Butler, Nicholas Murray
Monographs on education
LA
2.01
DIVISION OF EXHIBITS
DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION
UNIVERSAL EXPOSITION, ST. Louis, 1904
MONOGRAPHS ON EDUCATION
IN THE
UNITED STATES
EDITED BY
NICHOLAS MURRAY BUTLER
President of Columbia University in the City of New York
18
EDUCATION OF THE NEGRO
BY
BOOKER T. WASHINGTON
Principal of the Tuskegee Institute, Tuskegee, Alabama
'HIS MONOGRAPH is PRINTED FOR LIMITED DISTRIBUTION BY THE LOUISIANA PURCHASE
EXPOSITION COMPANY
DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION
UNIVERSAL EXPOSITION, ST. Louis, 1904
Chief of Department
HOWARD J. ROGERS, Albany, N. Y.
MONOGRAPHS
ON
EDUCATION IN THE UNITED STATES
EDITED BY
NICHOLAS MURRAY BUTLER
President of Columbia University in the City of New York
1 EDUCATIONAL ORGANIZATION AND ADMINISTRATION — ANDREW
SLOAN DRAPER, President of the University of Illinois, Champaign, Illinois
2 KINDERGARTEN EDUCATION — SUSAN E. BLOW, Cazenovia, New York
3 ELEMENTARY EDUCATION — WILLIAM T. HARRIS, United States Commis-
sioner of Education, Washington, D. C.
4 SECONDARY EDUCATION — ELMER ELLSWORTH BROWN, Professor of Edu-
cation in the University of California, Berkeley, California
5 THE AMERICAN COLLEGE — ANDREW FLEMING WEST, Professor of Latin
in Princeton University, Princeton, New Jersey
6 THE AMERICAN UNIVERSITY — EDWARD DELAVAN PERRY, Jay Professor
of Greek in Columbia University, New York
7 EDUCATION OF WOMEN — M. CAREY THOMAS, President of Bryn Mawr
College, Bryn Mawr, Pennsylvania
8 TRAINING OF TEACHERS — B. A. HINSDALE, Professor of the Science and
Art of Teaching in the University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan
9 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE AND HYGIENE — GILBERT B. MORRISON,
Principal of the Manual Training High School, Kansas City, Missouri
10 PROFESSIONAL EDUCATION — JAMES RUSSELL PARSONS, Director of the
College and High School Departments, University of the State of New York,
Albany, New York
11 SCIENTIFIC, TECHNICAL AND ENGINEERING EDUCATION — T.
C. MENDENHALL, President of the Technological Institute, Worcester,
Massachusetts
12 AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION — CHARLES W. DABNEY, President of the
University of Tennessee, Knoxville, Tennessee
13 COMMERCIAL EDUCATION — EDMUND J. JAMES, Professor of Piiblic
Administration in the University of Chicago, Chicago, Illinois
14 ART AND INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION — ISAAC EDWARDS CLARKE, Bureau
of Education, Washington, D. C.
15 EDUCATION OF DEFECTIVES — EDWARD ELLIS ALLEN, Principal of the
Pennsylvania Institution for the Instruction of the Blind, Overbrook,
Pennsylvania
16 SUMMER SCHOOLS AND UNIVERSITY EXTENSION — GEORGE E. VIN-
CENT, Associate Professor of Sociology, University of Chicago ; Principal oj
Chatttauqua
17 SCIENTIFIC SOCIETIES AND ASSOCIATIONS —JAMES McKEEN CAT-
TELL, Professor of Psychology in Columbia University, New York
18 EDUCATION OF THE NEGRO — BOOKER T. WASHINGTON, Principal of the
Tuskegee Institute^ Tuskegee, Alabama
19 EDUCATION OF THE INDIAN — WILLIAM N. HAILMANN, Superintendent of
Schools, Dayton, Ohio
20 EDUCATION THROUGH THE AGENCY OF THE SEVERAL RELIGIOUS
ORGANIZATIONS — DR. W. H. LARRABEE, Plainfield, N.J.
DIVISION OF EXHIBITS
DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION
UNIVERSAL EXPOSITION, ST. Louis, 1904
MONOGRAPHS ON EDUCATION
IN THE
UNITED STATKS
EDITED BY
NICHOLAS MURRAY BUTLER
President of Columbia University in the City of New York
18
EDUCATION OF THE NEGRO
BY
BOOKER T. WASHINGTON
\-
Principal of the Tuskegee Institute, Tuskegee, Alabama
THIS MONOGRAPH is PRINTED FOR LIMITED DISTRIBUTION BY THE LOUISIANA PURCHASE
EXPOSITION COMPANY
R
COPYRIGHT BY
J. B. LYON COMPANY
1899
COPYRIGHT BY
J. B. LYON COMPANY
1904
J. B. LYON COMPANY
PRINTERS AND BINDERS
ALBANY, N. Y.
EDUCATION OF THE NEGRO
I INTRODUCTION
I could make no more fitting introduction to this mono-
graph— dealing with a race which has grown from twenty
native Africans imported into the country as chattel slaves
in 1619, to fully 10,000,000 of free men, entitled under the
federal constitution to all the rights, privileges and immu-
nities of citizens of tjie United States, in 1899 — than to
reproduce here in part the eloquent remarks of President
William McKinley, made at Chicago, October 9, 1899, show-
ing in the fewest possible words the national growth in popu-
lation, in territory and in material wealth, a growth which
has no parallel in the various history of the human race,
only comprehending, as it does, a little more than a century
of national life. President McKinley said :
" On the reverse side of the great seal of the United
States, authorized by congress, June 20, 1782, and adopted
as the seal of the United States of America after its forma-
tion under the Federal constitution, is the pyramid, signify-
ing strength and duration.
" The eye over it and the motto allude to the many signal
interpositions of Providence in favor of the American cause.
The date underneath, 1776, is that of the declaration of
independence, and the words under it signify the beginning
of a new American era which commences from that date.
It is impossible to trace our history since, without feeling
that the Providence which was with us in the beginning, has
continued to the nation His gracious interposition. When,
unhappily, we have been engaged in war He has given us
the victory.
" Fortunate, indeed, that it can be said we have had no
clash of arms which has ended in defeat, and no responsi-
bility resulting from war is tainted with dishonor. In peace
we have been signally blessed, and our progress has gone
4 EDUCATION OF THE NEGRO [896
on unchecked and even increasing in the intervening years.
In boundless wealth of soil and mine and forest nature has
favored us, while all races of men of every nationality and
climate have contributed their good blood to make the
nation what it is. From 3,929,214 in 1 790 our population
has grown to upward of 62,000,000 in 1890, and our esti-
mated population to-day made by the governors of the states
is 77,803,241.
" We have gone from thirteen states to forty-five. We
have annexed every variety of territory, from the coral reefs
and cocoanut groves of Key West to the icy regions of
Northern Alaska — territory skirting the Atlantic, the Gulf
of Mexico, the Pacific and the Arctic and the islands of the
Pacific and Carribean sea — and we have extended still fur-
ther our jurisdiction to the faraway islands in the Pacific.
Our territory is more than four times larger than it was
when the treaty of peace was signed in 1 783. Our indus-
trial growth has been even more phenomenal than that of
population or territory. Our wealth, estimated in 1790
at $462,000,000, has advanced to $65,000,000,000.
" Education has not been overlooked. The mental and
moral equipment of the youth upon whom will in the future
rest the responsibilities of government have had the unceas-
ing care of the state and the nation. We expended in
1897-98 in public education, open to all, $202,115,548; for
secondary education, $23,474,683 ; and for higher education
for the same period, $30,307,902. The number of pupils
enrolled in public schools in 1896-97 was 14,652,492, or
more than 20 per cent of our population. Is this not a pil-
lar of strength to the republic ?
" Our national credit, often tried, has been ever upheld.
It has no superior and no stain. The United States has
never repudiated a national obligation either to its creditors
or to humanity. It will not now begin to do either. It
never struck a blow except for civilization, and has never
struck its colors. Has the pyramid lost any of its strength ?
