I
THE ADVANCED MONTESSORI METHOD
* *
\
•
•
THE
MONTESSORI
ELEMENTARY
by MARIA MONTESSORI
58.50
MARTIN MAYER, author of "THE SCHOOLS"
says in his introduction
to the new edition of
THE MONTESSORI METHOD
by Maria Montessori:
"While Maria Montessori was putting together the
basic description of her educational procedures and
philosophies, Albert Einstein was at work in Switzer-
land, Arnold Schoenberg and Sigmund Freud in
Vienna, James Joyce in Trieste, Igor Stravinsky,
Pablo Picasso, Marcel Proust and Gertrude Stein in
Paris, William Rutherford and Niels Bohr in Man-
chester, Bertrand Russell, Alfred North Whitehead,
John Maynard Keynes and James George Frazer in
Cambridge, Wolfgang Kohler at Tenerife, Bronislaw
Malinowski in the Trobriand Islands. . . .
"Already massing behind these great figures, how-
ever, even then, were the armies of followers and
expanders who would see further, in Isaac Newton's
generous phrase, because they stood on the shoulders
of giants. Only in education was there to be a sudden
and drastic end to the burst of innovation and analy-
sis, synthesis and change, which was remaking almost
every area of serious human interest. With the rejec-
tion of Montessori, in favor of recollections from the
less perceptive Froebel and projections from the less
specific Dewey, education turned away from the light
of genius to darker corners that could be filled with
the comfortable stuff of mediocrity.
"As recently as five years ago, anyone so rash as to
mention Montessori to a group of American educators
would have been told not to trouble his head about it :
William Heard Kilpatrick had 'disproved her.' Two
factors have brought Montessori's work back to
prominence in the United States : the great curriculum
reform movements in math and science, which have
poured out educational evidence that flows naturally
into a Montessori mold ; and the new concern over the
education of unlucky children, both the genetically and
the environmentally crippled, which inevitably looks
back to the few examples of success with this intrac-
table task and finds the handsome Dottoressa working
cheerfully and productively with children in hospitals,
at her Case del Bambini in the primitive housing
continued on back flap
372, /3
NY PUBLIC IBRARY THE BRANCH L BRAR ES
3333301922 7590
THE MONTESSORI
ELEMENTARY MATERIAL
Maria Montessori was born in
1870, and she was the first woman
ever granted a medical degree by an
Italian university. As a child, she
showed great ability in mathema-
tics and originally intended to be-
come an engineer. She did post-
graduate work in psychiatry.
At the age of 28, Montessori be-
came directress of a tax-supported
school for defective children. Work-
ing thirteen hours a day with the
children, she developed materials
and methods which allowed them to
perform reasonably well on school
problems previously considered far
beyond their capacity. Her great
triumph, in reality and in the news-
papers, came when she presented
children from mental institutions at
the public examinations for pri-
mary certificates, which was as far
as the average Italian ever went in
formal education - - and her chil-
dren passed the exam.
Typically, she drew from her ex-
perience the vigorous conclusion -
that if these children could be
brought to the academic levels
reached by normal children, then
there had to be something horribly
wrong with the education of normal
children. And so she moved on to
the normal children of the slums.
Thereafter, by her own desire and
by public demand, she was an edu-
cator, not a medical doctor.
Montessori's insights and meth-
ods are contained in three basic
texts, now republished : THE MON-
TESSORI METHOD, SPONTANEOUS AC-
TIVITY IN EDUCATION (The Advanced
Montessori Method, volume 1), and
THE MONTESSORI ELEMENTARY MA-
TERIAL (The Advanced Montessori
Method, volume 2).
THE MONTESSORI METHOD, by Maria Montessori. Intro-
duction by Martin Mayer. Illustrated. The education of
children from 3 to 6. 448 pages.
SPONTANEOUS ACTIVITY IN EDUCATION, by Maria Montes-
sori. The Advanced Montessori Method, volume 1. The
education of children from 7 to 11. 384 pages.
THE MONTESSORI ELEMENTARY MATERIAL, by Maria Mon-
tessori. The Advanced Montessori Metfiod, volume 2.
The education of children from 7 to 11. 512 pages.
NEW EDITIONS PUBLISHED BY
ROBERT BENTLEY, INC.
18 Pleasant St., Cambridge, Massachusetts 02139
o
r«H
C5
o
•yj
r*
3
-4-J
c
O
3
o
CO
O
en
—
THE
ADVANCED MONTESSORI METHOD
* *
,THE MONTESSORI
ELEMENTARY MATERIAL
BY
MARIA MONTESSORI
AUTHOR OF " THE MONTESSORI METHOD," " PEDAGOGICAL
ANTHROPOLOGY," ETC.
TRANSLATED FROM THE ITALIAN BY
ARTHUR LIVINGSTON
ASSOCIATE PROFESSOR OP ITALIAN AT COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY
WITH FORTY-FOUR ILLUSTRATIONS FROM PHOTOGRAPHS
AND WITH NUMEROUS DIAGRAMS
1965
ROBERT BENTLBY, INC.
18 PLEASANT ST., CAMBRIDGE, MASSACHUSETTS 02139
Copyright, 1917, by
FREDERICK A. STOKES COMPANY
All rights reserved, including that of translation into
foreign languages.
Printed in the U.S.A.
r
TRANSLATOR'S NOTE
So far as Dr. Montessori's experiments contain the af-
firmation of a new doctrine and the illustration of a new
method in regard to the teaching of Grammar, Reading
and Metrics, the following pages are, we hope, a faithful
rendition of her work. But it is only in these respects that
the chapters devoted to these subjects are to be considered
a translation. It will be observed that Dr. Montessori's
text is not only a theoretical treatise but also an actual
text-book for the teaching of Italian grammar, Italian read-
ing and Italian metrics to young pupils. Her exercises
constitute a rigidly "tested" material: her Italian word
lists are lists which, in actual practise, have accomplished
their purpose ; her grammatical categories with their rela-
tive illustration are those actually mastered by her Italian
students ; her reading selections and her metrical analyses
are those which, from an offering doubtless far more ex-
tensive, actually survived the experiment of use in class.
It is obvious that no such value can be claimed for any
" translation " of the original material. The categories of
Italian grammar are not exactly the categories of English
grammar. The morphology and, to a certain extent, the
syntax of the various parts of speech differ in the two lan-
guages. The immediate result is that the Montessori ma-
terial offers much that is inapplicable and fails to touch on
much that is essential to the teaching of English grammar.
The nature and extent of the difficulties thus arising are
more fully set forth in connection with specific cases in
Vll
viii TRANSLATORS NOTE
our text. Suffice it here to indicate that the English ma-
terial offered below is but approximately " experimental,"
approximately scientific. The constitution of a definitive
Montessori material for English grammar and the defini-
tive manner and order of its presentment must await the
results of experiments in actual use. For the clearer or-
ientation of such eventual experiments we offer, even for
those parts of Italian grammar which bear no relation to
English, a virtually complete translation of the original
text ; venturing meanwhile the suggestion that such studies
as Dr. Montessori's treatise on the teaching of Italian noun
and adjective inflections — entirely foreign to English —
may prove valuable to all teachers of modern languages.
While it might seem desirable to isolate such superfluous
material from the " English grammar " given below, we
decided to retain the relative paragraphs in their actual
position in the Italian work, in order to preserve the literal
integrity of the original method. Among our additions
to the text we may cite the exercises on the possessive pro-
nouns - - identified by Dr. Montessori with the possessive
adjectives - - the interrogatives and the comparison of ad-
jectives and adverbs.
Even where, as regards morphology, a reasonably close
adaptation of the Italian material to English uses has been
possible, it by no means follows that the pedagogical prob-
lems involved remain the same. The teaching of the rela-
tive pronoun, for instance, is far more complicated in Eng-
lish than in Italian ; in the sense that the steps to be taken
by the child are for English more numerous and of a
higher order. Likewise for the verb, if Italian is more
difficult as regards variety of forms, it is much more simple
as regards negation, interrogation and progressive action.
We have made no attempt to be consistent in adapting the
TKANSLATOR'S NOTE ix
translation to such difficulties. In general we have treated
the parts of speech in the order in which they appear in
the Italian text, though actual experiment may prove that
some other order is desirahle for the teaching of English
grammar. The English material given below is thus in
part a translation of the original exercises in Italian, in
part new. In cases where it proved impossible to utilize
any of the Italian material, an attempt has been made to
find sentences illustrating the same pedagogical principle
and involving the same number and character of mental
processes as are required by the original text.
The special emphasis laid by Dr. Montessori upon selec-
tions from Manzoni is due simply to the peculiar conditions
surrounding the teaching of language in Italy, where gen-
eral concepts of the national language are affected by the
existence of powerful dialects and the unstable nature of
the grammar, vocabulary and syntax of the national litera-
ture. We have made no effort to find a writer worthy of
being set up as a like authority, since no such problem
exists for the American and English public. Our citations
are drawn to a large extent from the " Book of Knowl-
edge " and from a number of classics. Occasionally for
special reasons we have translated the Italian original.
The chapter on Italian metrics has been translated entire
as an illustration of method ; whereas the portion relating
to English is, as explained below, entirely of speculative
character.
To Miss Helen Parkhurst and Miss Emily IT. Green-
man thanks are due for the translation of the chapters on
Arithmetic, Geometry, and Drawing.
CONTENTS
PAKT I
GRAMMAR
TRANSLATOR'S NOTE . . . . vii
CHAPTER PAGE
I. THE TRANSITION FROM THE MECHANICAL TO THE IN-
TELLECTUAL DEVELOPMENT OF LANGUAGE 3
II. WORD STUDY 12
Suffixes and Prefixes 13
Suffixes 13
Prefixes 17
Compound Words 18
Word- Families 20
III. ARTICLE AND NOUN ... 22
Singular and Plural .25
Masculine and Feminine 27
Singular and Plural in English 33
IV. LESSONS — COMMANDS 39
Nouns 40
Commands on Nouns 48
V. ADJECTIVES 51
Analyses 51
Descriptive Adjectives 51
Permutations 55
Inflection of Adjectives 56
Logical and Grammatical Agreement of Nouns and
Adjectives 59
Descriptive Adjectives . .... .61
Adjectives of Quantity 63
Ordinals ... 64
Demonstrative Adjectives 64
Possessive Adjectives 65
Comparison of Adjectives 65
xi
xii CONTENTS
CHAPTER PAGE
VT. VEEBS 60
Analyses 66
Permutations 68
Lessons and Commands on the Verb 69
Lessons with Experiments 74
VII. PREPOSITIONS 77
Analyses 77
Permutations 80
Lessons and Commands on Prepositions .... 81
VIII. ADVERBS 85
Analyses 85
Permutations 87
Lessons and Commands on Adverbs 90
A Burst of Activity: the Future of the Written Lan-
guage in Popular Education 93
Commands Improvised by the Children ... 96
IX. PEONOUNS 98
Analyses 98
Personals 98
Demonstratives 99
Relatives and Inter rogatives 99
Possessives 101
Permutations 101
Lessons and Commands on the Pronoun . ... 102
Paradyms 106
Agreement of Pronoun and Verb 108
Conjugation of Verbs 110
X. CONJUNCTIONS 113
Analyses 113
Coordinates 113
Subordinates 114
Permutations 115
Lessons and Commands on the Conjunction . . .115
Comparison of Adjectives 117
XI INTERJECTIONS 120
Analyses 120
Classification 122
CONTENTS xiii
CHAPTER PAGE
XII. SENTENCE ANALYSIS 124
Simple Sentences 124
The Order of Elements in the Sentence: Permutations 132
Compound and Complex Sentences 136
Test Cards 140
The Order of Clauses in the Sentence: Sentence Forms
in Prose and Verse 144
Permutations 147
Test Cards 151
Coordinating and Subordinating Conjunctions . . 155
Sequence of Tenses 157
Punctuation 160
XIII. WORD CLASSIFICATION ... 164
Kinds of Words 164
Classified According to Formation 164
Classified According to Inflection 165
Classified According to Their Use 165
PART II
READING
I. EXPRESSION AND INTERPRETATION 171
Mechanical Processes 171
Analysis 173
Experimental Section: Reading Aloud 179
Interpretations 182
Audition 196
The Most Popular Books 198
PART III
ARITHMETIC
I. ARITHMETICAL OPERATIONS 205
Numbers 1-10 205
Tens, Hundreds and Thousands 208
Counting-frames 210
II. THE MULTIPLICATION TABLE . .217
xiv CONTENTS
CHAPTER PAGE
III. DIVISION 223
IV. OPERATIONS IN SEVERAL FIGURES 225
Addition 225
Subtraction 227
Multiplication 228
Multiplying on Ruled Paper 235
Long Division 237
V. EXERCISES WITH NUMBERS 241
Multiples, Prime Numbers and Factoring .... 241
VI. SQUARE AND CUBE OF NUMBERS 251
PART IV
GEOMETRY
I. PLANE GEOMETRY 259
II. DIDACTIC MATERIAL USED FOB GEOMETRY 265
Squares and Divided Figures .... ... 265
Fractions 267
Reduction of Common Fractions to Decimal Fractions 273
Equivalent Figures 277
Some Theorems Based on Equivalent Figures . . 282
Division of a Triangle 289
Inscribed and Concentric Figures 290
III. SOLID GEOMETRY 292
The Powers of Numbers 294
The Cube of a Binomial 295
Weights and Measures 295
PART V
DRAWING
I. LINEAB GEOMETRIC DESIGN DECORATION 301
Artistic Composition with the Insets 305
II. FREE-HAND DRAWING: STUDIES FROM LIFE . 307
CONTENTS xv
PAET VI
MUSIC
CHAPTER PAGE
I. THE SCALE 319
II. THE READING AND WRITING OF Music 326
Treble and Bass Clefs 328
III. THE MAJOR SCALES 333
IV. EXERCISES IN RHYTHM 341
Singing 365
Musical Phrases for Rhythmic Exercises .... 367
V. MUSICAL AUDITIONS 376
PAKT VII
METRICS
I. THE STUDY OF METRICS IN ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS . . 383
Stanza and line 384
Rhyme 384
Tonic accents (stresses) 385
Parisyllabic lines 386
Imparisyllabic lines 388
The caesura 391
Metrical analyses 392
Translator's note on English metrics 395
Material for nomenclature 404
APPENDIX I 409
APPENDIX II . 423
ILLUSTRATIONS
FACING
PAGE
The first Montessori Elementary Class in America Frontispiece
One of the first steps in grammar 24
Grammar Boxes, showing respectively two and three parts
of speech 25
Grammar Boxes, showing respectively four and five parts
of speech 78
Grammar Boxes, showing respectively six and seven parts
of speech 79
Grammar Boxes, showing respectively eight and nine parts
of speech 114
The children working at their various occupations in com-
plete freedom 115
Interpreted reading : " Smile and clap your hands " . . 174
Interpreted reading : " Take off your hat and make a low
bow" 175
Interpreted reading : " Whisper to him " 188
Interpreting the pose and expression of a picture . . . 189
Interpreted reading : " She was sleepy ; she leaned her arms
on the table, her head on her arms, and went to sleep " . 200
Exercises in interpreted reading and in arithmetic . . . 201
The bead material used for addition and subtraction . . 214
Counting and calculating by means of the bead chains . . 214
The bead chain, square, and cube 215
The first bead frame 215
The second counting-frame used in arithmetic .... 226
xvii
xviii ILLUSTRATIONS
PAGE
Working out problems in seven figures 227
Solving a problem in long division 238
Bead squares and cubes ; and the arithmetic-board for multi-
plication and division 239
The bead number cubes built into a tower 282
The decagon and the rectangle composed of the same trian-
gular insets 283
The triangular insets fitted into their metal plates . . . 283
Showing that the two rhomboids are equal to the two
rectangles 288
Showing that the two rhomboids are equal to the two squares 289
Hollow geometric solids 296
Designs formed by arranging sections of the insets within
the frames 297
Making decorative designs with the aid of geometric insets 312
Water-color paintings from nature 313
The monocord 334
Material for indicating the intervals of the major scale . . 334
The music bars 335
The children using the music bells and the wooden key-
boards 352
Analyzing the beat of a measure while walking on a line . 353
PART I
GRAMMAR
MONTESSORI ELEMENTARY
MATERIAL
THE TRANSITION FROM THE MECHANICAL
TO THE INTELLECTUAL DEVELOPMENT
OF LANGUAGE
In the " Children's Houses " we had reached a stage
of development where the children could write words and
even sentences. They read little slips on which were
written different actions which they were to execute, thus
demonstrating that they had understood them. The ma-
terial for the development of writing and reading con-
sisted of two alphabets: a larger one with vowels and con-
sonants in different colors, and a smaller one with all the
letters in one color.
(In English, to diminish the phonetic difficulties of the
language, combinations of vowels and consonants, known
as phonograms, are used. The phonograms with few ex-
ceptions have constant sounds and little attention is paid to
the teaching of the separate values of the different letters :
not until the child has built up his rules inductively does
he realize the meaning of separate vowel symbols.)
However, the actual amount of progress made was not
very precisely ascertained. We could be sure only that
the children had acquired the mechanical technique of
4 MONTESSORI ELEMENTARY MATERIAL
writing and reading and were on the way to a greater
intellectual development along these lines. Their prog-
ress, however extensive it may have been, could be called
little more than a foundation for their next step in
advance, the elementary school. What beyond all ques-
tion was accomplished with the little child in the first
steps of our method was to establish the psycho-motor
mechanism of the written word by a slow process of matu-
ration such as takes place in the natural growth of articu-
late speech ; in other words, by methodically exercising
the psycho-motor paths.
Later on the child's mind is able to make use of the
successive operations performed with the written language
which has been thus built up by the child as a matter of
mechanical execution (writing) and to a certain extent
of intelligent interpretation (reading). Normally this is
an established fact at the age of five. When the child be-
gins to think and to make use of the written language to
express his rudimentary thinking, he is ready for elemen-
tary work ; and this fitness is a question not of age
or other incidental circumstance but of mental maturity.
We have said, of course, that the children stayed in the
" Children's House " up to the age of seven ; nevertheless
they learned to write, to count, to read, and even to do a
certain amount of simple composition. It is clear, ac-
cordingly, that they had gone some distance in the ele-
mentary grade as regards both age and educational devel-
opment. However, what they had actually accomplished
beyond the mechanical technique of writing was more or
less difficult to estimate. We can now say that our later
experiments have not only clarified this situation, but
enabled us to take the children much farther along than
before.
GRAMMAR 5
This only proves, however, that on beginning ele-
mentary grade work we did not depart from the " Chil-
dren's House " idea ; on the contrary we returned to it to
give distinct realization to the nebulous hopes with which
our first course concluded. Hence the " Children's
House " and the lower grades are not two distinct things
as is the case with the Frobel Kindergarten and the ordi-
nary primary school - - in fact, they are one and the same
thing, the continuation of an identical process.
Let us return then to the " Children's House " and
consider the child of five and one-half years. To-day in
those " Children's Houses " which have kept up with the
improvements in our method the child is actually
started on his elementary education. From the second
alphabet of the " Children's House " we go on to a third
alphabet. Here the movable letters are a great deal
smaller and are executed in model hand-writing. There
are twenty specimens of each letter, whereas formerly
there were but four; furthermore, there are three com-
plete alphabets, one white, one black, and one red. There
are, therefore, sixty copies of each letter of the alphabet.
We include also all the punctuation marks: period,
comma, accents (for Italian), apostrophe, interrogation
and exclamation points. The letters are made of plain
glazed paper.
The uses of this alphabet are many ; so before we stop
to examine them let us look somewhat ahead. Everybody
has recognized the naturalness of the exercise, used in the
" Children's House," where the children placed a card
bearing the name of an object on the object referred to.
This was the first lesson in reading. We could see that
the child knew how to read as soon as he was able to iden-
tify the object indicated on the card. In schools all over
6 MONTESSORI ELEMENTARY MATERIAL
the world a similar procedure would, I imagine, be con-
sidered logical. I suppose that in all the schools where
the objective method is used much the same thing is done ;
and this is found to be not a hindrance but a help to the
child in learning the names of objects. As regards the
teaching of the noun, accordingly, we have been using
methods already in use — the objective method, with prac-
tical exercises. But why should we restrict such methods
to the noun? Is the noun not just as truly a part of
speech as the adjective, or the verb ? If there is a method
by which the knowledge of a noun is made easy, may there
not be similar ways of facilitating the learning of all the
other parts of speech (article, adjective, verb, pronoun, ad-
verb, interjection, conjunction, and preposition) ?
When a slip with the interpreted word is placed on the
object corresponding to it, the children are actually dis-
tinguishing the noun from all the other parts of speech.
They are learning intuitively to define it. The first step
has thus been taken into the realm of grammar. But if
this " reading " has brought the child directly into word
classification-, the transition has not been for him so abrupt
as might at first appear. The child has built all his words
with the movable alphabet, and he has, in addition, written
them. He has thus traversed a two-fold preparatory ex-
ercise involving, first, the analysis of the sounds and, sec-
ond, the analysis of the words in their meaning. In fact,
we have seen that, as the child reads, it is his discovery
of the tonic accent that brings him to recognize the word.
The child has begun to analyze not only the sounds and
accent but also the form of the word.1
1 The process of learning to read has been more fully set forth in
The Montessori Method: the child at first pronounces the sounds
represented by the individual letters (phonograms), without under-
GEAMMAE 7
How absurd it would seem to suggest a study of pho-
nology and morphology in a nursery with four-year-old
children as investigators! Yet our children have accom-
plished this very thing! The analysis was the means of
attaining the word. It was what made the child ahle to
write without effort. Why should such a procedure be
useful for single words and not so for connected discourse ?
Proceeding to the classification of words by distinguishing
the noun from all other words, we have really advanced
into the analysis of connected speech, just as truly as,
by having the sand-papered letters " touched ': and the
word pronounced, we took the first step into the analysis
of words. We have only to carry the process farther and
perhaps we shall succeed in getting the analysis of whole
sentences, just as we succeeded in getting at the composi-
tion of words - - discovering meanwhile a method which
will prove efficacious in leading the child to write his
thoughts more perfectly than would seem possible at such
a tender age.
For some time, then, we have been actually in the field
of grammar. It is a question simply of continuing along
the same path. The undertaking may indeed seem haz-
ardous. Never mind ! That " awful grammar," that
horrible bugaboo, no less terrible than the frightful
method, once in use, of learning to read and write, may
perhaps become a delightful exercise, a loving guide to
lead the child along pleasant pathways to the discovery
of things he has actually performed. Yes, the child will
suddenly find himself, one day, in possession of a little
composition, a little "work of art," that has issued from
standing what they mean. As he repeats the word several times he
comes to read more rapidly. Eventually he discovers the tonic ac-
cent of the word, which is then immediately identified.
8 MONTESSORI ELEMENTARY MATERIAL
his own pen ! And he will be as happy over it as he was
when for the first time words were formed by his tiny
hands !
How different grammar will seem to the young pupil,
if, instead of being the cruel assassin that tears the sen-
tence to pieces so that nothing can be understood, it be-
comes the amiable and indispensable help to " the con-
struction of connected discourse " ! It used to be so easy
to say : " The sentence is written ! Please leave it
alone ! ': Why put asunder what God has joined ? Why
take away from a sentence its meaning, the very thing
which gave it life ? Why make of it a mere mass of sense-
less words ? Why spoil something already perfect just for
the annoyance of plunging into an analysis which has no
apparent purpose ? Indeed, to impose upon people who
can already read the task of reducing every word to its
primal sounds, would be to demand of them an effort of
will so gigantic that only a professional philologist could
apply himself to it with the necessary diligence, and then
only because he has his own particular interests and aims
involved in such work. Yet the four-year-old child, when
he passes from those meaningless sounds to the composi-
tion of a whole, which corresponds to an idea and repre-
sents a useful and wonderful conquest, is just as attentive
as the philologist and perhaps even more enthusiastic.
He will find the same joy in grammar, if, starting from
analyses, it gains progressively in significance, acquiring,
step by step, a greater interest, working finally up to a
climax, up to the moment, that is, when the finished sen-
tence is before him, its meaning clear and felt in its sub-
tlest essences. The child has created something beautiful,
full grown and perfect at its birth, not now to be tampered
with by anybody !
GRAMMAR 9
The analysis of sounds which, in our method, leads to
spontaneous writing, is not, to be sure, adapted to all ages.
It is when the child is four or four and a half, that he
shows the characteristically childlike passion for such
work, which keeps him at it longer than at any other age,
and leads him to develop perfection in the mechanical as-
pect of writing. Similarly the analytical study of parts
of speech, the passionate lingering over words, is not for
children of all ages. It is the children between five and
seven who are the word-lovers. It is they who show a pre-
disposition toward such study. Their undeveloped minds
can not yet grasp a complete idea with distinctness. They
do, however, understand ivords. And they may be en-
tirely carried away by their ecstatic, their tireless interest
in the parts of speech.
It is true that our whole method was born of heresy.
The first departure from orthodoxy was in holding that
the child can best learn to write between the ages of four
and five. We are now constrained to advance another
heretical proposition: children should begin the study of
grammar between the ages of five and a half and seven
and a half, or eight !
The idea that analysis must be preceded by construction
was a matter of mere prejudice. Only things produced
by nature must be analyzed before they can be under-
stood. The violet, for instance, is found perfect in na-
ture. We have to tear off the petals, cut the flower into
sections, to see how it grew. But in making an artificial
violet we do just the opposite. We prepare the stems
piece by piece ; then we work out the petals, cutting, color-
ing, and ironing them one by one. The preparation of
the stamens, even of the glue with which we put the whole
together, is a distinct process. A few simple-minded peo-
10 MONTESSOKI ELEMENTARY MATERIAL
pie, with a gift for light manual labor, take unbounded
delight in these single operations, these wonderfully va-
ried steps which all converge to the creation of a pretty
flower; the beauty of which depends on the amount of
patience and skill applied to the work on the individual
parts.
Analysis, furthermore, is involved quite as much in
building as in taking to pieces. The building of a house
is an analytical process. The stones are treated one by
one from cellar to roof. The person who puts the house
together knows it in its minutest details and has a far
more accurate idea of its construction than the man who
tears it down. This is true, first, because the process of
construction lasts much longer than that of demolition:
more time is spent on the study of the different parts.
But besides this, the builder has a point of view different
from that of the man who is destroying. The sensation of
seeing a harmonious whole fall into meaningless bits has
nothing in common with the alternating impulses of hope,
surprise or satisfaction which come to a workman as he
sees his edifice slowly assuming its destined form.
For these and still other reasons, the child, when in-
terested in words at a certain age, can utilize grammar
to good purpose, dwelling analytically upon the various
parts of speech according as the processes of his inner
spiritual growth determine. In this way he comes to own
his language perfectly, and to acquire some appreciation
of its qualities and power.
Our grammar is not a book. The nouns (names),
which the child was to place on the objects they referred
to as soon as he understood their meaning, were written
on cards. Similarly the words, belonging to all the other
parts of speech, are written on cards. These cards are all
GRAMMAK 11
of the same dimensions: oblongs (5 X 3l/2 cmm.) of dif-
ferent colors : black for the noun ; tan for the article ;
brown for the adjective; red for the verb; pink for the
adverb; violet for the preposition; yellow for the con-
junction; blue for the interjection.
These cards go in special boxes, eight in number. The
first box has two compartments simply; the second, how-
ever, three ; the third, four ; and so on down to the eighth,
which is divided into nine. One wall in each section is
somewhat higher than the others. This is to provide
space for a card with a title describing the contents of the
section. It bears, that is, the name of the relative part
of speech. The title-card, furthermore, is of the same
color as that used for the part of speech to which it refers.
The teacher is expected to arrange these boxes so as to
provide for the study of two or more parts of speech.
However, our experiments have enabled us to make the
exercises very specific in character ; so that the teacher
has at her disposal not only a thoroughly prepared ma-
terial but also something to facilitate her work and to
check up the accuracy of it.
II
WORD STUDY
When a little child begins to read he shows a keen de-
sire to learn words, words, words ! Indeed in the " Chil-
dren's House " we had that impressive phenomenon of
the children's tireless reading of the little slips of paper
upon which were written the names of objects.
The child must acquire his word-store for himself.
The peculiar characteristic of the child's vocabulary is its
meagerness. But he is nearing the age when he will need
to express his thoughts and he must now acquire the ma-
terial necessary for that time. Many people must have
noticed the intense attention given by children to the con-
versation of grown-ups when they cannot possibly be un-
derstanding a word of what they hear. They are trying
to get hold of words, and they often demonstrate this fact
by repeating joyously some word which they have been
able to grasp. We should second this tendency in the
child by giving him an abundant material and by or-
ganizing for him such exercises as his reactions clearly
show us are suitable for him.
The material used in our system not only is very
abundant, but it has been dictated to us by rigid experi-
mentation on every detail. However, the same successive
choices of material do not appear among the children as a
whole. Indeed their individual differences begin to as-
sert themselves progressively at this point in their educa-
12
GRAMMAR 13
tion. The exercises are easy for some children and very
hard for others, nor is the order of selection the same
among all the children. The teacher should know this ma-
terial thoroughly. She should be able to recognize the
favorable moment for presenting the material to the child.
As a matter of fact, a little experience with the material
is sufficient to show the teacher that the educational facts
develop spontaneously and in such a way as to simplify
the teacher's task in a most surprising manner.
SUFFIXES AND PREFIXES
Here we use charts with printed lists of words which
may be hung on the wall. The children can look at them
and also take them in their hands.
LIST I
SUFFIXES : AUGMENTATIVES, DIMINUTIVES, PEGGIORA-
TIVES, ETC.
buono (good) : buonuccio, buonino, buonissimo
casa (house) : casona, casetta, casettina, casuccia, casaccia,
casettaccia
formica (ant) : formicona, formicuccia, formicola, formichetta
ragazzo (boy) : ragazzone, ragazzino, ragazaccio, ragazzetto
lettera (letter): letterina, letterona, letteruccia, letteraccia
campana (bell) : campanone, campanello, campanellino, cam-
panino, campanaccio
giovane (youth) : giovanetto, giovincello, giovinastro
fiore (flower): fioretto, fiorellino, fioraccio, fiorone
tavolo (board) : tavolino, tavoletta, tavolone, tavolaccio
seggiola (chair) : seggiolone, seggiolina, seggiolaccia
pietra (stone) : pietruzza, pietrina, pietrone, pietraccio
sasso (rock) : sassetto, sassolino, sassettino, sassone, sassaccio
cesto (basket) : cestino, cestone, cestello, cestellino
piatto (plate): piattino, piattello, piattone
pianta (plant or tree) : piantina, pianticella, pianticina, pi-
anterella, piantona, piantaccia
14: MONTESSORI ELEMENTARY MATERIAL
fuoco (fire): fuochetto, fuochino, fuocherello, fuocone, fuo-
chettino
festa (festival) : festicciola, festona, festaccia
piede (foot) : piedino, piedone, pieduccio, piedaccio
mano (hand) : manina, manona, manaccia, manuccia
seme (seed) : semino, semetto, semone, semaccio, semettino
semplice (simple person) : semplicino, semplicetto, sempliciotto,
semplicione
ghiotto (" sweet-tooth ") : ghiottone, ghiottoncello, ghiottaccio,
ghiottissimo
vecchio (old man) : vecchietto, Vecchione, vecchiaccio, vec-
ehissimo
cieco (blind): ciechino, ciechetto, ciecolino, ciecone, ciecaccio
Note : — The role of augmentative and diminutive suffixes in
English is vastly less important than in Italian. Here are a
few specimens:
lamb — lambkin mouse — mousie
duck — duckling girl — girlie
bird — birdling book — booklet
nest — nestling brook — • brooklet
goose — gosling stream — streamlet
poet — poetaster
The child's exercise is as follows : he composes the first
word in any line with the alphabet of a single color (e.g.,
black). Next underneath and using the alphabet of the
same color, he repeats the letters in the second word which
he sees also in the first. But just as soon as a letter
changes he uses the alphabet of another color (e.g., red).
In this way the root is always shown by one color, the
suffixes by another ; for example : —
buono
buonwcczo
buonino
buonissimo
GKAMMAR 15
For English:
stream
streamlet
lamb
lambkin
Then the child chooses another word and repeats the
same exercise. Often he finds for himself words not in-
cluded in the list which is given him.
In the following chart the suffixes are constant while
the root varies. Here the suffix changes the meaning of
the word. From the original meaning is derived the
word for a trade, a place of business, an action, a collective
or an abstract idea. Naturally, the child does not realize
all this at first but limits himself merely to building the
words mechanically with the two alphabets. Later on,
however, as grammar is developed, he may return to the
reading of these charts, which are always at his disposal,
and begin to realize the value of the differences.
LIST II
macello (slaughter) macellaio (butcher)
sella (saddle) sellaio (saddler)
forno (oven) fornaio (baker)
cappello (hat) cappellaio (hatter)
vetro (glass) vetreria (glaziery)
calzolaio (shoe-maker) calzoleria (shoe-shop)
libro (book) libreria (book-store)
oste (host) osteria (inn)
pane (bread) panetteria (bakery)
cera (wax) cereria (chandler's shop)
dente (tooth) dentista (dentist)
farmacia (pharmacy) farmacista (druggist)
elettricita (electricity) elettricista (electrician)
telefono (telephone) telefonista (telephone operator)
arte (art) artista (artist)
bestia (beast) bestiame (cattle)
osso (bone) ossame (bones, collective)
corda (string) cordame (strings, collective)
foglia (leaf) fogliame (foliage)
16 MONTESSORI ELEMENTARY MATERIAL
polio (chicken)
grato (grateful)
beato (blessed)
Inquieto (uneasy)
grano ( grain )
Colombo ( dove )
paglia ( straw )
frutto (fruit)
canna (reed)
oliva (olive)
quercia (oak)
teach
sing
work
cater
wring
conduct
direct
launder
seam
song
priest
mister
cow
piano
art
pharmacy
drug
physic
prison
house
earl
king
count
real
modern
good
sad
aloof
pollame (poultry)
gratitudine (gratitude)
beatitudine (blessedness)
inquietudine (uneasiness)
granaio (barn)
colombaio (dove-cote)
pagliaio (hay-stack)
frutteto (orchard)
canneto (brake)
oliveto (olive-grove)
querceto (oak-grove)
ENGLISH EXAMPLES
teacher
singer
worker
caterer
wringer
conductor
director
laundry
seamstress
songstress
priestess
mistress
cowherd
pianist
artist
pharmacist
druggist
physician
prisoner
household
earldom
kingdom
county
reality
modernness
goodness
sadness
aloofness
GRAMMAR
17
The child's exercise with the two alphabets will be as
follows :
frutto
canna
frutteto
ca.rm.eto
oliva
quercia
olive/o
querceto
For English:
song
art
songster
artist
songstress
artless artful
LIST III
PEEFIXES
nodo (knot) : annodare, snodare, risnodare
scrivere (write) : riscrivere, trascrivere, sottoscrivere, descri-
vere
coprire (cover) : scoprire, riscoprire
gancio (hook) : agganciare, sganciare, riagganciare
legare (bind) : collegare, rilegare, allegare, slegare
bottone (button): abbottonare, sbottonare, riabbottonare
macchiare (spot) : smaccbiare, rismacebiare
chiudere (close) : socchiudere, scbiudere, ricbiudere, rinchiu-
dere
guardare (look at) : rigunrdare, traguardare, sogguardare
vedere (see) : travedcre, rivedere, intravedere
perdere (lose) : disperdere, sperdere, riperdere
mettere (put, place) : smettere, emettere, rimettere, permettere,
commettere, promettere, sottomettere
vincere (overcome) : rivincere, awincere, convincere, stravin-
cere
For English:
cover: uncover, discover, recover
pose: impose, compose, dispose, repose, transpose
do : undo, overdo
place: displace, replace, misplace
submit: remit, commit, omit, permit
close: disclose, foreclose, reclose
arrange: rearrange, disarrange
18 MONTESSORI ELEMENTARY MATERIAL
The child's exercise with the two alphabets will be as
follows :
coprire
scoprire
ricoprire
For English:
place
displace
replace
LIST IV
COMPOUND WOKDS
cartapecora (parchment)
cartapesta (papier mache")
falsariga (guide)
madreperla (mother-of-pearl
melagrana ( pomegranate )
melarancia (orange)
biancospino (hawthorn)
ficcanaso (busybody)
lavamano (wash-stand)
mezzogiorno ( noon )
passatempo (pastime)
ragnatela (cobweb)
madrevite (vine)
guardaportone (doorkeeper)
capoluogo (capital)
capomaestro ( " boss " )
capofila (pivot-soldier)
capopopolo (demagogue)
caposquadra (commodore)
capogiro (dizziness)
capolavoro ( masterpiece )
giravolta (whirl)
For English:
sheepskin
cardboard
shoestring
midnight
midday
noontime
mezzaluna (half moon)
mezzanotte (midnight)
palcoscenico (stage)
acchiappacani (dog-catcher)
cantastorie (story-teller)
guardaboschi (forester)
lustrascarpe (boot-black)
portalettere (letter-carrier)
portamonete (pocketbook)
portasigari (cigar-case)
portalapis (pencil-case)
portabandiera (standard bearer)
guardaroba (wardrobe)
asciugamano (towel)
cassapanca (wooden bench)
arcobaleno (rainbow)
terrapieno (rampart, terrace)
bassorilievo (bas-relief)
granduca (grand duke)
pianoforte (piano)
spazzacamino ( chimney-sweep )
pettorosso (redbreast).
redbreast
appletree
afternoon
moonlight
starlight
doorknob
GRAMMAR 19
bedtime bathroom
daytime streetcar
springtime lifelike
flagstaff pocketbook
rainbow inkwell
workman tablecloth
housekeeper courtyard
pastime honeycomb
chimneysweep beehive
sheepfold flowerpot
barnyard buttonhole
sidewalk hallway
snowshoe midway
shoeblack storekeeper
firefly horseman
steamboat masterpiece
milkman bookcase
The children read one word at a time and try to re-
produce it from memory, distinguishing through the two
alphabets the two words of which each one is composed:
carta pecora spazza camino
bianco spino lava mano
piano forte
For English:
moon light
work man
In the following chart the words are grouped in fam-
ilies. This chart may be used by children who are al-
ready well advanced in the identification of the parts of
speech. All the words are derived from some other more
simple word which is a root and of which the other words,
either by suffix or prefix, are made up. All these roots
are primitive words which some day the child may look
for in a group of derivatives ; and when he finds them he
20 MONTESSORI ELEMENTARY MATERIAL
will realize that the primitive word is a noun, adjective,
or a verb, as the case may be, that it is the word which
contains the simplest idea, and so the derivatives may be
nouns, adjectives, verbs or adverbs.
On these charts appear various word-families. The
teacher is thus spared the trouble of looking them up.
Furthermore the child will some day be able to use them
by himself. The exercises based on these are still per-
formed with two different alphabets of different color so
that the child can tell at a glance which is the root word.
WORD-FAMILIES
terra (earth): terrazzo, terremoto, terrapieno, atterrare, ter-
reno, terriccio, terricciola, territorio, conterraneo, terreo,
terroso, dissotterrare
ferro (iron) : ferraio, ferriera, ferrata, ferrigno, ferrugginoso,
ferrare, sferrare, inferriata
soldo (penny) : assoldare, soldato, soldatesca, soldatescamente
grande (great) : ingrandire, grandiosita, grandiose, grandiosa-
mente, grandeggiare
scrivere (write) : scrittura, scritto, scritturare, scrittore, in-
scrizione, trascrivere, sottoscrivere, riscrivere
beneficio (benefit) : beneficare, benefattore, beneficato, bene-
ficenza, beneficamente
benedizione (benediction) : benedire, benedicente, benedetto,
ribenedire
felicitd (happiness) : felice, felicemente, felicitare, felicita-
zione
fiamma (flame) : fiammante, fiammeggiante, fiammeggiare, fiam-
melle, fiammiferi, infiammare
bagno (bath) : bagnante, bagnino, bagnarola, bagnatura, bag-
nare, ribagnare
freddo (cold) : freddolose, infreddatura, freddamente, raffred-
dore, raffreddare, sfreddare
polvere (dust) : spolverare, impolverare, polverino, polverizzare,
polverone, polveroso, polveriera, polverizzatore
pesce (fish) : pescare, pescatore, ripescare, pescabile, ripescabile
GRAMMAR 21
opera (work) : operaio, operare, operazione, operoso, operosa-
mente, cooperare, cooperazione, inoperare
canto (song) : cantore, cantante, caiitarc, cantarellare, cantic-
chiare, ricantare
gioco (game): giocare, giocattolo, giocarellare, giocatore, gio-
coso, giocosamente
dolore (pain) : doloroso, dolorosamente, dolente, addolorare,
dolersi, condolersi, condoglianza, addolorato
pietra (stone) : pietrificare, pietrificazione, pietroso, impietrire,
pietraio
sole (sun) : assolato, soleggiante, soleggiare
festa (festival) : festeggiare, festino, festeggiatore, festeggiato,
festaiolo, festante, festevole, festevolmcnte, festosamente
allegro (happy): allcgria, allcgramente, rallegrare, rallegra-
mento
seme (seed) : semina, semenze, seminare, semenzaio, seminatore,
riseminare, seminazione, disseminare, seminatrice
For English:
wood: wooden, woodworker, woody, woodsman, woodland
earth: earthen, earthy, earthly, earthborn, earthward, earth-
quake, earthling
fish: fishing, fisherman, fishery, fishy, fishmonger, fishnet
well: welcome, wellmeaning, W7ellknit
war: warrior, warlike, warship, warhorse, war-whoop, warsong,
war-cry
play: player, playful, playhouse, playmate
politic: politics, politician, political, polity, politically
hard: hardly, harden, hardness, hardship, hardy, hardihood,
hardware
turn: return, turner, turnstile
close: disclose, closet, unclose, closure, foreclose
The child sees that the mother word is always the
shortest. The root remains in one color.
Ill
AKTICLE AND NOUN
[Note : — The English language presents a far simpler situa-
tion than the Italian as regards the agreement of article and
adjectives. Gender itself being, in the case of English nouns,
more a matter of logical theory than of word-ending, adjectival
agreement in the formal sense is practically unknown to Eng-
lish grammar. Likewise the formation of the plural is much
simpler in English than in Italian, where the singular and
plural word-endings are closely associated with gender. It is
a question, in fact, whether the whole subject of the gender of
English nouns should not be taken up somewhat later in con-
nection with the pronouns, where English shows three singular
forms masculine, feminine, neuter (him, her, it) as against
the Italian two, masculine and feminine (lo, la, plural li, le,
etc.). Signora Montessori's discussion of the situation in
Italian still remains instructive to the teacher of English as
an illustration of method. We retain her text, accordingly, in
its entirety. — TR.]
As we have already said, the words chosen for gram-
matical study are all printed on small rectangular pieces
of cardboard. The little cards are held together in pack-
ages by an elastic band and are kept in their respective
boxes. The first box which we present has two compart-
ments. In the holders at the back of each compartment
are placed the cards which show the part of speech to be
studied, in this case article and noun. The article
cards are placed in the article compartment and the nouns
in the noun compartment. When the children have fin-
22
GRAMMAR 23
ished their exercise they replace the cards — the nouns
in the place for the nouns and the articles in the place for
the articles. If the words article and noun are not a
sufficient guide for the child, the color at least will make
the task easy. In fact the child will place the black cards
for the noun in the compartment indicated by the black
guide-card (marked noun} ; the tan cards for the article
with the tan guide-card (marked article}. This exercise
recalls the child's experience with the alphabet boxes,
where one copy of each letter is pasted to the bottom of
the box as a guide for the child in replacing the other
letters. The child begins to speak of the article-section,
the noun-section, and article-cards and noun-cards. In
so doing he begins to distinguish between the parts of
speech. The material must be prepared very accurately
and in a definitely determined quantity. For the first ex-
ercise, the children are given boxes with the articles and
nouns shuffled together in their respective compartments.
But there must be just enough articles of each gender to
go with the respective nouns. The child's task is to put
the right article in front of the right noun - - a long and
patient research, which, however, is singularly fascinating
to him.
We have prepared the following words. We should re-
call, however, that the cards are not found in the boxes in
this order, but are mixed together - - the articles shuffled
in their box-section and the nouns in theirs.
il fazzoletto (the handkerchief) i colori (the colors)
il libro (the book) i fiori (the flowers)
il vestito (the dress) i disegni (the drawings)
il tavolino (the little table) i compagni (the companions)
lo specchio (the mirror) gli zoccoli (the wooden shoes)
lo zucchero (the sugar) gli uomini (the men)
lo zio (the uncle) gli articoli (the articles)
lo stivale (the boot) le sedie (the chairs)
24 MONTESSORI ELEMENTARY MATERIAL
la stoffa (the cloth) le scarpe (the shoes)
la per la (the pearl) le addizioni (the sums)
la piramide (the pyramid) le piante (the plants, the trees)
la finestra (the window)
1'occhio (the eye)
1'amico (the friend)
1'acqua (the water)
1'albero (the tree)
gl'invitati (the guests)
gl'incastri (the insets)
gl'italiani (the Italians)
gl'insetti (the insects)
(We suggest as a corresponding English exercise the
introduction of the indefinite article. This substitution
involves four processes against the eight of the Italian
exercise. The use of an before a vowel is quite anal-
ogous to the problem of the Italian I' and gl\ However,
the theoretical distinction between the definite and in-
definite article, as regards meaning, is reserved by Sig-
nora Montessori to a much later period, though the prac-
tical distinctions appear in the earliest Lessons and Com-
mands.— Tr.)
the handkerchief the colors
the book the flowers
the dress the drawings
the table the children
the mirror the shoes
the sugar the men
a man an orange
a pearl an apple
a prism an uncle
a card an eye
a window an insect
a chair an American
a tree an aunt
The child tries to combine article and noun and puts
them side by side on his little table. In this exercise he is
2
o
A
Cfl
-
S-
o
C8
C O
— 5Q
/5
ll
g =
t-i
Ol
cS
S
a
03
So
.2
on
a.
O
GRAMMAR 25
guided by sound just as he was in building words with
the movable alphabet. There the child's first step was to
find relationships between real objects and the linguistic
sounds corresponding to them. Now he sees suddenly re-
vealed to him hitherto unsuspected relationships between
these sounds, these words. To have an empirical way of
demonstrating and testing these relationships, to practise
very thoroughly on two kinds of words, suddenly brought
forth into systematic distinctness from the chaos of words
in his mind, offers the child not only a necessary exercise
but the sensation of relief which comes from satisfying an
inner spiritual need. With the most intense attention
he persists to the very end of the exercise and takes great
pride in his success. The teacher as she passes may
glance about to see if all the cards are properly placed,
but the child, doubtless, will call her to admire or verify
the work that he has done, before he begins to gather to-
gether, first, all the articles, then, all the nouns, to return
them to their boxes.
This is the first step; but he proceeds with increasing
enthusiasm to set the words in his mind " in order,"
thereby enriching his vocabulary by placing new acquisi-
tions in an already determined place. Thus he continues
to construct, with respect to exterior objects, an inner
spiritual system, which had already been begun by his
sensory exercises.
SINGULAR AND PLURAL
The exercises on the number and gender of nouns are
done without the help of the boxes. The child already
knows that those words are articles and nouns, so we give
him now small groups of forty cards (nouns and articles)
held together by an elastic band. In each one, the group
26 MONTESSORI ELEMENTARY MATERIAL
(tied separately) of the ten singular nouns serves as the
guide for the exercise. These nouns are arranged in a
column on the table, one beneath the other, and the other
cards, which are shuffled, must be placed around this first
group in the right order. There are two more cards of
different colors on which the words singular and plural
respectively are written; and these are placed at the top
of the respective columns. We have prepared four series
of ten nouns in alphabetical order. In this way four
children may do the exercise at the same time and by ex-
changing material they come in contact with a very con-
siderable number of words.
This is the way the cards should finally be arranged in
the four different exercises:
Singolare
Plurale
Singular
Plural
il bambino
i bambini
the child
the children,
il berretto
i berretti
the cap
etc.
la bocca
le bocche
the mouth
il calamaio
i calamai
the inkstand
la calza
le calze
the stocking
la casa
le case
the house
il cappello
i cappelli
the hat
Singolare
Plurale
Singular
Plural
la maestra
le maestre
the teacher
the teachers,
la mano
le mani
the hand
etc.
la matita
le matite
the pencil
il naso
i nasi
the nose
il nastro
i nastri
the ribbon
1'occhio
gli occhi
the eye
1'orologio
gli orologi
the clock (watch)
il panchotto
i panchetti
the bench
Singolare
Plurale
Singular
Plural
il dente
i denti
the tooth
the teeth,
1'elastico
gli elastici
the elastic
etc.
il fagiolo
i fagioli
the bean
la fava
le fave
the bean
la gamba
le gambe
the leg
il gesso
i gessi
the plaster
la giacca
le giacche
the coat
il grembiale
i grembiali
the apron
GRAMMAR
27
Singolare
il piede
il quaderno
la rapa
la scarpa
la tasca
il tavolino
la testa
1'unghia
PJurale
i piedi
i quaderni
le rape
le scarpe
le tasche
i tavolini
le teste
le unghie
Singular
the foot
the coj>y book
the turnip
the shoe
the pocket
the table
the head
the nail (finger)
Plural
the feet,
etc.
Like material has been prepared for the masculine and
feminine forms: The masculine group is kept by itself,
while the feminines are shuffled.
Maschile
il conte
1'amico
1'asino
il babbo
il benefattore
il bottegaio
il cugino
il cuoco
il cacciatore
il cavallo
Maschile
il cluca
il canarino
il dot tore
il dattilografo
1'elefante
il figlio
il fratello
il gallo
il gatto
Maschile
il leone
1'ispettore
il lupo
il lettore
il maestro
il rnarchese
il mulo
il nonno
ilnemico
Femminile
la contessa
1 'arnica
1'asina
la mamma
la benefattrice
la bottegaia
la cugina
la cuoca
la cacciatrice
la cavalla
Femminile
la duchessa
la canarina
la dottoressa
la dattilografa
1'elefantessa
la figlia
la sorclla
la gallina
la gatta
Femminile
la leonessa
1'ispettrice
la lupa
la lettrice
la maestra
la marchesa
la mula
la nonna
la nemica
Masculine
the count
the friend
the donkey
the father
the benefactor
the shop-keeper
the cousin
the cook
the hunter
the horse
Masculine
the duke
the canary
the doctor
the stenographer
the elephant
the son
the brother
the cock
the cat
Masculine
the lion
the inspector
the wolf
the reader
the schoolmaster
the marquis
the mule
the grandfather
the enemy
Feminine
the countess,
etc.
Feminine
the duchess,
etc.
Feminine
the lioness,
etc.
28 MONTESSORI ELEMENTARY MATERIAL
Maschile
1'oste
1'orologiaio
il poeta
il pellicciaio
il padre
il re
il ranocchio
10 sposo
11 servo
il aomaro
Femminile
1'ostessa
1'orologiaia
la poetessa
la pellicciaia
la madre
la regina
la ranocchia
la sposa
la serva
la somara
Masculine
the host
the watch-maker
the poet
the furrier
the father
the king
the frog
the husband
the man-servant
the ass
Feminine
the hostess,
etc.
Finally there are three series of nouns in four forms:
Singular and Plural, Masculine and Feminine. Each
group has eighty cards counting both nouns and articles,
and the ten singular masculines in the guiding group are
kept together, apart from the others. The title cards
(twelve in number) are singular and plural and for each
of them is a card marked masculine and a card marked
feminine. The following is the order of the material
when properly arranged by the child :
SINGOLAEE
SlNGULAB
Maschile
1'amico
il bambino
il burattinaio
il contadino
il cavallo
il compagno
il disegnatore
il
1'ebreo
il fanciullo
dattilografo
Femminile
1'amica
la bambina
la burattinaia
la contadina
la cavalla
la compagna
la disegnatrice
la dattilografa
1'ebrea
la fanciulla
Maschile
gli amici
i bambini
i burattinai
i contadini
i cavalli
i compagni
PLURALE
Femminile
le amiche
le bambine
le burattinaie
le contadine
le cavalle
le compagne
Masculine
the friend
the child
the puppet-player
the peasant
the horse
the companion
the designer
the stenographer
the Jew
the boy
PLURAL
Masculine
the friends
the children
the puppet-players
the peasants
the horses
the companions
Feminine
the friend,
etc.
Feminine
the friends,
etc.
GRAMMAR
29
PLURALE
PLTJBAL
MaschUe
Femminile
Masculine
Feminine
i disegnatori
le disegnatrici
the designers
i dattilografi
le dattilografe
the stenographers
gli ebrei
1'ebree
the Jews
i fanciulli
le fanciulle
the boys
SlNGOLARE
SlNGULAB
Maschile
Femminile
Masculine
Feminine
il gatto
la gatta
the cat
the cat,
il giardiniere
la giardiniera
the gardener
etc.
il giovinetto
la giovinetta
the youth
1'infermiere
1'infermiera
the nurse
Pitaliano
1'italiana
the worker
il lavoratore
la lavoratrice
the Italian
il medico
la medichessa
the physician
il materassaio
la materassaia
the mattress-maker
1'operaio
1'operaia
the workman
il pittore
la pittrice
the painter
PLURALE
PLURAL
Maschile
Femminile
Masculine
Feminine
i gatti
le gatte
the cats
the cats,
i giardinieri
le giardiniere
the gardeners
etc.
i giovinetti
le giovinette
the youths
gl'infermieri
le infermiere
the nurses
gl'italiani
le italiane
the Italians
i lavoratori
le lavoratrici
the workers
i medici
le medichesse
the physicians
i materassai
le materassaie
the mattress-makers
gli operai
le operaie
the workmen
i pittori
le pittrici
the painters
SlNGOLARE
SINGULAR
Maschile
Femminile
Masculine
Feminine
il ragazzo
la ragazza
the boy
the girl,
il romano
la romana
the Roman
etc.
lo scolare
la scolara
the scholar
il sarto
la sarta
the tailor
il santo
la tagliatrice
the saint
il tagliatore
la donna
the cutter
1'uomo
la vecchia
the man
il vecchio
la visitatrice
the old man
il visitatore
la zia
the visitor
lo zio
la santa
the uncle
30 HONTESSORI ELEMENTARY MATERIAL
PLURALE PLURAL
Maschile Femminile Masculine Feminine
the girls,
etc.
i ragazzi
le ragazze
the boys
i romani
le romane
the Romans
gli scolari
le scolare
the scholars
i sarti
le sarte
the tailors
i santi
le sante
the saints
i tagliatori
le tagliatrici
the cutters
gli uomini
le donne
the men
i vecchi
le vecchie
the old men
i visitatori
le visitatrici
the visitor
gli zii
le zie
the uncles
Occasionally class exercises are used in our schools for
the four forms of the Italian noun, masculine and fem-
inine, singular and plural. They take the form almost
of a game, which the children find amusing. A child for
instance distributes around the class all the plural nouns.
Then he reads aloud a noun in the singular. The child
who holds the corresponding plural answers immediately.
The same thing is next done for masculine and feminine,
and, finally, for all four forms at once.
When these exercises have become familiar to the child,
others somewhat more difficult may be presented. These
new ones comprise : nouns which change form com-
pletely as they change gender and of which, so far, only
the most familiar examples (babbo, " father," mamma,
"mother," etc.) have been given (Series A); nouns in
which the form is the same in the singular of both gen-
ders (Series B) ; those in which both genders have a com-
mon form in the singular and a common form in the
plural (Series C) ; nouns which have only one form for
both singular and plural (Series D) ; nouns where the
same form appears in both genders but with a different
meaning (Series E) ; finally, nouns which change gen-
der as they pass from the singular to the plural (Series
GRAMMAR
31
SERIES A
SlNGOLARE
SINGULAR
Ma sch He
Femminile
Masculine
il babbo
la mamma
the father
il becco
il frate
la capra
la suora
the he-goat
the friar
il fratello
la sorella
the brother
il genero
la nuora
the son-in-law
il montone
il maschio
la pecora
la fcmmina
the ram
the male
il marito
il padre
il padrino
il porco
il toro
la moglie
la madre
la madrina
la scrofa
la vacca
the husband
the father
the godfather
the hog
the bull
Fuomo
la donna
the man
il re
la regina
the king
PLURALE
Maschile
Femminile
Masculine
babbi
le mamme
the fathers
becchi
frati
le capre
le suore
the he-goats
the friars
fratelli
le sorelle
the brothers
generi
montoni
maschi
le nuore
le pecore
le femmine
the sons-in-law
the rams
the males
mariti
padri
i padrini
i porci
i tori
le mogli
le madri
le madrine
le scrofe
le vacche
the husbands
the fathers
the godfathers
the hogs
the bulls
gli uomini
i re
le donne
le regine
the men
the kings
SERIES B
SlNGOLARE
Maschile
1'artista
il collega
il dentista
il pianista
il telefonista
il telegrafista
il violinista
Femminile
1'artista
la collega
la dentista
la pianista
la telefonista
la telegrafista
la violinista
Masculine
the artist
the colleague
the dentist
the pianist
the telephone
operator
the telegraph
operator
the violinist
Feminine
the mother
the she-goat
the nun
the sister
the daughter-in-
law
the ewe
the female
the wife
the mother
the godmother
the sow
the cow
the woman
the queen
PLURAL
Feminine
the mothers,
etc.
SINGULAR
Feminine
the artist,
etc.
32 MONTESSORI ELEMENTARY MATERIAL
PLURALE
Maschile
Femminile
Masculine
gli artist!
le artiste
the artists
i colleghi
le colleghe
the colleagues
i dentist!
le dentiste
the dentists
i pianist!
le pianiste
the pianists
i telefonisti
le telefoniste
the telephone
operators
i telegrafisti
le telegrafiste
the telegraph
operators
i violinist!
le violiniste
the violinists
SEEIES C
SINGOLARE
Maschile
Femminile
Masculine
il consorte
}& consorte
the husband
il custode
la custode
the keeper
il cantante
la cantante
the singer
1'erede
1'erede
the heir
il giovane
la giovane
the youth
1'inglese
1'inglese
the Englishman
il nipote
la nipote
the nephew
(grandson)
PLURALE
Maschile
Femminile
Masculine
i consort!
le consort!
the husbands
i custodi
le custodi
the guards
i eantanti
le cantanti
the singers
gli eredi
1'eredi
the heirs
i giovani
le giovani
the youths
gl'inglesi
le ingles!
the Englishmen
i nipoti
le nipoti
the nephews
(grandsons)
SERIES D
Singolare
Plurale
Singular
il bazar
i bazar
the bazaar
ilcaffe
i caff e
the coffee
il gas
igas
the gas
la gru
le gru
the crane
il lapis
i lapis
the pencil
la liberta
le liberta
the liberty
I'omnibus
gli omnibus
the omnibus
la virtu
le virtu
the virtue
SINGULAR
Feminine
the wife,
etc.
PLURAL
Feminine
the wives,
etc.
Plural
the bazaars,
etc.
GRAMMAR
33
SlNGOLARE
Maschile
Femminile
il melo
la mela
il pesco
1'ulivo
la pesca
1'uliva
il pugno
il manico
la pugna
la manica
il suolo
la suola
PLURALE
Maschile
Femminile
i nieli
le mele
i peschi
gli ulivi
i pugni
i raanichi
le pesche
leulive
le pugne
lemaniche
i suoli
le suole
SERIES E
Masculine
the apple tree
the peach tree
the olive tree
the blow (punch)
the handle
the floor
SINGULAR
Feminine
the apple
the peach
the olive
the battle
the sleeve
the sole
Singolare
il centinaio
il dito
la eco
il paio
il riso
1'uovo
Plurale
le centinaia
le dita
gli echi
le paia
le risa
le uova
PLURAL
Masculine
the apple trees
the peach trees
the olive trees
the blows (punches)
the handles
the floors
SERIES F
Singular
the hundred
the finger
the echo
the pair
the smile ( laugh )
the egg
Feminine
the apples
the peaches
the olives
the battles
the sleeves
the soles
Plural
the hundreds,
etc.
THE SINGULAR AND PLUKAL IN ENGLISH
TRANSLATOR'S NOTE : - - While the formation of the
English plural does not present the complications of gen-
der that appear in Italian, the phonetic adaptations re-
quired by the plural ending -s along with certain or-
thographical caprices and historical survivals of the lan-
guage, result in a situation somewhat more complex than
that treated by Signora Montessori. In fact, her analysis
of the Italian plural requires eight word-lists, while Eng-
lish requires at least fourteen, not including the question
of foreign nouns. The special stress on the article is
hardly necessary in English. An analogous treatment for
English would be somewhat as follows :
34 MONTESSORI ELEMENTARY MATERIAL
SERIES I
(Simple plurals in -s)
Singular
Plural
Singular
Plural
book
books
train
trains
bed
beds
ticket
tickets
desk
desks
car
cars
street
streets
floor
floors
tree
trees
chair
chairs
card
cards
pin
pins
prism
prisms
shoe
shoes
lamp
lamps
wagon
wagons
cow
cows
bean
beans
cat
cats
counter
counters
SERIES II
(Plurals in -es, including -s pronounced like -es)
LIST A
Singular Plural
case cases
sausage sausages
wedge wedges
edge edges
ledge ledges
LIST B
Singular Plural
watch watches
topaz topazes
class classes
wretch wretches
SERIES III
(Plurals of Nouns in -o)
LIST A
Singular Plural Singular Plural
potato potatoes volcano volcanoes
negro negroes tomato tomatoes
Singular
Plural
house
houses
horse
horses
prize
prizes
judge
judges
cage
cages
Singular
Plural
bush
bushes
church
churches
box
boxes
fox
foxes
glass
glasses
GRAMMAR
35
hero
mosquito
Singular
calf
elf
half
loaf
wolf
Singular
knife
wife
Singular
staff
wharf
puff
cliff
SERIES III
(Plurals of Nouns in -o)
LIST A
heroes
mosquitoes
motto
domino
LIST B
Plural
calves
elves
halves
loaves
wolves
SERIES IV
(Nouns in -f or -fe}
LIST A
Singular
shelf
thief
leaf
self
Plural
knives
wives
Plural
staffs
wharfs
puffs
cliffs
LIST B
Singular
life
LIST C
Singular
scarf
chief
fife
mottoes
dominoes
Singular
Plural
Singular
Plural
piano
pianos
dynamo
dynamos
soprano
sopranos
canto
cantos
zero
zeros
solo
solos
banjo
banjos
memento
mementos
halo
halos
chromo
chromos
Plural
shelves
thieves
leaves
selves
Plural
lives
Plural
scarfs
chiefs
fifes
36 MONTESSORI ELEMENTARY MATERIAL
SERIES V
(Nouns in -y)
LIST A
Singular
body
sky
gipsy
berry
Plural
bodies
skies
gipsies
berries
Singular
soliloquy
sty
Mary
ferry
Plural
soliloquies
sties
Maries
ferries
penny
pennies
country
countries
LIST B
Singular
boy
valley
Plural
boys
valleys
Singular
day
derby
Plural
days
derbys
Singular
child
ox
SERIES VI
(Plurals in -en)
Plural Singular
children
oxen
brother
Plural
brethren
(brothers)
SERIES VII
(Plurals with internal change (umlaut))
Singular
Plural
Singular
Plural
foot
feet
mouse
mice
tooth
teeth
man
men
goose
geese
woman
women
louse
lice
SERIES VIII
(Singular and Plural identical)
Singular Plural Singular Plural
sheep sheep deer deer
fish fish swine swine
GRAMMAR
37
Singular
black-bird
steamboat
redcoat
redbreast
forget-me-not
spoonful
mouthful
Singular
brother-in-law
mother-in-law
court-martial
a ttorney-gener al
general-in-chief
Knight-Templar
SERIES IX
(Compound words)
LIST A
Plural
black-birds
steamboats
redcoats
redbreasts
forget-me-nots
spoonfuls
mouthfuls
LIST B
Plural
brothers-in-law
mothers-in-law
courts-martial
attorneys-generals
generals-in-chief
Knights-Templar
All these groups of words in their order are reproduced
in special booklets which the children may take home and
read. In actual practise such books have proved both
convenient and necessary. The children generally spend
much time on them and delight in reading the words over
and over in the order in which they themselves have dis-
covered them in the card exercise. This recalls and fixes
their own ideas, inducing a sort of inner maturation which
is often followed by the spontaneous discovery of gram-
matical laws on the relations of nouns, or by a lively inter-
est which throws the children into exclamations or laugh-
ter as they observe what great differences of meaning are
sometimes caused by a very slight change in the word.
At the same time these simple exercises, so fruitful in re-
sults, may be used for work at home and well meet the
38 MONTESSORI ELEMENTARY MATERIAL
demands for something to do with which children are
continually assailing their parents. For homework we
have prepared alphabets where the letters are printed in
type-writing order. With them the child can compose
words, or later, sentences, at the same time becoming fa-
miliar with the alphabet arrangement of standard type-
writers.
IV
LESSONS - - COMMANDS
The first lessons in grammar which I gave to children
go back fully sixteen years. I first attempted the edu-
cation of defectives in the " Scuola Magistrale Ortofren-
ica " in Rome in the year 1899 following a course of lec-
tures I had given to teachers in the normal school of our
capital. In this experiment I went far enough with pri-
mary work to prepare some of the defective children for
successful examinations in the public schools. A very
brief and incomplete summary of my pedagogical studies
delivered in the teacher's courses is given in the appendix
to this volume.
The teaching of grammar was not at that time so com-
plete as it has since been made in my work with normal
children ; even so it was a marked success. Grammar was
actually lived by the children, who became deeply inter-
ested in it. Even those wretched children who came, like
rubbish thrown out of the public schools, directly off the
street or from the insane asylums, passed delightful half
hours of joyous laughter over their exercises in grammar.
Here are some excerpts from the old pamphlet of 1900
giving an idea of the didactic material which was then
used and some notion of a lesson on nouns. " As each
word is read or written for every object-lesson, for every
action, printed cards are being assembled which will later
be used to make clauses and sentences with words that
39
40 MONTESSORI ELEMENTARY MATERIAL
may be moved about just as the individual letters were
moved about in making the words themselves. The sim-
ple clauses or sentences should refer to actions performed
by the children. The first step should be to bring two or
more words together: e.g., red-wool, sweet-candy, four-
footed dog, etc. Then we may go on to the sentence itself :
The wool is red; the soup is hot; the dog has four feet;
Mary eats the candy, etc. The children first compose the
sentences with their cards; then they copy them in their
writing books. To facilitate the choice of the cards, they
may be arranged in special boxes: for instance, one box
may be labeled noun: or the boxes may be distinguished
thus: food, clothing, animals, people, etc. There should
be a box for adjectives with compartments for colors,
shapes, qualities, etc. There should be another for par-
ticles, with compartments for articles, conjunctions, prep-
ositions, etc. A box should be reserved for actions, with
the label verbs above it, and containing compartments
for the infinitive, present, past and future. The children
gradually learn by practise to take their cards from the
boxes and put them back in their proper places. They
soon learn to know their " word boxes " and they readily
find the cards they want among the colors, shapes, quali-
ties, etc., or among animals, foods, etc. Ultimately the
teacher will find occasion to explain the meaning of the
big words written at the top of the drawers, noun, adjec-
tive, verb, etc., and this will be the first step into the sub-
ject of grammar.
NOUNS
We may call persons and objects by their name, their
noun. People answer if we call them, so do animals.
GRAMMAR 41
Inanimate objects, however, never answer, because they
cannot ; but if they could they would. For example, if
I say Mary, Mary answers ; if I say peas, the peas do not
answer, because they cannot. You children do under-
stand when I call an object and you bring it to me. I
say, for example, book, beans,, peas. If I don't tell you
the name of the object, you don't understand what I am
talking about ; because every object has a different name.
This name is the word that stands for the object. This
name is a noun.
Whenever I mention a noun to you, you understand
immediately the object which the noun represents:
tree, chair, pen, book, lamb, etc. If I do not give this
noun, you don't know what I am talking about; for, if I
say simply bring me .... at once, I want it, you do not
know what I want, unless I tell you the name of the ob-
ject. Unless I give you the noun, you do not understand.
Thus every object is represented by a word which is its
name; and this name is a noun. To understand whether
a word is a noun or not, you simply ask: Is it a thing?
Would it answer if I spoke to it? or Could I carry it to
the teacher? For instance, bread: yes, bread is an ob-
ject; table: yes, it is an obejct; conductor: yes, the con-
ductor would answer, if I were to speak to him.
Let us look through our cards now. I take several
cards from different boxes and shuffle them. Here is the
word sweet. Bring me sweet! Is there anything to an-
swer when I call sweet ? But you are bringing me a piece
of candy! I didn't say candy: I said sweet. And now
you have given me sugar! I said sweet! Sweet, you see,
is not an object. You cannot guess what I have in mind
when I say sweet. If I say candy, sugar, then you under-
stand what I want, what object I am thinking about, be-
42 MONTESSOKI ELEMENTARY MATERIAL
cause the words candy, sugar, stand for objects. Those
words are nouns" x
This summary, however, fails to give a real idea of the
success of these lessons. When I said with a tone of
decision, as if I could not think of the necessary word,
" Bring me — bring me — bring me — ," the children
would gather round me, looking fixedly at my lips, like
so many little dogs, waiting for me to throw something
for them to fetch. They were in fact ready to run and
get what I wanted. But the word refused to come.
