is the painting done?

259. Give colors required for making the various
tints.

SIGN PAINTING.

260. Signs in some form or another have probably
been in use as long as commerce has existed, or at least
some equivalent for it to let people know that at such a
place something was for sale or exchange. They cer-
tainly existed and were in use during the Roman em-
pire, and traces of them have been handed down in an
unbroken chain ever since.

During the middle ages before printing, and later
when universal education had made everybody familiar

Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 359

with the form of letters and with the reading of them,
most of the signs were of a pictorial character and as
trades all had trade marks the business was represented
by that plus some peculiar sign that denoted the in-
dividuality of the proprietor. Even as late as the mid-
dle of the nineteenth century, before the introduction of
forced education, pictorial signs were still largely used.
Novelists such as Dickens refer to such signs freely in
their writings, and shops and inns were called after
and known by the picture represented on their signs.
Many of the older men living today can well remember
the practice as it existed in the days of their youth.
Some of those signs were certainly very crude in the
drawing and in the painting of the subjects as there
were botches in those days as well as at the present
time. But, good or bad, they appealed to the unread
as well as to the educated and a servant girl told to go
for something to the sign of the "Lion Head" or to the
"Three Black Crows" had no need of being told the rest
in order to know what place was meant.

Some of the greatest painters in all countries have
been guilty of painting such signs as favors shown to
some friendly "hosts" at taverns and elsewhere and
such, no doubt, must have shown considerable talent in
the execution.

But at the present time since everybody can, read,
this fashion is obsolete at least in business houses, lo-
cations of shops of all kinds of trades, professions or
manufacturies. But there is still an enormous amount

360 Modern Painter's Cyclopedia

of pictorial sign work done in what is known as "adver-
tising* signs," much more in fact than at any other
period of the world's existence.

The idea is as good now as in the older days, as peo-
ple will read a well displayed advertisement to find out
what the advertiser has to say about the picture on the
sign which has riveted their attention, where, otherwise,
without such aid on account of the multitude of such
signs they would have passed it by unnoticed. So, it
can readily be surmised that a general sign painter in
order to make good in all branches of his business must
be very versatile and artistic in his knowledge.

261. Sign painting can be divided into several
branches :

1. The commercial, which includes the painting of
signs upon sign boards to be hung up on buiklings or on
the buildings themselves. It may be in all kinds of oil
work, plain or shaded, and includes gilded signs on
wood, but as gilded signs are specially treated upon and
that it really is a separate branch from oil painted signs
which many otherwise good sign painters are not fa-
miliar with, it is entitled to a separate place in the
describing of it.

2. Show card painting has become speciaHzed into
a separate branch and requires training of a different
order. One stroke muslin sign work, .while upon a
much larger scale, properly belongs to this class of
work, although much of it is being done by all regular
sign painting shops. But for the sake of describing

Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 361

under a proper classification it will be noticed under this
division, which, after all, is and must be arbitrary.

3. Gilding on glass and gold lettering on wood with
accessories such as ornamentation of the letter with
pearl flakes, etc., bronzing, etc.

4. The advertising signs in all their forms, which
include pictorial painting, etc.

Each one of these four artificial divisions of the sign
painting trade will furnish sufficient variation in the
use of special skill to keep one pretty busy usually, and
as each also requires a different handling, the specialist
who makes it his sole business acquires more skill and
dispatch in doing his work.

462. The above classification of the trade is an ar-
tificial one made for the purpose of examination into
its details. It is also made by the large shops in the se-
. lection of workmen who are kept within the limits de-
scribed in the classes described in the former paragraph.

As a matter of fact no such distinctions exist in any
of our large city shops. They take everything in the
line of all of the four classes with possibly the ex-
ception of advertising bulletin work, which is made a
special business by itself.

In the country towns, too, the sign painter must be
able to do any and all kinds demanded as he seldom has
enough work to employ specialists, and frequently no
more than he can do himself. So, the general sign
painter must be able to do a fairly good piece of
work at the risk of being lowered in the estimation of

362 Modern Painter's Cyclopedia

his customers, if he does not in all branches of the
business, from the painting of a dainty show card and
gilding on glass to the painting of a big pictorial sign
on the broadside of a large barn.

So it can readily be seen that a general sign painter
must possess a high class of knowledge. To be
successful and a good workman, the sign painter must
be a good judge of distances and possess an ac-
curate vision in order to save time in laying out a sign
within a given number of feet and to balance it properly.
He must be able to judge at a glance what sort of letters
will work best for the various situations of a sign and
right for any kind of business as all are not equally
adapted for all alike. When his work is to be sur-
rounded with dozens of others he must be able to give
his own sufficient individuality, that passers-by will no-
tice it and that it may not be confounded with the rest.
He must be able to draw accurately and to scale and
also be well versed in perspective for a truthful repre-
sentation of buildings and machinery upon wagon cov-
ers and advertising sign boards. He must be a good
judge of color effects at a distance and for nearby ones,
sign painter must be able to do a fairly good piece of
work too, as the job is seen from both near and far. So
he has to arrange a sort of compromise between the two
extremes. As much of his work is done upon glass, he
must be a good gilder not only on wood but glass and
everything where he is required to work upon.

Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 363

263. The material required for doing sign work
comprises about all the colors known to the house
painter or decorator not only ground in oil but all the
water colors, and those ground in japan or varnish for
wagon work. Besides all sorts and kinds of gold and
other metal leaves, bronzes, flitters, metallics, etc., for
show card work and for the latter to be able to squeeze
out raised letters and ornaments from a plaster paris
bulb and squeezers, pearl flakes, diamond dust, etc. ; he
will need nearly all the usual accessories listed in art
store catalogues at some time or other in the prosecu-
tion of his business.

Much of this material will be used but seldom, and
need not be carried in stock.

264. The tools required to do sign painting com-
prise those used by the house painter for the prepara-
tion of grounds, for the painting of the sign proper,
and in addition thereto a good assortment of sizes and
shapes of camel's hair, ox hair and sable lettering
brushes, from No. i to 12. Some Y^, Yi and i-inch
camel and ox hair one-stroke flat brushes, which are
great time savers not only for the making of letters at
one stroke, as their name indicates, but which are useful
in all regular sign work as well. He will also need
striping brushes, gold tips, etc., putty and palette
knives, charcoal and chalk crayons, ladders, swing stage
blocks and falls, step ladders, easels and frames to
stretch muslin signs upon, an air brush for show card
work, tin pots and strainers, etc., etc.

364 Modern Painter's Cyclopedia

Previous to describing the methods used in doing
sign work it will be well to give a few general direc-
tions for the beginner, as these presuppose a knowl-
edge of making the letters. It will be impossible to give
a lengthy "expose" of all that a novice will have to go
through to learn how to paint letters ; time and experi-
ence is required to make a good workman in the sign
painting business as well as in any other. But a person
who is handy with the use of brushes can soon perfect
himself so that he can do all the ordinary sorts of sign
work, and gradually work himself up to a higher de-
gree of excellence upon the more intricate parts of the
trade.

The best practice the novice can have is to make
straight perpendicular lines equidistant from each other
— then horizontal ones and slanting ones at all angles
and in both directions. When he can make them
straight, equidistant and successively so any number of
times, and when he has practised on curves and re-
curves so he can reproduce them consecutively at will,
too — he has mastered the sign painting trade. A solid
week or two, ten hours a day, at that kind of work will
do it. It may be monotonous and may become disgust-
ing, but there is nothing Kke it to learn fast. All
letters resolve themselves into straight lines and curves
so that the time which is seemingly wasted enables a be-
ginner really to form any letter at sight when he is mas-
ter of his straight line strokes and curves.

Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 365

Letters are not all of the same width, nor will all
letters look well separated from each other by an equal
spacing as in print. The painter can usually arrange
his spacing so as to balance up any deficiency, excepting
where two open topped letters come following each
other as an A following an L for instance; the wide
space looking empty as it will at the top is very hard
to balance just right. In such a case reducing the width
of the L will help it some but it must not be to the ex-
tent of being strikingly so. When an open top letter is
followed by one with a wider top than its foot as a V or
Y or a T the top can be extended into the space
which really belongs to the L if it was square with
good effect. So can a V following an A trespass upon
the top space of the A with good effect upon the bal-
ancing of the wording. Letters with straight line bod-
ies like an H, N, M, E, R or U should be spaced as near
equally apart as can be and any of these following an
open top letter should be set as close to it as can be
done. An I should have more space allowed between it
and its neighbors than any other, or it may be con-
founded with another adjoining straight-bodied letter;
the curved letters as O, O or B, R, and P can be set a tri-
fle closer to a straight-bodied letter than two straight-
bodied letters can. If the above directions are followed
in spacing there will be little trouble in balancing the let-
ters in a word properly — so that they will look at their
best.

366 Modern Painter's Cyclopedia

As the letters for all kinds of sign work are nearly
the same in their formation it will be well to notice them
here once for all, the proper allowance of size, etc., being
made by the reader for the different kinds of work.

With all the innumerable styles of letters which one
can see in a type foundry catalogue, aside of Old Eng-
lish or German text and Script, the whole of them are
simply variations of two primary styles of letters.

The Roman with its make-up of fine and heavy bodied
lines is the author of all such with or without extend-
ing spurs and the heavy bodied block is also the proto-
type of all such with or without extending spurs, thick
or thin, shaded or unshaded.

There has been a number of off hand nondescript
styles of letters which have had a season or two at the
most of faddish popularity, which certainly cannot
claim any relationship to the two standard styles de-
scribed. They make diffcult reading and one might as
well have a sign written in Egyptian hieroglyphics or
Turkish as a mongrel type which has to be studied over
before it can be made out. Life is too short for people
to waste much of it in solving puzzles and then there is
a general return to the standard styles and its numerous
variations, which are certainly plentiful enough to suit
almost any taste.

Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 367

Below are shown a few of the leading styles and
their modifications : Fig. 83 shows a pure style of Ro-

MODES

Fig. 83.

man in a proportion where they show their elegant
form to good advantage although the Roman type looks
very well in an extended form even very much wider
than it is high. On the reverse when Roman type is
narrowed up, as in Fig. 84, it loses some of its beauty

MEECER

Fig. 84.

and at a distance becomes less distinct.

Roman lower case is shown in Fig. 85 and it, too,

repairing

Fig. 85.

possesses the same beauty of form as its capitals. While
signs in several lines usually look best in various styles
of letters for each line, or at least for every other one,

368 Modern Painter's Cyclopedia

Roman capitals and lower case may be used alone and
give a very neat result, as shown in Fig. 86.

This Desirable
RESIDENCE

to be Let.

For particulars
apply to

Fig. 86.

It: was stated before that all other styles were simply
variations of the Roman and block, so in Fig. 87 is

MAKER

Fig. 87.

given an illustration of such variation, and in Fig. ^^
another shaded where the modification is still stronger
but where the original type can be plainly seen.

Fig. 88

Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 369

In Fig. 89 is shown the other standard form from
which all other thick-bodied letters sprang from. Fig.

MAKER

Fig. 89.

90 is probably a better sample of it as bemg less elonga-
ted, but its lines are proportionately much thinner than

MAPS

Fig. 9a.

Fig. 89, and this will answer to show some of the many
variations in the type. In Fig. 91 the above type some-

TT AT

Fig. 91.

370 Modern Painter's Cyclopedia

what mingled with a spray of Roman is shown with
extended spurs, and in Fig. 92 and Fig. 93 is shown a

DENT

Fig. 92.

HOUSE

Fig. 93.

thicker bodied letter and an elongated one of the same
order. Many styles of letters are compounds of the two
main ones so that it is sometimes difficult to tell to
which they belong the most, as Figs. 92 and 95.

DRAPER

Fig. 94.

CASE

Fig. 95.

Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 371

Fig. 96.

Fig. 97.

Old English is shown in Figs. 96 and 97. It is ele-
gant, too, in form with its succession of thin and heavy
lines and is frequently used in church text on account
of its gothic form with which form religion has cast a
hallow of sacredness.

Script is extensively used in sign painting. It may
be any style of letter desired, all of them look well.
Some of the signatures of the proprietors for whom the

Good
Stabling

372

Modern Painter's Cyclopedia

signs are painted sometimes have them imitated upon
them. All script signs look neat. Fig. 98 shows one
style which is largely used, and Fig. 99 shows one
which is continuous as in actual writing.

Rustic letters are very appropriate for many situa-

Fi^. 99.

tions and trades, as for gardeners and florists, etc. ; an
illustration is given of such in Fig. 100.

267. Shading letters improves them very much if
properly done and renders them more attractive if the
coloring is in good taste. Where shading looks at its
best, there must be no crowding in the spacing but a

liberal allowance made for the shade, and some over.
Crowded letters do not look well, shaded.

In shading letters do not let the shading color come
close to the letter itself but leave a margin wide enough
that the ground may show between it and the letter it-

Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 373

self. It should not be too large, but large enough to be
visible.

The taste of the painter can be exercised in the selec-
tion of proper shading colors to suit the location, char-
acter of the business and the fitness of it for the purpose.
An undertaker, for instance, should not have his sign
shaded crimson, neither would it do for the doctor.
Some sober tones, a compromise between the color of
the ground and that of the letter always makes a neat
appearance.

Double shading in two or more colors is often re-
sorted to to produce showy signs.

Probably the neatest effect in shading is to use a
darker shade of the same color for the underside or
under parts of the lettering. This gives it a block effect
which is absent from shading done in one solid color,
and as shading is done to give an impression of thick-
ness to the letters, the shading done in the above man-
ner will show it much truer and better than a solid shade
would.

Shadows are sometimes used to good advantage ; un-
like a shade it is not placed next to the lettering but
at a distance from it, but connected with it at the bot-
tom as the shadow of a man or tree or any standing
object would appear from a given angle. Lettering
may be outlined with some other color in either thick
or thin lines all around them and variegated, or the
bodies painted in two or more colors with or without
ornaments upon the body. When properly done, this

374 Modern Painter's Cyclopedia

kind of work looks well for certain kinds of signs, but
to be in taste, it must be suitable to the business or it
will soon be an eyesore of which the owner will soon
tire.

The above directions, it is hoped, will suffice to
enable the novice who has been reading this to do a
creditable piece of work if he has familiarized himself
with the proper formation of letters, and as this advice
is applicable to all kinds of sign painting from a show
card to a mammoth bulletin sign no further reference
as to how to do the work will be made in what follows
except in so far as a different application of the rules
given may necessitate further explanations.

268. The painting of signs on sign boards or on
wooden, brick or stone buildings may well form a sec-
tion by itself, and as this forms a branch of the trade
which gives more employment in all its varieties than
all the others put together — with the exception of ad-
vertising bulletin signs (which will be treated sepa-
rately), it is well worth the closest attention.

If the sign is to be painted upon a board in the shop
or upon a building, they should be primed as recom-
mended for exterior house painting by using nearly
clear linseed oil (raw) with just enough white lead
in it to tint it so that it can be plainly seen when ap-
plied to the lumber. If upon a sign board, the back of it
should be thoroughly primed, too, in the same man-
ner as the front in order to keep the water from soak-
ing up behind it. The next coat of paint should be

Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 375

given fairly stout, with % turpentine mixed v/ith J^
raw linseed oil for a thinner, Ith a very small quan-
tity of good japan drier added to it. The back part of
the sign should be coated with this too ; these two coats
will be enough for the back of the sign, but the front
should have another rather flatter than the usual out-
door third coat, because a glare is very undesirable
for a sign ground. For the better class of sign work it
is better to give the third coat 2/3 raw linseed oil and
1/3 turpentine put on rather thick, but brushed out thin
which will give the board a good, even gloss all over
it. When still tacky, apply a coat of flat color to it,
which will be held firmly by the partially dried third
coat, and then there will be no danger of its giving
away very soon as the building has in all probability
been already painted; if the paint is In good condition
the painting of the sign may have to be done upon it
just as it Is and this very often happens. If a ground
coat is to be painted upon it for the lettering, give a
coat of raw linseed oil tinted with the ground coat color
and when dry it should be given a heavy, well brushed
outcoat of the ground itself, thinned with half raw oil
and half turpentine. If the buildings are new and have
never been painted they should be treated as stated
under the heading of ^'Exterior Painting," and the
space to be occupied by the sign coated ove.r with the
proper ground for it. This ground space should be
thinned flatter than the rest of the paintin^^.

376 Modern Painter's Cyclopedia

269. Spacing and balancing a space for the sign is
where the practiced eye of the professional save him
much time. Generally speaking, and upon the average,
each letter is supposed to occupy a given space and for
the purpose of filling up a line, it is safe to cut up the
number of inches in the space, making due allowance
for beginning and ending, also for space between the
words by the number of inches each letter would oc-
cupy. The painter will dot off the number of inches to
be occupied by the separate letters on the sign, keeping
track of the number of them as he goes. Then he will
roughly sketch out the space each letter will actually oc-
cupy, making all necessary corrections as to the varia-
tions already spoken off as existing between the va-
rious letters and it will be found that the calculation
based on the supposition that each shall occupy a similar
sized square will not be found much out of the way, and
that if there is an exception to the rule it can very soon
be adjusted by the next rough sketching of it over, and
making the proper allowances.

The professional painter will not need to even count
out the number of his letter spaces, but will sketch
out his wording at once and will seldom have to efface
it to make room for a second sketching as it will be
sufficiently near right to enable him to proceed with the
lettering and to correct anything wrong in the sketch-
ing as he paints it out. The novice, however, should
not attempt this, as it would be too risky for him, and
until his vision is so well exercised that he can judge of

Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 377

the right sized letters to make to fill up a given space,
he should not only roughly sketch the letters but mark
them out in the exact spot which each is to occupy. In
that way he will be sure to come out alright.

If there are several lines of work to be done it will be
well, especially if the lettering is all done with capitals,
to change the style of each line somewhat.

It is usual to paint the name of a firm or person own-
ing a business in larger letters than the rest of the sign.
Then the line of business itself should be very promi-
nently displayed, while the details can be painted in
much smaller letters than either of the two principal
ones.

The styles, shadings, etc., referring to the lettering
were fully noticed in Paragraph 267.

270. Show cards and muslin sign painting has come
to be specialized insomuch at least that men who are
better skilled in the execution of this kind of work than
others are usually kept at it in all the larger sign shops.
As now it is quite the fad to have these made and shaded
with an air brush, it requires a practical use of this tool
to do good work with it. Much of it is done in tasty
colors and dainty use of roman lower case, and some
show considerable ingenuity in the display made. Mus-
lin work, likewise, requires a peculiar kind of skill ; not
that it is more difficult than that of the regular sign
board work, but that the handling is somewhat different,
being usually done with one-stroke letter brushes and
off hand, and requires a different application of the

378 Modern Painter's Cyclopedia

knowledge equal to both — of the proper formation of
letters.

Muslin is usually stretched tight upon frames and
sized, although now muslin can be bought all ready
sized, ready to go to work upon it. As time is money
and the time required to size and stretch ordinary un-
sized muslin will much more than make up for the cost
of that ready prepared, this is now practically the only
kind used for all this kind of work.

Muslin sign work, being done at one stroke and off
hand, is very rapidly done by the experienced ones.
They are usually employed for hurried work and for a
temporary purpose, for the announcement of some
special sale and it is not of so much importance about the
lasting quality of the work as the looks and speed in
painting them. In the aggregate, they make up a big
share of the sign work being done in all sign shops today
in city or country towns.

271. Gold signs on wood and glass constitute a class
of sign work requiring additional skill besides that of
the ability to form letters properly, which is common
to all the different branches of the trade. This addi-
tional skill is that of the proper handling of gold leaf.
This is not to be acquired in a day, but is the result of
considerable practice. Some learn it in a much shorter
time than others, and some never learn it well. Gold is
so fragile that the least breath will send it flying in all
directions. But, after all, when its peculiarities are well

Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 379

understood, and the proper care taken, It is noi such a
difficult thing to learn how to handle it.

For the purpose of examination gold sign work will
be taken up under two headings :

1. Gold signs upon opaque surfaces, such as wood,
metals or japanned tin, etc., and —

2. Gilding on glass, where gold instead of being ap-
plied over a surface as before, is applied under it and
shows through, requiring a very different method of
handling in each case.

2^2. Wood *surfaces, tin (japanned) and painted
window shade cloth are the surfaces upon which gold
signs are usually painted ; each requiring much the same
manipulations in the application of the gold, but some
variation in preparing the surfaces for the gilding.

Gold leaf sticks closely to anything that has the least
greasiness and tackiness; therefore the surface over
which it is to be applied must be free of the least bit of
it or else the gold will surely attach itself where it is
not wanted, and the work spoiled thereby, and it is in
this respect that the preparation of the surface mainly
differs between the various surfaces mentioned.

Signs gilded on wood are usually "smalted and w^hen
that is the case, as the ground is cut in around the letters
after they have been gilded, it does not make so much
difference if some of the gold happens to stick to por-
tions of the boards besides that of the sizing for the let-
ters as the cutting in of the ground will cover it over;
if, however, the surface is to be left in the ground color

380 Modern Pamte/s Cyclopedia

over which the gold is appHed, and no smalt is used as
is sometimes done when a gold sign or ornaments are
painted upon a building of wood or stone, then great
care must be taken that the surface will be in a condition
that the gold shall not stick to it.

The only proper surfaces for all gilding which is not
afterward to be cut in is a dead flat, not an egg shell
gloss even will do, unless it is first deadened or all its
stickiness killed.

The usual method of preparing sign boards to be
gilded is to give them three coats of paint as noted in
Paragraph 268. The last coat should be given in a
dark lead or slate color, so that the black ground to be
cut in afterward can be plainly seen, and no spots will
then be missed. The last coat must be as nearly flat as it
is possible to make it, so that it may be properly bound.
It should have a full week, at least, for hard drying.
After it has been sand papered as free of brush marks
as possible (and this sandpapering should have been
resorted to after each previous coat), it will be ready
for the sizing.

Nothing but an old, fat, oil size is to be used for out-
side exposed work, as nothing else would be able to
withstand the ravages of the elements. This fat oil
can be prepared by any one by exposing linseed oil in
shallow vessels exposed to air and light for a few
months. It can be bottled up afterward and will always
remain in a fatty condition. Linseed oil in that condi-
tion seems to have lost much of its power to absorb oxy-

Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 381

gen and should have some good japan dryer added to it
to make it dry. Unhke other hnseed oil, however, it re-
mains in a tacky condition for some time, some days
even before it will eventually dry hard. It is when in
that partially dried, tacky condition only that it is fit to
be gilded upon. If gilding is attempted while it is
sticky and leaves an imprint upon the finger when
touched, it will come through the gold and dull or tar-
nish it — when dry, but still tacky, is the proper time to
apply the gold. If the surface is good and dry when the
size for the lettering is applied, and one has been careful
not to touch the ground with the fingers or with any-
thing greasy the gold can be applied so that it. will stick
to the sizing only, but as said before, it does not matter
so much if the sign is smalted.

In aplying the size it is well to mix with it a little me-
dium chrome yellow as then there is less chance of
leaving a part of a letter unsized as it would show the
omission at a glance.

It is well to prepare the size and to test it beforehand
so as to know how long it will take to dry it and how
long it holds in good condition for the gilding, then to
bottle it up and label it with its record of drying. Some
need a quick size ; others again who have large surfaces
to gild need it to hold the tack a long time and a gilder
should have a 24-hour, a 48-hour and a 66-hour size.
The last would be seldom used except upon work where
the operator could not get back to it for some days
after applying it.

382 Modern Painter's Cyclopedia

These gold sizes in fat oil can be bought ready pre-
pared in most of the supply stores. As they are more
carefully tested and great care taken of having them
just right, it is much better to buy them in that way
than to waste the time necessary to prepare them for
one's self.

The gilding is done in the same manner as stated in
Paragraph 146, to which the reader is referred for
further explanations.

273. For surfaces which are not to be cut-in and
for japanned tinware, etc., the surface should be rubbed
over with whiting after having first been washed over
with alcohol and a chamois skin to remove any greasi-
ness. This rubbing over with chalk will deaden the
ground so that gold will not adhere to it, but care must
be taken not to touch it as there is sufficient tackiness in
the touch of the fingers rubbed over the ground to make
the gold adhere to it sometimes.

Some take a raw potato and rub over the japanned
surface with the freshly cut side of it, cutting slices out
of it and rubbing all over the surface with it before
sprinkling chalk or whiting over it. The gold size is
then applied and the gilding is done as upon wood de-
scribed in the preceding paragraph. After the surplus
gold has been brushed off and dusted, clean the whiting
by washing it with a soft sheep's wool sponge and water.
274. Window shades are frequently used for sign
work and they are very appropriate to the purpose.
Usually it is the lower part only that is lettered as the

Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 383

upper and central portion of it is ordinarily rolled up,
leaving only the lower portion of it visible then —
at least during business hours.

If the painting of the sign is to be in oil colors, the
painting should be laid out and done in precisely the
same manner as it would be upon a board sign.

If to be gilded, the surface being always a dead flat,
hard and free from tack, it is an ideal surface to work
upon. Unless one has been careless and greased por-
tions of it the gold will not adhere to its surface and one
can get a clean-cut edge if a rightly tempered size is
used, which should be some quick fat oil size, or if
quicker work is desired, some good gold size japan.

275. Gilding on glass has been fully explained
under the heading entitled^ ^'Gilding," in Paragraph
149, and the reader should carefully read that over for
e;cplanations of the proper way of applying the leaf
and other details affecting gilding on glass.

Cleanliness cannot be too strongly insisted upon as
the work will surely look lame somewhere if this has
not been scrupulously attended to before the gilding is
commenced. Rub the whole surface of the glass with
alcohol that no grease or dirt of any kind may come
between the gold and the glass as it will show through
it. It is well to also clean the outside of the glass as
sometimes specks which one sees and which it is thought
are on the outside may possibly be on the inside instead
— besides it is better to have it clear to see through.

384 Modern Painter's Cyclopedia

The design of the lettering and ornamentation
should first be drawn upon manilla paper and pricked
through with a tracing wheel or needle to make a pounce
of it; then sandpapered on the reverse side to open up
the holes better and so they will not clog up. Take
the design and using it right side up proceed, to pounce
it on with whiting upon the outside of the glass. As
this whiting will show very faint, it is better to take
some tailor's chalk or a piece of hard soap sharpened
up to an edge and mark out the outlines of the design-
ing, as otherwise the wind and other agencies might
obliterate them.

Then proceed to apply the gold leaf on the inside so
that every part of the outlined design on the outside
shall have been covered over with the leaf and in an
hour or two afterward follow up with another coat of
gold leaf to make sure that no part has been overlooked
and to cover up all cracks and defects in the leaf put on
before. This double gilding is the only sure way of
making a creditable job of gilding.

When dry the gilding is ready for the backing. Now
take the design and pounce it on the inside, upon the
back side of it so that it will correspond to what was
outlined on the outside and in as nearly the same place
as it occupied there. The pouncing should be done with
some dark dry color as it will show plainer upon the
gold. Some gilders use black asphaltum varnish to
back up gold with, but a good coach black in japan
thinned with carriage japan and turpentine or

Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 385

a black rubbing varnish will be found better, and
will work better under the brush. Two coats should
be given. Some gilders use a chrome yellow ground
in japan and thinned as stated before instead
of a black. It is certainly more sensible, as should an
unseen defect be in the leaf the chrome yellow backing
will render it unnoticeable while the black will show
through it.

In a day or two wash the surplus gold off and the
sign will be ready for the shading if any is to go on, or
for outlining, etc. This will give a good plain, solid
burnished gold sign.

2y6. Ornaments in matt gold for parts of letters,
or for shading them' are quite the fad now. It is being
used in shaping letters into a bevelled appearance, and
in scroll work on the inside of the letter, or for making
the center all matt, and hundreds of variations. These
effects of burnished gold and matt are fine if well made
and in the beveled letters often would fool one who did
not know how such effects are produced.

The process is very simple and easy. All the parts
which are to show matt are first painted on the glass
with linseed oil and turpentine mixed together so as
to work freely under the brush ; a very little lemon or
medium chrome yellow should be added, but not suf-
ficient to show opaque. The painting must be trans-
parent to allow the gold to show through it, or the
beautiful effect would be lost.

386 Modern Painter's Cyclopedia

The introduction of other ornamenting material in
the make-up of a glass gilt sign, especially in those that
are framed and used for advertising purposes, is fre-
quent. For such purposes circular and any other form
of openings are left for the filling of pearl flakes, flit-
ters, etc. These openings are surrounded with a gold
line. Sometimes photographs are inserted in them.
Such make variety and in these advertising framed
glass signs license runs riot on trying to obtain new
efifects. As they are usually expensive and hung in
oflices where they can be closely examined, and at lei-
sure, fancy styles of lettering may be indulged in to al-
most any extent one can wish for ; so that would appear
ridiculous in a staid and sober street business sign, will
be all right for this class of work.

2yy. Advertising signs can be arranged under two
heads: First, those done upon buildings, either on
wood or brick, and, second, those done on bulletin
boards specially erected for such a purpose.

It is not intended here to go into all the details of
this great business, as it would need too much of the
space of this manual. This business is usually made a
separate one, and many are usually under the control
of large concerns who have contracts for advertising all
over the country, keeping many gangs of men at work
during the open season.

While the general sign painter in the city will not be
greatly interested in them, the sign painter in the
smaller towns may derive quite a revenue from the erec-

Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 387

tlon of bulletin sign boards upon the leading entrance
streets to his town and the yearly rent derived from
these will make quite an item in his bank account. Few
towns are so small that its merchants will not want to
be represented upon its bulletin and it will be easy to
get them into it, if a few of the leading ones can be in-
duced to make a start at it. At any rate, the nearby big
town clothiers, dry goods and other houses will all be
eager for good spaces upon them. Besides general ad-
vertisers, if written to, and proper explanation is given,
will gladly avail themselves of the opportunity which
usually will cost them less than the big advertising
firms could afford to take similar work for, away from
the city, and under big expense in sending out gangs ot
men for the erection of bulletins and to do the painting.

These bulletins can be made uniform in size and the
space let at so much per square foot, including the
painting and taking care of it. Or they can be made to
suit the ideas of the advertiser. They can be made of
wood all through or with a wooden frame to which is
nailed galvanized iron sheets.

The wood should have three coats of paint upon the
face, and for protection to the boards and tQ keep them
from warping, should have two coats on the back. The
galvanized iron should be given one coat of red lead
priming and two coats of lead paint over it and when
done in that way will hold the paint without scaling,
as well as wood.

388 Modern Painter's Cyclopedia

There is more display for skill in bulletin advertis-
ing sign work than is needed in ordinary commercial
sign lettering. There is a possibility in the use of colors
here not afforded in regular sign work and one should
be well versed in the proper harmonizing of these.
As much pictorial work of nearly everything manufac-
tured under the sun, the advertising sign painter should
be able to draw and paint with accuracy anything and
everything that may be demanded of him from a rock-
ing chair to a threshing machine or a building, figures
in the bust or full drawn, landscapes, etc. Of course,
he will not be expected to produce artistic work in all
that the word implies, but the nearer he can call his
productions by that name, the better he will please his
customers as well as himself.

Work upon the bulletin boards is usually done in the
ordinary way as it would be in the shop upon the pre-
pared ground, or it may be done as it is usually done
upon the outside walls of brick or frame buildings by
painting on the design and lettering first with a heavy
color made short so it will cut to an edge without run-
ning, by using about one half kerosene oil with linseed
oil and benzine in the thinning. This sets quickly
upon unpainted surfaces especially, and can be im-
mediately worked upon and cut in with the ground
color which is usually black, and being prepared from
lamp black covers solidly in one coat.

Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 389

QUESTIONS ON SIGN PAINTING.

260. What is said regarding" sign painting?

261. How many branches can sign painting be di-
vided into?

262. What should a sign painter know?

263. What material is needed for sign painting?

264. What are the principal tools required in a sign
painting shop?

265. How are letters made?

266. How many kinds of primary forms of letters
are there?

267. How are letters shaded?

268. How are signs painted on sign boards and
upon buildings ?

269. How should the lettering be spaced upon each
line?

270. How are show cards and muslin signs pre-
pared and painted?

271. What is said of gold sign painting?

2y2. How are gold signs on wood, etc., painted?
2^2)- How are japanned tin surfaces gilded ?

274. How are gold signs painted on window
shades ?

275. How should the glass surface be prepared for
the gilding?

276. How is the matting of the gold surface pro-
duced upon glass gilding?

277. Tell what is said concerning advertising signs
and their painting?

390 Modern Painter's Cyclopedia

STAINS AND STAINING.

278. Staining, as the name indicates, is the opera-
tion through which certain substances are changed from
their natural color to another. Unlike painting, it does
not cover, or at least should not cover up, any of the
designs which may be upon the surface the staining is
applied to; so woods which are the principal material
upon which the painter usually applies stains, should
show its veins, pores and other details as clearly after
the staining as before its application. Therefore, it is
easily to be seen where the difference lies between it
and graining; as some people frequently confound the
two terms. Staining does not pretend to make another
wood out of the one it is applied over, or, at least, to
change its veining into an entirely different wood, while
graining doe*^ It is true that the dividing line is rather
difficult to see at times and that some graining is done
sometimes by staining, but it is not the prime object of
it, and the great bulk of it is done for a different object
in view.

279. Many woods change their colors greatly by
aging. Oak, for instance, will become almost a black in
time, maple will become of a deep buff brown. Ma-
hogany will take on a deep burnt sienna red brown tone
and so on through the whole list of woods.

Now it is impossible to age wood much faster than
nature does it and when the effect of age is desired
upon new wood the only way open to obtain the results
at once, without waiting, is by staining the woods to

Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 391

the tone they would have taken by waiting patiently
several hundred years to elapse. Again, many people
desire certain tones and colors in a room to harmonize
carpets and wall hangings into a good combination, and
such do not hesitate to order furniture or wood work
to be stained in any color of the rainbow they have a
fancy for. It certainly is not in good taste to stain
woods in colors which do not belong to them, as blues,
greens, etc., and while this is a free country, etc., as
long as a person is not sent to the penitentiary for com-
mitting outrages against nature, nor to insane asylums,
it is very probable that the practice will go on undis-
turbed. But it is vulgarity, to say the least of the prac-
tice, and painters should not encourage it.

Stains are useful and fill a legitimate object in dec-
oration when properly used, and many an ugly-looking,
cheaply finished up house inside woodwork can be made
more cheery and less of an eyesore if colored up by
staining. If graining is permissible — and it is — with
as much good reason for it as the representation of ob-
jects and scenes upon canvas to look at and enjoy —
then for the very same reason it, too, has its "raison
d'etre," for it is enjoyable and agreeable to the owner
or it would not be put there. Graining may, and would
be, objectionable if done in any but the colors which
naturally belong to the wood it imitates, and for the
same reason that a painter's picture of a green horse
would not be, nor should not be admired. It has been
stated before that the line of demarcation between

392 Modern Painter's Cyclopedia

graining and staining was hard to distinguish at times,
and it is as much of the staining of mahogany, mottled
maple, etc., partakes more or less of that character.

280. So, to distinguish it from the ordinary stain-
'ing of wood which is done all over without any special
preparation, it will be called grained staining. This
grained staining is done so as to change the character
of the wood being stained over so that it may look more
natural and resemble the wood which the stain is sup-
posed to transform it in — in its veinings. Now, the
cheap, soft maple has none of the marking of mottled
maple, nor has birch any of the feathered markings of
mahogany which it is made to imitate so much and so
that ihe mahogany staining which is done over it may
appear more natural and pleasing these mottlings are
put on the bare wood before the staining proper is put
on all over. Even veinings can be put in to good effect
with a fan overgraining brush and some fine imitation
of many woods can be made upon the bare wood in
stain graining. The wood over which such is made,
however, must not possess any marked character of.
their own as they would be brought out by the stain and
a double appearance of different veinings would look
ridiculous.

281. There are two ways of staining wood, or
rather of preparing the coloring matter used in making
the stains used over them. Both have their uses and
are better adapted for certain purposes than the other.

Modern Painte/s Cyclopedia 393

One is to thin the col'^*- with linseed oil and the other
is to dissolve it in water.

282. Oil stains have an advantage over water stains
in that upon the bare wood it acts as a primer and
partial filler and that they do not raise the grain or pores
of the wood — which water stains certainly do. They
protect the wood from humidity and mishaps of various
kinds, and but that oil stains are not as penetrating as
water stains are, and for that reason are easier marred
and damaged, they would be superior for general use in
hardwood staining. On this account mainly, notwith-
standing their good traits otherwise, they are seldom
used except for the staining of pine partitions and soft
woods of little value, manufacturers of furniture and
other hardwood finishers preferring the great draw-
back of the raised grain to cut down, to the danger of
having their work spoiled by the shallowness of the
staining. Another reason also is that as most of the
oil stains are prepared from finely ground pigments,
which all have more or less opacity, as siennas and
umbers, although called transparent or semi-transpar-
ent, they do not give as clear a tone of stain as the water
stains do, so that a portion of the details in the veining
of the woods stained with them is lost or hid by the
opacity of the pigment in the stain.

283. Water stains dissolve the substances used in
the making of them and this solution must be entire, or
when partial only, as when obtained by maceration or
percolation, the stain should be run through a funnel

394 Modern Painter's Cyclopedia

filled with percolating paper to free it from specks of
undissolved foreign matter.

A good water stain should hold the dissolved color-
ing matter in solution without precipitation, or it will
be of little value unless used with constant agitation
and even then it will hardly make a satisfactory stain
free from specking, so such should be avoided. For
this reason the earth colors, such as the siennas, umber,
etc., which are not soluble in water but would be only
held in suspension in it, are not fitted for water stains,
however good they may be for oil stains. Therefore,
the substances required for the making of water stains
must be entirely soluble in it, or at least the substance
used must have a portion of it that is soluble and which
can be extracted out of it by either maceration or
percolation.

284. The stains which are made from soluble sub-
stances as some of the aniline dyes — alizarine, purpu-
rine, nigrine, etc., which are entirely soluble are easily
made by simply dissolving them with hot water, usually.

Those made by percolation are also easily made, the
ingredients to be percolated being simply placed in a
funnel which has been first covered inside with an un-
sized percolating paper through which the dissolved
stain will pass but which will hold back any undis-
solved matter.

The stains made by maceration require considerable
more time, some of them requiring fully two weeks to
become entirely dissolved. When so dissolved, they

Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 395

should be filtered through filtering paper as stated for
the percolation process.

Sometimes the process of maceration and of solution
is hastened by boiling, but again in others it would ruin
the stain, so that in subsequent paragraphs where re-
cipes are given as to how to prepare them from various
substances unless boiling is plainly stated to be the
proper way of dissolving the coloring, cold or only mod-
erately warm water should be used.

With the above instructions it is hoped that there
will be no trouble in obtaining good results in the pre-
paring of stains from the formulas given.

Many of the formulas given are of old time tested
quality and are good — but too tedious to make in our
twentieth century times, but there are some who still
want them. The list of such has been abridged, how-
ever, giving only a few for each color of wood. Few
persons can afford to spare the time necessary for their
preparation, and upon the whole it is a question as to
whether it will pay them to do so, when they can be
made ready for use in a few minutes from the pre-
pared dyes or stains, all ready made, and for sale at
most of the supply stores.

285. There is a class of prepared goods which have
been used in immense quantities of late — i. e., the
varnish stains. Most of them are sold under fancy
names, copyrighted by their manufacturers, but which
is the same thing after all. They usually consist of
cheap varnish, colored with some dye, soluble in volatile

396 Modern Painter's Cyclopedia

oils. Why they are used to the extent they are is a con-
undrum, accountable for only because of the extensive
advertising given them.

The work done with such can never be as good as
that done with a previous stain covered over with var-
nish of good quality afterward. All varnish stains set
quickly with the consequence that the laps of the brush
show all over the job and make it look uneven, while,
had the stain been applied first it would have a much
better appearance — besides if finished over with a good
coat of varnish the assurance that the job will remain
good for sometime afterward, especially upon floors,
etc., where good quality for wear counts for something.

RECIPES FOR MAKING OIL STAINS.

286. Any finely ground transparent or semi-trans-
parent color ground in oil will make an oil stain. If a
dark color is wanted it must not be thinned with as
much oil; if a light colored stain of it is desired, then
it must be thinned out with more.

All the aniline and alizarine colors made which are
soluble in oil can also be used to make oil stains so that
an immense range can be had. These are not quite as
permanent as those made from oil colors — but those
made from alizarine are dependable.

I. Oil Oak Stain. — (Light oak.) Raw sienna, raw
umber; 2/3 of the former, 1/3 of the latter. Thin with
raw linseed oil to suit. Add enough turpentine to make
it set and a little liquid dryer.

Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 397

2. Oil Oak Stain.-^{Dsivk oak.) Raw sienna, raw
umber, burnt umber; 1/3 of each. Thin with raw lin-
seed oil as stated in No. i.

3. Oil Walnut Stain. — Burnt umber or Vandyke
brown, thinned as directed for No. i. Add more drier

if Vandyke brown is used.

4. Ebony. — Drop black, thinned with raw linseed
oil, turpentine, and liquid dryer.

All colors of stains obtainable from either transparent
oil colors or aniline soluble in oil in any shade desired
can all be made in the manner stated above and those
should suffice as an indication as to the "how to make
them."

SPIRIT STAINS.

287. Alcoholic stains are but little used, not only on
account of their expense but because they raise the grain
of the wood as bad as water stains do. Some instru-
ment manufacturers, however, want them as well as
others tor special uses, so a few of the more important
ones are given.

5. Yellozv. — Tumeric pow^der, i oz. ; alcohol, i
pint. Digest four days, shaking occasionally and strain.
To be brushed over the wood until the color wanted is
obtained.

6. Yellozvish Red, Orange. — Add an alcoholic solu-
tion of dragon's blood to the degree of redness wanted
to the above ; apply it in the same way.

7. Mahogany. — Dragon's blood, i}^ ounces; car-
bonate of soda, y^ ounce ; alcohol, i pint. Digest a few

398 Modern Painter's Cyclopedia

days to make it dissolve, filter and brush it over after the
application of the following wash : Wash over the sur-
face with dilute nitric acid.

8. Ebony. — Dissolve extract of logwood in dena-
tured or wood alcohol to any shade desired. Strain and
apply. The color is afterward developed by washing
over the surface with tincture of muriate of iron.

ANILINE DYES ON STAINS.

288. Many persons are afraid of the name aniline
as it is the equivalent of "fugitiveness" in their thoughts,
and the poorer kinds certainly are. But some are very
useful and fairly permanent when properly put on and
such as are made from alizarine are as permanent or
even more so than similar ones made from any other
substances known.

As each manufacturer makes these by processes some-
what different and requiring different treatment in fix-
ing in the use of mordants, acids or alkalies, it will be
well to ascertain exactly what is needed by asking the
dealer about it, as what would be good for one would
harm another.

Another great trouble in these dyes is that there is no
nomenclature known among dealers — each manufac-
turer having adopted a name of his own for the colors
he produces, so that there is an endless row of trouble
ahead for those who are looking up a new line of these
colors to work with. He has to learn over and to for-
get all about what he had learned before in order to

Modem Painter's Cyclopedia 399

adapt himself to the different handling required for
those made by a different manufacturer.

Those soluble in linseed oil or turpentine require the
liquids to be moderately warmed and some little time to
perfect the solution. Those soluble in water usually
are readily dissolved and below is given a typical recipe
to indicate how they are all made and which will suffice
for all the others.

9. Mahogany. — Bismarck brown, i ounce; water,
3 quarts. Let the water be boiled, pour upon the Bis-
mark brown and dissolve. It is ready to use as soon as
it has cooled.

WATER STAINS.

289. Really under the heading of water stains most
of the aniline dye stains really belong, but it was thought
best to treat of them separately and to place under this
heading the old stand-by recipes which have been in
use, some of them, from time immemorial. The list is
a large one to pick from, but as these are now but sel-
dom used, it has been cut down to one or two sample
ones for each of the leading woods.

10. Light oak. — Quercitron bark, 2 oz. ; water, i
gallon ; macerate for two weeks, filter and use.

11. Dark oak. — Quercitron bark, 4 oz. ; water i
gallon ; macerate for two weeks, filter and use.

12. IValnut No. i. — Permanganate of potash, i
ounce ; Epsom salt, i ounce ; water, i quart ; dissolve,
strain and apply, repeating until sufficiently darkened.

13. Walnut, No. 2. — Nutgalls, crushed, 3 ounces;

400 Modern Painter's Cyclopedia

concentrated lye, 4 ounces; Vandyke brown, (dry) 8
ounces ; boil till the bulk is reduced one half. When cold
apply to the wood with a cloth or pad.

14. Mahogany, No, i, — Fustie chips, 8 ounces;
madder root, i pound ; water, two gallons. Boil for two
or three hours ; strain and apply boiling hot.

15. Mahogany, No. 2. — Make a decoction of log-
wood chips by boiling them in a closely covered vessel
for two hours in twice their bulk of water ; strain ; add
a small quantity of chloride of tin ; this will give it red-
ness. Be your own judge when to stop. Apply two
coats.

16. Cherry. — Spanish anetto, i pound; concentra-
ted lye, I ounce ; boil for half an hour, boil more to con-
centrate it. Gamboge added to it will concentrate it.

17. Ebony, No. i. — Extract of logwood, 3 pounds;
concentrated lye, i pound; water, seven pounds; dis-
solve by boiling, strain and apply hot or cold. When
dry go over the work with a strong solution of vinegar
and iron.

18. Ebony, No. 2. — Sulphate of iron, J4 pound;
Chinese blue, 2 ounces; nutgalls, 3 ounces; extract of
logwood, 2 pounds; vinegar, i gallon; carbonate of
iron, J4 pound. Boil over a slow fire for two or three
hours, strain and apply hot or cold.

19. Rosewood. — Any of the mahogany stains will
make a rosewood stain if applied over and over until the
proper depth has been attained and then stained over
with an ebony stain, very lightly put on. Then after-

Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 401

ward run over with a camel's hair brush loaded with the
ebony dye in irregular veins all over the surface. The
grain of the natural wood being straggling and occur-
ring in a haphazard sort of way it should be imitated as
close as possible.

20. Crimson. — Biazilwood, pulverized, i pound;
water, 3 pounds; cochineal, ^ ounce; boil the Brazil-
wood with the water for half an hour. Strain and add
the cochineal. Boil gently for another half hour; let it
cool and it is fit for use.

21. Violet. — ]\Iake a solution of orchil and soluble
indigo blue of such strength as required. Strain and
apply when cold.

22. Blue. — Indigo blue, 3 ounces; sulphuric acid, I
pound. Put the two together in a porcelain dish and let
the indigo dissolve, which will take twenty-four hours
or more. Shake it up occasionally to hasten the pro-
cess. Add a pint of boiling water and strain, applying
the stain to the wood while hot. Before the indigo
stain has completely dried, wash over the surface with a
solution made of 3 ounces of cream of tartar in one
quart of water.

The above will suffice to give an idea of the trouble
and difficulty in making the easiest ones made of the old
timers. It is much easier to use the ones ready preparer'
and cheaper in the end.

QUESTIONS AS TO STAINING AND STAINS.

278. What is said of staining?

279. Why is staining resorted to?

402 Modern Painter's Cyclopedia

280. What is grained staining?

281. How many different methods of staining are
there ?

282. Where are stains in oil most useful ?

283. What kinds of woods require water stains?

284. How are water stains made?

285. What are varnish stains?

286. Oil stains. — Recipes, how^ to make them.

287. Spirit stains. — Recipes, how to make them.

288. Aniline stains. — Recipe, how to make them.

289. Water stains. — Recipes, how to make them.

STENCILS AND STENCILLING.

290. This is the stencil age. This method of em-
bellishment in ornamenting surfaces is becoming more
and more popular and it has passed from the exclusive
use of the decorator into common household use by
every one having something in the home worthy of
being made more beautiful by using them. In other
words it has become a fad and with the history of past
fads in mind, the time will come when it will come to a
stop from the very excesses to which it is put. It will, of
course be overdone, and that, as other fads before that
are gone and been forgotten, will once more be left
where it has a legitimate existence into the hands of
professional decorators.

Stencils, in repeated and conventional decoration, will
always be used. One could almost assert that ever since
decoration has been introduced into the world that in

Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 403

all probabilities stencils were used in repeating designs,
and some of the remnants which have been preserved
unto our day which are found in museums of antiquities,
w^ould indicate that the ancients were not ignorant of its
use.

291. Stencils are used for many purposes which the
subject matter of this book does not treat upon, such as
decorating of textile fabrics, commercial stencils used in
marking of boxes, barrels, etc. Stencils therefore will
be treated from the standpoint of the decorator and the
uses he can make of them in either -water or oil colors.
Stencils are also extensively used in making numerous
duplicates of a given sign by sign painters, either for use
upon muslin signs or boards in one or many colors.

MATERIAL USED IN CUTTING STENCILS.

292. The material used in the making of stencils
differs according as to what use they are intended for.

Sheet brass is used for commercial purposes and
would be the best for the decorator too, but for its cost
and the difficulty of cutting them.

A specially prepared resined clear, or rather semi-
transparent paper, is much used for the purpose by the
decorators. This paper cuts a very smooth edge and
being tough the ties do not break easily.

Good manilla drafting paper is also very useful and
while not sized like the resin paper above, after it has
been coated over with two good coats of orange shellac
it will withstand the pouncing of the stencil brush about

404 Modern Painter's Cyclopedia

as well and as long as the specially prepared resin paper
will.

Cartridge paper, not too thick, makes an excellent
material upon which to cut stencils.

Printer's press bedding manilla paper is also much
used and can be procured at any printing office when
possibly some of the others might not. The above pa-
per is tough and pliable and but that it stretches some-
what too readily, it is the equal of the others in all other
respects. It is well to give it a coat of linseed oil on
both sides before it is shellacked, as after such a coating
it is not so likely to stretch.

To cut the stencils upon, a smooth level surface hard
enough to not be dented by the knife must be procured.

Most decorators prefer a piece of plate glass. Some
use sheet tin and for a short time no doubt that may be
best, but tin soon gets scratched over when the knife will
catch and a clean cut line is then out of the question.

A lignum vitae block well smoothed is the best, but
such are not readily obtained anywhere while plate glass
can and for this reason if no other it is more used and
with good success than any other.

A good stock of stencil brushes from ^ inch to iJ/4
inches (see Figs. i8 and 19) are indispensable in order
to insure good clean work. The larger ones are used
mainly upon duplicated muslin signs, some use as large
as a 2 inch brush for this purpose as these will hold
enough color to coat over the stencil without refilling.
Punches for cutting round holes. The colors used in

Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 405

either water or oil are the whole list of pigments useful
in either classes. Some charcoal and drawing crayons
to design the ornaments to be cut out and of course, all
the requisite thinners for the colors, as linseed oil, tur-
pentine and orange shellac varnish.

Last, but not least, some good stencil knife. While it
is possible to cut a stencil with an ordinary pocket knife,
the blades in most of these are not formed just right to
cut stencils quickly, nor will the cuts made be as clean
as the ones which are specially prepared for this purpose
and which are found for sale in any of the larger supply
stores.

293. It is always best to draw the design upon the
stencil paper which is about to be cut before the paper is
oiled when this is necessary as in the printer's press bed-
ding manilla paper. This is unnecessary for all the
others mentioned, but all should have at least one if not
two coats of orange shellac given them after the cutting.
Where a stencil is to be used over and over a good many
times in water colors, especially, it will be well to give
them two coats at least. The constant wetting other-
wise will make them flabby and it is impossible to make
a good showing with such, and much valuable time will
have to be wasted in waiting for them to dry before they
can be safely used again.

294. The designing of a stencil will depend upon
the use it is intended for. It may be a simple fillet or
serpentine line or it may be the most intricate of designs
in one or many colors.

406

Modern Painter's Cyclopedia

If in one color only, the whole of the design is cut out
upon the one stencil — excepting that what are known as
ties, which must be left here and there to hold the design
together, and to stiffen it up. Those ties instead of de-
tracting from the beauty of the finish, are really helpful
in producing effects not otherwise obtainable and in the
hands of the skillful designer instead of proving a hin-
drance as many suppose them to be, they will enhance
the beauty of the design. Even the human face and
form can be produced in one color stencils with fine ef-
fects by the judicious selection of the proper place for
putting in the ties.

It is frequently necessary to leave ties in a stencil
where color must be used in order to hold it together.
In such a case the ties must be filled in by hand. As the
texture of the paint put in with the pouncing of the sten-
cil brush some Httle care will have to be exercised in
order to put the color in with a brush that it does not dif-
fer too much from the rest of it to be noticed and it will
be well to use the stencil brush itself as much as possible
in pouncing them over in order that the coloring may
look all alike.

295. Below are given a few illustrations of easy
stencils to make. In Fig. loi and Fig. 102 are shown

^ %r^

1 %.rr

vr^

^^iU^ i

•"1 i

^M

-1^11

g. 101.

•

Modern Painter's Cyclopedia

407

some simple one color stencils, supplemented by hand
painted lines.

9. jOifi. ^ .tfi

n2/

Fig. 103.

Stencils in one color can be made more attractive by
the use of varied coloring of the ground coats over
which they are placed, Figs. 103 and 104. The upper

Fig. 103.

Fig. 104.
part in both those designs being in a deeper tone than
that of the lower half. These are also supplemented
with hand painted lines.

408

Modern Painter's Cyclopedia

In Fig. 105 the middle portion is painted of a deeper
tone, also the rest of it, and the herring bone section of

»»»

^»»»>

5r^it5^

Fig. 105.

it must have separate small hand painted lines painted
on each side of it. In the figure the herring bone shows

>.♦ •n.*;^ . ^.♦. -J .♦.€•>

Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 409

in the white, but this would necessitate an extra stencil
and is unnecessary as the black or whatever color is used
will cover it up and it may as well be painted all over
with the rest of it above. A broader hand painted line
above between the upper broken line and at the bottom
another finer hand painted line, finishes the stencil.

In Fig. 1 06 is shown a combination of a hand painted
molding and of a one color stencil below it or the stencil
may be placed below a plaster molding properly colored.
This design has only two small hand painted lines.

One color stencils may be made more effective some-
times by using different colors or tones of one color in
different parts of it. This requires but little more addi-
tional time in its execution. The different colors or
tones must each be put on with different stencil brushes
is all the difference.

296. In preparing stencils where more than one is
used in the same color, all that will be required of the
second one will be to draw and cut out the parts which
show as ties in the first one. This gives the effect of
solid hand painted work and lines can be worked out in
stencils so as to resemble hand painted lines in the same
manner.

297. If two or more colors are to be used in stencil
work, a separate stencil must be made for each color
used. Great care must be taken that each stencil regis-
ters perfectly over each other and an allowance must be
made of say 1/32 part of an inch so as to insure the cov-
ering over and good joining of the two or more colors.

410 Modern Painter's Cyclopedia

The ties in such a case are of no importance as the next
stencil will cover them over. Some beautiful work is
done in multi-color stencils which will sometimes puz-
zle the inexperienced and set them at guessing whether
the work is not hand made. An experienced stencil cut-
ter can obtain some very close imitations of hand work
in that way and the sign painters obtain really better
looking work by the use of several stencils than is
usually done by hand in all but the highest priced work.

298. The designs for the several stencils or for the
single ones having been drawn out in full upon the face
of the stencil paper, the sheet should be placed upon the
plate glass or lignum vitse block or whatever the cutter
has decided to use to cut upon. Then with the set of 3
cutting knives provided of the specially made ones men-
tioned the cutter proceeds to cut out all of the design
with the exception of the ties already mentioned. While
the stencil cutting set of knives is not absolutely neces-
sary, where one has considerable stencil cutting to do,
he will find it very poor economy in trying to do his
work with an ordinary knife, nor will his stencils look as
well, as no matter how careful he may be there will be
some ragged edges.

The round holes, especially the smaller ones, are
much better and quicker made with a punch. The ordi-
nary harness maker leather punches are the best for the
purpose. The stencil should be placed over a level
wooden block and the punch struck with a hammer.
Being hollow the paper is forced up it and when done

Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 411

with it, a pencil will push it out of the punch. One
should be used with it. The stencil bruch should be dip-
various ones from %. upward to an inch. When a circle
is larger than that they can be cut with a knife much
easier than the smaller ones.

When the stencilling is done in several colors and re-
quires several stencils to be cut, it has already been
stated that they must register perfectly over each other
or the work will be imperfect. This should be attended
to in the drawing out of the design, but registering
guide marks should be cut in to enable the operator
when shifting it to a new position to so place it that it
will be just right otherwise no matter how well the de-
sign has been drawn nor how perfect each stencil may
register with the others, a botchy effect will be produced
by the unevenness of the lines.

299. The stencils having been cut should now re-
ceive the coats of shellac varnish already mentioned.
Orange shellac is the best to use as it is stronger than
the white. It should be brushed over carefully over both
sides of the stencils and these should be hung up to dry
which will require 8 to 12 hours according to the sea-
sons. If the first coat has been put on in the morning, a
second coat can be put on in the evening when they will
be tit for use the next morning.

The above is far the better way. Many who are in a
hurry will give each coat one hour apart and will be
using them perhaps within another hour, but they will
not stand the hardship of those who have been done in

412 Modern Painter's Cyclopedia

the slower way and broken ties and limber stencils will
hardly compensate for the waiting of a few hours lon-
ger.

300. Rooms may look square but may not be and
belie their appearance. So to make sure of good results
a chalk line should be used and a plumb bob to guide one
in making perpendicular lines with it. If the ground is
to be parti-colored this should of course have been done
before the stencilling begins. All the lines for the va-
rious stencils to be used in a room having been struck,
the work of painting them on may begin.

301. The colors used may be either water colors or
colors in oil. If they are water colors they should.be
mixed somewhat thicker than is usual for ordinary ap-
plication upon the walls, also a trifle more of the binder
should be used with it. The stencil brush should be dip-
ped in the color and then rubbed out upon a board or
sheet of metal in order to work the color in well and to
remove a superabundance of it on its surface which
would blur and make a blotch upon the stencil. It is
hard to describe exactly how much or how little should
the brush hold and a few trials by the operator will soon
teach him the proper quantity his brush should carry.
The colors being ready he should place his stencil on the
line at the proper part for the beginning. If the stencil
is a large one he should first fasten it on to the wall with
small thumb tacks made on purpose for this use. These '
tacks' have a wide face somewhat similar to those used
in fastening drawing paper to boards. The points are

Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 413

short and will not hurt the plaster. This fastening in-
sures the stencil against slipping and relieves the opera-
tor from having to hold it at arm's length, which is a
tiresome job, on a ceiling especially. It gives him the
use of both of his hands and enables him to press down
the stencil close to the plaster ahead of the other w^hich
holds the brush w^ith color. The color should not be
brused over as in ordinary painting as that would surely
cause some of the color to run under the edges of the
stencil and make a blur, but should be pecked on in
much the same way as a wall stippler is used. The left
hand of the operator being free if he has fastened the
stencil on the wall as directed above can slip along just
ahead of the brush to smooth and hold down the paper
very closely to the w^all and much better work will result
from it. Clean cut outline is the chief beauty of good
stencilling and ragged edges are pretty sure indications
of a second class workman.

302. All that was stated in the preceding paragraph
excepting as to the preparation of the colors, applies for
work done in oil colors. The same care must be exer-
cised all the way through the stencilling. The stencils
in either case should be cleaned off of accumulations of
colors near the edges as they would in time prevent the
close contact required to make a clean cut edge.

The color should be mixed much thicker than for wall
work and either flat or semi-flat to match the character
of the rest of the walls. The brush should be very care-
fully rubbed over the board at each new filiing to re-

414 Modern Painter's Cyclopedia

move the surplus which would surely blur and with
pecking strokes the color should be applied over the
stencils. After the color has been mostly worked off
the brush there is not so much danger of its running
under the edge of the stencil and it may be used in a
twirling way over it without much danger in the hands
of a workman who is used to it; the novice, however, is
not advised to undertake it till he is sure of himself and
of the proper condition when it will be safe to do so.

If the above directions are followed out there is no
reason why a painter of ordinary ability may not do a
great deal of decorative work which he could easily do
at a remunerative price for himself, yet cheap enough as
to interest many property owners who have an idea that
all such work, which is ordinarily classed as fresco
painting is too costly for the pockets of ordinary people.
Many fairly good decorators have become such by first
commencing to do some very plain stencilling then
gradually growing into more difficult phases of it until
familiarity developed stencilling with a blending of free
hand and pouncings. When a painter has once started
on the road (no matter how low) to decoration, he is
sure to become so interested and to so love the work
that he will use every effort to learn more and more un-
til he finally becomes truly worthy of the name of
Decorator.

QUESTIONS ON STENCILS AND STENCILLINGS.

290. What is said of stencils ?

291. What are stencils chiefly used upon?

Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 415

292. What materials are used for the making of
stencils ?

293. How is stencil paper prepared for the cutting?

294. How are the stencils designed and tied ?

295. Give examples of how one color stencils can be
used in and over varied colored grounds ?

296. What effect is produced by work done in two
stencils in one color ?

297. What effects are produced by work done in
two or more stencils in various colors ?

298. How are stencils cut?

299. How are stencils shellacked?

300. How are rooms prepared for the stencilling?

301. How are stencils painted on in water colors?

302. How are stencils painted on in oil colors ?

VARNISHES.

303. Varnishes have the property of making a
gloss or an enamel upon the surfaces over which they
are applied.

Their uses in antiquity is far beyond the ken of men
or history and in one instance at least more has been
lost than has been learned since. In times so very re-
mote that it is impossible to even guess a date within
several hundred years, the Chinese produced a glass
varnish which was used in coating over articles and
which is indestructible. There are many specimens to
be found of it and they are as perfect today as upon the
day that the varnish was applied, so that one can truly

416 Modern Painter's Cyclopedia

say o? it that it is indestructible. The Chinese them-
selves have lost the art of making this varnish and so
far with all the knowledge modern chemistry has put
into the hands of men for scientific researches our ^a-
vants have been unable to unravel the mystery con-
nected with it. This varnish dates back so far that even
Chinese literature which dates back several thousand
years before Christ, makes no mention of its discovery.

Aside of this, lacquers were and had been in use
also from time immemorial by the Asiatics, both Chi-
nese and Japanese and the East Indies knew its uses in
very ancient times.

The varnish industry as wx know it now is of com-
paratively recent origin and it is not so very long back
when many of the painters were in the habit of prepar-
ing their own varnishes, as no factories such as pro-
duce it at this time had any existence then.

Formulas galore were in vogue then and many a
painter paid a good bit of money for recipes known and
handed down from father to son as an heirloom. Some
of them have been handed down to us in both written
formulas and in print, so that we can form as pretty
good idea of what our forefathers had to do when they
wanted a can of varnish for use, for they had it to make.

Most of these recipes are loaded down with quite a
number of unnecessary ingredients but the recipes
would have been just as good without seven hairs from
the inside of the left ear of a white hare, and must have
put the painters of the sixteenth, seventeenth and

Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 417

eighteenth centuries to considerable trouble in catching
the hares and then pulling the hair out of the hares. And
such an array of names for gums as they had — enough
to confound all but a twentieth cenury skeptic who has
them all classed into very small groups with rosin at the
top, of which our forefathers knew little about and
cared less. ,

Up to the middle of the nineteenth century varnishes
were still made by many painters, although factories be-
gan to prepare them in a commercial way and for sale to
the trade some time before and in a very humble way
compared to the manner in which the large concerns en-
gaged in its manufacture today do.

England and France have the honor of having the
oldest varnish factories in the world and compared to
many other industries they may be called recent. Their
preparations, however, did not extend down to the
needs of the house painters, as they catered mainly to
the wants of the carriage trade. Some of those old
English and French varnish manufacturers' names are
still in use and the lineal descendants of the families are
still connected with the concerns making the varnishes
today. Tradition having handed down the great value
of their output said tradition having started when few
knew what varnish was and when but few were en-
gaged in its manufacture, it has enabled these old con-
cerns to hold trade against all comers at prices for their
products in vvhich the family names weigh more and for
which more is paid for by the consumer than it is really

418 Modern Painter's Cyclopedia

worth to him. There is no doubt about the excellen-
cies of their output but our laterday manufacturies are
making just as good goods and at a price for which
family name does not count in the making of it.

304. Varnishes are made from various gums and
gum-resins and with various solvents. As for certain
specific purposes each are better adapted for use in the
one that any of the others, all are useful then for
certain kinds of work.

Some of the gums used are soluble only in alcohol
and are known as spirit varnishes of such character is
shellac varnish. Others again are soluble only in vola-
tile oils, as turpentine, etc.

Others are soluble in linseed oil under certain condi-
tions or in combination with volatile oils. For practical
purposes, however, varnishes may be divided up in
three principal classes with many subdivisions in the
three groups:

1. Varnishes with an alcoholic base solvent.

2. Varnishes with a volatile oil base solvent.

3. Varnishes with a fixed oil base solvent, of which
more will be said hereafter after the character of the
gums used in preparing them has been looked into.

305. The gums chiefly used in preparing varnishes
are not many. The principal ones are gum copal —
which is not a true gum insomuch that it is a fossil and
will not dissolve in either water or volatile oil as all true
gums do. It is chiefly imported from Africa and comes
in many qualities. It ranges in color from a pale, nearly

Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 419

transparent tone of yellow, to dark brown and opaque
chunks and in all sorts of intermediate tones between
the two. The lightest and clearest is the most valuable
and the intermediate shades decrease in value according
as they approach the darker brown shades. Varnishes
made from this gum are the most desirable of all and
the solvent under heat and special treatment of the
manufacturer is mainly linseed oil, which gives the
varnishes made from it its greater durability and elas-
ticity.

Kauri gum — is a resin gum of a semi-fossilized sort.
It is found where original forests of the kauri pine for-
merly existed and that is of better quality than that
which is obtained from the trees by exudation.

Animac. — A gum-resin derived from a sort of le-
guminous tree and probably from several varieties of
the same specie. In its exudation insects are caught in
it and come to market with them imbedded in the
chunks, hence the name. The gum is not as hard as the
copal gums of good quality and varnishes made from it
have not the wearing qualities of the one made from
high grade copal. The varnish makers 'use many of the
gums in a blend to obtain varnishes adapted for certain
definite purposes by the judicious mixing of various
gums.

Amber is used in making certain varnishes. It is a
fossilized resin and is found in many countries. The
chief source of supply, however, is from Germany,

420 Modern Painter's Cyclopedia

where it is found imbedded in the sand along the Baltic
sea shore.

Darnar is a soft whitish gum which exudes from con-
iferous species of trees in India and Ceylon. It is sol-
uble in the volatile oils and yields a very white varnish
of too soft a nature to be of much practical use except
as a paper varnish for which on account of its pliability,
it seems well adapted also on account of its colorless
nature.