Has the republic lost any of its virility? Has the self-
897] EDUCATION OF THE NEGRO 5
governing principle been weakened ? Is there any present
menace to our stability and duration ?
" These questions bring but one answer. The republic is
sturdier and stronger than ever before. Government by the
people has been advanced. Freedom under the flag is more
universal than when the Union was formed. Our steps have
been forward, not backward. From Plymouth Rock to the
Philippines the grand triumphant march of human liberty
has never paused. Fraternity and union are. deeply imbed-
ded in the hearts of the American people. For half a cen-
tury before the civil war disunion was the fear of men of all
sections. That word has gone out of the American vocabu-
lary. It is spoken now only as an historical memory. North,
south, east and west were never so welded together, and
while they may differ about internal policies they are all
for the Union and the maintenance of the integrity of the
flag."
II DEVELOPMENT OF POPULAR EDUCATION
As the early efforts to educate the Negroes of the sixteen
southern states, after the war of the rebellion, in 1865,—
they were declared no longer to be slaves, but human beings
with souls to be saved and intellects to be cultivated, to the
end that they might be the better prepared to discharge the
serious obligations of manhood and citizenship, — are inti-
mately connected with the development of the common
school system of New England, it will be necessary here to
describe in as brief a manner as possible the growth of pop-
ular education in those states. If this principle of popular
education had not been so firmly rooted in the heart and
conscience of the people of the New England states by the
Pilgrim fathers, the history of education of the Negroes
would have been distinctly different and, perhaps, not possi-
ble at all. The spirit which actuated these sturdy pioneers
from the old world, who have blazed the way for American
civil and religious liberty and the development of a system
of popular education which has come to permeate the entire
republic — forty-five mighty states, each sovereign in all
6 EDUCATION OF THE NEGRO [898
matters of its internal policy — was prophesied by Bishop
Berkeley, in the lines that follow, which have endeared
their author's memory to all lovers of education and liberty
in America :
The Muse, disgusted at an age and clime
Barren of every glorious theme,
In distant lands now waits a better time
Producing subjects worthy fame.
In happy climes, where from the genial sun
And virgin earth such scenes ensue,
The force of art by Nature seems outdone,
And fancied beauties by the true;
In happy climes, the seat of innocence,
Where Nature guides and virtue rules,
When men shall not impose for truth and sense
The pedantry of courts and schools —
There shall be sung another golden age,
The rise of empire and of arts,
The good and great inspiring epic rage,
The wisest heads and noblest hearts.
Westward the course of Empire takes its way;
The first four acts already past,
A fifth shall close the drama with the day.
Time's noblest offspring is the last.
Our country is now divided into four distinct groups of
states — the New England, the middle, the southern and
western states — but it can of truth be said that all of them
have drawn their theories of education, of theology and
statesmanship, from the ten states in the middle and New
England group, especially from the latter. The sixteen
states in the southern group have not profited so much from
this source as the nineteen states in the central and western
group, but they have been influenced in a very marked way
since the war of the rebellion, and are being more and more
influenced now, by the work of New England men and
women engaged in the active work of education among the
Negroes of the southern states.
The development of the common-school principle kept
pace with that of the population in New England from the
899] EDUCATION OF THE NEGRO 7
earliest settlement of the colonies, through the period of the
revolutionary war, and for some time after the colonies had
achieved their independence of Great Britain and estab-
lished the Federal Union. During this period many acade-
mies and colleges, notably Harvard and Yale, were founded,
to meet the growing demand for higher and more thorough
education of the people. But from 1810 to 1830 there was
a notable decline in the character, extent and efficiency of
the public school system in New England. Massachusetts
and Connecticut had always been foremost in the mainte-
nance of the system. As far back as 1647 a Massachusetts
statute " compelled every township of 50 families to estab-
lish a public school for all children, and every town of 100
families to set up a grammar school, where youth might be
fitted for Harvard college." This was the first law ever
passed by which a self-governing community was authorized
to offer the elements of knowledge to all children and
youth. In 1683 every town of 500 families was required to
sustain two grammar and two writing (or elementary)
schools. On this broad foundation the original people's
common school of the colony of Massachusetts Bay stood
during the one hundred and thirty-eight years of colonial
life, until the organization of the commonwealth of Massa-
chusetts, in 1780.
" The support of the common school through all the
grades, including the university at Cambridge, was incorpo-
rated in the constitution of 1780. By a constitutional
amendment in 1855 it was ordered that no public money
should be used for the support of the schools of any religious
sect."
There was continuous development of the public school
system in New England in this direction up to 1834, when
the general school fund of Massachusetts was established.
Dr. A. D. Mayo, M. A., LL. D., among the most reliable
and popular authorities on educational subjects in the United
States, from whom I have quoted in the preceding para-
graphs, says further :
8 EDUCATION OF THE NEGRO [900
" It is plain from this brief record that the American com-
mon school was as practically organized in all essential
respects in 1837 as to-day, when the state assumed addi-
tional responsibility by establishing the first board of edu-
cation, of which Horace Mann became the first secretary.
This fact disposes of the statement, somewhat industriously
propagated, that Horace Mann virtually created the present
common school system of the country by his administration
of twelve years as secretary of the Massachusetts board of
education, from 183 7 to 1849. There was, doubtless, ample
need that Mann and his illustrious group of co-workers
should accomplish the reformation of the public schools of
that day. But the foundation had been laid, and there was
no call for the destruction of anything ; only for the return
to the original habit of town supervision, additional legal
authorization of all that then existed, and especially the
waking of the people to the call of the new time for the
more vital and generous support of their own system of
public education, reorganized according to the improved
methods of a progressive age. In nothing was the educa-
tional statesmanship of Horace Mann more evident than in
his immediate grasp of the solution, his estimate of the
points of attack, and his commanding influence over the fore-
most public men and wise manipulation of the legislature
of the commonwealth during his entire administration."
The honors which belong to Horace Mann, as head of
the educational system of Massachusetts, in awakening
among the people renewed interest in their common
schools, and in securing such legislation as was necessary to
place the system upon an effective and assured foundation,
were shared by some of the best and ablest men in the com-
monwealth. Their combined enthusiasm and labors aroused
popular interest in the cause of public education throughout
the New England and the middle states, which gradually
spread to the splendid states of the western group.
What Horace Mann accomplished in the public school
system of Massachusetts Henry Barnard accomplished in
9Ol] EDUCATION OF THE NEGRO 9
perfecting the systems of Connecticut and Rhode Island,
both of which he was instrumental in reorganizing and per-
fecting. The great republic has produced no two men
whose life work has wrought more for national education,
and, therefore, for national strength, than that of Horace
Mann and Henry Barnard.
But, strangely enough, little provision was made in this
great and far-reaching revival in these free states, from 1 830
to 1860, for public school education for the children of those
who were termed in those days " free people of color,"
although the anti-slavery contest, which was to end in the
war of the rebellion, and its sequence of inestimable bene-
fits to all the people, the bondsman and the free man, was
in its height during this educational revival which was to
give new life and energy to the republic. The Negro's social
and political status in the free states was of the most unsat-
isfactory sort. In the matter of educational and religious
instruction he had, in a large measure, to shift for himself,
and in many localities, when he did this, the hoodlum element
of the white population molested and terrorized him at its
pleasure, in some instances wrecking and destroying the
modest schools he or his friends had provided for his bene-
fit. But what he did for himself and what his friends did
for him in the matter of education during the trying years
preceding the war of the rebellion, will be more extensively
related under the next heading of this monograph. What
relation the labors of Horace Mann and Henry Barnard sus-
tained to the inauguration of public education in the sixteen
southern states after the war will be seen when we come to
treat of that phase of the subject.
Ill EDUCATION OF NEGROES BEFORE 1860
It was the general policy of the sixteen slave-holding
states of the south to prohibit by fine, imprisonment and
whipping the giving of instruction to blacks, mulattoes or
other descendants of African parentage, and this prohibition
was extended in most of the slave states to " free persons of
color " as well as to slaves.
