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EXJJBRB UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA £}

JOHN HENRf NASH LIBRARY

SAN FRANCISCO

PRESENTED TO THE

UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA

ROBERT GORDON SPROUL, PRESIDENT.
BY" *

MR.ANDMRS.MILTON S.RAV

CECILY, VIRGINIA AND ROSALYN RAY

RAY OIL BURNER COMPANY

MODERN TYPE DISPLAY

AND THE USE OF
TYPE ORNAMENT.

MODERN TYPE DISPLAY

AND THE USE OF
TYPE ORNAMENT

WRITTEN AND PUBLISHED BY
HENRY T. WYSE, 5 CRAIGHOUSE
TERRACE, EDINBURGH, 1911.

PREFACE.

WRITERS of a former age now somewliat remote dedicated
tlieir books to tJie "gentle reader" hoping to bespeak liis
favour by kind and conciliatory words. Authors of a later
date have allowed this fashion to fall into disuse, and yet the writer
is still as dependent upon the reader as ever. The two together produce
a collaboration which should be mutually helpful.

In this preface the author desires to indicate his views, and to
apologise for the errors of omission and commission w//ich lie knows in
his heart can hardly escape the notice of the critical reader, no matter
/tow gentle he may be. Tlie autlwr occupies a privileged position in
that though he enjoys unlimited freedom of speech, he is not subject to
immediate contradiction. He hastens to assure the reader that if lie
seems dictatorial, it is a fault of style rather than of spirit or intention.

It is not to be expected that the principles and especially the
practice illustrated in a book dealing with that debatable quality taste,
should be accepted with anything like unanimity by those whose daily
business is type-display. This book has been written with the full
consciousness that in stating the case for Modern type-display and
the use of type-ornament, the exposition is not a complete one. Such
a complete statement could only be made by a universal genius in the
printing art, and such has yet to be found. Other methods tlian
tJwse given here will find other exponents.

The aim of the work is to call the reader s attention to some
possibilities in the arrangement of type and ornament. To do this
satisfactorily, it was necessary to recount in a brief way the history
of written and printed- alphabets, and to say something of the con-
struction of type-ornaments and their combinations. Mitch of tlie
matter included had to be obtained from botJi ancient and modern
books on tlic subject, a list and acknowledgment of which appears on
page viii.

The _first seven plates of early printing are here reproduced by
kind permission of the Keeper of Printed Books of the British Museum,
and If. Rae Macdonald, Esq., to both of whom the author renders
liis grateful thanks. He hopes that some of the methods suggested
may appeal to liis readers as being at least different from, if not
better than, tlic nsnal trade practice. That mnch misused word artistic
has been avoided in tJie book, which is concerned with the practical
questions of clearness and legibility, rather than with anything fan-
tastic or striking. The claim of ornamental enrichment has of course
been admitted, but only in its legitimate place.

The inclusion of advertisements of type, paper, and ink as plates
in the book requires no apology. The volume was called into being
for the express purpose of influencing type-display, and is not meant
to be an academic production which has no connection with everyday
printing.

H. T. IV.

J Craighoitse Tcrmcc,
Edinburgh, jotli November IQTI.

CONTENTS.

PAGE

PREFACE ........ fv.

CONTENTS - - - vi.

LIST OF PLATES - - vii.

BlBLIOGRAPHIA - viii.

CHAPTER I. The History of the Alphabet 9

II. The Early Printers - -32

III. The Early British Typefounders - 42

IV. Analysis of Type Faces - 48
V. The Subject-matter of Advertisements - 82

VI. Some Principles of Type Display - - 87

VII. The Design and Combination of Type Ornaments - 94

VIII. Harmony of Colour in the Use of Printing Papers

and Inks - - 98

LIST OF PLATES.

" Forty-two-line Bible," Gutenberg, Mainz, 1456 I.

" Bonifacii Papae Liber," Schoffer, Gernsheim, 1473 II.

" Hypnerotomachia Poliphili," Aldus, Venice, 1499 IIIo.

"Opere Volgari," Soncino, Fano, 1503 III6.

"The Dictes or Sayengis," Caxton, Westminster, 1477 IV.

" Latin Psalter," Caxton, Westminster, 1480-3 V.

"Higden's Polychronicon," de Worde, Westminster, 1495 VI.

"Comoediae Sex," Pynson, London, 1495 VII.

Type Display without Ornaments. Two founts, four sizes. Black Ink. White

Paper VIII.

Type Display without Ornaments. One fount, one size. Different widths of margins.

Black Ink. Paper— "Antique Wove" IX.

Type Display without Ornaments. One fount one size. Contrast of Capitals and

Lowercase letters - X.

Type Display with Ornaments. One fount, four sizes, Capitals only. Two coloured

Inks. Paper — Grey "Silurian Wove" XI.

Type Display with Ornaments. One fount, five sizes. Two coloured Inks. Paper —

White "M.F. Printing" XII.

Type Display with Ornaments. Four founts, three sizes. Two coloured Inks.

Paper— White "M.F. Printing" - XIII.

Type Display with Ornamental Border. Three founts, four sizes. Two coloured

Inks. Paper— "Silurian Wove" - XIV.

Type Display without Ornaments. One fount, four sizes. Black Ink. Paper —

Cream "Antique Laid" XV.

Type Display without Ornaments. One fount, five sizes. Black Ink. Paper —

"Antique Wove" - XVI.

Type Display with Ornaments. Two founts, seven sizes. Two coloured Inks.

Paper- Bramble "Rideau Cover" XVII.

Pomegranate Ornaments, Diapers, and Borders. One coloured Ink. Paper —

Primrose "Camber Cover" - XVIII.

Type Display with Ornaments. Two founts, four sizes. Black Ink. Paper — White

"Camber Cover" - XIX.

Patterns composed of repeated Thistle units. One coloured Ink. Paper — Birch

"Rideau Cover" - XX.

Patterns composed of Thistle units, Diapers, and Borders. One coloured Ink.

Paper— Birch "Rideau Cover" XXI.

Type Display with Ornaments. Three founts, six sizes. Black Ink. Paper —

White "Camber Cover" - - - XXII.

Diapers, or All-over Patterns, Geometric and Floral. One coloured Ink. Paper —

Primrose "Camber Cover" - XXIII.

vii

LIST OF PLATES— (contd.).

Borders, Geometric and Floral. One coloured Ink. Paper — Bramble " Rideau

Cover" - XXIV.

Panels and Tail Pieces. Rose, Thistle, and Spiral units. One coloured Ink.

Coloured Paper XXV.

Christmas Cards composed of Type and Ornaments. Two coloured Inks.

Paper— Toned "M.F. Printing" XXVI.

Type Display without Ornaments. Three founts, three sizes. One coloured Ink.

Paper— " Glazed Amber" XXVII.

Letter Headings. Type and Ornaments. Two coloured Inks. Paper —

"Imperial Linen" XXVIII.

Type Display. Three founts, three sizes. Two coloured Inks. Paper —

"Imperial Linen" XXIX.

Menu and Invitation Cards. Type and Ornaments. One coloured Ink Paper —

"Glazed Amber" XXX.

Title Page. Two coloured Inks. Paper— Toned "M.F. Printing" - - XXXI.

Eleven Ornaments. Vine and Rose. One coloured Ink. Coloured Paper XXXII.

Programme. Type and Ornaments. Black Ink. Coloured Paper XXXIII.

Book Plates. Type and Ornaments. One coloured Ink. Paper — Cream

'•Antique Laid" - XXXIV.

Programme Covers. Type and Ornaments. One coloured Ink. Paper —

" Dark Apricot Art " - - XXXV.

Rough Composition Sketches. Type only. One coloured Ink. Paper —

"Antique Wove" ..... XXXVI.

Rough Composition Sketches. Type and Ornaments. One coloured Ink.

Paper— " Antique Wove" - XXXVII.

Patterns composed of Shamrock type units. One coloured Ink. Paper —

"Dark Apricot Art" - XXXVIII.

Ornamental Initials. One coloured Ink. Paper— " Antique Laid " XXXIX.

Type Display, set by the Monotype. Black Ink. Coloured Paper XL.

BIBLIOGRAPHIA.

1. A History of the Art of Printing.

2. A History of the Old English Letter Founders

3. Alphabets Old and New

4. A Guide to the Exhibition in the King's Library, British Museum.

5. Facsimilies from Early Printed Books in the British Museum.

6. Introduction of Printing into Scotland

7. Life and Topography of Wm. Caxton (2 Vols.)

8. The History of the Alphabet

9. The Pentateuch of Printing
10. The Story of the Alphabet

n. Typographical Antiquities (4 Vols.)

12. Writing and Illuminating and Lettering

H. NOEL HUMPHREYS.
T. B. REED.
LEWIS F. DAY.

ROBERT DICKSON.
BLADES.
ISAAC TAYLOR.
BLADES.

EDWARD CLODD.
J. F. DIBDIN, A.B.
EDWARD JOHNSTON.

MODERN TYPE DISPLAY AND
THE USE OF TYPE ORNAMENT

CHAPTER ONE — THE HISTORY OF THE ALPHABET.

STAGES:— i. PICTOGRAPHIC; 2. HIEROGLYPHIC; 3. HIERATIC ;
4. DEMOTIC ; 5. SYLLABIC ; 6. ALPHABETIC. THE DIFFERENT
ALPHABETS: i. INCISED ROMAN; 2. PEN-WRITTEN ROMAN;
3. RUSTIC; 4. UNCIAL; 5. HALF-UNCIAL; 6. ANGLO-SAXON;
7. CAROLINE; 8. ROMAN SMALL LETTERS; 9. ITALIC;
10. GOTHIC. EVOLUTION OF LOWER-CASE LETTERS FROM
CAPITALS. THE INFLUENCE OF THE REED-PEN IN FORM-
ING THE CHARACTER OF MS. LETTERS. TYPE FORMS
DIRECTLY DERIVED FROM HAND-WRITTEN LETTERS.

NY consideration of the subject of type and its display would be
incomplete without some reference to the origin of the letters
used in modern printing.

A long period of time lies between the compositor of to-day and his
early prototype, who first attempted to communicate with his fellows
by means of graphic symbols. Antecedent to this attempt at communication
by means of graphic signs was the power of audible communication, which
must have developed slowly during many centuries. Communication by
means of speaking and hearing had many grave defects, being limited by
time and distance. The recognition of these limitations may have suggested
a means of communication through graphic signs, which, inscribed upon
suitable surfaces, could be carried to and understood by others at great
distances.

T is not to be supposed that these graphic symbols in their com-
pleted form were the product of a single effort. We know, for
instance, that the earliest graphic communications consisted of rude
diagrams of men, animals, and things, the significance of which was
understood and interpreted by those to whom they were addressed.
These primitive drawings were not realistic in any modern sense, but
were sufficiently accurate to convey the meaning intended by their writers.
Such pictures undoubtedly marked the first stage in the evolution of
the alphabet — when drawings were used to signify the things pictured.
Palsographists term such drawings Pictographs. This was the form of
graphic symbol in use by the early Egyptians, whose writing of a date
as early as 5000 B.C. existed in three forms, Hieroglyphic (or pictographic),
Hieratic, and Demotic.

In the Hieroglyphic form, a carefully outlined representation stood for
the thing itself; writing of this kind was used mostly for monumental
inscriptions. The Hieratic was a simplified form of the Hieroglyphic, in
which the main lines or leading curves only were used, instead of the
complete outline of the thing. This kind of writing was used by the
priests for sacred books and records. The Demotic, as its name implies,
was used by the people generally, and was based on the Hieratic form, but
was still simpler and more " cursive " in character. It was employed for
ordinary letter writing and for business. Though these three different kinds
of writing were current at the same time, they were derived the one from
the other, and occupied the same position as capitals, lower-case letters, and
ordinary handwriting do with us. Each was suited for a special purpose,
as in our own day Roman capitals are used for dignified and monumental
inscriptions, lower-case letters (mostly) for the printing of books, and ordinary
writing for correspondence.

These early forms of graphic expression or writing were rather limited
in use. So long as things were being written of, no special difficulty presented
itself, but when ideas and abstractions required expression, the inadequacy of
the system became evident. For example, the word calf in the Hieroglyphic
form was represented by an outline drawing of a calf. In the Hieraiic form

1 1

the constructional or characteristic lines only of the calf were represented,
while in the Demotic form these lines were still further simplified and con-
ventionalised. But when such an abstraction as thirst required expression,
it was represented by a calf running towards water ; thus two forms — a calf
and water — were necessary for the expression of this single abstraction. The
multiplication of these symbols increased to such an extent that no fewer
than one thousand seven hundred of them are known to have been in use
during the Hieroglyphic period.

HE second stage of advancement towards the formation of
the alphabet was reached when a single sign represented the
sound used in naming the thing. At this stage the written
symbol had little relation to the appearance of the thing it
represented ; it stood for the sound, not for the thing itself.

In the third stage it was recognised that the different syllabic sounds
were few, and that each syllable could be represented by a separate symbol.
That syllables were composed of a very few different root-sounds was the
next and last discovery which led to the formation of the first alphabet.
This was composed entirely of consonants accented in different ways. The
production of separate letters for vowels came later.

The alphabet which we use consists of twenty-six letters or signs. It
is the most important of the two hundred and fifty alphabets which have
been in use since the first one was invented. Some fifty of this number are
still current, more than half of these being of local importance only. The
three alphabets which have had the widest distribution and have been the
greatest means of spreading knowledge and chronicling events, are the Arabic,
the Chinese, and the Roman. The forms which the individual letters of
these alphabets have assumed at different periods are, of course, endless, but
it may be interesting to discuss and to illustrate some of the typical manu-
scripts used by scribes from the second to the sixteenth century.

The Roman alphabet has been spoken of as the lineal descendant of
many of the alphabets used successively by the Egyptians, Phoenicians, and
Greeks. In its early form it consisted of some twenty-two letters, to which

some were added at a later period, while others were discarded. For example,
the seventh letter of the old alphabet of Italy was I (Z), a form adopted from

the Greek alphabet. This letter not
being required by the Romans, was
dispensed with, and a new symbol
(G) occupied its place. This new
letter was, in fact, the greatest inno-
vation which occurred in the Roman
alphabet ; it was a sign to represent
the hard C sound, and the rejection of
I made room for the new symbol G.
The Roman alphabet was further
added to when the new form J was
introduced. I formerly was used for
both sounds. At a still later period
a difference was made in the repre-
sentation of two sounds formerly
INCISED ALPHABET FROM THE TRAJAN expressed by V, now represented by
INSCRIPTION AT ROME. 1 14 A.o. u and V. The latter was used at

FIG> '• the beginning of a word, and the

former elsewhere. The origin of the double V or double U is self-evident.
The seventh letter of the old Italian alphabet, I or Z, which had been
discarded to make room for G, was reintroduced at the end of the Roman
alphabet ; it was required for the transliteration of Greek words. Its intro-
duction from the French into the English alphabet dates from the fifteenth
century. W and & were both originally ligatures ; the former is now
included as a letter.

The series of incised Capitals shown in Fig. i are copied from the base
of the Trajan Column in Rome. This monument was erected in 114 A.D.
to commemorate the victories of Trajan against the Dacians. As these
letters are cut in stone, some differences are noticeable between them and
printed or written letters. Attention might be drawn to the proportionate
width and height of the individual letters. A comparison between this

ABODE
FG I LM

NOPQJl
S T V X

alphabet and any "old style" fount of capitals will show that, while the
latter are all nearly the same width (except M, I, J and W, which cannot
be expanded or contracted ad lib.}, the individual letters in the Trajan
alphabet are very varied in width. B, E, F, L, P and S are narrower, and
C, D, G, N, O, Q, R and T are wider than the normal. Each letter has
thus a characteristic width, which has much to do with its characteristic
shape, and this materially assists identification, especially when the printing
is viewed from some distance. With the exception of this incised one, all
the alphabets described in this chapter are reproductions of MS. letters —
that is, they were written originally by hand.

The pen-written Roman alphabet (Fig. 2) was used by Roman penmen
for the writing of important books entirely in capitals, since no lower-case or
small letters were in existence at
that time. We can here trace the
commencement of the alterations of
form which ultimately led to the
making of a complete alphabet of
small letters. Notice that the letters
are freer in form than those of the
Trajan inscription ; they have lost
something of the dignity of their
ancestors, the incised letters. The
beginning of the thick member of
A shows its pen origin, while the
upper bow of B is distinctly smaller
than the lower one. The upright
member of the L is higher than
the upright members of the other

' . PEN-WRITTEN ROMAN CAPITALS

letters, while V seems as if it could op FQURTH QR FIFTR CENTURY>

hardly make up its mind whether

• x FIG. 2.

to appear as V or U. Most of the

other letters are good pen translations of the stone-cut forms, upon which

they are based.

ABODE
FGHlL

MNOPCL
RSTVX

The Rustic Roman capitals (Fig. 3) are still less formal than those of
the last alphabet. They bear evidence of having been printed or written
more quickly and with less care than those shown in Fig. I. It will also
be noted that their individual distinctive proportions have been lost, and it
may be concluded that they are the work of commercial scribes rather than
of literary pen craftsmen. Mere utility, divorced as far as possible from art
craftsmanship, seems to have been the object of their writers. In A the
crossbar has been dispensed with as being unnecessary to distinguish this
letter from any of the others. The " stroking " of the A necessitated the

lifting of the pen, and the commer-
cially-minded scribe omitted it and
thus saved so much time. In the
B the upper bow has become more
of a loop and less of a bow, while
the lower has become proportionally
larger. In the F the top horizontal
member has been considerably leng-
thened, becoming, for this reason,
more like the lower-case f. The
upright member in L retains its
extra height, while its horizontal
RUSTIC CAPITALS, ROMAN, member has become shorter. The

long ornamental tail of Q has been
cut off short, while the Y has been

borrowed from a form used in the Greek alphabet. The whole alphabet, with
its narrowed letters and hurried serifs, suggests a desire to economise space
and time.

Uncial letters (Fig. 4) were well developed as early as the fourth century,
and from that time till the eighth century were in use for the writing of the
finest books. They were originally one inch high, as the name " uncial "
implies. It will be noticed that some of the letters originally composed of
straight lines are now formed of curved ones. The reason for this is not
far to seek ; it is due to the desire for increased speed and ease in writing.

A&COEfC
HliMNOP

QJUTVT

D, for instance, could be more easily made by one curve than by a straight
and a curved line together. It was simpler to write E by means of one
curve and one straight line than by means of four straight lines. The other
new forms are A, which in this alphabet is no simpler, however, than the
earlier form, and g, h, m, q, and u. A reference to modern lower-case
letters will show that the forms of some of these are identical with the new
characters in this Uncial alphabet.
Any compositor may see that this
is a mixed alphabet composed partly
of capitals and partly of lower-case
letters. It must be remembered that
at first all letters were used as small
letters, and only gradually did the
practice of employing capitals as
initial letters come into use. In the
earlier centuries initial capital letters,
several times larger than the text,
were employed to mark the begin-
nings of paragraphs. After the tenth
century the initials became larger,
while from the fourteenth century
onwards they were often so large
that one sometimes occupied nearly
a whole page in a MS. book. Some UNCIAL BETTERS, ITALIAN, OF

c . ..... SIXTH AND SEVENTH CENTURIES.

or these initial letters are so orna-
mental and are surrounded by so

much foliage as to make it well-nigh impossible to decipher them. Only nine
of the letters of this alphabet may be said to be pure capitals ; the others all
show a tendency to the small or lower-case form. The alphabet is thus a
hybrid, being partly capital and partly lower-case in form.

In the Half-Uncial English series (Fig. 5) we find a further development
towards the formation of a complete alphabet of small letters. Only two are
now distinctly of the capital form ; these are N and R. The form of A has

Mopqa
srcivy

completely changed ; it is now composed of a circle with a vertical member
and a connector ; b has lost its upper bow ; c, d, and e are now true lower-
case letters, while f is still in a
hybrid state. The final lower-case
form is suggested in g, and h, i, 1
and m are all truly small letters ;
p, q and u belong to the lower-case,
while s appears in two alternate
forms. A curved capital form of t
is still used, and the letter x is
more "cursive" in character and in
harmony with the other letters than
an old style or

hi im u op
qRsfcujc

S&CDEF

HALF-UNCIAL, ENGLISH, EIGHTH CENTURY.

Half-uncial letters were used for less
FIG. 5. . ,

important documents and books

from the sixth to the ninth centuries. This kind of writing was introduced
into Ireland in the sixth century from the Continent, and by the seventh
century it had developed into a style which, for beauty of form, has never
been surpassed.

An interesting alphabet of Anglo-
Saxon Capitals is shown in Fig. 6.
One might be pardoned for describing
them as a "mixed lot." These forms
originated at the hands of many
scribes, who were perhaps more open
to suggestions than their predecessors.
Some of the letters are close adapta-
tions from the conventional Roman
forms, such as C, D, E and L, while
others seem to be small letter forms
raised to the dignity of capitals, such

as B, H, M, R, S, X and Y. F is half ANGLO-SAXON CAPITALS OF THE

capital and half small letter. EIGHTH AND NINTH CENTURIES.

FIG. 6.

UOFQPf

CYME

While the Half-Uncial writing of Ireland and England was famous
throughout Europe, the work of the French scribes had become so poor that
Charlemagne, with a view to the
improvement of the writing of his
own country, issued a decree in
789 A.D., ordering the adoption of
a better style. It was known as the
"Caroline" miniscule, and soon
spread throughout Europe. It will
be seen that all the letters in Fig. 7
are lower-case in form. The transi-
tion from capitals to small letters
had been accomplished, except that
the letter t still appeared in alternate
forms. It will be noticed that the
letters of this alphabet slope to the
right ; this is the last word in easy,
cursive writing.

bcdef

ghilmno

CAROLINE

WRITING, NINTH CENTURY.
FIG. 7.

bcdefg
hilmnop
qrsftuv

ROMAN SMALL LETTERS, ITALIAN,
SIXTEENTH CENTURY. FIG. 8.

The gradual change from capitals
to small letters, already briefly
described and illustrated, culminated
in a distinctive alphabet of small
letters in the fifteenth century. The
slope of the writing and the method
of producing it varied in different
countries ; but, though differing
slightly in details, the root-forms
were identical. The Roman small
letters shown in Fig. 8 are typical
of all the lower-case alphabets of the
period. The only letter since dis-
carded is the long s, whose likeness
to f led to its expulsion.

MMOP

vwxrz

ITALIC CAPITALS, ITALIAN, OF THE
SIXTEENTH CENTURY. FIG. 9. y

fixes, indices, and notes. It was
extensively used in Italy in the
writing of MS. books of poems.

The Italic Small Letters (Fig. i o)
naturally bear the same relation to
Italic capitals as the small Romans
bear to Roman capitals. A refer-
ence to the " Caroline " alphabet
(Fig. 7) will show that the general
form of the two series is similar
both in slope and character. The
beginning and finishing serifs of

The Italian Capitals illustrated
in Fig. 9 are based upon Roman
capital forms, but slope slightly to
the right. They bear strong evi-
dence of their pen origin, and are
very free and flourished in character.
They may be said to be half-written,
half-printed, suggesting Roman
capitals and the best examples of
capitals in modern writing. Most
of these letters can be written with-
out lifting the pen more than once,
an important consideration where
speed of production must be con-
sidered. Italic writing was used
to distinguish certain portions of
books, such as introductions, pre-

ibcdefa

mnop

^StlLTLs

ITALIC SMALL LETTERS, ITALIAN,
SIXTEENTH CENTURY. FIG. 10.

the ascending and descending Italic
small letters are, however, absent in
the Caroline forms. Some of the
Italic forms, such as a, c, e, m, n,
o, p, etc., are identical with the
same letters used in ordinary writ-
ing. Notice that p, q, and the
long s have added serifs, while the
serifs in the other letters are mere
constructional beginnings and
endings. Italic small letters are
narrower, occupy less space, and are
rather more free in character and
more graceful in form than the
Roman.

The round writing in common
use by the scribes throughout
Europe during the ninth and tenth
centuries gradually became narrower

trclefgfji)

GOTHIC OR BLACK LETTER (SMALL
LETTERS) OF FIFTEENTH CENTURY.