Sandarac is also the product of conifers, but is of lit-
tle better quality although harder than our own resin
derived from yellow pine.

Gum mastic is derived from a nut bearing tree of the
Grecian archipelago, and exudes from the trees where
incisions are made, in the shape of small tear like peb-
bles. It is also too soft for other uses than that indi-
cated for damar gum varnish.

Resin of yellow pine extraction is used in many ways
by varnish factories in connection with other harder
gums and with China wood oil it yields some kinds of
varnishes useful for many purposes. Since the intro-
duction of wood oil in connection with varnish making,
it has rendered its use possible where before it would
not have been thought of. This wood oil seems to make
it harder and more pliable at the same time and it is re-
placing many of the soft gums which are mentioned
above as it is very much cheaper than any of the others.

Sticlac and Shellac may as well be reviewed to-
gether, as shellac is only sticlac refined for commer-

Modern Painte/s Cyclopedia 421

cial use and immense quantities of it are used by the in-
dustries of the country besides the use of it made by the
hardwood finishing trade. It is the product of vegeta
tion and is soluble in alcohol mainly.

The solvents are alcohol, turpentine and linseed oil.

306. The manufacture of varnish is an intricate,
complex business requiring a long apprenticeship and
accumulated experience and while the ways of making
varnishes are well known, each manufacturer has little
tricks of his own in the making of certain grades and in
the ripening or blending of various gums which are
carefully guarded.

It requires a large capital besides for to properly con-
duct a varnish manufacturing business. The ripening
of varnishes requires months and even years to fit them
for certain uses.

It is much cheaper for the consumer to buy the var-
nishes he uses ready for application than it would be
for him to make them, even if he had the know how
which he has not, and a person now who would under-
take the making of his own varnish as *'in ye olden
tymes" would be considered as a fit subject for a lunatic
asylum. Such easily made ones as shellac varnish,
however, do not come under the same heading, and any
one can readily make them for himself; all that is re-
quired is to give the alcohol sufficient time to dissolve
the shellac, but it will not pay one to make it as he can-
not buy the shellac nearly as cheap as the manufacturer

422 Modern Painter's Cyclopedia

does and it will probably cost him as much as the ready
prepared article besides the trouble thrown in.

307. The cheapest forms of varnish made are of
course made entirely from resin dissolved in cheap min-
eral volatile oil with some paraffin oil put into it in
order that the brittleness of the resin may be counter-
acted.

The so-called "surfacers" are but little better than
the gloss oils and may be classed together. They are
chiefly used in coating over plastered walls to stop the
suctions previous to the applications of water colors.

308. Because a varnish may be cheap it need not
necessarily be a poor one, nor will a high priced varnish
necessarily be a good one, simply because high priced
material enter into its composition. So there are a num-
ber of cheaply made varnishes which are as good and
possibly better for the purposes for which they are used
than others which would cost many times more per gal-
lon. Since manufacturers have been able by the proper
use of wood oil, paraffine oil and linseed oil, to use resin
and the darker colored gum copals to prepare good
wearing varnishes by blending at a low cost, immense
quantities are used by the trade and with good results.

These cheaper varnishes of course all contain resin in
greater of lesser quantities grading up in quality from
something but little better than the surfacers on upward
in quality and price up to extra No. i coach and light
hard oil finish (so called) of this character are the Fur-
niture varnishes; coach varnishes^ including A'O. I

Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 423

coach and extra No, I coach. Some of them so good
that they will rub and the whole grade in qualities of
the so-called hard oils of which enormous quantities
are used in finishing cheap interior wood work.

309. The house painter and hard wood finishers are
chiefly interested in the following varnishes, which all
varnish houses now make a sepcialty of under some
fancy proprietary name, but which are probably all pre-
pared in much the same manner by all of tliem :

Interior varnish for inside wood finishing. The bet-
ter grades carry a fine lustre and all are rubbing var-
nishes, and polish well.

Outside varnish, usually an elastic varnish, but a
slower dryer than the interior brands. Supposed to
stand the weather, but they do not — at least not very
long. Manufacturers should add to the label after the
word Outside — when well protected from sun and rain.
But then the varnish would not sell so well.

Floor varnish completes the trio which every painter
and wood finisher is interested in. This is made from
very hard gums so as to stand the hardships it is sub-
jected to from being walked upon, cleaned and brushed
over.

All the varnishes which have been mentioned so far
are varnishes which are used in house construction by
house painters and wood finishers even the so-called
coach varnishes. These are never used by the carriage
painter, however much the name would indicate that it
is. They are chiefly used in the same way as hard oil

424 Modern Painter's Cyclopedia

finishes for the cheaper kinds of furniture and pine fin-
ishes in room work ; in short they are all about on a par
with furniture varnish.

310. The carriage trade uses a higher grade of var-
nishes than the average which is used in house work, so
they cost more. Competition, however, has reduced the
fancy prices asked and obtained by our English cousins
across the water since American manufacturers have
gained the experience enabling them to make as good
earirage varnish as that which formerly was all im-
ported.

While carriage varnishers as a class by itself is of a
better quality than the first ones reviewed, they are by
no means all equally good, nor is it necessary that they
should be. A cheap wagon or vehicle will not and
ought not to receive the same treatment as an expensive
coach, for if it did — it would not be cheap. Nor need
the varnish be as good in the repainting of old vehicles
as for first class work. So there are grades and quali-
ties in carriage varnishes as well as in house varnishes.

The carriage rubbing famishes exemplified what is
said in the preceding paragraph. They are made to rub
in from 12 to 60 hours. The slower ones being the best
and most expensive.

The wearing body varnishes are and should be made
from the very finest material and all manufacturers try
to excel in their output of it. It too is made in several
qualities. The palest which is made from the costliest
gums is the highest priced, while the darker gums used

Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 425

in the lower grades of it cheapens the cost, while aside
of the color the quality remains nearly as 'good. Some
of the wearing body varnishes are made to dry quicker
than others for hurried work. Generally speaking the
slower drying ones are the best for wear.

The gear varnisheSj for the varnishing of running
parts, are made to stand more hard knocks than any
of the others and are to be found in many degrees of
paleness and of quickness in drying. The slower driers
are the more elastic.

Manufacturers all have a long list of carriage var-
nishes, describing each so that the person buying it
may know just what to expect from it. All of them
can be classed in the three kinds mentioned. The black
rubbing is simply a rubbing varnish into which a black
color has been ground and could be made in the shop,
but that the mixture would not be as smooth and well
ground together unless the shop is equipped for it. So
all the numerous varnishes listed are simply varieties of
those three — many being made in different qualities
of paleness, elasticity, etc.

311. As everything that has a gloss is a varnish,
asphaltum varnish is entitled to the name. It is classed
by itself for the reason that there is only one place
where it can be useful and that is upon ironwork. It
is made from asphaltum, a mineral gum too well known
to need any introduction. It is melted and at as low a
heat as possible turpentine or benzine or naptha is
mixed in with it to make it fluid enough to be brushed

426 Modern Painter's Cyclopedia

out upon metals. That made from turpentine is the best
to use, as the smell of the others is against them, es-
pecially in interior work. It dries quickly and the
operator must not wait too long in joining up, or a lap
will result. Where registers or iron work are to be
coated over with it they can be warmed, then the var-
nish will flow level and free of brush marks.

Asphaltum varnish is useful also to the sign painter
in show card writing and in the painting over of brass
and copper plates for etching, and brass and metal
signs.

The above comprises about all the varnishes useful
to the painters.

QUESTIONS ON VARNISHES.

303. What is said of varnishes?

304. How many classes of varnishes are there?

305. Name the gum-resins chiefly used in the mak-
ing of varnishes?

306. Will it pay to make one's own varnishes ?

307. What are gloss oil and the so called surfacers ?

308. What other cheap varnishes are there?

309. What grades of varnishes are chiefly useful in
hardwood finishing?

310. Name the principal carriage varnishes?
.311. What is asphaltum varnish and what are its

uses ?

VARNISHING.
312. The operation of varnishing, which is simple
enough to look at, is, nevertheless, one which requires

Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 427

a great deal more knowledge than appears from simple
casual observation. Everybody may put on paint so
that it will look well and it would seem that any one
could do the same with a varnish brush, but such is not
the case. Good varnishers are the exception, and some
men have tried for years to acquire the knack, but
failed to do so.

There are so many things to be taken into considera-
tion in order to insure good varnishing that the wonder
is, not that there are so few good varnishes, but that
there is so much of it that is done that proves good as
there is under such conditions as exist.

313. a. Varnish, unlike paint, is most sensitive to
the atmospheric and barometrical state of the weather.
It is so sensitive that a draught of air will cause trouble
in the varnish room, so that carriage factories, which
are the only places where perfect conditions for do-
ing perfect varnishing can be established, all have taken
the greatest of care to guard against every element en-
tering into the possibility of making trouble in the
varnish rooms.

As far as possible the varnish room is located
farthest away from the blacksmith shop where
sulphurous fumes are generated, and from which noxi-
ous gases arise. To guard against draughts double
windows should be used and a ventilating air shaft
should carry out all the bad air of a varnish room and
all outer air entering should be filtered free of dust.

Steam coils and radiators are the only heat permissi-

428 Modern Painter's Cyclopedia

ble, as the varnish room should be maintained at a
uniform degree of temperature during both the appUca-
tion of the varnish and its drying. No varnishing can
be done when the heat is below 70 degrees Fahrenheit,
and the room should never be allowed to cool down be-
low that. There is but little danger of trouble arising
from overheating, but a great deal can be expected from
sudden changes, and this is never allowed in a first class
carriage factory. The greatest troubles arise from
barometrical changes and these cannot be altogether
guarded against. An exhaust fan and heat will help to
reduce damage by humidity to the lowest degree, and
where draughts of the outer air are prevented there is
usually no damage done.

The above may cause dismay to the beginner and he
may well think that if varnishing can only be done
under such conditions he may as well give up any hopes
of ever becoming a varnisher. In the above was given
the description of a varnish room such as the better
class of vehicle manufacturers actually do have, and
where fine jobs are varnished.

b. As all carriage shops, and especially the repair
shops, cannot have such a varnish room, they have to
put up with what they have and make out the best they
can out of it. As each shop will have, probably, its own
peculiar conditions each will have to adapt them so as to
come as near to the description given of a first class
one as it is possible for it to do so. The proper amount
of heat must be maintained during the varnishing and

Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 429

drying. Dust must be kept down and out, and outer
air, too, or there will be blooming and the looi var-
nish deviltries to annoy and make one's life miserable.

c The furniture factories are all equipped so as
to obtain good results in their varnishing departments.
While the usual class of furniture varnishing does not
require the same amount of care as that which is done in
the carriage shop, high grade polished furniture re-
quires nearly if not quite as much precautions. Even
for the very cheapest grades of furniture, the least speck
of dust will hurt the looks of the cheapest kind of
finish and that must be guarded against. So the var-
nish rooms of such establishments should, and are
usually equipped so as to prevent changes of tem-
perature and dust nearly as thoroughly as first class
carriage shops are.

d. The painters and hardwood finishers who have
the interior of a new house to finish and complete are
not so fortunately situated for doing their varnishing
and they must make out the best they can. Yet they will
be expected to turn out perfect work and as it is lo-
cated where it will be under the constant vision of the
occupants the least flaw in the work will be sure to be
found out and to be brought home to them oftener than
they like.

In the summer and early autumn they can manage
fairly well ; the rooms should be dusted over and over
again until there is an assurance of every speck of it
is out of the way, and the wood work as well as the

430 Modern Paint er^s Cyclopedia

floors and walls should be wiped with a damp chamois
skin, which will collect all that has been left after the
dustings and sweepings. The doors and windows
must be closed and the former locked to keep intruders
and the dust they would bring — out. This exclusion
must last not only during the time required for the
application of the varnish, but also during the whole of
the time required for its drying safely out of the way
of dust sticking to it.

It may seem puerile and harsh to keep out callers,
but first class work cannot be done otherwise. After
a room has been finished everything should be removed
out of it into the next one to be varnished and the
door locked so that not even the steps of the varnisher
may cause a forgotten atom of dust to rise and fasten
itself to the varnished surface.

e. The above is plain sailing and very good varnish-
ing can be done at that time of the year, but in cold
weather the troubles begin.

In houses which have a steam heating apparatus or
a hot water system the difficulty will not be so great,
but where the heating is by hot air or where it must be
done with stoves, it is very troublesome. The tempera-
ture must be maintained above 70 degrees, Fahr. It
is difficult to establish an even heat, especially with
stoves, and in the latter case dust, galore will be sure to
be raised. When the heating is done by stoves, it
will be well to arrange it so that considerably more
than 70 degrees may be present in the room before

Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 431

the varnishing" begins, then to fill the stoves and regu-
late them to keep the heat going for several hours more
without the having to touch them again after the var-
nishing. After filling them up proceed to wipe up all
dust with a chamois skin, slightly dampened, and go on
with the varnishing, keeping out intruders until the
varnish is dry.

314. It is customary with a few varnishers to mix
two kinds of varnishs together when they do their
work.

This should never be resorted to. When a varnish
does not work well, better give it up and procure one
that is better suited to the work being done.

If the varnisher will bear in mind that the varnish he
is using is probably the result of a blend made from
several tanks of varnishes, which have been ripening
for months and years at the factory, and that the manu-
facturer who knows all the particulars and the peculiari-
ties of every one of his tanks should certainly be the
proper one to make the mixing, and that if he has failed
to make it good, certainly the man who know^s nothing
whatever about that varnish or the one he mixes with
it, will certainly make a mess, and probably a botch of
it.

Varnishes are tempered just right for their applica-
tion at the factory, so they require no thinning with
either turpentine or oil, especially the latter. Trouble
in the sliape of sweating and stickiness will surely fol-
low such thinnings.

482 Modern Painter's Cyclopedia

The cheaper varnishes, composed nearly all of tur-
pentine thinner, when long exposed to the air, may be-
come too thick for application; in such a case the addi-
tion of turpentine is allowable but the varnish should
first be warmed and the turpentine added and well in-
corporated with it by shaking at intervals of fifteen
minutes for an hour before using.

315. When pouring out varnish to be used on a job,
never pour out much more than is needed to complete
the job. It is better to go again for more, if not
enough. For varnish once taken out of the can and
exposed to the air shoidd never he poured hack into the
can. How many painters have learned this lesson only
after bitter experiences! They will argue that it is
foolish and that no possible harm can follow — and they
learn after it is too late that it ruins a good varnish to
pour it back and that it queers all the rest of it in the
can.

How and why it does so would be hard to explain,
and it may remain one of the many other mysteries con-
nected with varnish which no amount of reasoning can
explain satisfactorarily to one seeking to understand it.
Varnish is a touchy affair — worse than an old maid to
handle. It will only be handled in its own good way
and no other.

316. The tools required for varnishing will depend
upon the kinds of varnishes used and also upon the
surfaces to be gone over and the finish desired. The
whole list of varnish brushes made from bristles, cam-

Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 433

el's hair, badger, sable, ox hair, etc., are used. They
are shown in their varied shapes under Figs. 12, 15, 16,
17, 31, 40 and 41. Varnish brushes should be well
taken care of and each should be kept in an individual
brush keeper, if possible, and hung in the kind of var-
nish that it is used in, nor should it ever be used for
any other. At least all the finishing and flowing var-
nish brushes should be so kept. Where the above is
impossible, or when the varnish brushes are used in
the cheaper varnishes, they may be hung up in linseed
oil in such a keeper as is shown in Fig. 57. The lin-
seed oil must be carefully washed out of the brushes
with benzine or naptha before using again.

317. The application proper of the varnish will now
follow after all the precautions to guard against chances
of the varnish going wrong have been taken.

It is a simple enough Iboking affair and words will
hardly convey the intelligence sufficiently clear to war-
rant the reader in going ahead and undertaking to do a
job of varnishing immediately upon his having read
the ''how to do it."

He will probably know as much about it if told to
dip his brush in the varnish pot and rub it on the sur-
face where it is wanted as he would in a long essay
which he will get mixed up in, and which will puzzle
him much more than it will enlighten him.

All there is in varnishing is the putting of it on sur-
faces with a brush. The beginner should not attempt
to put on the more difficult flowing coats until he has

434 Modern Painte/s Cyclopedia

acquired the knack and use of the brush upon the
varnishing of cheap yellow pine interior partitions or
wood work. He should put on his varnish crosswise
fi! 3t, and lay it off afterward the long way of the
b jards, using the tips of the brush to even it up nicely.

One of the greatest drawbacks to the beginner in his
a':tempts at applying varnish is his fear that he is put-
ting on too much and that it will sag on him, therefore,
he works and works it out to the last limit; he does
what is known as ''skinning it on' in varnish slang.

Now, skinned on varnish never looks well and makes
che job look like a man in a dress suit with plow shoes
on. Varnish, to look well, must be put on full; if
it be the right sort for the purpose it will not be any
more likely to sag put on full than it will otherwise
unless it is grossly overdone. The work, too, will be
much freer of brush marks, as it will tend to flow
together and to fiill up the gaps left by the hair of
the varnish brush. Skimpy varnishing will show every
one of these and much more specks of dust, which a
heavy coat will absorb and into which they will sink be-
low the surface.

Many varnishers among the wood finishers and car-
riage shop operators when varnishing on the best work,
lay on the varnish full, but evenly ; vertically first, and
then square it up horizontally. It will not prevent sag-
ging of varnish that has not been put on evenly, but
where it has been evenly and fully applied it will give
the varnish coat the best chance of setting without sags.

Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 435

It is hoped that the novice in varnish application will
not be deterred from trying his skill by whatever may
have been said regarding the difficulties that go along
with it. The causes of trouble being known, it is possi-
ble, with a little trouble, to circumvent them so that
they become harmless.

Some men are born good varnishers and fall into
the right way of it like a gosling to a pond of water,
and no one knows till they try what they may be capable
of. With care, the proper use of the brush can be
acquired when it is not natural to a person. It is, of
course, much more pleasant to have been born a var-
nisher, but some of the best varnishers commenced by
aggravated cases of sagging in their first attempts at
it. "Try, try again," is a good motto if it is old
fashioned. The man who is observant will note where
he has erred and the next job will be more perfect be-
cause the experience had on the former one will guard
him against committing the same mistake again; such
men will grow into good varnishers.

QUESTIONS ON VARNISHING.

312. What is said of varnishing in general?

313. a. What conditions are required for good

varnishing?

b. How should the varnish room be ar-

ranged in carriage shops?

c. How should varnish rooms be arranged

in furniture factories?

436 Modern Painter's Cyclopedia

d. How should the interior of houses be pre-
pared for the varnishing in cold
weather ?

314. Should two kinds of varnish be mixed to-
gether before aplying?

315. When there is a surplus of varnish left over
after a job is done, should it be poured back in the can?

316. What tools are needed in varnishing?

317. >How is varnish applied?

VEHICLES.

318. The term 'Vehicle" has a double signification
in the paint trade. To the carriage painter it means
one thing and to all the others it means another. To
the carriage painter it means anything made that will
carry persons — coaches, carriages, buggies, phaetons,
landaus, etc., etc. — and what the others know as ve-
hicles he calls thinners.

There is a tendency towards a more uniform designa-
tion for the liquids used in the application of paint and
thinners are becoming generally used by all kinds of
painters.

Vehicle, which means a carrier of something, is still
used widely, and is certainly most appropriate for the
purpose that liquids are employed — the carrying of the
pigment in the paint in which they enter.

319. Some vehicles contain within themselves the
binding qualities which serve to hoJd the pigment firmly
where it has been applied in the painting. Others do

Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 437

not, and such must have had some substances dissolved
through their agency which upon the evaporation or
drying of the vehicle will remain and bind the pigment
firmly.

320. The fixed oils are of the first character. They
contain within themselves the drying and solidifying
properties necessary to hold the paint, which in their
liquid condition they served to convey to the surfaces
painted. As all have been already reviewed, and their
properties noted in the section headed, ''Oils and
Driers," the reader is referred to what is said con-
cerning them in Paragraphs 194 to 202.

320. The volatile oils are used more as adjuncts
to the fixed oils, japans and varnishes, than they are al-
together alone — as they possess no binding qualities of
their own whatever. These, too, have been fully de-
scribed under the heading of oils and driers in Para-
graphs 203 to 208, to which the reader is referred for
fuller information.

321. Japans, varnishes, etc., are used almost ex-
clusively in the painting of carriages, car and vehicle
painting of every sort. These, being compounds, owe
their binding qualities asidt; of that of linseed oil, which
they may carry in their composition to such gums or
gum resins which enter into them. Drying hard, they
pave the way for good varnishing over them, and will
not sweat through as oil coats would.

322. Water is the vehicle used in all water color
or distemper work. Water, having no binding proper-

438 Modern Painter's Cyclopedia

ties of its own, must have some binding substances
added to it and which must be soluble in it in order
that the colors applied through its medium will stay
where they are placed. Many substances soluble in
water will do this nicely. Some of the vegetable gums
as gum arabic, for instance, make excellent binders for
water colors, and but for their cost and scarcity would
be used much more extensively than they are. As it is,
their use is chiefly confined to artists who paint in water
colors. Should it be used in the quantity required for
binding one-hundreth part of the water colors used in
wall coloring, there would be a howl about the price
jumping away up above the already very high cost of
it, as it is now.

Gum Tragacanth, and other gums, have been used
in a small way for certain specific purposes, but none
possess any value worth considering, except gum
arabic, which, it is seen, cannot be obtained in sufi(icient
quantity nor at such a price as to make its use possible
in general house work.

322. Glues are the only material which the calci-
miner and water color decorator can use. While they
are not as clean as gum arabic and will deteriorate
much quicker in warm weather, upon the whole, they
have answered well the purposes for which they are
used — of binding the colors.

There is much variation in the qualities of glues.
They are made from the ofTals of animals derived from
skin clippings, hoofs, bones, etc. ; those parts which

Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 439

otherwise would have little value. Some of the strong-
est glues are made grom the bladders and intestines of
fish.

Glues may be put into three general classes :

1. Derived from fish.

2. From clippings of hides, and cartilagenous parts
of animals.

3. From the boiling of bones.

The first, when made exclusively from fish bladders
and intestines, are the strongest and clearest. The sec-
ond, made from animals' skins, is but little inferior to
that made from fish and are very strong, too. The
thin calcimine grades of light cream color are the best
to use for color binding. The thin calcimine glue of an
opaque white color is usually adulterated with some
make-weight material, so that notwithstanding their
good looks they are not so strong as the light buff-col-
ored, semi-transparent kinds.

The third class of glues, made from bones, are not
as strong as the others. They are cheaper in price, but
dearer in the end.

2,27,. There is an easy way to determine the value of
a glue. While it may be called ''empirical," one can
attain to something near its worth by a simple process
of weighing, say, one ounce of glue, and putting it to
soak for a day. It must then be drained of water and
re-weighed. Glue should absorb about eighteen times
its former weight of water. If it falls much below that
it will not be as strong as it should be, and, conse-

440 Modern Painter's Cyclopedia

quently, more of it must be used to accomplish the
same amount of binding that a lesser quantity of
stronger glue would do.

QUESTIONS ON VEHICLES OR THINNERS.

318. What is understood by the word, "vehicle?"

319. What are the fixed oils?

320. What is said of volatile oils?

321. In what way are japans and varnishes used as
vehicles ?

322. How many classes of glue are there ?

323. How can good glue be determined?

WATER COLORS.

324. As to all intents and purposes water color
painting-distemper painting, fresco painting in water
colors and calcimining are all one and the same thing,
and as under each of those headings full directions are
given for the treatment of walls and for the application
of colors, and, under, "Mixing of Colors," as to their
preparation for use — the reader is referred to those
headings for any information he may desire about watei
colors, either for their application upon wails in plair
tints, or as used in decorations as in "fresco/* etc.

Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 441

WALL DECORATION— HIGHLIGHT OIL-
COLOR METHOD

There is no branch of painting and decorating which
offers the painter such opportunities for making money
as painting and decorating of plaster walls. One mis-
conception still prevents many people from giving seri-
ous consideration to substituting paint for wall paper
and that is the impression that unless one goes in for
expensive work a wall can be painted only in a plain
color, with perhaps a stencil decoration. When you
speak of a "painted wall" one thinks of it as a cal-
cimined wall, only perhaps more durable. AVhen you
speak of a "decorated wall" one thinks of freehand
decorations or, perhaps in a hazy way, of Tiffany glaze
color work, which appear entirely too expensive even to
be thought of.

These objections are both removed by the highlight
method of wall decoration and every painter who is not
now using this method, whether he knows it by that
name or not, is earnestly advised to look into it care-
fully, do some experimental work on his own account
and then equip himself to go out and sell it.

This method of decorating plaster walls produces a
general effect that is commonly associated with high
class artistic and expensive decorations. It is no more
expensive to produce than ordinary two-coat solid color
work and can readily be sold for fifty per cent more. It
does not require highly skilled workmanship. It will
not show dust accumulations or dirty spots quickly and

442 Modern Painter's Cyclopedia

will stand repeated washings without streaking. It
will hide fire cracks and other defects in the plaster and
may be applied directly to rough or smooth plaster, can-
vas, or wall board. It has everything to commend it to
the painter who is looking for a wider and more profit-
able market for his work and to lift himself out of the
ordinary class of work where price competition is un-
bearable.

The fundamental idea of the highlight method is to
apply a ground coat of white or some light tinted lead
and oil paint, over which is applied a darker harmoniz-
ing or contrasting color broken up by a pattern which
will permit the ground color to show through. It dif-
fers from Tiffany glazing in that ordinary lead and oil
paint is used for the second coat instead of transparent
colors and that seldom more than two colors are used.

For the benefit of those who are not familiar with
this method, it is here described in detail.

Old Walls, — Prepare and patch as for ordinary
painting.

New Smooth Plaster or New Wall Board. — Size
with first class hard gum varnish (interior spar is
good), not gloss oil. Thin with turpentine and add just
enough lead tinted same as the ground coat is to be to
give color and cover only fairly well.

Muslin or Canvas Covered Walls. — First coat with
lead and linseed oil, tinted to suit. Follow with good
varnish size, if needed. Glue size will do.

Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 443

From this point on the method to pursue is practi-
cally the same for each kind of wall.

Let us say a dining room is to be finished. The usual
plate rail divides the walls into a "dado" below and a
''filling" above. The wood trim and furniture are of a
medium dark weathered or Jacobean finished oak. The
rug is chiefly a medium dark delft blue but has also a
gray tone in general. Leather chair seats are delft blue.

With such furnishings a two-toned light warm gray
treatment of the walls would appear well. If the wood
trim were white or gray enamel the success of such a
wall treatment would be greater. It is seldom that the
wood trim in average American homes is finished to
fit furniture and rugs, although that is customary in
the older European countries. The trim in this instance
is not out of harmony, but it doesn't contribute very
much.

Ground Coat. — Mix the lightest gray paint possible,
and yet have it cover pretty well, by adding a bit of
lamp black and of raw umber to a Carter Lead base.
Thin with about one-third turpentine and two-thirds
linseed oil. Brush on in the usual manner and let dry.
There is some advantage in stippling this coat as
roughly as possible, especially hard, smooth walls, but it
is not necessary. This ground coat goes over all walls
and the ceiling.

When an especially fine job is wanted for a dining
room dado, a cafe, theatre foyer or hotel lobby j the
ground coat may be mixed from ordinary radiator

444 Modern Painter's Cyclopedia

bronze powder and the bronzing liquid or good varnish
cut with turpentine. It may be gold, aluminum or cop-
per. Sometimes two are mixed to advantage. Brush
on the bronze in the usual manner, taking care to avoid
having laps and joints show. Such a metal ground
gives a brilliant and beautiful surface, having great
depth of color, especially when a transparent color is
used over it as a stipple coat. It may be given a very
thin coat of wax or flat varnish if desired after the
stipple coat to keep the metal from tarnishing for a
much longer time.

When the first coat has become dry on the ceiling lay
on a second of gray-white and the ceiling is finished.

Stipple Coat. — Mix from white lead, adding only as
much lamp black and raw umber as will make the coat
enough darker than the ground coat to give a good con-
trast. It ought still to remain a very light gray. Thin
entirely with turpentine for a dead flat effect. Add a
little linseed oil if an eggshell gloss is wanted. Mix to
ordinary brushing consistency usually. If mixed
thicker the finish will have a generally darker appear-
ance and a rougher pattern, which may or may not be
wanted, depending upon what kind of room is being-
decorated. When mixed thinner the effect will be
lighter in color and finer in pattern.

Now with the ground coat dry the stipple finishin-^
coat is put on not with a brush but with a large washing
sponge, the larger the better. When new the sponge
will give a coarse, rough pattern desirable for some

Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 445

rooms. An old, used sponge produces a fine, even pat-
tern. Cutting the sharp projections off of a new sponge
with the shears causes it to give about the same effect as
a worn sponge.

Secure a piece of sheet iron or tin a foot or two
square. With a flat wall brush flow on a full, stout coat
of the gray paint. Soak your sponge in water to soften
and swell it and then wring out as much water as you
can. Pick up this paint from the sheet iron with the
flat side of the sponge and transfer it to the wall, using
the sponge as you would a stippling brush but more
slowly. Press it against the wall quite hard and pull it
straight away without twisting the hand. Repeat the
operation to carry the stretch down the wall from pic-
ture mould to plate rail, returning to the sheet iron to
pick up more paint as needed. If you get too much
paint on one spot leave it for a few seconds and work
the material out of the sponge on new portions. Then
return to it. By pressing the sponge against the surface
real hard you can pick up excess paint. If necessary
wash out the sponge with benzine or use a clean one,
but you must work fast. Go over each spot as few
times as possible. Once over to transfer the paint to the
surface and once to smooth out the joints are really
necessary. The accomplishment in this class of work
is to knoza when to quit. Judge the appearance of the
work from across the room, not nearby. When one wall
has been done, be sure to match the others to it, allow-

446 Modern Painter's Cyclopedia

ing for the darker walls in shadows. All should carry
the same depth of color and amount of pattern.

When working on a very porous wall it is often best
to coat the wall before any of the stipple coat has been
put on with a glazing liquid composed of one part lin-
seed oil, raw, two parts turpentine and one part benzine.
That enables you to move the color on the surface more
easily. Do not wait for the glazing liquid to dry.

When the upper wall has been finished all around as
above, the lower section may be treated in exactly the
same manner after making the paint a few degrees
darker.

The finish just described produced with the sponge
is but one of many which result from using the same
method in all respects except that a stippling brush, a
wad of cheese cloth, crepe paper, muslin or burlap are
substituted for the sponge. The stippling brush used
like the sponge gives a finer textured surface. The
crepe paper, cheese cloth and burlap also produce fine,
simple patterns but slightly different from each other.
The heavy muslin when crumpled up into a wad gives
an especially pleasing pattern resembling the figure of
Spanish leather when done in the burnt umber or Van
Dyke brown over a ground coat of ivory. The mate-
rials or tools just mentioned are used in exactly the
same manner as the sponge except that it is usually ad-
visable to twist the hand with them when stippling the
surface and it is not with the sponge.

Color Schemes. — All combinations of opaque and

Modern Painter's Cyclopedia

447

transparent colors, as well as tints and shades made
with these colors on a white lead base, are used in the
manner described for the two-toned gray dining room.
Not all colors used together will harmonize, nor are all
color combinations and stipple patterns suitable for
every room. When two tones of the same color are
used, harmony is certain.

HERE ARE A FEW PRETTY COLOR COMBINATIONS:

Ground
Coat

Stipple
Coat

Materials

Stencil
Color

White

Light Rose

American Vermilion
and Carter Lead

Medium Light Gray

White

Light Gray

Lamp Black and
Carter Lead

Dull Blue, Gray -Green
or a Darker Gray

White

Light Warm
Yellow

Med. Chrome Yellow,
little Vermilion and
Carter Lead

Light Cobalt Blue,
neutral Light Drab

Light
Gray

Same gray, a
little darker

Lamp Black
Raw Umber

Gray, Gray-Green or
light Cobalt Blue

Light
Gray

Light Blue

Cobalt Blue only

Gray, Blue or a Ligh'
Orange Yellow

Light
Gray

Green

Med. Chrome
Green only

Light Gray
Neutral Drab

Ivory

Olive Green

Med. Chrome Green,
French Ochre,
Carter Lead

Ivory or Grayish
Light Green

Light Col-
onial Yellow

Light Blue

Cobalt Blue
Carter Lead

Neutral Gray, Ivory

Gold
Bronze

Dark Green

Med. Chrome
Green only

Light Warm Drab,
Medium Olive, Warm
Gray, Cream

Aluminum
Bronze

Blue

Cobalt Blue only

Delft Blue, Light Ivory,
Light Neutral Gray

Ivory

Tan

Raw Sienna only

Brown — Burnt Umber
Cream

Ivory

Dark Brown Burnt Umber only

Light Tan, cream
Light Gray Drab

KEY TO PLATES

aW plates shown have been photographed from actual work 'n
graining and marbling done by students at the Chicago Schoot
of Painting, Decorating and Paper Hanging.

Plate I
Door in oak heart growth done in water colors.

Plate II
Door in quartered oak in oil — (wiped out).

Plate III
Door in black walnut; stippled and veined in water colors.

Plate IV
Door in walnut root or curled walnut, in water colors.

Plate V
Door in mahogany, in water colors.

Plate VI
Dado panelled up in mahogany in water colors.

Plate VII
Dado — in marbles — panels are various colored and formations
of marble, stiles and upper slabs, white and black veined — base
in black, white veined.

Plate VIII
Two panelled cupboard doors — top one in conglomerate sienna,
the bottom in veined fissured sienna marble, surrounding stiling
in black veined white marble.

^ i

INDEX

A

PAGE

Acacia tint — how to make 143

Acorn tint — how to make 143

Action of volatile oils on paint 285

Adulterant used mainly for heavy colors 114

Advertising bulletin signs — how painted 386

Agate marbling — how done 270

Alabaster tint — how made 143

Alderney brown tint — how made 143

Aluminous earths whites 103

Amaranth tint — how made 143

American process white zinc 112

American vermillion 118

Anemone tint — how made 143

Antique bronze tint — how made 143

Antwerp blue tint — ^how made 143

Apple green tint — how made 144

Apricot tint — how made 144

Armenian red tint — how made 144

Artists' round and flat lining brushes 41

Asiatic bronze tint — how made 144

Ash tint — how made 144

Ash — graining of 255

Ash grey tint — how made 144

Asphaltum varnish for iron work 424

Autumn leaf tint — how made 144

Azure blue tint — how made 144

B

Banana oil — as size for bronzing 2.10

Barytes — as an adulterant of colors 1 14

Barytes — as an adulterant of white lead 114

Index

Ease -color for mixing tints 142

Bath tub enamel painting— general remarks on 294

Bath tub enamel painting— how done 295

Bath tub enamel painting— how to prepare for 295

Bay tint — how made I44

Begonia tint — how made I44

Benzine — what it is 290

Bird's eye maple — how to grain 254

Bismark brown tint — how made I44

Black and gold marble — how imitated 266

Blacks — black lead or plumbago 132

Blacks — Brunswick 132

Blacks — carbon or gas 131

Blacks— coach 132

Blacks— drop 132

Blacks— general remarks on 131

Blacks — ivory 13^

Blacks — lamp 131

Black slate tint — how made I44

Blistering of paint — causes of 18

Blistering of paint — general remarks on 17

Blistering of paint — heat 19

Blistering of paint — moisture I?

Blistering of paint — why 20

Body of colors — how to test for it 162

Boiled linseed oil — what it is 283

Bordeaux blue tint — how made I45

Borders — how to hang I45

Bottle green tint — how to make I45

Brass tint — how to make ; I45

Brick tint — how to make , I45

Brick color — in scene painting 357

Brick— how to flat 203

Bronze blue tint — how made I45

Bronze green tint — how made I45

Bronze red tint — how made I4S

Bronze yellow — how made I4S

Bronzing — how to apply it -23°

Bronzing — how to size for it 231

Index

Bronzing — various colors, its 231

Brocatello marble — how imitated 267

Browns and drabs tints — how made 145

Browns — general remarks on 128

Browns — metallic 130

Browns — siennas — raw and burnt 129

Browns — Spanish 130

Browns — stone tint — how made 145

Browns — umbers — raw and burnt 129

Brushes — badger hair 26

Brushes — bear hair 26

Brushes — black sable hair 26

Brushes — camel hair 27

Brushes — fitch hair 26

Brushes — general remarks on 25

Brushes — hog bristles 27

Brushes — material used in making 25

Brushes — red sable hair 26

Brushes — Siberian ox hair 26

Brushes — badger hair — blenders, bone heads 45

Brushes — tampico fibre 27

Brushes — badger hair — blenders, round in quill 45

Brushes — badger hair — flat varnish 44

Brushes — badger hair — gilders' tips 44

Brushes — bear hair — flat varnish 51

Brushes — bristle — artists' round and flat liners 41

Brushes — bristle — ^brick liners 42

Brushes — ^bristle — calcimine 29

Brushes — ^bristle — car scrub , 34

Brushes — bristle — dusters round and flat 33

Brushes — bristle — fan overgrainers 42

Brushes — bristle — fresco liners round and flat 43

Brushes — bristle — furniture rubbing 45

Brushes — ^bristle — glue 34

Brushes — ^bristle — mottlers for graining 44

Brushes — bristle — oval varnish ^2

Brushes — bristle — oval wall paint 30

Brushes — bristle — sash tools 34

Brushes — ^bristle — smoothing for paper hanging 42

Brushes — bristle — spoke 34

Index

Brushes — bristle — stencil 37

Brushes — bristle — stippler for flatting wall 30

Brushes — bristle — stippler for graining 42

Brushes — ^bristle — varnish 36

Brushes — bristle — wall painting 31

Brushes — bristle — wax floor polishing 40

Brushes — camel's hair — artists' 54

Brushes — camel's hair — coach color 50

Brushes — camel's hair — lacquering 53

Brushes — camel's hair — ^lettering 53

Brushes — camel's hair — mottling 53

Brushes — camel's hair — striping 53

Brushes — camel's hair — varnish 51

Brushes — fitch — varnish 50

Brushes — general remarks on 28

Brushes — ^material used in making 29

Brushes — ox hair — lettering 47

Brushes — ^ox hair — striping 47

Brushes — ox hair — varnish 47

Brushes — sable (red and black) — artists' 50

Brushes — sable (red and black) — lettering and striping 50

Brushes — sable (red and black) — one stroke lettering 50

Brushes — sable (red and black) — varnish 51

Burlap — how to hang 326

Burled walnut — how to grain 258

Buttercup tint — how made 146

C

Cafe au lait tint — how made 146

Calcimining — general remarks on 57

Calcimining — proper conditions for 63

Calcimining — to stop suction on walls in 65

Calcimining — ^tools needed in 59

Cambridge red tint — how made 146

Canary tint — how made 146

Car or carriage painting — color coats in 84

Car or carriage painting — coloring a white job in 85

Car or carriage painting — knifing in coats in 80

Car or carriage painting — general remarks on 70

Index

Car or carriage painting — guide coats in 84

Car or carriage painting — ornamentation in 87

Car or carriage painting — putty and puttying in 80

Car or carriage painting — rough stuff in 82

Car or carriage painting — rubbing rough stuff 82

Car or carriage painting — sandpapering on 82

Car or carriage painting — sign painting in 87

Car or carriage painting — striping on 87

Car or carriage painting — transfers on 87

Car or carriage painting — varnishing on 88

Carnation tint — how made 146

Ceilings — how to hang with wall paper 324

Celestial blue tint — how made 146

Cement — to paint in exterior painting 188

Cerulean blue tint — how made 146

Chamois tint — how made 146

Chamoline tint — how made 146

Chartreuse tint — how made 146

Chestnut tint — how made 146

China painting — general remarks on 94

China painting — how to paint on 97

China painting — material used for 95

China painting — tools used in .• 96

China painting — vitrifying the colors 98

Chocolate tint — how made .» 146

Cinnamon tint — how made i47

Claret tint — how made i47

Claybank tint — how made i47

Clay drab tint — how made i47

Cleaning for wall paper — how made 327

Cloud color in scene painting 356

Cobalt blue tint — how made i47

Cocoanut brown tint — how made i47

Colonial yellow tint— how made I47

Colors — baryta white — its uses 99

Colors — blacks — Brunswick 132

Colors — blacks — carbon 131

Colors — blacks — coach 132

Colors — blacks — drop 132

Colors — blacks — gas i3i

Index

Colors — blacks — general remarks on 131

Colors — blacks — ivory 131

Colors — blacks — lamp 131

Colors — blacks — lead or plumbago 132

Colors — blues — cerulean 126

Colors — blues — cobalt 125

Colors — blues— general remarks on 125

Colors — blues — indigo 126

Colors — blues — Prussian 125

Colors — blues — ultramarine 125

Colors — browns — general remarks upon 128

Colors — browns — metallic 130

Colors — browns — umber — burnt and raw 129

Colors — browns — siennas — burnt and raw 129

Colors — browns — vandyke 129

Colors — greens — chrome 127

Colors — greens — cobalt or zinc 127

Colors — greens — general remarks on 127

Colors — greens — Paris ^^7

Colors — greens — ultramarine 127

Colors — greens — viridian 127

Colors — greens — zinc or cobalt 127

Colors — greens — verdigris 128

Colors — reds — American vermillion 118

Colors — reds — Chinese vermillion 1 19

Colors — reds — English vermillion 118

Colors — reds — general remarks on 115

Colors — reds — imitation vermillions 120

Colors — reds — Indian 1 16

Colors — reds — lakes 121

Colors — reds — orange mineral 118

Colors — reds — oxide of iron i iS

Colors — reds — Pompeian 116

Colors — reds — red lead 118

Colors — red — Tuscan ii7

Colors — reds — Venetian US

Colors — whites — aluminous white earths 103

Colors — whites — American zinc white in

Colors — whites — cretaceous earth whites 103

Colors — whites — general remarks on , 102

Index

Colors — whites — siHcious earth whites 103

Colors — whites — white lead — Dutch process described 104

Colors — whites — white lead — stack system described 105

Colors — whites — white lead — sublimed 107

Colors— whites — zinc white — American process 112

Colors — whites — zinc white — French process no

Colors — whites — zinc white — general remarks on 108

Colors — whites — zinc white — process of manufacturing 109

Colors — yellows — chrome yellows 122

Colors — yellows — general remarks on 121

Colors — yellows — ochres 121

Colors — yellows — other yellows 124

Colors — yellows — yellow lakes 124

Color testing — general remarks on 158

Color testing — how to determine their purity 159

Color testing — how to determine fineness of grinding 160

Color testing — how to determine strength of coloring 163

Color testing — how to determine body and spreading 162

Conditions required for good varnishing 135

Contrasting harmony — primaries, secondaries and tertiaries, .136

Copper tint — how made 147

Coral pink tint — how made 147

Cotrine tint — how made 147

Cream tint — how made 147

Crimson tint — how made 147

Curled maple — how to grain 254

D

Damar varnish — its uses in enamelling 199

Dead flat — in flatting 204

Dead leaf color — to make in scene painting 356

Designing stencils — in stencilling 405

Distant foliage — in scene painting 35^

Distemper painting — in fresco 207

Dove marble — how imitated 264

Dove tint — how made 147

Dregs of wine tint — how made 147

Drop black — its uses (see colors) 132

Dryers for paint — its uses 290

Index

Dry paste powders in paper hanging , 319

Dusters (see brushes) 33

Dutch process white lead (see colors) 104

E

Ecru tints — how made 148

Egg shell gloss — in flatting 203

Egyptian green tint — how made 148

Egyptian green marble — how imitated .264

Electric blue tint — how made 148

Emerald blue tint — how made 148

Enamelling — general remarks on 197

Enamelling — how applied 198

Enamelling — in white and gold 200

English Vermillion (see colors) 118

Estimating 165

Extension walking boards (see painters' tools) 340

Exterior painting 174

F

Fan overgrainers (see brushes) 42

Fawn tint — how made 148

Flesh color tint — how made 148

Filling for old wooden buildings 193

Fire reflection tint in scene painting 356

Fitch varnish brushes (see brushes) 50

Fixed oils (see oils) 276

Flatting — brick painting on exteriors 192

Flatting — dead flatting 204

Flatting — egg shell gloss 203

Flatting — how to prepare for 203

Flatting — in interior painting 205

Flatting — stippling it 205

Florentine marble — how imitated - 266

Foliage (distant) in scene painting 35^

French blue tint — how made 148

French grey tint — how made 148

French red tint — how made 148

Fresco — fire cracks — how to kill 207

Fresco — general remarks on ao6

Index

Fresco — in oil 206

Fresco — in water colors 205

Fresco — material needed in 211

Fresco — tools needed 211

Furniture rubbing brushes 45

G

Gas or carbon black (see colors) 131

Gasoline torches for burning off paint 335

Gazelle tint — how made 148

General remarks on adulteration 8

General remarks on blistering of paint 18

General remarks on brushes 22

General remarks on calcimining 57

General remarks on carriage painting 70

General remarks on china painting 94

General remarks on colors 131

General remarks on color harmony 135

General remarks on. color mixing of tints 140

General remarks on color testing 159

General remarks on' enamelling 197

General remarks on estimating 165

General remarks on exterior painting 174

General remarks on fresco painting 206

General remarks on gilding 215

General remarks on graining 241

General remarks on marbling 260

General remarks on oils and dryers 279

General remarks on paperhangers' tools 301

General remarks on painters' tools 329

General remarks on scene painting 343

General remarks on sign painting 359

General remarks on stains and staining 390

General remarks on stencilling 402

General remarks on varnishes 4^5

General remarks on varnishing 426

General remarks on white lead (see colors) 104

General remarks on zinc white (see colors) 1 12

Geranium tint — how made 14?

Index

Gilders' tip — (see brushes) 44

Gilding — ductibility of gold 218

Gilding — gold and its alloys 219

Gilding — in oil on wood, etc 221

Gilding — japan gold size 224

Gilding — preparing fat oil size for 220

Gilding — preparing wood and other surfaces for 225

Gilding on glass — how to apply the gold 227

Gilding on glass — how to prepare the size 227

Gilding on glass — how to back up the gold 228

Gilding on glass — how to make a gilder's cushion 228

Glue brushes (see brushes) 34

Graining — ash, how done 255

Graining — chestnut, how done 257

Graining — cherry, how done 253

Graining — oak, how done 244

Graining — mahogany, how done 256

Graining — maple, how done 254

Graining — rosewood, how done 243, 257

Graining — satinwood, how done 257

Graining — sycamore, how done 257

Graining — walnut, how done 258

Granite stone — how imitated 272

Grass green tint in scene painting 357

Granite blue tint — how made 149

^»ray green tint — how made I49

Gray stone tint — how made I49

Grays, all shades — how made 149

Gray drab tints — how made 149

Greens — (see colors) 127

Green stone tint — how made I49

H

Hanging wall paper — ceilings 324

Hanging wall paper — walls 2^3

Hanging wall paper— borders 325

Hanging burlaps 326

Harmony of color by analogy 134

Harmony of color by contrast -135

Index

Hay color tint— how made 150

Heliotrope — how made 150

Highlight oil-color method of wall decoration 441

How to clean wall paper and distemper work 327

How to enamel interior wood work 197

How to gild on glass 362

How to gild on wood, etc 361

How to paint brick buildings 203

How to paint cement buildings 204

How to paint iron buildings 202

How to paint stone buildings 203

How to paint imitation agate marble 270

How to paint imitation brocatello marble 267

How to paint imitation black and gold marble 266

How to Paint imitation dove marble 264

How to paint imitation Egyptian green marble 266

How to paint Florentine marble 266

How to paint granite marble 270

How to paint — general remarks on marble 260

How to paint Italian pink marble .'268

How to paint jasper marble 272

How to paint red porphyry marble 271

How to paint sienna marble 268

How to paint white veined marble 269

How to paint Swedish porphyry marble 271

How to paint Swiss porphyry marble 271

How to prepare dry-paste for paper hanging 319

How to prepare flour paste for paper hanging 319

How to prepare priming coat for exterior painting 176

How to prepare second coat for exterior painting 178

How to prepare size for gilding 65

How to prepare size for walls 216

How to prepare third coat in exterior painting 179

How to test for adulterations in colors 8, 158

How to test for amount of adulteration in colors 11

How to test with scale test 10

How to use scale test for white lead 12

How to tint oil colors 140

How to tint water colors 141

Index

I

Indian red (see colors) .' Ii6

Indian yellow (see colors) 124

Indigo (see colors) 126

Indian brown tint — how made 150

Indian red tint — how made 150

Iron tint — how made 150

Iron buildings — how to paint 150

Ivy green tint — how made 150

Italian pink marble — how imitated 268

J

Japans and varnishes as vehicles 290

Japan dryers in painting 291

Japan gold size -291

Jasper tint — how to make 150

Jasper stone — how to imitate 272

Jonquil tint — how made 150

K

Knifing in lead in carriage painting 80

Knives — casing in paperhangers' tools 310

Knives — putty knives in painters' tools 334

Knives — rotary in paperhangers' tools 309

Knives — scraping in paperhangers' tools 333

L

Ladders— in painters' tools 33^

Ladders step— in painters' tools 330

Ladders jacks— in painters' tools 337

Lakes all kinds— (see painters' colors) 121

Lamp black — (see colors) ^31

Lavender oil — in china painting 90

Lavender tint — how made ^50

Laying out the design in scene painting 353

Lead color tint — how made ^50

Leaf buds tint — how made ^50

Index

Leather tint — how made 150

Lemon tint — how made 150

Lilac tint — how made 150

Linseed oil in oils and driers 273

Linseed oil (boiled) in oils and driers 283

Location for scene painting studio 344

London smoke tint — how made 150

M

Magenta tint — how made 151

Mahogany — how grained 256

Manilla tint — how made 151

Maple — how grained 254

Marbling — agate, how imitated 270

Marbling — brocatello, how imitated 267

Marbling — black and gold, how imitated 266

Marbling — dove, how imitated 264

Marbling — Egyptian green, how imitated 266

Marbling — Florentine, how imitated 266

Marbling — general remarks on 260

Marbling — granites, how imitated 272

Marbling — Italian pink, how imitated 268

Marbling — jasper, how imitated 272

Marbling — material used in imitated 261

Marbling — red porphyry, how imitated 271

Marbling — serpentine, how imitated 267

Marbling — sienna, how imitated 268

Marbling — Swedish porphyry, how imitated 271

Marbling — Swiss porphyry, how imitated 271

Marbling — tools used in 261

Marigold tint — how made 15^

Maroon tint — how made 151

Mastic tint — how made 151

Mascot tint — how made 151

Material used in brush manufacture 29

Material used in calcimining 57

Material used in carriage painting 72

Material used in china painting 95

Material used in fresco painting 211

Index

Material used in graining painting 253

Material used in scene painting 345

Material used in sign painting ' 363

Material used in staining 392

Material used in stencilling 411

Mauve tint — how made 151

Mexican red tint — how made 151

Mignonette tint — how made 151

Mixing colors in scene painting 355

Moonlight skies in scene painting 356

Moisture — in blistering 17

Moorish red tint — how made 151

Moss rose tint — how made 151

Motthng brushes (see brushes) 44

Mountain blue — how made 152

N

Naphtha 290

Navy blue tint — how made 152

Neutral blue tint — how made 152

Nile blue tint — how made 152

Normandy blue tint — how made 152

Nut brown tint — how made 152

Nut oil — (see oils and dryers) 287

O

Oak color tint — how made 152

Oak graining — how done in oil 244

Oak graining — how done in water colors .245

Oak graining — how to prepare grounds for 241

Ochres — (see colors) 121

Oils and dryers — general remarks on 274

Oils— fixed (the) 274

Oil — fresco painting in 206

Oil— gilding 221

Oil — size for gilding 222

Oil stains — how made 39^

Oil— volatile (the) 282

Index

Old gold tint — how made 152

Olive tint — how made 152

Olive brown tint — how made 152

Opal gray tint — how made 153

Orange tint — how made 153

Orange brown tint — how made 153

Orange mineral (see colors) 124

Oriental blue tint — how made 153

Oriental green tint — how made 153

Ornamenting i-n carriage painting 87

Ornamenting in fresco painting 206

Oval paint brushes (see brushes) 29

Oval varnish brushes (see brushes) 32

Ox hair brushes (see brushes) 47

Oxide of iron (see colors) 115

P

Painters* tools — brush keepers 330

Painters' tools — extension walking boards 340

Painters* tools — gasoline torches 335

Painters' tools — general remarks on 329

Painters' tools — ladders, all kinds 336

Painters' tools — ladder steps 330

Painters' tools — ladder jacks 337

Painters' tools — ladder roof 338

Painters' tools — paint mill 332

Painters' tools — palette knives 334

Painters' tools — plank supporters 339

Painters' tools — putty knives 334

Painters' tools — sand bellows 332

Painters' tools — scraping knives 333

Painters' tools — scaffolding 340

Painters' tools — strainers and painters' tinware 33i

Painters' tools — swing scaffolds 33^

Painters' tools — tressles, all kinds 34°

Painting a bath tub 294

Painting new and old buildings, exterior I74

Painting walls for fresco in oil 206

Painting walls for fresco in water colors 63

Index

Painting walls on glass 293

Paper hangers' tools — general remarks on 301

Paper hangers' tools — casing knives 310

Paper hangers' tools — cutting knives 308

Paper hangers' tools — paste brushes 302

Paper hangers' tools— pasting tables 301

Paper hangers' tools — plumb bobs and levels 312

Paper hangers' tools — rotary knives 309

Paper hangers' tools— seam rollers 303, 304, 305

Paper hangers' tools — smoothing brushes 306

Paper hangers' tools — smoothing rollers 306

Paper hangers' tools — trimming machines 3^7

Paper hanging — general remarks on 3^3

Paper hanging — how to clean dirty wall paper 3^7

Paper hanging — how to hang borders 325

Paper hanging — how to hang burlaps 326

Paper hanging — how to hang ceilings 324

Paper hanging — how to hang muslin strips on wood 326

Paper hanging — how to hang walls 323

Paper hanging — how to make pastes 3^9

Paper hanging— how to paste the strips 320

Paper hanging — how to patch holes and cracks in plaster . .322

Paper hanging— proper conditions for 321

Paper hanging — how to trim paper with knives 323

Paper hanging— how to trim paper with machine .\ . .323

Paris Green — (see colors) 127

Peach blossom tint— how made I53

Pearl tint — how made I53

Peacock blue tint — how made I53

Pea green tint — how made I53

Persian orange tint — how made iS3

Pigments — (see colors) 95

Pink tint — how made I53

Pistache tint — how made I53

Plumbago — (see colors) 132

Plum color tint — how made I53

Polishing brush for wax (see brushes) 40

Pompeian blue tint — how made i53

Pompeian red tint — how made I54

Poppy seed oil — (see oil and dryers) 286

Index

Porphyry stone— how imitated 271

Portland stone tint — how made 154

Pouring back varnish — (see varnishing) 216

Preparing rooms for stencilling 413

Price lists for painting, glazing, graining, marbling 165

Priming new buildings 174

Purples in scene painting 355

Purity of tone in colors — how tested for 159

0

Quaker green tint — how made 154

R

Recipes for making oil stains 396

Recipes for making spirit stains 397

Recipes for making water stains 399

Red colors — American vermillion 118

Red colors — Chinese vermillion 119

Red color^— English vermillion 118

Red colors — general remarks on 115

Red colors — lakes 121

Red colors — imitation vermillions 120

Red colors — Indian reds 116

Red colors — oxide of iron (red) 115

Red colors — Pompeian 116

Red colors — red lead 118

Red colors — Tuscan 117

Repainting — ^bath tubs 294

Round paint bristle brushes (see brushes) 28

Roan tint — how made 154

Robins' G^gg blue tint — how made 154

Rocks, stones, etc., in scene painting .• 356

Roof ladder hooks — (see painters' tools) 338

Rosewood — how grained 243

Roughstuff in carriage painting 82

Rubbing rough stuff 83

Russet tint — how made I54

Russian grey tint — how made 154

Index

S

Sable— black and red brushes (see brushes) 26

Sage green tint — how made I54

Salmon tint — how made I54

Sand bellows (see painters' tools) i55

Sap green tint — how made i55

Sapphire blue tint — how made I55

Sash tool — (see brushes) 34

Scaffolding in calcimining 63

Scaffold jacks (see painters' tools) 337

Scale test— in adulteration of paint 10

Scarlet tint — how made i55

Scene painting — brick tint in 357

Scene painting — cloud tint in 350,

Scene painting— dead leaf tint in 35^

Scene painting — foliage green tint in 355

Scene painting— foliage distant tint in 35^

Scene painting — fire reflection tint in 35^

Scene painting— general remarks on 343

Scene painting— gold tone tint in 35^

Scene painting— grass green tint in 357

Scene painting— laying out designs in scene painting 353

Scene painting— location for 344

Scene painting — material used in 355

Scene painting— mixing colors for 347

Scene painting— moonlight tint in 35^

Scene painting — purple tint in 355

Scene painting— rock stone, etc., tints in 35^

Scene painting— sea water, tints in 35^

Scene painting — sky, tints in 355

Scene painting— tools used in 34^

Scene painting— trunks of trees, tints in 357

Scraping knives in paper hanging 333

Scrub brush (see painters' tools) 34

Sea green tint— how made ^55

Sea brown tint — how made ^55

Seal brown tint— how made ^55

Secondary colors — what they are ^30

Serpentine marble— how imitated ^"7

Sky blue tint— bow made • ^55

Index

Shrimp pink tint— how made 155

Siennas, raw and burnt (see colors) 129

Signs in carriage painting 87

Sign painting — advertising 386

Sign painting— bulletin 387

Sign painting— general remarks on 359

Sign painting gold — general remarks on 378

Sign painting gold — on glass 383

Sign painting gold — on wood and other surfaces 379

Sign painting — material used in 363

Sign painting — muslin 382

Sign painting — tools used in 363

Sign painting — shading the letters 364

Sign painting — spacing the lettering .365

Slate tint — how made 155

Smoothing paper hangers' brush (see brushes) 306

Snuff color tint — how made 155

Spoke brush (see brushes) 34

Spruce yellow tint — how made 155

Statuary painting — general remarks on 297

Statuary painting — how to prepare for it 298

Statuary painting — how to do the painting 299

Step ladders (see painters' tools) 330

Stains and staining — general remarks on 390

Stains and staining — recipes for water stains 399

Stains and staining — recipes for oil stains 396

Stains and staining — recipes for spirit stains 397

Stains and staining — how to stain in oil, water or spirit 393

Stains and staining — various methods of 392

Stains and staining — what grained staining is 392

Stains and staining — why wood is stained 39i

Stencils and stencilling — general remarks on 402

Stencils and stencilling — designing of -405

Stencils and stencilling — in water colors 412

Stencils and stencilling — in oil colors 412

Stencils and stencilling — how to cut 410

Stencils and stencilling — material used in 411

Stencils and stencilling — preparing rooms for 413

Stencils and stencilling— stencil paper— how prepared 411

Stencils and stencilling — tools used in 410

Index

Stencils and stencilling — where chiefly used 403

Stipling— in flat painting 205

Stipling — in walnut graining 258

Stone color and yellow drab tints — how made i55

Straw tint — how made I55

Strength of colors — how to test for 10

Striping — in carriage painting 87

Sublimed lead (see colors) 107

Surfaces — in calcimining 62

Surfaces — what they are 63

Swedish porphyry — how imitated 271

Swing scaffolds — (see painters' tools) 33^

Swiss porphyry — how imitated 271

Sycamore — how grained 257

T

Tally-ho tint— how made 156

Tampico — (see brushes) 27

Tan color tint — how made 156

Terra cotta tint — how made 156

Tertiary colors — what they are 136

Tints — how made from oil colors 140

Tints — how made from water colors 142

Tools used in fresco painting '. 211

Tools used in graining 243

Tools used in painting 230

Tools used in paper hanging 301

Tools used in staining , 390

Tools used in stencilling 410

Tools used in varnishing 432

Tub (bath) — how to repaint 294

Turquoise blue tint — how made 156

Turpentine — in oils and dryers 289

Tuscan red — (see colors) 117

Transfers — in carriage painting 87

Tressles — see painters* tools 340

Trimming wall paper with knives 3^3

Trimming wall paper with machine 3^3

Trunks of trees tint in. scene painting v"'357

Index

V

Vandyke brown — (see colors) 129

Various methods of staining 200

Varnish brushes bristle, oval and flat (see brushes) 26

Varnish brushes badger hair (see brushes) 26

Varnish brushes black and red sable (see brushes) 26

Varnish brushes camel hair (see brushes) 27

Varnish brushes ox hair (see brushes) 26

Varnishing — conditions for good 428

Varnishing — general remarks on 426

Varnishing — how to arrange rooms for 430

Varnishing — how to arrange shops for 429

Varnishing — pouring back varnish in can 432

Varnishing — tools needed in 432

Vehicles — fixed oils 272

Vehicles — general remarks on 436

Vehicles — glues and adjuncts *. 438

Vehicles — gum arabic 477

Vehicles — japans and varnishes 437

Vehicles — oil of lavender 97

Vehicles — spirits 98

Vehicles — turpentine 283

Vehicles — volatile oils 282

Venetian red (see colors) 115

Vermillion — American (see colors) 118

Vermillion — Chinese (see colors) 119

Vermillion — English (see colors) 1 18

Vermillion — imitation (see colors) 120

Verd antique marble — how imitated 264

Vienna Crown tint — how made 156

Virwian (see colors) 127

Violet tint — how made 156

Vitrifying colors in china painting 98

W

Wall decoration, highlight oil-color method 441

Walls — right condition for calcimining 63

Walls — right condition for paper hanging 321

Walls — paint brushes (see brushes) 31

Walls — stippler (see brushes) 30

Index

Walking board extension — see painters' tools 340

Water color stencilling — how done 412

Water green tint — how made 156

Water stains — how made 399

Washing off old paper in paper Hanging 314

Wax floor polishing brushes (see brushes) 40

White baryta (see colors) 103

White earths — aluminous (see colors) 103

White earths — cretaceous (see colors) 103

White earths — silicious (see colors) 104

White lead — general remarks on 105

White lead — how made 105

White lead — how to test for adulteration 10

White and light tints in enameling 208

White veined marble — how imitated 271

Why paint blisters 18

Willow green tint — how made 156

Wine color tint — how made 156

Wooden buildings new — how to paint I74

Wooden buildings old — how to paint 190

Y

Yellows— chrome (see colors) 122

Yellows — general remarks on (see colors) 121

Yellows — ochres ( see colors) 121

Yellows— other yellows (see colors) 124

Yellow bronze tint— how made I57

Z

Zinc green (see cobalt green in colors) 12S

Zinc white — American (see colors) 112

Zinc white — French (see colors) no

Zinc white — general remarks on (see colors) 108

Zinc white — its uses (see colors) 109

Zinz white— in enamelling 208

THE UP-TO-DATE
HARDWOOD FINISHER

A PANELED CEILING TN OAK

PREFACE

Some twelve or fourteen years ago, I prepared a
little manual on "Hardwood Finishing," which became
quite popular, and to some extent remains so up to
the present writing. The little work, however, was
far from complete, and I have been asked by a large
number of woodworkers to extend the limits of the
work, or to reorganize and add more to the subject of
wood preparation.

After considering the matter, I was impressed by
the latter suggestion, as the title "Hardwood Finisher"
seemed to be somewhat misleading, as the intention
of the book was to give general instructions in
finishing woods of all kinds — hard and soft — and not
only making them ready for the varnisher and
polisher, but also to instruct the workman in the
latter process as well as the former. I have therefore
embodied in this new work a number of directions
for making and finishing the raw wood, making it
ready for the finisher or varnisher and polisher; and
have'also given directions and formulae for mixing the
materials and applying them to the prepared wood.

It goes without saying, that to make a work of this
kind useful, it must contain much that has been
published before, and much that is taken from the
workshop and from the experience of workmen,
many of whom have given me their own methods of
working. I am also indebted to a number of current
journals, such as "Carpentry and Building," "The
National Builder," "Scientific American," "The

S

6 PREFACE

Carpenter/' "The Woodworker," "The English
Mechanic," "The Painter's Gazette," and several
others, to whom I offer thanks for such matter as I
have made use of.

While the present work may not be as complete as
it might be, I have some reason to think it very much
superior to any work of the kind now in the market,
as it covers more ground, and deals with the subject
of wood-finishing in a more extended and complete
manner than any other work devoted to the subject
that I know of. However, be this as it may, every
effort has been made to obtain the best and latest
information on the subject and to put it in such a
form that the regular every-day workman may under-
stand what is intended to be conveyed. If I have
failed to make everything clear to the reader it is
because of the lack of ability on my part, not because
of desire to do so.

Fred T. Hodgson.

The Up-to-Date Hardwood Finisher

PART ONE
INTRODUCTORY

Wood is, and always has been, one of the most
important and useful materials that Dame Nature has
vouchsafed to bless humanity with, and the latter's
necessities and ingenuity have made the best of the
circumstances.

It need hardly be said that Nature seemed to have
well understood the wants of her children and pro-
vided for them in a most liberal manner, for it is said
that nearly one-third of the earth's surface is covered
by trees; all of which are, in some form or another,
contributory to the wants and pleasures of man.

The introduction of machinery for the rapid working
of nearly all kinds of intricate mouldings and shapes
of woodwork has, in a great measure, had a tendency
to elevate the taste of the whole community, though
I must confess that artistic excellence of a high order,
in the mechanical arts, is now scarcely found among
our younger workmen, machinery having almost done
away with the necessity for the fine kinds of hand
and brain work. Fashion, which rules despotically
in the wardrobe, influences, to a greater or lessL-r
degree, the style and finish of woodwork and, to a
certain extent, the kind of wood that must be used for
certain purposes. Thirty or forty years ago no other

7

8 THE UP-TO-DATE

wood than clean white pine would be permitted to do
service in a building. All woodwork had to be pine;
floors, doors, windows, even to the bath fittings.
Then Dame Fashion sent forth her decree and a
mixture of white and Southern pine was used,
followed shortly afterward by the abominable
mixture of ash, walnut and chestnut. Some architect,
who deserves well of his country, introduced all
walnut and all mahogany fitments; and at once people
of taste who saw this manner of finish noticed its
superiority over the medley; and the fashion then of
finishing in one kind of wood became the rage. Wal-
nut was found too dark for general purposes and was
soon abandoned for the lighter woods; chestnut,
sycamore, ash, cherry, birch and oak were then tried,
but I believe I voice the opinion of a majority of
architects when I say that, with the exception of oak,
the light-colored woods were not successful, from an
aesthetic point of view, and it is on record that many
buildings finished in these woods have since had their
woodwork cleaned and stained to imitate darker
woods or have been painted. One of the valuable
qualities of white oak is, that it grows richer in color
as it gets older, and no matter how it is finished, so
long as the grain is visible, it mellows and improves
with age. This is a quality that no other of our
American woods possesses in the same degree. All
the oaks have this quality to a certain extent, but the
white oak {Quercus alba) possesses it more than any
other. Mahogany, too, has this quality largely, if
true Spanish mahogany is used, but little of this is in
the market; though there are many woods that have the
appearance of mahogany, and are called mahogany,
such as cherry and black birch, and both buyer and

HARDWOOD FINISHER 9

user are oftentimes deceived, and pay for what they do
not get.

