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moo; 


1EOLOGY 


FROM-THE-  LIBRARY-OF 
TRINITYCOLLEGETORONTO 


MORAL  THEOLOGY 
III 


A  HANDBOOK 
OF  MORAL  THEOLOGY 

Vol.  I.  Introduction :  Definition,  Scope,  Ob 
ject,  Sources,  Methods,  History,  and  Litera 
ture  of  Moral  Theology. — Morality,  its  Sub 
ject,  Norm,  and  Object,  iv  and  293  pp. 
#7.50  net. 

Vol.  II.  Sin  and  the  Means  of  Grace,  vi  and 
230  pp.  $7.50  net. 

Vol.  III.  Man's  Duties  to  Himself,  iv  and 
183  pp.  $2.00  net. 

Vol.  IV.  Man's  Duties  to  God.  vi  and 
423  pp.  $2.50  net. 

Vol.  V.  Man's  Duties  to  His  Fellowmen. 
viii  and  624  pp.  $3.00  net. 


A  HANDBOOK  OF 
MORAL  THEOLOGY 


Based  on  the  "Lehrbuch  der  Moraltheologie"  of  the  late 

ANTONY  KOCH,  D.D. 

Professor  of  Theology  in  the  University  of  Tubingen 


BY 

ARTHUR  PREUSS 


VOLUME  m 

MAN'S  DUTIES  TO  HIMSELF 

THIRD,  REVISED  EDITION 


B.    HERDER    BOOK   CO., 

15  &  17  SOUTH  BROADWAY,  ST.  LOUIS,  MO., 

AND 
33   QUEEN   SQUARE,     LONDON,  W.  C. 

1926 


ALL  RIGHTS  RESERVED 
Printed  in  U.  S.  A. 

NIHIL  OBSTAT 

Sti.  Ludovici,  die  28.  Aug.  1926, 

Joannes  Rothensteiner 

Censor  Librorum 

IMPRIMATUR 

Sti.  Ludovici,  die  30.  Aug.  1926, 

>J»  Joannes  J.  Glennon, 

Archiepiscopus 

Copyright,  1919 
by  JOSEPH  GUMMERSBACH 

First  Edition,  1919 
Second  Edition,  1920 
Third  Edition,  1926 


Tail-BaUou  Press,  Inc.,  Binghamton  and  Ntw  York 

W     1  6  1946 


CONTENTS 

PAGE 

INTRODUCTION i 

PART  I.  INDIVIDUAL  OR  PERSONAL  DUTIES 4 

CH.  I.  Nature  and  Obligation  of  Christian  Self-Love  .  .  4 

CH.  II.  The  Moral  Significance  of  the  Body 9 

CH.  III.  The  Care  of  the  Body 21 

CH.  IV.  Negative  Duties  in  Regard  to  Life  and  Health  .  74 

CH.  V.  Positive  Duties  in  Regard  to  Life  and  Health  .  .  86 

CH.  VI.  The  Duty  of  Developing  the  Mind 101 

PART  II.  VOCATIONAL  DUTIES 112 

CH.  I.  Choice  of  a  Vocation  and  Faithful  Perseverance  in 

the   Chosen   Vocation 112 

§  I.  Choice  of  a  Vocation 112 

§  2.  Faithful  Perseverance  in  the  Chosen  Vocation  .     .118 
§  3.  Sins   against  Vocation 121 

CH.  II.  The  Duty  of  Labor 124 

§  i.  Labor  as  a  Natural  Necessity 125 

§  2.  Labor  as  a  Moral  Obligation 130 

§  3.  Labor  as  a  Religious  Duty 132 

§  4.  Manual  and  Intellectual  Labor,  and  Recreation  .     .136 

CH.  III.  Right    and    Duty    of    Acquiring   and    Possessing 

Property 143 

CH.  IV.  Duties  in  Regard  to  Honor 164 

§  i.  Notion  and  Value  of  Honor 164 

§  2.  The  Duty  of  Preserving  Honor 168 

INDEX I79 


INTRODUCTION 

In  the  two  preceding  volumes  of  this  Handbook 
we  dealt  with  the  general  principles  of  Moral 
Theology  (Theologia  Moralis  Generalis).  We 
must  now  show  how  these  general  principles  are 
to  be  applied  to  man's  conduct  as  an  individual 
and  as  a  member  of  society  (Theologia  Moralis 
Specialis). 

The  will  of  God  is  the  supreme  and  ultimate 
source  of  all  obligation  (supremus  debendi  titu- 
lus).  Hence,  strictly  speaking,  man  has  but  one 
duty,  namely,  to  obey  the  divine  law.  This  law, 
according  to  St.  Paul,  "is  charity,  from  a  pure 
heart,  and  a  good  conscience,  and  an  unfeigned 
faith."1  St.  Gregory  the  Great  says:  "The 
commandments  one  and  all  spring  solely  from 
love,  and  together  constitute  a  single  precept, 
because  whatever  is  commanded,  is  founded 
upon  charity."2  And  St.  Thomas  Aquinas: 
"All  the  commandments  are  fulfilled  in  the  one 
law  of  charity."  3 

1  i   Tim.   I,   5.  sola     caritate     solidatur."       (Migne. 

2  Horn,     in     Erang.,     27,     n.     i:        P.  L.,  LXXVI,   1205). 

"Omne  mandatum  de  sola  dilectione  &  Comment,  ad  Gal.,  c.   5,  lect.   3: 

est,     et     omnia     iinnm     praeceptum        "Oninia     [praecepta]     in    uno    prae- 
sunt,    quia,    quidquid   praecipitur,    in        cepto     caritatis     implentur." — IDEM, 


2  INTRODUCTION 

This  one  supreme  law  embodies  a  vast  number 
of  particular  precepts,  of  which  some  oblige  man 
to  perform  acts  referring  directly  to  God,  while 
others  enjoin  acts  that  refer  to  Him  only  in  an 
indirect  way,  their  direct  end  being  either  some 
external  object,  or  man  himself,  or  his  fellow- 
men. 

The  division  of  duties  just  mentioned  is  identi 
cal  with  that  contained  in  the  Decalogue.  The 
first  three  commandments  embody  man's  duties 
to  God;  the  following  five,  his  duties  to  his  fel- 
lowmen;  the  last  two,  his  duties  to  himself. 

We  arrive  at  the  same  partition  if  we  consider 
the  divine  commandment  of  charity  as  obliging  us 
to  love,  (a)  God,  (b)  our  neighbor,  and  (c)  our 
selves,4  and  if  we  ponder  the  Apostle's  exhorta 
tion  to  "live  soberly,  and  justly,  and  godly."  5 

Man  is  both  an  individual  and  a  member  of 
society,  and  hence  his  duties  appertain  to  two 
different  spheres.  The  three  classes  of  obliga 
tions  mentioned,  therefore,  may  be  considered 
from  two  distinct  points  of  view,  namely,  (a) 
that  of  the  individual  and  (b)  that  of  society. 

We  may  accordingly  divide  all  man's  duties 
into  three  separate  series,  with  two  subdivisions 
each,  to  wit: 

De    Perfect.     Vitae    Spir.,    c.     12:       5)."— Cfr.   Summo  Thtol.,   2a,   ate, 
"Finis  cuiuslibet  praecepti  est  cari-       qu.    189,  art.   I,  ad  5. 
tas,  ut  dicit  Apostolus   (i   Tim.,  I,          4  Cfr.   Matt.   XXII,  37-39. 

6  Tit.  II,   12. 


INTRODUCTION  3 

I.  Individual  or  personal  duties,  which  man 
owes  to  himself    (self-love  or  self-discipline — 
sobrietas) ;  more  particularly. 

1.  The  care  for  his  bodily  and  spiritual  wel 
fare; 

2.  The  obligations  arising  from  his  vocation, 
occupation,  and  position  in  life. 

II.  Religious   duties,   which   a   man  owes   to 
God  (charity,  piety — pietas) ;  particularly, 

1.  Individual  obligations  towards  God; 

2.  Religious  duties  arising  from  one's  position 
as  a  member  of  society. 

III.  Social  duties,  which  a  man  owes  to  his  fel- 
lowmen  in  justice  (iustitia)  or  in  charity,  either 

1.  As  an  individual  toward  other  individuals; 
or 

2.  As  an  individual  toward  society. 

To  these  three  principal  heads  of  duty  we  will 
devote  the  remaining  volumes  of  this  Hand 
book. 

The  present  (Volume  III  of  the  whole  Series) 
treats  of  Man's  Individual  and  Personal  Duties; 
particularly  (Part  I)  The  Care  for  His  Bodily 
and  Spiritual  Welfare,  and  (Part  II)  The  Obliga 
tions  Arising  from  His  Vocation,  Occupation, 
and  Position  in  Life. 


PART  I 

INDIVIDUAL  OR  PERSONAL 
DUTIES 

CHAPTER  I 

NATURE   AND   OBLIGATION    OF    CHRISTIAN 
SELF-LOVE 

i.  NATURE  OF  CHRISTIAN  SELF-LOVE. — The 
duties  which  man  owes  to  himself  may  be  sum 
marized  in  the  proposition  that  he  is  obliged  to 
love  himself. 

Self-love  is  so  powerful  an  instinct  of  nature 
that  it  is  impossible  for  man  to  act  without  it. 
Self-love  not  only  follows  logically  from  the 
universal  commandment  of  charity,  but  is  ex 
pressly  inculcated  in  Holy  Scripture  as  the  stand 
ard  and  measure  of  that  chiefest  of  all  virtues. 
Matt.  VII,  12:  "All  things  therefore  whatso 
ever  you  would  that  men  should  do  to  you,  do  you 
also  to  them."  Matt.  XXII,  39:  'The  second 

4 


CHRISTIAN  SELF-LOVE  5 

[commandment]  is  like  to  this :  Thou  shalt  love 
thy  neighbor  as  thyself."  l 

The  second  Commandment  inculcates  self-love, 
not  in  the  sense  of  that  innate  disposition  by 
which  man  seeks  his  own  gratification,  welfare, 
and  advancement,  but  as  a  moral  virtue. 

Self-love  as  a  natural  instinct  is  not  capable  of 
governing  man's  conduct  so  as  to  enable  him  to 
attain  its  object,  i.  e.,  self-preservation.  More 
over,  in  the  debased  state  in  which  humanity 
unhappily  exists  since  the  fall  of  Adam  and  Eve, 
this  natural  instinct  is  perverted  and  tends  away 
from,  rather  than  towards,  man's  true  end;  in 
fact  it  has  degenerated  into  inordinate  selfishness, 
which,  in  the  words  of  St.  Thomas,  is  "the  cause 
of  all  sin,"  2  because  it  leads  to  covetousness, 
pride,  blasphemy,  disobedience,  ingratitude,  in- 
continency,  and  many  other  vices.3 

Although  the  moral  virtue  of  self-love  derives 

1  Cfr.  St.  Augustine,  De  Doctrina  3:   "Proximus  sum  egomet  mihi." 
Christiana,  I,  c.  25,  n.  26:     "Modus  ~  Sumina    Theol.,    la    2ae,    qu.    77, 

dtligendi    praecipiendus    est    homini,  art.    4:      "Inordinatus   amor  sui   est 

id  est,  quomodo  se  diligat,  ut  prosit  causa    omnis   peccati." 
sibi.     Quin  autem  se  diligat   et  pro-  3  Cfr.    2   Tim.    Ill,    1-3. — Cfr.    St. 

desse    sibi    velit,    dubitare    dementis  Augustine,  De  Civ.  Dei,  XIV,  c.  28: 

est." — Ibid.,    c.    26,    n.    27:      "Quum  "Fecerunt      civitates     duas     amores 

praecurrat  dilectio  Dei  eiusque  dilec-  duo,   terrenam  scilicet  amor  sui  us- 

tionis    modus    praescriptus    appareat,  que    ad   contemptum    Dei,    caelestem 

ita  ut  cetera  in  ilium  confluant,   de  vero    amor   Dei    usque    ad    contemp- 

dilectione   tua  nihil   dictum   videtur ;  turn    sui.     Deniqiie    ilia    in    se    ipsa, 

sed  quum  dictum  est,  'Diliges  proxi-  haec      in      Domino      gloriatur.     Ilia 

mum  tuum  tamquam  teipsum,'  simul  enim   quaerit  ab   hominibus  gloriam, 

et    tui   abs    te   dilectio   non   praeter-  huic  autem  Deus   conscientiae  testis 

missa  est."     (Migne,  P.  L.,  XXXIV,  maxima     est     gloria."     (Migne,      P. 

28   sq.).— Cfr.    Terence,    Andr.,    IV,  L.,   XLI,   436). 


6  INDIVIDUAL  DUTIES 

its  rule  from  the  law  of  God,  yet  it  is  based  upon 
or  rooted  in  an  instinct  of  nature. 

Christian  self-love,  therefore,  is  a  virtue  op 
posed  to  selfishness  and  necessarily  involves  self- 
denial.  "If  any  man  come  to  me,"  says  our  Di 
vine  Saviour,  "and  hate  not  his  father,  and 
mother,  and  wife,  and  children,  and  brethren,  and 
sisters,  yea  and  his  own  life  also,  he  cannot  be 
my  disciple."  4  And  again :  "He  that  loveth  his 
life  shall  lose  it ;  and  he  that  hateth  his  life  in  this 
world,  keepeth  it  unto  life  eternal."  5 

To  love  oneself,  therefore,  in  the  Christian  and 
Catholic  sense  of  the  term,  means  to  combat 
selfishness  and  to  seek  the  glory  of  God  rather 
than  one's  own  gratification. 

Two  corollaries  flow  from  this  proposition, 
namely: 

a)  Man  is  not  his  own  master,  but  has  con 
trol  over  his  actions  only  in  so  far  as  he  does  not 
violate  the  divine  order ; 

b)  He  is  in  duty  bound  to  regulate  his  conduct 
so  as  to  be  enabled  to  reach  his  divinely  ap 
pointed   end    (bonum),   and  hence   must   avoid 
whatever  is  opposed  to  that  end  (malum). 

2.  THE  DUTIES  ARISING  FROM  CHRISTIAN 
SELF-LOVE. — The  principal  duty  that  springs 
from  Christian  self-love  is  that  of  preserving 
one's  intellectual  and  moral  personality.  This 

4  Luke  XIV,  26.  B  John   XII,  25. 


CHRISTIAN  SELF-LOVE  7 

means  that  every  man  must  provide  properly  for 
the  salvation  of  his  soul  and  the  welfare  of  his 
body.  The  moral  and  religious  life  knows  no 
standstill,  and  hence  every  Catholic  is  in  duty 
bound  so  to  exert  his  mental  and  physical  facul 
ties  as  to  reach  what  St.  Paul  calls  "the  meas 
ure  of  the  age  of  the  fulness  of  Christ,"  6  and 
thus,  by  developing  his  personality,  to  achieve 
both  his  temporal  and  eternal  destiny. 

This  constant  striving  after  perfection  is  a  duty 
which  none  may  shirk  and  which,  in  importance 
and  binding  force,  surpasses  even  the  obligations 
we  owe  to  our  fellowmen.  "For  what  doth  it 
profit  a  man,  if  he  gain  the  whole  world,  and  suf 
fer  the  loss  of  his  own  soul  ?"  7 

"To  govern  oneself,"  says  Seneca,  "is  to  exer 
cise  the  highest  dominion."  8 

The  virtue  of  Christian  self-love  inspires  true 
self-respect  because  it  is  based  on  self-knowledge, 
humility,  and  a  sincere  desire  to  save  one's  soul 
and  keep  the  body  efficient  for  the  attainment  of 

6  Eph.    IV,    13.— Cfr.    St.   Jerome,  552).— IDEM,   In  Epist.  ad  Gal.,  II, 

Epist.,    54    (a/.    10),   n.    6:    "Arripe,  c.   4:     "Beatus  qui  ambulat  in  vir- 

quaeso,  occasionem  et  fac  de  neces-  tutum  via,  sed  si  ad  virtutes  usque 

sitate  virtutetn.     Non  quaeruntur  in  pervenerit.     Nee  prodest  a  vitiis  re- 

christianis   initia,   sed   finis.     Paulus  cessisse,   nisi   optima   comprehendas. 

male  coepit,  sed  bene  finivit.     ludae  Quia  non   tarn   initia  sunt  in   bonii 

laudantur    exordia,    sed    finis   prodi-  studiis    laudanda    qttam    finis."     (P. 

tione   damnatur.      Lege   Ezechielem:  L.,  XXVI,  381). 
iMStitia  iusti  non   liberabit  eum,   in  7  Matt.   XVI,   26. — Cfr.  A.   Lehm- 

quacunqve    die    peccaverit.      Et   im-  kuhl,  S.  J.,  Casus  Conscientiae,  Vol. 

pietas  impii  non  nocebit  ei,  in  qua-  I,   3rd  ed.,  n.   376. 
cunque  die   conversus  fuerit  ab  im-  S  Epist.,   113,  30:     "Imperare  sibi 

pietate  sua."     (Migne,  P.  L.,  XXII,  maximum  imperium   est." 


8  INDIVIDUAL  DUTIES 

its  highest  purpose  by  practicing  temperance, 
diligence,  and  economy. 

Opposed  to  self-love  are,  on  the  one  hand,  ex 
aggerated  self-esteem,  selfishness,  and  egotism, 
which  are  destructive  of  charity,  and,  on  the 
other,  disregard  for  the  dignity  of  human  na 
ture,  indifference  to  spiritual  things,  and  par 
ticularly  that  unnatural  hatred  of  self  which 
results  from  a  wicked  life  and  is  almost  in 
variably  coupled  with  contempt  for  virtue,  nay 
for  God  Himself,  finally  culminating  in  that  ter 
rible  sin  which  in  a  previous  volume  has  been  de 
scribed  as  "diabolical."  9 

"He  that  loveth  iniquity  hateth  his  own  soul," 
says  the  Psalmist ; 10  and  the  angel  told  Tobias : 
"  They  that  commit  sin  and  iniquity  are  enemies 
to  their  own  soul."  " 

READINGS.— H.  Noldin,  S.J.,  Summa  Theologiae  Moralis,  Vol. 
II,  nth  ed.,  pp.  72  sqq.,  Innsbruck  1914.— Th.  Meyer,  S.J.,  Insti- 
tutiones  luris  Naturalis,  Vol.  II,  n.  29-47,  Freiburg  1900. — Aug. 
Lehmkuhl,  S.J.,  Theologia  Moralis,  Vol.  I,  nth  edition,  pp.  400 
sqq.,  Freiburg  1910.— V.  Cathrein,  S.J.,  Moralphilosophie,  4th  ed., 
Vol.  II,  pp.  46  sqq.,  Freiburg  1904. — E.  Miiller,  Theologia  Moralis, 
7th  ed.,  Vol.  II,  pp.  86  sqq.,  Vienna  1894.— F.  A.  Gopfert,  Moral- 
theologie,  Vol.  II,  6th  ed.,  pp.  i  sqq.,  Paderborn  1909. 

»  Koch-Preuss,  Handbook  of  Moral  10  Ps.  X,  6. 

Theology,  Vol.  II,  pp.  91  sqq.  11  Tob.  XII,  10. 


CHAPTER  II 

THE  MORAL  SIGNIFICANCE  OF  THE  BODY 

i.  THE  CHRISTIAN  VIEW  OF  THE  BODY. — The 
Catholic  Church  in  her  ethical  teaching  avoids 
two  false  extremes:  she  neither  undervalues  the 
body,  nor  does  she  overestimate  it. 

a)  Against  what  we  may  term  false  Spiritual 
ism  the  Church  upholds  the  value  and  im 
portance  of  the  material  element  in  man.  She 
teaches  that  the  human  body  is  superior  to  the 
bodies  of  all  other  creatures  because  it  was  di 
rectly  created  by  God  and  is  (not  so  much 
the  prison  as)  the  organ  of  an  immortal  soul.1 
Through  the  body  the  soul  exerts  its  activity  and 
comes  into  contact  with  the  material  universe. 
In  and  through  the  body  man  exercises  control 
over  the  lower  creatures  2  and  communicates  with 
his  fellowmen.  There  could  be  no  social  inter 
course  if  men  had  no  material  bodies. 

The  human  body  was  raised  to  its  true  dignity 
when  the  Son  of  God  was  made  flesh  and  suffered 

1  Cfr.    Saint    Cyril    of   Jerusalem,  onerat,    ant    certe    iuvat   et   minime 

Catech.,    IV,    c.    23    (Migne,   P.    G.,  onerat.     Primus     status     laboriosus, 

XXXIII,   484). — Saint  Bernard,   De  sed  fructuosus,  secundus  otiosus,  sed 

Diligendo     Deo,     XI,     n.     30     sq. :  minime   fastidiosus,    tertius  et  glori- 

"Bonus   plane   fidusque    comes    caro  osus."     (Migne,  P.  L.,  CLXXXVII, 

spiritui    bono,     quae    ipsum    out    si  993). 

onerat,  iuvat,  out  si  won  iuvat,   ex-  2  Gen.  I,  25. 
9 


io  INDIVIDUAL  DUTIES 

and  died  to  redeem  men  from  sin  and  its  conse 
quences.  With  the  same  body  that  endured  the 
death  agony  on  the  cross,  Christ  rose  from  the 
grave,  ascended  into  Heaven,  and  now  sits  at 
the  right  hand  of  God  the  Father,  whence  He  shall 
come  to  judge  the  living  and  the  dead. 

Through  the  instrumentality  of  the  Sacra 
ments  the  body,  having  been  redeemed  by  Christ, 
participates  in  the  graces  of  the  atonement  and 
thereby  becomes  a  temple  of  the  Holy  Ghost,3 
destined  to  rise  again  after  death  and  to  be  for 
ever  transfigured  in  Heaven.  Hence  every 
Christian  is  in  duty  bound  not  to  "yield  his  mem 
bers  as  instruments  of  iniquity  unto  sin,  but  to 
present  them  "as  instruments  of  justice  unto 
God."  4 

b)  The  Catholic  view  of  the  body  differs  also 
from  that  of  the  Materialists,  who  unduly  exalt, 
nay  fairly  worship,  the  flesh.  The  Church  values 
the  body  only  in  connection  with,  and  as  ennobled 
by,  the  spirit,  and  commands  it  to  be  mortified. 
"Put  ye  on  the  Lord  Jesus  Christ,  and  make  not 
provision  for  the  flesh  in  its  concupiscence."  5 
"Mortify  therefore  your  members  which  are 
upon  the  earth;  fornication,  uncleanness,  lust, 
evil  concupiscence,  and  covetousness,  which  is  the 
service  of  idols."  8 

8  i    Cor.    Ill,    16.  5  Rom.  XIII,  14. 

4  Rom.  VI,  13;  cfr.  19;  j  Cor.  VI,  e  Col    III,  5  sqq. 

13,  20. 


SIGNIFICANCE  OF  THE  BODY  n 

To  mortify  the  body  does  not,  of  course,  mean 
to  kill  or  maim  it,  but  merely  to  subdue  its  sensual 
inclinations,  so  that  it  may  become  a  fit  compan 
ion  for  the  spiritual  and  immortal  soul — "bonus 
plane  fidusque  comes  spiritui  bono"  as  St. 
Bernard  calls  it,7 — and  that  it  may  be  gradually 
prepared  for  its  final  transfiguration  in  Heaven. 

2.  LIFE. — Of  even  greater  value  than  the  body 
is  life. 

a)  Life  ranks  first  among  the  blessings  of  the 
natural  order  because  it  is  the  foundation  and  an 
indispensable  condition  of  all  the  rest.  Accord 
ing  to  revelation,  man's  life  on  earth  is  intended  as 
a  preparation  for  the  life  eternal  in  Heaven.  It 
is  the  period  of  sowing  for  the  great  harvest; 8  the 
day  assigned  for  laboring  in  the  vineyard  of  the 
Master ; 9  the  time  appointed  for  trading  with 
the  God-given  talents,10  for  running  the  race  and 
competing  for  the  grand  prize.11  Again  and 
again  Holy  Scripture  tells  us,  "What  things  a 
man  shall  sow,  those  also  shall  he  reap,"  L2  and, 
"We  have  not  here  a  lasting  city,"  but  should 
"seek  one  that  is  to  come."  13  If  this  terrestrial 
journey  forms  but  a  moment,  as  it  were,  of  our 
total  existence,  which  is  for  the  most  part  to  be 
spent  in  the  world  beyond,  then  that  moment  is 

7  See  note   i,  supra,  p.   9-  9  Matt.   XX,    1-16. 

8  Luke    XII,    23.— Cfr.    V.    Cath-  10  Matt.    XXV,    14-30. 
rein,    S.    J.,    Moralphilosophie,    Vol.             11  i    Cor.   IX,  24   sq. 

I,   Freiburg    1911,    sth   ed.,    pp.    119  122    Cor.    IX,    6;    Gal.    VI,   8   tq. 

•qq.  13  Heb.   XIII,   14- 


12  INDIVIDUAL  DUTIES 

extremely  precious,  and  every  fraction  thereof 
possesses  incalculable  value  for  the  welfare  of  the 
soul.  What  Christ  said  of  Himself  applies  in  a 
measure  to  every  man :  "I  must  work  the  works 
of  Him  that  sent  me,  whilst  it  is  day:  the  night 
cometh,  when  no  man  can  work."  14 

b)  Life  being  a  gift  of  such  immense  value, 
we  are  in  duty  bound  to  cherish  it ;  or,  as  St.  Paul 
says,  we  must  "redeem  the  time."  15 

«)  Hence  no  man  is  allowed  to  destroy  or  cur 
tail  his  life,  even  though  it  may  have  become  a 
burden  and  is  seemingly  of  no  further  value.  By 
the  aid  of  divine  grace  all  temporal  adversities 
and  sufferings  can  be  borne,  nay  made  productive 
of  supernatural  glory.  A  life  of  suffering  is  not 
necessarily  useless,  but  may  be  rendered  highly 
meritorious  by  prayer,  patience,  and  a  good  ex 
ample,  and  thus  become  beneficial  to  the  afflicted 
individual  as  well  as  to  the  entire  human  race. 
He  who  has  to  suffer  much  should  frequently  rec- 

14  John   IX,   4. — Cfr.    St.    Jerome,  cantet  Ecclesia  (Ps.   C,  i).     Tempus 

Comment,    in    Evang.    S.    Matth.,    1.  est   misericordiae,   age   poenitentiam. 

IV,      c.      25:     "Post     iudicii     diem  Tempore   iudicii  illam    luibes   agere? 

bonorum     operum     et    iustitiae     oc-  Eris  in   virginibus  illis,   contra  quas 

casio     non      relinquitur."     (P.      L.,  clausum       est       ostium."     (P.       L., 

XXVI,  185).— St.  Augustine,  Serm.,  XXXVIII,   579). 

93    (a/.    De    Verbis   Domini,    23),   c.  15  Eph.      V,       16;       Rom.       XIII, 

10,   n.    16:    "Dictum   est,  verum   est,  13    sq.;    Col.    IV,    5. — Cfr.    St.    Au- 

non    fallaciter    dictum    est:    'Pulsate  gustine,     Serm.,     16      (al.     I     inter 

et   aperietur   vobis'    (Matt.    VII,    7),  Homil.,  50),  n.  2;  Serm.,   17   (al.  28 

sed  modo  quando  tempus  est  miseri-  inter   Horn.,    50),    n.    7;    Serm.,    167 

cordiae,     non     quando     tempus     est  (al.    24    De     Verbis    Apost.),    n.    3 

iudicii.     Non      enim     possunt     con-  (Migne,  P.  L.,  XXXVIII,   122,   138, 

fundi    ista    tempera*,     quam    miseri-  910). 
cordiam    et    indicium    Domino    suo 


SIGNIFICANCE  OF  THE  BODY  13 

ommend  himself  to  God,  practice  the  virtue  of 
resignation,  cultivate  good  cheer,  and  never 
lose  hope.16  Like  St.  Paul,  he  should  offer  the 
tribulations  which  he  suffers  "in  the  flesh"  for 
the  purpose  of  "filling  up  those  things  that  are 
wanting  of  the  sufferings  of  Christ."  17  Illness 
and  suffering  are  by  no  means  always  a  punish 
ment  for  personal  sins.18  Oftentimes  they  are 
graces  in  disguise,  given  by  a  merciful  God  to 
enable  man  to  train  his  soul  for  Heaven.  "Suf 
ferings  are  lessons,"  runs  an  old  saw,19  but  they 
are  also,  in  the  words  of  a  modern  poet,  favors 
from  on  high.20  When  borne  for  the  love  of 
God,  "tribulation  worketh  patience,  and  patience 
trial,  and  trial  hope;  and  hope  confoundeth  not: 
because  the  charity  of  God  is  poured  forth  in  our 
hearts  by  the  Holy  Ghost,  who  is  given  to  us."  21 

16  Matth.    XVI,    24;    XXVI,    39,  St.    Augustine,    Confess.,    1.    II,    c. 
42;      i      Pet.      IV,      22      sqq. — Cfr.  2,    n.    4:     "Domine,    qui    fingis    do- 
Horace,  Carmina,  II,  3,  i:  "Aequam  lorem     in     praecepto     (Ps.      XCIII, 
memento     rebus    in    arduis    servare  20),   et  percutis,  ul  sanes,  et  occidis 
mentem." — Seneca,      Ep.,      78,      20:  nos,  ne  moriamnr  abs   te."      (P.   L., 
"Quid    porro?     Nihil    agere    te    ere-  XXXII,     677). — IDEM,    Enarrat.    in 
dis,     si    temperans    aeger    sis?     Os-  Psalmos,   LXVIII,   s.   2,  n.    i:     "  Et 
tendes    morbum    posse    superan    vel  quando  Dominus  permittit  aut  facit, 
certe     sustineri.     Est,     mihi     crede,  itt  in  tribulatione  aliqua  simns,  etiam 
virtuti  etiam  in  lectulo  locus."  tune  misericors  est."     (Migne,  P.  L., 

17  Col.   I,   24.  XXXVI,  854).— Seneca,  De  Provid., 

18  Matt.  IX,  2;  Mark  II,  5;  Luke  II,     2:       "Omnia     adversa     [bonus 
XIII,    1-5;  John   IX,    1-3.  fir]      exercitationes     putat."— IDEM, 

i»  UaerifjLara  ^aO-fitiara.  ibid.,    V,    9=     "Ignis   aurum   probat, 

20  Luise     Hensel:     "Leiden     sind  misericordia     fortes      i>\ros." — Ovid, 

Gnaden."—Clr.    Ecclus.    II,    3    sqq.;  Trist.,     V,     3,     75  =     "Hectora     guts 

Phil.   I,  29;   i   Pet.  I,   17;  Heb.  XII,  nosset,    si  felix   Troia   fuissetf'—'P. 

7-1 1. — St.      Ambrose,     Expositio     in  W.    v.     Keppler,    Das    Problem    des 

Evang.  sec.  Lucam,  1.   IV,  c.  41    (v.  Leidens,  2nd   ed.,   pp.    12  sqq. 

Koch-Preuss,    A    Manual    of    Moral  21  Rom.  V,  3  sqq. 
Theology,  Vol.  II,  p.  38,  n.  n.    Cfr. 


14  INDIVIDUAL  DUTIES 

"We  suffer  with  Christ,  that  we  may  be  also  glori 
fied  with  him.  For  I  reckon  that  the  sufferings 
of  this  time  are  not  worthy  to  be  compared  with 
the  glory  to  come,  that  shall  be  revealed  in  us."  22 
Thus,  suffering  may  be  made  a  source  of  joy. 
"In  much  experience  of  tribulation,"  says  the 
Apostle,  "they  have  abundance  of  joy."  23 

"The  cross  with  its  stern  lines,"  writes  Bishop  Keppler, 
"a  cold,  bare,  branchless  tree  with  rough-hewn  stumps 
for  arms,  is  indeed  at  first  sight  a  sad  and  joyless  thing 
to  look  at,  so  true  an  image  is  it  of  harsh  contradiction, 
so  good  a  symbol  of  bitter  pain.  Yet  men  find  that  the 
cross  possesses  a  certain  beauty.  In  its  sturdy,  clear- 
cut,  well-proportioned  form  they  see  a  picture  of  stead 
fastness,  of  aspiring  effort,  of  opposition  conquered  and 
contradictories  reconciled.  The  sight  of  a  man  hanging 
in  agony  upon  the  cross  arouses,  at  first,  no  sense  of  joy, 
it  is  true.  Yet  there  is  a  wellspring  of  joy  in  the  sure 
faith  that  the  Divine  Hero  bleeding  on  the  cross  is  dying 
in  the  battle  against  the  fiercest  foe  of  joy  and  of  salva 
tion,  and  conquering  as  He  dies.  The  cross  becomes  the 
symbol  of  victory  and  thereby  the  symbol  of  joy.  Dark 
ness  and  gloom  are  dispelled  and  everywhere  is  shed  the 
glory  of  the  Resurrection.  In  its  light,  the  tree  of  the 
cross  becomes  the  tree  of  life,  of  resistless  power;  the 
dried  trunk  is  clothed  with  blossoms  and  fruit ;  and  out 
of  the  crown  of  thorns  spring  forth  roses.  Thus  also 
is  it  with  the  cross  and  the  crucifixion  in  the  life  of 
each  individual  Christian.  That  a  man  should  take  up 
his  cross  daily;  that  he  should  not  only  bear  his  cross, 
but  crucify  the  flesh,  the  old  man — these  are  not  forced 

22  Rom.   VIII,   17.  282    Cor.    VIII,    2;    cfr.    Jas.    I, 

2-4;   i   Pet.   I,   6-9;    IV,   i  a  sq. 