FIG. 12.

GOTHIC OR BLACK LETTER (CAPITALS),
FIFTEENTH CENTURY. FIG. u.

and more angular in the succeeding
two or three centuries. In England
and Ireland it became pointed, while
in Germany, by the fifteenth century,
it had become very narrow and stiff.
The rounded parts were represented
by short thick and thin strokes set at
an angle, which connected the upright
members of the letters. These were
placed very close together. This kind
of printing or writing was called
" Black Letter " by printers, because
the thick members and thin interspaces
gave it a black or heavy appearance.

Gothic lettering was in common use during the fifteenth century throughout
Europe, except in Italy, which still maintained the tradition of the " round "
open writing of the preceding centuries. The Germans marked this Gothic
writing for their own, and even yet the type they use is mostly " black
letter." A glance at the alphabet of Gothic capitals (Fig. 1 1) reveals the
fact that the letters are more ornate and flourished than Roman capitals.
It is interesting to try and decipher the essential root forms of the letters
in Fig. 11, and in most of them it will be seen that about half of the
members are necessary for the characterisation of the form, while the
remaining ones are merely ornamental. These unnecessary parts make each
letter less distinctive.

A comparison between the alphabet illustrated (Fig. 1 2) and an
alphabet of Roman small letters, will enable anyone to trace the resemblance
between the forms of the various letters. It will be noticed that all the
letters are composed mostly of thick members with short thick and thin
connectors. The absence of curves produces the sense of angularity and
stiffness so characteristic of most Gothic writing. Because the letters are
composed of so few different typical members, they are liable to be confused
the one with the other. Especially is this so in n and u, r and x. In this
alphabet, as in all the others, the individual letters are placed some distance
from each other, so that their forms may be more easily appreciated, but
in ordinary Gothic writing, the letters being close together are more
difficult to decipher.

HE series of illustrations shown on pages 22 and 23 exhibit
some of the intermediary forms which letters took during
seventeen centuries. Beginning with the dignified capitals
of early Roman times, they gradually developed into the
" cursive " writing in common use in the fifteenth century,
when printing from movable types was invented.

From the middle of the fifteenth to the end of the sixteenth century
many printing presses had been established, and as every printer was at that
time his own type founder, many different kinds of types were in use. By

the end of the first fifty years of printing, about two hundred and fifty
presses had been set up. The early founder-printers, as was natural, imitated
in their types the narrow angular writing of the time, but soon the clear
round Italian writing first used in type form by the printers of Italy gained
such favour, that it gradually displaced the Gothic type, and Roman letters,
both capitals and lower-case, as we now know them, came into general use.
When type-founding as a separate business was established, printers found
it to their advantage to purchase their type from the founders, instead of
casting it for themselves, and this reduced the variety of founts, and further
development in the forms of letters was of course limited.

The alterations which had occurred in written letters before the advent
of type were mostly occasioned by increased speed in writing. Parts un-
necessary for the distinguishing of the individual letters were omitted. For
instance, in the letter A, page 22, the first feature to be dispensed with
was the cross-bar, which was unnecessary to distinguish this letter from any
other, and so to save the penman's time it was omitted. In the third
example of A, the first member begins to turn upwards, and eventually
develops into a circle, which in its final lower-case form, a, is reduced in size.

It need hardly be stated that the evolution was not regular nor uniform
in different countries. The forms illustrated have been taken from many
manuscripts produced during seventeen centuries in many countries. They
have been arranged to show the kind of changes which took place, rather
than to illustrate the actual order of development. All the letters illustrated
were actually in use though not necessarily in the order given. Many of
them will be recognised as belonging to alphabets already described and
illustrated. Some scripts retained an early form for a long period ; this
was rather suddenly supplanted by a more cursive form, probably adopted
from another country. This character might persist for a time, and a
return be again made to an earlier form.

The letter B, in its Roman form, had its two bows nearly equal in
size and similar in form. The second B shown is taken from a Rustic
Roman Script ; in it the upper bow has become less important, while the
lower one has become correspondingly larger. In the third example the

Incised Letters, Intermediary Manuscript Forms, Lower-case Lower-case Ordinary

Trajan Inscription, Third to Sixteenth Centuries. Roman Italic Modern

L*4 <*•**«

ijpc.

JL y LK;.

na.nu>v ruing.

§•

I I i i i i i i

K K k k k k k

L L 1 I II I /

MM(D(T)mm m m n

NNNuPln n n TI

Incised Letters, Intermediary Manuscript Forms, Lower-case Lower-case Ordinary

Trajan Inscription, Third to Sixteenth Centuries. Roman Italic Modern

ii4 *»**

jype.

1 ype. Hanawritii

0 &

P A

7 9

T" f

y .<£/

t t

U a-

V V

w «,

/*Y*
JC,

y /-

two bows are separated by a space, while in the following specimen the
upper one has become a mere loop, which is entirely dispensed with in the
next example, which is in all essentials a lower-case letter.

The form of C c has not altered during all these centuries beyond
being made smaller, narrower, or wider, to be in harmony with the general
characters of the different alphabets. As it is a form which is easily made
and contains in its original shape no unnecessary parts, it offered little
opportunity for change. The letter D d shows a series of interesting
variations. The bow to the right side of the vertical member of capital D,
has in its final small letter form changed to the left side. How this alteration
came about is illustrated in the series of successive forms. In the " Uncial "
form (second example) the bow has been changed into a circle, from which
an ascender is produced to the left and upwards. This member in course
of time became more nearly erect, during which process it changed to the
right side. The gradual reduction in the size of the circular, and the
consequent extension of the vertical member, produced the d form which
we now use.

In the letter E e the gradual change from the straight to the rounded
form is well illustrated. Curved forms are more quickly made with a pen
than straight ones, and the penman was not slow to follow the line of
least resistance. The second E illustrated is a hybrid between E and e.
The intention has evidently been to make a " square " E, but speed and
want of care have produced a form midway between a straight and a curved
letter. In the third example, two of the horizontal members along with
the vertical one have been merged into one curve, while the central hori-
zontal member still retains its form and position. The connection of the
upper termination of the curve with the unaltered member produces the
final form e. In the case of F f the principal change has occurred in the
upper horizontal arm, which has been made curved instead of straight ; in
the small letter the bar crosses through the main member instead of beginning
at the right hand side as it does in F.

There is very little in a small g to suggest its dignified ancestor G.
This letter has probably undergone more changes of form than any other

PLATE I.

plmrate I: moms a Itptuagmta
nttibua no fcifnnDatJjec ecgo
biatt&uDiorowiq; fecitfe
;tp ambiga muitoe fbre*qui urt inui*
ittaurlfuprralin malrnt tontmtnrre
te uiDtte predara quam fcifcetertt Dr
tirbirimta
nffnua fate potacf.l

! - ,< •- ••

tue ur rrui no
in rafilio im^

TB-'-rS^

fl oui

latorum no flttit :

^Ad

: •ittilege

mtftitabif Die ac nottej6[t mt
tanttp ligmi quqD platatum tft &cu9
mirfu0 aquaru : qfi ftuiu fiiu tabit
in $2fuo^t foliu turn no DeHutt : i
yamnia qutcuq} fader profptcabutur.
f^un lit imptj no fie: to tanqj pul
iio qui proint uitua a farie teccc^E #
ixo no reTurgut tttipif i iiiDmo : ntq;
jpcccatotcs in coftSo iutorilOuoni
> am noutt inminue uia iufei^ : ittcc

is iwufift

iiltatcnru
foplinam:
nua^perca
arDmtinbi

uttfummr,
nofftfaluc
ftnefufepti
altaarapit
ntinudam
teladofua

tamertiut

a&uTamta

paatoruro

Part of a page of the 42-line Bible printed at Mainz not later than 1456.

(King's Library, British Museum).

'? 2

«>.£
*S

<=>.£

«j

c ffw-s s

o 'n .u 43
•%3 w

g£l^'2

lr§SgS

r •? ,a /3 E £

S * • S ta s»

lillll-
2Si'?tl-u

II II II

-5*^,2 §"-^

- w^^-g ^ 2^

fll^li

•l^lfV]1!!
ss^lly^:2

a^g'Sil'li S
o-Z.c o~o K^^-

fW *• V c
a^^f «

*^ *» ** 4J \v w

a^Mii

c 5 u: ve

fc)J5s'- ** 3

c n -Per*

KiliillliUmfiitltll

1
i

S o u

•«^

J.I-
b g

s ;/T~~ «

£ *

o -o
S J5

j-S"

.2 V

. o

o -=

^ E a

llSJJ'zl

••- -'•
_ —

^-'^

- .- -

of tfe f$ifefop$** atprmitet? >% me tfttttanp
i) a* Befftntffo $ pew of out fcjbp

is fete tanffefety
9 , 0^ ^ (no8&
of ^^ug«6 ^i^ of a o
o ^^/$D^fctt^our anbp ^ttec6ouc o

fo* out fyfy ^a^* (^ Cf>ofc HJ ^ic ^ogame of

o m 0w& ttjwtt of tB
<t<tont

fotjotgte of tffc

>9 « nwtt'fe*j »o? t^ dfc fefibut o
dot) tffctof MJ 60 out m^Kff? ftmgt/
a pngu&t feto g t^n^ (t^^^mte m^ (agty K>«JJ> »
6> ou^fce it anb? tB^te a0 Jfljotoe

amende i^/ue if J f^f» (o prefume
(t tBag wo;^ tBe0 g »nnj>gufy
^ 5006? anb? f»p mg&
me 65 oue*fce \t g f^^ me ^ue*'ce djmape
t^ fcmebp m^^ fe &f ( ou^ ae X>tu^cc &(tw« nnf
fen* fan; QWXfatifc* 6> ^ttn^ an^ aripo^fe g cc^c 6?
(crt«e> 8m R^P a^ettinrnf $w& fc

From "The Dictes or Sayengis of the Philosophres." Printed by Caxton at Westminster 1477.

(The King's Library, British Museum).

PLATE V.

<£>mtnt nt in fiteoa fttc arjjti
as mtmttp in ira fcia tottipt
as medZiftrm mci Dn^ qm ffitm9

fit ; fena me Dtic qm cotiuteta funt
oda mca^t anima mr Q ftitfeate 2
wilt :ftD tit tJfic xif^quodlonucrfe
re Dfic et cr tpc ara'ma mcH: (aluum
nit foe ^tct miftntoiDta ftm^mi
non (6 in moitt qui mmtm fit (tit:
inmfemo autmt qitis confitebtiitc
fiBWahnatri in goniftumo laita
to per fingulao nortco Icctu mcil :la^
cnmia meie ftrafci maim ngato <
^Mitetus (G a fiicote oculue me9:
tnuctccaiti mttt onntto ttmntros
m^oo^O ifitWr a me omnra qui
opiamim tmqiutatcm:qucmia er ;
auDimt Dne xocem flctuo mep^l f
autiiuit ttimmuB lepiccacone meat
tins mone mta

Page from the Latin Psalter. Printed by Caxton between 1480 and 1483.

(King's Library, British Museum).

PLATE VI.

Itber t crcuid

c i

oe of flbdue/tbe tbjtoe of epgbe/tbe
.it. as tbfe r>pre f jjtfcetb*

DC Dde/ bete to (ones 2Dpateoirnn;/g
tbat $ io tumbles is calleo aU $ ^e
epgitfetij Deic / ^cet to ftttmes Double
3Dpapa(OQ.H6 io melodpe of one Ore
ge/?f tip Orpnge be ffte/neo enlonge
Dpoo tj>e bol owteOe ot a tree / g oe^
parteo eueo a tttob^ab^ogr (ette
t^ere tttoer io e^cfjec parts of p (ton
ge/$e (btwte (ball be iDrapafoo/pf
ctje Owns be Orepned g touc|)edi2lno
ff t^e Oreng be oeparteo eueo to t&t
g ffc btpdge fette tutOer/(o t^a( it oe
patte b^ttbene $e tt&ep deles g^^pc
oe/tbao $e (engec Dde of ^e ftreng
jfyt be fimcfjeo (ball peue a (bvme cal
leo iDpattfleroOiSnD pf it be oepar^
eed to n?ne/anD tbe bipogc (ette un^
aec bptttene tbe (aft parte anD cfje tw
tber Dele / t^ao tbe (engec ode of tfje
Qtengepf (tbetoucbeo (ball peue a
fotbne/ebat beee ^onus/foz njme (5
tepnetj) e^gbt/anD tt)e epgbt parte of

-I

wntra Uuf^any of J&wtagoias tot ^wntmi
Wles bepte bet mapOwsbeettesio flbiorbe.
m^noe ano DCeo ber u>ptte atto myn
ae to duty* of boobes/ano twgbt
(bat man? (ucbe pwuerbes (ball b
tt ano oeparte (oioste fron? tfj«
oye/wtconn^ge fronj tbettptte
(ber^e fronj tbe uombe/treafoo oute
of tbejCpte/ftryfeout of tbe bow*
3ncontpnence ano ba(tyneue oute of
aa tbpngee^ICo all tbat ftenoes b^
ue (ball be compo « H fmtoe is tbe o^
fijer of rtMrne » ^e mutt tafee beoe
of tj?mc8 . after goo (otbnefle ftall
be tto%ppeo tbat mafee4) meo be
nejct goo. C^Cpoouis lilwo ooatio ca

leo bptt) (dfe (opbittris tbat is uspfe/

mao be rots/be antoeroe ano i
tbat be uas a pbplofopber / tbat is a
louecof ttptte anoof ttyttoome fot
to calfe bpnj (dfe a tty>(e mao/it n>ol
Oe (erne grete booft <? pijJOe.aftenbac
otber pbtlofopbiesbaoDeo b^ names
of ber atKtours.ano (o tbep tbat bd^
Oe ptiagoias loote/Oiere calleo pic^
tapzaci . ano tbep tbat bdoeo pla^
toos iooze /Vbett calleO platontct .
^Tpot.libio pn^^ome pb^lo(opbres
baooeo names of contrees / g (o tbcp
Ibclwp&tagoms looie^ere calico

From Higden's Polychronicon. Printed by Wynkyn de Worde in 1495.

(King's Library, British Museum).

PLATE VII.

t-jr"Bo flH0.te .$n t?ac fccna tf» eremplfl fmfcefttoe obtotealionte* 0 boe
ridiculerDi-Jboad oftrata>icaiUi»mfUifi[ienuIIiefreimHainno;I
t m mtite me et hlio ^e.Coftitueratoiu iUtcoomt obfldcre fj \nlta vidit fra*
iremoititqjfedeccunM.cccebicp:opc ipfuinfratrtoZDitioqrotect noqroo
ie»«mdudG.t.e*muItoantecpej^f.qufdn5.<.Cttrqumbaeme.E'e,rero.«ffer<»

fence

olia flagitta ingetia.i.enoz

<ntintii6itimflm?ir tern """'"H'satzrci.aSt.t.
in nOUlS mO^ani.UC, CCCU f5 ecce.t.adcf) repcntinu ms

]0 1 turbaKo g«udi|.C ccc or
= cOrepaealiqmd triftereb*
itcrucnictlctisautcerte qS

aD tc tgctia buni fllius aDolefcf tte:

,. . -

tf,t)ocpe«atfnnDUSin«meftciucmit.
fcio:0emea.el)a fcis et patf ce.mit.tiDni

te.i.inconfldcraietufdnia*

pattat.Demea.DicnHcljunocIamae.no ma adere.i.ioq te naurf*

,^v quefnttraptaa letrone poc

(iUants.mit.non niam)quiDc:Demeai i««tto^.rtagitf6i?ocqaoa

fcro eD.i.ettat invfrginent
pUf C ell natUS:D» tene tJOJtat.DC , W* id eft crga vet contra virgin

Ducena tnootata eft.mitio jfr ciltce t.&e mt.tao
me a. muiD nunc futurum eft . ^itfo. S

folu cfcbino.Scif s.t.cognofcis (Hud ftagitium effc facium ec paterr .( d ell pa/
tens I'tu prrmi CUB et fcrs quaff picat ocbcrcs.mitio.quidni . id e(l cur non p3»
liar p:efertim cum medcn n on po iTi in.Dcmca.oic tnid?( non clamae. (d c:t vo
<iferda3duerfu9ercbintjmmrgtlsctinip:operii6noniufani)g.(dcf)non vcrte
riemfurmmcumbeccernieai)itiononqiud?.ideftnencrtamofcoruppletl!i
tfcfjmo malam verbum.id elt meleftum non aliquid el iniali vt If 31 ^in altquib*

...

fltcuentrc fen bene fdtcitcrq- cuenist vel t>y conu crtan t rcm vt DP tanr7 vd vt
nojuntnobigcxpedire.toocQatcmoictumfrcqBeno cflapud comtcos.Btibuic
fount quod agaa.plerumqp enrm bonaiin penio.mela mutantur in meltua.

....
bcrc.o;.ct ip i a nr go eft oucenda.ld eft cap i en da in vsot cm indetata.id eft fine

Page from Terence's "Comoediae Sex." Printed by Richard Pynson in 1495.

(In the possession of the Author).

ABOUT

ARNOLD & FOSTER, LTD.,
EYNSFORD PAPER MILLS,

KENT.

Hand-made Printing Papers.

ARNOLD & FOSTER have made a specialty of
Hand-made Printing Papers for over one hundred years.
They have supplied Hand -made Paper for important
editions issued by the following well-known publishers: —

G. Bell & Sons.
George Allen

(Ruskin Library Edition).

The Oxford University Press.
Cambridge University Press.

The Kelmscott Press.

The Chiswick Press.

This page is printed upon Unbleached Arnold Hand-made
Antique Laid 30 Ib. Demy. Plates II. and VII. are printed
upon Unbleached Arnold Cream Wove Unglazed 30 Ib. Demy.
Plates III. and VI. are printed upon Unbleached Arnold Cream
Wove Glazed 30 Ib. Demy. These Papers, and all other
usual sizes and substances, both Laid and Wove, are made
of the best linen rags, without the use of chemicals, by

Arnold & Foster, Ltd., Eynsford Paper Mills, Kent.

Type by STEPHENSON, BLAKE & Co. and Sir CHARLES REED & SONS, Sheffield.
Italian Old Style, 24 point and 14 point. Italian Old Style Italic, 24 point and 14 point.

letter in the alphabet ; yet the two main features, the arc of a circle, and
the short vertical member or tail seen in the capital G are still present in
the lower-case g, though greatly modified in form. Originally the letter C
was the symbol used to express two sounds nearly similar ; these were the
soft and the hard C. Later it was found expedient to add a tail to signify
the hard sound ; so G was the form evolved. This tail, which was originally
an accent, has developed in the lower-case form until it is now the larger
part of the letter, while the upper part, originally a bow, is now a circle.
The persistence of the tail is well seen in the series of examples shown.
The second form is a C accented ; in the third example, the tail has been
twisted into a loop ; the fourth example shows a return towards the original
G form, while the next three examples show the continued evolution of
the tail. The small extender to the right, terminating in a ball or dot,
represents what was formerly a pen dash ; this appears in the original G
as a serif.

In the second example of H the second upright member has been
made shorter than the first, while in the next specimen, the same member
is connected to the first by a curve, instead of by a horizontal cross-bar.
What seems to be a quite unnecessary loop is also added ; this is merely
an ornament, as the letter was used as a capital. The other examples are
essentially lower-case in form. I has suffered practically no change, except
that it has been reduced to half its height, and has had a dot placed over
it in the small letter form. This dot is a curious survival. It was originally
an accent to signify double i, i.e., ii, while single i was written without
any accent. In the fourteenth century the accent began to change into a
dot ; the earliest occurrence of i instead of i was in a manuscript written
in 1327. The fact that j also appears with a dot is a proof that it was
obtained from i by differentiation, and also that the practice of dotting
the i is older than the evolution of j. For two sounds now represented
by I and J, one symbol I was used for many centuries, but a need arose
for the distinguishing of the two sounds, and the I was produced below
the writing line and curved at its termination, making J.

In K k no change has occurred, except in the reduction of the height
c

of the second and third members, and the necessary alteration in the form
of the serif at the upper end of the first member. The horizontal member
of L became shorter and shorter as time went on, till it now exists in the
lower-case 1 merely as a serif. It will be noticed that the first M has no
upper serifs. M in its capital form consists of four members, which in the
third example is reduced to three ; the second and third members have been
merged into one, while the first and fourth members are curved instead of
straight. That the three members gave the letter its characteristic form is
evidenced by the fifth example shown, where the scribe has simply drawn
three upright members and connected them by a horizontal bar. The
changes in N are of a nature similar to those of M. Capital N consists
of three members, whereas lower-case n is composed of two members
connected by a curve. The fourth example of N is from a " half-uncial "
MS. in which it may be remembered capitals and small letters were used
indiscriminately. The true lower-case n was also used in this script, not
only in the same page, but often in the same word. The fifth example
shows the lower-case form raised to the dignity of a capital.

The letter O has shown practically no alteration during all these
centuries ; simple and complete in itself at the first, no parts could be
added to it nor any dispensed with. It will be noticed that in some of
the examples it appears narrower than the normal, or pointed, but its
essential form (without beginning or end) remains the same as at the first.
P has changed its position rather than its form ; its lower half is now
below the line thus — p. The letter Q q shows some interesting changes.
These have occurred mostly in connection with the characteristic tail,
which, originally of considerable length, and sloping downwards towards
the right, gradually assumed an upright position thus — q.

The lower-case r exhibits the result of gradual attenuation. R in its
capital form consists of three members. In the second example given, the
third member has been shortened ; this member eventually disappears, while
the final lower-case r has lost one half of its second member besides. The
career of S s has been a chequered one. Originally one of the most
graceful forms, it degenerated in the course of time into a straight line

with a small curve at each end, the lower one of which was finally omitted.
This, along with the other form s, was in general use when printing was
invented, and both forms were used for some centuries afterwards. Its
likeness however to f was the cause of its undoing, and it was rather
suddenly superseded by its fellow s, which is now almost invariably used,
except by a few printers bent upon giving a mediaeval character to
their work.

The two essential features of T are retained in the lower-case form t.
The vertical member has however been shortened a little, while the cross-
bar has also been shortened and lowered. The reduction in the total height
of the lower-case t was doubtless made to prevent its being confused with f.
U and V were originally the same letter, V being used at the beginning
of a word and U elsewhere. The form U is of very recent introduction.
The early printers used a capital U with a thick second vertical, whereas
modern founders make the second vertical thin, omitting the lower serif
thus, U. The lower-case u is very similar in form to the original capital
form. v, x, and z are identical in their lower-case with their capital
forms V, X, and Z. W was not a letter of the Roman alphabet. As its
name implied, it is a V or U doubled. In early examples of printing, it
is sometimes shown thus, VV, showing its origin as a double V or U.
In some scripts the small letter is shown as a double U, though the
type founders have mostly rejected this form and make it thus, W. It is
difficult to reconcile the appearance of the lower-case letters v, w, x, and z
with the other lower-case forms. They seem dwarfed capitals (as they are),
and do not exhibit the same modifications as most of the other letters of
the alphabet do. The fault, if any, is to be laid upon the early type
founders, because w, x, and z at least were modified in harmony with their
fellows during the centuries when the capitals were being evolved into the
lower-case forms. The form of Y y has changed in one or two particulars,
noticeably in the width of the lower member, which, originally upright,
thick, and a continuation of the first member, is now thin and curved,
actually an extension below the line of the second member. The alterations
which have taken place in the " ampersand " can be very closely traced

in the examples shown. The first examples show the two letters E and T
very clearly as a ligature ; then there is a gradual change until the last
form (an ordinary written one) is reached, which is very unlike the
original form.