IO EDUCATION OF THE NEGRO [902
But it has been the general policy of the slave system in
all ages to keep the slaves in ignorance as the safest way to
perpetuate itself. In this respect the American slave sys-
tem followed the beaten path of history, and thus furnished
the strongest argument for its own undoing. The ignorance
of the slave is always the best safeguard of the system of
slavery, but no such theory could long prevail in a democ-
racy like ours. There were able and distinguished men
among the slaveholders themselves who rebelled against the
system and the theories by which it sought to perpetuate
itself. Such southern men as Thomas Jefferson, Henry
Clay, Cassius M. Clay, and hundreds of others, never became
reconciled to the system of slavery and the degradation of
the slave.
The general character of the laws enacted on this subject
by the slave states can be inferred from the following law,
passed by the state of Georgia in 1829 :
44 If any slave, Negro, or free person of color, or any white
person shall teach any slave, Negro or free person of color
to read or write either written or printed characters, the said
free person of color or slave shall be punished by fine and
whipping, at the discretion of the court ; and if a white per-
son so offend, he, she or they shall be punished with a fine
not exceeding $500 and imprisonment in the common jail,
at the discretion of the court."
There were no laws in the slave code more rigidly
enforced than those prohibiting the giving or receiving
instruction by the slaves or "free persons of color." And
yet in nearly all the large cities of the southern states -
notably in Charleston, Savannah and New Orleans — there
were what were styled " clandestine schools," where such
instruction was given. Those who maintained them and
those who patronized them were constantly watched and
often apprehended and " beaten with many stripes," but the
good work went on in some sort until 1860, when the war
that was to be " the beginning of the end " of the whole sys-
tem of slavery, put a stop to all such effort for the time being.
903] EDUCATION OF THE NEGRO 1 1
There is no more heroic chapter in history than that
which deals with the persistence with which the slaves and
" free persons of color " in the slave states sought and
secured a measure of intellectual and religious instruction ;
for they were prohibited from preaching or receiving relig-
ious instruction except by written permit and when at least
five " white men of good reputation " were present at such
gatherings. But there has never been a time in the history
of mankind when repressive laws, however rigidly enforced,
could shut out the light of knowledge or prevent communion
with the Supreme Ruler of the universe by such as were
determined to share these noblest of human enjoyments.
True, only a few, a very few, of the blacks and " free people
of color" were able to secure any appreciable mental
instruction ; but the fact that so many of them sought it
diligently in defiance of fines and penalties is worthy of
notice and goes far towards explaining the extraordinary
manner in which those people crowded into every school
that was opened to them after the war of the rebellion had
swept away the slave system and placed all the children of the
republic upon equality under the Federal constitution. Nor
was this yearning for mental instruction spasmodic ; thirty-
four years after the war all the school houses, of whatever sort,
opened for these people are as crowded with anxious pupils as
were the modest log school houses planted by New England
men and women while the soldiers of the disbanded armies of
the north and south were turning their faces homeward. A
race so imbued with a love of knowledge, displayed in
slavery and become the marvel of mankind in freedom, must
have reserved for it some honorable place in our national
life which God has not made plain to our understanding.
In His own good time He will make plain His plans and
purposes with regard to this people who were allowed to
serve an apprenticeship of 250 years of slavery in a demo-
cratic republic.
In the free states of the north very little more provision
was made, as late as 1830, by the state for the education of
12 EDUCATION OF THE NEGRO [904
the Negro population than by the slave states. There was
no prohibition by the state against such instruction, but
there was a very pronounced popular sentiment against it,
when prosecuted by benevolent corporations and individuals.
In 1833 the Connecticut legislature enacted the following
black law, for the purpose of suppressing a " school for
colored misses" which Miss Prudence Crandall had been
forced to open in self-defense, at Canterbury :
" Whereas, attempts have been made to establish literary
institutions in this state for the instruction of colored per-
sons belonging to other states and countries, which would
tend to the great increase of the colored population of the
state, and therefore to the injury of the people ; therefore,
" Be it enacted, etc., that no person shall set up or estab-
lish in this state any school, academy, or other literary insti-
tution for the instruction or education of colored persons,
who are not inhabitants of this state, or harbor or board,
for the purpose of attending or being taught or instructed
in any such school, academy or literary institution, any col-
ored person who is not an inhabitant of any town in this
state, without the consent in writing, first obtained, of a
majority of the civil authority, and also the selectmen of the
town, in which such school, academy or institution is situ-
ated, etc.
" And each and every person who shall knowingly do any
act forbidden as aforesaid, or shall be aiding or assisting
therein, shall for the first offense forfeit and pay to the
treasurer of this state a fine of $100, and for the second
offense $200, and so double for every offense of which he or
she shall be convicted ; and all informing officers are required
to make due presentment of all breaches of this act."
The cause of this law was the acceptance by Miss Cran-
dall of a young colored girl into her select school for young
ladies. The parents of the white students insisted upon the
dismissal of Miss Harris, the bone of contention, but Miss
Crandall refused to do so, when the white students were
withdrawn. Miss Crandall then announced that she would
905] EDUCATION OF THE NEGRO 13
open her school for "-young ladies and little misses of color."
The people of Canterbury protested against this course, and
persecuted legally and otherwise Miss Crandall and her 20
pupils. When they found that they could not intimidate
the brave woman the legislature was appealed to, and the law
I have quoted was enacted. Under it Miss Crandall was
arrested and placed in the common jail. The following day
she was bailed out by Rev. Samuel J. May and others. The
case was tried three times in the inferior courts, and was
argued on appeal before the court of errors, July 22, 1834.
The court reserved its decision and has not yet rendered it.
Several attempts were made to burn Miss Crandall's house,
and finally, September 9, 1834, about 12 o'clock at night,
" her house was assaulted by a number of persons with
heavy clubs and iron bars, and windows were dashed to
pieces.1 The school work was abandoned after this upon
the advice of Rev. Mr. May and other friends. The obnox-
ious law was repealed in 1838.
All this sounds rather odd when it is remembered that the
citizens of no state in the republic have contributed as many
of their sons and daughters to the educational work among
the Negroes of the south since the war, with the possible
exception of Massachusetts, as Connecticut, and that two of
her citizens, John F. Slater and Daniel Hand, contributed
each the princely sum of one million dollars for the educa-
tion of the Negroes of the southern states. Surely this all
indicates one of the most remarkable revolutions in the pub-
lic opinion of a state of which we have any record.
Schools established for the education of Negro youth were
assaulted and wrecked in other free states, but the good work
steadily progressed. Private schools sprang up in all the mid-
dle and New England states, Pennsylvania, New York and
Massachusetts leading in the work, their white citizens con-
tributing largely to their support. There were many of
these schools, some of them of splendid character, in Bos-
ton, Providence, New York, Philadelphia, Washington and
1 Williams' History of the Negro race, vol. IV, p. 156.
14 EDUCATION OF THE NEGRO [906
Cincinnati. They were gradually absorbed into the public
school system, and none of them now exist in an independ-
ent character, except the Institute for colored youth at Phila-
delphia, Lincoln university, in Chester county, and Avery
institute at Allegheny City, all in Pennsylvania.
In 1837 Richard Humphreys left $10,000 by will, with
which the Institute for colored youth was started, thirty
members of the Society of Friends forming themselves into
an association for the purpose of carrying out the wishes
and plans of Mr. Humphreys. A remarkable feature of the
constitution adopted by the trustees, in view of the present
consideration of the subject by those concerned in Negro
education, is the following preamble :
" We believe that the most successful method of elevating
the moral and intellectual character of the descendants of
Africa, as well as of improving their social condition, is to
extend to them the benefits of a good education, and to
instruct them in the knowledge of some useful trade or busi-
ness, whereby they may be enabled to obtain a comfortable
livelihood by their own industry ; and through these means
to prepare them for fulfilling the various duties of domestic
and social life with reputation and fidelity, as good citizens
and freemen."