Americans have often been reproached with will-
fully or ignorantly ignoring or destroying their own
handsome woods, while importing from abroad at
excessive cost, and the payment of heavy duties,
foreign woods which are much inferior to many of
native growth. This folly prevailed at a time when
it was fashionable and even popular to believe there
was no merit in domestic productions of any sort.
This state of things, however, is now at an end, and
in the neighborhood of all large towns, and in country
places as well, a finish in hardwood is the rule, and a
finish in pine the exception, if the building to be fin-
ished makes any pretension of being "up to the times."

With regard to the difference in cost between a
finish in the best clear pine, and the best selected
hardwood, there is really but little, if any, if we take
into consideration durability and good taste. As
between pine wood and good, well finished hardwood,
the disparity in value and merit is so very little as to
completely silence any comparison. Between poor
pine and poor hardwood the preference should be by
all means given to the former; because poor pine as
it reveals its defects can be puttied and painted in a
manner to disguise them; whereas the defects of poor
hardwood are almost incurable. The rationale of the
subject seems to resolve itself into the following
statement:

Modern taste in expensive dwellings calls for the
free use of hardwoods. It is immaterial which are
used, but highly essential that the best seasoned woods
should be selected; and, further, that they should be
skillfully treated and finished.

10 THE UP-TO-DATE

The principal recommendation of hardwood is that
\t admits of a treatment which renders it impervious
to the effects of atmospheric changes and, therefore,
can be made more durable and ultimately less expen-
sive than pine wood. A hardwood that is well
seasoned before use, that is treated with proper fillers
to close up its pores, and then finished with successive
coats of suitable varnish, well rubbed in with pumice-
stone, being finally brought to a higher flat finish,
presents the most attractive, serviceable and reliable
style of woodwork than can be introduced into a house.
Well finished hardwood obviates the expense and
annoyance of constant renewals, which pine work calls
for in patching, puttying and painting. The most
brilliant gloss of finished hardwood can be restored by
a skilled person without disturbing the furniture or
carpets of a house.

Pine work seems peculiarly and incomparably
adapted for cheap work. A good article of common
pine, suitable for ordinary work, can be procured and
worked at considerably less expense than would be
involved in using good hardwood. The use of poor
hardwood in any work should not be tolerated or
thought of under any circumstances, for the simple
reason that it is certain to create annoyance and
expense, which no house-owner, especially of moderate
priced property, should be subjected to.

Pine, however, is not the only soft wood that may
be used in house finishing, but it is the most popular,
because the most plentiful and doubtless the most
satisfactory to deal with. Basswood, poplar, elm,
whitewood, spruce and hemlock all make fairly good
finishing woods when properly selected and properly
treated; but, with the exception of elm, perb^s, all

HARDWOOD FINISHER n

of them require to be either painted or stained before
a good finish can be obtained. Elm, black ash and
chestnut have all coarse grain, and are unsuited for
tasteful work, though all right for ordinary fitments;
and indeed may be used for kitchen or bathroom finish
in fairly good houses. Later on I will deal with each
one of them, and some other of our native woods at
length.

The present methods of hardwood finishing are
comparatively new, so far as the manner of operation
and materials are concerned; as I can find nothing
dating farther back than 1850 in the vast amount of
literature at my command that treats in any way
intelligently on the subject; true, there are methods
of varnishing, lacquering and French polishing given;
also treatment on finishing in wax, notably a small
pamphlet containing a treatise on "The Shining Up of
Woodwork," dating as far back as 1809, and published
in London. This little treatise is the first to make
mention of a wood-filler being employed. The author
says that "the pores of the wood ought to be sealed up
with a mixture made of ground chalk or rotten stone
coloured like the wood, and mixed with glue water.
Cover the work to be shined up with the mixture, then
wipe off and when hard and dry, smooth off finely
with shark-skin and hair-clothe." He then goes on
to show how to finish in wax or with shellac, as the
case may be. He says nothing of French polishing,
but gives directions for varnishing and rubbing down
with rotten stone.

To-day there are quite a number of works published
on wood-finishing, which shows how much interest is
taken in the subject.

The introduction of the modern methods of polishing

12 THE UP-TO-DATE

finished woodwork has so reduced the cost of fine
furniture and elaborately finished woodwork, that now
the poor man may have in his house one or more
pieces of finely wrought work, as well as the man of
wealth. French polishing was a costly operation,
and made more costly because of the secrecy sur-
rounding the process. Experts were bound not to
teach others the process unless they were well paid
for it, and the pupil was compelled to take a solemn
oath that he would not divulge the secret or convey to
others the method, unless he was paid a large sum,
often as high as $ioo. French polish when well done
is certainly a fine finish, and while still costly, is often
employed in finishing high-class furniture and wood-
work in costly buildings, but its general use is rapidly
falling off; yet no wood-finisher is completely rounded
off unless he has thorough knowledge of the best
French polishing, and in the present work I purpose
giving a thorough description of this method, with
illustrations of the appliances made use of in the
process.

While it is not my intention to write a treatise on
the useful woods of America, I do not think it will be
out of place to describe a few of them, showing their
manner of growth, their peculiarities, durability, and
the uses they can be put to, with directions for working
and finishing them.

In every description of wood the elementary com-
position of the organic tissue is the same, but the
latter is found associated with very variable organic
elements, according to the species of the tree.

Pine trees, for example, contain turpentine, and oak
trees tannin. The combustible part of wood is this
same organic tissue.

HARDWOOD FINISHER 13

The exterior characteristics of woods are very
different from one another. Thus certain wood is
soft and tender and of a loose tissue, whilst another
is hard and of a compact grain. Thence there is quite
a natural division into two classes. The first includes
all the soft and tender woods, amongst which may be
mentioned the pines, white wood or plane tree, bass-
wood, poplar, etc. The second includes all the heavy
and hard wood, such as the oaks, maples, beech, birch,
cherry, walnut, etc.

When wood is first cut down as timber, it contains
from 40 to 45 per cent of water, but this quantity
gradually lessens until it is said to be thoroughly
seasoned, when it only contains from 5 to 7 per cent.
Moisture, however, is always present in wood, and as
it gets older, if exposed to the air, will take in from 10
to 15 per cent. It then becomes very hydrometrical,
and loses or absorbs water according to the state of
dryness or humidity of the surrounding air.

The density of wood, like that of all porous bodies,
can be considered in two different ways, and can be
looked for under its apparent volume. The only
method which can then be employed consists in form-
ing a block of the wood, the volume of which can be
easily measured, and then taking the weight of it.
The ratio of this weight to that of the same bulk of water
would be the density sought for. This density for the
same wood varies according to the degree of seasoning
it has had, and to the form and position of the fibers
in the sample. A block six inches square cut from
a knot, or burl, or a cross-grained part of a tree, would
be considerably more dense, and weigh more, than
would a block of a similar size cut from the same tree,
if it was straight-grained and uniform.

14 THE UP-TO-DATE

It is the density of the harder woods that makes
them popular with wood-finishers. A hard, close-
grained wood requires little or no filler, and offers
better opportunities to the polisher than do the woods
of lesser density.

The use of nearly all kinds of hardwood in the
general finish of good houses, has completely taken the
place of using pine or other soft woods in wainscoting,
floors, doors and general fitments. The variety of
the woods employed in these finishings has greatly
increased within the last few years. How so many of
these beautiful and suitable woods could have fallen
into disuse within the present century is one of the
decorative mysteries of this period. Walnut, which
was the pioneer of the new departure, still remains in
use, where cost is no object, although its dull color
and unpolished surface are dingy and somber. It has
had its use, however, in directing attention to the
employment of solid woods, though it is now on the
retired list. Mahogany is at present in high favor, the
variety known as San Domingo mahogany being
especially rare and desirable. When new it has a
reddish yellow tone, which grows dark and rich with
age. The old wood is much in demand for use in
interior finishings and for furniture, and the genuine
old pieces are highly prized by their possessors.
Cherry is popular for common use, though at first
falsified by the red stain, which destroyed its natural
beauty and gave it no artificial excellence. Unstained
cherry has a yellowish brown color, polishes well, and
is excellent for interior woodwork, its moderate cost
making it available for general use, though now getting
very scarce. If any stain is required, it should be in
the dark tones resembling mahogany color.

HARDWOOD FINISHER 15

Black birch is one of the most beautiful native
woods, having a grain resembling that of mahogany,
and taking a fine satin-like polish. Unstained, it has
a warm, rich yellow tone, and its darkened finish can
hardly be distinguished from the more costly tropical
wood. Yellow birch, though less beautiful and costly,
is excellent in grain and color and is often used for
fine floorings. The different varieties of oak are well
adapted to interior uses, the wood being solid and
durable, while each year of wear adds a depth and
richess of color and a smoothess and polish to its dark
surface. It has a beautiful grain, and is a popular
wood for interior finishings and the floors of modern
houses. After centuries of wear this useful wood is
found in the houses of both humble and royal history
as black and smooth as ebony. Butternut resembles
oak in color, though not in grain, polishes finely and
takes a carved decoration well, and ash and elm are
often found as deceptive substitutes for oak, especially
in its darker or so-called antique stains. Rosewood is
one of the most beautiful woods in use, rich and deep
in tone and capable of a mirror-like finish. It is costly
enough to keep the merit of rarity.

Apple wood carves finely and polishes well, making
excellent panels; so also does the wood of the pear
tree. Maple is in high favor, bird's-eye maple being
one of the choicest of the light-colored woods, and
especially suited to dainty and sumptuous uses.
Chestnut and ash are serviceable and inexpensive
light woods.

As these woods come into more general use, their
genuineness and elegance giving to the houses in which
they are placed one of the strongest assurances of that
permanency which is the best element of the new

i6 THE UP-TO-DATE

Renaissance, they will be more and more enriched with
ornament. And here it will be difficult to avoid the
besetting sin of abundant means and inartistic taste,
which unfortunately are so often found in company.
The honesty of material and the uses which it serves
should never be concealed under complex decoration.
Most hardwoods are beautiful enough in grain and
color to give lasting satisfaction, and for every-day
use no decoration beyond a touch of good carving
should be applied. Where something more sumptuous
is sought, carving and inlaying will make them elegant
enough to satisfy the most exacting taste, and when
properly varnished or polished no other method of
decoration can excel it in beauty or refinement.

I have deemed the foregoing introduction necessary,
as it will enable the workman to have some idea of the
development of the art of joinery, and the transition
from the use of pine and the softer wood to that of
the hard wood.

In the following, it is my intention to take each of
the woods most in use; describe them, say what I
think they are best adapted for, and the best way to
finish them, as far as my knowledge extends. By this
means the reader will have, under one head, all the
book contains concerning the particular wood he is
about to finish.

THE BETTER WOODS TO MAKE USE OF

The wood most made use of at the present writing
for interior finish, is oak. It is made into doors,
sashes, stairs, base, cabinet cases, and wainscot.

The working of oak, particularly in the framing up
of panel-work, differs somewhat from ordinary pine or
other soft wood panel work, inasmuch as the latter is

HARDWOOD FINISHER

17

generally painted and picked out in two or more colors;
thus rendering it imperative to use sound stuff, and to
have the work above suspicion. The material is
generally so thin that the paneling should be stiffened
with stout canvas glued to the back, which is often
primed with red-lead paint to afford protection from

Fig.

Fia 2

damp when the work is to be placed in a new building.
It is usual to frame up the work with stuff varying in
thickness from seven-eighths of an inch to one and a
quarter inches, finished sizes. In some workshops it is
not considered necessary to clean up the back of the
work, though I think it always best to dress down the

i8

THE UP-TO-DATE

joints on the back, and true it up with plane and
straight-edge. All joints should be close and perfect,
and tenons and mortises should be in the center of the
stuff, and all should be well glued
together and left to dry before
fixing.

The panel-work shown in Fig.
I is framed with ij^ in. stuff, got
to thickness and widths as shown
in Fig. 2. The center framing is
mitered together at the corners,
which are further strengthened by
the insertion, of a cross-tongue
joint, while the side rails and top
and bottom muntins are tenoned
and pinned like all the other ten-
ons in the framing. The moulding
stuck on the edges (or in the solid)
is not mitered in the same way as
for ordinary work (see Figs. 3 and
4); but the mitered corners are
worked as shown in Figs. 5
and 6, thus forming butt joints
with mason-mitered corners to all
moulded edges. These corners are
worked on the bench after the
paneling is glued up and cleaned
off.

The bottom rail is tongued into the skirting as shown
in Fig. 8, and the top rail meets the festooned frieze
board under the small necking mould as shown, the
frieze board being tongued to the dentiled cornice
also. This cornice is double-dentiled, one row of
dentils being cut farther back than the other, as shown

FiG. 6

HARDWOOD FINISHER

19

in Figs. 7 and 8. As usual with built-up cornices, this
section can be worked on the four-cutter moulder or
on a spindle machine; the dentiling, however, being

Fia 7

Fic. a

best cut by hand. A cover-board lies at the back of
the cornice, which is back rebated to receive the front
edge of the cover-board. The three flutes over the
top muntins have rounded-out top ends, and finish at

20 THE UP-TO-DATE

the bottom on a splay; whilst the festoons are pref-
erably cut out of the solid, but are generally planted
on unless otherwise specified.

In fixing this class of work, which is, as a rule,
screwed up, all fixing screws should be hidden, or the
holes should be bored to take "corks" a little larger
than the screw head, and the "corks" should be cut
from wood closely matching that in which the hole is
bored. The framing must be fixed as true and upright
as possible (especially at external corners where
mitered vertical joints occur), and be well scraped and
cleaned down after the fixing is done.

The illustrations are reproduced to the following
scales: Figs, i and 2 are three-eighths of an inch to
the foot; Figs. 3 to 6, half full size; Figs. 7 and 8, one
and a half inches to the foot.

While it is not the intention to enter into the sub-
ject of joinery in this work, it will not be out of place
to make a few remarks on the manner of doing some
odd jobs of work that are not generally discussed in
books of this kind, or if discussed, are not done so
with a view of showing how the wood should be pre-
pared for the polisher. The examples given in the
foregoing are only offered as an illustration of how
similar work should be prepared when made from
solid wood. Where the work is composed of material
"built up" or veneered, the manner of preparing it for
the finisher may be very different, but this I will dis-
cuss later on.

Suppose a column, or a pillar or spindle is required
having a spiral form* unless the workman is well
acquainted with the method of laying out spirals, he
will be up ap^ainst a proposition which he will find
difficult to oolve. To meet a condition of this kind, 1

HARDWOOD FINISHER

21

show the following method of setting out such work.
This example is intended to be prepared for the lathe,
but, of course, it may be executed without the aid of
a lathe, but in such case much patience and skill wUl
be required.

The sketch Fig. 9 shows the method of
setting out the twist or spiral. First turn
the wood round; then divide the circum-
ference into four with lines, as shown,
marked all the way down. Then, having
decided on the size of your twist — and the
same details apply to any size and depth
— mark the cross-lines, and then the diag-
onals, which you can easily do with a
twist of the leg in the lathe, and both sides
as shown by dotted lines. The gouge,
held in this direction, will follow th^ re-
quired twist. It is supposed the operator
is acquainted with lathe work to some
extent, and is aware of the methods and
appliances made use of in turning spirals,
and the sketch is only intended to instruct
him in the manner of laying out the spiral.
This will be found useful even in work
where the column, etc., is not turned in a
lathe, but is wrought by hand.

Handwork of almost every kind in
woodwork is rapidly going out of fashion p,Q^ ^

— more the pity — but now and again, men
are found who insist on having their work done by
hand, and it is well that every joiner should know how
to go about the work with intelligence when such
work is required. With this idea in view, I give here-
with a few instructions and illustrations to help the

22 THE UP-TO-DATE

workman when he is confronted with problems such as
I have indicated.

Often dovetailing — an almost lost art — has to be
done by hand on some particular job or piece of work,
and, in order to prepare the workman for this pur-
pose, I offer the following instructions, and give the
accompanying illustration, which I think will materially
aid him in his efforts.

Dovetailing to a great many young workmen proves
a pitfall, yet, when the method of laying out the work
is once understood, it all seems easy enough. A
dovetail joint, if made properly, requires no screws or
nails, to hold it together or to bring the parts
down to a proper joint; but in order to attain per-
fection there are one or two points which must
be attended to when making this kind of joint.
First, the stuff must be faced up properly, using
the trying plane, on the flat surface. In passing,
I will just mention that in dovetailing, whether
boxes, drawers, or whatever is being made, the face
side is always the inside^ and the face edge is the bot-
tom edge.

Another point which is often neglected is to put in
plenty of "pins" or dovetails. A very good rule for
ordinary work in soft wood is to space them not less
than i^in., or more than 2^in., from center to center;
for hard wood, or for small work in thin wood, they
should be spaced closer still.

In setting out the pins, or rather the mortises in
which the pins have to fit, a half dovetail should be
placed at both top and bottom, as shown in Fig. lo,
and the intermediate "tails" should be brought to an
extreme point as shown at B in the drawings — that is,
if neatness is an object; but if this has to give way to

HARDWOOD FINISHER

23

Fig. 10

strength, then "tails" of the shape shown in Fig. ii,
should be used.

The bevels of the "tails" should be as shown in the
drawings, and in no case should they be shaped as at
,M, Fjg. 14. 1£
made like that,
there would be
great danger of
the sides split-
ting off at E,
and although
this shape at
first sight would
appear to be
stronger than
the other, it is
really not so in

practice. Also if one, two or three, or even more
articles of the same size are being made, the dove-
tails need not be set out on one piece only. The
whole could be placed together in pairs as shown in

Fig. 12, and the marks
squared over as shown, then
screwed in the vise together,
and all cut at once with a
fine tenon or back-saw, first
of all sawing all the pieces
off to exactly the same
length.
To mark the pins, screw one of the ends upright in
the bench vise, with the top end about half an inch
above the bench top, as at F, Fig. 13, taking care to
keep the face side toward the bench. Then lay one of
the sides on it, as at G, so that the squared-over marks

Fig. 11

24

THE UP-TO-DATE

/y ly ly y L

Fig. 13

on the edges of G coincide with the inside of F, as at

H. With the front end of the same saw as was used to

cut the "tails,"
/^ /^ used as shown at
I, mark the po-
sition of each
one on the end
grain, and, be-
fore removing
the side board,
number each
piece as shown
in the figure so
that it is known
which pieces go
together.
All four corners of each job in hand must be done in

the same way, unless perhaps the work is for drawers or

where the front

only is required

to be dove-

tailed, although

particular no-
tice must be

taken that the

face side of the

vertical piece

must be towards

the bench, and

the horizontal

piece under-

neath; and in

addition remember that the face edges of both pieces

must always come together. These are the edges which

Fig. 13

HARDWOOD FINISHER 25

must be kept level while marking. Neglect of these
points is the reason of failure to produce good work
when making dovetailed joints.

In cutting the "pins" some regard must be paid to
the kind of wood being used; soft pine requires more
wood left outside the marks than oak or other hard-
woods, but tak-
ing ord i n ary
work in any of
the softer
woods, about a
sixty -fourth of

an inch clear on ^'^ \^ -^ ^^^ ^^
each side of the

mark will be ample, leaving rather less at the two half
dovetails at the edges.

I should have stated before that in cutting off the
stuff for the ends of the box (or whatever is in hand)
about half an inch extra length should be allowed, and
in squaring across, this extra length should be given
to the pin at each end, to be cut when the job is put
together.

Before the pins are sawed down, the marks on the

outside (that is,

^ «^ ^« ^' ^ wherethey

come to a point)
Fig 15 '"^^~^' ^ must be squared

down as a guide
for sawing parallel with the edges of the boards. This
is a somewhat important part, and in Fig. 14 I have
endeavored to show how they should and should not be
cut. The "pin" K is parallel from point to heel, and
this is correct, but not easy to manage. The "pin" at
L is cut wedge-shaped, larger at the heel than at the

26 THE UP-TO-DATE

point, which is bad, being liable to split the boards,
and also to show a badly fitting joint outside. M is
cut slightly smaller at the heel than at the point, which
is a good fault — there is no fear of splitting, and, unless
overdone, a good fitting joint will result. N is cut out
of parallel, which is the worst of all, and must on no
account be done.

All the pins being cut, the spare wood must be cut

out, using very thin, sharp chisels. Some workers use

a bow saw to remove the spare wood between the

pins, but I do not consider it any advantage — the

chisel has to be used after, and it is quicker to remove

^^^ all the wood wfth the chisel at one time.

(\/ I must not forget to emphasize the fact

that it is necessary, in setting out, to use

knife or chisel for all cross lines, both on

/I 1x3 the sides and ends. Pencil will not do

\_^^ li at all, if good work is expected.

Fig. 16 Before putting together, each "pin"

must be slightly pointed on all three sides,
as shown in Fig. 15, so that they will enter freely,
without bruising the wood.

When putting together, the "pins" should be well
glued and the sides driven on at once, using a block
which is large enough to reach quite across the whole
work. If this is omitted, splitting is apt to result.
I have not touched upon putting the work together,
as I do not think it necessary, because when the
dovetails and "pins" are properly cut, they will be
found to go together without any paring or cutting.
Indeed, dovetails of any kind requiring fitting before
going together may be put down as a botch job and
unfit to be further finished.

in this, I have dealt only with simple work, bul

HARDWOOD FINISHER

27

Fig. 17

there are other kinds of dovetailing, and I present
several of them below.

In the figure shown at 17, the end view of a "lap
dovetail" is represented, a style which is well known
to every joiner who is familiar with drawer making.
The method is the same
as described as regards
the sides, but the ends
of the front are gauged
on a certain distance,
which should, if possi-
ble, be the same as the
thickness of the sides,
and the dovetails are
stopped at the gauge mark. The method of marking
is the same as before, and the only difference is
in cutting the "pin," which has to be done largely
with the chisel, as the saw can only be used to start

them with.
iniuwiinuiij^AiLm^ The appearance of the
I [j \ fl "pins" when cut is shown in
itolj M Imi Fig. 18, and tho-e who can

do the ordinary dovetailing
will have no difficulty in mak-
ing the "lap" dovetail.

In Fig. 19 is shown wnat
is sometimes called "secret,"
but it IS really double lap
dovetailing. One part is
done as shown in the figure, making the mortises
the same size as the pins, and cutting them as shown.
The corresponding member is worked as in Fig.
17, the necessary marking being done as in Fig. 13,
and marking round point, then cutting them out with

Fig 18

28

THE UP-TO-DATE

saw and chisel. The appearance of this when done is
shown in Fig. 20, which is the one marked A, at the
side, and Fig. 21, on the top edges; and as will be
readily understood, very careful work is necessary in

'Secret Lap Dove tail irXQ

Fig. 19

Fig 20

order to make a good job, and, presuming this, the
joint is as strong as the ordinary dovetail.

By mitering the top edges, as in Fig. 22, the
appearance of this part is as Fig. 23, and if done
properly is an improvement. It does not add much
to the difficulty of making the joint.

Secret dovetailing proper is a difficult job for any
but an experienced man to undertake, but I will deal

Fig. 21

Fig. 22

with it later on if space permits. It makes a good
strong joint if done well, and the appearance is the
same as a mitered joint.

Sometimes the end of the drawers, as shown in Fig.

HARDWOOD FINISHER

29

^^

?. 1 W J

Fig. 23

23, is rounded off as shown in Fig. 22, and when such
is the case, the drawer projects from the face of the
framework as shown by the dotted lines.

In order to enable the workman to b<.tter under-
stand the whole theory of dovetailing, I present here-
with a couple of sketches
which show how secret lap
dovetailing maybe executed
in several ways. Figs. 19
and 24 show how the pins
and mortises are laid out

when the pins are simply no more than a square tenon.
Secret lap dovetailing is used for a great variety of
objects, such as sewing machine covers, instrument
cases, etc. Where the dovetails require to be hidden
it is not so important that the joint should be at an
angle, as the corners can be rounded up to the joint.
The difference between secret and plain lap dovetailing
is that in the secret method the pins are shortened

and the dovetails not
cut through, as shown
in Figs. 17 and 18, and
when put together, in
Fig. 22.

Miter dovetailing.
Figs. 25 and 26, is a
much more intricate
operation, and calls
for greater care on the part of the workman. After
carefully planing up the wood to a thickness, first
gauge on the inside only the thickness of the lap on
the end, remembering that the gauge for the lap will
also be the gauge by which the ends of the pins and
dovetails will be shortened, as shown in Fig. 27, where

Fig. 24

30

THE UP-TO-DATE

the dotted lines show the manner in which each piece
must be rebated. After rebating, cut the pins, then
mark the dovetails and chop them out, atter which
proceed to miter the laps on both pieces and cut the

Mttre Dovetailing

Fig. 25

Fig. 26

miter across the edge, and, if neatly done, the joint
will go together at the first trial.

Bevel or splay dovetailing is much more difficult
than any of the preceding, and is not so generally
known. The required bevel being given, proceed as
follows: First joint the ends to the required bevel,
then, without changing the angle, joint the
bottom edge to the same bevel as the ends,
working from the inside. Now comes the
most important part of the operation. The
ends must be beveled on the thickness of'
the wood. This is obtained by laying the
blade of the square on the beveled bottom
edge, then shooting the ends to the square,
Fig 27 working still from the inside of the wood.
If this part is omitted, the result will be
that when the job is put together it will be not only
open on the inside but will not be level on the out-
side— more or less, according to the angle of the
sides. Gauge on the thickness of the wood as for

HARDWOOD FINISHER 31

plain dovetailing. In cutting the pins, a center line
through these should be parallel with the bevel of the
bottom edge as shown in Fig. 28, and not cut square
to the inside of the job as in plain dovetailing. If
this be neglected, and the angle is much, the dove-
tails will be cut across the grain, and have no strength.
After marking the pin with a marking point, before
cutting the dovetails, mark them across the ends also,
parallel to the bevel of the bottom edge as in Fig. 29,

Bevet RovA fatting

Fig. 28 Fig. 29

and cut accordingly. I would strongly advise the
workman who has never made a bevel dovetail to try
it upon two pieces of wood, as more will be learned
from a little practice when the difficulties have to be
surmounted than from any amount of study.

The illustrations shown in Figs. 30 and 31 will
convey to the reader a better idea of lap and miter
dovetail than the previous ones. Fig. 30 shows the
finished corner, the face of the work being shown at
F. This may be rounded off if it is so desired. Fig.
31 shows a corner all ready to be driven together,
which will have a mitered lap. AA shows both front
and side; the shaded laj>s show the miters.

Another style of bevel dovetailing is shown in Fig.
32, where the pins are at right angles with the line oi

32

THE UP-TO-DATE

slope as shown at AA and BB. This style of dove-
tailing is well adapted for trays, hoppers and similar
work. All stuff intended to be used in bevel or
splayed work, that is to be dovetailed, must be pre-
pared with butt joints before the dovetails are laid out.
Joints of this kind may be made common, lapped or

Fig. 30

Fig. 31

mitered. In making the latter, much skill and labor
will be required.

In making veneered doors there are a number of
different methods practiced by workmen, but it is not
in the province of this work to describe them all, or
indeed, any of them at great length, but when a
number of veneered doors are to be made at one time,
the following method, which is adopted in some large

HARDWOOD FINISHER

33

factories, may offer some suggestions iK^t may be
found useful:

The first operation is to take common coarse white
pine boards, with sound knots, and which have been
well kiln-dried, the stock used being generally i6 feet
long, IXI2 inches, and surface it on both sides by a
Daniels planer without regard to thickness. Some
boards are thinner than others, while others are
warped in drying, and the thickness of the boards is

Fig. 32

immaterial, perfectly seamed surfaces only being
necessary. After the stock is planed it is cut into
such lengths as the bill of doors calls for. They are
ready now to be glued up. The face board, of what-
ever hardwood is to be used, is planed generally to %
inch thick, and is also run through a Daniels planer.
The stock is now ready to go to the gluing press, and
as the Daniels planer makes the best gluing surface in
the world, no scratch planing is needed. After
properly heating in a box the stock is brought out and
carefully glued, the hardwood face parts being marked
for it. From three to five parts are put in the press at

34 THE UP-TO-DATE

one time, and a pressure of 20 tons, brought down b>'
screws, is put upon these parts. After remaining in
the press the proper time they are taken out, and
generally remain several days before being worked up,
which gives the glue plenty of time to harden. When
ready to work again these parts are taken to a Daniels
planer and squared up, after which the parts are taken
to a very nice cutting table or bench saw, and are
cut up to sizes required, leaving them }i inch large
for future dressing. It is a positive necessity that the
saw cuts free and clear, as heating has a tendency to
warp the stock or spring it slightly, which would make
it necessary to dress the stuff again. If the saw does
not heat, the stiles come out perfectly straight, and
these stiles can be laid on a Daniels planer bed and a
light shaving taken off. They are now straight, and
if the saw table is in good condition, square; the other
side may be finished with pony planer or with a Daniels.
A Daniels is preferred, because it makes a better gluing
surface. The work is now ready for the veneering,
the thickness of which is immaterial, as it may vary
from the thickness of thin paper to }( inch. Heated
cauls are now used for the veneer, and the stiles, if
heated at all, are just warmed and the veneer glued on
by piling up with a hot caul between each stile. The
old-fashioned way of making veneered doors may do
very well when only two or three doors are to be made,
but in these days of sharp competition, manufacturers
are obliged to adopt the quickest methods compatible
with efficiency and good finish.

The doors or other work — for this method will apply
to wainscot or any similar work — should be placed in a
dry room for a day or two, when they may be finished
up and made ready for the polisher or varnisher.

HARDWOOD FINISHER

35

If first-class doors are required, it is always better to
build up the stuff for the stiles and rails, and glue
them together before they are veneered. A white
pine door is about the only door that can be made
successfully from solid wood. In a house with, say, a
dozen doors, what other wood is there that will abso-
lutely hold its place during
a reasonable period? Cer-
tainly yellow pine will not
do it. A solid oak door is
a pest, and should not be
put in a house except un-
der written instructions.
Sycamore cannot be used
solid, and certainly neither
gum nor maple. Possibly
walnut or butternut might,
but who would think of
using them under present
conditions?

The door shown in Fig.
33 is an illustration of one
of the most serviceable
doors made. The section j
of stile shown in Fig. 34
will give an idea of the

manner in which the stiles and rails are built up; the
veneer showing on the outside, also the panel.

Work of this kind may be used outside as well as
for inside, and no one need fear unpainted white pine
or oak for outside work. There is in Europe abundance
of woodwork, exterior and interior, that has not been
tickled by a brush in over five hundred years. All the
native Swiss cottages are unpainted on the exteriot.

Fig. 33

36

THE UP-TO-DATE

All of the half-timber houses of France, no matter
how richly decorated by the great artists of the chisel,
are unpainted, and we have known of work in white pine
and quartered white oak without the use of paint which
has been in existence for centuries untouched by paint,
and time justified the experiment. Nothing is more
beautiful than the natural grain of the wood and its
natural weathering under a proper transparent finish.
It takes some courage to organize and push through
an innovation of this kind, and one is beset
by many warnings, but the beautiful result
justifies the effort.

The following method of making veneered
doors was described by H. T. Gates in 'The
Woodworker" some time ago. It will doubt-
less be found of much benefit to workmen
employed in factories where veneered doors
are made in quantities. The hints and sug-
gestions are to the point, and the instruc-
tions are clear and may be readily under-
stood. The subject of veneered doors is
one that has often been discussed of late
and much light on it has been thrown, yet it will
not suffer, if the subject is again brought forward,
masmuch as the various factories have particular ways
of their own of producing this rapidly growing popu-
larity in the door line. Instead of trying to lay down
any fixed rule, saying thus and so shall they be made,
let us consider some of the essential points which may
^e adapted to suit each condition as the manufacturer
finds it.

I. Equipment. — Aside from the usual door-making
machinery, this consists of larger facilities for preparing
and applying glue, veneer press, resaw for veneers and

Fig. 34

HARDWOOD FINISHER

3T

Fig. 35

panels (unless they are purchased from a dealer in
veneers), a warm room where the glue may be applied
and material gotten ready for the press. Unless the
factory is already supplied with a large kettle for
preparing glue, it will be found of advan-
tage to make a large copper kettle that
will fit the holes in the heater, but large
enough to hold three or four ordinary-
sized kettles of liquid glue. This can be
done by making it higher and wider about
the flange, as shown in Fig. 35. In this
way sufficient glue may be made ready for a good-sized
batch of doors without fear of running out.

Of course, these remarks do not apply to the factory
having modern glue-spreaders, hand or power-feed,
which are very essential in strictly veneer establish-
ments. Our remarks apply only to the shop where
veneered doors are one of the many by-products, so
to speak, which accompany the usual line of mill
work.

For spreading the glue by hand, procure a 4-inch flat
wall brush and prepare it by pouring alcohol gum-
shellac into the roots of the bristles, and driving blind
staples into the butt end, as close
together as possible, thus preventing
the bristles from coming out. Have
a pair of "horses" about 3 feet high,
strongly made, and having an angular
piece on the top, to prevent waste of
the glue, and squeezing it off the work
at the bearing point — see Fig. 36.
Make the veneer press wide enough between the
uprights to. permit of veneering a table top or wide
panel if needed, and have two rows of screws, so that

Fig. 36

38

THE UP-TO-DATE

two stacks of cores may be pressed at one time. A
strong press can be made with 6x6-inch maple
cross-pieces and ^-inch round iron rods, with jambnuts
to hold the upper piece in place, having regular

veneer press screws at

6x6 Mapfe

— nor

BedL^-

5crews^\

A

Cores

^

TDT

6x6 Maple

^ - 'Tin CwA

£fid \/iew

Fig. 37

TUT

least \yk inches diam-
eter. The bedpiece
should be lagged up and
trued, so that it will be
straight and out of
wind. To prevent the
work from sticking to
•the bed, it should be
covered on the top with
zinc or tin — see Fig. 37.
For resawing veneers
and panels, where there
is no band resaw, a
gauge (Fig. 38) and pressure roller (Fig. 39) used on
the band saw table, and i>^-inch saw in proper trim,
with right management should turn three or four
veneers out of inch stock, which may be applied direct
to the coring without dressing, as described later on.

To do a good job of gluing to advantage it is
necessary to have a warm
room, so that a large batch
of material may be worked
at one time. There are va-
rious other purposes to which
this room may be put, but
to make a veneered door properly, without waste
material or lost time, a warming room is very essen-
tial. First, the parts of wood to be glued must be
thoroughly warm; also the temperature of the room

Fig. 38

HARDWOOD FINISHER

19

where the work is to be done must be such as not to
chill the glue and hinder its spreading and making
good joints.

Pressure

^TableTop

Fig. 39

It is taken for
granted that our fac-
tory has a hand jointer,
pony planer, mortiser,
tenoner, sticker, door
clamp and drum Sand-
er. It is a question whether veneered doors can be
profitably made without the few essentials here enumer-
ated, and where they are made in quantities, special
machinery for spreading glue, cutting mouldings,
presses, clamps, panel-raisers, etc., will be needed.

II. Materials. — Dry coring is the first thing that is
required to make good doors. It is usual to cut up the
material and put it in the dry (or warm) room referred
to above, or in a dry-kiln, properly stacked, and leave
it there as long as possible to drive out every par-
ticle of dampness. All waste material of suitable,
size and too poor to be used for any other pur-
pose may be used for coring. It is preferable to
have the strips wide enough so that when
^San^ glued up they may be split through the
Cut center to make two stiles or rails — see
Fig. 40 — thereby saving much labor in
gluing, which item cuts quite a figure in
veneered door work. The stock sawyer
can lay aside such material from time to time and have
it stored as mentioned, so that there is a supply of
dry stuff to draw on when a batch of doors is wanted.
The glue for coring need not be of high grade, and
where quick preparation is desired, a ground or
pulverized bone glue will answer the purpose admi-

FiG. 40

40 THE UP-TO-DATE

rably. The men soon become accustomed to handling
the glue and it needs no soaking, as the flake or
noodle glue does. For veneering a medium grade of
hide-stock glue is to be preferred; one that is free from
acid, clear in color, and not too quick-setting. It will
pay to follow up the glue question more closely than
we usually have done to obtain good results with
economy. The glue for veneering does not want to
be too thick. Practice in the work makes the work-
man proficient in its preparation. It should flow freely
from the brush without being "tacky," as the painter
would say.

The veneers and panels should be cut up and
resawed before they are kiln-dried. The ends should
be glue-sized, and they should be stacked straight and
even in the kiln. Those who have tried resawing kiln-
dried hardwoods, are aware of what a sorry job it
makes; and how the veneers buckle, spring out of
shape, pinch the saw or make it run crooked. When
the saw has not too much set, the veneers may be
glued onto the cores without planing, provided the
sawing is a good, smooth job. Care must be taken
in dressing veneers or panels, not to chip them out, as
that is ruinous in this class of work.

III. Construction. — The man who is doing this
work needs to be familiar with the work and its
methods to do it well and economically. Filling the
doors is the first work towards the desired end. A
list of the size, style, thickness of doors and kinds of
wood should be on each working bill, and follow the
material in its progress out of chaos into stiles, rails,
panels and finally the finished product. This bill
should include the edge strips, the width, length and
thickness of each bundle of cores, the finished size of

HARDWOOD FINISHER 41

the parts they are intended to make, and the number
and both the sawing and finished size of veneers and
panels.

After the sawyer has the material cut, and it is
thoroughly dry, the one who does the gluing assembles
the cores, puts them on the heating coil and prepares
his core glue; the pieces are spread on the horses and
given a coating of glue, assembled in batches, and put
into the press, the surplus glue being squeezed out by
this process, which includes putting the edge strips
on each stile requiring one.

After they have been allowed to set sufficiently,
they are taken to the jointer and the straightest side
trued up. If they are built-up for making two pieces,
they are resawed and again jointed and thickened to
desired size on the pony planer.

They are now ready for veneering. They are again
put in the warm room over the coils; when warm,
they are put on the horses as before, and spread with
glue on both sides; a bottom board is first laid and
then the veneers and cores stacked in regular order.
The veneers must previously be carefully looked over,
poor ones culled out, and any pin holes, porous spots
or checks covered by gluing a piece of paper over, to
prevent two stiles from being stuck together by glue
oozing through such spots. They are again pressed
out, and when dry, trued and sized to width. They
are now ready to be laid out, same as any blind-tenon
door.

The framing must be done in a first-class manner,
with true joints and tight tenons. In fact, all machine
work on veneered doors must be carefully done to
have true work and tight joints.

Instead of putting the panels in when the doors are

42 THE UP-TO-DATE

put in the clamps, the framework is glued together
with open panels, the stiles and rails being grooved,
and after the doors are polished and put on the
finishing bench, a panel strip is put in all around the
edge of each panel, to which the panel mould is glued
and nailed. The moulding is put in one side first,

panels laid in, and moulded the

^^m

^»

other side, as shown in Fig. 41.
This arrangement prevents the
Pj^ ^j moulding from pulling away

from the stiles, should the pan-
els shrink, and allows enough play for the panels to
keep, straight with the natural working of the wood
in the changes of the atmosphere. There is advantage,
too, in gluing up the framework without the panels.
This cannot be done in the case of solid moulded doors.

The finish of a veneered door should be first-class;
the panels, moulds and framework well sandpapered,
and flat surfaces scraped smooth, as every defect seems
magnified when the filler and varnish are applied.

Special care should be taken not to scrape, scratch
or mar the face of the doors in shipping. Many a
good door has been injured by careless packing or
handling in shipping, after the cabinetmaker has
finished his job. They should be crated, if shipped
on a railroad or by boat, or they will not be worth
much on arrival at their destination.

Wedged Doors. — The day of the wedged door has
passed, and all modern-built houses contain what is
known to the trade as "blind-tenon doors." The
"dowel" door is practically a blind-tenon door. In
plants where a set of dowel door machinery has not
been installed, the problem of making these doors
presents itself.

HARDWOOD FINISHER 43

The advantages of this door are the saving of lumber
on the rails, of time in laying out all stiles both sides
and mortising them from both sides, the neat appear-
ance of the stiles, especially on natural-finished work,
and the ease with which they may be glued together.

Several points must be kept in mind in order to
secure success. Let the stock sawyer cut all rails

Fig. 42

exact, so the tenon will not touch the bottom of
mortise before the shoulder is tight at the coping
The tenons should fit more snugly both sides and
endways than in the old way, to hold well and make
tight joints on the muntins. The glue should be
applied to the mortise in such a way that it reaches
the tenon, as well as the shoulders of rails and stiles,
to make a strong job of the gluing.

The cleaning out of chips from the mortise has been
a difficult problem, and it is not yet solved satis-
factorily. Chain-saw mortises obviate this, but they
have their faults, too. The "lip" chisels. Fig. 42,
clear out the loose chips, but leave the fine chips that
are pounded down by the action of the chisel, to be
removed. In order to do this, a long S-shaped chisel
with large wooden handle. Fig. 43, is used. The
blade is i^f-inch wide, and tapers from o at the cutting
edge to yi or ^-inch at the handle.

This is a slow, laborious job. An easier method is

44 THE UP- TO -DATE

to use a twist drill bit in a horizontal boring machine,
leaving the arbor in a fixed position and moving the
stiles back and forth, both lengthwise and sidewise,
by hand. The bit should not be quite as large as the
mortise, so as not to enlarge it and make the tenons fit

Fig. 43

too loosely. Straight-flute bits, double-pointed bits,
flat pieces of steel sharpened on edges and points, and
various other patterns of cutters have been tried, and
drills give the best satisfaction; only, they are easily
broken.

The doors should be framed and stood in a hot room
for about a week, to dry out. When ready to glue
together, they are warm and do not chill the glue as it
is applied. The kind of glue has much to do with the
rapidity with which doors may be glued up. Expen-
sive glue is not required for this work, but a strong,
quick-setting glue is needed, so that the doors do not
have to remain too long in the clamp, thus retarding
the work. A light-colored glue, having had a sufficient
quantity of oxide of zinc mixed with it by the glue
manufacturer, is the kind required. Using this, the
man at the door clamp can take them out of the
clamps about as fast as he can properly apply the glue,
without their springing apart at the joints so as to
require small clamps to hold them.

Bear in mind, in making blind-tenon doors, you
must have good machine work, dry lumber, snug fit
to tenons, quick-setting glue, all applied in a good,
sensible manner. The kinds of wood and styles of

HARDWOOD FINISHER

45

doors both affect the results obtained, and must be
made the subject of study in order to succeed.

A good tool for rubbing out the surplus glue after
the veneering has been put in place is shown in Fig.
44. The rubbing part may be made out of an old plane
iron, or from a worn-out scraper.

THE CHOICE AND USE OF GLUE

Glue is an article which plays an important part in
carpentry. It is therefore to the interest of all to know
how to choose a
good article, and
also how to use it
properly for vari-
ous kinds of work.

First, as to how
to recognize a good
article. It is really
useless to recom-
mend Russian, Scotch, French, etc., as there are good
and bad qualities of each, and we make as good glue
in this country as anywhere in the world. Neither
does the test of looking through the cakes at the
light, and choosing those of only a bright color,
apply in all cases, although it is a fairly good test
with thin glue, that is, glue which is sold in thin
cakes. The best test which the writer has found is
to break a cake into two or three pieces, either by
forcibly bending it, or by striking with the hammer.
If the fractures present a smooth, even surface, the glue
is poor in quality; but if, on the contrary, they pre-
sent a ragged appearance, leaving any amount of
sharp splinters, it is evidence of good quality, and may

46 THE UP-TO-DATE

be depended upon. The latter is to be preferred, as
being best able to stand the damp weather without
going mouldy and perishing.

The best way to prepare glue for use is to break up
sufficient to fill the inner vessel of the glue pot into
small pieces, and fill the vessel with water. After
soaking a few hours, the outer vessel can be filled with
water, and allowed to boil. When this takes place,
give the contents of the inner vessel a good stir
occasionally until all is melted, when the glue should
run off the brush freely, and be almost as thin to all
appearances as good linseed oil.

In glueing up joints of any descilption, or in repair-
ing furniture, the great object is to get the wood into
as close contact as possible before the glue begins to
set; and the best way to manage this is to put on plenty
of glue, boiling hot, and by means of pressure or by
rubbing the parts together, to rub out as much as
possible. The general idea is that a certain amount of
glue must be left in a joint, and that it will hold best
if it is reasonably thick. Greater mistakes were never
made. The thinner the better, and the less left in the
stronger the joint will be; therefore it follows that
unless the parts to be joined fit closely together, a
strong joint is impossible.

The glue pot must be kept free from dust and damp,
as glue which goes mouldy, or gets mixed with foreign
matter, is useless; therefore, unless it is used fairly
often, only a moderate quantity should be made at
one time.

The outer or water vessel of the glue pot should be
large, so as to be capable of holding enough water to
keep the glue hot long enough for any reasonable job.
A small water vessel is a continual nuisance, owing to

HARDWOOD FINISHER 47

its continually boiling dry when making glue, and
failing to hold the heat when using it. Therefore,
when purchasing, do not get one which holds less than
a quart of water at the least. The extra cost will be
saved in a very short time.

For large establishments where much glue is
required, special appliances are provided, and may be
obtained from most dealers in plumbers' goods.

For glue to be properly effective it requires to
penetrate the pores of the wood, and the more a body
of glue penetrates the wood, the more substantial the
joint will remain. Glues that take the longest to dry
are to be preferred to those that dry quickly, the slow-
drying glues being always the strongest, other things
being equal. For general use no method gives such
good results as the following: Break the glue up
small, put into an iron kettle, cover the glue with
water and allow it to soak twelve hours; after soaking,
boil until done. Then pour it into an airtight box,
leave the cover off till cold, then cover up tight. As
glue is required, cut out a portion and melt in the usual
way. Expose no more of the made glue to the
atmosphere for any length of time than is necessary,
as the atmosphere is very destructive to made glue.
Never heat made glue in a pot that is subjected to the
direct heat of the fire or a lamp. All such methods of
heating glue cannot be condemned in terms too severe.
Do not use thick glue for joints or veneering. In all
cases work it well into the wood, in a similar manner
to what painters do with paint. Glue both surfaces of
your work, excepting in case of veneering. Never
glue upon hot wood, as the hot wood will absorb all
the water in the glue too suddenly, and leave only a
very little residue, with no adhesive power in it.

48 THE UP-TO-DATE

REMARKS ON VENEERING

A wood suitable for veneering requires to be
thoroughly well seasoned, free from knots and shakes,
and should not contain turps. The best of woods for
the purpose are mahogany and American walnut,
although good pine answers well for ordinary purposes.
The surface, if flat, is carefully planed with the
trying plane. It is then well toothed over with the
toothing plane — first the lengthways of the wood and
afterward the crossways — care being taken to tooth
the work thoroughly. If you are working pine, use a
coarse toothing iron; if mahogany or other hardwood,
a finer iron is requisite. If the wood presents a
hollow or rounded surface, it is shaped with suitable
planes, rasps and files, and finally well prepared cross-
ways with coarse glass paper such as strong No. 2 or
No. 2}i.

The next preparation is sizing. To make the size,
take one part of good glue and boil it well with 50
parts of water; then brush over the ground-work while
hot; allow to dry, and, if there should be any defects
in the ground-work, fill in with stopping. Make your
stopping by mixing some finely ground plaster of Paris
with hot glue and water, enough to form a moderately
stiff paste. Then lay in where necessary with a chisel,
taking care to allow for shrinkage; let it dry, then
level off with a rasp.

Having sized the ground-work over, next proceed to
the preparation of the veneer while it is drying.
Look carefully to the wood before cutting it, and see
that it is done in such a manner as to get the grain of
it to the best advantage. Cut it rather larger than the
surface it is intended to veneer, to allow for leveling
at the ends and sides. Most veneers, such as mahog-

HARDWOOD FINISHER 49

any, oak, chestnut, maple, sycamore, birch, satinwood
and various other woods, are ready for cutting as
received from the merchant; but some., like burr
walnut, brown oak, Amboyna, etc., present an uneven
surface, called "backly. " When this is the case,
damp one side with clear water, lay it down with its
dry side upward, and put the wet side of the next
veneer upon it, repeating the operation till all are
done. Take particular care to keep each veneer, if
there are more than three or four, in its proper order
as you damp and turn over, and do not on any account
get them mixed. Let the wood stand about four or
five hours, then lay them out to allow to nearly dry
and they will be ready for cutting out.

The next process is flatting. Get two pieces of
wood (dry, straight pine will answer), rather longer
than the veneer, and heat them on a stove or before a
bright fire; then place the veneer together between the
hand screw, and allow it to remain for about half an
hour; repeat this operation until the veneer is perfectly
dry and thoroughly flat.

Our wood is now ready for filling in. If it is per-
fectly sound this operation is, of course, unnecessary;
but it frequently happens, especially with burr walnut,
that it contains holes that require filling. To do this,
take a piece of the veneer (off the edges of that
already cut out), and flat it precisely as the other.
Select the part of it which matches best with the grain
of the wood around the hole to be filled in. Place this
underneath the hole. If you have a stamp rather
larger than the hole, you may now cut it square or
circular and the piece for filling it at the same time.
If not, take an ordinary pocket knife having a sharp
point and cut your hole and veneer the required shape.

50 THE UP-TO-DATE

When you have filled in the wood, lay it on a flat
board, then press the piece in with a hammer. If
they are rather large use one or two finely pointed
tacks to keep them in position. Now cover all the
pieces with strips of paper, selecting a strong paper
such as copy book or note paper for the purpose — one
that is not too thick — and glue it on one side. Take
care to use glue just thick enough to hold the wood in
position. Pay particular attention to this, or it will
cause a good deal of trouble. You will find it best to
cut the paper in strips about i^ to i>^ inches wide.
Lay it on a board to glue and smooth it over your
veneer with a damp rag.

Jointing. — We now procee' to jointing. Place the
veneer in the position it will appear when laid.
Observe that it matches. If you are to have one joint
with two veneers or two joints with four veneers, see
that the grain of the wood forms a figure having both
sides alike. If the veneers have b en kept in their
right or following order, this will not be difficult. If
you are working a thick veneer (saw cut), make the
joints with an iron plane or ordinary trying plane on
the shooting board; if using thin veneer (knife cut),
make them with a chisel and straight-edge. Take
particular care to have the bevel edge of the chisel
against the straight-edge when cutting or it will run,
and you may come off with an ugly cut. Now put the
jointed edges together on a deal board, and tack one
edge down; put the tacks about ^ inch from the
jointed edges and about 2}^ inches apart. Having
tacked one piece down, put the other up to it and tack
it in the same manner. Now cover all the joints with
paper, glue together in the same manner as prtv
viously mentioned in fhe filling in; smooth it well down

HARDWOOD FINISHER 51

with a damp rag and allow to dry. If the weather is
hot it is best to cover your joints to prevent them
drying too quickly. A good and simple method is to
lay your board with the veneer downward on the floor.
Let the joints dry, then take out the tacks and knock
the head holes in with a hammer from the underneath
side. Put the veneer aside until you are ready for
laying it. It is best to cover it up and keep the air
from it by placing it under a board or wrapper.

There are two ways of laying veneer — by means of a
caul or a veneering hammer. I shall describe both
methods, although the first is of greater importance,
and should, whenever practicable, be adopted, but in
certain cases which I shall mention the second is
extremely useful.

Veneering by Caul. — First make a caul, then take a
piece of well-seasoned cedar or pine, rather larger than
the surface intended to cover (about i inch to i^
inches each way), and plane it up true on both sides,
if the work is flat. If otherwise, make it to the
requisite shape to fit the work, hollow, round, or
whatever it may be. If it is necessary to shape the
caul, use thicker stuff, and it is advisable to screw on
two or three battens on the back. When making
shaped cauls it is best at the same time to get out the
pieces of wood necessary to form a flat surface when
the wood is put in the caul. Thus, suppose we wanted
to veneer a door having a rounded surface on one
side and a hollow one on the other. We have made
a hollow caul to correspond with the rounded surface
having its under side flat. Now put the rounded side
of the door in the caul and shape your piece of wood,
rounding it to fit the hollow side. They should be 2
inches wide — the same width or a little larger than the

52 THE UP-TO-DATE

caul, and 5 inches or 6 inches apart. If one side only
of tne wood is shaped these woods are unnecessary.
If the wood is not wide enough, make a good joint,
dowel it together, and take it to pieces for heating.
The caul, if likely to be much in use, should be
covered with zinc. Cut the metal out large enough
to cover the face of it, with sufficient to turn over the
edges and ends, and fasten it on with flat-headed zinc
or copper nails.

Numerous failures in unaccustomed hands may be
ascribed to bad glue. Nothing but the very best glue
should be used for veneering. Get the very best
glue you can, break it up and boil thoroughly. It
differs so much in strength that the proportion of
water cannot be given, but after breaking up in pieces
just cover with water and allow it to soak; then boil
off with frequent stirring. It will, if good, now
require about half as much water as previously added
to bring it to the right consistence for veneering. It
should be spread evenly with the brush and be free
from lumps. Having made the caul and prepared the
glue, get the hand screws and cramps to commence
laying. Heat the caul on a stove or before a bright
fire. If it is to be doweled together, and if it is more
convenient, take it to pieces, taking care to mark your
joints first. If you intend laying two similar pieces of
veneer on flat surfaces, heat both sides of it and do both
pieces together. If not, get one side of it well heated,
as hot as you can without letting it burn. While it is
heating, set the hand screws and cramps open as near
the distance as you will require them, and place handy
for the work. Now glue the ground-work well, and
if tfie veneer shows any signs of being backly glue it
slightly on the underneath side, as this will help tc

HARDWOOD FINISHER 53

soften it. Having finished gluing, put the veneer on
the work and smooth it over gently with the hand.
Then see that the caul is hot enough, and that its
surface is free from any small cinders or dirt. Now
rub it over with a greasy rag, and lay it gently on your
veneer. Draw the work and caul a little over the edge
of the bench, just enough to get the hand screw on;
put it on very gently, then tighten as much as
possible. You can then stand it upon the floor, and if
you have nobody to hold it for you rest the hand screw
against the bench while you put on the remainder.
They should be placed about 6 inches apart, and mind
that they bite fairly. Do not get any screws tighter
than the other, or you will only get the pressure at the
outside and inside of the cramps. If you have a piece
of work so wide that the screws will not reach the
center from either side or the ends, get two pieces of
wood 2 inches or 2^ inches thick and about the same
thickness, plane them up, slightly rounding on one
side, put their rounding sides facing each other on the
work, and hand screw them at each end; they will
then tighten in the middle and give sufficient pressure.
Let the caul remain on for nearly an hour (in very hot
weather longer will not hurt), then undo the hand
screws, and if the caul sticks, insert the edge of a thin
metal square, the back of a hand saw, or anything of
a similar nature, between it and the veneer, and work
it carefully about until you get them apart. If the
glue has been used thick enough and the caul well
greased, there will not be very much trouble, and they
will often come apart themselves, or by giving the end
of the caul a tap with the hammer, or on the end of the
bench. See that the veneer is down. Feel it all over
with the hand. If it is up you will be able to tell bv

54 THE UP-TO-DATE

the hollow sound on tapping it with the tip of your
finger, as well as by the raised appearance called blisters
it will present when held to the light. If you heat
your caul sufficiently, use the glue thick enough, and
put the hand screws on properly, you will not be
troubled with blisters. Should, however, there be
any, let the work stand for one or two hours, and then
put a smaller hot caul on when required until well
down all over.

To level the veneer, first lay it (veneer downward)
on a board and scrape off with a chisel as much of the
glue that has come over the edges as you can. Now
put it on the bench screw, and level toward you, with
the paring chisel if thin veneers; if thick, use a
smoothing plane. Put it aside to dry. If you have
two pieces of the same size put them with their veneer
.sides together; if only one, place it .so that the air
does not get to the veneer; allow to stand for two or
three days, then scrape off the paper for filling in
pieces and jointing with a chisel, having previously
damped it with hot water. The work is now ready for
sizing. This operation may be dispensed with, but it
is decidedly advantageous, especially if working wood
which has an open grain. The size, which should be
about the same strength as that used for the ground-
work, is brushed or rubbed over the veneer with the
hand, then wiped off as dry as possible with a cloth.

As has already been mentioned, this method is useful
in certain cases. We sometimes want to veneer an
edge, to put a narrow slip of veneer on some small
surface where it would be very inconvenient to caul it
down. If you are working a wood of a glossy or
greasy description, like satinwood or rosewood, its
nature will not admit of sufficient pressure by this

HARDWOOD FINISHER

55

process, nor should it ever be adopted for work
where water will act injuriously. I believe the pre-
vailing opinion is that veneer requires a good deal of
water to make it lie. In the first process, you will
remember that it is laid quite dry. In the second
process water is used, and if we consider that a damp
surface tends to cause the wood to cast as it dries, we
can readily understand where it should be used.

Veneering Round and Tapering Columns. — Occasions
often arise where it is desirable to veneer columns of
varying size and shape, and just how to do the work
to the best advantage is a question not always readily
determined by the workman.
In commenting upon this
matter a well-known author-
ity offers the following sug-
gestions concerning tapering r—
columns:

"The success of this work
depends entirely on the
proper cauls. The spong-
ing and gluing is the same as the work previously men-
tioned. Take a circular column 3 or 4 inches in diameter,
the core to be made of any suitable material. Pass a
piece of paper around the core and make a straight
joint through the center and we have the exact size of
the veneer. A caul of tin with a cleat on each end for
the purchase of the hand screws is to be made as in Fig.
45, leaving the top open for an inch or more to give the
glue a chance to escape. Apply the glue to the core and
pass the veneer around it, not forgetting, however, to
sponge the veneer before doing so. After screwing
together, put the whole in the steam box to warm up the
stiffened glue. After the work has become thoroughly

Fig. 45

S6

THE UP-TO-DATE

warm, take it out and give the hand screws a few turns,
then lay it aside until the glue is set. Take off the
hand screws and dispense with the tin cauls. The

ends may then be
brought together, as
shown in Fig. 46, only
the caul on the joint is
to be heated.

"Fig. 47 is a tapering
column. The work is
the same as above de-
scribed, only the shape
of the veneer is differ-
ent, which may be got
either by passing paper
around, trimming on both ends and making a straight
joint in center of column, or by laying out the diagram,
as in Fig. 48. In explanation thereof, let A, B, C, D
represent the column
in question. To find
the shape of a veneer
to pass around this
column extend AB
and CD to E. With
the radius EC and
ED, describe the arcs|
CF and OH, which
will be the required
shape, and the dis-
tance AF and IH will
pass half-way around,

and the veneer requires to be cut as large again to
pass all around the column. Under no circumstances
make more than one joint. By following the instruc-

HARDWOOD FINISHER

if

Fig. 48

}t THE UP-TO-DATE

tion herein given any fair mechanic will be enabled to
execute a creditable piece of work."

In veneering small work, such as picture frames,
clock stands or similar work, cauls should be reverse
of the moulding or face of the work to be veneered,
and the top of caul, when laid on the moulding, should
be parallel with the under side of the work, so that
caul and work can be gripped firmly with hand screws,
when the veneer is being glued in place.

The section shown in Fig. 49 is known in the trade
as a plain chamfer, and Fig. 50 shows a method by
which such a frame maybe veneered
without taking it to pieces. Veneer
}i inch thick can only be laid with
cauls; and a suitable one is shown,
and also the method of fixing it.
v/0y^oi^ The dotted outline of the caul is
shown in section in Fig. 49, with the
Fig. 49 veneer between it and the base. If

the frames are polished, remove
the polish carefully with a sharp scraper; avoid work-
ing the surface into holes, but leave it rough from the
scraper. Cut the veneer to a width that will allow
sufficient margin for beveling, as shown in Fig. 49,
and tooth or scratch the under face with a saw. Joint
the inside edge to a correct bevel, cut to a miter and
joint the ends in a miter joint, bedding the veneer
either on a piece of the moulding or on a waste piece
chamfered to the same angle; this is to obtain a vertical
face to the miter. Next prepare the caul (as shown
in Fig. 49) out of a piece of deal. The caul should be
i^inch shorter than the veneer, and mitered at each
end; not cut square as shown in Fig. 50; which is
drawn thus for clearness. Make the caul slightly

HARDWOOD FINISHER

59

round in length and beveled, so that the two surfaces
marked AB (Fig. 49) are parallel. Well glue the
veneer and the frame, lay the veneer in the proper
position, place a strip of paper on the surface of the
veneer, and lay the caul (preferably hot) upon this
paper and fix with hand screws as shown, the more
screws the better. Take care that the inside edge of

Fig. 50

the veneer is flush with the edges of the frame. Pro-
ceed to fix the opposite side in like manner; then
wipe off the superfluous glue with a rag dipped in hot
water, and wash the miters clean; then fit in the two
end pieces, which can be fixed in the manner described
for the sides. Allow twelve hours to dry, then clean
off the back edges and scrape up the faces.

MAKING READY FOR POLISHING

If the workman who finally finishes woodwork had
the selection of the materials out of which the work

6o THE UP-TO-DATE

is formed, and wrought the work himself, the follow-
ing suggestions would scarcely be required, for he
would see to it that the material was free from shakes,
cracks, worm holes, doze, sap and fractures; and he
would so choose his material that the full beauty of
the grain would show, when the polish coat went on.
He would also see that the work was clean; that is,
that no plane marks were visible, no rough spots or
cross-grains noticeable, and that all angles were sharp
and definite, all mouldings smooth and not a nail head
or screw top to be seen, nor any point that could
suggest a nail head. As a rule, however, the work-
man who puts on the last finishing touches never
makes the work, though he is always expected to
cover and hide all the faults of bad workmanship, bad
selection of timber, and a thousand other objection-
able things in connection with work over which he
has had no control. In order to aid the finisher as
much as possible, I give a few hints herewith, for the
use of the workman whose duty it may be to prepare
and put up the work to be finished. The suggestions
given are equally applicable for hard and soft woods,
and I trust they will not be out of place.

First, then, see that the material is dry, free from
imperfections, of the full sizes required, and of such
variety of grain as may be suitable for the purpose
intended. Next, make all joints close and as near
perfect as possible, as on this point rests, in a great
measure, the artistic appearance of the work. Make
all angles sharp and clean, and all mitered mouldings
true and with perfect intersections. Never use glass
paper where a scraper can be applied, and when a
large quantity of mouldings of similar contour and size
are to be employed; it is always better to make a

HARDWOOD FINISHER

6i

Fig. 51

scraper their reverse shape, and use it in cleaning and
preparing the mouldings for the varnisher, than to use
glass paper for the purpose.

The scraper illustrated by Fig. 51, ana shown handled
by Fig. 52, is an aid in producing surfaces more flat
and regular than can
be produced with
the plane alone. Its
use does not dis-
pense with the
plane; on the con-
trary, any surface
on which the scraper
is to be used must previously be planed as level and
smooth as plane can make it. But the plane, in doing
its work — no matter how sharp it may be, or how closely
the back-iron is set up to the edge of the cutting iron,
or how straight across the edge the cutting iron is
sharpened — is liable to leave marks and ridges on the
face of the work, which, on hard woods,
are not effectively removed by the use
of sandpaper alone. The scraper is
used after the plane has finished its work,
and previous to the final operation of
sandpapering. In addition to the re-
moval of the ridges left by the plane,
the scraper is used for dressing up all
kinds of cross-grained surfaces that occur
in curly and figured solid and veneer woods; but as far
as possible this use of the scraper should be avoided.
Excessive dressing up of a cross-grained patch on a
panel, a stile, or a table-top will most certainly show,
and spoil the flatness and general appearance of the
article when it is polished. As a rule, such excessive

Fig. 52

62 THE UP-TO-DATE

scraping is resorted to in consequence of the plane
having been sharpened and set badly, or of some other
technical oversight or unskillful manipulation.

The scraper is a thin and very hard steel plate, about
5 in. by 3 in., or 4>^ in. by 2j^ in., and slightly less
than yV in- ^^ thickness. The long edges are sharpened
in a peculiar manner. Both of the long edges may be
straight, as in Fig. 51, and at AB, Fig. 53, or one
edge may have round corners of differing radii, as at

CD. These corners are
^ often useful in working
up hollows and mould-
ings generally. The
"straight" edge AB, it
will be noticed, is not
quite straight throughout
its whole length. Near
the ends the edge is gradually rounded off, to prevent
the corners catching in the surface that is being operated
on. In this respect, the commercial scraper (Fig. 51) is
incorrectly shaped. The cutting power of a scraper
depends upon, first, the quality and temper of the steel
of which it is made; and, secondly, upon the proper
formation of the burr or feather along its edges. Also,
the faces of the steel plate must be perfectly bright
and free from rust marks or indentations of any kind.
It is by no means an uncommon thing to find any rusty
piece of sheet steel— a piece of an old hand saw or
try-square, for example — being used as a scraper.
The smallest appreciation of why the scraper cuts
would indicate how useless such material is for this
particular purpose. On the other hand, scarcely any-
thing better can be found for making a scraper than a
piece of broken saw blade, provided the sides of it are

HARDWOOD FINISHER 63

still polished and bright. The fact that the saw was
broken may easily be taken to indicate a higher temper
than usual in the blade, thus fitting it exactly for the
purpose of a scraper. The temper of an ordinary
saw blade is not usually hard enough. Provided
that there is enough elasticity to "give" in the
operator's hands as it is being pushed along, the
scraper should be nearly too hard for an ordinary
file to touch. If it can be filed easily, then its edge
will soon be gone. At the same time, if the steel
is merely hard without the required amount of elas-
ticity, the burr will strip off as it is applied to the
work, leaving a coarse, jagged edge which is worse
than useless.

The correctly sharpened scraper is a real cutting
tool, and not, as its name suggests — and as in practice
it often is — a mere abrader of the surface. When in
good working trim, the scraper should, if desired, take
off shaving after shaving perfectly uniform in thick-
ness, and nearly as wide as the cutting edge is long.
But such a performance is rarely required of it, and
never when the plane has previously done its work
properly. Too much emphasis cannot be laid on the
fact that the proper duty of the scraper is not to make
a surface, but to correct the irregularities on it. In
explanation of the cutting action of the scraper, a
diagrammatic figure is shown in Fig. 66. The figure
correctly illustrates the cutting principle, though it
does not represent a true section of the scraper. In
use, the scraper is held firmly in both hands and tilted
forwards, away from the operator, until the cutting
edge grips the surface of the wood, exactly as shown
in Fig. 54. It is then kept steadily at this angle, and
made to cut a fine shaving at each stroke as it is being

64

THE UP-TO-DATE

pushed away from the operator in the direction frona
h to F (Fig. 54).