SIGNIFICANCE  OF  THE  BODY  15 

figures  of  speech,  but  stern  demands  which  certainly  do 
seem  likely  to  lead  far  away  from  joy.  Yet  the  battle  to 
which  they  summon  is  waged  not  against  joy,  but  against 
joy's  worst  enemies.  The  cross  obliges  us  to  renounce 
the  apples  of  Sodom,  the  wild  cherries  of  sin,  which  are 
really  no  joys  at  all,  but  it  does  not  demand  a  total  re 
nunciation  of  legitimate  natural  joys;  it  only  insists  that 
they  be  used  in  moderation  and  with  a  good  inten 
tion.  Excessive  enjoyment  always  begets  disgust. 
Unrestricted  activity  and  gratification  of  the  sensual  in 
stincts  does  not  add  to  the  sum  of  joy,  but  ruins  both 
joy  and  the  man;  it  sins  not  only  against  morality  but 
against  hygiene,  which  is  to-day  sometimes  regarded  as 
the  supreme  standard.  A  life  'beyond  good  and  evil,' 
— to  use  Nietzsche's  phrase — unscrupulous  poaching, 
complete  loosing  of  the  wild,  natural  instincts,  whose 
advocate,  protector,  and  prophet  Nietzsche  was  unwill 
ingly  degraded  into  becoming  by  his  less  worthy  dis 
ciples,  the  feeling  of  'the  beast  of  prey  within  man,  the 
fair,  ravenous,  blond  beast,  lusting  for  prey  and  con 
quest,' — all  this  does  not  enrich,  gladden,  deepen,  nor 
sweeten  life.  It  delivers  life  over  to  the  most  wretched 
languor,  to  the  hospital,  the  madhouse,  to  suicide, — 
'those  graves  of  lust,' 24  so  numerous  in  the  world  to 
day."  25 

Even  Goethe  realized  that  the  spirit  of  austerity  and 
self-sacrifice  alone  can  provide  the  proper  basis  for  a 
healthy,  happy,  cheerful  life : 

If  thou  hast  not  part 

In  death  as  well  as  birth, 
A  sorry  guest  thou  art 

Upon  the  gloomy  earth. 

24  Numb.  XI,  34-  (tr.  by  Jos.   McSorley,   C.S.P.),  pp. 

26  P.  W.  von  Keppler,  More  Joy,       76  sqq.,  St.   Louis   1914. 


16  INDIVIDUAL  DUTIES 

"Man  must  die  in  order  to  grow.  He  must  renounce 
selfishness,  for  it  makes  him  poorer,  not  richer,  and 
especially  poorer  in  joy."  26 

"Nothing,"  says  a  contemporary  Protestant  writer, 
"shuts  in  a  life  and  shuts  out  satisfaction  and  joy  like 
the  self-considering  temper  and  the  self-centered  aim. 
Such  a  life,  though  it  may  seem  to  itself  self -developing, 
is  in  fact  self-deceived.  Instead  of  growing  richer  in  its 
resources,  it  finds  itself  growing  poorer.  The  more  it 
cultivates  itself,  the  more  sterile  it  grows;  the  more  it 
accumulates,  the  less  it  has;  the  more  it  saves,  the  more 
it  is  lost."  27 

/?)  To  long  inordinately  for  death  is  con 
trary  to  the  Christian  concept  of  life,  its  value 
and  purpose.  The  "desire  to  be  dissolved  and 
be  with  Christ,"  which  St.  Paul  extols  as  "by  far 
the  better  thing,"  28  must  spring  from  an  abso 
lutely  pure  motive  and  be  accompanied  by  com 
plete  resignation  to  the  will  of  God.  To  wish  for 
death  in  order  to  escape  the  dangers,  vicissitudes, 
and  tribulations  of  this  earthly  "vale  of  tears,"  is 
opposed  to  the  teaching  of  Christ.29  Life  is  a 
precious  gift  which  should  be  conscientiously 
employed.30  Though  time  is  short,  it  is  of  suf 
ficient  duration  to  enable  us  to  gain  eternity  by 
making  good  use  of  the  fleeting  moments  given 
to  us. 

28  Ibid.,  pp.   79  sq.  20  Cfr.    F.    W.    Faber,    Growth   in 

27  Peabody,   Jesus   Christ  and   the       Holiness,    Ch.    IV. 

Christian    Character,    p.    206.  30  Phil.    I,    24    sqq. ;    cf r.    Sporer- 

28  Phil.  I,  23.  Bierbaum,  Theol.  Mor.,  Vol.  II,  2nd 

cd.,  n.  373. 


SIGNIFICANCE  OF  THE  BODY  17 

"Nothing,"  says  the  Ven.  Don  Bosco,  "torments  the 
reprobates  in  hell  more  than  the  thought  that  they  have 
idled  away  the  time  which  they  received  for  working  out 
their  eternal  salvation;  nothing  so  consoles  the  elect  in 
Heaven  as  the  reflection  that  they  have  employed  their 
days  for  the  honor  and  glory  of  God." 

c)  By  commanding  us  to  sanctify  our  bodies 
and  to  employ  time  for  the  purpose  of  gaining 
eternity,  the  Church  does  not,  as  some  assert, 
"preach  gloom  and  sorrow  and  demand  of  her  fol 
lowers  that  they  forego  all  joy,  thus  making  hyp 
ocrites  of  them."  Both  the  Old  and  the  New 
Testament  bid  man  to  be  joyous.  "Be  glad  in  the 
Lord  and  rejoice,  ye  just,  and  glory,  all  ye  right 
of  heart."  31  "Let  the  just  feast  and  rejoice  be 
fore  the  Lord,  and  be  delighted  with  gladness."  32 
Christ  Himself  says :  "Ask,  and  you  shall  receive, 
that  your  joy  may  be  full." 33  And  again : 
"These  things  I  speak  in  the  world,  that  they  may 
have  my  joy  filled  in  themselves."  34  Even  the 
"Preacher,"  who  so  frequently  insists  on  the 
vanity  of  earthly  things,  counsels  the  "young 
man"  to  enjoy  life,35  though  always,  of  course,  in 
the  fear  of  God  and  with  due  regard  to  His  com 
mandments.36  Thomas  a  Kempis  says:  "There 
is  no  true  liberty  nor  perfect  joy  but  in  the  fear 

31  Ps.  XXXI,   ii.  ssEccles.  XI,  9. 

32  Ps.  LXVII,  4;  cfr.  Luke  X,  20.  36  Eccles.      XII,      13;      cfr.      Ps. 

33  John  XVI,   24.  XCVI,  12;  Rom.  XIV,  17. 

34  John  XVII,   13. 


i8  INDIVIDUAL  DUTIES 

of  God  with  a  good  conscience."  s7     The  religion 
of  Christ  is  by  no  means  gloomy. 

"Gloom  is  an  alien  and  an  enemy  in  Christian  hearts," 
writes  Charles  Stanton  Devas.  "If  Christianity  is  the 
religion  of  sorrow,  it  is  also,  and  pre-eminently,  the  re 
ligion  of  joy;  the  solution  of  this  antinomy  being  that 
Christianity  is  the  religion  of  love,  and  that  in  this  world 
love  and  sorrow  are  linked  by  a  mysterious  partnership. 
Now  Christian  asceticism  is  no  superstitious  pain-wor 
ship,  no  offering  to  some  pain-loving  deity,  some  evil 
principle  opposed  to  the  good,  as  though  life  and  health 
were  not  God's  good  gifts;  nor  again  has  it  ought  in 
common,  except  sometimes  the  outward  show,  with  the 
proud  self -righteousness  of  the  Hindu  ascetic  or  Moslem 
dervish.  Much  rather  Christian  asceticism  is  a  form  of 
love ;  and  love  being  the  root  of  joy,  it  follows  that 
Christian  joy  fulness  is  not  in  spite  of  asceticism,  but  its 
consequence.  We  are  taught  as  an  elementary  truth 
that  man  is  on  earth  for  the  one  end  of  perfecting  him 
self  in  the  love  of  God.  This  is  his  purpose  and  proba 
tion.  But  only  through  labor,  pain  and  suffering  is 
love  perfected.  Christianity,  then,  has  no  mission  to 
eliminate  labor,  pain,  and  suffering  from  this  world 
(pati  et  pcrpeti  humanum  est,  wrote  Leo  XIII),  but  to 
transmute  them.  They  can  be  the  means  whereby  we 
can  obtain  the  subjection  of  the  lower  selfish  life  and  of 
greedy  individualism ;  the  suppression  of  false  self-asser 
tion  and  of  blind  nature  before  the  law  of  reason  and  of 
God.  Christianity  is  frankly  'the  religion  of  suffering, 
of  mortification,  of  self-sacrifice,  of  consuming  love,  of 

87  De    Imit.    Christi,    I,    21     (ed.  — Cfr.      Seneca,     Ep.,     XXIII,     3: 

Pohl.,    Vol.    II,    p.    39):    "  Non   est  "Hoc    ante    onwia    fac,    mi    Lucili: 

rera  libertas,  nee  bona  laetitia:  nisi  disce     gaudere." — IDEM,     ibid.,      4: 

in  titnore  Dei  cum  bona  conscientia."  "Verwn  gaudium  res  severs  est." 


SIGNIFICANCE  OF  THE  BODY  19 

self -forgetting  zeal,  of  self -crucifying  union,  .  .  .  the 
religion  of  the  cross  and  the  Crucified.' 38  Joyous  aban 
donment,  generous  self-sacrifice,  these  are  the  watch 
words,  and  to  become  living  images  of  the  Divine  Model 
of  whom  it  is  written  that  He  pleased  not  himself."  30 

"It  is  not  true,"  says  the  Ven.  Don  Bosco,  "that  men 
are  made  sad  by  serving  God.  Who  was  more  genial 
than  St.  Aloysius,  or  more  joyful  than  St.  Philip  Neri 
or  St.  Vincent  de  Paul  ?  And  yet  these  holy  men  devoted 
their  entire  lives  to  the  practice  of  virtue." 

"The  Catholic  attitude  towards  modern  intellectual 
life,"  says  Father  Joseph  Laurentius,  S.  J.,  "requires  no 
other  weapon  for  its  defence  than  an  unbiased  knowledge 
of  Catholic  principles.  The  Syllabus  [of  Pius  IX]  does 
not  condemn  progress,  liberality,  or  culture  as  such ;  it 
merely  rejects  that  which  the  enemies  of  the  Christian 
religion  have  falsely  decked  out  under  these  terms.  A 
progress  without  God,  without  faith,  without  religion, — 
these  are  essential  requisites  of  all  true  advance, — is 
no  progress  at  all,  but  retrogression.  A  Liberalism  de 
tached  from  the  principles  of  Christian  freedom  and 
justice,  based  upon  State  omnipotence  and  the  tenets  of  an 
atheistic  pseudo-philosophy,  is  a  false  Liberalism.  A 

38  Cfr.      St.      Augustine,      Contra  hominibits     nuptiae,     non    fecerunt, 

Duas  Epistolas  Pelag.,  1.    Ill,   c.    8,  quia    et   ilia    in    plttrimis   sine   ipsis 

n.  24:     "Hae  sunt  nebulae  [Pelagia-  est,  et  ipsae,  si  nemo  peccasset,  sine 

norum]    de    laude    creaturae,    laude  ilia    esse    potuerunt."     (Migne,    P. 

nuptiarum,      laude      liberi      arbitrii,  L.,       XLIV,       606). — St.       Thomas, 

laude    sanctorum:    quasi    quisquam  Summa  Theol.,  23.  2ae,  qu.  28,  art. 

nostrum     ista     vituperet      ac     non  1-4;  Contra  Gent.,  1.  Ill,  c.   112,  n. 

potius  omnia  in   honorem   Creatoris  6. — J.     Mausbach,     Catholic     Moral 

et  Salvatoris   debitis   laudibus   prae-  Teaching       and       its       Antagonists 

dicat.     Sed   neque   creatura   ita   vult  Viewed    in    the    Light    of    Principle 

laudari,  ut  nolit  sanari.     Et  nuptiae,  and    of    Contemporaneous    History, 

quanta   magis   laudandae  sunt,   tanto  (tr.     by     A.     M.     Buchanan),     New 

minus    eis    imputanda    est    pudenda  York,   1914,  pp.   131   sqq. 

carnis  concupiscentia,  quae  non  est  39  C.    S.    Devas,    The   Key   to   the 

a  Patre,  sed  ex  mundo   est   (i  loa.  World's     Progress,     pp.      121      sq., 

//,  16):  quam  profecto  invenerunt  in  London,    1906. 


20  INDIVIDUAL  DUTIES 

culture  that  excludes  the  true  religion  from  education 
and  science,  and  pursues  materialistic  aims,  is  a  misnomer. 
Such  tendencies  are  not  only  unacceptable  to  the  papacy, 
but  must  be  rejected  by  every  believing  Christian,  be  he 
Catholic  or  Protestant.  True  Liberalism  and  progress, — 
the  kind  that  ennobles  man,  emancipates  him  from  the 
slavery  of  passion  and  sin,  and  elevates  him  to  the  ideal 
atmosphere  of  faith,  knowledge  and  virtue,  and  strength 
ens  and  fosters  the  family,  community,  State,  both  in  a 
material  and  in  a  spiritual  way, — such  the  Church  is  ever 
ready,  nay  eager,  to  enlist  in  her  service."  40 

READINGS. — P.  W.  von  Keppler,  More  Joy  (tr.  by  Jos.  Mc- 
Sorley,  C.S.P.),  St.  Louis  1914.— C.  S.  Devas,  The  Key  to  the 
World's  Progress,  London  1906. — Jos.  Mausbach,  Catholic  Moral 
Teaching  and  Its  Antagonists  Viewed  in  the  Light  of  Principle 
and  of  Contemporaneous  History  (tr.  by  A.  M.  Buchanan),  pp. 
215  sqq.,  New  York  1914. — W.  Schneider-H.  Thurston,  S.  J., 
The  Other  Life,  pp.  74  sqq.,  New  York  1920. — H.  T.  Henry, 
Catholic  Customs  and  Symbols,  N.  Y.  1925,  pp.  3  sqq. 

40  Jos.     Laurentius,     S.J.,    in    the  zeit,     Vol.     II,     Munich,     1904,     pp. 

Stimmen      aus     Maria-Laach,      Vol.  477       sqq.;       Philip       Kneib,       Die 

LXXI       (1906),       pp.       241       sqq.,  "Jenseitsmoral"      im      Kampfe      um 

especially    250    sq.— Cfr.     Hettinger-  ihre  Grundlagen,  Freiburg,  1906,  pp. 

Stepka,    Timothy;    or    Letters    to    a  133    sqq.;    the   Syllabus   Errorum    of 

Young   Theologian,    St.   Louis,    1902,  Pius   IX,    n.    57,   with   the   commen- 

PP-    343     sqq.;     G.     Grupp,    Kultur-  tary    of    F.    Heiner,    Der    Syllabus, 

geschichte     der     romischen     Kaiser-  Mayence,   1905,  pp.  267  sqq. 


CHAPTER  III 

THE    CARE   OF    THE   BODY 

I.  THE  CARE  OF  THE  BODY  IN  GENERAL. — If 
the  corporeal  life  of  man  is  of  such  great  impor 
tance  for  his  eternal  destiny,  it  follows  that  he 
must  take  good  care  of  his  body. 

The  desire  to  live  (instinct  of  self-preserva 
tion)  and  to  enjoy  perfect  health  of  mind  and 
body  is  implanted  by  nature  in  every  human 
being.  "No  man  ever  hated  his  own  flesh,  but 
nourisheth  and  cherisheth  it,"  says  St.  Paul.1 
Hence  it  is  a  natural  duty  to  preserve  life  and 
health  and  to  acquire  and  employ  the  means  by 
which  they  may  be  prolonged  and  fostered. 

Since,  however,  in  consequence  of  the  fall  of 
our  first  parents,  the  sensual  delight  which  men 
take  in  life  and  its  pleasures  easily  degenerates 
into  sinful  enjoyment,  the  care  of  the  body  must 
be  regulated  by  the  precepts  of  Christian  moral 
ity. 

"By  eating  and  drinking,"  says  St.  Augustine,  address 
ing  God,  "we  repair  the  daily  ruins  of  the  body  until 
Thou  destroy  both  the  food  and  the  belly  (I  Cor. 

lEph.   V,  29. 
21 


22  INDIVIDUAL  DUTIES 

VI,  13).  ...  This  Thou  has  taught  me,  that  I  should 
come  to  take  nourishment  as  I  take  medicine.  But 
while  I  am  passing  from  the  uneasiness  of  hunger 
to  the  satisfaction  of  satiety,  the  snare  of  concupiscence 
lieth  in  wait  for  me;  for  the  very  passage  itself  is  a 
pleasure,  and  there  is  no  other  way  to  pass  but  this, 
to  which  necessity  obliges  me.  And  thus,  whereas 
health  is  the  cause  of  eating  and  drinking,  a  danger 
ous  delight  comes  in  as  an  attendant,  and  for  the 
most  part  endeavors  to  go  before,  that  for  its  sake  I 
should  do  what  I  pretend  and  desire  to  do  only  for 
the  sake  of  health.  Nor  are  both  of  these  content 
with  the  same  allowance :  for  what  is  sufficient  for  health 
is  too  little  for  delight,  and  many  times  it  becomes  un 
certain  whether  it  be  the  necessary  care  of  the  body 
that  requires  a  further  supply,  or  the  voluptuous  deceit 
of  concupiscence  that  calls  for  this  allowance.  And  the 
unhappy  soul  grows  glad  of  this  uncertainty,  and  pre 
pares  therein  the  protection  of  an  excuse,  being  pleased 
that  it  does  not  appear  what  is  exactly  proportioned  for 
the  maintenance  of  health,  that  under  the  cloak  of  health 
she  may  indulge  her  pleasure.  These  temptations  I  daily 
strive  to  resist,  and  I  invoke  Thy  right  hand  to  my  assist 
ance,  and  refer  my  anxieties  to  Thee,  for  I  have  yet  to 
seek  for  counsel  in  this  matter."  2 

2  Cfr.    St.   Augustine,   Confess.,  1.  transeatur,  quo  transire  cogjt  neces- 

X,     c.     31,     n.     34-44:     "Reficimus  sitas.     Et     quitm     salus     sit     causa 

quotidianas    ruinas    carports    edendo  edendi  et  bibendi,   adiungit  se  tarn- 

et  bibendo,  priusquatn  escas  et  ven-  quant    pedissequa    periculosa    iucun- 

tretn  destruas  (i  Cor.   VI,  13).  ,  .  .  ditas  et  plerumque  praeire  conatur, 

Hoc    me     docuisti,     ut     quemadmo-  ut     eius     causa    fiat,     quod    salutis 

dum      medicantenta,      sic     alimenta  causa  me   facere  vel   dico  vel  volo. 

sumpturus    accedam.     Sed    dum    ad  Nee  idem  modus  utriusque  est,  nam 

quietem     satietatis     ex     indigentiae  quod    saluti    satis    est,    delectationi 

molestia    transeo,    in    ipso    transitu  pantm   est.     Et   saepe   incertum   fit, 

mihi     insidiatur     laqueus     concupi-  utrum     adhuc     necessaria     corporis 

scentiae.     Ipse  enim  transitus  volup-  cura  subsidittm   petal   an   voluptaria 

tas     est,     et     non     est     alius,     qua  cupiditatis  fallacia  ministerium  sup- 


CARE  OF  THE  BODY  23 

Whatever  God  has  created  is  good,  and,  broadly 
speaking,  there  are  no  material  objects  which 
man  is  per  se  obliged  to  renounce.  St.  Paul's  as 
surance,  "All  things  are  yours,"  3  is  addressed 
to  the  faithful.  Nevertheless  the  proposition  is 
true  only  in  a  general  way.  The  right  of  the 
individual  to  enjoy  the  good  things  of  nature  is 
limited  in  various  ways. 

1.  It  is  limited,  above  all,  by  the  particular 
needs  of  each.     These  needs  are  manifold  and 
far   exceed   the   essential   requirements   of   life 
and  health.     They  are  measured  by  the  personal 
necessities,  bodily  and  spiritual,  of  each  individ 
ual,  by  the  degree  of  culture  he  has  attained,  by 
his  position  in  society,  the  nature  of  his  vocational 
duties,  the  climate,  social  environment,  and  many 
other  factors. 

2.  The  right  of  the  individual  to  enjoy  the  good 
things  of   life  is  limited  further  by  the  social 
demands  of  the  community  in  which  he  lives. 
Every  member  of  society  has  a  right  to  enjoy  the 
things  God  has  provided  for  the  race  as  a  whole. 
To  waste  or  destroy  them  is  against  the  law  of 
nature,  and  to  do  so  wantonly,  without  a  just  and 

petat.     Ad    hoc    incertum    hilarescit  invoco    dexteram    tuam    ad    salutem 

infelix  anitna  et  in  eo  praeparat  ex-  meam   et  ad   te  refero   aestus  meos, 

cusationis  patrocittium,  gandens  non  quia   consilium  mihi  de   hac  re  non- 

apparere    quid   satis   sit   moderations  dum  stat."     (Migne,  P.  L.,  XXXII, 

valetudinis,  ut  obtentu  salutis  obtim-  797). 

bret   negotium   voluptatis.     His    ten-  8  i   Cor.  Ill,  22;  cfr.   i   Tim.  IV, 

tationibus  quotidie  conor  resistere  et  3-5. 


24  INDIVIDUAL  DUTIES 

sufficient  cause,  would  betray  a  brutal  dispo 
sition  and  be  a  crime  against  nature.  To  waste 
the  means  of  subsistence,  on  the  proper  distribu 
tion  of  which  the  welfare  of  entire  classes  de 
pends,  involves  an  injustice  against  God  and 
men.4 

3.  A  third  limitation  arises  from  the  purpose 
for  which  the  good  things  of  nature  were  created. 
The  body  must  be  nourished  and  fostered,  not  for 
its  own  sake,  but  that  it  may  efficiently  serve  as 
the  organ  and  companion  of  the  soul.  "We  live 
not  to  eat,  but  we  eat  to  live,"  says  the  wise  Soc 
rates.  Only  in  so  far  as  the  good  things  of  na 
ture  serve  this  higher  purpose,  is  their  use  per 
mitted.  "I  say  to  you,  be  not  solicitous  for  your 
life,  what  you  shall  eat,  nor  for  your  body,  what 
you  shall  put  on.  Is  not  the  life  more  than  the 
meat,  and  the  body  more  than  the  raiment?"6 
"Put  ye  on  the  Lord  Jesus  Christ,  and  make  not 
provision  for  the  flesh  in  its  concupiscences."  6 
"Let  not  then  our  good  be  evil  spoken  of,  for  the 
kingdom  of  God  is  not  meat  and  drink,  but  justice, 
and  peace,  and  joy  in  the  Holy  Ghost."  7 

Good  health  is  a  necessary  condition  for  the  develop 
ment  of  talent.  Those  who  are  sickly  depend  on  others, 

4  Is.  LXV.  8;  Luke  XVI,  19  sqq.;  Cyril   of  Jerusalem,   Catech.,  IV,   c. 

John  VI,    13.  26    (Migne,    P.    G.,    XXXIII,    490); 

o  Matt.  VI,  25;  cfr.  Matt.  X,  39.  Juvenal,    Sat.,    X,    356:     "Orandum 

8  Rom.    XIII,    14.  est,    ut    sit    tnens    sana    in    corpore 

7  Rom.     XIV,     16    sqq. — Cfr.     St.  sano;    fortem    posce    animum.  .  .  ." 


FOOD  AND  DRINK  25 

whereas  robust  men  have  courage  to  dare  and  do. 
Therefore  suitable  provision  for  the  preservation  of 
health  is  an  essential  part  of  character  training.8 

II.  VARIOUS  MEANS  OF  CARING  FOR  THE  BODY. 
— The  ordinary  means  of  keeping  the  body  effi 
cient  may  be  grouped  together  in  two  classes: 
those  by  which  health  is  preserved  and  fostered, 
and  those  by  which  harmful  and  disturbing  in 
fluences  are  warded  off. 

i.  FOOD  AND  DRINK. — The  chief  means  of 
preserving  health  are  food  and  drink. 

a)  Mankind  as  such  has  unlimited  control  of 
the  resources  of  nature.  The  Old  Testament  dis 
tinction  between  clean  and  unclean  foods  was 
purely  disciplinary  and  ceremonial,  and  is  no 
longer  enforced  under  the  New  Law.9  "I  know, 
and  am  confident  in  the  Lord  Jesus,"  says  St. 
Paul,  "that  nothing  is  unclean  of  itself."  10  This 
includes  animal  as  well  as  vegetable  foods,  for 
Christ  Himself  teaches  that  not  what  enters  into 
the  mouth,  i.  e.,  food  and  drink  as  such,  but  the 
inordinate  use  thereof  defiles  man.11 

There  is  no  moral  objection  to  the  common 
practice  of  making  food  more  palatable  by  arti 
ficial  means,  because  to  enjoy  one's  meals  is  not 
to  indulge  in  sensuality  or  sybaritism.  Man  is 

8W.    L.    Pyle,   Personal  Hygiene,  10  Rom.  XIV,  14;  cfr.  Col.  II,  16. 

Philadelphia,   1917.  n  Cfr.    Matt.    XV,    17-20;    Mark 

9  Gen.  VII,  8;   Lev.  XI,  8;  Matt.  VII.   15-23;  Tit.   I,   15. 
XV,  ii ;  Mark  VII,  15;  Acts  X,  15. 


26  INDIVIDUAL  DUTIES 

in  duty  bound  to  take  wholesome  food  and  to  be 
moderate  in  its  use,  i.  e.,  to  eat  neither  too  little 
nor  too  much  for  his  physical  well-being. 

b)  The  use  of  food  is  limited  by  the  needs 
of  each  individual,  which  differ  according  to  age, 
climate,  constitution,  occupation,  etc.  Every 
man  is  allowed  to  take  as  much  food  as  he  re 
quires  to  maintain  himself  mentally  and  physi 
cally  efficient,  and  all  are  in  duty  bound  to 
avoid  excess  because  it  disturbs  the  equilibrium 
of  soul  and  body  and  makes  the  former  the 
servant  of  the  latter,  whereas  it  ought  to  be  its 
master.12  Following  the  example  of  Christ  and 
the  Apostles,  therefore,  we  should  take  our  daily 
nourishment  temperately  and  with  gratitude  to 
God,  begin  each  meal  with  a  blessing  (benedictio 
mensae)  and  never  forget  to  give  thanks  after 
eating.13 

To  eat  or  drink  to  satiety  for  mere  pleasure  (ob 
solam  voluptatem)  is  morally  illicit,  even  though 
it  may  not  result  in  direct  injury  to  the  health.14 
In  the  long  run  intemperance  invariably  revenges 
itself  upon  its  victims. 

On  the  sin  of  drunkenness  in  particular  see 
Vol.  II  of  this  Handbook,  pp.  79  sq.  On  the  duty 
of  self-denial,  infra,  pp.  72  sq. 

izCfr.  Rom.  XIII.  14;  XIV,  17;  XXVII,  35;  Rom.  XIV,  6;  i  Cor. 

cfr.  Eccles.  X,  17.  X,  31;  i  Tim.  IV,  3-5. 

is  Matt.  XIV,  19;  XV,  36;  14  Prop.  Damnat.  sub  Innocentio 

XXVI,  27;  Mark  XIV,  23;  Luke  XI.,  prop.  8:  "Comedere  et  biber* 

XXII,  17;  John  VI,  ii ;  Acts  usque  ad  satietatem  ob  solam  volup- 


CLOTHING  27 

Some  believe  that  men  were  originally  vegetarians  and 
received  permission  to  eat  flesh  meat  only  after  the  Flood. 
This  opinion  may  be  true  or  false,  but  we  believe  it  has  no 
basis  in  Holy  Writ. 

2.  CLOTHING. — Another  important  means  of 
preserving  the  health  and  warding  off  disease  and 
other  harmful  influences  is  clothing. 

a)  Clothes  are  worn  for  a  fivefold  purpose: 
to  protect  the  body  against  the  inclemencies  of  the 
weather  or  climate,  to  adorn  it,  to  cover  naked 
ness  and  preserve  modesty,  to  distinguish  the 
sexes,  and  to  mark  differences  in  office,  occupa 
tion,  or  social  rank.15 

b)  In  the  choice  of  his  garments  the  individual 
is  to  a  considerable  extent  limited  by  season,  cli 
mate,  temperature,  custom,  fashion,  and  other 
factors. 

Custom  should  not  be  disregarded  entirely, 
and  even  erratic  Dame  Fashion  may  be  followed 
to  a  certain  reasonable  extent.16  A  person  may 
dress  well  without  being  on  that  account  guilty 
of  vanity.  For  a  man  to  dress  like  a  woman, 
or  vice  versa,  may  be  sinful  or  not,  according  to 
motives  and  circumstances.  If  done  as  a  matter 
of  necessity,  or  for  any  other  good  and  sufficient 
cause,  it  is  permissible;  if  the  intention  be 

tatem  non   est  peccatum,  modo  non  15  Gen.  Ill,  7-11,  21;  i  Cor.  VII, 

obsit    valetudini;    quia    licit e    potest       34;    XII,    23    sq. — Chas.    S.    Devas, 
(quis)    appetitus   naturalis   suis    acti-        Political  Economy,  pp.    153   sqq. 
bus     frui."        (Denzinger-Bannwart,  18  W.   T.    Kane,    S.J.,    "The   Psy- 

n.  1158).  chology    of    Fashion",    in    America, 

N.   Y.,   7  July,   1923,   Vol.   XXIX, 
No.    12,  pp.   269  sq. 


28 


INDIVIDUAL  DUTIES 


venially  sinful,  it  is  a  venial,  if  grievously  sinful, 
a  mortal  sin.17 

The  Church  condemns  vanity,  wastefulness, 
carelessness,  uncleanness  as  well  as  indecency  in 
regard  to  clothing.18 

For  women  to  employ  the  arts  of  the  toilet 


17  C.  6,  D.  30   (Condi.  Gangr.  a. 
355,    can.    18):    "Si   qua   mulier   suo 
proposito    utile    iudicans,    ut    virili 
veste    utatur,    propter    hoc    viri    ha- 
bitum       imitetur,       anathema      sit." 
(Decretum    Gratiani,    ed.    Friedberg, 
Leipsic,  1879,  p.  107). — St.  Thomas, 
Summa  Theol.,  23.  2ae,  qu.  169,  art. 
2,  ad  3;  i a  aae,  qu.  102,  art.  6,  ad  6. 
— H.    Busembaum,    S.    J.,    Medulla 
Theol.    Mor.,   Tournai,    1876,    1.    II, 
tr.  3,  c.  2,  dub.  5,  a.  2:  "Si  femina 
utatur      veste      virili,      vel      contra, 
tantum  ex  levitate  sine  prava  inten- 
tione    aut   periculo    scandali    et   libi- 
dinis,     veniale     tantum     erit,     alias 
mortale,  nullum  vero,  si  ex  necessi 
tate." 

18  Cfr.  St.  Jerome,  Epist.,  LIT,  n. 
9:     "Ornatus    ut    sordes    pari    tnodo 
fugiendae    sunt,    quia    alterum    de- 
licias,      alterum     gloriam     redolet." 
(Migne,    P.    L.,    XXII,    535)-— St. 
Augustine,     De     Serm.     Dom.     in 
Monte,   1.    II,    c.    12,    n.    41:     "Ma- 
xime   advertendum   est,   non   in  solo 
rerum     corporearum     nitore     atque 
pompa,   sed   etiam   in   ipsis   sordibus 
luctuosis    esse    posse    iactantiam,    et 
eo   periculosiorem,    quo    sub   nomine 
servitutis     Dei     decipit.     Qui     ergo 
immoderato     cultu     corporis     atque 
vestitus  vel  ceterarum  rerum  nitore 
praefulget,    facile    convincitur   rebus 
ipsis    pomparum    saeculi    esse    secta- 
tor,  nee  quemquam  fallit  dolosa  ima 
gine   sanctitatis ;    qui  autem    in    pro- 
fessione        christianitatis       inusitato 
tqualore  ac  sordibus  intentos  in  se 


oculos  hominum  facit,  quum  id 
voluntate  facit,  non  necessitate  pati- 
tur,  ceteris  eius  operibus  potest 
conici,  utrum  hoc  contemptu  super- 
flui  cultus  an  ambitione  aliqud 
faciat."  (P.  L.,  XXXIV,  1287).— 
On  wastefulness  in  the  matter  of 
dress  and  adornments,  which  is  so 
conspicuous  a  fault  of  western  na 
tions,  especially  since  the  Industrial 
Revolution,  Charles  S.  Devas  (Po 
litical  Economy,  p.  154)  says  from 
the  standpoint  of  the  economist, 
that  it  is  a  source  of  "frequent 
ruin."  The  following  remark  of  the 
author  deserves  reproduction  also 
in  a  handbook  of  Moral  Theology: 
"In  many  modern  countries,  by  the 
disorganization  of  family  life, 
notably  by  the  absence  of  the  house 
wife  from  home  and  by  the  want  of 
training  in  household  work,  the 
proper  care  or  repair  of  clothes  has 
been  neglected  (as  well  as  of  the 
house-linen  and  household  utensils) : 
such  neglect  being  no  trifle;  for 
since  clothing  will  last  twice  as 
long  if  properly  mended  and  cared 
for,  the  neglect  of  such  care  will 
compel  a  man,  if  he  is  to  be  clad 
as  well  as  before,  to  spend  on  cloth 
ing  nearly  twice  as  much."  The 
scarcity  and  high  price  of  clothing 
consequent  upon  the  Great  War 
have  checked  this  "depraved  con 
sumption"  of  clothing  and  house 
hold  utensils,  and  it  is  to  be  hoped 
that  the  lesson  will  not  soon  be  for 
gotten. 