All these alterations of form originally brought about by increased
speed in writing, have culminated in the well-known lower-case forms,
which have now been fixed by the printing press. The necessity for these
forms does not now exist, but we have become so accustomed to their
appearance, that a return to the use of capitals only could hardly be
accomplished. The advantages of the use of both capitals and lower-case
forms are many ; besides, capitals only are still appropriate in special cases.
In the MS. of the scribes, initials were used at the beginning of paragraphs,
instead of the indentations by which the compositor marks them nowadays.
The use of initials at the beginning of a page was an excuse for the scribe
to introduce one, often of ornamental form. In the later centuries of MS.
writing, the initial letter and its decoration often occupied most of a page.
Gold and colour were very freely used, while ornamental borders and line
finishings were common in the most important books. Thus the ancestor
of the compositor was free and untrammelled. The questions of one, two,
or multiple printings did not concern him, for, by the mere change of his
pen or brush, he could introduce any number of colours he chose. He
was able to change the character of his printing or increase or reduce the
size of it at will, place his lines of printing close together or wide apart
without the use of leads, being independent of type founders, composing
sticks, cases, chases, boxes, or formes.

Initial letters and decorations were still added by the scribes to the
early printed books. In fact it is open to doubt whether the first books
printed from movable types were not intended to be counterfeit imitations
of band-written books.

The modern book, however, exists on its own merits, and while the
compositor of to-day works under different conditions from his precursor,
the scribe, he has still the means (if he recognises his limitations) of
producing works both readable and decorative.

WIDE variety of tools has been used during the ages for the
making of printed inscriptions and books. The form of these
inscriptions is dependent principally upon three factors. These
are, first — the writing tool ; second — the medium (or ink) used
for writing with; and third — the surface upon which the
characters are written.

The early pictographs were doubtless made upon very rude surfaces,
and with very primitive instruments. For drawing upon stone, skins, or
bark, burnt wood or charcoal would be used for black, and natural earths
or clays would be employed when colour was required. Bone and ivory
were also used as writing surfaces, and a hard metal point was used for
scratching upon them. Babylonian and Assyrian scribes employed wedge-
shaped punches, by means of which they impressed their " cuniform "
characters upon soft clay tablets, which were afterwards sun-baked or fired
to render them permanent. The ancient Egyptians also incised their Hiero-
glyphic characters upon stone and plaster, which were often further enriched
by means of colour. Writing proper, however, as we understand it, was
made in most cases with a brush or a pen, and upon a smooth writing
surface, such as skin, parchment, or paper.

As early as 3500 B.C., the scribes of Egypt used a reed pen, either
cut with a chisel point or simply sharpened and bruised on the writing
end. The former produced writing with thick and thin strokes, the latter
writing with lines of equal thickness throughout. This writing was made
upon a surface prepared from the pith of the papyrus plant, which was
cut into thin strips or bands and laid close together in parallel rows,
being crossed by a similar set of gummed bands laid upon them at right
angles. The fabric of strips was then pressed, dried in the sun, and
polished smooth on the surfaces. Some of the papyrus inscriptions which
have been discovered are fifteen inches wide by eighty or ninety feet long.
The Greeks and Romans also used papyrus for their writing. The use of
parchment or vellum as a writing material became general during the
earlier centuries of the Christian Era along with the use of the quill pen.
The tools employed always influence the character of the craftsman's

3°

product, and this is nowhere more evident than in the case of writing.
The form of the chisel-shaped writing point causes the variety of thick
and thin strokes, and of curves of varying thickness, which is one of the
principal beauties of good manuscript writing, and of its type imitation —
good printing.

The forms of type letters are directly based upon writing or printing
produced by a reed or quill pen, and an understanding of the form and
use of such a pen will assist the judgment in deciding what is and what
is not legitimate in the forms of type letters.

It seems remarkable that in such a country as Japan, where suitable

reeds of many kinds grow pro-
fusely, the Japanese should not
have seen the artistic possibilities
of such a writing tool. Yet
Japanese writing (adopted origin-
ally from China) is produced by
means of a brush — a far more
flexible tool, and one which has
had a marked effect on the
character of the writing produced.
Tradition counts for very much,
and while the original bias in
China was in favour of the brush,
the early penmen of the Roman
Empire had a tradition going back
thousands of years through earlier
Greek, Phoenician, and Egyptian civilizations in favour of the reed pen.

Diagrams are given here of the form of the hollow reed pen used by
the writers of ancient MS., and the different stages in the making of it.
In the diagram (Fig. 13) (a) represents a side view of the reed or quill,
the dotted line showing the cutting away of the first part, (d] represents
the second part which is cut away, (c] shows the nib split, (d] the nib
cut at a slight angle by a sharp knife, and (e) the introduction of a thin

Thick and Thin®

I „.

/ft t

VuniionbU

thick
/'Nwrtiol , ,

1 |e tKick and

Mack letter

FIG. 13.

metal strap to contain the ink. A pen cut in this fashion produces thick
vertical strokes and thin horizontal strokes when used with the edge of
the nib parallel to the horizontal edge of the page, as shown in the diagram
(_/") (Fig. 13). Scribes term this "straight" pen writing. When the pen
is held in a slanted position, with the edge of the nib at an angle to the
horizontal edges of the page, it produces moderately thick vertical strokes
connected together by thick and thin "heads and tails" (k] (Fig. 13).

At the invention of printing, the lettering of the scribes of Northern
Europe had become very narrow and angular, and this was copied by
the early founder-printers. It is now known as Gothic lettering, or as
printers call it, " Black Letter."

From this difference in the holding of the same pen arose the two
main divisions of lettering, which are still evident in type faces : — Roman,
which shows the result of the use of the straight pen, and Black Letter,
the result of the use of the slanted pen.

CHAPTER TWO — THE EARLY PRINTERS.

GERMANY— ITALY— FRANCE— THE
NETHERLANDS— SPAIN— ENGLAND.

|ERMANY. — Much contradictory evidence has been brought
forward in the various attempts made to prove who was the
inventor of printing from movable types.

It has been naturally assumed that the printing of illus-
trations and letterpress from engraved wooden blocks preceded
that of printing from movable type. Taking in each case only dated
examples, it is found that the earliest book printed from movable type
was issued in 1457, while the earliest printed block-book is dated 1470,
i.e., thirteen years later.

One of the most popular block-books was the " Biblia Pauperum,"
which went through many editions. It consisted of about forty leaves,
and contained scenes from the Old and New Testaments, with explanatory
letterpress. The early examples were printed on one side of the paper
only, and were produced without any printing press. The impressions
were made by laying the sheets face downwards upon the inked surface
of the block, and pressing upon them with a smooth burnisher. The later
editions were printed upon both sides of the paper, and were produced in
a printing press. Though the engraving of a page of letterpress upon a
wooden block involved more care and time than the setting of a similar
page of movable type, the process had some advantages, notably in a greater
freedom of arrangement. Fresh impressions could also be taken without
the necessity of re-setting. These advantages enabled the process to remain
in use till 1530, almost seventy-five years after the invention of movable type.
Documentary evidence exists, which proves that experiments had been
made in printing with movable types of some kind as early as 1444. These
trials had been made at Avignon, in France, and also at Haarlem, in

Holland. It is generally conceded, however, that to Johann Gutenberg
belongs the honour of the invention. Very little is known of the life of
Gutenberg. That it was one which was full of effort and disappointment
seems certain. We read that in 1439 he was prosecuted for the repayment
of a loan at Strasburg, while a similar action was raised against him in
1455 for the balance of two loans advanced to him in 1450 and 1452
by Johann Fust. These loans were presumably made in connection with
experiments in the making of type. Of all the books supposed to have
been printed by him, none bears his name.

The earliest known examples of printing from movable type are two
letters of Indulgence granted by Pope Nicholas V., and printed in 1454.
The sins of the holders of these Indulgences were pardoned upon condition
that they gave a certain sum of money to aid the King of Cyprus in a
war against the Turks. These two Indulgences, it is supposed, were
printed in two separate printing offices in Mainz, one of which likely
belonged to Gutenberg. In 1455 the first Latin Bible was printed. This
has been known as the " Mazarine Bible," from the fact that the copy
in the Mazarine Library at Paris was the first one to attract the attention
of bibliophiles ; it has also been called the Gutenberg Bible, from its
being generally attributed to the press of Gutenberg; and the "42 line
Bible," from the fact that each of its pages contains 42 lines of printing.
The page of this bible is folio size ; the red initial letters were stamped
by hand after the completion of the letterpress printing in black. In the
later pages the initials were written by hand. A copy of this bible, printed
on vellum, was sold recently in New York for £10,000. (See Plate I.)
Another Latin Bible, known as the " 36 line Bible," having 36 lines to a
column, was issued also at Mainz not later than 1461. The larger type
used in the two Indulgences is identical with the type used throughout in
these two Bibles ; it is supposed that each of the printing offices issued
one Indulgence and one Bible.

The printers of these early books imitated very closely the arrange-
ment of the MS. books then in common use. The type-letters were
imitations of manuscript writing of the time and locality. The scribes

used no title-pages nor pagination, being content to inscribe a colophon
at the end of the volume, which usually included the name of the writer
and the date and place of production, to which was usually added a prayer
of thanksgiving on the completion of the book. This form was imitated
by the early printers, who for the best printed books still employed the
scribes to write the initials, and add any necessary decoration by hand.
It is conjectured by some authorities that the early printed books were
meant to be counterfeit imitations of hand-written ones, and only to a
trained eye is the difference between some hand-written and early printed
books evident. This is easily believed when it is remembered that some
of the best examples of early books were printed on vellum, and often
much enriched by hand illumination.

Only those who know what exactness of body, sizes and height-to-
paper standards, are necessary for the composition of a line of type, can
appreciate the marvellous results obtained by the early printers. When it
is remembered that the types were cast singly by hand, possibly without
an adjustable matrix, that the ink was distributed over the types by a
" dabber " and not by a roller, and that the impression was made in a
very primitive press, the skill of the early printer craftsman can hardly be
over-estimated. Gutenberg is reputed to have printed three hundred
sheets per day.

Two other printers of Mainz divide the honours of the infant art
with Gutenberg. These were Johann Fust, a jeweller, who seemed to
have had some business connection with Gutenberg, as it was he who
prosecuted him for the repayment of two loans granted in 1450 and
1452, and Peter SchofFer, an illuminator. From the press of these two,
in 1457, was issued the first book bearing the name of its printer and the
date of its publication. This was a liturgical Psalter, printed in large clear
Gothic type, in which the initial letters were afterwards stamped by hand
types in blue and red. A similar Psalter, by the same printers, was issued
two years later. A copy of this book was sold in 1884 for £4,950, which
until recently was the highest price ever given at a public auction for a
printed book. The same printers issued a fine bible in 1462, printed in

much smaller type. This is the first dated bible, and the first occasion on
which a book was issued, divided formally into two volumes. In the same
year, Mainz was captured and sacked, and this put a stop to the further
development of printing there, at least for a time. Owing to the sacking
of Mainz, the printers were scattered, and within the next few years,
printing presses were established in nearly all European Countries.

Even before this time the art had been carried to several different
towns in Germany, for we learn that in 1460, another great Latin Bible
had been printed by Johann Mentelin at Strassburg. In 1466, Ulrich Zel
issued his first dated book at Cologne, while in 1468 Giinther Zainer had
issued a book at Augsburg. This printer was the first German to adopt
Roman type, which he did in 1472. It is said that he brought it with
him from Italy, the land of its birth.

TALY. — As early as 1465, we find two German printers, Conrad
Sweynheym and Arnold Pannartz, established at Subiaco, in Italy.
There they printed four books, one of them being " Lactantius,"
an opera, in which for the first time Greek type was used. The
common custom hitherto was to leave blank spaces for Greek
quotations, which were afterwards filled in by hand. In the same year,
some German printers, established in Rome, issued a " Cicero de Oratore "
in Roman type, which had, however, a certain Gothic flavour about it.
The first native Italian printer was an officer in the Papal household named
Joannes Philippus de Lignamine, who printed at Rome in 1470 a work
entitled " Vitae Caesarum." In the same year, Nicolas Jenson, a native of
Sommevoire, in France, issued his first book at Venice. The type he used
was a beautiful fount of pure Roman, which has served as a model to all
subsequent founders of Roman type. It was based on the clear, round
Italian MS. writing of the period. Jenson's type was on a body corre-
sponding to English (about 14 point). The capital letters numbered
twenty-three (J, U, and W not being in use at that date). The lowercase
contained the same number, except that u was substituted for v, and in

addition, there were a long s and the dipthongs as and oe. To complete
the fount, there were fifteen contractions, six double letters, and three points,
viz., . : and ?, making seventy-three sorts in the whole fount. After
Jenson's death, his type and matrices passed into the hands of a firm of
which Andrea Torresani was the head. Another famous printer of Italy
is Aldus Manutius, who joined Andrea Torresani as a partner. He became
Torresani's son-in-law at a later date, and finally inherited his types and
matrices. Aldus was the printer of the most famous of Venetian illustrated
books, the " Hypnerotomachia Poliphili," a romance, illustrated by no fewer
than 1 68 woodcuts of great refinement, and printed in Roman letters of
very fine form. (See Plate Ilia.) Aldus is well known as the originator
of Italic type. This was at first called " Aldine " or Venetian, and
subsequently termed " Italic," and in Germany, " Cursiv." The punches
for the fount were cut by the painter, Francesco de Bologna (better known
as Francia). For this fount only lowercase letters were cut, Roman capitals
being used along with them. Italics were first used in the printing of
" Virgilius," issued by Aldus in 1501. The type found immediate
popularity, and was imitated by many of Aldus's contemporaries. Originally
intended for the printing of entire books, as in the " Virgilius," it was
used at a later period to distinguish certain portions of the text, such as
introductions, prefaces, and indices. It is now almost entirely reserved for
emphasising certain words in the text.

FRANCE. — France received the new art in 1470 by the hands of
three German printers, Ulrich Gering of Constance, and Martin Kranz and
Michael Friburger of Colmar. These men were invited to set up a press
by two of the professors of the College of the Sorbonne of Paris ; accom-
modation was assigned to them within the College buildings. For two
years, they continued to occupy the workshop provided for them, and issued
during that time several books, mostly of a scholastic kind. After this
time, they moved to new premises, and began to print in opposition to
other craftsmen, who had established presses without the assistance of the
College.

THE NETHERLANDS. — In the year 1473, the first dated book was
printed in the Netherlands. It is practically certain that fifty books were
printed there before 1473, but no date or place can be assigned to any of
them. They were rather rude, and certainly could not have been printed
by craftsmen who had been trained at Mainz. Two firms issued books in
the Netherlands in 1473 ; these were Nicolaus Ketelaer, and Gerard
Leempt at Utrecht, and John of Westphalia and Thierry Martens at Alost.
John of Westphalia was the first printer of the Netherlands who used
Roman type, and the only printer of that country who used it in the
fifteenth century.

Our own first English printer, Caxton, also issued, with the help of
Colard Mansion, two books at Bruges. During the fifteenth century,
printing presses were at work in twenty-one towns in the Netherlands.
Two other printers, though of much later date, must be mentioned in
connection with the Netherlands. These are the Plantins, who established
a press at Antwerp in 1555, and who maintained a great tradition for
printing there through several generations, and the Elzevirs, who produced
many fine books in Amsterdam and other Dutch towns from 1595 to 1680.
They are famous for a fine i amo Edition of the Latin Classics. Their
Roman type was cut by Christopher van Dijk, and was used as a model
by later English type-founders.

SPAIN. — Printing was introduced into Spain in 1474 by a German
or Flemish printer named Lambert Palmart, who, along with Alonzo
Fernandez of Cardova, set up a press at Valencia. Spanish printing does
not occupy a very important place in the annals of the art ; less than six
hundred Spanish books were produced before the close of the fifteenth
century. Most of these books were the work of foreign printers, less
than one-third of them being printed by native craftsmen. The more
important centres of printing in Spain were Saragossa, Seville, Barcelona,
Salamanca, Burgos, and Toledo. The type mostly used was based upon
the Spanish manuscript writing of the period, and is dignified and fine
in character.

NGLAND. — England was the last important European country
to receive the new art, which she did through the medium of
one of her own sons. William Caxton had had a very chequered
career. Born about 1420 in the Weald of Kent, he was
apprenticed in 1438 to a London mercer named Robert Large.
Upon the death of his master soon after, he migrated to the Continent,
living at different times in Brabant, Flanders, Holland, and Zealand,
becoming afterwards the Governor of the English Merchants at Bruges.
When about fifty years of age, he entered the service of the Duchess of
Burgundy (the sister of Edward IV.), as her Secretary, and was encouraged
by her to continue a translation of Raoul le Fevre's " Recueil des histoires
de Troye," which had been interrupted by other affairs. By 1471, he had
finished the translation, and as he had promised copies of it to several
friends, he looked about for the means of producing them. The means of
accomplishing this, however, were not at hand, and some years elapsed
before he was able to associate himself with Colard Mansion, a skilled
writer of manuscripts. Together, they printed the book at Bruges in 1475.
The translation was begun on i8th March 1468, and finished on igth
September 1471. He quaintly describes the translation and printing of the
book : — " Thus ende I this book whyche I have translated after myn
Auctor as nyghe as God hath gyven me connyng, to whom be gyven the
laude and preysing. And for as moche as in the wrytyng of the same my
penne is worn, my hand wery and not stedfast, myn eyen dimmed with
overmoche lokyng on the whit paper, and my corage not so prone and
redy to laboure as hit hath ben, and that age crepeth on me dayly and
febleth all the bodye ; and also because I have promysid to dyverce
gentilmen and to my frendes to addresse to hem as hastely as I myght this
sayd book. Therefore, I have practysed and lerned at my great charge
and dispense to ordeyne this said book in prynte after the manner and form
as ye may here see, and is not wreton with penne and ynke, as other bokes
ben, to thende that every man may have them attones, for all the bookes
of this storye named the Recule of the Historyes of Troyes, thus enprynted
as ye may here see, were begonne in oon day and also fynysshid in oon

day." But for troublous times in the country of his adoption, Caxton
might have continued to translate and print there, but he thought it better
to return to England, which he accordingly did in 1476.

The first English printer set up his press in September 1476, in a
shop attached to the Sanctuary at Westminster. Here, in the autumn of
the following year, Caxton issued the first dated book printed in England,
"The dictes or Sayengis of the Philosophres." Mr Blades (Caxton's
Biographer) distinguishes several different founts used by Caxton. Type
No. i was used for "The Recuyell " and also for "The Game and Playe
of the Chesse," both of which were printed with the help of Colard
Mansion at Bruges in 1475 and 1476. This fount was about greatprimer
in size (rather larger than 18 point), and was composed of no fewer than
163 sorts; it was left behind at Bruges. Type No. 2 was cut by Colard
Mansion, and brought by Caxton himself when he returned to England in
1476. This fount was on a body equal to two-line longprimer (about
20 point), and consisted of 217 sorts. The capitals were very irregular.
Twenty books were printed in this type between 1477 and 1479, including
" The Dictes or Sayengis," Chaucer's " Canterbury Tales," and a second
edition of " The Game and Playe of the Chesse." The two founts already
referred to, as well as types 4, 5, and 6, were based upon a style of
manuscript writing known as "Secretary." Type No. 3, however, was of
quite a different character. It was used for the printing of a " Latin
Psalter," issued sometime between 1480 and 1483, as well as for a few
other church books, and for occasional headlines elsewhere. The beauty
of this type can be seen by referring to a reproduction of a page of the
Psalter from the only known copy in the British Museum. (See Plate V.)
The fount consisted of some 194 sorts. Type 4 was similar to type 2,
but rather smaller. " The book of the subtyl hystoryes and Fables of Esope
which were translated out of the Frensshe into Englysshe by William Caxton,
1483," was printed with this type. Type 5 was like type 3, but of a less
size, while type 6 was similar to type 2, and consisted of 141 sorts.
Eighteen works were printed with type 6 between 1489 and 1491, including
" The Fifteen Oes," and other prayers. This book consisted of fifteen

prayers, each beginning with the invocation O ; it is the only book having
ornamental borders known to have been printed by Caxton, and was
dedicated to Edward IV. 's Queen. Though Caxton did not begin to print
before he was fifty-five years of age, he produced no fewer than one
hundred books during the next sixteen years. His time was so much
occupied in translating, that it is doubtful, if after the first year or so, he
set or printed any of his books with his own hands. Most of the works
he issued were printed in English ; they were almost all of a popular
character, and it is not likely that books of any other kind would have
found a successful sale in England at that time. Upon his death, in 1491,
his business was continued by his assistant, Wynkn de Worde, generally
supposed to have been a native of Worth, in Alsace. It is conjectured
that he came from Bruges, along with Caxton, in 1476, and no doubt
held an important position in Caxton's office from then till 1491, when
he succeeded to his master's business. He inherited most of Caxton's
matrices, and, besides, cut new letters for himself. He was a better printer
than scholar, and produced some six hundred books, including new editions
and pamphlets. The black letter founts that he cut became models for
England and the Continent. He introduced some improvements upon the
practice of Caxton, notably the introduction of title-pages, and the more
regular use of ornamental initials. Though he printed some important
books, many of which were reprints of his master's, he could hardly be
called one of the best printers of his time. From 1491 to 1500 he
continued to print in Caxton's house, after which he removed to the Sign
of the Sun in Fleet Street. The illustration shown on Plate VI. is a page
from Higden's " Polychronicon " or Universal History, printed by Wynkn
de Worde ; it is the first example of music-printing in England. De Worde
died in 1534.

Richard Pynson is the third of the well-known printers working in
London at the end of the fifteenth century. He seems to have been a
Norman by birth, and probably learned his craft in Rouen, a great printing
centre at this early time. He started business in London in 1491 (the
year in which Caxton died), and is supposed to have taken over the

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PLATE XL

THERE WAS A
TIME WHEN
CASLON TYPE

WAS NOT MADE, BUT
THIS WAS BEFORE THE
YEAR I7I6A.D., IN WHICH

WILLIAM CASLON

TURNED HIS ATTENTION TO THE CUTTING OF
LETTERS. HE SERVED HIS APPRENTICESHIP TO AN
ENGRAVER IN LONDON, AND AT THE EXPIRY OF
HIS TERM AT ONCE BEGAN BUSINESS AT VINE
STREET IN THE MINORIES. HERE CHASING OF
SILVER AND DESIGNING OF TOOLS FOR BOOKBINDERS
GENERALLY, OCCUPIED HIS ATTENTION. WHILE
THUS ENGAGED SOME OF HIS BOOKBINDING
PUNCHES WERE NOTICED FOR THEIR ACCURACY BY
MR. WATTS THE EMINENT PRINTER, WHO, FULLY
ALIVE TO THE DEGENERATE STATE OF THE TYPO-
GRAPHICAL ART OF THIS COUNTRY, QUICKLY
RECOGNISED THE POSSIBILITY OF RAISING IT AGAIN
TO ITS PROPER POSITION. WILLIAM CASLON WAS
IN THIS WAY THE FOUNDER OF THE FIRM OF

H. W. CASLON & CO. LTD.,

82 & 83 CHISWELL ST., LONDON, EC.

Type by H. W. CASLON & Co., Ltd., London. Old Face 48, 36, 24, and 14 point.
Paper— " Silurian Wove"— The Culler Mills Paper Co., Ltd., Mill No. 9, Peterculter, Aberdeenshire.

PLATE XII.

Photochromatic Printing Inks

Correct Shade and Permanence guaranteed for the
Three Colour Process. Art Shades in all colours for

HALF TONE WORK.

EBONITE

Lustre Half Tone
Process Black, for
Coated Stock and
Art Papers. A
New Ink on new
lines for lustre and
effect. Dries im-
mediately, allowing
the sheets to be
handled right away.
Special Grade of
'EBONITE* for
Supercalendered
Papers. This ink
is made in three
different qualities :
'A'Grade-l/61b.
' B* Grade -l/91b.
'C* Grade -2/-1B.

SPECIAL

We make a spe-
ciality of supplying
High Class Dry
Colours, and keep
a large selection in
stock. Please state
requirements, and
samples and quota-
tions will be sent
from our Colour
Department. We
make a speciality
also of Varnishes
for Letterpress and
Lithography, made
only from fine old
matured Linseed
Oil. All consist-
encies and quality
fully guaranteed.

A. B. FLEMING & CO., LTD.,

CHIEF OFFICES AND WORKS:

CAROLINE PARK,

EDINBURGH.

LONDON OFFICE AND WAREHOUSE: 15 WH1TEFRIARS STREET, E.G.

ALL THE COLOUR EFFECTS IN THIS VOLUME
WERE PRINTED WITH OUR LETTERPRESS INKS.