The proper formation of the burr edge is of the
greatest importance. Having procured a suitable

Fig. 54

steel plate, a usual but not recommended method is
as follows: The plate is laid down on the bench as
shown in Fig. 55. A narrow chisel, brad-awl or gouge,

as shown in Fig.
56, is then laid on
the scraper hori-
zontally, and with
considerable pres-
sure is stroked
backwards and
forwards from end
to end of the
plate, G to H,
Fig. 55. After
about 10 or 12
strokes the scraper is turned over and the other side is
treated in the same manner. This completes the first
part of the process of sharpening. Next, the gouge

Fig. 55

HARDWOOD FINISHER

6i

is placed vertically against the edge, as shown in Fig.
57, and stroked to and fro with about the same
pressure and firmness as the sides of plate received.

Fig. 56

and about the same number of times. Or else, for

this second part, the scraper may be placed on its

corner on the bench, as shown in Fig. 58, and held

firmly in the left

hand, while the

right hand deftly

strokes the convex

side of the gouge

with a quick action

and considerable

pressure, once or

twice in an upward

direction, as from

I to J in Fig. 58.

Thescraper is then

tried on the work

to determine its

sharpness. If,

after this process,

thescraper fails to

cut satisfactorily,

it is laid down on

the bench and the two processes are repeated. The

following is a better method of sharpening a scraper:

First, have the scraper ground so that its edge shall be

Fig. 57

66

THE UP-TO-DATE

straight and square, and slope up at the ends, as shown
at A and B, Fig. 53. It should then be placed on its edge
on a fine-cutting oilstone, as shown in Fig. 60, and
rubbed backwards and forwards until all traces of the
grinding have disappeared. Then it should be laid flat
on its side, still on the oilstone, as in Fig. 61, and
rubbed until the sides are bright and polished all along
the edges. If any false burr or feather-edge has been

created in this last
process, the scrap-
er must be set up
on its edge again,
as in Fig. 60, and
rubbed a little
more, until two
perfectly square
and sharp corners
appear all along
the scraper. Now,
if due care has
really been taken
inmaking the
corners perfect
and square, the
scraper in this condition would produce shavings
tolerably well on any hardwood; but the shaving
would be the result of abrasive and not of cutting
action. It is purely a matter of choice if, at this
stage, a smooth-backed gouge is passed to and fro
over the side of the scraper, as in Fig. 55, with the
object of imparting a still higher polish to the plate of
st^el at the places where the burr is to be formed.
But the greatest care must be taken not to press too
heavily, and also to maintain a perfectly level position

HARDWOOD FINISHER

67

with the gouge, while the polishing is being done. As
stated, this polishing of the side is not really
necessary, and the scraper would cut very well without

Fig. 59

its supposed assistance. Next, the scraper is placea
on its corner on the bench, and a flat and smooth-
backed gouge is passed once — or at most twice — along

the edge. The scraper
during this operation
may be held either as
already shown in Fig,
57, or as is here rec-
ommended and shown
in Fig. 61 ; or it may be
fastened in the bench-
vise. The aim in this
particular action is the production of an exceedingly fine
burr, scarcely enough to be called a burr at all, but a per-
fectly regular bending over of the corner; the gouge

Fig. 60

68

THE UP-TO-DATE

must be very lightly pressed, or it will cause the bun
to curl up too much, and also it must be kept nearly,
though not quite, horizontal. With regard to resharp-

ening the scraper,
when this becomes
necessary, the
scraper must be
placed upon the
oilstone and
rubbed up again to
perfectly square
corners as pre-
viously described
in connection with
Figs. 60 and 61.

There are other
methods of sharp-
ening scrapers
which are made
use of by some
workmen; indeed, nearly every workman, after expe-
rience, will adopt such method as will seem to him to
be the best for the purpose. There are workmen who
seldom or never use an oilstone, but employ
a fine file instead, and draw file the edge of
the scraper as shown in Fig. 63. This is done
by placing the scraper in a vise and with a
smooth, flat file making the edge perfectly
square and as straight as possible after the man-
ner of jointing a hand saw. Next place the file
squarely across the edge and pass it from end to end of
the scraper two or three times. This operation is known
as draw-filing, a plan view of the position and direction
of the file being shown in Fig. 63. Treat all four edges

^'W.

m

Fig. 62

HARDWOOD FINISHER

69

the same way. The edge, as it will now appear, is
shown enlarged and exaggerated in Fig. 64. Remove
the scraper from the vise and lay it flat on the bench,
then taking the gouge, Fig. 56, rub out straight all the
wire edges, keeping the gouge on the scraper and passing
it quickly back and forth after the manner of stropping

Fig. 63

a razor. The edge will then appear as in Fig. 65.

Now, taking the scraper in the left hand and holding

it firmly edgewise on the bench, place the gouge

across the edge, making a small bevel with the side of

the scraper, and draw it upward two or three times,

using considerable pressure^ This will turn the edge

back as it was after filing, but it will

now be straight instead of grooved, and

smooth instead of ragged. All of the

eight edges must be treated in the same

manner, when they will appear as in

Fig. 66, and the scraper should now f??^

Fig. 64 take off 3 shaving like a smooth-plane, Fig. 65

but much finer.

In order to resharpen the scraper it is not necessary

to go through the filing operation again for some time —

simply flatten out the edges and turn them again with

a little more bevel than before. This can be done

70

THE UP-TO-DATE

Fig. 66

very rapidly. In order to avoid too many stops,
always keep three or four scrapers at hand and sharpen

them all at once.
The best thing
with which to hold
the scraper is a
piece of sandpa-
per, with the
sanded side next
the scraper. This
gives a good grip
and prevents the
tool from burning
the fingers.

Some people file the edge of the scraper rounding,
to prevent the corners from catching. This is not at
all necessary, as the
action of pushing the
scraper bends it slight-
ly, which raises the cor-
ners somewhat. The
sharpening of a scraper,
however, like the sharp-
ening of a hand saw,
takes considerable prac-
tice and no little knack;
so if at first one does
not succeed it is only
necessary to keep peg-
ging away at it until
success crowns the
efforts, for it is well
worth all the trouble. It may De mentioned incident-
ally that a good burnisher may be bought all ready at

Fig. 67

HARDWOOD FINISHER

71

any good hardware store. Leather curriers use them
for turning the edges of their knives and they are bet-
ter than a gouge because of their being tempered harder
and more highly finished.

The true theory of a scraper, for some purposes,
may be described as follows: Where there is a lot of
superfluous wood to remove, as in hardwood floors or
other similar work, where it is not desirable to use a
smooth plane, it is well to file or grind the scraper to a
bevel, the same as a
plane iron, and bring it
to a keen edge on the
oilstone; then proceed
to burnish it. Hold the
burnisher slightly at an
angle with the bevel as
indicated in Fig. 67,
and draw it lightly
across the blade. Then
increase the angle and
the pressure, repeating
the process until the
burnisher is at nearly
right angles with the
blade, after which run

the burnisher back and forward a few times, first one
side and then the other, as indicated in Fig. 68, when it
is ready for use. When it becomes a little dull, do not
turn the edge back, as many do, but use the burnisher,
as shown in Fig. 68. A good blade will stand for two
or three hours without filing or grinding.

For fine work file or grind the blade perfectly square
on the edge and get it perfectly smooth on the oil-
stone. Then hold the burnisher as shown in Fig. 69,

72

THE UP-TO-DATE

the dotted lines indicating how to start and the full
Hnes how to finish. In all cases finish the operation
as shown in Fig. 69. If unsuccessful the first time, do
not give up the job, for the scraper is a tool that
requires a great deal of practice in order to become
expert in sharpening.

Defective Sharpening of Scrapers. — A frequent mis-
take is to put too great pressure on the gouge, and to
stroke too much. One or two strokes should be quite
I , sufficient to give the

scraper the proper
edge. At all events,
after the scraper has
had a couple of
strokes of the bur-
nisher or gouge, it
should be tried, and
if it does not grip the
work properly, give
it a few strokes more.
Scrapers with a high
temper require more
burnishing than if
soft or medium tem-
per, but if overdone, the edge will crumble and it will not
do clean work. Soft scrapers are easier handled than
hard ones, but require a great deal more sharpening,
and this sometimes leads to rough work, as the workman
will not take time to repeatedly put his scraper in order.
As before stated, the workman should have at least
three or four scrapers on hand, and they should always
be kept in good order. It is a good plan to have a
little box or case in the tool chest purposely to hold
scrapers, for two reasons: The workman will always

HARDWOOD FINISHER

73

Fig. 70

know where to find them when wanted and, secondly,
it will save the edges from being broken or damaged
by being jolted or
rubbed against other
tools.

Varieties of Scrap-
ers.— There is a new
scraper in the market
which is said to be
superior to anything
made in the scraper
line. A representa-
tion of it is shown in Fig. 70, which is taken from an
advertisement. I do not know of my own knowledge

how the scraper
works, but, judg-
ing from its shape
and setting, I
should think it
theoretically cor-
FiG. 71 rect.

Other shapes of scrapers are shown in Figs. 71 and
']2. The first of these is intended for smoothing up
hollows and rounds. A
number of these should
be kept on hand, with
curves of various radii.
Fig. 72 shows a scraper
made purposely for clean-
ing out hollows of various
curvatures, and will be
found very useful on work
where there are a number of curves or other hollow
mouldings. Often the workman may have to make

Fig. 72

74

THE UP-TO-DATE

>>^S^^^^5!^

Fig. 73

scrapers to suit certain kinds of work, and when
such is the case, he should make it a fixed rule
never to change them, but to keep them in his tool
chest, and make others, when necessary, from new
material. An old hand saw blade
generally answers quite well for scrap-
ers, and one saw will make a couple
of dozen scrapers of different sizes and
shapes.
How to Use Sandpaper. — For properly
using sandpaper a rubber is needed. A piece of ma-
hogany or clean pine, sH ir^- by 3 in. by I in., shaped
as in Fig. 73, answers well if a piece of sheet cork is
glued on the face as shown. Fold a piece of sandpa-
per, 6 in. wide and about 10 in. long, into three, place it
sand side downwards, and put the face of the rubber
on the middle division. Grasp the rubber so that the
ends of the sandpaper are held firmly on its back and
sides (see Fig. 74), and work then can be commenced.
A solid rubber about one inch thick makes an
excellent block for the purpose. A piece of rubber
belting glued to a piece of bass-
wood also makes a good rubber
block.

Rasps and Files.— The wood-
worker occasionally uses rasps,
and these generally are half-
round, though sometimes flat.
The cabinet rasp shown in Fig.
75 is not a very coarse one.

Cabinet and wood rasps range from 4 in. to 14 in.
in length, and at 12 in. and less the price is about
4 cents per inch. The extra 2 in. in a 14-inch rasp
adds nearly 50 per cent to the price. Files also

Fig. 74

HARDWOOD FINISHER 75

are used, for smoothing up hardwood. When a
file is used, it should be pushed and drawn in the
direction of the grain. The file usually em-
ployed by carriage makers for
smoothing up spokes and other
work is generally a half-round
bastard file, and when properly
used makes exceedingly smooth
work. A finer file than the bastard
is shown in Fig. 'jd. This is some-
times used for finishing narrow
flat work.

SAWS FOR WORKING HARDWOOD

Saw-filing is an art unto itself,
and few men ever attain the art
to perfection. To file a saw in
such manner that the working of
it is a pleasure requires an amount
of skill and a high order of tech-
jwfijjpjllj nical knowledge that can only be
W^P acquired by thought and expe-
mW^ rience; yet a properly set and filed
saw is a real necessity in the mak-
ing of good joiners' work, and,
while every workman cannot
become an expert saw-filer, he
ought at least to possess such
knowledge of the art as will ena-
ble him to set and file his own
saws in such a manner as will ena-
ble him to execute such work as
he maybe called upon to make;
Fis. 75 and to this end, I propose to offer Fig. 76

76

THE UP-TO-DATE

a few instructions and remarks that will assist him in
managing his own saws without the employment of
expert aid. It is not my intention to go into the mat-
ter of saw-filing to any great extent, as that subject will
probably be discussed at length in another volume,
but what I do offer will, I trust, be up to the mark.

All workmen in wood require two saws, namely, a
cross-cut saw, and a rip-saw. The shape of the teeth
in these saws differs, also the size, and each requires a
special form of tooth and a different style of filing.

Many workmen think that so long as the tooth of a
saw has a sharp edge the shape of the tooth is a matter

f1

^^

Fig. 77

of small importance, and as a result of this ignorance
or indifference they are always in trouble with their
saws, and their work becomes much more laborious
than if proper attention had been paid to the shape of
the teeth. Substances of different texture cannot be
cut advantageously with the same tool; in fact, the
tool must be adapted to the work if the best all-
round results are to be produced. Fig. yy illustrates
a form of tooth suitable for an ordinary hand rip-saw.
The tooth points number about four to the inch, and
the front of the tooth is upright, that is, at an angle
of 90°. The face of the tooth should be filed to an
angle of 85° to 87°, or 3° to 5° from the square. Some

HARDWOOD FINISHER

77

experts contend that the teeth of a rip-saw should be
filed dead square. The object in filing them a little
on the bevel is that the teeth may cut more freely and
easily when they have become a bit dull, there being
then what is termed a little clearance cut in the teeth.
In nearly all timber there is, it is well known, a certain

V7

Fig. 78

amount of fiber to be cut either directly or obliquely
across, and teeth that are filed square will not, whether
they are sharp or dull, divide this fiber so easily as
teeth that have a slight bevel.

The illustration. Fig. 77, shows a saw tooth that
works quite well in the softer woods, but for the harder

Fig. 79

woods a little more plane or angle on the cutting edge
would cause the saw to cut with less labor; and if the*'^
were about five teeth to the inch, it would cut with eac
any kind of hardwood.

The teeth shown in Fig. 78 are well suited to a hand
saw used for cross-cutting soft wood. The tooth

78 THE UP-TO-DATE

points in this saw may number five or six to the inch.
The front of the tooth slopes at an angle of about 105°.
The face of the tooth in sharpening should be filed to
an angle of from 55° to 60°. The softer the timber
that is to be cross-cut, the more acute should be the
angle of the teeth, as the keener edge separates the
fibers more easily. Fig. 79 shows a form of hand saw

Fig. 80

tooth suitable for cross-cutting hardwood. The number
of tooth points may be from six to eight to the inch,
and the front of the tooth should slope at an angle of
110° to 115°, according to the hardness of the timber
to be sawed. The face of this tooth should be filed to
an angle of 70° to 75°, because the cutting edge must

be less acute owing to hard-

'^^NWA^^M^^^^A wood fibers being more com-

\ pact than those of soft wood.

■p o, ihe whole number of saws

made use of by the wood-
worker amounts to some six or eight, comprising the
rip, cross-cut, hand, panel, tenon, dovetail, bow or
turning, and keyhole. The hand saw type includes
the hand saw proper, the ripping, half-ripping, and
panel saws, all of similar outline, but differing in
dimensions, and in form and size of teeth. There is
no sharp distinction between these tools, as they merge

HARDWOOD FINISHER

79

*'5

Fig. 82

one into the other; yet at the extremes it would be

impossible to substitute the ripping and panel saws

one for the other. The hand

saw, however, which is a kind

of compromise between ex-
tremes, is used indiscriminately

for all purposes.

A tenon, or back-saw, is

shown in Fig. 80. It is made

in different lengths, and the C* *-'*•--?,

blades are not all made the '•..

same width. The dovetail saw

is a back-saw with a very thin

blade; it is not much used in

this country, only by Euro-
peans. It is intended especially for very fine work.

The other saws named are for special purposes, and

need not be described here.
The methods of filing, how-
ever, are about the same as
described for the saws first
named, with the exception
of the bow or scroll saw.
This saw, which is intended
^^^ to cut with and across the
*: grain, or obliquely to it,
..) should have its teeth filed
with a sharper plane than a
rip-saw, but not quite so
sharp as a cross-cut saw; in
Fig. 83 other words, it wants a

hybrid tooth, "between ana

betwixt" across-cut and a rip-saw tooth. (See Fig. 81.)
The set of a saw is important, and this is shown in

80

THE UP-TO-DATE

Fi^s. 77, 78, 82 and 83. The teeth at both point and
butt of a hand saw should be very slightly smaller than
those in the middle, as it is at the last-named point
where the greatest force is exerted in every down
stroke. But it is absolutely necessary that the set is
the same from point to butt of every saw, whether rip
or cross-cut. The middle of the cutting edge of a
cross-cut saw should be slightly rounded, being
highest at about the middle. The saw being still in

Fig. 84

the saw vise, insert the file in a handle, and grasp it
with the right hand, taking the point of file in the leit,
as shown in Fig. 84. Place the file against the face of
that tooth nearest the handle that inclines away from
the worker, holding the file at an angle with the blade
or saw as shown in Fig. 84. Then lower the right
hand to about the angle shown in' Fig. 85 (which shows
the left hand removed). The file should be held
obliquely across the saw blade, as in Figs. 83 and 84,

HARDWOOD FINISHER

8i

the point end of the file being inclined towards the
saw handle as illustrated by Fig. 84. Gently push the
file forwards, lifting it at the end of stroke, returning
it, and again pushing it, until the point of the tooth
has a keen edge. Repeat this upon each alternate
tooth until all upon one side are sharpened. Serve the
other side in the same manner. Be careful not to press
the file against the back of the tooth, as unevenness
will surely result.

Keep all saws slightly rounding on the edge. The
rip-saw and the hand saw may have a full quarter of
an inch rounding with advantage. All saws, except
circulars, have
a constant ten-
dency to get
hollow, and this
must be pre-
vented; and the
only way to pre-
vent it is to file
the teeth down by passing a partly-worn file along
the edges till it touches every tooth. Then, in
filing the teeth, take care only just to take out this
bright mark — not one touch more or that tooth will
be shorter than its neighbors. A saw properly sharp-
ened, and in good order, has each tooth do its proper
share of cutting and no more.

Sharpening Tenon Saws. — Sharpening tenon saws is
practically the same as sharpening hand saws. It may
happen, however, that some of the teeth will be much
larger than others, this being due to the file not
having been held at the same angle in sharpening
each tooth. Fig. 81 shows the saw teeth improperly
sharpened, the front of the large teeth inclining much

82 THE UP-TO-DATE

more than the front of the small teeth. If th^ teeth
in one range are found to be filed smaller than those
in the other, file the back of the smaller teeth to a
more acute angle, keeping the file at the same time
well against the front of the other tooth at the bot-
tom, and see before the filing is finished, that the front
of the next tooth has been filed up to its point, as it
is the front, not the back, of the tooth that does the
cutting. To regulate the teeth of the saw, file every
tooth in succession, shooting the file straight across
the teeth. After filing all the teeth from one side,
turn the saw, and file as before from the other side-
When the teeth are fairly regular, the flat file may be
run over them lightly. This will bring the teeth
uniform in length. Now file every alternate tooth,
first on one side and then on the other side of the saw,
as shown in Fig. 84. Hold the file as nearly as
possible to the same angle in each case, as it is on
this filing that the regularity of the teeth depends.
When all the flat places caused by the file when
topping the teeth disappear, cease filing, as any further
filing may cause low teeth, which tend to make the
saw cut irregularly. When the saw is so filed that all
the teeth get their equal share of cutting, the saw may
be said to be well filed. When the teeth are filed as
shown in Fig. 83, there is a larger and better cutting
edge than with the one more obtuse. If the points
only of the teeth are allowed to do the work, the action
is a scratching and not a cutting one.

One of the great difficulties in hand sharpening is to
get the bevels of the teeth exactly alike. A number
of mechanical arrangements to guide the saw and
effect this object have been tried with more or less
success. In one of the best of these devices a circular

HARDWOOD FINISHER

83

casting is divided and indexed from its center each
way, giving bevels for each side of the saw, or square
across. The file is fitted into a guide, and is held by
a >'et-screw. The index shows the pitch at which the
file is set, and a rod passes through holes in a graduat-
ing ring and guides the file. The frame upon which
the ring is held slides in grooves cut on each side of
the vise in which the saw is fixed; a table connected
with the guide is arranged and indexed so as to give
the required bevel and pitch for the kind of saw to
be filed, and it is only necessary to set the ring for
the bevel, and the indicator for
the pitch, and the apparatus is
ready for use. As the filing is
proceeded with from tooth to
tooth, the frame follows, giving
to each tooth on one side of the
saw the same bevel, pitch, and
size as on the other, thus leaving
the saw, when filing is finished,
with the teeth all uniform in size,
pitch, and bevel, so that each tooth
will do its share of cutting equally

with the others, thus turning out more and better qual-
ity of work with less expenditure of energy. An old-
fashioned way of getting the right angle of a tooth of a
hand saw in filing is shown by Fig. 86. A hand saw blade
is narrowest in width at the point, and broadest at the
butt; a J the slope of the back, compared with the
line of teeth, is almost always uniform for all saws;
and if a square be placed against this back, a tooth
may be filed whose cutting edge is perfectly in line
with the edge of the square. All the teeth being thus
filed and afterwards set, a saw which will answer

84

THE UP-TO-DATE

geneial purposes is produced, and one which will suit
the worker who has but one hand saw. It will cross-
cut soft woods and rip hard woods, thus being a kind
of half-rip. Moreover, this square may be used as a
gauge, the teeth not necessarily being filed as shown;
and if the rake or lead be very much, an adjustable
bevel may be used.

PLANES GENERALLY

In workshop practice, planes are the tools chiefly
used for smoothing the surface of wood after it has
been sawed to approximate size. In its simplest form,

a plane is a chisel firmly fixed
into a block of wood by which
it is guided in its cut, and the
amount of wood taken off in
the form of a shaving is reg-
ulated to a nicety. In fact,
such a simple tool actually is
used sometimes, when a proper
plane of the requisite shape
and of a suitable size cannot be procured. To make
the construction of an ordinary plane quite clear, a
section of one is illustrated by Fig. 87, in which A
shows the section of stock; B, the wedge; C, cutting
iron; D, back iron; E, the screw for fastening irons
together; and F is the mouth through which the
shavings pass upwards. A plane is simply a copying
tool, and a notch in the plane-iron at once proves that
the pattern produced corresponds with the edge of
the plane-iron, and all the imperfections of this edge
will be copied on to the stuff. In all planing oper-
ations the edge of the tool is the pattern, which is
copied in reverse on the wood. If a hollow is required

Fig. 87

HARDWOOD FINISHER 85

to be produced on the wood, a tool is used with a
round edge of exactly similar form to the hollow we
wish produced. In machine planing the pattern is the
edge of the tool, which produces a similar surface
upon the wood.

Direction of Grain in Planes. — For flat planes such as
jack, try, and smoothing planes, the grain must be
straight and, of course, run lengthways of the tool.
The wood is selected from a center plank of beech as
near to the bark as possible; in all planes, the wood
nearest the bark, that being the hardest part of the
wood, becomes the sole or working surface. The wood
is seasoned thoroughly, and never is used until at
least three years after cutting. Moulding planes
mostly work on the spring, and need not have the
grain so straight as flat planes. Hollows, rounds, and
rebate planes are exceptional, however, and should
have the grain as straight as possible, because the
rebate plane is cut right through, and is liable to cast
or warp if not quite straight-grained; and most of the
hollows and rounds, being thin, are liable to cast also
if not of straight, mil^d, and well-seasoned wood.
Wood for plane making should be as free from knots
as possible.

Jack and Trying Planes. — The jack plane, Fig. 88, is
the first applied to the wood after it has been sawed.
This plane is always employed to remoye the rough-
ness of the work before finishing up with trying and
smoothing planes. It is made up of five parts —
namely, the stock (which should be 17 in. in length),
the toat or handle, the wedge, the cutting iron or
cutter {2}i in. broad), and back iron. Immediately
behind the iron is a handle, which, in use, is grasped
only by the right hand in planing fir; but in heavy

86 THE UP-TO-DATE

planing, and especially in hardwood, it is necessary to
place the left hand across the front of the plane to
press it down, to cause the iron to take hold of the
wood. When using both hands to the plane, the left
is placed with the four fingers lying across the top
near the fore end, the thumb passing down the near
side. Well-seasoned beech is a suitable wood for the
stock. The construction of the trying or truing
plane is almost exactly the same as that of the jack

Fig. 88

plane, but it is much longer, so as to produce truer
surfaces.

Using the Plane. — When using the plane, always keep
the plane well oiled in front of the iron; be sure and
work with the grain as shown in Fig. 89, whenever
possible. A far thicker shaving can be taken off
smoothly in this way than if worked as shown in Fig.
90, which is working against the grain and requires
more careful work with a more finely set plane. Do
not use the plane at an uncomfortable height. When
the board to be planed is in position, and the worker
takes hold of the plane ready to begin work, a line
drawn through his elbow and wrist should be rather
lower than higher at the wrist, though if the forearm is

HARDWOOD FINISHER

87

level it will do fairly well. Do not attempt to take off
thick shavings at the outset, and do not be dis-
appointed if a shaving is not taken off from end to
end at the first trial. If the wood has any hollow in
it, it will be impossible to do this, and even if it is
perfectly straight it is sometimes difficult to do it.

Fig. 89

There is always a tendency to plane off too much near
the bench stop, as the arm is apt to be raised at this
point. Errors of this kind can be avoided by careful
practice and attention. It is a good idea to try to
plane the center of the material rather than the margin,
for if a good plane is in proper order it is impossible
to make the work too hollow or concave; whereas,

Fig. 90

however good the plane, careless use of it can and will
make the work convex in every direction.

In making use of the smoothing plane for finishing
up stuff, it should be held as shown in Fig. 91, the
right hand grasping it firmly at the back, whilst the
left hand steadies it in front. In starting, the tool is

88

THE UP-TO-DATE

Fig. 91

applied to the fore-end of the board, and gradually
worked backwards, thus taking out any marks pre-
viously used tools may have made. It should be held
firmly, and lifted sharply at the end of stroke, or a
mark will be left where the plane
finished. The work is continued
until the board presents a per-
fectly smooth surface, without
marks of any kind. The left hand
should frequently be passed across
the face of the board, as any
marks made by the plane can be
readily detected in this manner. It may also with
advantage be held so that the light passes across its
surface from the side, thus showing up imperfect
planing. Should there be too much iron out, a few
blows with the hammer at the back of the plane will
draw it back. Take care to tighten up the wedge
again. A few drops of linseed oil applied to the face
of the plane will facilitate the planing.

The proper method of setting an iron in a plane so
that it will not show lines or marks on the work, is
sometimes quite a difficult operation, as the iron is

.f^.

Fig. 92

expected to be perfectly square and straight on the
face. It is always well to either round off the corners
of the iron slightly, or grind them with a slight bevel,
which will keep the corners from "digging in."

HARDWOOD FINISHER 89

The smaller, or break-iron, whose office is to bend
up the shaving somewhat sharply so as to ensure the
cutting of the other iron, and to prevent its splitting
off the surface of the work, should be placed so as to
come within one-eighth of an inch of the extreme
edge of the cutter for rough work, and within one-
twentieth for finer or finishing .work. The two should
then be placed in position so that the edge projects the
smallest possible degree below the sole. The position
can only be determined by looking carefully along the

Fig. 93

bottom of the plane, with the front of the same next
to the eye, as in Fig. 92. The edge will, if correctly
formed and placed, appear quite parallel with the sole.
It is then ready for use. The same rule appl:^« to the
small as to the large planes, except that in the jack-
plane the iron projects rather more, as it is used for
roughing down a surface. The trying-plane, which is
longer, as before stated, and intended for edging
boards which are to be joined lengthwise, is always
very finely set, and the mouth is narrow. The break*

90

THE UP-TO-DATE

iron is also set very close down to the cutting edge.
The longer the plane the more accurately level and
true will be the work done by it.

New planes are often a source of trouble owing to
the shavings getting fast in the mouth, the plane
refusing to take any more until the wedge and iron
have been removed, and all cleaned out. The cause
of this difficulty is that the mouth of the plane is too
narrow, as shown in Fig. 93. Sometimes workmen cut

Fig. 94

a little out with a chisel, but in many instances this
results in spoiling the tool, because in a short time
the bottom of the plane wears away, and the mouth
gets larger, subsequently getting so laige as to require
a piece to be set in to lessen the opening. The mouth
of the plane can be kept open as long as needed by
gluing a strip of soft leather, about three-fourths of
an inch wide, in the mouth of the plane under the top
end of the iron as shown in Fig. 94. When the plane
bottom is sufificiently worn the leather can be removed

HARDWOOD FINISHER

91

and the iron put back into its original position. The
leather causes the iron to be more upright, and con-
sequently there is a larger opening in the mouth (two
thicknesses can be put under if necessary).

Pitch of Plane Cutting Iron. — To assist the reader to
understand correctly the principles of plane-iron
sharpening, the following information is given. The
seat of the plane-iron is made at different angles, to
give the pitch to suit different kinds of work. The
four angles most in use are as follows: Common
pitch, in which the seat for the back of the iron is at
an angle of 45° from the sole (this inclination is
usually employed for all
planes for soft wood); New
York pitch, which has an
angle of 50°, and is adapted
for use with mahogany and
other hard, stringy woods;
middle pitch or 55°, and
half pitch or 60°, which are
employed with moulding
planes, the former being for

soft wood and the latter for the harder kinds. Fig. 95
affords an idea of three angles, A giving the set of a
half-pitched plane, B that of an ordinary plane, while
C shows the inclination of an extra-pitched plane.
The pitch or angle at which the cutter is set is of
importance. There are three angles involved in this
case: (i) The angle between the cutter and the
surface of the work; this should be as small an angle
as possible. It is obvious that if the surfaces of the
cutter and the work were perfectly parallel, the cutter
would glide over the surface without cutting, except
under great pressure. By making the cutter edge

Fig. 95

92

THE UP-TO-DATE

Fig. 96

rather than its whole surface touch the work, the
tendency to cut and to continue the contact is secured.
The angle, which may be called the clearance angle,
or the back angle, should only be enough to secure this
condition of contact. (2) The angle of the cutter
itself. The more acute this angle the better, if only

the material will stand the
strain and face the work with-
out losing its edge. (3) The
front or remaining angle
may be found by subtracting
both (i) and (2) from 180°,
if dealing with plane sur-
faces, and is available for
the passing away of the waste
material; in the case of the plane, however, this is lim-
ited, in order to provide means to prevent the shaving
being torn up in advance of the cutting action. This
provision is made by the front portion of the plane,
and to be efficacious must be in contact with the work
and as near the edge of the cutter as possible to allow
waste to escape. A few
experiments with a knife
will show that for soft ma-
terials a slight angle is
best. This involves a thin
knife, and its side almost
in contact with the mate-
rial *.o be cut; but as harder
things are tried the stiff-
ness of the cutter, and the consequent angle, must
be increased, not because it is merely desirable, but
because it is absolutely necessary to have a stronger
cutter. The more upright an iron is set, the less

Fig. 97

HARDWOOD FINISHER 93

liable is it to tear up the wood in planing; but in
the same degree the iron loses its edge more quickly,
is more likely to jump and chatter, and is more
laborious to work. In toothing planes the irons are
set upright, and in "old woman's tooth," planes or
routers nearly upright. In working with an upright
iron, the action of the tool is a scraping one, while
the more the iron is inclined the nearer it ap-
proaches the action of splitting the wood. For this
reason an ordinary or extra-pitched plane is more
liable to splinter up the surface of a piece of work;
but this accident may be in great measure prevented
by using a properly adjusted back iron. Moulding
planes, rounds and hollows, bead
planes, and others that work without ^ '

a back iron, are usually preferred Fig. 98

set to the half-pitch angle; while for
working on end-grained stuff, extra-pitched tools, such
as shoulder and bull-nosed planes, give the best results.
In examining the side of a plane-iron, it is found to be
made up of an iron back faced with steel. The steel,
welded on to the iron and distinguished by its
brighter color and finer grain, acts as a cutting edge,
the iron being required to give sufficient stiffness to
prevent chattering. When newly ground and
sharpened, a plane-iron has three angles, one due to
the pitch. A, Fig. 97, one made by the grindstone, B,
and one made by the oilstone, C. The angles A and B
do not alter, but C gradually becomes more acute with
sharpening on the oilstone, until it lines with the face
of the plane, as in Fig. 98, when the iron refuses to
cut properly, and requires grinding. The pitch angle
A (Fig. 96) varies in planes by different makers, as
described above.

94

THE UP-TO-DATE

Oilstones for Sharpening Plane Irons. — A good oilstone,
capable of putting a keen edge on the plane irons, is
a necessity to all woodworkers, but more particularly
to the hardwood finisher. The Washita stone, manu-
factured by the Pike Mfg. Co., or other fast cutting
stones are useful for removing the waste or superfluous
metal from the iron when it is too thick; but it is
seldom that one of these stones can be trusted to leave
a keen edge on the tool. Turkey and Washita stones
are the only ones that have the two good qualities
combined of cutting quickly and leaving a good edge.

Most other oilstones are
slow cutters, but they are
to be relied on for leaving
a good, keen edge. It is
necessary that the oilstone
should be kept perfectly
level, or it will not be pos-
sible to get a true edge.
The stone should also be
free from grit, or the iron
will be gapped in sharpen-
ing, and will leave ridges
on the planed work. In
sharpening the iron after it
has been newly ground, the hands should be kept low to
make the bevel correspond nearly with that made by
the grindstone. As time goes on, when the iron is
resharpened the hands are kept a little higher upon
each occasion (see Fig. 97), until it becomes thick, as
in Fig. 98; then it must be again put upon the grind-
stone. Some workers find it convenient to use two
oilstones— one as a quick cutter, to some extent super-
seding: the grindstone, the other for finishing the edge.

Fig. 99

HARDWOOD FINISHER

95

Fig. 100

In using the oilstone, first put a few drops of goo J oi)
upon the stone, and grasp the iron as in Fig. 99; the
right hand is at the top, and the thumb and fourth
finger pass under. Place
the whole of the fingers
of the left hand upon
the iron, with the thumb
at the back, as seen.
Now put the cutting
edge (previously ground
to a bevel) upon the
stone in an oblique di-
rection, as shown in
Fig. 99, bearing in mind the previous remarks on the
necessary inclination. The iron should now be rubbed
up and down the stone, pressing it down with both hands.
If the edge had been examined before placing it upon
the stone, it would have been found to show a fine white
line. The object of sharp-
ening is to remove this,
which must be done by
rubbing on an oilstone.
Having accomplished this,
turn the iron face down
upon the stone, and rub it
lightly a few times (see
Fig. 100). The iron should
now have the appearances

Fig. 101 Fig. 102

indicated by Fig. loi. If the face of the iron has not
been kept perfectly flat, it would appear as Fig. 98,

96 THE UP-TO-DATE

and would be of no use as a cutting iron. If the iron
has been rubbed too long, a wire edge will appear and
utterly spoil the cutting properties of the iron unless
removed. This may readily be done by rubbing the
iron alternately upon each side until the wire edge
falls off.

When the iron is judged to be sufficiently sharp, it
should be cleaned, whetted on the left hand, and its
edge tried for keenness. Some try the edge by passing
the thumb gently across it, but its sharpness may be
judged by looking directly at it. In a sharp tool the
edge is not visible to the naked eye, while if the iron
should be blunt, the edge will be seen as a bright line.

SECRET OR BLIND NAILING

Secret nailing is sometimes called "blind nailing,"
also "chip nailing" and "sliver nailing," and is the
art of finishing work in a manner which leaves no
mark of nail holes or screw heads exposed to view,
which, under the ordinary method of doing work,
would require puttying before the painter could apply
the finish.

The process of secret nailing is only used on
occasional jobs of hardwood finish where an extra fine
job is required. The process is very simple and can
be followed by any mechanic of ordinary skill and
ability. Take a very thin and sharp paring chisel, ^
to y2 inch wide, to raise the "chip." A sharp knife
should be used to make two cuts with the grain of the
wood, the width of the chisel apart, to keep the sides
of the chip from splitting. The chisel should be set at
a steep angle at first, till the proper depth is reached,
and then made to turn out a piece of wood of even

HARDWOOD FINISHER

97

thickness, about a sixteenth of an inch or near it, and
of sufficient length to admit of driving the nail or
screw. Care should be taken in raising the "chip'*
not to give it too sharp a curve or too great a thick-
ness, as it is liable to break off while being straightened
out again.

Some mechanics prefer a gouge for raising the
"chip"; the gouge should be ^ to ^ of an inch wide
and of a quick curve. In this case no knife is needed,
as the corners of the
gouge will cut the wood
as it advances. The
cut being made and the
"chip" properly raised,
a nail or screw may be
driven in.

See that the nail or
screw head is sunk be-
low the surface of the
recess, so that the
"chip" will fit back in
again without any ob-
struction. Now take
properly prepared glue
and apply to the "chip" and recess, and press the
"chip" firmly in place, rubbing the face with a smooth
block till the glue holds, and finish by using a little
sandpaper.

If theie is any difficulty about the "chip" breaking
off, moisten the wood with a little water applied with
a sponge to the part where the "chip" is to be raised.
This will be found to be a great advantage if working
on brittle wood.

As stated previously, when putting up hardwood

98

HARDWOOD FINISHER

finish, where it is desired that no nail or screw heads
should be in sight, it is always better to make use of
glue whenever possible; this will be found to be much
more satisfactory than blind nailing.

The methods of secret nailing, as described in the

foregoing, are
shown in the dia-
grams, Figs. 103
and 104. The first
shows how a square
chip is raised so
that a screw or nail
can be put in place,
after which the
raised chip a can
be glued down in
place, covering the
head of nail or
screw.
Fig. 104 shows how the work is done by using a
gouge instead of a chisel.

Sometimes blind nailing is done by driving headless
nails in the edge of the work, "toe-nailing" them in
the work just as matched flooring is laid. This is not
a satisfactory way to do work and is not recommended,
though there are cases where it will answer quite well.

PART TWO

PART TWO
WOOD FILLERS AND HOW TO APPLY THEM

There is no part of the art of wood-finishing that is
more important than that of the filling, and the
greatest of care should be exercised both in the choice
of filler and the manner in which it is applied. The
stain given to it must also be considered, in order that
the color and texture of the wood being finished may
not be disfigured or spoiled.

Fillers are used by all expert polishers for much the
same reason that size is used before varnishing — viz.,
to prevent immoderate absorption of the polish by
the wood. Polish, or even thick varnish, when applied
to wood, sinks in or is absorbed in places, instead of
remaining on the surface in a uniform coat. Here
and there it will be observed that the polish or varnish
has given more gloss than elsewhere. Where the
gloss is brightest the varnish has sunk least.

The grain may be filled up by going over the wood
with polish till the pores are closed, and some
beginners may want to know why anything else in the
nature of a filler should be used. The reason is that
comparatively valuable French polish need not be
used when a cheaper material serves the purpose, the
use of which also saves time. Woods that are open
in the grain and porous specially need a filler, while
fine, close-grained woods do not, and may be polished
without. Still, a suitable filler can do no harm to any
kind of wood, however fine the grain may be, so there
can be no disadvantage in going over it with one

7

8 THE UP-TO-DATE

preparatory to polishing. Though it may be a slight
waste of time, a preliminary rub over with polish
suffices when working on a fine wood, such as olive
or rosewood, which are both close and hard. To
attain the desired thin, glossy film of shellac, which
shall not be liable to grow dull unreasonably soon, the
woods ordinarily used in furniture — ash, oak, mahog-
any, walnut, cherry, etc. — should have the grain filled,
for they are all of comparatively open grain; ash and
oak, being especially coarse, are called by polishers
"hungry woods." Polishers usually give such woods
one or more coats of spirit varnish as an aid to filling
up the grain.

Before commencing the process of filling-in,
thoroughly brush all dust out of the grain of the wood,
tor this is wood-dust, sand from the sandpaper, and
dirt — all inimical to grain luster if mixed up with the
grain stopper.

Amongst the best "fillers" is a preparation manu-
factured in Bridgeport, Conn., and known as "Wheeler's
Wood-filler," and though it may cost a little more
than home-made or other fillers, it is certain to give
satisfaction. This filler has for its base a form of
mineral silica in an atomic shape, which permits it to
be ground or pulverized into a very fine, dust-like con-
dition, in which each particle assumes a needle-pointed
form, which enables them to enter into the pores of the
wood and give to the work a gloss-like surface.

For filling a cheap class of work,' many polishers
content themselves with giving the work one or two
coats of glue or patent size, heavily stained by the
addition of some dry pigment. For mahogany finish
add Venetian red till it gives quite a red tinge; for
walnut add brown umber; for pine, add yellow ocher.

HARDWOOD FINISHER g

Apply the size hot with a brush, and rub it in lightly
with a piece of rag, finishing the way of the grain, and
taking care in the case of turned or moulded work to
get the filler well in the recessed parts. Of course,
work that has been sized will not need filling-in.

As many different kinds of fillers are used, and each
has its advocates, it will be advisable to name the
principal fillers used in the trade, and to make a few
remarks about each, so that learners can experiment
with them, and perhaps finally fix on that which may
seem to suit best. All will be found reliable, for
good work is turned out by polishers with any of
them, and even an extremely prejudiced individual
would hesitate to say that any one is really bad,
though he uses only that which suits him best. Some-
times, owing to the price, he uses the easiest and
quickest, irrespective of its quality.

Wood-fillers ready for use are made for most kinds
of wood, and, as a rule, they require only thinning
with a little turpentine. When it is desired to make
a filler instead of purchasing one ready made, proceed
as follows: Take a portion of either china clay or
corn-flour; add boiling linseed oil, and stir until the
mixture is of the consistency of putty. Then add
patent dryers and thin with turpentine. If the wood
on which the filler is to be used is to be kept light in
color, use raw oil and the lightest variety of dryer.
Further remarks on home-made fillers will be found
later on.

In woods employed for house and cabinet work there
are two distinct natures; therefore different treatment
is required in finishing. First, there is the coarse or
open-grained wood, having its surface perforated with
innumerable pores or cells. In order to obtain a

lo THE UP-TO-DATE

smooth and even finish, these pores should be filled
up to a level with the hard grain, or, as the grainer
would term them, the "lights" of the wood. Next
we have the fine or close-grained wood, which, like
the preceding, also contains these pores, but they are
of a very fine character, and simply sealing them up
with a liquid filler will enable one to produce a fine,
smooth finish, which we shall consider farther on.

I will now return to the open or wide-grained wood,
which requires more attention and care than the
closer-grained wood, if the same results are expected.
There are many things that will serve the purpose of
fillers and make pretty fair work; among these may
be mentioned china clay, silver white and corn-starch;
the best of which is probably the last named. This is
well adapted to the work, being equally useful with
light, or when colored with dark wood; one fault with
it is that it never hardens. China clay — the English
is the best — makes an exceedingly good fillei; it is
light in color, very fine and dries as hard as cement.

There are a hundred ways of preparing fillers for
use, and nearly as many different materials for making
them; we would recommend, however, that wherever
it is possible, Wheeler's patent wood filler be used;
though we are aware that in many cases it may not
be advisable to use it, and to meet these rare conditions
the following mixtures may be substituted.

A filler should be so mixed that the greater portion
of the vehicle will penetrate into the wood, leaving
the pigment on the surface to be rubbed into the
pores, and still retain enough combining property to
form a hard and impenetrable surface. This depends
entirely upon the proportions of the vehicles employed,
and different pigments require different quantities

HARDWOOD FINISHER n

of vehicle. Proceed with the mixing by filling the
pot two-thirds full of the dry pigment, then add
boiled linseed oil, producing the consistency of putty,
then dilute with about one part japan and two parts
turpentine. Should it be required to keep the wood
as light as possible, replace the boiled oil with raw,
using a smaller quantity, but a little more japan. For
all light wood the light japan should be preferred,
although there are many who never use anything but
the common brown. Naphtha can also be employed in
place of the turpentine, somewhat reducing the
expense; but, as naphtha evaporates much faster, it
prevents the operator from covering an extended
surface without running the risk of having it dry
hard. This causes difficulty at "rubbing it in" and
wiping off the surplus, although "wiping off" should
not proceed until the filler has flatted— or, at least,
"set." This to a certain extent the operator can
accelerate or retard by omitting or adding a small
quantity of oil, keeping in view the fact that the
smaller the quantity of oil used, the lighter colored,
but the less durable, will be the finish.

Oil is sometimes used as a filler, but its use is not
recommended; applied directly to the wood, its effect
is to swell the fibers, or "raise the grain," which
remains in that condition until the oil becomes entirely
dry or disappears. During this time the fibers are
gradually shrinking, and consequently moving or
checking the varnish. The qualities essential to a
good filler are that it shall readily enter the porous
portion of the wood, and shall very soon harden and
render the wood impervious to the varnish, which
should lie smoothly upon the surface, giving brilliancy
and effect to the natural beauty of the wood; and that

12 THE UP-TO-DATE

it shall not raise the grain of the wood; and that it
shall not change the color of the wood. These con-
ditions are satisfactorily fulfilled by few of the home-
made fillers ordinarily used in shops, and while I give
a number of recipes, my readers are advised that they
will obtain better satisfaction, at less cost, by purchas-
ing some of the patent fillers now coming into general
use. In these fillers very little oil is used and a large
amount of dryers, so that the wood becomes perfectly
dry and hard in a few hours, preventing any swelling
or shrinking of the fibers of the wood after the varnish
is applied. The following fillers sjiould be allowed to
dry until quite hard. A period of about eight hours is
usually sufficient, but it is better to let the work stand
for twenty-four hours before touching it with sand-
paper. In applying a filler it should always be borne
in mind that the substance of wood consists of a
multitude of small tubes lying side by side. These
tubes or cells are not continuous from top to bottom
of the tree, but are comparatively short and taper out
to points so that they are thickest in the middle. Most
of the common woods have the walls of these tubes so
thin that liquid is readily absorbed by them and carried
into the substance for some distance. Different kinds
of wood differ much in the shape and arrangement of
these cells. In filling the pores the first step is taken
in providing an absolutely smooth surface. We trust
mainly to mechanical force in rubbing in, aided by the
absorptive powers of the wood. Formerly successive
varnishings and rubbings and scrapings took much
time, and when they were done, the final finish had
still to be applied, but the whole process has now been
bimplified, by using fillers.

The careful workman will not leave "great daubs"

HARDWOOD FINISHER 13

of superfluous filler here and there on the work, but
will see that all corners and heads and quirks of
mouldings are well cleaned off before it gets too hard
to remove easily, and should there be any nail holes —
which there ought not to be— he will have them filled
with properly colored putty or cement and nicely
smoothed down before he makes any attempt to put
on his finishing coats.

Among the many home-made fillers I have
endeavored to select the best.

Walnut Filler. — For Medium and Cheap Work. Ten
lb. bolted English whiting, 3 lb. dry burnt umber, 4
lb. Vandyke brown, 3 lb. calcined plaster, ^ lb.
Venetian red, i gal. boiled linseed oil, >^ gal. spirits
turpentine, I quart black japan. Mix well and apply
with brush; rub well with excelsior or tow, clean off
with rags.

Walnut Filler.— For Imitation Wax-Finish. Five lb.
bolted whiting, i lb. calcined plaster, 6 oz.- calcined
magnesia, i oz. dry burnt umber, I oz. French yellow,
I quart raw linseed oil, i quart benzine spirits, ^ pint
very thin white shellac. Mix well and apply with a
brush. Rub well in and clean off with rags. Before
using the above filling, give the work one coat of white
shellac. When dry, sandpaper down and apply the
filler.

Walnut Filler.— For First-Class Work. Three lb.
burnt umber ground in oil, i lb. burnt sienna ground
in oil, I quart spirits of turpentine, i pint brown japan.
Mix well and apply with a brush; sandpaper well;
clean off with tow and rags. This gives a beautiful
chocolate color to the wood.

Filler for Light Woods.— Five lb. bolted English
whiting, 3 lb. calcined plaster, i lb. corn-starch, 3 oz.

14 THE UP-TO-DATE

calcined magnesia, ^ gallon raw linseed oil, i quart
spirits of turpentine, i quart brown japan, and
sufficient French yellow to tinge the white. Mix well
and apply with a brush, rub in with excelsior or tow,
and clean off with rags.

Filler for Cherry. — Five lb. bolted English whiting, 2
lb. calcined plaster, i^ oz. dry burnt sienna, i oz.
Venetian red, i quart boiled linseed oil, I pint spirits
of turpentine, i pint brown japan. Mix well, rub in
with excelsior or tow and clean off with rags.

Filler for Oak. — Five lb. bolted English whiting, 2
lb. calcined plaster, i oz. dry burnt sienna, >^ oz. dry
French yellow, I quart raw linseed oil, I pint benzine
spirits, ^ pint white shellac. Mix well, apply with
brush, rub in with excelsior or tow, and clean off with
rag.

Filler for Rosewood. — Six lb. bolted English whiting,
2 lb. calcined plaster, I lb. rose pink, 2 oz. Venetian
red, y^ lb. Vandyke brown, ^ lb. brandon red, I gallon
boiled linseed oil, ^ gallon spirits of turpentine, I
quart black japan. Mix well, apply with brush, rub
in with excelsior or tow, and clean off with rags.

Another.— Stir boiled oil and corn-starch into a very
thick paste; add a little japan, and reduce with turpen-
tine, but add no color for light ash. For dark ash and
chestnut use a little raw sienna; for walnut, burnt
umber, add a small quantity of Venetian red; for bay
wood, burnt sienna. In no case use more color than is
required to overcome the white appearance of the
starch, unless it is wished to stain the wood. The
filler is worked with brush and rags in the usual
manner. Let it dry forty-eight hours, or until it is in
condition to rub down with No. 0 sandpaper without
much gumming up, and if an extra fine finish is acsirea,

HARDWOOD FINISHER 15

fill again with the same materials, using less oil, but
more of japan and turpentine.

Another. — Take three papers corn-starch, one quart
boiled linseed oil, two quarts turpentine, one-quarter
pint japan; cut in half the turpentine before mixing;
it will not cut perfectly otherwise. For dark woods
add burnt umber to color. When nearly dry, rub off
with cloths. The above mixture must be used fresh,
as it is of no value after it is four or five days old.
The cloths used in rubbing as above mentioned should
be destroyed immediately after use, as spontaneous
combustion is likely to ensue from the ingredients
employed. As a filler of wood to be stained, apply
French plaster of Paris, mixed as a creamy paste with
water, and after rubbing in, clean any surplus off; or
use whiting finely powdered, or white lead slacked
with painters' drying oil, and used as a filler. Another
process is that of oiling, then rubbing crosswise to the
grain with a sponge dipped in thin polish composed
of melted beeswax, resin, and shellac, and smoothing
the surface, when dry, with pumice-stone, or fine glass,
paper. Embody the work a second time with thicker
polish, or a mixture of polish and varnish. The
rubbers will work easily with half the quantity of oil
which is ordinarily used. This second body should be
rubbed very smooth with moist putty.

In the use of any filler, care must be taken in the
selection of color, for the employment of a light
colored filler on dark wood or vice versa would result
in gross defacement, as the lighter color would show
at the pores of the wood in the one case, and the
darker in the other. Therefore, to avoid this, the filler
should be as near as possible the color of the wood to
be filled.

i6 THE UP-TO-DATE

As a general thing, paint manufacturers who do not
make fillers a specialty use opaque colors to stain their
filler, as it requires a less quantity. This will do
sometimes, but not always. But those which give to
the wood a clear and bright appearance, and there-
fore produce the best results, are stained with trans-
parent colors; those chiefly employed are burnt
umber and sienna, Venetian red, Vandyke brown and
charcoal black, the charcoal being ground fine in oil,
while the others can be used dry and according to the
following recipes with good results:

In mixing any or all dark fillers the same pigments
used for the light (previously described) should be
kept for a basis, with sufficient coloring to stain it to
the desired depth of shade.

Filler for walnut is very often stained with burnt
umber; this is reddish in hue and gives to the wood a
pleasing effect. Others use Venetian red, darkened
somewhat with lampblack; this is rather opaque, and
tends to deaden the color of the wood. There is
another article — namely, Vandyke brown — which gives
fair results. In order to obtain a rich effect, the filler
should be made considerably darker than the wood
when new.

Fillers for mahogany, cherry, California redwood,
and other woods of similar shade, should be stained
with bunrt sienna, as they should be finished very clear.
It is well to know that charcoal black and Venetian red
will give the desired shade for any dark-colored wood
in common use or for all colors in antique, but it does
not show up quite as clear as some other combinations.

For rosewood, charcoal as a stain will suffice, and
for vanilla or Brazil-wood the use of rose-pink will give
g'ood results.

HARDWOOD FINISHER 17

The methods of mixing these fillers are quite
numerous. It is impossible to give the proportions
definitely, owing to the strength of the colors or the
transparency of the chief ingredient, but one cannot
go astray by following the preceding rules.

Mix the light pigment to a paste with boiled oil,
which must be well stirred up. Then in another pot
mix a quantity of the colored pigment with turpentine
or naphtha; and when thoroughly "cut," or dissolved,
add sufficient of it to the light to give the shade
required. After this is obtained, dilute with turpentine
or naphtha and japan, as directed in mixing light
filler. This applies to all colors except black, which
is seldom obtained finely ground unless in oil, and
properly thinned down.

There are many finishers and firms who exclusively
use manufactured fillers, and in consequence meet with
many difficulties as to the shade they require, as
different manufacturers use different colors to stain
their filler. But this difficulty can be overcome by a
few experiments with the above-named stains.

As the foregoing gives pretty nearly all the fillers in
general use, with the exception of some of the manu-
factured mineral preparations of which I will have
more to say further on, I will now proceed to describe
the method of application. The secret of this is to
do the work well, quickly and economically. These
points are dealt with in the following:

Have your filler mixed to the consistency of
ordinary lead paint; then apply to the prepared
surface of the wood with a pound brush, or, what is
still better, a 3-0 or 4-0 oval chisel varnish brush. In
applying the filler it is not necessary to cover all the
^mall beads and carvings; and if the filler be light,

t8 THE UP-TO-DATE

better avoid coating them at all; and if dark or
antique, stain them with a little of the filler,
much reduced with spirits of turpentine. For
this purpose have at hand a small pot with a
small fitch or sash tool.

By not filling the beads and carvings, the
varnish is not so liable to run down in them,
although sufficient remains to produce a finish
equal to the balance of the surface.

After enough surface has been covered with
the filler, so that what has been first applied
begins to flatten, the process of wiping should
immediately begin, using for that purpose
either a rag or a handful of waste or excelsior.
If the wood is very open grained, waste is
preferable. With a piece of this that has
previously been used and is pretty well sup-
plied with filler, rub crosswise of the grain,
rather rubbing it into the grain than wiping it
off. After the whole surface has been gone
over in this way, take a clean piece of waste
or rag (never use excelsior for wiping clean)
and wipe the surface perfectly clean and free
from filler, using a wooden pick (Fig. 105), the
point of which has been covered with a rag or
waste, to clean out the corners, beads, etc. It
is well to give these picks some attention, as
a person once accustomed to certain tools can
accomplish more and better work than with
tools that feel strange in his hands; therefore.
Fig 105^^^^ finisher should furnish his own pick. As
to their construction, these are best made
from second-growth hickory, which can be procured at
any carriage repair shop, such as old spokes, broken

HARDWOOD FINISHER

19

felloes, etc. They are made eight incnes in length,
half inch oval at one end and tapering down to the
point at the other. Sharpen the oval end like a cold
chisel, then smooth with sandpaper, which iihould also
be used to sharpen the tool when the same becomes
worn dull.

This picking out of the filler from beads, etc., can
be accelerated by the use of picking brushes, several
of which I show in Fig. 106, and which are manu^
factured especially for that purpose, but it is nol

Fig. 106

advisable to use them on very coarsely grained wood,
as they scrub the filler out. of the pores.

There are several fillers used wliich do not require
this picking and scrubbing. One is a liquid filler used
chiefly for carriage finishing; but it can be used suc-
cessfully on butternut, bird's-eye maple, curly maple,
satinwood, hickory, etc. It is made from gum and
oil. Another is a filler made from finely ground
pumice-stone, mixed as other fillers. It is applied
with a brush, and must be left to dry at least twenty-
four hours; it is then sandpapered smooth, when an oil

20 THE UP-TO-DATE

varnish is applied, rendering it completely transparent.
This last can be used only upon light wood.

The workman, as a matter of course, will under-
stand that different woods require slightly different
treatment, and the finer-grained woods, among which
are the pines, maples, cedars and poplars, of different
varieties, and birch, cherry, beech, sycamore, white
box, satinwoqd, etc., require no filling, not that a
filling would prove detrimental to the finish — except
upon stained work or white holly, which in order to
maintain a clear color should never be filled — but, from
the condition of all fine wood, it is superfluous, and
only causes unnecessary labor and expense. At this
point it will be convenient to pause to consider the
subject of mineral or prepared wood-fillers.

A great deal of time and money have been wasted
in attempting to make good fillers, to no purpose, and
a great variety — as I have shown — of substances, as
chalk, plaster of Paris, corn-starch, etc., etc., have
been mixed with various vehicles and rubbed into the
wood with but indifferent success. Most of these
compounds labor under the disadvantages of forming
chemical compounds with the oil and consequently
they shrink very much on drying, so that though the
surface may appear smooth when they are first put on,
waves and hollows make their appearance as they dry.
These waves, having round edges, are difficult to fill,
the second coat building up as much or more upon the
level spaces as in the hollows. It sometimes seems
almost impossible with these fillers in the latter coats
to make the hollows hold any substance, the filler
clinging chiefly to the surfaces.

I have thought it necessary to show how the ordinary
or home-made fillers act, and fail, in order to show by

HARDWOOD FINISHER 21

contrast how much easier it is to work efficiently with
the mineral fillers. The mineral quartz, when mixed
with oil, probably shrinks less in drying than any other
similar known mixture. If a surface of wood be
covered with this and then rubbed, the sharp and
angular particles of the silica imbed themselves in the
pores of the wood, closing them up, while the oil
cements them fast. This is the foundation of
Wheeler's wood filler, which we recommend for use
by all wood finishers. When the pores have been
filled with silica, and are cemented fast by the proper
mixture of gums and oils, the difficult part of the work
is done.

After a good surface has been made upon the article
it is ready for the filler, which is to be selected
according to the color desired. In putting the filler
on, it is thinned with turpentine until about like flowing
varnish, and is applied with a brush. Only so much of
the surface is covered as can be cleaned off before it
hardens. When it has set so that the gloss has left the
surface, it is at once rubbed off with excelsior or
shavings, going across the grain with the strokes. If
the filler dries too fast or too light, a little raw linseed
oil may be used in it.

Perhaps a better material for rubbing off than
excelsior is hemp, or "flax tow." At any rate, the
work should be finished with some finer material than
excelsior.

For a nicer job the filler is rubbed in with a rubber,
made by gluing a piece of sole or belt leather on the
face of a block of wood and trimming the edges flush
with the block. The rubbing is done after the filler
has set and before it is cleaned off. If it dries off too
light, a little white japan may be added on nice work.

22 THE UP-TO-DATE

The light-colored filler should be used on all work
where light and dark woods are used together. The
filling, it must be understood, is done by the silica,
which will often be found in the shape of a sediment
in the bottom of the mixture. Eight hours is generally
considered a sufficient time for the filler to dry.

When the work with the filler is done, the surface of
the wood ought to be like so much ground glass. Such
portions of the wood as show a solid grain need very
little filler. On Georgia pine, after the filler is dry, a
little rubbing in the direction of the grain with very
fine sandpaper is an advantage. If the filler has been
properly used the desired results will be obtained with
little labor.

The wood is now in a condition to receive the final
coatings. Whether the work is to be polished or
"dead finished," do not employ shellac or "French
polish." If a "dead" surface is wanted, wax finish is
easily put on, and as easily rubbed to a good surface.
Several manufacturers in this country prepare a wax
finish, which is a convenient preparation of wax and
gums, and can be applied with a brush and then rubbed
down with a woolen cloth, tied up to make a hard
rubber, until a fine, lusterless surface is obtained.
With mahogany and similar woods this greatly
improves the color of the wood. When this has dried,
which will be in the course of a few hours, the work is
^-eady for use. The wax finish, like many of the
furniture creams, has the advantage that" it can be put
on in a few minutes at any time to brighten up work
when it has become dull. A piece of work prepared in
this way, after four operations, will present as fine an
appearance as the best cabinet work found in the
furniture stores.

HARDWOOD FINISHER 23

The materials which have been described, it will be
noticed, are both manufactured articles. The prepared
filler is indispensable; the wax finish can be made by
mixing together, by the aid of heat, white wax and
spirits of turpentine until they are of the consistency
of thick paste. Another wax finish is made of bees-
wax, spirits of turpentine and linseed oil in equal parts.
The addition of two drams of alkanet root to every
twenty ounces of turpentine darkens and enriches the
color. The root is to be put into a little bag and
allowed to stand in the turpentine until it is sufficiently
colored.

An altogether more durable surface can be made by
a little change in the treatment. When the wood is
filled, instead of applying the wax, take some hard
oil finish, "Luxeberry," a preparation manufactured
in Detroit, Mich., and put it on with a brush precisely
like varnish. The coat should not be too heavy,
especially on vertical surfaces, and the brush used
ought to be a good one. This material gives a most
brilliant- polish. By rubbing it down with a woolen
cloth and pumice-stone powder it can also be made
dull. Hard-oil finish does not spot with hot or cold
water, is slightly elastic and is not injured by pretty
severe soaking in water. It gets hard in twelve hours
or less in warm weather, and overnight in winter time.
It is one of the best surfaces which can be used, and
has the advantage of working very well in the hands
of one who is not an expert in the art of finishing wood
or handling varnish. It will make a very fair surface
applied direct to the unfilled wood, in which case it is
a good substitute for shellac.

Wax finish has the advantage that scratches can be
easily repaired without sending to the cabinetmakei

24 THK iJP-TO-DATE

or the painter. Here a word of advice to the
carpenter who d>es any work of this character may
save him some trouble and make way for the further
use of the same kind of finish. When the woodwork
of a house is treated in this way, be sure to leave a
little bottle of the wax polish with the housekeeper,
with directions as to the method of using it. In send-
ing out a "what-not," bookcase, or any other article
of similar kind, put up a little bottle of the polish and
show the owner, or, preferably the lady of the house,
how to repair any little scratch and make the work
look "as good as new." The fresh appearance of the
work will be a good advertisement, while it will pre-
vent complaints and dissatisfaction that often follow
the use of work which, when injured, cannot be
restored.

It may be said that either of the methods of finishing
involves a great deal of labor. This is true; but the
amount is not much greater than is needed for three
coats of paint, and the cost of the paint would probably
be more than the cost of the finish. The labor in one
case can be of a cheap character, and in the other an
experienced painter must be employed. The profit
upon the "dead finish" can go into the pocket of the
carpenter, while that of the painting must in any event
be divided between the carpenter and painter, or
belong to the latter altogether, who is, after all, the
proper person to do the work.

I have now said about all that is necessary in the
matter of "fillers" and "filling," but, as it sometimes
happens that the old system of "sizing" has to be
resorted to for certain kinds of work, I give herewith
a formula for its construction and use:

Size of different kinds is sometimes applied to th^

H/^Kunr.^OOD FINISHER 25

surface of woo( *:o p event absorption of the varnish.
The kind of matv^rial used for the size is not important,
the object being only to prevent absorption by a very
thin coat of some substance not soluble in the varnish.
^For dark-colored wood, thin size, made by reducing
ordinary glue with water, is generally used; but for
lighter-colored surfaces a white size is used, which is
prepared by boiling white kid or other leather or
parchment-cuttings in water for a few hours, or until
it forms a thin, jelly-like substance, which is reduced
with water to a thin consistency, and used in a tepid
state. Sometimes solutions of isinglass or tragacanth
are employed in like manner. Unlike the best fillers,
sizes of any kind do not improve the finish, and are
sometimes a positive detriment to it. They are used
solely as an economy to reduce the quantity of the
varnish needed; - "* *heir use is not recommended for
the best work.

WOOD-STAINING GENERALLY

There are many cases where an article constructed
of wood may be more conveniently and suitably
finished by staining and polishing than by painting.
The practice of staining woods is much less common
in America and England than on the Continent, wher^
workmen, familiar with the different washes, produce
the most delicate tones of color and shade. Wood is
often stained to imitate darker and dearer varieties,
but more legitimately to improve the natural
appearance by heightening and bringing out the
original markings, or by giving a definite color with^
out covering the surface and hiding the nature of the
material by coats of paint. The best woods for stain-
ing are those of close, even texture, as pear and cherry,

26 THE UP-TO-DATE

birch, beech, and maple, though softer and coarser
kinds may be treated with good effect. The wood
!;hould be dried, and if an even tint is desired, its
surface planed and sandpapered. All the stains
should, if possible, be applied hot, as they thus pene-
trate more deeply into the pores. If the wood is to be
varnished, and not subjected to much handling, almost
any of the brilliant mordants used in wool and cotton
dyeing may be employed in an alcoholic solution;
but when thus colored it has an unnatural appearance,
and is best used on small surfaces only, for inlaying,
etc. The ebonized wood, of late years so much in
vogue, is in many respects the most unsatisfactory of
the stains, as the natural character and markings are
completely blotted out, and it shows the least scratch
or rubbing. Sometimes, in consequence of the quality
of the wood under treatment, it must be freed from its
natural colors by a preliminary bleaching process. To
this end it is saturated as completely as possible with
a clear solution of 17^ oz. chloride of lime and 2 oz.
soda crystals, in io>^ pints water. In this liquid the
wood is steeped for ^ hour, if it does not appear to
injure its texture. After this bleaching, it is immersed
in a solution of sulphurous acid to remove all traces
of chlorine, and then washed in pure water. The
sulphurous acid, which may cling to the wood in spite
of washing, does not appear to injure it, nor alter the
colors which are applied.

Black. — (i) Obtained by boiling together blue
Brazil-wood, powdered gall-apples, and alum, in rain
or river water, until it becomes black. This liquid is
then filtered through a fine organdie, and the objects
painted with a new brush before the decoction has
cooled, and this repeated until the wood appears of

HARDWOOD FINISHER 27

a fine black color. It is then coated with the follow-
ing liquid: A mixture of iron filings, vitriol, and
vinegar is heated (without boiling), and left a few
days to settle. Even i{ the wood is black enough, yet,
for the sake of durability, it must be coated with a
solution of alum and nitric acid, mixed with a little
verdigris; then a decoction of gall-apples and logwood
dyes is used to give it a deep black. A decoction may
be made of brown Brazil-wood with alum in rain-
water, without gall-apples; the wood is left standing
in it for some days in a moderately warm place, and
to it merely iron filings in strong vinegar are added,
and both are boiled with the wood over a gentle fire.
For this purpose soft pear-wood is chosen, which is
preferable to all others for black staining.