CLOTHING  29 

(cultus  muliebris)  out  of  vanity  is  not  a  mortal 
sin,  but  to  do  so  in  order  to  tempt  men  is  grie 
vously  sinful.19 

It  should  never  be  forgotten  that  the  highest 
purpose  for  which  clothes  are  worn  is  the  pres 
ervation  of  modesty.*  The  moralist  has  no  right 
to  inveigh  against  the  vagaries  of  fashion  unless 
they  endanger  modesty  or  health  or  unless  peo 
ple  spend  more  money  on  clothes  than  they  can 
reasonably  afford. 

In  some  countries  custom  prescribes  a  definite  attire 
for  people  according  to  profession,  occupation,  or  social 
rank.  Where  such  a  custom  exists,  it  should  be  re 
spected.  The  clergy,  in  particular,  have  a  prescribed 
dress  (habitus  clericalis),  which  is  regulated  partly  by 
the  general  laws  of  the  Church  and  partly  by  diocesan 
ordinances,  which  should  be  conscientiously  observed.20 

Clement  of  Alexandria  says  that  woman  with  her 
clothes  puts  off  her  modesty,21  but  this  sentiment, 
though  quoted  frequently  in  the  writings  of  the 
Fathers,22  did  not  originate  with  Christian  authors; 
it  has  been  traced  to  Herodotus.23 

IB  Cfr.     Prov.     VII,     10;     i     Cor.  Vol.    XI    (1918),    No.    606,    pp.    475 

VII,      34;      St.      Thomas,      Summa  sqq. 

Theol.,    23    2ae,    qu.     169,    art.    2;  21  Al    5£    diroSvffdfjLevai.    apa    TU 

Ovid,  Remed.  Amor.,  342  sq.  xiT^vl  Ka^  TV  ntSia- 

*  Cfr.    A.    Vermeersch,    S.J.,    De  22  See,    for  instance,    St.   Cyprian, 

Castitate,      Bruges,      1919,      pp.      19  De     Habitu     Virg.,     c.     19:     "Vtre- 

•q.  cundia    illic     omnis     exuitur,     simul 

20  Cone.     Trid.,     Sess.      XIV,     c.  cum  amictu  vestis  honor  corporis  ac 

6,   de   Ref.;    Sess.   XXIII,    c.   6,   de  fudor      ponitur."     (Corpus      Script. 

Ref.;    Codex   luris    Can.,   can.    136;  Eccles.    Lot.    Vindobon.,    Vol.    Ill, 

Chas.   Augustine    [Bachofen],   O.    S.  p.   201). 

B.,  Commentary  on  the  New  Code  of  23  Herodotus,     Hist.,     I,     8. — Cfr. 

Canon    Law,    Vol.    II,    pp.    84    sq.;  St.   Jerome,   Adv.  lovinian.,  1.    I,  n. 

Irish    Eccles.    Record,     $th     Series,  48:     "Scribit        Herodotus,        quod 


30  INDIVIDUAL  DUTIES 

3.  HOUSING. — The  dwellings  in  which  men 
live  have  a  powerful  influence  upon  them,  either 
for  good  or  evil.  Improper  housing  conditions 
injure  the  family  and  social  life  in  general. 

a)  A  text-book  of  Moral  Theology  is  not  the 
place  to  discuss  the  intimate  connection  existing 
between  housing  conditions  on  the  one  hand  and 
the  death  rate  and  public  morality  on  the  other. 
The  moral  degeneration  of  the  poor,  especially 
among  industrial  workers  crowded  together  in 
our  city  slums,  is  largely  owing  to  lack  of  decent 
and    comfortable    lodgings.     The    workingman 
who  does  not  feel  at  his  ease  at  home  is  often  led 
to  frequent  saloons  and  other  even  more  objec 
tionable  places  that  supply  the  physical  comforts 
for  which  he  craves. 

b)  Of  late  years  efforts  have  been  made  in  practically 
all  civilized  countries  to  provide  adequate  dwellings  for 
the  laboring  classes.     These  efforts  deserve  to  be  encour 
aged,  but  it  would  be  still  more  praiseworthy  if  measures 
were  taken  to  enable  each  individual  laborer  to  acquire 
a  home  of  his  own.     Leo  XIII  lays  it  down  as  one  of  the 
chief  conditions  of  a  satisfactory  settlement  of  the  labor 
question  that  the  State  induce  as  many  as  possible  of  the 
humbler  class  to  become  property  owners.24 

"The  family  that  has  a  home,  'be  it  ever  so  humble/  " 
says  a  modern  American  writer,  "has  an  interest  in  com- 

mulier   cum   vests   deponat   et   vere-  lect  Letters  and  Addresses  on  Social 

cundiam."     (Migne,   P.   L.,    XXIII,  Questions    by    Leo    XIII,    London, 

279).  1912,   p.   208. 
24  The  Pope  and  the  People,  Se- 


HOUSING  31 

mon,  an  aspiration  for  life  and  good  citizenship,  which 
those  cannot  have  who  pay  some  one  else  to  provide  a 
roof  under  which  they  may  sleep  and  eat,  and  who  pack 
up  and  move  to  another  place  on  the  slightest  pretext.  .  .  . 
Whatever  conveniences  the  best  apartment  house  may 
afford,  it  can  never  possess  the  spirit  and  sentiment  that 
are  associated  with  the  old  cottage  in  the  Green  Mountain 
village  or  even  the  little  home  in  West  Philadelphia,  where 
every  house  looks  like  the  next  one.  Stephen  C.  Foster's 
melodies  and  John  Howard  Payne's  'Home,  Sweet  Home' 
reach  every  heart  where  the  English  language  is  known. 
But  who  could  get  sentimental  about  Apartment  10,  on 
the  sixth  floor  of  408  West  i3oth  Street?"  25 

The  ideal  is,  says  Devas,  "that  each  family  should  be  in 
the  secure  possession  of  a  house  neither  unhealthy  nor 
overcrowded,  nor  overcharged,  and  that  adequate  garden 
ground  should  surround  it  to  enable  the  housewife  and 
young  children  to  find,  with  the  plants,  the  animals,  and 
the  domestic  industries,  occupation  and  amusement  at 
home." 

Every  industrious  workingman  should  be  enabled  to 
purchase  a  decent  home  at  a  moderate  price  on  easy 
time  payments.  In  the  big  industrial  centres  cheap  lodg 
ing  houses  should  be  provided  for  working  people  of 
both  sexes  to  discourage  the  lodging  of  unmarried  per 
sons  in  small  homes,  which  is  a  prolific  source  of  physical 
disease  and  moral  corruption.  Adequate  provisions  of 
this  kind  are  all  the  more  necessary  as  the  steadily  in 
creasing  migration  from  country  to  city  makes  housing 
conditions  among  the  city  poor  more  unsatisfactory 
from  year  to  year.  The  physical  and  moral  evils  aris 
ing  from  urban  congestion  should  be  counteracted  by  ade 
quate  legal  measures,  such  as  the  careful  inspection  of 

25  R.  O.  Hughes,  Community  F.  X.  Doyle,  S.J.,  The  Home 
Chics,  Boston,  1917,  pp.  86  sqq.;  World,  N.  Y.,  1922. 


32  INDIVIDUAL  DUTIES 

new  buildings,  strict  enforcement  of  State  and  municipal 
ordinances,  etc.  Unsanitary  and  inadequate  dwelling 
houses  ought  to  be  promptly  condemned  and  the  owners 
compelled  either  to  make  them  fit  for  human  habitation 
or  devote  them  to  some  other  purpose.26 

To  adorn  one's  home  and  furnish  it  with  all  the  com 
forts  and  conveniences  within  one's  means,  is  morally 
licit  and  socially  desirable,  provided,  of  course,  the  im 
portant  truth  is  not  lost  sight  of,  that  man  has  no  lasting 
habitation  here  below,  but  must  "seek  one  that  is  to  come." 

Surely  if  St.  Bernard  could  return  and  see  the  luxury 
with  which  some  people  surround  themselves,  he  would 
repeat  his  famous  dictum :  "Talia  decent  cives  nan 
exules." 

c)  Besides  providing  suitable  dwellings  for  the  poor, 
the  municipal  governments  should  see  to  it  that  the 
streets  are  cleaned  regularly  and  in  a  sanitary  manner,27 
that  there  is  an  abundant  supply  of  pure  drinking  water, 
and  that  the  air  is  kept  free  from  contaminating 
smoke,  gas,  and  other  deleterious  substances.  Refuse 
should  be  collected  and  disposed  of  regularly  and 
promptly  and  so  as  not  to  endanger  the  health  of 
the  community.  Trees,  shrubs,  and  flowers  along  the 

26  Devas.    Political    Economy,    p.  London,    1918,    Vol.    CXXXII,    No. 

147.   Literature:   ID.,  Political  Econ-  652,    pp.    241     sqq.;    J.     Robertson, 

omy,   pp.    146-152;   New  Ency elope-  The     Housing     Question,     London, 

dia   of   Social   Reform,    New    York,  1919;    E.    E.    Wood,    The    Housing 

1908;     Sykes,     Public    Health    and  of    the    Unskilled    Wage-Earner,    N. 

Housing,    London,    1901;    G.    Haw,  Y.,     1919;     C.    Aronovici,    Housing 

No   Room    to   Live,    London,    1900;  and  the  Housing  Problem,  Chicago, 

Jacob  A.  Riis,   The  Peril  and  Pres-  1921. 

ervation  of  the  Home,  New  York,  27  On  street  cleaning  see  R.  O. 
1903;  James  Cornes,  Modern  Hous-  Hughes,  Community  Civics,  pp.  45 
ing  in  Town  and  Country,  London,  sqq.  The  author  justly  says: 
1905;  Dorothea  Proud,  Welfare  "When  we  see  children  playing  in 
Work,  New  York,  1916;  J.  E.  Hut-  some  of  our  streets— the  only  play- 
ton,  Welfare  and  Housing,  Lon-  grounds  some  of  them  have,  poor 
don.  1918;  Leslie  Toke,  The  things!— we  wonder  not  that  dis- 
Housmg  Problem,  London,  1916;  ease  is  common  among  them,  but 
Herbert  Lucas,  S.J.,  in  The  Month,  how  they  keep  well  at  all." 


HOUSING  33 

streets  and  in  open  places,  and  ample  breathing  space  in 
the  form  of  public  parks  and  playgrounds,  not  only  beau 
tify  a  town  or  city,  but  likewise  make  it  more  healthful 
and  its  inhabitants  more  contented.28 

Railroads,  street  cars,  and  other  public  conveyances 
demand  careful  supervision  on  the  part  of  the  authorities, 
both  as  regards  the  sanitary  condition  of  the  cars,  barns, 
etc.,  and  the  welfare  of  the  employees.29 

Industrial  hygiene  offers  another  vast  field  for  com 
munal  supervision,  to  which  we  can  refer  only  in  a  gen 
eral  way.  The  health  of  factory  workers  should  be 
safeguarded  in  every  possible  manner, — the  shops  and 
workrooms  should  be  properly  aired,  lighted,  and  heated, 
all  dangerous  machinery  equipped  with  mechanical 
guards,  the  production  of  health-destroying  articles,  such 
as  white  phosphor  matches,  prohibited,  and  so  forth. 

Among  the  means  that  have  been  suggested,  and  to 
some  extent  applied,  for  the  solution  of  the  housing  prob 
lem  is  the  so-called  garden  city  plan,  which  aims  at  organ 
izing  industrial  communities  in  the  suburbs  or  country, 
where,  with  many  of  the  advantages  of  the  city,  healthful 
and  more  or  less  model  factories  and  other  forms  of  busi 
ness  may  be  conducted,  and  where  the  workers  can 
occupy  inexpensive  but  attractive,  hygienic  and  comfort 
able  homes,  each  with  its  little  garden,  and  all  surrounded, 
if  possible,  by  a  belt  of  agriculture,  so  as  to  combine  as 

28  Cfr.    Hughes,    op.    cit.,    pp.    64  est  on  a  great  deal  of  watered  stock 
sqq.,  99  sqq.  and  keep   its   service  up  to   date   in 

29  The  trouble  with  many  of  our  addition,     the     task     is     not    easy" 
street    car    companies    is    that    they  (Hughes,   I.e.,  pp.   60  sq.),  and,   we 
are    handicapped    by    past    crooked-  may    add,    the    employees    are    often 
ness  of  management.     "A  very  seri-  made    to    suffer. — On    the   moral   as- 
ous  and  common   evil  has  been  the  pects   of   "stockwatering"    see   Thos. 
issuing   of   'watered'    stock — that   is,  Slater,     S.J.,     Questions     of    Moral 
stock  that  does  not  represent  actual  Theology,  New  York,   1915,  pp.   159 
money     invested     in     the     business.  sqq. 

When  a  company  tries  to  pay  inter- 


34 


INDIVIDUAL  DUTIES 


many  as  possible  of  the  advantages  of  the  city  with  thosi* 
of  the  country.80 

Other  suggested  means  of  housing  improvement  are 
the  various  schemes  of  taxation  reform,  especially  the 
so-called  Single  Tax,  to  be  levied  on  the  value  of  land 
irrespective  of  improvements,  and  a  heavy  tax  on  all 
unearned  increments  on  the  value  of  building  sites. 
These  two  schemes  must  not  be  confounded.  While  the 
Single  Tax  is  unfair  and  impracticable,31  the  unearned 
increment  tax  has  many  arguments  in  its  favor  and  is 
being  widely  tested  at  present.32 


30  Bliss,     New     Encyclopedia     of 
Social   Reform,    pp.    532    sq.;    Wm. 
Webb,    Garden    First    in    Land    De 
velopment,    London,    1919- 

31  See  Arthur  Preuss,  The  Funda 
mental    Fallacy     of    Socialism,     St. 
Louis,  1908   (contains  an  account  of 
the     famous     McGlynn     case) ;     the 
New    Encyclopedia    of    Social    Re 
form,    pp.     1114-19;     C.    B.     Fille- 
brown,    The    Principles    of    Natural 
Taxation,     Chicago,     1917;     Young, 
The   Single   Tax   Movement  in    the 
United   States,    Princeton,    1916;    J. 
A.   Ryan,  Distributive  Justice,  New 
York,   1916,  pp.   117  sqq. 

32  Dr.    Michael    Cronin    thus    ex 
plains  the  rationale  of  the  unearned 
increment    tax    (Science    of    Ethics, 
Vol.  II,  Dublin,  1917,  pp.  290  sq.) : 
"It  is  evident  that  unearned   incre 
ments    on    land    are   not    to    be    re 
garded    as    unlawful    in    any    way. 
They  are  increments  in  value  due  to 
increased     demand,     and     they     are 
just   as   lawful    as   increases   in   the 
value  of  any  other  commodities  due 
to      increased      demand.     What      is 
wrong  about  them  is  that  they  are 
so   often   excessive.  .  .  .  There   is  a 
just   price   which    ought    not   to   be 
exceeded    by    the    seller,    and    this 
price,   even   after   increment   occurs, 
always  bears  some  proportion  to  the 


original  value  of  the  article.  On 
the  other  hand,  in  the  case  of  build 
ing  sites,  the  price  demanded  is 
often  a  hundred  times  greater  than 
the  original  value,  and  often  no 
limit  in  the  price  demanded  is  ob 
served  except  the  limits  imposed  by 
the  necessities  of  the  buyers.  This 
is  altogether  unreasonable  and 
wrong.  Though,  therefore,  what  is 
spoken  of  as  unearned  increment 
in  land  is  not  unlawful,  still  in  deal 
ing  with,  and  imposing  taxes  on,  in 
crements  in  the  values  of  building 
sites,  government  ought  to  be  given 
a  very  free  hand.  For,  first,  a  good 
deal  of  money  would  thus  accrue  to 
the  community;  and,  secondly,  such 
a  tax,  particularly  if  it  is  made  pro 
gressive,  would  help  to  prevent  the 
extortions  which  at  present  are  only 
too  common  in  cities,  extortions 
which  go  very  far  to  prevent  the 
erection  of  useful  and  necessary 
buildings  of  various  kinds,  and,  as 
common  sense  will  show  us,  the 
burden  of  which  has  in  the  long 
run  to  be  borne  for  the  most  part 
by  the  poorer  classes,  in  the  in 
creased  rents  they  have  to  pay,  in 
creased  food  prices,  and  their  di 
minished  weekly  wage." — An  in 
structive  discussion  of  the  unearned 
increment  tax  by  a  Catholic  author 


RECREATION 


35 


4.  RECREATION. — Another  means  of  keeping 
the  body  healthy  and  strong  is  recreation. 

a)  Rest  and  recreation  answer  to  a  natural 
demand,  the  gratification  of  which  cannot  per  se 
be  illicit.33  "lucundi  acti  labores,"  says  an  an 
cient  proverb,  which  we  may  render  by,  "It  is 
pleasant  to  rest  after  work."  Both  body  and 
mind  at  regular  intervals  need  rest  and  recrea 
tion,  which  must,  of  course,  be  taken  in  accord 
ance  with  the  laws  of  reason  and  revelation.  As 
bodily  rest  can  be  lifted  into  a  higher  sphere 
and  made  supernaturally  meritorious  by  prayer, 
so,  too,  mental  recreation  can  be  supernatur- 
alized  by  a  good  motive,  moderation,  proper 
regard  for  vocation,  time,  place,  charity,  mod 
esty,  and  morality.34 


is  found  in  Distributive  Justice,  by 
the  Rev.  John  A.  Ryan,  D.D.,  Pro 
fessor  of  Political  Science  at  the 
Catholic  University  of  America,  who 
is  both  an  economist  and  a  moralist 
(New  York,  1916,  pp.  102-117).  Dr. 
Ryan  says  that  "the  morality  of  this 
proceeding  must  be  determined  by 
the  same  criterion  that  is  applied  to 
every  other  method  or  rule  of  dis 
tribution;  namely,  social  and  indi 
vidual  consequences.  No  principle, 
title,  or  practice  of  ownership,"  he 
holds,  "nor  any  canon  of  taxation, 
has  intrinsic  or  metaphysical  value. 
All  are  to  be  evaluated  with  refer 
ence  to  human  welfare.  Since  the 
right  of  property  is  not  an  end  in 
itself,  but  only  a  means  of  human 
welfare,  its  just  prerogatives  and 
limitations  are  determined  by  their 
conduciveness  to  the  welfare  of  hu 


man  beings.  By  human  welfare  is 
meant  not  merely  the  good  of  so 
ciety  as  a  whole,  but  the  good  of  all 
individuals  and  classes  of  individ 
uals.  For  society  is  made  up  of  in 
dividuals,  all  of  whom  are  of  equal 
worth  and  importance,  and  have 
equal  claims  to  consideration  in  the 
matter  of  livelihood,  material  goods, 
and  property.  In  general,  then, 
any  method  of  distribution,  any 
•  modification  of  property  rights,  any 
form  of  taxation  is  morally  lawful 
which  promotes  the  interests  of  the 
whole  community,  without  causing 
undue  inconvenience  to  any  indi 
vidual." 

83  St.  Thomas,  Summa  Theol.,  za 
zae,  qu.  168,  art.  2;  Horace,  Car- 
mina,  II,  10,  17;  Ovid,  Ex  Ponto, 
I,  4,  21  sq. 

34Eccles.   Ill,    i,  4;   Phil.   IV,  4; 


36  INDIVIDUAL  DUTIES 

A  good  Christian  will  gladly  sacrifice  pleas 
ure  and  amusement  for  the  sake  of  higher  bless 
ings. 

b)  Most  men  obtain  the  rest  and  relaxation 
they  require  by  social  intercourse  with  their  fel- 
lowmen.  The  means  of  sociability  or  entertain 
ment  are  innumerable.  Some  of  them  are  pre 
dominantly  material  in  character,  e.  g.,  banquets, 
games,  sports,  excursions,  dances,  balls,  gymnas 
tic  exercises,  etc. ;  whereas  others  are  mainly  spir 
itual,  as,  e.  g,,  the  enjoyment  of  beautiful  scen 
ery  or  works  of  art,  travelling,  music,  shows,  etc. 
All  amusements  have  an  ethical  bearing.  En 
joyed  at  the  proper  time  and  in  moderation,  they 
are  licit,  but  they  become  illicit  if  sought  or  in 
dulged  in  inordinately,  especially  if  they  endanger 
morality,  injure  health  or  are  sought  entirely  for 
their  own  sake.  Inordinate  fondness  for  amuse 
ment  is  contrary  to  the  spirit  of  Christian  mortifi 
cation  and  injurious  both  to  the  temporal  and  the 
eternal  welfare  of  man. 

Needless  to  say,  not  all  kinds  of  entertainment 
are  suitable  for  all.  Thus  ecclesiastical  custom 
and  the  canon  law  limit  the  amusements  permit 
ted  to  clerics  so  as  to  safeguard  their  honor  and 
virtue,  for,  as  the  Council  of  Trent  says,  "Omnia 
non  pariter  rerum  sunt  omnibus  apta"  35 

St.  Ambrose,  De  Officiis,  1.  I,  c.  20,        De   Ref.,   c.    i;   cfr.   St.   Propertius, 

n.  85.  Elegia,     IV,    9,     7. — Canon     138    of 

86  Cfr.  One,  Trident.,  Sess.  XXII,        the  New  Code  commands  clerics  to 


RECREATION 


37 


Children  will  play,  and  it  belongs  first  of  all 
to  the  parents,  local  group,  neighborhood  or 
parish,  and  secondarily  to  the  community  or  State, 
to  see  that  their  playing  is  directed  properly  and 
that  facilities  are  afforded  for  it.  The  Church, 
too,  has  a  mission  in  this  matter.  She  cannot  be 


abstain  from  all  things  which  are 
unbecoming  to  their  state.  It  then 
proceeds  to  mention  in  detail  what 
these  things  are:  "They  should  not 
engage  in  unbecoming  trades  or  oc 
cupations;  they  should  not  take  part 
in  games  of  chance  when  played  for 
money;  they  should  not  carry  arms 
unless  there  is  just  cause  for  fear; 
they  should  not  indulge  in  hunt 
ing,  and  in  that  form  of  it  which 
is  called  clamorosa,  they  should 
never  engage;  they  should  not  enter 
public  houses  and  other  similar 
places  without  necessity  or  some 
other  just  cause  approved  by  the 
Ordinary  of  the  place."  The  occu 
pations  which  are  prohibited  as  un 
becoming  the  clerical  state  are  those 
which  are  commonly  regarded  as 
mean  or  sordid  or  which  cannot  be 
engaged  in  without  serious  danger 
of  sin.  In  this  connection  canonists 
usually  state  that  clerics  are  for 
bidden  to  be  clowns,  jesters,  or  ac 
tors  in  public  theaters  or  in  unbe 
coming  plays.  These  are  merely  ex 
amples.  The  prohibition  in  regard 
to  games  of  chance  embraces  only 
such  as  are  entirely  dependent  on 
chance,  e.g.,  dicing  (cfr.  St.  Al- 
phonsus,  Theol.  Mor.,  Ill,  n.  900). 
Canonists  and  theologians  are,  how 
ever,  agreed  that  clerics  are  not 
guilty  of  a  grave  sin  in  this  matter 
unless  they  play  very  frequently 
(cfr.  Sabetti-Barrett,  Comp.  Theol. 
Mor.,  n.  587  sqq.).  As  to  card-play 
ing,  Dr.  J.  Kinane  says  in  a  com 
mentary  on  can.  138  in  the  Irish 


Eccles.  Record,  Vol.  XI,  No.  6, 
p.  478:  "Games  which  are  de 
pendent  entirely  or  almost  entirely 
on  skill,  and  those  which  are  de 
pendent  partly  on  skill  and  partly 
on  chance,  do  not  come  within  the 
scope  of  this  prohibition.  Most 
games  of  cards  belong  to  this  lat 
ter  category,  and,  consequently,  are 
not  directly  forbidden.  It  is  hardly 
necessary  to  point  out,  however, 
that  card-playing  on  the  part  of 
clerics  may  sometimes  result  indi 
rectly  in  a  serious  violation  of  the 
natural  law  itself,  if  it  leads  them 
to  neglect  their  duties,  or  gives 
scandal  to  others,  or  produces  some 
other  evil  effect  of  that  kind.  Lo 
cal  legislation,  too,  may  sometimes 
prohibit  it  directly."  The  regula 
tion  in  regard  to  the  carrying  of 
arms  must  also  be  interpreted  in 
the  light  of  the  old  legislation  on 
this  matter,  which  was  regarded  by 
canonists  as  prohibiting  only  mili 
tary  arms  intended  for  use  against 
man.  (Palmieri,  Opus  Theol.  Mor., 
IV,  p.  335:  "Arma  scilicet  mili- 
taria  quae  publice  more  laicorum 
gerantur .") .  Regarding  hunting, 
the  quiet  form  of  it  (venatio 
quieta)  is  sinful  for  clerics  only  in 
so  far  as  time  is  wasted,  duties  ne 
glected,  or  scandal  given  in  the  in 
dulgence  of  it.  (Cfr.  J.  Kinane, 
/.  c.,  p.  479,  and  Chas.  Augustine, 
O.  S.  B.,  Commentary  on  the  New 
Code  of  Canon  Law,  Vol.  II,  pp. 
86  sqq. 


38  INDIVIDUAL  DUTIES 

content  with  merely  giving  instruction,  but  must 
aim  at  the  development  of  character.  Char 
acter  comes  through  self-expressive  activity, 
and  it  is  mainly  in  play  that  the  child  expresses 
his  personality  and  his  strongest  interests.  "The 
task  of  the  teacher  in  either  sphere  [mental  and 
moral  as  well  as  physical],  says  a  recent  Ameri 
can  writer,  "is  that  of  so  controlling  and  modify 
ing  the  environment  of  the  child  as  to  call  forth 
those  reactions  that  are  likely  to  form  the  de 
sired  habits  of  thought  and  conduct.  In  this 
training  the  reactions  that  are  of  greatest  value 
are  those  that  are  most  genuinely  and  completely 
self-expressive  and,  with  children  and  youth  at 
least,  these  are  most  readily  discovered  in  the  play 
life.  Here  we  touch  the  springs  of  interest,  and 
we  may  utilize  that  interest  as  a  powerful  factor 
in  the  accomplishment  of  our  purpose.  Play  fur 
nishes  the  teacher  or  parent  the  most  immediate 
point  of  contact  with  child  life."  3G  These  and 
many  other  considerations,  into  which  we  cannot 
enter  here,  show  the  possibilities  of  wisely  di 
rected  play  as  an  influence  in  Christian  training. 
As  the  same  writer  justly  says,  "the  responsibil 
ity  for  providing  adequate  and  proper  play  for 
the  children  and  youth  of  any  community  is  a 
moral  duty  that  cannot  be  lightly  evaded,  and  the 

36  H.  W.  Gates,  Recreation  and  through  Play,  New  York,  1915;  Jos. 
the  Church,  Chicago,  1917,  p.  n;  Lee,  Play  in  Education,  New  York, 
cfr.  H.  S.  Curtis,  Education  1915. 


RECREATION  39 

Church  must  take  at  least  an  intelligent  interest 
therein."  37 

Both  body  and  mind  from  time  to  time  require 
recreation,  in  order  that  they  may  not  be  over 
taxed  and  thereby  lose  their  efficiency.  Bodily 
recreation  has  a  wholesome  influence  on  the  mind 
as  well.  Practically  every  mental  exertion  in 
volves  a  strain  on  the  body  because  the  mind 
works  through  the  bodily  organs,  and  therefore 
recreation  eases  both  body  and  mind,  and  pro 
duces  pleasure,  joy,  and  comfort.  No  man  can 
exist  without  some  sort  of  sensible  pleasure, 
and  the  contention  of  the  Stoics  that  pleasure  is 
unworthy  of  human  nature  must  be  rejected  as 
radically  false.  While  it  is  true  that  recreation 
or  pleasure  may  become  sinful  by  inordinate  in 
dulgence,  it  is  equally  true  that  complete  absten 
tion  from  all  pleasure  is  apt  to  make  men  dull 
and  morose  and  a  burden  to  one  another. 

Social  intercourse  is  a  postulate  of  reason  and 
a  demand  of  nature,  and  if  properly  regulated, 
has  a  high  ethical  value.  In  itself  social  inter 
course  has  its  advantages  as  well  as  disadvan 
tages,  just  like  solitude,  which,  if  observed  ac 
cording  to  the  rules  of  ascetic  theology,  may  be 
termed  "the  garden  of  the  interior  life."  3S 

37  Gates,     op.     cit.,     p.     20. — Mr.  and  youth.     See  also  Hy.  A.  Atkin- 

Gates    shows   how    certain    churches  son,    The   Church  and   the   People's 

have      interested      themselves      with  Play,  Pilgrim  Press,   1915. 

good   results   in   the   matter   of  pro-  38  Cfr.  Mich.  VII,  6;  Eccles.  IV, 

viding    play    facilities    for    children  10,    12;    Prov.    XVIII,   24;    XXVII, 


40  INDIVIDUAL  DUTIES 

An  important  place  among  social  pleasures  be 
longs  to  those  of  the  table.  Significantly  enough 
Jesus  Christ  represents  the  joys  of  Heaven  un 
der  the  figure  of  a  banquet.39  In  the  parable  of 
the  prodigal  son  He  expressly  mentions  the  meal 
which  the  father  prepared  in  honor  of  his  son's 
return.40  He  often  accepts  invitations  to  din 
ner,41  takes  part  with  His  Blessed  Mother  in  the 
wedding  feast  of  Cana,42  and  institutes  a  banquet 
of  love  to  serve  as  a  memorial  of  His  passion.43 
In  the  agape  the  Church  recognized  the  ethical 
value  of  the  common  meal.44  To  partake  of  food 
in  the  company  of  others  is  therefore  a  morally 
good  act,  which  becomes  illicit  only  by  abuse. 
Luxurious  feasting  leads  to  sins  against  temper 
ance  and  purity.45 

17;    Matt.   X,   36;    Luke   IV,   42;   V,  conturbat.     Christus,  qui  non  potuit 

16;  IX,   18.— St.  Bernard,  Serm.  in  impediri    turba,    declinavit   a    turba. 

Cant.,    LXIV,    n.    4:    "Quanta    ex  Vita  solitaria  Deo   et  angelis  grata, 

monasteries    spiritu    fen'entes    eremi  pads  semper  arnica." 

solitude    suscepit    et    out    tepefactos  89  Matt.  VIII,   n;  Luke  XIV,   15 

evomuit     out     tenuit     contra     eremi  sqq. 

legem,     non     modo     remissos,     sed  40  Luke  XV,   23. 

etiam     dissolutosf     Sicque    apparuit  41  Luke  VII,  36  sqq. 

vulpeculam  adfuisse,  ubi  tanta  facta  42  John  II,  i  sqq. 

est  vastatio   vineae,   id   est,   vitae   et  43  i   Cor.   XI,  23  sqq. 

conscientiae     hominis     detrimentum.  44  i    Cor.    XI,    20-34;    cfr.    F.    X. 

Cogitabat,  si  solus  degeret,  multo  se  Funk,       Kirchengeschichtliche       Ab- 

copiosiores    fructus    spiritus    percep-  handlungen      und      Untersuchungen, 

turum,   quippe   qui  in  communi  vita  Vol.    Ill,    Paderborn,     1907,    pp.     i 

tantnm  spiritualis  gratiae  fuisset  ex-  sqq.;   H.    Leclercq   in   the   Cath.   En- 

Pertus.     Et   bona   visa  est   sua  cogi-  cyclopedia,     Vol.     I,    pp.     200    sqq.; 

tatio    sibi,    sed    rei    exitus   indicavit,  Keating,       The      Agape      and       the 

tnagis   eandem  illi  cogitationem   vul-  Eucharist     in     the     Early     Church, 

Pern    demolientem    fuisse."     (Migne,  London,    1901;    P.    Batiffol,    Etudes 

P.   L.,   CLXXXIII,    1085).— Thomas  d'Histoire  et  de  Theologie  Positive, 

a    Kempis,   Lib.    Spirit.   Exercitii,   c.  Paris,  1902,  pp.  277-311. 

4    (ed.    Pohl,    II,    336):     " Solitude  45  i    Cor.    X,    5-8;    cfr.    St.    Je- 

devotionit     est    mater,     turba    vero  rome,   Epist.,   LIV    (al.    X),   n.    10: 


SOCIAL  PLEASURES  41 

Games  and  plays  may  be  divided  into  two 
classes :  those  which  require  skill  and  talent,  and 
those  in  which  chance  plays  the  leading  part.  To 
the  former  class  belong  chess,  billiards,  and  ten 
pins;  to  the  latter,  dice  and  cards.  In  them 
selves  both  species  of  games  are  morally  licit, 
even  though  played  for  money;  for  in  many 
cases  it  is  only  by  playing  for  stakes  that  sufficient 
interest  can  be  maintained.  But  when  playing 
degenerates  into  gambling,  and  is  carried  on 
purely  for  the  sake  of  gain,  it  involves  moral  dan 
ger. 