" Bring me — , bring me — ." Finally in great impa-
tience I cried, " But bring it to me quick — I want it."
Then their faces lit up and they would laughingly cry,
" But bring you what ? What is it you want ? What
shall we bring you ? '
This was the real lesson on the noun, and when, after
great difficulty, the word " sweet " came out, the children
would run and bring me every possible object that was
sweet. I would refuse each one in turn. " No, I didn't
ask for candy ! No, I didn't ask for sugar ! ' The chil-
dren would look at the object they had in their hands, half
laughing, half puzzled and beginning to realize that sweet
was not a name, that it was not a noun. These first les-
sons, which seemed something like commands that needed
the help of the children to express themselves, brought the
children to understand some part of speech, while evoking,
at the same time, vivid and interesting scenes. They
furnished the original impulse to the development we have
reached to-day in our lessons on grammar. For such les-
sons we have adopted the term " commands." But with
normal children these " commands " were gradually mul-
tiplied and evolved. They are no longer entrusted to the
i See pp. 446-448.
GRAMMAR 43
teacher's ingenuity; nor are they dependent solely upon
her dramatic sense — something essential if she is to stim-
ulate the weak nervous reactions of little defectives and
so gain and hold their attention. The " commands " to-
day are written and may be read. They are combined
with the card-exercises where the cards are read in silence
and interpreted through actions - - a method which grew
spontaneously and with such great success from the work
in the " Children's House." That is why, to-day, we
speak in the elementary courses of " reading commands "
or even of " writing commands."
The study of grammar has finally been arranged in a
methodical series of exercises and the material has been
prepared after careful and rigid experiment. Those who
read this method will get a clear idea of the teacher's task.
She has a material ready for use. She need not bother
to compose a single sentence nor to consult a single pro-
gram. The objects at her disposal contain all that is
necessary. She need know simply what they are and
how they are to be used. The lessons which she must
give are so simple, and require so few words, that they
become lessons rather of gesture and action than of words.
It must be borne in mind, further, that the work is not as
uninteresting as would appear from this arid summary.
The actual school is a real intellectual laboratory, where
the children work all the time and by themselves. After
the material has been presented to them, they recognize it
and like to hunt for it. They know how to find for them-
selves the precious objects which they want to use. They
often exchange materials and even lessons with other chil-
dren. The few lessons the teacher gives connect, as it
were, a system of live wires, which set in motion activities
quite disproportionate to the energy expended in the sim-
44 MONTESSORI ELEMENTARY MATERIAL
pie act she performs. She pushes, so to speak, a button
and here a bell rings, there a light goes on, there a ma-
chine begins to buzz. Very often the teacher sees a whole
week go by without any need of intervention on her part.
And yet what delicacy and tact are necessary properly
to " offer " this material, to give in an interesting way a
lesson calculated to exert a direct action upon the child's
spiritual activity! How skilful we must be to leave all
the child's spontaneous impulses free to develop them-
selves, to keep careful watch over so many different in-
dividual impulses ! This we must do if we are to " keep
the lamp burning " ! When, for example, on passing a
table where the child has analyzed a sentence with the
colored cards, the teacher shifts about, as if in play, one of
the little slips, not only must she be possessed of the
psychological insight necessary for intervening in this
child's work at the proper time, but she must also have in
mind the grammatical rule of which she wishes to give the
child his first intuition. It follows that every single act
of the teacher, however insignificant apparently, is, like
the acts of the priest in the service, of the greatest impor-
tance, and should come from a consciousness thoroughly
awake, and full of potentiality. Instead of giving out
what she has in herself, the teacher must bring out the
full possibilities of the children.
The teacher's extrinsic preparation is a matter of thor-
ough acquaintance with the material. It should be so
much a part of her that she knows at once what is needed
for each individual case as soon as it arises. Actual
practise soon develops this skill.
The exercises are performed with these little packages
of specially prepared cards. The most important problem
(for Italian grammar) is in the agreements; the agree-
GRAMMAR 45
ment of article and noun, as we have already shown, the
agreement of noun and adjective, and later on of pronoun
and verb, and pronoun and noun. There are two kinds
of exercises, which we have termed respectively " an-
alyses " and " commands."
The commands involve both work done by the teacher
and exercises performed by the children. The purpose
here is to clarify the meanings of words and often to sug-
gest a practical interpretation of them. This explana-
tion is followed by an exercise of the children themselves,
who in turn practically interpret the meaning of one or
more sentences written on a card which they read just as
they did in the first exercises of reading in the " Chil-
dren's House." On this card are the words which the
teacher has just explained. In our experiments we gave
these lessons immediately after " silence " just as we did
for reading in the " Children's House." All the chil-
dren, however, do not necessarily take part in these execu-
tions — oftenest it is only a group of children, sometimes
one child alone, again, at other times, almost all of them.
If possible the commands are given in another room, while
the other children continue their work in the large hall.
If this is not possible it takes place in the same room.
These commands might be called " an introduction to
dramatic art," for right there little dramatic scenes full
of vivacity and interest are " acted out." The children
are singularly delighted in working for the one exact " in-
terpretation " which a given word requires.
The analyses, on the other hand, are of quite different
character. " Analysis " is done at the table. It is work
which requires quiet and concentration. While the com-
mand gives the intuition, the analysis provides for the
maturation of the idea. The grammar boxes are used in
46 MONTESSORI ELEMENTARY MATERIAL
these exercises. In a larger compartment which each
box contains, are placed several slips bearing a printed
sentence; for example, Throw down your handkerchief.
The child draws a slip and places it to one side on the
table. Then he takes from the different boxes the colored
slips corresponding to the different words in the sentence
and places them side by side one after the other. In this
way he composes the entire sentence : Throw down your
handkerchief. The child is actually doing here a very
simple thing: he is merely translating into colored cards
the sentence which is printed on his slip. He composes
this sentence in the same way in which he has already
composed words with the moveable alphabet. But here
the exercise is even more simple because the child need not
remember the sentence, for it is there right before his eyes.
His attention must be concentrated on other facts, so that
all intellectual effort in the composition of the sentence
itself is eliminated. The child has to note the colors and
the position of the cards in the different boxes, since he
must take the cards now from the noun box, now from the
adverb box, now from that of the preposition, etc. ; and
the colors together with the position (each section has a
title, as we have already seen) strengthen his conscious-
ness of a classification of words according to grammar.
But what really makes this exercise in analysis so in-
teresting is the teacher's repeated permutation of the dif-
ferent cards. As she goes by a table she changes, as
though in fun, the position of a card, and in this way
provokes the intuition of grammatical rules and defini-
tions. Indeed, when she takes out the card, which refers
to some new part of the exercise, the remaining sentence
with its changed meaning emphasizes the function of the
part of speech which has been moved. The effect shows
GRAMMAR 47
a distant analogy to the light that pathology and vivisec-
tion throw on physiology. An organ which fails in its
function illustrates exactly that function, for never does
one realize the precise use of an organ more clearly than
when it has lost its power of functioning. Furthermore
the removal of the words demonstrates that the meaning
of the sentence is not given by the word alone but by the
order of the word in the sentence, and this makes a great
impression on the child. He sees the same cards first
in a chaotic mass and then in an orderly arrangement.
What was first a collection of meaningless words has sud-
denly become the expression of a thought.
From now on the child begins to experience a keen in-
terest in the order of words. The meaning, the only thing
the child is after, is no longer hidden in confusion. He
begins to enjoy subtle permutations, changes which, with-
out destroying the expression of a thought, obscure its
clarity, complicate it, or make it " sound wrong." It is
here that the teacher must have at her fingertips the rules
governing the position of the various parts of speech.
This will give her the necessary " lightness of touch,"
perhaps even the opportunity of making some brilliant
little explanation, some casual observation, which may
suddenly develop in the child a profound " grammatical
insight." When the child has understood this he will be-
come a deep " strategist " in mobilizing, disposing and
moving about these cards which express thought; and if he
really succeeds in mastering this secret, he will not be
easily satiated with so fascinating an exercise. No one
but a child would ever have the patience to study grammar
so profoundly and at such length. This subtle work is,
after all, not so easy for the teacher. That is why the ma-
terial must be such as to suggest each step in detail. The
48 MONTESSORI ELEMENTARY MATERIAL
teacher should be relieved as much as possible of the labor
of preparation and research : for her delicate work of in-
tervention is a task hard enough in itself. In preparing
this material we have worked for her: we have acted as
the workmen who produce the various objects necessary
to life ; she has but to " live " and " make live." This
will show still more clearly how far from truth is the
modern conception of pedagogy which attempts to realize
its desire for freedom in the school by saying to the
teacher, " Try to respond to the needs of the pupils with-
out being conscious of your authority over them." When
we ask a teacher to respond to the needs of the inner life
of man, we are asking a great deal of her. She will never
be able to accomplish it, unless we have first done some-
thing for her by giving her all that is necessary to that
end. Here is our material : —
COMMANDS ON NOUNS
" CALLING *
Call loudly:
Mary ! Lucy ! Ethel !
Later call again :
Blonde! Beautiful! Good!
Call:
Peter! bring a chair.
George! bring a cube.
Louis ! get a frame.
Charles! Charles! quick! bring me the . . . bring it to me,
quick, quick.
Call slowly this way:
Come! Come! give me a kiss — please, come!
Then say:
Mary ! come ! give me a kiss !
GRAMMAR 49
These commands lend themselves to a little dramatic
scene. It is really a sort of play, which the children re-
cite.
The tendency to recitation and to imitation is very
strong and often well developed at the age of five years.
Little children experience a singular fascination in pro-
nouncing the words with sentiment and in accompanying
them with gestures. One can hardly imagine the sim-
plicity of the little dramatic acts which interest the five
year old child. Nothing but actual experiment could pos-
sibly have revealed it to us. One day, in fact, our little
children were invited to be present at a dramatic enter-
tainment given by the older children of the Public Schools.
They followed it with really surprising interest. How-
ever, they remembered only three words of the play they
had heard ; but with these three words they made up a
little dramatic action of their own, which they repeated
over and over again the following day.
The commands of these " call " cards are, accordingly,
real plays for our little ones. The child calls, pronounc-
ing the name with a sort of sustained drawl ; the child who
is called comes forward ; then the same thing is done with
the other names, and each child obeys as he is called.
Then the incomplete calls begin: blonde! blonde! 'beauti-
ful! And no one moves! This makes a great impres-
sion on the children. Imperative commands, like re-
quests, lend themselves to active dramatic action. Peter
has been called and has brought his chair; George has
brought the cube; Louis has taken out a frame; but
Charles sits there intent, expectant, while the child calls
out, — But bring it to me, bring it to me quickly! And
how expressive we found the vain request, — Come, come!
please give me a kiss, — come, come! At last the cry, —
50 MONTESSORI ELEMENTARY MATERIAL
Mary! come! brings the resulting action and Mary runs
to give the kiss which has been so long invoked !
These little " plays " require a real study of the parts,
and the children rehearse their different roles over and
over again.
V
ADJECTIVES
ANALYSES
MATERIAL: Grammar box.
Various objects already familiar to the chil-
dren.
New objects.
The material for word analysis consists of small cards
for articles (tan), nouns (black) and adjectives (brown).
There is one box with three compartments, each section
marked with a card bearing the respective title: article,
noun, adjective. At the front of the box is a space for
other cards containing printed sentences to be analyzed.
DESCRIPTIVE ADJECTIVES
The child is to read the sentences, find the objects de-
scribed in them, and finally build the sentences with his
cards as follows : suppose the card reads :
il colore verde the green color
il colore turchino the blue color
il colore rosso the red color
The child finds the three colored tablets used in the fa-
miliar exercise of the " Children's House ': for the edu-
cation of the sense of color. He places these tablets on
his table. Then he builds the phrases out of his word
cards :
51
52 MONTESSORI ELEMENTARY MATERIAL
il
colore
verde
the
green
color
Beside the completed expression he places the green
color-tablet. Passing to the next phrase, he does not dis-
turb the words the and color. He removes only the word
green and substitutes for it the adjective blue, at the same
time removing the green tablet and substituting for it the
blue. Similarly, for the third phrase, he changes the ad-
jective, putting the red tablet at the end. Thus the three
different objects were distinguished only by the adjective:
f verde
il colore -i turchino
[rosso
f greeny
the •< blue L color
[red j
All the phrases and sentences refer to objects used in
the previous educational material. Occasionally the
teacher will have to prepare something herself (e.g., hot,
cold, warm, or iced water ; clear water ; colored water) .
For this exercise on water, the box contains six slips with
the six printed phrases. In the box-sections, the child
finds the corresponding word-cards which are exactly in
the number needed for the exercise (not corresponding,
that is, to the number of words in the phrases, since the
articles and nouns are not repeated). There are five
groups of such exercises, dealing with various kinds of
sensation.
A. SENSO CROMATICO
il colore rosa
il colore rosa scuro
il colore rosa chiaro
SENSE OF COLOR
the pink color
the dark pink color
the light pink color
il prisma azzurro
il prisma marrone
the blue prism
the brown prism
GRAMMAR
53
A. SENSO CKOMATICO
il colore verde
il colore turchino
il colore rosso
i lapis neri
i lapis colorati
1'acqua colorata
1'acqua incolora
il colore giallo
il colore arancione
SENSE OF COLOR
the green color
the blue color
the red color
the black pencils
the colored pencils
the colored water
the clear water
the yellow color
the orange color
B. SENSO Visivo: DIMENSIONI
1'asta lunga
1'asta corta
il cubo grande
il cubo piccolo
il cilindro alto
il cilindro basso
il prisma marrone grosso
il prisma marrone fino
il rettangolo largo
il rettangolo stretto
1'incastro solido
1'incastro piano
C. SENSO Visivo: FORMA
il triangolo equilatero
il triangolo isocele
il triangolo scaleno
il triangolo acutangolo
il triangolo ottusangolo
il triangolo rettangolo
1'incastro circolare
1'incastro quadrato
1'incastro rettangolare
la piramide quadrangolare
la piramide triangolare
SENSE OF SIGHT: SIZE
the long staff
the short staff
the large cube
the small cube
the tall cylinder
the short cylinder
the thick brown prism
the thin brown prism
the broad rectangle
the narrow rectangle
the solid inset
the plane inset
SENSE OF SIGHT: SHAPE
the equilateral triangle
the isocelcs triangle
the scalene triangle
the acute-angled triangle
the obtuse-angled triangle
the right-angled triangle
the circular inset
the square inset
the rectangular inset
the quadrangular pyramid
the triangular pyramid
54 MONTESSORI ELEMENTARY MATERIAL
C. SENSO Visivo: FORMA SENSE OF SIGHT: SHAPE
il prisma azzurro rettangolare the blue rectangular prism
il prisma azzurro quadrangolare the blue quadrangular prism
la scatola cilindrica
la scatola prismatica
D. SENSO TATTILE:
MUSCOLAEE
la superfice piana
la superfice curva
la stoffa ruvida
la stoffa liscia
1'acqua calda
1'acqua fredda
1'acqua tiepida
1'acqua fredda
1'acqua ghiacciata
la tavoletta pesante
la tavoletta leggera
la stoffa morbida
la stoffa dura
the cylindrical box
the prismatic box
SENSE OF TOUCH: MUSCULAR
SENSE
the flat surface
the curved surface
the rough cloth
the smooth cloth
the hot water
the cold water
the warm water
the cold water
the iced water
the heavy black-board
the light black-board
the soft cloth
the hard cloth
E. SENSO UDITIVO; OLFATTIVO-,
GUSTATIVO
il rumore forte
il rumore leggero
il suono acuto
il suono basso
1'acqua odorosa
1'acqua inodora
1'odore buono
1'odore cattivo
il sapore amaro
il sapore dolce
il sapore acido
il sapore salso
SENSES OF HEARING; SMELL;
TASTE
the loud noise
the faint noise
the sharp sound
the deep sound
the fragrant water
the odorless water
the good smell
the bad smell
the bitter taste
the sweet taste
the sour taste
the salty taste
GRAMMAR 55
The teacher who is observing notices whether the child
has taken the right objects; if so, she proceeds to the
permutations.
PERMUTATIONS
At this point, the teacher should recall (in dealing with
Italian) the grammatical rules for the position of ad-
jectives, some of which (the fundamental ones) will cer-
tainly be very useful to her in executing these first per-
mutations : -
I. In general, the adjective follows the noun. If
placed before the noun, it is less conspicuous; if placed
after, it assumes more importance and has a different
force.
II. When, the adjective is used to signify the exclusive
superlative of a quality, it is not only placed after the
noun, but is preceded by the article. (Umberto il ~buono,
"Humbert the Good.")
Example:- -The child has composed the following
phrase with his cards: il triangolo rettangolo "the right-
angled triangle." The teacher can interchange the words
thus : il rettangolo triangolo, " the triangle right-angled."
Similarly also, for other phrases : -
il prisma rettangolare azzurro the rectangular blue prism
il rettangolare azzurro prisma the prism, rectangular, blue
i lapis neri the black pencils
i neri lapis the pencils black
il colore rosso the red color
il rosso colore the color red
Both the meaning and the child's habits show him the
normal position of the adjective. In some phrases, such
as,
il rumore leggero the faint sound
il sapore dolce the sweet taste
56 MONTESSORI ELEMENTARY MATERIAL
the placing of the adjective before the noun renders the
meaning vague, figurative, emotional, or generic, whereas
it would be clearly descriptive and precise were the ad-
jective in its normal position:
il dolce sapore the taste sweet
il leggero rumore the noise faint
(In English the normal position of the adjective is
before the noun. The permutation develops a strong
rhetorical flavor, of which the child will become conscious
later in his studies on poetic inversions. — Tr.)
After the teacher has made these changes, if they have
interested the child, she may say for example : " The
adjective comes after its noun >;i (for Italian) ; " The ad-
jective comes before its noun " (for English). In this
way she will have given a lesson in theoretical grammar.
INFLECTION OF ADJECTIVES
(Exclusively for the Italian language)
Another exercise to be done at the table deals with the
formation of the singular and plural of adjectives in the
two genders. This exercise brings the child in contact
with a great many adjectives of quality. Two series, one
of twenty masculine, the other of twenty feminine adjec-
tives (in the two numbers) and two other series, twenty
singulars and twenty plurals (in the two genders), form
four groups of cards, one-half of which (tied separately)
serves to direct the placing of the other half. Here are
the words in their groups:
Singolare Plurale
acuto acuti sharp
allegro allegri joyous
attenta attente careful, attentive
GRAMMAR
57
Singolare
Plurale
basso
bassi
low
buona
buone
good
caldo
caldi
hot
cattiva
cattive
bad
dolce
dolci
sweet
duro
duri
hard
educata
educate
educated, well mannered
felice
felici
happy
fredda
fredde
cold
grande
grandi
large
grazioso
graziosi
graceful, pretty
gioiosa
gioiose
merry
gentile
gent ili
kind
italiano
italiani
Italian
rabbioso
rabbiosi
angry
largo
larghi
broad
lento
lenti
slow
malata
malate
ill
odorosa
odorose
fragrant
arioso
ariose
airy
prezioso
preziosi
precious
piena
piene
full
pesante
pesanti
heavy
pulito
puliti
clean
rozza
rozze
rough, uncouth
rosso
rossi
red
robusta
robuste
robust
sincere
sinceri
sincere
studioso
studiosi
studious
stretto
stretti
narrow
stupida
stupide
stupid
vecchia
vecchie
old
morbido
morbide
soft
leggiera
leggiere
light (weight)
lunga
lunghe
long
grosso
grossi
thick
colorita
colorite
colored
58 MONTESSORI ELEMENTARY MATERIAL
Maschile
Femminile
alti
alte
tall
bello
bella
beautiful
brevi
brevi
short, brief
biondo
bionda
blonde
chiaro
chiara
clear, light (of color)
corto
corta
short
coraggiosi
coraggiose
courageous
disordinato
disordinata
disorderly
dolce
dolce
sweet
debole
debole
feeble
esatto
esatta
accurate
freddo
fredda
cold
grazioso
graziosa
graceful
grande
grande
large
garbati
garb ate
polite
gentili
gentili
kind
Italian!
italiane
Italian
inglese
inglese
English
lento
lenta
slow
svelto
svelta
lithe
ottimo
ottima
best, excellent
ordinato
ordinata
orderly
pigri
pigre
lazy
pallido
pallida
pale
piccolo
piccola
small
ruvidi
ruvide
rough
serio
seria
serious, honest
suo
sua
his, her, your
sgarbato
sgarbata
rude
tuo
tua
thy
timido
timida
timid
ultimo
ultima
last
vostro
vostra
yours
zoppi
zoppe
lame
zitto
zitta
silent
carino
carina
dear
liscio
liscia
smooth
GRAMMAR 59
Mascliile Femminile
obbediente obbediente obedient
content! contente content, happy
allegro allegra joyous
Here, just as with the four noun forms (masculine,
feminine, singular and plural), class games may be found
useful. The plural forms may be dealt out to the class,
while one child reads aloud the singulars, one after the
other. The child, who, in a given case, has the proper
plural, reads his card in answer. Similarly, for masculine
and feminine.
LOGICAL AND GRAMMATICAL AGREEMENT OF NOUNS AND
ADJECTIVES
(For Italian Exclusively)
Another table exercise consists in arranging two groups
of fifty cards, of which twenty-five are nouns (constitut-
ing the directing group), while the other twenty-five are
adjectives. The nouns are put in a row and the child
looks among the adjectives (which have been thoroughly
shuffled) for those which are best suited to the different
nouns. As he finds them he places them by the nouns
with which they belong. Sometimes the nouns and ad-
jectives placed together cause a great deal of merriment by
the amusing contrasts that arise. The children try to
put as many adjectives as possible with the same noun
and develop in this way the most interesting combina-
tions. Here are two groups which come prepared with
the material:
60 MONTESSORI ELEMENTARY MATERIAL
Nome
Aggettivo
Adjective
Noun
contadina
allegra
happy
peasant-girl
casa
bella
beautiful
house
zia
brava
good
aunt
mamma
cara
dear
mother
professore
alto
tall
professor
maestra
magra
thin ( lean )
teacher
lavandaia
pulita
neat
washerwoman
marinaio
robusto
strong
sailor
carrettiere
abbronzato
sunburnt
wagon-driver
bambino
buono
good
child
lavagnetta
rettangolare
square
slate
foglio
bianco
white
paper (sheet of)
panchetto
basso
low
bench
prisma
grosso
thick
prism
vaso
largo
broad
vase
foglia
verde
green
leaf
circolo
perfetto
perfect
circle
pizzicagnolo
grosso
fat
butcher
testa
unta
oily (dirty)
head
gomma
densa
hard, dense
rubber
fanciullo
stizzito
cross, angry
child
figlio
obbediente
obedient
son
pietra
nera
black
rock, stone
latte
bianco
white
milk
formaggio
tenero
soft, tender
cheese
came
fresca
fresh
meat
vino
rosso
red
wine
disegno
grazioso
pretty
drawing
perla
lucente
shining
pearl
vetro
trasparente
transparent
glass
ragazzina
impertinente
impertinent
lass
asino
paziente
patient
donkey
gallina
grassa
fat
hen
topo
agile
quick, nimble
mouse
acqua
limpida
clear
water
saponetta
odorosa
perfumed, fragrant
soap
medico
bravo
good
doctor
giardiniere
bizzarro
surly
gardener
cane
arrabbiato
mad
dog
manicotto
morbido
soft
muff
gatto
arruffato
ruffled
cat
Colombo
viaggiatore
traveling ( carrier )
pigeon
tibmo
brontolone
grumbling
man
ragno
pericoloso
dangerous
spider
serpente
velenoso
poisonous
snake
GRAMMAR 61
Nome Aggcttivo Adjective Noun
medicina amara bitter medicine
nonna indulgente indulgent, kind grandmother
babbo severe strict father
vespa maligna cruel wasp
cassette ordinato orderly box
For a class game with these lists, the nouns may be
placed on one table and the adjectives on another. Mov-
ing as during the " silence " lesson, each child selects first
a noun, and then an adjective. When the selections have
all been made, the pairs are read one after the other amid
general enthusiasm.
DESCRIPTIVE ADJECTIVES
COMMANDS (Individual Lessons]
The study of the adjective may furnish occasion for
giving the child a knowledge of physical properties (of
substances) so far unknown to him. For example, the
teacher may present a piece of transparent glass; a piece
of black glass (or any opaque screen) ; a sheet of white
paper with an oil stain. The child will see that through
the transparent glass objects may be seen distinctly; that
through the oil stain only the light is visible ; that nothing
at all can be seen through the opaque screen. Or she may
take a small glass funnel and put into it a piece- of filter
paper, then a sponge, then a piece of waterproof cloth.
The child observes that the water passes through the filter
paper, that the sponge absorbs water, and that the water
clings to the surface of the waterproof. Or take two glass
graduators and fill them with water to different heights.
In the case of the graduator filled to the very top, the sur-
face of the water is convex; in the other, it is concave.
The commands are printed on little slips of paper which
62 MONTESSORI ELEMENTARY MATERIAL
are folded and all held together by an elastic band with a
series of brown cards containing the adjectives used in the
commands. Here is the material prepared:
— • Fill one graduator with water to the point of over-flowing,
and another not so full. Notice the form assumed by the sur-
face of the water in each case and apply the proper adjective:
convex, concave.
— 'Take various objects such as filter paper, cloth, a sponge,
and see whether water can pass through them, applying the
adjectives: permeable, impermeable, porous.
— Take a piece of clear glass, a sheet of black paper, a sheet
of oiled paper; look at the light through them, applying the
adjectives : transparent, opaque, translucent.
Object lessons demonstrating comparative weights may
also be given by putting successively into a glass of water,
oil, alcohol colored with aniline, a piece of cork, a little
leaden ball (to be dropped). Then the command would
be:
— Compare the weights of water and of colored alcohol ;
water and oil; water and cork; and water and lead. Then tell
which is heavier and which is lighter than the other.
As an answer the child should give a little written ex-
ercise something like the following: Water is heavier
than oil, etc. The children actually perform these little
experiments, learning to handle graduators, funnels, fil-
ters, etc., and to pour the last drops of water very care-
fully so as to obtain the concave and convex surfaces.
They acquire a very delicate touch in pouring the colored
alcohol and oil on the water. Thus they take the first
step into the field of practical science.
To continue the study of adjectives of quality, there is a
series of commands relating to the comparative and super-
lative. An example of the comparative crept into these
GRAMMAR 63
experiments on weight. Here are additional commands
where the little slip and the brown cards are kept together.
— Take the blue stairs or any other objects and put with
each object the proper adjectives from the following list :
thickj thin, thickest (Ital. grossissimo), thinnest (Ital. finis-
simo).
— Take the eight tablets of the color you like best, arrange
them according to shades and apply the proper adjectives of
quality from the following: light, lightest, dark, darkest.
— Take the series of circles in the plane insets, and pick out
the circles which correspond to these adjectives : large, small,
intermediate.
— Take the cloths or other objects adapted to these adjec-
tives: smooth, smoothest, rough, roughest, soft, softest.
— Take the cubes of the pink tower or any other objects
adapted to these adjectives: large, largest, small, smallest.
— Grade a number of objects according to weight so as to
fit these adjectives to them: heavy, heaviest, light, lightest.
ADJECTIVES OF QUANTITY
COMMANDS (Individual Lessons')
Just as above, the slip is tied with the series of brown
cards by an elastic band. Thus a group is formed. In
our material the following three groups are available :
— Take the counters and make little piles which correspond
in quantity to these adjectives: one, two, three, four, five, six,
etc.
— Take the beads and make little piles of them to fit these
adjectives: few, none, many, some.
— Decide first of all on some definite number of beads (two)
and then make other little piles to fit these adjectives: double,
triple, quadruple, quintuple, sextuple, tenfold, half, equal.
64 MONTESSORI ELEMENTARY MATERIAL
OKDINALS
(Individual Commands}
— Build the blue stair and on each step place the proper
adjective from the following: first, second, third, fourth, fifth,
sixth, seventh, eighth, ninth, ienlh.
— Place the following adjectives on the different drawers
of the cabinet, beginning with the top drawer: first, second,
third, fourth, fifth.
— Differentiate between the drawers of the cabinet by the
following adjectives, beginning with the lowest : first, second,
third, fourth, fifth.
DEMONSTRATIVE ADJECTIVES
(Class Lessons)
As occasion may offer, the teacher inay assemble a group
of children and give them a few simple explanations on
the meaning of certain words : questo, " this " (near us) ;
cotesto, "that" (near you); quello, "that" (over there
away from both of us). (Note: English lacks the dem-
onstrative of the second person.)
Then she can distribute these commands which require
collective actions of the class : -
— Gather in that (codesto) corner of the room near you;
then all of you come -over to this (questo) corner near me;
then all of you run over to that (quello} corner over there.
— Choose one of your school-mates and tell him to put a
box on this (questo) table; a small plate on that (quello)
table over there.
- Tell one of your companions, pointing at the place, to put
a green bead in this (questo) vase; a. blue one in that (codesto)
vase; a white one in that (quello) vase over there.
Arrange the children in groups in three different places
in the room, and then give this command :
GRAMMAR 65
— Let tliat (quello) group over there take the place of this
(questo) group. Let that (codesto) group break up, the chil-
dren going back to their tables.
POSSESSIVE ADJECTIVES
(Class Lessons}
In like manner the teacher explains the meaning of the
words my, your, his, her, etc. She may do this with a
simple gesture. Here are the commands:
— 'Point out various objects saying: This is my slate; that
is your slate; that (over there) is her slate.
— Point at the different seats, saying: That (over there)
is his place, that is your place, and this is my place.
- Pass around the little baskets, saying : This is my basket.
Whose is that other basket? Is it your basket? And this one?
Ah, this one is his basket.
— Let us take a turn around the room and then return to our
seats. You go to your seat and they will go to their seats.
Then we will divide up our things. Let us put our things here
and their things there. We will go to your seats and you go
to their seats. Meanwhile they will get up and then come over
here to take our places.
[Signora Montessori does not differentiate between the
possessive adjective and the possessive pronoun; perhaps
because there is in Italian no characteristic pronominal
form. Strictly speaking the Italian predicate form mio
(e.g., Questo libro e mio} is adjectival, while the form il
mio (i.e., with the definite article) is pronominal (e.g.,
Questo e il mio}. English has, however, the pronominal
possessives: mine, yours (thine), his, hers, ours, yours,
theirs, used also as predicate adjectives. The above exer-
cise should therefore be repeated later under the subject
of pronouns in a slightly different form.— -Tii.]
VI
VERBS
When I gave the first grammar lessons to defective chil-
dren I put special emphasis on nouns and verbs. The
noun (= object), and the verb (= action) were distin-
guished with the greatest clearness, much as we distin-
guish matter from energy, chemistry from physics. Con-
dition and motion, as potential and kinetic energy, are
both expressed by verbs. Whereas formerly the child
took the objects in his hands and studied their name and
attributes, here he must perform actions. In the execu-
tion of actions he must necessarily receive some help, for
he is not always capable of interpreting the word with
the precise action which corresponds to it. On the con-
trary, the study of the verb is necessary to initiate him
into a series of " object lessons " upon the different actions
he must perform. The teacher therefore must give indi-
vidual lessons teaching the child to interpret the verb.
ANALYSES
In the usual manner we present a box which has four
compartments, for the article, the noun, the adjective, and
the verb. The sections are designated by the usual title
cards: tan, black, brown, and red. In the compartment
at the back of the box there are six slips for each exer-
cise, and for every written word there is a card, except
for such words as are repeated in successive sentences.
66
GRAMMAR 67
For example : if the following sentences are written on
the cards:
Close the door!
Lock the door!
on the corresponding cards will be found the words:
the door.
And so the child after he has composed his first sentence
needs to change only one card (lock for close} for the
second sentence. This hrings out the force of the verb,
showing that one sentence may be changed into another
by indicating an entirely different action. The child per-
forms the action and then on his table he builds the sen-
tences with the cards. In the series we have prepared,
the verbs are either synonyms or antonyms. Here is the
material :
SERIES A
- Close the door — Fold the paper
Lock the door Unfold the paper
— Tie a knot — Open the book
Untie a knot Shut the book
— Spread your beads — Speak a word
Collect your beads Whisper a word
SERIES B
— Raise your hands — Touch the velvet
Lower your hands Feel the velvet
— Toss the ball — Write a short word
Throw the ball Erase a short word
— Show your right hand — Draw a circle
Hide your right hand Fill a circle
SERIES C
— Bring a chair — Lace a frame
Drag a chair Unlace a frame
68 MONTESSORI ELEMENTARY MATERIAL
— Raise your head — Arrange the brown cards
Bow your head Mix the brown cards
— Fill a glass — Roll the white handkerchief
Empty a glass Twist the white handkerchief
SERIES D
— Embrace your nearest schoolmate — Cover your face
Kiss your nearest schoolmate Uncover your face
— Gather your prisms — Lift the red counter
Separate your prisms Drop the red counter
— Borrow a black pencil — Smooth the white paper
Lend a black pencil Crumple the white paper
SERIES E
— Clench your two hands — Rub the table
Open your two hands Scratch the table
— Spread the large carpet — Pour the water
Fold the large carpet Spill the water
— Bend your left arm — Comb your hair
Straighten your left arm Part your hair
PERMUTATIONS
The teacher should have in mind the grammatical rules
for the position of the verb in the sentence, to give the
child a clear idea of its normal location before the direct
object: "first the verb, then the object upon which it
acts."
Example:
Smooth the white paper.
The verb should, for the first permutation, be transferred
to the end :
the white paper smooth.
Or, if you wish,
Arrange the brown cards,
the brown cards arrange.
GRAMMAR 69
When the verb is taken away entirely the action vanishes :
Lift I
T. > the red counter.
Drop J
the red counter.
Making all possible permutations, the child sees that only
one order of words is capable of bringing a meaning out
of the confusion:
Roll the white handkerchief,
the white handkerchief roll,
white the handkerchief roll,
white roll handkerchief the.
LESSONS AND COMMANDS ON THE VEKB
The children take considerable delight in our verb les-
sons which develop through interpretations of actions.
We use packs of red cards, tied with an elastic, each pack
containing ten cards. The child executes the actions in-
dicated on each card, one after the other. He may after-
ward copy the cards - - an exercise specially attractive to
very young children.
Examples :
— walk, sing, jump, dance, bow, sit, sleep, wake, pray, sigh.
— write, erase, weep, laugh, hide, draw, read, speak, listen,
run.
— arrange, clean, dust, sweep, button, lace, tie, hook, greet,
brush.
— comb, wash, wipe, embrace, kiss, smile, yawn, scowl, stare,
breathe.
These are fairly common words, representing actions
more or less familiar to the pupils. But this exercise is
only an introduction to the real verb-lessons. For these
the teacher selects, as subject for a lesson, a series of
synonymous verbs. Their shades of meaning are taught
70 MONTESSORI ELEMENTARY MATERIAL
to the children by translating them into action, the teacher
executing the action herself. She then distributes around
the class commands making use of the verbs in question.
There may be several copies of a given command if the
pupils are very numerous. The child reads by himself
the card he has received, executing the action from mem-
ory of what he has seen the teacher do. We have tested
experimentally the Italian material (i.e., the verbs in
parentheses), as follows:
Subject :
lay, throw, toss, hurl (posare, gettare, lanciare, scagliare).
Commands : —
— Take a counter and Jay it on the floor. Pick it up again
and throw it on the floor.
— Roll your handkerchief into a ball. Toss it into the air.
Pick it up again and hurl it against the wall.
— Lay your handkerchief carefully, very carefully, on the
floor. Pick it up again and throw it on the floor. Make a
ball of it and hurl it across the room. Pick it up and toss it
into the air.
Subject :
lie, crouch, sit, rise (sollevare, alzare, levare).
Commands : —
— Go to the sofa and lie with your face to the wall. Now
rise, go to your table and sit with head erect.
— Rise from your chair and crouch behind the table, as
though you were playing hide-and-seek. Else and go back to
the sofa.
Subject:
open, close, lock, unlock (aprire, spalancare, chiudere, soc-
chiudere, serrare, disserrare).
Commands : -
— Go to a window and open it a little; wait a moment and
GRAMMAR 71
then close it again. Open the window as wide as you can and
close it immediately.
- Go to the door and open it wide. Then close the door
gently. If the key is in the key-hole lock the door; but before
you go away, unlock it again, so that everything is left just as
you found it.
Subject :
breathe, inhale, exhale (respirare, sospirare, inspirare, es-
pirare).
Commands : -
— Go to the window, open it, and inhale and exhale the
fresh air five times. Then after a moment inhale once and
hold your breath as long as you can. When you can hold
your breath no longer, exhale as slowly as you can.
-Take a hand mirror and breathe upon the glass. What
happens ?
Subject:
hang, attach (appendere, affiggere, sospendere).
Commands : -
— Hang one of your best drawings on a hook in the room.
— Attach the drawing you like best with two pins to the
wall near the door.
Subject:
cover, wrap, tie, undo (avvolgere, involgere, svolgere).
Commands : -
— • Take a book, a string and a large piece of cloth. Lay
the book on your table and cover it with the cloth.
- Take the cloth and wrap it around the book so that the
book cannot be seen.
— Tie a string around the cloth so that the book will not
fall out.
- Undo the bundle, and return eaca object to the place
where you found it.
72 MONTESSORI ELEMENTARY MATERIAL
Subject :
turn, invert, revolve, whirl, reverse (volgere, capovolgere,
rovesciare).
Commands : -
. — Turn a picture toward one of your school-mates so that
he can see it clearly.
— Invert the picture, so that it will be upside down.
— Reverse the picture so that the back only can be seen by
your school mate.
— Revolve the seat of the piano-stool as rapidly as you can.
— • Stand with your back to the window and turn slowly on
your heel till you face the window. Whirl on your heel com-
pletely around till you again face the window.
Subject:
breathe, blow, puff, pant (sbuffare, soffiare, alitare).
Commands : —
— Tear a large piece of paper into tiny bits on your table.
Blow steadily upon the table till the pieces of paper are all on
the floor.
— Pick up the pieces of paper and place them on the table.
Puff three times upon them and see if they all fall to the
floor. Gather up the pieces and throw them into the waste-
basket.
— Breathe softly upon the back of your hand. What do you
feel?
— Blow upon the back of your hand. What do you feel?
— Puff upon the back of your hand. What do you feel?
— Pant noisily as though you had been running a long
way.
Subject :
murmur, mutter, whisper, speak, grumble (mormorare,
sussurrare, brontolare).
Commands : —
— Ask one of your school-mates to listen carefully to what
you say; then murmur a short sentence as though you were
speaking to yourself.
GRAMMAR 73
-Mutter the same words in a louder voice and see whether
he understands.
— Whisper the same words in the ear of one of two children.
Then ask the other whether he has heard.
— Grumble the same words and watch how the two children
look at you.
— Speak the same words aloud and as distinctly as you can.
Do the children understand?
Subject :
touch, rub, graze (toccare, tastare, palpare, sfiorare).
Commands : —
— Go to your table and with your eyes shut touch it as
though to recognize it.
-Rub the table with the tips of your fingers, bearing down
as hard as you can. What do you feel?
— Graze the table with the tips of your fingers, trying not
to touch it.
Subject :
spread, sprinkle, collect, scatter (spargere, spruzzare, as-
pergere).
Commands : -
— Take a box full of beads and spread them evenly around
the center of your table. Then collect them in a pile in the
center of the table.
— Take a handful of the beads and scatter them over the
table. Return all the beads to the box.
— Take a glass of water and sprinkle two or three handf uls
on a plant in the room.
Subject :
walk, stagger, march (barcollare, dondolare, erigersi).
Commands : -
— Walk naturally to the end of the room farthest from your
table.
— March back to your seat as though you were keeping time
to music.
74 MONTESSORI ELEMENTARY MATERIAL
— Stagger across the room as though you were very dizzy.
Subject:
take, seize, catch (acchiappare, acciuffare, afferrare).
Commands : —
-Walk to the cabinet and take a box of counters in your
hands.
— Run to the sofa, seize the sofa-pillow, and run around the
room with it, holding it in your arms.
— Roll your handkerchief into a ball, toss it into the air and
try to catch it before it falls to the floor.
LESSONS WITH EXPERIMENTS
The function of the verb can be still more interestingly
emphasized by suggesting actions designed to increase the
child's knowledge in the direction of elementary science.
Here the teacher, instead of executing simple movements,
performs experiments, which on the same day or on suc-
ceeding days the child can imitate guided by the direc-
tions in the commands.
Subject :
stir, mix, beat, flavor (mescolare, emulsionare, stemperare).
Commands : —
- Take a bowl half full of water and drop into it a half
cup of flour; stir with a spoon until the mixture is thick.
— Place a table-spoonful of vinegar and a table-spoonful of
olive-oil in a clean bowl; beat them together until an emulsion
is formed.
— Place a tea-spoonful of chocolate and a tea-spoonful of
sugar in a cup and mix them thoroughly. What color was the
chocolate? What color was the sugar? What color is the
mixture ?
— Take a little milk in a cup and taste of it ; add a drop
of vanilla extract. Then taste of the milk again. Do you
taste the vanilla? In the same way flavor a glass of water
GRAMMAR 75
with the vanilla. Flavor another glass of water with vinegar.
Subject :
dissolve, saturate, be in suspension (sciogliere, fare la sos-
pensions, saturare).
Commands : -
- Place a spoonful of sugar in a glass of warm water and
dissolve the sugar by stirring with a spoon. Is the water still
clear ?
— Saturate the water with sugar by continuing to add sugar
and stirring till you can see the sugar at the bottom of the
glass. Allow the water to rest a moment. Is the water still
clear ?
— Mix a spoonful of starch in the water. The water be-
comes white, since the starch does not dissolve but remains in
suspension in the water.
Subject :
strain, filter (decantare, filtrare).
Commands : -
— Take the glass containing the water saturated with sugar
and the one with the starch in suspension, and allow the starch
and sugar to settle for some time, until the water is clear.
Taste the water in each glass, and then strain each glass of
water separately.
- Filter the water saturated with sugar and the water with
the suspended starch. Then taste of each.
By the time all these commands have been executed, the
child will have developed a keen desire to go on, becoming
so interested in the meaning of verbs as not to require fur-
ther commands to stimulate his study of these words.
The most frequent question now is " How many verbs are
there in the language ? " " Are there more in other lan-
guages ? " etc. To satisfy this new curiosity of the chil-
dren we have dictionaries of synonyms and antonyms, and
76 MONTESSORI ELEMENTARY MATERIAL
word-charts. But meantime they have been building
their own dictionaries. One by one they begin to own
copy books (rubrics) with illuminated letters of the al-
phabet. LTnder the proper letter the child copies his
words as fast as he learns them. We are still experiment-
ing on the question of the exact amount of information
that may successfully be offered to elementary school chil-
dren of various ages and stages of development, with the
word material required for the notions of natural history,
physics and chemistry they may be expected to acquire.
We can say, at this moment, simply that each experiment
involves the use of a certain number of new words (nouns,
adjectives and verbs), which are copied into the word-
books (rubrics) as fast as they occur.
VII
PKEPOSITIONS
ANALYSES
Here also the first exercise is to compose sentences
analyzed with the colored cards. This grammar box has
five compartments, each with a small title card of the
color corresponding to the different parts of speech, red
for the verb, black for the noun, brown for the adjective,
tan for the article and violet for the preposition. In the
compartment at the rear of the box are six cards with
printed sentences. The colored cards do not correspond
exactly to the number of words used in the sentences be-
cause the words of one sentence which are repeated in
the next are not duplicated in the cards. In this case it
is the change in preposition only which alters the mean-
ing of the sentence. Here are the series of sentences,
some of which the teacher may have used already in pre-
vious lessons (commands).
SERIES A
(Prepositions of space relations)
— Take the box with the colored beads, (con, senza, insieme
con).
Take the box without the colored beads.
Take the box together with the colored beads.
— Place the prism under the cylinder, (sotto a, sopra a).
Place the prism upon the cylinder.
77
78 MONTESSORI ELEMENTARY MATERIAL
— Lay the pen in front of the ink-well, (avanti a, dietro a,
a lato di).
Lay the pen behind the ink-well.
Lay the pen beside the ink-well.
— Put the green bead into the box. (in, dentro).
Put the green bead inside the box.
— Arrange a few beads between the red counters, (in mezzo
a, tra).
Arrange a few beads among the red counters.
— Set one chair opposite another chair, (dirimpetto a,
accanto a).
Set one chair next to another chair.
SEEIES B
(Space relations continued)
— Lay the counter inside the box. (dentro, fuori, di).
Lay the counter outside the box.
— Place a chair on this side of the door, (di la da, di qua da,
oltre).
Place a chair on that side of the door.
Place a chair beyond the door.
— Stand in front of the blackboard, (di fronte a, di fianco
a).
Stand to one side of the blackboard.
Stand to the other side of the blackboard.
— Arrange the chairs along the wall, (lungo, contro).
Arrange the chairs against the wall.
— Place the blue cone near the pink cube, (vincino a, ac-
costo a).
Place the blue cone against the pink cube.
SERIES C
(Possession, material, use, purpose)
[NOTE : — Such relationships are expressed in English pref-
erably by adjectives: cloth of cotton = cotton cloth; or by the
.SP
'C
0>
§
0>
o
a
a>
-»j
a
a>
to
a>
o>
•*->
o
CS 3
&0
C S3
o •—
M
(E •-'
I
O)
to
§
<c
u
X
o
-
CS
a
GRAMMAR 79
possessive inflection with -s: the drawing of George =George's
drawing. In Italian they are expressed by the prepositions
di, per, da, etc. : staff a, di cotone " cotton cloth," piattino di
vetro " glass saucer." For Signora Montessori's simple exer-
cise we suggest for English the following definitions (Tn.)].
- Cotton cloth is cloth of cotton.
Woollen cloth is cloth of wool.
Silk cloth is cloth of silk.
— The iron triangle is a triangle of iron.
The wooden triangle is a triangle of wood.
- The glass saucer is a saucer of glass.
The china saucer is a -saucer of china.
- A shoe-brush is a brush for shoes.
A clothes-brush is a brush for clothes.
— George's hat is the hat of George; George's hat belongs to
George.
Mary's hat is the hat of Mary ; Mary's hat belongs to Mary.
- A drinking-cup is a cup for drinking.
A copy-book is a book for copying.
SEKIES D
(Direction and source of motion)
— Turn from the right to the left. (da. ..a, a. ..da)
Turn from the left to the right.
— Draw a line from the bottom of the paper to the top.
Draw a line from the top of the paper to the bottom.
— Go from your seat to the cabinet.
Go from the cabinet to your seat.
— Change the pen from your right hand to your left hand.
Change the pen from your left hand to your right hand.
SO MONTESSORI ELEMENTARY MATERIAL
PERMUTATIONS
The child has built the first sentences on each of the
slips with his cards, and he has reproduced the others by
changing simply the preposition cards. In this way he
has seen how the position of objects relative to each other
is determined wholly and only by the use of the preposi-
tion. The preposition, therefore, determines the rela-
tion of words, the relation of a noun to some other word,
here to another noun or to a verb. In the phrase,
Set one chair opposite another chair,
if we take away the preposition, leaving,
Set one chair another cliair,
the relation that formerly existed between the words chair
and another chair is lost. The teacher must not forget
the rules for the position of the preposition. The preposi-
tion must always precede its object and no other word can
come between it and the word or words it controls.
Here are some examples of sentences in the above exer-
cises from which the preposition has been taken away by
the teacher:
Go from your seat the cabinet.
Place a chair the door.
Lay the counter the box.
Place the prism the cylinder.
The china saucer is made china.
To give the child an idea of the normal position of
prepositions a series of permutations may be made leav-
ing the preposition and its object in their normal posi-
tions. In this case some meaning is still left to the sen-
tence :
GRAMMAR 81
Stretch a string from the door to the window.
From the door to the window stretch a string.
Stretch from the door a string to the window.
From the door to the window a string stretch.
From the door stretch to the window a string.
But the child will recognize that the right sentence is
the simplest and the clearest:
Stretch a string from the door to the window.
On the other hand if we separate the preposition from
its object or invert their normal position, the meaning is
entirely lost :
Stretch a string the door from the window to.
Stretch a string from the door window to the.
String from the stretch door to the a window.
And likewise with these other sentences :
Run from the wash-stand to the table.
Run wash-stand table (definition of motion lacking).
Run wash-stand from the table to the.
From the run wash-stand to the table.
Wash-stand from the to the run table.
LESSONS AND COMMANDS ON PREPOSITIONS
The teacher may also take groups of children and give
them short lessons on the preposition to explain the mean-
ing, selecting if possible two or three synonyms or anto-
nyms each time. The lessons should always be practical
and full of action. The child should come to understand
in this case the relationship established by this or that
preposition between the object (noun) and the action
(verb) to be performed. As soon as this has been made
clear by the teacher the commands are distributed to the
children who put them into execution. Here is the ma-
terial that we use:
82 MONTESSOEI ELEMENTARY MATERIAL
Subject:
Of (di).
Command : —
— Go and get a boxful of counters. Go and get a glass of
water. Bring me a piece of cloth.
Subject :
near (to), next (to), beside, far away from (vicino, accosto,
lontano).
Command : —
— One of you boys stand in the middle of the room. Now you
others go and stand near him. One of you stand next to him
on the right, another beside him on the left. Now all go far
away from him.
Subject :
in, into, inside, out of (in, dentro, fuori).
Command : —
— Rise from your chairs and go into the next room. Stay in
that room a moment and then come back into this one. Go back
on tip-toe and lock yourselves inside the next room. Come out
of the next room into this one.
Subject :
On this side of, on that side of, beyond (di la da, di qua da,
oltre).
Command : —
— Leave your places and form a circle on that side of the
door; form a circle then on this side of the door. All of you go
and stand somewhere beyond the door.
Subject :
except, save (tranne, eccetto).
Command : —
— All the children, except George and Mary, walk on tip-toe
around the room.
— All the children, save George and Mary, walk on tip-toe
around the room.
GRAMMAR 83
Subject :
side by side with, opposite, in front of, along (di fianco, di
f route, avanti).
Command : —
— Form a line side by side with each other.
— Form a line along the wall opposite the door.
— Form two lines in front of the piano.
Subject :
before, behind (dirimpetto, dietro).
Command : —
— Two of you come and stand before me.
— The rest of you go and stand behind me.
Subject:
on, about, along (su, secondo, lungo).
Command : —
— Each of you place one counter on the table. Now arrange
the same counters along the far edge of the table. Now scatter
the same counters about the center of the table.
Subject:
between, among (fra, in mezzo a).
Command : -
- One of you go and stand between the door and the piano.
-Place ten white counters on the table. Now go and scatter
two or three red counters among the white ones.
Subject:
from, to, as far as (da, a, fino a).
Command : -
— Rise and walk from your places to the piano; wait a mo-
ment and then continue as far as the door of the next room.
Subject :
around, about (attorno, intorno).
Command : —
— Walk in couples, arm in arm, around the room twice; when
84 MONTESSORI ELEMENTARY MATERIAL
you reach the piano on the second round, form a circle about the
piano.
Subject :
toward, against (verso, contro).
Command : -
— Take your chairs and move them three steps toward the wall
in front of you. Next, arrange your chairs in a row with their
backs against the wall behind you.
Subject :
across, through (attraverso, per).
Command : —
— Eoll your handkerchiefs into balls and throw them across
the room.
- Pick them up as they lie and try to throw them through
the door into the hall.
Subject :
With, without (con, senza).
Command : -
— Walk around the room with your chairs in your hands.
— Walk around the room without your chairs.
Subject :
to, in order to, so as to (per).
Command : —
— Wash your hands in order not to soil the cloth. Then
close your eyes and feel this cloth so as to recognize it.
VIII
ADVERBS
ANALYSES
Again the exercise consists of sentences analyzed by
means of colored cards and commands. The grammar
box contains six compartments having, like the others, the
names of the different parts of speech on title cards of
proper color. The card for the adverb is pink. In the
rear compartment are six slips for each exercise, and in
the sections the usual number of corresponding colored
cards for the necessary words.
GROUP A
(Adverbs of Manner)
— Walk slowly to the window.
Walk rapidly to the window.
• Rise silently from your seat.
Rise noisily from your seat.
Speak softly into the ear of your nearest comrade.
Speak loudly into the ear of your nearest comrade.
Take five steps toward the door; turn abruptly to the left.
Take five steps toward the door; turn gradually to the left.
•Take your nearest comrade lightly by the arm.
Take your nearest comrade rouglily by the arm.
-Look smilingly into the mirror.
Look scowlingly into the mirror.
85
86 MONTESSOKI ELEMENTARY MATERIAL
GROUP B
(Adverbs of place and time)
— Place your pencil there.
Place your pencil here.
— Lay your book somewhere on the table.
Lay your book elsewhere on the table.
— Walk to the window constantly clapping your hands.
Walk to the window occasionally clapping your hands.
— Drink the water in the glass now.
Drink the water in the glass l>y and by.
— Carry the pink tower upstairs.
Carry the pink tower downstairs.
— Write a word on the blackboard immediately.
Write a word on the blackboard soon.
GROUP C
(Adverbs of quantity, comparison)
— Walk along the hall swinging your arms somewhat.
Walk along the hall swinging your arms a great deal.
— Bend your head a little.
Bend your head much.
— Walk slowly to the window.
Walk less slowly to the window.
Walk more slowly to the window.
— Place on the table your most beautiful drawing.
— Place on the table your beautiful drawing.
— Make a broad mark on the blackboard.
Make a very broad mark on the blackboard.
GROUP D
(Adverbs of comparison, correlative adverbs)
— Look for a piece of cloth softer than velvet.
— Look for a piece of cloth as soft as velvet.
GRAMMAR 87
— Find among your colors a shade as black as the blackboard.
— Find a piece of cloth not so shiny as satin.
— Find among the plane insets a rectangle as broad as half
the square.
- Bring a rod longer than your copy-book.
— Bring a rod as long as your copy-book.
— Bring a rod not so long as your copy-book.
— Find a piece of cloth less rough than the canvas.
PERMUTATIONS
The sentences to be analyzed are reproduced as usual
by building the first sentence on each slip ; and then, by
changing the adverb, the child gets the second or third
sentence. One of the first permutations is to remove the
adverb from those sentences where it performs the func-
tion of an adjective to the verb, thereby causing one action
to be changed into another. For example take the two
sentences :
Walk slowly to the window.
Walk rapidly to the window.
Taking away the adverb we have:
Walk to the window.
The child can perform the action which, now, is a sim-
ple one. The adverb, however, changes, modifies, the ac-
tion. If the teacher in play puts the two adverbs to-
gether in the same sentence the child has the problem of
interpreting two contrary movements. That is, he is to
go to the window slowly and rapidly at the same time.
Taking away the adverb cards the sentence left is Go to
the window. This action the child can perform. But
how shall he perform it, in what way? With the help
of adverbs ! Similarly in the following sentences :
88 MONTESSORI ELEMENTARY MATERIAL
Bend your head a little.
Bend your head much.
Written without the adverb they indicate one action.
What slight changes in the position of the head can be
brought about by these adverbs! It is the adverb which
really shows fine differentiations in movement !
In other sentences also where the adverb is, so to
speak, an adjective to an adjective and therefore really
affects the object (noun), similar permutations may be
made.
Make a broad mark on the blackboard.
Make a very broad mark on the blackboard.
Here by the use of an adverb two different objects (nouns)
are distinguished which, though they have the same qual-
ity (breadth) differ in degree (broad, very broad). Take,
for instance, two objects belonging to the same series:
Place on your table the prism which is most thick.
Place on your table the prism which is least thick.
If the adverbs are taken away the factor determining the
degree of quality (thickness) disappears and we have sen-
tences which are far less precise in their meaning:
Place on your table the prism which is thick.
As the teacher proceeds to make permutations in the dif-
ferent sentences she should remember (for Italian) that
the normal position of the adverb is after the verb (in
the compound tenses it comes between the auxiliary and
the participle).
(Note: In English the position of the adverb is much
freer than in Italian; it often stands at the end of the
sentence and even between subject and verb, — something
GRAMMAR 80
quite foreign to normal Italian usage. We retain the
text entire.)
In the sentences analyzed by the child it is sufficient
to recall that the adverb modifies the verb and follows the
verb it modifies. Take the sentence:
Bend your head a little as you write.
If the adverb is placed after the second verb the meaning
changes :
Bend your head as you write a little.
The same is true in the following:
Walk along the hall swinging your arms somewhat.
Walk somewhat along the hall swinging your arms.
General shifting of position would give results as fol-
lows :
Bend a little your head as you write.
A little bend your head as you write, etc., etc.
Somewhat walk along the hall swinging your arms.
Walk along somewhat the hall swinging your arms, etc., etc.
The child is quick to recognize by ear the accurate, the
normal position of the adverb.
On the other hand, adverbs of quantity and comparison
precede the adjective:
Make a very broad mark on the blackboard.
Place on your table the prism that is least thick.
Permutation gives the following results:
Make a broad very mark on the blackboard.
Place on your table the prism which thick least is, etc., etc.
Adverbs of time and place often ring like trumpet calls
to attention at the beginning of the sentence :
00 MONTESSORI ELEMENTARY MATERIAL
Drink the water in the glass now.
Now drink the water in the glass.
(Note: In English the adverb of time, placed at the
end of the sentence, gains quite as much emphasis. So for
adverbs of place.)
LESSONS AND COMMANDS ON ADVERBS
Subject :
straight, ziz-zag (diritto, a zig-zag).
Command : —
- Run straight into the other room ; return to your place
walking zig-zag.
Subject:
lightly, heavily, sedately (leggermente, gravemente, pesante-
mente).
Command : —
— Wane lightly into the other room; return to your place
walking sedately as though you were a very important person;
walk across the room and back again resting heavily on each
step as though it were hurting you to walk.
Subject :
suddenly, gradually (ad un tratto, gradatamente) .
Command : —
— Form in line and walk forward beginning suddenly to
stamp with your left foot. Return to your places letting the
stamping gradually cease.
Subject :
meanwhile, frequently, occasionally (sempre, spesso, rara-
mente) .
Command : —
— Form in line and march slowly into the next room, stop-
ping frequently. Return to your places stopping occasionally.
— Walk into the next room and back again, meanwhile keep-
ing your eyes closed.
GRAMMAR 91
Subject:
back, forward, to and fro (avanti, indietro, su e giu).
Command : —
— Form in line and walk forward to the other side of the
room; then come back to your places.
— Walk to and fro across the room with your heads lowered
and your hands behind your back.
Subject :
forwards, backwards.
Command : —
— Stand in the middle of the room; then walk backwards to
the window, being careful to walk in a straight line. Return to
your places walking forwards.
Subject:
slowly, abruptly (lentamente, bruscamente).
Command : -
— Rise slowly from your seats.
— Rise abruptly from your seats.
Subject :
politely, cordially (gentihnente, garbatamente).
Command : -
— Offer your chair politely to your nearest neighbor.
— Shake hands cordially with your nearest neighbor.
Subject :
alternately, in succession, simultaneously (successivamente,
alternativamente, simultaneamente) .
Command : —
— Raise your two hands alternately above your heads.
— Raise your two hands simultaneously above your heads.
— One of you children walk around the room bowing to each
pupil in succession.
Subject :
Well, badly, fairly, best, worst (bene, male, meglio, peggio,
cosi cosi, benino, maluccio, benissimo, malissimo).
92 MONTESSORI ELEMENTARY MATERIAL
Command : —
— One of you call the children to the end of the room, care-
fully observing how they walk; judge their carriage without
speaking and distribute the following cards where they belong:
well, badly, fairly, best, worst.
Subject :
away, back (via).
Command : —
— One of you stand in the center of the room ; the others
gather round him. Suddenly all of you run away from him.
Then come back to him again.
Subject :
here, there, somewhere, elsewhere (qui, qua, costi, costa, li, la,
altrove).
Command : —
— Form in line and the first four children come to me here;
the rest go and stand there by the window. Now go and stand
somewhere in the other room. Remain where you are a mo-
ment, then go and stand elsewhere. Finally all come back here
to me.
Subject :
thus, likewise (cosi).
Command : —
— One of you walk around the room holding his arms in a
certain position. The rest of you do likewise.
— All of you hold your hands thus, as I am doing.
Subject :
up, down, upward, downward.
Command : -
— Roll your handkerchiefs into balls and throw them up to
the ceiling.
- Pick them up and throw them down again to the floor.
-Look upward to the ceiling. Now look downward to the
floor.
GRAMMAK 93
Subject :
crosswise, lengthwise.
Command : —
— Lay two rods crosswise on the table. Then lay them length-
wise on the table.
Subject :
sharply, sullenly, gently, kindly.
Command : —
— Sharply order your nearest neighbor to rise from his seat.
— Ask him gently to sit down again.
— Sit sullenly in your chair with your eyes lowered.
— Smile kindly at your nearest neighbor.
A BURST OF ACTIVITY:
THE FUTURE OF THE WRITTEN LANGUAGE IN
POPULAH EDUCATION
In our own private experiments when we reached the
adverb there occurred among the children a veritable ex-
plosion into a a new kind of activity. They insisted on
making up commands themselves. They invented them
and then read them aloud to their companions or had
their companions interpret the slips which they had writ-
ten. All were most enthusiastic in performing these
commands and they were rigorously scrupulous in acting
them out down to the minutest detail. The executions
came to be a literal, intensely real dramatization: if a
word was inexact or incorrect, the interpretation of the
command threw the error into noisy relief, and the child
who had written it saw before him an action quite differ-
ent from what he had in mind. Then he realized that
he had expressed his thought wrongly or inadequately and
immediately set to work to correct his mistake. The reve-
lation seemed to redouble his energy. He would hunt
94 MONTESSORI ELEMENTARY MATERIAL
among his numerous words for the one necessary to trans-
late his idea into a living scene before his eyes. Sup-
pose a child had written the following sentence involving
the use of the adverb sempre " always " :
Walk about the room (sempre) always on tip-toe.
meaning that the child should all the while go on tip-
toe; if the child began to walk on tip-toe and continued
to do so for a long time, trying to express sempre (al-
ways-- forever) he would find himself facing a serious
problem. Hence the spontaneous query : " What must I
do to express myself correctly ? "
A little girl once wrote " Walk around the tables,"
meaning that the children should form a line and walk
in and out around each table. Instead she saw her com-
panions form a line and walk round the entire group of
tables. Red in the face and out of breath she kept call-
ing : " Stop, stop. That isn't the way," just as if this
difference between the thought she actually had in mind
and the way it was being executed were hurting her in-
tolerably.
This is only a passing suggestion of something which,
I think, will merit much further development later on,
after more thorough experiment. It will suffice, how-
ever, to bring to the teacher a notion of a most fertile
field for the development of the written language in its
most rigorous purity. It is evident that the experiment
shows the possibility not only of having spontaneous com-
positions without grammatical errors (just as the mechan-
ical writing was spontaneous and without errors), but of
developing a love for clearness and purity of speech which
will be a potent factor in improving the literary appre-
ciation of the masses, and popular culture generally.
GRAMMAR 95
When the children are seized with this passion for ac-
curate expression of their thoughts in writing, when,
spontaneously, clearness becomes the goal of their efforts,
they follow the hunt for words with the keenest enthusi-
asm. They feel that there are never too many words to
build with exactness the delicate edifice of thought.
Problems of language come to them as a revelation.
" How many words are there ? " they ask. " How many
nouns, how many verbs, how many adjectives? Is there
any way for us to learn them all ? ': They are no longer
content with their little copy-books of words. They ask
for a wealth of word material which they now enjoy with
all the delight of attractive and orderly interpretation.
They never get tired of it.
These developments in our work suggested to us the
idea of giving the children a large vocabulary compris-
ing a sufficient number of nouns, verbs, and adjectives and
containing all the words of the other parts of speech.
The difference in bulk between the real content of lan-
guage (substance and modification, that is, nouns with
their adjectives, and verbs with their adverbs) and the
other words which serve to establish relations and consoli-
date this content, is something very impressive to chil-
dren of eight. It is for them that we tried to prepare
our word charts and the dictionaries of synonyms for
nouns, verbs, and adjectives. Here, meanwhile, are some
of the commands which the children wrote themselves -
things which they improvised all of a sudden, by an ex-
plosion of energy, as it were, developed as the result of
inner maturity. Compare the aridity and uniformity of
the commands we invented ourselves with the variety and
richness of ideas appearing in the children's commands!
We very evidently show the weariness the preparation
96 MONTESSORI ELEMENTARY MATERIAL
of the material caused us. They, on the contrary, reveal
an ardent, vivacious spirit, a life full of exuberance.
COMMANDS IMPROVISED BY THE CHILDREN
- Build the pink tower very badly.
— Make accurately a pose for each of the pictures in the room.
- Pretend you were two old men : speak softly as if you were
very sad ; and one of you say this : " Too bad poor Pan-
crazio is dead ! " And the other say : " Shall we have to
wear our black clothes to-morrow ? " Then walk along
silently.
— Walk along limping heavily; then suddenly fall prostrate
on your faces as though you were exhausted. Return
tripping lightly to your places, without falling and with-
out limping.
— Walk slowly with lowered heads as though you were very
sad; return then joyfully and walking lightly.
— Take a flower and run eagerly and give it to the lady.
— Go half way round the room limping ; the rest of the way
on all fours.
— Silence immediately; silently act out poses for the pictures
in the room.
— Go from your seats to the door on all fours; then rise and
limp lightly half way round the room; do the other half
back to the door on all fours; there rise and run lightly
back to your seats.
— Walk silently into the next room; walk three times around
the big table and then return to your places.
— Go into the next room running quite fast; come back
gradually reducing speed until you reach your places.
— Go to the cabinet immediately; take a letter-chart, and
walk twice around the room with the chart on your head,
trying never to let it fall; go back to your places in the
same way.
— Walk around the large hall, walking wearily; sit down, as
though you were tired, and fall asleep ; wake up shortly
after and go back to your places.
— Form in line and march forward till you reach a clear
GRAMMAR 97
space; there form a circle; next a rhombus; then a
square; finally a trapezium. Go into the big hall con-
versing softly; suddenly fall to the floor lightly and go
to sleep ; then wake up and look around, saying, " Where
are we ? " Then go back to your seats.
IX
PRONOUNS
ANALYSES
Material : — The box has seven compartments marked
with the colored title slips; tan for the article, black for
the noun, brown for the adjective, red for the verb, vio-
let for the preposition, pink for the adverb, and green for
the pronoun. In the rear space are the slips for the sen-
tences to be analyzed. There are, as usual, fewer cards
than words. The exercise is to substitute the pronouns
for nouns.
GROUP A
(Personal Pronouns)
— George's sister was weeping. George soothed his sister with
a kiss.
George's sister was weeping. He soothed her with a kiss.
— The book fell to the floor. Emma replaced the book on
the table.
The book fell to the floor. She replaced it on the table.
— The children gave their mother a surprise. The children
wrote a letter to their mother.
The children gave their mother a surprise. They wrote
her a letter.
— The teacher said: The drawing is beautiful! Will you
give the drawing to the teacher?
Tbe teacher said : It is beautiful ! Will you give it to me?
98
GRAMMAK 99
— Charles has gone into the other room. Can you find
Charles ?
Charles has gone into the other room. Can you find him?
GROUP B
(Demonstratives (questo, cotesto, quello) " this, that,
these, those, this one, that one)
(As already noted for the adjective English lacks the
demonstrative of the second person: that near you.)
— Show a child the prisms of the brown stair; this prism is
thicker than that prism; that prism is thinner than these
prisms.
Show a child the prisms of the brown stair; tltis is thicker
than that; that is thinner than these.
— Let us look at the children: this child is taller than that
child; that child is shorter than this child.
Let us look at the children : this one is taller than that one;
that one is shorter than this one.
— Here is a cone on top of a cylinder : try to put the cylinder
on top of the cone.
Here is a cone on top of a cylinder : try to put this on top
of that.
— Let us show the cubes of the pink tower to a little girl :
this cube is the largest; those cubes are the smallest of
the series.
Let us show the cubes of the pink tower to a little girl:
this one is the largest; those are the smallest of the series.
GROUP C
(Relatives and Interrogatives : (che, il quale, cui, chi ?
quale?) who, whom, whose, which, that, who? whose?
whom? what? which? where, wrhen?)
Note: The situation with the relatives is different in English:
who refers to persons; which to things; that to either persons or
things; whereas che and il quale are interchangeable referring to both
100 MONTESSORI ELEMENTARY MATERIAL
persons and things, il quale having special rhetorical advantages over
che, in addition to showing gender and number. Cui is used after
prepositions; and, for the possessive Italian has il cui, la cui, etc.,
" whose."
— Ask the children: Which child wants to see my drawing?
Ask the children: Who wants to see my drawing?
— Ask Charles for the pencil ; Charles put the pencil into the
drawer.