The measure of progress which has been made in public
opinion and in the educational status of the Negro race in
the middle and New England states can easily be estimated
by the fact that as recently as 1830 no Negro could matricu-
late in any of the colleges and other schools of this splendid
group of states, and that now not one of them is closed
against a black person, except Girard college at Philadel-
phia, whose founder made a perpetual discrimination against
people of African descent in devising his benefaction ; that
Negro children stand on the same footing with white chil-
dren in all public school benefits ; that the separate school
system has broken down entirely in the New England states
and is gradually breaking down in the middle states, New
Jersey and Pennsylvania being the only states in the latter
907] EDUCATION OF THE NEGRO 15
group which still cling to the principle ; and that in many
of the public schools of both groups of states Negro teach-
ers are employed and stand upon the same footing as
white teachers. Indeed, Miss Maria L. Baldwin, an accom-
plished black woman, is principal of the Agassiz school, at
Cambridge, Mass., and in the large corps of teachers
under her, not one of them, I believe, is a member of her
own race.
All this is a very long stride from the condition of the
public mind in the middle and New England states when
Negro children were not allowed to attend any public school
or college and when a reputable white woman was perse-
cuted, jailed and her property destroyed, in 1834, for accept-
ing a young colored woman into her select school. This
remarkable change in public sentiment argues well for the
future of the Negro race and for the republic, which for
more than a century has agonized over this race problem,
and is still anxious about it in the sixteen southern states,
where a large majority of the Negroes reside and will, in all
probability, continue to reside for all time to come.
IV PUBLIC SCHOOL EDUCATION IN THE SOUTH AFTER THE WAR
Dr. A. D. Mayo, M. A., LL.D., one of the best authori-
ties on educational matters in the United States, says that
"it is still a favorite theory of a class of the representatives
of the higher university and college education to proclaim
the invariable legitimate descent of the secondary and even
elementary schooling of the people always and everywhere
from this fountain head," the southern states, and that, " in
one sense, this assertion is * founded on fact.' " But, although
most of the southern states were committed to the theory
of public education, the system of slavery stood in the way
of the development of the theory. Popular education and
slavery, like oil and water, will not mix. The educational
energy of the south expanded rather along academic and
collegiate than common school lines. The slave-holding
aristocrary drew the social line against the poor whites as
1 6 EDUCATION OF THE NEGRO [908
well as the slave blacks, and while dooming the latter to
mental darkness by stringent laws, rigidly enforced, the same
result was accomplished in the case of the former by the
steady development of the old English theory of academy
education, chartered for the most part by the state but sup-
ported almost wholly by their patrons, and therefore inacces-
sible to the children of the poor whites. It was due to this
fact that so very large a percentage of the southern white
population figured in the first census after the war of the
rebellion as illiterate and so figure to a large extent even
to-day, twenty-nine years after the beneficent operation of
the public school system in all of the states of the south.
If the south, because of the existence of the slave system
more than anything else, drifted away from the theory of
public school education, prior to 1860, it has nobly rectified
its mistake since 1870. Upon this point Dr. Mayo says,
speaking of Virginia, which has always set the pace for her
sister states of the south — and especially in the matter of
education, under the leadership of Dr. W. H. Ruffner (from
1870 to 1882), who has been appropriately styled the Horace
Mann of the south :
" But the condition of the educational destitution in which
the state found itself in 1865, m tne hour of its dire extrem-
ity, was the logical result of the narrow English policy it
has pursued in this as in other directions; and, in 1870, the
cry went up, from the sea sands to the most distant recesses
of the western mountains, for the establishment of the
American people's common school.
" In nothing has the really superior class of Virginia more
notably declared its soundness, persistence, and capacity to
hold fast to a great idea than in the way in which it stood
by the educational ideas of Jefferson through the one hun-
dred turbulent years from the outbreak of the war of the
revolution to the inauguration of the people's common
school in 1870."
As it was with Virginia, so it was with the other southern
states. A revival was begun in public or common school
909] EDUCATION OF THE NEGRO I 7
education, in 1870, which is still in progress, such as swept
over New England and the middle states from 1830 to 1860.
Broken in fortune and bowed with defeat in a great civil
war, the south pulled itself together as a giant rouses from
slumber and shakes himself and began to lay the basis of a
new career and a new prosperity in a condition of freedom
of all the people and in the widest diffusion of education
among the citizens through the medium of the common
schools. Perhaps no people in history ever showed a more
superb public spirit and self-sacrifice under trying circum-
stances than the people of the south have displayed in the
gradual building up of their public school system upon the
ruins of the aristocratic academy system. The work had to
be done from the ground up, from the organization of the
working force to the building of the school houses and the
marshalling of the young hosts. The work has required
in the aggregate, perhaps, the raising by taxation of
$514,922,268, $100,000,000 having been expended in main-
taining the separate schools for the Negro race. This must
be regarded as a marvelous showing when the impoverished
condition in which the war left the south in 1865 is consid-
ered. But it is a safe, if a time-honored saying, that "where
there is a will there is a way." The southern people found
a way because they had a will to do it ; and it is not too
much to claim that the industrial prosperity which the south
is now enjoying is intimately connected with the effort and
money expended in popular education since 1870.
The statistical tables will show more eloquently than could
be done by words the growth of the public school system in
the southern states since 1870. These tables are furnished
at the conclusion of the monograph, together with other
tables showing the growth in other directions in secondary,
academic, collegiate and industrial education.
It is interesting to note that the total enrollment of the
sixteen southern states and the District of Columbia for the
year 1896-97 was 5,398,076, the number of Negro children
being 1,460,084; the number of white children 3,937,992.
1 8 EDUCATION OF THE NEGRO [9IQ
The estimated number of children in the south from 5 to 18
years of age was 8,625,770, of which 2,816,340 or 32.65 per
cent were children of the Negro race, and 5,809,430 or 67.35
per cent were white children. The number of Negro children
enrolled was 51.84 per cent of the Negro population and
67.79 of the white population. When the relative social and
material condition of the former is contrasted with that of
the latter, it must be admitted that the children of the
former slaves are treading closely upon the heels of the
children of the former master class in the pursuit of knowl-
edge as furnished in the public school system.
During the year 1896-97 it is estimated that $31,144,801
was expended in public school education in the sixteen
southern states and the District of Columbia, of which, it is
estimated, $6,575,000 was expended upon the Negro schools.
Since 1870 it is estimated that $514,922,268 have been
expended in the maintenance of the public school system of
the southern states, and that at least $100,000,000 have been
expended for the maintenance of the separate public schools
for Negroes. The total expenditure for each year and the
aggregate for the twenty-seven years, as well as the common
school enrollment of white and colored children for each
year since 1876 are shown in table 2 at the end of the
monograph.
The significance of the facts contained in the two fore-
going paragraphs will be appreciated by Europeans as well
as Americans. The fact that 2,816,340 children of former
slaves were in regular attendance in the public schools of the
late slave-holding states of the south for the year 1896-97,
and that $6,575,000 was expended for their maintenance,
gathered entirely from public taxation and funds for educa-
tional purposes controlled by the states, should be regarded
as the strongest arguments that could be presented to
Americans or to foreigners to prove that the race problem
in the United States is in satisfactory process of solution.
That there is grave doubt at home and abroad upon this
subject I freely acknowledge ; but judging entirely from
911] EDUCATION OF THE NEGRO 1 9
such facts as are here recited, and from observation in the
black belt covering a period of eighteen years, I am free to
say I have no doubts whatever as to the ultimate outcome.
The people of the southern states, the old slave-holding class,
have not only accepted in good faith the educational burden
placed upon them, in the addition of 8,000,000 of people to
their citizenship, but they have discharged that burden in a
way that must command the admiration of the world.
That my own people are discharging their part of the obli-
gation is shown in the statistics of school attendance I have
given, and in the further fact that it is estimated they have
amassed since their emancipation $300,000,000 of taxable
property. While this may seem small as a taxable value as
compared to the aggregate of taxable values in the southern
states, it is large, indeed, when the poverty of the Negro
race in 1865, with all the advantages and disadvantages of
slave education and tradition to contend with, are consid-
ered. When a race starts empty-handed in the serious busi-
ness of life, what it inclines to and amasses in a given period
is valuable almost wholly as a criterion upon which to base
a reasonable deduction as to its ultimate future.