(2) I oz. nut-gall broken into small pieces, put into
barely ^ pint vinegar, which must be contained in an
open vessel; let stand for about j^ hour; add i oz.
steel filings; the vinegar will then commence efTer-
vescing; cover up, but not sufficient to exclude all air.
The solution must then stand for about 2^ hours, when
it will be ready for use. Apply the solution with a
brush or piece of rag to the article, then let it remain
until dry; if not black enough, coat it until it is— each
time, of course, letting it remain sufficiently long to
dry thoroughly. After the solution is made, keep it
in a closely corked bottle.

(3) One gal. water, i lb. logwood chips, y^ lb. black
copperas, >^ lb. extract of logwood, ^ lb. indigo blue,
2 oz. lampblack. Put these into an iron pot and boil
them over a slow fire. When the mixture is cool,
strain it through a cloth, add ^ oz. nut-gall. It is
then ready for use. This is a good black for all kinds
of cheap work.

28 THE UP-TO-DATE

(4) Two hundred fifty parts of Campeachy wood,
2000 water, and 30 copper sulphate; the wood is
allowed to stand 24 hours in this liquor, dried in the
air, and finally immersed in iron nitrate liquor at 4° B.

(5) Boil S% oz. logwood in 70 oz. water and i oz.
blue stone, and steep the wood for 24 hours. Take
out, expose to the air for a long time, and then steep
for 12 hours in a solution of iron niirace ac 4° B. If
the black is not fine, steep again in the logwood liquor.

(6) It is customary to employ the clear liquid
obtained by treating 2 parts powdered galls with 15
parts wine, and mixing the filtered liquid with a
solution of iron protosulphate. Reimann recommends
the use of water in the place of wine.

(7) Almost any wood can be dyed black by the
following means: Take logwood extract such as is
found in commerce, powder i oz., and boil it in ^}(
pints of water; when the extract is dissolved, add I dr.
potash yellow chromate (not the bichromate), and
agitate the whole. The operation is now finished, and
the liquid will serve equally well to write with or to
stain wood. Its color is a very fine dark purple, which
becomes a pure black when applied to the wood.

(8) For black and gold furniture, procure I lb. log-
wood chips, add 2 qt. water, boil I hour, brush the
liquor in hot, when dry give another coat. Now
procure I oz. green copperas, dissolve it in warm
water, well mix, and brush the solution over the wood;
it will bring out a fine black; but the wood should be
dried outdoors, as the black sets better. A common
stove brush is best. If polisn cannot oe used, proceed
as follows: Fill up the grain with black glue — i.e.,
thin glue and lampblack — brushed over the parts
accessible (not in the carvings); when dry, paper down

HARDWOOD FINISHER 29

with fine paper. Now procure, say, a gill of French
polish, in which mix I oz. best ivory black, or gas-
black is best, well shake it until quite a thick pasty
mass, procure ^ pint brown hard varnish, pour a
portion into a cup, add enough black polish to make it
quite dark, then varnish the work; two thin coats are
better than one thick coat. The first coat may be
sandpapered down where accessible, as it will look
better. A coat of glaze over the whole gives a piano
finish. N.B. — Enough varnish should be mixed at
once for the job to make it all one color — i.e., good
black.

(9) For table. Wash the surface of table with
liquid ammonia, applied with a piece of rag; the
varnish will then peel off like a skin; afterwards
smooth down with fine sandpaper. Mix y^ lb.
lampblack with I qt. hot water, adding a little glue
size; rub this stain v/ell in; let it dry before sand-
papering it; smooth again. Mind you do not work
through the stain. Afterwards apply the following
black varnish with a broad, fine camel-hair brush: Mix
a small quantity of gas-black with the \'arnish. If
one coat of varnish is not sufficient, apply a second
one after the first is dry. Gas-black can be obtained
by boiling a pot over the gas, letting the pot nearly
touch the burner, when a fine jet black will form on
the bottom, which remove, and mix with the varnish.
Copper vessels give the best black; it may be collected
from barbers' warming pots.

(10) Black-board wash, or "liquid slating." — {a)
Four pints 95 per cent alcohol, 8 oz. shellac, 12 dr.
lampblack, 20 dr. ultramarine blue, 4 oz. powdered
rotten stone, 6 oz. powdered pumice, (b) i gal. 95 pel
cent alcohol, i lb. shellac, 8 oz. best ivory black, 5 oz.

30 THE UP-TO-DATE

finest flour emery, 4 oz. ultramarine blue. Make a
perfect solution of the shellac in the alcohol before
adding the other articles. To apply the slating, have
the surface smooth and perfectly free from grease;
well shake the bottle containing the preparation, and
pour out a small quantity only into a dish, and apply
it with a new flat varnish brush as rapidly as possible.
Keep the bottle well corked, and shake it up each
time before pouring out the liquid, (c) Lampblack
and flour of emery mixed with spirit varnish. No
more lampblack and flour of emery should be used than
are sufficient to give the required black abrading sur-
face. The thinner the mixture the better. Lamp-
black should first be ground with a small quantity of
spirit varnish or alcohol to free it from lumps. The
composition should be applied to the smoothly planed
surface of a board with a common paint brush. Let it
become thoroughly dry and hard before it is used.
Rub it down with pumice if too rough, {d) j4 gal.
shellac varnish, 5 oz. lampblack, 3 oz. powdered iron
ore or emery; if too thick, thin with alcohol. Give
3 coats of the composition, allowing each to dry before
putting on the next; the first may be of shellac and
lampblack alone, (e) To make i gal. of the paint for
a blackboard, take 10 oz. pulverized and sifted pumice,
6 oz. powdered rotten stone (infusorial silica), % lb.
good lampblack, and alcohol enough to form with
these a thick paste, which must be well rubbed and
ground together. Then dissolve 14 oz. shellac in the
remainder of the gallon of alcohol by digestion and
agitation, and finally mix this varnish and the paste
together. It is applied to the board with a brush, care
being taken to keep the paint well stirred, so that the
pumice will not settle. Two coats are usually necessary.

HARDWOOD FINISHER 51

The first should be allowed to dry thoroughly before
the second is put on, the latter being applied so as not
to disturb or rub off any portion of the first. One
gallon of this paint will ordinarily furnish 2 coats for 60
sq. yd. of blackboard. When the paint is to be put
on plastered walls, the wall should be previously
coated with glue size — i lb. glue, i gal. water, enough
lampblack to color; put on hot. (/) Instead of the
alcohol mentioned in b, take a solution of borax in
water; dissolve the shellac in this and color with
lampblack. (^) Dilute soda silicate (water-glass) with
an equal bulk of water, and add sufficient lampblack
to color it. The lampblack should be ground with
water and a little of the silicate before being added to
the rest of the liquid

(11) 17.5 oz. Brazil-wood and 0.525 oz. alum are
boiled for i hour in 2.75 lb. water. The colored
liquor is then filtered from the boiled Brazil-wood,
and applied several times boiling hot to the wood to
be stained. This will assume a violet color. This
violet color can be easily changed into black by
preparing a solution of 2.1 oz. iron filings, and 1.05
oz. common salt in 17.5 oz. vinegar. The solution is
filtered, and applied to the wood, which will then
acquire a beautiful black color.

(12) 8.75 oz. gall-nuts and 2.2 lb. logwood are
boiled in 2.2 lb. rain-water for I hour in a copper
boiler. The decoction is then filtered through a cloth,
and applied several times while it is still warm to the
article of wood to be stained. In this manner a beauti-
ful black will be obtained.

(13) This is prepared by dissolving 0.525 oz. log-
wood extract in 2.2 lb. hot rain-water, and by adding
to the logwood solution 0.035 o^- potash chromate.

32 THE UP-TO-DATE

When this is applied several times to the article to be
stained, a dark brown color will first be obtained. To
change this into a deep chrome-black, the solution of
iron filings, common salt, and vinegar, given under
(ii) is applied to the wood, and the desired color will
be produced.

(14) Several coats of alizarine ink are applied to
the wood, but every coat must be thoroughly dry
before the other is put on. When the articles are dry,
the solution of iron filings, common salt, and vinegar,
as given in (11), is applied to the wood, and a very
durable black will be obtained.

(15) According to Herzog, a black stain for wood,
giving to it a color resembling ebony, is obtained by
treating the wood with two fluids, one after the other.
The first fluid to be used consists of a very concentrated
solution of logwood, and to 0.35 oz. of this fluid are
added 0.017 oz. alum. The other fluid is obtained by
digesting iron filings in vinegar. After the wood has
been dipped in the first hot fluid, it is allowed to dry,
and is then treated with the second fluid, several times
if necessary.

(16) Sponge the wood with a solution of aniline
chlorhydrate in water, to which a small quantity of
copper chloride is added. Allow it to dry, and go
over it with a solution of potassium bichromate.
Repeat the process two or three times, and the wood
will take a fine black color.

Blue. — (i) Powder a little Prussian blue, and mix to
the consistency of paint with beer; brush it on the
wood, and when dry size it with glue dissolved in
boiling water; apply lukewarm, and let this dry also;
iben varnish or French polish.

(2) Indigo solution, or a concentrated hot solution

HARDWOOD FINISHER 33

of blue vitriol, followed by a dip in a solution of
washing soda.

(3) Prepare as for violet, and dye with aniline blue.

(4) A beautiful blue stain is obtained by gradually
stirring 0.52 oz. finely powdered indigo into 4.2 oz.
sulphuric acid of 60 per cent, and by exposing this
mixture for 12 hours to a temperature of J'j'^ F. (25°
C). The mass is then poured into 11-13.2 lb. rain-
water, and filtered through felt. This filtered water
is applied several times to the wood, until the desired
color has been obtained. The more the solution is
diluted with water, the lighter will be the color.

(5) 1.05 oz. finest indigo carmine, dissolved in 8.75
oz. water, applied several times to the articles to be
stained. A very fine blue is in this manner obtained.

(6) 3.5 oz. French verdigris are dissolved in 3.5 oz,
urine and 8.75 oz. wine vinegar. The solution is
filtered and applied to the article to be stained. Then
a solution of 2.1 oz. potash carbonate in 8.75 oz. rain-
water is prepared, and the article colored with the
verdigris is brushed over with this solution until the
desired blue color makes its appearance.

(7) The newest processes of staining wood blue are
those with aniline colors. The following colors may
be chosen for the staining liquor: Bleu de Lyon
(reddish blue), bleu de lumiere (pure blue), light blue
(greenish blue). These colors are dissolved in the
proportion of I part coloring substance to 30 of spirit
of wine, and the wood is treated with the solution.

Brown. — (i) Various tones may be produced by
mordanting with potash chromate, and applying a
decoction of fustic, of logwood, or of peachwood.

(2) Sulphuric acid, more or less diluted according to
the intensity of the color to be produced, is applied

34 THE UP-TO-DATE

with a brush to the wood, previously cleaned and
dried. A lighter or darker brown stain is obtained,
according to the strength of the acid. When the acid
has acted sufficiently, its further action is arrested by
the application of ammonia.

(3) Tincture of iodine yields a fine brown color-
ation, which, however, is not permanent unless the air
is excluded by a thick coating of polish.

(4) A simple brown wash is ^ oz. alkanet root, I
oz. aloes, i oz. dragons' blood, digested in i lb. alcohol.
This is applied after the wood has been washed with
aqua regia, but is, like all the alcoholic washes, not
very durable.

Ebonizing. — (i) Boil i lb. logwood chips I hour in 2
qt. water; brush the hot liquor over the work to be
stained, lay aside to dry; when dry give another coat,
still using it hot. When the second coat is dry, brush
the following liquor over the work: i oz. green
copperas to i qt. hot water, to be used when the
copperas is all dissolved. It will bring out an intense
black when dry. For staining, the work must not be
dried by fire, but in the sunshine, if possible; if not,
in a warm room, away from the fire. To polish this
work, first give a coating of very thin glue size, and
when quite dry paper off very lightly with No. o paper,
only just enough to render smooth, but not to remove
the black stain. Then make a rubber of wadding
about the size of a walnut, moisten the rubber with
French polish, cover the whole tightly with a double
linen rag, put one drop of oil on the surface, and rub
thf^ work with a circular motion. Should the rubber
stick it requires more polish. Previous to putting the
French polish on the wadding pledget, it ought to be
mvxed with the best drop black, in the proportion of

HARDWOOD FINISHER 35

}( oz. drop black to a gill of French polish. When the
work has received one coat, set it aside to dry for
about an hour. After the first coat is laid on and
thoroughly dry, it should be partly papered off with
No. o paper. This brings the surface even, and at the
same time fills up the grain. Now give a second coat
as before. Allow 24 hours to elapse, again paper off,
and give a final coat as before. Now comes "spiriting
off." Great care must be used here, or the work will
be dull instead of bright. A clean rubber must be
made, as previously described, but instead of being
moistened with polish it must be wetted with spirits
of wine placed in a linen rag screwed into a tight,
even-surfaced ball, just touched on the face with a
drop of oil, and then rubbed lightly and quickly in
circular sweeps all over the work from top to bottom.
One application of spirits is usually enough if sufficient
has been placed on the rubber at the outset, but it is
better to use rather too little than too much at a
time, as an excess will entirely remove the polish,
when the work will have to be polished again. Should
this be the case, paper off at once, and commence as
at first. It is the best way in the end. {Smither.)

(2) Lauber dissolves extract of logwood in boiling
water until the solution indicates 0° Beaume. Five pints
of the solution is then mixed with 2>^ pints pyrolig-
neous iron mordant of 10°, and yi pint acetic acid of
2°. The mixture is heated for % hour, and is then
ready for use.

(3) To imitate black ebony, first wet the wood with
a solution of logwood and copperas, boiled together
and laid on hot. For this purpose, 2 oz. logwood
chips with i^ oz. copperas, to I qt. water, will be
required. When the work has become dry, wet the

36 THE UP-TO-DATE

surface again with a mixture of vinegar and steel
filings. This mixture may be made by dissolving 2 oz.
steel filings in ^ pint vinegar. When the work has
become dry again, sandpaper down until quite smooth.
Then oil and fill in with powdered drop black mixed in
the filler. Work to be ebonized should be smooth and
free from holes, etc. The work may receive a light
coat of quick-drying varnish, and then be rubbed with
finely pulverized pumice and linseefd oil until very
smooth.

(4) One gal. strong vinegar, 2 lb. extract of logwood,
% lb. green copperas, % lb. China blue, and 2 oz.
nut-gall. Put these in an iron pot, and boil them over
a slow fire till they are well dissolved. When coo\,
the mixture is ready for use. Add to the above ^ pint
iron rust, which may be obtained by scraping rusty
hoops, or preferably by steeping iron filings in a
solution of acetic acid or strong vinegar.

(5) Common ebony stain is obtained by preparing
two baths; the first, applied warm, consists of a log-
wood decoction, to every quart of which i dr. alum is
added; the second is a solution of iron filings in
vinegar. After the wood has dried from the first, the
second is applied as often as is required. For the
first-named bath, some substitute 16 oz. gall-nut, 4
oz. logwood dust, and 2 oz. verdigris, boiled in a
sufficient quantity of water. A peculiar method of
blackening walnut is in use in Nurnberg. On one of
the Pegnitz Islands there is a large grinding-mill, turned
by the stream, where iron tools are sharpened and
polished. The wood is buried for a week or more in
the slime formed by the wheels; when dug out it is
jet black, and so permeated by silica as to be in effect
petrified. Another way to ebonize flat surfaces of soft

HARDWOOD FINISHER 37

work is to rub very fine charcoal dust into the pores
with oil. This works beautifully with basswood and
American whit^"^ood. A brown mahogany-like stain
is best used on elm and walnut. Take a pint decoction
of 2 oz. logwood in which ^ oz. barium chloride has
been dissolred. This gives also, when diluted with
soft water, a good oak stain to ash and chestnut. But
the most beautiful and lasting of the browns is a con-
centrated solution of potash permanganate (mineral
chameleon). This is decomposed by the woody fiber,
and forms hydrated manganese oxide, which is
permanently fixed by the alkali.

(6) For the fine black ebony stain, apple, pear, and
hazel wood are the best woods to use; when stained
black, they are most complete imitations of the
natural ebony. For the stain take: gall-apple, 14 oz.;
rasped logwood, 3^^ oz.; vitriol, i^ oz. ; verdigris,
i^ oz. For the second coating a mixture of iron
filings (pure), 3^ oz., dissolved in strong wine vinegar;
i^ pint is warmed, and when cool the wood already
blackened is coated 2 or 3 times with it, allowing it
to dry after each coat. For articles which are to
be thoroughly saturated, a mixture of i^ oz. sal-
ammoniac, with a sufficient quantity of steel filings, h
to be placed in a suitable vessel, strong vinegar poured
upon it, and left for 14 days in a gently heated oven.
A strong lye is now put into a suitable pot, to which
is added coarsely bruised gall-apples and blue Brazil
shavings, and exposed for the same time as the former
to the genthi heat of an oven, which will then yield a
good liquid. The woods are now laid in the first-
named stain, boiled for a few hours, and left in it for 3
days longer; they are then placed in the second stain
and treated as in the first. If the articles are not then

38 THE UP-TO-DATE

thoroughly saturated, they may be once more placed
in the first bath, and then in the second. The polish
used for wood that is stained black should be "white"
(colorless) polish, to which a very little finely ground
Prussian blue should be added.

(7) Wash with a concentrated aqueous solution of
logwood extract several times; then with a solution
of iron acetate of 14° B., which is repeated until a deep
black is produced.

(8) Beech, pear-tree, or nolly steeped in a strong
liquor of logwood or galls. Let the wood dry, and
wash over with solution of iron sulphate. Wash with
clean water, and repeat if color is not dark enough.
Polish either with black or common French polish.

(9) Oak is immersed for 48 hours in a hot saturated
solution of alum, and then brushed over several times
with a logwood decoction prepared as follows: Boil i
part best logwood with 10 of water, filter through linen,
and evaporate at a gentle heat until the volume is
reduced one-half. To every quart of this add 10 to 15
drops of a saturated solution of indigo, completely
neutral. After applying this dye to the wood, rub
the latter with a saturated and filtered solution of
verdigris in hot concentrated acetic acid, and repeat
the operation until a black of the desired intensity is
obtained. Oak thus stained is said to be a close as
well as handsome imitation of ebony.

(10) One lb. logwood chips, 3 pints water; boil to i
pint; apply hot to wood; let dry; then give another
coat; let dry slowly; sandpaper smooth; mix i gill
vinegar with 3 tablespoonfuls iron or steel filings; let
stand 5 hours, then brush on wood; let dry; then give
another coat of the first. This sends the vinegar
deeper into the wood and makes a denser black; after

HARDWOOD FINISHER 39

which paper smooth. Then polish with white French
polish, as the white brings out the black purer than
common French polish. The woods observed to take
on the stain best are pear-tree, plane-tree, and straight-
reeded birch; mahogany does not stain nearly so well
as the former woods.

(11) Get I lb. logwood chips and boil them down in
enough water to make a good dark color; give the
furniture 3 or 4 coats with a sponge; then put some
rusty nails or old iron into a bottle with some vinegar,
and when it begins to work give the furniture a coat
of the vinegar. This, if you have well darkened it
with the first, will give you a good black. Oil and
polish in the usual way, rubbing down first with fine
paper if required. A quicker way is to give the wood
a coat of size and lampblack, and then use gas-black
in your polish rubber

(12) Make a strong decoction of logwood by boiling
I lb. in I qt. water for about I hour; add thereto a
piece of washing soda as large as a hazel-nut. Apply
hot to the wood with a soft brush. Allow to dry, then
paint over the wood with a solution of iron sulphate (i
oz. to the pint of water). Allow this to dry, and
repeat the logwood and iron sulphate for at least 3
times, finishing off with logwood. Once more allow
to dry thoroughly, then sandpaper off very lightly (so
as not to remove the dye) with No. o paper. Now
make a very thin glue size, boil in it a few chips of
logwood and a crystal or two of iron sulphate, just
suflRcient to make it inky black. Paint this lightly
over the work, allow to dry once more, again sand-
paper lightly, and finally either varnish with good
hard white varnish, or polish with French polish and
drop black.

40 THE UP-TO-DATE

Floors.— (i) Get the wood clean, have some Vandyke
brown and burnt sienna ground in water, mix it in
strong size, put on with a whitewash or new paint
brush as evenly as you can. When dry, give 2 coats
of copal or oak varnish.

(2) If the floor is a new one, have the "border well
washed. Polish with sandpaper, rubbing always with
the grain of the wood. Varnish with good oak varnish,
put coloring matter into the varnish to suit your taste,
but umber is best; if the floor is old and blackened,
paint it.

(3) If old floors, you will not make much of staining
anything but black. The floor is to be well washed
(lime and soda is best — no soap), the dye painted on,
and, when dry, sized over and varnished with elastic
oak varnish.

(4) Take 5^ lb. logwood chips, boil them briskly for
^ hour in about 5 qt. rain-water, and strain through
muslin. To this liquor add 6 oz. annatto (in the form
of cake — not the roll); add also i lb. of yellow wax
cut up in very small pieces. Place these over the
fire, and let the wax melt, gently stirring it all the
while. When melted, take the mixture off the fire;
do not let it boil. Then with a paint brush lay it on
the floor as hot as possible, brushing it always the way
of the grain. Next day polish with a hard, flat brush
made of hair, which may have a strap nailed to the
back of it in which to insert the foot. The floor is
afterwards kept bright with beeswax alone, a little of
which is melted and put on the brush. Take care
that the floor is thoroughly dry before commencing
operations.

(5) Melt some glue size in a bottle; next get a pieCv.
of rag, roll it into a ball so that it will fit the hand

HARDWOOD FINISHER 41

nicely, cover this with a bit of old calico to make a
smooth face; dip this into the size, and rub in a bit of
brown umber; then go ahead with your floors, working
the stuff light or dark as required. Keep the motion
with the grain of wood; when dry, stiffen with
polishers' glaze.

(6) Take Judson's dyes of the color required, mix
according to the instructions given with each bottle,
and apply with a piece of rag, previously trying it on
a piece of wood to see if color would suit; rub with
sandpaper to get off any roughness that may be raised
with the darnp, and varnish with fine, pale hard
varnish, then slightly sandpaper and varnish again.
Another method is to boil i lb. logwood in an old
boiler, then apply with a piece of rag where the stain
is required; when thoroughly dry, sandpaper as before,
and well rub with beeswax to polish. This last proc-
ess looks best when finished, but it requires a lot of
elbow grease for a few months, and is extremely
durable. To prevent the stain running where you do
not want it, paste some stout paper.

(7) As a general rule, i qt. of the staining liquid
will be found sufficient to cover about 16 sq. yd. of
flooring; but different kinds of woods absorb in
different proportions, soft woods requiring more for
the same space than hard woods. The colors of the
stains are various, so that one may either choose
ebony, walnut, mahogany, rosewood, satinwood, oak,
medium oak, or maple, according to the paleness or
depth of color desired. Besides this, 4 lb. of size and
2>^ pints of the best varnish are required to finish the
16 yd. above mentioned. The necessary purchases
are completed by a good-sized painters' brush and a
smaller one. The work can then be commenced. It

42 THE UP-TO-DATE

the wood is uneven, it must be planed, and rubbed
down to a smooth surface; whilst the cracks and spaces
between the boards, if very wide, may be disposed of
by a process called "slipping," by which pieces of
wood are fitted in. The floor must next be carefully
washed, and allowed to dr> thoroughly. The actual
staining may now be proceeded with. The liquid is
poured out into a basin, and spread all over the floor
with the aid of the large brush, the small one being
used to do the corners and along the wainscoting, so
that it may not be smeared. It is always best to begin
staining at the farthest corner from the doorway, and
work round so that one's exit may not be impeded.
It is also a good plan to work with the window open,
if there is no danger of much dust flying in, as the
staining' dries so much quicker. After the floor is quite
covered, the stainer may rest for about an hour whilst
the drying is going on, during which there is only one
thing relative to the work in hand which need be
attended to. This is the size, which should be put in
a large basin with ^ pint of cold water to each pound,
and then stood in a warm place to dissolve. Before
recommencing work, also, the brushes must be washed,
and this is no great trouble, as a little lukewarm water
will take out all trace of the stain and clean them
quite sufficiently. The sizing is then laid on in
exactly the same manner as the staining, always being
careful to pass the brush lengthwise down the boards.
If the size froths or sticks unpleasantly, it must be a
little more diluted with warm water, and sometimes, if
the sediment from it is very thick, it is all the better
for being strained through a coarse muslin. The
sizing takes rather longer than the varnish to dry, 2 of
more hours being necessary, even on a warm, dry day.

HARDWOOD FINISHER 43

Not until it is quite dry, however, can the last finish
be put to the work with the varnish. For this it is
always safest to get the very best, and to lay it on
rather literally, though very evenly, and over every
single inch, as the staining will soon rub off when not
protected by it. The best way to ascertain whether
it is varnished all over is to kneel down and look at
the floor sideways, with one's eyes almost on a level
with it.

Green, — (i) Mordant the wood with red liquor at i°
B. This is prepared by dissolving separately in water
I part sugar of lead and 4 of alum free from iron; mix
the solutions, and then add ^\ part of soda crystals,
and let settle overnight. The clear liquor is decanted
off from the sediment of lead sulphate, and is then
diluted with water till it marks i° B. The wood when
mordanted is dyed green with berry liquor and indigo
extract, the relative proportions of which determine
the tone of the green.

(2) Verdigris dissolved in 4 parts water.

(3) 4.2 oz. copper, cut up finely, are gradually
dissolved in 13 oz. nitric acid (aqua fortis), and the
articles to be stained are boiled in this solution until
they have assumed a fine green color.

Gray. — (i) Grays may be produced by boiling 17 oz.
orchil paste for }4 hour in 7 pints water. The wood
is first treated with this solution, and then, before it
is dry, steeped in a beck of iron nitrate at 1° B. An
excess of iron gives a yellowish tone; otherwise a blue
gray is produced, which may be completely converted
into blue by means of a little potash.

(2) One part silver nitrate dissolved in 50 of
distilled water; wash over twice; then with hydro-
chloric acid, and afterwards with water of ammonia.

44 THE UP-TO-DATE

The wood is allowed to dry in the dark, and then
finished in oil and polished.

Mahogany. — (i) Boil Yz lb. madder and 2 oz. log-
wood chips in i gal. water, and brush well over while
hot. When dry, go over with pearlash solution, 2 dr.
to the quart. By using it strong or weak, the color
can be varied at pleasure.

(2) Soak I lb. stick varnish in 2 qt. water until all
the color is dissolved out; strain off the water, and
add to the residue 25 dr. powdered madder. Set the
mixture over the fire until it is reduced to ^ of its
original volume. Then mix together 25 dr. cochineal,
25 dr. kermes berries, I pint spirits of wine, and }^ oz.
pearlash, out of which the color has been washed by
soaking in a gill of soft water. Add this mixture to
the decoction of madder and varnish, stirring well
together, and adding so much aqua fortis as will brin.c:
the red to the desired shade.

(3) Dark Mahogany. — Introduce into a bottle 15 gr.
alkanet root, 30 gr. aloes, 30 gr. powdered dragons'
blood, and 500 gr. 95 per cent alcohol, closing the
mouth of the bottle with a piece of bladder, keeping
it in a warm place for 3 or 4 days, with occasional
shaking, then filtering the liquid. The wood is first
mordanted with nitric acid, and when dry washed with
the stain once or oftener, according to the desired
shade; then, the wood being dried, it is oiled and
polished.

(4) Light Mahogany. — Same as dark mahogany, but
the stain being only applied once. The veins of true
mahogany may be imitated by the use of iron acetate
skillfully applied.

(5) The following process is recommended in
**Wiederhold's Trade Circular:" — The coarse wood is

HARDWOOD FINISHER 45

first coated with a colored size, which is prepared by
thoroughly mixing up, in a warm solution, i part
commercial glue in 6 of water, a sufficient quantity of
the commercial mahogany brown, which is in reality
an iron oxide, and in color stands between so-called
Indian red and iron oxide. This is best effected by
adding in excess a sufficient quantity of the dry color
with the warm solution of glue, and thoroughly
mixing the mass by means of a brush until a uniform
paste is obtained, in which no more dry red particles
are seen. A trial coat is then laid upon a piece of
wood. If it is desired to give a light mahogany color
to the object, it is only necessary to add less, and, for a
darker color, more, of the brown body-color. When
the coat is dry, it may be tested, by rubbing with the
fingers, whether the color easily separates or not. In
the former case, more glue must be added until the dry
trial coat no longer perceptibly rubs off with the
hands. Having ascertained in this way the right
condition of the size color with respect to tint and
strength, it is then warmed slightly, and worked
through a hair sieve by means of a brush. After this,
it is rubbed upon the wood surface with the brush,
which has been carefully washed. It is not necessary
to keep the color warm during the painting. Should
it become thick by gelatinizing, it may be laid on the
wood with the brush, and dries more rapidly than
when the color is too thin. If the wood is porous and
absorbs much color, a second coat may be laid on the
first when dry, which will be sufficient in all cases.
On drying, the size color appears dull and unsightly,
but the following coat changes immediately the
appearance of the surface. This coat is spirit varnish.
For its production 3 parts spirits of wine of 90° are

46 THE UP-TO-DATE

added in excess to I part of red acaroid resin in one
vessel, and in another lO parts shellac with 40 of
spirits of wine of 80%. By repeated agitation for 3 or
4 days, the spirit dissolves the resin completely. The
shellac solution is then poured carefully from the
sediment, or, better still, filtered through a fine cloth,
when it may be observed that a slight milky turbidity
is no detriment 10 its use. The resin solution is best
filtered into the shellac solution by pouring through a
funnel loosely packed with wadding. When filtered,
the solutions of both resins are mixed by agitating the
vessel and letting the varnish stand a few days. The
acaroid resin colors the shellac, and imparts to it at
the same time the degree of suppleness usually
obtained by the addition of Venetian turpentine or
linseed oil. If the varnish is to be employed as a coat,
the upper layers are poured off at once from the
vessel. One or two coats suffice, as a rule, to give the
object an exceedingly pleasing effect. The coats dry
very quickly, and care must be taken not to apply the
second coat until the first is completely dry.

(6) 7.5 oz. madder, 8.7$ oz. rasped yellow wood, are
boiled for I hour in 5.5 lb. water, and the boiling
liquor is applied to the articles until the desired color
has been produced.

(7) 1.05 oz. powdered turmeric, 1.05 oz. powdered
dragons' blood, are digested in 8.75 oz. of 80 per cent
strong alcohol, and when the latter seems to be thor-
oughly colored it is filtered through a cloth. The fil-
trate is heated and applied warm to the article.

(8) 17.5 oz. madder, 8.75 oz. ground logwood, are
boiled for i hour in 5.5 lb. water. This is filtered
while still warm, and the warm liquor is applied to
the wood. When this has become dry, and it is

HARDWOOD FINISHER 47

desired to produce a darker mahogany color, a solu-
tion of 0.525 oz. potash carbonate in 4.4 lb. water is
applied to the wood. This solution is prepared cold,
and filtered through blotting-paper.

(9) 0.35 oz. aniline is dissolved in 8.75 oz. spirits
of wine 90 per cent strong. Then another solution of
0.35 oz. aniline yellow in 17.5 oz. spirits of wine 90
per cent strong is made, and this is added to the aniline
solution until the required reddish-yellow color is
obtained. By adding a little of a solution of aniline
brown (0.35 oz. aniline brown in 10.5 oz. spirits of wine
90 per cent strong), the color is still more completely
harmonized, and a tint very closely resembling
mahogany can be given to elm and cherry wood with
this mixture,

(10) 0.7 oz. logwood is boiled in 3.5 oz. water down
to about yi. This is then filtered, and 0.12 oz. baryta
chloride is dissolved in it.

Oak. — (i) Mix powdered ocher, Venetian red, and
umber, in size, in proportions to suit; or a richer stain
may be made with raw sienna, burnt sienna, and
Vandyke. A light yellow stain of raw sienna alone
is very effective.

(2) Darkening Oak. — Lay on liquid ammonia with a
rag or brush. The color deepens immediately, and
does not fade; this being an artificial production of
the process which is induced naturally by age. Potash
bichromate, dissolved in cold water and applied in a
like manner, will produce a very similar result.

(3) In Germany, the cabinetmakers use very strong
coffee for darkening oak. To make it very dark:
iron filings with a little sulphuric acid and water, put
on with a sponge, and allowed to dry between each
application until the right hue is reached.

48 THE UP-TO-DATE

(4) Whitewash with fresh lime, and when dry brush
off the lime with a hard brush, and dress well with
linseed oil. It should be done after the wood has
been worked, and it will make not only the wood, but
the carving or moulding, look old also.

(5) Use a strong solution of common washing-soda,
say one or two coats, until the proper color is obtained.
Or you may try potash carbonate. Paper and finish
off with linseed oil.

(6) A decoction of green walnut-shells will bring
new oak to any shade, or nearly black.

(7) A good method of producing the peculiar oliv6
brown of old oak is by fumigation with liquid
ammonia; the method has many advantages beyond
the expense of making a case or room airtight and
the price of the ammonia. It does not raise the grain,
the work keeping as smooth as at first. Any tint, or
rather, depth of the color can be given with certainty;
and the darker shade of color will be found to have
penetrated to the depth of a veneer, and much farther
where the end grain is exposed, thus doing away with
the chance of an accidental knock showing the white
wood. The coloring is very even and pure, not
destroying the transparency of the wood. It is
advisable to make the furniture from one kind of stuff,
not to mix white 6ak with red, and so on. They both
take the color well, but there is a kind of American
live oak that does not answer well. In all cases care
must be taken to have no glue or grease on the work,
which would cause white spots to be left. The deal
portions of the work are not affected in the least,
neither does it affect the sap of oak. The best kind
of polish for furniture treated in this manner is wax
polish, or the kind known as egg-shell polish. The

HARDWOOD FINISHER 49

process of fumigation is very simple. Get a large
packing case, or better still, make a room in a corner
of the polishing shop about 9 ft. long, 6 ft, high, and
3 ft. 6 in. wide; pass paper over the joints; let the
door close on to a strip of india-rubber tubing; put a
pane of glass in the side of box or house to enable you
to examine the progress of coloring. In putting in
your work see that it does not touch anything to
hinder the free course of the fumes. Put 2 or 3
dishes on the floor to hold the ammonia; about )^ pint
is sufficient for a case this size. The ammonia differs
in purity, some leaving more residue than others.
Small articles can be done by simply covering them
with a cloth, having a little spirits in a pot underneath.
A good useful color can be given by leaving the
things exposed to the fumes overnight. The color
lightens on being polished, owing to the transparency
thus given to the wood.

Purple. — (i) Take i lb. logwood chips, ^ gal.
water, 4 oz. pearlash, 2 oz. powdered indigo. Boil
the logwood in the water till the full strength is
obtained, then add the pearlash and indigo, and when
the ingredients are dissolved the mixture is ready for
use, either warm or cold. This gives a beautiful
purple.

(2) To stain wood a rich purple or chocolate color,
boil Yz lb. madder and ^ lb. fustic in i gal. water, and
when boiling brush over the work until stained. If
the surface of the work should be perfectly smooth,
brush over the work with a weak solution of nitric acid;
then finish with the following: put 4^ oz. dragons'
blood and i oz. soda, both well bruised, into 3 pints
spirits of wine. Let it stand in a warm place, shake
frequently, strain and lay on with a soft brush,

50 THE UP-TO-DATE

/epeating until a proper color is gained. Polish with
linseed oil or varnish.

(3) 2.2 lb. rasped logwood, 5.5 lb. rasped Lima red
dyewood are boiled for i hour in 5.5 lb. water. It is
then filtered through a cloth and applied to the article
to be stained until the desired color has been obtained.
In the meanwhile a solution of 0. 175 oz. potash
carbonate in 17.5 oz. water has been prepared, and a
thin coat of this is applied to the article stained red.
But strict attention must be paid not to apply too thick
a coat of this solution, or else a dark blue color would
be the result.

Red. — (i) The wood is plunged first in a solution of
I oz. of curd soap in 35 fl. oz. water, or else is rubbed
with the solution; then magenta is applied in a state
of sufficient dilution to bring out^ the tone required.
All the aniline colors behave very well on wood.

(2) For a red stain, a decoction of }( lb. logwood
and yi oz. potash in i lb. water is used as the bath,
being fixed by a wash of alum water. For scarlet, use
I oz. cochineal, 6 oz. powdered argol, 4 oz. cream tar-
tar, in 12 oz. tin chloride (scarlet spirits).

(3) Take i qt. alcohol, 3 oz. Brazil-wood, J^ oz.
dragons' blood, ^ oz. cochineal, I oz. saffron. Steep
to full strength and strain. It is a beautiful crimson
stain for violms, work-boxes, and fancy articles.

(4) Beside the aniline colors, which are, however,
much affected by sunlight, cochineal gives a very
good scarlet red upon wood. Boil 2 oz. cochineal,
previously reduced to a fine powder, in 35 oz. of water
for 3 hours, and apply it to the wood. When dry, give
it a coating of dilute tin chloride to which is added a
little tartaric acid — i oz. tin chloride and J^ oz.
tartaric acid in 35 fi, oz. water. If, instead of water,

HARDWOOD FINISHER 51

tne cochineal is boiled in a decoction of bark (2 oz.
bark to 35 oz. water), and the tin chloride is used as
above, an intense scarlet and all shades of orange may
be produced according to the proportions.

(5) Take i gal. alcohol, 1% lb. camwood, % lb. red
Sanders, i lb. logwood extract, 2 oz. aqua fortis.
When dissolved, it is ready for use. It should be
applied in 3 coats over the whole surface. When dry,
rub down to a smooth surface, using for the purpose
a very fine paper. The graining is done with iron
rust, and the shading with asphaltum thinned with
spirits of turpentine. When the shading is dry, apply
a thin coat of shellac; and when that is dry, rub down
with fine paper. The work is then ready for varnish-
ing— a fine rose tint.

(6) Monnier recommends steeping the wood for
several hours in a bath of 1200 gr. potassium iodide to
the quart of water, and then immersing it in a bath of
375 gr* corrosive sublimate, when it will assume a
beautiful rose-red color by chemical precipitation. It
should subsequently be covered with a glossy varnish.
The baths will not need renewal for a long time.

(7) 2.2 lb. finely powdered Lima red dyewood and

2.1 oz. potash carbonate are put in a glass bottle and
digested in 5.5 lb. water for 8 days in a warm place;
the bottle should be frequently shaken. It is then
filtered through a cloth; the fluid is heated, and
applied to the article to be stained until the latter
acquires a beautiful color. If it is desired to brighten
the color, a solution of 2.1 oz. alum, free from iron, in

2.2 lb. water is applied to the article while it is still
wet. The last solution can be prepared by heat; when
It has been "accomplished, it is filtered. As soon as
tne stains have become dry, they should be rubbed

52 THE UP-TO-DATE

with a rag moistened with linseed oil, after which the
varnish may be applied.

Satinwood. — Take i qt. alcohol, 3 oz. ground
turmeric, i^ oz. powdered gamboge. When steeped
to its full strength, strain through fine muslin. It is
then ready for use. Apply with a piece of fine sponge,
giving the work 2 coats. When dry, sandpaper down
very fine. It is then ready for polish or varnish, and
is a good imitation of satinwood.

Violet. — The wood is treated in a bath made up with
4^ oz. olive oil, the same weight of soda-ash, and
2^ pints boiling water, and it is then dyed with
magenta to which a corresponding quantity of tin
crystals has been added.

Walnut. — Deal and other common woods are stained
to imitate polished walnut in various ways, (i) One
method is, after careful rubbing with glass-paper, to go
over the surface with a preparation of Cassel brown
boiled in a lye of soft-soap and soda. After drying,
the surface rs rubbed over with pumice and oil, and
polished with shellac. The Cassel brown will not take
equally well on all kinds of wood, so that if not laid
on thick it sometimes comes off under the subsequent
pumicing; whilst on the other hand this same thickness
conceals, more or less, the grain on the wood beneath,
giving it the appearance of having been painted.

(2) Others use instead a decoction of green walnut-
shells, dried and boiled in the same lye, or in soft
water to which soda has been added. The decoction
of walnut-shells is apt to come off on the clothes as a
yellowish, adhesive substance.

(3) Others, agam, employ catechu and potash
chromate in equal parts, boiled separately and after-
wards mixed. The mixture of catechu and potash

HARDWOOD FINISHER 53

chromate leaves a reddish-brown deposit on the surface
of the wood, very unlike real walnut.

(4) The following is said to be a very superior
method for staining any kind of wood in imitation of
walnut, while it is also cheap and simple in its manip-
ulation. The wood, previously thoroughly dried
and warmed, is coated once or twice with a stain com-
posed of I oz. extract of walnut peel dissolved in 6 oz.
soft water by heating it to boiling, and stirring. The
wood thus treated, when half dry, is brushed with a
solution of I oz. potash bichromate in 5 oz. boiling
water, and is then allowed to dry thoroughly, and is
to be rubbed and polished as usual. Red beech and
alder, under this treatment, assume a most deceptive
resemblance to American walnut. The color is fixed
in the wood to a depth of one or two lines.

(5) Mix dragons' blood and lampblack in methylated
spirits till you get the color required, and rub it well
into the grain of the wood.

(6) Light Walnut. — Dissolve I part potassium
permanganate in 30 of pure water, and apply twice in
succession; after an interval of 5 minutes, wash with
clean water, and when dry, oil and polish.

(7) Dark Walnut. — Same as for light walnut, but
after the washing with water the dark veins are made
more prominent with a solution of iron acetate.

(8) In the winter season get some privet berries
(black), which grow in most gardens, and put 2 oz. in
y^ pint solution of liquid ammonia. This, applied to
pine, varnished or polished, cannot be detected from
real walnut itself.

(9) Take i gal. very thin sized shellac; add i lb. dry
burnt umber, i lb. dry burnt sienna, and ^ lb.
lampblack. Put these articles into a jug and shake

54 THE UP-TO-DATE

frequently until they are mixed. Apply one coat with
a brush. When the work is dry, rub down with fine
paper, and apply one coat of shellac or cheap varnish.
It will then be a good imitation of solid walnut, and
will be adapted for the back boards of mirror-frames,
for the back and inside of casework, and for similar
work.

(lo) Take i gal. strong vinegar, i lb. dry burnt
umber, >^ lb, fine rose pink, Y^ lb. dry burnt Vandyke
brown. Put into a jug and mix well; let the mixture
stand one day, and it will then be ready for use.
Apply this stain to the sap with a piece of fine sponge;
it will dry in ^ hour. The whole piece is then ready
for the filling process. When the work is completed,
the stained part cannot be detected even by those who
have performed the job. By means of this recipe,
wood of poor quality and mostly of sap can be used
with good effect.

(ii) Darkening Walnut. — Slaked lime, i to 4 of
water, will do for some kinds of walnut; a weak solution
of iron sulphate for others; and yet again for other kinds
a weak solution of pearlash. Try each on the wood,
and choose the one you like best.

(12) To give to walnut a dark color resembling
rosewood, Hirschberg uses a solution of 0.17 oz. potash
bichromate in 1.05 oz. water. This solution is applied
to the walnut with a sponge, and the wood is then
pumiced and polished.

(13) By a simple staining, furniture of pine or birch
wood can be easily made to appear as if it had been
veneered with walnut veneer. For this a solution ot
3.15 oz. potash manganate, and 3.15 oz. manganese
sulphate in 5.25 qt. hot water, is made. This solution
is applied to the wood with a brush, and must be

HARDWOOD FINISHER 55

repeated several times. The potash manganate is
decomposed when it comes in contact with the woody
fiber, and thus a beautiful and very durable walnut
color is obtained. It small wooden articles are to be
stained in this manner, a very diluted bath is prepared;
the articles are dipped into it, and kept there i to 9
minutes, according as the color is desired lighter or
darker.

Yellow. — (i) Mordant with red liquor, and dye with
bark liquor and turmeric.

(2) Turmeric dissolved in wood naphtha.

(3) Aqua regia (nitro-muriatic acid), diluted in 3
parts water, is a much-used though rather destructive
yellow stain.

(4) N'tric acid gives a fine permanent yellow, which
is converted into dark brown by subsequent application
of tincti^re of iodine.

(5) Wash over with a hot concentrated solution of
picric acid, and when dry, polish the wood.

(6) Orange-Yellow Tone to Oak Wood. — Accord-
ing to Niedling, a beautiful orange-yellow tone, much
admired in a chest at the Vienna Exhibition, may be
imparted to oak wood by rubbing it in a warm room
with a certain mixture until it acquires a dull polish,
and then coating it after an hour with thin polish, and
repeating the coating of polish to improve the depth
and brilliancy of the tone. The ingredients for the
rubbing mixture are about 3 oz. tallow, % oz. wax, and
I pint oil of turpentine, mixed by heating together and
stirring.

(7) 0-5 oz. nitric acid (aqua fortis) is compounded
with 1.57 oz. rain-water, and the article to be stained is
brushed over with this. Undiluted nitric acid give:: a
brownish-yellow color.

56 THE UP-TO-DATE

(8) 2.1 oz. finely powdered turmeric are digested for
several days in 17.5 oz. alcohol 80 per cent strong, and
then strained through a cloth. This solution is applied
to the articles to be stained. When they have become
entirely dry, they are burnished and varnished.

(9) 1.57 oz. potash carbonate are dissolved in 4.2 oz.
rain-water. This solution is poured over 0.52 oz.
annotto, and this mixture is allowed to stand for 3 days
in a warm place, being frequently shaken in the
meanwhile. It is then filtered, and 0.175 oz. spirit of
sal-ammoniac is added to it. The stain is now ready,
and the articles to be stained will acquire a very
beautiful bright yellow color by placing them in it.

(10) Bright Golden Yellow. — 0.52 oz. finely
powdered madder is digested for 12 hours with 2.1 oz.
diluted sulphuric acid, and then filtered through a
cloth. The articles to be stained are allowed to
remain in this fluid 3 to 4 days, when they will be
stained through.

Most of the foregoing is taken from English, French,
and German sources, but the following are methods
usually adopted in .Anierican practice; but it is just as
well that the finisher should be conversant, to some
extent, with the practice of other nationalities as well
as that of his own.

Stains may be classified as follows: Those made with
oil and color, those made with spirits and color, those
made with water and coloring matter other than
anilines, and those made with water and anilines.
Generally, spirit stains are made with anilines.

Water stains are those in which the coloring matter
is mixed with water. A good mahogany water stain
is made as follows: Fustic chips, 4 oz. ; madder root,
y^ lb.; water about 4 qt. This should boil for several

HARDWOOD FINISHER 57

hours and should be applied boiling hot, after being
well strained.

For walnut: Vandyke brown, i lb.; strong lye, ^
pt.; water, 3 qt. This should boil down to about three
pints, and should be applied to the wood when cold
with a sponge or pad.

A good cherry stain can be made by mixing a pound
of Spanish annotto, an ounce of strong lye, and water.
Boil forty minutes. If not deep enough in color, boil
more, and add a little gamboge to darken it.

There is very little difference between cherry and
mahogany stains; the latter are somewhat darker, but
may be reduced to answer.

Aniline stains are easily made, and are usually very
even and free from cloudy spots when properly laid
on. All or any of anilines will dissolve in water, oil,
or alcohol, but will dissolve much quicker in warm
liquid than in cold. Time will therefore be saved by
having the medium hot.

One example of making a water stain from anilines
will answer for the whole group. If for mahogany,
use Bismarck brown, i oz. ; add 3 qt. water boiling hot;
stir until the brown is all dissolved. When cool it is
ready to apply.

Many excellent stains for pine may be obtained by
using the ordinary graining colors, Vandyke brown,
raw and burnt sienna, ultramarine blue, etc., applied
with a brush, without previous preparation, and then
wiped off with a cloth — a method that brings out
clearly the grain or marks of the wood, which in pitch
pine, now being extensively used for fittings, are often
extremely beautiful. A better method for general
work, French polish being ordinarily too expensive,
•«i. where dark oak or mahogany stains are not wanted,

58 THE UP-TO-DATE

light varnishes, of which two coats are to be applied.
The glue size with which the work is first coated, in
order to fill up the pores of the wood, should not be
too thick, as in that case it is liable to crack.

Logwood, lime, brown soft soap, dyed oil, sulphate
uf iron, nitrate of silver exposed to the sun's rays,

arbonate of soda, bichromate and permanganate of
I'^lash, and other alkaline preparations, are used for
.!>i!kening the wood; the last three are specially
'commended. The solution is applied by dissolving

ne ounce of the alkali in two gills of boiling water,
..iluted to the required tone. The surface is saturated

,ith a sponge or flannel, and immediately dried with
-uft rags. The carbonate is used for dark woods. Oil
iinged with rose madder may be applied to hardwoods
like birch, and a red oil is prepared from soaked
alkanet root in linseed oil. The grain of yellow pine
can be brought out by two or three coats of japan,
much diluted with turpentine, and afterwards oiled
and rubbed. To give mahogany the appearance of
age, lime water used before oiling is a good plan.
In staining wood, the best and most transparent effect
is obtained by repeatt^d light coats of the same. For
oak stain a strong solution of oxaiic acid is employea;
for mahogany, dilute nitric acia. A primary coat or a
coat of wood fillers is advantageous. For mahogany
stains, the following are given: two ounces of dragons'
blood dissolved in one quart of rectified spirits of
wine, well shaken, or raw sienna in beer, with burnt
sienna to give the required tone; for darker stains boil
half-pound of madder and two ounces of logwood
chips in one gallon of water, and brush the decoction
while hot over the wood; when dry, paint with a
solution of two ounces of potash in one quart of water.

HARDWOOD FINISHER 59

A solution of permanganate of potash forms a rapid
and excellent brown stain.

Oak or ash may be stained brown by using linseed
oil and benzine half and half, and burnt umber or
Vandyke brown incorporated with this. Maple can be
stained green-gray by using copperas in water; oak
will also be changed to a dark green blue through the
same agency, the effect on ash being various shades of
olive green. Ammonia applied to oak produces the
bronze olive tint now used so much by architects.

Wash any compact wood with a boiling decoction of
logwood three or four times, allowing it to dry between
each application. Then wash it with a solution of
acetate of iron, which is made by dissolving iron filings
in vinegar. This stain is very black, and penetrates to
a considerable depth into the wood, so that ordinary
scratching or chipping does not show the original color.

A wash of one part of nitric acid in ten parts of water
will, if well done, impart a stain resembling mahogany
to pine wood which does not contain much resin. When
the wood is thoroughly dry, shellac varnish will impart
a fine finish to the surface. A glaze of carm.ineor lake
will produce a rosewood finish. A turpentine extract of
alkanet root produces a beautiful stain wtiicn aamits of
French poiishing. Asphaltum, thinned with turpentine,
makes an excellent mahogany color on new wood„

When describing the treatment of different kinds of
wood, which will follow, I will have more to sav
regarding the method of staining.

VARNISHING AND POLISHING

French polishing was at one^ time the oniy method
of polishing permitted to be employed on work of the
first class, because of its permanency and uniform

6o THE UP-TO-DATE

appearance, and the man who understood the process,
and could mix the materials used, could always demand
good pay and steady employment. Now, however,
there are a number of methods and varnishes that are
almost as good as the method and materials used in
French polishing, and which can be applied at one-
eighth the cost, and which when done look just about as
well, though perhaps they will not be permanent. So,
while French polishing still survives to some extent,
and is likely to be practiced for many years to come, a
description of the method and materials is quite
necessary in a book of this kind; therefore no excuse
is necessary to account for its appearance in these
pages.

Varnishing, on which depends to a certain extent the
beauty of the work, to be of a durable character should
be done in a temperature of 65'^ F. or more, from the
beginning of the work to the finishing of the same, day
and night included. A higher temperature, if not over
125° F., will not harm fine varnishes; in fact, will turn
out nicer work than in a lower temperature, and will
enable a manufacturer to turn out work in amuch shorter
time. In a temperature of but 65° to 75° F. from four
to six days between coatings is advisable, as this will
give good and unfailing results. In 125° F. the same
good results can be obtained in one-half the time. Var-
nishing departments, outside the filling and rubbing
rooms, should be kept absolutely clean. The filling
and rubbing rooms should be kept as clean as pos-
sible.

After cabinet-work has received one-half the varnish
coatings and the varnish is perfectly dry, rub the surface
with pumice-stone and water — use a piece of felt — to
a smooth, even surface. Allow the work to stand 24

HARDWOOD FINISHER 6i

hours, and then begin the application of the last half
of varnish coatings, giving tht same time between
coatings. After all the coatings are perfectly dry, go
through the same rubbing process. A perfect, smooth
surface for polishing will be the result. Let the work
stand for 24 hours after this rubbing, then start polish-
ing by moistening a fine piece of cloth with water,
dipped in powdered rotten stone, thus moistening the
same also, and begin to rub the surface of the work
with a steady hand and evenly, in order to remove
with this fine rotten stone the fine scratches, if any,
which are generally caused by the rubbing of the
pumice-stone. This accomplished, continue the rub-
bing with the palm of the hand instead of the cloth,
using moist rotten stone, and rub the work until the
fine polish required is obtained. The rotten stone then
generally falls off the hand and you work in a dry dust.
Wash the surface clean with water, using a fine sponge
and chamois. Allow the polished work to stand 24
hours, then oil the same off with a light oil and a very
soft rag or cotton bat. Take another fine rag or cotton
bat and remove all the oil by rubbing or wiping the
same gently, but absolutely clean, off the polished
surface. To be sure this is accomplished, moisten the
cloth or cotton bat with alcohol. The polish, it every-
thing is done correctly, will then be finished.

Care should be taken that too much varnish is not
put on the work. For good finishing only a minimum
of material should be used if the grain of the wood is
wished to be seen, for the less varnish used, providing
a good polish is obtained, will bring out the details of
the wood better than a dozen coats would. If one coat
of varnish, is not enough, two will be, and it is not good
practice to employ more, nor is it good workmanship.

62 THE UP-TO-DATE

A room that is dark or damp will spoil the varnish,
and a room that is excessively warm will keep the
varnish ?oft. Barrels of varnish should not be stored
in a very warm room, as the heat will open the joints
m the barrels, and the varnish, which will be quite thin
owing to the heat, will leak out. In summer, varnish
should be stored in a basement where it is cool.

Turning white is caused by the action of water or
dampness. The better the grade of varnish and the
more elastic it is, the less liable it is to be affected by
moisture. In applying two coats of varnish, neither
should be heavy, more especially the first coat. If it
is, it will not generally get thoroughly dry at the
bottom before the second one is applied, and the result
will be disastrous, as it will cause the last coat to
crack, wrinkle, or sag, as it is called. Another bad
result of not giving varnish time to dry will be noticed
by the last coat deadening or sinking away. This is
caused by the undercoat not having been allowed
sufficient time to dry, resulting in the finishing coat
becoming absorbed while in the course of hardening.

The varnisher must be careful that there is no oil on
the surface to be varnished, as it will cause pitting, or
little hollows in the varnish. When varnish is so thick
it does not spread well, it may be thinned by adding a
little turpentine, but care must be taken that it is
thoroughly incorporated in the varnish, as, if it is not,
this will also cause pitting. A long-haired, pliant
brush is best with which to apply varnish. It should
be spread with long, steady strokes, drawn in a per-
fectly straight line lengthwise the grain of the wood.
Oil japan or liquid dryer should never be added to
good varnish. Each coat of varnish should be given
three or four days to harden before another coat is

HARDWOOD FINISHER

63

added or before the last coat is rubbed, if a rubbed
surface is required.

One thing should always be considered before
varnishing begins, and that is, that a good coat of
colorless shellac should be laid on the
work just as soon as the filler is dry
and properly rubbed down. This will
hermetically seal up all the pores and
prevent the varnish from sinking or
showing hollow spots on the work.

I show the style of brush which is
generally used for applying shellac, in
Fig. 107; it is taken from a dealer's
catalogue, and is oval in section and
metal-bound.

An excellent shellac varnish is made
by dissolving 3}^ lb. of orange shellac
in I gal. of grain or wood alcohol. Let
stand in a warm place until the shellac
is thoroughly dissolved. If shaken
once in a while, the shellac will dis-
solve quicker.

For making white shellac varnish,
take 2i/{ ^b. of white shellac and mix
with alcohol, grain or wood, the same
as before. These proportions are offered
only as a sort of guide, but they may
be varied a little as experience will
show.

All varnish should be laid on with
the grain if possible, or there will likely be sagging
along the brush marks.

Where varnish is flowed the operator should not be
*'stingv" with his material or his work will not be

Fig. 107

64 THE UP-TO-DATE

good. There is a tendency always with the beglnnei
to "lay off" his varnish too thin, or to "skin" it. as it
is termed. It is always better to err on the side of
using too much, than too little varnish, if good work is
desired. Too much varnish, however, should be
avoided, as the work will be apt to crack and become
disfigured in time. The brushes shown
in Figs. io8 and 109 are among the best
for flowing purposes.

Generally, unless on the very hard-
est of woods, two coats of varnish are
necessary before the process of rubbing
can be commenced, as a good surface
cannot be obtained unless there is a
good ground to work on.

A few hints as to "rubbing" may not
be out of place. First, see that the
varnish is dry and hard. If an impres-
sion can be made on it with a finger
nail, it is too soft to rub; let it stand
awhile.

Never rub across the grain if it can
be avoided.

Always rub with the grain, lightening
the stroke at the ends.

Rub lightly at first and avoid making

Fig. 108 b^re spots.

Use fine pumice-stone at first, and
all the time, until yoii get accustomed to the work.

Use a pad of felt about 2/^^4H inches for a rubber.

Rub with either water or with rubbing oil — the latter
preferred — or use linseed oil.

Sprinkle the pumice-stone powder on the work,
dip the rubber in the oil, then rub lightly.

HARDWOOD FINISHER

asf

Clean off the work with damp, clean sawdust and 4
brush, or with soft cotton wadding.

For mouldings, make reverse
shapes, cover with felt, and pro-
ceed as with the flat surfaces.

After rubbing, the work is ready
for polishing. This is done by
making a mixture of half sweet
oil and half alcohol. Then make
a large wad of nice clean cotton
and rub the work with a circular
motion until the proper polish is
attained. This requires some
practice, but is easily acquired.

Another and a better method
is to put on an extra coat of flow-
ing varnish, then rub down with
fine pumice-stone and clean care-
fully. After this, rub down with a
lump of faced-up pumice, or with
chamois leather and powdered rot-
ten stone. Let the rotten stone
become dry on the surface, then
wipe off with the palm of the
hand, which rubs up the work,
with a rotary motion. A piece of
fine linen or silk should be handy,
on which the hand should be
cleaned from time to time.

If a dead finish is required, do
not polish after rubbing over with powdered pumice-
stone and oil.

Of course, the operator must always bear in mina*
during the several operations, that care and cleanliness

Fig. 109

06 THE UP-TO-DATE

are two necessary factors, and without them, there
:an be no such thing as satisfactory results. A
slovenly workman should never attempt to polish, for
no good can come from it. In all my experience,
which covers many years, I have never known of a
careless or slovenly man making good work in this
particular department.

French Polishing. — Much has been said and written
on this subject, and many comparisons have been made
between this and other methods of polishing, but the
writer, from his architectural experience and general
observation, does not hesitate for a moment in saying
that ^'French polished" work is much superior to any
or all other polished work, so far as durability and
effect is concerned. True, other methods are — many
of them — much more economical and easier acquired,
but they do not have the staying powers that the good
old-fashioned French polishing has.

Although, as before stated, much has been written
on the subject, there is a certain sameness in the
descriptions, and I confess I do not see how it could
be otherwise, as the subject is one that can have onlv
one side to it; hence the sameness of description.

I will not attempt to write a description, as it would
be no improvement on former ones; so I offer the
following, which is taken from an English source^
that has been American/zed to some extent.

In French polishing, the wood has to be prepared
and various minor details attended to before this can
be done. For example, the pores of open-grained
wood must be stopped or, as the process is generally
called, filled, to get a smooth surface and to prevent
excessive absorption of the liquid polish. Then the
appearance of some woods is improved and enriched

HARDWOOD FINISHER f^

by oiling them before applying the polish. This
oiling, to a certain extent, darkens and mellows them,
and brings up the figure.

The temperature and atmosphere of the place in
which French polishing is done are of considerable
importance. Work cannot be done properly in a cold
or damp room, as then the polish will get chilled, and,
as it sets on the wood, becomes opaque and cloudy.
To avoid this the polisher should work in a warm
room. The temperature for a living room, about 70**,
is about that suited for polishing. In warm summer
weather a fire is not necessary, but in winter it is. If
the polisher notices that his polish chills, he must
increase the heat of his room. If a moderate amount
of warmth be brought near the surface as soon as any
chill is observed, it will probably disappear. A small
article may be taken to the fire, but with large work
this course would hardly be convenient. In such
cases a good plan is to hold something warm a short
distance from the chilled surface, but on no account
must it touch, nor must the heat be great enough to
scorch the polish. A common plan, but not altogether
a good one, is to hold a piece of burning paper near
the chill. An ordinary flatiron is very useful for
small chilled patches. When the article is cold or
damp, chill is more likely to occur. It is, there-
fore, always necessary to make sure after a stain
has been used that the wood has become thoroughly
dry.

Not less important is the employment of suitable
materials, both* in the polish and in the tools of the
polisher's art. These latter consist almost entirely or
wadding or- cotton wool and soft linen or cotton rags,
from which the rubbers to apply the polish are made;

58

THE UP-TO-DATE

and a few bottles are wanted to hold the various
ooHshes, stains, and their components.

The pad with which French polish is applied is
called the rubber. Without it the French polisher
can do little in actual polishing, although he may not
require it in the preliminary operations of oiling and
staining. However simple in itself the rubber may
be, it should be properly and carefully made of suitable
materials; otherwise good work cannot be done with
it. Those who have seen polishers at work may be
inclined to infer that no great care is necessary, for a
dirty rag covering an equally uninviting lump of

wadding is usually
seen. Examination
will show the rubber
to be more carefully
made than might
have been expected,
and the expert pol-
isher would probably
prefer it to a nice
clean-looking rubber
such as a novice
would choose. Nevertheless, a dirty rubber is not
wanted, for dirt is fatal to first-class work; hence
the polisher should keep his rubbers scrupulously
clean. They will naturally get stained and discolored
with the polish, but that is a very different matter
from being dirty. Old rubbers are preferable to new
ones, provided they have been prooerlv taken care of
and not allowed to get haro.

For flat surfaces or fretwork a wad may be preparec^
by using a strip of torn woolen cloth from I in. to 2
in. wide. Cloth with a cut edge is not recommended

Fig. 110

HARDWOOD FINISHER

69

Fia. Ill

for this purpose, as it is too harsh. Roll the strip
very tightly into a wad about I in., 2 in., or 3 in.
diameter, according to the size of the work, and tie
tightly round with fine twine (Fig. no). This will
give as nearly as possible a rubber resembling Fig. in.
This wad is put into a double thickness
of linen cloth, and the ends aje gath-
ered up like the ends of a pudding-
cloth; they are not tied, but are grasped
as a hand-piece while being used. This
form of rubber would, however, be use-
less for bodying up mouldings, beads, quirks, moulded
handrails, newel posts, etc., and when polishing large
mahogany doors or other framed furniture it would be
impossible to get well into the corners of sunk panels,
as in Fig. 112.

A well-shaped, soft, pliable rubber, with its rag

covering free from

creases, is to a practical
French polisher equiva-
lent to a sharp, finely
set smoothing plane in
the hands of a cabinet-
maker. With such a
rubber, made of wad-
ding, one is enabled to
get into corners, round
turned work, and up to
the edges of mouldings in a manner impossible with a
hard, round rubber. To make it, take a sheet of wad-
ding— this is 9 in. wide — and tear off a piece 6 in. long;
this will form a conveniently-sized rubber, suitable for
most work; but for small work use one of smaller size.
Double the wadding, making it 6 in. by 4)4 in.

70 THE UP-TO-DATE

Squeeze this in the hand, keeping the skin unbroken,
till in shape it nearly resembles half a bear. The
rubber should then be charged with polish, and
covered with a piece of soft, clean rag. In folding
the rag, twist it on the upper side of the rubber.
Each additional twist will bring it to a sharper point
and cause the polish to ooze through its surface. It is
not necessary to put a rag covering on the rubbers first
used. The rubber must be kept free from creases,
otherwise it will cause the surface to which it is applied
to be stringy or full of ridges.

Though rags have been mentioned as suitable for
the outer covering or casing of the pad, some care in
their selection is necessary. A piece with a seam
across it would never do for a rubber, and anything
which would tend to scratch the film of polish as it is
being laid or worked on in the final operation of
spiriting off must be carefully avoided. They must be
either cotton or linen, and ought to be perfectly soft
and fine or, at any rate, free from knots or lumps.
Some polishers advise the exclusive use of linen, but
this is a needless restriction. It may be mentioned
that new material may be used as well as rags. To
render this suitable, all traces of the sizing and
stiffening with which it may have been finished must
be removed by a thorough washing.

Any material to be used for a polishing rubber must
be thoroughly well dried. Indeed, the necessity of
avoiding damp cannot be too much insisted on. With
regard to the substance of the rubber, white wadding
is the best to use, and this is readily obtainable from
any upholsterer or chemist. It may be purer if got
from the latter, but it is certainly much dearer than
any reasonable upholsterer would charge for something

HARDWOOD FINISHER 71

equally suitable. Wadding bought from an upholsterer
has a thin skin on one or both sides, according to
whether it has been split or not. This skin must be
removed, leaving nothing but the soft cotton. For a
few cents enough ought to be obtainable to last a con-
siderable time. It may be useful to know that, if it is
clean, the raw material used in cotton manufacturing
districts will do as well as the finest wadding.
Cotton flock, used by upholsterers as a stuffing for
mattresses, chairs, etc., is not suitable for polishing,
except perhaps for the coarsest work. Even for this
it should not be used if anything better is available.
Rubbers composed entirely of flannel are occasionally
recommended for special kinds of work. It is doubt-
ful if there is any advantage in using flannel, except
for large, flat surfaces, which can be got over more
quickly with a large rubber than with a small one.
The novice is advised to use the wadding rubber, and
to become an expert polisher with it before experi-
menting with anything else.