Ask Charles for the pencil which Charles put into the
drawer.
Ask Charles for the pencil that he put into the drawer.
— Thank Charles. Charles gave you the pencil.
Thank Charles who gave you the pencil.
— Look at the children. You hear the children in the next
room.
Look at the children whom you hear in the next room.
— Yesterday you put the flowers into a vase : change the water
in the vase.
Change the water in the vase into which you put the flowers
yesterday.
Change the water in the vase where you put the flowers yes-
terday.
Change the water in the vase that you put the flowers into
yesterday.
— Choose among the pieces of cloth the cloth most like your
dress.
Choose among the pieces of cloth the one which is most like
your dress.
Choose among the pieces of cloth the one that is most like
your dress.
— Here is the little girl. We found her pocketbook.
Here is the little girl whose pocketbook we found.
— Here is the boy. We saw him yesterday.
Here is the boy whom we saw yesterday.
GRAMMAR 101
- Select an inset from the insets used for drawing.
Select an inset from those which are used for drawing.
Select an inset from those that are used for drawing.
GROUP D
(Possessives: mine, yours, his, hers, ours, yours, theirs)
— This book is my book — That house is our house
This book is mine That house is ours
— This book is your book — This money is your money
Tliis book is yours This money is yours
— Those pencils are his pencils — Those seats are their seats
Those pencils are his Those seats are theirs
— Those pencils are her pencils — This place is its place
Those pencils are hers This place is its
PERMUTATIONS
The function of the pronoun as a substitute for a noun
has been made clear in the analysis of the above sentences.
After the children themselves have composed the first sen-
tence with the colored cards they form the second sen-
ten^e by taking away the noun card and substituting the
coricjsponding pronoun. In the work done by the teacher
to give the child an idea of the normal position of the
pronoun, let her remember that in Italian personal pro-
nouns precede the verb except in interrogation (where
the subject may follow) and in cases where the subject
is specially emphasized and where the pronouns appear
as a suffix (infinitive, participle and imperative).
He soothed her with a kiss.
He her soothed with a kiss, etc., etc.
[It will become apparent that in English the personal
pronoun takes the position of the noun, whereas for Ital-
ian the pronoun shifts to a position in front of the verb.
102 MONTESSORI ELEMENTARY MATERIAL
Considerable variety develops in English when the noun
is replaced by a relative pronoun. However, the different
problems arising in connection with pronouns generally
are so complex that we return to this subject, especially
to the question of subject and object forms, in dealing
with sentence-analysis later.]
LESSONS AND COMMANDS ON THE PKONOUN
Subject :
Subjective Personal Pronouns : I, you, he, she, we, you, they
(io, tu, egli, essa, noi, voi, loro, etc.).
Explain these pronouns as briefly and practically as
possible from the point of view of speaker and listener,
etc., one child commanding the others while they execute
the command along with him. Example: The teacher,
named for instance Anna Fedeli, explains in this way:
" I don't say Anna Fedeli; I say I." " To Carlino here
I don't say Carlino ; I say, you." " Of Gigino, over there,
I don't say Gigino; I say he," etc., etc.
Command : —
The command is given by a child ; but he himself executes the
first personal form along with the other children :
— 1 walk around the table — 7 raise my arms
— You walk around the table — You raise your arms
— She walks around the table — She raises her arms
— He walks around the table — He raises his arms
— We walk around the table — We raise our arms
— You walk around the table — You raise your arms
— They walk around the table — They raise their arms
— / lift the chair — / take the ink-stand
— You lift the chair — You take the ink-stand
— He lifts the chair, etc., etc. — He takes the ink-stand, etc.,
etc.
— 7 wave my handkerchief
— You wave your handkerchief,
etc., etc.
GRAMMAR 103
From these exercises the notion gradually develops
that:
the first person is the one who speaks;
the second person is the one who listens;
the third person is the one spoken of.
Other commands may be dramatized by small groups as
follows :
- The first person must put a question the second must an-
swer, and the third from a distance must try to hear both of
them.
- Let the first one write, the second one watch, and the third
one say " That is not right."
The following commands may be read aloud by the
child:
-7 ask you a question very softly. You answer me; and he,
over there, must try to hear both of us.
— / shall write; you must act as if you were trying to read
what I am writing; and then he, over there, will call out: " That
is not right."
Subject :
Direct Objective Personal Pronouns : me, you, him, her, us,
you, them (mi, ti, si, lo, la, ci, vi, si, li, le).
Keflexives and reciprocals: myself, yourself, etc., each other.
Command : —
(Here too one child commands executing the first personal
forms, while the others act out the second and third) :
— I touch the oil-cloth on the table ; I touch myself; I touch
you; you touch yourself; I touch him; you touch her; let us
touch each other; you touch me.
— Charles, take the whisk-broom and brush the table ; Charles,
brush me; Charles, brush him; Charles, brush her; Charles,
brush yourself.
— Mary and I bow to the teacher ; now we bow to you; now
we bow to him; now we bow to her; now we bow to each other.
104 MONTESSORI ELEMENTARY MATERIAL
— I lead George by the hand to the window; I lead you by the
hand to the window; I lead him by the hand to the window; he
leads us by the hand to the window ; we lead her by the hand to
the window.
Subject:
Indirect object personal pronouns : me, te, se, mi, ti, si, le,
gli, lui, lei, noi, voi, ci, vi, loro (the disjunctive pronouns, used
after prepositions, etc., do not differ in English from the sim-
ple direct object forms).
(The commands are still executed as above) :
Commands : —
— I am going to distribute these pencils: one to you, one to
him, one to her; one to myself.
— Louis, give me a command; give him a command; give her
a command; give yourself a command.
— Attention ! Charles, give her a blue bead ! Mary, give him
a red bead!
— Alfred, give a white bead to me; give me also a yellow bead !
Subject :
Demonstratives for persons (questi, costui, colui; the second
person, " that one near you," is lacking in English, which also
fails to distinguish between persons and things and between
genders).
When the distinctions in space represented by these pro-
nouns have been taught as above the children read and
execute as follows:
Commands : —
Distribute the pronouns to different children in the class;
questi, " this one (near me)," costei (feminine) ; costui, " that
one (near you)," costei (fern.); colui, "that one (over there),"
colei (fern.) ; when the children are in their proper places, give
to each child a different command.
— Call to you a boy and a girl, and then command : that one
(costui) go and get a case; that one (costei) go and get a
counter; those (costoro) keep far away and preserve complete
silence.
GRAMMAR 105
— Point to two children, one standing near you and one far
away; then command: that one (colui) go and fetch an arm-
chair for that one (fern, costei) and a chair for this one
(questo) ; then have him return to his place. Then have all the
children execute the commands which those (costoro) will now
give.
In case the class is made up either entirely of girls or
entirely of boys, the children find considerable amusement
in trying to imitate the manners of whichever opposite
sex is missing.
Subject :
Demonstratives of things (questo, cotesto, quello, cio, ne;
here also English has no pronoun of the second person (that
near you), nor does it possess the general indefinite do (refer-
ring to a general idea: that (cio) is true).
When the meaning of these words, in terms of space location,
has been taught, the children execute as follows :
Commands : -
— You children divide into three groups; then go and occupy
three different places ; change places as follows : you leave that
(cotesto) and occupy that over there; the others leave that
(quello) and occupy this (questo).
Subject :
Possessives: mine, yours (thine), his, hers, its, ours, yours,
theirs.
Commands : —
— Point out various objects, saying: This is my slate; that
one is yours, that is hers, and this one is his.
— Point at the different seats, saying: Here are our places,
that is mine and this is yours. Those over there are theirs.
— Pass around little baskets, saying : This is my basket.
Whose is that? Is that yours? Is this hers? Are these ours?
Is this one his?
We dealt with the relatives only incidentally in the
analyses (Group C above) ; we do not treat them here,
106 MONTESSORI ELEMENTARY MATERIAL
postponing the study of them in detail to the chapter on
sentence-analysis.
PARADYMS
In teaching the declension of the pronouns we use the
method employed by us in teaching all inflections : bundles
of cards, of which one group is tied separately and serves
as a guide. The child arranges the cards on the table,
working first on the guiding group and putting the pro-
nouns in order of persons : first, second, third.
I
you, thou
he
she
it
me
you, thee
him
her
it
GROUP A
(Personal Pronouns)
Masculine
we
io
noi
you
tu
voi
they
egli
loro
they
esso
essi
they
lo
li
us
lui
you
gli
them
them
them
this
that
this one
that one
GROUP B
(Demonstratives of Person)
Masculine
these questi
those costui
these colui
those costoro
coloro
Feminine
io noi
tu voi
ella loro
essa esse
la le
lei
le
Feminine
costei
costei
colei
costoro
coloro
GRAMMAR
107
GliOUP C
(Demonstratives of Things)
Masculine Feminine
this
that
this one
that one
these
those
these
those
questo quest! questa queste
cotesto cotesti cotesta coteste
quel(lo) quegli, quei quella quelle
cio cio
ne ne
GROUP D
Persons
who
whose
whom
that
Things
which
that
what (compound = that which)
(Relatives)
Persons and Things
Masculine Feminine
il quale i quali la quale le quali
che che
chi chi
cui
cui
chi (compound =" he who ")
GEOUP E
(Possessives)
mine
yours (thine)
his
hers
Persons
who?
whose ?
whom?
its
ours
yours
theirs
GROUP F
(Interrogatives)
Persons
chi?
quale ?
which ?
108 MONTESSORI ELEMENTAKY MATEKIAL
Things Tilings
what?
which ?
che?
cosa?
che cosa?
quale ?
AGREEMENT OF PRONOUN AND VERB
The cards given to the child for this work are green for
the personal pronoun subjects, and red for the verb forms
of the three simple tenses, present, past, and future.
There are, for Italian, three groups corresponding to the
three conjugations: amarc, iemere, sentire. The child's
work is to place the pronouns in the proper order of person
(first, second, third, singular and plural) and to put after
each pronoun the corresponding verb form. Each child
corrects his work by his own sense of the language ; how-
ever, the teacher looks it over to verify it. The result-
ing exercises when correctly performed are as follows:
io amo (" I love "
etc.)
tu ami
egli ama
noi amiamo
voi amate
essi amano
io temo ("I fear")
tu temi
egli teme
noi temiamo
voi temete
essi temono
GROUP A
I was
Io amavo (
loving")
tu amavi
egli amava
noi amavamo
voi amavate
essi amavano
GROUP B
io temevo ( " I was
fearing ")
tu temevi
egli temeva
noi temevamo
voi temevate
essi temevano
io amero (" I shall
love")
tu amerai
egli amerst
noi ameremo
voi amerete
essi ameranno
io temerS ( " I shall
fear")
tu temerai
egli temerit
noi temeremo
voi temerete
essi temeranno
GRAMMAR
109
io sento (" I hear ")
tu senti
egli sente
noi sentiamo
voi sentite
essi sentono
I love
you lovo
he loves
we love
you love
they love
I am loving
you are loving
he is loving
we are loving
you are loving
they are loving
do I love ?
do you love ?
does he love?
do we love?
do you love?
do they love?
GROUP C
io sentivo ( " I was
hearing ")
tu sontivi
egli sentiva
noi sentivamo
voi sentivate
essi sentivano
FOR ENGLISH
GROUP A
(Simple Tenses)
I loved
you loved
he loved
we loved
you loved
they loved
GROUP B
(Progressive Forms)
I was loving
you were loving
he was loving
we were loving
you were loving
they were loving
GROUP C
io sentiro ("I shall
hear")
tu sentirai
egli sentiril
noi sentiremo
voi sentirete
essi sentiranno
I shall love
you will love
he will love
we shall love
you will love
they will love
I shall be loving
you will be loving
he will be loving
we shall be loving
you will be loving
they will be loving
(Interrogative Forms)
I love?
you love ?
did
did
did he love?
did we love ?
did you love?
did they love?
will I love?
shall you love?
will he love?
will we love?
shall you love?
will they love?
GROUP D
(Intensive and Negative Forms)
I do (not) love, I did (not) love I shall (not) love
etc.
etc.
etc.
110 MONTESSORI ELEMENTARY MATERIAL
The child can shuffle his cards in various ways, mixing
the verb forms of the three different Italian verbs, or the
four tense forms of the English verb; passing then to a
reconstruction of the different tenses according to the pro-
nouns, the order of which has by this time become familiar
to him.
The next step is to conjugate properly.
CONJUGATIONS OF VERBS
MATERIAL
In our material we offer (for Italian) the conjugation
of the two auxiliary verbs (essere "to be," avere "to
have ") and the model verbs of the first, second and third
conjugations. The colors used for the five verbs are all
different, yellow for essere " to be," black for avere " to
have," pink for amare " to love," green for temere " to
fear," light blue for sentire " to hear." Each card has
both pronoun and verb form. This is not only to simplify
and expedite the exercise but also to make sure of auto-
exercise, since the pronoun guides the order of the forms
in each tense. These verb forms of a given verb pre-
ceded by the pronouns are, accordingly, made into a little
package. Here, however, the groups are not so simple
as in other cases. For the verb, the cards are kept in a
sort of red envelope tied with a ribbon. The infinitive
of the verb is written on the outside of the envelope,
which, though very simple, is most attractive. When the
whole verb is wrapped in its package and tied with the
ribbon, it forms a small red prism of the following dimen-
sions: cmm. 35 X 4 X 5.5. On untying the ribbon and
opening the envelope the child finds inside ten little " vol-
umes " with red covers. These volumes represent the
GRAMMAR 111
moods of the verb and they have the following titles in-
scribed on the first page :
Indicative Mood
Conditional Mood (for Italian)
Subjunctive Mood
Imperative Mood
Verbals
To facilitate replacing these materials in an orderly way
and to be sure that this order is recognized, the child finds
in the corner of each envelope a Roman numeral (I, II,
III, IV, V) ; and besides that, an Arabic numeral indi-
cating the number of tenses in the given mood. On open-
ing the little volume and taking off the cover we find
many other tiny volumes with red covers. These are the
tenses. In the middle of each cover is written the name
and, to one side, the number indicating the relative posi-
tion of the tenses in the following manner : the simple tense
is marked with the letter 8 and the compound tense with
the letter (7. The titles, then, of the eight booklets con-
tained in the little volume for a given mood are :
Present Tense Is
Past Tense 2s
Future Tense 3s
Perfect Tense Ic
Pluperfect Tense 2c
Future Perfect Tense 3c
(For Italian the tenses are: Present, Is, Imperfect 2s,
Remote Past 3s, Future 4s, Perfect Ic, Pluperfect 2c,
Past Anterior 3c, Future Perfect 4c.)
Finally, on opening each of these little booklets (which,
by the way, are 3.5 X 4 cmm. and only a bare millimeter
thick) we have the cards with the verb forms preceded by
the corresponding pronoun.
112 MONTESSORI ELEMENTARY MATERIAL
This rather resembles the famous egg in which a number
of smaller and smaller eggs were enclosed. For this beau-
tiful package forming as a whole the entire conjugation of
the verb contains the booklets of the different moods, which
in their turn contain the smaller booklets of the tenses.
The orderly enumeration of the moods and tenses, together
with the pronouns which serve to show the order of the
verb forms, allows the child to conjugate the entire verb
by himself and to study the classification of the different
forms that make it up. In fact the children need no help
in this exercise. Once they have this attractive, compli-
cated, and mysterious little red package, they evolve on
their little tables in an orderly way the entire conjugation
of the verb. Having learned the verb forms little by lit-
tle they shuffle the cards of the different tenses in various
ways and then try to put them in their regular order.
At length they are able to shuffle all the cards in the en-
tire verb as the children in the " Children's House " did
with the sixty-four colors ; and to reconstruct correctly the
whole conjugation by tense and by mood. They them-
selves finally ask to write the verb and they prepare of their
own accord new booklets writing out the new verbs as
they meet them.
For this purpose we have included in our materials
many booklets likewise covered in red and filled with blank
cards of a variety of colors. The children themselves fill
out these cards in conjugating their new verbs.
The exercises both of working out the conjugation of
the verb and of writing out new verbs may be performed
at home.
CONJUNCTIONS
ANALYSES
Material: This box has eight compartments for the
title cards, which are tan (article), black (noun), brown
(adjective), red (verb), violet (preposition), pink (ad-
verb, green (pronoun), and yellow (conjunction}. It
also has the usual place for the sentences that are to be
analyzed. These again are given in groups.
GEOUP A
Coordinate Conjunctions
(Copulative, Disjunctive, Illative, Adversative)
— Put away the pen and the ink-stand.
Put away the pen or the ink-stand.
Put away neither the pen nor the ink-stand, but the paper.
— The table, therefore, is bare and in order.
For all your things are in their places.
— Do not leave the objects you use here and there about the
room, but put them all back in their places.
— Speak to your nearest school-mate not aloud but in a
whisper.
— Move your table forward a little, but only a little and
without making any noise.
113
114 MONTESSORI ELEMENTARY MATERIAL
GEOUP B
Subordinate Conjunctions
(Time, condition, cause, purpose)
— You can push down a key of the piano without making any
sound if you push it down slowly.
— You could write with your left hand if you " touched " the
letters with that hand.
— You will get silence from the children as soon as you write
" silence " on the blackboard.
— That child is happy: he always sings while he works.
— • Always shut the door when you go from one room to
another.
— Everybody must be orderly in order that the "Children's
House " may look neat.
GEOUP C
Subordinate conjunctions, continued
(Cause, concession, alternative)
— The " Children's House " is attractive because it is pretty
and because it is so easy to keep busy all the time.
— I shall give it to you since you have asked me for it very
politely.
— We shall go to walk in the park rather than in the crowded
streets.
— I shall give yon that toy although I should have preferred
to let you have a beautiful book.
— You may promise to go and visit him to-morrow provided
you keep your promise.
u
Oi
O)
o
00
.S
'S
C
33
.SP
'3
<D
C-,
60
00
V
O
a!
S
3
a
o
o
•s
a
o
0>
-u
~ "^
S (0
C O
.2 -
^* ~>v
01 «
^ s
(Si
O
CO
-^
O
<u
5
0)
u
H
GKAMMAR 115
PERMUTATIONS
The removal of the conjunction destroys the relationship
between the words, and this brings out its function in the
sentence :
Put away the pen and the ink-stand.
Put away the pen the ink-stand.
Put away the pen or the ink-stand.
Put away the pen the ink-stand.
You could write with your left hand if you touched the
letters with that hand.
You could write with your left hand you touched the let-
ters with that hand.
The conjunction must be placed between the words it
connects : otherwise the meaning is changed or destroyed :
Put away the pen and the ink-stand.
Put and away the pen the ink-stand.
The " Children's House " is attractive because it is pretty.
The " Children's House " is attractive it is pretty.
LESSONS AND COMMANDS ox THE CONJUNCTIONS
Subject :
Coordinate conjunctions: and, or, neither, nor (e, o, ne).
Commands : -
— Come to " silence " where you are and move only at my call.
— Come to " silence " where you are or else move silently
among the chairs.
— Walk on tip-toe about the room, being careful neither to
meet nor to follow one another.
Subject:
Declarative: that (che).
Command : -
— Tell two of your schoolmates that you know a conjunction.
116 MONTESSOKI ELEMENTARY MATERIAL
Subject :
Adversatives : but, however, instead (ma, invece).
Command : —
— Form two lines ; now one line face about turning from left
to right; the other line, instead, tarn in the opposite direction.
— Form in one long line and advance; when you reach the
end of the room, do not stop, but turn to the left.
Subject :
Condition : if (se).
Command : —
— You will be able to hear this drop of water fall, if you re-
main for a moment in absolute silence.
Subject :
Time: while, when, as soon as (mentre, quando, appena).
Command : -
— A few of you walk about among the tables ; then stop in the
center of the room, while the others gather round you and try to
cover your eyes with their hands.
— One of you start to leave the room. When you are about
to cross the threshold, the others will block the way compelling
you to stop.
— All of you ready! As soon as I say "Go!" run to the
other end of the room.
Subject :
Purpose: so that, in order that (affinche, perche).
Command : -
— One of you stand in the middle of the room ; the others try
to pass near him quickly so that he cannot touch you.
— I am going to whisper a command : listen in perfect silence
in order that you may hear what I command.
Subject :
Alternative: rather than (piuttostoche, anziche).
GRAMMAR 117
Command : —
— Those children who would rather work than go out of doors
rise from their places.
Subject :
Cause: because, since (perche, poiche).
Command : —
— Before beginning to work let us become entirely quiet,
because then we can think about what we are going to do.
Subject :
Exception: except, save (fuorche, salvoche).
Command : -
— Get the counters and place one on every table in the room
except on this one. Gather up all the counters save the red
ones. Return all the counters to their box.
COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES
SERIES A
— Of these two long rods, this one is the longer.
Of these three rods, which is the longest?
— This rod is longer than that.
That rod is the longest of the three.
Which is the longest of the series?
— This cloth is smoother than that.
This cloth is smoothest of all.
— Of these two shades of red which is the darker?
Of all these shades of red which is the darkest?
— Of these two prisms which is the thicker?
This prism is thicker than that.
Of these three prisms, which is thickest?
— Which of these two children is the taller?
Which is the tallest child in the room?
118 MONTESSORI ELEMENTARY MATERIAL
SERIES B
— Which of these two pictures is the more beautiful?
This picture is more beautiful than that.
— Which of these three pictures is most beautiful?
Which is the most beautiful picture in. the room?
— Which of these two games is the more amusing?
This game is more amusing than that.
This game is most amusing of all.
— This drawing is good.
That drawing is better.
That drawing is best.
— There are some beads on this table.
There are more beads on that table.
There are most beads on that table.
— There is a little water in this glass.
There is less water in that glass.
There is least water in that glass.
— Of these two children John is the elder.
Of these three children Mary is the eldest.
Mary is older than John.
John is older than Laura.
A set of exercises may be arranged to bring out the
paradymns of comparison by means of suffixes (-er, est)
and of adverbs (more, most). Here the series of cards
for the positive adjectival forms are, as usual, brown, the
phonograms for -er and -est in lighter and darker shades
of brown respectively* The cards for more and most as
adverbs are colored pink. When properly arranged, the
cards appear as follows :
long tall thick smooth
long er tall er thick er smooth er
long est tall est thick est smooth est
GRAMMAR
119
short
short er
short est
dark
dark er
dark est
beautiful
more beautiful more
most beautiful most
light
light er
light est
amusing
amusing
amusing
rough
rough er
rough est
interesting
more interesting
most interesting
A second exercise contains cards for each of the forms
for these same words. There are three colors: brown,
light brown and dark brown (superlative). There are in
addition similar cards for the adjectives of irregular com-
parisons, and three title cards: Positive, Comparative,
Superlative. The exercise results as follows:
Positive
long
tall
thick
smooth
short
dark
light
rough
beautiful
amusing
interesting
old
many
good
had
little
Comparative
longer
taller
thicker
smoother
shorter
darker
lighter
rougher
more beautiful
more amusing
more interesting
elder
more
better
worse
less
Superlative
longest
tallest
thickest
smoothest
shortest
darkest
lightest
roughest
most beautiful
most amusing
most interesting
eldest
most
best
worst
least
XI
INTERJECTIONS
Since this is the last part of speech to be studied the
children are now able to recognize all the different parts
of speech and it is no longer necessary to make sentences
containing only parts of speech which the children know.
Therefore in our Italian lessons we choose henceforth
sentences from the classic authors (mostly from Manzoni).
Since the interjection is really a thought expressed in an
abbreviated form it lends itself readily to dramatic inter-
pretation. With the same sentence the children accord-
ingly can now perform the two-fold exercise of general an-
alysis and " interpretative reading." They now recite
sentences which they have picked out and studied instead
of the commands. At this time also they are given a chart
containing the complete classification of interjections.
The children read them, interpreting each as they go along
by voice and gesture. This is the first table of classifica-
tion to be presented. Later on all the parts of speech will
be given on charts with their definitions and classification.
ANALYSES
Material : The grammar box is complete. It now has
nine separate compartments for the colored cards, article
(tan), noun (black), adjective (brown), verb (red), prep-
osition (violet), adverb (pink), pronoun (green), con-
junction (yellow), and interjection (blue}. In the com-
120
GRAMMAR 121
partment for the sentence slips are groups of cards which
correspond exactly to the number of the words contained
in the sentences.
GROUP A
(Per amor del cielo! oibo! addio! ehm! misericordia ! ah!)
Please! Don't make so much noise!
Shame on you! exclaimed Henry, much shocked at those words.
Good-by! We shall see you to-morrow.
Look out! If you drop that vase, you will break it.
Mercy on us! What is the matter with the poor man?
Aha! now I understand!
GROUP B
(Eh via! bravo! bene! ehi! poh! per carita! oh!)
Come, come! Do you think I am going to believe all that non-
sense ?
Goodness! I hope the child is not going to fall.
Thanks! It was kind of you to help me put my objects away.
Cockadoodledoo! sang the rooster in the yard!
Ding-dong, ding-dong! The engines were passing by. There
was a fire !
Cheer up! There is no harm done!
GROUP C
(Ohe! ih! toh! poveretto ! ahi! ohi! eh! animo ! uh! ton!)
Farewell! The ship gradually drew away from the shore! The
houses faded from view one by one. The hills formed a
low line on the horizon. Farewell! It would be months,
years perhaps, before George would see the old familiar
town again. Farewell!
Help! Help! came a voice through the fog! A man was
drowning.
Hush! Do you hear that bird singing in the distance?
Alas! It was too late! When the doctor came, the poor man
was dead !
122 MONTESSOKI ELEMENTAKY MATEKIAL
Hurrah! Hurrah! The soldiers were now almost at the top of
the hill. Hurrah! hurrah! The red-white-and-blue was
waving at last where the enemy had held out so long!
Bang! In the still night the sound of a gun roused the sleep-
ing inhabitants.
CHAET OF CLASSIFIED INTERJECTIONS,
(For interpretative reading)
ITALIAN INTERJECTIONS:
Pain : ahi ! ohi ! oihme ! ahime ! ah ! oh ! poveretto !
Prayer: deh! merce! aiuto! per carita! per amor di Dio!
Surprise, wonder : Oh ! ih ! nientedimeno ! poh ! toh ! eh ! corbez-
zoli ! bazzecole ! caspita ! cospetto ! uh ! oooh ! misericordia !
diavolo ! bubbole !
Threat : ehm ! guai !
Disgust, horror: puh! puah! brr!
Anger: oibo ! vergogna!
Doubt: uhm!
Weariness: auf! auff!
Calls, silence: ehi ! ohe! ola! alto la! pss! st! psst!
Demonstratives : ecco ! riecco ! eccoini ! eccoci !
Encouragement: orsu! via! suvvia! animo! coraggio! arri la!
hop hop !
Greeting : salve ! vale ! addio ! arrivederci ! ave ! ciao !
Applause: bene! bravo! viva! evviva ! gloria! osanna! alleluja!
Onomatapoetic: crac! patatrac! piff paff! din don! ton ton!
zum zuni ! bum bum !
Animal sounds: gnau! chicchirichi ! coccode! era era era!
ue ue ue ! glu glu glu ! pi pi pi ! cri cri ! fron fron ! bu bu !
Curses : accidenti ! accidempoli ! perbacco ! canchero ! malanag-
gia!
ENGLISH INTERJECTIONS :
Pain : oh ! alas ! ah ! ouch ! my !
Joy: oh! ah! oh my! good! splendid!
Surprise : ha ! aha ! oh ! really ! you don't say ! indeed ! well, well !
upon my word !
Contempt; fudge! pshaw! fie! nonsense! bother!
GRAMMAR 123
Hesitation : hum !
Resolution: by Jove!
Silence : hush ! hist ! listen ! shh !
To animals: whoa! gee! haw! geddap! kitty-kitty! puss-puss!
Onomatapoetic : ding-dong! bang! whiz! bing! crack! snap!
etc., etc.
(In general the use of interjections, especially of ca-
pricious character, is much more characteristic of the best
Italian writing and speech than it is of English.)
XII
SENTENCE ANALYSIS
i
SIMPLE SENTENCES
The material for logical analysis consists of little rolls
of fairly stiff paper, on which are printed simple, com-
pound and complex sentences, in carefully prepared series.
There is also a chart, divided into two columns of rec-
tangular spaces, with the name of one sentence element
printed in each space. The sentence read on the roll can
be torn off part by part, and each of these parts is placed
in one of the rectangles, according to the name printed on
it. This is another application of the compartment box
method used to analyze first the alphabet, then the sounds
which go to make up the word, finally the words as parts
of speech. Here, the compartments are reduced to a sim-
ple design.
The charts for logical analysis are on colored paper and
are artistically drawn and decorated. We have charts of
four different kinds as regards ornament and color, for
such details exert a considerable influence upon the work
of the children. On the following page is a sample of the
charts with its " sections."
The two spaces at the top, subject and predicate, are
somewhat larger and are more conspicuously decorated than
the other rectangles below. The words subject and
verb are printed entirely in large capitals. The other
124
GRAMMAR
CHAKT A
125
VERB
(The verbal or nominal
predicate.)
Who is it that?
What is it that?
SUBJECT
Who? What?
(Direct object.)
To whom ? To what ?
(Indirect object.)
By Whom ? By What ?
(Agent.)
Of whom? Of what?
(Possessive, material.)
When?
(Time.)
Where ?
(Place.)
Whence ?
(Source.)
How?
(Manner.)
2
Why?
(Cause.)
What for ?
(Purpose.)
By means of whom ?
By means of what ?
(Instrument.)
With whom ?
With what ?
(Accompaniment.)
(Attributive (phrases).)
(Vocative.)
126 MONTESSORI ELEMENTARY MATERIAL
spaces, however, are much more simply decorated and the
words are in small letters. This helps to distinguish the
principal from the secondary elements in the sentences.
The names of the parts of speech, and the questions which
bring out the meaning of these names, are in different
colors: for instance, the names may be black and the
questions red, or the names may be in red and the ques-
tions in green. And the letters of the questions are larger
than the letters of the names, except in the two upper
spaces, where the words subject and verb are in the largest
type.
The child begins to see what a sentence is: that is, he
begins to concentrate on this particular question. How
many times he has read sentences, pronounced sentences,
composed sentences! But now he is examining them in
detail, studying them. The simple sentence is a short
proposition, with completed meaning, which expresses an
action or a situation, organizing its different parts around
a verb.
The first exercise for the child must be to find the verb, a
task not very difficult after the preceding exercises on the
parts of speech have been performed. When he has found
the verb, it becomes essential for him to find the subject.
The subject may be found by asking the question : Who
is it that - - ? For example :
The child reads.
The word reads is the verb. The section of the roll
where the word reads appears is torn off and placed in the
space marked Verb. Then ask : " Who is it that reads ? "
The answer is, " The child reads." The section contain-
ing the word the child is torn off and placed in the space
marked Subject.
GRAMMAR 127
Another sentence : on the roll the child finds written :
The ylass is broken.
The teacher can briefly explain that the verb taken by
itself, has no special meaning. Is means nothing! :c Is?
Is what? '" Some attribute must be added: "Is
broken!' Here we get a nominal predicate. When the
verb contains some definite meaning in terms of action,
for instance reads, we get a verbal predicate. The sec-
tion of the roll containing is broken is torn off, accord-
ingly, and placed in the space of the verb. But what is
broken? Tlie glass! The section containing the words
the glass is placed in the space of the subject. All of this
can be copied off by the child by hand, as follows:
Simple sentence: The child reads.
The child : Subject.
Reads: Predicate (verbal).
SERIES I
(Simple Sentences)
The first roll contains the following simple sentences
without modifiers of any kind:
— The child reads.
— The glass is broken.
— Charles is tall.
— The trees are blossoming.
— The blackboard is clean.
— Who has come?
— The pencil is broken.
— The sky is blue.
— I am reading.
— I am studying.
— The children are playing.
— Time flies.
— The teacher sings.
128 MONTESSORI ELEMENTARY MATERIAL
SERIES II
(Simple Sentences, containing a few modifiers)
The roll contains the following sentences, written one
after another:
— The mother loves her child dearly.
— Johnny brought his teacher a rose.
— You may keep the book for some days, Louis.
— Mary, give the poor man a penny.
— Where have you been, Mary?
— I will do it, mother.
— Little Harry, only three years old, has cleaned the whole
blackboard.
— Who drew the pretty picture?
— Last night I showed the letter to father.
— In the yard a red white and blue flag is waving.
— Did you go to the theater last night ?
— The rain was beating against the window panes.
— The dog is barking at the cat.
— The poor deaf-mutes talk with their hands.
Example of application : The section containing the
first sentence,
The mother loves her child dearly
is first torn off from the roll. Then the section contain-
ing the word loves is placed in the space marked verb.
Who loves? — the mother. The section containing the
words the mother is placed in the space marked subject.
The mother loved whom? Her child. The section con-
taining her child is torn off and placed in the space marked
direct object. By thus reading the names printed in the
spaces of the chart the child learns to classify the various
kinds of modifiers. How does the mother love her child ?
In what manner? Dearly. The section containing the
GRAMMAR 129
word dearly is placed in the space marked Manner and the
sentence is completed.
Now the child can copy off these analyses immediately
or make others, as he thinks best. The copy may be as
follows :
The mother loves her child dearly.
The mother : Subject.
Loves: Predicate (verbal).
Her child: Direct object.
Dearly : Adverb, manner.
In classifying the vocatives and attributives, a little
help from the teacher may be required. Example:
You may keep the book for some days, Louis.
The word Louis can be dramatized somewhat into a kind
of invocation, as - - 0 Louis, you may keep the book and
so on. Vocatives can almost always be identified by try-
ing the exclamatory 0 before them.
In the sentence,
Little Harry, only three years old, has cleaned the whole
blackboard.
only three years old is an attributive of Harry. It should
be torn off and placed in the space marked Attributive.
SERIES III
(Simple sentences with two or more modifiers of the same
kind)
The roll contains the following sentences in sections
which may be read and torn off one after the other as the
child unrolls the strip :
— The child sleeps and dreams.
— Everybody likes fruit and flowers.
130 MONTESSORI ELEMENTARY MATERIAL
— He took paper, pen and ink to write to his friends.
- Charles opened and closed the book.
- The doctor and the father left the sick child's room.
— The women recommended calmness, patience and prudence.
- In the beginning God created heaven and earth.
- He will always have money and friends.
— In the street we could see crowds of men and a few women.
SERIES IV
(Elliptical sentences with subject understood)
[This situation does not however arise in English, which,
save in the imperative, always requires at least a pro-
nominal subject for the verb.]
Here, the child interprets the sentence, completing it
and finding the element that is lacking.
— La ringrazio (7 thank you).
— Verrete? (Will you come?)
— Sono stance (/ am tired).
-Non mi sento bene oggi (/ don't feel well to-day).
- Com'e andata? (How did it turn out?)
— Dico la verita (/ will tell you all about it).
— Siamo coiitentissimi (We are delighted).
— Vi saluto (/ bid you good-by).
— Vado a casa (/ am going home).
— Lampeggia (It is lightening).
— M'impose silenzio (He told me to say nothing).
— Ascolto (/ am listening).
SERIES V
(Elliptical sentences where the predicate is understood)
— Silence !
— Why all this noise ?
- After me, the deluge !
— • The sooner the better !
— Good luck to you, sir !
GRAMMAR 131
— What nasty weather !
— What an attractive school!
-O for a calm, a thankful heart!
— A horse, a horse, my kingdom for a horse !
— Away with him !
-Fire! Fire!
— Here, here, quick!
- Honor to the brave !
SERIES VI
(Elliptical sentences where the direct object is understood:
incomplete predication}
- They drove away.
- He spends like a millionaire.
- He drinks like a fish.
- The farmer's boy had just milked.
- Do you understand ?
-The cavalry spurred across the field at full speed.
-Did you see?
- The child did not hear.
SERIES VII
(Sentences with numerous modifiers and of increased
difficulty)
- The poor boy came home that night, all tired out, covered
with mud from head to foot, with his coat torn and with
a black and blue lump on his forehead.
— Ethel hurried home as fast as possible.
- We heard the clatter of horse's hoofs on the pavement.
- And so through the night went his cry of alarm
To every Middlesex village and farm.
— The beautiful child with the black hair is here on the
lawn.
132 MONTESSORI ELEMENTARY MATERIAL
— And yet through the gloom and the night
The fate of a nation was riding that night.
— The woman walked along in front of me with the child in
her arms.
— The girl's voice sounded distinctly above all the others.
— To-morrow I shall come to town on foot.
— He spent the summer every year with his parents in their
old home on the mountain side.
— That evening the old house was more lonely than ever.
— They are very busy this morning.
— I never did such a thing in my life!
— Every now and then a group of people hurriedly crossed
the street.
— The doctor whispered something into the Mayor's ear.
— Just then some one knocked at the door.
— Here I am back again at my work.
— Mary had a little lamb
With fleece as white as snow.
THE ORDER OF ELEMENTS IN THE SENTENCE:
PERMUTATIONS
Rules :
The English (the Italian) language tends to follow the
direct order in prose, inversion being very rare.
In poetry, inversion is very common.
The direct order consists in placing: first, the subject,
then the predicate, then the objects, direct and indirect;
then the modifiers follow according to the importance they
derive from the meaning of the sentence.
These ideas are after all so simple and clear that the
child rarely has any difficulty in understanding them.
Nevertheless, it is much easier to give the child a vivid
impression of them by the permutation of parts than by
GRAMMAR 133
explanation. This permutation is made very convenient
by the sentences being printed in sections which may be
moved about and combined at will. Just as the sequence
of the various parts of speech was made clear by trans-
posing the parts, here the same result can be accomplished
by transposing the sections of the printed slip. Example :
We heard the clatter of the horse's hoofs
(subject) (predicate) (direct object) (attribute)
on the pavement,
(place : adverb)
The following combinations are possible results of per-
mutation :
We — heard — the clatter — of the horse's hoofs — on the
pavement.
We — the clatter — heard — on the pavement — of the horse's
hoofs.
We — of the horse's hoofs — on the pavement — the clatter -
heard.
Of the horse's hoofs — on the pavement — heard — the clatter
— we, etc., etc.
SERIES \7III
(The inverted order)
The effect of direct and inverted order can be shown
in every sentence. But it is better to try examples of in-
version from poetic language. In this series, all the sen-
tences show inversion of one type or another :
— Meanwhile, impatient to mount and ride,
Booted and spurred, with a heavy stride
On the opposite shore walked Paul Kevere.
— Upon the roof we sat that night!
The noise of bells went sweeping by;
Awesome bells they were to me.
— Still sits the school-house by the road.
134 MONTESSORI ELEMENTARY MATERIAL
— Before them under the garden-wall
Forward and back
Went drearily singing the chore-girl small.
— And day by day more holy grew
Each spot of the sacred ground.
— There thronged the citizens with terror dumb.
Exercises on the putting together of sentence elements
can lead to practise in the identification and use of gram-
matical forms as parts of speech, which the study of single
words would not at first permit ; as for instance, forms of
the verbs used as nouns (infinitive and gerund as subject
and object), the difference between personal pronouns used
as direct or indirect objects, and so on.
SERIES IX
(The forms of the verb)
The roll contains the two forms of the verb, active and
passive, in sections. The analysis is conducted on the
chart for the simple sentence :
ACTIVE VOICE PASSIVE VOICE EEFLEXIVE
(Action performed by (Action performed by (Middle Voice)
subject) agent) (Subject is direct
object)
Mary dresses the lit- The little girl is The little girl dresses
tie girl. dressed by Mary. herself.
The teacher praised Charles was praised by Charles praised him-
Charles for the the teacher for the self for the draw-
drawing, drawing. ing.
The little girl excused George was excused George excuses him-
George for his for his roughness by self for his rough-
roughness, the little girl. ness.
The janitor accused The boy was accused The boy accused him-
the boy. by the janitor. self.
The old man liked Al- Albert was very much Albert liked himself
bert very much. liked by the old man. very much.
The nurse tucked the The child was tucked The child tucked him-
child into the warm into the warm bed self into the warm
bed. by the nurse. bed.
GRAMMAR 135
ACTIVE VOICE PASSIVE \7oicE REFLEXIVE
(Action performed by (Action performed by (Middle Voice)
subject) agent) (Subject is direct
object)
The girl rocked her The little friend was Her little friend
little friend to sleep rocked to sleep in rocked herself to
in the rocking-chair. the rocking-chair by sleep in the rock-
tile little girl. ing-chair.
The teacher saw Hen- Henry was seen in the Henry saw himself in
ry in the large mir- large mirror by the the large mirror,
ror. teacher.
The angry boy hurt Louis was hurt by the Louis hurt himself.
Louis. angry boy.
SERIES X
(Use of the personal pronoun)
The sentences previously given for analysis in teaching
the personal pronouns can be used over again at this point
for analysis on the sentence-chart.
- The children wrote a letter to their mother
The children wrote her a letter
They wrote it to her
- They gave their mother a surprise
They gave her a surprise
— I told father all about it
I told him all about it
— Charles soothed his sister with a kiss
He soothed her with a kiss
— Will you give your drawing to the teacher?
Will you give her your drawing?
Will you give it to her?
— Don't think badly of your schoolmates
Don't think badly of them
- Show those dirty hands to the teacher
Show her those dirty hands
Show them to her
— Tell the story to the children in the other room
Tell it to the children in the other room
Tell it to them there
136 MONTESSORI ELEMENTARY MATERIAL
The exercise in permutation brings out the relative posi-
tions of the direct and indirect objects; as also the con-
ditions under which the preposition to is required before
the indirect object.
ii
COMPOUND AND COMPLEX SENTENCES
Here we are dealing with a number of propositions
(clauses) which combine into one complete meaning. The
clauses fit together in the sentences just as did the various
elements in the simple sentence. The material for the an-
alysis is therefore analogous to that used in the analysis of
the simple sentence : strips of paper in rolls on which are
written the sentences to be analyzed, and a chart with
spaces where the detached pieces may be placed, according
to the designation of these spaces.
The principal space on the chart is reserved for the
main clause, around which the other clauses are arranged,
as coordinate or subordinate.
Since the work of logical analysis of the complex sen-
tence is sufficiently interesting to attract the attention of
the child to various forms of study, the material contains
in addition to the rolls and the chart, a number of test-
cards where the analysis is completed and logically dem-
onstrated. These cards serve as tests of the accuracy of
the work done by the children, and as actual charts for
analytical study. Of course, when the child is doing his
exercise with the strips of paper and the chart, he does
not have these test-cards before him. He should, however,
always have free access to them. His interest in the
game is to succeed by himself in placing the different prop-
ositions where they belong.
GRAMMAR
137
CHART B
PRINCIPAL CLAUSE
INCIDENTAL CLAUSES (Parenthetical clauses)
SUBORDINATE ATTRIBUTIVE CLAUSE (Adjective or Rela-
tive clauses)
who is it that . . . ?
subordinate subject clause
(subject clause)
whom . . . ? what . . . ?
subordinate object clause
(object clause)
when . . . ?
subordinate clause of time
(temporal clause)
where . . . ?
subordinate clause of place
(locative clause)
for what purpose . . . ?
subordinate clause of pur-
pose
(purpose clause)
why . . . ? for what cause ?
subordinate clause of cause
(causal clause)
how . . . ? than what?
subordinate clause of man-
ner or comparison
(modal clauses)
on what condition . . . ?
subordinate clause of condi-
tion
(conditional clause)
in spite of what . . . ?
subordinate clause of con-
cession
(concessive clause)
with \vhat result . . . ?
subordinate clause of result
(result clause)
138 MOOTESSORI ELEMENTARY MATERIAL
SERIES I
(Compound Sentences)
The clauses are independent of each other. Each con-
tains a complete meaning, and each therefore could stand
alone. It is a question of simple sentences coordinated
with each other.
— I hunted carefully everywhere and at last I found it.
— She started in fear, lifted her face and shaded it from the
strong sun.
— The bees hummed in the warm sunshine and the cat sat
purring at her side.
— She dropped her sewing and went to the door.
— The girl covered her eyes with her hands and wept.
— They looked into each other's faces : each of them had a
question to ask and neither dared to speak.
— I am a lowly peasant and you are a gallant knight.
— They all looked at the speaker, and crowded round him
and waited for his next word to attack him.
— Then he began to weep and he tore his hair in anguish.
— Louis clapped his hands for joy and began to dance around
the room.
— He looked into the mirror, straightened his tie, smoothed
his hair and went out to greet his two friends.
— She went to the window and looked out over the stormy
sea.
The child divides these sentences into clauses, analyzing
each separately. Then, placing one under the other, he
is impressed by the fact that each has a complete mean-
ing and can stand by itself; save that in English the sub-
ject of the first clause is often carried over to the second :
I hunted carefully everywhere.
And at last I found it.
I am a lowly peasant.
And you are a gallant knight.
GRAMMAR 139
Louis clapped his hands for joy.
began to dance around the room.
He looked into the mirror.
straightened his tie.
smoothed his hair.
and went out to meet his two friends.
The bees hummed in the warm sunshine.
And the cat sat purring at her side.
Then he began to weep.
And he tore his hair in anguish.
The girl covered her face with her hands.
and wept.
They looked at the speaker,
crowded around him.
and waited for his next word to attack him.
SERIES II
(The Complex Sentence)
Here only the main clause lias a complete meaning.
The other clauses make sense only when they are united
with the main clause. On this roll, the subordinate clauses
are attributes of one of the elements of the main clause
(relative clauses).
— The gold ring which you found yesterday on the stairs be-
longs to mother.
— The man who brought me to school this morning was my
uncle.
— He was educated by his sister who taught him many
beautiful things.
— The colors which Aunt Anna gave me Christmas are very
good.
— A little girl who was at a party sat looking with longing
eyes at a plate of sandwiches.
— The knife with which you sharpened my pencil was very
dull.
140 MONTESSORI ELEMENTARY MATERIAL
— Bees don't care about the snow !
I can tell you why it's so:
Once I caught a little bee
Who was much too warm for me. — (F. D. SHERMAN)
— We have at home the prettiest cat you ever saw.
- Here are the pennies my mother gave me.
— The children I play with did not come to school to-day.
— The house we live in is beautiful and airy.
— Stars are the little daisies white
That dot the meadow of the night. — (SHERMAN)
TEST CARDS
PRINCIPAL CLAUSE
(The words modified by the relative
clause are in italics).
The gold ring belongs to
mother
The man was my uncle
He was educated by his sister
The colors are very good
A little girl sat looking with
longing eyes at a plate of
sandwiches
Once I caught a little free
Stars are the little daisies
white
ATTRIBUTIVE SUBORDINATE CLAUSE
(Relative or Adjective Clauses)
(The clause has no meaning until
united with some noun in the
main clause).
which you found on the stairs
yesterday
who brought me to school this
morning
who taught him many beauti-
ful things
which Aunt Anna gave me
Christmas
who was at a party
who was much too warm for
me
that dot the meadow of the
night
RELATIVE OMITTED
What word is omitted?
Here are the pennies
The children did not come to
school to-day
The house is beautiful and
airy
— my mother gave me
with — I play
in — we live
GRAMMAR 141
SERIES III
In the preceding roll, the subordinate clauses completed
the meaning and constituted an attribute of one word of
the principal clause. Here, however, the subordinate
clauses refer to the whole content of the main clause and
complete the whole thought of the main clause. They
have, therefore, a logical dependence on the main clause.
The child will be guided in finding the place of the dif-
ferent subordinate clauses and in classifying them accord-
ing to the designations of the spaces by the questions which
appear in the analytical chart. It is presupposed that he
can readily identify the main clause itself.
The following sentences come one after the other on the
rolled strip of paper :
— Do not forget that your objects are not in their places.
— Will you play with me when you have finished your work ?
— When the sun is low our shadows are longer.
— I hope that you will write me a long letter as soon as you
arrive in Europe.
— The little girl stood on tiptoe so that she could see the
queen as the procession went by.
— Brer Eabbit thought it was the worst time he bad bad
in all his life.
— All is well that ends well, says the proverb.
— The people mourned when the good President died.
— It is not right that the big boys should have all the candy.
— As she sat there reading, a beautiful red bird flew in
through the window.
— They could not play in the yard because the ground was
too wet.
— Kemember tbat you must thank the lady who gave you
the book.
142 MONTESSORI ELEMENTARY MATERIAL
PRINCIPAL AND INCI-
DENTAL CLAUSES
Do not forget
Will you play with me
Our shadows are longer
I hope
The little girl stood on tip-
toe
Brer Rabbit thought
TEST CARD
QUESTION
•what?
when?
when?
what?
when ?
why?
when?
what?
All is well
says the proverb (inciden-
tal clause)
The people mourned
It is not right
A beautiful red bird flew
in through the window
They could not play in the
yard
Remember
when?
what?
when?
why?
what?
SUBORDINATE AND AT-
TRIBUTIVE CLAUSES
that your objects are not
in their places.
when you have finished
your work?
when the sun is low.
that you will write me a
long letter
as soon as you arrive in
Europe.
so that she could see the
queen
as the procession went by.
(that) it was the worst
time he had had in all
his life (attributive, rel-
ative pronoun omitted).
that ends well (attribu-
tive ) .
the good President died,
that the big boys should
have all the candy.
as she sat there reading.
because the ground was
too wet.
that you must thank the
lady who gave you the
book (attributive).
SERIES IV
Here we have sentences both compound and complex,
containing both coordinate and subordinate clauses.
— As he said this, he rose from his chair and left the room.
— The two friends shook hands and said they would always
be faithful to each other.
GRAMMAR
143
• When the wolf came out, Brer Rabbit threw the stone on
him and laughed.
• When the lady knocked on the door, a smiling old man
appeared and asked what he might do for her.
• The children walked along in the forest and became very
hungry because they had had nothing to eat since morn-
ing.
The king's face grew very red and he angrily ordered that
the deceitful general be put to death.
Since the wind was blowing hard, the captain told the
children to keep off the deck and a sailor carried them
to their state-rooms.
The dogs began to bark and the people all ran out into
the streets as the uproar of the combat increased.
Where that tree now stands, there was once a beautiful
house and a fine road led up to it.
He had left the village and mounted the steep,
And under the alders that skirt its edge,
Now soft on the sand, now loud on the ledge,
Is heard the tramp of his steed as he rides.
TEST CAKD
PRINCIPAL CLAUSE
his
COORDINATE CLAUSE
and left the room
He rose from
chair
The two friends and said
shook hands
Brer Rabbit threw and laughed
the stone on him
A smiling old man ap- and asked
peared
The children walked and became very hun-
along in the forest gry
The king's face grew and he angrily or-
very red dered
The captain told the
children to keep
off the deck
The dogs began to
bark
and a sailor carried
them to their state-
rooms
and the people all ran
into the streets
There was once a and a fine road led up
beautiful house to it
SUBORDINATE AND
QUES- ATTRIBUTIVE
TION CLAUSES
when? as he said this
what? that they would al
ways be faithful to
each other
when? when the wolf came
out
what ? what he might do for
her
when ? when the lady knock-
ed on the door
why? because they had had
nothing to eat since
morning
what? that the deceitful
general be put to
death
why? because the wind was
blowing hard
when ? as the uproar of the
combat increased
where?
where that tree now
stands
144 MONTESSOKI ELEMENTARY MATERIAL
SUBORDINATE AND
PRINCIPAL CLAUSE COORDINATE CLAUSE QUES- ATTRIBUTIVE
TION CLAUSES
He had left the vil- and mounted the steep
lage
under the alders now that skirt its edge
soft on the sand, (attributive),
now loud on the
ledge, is heard the
tramp of his steed when ? as he rides
SERIES V
(Correlative Sentences)
The clauses are here dependent upon each other:
- The flowers were so beautiful that we picked them all.
— That day he was so lazy that he did not get his work
done.
- She sings much better than she plays.
— The more one studies, the more one learns.
— Either you return your objects to their places or some one
else must do it.
— Not only was the man very cross, but he actually punished
the little boy.
TEST CARD
PRINCIPAL CLAUSE QUESTION SUBORDINATE CLAUSE
The flowers were so beau- with what result? that we picked them all.
tiful
That day he was so lazy with what result? that he did not get his
work done.
She sings much better than what? than she plays.
The more one studies with what result? the more one learns.
Either you return your with what result? or some one else must do
objects to their places it.
Not only was the man with what result? but he actually punished
very cross the little boy.
SERIES VI
(The Order of Clauses in Sentences:
Sentence Forms in Prose and Verse)
Our material makes it very easy for the children to
understand the mutual dependence of the subordinate
GRAMMAR 145
clauses. We take the commonest cases within easy reach
of the children. There are clauses of the first degree of
subordination, dependent directly on the principal clause.
There are others of the second degree of subordination
which depend on a subordinate clause (clause subordinate
to a subordinate). We have the same situation in coor-
dinates. We have the first degree of coordination when
the clause is parallel with the principal clause, and the
second degree when the clause is parallel with a subordi-
nate clause.
Since the slips have as many sections as there are
clauses, the clauses may be arranged on the table in the
order of their subordination, keeping, for example, the
principal clause to the left, and arranging the subordinate
clauses downward and downward to the right. Take, for
instance, the sentence:
— The old man liked to tell stories ; and he would laugh
heartily when the women were frightened at the terrible
things that he had to relate.
As the different clauses are torn off they are placed on a
chart marked into sections by vertically placed arrows : the
principal clause to the right of the first arrow; the first
subordinate clause to the right of the second ; the subordi-
nate to the subordinate to the right of the third, and so on.
The above sentence results as follows:
Principal and Coordinate 1st subordinate subordinate to subordi-
nate
The old man liked to
tell stories
and he would laugh
heartily
when the women were
frightened at the
terrible things
that he had to tell.
146 MOOTESSORI ELEMENTARY MATERIAL
Principal and coor-
dinate (incidental)
I shall feel better
CHAET C
1st subordinate and its
coordinates
A if you will let me sit
next to the window
t
subordinate to subordi-
nate
where there is more
air.
Here is another example:
- 1 often sit and wish that I
Could be a kite up in the sky,
And ride upon the breeze, and go
Whatever way it chanced to blow.
Principal and Coor-
dinates
I often sit
and wish
1st subordinate and co-
ordinate
that I could be a kite
up in the sky
and ride upon the
breeze
and go whatever way
subordinate to subordi-
nate
t
it chanced to blow.
Here, finally, is another:
— I was a bad boy, I admit, but no one ever paid any attention to
me, unless I was to be blamed for something wrong that I had
done, or was accused of doing.
.1 was a bad boy
I admit (incidental)
but no one ever paid
any attention to me
.unless I was to be
blamed
for something wrong
that I had done,
or was accused of
doing.
(coordinate of second
subordinate)
In using this material, the child tears off the clause-slips
using the analytical sentence-chart (Chart B). This gives
GRAMMAR 147
him the classification of the clauses. The strips are then
to be placed on the dependence chart (Chart C) according
to the indications of the arrows. This brings out the
mutual relation of the clauses.
PERMUTATIONS
The preceding exercises have created in the child a
notion of sentence construction and of the position of the
clauses which make it up. Our material permits, of
course, as an exercise supplementary to the analyses, dis-
locations and translocations of parts just as was true with
the simple sentence. To derive the full benefit of this
possibility, the teacher should have in mind the general
rules for location of clauses:
Adjective clauses (relative, attributive) always follow,
and most often directly, the noun they modify.
Subject subordinate clauses may stand either before or
after the principal clause. If the subject clause follows,
it is usually anticipated before the verb by the pronoun it
(just as a following noun subject is anticipated by there}.
(In Italian, if the object clause precedes the main
clause, it is usually repeated before the noun by a con-
junctive object personal pronoun.)
The position of the other clauses depends on considera-
tions of emphasis.
The direct order for complex sentences is in general
similar to that for simple sentences :
subject clause
principal clause
object clause
adverbial clauses.
Coordination is possible wTith subordinate as well as with
principal clauses.
148 MONTESSORI ELEMENTARY MATERIAL
The special exercises on the complex sentence conclude
with some practise in turning simple inversions as found
in poetry into direct sentence order.
SERIES VII
The detachable strips are used here also. The exercise
should be conducted with reference to the sentence charts.
Just where the tide of battle
turns,
Erect and lonely stood old
John Burns . . .
And buttoned over his manly
breast
Was a bright blue coat with a
rolling collar.
Old John Burns stood, erect and
lonely just where the tide of
battle turns. . . .
A bright blue coat, with a rolling
collar, was buttoned over his
manly breast.
It was terrible: on the right
Raged for hours the deadly
fight,
Thundered the battery's dou-
ble bass,
Difficult music for men to face;
While on the left, where now
the graves
Undulate like the living waves
That all that day unceasing
swept
Up to the pits the rebels kept,
Round shot ploughed the up-
land glades.
BRET HARTE. — John Burns
of Gettysburg.
It was terrible: the deadly
fight raged for hours on the
right; the battery's double bass
thundered, — difficult music for
men to face; while round shot
ploughed the upland glades on
the left, where now the graves
undulate like the living waves
that swept unceasing all that day
up to the pits the rebels kept.
Merrily rang the bridle reins,
and scarf and plume
streamed gay,
As fast beside her father's
gate the riders held their
way . . .
The bridle reins rang merrily
and scarf and plume streamed
gay, as the riders, held their way
fast by her father's gate.
GRAMMAR
149
" Now break your shield asun-
der and shatter your sign
and boss,
Unmeet for peasant-wedded
warms, your knightly
knee across.
WHITTIER. — King Volmer.
Now break your shield asunder
and shatter across your knightly
knee your sign and boss unmeet
for peasant-wedded arms.
The- breaking waves dashed high
On a stern and rock-bound coast;
And the woods against a stormy
sky
Their giant branches tossed.
And the heavy night hung dark
The hills and waters o'er,
When a band of Pilgrims moored
their bark
On the wild New England shore.
Not as the conqueror comes
They the true hearted came,
Not with the roll of the stirring
drums
And the trumpet that sings of
fame.
MBS. HEMANS.
The breaking waves dashed
high on a stern and rock-bound
coast; and the woods tossed their
giant branches against a stormy
sky.
The heavy night hung dark
over (o'er) the hills and waters,
when a band of Pilgrims moored
their bark on the wild New Kng-
land shore.
They, the true hearted, came
not as the conqueror comes, not
with the roll of the stirring
drums and the trumpet that
sings of fame.
My golden spurs now bring to me
And bring to me my richest mail,
For tomorrow I go over land and
sea
In search of the Holy Grail.
Shall never a bed for me be
spread,
Nor shall a pillow be under my
head,
Till I begin my vow to keep;
Here on the rushes will I sleep,
And perchance there may come a
vision true
Ere day create the world anew.
LOWELL.
Bring to me now my golden
spurs and bring to me my richest
mail; for I go in search of the
Holy Grail tomorrow over land
and sea ; a bed shall never be
spread for me, nor shall a pillow
be under my head till I begin to
keep my vow; I will sleep here
on the rushes, and perchance a
true vision will come before (ere)
day creates the world anew.
150 MONTESSORI ELEMENTARY MATERIAL
6
Glad tidings of great joy I bring
To you and all mankind:
To you, in David's town this day
Is born of David's line
The Saviour, who is Christ the
Lord,
And this shall be the sign:
The heavenly Babe you there
shall find
To human view displayed,
All meanly wrapt in swaddling
bands
And in a manger laid.
TATE. — While Shepherds
Watched.
I bring to you and all mankind
glad tidings of great joy. The
Saviour, who is Christ the Lord,
is born to you this day in David's
town, of David's line; and this
shall be the sign: you shall find
the heavenly Babe there displayed
to human view, all meanly wrapt
in swaddling clothes and laid in
a manger.
The harp that once through
Tara's halls
The soul of music shed,
Now hangs on Tara's walls
As if that soul were fled.
So sleeps the pride of former
days,
So glory's thrill is o'er,
And hearts that once beat high
for praise
Now feel that pulse no more.
No more to chiefs and ladies
bright
The harp of Tara swells ;
The chord alone that breaks at
night
Its tale of ruin tells.
Thus Freedom now so seldom
wakes,
The only throb she gives,
Is when some heart indignant
breaks
To show that still she lives.
THOMAS MOORE.
The harp, that once shed the
soul of music through Tara's
halls, now hangs on Tara's walls,
as though that soul were fled.
So the pride of former days
sleeps, so glory's thrill is over,
and hearts that once beat high
for praise now feel that pulse no
more. The harp of Tara swells
no more to chiefs and bright la-
dies: the chord alone, that breaks
at night, tells its tale of ruin.
Thus Freedom now wakes so sel-
dom (that) the only throb she
gives is when some indignant
heart breaks to show that she
still lives.
GRAMMAR 151
8
Childhood is the bough where Childhood is the bough where
slumbered many numbered birds and bios-
Birds and blossoms many num- soms slumbered : Age encum-
bered; bered that bough with snow.
Age that bough with snows en-
cumbered.
LONGFELLOW.
TEST CAEDS
1
Just where the tide of battle subordinate of place (locative)
turns
Erect and lonely stood old John principal
Burns
And, buttoned over his manly (verbal attributive phrase)
breast,
Was a bright blue coat with a coordinate of principal.
rolling collar
2
It was terrible principal
on the right
raged for hours the deadly fight coordinate of principal
thundered the battery's double coordinate of principal
bass
Difficult music for men to face (verbal attributive phrase in ap-
position ) .
While on the left (round shot subordinate of time (temporal)
ploughed, etc.) begun
where now (While may be considered as ad-
the graves versative coordinate)
Undulate like the living waves subordinate to subordinate (lo-
cative) 2d degree
That all that day unceasing
swept attributive subordinate (relative
up to the pits adjectival clause modifying
leaves) of 3d degree
the rebels kept attributive subordinate (relative
pronoun omitted) of 4th de-
gree
Round shot ploughed the upland subordinate of time (concluded),
glades
152 MONTESSOKI ELEMENTARY MATERIAL
Merrily rang the bridle reins
principal
and scarf and plume coordinate
streamed gay
As fast beside her father's gate
the riders held their way subordinate of time
Now break your shield asunder principal
and shatter
your sign and boss coordinate
Unmeet for peasant-wedded arms
your knightly knee across
The breaking waves dashed high
On a stern and rock-bound coast
And the woods against a stormy
sky
Their giant branches tossed.
And the heavy night hung dark
The hills and waters o'er
When a band of pilgrims moored
their bark
On a wild New England shore
Not
as the conqueror comes
They the true hearted came
Not with the roll of the stirring
drums
and the trumpet
that sings of fame
principal
coordinate
principal (coordinated in para-
graph )
subordinate temporal
principal begun
subordinate of manner (modal)
principal concluded
coordinate (elipsis of verb they
came continued from princi-
pal)
attributive (relative) subordi-
nate to coordinate.
My golden spurs now bring to me principal
And bring to me my richest mail coordinate
GRAMMAR
153
For tomorrow I go over land and subordinate of cause (causal) ;
sea
In search of the Holy Grail
Shall never a bed for me be
spread
Nor shall a pillow be under my
head
Till I begin my vow to keep
Here on the rushes will I sleep
And perchance there may come a
vision true
Ere day create the world anew
6
Great tidings of great joy I
bring
To you and all mankind principal
To you in David's town this day
Is born of David's line
The Saviour
may be considered coordinate
of reason
principal
coordinate
subordinate of time (temporal)
principal
coordinate
subordinate temporal.
principal
who is Christ the Lord attributive (relative) subordi-
nate
And this shall be the sign
The heavenly Babe you there
shall find
To human view displayed
All meanly wrapt in swaddling
bands
And in a manger laid.
coordinate
simple sentence with three co-
ordinate verbal phrases.
The harp
that once through
Tara's hall
The soul of music shed
principal begun
attributive subordinate ( rela-
tive)
154 MO1STTESSORI ELEMENTARY MATERIAL
N"ow hangs on Tara's walls principal concluded
As if that soul were fled subordinate of manner (modal)
So sleeps the pride of former
days
So glory's thrill is o'er
And hearts
principal
coordinate
coordinate begun
that once beat high attributive relative subordinate
for praise
Now feel that pulse no more
coordinate concluded.
No more to chiefs and ladies
bright
The harp of Tara swells principal
The chord alone coordinate begun
that breaks at night attributive relative subordinate
Its tale of ruin tells
Thus freedom now so seldom
wakes
The only throb
she gives
Is when some heart indignant
breaks
To show
that still she lives
coordinate concluded.
principal
subordinate result begun (con-
junction that omitted)
subordinate to subordinate (2d
degree; relative omitted)
subordinate result concluded
subordinate object (noun) clause
of 2d degree.
8
Childhood is the bough principal
where slumbered
Birds and blossoms many-num
bered
subordinate locative (of place)
Age that bough with snows en-
cumbered coordinate.
GRAMMAR 155
(Note: the best English poetry makes far less use of
inversion than does Italian. Such exercises as the above
could be profitably applied to the analysis of the different
kinds of phrases (adjective, adverbial, etc.). It should
be noted that Dr. Montessori in her own exercises treats
verbal phrases (participles and infinitives) as subordinate
clauses.— - TR.)
COORDINATING AND SUBORDINATING CONJUNCTIONS
This study of the complex sentence leads the child to a
more precise comprehension of the values of certain parts
of speech as, notably, the conjunction. We have found, in
fact, that little difficulty is experienced in realizing the
distinction between the terms coordinating and subordinat-
ing as applied to conjunctions which unite clauses but in
different ways. The following charts serve to cover the
vast majority of cases that the child is likely to meet. We
may add that at this point it may be found useful to have
the child analyze the complex sentences which appeared in
the commands and readings already familiar to him (see
below under Reading}.
COORDINATING CONJUNCTIONS
Copulatives: and, also, too, besides, moreover, further, further-
more, nor.
Disjunctives: or else, otherwise, rather.
Adversatives : but, nevertheless, however, notwithstanding, yet,
still, while, only, instead.
Declaratives: namely, in other words, that is.
Asseverative : in fact, assuredly, really.
Illative: hence, therefore, then, accordingly, so.
PRINCIPAL AND COORDINATE CLAUSES MAY BEGIN WITH
ONE OF THESE CONJUNCTIONS
156 MONTESSORI ELEMENTARY MATERIAL
CHART D
THE CONJUNCTIONS IN THE SUBORDINATE
CLAUSE
PRINCIPAL CLAUSE
Incidental (parenthetical) clause
Adjective (relative, attributive) clause
who, which, that, whose, whom
Subordinate subject clause
that
Subordinate object clause
that
Subordinate clause of
time
(temporal)
when, while, as soon as,
before, after, till, until
Subordinate clause of
place
(locative)
where, whence, wherever,
whither
Subordinate clause of
purpose
(final, purpose clause)
that, in order that, so that
Subordinate clause of
cause
(casual clause)
as, because, for, since, in
as much as
Subordinate clause of
manner and comparison
(modal clause)
as (manner), than (com-
parison)
Subordinate clause of
condition
(conditional clause)
if, unless, provided, pro-
vided that
Subordinate clause of
concession
(concessive clause)
though, although, even if,
however, notwithstand-
ing that
Subordinate clause of
result and correlatives
that, so that (result)
so ... as, so ... that
(correlative, degree)
GRAMMAR 157
SEQUENCE OF TENSES
A special series of exercises on the relations of the sub-
ordinate to the principal clause brings out the changes in
tense made necessary in the subordinate clause as the
tense of the principal clause varies.
SERIES VIII
Sequence of Tenses
GROUP A
(Causal Clauses)
— I am writing to you because I have some important news.
wrote " " " had "
- 1 shall not go because I must attend to my work.
" did " " had to "
- 1 am glad that you have done so well.
" was " " " had " " "
— I will give it to you since you insist on having it.
" gave " insisted " "
— He does not answer because your letter is insulting.
" did " " » was "
GROUP B
(Miscellaneous Clauses)
— I shall be proud of you if you become a fine scholar.
" should " " " " " became " " "
— I believe that only the rich can be happy.
" believed " " could "
- 1 am waiting here till my father returns from town,
waited returned " "
— They expect that something will happen before long.
" expected " " would " " "
158 MONTESSORI ELEMENTARY MATERIAL
— He is doing that for you, in order that you may go to school.
" did " " " " " " might " " "
— He will let you know where he has been.
" let " " " " had "
GROUP C
(Object Clauses)
— They are telling me what they have been doing.
» were " " " had
— I promise you that I will do everything punctually,
"promised " " "would "
— I think he will not be back before Wednesday.
" thought " would " " "
— Do you know that your friend has gone away?
Did " " " had "
— I assure you that I will take good care of it.
" assured " " " would " " " " "
I repeat that you ought to be ashamed of yourself.
" repeated " " " " have been " "
GROUP D
(Conditional Sentences)
• I would read this book too, if I could.
" " have read " " " " " had been able.
If I see him, I shall tell him what you say.
" " saw " " should " " said.
• I will finish this work, if you can wait.
" would " " " " " could "
• I shall come sooner if I can.
" should " " " " could.
• He would give it to you if you asked him for it.
" " have given " " " " " had asked " " "
GRAMMAR 159
— He would give it to you if you should ask him for it.
— I shall go there if I have time.