In all matters affecting my race and its future in the
United States, I indulge an optimism which I endeavor to
keep within the bounds of reasonable hopefulness. I have
this faith because of the facts in the situation, because I
have faith in the possibilities of my race and in the humanity
and self-interest of my white fellow-citizens, not only of the
south, but of the north and the west as well, and because
as a historical fact social revolutions seldom if ever go back-
wards. The Negro race is compelled to go forward in the
social scale because it is surrounded by forces which will not
permit it to go backwards without crushing the life out of
it, as they crushed the life out of the unassimilable aborigi-
nal Indian races of North America. In this matter of sta-
tistics I have presented, it is clearly to be seen that the
Negro race, in its desire for American education, possesses
the prime element of assimilation into the warp and woof of
20 EDUCATION OF THE NEGRO [912
American life, and if its desire for the Christian religion be
added we have the three prime elements of homogenous
citizenship as defined by Prof. Aldrini, viz. : Habitat, lan-
guage and religion.
It seems well to me to say this much, adduced from the
statistics of common school education in the late slave states
of the sixteen southern states and the District of Columbia,
where the bulk of the Negro people reside, as a logical con-
clusion in a problematical situation, concerning which many
wise men are disposed to indulge a pessimism which con-
fuses them as well as those who have to deal immediately
with the perplexing condition of affairs. I submit that the
common school statistics of the southern states leave no
room for doubt as to the ultimate well-being of the Negroes
residing in those states.
V GROUND WORK EDUCATION IN THE SOUTH
In the preceding chapter the extraordinary development
of the public school system of the sixteen southern states
and the District of Columbia has been hastily recorded
from 1870 to 1896-97. It is a record worthy of the proud
people who made it, — people who have from the foundation
of the republic been resourceful, courageous, self-reliant ;
rising always equal to any emergency presented in their new
and trying circumstances, surrounded on every side, as they
were, by a vast undeveloped territory, and by a hostile
Indian population, and fatally handicapped by a system of
African slavery, which proved a mill stone about the neck of
the people until it was finally abolished, amid the smoke and
flame and death of a hundred battles, in 1865. There are
none so niggardly as to deny to the southern people the full
measure of credit which they deserve for the splendid spirit
with which they put aside their prejudices of more than two
centuries against popular common school education on the
one hand, and their equally prescriptive prejudice against
the education of the Negro race under any circumstances on
the other. Few if any people in the various history of man-
913] EDUCATION OF THE NEGRO 21
kind have so completely overcome two such prejudices. On
this point Dr. Mayo says :
" Almost one hundred years ago young Thomas Jefferson
drew up a scheme for the education of the people of Vir-
ginia, which, had it been adopted, would have changed the
history of that and of every southern state and the nation.
He proposed to emancipate the slaves and fit them, by indus-
trial training, for freedom ; to establish a free school for
every white child in every district of the colony ; to support
an academy for boys within a day's horseback ride of every
man in the Old Dominion, and to crown all with a univer-
sity, unsectarian in religion, elective in its curriculum, teach-
ing everything necessary for a gentleman to know. This
plan received the indorsement of many of the most eminent
men of the day, and exalts the fame of Jefferson as an edu-
cator even higher than his reputation as a statesman."
All that Jefferson dreamed and outlined for the people of
Virginia and of the south has been more than accomplished
for both races in Virginia and in the south. The possibili-
ties of a common school, collegiate and industrial education
have been placed in easy reach of all the people, and the
people are justifying the splendid faith of the Sage of Mon-
ticello by the earnestness with which they are taking advan-
tage of the opportunities provided for them by the states
and a munificent Christian philanthropy — a philanthropy
which has given fully $40,000,000 of money and thousands
of devoted men and women teachers to illuminate the men-
tal darkness generated by the system of slavery. Surely no
better monument than this philanthropy could be erected to
perpetuate the memory of Horace Mann and Henry Bar-
nard, in relighting the fires of popular education in the mid-
dle and New England states, for without their labors and
sacrifices in this cause that philanthropy would not have
been possible. Truly,
"God moves in a mysterious way
His wonders to perform ;
He plants his footsteps in the sea
And rides upon the storm."
22 EDUCATION OF THE NEGRO [914
But the public school system of the southern states had to
have other and more substantial foundation than was offered
at the close of the war of the rebellion, in 1865, by the
academy and college system which had been fostered and
developed as best adapted to a social condition whose cor-
ner stone was the slave system. Without this foundation,
firmly and wisely laid in the fateful years from 1865 to 1870,
by the initiative of the Federal government, magnificently
sustained by the philanthropy and missionary consecration
of the people of the New England and middle states, the
results which we have secured in the public school sys-
tem of the south from 1870 to the present time would not
have been possible. All the facts in the situation sustain
this view.
It is creditable to the people of the New England and
middle states that they, who had been engaged for four
years in a Titanic warfare with their brethren of the south-
ern states, should enter the southern states in the person of
their sons and daughters, and with a voluntary gift of
$40,000,000, or more, to plant common schools and acad-
emies and colleges, in the devastation wrought by the civil
war, upon the sites where the slave auction block had stood
for 250 years, thereby lifting the glorious torch of knowl-
edge in the dense mental darkness with which the slave sys-
tem had sought to hedge its power ; nor is it less creditable
that the southern people accepted this assistance and builded
upon it a public school system which promises to equal that
in any of the other sections of the republic.
In anticipation of the condition of affairs that would arise
when hostilities should cease, as early as the spring of 1865,
before the war was over, an act was passed by congress pro-
viding for the relief of the destitute of the south. The act
was entitled " an act to establish a bureau for the relief of
freedmen and refugees." May 20, 1865, Major-General O.
O. Howard was appointed commissioner of the Freedmen's
bureau. General Howard, — who founded the institution
which bears his name at Washington and gave it a princely
915] EDUCATION OF THE NEGRO 23
endowment,1 — "gave," says the historian Williams, " great
attention to the subject of education ; and after planting
schools for the freedmen throughout a greater portion of
the south, in 1870, five years after the work was begun, he
made a report. It was full of interest. In five years there
were 4239 schools established, 9,307 teachers employed, and
247>333 pupils instructed. In 1868 the average attendance
was 89,396, but in 1870 it was 91,398, or 79 3-4 per cent of
the total number enrolled. The emancipated people sus-
tained 1324 schools themselves, and owned 592 school
buildings. The Freedmen's bureau furnished 654 buildings
for school purposes."
In 1879, according to the same authority, "there were 74
high and normal schools, with 8,147 students, and 61 inter-
mediate schools, with 1,750 students in attendance. In
doing this great work, — for buildings, repairs, teachers, etc.,
-$1,002,896.07 was expended. Of this sum the freedmen
raised $200,000. This was conclusive proof that emancipa-
tion was no mistake."
Mr. Williams says further (p. 393) that it appears from
the reports of the Freedmen's bureau that the earliest school
for freedom was opened by the American missionary associ-
ation, at Fortress Monroe, Va., September, 1861, and before
the close of the war Hampton and Norfolk were leading
points where educational operations were conducted ; but
after the cessation of hostilities teachers were sent from the
northern states and schools for freedmen were opened in all
parts of the south. During the five years of its operations
the bureau made a total expenditure of $6,513,955.55. No
money was ever more wisely or beneficently expended.
While a goodly portion of it was expended in food and
clothing, and the like, for the destitute freedmen, by far the
most of it went into school houses and into the salaries of
school teachers, and finally became the basis if not the
inspiration of the public school system of the southern
states ; it certainly did become the inspiration and the
1 History of the Negro race, p. 385.
24 EDUCATION OF THE NEGRO [916
foundation of the 1 78 schools for secondary and higher edu-
cation which exist to-day independently of the public school
system or of state control, although many of them are
recipients of state assistance.