That  gambling  may  not  be  illicit,  theologians 
commonly  require  four  conditions,  which  Father 
Slater  states  as  follows :  ( i )  What  is  staked  must 
belong  to  the  gambler  and  must  be  at  his  free  dis 
posal;  (2)  the  gambler  must  act  freely  without 
unjust  compulsion;  (3)  there  must  be  no  fraud 
in  the  transaction,  although  the  usual  ruses  may 
be  allowed;  and,  finally  (4),  there  must  be  some 
sort  of  equality  between  the  parties  to  make  the 
contract  equitable.  If  any  of  these  conditions  be 
wanting,  gambling  becomes  more  or  less  wrong. 
Besides,  there  is  in  all  gambling  an  element 
of  danger  which  is  sufficient  to  account  for 
the  bad  name  it  has  acquired.  In  most  people 

"Nihil     sic     inflammat     corpora     et  a  Kempis,  De  Imit.   Christi,  1.   I,  c. 

titillat   membra   genitalia   sicut   indi-  19      (ed.     Pohl,     II,     34) :     "Frena 

gestus    cibus    ructusque    convulsvs."  gttlam,     et     omnem     carnis     inclina- 

(Mtgne,  P.  L.,  XXII,  555).    Thomas  tionem   facilius  frenabis." 


42  INDIVIDUAL  DUTIES 

gambling  arouses  keen  excitement  and  quickly 
develops  into  a  passion  which  is  difficult  to  con 
trol.  If  indulged  to  excess  it  leads  to  loss  of 
time  and  usually  of  money,  to  an  idle  and  useless 
life  spent  in  bad  company  and  unwholesome  sur 
roundings,  and  to  scandal,  which  is  an  occasion 
of  sin  and  a  source  of  ruin  to  others.46 

Dancing  holds  in  social  life  a  place  that  can 
not  be  ignored.  It  appeals  strongly  to  the  desire 
to  express  in  rhythmical  motion  the  exuberant 
spirit  and  vitality  of  youth,  and  gratifies  the 
craving  for  society  and  companionship.  If  in 
dulged  for  the  sake  of  recreation  and  social  fel 
lowship,  it  is,  in  the  words  of  St.  Francis  de 
Sales,  morally  indifferent,  i.  e.,  neither  good  nor 
bad  in  itself;  but  as  now  commonly  practiced,  it 
tends  to  evil  and  entails  many  dangers.  The 
best  dances  are  not  above  suspicion,  and  therefore 
dancing  should  be  indulged  but  rarely  and  for 
a  short  time.  Though  the  danger  involved  is  of 
ten  great,47  it  would  nevertheless  be  wrong  to 

46  Cath.  Encyclopedia,  Vol.  VI,  p.  iota  die  saltarent."     (Migne,  P.  L., 
375.— Cfr.  Cone.  Trid.,  Sess.  XXII,  XXXVI,    281).— IDEM,    ibid.,    XCI, 
de  Ref.,  c.  i;  Sess.  XXIV,  de  Ref.,  n.   2:     "Melius  est  enim  arare   [die 
c.    12;    St.   Thomas,   Sttmma  Theol.,  sabbati],     quam    saltare."     (P.     L., 
23.  zae,  qu.  168,  art.  1-4;  Funk,  op.  XXXVII,  1172).— IDEM,  Serm.,  IX, 
cit.   (see  note  44),   Vol.  II,  pp.  209  n.    3:     "Non    quomodo    ludaei    ob- 
sqq.  servabant     sabbatum     carnali     otio, 

47  Cfr.    Eccles.    IX,    4. — St.    Au-  vacare  enim  volunt  ad  nugas  atque 
gustine,  In  Ps.t  XXXII,  s.    i,  n.  6:  luxurias  suas.     Melius   enim  faceret 
"Observa     diem     sabbati,     non     car-  ludaeus    in    agro    suo    aliquid    utile, 
naliter,  non  iudaicis  deliciis,  qui  otio  quam  in  theatro  seditiosus  existeret, 
abutuntur      ad      nequitiam.     Melius  et    melius   feminae    eorunt    die   sab- 
tnim  utique  tota  die  foderent,  quam  bati  lanam   facerent,   quam   tota  die 


DANCING  43 

condemn  dancing1  absolutely.  This  form  of 
amusement  may  be  tolerated  under  the  following 
conditions : 

(a)  All  sinful  intention  must  be  excluded,  and 
the  participants  must  be  earnestly  resolved  to 
render  the  danger  of  sin  remote,  and  have  a  cer 
tainty,  based  upon  experience,  that  they  will  be 
able  to  avoid  sin ; 

(b)  Young  people  attending  a  dance  or  ball 
should  be  accompanied  by  their  parents  or  other 
reliable  chaperons,  and  avoid  being  alone  with 
persons  of  the  other  sex; 

(c)  They  should  dress  modestly,  and 

(d)  The  dances  must  not  be  indecent  or  ob 
jectionable  in  themselves.48 

Systematic  bodily  exercise  not  only  benefits 
health,  but  also  occupies  the  mind  in  a  useful  man 
ner,  and  hence  the  various  forms  of  wholesome 
sport,  e.  g.,  walking,  riding,  swimming,  hunting, 
fencing,  boxing,  sleighing,  skating,  etc.,  are  in 
themselves  morally  licit  and  often  exert  a  whole 
some  influence  upon  the  mind.  They  become 
reprehensible  only  when  they  exceed  the  right 
measure  or  are  made  the  object  of  sinful  desire 
or  the  occasion  of  sensual  excitement,  effeminacy, 
or  dissoluteness,  or  are  indulged  in  to  the  detri- 

in    maenianis    suis    impudice    salta-  414;    C.    L.     Souvay,    C.M.,    in    the 

rent."     (P.    L.,    XXXVIII,     77).—  Cath.    Encyclopedia,    Vol.    IV,    pp. 

Cfr.    IDEM,    Tr.    in   loa.,    Ill,   n.    19  618    sq.;    C.    J.    Sharp    and    A.    P. 

(P.    L.,   XXXV1,    1404).  Oppe,     The     Dance:     A     Historical 

4S  A.   Lehmkuhl,  S  J.,  Casus  Con-  Survey  of  Dancing  in  Europe,  Lon- 

saentiae,   Vol.    I,    3rd   ed.,   n.    411-  don,    1924. 


44  INDIVIDUAL  DUTIES 

ment  of  vocational  duties  or  of  health.  A  sports 
man  who  is  not  satisfied  with  amusing  himself 
and  benefitting  his  health,  but  wishes  to  triumph 
and  be  admired  at  any  price,  may  easily  fall  into 
sin.49 

As  regards  football  and  other  more  arduous 
athletic  sports,  such  as  hockey,  "track  events," 
etc.,  their  liceity  must,  of  course,  be  gauged  in 
each  instance  by  the  general  principles  of  the 
moral  code.  In  its  early  development  in  Eng 
land  football,  for  one,  seems  to  have  been  deci 
dedly  brutal,  if  we  can  trust  its  characterization 
by  a  British  writer  of  that  day,  Sir  Thomas 
Elyot  (1531),  to  wit,  that  it  was  "nothing  but 
beastely  fury  and  extreme  violence,  whereof  pro- 
ceedeth  hurte  and  consequently  rancor  and  mal 
ice  to  remayne  with  thym  that  be  wounded, 
wherefore  it  is  to  be  put  in  perpetual  silence."50 
As  to  the  present-day  much  improved  status  of 
this  and  other  athletic  sports,  their  all  but  uni 
versal  adoption  by  reputable  Catholic  institutions 
everywhere  would  seem  to  relieve  the  individual 
devotee  of  athletics  of  fruitless  scruples.  Not  so 
simple  a  matter,  however,  is  the  problem  of  the 
relation  of  athletics  to  morality  as  it  confronts 

49  Cfr.    H.    W.    Gates,    Recreation  Abuses     (1583)      even     claims     that 
and  the  Church,  p.  51.  "brawling,    murther,    homicide,    and 

50  Encyclopedia    Britannica,     nth  great  effusion  of  blood"  are  not  un- 
ed.,    Vol.    X,    p.    617,    s.    v.     "  Foot-  usual  experiences  as  a  result  of  the 
ball."     Fifty     years     later,     another  game.      (Encyc.    Brit.,    ibid.). 
writer,   Stubbes,   in  his  Anatomie  of 


BODILY  EXERCISE  45 

the  authorities  of  educational  institutions  who 
have  to  decide  upon  a  policy  for  all  their  subjects. 
A  careful  reading  of  the  paper  on  "The  Ethical 
Influence  of  College  Athletics,"  by  the  Rev. 
Charles  Macksey,  S  J.,  in  the  Report  of  the  Cath 
olic  Educational  Association  for  1906  51  and  the 
articles  of  Dr.  James  J.  Walsh  in  America 52  will 
no  doubt  prove  instructive. 

The  early  Christians  condemned  and  avoided 
the  dissolute  diversions  of  their  pagan  contem 
poraries  and  followed  the  advice  of  the  Apos 
tle,  "Rejoice  in  the  Lord  always;  again  I  say, 
rejoice."  53  This  did  not,  however,  prevent  them 
from  indulging  in  suitable  recreations.  Clement 
of  Alexandria  admonishes  his  hearers  to  hunt  or 
fish,  to  play  ball,  and  to  try  their  hand  at  boxing, 
and  adds :  "To  exert  one's  strength  in  the  right 
way  and  for  the  benefit  of  one's  health,  is  com 
mendable  and  manly."  54  The  late  Pope  Pius  X 
repeatedly  admonished  the  young  people  of  Rome 
to  engage  in  gymnastic  exercises,  which,  if  car 
ried  on  with  moderation,  he  said,  "promote  not 
only  the  health  of  the  body,  but  likewise  the  wel 
fare  of  the  soul."  5B 

61  Columbus,   O.,  pp.    10 1    sqq.  Athletics,"     ibid.,     Vol.     XIII,     No. 

62  "Athletics       and       Character,"  24,  p.   586. — On  athletics  in  general, 
America,  Vol.   XIII,   No.   8,  p.    195:  W.    Camp,    Athletes   All:    Training, 
"Athletics    and    Health,"    ibid.,    No.  Organisation,  and  Play,  N.  Y.,  1919. 
7,  p.  169;  "Athletics  in  our  Schools,"  63  Phil.    IV,    4- 

ibid.,   No.   6,   p.    142;   "Athletics  and  04  Paedag.,    Ill,    16;    cfr.    K.    Er- 

Scholarship,"  ibid.,   No.    10,  p.   245;  nesti,   Die   Ethik   des   Klemens   von 

"Why  Have  Competitive  Athletics?"  Alex-andrien,   pp.    no    sqq. 

ibid.,      No.      12,      p.      293. — Against  66  Athletics,  may  be  made  a  means 

Walsh,  R.  E.  Shortall,  "Competitive  of  self-discipline  and  progress  in  vir- 


46  INDIVIDUAL  DUTIES 

Besides  the  pleasures  of  the  body  there  are 
intellectual  and  aesthetic  pleasures  which  tend 
to  refresh  the  entire  human  organism  and  in 
spire  the  mind  with  noble  thoughts  and  impulses. 
"If  thy  heart  were  right,"  says  Thomas  a 
Kempis,  "then  every  creature  would  be  to  thee  a 
mirror  of  life  and  a  book  of  holy  doctrine. 
There  is  no  creature  so  little  and  contemptible  as 
not  to  manifest  the  goodness  of  God."  56 

The  public  library  is  not  only  a  great  educa 
tional  factor,  but  an  important  element  in  the  rec 
reational  life  of  a  community.  Some  of  these 
institutions  not  only  furnish  abundant  supplies 
of  juvenile  literature,  but  pay  special  atten 
tion  to  the  wants  of  children  by  conducting  "story 
hours"  and  other  recreational  features.  Catho 
lics  should  watch  these  features  in  order  to  pre 
vent  irreligious  or  immoral  reading  matter  from 
getting  into  the  hands  of  children  and  see  to  it 
that  the  public  library  authorities  do  not  ignore 
Catholic  literature  or  treat  its  productions  in  nig 
gardly  fashion.  Good  Catholic  books,  especially 
such  reference  works  as  the  "Catholic  Encyclo 
pedia,"  ought  to  be  placed  on  the  shelves  of  every 
public  library,  and  after  putting  them  there,  the 

tue.     "I    knew    one    young    man    in  his   own    struggle   for    Christian  liv- 

college  who  used  to   pray  regularly  ing."     (H.     W.     Gates,     Recreation 

and   earnestly   for   grace   to   control  and   the    Church,    Chicago,    1917,    p. 

his    temper    when    playing    football,  19). 

and   who    definitely   recognized    sue-  56  De    Imit.    Christi,    1.    II,    c.    4 

cess  in  this  respect  as  a  victory  in  (ed.   Pohl,  II,  66) :   "Si  rectum  cor 


ART  47 

organizations  which  have  discharged  this  duty 
(local  K.  of  C.  councils,  etc.)  should  duly  adver 
tise  the  fact  and  take  care  that  the  books  are 
taken  out  and  read.  Many  a  librarian  has 
started  in  with  a  will  to  do  justice  to  Catholic  lit 
erature,  but  lost  his  zeal  when  he  observed  that 
Catholic  books  gathered  dust  upon  the  shelves.57 
Modern  art,  unfortunately,  overemphasizes  the 
sensual  element;  but  the  moralist  cannot  con 
tent  himself  with  warning  against  its  extrava 
gances,  because,  next  to  religion,  art  is  undoubt 
edly  the  most  effective  means  of  influencing  peo 
ple  for  good.  "Both  religion  and  art,"  says 
Hettinger,  "have  come  forth  from  God,  the  high 
est  ideal;  and  although  their  field  is  different, 
both  must  necessarily  lead  back  to  God  if  the 
religion  is  true  and  if  art  has  not  departed  from 
its  ideal.  As  all  else  that  serves  the  truth  serves 
God,  art  also  must  serve  Him  in  representing 
beauty;  for  beauty  comes  from  God  and  leads 
back  to  Him."  58  Those  who  extol  "art  for  art's 
sake"  would  confine  its  practice  and  enjoyment 
to  a  select  group  of  intellectuals.  This  is  not 
the  Catholic  idea.  From  the  beginning  of  Chris 
tianity,  art  was  employed  for  the  edification 

tuum     esset,     tune    omnis     creatura  Aspect  of  Our  Public  Libraries"   in 

speculum  vitae  et  liber  sanctae  doc-  "Your   Neighbor   and   You,"   by  the 

trinae  esset.     Non  est  creatura  tarn  Rev.   Edw.   F.   Garesche,   S.   J.,   and 

parva   et   vilis,    quae  Dei   bonitatem  ed.,  New  York,  1919,  pp.  200-210. 
non  repraesentat."  BS  Hettinger-Stepka,     Timothy,    p. 

57  Cfr.  Recreation  and  the  Church,  203,   St.   Louis,    1902;   cfr.  J.   Mari- 

Chicago,    1917,    pp.    46    sqq;    "One  tain,   The  Philosophy  of  Art,  tr.  by 

J.   O'Connor,   Sussex,    1924. 


48  INDIVIDUAL  DUTIES 

of  the  common  people,  and  the  most  eminent 
philosophers,  ancient  and  modern,  have  declared 
it  to  be  an  important  factor  in  the  service  of  mor 
ality.  It  is,  therefore,  false  to  say  that  art  has 
no  object  beyond  itself.  Morality,  whilst  not 
the  goal  of  art,  should  be  its  standard  and  load 
star.  The  artist  need  not  preach  goodness,  but 
neither  should  he  attack  it.  His  highest  en 
deavor  should  be  to  use  his  talents  for  the  honor 
of  God  and  the  edification  of  his  fellowmen. 

Modern  aestheticians  maintain  that  the  repres 
entation  of  the  nude  is  the  highest  ideal  and  tri 
umph  of  art.  This  contention  is  opposed  to  the 
Christian  view.  The  Church  has  never  regarded 
the  naked  body  in  itself  as  unchaste,  but  she  has 
always  insisted  on  the  great  dangers  involved 
in  its  representation,  and  consistently  disap 
proved  of  the  freedom  and  promiscuity  with 
which  nude  sculptures  and  paintings  are  publicly 
exhibited.59  The  real  lover  of  art  will  derive 
from  its  true  ideals  ever  fresh  impulses  for  the 
battle  against  pseudo-art.  His  slogan  will  be: 
Away  with  filth  and  obscenity,  but  all  honor  to 
the  productions  of  genuine  art!  Msgr.  Hettin- 
ger,  while  rather  austere  in  his  attitude,  is  no 
doubt  right  in  saying  that  the  nude  statues  of 

60 "  Facile    conceditur   corpus   hu-  Innsbruck,       1913,      p.       62.) — Cfr. 

manum  in  se  honestum  et  pulchrum,  D.      A.      Sertillanges,      Kunst     und 

ftd  tamen  aptunt  esse,  quod  in  aliis  Moral,   Strasbourg,    1905,   pp.   9  sq., 

sensum     venereum     excitet."     (Nol-  59  sq.;  see  also  J.  Jungmann,  S.  J., 

din,   De  Sexto  Praecepto,   nth  ed.,  Aesthetik,  3rd  ed.,  Freiburg   1886. 


THE  THEATRE  49 

antiquity  belong  to  the  time  of  the  decline  of  art, 
and  that  the  decline  of  morality  was  its  com 
panion.  The  more  carnal  man  is,  the  more  car 
nal  his  art.60 

A  popular  way  of  taking  a  vacation  is  to  go 
traveling.  Pleasure  trips  taken  for  recreation 
or  with  a  view  to  broadening  one's  education  or 
gathering  knowledge,  are  morally  licit,  and  have 
this  special  advantage  that  they  often  cause  peo 
ple  to  appreciate  their  home  better. 

The  theatre  has  been  a  bone  of  contention  from 
the  earliest  times.  The  Church  justly  condemned 
the  idolatrous  and  lascivious  stage  performances 
common  in  the  first  centuries  of  her  history  as 
"pompa  diaboli."  The  Quakers  and  the  Jan- 
senists  regarded  the  theatre  as  immoral  because 
of  its  essential  untruth.  It  is  "a  counterfeit  of 
life,"  they  said.  Others,  on  the  contrary,  ex 
tolled  the  stage  as  a  school  of  morality  and  an 
educational  agency  of  the  highest  importance  fit 
to  supplant  church  and  pulpit.  Both  views 
are  extreme.  The  theatre  can  be  no  substi 
tute  for  religion  because  its  primary  purpose  is 
entertainment,  though  secondarily,  of  course,  it 
may  be  turned  into  an  educational  and  civilizing 
agency.  Morality  and  miracle  plays  flourished 
in  the  Middle  Ages.  To-day,  unfortunately, 
the  stage,  in  all  its  forms,  has  sunk  to  an  intel- 

60  Hettinger-Stepka,   Timothy,  p.   227;  on  "the  ethics  of  art"  see  VV.   S. 
Lilly,  Right  and  Wrong,  3rd  ed.,  London,   1892,  Ch.  X. 


50  .INDIVIDUAL  DUTIES 

lectual  and  moral  level  not  far  above  that  of 
pagan  antiquity,  and  therefore  cannot  be  ap 
proved  unreservedly.  Innocent  plays  may  be  rec 
ommended  for  the  sake  of  lawful  pleasure  or 
recreation.  But,  as  Noldin  notes,  "present-day 
theatrical  representations  are  of  such  a  nature 
that  they  nearly  always  constitute  a  more  or  less 
proximate  occasion  of  sin,  both  against  purity 
and  against  the  faith."  If  the  occasion  of  sin  is 
merely  remote,  one  may  witness  such  plays  for  a 
reasonable  cause;  but  if  it  is  proximate,  attend 
ance  at  them  is  forbidden  under  pain  of  mortal 
sin,  except  for  a  very  grave  cause  and  with  due 
safeguards.  A  sufficient  cause  for  attending  an 
objectionable  play,  according  to  the  same  eminent 
author,  would  be  indignation  on  the  part  of  a  hus 
band  or  parent  in  case  of  refusal  to  attend,  but 
not  a  mere  command  or  Joss  of  the  money  paid 
for  admission,  nor  (at  least  ordinarily)  the  good 
purpose  for  which  the  proceeds  of  the  perform 
ance  are  destined,  because  to  contribute  to  a  good 
cause  one  need  not  attend  an  immoral  perform 
ance  ;  besides,  the  good  end  cannot  justify  the  il 
licit  means.61 

61  On  the  attitude  of  the  primitive  of  Catholic  theologians,  St.  Themas, 

Church   see   St.   Augustine,   De   Civ.  Summa  Theol.,  aa  zae,  qu.   168,  art. 

Dei,  passim;  K.  J.   Hefele,  Beitrage  3,  ad  3;  A.  v.  Berger,  Ueber  Drama 

zwr   Kirchengeschichte,    Vol.    I,    pp.  und  Theater,  3rd  ed.,  Leipsic,   1900; 

28   sqq.;   P.   Wolf,  Die  Stellung  der  J.    T.    Smith,    The   Catholic   Theatre, 

Christen   zu   den   Schauspielen   nach  New   York,    1917. — On    the    Catholic 

Tertullians    Schrift    De    Spectaculis,  origin      of      the      modern      theatre, 

Vienna,  1897.— On  the  later  attitude  cfr.   M.   Sepet,   Origines  Catholiques 


MOTION  PICTURES  51 

Needless  to  add,  actors,  and  a  fortiori  mana 
gers,  who  produce  obscene  plays  or  such  as  no* 
tably  excite  the  passions  or  offend  against  re' 
ligion,  give  scandal  and  are  guilty  of  grievous 
sin. 


The  Catholic  Church  in  the  Middle  Ages  fostered  and 
encouraged  the  drama.  Even  Luther  favored  theatrical 
entertainments  in  the  schools.  But  the  Calvinists,  the 
Puritans,  and  other  strait-laced  Protestant  sects  con 
demned  the  stage,  as  did  the  Jansenists.  The  abuses 
and  dangers  connected  with  the  theatre  caused  many 
Catholics  to  adopt  the  same  unreasonable  attitude.62 


du  Theatre  Moderne,  Paris,  1901; 
E.  Michael,  S.J.,  Geschichte  des 
deutschen  Volkes  im  Mittelalter, 
Vol.  IV,  Freiburg,  1906,  pp.  400 
sqq. ;  G.  Crosse,  The  Religious 
Drama,  London,  1913;  Brother 
Azarias,  Philosophy  of  Literature, 
N.  Y.,  1890,  pp.  1 08  sqq.;  Card. 
Gasquet,  The  Eve  of  the  Reforma 
tion;  P.  Kirwan,  The  Dawn  of  the 
English  Drama,  London,  1920. — 
Noldin's  teaching  in  his  Summa 
Theol.  Mor.,  Vol.  Ill,  nth  ed., 
Innsbruck,  1914,  pp.  512  sqq.;  Cfr. 
Gury,  Compend.  Theol.  Mor.,  Lyons 
and  Paris,  1850,  Vol.  I,  n.  233. 

62  How  this  attitude  has  grad 
ually  changed  can  be  seen,  e.g., 
from  the  writings  of  Father  John 
Talbot  Smith.  We  will  also  quote 
a  characteristic  passage  from  Her 
bert  Wright  Gates's  Recreation  and 
the  Church,  Chicago,  1917,  pp.  67 
sq.:  "In  almost  any  of  the  argu 
ments  against  the  theater,  written 
twenty-five  years  or  so  ago,  one 
finds  the  statement  that  clean  and 
respectable  plays  cannot  be  made 
profitable,  therefore  stage  managers 
will  not  present  them.  The  same 
argument  is  occasionally  used  to 


day  as  an  excuse  by  managers  who 
prefer  to  present  the  unwhole 
some  type.  Granted  that  the  argu 
ment  was  true  twenty-five  years 
ago;  who  was  to  blame?  Was  it 
alone  the  people  who  patronized 
the  immoral  play,  or  the  manager 
who  presented  it,  or  may  not  some 
share  be  justly  borne  by  those  who, 
through  indiscriminate  condemna 
tion  of  the  theatre  as  a  whole  and 
through  their  refusal  to  f.upport  the 
better  type  of  plays,  helped  to  make 
the  statement  true?  But  what  is 
the  condition  of  affairs  to-day? 
By  degrees  we  have  come  to  see 
that  the  stage  may  not  be  all  bad, 
and  Christian  people  and  cultivated 
men  and  women  are  lending  their 
support  to  its  elevation.  As  a  re 
sult  the  person  who  says  that  the 
good  play  cannot  be  made  financially 
successful  is  either  indulging  in  a 
deliberate  falsehood  or  is  ignorant 
of  the  facts.  The  truth  is  that  the 
plays  which  meet  with  the  largest 
and  most  enduring  success  are  those 
that  have  genuine  merit,  and  many 
of  them  are  of  very  high  educational 
and  moral  value."  And  he  con- 


52  INDIVIDUAL  DUTIES 

The  attacks  of  writers  like  Juan  Mariana  and  Bossuet 
were  one-sided  and  extreme.  As  Father  Baumgartner 
has  pointed  out,  the  Catholic  courts  of  Europe  in 
the  sixteenth  century  and  later  continued  to  foster  the 
drama,  and  the  Jesuits  produced  many  plays  in  their 
schools  and  colleges.  The  same  eminent  writer  adds: 
"In  view  of  the  present  condition  of  the  stage,  theatre- 
going  cannot  be  generally  and  unreservedly  recom 
mended;  yet  it  would  be  far  more  advisable  and  more 
fruitful  to  restore  the  theatre  to  its  rightful  purpose  by 
diligent  cooperation,  than  to  take  a  merely  hostile  attitude, 
and  by  a  policy  of  abstinence  to  prevent  some  of  the 
most  flagrant  abuses  of  dramatic  art,  while  leaving  the 
theatre  itself  in  the  control  of  our  adversaries."  63 

In  connection  with  the  theatre  it  behooves  us  to  say 
a  few  words  about  its  even  more  widely  spread  and  more 
thoroughly  commercialized  step-daughter,  the  motion- 
picture  show.  The  fact  that  three-fourths  of  our  school 
children  attend  the  "  movies " — at  least  half  of  that 
number  as  often  as  once  a  week — and  that  statistics 
from  several  cities  show  the  average  weekly  attend 
ance  to  be  equivalent  to,  or  more  than,  the  entire  popula 
tion  of  the  respective  city,  gives  some  indication  of  the 
magnitude  of  the  problem.  Mr.  Ellis  P.  Oberholtzer,  the 
secretary  of  the  Pennsylvania  State  Board  of  Censors, 
estimates  that  the  number  of  moving  picture  houses 
throughout  the  United  States  is  at  least  15,000  and  states 
that  most  of  the  films  shown  in  these  theatres  are  highly 

eludes   with    the   pertinent   question:  to    tolerate    the    shady    and    sugges- 

"What  would   be   the   further   result  live  performance?"      Here   is   where 

if    all    those    who    have    the    culture  good  people  often  commit  a  grievous 

essential  to  good  taste  and  the  char-  sin   of  omission. 

acter  requisite   to  courageous  action  63  Alex.  Baumgartner,  S.J.,  in  the 

were   actively    to    demand    and    sup-  Staatslexikon,   and  ed.,  Vol.   V,   pp. 

port   the   best   and   resolutely    refuse  680  sq. 


MOTION  PICTURES  53 

objectionable  and  becoming  more  so  from  year  to  year. 
Seventy-five  per  cent,  of  all  the  pictures  shown,  according 
to  the  same  competent  authority,  are  devoted  to  violence 
and  crime  and  twenty  per  cent,  to  vulgar  comedy.  Ac 
cordingly  but  five  per  cent,  of  the  films  manufactured  and 
put  on  exhibition  are  good,  yet  all  of  them  are  being 
viewed  every  day  by  hundreds  of  thousands  of  people, 
including  many  children."4  In  view  of  the  evil  thus 
caused  many  careful  and  conscientious  students  of  the 
problem  have  come  to  the  conclusion  that  a  remedy  must 
be  found  and  that  "there  is  no  effective  remedy  to  ex 
clude  the  evils  from  the  motion  picture  business  except 
impartial  pre-publicity  inspection,  and  this  means  legal 
censorship."  65  The  U.  S.  Supreme  Court  in  the  case  of 
the  Mutual  Film  Corporation  vs.  Industrial  Commission 
of  Ohio  66  has  declared  that  such  a  censorship  is  neither 
unreasonable  nor  a  mere  wanton  interference  with  per 
sonal  liberty.  The  self -constituted  National  Board  of 
Censorship  (now  called  National  Board  of  Review)  was 
created  by,  and  is  a  tool  in  the  hands  of,  the  film  manu 
facturers.  A  number  of  cities  in  the  United  States  now 
have  local  censorship  of  moving  pictures,  the  most  no 
table  being  Chicago,  where  the  censorship  has  worked 
effectively  in  spite  of  many  difficulties.67  State  Censor 
ship  laws  are  in  operation  in  Ohio,  Kansas,  Pennsyl 
vania,  and  Maryland.  In  no  city  or  State  where  the 
legal  censorship  of  motion  pictures  has  been  tried  has  it 
been  abandoned,  and  the  number  of  cities  and  States  ex 
ercising  such  control  is  constantly  growing.68  Whether 

e*  Cfr.    the    Catholic    Fortnightly  66236  U.    S.   230;    reproduced  by 

Review,   St.  Louis,   Mo.,   Vol.   XXV  Schneiderhahn,  op.   cit.,   pp.   58  sqq. 

(1918),   No.    12,   p.    177.  67  Cfr.     Fortnightly     Review,     St. 

65  Edward    V.    P.    Schneiderhahn,  Louis,  XXV,   14,  p.  209. 

Motion  Pictures:  Influence,  Benefit,  68  Cfr.      Schneiderhahn,      Motion 

Evils,    Censorship,    St.    Louis,    1917,  Pictures,  p.  40. 
pp.   i   sq. 


54 


INDIVIDUAL  DUTIES 


legal  censorship  is  the  only,  or  the  most  effective,  means 
of  counteracting  the  evils  incident  to  the  moving  picture 
business  is  a  question  we  can  not  undertake  to  decide. 
No  doubt  censorship  has  its  drawbacks  and,  as  even  such 
an  ardent  advocate  of  it  as  Mr.  Oberholtzer  admits,  it 
does  not  reach  all  objectionable  films.  But  it  eliminates 
what  is  absolutely  indecent  and  directly  suggestive  of  the 
immoral,  and  that  is  pure  gain.  Next  to  an  official  cen 
sorship  with  power  to  enforce  its  decrees  and  proper 
legal  safeguards  against  abuses  of  that  power,  the  best 
protection  against  the  universal  "cinema  peril"  is  a  strong 
public  opinion  ready  to  resent  every  infringement  of 
morality  or  good  taste.  To  this  end  it  is  recommended 
that  the  clergy  and  prominent  citizens  should  frequent 
the  "movies"  as  a  matter  of  duty  and  give  a  lead  in  de 
nouncing  whatever  may  be  wrong.69 


69  Besides  Schneiderhahn's  pam 
phlet,  already  quoted  (see  note  65), 
and  the  reports  and  lists  of  films 
censored  by  the  National  Board  of 
Review,  and  those  of  the  various 
State  boards,  especially  that  of 
Pennsylvania,  the  student  may  con 
sult  E.  P.  Oberholtzer,  The  Morals 
of  the  Movies,  Phila.,  1922;  O.  G. 
Cocks,  "Applying  Standards  to 
Motion-Picture  Films,"  Survey,  Vol. 
XXXII  (1914),  PP.  337  sqq.;  J. 
Collier,  "Censorship  in  Action," 
ibid.  Vol.  XXXIV  (1915),  PP-  423 
sqq.;  Dorothy  Hurlbert,  "Moving 
Pictures,"  Library  Notes  and  News, 
published  by  the  Minnesota  Pub 
lic  Library  Commission,  Vol.  IV 
(Dec.,  1914),  pp.  132  sqq.;  F.  R. 
Willard,  "The  Motion-Picture  and 
the  Child,"  Education,  Vol.  XXXV 
(Feb.,  1915),  pp.  350  sqq.;  "The 
'Movie'  Problem"  Fortnightly  Re 
view,  St.  Louis,  1919,  Vol.  XXVI, 
Nos.  i,  2,  4,  8,  ii  sqq. — On  "The 
Cinema  Peril"  in  Great  Britain  and 


Ireland  see  the  paper  by  John  Ryan 
in  Studies,  Dublin,  Vol.  VII  (1918), 
pp.  112  sqq.  Mr.  Ryan  inter  alia 
adverts  (pp.  116  sq.)  to  the  view  of 
that  considerable  body  of  men  and 
women  (mostly  non-Catholics)  who 
hold  that  films  depicting  plots  that 
hinge  mainly  on  sins  against  the 
Sixth  Commandment  and  upon  mat 
ters  to  which  decent  men  would  not 
venture  to  allude  in  the  presence  of 
ladies,  are  quite  permissible  for 
grown-up  people  and  that  it  is  only 
necessary  to  exclude  children  when 
they  are  shown.  "This,"  he  says, 
"is  not  the  Catholic  view,  nor  is  it 
the  view  of  High-Church  Anglicans, 
nor  is  it  the  view  of  the  bulk  of 
evangelical  Christians  that  sin  can 
be  depicted  for  the  delectation  of 
even  grown-up  people.  Religious- 
minded  folk  of  all  denominations 
are  aware  that  men  and  women  have 
but  a  brief  lease  of  life,  and  that 
lease  given  them  for  the  elevation 
of  their  minds  and  souls.  This  is 


DANCE  HALLS  55 

A  word  about  public  dance  halls  may  not  be  amiss  here. 
Reports  from  various  American  cities  (as  summarized 
by  Mr.  Gates)  70  show  a  wide  range  of  conditions.  In 
most  places  the  dance  halls  are  now  under  a  fair  degree 
of  supervision,  but  almost  every  city  has  some  where 
moral  conditions  are  bad  and  certain  to  work  harm.  In 
judging  of  the  moral  character  of  a  dance  hall  the  import 
ant  questions  to  be  asked  are  these :  What  is  the  general 
character  of  the  place?  Is  it  connected  with  a  bar-room, 
or  is  liquor  sold  on  the  premises?  If  not,  are  pass-out 
checks  given,  and  are  these  used  for  the  purpose  of  visit 
ing  nearby  bar-rooms,  as  is  usually  the  case?  What  is 
the  character  of  the  attendance?  Do  girls  and  young 
women  come  alone  and  do  they  leave  alone  ?  Are  parents 
or  chaperons  present?  Is  there  police  supervision,  and  if 
so,  of  what  character  ?  Is  there  evidence  of  dancing  with 
out  introduction  or  acquaintance?  Are  there  any  evi 
dences  of  drinking  or  intoxication  ?  What  is  the  conduct 
of  the  dancers  as  to  boisterousness,  close  holding, 
immodest  attitudes  and  actions?  What  hours  are  ob 
served  ? 71 

the  idea  underlying  Herrick's  beau-  remembrances.     Why      should      the 

tiful  lyric  to  Daffodils:  picture  house  add  to  them?  Every 

high-minded  man  strives  after 

Stay,  stay  higher  things,  for  human  life  is  but 

Until  the  hasting  day  a  film  rushing  through  the  cinema- 
Has  run  tograph  of  time.  It  is  each  man's 

But  to  the  even-song;  business  to  see  that  this  film  of  his 

And,  having  prayed  together,  we  will  stand  examination  by  the  Cen- 

Will  go  with  you  along.  sor  at  the  last  public  enquiry.    Quis 

We  have  short  time  to  stay,  as  you;  ascendet  in  tnontem  Domini,  out 

We  have  as  short  a  spring;  quis  stabit  in  loco  sancto  eiusf 

As  quick  a  growth  to  meet  decay  Innocens  manibus  et  ntundo  cordel" 

As  you  or  any  thing.  On    a    recent    Catholic    attempt    at 

self-help  in   the  matter  of  the  "mo- 

You    cannot    touch    pitch    without  vie"  problem  see  Anthony  Matr6  in 

being  defiled,  and  if  you  dally  with  the    Fortnightly    Review,    St.    Louis, 

sin,  you  will  not  remain  untainted.  Mo.,  Vol.  XXVI,  No.  13,  p.  199. 