" should " " had
" shall " " " " should have "
" should have gone " " " had had "
XIII
PUNCTUATION
The permutations of clauses permitted by our materials
give empirical evidence of the pauses and accordingly of
the functions of the orthographical signs of suspense in the
sentence. These signs are included also in our alphabets.
All the exercises hitherto given require more or less spon-
taneous attention to punctuation. We offer, however, in
addition, several series of sentences for analysis in illus-
tration of the principal rules for the use of punctuation
points. Almost all of our Italian sentences are taken
from Manzoni, a writer especially noteworthy for his care
in punctuation. (The majority of the sentences below are
taken from the Book of Knowledge, by special permission
of the publishers.)
SERIES I
The comma may separate coordinate elements.
— The mother took a glowing pride in the beauty of her chil-
dren's faces, the grace and strength of their bodies, their
reckless daring and unflinching courage.
— The little star fell plump into the middle of a big puddle, and
there it lay sad and shaken and quaking with fright.
— It was dumb and half blind, it had a soiled face, and could
give no more light.
— A mouse was just then peeping from its hole to see whether
it was going to rain, and whether it would be safe to cross
the fields.
— The mouse started running again, and ran until it was tired
out and had to sit down.
160
GRAMMAR 161
— 'The little star poured a flood of bright light over the poor
woman, and made her bright and cheerful and strong again,
and then the little girl became very happy.
SERIES II
A comma isolates vocatives and incidental clauses.
— " Caesar, let your men go forward," said the guide.
- Why do you want to find your father, Mora ?
— " No," said he, " I shall be very well presently."
— " Boys," said our host, " I know whose hand it is."
— That, excuse me for saying so, is not the way to speak to a
friend.
— " Come with us, you handsome young huntsman," he cried.
SERIES III
A comma separates clauses, especially for clearness,
when the elements of one clause might seem to apply
equally well to another clause, and when one clause is in-
terpolated between the essential elements of another.
-Mohammed taught that men should pray at stated times,
wherever they are.
— George, who was only five years old, could not go with his
father to fight.
— The tribemen, after quarreling a long time, decided to march
away.
— He went that evening, as he had planned, to the doctor's
house.
— The poor Indian had been kept moving, ever since he was
born, to regions farther and farther north.
— The child crept to the bed, and, taking his little fan, stood
over his father all night fanning him.
SERIES IV
A comma indicates a pause caused by the ellipsis of some
word or idea (in such cases longer suspense can be indi-
cated by a colon or a semi-colon).
162 HONTESSORI ELEMENTARY MATERIAL
— Very well, what of it ?
— Good-by, all you nice people!
-Just what I wanted: a plate of wild strawberries with real
cream !
-Please, mother, just a little more, a very little more!
- Silence, obedience, and everybody at work !
— Enough said ; I know exactly what the matter is !
SERIES V
A semi-colon marks a considerable halt between clauses.
In some special cases, a colon is used. The dash. Quo-
tations.
— The knight mounted a superb steed ; the old huntsman did
the same.
— Some carriages opened at the back, with the driver sitting
perched high above the door ; others had the driver's seat
at the side, and in all sorts of queer positions.
— The first trams were drawn, usually, by horses ; though many
people can remember when London street-cars were drawn
by mules — two big ones or three little ones for each car.
— The letter began : " I hope you will let me know if this let-
ter does not reach you."
— Patrick Henry said: " Give me liberty, or give me death! "
— The boy's mind was full of love and romance but not of sad-
ness for —
Singing he was and fluting all the day :
He was as fresh as in the month of May.
— The king will ask you three questions : " How old are you ? "
'* How long have you been in his service ? " " Are you
satisfied with your food and lodgings ? "
- How happy they were : all kinds of toys to play with ; all
sorts of good things to eat ; and a kind old father to satisfy
their every want !
- Slowly one of the dialects of English — the language of Lon-
don — came to be regarded as standard English.
— Washington is called " the Father of his Country."
GRAMMAR 163
— When he got home, he said to his wife : " See, I have brought
you a present."
— He shouted gleefully : " I am a lion — a terrible lion."
SERIES VI
(Other Punctuation Points)
The period, question mark, exclamation point and other
signs of punctuation :
In this series should be given dialogues, interesting
stories, passages which express emotional states of mind
vividly portrayed. Such selections, as is true also of our
shorter passages, ought to be taken from the best writers,
distinguished by the naturalness and vivacity of their style
and the use of an accurate orthographical technique. At
this point we make use of the selections used for our " in-
terpretations," since the question of punctuation coincides
with the problems of text interpretation itself.
XIV
WOKD CLASSIFICATION
THE KINDS OF WORDS
In doing the work outlined thus far, the children have
acquired considerable resources in vocabulary. They
have seen all the articles, prepositions, pronouns, conjunc-
tions, interjections, many of the adverbs; and they know
many nouns, adjectives, and verbs, which will be increased
in number as their culture is widened. They know some-
thing also of the use of the parts of speech and their func-
tions in the expression of thought. This is the natural
place for a classification in retrospect of those words which
the children have in writing before them on the cards and
slips of different colors. Separate tables should be used
for these exercises in word grouping.
This new step is preparatory to a theoretical study of
language to be developed in later courses in the second
period of their education.
WORDS CLASSIFIED ACCORDING TO FORMATION
Eoot
Derived
Compound
i
2
-words
1 Under this heading we include all derivations by suffix : some suf-
fixes change one part of speech into another: love (verb), lovable
(adj.), etc.; others, such as diminutives, peggioratives, augmenta-
tives, etc., change the quality of a word's meaning. In adjectives
we have suffixes of degree (comparison: -er, -est).
2 Under this heading we include all words formed by the union of
two words or by prefixes.
164
GRAMMAR
165
CLASSIFICATION OF WOEDS ACCORDING TO INFLECTION
There are two kinds of words, thus considered : variable
and invariable :
fpreposition C-,
INVARIABLES: 4 conjunction J Thf>' ,m.ay bfe Dimple or compound, made up,
1 that is, of one word or more,
^interjection ^
VARIABLES: -i
in gender and number
in gender, number, )
person and case i
may be of masculine,
feminine, neuter or
common gender.
nouns -<! form their plurals by
adding -s or by
changing the root
L vowel (umlaut)
("have special words for
nrnnonnq J eaeh form '• e-S- he-
him, who, whom. I,
L me, etc.
in degree
(adjectives j -er for comparative
adverbs i -e
in person, number, |
tense and mood {
verbs
1 -est for superlative
show third person sin-
gular by adding -s,
and old second per-
son singular by add-
ing -st
show moods by adding
-ing, -ed or by vowel
change for partici-
ples ; or by special
forms (I be, he be,
etc.) for subjunctive.
show tense by suffix
-ed, -t; or by vowel
change (I go, I
went ) .
show irregular forms.
(the has two pronunci-
ations according to
for phonetic reasons I" the following word.
J indefinite \a }*™™* ™ before
definite
article
CLASSIFICATION OF WORDS ACCORDING TO THEIR USE
Article
Noun
Adjective
(Parts of Speech)
Verb
Adverb
Preposition
Pronoun
Conjunction
Interjection
NOTE : In actual usage the parts of speech perform not
only their own functions, but also the functions of other
166 MONTESSORI ELEMENTARY MATERIAL
parts of speech, for instance, the adjective, verb, adverb,
conjunction, etc., may be used as nouns. The participles,
etc., may be used as adjectives, or as clauses, etc.
THE NOUN
Proper Common
Concrete Abstract
Collective Individual
THE ARTICLE
Definite — the
Indefinite — a, an
THE ADJECTIVE
Descriptive: Properties, qualities of things and living beings.
'cardinal: one, two three, four, etc.
ordinal: first, second, third, fourth,
fDefinite last, etc.
(numeral) " multiple: single, double, triple,
quadruple, etc.
Quantitative: J [fractional : half, third, etc.
{many, all, some, much, enough, no,
more, most, other, little, few, what-
i , '.
ever, each, every, certain, several,
somewhat, etc.
Demonstrative (position in space) : this, that, these, those, such, same.
Possessive : my, thy, his, her, its, our, your, their.
Interrogative: what? which?
VERB
The verb indicates:
existence: to be.
state or condition: nominal predicate (copular) : e. g., She is
beautiful,
action: verbal predicate: e. g., I run.
lay, throw, toss, hurl, roll, raise, lower, at-
tach, touch, tie, cover, uncover, undo, in-
vert, rub, spread, collect, scatter, sprinkle,
stir, beat, mix, dissolve, flavor, arrange,
clean, dust, sweep, button, lace, hook,
brush, wash, wipe, embrace, etc., etc.
grow, die, smile, laugh, stare, walk, stagger,
march, sing, whistle, speak, hum, dance,
shout, dine, bark, think, burst, blossom,
remain, stand, rise, go, run, breathe, sigh,
hesitate, weep, sleep, etc., etc.
Transitive (action upon
an object different
from subject)
Intransitive (action re-
mains in subject)
GRAMMAR
167
Note: Certain verbs may be by nature both transitive and intran-
sitive (incomplete predication).
Impersonals (the subject is it frai hai] d }. ^
without reference to a spe- j •, .
cific object) :
of Manner:
of Place:
ADVERBS
f slowly, rapidly, silently, noisily, abruptly, loudly,
strongly, weakly, moderately, well, ill, better,
] worse, otherwise, differently, thus, so, lightly,
heavily, etc., etc.
There, there, elsewhere, up, down, forward, back-
"|_ ward, upstairs, downstairs, etc., etc.
of Time:
of Quantity:
,always, ever, never, again, still, yesterday, tomor-
^ row, today, now, occasionally, before, afterwards,
(^ soon, etc., etc.
fmuch, little, enough, nothing, more, less, least,
\ most, about, only, too, very, etc.
of Comparison: more, less, than, etc.
fyes, certainly, precisely, indeed, surely, assuredly,
\ truly, even, etc.
of Negation: no, never, not, at all, etc.
of Doubt: perhaps, perchance, almost, probably, etc.
PREPOSITION
fof, to, by, from, in, with, on, among, above,
Simple: -\ through, under, around, beside, behind, save, ex-
L cept, near, next, like, during, off, etc.
Compound (prepo- in place of, out of, away from, as to, on board,
sition phrases) : with regard to, etc.
PRONOUN
f subject: JT, thou, he, she, it, we, you, they
Personal
Demonstrative
[ object:
definite:
indefinite:
me, thee, him, her, it, us, you,
them
fthis, this one, that, that one, these,
\ those
,one, ones, some, somebody, every-
j one, each, each one, no one, no-
i body, none, nothing, etc.
168 MONTESSORI ELEMENTARY MATERIAL
f subject: who, that
of person: •{ possessive: whose
lobject: whom, that
Relative
of thing: which, that
indefinite: whoever, which ever
compound (antecedent understood) : what (that
which), whereof, wherewith, etc.
{who
whose
,
whom
which
^ — ~ — b ,.
, ,, . fwhat
[of thing
Possessive: mine, yours (thine), his, hers, ours, yours, theirs.
CONJUNCTION
Disjunctive: or, or else, otherwise, rather.
f and, also, too, besides, moreover, further, further-
Copulative: •< .
J" but, nevertheless, notwithstanding, yet, still, while,
Adversative: -| however, only, 011 the contrary, instead, etc.
Declarative: namely, in other words, that is, etc.
Relative : that.
hence, therefore, wherefore, then, accordingly, so, with
Illative :
f
\
the result that, etc.
f while, when, as soon as, after, before, until, till,
Temporal j hardly; etc
Concessive: though, although, even if.
Purpose (Final) : that, in order that, to the end that, etc.
Conditional : if, unless, provided, provided that, etc.
Causal : as, because, for, since, seeing that, etc.
Result: that, so that, etc.
Locative: where, whence, whither, whereto, wherefrom, etc.
Degree and Comparison: as, than.
INTERJECTION
See list already given on pp. 122-123.
PART II
READING
EXPRESSION AND INTERPRETATION
MECHANICAL PROCESSES
Reading begins in the " Children's House " as soon
as the children reread the word they have already com-
posed with the movable alphabet. This early effort is
not indeed the true reading of the word, since interpre-
tation is lacking. The children, it has been seen, know
the word because they have actually put it together. They
have not gained an understanding of it from the simple
recognition of the graphic symbols. What they have done
is, nevertheless, an important contribution to real read-
ing. As one considers all of the details of this period of
development, it is apparent that its mechanism is closely
allied with that of the spoken language.
When the child's attention has been intensively applied
to the recognition of the written word, it can easily be
fixed on the analysis of the sounds which make up the
word. At a certain age the child's interest was aroused
by " touching " the letter. He can now be interested in
hearing the sounds of the word when pronounced by others
and in pronouncing it himself. We have shown that the
work on the written language in the exercises with the
alphabet was necessary for developing and perfecting the
spoken language. It is by so doing that we make it pos-
sible to correct defects in speech and to pass naturally over
the period when such defects are formed.
171
172 MONTESSORI ELEMENTARY MATERIAL
We now aim at finding an exercise in the actual mechan-
ism of pronunciation which can be started at the moment
of its natural development in such a way that its growth
to perfection will follow as a matter of course. It is a
question of bringing the children rapidly to pronounce
without hesitation. In so pronouncing well, in perform-
ing extensive exercises in hearing words and in the in-
terpretation of them from graphic signs, the child brings
together in a unit of effect the basic processes of reading
and writing.
A good pronunciation of the word read is of great im-
portance. We may say that in the elementary schools of
our day this is the principal purpose of reading. Never-
theless, it is very difficult to obtain a good pronunciation
when defects have been allowed to develop and become
habitual in the child's previous work. In fact, the elim-
ination of these defects, which have been the result of a
fundamental error in education, comes to absorb all of the
energies of the reading class in ordinary primary schools.
So far along as the fifth grade we see teachers struggling
to make the children read, that they may acquire a good
" pronunciation," and in our reading books there are grad-
uated exercises constructed on the basis of " Difficulties in
Pronunciation." It is apparent that all of this stress on
the physiological mechanics of pronunciation is foreign to
true reading. It is, rather, an impediment to the develop-
ment of true reading. Such reading exercises constitute,
as it were, a foreign body, which operates like a disease
to prevent the development of the high intellectual ac-
tivity which interprets the mysterious language of written
symbols and arouses the child's enthusiasm with the fas-
cinating revelations they can give. The eagerness of the
HEADING 173
child to learn is curbed and cheated when he is compelled
to stop his mind from working because his tongue refuses
to act properly and must be laboriously trained to work
right. This training, if begun at the proper time, when
the child's whole psychic and nervous organism yearns for
the perfection of the mechanism of speech, would have
been a fascinating task ; and once started along the right
path, the pupil would have continued to follow it with
alacrity and confidence. When the time comes for the
intelligence to try its wings, its wings should be ready.
What would happen to a painter, if at the moment of in-
spiration, he had to sit down and manufacture his
brushes !
ANALYSIS
Our first publication on the methods used in the " Chil-
dren's House ': made clear two distinct operations in-
volved in reading: the interpretation of the meaning and
the pronunciation aloud of the " word." The stress we
laid on that analysis as a guide to the development of
reading was the result of actual experience. Those who
followed this work during its initial stages saw how the
children, when they read for the first time, interpreting
the meaning of the words before them, did so without
speaking, — reading, that is, mentally. Interpretation, in
fact, is a question of mental concentration. Reading is an
affair of the intelligence. The pronunciation aloud is
quite a different thing, not only distinguished from the
first process, but secondary to it. Talking aloud is a ques-
tion of speech, involving first hearing and then the me-
chanical reproduction of sounds in articulate language.
Its function is to bring into immediate communication
174 MONTESSORI ELEMENTARY MATERIAL
two or more people, who thus exchange the thoughts
which they have already perfected in the secret places of
their minds,
But reading stands in a direct relation with writing.
Here there are no sounds to be heard or pronounced. The
individual, all by himself, can put himself into communi-
cation not only with human beings actually alive on the
earth, but also with those who lived centuries and cen-
turies ago down to the dawn of history. Such communi-
cation is made possible not by sound but by the written
symbol. The mind takes in these symbols in silence.
Books are mute, as far as sound is concerned.
It follows that reading aloud is a combination of two
distinct operations, of two " languages." It is something
far more complex than speaking and reading taken sep-
arately by themselves. In reading aloud the child speaks
not to express his own thoughts, but thoughts revealed by
the written symbol. The " word " in this case no longer
has that natural stimulus from within which creation
gives it. In fact, it is something forced and monotonous,
something like the language of the deaf-mute. Words
which are the product of the interpretation of individual
alphabetical symbols come with effort, and the meaning
which comes from the interpretation of the entire sen-
tence, as the eye reads word by word, and translates into
sound, is apprehended and reduced to expression with
great difficulty. To give a fairly intelligible expression
to the meaning, the eyes have been obliged rapidly to
traverse the sentence as a whole, while the tongue has been
laboriously and monotonously pronouncing one word after
another. Just imagine adding to such a complex prob-
lem for the child of the primary schools the additional task
of correcting his pronunciation ! It is no wonder that
Interpreted reading: " Smile and clap your hands." The child reads silently
an order written on a slip of paper; then proves that she understands
by acting the direction given. (A Montessori School in Italy.)
a
— •<
s
o
o
s
o
5)
o
ai
ctf
Q
C3
-*->
a
O
o>
=
:3
O)
fr
READING
175
reading is one of the rocks on which the rudderless ship
of elementary education inevitably runs aground.
The experiments we have succeeded in conducting on
the subject of reading are perhaps among the most com-
plete we have made. We found the key to the problem
when we discovered that the child passed from the mental
reading of the words written on the cards directly to in-
terpretation in action. This interpretation, ready and
facile, as all the acts of children are, reveals to us what the
child has understood and accordingly what he is capable
of understanding. We have thus been able to obtain an
experimental graduation of passages for reading, which
on being gathered together, show the nature of the diffi-
culties which successively present themselves to the child.
The children have made for themselves specimen clauses
and sentences which an expert grammarian could not have
devised better for facilitating the study of language. As
we went on with this work, we became more and more con-
vinced that the study of grammar may be made a help in
fmechanical
r grammatical (controlled by trans-
writms -i * . , ,.
I lation into action )
I narration and description
Composition of words.,
( with movable al-
phabet)
reading
r-mechanical
interpretative
expressed
(aloud)
-grammatical
(translations
into action)
declamatory
(elocution)
1 The first readings consist of a special grammar and a dictionary.
176 MONTE SSOEI ELEMENTARY MATERIAL
the up-building of the child's language and that it makes
its influence felt in reading and in the written composi-
tion. The table (p. 175) may be useful in showing the
successive steps actually traversed by the child in the
phenomena of reading.
The fundamental point to realize is that interpretation
alone constitutes true reading. Reading aloud, on the
other hand, is a combination of reading and articulate
expression, in other words, a combination involving the
two great mechanisms of the spoken language and the
written language. Reading aloud permits an audience to
take part in the reading communicated to it by means of
articulate speech. Even here, the mental effort required
to listen to the voice of a man passionately interested in
the narration of things which he himself has experienced
is not the same as that demanded in listening to a read-
ing of the same things by a person who has not experienced
them, and who, to narrate them, must perform the rapid
and intense effort of interpretation. In this reading, so
to speak, by " transmission," the most serious difficulties
are encountered. We all know by experience how diffi-
cult it is to endure a reading, and how rare an endowment
the " gift of reading " is. However, the person who is
thus gifted can get a hearing almost as well as the person
who speaks. The teaching of reading, then, in this sense,
is not merely the teaching of the interpretation of the
meaning, — all that would be necessary, if the sole func-
tion of reading were to gain new ideas for the reader.
Reading, thus conceived, represents really the addition
of an art of expression to simple reading, and since this
expressive art is purely dramatic, the teaching of reading
involves the development of dramatic art. Only through
HEADING 177
dramatic art can the transmission of reading to a group
of people be made possible.
It is clear that the oftener the exercise of identifying
oneself with what is read is repeated and perfected, the
greater the possibility of expression becomes. It follows
that in the perfection of this art we should be less con-
cerned with timbre, with tone of voice and gestures, all
extrinsic aspects of this art, than with intense vivid in-
terpretation which brings the child to an identification
of himself with what he reads. And this interpretation
will realize its objects if it is practised as a habit and as
a form of reading.
The proof of correct interpretation was the child's
ability to reproduce in action what was described in the
words he read. Similarly, the proof of the interpreta-
tion in reading aloud is the repetition of the things heard
by means of the spoken language. That is, the children,
in order to prove to us that they have understood some-
thing read aloud, should be able to repeat in narrative
form what they have heard.
The practical results of our efforts in this direction were
very interesting to watch. Some children can say noth-
thing. Others offer to tell the whole story. Their story
is not clear or perhaps it is defective in some respect. Im-
mediately other children are ready to correct the ones
telling the story : " No, no, that's not what happened,
that's not what happened," or, " Wait, you have forgotten
something," and so on. In fact, to understand and to be
able to narrate what has been understood is not the same
thing. In telling a story there is a successive unfolding
of very complex mental activities which are based on and
added to the primal activity of " having understood." It
ITS MONTESSORI ELEMENTARY MATERIAL
is a question again of the three different stages noted by us
in the first lessons given to children :
First stage, the causing of the perception : ( That is
red, that is Hue] ;
Second stage, the perfection of recognition: (What is
red or blue?) ;
Third stage, the provocation of expression: (What
about this or that?).
Thus, the child who succeeds in expressing, even in an
imperfect way, what he has understood of the passage he
has read, is in a more advanced state of development than
other children who are unable to tell the story. However,
these children who are not able to relate what they have
heard said may very well be in the preceding stage in
which they are capable of " recognition." These latter
are the relentless critics, the constant " hecklers " of those
wrho are trying to relate — " ISTo, no, — that's not so,"
" You have forgotten this, or that." Let one of us
teachers try to tell the story in the most perfect and com-
plete manner, and these tiny impetuous hecklers listen to
us in ecstasy, showing their approval in every form of
approbation of which they are capable. By studying such
manifestations in the children, we can get sufficient psycho-
logical data for determining what reading is adapted to
children of different ages, the best ways of reading aloud,
and the line of development followed by each child in that
hidden mental world of his which is cut off from our gaze.
But to derive these benefits from reading, it is perfectly
clear that the children must be left absolutely free in the
expression of what goes on in their minds.
According to the method used in ordinary schools a child
is called upon to read aloud, and the teacher herself con-
tinually interrupts, either to correct the pronunciation, or
READING 179
to assist by explanations and suggestions in the interpre-
tation of the meaning. This is all useless for experimen-
tal purposes. We have no certain means of determining
whether the pupil has understood either what he has read
or the explanations of the teacher. Furthermore the cor-
rections of pronunciation have centered the child's atten-
tion on this detail which is entirely without relation to
the meaning of the text he is interpreting. Another situa-
tion not infrequently arises. A child is selected at ran-
dom to tell in his own words what has been read. Often
the selection is not made at random, but some pupil is
called on because he has shown himself the most inatten-
tive, the least interested in what is being done - - the reci-
tation thus becoming correctional in character! While
the child is telling his story, there is a constant suppres-
sion of interruptions : " Hush, I did not call on you,"
" Wait till you are called on," " It is not polite to inter-
rupt some one who is talking," etc. It is clear that the
teacher will never learn anything about her pupils in this
way.
This explains why, from the psychological point of
view, our present-day schools have not been able to con-
tribute anything new to a reformed scientific pedagogy of
reading.
EXPERIMENTAL SECTION : READING ALOUD
Although we lay all possible stress on interpretative
reading, we nevertheless put into the hands of the child
a little reading book which he can go over by himself first
in a low voice, and then, when he has grasped the mean-
ing, aloud, provided he can express himself clearly and
easily.
The simplicity of these texts occasions surprise when
180 MONTESSORI ELEMENTARY MATERIAL
one observes how completely and enthusiastically absorbed
in them the children become. They find them so delight-
ful that the books get literally worn out with the reading
and rereading to which they are subjected. Sometimes a
book is read from beginning to end. Again the child
opens it by chance and reads the page he happens on.
Some children like to read the whole book over and over.
Others prefer to read some particular page a great many
times. One frequently sees these tiny things suddenly
rise with great decision and read aloud one of the pages
which has been so seriously examined.
The little book was composed very carefully on the
basis of rigid experimentation. As the book is opened
only one page of print appears, the tergo of the right
hand page being always blank. Nor does the text always
cover the entire page. The spaces above and below the
print are decorated with designs.
The twenty pages of this beginners book are as fol-
lows :
Page 1. My school is the " Children's House."
Page 2. In the " Children's House " there are ever so many
little chairs and tables for us.
Page 3. There are also some pretty cabinets. Each child has
his own drawer.
Page 4. There are green plants and beautiful bouquets of
flowers everywhere about the rooms in our school.
Page 5. I often stop to look at the pictures which are hang-
ing on the walls.
Page 6. We are busy all the time. We wash our faces and
hands. We keep everything where it belongs. We
dust the furniture. We study and try to learn all
we can.
Page 7. Can you guess how we learned to dress ourselves?
We kept our fingers busy working on the canvas
frames, lacing and unlacing, fastening and un-
BEADING 181
fastening the hooks and eyes, buttoning and un-
buttoning, tying and untying knots.
Page 8. There are ten blocks for this tower, all of different
sizes. First I spread them around on this carpet.
It is great fun to put them together again, taking
one after the other and choosing the largest each
time.
Page 9. I use the tower too in a balancing game. Just try
to carry the tower around the room without letting
it fall to pieces! Sometimes I succeed and then
again I sometimes fail.
Page 10. I like the long rods, too ! I must put the rods near
each other according to their length. I must be
careful to place the blue sections near the blue ones
and the red ones near the red. Thus, I build
some pretty stairs with red and blue steps.
Page 11. But to get a real stair case I use the brown prisms.
These prisms are of different sizes. I put one be-
side the other according to size, and I get some
fine stairs with ten steps.
Page 12. I have also some solid insets of wood into which I fit
little cylinders of different dimensions. They dif-
fer in length and breadth. The game is to put
these cylinders in their places after looking at them
and touching them carefully.
Page 13. We often make mistakes in working with the insets.
When we put a cylinder where it doesn't belong,
we find that at the end of the game we have one
cylinder left over and it won't fit in anywhere.
Then the exercise becomes very exciting. We look
at the inset carefully; we find the mistake and be-
gin all over again. The most skilful pupils work
on the insets with their eyes closed.
Page 14. These colors are called : red, black, green, yellow, blue,
brown, pink and violet.
Page 15. I amuse myself by picking out and putting together
pieces of the same color from the collection spread
out over my table. I get thus a long strip of dif-
ferent colors.
182 MONTESSORI ELEMENTARY MATERIAL
Page 16. We learn to arrange sixty-four different colors by
gradations. We get eight beautiful blends of
colors, each formed by eight tints of different tones.
When we become skilful we can make a pretty rug
with blending strips.
Page 17. We also have two little chests full of pieces of cloth.
The cloths are of all kinds from the roughest and
hardest to the smoothest and softest: canvas, cot-
ton, linen, wool, flannel, velvet, etc. If we keep
our hands clean, we can learn to recognize all sorts
of things with the tips of our fingers !
Page 18. A child is blindfolded. He mixes the pieces of cloth
with his little hands. He feels about among the
pieces of cloth. At last he smiles and holds up his
hands with two pieces of cloth, both alike. Though
he could not see, the child has found out, just by
using his fingers, that the two pieces were of the
same cloth.
Page 19. These are my plane insets. Here are the blue tablets.
I must fit them into the frames, which have just
enough room for them. I run two fingers, the fore-
finger and the middle-finger, around the edge of
the tablet, and then around the edge of the frames.
Next I fit the tablet into its proper place. After
a little practise I can put the six tablets in their
places even with my eyes blindfolded.
Page 20. With the plane insets I have learned to recognize
many figures : the square, the circle, the rectangle,
the ellipse, the triangle, the oval, the pentagon, the
hexagon, the heptagon, the octogon, the enneagon,
the decagon. I learned all these hard names very
easily because the insets are so amusing!
INTERPRETATIONS
Reading with the object of interpretation is conducted
as in the first experiments of the " Children's House,"
with cards. From the graduated series we have prepared
the child selects a card. He reads it mentally and then
READING 183
executes the action indicated on the card. Our later ex-
periments became very interesting when they were based
upon a more rigorous method. When we gave a card de-
scribing two actions to a child of five years, he would
execute only one of the actions. Take the following for
example :
— • She leaned over the back of a chair.
— • She covered her face with her hands and wept.
The child would act out either the first sentence (She
leaned over the back of the chair} or the second (She
covered her face ivith her hands and wept). In spite
of the fact that this child seemed extraordinarily eager
to get the cards into his hands and to interpret them, those
containing two sentences always aroused in him less en-
thusiasm than those containing a single sentence or indi-
cating a single action (for instance, The boy ran away
as fast as he could). In this latter case the enthusiasm
of the little ones, their care in interpreting the action
vividly, their eagerness to repeat it, their flushed faces
and shining eyes, told us that at last we had the reading
adapted to their psychology.
Our first series of readings accordingly is entirely
" tested " or experimental. It is made up of simple sen-
tences something like those analyzed in the lessons on
grammar (Verb to Pronoun).
SERIES I
— • She gazed slowly around the room.
- He looked at them out of the corners of his eyes.
- The boy ran away as fast as he could.
- She threw herself on her knees before him.
- The man paced slowly up and down the room.
— The little girl stood with lowered head.
184 MONTESSORI ELEMENTARY MATERIAL
— The teacher nodded her approval.
— The little child sat with folded arms.
— He started rapidly toward the door.
— He began to walk to and fro about the room.
— His mother tenderly stroked his head.
— She motioned to him to keep away.
— He whispered in her ear.
— She placed her hand on his shoulder.
— They knocked at the door.
— The little girl frowned.
The children carry out the indicated action after they
have read mentally, but they put what amounts to artis-
tic expression into their interpretations, which are never
executed listlessly. For them it becomes a real " inter-
pretation." They often " study ': the action, trying it
over and over again, as though rehearsing for a play.
Their aptitude for this is something remarkable.
Furthermore the words have, for the most part, already
been studied in the grammatical exercises, so that the
meaning of each word is becoming more and more clear.
This helps in the interpretation. For example, the sen-
tence The little girl stood with lowered head does not
mean simply " she lowered her head." If the child has
understood he will stand for some time with lowered head
in an attitude more or less expressive according to the
vividness of his feeling of the situation. In the sentence
She threw herself on her knees before Mm there will not
be a simple act of kneeling, but something more dramatic.
The child will assume the kneeling posture with some in-
dication of emotion. The children take no end of inter-
est in each other's interpretations.
In a second series of readings we have two coordinated
clauses, the children executing two consecutive actions in-
stead of one.
HEADING 185
SEKIES II
— He opened the door and came in.
- He left the room and locked the door behind him.
— He went on tiptoe to the door and carefully opened it.
— She covered her face with her hands and began to sob vio-
lently.
— • She gave a cry of joy and ran to the door.
- She burst into a laugh and clapped her hands.
- He took off his cap and made a low bow.
— • She shook her head sadly and smiled.
- He threw the window wide open and looked into the garden.
- He hurried to the table and rang the bell.
- With a sigh of relief he stretched himself out on the sofa, and
lay there looking at the ceiling with his mouth open.
— He shut his eyes and fell asleep.
In the third series, there are sentences with one or more
coordinate clauses.
SEKIES III
— She opened the door, smoothed her hair slowly and came in.
— • He went to the window, opened it a little and peered into the
street.
— He closed the window, went back to his desk and then began
to walk hurriedly up and down the room.
-The doctor bent over the sick man, felt his pulse with one
hand and placed the other on his forehead.
- He took a key out of his pocket, opened the door and came in.
— She uttered a cry of joy, ran to her mother and sank on her
knees before her.
— He put his left elbow on his knee, rested his forehead in his
left hand and began to stroke his beard with his right.
— She leaned over the back of the chair, covered her face with
her hands and wept.
- He went to the table, found the picture and joyfully took it
in his hands.
— She took her handkerchief out of her pocket, unfolded it and
wiped the tears from her eyes.
186 MOKTESSOEI ELEMENTARY MATERIAL
— The child was sleepy. He rested his head on his arms on
the table and went to sleep.
— He looked toward the door fixedly, with an expression of ter-
ror on his face and waited for the man to come in.
SEKIES IV
(Complex sentences with one subordinate clause)
— While he was making the drawing, he kept examining the
flower very carefully.
— She covered her eyes with her hands, as if she were trying to
collect her thoughts.
— She closed her eyes so that she could feel more intensely the
softness of the piece of velvet.
— She looked tenderly after the little boy, till he disappeared
through the door.
— When he had succeeded in turning the knob without making
any noise, he stealthily opened the door and peered into
the room.
— George held the book before his face so that no one could see
him laughing.
— She walked slowly across the room and with bowed head, as
though she were in great sorrow.
— The old man stroked the little boy's head as though he were
much amused.
— After she had motioned to the child to be silent, the lady
smilingly approached and took him by the hand.
— They stopped suddenly and listened, as though wondering
what it could be.
— When Mary opened the door, George went to meet her with
a cheery smile of welcome.
SERIES V
(Sentences somewhat more involved; descriptions more
complex ; an exact interpretation sometimes requires
the pronunciation of words aloud)
— The child rose from her seat, and with her face buried in her
handkerchief, walked slowly, sadly, toward the window.
HEADING 187
He lay back in his chair, his head sunk between his shoulders,
while his arms were pressed tightly across his breast, as
though he were cold.
• He dropped wearily into a chair and sat there looking at the
floor, his right elbow on his knee and his chin resting on
his hand.
• He stood at the open window, with figure erect, and his hands
resting on the window-sill, while in deep breaths he took
into his lungs the delicious fresh air that was coming into
the room,
• The boy lowered his head, and rubbed his forehead with his
hands as though he were trying to collect his thoughts.
• There she knelt, her face turned heavenward, her hands
crossed in her lap, while her body drooped gently as though
she were very, very tired.
• When he reached the door of his house, he hastily unlocked
the door, opened it, went in, and carefully locked the door
again behind him ; and in his eagerness to confide his secret
to some one he could trust, he went down the hall calling
" Mother, Mother ! "
• His eyes filled with tears as he went to the wall where the
picture of his father hung, and there with his head resting
on his arm against the wall, he sobbed bitterly.
• Eizpah spread the cloth on the ground at the foot of the tree,
seated herself upon it, and with her arms resting limp upon
her knees, her eyes set in unutterable woe, watched the
birds and thought about her lost children.
• The man was lying, sprawling, on the couch, but he jumped
up and ran to the door and angrily motioned to his servant
to come to him.
• The old lady sat shivering near the stove, holding out her
hands to get the warmth and nervously opening and closing
them so that the tips of her fingers kept rubbing her palms.
- " I see," thought the boy as he stood with folded arms looking
fixedly at the floor.
• He took the handkerchief, examined it a moment and said :
" It doesn't belong to me ! "
• He stooped over and picked up a pencil that was lying on the
floor : " Pshaw," said he, " it is broken ! "
188 MONTESSOEI ELEMENTARY MATERIAL
— Pecopin, feeling that all was over, threw himself face down-
ward on the ground, and moaned : " I shall never see her
again ! "
— On waking, Rip Van Winkle rubbed his eyes and looked
around for his gun; as he rose to walk he found himself
stiff in the joints and wanting in his usual agility.
— The clergyman folded his hands before his breast and, bend-
ing his head above them, prayed fervently.
— The girl knelt beside the fallen soldier, while with her right
hand she waved her handkerchief to and fro in the air.
— As the door opened, Florence ran to meet him, crying, " Oh,
dear, dear papa ! " and she held out her arms to him ; but,
as he paid no attention to her, she put her handkerchief to
her face and burst into tears.
— Beatrice came through the door holding her skirt with one
beautiful arm, while with the other she held a candlestick
above her head, so that the light shone upon her face.
— She advanced holding forward her head as if she would have
him kiss her as he used to when she was a child; but then
remembering herself, she made him a deep curtsy, sweep-
ing down to the ground almost, looking up meanwhile with
the sweetest smile.
— She closed the door very carefully behind her, and then leant
back against it, her hands folded before her, looking at the
boy who was kneeling beside his trunk to pack it.
— He took the paper and stepped to the window ; then holding
the sheet so that the light fell full upon it, he examined it
carefully, folded it as though musing on its contents and
put it into his vest pocket.
— • My Lord was lifting the glass to his lips, when Esmond en-
tered; but at the sight of the familiar face, the movement
of his arm ceased when the glass was on a level with his
chin; he held it there a moment in astonishment, then,
suddenly setting it on the table he rushed toward Esmond
with outstretched arms, and would almost have embraced
him : " I thought you were in France," he exclaimed.
— The Prince was lying on the bed, but at the sound of the
footsteps, he rose on his elbow in alarm, while he reached
Interpreted reading: "Whisper to him." (The Lenox School, Montessori
Elementary Class, Xeiv York.)
In a similar manner, the children act out or interpret poses and expressions
in pictures. (A. Montessori ttchool in Italy.)
READING 180
under the pillow for his pistols : " Who goes there ? " he
shouted sternly.
— The child playfully drew his cap down over his eyes as though
he were a very fierce bandit, and rushed into the room
holding out his arm and pointing his fore-finger like a
pistol.
— As the ladies rode up, the old gentleman raised his hat and
stood with bowed head till they had passed.
— The young man picked up the glove from the floor, pressed it
fervently to his lips and clasped it tenderly against his
bosom, as though it were a priceless treasure.
SERIES VI
(More difficult interpretations with occasional speaking)
— Dunsey threw himself into a chair by the window, drew an-
other chair before him, threw one leg over it, and began to
beat on the window sill with the points of his fingers.
- Godfrey stood with his back to the fire, moving his fingers
uneasily among the contents of his side-pockets and looking
at the floor.
— Aaron replied by rubbing his head against his mother's skirt,
passing the backs of his hands over his eyes and peeping
through his fingers at Master Marner.
— Mr. Macey screwed up his mouth, leaned his head further on
one side and twirled his thumbs rapidly, with his two
hands resting on his lap and touching at the finger-tips.
— Silas sat with his elbows on his knees, his forehead pressed
rigidly into his two palms, his eyes closed, deep sighs that
were almost groans shaking his slender frame.
— The little tot squatted on the coat and spread out her hands
to the fire; but the little eyes refused to stay open, and
finally the golden head sank down upon the floor fast asleep.
— Presently the child slipped from his knee and began to walk
about; but suddenly she fell into a sitting posture and
began to pull at her little boots, as though she were trying
to get at her toes.
— " At last," he said, stretching back in the arm chair, crossing
190 MONTESSORI ELEMENTARY MATERIAL
his legs and joining his hands behind his head : " I can
now have a minute to myself ! "
— " Ssshh," said the boy, frowning, and waving his right arm
with hand outspread towards his companion.
SERIES VII
(Interpretations requiring more than one person)
— As Rip Van Winkle approached the town, the people all
stared at him with marks of surprise and invariably stroked
their chins, so that Rip was induced involuntarily to do
likewise : his beard was a foot long.
— A self-important old gentleman pushed through the crowd,
shoving the people to the right and left with his elbows as
he passed; and planting himself before Van Winkle, with
one hand on his side, the other resting on his cane, he de-
manded with an austere tone : " What are you doing
here?"
— As Rip Van Winkle told his story, the bystanders began to
look at each other, nod, and wink significantly and tap
their fingers against their foreheads.
— An old woman came tottering forward, put her hand to her
brow and peering under it into his face for a moment, ex-
claimed : " Sure enough, it is Rip Van Winkle ! "
— As the Emperor stepped into the court-yard, the ladies were
all so busy crowding about the young prince, holding his
hands and counting the kisses, that they did not see the
old gentleman: "What's all this, what's all this?" he
shouted in rage; and they all scampered off in every direc-
tion.
— Trotty sat down in his chair and beat his knees and laughed ;
he sat down in his chair and beat his knees and cried; he
got out of his chair and hugged Med; he got out of his
chair and hugged Richard ; he got out of his chair and
hugged them both at once. He was constantly getting up
and sitting down, never stopping in his chair a single
minute, being beside himself with joy.
— " Here, little girl, can you tell us the way to town ? " " That's
not the way. The town is over in this direction ! " But
BEADING 191
as the little girl was turning to point out the road, one of
the men seized her by the waist and lifted her from the
ground. Lucia looked back over her shoulder terrified and
gave a shriek. (Manzoni.)
(The children were delighted with this little action and re-
hearsed it over and over again.)
With a start, Evangeline looked wildly about her : " Where
is Gabriel?" she asked dazedly. "Where is Gabriel?
Where is Gabriel ? " " He is on that ship that is just
sailing out of the harbor ! " some one answered. For a
few moments Evangeline stood shading her eyes with her
palm, gazing after the vessel, fast disappearing into the
horizon. At last she spoke half aloud: "I will follow
you and find you wherever they may take you, Gabriel,"
she said, as though taking a vow. Then she turned to the
soldier and said : " Lead on to the boat, I am coming, I
am coming."
— "Give me the bow," said Tell. Tell chose two arrows; one
he fitted to the bow-string, the other he thrust into his
girdle. Then for a moment he stood, a little bowed of
shoulder, with his eyes downward: he was praying. You
might have heard a leaf fall, so still was the place. Then
Tell raised his head; his eyes were steady, his hands had
become still; his face was like iron; he brought the cross
bow to his shoulder and laid his eye to the feather of the
shaft : " Twang," the apple fell. A cheer arose from the
crowd. Tell laid his hand upon the arrow in his girdle.
" If the first had hurt my child," he said, " this one by now
would have been through your heart, O Gessler ! "
The children by no means restrict themselves to acting
out these little scenes and poses. In a second stage they
read aloud all these slips which they have interpreted, and
in view of the preparation they have had, their reading
shows considerable power of expression. They tend to
read the slips over and over again, many times, and not
infrequently commit them to memory. To take advan-
192 MONTESSORI ELEMENTARY MATERIAL
tage of this new activity we got together a number of
poems, making up a little book of children's verse. The
pupils read them both mentally and aloud, ultimately
committing them to memory and reciting them. Here
are some specimens of our Italian collection :
IL BACIO
Dormiva nella cuna un bel bam-
bino,
E la mamma lo stava a rimirare;
Voleva dargli il bacio del mattino,
Ma il bacio lo poteva risvegliare;
Svegliarlo non voleva, e con la
mano
Gli butto cento baci da lontano.
THE KISS
" A pretty child was sleeping
in its cradle; its mother was
looking at it. She wanted to
give it the morning kiss; but the
kiss might awaken it. To avoid
this, she threw it a thousand
kisses with her hand."
UN SOGNO
Vidi una fata un giorno
Che avea le trecce d'oro
E un abito di perle
Pin ricco d'un tesoro.
" Vieni con me," mi disse,
" Che ti faro regina."
" Non vengo, bella fata ;
lo sto con la mammina."
A DREAM
I saw a fairy one day, with
golden hair and a dress of pearls,
richer than a treasure.
" Come with me," the fairy
said, " and I'll make you a
queen." " I cannot, pretty fairy,"
I replied, " I must stay with
mother."
LA NEVE
Lenta la neve fiocca, fiocca,
fiocca,
Senti, una culla donclola pian
piano.
Un bimbo piange, il piccol dito
in bocca,
Canta la vecchia, il mento in su
la mano.
LA GALLINA
lo vi domando se si puo trovare
Un piu bravo animal della gal-
lina.
Se non avesse il vizio di raspare
THE SNOW
The flakes of snow are falling,
falling, falling. Listen, a cradle
is gently, gently rocking; a baby
cries, his finger in his mouth;
the old nurse sings, her chin in
her hand.
THE HEN
I leave it to you : is there a
nicer animal than the hen? If
only she wouldn't scratch, I
would like to have one with me
READING
193
Ne vorrei sempre aver una vi- all the time. Every day, at a
cina. certain hour : " Cut-cut-cut-cut-
Tutti i giorni a quell'ora : " Coc- cadakut ! "
code " ! Run and look in the nest, and
Corri a guardar nel covo e 1'ovo an egg is there!
c'e!
LA POVERA BAMBINA
Disse: "Mia madre e mortal
lo son digiuna
E la stagion e cruda ;
In terra a me non pensa anima
alcuna:
Sono orfanella e ignuda."
THE POOR ORPHAN CHILD
She said: "My mother is
dead ; I have nothing to eat ; the
weather is cold. There is no one
left to think of me. I am a rag-
ged orphan girl."
IL PESCE
Un di fuor della vasca del giar-
dino
GuizzO imprudentemente un pes-
ciolino.
Gigi lo vide, e tutto disperato
Grido alia mamma: un pesce s'e
annegato !
THE FISH
One day a little fish jumped
imprudently out of the garden
pool. Gigi saw it and all excit-
edly cried out: " Mamma, mam-
ma, a fish has drowned himself."
QUEL CHE POSSIEDE UN
BAMBINO
Due piedi lesti lesti
per correre e saltare.
Due mani sempre in moto
per prendere e per fare.
La bocca piccolina
per tutto domandare.
Due orecchie sempre all'erta
intente ad ascoltare.
Due occhioni spalancati
per tutto investigare.
E un cuoricino buono
per molto, molto amare.
A CHILD S POSSESSIONS
Two little lively feet to run and
jump with.
Two busy hands to take and do
things.
One little mouth to ask questions
with.
Two ears always awake to hear
everything with.
Two bright eyes always open to
see everything with.
One little heart to love with.
IL BUON ODORE
" Ma, bimbo mio, perche
Sciupar questo bel fiore? "
" Cercavo il buon odore,
Non so capir dov'e."
LlNA SCHWABZ.
THE FLOWER S FRAGRANCE
" Why spoil that pretty flow-
er, my 'child? "
" I was looking for the sweet
smell and I haven't been able to
find it."
194 MONTESSORI ELEMENTARY MATERIAL
NINNA-NANNA DI NATALE
Ninna-nanna, gelato e il foco-
lare;
fanciul, non ti svegliare.
Per coprirti dal frcddo, o mio
bambino,
Cucio in un vecchio scialle un
vestitino.
Ma il lueignolo trema e 1'occhio
e stance,
bimbo dal viso bianco.
Chi sa se per domani avro finito
Questo che aspetti povero ves-
tito!
ADA NEGRI.
CHRISTMAS LULLABY
Lullaby, the fire is out, my
child, do not awaken. To keep
you warm, my little child, I
must make you a little dress
from this old shawl.
But the lamp is dim and my
eyes are tired, O child of the
white face. Who knows if even
by tomorrow I can have this
poor dress for you.
A corresponding book of English verse might include
something like the following:
THE WHOLE DUTY OF A
CHILD
A child should always say what's
true,
And speak when he is spoken to,
And behave mannerly at table —
At least so far as he is able.
STEVENSON.
THE RAIN
The rain is raining all around,
It falls on field and tree,
It rains on the umbrella here
And on the ships at sea.
STEVENSON.
THE COW
Thank you, pretty cow, that
made
Pleasant milk to soak my bread,
Every day and every night
Warm and fresh and sweet and
white.
ANN TAYLOE.
THE BAIN
The rain is raining all around,
Kittens to shelter fly,
But human folk wear over-shoes
To keep their hind-paws dry.
0. HERFORD.
FISHES
How very pleasant it must be
For little fishes in the sea!
They never learn to swim at all:
It came to them when they were
small.
" Swim out like this," their
mother cried,
" Straight through the water,
foam and tide."
They waved their fins and
writhed their scales,
And steered their little rudder
tails.
Already they know what to do —
I wish that I could do it too!
ALICE FARWELL BROWN.
BEADING
195
THE LITTLE COCK SPARROW
A little cock-sparrow sat on a
green tree,
And he chirruped, he chirruped,
so merry was he;
A naughty boy came with his
wee bow and arrow,
Determined to shoot this little
cock-sparrow.
" This little cock-sparrow shall
make me a stew,
And his giblets shall make me a
little pie too."
" Oh, no ! " said the sparrow, " I
won't make a stew " ;
So he napped his wings and
away he flew.
BOOK OF KNOWLEDGE.
THE TREE
What do we do when we plant
the tree?
We plant the houses for you and
me;
We plant the rafters, the shin-
gle, the floors,
We plant the studding, the laths,
the doors,
The beams and siding — all parts
that be!
We plant the house when we
plant the tree.
HENRY ABBEY.
THE LAMB
Little lamb, who made thee?
Dost thou know who made thee,
Gave thee life and bade thee feed
By the stream and o'er the mead ;
Gave thee clothing of delight,
Softest clothing woolly bright;
Gave thee such a tender voice,
Making all the vales rejoice?
Little lamb who made thee?
Dost thou know who made thee?
W. BLAKE.
Let dogs delight to bark and bite,
For God hath made them so;
Let bears and lions growl and
fight,
For 'tis their nature too.
But, children, you should never
let
Such angry passions rise:
Your little hands were never
made
To tear each others' eyes.
WATTS.
The sunshine flickers through
the lace
Of leaves above my head,
And kisses me upon the face
Like Mother before bed.
The wind comes stealing o'er the
grass
To whisper pretty things;
And though I cannot see him
pass
I feel his careful wings.
STEVENSON.
After this preparation the children are able to " under-
stand ' what they read. All their difficulties in grasp-
ing the sentences and their most complicated constructions
have been overcome. They have an insight into the gram-
matical form of language; and the construction of a sen.-
196 MONTESSORI ELEMENTARY MATERIAL
tence, as well as the meaning of the words in it, interests
them. There has been created within them a fund of sup-
pressed energy which will very soon break forth into in-
tense activity. In fact, in our school, after these exer-
cises the passion for reading began to show itself. The
children wanted " reading, reading, more reading." We
got together hastily a few books but never enough to sat-
isfy the eagerness of the children. We found a surpris-
ing lack of reading for little children in Italian. The
American system of opening special rooms in public
libraries for the use of little readers seems to me an excel-
lent thing.
But to take full advantage of this awakened enthusiasm
for reading and to cultivate at the same time the art of
reading aloud we must not neglect another element in
reading: audition.
AUDITION
When the child has advanced to some extent in the
exercises of interpretation, the teacher may begin read-
ing aloud. This should be done as artistically as possible.
We recommend for the training of teachers not only a
considerable artistic education in general but special at-
tention to the art of reading. One of the differences be-
tween the traditional teacher of the past and the teachers
we should like to create is that the former used to speak
of an " art of teaching," which consisted of various de-
vices to make the child learn, in spite of itself, what the
teacher wanted to teach. Our teachers, rather, should be
cultivators of the fine arts. For in our method art is con-
sidered a means to life. It is beauty in all its forms which
helps the inner man to grow. We have repeatedly em-
phasized that both in the environment at school and in
HEADING 197
the materials used, everything should be carefully con-
sidered in its artistic bearings, to provide ample room for
development for all the phenomena of attention and per-
sistence in work which are the secret keys of self-education.
The Montessori teacher should be a cultivator of music,
drawing and elocution, responsive to the harmony of
things ; she must, that is, have sufficient " good taste " to
be able to lay out the school plant and keep it in condition ;
and sufficient delicacy of manner - - the product of a sensi-
tive nature - - to be alive to all the manifestations of the
child spirit.
In the matter of reading aloud the teacher has an impor-
tant task to accomplish. We found the drawing hour best
adapted for this work. It was our experience that it is
easier to gain a hearing when the children are busy with
something which does not require great concentration and
which is not sustained by any particular inspiration.
During the drawing lesson, in the placid silence which
comes from work, and while the children are intent on
their designs, the teacher may begin her reading aloud.
It sometimes happens that the substance of what she reads
will be sufficient to engage the interest of the whole school.
But this is not always an easy task. It is more often the
musical quality of the teacher's execution which will at-
tract the little ones with a sense for art and bring them to
that motionless attention which is the evidence of eager
enjoyment. Possibly a really perfect reader might be able
so to hold the whole group of children with some absorb-
ing selection.
The readings we used were numerous and of great va-
riety : fairy tales, short stories, anecdotes, novels, historical
episodes. Specifically there were the tales of Andersen,
some of the short stories of Capuana, the Cuore of De
198 MONTESSOKI ELEMENTARY MATERIAL
Amicis, episodes of the life of Jesus, Uncle Tom's Cabin,
The Betrothed (I promessi sposi of Manzoni), Fdbiola,
stories from the Italian wars for independence (Nine-
teenth Century), Itard's Education of the Young Savage of
Aveyron.
THE MOST POPULAR BOOKS
In general the child will listen to anything that is really
interesting. But certainly some surprise will be occa-
sioned by our discovery that the children liked above every-
thing else the readings on Italian history and the Educa-
tion of the Savage of Aveyron. The phenomenon is
sufficiently curious to merit further consideration. The
history we used was not one commonly thought adapted
to young readers. Quite the contrary : it was Pasquale
de Luca's / Liberatori (Makers of Freedom, Bergamo,
1909), written to arouse a feeling of patriotism among
the Italian emigrants of Argentina. The special feature
of this publication is its contemporary documents reprinted
in fac-simile. There are, for instance, telegrams, notices in
cipher published on the walls of the towns on the eve of up-
risings, commemorative medals, a receipt given by an exe-
cutioner for whipping publicly an Italian patriot, etc.
Patriotic songs are given with the music (these the chil-
dren learned by heart, following the piano) ; there are also
copious illustrations.
This documented history was so absorbing that the
children became entirely possessed by the situations.
They started animated discussions on various subjects,
arguing and deciding. They were particularly outraged
at an edict of the king of Naples which was intended to
mislead the public. They raged at unjust persecutions,
applauded heroic deeds, and ended by insisting on acting
BEADING 199
out some of the scenes. They formed little companies of
three or four and " acted " the episodes with a most impres-
sive dramatic sense. One little girl was moved to bring to
school a collection of all the Italian patriotic songs. It
fascinated many of the children, who learned several by
heart and sang them in chorus. In a word, the Italian
Risorgimento came to live in those little hearts with a fresh-
ness it has long since lost in the souls of their elders.
Many of the children wrote down their impressions of their
own accord, often giving surprisingly original judgments.
Finally they began to " take notes." They asked the
teacher to give an outline of the principal events, which
they took down in their copy-books. This whole experi-
ence corrected many of my own ideas on the teaching of
history. I had thought of preparing moving-picture films
and giving historical representations. But that, naturally,
being beyond my resources, I had been compelled to give
up the plan. The reading of De Luca's book was a reve-
lation. To teach history to children it is sufficient to give
a living documented truth. We need, not more cinemato-
graphs, but different school books. Children are much
more sensible to the true and beautiful than we. They
must be shown complete pictures of reality, which vividly
suggest fact and situation. De Luca, moved by affection
for his distant brothers, tried to write a book flaming both
with truth and with love, which would awaken them and
bring them back to live among us as Italians. Our task
is the same. We must be filled with a similarly intense
human zeal: we must call back to us the distant souls of
the children. They too are brothers living far away in
a distant country. We must arouse them, bring them
back to us as partners in our own life.
After our readings from Itard's Savage, the parents
200 MONTESSORI ELEMENTARY MATERIAL
of the children kept coming to us with inquiries:
" What have you been reading to our children \ We
should like to hear it ourselves." The little ones had told
of hearing an extraordinary story about a child who had
lived with the animals, beginning little by little to under-
stand, to f 3el, to live like us. All the psychological details
of his study, his attempts at education, seemed to have
touched the children deeply. It occurred to us to take the
older of such children to a " Children's House " and show
them our educational method. They took the greatest in-
terest in it, and some of them are now collaborators in the
foundation of other " Children's Houses." Such children
are able to follow the development of the child mind with
extraordinary sympathy. However, if we reflect that the
best teachers for children are children themselves, and that
little tots like the company of another child much better
than that of an adult, we need not be surprised at the down-
fall of another prejudice.
We have conceived of children according to a fantastic
idea of our own, making of them a sort of human species
distinct from that to which adults belong. As a matter
of fact, they are our children, more purely human than
we ourselves. The beautiful and the true have for them
an intense fascination, into which they plunge as into
something actually necessary for their existence.
The results here witnessed led us to many a reflection.
We succeeded in teaching history and even pedagogy by
means of " reading." And, in truth, does not reading
embrace everything? Travel stories teach geography;
insect stories lead the child into natural science ; and so
on. The teacher, in short, can use reading to introduce
her pupils to the most varied subjects; and the moment
they have been thus started, they can go on to any limit
Interpreted reading: "She was sleepy; she leaned her arms on the table,
her head on her arms, and went to sleep." Notice the slip of paper
which the child has just read. (The Lenox School, Uontessori Ele-
mentary Class, Xew York.)
3
a
CO
XJ
g
o
u
-^J
o>
"3
3
ifl
o>
-4->
a>
o
-*->
M
BEADING 201
guided by the single passion for reading. Our task is to
offer the child the instruments of education, to keep pure
within him the springs of his intellectual growth, of his
life of feeling. The rest follows as a matter of course.
As the ancients said : " Necessary education is the three
{ r's ' : reading, writing and arithmetic," for these are
things which the child cannot discover by himself. We
can only add that " method ' must be scientifically de-
termined only at the points where it becomes necessary to
assist the " formation of man," that he may develop his
activities by strengthening them and not by repressing
them, that he may receive essential help without losing any
of the pure freshness of his interior activities. But this
does not mean that " a rigorous method must guide the
child at all times and in every step that he takes." When
he has become strong and is in possession of his tools for
discovery, he will be able to uncover many of life's secrets
by himself. We tied the child to the materials in his sen-
sory exercises, but we left him free to explore his environ-
ment. This must be the method for all his later steps in
advance : he must be given the instrument and the strength
to use it, and then left free to find things out for himself.
The fondness of children for reading and their prefer-
ence for the " true " is something already demonstrated
by experiments conducted elsewhere. I may refer here to
the investigations on readings for children conducted by
the " Education ' section of the Federation for School
Libraries of the province of Emilia (Italy). The ques-
tionnaire was as follows :
Do you remember what books you have read and which you
liked best?
How did you get them?
Do you know the title of some book you would like to read ?
202 MONTESSORI ELEMENTARY MATERIAL
Do you prefer fairy-tales, or rather stories of true or prob-
able facts? Why?
Do you prefer sad or humorous stories ?
Do you like poetry?
Do you like stories of travel and adventure?
Do you subscribe to any weekly or monthly newspaper? If
so, to which?
If your mother were to offer you a choice between a sub-
scription to a weekly or a monthly and an illustrated
book, which would you take? And why?
The answers, very carefully sifted, showed that the vast
majority of children preferred readings which dealt with
fact. Here are some of the reasons alleged by the children
in support of their preference for " truth " : " Facts
teach me something ; fairy-tales are too improbable ; true
stories don't upset my thinking ; true stories teach me his-
tory ; true stories always convey some good idea ; fairy-
stories give me many desires impossible to satisfy; many
good ideas come from actual experiences; fantastic tales
make me think too much about supernatural things " ; etc.,
etc. In favor of the fairy-tales we find: " They amuse
me in hours free from work ; I like to be in the midst of
fairies and enchantments " ; etc. Those who preferred
sad or serious stories justified themselves as follows: " I
feel that I am a better person, and realize better the wrong
I do ; I feel that my disposition becomes more kindly ; they
arouse in me feelings of kindness and pity." Many sup-
ported their preference for humorous tales on the ground
that " when I read them, I am able to forget my own lit-
tle troubles." In general, a great majority denied any
educational value to joy and humor. In this conviction —
or rather this feeling — so widely diffused among chil-
dren, have we not evidence that something must be wrong
in the kind of education we have been giving them ?
PART III
ARITHMETIC
ARITHMETICAL OPERATIONS
NUMBERS : 1 - - 10
The children already had performed the four arith-
metical operations in their simplest forms, in the " Chil-
dren's Houses, "<k£he didactic material for these having con-
sisted of the rods of the long stair which gave empirical
representation of the numbers 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10.
By means of its divisions into sections of alternating
colors, red and blue, each rod represented the quantity of
unity for which it stood ; and so the entrance into the
complex and arduous field of numbers was thus rendered
easy, interesting, and attractive by the conception that col-
lective number can be represented by a single object con-
taining signs by which the relative quantity of unity can
be recognized, instead of by a number of different units,
represented by the figure in question. For instance, tfre"
fact that five may be represented by a single object with
five distinct and equal parts instead of by five distinct ob-
jects which the mind must reduce to a concept of number,
saves mental effort and clarifies the ideaTj
It was through the application of this principle by
means of the rods that the children succeeded so easily in
accomplishing the first arithmetical operations : 7 -f- 3 =
10 ; 2 -f 8 = : 10 ; 10 - - 4 = = 6 ; etc.
The long stair material is excellent for this purpose.
But it is too limited in quantity and is too large to be
205
206 MONTESSOKI ELEMENTARY MATEKIAL
handled easily and used to good advantage in meeting the
demands of a room full of children who already have been
initiated into arithmetic. V Therefore, keeping to the same
fundamental concepts, we have prepared smaller, more
abundant material, and one more readily accessible to a
large number of children working at the same time.
iThis material consists of beads strung on wires: i.e.,
bead bars representing respectively 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9,
10. The beads are of different colors. The 10-bead bar
is orange; 9, dark blue; 8, lavender; 7, white; 6, gray;
5, light blue ; 4, yellow ; 3, pink ; 2, green ; and there are
separate beads for unity.1 The beads are opalescent; and
the white metal wire on which they are strung is bent
at each end, holding the beads rigid and preventing them
from slipping.
There are five sets of these attractive objects in each
box; and so each child has at his disposal the equivalent
of five sets of the long stairs used for his numerical com-
binations in the earliest exercise. The fact that the rods
are small and so easily handled permits of their being used
at the small tables.
This very simple and easily prepared material has been
extraordinarily successful with children of five and a
half years. They have worked with marked concentra-
tion, doing as many as sixty successive operations and fill-
ing whole copybooks within a few days' time. Special
quadrille paper is used for the purpose ; and the sheets are
ruled in different colors: some in block, some in red, some
i At the present time, because of the difficulty of getting beads of
certain colors, owing to war conditions, the following colors have been
approved by Dr. Montessori to replace those originally used : 10-bead
bar, gold; 9, dark blue; 8, white; 7, light green; 6, light blue; 5, yel-
low; 4, pink; 3, green; 2, yellow-green; 1, gold. These same colors
are retained for the bead squares and the bead cubes. They will be
supplied by The House of Childhood, 16 Horatio Street, New York.
ARITHMETIC 207
in green, some in blue, some in pink, and some in orange.
The variety of colors helps to hold the child's attention:
after filling a sheet lined in red, he will enjoy filling one
lined in blue, etc.
Experience has taught us to prepare a large number of
the ten-bead bars ; for the children will choose these from
all the others, in order to count the tens in succession:
10, 20, 30, 40, etc. To this first bead material, there-
fore, we have added boxes filled with nothing but ten-bead
bars. There are also small cards on which are written
10, 20, etc. The children put together two or more of
the ten-bead bars to correspond with the number on the
cards. This is an initial exercise which leads up to the
multiples of 10. By superimposing these cards on that for
the number 100 and that for the number 1000, such num-
bers as 1917 can be obtained.
'"The " bead work ': became at once an established ele-
'r* ment in our method, scientifically determined as a con-
quest brought to maturity by the child in the very act of
making it. Our success in amplifying and making more
complex the early exercises with the rods has made the
child's mental calculation more rapid, more certain, and
more comprehensive. Mental calculation develops spon-
taneously, as if by a law of conservation tending to realize
the " minimum of effort." Indeed, little by little the
child ceases counting the beads and recognizes the num-
bers by their color: the dark blue he knows is 9, the
yellow 4, etc. Almost without realizing it he comes now
to count by colors instead of by quantities of beads, and
thus performs actual operations in mental arithmetic.1^ As
soon as the child becomes conscious of this power, he joy-
fully announces his transition to the higher plane, ex-
claiming, '(I can count in my head and I can do it more
208 MOOTESSOKI ELEMENTARY MATERIAL
quickly ! ' This declaration indicates that he has con-
quered the first bead material. I\
TENS, HUNDREDS, AND THOUSANDS
MATEEIAL: I have had a chain made by joining ten
ten-bead bars end to end. This is called the " hundred
chain." Then, by means of short and very flexible con-
necting links I had ten of these " hundred chains " put
together, making the " thousand chain."
These chains are of the same color as the ten-bead bars,
all of them being constructed of orange-colored beads.
The difference in their reciprocal length is very striking.
Let us first put down a single bead ; then a ten-bead bar,
which is about seven centimeters long; then a hundred-
bead chain, which is about seventy centimeters long; and
finally the thousand-bead chain, which is about seven
meters long. The great length of this thousand-bead
chain leads directly to another idea of quantity; for
whereas the 1, the 10, and the 100 can be placed on the
table for convenient study, the entire length of the room
will hardly suffice for the thousand-bead chain ! The chil-
dren find it necessary to go into the corridor or an ad-
joining room ; they have to form little groups to accomplish
the patient work of stretching it out into a straight line.
And to examine the whole extent of this chain, they have
to walk up and down its entire length. The realization
they thus obtain of the relative values of quantity is in
truth an event for them. For days at a time this amaz-
ing " thousand chain " claims the child's entire activity.
The flexible connections between the different hundred
lengths of the thousand-bead chain permit of its being
folded so that the " hundred chains " lie one next to the
other, forming in their entirety a long rectangle. The
ARITHMETIC 209
same quantity which formerly impressed the child by its
length is now, in its broad, folded form, presented as a
surface quantity.
Now all may be placed on a small table, one below the
other : first the single bead, then the ten-bead bar, then
the " hundred chain," and finally the broad strip of the
" thousand chain."
Any teacher who has asked herself how in the world a
child may be taught to express in numerical terms quan-
titative proportions perceived through the eye, has some
idea of the problem that confronts us. However, our chil-
dren set to work patiently counting bead by bead from
1 to 100. Then they gathered in two's and three's about
the " thousand chain," as if to help one another in count-
ing it, undaunted by the arduous undertaking. They
counted one hundred ; and after one hundred, what ? One
hundred one. And finally two hundred, two hundred one.
One day they reached seven hundred. " I am tired,"
said the child. " I'll mark this place and come back to-
morrow."
" Seven hundred, seven hundred - Look ! " cried an-
other child. " There are seven - -seven hundreds! Yes,
yes ; count the chains ! Seven hundred, eight hun-
dred, nine hundred, one thousand. Signora, signora, the
' thousand chain ' has ten ' hundred chains ' ! Look at
it ! ' And other children, who had been working with
the " hundred chain," in turn called the attention of their
comrades: "Oh, look, look! The 'hundred chain' has
ten ten-bead bars ! '
Thus we realized that the numerical concept of tens,
hundreds, and thousands was given by presenting these
chains to the child's intelligent curiosity and by respecting
the spontaneous endeavors of his free activities.
210 MONTE SSORI ELEMENTARY MATERIAL
And since this was our experience with most of the
children, one easily can see how simple a suggestion would
be necessary if the deduction did not take place in the case
of some exceptional child. In fact, to make the idea of
decimal relations apparent to a child, it is sufficient to di-
rect his attention to the material he is handling. The
teacher experienced in this method knows how to wait ; she
realizes that the child needs to exercise his mind con-
stantly and slowly; and if the inner maturation takes
place naturally, " intuitive explosions " are bound to fol-
low as a matter of course. The more we allow the chil-
dren to follow the interests which have claimed their fixed
attention, the greater will be the value of the results.
COUNTING-FRAMES
The direct assistance of the teacher, her clear and brief
explanation, is, however, essential when she presents to
the child another new material, which may be considered
" symbolic " of the decimal relations. This material con-
sists of two very simple bead counting-frames, similar in
size and shape to the dressing-frames of the first material.
They are light and easily handled and may be included in
the individual possessions of each child. The frames are
easily made and are inexpensive.
One frame is arranged with the longest side as base,
and has four parallel metal wires, each of which is strung
with ten beads. The three top wires are equidistant but
the fourth is separated from the others by a greater dis-
tance, and this separation is further emphasized by a brass
nail-head fixed on the left hand side of the frame. The
frame is painted one color above the nail-head and an-
other color below it ; and on this side of the frame, also,
numerals corresponding to each wire are marked. The
ARITHMETIC 211
numeral opposite the top wire is 1, the next 10, then 100,
and the lowest, 1000.
We explain to the child that each bead of the first wire
is assumed to stand for one, or unity, as did the separate
beads they have had before; but each bead of the second
wire stands for ten (or for one of the ten-bead bars) ; the
value of each bead of the third wire is one hundred and
represents the " hundred chain " ; and each bead on the
last wire (which is separated from the others by the brass
nail-head) has the same value as a "thousand chain." l
At first it is not easy for the child to understand this
symbolism, but it will be less difficult if he previously has
worked over the chains, counting and studying them with-
out being hurried. When the concept of the relationship
between unity, tens, hundreds, and thousands has ma-
tured spontaneously, he more readily will be able to recog-
nize and use the symbol.
Specially lined paper is designed for use with these
frames. This paper is divided lengthwise into two equal
parts, and on both sides of the division are vertical lines
of different colors : to the right a green line, then a blue,
and next a red line. These are parallel and equidistant.
A vertical line of dots separates this group of three lines
from another line which follows. On the first three lines
from right to left are written respectively the units, tens,
and hundreds ; on the inner line the thousands.