While the Federal government was planting these schools
among the freedmen, the people of the middle and New
England states were sending thousands of dollars into the
south and sending an army of devoted men and women to
back up and carry forward the educational work among the
freed people. In the extent of it, it was and it continues
to be the most striking example of Christian brotherhood
and benevolence in the annals of mankind. Through the
agency of the Federal government and northern philanthropy,
schools for the freed people were planted everywhere, and
grew and prospered, and continue to grow and prosper, as
such schools never have done before.
Writing on this subject in the Southern workman (Janu-
ary, 1898), the organ of the Hampton institute, T. Thomas
Fortune said :
"It is true that the public and private interest which
aroused the north especially, to the importance of lifting
into the glorious sunlight of knowledge the great mass of
Afro-Americans who had so long stumbled and fallen and
grovelled in the darkness of ignorance and superstition
and immorality, with which the institution of slavery was
compelled to hedge itself about in order to insure existence,
has no parallel in the history of mankind. We seek in vain
for philanthropy so instant and generous and continuous,
and for missionary spirit so noble and capable and self-
sacrificing, as that which answered the Macedonian cry that
came out of the log cabins of the south,
11 'When the war drums throbbed no longer, and the battle flags were furled,
In the parliament of man, the federation of the world.' "
" And what a herculean task was theirs ! The New Eng-
land men and women who went into the waste places of the
south, following closely upon the heels of the warlike host
that stacked their arms at Appomattox court house, formed
EDUCATION OF THE NEGRO 25
an army as heroic as ever went forth under the standard of
the cross to ' redeem the human mind from error.' No
wealth could have purchased the service and the sacrifice
they undertook for God and humanity, and no memorial of
affection or granite shaft can ever adequately commemorate
their works. There are some services and sacrifices which it
is impossible to reward. These evangels went into a hostile
country, armed with Puritan faith and New England culture,
and by singleness of purpose and gentleness of character
disarmed the prejudice of the whites and won the respect
and confidence of the suspicious blacks, who had been edu-
cated in the school of slavery to distrust all Greeks, even
those bearing gifts. But in the progress of time all this
was changed, and prejudice and suspicion were transformed
into respect and confidence.
" What have been the results ? After thirty years of
effort there are 25,615 Afro-American teachers in the
schools of the south, where there was hardly one when the
work began ; some 4,000 men have been prepared, in part or
in whole, for the work of the Christian ministry, and a com-
plete revolution has been effected in the mental and moral
character of Afro-American preachers, a service which no
one can estimate who is not intimately informed of the tre-
mendous influence which these preachers exercise every-
where over the masses of their race ; the professions of law
and medicine have been so far supplied that one or more
representatives are to be found in every large community of
the south, as well as in the north and west, graduates for the
most part of the schools of the south ; and all over the
south I have found men engaged in trade occupations whose
intellects and characters were shaped for the battle of life
by the New England pioneers who took up the work where
their soldier brothers laid it down at the close of the war.
But the influence of these teachers upon the character, the
home life, of the thousands who are neither teaching, preach^
ing nor engaged in professional or commercial pursuits, but
are devoted to the making of domestic comfort and happi-
26 EDUCATION OF THE NEGRO [918
ness for their husbands and children, in properly training
the future citizens of the republic, was one of the most
necessary and far-reaching that was exercised, and the one
which to-day holds out the promise for the best results in
the years to come."
It was these New England men and women who labored
all over the south from 1865 to 1870 who made possible the
splendid public school results so eloquently depicted in the
statistical tables given at the end of this monograph. Their
labors did not end in the field of primary education in 1870 ;
they remained at their posts until they had prepared the
25,000 Negroes necessary to take their places. " When shall
their glory fade ? " And even unto to-day hundreds of them
are laboring in some one of the 169 schools of secondary
and higher education maintained for the freed people.
VI BEQUESTS FOR SOUTHERN EDUCATION
In the inauguration and development of the educational
work in the southern states and the District of Columbia
there have been other potential agencies than those already
enumerated. It has been shown that the Federal govern-
ment, operating through the Freedmen's bureau, of which
Major-General O. O. Howard was commissioner, between
1865 and 1870 established 4,239 schools, employing 9,307
teachers, with an enrollment of 247,333 pupils, at a total
expense of $1,002,896.07, of which the freedmen themselves
raised $200,000 ; that the American missionary association,
founded in 1846, was among the first agencies to enter the
southern educational work, as it has since been the most
active and effective ; and that the southern states, from
1870, when they assumed control of the common school sys-
em, to 1896-97, spent in primary education, $514,922,268, of
which at least $100,000,000 was devoted to the free educa-
tion of the slaves. These enormous expenditures (see table
2) were largely supplemented by private benevolence, esti-
mated at a total of $40,000,000, much of which went into
primary school buildings and education, the buildings in
919] EDUCATION OF THE NEGRO 2J
most instances having been gradually relinquished to the
states.
As the American missionary association was among the
first to enter the southern school work, it is proper to give
it a conspicuous place in this monograph. The extent of its
operations in the southern field can be inferred from the
fifty-third annual report of the executive committee (Sep-
tember 30, 1899). From this report it appears that the
association has in the southern educational work of second-
ary and higher education 5 chartered institutions, 45 nor-
mal and graded schools, 26 common schools, being 76
schools, with 414 instructors and 12,428 pupils. The receipts
for the current work for the year (1898-99) were
$297,681.98; expenditures, $296,810.84. The total receipts
for all purposes for the year were $370,963.44, of which
$71,960.50 is credited to income from the Daniel Hand
fund. The work of this association has been inestimable.
At the annual meeting of the American missionary asso-
ciation, at Providence, R. I., October 23-25, 1888, it was
announced that Mr. Daniel Hand, of Guilford, Connecticut,
had given the association $1,000,894.25, in trust, to be
known as the " Daniel Hand educational fund for colored
people," the income of which shall be used for the purpose
of educating needy and indigent colored people of African
descent, residing, or who may hereafter reside, in the recent
slave states of the United States." In addition to this
princely gift Mr. Hand provided that his residuary estate,
amounting to the sum of $500,000, should be devoted to
the same purpose, to be disbursed through the association.
Mr. Hand made his wealth in the south, where he settled in
Augusta, Ga., in 1818, and he, therefore, had an intimate
knowledge of the educational needs of the emancipated peo-
ple. He was a man of devout nature.
But the fund which had the most influence upon the devel-
opment of the primary and secondary education of the south-
ern states was that of $2,000,000 established by George
Peabody, of Danvers, Mass, (the first gift of $1,000,000
28 EDUCATION OF THE NEGRO [920
being made February 7, 1867, the second $1,000,000 being
added July i, 1869). In addition, $1,100,000 in bonds,
indorsed by Mississippi, and $384,000 Florida bonds were
given to the trustees appointed to administer the trust, but
these bonds were ultimately repudiated by Mississippi and
Florida, although both of them were beneficiaries of the
trust, — Mississippi by $86,878 and Florida by $67,375, ^rom
1868 to 1897. The general purposes of the trust, as Mr.
Peabody stated it, in his letter to the sixteen trustees desig-
nated by him, were that " the income thereof should be
applied in your discretion for the promotion and encourage-
ment of intellectual, moral or industrial education of the
young of the more destitute portions of the southern and
southwestern states of our union ; my purpose being that
the benefits intended shall be distributed among the entire
population, without other distinction than their needs and
the opportunities of usefulness to them."
Mr. Peabody laid the foundation of his immense fortune
in Georgetown, D. C., and Baltimore, from 1812 to 1837.
In the latter year he permanently settled in London, Eng-
land, and began business there, where his benefactions
equalled those he made in the United States, of which
the trust fund for educational purposes was the most consid-
erable, but by no means the only one. Mr. Peabody started
life as a poor boy, but he had a natural genius for making
money, and, what is far rarer, as the poor of London and our
southern states can testify, a natural genius for so devoting
his wealth to public uses as to accomplish the most good.
The trustees of the Peabody fund, of which the Hon.