.  .  .  Life    is    full    of    ghastly    spec-  70  Op.  cit.,  see  note  53. 

tacles,    of    sad    sights    and    painful  71  A    subtle    influence    that    must 


56  INDIVIDUAL  DUTIES 

Public  playgrounds,  of  adequate  size  and  properly 
equipped,72  are  a  factor  for  good,  but  adequate  super 
vision  is  necessary  if  the  facilities  provided  are  to  serve 
their  full  purpose  and  abuses  are  to  be  prevented.  "The 
Church  will  often  find  one  of  its  most  fruitful  fields  of 
service  in  the  task  of  educating  public  opinion  to  the  point 
at  which  it  will  duly  appreciate  the  value  of  recreational 
work  for  its  children,  and  not  only  justify  but  demand 
the  expenditure  of  adequate  funds  for  public  playgrounds 
and  their  proper  equipment."  73 

As  the  individual  and  the  family  require  their 
hours  of  recreation  and  pleasure,  so  the  people 
as  a  whole  demand  community  festivals  and  en 
tertainments.  Here,  too,  nature  and  reason  draw 
certain  lines  which  must  not  be  overstepped, 
either  with  regard  to  number  or  kind.  Ours  is  a 
pleasure-seeking  generation,  and  a  goodly  num 
ber  of  the  amusements  offered  to  the  public  fur 
nish  occasions  for  sin  and  crime  and  thus  prove 
a  serious  injury  to  the  welfare  of  the  family  as 
well  as  the  nation  at  large. 

A  good  rule  with  regard  to  amusements  of  all 
kinds  is  that  laid  down  by  Don  Bosco:  "When 
you  play  or  otherwise  divert  your  mind  and  re 
create  your  body,  occasionally  raise  your  soul  to 

not    be    overlooked    is   exercised    by       W.      Gates,      Recreation     and      the 
long   hours    of    dancing   in    a    close,        Church,   p.   48). 

overheated  atmosphere.       This  means  72  Ibid.,   pp.    52   sqq.;    cfr.    Arthur 

fatigue,    and    fatigue    means    weak-        Leland,    Playground    Technique   and 
ened     powers     of     self-control.      (H.        Playcraft,  New  York,   190$. 

73  Gates,  op.  cit.,  p.   57. 


RECOVERY  OF  HEALTH  57 

God  and  offer  up  to  Him  all  your  joys  and  plea 
sures  for  His  greater  honor  and  glory."  ' 

5.  RECOVERY  OF  HEALTH  IN  SICKNESS. — The 
duty  of  caring  for  the  body  entails  the  obli 
gation  of  restoring  it  to  health  in  case  of  sick 
ness.  This  means  that  a  sick  man  must  employ 
natural  medicaments  or  engage  the  services  of  a 
competent  physician  and  obey  his  orders.75  Be 
sides  employing  these  natural  means  of  recovery, 
the  devout  Christian  will  pray  to  God,  confide  in 
His  help,  suffer  patiently,  and  employ  the  days  of 
his  illness  for  the  improvement  of  his  character 
and  in  the  practice  of  the  virtues  peculiarly  in 
dicated  by  his  condition,  and,  finally,  if  neces 
sary,  ask  for  the  holy  Viaticum  and  Extreme 
Unction,  which  are  specially  instituted  for  the 
benefit  of  the  sick.76 

For  the  rest,  it  is  well  to  recall  to  mind  frequently  the 
words  of  Thomas  a  Kempis :  "Whilst  thou  art  in  health, 
thou  canst  do  much  good ;  but  I  know  not  what  thou  wilt 
be  able  to  do  when  ailing.  There  are  few  who  mend 
their  ways  in  sickness,  just  as  those  who  go  much  on  pil 
grimage  seldom  become  holy."  " 

74  See    Salesianisclie    Nachrichten,  18;    John    V,    14;    cfr.    Pohle-Preuss, 
Trent,    1906,   p.   241.  The   Sacraments,   Vol.    IV,   and   ed., 

75  Is.    XXXVIII,    9    sqq.;    Ecclus.  St.   Louis.    1918,  pp.    1-51. 
XVIII,    20    sq.;    XXXVIII,    i    sqq.;  77  De    Intit.    Christi,    1.     I,    c.    23 
2  Chr.  XVI,   12;  on  the  teaching  of  (ed.     Pohl,     II,    46):     "Multa    bona 
the    Fathers    on    this    point    see    A.  potes  operari,  dum  sanus  es:  sed  in- 
Harnack      in      Texte      und      Unter-  firmatus  nescio   quid  poteris.     Pauci 
sitchungen,    Vol.    VIII,    56,    Leipsic,  ex    infirmitate    meliorantur:    sic    et 
1892.  qui      inultum      peregrinantur,      raro 

76jas.  V,  14-15;  Luke  XVII,  15-       sanctificantur." 


58  INDIVIDUAL  DUTIES 

6.  MAN'S  RELATION  TO  BEASTS. — This  is  an  appropri 
ate  place  to  add  a  few  words  regarding  man's  relation  to 
brute  beasts. 

a)  The  irrational  brute,  so  far  as  man  is  concerned, 
does  not  differ  essentially  from  other  created  objects, 
for,  like  them,  it  does  not  carry  its  purpose  within  itself, 
but  is  ordained  for  the  benefit  of  man,  who  is  "the  crown 
of  the  visible  creation."  The  brutes  have  been  given 
to  man  by  God  as  a  means  which  he  may  employ  accord 
ing  to  his  good  pleasure,  though  never  in  opposition  to 
the  precepts  of  the  moral  law  of  nature,  as  re-inforced 
by  Sacred  Scripture. 

God  gave  man  "dominion  over  the  fishes  of  the  sea, 
and  the  fowls  of  the  air,  and  the  beasts  of  the  whole  earth, 
and  every  creeping  creature  that  moveth  upon  the 
earth,"  78  permitting  him  to  use  them  all  as  "meat  for 
himself." 79  But  He  also  instructed  man  to  treat  the 
dumb  beasts  with  consideration.  "The  seventh  day  thou 
shalt  cease  [to  work],  that  thy  ox  and  thy  ass  may  rest."  80 
And  He  expressly  forbade  cruelty  to  animals.  "Thou 
shalt  not  boil  a  kid  in  the  milk  of  his  dam."  81  "Thou 
shalt  not  muzzle  the  mouth  of  the  ox  that  treadeth  out 
thy  corn  on  the  floor."  *2  The  Lord  Himself  "giveth 
to  beasts  their  food,"  83  and  "provideth  food  for  the  raven 
when  her  young  ones  cry  to  Him  and  wander  about  be 
cause  they  have  no  meat."  84  In  His  mercy,  when  sparing 
Ninive,  He  thinks  also  of  the  innocent  beasts.85  Jesus 
Christ  illustrates  the  loving  care  which  the  Heavenly 
Father  takes  of  man  by  pointing  out  how  He  provides 
for  the  birds  of  the  air,  "for  they  neither  sow, 

78  Gen.  I,  26  sqq.  82  Deut.  XXV,  4;  I   Cor.  IX,  9. 

79  Gen.  IX,  3.  83  Ps.  CXLVI,  9- 

80  Ex.   XXIII,   12,   19.  84  Job  XXXVIII,  41. 

81  Ex.    XXXIV,    26;    Lev.    XXII,  85  Jon.  IV,  n. 
a?  sq.;  Deut.  XIV,  21. 


MAN'S  RELATION  TO  BEASTS  59 

nor  do  they  reap,  nor  gather  into  barns ;  and  your 
heavenly  Father  feedeth  them."85  "Are  not  two  spar 
rows  sold  for  a  farthing?"  He  says,  "and  not  one  of 
them  shall  fall  on  the  ground  without  your  Father."  87 
And  again  He  asks:  "What  man  shall  there  be  among 
you,  that  hath  one  sheep,  and  if  the  same  shall  fall  into 
a  pit  on  the  sabbath  day,  will  he  not  take  hold  on  it  and 
lift  it  up?"88 

b)  Under  the  natural  as  well  as  the  positive 
divine  law,  man  in  his  relation  to  the  brute  beasts 
has  first  of  all  the  duty  of  treating  them  merci 
fully  and  in  accordance  with  the  dictates  of  rea 
son.  From  the  fact  that  these  creatures,  though 
lacking  intellect  and  consciousness,  have  sensual 
perception  and  feeling,  arises  the  further  duty  to 
treat  them  with  sympathy  and  not  to  hurt  them 
more  than  necessary. 

It  is  no  sin  for  man  to  kill  dumb  animals.  For, 
as  St.  Thomas  shows,  "by  the  natural  order  of 
divine  providence  they  are  referred  to  the  use  of 
man,  and  hence  man  may  employ  them  without 
injustice,  either  by  killing  them  or  in  any  other 
way.  God  said  to  Noe :  'As  green  herbs  have  I 
given  you  all  flesh'  (Gen.  IX,  3).  Wherever  in 
Holy  Scripture  there  are  found  warnings  against 
cruelty  to  dumb  animals,  as  in  the  prohibition  of 
killing  the  mother-bird  with  its  young  (Deut. 
XXII,  6,  7),  the  object  is  either  to  turn  man's 

86  Matt.  VI,  26.  88  Matt.  XII,  1 1 ;  cfr.  Luke  XIII, 

87  Matt.  X,  29.  15;  XIV,  5. 


60  INDIVIDUAL  DUTIES 

mind  away  from  practicing  cruelty  on  his  fellow- 
men,  lest  from  practicing  cruelties  on  dumb  ani 
mals  he  should  proceed  to  do  the  like  to  them,  or 
because  harm  done  to  animals  turns  to  the  tem 
poral  loss  of  man,  whether  the  author  of  the  harm 
or  some  one  else;  or  for  some  ulterior  meaning, 
as  the  Apostle  expounds  the  precept  of  not  muz 
zling  the  treading  ox."  89 

Hence  it  is  cruel  and  immoral  to  kill,  vex,  or  in 
any  wise  torment  dumb  animals  without  a  reason 
able  cause,  or  more  than  is  necessary  for  the  at 
tainment  of  a  legitimate  purpose.  Cruelty  to  ani 
mals  is  a  sin  against  God  and  man,  especially  if 
indulged  in  habitually,  for  the  reasons  mentioned 
in  the  above-quoted  passage  from  St.  Thomas. 
As  a  rule  one  who  has  no  heart  for  dumb  animals 
will  not  pity  his  fellowmen,  as  the  annals  of  crime 
abundantly  testify. 

On  the  other  hand,  sentimentalism  (indigna 
affectatio)  with  regard  to  brutes,  e.  g.,  surround 
ing  dogs,  cats,  birds,  etc.,  with  luxuries  and  treat 
ing  them  with  the  affection  due  only  to  human  be 
ings,  is  opposed  to  Christian  ethics  and  positively 
pagan  whenever  it  savors  of  zoolatry  (brute 
worship).90 

89  St.    Thomas,    Contra    Gent.,    1.  L'Eglise     et     la     Pitt*     envers     Us 

III,   c.    112.     (The    Pauline   passage  Animaux,    and    ed.,    Paris,    spoj. 

referred  to  is   i   Cor.   IX,   9).     Cfr.  90  Cfr.      Pastor     Bonus,      Treves, 

E.  Wasmann,   S.J.,  Instinct  and  In-  1895,    pp.     199    sqq.;    1897,    pp.    &2 

telligence    in    the   Animal   Kingdom,  sqq. 
St.    Louis,    1903;   M.    de  Rambures, 


BULL-FIGHTS  61 

The  various  societies  for  the  prevention  of  cru 
elty  to  animals  have  a  laudable  purpose,  but  un 
fortunately  too  much  of  their  literature  and  work 
is  permeated  by  the  false  notion  that  the  brute 
beast  is  substantially  the  equal  of  man.  To  say, 
as  some  of  the  advocates  of  this  movement  do, 
that  "every  living  being  has  a  right  to  exist  and 
be  happy,"  is  not  in  conformity  with  Catholic  the 
ology.  Strictly  speaking,  only  rational  beings  en 
dowed  with  personality  have  rights.  Man's  duty 
to  avoid  unnecessary  cruelty  to  animals  is  not 
based  on  any  right  of  the  latter,  but  on  the  will  of 
God  forbidding  us  to  torture  his  irrational  crea 
tures,  on  the  property  rights  of  our  fellowmen, 
which  we  must  respect,  and  on  our  own  rational 
nature,  which  commands  us  to  abstain  from  an 
ger,  cruelty,  and  similar  vices.91 

The  last-mentioned  consideration  is  of  special 
importance,  because,  as  we  have  said  before,  a 
man  who  mistreats  dumb  animals  will,  as  a  rule, 
also  abuse  his  fellowmen.  The  brutality  of  many 
a  ruffian  may  be  traced  to  acts  of  cruelty  to  dumb 
animals  practiced  in  youth. 

'Bull-fights  are  a  favorite  diversion  of  Span 
iards  and  Latin  Americans.  The  Church  au 
thorities  formerly  condemned  these  exhibi 
tions,92  but  the  prohibition  is  no  longer  in  force. 

81  See  C.  Gutberlet,  Der  Kosmos,  92  See  esp.  the  Const,  of  Pius  V, 

Paderborn,    1908,  p.   521.  "De   Salute/'   Nov.    i,    1567. 


62  INDIVIDUAL  DUTIES 

The  modern  bull-fight,  as  described  by  Father 
Ramon  Ruiz  Amado,  S.J.,  in  the  "Catholic  En 
cyclopedia,"  93  as  a  rule  does  not  involve  the  shed 
ding  of  human  blood,  and  is  no  more,  in  fact  is 
less  brutal  than  our  prize-fights.94  In  conse 
quence  most  present-day  moralists,  following  the 
famous  "Doctor  Navarrus,"  Martin  de  Azpil- 
cueta,  who  stood  alone  in  his  day,95  now  hold  that 
bull-fights,  as  held  in  Spain,  are  not  forbidden  by 
the  natural  law.96  But  clergymen  and  religious 
may  not  attend  them.97 

c)  Dumb  animals  were  created  for  the  service 
of  man  and  hence  he  may  kill  them  for  food, 
deprive  them  of  their  liberty  for  the  sake  of 
profit  or  pleasure,  tame  or  train  them,  and  inflict 

93  Vol.  Ill,  p.  52.  comes  to  a  test  of  brutality,  with 
84  An  influential  American  news-  our  burning  of  negroes,  our  lynch- 
paper  said  a  few  years  ago,  apropos  ings,  and  our  prize-fights,  we  Amer- 
of  some  criticisms  of  the  bull-fights  icans  need  not  throw  any  stones." 
held  in  Madrid  in  honor  of  King  95  On  Azpilcueta  see  Vol.  I,  p. 
Alfonso's  coronation,  a  month  or  62,  of  this  Manual.  The  reference 
two  before  the  Fitzsimmons-Jeffries  is  to  his  Enchiridion  sive  Manuale 
prize-fight  at  San  Francisco,  Cal.:  Confessarioriim  et  Paenitentium, 
"The  killing  of  bulls  by  trained  Wiirzburg,  1586,  ch.  XV,  pp.  334 
toreadors  is  not  the  pleasantest  sqq. — Cfr.  Stimmen  aus  Maria- 
spectacle  in  the  world,  although  it  Loach,  1903,  No.  7,  pp.  244  sqq., 
calls  for  courage,  dexterity  and  en-  "Urteile  iiber  Stiergefechte." 
durance,  and  has,  besides,  the  mercy  96  Cfr.  Gury-Ferreres,  Compendi- 
of  the  coup  de  grace,  but  it  is  cer-  urn  Theol.  Mor.,  Barcelona,  1906, 
tainly  more  decent  than  a  fight  to  Vol.  II,  n.  56. 

the  finish  between   two  bruisers,   to  97  Cfr.     Ferreres,     Comp.     Theol. 

see    which    a    boxing    club    in    any  Mor.,  9th  ed.,  1919,  Vol.  II,  n.  no; 

city     of     the     United     States     can  Plenary  Council  of  Spanish  America, 

pack    the    biggest    hall    in    the    place  n.    650.     On   the    whole    subject    see 

with  men  who  have  paid  $10  for  a  P.   Amado's   excellent  article  in  the 

seat    at    the    brutal    show.     Let    us  Cath.  Encyclopedia,  Vol.  Ill,  pp.  51 

not     be     hypocrites.     Hypocrisy      is  sq. 
worse  than  brutality.     And  when  it 


VIVISECTION  63 

pain  upon  them  for  the  purposes  of  scien 
tific  experimentation.98  There  can  be  no  rea 
sonable  doubt  that  vivisection,  i.  e.,  the  dissec 
tion  of  living  animals  for  the  observation  of,  and 
experimentation  on,  normal  or  morbid  physiologi 
cal  processes,  is  morally  licit  if  it  serves  a  good 
purpose,  inflicts  no  more  pain  than  absolutely  nec 
essary,  and  is  confined  to  proper  limits,  preferably 
within  medical  or  hygienic  institutes.  "By  the 
natural  order  of  divine  providence,"  says  St. 
Thomas,  "the  dumb  animals  are  destined  for  the 
use  of  man,  and  hence  man  without  injustice 
uses  them,  either  by  killing  them  or  in  any 
other  way."  "  Experts  are  all  but  unanimous  in 
holding  that  vivisection  is  very  useful,  nay  under 
certain  conditions,  absolutely  necessary  for  the 
progress  of  science.  True,  in  using  brutes  for 
his  own  benefit,  man  cannot  avoid  hurting  them, 
but  neither  does  nature  spare  them  the  pains  of 
hunger  and  cold  or  preserve  all  of  them  from 
a  cruel  death.100 

G8  Cfr.  Gen.  IX,  3;  Deut.  IV,  19;  100  The    literature    on    vivisection 

Ps.  VIII,  8;  i  Cor.  Ill,  22;  Jas.  has  grown  to  vast  proportions.  A 
III,  7. — St.  Jerome,  Adv.  lovinian.  brief  and  instructive  treatise  is  that 


1.   II,  c.   5-6    (Migne,  P.  L.,  XXIII 
290). 

99  Contra  Gent.,  1.  Ill,  c.  112,  n 
7:  "Per  hoc  e.vcluditur  error  ponen 
tium,  homini  esse  peccatum,  si  ani 


by  Dr.  L.  Senfelder,  "Vivisection 
(Moral  Aspects  of),"  in  the  Cath. 
Encyclopedia,  Vol.  XV,  pp.  494-496. 
— See  also,  against  vivisection,  Tait, 
The  Uselessness  of  Vivisection 


rnalia  bntta  occidat;  ex  divina  enim  upon     Animals     as     a     Method     of 

providentia  natural*  ordine  in  usum  Scientific      Research       (1883);       for 

hominis     ordinantur,     unde     absque  vivisection,  H'eidenhain,  Die  Vivisek- 

inittria    homo    eis    utitur    occidendo  tion  (1884),  an  exhaustive  and  valu- 

vel  quolibet  alio  modo."  able  treatise. 


64  INDIVIDUAL  DUTIES 

Many  believe  that  parrots  learn  to  "talk"  more  easily 
if  their  tongues  are  loosened.  This  is  a  cruel  mistake 
against  which  these  birds  ought  to  be  protected. 

All  birds  with  but  few  exceptions  deserve  to  be  pro 
tected  by  law,  first  because  they  are  useful  and  secondly 
because  they  beautify  and  enliven  nature.101 

Where  agriculture,  fishing  or  hunting  is  endangered 
by  the  multiplication  of  noxious  birds  or  mammals,  man 
has  a  right  to  kill  them,  but  he  should  not  completely 
exterminate  any  species,  because  to  do  so  would  be  to 
contravene  the  laws  of  nature  and  to  violate  the  demands 
of  humanity.  In  the  economy  of  nature  beasts  of  prey 
have  a  well-defined  purpose,  viz.:  to  destroy  other  animals 
which  are  sick  or  weakly  and  therefore  unsuited  for  the 
propagation  of  their  kind.102 

7.  LUXURY. — We  must  not  leave  this  part  of 
our  subject  without  briefly  considering  the  cog 
nate  topic  of  luxury. 

"Luxury,"  says  Professor  de  Laveleye  in  his 
classic  work,103  "consists  in  the  consumption  of 
what  has  cost  great  labor  to  produce,  for  the  satis 
faction  of  spurious  needs."  After  so  defining 
luxury,  he  condemns  it  unreservedly,  saying: 
"Luxury  is  pernicious  to  the  individual  and  fatal 
to  society.  Primitive  Christianity  reproved  it  in 
the  name  of  charity  and  humility ;  political  econ 
omy  condemns  it  in  the  name  of  utility,  and  jus 
tice  condemns  it  in  the  name  of  equity." 

101  Cfr.    M.    Hiesemann,    Losiing  103  Emile   de   Laveleye,   Le  Luxe, 
der   Vogelschutzfrage,   Leipsic,   1907.        Verviers,    1887. 

102  Cfr.    Natur   und    Offenbarung, 
1910,  pp.  5  sqq. 


LUXURY  65 

This  view  has  been  re-echoed  by  not  a  few  mod 
ern  writers,  but  it  is  extreme  and  cannot  be 
adopted  by  the  Catholic  moralist  without  some 
decided  reservations. 

a)  To  acquire  and  use  the  good  things  of  na 
ture  over  and  above  one's  necessary  requirements 
is  not  in  itself  sinful.  On  the  contrary,  as  civili 
zation  advances,  man  produces  more  and  is  en 
titled  to  use  more  than  in  the  primitive  stages 
of  society.  That  political  economy  condemns 
all  luxury  in  the  name  of  utility  is  not  true. 
Luxury  may  be  distinctly  advantageous  to  so 
ciety  because  lavish  expenditures  on  the  part  of 
the  rich  usually  benefit  the  poor,  by  furnishing 
employment,  developing  arts  and  sciences,  and 
elevating  the  educational  status  of  the  nation. 
From  the  standpoint  of  the  moralist,  also,  not 
every  luxury  must  be  regarded  as  extravagance, 
because  ethical  considerations  may  refine  and  en 
noble  a  pleasure  which  would  otherwise  be  purely 
physical.  Every  man  has  a  right  to  enjoy  the 
comforts  and  luxuries  proper  to  his  state  of 
life,  provided  he  can  reasonably  afford  them. 
On  the  other  hand  there  is  such  a  thing  as  in 
dulging  in  luxuries  beyond  one's  means,  or  in  a 
manner  unbecoming  to  one's  station  in  life,  or 
beyond  the  bounds  of  reasonableness,  or  for  the 
mere  love  of  pleasure,  or  to  shine  and  excite  envy 
in  others.  To  indulge  in  luxury  in  this  sense 


66  INDIVIDUAL  DUTIES 

is  immoral  and  contrary  to  social  justice  and 
progress,  for  it  deprives  society  of  good  things 
without  sense  or  reason,  gives  a  bad  example  to 
others,  provokes  concupiscence  and  discontent, 
excites  envy  and  hatred  in  the  hearts  of  the  poor, 
and,  finally,  is  often  a  means  of,  or  an  occasion 
for,  sins  of  vanity,  impurity,  and  dishonesty. 

b)  Hence  we  must  distinguish  between  justi 
fiable  and  unjustifiable  luxury  (extravagance). 
To  live  according  to  one's  station  in  life  and 
one's  means  is  not  reproved  by  the  Gospel, 
which,  though  it  extols  voluntary  poverty,  does 
not  impose  it  as  a  duty  on  all,  but  merely  coun 
sels  it  to  those  who  feel  called  to  relinquish 
earthly  pleasures  and  comforts  for  the  sake  of 
the  higher  treasures  of  the  spiritual  life.  On 
the  other  hand  it  is  immoral  to  be  extravagant, 
i.  e.,  to  use  the  good  things  of  life  without 
stint  or  measure,  without  benefiting  any  one, 
nay  with  detriment  to  the  important  and  nec 
essary  duties  of  one's  state,  or  in  the  service 
of  sensuality  and  for  the  emancipation  of  the 
flesh.104  Such  immoral  extravagance  is  only  too 

104  W.    D.    P.    Bliss    and    R.    M.        office,   or  the  circumstances  of  time. 


Binder,    The    New    Encyclopedia    of  plac 

Social  Reform,  New  York,   :po8,  pp.  extr 

736    sq. — As    practical    tests    of    ex-  ury 

travagance,  Msgr.  H.  Parkinson  pro-  for 

poses      these      two      questions:      (i)  one 


Whether  the  expenditure  is  out  of  of  a 
proportion  to  income;  (2)  whether  Prn 
it  is  out  of  keeping  with  the  per-  edit 


or  custom.  If  so,  we  have 
vagance.  Thus  a  simple  lux- 
or  one  may  be  an  extravagance 
lother,  and  a  simple  luxury  at 


assume  the  character 


son's   condition   in   life,   or   with   his        York   1913,   p.   198). 


extravagance  at  another.  (A 
r  of  Social  Science,  American 
n,  by  T.  J.  Shealy,  S.J.,  New 


LUXURY  67 

common  among  the  wealthy  now-a-days  and  often 
assumes  the  proportions  of  a  grievous  sin  that 
cries  to  Heaven  for  vengeance.  There  is  no  de 
nying  the  fact  that  even  the  poorer  classes  not 
infrequenty  live  beyond  their  means.105  The 
desire  to  shine  and  impress  others  is  not  only  silly 
in  itself,  but  a  source  of  economic  hardship  and 
unhappiness.  How  many  families  of  the  middle 
class  sacrifice  health  and  comfort  in  order  to  be 
able  to  look  down  upon  their  neighbors  from  the 
cushions  of  an  expensive  limousine !  How  many 
stint  themselves  to  "keep  up  appearances" ! 
Such  conduct  is  worse  than  foolish,  it  is  wrong 
and  anti-social.106 

Opposed  to  decent  comfort  and  a  reasonable  measure 
of  luxury  corresponding  to  one's  state  of  life  and  means 
are,  on  the  one  hand,  parsimony,  i.e.,  undue  sparingness 
in  the  expenditure  of  money,  and,  on  the  other,  ostenta- 
tiousness  and  pomp. 

Frugality  or  thrift  is  called  by  Sam  Smiles  the  daugh 
ter  of  wisdom,  the  sister  of  temperance,  and  the  mother 
of  liberty.  An  ancient  proverb  says  that  "thrift  is  in 
itself  a  good  income,"  and  another,  that  it  is  "the  philos 
opher's  stone."  Roscher,  the  famous  German  economist, 
makes  bold  to  assert  that  "he  who  has  begun  to  save  is  no 
longer  a  proletarian." 

105  Cfr.    Prov.    XIII,    7;    Seneca,  have   to    sell    that    which    he    needs. 

£/>.,  XCIV,  27:  "Ilia  Catonis:  Emas,  106  Cfr.   i   Tim.  II,  9;  Tit.  II,  3: 

non  quod  opus  est,  sed  quod  necesse  I  Pet.  Ill,  3  sqq. — On  the  economic 

est.     Quod  non  opus  est,  asse  carum  aspects  of  extravagance  see   Parkin- 

est." — Poor       Richard       somewhere  son,  A  Primer  of  Social  Science,  pp. 

says  that  if  a  man  constantly  buys  199  sq. 
what  he  does  not  need,  he  will  soon 


68  INDIVIDUAL  DUTIES 

The  Catholic  Church  is  not  opposed  to  luxury  in  the 
sense  of  reasonable  comfort.  On  the  contrary,  cleanli 
ness,  nourishing  food,  comfortable  dwellings,  neat  clothes, 
are  necessities  which  she  demands  for  the  poor  as  well 
as  the  rich,  and  nations  that  live  in  conformity 
with  the  moral  law  will  always  find  ample  means  to 
satisfy  these  needs.  What  the  Church  reprobates  and 
combats  is  that  extravagance  which  withdraws  many 
of  the  good  things  of  life  from  those  who  need  them,  to 
satisfy  the  "spurious  needs  of  the  idle  rich."  107  As  long 
as  there  is  inequality  of  possessions,  the  Church  will 
continue  to  insist  on  the  difference  between  various 
states  of  life  and  recommend  to  the  poor  a  wise  economy 
in  the  gratification  of  demands  that  are  not  strictly 
necessary.108 

III.  VIRTUES  TO  BE  PRACTICED  IN  CONNEC 
TION  WITH  THE  CARE  OF  THE  BODY. — The  vir 
tues  that  should  be  practiced  in  connection  with 
the  care  of  the  body  are  mainly  three,  viz. :  clean 
liness,  modesty,  and  temperance. 

i.  Cleanliness  is  not  merely  a  natural  and  nec 
essary  function  and  a  conventional  custom;  it  is 
likewise  a  moral  duty,  the  performance  of  which, 
in  accord  with  reason  and  the  moral  law,  may 
become  a  virtue.  A  clean  body,  clean  clothing, 
and  a  clean  domicile  are  fundamental  requisites 
of  good  health  and  constitute,  as  it  were,  the 
lowest  rungs  on  the  ladder  of  civilization.  Bod- 

107  See     Laveleye's    definition     of        my,    pp.    133    sqq.;    P.    Norrenberg, 
luxury,  supra,   p.   64.  Franenarbeit  und  Arbeiterinnenereie- 

108  C.    S.    Devas,   Political  Econo-        hung,  Cologne,   1880,  pp.   68  sq. 


CLEANLINESS  69 

ily  cleanliness  should  be  the  reflex  and  symbol 
of  interior  or  spiritual  purity.  Its  conscious  dis 
regard  is  a  moral  defect,  first,  because  it  denotes 
carelessness  and  neglect,  and  second  because  it 
sets  aside  due  regard  for  the  necessities  of  social 
intercourse. 

Cleanliness  has  been  practiced  more  or  less  at  all  times. 
Even  the  "dark"  Middle  Ages  had  their  public  bathing 
houses  and  it  was  regarded  as  a  work  of  mercy  to  erect 
free  baths  for  the  poor.  If  cultivated  to  excess,  cleanli 
ness  may  degenerate  into  effeminacy.  It  was  a  reaction 
against  the  immorality  connected  with  frequent  washings 
of  the  body  that  led  to  the  disregard  for  cleanliness  shown 
by  some  medieval  ascetics,  even  saints,  whose  conduct 
must  consequently  not  be  condemned  as  a  reversion  to 
barbarism.  Abstention  from  the  ordinary  means  of 
cleansing  the  body  was  with  them  not  an  end  in  itself,  but 
merely  a  means  to  an  end,  namely,  to  purge  man  from  his 
sinful  inclinations.109  It  was  in  this  sense  that  Pope 
Nicholas  I  declared  that  bathing  is  never  allowed 
as  a  means  of  sensual  indulgence,  but  as  a  bodily  necessity 
may  be  practiced  at  any  time.110 

2.  Modesty  is  a  decent  reserve  or  propriety  of 
manner  and  regard  for  the  rules  of  taste  and  good 
breeding.  It  differs  according  to  person,  time, 
place,  and  social  environment,  and  is  not  neces 
sarily  identical  with  moral  goodness. 