Paper— "White M.K. Printing," W. H. & A. Richardson, Mill No. 91, Springwell Paper Mills, Jarrow-on-Tyne, England.

PLATE XIII.

Mill No. 91.

W. H. & A. RICHARDSON,

SPRINGWELL PAPER MILLS,
JARROW-ON-TYNE, ENGLAND.

Makers of White & Tinted
Printings, E.S. Writing and
Envelope Papers, Lithos,
S.C., and Antique Printings.
Cartridges, Duplicatings,
Colouring and Gumming
Papers in Sheets and Reels.
Thick Bulking Esparto,
Antique Laid & Wove Book
Papers.

The raw materials used are
Esparto and chemically pre-
pared Wood Pulp; no
mechanical wood pulp is
used. Our machines make
paper 68 and 74 inches wide.
The papers are packed for
export in hydraulically
pressed bales or in wooden
cases.

Our Mills are situated conveniently for the
Tyne Ports and Middlesborough - on - Tees,
giving special facilities for shipments to India
and the Far East, Australia and So. Africa.

Our Papers are Supplied through Wholesale Stationers
and Paper Merchants only.

TELEGRAMS: "RICHARDSON, JARROW,"

TELEPHONE: No. 2 P.O. JARROW.

CODE USED: ABC (5th Edition).

Type by STEi'HENsox, BLAKE & Co. and Sir CHARLES REED & SONS, Sheffield.
Windsor, 24 point and 14 point; Italian Old Style, 14 point; Italian Old Style Italic, 14 point; Winchester, 8 point.

Paper— "White M.F. Printing," W. H. & A. Richardson, Mill No. 91, Springwell Paper Mills, Jarrow on-Tyne, England.

PLATE XIV.

THE CULTER MILLS
PAPER COMPANY, Ltd.

Manufacturers of

Superfine &• Antique Printings, Engine-
sized and Tub-sized Writings, Imitation
Hand -made and Deckle-edged Papers.
Plate, Lithographic, Drawing, and
Music Papers. White and Tinted Art
Papers. Chromos &• Enamelled Papers.
Cards €r Cardboards of every descrip-
tion. Cloth -lined Papers and Boards.

WORKS: PETERCULTER,
ABERDEENSH1RE. MILL No. 9.

London Warehouse: 218 Upper Thames St., E.G.

TELEGRAPHIC ADDRESSES:

•NINEMILL,' PETERCULTER.

•NINEMILL; LONDON.

Type by STEPHENSON, BLAKE & Co. and Sir CHARLES REED & SONS, Sheffield.
Westminster 24 point and 18 point; Italian Old Style Italic 14 point; Winchester 8 point.

Paper— " Silurian Wove"— The Culler Mills Paper Co., Ltd., Mill No. 9, Peterculter, Aberdeenshire.

PLATE XV.

MILLER & RICHARD

TYPE FOUNDERS

REIKIES COURT, NICOLSON ST.

EDINBURGH

WATER LANE, LUDGATE HILL

LONDON, E.C.

Supply everything necessary for the Printer, in-
cluding Metal and Wood Type, Cases, Chases,
Leads, Hard Brass Rule, Galleys, Frames,
Racks, Imposing Tables, Furniture Racks, Lead
Racks, Forme Racks, Galley Racks, Case Racks,
Galley Presses, Printing Presses, Inking Tables,
Mitring Machines, Lead Cutters, Roller Frames,
Roller Moulds, Platen Machines, Paper Cutting
Machines, Label Cutting Machines, Paging and
Numbering Machines, Perforating Machines,
Stereotyping Apparatus, Wire Stitching
Machines, etc., etc.

Are also makers of Cylinder Letterpress Machines
in 10 sizes, with latest improvements.

Type by MILLER & RICHARD— Old Style Italic 36, 30, 24, and 18 point.

Paper— " Featherweight Antique Laid"— THE FOURSTONES PAPER MILL Co., LTD., Mill No. 100, South Tyne Mill, Fourstones,

Northumberland.

PLATE XVI.

4 STONES 4
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Papers have a world-wide reputation for their high quality, purity of
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the ordinary antique papers, our standard bulk for Antique Wove 30x40,
60 Ibs., 516 sheets, being equivalent to a thickness of one inch for
320 pages. They are made of pure esparto grass and chemically prepared
wood pulp. The machinery employed produces papers up to sixty-five
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matrices and type of William Machlinia, a foreign printer who had been in
business in London for about ten years previously. About 1510 he was
appointed Royal Printer to Henry VIII., and fully deserved this honour, as
his books were more important and better printed than those of de Worde.
Prior to 1518 all English printers had used "Black letter" type for the
printing of their books. In that year Pynson used Roman type for the
printing of Pace's " Oratio in Pace Nuperima " ; he also was the first to
introduce diphthongs into the English typographical alphabet. The new form
of letter did not meet with immediate favour, and for some time a struggle
for the mastery went on between the old form and the new. Some books
were printed in which both founts appear, not only on the same page, but
often also in the same words. Pynson died about 1530, having printed
over three hundred and seventy books. Among the many books which he
printed was Terence's " Comoediae Sex," the first Latin classic printed in
England, with the exception of a " Cicero " printed at Oxford, of which
a fragment only is known to exist.

Walter Chepman and Andrew Myllar were Scotland's earliest printers.
They were licensed by James IV. in 1507 to set up a press in Edinburgh.
Other early Scottish printers were Thomas Davidson and Thomas Bassendyne ;
the latter published the first Scottish Bible, which was the first Bible printed
in Roman type in Great Britain.

CHAPTER THREE.
THE EARLY BRITISH TYPEFOUNDERS.

[UTENBERG, the inventor of printing, as well as his immediate
successors, cut their own punches, made their own matrices, and
cast their own type. In the early part of the sixteenth century }
however, as the number of printers increased, type-founding as a
regular business began to be developed, and periodical markets
for the sale of type were held throughout Europe. In England the pioneers
of printing, Caxton, Wynkn de Worde, and Pynson, were founders as well
as printers, casting type however mostly for their own use. One of the
most noted of these founder-printers was John Day, who began business in
1546. He cut founts of Roman, Saxon, and Italic letters, and was the first
English founder-printer who cut Roman and Italic letters which would range
as one fount. After Day's death, English printers had to depend upon Dutch
matrices from which to receive their supplies of type. The year 1585
witnessed a revival of the Oxford University Foundry and Press under
Joseph Barnes. During the next century it received two important gifts.
Dr John Fell, its Chancellor, in 1677 presented it with a complete foundry,
consisting of over seventy sets of punches and matrices for Roman, Italic,
Oriental, Saxon, and black letter founts, as well as all the necessary utensils
and apparatus requisite for a complete printing office. In the same year
Francis Juvinus presented similar gifts to the University.

In the middle of the seventeenth century type-founding and printing
began to be carried on as separate businesses in England. Joseph Moxon
(1659-1683), Robert and Sylvester Andrews (1683-1733), and Thomas and
John James (1710-1782) all figure as early English type-founders. Joseph
Moxon combined the business of type-founder and printer with that of
hydrographer to the King. In 1669 he printed what is supposed to have
been the first type-founders' specimen issued in England. Moxon was suc-
ceeded by Robert Andrews and his son Sylvester, who had established a

type-foundry in Oxford. This was purchased in 1733 and removed to
London by Thomas James, who had been an apprentice to Robert Andrews,
but had left his service before 1710, being joined by his son John at a
later date. It does not appear that they cut any punches for themselves ;
they depended upon Holland for their supply of matrices. By 1758 James'
Foundry had absorbed no fewer than nine of the old English foundries.

varying fortunes of the Caslon firm form an interesting
chapter in the history of type-founding in England. William
Caslon I. (1692-1766) may be said to have been the first English
type-founder who whole-heartedly devoted himself to the cutting
of punches and the casting of type. Originally an engraver of
gun barrels, he attracted the attention of Mr Watts, an eminent printer of
his day. This printer, struck by the neatness and taste displayed by Caslon
in his engraving, and being in need of a new fount of type, enquired whether
he thought he could cut letters for him. After one day's consideration, he
replied that he thought he could, and straightway began to cut a series of
punches for the type which is now known as Caslon Old Face. It is inter-
esting to know that Benjamin Franklin, who later became the well-known
American printer, ambassador, and statesman, was at this time a journeyman
printer in the service of Mr Watts. The efforts of Caslon gave such satis-
faction— the type he had produced was so much better than that in common
use — that the Society for the Promotion of Christian Knowledge, being in
need of a new Arabic fount, commissioned him to cut it for them. In the
same year (1720) he cut a Pica Roman and Italic fount. His next perform-
ance was a Pica Coptic fount for Dr Wilkins' edition of the Pentateuch.
These successful founts soon made him famous, and by 1730 he had eclipsed
most of his competitors, and secured the exclusive custom of the King's
printer. About 1733 he cut a black letter fount, and in 1734 issued his
first specimen from Chiswell Street, and it contained no fewer than
thirty-eight founts, all of which, with the exception of three, were from
his own hand. These thirty-five founts represented the untiring industry

of fourteen years. The production of this specimen placed Caslon at the
head of his profession, and his type was regarded as the standard. It was
illustrated in the second edition of Ephraim Chambers's Cyclopaedia in 1738.
In 1739 Caslon purchased half of Robert Mitchell's matrices, the other
half being bought by John James. In 1742 Caslon assumed his eldest son,
Wm. Caslon II., as a partner, and in the specimen of the same year the firm
appears as Wm. Caslon & Son. Caslon II. was as expert as his father at
punch-cutting, and the following notice appears in " Ames' Typographical
Antiquities," published in 1749: — "The art seems to be carried to its
greatest perfection by William Caslon and his son, who, besides the type of
all manner of living languages now by him, has offered to perform the same
for the dead, that can be recovered, to the satisfaction of any gentleman
desirous of the same." The "Universal Magazine" of June 1750 contains
an article on letter-founding, accompanied by a picture of the interior of
Caslon's Foundry. The print includes representations of four casters at work,
one rubber (Joseph Jackson), and one dresser (Thomas Cottrell). Punch-cutting
and justifying was carried on in secret by the Caslons themselves, but Jackson
and Cottrell found means to observe them at work, and learned for themselves
the manual part of the "art and mystery." In the year 1757 a movement
for higher wages was made by the men in Caslon's employment. The increase
of wages was granted, but Jackson and Cottrell, the ringleaders, were dismissed.
In the specimen of 1764 eighty-two different founts were illustrated, more
than twice as many as had been shown in the specimen of 1734. Most of
the new founts had been cut by Caslon II. Caslon I. was in many ways a
cultured man, being extremely fond of music. He was married three times.
His first family consisted of one daughter and two sons — William, who
succeeded him, and Thomas, who became an eminent bookseller. Caslon I.
died at Bethnal Green on January 23, 1766, aged seventy-four. In 1766
Caslon II., who had succeeded to the business on the death of his father,
issued a specimen on the title-page of which the original name of Wm. Caslon
appears. Caslon II. died in 1778, aged fifty-eight, leaving the business to
his son William (Caslon III.). In 1792 Caslon III. disposed of his interest
in Chiswell Street to his mother and sister-in-law. Mrs Caslon senior died

in 1795, and as her will was the object of some litigation, the estate was
thrown into Chancery, and the foundry put up to auction. It was bought
by Mrs Henry Caslon for £520, whereas seven years previously one-third
share of the concern had been sold for £3000. In buying the foundry, Mrs
Henry Caslon determined to revive the business, and for this purpose secured
the services of Mr John Isaac Drury, who cut new Canon, Pica, and Double
Pica founts. At the same time, Mr Nathaniel Catherwood, a distant relative,
was introduced as a partner. By 1808 the foundry had regained its former
position. Both Mrs Henry Caslon and Mr Catherwood died in 1809. In
1802 the firm appeared as Caslon & Catherwood, but in 1809 it was styled
Wm. Caslon & Son once more. From 1814 to 1821 the partnership included
John James Catherwood, brother of a former partner. From 1830 to 1834
it was styled Caslon & Livermore, then in 1839, Caslon Son and Livermore ;
in 1846 Caslon & Son ; and in 1850, H. W. Caslon & Co., Ltd. — the name
by which it is now so widely known.

HEN, in 1757, Wm. Caslon I. summarily dismissed his
two workmen, Joseph Jackson and Thomas Cottrell, he
little thought that his action would lead to the starting
of two new businesses, which would develop into rivals
of his own and his successors. Thos. Cottrell started
as a type-founder in 1757, and had associated with him for some time,
Joseph Jackson, his unfortunate coadjutor. Cottrell's business eventually
developed into that of Sir Charles Reed & Sons, while Jackson's foundry,
established in 1763, at length became that of Stephenson, Blake & Co.,
both firms being joined under the same management in 1906. The story
of the ups and downs of these firms would be too lengthy for narration in
such a work as this, but it may be interesting to relate that the foundries,
or at least the punches and matrices of about a dozen concerns were absorbed
by Thos. Cottrell's successors. These belonged to Joseph Moxon, 1659-1683 ;
R. & S. Andrews, 1683-1733 ; Thomas & John James, 1710-1782 ; Fry
and Pine, 1764-1776 ; Joseph Fry & Co., 1776-1782 ; Edmund Fry & Co.,

1782-1794 ; Edmund Fry and Isaac Steele, 1794-1799 ; Fry, Steele & Co.,
1799-1808 ; and Edmund Fry & Son, 1816-1829, at which date William
Thorowgood, who was the then living successor of Thos. Cottrell, took over
the business of Edmund Fry & Son, then known as the Polyglot Letter
Foundry. In 1838 the style of the firm was Thorowgood & Besley ; in
1849, Besley & Co. ; in 1861, Reed & Fox; and in 1877, Sir Charles
Reed & Sons.

The foundry started by Joseph Jackson in 1763 was put up to auction
after his death in 1792, and was acquired by Caslon III., who had left the
Chiswell Street firm. In 1807 it belonged to Wm. Caslon, Junior, son of
Caslon III. In 1819, Wm. Caslon, Junior, disposed of the foundry to
Blake, Garnett & Co., who had become partners for the purpose of acquiring
it, and the entire stock was removed to Sheffield. In 1830 the firm was
known as Blake & Stephenson, while in 1841, it went under the style of
Stephenson, Blake & Co., the name which, in association with Sir Charles
Reed & Son, it now bears.

An obituary notice of Thomas Cottrell, written by his friend Nicols,
throws a curious light upon the usages of the time, and is as follows : —
" Mr Cottrell died, I am sorry to add not in affluent circumstances, though
to his profession of a letter founder, were superadded that of a doctor for
the toothache, which he cured by burning the ear ! " It is interesting to
notice that many of the early type-founders forsook other occupations to
follow that of punch-cutting. Joseph Moxon was a hydrographer ; Caslon I.
was an engraver of gun barrels ; Alex. Wilson of St Andrews, the first
Scotch type-founder, and Joseph and Edmund Fry were all doctors, while John
Baskerville of Birmingham was successively a footman, a writing master, a
printer, and finally a type-founder. Baskerville seems to have been in many
ways a remarkable man. He spent six years of effort and over £600 in
improving the typography of his own day. He made everything required
for his business, — punches, matrices, type, ink, and even printing presses.
His type was of beautiful and elegant form ; and the issue in 1757 of the
first book printed with it (Virgil) was hailed with delight by the entire
literary world. This was not sufficient, however, to compensate him for

the years of labour he had spent on his founts. The printers of his own
day preferred the bold Caslon Old Face, which had taken them by storm.
He spared no effort to bring his founts into the market, but without success.
His entire stock of type-punches and matrices were eventually purchased by
Beaumarchais for the " Societe Litteraire Typographique " for £3,700, and
transferred to France.

COTTISH printers received their supplies of type in the early
days of printing from Holland. The first Scottish type-founder
was Alex. Wilson, a native of St Andrews, who migrated to
London in 1737 as an assistant apothecary. Accompanied by
a friend, he was conducted over a type foundry there, and,
thinking he could improve upon the current methods of type-founding, he
started, along with a Mr Baine, a type foundry in his native town in 1742.
The business prospered to such an extent, that the foundry was soon removed
to Camlachie, a small village near Glasgow. While in Glasgow, Wilson
formed many friendships with the professors of the University there, and
also with Robert and Andrew Foulis, the University printers. He is
probably best known by the magnificent founts of Greek letters which he
cut, and which were used for the splendid edition of the Greek classics
issued by the University. In 1834 the Glasgow Type Foundry, as it was
called, was transferred to London. In 1845 the firm became bankrupt,
and most of the punches and matrices were bought by the Caslons. William
Miller, a foreman in the Glasgow Foundry, started business in Edinburgh
in 1809 as Wm. Miller & Co. In 1822 the title of the firm was changed
to William Miller. In 1832 Mr Richard was admitted as a partner, the
firm again becoming Wm. Miller & Co. In 1838 it was styled Miller and
Richard. To this firm belongs the credit of being the first British Foundry
to successfully introduce machines for casting type. William Miller died
in 1843. Mr Richard and his son carried on the business till 1868 when
Mr Richard, senior, retired, the conduct of the business devolving upon
Mr J. M. Richard and Mr W. M. Richard, whose sons are the present
proprietors. Messrs Miller & Richard are now the only type-founders
in Scotland.

CHAPTER FOUR— ANALYSIS OF TYPE-FACES.
ROMAN, ITALIC, BLACK-LETTER.

A comparison of the four A's shown on this page will reveal several

differences as well as similarities. Ai is a pen-made letter, similar in form

to those used by the penmen of the first few centuries of the Christian Era.

It is introduced here for comparison with the three other

• ^L A „ A's, which are type letters. Throughout the analysis of

2 \ /~\^ this series the order will remain the same — the left-hand

top letters being pen forms of the period mentioned, while

A A . the right-hand top letters are 48 point Old Face, the left-

/— X /— m hand lower letters are Cheltenham Old Face, and the

"^^ right-hand lower letters are Old Face Heavy, all from

FIG- I4> the foundry of Messrs H. W. Caslon & Co., Ltd., London.

The general forms of all four examples are similar. The letters differ from

each other, however, in their general proportions of width and height, as

well as in the relations which exist between the thick and thin members

of each letter, or as Dutch printers call them, the fats and leans. As

these relations are uniform throughout each series, it will not be necessary

to refer to them when considering the other letters.

The length and form of serifs have a great influence in determining
the appearance of different founts. Notice the weight of the serif in the
thin member of A4 ; this is, of course, in harmony with the bold and
heavy appearance of the whole letter. In A3 the serifs are less heavy, and
finish in thick terminations, quite unlike the sharp finish of those in Aa.

The position of the cross-bar also varies in the three examples, and
the forms of the beginnings of the thick members are also different from
each other. Attention may be drawn to the relative quantities of white
and black in each of the three letters. This is dependent largely upon the
relative weights of the thick and thin members. In A 2 and A3 a light

effect is produced, because the enclosed white spaces are large in relation

to the quantity of black surrounding them. In A4 the white spaces are
small in relation to the black ; this has produced a heavy effect, and is of
course intentional. The horizontal beginning in Ai is produced by the
use of the reed-pen or quill, and is different
from the same feature in A 2, A3, and A4,
though these forms had doubtless their origin
also in the use of a pen.

The tendency to alter the form of the
capitals, owing to the necessity for increased
speed in writing, is noticeable in Bi, which

FIG- 1S- i r> r TIL FIG. 16.

is an early Roman pen form. The upper bow

has become smaller and narrower. The original proportion of the two
bows has been restored in Ba, 3, and 4. The relation between the width
and the height of these letters is varied, 63 being the narrowest. The
heavy effect owing to the great disproportion between thicks and thins in
fount 4 is very evident in 64, where the enclosed spaces are little wider
than the thicks of the several members.

It will be seen that Ci has no serifs, while Cz and 04 have two and
€3 one only. In Ci the thick beginning of the curve is formed by the
broad nibs of the pen, and the movement from right to left causes the nib
in the inside of the curve to cross to the outside, producing in its course a
narrowing and subsequently a broadening of the stroke till it attains its
greatest breadth midway down the curve,

D^^ after which it gradually becomes narrower I . I A
_J towards the finish. The gradual thickening \ ^ \. J
and thinning of all the curves in the other

D~^ rottnd capitals is caused in the same way. I ^ ^
• 03 approaches most nearly the form of the |"i

-*— ^ pen written Ci. In Ca and C4 the serifs at * "*

FIG. 17. (.fog beginnings and ends are very pronounced.

The D's call for little comment. Beyond the general differences which
pertain to the individual character of the founts of which they are members,
they are to all intents and purposes identical. It may be stated as a general

5°

principle that letters of simple elementary form, such as C, D, H, I, O, etc.,
offer the designer of type little opportunity to improve or degrade their forms.
There are very considerable differences in the shapes of the four E's
shown. This is a letter which, on account

F|_J of the number and position of its parts, is | *V |

A open to a variety of treatments at the hands ^J \^J

_ _ of the type-designer. Originally a narrow ^^^^

[ j^ letter, as in El, it has been expanded in [^ M
Ea, 3, and 4. Other differences are also l^J^ W
evident. Its three horizontal members in

FIG. 19. _ ..... i •, • FIG- 20-

hi are uniform in length, while in the type

forms Ea, 3, and 4, the central bar has been shortened and the upper and
lower bars lengthened. In £3 and 4 the lowest bars are longer than the
upper ones. The serifs in £3 and 4 are in

H sharp contrast to each other, the short stumpy

L A serifs of £3 occupying a small space in com- 4 K
parison with those of £4, which seem to take

Hup a large part of the space at the right-hand
side of the letter.
The differences between the characters of
the vertical, horizontal, and sloping serifs of £4

should be noticed. The features of F are naturally similar to those of E.

In the examples of G's shown, the form of Ga follows that of the
pen-written Gi. In 63 the shape of the
letter has undergone considerable alteration.
It is narrower, and in the characteristic feature
of the letter (the short vertical stroke) the serif

J projects to the inside only, while the lower end

of the curve is extended outwards, to com-
pensate, as it were, for the want of the half

FIG 27. FIG. 24.

serif which should normally be above it. In

G4 it will be noticed that the short vertical member is split at the lower
end, a form common in modern Roman founts, and one which was

probably adopted from Gothic letters, in some alphabets of which it is a
very pronounced feature.

H and I are two letters which show practically no change in the

L different examples shown. H4 appears

much narrower than the others, but is A^ ^ /I
\ J in reality the same width as Ha ; the * w \. L V A

apparent narrowness is caused by the

L extreme thickness of the verticals, a TV /f

feature common in this fount. A close \J I
* * scrutiny of the serifs of the four I's will * " A
FIG. 25. show that each of these is distinctive

in length and character.

As is well known, the letter J is a later addition to the alphabet.
The forms of J exhibited show some

NT^k variety. While Ja and 4 finish upon the

^| writing-line, J3 descends below it.

The K's illustrated are approximately

^k |^^ the same width, though K.4, owing to f"^L M ^^

^1 ^fcj the heaviness of its members, appears I J V

much narrower than the other two.

FIG. 27. v j r . , FIG. 28.

Ka and 4 suggest pen forms in the

terminations of their third members ; the same serif in K-3 extends on both

sides of this member. The type forms of La, 3, and 4 are much wider

^^ than the original pen form Li, which is a

1^ |/ narrow letter. The Roman incised M used

I A in the Trajan inscription has no serifs at

the beginnings of its thick members, while

1 ~\ ~] "^ the first and fourth members are sloping.

These sloping members were retained by

"™" the scribes as shown in Mi. In Ma, 3,

and 4 the first and fourth members are FIG-

vertical. It may be worth while pointing out that the beginning serifs
in Ma, 3, and 4 are halved, extending outwards only.