Robert C. Winthrop was chairman, were particularly for-
tunate in securing as the first general agent Dr. B. Sears,
then president of Brown university. In 1848 Dr. Sears had
succeeded Horace Mann as secretary of the Massachusetts
board of education and as its executive agent, and served in
that capacity until 1855, when he was called to the presi-
dency of his alma mater. He was still president of Brown
university when called to the work of the Peabody fund,
92 l] EDUCATION OF THE NEGRO 29
April 9, 1867. He had been grounded in the common
school theories of Horace Mann and Henry Barnard and in
the work of higher education as president of a great uni-
versity. He was eminently fitted, therefore, to do much
towards shaping the public school system of the southern
states.
Dr. J. L. M. Curry, the present able general agent of the
fund, says of Dr. Sears (who died July 6, 1880), in his " His-
tory of the Peabody fund " (page 67) :
" The highest commendation of his work is to be found
in the persuasive, potential influence he exerted in behalf
of popular education. School superintendents bore their
strong and cheerful testimony to his rare insight into the
educational needs of the south, and to his influence in stim-
ulating to proper and wise action."
Dr. Curry succeeded Dr. Sears February 2, 1881, and
with the exception of three years, when he was minister
plenipotentiary and envoy extraordinary to Spain, he has
been the working force in shaping the policy of the fund to
the present time. Dr. Curry, — himself a southern man,—
learned, eloquent, an indefatigable worker, and passionately
devoted to the highest educational ideas and to the cause of
southern education, as the representative of the Peabody
fund and the Slater fund, has done equally as much as Dr.
Ruffner and Dr. Sears in shaping the southern educational
movement. In speaking of the general effects of the fund,
Dr. Curry says (History of the Peabody education fund,
P- 25):
" The fund has been a most potent agency in creating and
preserving a bond of peace and unity and fraternity between
the north and the south. It instituted an era of good feel-
ing ; for the gift, as Mr. Wihthrop said, ' was the earliest
manifestation of a spirit of reconciliation toward those from
whom we had been so unhappily alienated and against whom
we of the north had been so recently arrayed in arms.' No
instrumentality has been so effective in the south in promot-
ing concord, in restoring fellowship, in cultivating a broad
30 EDUCATION OF THE NEGRO [922
and generous patriotism, and apart from its direct connec-
tion with schools, it has been an unspeakable blessing in
cementing the bonds of a lately dissevered union."
From 1868 to 1897 the income of the fund amounted to
$2,478,527.13, of which $248,562.25 was expended in main-
taining the Normal college for whites at Nashville, Tenn.,
and $398,690.88 for scholarships at the same college. The
remainder was expended in rendering aid to the needy
public schools of the south and in stimulating normal and
industrial education for both races.
March 4, 1882, Mr. John Fox Slater, of Norwich, Conn.,
created a trust fund of $1,000,000, stating that the " gen-
eral object which I desire to have exclusively pursued is the
uplifting of the lately emancipated population of the southern
states and their posterity by conferring on them the bless-
ings of Christian education." He declared in the same rela-
tion : " The disabilities formerly suffered by these people
and their singular patience and fidelity in the great crisis of
the nation, establish a just claim on the sympathy and good
will of humane and patriotic men. I cannot but feel the
compassion that is due in view of their prevailing ignorance
which exists by no fault of theirs."
" But it is not only for their own sakes," Mr. Slater said
further, " but also for the safety of our common country, in
which they have been invested with equal political rights,
and I am desirous to aid in providing them with the means
of such education as shall tend to make them good men and
good citizens — education in which the instruction of the
mind in the common branches of secular learning shall be
associated with training in just notions of duty toward God
and man in the light of the Holy Scriptures."
The fund is administered by a trustee board, and like the
Peabody fund, composed of some of the most distinguished
citizens of the republic. The Slater fund is used almost
exclusively at the present time in promoting industrial edu-
cation at a number of the largest institutions for colored
people.
923] EDUCATION OF THE NEGRO 31
These princely donations by three private citizens, aggre-
gating a fund of $4,000,000, have been supplemented by
millions of dollars more from private citizens which have
gone to the building up of the educational waste places of
the south, to which all of the great church denominations
have contributed, and still contribute, more or less as organ-
ized bodies. As the outgrowth of all the benefactions and
effort since 1865 there are now, according to Dr. Mayo, 169
schools of secondary and higher education in the southern
states maintained for the Negro people. They are fed con-
stantly by the common schools, and all the agencies work-
ing together are fast reducing the ignorance bequeathed as
a terrible legacy by the slave system to the southern states.
We shall search history in vain for a parallel to the munifi-
cence, the Christian charity and the personal sacrifice which
the people of the great republic have contributed since 1865
to the education of the lately enslaved people of the Negro
race.
VII PRESENT EDUCATIONAL STATUS
It was natural and to have been expected, after the New
England men and women who had graduated out of the
white heat of the high educational enthusiasm created by
Horace Mann, Henry Barnard, Dr. Sears, and others, from
1830 to 1860, had laid the foundation of the primary edu-
cation among the emancipated people of the southern states,
that they would then turn their attention to the secondary
and higher education of the same people. That is what
they did. As fast as they prepared young men and women
to take their places as school teachers (and at the present
time there are more than 25,000 such teaching in the public
schools of the south), these New England men and women
retired from the field as public school teachers. They were
actuated almost wholly by Christian missionary spirit. They
heard the loud " Macedonian cry " and responded to it with
a devotion and self-sacrifice which will always remain one
of the most luminous and striking pages in missionary
effort.
32 EDUCATION OF THE NEGRO [924
But there was another and a splendid work for them to
do in laying the foundation of the secondary and higher
education as the necessary supplement of the primary
educational work. At the present time there are 169 such
schools in the sixteen southern states and the District of
Columbia. Some of them are magnificent seats of learning ;
such, for example, as Howard university, at Washington ;
Atlanta university, at Atlanta; Fisk university, at Nash-
ville ; Wiley university, at Marshall, Texas, and the like, so
that the southern state which has no such school of higher
learning is poor indeed. And these schools were founded,
for the most part, and are maintained in the main by north-
ern philanthropy — a philanthropy of which George Pea-
body, John F. Slater and Daniel Hand are the most striking
examples. The money value and the income of these
schools is set forth in table 8 of the appendix ; while the
character, teachers and students are set forth in tables 3 to 7
inclusive. The fact that the income of these 169 schools in
1896-97 was $1,045,278, that $540,097 of it was derived
from unclassified sources, that the several states and munic-
ipalties contributed $271,839, and that the students paid in
tuition fees $141,262, shows that all the best forces of the
republic — the state, the Christian philanthropist and the
grateful beneficiary — are all working harmoniously together
to prepare the children of the former slaves for the proper
and high duties of citizenship. The public school system, —
with 1,460,084 pupils enrolled of Negroes, in 1896-97, as
against an enrollment of only 571,506 in 1876-77, — is a fix-
ture and serves as a constant feeder of the 169 schools of
higher learning. Thus the whole system, it will be seen, of
primary, secondary and higher education, is in harmonious
relationship and must grow stronger and stronger every
year.
It should not be overlooked, however, that besides the
splendid advantages offered the Negroes by these 169 schools
of higher learning, all of the colleges and universities of the
northern and western states are accessible to Negro students
925] EDUCATION OF THE NEGRO 33
who prefer them, color distinctions not being recognized or
tolerated in the management of these schools. The white
colleges and universities of the southern states, like the
public school system, are conducted rigidly upon lines of
race separation.
It was a natural development of the educational effort in
the southern states that when the schools of secondary and
higher education had become fixed facts that a desire should
have grown up for other institutions whose principal object
should be the industrial education of such of the Negroes
as* desire that sort of education. Of late years industrial
schools have sprung up all over the southern states, and
they are growing constantly in favor with the masses,
because of their economic condition and the growing
demand for skilled workmen in all avenues of industry.
In the early days of the educational work of the southern
states little stress was laid upon the industrial training of
the people. Mental and moral and religious training was
considered the all-important thing. Perhaps it was, — to a
people who had dwelt in mental, moral and religious dark-
ness from 1620 to 1865. They needed the great light of
mental, moral and religious truths as a firm and sure foun-
dation upon which was to be built a structure of technical
education, out of which should naturally grow the industrial
and commercial rehabilitation of the people, without which
there can be no character, no strength, no prosperity in an
individual or a race. This principle was recognized by the
30 members of the Society of Friends, who established the
Institute for colored youth at Philadelphia, in 1837, to which
reference has already been made.