The size of the rubber will, to some extent, depend
on the nature of the work, but that above given may
be regarded as generally suitable. A very large rubber
is not advisable at first, and the polisher, as he gains
experience, must be guided by circumstances. In
handling it, moreover, the polisher will be equally
guided; a rubber of moderate dimensions is usually
held by the tips of the thumb and fingers, but the
polisher will probably find a large rubber can be more
conveniently used by holding it in the palm of the
hand.

The rubber must be charged with polish for use, and
some care will have to be exercised in doing this.
The covering of the rubber is opened so that a little

72 THE UP-TO-DATE

polish can be dropped on the wadding. A convenient
way of doing this is to have the polish in a bottle, the
cork of which has a channel or notch cut in it to allow
only a few drops to escape at a time. Some polishers
dip a portion of the rubber into the polish, but the
other method is more generally adopted. It must not
be saturated; only enough polish to moisten the
wadding must be used, or what will appear through the
rag covering when pressed. The rubber having been
thus charged, gather up the edges of rag as before
directed. Then, to distribute the polish equally,
press the rubber moderately firmly into the palm of
the other hand. The rubber ought now to be ready for
application to the wood, which may be assumed to

have been properly'
prepared to receive
its first coating of
polish.

At this stage the
Fig. 113 principal thing is to

get a good body of
polish evenly spread on the wood. How this may
best be done depends on circumstances; but if the
desired result is obtained, the precise method is of
secondary consequence. Let it be assumed that the
work to be done is a small, flat surface. With moder-
ate pressure on the rubber, quickly wipe over the entire
surface, first with the grain of the wood, then across it.
Then, without delay, go over it more minutely, the
motion generally adopted for the rubber being shown
in the illustrations (Figs. 113 and 1 14). At first the pres-
sure should be gentle, but it should be increased as the
polish gets worked in and the rubber drier, though at
no time must the rubbing decline to scrubbing.

HARDWOOD FINISHER

73

While the rubber is in contact with the wood it must
be kept constantly in motion. An important point is
not to allow the rubber to remain stationary on the
woodwork during temporary absence or at the end of
the day's work. As the rubber gets dry it must be
recharged with polish, but let the novice beware of
using this in excess.

Old rubbers are better than new, so when done with
they should be kept in an airtight receptacle, such as
a tin canister or a biscuit box. When any job is
finished, do not throw the rubber away under the
impression that a
rubber once laid aside
becomes useless.
This occurs only
when it is left ex-
posed to the air, be-
cause then it hardens
throughout. I f , a s
stated, the rubbers
are kept from the air,
only the outside cov-
ering will get dry and

hard, and this can be readily softened by rubbing it in
raw alcohol.

Every time the rubber is wetted with polish it
should be pressed in the palm of the left hand, which
will equalize the polish. After the cover is put over,
which should be some clean old cotton or print rags,
the tip of the finger should be dipped in linseed oil
and applied to rubber cover — just enough to keep it
from sticking. As soon as the cover has a shiny
appearance, it should be removed to a fresh place.
As soon as the work has got a good body of polish on,

Fig. 114

74 THE UP-TO-DATE

it should be set away for at least ten hours, to allow for
the polish to sink, which always takes place.

Before commencing to polish again, the work should
be very carefully rubbed over with the finest glass-
paper obtainable, taking care not to cut through the
skin; then proceed as before. Be sure never to let the
rubber stop in one place for an instant, as it will surely
;ake off the polish to the bare wood and spoil the job.
After the work has sufficient polish on, it should be
allowed to stand three or four hours before spiriting
off.

The same rubber vv^ill do; only use spirits. Just
damp the rubber, and cover three or four times double
with cover, and rub very lightly over the work; but
care must be taken not to make the rubber too wet,
or the work will be spoiled. The same process will
answer for pine or deal, only no filling is required, but
a coat of clean patent size, before applying the polish.

The ingredients for the above kind of work are quite
numerous, but shellac, dissolved in alcohol, is the basis
of all French polishes, and some finishers use thin
shellac varnish without other admixture, slightly
moistening the rubber with linseed oil to prevent
stickiness and make it work smoothly. There is a
great variety of admixtures and diversity in the
proportion of ingredients, but the differences are not
material. I subjoin a number of recipes.

First and Best. — To one pint of spirits of wine add a
quarter of an ounce of gum-copal, a quarter of an
ounce of gum arable, and one ounce of shellac.

Let the gums be well bruised, and sifted through a
piece of muslin. Put the spirits and the gums together
in a vessel that can be closely corked; place them
near a warm stove, and frequently shake them. In

HARDWOOD FINISHER 75

two or three days they will be dissolved. Strain the
mixture through a piece of muslin, and keep it tight
corked for use.

Next. — Take one ounce each of mastic, saridarac,
seed lac, shellac, gum lac, and gum arabic; reduce
them to powder; and add a quarter of an ounce of
virgin wax; put the whole into a bottle, with one
quart of rectified spirits of wine; let it stand twelve
hours, and it will be fit for use.

Another. — Put into a glass bottle one ounce of
gum lac, two drachms of mastic in drops, four drachms
of sandarac, three ounces of shellac, and half an
ounce of gum dragon; reduce the whole to powder;
add to it a piece of camphor the size of a nut, and
pour on it eight ounces of rectified spirits of wine.
Stop the bottle close, but take care, when the gums
are dissolving, that it is not more than half full.
Place near a warm stove until dissolved.

Other French Polish Recipes. — One pint naphtha, y/2
oz. orange shellac, yi oz. elima. Darken with red
Sanders wood.

To one pint of spirits of wine, add half an ounce of
gum shellac, half an ounce of seed lac, and a quarter
of an ounce of gum sandarac; submit the whole to a
gentle heat, frequently shaking it, till the various
gums are dissolved, when it is fit for use.

Shellac, 6 oz. ; naphtha, i qt. ; sandarac, i oz.;
benzoin, % oz.

Three oz, shellac, ^2 oz. gum mastic pulverized, and
I pt. methylated spirits of wine added. Let it stand
till dissolved.

Twelve oz. shellac, 2 oz. gum elima, 3 oz. gum copal,
L gal. spirits of wine; dissolve.

The f'H.'Vsi:^"^ must be well mixed and dissolved;

^(i THE UP-TO-DATE

pale shellac, 2^ lb.; 3 oz. mastic, 3 oz. sandarac, l
gal spirits of wine. After the above is dissolved, add

1 pt. copal varnish, 1% oz. shellac, ^ oz. gum juniper,
^ oz. benzoin, J^ pt. methylated alcohol.

A Good Polish. — To i pt. spirits of wine add, in fine
powder, i oz. seed lac, 2 dr. gum guaiacum, 2 dr.
dragons' blood, and 2 dr. gum mastic; expose them,
in a vessel stopped close, to a moderate heat for three
hours, until you find the gum dissolved; strain the
whole into a bottle for use, with a quarter of a gill of
the best linseed oil, to be shaken up well with it.

This polish is more particularly intended for dark
colored woods — for it is apt to give a tinge to light
ones, as satinwood or airwood, etc. — owing to the
admixture of the dragons' blood, which gives it a red
appearance.

A Polish That Will Stand Water.— Take i pt. spirits of
wine, 2 oz. gum benzoin, }^ oz. gum sandarac, and Y^
oz. gum anime; these must be put into a stopped
bottle, and placed either in a sand-bath or in hot water
till dissolved; then strain the mixture, and, after
adding about a quarter of a gill of the best clear
poppy oil, shake it well up, and put it by for use.

Prepared Spirits. — This preparation is useful for
finishing after any of the foregoing recipes, as it adds
to the luster and durability, as well as removes every
defect, of the other polishes and it gives the surface a
most brilliant appearance.

Half a pint of the very best rectified spirits of wine,

2 dr. shellac, and 2 dr. gum benzoin. Put these
ingredients into a bottle, and keep it in a warm place
till the gum is all dissolved, shaking it frequently;
when cold, add two teaspoonfuls of the best clear white
poppy oil; shake them well together, and it is fit for use,

HARDWOOD FINISHER 7;

This preparation is used in the same manner as the
foregoing polishes; but, in order to remove all dull
places, you may increase the pressure in rubbing.

Polish for Turner's Work. — Dissolve i oz. sandarac in
Yo, pt. spirits of wine; shave i oz. beeswax, and dissolve
it in a sufficient quantity of spirits of turpentine to
make it into a paste, add the former mixture to it by
degrees; then, with a woolen cloth, apply it to the
work while it is in motion in the lathe, and polish it
with a soft linen rag; it will appear as if highly
varnished.

A French Polish Reviver. — Beat gum acacia and white
of two eggs in a mortar until they amalgamate; then
add ^ pt. raw linseed oil and best vinegar, 8 oz.
methylated spirits of wine, i oz. hydrochloric acid and
2 oz. muriate of antimony. They are to be rubbed on
the surface of the furniture until dry, and will give a
brilliant and lasting polish.

It now remains to explain the several varieties of
finishing in use; these are largely derived from the
peculiai> qualities of the different varnishes used.
Polishing varnishes, which are very hard and durable,
are so called because their surface can be brought to a
high luster by rubbing with the proper materials.
Flowing or finishing varnishes contain more oil than
polishing varnishes, dry more slowly, and are softer,
but their peculiar qualities are brilliancy and dura-
bility, fitting them for work requiring a brilliant gloss,
such as veneered panels. Rubbing varnishes are those
that dry sufficiently hard to admit of being rubbed to
a smooth surface. Turpentine varnishes, being the
cheapest variety, are employed for cheap work, such
as common chairs, bedsteads, etc.

Dead Finish is a term applied to the finish pro

78 THE UP-TO-DATE

duced by the reduction of any of the rubbing varnishes
with powdered pumice-stone and raw linseed oil, the
surface thus produced being left in the semi-lustrous
state by om.itting the polishing process. It is no\\
more used than any other for body work, shellac
varnish being generally employed because of its
adaptation to the requirements of fine cabinet-work,
and its properties of quick and hard drying. Copal,
anime, and amber varnishes are also used, but are
slower drying. The number of coats required depends
somewhat upon the quality of the filler, but usually
three coats, and sometimes less, are amply suffi-
cient.

Bodying In and Spiriting Off. — The term bodying,
applied to the polisher's art, means coating the wood
with a thin, evenly distributed layer of the polish.
The way in which this is done greatly affects the
appearance and the durability of the gloss. When the
body is too thin, the gloss subsequently given to it
may at first be beautiful, but as the polish sinks or
perishes the gloss fades. When the body is too thick
the gloss may appear all right, but the work is apt to
look treacly^ as though varnish had been used; besides,
a thick body impairs the pure tone of some woods.
The high degree of excellence to which polishing is
capable of being brought is seen only on the best
cabinet-work. Polish on second-rate furniture or
finish is generally in keeping with the inferior quality
of the woodwork. The cheap, gaudy furniture which is
often seen in shops must not be taken as models of
polishing. The price paid for polishing is reduced,
with the result that inferior polish is used and less time
is spent on the Vvork. Although the best materials and
the expenditure of time and labor will not insure good

HARDWOOD FINISHER 79

work b/ unpracticed hands, they are important factors,
and it will be wise to use materials of good quality.

To make a good average polish, neither too thick
nor too thin, about six ounces of shellac to each pint
of methylated or alcohol spirit will be required, but
great exactitude in the proportions is not necessary.
The proportions may vary according to the fancy of
the polisher, and, to some extent, according to the
nature of the work he is engaged on. If the polish
turns out too thick, it can be thinned by adding more
spirit; if too thin, the deficiency can be made up by
adding more shellac. A rough-and-ready way of
measuring the proportions is to half fill a bottle with
the roughly broken shellac, and then fill up with
ordinary methylated spirit.

The shellac dissolves gradually, and the process is
hastened by an occasional shaking or stirring with a
stick. Heat is not necessary; indeed, the preparation
of polish by heat is dangerous.

Two kinds of polish are used. One, known as
"white polish," is nearly colorless; the other is known
as "brown polish," or simply "polish." The latter is
always understood if unqualified by the word "white."
White polish is made^ with white or bleached shellac;
the other with ordinary orange or reddish-brown
shellac.

Either polish may be used on any kind of wood,
except where great purity of tint is required. The
white is to be preferred for all light woods, such as
light oak, ash, sycamore, satin, etc., while the brown
may be used on darker; but even on these, white
polish is good, with the exception of mahogany, the
only ordinary fine wood for which a decided preference
might be given to brown polish. Under ordinary

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circumstances, however, either polish may be used
indiscriminately. The point as to brown or white
polish for dark wood belongs to the higher branches
ot the polisher's art.

It will be seen that white polish is the more generally
useful of the two, so those who do not care to keep
both kinds may confine themselves to it. Through
the slightly higher price of the bleached shellac, it
costs a little more, but the extra cost is so small that it
is hardly worth considering by those who use small
quantities. Those who use polish in large quantities
can have both kinds.

Polish bought ready-made may be equal to that
made at home from the recipe given, for there h
nothing to prevent manufacturers using the same
ingredients, and many of them do. Still, from the
impossibility of knowing the ingredients in ready-
made polish, there is some risk attending its use.
From the price at which some polish is sold, it is fair
to suppose that something cheaper than spirit or
shellac has been used; and though good polish may be
bought, it is better for the user to prepare his own,
which can be depended on. Bought polish may be
thoroughly good in every way — brilliant, clear, and
durable — but those who are best able to judge generally
prefer to make their own polish to do the best class
of work. Prejudice may account for this preference.

Manufacturers of polish assert that, in addition to
shellac, certain gums or resins improve the quality of
the polish, when used with knowledge and discretion.
For instance, one gum may give increased elasticity,
while another may harden the film; but for a good all-
round polish, which can be relied on, many polishers
assert that there is nothing to surpass a simple solution

HARDWOOD FINISHER 8l

of shellac and alcohol. A few approved formulae fot
polishes have been given, so that those who feef
inclined to do so may experiment for themselves.
Shellac is the principal ingredient in nearly all. Those,
persons who cannot polish with shellac and spirit,
alone will not be able to do any better with the more
complicated mixtures; therefore, no one should remain
under the impression that he will do better if he
works with another kind of polish.

Enough having now been said about the material,
we may proceed to the using of it for bodying. In
the first place, the wood must be prepared by filling of
one kind or another, and rubbed down smoothly with
fine or worn glass-paper, in order to make it fit to
receive the polish, for a high degree of finish cannor
be got on a rough surface. The rubber, which consists
of cotton wadding with a soft rag cover, with which
the polish is applied, has been sufficiently treated on,
so that nothing more need be said about it. Work,
rubber, polish, and a little raw linseed oil being ready,
bodying in may be proceeded with in the following
way:

Moisten the wadding with polish; put the rag cover
on carefully, so that it is without folds or wrinkles.
Dab the rubber into the palm of the left hand to dis-
tribute the polish evenly, and cause it to moisten the
rag at the bottom properly. Supposing the work is a
panel or flat surface, the following will be found a
good method of treating it, and it is one that is
followed more or less closely by experienced
polishers.

Rub briskly across the grain to get the surface
covered with polish; then by a series of circulai
movements, as shown by the lines in Figs. 113 anc

82 THE UP-TO-DATE

114, go over the whole of the work. A moderate
pressure should be applied, which should be increased
gradually as the rubber dries, but the movement
should at no time degenerate into mere scrubbing.
In order that the rubber may work smoothly without
sticking, a little raw linseed oil should be applied on
the face of the rubber. The less of this used the
better, and if it can be dispensed with altogether no
harm will be done. To make the rubber work smoothly
a very little will suffice; the tip of a finger, moistened
with oil, and touched on the face of the rubber, is all
that is required. The rubber must not be dipped in
the oil, nor must the oil be dropped on it from a
bottle, for by these means more oil would be applied
than is necessary, and this would be fatal to good
work.

The only recognized oil used in French polishing is
law linseed. This may be worked over the natural
woods in the first place, to give them that peculiar
tone that cannot be gained by other means; otherwise
the less oil used the better for the durability of the
work. Bear in mind that it forms no part of polish in
itself, being used only to enable us to work the gums
easily; thus, without its aid the polish rubber would be
apt to stick or drag, thus breaking up the surface
instead of leveling it. On any surface in which spirit
varnish forms a part this will be particularly notice-
able; and in any case, it is next to impossible to get
that beautiful level surface gained by spiriting out
unless a little oil is used.

As the rubber dries, more polish must be applied to
it, as was done in the first instance, with more oil as
required. A small quantity of polish goes a long way,
and the novice must carefully avoid making tne

HARDWOOD FINISHER 83

rfjbber wet. It should be no more than fairly
moist.

Many a beginner, noticing how tedious the work is
with a dry rubber, may think that if he used more
polish the desired result would be more quickly
attained. If the object were merely to get the wood
coated, Vhis might be the case; but the result of using
too much polish would be that the shellac left by the
quick evaporation of the spirit would be ridgy and
irregular, instead of in a fine, even coating or body.
Anything approaching a flow of polish from the
rubber must be avoided. When the rubber is not
sufficiently charged with polish, the labor of bodying
up will be unduly protracted, or may be rendered
impossible if no polish can be rubbed onto the wood.

The first bodying-in process should be continued
till it seems that the wood absorbs no more of the
polish. There will be a perceptible gloss on its sur-
face, but it will be streaky, and the rubber-marks will
show very distinctly. All these marks will be removed
later on. It may be thought that, if the polish is too
thick or too thin, the result will be very much the
same as if the rubber were too wet or too dry. The
principal objection to having the polish too thin is
that it will take more time in working a good body on
the wood. It will, however, be better to risk this
rather than to have the polish too thick. An
experienced polisher would soon detect fault in either
direction by the way in which the polish works, but the
novice must be on the look-out for irregularities in the
shape of lumps or ridges, and, with a little attention,
ht will have no difficulty in avoiding serious mishaps.

Let the work stand for at least a day, carefully
covered up from dust; ^n e^eamining it the body will

84 THE UP-TO-DATE

be found to have altered in appearance to an extent
which will depend upon how much the polish ha:i
sunk into the wood. The work must be again bodied
up as before, always remembering to use as little oil
as possible. Then it will be again laid aside, and the
bodying process repeated till the polish no longer
seems to sink in, even after the work has lain aside for
a few days. When this stage is reached, the bodying
may be considered complete, and the work ready for
the first polishing operations. Before proceeding to
consider these, however, the novice will do well to
note the following hints:

The number of times the work will require to be
bodied depends on circumstances. Fine, close-grained
woods will not require so many as the more open
kinds, such as oak, ash, mahogany, etc.; but for the
best work, which is intended to be as durable as can
be, it need rarely exceed four. An interval of one or
more days may elapse between the successive bodies,
the chief object of waiting being to let them sink as
much as they will. If, after the work has been laid
aside for a few days, the polish has not sunk at all, no
advantage would be gained by giving it another body
It is very seldom that the first body is enough, but
often only one body is applied, where either low price
or limited time will not allow of more; so those who
wish to do polishing need not think the process can-
not be hurried.

Still, imperfect bodying is not advisable, as such
tvork will soon want touching up. When work is
made merely to sell, one body, and that of the
slightest, is sufficient— from the seller's point of view,
if not from the buyer's. Between the bodying?,
r^specially after the first and second, the surface of the

HARDWOOD FINISHER 85

work should be rubbed down with fine glass-paper—
not to rub the body off, but just enough to smooth the
surface. It may here be remarked that pumice
powder, used in moderation, is useful for working
down inequalities of surface. Sandpapering has been
recommended as necessary after the first and second
bodies, but the process may be done after any others,
though it should not be required if the work has been
skillfully done. In fact, the final bodying up may be
regarded almost as the beginning of the spiriting off.
Before beginning to work a fresh body on a previous
one, it is as well to wash the surface gently with
lukewarm water, not using too much of it, in order to
remove the grease and allow the rubber to work freely.
The water must be thoroughly dried up before apply-
ing the rubber. In moderation the washing can never
do harm, and is, generally, an advantage, though not
absolutely necessary. When a long interval has
elapsed, the washing should never be omitted, as dust
will settle on the work; and it need scarcely be said
that dust should not be rubbed into the polish.

When bodying up, polishers should see that their
hands are clean and free from old polish, which is so
often seen on them. If they are soiled with old polish
or shellac, bits are apt to flake off and destroy the
surface of new work. This may be an appropriate
place to say that any polish which sticks to the hands
may be washed away with hot water and soda, or with
alcohol.

The body should be thin, as it is not so much the
quantity of body on the wood as its quality that is
important; it is also essential that it should be applied
with sufficient intervals between the successive bodies
to allow of sinkage.

86 THE UP-TO-DATE

Another important matter is to dry the rubbers well
by working them on each body till dry, and not to
moisten them frequently. By this means the film ot
shellac is kept thin. Neither a wet nor a dry rubber
should on any account be allowed to stand on a surface
being polished. The rubber must be kept moving,
and should glide gradually on to the work, not be
dabbed down on it. In the initial stages of bodying
care in this respect is not so important as later on,
when it is absolutely necessary. The same precaution
should be used when lifting the rubber from the work.

For the guidance of beginners, it may be stated that
if they take care of the edges of the work the rest of
the surface will look after itself. The reason is that
the edges are apt to be somewhat neglected, and the
polish to be less there than elsewhere. The secret of
a good, durable polish depends primarily on a good
body, and this, in its turn, on sufficient time having
been allowed for sinkage.

The final operation in French polishing, by which
the gloss is put on the body previously applied, is
known as spiriting off. In this operation rubber marks
and smears of all kinds are removed, and the beautiful
surface, known as French polish, is the result. Body-
ing is important so far as durability is concerned, but
spiriting is more so with regard to finish. If the
worker fails in spiriting, his previous efforts will, to a
great extent, have been in vain. Disregarding staining,
darkening, and other processes, with which a good
polisher should be acquainted, the spiriting is perhaps
the most severe test of skill in the whole process of
polishing; and a man who can manage this part of the
work really well may be considered a competent
polisher.

HARDWOOD FINISHER 8;

The first operation to be described in the process of
spiriting off partakes very much of the nature of body,
ing in. At the beginning it is bodying, and at the end
spiriting. The two processes merge one into the other.
There is no abrupt break, as between filling and bodying,
except for the intermediate stage, although the processes
are well defined, both in character and purpose. This
intermediate stage is not always practiced, but it is rec-
ommended when good work is wanted. Briefly, spiriting
off consists in washing the bodied surface with methyl-
ated spirit. This being understood, the final bodying up,
or first spiriting off, whichever this process may be
called, consists in gradually reducing the quantity of
polish in the rubber, and supplying its place with spirit.
The polish is gradually reduced by the addition of spirit
till all the polish has been worked out of the rubber.
The rubber may be charged, first with three parts
polish and one part spirit; next time equal quantities;
the third time three parts spirit and one part polish;
and the fourth charging will be with spirit only. It
does not follow that these proportions need be strictly
observed, nor are they so in practice, but this example
illustrates the process. The last rubber will be almost
free from polish, and it should be worked till it is dry,
or nearly so.

At this stage spiriting proper may begin, and a fresh
rubber should be used. It need not be a new one, but
it should be one which has been used only for spiriting,
and which has no polish on it. It will be better if it
has three or four coverings of rag on its face, which
can be removed as they dry. If only one cover is used
the spirit is apt to evaporate too quickly. The spirit
in the rubber has a tendency to partially dissolve the
shellac or body on the wood. This it does to a very

88 THE UP-TO-DATE

limited extent, unless the rubber is made too wet, when
there is danger of not only spiriting and smoothing the
surface, but of actually washing away the body. This
mishap must be carefully guarded against. There
should be enough spirit to allow the surface of the
body to be softened and smoothed, but no more, and
the rubbing should be uniform, and not more in one
place than in another. There is hardly any likeli-
hood of the novice erring by using too little spirit, so
he may be reminded that the less of it there is in the
rubber at a time the better. The rubbing should be
gentle at first, becoming harder as the spirit dries off,
and oil must not be used on the rubber face, for when
there is oil either on the rubber or on the work, the
polish cannot be brought up.

The chief cause of failure lies in getting the spirit
rubber too wet, and so softening and tearing up the
gums. Many meet with success by dispensing with it,
using instead a swab of clean, soft rag, fairly damp
(not wet) with alcohol.

If the spiriting-off process is being done correctly
the gloss will soon begin to appear, and when it
seems approaching a finished condition, the rubber
ought to be moved only in the direction of the grain,
and not across it nor with circular motion. The final
touches should be given with the soft rubber rag alone,
care being taken not to scratch the surface, which is
now softened by the action of the spirit. The surface
will gradually harden, but for a time it should be
handled with care, and nothing be allowed to comt in
contact with it, or it is very likely to be marked. It
should also be protected from dust, for any settling on
it may be retained by the polish, the luster of which
would certainly suffer.

HARDWOOD FINISHER 8r

Hardwood finishers, and perhaps dealers in furniture
who do not keep an experienced polisher, or who may
not be able to get their work done out, may b
reminded that, circumstances permitting, polished
work should be wiped over with a spirit-rubber an houi
or two before it is finished, to freshen it up. If the
surface is at all soft, neither packing mats, nor any^
thing else likely to injure it, should be allowed to come-
in contact with it. The polishing on many things sent
long journeys is often greatly disfigured from mat and
other markings, but they are easily touched up on
arrival at their destination.

Some polishers make use of a glaze in order to kill
lie oil, just before spiriting off, which is made as
foliows:

Gum-benzoin, 6 oz. , dissolved in alcohol spirit I pt.
Gums other than that mentioned may be substituted in
order to cheapen the glaze for commercial purposes,
or to suit the fancy of polishers who make up their own
solutions. The glaze is used chiefly when leveling
down spirit varnish, and for the purpose of imparting
a bright finish to mouldings. As practical workers have
always at hand rubbers that are specially charged with
white polish, brown or red polish, and another rubber
for glaze, a clear, bright finish on some kinds of work
may be easily gained by passing the glaze rubber along
the edges, sunk portions, or even over the whole of a
flat surface just before clearing out with the spirit pa-i.
The workman must not, however, suppose that such
treatment will entirely kill the oil, if an excessive
quantity ot oil has been used. Any excess of oh
should be cleared off beforehand; or, better still,
entirely avoided, if a good, lasting quality of work is
desired.

90 THE UP-TO-DATE

Glazing, though an imitation, has a recognized
acceptance among polishers. It is remarkably con-
venient occasionally, and in some cases possesses an
advantage over spiriting, so that it may fairly be
classed among the ordinary processes of polishing.
When done in moderation, glazing is as useful on
furniture carving as the application of spirit varnish.
Such work is commonly said, and justly, to be French
polished. The real objection to glaze finish is that,
though at first the appearance is equal, it is not so
durable as the other. Glaze may be said to be even
superior to badly spirited finish, and here is the chief
claim it has for notice. It is seldom that a casual
polisher can manage to do spiriting thoroughly, for the
reason that he has not sufificient opportunity of acquir-
ing practice.

Nevertheless, finishing by means of glaze is not so
good as the method by spiriting, when the latter is
well done, and should be considered as a means of
getting the same effect easily and quickly — an
imitation, in fact, of the real thing; the difference
between the spirit and glaze finishes is that in the one
case the effect is produced by friction, in. the other by
the addition of a thin, fine varnish to the surface of
the body of polish. In the former case the polish
itself is polished; in the latter it is varnished with a
mixture known commonly as glaze, but to which other
names are sometimes given.

Among polishers who command a fair price for
their work, glaze is of comparatively limited applica-
tion, and is confined to those parts where the spirit'
rubber cannot be conveniently used, or where its use
is not necessary. Instances of such may be found in
chair-rails and various parts of the frame. These are

HARDWOOD FINISHER 91

usually polished, more or less, before the chair is
upholstered, or, at any rate, before the outer covering
is put on, the finishing being almost necessarily done
last of all. The less the chair is handled by the
polisher the better, especially if the covering is a
delicate one, for there is less risk of injury with one
or two wipes over with the glaze rubber than with the
more prolonged spiriting.

Glaze may be used with advantage in inlaid work,
where the inlay is slightly, though perhaps not
intentionally, higher than the surrounding wood. In
such a case it is better to resort to glaze than to finish
with the spirit rubber. On fretwork, also, glaze may
often be used with advantage, and, generally, it is
unobjectionable on parts which are not subject to wear
and tear. It will stand a moderate amount of handling,
but not so much as good, hard spirited-off polish, and
the luster is not so durable.

Glaze, under one or other of its different names,
may be bought ready-made, but, for reasons similar to
those given in connection with French polish, the
home-made article is to be recommended. The prep-
aration of glaze is simple, the ingredients being gum-
benzoin and methylated spirit. After the benzoin is
dissolved, the solution should be strained through
muslin to free it from foreign matter. The proportions
may vary, but those given for polish do very well, and
with the substitution of crushed benzoin for shellac the
process of making is exactly the same.

Gum-benzoin differs greatly in quality, but the best
should be used by the polisher. Compared with lac it
is expensive, so that the saving which is attributed to
its use is mainly in time, which is money, at least from
a trade point of view. Cheap benzoin is not to be

92 THE UP-TO-DATE

relied on, and in a strange place an experienced
polisher would look with suspicion on any offered at a
very low price, however satisfactory its appearance.
Where material is liable to adulteration, the best way
to avoid imposition is to go to a reliable dealer and to
pay a fair price.

Glaze, as used by French polishers, can be bought
ready-made at most color stores, as patent glaze; it
improves with age. To make the genuine article,
dissolve 6 or 8 ounces of best gum-benzoin in I pint of
alcohol spirit. Keep it in a closely stoppered bottle,
otherwise the spirit will evaporate quickly.

Glaze may be applied with cither rubber, sponge, or
brush; in most cases the rubber is most suitable and is
most commonly used. It is made in the ordinary way
as used for polish, but it must not be applied with
pressure. The glaze is painted on rather than rubbed
into the work, which must have been previously bodied
in. There seems to be an idea that glaze or something
put on bare wood will cause a gloss right off; but
nothing will do this. A polish can only be got on
wood by varnish, or by bodying-in and polish.

When using glaze, the rubber should be made wetter
than for polish or spirit; but still there should not be
sufficient to drip from it. It should glaze or wet the
wood when the rubber is very lightly pressed on it.
One or two wipes in the direction of the grain of the
wood, with a somewhat quick motion, will put the
glaze on. Always let the glaze dry before applying
the rubber again to the same place. The coats may
be repeated till the gloss is satisfactory, but the film
of glaze should never be made a thick one.

If preferred, a sponge may be used exactly as a
rubber would be, but it is questionable if there is any

HARDWOOD FINISHER 93

advantage gained; it is rather a matter of fancy.
When a brush is used, the glaze may be applied as a
varnish pure and simple. With a brush a mixture of
glaze and French polish, either white or brown,
according to the work, in equal quantities, may be used
with advantage.

Glaze that is not so satisfactory in appearance as it
should be, may sometimes be improved by passing a
spirit-rubber lightly over it, though this should be done
with great caution, to avoid washing it off. When
carefully and skillfully done, there can be little doubt
that a glazed surface may be often, if not always,
improved by slightly spiriting it.

To glaze a wide surface, see that it is free from dull
streaks and ridges and oil, and the rubber soft and free
from fluff. Apply the glaze as evenly as possible,
going over the surface several times, until the rubber
is nearly dry; then, with the smallest quantity of oil
and a little spirits, go over the glaze, very lightly at
first, varying the direction of the rubber to avoid ridges.
A dull, even surface may be obtained by adding one-
third to one-half of sandarac to the solution of
benzoin, and using the rubber only damp — not
saturated.

Old French polished work may often be revived by
being lightly gone over with glaze after the surface has
been washed and cleaned with warm water. This
treatment is often considerably better than that
commonly adopted with furniture pastes, polishes,
creams, and revivers of various kinds.

Wax Polishing. — Although the beauty of most
furniture woods is enhanced to the highest degree by
French polishing when well done, there are other
processes which, though not capable of being brought

94 THE UP-TO-DATE

to such perfection, are much simpler. Among these
is wax polishing. This mode of finishing is remark-
ably easy, both as regards materials and manipulation,
and the unskilled novice can manage to wax-polish
almost as well as an expert. It is, therefore, a suitable
process for the beginner.

Though any wood may be treated by waxing, it is
generally confined to oak, especially after this has been
darkened by fumigation with ammonia. The appear-
ance of oak so finished is comparatively dull, but it has
an attractiveness which French polish does not possess
for all eyes.

For antique oak furniture — whether genuine or
imitation — wax is the best finish, though varnish is
often used. Wax polish, though it may not give the
same amount of gloss, is clearer and finer. Varnish
clogs the wood, and is apt to give a treacly look to any
piece of furniture finished with it.

Mahogany may very appropriately be finished by
wax polish, and for many purposes it may be superior
to the dulled French polish so often seen. The top of
a dining-table is apt to be rendered unsightly from
hot plates or dishes injuring the polished surfaces.
The heat burns or blisters the hardened shellac of the
French polish, and a finish which is not so liable to
disfigurement is preferable; this is found in wax polish.
Usually, dining-table tops (unless French polished) are
simply oil polished. Waxing is, however, less tedious,
and at least as suitable for the purpose, and the readi-
ness with which an accidental marking can be obliter-
ated renders it particularly useful.

Wood stained black, to produce so-called ebony,
may be wax polished. The result is certainly a closer
approximation to the appearance of real ebony than

HARDWOOD FINISHER 95

when the work is French polished in the usual way.
By polishing fretwork articles with wax they may
easily be made to look better than many of them do
when unskillfully French polished.

Though it has been said that any wood may be wax
polished, there can be no question that this process
answers best on the more coarsely-grained woods,
such as oak and ash; for pine and other light woods of
close texture it is not so well suited, unless they have
been previously stained.

The ingredients for wax polish are, in the simplest
mixture, beeswax and turpentine. Resin and Venice
turpentine are occasionally added. Resin is added
with the intention of hardening the surface; but pro-
vided the wax be of good quality, these additions are
quite unnecessary, if not injurious, and a good result
should be got from wax and turps.

Wax and turpentine alone are all the materials
necessary to make a good wax polish, and when any-
thing else enters into the composition the mixture is
one of a fancy character. It is not proposed to discuss
the qualities of beeswax offered for sale, and the
polisher must decide what kind he gets. Some advo-
cate the use of fine white wax, and possibly a better
finish may sometimes be got with it than with the ordi-
nary yellow wax, which, however, is the kind generally
used; the only occasions when it might not be so good
as the white are when extreme purity of tone is
required for a light wood. Wood perfectly white is, •
however, seldom wax polished.

The way in which wax polish is prepared depends a
good deal on the proportions of the materials. For a
liquid polish, shred the wax finely, and pour the tur-
pentine over it, leaving the two till they are incor-

96 THE UP-TO-DATE

porated. Cold turpentine will dissolve wax slowly,
but a more expeditious method is to melt the wax by
heat, and before it has time to solidify pour the tur-
pentine into it. Caution is necessary when melting
wax, and on no account should the turpentine be
poured into the wax while it is still on the fire. With
ordinary care there is no danger, and the possibility of
a mishap is suggested merely for the benefit of those
who might otherwise overlook the inflammable charac-
ter of turpentine vapor. Should the mixture be either
too thick or too thin, there will be no trouble in alter-
ing its consistency afterwards.

To thin a mass which is too stiff, a very moderate
warming, by placing the bottle in hot water, will reduce
it to a more liquid form, as the turpentine already in
it facilitates the change, and more turpentine is added.
To stiffen the mixture, wax should be melted separately,
and the original mixture added to it. The heat of the
freshly melted wax will probably be sufficient to cause
all the materials to mix. In any case, the wax should
be thoroughly melted before the turpentine is added,
as a lumpy mixture is neither pleasant to work with
nor conducive to good finish. The natural tendency
of a wax polishing mixture, exposed to the air, is to
stiffen, on account of the evaporation of the turpen-
tine. A considerable time must elapse before there is
an appreciable alteration, and the fact that a change
does go on, slowly, is mentioned to remind polishers
that if they have a considerable quantity of the mix-
ture standing over, they must not expect it to retain its
original consistency unless kept in a closed vessel,
such as a tightly-corked bottle.

A hint for those who think that the more ingredients
a mixture contains the better it must be, and who are

HARDWOOD FINISHER 97

not satisfied unless there is a certain amount of resJn
in their wax polishing paste: Always melt the resin
first, and add the wax gradually, and constantly stir.
Whether resin be used or not, the mixture should be
allowed to get quite cold before it is applied to the
work.

Although the consistency of wax polish varies con-
siderably, the comparative merits of different degrees
of stiffness or fluidity must be considered, so that an
intelligent conception of the polisher's aim may be
arrived at. Suppose a piece of beeswax, without any
admixture of turpentine, is rubbed on a piece of
smooth, flat wood. Some of the wax adheres to the
surface, which, when friction is applied, becomes
glossy or polished. The labor, however, is consider-
able, and though dry wax may do on a flat surface,
when mouldings or carvings are to be treated, the diffi-
culties in the waj'- of satisfactory application are con-
siderable. The remedy is to soften the wax so that it
may be got into all parts of the work. Melted wax
might do, but in putting it on to the wood it becomes
cold, and consequently reverts to its original stiffness.
We have then to get the wax to a fair working consist*
ency by means of some suitable solvent, which turpen-
tine has proved to be. It is cleanly, inexpensive, and
evaporates sufficiently quickly, besides mixing well
with the wax. Some polishers prefer what others
might think an excess of turpentine. When a stiff
paste is used, the wax is apt to be deposited in excess-
ive quantity, necessitating a considerable amount of
rubbing, in places, to remove it. A fluid polish spreads
the wax much more evenly, but no gloss can be
obtained til' the turpentine has disappeared, either
evaporated or been absorbed by the wood. When the

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polish has been laid evenly over the work, this does
not take long; so a thin mixture may be considered
preferable to a very stiff one. A paste of about the
consistency of butter in hot weather, might be regarded
as a medium. Those who use a wax polish which
could be poured would consider this stiff, while others
who add very little turpentine, or who believe in resin,
would consider it thin. A thick mixture or a thin one
may be used, the result depending more on the manip-
ulation of the material than on the material itself; and
this manipulation may next be considered.

In the application of wax polish there is almost as
great a variety in practice as in proportion of ingredi-
ents. The great thing is to have the wax — the turpen-
tine is merely the vehicle for conveying this — evenly
and thinly distributed, and so long as this is done it is
of small consequence how it is managed. To spread
the wax with, some use a piece of rag, while others
prefer a stiff brush specially made for the purpose, and
both get equally good results. After the wax has been
spread the polish is obtained by friction, and the more
you rub the brighter the polish will be. The brush or
cloth used to rub the wax into the wood should not be
employed to give the finishing touches. In this final
friction it is essential that the cloth or brush used be
perfectly dry, as if it is at all damp no polished surface
can be produced. The final polish is best done with a
perfectly clean rubber, and three sets of cloths or rub-
bers may be used. With the first the mixture is to be
rubbed on the wood, with the second it is to be rubbed
off till a fair amount of polish is got, while with the
third the rubbing should be continued till the surface
is as bright as it can be got.

The directions which have been g^iven should enable

HARDWOOD FINISHER

99

any one to wax-polish wood successfully. Hard dry
rubbing, with energetic application, is at least as Impor.
tant as the wax and turpentine; for, though more sim-
ple than the French polishing process, it is more
laborious.

Oil Finishing and Dry Shining. — The following descrip-
tion of the methods of oil polishing and dry shining
is taken largely from an English work on the subject,
and may be depended upon as being fairly correct and
up to date:

The simple process of oil polishing must now receive
attention; and there is still something to admire in a
comparatively dull oiled surface. The process simply
consists of rubbing in linseed oil and polishing with a
soft rag. The oiling and polishing must be continued
at intervals till the requisite shine is obtained. To get
the best results takes time and friction. Oil polishing
is not difficult, but it is decidedly fatiguing and
tedious. The more the surface is rubbed the better,
and the process may be extended over some weeks.
Patience and energetic application are still more essen-
tial than with wax polishing, for to get even the sem-
blance of a polish or gloss within a week or two with
the aid of oil must not be expected. How long does it
take to finish a thing properly with oil? It may be
said the work is never finished. An oiled surface will
always bear more rubbing than it has had, and will not
be deteriorated by friction; still from one to two
months should suffice to get a good polish, which will
be durable according to the amount of labor bestowed
upon it during that time. This is more time than can
be devoted to the finishing touches of a piece of furni-
ture generally nowadays, so it may almost be consid-
ered that oil polishing is an obsolete process.

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Still, it does not follow that because the process is
too long to be remunerative in ordinary work it should
not be worthy of attention, especially as it has merits
which recommend it where speed is not a primary con-
sideration. One great advantage of it is that it is
much more durable than either French or wax polish;
it does not blister by heat like the former, nor spoil
with water to such an extent as the latter, with which
in general appearance it may be compared. It is
because it does not blister by heat that it is especially
useful. An ordinary French polished dining-table top
shows the damage caused by hot dishes laid on it,
unless great care has been taken. On an oil polished
dining-table top the same hot dishes might be placed
almost with impunity; and it is chiefly dining-table
tops that have prevented oil polishing becoming quite
extinct. Though the whole of a table, or anything
else, may be polished with oil, it is usual, even when
the top is oiled, to polish the legs and frame otherwise.

Linseed oil is the only material used in pure oil fin-
ish, but other ingredients have been used, till it is
difficult to recognize the distinction between oil polish-
ing and French polishing. The two processes may
overlap to an almost indefinite extent, but with these
we have, at present at any rate, nothing to do, and to
discuss them might only tend to confuse the novice.
Authorities differ on the state in which the linseed oil
should be used, some recommending boiled, others
raw, and others various proportions of the two. For
ordinary work boiled linseed oil is perhaps the better,
but this is not intended to imply that those who prefer
raw oil are wrong; therefore any oil polisher who has
an inclination for some fancy mixture of boiled and
raw oils can use it.

HARDWOOD FINISHER loi

The treatment is very much the same as in wax pol-
ishing. Il consists in rubbing the oil well into the
wood, not saturating or flooding, but scrubbing it, and
then rubbing long and hard. The process may be
repeated almost indefinitely, daily or at longer inter-
vals, till a polish which is deemed sufficient appears.
For example, take a table top, rub some oil well into
it, and then polish with a rubber formed by wrapping
some baize, felt, or similar material round a brick or
other suitable block, the purpose of which is, by its
weight, to some extent to relieve the polisher from
using his muscles in applying pressure. The rubbing
should be continued till the surface of the wood is dry.
The only perceptible difference in the top will be the
darkened appearance caused by the oil, as little or no
gloss will appear at first. By repeating the operation,
however, a polish will come up gradually, and a sur-
face which in the opinion of many is superior to that
of French polish will be the ultimate result. Should
the polish sweat, some methylated spirit may be
rubbed in. This will dry the surface without spoiling
the polish.

Oil polishing is hardly suitable for anything but
plain work, on account of the labor required; but any
piece of work can be so polished if the necessary time
and labor be given to it. Even when it is not
deemed practicable to bring up a polish with oil, a
very pleasing finish may be given to a piece of work by
merely rubbing it with oil. The color is enriched to
an extent which perhaps would hardly be credited by
those who have not had frequent opportunities of see-
ing wood in the white and again after being oiled. In
choice mahogany especially the improvement is very
marked. Light oak is also greatly improved in tone.

102 THE UP-TO-DATE

Fretworkers who are not proficient in French {xjlish-
ing would be more satisfied with the appearance of
anything they make if they simply oiled it instead of
coating it with shellac, which has to serve for French
polish.

Dry shining will be found a simple process after the
ordinary methods of French polishing have been mas-
tered. Finishing work by dry shining is the crudest
and simplest way in which a gloss can be got on the
surface of wood by means of a thin varnish of shellac
and methylated spirit. It must not be mistaken for
varnishing, as this process is ordinarily understood, for
it is distinctly a process of French polishing. Even
those who have managed to do bodying-up and spirit-
ing-off, or even glazing, will find the operation of dry
shining simple in comparison. It is the nearest
approach to varnishing by means of a rubber, instead
of a brush, that polishers practice. The wood is var-
nished with ordinary French polish, applied by means
of the polisher's special appliance — the rubber.

Dry shining, unlike glazing, is not in any degree a
substitute for the difficult process of spiriting-off, and
those who think to get a high degree of finish on their
work by means of dry shining may give up the illu-
sion. When a really good finish is wanted, French
polishing, as it is ordinarily understood, should be
chosen, for there is no efficient substitute by which a
like result can be got.

Dry shining can be used in any position where a high
degree of finish is not necessary or customary. It is
useful for finishing inside work — such as the insides of
boxes, drawers, cabinets, and interior parts generally —
and is often seen on the fronts of drawers and trays
enclosed in a wardrobe. The chief advantages in con-

HARDWOOD FINISHER lOS

nection with it are that it can be done expeditiously,
and therefore cheaply; that it sufficiently closes the
grain of the wood to prevent dust getting in and clog-
ging it; and that it gives a certain degree of finish
which wood, left in the white or altogether unpolished
does not possess.

The wood is bodied-in without any preparatory fill-
ing, but otherwise precisely in the manner as already
directed. It is not customary to take such precau-
tions to get up a good body as there recommended.
A better description of the process is to say that the
wood is wiped over with the polish rubber; not much
trouble is usually taken to do more than get the pre-
liminary body worked on. There is no reason why the
first body should not be allowed to sink, and the article
then be rebodied if necessary. Much bodying-in would
make the work almost as hard as that involved in ordi-
nary French polishing, so that ordinarily the bodying-
in dry shining is done more quickly.

When the bodying-in has been done to the satisfac-
tion of the polisher, the rubber is charged with French
polish, rather more fully than was recommended for
bodying. Instead of being rubbed all over the wood
in any direction, it is wiped over in the direction of
the grain from end to end of the piece, very much in
the manner mentioned in connection with glazing.
The rubber may be moved backwards and forwards till
dry, but a better way under ordinary circumstances is
to let the polish deposited by each rub dry before going
over the same place again. When using the rubber in
finishing, it should have no oil; and if the former of
these two methods is adopted it will be difficult to
prevent the polish dragging, so the easier course
should be adopted.

104 THE UP-TO-DATE

Repolishing and Reviving. — Having once mastered
the tundamental principle of polishing, it is a com-
paratively easy task to give to a plain piece of wood a
level and lustrous surface; and, by the use of stains
that can be bought ready prepared, a fair imitation of
any given wood can be obtained with but little labor.
But the polisher who wishes to hold his own against
all comers, must be able to do more than merely to
stain and polish a plain piece of new wood.

When dealing with old work that requires repolish-
ing, all dirt, grease, and furniture paste must be
removed by careful washing with soda and warm
water and powdered pumice-stone or bath-brick. It
can then be French polished, or a fresher and more
satisfactory appearance may be given by applying
one or two coats of brown hard spirit varnish — such
as can be bought at an oil and color merchant's — care-
fully with a camel-hair brush.

When varnished work has to be dealt with, first clean
off all the varnish and then repolish in the way
described in previous chapters, except that filling will
probably be dispensed with. The varnish can
generally be more easily removed by scraping than by
papering. With care the varnish can be washed off
with soda or potash and water, but on account of the
liability to injure the wood it is scarcely advisable to
adopt this method.

For removing polish from flat surfaces, the steel
scrapers as used by cabinetmakers are the best tools
to use. In turned and other work which has an uneven
surface the old coating can nearly all be got off by
application of strong hot soda water, to which may be
added some oxalic acid in difificult cases. When a
large quantity of work has to be treated, use the follow-

HARDWOOD FINISHER 105

ing mixture: >^ lb. potash, ^ lb. soft soap, >^ lb. rock
ammonia, i lb. washing soda, 3 ounces of nitric acid, I
gallon of water. Apply with a fiber or scrubbing
brush, taking care of the hands. Swill off with plenty
of clean water. When the work is dry, oil and fill in;
then repolish.

Spirit varnish can be removed by washing with
methylated spirit, which redissolves the lac. This is
both a tedious and somewhat expensive method, which
need be resorted to only for delicate mouldings and
other work which cannot well be cleaned by scraping
or by scouring with some liquid which, though it would
remove the varnish, might stain and so spoil the wood.
Alcohol, being neutral, may be used on any wood, as it
will not affect the color.

When dealing with cabinets or other built-up work,
the process of repolishing will be simplified somewhat
by taking apart as much as convenient. It is a good
plan to unhinge all doors, to remove all carvings that
may be screwed on from the back, and to remove all
knobs, brass fittings, etc. — not forgetting to put some
tallying mark on each piece which might be liable to
misplacement. Thus the doors can be better handled
on the bench, the corners of panels can be worked up
better, and the carvings can be varnished better.
When the carvings are planted on, as is often done, a
much cleaner job is made if these are first removed;
for it is a difficult task to polish the open carvings
equal to the flat surface.

Sometimes polished work is disfigured by fine little
lines which are caused by cracks, resulting from sweat-
ing. These lines become visible through the dust
settling on the exuding oil. This disfigurement can be
averted almost entirely by occasionally carefully wiping

io6 THE UP-TO-DATE

with a soft, damp cloth. Sweating is not entirely pre-
ventible, but when the oil has ceased to exude, which
may not be for some months, the work may be
lepolished with advantage.

The perfectly level, brilliant polish found on new
German pianos fills many an American French-polisher
with envy. Unfortunately, this brilliant polish does
not last long, and the majority of the pianos soon have
a greasy, cracked appearance. Indeed, there are but
few of these pianos with a polish gained by the legiti-
mate process of French polishing. This brilliant,
level polish is gained by a very liberal use of gum
Bandarac, and when the polishing is completed the
pianos are set aside in a clean, hot room, which has
the effect of causing the polish or gums to flow to one
dead level. Some makers use varnish very freely,
and, before passing to the hot room, level this by
means of pumice powder, tripoli, putty powder, and
sometimes flour.

When the requisite number of coats of varnish have
been laid, the surface is leveled with fine glass-paper
and linseed oil, or by the slower process of felt rubber
and pumice powder. After being wiped perfectly
clean, a rubber made of soft flannel, or, better still, of
old silk, is used to rub carefully and lightly in a
circular direction with tripoli powder and oil, till the
surface is perfectly level and inclined to be bright; it
is then rubbed with dry putty powder and silk, and
finally brightened with flour.

The surface should be left perfectly free from any
trace of the polishing powders; neglect of this
accounts for the white patches sometimes seen on the
German pianos. These patches are not so deep as
they appear at first sight, and may often be removed

HARDWOOD FINISHER 107

with flour emery and linseed oil or turps without
disturbing the polish.

To renovate the polish on these pianos is difficult,
but when it is not very bad, a reviver made of equal
parts of linseed oil, lime water, and turps is generally
effective. The lime water and oil are first thoroughly
mixed; then the turps is added, and the mixture is
applied by means of wadding. The surface is wiped
off with a rag, and finished with a clean, soft rag swab,
made fairly moist with methylated spirit. Should any
trace of grease still remain, change to a clean place of
the already moist rag, and sprinkle a few spots of
glaze on its face, or, better still, wipe the face of the
glaze rubber over the face of the clean swab.

Should this method prove ineffective it will be
necessary to repolish, first removing the sweat or
roughness by fine sandpaper and oil, or by washing
with weak soda water and pumice powder. The polish
used should be made with spirit instead of naphtha,
and, to ensure its lasting qualities, it should be bodied
up one day and finished the next.

To darken the birch frame of a chair, wipe it over
with asphaltum dissolved in turpentine (one cent's
worth in half a pint of turps). This stains without
giving a painted appearance; should there be any
difficulty in obtaining asphaltum, Vandyke brown may
be used, mixed to a thin paste with liquid ammonia —
or with a strong solution of common washing soda.
This is thinned with water, till of the required tone,
which will readily be found by trying its effect on any
odd piece of wood. If French polish cannot be applied,
the most suitable thing to use is brown hard spirit
varnish.

For restoring polish that has faded from damp or

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exposure to the sun, those stains which are used to
stain the common woods will not be suitable. It may-
be conv^enient to remove only the upper surface of the
polish, to color the faded portion so as to match its
surroundings, and to repolish the whole. When the
polish is not very bad, it is generally sufificient to
smooth it well with a piece of worn glass-paper.
When it is much scratched or faded, methylated spirit
should be sprinkled upon it, and the surface well
rubbed with No. i sandpaper, applied with a circular
motion; it will then be found that only the upper
surface of the polish will be removed. Before
repolishing, it is advisable first to wash the article with
water to which a little common washing soda has been
added. This will remove any dirt, furniture paste, etc. ;
a little pumice powder or powdered bath-brick may
be used to assist.

After the necessary cleaning off of dirt, etc., has
been accomplished, any bruises must be removed,
either by scraping out or by bringing up level, by
means of a hot iron and moisture, or by filling up with
hard stopping, or by the still better method previously
given. When this has been done, and all defective
parts made good, the surface must be wiped over with
an oily rag; it assists the new polish to take kindly to
the old. In scraping out the bruises, in cleaning off
level any new piece, and in cleaning off the polish, it
is probable that light patches may be made. More
especially will these be made apparent if the damaged
portion has been previously colored up by stains, dry
colors, or dyed polish.

For coloring up or matching, it is generally suffi-
cient, if the wood in hand is mahogany, to wipe over
the damaged portion with red oil, which consists of }{

HARDWOOD FINISHER 109

lb. of alkanet root steeped in i pint of linseed oil,
working up with red polish. Should the wood be
walnut, many a little blemish and scratch in soft
resinous varnish may be matched by wiping over with
a solution of one cent's worth of asphaltum dissolved
in y^ pint turps. Should the defect be a piece of sap
or other light portion, go over the light portion several
times with the polish rubber to prevent the grain from
rising, and then saturate a small tuft of wadding with 3
parts of methylated spirits to I part of polish; on this
wadding place a small quantity of Vandyke brown or
brown umber, mix well, and carefully wipe over the
light portions, thinning out with spirits if too dark,
picking up a little more color if not dark enough,
adding a little black if required.

Matching stains are used in French polishing because
light and dark places often occur in the best selected
woods, and in stained work, owing to the difference
in the direction of the grain. To tone or harmonize
the entire surface to one uniform shade, is technically
called matching or coloring up, and requires a little
tact and a good eye for color. On large flat surfaces
colored polish may be used with advantage, but for
small work it would be better to take a small tuft of
wadding and wet it with i part polish to 3 parts spirits.
With this take up a little yellow ocher and just a trace
of umber or Vandyke brown. Press the wadding well
on the back of a piece of worn-out glass-paper to
equalize, and mix well. Try the effect on an odd
corner of the work; if too dark, thin out with spirits;
if not dark enough, pick up more color, or wipe over
twice. Having gained the right shade, apply lightly
with a straight or wavy motion as required. This
would enable one to match the oak, but any wood can

no THE UP-TO-DATE

be matched by using suitable pigments, a red tinge
being usually given by the addition of a few drops of
Bismarck brown stain. Though it is possible to pro-
ceed to polish direct, yet it would be safer to set the
stain by giving a coat of thin spirit varnish, and allow
this to get quite dry before polishing. In matching
up satin walnut, the polisher must use judgment, for
the work can hardly be regarded as mechanical. The
stain must depend on the color or tint of the lighter
parts, and of the darker parts to which they are to be
matched. Generally a little weak brown stain will do
what is required. When necessary, it can be altered
slightly in color by the addition of other pigments,
according to the tints desired.

In matching, the wavy appearance of some woods
may be given by a tremulous movement of the hand,
and the mottled appearance of others by dabbing with
a badger softener or clean, soft dusting brush while
the color is still wet. Veins either black or red may
be given by picking up a little dry black or red stain
on the corner of the tuft of wadding and applying it
carefully, taking some adjacent portion as a guide for
pattern. For rosewood, red stain and dry black may
be used in combination; for birch or oak, use yellow
ocher. When the work in hand is large, and requires
staining all over, and it is not possible to gain the
desired result by means of dyed polish applied with
the rubber, the colors should be mixed in a pot with
3 parts of spirit to I of polish, and applied with a
camel-hair brush. The work is not so liable to get
patchy with two or more coats of weak stain as with
one strong one.

After laying on the stain, allow a few minutes to
els^pse for it to set, then smooth down with a piece of

HARDWOOD FINISHER in

worn, fine glass-paper, and give a coat of thin brush
polish or spirit varnish. This will set the colors pre-
vious to polishing, which can be proceeded with in
about ten minutes. Mahogany, rosewood, and walnut,
if not inlaid, are generally improved by the use of a
polish tinged by the addition of a little red stain.
Other colors may also be mixed with polish to be
applied with the rubber. When using these dyed
polishes, cease when just the right tinge is attained;
another rubber may be used to finish off with clear
polish.

In repolishing work, the foundation having been
already laid, the polish is not required quite so thick
as in polishing the bare wood. In the final stage,
when finishing off, any trace of greasiness may be
effectually removed by well rubbing with a swab of
the clean, soft rag, fairly damp (not wet) with spirits, on
face of which has been sprinkled a few drops of glaze.

Colors in a dry state known as pigments, such as
Venetian red, yellow ocher, vegetable black or lamp-
black, umbers, Vandyke brown, chromes, orange and
lemon, greens, blues, flake white, etc., are useful. By
the aid of these, the polisher is enabled to match
woods and restore faded polish, far more expeditiously
than can be done by staining or using dyed polish or
varnish. Work that might puzzle the inexperienced
for hours can be done in a few minutes by a knowledge
of the use of dry colors. They are used in some stains
by mixing with ammonia, glue size, pearlash, soda,
and they are used to color the "filling-in" of whiting
and turps to make it match the various woods.
Venetian red is used for mahogany, umber for walnut,
black for ebony, and sometimes to give an appearance
of age to oak by making the grain appear dirty.

112 THE UP-TO-DATE

Sometimes the polisher has a job passed to him that,
properly speaking, ought to be done by the painter.
The quick-drying nature of the solutions of shellac,
with which the polisher is the better acquainted, obtains
for him the preference. For example, shields, etc.,
for the decorative purposes that may require five
different colors and a coat of varnish, can be colored
ready for fixing within twenty-four hours. To do this,
lime blue, chrome yellow, vegetable black, flake white,
and vermilionette or any other colors should be mixed
with ordinary French polish to the consistency of
thin paint, thinning out when necessary with alcohol
spirits. Three coats of color can be laid on, stencil
patterns cut and painted, borders and edges lined, and
the whole finished with a coat of white hard varnish
within twelve hours. To prevent the white getting a
yellowish tinge, it is well to mix it with transparent
polish made from white shellac.

To make imitation marble which wears well, give
several coats of flake white mixed in polish; then put
in the veins of blue or black with feathers, afterwards
giving a coat of white thinned out with spirits. This
has the effect of making the veining appear beneath
the surface. When dry it is finished by giving a coat
of good quality copal varnish.

THE FINISHING OF VARIOUS WOODS

It will be in order now to describe how to finis'i
some of the more popular woods, in detail, though
enough has been said in a general way to enable any
workman to finish work in any wood made use of for
building or decorative purposes, but a few lines
devoted to some of our special woods may perhaps be
of timely service to some owner of this volume. Oak,

HARDWOOD FINISHER 113

being the most popular and at the same time the most
durable and the most used of our woods, is deserving
of the first place.

Finishing Oak

We have in this country over forty kinds of oak
nearly every one of which may be used for some
special purpose; those most used for building finish
and for furniture, however, are only few, among which
are the white oak (Quercus rtdia), rock oak {Quercus
primas 7nurticola) and black oak {Quercus tindoris). All
of the above-named oaks are capable of being hand-
somely finished, the white and black oaks being the
best and the red being next.

What is known as quarter oak is made by first saw-
ing the log from end to end through the middle.
Then each half is sawed from end to end through the
middle, thus leaving four quarters. Each quarter has
only three sides, one side the bulge part of the log,
and the other two sides flat and coming to an edge.
The boards are sawed off the sharp edge, and each
sawing, therefore, throws off a board wider than the
one before it. Sawing the quarters of the log in this
manner, lumber possesses that beautiful cross-grained
figure so much in fashion now that it has become
somewhat of a craze. This cross-grained material finds
favor in the finest furniture and interior work. The
wood is susceptible of the very finest polish, and the
cross-grain produces an effect made by both nature
and the saw, that is quite superior to the art of the
most skillful grainer. To effect a good imitation of
antique oak, lampblack or Vandyke brown in oil is
applied to 'the surface of the wood, darkening its
natural hue; but this is not by any means best or the

114 THE UP-TO-DATE

only way, but answers very well where other processes
or methods are not available. With regard to giving
oak an antique appearance, many opinions exist.
Formerly — and probably the first — imitations of antique
oak were produced by exposing the bare dressed surface
to the steam of boiling ammonia. This process, how-
ever, it was impossible to apply to casings of house
interiors, thus leading to the application of the aqua
ammonia with a brush, but it is by repeated application
that the desired results are produced. It stains the
wood gray. There are finishers who claim this to be
the only process by which to imitate Nature, but
another, much faster and one which gives the same
results, is to use strong vinegar with iron filings or
shavings added; by a little experimenting this can be
made to suffice with one coat, depending upon the
amount of iron added.

A very clever imitation of the general antique can
be obtained by staining the filler with Vandyke brown
and charcoal, equal parts, using about I part of the
colored to 4 parts of the light. Then there is another
antique which imitates certain oak from the sixteenth
century; the peculiarity of it consists in dark cloud
streaks permeating the wood in every direction, some
of them crossing the panels in a V-shape, others
straight near top and bottom. To give them an odd
appearance, a pair of panels can be clouded by
streaking one three or four times and the other once or
twice. These stripes vary in width from three to five
inches. The wider streaks look well across the top of
a table three or four times, or even partly across, while
the narrow ones would do well around the legs and
across the styles and rails of paneled work. In
putting these on, they should be dark in the center and

HARDWOOD FINISHER ii^

blend out at the edges. This is done with an automatic
paint burner, allowing the flames to scorch the wood
nearly black; but care must be taken not to char it.
After the work is all streaked, the wood is filled with
filler stained with burnt umber mixed as for black
walnut

Care must be taken to have the filler stained to the
proper tint, and in applying correctly. By following
the rules given under the head "Filling" the operator
should have no trouble in making good work, and we
here repeat the instruction.

After enough surface has been covered with the
filler, so that what has been first applied begins to
flatten, the process of wiping should immediately
begin, using for that purpose either a rag or a handful
of waste or excelsior. If the' oak is very open-grained,
waste is preferable. With a piece of this that has
previously been used and is pretty well supplied with
filler, rub crosswise of the grain, rather rubbing it into
the grain than wiping it off. After the whole surface
has been gone over in this way, take a clean piece of
waste or rag (never use excelsior for wiping clean) and
wipe the surface perfectly clean and free from filler,
using a wooden pick, the point of which has been
covered with a rag or waste, to clean out the corners,
beads, etc. It is well to give these picks some atten-
tion, as a person once accustomed to certain tools can
accomplish more and better work than with tools that
feel strange in his hands; therefore, each finisher
should furnish his own pick. As to their construction,
those are best made from second-growth hickory,
which can be procured from any carriage repair shop,
such as old spokes, broken felloes, etc. They are
made eight inches in length, half inch oval at one end

ii6 THE UP-TO-DATE

and tapering down to the point at the other. Sharpen
the oval end like a coal chisel, then smooth with
sandpaper, which should also be used to sharpen the
tool when the same becomes worn dull.

This picking out of the filler from beads, etc., can
be accelerated by the use of a picking brush manu-
factured especially for that purpose, but it is not
advisable to use this on very coarse-grained oak, as it
scrubs the filler out of the pores.

Oak may be fumigated by liquid ammonia, strength
880°, which may be bought at any wholesale chemist's
at $1.50 a gallon. The wood should be placed in 3. dark
and airtight room (in a big packing case, if you like!),
and half a pint or so of ammonia poured into a soup
plate, and placed upon the grotind \n the center of the
compartment. This done, shut the entrance, and
secure any cracks, if any, by pasted slips of paper.
Remember that the ammonia does not touch the oak,
but the gas that comes from it acts in a wondrous
manner upon the tannic acid in that wood, and browns
it so deeply that a shaving or two may actually be
taken off without removing the color. The depth of
shade will entirely depend upon the quantity of
ammonia used and the time the wood is exposed. Try
an odd bit first experimentally, and then use your own
judgment.

Short pieces of stuff may be so treated by using an
airtight box. The box ready, a flat dish or plate of
strong ammonia should be placed in the bottom, so
that the fumes will rise and surround the object. All
that is now necessary is to place the article in the
box, nailing up as close as possible, and await results
Ten hours'exposure, using strong ammonia, should give
a good color; if not dark enough let it remain longer,

HARDWOOD FINISHER ii;

bearing in mind, however, that the wood will present
no noticeable change until oiled or brought in contact
with a wet substance such as shellac. It is well, there-
fore, to note the progress by touching the wood with
the wet finger, when it will show at once the stage it
has reached.

There could be no better method devised to stain
oak than this, when practicable, and in adopting it we
simply anticipate nature, which, in time, through the
action of the ammonia of the atmosphere, would
present the same result. Mahogany may also be
treated similarly with success.

Here is another method of making antique oak, and
it might be added that white, and black ash, and
chestnut, similarly treated, will give a fair imitation of
antique oak. The job should be made of hardwood,
with as full an open grain as possible to secure a fine
effect. Sandpaper this and clean off. Then prepare a
priming made of i part japan, I part raw linseed oil
and I part rubbing varnish. Drop into y^ gal. of the
liquid I lb. of commercial corn §tarch, such as is used
for culinary purposes. Next take some good, dry,
burnt Turkish umber, and add about ^ lb, of this to
the starch. Apply to the job a good flowing coat of
this priming. Let stand until it is set and has soaked
well into the grain, and then take a broad putty knife
.and stick it into the grain, working the knife cross-
wise of the grain. Again let stand a little while, and
then wnpe with rags; especially clean out all the
corners, and get the job into as good condition as
possible as regards having the grain well filled.

Upon the completion of the operation above
described it will be found that the open grain has
absorbed the starch and umber, and that these

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portions now show the dark shade suggestive of age,
while all tne rest of the surface is also slightly
darkened.

When again perfectly dry, give one coat of rubbing
varnish, prepared by adding to it y^ lb. of starch to
each gallon of varnish. This coat should be flowed on
freely as a medium coat of rubbing varnish, but be
careful not to have runs of sags. This ought to com-
pletely fill the wood, after which proceed to varnish,
rub and finish the job in the usual manner. To pro-
duce a natural oak finish, follow precisely the same
course as above described, with the single exception
of omitting the umber. This will leave the wood in its
natural color.

Some of the most attractive work in this line, how-
ever, is effected by simply spreading on the surface of
the material a concentrated solution of permanganate
of potash, this being allowed to act until the desired
shade is obtained. Five minutes suffice ordinarily to
give a good color, a few trials indicating the proper
proportions. The substance named is decomposed by
the vegetable fiber, with the precipitation of brown
peroxide of manganese, which the influence of the
potash, at the same time set free, fixes in a durable
manner on the fibers. When the action is terminated,
the wood is carefully washed with water, dried, then
oiled and polished in the usual manner. The effect
produced by this process in several woods is really
remarkable. On the cherry especially it develops a
beautiful red color which well resists the action of air
and light, and on the other woods it has a very pleasing
and natural effect.