The right half of the page is used entirely and exclu-
sively to clarify this idea and to show the relationship of
written numbers to the decimal symbolism of the counting-
frame.
i It would, perhaps, be better in this first counting-frame to have
the beads not only of different colors, but of different sizes, according
to the value of the wires, as was suggested to me by a Portuguese
professor who had been taking my course.
212 MONTESSORI ELEMENTARY MATERIAL
With this object in view, we first count the beads on
each wire of the frame ; saying for the top wire, one unit,
two units, three units, four units, five units, six units,
seven units, eight units, nine units, ten units. The ten
units of this top wire are equal to one bead on the second
wire.
The beads on the* second wire are counted in the same
way : one ten, two tens, three tens, four tens, five tens, six
tens, seven tens, eight tens, nine tens, ten tens. The ten
ten-beads are equal to one bead on the third wire.
The beads on this third wire then are counted one by
one : one hundred, two hundreds, three hundreds, four hun-
dreds, five hundreds, six hundreds, seven hundreds, eight
hundreds, nine hundreds, ten hundreds. These ten hun-
dred-beads are equal to one of the thousand-beads.
There also are ten thousand-beads: one thousand, two
thousands, three thousands, four thousands, five thousands,
six thousands, seven thousands, eight thousands, nine thou-
sands, ten thousands. The child can picture ten separate
" thousand chains " ; this symbol is in direct relation,
therefore, to a tangible idea of quantity.
Now we must transcribe all these acts by which we have
in succession counted, ten units, ten tens, ten hundreds,
and ten thousands. On the first vertical line to the ex-
treme right (the green line) we write the units, one be-
neath the other; on the second line (blue) we write the
tens; on the third line (red) the hundreds; and, finally,
on the line beyond the dots we write the thousands. There
are sufficient horizontal lines for all the numbers, includ-
ing one thousand.
Having reached 9, we must leave the line of the units
and pass over to that of the tens ; in fact, ten units make
one ten. And, similarly, when we have written 9 in the
ARITHMETIC 213
tens line we must of necessity pass to the hundreds line,
because ten tens equal one hundred. Finally, when 9 in
the hundreds line has been written, we must pass to the
thousands line for the same reason.
The units from 1 to 9 are written on the line farthest
to the right; on the next line to the left are written the
tens (from 1 to 9) ; and on the third line, the hundreds
(from 1 to 9). Thus always we have the numbers 1 to 9 ;
and it cannot be otherwise, for any more would cause the
figure itself to change position. It is this fact that the
child must quietly ponder over and allow to ripen in his
mind.
It is the nine numbers that change position in order to
form all the numbers that are possible. Therefore, it is
not the number in itself but its position in respect to the
other numbers which gives it the value now of one, now of
ten, now of one hundred or one thousand. Thus we have
the symbolic translation of those real values which increase
in so prodigious a way and which are almost impossible
for us to conceive. One line of ten thousand beads is
seventy meters long! Ten such lines would be the length
of a long street ! Therefore we are forced to have re-
course to symbols. How very important this position oc-
cupied by the number becomes !
How do we indicate the position and hence the value
of a certain number with reference to other numbers?
As there are not always vertical lines to indicate the rela-
tive position of the figure, the requisite number of zeros
are placed to the right of the figure!
The children already know, from the " Children's
House," that zero has no value and that it can give no
value to the figure with which it is used. It serves merely
to show the position and the value of the figure written at
214 MONTESSORI ELEMENTABY MATERIAL
its left. Zero does not give value to 1 and so make it be-
come 10: the zero of the number 10 indicates that the
figure 1 is not a unit but is in the next preceding position
- that of the tens — and means therefore one ten and not
one unit. If, for instance, 4 units followed the 1 in the
tens position, then the figure 4 would be in the units place
and the 1 would be in the tens position.
The " Children's House " child already knows how to
write ten and even one hundred ; and it is now very easy
for him to write, with the aid of zeros, and in columns,
from 1 to 1000 : 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9 ; 10, 20, 30, 40,
50, 60, 70, 80, 90; 100, 200, 300, 400, 500, 600, 700,
800, 900; 1,000. When the child has learned to count
well in this manner, he can easily read any number of
four figures.
Let us now make up a number on the counting-frame ;
for example, 4827. We move four beads to the left on
the thousands-wire, eight on the hundreds-wire, two on
the tens-wire, and seven on the units-wire; and we read,
four thousand eight hundred and twenty-seven. This
number is written by placing the numbers on the same
line and in the mutually relative order determined by the
symbolic positions for the decimal relations, 4827.
We can do the same with the date of our present year,
writing the figures on the left-hand side of the paper as in-
dicated: 1917.
Let us compose 2049 on the symbolic number frame.
Two of the thousand-beads are moved to the left, four of
the ten-beads, and nine of the unit-beads. On the hun-
dreds-wire there is nothing. Here we have a good dem-
onstration of the function of zero, which is to occupy the
places that are empty on this chart.
Similarly, to form the number 4700 on the frame, four
The bead material used for addition and subtraction. Each of the nine
numbers is of different colored beads.
•JML.1
Counting and calculating by means of the bead chains. (A Montessori
School in Italy.)
The bead cube of 10; ten squares of 10; and chains of 10, of 100, and of
1000 beads.
This shows the first bead frame which the child uses in his study of arithme-
tic. The number formed at the left on the frame is 1,111.
ARITHMETIC 215
thousand-beads are moved to the left and seven hundred-
beads, the tens-wire and the units-wire remaining empty.
In transcribing this number, these empty places are filled
by zeros — a figure of no value in itself.
When the child fully understands this process he makes
up many exercises of his own accord and with the greatest
interest. He moves beads to the left at random, on one
or on all of the wires, then interprets and writes the num-
ber on the sheets of paper purposely prepared for this.
When he has comprehended the position of the figures and
performed operations with numbers of several figures he
has mastered the process. The child need only be left to
his auto-exercises here in order to attain perfection.
Very soon he will ask to go beyond the thousands. For
this there is another frame, with seven wires representing
respectively units, tens, and hundreds ; units, tens and
hundreds of the thousands ; and a million.
This frame is the same size as the other one but in this
the shorter side is used as the base and there are seven
wires instead of four. The right-hand side is marked by
three different colors according to the groups of wires.
The units, tens and hundreds wires are separated from
the three thousands wires by a brass tack, and these in
turn are separated in the same manner from the million
wire.
The transition from one frame to the other furnishes
much interest but no difficulty. Children will need very
few explanations and will try by themselves to under-
stand as much as possible. The large numbers are the
most interesting to them, therefore the easiest. Soon their
copybooks are full of the most marvelous numbers; they
have now become dealers in millions.
For this frame also there is specially prepared paper.
216 MONTESSORI ELEMENTARY MATERIAL
On the right-hand side the child writes the numbers cor-
responding to the frame, counting from one to a million:
1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9 ; 10, 20, 30, 40, 50, 60, 70, 80, 90 ;
100, 200, 300, 400, 500, 600, 700, 800, 900; 1,000,
2,000, 3,000, 4,000, 5,000, 6,000, 7,000, 8,000, 9,000;
10,000, 20,000, 30,000, 40,000, 50,000, 60,000, 70,000,
80,000, 90,000; 100,000, 200,000, 300,000, 400,000, 500,-
000, 600,000, 700,000, 800,000, 900,000 ; 1,000,000.
After this the child, moving the beads to the left on one
or more of the wires, tries to read and then to write on the
left half of the paper the numbers resulting from these hap-
hazard experiments. For example, on the counting-frame
he may have the number 6,206,818, and on the paper the
numbers 1,111, 111; 8,640,850; 1,500,000; 3,780,000;
5,840,714; 720,000; 500,000; 430,000; 35,840; 80,724;
15,229; 1,240.
When we come to add and subtract numbers of several
figures and to write the results in column, the facility re-
sulting from this preparation is something astonishing.
II
THE MULTIPLICATION TABLE
MATEEIAL: The material for the multiplication table
is in several parts. There is a square cardboard with a
hundred sockets or indentures (ten rows, ten in a row),
and into each of these indentures may be placed a bead.
At the top of the square and corresponding to each ver-
tical line of indentures are printed the numbers 1, 2, 3, 4,
5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10. At the left is an opening into which
may be slipped a small piece of cardboard upon which are
printed in red the numbers from 1 to 10. This card-
board serves as the multiplicand ; and it can be changed,
for there are ten of these slips, bearing the ten different
numbers. In the upper left-hand corner is a small in-
denture for a little red marker, but this detail is merely
secondary. This arithmetic board is a white square with
a red border; and with it comes an attractive box con-
taining a hundred loose beads.
The exercise which is done with this material is very
simple. Suppose that 6 is to be multiplied by the num-
bers in turn from ltolO:6Xl;6X2;6X3;6X4;
6X5; 6X6; 6X7; 6X8; 6X9; 6X10. Oppo-
site the sixth horizontal line of indentures, in the small
opening at the left is slipped the card bearing the num-
ber 6. In multiplying the 6 by 1, the child performs two
operations : first, he puts the red marker above the printed
1 at the top of the board, and then he puts six beads (cor-
217
218 MONTESSORI ELEMENTARY MATERIAL
responding to the number 6) in a vertical column under-
neath the number 1. To multiply 6 by 2, he places the red
marker over the printed 2, and adds six more beads, placed
in a column under number 2. Similarly, multiplying 6
by 3, the red marker must be placed over the 3, and six
more beads added in a vertical line under that number.
In this manner he proceeds up to 6 X 10.
The shifting of the little red marker serves to indicate
the multiplier and requires constant attention on the part
of the child and great exactness in his work.
While the child is doing these operations he is writing
down the results. For this purpose there is specially pre-
pared paper with an attractive heading which the child can
place at the right of his multiplication board. There are
ten sets of this paper in a series and ten series in a set,
MULTIPLICATION TABLE
COMBINATION OF
THREE
WITH THE NUMBERS 1 TO 10
3 X
3X
3 X
3 X
3X
3 X
3 X
3X
3X
3X
1 -- =
2 =
3 =
4 = =
5 =
6 =
7 —
0 .
9 =
10 =
AKITHMETIC 219
making a hundred sheets with each set of multiplication
material. The accompanying cut shows a sheet prepared
for the multiplication of number 3.
Everything is ready on the printed sheet; the child has
only to write the results which he obtains by adding the
beads in columns of three each. If he makes no error
he will write: 3, 6, 9, 12, 15, 18, 21, 24, 27, 30.
In this way he will work out and write down the whole
series from 1 to 10 ; and as there are ten copies of each
sheet, he can repeat each exercise ten times.
Thus the child learns by memory each of these multi-
plications. And we find that he helps himself to memo-
rize even in other ways. He walks up and down hold-
ing the multiplication sheet, which he looks at from time
to time. It is a sheet which he himself has filled, and
he may be memorizing seven times six, forty-two; seven
times seven, forty-nine; seven times eight, fifty-six, etc.
This material for the multiplication table is one of
the most interesting to the children. They fill six or
seven sets, one after the other, and work for days and
weeks on this one exercise. Almost all of them ask to
take it home with them. With us, the first time the ma-
terial was presented a small uprising took place, for they
all wished to carry it away with them. As this was not
permitted the children implored their mothers to buy it
for them, and it was with difficulty that we made them
understand that it was not on the market and therefore
could not be purchased. But the children could not
give up the idea. One older girl headed the rebellion.
" The Dottoressa wants to try an experiment with us,"
she said. " Well, let's tell her that unless she gives us
the material for the multiplication table we won't come
to school any more."
220 MONTESSOKI ELEMENTARY MATERIAL
This threat in itself was impolite, and yet it was inter-
esting; for the multiplication table, the bug-bear of all
children, had become so attractive and tempting a thing
that it had made wolves out of my lambs !
When the children have repeatedly filled a whole series
of these blanks, with the aid of the material, they are
given a test-card by means of which they may compare
their work for verification, and see whether they have
made any errors in their multiplication. Table by table,
number by number, they do the work of comparing each
result with the number which corresponds to it in each
one of the ten columns. When this has been done care-
fully, the children possess their own series, the accuracy
of which they are able to guarantee themselves.
MULTIPLICATION TABLE
PRESENTING THE COMBINATIONS OF NUMBERS IN THE
PROGRESSIVE SERIES FROM 1 TO 10
1 X
1 =
1
2 X
1
= 2
3 X
1
= 3
4 X
1
= 4
5 X
1
5
1 X
2 =
2
2 X
2
= 4
3 X
2
= 6
4 X
2
= 8
5 X
2 =
10
1 X
3 =
3
2X
3
= 6
3 X
3
= 9
4 X
3
= 12
5 X
o
15
1 X
4 =
4
2X
4
= 8
3 X
4
= 12
4X
4
= 16
5 X
4 =
20
1 X
5 =
5
2 X
5
= 10
3X
5
= 15
4X
5
= 20
5 X
5 =
25
1 X
6 =
6
2 X
6
= 12
3 X
6
= 18
4X
6
= 24
5 X
6 =
30
1 X
7 =
7
2 X
7
= 14
3 X
7
= 21
4 X
7
= 28
5 X
7 —
35
1 X
8 =
8
2X
8
= 16
3 X
8
= 24
4 X
8
= 32
5 X
8 =
40
1 X
9 =
9
2 X
9
= 18
3 X
9
= 27
4 X
9
= 36
5 X
9 =
45
1 X
10 =
10
2 X
10
= 20
3 X
10
= 30
4 X
10
= 40
5 X
10 =
50
G X
1 =
6
7 X
1
= 7
8 X
1
= 8
9 X
1
= 9
10 X
1
10
G X
2 =
12
7X
2
= 14
8X
2
= 16
9X
2
= 18
10 X
2 =
20
G X
O i i
18
7 X
3
= 21
8 X
3
= 24
9 X
3
= 27
10 X
O _^_
30
G X
4 =
24
7X
4
= 28
8X
4
= 32
9 X
4
= 36
10 X
4 =
40
G X
5 =
30
7X
5
= 35
8X
5
= 40
9X
5
= 45
10 X
5 =
50
G X
6 =
36
7 X
6
= 42
8X
6
= 48
9 X
6
= 54
10 X
6 =
60
G X
7 =
42
7 X
7
= 49
8 X
7
= 56
9 X
7
= 63
10 X
7 =
70
G X
8 =
48
7 X
8
= 56
8X
8
= 64
9 X
8
= 72
10 X
8 =
80
G X
9 =
54
7X
9
= 63
8 X
9
= 72
9 X
9
= 81
10 X
9 =
90
6 X
10 =
60
7 X
10
= 70
8 X
10
= 80
9 X
10
=;90
10 X
10 =
100
ARITHMETIC
221
The children should write down on the following form,
in the separate columns, their verified results: under the
2, the column of the 2's; under the 3, the column of the
3's; under the 4, the column of the 4's, etc.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
Then they get the following table, which is identical
with the test cards included in the material. It is a sum-
mary of the multiplication table — the famous Pythag-
orean table.
THE MULTIPLICATION TABLE
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
2
4
6
8
10
12
14
16
18
20
3
6
9
12
15
18
21
24
27
30
4
8
12
16
20
24
28
32
36
40
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
50
6
12
18
24
30
36
42
48
54
60
7
14
21
28
35
42
49
56
63
70
8
16
24
32
40
48
56
64
72
80
9
18
27
36
45
54
63
72
81
90
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
222 MONTESSORI ELEMENTARY MATERIAL
The child has built up his multiplication table by a
long series of processes each incomplete in itself. It
will now be easy to teach him to read it as a " multipli-
cation table," for he already knows it by memory. In-
deed, he will be able to fill the blanks from memory, the
only difficulty being the recognition of the square in which
he must write the number, which must correspond both
to the multiplicand and to the multiplier.
We offer ten of these blank forms in our material.
When the child, left free to work as long as he wishes on
these exercises, has finished them all, he has certainly
learned the multiplication table.
Ill
DIVISION
MATERIAL: The same material may be used for di-
vision, except the blanks, which are somewhat different.
Take any number of beads from the box and count
them. Let us suppose that we have twenty-seven. This
number is written in the vacant space at the left-hand
side of the division blank.
DIVISION
REMAINDER
2 = =
3 =
4 -
5 =
27 6 =
7 =
8= 3
9= 3
10= 2
3
7
Then taking the box of beads and the arithmetic board
with the hundred indentures we proceed to the operation.
Let us first divide 27 by 10. "We place ten beads in
a vertical line under the 1 ; then in the next row ten
more beads under the 2. The beads, however, are not
sufficient to fill the row under the 3. Now on the paper
prepared for division we write 2 on a line with the 10
223
224 MONTESSORI ELEMENTARY MATERIAL
to the left of the vertical line, and to the right of the
same vertical line we write the remainder 7.
To divide 27 by 9, nine beads are counted out in the
first row, then nine in the second row under the 2, and
still another nine under the 3. There are no beads left
over. So the figure 3 is written after the equal-sign ( = )
011 a line with 9.
To divide 27 by 8 we count out eight beads, place them
in a row under the 1, and then fill like rows under the 2
and the 3 ; in the fourth row there are only three beads.
They are the remainder. And so on.
A package of one hundred division blanks comes in
an attractive dark green cover tied with a silk ribbon.
The multiplication blanks, with their tables for compari-
son and summary tables, come in a parchment envelope
tied with leather strings.
DIVISION
REMAINDER
2 =
q
4 =
5 =
6 —
7 =
Q
9 —
10 =
IV
OPERATIONS IN SEVERAL FIGURES
By this time the child can easily perform operations
with numbers of two or more figures, for he possesses all
the materials necessary and is already prepared to make
use of them.
For this work we have for the first three operations,
addition, subtraction, and multiplication, a counting-
frame ; and for division a more complicated material which
will be described later on.
ADDITION
Addition on the counting frame is a most simple opera-
tion, and therefore is very attractive. Let us take, for
example, the following:
1320 +
435
First we slide over the beads to represent the first num-
ber: 1 on the thousands-wire, 3 on the hundreds-wire,
and 2 on the tens-wire. Then we place next to them
the beads representing the second number: 4 on the hun-
dreds-wire, 3 on the tens-wire, and 5 on the units-wire.
Now there remains nothing to be done except to write the
number shown by the beads in their present position:
1755.
225
226 MONTESSOKI ELEMENTARY MATERIAL
When the problem is a more complicated one, the beads
for any one wire amounting to more than 10, the solu-
tion is still very easy. In that case the entire ten beads
would be returned to their original position and in their
stead one corresponding bead of the next lower wire
would be slipped over. Then the operation is continued.
Take, for example:
390 +
482
We first place the beads representing 390 : that is, 3
on the hundreds-wire and 9 on the tens-wire; or, vice
versa, beginning with the units, we would first place the
9 tens and then the 3 hundreds. For the second num-
ber we place 4 beads for the hundreds and then we begin
to place the 8 tens. But when we have placed only one
ten, the wire is full ; so the ten tens are returned to their
original position and to represent them we move over an-
other bead on the hundreds-wire; then we continue to
place the beads of the tens which now, after having con-
verted 10 of them into 1 hundred, remain but 7. Or
we can begin the addition by placing the beads for the
units before we place those for the hundreds ; and in that
case we move on the hundreds-wire first the bead repre-
senting the ten beads on the wire above, and then the
4 hundreds which must be added. Finally we write down
the sum as now indicated by the position of the beads:
872.
With a larger counting-frame it is possible to perform
in this manner very complicated problems in addition.
This shows the second counting-frame used in arithmetic. The child is
writing the number she has just formed on her frame. ( The Riving ton
Street Montessori School, Xeio York.)
ARITHMETIC 227
SUBTRACTION
The counting-frame lends itself equally well to prob-
lems in subtraction. Let us take, for example, the fol-
lowing :
8947-
6735
We place the beads representing the first number ; then
from them we take the beads representing the second num-
ber. The beads remaining indicate the difference be-
tween the two numbers; and this is written: 2212.
Then comes the more complicated problem where it
is necessary to borrow from a higher denomination.
When the beads of one wire are exhausted, we move over
the entire ten and take to represent them one bead from
the lower wire; then we continue the subtraction. For
example :
8954-
7593
We move the beads representing the first number; then
we take 3 beads from the units. Now we begin to sub-
tract the tens. We wish to take away 9 beads ; but when
we have moved five the wire is empty, and there are still
four more to be moved. We take away one bead from
the hundreds-wire and replace the entire ten on the tens-
wire; and then we continue to move beads on the tens-
wire until we have taken a total of nine - - that is, we
now move the other four. On the hundreds-wire there
remain but 8 beads, and from them \ve take the 5, etc.
Our final remainder is 1361.
228 MONTESSORI ELEMENTARY MATERIAL
It is easy to see how familiar and clear to the child
the technique of u borrowing " becomes.
MULTIPLICATION
When there is a number to be multiplied by more than
one figure, the child not only knows the multiplication
table but he easily distinguishes the units from the tens,
hundreds, etc., and he is familiar with their reciprocal
relations. He knows all the numbers up to a million and
also their positions in relation to their value. He knows
from habitual practise that a unit of a higher order can be
exchanged for ten of a lower order.
To have the child attack this new difficulty successfully
one need only tell him that each figure of the multiplier
must multiply in turn each figure of the multiplicand
and that the separate products are placed in columns and
then added. The analytical processes hold the child's at-
tention for a long period of time ; and for this reason they
have too great a formative value not to be made use of
in the highest degree. They are the processes which lead
to that inner maturation which gives a deeper realiza-
tion of cognitions and which results in bursts of spontane-
ous synthesis and abstraction.
The children, by rapidly graduated exercises, soon be-
come accustomed to writing the analysis of each multi-
plication (according to its factors) in such a way that,
once the work of arranging the material is finished, noth-
ing is left for them to do but to perform the multiplica-
tions which they already have learned in the simple
multiplication table.
Here is an example of the analysis of a multiplication
with three figures appearing in both the multiplicand and
the multiplier: 356 X 742.
ARITHMETIC 229
2 units f 6 units
742 = -\± tens 356 = | 5 tens
7 hundreds [3 hundreds
Each of the first numbers is combined with the three fig-
ures of the other number in the following manner:
u. 6 1 fl2 units u. 6 "I f24 tens
t. 5 hX u. 2 =-{10 tens t. 5 h X t. 4 = i 20 hundreds
h. 3 J I 6 hundreds h. 3 J L12 thousands
r42 hundreds
X h. 7 = J 35 thousands
[21 tens of thousands
When this analysis is written down, the work on the
counting-frames begins. Here the operations are per-
formed in the following manner : 2 X 6 units necessitate
the bringing forward of the ten beads on the first wire.
However, even those do not suffice. So they are slid back
and one bead on the second wire is brought forward,
to represent the ten replaced, and 011 the first wire two
beads are brought forward (12).
Next we take 2X5 tens. There is already one bead
on the tens-wire and to this should be added ten more,
but instead we bring forward one bead on the hundreds-
wire. At this point in the operation the beads are dis-
tributed on the wires in this manner:
2
1
1
Now comes 2X3 hundreds, and six beads on the cor-
responding wire are brought forward. When the multi-
plication by the units of the multiplier is finished, the
beads on the frame are in the following order:
230 MONTESSORI ELEMENTARY MATERIAL
2
1
7
We pass now to the tens : 4 X 6 — 24 tens. We must
therefore bring forward four beads on the tens-wire and
two on the hundreds-wire:
2
5
9
4 X 5 — 20 hundreds, therefore two thousands :
2
5
9
2
4X3 thousands = 12 thousands; so we bring forward
two beads on the thousands-wire and one on the ten-thou-
sands-wire :
2
5
9
4
1
Now we take the hundreds : 7 X 6 hundreds are 42
hundreds ; therefore we slide four beads on the thousands-
wire and two 011 the hundreds-wire. But there already
were nine beads on this wire, so only one remains and
the other ten give us instead another bead on the thou-
sands-wire :
2
5
ARITHMETIC 231
1
9
1
5X7 thousands - - 35 thousands, which is the same as
five thousands and three ten-thousands. Three beads on
the fifth wire and five on the fourth are brought forward ;
but on the fourth wire there already were nine beads, so
we leave only four, exchanging the other ten for one bead
on the fifth wire:
2
5
1
Finally 7X3 ten-thousands = = 21 ten-thousands. One
bead is brought forward on the fifth wire and two on the
hundred-thousands-wire.
At the end of the operation the beads will be distributed
as follows:
2 beads on the first wire (units)
5 " " second " (tens)
1 " " third (hundreds)
4 " " fourth " (thousands)
6 " " fifth (tens of thousands)
2 " " sixth (hundreds of thousands)
This distribution translated into figures gives the follow-
ing number: 264,152. This may be written as a result
right after the factors without the partial products: that
is, 742 X 356 = = 204,152.
Although this discription may sound very complicated,
the exercise on the counting-frame is an easy and most in-
232 MONTESSOKI ELEMENTARY MATERIAL
teresting arithmetic game. And this game, which con-
tains the secret of such surprising results, not only is an
exercise which makes more and more clear the decimal re-
lations of reciprocal value and position, but also it ex-
plains the manner of procedure in abstract operations.
In fact, in the multiplication as commonly performed:
356 X
742
712
1424
2492
264152
the same operations are involved ; but the figures, once
written down, cannot be modified as is possible on the
frame by moving the beads and substituting beads of
1
8i A •
10
•I A 4k A ^ •
100
' W W W W
1000
10.000
• A A A - • — •
(00.000
h 9 W W
1000.000
Fig. 1. The disposition of the beads for the number 49,152.
ARITHMETIC 233
higher value for those of lower value when the ten beads
of one wire, as a mechanical result of the structure of
the frame, are all used. As multiplication is ordinarily
written, such substitutions cannot be made; but the partial
products must be written down in order, placed in
column according to their value, and finally added. This
is a much longer piece of work, because the act of writ-
ing a figure is more complicated than that of moving a
bead which slides easily on the metal wire. Again, it is
not so clear as the work with the beads, once the child
is accustomed to handling the frame and no longer has
any doubt as to the position of the different values, and
when it has become a sort of routine to substitute one
bead of the lower wire for the ten beads of the upper
wire which have been exhausted. Furthermore, it is much
easier to add new products without the possibility of mak-
ing a mistake. Let us go back to the point in the opera-
tion where the beads on the frame read thus :
2
5
1
9
1
and it was necessary to add 35 thousands - - five beads
to the thousands-wire and three beads to the ten-thousands-
wire. The three beads on the fifth wire can be brought
forward without any thought as to what will happen on
the wire above when the five are added to the nine. In-
deed, what takes place* there does not make any differ-
ence, for it is not necessary that the operation on the higher
wire precede that on the lower wire.
234 MONTESSORI ELEMENTARY MATERIAL
1
10
•I A A • At •
100
1.000
1 •
10.000
• • • • •
100.000
1.000.000
Fig. 2. The disposition of the beads for the number 54,152; after
adding 5 thousands to the number 49,152.
In adding the five beads to the nine beads only four
remain on the fourth wire, since the other ten are substi-
tuted by a bead on the lower wire; this bead may be
brought forward even after the three for the ten-thousands
have been placed.
By the use of the frame the child acquires remark-
able dexterity and facility in calculating, and this makes
his work in multiplication much more rapid. Often one
child, working out an example on paper, has finished only
the first partial multiplication when another child, work-
ing at the frame, has completed the problem and knows
the final product. It is interesting even among adults to
watch two compete in the same problem, one at the frame
and the other using the ordinary method on paper.
It is very interesting, also, not to work out on the frame
the individual products in the sequence indicated in analyz-
ing the factors, but to work them out by chance. In-
AKITHMETIC 235
deed, it does not matter whether the beads are moved in
the order of their alignment or at random. The beads
on the ten-thousands-wire may be moved first, then the
hundreds, the units, and finally the thousands.
These exercises, which give such a deep understand-
ing of the operations of arithmetic, would be impossible
with the abstract operation which is performed only by
means of figures. And it is evident that the exercises
can be amplified to any extent as a pleasing game.
MULTIPLYING ON RULED PAPEK
Take, for example, 8640 X 2531. We write the fig-
ures of the multiplicand one under the other but in their
relative positions ; this also can be written by filling in the
vacant spaces with zeros.
In this way we repeat the multiplicand as many times
as there are figures in the multiplier ; but instead of writ-
ing beside these figures the words units, tens, etc., we indi-
cate this with zeros, which, for the sake of clearness, we fill
in till they resemble large dots.
The child already knows, from his previous exercises,
that zero indicates the position of a figure and that multi-
plying by ten changes this position. Therefore zeros in
the multiplier would cause a corresponding change of posi-
tion in the figures of the multiplicand.
The accompanying figure shows clearly what it is not
so easy to explain in words.
We are now ready for the usual procedure of multipli-
cation. A child of seven years reaches this stage very
easily after having done our preliminary exercises, and
then it does not matter to him how many figures he has
to use. Indeed, he is very fond of working with num-
bers of unheard of figures, as is shown in the following
236 MONTESSOEI ELEMENTAKY MATEEIAL
8»
6
4
o
2
5
3
I
o
4
o
6
o
0
8*
o
o
0
o
4
o
6
0
o
8*
o
0
o
0
4
0
6
0
0
8»
0
0
}
\
o
4
o
6
0
o
8»
o
0
o ,
o ^
4
0 i ..
6
o
o r *>
S*
o
o
o j
o
o 1
6«
4
0
o
o
SI-X3
8
o*
0
o
0 j
1
0
o
1
o "1
4*
0
o
0 Ly ,
6
o*
0
o
O 1 ^ '
8
0
o»
o
o
0 j
0«
o
o
o "1
4
o*
0
o
o 1 ^,
6
o
o*
o
o
o I ^
0 0
o
0«
o
o
0 J
Fig. 3.
example — one of the usual exercises done by the chil-
dren, who of themselves choose the multiplicand and the
multiplier; the teacher would never think of giving such
enormous numbers. They can now perform the operation
22,364,253 X 345,234,611
22364253 X
3452:34011
22364253
22364253
134185518
89457012
67092759
44728506
111821265
89457012
67092759
"7720914184760583
ARITHMETIC 237
without analysis of factors and without help from the
frames but by the method commonly used. This may be
seen by the way in which the example is written out and
then done by the child.
LONG DIVISION
Not only is it possible to perform long division with our
bead material, but the work is so delightful that it be-
comes an arithmetical pastime especially adapted to the
child's home activities. Using the beads clarifies the dif-
ferent steps of the operation, creating almost a rational
arithmetic which supersedes the common empirical meth-
ods, that reduce the mechanism of abstract operations to
a simple routine. For this reason, these pastimes pre-
pare the way for the rational processes of mathematics
which the child meets in the higher grades.
The bead frame will no longer suffice here. We need
the square arithmetic board used for the first partial mul-
tiplications and for short division. However, we require
several such boards and an adequate provision of beads.
The work is too complicated to be described clearly, but
in practise it is easy and most interesting.
It is sufficient here to suggest the method of procedure
with the material. The units, tens, hundreds, etc., are
expressed by different-colored beads: units, white; tens,
green ; hundreds, red. Then there are racks of different
colors : white for the simple units, tens, and hundreds ;
gray for the thousands ; Mack for the millions. There
also are boxes, which on the outside are white, gray, or
black, and on the inside white, green, or red. And for
each box there is a corresponding rack containing ten tubes
with ten beads in each.
Suppose we must divide 87,632 by 64. Five of the
238 MONTESSORI ELEMENTARY MATERIAL
boxes are put in a row, arranged from left to right accord-
ing to the value of their color, as follows : two gray boxes
— one green inside and the other white — and three white
boxes with the inside respectively red, green, and white.
In the first box to the left we put 8 green beads; in the
second box 7 white beads; in the third, 6 red beads; in
the fourth 3 green beads; and in the fifth box 2 white
beads. Back of each box is one of the racks with ten
tubes filled with beads of corresponding colors. These
beads — ten in each tube - - are used in exchanging the
units of a higher denomination for those of a lower.
There are two arithmetic boards, one next to the other,
placed below the row of boxes. In the one to the left, the
little cardboard with the figure 6 is inserted in the slot
we have described, and in the other to the right the fig-
ure 4.
Now to divide 87,632 by 64, place the first two boxes
at the left (containing 8 and 7 beads respectively) above
the two arithmetic boards. On the first board the eight
beads are arranged in rows of six, as in the more simple
division. On the second board the seven beads are ar-
ranged in rows of four, corresponding to the number in-
dicated by the red figure. The two quotients must be re-
duced with reference to the quotient in the first arithmetic
board. All the other is considered as a remainder. The
quotient in this case is 1 and the remainders are 2 on the
first board and 3 on the second.
When this is finished, the boxes are moved up one place
and then the first box is out of the game, its place hav-
ing been taken by the second box ; so the gray-green box
is no longer above the first board but the gray-white one
instead, and above the second board we must place the box
with the red beads.
The child here is solving a problem in long division.
Barcelona, Spain.)
Montessori School,
MI tm im tm
mm mm m
The illustration at the top shows the square and the cube of 4 and of 5.
That in the middle shows the arithmetic-hoard being used for multi-
plication. In the photograph at the bottom a problem in division
is being worked out on the arithmetic-board : 26 -f- 4 <=i 6 and 2 re-
mainder.
ARITHMETIC 239
Now the beads must be adjusted. The two beads that
are left over on the card marked with the number 6 are
green but the box above this card is the gray-white one.
We must therefore change the green beads into white
beads, taking for each one of them a tube of ten white
beads. The white beads which were left over on the other
card must be brought to the card above which the white
box is now placed. We have only to arrange the white
beads now in rows of six while the other box of red beads
is emptied on to the second board in rows of four, as in
simple division.
With the material arranged in this way according to
color, we proceed to the reduction, which is done by
exchanging one bead of a higher denomination for
ten of a lower. Thus, for example, in the present case we
have twenty-three white beads distributed on the first
board in rows of six, which gives a quotient of three and
a remainder of five. On the second board there are six
red beads distributed in rows of four, giving a quotient
of one with a remainder of two. Now the work of reduc-
tion begins. This consists in taking one by one the
beads from the board to the left — in this case the white
— and exchanging them for ten red beads, which in turn
are placed in rows of four on the other board until the
quotients on the two cards are alike. What is left
over is the remainder. In this case it is necessary to
change only the one white bead so as to have the other
quotient reach three with a remainder of four.
The same process is continued until all the boxes are
used.
The final remainder is the one to be written down with
the quotient.
The exercise requires great patience and exactness, but
240 MONTESSORI ELEMENTARY MATERIAL
it is most interesting and might be called an excellent
game of solitaire for children for home nse. There is
no intellectual fatigue but much movement and much in-
tense attention. The quotients and remainders may be
written on a prepared sheet of paper, so as to be verified
by the teacher.
When the child has performed many of these exercises
he comes spontaneously to try to foresee the result of an
operation without having to make the material exchange
and arrangement of the beads ; hence to shorten the me-
chanical process. When at length he can " see " the sit-
uation at a glance, he will be able to do the most diffi-
cult division by the ordinary processes without experi-
encing any fatigue, or without having been obliged to
endure tiring progressive lessons and humiliating correc-
tions. Not only will he have learned how to perform
long divisions but he will have become a master of their
mechanism. He will realize each step, in ways that the
children of ordinary secondary schools possibly never
will be able to understand, when through the usual meth-
ods of rational mathematics they approach the incompre-
hensible operations which they have performed for several
years without considering the reasons for them.
EXERCISES WITH NUMBERS
MULTIPLES, PRIME NUMBERS, FACTORING
When the child, by the aid of all this material, has
had a chance to grasp the fundamental ideas relating to
the four operations and has passed on to the execution
of them in the abstract, he is ready to continue on the
numerical processes which will lead to a more profound
study preparatory to the more complex problems that await
him in the secondary schools.
These studies are, however, a means of helping him to
remember the things he already knows and to enlarge
upon them. They come to him as a pastime, as an agree-
able manner of thinking over either in school or at home
the ideas which he already has gained.
One of the first exercises is that of continuing the
multiplication of each number by the series of 1 to 10
which was begun by the exercises on the multiplication
tables. This should be done in the abstract: that is,
without recourse to the material. Let us, however, set
some limit - - we will stop when each product has reached
100. In order that these series of exercises may each be
in one column the first exercises will stop with 50 and
another can be used for the numbers from 51 to 100.
The two following tables (A and B) are the result.
These are prepared in this manner in our material so that
the child may compare his work with them.
241
242 MONTESSORI ELEMENTARY MATERIAL
o o o o o
tH <N CO «* 10
•— i <M eo "f 10
X X X X X
o o o o o
O5 00 t~- CO
T-I CM co
X X X X X
o o o o o
00 CO •** « O 00
I-H N CO <* "*
i— ' CM co *# 10 o
X X X X X X
<X GO GO GO OO CO
£* ^^ ^H OO IO ^J G)
^H Ol Oi 00 ^^ ^tf
II II II II I! II II
l~* C-J C*7 ^t* *O CD l^—
X X X X X X X
«^ t^ I— l>- t- t— 1^
w
CDCJOO^OCOCJOO
i— I (M CO Tl< IO O t~- OO
XXXXXXXX
i— I <M CO Tt1 1(5 O 1-- CO C5 O
xxxxxxxxxx
o ID 10 10 >- >o >fi irj 10 w
<N
xxxxxxxxxxxx
^H CM C7> rfi 10 O l~- GC O O ^ (M CO "* 10 O
XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX
co oo
Cl C-3
xxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxx
ARITHMETIC
243
o o o o o
(O I- OO G) O
co i^. oo Oi c
X X X X X
o o o o o
<* W O* i-l O O5
10 CO l> 00 C5 O>
X X X X X X
O SI O O C3 O5
CO <* <M O CO CO
Uj CO t>- OO OO OS
t^ CO O O •— i C-J
X X X X X X
CO ^3 X OO OO CC
CO CO O t> *J* "-" OO
IO CO t- !> 00 O5 O5
CO C5 O
CM
X X X X X X X
1-^ t-- b_ t^ t^ t-- t—
w
w
m
^ xxxxxxxx
" coocococococcc:
C5 O
C-l CO
LO CD
C
xxxxxxxxxx
xxxxxxxxxxxxx
OOOOOOOSO5O3O5
t--cocio-- i
xxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxx
i>QOaoaoaocoa>nno)a>o
cot^cooo^HcxaMTtiioot~-cooiO'— itMfOTtiiocot— oooiO
(>3C<10<lCJ«COCOCOCOOOCOCOCOW)Tj<Tt<'*'i<-^tlTj<Tt<-^lTt(rt<in
xxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxx
244 MONTESSORI ELEMENTARY MATERIAL
TABLE C
1
51
2
52
3
53
4
54
5
55
6
56
7
57
8
58
9
59
10
60
11
61
12
62
13
63
14
64
15
65
16
66
17
67
18
68
19
69
20
70
21
71
22
72
23
73
24
74
25
75
26
76
27
77
28
78
29
79
30
80
31
81
32
82
33
83
34
84
35
85
36
86
37
87
38
88
39
89
40
90
41
91
42
92
43
93
44
94
45
95
46
96
47
97
48
98
49
99
50
100
ARITHMETIC
TABLE D
245
1
53
2
54
.-_
2
X 27 =
3 X 18 =
6
X
9 =
3
9X6
4 =
2X2
55
-
5
X 11
5
56
"
2
X 28 =
4 X 14 =
7
X
8 =
6 =
2X3 = 3
X 2
8X7
7
57
3
X 19
8 =
2X4 = 4
X 2
58
2
X 29
9 =
3X3
59
10 =
2X5 = 5
X2
60
2
X 30 =
3 X 20 -
4
X
15 =
11
5 X 12 = 6 X 10 =
15
X 4
12 =
2 X6 =
3
X4=4X3=6X2
61
13
62
2
X 31
14 =
2X7 = 7
X 2
63
r=
3
X 21 =
7X9 = 9
X 7
15 =
3X5=5X3
64
2
X 32 =
4 X 16 =
8
-
8
16 =
2X8=4X4=8X2
65
5
X 13
17
66
-
2
X 33 =
3 X 22 =
6
X
11
18 =
2 X9 =
3
X6=6X3=9X2
67
19
68
2
X 34 =
4 X 17
20 =
2 X 10
~
4X5=5X4=
69
3
X 23
10 X 2
70
2
X 35 =
5 X 14 =
7
X
10 =
21 =
7X3 = 3
X 7
10 X 7
22 =
2 X 11
71
23
72
2
X 36 =
3 X 24 -
•
X
18 =
24 =
2 X 12
—
3X8=4X6=
61X12 = 8X9 =
9
X
8
6X4
:
8X3
73
25 =
5X 5
74
2
X 37
26 =
2 X 13
75
3
X 25 =
5 X 15
27 =
3X9 = 9
X 3
76
2
X 38 =
4 X 19
28 =
2 X 14
4X7=7X4
77
=
7
X 11
29
78
2
X 39 =
3 X 26 =
6
X
13
30 =
2 X 15
3X10 = 5X6 =
79
6X5
10 X 3
80
2
X 40 =
4 X 20 =
5
X
16 =
31
8 X 10 = 10 X 8
32 =
2 X 16
=
4X8=8X4
81
3
X 27 =
9X9
33 =
3X11
82
2
X 41
34 =
2X17
83
35 =
5X7=7X5
84
2
X 42 =
3 X 28 =
4
•
21 =
36 =
2 X 18
3X12 = 4X9 =
6 X 14 = 7 X 12
6X6
=
9X4
65
5
X 17
37
86
=
2
X 43
38 =
2 X 19
87
3
X 29
39 =
3 X 13
88
2
X 44 = 4 X 22 =
8 X
11
40 =
2 X 20
=r
4X10 = 5X8 =
89
8X5
10 X 4
90
»
X 45 -
3 X 30 =
5
X
18 =
41
6 X 15 = 9 X 10 =
10
X 9
42 =
2X 21
—
3X14 = 6X7 =
91
=
7
X 13
7 X G
92
2
X 46 =
4 X 23
43
93
3
X 31
44 =
2 X 22
4X 11
94
2
X 47
45 =
3 X 15
5X9=9X5
95
=
5
X 19
46 =
2 X 23
96
2
X 48 =
3 X 32 =
4
X
24 =
47
6 X 16 = 8 X 12
48 =
2 X 24
—
3 X 16 = 4 X 12 =
97
6X8
8X6
98
=z
2
X 49 = 7 X 14
49 =
7X7
99
3
X 33 = 9 X 11
50 =
2 X 25
:=
5 X 10 = 10 X 5
100 =
2 X 50 = 4 X 25 =
5X 20 :
51 =
3X17
10 X
10
52 =
2 X 26
rz
4X13
246 MONTESSORI ELEMENTARY MATERIAL
To read over a column of the results of each number is
to learn them by heart, and it impresses upon the child's
memory the series of multiples of each number from 1 to
100.
With these tables a child can perform many interest-
ing exercises. He has sheets of long narrow paper. On
the left are written the series of numbers from 1 to 50
and from 51 to 100. He compares the numbers on these
sheets with the same numbers in the tables, series by
series, and writes down the different factors which he thus
finds ; for example, 6 = = 2 X 3 ; S = = 2X 4 ; 10 = 2X5.
Then finding the same number in the second column and
the other columns his result will read, 6 = 2X3 =
3X2; 18 = 2X9 = 3X6 = 6X3 = 9X2.
In this comparison the child will find that some num-
bers cannot be resolved into factors and their line is blank.
By this means he gets his first intuition of prime num-
bers (Tables C and D).
When the child has filled in this work from 1 to 50 and
from 51 to 100 and has reduced the numbers to factors
and prime numbers he may pass on to some exercises with
the beads.
The children now meditate, using the material, on the
results that they have obtained by comparing these tables.
Let us consider, for example, 6^=2X3 = 3X2. The
child takes six beads, and first makes two groups of three
beads and then three groups of two.
• 9 •• • ••
And so on for each number he chooses. For example
18==2X9 = ««»»»«»««
ARITHMETIC 247
= 6 X 3<=> ••••••
The child will try in every way to make other combina-
tions and he will try also to divide the prime numbers into
factors.
This intelligent and pleasing game makes clear to the
child the " divisibility " of numbers. The work that he
does in getting these factors by multiplication is really a
way of dividing the numbers. For example, he has di-
vided 18 into 2 equal groups, 9 equal groups, 6 equal
groups, and 3 equal groups. Previously he has divided 6
into 2 equal groups and then into 3 equal groups. There-
fore when it is a question of multiplying the two factors
there is no difference in the result whether he multiplies
2 by 3 or 3 by 2 ; for the inverted order of the factors does
not change the product. But in division the object is to
arrange the number in equal parts and any modification
in this equal distribution of objects changes the character
of the grouping. Each separate combination is a different
way of dividing the number.
The idea of division is made very clear to the child's
mind : 6-^-3 — 2, means that the 6 can be divided into
three groups, each of which has two units or objects ; and
6 -~ 2 = = 3, means that the 6 also can be divided into but
two equal groups, each group made up of three units or
objects.
The relations between multiplication and division are
very evident since we started with 6 = = 3X2;6 = = 2X3.
This brings out the fact that multiplication may be used
to prove division ; and it prepares the child to understand
the practical steps taken in division. Then some day
when he has to do an example in long division, he will
248 MONTESSORI ELEMENTARY MATERIAL
find no difficulty with the mental calculation required to
determine whether the dividend, or a part of it, is divisible
by the divisor. This is not the usual preparation for
division, though memorizing the multiplication table is
indeed used as a preparation for multiplication.
From the above exercises (Table D) others might be de-
rived involving further1 analysis of the same numbers.
For example, one of the possible factor groups for the
number 40 is 2 X 20. But 20 = = 2 X 10 ; and 10 =
2X5. Bringing together the smaller figures into which
the larger numbers have been broken, we get 40 =
2X2X2X5; in other words 40 = = 23 X 5.
This is the result for 60 :
60 ==2X 30 = = 2X2X15 ==2X2X3X5 =
22 X 3 X 5
For these two numbers we get accordingly the prime
factors : 23 X 5 ; and 22 X 3 X 5. What then have the
two larger numbers, 40 and 60 in common? The 22 is
included in the 23 ; the series therefore may be written :
22 X 2 X 5 ; and 22 X 3 X 5. The common element
(the greatest common divisor) is 22 X 5 = 20. The
proof consists in dividing 60 and 40 by 20, something
which will not be possible for any number higher than 20.
We have test sheets where the numbers from 1 to 100
are arranged in rows of 10, forming a square. Here the
child's exercise consists in underlining, in different
squares, the multiples of 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10. The
numbers so underlined stand out like a design in such a
way that the child easily can study and compare the tables.
For instance, in the square where he underlines the mul-
tiples of 2 all the even numbers in the vertical columns
are marked ; in the multiple of 4 we have the same linear
ARITHMETIC
TABLE E
249
1 2
3 4
5
6 7
8 9
10
1
2 3
4 5
6
7 8
9 10
11 12
13 14
15
16 17
18 10
20
11
12 13
14 15
16
17 18
19 20
21 22
23 24
25
26 27
28 29
30
21
22 23
24 25
26
27 28
29 30
31 32
33 34
35
36 37
38 39
40
31
32 33
34 35
36
37 38
39 40
41 42
43 44
45
46 47
48 49
50
41
42 43
44 45
46
47 48
49 50
51 52
53 54
55
56 57
58 59
60
51
52 53
54 55
56
57 58
59 60
61 62
63 64
65
66 67
68 69
70
61
62 63
64 65
66
07 68
69 70
71 72
73 74
75
76 77
78 79
80
71
72 73
74 75
76
77 78
7!) 80
81 82
83 84
85
86 87
88 89
90
81
82 83
84 85
86
87 88
89 90
91 92
93 94
95
96 97
98 99
100
91
92 93
94 95
96
97 98
99 100
1 2
3 4
5
6 7
8 9
10
1
2 3
4 5
G
7 8
9 10
11 12
13 14
15
16 17
18 19
20
11
12 13
14 15
10
17 18
19 20
21 22
23 24
25
26 27
28 29
30
21
22 23
24 25
26
27 28
29 30
31 32
33 34
35
36 37
38 39
40
31
32 33
34 35
36
37 38
39 40
41 42
43 44
45
46 47
48 49
50
41
42 43
44 45
40
47 48
49 50
51 52
53 54
55
50 57
58 59
60
51
52 53
54 55
56
57 58
59 60
61 62
63 64
65
66 67
68 69
70
61
62 63
04 65
66
67 68
69 70
71 72
73 74
75
76 77
78 79
80
71
72 73
74 75
76
77 78
79 80
81 82
83 84
85
86 87
88 89
90
81
82 83
84 85
80
87 88
89 90
91 92
93 94
95
96 97
98 99
100
91
92 93
94 95
96
97 98
99100
1 2
3 4
5
6 7
8 9
10
1
2 3
4 5
6
7 8
9 10
11 12
13 14
15
16 17
18 19
20
11
12 13
14 15
16
17 18
19 20
21 22
23 24
25
26 27
28 29
30
21
22 23
24 25
26
27 28
29 30
31 32
33 34
35
36 37
38 39
40
31
32 33
34 35
36
37 38
39 40
41 42
43 44
45
46 47
48 49
50
41
42 43
44 45
46
47 48
49 50
51 52
53 54
55
56 57
58 59
60
51
52 53
54 55
56
57 58
59 60
61 62
63 64
65
66 67
68 69
70
61
62 63
64 65
66
67 68
09 70
71 72
73 74
75
76 77
78 79
80
71
72 73
74 75
76
77 78
79 80
81 82
83 84
85
86 87
88 89
90
81
82 83
84 85
86
87 88
89 90
91 92
93 94
95
96 97
98 99
100
91
92 93
94 95
96
97 98
99100
250 MONTESSORI ELEMENTARY MATERIAL
123456789 10
11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30
31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40
41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50
51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60
61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70
71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80
81 82 83 84 85 86 87 88 89 90
91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100
1 23456789 10
11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30
31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40
41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50
51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60
61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70
71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80
81 82 83 84 85 86 87 88 89 90
91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100
1 2 3
11 12 13
21 22 23
31 32 33
41 42 43
51 52 53
61 62 63
71 72 73
81 82 83
91 92 93
4 5
14 15
24 25
34 35
44 45
54 55
64 65
74 75
84 85
94 95
6 7
16 17
26 27
36 37
46 47
56 57
66 67
76 77
86 87
96 97
8 9 10
18 19 20
28 29 30
38 39 40
48 49 50
58 59 60
68 69 70
78 79 80
88 89 90
98 99100
grouping — a vertical line --but the numbers marked
are alternate numbers; in 6 the same vertical grouping
continues, but one number is marked and two are skipped ;
and again in the multiples of 8 the same design is re-
peated with the difference that every fourth number is
underlined. On the square marked off for the multiples
of 3 the numbers marked form oblique lines running from
right to left and all the numbers in these oblique lines are
underlined. In the multiples of 6 the design is the same
but only the alternating numbers are underlined. The
6 therefore, partakes of the type of the 2 and of the 3;
and both of these are indeed its factors.
VI
SQUARE AND CUBE OF NUMBERS
Let us take two of the two-bead bars (green) which
were used in counting in the first bead exercises. Here,
however, these form part of another series of beads.
Along with these two bars there is a small chain : •• — ••
By joining two like bars, the chains represent 2X2.
There is another combination of these same objects - - the
two bars are joined together not in a chain but in the
form of a square : J *
They represent the same thing: that is to say, as num-
bers they are 2X2; but they differ in position - - one has
r the form of a line, the other of a square. It can be seen
from this that if as many bars as there are beads on a
bar are placed side by side they form a square.
In the series in fact we offer squares of 3 X 3 pink
beads ; 4 X 4 yellow beads ; 5 X 5 pale blue beads ;
G X 6 gray beads; 7X7 white beads; 8X8 lavender
beads ; 9 X 9 dark blue beads ; and 10 X 10 orange beads ;
thus reproducing the same colors as were used at the be-
ginning in counting.
For every number there are as many bars as there are
beads for the number, 3 bars for the 3, 4 for the 4, etc. ;
in addition there is a chain consisting of an equal number
of bars, 3X3; 4X4; and, as we have seen, there is a
square containing another equal quantity.
The child not only can count the beads of the chains
251
252 MONTESSORI ELEMENTARY MATERIAL
and squares, but he can reproduce them by placing the
corresponding single bars either in a horizontal line or
laying them side by side in the shape of a square. The
number repeated as many times as the unit it contains is
really the multiplication of the number by itself.
For example, taking the small square of four the child
can count four beads on each side ; multiplying 4 by 4
we have the number of beads in the square, 16. Multi-
plying one side by itself (squaring one side) we have the
area of the little square.
This can be continued for 5, 8, 9, etc. The square of
10 has ten beads on each side. Multiplying 10 by 10,
in other words, " squaring " one side we get the entire
number of beads forming the area of the square: 100.
However, it is not the form alone which gives these
results; for if the ten bars which formed the square are
placed end to end in a horizontal line, we get the " hun-
dred chain." This can be done with each square; the
chain 5X5, like the square 5X5, contains the same
number of beads, 25. We teach the child to write the
numbers with symbol for the square : 52 = 25 ; 72 = 49 ;
102 = : 100, etc.
Our material here is manufactured with reference to
the numbers 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, T, 8, 9, 10. It is " offered " to
the child, beginning with the smaller numbers. Given
the material and freedom, the idea will come of itself and
the child will " work " it into his consciousness on them.
In this same period we take up also the cubes of the
numbers, and there is a similar material for this : that is,
the chain of the cube of the number is made up of chains
of the square of that number joined by several links which
permit of its being folded. There are as many squares
for a number as there are units in that number — four
ARITHMETIC
253
squares for number 4, six squares for 6, ten squares for 10
- and a cube of the beads is formed by placing the neces-
sary number of squares one on top of the other.
Let us consider the cube of four. There is a chain
formed by four chains each representing the square of
four. They are joined by small links so that the chain
c
can be rolled up lengthwise. The chain of the cube, when
thus rolled, gives four squares similar to the separate
squares, which, when drawn out again, form a straight
line.
— •••• — •*•• — •••• — ••••
— •••• — • • • e — •••• — ••••
Fig. 5. — This shows only part of the entire chain for 43.
The quantity is always the same : four times the square
of four. 4 ; 4X4= : 42 X 4 = : 43.
The cube of four comes with the material ; but it can
be reproduced by placing four loose squares one on top of
the other. Looking at this cube we see that it has all its
edges of four. Multiplying the area of a square by the
number of units contained in the side gives the volume
of the cube : 42 X 4.
In this way the child receives his first intuitions of the
processes necessary for finding a surface and volume.
With this material we should not try to teach a great
25-i MONTESSORI ELEMENTARY MATERIAL
deal but should leave the child free to ponder over his
own observations - - observing, experimenting, and medi-
tating upon the easily handled and attractive material.
* * *
Little by little we shall see the slates and copybooks
filled with exercises of numbers raised to the square or
cube independently of the rich series of objects which
the material itself offers the child. In his exercises with
the square and cube of the numbers he easily will dis-
cover that to multiply by ten it suffices to change the posi-
tion of the figures — that is to say, to add a zero. Mul-
tiplying unity by ten gives 10 ; ten multiplied by ten is
equal to 100 ; one hundred multiplied by ten is equal to
1,000, etc.
Before arriving at this point the child will often either
have discovered this fact for himself or have learned it by
observing his companions.
Some of the fundamental ideas acquired only through
laborious lessons by our common school methods are here
learned intuitively, naturally, and spontaneously. An
interesting study which completes that already made with
the " hundred chain " and the " thousand chain " is the
comparison of the respective square chain and cube chain.
Such differing relations showing the increasing length
are most illustrative and make a marked impression upon
the child. Furthermore, they prepare for knowledge that
is to be used later. Some day when the child hears of
" geometric progressions ': or " linear squares " he will
understand immediately and clearly.
It is interesting to build a small tower with the bead
cubes. Though it will resemble the pink tower, this tower,
which seems to be built of jewels, gives a profound notion
AKITHMETIC 255
of the relations of quantity. By this time these cubes are
no longer recognized superficially through sensorial im-
pressions, but their minutest details are known to the
child through the progressively intelligent work which they
have occasioned.
PART IV
GEOMETRY
PLANE GEOMETRY
The geometric insets used for sensorial exercises in the
" Children's House " made it possible for the child to be-
come familiar with many figures of plane geometry: the
square, rectangle, triangle, polygon, circle, ellipse, etc.
By means of the third series of corresponding cards, where
the figures are merely outlined, he formed the habit of
recognizing a geometric figure represented merely by a
line. Furthermore, he has used a series of iron insets
reproducing some of the geometric figures which he
previously had learned through the use of wooden geo-
metric insets. He used these iron insets to draw the out-
line of a figure, which he then filled in with parallel
lines by means of colored pencils (an exercise in handling
the instruments of writing).
The geometric material here presented to the elementary
classes supplements that used in the " Children's House."
It is similar to the iron insets; but in this material each
frame is fastened to an iron foundation of exactly the same
size as the frame. Since each piece is complete in itself,
no rack is needed to hold them.
The frame of the inset is green, the foundation is white,
and the inset itself - - the movable portion - - is red.
When the inset is in the frame, the red surface and the
green frame are in the same plane.
This material further differs from the other in that each
259
260 MONTESSOEI ELEMENTARY MATERIAL
inset is composed not of a single piece, as in the first ma-
terial, but of many pieces which, when put together on the
white foundation, exactly reproduce the geometric figure
there designated.
The use to which these modified insets- may be put is
most varied. The main purpose is to facilitate the child's
auto-education through exercises in geometry and often
through the solution of real problems. The fact of being
able actually to " handle geometric figures/' to arrange
them in different ways, and to judge of the relations be-
tween them, commands the child's absorbed attention.
The putting together of the insets, which deal with equiv-
alent figures, reminds one of the " games of patience "
picture puzzles — which have been invented for children
but which, while amusing them, have no definite educa-
tional aim. Here, however, the child leaves the exer-
cises with " clear concepts " and not merely with general
" notions " of the principles of geometry, a thing which
is very hard to accomplish by the methods common to the
older schools. The difference between like figures, sim-
ilar figures, and equivalent figures, the possibility of re-
ducing every regular plane figure to an equivalent rect-
angle, and finally the solution of the theorem of Pytha-
goras — all these are acquired eagerly and spontaneously
by the child. The same may be said about work in frac-
tions, which is made most interesting by the exercises with
the circular insets. The real meaning of the word frac-
tion, operations in fractions, the reduction of common
fractions to decimal fractions — all of this is mastered and
becomes perfectly clear in the child's mind.
These are formative conquests and at the same time a
dynamic part of the child's intellectual activity. A child
who works spontaneously and for a long period of time
GEOMETRY 261
with this material not only strengthens his reasoning
powers and his character but acquires higher and clearer
cognitions, which increase his mental capacity. In
his succeeding spontaneous flights into the abstract he
will show ability for surprising progress. While a high
school child is still wasting his mental effort in trying to
understand the relation between geometrical figures, which
it seems impossible for him to comprehend, our child in
the primary grades is " finding it out for himself " and is
so elated by his discovery that he immediately begins
the search for other geometrical relations. Our children
gallop freely along over a smooth road, urged on by the
inner energy of their growing psychic organism, while
many other children plod on barefooted and in shackles
over stony paths.
Every positive conquest gained through objects with
our method of freedom — allowing the child to exercise
himself at the time when he is most ready for the exer-
cise and permitting him to complete this exercise - - re-
sults in spontaneous abstractions. How is it possible to
lead a child to perform abstractions if his mind is not
sufficiently mature and he is without adequate informa-
tion ? These two points of support are, as it were, the
feet of the psychic .man who is traveling toward his highest
mental activities. We shall always see the repetition of
this phenomenon. Every ulterior exercise of inner de-
velopment, every ulterior cognition, will lead the child
to new and ever higher flights into the realm of the ab-
stract. It is well, however, to emphasize this principle:
that the mind, in order to fly, must leave from some point
of contact, just as the aeroplane starts from its hangar,
and that it must have reached a certain degree of maturity,
as is the case with the small bird when it tries its wings
262 MONTESSORI ELEMENTARY MATERIAL
and starts on its first flight from the nest where it was
born and gained its strength. An aeroplane of perpetual
flight without a means of replenishing its supplies, and
a bird with only an " instinct of flight " without the
process of development that takes place from the egg to the
first flight, are things that do not exist.
A machine flying perpetually without need of replenish-
ing the fuel for its propelling energy, and an instinct
without a corresponding organism, are pure fancies. The
same is true of the flight of man's imagination, which
soars through space and creates. Though this is the mind's
" manner of being," its " highest instinct," yet it also
needs to find support in reality, to organize its inner forces
from time to time. The longer a material can claim and
hold a child's attention, the greater promise it gives that
an " abstract process," an " imaginative creation " will
follow as the result of a developed potentiality. This
creative imagination, which is ever returning to reality to
gain inspiration and to acquire new energies, will not be
a vain, exhaustible, and fickle thing, like the so-called im-
agination which our ordinary schools are trying to de-
velop.
Without positive replenishment in reality there never
will be a spontaneous flight of the mind; this is the un-
surmountable difficulty of the common schools in their at-
tempt to " develop the imagination " and to " lead to edu-
cation." The child who without any impelling force from
within is artificially " borne aloft "' by the teacher, who
forces him into the " abstract," can at most learn only
how to descend slowly like a parachute. He can never
learn to " lift himself energetically to dizzy heights."
This is the difference; hence the necessity for considering
the positive basis which holds the mind of the child to
GEOMETRY 263
systematic auto-exercises of preparation. After this it
suffices merely to grant freedom to the child's genius in
order that it may take its own flight.
I need not repeat that even in the period of replenishing,
freedom is the guide in finding the " particular moment "
and the " necessary time " ; for I already have spoken
insistently and at length concerning this. It is well, how-
ever, to reaffirm here even more clearly that a material for
development predetermined by experimental research and
put into relation with the child (through lessons) ac-
complishes so complete a work by the psychic reactions
which it is capable of stimulating that marvelous phe-
nomena of intellectual development may be obtained.
These geometric insets furnish rich materials for the ap-
plication of this principle and respond wonderfully to the
" instinct for work " in the child mind.
The exercises with this material not only are exercises
of composition with the pieces of an inset or of the sub-
stitution of them into their relative metal plates ; they are
also exercises in drawing which, because of the labor they
require, allow the child to take cognizance of every detail
and to meditate upon it.
The designing done with these geometric insets, as will
be explained, is of two kinds: geometric and artistic (me-
chanical and decorative). And the union of the two kinds
of drawings gives new ways of applying the material.
The geometric design consists in reproducing the figure
outlined by the corresponding insets. In this way the
child learns to use the different instruments of drawing —
the square, the ruler, the compass, and the protractor. In
these exercises he acquires, with the aid of the special port-
folio which comes with the material, actual and real cog-
nitions in geometry.
264 MONTESSORI ELEMENTARY MATERIAL
Artistic designs are made by combining the small pieces
of the various geometric insets. The resulting figures are
then outlined and filled in with colored pencils or water-
colors. Such combinations on the part of the child are
real esthetic creations. The insets are of such reciprocal
proportions that their combination results in an artistic
harmony which facilitates the development of the child's
esthetic sense. With our insets we were able to repro-
duce some of the classic decorations found in our master-
pieces of art, such as decorations by Giotto.
A combination of geometric design and artistic design
is formed by decorating the different parts of the geometric
figure — as the center, the sides, the angles, the circum-
ference, etc. ; or by elaborating with free-hand details the
decorations which have resulted from the combination of
the insets. But a far better concept of all this will be
gained as we pass on to explain our didactic material.
II
THE DIDACTIC MATERIAL USED FOR
GEOMETRY
EQUIVALENT, IDENTICAL AND SIMILAR FIGURES
FIRST SERIES OF INSETS : Squares and Divided Fig-
ures. This is a series of nine square insets, ten by ten
centimeters, each of which has a white foundation of the
same size as the inset.
One inset consists of an entire square; the others are
made up in the following manner :
A square divided into two equal rectangles
four equal squares,
eight equal rectangles
sixteen equal squares
two equal triangles
four equal triangles
eight equal triangles
sixteen equal triangles
The child can take the square divided into two rectan-
gles and the one divided into two triangles and inter-
change them : that is, he can build the first square with tri-
angles and the second with rectangles. The two triangles
can be superimposed by placing them in contact at the
under side where there is no knob, and the same can be
done with the rectangles, thus showing their equivalence
by placing one on the other. But there also is a certain
2G5
2G6 MONTESSORI ELEMENTARY MATERIAL
relation between the triangles and the rectangles ; indeed,
they are each half of the same square ; yet they differ
greatly in form. Inductively the child gains an idea of
equivalent figures. The two triangles are identical ; the
two rectangles also are identical ; whereas the triangle and
the rectangle are equivalents. The child soon makes com-
parisons by placing the triangle on the rectangle, and he
notices at once that the small triangle which is left over
on the rectangle equals the small triangle which remains
uncovered on the larger triangle, and therefore that the
triangle and the rectangle, though they do not have the
same form, have the same area.
This exercise in observation is repeated in a like man-
ner with all the other insets, which are divided succes-
sively into four, eight, and sixteen parts. The small
square which is a fourth of the original square, resulting
from the division of this latter by two medial lines, is
equivalent to the triangle which was formed by dividing
this same original square into four triangles by two diag-
onal lines. And so on.
By comparing the different figures the child learns the
difference between equivalent figures and identical figures.
The two rectangles are the result of dividing the large
GEOMETRY
267
square by a medial line and are identical; the two trian-
gles are formed by dividing the original square by a diag-
onal line, etc. Similar figures, on the other hand, are
those which have the same form but differ in dimension.
For example, the rectangle which is half of the original
square and the one which is half of the smaller square -
that is, an eighth of the original square - - are neither
identical nor equivalent but they are similar figures. The
same may be said of the large square and of the smaller
ones which represent a fourth, a sixteenth, etc.
Through these divisions of the square an idea of frac-
tions is gained intuitively. However, this is not the ma-
terial used for the study of fractions. For this purpose
there is another series of insets.
SECOND SERIES OF INSETS : Fractions. There are ten
metal plates, each of which has a circular opening ten cen-
timeters in diameter. One inset is a complete circle ; the
other circular insets are divided respectively into 2, 3, 4,
5, 6, 7, 8, 9, and 10 equal parts.
The children learn to measure the angles of each piece,
and so to count the degrees. For this work there is a cir-
cular piece of white card-board, on which is drawn in black
a semicircle with a radius of the same length as that of the
circular insets. This semicircle is divided into 18 sectors
by radii which extend beyond the circumference on to
the background; and these radii are numbered by tens
268 MONTESSORI ELEMENTARY MATERIAL
from 0° to 180°. Each sector is then subdivided into
ten parts or degrees.
60
70
50
40°
The diameter from 0° to 180° is outlined heavily and
extends beyond the circumference, in order to facilitate
the adjustment of the angle to be measured and to give
a strict exactness of position. This is done also with the
radius which marks 90°. The child places a piece of an
inset in such a way that the vertex of the angle touches
the middle of the diameter and one of its sides rests on the
radius marked 0°. At the other end of the arc of the
inset he can read the degrees of the angle. After these
exercises, the children are able to measure any angle with
a common protractor. Furthermore, they learn that a
circle measures 360°, half a circle 180°, and a right angle
90°. Once having learned that a circumference measures
360° they can find the number of degrees in any angle;
for example, in the angle of an inset representing the
seventh of the circle, they know that 360° -f- 7 = (ap-
proximately) 51°. This they can easily verify with their
instruments by placing the sector on the graduated circle.
These calculations and measurements are repeated with
all the different sectors of this series of insets where the
GEOMETRY 269
circle is divided into from two to ten parts. The pro-
tractor shows approximately that:
-4 circle 120° and 300° -f- 3 = 120°
o
" = 90° " 360° -j- 4 = 90°
4
" = 72° " 360° -I- 5 = 72°
5
" = 60°- " 360° -7- 6 = 60°
0
" = 51° " 360°-=- 7= 51°
7
" 45° " 360° -7- 8 = 45°
" 40° " 360° -f- 9 = 40°
9
" = 36° " 300° -f-10= 36°
10
In this way the child learns to write fractions :
______
~2~ IT 4~ 5 6 7 8 9 10
He has concrete impressions of them as well as an intuition
of their arithmetical relationships.
The material lends itself to an infinite number of com-
binations, all of which are real arithmetical exercises in
fractions. For example, the child can take from the
circle the two half circles and replace them by four sectors
of 90°, filling the same circular opening with entirely dif-
270 MONTESSORI ELEMENTARY MATERIAL
ferent pieces. From this he can draw the following con-
clusion :
!_ +JL JL + JL+J_ + J_
224444
He also may soy that two halves are equal to four
fourths, and write accordingly:
2
This is merely the expression of the same thing. See-
ing the pieces, he has done an example mentally and then
has written it out. Let us write it according to the first
form, which is, in reality, an analysis of this example:
_I,J_=J_ < J_ i ±_|_J_
224444
When the denominator is the same, the sum of the
fractions is found hy adding the numerators:
GEOMETRY 271
2 ' 2 2 44444
The two halves make an entire circle, as do the four
fourths.