In all its features N follows the same character as those of M. N%
is the narrowest of the examples shown. With the exception of the
difference between the relations of thicks and thins in the different O's,
they are all similar in form. The P's call for

R) little comment. The bow of P% is squarer in
X.X*. character than those of the others, being com-
posed of horizontals and a curve, while the
R"^ bows in Pi, 2, and 4 are composed of curves
f^L only. The hand of the type-founder is
-*• ™" apparent in Qa, 3, and 4. In the pen-written
form Qi we see in the pen flourish so charac-
teristic of it, evidence of the delight of the scribe in his craft. In 03,
which harks back to an early form, a compromise has been made, and
the fullest advantage has been taken of

Tthe beard for the inclusion of the longest
tail possible on the type body. I)

The form of the pen- written R i has

Tr ^ been well adhered to in the type forms
Ra, 3, and 4. In each of these the
~^^ third member is straight, a form which ^^->^

IG. 33- gives an appearance of strength as com- lGl M

pared with the curved third member used in modern Roman founts.

83 differs from the others in that its lower is distinctly larger than

its upper half. In the other examples

^7 \ 7 the two halves are apparently the \ A /

^^ \ same size. \ \

The forms of serifs and the

W relative thickness of the members "\ ^^ T ^L 1^ /
mark the only differences between \/\/ T T
the four T's illustrated.
FIG> 35' Neither the U's nor V's call for

any notice.
The double V or double U, as it is now called, is one of the latest

X 7 ^kT"

additions ; hence its inclusion near the end of the alphabet. Its origin
is self-evident ; it used to be sometimes printed thus W, and W"3 shows
the two V's quite distinctly.

X, Y, and Z exhibit the characteristics
of the three founts from which they are
taken. Otherwise they are essentially the
same in their root forms. The " and " or
" ampersand," as it used to be called, was
originally a contraction for the phrase " et
per se " (and by itself). This was later
corrupted into " and per se and," then finally
into ampersand or amperzand ; it is now commonly called "and," the former
part of the corrupted form having been dropped. It is difficult to see the con-
nection between the forms shown in &2, 3, and 4, and the contraction et ;
this, however, is quite evident in the letters E and T thus & in the Italic form.
Some particulars in reference to the three faces just discussed may be
of interest. Caslon Old Face (No. 2) was designed and engraved by William
Caslon I. The earliest founts of the series, both Roman and Italic, were
issued in 1720, and all the others of this series were completed by 1730.
Cheltenham Old Style (No. 3) was designed by Mr Ingalls Kimball for the
Cheltenham Press, New York, and was first engraved and issued by the
American Type Foundry Co. of New York
in 1900. The peculiarity of this series is
the long ascenders and short descenders.
Old Face Heavy (No. 4) is an imperfect
reproduction in the lower-case forms, on a
heavier scale, of Caslon Old Face ; it was
cut and issued by the Inland Type Foundry,
FIG. 39- St Louis, U.S.A., in 1908. Old Face, Old FIG' 40>

Face Heavy, and Cheltenham are issued by H. W. Caslon & Co., Ltd.,
London. All the other alphabets analysed and illustrated in this chapter are
from the foundries of the following British Firms : — H. W. Caslon & Co.,
Ltd., London ; Miller & Richard, Edinburgh ; and Stephenson, Blake & Co.
and Sir Charles Reed & Sons, Sheffield.

1 HE features which taken together make up the character of
lower-case letters, are different from those which give
individuality to the capitals of the same founts.

In the case of the capitals the proportions of width to
height, and of thicks to thins determine their character. In
the lower-case forms, the lengths of ascenders and descenders, along with
the forms of beginnings and finishings, are important elements.

Attention has already been directed at some length to the evolution of
the lower-case or small letters from capitals during the course of many centuries.
In the progress of this evolution, and owing to accelerated speed in
writing, there was a tendency to join letters, one to the other ; this reduced
to a minimum the lifting of the pen, and was a consequent saving of the
penman's time. Some letters such as a, c, e, and t still bear traces of these
joinings or connections ; in fact most lower-case letters give evidence that
at one time they were " cursive " in form, i.e., rapidly written. The loops
seen in b, f, g, h, j, k, 1, q, and y in ordinary writing owe their form to
the same necessity.

In analysing the forms of the Old
Face lower-case letters illustrated (Fig.
41), it may be advantageous to consider
in the first place the beginnings of the
letters b, d, h, k, 1, whose ascenders are
full height and commence from the left.
Each of these beginnings consists of a
short upward sloping stroke, a natural
serif, which suggests the remnant of a
connecting link with the previous letter ;
t has a similar commencement, which
is almost hidden by the cross - bar
immediately below it. The half-height
letters i, m, n, and r have like beginnings,
and also the descending letters j and p.
c and f have beginnings similar to each

abcdefg
hijklmn
opq

r s t

u v wxy z

OLD FACE Lower-case 48 Point.
Messrs H, W. Caslon & Co. , Ltd. , London.

FIG. 41.

other. These commence at the right-hand side, and are quite different from
those already described. Such forms now appear with rounded beginnings,
whereas in the pen forms they were square. The graduated curves were
produced by the alteration of the inside nib of the pen to the outside position.

The commencement of a is similar to those of c and f, but begins at
the left side. The commencements of g, o, and q are not apparent, as they
occur on the circle common to them all ; the beginnings of g and o are
covered by the joints, and those of q and p also by the straight members,
e and s occupy classes by themselves, e begins by a horizontal line on the
inside of the curve. In the pen-written form of s the beginning was similar
to that still seen in f and c ; the form of the s in this fount, however, is
exactly the same as a capital S, having similar serifs both at the beginning
and at the termination of its form. v, w, x, and z are exactly the same
as in the capital forms, y has a commencement like capital Y. u is distinct
from all the other letters both in its beginning and ending ; in fact it looks
very much like an n turned upside down, except that the beginnings of the
two thick members are half instead of whole serifs. It would be interesting
to enquire why this lower-case u is out of harmony with the other lower-
case letters of this fount. Many of the early printers and type-founders
used this form, especially those of Northern Europe, whereas most of the
Italian type-founders produced a u in
harmony with the rest of the letters,
/.£., having sloping upper serifs and a
horizontal lower one. As this latter
form of u originated in Italy, where
the first Roman fount was cut, there
is some excuse for thinking that the
inverted n form is not the appropriate
one, and a too strong attachment to
tradition may account for it being
still in use. CHELTENHAM OLD STYLE Lower-case Letters,

rni r 48 Point-

The terminations of a, c, e, and t „ „. r . , r . , . ,

H. W. Caslon & Co., Ltd., London.

have already been referred to. In these FIG. ^

abcdefghij
klmnopqr
stuvwxyz

letters we see indications that before the invention of printing these letters
were joined to those following. The letters f, h, i, k, 1, m, n, p, q, and r
have horizontal serifs at the endings of their principal members. The
second members of d and u finish in upward sloping serifs, which seem to
suggest attenuated connecting links to the next letters. j and y finish as
a, c, and f begin, that is, in a ball or thickened knob. The curious ending
of g has already been referred to in connection with the evolution of lower-
case letters. The peculiar projecting member finishing in a knob to be
seen on the right side of g is an attenuated pen-dash. The finishing serifs
of d and u are similar.

In the analysis of the forms of Old Face Caslon (Fig. 42) attention
was drawn to the slanted beginnings of the principal members of the letters
of that face. The same beginnings in the lower-case letters of Cheltenham
are horizontal. In b, d, h, k, and 1 (ascending letters), i, m, n, r, and u
(half size letters), and j and p (descending letters), the beginnings are from
the left and are horizontal. Not only so, but the finishings as well as the
beginnings are nearly all horizontal also. Notice that the beginnings are
half serifs, while all the endings are whole serifs except those of d, q, and u.
The reason for the first and last is easily understood, but not for the finishing
serif in q, which should normally be the same as that of p.

The principal characteristic of this whole fount, both capitals and
lower-case, is the slight difference evident between the thicks and thins.
Besides this general feature one notices individual peculiarities in some
of the lower-case letters. f, for instance, is extremely narrow, and is full
height where it is usually made only three-quarters.

The shortness of all the descenders in relation to the length of all the
ascenders is characteristic of the whole of the lower-case letters of the fount.
This statement is made neither in condemnation nor in praise ; the peculiarity
is simply pointed out as being the means of producing a certain character
which is evident in the fount. The g is unusual, though it has a good
historic basis for its form. Notice the way that the second member of r
rises above the writing line. s begins and finishes in two balls or knobs,
while t has no beginning serif.

PLATE XVII.

,
mmm

TA YLOR gg

AND

W 'A T KIN SON

ARE THE BIGGEST MAKERS OF .
MACHINE CAST AND PLANED

Printers Leads & Clumps

IN THE WORLD. CONTRACTORS
TO H.M. GOVERNMENT. WORKS:

BELGRAVE FOUNDRY,

NEW BRIGGATE, LEEDS.

Telephone : Code, ABC Telegrams :

4001 Central. (Fifth Edition). " Pica." Leeds.

Type by H. W. CASLON & Co., Ltd., London.
Cheltenham Old Style Italic, 48 and 24 point. Cheltenham Old Style, 36, 30, 24, 14, and 10 point.

Paper— S. Jones & Co., 7 Bridewell Place, London, E.G.

1 Bramble Rideau Cover," stocked in 18 x 23, 40 Ibs. ; 2oJ x 25$, 50 Ibs. ; zoj x soj, 60 Ibs. ; 23 x 36, 80 Ibs ; at 3$d. per lb., 5 %.

480 sheets to the ream.

PLATE XVIII.
POMEGRANATE ORNAMENTS.

Seven units employed in the formation of Pomegranate Ornaments.

Ten Ornaments composed of Pomegranate units repeated.

Ornaments by H. W. CASLON & Co., Ltd., 8a and 83 Chiswell Street, London, E.C.

Printed upon S. JONES * Co.'S "Primrose Camber Cover," stocked in 18x23, 48 Iks. ! 20x25, 58 Ibs. ; 20.^x30^, 72 Ibs.

23x36, 96 Ibs. ; at 3d. per lb., 5%.

PLATE XIX.

ESTABLISHED 1853.

DANE&CO.

MANUFACTURERS OF
LITHOGRAPHIC AND
LETTERPRESS INKS,
DIE PRESS INKS, DRY
COLOURS, VARNISHES,
PRINTERS' SUNDRIES.

LONDON

(OFFICES)

91 and 92 SHOE LANE.

'Phone: 1930 Holborn.

EDINBURGH

(OFFICES)

3 EAST REGISTER ST.

'Phone: 1126 Central.

BELGIUM

(AGENT)

AUGUSTE DESMET,
Rue Aux Choux 56,
BRUSSELS.

STRATFORD, E.

(FACTORY)

SUGAR HOUSE LANE.

'Phone: 514 Stratford.

AUSTRALIA

(AGENTS)

SPICER BROTHERS

(Colonial and Foreign) Ltd.

HOLLAND

(AGENT)

AUGUSTE DESMET,
155 Warmoesstraat,
AMSTERDAM.

Dane & Co.'s Book Black Ink No. Z219 was used throughout this Publication.

Type by H. W. CASLON & Co., Ltd., London. Old Face 48 point; Cheltenham 24, 12, and 10 point.

Paper — S. JONES & Co., 7 Bridewell Place, London, E.G.

'White Camber Cover," stocked in 18x23, 48 lbs- : 20x25. S8 lt>s- ! aojxjoj, 72 Ibs. ; 23x36, 96 Ibs. ; at 3d. per Ib. 5%.

504 sheets to the ream.

PLATE XX.
PATTERNS COMPOSED OF REPEATED UNITS.

Five Thistle Units employed in the formation of the patterns below and also on Plate XXI.

One Unit repeated.

Two Units repeated.

One Unit repeated.

Two Units repeated".

One Unit repeated.

rch Rideau C

PLATE XXI.

lrC'.St.lJ \Jr

«b

Two units repeated.

Three units repeated.

unit repeated.

Two units repeated.

PLATE XXII.

ESTABLISHED OVER A CENTURY.

Samuel Jones & Go.

7 BRIDEWELL PLACE

LONDON, E.C.

MAKERS OF

patent Ifton^curling (3ummeb flbaper

GOLD, SILVER, AND COLOURED FOIL PAPERS
STAY PAPERS AND TAG WASHER MANILLAS
CAMBER AND RIDEAU COVER PAPERS
DUALIOMANIN TRANSFER PAPERS
FLINT AND STEEL BLUE PAPERS
IMITATION GELATINE PAPERS
SURFACE AND ENAMEL PAPERS
LEATHER & CALF PAPERS
ENAMELLED BLOTTING
LINEN FACED BANKS
GUMMED PAPER TAPE
SEALING MACHINES
:: :: LABEL CLOTH :: ::

ON RECEIPT OF A POST CARD WE WILL GLADLY SEND
A COMPLETE SET OF OUR SAMPLES.

Works: CAMBERWELL

Agent for Scotland :

JOHN B. MACNAUGHTON,

74 YORK STREET,

GLASGOW.

This is printed upon our White Camber Cover, stocked in 18x13, 4* Ibs. ; 20x25, 58 Ibs. ; 20.1x30;, 71 Ibs. ; 23x36, 96 Ibs,, at 3d. per Ib 5%
Type by MILLER & RICHARD, Edinburgh and London— Old Style Antique, No. 7 (Roman and Italic), and Tudor Black;

Brass Rules, 5 Point, No. 13, and 8 Point, No. 66.

PLATE XXIII.
DIAPERS OR ALL-OVER PAT i

A. — Open Diaper, one type unit repeated.

;•; •

3] .

a L

vj K a r~] BUI mj* r~r?\ »
>L- rilJlir^ tFr±l

rTli *Jr;
"^- V"

fu . i: I

Close Diaper, one type unit repeated.

C.— Close Diaper, two type units repeated.

PLATE XXIV. — BORDERS.

THE ENTIRE SERIES
OF ORNAMENTS &
ORNAMENTAL INI-
TIALS USED IN THIS
BOOK WILL BE
ISSUED BY H. W.

CASLON & Co LTD
82&85CHISVELL

•) ST., LONDON, E.C.

»rder composed of one type unit repeated.

SOCIETY

GEORGE

PROGRAMME OF
ARRANGEMENTS

SESSION 1911-12

Hrte-J

JH1

ELGIN
CELTIC

CLUB

i £-J ;•.
^KF^

SESSION
1911-12

LhJTEJ

B. — Border composed of two type units repeated.

ESTABLISHED IN THE
REIGN OF GEORGE I.

H.W. CASLON » Co.

LIMITED :

TYPE FOUNDERS AND
PRINTING MATERIAL
MANUFACTURERS

82 & 83 CHISWELLST.
LONDON, E.G.
ENG LAND

dler composed of r aits repeated.

Type and Ornaments by H. W. CASLON & Co., Ltd., 82-83 Chiswell Street, London.

Paper— S. Jones & Co., 7 Bridewell Place, London, E.G.

" Bramble Rideau Cover," stocked in 18 x 23, 40 Ibs. ; 2oJ x 2sJ, 50 Ibs. ; zoj x 30^, 60 Ibs. ; 23 x 36, So Ibs. ; at 3J,d. per lb.t 5 %.

480 sheets to the ream.

abcdefg
ijklmn
opqrstu
v wxy z

OLD FACE HEAVY Lower-case, 48 Point.
H. W. Caslon & Co., Ltd., London,

FIG. 43-

Beyond the necessary differences in
the proportionate relations of black and
white in this lower-case fount, the letters

•^ • • ^ -tf are practically the same as Old Face,

1^% -* ** l^y I •fY^ ^^ upon which the fount is based. The
AAA I .Am. A AAA AA shortness of the descenders in g, j, p, q,

and y might be noticed, while the pen-
dash usually found to the right of g
rises upwards from the centre of the
circular part of the letter. This fount
is useful for any printing which must
be readable at some distance. It is
excellent in form, clear and distinct in
character, but cannot compete for grace
with the fount of which it is a near
though less elegant relation.

For pure dignity and legibility, Old Style is unapproachable. A careful
comparison of similar founts by different founders reveals only minor differences.
These are mostly in relation to the pro-
portionate breadths of thicks and thins,
and while this feature affects the character
of the letters, it does so to a limited
extent only. The great differences in
style are brought about principally by
the proportions of the letters, the form
of the rounded parts, and the character
of the serifs. In the fount before us,
particular attention might be called to
the pleasing forms of C, D, M, N, S,
T - Z, forms which in their essentials
are closely allied to early Roman
characters, upon which all modern type
is based. It will be noticed that O

A BC D E F G
H I J K L M N
O P 0 R S T
U V W X Y Z

abcdefghi
j k 1 m n o p q r
stuvwxyz

LINING OLD STYLE NO. 5. 24 Point.

Stephenson, Blake & Co. and Sir Charles Reed & Sons,

Sheffield.

FIG. 44.

and Q are elliptical rather than circular, and that the fourth member of E
is longer than the second, which is longer than the third ; in the early
forms those three were similar in length. There is a tendency to uniformity
of width of capitals in this particular alphabet, which is common to all old
style founts. This is especially noticeable in E, which is wider than the
normal, and in H, O, and Q, which are narrower than normal.

The capitals of this fount have already been referred to as the acme
of dignity and legibility. The same can be truly said of the lower-case
letters. Like all forms which have persistently held their own against the
march of time and invention, they cannot but contain within themselves

much that is eminently legible as well
as beautiful. Particular attention might
be directed to the length of the ascenders
and descenders in relation to the depth
of the writing line, and though the
descenders of p and q are rather shorter
than the normal, these letters are perfectly
legible, and fine in form. The termina-

Qry O r ^ tion of j is quaint and effective.

A V. ^J JL \^J The forms in Fig. 45 are very

beautiful, and almost defy analysis. A
cursory comparison between them and
those of old style would reveal few
differences. An individual examination
of the letters and especially of the thick
members and serifs is necessary in
attempting to say what really gives the
fount its character. The main pro-
portions and forms of the letters are
identical, but the forms of the thick
members are less mathematical and more
subtle than the same features of an old
4S> style fount. Notice that the upper serifs,

ABCCDE
FGHIJK
LMNOP
RSTU
VWXYZ
abcdefghi
jklmnopq
rstuvwxyz

BASKERVILLE 36 Point.
Stephcnson, Blake & Co. and Sir Charles Reed & Sons,

Sheffield.

ABCDEFG
HIJKLMN
OPQRST
UVWXYZ

abcdefghij
k 1 m n o p q r
stuvwxyz

BASKERVILLE 30 Point.
H. W, Caslon & Co., Ltd., London.

FIG. 46.

The fount in Fig. 46 is very pure
and distinctive. Some of the capital
letters are unusually fine in form, partic-
ularly the D, Q, and S. The third
member of R is unfortunate in shape.
All the lower-case letters are of good
shape and very legible. This fount of
Baskerville was engraved and issued by
H. W. Caslon & Co., Ltd., from French
designs, in 1909.

The distinguishing features of this
fount (Fig. 47) are the slight difference
which exists between the widths of the
thicks and of the thins, and the exces-
sively heavy serifs. The serifs finish
squarely on their ends, and are not

especially of M and N, are slightly
curved instead of being quite straight,
and that the lower serifs join on very
gradually to the main members, g is
the most distinctive form among the
lower-case letters. This fount was first
issued by John Baskerville of Birmingham
about the middle of the i8th century.

ABCDEF
GHIJKL
M NOPQ
RS T U V
W X Y Z
a b c d e f
g h i j k 1
m n o p q r
stuvwxyz

OLD STYLE ANTIQUE No. 7, 36 Point.

Miller & Richard, Edinburgh.

FIG. 47-

graduated in their joinings to the members to which they are attached,
except where they are sloping as in E, F, T, and Z. Most of the letters
are good in form and satisfactory in proportion.

The characteristics of the lower-case letters of this fount are the size
and weight of the serifs, and the small variety in the thickness of the various
members composing them. Each of the letters is clear and distinct in form,
and well proportioned. This fount was first issued about 1865.

Italian Old Style is a fount in which the widths of the various letters
are approximately similar, while the thicks and thins also are nearly uniform.
It is also distinguished by thick serifs of square character, which give the

impression of having been added abruptly,

y^ R f] [j p* p (j- J-J as if no attempt had been made to

produce suave joinings. These charac-

J^ L, j\/[ J^ \J £•* Q) £\ teristics have produced a fount which,
^ f while not without character, has an

1 LJ V \V 1\, I '* unrefined and unfinished air about it.

Several letters, such as Q, R, and T,
call for special attention. Notice the
peculiar form of the tail of the Q. It
seems to have intended to remain un-
ITALIAN OLD STYLE, 24 Point. compromisingly upright, but afterwards

Stephen**, Blake & Co and Sir Charles Reed & Sons, changed its mind and its direction (to

Sheffield.

the right). The third member of R

FIG. 4°'

has a certain springy appearance about

it, caused by its termination in a sharp point, rather than in a serif, which
is the usual ending of such a member. In the T the upper serifs both
point towards the left, instead of following the usual practice of pointing
left and right. The bows B, P, and R are expanded so that they are
much wider from side to side than from top to bottom, that is, the enclosed
space is bounded by a semi-circle and two horizontal lines.

The lower-case letters of this fount have all the family characteristics.
The serifs both at beginnings and endings show a wide variety of forms.
b, d, h, i, j, k, 1, m, n, p, r, u, and z have beginning serifs which slope,

while w, x, and y as usual have horizontal beginning serifs. t has no
beginning serif. The endings are still more varied ; three forms are used.
a, c, e, and t have link endings as usual, f, h, i, k, 1, m, n, p, q, and r have
horizontal serif-endings, while the lower
serifs of d, u, and z slope upwards. The
fount was first issued in 1896.

Lining Antique Roman is a fount
composed of well proportioned letters
of heavy form, whose members are as
nearly as possible of uniform thickness.
Very considerable differences of widths
exist between the various letters, though
some of them, such as B, E, F, and L,
might have been of better form had
they been slightly narrower. The lower-
case letters are particularly good in form.
The fount was first issued in 1895.

Antique Old Style (Fig. 50) is a
very distinctive and effective fount of
Old Style letters, especially useful where
emphasis is required. A certain heavi-
ness is evident in this fount, due largely
to the slight difference which exists
between the thicks and thins, and also
to the uncompromising squareness of
the serifs. It will be noticed that in
the lower-case letters, the ascenders and
descenders are unusually short. This
fount was engraved and issued by the
Inland Type Foundry, St Louis, U.S.A.,
in 1902.

Lining Winchester (Fig. 51) is a fount both distinctive and of good
form, though the letters are rather narrower than the normal and as nearly

ABODE
FGHIJK
LMNOP
QRSTU
VWXYZ
abcdefg
hijklmn
opqrstu
v w x y z

ANTIQUE ROMAN 36 Point

Stephenson, Blake & Co. and Sir Charles Reed & Sons,
Sheffield,

FIG. 49.

ABCDEFG

HIJKLMN
OPQRSTU

V W X Y Z

abcdefghij
k 1 m n o p q r
stuvwxyz

ANTIQUE OLD STYLE 30 Point.
H. W. Caslon & Co., Ltd., London.

uniform in width as possible. The
difference between the thicks and thins
is no more than noticeable, while the
serifs are of a form very appropriate to
the general character of the letter.
Special characteristic features are evident
in the lower-case forms, in the begin-
nings of a, c, and f, and in the
terminations of g and y. These are
usually ball-like in form, but in this
fount the forms approach more nearly
those naturally made by a reed-pen.
Alternate forms of capital C and lower-
case r are given. The fount was first
issued in 1908.

FIG. 50.

This is a fount (Fig. 52) where
capital forms are rather narrower and
more nearly uniform than the normal.
The root forms of the letters are identical
with those of Winchester, the only
differences being in the increased heavi-
ness of the members. The fount was
first issued in 1909.

No fewer than twenty-two of the
De Vinne capitals (Fig. 53) are of
identical width. This uniformity would
be disastrous in a fount where the letters
were less open. The shapes of M, R,
and S are very distinctive ; the latter
appears in alternate forms. The char-
acteristics of De Vinne letters are,

ABCCDEF
GHIJKLM
NOPQRST
UVWXYZ

abcdefghijklmn
opqrrstuvwxyz

WINCHESTER OLD STYLE 36 Point

Stephenson, Blake & Co. and Sir Charles Reed & Sons,

Sheffield.