Along with the foregoing may be added the follow-
ing stains for oak: add to a quart of water 2 ounres

HARDWOOD FINISHER iig

each of potash and pearlash. This is a very good
stain, but it should be used carefully, as it blisters the
hands and softens brushes. The stain may be made
lighter by adding more water.

To Darken Oak. — To darken the color of oak, any of
the following may be used:

Liquid ammonia laid on evenly with a rag or brush
will deepen the color immediately, and it will not fade,
this being an artificial production of result produced
naturally by age.

Bichromate of potash, dissolved in cold water, and
applied with a brush, will produce a similar result.

A decoction of green walnut-shell will bring new oak
to any shade or nearly black.

Another. — Two quarts of boiled oil; yi lb. of ground
umber, mixed in oil by colorman; i pint of liquid
driers, stirred in; i pint of turpentine; mix. After
cleaning and planing your boards, lay this on with the
grain of the wood. If required lighter, add naphtha
till the required shade is attained; it darkens with age.
Give it twelve hours to dry; then varnish with wood
varnish, or use only beeswax and turpentine. The
result is good in time, but slower than varnish.

Oak can be fumigated, by making a tent of some
cheap oil cloth, which may be rigged up over a rough
wooden frame. Of course, the tent must be made
pretty tight. Don't let the frame touch the work, and
when complete, cut a small piece that you can lift up
and use as a peep hole. Then get a saucer full of
liquid ammonia and place inside the tent — anywhere
on the floor will do. Close the tent and await results.
The more ammonia used the darker it gets, so you
must use your peep hole and suit yourself. Lf you
wish to polish it, give it a coat of beeswax and turpen-

120 THE UP-TO-DATE

tine, let dry, and then brush or rub it well. For a dull
polish, give it a coat of raw linseed oil, dry well, ana
then brush up. By "fumigation" you always get a
good even tone; but, failing this, you can stain the
work, and by simple means. Buy a little per-
manganate of potash at the chemist's, dissolve in
water, and put on with a brush; when dry, give another
coat if not dark enough. Another method is to get Y-z
lb. of black japan and dissolve in Y^ pmt of turpen-
tine, and apply as before, or you can buy the stain
ready-made; and the walnut water stain — not varnish
stain — is a good one to make a dark brown oak color.
If you find the stain brings up the grain — i.e., makes
the wood rough — rub it down with fine sandpaper and
stain again, but rub off fairly dry. All these are
simple methods, which you could easily acquire.

Styles of Oak Finish. — As oak in its many and varied
finishes is so very fashionable just now, an explanation
of the effects of the several stains may be of interest,
as so many of them are so closely allied as to confuse
the uninitiated. Bog oak is a thin stain of medium
color, giving quarter-sawed oak a slight tinge of green.
It is about the same density as weathered oak, but of
a green tone instead of brown, like weathered oak.
Weathered oak is of a brown tone in close imitation of
the rich old hue taken on by oak through time or from
exposure to the weather. Antwerp oak is also brown,
but of a deeper shade, producing an attractive antique
effect. Black Flemish is a much-admired finish,
especially when it is desired to produce an effect of
great weight. It gives a piece of furniture a sub-
stantial appearance. Its black tone combines
admirably with red wall covering and hangings.
Brown Flemish is not unlike Antwerp, but of a muck

HARDWOOD FINISHER 121

stronger brown tone. This is one of the most popular
stains of the hour. It is quite permanent and produces
a very artistic effect. The so-called gun-metal finish
for oak is not unlike black Flemish, but gives a tinge
of blue instead of deep black. Malachite, although
light green, is not too intrusive. This is affected by
many people of good taste and is quite popular,
especially for staining ash. Tyrolean oak is as dark as
black Flemish or bog oak, and is of a green tinge,
instead of the blue of the gun-metal finish.

Golden Oak is very fashionable, being a brownish
color with a sort of golden glow tint; it may be
obtained as follows: Golden oak finish is not produced
by the filler alone; in fact, the filler has very little to
do with the result. The wood must be stained before
it is filled, and, of course, the filler must be so colored
or stained as not to mar or dull the effect. A mixture
of gold size japan and genuine asphaltum varnish in
about equal parts, thinned with turpentine, makes a
good stain that will not raise the grain of the wood,
dries quickly and hard, and, if wiped out properly,
gives under varnish a rich effect, termed "golden,'' for
want of another appropriate name.

To make a filler, mix one-third each of raw linseed
oil, japan gold size and turpentine, and put into this
mixture enough finely powdered silica or silex to make
a stiff paste, and color this with burnt umber in oil,
Vandyke brown in oil and a trifle of drop black to suit,
being mindful that in golden oak only the high lights
are yellowish brown, while the filled grain is decidedly
dark. The mixture should be run through a handmill.
The best plan for you is to buy your golden oak paste
filler, or at least buy the light paste filler and color it
to suit your taste; for you cannot buy the raw material

122 THE UP-TO-DATE

as cheap as the manufacturer, and making it in a small
way will cost you more in the long run.

Another method, if the work is new, is as follows:
Fuming is only possible when the articles are new and
free from varnish, polish, glue, or marks of handling.
The process consists of enclosing the articles — from
which the glass and all brass fittings are removed — in
an airtight room or box, on the floor or bottom of
which are placed a number of shallow dishes contain-
ing strong liquid ammonia. The depth of color
depends on the length of exposure, which may vary
from twelve to thirty-six hours. Where this process
is not practicable, the next best method is staining.
The stain must be weak, the exact color required being
afterwards obtained by the use of a polish made from
orange shellac and a trace of color in the varnish. A
suitable stain may be made by dissolving ^ oz. of
bichromate of potash in i^ pt. of water. To prevent
the work coming up rough on the application of the
water stain, the work should be first wiped over with
raw linseed oil. The stain must be liberally applied,
and rubbed well in with a rag, finishing off always in the
direction of the grain. Before starting on the work,
experiment on odd pieces of similar wood.

Flemish Oak. — To make a stain for Flemish oak,
Yz lb. of bichromate of potash, dissolved in i gal. of
water. Coat woodwork. When dry, sandpaper down
smooth; then coat with best drop black, ground in
japan, thinned with turpentine. Let stand five minutes
and wipe off clean, then coat with pure grain shellac
and sandpaper with No. o sandpaper; then coat with
beeswax, i lb. to a gallon of turpentine, % lb. of drop
black mixed in the wax, then wipe off clean with
cheese cloth.

HARDWOOD FINISHER 123

Weathered Oak. — Give woodwork one coat of strong
ammonia. When dry, sandpaper down smooth and
stain it from the following colors: lampblack, ochei
and 2 lbs. of silica to a gallon of stain. Wipe off
with cheese cloth, then give one coat of pure grain
shellac, then sandpaper and give one coat of wax and
wipe off clean. If you should desire a brownish shade,
put I oz. of bichromate of potash and ammonia, or if a
greenish shade, put some green and stain.

Verde, or Green Finish. — One ounce of nigrocenc:
dissolved in ^ gal. of water. Give woodwork one
coat; when dry, sandpaper, care to be taken not to rub
off edges; then fill with a bright green filler, with some
white lead in the filler. When thoroughly dry, give
one coat of pure grain shellac and then wax, or it could
be finished with three coats of varnish and rubbed.
This finish leaves the pores of bright green color,
while the rest of the wood is almost black.

Black Oak. — One ounce of nigrocene to >^ gal. of
water. Give woodwork one coat, then fill with a black
filler, then one coat of shellac and three coats of
varnish rubbed with pumice-stone and water, then oil
and wipe off clean.

Austrian Oak. — Fill with a light antique filler,
colored with raw umber. Give two very thin coats of
shellac, colored with nigrocene and yellow to the
desired shade, then sandpaper down and wax and wipe
off clean.

Red Oak is a difficult wood to stain or fumigate, but
it may be done as follows: Make a stain by mixing
ground dry Dutch pink (this color is yellow) and a
little dry drop black, with beer, and apply with a hog's
hair brush. Try the stain on a piece of red oak, and
get the exact shade if possible, taking care that you

124 THE UP-TO-DATE

do not stain quite as dark as the fumigated parts.
When dry, oil with linseed oil, and make a weak
■stain, using the same colors, mixed with alcohol, with
enough button polish to bind the color. Lay on
carefully with a camel-hair brush. It is better to give
two coats of weak stain, as the result will be a more
even color. When dry, wax polished this will make a
good job.

Oak Staining Generally. — There is no wood which
may be treated in so many different ways as oak. It
may be left in its natural state, or it may be oiled, or
wax polished, or French polished in its natural color.
It can be stained and waxed, stained and French
polished in a variety of colors or tints, with the grain
opened or filled, and it can also be fumigated. For bed-
room furniture, if the wood is carefully selected, a
very pleasing effect is obtained by waxing or French
polishing it in its natural color, or slightly stained and
polished with the gcain open or filled, according to
taste. Dining-room or library finish is generally
stained a medium color or fumigated. All furniture
is frequently stained very dark, and polished with the
grain open.

If it is desired that the work should be finished in its
natural color, fill in with Russian tallow and plaster of
Paris, and polish with white polish. If it is required
to be slightly tinted, stain the filler with yellow ocher
and polish with button polish. For staining, the best
stains to use are the powdered water stains, and some
very effective tints may be obtained by carefully
mixing green and brown stains together; apply the
stain with a hog's hair brush, and if the grain should
rise quickly, rub down with 1% glass-paper before
laying off the stain. When the stain is dry, oil with

HARDWOOD FINISHER 125

Unseed oil, then give a coat of polish to fix the stain.
It may then be polished with the grain open, and
finished with a wet rubber, using no spirits. If a level
surface is required, it must be carefully filled in, and
not unduly hurried in the polishing. The latter
applies to oak generally, as the wood is coarse, and
consequently'sinks a great deal.

A good dark oak stain may be made as follows:
Dissolve I oz. of bichromate of potash in ^ pint of
water, and i oz. of potash in y^, pint of water. When
each are separately dissolved, mix together, and add
dry powdered Vandyke brown. If a very dark color is
required, add also a little powdered drop black; apply
with a hog's hair brush, and polish as before stated.
As sometimes the American potash varies in strength,
the hair of the brush will curl up if it is too strong. If
this occurs, add a little more water. Oak carvings
give a much nicer appearance always if the grain is
left open, even when the other parts are filled up. If
they are stained, oil and afterwards give a coat of
polish to fix the stain. When this is dry, brush well
with a stiff-haired brush and rub with a dry cloth. It
is sometimes advisable to oil oak before it is stained,
as it often prevents the grain rising. The only dis-
advantage is that a little extra labor is required to
make the stain bite.

Fumigated Oak. — The best kinds of oak for fumigating
are the English wainscot, or Baltic. The red Ameri-
can oak does not fumigate well. The advantages of
fumigating are that a more natural color is obtained
than by staining. The wood is not made rough by
the operation, and there is also a great saving in
labor. The best method of fumigating is to construct
an airtight chamber, lined with wood, and the joints

126 THE UP-TO-DATE

of the wood made airtight by pasting paper over them.
If the chamber is of the following dimensions it will
be found large enough for most purposes: length, 9 ft.;
width, 4 ft.; height, 6 ft. Portable inner frames may
be made with shutters, so that the size of the chamber
may be made smaller if necessary. The door should
have glass panels; this will permit of the work being
watched, and when the wood has become dark enough,
the door should be opened. Articles to be fumigated
should have all brass work removed; then place in the
chamber in such a position as to allow a free passage
for the fumes to get at all parts of the wood. Then
place half a dozen saucers (flower-pot saucers will
answer for this purpose) on the floor at equal distances,
and pour into each saucer ^ lb. of spirits of ammonia,
strength of the ammonia to be 880°, then paper over
the joints round the door. The wood will darken
much quicker in hot weather. If a very dark color is
required, it may be necessary to recharge the chamber
after twenty-four hours, but a good color is generally
obtained in about five hours. It should be noted that
the work always becomes lighter after it is taken out
of the fumigating chamber. Consequently, the work
must be proceeded with directly it is taken out. If
any parts are too dark, do not oil them; all other
parts should be at once oiled, and given a coat of
polish. When dry, paper well with No. I glass-paper,
and wax polish or French polish with the grain open,
as in the case of stained dark oak. Small articles
may be fumigated by making a box airtight, and
placing a piece of felt upon a level floor; stand the
articles to be fumigated on the felt, and fill one
saucer with % lb. spirits of ammonia. Then cover
the whole with the box, and place a weight on the top

HARDWOOD FINISHER 127

of the box; this will prevent the fumes from escaping.
It may be raised occasionally to see how the work is
proceeding. This plan will answer better than if there
is a lid to the box, as the fumes will not escape so
much in this way.

Great care must be taken when using the ammonia,
and the operator must particularly avoid inhaling the
fumes. A good rule when charging a large chamber
for fumigating is to have some one at hand in case of
any accident, such as the breakage of the vessel con-
taining the ammonia. Before the work is taken out of
the chamber the fumes must be allowed to pass off by
opening the door for a few minutes before entering.
If this rule is carried out, no possible harm can
happen.

Pollard oak is best treated by first oiling it, and then
applying a coat of button polish. When the polish is
dry, it ^ust be rubbed down with No. i glass-paper
and waxed or French polished. As sometimes pollard
oak has very large cracks on the surface, these must
be well stopped with wax stopping, which must be
stained to match the wood. Before proceeding to wax
or French polish, if the joints do not match in color, a
little polish stain may be applied with a camel-hair
pencil before it is polished.

For Removing Polish and Restaining Oak. — Saturate
table with alcohol, keep it wet with it, and whilst wet
scrape off polish which will have become softened. If
legs are turned, or on shaped edges, etc., where
scraper cannot be used, coarse sandpaper (Middle 2)
will remove polish. Use plenty of spirit and sand-
paper all over, and take care all polish is removed. It
can be done in same way with potash — a slower proc-
ess, and the potash will also burn anything it touches.

128 THE UP-TO-DATE

but will stain the wood at the same time. When all
polish is removed, the table can be stained dark with
walnut water stain. When wood is well stained in
pores, wipe off with cloth and let dry; if not dark
enough, give another coat. Another stain is made
with turps and black japan, well mixed. A little
Prussian blue powder will make either stain a greeny
brown. For polishing, rub in raw linseed oil; let dry,
and rub again; or for wax polish, melt beeswax on slow
heat in a galley pot; add turpentine, about a third
part; let cool. Wax should be soft as paste; if sticky,
add turps; rub well into wood. Let dry and rub again
for polish. Stain must be quite dry before oil or wax
is put on.

To Finish Cherry

Cherry {Prunus cerasiis). — This is a fine-grained
wood, tough and light; is capable of taking the very
finest finish. Is harder than baywood, and is a nearer
approach in color, grain and texture, to mahogany
than any other native wood.

One of the best methods for making cherry look like
mahogany is to have the wood rubbed with diluted
nitric acid, which prepares it for the materials sub-
sequently applied. Afterwards to a filtered mixture
of xYt, oz. of dragons' blood dissolved in a pint of
spirits of wine is aded one-third that quantity of
carbonate of soda. The whole, constituting a very thin
liquid, is brushed with a soft brush over the wood.
This process is repeated with very little alteration,
and in a short interval of time the wood assumes the
external appearance of mahogany. If the composition
has been properly made the surface will resemble an
artificial mirror, and should this brilliancy ever decline

HARDWOOD FINISHER 129

it may be restored by rubbing the surface with a little
cold drawn linseed oil.

When cherry is nicely filled and rubbed well down
and not varnished, it has a soft glow not possessed by
any other, and has none of those distortions of graife
that are so unpleasant in mahogany. The timber is
chosen from the wild cherry, which in New England
and the North generally does not usually grow to a
girth of more than 20 inches, but in some of tha
Western States and in the South frequently attains a
diameter of 24 inches. The domestic fruit cherry
gives some good specimens of small timber, but as the
tree is rarely sacrificed until it is past bearing and is
decayed, this source of supply is precarious. The
facility with which cherry can be worked makes it a
favorite with the cabinetmaker and the house-joiner;
and it also possesses the quality of "staying where it
is put," and that is more than can be said of many of
the hardwoods.

I give below several stains for making pine and
other suitable woods to have an appearance of
cherry.

1. To prepare this color in water stain, boil in a
gallon of water i lb. of Spanish annotto and i oz. of
concentrated lye (potash). Should this not be deep
enough, allow the water to evaporate by a gentle heat.
The stain can also be darkened by adding gamboge
previously dissolved in a weak potash solution.

2. Gamboge in oil, diluted with turpentine, and a
little japan added as a siccative. This produces the
same color in oil as the former in water stain, and can
be deepened with dragons' blood in oil or finely
ground burnt sienna in oil.

3. Mix together, by stirring, I qt. of spirits of

130 THE UP-TO-DATE

turpentine, i pt. of varnish, and I lb. of dry burnt
sienna; apply with a brush and after it has been on
about five minutes wipe it off with rags. This stain
takes about twelve hours to dry.

4. Take i qt. alcohol, 2 oz. of dragons' blood;
pulverize the latter along with % oz. of alkanet root;
mix and let stand in a warm place a couple of days.
Shake frequently in the meantime. Apply with a
sponge or brush. Two or three coats may be required.
This makes a fine stain.

To finish cherry, the first and a very important
thing to do is to give the wood a thorough sandpaper-
ing, to remove finger and other marks, and make s
perfect surface to receive the stain. Next comes the
dusting off of the work, which also should be carefully
done, as specks of dust or dirt will cause bad work.
Stain should be put on with a four-inch oval brush, one
set with cement. Apply the stain freely, but do not
work it too much, as this would cause it to froth,
forming specks. Have the stain in a wooden, earthen
or enameled vessel, as metal will often alter the color
of the stain. Avoid laps when staining; do a section
at a time. But should a lap be unavoidable, then take
a sponge, wet with clear water, and wet that part of
the work already done and adjoining that which is to
be done, and then at once apply the stain. Have a
bucket of water and a sponge ready at hand. Any
part of the work taking too dark may be toned down
by means of the wet or damp sponge, causing it to
match the other and lighter work. Allow the stain to
dry thoroughly, after which it is ready for sandpaper-
ing with 000 paper. Next give a coat of shellac.
Finish with two coats of varnish, or with three coats
for extra fine finish. Rub with pumice-stone and

HARDWOOD FINISHER 131

water, polish with rotten stone and water, and clean
up with furniture polish.

Oil stains were formerly used, but aniline stains give
much better color effects. Aniline stains may be
bought ready prepared.

When sandpapering cherry be sure that you do not
cut through, as it would show up white. Cutting
through is liable to occur about mouldings, edges, etc.
Use old, worn sandpaper there; for the more sunken
parts redampen and rub the layers of paper from the
back of old sandpaper, which will make it very pliable
and soft.

Finishing Black Birch

Birch. — Betiila Nigra or Canadian birch is superior to
all other birches for constructive purposes, and when
properly finished has a fine, quiet, refined look that
commends itself to all lovers of domestic woods.

Black birch is a close-grained, handsome wood, and
can be easily stained to resemble walnut exactly. It
is just as easy to work, and is suitable for nearly, if not
all, the purposes to which walnut is applied. Birch is
much the same color as cherry, but the latter wood is
now scarce, and consequently dear. When properly
stained it is almost impossible to distinguish the
difference between it and walnut, or cherry, as it is
susceptible of a beautiful polish, equal to any wood
now used in the manufacture of furniture and inside
finishings.

To finish to represent mahogany, coat with a weak
solution of bichromate of potash, then stain with rose
pink, Vandyke brown and burnt sienna; then shellac,
with a little Bismarck brown dissolved in the shellac
This makes a better stain and more lasting than a
water stain

132 THE UP-TO-DATE

There is a species of bird's-eye birch, but it is very
scarce. An evidence of the weight and solidity of the
wood is the fact that it will sink after being a few
days on the water. It also possesses the quality of
durability in a preeminent degree.

Birch is generally finished the same as cherry, and
directions given under that head will apply here also.

Finishing Mahogany

Mahogany, cherry and black birch require about the
same treatment, though there are some features in
mahogany that differ a trifle from the other two woods.
There is little or no grain markings in cherry or birch,
while Spanish mahogany may be marked and penciled
over its whole face; and the texture of the woods is very
different to the touch.

Mahogany {Sviete?ied). — The tree has a darkish-brown
bark and a reddish-brown, coarsely fibered, streaky,
hard wood. The tree grows to the height of 35 meters,
and is pretty strong. Among the chief varieties is the
common mahogany, with a very hard, very durable
wood, which is never attacked by worms, and is
excellent for ship-building; but its capability for
taking a fine polish is its chief recommendation.
Mahagofii Haiti, Mahagoni Jamaika, Mahagoni Havanna
are the other chief kinds.

With perhaps the exception of our oaks, no wood
possesses like advantages of combined soundness,
large size, durability, beauty of color and richness of
figure. So, when compared with other woods,
mahogany costs no more to work and stands better
than any other— the only point to weigh against this
last great feature is the slight difference in the first
cost of the wood in the rough; but if m?hogany stands

HARDWOOD FINISHER 133

better and longer, and needs no attention afterwards,
surely the sole advantage of less cost at first which any
other wood may possess is overcome.

But another merit, equal to any thus far mentioned,
is the warmth in its color and the glory in the figure of
this beautiful wood. The air of elegance, artistic
effect and gentle breeding it imparts to all its sur-
roundings, its joy and life — all these cannot be
measured by a few cents a square foot. Its growing
splendor with age that gives increasing satisfaction
may safely be contrasted with the tameness of other
woods, which, though pleasing at first, deteriorate
rather than improve.

When the real wood is used, but little more is
necessary than to fill and varnish or polish, as it can-
not be much improved upon. Sometimes, however, it
may be deemed proper to darken it somewhat to take
away the reddish hue that newly wrought mahogany
presents, and this can best be don^ by darkening the
filler, to suit the taste, trying the mixture first on a
piece of the dressed stuff, until the desired shade is
obtained. Staining the varnish or polish with dragons'
blood or other suitable dyes, will also accomplish the
desired end.

Staining by the fumes of ammonia will probably
give the best results, as almost any tinge can be given
the work, from the newness of youth to the mellow-
ness of extreme age. This method is considered the
best for imparting to mahogany the appearance of age,
and for those wishing to avail themselves of an easy,
clean and certain means of gaining the result, fumi-
gating offers no serious obstacle to its accomplishment,
the articles necessary being easy of acquirement, and
at small expense.

£34 THE UP-TO-DATE

To darken mahogany, wash it with very weak lime
water, which allow to dry thoroughly. This gives a
rich red color, more closely matching old mahogany
than any other stain that can be used.

Antique mahogany may be obtained as follows:
Take one-third linseed oil, two-thirds turpentine; coat
woodwork and wipe off clean. When thoroughly
dry, coat with bichromate of potash; then fill with a
dark, rich filler; then shellac and give three coats of
varnish and rub with pumice-stone and water, then oil
and wipe off clean. If an extra good job is required,
give woodwork one heavy coat of polishing varnish
after being rubbed in water; then rub again in water
and polish. In finishing mahogany, some put on the
bichromate of potash without oiling, but they do not
get as good a color. All mahogany should be oiled
first, unless you want a very light color; then it should
have a thin coat of shellac first.

In repolishing and reviving old work, first clean off
all dust from the corners and rebates, then wipe all
the polished portions with warm water and soda, and
allow them to dry. Mahogany treated with spirit
varnish is seldom satisfactory, but it is one of the
best woods known for showing the fine effects of
French polishing. Couch legs and chair turnings are
generally bodied up with the brush, and finished with
the rubber. If the surface is in fair condition after
washing, no filling will be required; a rubber of good
French polish worked out dry with spirit, and after-
wards spirited out, or glazed, will give the desired
result, if properly done. The polish will require
staining with a little Bismarck brown or brown
aniline dye, to brighten up the color. It would be a
great advantage, and well worth the outlay, to put

HARDWOOD FINISHER 135

fresh gimp or leather banding round the borders; but
this should not be done until the show-wood portions
are repolished.

Walnut Finishing

"Walnut (Juglans Nigra). — As this wood is seldom or
never stained, it is unnecessary to say more about it
other than it may be treated like oak, cherry or birch.
It looks well filled and finished in shellac. Birch
stained and properly finished looks very much like
walnut, and with a little care in getting a proper tint in
the stain, can scarcely be known from the real thing.
"Filling," in walnut finishing, is one of the most
important processes; if the richness of the wood is
desired to be shown, as much depends on the "tint" as
on the filling material.

Ordinary whitewood can be given the appearance of
black walnut by first thoroughly drying tne wood and
then washing two or three times with a strong aqueous
solution of extract of walnut peel. When nearly dry,
the wood thus treated is washed over with a solution
made of one part (by weight) of bichromate of potash
in five parts of boiling water. After drying thoroughly,
rub and polish.

A number of recipes for making and applying stains
to imitate walnut are given elsewhere in this volume,
which see.

Regarding Cypress

Cypress {Cupressus sempervierens) . — The light, the
dark and the bald are good woods and are coming
more and more into favor every day.

This wood contains a very small amount of resin,
and a very high polish can be given it; in fact, because
of its not being affected by moisture, it is being used

136 THE UP-TO-DATE

for cisterns, hogsheads, and sugar, molasses and honey
barrels. The red cypress is the favorite, and some of
it is so heavy that it will sink upon being placed in
water. The white variety is much lighter, and will
float after being deadened a short while before being
cut, but it has not the firm grain of the red. The red
cypress has a straight trunk with a small top, and the
bark when cut has a reddish tint. These woods may
be treated like cherry or birch with good results.
They look well when left their natural color and
finished "dead finish."

Concerning the use of cypress for inside finish, it is
all right if properly dried, prepared and put in place,
but dry it must be, and there will be no trouble with
its staying in place or shrinking any more than any
other kind of wood. It may be remarked, however,
that cypress is an exceedingly hard wood to thoroughly
dry, but for a low-cost material there is nothing to
equal it in appearance. Get good, even-colored
cypress, finish it well and some people could not tell it
from red birch. If one cares to have it stained, it takes
first rate. In finishing up cypress, the painters' work
is the most difficult, for if the proper materials are not
put on the grain is very liable to rise, which will
spoil the good effect and will show even after being
rubbed down. It is susceptible of a very high polish,
and when finished in the natural color of the wood is
very handsome. It is used by architects as a basis for
the ivory white finish many people fancy, but in any
event the wood when used for interiors possesses too
much natural beauty to cover it with paint.

As cypress costs less than any other suitable wood
for exterior work, it is not only more durable, but it
will take paint better than other woods, and the paint

HARDWOOD FINISHER 137

will not peel off. We have seen buildings shingled
with cypress upon both roof and walls upon which no
stain or paint had been used. In time such buildings
take on the beautiful gray color which is so greatly
admired by many people, especially for a country or
suburban residence. The natural qualities of the wood
make it possible to use either shingles or clapboards in
this way without paint, and there is probably no other
wood upon which vines can be grown with so much
safety from injurious effects.

Cypress, viewed from the standpoint of the finisher,
is no less remarkable than when viewed from almost
every standpoint. There is no wood which can be
finished more economically, or which is more sus-
ceptible to the finer handiwork of the finisher and
polisher. If the work is properly done, the result will
be satisfactory in either case. It is true, notwithstand-
ing, that the fine natural appearance of cypress is often
greatly marred or even ruined by faulty methods of
treatment, and for that reason care should be exercised
in finishing it. The best results are obtained through
the use of pure grain alcohol white shellac, which
should be purchased of a thoroughly responsible
dealer. Better results can be obtained from this quality
of shellac than from the more expensive "refined
shellac," so called.

Cypress requires no filling or sealing, and, if it is
desired to permanently preserve the natural color of
the wood, no oil or oily substance should be applied
until the final rubbing down after the wood is well
protected with shellac. We recommend three or more
coats of shellac, as may be desired, each coat to be
smoothed down with fine sandpaper, while the final
coat may be rubbed down with pumice-stone and oil

138 THE UP-TO-DATE

to produce a dead finish, or what is sometimes termed
"Ggg shell" finish. The final coat may be left bright,
if preferred, or after rubbing down to a dead finish it
may be given a French polish, according to the usual
methods.

Cypress will take stains well, but we have never
favored the staining of the wood or the use of any
color whatever in the finish of it, for it is far too hand-
some to disguise in any way.

Rosewood

Rosewood {Dalbergia Nigra). — It seldom falls to the
lot of the ordinary finisher to have to "try his hand"
on the genuine wood, but sometimes it does happeii and
it is just as well that he should be armed with the means
to wrestle with the work if such is ever thrown in his
way. To finish rosewood requires about the same
treatment as mahogany, though, as a matter of fact,
many pieces of rosewood will be found to have a coarser
grain than mahogany, and will require much care in
filling. The main thing to be observed is to see that
the filling is a shade or two darker than the wood to be
filled, before any varnish is laid on. For imitation of
rosewood I give below a few recipes:

Take ^ lb. of logwood, boil it with 3 pints of water
till it is of a very dark red, to which add about half
an ounce of salt of tartar. When boiling hot, stain
your wood with two or three coats, taking care that
it is nearly dry between each; then, with a stiff, flat
brush, such as is used for graining, make streaks with
a very deep black stain, which if carefully executed
will be very near the appearance of dark rosewood.
The following is aiiother method: Stain your wood
all over with a black stain, and when dry, with a brush

HARDWOOD FINISHER 139

as above dipped in the bright liquid, form real veins in
imitation of the grain of rosewood, which will produce,
when well managed, a beautiful effect. A handy brush
for the purpose of graining may be made by taking a
flat brush, such as used for varnishing, and cutting the
sharp points of the hairs and making the edge irregular;
by cutting out a few hairs here and there the grain may
be imitated with great accuracy.

This is suitable to pine, cedar, cypress, whitewood,
basswood, while the following should only be used in
mahogany, cherry, or birch: Spread on the surface of
the material a concentrated solution of hypermanganate
of potassa, to act until the desired shade is obtained.
Five minutes suffice, ordinarily, to give a deep color,
a few trials indicating the proper proportions. The
hypermanganate of potassa is decomposed by the
vegetable fiber, with the precipitation of brown per-
oxide of manganese, while the influence of the potassa,
at the same time set free, fixes in a durable manner
the fibers. When the action is terminated the wood is
carefully washed with water, dried, and then oiled and
polished in the usual manner. The effect produced
by this process in several woods is really remarkable

It has been a mystery to many people why the dark
wood so highly prized for furniture is called "rose-
wood." Its color certainly does not look much like a
rose, so we must look for some other reason. It is
claimed by some that when the tree is first cut the
wood possesses a very strong rose-like fragrance, hence
the name. This is the most probable reason for its
name. There are about a half dozen kinds of rose-
wood trees. The varieties are found in South America,
and in the' East Indies and neighboring islands.
Sometimes the trees grow so large that boards or

140 THE UP-TO-DATE

planks four feet broad and ten feet in length can be
cut from them. The broad boards are used for the
tops of pianofortes. When growing in the forests
the t'-ee is remarkable for its beauty, but such is its
value in manufacturing as an ornamental wood, that
some of the forests where it once grew abundantly
now have scarcely a single specimen left.

To repolish old work, such as a rosewood piano or
similar articles, the following method maybe adopted:

As a rule, polished rosewood pianos are not easily
kept in good condition; constant cleaning and an
occasional polishing are required, especially in the
case of pianos that are faced with genuine rosewood
veneer, which has a coarse, open grain, and is of a
somewhat oily nature. Sometimes the grain-filler
that is used by the polishers will ooze out and cause
an uneven surface. Plaster of Paris sometimes forms
the basis of a filling, and this is apt to work out white,
and becomes more apparent as the dye that has been
used to enrich the color of the polish fades away
through exposure to strong sunlight. It must not be
forgotten that many so-called rosewood pianos are not
faced with genuine rosewood veneer; the more correct
term to apply to such pianos is "rosewood finish.'*
The method by which this finish is obtained depends
largely on the value of the instrument. In most cases
the object of the maker is to impart a uniform color
(frequently called chippendale) to the wood, and in
order to obtain this end much coloring matter is
used; such an excessive use of color has a tendency
to destroy or imperil the nature of the polish, and
accounts for much of the dullness, uneven surface, or
variations of color that are more noticeable on some
parts of the instrument than on other parts.

HARDWOOD FINISHER 141

Finishing Redwood

Redwood, as a wood to hold its place after worked,
has no equal. The shrinkage between green and
bone-dry is very little, and after it has been ordinarily
seasoned the shrinkage is very little. It does not keep
growing a little narrower every year, as a white pine
board sometimes does; consequently all tendency to
warping and twisting is done away with.

As a finishing wood for interior house finish in the
natural color it has no superior among the long list of
American woods. It is, however, quite necessary that
the work be properly done; the main point to be
observed in finishing in natural color is to avoid the
use of linseed oil, as it stains the wood a dingy color.
The best finishers on this coast invariably use shellac
for filler, applied rather thin, so that the wood will
absorb it and thereby make a hard surface, which
protects the wood from bruising, and for last coat use
the best grade of shellac or hard oil.

For an Egg-Shell Gloss. — One coat of orange shellac,
sandpapered to a smooth surface, followed by two or
three coats of Berry Brothers' (white or light) hard oil
finish; rub first coats with hair-cloth or curled hair,
and the last coat with pulverized pumice-stone and
raw linseed oil.

For a Dull Finish. — Specify that the last coat be
rubbed with pulverized pumice-stone and water, in-
stead of oil.

For a Polished Finish. — Specify that the last coat be
rubbed first with pulverized pumice-stone and water,
and then with pulverized rotten stone and water, and
iov di piano fi?iish s^QQiiy di further rubbing with Berry
Brothers' furniture polish, used with a little pulverized
rotten stone, applied with a piece of soft felt or flannel.

142 THE UP-TO-DATE

If a rubbed finish is not desired, omit the specifica-
tions for rubbing the last coat.

White Pine Finishing

Pine (Pinus Strobus). — If oak is the king of wood-,
pine is most assuredly "president," for it is at once
the most useful and the most democratic of woods. It
is found in the halls of the great and powerful, and in
the cottage of the most humble among us. It is
strong and vigorous, plain or ornamental, and is hot
out of place either in the backwoodsman's cabin or in
the stately cathedral, and like a true man of the world,
it adapts itself to every condition that circumstances
may place it in.

Pine can be made to look like any known wood, but
is at its best when left natural and finished in clear
shellac. There is no wood grows, that will convey so
cheerful a feeling to the beholder as yellow or white
pine finished in a natural state. Next to being finished
in a natural state, is to imitate mahogany or light
cherry, which coloring it takes readily.

'Where the pine — of any kind — is to be either stained
or left natural, it should be "quarter sawed," as it will
show a finer grain, shrink less, and last longer. The
softness of its texture and its susceptibility to injury
may have had some influence in preventing its general
use for ornamental purposes, but the wood can be
"filled," so that much of this objection is removed.

Most of the stains given under previous heads are
applicable to pine. I add, however, a few more, so
that the workmen may have a number of recipes to
draw from.

For Walnut.— I. Dissolve by boiling i part each of
Epsom salt and permanganate of potash in abou*- 2.5

Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 129

jng or in japan for the coach painter. Some are very
transparent, others only semi-transparent and such are
of value to the grainer or for glazing to the carriage
painter, artists and decorators.

b. Umber, raw and burnt, vary very much in their
composition. The best come from Asia Minor and are
sold as Turkey umber. The raw is of a greenish brown
and by burning is changed into a rich clear toned
brown which in good umbers will be free of redness —
they are semi-transparent. They are useful in all kinds
of painting and in all mediums.

c. Siennas, raw and burnt, like the umber vary
greatly, so much so as to be hardly recognizable as
being of the same nature — the poor, showing a muddy
brownish red tone in the burnt, while the good has a
rich subdued red which has a clear lakey transparency.
For this reason the siennas are invaluable to the grainer
and artists, who could not get along without it. It is
used in oil, japan and water color painting.

The raw owes its yellowish brown tone to its ferric
oxide which is hydrated and which looses by burning,
becoming red after that.

d. Vandyke brown is a natural bituminous color
found chiefly in bogs. It is known as Cassel earth,
from the town in Germany near which it is produced.
It is very transparent. It is useful as a glazing color in
carriage painting and as a graining color to the grainer.
It is not entirely permanent and for that reason, besides

130 Modern Painter's Cyclopedia

of its being a very poor dryer in linseed oil, it is not
as extensively used now as it was.

e, Asphaltum or mineral pitch, when well refined is
useful as a glaze, it being very transparent. As it is
liable to crack it is more useful in show card painting
or for the painting of iron gratings, heat registers and
such than for anything else.

/. Metallic broivns. Under that name a number
of raw and calcined dark iron oxide paints are
marketed, some becoming quite reddish by calcination,
some being of that tone naturally. They have an ex-
cellent body or opacity but that the tone of their
color is not very attractive nor the tints made from
them they would be used still more than they are.
For freight car painting, bridge work, barns and the
cheap outbuildings, roofs and all kinds of structural
iron work they are used in immense quantities.

Under the name ought to be included such old time
colors as Spanish brown, etc., which designation is still
used on the eastern seaboard while it has become ob-
solete in the middle west.

THE BLACKS.

84. a. The blacks play an important role in every
department of painting. It is used largely as a self
color in the painting of iron work, steam and other
ships and carriages, coaches, etc. While as a tinting
color with whites and as an adjunct to other colors to
darken them they are invaluable as tint producers.

Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 131

Most of the blacks are of carbonic composition pro-
duced in a natural state in black lead; derived from
fats as in lampblack or from the calcination of the
bones of animals as ivory black and again the product
of the calcination of woods as in Brunswick black.

b. Lampblack is produced by the incomplete com-
bustion of fatty substances. It is very strong in color-
ing matter, but only moderately black in tone. It pro-
duces clean toned grays with whites and is the best
black to use for the making of tints with any other
colors. It is used more than any of the other blacks
by sign and house painters and by the carriage trade
for priming coats. It has more opacity than any other
black excepting gas black.

c. Gas black or carbon black is also a black pro-
duced by the incomplete combustion of natural gas.
It is more intensely black than lampblack and used as
a self color it is a close rival to the bone blacks for
its jet black tone. As a tint producer it is very poor —
the tints being rusty with none of the clearness of lamp-
black. It is used to improve the tone of that pigment
in sign writer's black and since the grinders have dis-
covered a way of grinding it so that it will not liver
with linseed oil, it is highly prized for solid black paint-
ing of all kinds. It is also substituted for drop black
in the cheaper colors ground in japan as it will bear
adulterating lo to i and still be as strong as ivory
black.

d. Ivory, drop and coach blocks are all one and

132 Modern Painter's Cyclopedia

the same article under different labels it is true hut —
the same. They are bone blacks which vary greatly in
quality according as to the kind of bones, hard or
soft, used in calcination and also in the carefulness in
conducting of the process. All are useful in oil, japan or
water colors. It is used in all kinds of painting, but
the carriage trade consumes the most of it.

e, Brunszvick black is the charcoal produced by the
combustion of twigs of trees and vines of various
growths. It is very transparent and useful only in
water colors.

/. Black lead or plumbago is a natural carbon pro-
duced by nature and it is mined in many parts of the
world. As a pigment it is permanent and but for its
indifferent tone, would be used more extensively than
it is. It is chiefly used in oil for the painting of roofs,
iron structures and out door painting.

This ends the list of useful pigments.

QUESTIONS ON COLORS.

6i. What is said regarding colors in general?
62. In how many main classes can pigments be
divided?

63'. How are pigments grouped for convenience?

How many groups of colors?

What is said concerning their characters?

What is said of the whites generally?

Give their derivation?

What is said generally of white lead?

64.

a.

b.

65.

a.

b.

66.

a.

Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 133

b. What are its peculiarities?

c. What is the ''Dutch process" or corrosion?

d. What is the ''stack" system of corrosion?

e. What is the "cyHnder" system of corrosion?
/. Does one system make a better white lead

than the other?

67. What is "sublimed lead" ?

68. Are any of the other salts of lead that are
white useful as paints ?

69. a. What is said of zinc white and its pecu-

liarities?
b. How many processes are used for making zinc
white ?

c. Describe the French process?

d. Describe the American process?

e. Are French zinc whites made in France

only?

70. a. How are the earth whites divided ?

b. What are the pigments with a cretaceous

base?

c. What are the pigments with an aluminous

base?

d. What are the silicious whites ?

71. a. What is barytes?
b. What are its uses?

y2. What is said of the reds generally?
73. a. What is said of red oxide of iron?

b. What is said of Venetian red, Pompeian
red, Turkish red, etc. ?

134 Modern Painter's Cyclopedia

c. What Is said regarding the Indian reds?

d. What are Tuscan reds?

74. What is red lead and what are its uses ?

75. a. What is orange mineral and what are its

uses?

b. What is American vermillion?
y6. a. What is English or quicksilver vermillion ?

b. Where is it mostly used?
yy. a. What are imitation or Vermillion reds ?

b. What are their uses ?

78. What are lakes and what are their uses?

79. a. What is said regarding the ochres ?

b. What are chrome yellows ?

c. What are their uses ?

80. What other yellows are they ?

81. a. What is said of the blues in general?

b. What is Prussian blue and what are its

uses ?

c. What are ultramarine blues and what are

their uses?

d. How is cobalt blue made ?

e. What is ceruleum and how is it imitated ?
/. What is said of indigo blue ?

82. a. What is said of greens in general?

b. What are chrome greens ?

c. What about cobalt or zinc greens ?

d. What is said of viridian?

e. What of Paris or Emerald green?

8^. a. What is said generally of the browns?

Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 135

b. What about raw and burnt umbers ?

c. What about raw and burnt sienna ?

d. What is Vandyke brown?

84. a. What is said of the blacks generally ?

b. What is lampblack and what are its uses?

c. Where does gas black differ from lamp-

black?

d. What is Brunswick black?

e. What is black lead or plumbago?

COLOR HARMONY.

85. Exterior and even more so interior painting no
matter how well it may have been done nor how well
planned, the decorations will have that undefinable
''gingerbread" look to it as the painters would call it,
if the coloring lacks in harmony, and even if well done
and harmonious, if the draperies, furniture and car-
pets are not in harmony with the painting, that will
suffer in consequence of the latter inharmonious
neighborhood.

It is said that poets are born but not made; this to
a certain extent can be said of a good colorist. It is a
lamentable fact that 10% of men are at least partially
color blind and incapable of judging the eft'ects of true
harmony. Some are totally color blind and can only
recognize shades of black and white — the latter case
is much more rare but railroad companies are forced
to reject a* large per cent of applicants for positions
where the quick recognition of certain colors is a "sine
qua non."

136 Modern Painter's Cyclopedia

But while poets are not made, persons who so de-
sire, may educate themselves into certainly not becom-
ing good colorists but into a knowledge of the laws
governing coloring and when they understand them
fairly well they will be able to design color schemes
which will not be an outrage upon the vision of persons
of taste who are naturally able to recognize harmonious
coloring.

86. The subject of color harmony is too deep a
topic to elucidate in even a desultory manner in the
small space which can be devoted to it in a manual
which is to treat of the whole subject-matter of paint
and painting. All that can be done is to point the
reader the way to a deeper study of harmony in books
devoted to the subject of which many have appeared
recently.

To understand how to harmonize colors one must
first of all become acquainted with a knowledge of
what colors are. These are the result of decomposition
of light which is white and which is the result of the
perfect union of all colors. The rainbow with its beau-
tiful coloring does on a large scale what a glass prism
breaking the sun's rays does on a smaller scale; it
decomposes the rays into the various colors of the
spectrum.

This decomposition of light shows in reality to the
naked eye but three groups of three colors' each, the
last three but faintly, however, while the first three
alone cannot be divided and therefore are called the
primary colors; they are : Red, yellow and blue.

Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 137

8y. Secondary colors, also three in number, are
formed by the mixture of any two of the primaries,
thus: Red and yellow gives orange, red and blue
gives purple and yellow and blue gives green. So
orange, purple and green are the secondary colors.

88. A third trio of colors is produced by the mix-
ture of any two of the secondaries thus: Orange and
green gives citrine; green and purple gives olive and
orange and purple gives russet. So citrine, olive
and russet constitute the three tertiary colors.

89. The further combination of the tertiaries pro-
duce an infinity of neutral grays with an addition of
white or black.

It must be born in mind that to produce a perfect
harmony that the primaries or their equivalents in
secondary or tertiary colors ought to be present to pro-
duce a perfect harmony in about the same proportion
as they exist in the spectrum and in which they unite
to produce perfect light or white.

90. But other harmonies can be produced by graded
shades of the same color. Such an harmony is always
pleasing to the eye and are always in good taste, so
that a person can hardly err in giving satisfactory re-
sults if he treats his decorative scheme in this way.
This is called harmony by analogy.

91. Harmony by contrast is much more difficult to
master, as it is not only the coloring used in the decora-
tion that must be taken into consideration but that of
the furniture and draperies. Besides there are a great

138 Modern Painter's Cyclopedia

many things which must be well understood which en-
hance or detract from the effects to be had from the
use of any color.

A good general rule to follow, is: that the comple-
mentary colors (as are called the contrasting opposites)
should be used in about the same proportion as the
three primary colors themselves stand in the forma-
tion of pure white. The primary colors stand in the
proportion of three parts red, five parts yellow and
eight parts blue in the make up of white light; then
if the leading color used in the decoration is blue, it
follows that red and yellow or the product of their
combination, orange is the complementary color of blue
and either that or the color value of these in others
either secondary or tertiaries must be used in about
the proportion needed of the primaries in making them
would have stood to make white light. If yellow is the
main color ground, blue and red or their tertiary equiv-
alents or secondary, which is purple, must be the comple-
mentary color to use. If the main color be red then
green, which is the result of the union of blue and
yellow, is the contrasting color of red.

It does not follow however that a pleasing contrast
will follow even by a proper use of opposites, unless
these are of the right tones and shades and as these de-
pend upon a number of qualifying circumstances which
will have great influence in the making of a perfect
blend, the laws of color relation to each other and of
the effect of neutrals and of black and white must be
well understood.

Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 139

92. The secondary and tertiary colors are simply
combinations of the primaries and their source must
be carefully noted, so that the equivalent of the oppo-
sites may be furnished as they are necessary to form
a good harmony by contrast.

93. The rules given are general and must be very
incomplete even then as so much must be taken in con-
sideration as influencing the results in the use of color
that the reader must be referred to some good treatise
on color harmony treating the subject-matter fully.
Then only can one understand why it is that after
having chosen proper complementary colors, that the
contrast seems dull or out of harmony. The knowledge
of the effect neutral tones have in heightening or de-
pressing colors or why certain tones should be used
instead of others of the same color will then be un-
derstood and even a partially color blind decorator will
not commit any unpardonable sins — in harmonizing
colors.

QUESTIONS ON COLOR HARMONY.

85. What is said of color harm.ony?

86. What are the primary colors?

87. What are the secondary colors ?

88. What are the tertiary colors ?

89. What are further combinations called?

90. What is harmony by analogy?

91. What is harmony by contrast?

140. Modern Painter's Cyclopedia

92. What is the harmony of contrast of the second-
ary and tertiaries?

93. What is further said regarding harmony?

COLOR MIXING.

94. The mixing of tints requires some care and
attention but is not as difficult to understand as many
suppose it to be. If the rules given below are strictly
followed, even a novice will come very near to the
matching of sample tints — at least of such as are mostly
used and with the tones of which he is familiar.

There is a wide difference between mixing tints in
oil or in water colors. ,In the former a person can
see for himself just what the mixture is all through
the stages of the mixing but in water colors the tints
show so much darker than they will be when dry ^-hat
somewhat different rules must be adopted to mix
the two.

RULES FOR MIXING COLORS IN OIL.

95. a. The base color is always the most impor-
tant one. It may be any color and here is where some
good judgment is at times required to determine what
that is, when one has to choose it for himself in trying
to match certain samples. Usually it is a white if the
tint is at all light in tone. If it be a dark one, the
mixer should be sufficiently well acquainted with colors
to judge at a glance which must be used as having
the prevailing importance in the make up of the tint
and that is the base.

Modern Painter's 'Cyclopedia 141

b. This base should be well broken up in linseed
oil but not nearly as thin as it should be for application
with a brush. If it be white lead, the most usual base
for all light tints, it is better to have it well broken up
the day before as then all small lumps will be dis-
solved and when it has been well stirred up, it will be
uniform throughout — a very important requisite.

c. The tinting pigments or colors which it will be
necessary to add to the base for producing the tint
should be pretty well thinned with linseed oil and tur-
pentine half and half. It is of great importance that
no lumps or specks remain undissolved in these and
they should be thinned somewhat more than stated for
that of the lead base. If necessary they should be
strained through a fine meshed paint strainer.

d. The pigment entering in the largest quantity in
the make up of a tint aside of the base should now be
mixed with it — not by pouring it in all at once and
thus overshooting the mark, but very gradually and
should be well stirred up to insure uniform incorpora-
tion. It should not be added to the full extent needed
for the tint, but just short of it. Proceed next to add
in the other colors needed in the same manner as stated
above. When all the pigments required have been well
stirred up, if the mark has not been overshot, the re-
sulting tint will be very near to the color wanted and
by a further addition of this or that one, the tint will
be brought up to just where it is wanted. If too much
coloring pigment has been put in however it is easy to

142 Modern Painter's Cyclopedia

understand that it cannot be taken out. Then the
only remedy is to add more base to counteract the too
great quantity of color used and also of the rest of the
tinting colors and this usually means loss of material
where too much has been mixed.

e. A list of principal tints is given further on.
Many are so very closely related that but some who
desire to make them, might be misled, they might as
well have been left out. Another word — what one man
understands as an apple green may be very different
from what another's idea of what an apple green ought
to be and so on all through the list. For this and other
reasons the quantity of each is not given. The other
reasons are that some colors of the same name bought
of various manufacturers may be twice, thrice and
even four or ten times stronger in coloring than others
and a tint would be utterly ruined if quantities were
given. The colors are named according to the im-
portance they occupy in making the tints. The more
important being named after the base and the least —
last.

96. Tints in water colors require about the same
coloring pigments to produce any given tint as in oil
and the same advice about not overdoing the addition
of the pigments to the base is even more needed. The
base for tints is usually whiting or some other earth
white which has been properly thinned with glue water.
But after colors also thinned with glue water have been
added, as the tint appears much darker than it really

Modern Painter^s Cyclopedia 14:i

is, it will be necessary to ''try" it. Dip a small piece
of paper in it and place it in the sun or upon a stove
and dry it. As soon as dry the true tone of the color
will show up and any colors lacking can be added —
gradually, well stirred up and tried by heat again,
being always careful to have it just a trifle under than
above the mark. This trying is tedious, it is true,
but much less so than having to throw away the whole
batch and commence the mixing all over again — and
less expensive too.

LIST OF TINTS.

97. Acacia. Lampblack for base, colored with
Indian red and tinged with Prussian blue.

Acorn brown. See Chocolate as it is nearly the
same but lightened up with white lead.

Alderney brown. Lampblack, orange chrome yel-
low, French ochre, white lead.

Alabaster. White lead for base, add enough me-
dium chrome yellow to very slightly tinge it.

Amaranth. Tuscan red and vermillion for base, add
enough ultramarine blue to shade wanted.

Anemone. Vermillion red for base, add Prussian
blue to suit shade wanted and a trifle of black and white
lead or zinc which is better.

Antique bronze. Orange chrome yellow for base,
add ivory black. Lampblack can be used but shade
will not be so bright.

Antwerp blue. Ultramarine blue for base, add

144 Modern Painter's Cyclopedia

chrome green to shade wanted, Hghten up with zinc
white.

Apple green. White lead for base, add light chrome
green and orange chrome yellow.

Apricot. Medium chrome yellow for base; Vene-
tian red and carmine lake. If a light shade is wanted
lighten it up with zinc white.

Armenian red. Bright Venetian red for base, light-
ened up with French ochre.

Asiatic bronze. Raw umber for base; medium
chrome yellow to which add sufficient white lead for
shade wanted.

Ash gray. White lead for base; tinge with lamp-
black ; add a bit of French ochre.

Autumn leaf. White lead for base; to which add
French ochre, orange chrome yellow, a trifle Venetian
red to tinge it to tone of red desired.

Azure blue. White lead for base, but zinc white is
better; add Prussian blue to shade of it desired.

Bay. Lampblack for base; add Venetian red and
orange chrome yellow.

Begonia. Vermillion red of a good scarlet shade for
base ; tinge with Prussian blue and lampblack.

Bismark brown. Burnt sienna for base; add burnt
umber and orange chrome yellow ; lighten slightly with
white lead to suit.

Black slate. Lampblack for base; Prussian blue;
slightly lighten it up with white lead.

Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 145

Bordeaux blue. Lampblack for base ; Prussian blue,
orange chrome yellow.

Bottle green. Lampblack and Prussian blue for base ;
lemon chrome yellow; to obtain this color at its best
glaze it over with a yellow lake.

Brass. White lead for base; add medium chrome
yellow and French ochre to shade of it wanted.

Bronze hhie. Lampblack for base ; tinge with Prus-
sian blue and slightly lighten with white lead.

Bronze green. Extra dark chrome green for l^ase ;
add lampblack. For a richer tone of it : medium chrome
gieen for base, add ivory black and a trifle of raw
umber.

Bronze red. Vermillion red for base; add orange
chrome yellow and a trifle of lampblack.

Bronze yellozv. Medium chrome yellow for base;
raw umber, lighten up to suit with white lead.

Brick color. Yellow ochre for base; add Venetian
red to suit ; for very light shades add white lead in very
small quantity.

Brown stone. Tuscan red for base; add orange
chrome yellow; lighten up to suit with white lead.
Some shades of it require a bit of ivory black.

Brozvns and Brown drabs — all shades. Venetian red
for base; add French ochre and lampblack in various
proportion according to shades of brown wanted. For
the brown drabs add white lead to reduce the above
brown tints.

146 Modem Painter's Cyclopedia

Buttercup. White lead for base ; add lemon chrome
yellow to suit shade wanted.

Cafe au lait. Burnt umber for base ; add white lead,
French ochre and Venetian red.

Cambridge red. Vermillion for base ; add Prussian
blue to suit.

Canary. Use chrome yellow of that name or lemon
yellow for base, lightened up with zinc white.

Carnation. English vermillion for base; add good
madder lake or carmine. If wanted very light, add
zinc white.

Celestial blue. Prussian blue for base ; chrome green
and zinc white.

Cerulean blue. Zinc white for base ; add ultramarine
blue of good tone to suit.

Chamois. White lead for base; add French ochre,
medium chrome yellow to suit, redden it with a little
burnt sienna.

Chamoline. White lead for base; add raw sienna,
lemon chrome yellow to suit.

Chartreuse. Medium chrome yellow for base; add
some medium chrome green.

Chestnut. Venetian red for base; add medium
chrome yellow, French ochre and lampblack to suit.

Chocolate. Burnt umber for base ; add rich crimson
vermillion red or lake. Another which is cheaper but
not so rich: French ochre for base; add lampblack
a'^ Venetian red to suit.

Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 147

Cinnamon. White lead for base; add burnt sienna,'
French ochre, medium chrome yellow.

Crimson. Deep English vermillion or any of the
crimson shades of vermillion reds. If desired very rich,
add some of the crimson lakes or glaze with them.

Claret. Madder lake and ultramarine blue for base,
to which add English vermillion and ivory black.

Clay bank. French ochre for base ; add orange chrome
yellow, lighten up with white lead to shade desired.

Clay drab. White lead for base; medium chrome
yellow, raw and burnt umber.

Cobalt blue. This is a solid blue. Good ultrama-
rine blue ; lighten up to suit with zinc white.

Cocoanut brozvn. Burnt umber for base; lightened
up with white lead.

Colonial yellow. White lead for base ; add medium
chrome yellow, tinge with a trifle of orange chrome
yellow.

Copper. Medium chrome yellow ; tinged with burnt
sienna.

Coral pink. Vermillion for base ; white lead, medium
chrome yellow.

Co trine. White lead for base; add orange chrome
yellow and lampblack.

Cream color and all the buffs. White lead for base ;
add some good French or Oxford ochre to make the
shade of them wanted. More or less of the ochre added
to the base will make an affinity of shades of that
order.

148 Modern Painter's Cyclopedia

Dove color. White lead for base; add ultramarine
blue, Indian red and lampblack.

Dregs of wine. Dark Tuscan red for base ; add white
lead and a trifle of zinc white.

Ecru. White lead for base ; add French ochre, burnt
sienna, lampblack. The tint has a wide range of tones.

Electric blue. Ultramarine blue for base ; add white
lead and raw sienna.

Emerald. Paris green as it is, or better an imita-
tion of it, in very light chrome green.

Egyptian green. White lead for base ; add raw um-
ber, lemon chrome yellow, Prussian blue to suit.

Fawn. White lead for base; add medium chrome
yellow, Venetian red, burnt umber.

Flesh color. White lead for base; add medium
chrome yellow, French ochre and Venetian red.

Fog blue. Burnt sienna for base ; add Prussian blue,
then lighten up with white lead to suit.

French blue. Ultramarine blue for base ; lighten up
with zinc white to shade wanted and tinge it slightly
with light chrome green.

French gray. White lead for base; add ivory black
with a faint tinge of ultramarine blue and madder lake
or carmine.

French red. Indian red for base; add English pale
Vermillion to brighten it, then glaze with madder red or
carmine.

Gazelle. French ochre for base; add Tuscan red,

Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 149

Venetian red, lampblack, lighten up to suit with white
lead.

Geranium. Vermillion red for base ; add Indian red
and a trifle of ivory black.

Gobelin blue. Ivory black for base ; add white lead,
Prussian blue and a trifle of medium chrome green.

Gold. White lead for base ; add medium chrome yel-
low, some good bright French ochre and a very little
English Vermillion or vermillion red of good tone.

Golden brown. French ochre for base; add orange
chrome yellow, lampblack . Lighten up with white lead
to suit.

Grass green. Extra light chrome green just as it
comes from the can or lighten up the light chrome green
with canary chrome yellow.

Gray green. White lead for base; add ultramarine
blue, lemon chrome yellow, lampblack.

Granite blue. White lead for base ; lampblack, Prus-
sian blue.

Green stone. White lead for base; add medium
chrome green, raw umber, and French ochre.

Gray stone. White lead for base; add lampblack,
Prussian blue, Venetian red.

Gray drabs — all shades of them. White lead for
base ; add lamp or drop black with a little burnt umber
in various proportions according to the depth and shade
of drab wanted.

Grays, all shades. White lead for base ; lampblack in
various proportions to suit shade wanted.

150 Modern Painter's Cyclopedia

Hay color. White lead for base ; add orange chrome
yellow, light chrome green, Indian red.

Heliotrope. Zinc white for base; add bright Ven-
etian red and ultramarine blue.

Indian pink. White lead for base; add Indian red.

Indian brown. Indian red for base; add lampblack,
French ochre.

Iron gray. Lampblack for base ; add white lead and
a trifle of orange chrome yellow.

Ivy green. French ochre for base; add lampblack,
Prussian blue.

Jasper. Lampblack for base; add medium chrome
yellow, light Indian red.

Jonquil. White lead for base; add medium chrome
yellow to which should be added a tinge of red with
English pale vermillion.

Lavender. White lead for base; add ivory black,
ultramarine blue, tinge with carmine or madder lake.

Leaf buds. White lead for base ; add orange chrome
yellow, light chrome green.

Lead color. See Grays,

'Leather, French ochre for base ; add burnt umber.
If a warm tone is wanted add Venetian red.

Lemon. Use the chrome yellow of that name.

Lilac. White lead for base ; add dark Indian red to
suit.

London smoke. Yellow ochre for base; add ultra-
marine blue, lampblack, lighten up to suit with white
lead.

Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 151

Magenta. Vermillion for base; add carmine or
madder lake with a tinge of ultramarine blue.

Manila or deck paint. White lead for base; add
French ochre, medium chrome yellow.

Marigold. Medium chrome yellow for base; add
white lead, orange chrome yellow.

Maroon. Carmine or madder lake for base; add
ivory black and a bit of orange chrome yellow. A
cheaper way : Tuscan red for base ; add orange chrome
yellow and some ivory black.

Mastic. White lead base; add French ochre, Ven-
etian red and a trifle of lampblack.

Mexican red. Bright Venetian red for base; add
red lead. .

Mignonette. Medium chrome green for base; add
Prussian blue, medium chrome yellow, lampblack.

Mascot. Lampblack for base ; add Prussian blue to
suit.

Mauve. Ultramarine blue for base ; add zinc white,
tint with madder lake.

Methyl blue. Ultramarine for base; add medium
chrome green and a tinge of red.

Moorish red. Vermillion red for base; add madder
lake.

Mouse color. White lead for base; add lampblack,
a tinge of Venetian red and burnt umber.

Moss rose. Lemon chrome yellow for base; add
medium chrome green; lighten up with white lead to
suit.

152 Modern Painter's Cyclopedia

Mountain blue. White lead for base; add madder
lake, ultramarine blue.

Navy blue. Ultramarine blue for base; add ivory
black.

Neutral blue. Prussian blue for base ; add raw um-
ber and lighten up with white lead to suit.
- Nile blue. White lead for base; add Prussian blue
with a trifle of medium chrome green.

Normandy bliie. Medium chrome green; ultrama-
rine blue, a trifle of white lead.

Nut brown. Lampblack for base ; add Venetian red,
medium chrome yellow, French ochre.

Oak color. Light and dark shades of it. White lead
for base; add French ochre and a small quantity of
Venetian red; vary quantities to suit light or dark
shades.

Old gold. White lead for base ; add medium chrome
yellow, French ochre and a little burnt umber.

Olive. Lemon chrome yellow for base; add about
equal parts of Prussian blue and lampblack. Some
shades of olive can be made by substituting French
ochre for lemon chrome yellow, when, of course, the
tone will not be so bright. A trifle of lemon chrome
added to the ochre will improve it and still make an-
other variety of it.

Olive brown. Raw umber for base; add lemon
chrome yellow. Vary the quantity to suit depth of tone
wanted.

Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 153

Opal gray. White lead for base ; add burnt sienna,
ultramarine blue.

Oriental hliie. White lead for base; add Prussian
blue, lemon chrome yellow.

Oriental green. Raw umber for base; add lemon
chrome yellow to suit.

Orange. Orange chrome yellow as it comes from
the can.

Orange brown. Orange chrome yellow for base ; add
raw sienna, a trifle of burnt umber.

Peach blossom. White lead for base; add pale
Indian red to suit. A tinge of madder lake will enrich
it.

Pearl. White lead for base ; add ivory black and a
trifle of ultramarine blue and carmine lake. This is
a very light shade just off the white. It must not be
overdone.

Pea green. White lead for base; add medium
chrome green to suit.

Peacock blue. Ultramarine blue for base ; add extra
light chrome green and zinc white to suit.

Persian orange. Orange chrome yellow for base;
add French ochre, white lead.

Pistache. Ivory black for base; add French ochre,
medium chrome green.

Pink. Zinc white for base ; add madder lake or car-
mine or the crimson shades of vermillion.

Pompeian red. Vermillion red base; add orange
chrome yellow, a bit of ivory black.

154 Modern Painter's Cyclopedia

Pompeian blue. White lead tfese; add ultramarine
blue, Vermillion red, French ochre.

Plum color. White leiad for base; add Indian red,
ultramarine blue.

Portland stone. French ochre for base; add raw
umber ; lighten up to suit with white lead.

Primrose. White lead for base ; add lemon or med-
ium yellow chrome, according to the shade wanted.

Purple. White lead for base; add dark Indian red
and a trifle of light Indian red to suit.

Purple brown. Dark Indian red for base ; add ultra-
marine blue, a trifle of lampblack and white lead to
lighten up to suit.

Quaker green. White lead for base; add French
ochre, lampblack and burnt sienna.

Roan. Lampblack for base ; add Venetian red, Prus-
sian blue ; lighten it up to suit with white lead.

Robin's egg blue. White lead for base ; add ultrama-
rine until the shade is a deep blue, then add some pale
chrome green to suit tone desired of it.

Russet. White lead for base; add orange chrome
yellojkV, a trifle of lampblack and Prussian blue.

Russian gray. White lead for base; add ultrama-
rine blue, pale Indian red and lampblack.

Sage green. White lead for base; add medium
chrome green until the tint is nearly but not quite a pea
green, then add lampblack to tinge it the sage tint.

Salmon. White lead for base; add French ochre,

Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 155

burnt sienna, with a trifle of English vermiUion or a
♦ good vermiUion red.

Sapphire blue. Zinc white for base ; add ultramarine
blue.

Sap green. White lead for base ; add medium chrome
yellow, lampblack.

Sea green. White lead base ; add Prussian blue, raw
sienna.

Seal brown. Burnt umber for base ; add good French
ochre and a trifle of white lead.

Scarlet. Pale English vermiUion or any of the scar-
let toned vermiUion reds.

Shrimp pink. White lead base; add Venetian red,
burnt sienna and a trifle of vermiUion.

Sky blue. White lead for base ; add Prussian blue to
suit.

Slate. White lead for base; add raw umber, ultra-
marine blue, lampblack.

Spruce yellozi'. French ochre for base; add Ven-
etian red ; lighten up with white lead to suit.

Snuff color. French ochre for base ; add burnt um-
ber and a bit of Venetian red.

Straw color. Medium chrome yellow for base ; add
French ochre; a bit of Venetian red; lighten up with
white lead.

Stone color and yellow drabs. White lead for base ;
add French ochre ; tinge up with medium chrome yellow
and burnt umber. By varying quantities all shades of
yellow^ drab can be made.

156 Modern Painter's Cyclopedia

Tan. White lead for base; add burnt sienna and a
trifle of lampblack.

Tally-Ho. White lead for base; add French ochre,
Venetian red, dark chrome green with a bit of ivory
black.

Terra-cotta, French ochre for base; add Venetian
red and white lead. Some shades of it require the
addition of Indian red. If some rich shades are wanted
use orange chrome yellow in place of French ochre;
add Venetian red and a trifle of burnt umber to suit.

Turquoise blue. White lead for base, or better zinc
white and cobalt blue; Paris green or pale chrome
green.

Vienna brown. Burnt umber for base; add Ven-
etian red, French ochre, and lighten with white lead to
suit.

Violet. White lead for base ; add pale Indian red, a
trifle of dark Indian red.

Willow green. White lead for base; add sufficient
medium chrome yellow to make a pretty deep shade;
then add a small quantity of raw umber and ivory black.

Wine color, English vermillion or scarlet toned
Vermillion red for base; add madder lake or carmine,
ultramarine blue, lampblack.