The good Friends were very much in advance of their
time, and a great many good people of both races have not
caught up with their idea as yet. However, there has been a
very great and satisfactory awakening all over the republic
during the past decade, among all races of the population,
as to the vital importance of technical education. The fact
that 13,581 Negro students were receiving industrial training
34 EDUCATION OF THE NEGRO [926
in schools of the south, in 1896-97 (see table 7), speaks vol-
umes, as compared to the 2, 108 who were receiving collegiate
education (see table 3), and the 2,410 who were receiving
classical instruction (see table 4), and the 1,311 who were
taking the professional course (see table 6) in the same
year ; making a total of 5,829 taking the higher education,
or 7,752 fewer than were taking the industrial course.
Indeed, the growth of the industrial theory of education
among Negroes in the past decade has not only been
phenomenal but it is by all odds the most encouraging fact
in a situation not without its discouraging features.
It is a rare compliment to one of the wisest and best of
the New England men who engaged in the southern educa-
tional work that his theory of industrial training has taken
such a firm root in a rich soil. This good and wise man
was General Samuel Chapman Armstrong. While other
men and women were devoting themselves to the necessary
work of founding schools of secondary and higher educa-
tion for the freed people, General Armstrong, in 1868, busied
himself in founding and developing the Hampton normal
and agricultural institute at Hampton, Va., which, says the
historian of the work, " beginning in 1868 with two teachers
and 1 5 students in the old barracks left by the civil war, the
Hampton school has grown, until at the beginning of the
present year (1899) there were on the grounds 1,000 stu-
dents. Of these 135 are Indians, representing ten states
and territories. Of the 80 officers, teachers and assistants,
about one-half are in the industrial departments. Instead
of the old barracks there are now fifty-five buildings."
The Hampton normal and agricultural institute is with-
out doubt at the present time the center of all that is best,
wisest and most permanent in the educational development
of the black man in the south. It is by far the largest and
most important seat of learning in the country for the
development of the Negro. It has a large property now
valued at over half a million of dollars, and has in constant
operation all the industries by which the colored people find
927] EDUCATION OF THE NEGRO 35
it necessary to make a living. Under the wise supervision
of Dr. H. B. Frissell, the successor of General Armstrong,
this institution is constantly growing, broadening and deep-
ening its influence among the people. The work of the
Hampton institute has not only resulted in turning the atten-
tion of the Negro population to the importance of industrial
education, but has had a marked influence in shaping the
education of the white south in the same direction.
It was the constant aim of General Armstrong to educate
the head, the heart and the hand of the student, to make
strong school teachers and skilled mechanics and agricul-
turalists, and his aims have been amply justified by results.
General Armstrong was born of missionary parents in
Hawaii. He was educated in this country. He was a
soldier in the war for the preservation of the union and com-
manded a regiment of black soldiers. His was a pious and
lovable nature which delighted to do the Master's work by
reaching out the hand of assistance to the lowest and most
needy of the Master's children.
Out of the Hampton institute has grown the Tuskegee
normal and industrial institute, located at Tuskegee, Ala.,
in the black belt of the south. The Tuskegee institute has
grown from a log cabin to an institution possessing 42 build-
ings with 2,300 acres of land, 88 instructors and about a
thousand students. It gives instruction in about twenty-six
different industries, in addition to giving training in aca-
demic and religious branches. A large number of graduates
of Tuskegee are turned out every year and are at work in
various portions of the south as teachers in class rooms,
instructors in agricultural, mechanical and domestic pursuits.
Quite a number of these graduates and students cultivate
their own farms or man their own industrial establishments.
The property owned by the Tuskegee normal and industrial
institute is valued at $300,000, and the buildings have been
very largely built by the labor of the students themselves.
One rather unique feature of the Tuskegee normal and
industrial institute is that the institution is wholly officered
36 EDUCATION OF THE NEGRO [928
by members of the Negro race. Aside from Hampton, Tus-
kegee is one of the largest and most important centers of
education in the south, especially in the direction of indus-
trial development.
The work of the Hampton institute and Tuskegee is not
only proving itself valuable in showing the rank and file of
the colored people how to lift themselves up, but it is equally
important in winning the friendship and co-operation of the
southern white people. The influence of the young men
and women turned out from these two institutions, as well as
from other institutions, is gradually softening the prejudice
against the education of the Negro, and in many striking
instances bringing about the active co-operation and help
of the southern white man in the direction of elevating the
Negro.
There have been many other schools than the Tuskegee
institute founded on the Hampton idea, and the number is
increasing every year. Nearly all the southern states are
now maintaining industrial schools not only for the blacks
but for the whites as well, for the education that is good
and necessary for the black is equally so for the white boy.
From the facts and conclusions set forth, hastily withal,
in this monograph it will readily be seen that from the edu-
cational point of view the Negro race has, since 1865, taken
full advantage of its splendid opportunities, and that the
present affords splendid promise that the future, which so
many dread, will, in the providence of God, take care of
itself.
929]
EDUCATION OF THE NEGRO
37
MBER OF
ACHERS
I
I
-S
1
AVERAGE DAI
ATTENDANCE
PER CENT OF PER
SONS 5 to l8 YEAR
ENROLLED
OLL
BLI
LS.
ILS
TH
) M M CO tt n M H N
tv« tx l»s O 0 t^*
858 £¥B$'S. 8, 2 S 8*3
3f
IN. ir> rO^O OO W (^)OO VO fOOO ^ W COOO
\f) rx ^ ro M \o w iovo oo o t- ^J-^o vo
RCENTAGE OF
THE WHOLE
H-l
PQ
TED NUMBER OF
S, 5 TO 18 YEARS
OF AGE
vo lO^O t>. t^vo « 00 \O £• b»
10 -^-\O N O- M- O
M •*• 10 O •*• ro f*l
eg ^JT
lo «>
H
S558
s,<g
si
"S 2
OO 10
430
948
5
a 5
s 11
*+ r» rt
o o
HH
EDUCATION OF THE NEGRO
[930
TABLE 2 — Sixteen former slave states and the District of
Columbia
COMMON SCHOO
L ENROLLMENT
Expenditures
White
Colored
(both races)
1870-71
$1O 385 464
II 623 238
1872-7-? . .
II 176 048
1873-74
ii 823 775
1874—75
ia O2I 514
1875-76 .
12 OT? 865
1876-77 .
I 827 139
571,506
II 231 073
1877—78
2 O34 Q46
675 150
12 OQ3 OQI
1878-70 . .
2 on 684
68 s 042
12 174 141
I87Q-8O .
2 215 674
784 709
12 678 685
1880-81
2 234 877
802 374
13 656 814
1881-82
2 24Q 2O3
802 982
15 241 740
1882-83
2 37O IIO
817 240
16 363 471
I88-V-84
2 546 448
002 ^i^
17 884 558
1884-85 .
2 676 Oil
o^o 46"?
19 253 874
1885-86
2 77^ 145
048 6^0
20 208 113
1886-87
2 Q75 77^
118 5«;6
20 821 969
1887-88
3 110 606
I4O 40^
21 810 158
1888-89
q 197 83O
213 092
23 171 878
1880-00
a 4O2 42O
2Q6 Q5Q
24 880 107
1800-01
^ ^70 624
129 «>49
26 690 310
1801-02 . .
3 607 549
354 316
27 691 488
1802-01
•i 607 800
367 si«»
28 5^5 738
3 835 503
424 995
29 223 546
180.1— 05
a 845 414
441 282
2Q 372 QQO
1805-06
a 861 300
429 71^
3O 729 8l9
1806-07 . .
a 0-17 QQ2
460 084
31 144 801
Total
$514 922 268
931]
EDUCATION OF THE NEGRO
39
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[934
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EDUCATION OF THE NEGRO
43
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[936
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Butler, Nicholas Hurra/
Monographs on education
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