109  Linsenmann,      Lehrbuch      der  delicet  discretionem  servantes,  ut  si 
Moraltheologie,  p.  276.  quidem  pro  ln.ru  animi  atque  volup- 

110  Responsa    ad    Consulta    Bulga-  tate  quis  larari  appetat,  hoc  fieri  nee 
rorum,  n.  6:  "Non  negatnus  hanc  vi-  reliquo   quolibet  die  concedamus,  fi 


70  INDIVIDUAL  DUTIES 

As  a  Christian  virtue  modesty  consists  in  the 
habitual  avoidance  of  whatever  is  apt  to  arouse 
the  sexual  passion,  either  in  oneself  or  in  others. 
There  is  a  natural  chastity,  or  unconscious  in 
nocence,  which,  in  connection  with  inborn  mod 
esty,  constitutes  a  powerful  vehicle  for  the  most 
beautiful  of  all  virtues,  i.  e.,  physical  and  interior 
purity. 

Needless  to  add,  the  duty  of  modesty,  e.  g.,  in 
regard  to  participation  in  social  amusements,  the 
atrical  performances,  etc.,  does  not  bind  all  men 
in  the  same  way,  but  differs  according  to  state 
and  profession. 

Politeness  is  not  strictly  a  virtue,  though  the 
lack  of  it  often  indicates  a  moral  defect.  As  a 
rule  the  more  polite  a  man  is,  the  more  truly  ami 
able  will  he  be.  He  who  lacks  tact  and  politeness 
is  offensive  to  persons  of  good  breeding  and 
delicate  taste.111  However,  being  but  a  natural 
instinct  or  a  by-product  of  careful  training,  po 
liteness  to  be  supernaturally  meritorious,  must  be 
hallowed  in  the  spirit  of  the  Gospel  and  accom 
panied  by  humility,  obedience,  and  charity.  It 
goes  without  saying  that  a  truly  noble  character 
will  not  stoop  to  untruth  or  affectation.112 

Our  books  of  etiquette  contain  many  useful  rules  and 

autem  pro  necessitate   corporis,   hoc  ill  Cfr.    W.    Wundt,    Ethik,    Vol. 

nee    quarto,    nee    sexto,    feria    prohi-  I,  3rd  ed.,  pp.   188  sqq. 

beamus."     (Mansi,  Cone.  Coll.,  XV,  112  Cf.    Seneca,   De  Ira,   1.    II,   c. 

405).  38:  "Aut  dulcedine  urbanitatis  pro- 


POLITENESS  71 

cautions;  but  true  politeness  is  spontaneous.  "There  is 
a  politeness  of  the  heart,"  says  Goethe,  "which  is  akin  to 
charity  and  inspires  good  conduct." 

Newman's  definition  of  a  gentleman  may  be  quoted 
here :  "It  is  almost  a  definition  of  a  gentleman  to  say  that 
he  is  one  who  never  inflicts  pain.  ...  He  is  mainly 
occupied  in  merely  removing  the  obstacles  which  hinder 
the  free  and  unembarrassed  action  of  those  about  him ; 
and  he  concurs  with  their  movements  rather  than  takes 
the  initiative  himself.  .  .  .  The  true  gentleman  in  like 
manner  carefully  avoids  whatever  may  cause  a  jar  or 
jolt  in  the  minds  of  those  with  whom  he  is  cast.  ...  He 
is  tender  towards  the  bashful,  gentle  towards  the  distant, 
and  merciful  towards  the  absurd;  he  can  recollect  to 
whom  he  is  speaking;  he  guards  against  unseasonable 
allusions,  or  topics  which  may  irritate ;  he  is  seldom 
prominent  in  conversation,  and  never  wearisome.  He 
makes  light  of  favors  while  he  does  them,  and  seems  to 
be  receiving  when  he  is  conferring,"  etc.113  In  connec 
tion  with  this  oft-quoted  passage  Father  Arthur  Barry 
O'Neill,  C.S.C.,  points  out  a  fact  that  is  frequently  over 
looked, — namely,  that  Cardinal  Newman  never  intended 
his  portrait  of  a  gentleman  to  be  that  of  a  Christian  gentle 
man.  The  Christian  gentleman,  says  Father  O'Neill,  is 
of  a  different  and  far  more  perfect  type.  His  essential 
qualities  are  interior — they  spring  from  faith  and  love 
of  God.  The  exterior  qualities  which  Newman  enu 
merates  are  transient,  unless  they  are  permeated  with 
the  charity  of  Christ.114 

lapsus  est  aut  fecit  aliquid,  non  ut  113  Idea  of  a   University,  London 

nobis  obesset,  sed  quia  consequi  ipse       ed.  of   1893,  pp.  208  sqq. 
non     poterat,     nisi     nos     repulisset.  114  Clerical  Colloquies,  New  York, 

Saepe  adulatio,  dum  blanditur,  of  en-  1917;  cfr.  the  Catholic  Fortnightly 
dit."  Review,  St.  Louis,  Mo.,  Vol.  XXIV, 

No.  6,  pp.  83  sq. 


72  INDIVIDUAL  DUTIES 

3.  Temperance  may  be  defined  as  rational  self-control, 
especially  in  the  use  of  food  and  drink.  The  brute  beast 
blindly  follows  instinct  in  satisfying  its  desire  for  nourish 
ment,  but  man  is  able  to  control  and  regulate  his  appetite 
according  to  the  dictates  of  reason  and  law.  The  preser 
vation  of  life  and  health,  not  sensual  pleasure,  is  the 
motive  which  should  govern  a  Christian  in  the  use  of 
food  and  drink.  Guided  by  this  motive,  he  will  choose 
the  food  best  adapted  for  that  purpose  and  never  notably 
exceed  the  quantity  necessary  for  its  attainment.  Tem 
perance  or  wise  moderation  in  the  use  of  material  things, 
especially  food  and  drink,  keeps  the  body  in  good  health, 
strengthens  the  mind  and  will,  and  protects  man  from 
the  evil  effects,  moral  as  well  as  social,  of  overindulgence. 
An  important  rule  with  regard  to  the  virtue  of  temper 
ance  is :  "Deny  yourself  something  licit  now  and  then,  in 
order  that  you  may  be  able  to  abstain  from  the  things 
which  are  forbidden."  115 

"Temperance  is  not  inborn,  but  must  be  acquired  by 
practice,"  says  Father  Cathrein,  "whence  it  follows  that 
every  man  is  in  duty  bound  to  practice  self-denial  now 
and  then,  so  that  the  senses  may  get  accustomed  to  the  con 
trol  of  reason.  If  you  allow  a  horse  free  rein  at  all  times, 
you  will  have  no  control  over  him  in  the  hour  of  peril. 
Sensuality  in  this  respect  resembles  a  horse.  He  who 
has  never  learned  to  deny  his  flesh  the  pleasures  for 
which  it  craves,  will  sooner  or  later  succumb  to  its 
whims.  Self-denial — at  least  to  a  certain  extent — is  not 
a  specifically  Christian  virtue,  but  a  postulate  of  pure 

115  Cfr.  St.  Gregory  the  Great,  et  inquieta  dilabuntur.  Solus  enim 
Moralia,  1.  V,  c.  1 1 :  "Saepe  ii,  qui  in  illicitis  non  cadit,  qui  se  aliquan- 

retinere    nesciunt,    ad    Wcita    opera       (Migne,  P.  L.,  LXXV,  688). 


TEMPERANCE  73 

reason.     'Sustine  et  abstine'  was  a  maxim  of  the  ancient 
pagan  philosophers."  116 

READINGS. — Besides  the  works  mentioned  in  the  foot-notes 
see  A  Christian  Social  Crusade,  published  by  the  Catholic  Social 
Guild,  Oxford,  1919;  J.  Mausbach,  Kath.  Moraltiieologie,  Vol. 
Ill,  pp.  35  sqq.,  3rd  ed.,  Miinster,  i.  W.  1920;  Fr.  Walter,  Der 
Leib  und  sein  Recht  im  Christentum,  Munich,  1910. 

116  Victor    Cathrein,    S.J.,    Moral-  sibi     imperanda     atque     observanda 

philosophic,  Vol.   II,  4th  ed.,  p.   54.  citret,    is    ent    pleraque    impeccabilis 

— Cfr.    Epicteti   Fragmenta,    n.    179:  vitamqiie       rivet       tranqutllissimus. 

"Itaqne,  inquit    [Epictetus],   si  quis  Verba  duo  haec  dicebat  avfyov 
ha.ec  duo  verba  cordi  habeat   eaque 


CHAPTER  IV 

NEGATIVE  DUTIES  IN  REGARD  TO  LIFE  AND  HEALTH 

The  life  of  the  body  is  indeed  a  precious  thing, 
but  it  is  by  no  means  the  greatest  of  blessings,1 
and  consequently  the  duty  of  preserving  and  safe 
guarding  it  does  not  bind  absolutely.  There  are 
circumstances  in  which  it  may  be  necessary  or 
advisable  to  sacrifice  one's  life.  This  is  the  case, 
for  instance,  when  the  duty  of  conserving  life 
cannot  be  reconciled  with  some  higher  obligation, 
or  when  superior  spiritual  blessings  must  be  pur 
chased  at  the  expense  of  life,  either  by  the  in 
dividual,  or  by  the  multitude.  Hence  man  has 
the  right,  nay,  under  certain  conditions  he  is  in 
duty  bound,  to  give  up  his  life  for  the  sake  of  a 
higher  good. 

This  duty  must  now  be  more  closely  deter 
mined,  both  negatively  and  positively. 

No  man  is  allowed  without  a  just  cause  (sine 
iusta  causa)  to  destroy  his  own  life  or  health,  or 
to  expose  himself  to  the  danger  of  certain  death, 
or  seriously  to  mutilate  his  body. 

i.  SUICIDE  (suicidium,  avrox^pia)  2  is  the  direct 


iCfr.   Matt.   X,   28,  39;   XVI,   25  2  St.    Thomas,   Summa   Theol.,   2* 

«q.;    Mark   VIII,    35-37;    Luke   IX,        aae,  qu.  64,  art.  5;  Sporer-Bierbaum, 
34;  XVII,  331  John  XII,  25.  Theol.  Mar.,  Vol.  II,  and  ed.,  tr.  5. 

74 


SUICIDE  75 

and  intentional  compassing  of  one's  own  death. 
This  need  not  always  be  the  immediate 
object  of  the  will.  If  I  will  an  action,  I  will  its 
evident  effect;  and  therefore,  were  I  to  refuse 
food,  or,  out  of  bravado,  to  leap  from  the  top  of  a 
sky-scraper  into  the  street  below,  I  should  be 
guilty  of  suicide,  even  though  self-destruction  was 
not  my  direct  object.  In  suicide  a  man  somehow 
aims  at  direct  death. 

Suicide  is  plainly  forbidden  by  the  fifth  com 
mandment  :  'Thou  shalt  not  kill,"  3  "either  an 
other  or  yourself,"  as  St.  Augustine  explains; 
"for  he  who  kills  himself  kills  none  other  than  a 
man."  4  The  Lord  God  alone  "has  power  of 
life  and  death."  5 

Suicide  is  also  forbidden  indirectly  because  of 
the  immoral  motives  that  usually  inspire  it,  e.  g., 
unbelief,  cowardice,  false  notions  of  honor,  an  ex 
cessive  craving  for  glory,  wealth,  etc.,  or  that 
dullness  of  mind  which  results  from  overindul 
gence  in  carnal  pleasures  and  usually  ends  by 
making  its  victim  incapable  of  further  enjoy- 

n.    366-407;    St.    Alphonsus,    Theol.  cyclopedia,  Vol.   XIV,  pp.   326  sqq.; 

Mor.,  1.  Ill,  n.  366-374  (ed.  Gaude,  A.  O'Malley.  The  Ethics  of  Medical 

Vol.    I,    pp.    622    sqq.);    M.    Inhofer,  Homicide     and    Mutilation,     N.     Y., 

Der  Selbstmord,   Augsburg   1886;   E.  1919,   PP-    7   sqq. 

Federici,   La  Prevenzione   del  Suici-  3  Ex.  XX,   13;   cfr.  Deut.  XXXII, 

dio,  Venice  1901,  pp.  37  sqq.;  K.  A.  39- 

Geiger,    Der    Selbstmord    im    klassi-  4  De     Ciiitate    Dei,    1.     I,    c.    20: 

schen  Altertnm,  Augsburg  1888;  M.  "Restat,  nt  de  homine  intellegamus, 

Cronin,  The  Science  of  Ethics,  Vol.  quod  dictum  est:  'Non  occides,'  nee 

II,    Dublin,    1917,    pp.    52    sqq.;    A.  alterum   ergo,   nee   te.   Neque   enim. 

Van   der   Heeren    in   the    Cath.   En-  qui  se  occidit,  aliud  quam  hominem 

occidit."     (Migne,  P.   L.,  XLI,   35)  • 

sWisd.  XVI,   13- 


76  INDIVIDUAL  DUTIES 

ment.6  Seneca  enumerates  several  causae  fri- 
volae  that  lead  to  suicide  and  mentions  circum 
stances  in  which  it  is  morally  illicit  to  seek  refuge 
in  death.7 

a)  Suicide  is  diametrically  opposed  to  the 
strongest  instinct  of  nature,  that  of  self-preserva 
tion.  "The  tendency  to  persevere  in  life,"  says 
Goyau,  "is  the  necessary  law  of  life,  not  of  hu 
man  life  only,  but  of  all  life."  8  Hence  it  must 
always  remain  a  difficult  psychological  problem 
why  so  many  people  commit  this  unnatural  crime. 
In  the  light  of  recent  investigations  there  can 
hardly  be  a  doubt  that  most  of  those  who  compass 
their  own  death  do  so  in  a  state  of  mental  de- 

6  A.  Van  der  Heeren  in  the  Cath.  of     our    natural     appetite     for    con- 
Encyclopedia,  Vol.  XIV,  p.  328;  H.  tinued    existence    and    well-being,    is 
Rost,     Der    Selbstmord     als     sozial-  refuted    by    Dr.    Cronin    as    follows: 
statistische      Erscheinung,      Cologne  "Natural     tendencies     are     all     ten- 
1905,  pp.  23  sqq.;  H.  A.  Krose,  SJ.  dencies  to  the  well-being  of  the  nat- 
Der    Selbstmord    im    iQten    Jahrhun  ural    agent,    the    agent    regarded    as 
dert,    Freiburg,    1906,    pp.    28    sqq.  a   product  of  nature.     Nature   could 
IDEM,  Die  Ursachen  der  Selbstmord  not  set  up  in  any  thing  a  tendency 
haufigkeit,  Freiburg  1906.  towards  a   condition   which  is   either 

7  Cfr.     M.     Baumgartner,     L.     A.  unnatural    or    which    is    even    above 
Seneca    itnd    das    Christentum,    pp.  nature.     But    the    natural    constitu- 
135   sqq.  tion   of  man,   from   which   spring  all 

8  M.      Cronin,      The     Science     of  our  natural  powers  and  appetites,  is 
Ethics,  Vol.  II,  p.  53  sq.;  Vol.  I,  p.  that  of  a  composite  of  body  and  soul 
90.     The   objection   that   it   is   incor-  combined  to  form  one  person.     And, 
rect   to   say   that   in    committing   sui-  therefore,     our    natural     desire     for 
cide  a  person  desires  to  compass  his  happiness    is    a    desire    for    the    hap- 
own    destruction,    because    the    soul  piness  and  well-being  of  the  natural 
does    not    disappear    at    death,    while  person,  consisting  of  body  and  soul, 
the   body   will   rise   again,   and   that,  In    suicide,    therefore,    we    use    our 
therefore,    what    is    desired    and    ac-  natural    powers    for    an    end    which 
complished    in    suicide    is    not    anni-  is  the  frustration   of  their  own  nat- 
hilation,   but   a  new   life,   more   per-  ural    purpose."     (Ibid.,    Vol.    II,    p. 
feet    than    the    present,    and    conse-  55). 

quently    suicide    is    not    a    violation 


SUICIDE  77 

rangement.  "Most  suicides,"  says  Dr.  James  J. 
Walsh,  "are  persons  that  have  been  recognized  as 
paranoiacs  and  likely  to  do  queer  things  for  a  long 
time  beforehand.  Indeed,  some  of  the  melan 
cholic  qualities  on  which  the  unfortunate  impulse 
to  self-murder  depends  are  likely  to  have  exhib 
ited  themselves  in  former  generations.  ...  As  a 
matter  of  fact,  suicides  are  not  in  possession  of 
free  will  as  a  rule,  but  are  the  victims  of  circum 
stances  and  are  unable  to  resist  external  influ 
ences."  9  However,  it  would  be  wrong  to  con 
clude  from  this  that  every  case  of  suicide  can  be 
traced  to  some  condition  of  organic  disturbance 
in  which  the  use  of  reason,  and  consequently  re 
sponsibility,  are  suspended.  Not  every  perturb 
ation  of  the  moral  life  springs  from  physical  or 
physiological  causes,  and  melancholia,  idiosyn 
crasy,  fixed  notions,  hallucinations  or  illusions  do 
not  always  hinder  the  use  of  reason  and  destroy 
freedom  of  action.  It  would  be  equally  wrong  to 
ascribe  every  case  of  suicide  to  personal  guilt,  and 
positively  foolish  to  adopt  the  Stoic  view  that  sui 
cide  is  not  an  act  of  cowardice,  but  rather  a  proof 
of  courage,  on  the  plea  that  by  killing  himself 
a  man  not  only  escapes  evil  and  thereby  fol 
lows  an  instinct  implanted  in  his  soul  by  God, 
but  likewise  relieves  society  of  an  intolerable 

9  O'Malley-Walsh,  Essays  in  Pastoral  Medicine,  New  York,  1906,  p.  306. 


78  INDIVIDUAL  DUTIES 

burden,  and,  moreover,  by  an  act  of  supreme 
self-sacrifice,  atones  for  his  crime  and  thus  con 
ciliates  the  eternal  Judge.10  This  view  is  radi 
cally  false.  For,  in  the  first  place,  he  who  de 
spairs  in  a  difficult  or  hopeless  situation  and  tries 
to  escape  the  tribulations  of  life  by  committing 
suicide,  does  not  display  courage  and  strength  of 
character,  but  the  very  opposite,  and,  secondly, 
all  misfortunes,  even  those  which  a  man  incurs 
through  his  own  guilt,  must,  from  the  Christian 
point  of  view,  be  regarded  as  trials  in  which 
he  should  exercise  patience,  faith,  and  confi 
dence  in  God.11  The  decisive  factor  is  not  public 
opinion  but  the  duty  which  the  individual  owes 
to  society  and  which  he  is  still  able  to  ful 
fill,  even  though  it  be  only  by  giving  an  ex 
ample  of  Christian  fortitude.  Finally,  for  man 
to  try  to  escape  his  judge  instead  of  atoning  for 
his  sins  in  the  way  prescribed,  namely,  by  contri 
tion  and  penance,  is  a  pagan,  not  a  Christian  mo 
tive.12 

10  K.    Joest,    Das   Recht   auf   den  hoc  vita  opus  est,  ut  possint  poeni- 
Tod,  Gottingen,   1895.  tendo    sanari,    neminem    velut    desi- 

11  St.   Augustine,   De   Civ.   Dei,  1.  derio   vitae   melioris   quae  post  mor- 
I,   c.   26:   "Hoc  dicimus,   hoc  asseri-  tern  speratur,  quid  reos  suae  mortis 
mus,    hoc    modis    omnibus    approba-  melior    post    mortem    vita    non    su- 
mus,   neminem    spontaneam    mortem  scipit."     (Migne,  P.  L.,  XLI,  39). 
sibi    inferre    debere    velut    fugiendo  12  Ps.     XXXIII,     19;     L.     19. — A. 
molestias    temporales,    ne   incidat   in  von  Oettiger,  Die  Moralstatistik,  3rd 
perpetuas,    neminem    propter    aliena  ed.,   p.   761,   says:      "The   Protestant 
peccata,  ne  hoc  ipse  incipiat  grams-  misses    the    energetic    spiritual    lead- 
simum   proprium,   quern   non  pollue-  ership    of    the    Church;    when    un- 
bat   alienum,   neminem   propter  pec-  happy,   he   does  not  so  readily   find 
cata  praeterita,   propter   quae   magis  consolation     because     he     must     do 


SUICIDE  79 

According  to  the  principles  of  Christian  mo 
rality  a  person  who  commits  suicide  while  in  the 
full  possession  of  his  mental  faculties  is  not  only 
a  murderer  and  a  criminal,  but  renounces  God 
and  the  hope  of  salvation  and  forfeits  every  right 
to  the  blessings  of  the  Church,  including  that  to  a 
Christian  burial.13  In  denying  any  one  the  last 
mentioned  privilege  the  Church,  of  course,  does 
not  mean  to  pass  judgment  on  his  probable  fate 
in  the  other  world. 

Does  suicide  always  result  from  (temporary  or  perma 
nent)  insanity,  or  is  it  sometimes  committed  by  persons 
who  are  quite  sane  ?  While  some  eminent  scientists 14 
hold  that  perfectly  normal  persons  can  and  do  commit 
suicide,  others 15  adopt  the  theory  of  Esquirol,  who 
nearly  a  century  ago16  asserted  that  "suicide  is  a  dis 
ease."  No  doubt  suicide  is  very  often  due  to  dementia, 
but  it  is  equally  undeniable  that  many  who  compass  their 
own  death  are  impelled  by  pique,  despair  or  anger,  which 
usually  involve  malice  or  culpable  cowardice.17 

Suicide  is  a  moral,  a  social,  a  biological,  and  a  psycho 
logical  problem.  Its  frequency  is  governed  by  laws 

without    the    human     mediation    of       den    Selbstmord,    2nd    ed.,    Munich, 
the   priesthood    (confession)."  1910,    p.    32. 

13  Codex      Juris      Canonici,      can.  i«  He    died    1840. 

1240,  §  i,  n.  3:  "Ecclesiastica  sepul-  17  "Despair    and    anger,"    rightly 

tura  privantur,  nisi  ante  mortem  ali-  observes     Van     der    Heeren     (Cath. 

qua  dederint  poenitentiae  signa.  .  .  .  Encyclopedia,    Vol.    XIV,    p.    328), 

qui     se     ipsi     occiderint     deliberate  "are   not   as   a   general   thing   move- 

consilio." — Cfr.  Rit.  Rom.,  tit.   6,  c.  ments  of  the  soul  which  it  is  impos- 

2,  n.   3;  S.  OfKc.,  d.   1 6.  Maii  1866.  sible  to  resist,  especially  if  one  does 

14  E.g.,     J.     Maschka,     Handbuch  not  neglect  the  helps  offered  by  re- 
der    gerichtlichen    Medisin,    Vol.    I,  ligion,   confidence   in   God,   belief   in 
Tubingen,   1881,  p.   477.  the   immortality   of   the   soul  and   in 

16  For  instance,  R.  Gaupp,   Ueber       a   future   life   of   rewards   and    pun 
ishments." 


8o  INDIVIDUAL  DUTIES 

whose  existence  seems  to  be  established  by  statistics,  but 
whose  nature  we  are  but  just  beginning  to  surmise.18 

b)  As  the  theological  notion  of  suicide  implies 
the  full  use  of  reason  and  the  deliberate  intention, 
direct  or  indirect,  of  ending  one's  life,  a  man 
does  not  commit  suicide  if  he  kills  himself  acci 
dentally,  or  through  carelessness,  or  in  order  to 
escape  certain  danger  of  death,  or  when  in  a  state 
of  mental  derangement,  be  it  complete  or  par 
tial,  permanent  or  temporary;  or  indirectly  by 
doing  or  omitting  something  the  fatal  conse 
quences  of  which  he  might  and  should  have  fore 
seen,  but  does  not  advert  to  on  account  of  their 
remoteness ;  e.  g.,  leading  a  dissolute  life,  indulg 
ing  in  anger  or  intemperance,  or  mortifying  his 
body  beyond  the  bounds  of  reason.  An  act 
which  is  not  in  itself  sinful  and  of  which  it  cannot 
be  foreseen  that  it  will  lead  to  the  destruction  of 
life  (as,  e.  g.,  firing  a  gun,  eating  a  food  not 
known  to  be  poisonous)  is  no  sin.  If  death  can 
be  foreseen  as  the  result  of  such  a  non-sinful  act, 
the  latter  is  forbidden,  unless  commanded  by 
duty,  as  when  a  priest  or  a  physician  visits  a 
patient  who  is  suffering  from  a  contagious  dis 
ease  or  when  a  soldier  goes  into  battle.  If  the 
act  that  results  in  self-destruction  is  in  itself  sin 
ful,  it  is  a  voluntarium  in  causa  with  regard  to 

18  Cfr.    Familler,   Pastor alpsychiatrie,   pp.    142   sqq. 


SUICIDE  81 

such  destruction,  and  may  be  imputed  as  a  sin 
tending  to  self-destruction,  which,  however,  is 
not  suicide  in  the  specific  sense. 

The  ecclesiastical  penalty  inflicted  upon  those  who  are 
guilty  of  direct  suicide  does  not  affect  those  who  commit 
suicide  indirectly.  If  direct  suicide  has  been  committed 
in  a  state  of  mental  derangement,  the  victim  should  not 
be  buried  in  the  customary  solemn  manner,  but  quietly, 
i.e.,  without  song,  bell,  or  sermon;  not  as  if  the  Church 
wished  to  judge  the  soul  of  the  departed,  but  merely  to  in 
dicate  her  sorrow  at  his  misfortune  and  dreadful  end. 
Where  there  is  doubt  as  to  the  condition  in  which  the 
act  was  committed,  charity  demands  that  the  deceased  be 
given  the  benefit  of  the  doubt,  and  be  buried  with  ec 
clesiastical  honors.  Mental  alienation  may  be  presumed, 
not  only  on  the  strength  of  expert  opinion,  but  also  on 
the  testimony  of  trustworthy  relatives  or  friends  who 
were  in  personal  touch  with  the  deceased.19 

A  point  to  which  attention  should  be  called  is  that 
the  power  of  suggestion  and  example  have  much  to  do 
with  the  increase  of  suicide.  Dymond,  an  authority  in 
the  matter,  says :  "The  power  of  the  example  of  the 
suicide  is  much  greater  than  has  been  thought.  Every 
act  of  suicide  tacitly  conveys  the  sanction  of  one  more 
judgment  in  its  favor.  Frequency  of  repetition  dimin 
ishes  the  sensation  of  abhorrence  and  makes  succeeding 
sufferers,  even  of  less  degree,  resort  to  it  with  less  reluct 
ance." 

Dr.  Walsh,  who  quotes  this  passage,  adds:  "Our 
modern  newspapers,  by  supplying  all  the  details  of  every 

19  Regulae   luris  in    VIto   Decret.       n.  49:     "In  poenis  benignior  est  in- 
Bonifat.   VIII,  n.  30:     "In  obscuris       terpretatio  facienda." 
minimum     est     sequendum."     Ibid., 


82  INDIVIDUAL  DUTIES 

suicide  that  occurs,  especially  if  it  presents  any  criminally 
interesting  features  or  morbidly  sentimental  accessories, 
familiarize  the  mind,  particularly  of  the  impressionable 
young,  with  the  idea  of  suicide.  When  troubles  come, 
lack  of  experience  in  life  makes  the  youthful  mind  fore 
cast  a  future  of  hopeless  suffering.  Love  episodes  are 
responsible  for  most  of  the  suicides  in  the  young,  while 
sickness  and  physical  ills  are  the  causes  in  the  old.  In 
a  certain  number  of  cases,  however,  domestic  quarrels, 
and  especially  the  infliction  of  punishment  on  the  young 
at  an  age  when  they  are  beginning  to  feel  their  independ 
ence  and  their  right  to  be  delivered  from  what  they  are 
prone  to  consider  restriction,  are  apt  to  be  followed  in  the 
morbidly  unstable  by  thoughts  of  suicide."  20 

In  order  to  forestall  the  putting  into  action  of  the 
suicidal  impulse,  Doctor  Walsh  suggests  that  those  who 
are  close  to  the  patient  should  have  some  realization  of 
the  possibility  of  its  occurrence.  There  are  usually  some 
previous  indications  of  the  suicidal  trend.  Many 
especially  early  suicides  have  distinct  tendencies  to  and 
stigmata  of  hebephrenic  melancholia.  The  best  known 
symptoms  of  this  condition  are  those  described  by  Dr. 
Peterson  in  his  book  on  mental  diseases.  The  symptoms 
noted  are  extraordinarily  rapid  and  paradoxical  changes 
of  disposition.  Depressed  ideas  intrude  themselves  in 
the  midst  of  boisterous  gaiety,  and  untimely  jocularity 
in  the  deepest  depression,  or  at  solemn  moments.  Then 
there  is  the  paradoxical  facial  expression,  the  so-called 
paramimia,  that  is,  a  look  of  joy  and  pleasure  when  really 
mental  depression  is  present,  or  a  look  of  depression 
when  joyful  sentiments  are  being  expressed.21 

The  tendency  of  suicide  to  repeat  itself  in  families  is 

20  Essays    in    Pastoral    Medicine,  21  Ibid.,  p.  309  sg. 

P-  309- 


SELF-MUTILATION  83 

now  well  known  and  recognized.  It  is  "not  directly  in 
herited,  but  there  is  a  mental  weakness  that  makes  the 
individual  incapable  of  withstanding  the  sufferings  life 
may  entail."  22 

2.  SELF-MUTILATION. — As  we  are  not  masters 
of  life,  so  neither  are  we  owners  of  our  limbs, 
and  hence  cannot  dispose  of  them  at  will.  A  man 
is  not  justified  in  mutilating  himself,  but  as  the 
limbs  of  the  body  are  subordinate  to  life,  they 
may  be  sacrificed  as  parts  for  the  whole  if  life  can 
thereby  be  preserved.  Hence  the  amputation  of 
one  or  several  limbs  is  permissible  when  it  is  the 
only  means  of  preserving  life.  A  sick  man  may 
allow  an  infected  limb  to  be  amputated  in  order 
to  prevent  infection  of  the  whole  body,  and  one 
who  is  handcuffed,  e.  g.,  in  prison,  may  tear  or 
cut  off  a  hand  or  an  arm,  or  both,  in  order  to 
escape  certain  death,  e.  g.,  from  fire.23 

To  mutilate  oneself  or  to  allow  oneself  to  be  mutilated 
for  any  other  purpose  than  that  of  saving  one's  life,  for 

22  Ibid,,  p.   310.  brum    putridum    est    lotius    carports 

23  Cfr.  St.  Thomas,  Sttmma  Theo-       corruptirum." — IDEM,  Summa  contra 
logica,     23     2ae,     qu.     65,     art.     i:        Gent.,  1.    Ill,   c.    112,   n.    5:   "Mani- 


"Quum  membrum  aliquod  sit  par 
totius  hutnant  corporis,  est  propte 
totum,  sicut  imperfectum  propte 
perfectum.  Unde  disponendum  est  d 
membro  humani  corporis  secundun 


humani  corpotis  per  se  quidem  util 
est   ad    bonum    totius    corporis,    pe 


festum  est,  paries  omnes  ordinari 
ad  perfecttonem  totius;  non  enim 
est  totum  propter  partes,  sed  paries 
propter  totum  sunt." — Cfr.  J.  P. 
Gury,  Comp.  Theol.  Mor.,  Lyons 


quod  expedit  toti.     Membrum  autet          and    Paris,     1850,    Vol.    I,    n.    403, 


9;   H.   Noldin,    S.J.,   Summa   Theol. 
Mor.,  Vol.   II,    nth  ed.,   Innsbruck, 


accidens     tamen    potest     contmgere,       1914,  Pp.  35i  sq. 
quod  sit  nocivum,   ptita  quum  mem- 


84 


INDIVIDUAL  DUTIES 


instance,  to  escape  military  conscription,  is  not  permis 
sible. 

Except  as  a  remedy  for  diseased  conditions  of  the  body, 
castration  or  emasculation  (eviratio)  is  never  allowed, 
not  even  from  religious  motives,  as,  for  instance,  to  pre 
serve  chastity  or  avoid  temptations,  because  the  operation 
is  neither  necessary  nor  useful  for  that  purpose ; 2i  still 
less,  of  course,  for  minor  ends,  e.  g.,  to  keep  the  voice 
unbroken,  because  the  preservation  of  a  youthful  voice 
is  not  a  sufficient  good  to  justify  the  commission  of  an 
act  against  nature.  Following  many  censures  of  his 
predecessors,  Leo  XIII  expressly  forbade  this  practice 
for  the  singers  of  the  Sistine  Chapel.25 

Vasectomy  and  the  excision  of  the  uterus  or  ovaries 
are  operations  which,  though  permissible  when  necessary 
for  the  direct  preservation  of  life  or  health,  would  be 
sinful  if  performed  for  the  sole  purpose  of  superinducing 
sterility.26 


24  St.  Jerome,  Ep.,  84  (o/.  65),  n. 
8:  "Origenes  voluptates  in  tantum 
fugit,  ut  zelo  Dei,  sed  tamen  non 
secundum  scientiam  ferro  truncaret 
genitalia."  (Migne,  P.  L.,  XXII, 
750).— St.  Thomas,  Summa  Theol., 
23.  2ae,  qu.  65,  art.  i,  ad  3: 
"Membrum  non  est  praescindendum 
propter  corporalem  salutem  totius, 
nisi  quando  aliter  toti  subveniri  non 
potest.  Saliiti  autem  spirituali  sem 
per  potest  aliter  subveniri  quam  per 
membn  praecisionem,  quia  peccatum 
subiacet  voluntati.  Et  ideo  in  nullo 
casu  licet  membrum  praescindere 
propter  quodcunque  peccatum  vitan- 
dum." — J.  P.  Gury,  Comp.  Theol. 
Mor.,  Vol.  I,  n.  403,  10:  "Non  licet 
se  castrare  ad  castitatem  servandam 
Tel  ad  tentationes  sedandas,  quia  ad 

immo    eviratio    est    prorsus    inutilis 
ad    peccatum    vitandum,     quia    non 


tollit  carnis  tentationes,  sed  tantum 
generationem  impedit." — Cfr.  O'Mal- 
ley  and  Walsh,  Essays  in  Pastoral 
Medicine,  p.  339. 