Another way : Dark Tuscan red of good quality to
which add a trifle of ivory black.

Water green. White lead for base ; add raw sienna,
dark chrome green.

Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 157

Yellow bronze. Lemon or medium chrome yellow
for base ; add French ochre and a trifle of burnt umber.

QUESTIONS ON COLOR MIXING.

94. What is said about color mixing in general ?

95. a. What is a base for a tint ?

h. How must the base be prepared?

c. How are the tinting colors prepared ?

d. How must one proceed to mix the tinting

colors with the base ?

e. What advice is given in this section?

96. How are tints in water colors made ?

97. Pupils should familiarize themselves with the
tints given and refer to them when they want to know
how to make them.

COLOR TESTING.

98. Under the heading of ''Colors," paragraph yih,
the reader will have noticed probably what has been
said concerning the chief role played by barytes in the
paint world. He may have noticed also what is said in
paragraphs 5 to 7 inclusive, under the heading of
"Adulterations in relation to the scale test as indicating
the relative strength of coloring matter contained in
pigments." As a fairly full explanation of the test is
there given, it may be well to read that portion over
again as it is not necessary to repeat it here, and it
plays a very important part in testing the value of
many pigments.

158 Modern Painter's Cyclopedia

There is no better test for nearly all manufactured
colors having a recognized chemical formula and be-
sides it nearly always indicates (indirectly) the quality
of tone in the tints made while making the test; but
after all this test does not show everything connected
with the testing of colors nor is it applicable to a large
number of valuable pigments, therefore the subject mat-
ter of this heading will be considered from the several
points which have a bearing upon enhancing or depreci-
ating the value of pigments.

The following are points which are recognized uni-
versally as having something to do in determining
values; some for one class of pigments, others for an-
other class and some are applicable to all :

1. Purity of material.

2. Purity of tone, brilliancy, richness.

3. Fineness of grinding and preparation.

4. Spreading capacity.

5. Its body; applying only to opaque or semi-
opaque pigments.

6. Its staining power or tinting strength with white
lead.

7. The quality of purity of their tones with whites.

8. If a paste color the consistency of the paste.

PURITY OF PIGMENTS.

99. All chemically prepared pigments which have a
well known formula which is recognized among color
men as such, have that for a standard of purity. White

Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 159

lead, zinc white, Prussian blue, the chrome yellows,
greens, etc., belong to this class. The word pure here
means only this : that they contain no adulteration, but
it does not take into consideration, the quality of tone,
fineness of grinding, brilliancy, etc., each of which is
an important factor in determining the relative value of
pigments. The scale test is very valuable in determin-
ing the strength of this class of pigments and usually
this is the most important point in the judging of val-
ues. A color may be very pure and still be very poor,
but the above statement applies with more force to the
earth or natural pigments than to those that are chem-
ically prepared. Yet it is sometimes necessary to have
recourse to all the points named in the preceeding para-
graph to fully determine the true value of a pigment.

PURITY OF TONE OF PIGMENTS.

lOO. This test is applicable to all classes of pig-
ments and the chemically prepared colors should have
it applied as well as the others for a Prussian blue or a
chrome yellow may have such a poor tone as to be val-
ueless and still be chemically pure and for the natural
or earth pigments this test is of the greatest importance
and leads all others. In paragraphs 3 to 8, good advice
is given in relation to chosing some good standard col-
ors to judge others by. The reader will do well to
keep a supply of all such as he is likely to need in testing
other colors- by and comparing their tones. Brilliancy
is as desirable as purity of tone and usually the two are

160 Modern Painter's Cyclopedia

inseparable for it is inconceivable of a pigment of a
good pure tone that it has not brilliancy also, so that
there is no need of a separate test for it. Richness is
also an inherent quality belonging to purity of tone and
it must be inferred as it cannot be separated from it.

FINENESS OF GRINDING.

There are several methods of determining the fine-
ness of grinding of pigments. The fineness of grinding
of any color but those of crystallic formation is very
important as it gives them more spreading power,
makes them more absorbent of linseed oil, which in out-
side painting means more durability and as finely
ground pigments can be spread more smoothly, it also
means additional beauty. For the earth colors such as
the siennas, the umbers, Vandyke brown, etc., especially
if used in their self tones, as they are in graining or in
glazing — fineness of grinding is of much importance
as it will prevent speckiness, a fault for w^hich the repu-
tation of a carriage painter or grainer using them may
suffer much on account of the poor quality of work
turned out with such. The following methods may be
used in judging the fineness of grinding:

The simplest and easiest of all is to place a little bit
of the pigment upon a piece of clean glass and to re-
duce it with oil until very thin, then to spread it out
upon the glass very thinly, then looking through the
glass holding it so the light will go through it, it will
show any speck or imperfect grinding. Another way

HARDWOOD FINISHER 175

poses a film over the varnish, itself being free from
tackiness and readily removed by water, will answer
the purpose.

Oil Gilding. — Applying the gold. — If the wood to be
gilded is finished with varnish or otherwise, no
additional foundation is necessary upon which to lay
the gold leaf; if the wood is not finished, after it has
been smoothed and dusted, give it one or two coats
of parchment size, after it is perfectly dry and hard,
again smoothing the surface with fine sandpaper.
That the gold may not adhere to any part of the work
except where the size is hard, powder the surface
lightly with whiting from a pounce bag, which is a
small bag made of material sufficiently loose to permit
the powdered whiting to sift through as fine dust; if
preferred, any of the preceding recipes for that
purpose can be used instead. Remove the surplus
whiting with the dusting brush, and the work is then
ready for the size. Apply this with a sable or fit brush
of the proper size, carefully observing to make the
outer lines of the design clear and sharp, that the
work may not appear ragged. Let the size remain
until it feels tacky, when the gold may be applied.
This is the most difficult part of the operation, and
experience is necessary before gold leaf can be laid
smoothly without a wrinkle or a break. Turn a leaf
of gold out of the book upon the cushion; breathe
gently upon the center of the leaf and it will lie flat
on the cushion; cut it to the proper size by bringing
the knife perpendicularly over it, and sawing it gently
until divided. Take your tip (a brush used for the
purpose) and after drawing it lightly over your hair
to remove any particles or dust that may be upon it,
breathe upon it gently, which will dampen it

176 THE UP-TO-DATE

sufficiently to cause the leaf of gold to adhere to it;
lay the tip upon the leaf of gold and carefully
transfer it to the work; blow upon it gently and it will
straighten out and adhere. It may be rendered quite
smooth by slightly dabbing it with a bit of cotton.
In about an hour wash off the superfluous gold from
the edges, with a sponge and water. If the article is
to be exposed to the weather or much wear, the
gilding may be varnished with copal varnish.

Burnish. Gilding. — As previously stated, this process
requires a specially prepared foundation upon which
to lay the gold, and as the preparation of this
foundation is a distinct trade, the furniture dealer or
cabinetmaker seldom finds it necessary to undertake
it, the articles coming to his hand ready-prepared for
gilding; but as in repairing picture frames, cornices,
mirror frames, etc., it frequently becomes necessary
to renew the foundation, a comprehensive description
of the whole process is given.

Preparing the Woodwork. — After smoothing and
dusting the work, coat the frames in every part with
boiling-hot parchment size, as previously described,
then mix a sufficient quantity of whiting with size to
the consistency of thick cream, and with it by means
of a brush, coat every part of the frame several times,
permitting each coat to become perfectly dry before
proceeding with the next. The wood will thus be
covered with a layer of hard whiting nearly or quite a
sixteenth of an inch in thickness. The size must not
be too thick, and when mixed with the whiting should
not be so hot as the preliminary coat of size.

Polishing. — When the preparations are quite dry,
clean and polish them. To do this, wet a small piece
at a time, and, with a smooth, fine piece of cloth,

HARDWOOD FINISHER 17;

dipped in water, rub the part till all the bumps and
inequalities are removed; and for those parts where
the fingers will not enter, as the mouldings, etc., wind
the wet cloth round a piece of wood, and by this
means make the surface all smooth and even alike.

Where there is carved work, etc., it will sometimes
be necessary to bring the mouldings to their original
sharpness by means of chisels, gouges, etc., as the
preparation will be apt to fill up all the finer parts oi
the work, which must be thus restored. It is some-
times the practice, after polishing, to go over the
work once with fine yellow or Roman ocher; but this
is rarely necessary.

Applying the Size. — Select the proper gold size from
the recipes previously given; add parchment size until
it will just flow from the brush; make it quite hot,
and apply it to the wood with a very soft brush,
taking care not to make the first -coat too thick; let
it dry and give two or three successive coats, after the
last brushing it with a stiff brush to remove any
inequalities. The work is then ready for the gold.

Laying the Gold. — The manipulation of the gold leaf
has been described under the heading Oil Gilding. In
the paint now being described, size used (being water
size, which, as previously explained, is permitted to
become hard and dry after being applied) must be
moistened to cause the gold leaf to adhere to it. For
this purpose, with a long-haired camel-hair pencil,
dipped in water, go over as much of the work as you
intend the piece of gold to cover; then lay the gold
upon it in the manner previously explained. Be sure
that the part to which the gold is applied is
sufficiently wet; indeed, it must be floating, or the
gold will be apt to crack. Proceed in this manner a

178 THE UP-TO-DATE

little at a time, and do not attempt to cover too muck
at once, until by experience you are going to handle
the gold with freedom.

Burnishing. — When the work is covered with gold,
set it by to dry; there is a particular state or degree
of dryness, known only by experience, in which the
moulding is in a fit state for burnishing; it will
probably be ready to burnish in about eight or ten
hours, but it will depend on the warmth of the room
or state of the air.

When it is ready, those parts intended to be
burnished must be dusted with a soft brush; then,
wiping the burnisher with a piece of soft wash-leather
(quite dry), begin to burnish about an inch or two in
length at a time, taking care not to bear too hard, but
with a gentle and quick motion, applying the tool
until all the parts of the surface are equally bright.

Matting or Dead Gold. — Certain portions only of the
work are burnished, according to the fancy, and the
facility with which the burnishing tool can be applied;
the remaining parts are now to be deprived of their
metallic luster, to make a more effective contrast with
the burnishing. The parts thus treated are said to be
matted or dead gold. The process is as follows:

Grind some vermilion or yellow ocher very fine,
and mix a very small portion either with the parch-
ment size or with the white of an egg, and with a very
soft brush lay it evenly on the parts to be dulled; if
well done, it will add greatly to the beauty of the
work. Previous to matting, the work must be well
cleared of superfluous gold, by means of a soft brush.

Finishing. — In elaborate works it is frequently
impossible to lay gold leaf into all the intricacies of
an elaborate design, and the parts thus left bare must

HARDWOOD FINISHER 179

be finished by touching up with a small brush charged
with shell gold, or gold powder, mixed with gum
Arabic to the proper consistency. The following
recipe describes the preparation of shell gold:

Shelled Gold. — Take any quantity of leaf gold and
grind it with a small portion of honey, to a fine
powder, add a little gum arable and sugar candy, with
a little water, and mix it well together; let it dry.

Silver Size. — Grind pipe clay fine with a little black
lead and good soap, and add parchment size as
directed for gold size.

Composition for Frame Ornaments. — The ornaments
for gilded mirror frames, etc., are usually moulded
from some plastic substance that is somewhat
tougher and more durable than the ordinary gildinj^
foundation of whiting and size. The proper moulds
being prepared, they are thoroughly rubbed upon the
inside with sweet oil, and the composition firmly
pressed in; after removing the mould the cast may be
dried by a gentle heat, or while still plastic it can be
applied in its proper place and bent into any position.
Following are recipes for composition:

Dissolve I pound of glue in i gallon of water. In
another kettle boil together 2 pounds of resin, i gill
of Venice turpentine, and i pint of linseed oil; mix
all together in one kettle, and boil and stir till the water
has evaporated. Turn the whole into a tub of finely
rolled whiting, and work till it is the consistency of
dough.

Boil 7 pounds of best glue in 7 half pints of water.
Melt 3 pounds of white resin in 3 pints of raw linseed
oil. When the above has been well boiled put them
into a large vessel and simmer them for half an hour,
stirring the mixture and taking care that it does not

i8o THE UP-TO-DATE

boil over. The whole must then be turned into a
box of whiting rolled and sifted, and mixed till it is
of the consistency of dough.

To Manipulate Gold Leaf. — Get a piece of paper, thin
enough to show shadow of gold leaf through, slightly
wax it, lay it on gold leaf; the latter will then adhere,
and can be easily worked and will come off clean.
The paper should be slightly larger than the gold
leaf, and the fingers passed over the paper to make
the gold leaf adhere.

Bronzing. — This is a process for imitating on xHetal,
plaster, wood, or other material, the peculiar
appearance produced by chemical action upon the
surface of bronze metal. It is accomplished by
spreading over the surface of the material to be
ornamented a very thin coating of bronze powder,
vvhich is caused to adhere either by applying it
directly upon a coating of any of the sizes mentioned
in the foregoing pages, or by mixing with a vehicle,
such as gum arabic or transparent varnish. ^ The
latter is most desirable, as in the other case, being
subject to the direct action of the atmosphere, the
bronze powder soon tarnishes. In ornamenting
furniture, bronzing is generally employed to represent
gilding, a variety of bronze called gold bronze being
used, which affords an excellent imitation, but is not
very lasting. It is usually applied after the com-
pletion of the other finishing processes, the ground
work being prepared in the manner described under
Oi' Gilding, and the size likewise applied as there
described. A small wad of cotton batting is then
.dipped in the bronze and passed gently over the sized
portions, causing the bronze to adhere. In the other
method — that of applying the bronze by means of a

HARDWOOD FINISHER i8i

vehicle — the preliminaries of whiting the ground and
sizing are not necessary, a small quantity of bronze
being simply mixed with the vehicle employed to
such a degree of fluidity that it will flow easily, and
in that condition applied with a fine brush. Many
preparations are used as vehicles, such as transparent
varnish thinned with turpentine, gum arable dis-
solved in water, and gold size reduced with parchment
size. There are a variety of colors in bronze powders,
and to produce the best effect the size or vehicle
should be of a color similar to that of the bronze
used; in gold size the coloring pigment is ocher, and
in its place, for green bronze, or blue bronze, may be
employed respectively verditer, vermilion or Prussian
blue," a very small quantity being sufficient. In
bronzing on painted work the ground should be as
nearly as possible the color of the bronze to be
applied.

Banana Solution. — The so-called "banana solution"
(the name being derived from its odor) which is used
in applying bronzes of various kinds is usually a
mixture of equal parts of amyl acetate, acetone and
benzine, with just enough pyroxylin dissolved therein
to give it sufficient body. Powdered bronze is put
into a bottle containing this mixture and the paint so
formed applied with a brush to the article to be
bronzed. The thin covering of pyroxylin that is left
after the evaporation of the liquid protects the bronze
from the air and keeps it from being wiped off by the
cleanly housemaid. Tarnished picture frames and
tarnished chandeliers to which a gold bronze has been
applied frorn such a solution will look fresh and new
for a long time. Copper bronze as well as gold bronze
and the various colored bronze powders can be used

i82 THE UP-TO-DATE

in the "banana solution" for making very pretty
advertising signs for use in the drug store. Lettering
and bordering work upon the signs can be done with
it. Several stiff, very small painter's brushes are
needed for such work and they must be either kept in
the solution when not in use, or, better still, washed in
benzine or acetone immediately after use and put away
for future service. It is needless to add that as the
"banana solution" is volatile it must be kept well
corked.

STAINING WOODWORK WITH AOIDS

For staining wood brown, sulphuric acid, more or
less diluted, according to the depth of stain desired, is
applied to the wood, previously cleaned and dried
with a brush, and when the acid has acted enough its
further action is arrested by the application of liquid
ammonia.

To age oak artificially, liquid ammonia is laid on
with a rag or brush, which does the work rapidly and
effectually.

To darken cherry, rub it over with nitric acid of 1.2
specific gravity, and after permitting it to stand for
twelve hours, wash and dry thoroughly. Nitric acid
gives a permanent yellow stain, which may be con-
verted into dark brown by subsequent application of
tincture of iodine.

A hot, concentrated solution of picric acid gives a
very fine yellow effect. Aqua fortis, diluted with
three times its own weight of rain-water, brushed over
the wood, gives a more true yellow effect than the
undiluted nitric acid (aqua fortis).

A bright golden yellow stain is made by digesting
V2 ounce of powdered madder for twelve hours in 2

HARDWOOD FINISHER 183

ounces of sulphuric acid and then filtering through
cloth. The articles to be stained should be immersed
in the fluid for three or four days.

ON HARDWOOD FLOORS

The finish and care of hardwood or parquette floors
has been and is now a source of great trouble and
annoyance to housekeepers. In many cases where
beautiful floors have been laid, they have been left to
be finished by persons who have not troubled them-
selves with finding out the best method of finishing,
and the usual way for such persons to do is to treat
them with shellac or varnish, says a writer in one of
our exchanges. This is all wrong, as a moment's
thought will convince any one that a surface that is
constantly walked over needs something different from
the coating of gum that is left on the surface after
the spirit used in dissolving the shellac or varnish is
evaporated. This coating then becomes brittle, and
is ground up into minute particles by the nails in the
boots and swept away, leaving the wood bare, right
where it is most exposed to view.

As a matter of course, the beauty of the floor is soon
gone, and instead of being an attractive part of the
furnishing, the sanitary consideration very often is
about all that keeps one from nailing a carpet over the
whole floor. Others use linseed oil, and everybody
knows that an oil finish is one of the best methods of
finishing wood, but the objection is, that each time
the oil is applied it darkens the wood, and in a short
time the different kinds of wood are of the same color.
Now the question arises, which is the true and only
way of finishing floors properly? And the answer is,
by the use of hard wax, which, however, must be sc

i84 THE UP-TO-DATE

prepared that the trouble of applying it and the
stickiness attending ordinary beeswax and turpentine
are entirely obviated. The wax is treated with special
liquids and made into a preparation.

Among the many different things tried, hard wax
was found to be the most satisfactory in its results.
It is so simple, that when once the floor has been
properly filled and finished with it, any servant can
renew and keep the floors fresh and bright as long as
the wood lasts, and as it does not materially change
the color, the wood always retains its beauty. An
application about once a year is all that is necessary,
if the floors are rubbed over, when a little dull, with a
weighted brush or cloth.

In repolishing old floors that have been in use for a
length of time and become dull looking, it is only
necessary, after they have been cleaned, to rub on a
thin coat of the hard wax finish with the brush or
cloth, as stated above. If the floors have been
varnished and the varnish is worn off in places, as
mentioned above, the best way is to have the varnish
scraped off, and then a thin coat of the hard wax
should be applied and treated as the new wood after
it is filled. But if it is inconvenient to have the floor
scraped, or the expense too much, the main object
being to restore the color in those places which are
worn and defaced, the following mixture is recom-
mended: One part linseed oil, I part liquid dryer and
2 parts turpentine; a cloth should be dampened with
this and applied to the worn and defaced places, which
will have the desired effect. After being wiped
off clean, it ought to dry twenty-four hours, and then
be polished with the hard wax finish. It is very
important never to use the wax over oil that is not

HARDWOOD FINISHER 185

thoroughly dry, as the floor would invariably be
sticky.

Finally, it would be well to mention that hardwood
or parquette floors should never be washed with soap
and water, as it raises the grain and discolors the
wood. After the floors have been properly filled and
finished with the hard wax, dirt will not get into the
pores, but stays on the surface and consequently can
be removed with a brush or cloth, or, if necessary,
dampen cloth with a little turpentine. This will take
off any stain from the finish.

An excellent method of waxing floors is as follows:
Take i pound of the best beeswax, cut it up into very
small pieces and let it thoroughly dissolve in 3 pints
of turpentine, stirring occasionally, if necessary. The
mixture should be only a trifle thicker than the clear
turpentine. Apply with a rag to the surface of the
floor, which should be perfectly clean. This is the
difficult part of the work; for if too much or too little
is put on a good polish is impossible. The right
amount varies, less being required for a hard, close-
grained wood, and more if the wood is soft and open-
grained. Try a square foot or two at first. Put on
what you think will be enough, and leave the place
untouched and unstepped on for twenty-four hours, or
longer, if needful. When thoroughly dry, rub with a
hand brush. If it polishes well, repeat the whole proc-
ess over the entire floor. If it does not, remove the
wax with fine sandpaper, and lay again, using more or
less than before, as may be necessary, and continue
experimenting until the desired result is secured. If
the mixture is slow in drying, add one part japan to
six of turpentine.

Birch makes an entirely satisfactory floor for dancing.

186 THE UP-TO-DATE

as well as for kindred uses. It is easily brought to a
smooth surface and a fine polish, and is of a rich
amber color of an even shade. In addition, it has that
rare elasticity and resiliency that make it alike delight-
ful for walking and dancing. It costs about lo cents
laid, and is in no way a disappointment to those using it.

What is said of birch applies equally well to hard
maple, both the white and the red varieties, the white
being that chosen for floors, and is the lightest-colored
of the woods so used. It is very hard, takes readily a
fine polish; the boards are not liable to warp, but,
unfortunately, require the very closest care in the
drying to prevent shrinkage when laid. It is lasting,
and is but little affected by water. Only beech,
hickory and white oak approach it in lightness of
color. Hickory has sterling qualities-, too generally
appreciated to need detailed discussion of its intrinsic
worth, yet it is sadly neglected when the question of
flooring is under consideration. Perhaps this is due
to the difficulty with which it is laid. It is an open-
grain wood, but takes polish with ease.

Beech makes almost an ideal floor, light-colored and
hard, and has the rare quality of wearing smoother
with age; at times it is found beautifully bird's-eyed.
In the Southern States it grows in the greatest profusion
in the swamps and lower woods, but is unappreciated,
only enough being preserved for use in making plane
stocks and other tools requiring a hard, durable wood
that does not shrink, warp or split. It could be laid
for 20 cents per foot. And along with it goes apple,
which polishes to a rich, delicate amber color; the cost
being about the same as beech, but the apple wood
has the tremendous disadvantage of not being obtain-
able in large boards.

HARDWOOD FINISHER 187

The laying of a hardwood floor requires not only a
good carpenter, but an expert judge of woods, and of
tne individual boards, because only by carefully
selecting and placing like planks can we get a
permanently even surface. Suppose a plank of heart
and one of sap should be placed side by side; no
matter what the wood, when a rainy season may come
the sap will swell more and rise above the heart.
Even when they come from like relative positions in
two like trees, their texture may differ so widely as to
make them undesirable companions. In spite of the
nicest workmanship and the best judgment in select-
ing, some inequalities of surface will be present till
removed by the most thorough sandpapering. This
should be done with enough care to avoid scratching;
then comes the polishing.

To get the best results, hardwood floors should be
laid after the building is thoroughly dry, and in case
of new building it should be the last work done.

Care should be taken that the surface on which the
floor is laid is clean and smooth. Drive the flooring
well up and be careful not to break the tongue.

Seven-eighths-inch flooring should be nailed with
2^-inch special flooring nail. For ^-inch flooring
l^-inch finishing nail, No. 15, will be found about
right.

An oak floor after being laid should be evenly
cleaned off and sandpapered until perfectly smooth.
It must then be filled with what is known as "wood
filler," and allowed to stand for six to ten hours. This
filler can be made any shade desired.

If a wax finish is desired, apply two light coats of
white floor shellac. Let the first coat stand one hour
before putting on the second. After the second coat

88

THE UP-TO-DATE

has stood for two hours, sandpaper with No. o sand-
paper and the floor is ready for the wax, an article
made expressly for this purpose and ready for use.

Put the wax on as thin as possible and let it stand
for half an hour, then with a rubbing brush rub across
the grain of the wood and again lengthways until the

Fig. 117

brush slips easily, then take a piece of soft carpet and
rub until the desired polish is obtained.

For maple, birch, or other close-grain woods, use
the same process, omitting the "wood filler "

Estimate of Material Required. — For laying and finish-
ing s/s flooring per lOO feet surface: lOO feet ^ floor-
ing, 2^ pounds finishing brads No. 15, 3^ pounds
wood filler (for oak only), 3 pints shellac, j4 pound

HARDWOOD FINISHEli 189

floor wax. For % flooring, 6 pounds 2}4-\nch flooring
nails will be sufficient per 100 feet.

A weighted brush with a long handle is generally
employed for polishing a wax-finished floor, similar to
the one shown in Fig. 117. The wax is applied with a
rag or brush, after the filler has been properly rubbed
down and all is hard and dry. The weighted brush is
then rubbed over the surface to and fro until the
desired polish is attained.

Stained Floors. — A floor stained to represent dark
old oak is preferred by many. The mixture for
accomplishing this is sold at all paint shops, and
comes in grades i, 2, 3, and 4, varying from light to
dark. If the boards are smooth and fine-grained, a
satin wood or pitch pine stain or polish is preferred;
but if the floor is old or rough it is folly to attempt
any stain except that of dark oak or dark mahogany.
Some of the mixtures used for this can be put on with
a rag, although a brush is better. Pour the liquid into a
saucer, dip the brush in, saturate thoroughly, rub evenly
over the wood, and dry instantly with a soft cloth.

For the ultra-fashionable floor, which is of a pale
shade of oak, sized and varnished, buy the desired
amount of raw sienna powder; mix with water, and
rub into the boards as directed above. Mahogany
staining: Make a mixture containing ^ pound of
madder, 2 ounces of logwood chips, boiled in i gallon
of water; brush this over the wood while hot. When
dry, go over this with a solution of pearlash, 2 drachms
to I of water, size and polish. If a redder shade is
required, it can be produced by smearing the surface
with a strong solution of permanganate of potash,
which is left on for five minutes. The wood is then
carefully washed, dried and polished.

190 THE UP-TO-DATE

A good cheap oak stain is made of equal parts of
potash and pearlash, 2 ounces of each to a quart of
water. As potash is a solvent, care must be taken to
keep it from the hands; and an old brush should be
used.

For other stains and methods of applying them, see
recipes described in previous pages, where stains for
nearly all purposes are given.

MISCELLANEOUS MATTERS

Floor Polish. — Cut beeswax into small pieces, or else
grate it up; add turpentine, and allow the mixture to
stand for twelve hours; then heat it over the fire till
it dissolves. Care must be taken not to heat the
mixture too hot, and also the flame must not come too
near, for explosive vapors are generated, which are
liable to catch fire.

Dull Polish on Stained White wood. —The dull polish
that is seen on most furniture is obtained by partly
French polishing the article, and then removing any
apparent shine or gloss by well brushing the surface
over with medium grade pumice-powder or fine emery;
or the stained wood might be coated with spirit
varnish. In the absence of details as to the purpose
for which the stained wood is to be used, no other
procedure can be suggested. Stained floor-boards, for
instance, would not require French polishing, nor
even spirit varnishing, because a suitable polish can
be readily obtained by using beeswax dissolved in
turpentine, applied with a weighted brush. On the
other hand, on furniture goods French polish serves
a double purpose; the polish partly fills the grain or
pores of the wood, and gives a hard surface that can
be dulled without rubbing off the stain.

HARDWOOD FINISHER 191

Refinishing Oak Doors that are Badly Weather-
Stained. — If possible, take the doors off the hinges and
lay them down flat on some trusses or boxes, and
remove the old varnish with ammonia or a mixture of
2 parts strong ammonia and i part of turpentine and
benzine, using a stubby brush to get into the cutwork
and about the mouldings. When all the varnish has
been removed, dope over stained portions with a
strong oxalic acid solution, and see whether you can-
not bleach the wood by that operation. If this will
not work, you have to resort to staining. Use raw
sienna for light effect, and, after staining, use paste
wood filler, colored to match the stain. Then proceed
as you would on new work. If the light stain does
not hide the weather stains, you will be obliged to use
a darker stain and darker filler.

Coloring Wood Clear Through. — All the sap is expelled
and the log is then treated with chemicals, and the
color or colors are pressed into the wood. Any shade
desired can be obtained, and, in fact, several colors
can be merged one into the other, producing a very
beautiful effect. On cutting up the samples we
received, we found that the color was evenly dis-
tributed all through the fibers, the grain of the wood
giving a very pleasing effect, especially when polished.
The wood, it is claimed, dries sooner than by ordinary
seasoning, and it can also be rendered fireproof by
adding special chemicals. Of course, painting is done
away with, so that the natural structure of the wood
is seen to better advantage than when painted in
the ordinary way. The coloring is, we understand,
free from arsenic and quite harmless; the colors do
not fade, and, of course, cannot be worn off by rub-
bing, etc.

192 • THE UP-TO-DATE

Cleaning Polished Wood. — A good encaustic, which
will clean and polish at the same time, may be made
from wax, sal soda and any good soap. The wax and
soap should be shaved and dissolved in boiling water.
Stir frequently and add the soda. Put the mixture in
something which may be closely covered, and stir
constantly until cool. This may be applied to floors,
furniture, marbles, tiles, bricks, etc. It will remove
ink from polished surfaces. The French use white wax
on white marbles, but this is not absolutely necessary.

Finishing Hardwood. — If it is open-grained wood I
should first fill it with paste filler, then I would give it
a coat of shellac, and after that I would bring it up
with a first-class varnish.

It would be all right to finish it all in shellac if it
could be kept from moisture, but wherever a drop of
water touches a shellac finish it will turn white. And
just as like as not the mistress will set the servants to
wiping up the hardwood finish with a damp cloth.
Now a good varnish will stand it, but shellac won't.
But the best way to clean furniture and hardwood
work is to use crude oil — only a very little of it — and
then wipe it off thoroughly with cotton waste or
cheesecloth. The latter is preferable because it has
no lint to catch on the woodwork, although if you rub
it dry enough with cotton waste you can rub off any
lint that may be left. The crude oil acts as a varnish
renewer as well as a cleaner. But if it is not
thoroughly wiped off with plenty of elbow grease it
will catch the dirt and look pretty bad. Crude oil is
a good thing, provided you don't use too much of it,
and then, again, provided you, don't leave it on.

Making Paste Wood Fillers. — Paste fillers for hard
woods are made from any of the following materials.

HARDWOOD FINISHER 193

or a combination of these: silex or silica, terra alba,
whiting, china clay, starch, rye flour, and sometimes
barytes. Silex or terra alba will, on drying, give the
least discoloration to the wood. The pigment should
be of impalpable fineness and intimately mixed to a
stiff paste with one-third each of pale linseed oil, pale
gold size japan and turpentine. This paste may be
either run through a mill or be given a very thorough
mixing, and to test it for quality it should be thinned
with turpentine to the consistency of a varnish, applied
with a varnish brush to open-grained wood, preferably
oak, allowed to set for about twenty to thirty minutes,
and the surplus filler removed by wiping across the
grain in the usual manner. After twenty-four to
thirty-six hours, the surface should be lightly sand-
papered and a good, flowing coat of rubbing varnish
applied, which, when fairly well set, should not show
any pitting or pin holes. Should it pit, however, or
show pin holes or needle points, the filler is defect-
ive in binding properties, and the portion of japan
should be increased, with a corresponding decrease in
the proportion of turpentine. The linseed oil and the
gold size japan must be of good body, and if corn-
starch or rye flour is used in connection with silex or
silica, the proportions should be about one of the
former to five of the latter by weight.

Filler for White Ash.— As white ash is a very porous
wood, it should be treated with an extra light mineral
paste wood filler, made from clean silex, mixed with 2
parts bleached linseed oil, 3 parts pale japan gold size
and I part turps, to stiff paste and thinned for use
with turpentine to the consistency of medium-bodied
varnish. When dry and hard the surface should be
smooth sandpapered and given a coat of white shellac

194 THE UP-TO-DATE

varnish, after which it may be finished with rubbing
varnish, that may be rubbed and pohshed in the ordinary
way.

Good Wood Finish. — Richness of effect may be
gained in decorative woodwork by using woods of
different tone, such as amaranth and amboyna, by
inlaying and veneering. The Hungarian ash and
French wahiut afford excellent veneers, especially the
burs or gnarls. In varnishing, the varnishes used can
be toned down to match the wood, or be made to
darken it, by the addition of coloring matters. The
patented preparations, known as 'Svood fillers," are
prepared in different colors for the purpose of pre-
paring the surface of wood previous to the varnishing.
They fill up the pores of the wood, rendering the
surface hard and smooth. For polishing mahogany,
walnut, etc., the following is recommended: Dissolve
beeswax by heat in spirits of turpentine until the
mixture becomes viscid ; then apply, by a clean cloth,
and rub thoroughly with a flannel or cloth. A common
mode of polishing mahogany is by rubbing it first with
linseed oil, and then with a cloth dipped in very fine
brickdust ; a good gloss may also be produced by
rubbing with linseed oil, and then holding trimmings
or shavings of the same material against the work in
the lathe. Glass-paper, followed by rubbing, also gives
a good luster.

There are various means of toning or darkening
woods for decorative effect, such as logwood, lime,
brown soft soap, dyed oil, sulphate of iron, nitrate of
silver exposed to sun's rays, carbonate of soda,
bichromate and permanganate of potash, and other
alkaline preparations are all used for darkening woods.
The last three are specially recommended. The

HARDWOOD FINISHER 195

solution is applied by dissolving i ounce of the alkali
in 2 gills of boiling water, diluted to the required
tone. The surface is saturated with a sponge of
flannel, and immediately dried with soft rags. The
carbonate is used for dark woods. Oil tinged with
rose madder may be applied to hardwoods like birch,
and a red oil is prepared from soaked alkanet root in
linseed oil. The grain of yellow pine can be brought
out by two or three coats of japan much diluted with
turpentine, and afterwards oiled and rubbed. To give
mahogany the appearance of age, lime water used
before oiling is a good plan. In staining wood, the
best and most transparent effect is obtained by
repeated light coats of the same. For oak stain a
strong solution of oxalic acid is employed; for
mahogany, dilute nitrous acid. A primary coat, or a
coat of wood fillers, is advantageous. For mahogany
stains the following are given: 2 ounces of dragons'
blood dissolved in I quart of rectified spirits of wine,
well shaken; or raw sienna in beer, with burnt sienna
to give the required tone; for darker stains boil j^
pound of madder and 2 ounces of logwood chips in t
gallon of water, and brush the decoction while hot
over the wood. When dry, paint with a solution ot 2
ounces of potash in i quart of water. A solution of
permanganate of potash forms a rapid and excellent
brown stain.

Easy Method of Finishing Woodwork.— French polish-
ing as a means of finishing furniture and woodwork is
generally regarded as a most tedious operation, owing
to the number of solutions to be used on work that is
built up of various kinds of wood, in bringing it up m
uniform color, and in polishing it so as to bring out
and reflect to the fullest extent the mprkings or figure

196 THE UP-TO-DATE

of the wood. On high-grade goods, with a bright,
lustrous, level finish this is so. Yet much furniture is
not of high-grade finish, so far as the polisher
is concerned; for instance, bedroom furniture that is
stained green is rarely finished out extra bright, and
the same may be said of fumed oak goods and many
American organs. In fact, some goods look far bettei
with a faintly lustrous polished surface than if finished
out very bright, especially if. the surface is at all
uneven or badly cleaned up. A process of finishing
known as "dry shining" strikes a medium between
high-grade finish and simple spirit varnishing. In the
crudest form of this process the work is simply oiled
and a wet rubber of polish applied all over, not
sufficient being used to fill the grain, but just enough
to kill the oil. This treatment is generally considered
good enough for the insides of drawers, cupboards,
etc., the object being to remove an unfinished
appearance and to prevent the surface getting as dirty
as it otherwise might. From this better degrees of
finish may be reached. The work may be oiled, filled
in, one or more rubbers of polish laid on just to fill
up the grain, and then an even coat of spirit varnish
applied. If the articles are of white wood, they may
be stained to imitate some choicer wood before
oiling; and if the goods are likely to be subject to
hard wear, the coating of spirit varnish may be
omitted, the polish being worked out fairly dry to
ensure the removal of all oil; then apply a coat of
oak or painter's varnish, which, however, gives a
bright surface when dry, and is merely mentioned as
a means of obtaining a bright finish with the minimum
of trouble.

Egg-shell finish also does not require the trouble-

HARDWOOD FINISHER ig;

some operation of spiriting out. Here the work is
brought up to a stage nearly approaching that for
spiriting, but the surface of polish when hard is dulled
by rubbing or brushing with fine-grade pumice-stone
powder- or flour emery, in which condition it may be
left. If a gloss instead of a shine is preferred, the
wood should have a smart rubbing of beeswax and
turps. Black work has a specially chaste appearance
thus finished, and the black stain of logwood and
iron solution may be used, aniline spirit black being
employed for imparting density of color to pale
shellac polish. If it is not convenient to use varnish,
and a simple solution of shellac in spirits' (4 ounces
orange shellac dissolved in i pint methylated spirit)
is the only solution at hand, a passable finish may still
be gained by enclosing the pad in a piece of soft rag
and finishing out by working it in straight lines, after
a body has been put on without a covering. When
the articles must be stained, it will be found more
economical to buy the stains ready-made if only a
small quantity is required. Dry shining has at least
the merit of building up a surface that can be taken in
hand again and French polished.

Metallization of Wood. — Some artisans in Germany
have succeeded in turning to practical account the
recently devised process by which wood is made to
take on some of the special characteristics of metal,
that is, the surface becomes so hard and smooth as to
be susceptible of a high polish, and may be treated
with a burnisher of either glass or porcelain; the
appearance of the wood being then in every respect
that of polished metal, having, in fact, the semblance
of a metallic mirror, but with this peculiar and
advantageous difference, namely, that, unlike metal,

198 THE UP-TO-DATE

it is unaffected by moisture. To reach this result the
wood is steeped in a bath of caustic alkali for two or
three days, according to its degree of permeability, at
a temperature of between 164° and 197° Fahr. ; it is
then placed in a second bath of hydrosulphate ot
calcium, to which a concentrated solution of sulphur is
added, after some twenty-four or thirty-six hours; the
third bath is one of acetate of lead, at a temperature
of from 95° to 122°, and in this latter the wood is
allowed to remain from thirty to fifty hours. After
being subjected to a thorough drying it is in a con-
dition for being polished with lead, tin or zinc, as may
be desired, finishing the process with a burnisher, when
the wood apparently becomes a piece of shining,
polished metal.

How to Tone Down New Mahogany, Oak, etc. — In
making repairs to furniture, it usually happens thai
the new wood is considerably lighter in tone than the
old, and ordinary stains will not match it so as to give
satisfaction. This can be done easily, however, by
means of a solution of bichromate of potash. To
make this, purchase a cent's worth of the chemical,
and placing it in an ordinary medicine bottle, fill up
with water and shake until dissolved. To use the
solution, rub a small quantity on the wood to be
darkened, and await results. If not dark enough, give
another coat. It dries in a few minutes, and can be
sandpapered after, as it is not a surface stain, but a
chemical one. By a judicious use of the above
solution it is easy to match old work of any description,
so that the new and old cannot be distinguished from
each other.

Spirit Varnish for Violins. — Spirit varnish is difficult
to apply evenly, owing to its drying so quickly. The

HARDWOOD FINISHER 199

color generally appears streaky. In any case, no
shellac should be used in the varnish, as shellac is too
hard. A good spirit varnish is made as follows:
First size the violin with a mixture of 3 parts of best
copal varnish and I part of turpentine, applied hot
with a rag, and well rubbed in. Color ^ pint ot
alcohol with turmeric and a little red sanders added to
take away the greenish tinge. Dissolve 2 ounces of
gum sandarach (juniper) in Y-z pint of alcohol. Put
the two half-pint mixtures together, and add 2 table-
spoonfuls of Venice turpentine and 2 ounces of white
shellac. When dissolved, filter through cotton wool.

Putting Transfers on Coach Panels. — The method of
transferring crests and monograms to the panels of
coaches, etc., is as follows: Cover carefully the face
of the design (that is, the colored or printed side) with
a thin, smooth coat of gold size mixed with two or
three drops of varnish, being careful to cover all parts
that are to be transferred. Let the gold size coating
become thoroughly tacky or sticky, then lay the design
face downward on the panel to be decorated, and roll
it down smoothly with a rubber roller, pressing out all
air bubbles. When the adhesive has got quite dry,
thoroughly soak the paper with water by means of a
sponge, then gently peel off the paper from one
corner. Sponge the surface composition off the
panel, and when the design is quite dry, apply a
finishing coat of varnish. Transfers can also be applied
without coating them with gold size, if the panels
have been recently varnished, and have a good tack
(that is to say, when the varnish is sticky , as the
design will then adhere by gentle pressure.

Paint for Blackboards. — The best blackboard paint is
made by moistening 4 ounoes dry lampblack with

200 THE UP-TO-DATE

alcohol, rubbing it out with a spatula, gradually
adding I quart of shellac varnish, and stirring into
this 3 ounces flour of pumice and 3 ounces finely
pulverized rotten stone; then straining through a fine
sieve or strainer to break up any lumps that may have
formed. This is applied quickly to the bare wood, so
that no laps are formed, and in a day or so a second
coat may be applied, and after standing a day or two
longer may be haired or mossed.

Ebonizing.— Apply to the wood, by means of a brush
or sponge, a solution of hydrochloric aniline dissolved
in water, to which has been added a little protochlo-
ride of copper. When this coating has dried, apply
similarly a solution of bichromate of potash dissolved
in water. After this process has been repeated two,
or at the most three, times, the wood will assume a
clear, full, durable black color, which is affected
neither by the action of light nor dampness.

Polishing Boxwood Draughtmen. —The cheaper class of
draughtmen are simply coated with a good quality
spirit varnish, but high-grade goods are polished in the
lathe. The polish that is used and the method of
applying the polish differ slightly from the method
that is employed in polishing flat surfaces. A bright
finish on both sides and edges is only obtained after
several handlings, the chief difficulty being the
manipulation in the early stages, such as the provision
of. suitable chucks, the avoidance of the use of glass-
paper, and the knack of using the polish so that it
will not clog up the finer grooves. If ordinary French
polish is used, it should not be applied with new
wadding; a wad made from a rubber that has been used
on other work should be employed, so that there may
be less risk of loose fluff sticking to the work while the

HARDWOOD FINISHER 201

polishing is being done. The wad would not require
the rag covering that is usual on flat surfaces. If a
lathe is not available, very good results could be
obtained by using polish for sealing up the pores of
the wood and forming a smooth foundation, and then
applying carefully a coating of good quality clear
spirit varnish. Black goods should be stained first
with French black water stain, and the polishing done
with black polish. White polish made from bleached
shellac, or a transparent polish, should be used in
preference to polish that is made from orange or lemon
shellac.

Softening Putty. — To soften putty that has become
hard by exposure, so as to remove it easily from a
sash, take i pound of pearlash and 3 pounds of quick-
Mone lime; slake the lime in water, then add the
pearlash, and make the whole of about the consistency
of paint; apply it to both sides of the glass, and let it
remain for twelve hours, when the putty will be so
softened that the glass may be taken out of the frame
with the greatest facility.

Bruises in Wood. — To take out bruises in furniture,
wet the part with warm water; double a piece of brown
paper five or six times, soak it, and lay it on the place;
apply on that a hot flatiron till the moisture is
evaporated. If the bruise be not gone, repeat the
process. After two or three applications, the dent or
bruise will be raised level with the surface. If the
bruise be small, merely soak it with warm water, and
apply a red-hot poker very near the surface; keep it
continually wet, and in a few moments the bruise will
disappear.

Wood Stains. — The following have been published by
a German paper as formulae for some wood stains,

202 THE UP-TO-DATE

which may be put up in a dry form, and when wanted
for use may be readily dissolved in water: Oak wood
5 kg. of Cassel brown, .5 kg. of potash, and 10 kg. of.
rain-water, boiled together for an hour, the whole
strained through a linen cloth, and the clear, dark-
colored liquid boiled to a syrupy consistency. Walnut
wood: A decoction of Cassel brown, 3 kg.; potash, .3
kg.; and water, 7 kg.; the whole strained through
linen, and during evaporation to syrup 2.5 kg. of
extract of logwood added. Mahogany: A decoction
of extract of Brazil wood, 3 kg.; potash, .25 kg., and
water, 3 kg ; to which, before evaporating to syrup,
150 gr. of eosine are added. Ebony: 5 kg. of extract
of logwood, boiled with 1 1 kg. of water, and, when
near the syrupy state, 300 gr. of iron nitrate added;
evaporated to a syrup under constant stirring. All
the above stains are brought into a dry condition by
running the respective syrups into trays of sheet iron,
with low rims, in which the syrup hardens, and is
afterward broken up and ground.

It is often desirable to retain the grain of the natural
wood exposed to view, at the same time to preserve
its surface from decay and give it a more beautiful
appearance; this is done either by polishing or
varnishing. To varnish such woods a little skill is
required to obtain a really good gloss, smooth as
glass, upon its surface. All roughness should be
carefully removed, being particular not to leave any
marks, especially across the grain, of the sandpaper
or other material used in smoothing, and the work
should be afterwards well sized, either with gelatine
or good glue size. This size is to prevent the
absorption of the varnish in soft places, and to' obtain
a more even gloss. Sizing sometimes has a tendency

HARDWOOD FINISHER 203

to raise the grain of the wood, more particularly of
soft wood, especially if applied warm. Use oak
varnish.

Aniline Dyes. — Aniline dyes are of two kinds, one
dissolving in water, the other in spirits. As they have
a tendency to fade in the light, the water dyes are
preferable, as they can be mixed with a little vinegar,
this greatly hindering the fading out process. To dis-
solve in spirits, use a spirit varnish, such as painters
use. No definite amount necessary to stain varnish
can be given, and it will be necessary to experiment
with it.

HARDWOOD FINISHER.

QUESTIONS.

1. Give a description of the different kinds of wood
that used to be in vogue about thirty or forty years ago,
but are now reckoned inferior in the manufacture of
furniture.

2. Whether have dark or hght colored woods the
preference from an aesthetic point of view?

3. Mention some of the valuable qualities to be found
in white oak.

4. Mention other two kinds of wood that are frequent-
ly used for high-class work, and well adapted for finish-
ing purposes.

5. Whether is it preferable a finish in hardwood or
a finish in pine?

204

HARDWOOD FINISHER 205

6. Is there any difference in cost between a finish in
the best clear pine and the best selected hardwood?

7. What is essential in the choice of all kinds of hard-
wood for finishing purposes?

8. What are the characteristic features in hardwood
that recommends it above others ?

9. What class of work is pine peculiarly adapted for?

10. What other kinds of soft wood are fairly good
for finishing purposes ?

11. Mention the names of some of the woods that
have all coarse grain, and that are not so suitable for
tasteful work.

12. What has been the result of introducing the mod-
ern methods of polishing finished woodwork?

13. Give a description of the process termed "French
polishing" and for what purpose it is best adapted.

14. Give an account of the organic tissue m woods,
also the variable organic elements associated with it, and
examples illustrating same.

15. Give a description of the exterior characteristics
of woods, and their subdivision into two classes, also the
names of some of the woods in each class.

16. Give a description of the different ways in the
consideration of the density of wood.

17. Whether is the density of the harder or softer
woods more preferable and popular with wood finishers,
and state the reasons for preference ?

18. Give a description of the qualities of ''walnut"
wood.

19. Give a description of the qualities of the "ma-
hogany" wood, and the several kinds.

20. Give a description of the qualities of the ''cherry"
wood.

2o6 THE UP-TO-DATE

21. Give a description of the qualities of the ''black
birch."

22. Give a description of the characteristic features to
be found in the different varieties of oak.

22' Give a description of some of the qualities to be
found in the "butternut."

24. Give a description of the qualities to be found in
"rosewood."

25. Give some of the characteristics that are to be
found in the "apple" wood.

26. Give a description of some of the qualities to be
found in the "maple" wood.

2y. Give a few of the characteristic qualities to be
found in the "chestnut" and "ash."

28. When does it seem superfluous to have complex
decoration in the finishing of hardwoods?

29. What wood is made most use of for interior finish,
and what are some of the articles for which it is well
adapted ?

30. Describe the difference between the working of
oak, particularly in the framing up of panel work, from
ordinary pine or other soft wood panel work.

31. Give a description which shows the method of
setting out the twist or spiral for a column, pillar or
spindle.

^2. Give a description of the method of making prop-
erly a dovetail joint.

2^. Give a description of secret lap dovetailing, and
for what purposes it is well adapted.

34. What is the difference between secret and plain
lap dovetailing?

35. Give a description of what is mean by the process
"miter dovetailing."

HARDWOOD FINISHER 207

2,6. Give a description of what is meant by the process
"bevel or splay dovetailing,"

37. Give a description of the method adopted in the
manufacture of veneered doors, when a number of them
are to be made at one time.

38. What should be done in the manufacture of first
class doors before they are veneered ?

39. What equipment is required aside from the usual
door-making machinery?

40. Give a description of the preparatory work of the
materials previous to their construction.

41. Give a description of the process of construction
in the manufacture of doors and particulars regarding
the veneers and process of veneering.

42. Give a description of the advantages derivable in
the construction of "dowel" doors.

43. Give a description of the best method whereby to
test the quality of glue.

44. Give a description of the best way in which to
prepare glue for use.

45. Give a description of the process in applying the
glue to the purposes for which it is intended.

46. Give a description of the kinds of wood suitable
for veneering purposes, and the preparatory processes
necessary.

47. Give a description of the process of "jointing" in
veneering.

48. Give a description of the process of "veneering
by caul."

49. Give a description of the process of "veneering
round and tapering columns."

50. Give a description of veneering small work by

2o8 THE UP-TO-DATE

using the cauls, such as in making picture frames, clock
stands or similar work.

51. Give a description of what should be done pre-
paratory to the process of polishing.

52. Give a description of ''the scraper," for what
purposes it is employed, and the method of its manipula-
tion.

53. Give a description of the proper method of sharp-
ening scrapers.

54. Give a description of the method of using sand-
paper.

55. Give a description of "rasps and files" and their
uses and modes of manipulation.

56. Give a description of the different kinds of saws
for working hardwood, and how to manipulate them.

57. Give a description of the method of sharpening
tenon saws.

58. Give a description of planes in general, and the
methods of manipulating them.

59. Give a description of the grain direction for
planes.

60. Give a description of the proper method of setting
an iron in a plane.

61. Give a description of oilstones for sharpening
plane irons, and method of manipulating the iron dur-
ing the process of sharpening,

62. Give a description of the process termed "secret
or blind nailing."

63. Give a description of what the term "wood fillers"
means, and the methods of their application.

64. Give a description of the preparatory work neces
sary before commencing the process of "filling in."

HARDWOOD FINISHER 209

65. Give a description of the principal fillers used in
the trade.

66. Give the description of a walnut filler for medium
and cheap work.

67. Give the description of a walnut filler for imita-
tion wax finish.

68. Give the description of a walnut filler for first
class work.

69. Give the description of a filler for light woods.

70. Give the description of a filler for cherry wood.

71. Give the description of a filler for oak wood.

72. Give the description of a filler for rosewood.

y^i' Give a description of the operations to be em-
ployed when the work with the filler is done.

74. Give a description of the method in applying
**luxeberry'' to the wood.

75. Give a description of the process of wood stain-
ing in general, stating some of the varieties, and the best
woods that are well adapted for their application.

y^. Give the reason why French polishing is employed
in finishing first class work.

'j'j. Give a description as to the time and temperature
in which the varnishing should be done, in order to be of
durable character and produce beautiful work.

78. Give an example of how to treat cabinet work
during the process of varnishing.

79. Give a description of how to manipulate the brush
while varnishing, and the best kind of brush for the
purpose.

80. What should always be considered before begin-
ning the process of varnishing.

81. Give a description of the preparatory work neces-
sary for the process of French polishing.

2IO THE UP-TO-DATE

82. Give a description of the *'pad or rubber" with
which the poHsh is apphed, and the best kind of material
of which it should be made.

(S3. Give a description of the amount of polish to be
applied to the "rubber," and the manner of manipulat-
ing the latter.

84. Give a description of what should be done with
th€ old ''rubber" when the job is finished upon which it
was used.

85. Give a description of the time to be allowed for
the polish to sink, and the process to be employed before
commencing to polish again.

S6. Give a description of the ingredients that com-
pose a good all-round polish that can be relied on.

Sy. Give a description of how to use the material for
bodying.

88. Give a description of what should be done when
the rubber dries.

89. Give a description as to how long the first body-
ing-in process should be continued.

90. Give a description as to the number of times the
work will require to be bodied.

91. Give a description of how to proceed before be-
ginning to work a fresh body on a previous one.

92. Give a description of what should be observea by
polishers when bodying up.

93. Give a description of the important matter regard-
ing how to dry the rubbers.

94. Give a description of the final operation in French
polishing, by which the gloss is put on the body pre-
viously applied.

95. Give a description of the process known as wax
polishing.

HARDWOOD FINISHER jsis

96. Give a description of the class of wood upon
which wax polishing is often applied, and the character-
istic features it imparts in comparison with French polish.

97. Give a description of the appearance that wood
stained black has after it is wax polished.

98. Whether upon coarsely grained woods or light
woods of close texture, is wax polish better to be ap-
plied ?

99. Give a description of the Ingredients in the com-
position of wax polish, and the process of their admix-
ture.

100. .Give a description of the process of oil polish-
ing, for what purposes it is best adapted, and the char-
acteristic features in its favor.

loi. Give a description of the process known as "dry
shining," the method of its adaptation, and the chief ad-
vantages in connection with it.

102. Give a description of repolishing and reviving
old work, and the various processes that should be adopted
in the class of work to be operated upon, so that the
best results may be produced.

103. Give a description of how to renovate the polish
on German pianos, and the different ingredients and
method of admixture that are applied to render the opera-
tion effective.

104. Give a description as to matching up satin wai*
nut.

105. Give a description of how the wavy appearance
of some woods may be given, and how veins, either black
or red, may be produced in matching.

106. Give a description of the operation entailed In
the final stage, when finishing oft* repolished work.

212 THE UP-TO-DATE

107. Give a description of the utility of dry colors,
known as pigments, in the polisher's operations.

108. Give a description of the preparation of a mix-
ture which is used in making an imitation marble
which wears well, and its effective appearance when pro-
duced.

109. Give a description of the manner of finishing
oak in general.

no. Give a description of how to produce the effect
of a good imitation of antique oak.

111. Give another description of how a very clever
imitation of the general antique can be obtained.

112. Give a description of how oak may be fumi-
gated, stating the liquid used, and the method of pro-
cedure in the operation.

113. Give a description of how to darken oak.

114. Give a description of the different styles of oak
finishes, namely, ''bog oak," "weathered oak," "Antwerp
oak," ''black Flemish oak," "brown Flemish oak,"
"Malachite," and "Tyrolean oak."

115. Give a description of how to obtain a good
"golden oak" finish.

116. Give a description of cherry wood and the best
method of making it look like mahogany.

117. Give a description of black birch, and what
woods it can be easily stained to resemble.

118. Give a description of mahogany, and the excel
lent qualities it possesses, also what may be done tc
darken the reddish hue which newly wrought mahogan-
presents.

119. Give a description of the process in repolishing
and reviving old mahogany work.

HARDWOOD FINISHER 213

120. Give a description of walnut and how it may be
treated in the finishing, also mention some of the woods
that may be stained to resemble it.

121. Give a description of the cypress wood, and its
adaptability for the process of finishing, also the names
of several of the varieties.

122. Give a description of rosewood and how it may
be treated in the process of finishing.

123. Give a description of the maple wood, and its
adaptability for staining purposes, stating some of the
imitations that may be obtained.

124. Give a description of the maple wood, and its
adaptability for finishing, also the method of obtaining
an ''egg-shell" gloss, "a. dull finish," and "a. polished
finish."

125. Give a description of white and black ash, and
its adaptability for finishing, also the method of obtaining
an ''egg-shell" gloss, "a dull finish," and a "polished
finish."

126. Give a description of dyeing wood, and for what
purpose this process is mostly applied.

127. Give a description of the process termed "gild-
ing" and the characteristics of the design upon which it
is employed.

128. Give a description of the process known as "bur-
nish gilding."

129. Give a description of the process^ termed "bronz-
ing" and how it may be accomplished.

130. Give a general description of the "metallization
of wood," and the process by which it may be obtained.

HARDWOOD FINISHER

INDEX TO PART ONE

A.

American woods, 12
Apple wood, 15
A patent glue-pot, 47
A diagram of planes, 86

B.

Bevel dovetailing, 31
Bevel scrapers, 71
Blind nailing, 96

Characteristics of woods, 13
Carving woods, 15
Construction, 40
Clamping veneers, 42
Cauls, 51
Cross-cut saws, 77

D.
Details of wainscot, 18
Drawing spiral baluster, 21
Dovetailing, 22
Dovetailing, plain, 23
Dovetail pins, 25
Dovetail mortises, 25
Dovetailing tap, 27
Dovetailing, miter, 29
Dovetailing, bevel, 31
Daniels planer work, 34
Doors, 35
Doors, wedges, 42
Diagrams for veneer, 57
Dry material for work, 60
Diagrams of scraper, 69
Diagram of cutting edge, 70
Defective sharpening of scrap-
er, 72
Dovetailing saw, 78
Determining pitch of saw teeth,

83
Direction of grain in planes, 85
Diagrams of cutting pitches, 91
Diagrams for blind nailing, 97

Elevation and section of oak

wainscot, 19
Equipment for making hard'

wood doors, 36

F.

Flatting work, 49
File-sharpening a scraper, 69
Files and rasps, 74
Filing a saw, 78
Fixing planes, 87

G.

Glued up stuff for doors, 36

Glue-pot, patent, 37

Gluing horse, 37

Gluing frame, 38

Gluing up stuff for general

work, 39
Gluing up joints, 46

H.

Hardwoods generally, 16
Hardwood wainscot, 17
How to use a scraper, 63
How to hold a s(;raper, 64
How to sharpen a .^craper, 65
Holding a scraper, 67
Handled scraper, 72
How to use sandpaper, 74
Hand saws, 77
How to file a saw, 80
Hag's tooth, 93
How to set a plane iron, 93
How to sharpen plane irons on
oilstone, 95

I.

Introduction, 7
Inserting plane irons, 89

J.

Jointing, 50
Jack planes, 85

INDEX TO PART ONE*

Laying out dovetailing, 23
Lap dovetailing, 27
Laying out saw teeth, 83
Laying hold of smoothing plane,
88

M.

Miter dovetailing, 30
Mitered splay dovetailing, 32
Moulded panels, 42
Mortising doors, 43
Mortising tools, 44
Metal cauls, 52

Method of veneering columns, 56
Making saw teeth uniform

length, 82
Method of sighting iron in

planes, 88

P.
Preface, 5
Planer work, 34
Preparation for veneering, 48
Polish for scraper, 65
Patent scraper, 72
Planes generally, 84
Planes — how to use, 86
Pitch of plane irons, 91

R.

Remarks on veneering, 48

Round corner scraper, 62

Rules for scraper sharpening, 70

Round and hollow scrapers, 73

Rasps and files, 74

Rip saws, 76

Regulating the saw teeth, 82

Spiral baluster or newel, 21
Section and elevation of oak

wainscot, 19
Secret lap dovetailing, 28
Surplus glue, rubbing out, 45

Sizing up work for gluing, 48
Scrapers, 61

Scrapers with handles, 61
Saw plate scrapers, 62
Sharpening a scraper, 64
Sharpening on oilstone, 68
Sharpening by using a file, 68
Sandpaper blocks, 74
Saws for hardwood, 75
Saw teeth, 78
Setting a saw, 79
Sharpening tenon saws, 81
Squaring over saw teeth, 83
Smoothing planes, 87
Sighting plane iron, 88
Setting in plane iron, 89
Stones for sharpening plane

iron, 94
Secret nailing, 96

T.

The better woods to make use

of, 16
The choice of glue, 45
Tenon saws, 78
Trying planes, 86

V.

Veneers, 40
Veneering, 41
Veneering by cauls, 51
Veneering round and tapering

columns, 55
Veneering small work, 58
Veneering beveled picture

frames, 59
Varieties of scrapers, 73

W.
Wood discussed, 10
Woods of various kinds, 12
Wedged doors, 42
Wood scrapers, 61
Wood planes, 86

HARDWOOD FINISHER

INDEX TO PART TWO

Ash stain, 59

Another pohsh recipe, 75

A good pohsh, 76

A pohsh that will stand water,

76
A French polish reviver, 77
Antique oak, 94
Another method of darkening

oak, 119
Austrian oak, 123
An egg-shell finish, 141
A polished finish, 141
Ash wood, 148

A method of finishing ash, 149
A method of staining wood, 157
A brown stain, 158
A dark dye, 159
A fine yellow dye, 161
A fine blue dye, 161
A bright yellow dye, 161
Applying the size, 176
Aniline dyes, 203

B.

Black, 26

Brazil wood, 27

Blackboard wash, 29

Blue, 32

Brown, 33

Brushes for varnishing, 63

Brushes for flowing, 65

Bodying in and spiriting off, 78

Black oak, 123

Black birch, 131

Birch wood, 131

Beech wood, 150

Beech finishing, 151

Bright yellow dye, 160

Bright green dye, 161

Bright red dye, 161

Burnish gilding, 176

Burnishing, 178

Bronzing, 180
Banana solutions, 181
Bruises in wood, 201

China clay wood filler, 10
Cherry wood filler, 14
Cleaning off filling, 18
Coloring and matching, 108
Cherry, 128
Cypress, 135
Cedar, white, 150
Composition for frame orn»

ments, 179
Coloring wood right through

191
Cleaning polished wood, 192

D.

Dark mahogany, 44
Darkening oak, 47
Darkening walnut, 54
Dead finish, 77
Dry shining, 99
Dyeing woods, 159
Dyeing blue, 161
Dyeing yellow, 161
Dyeing green, 162
Dyeing red, 162
Dull polish on stained whit©«
wood, 190

E.

Ebonizing, 34
Egg-shell finish, 141
Egg-shell gloss, 146
Ebonizing with shellac, 153
Ebonizing methods, 154
Estimating cost of floors, 188
Easy method of finishing wood*

work, 195
Ebonizing, 200

INDEX TO PART TWu

Filler for light woods, 13

Filler for cherry, 14

Filler for oak, 14

Filler for rosewood, 14

Filling with plaster of Paris, 15

Filler for redwood, 17

Floors, 40

French polishing, 66

First and best recipe, 74

Finishing oak, 113

Fumigated oak, 116

Flemish oak, 122

Fumigated oak, 125

For removing polish and re-
staining oak, 127

Finishing black birch, 131

Finishing mahogany, 132

Finishing redwood, 141

For an egg-shell gloss, 141

For a dull finish, 141

For a polished finish, 141

For a walnut finish, 142

For mahogany and cherry fin-
ish, 143

For rosewood finish, 143

For an egg-shell gloss, 146

For a dull finish, 147

For a polislied finish, 147

Finishing maple, 148

For a brown stain, 157

For a black dye, 159

Fine blue dye, 161

Fine yellow dye, 161

Finishing good work, 178

Flooring generally, 187

Floor polish, 190

Finishing hardwood, 192

Filler for white ash, 193

G.

Gas black, 29

Green stains, 43

Gray, 43

Glaze polish, 91

German finishing, 106

Golden oak, 121

Green dyes, 162

Gray dyes, 164

Gilding, bronzing and compoei-

'r^. 164

Gilding mirror frame, 166

Gilding furniture, 171

Gold size, 173

Gold adhering, to prevent, 171

Gold wood finish, 194

H.
Hemlock wood, 151
Hemlock finishing, 152
Hardwood floors, 183
How to tone down new work,
198

I.

Imitation oak stain, 145
Imitation mahogany stain, 145
Imitation rosewood stain, 141
Imitation walnut stain, 145

Luxeberry finish, 23
Liquid slating, 29
Light mahogany, 44
Liquid for brightening and set*

ting colors, 163
Laying the gold, 177

M.

Mahogany stains, 44
Mahogany, dark, 44
Mahogany, light, 44
Manufacturers' polish, 80
Making antique oak, 117
Mahogany wood, 147
Maple wood, 147
Matting or dead gold, 178
Making paste wood fillers, 192
Metallization of wood, 197

N.
Next best recipe, 75
New floors, 187

O.

Oil filling, 11

Oak filler, 14

Oak wood, 47

Other French polish recipes, 75

Oil finishing and dry shining 9fi

Oak, fumigated, 116

Oak staining generally, 124

INDEX TO PART TWO

Other woods, 150

Orange dyes, 163

Oil size, 173

Oil gilding, 175

On hardwood floors, 18S

Picking sticks, 18

Picking brushes, 19

Purple stain, 49

Polishing wad, 69

Prepared spirits, 76

Polish for turners' work, 77

Pine wood, 142

Pine finish, 142

Purple dyes, 163

Parchment size, 173

Preparing the woodwork, 176

Polishing, 176

Putting transfers on coach
panels, 199

Paint for blackboards, 199

Polishing boxwood draught-
men, 200

R.

Rosewood filler, 14
Red stain, 50
Rubber for polishing, 68
Rules for polishing, 73
Repolishing and reviving, 104
Red oak, 123
Regarding cypress, 135
Rosewood generally, 138
Rosewood finish, 139
Redwood, 141
Red dyes, 162
Refinishing oak doors, 191

S.

Surfacing finish, 21
Sizing work, 24
Staining black, 26
Satin wood, 52
Staining oak brown, 59
Shellac polish, 81
Styles of oak finish, 120
Sycamore wood, 151
Sycamore finishing, 151
Stains of all kinds, 155

Staining carved panelSj 158

Staining spirit varnish, 158

Silver gray dye, 104

Sizes, 173

Shelled gold, 179

Silver size, 179

Staining woodwork with acidi,

182
Stained floors, 189
Spirit varnish for violins, 19fi
Softening putty, 201

T.

The finishing of various woods,

112
The rules for finishing oak, 113
To darken oak, 119
To finish cherry, 128
The mahogany stains, 133
To manipulate gold leaf, 179

Varnishing floors, 41
Violet stain, 52
Varnishing and polishing, 59
Verde or green finish, 123

W.

Wood fillers and how to us€

them, 7
Wheeler's wood filler, 8
Walnut filler, No. 1, 13
Walnut filler. No. 2, 13
Wood staining generally, 25
Walnut wood, 52
Walnut stains, 53
Wad for polishing, 69
Wax polishing, 93
Wax and turpentine, 95
Wax mixture, 96
Weathered oak, 123
Walnut finishing generally, 135
White pine finishing, 142
White cedar, 150
Wood stains, 201

Y.

Yellow stain, 55
Yellow dye, dark, 161
Yellow dye, bright, lijl

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Builders' Reliable Estimator

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By FRED T. HODGSON.

Two volumes in one. 550 pages.
Bound in silk cloth. Size, 5^x734
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PROFUSELY ILLUSTRATED with diagrams,
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Shipping weight, 2^ pounds.

No. 3L9120 PRICE, $1.98.

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CYCLOPEDIA

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