]STow let us fill a circle with different pieces : for ex-
ample, with a half circle and two quarter circles. The
1 2
result is 1 = — — | . And in the inset itself it is
1 2
shown that — =— -. If we should wish to fill the circle
•2 4
with the largest piece (— ) combined with the fewest
£t
number of pieces possible, it would be necessary to with-
draw the two quarter sectors and replace them by another
half circle ; result :
i =-!+-! = JL = 1
2 2 " 2 '
Let us fill a circle with three- sectors and four -
5 10
sectors :
5 "l6"
If the larger pieces are left in and the circle is then
filled with the fewest number of pieces possible, it would
necessitate replacing the four tenths by two fifths.
Result :
Let us fill the circle thus : ~ -{- — + — = 1.
Now try to put in the largest pieces possible by sub-
stituting for several small pieces a large piece which is
272 MONTESSORI ELEMENTARY MATERIAL
equal to them. In the space occupied by the five tenths
may be placed one half, and in that occupied by the two
eighths, one fourth; then the circle is filled thus:
:T+T^~T :T' T*
We can continue to do the same thing, that is to re-
place the smaller pieces by as large a sector as possible,
and the two fourths can be replaced by another half circle.
Result :
2 2 ' 2
All these substitutions may be expressed in figures thus :
-L + J-+A:=JL + J_+i =
10 4 8 2 4 4
24 2 2 2
This is one means of initiating a child intuitively into
the operations used for the reduction of fractions to their
lowest terms.
Improper fractions also interest them very much.
They come to these by adding a number of sectors which
fill two, three, or four circles. To find the whole num-
bers which exist under the guise of fractions is a little
like putting away in their proper places the circular in-
sets which have been all mixed up. The children mani-
fest a desire to learn the real operations of fractions.
With improper fractions they originate most unusual
sums, like the following:
GEOMETRY 273
8
[8 +(1 + 2 + 12)+!]
8
8 + 15 + 1 24
We have a series of commands which may be used as a
guide for the child's work. Here are some examples:
- Take - of 25 beads
5
— Take — " 36 counters
4
- Take - " 24 beans
b
— Take -i " 27 beans
o
— Take — " 40 beans
10
2
- Take - " 60 counters
5
In this last there are two operations :
60 -f- 5 = = 12 ; 12 X 2 = = 24 ; or 2 X 60 = 120 ;
120 -f- 5 = = 24, etc.
REDUCTION OF COMMON FRACTIONS TO DECIMAL, FRAC-
TIONS: The material for this purpose is similar to that
of the circular insets, except that the frame is white and
is marked into ten equal parts, and each part is then sub-
divided into ten. In these subdivisions the little line
2T4 MONTESSORI ELEMENTARY MATERIAL
which marks the five is distinguished from the others by
its greater length. Each of the larger divisions is
marked respectively with the numbers, 10, 20, 30, 40, 50,
60, 70, 80, 90, and 0. The 0 is at the top and there is a
raised radius against which are placed the sectors to be
measured.
To reduce a common fraction to a decimal fraction the
sector is placed carefully against the raised radius, with
the arc touching the circumference of the inset. Where
the arc ends there is a number which represents the ~hun-
dredths corresponding to the sector. For example, if the
— sector is used its arc ends at 25; hence — equals 0.25.
Page 275 shows in detail the practical method of using
our material to reduce common fractions to decimal frac-
tions. In the upper figure the segments correspond to
GEOMETRY
275
80
90
60
10
zo
276 MONTESSORI ELEMENTARY MATERIAL
— , — and — of a circle are placed within the circle di-
34' 8
vided into hundredths. Result :
— + i + — = 0.70.
348
The lower figure shows how the --sector is placed: — -
o o
= 0.33.
If instead we use the — sector we have: — =0.20, etc.
5 5
Numerous sectors may be placed within the circle; for
example :
-I+JL + J_+ i
470 10'
In order to find the sum of the fraction reduced to deci-
mals, it is necessary to read only the number at the outer
edge of the last sector.
Using this as a basis, it is very easy to develop an
arithmetical idea. Instead of 1, which represents the
whole circle, let us write 100, which represents its sub-
divisions when used for decimals, and let us divide the
100 into as many parts of a circle as there are sectors in
GEOMETRY 277
the circle, and the reduction is made. All the parts which
result are so many hundredths. Hence:
= 100 -r- 4= 25 hundredths : that is, - or 0.25.
The division is performed by dividing the numerator
by the demonator :
l-i-4: = 0.25.
THIKD SERIES OF INSETS: Equivalent Figures. Two
concepts were given by the squares divided into rectangles
and triangles : that of fractions and that of equivalent
figures.
There is a special material for the concept of frac-
tions which, besides developing the intuitive notion of
fractions, has permitted the solution of examples in frac-
tions and of reducing fractions to decimals ; and it has
furthermore brought cognizance of other things, such as
the measuring of angles in terms of degrees.
For the concept of equivalent figures there is still an-
other material. This will lead to finding the area of dif-
ferent geometric forms and also to an intuition of some
theorems which heretofore have been foreign to elemen-
tary schools, being considered beyond the understanding
of a child.
MATERIAL: Showing that a triangle is equal to a
rectangle which has one side equal to the base of the tri-
angle, the other side equal to half of the altitude of the
triangle.
In a large rectangular metal frame there are two white
openings : the triangle and the equivalent rectangle. The
pieces which compose the rectangle are such that they
may fit into the openings of either the rectangle or the
278 MONTESSORI ELEMENTARY MATERIAL
triangle. This demonstrates that the rectangle and the
triangle are equivalent. The triangular space is filled by
two pieces formed by a horizontal line drawn through the
triangle parallel to the base and crossing at half the alti-
tude. Taking the two pieces out and putting them one
on top of the other the identity of the height may be veri-
fied.
Already the work with the beads and the squaring of
numbers has led to finding the area of a square by multi-
plying one side by the other ; and in like manner the area
of a rectangle is found by multiplying one side by the
other. Since a triangle may be reduced to a rectangle,
it is easy to find its area by multiplying the base by half
the height.
MATERIAL : Showing that a rhombus is equal to a rect-
angle which has one side equal to one side of the rhombus
and the other equal to the height of the rhombus.
The frame contains a rhombus divided by a diagonal
line into two triangles and a rectangle filled with pieces
which can be put into the rhombus when the triangles have
been removed, and will fill it completely. In the material
GEOMETRY 279
there are also an entire rhombus and an entire rectangle.
If they are placed one on top of the other they will be
found to have the same height. As the equivalence of the
two figures is demonstrated by these pieces of the rect-
angle which may be used to fill in the two figures, it
is easily seen that the area of a rhombus is found by multi-
plying the side or base by the height.
MATEEIAL: To show the equivalence of a trapezoid
and a rectangle having one side equal to the sum of the
two bases and the other equal to half the height.
The child himself can make the other comparison : that
is, a trapezoid equals a rectangle having one side equal
to the height and the other equal to one-half the sum of
280 MONTESSORI ELEMENTARY MATERIAL
the bases. For the latter it is only necessary to cut the
long rectangle in half and superimpose the two halves.
The large rectangular frame contains three openings:
two equal trapezoids and the equivalent rectangle having
one side equal to the sum of the two bases and the other
side equal to half the height. One trapezoid is made of
two pieces, being cut in half horizontally at the height of
half its altitude; the identity in height may be proved
by placing one piece on top of the other. The second
trapezoid is composed of pieces which can be placed in
the rectangle, filling it completely. Thus the equivalence
is proved and also the fact that the area of a trapezoid
is found by multiplying the sum of the bases by half the
height, or half the sum of the bases by the height.
With a ruler the children themselves actually calculate
the area of the geometrical figures, and later calculate
the area of their little tables, etc.
MATERIAL: To show the equivalence between a regu-
lar polygon and a rectangle having one side equal to
the perimeter and the other equal to half of the hypote-
nuse.
In the material there are two decagon insets, one con-
GEOMETRY
281
o
C
cS
282 MONTESSOKI ELEMENTARY MATERIAL
sisting of a whole decagon and the other of a decagon di-
vided into ten triangles.
Page 281 shows a table taken from our geometry port-
folio, representing the equivalence of a decagon to a rect-
angle having one side equal to the perimeter and the other
equal to half the hypotenuse.
The photograph shows the pieces of the insets. — the
decagon and the equivalent rectangle — and beneath each
one there are the small equal triangles into which it can be
subdivided. Here it is demonstrated that a rectangle
equivalent to a decagon may have one side equal to the
whole hypotenuse and the other equal to half of the peri-
meter.
Another inset shows the equivalence of the decagon and
a rectangle which has one side equal to the perimeter of
the decagon and the other equal to half of the altitude
of each triangle composing the decagon. Small triangles
divided horizontally in half can be fitted into this figure,
with one of the upper triangles divided in half length-
wise.
Thus we demonstrate that the surface of a regular
polygon may be found by multiplying the perimeter by
half the hypotenuse.
SOME THEOREMS BASED ON EQUIVALENT FIGURES
A. All triangles having the same base and altitude are
equal.
This is easily understood from the fact that the area of
a triangle is found by multiplying the base by half the
altitude ; therefore triangles having the same base and the
same altitude must be equal.
For the inductive demonstration of this theorem we
have the following material : The rhombus and the equiv-
The bead number cubes built into a tower.
The decagon and the rectangle can be composed of the same triangular
insets.
The triangular insets fitted into their metal plates.
GEOMETRY
283
alent rectangle are each divided into two triangles. The
triangles of the rhombus are different, for they are di-
vided by opposite diagonal lines. The three different tri-
angles resulting from these divisions have the same base
(this can be actually verified by measuring the bases of
the different pieces) and fit into the same long rectangle
which is found below the first three figures. Therefore, it
is demonstrated that the three triangles have the same alti-
tude. They are equivalent because each one is the half
of an equivalent figure.
B. THE THEOREM OF PYTHAGORAS : In a right-
angled triangle the square of the hypotenuse is equal to
the sum of the squares of the two sides.
MATERIAL: The material illustrates three different
cases :
First case: In which the two sides of the triangle
are equal.
Second case : In which the two sides are in the pro-
portion of 3 :4 .
Third case: General.
First case: The demonstration of this first case affords
an impressive induction.
284 MONTESSORI ELEMENTARY MATERIAL
In the frame for this, shown below, the squares of the
two sides are divided in half by a diagonal line so as to
form two triangles and the square of the hypotenuse is
divided by two diagonal lines into four triangles. The
eight resulting triangles are all identical; hence the tri-
angles of the squares of the two sides will fill the square
of the hypotenuse; and, vice versa, the four triangles of
the square of the hypotenuse may be used to fill the two
squares of the sides. The substitution of these different
pieces is very interesting, and all the more because the tri-
angles of the squares of the sides are all of the same color,
whereas the triangles formed in the square of the hy-
potenuse are of a different color.
S&cond case: Where the sides are as the proportion
of 3 : 4.
In this figure the three squares are filled with small
squares of three different colors, arranged as follows: in
the square on the shorter side, 32 = 9 ; in that on the
larger side, 42 = 16; in that on the hypotenuse, 52 = 25.
The substitution game suggests itself. The two
squares formed on the sides can be entirely filled by
the small squares composing the square on the hypotenuse,
GEOMETRY
285
Second Case
SCHOOL YEAK 191.. -191.
286 MONTESSORI ELEMENTARY MATERIAL
so that they are both of the same color ; while the square
formed on the hypotenuse can be filled with varied designs
by various combinations of the small squares of the sides
which are in two different colors.
Third case: This is the general case.
The large frame is somewhat complicated and difficult
to describe. It develops a considerable intellectual exer-
cise. The entire frame measures 44 X 24 cm. and may
be likened to a chess-board, where the movable pieces are
susceptible of various combinations. The principles al-
ready proved or inductively suggested which lead to the
demonstration of the theorem are :
(1) That two quadrilaterals having an equal base and
equal altitude are equivalent.
(2) That two figures equivalent to a third figure are
equivalent to each other.
In this figure the square formed on the hypotenuse is
divided into two rectangles. The additional side is de-
termined by the division made in the hypotenuse by
dropping a perpendicular line from the apex of the tri-
angle to the hypotenuse. There are also two rhomboids
in this frame, each of which has one side equal respec-
tively to the large and to the small square of the sides
of the triangle and the other side equal to the hypotenuse.
The shorter altitude of the two rhomboids, as may be
seen in the figure itself, corresponds to the respective alti-
tudes, or shorter sides, of the rectangles. But the longer
side corresponds respectively to the side of the larger and
of the smaller squares of the sides of the triangle.
It is not necessary that these corresponding dimensions
be known by the child. He sees red and yellow pieces of
an inset and simply moves them about, placing them in
the indentures of the frame. It is the fact that these
GEOMETRY 287
movable pieces actually fit into this white background
which gives the child the opportunity for reasoning out
the theorem, and not the abstract idea of the correspond-
ing relations between the dimensions of the sides and the
different heights of the figures. Reduced to these terms
the exercise is easily performed and proves very inter-
esting.
This material may be used for other demonstrations :
DEMONSTRATION A: The substitution of the pieces.
Let us start with the frame as it should be filled originally.
First take out the two rectangles formed on the hy-
potenuse ; place them in the two lateral grooves, and lower
the triangle. Fill the remaining empty space with the
two rhomboids.
The same space is filled in both cases with :
A triangle plus two rectangles, and then
A triangle plus two rhomboids.
Hence the sum of the two rectangles (which form the
square of the hypotenuse) is equal to the sum of the two
rhomboids.
In a later substitution we consider the rhomboids in-
stead of the rectangles in order to demonstrate their re-
spective equivalence to the two squares formed on the
sides of the triangle. Beginning, for example with the
larger square, we start with the- insets in the original po-
sition and consider the space occupied by the triangle
and the larger square. To analyze this space the pieces
are all taken out and then it is filled successively by :
The triangle and the large square in their original
positions.
The triangle and the large rhomboid.
288 MONTESSOKI ELEMENTARY MATEKIAL
DEMONSTRATION B : Based on Equivalence. In this
second demonstration the relative equivalence of the
rhomboid, the rectangles, and the squares is shown out-
side the figure by means of the parallel indentures which
are on both sides of the frame. These indentures, when
the pieces are placed in them, show that the pieces have
the same altitude.
This is the manner of procedure : Starting again with
the original position, take out the two rectangles and
place them in the parallel indentures to the left, the
larger in the wider indenture and the smaller in the nar-
rower indenture. The different figures in the same in-
denture have the same altitude ; therefore the pieces need
only to be placed together at the base to prove that they
are equal — hence the figures are equal in pairs: the
smaller rectangle equals the smaller rhomboid and the
larger rectangle equals the larger rhomboid.
Starting again from the original position you proceed
analogously with the squares. In the parallel indentures
to the right the large square may be placed in the same
indenture with the large rhomboid, which, however, must
be turned in the opposite direction (in the direction of
its greatest length) ; and the smaller square and the
smaller rhomboid fit into the narrower indenture. They
have the same altitude; and that the bases are equal is
easily verified by putting them together; therefore here
is proof that the squares and the rhomboids are respec-
tively equivalent.
Rectangles and squares which are equivalent to the
same rhomboids are equivalent to each other. Hence the
theorem is proved.
Showing that the two rhomboids are equal to the two rectangles.
Showing that the two rhomboids are equal to the two squares.
GEOMETRY
289
This series of geometric material is used for other pur-
poses, but they are of minor importance.
FOURTH SEKIES OF INSETS: Division of a Triangle.
This material is made up of four frames of equal size,
each containing an equilateral triangle measuring ten cen-
timeters to a side. The different pieces should fill the tri-
angular spaces exactly.
One is filled by an entire equilateral triangle.
One is filled by two rectangular scalene triangles, each
equal to half of the original equilateral triangle, which
is bisected by dropping a line perpendicularly to the base.
The third is filled by three obtuse isosceles triangles,
formed by lines bisecting the three angles of. the original
triangle.
The fourth is divided into four equilateral triangles
which are similar in shape to the original triangle.
With these triangles a child can make a more exact
analytical study than he made when he was observing the
290 MONTESSORI ELEMENTARY MATERIAL
triangles of the plane insets used in the " Children?s
House." He measures the degrees of the angles and
learns to distinguish a right angle (90°) from an acute
angle (<90°) and from an obtuse angle (>90°).
Furthermore he finds in measuring the angles of any
triangle that their sum is always equal to 180° or to two
right angles.
He can observe that in equilateral triangles all the
angles are equal (60°) ; that in the isosceles triangle the
two angles at the opposite ends of the unequal side are
equal ; while in the scalene triangle no two angles are
alike. In the right-angled triangle the sum of the two
acute angles is equal to a right angle. A general defini-
tion is that those triangles are similar in which the cor-
responding angles are equal.
MATERIAL FOE INSCRIBED AND CONCENTRIC FIGURES:
In this material, which for the most part is made up of
that already described,, and which is therefore merely an
application of it, inscribed or concentric figures may be
placed in the white background of the different inset
frames. For example, on the white background of the
large equilateral triangle the small red equilateral tri-
angle, which is a fourth of it, may be placed in such a
way that each vertex is tangent to the middle of each
side of the larger triangle'.
There are also two squares, one of 7 centimeters on
a side and the other 3.5. They have their respective
frames with white backgrounds. The 1 centimeters
square may be placed on the background of the 10 centi-
meters square in such a way that each corner touches the
middle of each side of the frame. In like manner the 5
centimeters square, which is a fourth of the large square,
may be put in the 7 centimeters square; the 3.5 centi-
GEOMETKY 291
meters square in the 5 centimeters square ; and finally the
tiny square, which is Y\Q part of the large square, in. the
3.5 centimeters square.
There is also a circle which is tangent to the edges
of the large equilateral triangle. This circle may be
placed on the background of the 10 centimeters circle, and
in that case a white circular strip remains all the way
round (concentric circles). Within this circle the smaller
equilateral triangle (/4 of the large triangle) is perfectly
inscribed. Then there is a small circle which is tangent
to the smallest equilateral triangle.
Besides these circles which are used with the triangles
there are two others tangent to the squares : one to the
7 centimeters square and the other to the 3.5 centimeters
square. The large circle, 10 centimeters in diameter,
fits exactly into the 10 centimeters square; and the other
circles are concentric to it.
These corresponding relations make the figures easily
adaptable to our artistic composition of decorative design
(see following chapter).
Finally, together with the other material, there are
two stars which are also used for decorative design. The
two stars, or " flowers," are based on the 3.5 centimeters
square. In one the circle rests on the side as a semi-cir-
cle (simple flower) ; and in the other the same circle goes
around the vertex and beyond the semi-circle until it meets
the reciprocal of four circles (flower and foliage).
Ill
SOLID GEOMETRY
Since the children already know how to find the area
of ordinary geometric forms it is very easy, with the
knowledge of the arithmetic they have acquired through
work with the beads (the square and cube of numbers),
to initiate them into the manner of finding the volume
of solids. After having studied the cube of numbers by
the aid of the cube of beads it is easy to recognize the
fact that the volume of a prism is found by multiplying
the area by the altitude.
In our didactic material we have three objects for solid
geometry: a prism, a pyramid having the same base and
altitude, and a prism with the same base but with only
one-third the altitude. They are all empty. The two
prisms have a cover and are really boxes ; the uncovered
pyramid can be filled with different substances and then
emptied, serving as a sort of scoop.
These solids may be filled with wheat or sand. Thus
we put into practise the same technique as is used to cal-
culate capacity, as in anthropology, for instance, when we
wish to measure the capacity of a cranium.
It is difficult to fill a receptacle completely in such a
way that the measured result does not vary ; so we usually
put in a scarce measure, which therefore does not corre-
spond to the exact volume but to a smaller volume.
One must know how to fill a receptacle, just as one
292
GEOMETRY 293
must know how to do up a bundle, so that the various ob-
jects may take up the least possible space. The children
like this exercise of shaking the receptacle and getting
in as great a quantity as possible; and they like to level
it off when it is entirely filled.
The receptacles may be filled also with liquids. In this
case the child must be careful to pour out the contents
without losing a single drop. This technical drill serves
as a preparation for using metric measures.
By these experiments the child finds that the pyramid
has the same volume as the small prism (which is one-
third of the large prism) ; hence the volume of the pyramid
is found by multiplying the area of the base by one-third
the altitude. The small prism may be filled with clay
and the same piece of clay will be found to fill the pyra-
mid. The two solids of equal volume may be made of
clay. All three solids can be made by taking five times
as much clay as is needed to fill the same prism.
Having mastered these fundamental ideas, it is easy
to study the rest, and few explanations will be needed.
In many cases the incentive to do original problems
may be developed by giving the children definite exam-
ples: as, how can the area of a circle be found? the vol-
ume of a cylinder? of a cone? Problems on the total
area of some solids also may be suggested. Many times
the children will risk spontaneous inductions and often
of their own accord proceed to measure the total surface
area of all the solids at their disposal, even going back to
the materials used in the " Children's House."
The material includes a series of wooden solids with a
base measurement of 10 cm. :
294 MONTESSORI ELEMENTARY MATERIAL
A quadrangular parallelepiped (10 X 10 X 20 cm.)
A quadrangular parallelepiped equal to Ys of above
A quadrangular pyramid (10 X 10 X 20 cm.)
A triangular prism (10 X 20 cm.)
A triangular prism equal to Ys of above
The corresponding pyramid (10 X 20 cm.)
A cylinder (10 cm. diameter, 20 altitude)
A cylinder equal to Ys of above
A cone (10 cm. diameter, 20 altitude)
A sphere (10 cm. diameter)
An ovoid (maximum diameter 10 cm.)
An ellipsoid (maximum diameter 10 cm.)
Regular Polyhedrons
Tetrahedron
Hexahedron (cube)
Octahedron
Dodecahedron
Icosahedron
(The faces of these polyhedrons are in different colors.)
APPLICATIONS: The Powers of Numbers.
MATERIAL: Two equal cubes of 2 cm. on a side; a
prism twice the size of the cubes ; a prism double this pre-
ceding prism ; seven cubes 4 cm. on a side.
The following combinations are made :
The two smaller cubes are placed side by side = 2.
In front of these is placed the prism which is twice
as large as the cube = 22.
On top of these is placed the double prism, making
a cube with 4 cm. on a side = = 23.
One of the seven cubes is put beside this — 24.
GEOMETRY 295
In front are placed two more of the seven cubes
= 25.
On top are put the remaining four equal cubes - - 26.
In this way we have made a cube measuring 8 cm. on
a side. From this we see that:
23, 26 have the form of a cube.
22, 25 have the form of a square.
2 , 24 have a linear form.
The Cube of a Binomial: (a + b)3 = a3 + b3 + 3a2b
+ 3b2a.
MATERIAL : A cube with a 6 cm. edge, a cube with
a 4 cm. edge ; three prisms with a square base of 4 cm.
on a side and 6 cm. high ; three prisms with a square base
of 6 cm. to a side and 4 cm. high. The 10 cm. cube can
be made with these.
These two combinations are in special cube-shaped
boxes into which the 10 cm. cube fits exactly.
Weights and Measures: All that refers to weights
and measures is merely an application of similar opera-
tions and reasonings.
The children have at their disposal and learn to handle
many of the objects which are used for measuring both
in commerce and in every-day life. In the " Children's
House" days they had the long stair rods which con-
tain the meter and its decimeter subdivisions. Here
they have a tape-measure with which they measure floors,
etc., and find the area. They have the meter in many
forms: in the anthropometer, in the ruler. Then, too,
29G MONTESSOKI ELEMENTARY MATERIAL
they use the metal tape, the dressmaker's tape measure,
and the meterstick used by merchants.
The twenty centimeter ruler divided into millimeters
they use constantly in design ; and they love to calculate
the area of the geometric figures they have designed or
of the metal insets. Often they calculate the surface of
the white background of an inset and that of the differ-
ent pieces which exactly fit this opening, so as to verify
the former. As they already have some preparation in
decimals it is no task for them to recognize and to remem-
ber that the measures increase by tens and take on new
names each time. The exercises in grammar have greatly
facilitated the increase in their vocabulary.
They calculate the reciprocal relations between length,
surface, and volume by going back to the three sets which
first represented " long," " thick," and " large."
The objects which differ in length vary by 10's;
those differing in areas vary by 100's ; and those which
differ in volume vary by 1000's.
The comparison between the bead material and the
cubes of the pink tower (one of the first things they built)
encourages a more profound study of the sensory objects
which were once the subject of assiduous application.
By the aid of the double decimeter the children make
the calculations for finding the volume of all the different
objects graded by tens, such as the rods, the prisms of
the broad stair, the cubes of the pink tower.
By taking the extremes in each case they learn the re-
lations between objects which differ in one dimension, in
two dimensions, and in three dimensions. Besides, they
already know that the square of 10 is 100, and the cube
of 10 is 1000.
Hollow geometric solids, used for determining equivalence by measuring
sand, sugar, etc.
Designs formed by arranging sections of the insets within the frames.
GEOMETRY 297
The children make use of various scientific instruments :
thermometers, distillers, scales, and, as previously stated,
the principal measures commonly used.
By filling an empty metal cubical decimeter, which like
the geometric solids is used for the calculation of volume,
they have a liter measure of water, which may be poured
into a glass liter bottle. All the decimal multiples and
subdivisions of the liter are easily understood. Our chil-
dren spent much time pouring liquids into all the small
measures used in commerce for measuring wine and oil.
They distil water with the distiller. They use the ther-
mometer to measure the temperature of water in ebulli-
tion and the temperature of the freezing mixture. They
take the water which is used to determine the weight of
the kilogram, keeping it at the temperature of 4°C.
The objects which serve to measure capacity also are
at the disposal of the children.
There is no need to go into more details upon the mul-
titudinous consequences resulting from both a methodical
preparation of the intellect and the possibility of actually
being in contact with real objects.
A great number of problems given by us, as well as
problems originated by the children themselves, bear wit-
ness to the ease with which external effects may be spon-
taneously produced when once the inner causes have been
adequately stimulated.
PART V
DRAWING
LINEAR GEOMETRIC DESIGN DECORATION
I already have mentioned the fact that the material of
the geometric insets may be applied also to design.
It is through design that the child may be led to pon-
der on the geometric figures which he has handled, taken
out, combined in numerous ways, and replaced. In do-
ing this he completes an exercise necessitating much use
of the reasoning faculties. Indeed, he reproduces all of
the figures by linear design, learning to handle many in-
struments - - the centimeter ruler, the double decimeter,
the square, the protractor, the compass, and the steel pen
used for line ruling. For this work we have included in
the geometric material a large portfolio where, together
with the pages reproducing the figures, there are also some
illustrative sheets with brief explanations of the figures
and containing the relative nomenclature. Aside from
copying designs the child may copy also the explanatory
notes and thus reproduce the whole geometry portfolio.
These explanatory notes are very simple. Here, for ex-
ample, is the one which refers to the square :
" SQUARE : The side or base is divided into 10 cm. All
the other sides are equal, hence each measures 10 cm.
The square has four equal sides and four equal angles
which are always right angles. The number 4 and the
identity of the sides and angles are the distinguishing
characteristics of the square."
The children measure paper and construct the figure
301
302 MONTESSORI ELEMENTARY MATERIAL
with attention and application that are truly remark-
able. They love to handle the compasses and are very
proud of possessing a pair.
One child asked her mother for a Christmas gift of
" one last doll and a box of compasses," as if she were
ending one epoch of her life and beginning another. One
little boy begged his mother to let him accompany her
when she went to buy the compass for him. When they
were in the store the salesman was surprised to find
that so young a child was to use the compass and gave
them a box of the simplest kind. " Not those," protested
the little fellow ; " I want an engineer's compass ; " and
he picked out one of the most complicated ones. This
was the very reason why he was so anxious to go with
his mother.
As the children draw, they learn many particulars con-
cerning the geometric figures : the sides, angles, bases, cen-
ters, median lines, radii, diameters, sectors, segments, diag-
onals, hypotenuses, circumferences, perimeters, etc. They
do not, however, learn all this as so much dry informa-
tion nor do they limit themselves to reproducing the de-
signs in the geometry portfolio. Each child adds to his
own portfolio other designs which he chooses and some-
times originates. The designs reproduced in the port-
folio are drawn on plain white drawing paper with China
inks, but the children's special designs are drawn on
colored paper with different colored inks and with gild-
ings (silver, gold). The children reproduce the geo-
metric figures and then they fill them in with decora-
tions made either with pen or water-colors. These deco-
rations serve especially to emphasize, in a geometric
analysis, the various parts of the figure, such as center,
angles, circumference, medians, diagonals, etc.
DRAWING 303
The decorated motif is selected or else invented by the
child himself. He is allowed the same freedom of choice
in his backgrounds as he enjoys for his inks or water-
colors. The observation of nature (flowers and their
different parts - - pollen, leaves, a section of some part
observed under the microscope, plant seeds, shells, etc.)
serves to nourish the child's aesthetic imagination. The
children also have access to artistic designs, collections
of photographs reproducing the great masterpieces, and
Haeckel's famous work, Nature's Artistic Forms, all of
which equipment is so interesting and delightful to a
child.
The children work many, many hours on drawing.
This is the time we seize for reading to them (see above
p. 19Y) and almost all their history is learned during this
quiet period of copy and simple decoration which is so
conducive to concentration of thought.
Copying some design, or drawing a decoration which
has been directly inspired by something seen ; the choice
of colors to fill in a geometric figure or to bring out, by
small and simple designs, the center or side of the figure ;
the mechanical act of mixing a color, of dissolving the
gildings, or of choosing one kind of ink from a series of
different colors ; sharpening a pencil, or getting one's
paper in the proper position ; determining through tenta-
tive means the required extension of the compass — all
this is a complex operation requiring patience and ex-
actitude. But it does not require great intellectual con-
centration. It is, therefore, a work of application rather
than of inspiration; and the observation of each detail,
in order to reproduce it exactly, clarifies and rests the
mind instead of rousing it to the intense activity de-
manded by the labor of association and creation. The
304 MONTESSORI ELEMENTARY MATERIAL
child is busy with his hands rather than with his mind;
but yet his mind is sufficiently stimulated by this work as
not easily to wander away into the world of dreams.
These are quiet hours of work in which the children
use only a part of their energies, while the other part is
reaching out after something else; just as a family sits
quietly by the fireside in long winter evenings engaged
in light manual labors requiring little intelligence, watch-
ing the flames with a sense of enjoyment, willing to pass
in this way many peaceful hours, yet feeling that a certain
side of their needs is not satisfied. This is the time
chosen for story telling or for light reading. Similarly
this is the best time for our little children to listen to
reading of all kinds.
During these hours they listened to the reading of
books like The Betrothed (of Manzoni), psychological
books like Itard's Education of the Savage of Aveyron,
or historical narratives. The children took a deep inter-
est in the reading. Each child may be occupied with his
own design as well as with the facts which he is hearing
described. It seems as though the one occupation fur-
nishes the energy necessary for perfection in the other.
The mechanical attention which the child gives to his de-
sign frees his mind from idle dreaming and renders it
more capable of completely absorbing the reading that
is going on; and the pleasure gained from the reading
which, little by little, penetrates his whole being seems
to give new energy to both hand and eye. His lines be-
come most exact and the colors more delicate.
When the reading has reached some point of climax
we hear remarks, exclamations, applause or discussions,
which animate and lighten the work without interrupting
it. But there are times when, with one accord, our chil-
DRAWING 305
dren abandon their drawing so as to act out some hu-
morous selection or to represent an historical fact which
has touched them deeply; or, indeed, as happened dur-
ing the reading of the Savage of Aveyron, their hands
remained almost unconsciously raised in the intensity of
their emotion, while on their faces was an expression of
ecstasy, as if they were witnessing wonderful unheard-
of things. Their actions seemed to interpret the well-
known sentiment : " Never have I seen woman like unto
this."
ARTISTIC COMPOSITION WITH THE INSETS: Our geo-
metric insets, which are all definitely related to one an-
other in dimensions and include a series of figures which
can be contained one within the other, lend themselves to
very beautiful combinations. With these the children
make real creations and often follow out their artistic
ideas for days and even weeks. By moving the small
pieces or by combining them in different ways on the
white background, these very insets produce various deco-
rations. The ease with which the child may form de-
signs by arranging the little pieces of iron on a sheet of
paper and then outlining them, and the harmony which
is thus so easily obtained, affords endless delight. Really
wonderful pieces of work are often produced in this way.
During these periods of creative design, as indeed dur-
ing the periods of drawing from life, the child is deeply
and wholly concentrated. His entire intellect is at work
and no kind of instructive reading would be at all fitting
while he is engaged in drawing or designing of this na-
ture.
With the insets, as we have said, we have reproduced
some of the classic decorations so greatly admired in the
306 MONTESSORI ELEMENTARY MATERIAL
Italian masterpieces; for instance, those of Giotto in
Florentine Art. When the children try with the insets to
reproduce these classic decorations from photographs they
are led to make most minute observations, which may be
considered a real study of art. They judge the relative
proportions of the various figures in such a way that their
eye learns to appreciate the harmony of the work. And
thus, even in childhood, a fine a?sthetic enjoyment begins
to engage their minds on the higher and more noble
planes.
II
FREE-HAND DRAWING— STUDIES FROM
LIFE
All the preceding exercises are " formative " for the
art of drawing. They develop in the child the manual
ability to execute a geometric design and prepare his
eye to appreciate the harmony of proportions between
geometric figures. The countless observations of draw-
ings, the habit of minute examination of natural objects,
constitute so many preparatory drills. We can, however,
say that the whole method, educating the eye and the hand
at the same time and training the child to observe and
execute drawings with intense application, prepares the
mechanical means for design, while the mind, left free to
take its flight and to create, is ready to produce.
It is by developing the individual that he is prepared
for that wonderful manifestation of the human intelli-
gence, which drawing constitutes. The ability to see
reality in form, in color, in proportion, to be master of
the movements of one's own hand - - that is what is neces-
sary. Inspiration is an individual thing, and when a
child possesses these formative elements he can give ex-
pression to all he happens to have.
There can be no " graduated exercises in drawing "
leading up to an artistic creation. That goal can be at-
tained only through the development of mechanical
technique and through the freedom of the spirit. That
307
308 HONTESSORI ELEMENTARY MATERIAL
is our reason for not teaching drawing directly to the
child. We prepare him indirectly, leaving him free to
the mysterious and divine labor of reproducing things
according to his own feelings. Thus drawing comes to
satisfy a need for expression, as does language; and al-
most every idea may seek expression in drawing. The
effort to perfect such expression is very similar to that
which the child makes when he is spurred on to perfect
his language in order to see his thoughts translated into
reality. This effort is spontaneous ; and the real draw-
ing teacher is in the inner life, which of itself develops,
attains refinement, and seeks irresistibly to be born into
external existence in some empirical form. Even the
smallest children try spontaneously to draw outlines of
the objects which they see; but the hideous drawings
which are exhibited in the common schools, as " free draw-
ings " " characteristic " of childhood, are not found
among our children. These horrible daubs so carefully
collected, observed, and catalogued by modern psycholo-
gists as " documents of the infant mind " are nothing but
monstrous expressions of intellectual lawlessness; they
show only that the eye of their child is uneducated, the
hand inert, the mind insensible alike to the beautiful
and to the ugly, blind to the true as well as to the false.
Like most documents collected by psychologists who study
the children of our schools, they reveal not the soul but
the errors of the soul ; and these drawings, with their mon-
strous deformities, show simply what the uneducated
human being is like.
Such things are not "free drawings" by children.
Free drawings are possible only when we have a free child
who has been left free to grow and perfect himself in
the assimilation of his surroundings and in mechanical
DRAWING 309
reproduction ; and who when left free to create and ex-
press himself actually does create and express himself.
The sensory and manual preparation for drawing is
nothing more than an alphabet; but without it the child
is an illiterate and cannot express himself. And just as
it is impossible to study the writing of people who cannot
write, so there can be no psychological study of the draw-
ings of children who have been abandoned to spiritual
and muscular chaos. All psychic expressions acquire
value when the inner personality has acquired value by
the development of its formative processes. Until this
fundamental principle has become an absolute acquisi-
tion we can have no idea of the psychology of a child as
regards his creative powers.
Thus, unless we know how a child should develop in
order to unfold his natural energies, we shall not know
how drawing as a natural expression is developed. The
universal development of the wondrous language of the
hand will come not from a " school of design " but from
a " school of the new man r which will cause this lan-
guage to spring forth spontaneously like water from an
inexhaustible spring. To confer the gift of drawing we
must create an eye that sees, a hand that obeys, a soul
that feels ; and in this task the whole life must cooperate.
In this sense life itself is the only preparation for draw-
ing. Once we have lived, the inner spark of vision does
the rest.
Leave to man then this sublime gesture which transfers
to the canvas the marks of creative divinity. Leave it
free to develop from the very time when the tiny child
takes a piece of chalk and reproduces a simple outline on
the blackboard, when he sees a leaf and makes his first
reproduction of it on the white page. Such a child is in
Designs formed by the use of the geometry squares, circles, and equilateral
triangle, modified by free-hand drawing. In the design on the right the
"flower" within the cross is made with compasses; the decorative detail
in the arms of the cross and the circle in the center are free-hand. The
design on the left is similar to a decoration in the Cathedral at Florence,
in the windows round the apse.
310
Decorations formed by the use of the geometry insets. That on the right is
a copy of the design by Giotto shown below the picture of the Madonna
in the Upper Church of St. Francis d'Assisi (Umbria).
311
312 MONTESSORI ELEMENTARY MATERIAL
search of every possible means of expression, because
no one language is rich enough to give expression to the
gushing life within him. He speaks, he writes, he draws,
he sings like a nightingale warbling in the springtime.
Let us consider, then, the " elements " which our chil-
dren have acquired in their development with reference
to drawing : they are observers of reality, knowing how to
distinguish the forms and colors they see there.
Children are peculiarly sensitive in their appreciation
of color. This sensibility began to grow in the sensory
exercises in the early years. Their hands have been
trained to the most delicate movements and the children
have been masters of them since the days of the " Chil-
dren's House." "When they begin to draw outlines they
copy the most diverse objects — not only flowers but
everything which interests them : vases, columns and even
landscapes. Their attempts are spontaneous; and they
draw both on the blackboard and on paper.
As regards colors, it should be recalled that while still
in the " Children's House " the children learned to pre-
pare the different shades, mixing them themselves and
making the various blends. This always held their
eager interest. Later the care with which they seek to
get shades corresponding exactly to natural colorings is
something truly remarkable.1 Over and over again the
children try to mix the most diverse colors, diluting or
saturating them until they have succeeded in reproducing
the desired shade. It is surprising also to see how often
their eye succeeds in appreciating the finest differences
i We give to the children first only tubes containing the three fun-
damental colors, red, yellow, and blue ; and with these they produce a
large number of shades.
o
o
o
01
s
«*~
S
O
o
&>
•+•* C
2 o
— *
o>
.s°
'S
0)
>
°-5
CS
w
O)
fcC
aS
h— .
»*=i
Water-color- paintings from nature, showing spontaneous expression re-
sulting from work in natural science.
DRAWING 313
of color and in reproducing them, with striking ac-
curacy.
The study of natural science proved to be a great help
in drawing. Once I tried to show some children how
a flower should be dissected, and for this purpose I pro-
vided all the necessary instruments : the botanist's needle,
pincers, thin glass plates, etc., just as is done at the uni-
versity for the experiments in natural science. My only
aim was to see whether the preparations which university
students make for botanical anatomy were in any way
adaptable to the needs of little children. Even at the
time when I studied in the botanical laboratory at the uni-
versity I felt that these exercises in the preparation of
material might be put to such use. Students know how
difficult it is to prepare a stem, a stamen, an epithelium,
for dissection, and how only with difficulty the hand, ac-
customed for years exclusively to writing, adapts itself to
this delicate work. Seeing how skilful our children were
with their little hands I decided to give them a complete
scientific outfit and to test by experiment whether the
child mind and the characteristic manual dexterity shown
by children were not more adapted to such labors than
the mind and hand of a nineteen-year-old student.
My suspicion proved correct. The children with the
keenest interest dissected a section of the violet with re-
markable accuracy, and they quickly learned to use all the
instruments. But my greatest surprise was to find that
they did not despise or throw away the dissected parts,
as we older students used to do. With great care they
placed them all in attractive order on a piece of wrhite
paper, as if they had in mind some secret purpose. Then
with great joy they began to draw them; and they were
accurate, skilled, tireless, and patient, as they are in
314 MONTESSORI ELEMENTAEY MATEKIAL
everything else. They began to mix and dilute their
colors to obtain the correct shades. They worked up to
the last minute of the school session, finishing off their
designs in watercolor: the stem and leaves green, the in-
dividual petals violet, the stamens — all in a row — yel-
low, and the dissected pistil light green. The following
day a little girl brought me a charmingly vivacious writ-
ten composition, in which she told of her enthusiasm over
DRAWING 315
the new work, describing even the less noticeable details
of the little violet.
These two expressions — drawing and composition —
were the spontaneous manifestations of their happy en-
trance into the realms of science.
Encouraged by this great success, I took some simple
microscopes to school. The children began to observe the
pollen and even some of the membrane coverings of the
flower. By themselves they made some splendid cross-
sections of the stems, which they studied most attentively.
They " drew everything they saw." Drawing seemed
to be the natural complement of their observation work.
In this way the children learned to draw and paint
without a drawing teacher. They produced works which,
in geometric designs as well as in studies from life, were
considered far above the average drawings of children.
PART VI
MUSIC
THE SCALE
Since the publication of my first volume on the edu-
cation of small children, considerable progress has been
made in the matter of musical education. Miss Mac-
cheroni, who came to Rome to work with me on experi-
ments looking to the continuation of the methods used
with primary classes, was successful in establishing a
number of tests which constituted our first steps into this
important field of education. We are under great obli-
gations to the Tronci firm of Pistoja, which took charge
of the manufacture of materials and gave us the most
sympathetic cooperation.
We had already prepared at the time of that first pub-
lication an equipment of bells to be used in training the
ear to perceive differences between musical sounds. The
methods of using this material were considerably modi-
fied and perfected again after the publication of my Own
Handbook (New York, Stokes, 1914), in which for
the first time appeared a treatise on musical method. The
foundation of the system consists of a series of bells
representing the whole tones and semi-tones of one octave.
The material follows the general characteristics of that
used in the sensorial method, that is, the objects differ
from each other in one and only one quality, the one which
concerns the stimulation of the sense under education.
The bells, for instance, must be apparently identical in
319
320 MONTESSORI ELEMENTARY MATERIAL
dimensions, shape, etc., but they must produce different
sounds. The basic exercise is to have the child recog-
nize " identities." He must pair off the bells which give
the same sound.
The bell system is constructed as follows: We have
a very simple support, made of wood (of course any other
material might be used) 115 cm. long and 25 cm. wide.
On this the bells rest. The board is wide enough to hold
two bells placed lengthwise and end to end across it. The
board is marked off into black and white spaces, each
wide enough to hold one bell. The white spaces repre-
sent whole tones, the black spaces semi-tones. Though
the apparent purpose of this board is to serve as a
support, it is in reality a measure, since it indicates
the regular position of the notes in the simple diatonic
scale. The combination of white and black rectangles
indicates the interval between the various notes in the
scale: in other words, a semi-tone between the third and
fourth and between the seventh and eighth, and a whole
tone between the others. Bells showing the value of each
rectangle are fixed in proper order in the upper portion
of the support. These bells are not all of the same size,
but vary in dimension regularly from the bottom to the
top of the scale. This permits considerable saving in
manufacture; for, to get a different sound from bells of
the same size, different thicknesses are required, and this
entails more labor for construction and consequently
MUSIC 321
greater cost. But in addition the child here sees a ma-
terial variation corresponding to the differences in qual-
ity of sound. On the other hand, the other bells on which
the child is to perform his critical exercises are of iden-
tical dimensions.
In the exercise the child strikes with a small mallet
one of the bells fixed on the support. Then, from among
the others scattered at random on the table, he finds one
which gives the same sound and places it on the board in
front of the fixed bell corresponding to it. In the most
elementary exercises, only the whole tone bells corre-
sponding to the white spaces are used. Later, the semi-
tones are brought in. This first exercise in sense percep-
tion corresponds to the pairing practised in other sensory
exercises (color, touch, etc.) The next step is for the
child to distinguish differences, and at the same time,
gradations of stimuli (like the exercises with the color
charts, hearing, etc.) In this case the child mixes at
random the eight bells, all of the same size, which give
the whole tones of the scale. He is to find do, then re,
and so on through the octave one note after the other,
placing the bells in order in their proper places. No-
menclature is taught step by step as in the other sensor-
ial exercises. To familiarize the child with the names,
do, re, mi, fa, sol, la, si, we use small round disks, the
circular form serving to suggest the head of the written
note. On each disk the name of the note is written. The
disks are to be placed on the bases of the bells that cor-
respond to them. The exercises in naming the notes
may be begun with the fixed bells, in order (with chil-
dren who already know how to read) to associate the
sounds with their names in the first exercise of pairing.
Later, when the child comes to the exercise of putting
322 MONTESSORI ELEMENTARY MATERIAL
the bells in gradation, he can place the corresponding
disk on each bell as he finds it.
Some individuals, commenting on this material, have
solemnly protested their native inability to understand
music, insisting that music reveals its secrets only to a
chosen few. We may point out in reply that, so far, our
principal object is simply to distinguish notes so widely
different from each other that the different number of
vibrations can easily be measured with instruments. It
is a question of a material difference which any normal
ear can naturally detect without any miraculous aptitude
of a musical character. One might as well claim that it
is the privilege only of genius to distinguish one color
from another somewhat like it. Particular aptitude for
music is determined by conditions of a quite different and
a much higher order, such as intuition of the laws of har-
mony and counterpoint, inspiration for composition, and
so on.
In actual practise, we found that when the material
was used with some restrictions by forty children be-
tween three and six years of age, only six or seven proved
capable of filling out the major scale by ear. But when
the material was freely placed at their disposal, they all
progressed along the same lines and showed about the
same rate of improvement, as was the case in our experi-
ments with reading, writing, etc. When individual dif-
ferences appeared, it was by no means due to the possi-
bility of performing these tasks, but rather to the amount
of interest taken in the exercises, for which some children
showed actual enthusiasm. Eagerness for surmounting
difficulties and for high attainment is much more fre-
quently found in children than we, judging by our own
experience as adults, easily suspect. In any event, ac-
MUSIC 323
tual performance is the only guide to the revelation of
particular aptitude, of personal calling.
When one of the larger children spreads on the table
the eight bells of similar size to make up the scale by ear,
the little ones pick up a single bell, sometimes reaching
out for it with the greatest eagerness. They beat it with
the mallet for a long time, they feel of it, examining it
carefully, making it ring more and more slowly. The
older children take special interest in the pairing, often
repeating the same exercise many times ; but an unusual
charm is found in the successive sounds of the eight bells
when placed in order; in other words, in hearing the
scale. Nennella, one of the children of the " Children's
House" of Via Giusti, played the scale over two hun-
dred times in succession, one hundred for the ascending
scale and one hundred back again. The whole class is
sometimes interested in listening, the children following
with absolute silence the classic beauty of this succession
of sounds. Another child, Mario, used to go to the very
end of the table — as far away as possible, and resting
his elbows on the table with his head in his hands, he
would remain without stirring in the silence of the dark-
ened room, showing his extraordinary interest in the ex-
ercise in every detail of demeanor and facial expression.
At a certain moment, interest in reproducing the note
vocally appears. The children accompany the scale with
their voices. They strive for the exact reproduction of
the sound which the bell gives. Their voices become soft
and musical in this exercise, showing nothing of that
shrillness, so characteristic of children's voices in the
usual popular songs. In the classes of Via Trionfale
it happened that some children asked permission to accom-
pany vocally the scale that a child was playing softly on
324 MCXNTESSOKI ELEMENTARY MATERIAL
the bells. The interest taken in this exercise was of a
higher order than that shown by children in the singing
of songs. It was easy to see that songs with their ca-
pricious intervals between widely separated notes and call-
ing for pronunciation of words, musical expression, dif-
ferences in time, etc., are unadapted to the most element-
ary exercises in singing.
It was possible to test the absolute memory of the child
for the different notes without any set exercise. After a
long series of experiments in pairing, the children begin
to make scales, using only one series of bells, and they
repeat this exercise many times and in different ways.
Sometimes, for instance, a child always looks for the
lowest note, do, then for the next above it, re, etc. Again,
a child will take any bell at random, looking next for the
note immediately above or immediately below, and so on.
It also happens that on picking up some bell or other,
the child will exclaim on hearing its sound, this is mi,
this is do, and so on. One child had made a splendid
demonstration of the use of the bells before her Majesty,
the Queen Mother. This was in the month of May. Al-
though he had had no further access to the materials in
his " Children's House " of Via Giusti, in the November
following he was asked to use some musical pipes,1 which
he had hardly seen before, and which happened to be in
great disorder since they had just arrived from the fac-
tory. There were sixteen pipes mixed at random, com-
prising a double diatonic scale. He took one of the pipes,
struck it and said, " This is si," and immediately hung
it on the appropriate hook of the support. On ringing
the next one, he said, this is mi, and again put the pipe
1 The pipes are an equipment parallel to the bells. They are to be
recommended for schools, which can afford a more sumptuous outlay.
MUSIC 325
in the right place. So he went on and arranged the six-
teen pipes in accurate order on the two parallel frames.
He had had a good deal of exercise during the preceding-
year and had preserved an absolutely accurate memory
of the notes.
As is the case with colors, geometrical shapes, etc., the
children begin at this point to explore the environment.
One will come to the teacher at the piano and say, strik-
ing a key, " This is steq," meaning that the note corre-
sponds to the first syllable of the first word in some song
he knows (Stella, Stellina). It happens that the key
struck by the child is a do, the very note corresponding
to the syllable ste in the song. We had many touching
examples of this musical exploration of the environment.
II
THE HEADING AND WRITING OF MUSIC
MATERIAL : In " The Children's House " the musical
staff is introduced by means of a board painted green
with the lines in bas relief. On each line and in each
space representing the octave to which the sounds of the
bells respectively correspond, is a small circular indent-
ure, or socket, into which the disk for each note may be
inserted. Inside each indenture is written a number:
1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7. The disks used in this exercise have
a number written on the lower face and the name of a
note on the upper: for instance, 1, do; 2, re; 3, mi; 4, fa;
5, sol; 6, la; 7, si:
do - re - mi - fa - sol - la - si - do.
This device enables the child to place the notes on their
respective lines without making any mistakes and to ex-
amine their relative positions. The indentures are so
arranged as to show an empty space wherever a semi-tone
appears :
do, re, mi, fa, sol, la, sif do.
326
MUSIC
327
In the semi-tone spaces black counters are to be placed.
At a later stage of this exercise the staff is represented by
a wooden board similar to the one described above, but
without the indentures. The child has at his disposal a
great many disks with the notes written out in full on
one face. He can arrange thirty or forty of these disks
at random on the board, keeping them, however, in their
f>
-.».
places according to the names of the notes ; but each time
the surface showing the name of the note should be placed
downward on the board, so that on the line only disks
without names are visible. When a child has finished
this exercise, he is to turn the disks over without disar-
ranging them and so determine from their names whether
he has placed them properly. All the disks on a given
line or in a given space should have the same names.
328 MONTESSORI ELEMENTARY MATERIAL
Should any doubt arise as to the proper place of a note,
the other board with the numbered indentures can be used
as a check.
When a child has reached this stage of development,
he can practice reading the musical script, ringing the
bells according to the notes he is interpreting. The mu-
sical staffs are prepared on oblong cards about seventeen
centimeters broad. The notes are about two centimeters
in diameter. The cards are variously colored — blue, vio-
let, yellow, red.
The next step is for the children to write notes them-
selves. For this purpose we have prepared little sheets
which can be bound together into a book or album.
We offer also a few songs employing two or three notes
so simple in character that the child can make them out
by ear on his bells. When, after some practise, he is
certain he can copy the song, he writes the notes on his
staff and so becomes the editor of his own music.
TREBLE AND BASS CLEFS
Arrangement of the notes in the form of a rhombus:
All the exercises thus far have been in reference to the
higher clef. However, no representation of this key has
as yet been given the child. His first task is to learn the
relative position of the notes on the two staffs. To sup-
ply this want, following the system of the Musical Con-
servatory of Milan, we have adopted the double staff.
A sheet on which the child writes his own music.
The notes written by the child.
MUSIC 331
The broken line (p. 328) indicates the position of
do, the point of departure for the scale. In fact, as the
notes pass from line to space and space to line, they form
the natural series:
do, re, mi, fa, sol, la, si, do.
The same situation develops as they go down the scale:
do, si, la, sol, fa, mi, re, do.
When the position of do has been determined, the other
notes above and below it are easily found. From the
do on the left the child can find his way to the do on the
o c
-
e-
0 o „ o
next octave higher and come down again. Likewise from
the same point on the right (do) he can go down to the
do of the lower octave and then go up the scale again.
When these notes are represented on the combined
staffs with the counters, the resulting design is a rhom-
bus.
Separating the two staffs, the arrangement of the notes
in the higher and lower key (the C scale and bass) be-
comes apparent and the different significance of the two
series can be emphasized by placing to the left of the
staff the two clef signs, which have been prepared as spe-
cial portions of our material.
332 MONTESSORI ELEMENTARY MATERIAL
In this way the children have learned the scale in do
major in the two keys. The arrangement of the black
and white spaces puts them in a position to recognize
these notes even on the piano. Our material, in fact,
includes a diminutive keyboard where the keys are small
enough to fit the size of a child's hand. It can be used
as an exercise for the finger muscles. As each key is
touched it raises a hammer marked with the name of the
note struck, which the child can see through a glass.
Thus while the child is practising his finger movements,
he fixes his acquaintance with the arrangement of the
notes on the keyboard. This small piano makes no noise.
However, a sort of organ-pipe mechanism can be fitted
on above the hammers in such a way that each stroke, as
the hammer rises, connects with a reed which gives a
corresponding sound.
All the exercises thus far have been based upon sen-
sory experience as the point of departure. The child's
ear has recognized the fundamental sounds and initiated
him into real musical education. All the rest, such as the
music writing, etc., is not music.
Ill
THE MAJOR SCALES
We have developed additional material for the teach-
ing of the scales. Here we show a chart somewhat sug-
gesting the arrangement of the bell material used in
the first exercises. That is, the relative intervals between
the various notes of the scale are clearly indicated. The
scale is, in fact, a series of eight sounds, the intervals
between each being as indicated by the black marks in
the design : whole tone, whole tone, semi-tone, whole tone,
whole tone, whole tone, semi-tone.
In the do major^ scale the intervals are indicated as
follows: a whole tone between do and re] re and mi; fa
and sol; sol and la; la and si; and a semi tone between
mi and fa and si and do. If, however, instead of begin-
ning with do, the scale starts from some other note, the
mutual intervals characterizing the scale remain un-
changed. It is as though the whole scale with its charac-
teristic construction as regards tone differences were
moved along. Accordingly, as our plate shows, under
the figure of the two octaves there is another figure. This
latter is a movable piece of cardboard which shows the
construction of the octave in black and white. This mov-
able card is fastened to the large chart by a ribbon. Sup-
posing now we slide this movable piece, as indicated in
the figure, to the level of mi. The intervals between the
tones of the mi scale are the same as in all the other
333
334 MONTESSORI ELEMENTARY MATERIAL
scales. In other words, they remain as indicated on the
small movable card. It is necessary, accordingly, to
strike on the grand scale the notes corresponding to the
white spaces of the movable slip : viz.,
mi, fa diesis, sol diesis, la, si, do diesis, re diesis.
This process may be repeated by sliding the movable
card to all the notes in succession. In this way all the
scales are gradually constructed. This becomes an in-
teresting theoretical exercise, since the child discovers
that he is able to build all possible scales by himself.
We have, however, for this purpose a real musical
material, as appears from our design. Here on a
wooden form like that used for the bells, but two octaves
instead of one octave long, we have arranged prisms of
equal dimensions but painted black and white according
to the tones they represent. Each prism shows a rec-
tangular plate exposed to view. The plates are identical
in appearance on all the prisms. They are, however,
really of different lengths according to the different
prisms. "When these plates are struck, they give the
notes of two octaves, the prisms acting as sounding boards.
The sounds are soft and mellow and unusually clear, so
that we do not exaggerate in describing this mechanism
as really a musical instrument (resembling the Xylo-
phone). In our design each piece is arranged in its
proper position in the do major scale.
Since the intervals between the tones are the same for
all the scales without distinction, if the group of prisms
is moved as a whole from right to left, sliding along the
wooden form, some of the prisms will fall. The result-
ing effect is the same as that produced when the small
card was moved over the larger chart (see above). No
, ' * ' • :
Tlie monocord. In the first instrument the notes are indicated by frets.
On the monocord in the foreground the child places the frets as he
discovers the notes bv drawing the bow across the strinu.
Material for indicating the intervals of the major scale and its transpo-
sition from one key to another.
TO
o
c-
«)
B
05
-t->
TO
&
O
3
o
o C
" o>
. s
I- CS
O i»
O .
r-t— *
o >
o>
o> ^
"ee O
£.S
^»
u 'r
**" oi
fc S
-. tn
tc
O
^
a/
PH
o>
H
MUSIC 335
matter how far the group of prisms is moved, the scale
can be obtained by striking all the prisms corresponding
to the white spaces on the wooden form.
For instance, let us take away the two first prisms, do
and do diesis on the left, and push the whole group of
prisms from right to left until re reaches the point for-
merly occupied by do. If, now, we strike the plates
which correspond to the notes of the major scale, we ob-
tain the major scale in re. On examining the notes
which make up this scale, we find: re, mi, fa diesis, sol,
la, si, do diesis, re.
This brief description will indicate how interesting
this instrument is. It contains in very simple form and
expresses in a clear and delightful way the fundamental
principles of harmony. Its use can be made apparent
to teachers by the three following tables.
*/ o
As the children derive in this way all the possible
scales, they should transfer them to their copy books,
making use of all the symbols of musical notation. The
copying of the scales should be developed progressively:
first the scale with one diesis, next the scale with two,
then the one with three dieses, etc. Fine opportunities
for observation are here offered. A child may see for
instance that a scale with two dieses has the same diesis
which appeared in the preceding scale; a scale with three
dieses has the two dieses of the preceding scales, and so
on. The dieses recur at intervals of five notes.
Since in using the first material, by changing the third
and sixth bell, the child was taught to recognize the har-
monic minor scale, to construct it and listen to it, it is
now an obviously simple matter for him to make up all
the minor scales.
We have thus developed exercises which prepare for
336 MOSTTESSOKI ELEMENTARY MATERIAL
the recognition of the major and minor tones as well as
for the recognition of the different tones. It also be-
comes an easy matter to play a simple motif in different
keys. It is sufficient to move the series of plates, as has
been indicated, and play them over according to the in-
dications of the white and black spaces of the wooden
form.
With all the plates in position.
-9— •-
With two plates removed.
Scale of D.
With four plates removed.
Scale of E.
With five plates removed.
Scale of F.
With seven plates removed. Scale of G.
With nine plates removed.
Scale of A.
With eleven plates removed.
Scale of B.
=te
Scale of C{J.
MUSIC
With one plate removed. Scale of
337
fc
te
bfr
-|^H*
Jk-
-?P
Scale of Cf .
-,-•
With three plates removed
Scale of ElL
-fc
(^—
> * ~
^r-fe
&B:
With six plates removed.
fc±C=^
Scale of
_k__bilfe«
^^=?
T^~*-^^
*^
3^^
Scale of Fjfc.
IT
-tt— i
With eight plates removed.
Scale of Afc.
=i^5±«Ei»= z^zfc^ =—= ;
^•^=^= - -/m1-^-^-'— *—
With ten plates removed.
Scale of B!J.
Here is a specimen of key transposition:
8
At this point children usually develop great keenness
for producing sounds and scales on all kinds of instru-
ments (stringed instruments, wind instruments, etc.)
One of the instruments which brings the child to
producing and recognizing notes is the monochord. It
is a simple, resonant box with one string. The first
338 MONTESSORI ELEMENTARY MATERIAL
Scale of C.
Scale with sharps.
Scale with flats.
exercise is in tuning. The string is made to corre-
spond with one of the resonant prisms (do). This is
made possible by a key with which the string can be loos-
ened or tightened. The child may now be taught to han-
dle the violin bow or mandolin plectrum, or he may be
instructed in the finger thrumming used for the harp
or banjo. On one of our monochords, the notes are indi-
cated by fixed transversal frets, the name of each note
being printed in the proper space. These notes are, how-
ever, not written on the other monochord, where the child
must learn to discover by ear the proper distances at
MUSIC
339
which the notes are produced. In this case the child has
at his disposal movable frets with which he can indicate
the points he has discovered as producing a given note.
These frets should be left in position by the child to
serve as a check on his work. The children have shown
considerable interest also in little pitchpipes, which give
very pleasing tones.
• •••••••
Thus in composing the scales and in listening to them
the child performs real exercises in musical education.
A given melody in the major scale is repeated in various
keys. In listening to it carefully, in repeating it, in
observing the notes which make it up, the child has an
C Pitch.
D Pitch.
E Pitch.
3~^IJj/i
F Pitch.
340 MONTESSORI ELEMENTARY MATERIAL
exercise similar to the audition of the note, but an exer-
cise of a far more advanced character.
This exercise is to be the starting point for under-
standing melody. To make the hearing of music an in-
telligent act and not like the mechanical process which
appears when children read, in loud monotone, books
which they cannot understand and of the meaning of
which they have no idea, preparatory exercises are re-
quired. We get this preparation through various exer-
cises in the audition of various scales for the recognition
of key, and in exercises on the interpretation of rhythm.
IV
EXERCISES IN RHYTHM
One of our most successful exercises has proved to be
that originally conceived as a help in teaching children
to walk, viz., " walking the line." It will be remembered
that among the exercises in motor education used at the
outset of our method, appeared that of walking with one
foot in front of the other on a line drawn on the floor,
much as do tight-rope-walking acrobats. The purpose of
this exercise was to stabilize equilibrium, to teach erect
carriage and to make movement freer and more certain.
Miss Maccheroni began her exercises in rhythm by
accompanying this walking of the children with piano
music. In fact, the sound of the piano came to be the
call signal for the children to take up this exercise. The
teacher starts to play and immediately the children come
of their own accord, and almost without exception, to
take up their positions on the line. At the very begin-
ning the music seems to be purely a signal, at best a
pleasant accompaniment to the motor exercise. There
is no apparent adaptation of the child's movements to the
musical rhythm. However, as the same measure is re-
peated for a considerable period, the rudiments of this
adaptation begin to appear. One of the children begins
to keep step with the rhythm of the music. Individual
differences in adaptation persist for some time; but if.
the same musical rhythm is kept up, almost all the chil-
341
342 MONTESSORI ELEMENTARY MATERIAL
dren finally become sensible to it. In fact, these little
people begin to develop general attitudes of body, in rela-
tion to the music, which are of the greatest interest.
First of all, the children change their gait according to
the music: the light walk, the war-like march, the run,
develop on the impulse of the rhythmic movement. It
is not that the teacher " teaches " the child to change his
walk according to the music: the phenomenon arises of
its own accord. The child begins to interpret the rhythm
by moving in harmony with it. But to obtain this re-
sult the teacher must play perfectly, carefully noting all
the details of musical punctuation. The creation of mu-
sical feeling in the children depends upon the teacher's
own feeling and the rigorous accuracy of her own execu-
tion.
It will be useful to give here a few details on the ex-
ecution of these first rhythmic exercises. The children
begin, as we have said, by learning to walk on the line.
They develop a passion for walking on that line, yielding
to a fascination which grown-up people cannot conceive.
They seem to put their whole souls into it. This is the
moment for the teacher to sit down at the piano and
without saying anything to play the first melody in our
series. The children smile, they look at the piano and
continue to walk, becoming more and more concentrated
on what they are doing. The melody acts as a persuad-
ing voice; the children begin to consider the time of the
music and little by little their tiny feet begin to strike
the line in step with it. Some of our three-year-olders
begin to keep step as early as the first or second trial.
After a very few attempts a whole class of forty children
will be walking in time. We must warn against the
error of playing with special emphasis on the measure;
MUSIC 343
in other words, of striking more loudly than is required
the note (thesis) which marks the inception of the rhyth-
mic period. The teacher should be careful simply to
bring out all the expression that the melody requires.
She may be sure that the rhythmic cadence will become
apparent from the tune itself. The playing of one note
more loudly than the others, thus to emphasize the rhyth-
mic accent (thesis), is to deprive the selection of all its
value as melody and therefore of its power to cause the
motory action corresponding to rhythm. It is necessary
to play accurately and with feeling, giving an interpre-
tation as real as possible. We get thus a " musical time "
which, as every one knows, is not the " mechanical time "
of the metronome. If it is certainly absurd to play a
Nocturne of Chopin on the metronome, it is hardly less
absurd and certainly quite as disagreeable to play a piece
of dance music on that instrument. Even those people
who have a great aptitude for feeling " time " and who
play with special attention to exactness of measure, know
that they cannot follow the metronome without positive
discomfort. Children feel the rhythm of a piece of
music if it is played with musical feeling; and not only
do they follow the time with their footsteps, but, as the
rhythmic periods vary, they adapt the whole attitude of
their bodies to the melodic period, which is developed
around the beats constituting the rhythm as around points
of support. There is a vast difference between this
exercise and that of having children march to the clapping
of hands or to the time of one, Iwo, tliree, etc., counted in
a tone of command.
A child of ten years was dancing to the music of a
Chopin waltz played with most generous concessions to
the different colorations indicated in the text. She put
344 MONTESSORI ELEMENTARY MATERIAL
into her movements a certain fullness of swing, to bring
out the effect which a marked rallentando gives the notes.
Of course this method of dancing demands on the part of
the children a perfect and intimate identification of spirit
with the music; but this is something which children,
even when they are small, possess in a very special way,
and which they develop in their long and uninterrupted
walks on the line to the sounds of a tune often repeated.
It is curious to see them assume a demeanor entirely in
harmony with the expression of the music they are fol-
lowing. A little boy of three, during the playing of our
first melody, held the palms of his hands turned parallel
with the floor and as he walked he bent his knees slightly
with each step. On passing from our first to our second
tunes, he changed not only the rapidity of his footsteps,
but the attitude of his whole body. Considered as some-
thing external this may be of slight importance, but con-
sidered as evidence of a mental state, the change in de-
meanor bears witness to a distinct artistic experience.
The composer of the tune could well be proud of such a
sincere response to his work, if the test of musical beauty
be regarded as successful communication of feeling.
Our second tune is a rapid andante somewhat staccato.
The first was slow and blending (legato). The children
feel the legato, answering it with very reserved move-
ments. The staccato lifts them from the floor. The
crescendo makes them hurry and stamp their feet. The
forte sometimes brings them to clap their hands, while
calando restores them to the silent march, which turns,
during the piano, to perfect silence. The completion
of the musical period brings them to a halt and they
stand there expectant until it is taken up again ; or if it
be the end of the whole tune, they suddenly stop.
MUSIC 345
Beppino, a little boy of three, used to keep time with
the extended forefinger of his right hand. The music
was a song in two parts repeated alternately, the one in
legato and the other in staccato; with the legato he used
a uniform regular movement; he followed the staccato
with sudden spasmodic beats.
To-day forty children may be seen walking as softly as
possible during a tune played pianissimo. These same
children on the day when they first heard the piano kept
calling to the teacher " play louder ; we can't hear " and
yet at that time the teacher was playing not pianissimo,
but mezzo forte!
At first the children interested in the first tune are
deaf to any other. The children in the St. Barnaba
School in Milan got in step with the first tune. They
did not notice that the teacher had changed to the second
and kept their step so well that when the first tune was
resumed, the teacher found them in perfect time, while
on the faces of the children appeared a smile of recogni-
tion, as it were, of an old friend.
If the teacher is sufficiently cautious, she can discover
without disturbing the children the moment when they
have caught a new tune; and even if only a few suc-
ceed in following both of the first two melodies, the
teacher can satisfy these few by alternating the tunes.
This does not disturb the others who come, little by little,
to notice the change in the music and to fall in with the
new movement. In a public kindergarten at Perugia
an attempt of this nature was made without warning by
a lady, who, being a visitor, felt free to take this liberty.
The children were invited into the large hall and left to
themselves while the lady was playing on the piano our
third melody, a march. The older children caught the
346 MONTESSORI ELEMENTARY MATERIAL
movement at once. After they had been marching for
some time a galop was played. Some hesitation ap-
peared in a few pupils while others apparently were not
aware of the change in the music. Suddenly two or three
began to run, as though swept away by the rhythmic
wave, as though borne along by the music. They hardly
seemed to touch that floor to which, but a few moments
previously, the march seemed to have glued them at every
step ! A portion of the children in this class had taken
seats in the sloping auditorium around the room. They
were the youngest children ; and when the victorious
charge broke out to the tune of the galop, they began to
clap their hands enthusiastically. Some of the teachers
felt alarmed, but certainly the spectacle was an inspiring
one.