FIG. 51.

however, more evident in the lower-case
forms. It will be noticed that the
thickest parts of the curves are not in
the middle but under the middle, and
this throws the weight of the letter
downwards. This is noticeable in certain
letters only, such as lower-case c, d, e,
and q ; it is not apparent in the other
round letters. Thin members in the
lower-case letters of this fount are
reduced to the minimum. The begin-
ning of f and the ending of j are

ABCDEFG
HIJKLMN
OPQRSST
UVWXYZ
abcdefghij
klmnopqrs
stuvwxyz

DE VINNE 36 Point.
Stephenson, Blake & Co. and Sir Charles Reed & Sons,

ABCDEFG
HIJKLMN
OPQRSTU
VWXYZ

abcdefghij
klmnopqrr
stuv wxyz

WINCHESTER BOLD 36 Point.

Stephenson, Blake & Co. and Sir Charles Reed & Sons,
Sheffield.

FIG. 52.

Sheffield.
FIG. S3-

exceptional forms. The fount was
issued in 1893.

This fount (Fig. 54), which is
composed of well-proportioned letters,
is specially characterised by a certain
easy freedom in the " drawing " of its
members. It is as if the letters had
been made by a skilful penman, who
at the moment was trying to avoid
the " deadly dullness of perfect form,"
by writing his letters quickly and with

a little less care than usual. The
resultant effect is pleasing, and the
fount is of undoubted value for certain
kinds of printing. The angularity of
the curves is particularly noticeable, as
also is the absence of sharp terminations
and acuteness at the joinings of the
different members. This fount was
designed, engraved, and issued by the
Inland Type Foundry, St Louis, U.S.A.,
about 1890.

Lining Westminster is a fount
very evidently based upon early Roman
incised letters, several of the distinctive
features of which are introduced. It
will be noticed that the widths and
relative height of the letters vary very

considerably, while the difference between the thicks and thins is hardly

perceptible. Most of the serifs are also very short. All of these features

are common to the early Roman letters

incised in stone. The bows in B, P,

and R do not quite join to the vertical

members, while the horizontal members

of E and F are all of equal length, early

forms which have been retained with

good effect in this fount. Notice the

great width of H, N, and T, and the

extreme narrowness of B, P, R, and S,

which features are characteristic of early

forms, and in distinct contrast to the

modern tendency to make all the capital

letters approximately the same width.

While it is true that a certain uniformity FIG. 55.

ABCDEFG
HIJKLMN
OPQRSTU
V WX Y Z
abcdefghij
klmnopqr
stuvwxyz

MORLAND 30 Point.
H. W. Caslon & Co., Ltd., London.

FIG. 54-

A
H
O

B C D E F
I J K L M
P Q R S

G
N
T

U V W X Y Z

abcdef ghijklmn
opqrstuvwxyz

LINING WESTMINSTER OLD STYLE, 24 Point.

Stephenson. Blake & Co. and Sir Charles Reed & Sons.
Sheffield.

is necessary in all the capital letters of one fount, this should be restricted to
such features as the relations of thicks and thins, and the character of serifs
and curves. It must not be forgotten that the proportion of width to height
in a letter is one of its most distinguishing features, especially when seen from
a distance, so that when the width of a letter is made less or greater than
its normal, it loses its characteristic proportion, and therefore becomes less
legible — a grave weakness where legibility is all-important. Certain pecu-
liarities of some of the letters of this fount may be mentioned. Notice the
narrowness of the D and K, and the more than normal width of the J,
though in the latter case decreased legibility cannot be urged against the
broader form. The long upper serifs projecting to right and left only of
the M, and the extreme shortness of its second and third members, are worthy
of attention, as also are the extreme shortness of the tail of the Q and the
convex form of the third member of the R. The form of the W is a real
double V, making it a very broad letter. None of the other letters calls for
any special remark ; the whole alphabet has a certain quaint pleasing effect,
without at the same time having lost any of its legibility.

In the lower-case letters of Lining Westminster Old Style the difference
between the thicks and thins is hardly perceptible. The main member of
a is sloping, a rare feature in modern type forms of this letter, though a
very common one in some of the middle-age scripts. The sloping position
occupied by the cross-bar of the e and the extreme shortness of the tail of
the g are special features. The cross-bars of f and t are unusually lengthy,
while the mixed beginning serifs in u are unusual. The fount was first
issued in 1905.

Lining Carlton (Fig. 56) is a fount of very light and dainty character
based upon a very pure form of pen-written letters. Several of the letters
have alternate forms, such as A, P, and Y. These variations add a certain
piquancy and charm to the fount, which when not overdone has a distinct
artistic value. The varieties of the same letter suggest the human element,
which is seldom evident in the product of a printing machine.

Most of the letters are beautifully proportioned, particularly C, D, G,
H

A X R f P) F F
** '* ^ ^— ' ' — «-» I

GHIIKLMN

M, N, O, Q, S, and V to Z. While
it is unnecessary to insist too much upon
a strict adherence to early standard
forms, the sub-divisions of B, P, and R

/"~\ T~\ Y~\ / — \ P G ~T would not have been any less pleasing

UV¥XY

abc

o pq rs t u v wxy z

LINING CARLTON 30 Point.

H. W. Caslon & Co., Ltd., London.
FIG. 56.

had they been more nearly uniform in
size. The letters H and T are narrower
than the normal, while the joinings of
B, E, F, K, P, and R are all either
above or below the middle of the first
member. Notice that the third member
of E and F is apparently longer than
the second ; in reality it is exactly the
same length as the second member,
together with the sloping serif. The
old form of the U, which contains a
adhered to. The form of the W is

thick second member, has been
particularly chaste.

The lower-case letters exhibit the
same characteristics of lightness and
daintiness as the capitals of the same
fount. The skill of the type-designer
is taxed in a greater degree when
designing lower-case letters than when
deciding' upon the forms of capitals.
In the fount before us the ascenders
and descenders are of abnormal length ; *, r,
this is particularly noticeable in the Ik II EUl HH © O O If If
case of f, which goes below as well as
above the writing-line. The unusual
length of these parts produces an open

' CHELTENHAM BOLD OUTLINE 30 Point.

light character when the type is MessrsH, w. Casion& Co.. Ltd.. London.

composed, and this of course is one of FIG S7

the characteristics of printing produced
by this face. Following the variety of
width of letters, already noticed in the
capitals of this fount, we 'find that f, k,
and r appear specially narrow, while m
appears specially broad. The two v's
in w are so placed as to produce a narrow
letter, which is, however, very pleasing.
This fount is of German design, and was
produced in the Caslon Letter Foundry
in 1910.

ABCD EF

ABCDEFG
HIJKLMN
OPQRSTU
V WX YZ

abcdefghij
klmnopqr

stuvwxyz

HALLAMSHIRE OLD STYLE 36 Point

Stephenson, Blake & Co. and Sir Charles Reed & Sons,
Sheffield.

GHIJKLM
NOPQRST
UVWXYZ

ATHENIAN 30 Point.

Stephenson, Blake & Co. and Sir Charles Reed & Sons,
Sheffield.

FIG. 58.

FIG. 59.

This fount (Fig. 57) is an outline
variation of Cheltenham Bold. Its use
in display is appropriate where size
without great weight is required. It
is clear, legible, and of very good form.

Athenian is a fount of clear and
legible letters, which are, however, as
nearly as possible uniform in width.
The difference between the thicks and
thins is no more than perceptible, and
the serifs are very appropriate. This
fount was first issued in 1889.

Hallamshire Old Style is a fount
having the general proportions of its
capitals distinctly narrow. The letters
owe little of their character to traditional
forms. This is particularly evident in
the curves of B, P, R, and S, and in the
omission of part of the double V form
of W. A disregard for mathematical

precision in the drawing of the letters, has allowed an element of freedom
to enter into the rendering of the forms, which gives the fount its uncon-
ventional character. Notice that the second member of X is not quite
straight. In the lower-case forms the great length of the ascenders is very
noticeable. The fount was first issued in 1904.

The principal characteristics of the
capitals of this fount are, the comparative
similarity of proportion of the letters,
twenty-two of which are practically
identical in width, the great dispro-
portion between the thicks and thins,
and the slenderness, unusual length, and
abrupt joinings of the serifs. Charac-
teristic details are noticeable in the form
of the tails of G and Q, and in the third
member of R. The lower-case letters
have the same general characteristics.

This fount (Fig. 61) lays no claim
to artistic consideration, but it is at least
legible and distinctive. The members
are all of equal thickness throughout,
while the letters, with one exception,
have no serifs. The white spaces
between the members are greater than
the thickness of the members them-
selves, and this openness increases their
legibility. There is also a considerable
variety of width in the letters, where

no fewer than nine different proportions between width and height exist.
As has been already stated, these distinctive proportions increase the legibility
of the letters. The one letter of this series which has a serif, is G ; it seems
unnecessarily complicated, and would be quite as legible and certainly more
appropriate, were the serif dispensed with and the form made as shown (after Z) .

ABCDEFG
HIJKLMN
OPQRSTU
VWXYZ

abcdefghi
jklmnopq
rstuvwxyz

LINING MODERN No. 20, 36 Point.

Steplienson, Blake & Co. and Sir Charles Reed & Sons,
Sheffield.

FIG. 60.

ABODE
FG H I J
K L M N

O P Q R
S T U V
WXYZG

GROTESQUE CAPITALS, 36 Point.

Miller & Richard, Edinburgh.

FIG. 61.

The capitals of fount illustrated in
Fig. 62 defy criticism from any artistic
standpoint. Having no variety between
its thicks and thins, nor any serifs, it
may be said to be the last word in
legible lettering. Abandoning the art
standpoint and regarding the fount as
merely utilitarian, it may be worth while
to discuss it purely from this point
of view.

Having been designed and produced
to meet the wants of printers and the
clients of printers, who desire the maxi-
mum number of words per line of this
size, presumably without any loss of
legibility, it cannot be said even from
this point of view to be a success. In

the endeavour to produce such letters,
much of their legibility has been sacri-
ficed to the exigencies of space. It must
be remembered that the characteristic
root form of a letter is produced by
certain relations which exist between
extreme width and height, as well as
by the form of its separate parts. In
the fount before us, twenty of the letters
are identical in width, while four are
narrower and two wider than the normal.
This alone is sufficient to decrease their
legibility, but as the white spaces between
the members are also narrower in most
cases than the members themselves, they

ABCDEFGH
JKLMNOPQ
R5TUVWXYZ

abcdefghijkliun
opqrstuvwxyz

SANS-SERIF No. 7, 36 Point

Miller & Richard, Edinburgh.
FIG. 62.

are by this means made still less legible. The height of the characteristically
narrow letters E, F, and Q is four times as great as their width, while the

wide letters M and W are twice as high
as they are wide. Greater legibility and
distinctness and the same quantity of
copy could have been obtained by using
a grotesque fount, say two-thirds the
height. The same result might have
been reached by using the same pro-
portions of letters, but having the
members only half as thick. The use
of such a fount seems to be an attempt
to get too much for too little, an attempt
to reap where the sowing has been
niggardly.

The remarks made in reference to
the capitals of this fount apply equally
to those of the lower-case. Some of
the letters here are unusually unhappy,
particularly f, j, and r. Twenty-one
of the letters are uniform in width,
while three are under, and two over
the normal. The fount was first issued
in 1906.

Old Face Italic, based upon Old
Face Roman, was cut by Caslon I. in
1720. The letters are a very close
imitation of Roman Old Face, with
the alterations necessary for the slope.
FjG 63 Italic writing was a script much in use

in Italy in the i6th century. The

slope existed in this script for the same reason as it exists in modern writing.

It is a matter of following the line of least resistance, and, as we write from

ABCDEF
GHIJ K
LMNOP

\STTU

vwxrz

abcdefghij
klmnopqr

stuvwxyz

OLD FACE ITALIC, 48 Point.
H. W. Caslon & Co., Ltd., London.

left to right our writing naturally slopes towards the right. The free
character of Italic writing made it deservedly popular among Italian scribes.
The writing of books entirely composed of Roman capitals must have been
a tedious operation to the penman, who would find in a sloping style more
freedom and more opportunity for an occasional flourish to enable him to
show his skill, and get off the conventional track once in a while. Some
of the letters in the alphabet under review, J, Q, T, Y, show this desire
of the scribe for a little freedom.

The first fount of Italic was cut for a French printer named Jenson
in Venice, and was intended originally for the printing of entire books.
This was carried into effect by Jenson, who printed an edition of Virgil
entirely in Italic in 1470. Without doubt Italic is a beautiful face, and it
is a matter for regret that it is not more extensively used. For verse it is
ideal, and as it is eminently readable, and occupies less space than Roman,
it ought to appeal to all who attempt to get as much printing as possible
into a page.

It is interesting to observe that Old Face Italic lower-case letters of
all types approach most nearly to the form of good modern handwriting.
In it the connectors between one letter and another are plainly visible even
though they are without any function, seeing that the letters are not joined
to each other. Some of the letters are particularly graceful in form, notice-
ably the f, g, p, v, w, and z. One characteristic of this fount is the harmony
which exists between all the letters in it. v, w, x, y, and z, even though
they are unlike any of the other letters in detail, yet are quite in harmony
.with them. This is more than can be truthfully said of the same letters
in most of the other lower-case founts, in which they seem nearer relations
of the capitals than of their fellows in the lower-case.

The fount Fig. 64, based upon Cheltenham Old Style, offers the printer
alternate forms of several of the letters. The opportunity of occasionally
introducing a more ornamental form of capital, if not overdone, gives a
certain variety, not out of keeping, in the use of Italics. Such forms must
of course be introduced sparingly ; too much of a good thing, no matter
how good, is good for nothing. Such ornamental variations cease to be

AjlBCD

HIJKLM

WXYZ

J^lmnopqrst

CHELTENHAM OLD STYLE. 48 Point.
H. W. Caslon & Co.. Ltd.. London,

FIG. 64.

either ornaments or variations, if used
upon every possible occasion. The
relation between the thicks and thins
of this fount is, of course, similar to
that existing in the parent fount, and
while this is right and appropriate in
the parent, it is hardly so in the case
of the Italic. The latter shows the
marked influence of the reed pen,
which renders very pronounced the
difference between thicks and thins.

An alternate form is a charac-
teristic feature of some of the letters
of this lower-case alphabet where h,
w, and y are in duplicate. The
similarity between the thicks and thins
of the lower-case forms is as un-
fortunate as it is in the capitals. On
the whole this fount bears comparison
badly with Old Face Italic, the pro-
genitor of all italic founts. Whether
it is because the eye through long
usage has become accustomed to the
Old Face Italic forms, or whether
these original forms are so much more
beautiful in themselves, are points upon
which arguments could be based. It is
certainly true that the Old Face Italic
letters are more beautiful to look upon
and more pleasant to read than those
under review. This fount was issued
along with Cheltenham Old Style
Roman in 1900.

PLATE XXV.
ROSE, THISTLE, AND SPIRAL PANELS AND TAIL PIECES.

cccoo

Ornaments by H. W. CASLON & Co., Lm , 82 and 83 Chiswell Street, London, E.C.

PLATE XXVI.
CHRISTMAS CARDS.

MAY THE COMING
YEAR BRING YOU
BETTER THAN YOU

EXPECT - OR DESERVE.

Mr & Mrs JOHN BELL
27 ROSE ST., YORK.

Christmas 1911.

fmas

1911

Mr & Mrs J. Martin
desire to extend their
Best Wishes for this
Christmas Season to
all their friends.

Manfield

Boroughbridge

Yorkshire.

Witf) tfe best wisSes and
tQe Kindest trjougrjts for a
Jtappy Qfjristmas and a
5drigdt fiew year from
Mr # Mrs ^eorge Gross
127 ffewington gardens
fllanedester.

^December 25t6,

Paper — "Toned M.F. Printing" — W. H. & A. RICHARDSON, Mill No. 91, Springwell Paper Mills, Jarrow-on-Tyne, England.

PLATE XXVII.

1757
COTTRELL

1794
THORNE

1838
BESLEY

1849
FOX

1861
REED

STEPHENSON, BLAKE & CO. AND
SIR CHARLES REED & SONS,
LETTER FOUNDERS, SHEFFIELD.

1877

SIR CHARLES
REED & SONS

PICTURE TO YOURSELF

the mediaeval monk, sitting in the
Scriptorium, laboriously adding letter
to letter and page to page, and con-
trast with this the modern method of
printing a book. What a period of
invention and industrial activity lies
between the two ! Since 1757 the
Stephensons, Blakes, Reeds, and their
predecessors, have been intimately
identified with this development. The
prestige, energy, and progressiveness
of the firm make Stephenson, Blake
and Co. and Sir Charles Reed & Sons
an even greater necessity to-day than
their predecessors were to the printer
of a century ago.

STEPHENSON, BLAKE & CO. AND
SIR CHARLES REED & SONS,
WERE AMALGAMATED IN 1906.

1763
JACKSON

1792
CASLON

1819
BLAKE

1819
GARNETT

1830
STEPHENSON

1841

STEPHENSON
BLAKE & CO.

Type by STEPHENSON, BLAKE & Co. and Sir CHARLES REED & SONS, Sheffield,
18 point Baskerville Old Style ; 18 point Old Face No. 5 ; 8 point Winchester.

. Paper— "Glazed Amber" — The Culler Mills Paper Co., Ltd., Mill No. 9, Peterculter, Aberdeenshire.

PLATE XXVIII. — LETTER HEADINGS.

ENDERSON & MACNAUGHT

Always in Slock :

SPADES . TROWELS
. LAW MOWERS .
CANES . . RAFFIA

AND
Every Garden Requisite.

8 KNOX ST.

In their Season :

BULBS AND SEEDS
. BEDDING OUT .
PLANTS IN POTS

AND
Everything [or the Garden.

GLASGOW.

SMITH &- KEMP

NURSERYMEN

SEEDSMEN

FLORISTS

725 GEORGE STREET
EDINBURGH

HAMPTON

FURNISHING

LEA ROAD

BROTHERS

IRONMONGERS

SOUTHSEA

Type by H. W. CASLON & Co., Ltd., London, and STEPHENSON, BLAKE & Co. and Sir CHARLES REED & SONS, Sheffield.
Paper— "Nechtan Imperial Linen" Extra Strong— JOHN B. MACNAUGHTON, 74 York Street, Glasgow.

PLATE XXIX.

NECHTAN

THIS WATERMARK IS A GUARANTEE

of quality and strength, and the distinguishing
mark of NECHTAN PAPER, which takes
a clear and sharp impression from the type-
writer and is equally satisfactory for use with
the pen. The paper is stocked and boxed in
both letter and legal sizes, as well as in Large
Post 15, 18, 21 and 23 Ib. and Dbl. Large Post

30, 36, 42 and 46 Ib.

FOUR THICKNESSES but only ONE QUALITY.

Samples and Prices for the asking, from

JOHN B. MACNAUGHTON,

AGENT FOR ALL CLASSES OF PAPERS,

74 YORK ST., GLASGOW.

Type by STEPHENSON, BLAKE & Co. and Sir CHARLES REED & SONS, Sheffield.
Old Style No. 5 — 48 point and 18 point ; Windsor 14 point ; Italian Old Style Italic, 14 point.

Paper— " Nechtan Imperial Linen" Extra Strong — JOHN B. MACNAUGHTON, 74 York Street, Glasgow.

PLATE XXX.
MENU AND INVITATION CARDS.

SOUP
Clear Tomato

FISH
Baked Halibut Salmon

JOINTS
Roast Beef Roast Lamb

SWEETS

Cabinet Pudding Apple Tart

Fruit Salad

TEA COFFEE ICES

TOASTS

"THE KING"

Proposed by
THE CHAIRMAN

"OUR GUESTS"

Proposer
Mr MASON

Responder
Mr MILLER

"THE PRESIDENT"

Proposer
Mr BRAND

Responder
Mr ANDREW

"THE LADIES"

Proposer
Mr MANDER

Responder
Mr PURVIS

THE BIRMINGHAM ART SOCIETY
TENTH ANNUAL DINNER.

The President and Council request the honour of

Company to Dinner in the Art Galleries, on the
Evening of Tuesday, 24th October, at Six o'clock.

R.S.V.P to Charles M. Swan. 25 Guelder Road, Birmingham.

Paper— " Glazed Amber" — The Culler Mills Paper Co., Ltd., Mill No. 9, Peterculter, Aberdeenshire.

PLATE XXXI.— TITLE PAGE.

THE LIFE OF THE
GREEKS 6? ROMANS

DESCRIBED FROM
ANTIQUE MONUMENTS

E. GUHL & W. KONER

TRANSLATED FROM THE
THIRD GERMAN EDITION

F. HUEFFER

LONDON :
CHATTO & WINDUS, PICCADILLY

Paper — "Toned M.F. Printing"— W. H. & A. RICHARDSON, Mill No. 91, Springwell Paper Mills, Jarrow-on-Tyne, England.

PLATE XXXII.

Eight ornaments composed of three Vine units repeated.

Four ornaments composed of four Rose units repeated.

Ornaments by H. W. CASLON & Co., Ltd., 82 and 83 Chiswell Street, London, E.C.

The capitals of Fig. 65 are more staid and sober in form than those
of Cheltenham Italic. No alternate forms are included nor are any of the
letters flourished. Even the Q, which
is usually a lively letter iri Italic founts,
is severe and self-contained. Few, if
any, of the letters call for remark ;
being undistinguished, they do not invite
either condemnation or praise.

A comparison between this lower-
case fount and Cheltenham Italic, its
parent, shows very few essential differ-
ences indeed. It is in fact the last
word in Italic founts in the direction
of heavy respectable convention. When
one compares it with Old Face Caslon
Italic, one might be excused for thinking
of the Cheltenham Heavy Italic as being
the Old Face Italic grown to years of
discretion and respectable ponderosity.
All the sparkle and gaiety of youth
have departed, and only conventional
respectability remains.

Fig. 66 is a very graceful fount of
capitals, based upon Italian Old Style,
and having the characteristics common
to this family. Notice the almost equal
breadth of thicks and thins, and the
squarely finished serifs. Few of the
letters call for special mention, except
the Q, which has a very graceful tail ;
the form of the whole letter suggests
the Q of good modern penmanship.

This lower-case Italic has a character

ABCDE
FGHIJK
LMNOP
QRSTU
VWXYZ

abode fg
h ijklm
nopqrst
uvwxyz

CHELTENHAM HEAVY ITALIC, 48 Point.
H. W. Caslon & Co.. Ltd.. London.

FIG. 65.

ABCDEFGHI
JKLMNOPQR
STUVWXYZ&
abcdefghijklmn
o pq rstuww x yz

LINING ITALIAN Old Style Italic, 24 Point.

Stephenson, Blake & Co. and Sir Charles Reed & Sons,
Sheffield.

FIG. 66.

letters includes a certain subtle spring,
imparting to their forms a lively and
sturdy appearance, which is pleasing and
distinctive. In some of the forms there
is a simplicity which suggests a breaking
away from historic precedent, without
impairing in any way the legibility of
the letters. The absence of terminal
serifs is evident in f, g, h, k, m, n, p, q,
and r, while d and u retain these features.
The z, like most other forms of the
same character, seems out of harmony
with the other letters, being simply a
capital z made smaller. Vestiges of
joinings are still evident in the h, i, k,
1, m, n, and t. The " and " shows
clearly that it is a combination of
e and t. This fount was first issued
in 1 9.0 1 .

which is in harmony with the capitals
of the same fount. The very slight
difference between thicks and thins,
evident throughout all the members of
the family, is particularly noticeable
here. The general character of the

VEFGHI
JJKLMM

RftSTTU
VWXYZ&

abcdefghij
klmnopqr
r stu vw xy z

WINCHESTER OLD STYLE ITALIC 36 Point.

Stephenson, Blake & Co. and Sir Charles Reed & Sons,
Sheffield.

FIG. 67.

Winchester Old Style (Fig. 67) is
a very graceful fount of Italics. The
capitals consist of thirty-six sorts, ten of
the letters being issued 'in two forms.
The lower-case letters are very distinctive
in their character, which is not quite
similar to that of the capitals, being
somewhat angular, as in v and w. The
angularity of the curves is evident to a
less degree in the other lower-case letters.
The fount was first issued in 1909.