25  Decree    of    Feb.    3,    1902. — H. 
Noldin,    S.J.,    Summa    Theol.    Mor., 
Vol.   II,   nth   ed.,   p.  352:     "Summi 
pontifices       castrationem      puerorum 
nunquam     probarunt,     nee     unquatn 
licitam  dixerunt,  immo  eos,  qui  cut- 
pabiliter   se    aliosve    eunuchos   feds- 
sent,    irregulares    declararunt.  .  .  ." 
Cfr.  Benedict  XIV,  De  Syn.  Dioec., 
\.    XI,   c.    7,   n.    3;    C.    Richert,   Die 
Anfange    der    Irregularitiiten,    Frei 
burg,   1901,  pp.  104  sqq. 

26  S.    C.    S.    Off.,   22   May,    1895: 
"Si  sia  lecita   la  practica  sia  attiva 
sia    passii'a    di    un    procedimento    il 
quale    si    propone    intenzionalmente 

della  donna.  R.  Negative."  Sa- 
betti-Barrctt,  Comp.  Theol.  Mor.,  n. 


SELF-MUTILATION  85 

READINGS. — St.  Thomas,  Summa  Theol,  2a  2ae,  qu.  64,  art.  5. — 
James  J.  Walsh,  Essays  in  Pastoral  Medicine,  Ch.  xxvii,  New 
York  1906.— F.  A.  Gopfert,  Moraltheologie,  Vol.  II,  6th  ed.,  pp. 
6  sqq.,  Paderborn  19x19. — Thos.  Slater,  S.J.,  A  Manual  of  Moral 
Theology,  Vol.  I,  pp.  301  sqq.,  New  York  1908. — Aug.  Lehmkuhl, 
S.J.,  Theologia  Moralis,  Vol.  I,  nth  ed.,  pp.  403  sqq. — Ad.  Tan- 
querey,  S.S.,  Synopsis  Theologiae  Moralis  et  Fastoralis,  Vol.  Ill, 
pp.  124  sqq.,  Tournai  1904. — Westcott,  Suicide,  its  History,  Liter 
ature,  etc.,  London  1885. — Bonomelli,  //  Suicidio,  Milan  1892. — E. 
Durckheim,  Le  Suicide,  Paris  1897. — Masaryk,  Der  Selbstmord 
als  soz'mle  Massenerscheinung,  Vienna,  1881. — J.  E.  Ross, 
C.  S.  P.,  Christian  Ethics,  New  York  1919,  pp.  178  sqq. — Austin 
O'Malley,  The  Ethics  of  Medical  Homicide  and  Mutilation,  New 
York  1919,  pp.  7  sqq.,  244,  260  sqq. 

267. — Cfr.  H.  Noldin,  S.J.,  Summa  est  prorsus  incapax,  quippe  qui 
Theol.  Mor.,  Vol.  II,  p.  352:  verum  semen  in  testiculis  elabora- 

canales  viri  semen  conferentes  se-  ratio,  quae  brevissimo  tempore 
centur,  adeo  ut  omnis  communicatio  peragitur,  insuper  nee  periculosa 
testiculorum  cum  membra  virili  im-  nee  admodum  dolorosa  est,  morali- 
pediatuf.  Vasectomiacus,  qui  hanc  ter  dicenda  est  illicita,  nisi  ad  ser- 
operationem  passus  est  actiones  vandam  vitam  vel  sanitatem  neces- 
sexuales  per  copulam  carnalem  pera-  saria  sit." — On  vasectomy,  see  A. 
gere  quidem  potest,  at  fecundationis  O'Malley,  The  Ethics  of  Medical 

Homicide    and    Mutilation,    pp.     244 

sqq. 


CHAPTER  V 

POSITIVE  DUTIES  IN  REGARD  TO  LIFE  AND  HEALTH 

Though  man  may  not  end  his  life  at  will,  he  is 
in  duty  bound  to  sacrifice  it  under  certain  condi 
tions.  The  reason  for  this  obligation  is  twofold  : 
First,  there  are  higher  duties  than  that  of  pre 
serving  life,  and,  secondly,  every  man  possesses 
certain  rights  over  his  own  person.  Hence  the 
duty  of  preserving  and  safeguarding  life  and 
health,  with  which  we  dealt  in  the  last  Section, 
does  not  bind  absolutely,  but  is  subject  to  certain 
limitations. 

i.  Man  is  bound  to  give  his  life,  or  to  allow 
others  to  take  it,  if  he  can  preserve  it  in  no  other 
way  than  at  the  expense  of  truth  and  virtue,  i.  e., 
at  the  cost  of  his  soul's  salvation,1  or  if  the  duties 
of  his  vocation  or  state  require  him  to  sacrifice 
health  or  life,  as  often  happens  with  priests, 
physicians,  nurses,  firemen,  and  others ;  or  when 
ever  it  becomes  a  duty  to  run  a  serious  risk  for 
the  sake  of  the  common  welfare.2 

1  Cfr.  Matt.  X,  39;   XVI,  25  sq.;  II,    17;   i  John  III,    16.     Cfr.  J.  de 
Mark  VIII,  35-37!  Luke  IX,  24-26;  Lugo,  De  lust,  et  lure,  disp.  10,  qu. 
XVIII,  33;   John  XII,  25.  i:     "Ob    magnum    bonum    commune 

2  Acts  XX,  24;  Eph.  Ill,  13;  Phil.  vcl    ob    specialem    obligationem    ex 

86 


SACRIFICING  LIFE  87 

2.  It  is  permissible  for  a  man  to  sacrifice  his  life 
or  to  expose  himself  to  certain  danger  of  death : 

a)  If  he  knows  no  other  way  of  escape  from 
a  physically  proximate  occasion  of  mortal  sin. 
Thus  a  virgin  may  risk  death  in  order  to  preserve 
her  chastity,  e.  g.,  by  leaping  into  a  river  with 
the  purpose  of  reaching  the  other  side,  even 
though  there  be  no  reasonable  hope  of  attaining 
safety,  or  by  offering  resistance  to  her  assailant, 
even  though  she  run  immediate  danger  of  being 
killed  and  cannot  escape  except  by  a  miracle. 
We  say  such  conduct  would  be  permissible ;  but  it 
would  not  be  obligatory,  for  it  is  not  absolutely 
impossible  to  refuse  internal  consent.  A  person 
does  not  share  the  guilt  of  another's  sin,  says  St. 
Augustine,  as  long  as  he  does  not  give  his  con 
sent.3  The  Roman  Breviary  quotes  St.  Lucy  as 

pacto  vel  officio  quam  habet  miles,  XXIII,  957). — St.  Alphonsus  says 
gubernator,  episcopus,  parochus,  li-  (Theol.  Mor.,  Ill,  n.  368):  "Hie 
cite  possunt  et  tenentur  mortem  magis  urget  quaestio,  an  virgo  tene- 
praeferre." — H.  Busembaum,  S.J.,  atur  potiits  pcrmittere  se  occidi 
Medulla  Theol.  Mor.,  Ill,  tr.  4,  c.  quam  violari,  puta  si  invasor  mine- 
it  dub.  i:  "Miles  potest,  immo  tur  ei  mortem,  si  copulae  non  ac- 
tenetiif  persistere  in  statione,  etsi  quiescat.  Adest  duplex  sententia. 
moraliter  certus  sit  se  occidendum."  Prima  dicit,  quod,  licet  possit,  non 
(Tournay,  1876,  I,  172).  Cfr.  St.  tcnetur  tamen  femina  mortem  pati, 
Alphonsus,  Theol.  Mor.,  1.  IV,  n.  sed  potest  tune  permissive  se  ha- 
366.  here,  dum  accidit  copula,  modo  vo- 
8  Epist.,  98  (al.  23),  n.  i:  "Non  luntate  positive  resistat  et  consensus 
potest  vinculo  alienae  iniquitatis  ob-  periculum  absit;  quia,  ut  dicunt,  ilia 
stringi,  qm  nulla  sua  vohintate  con-  permissio  non  est  tune  cooperatio 
sentit."  (Migne,  P.  L.,  XXXIII,  moralis,  sed  tantum  materialis,  et 
359). — IDEM,  De  Mendacio,  c.  19,  n.  idea  ob  periculum  mortis  satis  excu,- 
40  (P.  L.,  XL,  514). — St.  Jerome,  satur.  Secunda  sententia  docet,  hoc 
Hebraicae  Quaest.  in  Gen.,  c.  1.2:  oinnino  illicitum  esse,  quia,  quum 
"Corpus  sanctarum  mulierum  non  femina  possit  copulam  impedire,  si 
vis  maculat,  sed  voluntas."  (P.  L.,  timore  inducta  quiescit,  eius  tune 


INDIVIDUAL  DUTIES 


saying:  "The  body  is  not  stained  except  by  the 
consent  of  the  mind,  and  if  you  command  me  to 
be  violated  against  my  will,  my  chastity  will  be 
to  me  a  double  crown."  4 

Similarly,  a  woman  has  the  right,  though  she  is 
not  in  duty  bound,  to  refuse  to  allow  herself  to 
be  physically  examined  or  operated  upon  in  order 
to  preserve  her  modesty  or  bodily  integrity.6 
She  may  furthermore  refuse  to  submit  to  medical 
examination  ordered  by  a  court  for  the  purpose 
of  ascertaining  whether  she  has  committed  infan 
ticide,  even  though  her  refusal  would  be  inter 
preted  as  a  confession  of  guilt  and  result  in  her 
conviction.  For  although  in  the  case  of  crimes 
of  this  kind  a  physical  examination  is  often  im 
portant  for  ascertaining  the  guilt  of  the  accused, 


cooperatio  vere  moralis  et  volunta- 
ria  fit;  in  femina  enim  ilia  quies  in 
copula  reputatur  ut  actio.  Haec 
ratio  tamen  non  convincit,  quia 
ilia  quies  feminae  revera  non  po- 
test  did  actio,  dum  nullo  modo  est 
positira.  Idea  prima  sententia 
(speculative  loquendo)  sua  proba- 
bilitate  carere  non  videtur.  Non 
tamen  negandum,  secundum  senten- 
tiam  in  pra.ri  omnino  suadendam 
esse,  saltern  ob  periculum  consensus, 
quod  in  ilia  permissione  facile  ad- 
esse  potest."—Cfr.  A.  Lehmkuhl, 
S.J.,  Theol.  Mor.,  Vol.  I,  loth  ed., 
n.  580. 

4  Breviarium  Rom.,  Festum  S. 
Luciae  (13  Dec.),  lect.  6:  "Non 
coinguinatur  corpus  nisi  de  con- 
sensu  mentis,  et  si  invitam  iusseris 
violari,  castitas  mihi  duplicabitur  ad 


coronam." — Cfr.  Busembaum,  Me 
dulla,  I.  c.:  "Etsi  virgini  non  li- 
ceat  ad  castitatem  servandam  directe 
se  occidere,  licet  tamen  ei  certo 
periculo  mortis  se  exponere  etiam 
pro  sola  integritate  corporali,  licet 
rationabiliter  praesumeret  se  non 
consensuram,  quia  integritas  ista 
magnt  aestimatur." 

5  Cfr.  Gury,  Comp.  Theol.  Mor., 
Vol.  I,  n.  403:  "Non  tenetur  virgo 
operationem  probrosam  pati  per  ma- 
nus  medici,  licet  eius  vita  pericli- 
tetur,  quia  amor  verecundiae  aequare 
potest  out  etiam  superare  malum 
quod  morte  pertimescitur." — St.  Al- 
phonsus,  Theol.  Mor.,  Ill,  n.  372: 
"Posset  tamen  virgo  permittere,  ut 
tangatur,  immo  teneretur  sinere,  ut 
ab  alia  femina  curetur,  ut  recte  ait 
Diana." 


SACRIFICING  LIFE 


89 


and  it  may  happen  that  a  guilty  woman  escapes 
punishment  by  her  refusal  to  be  examined,  mod 
esty  must  be  protected  at  all-  costs,  and  Catho 
lics  should  use  their  influence  to  prevent  the  adop 
tion  of  laws  that  run  counter  to  this  principle.6 

As  regards  the  so-called  suicidia  martyrum?  it  is  safe 
to  say  that  the  holy  persons  who  thus  voluntarily  in 
curred  death  were  divinely  inspired  8  or  at  least  acted  in 
good  faith.9  Samson's  deed,  as  recorded  in  the  Book 
of  Judges,10  was  justifiable  from  another  point  of  view, 
besides  that  mentioned  by  St.  Augustine.*  He  may  be 


6  Cfr.     F.     v.     Holtzendorff,    Das 
Verbrechen     des     Mordes    und     die 
Todesstrafe,  Berlin  1875,  pp.  337  sq- 

7  See    Eusebius,    Hist.    Eccles.,    1. 
VI,  c.  42;  1.  VIII,  c.  12  (Migne,  P. 
G.,  XX,  608,  772). 

8  St.   Augustine,  De  Civitate  Dei, 
1.   I,   c.    16-19    (Migne,   P.   L.,   XLI, 
30-34) :     "Sed     quaedam,     inquiunt, 
sanctae     feminae     tempore     persecu- 
tionis,    ut    insectatores     suae    pudi- 
citiae   devitarent,   in  rapturum  atque 


debet  committere  in  se  critnen  maxi 
mum,  quod  est  sui  ipsius  occisio,  ut 
vitet  minus  crimen  alienum.  Non 
enim  est  crimen  mulieris  per  violen- 
tiam,  si  consensus  non  adsit,  quia 
non  inquinatur  corpus  nisi  de  con- 
sensu  mentis,  ut  Lucia  dixit.  .  .  . 
Similiter  etiam  nulli  licet  seipsum 
occidere  ob  timorem,  ne  consentiat 
in  peccatum,  quia  non  sunt  facienda 
mala,  ut  veniant  bona  (Rom.  Ill, 
8)  vel  ut  ritentur  mala,  praesertim 


eoque  modo  defunctae  sunt  earum- 
que  martyria  in  catholica  ecclesia 
veneratione  celeberrima  frequentan- 
tur.  De  his  nihil  temere  audeo  iu- 
dicare.  Utrum  enim  ecclesiae  ali- 
quibus  fide  dignis  testificationibus, 
ut  earum  memoriam  sic  honoret,  di- 
vina  persuaserit  auctoritas,  nescio, 
et  fieri  potest,  ut  ita  sit.  Quid,  si 
enim  hoc  fecerunt  non  humanitus 
deceptae,  sed  divinitus  iussae,  nee 
errantes,  sed  oboedientesf  Sicut  de 
Samsone  aliud  nobis  fas  non  est 
credere."  (P.  L.,  XLI,  39). — IDEM, 
Tract,  in  loa.,  51,  n.  10  (P.  L., 
XXXV,  1767). — St.  Thomas,  Summo 
Theol.,  23  2ae,  qu.  64,  art.  5,  ad  3: 
"Non  licet  mulieri  seipsam  occidere, 
ne  ab  alio  corrumpatur,  quia  non 


enim  est,  an  aliquis  in  futurum  con 
sentiat  in  peccatum;  potens  est  enim 
Deus  hominem  quacunque  tenta- 
tione  superveniente  liberare  a  pec- 
cato." — Ibidem,  ad  4:  "Dicendum 
quod,  sicut  Augustinus  dicit  [De 
Civ.  Dei,  I,  c.  21 ;  Migne,  P.  L., 
XLI,  35],  nee  Samson  aliter  excu- 
satur,  quod  seipsum  cum  hostibus 
ruina  domus  oppressit,  nisi  quod  la- 
tenter  Spiritus  Sanctus  hoc  iusserat, 
qui  per  ilium  miracula  faciebat.  Et 
eandem  rationem  assignat  de  quibus- 
dam  sanctis  feminis,  quae  tempore 
persecutionis  seipsas  occiderunt,  qua- 
rum  memoria  in  ecclesia  celebratur." 

9  Lessius,  De  lust.,  II,  c.  9,  n.  23. 

10  Judges  XVI,  23  sqq. 
*  See  note   8,  supra. 


90  INDIVIDUAL  DUTIES 

said  to  have  willed  his  death  only  indirectly  as  a  means 
of  destroying  the  Philistines,  and  hence  acted  for  the 
common  good  (ex  caritate  boni  communis)  .ll 

b)  It  is  also  permissible  to  sacrifice  one's  life 
or  to  expose  oneself  to  certain  danger  of  death 
in  order  to  escape  a  serious  temptation.  The 
older  moralists  held  that  a  patient  would  be  justi 
fied  in  refusing  to  submit  to  an  extremely  pain 
ful  operation,  even  though  it  were  likely  to  save 
his  life,  if  he  knew,  or  at  least  had  reason  to 
fear,  that  the  pain  would  cause  him  to  sin  griev 
ously  by  anger,  impatience,  despair,  or  blasphemy. 
In  the  present  advanced  stage  of  surgery  this 
danger  is  slight,12  although,  because  of  the  more 
or  less  well-founded  fear  of  death  under  the 
knife,  no  general  obligation  can  be  established. 

The  duty  of  employing  the  resources  of  medicine  and 
surgery  to  save  one's  life  must  not  be  interpreted  as  com 
pelling  a  patient  to  employ  such  extraordinary  means  as 
would  be  harder  to  bear  than  death  itself.  No  one  is 
obliged,  for  instance,  to  consent  to  the  amputation  of  a 
limb  if  he  is  not  certain  that  the  operation  will  not  kill 
him.  In  the  present  stage  of  medical  science  there  is 
nearly  always  at  least  a  possibility  of  saving  life,  and 
hence  it  may  be  said,  in  a  general  way,  that  patients  are 
bound  to  allow  themselves  to  be  operated  upon  if  advised 
to  do  so  by  a  reputable  physician. 

11  Cfr.     Sporer-Bierbaum,     Theol.  12  Cfr.  Chas.  Coppens,  S.J.,  Moral 

Mot.,   Vol.    II,   zwd    ed.,    Paderborn       Principles     and     Medical     Practice, 
1903,   tr.    5,  n.    390;    F.   X.   Linsen-        New  York   1897. 
mann,  Lehrbuch  der  Moraltheologie, 
p.  259- 


EUTHANASIA  91 

Of  course,  no  man  is  obliged  for  the  restoration  of  his 
health  to  employ  means  which  would  entail  poverty  upon 
his  family  or  cause  extraordinary  hardship  to  himself,  es 
pecially  if  the  result  is  uncertain. 

From  what  we  have  said  the  reader  will  have  rightly 
concluded  that  the  duty  of  submitting  to  medical  or  surg 
ical  treatment  is  never  absolute,  but  always  relative. 
When  life  can  be  saved  in  no  other  way,  and  it  is  very 
probable  that  the  treatment  suggested  will  prove  success 
ful,  the  patient  should  take  it  if  he  has  the  means 
to  do  so.  But  as  long  as  there  is  hope  of  restoring  health 
in  some  other  way,  there  is  no  strict  duty  to  take  medi 
cine  or  submit  to  the  knife.  If  the  disease  is  so  far  ad 
vanced  that  no  reasonable  hope  can  be  entertained  of  sav 
ing  the  patient's  life,  he  should  not  be  molested,  and  the 
more  doubtful  the  effect  of  a  medicine  or  an  opera 
tion,  and  the  less  inclined  the  patient  is  to  take  or  under 
go  it,  the  less  should  he  be  harassed.  No  matter  how 
far  advanced  the  disease  or  how  meagre  the  hope  of  re 
covery,  it  is  never  allowed  to  give  a  patient  drugs  which 
are  apt  to  directly  cause  death,  but  it  is  permissible  to 
employ  medicines  that  may  possibly  hasten  the  end,  pro 
vided  there  is  hope,  or  at  least  a  possibility,  that  they 
will  have  a  beneficial  influence  upon  the  patient. 

To  hasten  death  artificially  by  the  employment 
of  anaesthetics  (dflavaaia)  when  all  hope  of  re 
covery  is  gone,  can  be  regarded  as  permissible 
only  if  the  drugs  employed  for  this  purpose 
do  not  entirely  deprive  the  sufferer  of  con 
sciousness.  No  man  should  be  robbed  of  the 
capacity  of  acquiring  merits  in  the  hour  of  death, 
when,  as  Dr.  Delany  rightly  says  "the  compe- 


92  INDIVIDUAL  DUTIES 

tency  of  acting  meritoriously  is  most  necessary 
and  its  products  invested  with  finality."  13 

"The  time  just  before  death,"  says  Father 
Slater,  "is  very  precious;  a  sinner  may  then  be 
reconciled  with  God  and  save  his  soul;  one  who 
is  in  the  state  of  grace  may  very  much  increase 
his  merit  by  a  good  use  at  that  time.  Euthanasia, 
then,  in  this  sense,  is  unlawful;  it  is  virtually 
shortening  a  man's  life."  14 

Dr.  Delany  further  says  that  there  can  be  no  doubt 
that  "the  administration  of  drugs  of  the  nature  specified 
is,  in  the  premises,  if  not  formally,  at  all  events  equiva- 
lently,  a  shortening  of  the  life  of  the  patient.  Hence  as 
long  as  the  stricken  person  has  as  yet  made  no  adequate 
preparation  for  death,  it  is  always  grievously  unlawful 
to  induce  a  condition  of  insensibility.  In  no  contingency 
.  .  .  can  any  positive  indorsement  be  given  to  means 
whose  scope  is  to  have  one  die  in  a  state  of  uncon 
sciousness.  What  has  been  said  applies  with  equal 
force  and  for  the  same  reasons  to  the  case  of  those 
who  have  to  suffer  capital  punishment  by  process  of 
law."  15 

c)  Another  motive  which  would  justify  a  man  in  sac 
rificing  his  life  or  exposing  himself  to  the  danger  of  cer- 

13  Cath.  Encyclopedia,  Vol.  V,  p.  permissive  demeanor  whenever  it  is 
630.  certain   that  the   departing  soul  has 

14  Thos.   Slater,  Manual  of  Moral  abundantly  made  ready  for  the  great 
Theology,  Vol.  I,  p.    164.  summons,"  and  adds:  "This  is  espe- 

15  Cath.  Encyclopedia,   Vol.   V,  p.  cially    true    if   there    is    ground    for 
630. — Dr.     Delany,    in    the     excised  apprehending    from    the    dying    per- 
portions     of     the     paragraph     above  son's    continued    possession    of    his 
quoted,  goes  farther  than  most  other  faculties,  a  relapse  into  sin."     This 
Catholic    writers    by    granting    that  sounds    plausible,    but    is    dangerous 
"those  charged  with  responsibility  in  doctrine.     (See   O'Malley,    The  Eth- 
the  case"  may  "take  up  a  passively  ics  of  Medical  Homicide,  PP-  13  sqq.) 


DANGEROUS  OCCUPATIONS  93 

tain  death,  would  be  the  desire  to  escape  death  in  some 
other,  equally  certain  but  more  painful  form.  Thus  one 
who  is  unable  to  flee  from  a  burning  building  would  be 
allowed  to  leap,  at  the  risk  of  breaking  his  neck,  even 
though  the  hope  of  saving  his  life  were  very  small.16 

3.  To  give  up  one's  life  when  such  a  sacrifice  is 
necessary  or  justifiable  for  the  common  wel 
fare,  is  not  only  permissible,  but  positively 
virtuous. 

a)  A  man  is  allowed  to  engage  in  occupations 
which  may,  though  they  need  not  necessarily  be 
dangerous  to  life  and  limb,  e.  g.,  working  on 
"sky-scrapers,"  church  steeples,  etc.  He  may 
also  choose  a  vocation  which  involves  proximate 
danger  of  disease  or  death,  even  though  in  so 
doing  he  have  no  higher  motive  than  to  earn  a 
living  or  win  pecuniary  gain. 

Dangerous  occupations  are  not  only  those  in 
which  sudden  injury  and  death  are  caused  by  ma 
chinery  or  unguarded  perils,  but  also,  and  in  the 
technical  sense  of  the  term  particularly  those  in 
which  some  form  of  poison  or  disease  is  incidental 
to  the  trade  itself  as  at  present  carried  on.17 
Most  of  the  trades  and  occupations  of  this  class 

ie  Cfr.      St.      Alphonsus,      Theol.  sit  aliqua  spes  mortem  evadendi." — 

Mor.,    1.    Ill,    n.    367:     "Quaeritur,  Sporer-Bierbaum,   Theol.   Mor.,   Vol. 

an    liceat    se    occidere    ad    vitandam  II,  and  ed.,  tr.  5,  n.  389;  A.  Lehm- 

mortem     duriorem.     Resp.:    Directe  kuhl,  S.J.,  Theol.  Mor.,  Vol.  I,  loth 

se   occidere  nunqnam   licet.  .  .  .  Li-  ed.,  n.  580. 

cet  vero  se  indirecte  occidere,  puta  17  See  Bliss,  Encyclopedia  of  So- 

si  quis  se  eiiciat  per  fenestram,  ut  cial  Reform,  and  ed.,  p.  360. 
effugiat  incendium.  praesertim  si  at- 


94  INDIVIDUAL  DUTIES 

are  necessary  for  society  as  a  whole  and  also 
for  those  individuals  who  make  a  living  by  fol 
lowing  them.18 

For  the  sake  of  gaining  a  livelihood,  (which  is 
a  dira  necessitas) ,  it  is  also  legitimate  for  a  man 
to  engage  in  a  hazardous  occupation  for  the 
amusement,  recreation,  or  utility  of  others,  such 
as  tight-rope  walking,  acrobatics,  show  athletics, 
etc.,  provided,  of  course,  no  divine  or  human  law 
is  directly  transgressed. 

To  endanger  one's  life  merely  for  the  purpose 
of  displaying  agility  or  courage,  without  strict 
necessity  or  a  reasonable  cause,  is  always  sinful.19 

b)  It  is  permitted  to  volunteer  one's  services 
in  war,  nay  even  to  risk  one's  life  at  or  without 
the  express  command  of  a  superior  officer,  if  some 
essential  object  can  be  attained  thereby,  e.g.,  if 
considerable  damage  can  be  done  to  the  enemy  or 
a  great  advantage  gained  for  one's  own  side.20 

18  Cfr.  Gury,  Comp.   Theol.  Mor.,  "Miles  potest,   immo   tenetur,   persi- 
Vol.   I,    n.    403,    6° :     "Non   peccant  stere  in  statione,  etsi  moraliter  certus 
artifices,  qui  super  aedificiorum  tecta  sit,   se   occidendum.     Item  potest  ad 
ascendunt  et  variis  sese  periculis  ad  evertendam  turrim  hostilem  aut  per- 
artem    suam    exercendam    exponunt,  dendos    hastes    pulverem    incendere, 
nee  fabri  ferrarii  qui  quotidie  ignem  etsi    sciat,     se     obruendum,    uti    et 
•versando   -vitam    sibi   minuunt,    quia  navim    mergere    vel    incendere,    ne 
ex  causa  rationabili  agunt."  hostis  ea  potiatur  cum  gram  reipubli- 

19  "Graviter  peccant  viri  audaces,  cae  damno." — Ibid.,  n.  367:    "Quae- 
qui  ex  temeraria  sponsione  et   vana  ritur,   an  autem   liceat  navim  incen- 
gloria   in   varia   discrimina   se   inici-  dere  cum  evidenti  periculo  vitae,  ne 
unt,   in  altum   ascendendo,   deorsum  ilia   veniat    in   manus    hostium.  .  .  . 
se    demittendo,    onera    graviora    fe-  Affirmat  Lugo  cum  Lessio,  licere,  si 
rendo,"    etc.     (Ibid.)  sit    aliqua    spes    saltern    modicissima 

20  Cfr.     Judges     XVI,     23-30;     i  vitandi    mortem,    vel,    etsi   mors   sit 
Mace.    VI,    73    sqq. — Cfr.     St.    Al-  certa,  vitari  tamen  expediat  damnum 
phonsus,    Theol.   Mor.,   Ill,   n.   366:  publicum." 


DEATH  FOR  GLORY  OR  CHARITY 


95 


But  no  one  is  allowed  to  seek  death  merely  for 
glory  or  in  order  to  escape  the  hardships  of 
prison  life.21  Committing  hara-kiri,  as  the  Japa 
nese  are  said  to  do,  to  escape  falling  into  the 
hands  of  the  enemy  or  being  tortured  by  an  angry 
prince,  is  immoral  and  therefore  forbidden.22 

c)  A  man  may  give  up  his  life  in  the  service 
of  charity  when  there  is  question  of  the  salvation 
of  souls  or  the  safeguarding  of  life,  or  some  other 
equivalent  good  on  the  part  of  his  fellow- 
men.  Aside  from  the  vocational  duties  of  physi 
cians  and  priests,  it  is  a  heroic  act  of  virtue  to  ex- 


si  2  Mace.  XIV,  37-46.— Cfr.  St. 
Augustine,  Epist.,  204  (al.  61),  n. 
6:  "Quid  mirum  est,  si  [Raziae] 
tamquam  homini  elatio  superba  sub- 
repsit,  ut  mallet  manit  propria  peri- 
mi  quam  post  illam  in  suorum 
aspectibus  celsitudinem  sustinere  in- 
dignam  in  hostium  manibus  servi- 
tutemf" — Ibid.,  n.  7:  "In  his  Ma- 
chabaeorum  libris  quamvis  homo 
ipse  fuerit  laudatns,  factum  tamen 
eius  narratum  est,  non  laudatum,  et 
indicanditm  potius  quam  imitandum, 
quasi  ante  oculos  constitutum,  non 
sane  nostro  iudicio  iudicandum, 
quod  nos  quoque  ut  homines  habere 
possemus,  sed  iudicio  doctrinae 
sanae,  quae  in  ipsis  quoque  libris 
veteribus  clara  est.  Longe  quippe 
fuit  iste  Rasias  a  verbis  illis,  ubi 
legitur:  'Omne,  quod  tibi  applici- 
tum  fuerit,  accipe,  et  in  dolore  su- 
stine,  et  in  humilitate  tua  patientiatn 
habe.'  (Eccli.  II,  4).  Non  ergo 
fuit  iste  vir  eligendae  mortis  sapi 
ens,  sed  ferendae  humilitatis  impa- 
tiens." — Ibid.,  n.  8:  "Scriptum  est, 
quod  voluerit  'nobiliter  et  virilitef 


mori'  (2  Mach.  XIV.,  37-46),  sed 
numquid  idea  sapienter?  .  .  .  Magna 
haec  sunt,  nee  tamen  bona;  non 
enim  bonum  est  omne  quod  magnum 
est,  quoniam  sunt  magna  etiam 
mala."  (Migne,  P.  L.,  XXXIII, 
941). — IDEM,  Contra  Gaudent.,  I,  c. 
31,  n.  39:  "Proinde  quomodolibet 
accipiotur  a  vobis  huiits  Raziae  vita 
laudato,,  non  habet  mors  eius  lauda- 
tricem  sapientiam,  quia  non  habet 
dignam  Dei  famulis  patientiam  po- 
tiusqtte  huic  vox  ilia  Sapientiae  (Ec 
cli.  II,  16),  quae  non  laudis,  sed 
detestationis  est,  competit:  'Vae 
qui  perdiderunt  sustinentiam.' " 
(P.  L.,  XLIII,  730). 

22  Cfr.  Sporer-Bierbaum,  Theol. 
Mor.,  Vol.  II,  and  ed.,  tr.  5,  n.  389: 
"Cerium  apud  omnes  est,  non  licere 
seipsum  directe  occidere  ad  atroci- 
orem  mortem  iniustam  evadendam. 
Damnabilis  ergo  mos  est  laponen- 
sium,  qui,  ut  atrocem  mortem,  v.  gr. 
lenti  ignis  evadere  possint,  discisso 
-venire  necando  se  liberant." — Cfr. 
V.  Cathrein,  S.J.,  Moralphilosophie, 
Vol.  I,  4th  ed.,  p.  599. 


96  INDIVIDUAL  DUTIES 

pose  oneself  to  immediate  danger  of  death,  for 
instance,  in  nursing  a  patient  afflicted  with  a  con 
tagious  disease.23  We  have  here  a  just  cause 
(iusta  causa),  i.e.,  the  exercise  of  a  duty  or  virtue 
of  such  great  importance  that  the  accompanying 
danger  fades  into  insignificance  and  the  sacrifice 
approaches  martyrdom.24  To  incur  such  a  risk 
out  of  obstinacy,  pride,  presumption,  anger,  or 
pique  can,  however,  in  no  wise  be  regarded  as 
permissible  because  no  higher  moral  good  is  in 
volved,  and  to  risk  life  thoughtlessly  or  presump 
tuously  would  be  opposed  to  the  divine  command 
ment  of  self-love. 