It follows that if we are to tell the children to " hop,"
" run," or " march," there is no use in our giving them
music. We must take our choice: either music or com-
mands. Even in our reading lessons with the slips, we
do not tell the child the word that he must read. We
must do without commands, without false accentuation of
notes, without enforced positions. Music, if it be in
reality an expressive language, suggests everything to
children if they are left to themselves. Rhythmic inter-
pretation of the musical thought is expressed by the atti-
tude and movement of body and spirit.
]STannina, a girl four years old, would gracefully spread
her skirt, and relax her arms along her body. She would
bend her knees slightly, throw her head back and turn-
ing her pretty little face to one side, smile at those be-
hind her as though extending her amiability in all direo
tions.
Beppino, four and a half years old, stood with his feet
MUSIC 347
together motionless at the center of the ellipse drawn on
the floor, on which the children were walking. He beat
the time of the first tune with an outstretched arm, bow-
ing from the waist in perfectly correct form at every
measure. The time consumed in this bow of Beppino
exactly filled the interval between one thesis and the
next and was in perfect accord with the movement of the
tune.
ISTannina, the same pretty girl we mentioned above,
always grew stiff when a military march was played;
she would frown and walk heavily.
On the other hand, the intervention of the teacher to
give some apposite lesson, tending to perfect certain move-
ments, is something which gives the children extraordi-
nary delight. Five of our little girls embraced each other
rapturously and smothered the teacher with kisses when
they had learned a few new movements of a rhythmic
dance.
Otello, Vincenzino and Teresa had been taught to get
a better effect from their tambourines, their steps and
gestures. Each of them thanked the teacher for the
profitable lesson in a special way. Vincenzino gave her
a beaming smile whenever he marched past her; Teresa
would furtively touch her with her hand ; Otello was even
more demonstrative — as he went by her he would leave
the line, run to her and embrace her for a second or twro.
If the spontaneity of every child has been respected ; if,
in other words, every child has been able to grow in his
or her own way, listening to the tunes, following them
with the footsteps and with free movements — interpret-
ing them ; if each child has been able to penetrate, with-
out being disturbed by any one, into the heart of the
beautiful fact which the understanding of music consti-
348 MONTESSORI ELEMENTARY MATERIAL
tutes; then it is easy for the teacher who has forty chil-
dren (between three and five and a half years of age)
only one assistant, and preferably perhaps a whole apart-
ment instead of a closed room, to sit down at the piano
and teach eight children a long and intricate dance, —
the lanciers in five parts. And then just like the orches-
tra leader who has prepared his pupils, the teacher with
a minimum of effort gets the very effect in dancing, etc.,
which teachers generally are so anxious to obtain. Then
we can get marches, counter marches, simultaneous move-
ments, alternate movements, interweaving lines, — any-
thing in fact, that we wish, and with perfect accuracy
besides ; since every movement in the children corre-
sponds exactly with the development of the tune.
For instance, the children are marching two by two,
holding each other's hand, during the playing of a short
tune. At the end of this melody they slowly kneel, but
in such a way that on the sound of the last note they are
touching the floor very gently with their knees. There
is something sweet about the accuracy and the perfect
simultaneousness attained by the children, under the
guidance of the tune. The effect of these exercises on
them is to bring repose to their whole body and a sense
of peace to their little souls.
On one occasion in a school just opened in Milan, 1908,
the children re-acted to the piano by jumping about in
confusion, waving their arms, moving their shoulders and
legs. This was really an attempt to represent by a sort
of chaos the complexity of the rhythmic movements they
were hearing. They were actually making, without any
assistance from others, a spontaneous attempt at musical
interpretation. They soon grew tired of this, saying that
" the thing was ugly." They had, however, divined the
MUSIC 349
possibilities of an orderly motory action; and when they
had become quiet again, they began to listen to the music
with great interest waiting for the revelation of its deep
secret. Then suddenly they began to walk again, this
time regularly and according to the real measure.
One of the children, whose graph was somewhat as fol-
lows :
B
(pauses, that is, on the line of quiescence, with frequent
excursions into the negative field), took no part in these
rhythmic exercises. On the contrary, he was always
breaking them up by pushing the other children out of
line or making a noise. Finally, however, he did learn
not to disturb others ; in other words, to stay quiet, some-
thing which he had never known how to do before. It is
a great conquest for a disorderly child to gain the ability
to become quite motionless, in a gently placid state of
mind. His next step was to learn to move delicately,
with respect for other people; and he came to have a
certain sensitiveness about his relations with his school-
mates. For example, he used to blush when they smiled
at him and even when he took no part in what they were
doing, he shared their activities with an affectionate at-
tention. From this point on Riziero (that was the child's
name) entered on a higher plane of existence — one of
order, labor and politeness.
The fact also that children at times listen to the music,
while remaining seated comfortably around the room,
watching the other children dance and march, is in itself
a pretty thing. The children who are seated become
very self-controlled. They watch their schoolmates or ex-
350 MONTESSORI ELEMENTARY MATERIAL
change a few words cautiously with each other. At times,
even, they let themselves go in interesting expressions of
movement with their arms. The manifestations of pla-
cidity and interest here seen cannot be disjoined from a
healthful, spiritual upbuilding, — a beautiful orderliness,
which is being established within them. Obviously, a
wonderful harmony springs up between the teacher, who
plays with enthusiastic feeling and with all possible skill
of hand and abundance of spirit simply because she feels
the musical phenomena around her in the children, and
the pupils who, little by little, are transformed under
this influence, and show an understanding of the music,
which becomes for them something- more and more inti-
mate, more and more complete. It is no longer a ques-
tion of the step, but of the position of the whole body:
arms, heads, chests are moved by the music.
Finally, many of the children beat time with their
hands, and interpret correctly without ever having been
taught distinctions between 3 and 4 time, etc. When a
keen interest in " guessing " the time is awakened in them,
the children look about for various objects — wands, tam-
bourines, castagnettes, etc., and the class exercise is de-
veloped to perfection. The child comes to be " possessed '
by the music. He obeys the musical command with his
whole body and becomes more and more perfect in this
obedience shown by his muscles.
Here is a pretty story which will show to what extent
children can feel themselves dependent on the music
which " makes them move." Once my father went into
a room where a little Parisian girl whom he was very
fond of was passionately marching to the rhythm of a
tune played on the piano. The child usually ran to meet
the old gentleman ; but that day the moment she saw him
MUSIC 351
she began to shout to Miss Maccheroni, who was play-
ing, !< Arrete, arrete!' She wanted to go and shake
hands with my father, something she could not do as long
as the music was continuing to command her to move with
the rhythm. And in fact, it was not until Miss Mac-
cheroni stopped playing that the little girl was able to
run and deliver her greeting.
• •••*€••
We have prepared a series of tunes for this work and
I think it will be useful to give here those which we
finally selected because they have succeeded, whenever
they were tried, in arousing in the children the phenomena
above described. There are eight movements chosen from
six wrell-known pieces of music. These few movements
repeated over and over again and played with all possible
accuracy, will surely, sooner or later, be felt in every
rhythm by the children.
The transition from following the time by ones (that
is, one beat for every rhythmic element) to the indica-
tion of simply the beginning of the measure (that is,
one beat on the lltesis) appeared for the first time in a
" Children's House ': directed by Miss Maccheroni.
There, one morning when the children were following the
music with great pleasure, marching about and beating on
tambourines, it was a girl who first caught the strong beat
(thesis). A little boy behind her made the conquest a
second later; but while the little girl lost what she had
gained almost immediately, the little boy developed it to
perfection. Shortly after other children made the same
progress, apparently as a saving of effort : they began, that
is, by beating once on every step. This required a rapid
movement and an endless succession of beats. All of a
sudden they began to beat on the first note of a measure.
352 MONTESSORI ELEMENTARY MATERIAL
Here, for instance, is a case of 4/4 time :
i I i i i i iT
The children at first marked the time without regard to
the measure, thus:
I I I I I I I I I I I I
But the moment comes suddenly when they catch the
measure: then they beat it as follows:
In other words, their beats fall only on the first note of
the measure.
Maria Louise, a little under four years of age, was
walking to the sound of a 2/4 march, played rather
lightly. Suddenly she called to the teacher : " Regarde,
regarde, comme je fais! '' She was making little skips,
gracefully raising her arms on the first beat of the meas-
ure. Her invention was extraordinarily happy and grace-
ful.
Usually in teaching the divisions of musical time, it
has been the custom to play forte the time called theoret-
ically tempo forte: in other words, to strike hard on the
first note of every rhythmic measure. In fact, teachers
of children or young people can often be heard playing
a tune with special emphasis on the first note of every
measure and playing the successive notes pianissimo.
Naturally the motory action corresponds to this: it will
be tense for the strong beats and light for the weak
beats. But what value has all this in relation to the feel-
ing of the rhythmic measure ? What is called theoretic-
05
e
o
o
o
03
8
•«
o
g
o
I
O .
o
-
CS
01
1
tfl
c
—
13
£
(U
Analyzing the beat of a measure while walking on a line. (A Montessori
Kchool in Italy.)
MUSIC 353
ally tempo forte has no relation to the meaning of the
words " strong " and " weak ': in their ordinary sense.
It is a question of emphasis and expression, which derive
their nature from the laws of musical time and melodic
composition and certainly not from the wrist muscles of
the person playing. If this were not so, a person could
play the first, second or third note of a measure as forte,
whereas, in reality, it is the first that is always " strong."
In practise, children, to whom the six tunes we pro-
posed for the beginning of this study were played — and
played always with rigorous musical interpretation and
with expressiveness — succeeded in recognizing the first
beat of the measure as " strong," and went on thus to
divide into measures some thirty pieces of music of
varied rhythm. Even the following year, after the sum-
mer vacation, they kept asking for new pieces of music
just for the " fun " of working out the measure in them.
They would stand at the side of the teacher at the piano
and either with their hands or with soft playing on the
castagnettes or tambourines, accompany their new piece
of music. In general they would listen in silence to the
first measure and then fall in with their little beats like
any well-trained orchestra. They took the trouble no
longer to march to the music : they were interested in this
new form of study ; while the smaller tots, delighted with
the new music, were still walking undisturbed along the
elliptical line on the floor which was to guide them to such
great conquests!
The strong beat (thesis} is the key that opens to the
higher laws of music. Sometimes it is played, for rea-
sons of expression, very softly and always possesses the
solemnity of the note which dominates the rhythm. It
may even be syncopated or lacking entirely, just as when
354 MONTESSORI ELEMENTARY MATERIAL
the orator on reaching his climax pronounces in a very
low voice the phrase which is to produce the great effect,
or even pauses and is silent : this sentence rings power-
fully in the ears of those who listen.
The same error which leads to heavy stress, in play-
ing, on the first beat of every measure in order to attract
the attention of the children to it, also leads to suggest-
ing secondary movements in addition to the one which
marks the thesis. The children, for instance, must make
four movements for a 4/4 time: movements in the air
for the secondary beats,, and a more energetic movement
for the thesis. The result is that interest in the succes-
sion of movements replaces attention to the fact of most
importance, which is to feel the value of the first beat.
Children who feel the first note because it is played
" strong " and who proceed from one strong beat to the
following strong beat guided by a succession of move-
ments, are not, it is obvious, following the tune. One
little girl who had been prepared by this method found
herself, on having mistaken the beat, constantly persist-
ing in her mistake under the guidance of her four move-
ments. It is like presenting a cube or a triangle to chil-
dren of three years with the teacher enumerating the sides,
the angles, the apexes, etc. In reality the children do
not get any notion of the triangle or the cube.
Our children come ultimately to represent the secondary
beats with slight movements, as follows:
1
1 1 1
1 1 1 1 1 1 1
1 1 1
and then they count them. When we have gone thus far
we reach the point which is exactly the point of departure
MUSIC
355
for ordinary methods, namely, counting one! two! three!
four! to keep step in time.
• •••••••
As a practical application of the information already
acquired in the division of time into measures, we next
pass to the exercise of playing the scales in 2/4, 3/4 and
4/4 time and with the triplets. The scale, the classic
type of the melody, lends itself beautifully to these inter-
pretations of various measures. Every one must have
passed hours at the piano playing simple scales and find-
ing a delicious variety in the exercise. The do scale itself
mav be plaved, for instance, thus:
*/ X *.>
or thus:
25E
\
f
9
A
• j
J 0
r
•
«
=^^ z
sntai
J
J _j
V
1 [_
*? •*
. 9
9
I
i
« V
or thus:
/•\
r-
^M
V
ttati
H
rm 4 i
-- •
w
A
Our little piano may be of use in this exercise; but it
is better first to use an exercise more easy for finger move-
ment and for the position of the hand :
Children who have succeeded in identifying and divid-
ing the melody into measures and the measure itself into
356 MONTESSORI ELEMENTARY MATERIAL
2, 3, 4, understand very easily the time values of the
notes. It is sufficient to let the child hear each exercise
4
q:
1
V~*
«-^V
-J.— *— *
t=*
^zzi:
at*:
and he will repeat it with precision. Thus all kinds
of dry explanation of musical values disappear.
The following notation
MUSIC
357
presents no special difficulty if the child has once heard it.
Our next step is to use some exercises for the analysis
of the measure, for instance :
Jf —
j r 9 r
Q
r^
-^•3
l
^
. — i —
& 9!
i
! i
•1
rm * •
— j i ,
•1
1
9999
^F\
i
•
t-£& — _
._
_
1
_. !.
The children follow these exercises, marching so as to
put one step on every note. Even children of four years
when prepared with the preceding exercises succeed in
following these with the very greatest interest. They are
358 MONTESSORI ELEMENTARY MATERIAL
especially delighted with the long note which keeps them
hanging in position with one foot in front of them on the
line and the other one behind them also on the line. The
position is that of a person who stops before bringing up
the foot which is still behind him.
Since the children already know how to read music,
there is hung up before them a green chart (similar in di-
mensions to the musical staffs already familiar to them)
on which is written the exercise which is being played at
the piano by the teacher and which they execute on the
floor-line.
Examples :
£3E -FTT-I-
^:fcj=E^J&
-&—
•A:
-4-
-<&-•
Here is another:
1
*— *•
*— ^--z^—
•* — •-
ifEEp
-• — •
-I 1-
Efe
— LI
-^—
P
-4-
-• — •-
-«>-
^-^^
•l—l-hsi
^=^
•*— ai-
-0- -•- -&-
We even give a simple tune like this one (composed by
Professor Jean Gibert of the Moutessori Primary School
of Barcelona) :
=
MUSIC 359
, I I— T ,-
Of course, sooner or later children fix their attention
on the varying form of the notes and discover that this
difference in form bears a relation to differences in time-
value of the notes :
j j
This is the time to give in very brief explanation the
lesson on the value of the notes. Thereafter the child may
write from memory a simple melody which the teacher
has first played on the piano. Almost always the child
writes this down with accuracy, showing that he has con-
trol over the musical values appearing in the melody in
question. The child uses for this purpose a large green
chart containing various musical staffs on which movable
notes may be fixed at pleasure. These notes are equipped
with a pin which may be pushed into the wood. The
simple exercises given for the analysis of the measures,
transferred into various keys, can after some practise
in playing them on the system of plates be put into their
copy books by the children. These exercises for measure-
analysis are so simple that the children themselves have
sometimes learned to play them on the piano. It then
has happened that the class went of its own accord into
the piano room ; one child began to play and the others
followed the music on the floor-line. The children as they
walk ultimately come to sing the scales and the easy tunes
(of which they have recognized the notes) pronouncing
the names of the notes ; but in so pronouncing them they
soften their voices to the point of attaining an expression
360 MONTESSOEI ELEMENTARY MATERIAL
which, may be called even artistic. When the teacher
plays, the music gains the added charm of harmony, since
the teacher can give not only the simple scale, but the rela-
tive chords, and this gives the scale a vigorous and very
sweet fullness.
These exercises in measure analysis have also been par-
ticularly useful in their application to gymnastic exer-
cises. The children follow them with gymnastic move-
ments, using especially the movements of Dalcroze, which
are admirably adapted to the measures of %, %, %, etc.,
and which have a real beauty. We discovered that these
exercises proved to be complexly difficult for the children
who had not practised sufficiently in the interpretation
of the different note values. On the other hand, they were
very easy for those who had come to have a clear feeling
for these different values. This was proof to us that sen-
sorial preparation must precede these exercises, and fur-
thermore, that the only difficulty Dalcroze movements en-
counter in children arises from insufficient sensory prepa-
ration in the children themselves.
In the same way we illustrate the different details of
musical writing: the dotted note,
r
the triplet:
c t t
the legato, the staccato, etc.
Here is an example of a leyato effect
MUSIC
361
H — I — -- F1^ — F+-
(Sonnambula. Quintet)
This example which derives all its expressive value
from the ties, also brings out the value of the note :
r - u
We need, accordingly, a collection of musical selections
in which the value of the notes is obvious and clear to such
an extent that the children come to recognize the different
values. This recognition must be obtained by ear through
listening to the music, not by eye looking at the symbols
while the teacher explains.
The % note always has a different musical content
from the YIQ note. A musical piece made up of the IGth
or 32d notes has a character of its own (joy or agitation) ;
and a piece made up of half or whole notes has likewise
its peculiar character (religious, sad, impressive).
The same may be said of every musical symbol, the
value of which is brought out by the note being played
362 MONTESSORI ELEMENTARY MATERIAL
with that value and in reference to that symbol. It has
been held that in playing for children and in copying
music for the use of children the expression-symbols
should be suppressed. We should observe that these signs
of expression bear to music the relation that punctuation
bears to the written sentence ; their suppression takes away
all value from the notes. For example, the legato and
symbols which indicate that difference ( • • *v. and • )
have therefore the very greatest value.
The children succeed quite easily in using and read-
ing the accessory symbols of music. They already know
their meaning through having heard them. We have not
found it necessary to use such signs as sense objects, such
as bars (to be placed on the wooden staff to divide meas-
ure from measure), time fractions, parentheses and so
on. Although we had these manufactured, we ultimately
abandoned them because we found that they were simply
in the way.
On the other hand, we found considerable utility in
our large colored cards with a single staff already de-
scribed. On these are written various measures which the
children read with a special pleasure and execute on their
bells.
With all this a way has been opened to a really musical
education. Once Miss Maccheroni, while executing her
customary rhythmic tunes, reproduced a melodious reli-
gious movement, " 0 Sanctissima" which the children
heard for the first time. The children all left the line
and gathered around the piano to listen. Two or three
little girls kneeled on the floor and others remained mo-
MUSIC
363
-4-
lit:
tionless executing plastic poses with their arms. This
revealed to us their sensitiveness to melody; they felt
moved not to march but to pray and assume various poses.
We have not yet been able to push our experiments far
enough precisely to define the musical material adapted
to children of various ages. We have, however, made a
very great number of successful attempts to bring chil-
dren to enjoy melody and sentimental expression in mu-
sic. The practicableness and utility of musical audi-
tions, or, if you wish, of concerts for children, graduated
in difficulty, executed on various instruments, but on one
instrument at a time, are beyond all question ; this applies
above all to songs reproduced by the human voice, when
a well-trained voice is available.
If a real artist should take up the task of analyzing
for children the language of music, bringing them to enjoy
it phrase by phrase and under different timbres (voice,
strings, etc.), his new and scientific application of the art
would prove to be a real benefaction to humanity. How
many people capable of profound enjoyment of music
would be produced in the future from these groups of little
ones, so intelligent in music, who follow the most expres-
364 MONTESSORI ELEMENTARY MATERIAL
sive tunes with so much passion and in a silence more
absolute than any celebrated artist can dream of attain-
ing in a meeting of adults! No one among these little
hearers is cold, far away in thought. But on the faces of
the children appears the interior working of a spirit, tast-
ing a nectar essential to its very life.
How many times a plastic pose, a kneeling posture, an
ecstatic face, will move the heart of the artist to a sense
of joy greater than that which any applause of a throng
of people often indifferent or inattentive, can possibly
give him! Usually only those wounded at heart by the
difficulty of being understood by others, or discouraged
by the coldness or rudeness of other people, or oppressed
by disillusion, or filled with a sense of painful loneliness
or need of expansion in some other way, feel in music
the voice which opens the doors of the heart and causes
a health-giving flood of tears or raises the spirit to a lofty
sense of peace. Only they can understand how necessary
a companion for humanity music is. We know, of course,
to-day that music is an indispensable stimulant for sol-
diers rushing forth to die. How much more truly would
it then become a stimulant for all who are to live !
This conviction is already in the hearts of many peo-
ple. In fact, attempts have already been made to reach
the populace by concerts in the public squares and by
making concert halls accessible to people of every class;
but after all, do such attempts amount to more than put-
ting the cheap editions of the classics into circulation
among illiterates? Education is the prime requisite;
without such education we have a people of deaf mutes
forever barred from any music. The ear of the unedu-
cated man cannot perceive the sublime sounds which
music would bring within his reach. That is why though
MUSIC 365
the music of Bellini and Wagner is being played in public
squares, the saloons are just as full as before.
If, however, from these pupils of ours a whole people
could grow up, it would be sufficient to go through the
streets with a good piece of music and everybody would
come out to hear. All those places where the rough and
abandoned wrecks of humanity seek enjoyment, like home-
less dogs looking for food in our ash-cans, would be emp-
tied as if by magic. We would have an actual realization
of the Allegory of Orpheus ; for hearts which are to-day of
stone would then be stirred and brought to life by a sub-
lime melody.
SINGING
Singing began with the scale. The singing of a scale,
first in accompaniment with the bells and later with the
piano is a first and great delight to the children. They
sing it in various ways, now in a low voice, now very
loud, now all together in unison, now one by one. They
sing divided into two groups, sharing the notes alter-
nately between them. Among the songs which we offer to
the children, the greatest favorite proved to be the sylla-
bic Gregorian Chant. It is something like a very per-
fect form of speech. It has a conversational intonation,
the softness of a sentence well pronounced, the full round-
ness of the musical phrase. The examples given here
have almost the movement of the scale.
Many other verses of the Gregorian Chant have, like
these, proved to be the delight of the Montessori Elemen-
tary School of Barcelona. There the children are espe-
cially keen about this very simple music which they like to
play on the piano, on their plates (Xylophones) or on
their monochords.
366 MONTESSORI ELEMENTARY MATERIAL
H (-
>— *
PH"^P J J
v — t
Ro -
ra
te Coe - li de
su
per
nu - bes plu
ant ju
stum
1
d — * is
H 1-
-0— +
•—+
Pu - er na - tus in Beth - le - em, al - le - lu - ia.
^
fr
^— ^
Un - de gau - det Je - ru - sa - lem Al • le - lu -
-K
• ft
ia
Al - le - lu - ia
In Cor - dis ju - bi - lo
Chri-stum na-tum a - do - re- mus, Cum no - vo Can - ti - co.
MUSIC 367
MUSICAL PHEASES FOR THE INITIAL RHYTHMIC
EXERCISES
We give here in complete form the musical phrases used
by us for the first rhythmic exercises. They are adequate
for giving the sensation of rhythm and for suggesting the
motory actions associated with the rhythm. This musical
material now forms in our schools part of the material
which is experimentally established.
Works from which Selections are Taken Motor Reactions
Provoked
1. " Ancora un bacio," mazurka, Bastianelli. . Slow walk.
2. " Si j'etais roi," Adolphe Adam Accelerated walk.
3. " Eagle March," Wagner March step.
4. " Galop," Strauss Run.
5. " Italian folk-song " Hop.
6. " Pas des patineurs " Sedate walk.
368 MONTESSOKI ELEMENTARY MATERIAL
ANGORA UN BACIO
(Mazurka)
Bastianelli.
3
cresc.
i=^=J=!
JML
j9 legatiss.
*
-I -l — 4-
-I 1 1-
0 i_ g|_
^
J-
i — i
Iftjt^^il
t
MUSIC
369
SI J'ETAIS EOI
Adolphe Adam.
dndante sostenuto.
370 MONTESSORI ELEMENTARY MATERIAL
EAGLE MARCH
Wagner.
*=r=*
I — i — *=
sp^l=
i
J.
S:
=4
=±=±=
=1=
tft
to
-N
^§1
=*=
=t
a-
1-
-• — *
dol
*zt=t
issimo.
^M-
-HffH »•
^5*=?=
r
8—
r
*
i
-•-
-|H 1 J
=ft
;-•-
jjp
r i
f
^^^
^=t=
^t
P^
-I — •-
:t=:
?
MUSIC
371
it:
=t
=1=t:
— i —
~^
m
PP
£*
l=h=
=t
5
:f-
— — J — j
=i — P=
1
mKm
— i r—
1 1 —
— 1 1
-* J I
r
•ff energico.
ft *t F
S F
i
J '•
m
m
:M— •-
I
e
I-
E
\
t
m
.-$—&-
=t:
S^
=t
t«
^§=
^=-4=5
-t-— ?--•--*
i
-« — »-
?
JEEEE
372 MONTESSORI ELEMENTARY MATERIAL
GALOP
Strauss.
•«« K
*« K
f=rte=P=
i gr-E — i —
-^^=f:
4-*^-
^=t
££-
JJ(t 23C
*^J * >i
0 h
MUSIC
373
ITALIAN FOLK SONG
374 MONTE SSOKI ELEMENTARY MATERIAL
PAS DES PATINEUKS
33
e*1 ^
0 — i— -i
-,.U
r
1 2 irtj <•
m
1
rf^
U i _j
R*
tr
J S
• «
?» #
CV i;
1
« F
• F
*
r F
!• t
'_/ * N*
\^
m
• u
^
«v
P
p— — p *
X '
f ,
r? i U"-1
L 1 i " i T
\\TT' ^
it — ~* —
1— _
U^
«
Sm
I f" •*• f-
f\--M *
I
m
-/•-ii
a
« S S
« S 5
* p p p
* P P P
XL i s* • *
• *
^^ JH
«H *^| ' 2
fn\ i P
«fc » ~
S32 Q 1
0
t/ ' l*»
u I f' f' f-
kr
i /• f* "p~
1
c~\ • tr M M ^
!/i U »
B K K
?rj-4f J 2 5 5
J 2 S g
A M ><*
A S
^ R ? P P *
1 . i L_ 1
J P P *
r- 1 1 I E—
MUSIC
375
O SANCTISSIMA
Andante.
:q=T3=
cresc
MUSICAL AUDITIONS
The movement entitled " O Sanctissima," played by
Miss Maccheroni one day by chance among the rhythmic
exercises, is regarded by us as an introduction to musical
audition. It will be recalled that the children had been
accustomed to alter their style of marching on the floor-
line according to changes in the music. It had never,
however, occurred to them to leave the line. When this
piece was played they all crowded around the piano, mo-
tionless, thoughtful, absorbed; while two or three little
ones fell to their knees and assumed various poses. This
experience suggested to us the idea of " musical audi-
tions," if you wish " concerts for children."
Children, little by little to be sure, but no less admira-
bly, enter into the spirit of music. After the numerous
rhythmic exercises, as soon, that is, as they have mastered
the problem of measure, almost any sonata is within their
reach. They can handle not isolated movements merely,
but whole pieces of music. The same is true of the audi-
tions. At first, of course, it is better to select simple
phrases ; but gradually the children come to enjoy " the
best music," joyfully recognizing the feeling which it
expresses and which inspired it. Our pupils used to ex-
claim, for instance : " This piece is for weeping,"
" This is for prayer," " Now we must laugh," " Now we
must shout," etc.
We cannot, however, insist too strongly on the need
376
MUSIC 3TT
for the greatest possible care in the execution of the selec-
tions used. A child audience is a very special one. It
demands something more than is expected by the aver-
age " intelligent audience." It is one in which musical
intelligence must be developed. Our object must be the
creation not merely of higher and higher grades of under-
standing but also of higher and higher grades of feeling.
In this sense, we can never do too much for the children.
It is a task not beneath the dignity of the greatest com-
posers, the most accomplished technicians. Indeed, any
one of such might well esteem it a privilege some day to
hear it said of his work that it aroused the first love for
music in the hearts of one of these little ones. For thus
music would have been made a companion, a consoler, a
guardian angel of man ! It is of course not the lot of all
of us to attain the exalted position of greatness whether as
artists or technicians. We must content ourselves with
assuming an obligation: with giving all the soul and all
the skill we possess. We must conceive of ourselves as
transmitters of the largess of music to our children. We
must deeply feel our calling as bestowers of a divine gift.
The following titles were all used successfully by us in
our experiments. They are supplements to the " O
Sauctissima " and a " Pater Noster."
A. NARRATIVES.
Trovatore: " Tacea la notte placida."
Lucrezw Borgia: " Nella fatal di Rimini e memorabil
guerra."
Lucia, di Lamermoor: " Regnava nel silenzio."
Trovatore: " Racconto di Azucena."
Sonnambula: "A fosco cielo, a notte bruna."
Rigoletlo: " Tutte le fcste al tempio."
Fra Diavolo : " QuelPuom dal fiero aspetto."
378 MONTESSORI ELEMENTARY MATERIAL
B. DESCRIPTION.
Beethoven : " Moonlight."
Boheme : " Nevica ; qualcuno passe e parla " (Act II,
prelude).
Aida, prelude as far as " Cieli azzurri."
Aida, " Marcia trionfale " (containing the motive of the
scene to which it belongs).
G. SENTIMENT AND PASSION:
Gaiety :
Traviata: " Libiam nei lieti calici."
Sonnambula : " In Elvezia non v'ha rosa fresca e bella
al par d'Alina."
Traviata : " Sempre libera deggi' io folleggiar."
Faust: Peasant song, " La vaga pupilla."
Contentment :
Aida: " Rivedro le foreste imbalsamate."
Passion :
Traviata: " Amami Alfredo."
Lucrezia Borgia: "Era desso il figliuol mio."
Anguish:
Lucrezia Borgia : " Mio figlio, ridate a me il mio figlio."
" " Infelice, il veleno bevesti."
Threat:
Cavalleria Rusticana: " Bada, Santuzza, schiavo non
son."
Allurement:
Barbiere di Siviglia: "La calunnia e un venticello."
7m : " La Piovra."
Comic :
Barbiere di Siviglia : " Pace e gioia sia con vol."
Fra Diavolo : " Grazie al ciel per una serva."
MUSIC 379
Invitation:
Faust: " Permetteresti a me."
Boheme: song of Kudolph, " Che gelida manina."
Anger:
Sonnambula: "Ah perche non posso odiarti."
Sorrow of sacrifice :
Boheme: " Vecchia zimarra senti."
Meditation:
Mendelsohn : Romances.
Mozart.
Chopin.
D. FOLK SONGS AND DANCES.
PART VII
METRICS
THE STUDY OF METRICS IN ELEMENTARY
SCHOOLS
One of the novelties included in our experiments was
the teaching of metrics, hitherto reserved for high schools.
The love shown by children for poetry, their exquisite
sensitiveness to rhythm, led me to suspect that the native
roots of poetry might be present in little children. I sug-
gested to Miss Maria Fancello, a teacher of literature in
the high schools and my colleague, to attempt such an ex-
periment. She began with children of different ages, and,
together, we succeeded in discovering a highly interesting
department of education, the object of w7hich might be to
give the mass of the people, prepared for life in the pri-
mary schools, the basic elements of literary appreciation,
thus opening a new source of pleasure calculated also to
increase general enlightenment. A populace capable of
enjoying poetry, of judging the beauty of verse, and hence
of coming in contact with the spirits of our greatest poets,
would be something quite different to the masses we now
know. To find the like we have to imagine the people of
ancient story, who talked in poetry and moved their bodies
to the rhythm, thus laying the foundations of refined civ-
ilization.
It is not our intention to describe in detail all we did
in these experiments. It will be sufficient to summarize
383
384 MONTESSORI ELEMENTARY MATERIAL
the results, which may suggest useful material and meth-
ods to others.
As soon as the children are somewhat advanced in
reading, poetry, which they loved so much in the " Chil-
dren's House," may be included in the materials offered
in partial satisfaction of their insatiable desire to read.
It is best to begin with poems composed of stanzas of dif-
ferent lengths, the stanzas being printed at easily notice-
able intervals from each other. The lines may be
counted, in teaching the two new words " stanza " and
" line." The process involved is a recognition of " ob-
jects," suggesting the first exercise in reading, where the
children put names on things ; though here the situation
is much simpler. At the same time we have the exercise
of counting the lines. In short, it is a review exercise
of the greatest simplicity.
The counting of the lines leads at once to the identifi-
cation of such groups as the couplet, quatrain, octave, etc.
But little time is spent on such a crude detail. The little
ones almost immediately become interested in the rhyme.
The first step is the recognition of rhyming syllables
which are underlined with colored pencils, using a differ-
ent color for each rhyme. Seven-year-olders take the
greatest delight in this work, which is too simple to arouse
interest in children of eight or nine. Those of seven do
such work about as quickly as those of ten, the speed of
the younger children being due apparently to their en-
thusiasm, the slowness of the older to their lack of inter-
est. We may note in passing that these exercises fur-
nish tests of absolute exactness as to rapidity of work.
Children of eight are able to go one step beyond marking
the rhymes with colored pencils. They can use the more
complicated device of marking lines with the letters of the
METRICS 385
alphabet: aa, bb, cc, etc. Marking with numbers to the
left the lines in their order, and the rhymes with letters
to the right, we get a specimen result as follows :
1° Rondinella pellegrtna a
2° Che ti posi sul verone b
3° Ricantando ogni mattino. a
4° Quella flebile canzone b
5° Che vuoi dirmi in tua favella c
6° Fellegrina rondineZZa? c
(Translation: ''Wandering swallow, as you sit there
on my balcony each morning, singing to me your tearful
song, what is it you are trying to tell me in your lan-
guage, wandering swallow?")
This brings out the difference between the alternating
rhyme (a, b, a, b) and the couplet (c, c), as well as the
morphology of the stanza.
• ••*«••*
In reading the lines over and over again to work out
the rhyme scheme, the children spontaneously begin to
catch the tonic accents. Their readiness in this respect
is a matter of common observation. In fact, in ordinary
schools, the teachers are continually struggling against
the " sing-song " developed by children in reading poetry.
This " sing-song " is nothing more nor less that stress on
the rhythmic movement.
On one occasion, one of our children, a little boy, had
been spending some time over a number of decasyllabic
lines. While waiting in the corridor for the doors to open
at dismissal time, he suddenly began to walk up and down
"right-about-facing" at every three steps and saying
aloud: " tatata, tatata, tatatatta," right-about-face, then
"tatata, tatata, tatatatta." Each step was accompanied
386 MONTESSORI ELEMENTARY MATERIAL
by a gesture in the air with his little clenched fist. This
tot was marching to the verse rhythm, just as he would
have marched to music. It was a case of perfectly inter-
pretative " gymnastic rhythm." His gestures fell on the
three tonic accents of the Italian decasyllabic, the right-
about marked the end of the " verse " — the " turn " in
the line, which he indicated by " turning " himself around
to begin over again.
When the children have reached such a stage of sen-
sory development, they have no difficulty in recognizing
the tonic accents. For this purpose, we have prepared
sheets with poems written in a clear hand. The children
mark with a neatly drawn accent the letter on which the
rhythmic accent falls. The material should be system-
atically presented. We found from experience that the
children first discover the accents in long lines made up
of even^numbered syllables (parisyllabic lines), where
the accents recur at regular intervals and are clearly
called for both by sense, word accent and rhythm. We
were able to establish the following sequence for various
Italian lines, which present a graduated series of diffi-
culties to the child in recognizing the accents :
1. Decasyllabics : example :
S'ode a destra imo squillo di tromba
A sinistra risponde imo squillo:
D'ambo i lati calpesto rimbdmba
Da cavalli e da fanti il terren.
Quinci spunta per 1'aria un vessillo:
Quindi un altro s'avanza spiegato:
Ecco appare un drappello schierato;
Ecco un altro che inc6ntro gli vien.
(MANZONI, La battaglia, di Maclodio.)
(Translation: "A trumpet call sounds to the right;
a trumpet calls answers to the left ; all around the earth
shakes with the charge of horses and men. Here a stand-
METEICS 387
ard is broken out to the breeze; there another advances
waving; here a line of troops appears, there another rush-
ing against it")
2. Dodecasyllables : example:
Ruello, Ruello, divora la via,
Portateci a volo, bufere del ciel.
E presso alia morte la vergine mia,
Galoppa, galoppa, galoppa Ruel.
(PKATI, Galoppo notturno.)
(Translation: " Ruello, Ruello, as fast as you can!
O storm-winds of heaven, lend us your wings ; my loved
one is lying near death; onward, onward, onward,
Ruello!")
3. Eight syllable lines (ottonario) : example:
Solitario bosco ombroso,
A te viene afflitto cor,
Per trovar qualche rip6so
Fra i silenzi in quest'orror.
(RoLLi, La lontananza.)
(Translation: "O deserted wood! To your shade
the sorrowing heart comes to find some rest in your cool
silence.")
4. Six syllable lines (senario) : example:
Pur baldo di speme
L'uom ultimo giunto
Le ceneri preme
D'un mondo defunto;
Incalza di secoli
Non anco maturi
I fulgidi auguri.
(ZANELLA, La concliiglia fossile.)
(Translation: "Radiant with hope, the latest corner
treads on the ashes of a dead world, pursuing the glowing
aspirations of ages not yet ripe.")
In the above selections the vowels in broad-faced
388 MONTESSOKI ELEMENTARY MATERIAL
type have been marked with an accent by the child, to in-
dicate the rhythmic beat.
We found, on the other hand, that greater difficulty is
experienced by the children in lines where the syllables
are in odd-numbers (imparisyllabics), the hardest of the
Italian lines being the hendecasyllable, which is a com-
bination of the seven syllable and the five syllable line,
fused together with all their great varieties of movement.
We established the following gradation of difficulties:
1. Seven syllable line (setteiwrio) : example:
Gift riede Primavera
Col suo fiorito aspetto,
Gia il grato zeffiretto
Scherza fra 1'erbe e i fior.
(METASTASIO, Primavera.)
(Translation: "Now already flowery Spring returns;
again the lovely zephyrs dance amidst the grass and blos-
soms.")
2. Five syllable line (quinario) : example:
Vivace simbolo
De la famiglia,
Le die la tremula
Madre a la figlia,
Le die la suocera
Buona a la nuora
Ne l'61tim' 6ra.
(MAZZONI, Per un mazzo di chiavi.)
(Translation: "As a vivid symbol of the home, they
were passed on by the dying mother to her daughter or to
her son's wife."
3. Nine syllable line (novenario} : example:
Te triste! Che a valle t'aspettano
I giorni di cantici privi;
Ah no, non dai morti che t'amano,
Ti guarda, fratello, dai vivi.
(CAVALLOTTI, Su in alto.)
METRICS 389
(Translation: "Alas, for tliee, O brother! Yonder,
songless days await thee. Ah no, have no fear of the
dead: they love thee! The living only shouldst thou
fear!")
4. Hendecasyllable : example:
Per me si va nclla citta dolente,
Per me si va nelP eterno dolore,
Per me si va tra la perduta gente.
(DANTE, Divina Commedia, Inferno.)
(Translation: "Through me ye enter the city of sor-
row; through me ye enter the realm of eternal grief;
through me ye enter the regions of the damned").
The typical ending of these various lines is the trochee
( — u, verso piano}. The iambic (u — , verso tronco}
and the dactyllic (- - u U, verso sdrucciolo} endings (re-
quiring respectively one syllable less and one syllable more
than the verso piano} constitute occasional variations. We
have found that these rarer lines are recognized rather as
curiosities than as difficulties by the children who easily
refer them to their respective normal types. They are ac-
cordingly presented in our material along with the com-
mon verses of trochaic endings. Our illustration of the
five syllable line given above showed specimens of the dac-
tyllic ending (sdrucciolo, - - u u). Here is another ex-
ample of alternating trochaic (piano} and dactyllic end-
ings:
In cima a un albero
C'e un uccellino
Di nuovo genere. . . .
Che sia un bambino?
(L. SCHWAEZ, Uocellino.)
(Translation: "There's a very strange little bird up
in that tree! Why, it's a little child!")
390 MONTESSORI ELEMENTARY MATERIAL
In the following decasyllabics, the trochaic ending al-
ternates with the iambic (tronco) :
Lungi, lungi, su 1'ali del canto
Di qui lungi recare io ti vo'
La, ne i campi fioriti del santo
Gange, un luogo bellissimo, io so.
(CAKDUCCI, Lungi, lungi.)
(Translation: " I will take thee far, far away on the
wings of my song: there, among the flowery fields of the
sacred Ganges, I know of a beautiful spot").
Some difficulty arose, however, when we came to lines
with alternations of parisyllables and imparisyllables ;
though this new movement aroused real enthusiasm among
the children, who greeted it as a new and strange music.
It often happened that after the pleasurable effort of an-
alyzing a poem with lines alternating in this way, the
pupils would choose as " recreation "' the study of lines
of even-numbered syllables. Here is an example of the
new type:
Eran trecento, eran giovani e forti,
E sono morti!
Me ne andavo al mattino a spigolare
Quando ho visto una barca in mezzo al mare:
Era una b&rca che andava a vapore,
E alzava una bandiera tricolore.
All'isola di Ponza s'e fermata,
E stata un poco e poi si e ritornata;
S'e ritornata ed e venuta a terra:
Sceser con l'armi, e a noi non fecer guerra.
(PEATI, La spigolatrice di Sapri.)
(Translation: "There were three hundred, young
and strong! And now they are dead! That morning
I was gleaning in the fields ; I saw a boat at sea, — a
METRICS 391
steamer flying the white, red and green. It stopped at
Ponza, remained a while and then came back — came back
and approached the shore. They came ashore in arms,
but to us they did no harm").
While the rhythmic accents were being studied, we
found that the discovery of the caesura (interior pause)
formed an interesting recreative diversion. In fact this
work aroused so much enthusiasm that the children went
from exercise to exercise, continuing at study for ex-
tended periods, and far from showing signs of weariness,
actually increased their joyous application. One little
girl, in the first six minutes of her work, marked the
caesura of seventy-six ten-syllable lines without making a
mistake. An abundant material is necessary for this ex-
ercise. Example :
Dagli atri rnuscosi, | dai fori cadenti,
Dai boschi, dall' arse | fucine stridenti,
Dai solchi bagnati di servo sudor,
Un volgo disperse | repente si dcsta,
Intende 1'orecchio, | solleva la testa,
Percosso da novo | crescente rumor.
(MANZONI, Italiani e Longobardi.)
(Translation : " From the damp atria, from the ruined
squares, from the forests, from the hissing forges, from
the fields bathed with the sweat of slaves, a scattered
horde of men suddenly is roused. They listen, lift their
heads, startled at this strange increasing roar").
The step forward to the perception of the syllabic units
of the line is a purely sensory phenomenon: it is analo-
gous to marking the time of music without taking account
of the measure divisions. Syllabiating according to
392 MONTESSORI ELEMENTARY MATERIAL
rhythm and beating on the table with the fingers solve even
the subtler difficulties such as dieresis and synalepha, in
recognizing the rhythmic syllables. Examples:
La | so | uima | sa | pi | en | za e'l | pri | mo A | mo | re
We print this verse in the above form, because it was thus
divided by a child in his very first spontaneous effort at
syllabiation. As a matter of fact, we present the material
normally according to graded difficulties, using over again
for this purpose the materials used in the study of ac-
cents. At this point also the accents themselves sud-
denly acquire a new interest, for the child is able to ob-
serve on " what syllable they fall." Thus his metrical
study approaches completion, for now he can readily ac-
quire the nomenclature of metrics and versification : dode-
casylldble, liendecasyllable, etc. Then, combining his
knowledge of the numbers of syllables and the location
of the rhythmic accents, the child is at the point of dis-
covering the rhythmic laws of verse construction. We
were expecting the children to begin producing definitions
like the following: " The dodecasyllable line has twelve
syllables and four accents which fall on the second, fifth,
eighth and eleventh syllables," etc. The spontaneous im-
pulse of the pupils led instead to the construction of " mir-
rors " or "checkerboards" like the following:
METRICS
393
n
(M
H
IH
H
F— I
A
i — i
O
FH
05
GJ
Ol
00
co
00
t-
§
g
0
O
1
.
ire
IO
*
n
•d
CO
CO
CO
CO
N
s
<N
(H
I Decasyllabic piano (trochaic)
" (?-onco ( iambic )
o
1
s.
_rt
m
"So
" " fronco
I Dodecasyllable piano
" tronco
394 MONTESSORI ELEMENTARY MATERIAL
The additional step to using the symbols of metrics was
an easy one, and a graphic diagram resulted much as fol-
lows:
Eight syllable
i
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
(Title of
—
Poem)
e. g.
Tfqlia »
"Return to
T-J-oliT 5>
—
—
t
—
«-
—
_L
Italy
•
-
-
r
—
—
—
—
—
-
~
i
—
—
—
/
" Solitude "
—
—
JL
~
—
—
/
—
Decasyllabic
i
2
3
4
S
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
(Title of
Poem)
" Passion "
-
-
—
—
—
/
—•
—
__
—
-
-^
/
-
—
/
-
—
—
-
"The Oath of
Pontida "
-—
-
_
—
—
—
•^-^
-
-
•—
—
—
-
—
—
—
—
—
"The Battle
of Mac-
loud "
— .
-
/
-
—
—
^
*
-<
—
—
-1
—
—
—
~
—
—
-
"Far, far
away "
-
—
—
—
—
/
-
—
_
—
•s^'
—
/
-
-
1
>— '
-
i
METRICS 395
The next development is a complete study of the stanza
or strophe in the form of a summary; the number of
lines, the rhymes, the accents, number and location of the
syllables. To distinguish between the stanzas is also to
classify them, which becomes a pleasing task for the chil-
dren.
One little girl, who was making a summary study of
four terzets of Dante, suddenly called the teacher to in-
form her with an expression of complete surprise : " See,
the rhyme always begins at the last accent ! " She had
before her:
Per me si va nella citta dolente;
Per me si va nell'eterno dolo?'e;
Per me si va tra la perduta gente.
Giustizia mosse il mio alto fattore;
Fecemi la divina potestate,
La somma sapienza e il primo amore.
Dinaiizi a me non fur cose create. . . .
(Dante: Inscription over Gate of Hell.)
So in metrics also the children, following the natural
inclinations of their growth, pass from sensory disci-
pline, to intelligent cognition, and graphic representation.
Then they become the " explorers of their environment,"
the " discoverers " of general laws.
* * *
Translator's Note : The basis of Italian verse is in the
syllable count, and the rhythmic accent. In English
verse, however, the question of the syllable count is de-
pendent on a much more complex consideration : syllable
length ; and syllable length, in its turn, is conditioned not
only by the phonetic situation in and around the syllable,
but by rhetorical stress as well. It is clear that Signora
396 MONTESSORI ELEMENTARY MATERIAL
Montessori's experiments on the simpler Italian line have
little direct bearing, save as an illustration of method, on
the pedagogy of English Metrics. For whereas, the prin-
cipal classifications of Italian lines involve merely the
problem of syllabiation (complicated by dieresis and syn-
alepha), with a numerical terminology (quinario, otto-
nario, decasillabo, etc.), the study of English versification
demands an analysis of measure (feet) and of number of
feet, with a terminology relative to each : trochee, iambus,
dactyl, spondee, anapest, etc., hexameter, pentameter, etc.,
to mention only the most obvious elements of a science
which, applied even to simple English verse, soon becomes
extremely complicated. How much, then, of the study of
English metrics, beyond the elementary concepts of stanza
and rhyme, should be included in the Montessori Ad-
vanced Method, and what order of presentation of facts
should be followed, still remains to be experimentally
determined.
However, the most illuminating fact, as regards method,
which detaches from Signora Montessori's experiments
with metrical forms, is that long parisyllables are more
readily analyzed by children than imparisyllables ; and
secondly that short imparisyllables prove easier than long
imparisyllables. We might wish more explicit evidence
that the hardest parisyllable is easier, therefore more nat-
ural, than the easiest imparisyllable — as implied in Sig-
nora Montessori's presentation of this subject. Even so,
her conclusions are interesting, and from more than one
point of view. It will be recalled that the most ancient
and the most fortunate of the meters used in Erench, Span-
ish, and Provencal poetry is precisely the decasyllabic
(Song of Roland, the Provencal Boecis, etc.), whereas the
favorite line of old Italian popular poetry was the octo-
METRICS 397
syllabic verse. These are both parisyllables, though the
succession of theses, or rhythmic beats, is not quite anal-
ogous to that of the modern Italian verses used in this
experiment. It would seem, in fact, as though the chil-
dren initiated by Signora Montessori into metrical studies,
were actually traversing the earlier experiences of their
Latin race.
Doubtless the reason why the parisyllable submits
more readily to rhythmic analysis than imparisyllables, is
that when the syllables are in even numbers, the line tends
to reduce to two simple rhythmic groups - - the decasyl-
lable to groups of 4 and 6, with two rhythmic beats in
each group ; the dodecasyllable to groups of 6 and 6 (there-
fore of 3 and 3 and 3 and 3) ; the octosyllables to groups
of 4 and 4; the six syllable to groups of 3 and 3. The
imparisyllables on the contrary are rarely capable of such
division — of such monotony, if you wish. They lend
themselves to more complex rhythm, especially to " par-
agraphic " treatment. They are distinctly the rhythms
of erudite, " cultivated," " literary " poetry.
We should suspect, accordingly, that what appears in
the above experiments as length is in reality reducibility
to simpler forms; and that lines capable of such reduc-
tion should be given first in an adaptation of Signora
Montessori's method. It is, however, highly improbable
that in English, where the only constant element in
rhythm is the stress and not the syllable count, the line
compounded of two simpler rhythmic groups should prove
easier for the child than either of these simpler groups
themselves. We see no reason to assume, for instance,
than an eight-stress line, reducible to two four-stress lines,
should be more readily analyzed than a four-stress line ;
or that a seven-stress line, reducible to a four-stress and
398 MONTESSORI ELEMENTARY MATERIAL
a three-stress line, should be easier than either one of
these. In fact, the predominance of these simpler ele-
ments in the English feeling for these longer groups is
indicated by the fact that such compound lines are com-
monly broken into their constituent parts when printed
(cf. The Ancient Mariner}, even in cases where the iso-
lation of these parts is not emphasized and rendered nat-
ural by rhyme. It will be observed that in the Montessori
experiment the order of presentation was first, three-
stress (anapestic), then four-stress (iambic), then two-
stress (iambic) lines. This situation happens to corre-
spond to that found in the commonest popular English
verse, which gives undoubted preference, as witness our
nursery rimes, to three-stress and four-stress iambics.
Two-stress lines constitute in reality four-stress lines di-
vided by rhyme; just as, in poems of distinctly literary
savor, the two-stress line is further reducible by interior
rhyme to two one-stress lines.
THREE-STRESS LINES (TRIMETER)
Iambic:
O let the solid ground
Not fail beneath my feet
Before my life has found
What some have found so sweet.
TENNYSON.
The mountain sheep are sweeter,
But the valley sheep are fatter;
We therefore deemed it meeter
To carry off the latter.
We made an expedition ;
We met an host and quelled it;
We forced a strong position,
And killed the men who held it.
PEACOCK.
METRICS 399
Trochaic:
Hail to thee blithe spirit!
Bird thou never wert,
That from heaven or near it
Pourest thy full heart. . . .
SHELLEY.
Anapestic:
I am monarch of all I survey;
My right there is none to dispute;
From the centre all round to the sea
I am lord of the fowl and the brute.
COWPER.
Dactyllic :
This is a spray the bird clung to,
Making it blossom with pleasure,
Ere the high tree-tops she sprung to,
Fit for her nest and her treasure. 1
BROWNING.
FOUR-STRESS LINES (TETRAMETER)
Iambic:
Examples: Byron, The Prisoner of Chilian; Scott,
The Lady of the Lake; Milton, II pensieroso.
We could not move a single pace,
We could not see each other's face
But with that pale and livid light
They made us strangers in our sight. . . .
BYRON.
Trochaic:
Examples: Longfellow, Hiawatha; George Eliot, The
Spanish Gipsy.
Westward, westward Hiawatha
Sailed into the fiery sunset,
Sailed into the purple vapors,
Sailed into the dusk of evening.
iMost of our examples of various types and combinations of
verse are taken from Alden, English Verse, New York, Henry Holt.
400 MONTESSORI ELEMENTARY MATERIAL
This line is much more common in its catalectic form :
Haste thee nymph and bring with thee
Jest and youthful jollity,
Quips and cranks and wanton wiles,
Nods and becks and wreathed smiles. . .
MILTON, L' Allegro.
Anapestic :
Examples: Goldsmith, Retaliation; Byron, The De-
struction of Sennacherib.
The small birds rejoice in the green leaves returning,
The murmuring streamlet winds clear through the vale.
BURNS.
Dactyllic:
Examples: Byron, Song 'of Saul; Dryden, An Eve-
ning's Love.
f
After the pangs of a desperate lover,
When day and night I have sighed all in vain,
Ah what a pleasure it is to discover
In her eyes pity, who causes my pain. DRYDEN.
TWO-STRESS LINES
Iambic:
Examples: Herrick, To the Lark; Shakespeare, Mid-
summernight' s Dream (Bottom's song).
The raging rocks
And shivering shocks
Shall break the locks
Of prison gates. SHAKESPEARE.
Trochaic:
Examples: George Eliot, The Spanish Gipsy; Cam-
pion, Art of Poesie.
Could I catch that
Nimble traitor,
Scornful Laura,
Swift-foot Laura,
Soon then would I
Seek avengement. CAMPION.
METRICS 401
Anapestic:
Examples: Shelley, Arethusa; Scott, The Lady of
the Lake (Coronach).
He is gone on the mountain,
He is lost to the forest,
Like a summer-dried fountain,
When our need was the sorest.
SCOTT.
Dactyllic :
Examples: Tennyson, Charge of the Light Brigade;
Longfellow, Saga of King Olaf.
Cannon to right of them,
Cannon to left of them,
Cannon in front of them,
Volleyed and thundered.
ONE-STEESS LINE
Iambic:
Example :
Thus I
Pass by
And die
As one
Unknown
And gone.
HERRICK.
SEVEN-STRESS LINES (HEPTAMETER)
Iambic:
Examples: Howe, Battle Hymn of the Republic;
Byron, Stanzas for Music; Kipling, Wolcott Balestier;
Coleridge, The Ancient Manner.
Mine eyes have seen the glory of the coming of the Lord.
HOWE.
402 MONTESSOKI ELEMENTARY MATERIAL
Trochaic:
Example: Swinburne, Clear the Way.
Clear the way, my lords and lackeys, you have had your day.
Here you have your answer, England's yea against your nay.
Anapestic :
Example: Swinburne, The Birds.
Como on then ye dwellers by nature in darkness and like to the
leaves' generations.
Dactyllic:
Example : Anonymous.
Out of the kingdom of Christ shall be gathered by angels o'er Satan
victorious,
All that offendeth, that lieth, that faileth to honor his name ever
glorious.
SIX-STRESS LINES (HEXAMETER)
Iambic (alexandrine) :
Example : Wordsworth, The Pet Lamb.
The dew was falling fast, the stars began to blink;
I heard a voice : it said, " Drink, pretty creature, drink ! "
Trochaic:
Example: Swinburne, The Last Oracle.
King, the ways of heaven before thy feet grow golden;
God, the soul of earth, is kindled with thy grace.
Anapestic :
Examples: Tennyson, Maud; Swinburne, The Gar-
den- of Cymodoce.
And the rushing battle-bolt sang from the thrjee-decker out of the
foam.
TENNYSON.
METRICS 403
Dactyllic:
Examples: Swinburne, Hesperia; Longfellow, Evan-
geline.
This is the forest primeval ; the murmuring pines and the hemlocks
Bearded with mdss and with garments green, indistinct in the
twilight.
LONGFELLOW.
EIGHT-STRESS LINES
Iambic :
Example: William Webbe, Discourse of English
Poetrie.
Where virtue wants and vice abounds, there wealth is but a
baited hook.
Trochaic:
Examples: Tennyson, Locksley Hall; Poe, The
Raven.
Open then I flung the shutter, when with many a flirt and flutter,
In there stepped a stately raven of the saintly days of yore.
POE.
Anapestic:
Example: Swinburne, March.
Ere frost-flower and snow-blossom faded and fell, and the splendor
of winter had passed out of sight,
The ways of the woodlands were fairer and stranger than dreams
that fulfil us in sleep with delight.
Dactyllic:
Example : Longfellow, Golden Legend, 4.
£
Onward and onward the highway runs to the distant city, im-
patiently bearing
Tidings of human joy and disaster, of love and hate, of doing and
daring.
404 MONTESSORI ELEMENTARY MATERIAL
FIVE-STRESS LINES (PENTAMETER)
Iambic (Heroic pentameter) :
Examples: Milton, Paradise Lost; Bryant, Thanatop-
sis, etc., etc.
Sweet Auburn, loveliest village of the plain
Where health and beauty cheer the laboring swain . . .
GOLDSMITH.
Trochaic :
Examples: Browning, One word more; Tennyson,
The Vision of Sin.
Then methought I heard a mellow Bound,
Gathering up from all the lower ground.
Anapestic:
Examples: Browning, Saul; Tennyson, Maud.
We have proved we have hearts in a cause: we are noble still.
TENNYSON.
Daciyllic:
Very rare in English.
While the remainder of the exercises in syllabication
and graphic transcription, as described by Dr. Montes-
sori, would seem to follow naturally on the above exer-
cises in the analysis of line stress, it is clear that addi-
tional attention must be given to questions of terminol-
ogy. For the metrical syntheses performed in the tables
at the end of the preceding section will not be possible
for English poetry unless the child is able to identify
the kinds of feet and the kinds of lines. We suggest ac-
cordingly two supplementary drills with the card system
familiar to the child from his exercises in grammar. The
first consists of a list of words, each on a separate card,
METRICS 405
with the tonic accent marked. Each word with its ae-
cent represents a foot (iambus, trochee, anapest, dactyl),
indicated on the card in graphic transcription beneath
the word:
wondering
Corresponding to each word is another card bearing
simply the graphic transcription and the name of the
foot. The exercise, of the greatest simplicity, is to pair
off the cards, arranging the words in a column on the
table, putting after each the card that describes it. The
cards, when properly arranged, read as follows:
between ^ — iambus
mother — ^ trochee
*
~~ -^s
disrepute ^ ^ —anapest
*
wonderful — ^ ^ dactyl
s
A second stage of this exercise consists in offering a
similar series of cards where, however, the word-cards are
without the indication of the tonic accent and without
the graphic transcription of the measure:
suggest _ — iambus
accent — ^ trochee
underneath ^ ^_ — anapest
metrical — ^ ^ dactyl
An identical exercise is possible for whole lines. The
first stage consists of naming the lines accompanied by
406 MONTESSORI ELEMENTARY MATERIAL
the metrical transcription with cards containing simply
the transcription and the name of the meter; in the sec-
ond stage, the same lines are given but on cards without
the graphic transcription: for example:
IST STAGE
Go where glory waits thee Trochaic trimeter
r / ' f f f
The Assyrian came down like the wolf on the fold
•* >• * *
\^S ^^ ~ ~ S_^ *+-*' **-S ***S N.X \^S
Anapestic tetrameter
'fft
Venus thy mother in years when the world was a water at rest
- j^_ i_ _^_ _^_
Dactyllic hexameter
* S f * S *
^^ ^^ *s»X S» ^ "" V«X S«X ~" **^S **^S — -s^/ S».X — \^S \^
2D STAGE
Go where glory waits thee Trochaic trimeter
' x /
It was but John the Red and I Iambic Tetrameter
etc., etc.
When these fundamental notions have been acquired the
child is ready for the more difficult problems of anacrusis,
catalexis, irregular feet and irregular pauses, which he can
recognize in almost any poem of considerable length by
comparing the transcription of a given foot with specimen
transcriptions of regular lines, which are always accessible
to him.
APPENDICES
APPENDIX I
CHART
FOE THE STUDY OF THE
INDIVIDUAL CHILD
SCHOOL DATA
School Year 191..
Hours of Sessions
Vacations
Subjects Taught .
Meals
Teaching Staff
Address of School
Rooms
Consultations with Parents and, Public
410
DATA ON THE CHILD
Family Name Names
Date of Birth
Date of Entrance
Age of Parents: Father Mother.
Occupations of Parents:
Father
Mother
Home Address
Personal History of the Child
Personal Appearance of the Child.
Notes on Child's Family
411
SCHOOL YEAR 191. 191
Name Date of Birth.
Date of
Entering School
ANTHROPOLOGICAL NOTES
HEAD (mm.)
o
3 X
Cfl w
J3T3
a a
4)h-t
NOTES ON CHILD'S PHYSICAL
DEVELOPMENT
Transversal
diameter
Antero-post
diameter
Circumfer-
ence
•*-*
f.
X M
M^"
•M
O
o o
0O2
Stature
(sitting)
(m.)
Thoracic
circum.
(m.)
.Sfti
|s
Stature
(standing)
(m.)
•
412
SCHOOL YEAR 191..— 191.
Name Date of Birth.
MONTH
STATURE
IN METRES
NOTES
Standing
Sitting
September
October
November
December
January
February
March
April
Mail
June
July
August
413
SCHOOL YEAR 191 . .—191
Name
Date of Birth
MONTH
WEIGHT IN KILOGRAMS
September
1st week
2nd week
3rd week
4th week
October
November
December
January
February
^larch
April
Man
June
July
August
414
(Family Name) (Names)
NAME IN FULL
SCHOOL YEAR 191.. -191.
PSYCHOLOGICAL DIAKY
415
t.
to
rO
Diary
191..
Month Day.
416
GUIDE FOR PSYCHOLOGICAL OBSERVATION
VVOKK.
NOTE:
When a child begins to show constant application to a piece of
work.
What this work is and how long he remains at it (speed or slow-
ness he shows in completing it, the number of times he repeats the
same exercise).
Individual peculiarities in application to particular tasks.
To what tasks the child successively applies himself on the same day
and with how much persistency to each.
Whether he- has periods of spontaneous activity at work and on how
many days.
How the child's need of progress is manifested by him.
What tasks he chooses and the order in which he chooses them; the
persistency he shows in each.
His power of application in spite of distractions about him that
might tend to divert him from his work.
Whether after a compulsory distraction he takes up again the task
that has been interrupted.
CONDUCT.
NOTE:
Orderliness or disorderliness in the actions of the child.
The nature of his disorderliness.
Whether there are any changes in conduct as his working ability
develops.
Whether, as his activities become more orderly, the child gives evi-
dence of: accesses of joy; periods of placidity; expressions of affec-
tion.
The part the children take and the interest they show in the prog-
ress of their schoolmates.
OBEDIENCE.
NOTE:
Whether the child answers readily when he is called.
Whether and at what times the child begins to show interest in
what others are doing and to make intelligent effort to join in their
work.
The progress of his obedience to calls.
The progress of his obedience to commands.
What eagerness and enthusiasm the child shows in his obedience.
The relation between the various phenomena of obedience and (a)
the development of his working capacity; (b) changes in conduct.
417
SCHOOL YEAK 191.. -191..
PERSONAL HISTORY OF THE CHILD
SCHOOL YEAR 191 191.
BIOLOGICAL HISTORY
PARENTS :
Age of parents at marriage
Are the parents related to each other? .
Sickness and diseases of the parents. . .
CHILD :
Were pregnancy and parturition normal?.
Was the nursing done by the mother, or artificially?.
The child's health during the first year: .
Subsequent sicknesses of the child:.
Date of teething, learning to walk, and learning to speak.
420
SCHOOL YEAR 191.. -191,
SOCIAL HISTORY
FATHER :
Age, education and occupation:
MOTHER :
Age, education and occupation:.
Are accounts kept in the family?.
Family habits (amusements, home life)
Number of persons in the family (how many adults, how many
children)
Does the family employ servants?
How many wage earners are in the familu? . . .
Does the family have income from property?.
Does the family keep roomers or boarders? . . . .
Is the housekeeping satisfactory? . . .
421
SCHOOL YEAR 191.. -191.
ETHICAL EXAMINATION
QUESTIONNAIRE FOR MORAL HISTORY
CRITERIA OF PRAISE AND PRIDE IN THE FAMILY
NOTE:
What is commended in the family, e.g., devoutness, patriotism, or
their opposites, affectionateness, honesty, modesty, neatness, gener-
osity, kindness, independence, etc. The social relationships between
husband and wife (rights, privileges or equality). Special distinc-
tions of family members (public honors, acts of courage, etc.).
CRITERIA OF BLAME AND EXCUSE IN THE FAMILY
NOTE:
What complaints are made in the home against members of the
family, e.g., drinking, lack of affectionateness, gambling, irreligion,
disorderliness, lawlessness, extravagance, laziness, etc.
EDUCATIONAL CRITERIA IN THE FAMILY
NOTE:
What concept do the parents have of education? e.g., severity,
gentleness, rewards, punishments, understanding of children, the
freedom accorded the children, etc.
MOTHER'S OPINION OF HER CHILDREN
NOTE:
What care is taken of the child and what rights are recognized by
the family as belonging to him.
422
APPENDIX II
SUMMAKY OF THE LECTURES ON PEDAGOGY DE-
LIVERED IN ROME AT THE SCUOLA MAGIS-
TRALS ORTOFRENICA IN 1900
This appendix contains a summary of a few of my
lectures delivered in 1900 in the Scuola Magistrale Orto-
frenica in Rome and published in pamphlet form for the
benefit of the teacher-students who were attending that
course. A number of distinguished physicians were at
the same time lecturing in the school on various subjects
— such as Psychology, Esthesiology, Anatomy of the
Nerve Centres, etc. I had reserved for myself the teach-
ing, or rather the development, of a special pedagogy for
defective children, along the lines previously laid down by
Itard and Seguin.
In the summary of these old lectures of mine are in-
cluded some of my experiments with certain subjects
taught in the elementary grades. They show that the
origin of my present work with older and normal children
is to be sought in my teaching of defectives.
I still possess, as documentary relics of this course, a
hundred copies of a pamphlet entitled : Riassunte delle
lezioni di didattica della Pro/ssa Montessori, anno 1900,
Stab. Lit. Romano, via Frattina 62, Roma. More than
three hundred teachers followed my course, and are able
to bear witness to the work done there.
I republish the following excerpts not because I con-
sider my work so important as to merit the preservation of
423
424 APPENDICES
all the documents touching its origin, but to prevent the
giving of undue prominence to those remnants of my
earlier attempts and studies which are still to be found in
the Scuola Magistrate Ortofrenica in Rome.
" The child should be led from the education of the muscular
system to that of the nervous and sensory systems; from the
education of the senses to concepts; from concepts to general
ideas; from general ideas to morality. This is the educational
method of Seguin."
However, before we begin education, we must prepare the
child to receive it by another education which is to-day re-
garded as of the very first importance. This preparatory edu-
cation is the foundation on which all subsequent education must
be based, and the success we obtain in it will determine the suc-
cess of our subsequent efforts. By preparatory education I here
mean hygienic education, which in defective children sometimes
includes medical treatment. That is why the educational
method for defectives is sometimes described as medico-pedagog-
ical.
Those who realize the importance of feeling and internal sen-
sation in education will understand that the bodily organism
must function properly in order to respond to our educational
efforts. We must preserve good health where good health ex-
ists; we must restore it where it is lacking.
We are therefore under strict obligation to pay close atten-
tion to nutrition and to the condition of the vital organs.
Every one is aware of the close relation existing between gen-
eral sensibility and morality. Criminals and prostitutes show
very scant sensitiveness to pain and to tactile stimuli. The
same situation is frequently apparent in defectives; hence the
necessity of restoring the tactile sense with adequate attention
to hygiene.
We cannot educate the muscles to perform a given coordinate
movement if they have lost their power of functioning (as in
paresis, etc.). Education, properly so-called, must be preceded
by a medical treatment to restore the muscles, if possible, to
good health.
APPENDICES 425
It will be impossible to educate, for example, the sense of
hearing, if some pathological situation has produced partial
deafness. We cannot educate the sense of smell if the exces-
sive excretion of mucus prevents external stimuli from act-
ing on the ends of the sensory nerves. Obviously, we need a
medical treatment to remove these diseased conditions.
MEDICAL EDUCATION
General baths: When not too prolonged they develop the sensi-
bility of the nervous papillae. They give tone to the cellular and
muscular tissues, especially to the skin.
Hot and cold baths given alternately are a powerful educational
instrument in attracting the attention of the child to his external
environment.
Local hot laths may be given to areas deficient in sensibility. For
instance, try bathing the hands if tactile education proves impossible,
or bathe the feet if the defect in standing upright or in walking
comes from the insensitiveness of the soles.
Local cold baths: Given to the head while the patient is entirely
covered in warm water are a tonic to the scalp; they facilitate the
knitting of the bones of the skull and the formation of wormian
bones, preventing also cerebral congestion. They stimulate and reg-
ularize the cerebral circulation. Such baths are particularly useful
for hydro-cephalics and micro-cephalics, but all patients are benefited
by such baths, which are the most generally useful of all.
Steam baths develop perspiration which at times is completely
absent or only partial in defectives, causing serious physical disturb-
ances. These baths, furthermore, predispose the nerve ends to the
most intense sensitiveness.
Such baths are, however, not to be used on epileptics or on children
suffering from rickets, weak circulation or general debility.