De Vinne Italic (Fig. 68) is in all
respects identical with De Vinne except
in the slope of its members. Only one
form each of capital and lower-case s

A'BC'DEFG
HIJKLMN
OPQRSTU
V W X Y Z
abcdefghij
klm nopq r
stu VW xy z

MORLAND ITALIC 30 Point.
H. W. Caslon & Co.. Ltd.. London.

ABCDBG
HIJKLMN
OPQRSTU

VWXYZ
abcdefghij
klmnopqr
stuvwxyz

DE VINNE ITALIC 36 Point

Stephenson, Blake & Co, and Sir Charles Reed & Sons.
Sheffield.

FIG. 68.

FIG. 69.

is however given. The fount was issued
first in 1894.

Morland Italic (Fig. 69) has all
the general characteristics of its parent
Morland. Some of the forms of the
individual letters are very pleasing,
especially the capitals Q, T, and D,
and lower-case letters v, w, y, and z.
Lower-case h is perhaps the least satis-
factory of the whole series. The fount
was issued about 1890.

r f 0f)t jf 1 1 m

ORIGINAL BLACK, 48 Point
H. W. Caslon & Co., Ltd.. London.

FIG. 70.

Writing of Gothic
character was confined
almost entirely to the
nations of Northern
Europe, and as a natural
result we find that the
types cut by Gutenberg
of Metz, the first printer,
were imitations of pen-
written letters having this
character. The principal
feature of Gothic or Black
Letter is the placing close
together of the heavy
straight upright members,
while the white inter-
spaces are often narrower
than the members them-
selves. Black Letter is
seldom round in char-
acter ; in its extreme
form it consists of heavy
members connected by
short angular thick and
thin joinings. Like
Gothic Architecture, it
never really found a home
among the Southern
nations, and any examples
of it produced away from
its native place, show the
influence of the people
among whom it found
itself.

When written or printed of a large size, as in the work of the early
founder printers, while yet their skill was insufficient to cut type of pearl
or diamond size, it is readable, but as may be seen in Modern German
Newspaper or book type, to the unaccustomed eye it may be said to be
quite illegible. Its use in modern times in countries which for centuries
have had the clear Roman type, is limited to initials, which are very often
printed in red (rubricated). The capitals of this fount are never used alone,
except by an occasional sign painter more daring than usual, whose inscription
over the door of a shop usually leaves the passer-by as wise as ever as to
the purport of the inscription.

Its use by compositors should be rare, and only then of a size which
is readable ; it is questionable if any fount under 1 2 point fulfils this
condition. Black Letter capitals of the size illustrated (48 point) are
effective as initials, especially if rubricated. As is well known, rubricated
letters appear smaller and lighter than the same letters printed in black.
The fount under consideration is very heavy, and is very distinctive in
character ; it is well named " Original " Black. The letters are very wide
in relation to their height, averaging over thirteen units in width to ten
units in height. Some of the letters are not very individual, as, for instance,
the K, which is very like an R, while I and J are identical.

Black Letters, apart from their form, differ much from Roman ones.
In the latter characters no unnecessary parts are introduced beyond serifs
or beginnings and finishings ; in Black Letter or Gothic, on the other hand,
and especially in capitals, many of the features are introduced for ornament
only, thereby confounding the root forms. Thus in C, in the alphabet
under consideration, one member only is necessary, while the three added
ones tend to make the C less distinguishable. Other letters such as
E, H, N, W, etc., contain unnecessary ornaments.

The lower-case letters are extremely heavy, following the same pro-
portions as the capitals. Both ascenders and descenders are very short.
Notice the slope to the left of the ascender of d, a form evolved during
the period when uncials were coming into use. The beginnings of the
ascenders in b, h, k, and 1, and the terminations of the descenders of p and q

BLACK No. 4, 48 Point.

H. W. Caslon & Co., Ltd., London.

FIG. 71.

are split, a form naturally produced by
the use of a soft reed pen. Each letter
is quite distinctive. One's attention is
attracted by the peculiar ornamental
pen-dash seen at the left sides of b, h,
and k, and to the curious misshapen
dash at the right hand of g. Notice
that the interspaces are always smaller
in area than any of the members ; this
makes for illegibility. This fount was
designed and engraved by Caslon I.
about 1740.

The letters in Fig. 71 are very
harmonious in relation to one another,
though the O, N, and V are apt to be
confounded with one another. The
form of these capitals shows evidence
of the pen of the scribe, and all the
different details are. such as would be
naturally made by a reed pen skilfully
used. The letters are " square " in
character, i.e., they are composed mostly
of upright heavy and thin members,
while comparatively few curves are
employed. In considering this fount
also it is necessary to remember that
some of the members are used to dis-
tinguish the form, while others are
added purely as ornament. For instance,
none of the thin verticals contribute to
the characteristic form of the letters,
nor do the short sloping thin bars con-
nected together by short thick verticals ;

these are added solely for the purpose of giving a sumptuous effect, and as

has been noticed in the case of O, N, and V, confuse rather than differentiate

the forms. A comparison of Black

Letter capitals generally and Roman

capitals reveals the fact that in the

latter characters the type or root form

is always evident. Thus, in A, B, C,

D, E, etc., the serifs are added only

by way of workmanlike finishings, while

the thicks and thins in Roman letters

are the natural forms produced by the

use of a chisel-shaped point.

The lower-case letters of this fount
are extremely good and distinct in form.
They suggest the source of their origin
(the reed pen), while each is clear and
legible, having no unnecessary parts.
Black No. 4 was engraved and issued
early in the igth century.

This Black Letter face (Fig. 72) is
quite distinctive in character and utterly
unlike Black No. 4. Most of the
principal members are curved, usually
beginning thin, swelling gradually to
the greatest thickness, and finishing thin.
This imparts a distinctly flourished char-
acter to the fount, thereby making it
more ornamental, and rather less legible
than Black No. 4. The individual
letters are, however, more distinctive,
no one being at all likely to be mis-
taken for any other. The name Anglo-Saxon, by the way, is a misnomer,
since Anglo-Saxon script has a character quite distinct from that of this face.

ANGLO-SAXON 48 Point.

H. W. Caslon & Co., Ltd., London.

FIG. 72.

H 33 <L 2) B

abcfcefgbij
hlmnopqr

The lower-case letters of this fount
are very much narrower than those of
Black No. 4, while naturally also the
angles between the members are less
nearly equal, than those of that fount.
The joinings of the thicks and thins
show no natural thickenings, while the
short sloping serifs or connectors seem
to be inserted too low or too high in

TUDOR BLACK 36 Point.

Miller & Richard, Edinburgh.

FIG. 73-

the thick members. They do not seem
to grow out naturally, and give there-
fore a stiff effect. The fount was issued
early in the igth century.

Fig. 73 is a fount of Black Letter
of a particularly free style. Being open
in character, it is very legible and dis-
tinctive. No one of the letters is at
all likely to be mistaken for another,

klmnxxpqr

BLACK No 3. 36 Point.

Stephenson, Blake & Co. and Sir Charles Reed & Sons.
Sheffield.

FIG. 74-

a fault common in many Gothic founts. Most of the letters show their
pen origin, particularly A, E, K, L, P, T, and V. The terminations of
H, I, J, M, X, and Y could not have been produced naturally with the
pen, while the thin members of C, G, and T would have been more appro-
priate had they been vertical instead of being slightly sloped.

The lower-case letters here are in harmony with the capitals of the
same fount, having their good qualities as well as their defects. The letters
which seem particularly in harmony with the general character of the fount
are a, c, d, e, g, h, o, p, q, s, v, w, y, and z, while most of the others are
more stiff in form, suggesting the use of a stiffer and less flexible pen.
Tudor Black was derived from an old MS., adapted for type, and issued
by Miller & Richard in 1878.

Black No. 3 (Fig. 74) is a fount of black letters of more than normal
width. No fewer than nineteen of the capitals possess a similar ornamental
flourish which extends below the line. This feature is so important that
it practically dominates each of these nineteen letters, and makes them
approximately similar in shape. The lower-case forms are particularly good,
though the beginnings of b, h, k, 1, and t, and the endings of j, p, and q
have rather an unfinished appearance. The fount was issued first in 1885.

CHAPTER FIVE.
THE SUBJECT MATTER OF ADVERTISEMENTS.

DVERTISEMENT by means of circulars, booklets, and pages
in magazines occupies such an important place in modern business,
that in such a book as this a special chapter seems necessary for
the discussion of its principles, and the illustration of its practice.
By means of printed advertisements the manufacturer may reach
thousands of possible buyers. Whether his advertisement brings an adequate
return or not depends upon several things, among which are the quality and
price of his goods, and his power of appeal, or the ability he displays in
framing his advertisement, to which must be added the compositor's capacity
in displaying the type used. Should any one of these factors be unsatisfactory
the likelihood is that the money spent on the advertisement is to a large extent
thrown away. In fairness to the compositor it should be said that no amount
of skill in type-display will be of much avail if the advertisement is badly
worded or the qualities of the wares ineffectively stated. Provided that the
subject matter of the advertisement is ably written, much can be done by the
compositor to make the advertisement inviting and attractive. The business
advertisement or booklet printed upon a low grade paper and from poor type
badly displayed, cannot long escape the waste-paper basket ; whereas the
attractive booklet of good size and shape, with its message interestingly stated,
pleasingly displayed in good readable type, and well printed upon attractive
paper, cannot fail to achieve its end, and its pleasant appearance and character
will save it at least for some time from the fate of all advertising literature.
Advertisement writing, especially for daily newspapers, is now a recognised
business, and is in the hands of " experts," many of whom seem to think that
if they use a " sufficiently sensational succession of unfortunate and unusual

adjectives," and contrive so to arrange their sentences that the verbs occur

where the nouns should be, they have attracted the attention of the buying
public. They may also have brought upon themselves, and the firms they
represent, the scorn of many who respect the English language. The art
of advertising, like the art of salesmanship, is a fine one, and tact, good-
humour, and honesty are just as necessary in the one as in the other. " A
well-designed and worded advertisement should produce in the mind of the
possible buyer six successive mental states : — First, favourable attention ;
second, interest ; third, desire ; fourth, confidence ; fifth, action ; sixth,
satisfaction. Any one who can by means of a well arranged and displayed
advertisement induce these six mental states in the minds of a large percentage
of people within the area of his possible clientage, is a business builder, and
will have a profitable business." (Arthur Frederick Sheldon. The Fra,
September 1910.) Twenty years ago the public were cajoled by paragraphs
in provincial newspapefs, which, beginning as stories, ended by proclaiming
the virtues of somebody's Cough Mixture or Antibilious Pills. At the same
period the attention of the public was arrested by placards on street hoardings,
offering something, always in large type, sans serifs, for nothing ; but
advertisers now realise that a public deluded is not likely to patronise the
warehouse of the deluder. Bogus cheques promising to pay five thousand
good wishes, and illustrations of purses containing sovereigns excited the
interest of the public of former times. These crude methods would be
entirely useless at this date, and buyers are now satisfied if they can secure
a good article at a reasonable price, and the sensible manufacturer or merchant
now employs legitimate means only to secure the attention of likely patrons,
believing that fair dealing is the only possible basis of a sound business.

An attractive appearance is an essential of a successful advertisement
whose first appeal is to the eye, and to make this effective the cover and
general arrangement should not only be attractive but, if possible, novel.
Now novelty of appearance is a quality which is continually changing, for
what is novel and therefore compels interest to-day, may not, indeed will
not, claim attention to-morrow ; for to-day's novelties are to-morrow's common-
places. The successful compositor must know what is the prevalent style
in displaying — and carefully avoid it. If he copies what others are doing,

anything he produces will be conventional, and conventionality in type
display for advertisement purposes is fatal. No compositor should have any
difficulty in displaying a page of type which will be different from the normal.
The performance of such a feat is not, however, sufficient. The page should
not only be different from, but better than, the normal.

Perhaps it may be worth while to consider the conditions under which
the display compositor usually works. Under the most cramped conditions
his business is merely to set his type, following the MS. supplied. In such
a case he may not alter the order of the sentences or substitute a more
suitable for a less satisfactory word. The possibilities of attractive display
under such conditions are necessarily limited. Under the freest conditions
he will be allowed to rearrange the matter supplied, so that the advertiser's
message will, through his expert arrangement of type, make its strongest and
most effective appeal to possible buyers. Advertisers who are not thoroughly
acquainted with the possibilities of type-display, would do well to give such
an expert compositor a fairly free hand in composing their advertisements.
In any case, as the final proof must be submitted to them, they have the
ultimate decision as to the form their advertisement should take. The two
component items in the construction of a display page — the idea, and its
expression — should really be the work of a single individual, though the two
partners involved — the merchant and the compositor — may exchange ideas,
which will result in a distinguished advertisement.

All advertisement writers and compositors realise that their function is
to make their message appeal to the reader, but a good many different ideas
exist as to what is the most effective form of appeal. Though there is an
infinite number of different ways of displaying type upon advertisement pages,
these are for the most part expressions of two distinct ideas — two different
points of view. The first and more common of these two points of view
finds expression by means of long and short lines of type, set in many sizes
and faces. In the second form the compositor limits himself to the use
of a few related or contrasted faces of a few sizes. The idea in the first
method is to supply interest by means of variety of size and form ; the idea
in the second method is to ensure legibility and harmony by the introduction

of necessary contrast only, both of size and form. In the first method each
line stands by itself, and claims individual attention on account of its individual
character. This is apt to lead to undue competition among the various items
on the page. In the setting of a page of twenty-five lines, it is not un-
common to see used a dozen different founts set in twenty sizes of type. No
sensitive eye or mind can contemplate such a page without irritation and
consequent bias towards its compositor, so that which was designed to attract
merely repels. In the second method the advertiser shows a genuine desire
to gain the attention of his possible client by directness of statement, legibility
of type, and orderly arrangement. To attain this the message is set in good-
sized legible type in the form of a panel occupying a central position on the
page. This panel is composed of well arranged sentences and paragraphs.
Its bulk, form, legibility, and position, compel the attention of the reader,
and as the other items of the advertisement — the firm's name, address, and
possibly a catch line — are set in large type, each part of the advertisement
obtains its due share of attention, and establishes the relations desired by the
enterprising advertiser with the sympathetic reader. If the advertisement
reaches the class who are users of the goods advertised, business will
naturally result.

It is not unusual to find that firms who are expert manufacturers, have
the crudest possible ideas as to the framing of an advertisement. Some firms
persistently pursue the policy of trying to get too much for their money
in advertising. They attempt to compress into a page as much matter as
would reasonably fill two pages. In such a case the compositor has no
chance of making an effective display, and is compelled to use type of a
very small size. The reader will not take the trouble to adjust his spectacles
and try to fathom the advertiser's scheme. The possible client must be
wooed, not bullied. Advertising in this manner is simply throwing away
money. Not only so, but the possible client gradually develops a bias
against such firms, and, taking their advertisement methods as an index of
their general business capacities, resolutely avoids the firms which adopt such
tactics. If the advertiser has something really worthy of the attention of
the buyer, he should display his goods judiciously. There is no need for

him to expose the whole of the contents of his shop on the counter at one
time. A printed advertisement should be so well and so attractively arranged
that all who run may read. Advertising in extremely small or illegible type,
is not only poor advertising, but very poor business indeed. An advertisement
of ten pithy lines of good type, carrying an interesting and concise state-
ment, written with a spice of humour, is infinitely more attractive and
convincing than one of fifty lines of uninteresting matter set in small type.
Such we avoid as naturally as we avoid the conversational "bore."

CHAPTER SIX.

•

SOME PRINCIPLES OF TYPE-DISPLAY.

"1 HE principles which underlie the arrangement of type upon
advertisement pages are the same as those which govern the
productions of all designers. For the compositor is a designer.
He must decide the size, character, and position of the various
founts of type he employs. In the case of ordinary bookwork
the size and disposition of the type has already been settled by tradition and
practical considerations, but the display compositor has still in most instances
a wide choice of founts and sizes to select from, and a variety of arrangements
is open to him.

The architect who designs a cathedral or public building, the designer
who plans the form and colour of a carpet, and the artist who paints a picture,
are all faced with the same problems as the type-display compositor ; though
in the former cases the units may involve more knowledge of detail and be
more complex, still in the latter case the same great principles must be
observed. All are assisted, though also limited, by conditions of construction
as well as by art considerations. A thorough knowledge and acknowledgement
of these conditions will enable the designer, no matter in what material he
works, to make the most of his opportunities ; and the recognition of his
limitations should prove a help rather than a hindrance to him. The architect
is limited in the size, site, and cost of his building. The designer is restricted
to the use of a certain number of colours for his carpet, and is compelled
to recognise the conditions of its manufacture. The artist must plan the
positions, form, and colour of the features of interest in his picture. In fact
none of them are absolutely free in their work. If they recognise their
limitations they know that there are things they may do, and things which
they cannot do ; and the success or failure of their efforts will be largely

influenced by their acceptance of the conditions under which they work.
Such also is the case with the display compositor. His conditions will likely
be fixed by the client or master-printer. A certain size of paper and a fixed
quantity of copy will require to be compressed or expanded upon the page.
His problem in design — and it amounts to nothing less — is to arrange his
letters and words — first, that they shall be most effective from the point
of view of the client ; and second, so that the result shall combine with
this the maximum of good taste founded upon sound principles.

The great principle of order is necessary and inevitable in any develop-
ment, whether national or personal. The compositor who picks up his
types and spaces from his case, arranges them in lines, and after printing,
returns them to their separate boxes, constantly recognises and acts upon
this great principle of order. The human mind, while recognising and
acting upon this principle, is also open to the influence of variety. We
are so constituted that not only permanency but also change appeals to us.
So the observance of this principle of variety, along with the other one
of order, goes a long way to making up the sum of our human experiences.
The repetition of the same actions from day to day co-operates in the
formation of order, so that repetition is also one of the great principles, or
at least is a part of it. In the examples of type-display illustrated throughout
this volume, these principles of order, repetition, and variety are constantly
demonstrated — order in the arrangement of parallel lines of type and spaces,
repetition in the use again and again of the same letters, and variety in
the differences between one letter and another, and between capitals and
lower-case letters. In Plate Xa, where all the type is of one fount and one
size, each word or group of letters has the same value to the eye as any
other, and the importance of the words forming the text must be estimated
by the reader's knowledge of the language used. Plate XL is in striking
contrast to Plate X. In Plate XI. the principle of contrast with its auxiliary
emphasis is introduced. In this advertisement the brain and hand of the
compositor are evident. Either the composer of the letterpress or the
compositor of it has seen fit to give special emphasis to certain words or
phrases by diverse devices. As the whole advertisement is set in capitals

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PLATE XXXIV.— BOOK PLATES.

EX LIBR1S

ALISON LOTHIAN

ROBERT

CALLANDER

¥YSE

IS BOOK

EX LIBRIS

CH AS. A. SCOTT

Ex Libris

ALEXANDER

FORBES
THOMSON

Paper— "Cream Antique Laid"— W. H. & A. RICHARDSON, Mill No. 91, Springwell Paper Mills, Jarrow-on-Tyne, England.

PLATE XXXV.
PROGRAMME COVERS.

ORPHEUS
MUSICAL
SOCIETY

SESSION
1911-1912

Birmingham
Dramatic Club

MEETS EVERY MONDAY EVENING
FROM OCTOBER TILL MARCH AT
SEVEN O'CLOCK FOR PRACTICE.

:: :: ANNUAL SUBSCRIPTION :: ::
: : : : Payable at Opening of Session : : : :
:: :: Ladies - 5 - Gentlemen - 7/6 :: ::

Southern Fruit-Growers'
Association

PROGRAMME OF
ARRANGEMENTS
SESSION 1911-12

DERBY HORTICULTURAL
ASSOCIATION

Annual Spring Exhibition

April 8 & 9, 1912.

Paper — "Dark Apricot Art" — THE CULTER PAPER MILLS Co., LTD., Mill No, 9, Peterculter, Aberdeenshire.

PLATE XXXVI.
ROUGH COMPOSITION SKETCHES - TYPE ONLY.

Paper—" White Antique Wove"— W. H. & A. RICHARDSON, Mill No. 91, Springwell Paper Mills, Jarrow-ou-Tyne, England.

PLATE XXXVII.
ROUGH COMPOSITION SKETCHES— TYPE AND ORNAMENT.

Paper— " White Antique Wove "— W. H. & A. RICHARDSON, Mill No. 91, Springwell Paper Mills, Jarrow-on-Tyne, England.

PLATE XXXVIII.
PATTERNS COMPOSED OF SHAMROCK TYPE UNITS.

Five units employed in making Shamrock Patterns.

Pattern composed of two units repeated.

Pattern composed of one unit repeated.

Pattern composed of three units repeated.

Pattern composed of one unit repeated.

Ornaments by H. W. CASLON & Co., Ltd., 82 and 83 Chiswell Street, London, E.G.
Paper — "Dark Apricot Art" — The Culler Paper Mills Co., Ltd., Mill No. 9, Peterculter, Aberdeenshire.

PLATE XXXIX.— INITIALS.

Paper— " Cream Antique Laid"— W. H. & A. RICHARDSON, Mil] No. 91, Springwell Paper Mills, Jarrow-on-Tyne, England.

PLATE XL.

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To the Jobbing Printer.

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IN DISPLAY WORK ON

The Monotype?

It is the only single -type setting and
casting machine on the market. It gives
at lowest cost all material required
by the Jobbing Printer. It is the
only machine for Display work. It will
cast and set any job placed before it.

All the type in this page was cast on the
Monotype. If you do not know what
the Machine can do let us show you.

FULL PARTICULARS CAN BE OBTAINED OF THE

LANSTON MONOTYPE CORPN. LTD.

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::-'-:*a»:-:-:: :

only of one fount, he has employed two methods to produce emphasis — by
contrast of size and by colour. The larger type being more distinct and
more easily seen, appeals to the mind through the eye with special emphasis,
and the inscription as read by an intelligent reader, bears a close resemblance
to the same statement delivered by the voice of a trained speaker. It is a
visible oration. One calls to mind the means taken by the pedagogue of our
youthful days, who, to show the value of accent or emphasis, repeated the
same sentence with many different inflexions, emphasising each word in turn,
and in each case altering its whole significance. In a limited way the
compositor may do the same thing. By means of type of a larger size or a
different colour the compositor in this example has emphasised certain phrases
and words. He thus occupies an important place in the relations between
speaker and hearer, between writer and reader. He is the interpreter, the
go between of both. Other means of emphasis are within his power, such
as surrounding a selected word or sentence by a line or rule, as in Plate XVII.,
or isolating a sentence, framing it as it were by a border of unprinted paper.
There is a constant temptation here to over-emphasis, and the compositor
who sets each new line in a different fount of a different size, defeats the
end he has in view, by producing crude effects where subtlety would have
been more effective. The use of a " catch line " is illustrated in Plate XXVII.;
it is however important that after this has caught the eye of the reader, the
subsequent statements should be interesting.

N most crafts the forms of the units to be used are designed by the
craftsman himself. In the case of the compositor the forms of the
units (letters and spaces) have already been fixed for him. He,
however, though not the designer of the units he employs, is still
an arranger of them. Unless he is required to imitate from a
printed copy, he has still to decide — first, the sizes of his type, second,
the character and number of founts to be used, and third, whether capitals
only or capitals and lower-case letters shall be employed in the whole or parts
of the page. He must also determine the positions and general shapes of the
masses of type employed, the relative importance of certain words and phrases,
and also the margins of paper surrounding the printed matter.