In general, local steam baths are used especially for hands and
feet, and also for the tongue.
General cold baths are used in cases of super-excitation, motor -
hyperactivity, excessive sensitiveness to pain and touch. These baths
must be accompanied by constant cold lotions on the head.
Baths may be accompanied, with goods results, by massage and
rubbing.
Rubbings may be given either dry or with water, alcohol, aromatic
creams or ointments.
Local rubbings may be applied: (a) To the spine, carefully avoid-
ing the lumbar region so as not to excite the sexual sensibilities. Dry
rubbings should be made with a piece of flannel and continued until
the skin reddens. They are especially useful after hot baths followed
by cold douches, (b) To the chest to stimulate respiration, (c)
426 APPENDICES
To the abdomen to correct various internal disorders (here, how-
ever, massage is more efficacious), (d) To the joints (rubbings with
aromatic creams and with alcohol are very effective ) .
A brief rubbing with alcohol or creams can be followed with good
effect by massage in the case of the abdomen and joints. Massage
on the abdomen stimulates circulation in the intestines and intensi-
fies and regularizes the movements of the muscular walls.
Massage has a surprising effect on the muscles of the joints; it
shocks the muscular fibers in their innermost parts and sets them in
motion; it regularizes the functioning of the muscles by reducing
excessive contraction and restoring deficient contractibility. Emaci-
ated muscles are regenerated, the muscular bulk is vigorously aug-
mented, while the fat tissus are absorbed.
The repetition several times a day of bathing, rubbing and mas-
sage has produced real miracles of physical regeneration.
FEEDING
Intestinal disturbances have a direct influence on the func-
tional power of the central nervous system. They merit, there-
fore, special consideration. For in defectives an intestinal in-
flammation may produce symptoms of meningitis, and a
disorder in digestion even unattended by fever may occasionally
give rise to convulsions.
The hygiene of feeding which is almost the same as that for
normal children must therefore be rigorously observed.
The general rule is that the children should have regular
meals and be allowed nothing whatever to eat between meals.
It is commonly believed that a piece of candy or a bit of fruit
given between meals has no bad effect. This is a common error
of many mothers, who by allowing such slight irregularities
in diet, become the unwitting cause of serious illnesses in their
children. When we say that children should be fed at meal-
times, we mean that nothing should be given them except at
meal times ; nothing, not even the most innocent confection ; not
a crumb of bread, not a drop of milk. This severity has the
additional advantage of creating regular hygienic habits in the
child. It is necessary to regulate the number of meals, the
quantity and quality of food allowed in each.
Number: For children between 2 and 7 years: 4 meals a
day ; for children between 8 and 14 years : 3 meals a day.
APPENDICES 427
These meals should be at regular hours, and followed without
exception by a period of mental rest, which must be provided
for in making up the daily program of lessons.
We need special researches as to what type of activity may
be allowed children during digestion and what organs may be
active without damage to the child while the stomach is taxed
with the labor of digestion. A few things are clear. The chil-
dren should be sent out of closed rooms where their play raises
more or less dust, and kept in well-ventilated places, if possible,
in a garden or in a woods well supplied with aromatic trees.
The best thing a child can do immediately after a meal is to
take a short walk in the open air without much exertion.
Quantity: In the case of children between 2 and 7 years
of age, there should be two full meals and two luncheons.
After the age of 7 there should be one lunch and two full meals.
We cannot be more specific.
Quality: In the case of defectives it would be useful for
the doctor to order a diet day by day after having examined
the diaries of the nurses as is done in hospitals. For it may
be possible to introduce into the food elements which consti-
tute an actual cure for certain diseased conditions and pre-
ventives of certain kinds of attacks. In food we should realize
the distinctions between the elements which build tissues —
true food substances, and others whose function is purely stim-
ulatory— alcohol, coffee, tea, etc., which should be used only
occasionally.
Among the food substances properly so-called are the al-
buminoids (proteins), fats, and carbo-hydrates (sugars, starches,
wheat and potato flours, etc.). The fats are the least digestible
foods, but they produce the greatest number of calories.
The proportion of the different elements in the food should
be determined by the amount of albumin, which constitutes the
real food element. Albumin is of both vegetable and animal
origin. Its animal forms are more nutritious, more easily di-
gestible, and produce more calories than the vegetable forms.
The foods which produce animal-albumin are milk, eggs, and
meats. Vegetables themselves furnish what is known as veg-
etable-albumin. Children up to 6 years of age are supplied
usually with the following albuminous foods: eggs, milk and
428 APPENDICES
vegetables. For children between G and 8 : eggs, milk, fish and
vegetables may be provided. Older children may be given
chicken, veal, and finally beef.
Though for normal children a restricted meat diet is de-
sirable, in the case of defectives a rich supply of meat as well
as of albuminoids in general is to be sought. Their treatment
resembles that of weak convalescent patients whose strength is
to be restored. The meats best adapted to such children are
those containing large amounts of mucilaginous substances and
sugar (veal, lamb and young animals in general). Vegetable
purees, fat gravies, butter, etc., are to be recommended in these
cases.
For nervous children, fats, oils, acids, and flours should be
avoided.
For apathetic children, who experience difficulty in digestion,
tonics and rich seasonings should be used, such as spices, which
have come to be almost excluded from ordinary cooking, espe-
cially for children. Spices may well be restored to the diet
of institutions for defectives, since they have the additional
advantage of permitting mixture with irons, of which they
neutralize the taste.
Questions of food depend largely upon the individual condi-
tion of the children. The important thing is to avoid " the
school ration." This is all the more true of beverages.
Beverages: While stimulants are usually to be excluded from
the diet of normal children of 7 or under, it is often desirable
to introduce tea, coffee, etc., into the meals of defectives. This
should be done, however, only in the daily diets ordered by the
physician for individuals.
Nervous children should be restricted to milk and water for
their meals with some moderately sweet drink (orange juice,
weak lemonade, etc.) after eating.
Apathetics, showing atonic digestion, may have coffee either
before eating or during their meals.
Special education is necessary to accustom the children to
complete mastication. Such practice in the use of the organs
of mastication assists also in the later development of speech.
APPENDICES 429
EXCRETION
Among the physiological irregularities that appear among
children special importance attaches to excretions.
Defecation: Among defectives especially, so-called "dirty
children" are often so numerous that special sections have to
be made for them in institutions. Such children show invol-
untary losses of faeces and urine, as in the case of infants.
Most frequently the defecations are of liquid consistency though
sometimes the reverse is true. Our remedial effort should be in
two directions : we should try to regularize the operation of the
intestines by giving solidity to the excretions; secondly, we
should endeavor to strengthen the sphincter muscles.
A strict observance of the diet hygiene outlined above, espe-
cially as concerns regularity of meals and mastication of food,
will assist in the attainment of the first object. We should try
in addition to regularize defecation by stimulating it at regular
intervals (to be gradually increased in length) through light
massages and hot rubbings on the abdomen.
To strengthen the sphincters general tonics (iron, strych-
nine), and local tonics (such as cold " sitz-baths," cold showers
and electric baths) may be used. Suppositories may also be
used to advantage in stimulating sphincter contractions and
accustoming the muscles to constrictive action.
Urine: Some defectives show involuntary loss of urine, espe-
cially at night, up to very advanced ages. Epileptics are par-
ticularly predisposed to this. The treatment is analogous to
that just described. Beverages should be carefully supervised.
Diuretics and excessive drinking in general should be avoided.
General recommendations: Local baths, and rigorous clean-
liness to avoid any stimulus to onanism.
Education can do much in the treatment of this situation.
Urination should be regularly suggested to the child before he
goes to bed and when he wakes up in the morning. In special
cases it might be well to waken the child once or twice during
the night for the same purpose. This defect is often associated
in a child with some abnormality in the phenomena of perspira-
tion.
Perspiration : The sweat has almost the same composition as
430 APPENDICES
urine, and perspiration is a process supplementary to the action
of the kidneys. It has been observed that often in defective
children perspiration is either entirely lacking or limited to
certain areas (the palms of the hands, the nose, etc.). It is
absolutely necessary to stimulate and regularize perspiration
over the whole surface of the body. This may be done by hot
and steam baths, by dry rubs with flannels (long sustained if
necessary), by woolen garments constantly worn next to the
skin, and other similar mechanical devices. We must, however,
absolutely avoid the use of special diaphoretic drugs, which
often bring about a fatal weakening of the organs of perspira-
tion. The treatments we have suggested above are, first of all,
harmless, but besides they contribute to the general toning and
sensitizing of the skin.
Nasal mucus and tears: Tears are often lacking in defec-
tives. On the other hand nasal excretion is very abundant and
replaces the tears, which are often so rare that some children
reach a relatively advanced age without having wept. In such
cases there is a predisposition to certain diseases of the eyes;
and excessive nasal excretion prevents the functioning of the
olfactory organs.
For this we recommend inhaling of hot vapors and of fragrant
irritants, which correct the excessive excretion of mucus and
exercise the olfactory sense. Usually the regular secretion of
tears follows as a matter of course.
Saliva: One of the most unpleasant abnormalities in defec-
tives is the continuous loss of saliva from " hanging lips."
But the effects are not only unesthetic. The continuous over-
excretion of saliva makes the inner organs of the mouth flabby
and swollen. The tongue and the organs of speech in general
gradually lose their contractive power, and articulation is ulti-
mately rendered impossible. Taste and tactile ability often
disappear altogether. Mastication becomes difficult and degluti-
tion irregular. The secondary effects on the digestive organs
are bad. We possess a variety of efficient curatives and educa-
tional treatments for this defect: first, general tonics; second,
local cold douches on the lip muscles, electric massage of the
lips; third, the use of licorice sticks, large at first but gradually
reducing in diameter, to be introduced between the lips to stim-
APPENDICES 431
ulate the sucking activity and the exercise of the contractive
muscles. This will ultimately give the necessary muscular tone.
The lips of the child should be closed mechanically from time
to time to force him to swallow the saliva and to create the
habit of deglutition.
CLOTHING AND ENVIRONMENT
The principles of hygiene must be extended to the dress of
the child and to the environment in which it lives.
Clothing: The child's clothes should be so made as to be
easily put on and off. They should not hinder the normal func-
tioning of the body (breathing). They should afford no oppor-
tunity for dangerous vices (onanism). If the child can dress
and undress without difficulty, it will learn the more readily to
look after itself even in those little necessities of daily life
where partial undressing is necessary. Special attention should
be given to stockings, which affect the development of sensitive-
ness in the soles of the feet and also concern the process of
learning to walk.
Environment : Just a few reminders : for defectives perfect
ventilation of course; but the walls and furniture should be
upholstered in the case of impulsive defectives or of defectives
who do not know how to walk. There is danger in furniture
with sharp projections and in toys which may be thrown about.
A " child's room," the luxury of which consists in its hygienic
location, its elastic walls, and its very emptiness, is the best
gift a rich family can make to the education of a defective
child.
MUSCULAR EDUCATION
Muscular education has for its object the bringing of the
individual to some labor useful for society. This labor must
always be executed by means of the muscles, whether it be man-
ual labor, speaking or writing. In a word, the intelligence must
subject the muscles to its own purposes and, that the muscles
may be equipped for such obedience, it is necessary to prepare
them by some education which will reduce them to coordination.
Muscular education in defectives accordingly has for its object
the stimulation and coordination of useful movements.
432 APPENDICES
It prepares: for exercise; for the activities of domestic serv-
ice (washing, dressing, preparing food, setting and clearing the
table, etc.) ; for manual labor (trades) ; for language (use of
the vocal organs). The preparation consists in bringing the
child to tonic quiescence in standing posture. The child must
learn first to stand still with head erect and with his eyes fixed
on the eyes of the teacher. From this position of tonic quies-
cence we must pass to exercises in imitation. We obtain tonic
quiescence by a variety of procedures, the variation depending
upon individual cases. We must stimulate the apathetic and
the sluggish; we must moderate the hyperactive; we must cor-
rect paresis, tics, etc. In other words, medical education must
precede pedagogy itself. It may be a question of applying med-
ical gymnastics both for active and passive movements, alter-
nating this treatment with massage, electric baths, etc.
Let us note one or two motor abnormalities which are easy to
detect in defectives. Atony: the child does not move; he can-
not stand ; he cannot sit upright nor execute any movement
whatever. Hyperactiv ity : this is characterized by almost con-
stant incoordinated or disorganized movements which have no
useful purpose, e.g., jumping, beating, tearing up of objects
within reach and so on. Such patients are dangerous to them-
selves and to others.
MECHANICAL MOVEMENTS
(A). — Movements executed upon the person of the child:
sucking of the fingers ; biting of the nails ; constant stroking of
some part of the body. These movements are caused by im-
perfectly developed sensibility ; the children stroke or caress, for
example, that area of the skin which possesses greatest tactile
sensitiveness, etc.
(B). — Movements executed upon surrounding objects: rap-
ping on tables ; constant and careful tearing of pieces of paper
into small bits, etc. This too is associated with some sensory
pleasure on the part of the patient.
Rocking : (a) with patient reclining; the head is nodded from
left to right, from right to left; (b) with patient sitting: the
trunk is rocked backward and forward; (c) with patient stand-
APPENDICES 433
ing: the whole body rocks from left to right, the whole weight
resting now on one foot and now on the other. Difficulty and
hesitation are experienced in walking. These motory defects
proceed from the difficulty experienced by the child in finding his
center of gravity, his equilibrium.
Inability to perform local movements: (a) Inability to move
certain of the fingers, the tongue, the lips, etc. From such de-
fects arises the impossibility of performing certain simple man-
ual exercises (bringing the finger tips of the two hands to-
gether; taking hold of objects, e.g., inability to button, etc.) and
the inability to pronounce certain words; (b) Inability to con-
tract the lip and sphincter muscles (loss of saliva, involuntary
defecation).
Atony and hyperactivity may be overcome by appropriate
educational remedies which we will now discuss. Local agita-
tions disappear with the general education of the senses; while
rocking is cured by exercises in balancing.
(A). — Stimulate active movements in the atonic child until
he is able to stand erect in tonic quiescence.
Begin by stimulating the simple movements, gradually work-
ing up to the most complicated. We have a sure guide for this
education in the spontaneous developments of movements in the
normal child : he begins with the easiest spontaneous movements
and gradually arrives at the harder ones.
The first movement which develops in the child is the pre-
hensile act (grasping). Next comes the movements of the lower
joints used in creeping and walking; next the ability to stand;
and finally the ability to walk alone. Grasping: if no external
stimulation is capable of interesting the defective of low type,
grasping cannot be stimulated merely by presenting to the child
some object or other which might seem to be interesting for
color, taste or some other quality. In such a case we must have
recourse to the instinct of self-preservation, to that innate fear
of void which defectives almost always have. The child feel-
ing himself fall will instinctively grasp at some support within
his reach. This is the simplest point of departure for our pos-
sible development of the grasping faculty in the defective child.
Method: The hands of the child are mechanically fixed
around the rung of a ladder suspended to the ceiling. Then
434 APPENDICES
the child is left to himself. Since his fingers are already around
the support he needs only to clench his hands to find support.
He may not succeed even in this simple act the first time. The
teacher must patiently repeat the exercise, always being ready,
of course, to catch the child if he should fall. In this exercise
the defective is very much alarmed as a rule and all his muscles
are as a result more or less stimulated.
Likewise based 011 the instinct of self-preservation is the
swing, where the defective must cling to some support with his
hands to keep from falling.
Finally a ball is hung from the ceiling and swung in such
a way as continually to strike the child in the face. To pro-
tect himself he must keep it away by seizing it.
In still lower types we must have recourse to the instinct for
nutrition which exists even in such children.
Standing: Under this heading we include also the move-
ments which precede the actual attainment of the standing
posture. To overcome the sinking of the knees, which impedes
standing, the swinging chair may be used. The seat must reach
nearly to the child's feet and the knees are tied to the seat.
The child's feet, as he swings, strike against a board. This
exercise prepares the lower joints to hold themselves in posi-
tion when resting on a plane surface. Next the child is placed
on parallel bars. The bars pass under the arm-pits and support
the child while his feet rest on the floor. In these exercises we
try to stimulate the movements which appear in walking (exer-
cises of the lower joints). Next we exercise the muscles which
support the spinal column. The child is made to sit down:
first the spine is upright against the back of the chair; finally
it remains upright when the support is removed. Little by
little walking can be produced if the child is taken away from
the bars and supported with a simple gymnastic belt. The exer-
cise is continued until he can be left entirely without support.
When the child has learned to walk we can command him to
stop in the position of tonic quiescence.
(B). — Moderation of hyperactivity by forced quiescence.
In hyperactive children the arms must first be restrained by
holding them tight in our hands. The movements of the lower
limbs may be checked by holding the child's legs tight between
APPENDICES 435
our knees. Finally the child may be kept entirely quiescent
with his legs held between the teacher's knees, his arms in the
teacher's hands, with the trunk pushed back and held firmly
against the wall. By a similar process he can be kept quiet
while standing; then later in a position of tonic quiescence.
General Rule: Exercises of the limbs beginning with the
arms should precede those specifically directed toward the spinal
column. Seguin says " tonic quiescence is necessarily the first
step from atonic quiescence; or if you wish, from a disordered
activity to an activity which represents harmony between the
muscular system and the mind."
We noted above that the posture of tonic quiescence involves
a fixity of gaze on the part of the child. This is the point of
departure for the development of coordinative movements and
imitation of what the child sees the teacher do.
EDUCATION OF THE FIXED GAZE
If the child is kept in the dark for some time and is suddenly
shown a bright light he will experience the sensation of red.
Keeping the child in a dark room for a shorter time a sudden
light will attract his gaze.
Move the light along the wall until the child's gaze follows it.
Next, in a light room, the child is shown a red cloth kept in
motion ; a red balloon hung from the ceiling keeps striking him
in the face.
After these preparatory exercises the teacher can try to get
the child to fix its eyes on his own and to maintain the fixed
gaze. Here use may be made also of the sense of hearing
(words of command, encouragement, etc.).
Finally to obtain complete fixity of gaze, one may use the
large mirror, before which lights may be passed. There the
child can gaze at his own face and at the face of the teacher,
which will be kept motionless and which the child may come to
imitate.
Exercises of imitation: (1) The child is taught to become
acquainted with himself. The various parts of his body are
pointed out to him and he is made to touch them. This con-
tinues up to the point of distinguishing right from left. Be-
436 APPENDICES
gin with the larger members of the body (arms, legs, trunk,
head) to be named in connection with movements of the whole
body. Then pass to the smaller members (the fingers, knuckles,
the organs of the mouth), to be referred to respectively in the
education of the hand and in the teaching of speech.
(2) The child is taught coordinative movements relating to
gymnastics (walking, running, jumping, pushing, etc.).
(3) Movements relating: (a) to the simpler forms of manual
labor (exercises of practical life: washing, dressing, picking up
and laying down various objects, opening and closing drawers) ;
(b) to more complex kinds of manual labor (elements of various
trades; weaving, Froebel exercises, etc.).
(4) Movements relating to articulate language. For this
educational process the following general rules are to be fol-
lowed: first, movements of the whole body must precede move-
ments of specific parts ; second, only by analyzing complex move-
ments in their successive stages and by working out their details
point by point can we arrive at the execution of a perfect com-
plex movement.
This latter rule applies especially to manual education and
the teaching of language. When movements of the whole body
have been obtained it will often be necessary, before going on to
movements of particular members, to alternate the educational
cure with the medical : (1) to overcome the weakness of some
of the muscles (perhaps of some finger), use local electric baths,
passive gymnastics, etc.; (2) for retractions, retarded develop-
ment of aponeurosis of the palms, etc., use orthopedic treatment.
Gymnastics, manual labor, trades and speaking are special
branches of teaching, that usually require specially trained
teachers.
EDUCATION OF THE SENSES
Outline for examination.
Sight: Sense of color. It is necessary to call the attention
of the child several times to the same color by presenting it
to him under different aspects and in different environments.
The stimulus should be strong. Other senses tend to associate
themselves with the chromatic sense, for example, the stereo-
gnostic and gustatory senses. Whenever the teacher gives an
APPENDICES 437
idea she should unite with it the word, the only word which is
related to the idea. The words should be emphatically and dis-
tinctly pronounced.
(1) Pedagogical aprons: The colors are presented on a large
moving surface, as for instance, an apron worn by the teacher;
e.g., a red apron. The teacher points to it, touches it, lifting
it with noticeable movements of the arms, continually calls the
attention of the child to it. "Look! See here! Attention!"
and so on; then saying in a low voice and slowly, " This is (and
then in a louder voice), red, red, red! ! ! " Now take two aprons,
one red, the other blue ; repeat the same process for the blue.
'There are three stages in the processs of distinguishing between
colors: (a) "This is ... red!" (b) "Your apron is red!"
(c) "What color is this?" Then try three aprons, red, blue,
and yellow, bordered with white and black.
(2) Insets — color and form. The red circle, the blue square.
There are three stages: (a) "This is red, red, red!" Touch
it! Do you feel? Your finger goes all the way around, all the
way around. It is round, it is round, all round. Put it in its
place!" (b) "Give me the red one!" (c) " What color is this
circle?"
(3) The dark room. A Bengal red color is shown : " It is
red!" The color appears behind a circular disc: "It is red!"
•The blue is shown behind a square window : " It is blue, blue,
Hue," etc.
(4) The child is given a circular tablet of red sugar to eat
and a square lump of blue sugar. He is made to smell a red
piece of cloth strongly scented with musk; or a blue piece of
cloth scented with asafetida, etc.
(5) The color chart.
(6) The first game of Froebel.
The first pedagogical material given should contain the color
already taught. The notion of color should be associated with
its original environment.
Shapes: Solids, Insets: The procedure is always in the
three stages mentioned. (1) Show the object to the child. (2)
Have him recognize it. (3) Have him give it its name.
Dimensions: Rods of the same thickness, but of graduated
length. First the longest and the shortest are shown. The
438 APPENDICES
child is made to touch them and interchange them "Pick up
the longest!" " Place it on the table! " etc. Repeat this exer-
cise, adding some intermediate lengths; again finally, with all
the rods. Next the rods may be disarranged; the child is to
put them back in order of length. Notice whether the child
makes an accurate choice in the confused pile of the graduated
dimensions; or whether it is only by placing two rods together
that he comes to notice the difference between them. Notice
how long it is before the child makes an accurate choice in the
pile and of what degrees of difference in length he is accurately
aware.
Try the same exercise for thickness: prisms of equal length,
but of graduated thickness, using the same procedure in analo-
gous exercises. Games may be used for the estimation of dis-
tances.
The tactile sense proper: One board with a corrugated sur-
face (like a grater) and one smooth. Another board with five
adjacent surfaces of graduated roughness. Similar exercises
may be used in the feeling of cloths (guessing games) .
Games: The child is blindfolded and lightly tickled. He
must seize what is tickling him, putting his hand rapidly to the
irritant. (" Fly catching," a game for the localization of stim-
ulants.)
f Astringents
Liquids -I Glues
(Oils
Tactile muscular sense:
Elastic bodies f ["Rubber
\ Balls J
Non-resilient bodies [^ [ Wooden
Use skins, leather gloves, and various kinds of cloths for feeling.
The muscular sense: Balls of the same appearance, but of
graduated weights. Differentiation of coins by weight.
The stereognostic sense: Recognition of elementary forms,
of rare objects, of coins.
Thermal senses: Hot liquids, iced liquids; relative warmth of
linen and wool, wood, wax, metal.
APPENDICES 439
Olfactory sense: Asafetida, oil of rose, mint, etc.,
'Tobacco smoke
Burned sugar
Odors 01 -{ T
Incense
Burned maple
(Wood
Odors of burning J ~
onl-ioton /tdQ •
substances
I Paper
fWool
Various applications
to practical life.
Guessing Games 4 Cotton
[Edibles
Odors of foods (practical life) : fresh milk, sour milk, fresh
meat, stale meat, rancid butter, fresh butter, etc.
Taste: The four fundamental tastes (guessing games). In-
structive applications to practise in the kitchen and at meals.
Tastes of various food substances :
milk gruel (milk and flour) ;
diluted wine;
Exercises of practical life -
sweet wine;
turned wine (vinegar), etc.
The practise of the senses begins in the lower classes in the
form of guessing games ; in the higher classes the education of
the senses is applied to exercises of practical life.
Hearing : Empirical measurement of the acuteness of the
sense of hearing. Specimen game : the teacher about 35 feet
away from the blindfolded children and standing where an
object has been hidden, whispers the words "Find it!" Those
who have heard her will be able to find the object. Having
removed from the line the children who have heard, the teacher
steps to another place about a yard nearer and repeats the experi-
ment to the children who are left over, etc.
Intensity of sound:
Throw to the floor metal blocks of various sizes, coins of
graduated weight.
Strike glasses one after the other according to size.
Bells of graduated size.
440 APPENDICES
Quality of sound: Produce different sounds and noises.
fof metal
Bells 1 , .
lot terracotta
Open Bells.
Closed Bells.
Strike with a wooden stick on tin plates, glasses, etc.
Identify various musical instruments.
Identify different human voices (of different people).
Identify the voice of a man, a woman, a child.
Kecognize different people by their step, etc., etc.
Pitch : Intervals of an octave, of a major triad, and so on ;
major and minor chords. However, musical education requires
a separate chapter.
Sound projection, localization of sound in space: The child
is blindfolded. The sound is produced: (1) in front of him;
behind him; to the right; to the left; above his head; (2) the
blindfolded child recognizes the relative distance at which the
sounds are produced; (3) the child decides from which side of
the room the sounds come; he is made to follow some one who
is speaking.
The horizontal plane: This is the first notion imparted to
the child concerning his relationship to the objects about him.
Almost all the objects the child may perceive around him with
his senses rest on the horizontal plane : his table, his chair, and
so on. The very objects on which the child sits or puts his toys
are horizontal planes. If the plane were not horizontal, the
objects would fall, but they would strike on the floor which,
again, is a horizontal plane. Place an object on the child's
table and tip one end of the table to show him that the object
falls.
Guessing game for the plane surface: This game serves to
fix the notion of the plane surface and at the same time trains
the eye and the attention of the child.
1. Under one of three aluminum cups is placed a small red
ball, a cherry or a piece of candy. The child must remember
under which cup the object is hidden. The teacher tries herself
and fails, always raising the empty cups and returning them to
APPENDICES 441
their places. The child, however, finds the object immediately.
2. The teacher now begins to move the three cups about on the
plane surface. The child has to keep his eye on his cup and
never loses sight of it.
3. Kepeat this exercise with six cups.
Checkerboard game: This serves to teach the child the lim-
its and the various divisions of a plane. The squares are large
and in black and white. The whole board should be surrounded
by a border in relief. Various points are indicated on the plane:
forward, backward, right, left, center, by placing a tin soldier
at each point indicated. The soldiers may be moved about by
the child in obedience to directions of the teacher : " The officer
on horseback to the center": "Standard-bearer to the right,
etc. ! " Finally, make all the soldiers advance toward the cen-
ter of the board over the black squares only; then over the
white squares only, etc.
These notions may be applied to exercises of practical life.
The children already know how to set the table without thinking
of what they are doing. From now on, the teacher may say :
" Put the plates on the plane surface of the tables ! " " Put
the bottle to the left! In the center!" etc. Have a small table
set with little dishes, having the objects arranged in obedience
to commands of the teacher. After this, we may proceed to the
Froebel games on the plane surface with the cubes, blocks, and
so on.
Inset game as a preparation for reading, drawing, and writ-
ing: After the child knows the different colors and shapes in
the inset, the color tablets of the big inset can be put in place :
(1) on a piece of cardboard where the figures have been drawn
in shading in the respective colors; (2) on a cardboard where
the same figures have been drawn merely in colored outline
(linear abstraction of a regular figure).
Inset of shapes where the pieces are all of the same color
(blue) : The child recognizes the shape and puts the pieces in
place: (1) on a cardboard where the figure is shaded; (2) on a
cardboard where the figure is merely outlined (linear abstrac-
tion of regular geometrical figures). Meanwhile, the child has
been touching the pieces : " The tablet is smooth. It turns
round and round and round. It is a circle. Here we have a
442 APPENDICES
square. You go this way and there is a point; this way, and
there is another point, and another, and another; there are four
points! In the triangle there are three points!" Then the
child follows with his finger the figures outlined on the card-
board. "This one is entirely round: it is a circle! This one
has four points: it is a square! This one has three points: it
is a triangle! The child runs over the same figures with a
small rod of wood (skewer), etc.
SIMULTANEOUS READING AND WRITING
At this point, we may bring in the chart with the vowels,
painted red. The child sees " irregular figures outlined in
color." Give the child the vowels made of red wood. He is
to place them on the corresponding figures of the chart. He is
made to touch the wooden vowels, running his finger around
them in the way they are written. They are called by their
names. The vowels are arranged according to similarity in
shape (reading) :
o e a
i u
Then the child is commanded : " Show me the letter o! Put
it in its place ! " Then he is asked : " What letter is this ? "
It will be found at this point that many children make a mis-
take, if they merely look at the letter, but guess rightly when
they touch it. It is possible accordingly to distinguish the va-
rious individual types, visual, motory, etc.
Next the child is made to touch the letter outlined on the
chart, first with his forefinger only, then with the fore and mid-
dle fingers, finally with a little wooden skewer to be held like a
pen. The letter must always be followed around in the way it
is written.
The consonants are drawn in blue and arranged on various
charts, according to similarity in shape (reading, writing).
The movable alphabet in blue wood is added to this. The let-
ters are to be superimposed on the chart as was done for the
vowels. Along with the alphabet we have another series of
charts, where, beside the consonant identical with the wooden
APPENDICES 443
letter there are painted one or more figures of objects, the names
of which begin with the letter in question. Beside the long-
hand letter, there is also painted in the same color a smaller
letter in print type. The teacher, naming the consonants in
the phonic method, points to the letter, then to the chart, pro-
nouncing the name of the objects which are painted there, and
stressing the first letter: e.g., " m . . . man . . . m: Give me
Ml" "Put it where it belongs!" "Follow around it with
your finger! " Here the linguistic defects of the children may
be studied.
The tracing of the letters in the way they are written begins
the muscular education preparatory to writing. One of our
little girls of the motory type when taught by this method re-
produced all the letters in pen and ink long before she could
identify them. Her letters were about eight millimetres high
and were written with surprising regularity. This same child
was generally successful in her manual work.
The child, in looking at the letters, identifying them, and
tracing them in the way they are written, is preparing himself
both for reading and writing at the same time. The two proc-
esses are exactly contemporaneous. Touching them and look-
ing at them brings several senses to bear on the fixing of the
image. Later the two acts are separated: first looking (read-
ing), then touching (writing). According to their respective
type, some children learn to read first, others to write first.
Reading : As soon as the child has learned to identify the
letters and also to write them, he is made to pronounce them.
Then the alphabet is arranged in phonetic order. This order is
to be varied according to individual defects made apparent
while the child is pronouncing spontaneously the sounds of the
consonants or vowels, or the words illustrating the consonants
on the charts. We begin by showing the child and having him
pronounce, first, syllables and, then, words which contain the
letters he is able to pronounce well. Then we go on to the
sounds he has trouble with, finally to those he cannot pronounce
at all (linguistic correction). The phonomimic correction of
speech requires special discussion. In primary schools speech
correction should be in the hands of a specially trained teacher,
like gymnastics, manual training and singing. Should no de-
444 APPENDICES
fects in speech appear in the child, the letters of the alphabet
should be taught in the order of physiological phonetics.
Beside the big long-hand letters should be placed the small
letters in print type. The letter is taught; then recognition is
prompted by asking as each large letter is reached : " I want
the little one like it." The two types of letter appear also on
the illustrated charts. Next the printed letter is shown, with
the request : " Give me the big letter that goes with it."
Finally: "What letter is it?" The little letters are not
" touched," because they are never to be written.
DRAWING AND WRITING
The child is given a sheet on which appear a circle and a
square in outline. The circle is filled in with a red pencil, the
square with blue (insets). Smaller and smaller circles are next
given, also circles and triangles. They are variously disposed
on the page. They are to be filled in with colored pencils.
Then comes the tracing. The black lines are followed around
with colored pencils: the circle, the triangle, the square. This
comes easily to the child who has been taught to trace with
the wooden skewer the figures outlined on the inset-charts.
Writing follows immediately on the exercises in tracing with
the skewer on the charts of the written alphabet. Some help
can be given the child by having him darken with a black pen-
cil the letter written on the copy book by the teacher. As the
child writes, his attention should be directed to the fact that
he is writing on a limited plane surface; that he begins at the
top, moving from left to right and little by little coming down
the page.
Seguin's method began with shafts and curves. His copy-
books for the shafts were prepared as follows: the shaft to be
executed by the child was delimited by two points, connected
by a very light line. In the margin of the pages appear two
shafts to be executed by the teacher. Similarly for the curves :
( ( ( (. He has the printed capitals drawn as combina-
tions of shafts and curves : B, D, etc.
APPENDICES 445
SIMULTANEOUS READING AND WRITING OF WORDS
The child, through sensory education, has acquired some no-
tions of color, shape, surface (smooth and rough), smell, taste,
etc. At the same time, he has learned to count (one, two, three,
four points). Uniting all possible notions concerning a single
object, we arrive at his first concrete idea of the object itself:
the object lesson. To the idea thus acquired, we give the word
which represents the object. Just as the concrete idea results
from the assembling of acquired notions, so the word results
from the union of known sounds, and perceived symbols.
Reading lesson: On the teacher's table is the large stand for
the movable alphabet in black printed letters. The teacher
arranges on it the vowels and a few consonants. Each child, in
his own place, has the small movable alphabet in the pasteboard
boxes. The children take from the box the same letters they
see on the large stand, and arrange them in the same order.
The teacher takes up some object which has a simple word for
a name, e.g., pane ("bread"). She calls the attention of the
child to the object, reviewing an objective lesson already learned,
thus arousing the child's interest in the object. " Shall we
write the word pane?" "Hear how I say it!" " See how I
say it ! " The teacher pronounces separately and distinctly the
sounds of the letters which make up the word, exaggerating the
movements of the vocal organs so that they are plainly visible to
the children. As the pupils repeat the word they continue
their education in speaking.
A child now comes to the teacher's desk to choose the letters
corresponding to the sounds and tries to arrange them in the
order in which they appear in the word. The children do the
same with the small letters at their seats. Every mistake gives
rise to a correction useful to the whole class. The teacher re-
peats the word in front of each one who has made a mistake,
trying to get the child to correct himself. When all the chil-
dren have arranged their letters properly, the teacher shows a
card (visiting-card size) on which is printed (in print-type
letters about a centimeter high) the word "pane." All the
children are made to read it. Then some child is asked to put
the card where he finds the word written before him; next, on
446 APPENDICES
the object the word stands for. The process is repeated with
two or three other objects, with their respective names: pane
(bread), lume (lamp), cece (peas). Then the teacher gathers
up the cards from the various objects, shuffles them and calls
on some child: "Which object do you like best?" "Lume!"
" Find me the card with the word lume!" When the card has
been selected, all the children are asked to read it : " Is Mary
right in saying that this is the word lume?" "Put the card
back where it belongs! " (i.e., on its object). In the subsequent
lessons, the old cards, with the objects they stand for removed,
should be mixed with the new ones. From the entire pack the
children are to select the new cards and place them on their
objects. A primary reading book ought to present these words
next to a picture of the object for which they stand.
In this way the children are brought to unite the individual
symbol into words. When they have been taught to make the
syllable, the reading lesson may be continued without the use
of objects, though it is still preferable to use words which will,
if possible, have a concrete meaning for the children.
Writing: The children are already able to use the cursive
(writing) alphabet which corresponds to the small letter (print-
type) that is neither " touched " nor written, but is merely read.
They must now write in hand writing, and place close together,
the little letters which they have assembled in the movable
alphabet to compose words. As each word is read or written
for every object lesson, for every action, printed cards are being
assembled which will later be used to make clauses and sen-
tences with movable words that may be moved about just as
the individual letters were moved about in making the words
themselves. Later on, the simple clauses or sentences should
refer to actions performed by the children. The first step
should be to bring two or more words together: e.g., red-wool,
sweet-candy, four-footed dog, etc. Then we may go on to the
sentence itself: The wool is red; The soup is hot; The dog has
four feet; Mary eats the candy, etc. The children first com-
pose the sentences with their cards ; then they copy them in
their writing books. To facilitate the choice of the cards, they
are arranged in special boxes; for instance, one box is labeled
noun: or its compartments are distinguished thus: food, cloth-
APPENDICES 447
ing, animals, people,, etc. There should be a box for adjectives
with compartments for colors, shapes, qualities, etc. There
should be another for particles with compartments for articles,
conjunctions, prepositions, etc. A box should be reserved for
actions with the label verbs above; and then in it a compart-
ment should be reserved for the infinitive, present, past and
future respectively. The children gradually learn by practice
to take their cards from the boxes and put. them back in their
proper places. They soon learn to know their " word boxes "
and they readily find the cards they want among the colors,
shapes, qualities, etc., or among animals, foods, etc. Ultimately
the teacher will find occasion to explain the meaning of the big
words at the top of the drawers, noun, adjective, verb, etc., and
this will be the first step into the subject of grammar.
GRAMMAR
NOUN LESSON
We may call persons and objects by their name (their noun).
People answer if we call them, so do animals. Inanimate ob-
jects, however, never answer, because they cannot ; but if they
could answer they would ; for example, if I say Mary, Mary
answers; if I say peas, the peas do not answer, because they
cannot. You children do understand Avhen I call an object and
you bring it to me. I say for example, book, beans, peas. If
I don't tell you the name of the object you don't understand
what I am talking about ; because every object has a different
name. This name is the word that stands for the object. This
name is a noun. When I mention a noun you understand im-
mediately the object which the noun represents : tree, chair,
pen, book, lamb, etc. If I do not give this noun, you don't
know what I am talking about; for, if I say simply, Bring me
. . . at once, I want it, you do not know what L want, unless I
tell you the name of the object. Unless I give you the noun,
you do not understand. Thus every object is represented by a
word which is its name and this name is a noun. To understand
whether a word is a noun or not, you simply ask " Is it a thing? "
" Would it answer if I spoke to it ? " " Could I carry it to the
teacher?" For instance, bread. Yes, bread is an object; table,
448 APPENDICES
yes, it is an object; conductor, yes, the conductor would answer,
if I were to speak to him.
Let us look through our cards now. I take several cards
from different boxes and shuffle them. Here is the word sweet.
Bring me sweet. Is there anything to answer when I call
sweet? But you are bringing me a piece of candy! I didn't
say candy: I said sweet! And now you have given me sugar!
I said sweet. If I say candy, sugar, then you understand what
I want, what object I am thinking about, because the words
candy, sugar, stand for objects. Those words are nouns. Now
let us look through the noun cards. Let us read a couple of
lines in our reading books and see whether there are any nouns
there. Tell me, are there any nouns? How are we to find
some nouns ? Look around you ! Look at yourself, your clothes,
etc.! Name every object that you see! Every word you thus
pronounce will be a noun: Teacher, clothing, necktie, chair,
class, children, books, etc. Just look at this picture which rep-
resents so many things ! The figures represent persons and ob-
jects. Name each of these figures ! Every word you pronounce
will be a noun !
VERB : ACTION
Mary, rise from your seat! Walk! Mary has performed a
number of actions. She has risen. She has performed the
action of rising. She has walked. Walk stands for an action.
Now write your name on the blackboard ! Writing is an action.
Erase what you have written. Erasing is an action. When I
spoke to Mary, I performed the action of speaking. (Just as
the noun was taught with objects, here we must have actions.
Objects represented in pictures will be of no use, since actions
cannot be portrayed by pictures.)
The next step will be to suggest a little exercise of imagina-
tion. Look at all these objects! Try to imagine some action
which each might perform ! A class, for instance ; what actions
might a class perform? Store: what actions might take place
in a store? Let us now look through our cards after we have
shuffled them. Next try our reading book. Show me which of
the words are verbs. Give me some words which are verbs
(infinitive).
APPENDICES 449
NOUN
Persons, things (proper and common nouns). Singular,
plural, masculine and feminine. The articles : " Choose the
article that goes with this noun ! " etc.
VERB
Present, past, future. I am performing an action now. Have
I performed it before? Did I do it yesterday? Have I always
done it in the past? When I walk now, I say I am walking,
I walk. When I mean the action that I performed yesterday,
I say: I was walking, I walked. The same action performed
at different times is described differently. How strange that is !
The word referring to an object never changes. The beads are
beads to-day. They were beads yesterday. Actions, however,
are represented by words which change according to the time
in which they are performed. To-day I walk. Yesterday I
walked. To-morrow I shall walk. It is always / who do the
walking, / who perform the action of walking; and I walk al-
ways in the same way, putting one foot in front of the other.
The objects you see perform an action always perform it. Do
you see that little bird which is flying — which is performing
the action of flying? It was flying yesterday. It flew at some
time in the past. To-morrow also, that is, at some future time,
if the little bird lives, it will fly and it will fly always in the
same way, beating its wings to and fro. You see what a strange
thing a verb is! It changes its words according to the time
in which the action is performed. It is different according as
it represents action in present time, or action in past time, or
action in future time. Now, see ! I am going to take out some
of my cards and make up a little sentence:
Now
eats
an
apple
Now I am going to change the word which stands for the time
when the action takes place. In place of the card now I am
going to use this one:
450 APPENDICES
Is this a good sentence? No! Supposing we change the time
of the verb : Yesterday George ate an apple. This makes good
sense. Put these cards back now in the boxes where they be-
long.
ADJECTIVE
Every object possesses certain qualities. Tell me what you
can about this apple. It is red, it is round, it is sweet. What
qualities can you find in this chair? It is hard, it is brown,
it is wooden. What about your school-mates, the children!
Are they good, are they pretty, are they polite, are they obe-
dient, or are they naughty, impolite, disobedient, disorderly?
Let us look through our cards to see whether we can find words
which stand for the qualities of objects. Supposing we select
some from the drawer of the adjective and some from the
drawer of the noun. Now let us place beside each noun a
card which makes sense with it: here, for instance, I have
Charles, red, quadruped, transparent. Does that mean any-
thing? Well then find me some adjectives which will go well
with Charles. Adjectives are words which stand for qualities
of a given object. They must go well with their noun. Find
me some adjectives which fit well with the noun dog. They
must be words which stand for some quality of the dog. Now
put all the cards back in the compartments where they belong.
(This latter exercise is very instructive.)
In this method of teaching grammar we make use of objects
and actions directly relating to life. Such lessons may be made
more attractive with story telling, etc. The teaching of gram-
mar at this period should be extended as far as is possible with-
out forcing the pupil.
OBJECT LESSONS
There should be concise and vivid descriptions of some ob-
ject. The attention of the child should be sustained by chang-
ing the tone of voice, by exclamations calculated to excite the
child's curiosity, by praise, etc. Never begin with the word,
APPENDICES 451
but always with the object. All the notions possessed by the
child should be as far as practicable in a given case applied to
his study of the object. First it should be described as to its
qualities ; next as to its uses, then as to its origin ; for example,
Here is an object! What color is it? What is its shape?
Feel of it! Taste of it! etc. If possible, have the child see
the use of the object and its origin in every possible way. Just
as the concrete idea of the object is imparted by verbal descrip-
tion and by various appeals to the senses of the child, so the
different uses of the object should be brought out in describing
actions which the child sees performed with it before him.
This, of course, is an ideal which the teacher should try to
realize as far as possible. The object should be shown the child
in different circumstances and under different aspects so as to
give it always the appearance of something new and something
to excite and hold the attention of the child. Take, for in-
stance, a lesson on the word hen. Show a paper model of the
hen, the live hen in the courtyard, the stereopticon slide of the
hen: the print of the hen in the reading book: the hen alive
among other domestic fowls; pictures of the hen among pic-
tures of other birds, etc. Each new step should be taken on a
different day and each time the word should be connected with
the object. Write the word on the blackboard; make up the
printed card for the card' file and put it in its proper box.
" Who wants to take the blackboard out-doors ! We are going
to write some words in the yard. Now in your reading books
there is the figure of the hen. Next to it is the word hen.
Write this word in your copy books. Who can repeat what we
have said about the hen? Write down what you know about
the hen." The amount of information given about a particular
object will depend, of course, upon the class. The simplest de-
scription should be followed by one more minute, passing thus
to speak of uses, habits, origin, etc. The writing of a simple
word may be developed into a written description. But the
lessons on the given object should always be short, and they
should be repeated on different days. For the lessons on trees,
plants, and vegetables, a garden is necessary: the children
should see the seeds planted, a growing vegetable, a picture
of the fruit, etc. If possible the domestic use of the garden
452 APPENDICES
products should be demonstrated. This applies also to flowers.
The blackboard with crayon should never be lacking in the
garden. For object lessons we need toys to represent furni-
ture, dishes, various objects used in the home, tools of different
trades, rooms and the furniture that goes in each, houses, trees,
a church (to build villages), etc.; dolls equipped with all the
necessaries for dressing. There should be a shelf for bottles
containing specimens of different drinks; various kinds of
cloths (for tactile exercises) ; the raw materials out of which
they are made, demonstrations of the way they are manufac-
tured, etc. Show also specimens of the various minerals, etc.
HISTORY
History is taught first on a little stage with living tableaux,
gradually advancing to action ; second, by descriptions of large
illustrations and colored pictures; third, by story-telling based
on stereopticon views. The teacher should strive for brevity,
conciseness, and vivacity in descriptions. Historical story tell-
ing should, as in the case of all other lessons, bring about addi-
tions of printed cards to the word boxes. Various information
on the seasons, months of the year, etc., should be imparted by
illustrations and pictures. Every morning the child should be
asked : " What day is it ? What day was yesterday ? What
day will to-morrow be? " and " What day of the month is it? "
GEOGRAPHY
1. Exercises on the plane for the cardinal points, with various
gymnastic and guessing games. 2. Building games out of
doors. Make a lake, an island, a peninsula, a river. 3. Carry
the houses and church into the yard and construct a small vil-
lage. Put the church on the north; the schoolhouse on the
east; the mountain on the west; in front of the school place
the national flag. 4. In the classroom fit out a room with its
proper furniture to be placed on a map of the room outlined
on a large chart. As the furniture is removed, make a mark
on the map to indicate where each article was. Make a little
village in the same way, houses, church, etc. Take away the
church, etc. ; mark the place of each object on the map as it is
APPENDICES 453
removed. Then identify each spot. " Where was the church? "
" What was over here ? " etc. Thus we get a conception of the
geographical map. Read the map, making use of the cardinal
points. 5. Physical characteristics of regions may be shown
by clay modeling to represent hills, etc. Draw outlines around
each model, remove the clay and read the geographical map
resulting.
ARITHMETIC
The children are to count: 1 nose; 1 mouth; 1, 2 hands;
1, 2 feet ; 1, 2, 3, 4 points in the insets ; 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 soldiers
on the plane. How many blocks did they use in the building?
1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9. Thus for the elementary steps in count-
ing.
COMPUTATION
Computation should be taught practically in the store from
the very beginning. The shopkeeper sells 1 cherry for Ic. The
children have 2c and get two cherries. Next they get two nuts
for Ic. Place Ic on the counter and place 2 nuts beside it.
Then count all the nuts and there are 2 for Ic, etc. The child
wants one cherry and has a two-cent piece. The shopkeeper
must give him Ic in change (2 -(-2 = 4; 2 — 1 = 1). In
money changing it will be observed that at first some children
recognize the coins more easily by touch than by sight (motor
types).
WRITTEN NUMBERS
Charts with the nine numbers : one for each number. Each
chart has pictures representing quantities of the most varied
objects arranged around the number, which is indicated by a
large design on the chart. For instance: on the 1 card there is
one cherry, one dog, one ball, etc. Yesterday the shopkeeper
sold one cherry for Ic. Is the cherry here? Yes, there is the
cherry! And what is this? One church! And this? One
cent! etc. What is this figure here? It is the number one.
Now bring out the wooden figure: What is this? Number
one! Put it on the figure on the chart! It is one.
Now take the charts to the store. Who has Ic? Who has
454 APPENDICES
2c? etc. Let us look for the number among the charts. The
shopkeeper is selling three peas for Ic. Let us look for num-
ber 3 among the charts! Numbers should be taught in the
afternoon lesson in the store. The designs representing the
figures should be shown the following morning. Next time the
charts with the figures previously taught should be taken to
the shop to be recognized again. Other numbers are brought
out in the new computations. The figures for the new numbers
then taught in the store should be shown the following day, etc.
To make the store interesting, the topic lesson on the objects
offered for sale should be frequently repeated. The child should
be taught to buy only perfect objects, so that on receiving them
he may examine them carefully, observing them in all their
parts. He should give them back if they are not perfect or if
mistakes are made by the shopkeeper in giving them out. For
instance : A spoiled apple should not be accepted. " I refuse
to buy it!" Beans should not be accepted for peas. Again
the child refuses to buy them. He must pay only when he is
sure he has been served properly (exercise in practical life).
The storekeeper will make mistakes : first, in kinds of objects,
to sharpen the observation of qualities by the children who
purchase; second, in the number of objects given, to accustom
the child to purchasing proper quantities.
ODD AND EVEN NUMBERS
Even numbers are red. Odd numbers are blue. There are:
movable figures in wood; red and blue cubes in numbers cor-
responding to the figures on them ; finally, charts with numbers
drawn in color. Under each design are small red and blue
squares arranged in such a way as to emphasize the divisibility
of even numbers by 2 and similarly the indivisibility by 2 of
odd numbers. In the latter case one square is always left by
itself in the center.
6
APPENDICES 455
The child places the movable numbers and the cubes on the
figures on the charts. The teacher then makes two equal rows
of cubes to correspond to the even numbers (red). The divi-
sion is easy! But try to separate the odd numbers (blue). It
is not possible! A block is always left in the middle! The
child takes the figures and the blocks and arranges them on his
table, imitating the design on the chart. He tries to make two
equal rows of cubes for the even numbers. He succeeds. He
does not succeed in doing so with the odd numbers. The num-
bers which can be divided thus are even; those which cannot
be so divided are odd.
Number boxes: On these boxes are designed red and blue
figures identical with those on the charts. The child puts into
each box the number of cubes called for by the figure on the
box. This exercise follows immediately the work on odd and
even numbers described above. As the child transfers each
series of cubes from his table to the boxes, he pronounces the
number and adds odd or even.
Exercises in attention and memory: A chart of odd and
even numbers in colors is placed on the teacher's desk in view
of all the children. The red and blue cubes are piled on the
teacher's desk. The teacher passes the wooden figures to the
children and tells them to examine them. Immediately after-
wards the children leave their seats, go to the teacher's desk,
and get the numbers which correspond to their own figures.
On going back to their places they fit the cubes under the cor-
responding figure in the arrangement just learned. The teacher
is to observe
1. Whether the child has remembered the color of his figure
(frequently a child with a red number takes the blue
cubes).
2. Whether he has remembered his number.
3. Whether he remembers the proper arrangement.
4. Whether the child remembers that the chart from which
he can copy is before him on the stand and whether he
thinks of looking at it.
When mistakes are made, the teacher has the child correct him-
self by calling his attention to the chart.
456 APPENDICES
COUNTING BY TENS
(For more advanced classes}
In the store ten objects are sold for one cent, e.g. :
(10 beans), one cent for each ten.
One ten = ten, 10.
Two tens = twenty, 20.
Three tens = thirty, 30, etc.
From forty on (in English from sixty on) the numbers are
more easily learned because their names are like simple num-
bers with the ending -ty (Italian-ania).
Charts should be prepared (rectangular in shape) on which
nine tens appear arranged one under the other; then nine cards
where each ten is repeated nine times in a column ; finally,
numerous cards with the unit figures 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, to be
fitted on the zeros on the cards where the tens are repeated nine
times.
10 — 10 — 20
20 — 10 — 20
30 — 10 — 20
40 — 10 — 20
50 — 10 — 20
60 — 10 — 20
70 — 10 — 20
80 — 10 — 20
90 — 10 — 20
Some difficulty will be experienced with the tens where the
names do not correspond to the simple numbers: 11, 12, 13, etc.
The other tens, however, will be very easy. When a little child
is able to count to 20, he can go on to 100 without difficulty.
The next step is to superimpose the little cards on the first
chart of the tens series, having the resultant numbers read
aloud.
Problems: Problems are, at first, simple memory exercises
for the children. In fact the problems are solved practically in
the store in the form of a game; buying, lending, sharing with
their schoolmates, taking a part of what is bought and giving
APPENDICES 457
it to some other child, etc. The store exercises should be re-
peated in the form of a problem on the following morning.
The children have simply to remember what happened and re-
produce it in writing. Problems are next developed contem-
poraneously with the various arithmetical operations and com-
putations (addition, multiplication, etc.). The teacher explains
the operations starting with the problem, which becomes for the
children a very amusing game. The problem, finally, becomes
an imaginative exercise : " Suppose you are going to the store
to buy," etc., etc. We can ultimately arrive at real problems
that require reasoning. In the store the teacher illustrates the
various operations on the blackboard, using simple marks at
first : " You have bought 2c worth of beans, at three for a cent.
Let us write that down : III — III. Then let us count.
Ill III
1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6. There are six. Well, then, 3 + 3 = 6. We can
also say : 2 groups of 1 1 1 equals 6 ; twice, three, six ; two times
three, six ; 2 X 3 = 6. How much is 3 + 3 ? How much is
2X3? How much is 3X2?"
The following morning, when the written problem is given,
the child should have before him for reference the computation
charts with all the combinations possible.
The transition to mental computation will come after this
and not before.
SAMPLE CARDS
(Addition)
1 + 1 = 2 2 + 1 = 3 3 + 1 = 4
1 + 2 = 3 2 + 2 = 4 3 + 2 = 5
1 + 3 = 4 2 + 3 = 5 3 + 3 = 6
1 + 4 = 5 2 + 4 = 6 3 + 4 = 7
(Multiplication)
1X1 = 1 2X1 ==2 3X1 = 3
1X2 = 2 2X2 = 4 3X2 = 6
1X3 = 3 2X3 = 6 3X3 = 9
458 APPENDICES
Subtraction in the same way. The development of these va-
rious operations followed logically on the practical exercise in
the store, where multiplication proved to be a product of sums,
division, a process of successive subtractions.
In our classes we have arithmetic lessons every day. The
afternoon practice in the store prepares for the theoretical les-
son of the following morning. Accordingly, on the day when
the practical exercise occurs, there is no theoretical lesson and
vice versa.
The decimal metric system applied to weights, measures and
coinage is taught in the same way. The store should be
equipped with scales, weights, dry and liquid measures, etc. All
kinds of coins should be available, including bills up to $20
(100 francs). Work in the store should continue to be not only
a help toward arithmetical computation but also toward the
preparation for practical life. For instance, when cloth is sold,
some attention should be given to its actual market value; its
qualities should be emphasized by feeling, etc.; and the child
should be taught to observe whether the storekeeper has given
him the right amount and the right quality. Money changing
should be made ready and easy. The money which the chil-
dren spend at the store should be earned by them as a reward
for their application to study and their good behavior.
GENERAL RULES
To attract the attention of defective children strong sensory
stimulants are necessary. The lessons, therefore, should be
eminently practical. Every lesson should begin with the presen-
tation of the object to be illustrated by the teacher in a few
words distinctly pronounced with continual modulations of the
voice and accompanied by vivid imitative expression. The les-
sons should be made as attractive as possible and, as far as prac-
ticable, presented under the form of games, so as to arouse the
curiosity of the child: guessing games, blindman's buff, store-
keeping, the sleep walker, the blind store-keeper, etc. But how-
ever amusing the game may be, the lesson should always be
stopped while the child is still willing to continue. His atten-
tion, which is easily fatigued, should never be exhausted. To
APPENDICES 459
fix ideas, lessons should be repeated many times. Each time,
however, the same objects should be presented under different
forms and in a different environment, so that it will always be
interesting by appearing as something new : story-telling, liv-
ing tableaux, large illustrations; colored pictures; stereopticon
views, etc. In case individual teaching is necessary, as happens
in the most elementary classes, care should be exercised to keep
all the other children busy with different toys: insets, lacing-and-
buttoning-frames, hooks and eyes, etc. When children refuse to
take part in their lessons it is better not to use coercion, but to
aim at obtaining obedience indirectly through the child's imita-
tion of his schoolmates. Glowing praise 'of the pupils who are
showing good will in their work almost always brings the re-
calcitrants to time. When a child shows he has understood
the point under discussion, it is better not to ask for a repeti-
tion. His attention is easily fatigued, and the second time he
may say badly what at first he gave successfully; and the fail-
ure may discourage him. It is well to be satisfied with the first
good answer, bestow such praise as will afford the child a pleas-
ant memory of what he has been doing; and go back to the sub-
ject on the following day, or, at the earliest, several hours
later.
In manual training, however, the situation is different. The
lesson in this subject can be a whole hour long and should take
the form of serious work and not of play. The child should
be set early at some useful task, even if a little hard work, not
unattended with risk, be involved (wood-cutting, boring, etc.).
From the outset, thus, the child will become familiar with the
difficulties of bread-winning effort and will learn to overcome
them.
Interest in work may be stimulated by appropriate rewards.
The child may earn during work-hours the money for his pur-
chases at the store, for his tickets to the theater and the
stereopticon lecture. The child who does not work may be
kept away from the more attractive lessons, such as dancing
and music, which come immediately after the work hour. As
a matter of fact, these children take to manual training very
readily, provided the tasks assigned are adapted to the natural
inclinations of the individual child in such a way that he may
460 APPENDICES
take in his work the greatest possible satisfaction and thus by
natural bent attain a skill useful to himself and society.
MORAL EDUCATION
By the expression " moral education " we mean an education
which tends to make a social being of an individual who is by
nature extra- or anti-social. It presents two aspects which may
be paralleled with the education thus far treated and which we
call " intellectual education."
In this latter training of the mind, we began by an appro-
priate hygienic cure of all those physical defects which could
stand in the way of successful mental education. In moral
education, likewise, we try to eliminate such defects as arise
from some passing physical ailment. We should carefully con-
sider the apparently causeless " naughtiness " of children, to see
whether it may not be due to some intestinal disturbance, or to
the early stages of some infectious disease. The symptoms of
such diseases should be known to the teacher. I have been told
that English mothers use the empirical method of administering
purgatives or cold shower baths to " naughty children," often
with good correctional effect. I suggest that such empiricism is
hardly prudent where science is able to prescribe much safer
and more efficacious methods. Child hygiene must be well
known to the educator and should be the pivotal point of every
educational system.
In mental education, we began by reducing the child to tonic
quiescence; here we must begin by reducing the child to obedi-
ence.
In mental education, to give the child his first notions of
his physical person (personal imitation : touching of the parts
of the body) and of his relations to environment (personal imi-
tation: moving of objects, etc.) we had recourse to imitation;
here, to instil in the child elementary notions of his duties, we
must throw around the child an atmosphere morally correct, an
environment in which, after attaining obedience, he can imitate
persons who act properly.
In mental education we went on to the training of the senses ;
here we pass to the education of feelings. Our next step, in
APPENDICES 461
the one case, was to the education proper of the mind; here it
is to the training of the will.
The parallel is perfect:
hygienic training: hygiene;
tonic quiescence: obedience;
imitation : imitation (environment) ;
sensory education : education of the feelings (sensibilities) ;
mental education proper: education of the will.
OBEDIENCE
In a command the will of the teacher is imposed upon the
defective child who is lacking in will. The will of the teacher
is substituted for the child's will in impelling to action or in-
hibiting the child's impulses. From the very first the child must
feel this will, which is imposed upon him and is irrevocably
destined to overcome him. The child must understand that
against this will he cannot offer any resistance. The teacher's
command must be obeyed at whatever cost, even if coercive
measures must be resorted to. No consideration should ever
lead the teacher to desist from enforcing her command. The
child must submit and obey. The teacher accordingly, should
be careful at first to command only what she is sure to obtain.
For example, she may command the child to move; since, if
necessary she can force him to move. She may command the
child to stand motionless because, if necessary, she can tie him
or put him in a straight-jacket. She should never, on the other
lhand, command the child to "beg pardon," because the child
may refuse, and in the face of this refusal the teacher may
find herself helpless and lose her authority. To acquire author-
ity in command, the teacher must possess a considerable power
of suggestion; and this she can partially acquire. The teacher
should be physically attractive, of an " imposing personality."
She should have a clear musical voice, and some power of facial
expression and gesture. These things may be in large part
acquired by actual study of declamation and imitation, subjects
in which the perfect teacher should be proficient. The artistic
study of command, which the teacher may undertake, presents
itself under three aspects : voice study, gesture, facial expression.
462 APPENDICES
Voice and speech: The voice should be clear and musical,
word articulation perfect. Any defect in pronunciation should
effectually bar a teacher from the education of defective chil-
dren. On days when the teacher has a cold and her voice is
likely to assume false or ridiculous intonations, she should not
think of correcting or commanding a defective child. The
teacher's voice must be impressive and suggestive to the child.
If shouting and declamatory tirades have gone out of fashion
in the education of normal children, they may serve very well
in the education of defectives. Whereas, in the mental educa-
tion of these unfortunates, we are to pronounce a few words,
but very distinctly, here there is no objection to a veritable
flood of speech, provided such lectures be free from monotony,
the voice passing from tones of reproof to tones of sorrow, pathos,
tenderness, etc. A few words are to receive special emphasis —
those which we intend shall convey to the child what we wish
him to understand. The rest of all we say will constitute
for the child merely modulated, musical or painful sound. It
is in the music of the human voice that the elements of the
education of the feelings reside; whether in the prohibition
against doing something wrong, we introduce the corrective
command, or, in the order to perform some action, we include
encouragement, menace, or promise of reward.
Often the command is very simple. When the child is told
to do something, he does not refuse. Nevertheless he is not
easily persuaded. He must try to understand, first of all, what
we want of him. The technique of such a simple command
falls into two parts. We may call the first incitement, and the
second explanation. The whole command should be repeated
several times with varied intonations and with stress on differ-
ent words until each word in its order has been emphasized.
" James, put that book on the table." In the first instance the
command will be incitive in character, calling the attention of
the child to the action and urging him to perform it. Here
the accent should fall on the name of the child and on the
imperative. The tone should be that of absolute command.
"James, put that book on the table." As we pass from the
command to the explanation, the tone should be changed and
somewhat softened. The first word should be clear and impel-
APPENDICES 463
ling, followed by slow, insistent words — " James, put that book
on the table": " James, put that book on the table " : "James,
put that book on the table." Thus the voice both in command-
ing and in describing what was commanded, while urging the
child to perform the required action and guiding him to do it,
was also affording us help in its suggestive power and by ex-
planation.
Gesture. The teacher must study particularly expressive
gesture. She must always accompany what she says with ges-
tures serving both to impel the child to actions and which sug-
gest imitation and explain the command. Gesture should be
expressive enough to be readily intelligible even without words;
for example, if it is desirable to bring the child to perfect
quiescence, as the command is given, the teacher should stop,
become almost rigid, looking sharply at the child in such a way
that he may be impressed by that rigid fixity which he sees
before him and be brought by suggestion to imitate it. Then
to keep the child motionless, the teacher may attract his atten-
tion by a slight almost continuous hypnotizing sort of whistle.
To excite an apathetic child to movement the teacher should
herself move, accompanying the stress of her voice with motion
in her whole body.
In the simple command, arm gesture only should be used and
as follows:
For Incitement: rapid movement in straight line.
For Explanation: slow movement in curve.
Command of quiescence: gesture up and down, from without
toward the body.
Command of movement: gesture from down, up, from within,
out from the body.
Facial expression and gaze: The gaze has a powerful effect
on the child. It is the same gaze which impressed the child
and brought him to the first steps in his education (see our
chapter on the Education of the Gaze). All the expressions of
the eye are useful provided the teacher employs them properly.
It is not a question of scowling at the child to frighten him,
as might be supposed; but rather of bringing the eye as well
as the whole face to express all those emotions which the teacher
464 APPENDICES
must herself actually feel in the presence of an obedient or re-
bellious, a patient or angry child ; and of giving to this expres-
sion such clearness that the child cannot possibly be mistaken
as to its meaning (Seguin, page 679). The teacher's face must
be expressive, mobile, hence in harmonious relationship with
what is to be expressed (calmness, gaiety, effort). The expres-
sion must never vary momentarily on account of any extraneous
diversion which may occur; otherwise the children will soon
learn to provoke such distractions of the teacher's attention.
Such commands, which demand on the teacher's part so much
artistic study, will, of course, not be necessary during the whole
period of the child's education.
THE END
continued from front flap
projects of Rome, in the slums of London and (to-
ward the end of her long life) in India. None of the
fashionable recent descriptions of the American poor
is so directly disturbing as Montessori's comment on
what she found waiting for her at the opening of
school in San Lorenzo : 'Sixty tearful, frightened
children, so shy that it was impossible to get them to
speak, with bewildered eyes, as though they had never
seen anything in their lives.' Yet two years later
these children, age six, were performing as well as
the eight-year-olds in the middle-class elementary
schools of Home. It gives one to think.
"Fundamentally, however, Montessori is honored
today for her original insight into the nature of the
learning process and the potential of the school. . . .
" 'We do not start,' she writes in these pages, 'from
the conclusions of experimental psychology. . . . We
start essentially from a method, and it is probable
that psychology will be able to draw its conclusions
from pedagogy so understood, and not vice versa.'
Jerome Brunei' writes better than that, but Montes-
sori's statement is an accurate description of what
he has been doing at Harvard's Center for Cognitive
Studies and in his meetings with the math and sci-
ence reformers. Instead of prescribing instructional
procedures from learning theory, which is what Amer-
ican educational academicians have been trying un-
successfully for half a century, Bruner has been
working to develop a theory of instruction from what
he observes in selected classrooms, hoping all the
while that somewhere within this theory of instruc-
tion a valid learning theory will have left a trackable
spoor. Montessori would approve."
"A remarkable book by
a remarkable human being."
— SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN
Maria Montesspri was born - in
1870, and she %as the first woman ;
ever granted a medical degree by an
Italian university. As a child, she
showed great ability in mathema-
tics and originally intended to be-
come an engineer. She did post-
graduate work in psychiatry.
At the age of^28> Montessori be-
came directress of a tax-supported
school for defective children. Work-
ing thirteen hours a day with the
children, she developed materials
and methods which allowed them to
perform reasonably well on school
problems previously considered far
beyond their capacity. Her great
triumph, in reality and in the news-
papers, came when she presented
children from mental institutions at
the public examinations for pri-
mary certificates, which was as far
as the average Italian ever went in
formal education — and her chil-
dren passed the exam.
Typically, she drew from her ex-
perience the vigorous conclusion —
that if these children could be
brought to the academic levels
reached by normal children, then
there had to be something horribly
wrong with the education of normal
children. And so she moved on to
the normal children of the slums.
Thereafter, by her own desire and
.:by publi^Srcmand, she was an edu-
'; _ cator, not a medical doctor.
Montessori's insights and methods
are contained in four basic texts,
now republished: THE MONTESS-'ORI
METHOD, SPONTANEOUS ACTIVITY IN
EDUCATION (The Advanced Montes-
sori Method, volume 1), THE MON-
TESSORI ELEMENTARY MATERIAL
<_.^rt .- t- - - -. »•
(The Advanced Montessori Method,
volume 2), and DR. MONTESSORI'S
OWN HANDBOOK.
BASIC MONTESSORI BOOKS
THE MONTESSORI METHOD, by Maria
Montessori. Introduction by Martin
Mayer. The education of children
from 3 to 6. With all the original
photographs. 50 photos/figures. 448
pages. $6.50
SPONTANEOUS ACTIVITY IN EDUCATION,
by Maria Montessori. The Advanced
Montessori Method, volume 1. The
education of children from 7 to 11.
384 pages. ,£.. _ $6A*«
THE MONTESSORI ELEMENTARY MATE-
RIAL, by Maria Montessori. The Ad-
vanced Montessori Method, volume 2.
The education of children from 7 to
11. 116 photos/figures. 512 pages.
$8.50
DR. MONTESSORI'S OWN HANDBOOK,
by Maria Montessori. 43 photos/
figures plus 1 four-color photo. 170
pages. $5.00
MONTESSORI FOR PARENTS, by Dorothy
Canfield Fisher. 20 photos plus 1 four-
color photo. 288 pages. $5.95
•
THE MONTESSORI MANUAL FOR
TEACHERS AND. PARENTS, by Dorothy
Canfield Fisher. Practical exercises
and lessons on the use of the ap-
paratus in homes and schools, nature
study, and an extended discussion on
Montessori discipline and obedience.
15 photos plus 1 four-color photo. 154
pages. 45.00
T3
o
o
r
ra
c
ao
'55
a)
T5
o
ID
.1
ROBERT BENTLEY, INC.
18 PLEASANT STREET, CAMBRIDGE, MASSACHUSETTS 02139
Live Music Archive
Librivox Free Audio
Metropolitan Museum
Cleveland Museum of Art
Internet Arcade
Console Living Room
Books to Borrow
Open Library
TV News
Understanding 9/11