9°

At first sight these may seem very limited choices, and the opportunities
for variety may appear restricted, but a reference to examples a and b on
Plate IX. may show that upon the single question of proportion between
printed surface and margins, some variety is possible. The arrangement of
type shown on Plate IX. is the obvious one. Two similar panels of type,
each containing identical matter set in capitals only, are shown. In example a,
the space occupied by the printed matter is large and the margins are narrow.
In example d, the panel of type is smaller and the surrounding margins
correspondingly larger. Any of the ordinary letterpress pages of the book
will serve to illustrate the normal proportions of type and margins. Each
of the three examples produces a different effect. As extremely narrow and
extremely wide margins are unusual, they are therefore more distinctive and
more noticeable than normal margins. A wide divergence of opinion exists
among printers as to what is a suitable width for margins, and a recognition
of the functions of margins may assist us to come to some definite conclusion
as to the width they should be. Margins are the unprinted borders which
surround the text. They bear the same relation to type as a frame does to
a picture. They are necessary for the purpose of isolating the text, and
have also a function in relieving the eye when it is tired. Excessively wide
margins are apt to draw one's attention unduly to the frame, to the consequent
neglect of the picture, while very narrow margins may give a sense of meanness
or parsimony to the page. Two well recognised proportions of margin are
acknowledged. These proportions are used on different kinds of pages.
Firsts when a page is meant to be looked at by itself, as in the case of
an advertisement, where no recognition of the opposite page is implied, the
panel of type is centred, and the outer and inner margins are equal and
usually rather wider than the margin at the top of the page, while the
lower margin in all cases is twice as wide as the top margin. Second., in
the case of ordinary printed matter, two pages facing each other must be
taken together as one unit. The relations of upper and lower margins are
the same as in the previous case, but the two outer margins at right and
left sides of the double page are twice the width of the inside margins, or
in other words, each outside margin and the two inside margins taken

together are equal. Any of the advertisement pages illustrates the former
case. The latter case can be seen anywhere throughout this book wherever
two pages of the text face each other. Practical considerations make it
necessary that the margin at the lower edge of the page should be the widest,
as this is really the " handle " of the book — the part it is held by. Were
it narrower the thumb and fingers would cover the print, and necessitate the
book being held by another edge while the last lines of print were being read.

If the size of the page is fixed for the compositor and a definite amount
of printed matter is required to be placed upon it, he must first arrange the
relative width of the type margins. After this has been settled, his next
consideration is the general disposition of the masses of type. This depends
almost entirely upon the nature of the advertisement and the items composing
it. If the advertisement is mainly composed of a paragraph consisting of
connected sentences (a form of advertisement eminently readable and clear)
the subsequent procedure consists mostly in selecting appropriate founts and
sizes and setting them, as in Plates XI., XIV., XVI., XXVII., and XXIX.
In most cases the details of the advertisement suggest the most suitable
arrangement. In Plate XIX. the items were supplied without any attempt
at arrangement, this being left in the author's hands. When these were
sorted out it was found that they were not suited for a paragraph of sentences.
They consisted mostly of the goods to be advertised, with the names and
addresses of offices, works, and agents, etc. The tabular arrangement used in
Plate XIX. was immediately suggested. The advertisement really consists of
three main items. The first two are the name of the firm and the goods being
advertised. These two items are combined into a panel of type set in capitals.
The third item is made up of a table of six parts set in two columns divided
by a rule. Each of the tabulated items consists of the location of office,
works, or agency, with its address, 'phone numbers, etc. The margins left
at each side of the upper panel suggested the inclusion of six uniform
ornaments. The items of Plate XIII. suggested a different arrangement.
The information to be conveyed in this page naturally divided itself into
three parts — first, the name and address of the firm, second, the goods
being advertised, and third, the information contained in the lowest sub-

division. The central panel is divided into two compartments separated
by rules and ornaments. The compartment to the left-hand side contains
the names of the different kinds of goods manufactured, while the right-
hand compartment contains particulars as to the materials used in the
manufacture, sizes, etc. This advertisement might have been set in other
ways, but the arrangement shown is at least readable, arranged in a sensible
manner, and is different from any other advertisement in the book. The
arrangement of Plate XII. arises out of the necessities of the case. This
page required the display of the trade mark of the firm, which is surrounded
by a thistle border composed of two separate units repeated. The spaces at
each side of this central panel were suitable for the inclusion of the necessary
descriptive matter relating to the goods advertised. These two panels have
been set in type of readable size, and the inclusion of four thistle ornaments
appropriate as enrichment for an advertisement by a Scotch firm of manu-
facturers, completes the main features of the page. Practically the entire
page is set in five different sizes of one fount. Different effects are produced
by the use of capitals only or lower-case letters only ; the former is well
illustrated in Plate X. (a) and (V) and in Plate XL, the latter in Plate XXVII.
In Plate X. (a) the panel is set in one fount of one size, and capitals only
are used ; in (b) the same matter is set in one fount of one size, and lower-
case letters only with necessary capitals are employed. The effect in each
case is distinctive. The panel (a) is dignified and monumental, and such
an arrangement is very suitable where the amount of matter is limited.
This arrangement was in common use among the ancient Romans for in-
scriptions on stone ; it was the only arrangement possible in those early
times, as small letters had not then been evolved. The second arrangement
at (b) shows more variety of form, since the ascenders and descenders of
the lower-case letters introduce a variety not possible in the use of capitals
only, the forms of which are all equal in height and approximately similar
in shape to each other. The variety of units introduced in (b) makes its
effect, as a whole, less pronounced and distinctive than that of (a).

With the introduction of two or more sizes of the same fount, the
variety of effects is increased. Plate XI. illustrates the use of four sizes

of one fount of capitals only. Plate XII. has five sizes of one fount, and
both capitals and lower-case letters are employed. In Plate XIII. four founts
and five sizes are used. In Plate XIV. two sizes, both capitals and lower-
case of one fount, are use'd for the principal features. Plate XVI. is composed
of five sizes, in capitals and lower-case, of one fount. One fount only, with
its italic, is used in Plate XVII., while capitals only and lower-case letters
only are well contrasted in Plate XXVII. , the latter being employed for
the central panel and the former for the surrounding border ; similar contrasts
are shown in Plate XXIX. ; the contrasting masses are however different
in form and position.

CHAPTER SEVEN.
THE DESIGN & COMBINATION OF TYPE ORNAMENTS.

OR purposes of type-display the inclusion of a good selection
of type ornaments is necessary. These ornaments are the
means of introducing variety into the page, but they must
be used with knowledge and discrimination. It is quite as
easy to destroy a fine effect by their inclusion as to enhance
it. One of the commonest pitfalls always yawning for the unwary compositor,
is the temptation to place unlike ornamental units together on a page.
Even where these ornaments are each good of their kind — which is not
always the case — there is a tendency to place together on the page ornaments
which suggest different periods, countries, and associations. The ornaments
used in one piece of work should be in series, that is, units of different
form, such as borders, corners, head and tail pieces, etc., should all be of
the same style, so that if combined they will harmonise with each other.
Whether they will harmonise with the type or not, is quite a different
question. Though the compositor is not called upon to design the type
ornaments he uses, he should understand the principles involved in their
design, so as to be able to combine them.

The forms used in type ornament or indeed in any kind of ornament,
may be based upon, but should not be imitations of nature. All ornamental
units are derived from one of two sources. They are obtained either from
natural forms, such as plants, animals, fish, etc., or from forms not directly
traceable to nature, such as the elemental geometrical forms — straight and
curved lines, triangle, square, circle, etc., and their combinations. In the
former case the designer is apt to succumb to the temptation to imitate
nature. He forgets that ornament is an adaptation for a special purpose, not

an imitation. Especially is this to be kept in view when designing type orna-
ments. Without being too pedantic upon the question of historical accuracy,
there should be at least a natural if not an historical harmony between the
various items upon a printed page. It must not be forgotten that the
Ancients themselves were not slow to borrow from all the preceding ages.
The letters and words used on the printed page are symbols, means of
communication between writer and reader. The type-characters are based
upon forms produced by the skilful use of the reed-pen or quill. The
enrichment for a page of type should also suggest the pen, not the brush,
which the reproduction by half tone blocks suggests. If the type ornament
is based oh natural forms, it should be rendered with a pen in such a way
as to be in harmony with the type characters, which also were originally
produced by a similar instrument.

The size, form, and colour of an ornamental unit taken together make
up its character. Character in printing, as in life, is all important. A
piece of ornament may not be refined, may not be dainty or dignified, but
if it has personality or character, the eye of the discerning will never pass
it without recognition.

RINTERS' ornaments, by which is meant the units employed
in the enrichment of a page of type, may, apart from art
considerations, be either bold or dainty, heavy or light. The
effect of the completed page will depend upon the harmonious
relations existing between the two elements associated, viz.,
type and ornament. It is not sufficient to say that bold type will require
bold ornament, nor to say that light type will always be in harmony with
dainty ornament. Were the principle as simple as this, none could err.
Other considerations exist, such as the relative quantities of type and orna-
ment, the positions and sizes of the various units, as well as the community
of spirit which should exist between them. It would be manifestly unfortunate
that a fine fount of type should be associated with ornament which was trivial
in character, or that type which was poor in form should be printed along
with fine ornament. In fact poor ornament as well as poor type should never

be used, even though the page is advertising something of a trifling nature.
The compositor has not the option of rejecting undignified matter ; he may,
however, set the matter in an attractive style. He must make sure that his
part of the business is as well done as he can do it. When two coloured
inks are employed in the decoration of a page, a new element is introduced,
and ornament which would look too heavy if printed along with type in
black, may look appropriate if printed in a lighter colour. See Plate XVII.
Harmony between type and ornament is determined partly by the considera-
tions already set forth, and partly also by custom and usage. Type is a series
of symbols based upon pen writing, by means of which we communicate with
one another. Most people in reading are so much occupied with the sense
contained in the communication that they are not consciously aware of its
form, arrangement, or enrichment. They are, however, unconsciously affected
by the interest of the message, to produce which is the function of the writer ;
and by the value or proportion of emphasis and its agreeable arrangement and
enrichment, to produce which is the function of the compositor. His business
is to arrange and display his units of type and ornaments so that the message
of the writer shall be felt, and this with the greatest charm possible. The
compositor is the first to appreciate the. intention of the writer, and in making
the message easy to decipher and pleasant to read, he collaborates with the
writer, and by judiciously emphasising his meaning, he stands in the relation
of guide to the reader. In serving both he glorifies and illuminates his
own craft.

HE principles which govern the construction of ornament are
based upon the observation of natural form. The forms
employed in ornament are similar to those created by nature
herself. These forms exhibit symmetry or like-sidedness, as
in a leaf, fs^pT] radiation illustrated by the petals of
flowers ifv^ji or by the \*BJ*fr4 junction of stems and leaves. The same
arrange t^^H ment of ®S*^a parts is seen in the bodies of animals
and of ^*<^ men. Other principles of construction are illustrated when
forms are combined, so as to produce new ornamental units ; these are balance,
symmetry with and without variety, distribution of interest, etc., etc.

In the art of printing, repetition is an important principle. The
compositor uses a limited number of units — in the case of type, the twenty-
six letters of the alphabet. These he arranges and combines under conditions.
Such also is the case in the use of his ornaments. He may take a simple
type ornament, say a leaf, and repeat it in a horizontal line ; placing each
unit close to the last, he may form a band or border. Different borders may
be formed by using the same units and altering their positions (Plate XXIV. D).
Other variations are possible in the making of a simple border with one unit.
Borders of a more ornate character may be made by using two or more
units, as in Plate XXIV., B, C, and D. A border of a much more ornate
character is shown in Plate XIV., where three units of more complicated
form are employed. The use of borders by printers is obvious. Diapers
or all over patterns may be formed by repeating one or more units in
horizontal lines, as shown in Plate XXIII. A is composed of similar units
alternated with equal spaces and placed in horizontal lines ; the resultant
pattern is named an open diaper, so called because the ornamental units are
not placed close together. B is a close diaper in which the units are placed
close together, but point in different directions. C is a close diaper composed
of two repeated units. D is an open diaper composed of two floral units.
It will be noticed that the roses and leaves in this diaper are diagrammatic
rather than imitative. The use of diapers by printers is a restricted one ;
they are,' however, useful as panels in the decoration of a cover containing
few words. Diapers are also suitable for the printing of end papers, and
an inventive compositor can often produce by means of rules and diaper
units an end paper which is infinitely more appropriate than those made
for the trade. The use of a single ornamental unit repeated several times
on a page is shown on Plates XIX. and XXII. A few examples are given
on Plate XXV. of panels and tail pieces not meant to be repeated. As a
rule, the simpler the unit the more it can bear repetition. Letters which
are over-ornamented or are very ornate in themselves may be admissible as
initials, but their ornateness tends to make them illegible, and when they
occur in large numbers, both mind and eye become quickly tired in trying
to decipher them. A series of Initials based upon mediaeval capitals is
illustrated on Plate XXXIX.

CHAPTER EIGHT.

HARMONY OF COLOUR IN THE USE OF
PRINTING PAPERS AND INKS.

EFERENCE has been made in an earlier chapter to the
materials which were used for writing upon in early historic
times. The invention of the printing press and the consequent
large amount of printing which was the natural result called
for a printing surface which could be cheaply produced.
Immediately prior to 1455 vellum or parchment was used for MS. written
books, and also after 1455 for printed books of the best class.

Paper had been used in China as early as 200 B.C., but was first made
in Europe during the eleventh century. The early European papers were
made of cotton rags, while in the twelfth century linen and cotton rags
were combined in their manufacture. Spain seems to have been the first
European country to produce it, and Italy, France, and Germany soon followed
suit. The printers of our own country imported most of their paper from
France and Holland. The first English Paper Mill was established at
Stevenage in Hertfordshire, and the first English paper was made there by
John Tate in 1495. Rags were so cheap, there was no attempt to introduce
any other fibre into its manufacture till the end of the eighteenth century,
when paper-makers began to try experiments with other vegetable fibres
with the view to their use in the making of paper.

Modern papers are made principally from linen and cotton rags, Esparto
grass, and wood pulp. For hand-made printing papers the strongest fibres
only are employed — clean linen rags. This quality of paper is used for
Editions-de-luxey and for books of an important and permanent nature.

It is, of course, more costly than the commoner sorts. It is usually finished

with three surfaces — Antique Laid, Plates I. and VIII ; Wove Unglazed,
Plates II. and VII. ; and Wove Glazed, Plates III. and VI. The first is
quite suitable for type of not too small a size, but for line illustrations, either
of the two latter is preferable. Papers made principally from Esparto grass
are much employed for printing of the best description. These papers are
finished in a variety of surfaces — Smooth, Plates XII., XIII., XXVI., and
XXXI. ; Antique Wove, Plates XXXVI. and XXXVII. ; and Antique
Laid, Plates XXXIV. and XXXIX. " Featherweight " papers made almost
entirely of high grade Esparto grass are very much used nowadays for the
production of novels. These papers are very bulky for their weight, and
are finished in different surfaces — Antique Laid, Plates X. and XV. ; and
Antique Wove, Plates IX. and XVI. Art Papers are usually employed
for the printing of half-tone and three-colour blocks — White Art Paper,
Plates IV. and V., and Tinted Art Paper, Plates XXXV. and XXXVIII.
Several Tinted Printing Papers are also illustrated — Plates XL, XIV.,
XXVIL, and XXX. ; and Cover Papers, Plates XVII. to XXIV. Plates
XXVIII. and XXIX. are printed upon a Smooth Linen Paper.

The attention of the printer is, however, more naturally directed towards
the surface of the paper upon which he prints, and to the qualities of hardness
or porosity, smoothness or roughness, they may possess. Both the ingredients
and internal structure of the paper affect any printing which may be placed
upon it. The particles of fibre of which paper is composed are held together
by means of size, and if the proportion of size is a limited one the resultant
paper is soft or porous ; the limit of porosity is reached in the case of blotting
paper, which has the smallest quantity of size in its composition. A paper
which has a great deal of size in it is naturally very hard. The surface of
printing papers is produced by the character of the felt upon which the fluid
paper pulp is run when being made. Very smooth and glazed surfaces are
produced by passing the paper between polished cast iron rollers. Not only
does this make the surface of the paper smooth, but it presses the fibres of
the paper closer together, and makes it harder and less spongy. When line
blocks are printed upon soft surfaced papers the lines are apt to spread,
should the impression be at all a heavy one. If the impression is at all light

100

the resultant print will be poor and weak, both in colour and in distinctness.
The weakness of the print is due partly to the absorbency of the paper and
partly to the openness of its surface. The sharpest impressions are got from
art papers whose surfaces are coated with Kolin, Porcelain Earth, or some
such clay. The printing surface when applied to this paper makes an instant
and perfect contact, leaving a full deposit of ink, which dries quickly and
does not spread.

HERE is no need in a book which concerns itself with the art
aspect of type-display to refer to the chemical composition of
type, papers, or inks. It is well enough known that the ideal
printing ink is one which in the press fulfils its functions with
the minimum trouble to the machineman. Inks which vary
in quality or consistency, being at one time strong and at another time weak,
which take a long time to dry, or are so sticky that the paper fails to leave
the type after the impression is made, are unsatisfactory. Some inks are
required to appear bright and shining when dry, while others are required
to appear dull, and these can be readily supplied by any skilled ink-maker.
In any case the machineman likes to use an ink which can be depended upon
to produce uniformly good results without undue washing up. He also
expects that after careful making ready every print shall be clear and sharp,
and that each print shall be perfect and all prints of the same standard.
These desirable results depend not only upon the quality of the ink, but upon
many other things, such as the making ready, the good working surfaces and
qualities of the rollers, the appropriate surface of the paper, and the absolute
precision of the printing machine. In the early days of printing the ink was
distributed by hand by means of leather pads or dabbers, and it is wonderful
what comparatively admirable results were obtained by the use of this primitive
inking instrument. Plates I. to VII. are reproductions of early printed pages,
the inking of the type of which was carried out by this simple means.
There is, however, about modern printing a certainty of result hardly ever
attained at the dawn of the art.

101

RINTERS are, of course, aware of the infinite variety of shades
and colours produced by the use of three inks only in the three
colour process. In this process the three inks employed are a
bright and pure yellow, a pure crimson red, and a strong blue.
The resulting prints from such inks are usually fairly like the
originals, and would always be so if the supply of ink were uniform and
the colours pure. The yellow, red, and blue inks are never absolutely
pure, i.e., neutral in colour. A yellow to be absolutely pure must have
no blue or red in its composition. If it is tinged with the smallest
quantity of red it becomes orange, and if with blue becomes green. Should
it contain even the smallest quantities of both of these colours it becomes
correspondingly duller in colour and lower in tone. In the same way a pure
neutral red would be free of either yellow or blue. The former would make
it slightly orange and the latter slightly violet in colour, while small quantities
of both would make it duller in colour and lower in tone. A pure neutral
blue would contain no red or yellow, it would not incline either to violet
or green. Such pure inks are entirely theoretical, and neutral coloured inks
as described have yet to be produced. Though the eye does not perceive the
tendencies indicated they are always present, and when the colours are in
combination with any of the other colours, these tendencies are revealed.
The three colours named and the three inks used are the well-known primaries,
and though the primaries named by the scientist are different from these,
from the point of view of the artist, ink maker, or printer, the primaries are
yellow, red, and blue. The yellow employed in the three colour process is
usually tainted with blue, the red usually also tainted with blue, and the blue
with yellow. It has been in fact impossible so far to produce absolutely
neutral yellow, red, and blue printing inks, and the printer is perforce obliged
to use the biassed inks already indicated. Secondary colours or inks are
obtained by combining any of the two primaries, producing by means of yellow
and blue — green, by yellow and red — orange, and by red and blue — violet.
The resultant greens obtained by mixing yellow and blue together will depend
upon the proportions of each of the two colours employed. A wide range
of greens may be obtained, varying from one which is almost yellow to

IO2

one which is almost blue. It is in fact practically impossible to say where
green ends and yellow begins, or to say when green ends and blue begins.
The same may be said of violet and orange colours. Vermilion, for instance,
usually classed as a red, contains as much yellow as crimson. With a little
practice practically any colour may be made by mixing the three primaries
in varying proportions, especially if white and black also may be employed.
Inks may be made lighter by the use of printers' thinning medium, which still
keeps them as transparent as at first, or by the addition of white, which renders
them opaque and gives the colour a different quality. When yellow, red,
and blue are combined in certain proportions, a series of browns and greys
are produced. Brown is composed of yellow and red with a small quantity
of blue, while greys are composed of yellow and blue with a smaller quantity
of red. The tone of ink may be made darker by the addition of black, which
will in all cases make it duller as well. Though it is usually advisable to get
the exact colour of ink required from the ink maker, it is sometimes an
advantage to be able to slightly alter the tone or colour of an ink in the
machine-room. In any case a knowledge of the primaries and their com-
binations is always necessary in preparing trial prints in colour on the hand
press. As most coloured inks are more or less transparent, and as in any
case the film of ink on paper is always comparatively thin, the ultimate colour
of the print is dependent upon the colour of the paper as well as upon that
of the ink. Bright inks printed upon neutral coloured paper will therefore
always appear duller than if printed upon white paper.

EFERENCE has already been made to principles of arrange-
ment in design : — repetition, order, and variety. Similar
principles come into operation in connection with colour,
principally those of proportion and contrast. By proportion
is meant the relative quantities of colours occurring in a
printed page, as, for instance, the quantity of black type in relation to the
white paper. Black, white, and grey may be termed neutral colours. The
dictionary meanings of black and white are identical, viz., colourless. So
long as white paper and black ink are used together, very little can be said

103

about the relative quantities of these, but when any other colour is used with
black upon white paper, the possibilities of harmony or discord are increased.
It should be remembered that when a bright colour and black are used in the
printing of a page, the' former will attract the eye more strongly than the
latter, bu,t only up to a certain point. As has already been said in relation
to variety of form, a little variety creates interest, but too much variety
produces confusion. The use of colour in, say, an initial or a headline may
along with black produce a fine effect, whereas alternate lines or alternate
words in black and colour is anything but effective, being distracting and
tiring to the eye. Type printed in colour does not appear so heavy as the
same type printed in black. Not only bright but also dull colours may be
introduced along with black ; a larger quantity of coloured lettering may
be introduced if its colour is dull. The tone value of two colours printed
upon the same page should be as nearly as possible equal, at least if the
lettering in the two colours is at all nearly equal in quantity (area). Pure
ornament should be made less conspicuous than the printing which it enriches.
It is a questionable practice to make the ornament more attractive and forcible
than the printing which it accompanies, and reminds one of a frame which
calls forth more commendation than the picture which lies inside it. The
principle of contrast is employed and illustrated in the use of black and
coloured inks upon white and tinted papers. Jet black ink printed upon pure
white paper gives the maximum of contrast, whereas when the tone and colour
of paper and ink most nearly coincide, the contrast is a minimum one. A
careful comparison of many samples of black ink demonstrates that all are not
equally black, and a print from a half-tone block will reveal tendencies to blue,
green, or brown, not visible when the ink is used in line or mass.

While it would be a very difficult thing and probably an injudicious one
to attempt to frame rules of colour harmony, several general propositions may
be advanced, which, if not brilliant, may be considered usually safe. Avoid too
many colours upon one page. Musical harmony is not necessarily produced
because the orchestra consists of many men with instruments. Harmonious
form is not necessarily produced by the inclusion of many varied parts.
Colour harmony is not always the result of the inclusion of a great variety

104

of colours and tints. Two colours, as a rule, are sufficient, one of which
should always be predominant either in quantity or interest. There should
be no competition between the different colours employed in a page. Com-
petition can be prevented, and principality or emphasis produced by the
employment of unequal quantity and unequal interest. In a colour harmony
employing two colours, one bright and one dull, the dull colour acts as a foil
to the bright, and the bright colour acts as a contrast to the dull. Should
three colours be used they may appear in something like the following pro-
portions : — the greatest quantity of surface should be printed with the dullest
colour, the middle quantity of surface covered by ink of a moderate tint, and
the brightest of the three colours should be employed most sparingly. It
may not be out of place to explain some of the more common terms
employed in describing colours. These terms are applied in describing first
the hue of the colour, and second, in describing the tone of the colour. The
terms bright and dull refer to the hue, and the terms light or dark refer
to the tone. We can thus have a bright light or a bright dark colour, a
dull light or a dull dark colour. The proper use of such terms will enable
anyone to describe both the hue and tone of a colour more accurately than by
the employment of such loose terms as are in common use. Do not spot the
bright colour all over the page, but concentrate it on one or two main features.
Jet black ink upon white paper has received the approval of both printer and
public from time immemorial ; but the printer who essays the use of coloured
inks upon coloured papers is liable to criticism as well as failure. Not that
he need mind criticism too much. Many kind friends who would never
dream of departing from established precedent are always willing to expend
their critical powers upon work which they have neither the initiative to
conceive nor the courage to produce.

THE END.

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