Of  those  who  charitably  sacrifice  or  risk  their 
lives  for  their  fellowmen  Jesus  Christ  says: 
''Greater  love  than  this  no  man  hath,  that  a  man 
lay  down  his  life  for  his  friends."  25  The  highest 
exemplar  of  such  heroic  devotion  is  our  Divine 

23  Sporer-Bierbaum,     op.     cit,,     n.  etiam   propriam  vitam  pro  vita  cor- 

386:     "Potest  quis  invisere,  servire,  porali  proximi  amid  exponere,  alio- 

sacramenta  administrare,   etc.,  paste  quin  iniuste  occidendi,  ut  si   Titius 

infectis   vel  simili   morbo   contagioso  esset   iniuste    damnatus    ad    mortem, 

laborantibus,     quamvis     timeatur     et  probabiliter    poteris    tu    amicus    eius 

reipsa  subsit  periculum  propriae  in-  te  offerre  ad  occidendum,  ut  amicum 

fectionis     et    mortis;    multo     magis  serves.     Dicunt    tamen,    iniuste:    si 

uxor  (rel  econtra  maritus)  cum  suo  enim    iuste    damnatus    sit,    non    po- 

frobabili    vitae   periculo    laudabiliter  tens,    quia    tune    iudicem    volentem 

asfistet   marito   peste   infecto;  idque  nonnisi    iuste    reum    occidere    indu- 

non  tantum  ad  necessarium  obsequi-  ceres  ad  occidendum  te  iniuste." 

urn,  sed  etiam  solum  ad  solatium  vel  24  Phil.  II,  29  sq.  (Epaphroditus). 

amorem    demonstrandum    licere,    pie  Cfr.    S.    Dionysius    of    Alex,    apud 

admittit     loannes     Sanchez." — Ibid.,  Euseb.,    Hist.    Eccles.,    VII,    c.    22; 

n.  387:    "Potest  quis  se  obiicere  telo  (Migne,  P.   G.,   XX,   689);    St.   Cyp- 

ad  conservandam  vitam  principis  vel  rian,    Dt    Mortalit.,    c.    17    (Corpus 

parentis,    pietatis    et    boni   communis  Script.    Eccles.    Lot.,    Vindob.,    Ill, 

causa,  immo  etiam  in  probabili  ma-  i,   307). 

gnorum     doctorum     sententia     licet  25  John  XV,   13. 


DEATH  FOR  CHARITY  97 

Saviour  Himself,  dying  on  the  cross  for  the  sal 
vation  of  mankind.28 

However,  let  it  be  well  understood  that,  with 
the  exception  of  those  who  are  bound  to  do  so  by 
their  vocation,  no  man  is  obliged  to  lay  down  his 
life  for  his  fellowmen.  The  reason  is  that  no 
man  need  love  his  neighbor  more  than  himself. 
Therefore  one  who  is  caught  in  a  shipwreck  is  not 
obliged  to  surrender  his  place  in  a  lifeboat  to  an 
other  ; 27  a  mother  is  not  obliged  to  submit  to  an 
indisputably  dangerous  operation  in  order  to  in 
sure  the  life  of  her  unborn  child.  In  both  cases, 
moreover,  the  success  of  the  sacrifice  would  be 
problematical.  The  mother,  in  the  instance  men 
tioned,  would,  of  course,  be  allowed,  nay  should 
in  certain  circumstances  be  advised,  to  perform 
what  would  be  an  act  of  heroic  charity  on  behalf 
of  her  child. 

d)  It  is  also  permissible  to  sacrifice  health  and 
life  in  the  interest  of  science  for  the  common  wel 
fare.  There  is  no  moral  objection,  for  instance, 
to  participating  in  a  polar  expedition  for  scien 
tific  or  research  purposes,  nay,  such  an  act  might 
be  rendered  positively  virtuous  by  the  circum- 

26  Cfr.  Rom.  V,  6-9;  i  John  III,  Mot.,  Vol.  I,  loth  ed.,  n.  580,  5: 

1 6. — St.  Thomas,  Comment.  in  "Licet  in  naufragio  amico  tabulam 

Sent.,  Ill,  dist.  29,  art.  5,  ad  3:  Jam  acceptam  cedere  et  ita  eius  vita 

"Perfectissimus  actus  virtutis." —  potius  quam  propriae  consulere,  nisi 

St.  Alphonsus,  Theol.  Mor.,  Ill,  n.  propria  vita  prae  vita  amid  forte 

366.  necessaria  sit." 

ZTAug.     Lehmkuhl,     S.J.,     Theol. 


98  INDIVIDUAL  DUTIES 

stances  of  the  case.  The  same  is  true  of  the  act 
of  undergoing  inoculation  with  some  virus  to  as 
certain  whether  a  certain  disease  is  transmissible 
from  beast  to  man,  or  for  a  similar  purpose.28 
(e)  It  is  permissible  for  a  murderer  to  surren 
der  himself  to  the  public  authorities  in  order  to 
pay  the  death  penalty  for  his  crime,  though  no 
man  is  strictly  bound  to  do  so  unless  an  innocent 
person  would  otherwise  be  executed  for  the  deed 
through  his  fault.29 

A  fugitive  who  has  been  innocently  condemned 
to  death  may  not  of  his  own  accord  return  to  the 
country  in  which  the  sentence  was  pronounced, 
because  to  do  so  would  be  to  incur  death  volun 
tarily.  If,  however,  the  circumstances  of  the 
case  were  such  that  he  would  be  able  to  save  his 
parents  or  friends  from  great  distress,  imprison 
ment  or  disgrace,  it  would  be  an  act  of  heroic 
virtue  to  return. 

It  is  not  permissible  for  a  criminal  to  commit 

28  Cfr.     Juvenal,     Sat.,     IV,     91 :  fugae   pateat,   potest   non   fugere   et 
"Vitam    impendere    vero." — St.    Al-  amore  iustitiae  sententiae  iudicis  se 
phonsus,    Theol.    Mor.,    Ill,    n.    369:  conformare;   guinimmo   talis  mortem 
"Ad   experiendum   antidotum."  meritus    ultra    se    iudici    et   iustitiae 

29  Cfr.    St.    Th.    Aquinas,    Summa  exercendae    occasionem    offerre    non 
Theologies,  za  aae,  qu.  69,  art.  4,  ad  prohibetur.     At    certe    ad    neutrum 
2:     "Nullus   ita    condemnatur,    quod  tenetur,     sed     licite     fugere     potest, 
ipse   sibi   inferat   mortem,   sed    quod  non    tantum   ante   iudicis   latam   sen- 
ipse    mortem    patiatur,    et    ideo    non  tentiam,  nisi  promiserit  vel  iuraverit 
tenetur    facere    id,    unde    mors    se-  se     permansurum,     sed     etiam    post 
quatur,    quod    est    manere    in    loco,  latam    a    iudice    sententiam    mortis 
unde  ducatur  ad  mortem." — Sporer-  propriae     gravissimi    periculi     decli- 
Bierbaum,     Theol.    Mor.,    Vol.     II,  nandi    causa."     Cfr.    A.    Lehmkuhl, 
2nd  ed.,  tr.   5,   n.  394:     "Damnatus  S.   J.,  in   the    Theol. -prakt.    Quartal- 
vet   damnandus  ad  mortem,  etsi  via  schrift,  Linz,  1907,  pp.  116  sqq. 


CRIMINALS  99 

suicide,  even  though  the  death  sentence  be  already 
passed  and  its  execution  certain. 

Were  a  Catholic  condemned,  like  Socrates,  to  be  his 
own  executioner,  would  he  be  allowed  to  obey?  Mor 
alists  differ  on  this  point.  Assuming  the  judgment  to  be 
just,  some  answer  the  question  affirmatively,  saying  that 
the  culprit  would  end  his  life  merely  to  obey  the  law  and 
thus  would  cooperate  in  his  own  death  only  in  a  material 
and  remote  manner.  Others  take  a  negative  view,  for 
the  reason  that  in  a  sentence  of  vindictive  justice  judge 
and  culprit  must  be  distinct  and  separate  persons.  As  it 
is  not  certain  that  the  act  is  intrinsically  evil,  Fr.  Lehm- 
kuhl  says  such  a  culprit  would  be  permitted  to  execute  the 
judgment  upon  himself  at  the  command  of  the  supreme 
judge;  but  he  would  not  be  obliged  to  do  so,  because  it 
can  be  defended  as  a  probable  opinion  that  this  act  is  for 
bidden  by  the  natural  law,  and  it  is,  moreover,  abhorrent 
to  nature.  The  sententia  communis  of  Catholic  mor 
alists  is  against  the  act,  though  it  is  regarded  as  licit  by 
Haunold,  Elbel,  Illsung,  Lacroix,  and  others.  St.  Al- 
phonsus  seems  to  defend  it  as  "probabilis."  Victoria, 
Aragon,  Sa,  and  others  draw  a  distinction :  they  hold  that 
a  guilty  culprit  legally  condemned  to  execute  judgment 
upon  himself  would  be  allowed  to  take  poison,  as  So 
crates  did,  but  not  to  kill  himself  with  the  sword.30 

A  criminal  who  has  been  justly  condemned  to  die  of 
starvation  may  refuse  to  take  food  offered  to  him.31 

30  Aug.     Lehmkuhl,     S.J.,     Theol.  occulte     ministratum     sumat,      quid 
Mor.,  Vol.  I,  nth  ed.,  p.  404. — Cfr.  non  sumere  esset  seipsum  occidere." 
St.   Alphonsus,  Theol.  Mor.,  Ill,  n.  — Sporer-Bierbaum,      Theol.      Mor., 
369.  Vol.    II,    and    ed.,    tr.     5,    n.    393: 

31  St.  Thomas,  Sunima  Theol.,  23  "Danmatus    ad    mortem    fame    sub- 
2ae,   qu.    69,   art.    4,   ad   2:     "Si   ali-  eundam     potest     a     cibis     clanculum 
quis  sit  condemnatus,  ut  fame  mart-  oblatis  abstinere,   quia   talis  ad  mor- 
otttr,     non     peccat,     si     cibum     sibi  tern  suam  active  non  concurrit,  sed 


ioo  INDIVIDUAL  DUTIES 

READINGS. — H.  Noldin,  S.J.,  Summa  Theologiae  Moralis,  Vol. 
II,  nth  ed.,  pp.  345  sqq.,  90  sqq.— Aug.  Lehmkuhl,  SJ.,  Theologia 
Moralis,  Vol.  I,  nth  ed.,  pp.  401  sqq. — De  Lugo,  De  lustitia  et 
lure,  disp.  X. 

passive  tantum  se  habens  iustitiae  immo  si  talis  esset  iniuste  dam- 
amor  e  earn  fortiter  perfert.  Ad  id  natus,  per  se  loquendo  teneretur 
tamen  non  tenetur,  sed  cibos  clam  comedere,  quia  tune  iusta  causa  non 
oblatos  acceptare  potest  ipso  iure  esset  vitam  prodigendi  excepta 
naturae,  quo  qttis  vitam  suam  tueri,  causa  martyrii." 
quantum  valeat,  licite  potest;  quin- 


CHAPTER  VI 

THE   DUTY   OF   DEVELOPING   THE    MIND 

i.  In  addition  to  developing  his  physical  pow 
ers,  man  is  obliged  to  cultivate  his  mental  and 
moral  faculties.  Intellectual  and  moral  culture 
should  go  hand  in  hand,  because  mere  knowledge 
and  mental  acuteness  do  not  ennoble  the  mind,  but 
may  co-exist  with  brutality.1 

a)  Though  it  is  not  true,  as  the  ancient  soph 
ists  claimed,  that  knowledge  spells  virtue  and 
that,  consequently,  a  learned  man  is  invariably  a 
good  man,  no  sane  person  will  deny  that,  broadly 
speaking,  genuine  moral  culture  is  impossible 
without  a  definite  sum  of  knowledge.  In  the 
matter  of  education  we  must  beware  of  two  ex 
tremes.  It  is  as  foolish  to  train  any  one  faculty 
exclusively  as  it  is  to  attempt  to  train  all  facul 
ties  of  the  intellect  in  an  equal  measure.2  To  de 
mand  that  all  men  be  raised  to  the  highest  attain 
able  proficiency  in  literature  and  science  is  to  re 
quire  what  is  practically  impossible.  "Non 

1  Cfr.    J.    Guibert,    Le    Caractere,  Das  Studium  und  die  Privatlektiire, 
Paris  1905;  P.  Levy  and  M.  Brahe,  sth     ed.,     Freiburg     1904;     Brother 
Die  natiirliche  Willensbildung,  Leip-  Azarias,    Books    and    Reading,    New 
sic   1903.  York   1896. 

2  Cfr.  J.  B.  Krier  and  J.  Schofer, 

101 


102  INDIVIDUAL  DUTIES 

omnia  possumus  omnes."  The  various  faculties 
and  talents  were  given  to  men  for  the  purpose  of 
being  fully  developed  as  a  whole,  for  the  benefit  of 
society,  but  they  need  not  all  be  developed  in  each 
individual,  in  fact  this  would  be  impossible  on 
account  of  the  difference  in  ability  and  character. 

"Knowledge,"  says  Lord  Bacon,3  taking  the  term  in 
its  true  and  highest  sense,  "is  power,"  and  an  ancient 
adage  declares  that  the  master  of  one  book  commands 
respect.4  St.  Paul  says :  "If  any  man  know  not,  he  shall 
not  be  known."  5  Yet  knowledge  alone  does  not  insure 
goodness.  Intellectual  proficiency  may  lead  or  help  a 
man  to  adopt  a  sublime  conception  of  the  universe,  but  it 
will  never  by  itself  render  him  good  and  happy.  Truth 
and  knowledge  are  precious  gifts,  by  means  of  which 
man  enriches  himself,  makes  his  fellowmen  happy,  and 
glorifies  God.  This  is  the  highest  attainable  prize  of  ear 
nest  and  continuous  mental  culture.  But  something 
more  is  necessary.  Man  must  not  only  know  the  truth, 
he  must  also  act  in  conformity  with  it ;  in  other  words, 
he  must  lead  a  morally  good,  that  is,  a  virtuous  life. 
To  be  good,  he  must  assimilate  moral  goodness  through 
the  will.  Education,  therefore,  is  not  complete  unless 
the  will  is  trained  as  carefully  as  the  intellect.  Only 
in  this  way  does  a  man  become  contented  and  happy 
and  helpful  to  his  fellowmen. 

"Every  man  naturally  desireth  to  know ;  but  what  doth 
knowledge  avail  without  the  fear  of  God  ?  Better  indeed 
is  an  ignorant  laborer  who  serveth  God,  than  a  proud 

3  Novum  Organum,  aphorism  III :  plish     anything,     you     Must     know 

"Scientia   et  potentia  in  idem   coin-  something." 

cidunt." — Cfr.   St.  Ignatius  Loyola's  4  "Timeo  lectorem  unius  libri." 

dictum:     "If    you    wish    to    accom-  5  i  Cor.  XIV,  38. 


DEVELOPING  THE  MIND  103 

philosopher  who,  neglecting  himself,  contemplateth  the 
course  of  the  heavens.  ...  If  thou  wouldst  profitably 
know  or  learn  something,  love  to  be  unknown  and  to  be 
thought  of  no  account.  This  is  the  most  sublime  and 
most  useful  subject  of  study:  true  self-knowledge  and 
self-contempt."  6 

b)  Every  man  has  the  strict  duty  of  acquiring 
so  much  intellectual  and  moral  education  as  will 
enable  him  to  follow  a  useful  calling  and  to 
strive  consistently  for  his  mental  and  moral 
perfection.  This  duty  implies  instruction  in 
matters  of  faith  and  morals  and  practice  in  the 
arts  of  reading,  writing,  and  arithmetic,  which, 
among  civilized  nations,  constitute  the  elements 
of  a  general  education  and  the  indispensable 
means  of  communication.  Every  man  who  lives 
within  the  pale  of  civilized  society,  is  bound  under 
pain  of  sin  to  make  use  of  the  opportunities  avail 
able  to  him  for  the  acquisition  of  these  elements, 
and,  if  the  laws  of  State  or  Church  demand  it, 
he  should  also  acquire  a  higher  education. 

When  an  opportunity  of  acquiring  intellectual 
culture  involves  a  proximate  occasion  of  sin, 
there  is  no  obligation  to  use  it. 

6  "Omnis    homo    naturaliter    desi-  ttihilo    reputari.     Haec    est   altissima 

derat  scire,  sed  scientia  sine  timore  et   utilissima    lectio :   sui   ipsius  vera 

Dei  quid  importatf     Melior  est  pro-  cognitio     et    despectio."     (De    Imit. 

fecto      humilis     rusticus,     qui     Deo  Christi,  I,  2,   i ;  ed.  Pohl,  II,  7  sq.) 

servit,    quam    superbus    philosophus,  — Cfr.   I,   n.   3:     "Quid  prodest  tibi 

qui   se  neglecto   cursum   caeli   consi-  alta  de  Trinitate  disputare,  si  careas 

derat.  .  .  .  Si     vis     utiliter     aliquid  huntilitate,     unde     displiceas     Trini- 

scire  et  discere:  ama  nesciri  et  pro  tatif"     (Ibid.,  p.  6). 


104  INDIVIDUAL  DUTIES 

Religion  is  the  foundation  of  true  culture,  and 
any  compulsory  school  law  directed  against  re 
ligion  would  violate  the  natural  rights  of  parents 
and  children  alike,  for  parents  are  commanded 
by  God  to  take  care  that  their  children  are  trained 
in  the  principles  of  religion,  and  the  children  have 
a  natural  right  to  such  training.  Compulsory 
education  may  be  a  benefit  to  society,  but  it  de 
generates  into  tyranny  when  the  children  are 
compelled  to  attend  un-Christian,  or,  what  is 
worse,  positively  anti-Christian  schools,  or  if  the 
State  does  not  provide  for,  or  at  least  permit, 
the  giving  of  sufficient  religious  instruction. 

Education  contains  both  a  religious  and  a  secular  ele 
ment.  The  control  of  the  former  belongs  solely  to  the 
Church,  whereas  in  regard  to  the  latter,  the  State  cannot 
be  denied  a  reasonable  share.7  "Though  children  are 
facts  of  the  domestic  order,"  says  Father  Joseph  Rick- 
aby,  S.J.,  "and  the  care  and  formation  of  them  belongs 
primarily  to  their  parents,  yet  if  the  parents  neglect  their 
charge,  the  State  can  claim  the  right  of  intervention  ab 
abusu.  It  certainly  is  within  the  province  of  the  State  to 
prevent  any  parent  from  launching  upon  the  world  a 
brood  of  young  barbarians,  ready  to  disturb  the  peace  of 

1  On     the     respective     rights     of  view.  Vol.   VI    (1892),   pp.   89   sqq. ; 

Church  and  State  in  regard  to  edu-  F.    S.   Chatard,   "Dr.    Bouquillon  on 

cation   see   M.    Cronin,   The   Science  the     School    Question,"    ibid,,    Vol. 

of  Ethics,  Vol.   II,  Dublin   1917,  pp.  VI,  pp.  98  sqq.;  R.  I.  Holaind,  S.J., 

486    sqq.;    W.    Turner    in    the    Cath.  The   Parent    First,    N.    Y.    1895;    S. 

Encyclopedia,     Vol.     XIII,    p.     558;  G.     Messmer,     "The     Right    of     In- 

Quigley,    Compulsory   Education,   N.  struction,"   Am.   Bed.   Review,   Vol. 

Y.    1894;  Zach.   Montgomery,  Poison  VI,    pp.    104   sqq.;   Card.    O'Connell, 

Drops  in   the   V.   S.   Senate;   S.   M.  The  Reasonable  Limits  of  State  Ac- 

Brandi,    S.J.,    "The    Touchstone    of  tivity,   Columbus,   O.(   1919. 
Catholicity,"  in  the  Am.  Ecclts.  R*- 


PURSUIT  OF  KNOWLEDGE  105 

civil  society.  The  practical  issue  is,  who  are  barbarians 
and  what  is  understood  by  peace.  The  Emperor  Decius 
probably  considered  every  Christian  child  an  enemy  of  the 
Pax  Romana.  But  the  misapplication  of  a  maxim  does 
not  derogate  from  its  truth.  It  also  belongs  to  the  State 
to  see  that  no  parent  behaves  like  a  Cyclops  (KVK\WTTIK^, 
Aristotle,  Eth.,  X,  ix,  13)  in  his  family,  ordering  his  chil 
dren,  not  to  their  good,  as  a  father  is  bound  to  do,  but  to 
his  own  tyrannical  caprice.  For  instruction,  as  distin 
guished  from  education,  it  is  the  parent's  duty  to  provide 
his  child  with  so  much  of  it  as  is  necessary,  in  the  state 
of  society  wherein  his  lot  is  cast,  to  enable  the  child  to 
make  his  way  in  the  world  according  to  the  condition  of 
his  father.  In  many  walks  of  life  one  might  as  well  be 
short  of  a  finger  as  not  know  how  to  read  and  write. 
Where  ignorance  is  such  a  disadvantage,  the  parent  is  not 
allowed  to  let  his  child  grow  up  ignorant.  There,  if  he 
neglects  to  have  him  taught,  the  State  may  step  in  with 
compulsory  schooling.  Compulsory  schooling  for  all  in 
discriminately,  and  that  up  to  a  high  standard,  is  quite 
another  matter."  8 

The  spread  of  culture  is  beneficial  not  only  from  the 
intellectual  but  also  from  the  moral  point  of  view.  Cul 
tured  nations  as  a  rule  stand  on  a  higher  moral  level 
than  those  which  are  unlettered,  and  the  same  is  true 
of  social  classes.  A  sound  training  of  the  mind  and  heart 
is  a  protection  against  evil  passions  and  a  means  of  con 
ciliation  between  opposing  classes  of  people.  Lectures, 
study  courses,  public  libraries,  university  extension,  the 
dissemination  of  good  literature,  are  means  of  satisfy 
ing  the  popular  craving  for  knowledge,  but  they  cannot 
attain  their  highest  object  if  they  merely  convey  informa 
tion  ;  they  must  above  all  else  train  the  will,  for  man's 

8  Moral  Philosophy,  p.  358. 


io6 


INDIVIDUAL  DUTIES 


true  worth  depends,  not  on  his  intellect  alone,  but  on  his 
character.  Intellectual  proficiency  does  not  level  social  in 
equalities.  The  only  kind  of  culture  that  really  promotes 
the  progress  of  society,  as  of  the  individual,  is  that  which 
leads  up  to  Him  who  is  "the  way,  the  truth,  and  the 
life."  9 


2.  Knowledge  becomes  transmuted  into  virtue 
if  its  motive,  object,  and  standard  are  brought 
into  harmony  with  the  moral  law.10  By  earnestly 


9  John    XIV,   6.— Cfr.    St.   Augus 
tine,  Confess.,  V,  c.   4:     "Numquid, 
Doniine      Deus      veritatis,      quisquis 
novit  ista,  iam  placet  tibif     Infelix 
enim   homo,    qui  scit   ilia   omnia,    te 
autem  nescit;   beatus  autem,   qui   te 
scit,    etiamsi    ilia    nescit.     Qui    vero 
et  te  ut  ilia  novit,  non  propter  ilia 
beatior,  sed  propter  te  solum  beatus 
est."     (Migne,  P.  L.,  XXXII,  708). 
— Thomas  a   Kempis,  De  Imitatione 
Christi,    I,    i :     "Si   scires    totam   bi- 
bliam    exterius    et    omnium:    philoso- 
phorum   dicta,  quid   totum   prodesset 

10  Cfr.   St.  Augustine,  De  Trinit., 
L    XII,    c.    14,    n.    21 :     "Habet    et 
scientia     modum    suum     bomtm,     si 
quod  in  ea  infiat  vel  inflare  adsolet, 
aeternorum    caritate    vincatur,    quae 
non   inftat,   sed,  ut  scimus,  aedificat 
(I     Cor.     Fill,     i).     Sine    scientia 
quippe    nee    virtutes    ipsae,     quibus 
recte    vivitur,    possunt    haberi,    per 
quas     haec    vita    misera    sic    guber- 
netur,  ut  ad  illam,   quae  vere   beata 
est,  perveniatur  aeternam."     (P.  L., 
XLII,    1009).— St.    Bernard,    Serm. 
in     Cant.,     XXXVI,     n.     3:     "Sed 
melius     mitto     vos     ad     Magistrum. 

sed  illius,  immo  et  nostra,  quoniam 
Veritatis.  'Qui  se,'  inquit,  'putat 
aliquid  scire,  nondum  modum  scit, 


quomodo  oporteat  eum  scire'  (i  Cor. 
VIII,  2).  Vides  quoniam  non  pro- 
bat  multa  scientem,  si  sciendi 
modum  nescierit.  Vides,  inquam, 
quomodo  fructum  et  utilitatem  sci- 
entiae  in  modo  sciendi  constituit? 
Quid  ergo  dicit  modum  sciendi? 
Quid,  nisi  ut  scias,  quo  ordine,  quo 
studio,  quo  fine  quaeque  nosse 
oporteat?  Quo  ordine,  ut  id  prius, 
quod  maturius  ad  salutem;  quo 
studio,  ut  id  ardentius,  quod  vehe- 
mentius  ad  amorem;  quo  fine,  ut 
non  ad  inanem  gloriam  out  curiosi- 
tatem  aut  aliquid  simile,  sed  tantum 
ad  aedificationem  tuam  vel  proximi. 
Sunt  namque  qui  scire  volunt  eo 
fine  tantum,  ut  sciant,  et  turpis 
curiositas  est.  Et  sunt  qui  scire  vo 
lunt,  ut  sciantur  ipsi,  et  turpis 
vanitas  est.  Qui  profecto  non  eva- 
dent  subsannantem  satyricum  et  ei 
qui  eiusmodi  est  decantantem:  'Scire 
titum  nihil  est  nisi  te  scire  hoc  sciat 
alter'  (Persius,  Sat.,  I,  27).  Et 
sunt  item  qui  scire  volunt  ut  sci- 
entiam  suam  vendant,  verbi  causa 
pro  pecunia,  pro  honoribus,  et  tur 
pis  quaestus  est.  Sed  sunt  quoque 
qui  scire  volunt,  ut  aedificent,  et 


lunt,  ut  aedificentur,  et  prudentia 
est."  —  Ibid.,  n.  4.  "Horum  omni 
um  solum  ttltimi  duo  non  invent- 


PRUDENCE  107 

striving  to  apply  true  knowledge  to  his  conduct 
man  acquires  prudence  or  wisdom  (prudentia), 
which,  in  the  words  of  St.  Thomas,  is  "the  noblest 
of  the  moral  virtues  and  directs  all  virtuous 
acts."  J1 

Prudence  as  the  fundamental  virtue  manifests 
itself: 

a)  In  love  of  truth  or  a  tendency  to  develop  the 
innate  faculty  by  which  the  soul  acquires  the 
knowledge  of  truth.  The  desire  to  acquire 
knowledge  per  se  serves  only  the  truth,  inasmuch 
as  it  is  apt  to  lead  man  to  the  absolute  Truth,  i.  e., 
God.  Hence  to  seek  enlightenment  and  knowl 
edge  for  the  sake  of  enriching  the  mind  and  cul 
tivating  the  spiritual  sense  is  a  proof  of  true 
wisdom.  The  Christian  religion,  indeed,  de 
mands  faith;  but  its  essential  object  is  to  propa 
gate  the  truth,  and  hence,  far  from  interfering 
with  the  desire  for  knowledge,  far  from  opposing 
new  discoveries  and  ideas,  it,  on  the  contrary, 
hails  and  welcomes  every  increase  of  knowledge 
because  the  truth  renders  man  intellectually  and 
morally  free.12 

untur  in   abusione  scientiae,   quippe  dentia     est     recta     ratio     agibilium, 

qui    ad    hoc    volunt    intellegere,    ut  sicut     scientia    est    recta    ratio    set- 

bene      faciant."     (Migne,      P.      L.,  bilium." — Ibid.,   qu.    56,  n.    i:     "Ip- 

CLXXXIII,  968). — Cfr.  St.  Thomas,  sa    est    directiva    omnium    virtuoso- 

Summa   Theol.,  23  2ae,  qu.    166   sq.  rum  actuum." 

11  Summa  Theol.,  23  aae,  qu.  47,  12  Cfr.    John    VIII,    32. — St.    Jer- 

art.    6,    ad    3:     "Prudentia    est    no-  ome,   In   lerem.,  1.   I,   c.    i:     "Sem- 

bilior  virtutibus  moralibus  et  movet  per  amanda  est  veritas,  nee  timenda 

eas." — Ibid.,   qu.    55,  art.   3:     "Pru-  hominum     multitude."     (Migne,    P. 


io8 


INDIVIDUAL  DUTIES 


It  follows  from  all  this  that  intellectual  dullness 
and  credulity  is  not  only  a  mental,  but  also  a  moral 
defect,  and  a  serious  one  if  it  furnishes  cause  for 
doubt  and  superstition.  It  follows  further  that 
the  pursuit  of  knowledge,  if  carried  on  purely  for 
its  own  sake  or  to  satisfy  inquisitiveness  or  van 
ity,  is  immoral.  Knowledge  acquired  from  such 
motives,  in  the  words  of  the  Apostle,  "puffeth 
up,"  whereas  "charity  edifieth."  13 


L.,  XXIV,  687).— Ibid.,  I.  VI,  c. 
23:  "Veritas  claudi  et  ligari  potest, 
vinci  non  potest,  quae  et  suorum 
paucitate  contenta  est  et  multitu- 
dine  hostium  non  terretur."  (P.  L., 
XXIV,  829).— IDEM,  In  Is.  Proph., 
1.  XVI,  c.  58:  "Sicut  matutina  lux 
solvit  tenebras,  ita  lumen  scientiae 
et  veritatis  omnes  errores  fugat." 
(P.  L.,  XXIV,  568). 

13  i  Cor.  VIII,  i.— Cfr.  J.  Gerson, 
Opera  Omnia,  I,  117:  "Scientia  in- 
flat  et  daemonium  facit.  Quid  enim 
daemon  inter  pretatur,  nisi  sciens, 
sed  absque  caritatef" — Thomas  a 
Kempis,  De  Imit.  Christi,  \.  I,  c.  3: 
"Non  est  culpanda  scientia  aut 
quaelibet  simplex  rei  notitia,  quae 
bona  est  in  se  considerata  et  a  Deo 
ordinata,  sed  praeferenda  est  sem 
per  bona  conscientia  et  virtuoso 
vita.  .  .  .  Quam  multi  pereunt  per 
vanam  scientiam  in  saeculo,  qui 
parum  curant  de  Dei  servitio!  Et 
quid  magis  eligunt  magni  esse  quam 
hutniles:  idea  evanescunt  in  cogita- 
tionibus  suis."  (Ed.  Pohl,  II,  10 
sq.) — Cfr.  St.  Bernard,  Serm.  in 
Cant.,  XXXVI,  n.  2:  "Videar  for- 
sitan  nimius  in  suggillatione  scien 
tiae  et  quasi  reprchendere  doctos  ac 
prohibere  studia  literarutn.  AbsitI 
Non  ignoro,  quantum  Ecclesiae  pro- 
fuerint  et  prosint  literati  sui  swe 


ad  refellendos  eos,  qui  ex  adverse 
sunt,  sive  ad  simplices  instruendos. 
Denique  legi:  'Quia  tu  repulisti 
scientiam,  repellam  et  ego  te,  ut  non 
fungaris  tniki  sacerdotio'  [Os.  IV, 
6];  legi:  'Qui  docti  fuerint,  fulge- 
bunt  quasi  splendor  firmamenti,  et 
qui  ad  iustitiam  erudiunt  multos, 
quasi  stellae  in  perpetuas  aeterni- 
totes'  [Deut.  XII,  3].  Sed  et  scio, 
ubi  legerim:  'Scientia  inflat'  [r  Cor. 
VIII,  i],  et  rursum:  'Qui  apponit 
scientiam,  apponit  et  dolorem'  [Ec- 
cles.  I,  1 8].  Fides  quia  differentia 
est  scientiarum,  quando  alia  inflans, 
alia  contristans  est.  Tibi  vero  ve- 
lim  scire,  quaenam  harum  videatur 
utilior  seu  magis  necessaria  ad  sa- 
lutem,  illane,  quae  tumet  an  quae 
dolet.  .  .  .  Apostolus  non  prohibet 
sapere,  sed  plus  sapere  quam  opor- 
teat  [Rom.  XII,  3].  Quid  est  au- 
tern  sapere  ad  sobrietatemf  Vigi- 
lantissime  observare,  quid  scire 
magis  priusve  oporteat.  Tempus 
enim  breve  est.  Est  autem,  quod 
in  se  est,  omnis  scientia  bona,  quae 
tamen  veritate  subnixa  sit,  sed  tu 
qui  cum  timore  et  tremore  tuam 
ipsius  operari  sahitem  festinas,  ea 
scire  potius  ampliusve  curato,  quae 
senseris  viciniora  saluti."  (Migne, 
P.  L.,  CLXXXIII,  967). 


CAUTIOUSNESS  109 

"Happy  are  they  who  do  not  pay  for  the  treasure  of 
knowledge  with  their  hearts,"  says  Schiller.  The  desire 
for  knowledge,  when  inspired  by  proper  motives,  leads 
not  to  pride,  but  to  humility.  Dom  Odilo  Rottmanner, 
O.S.B.,  one  of  the  greatest  savants  of  his  age,  says : 
"If,  as  sometimes  happens,  a  really  learned  man  is 
puffed  up  with  pride,  this  is  an  aberration  of  the  heart, 
for  which  science  must  not  be  held  responsible.  As  a 
rule  those  who  display  pride  and  vanity  are  least  pro 
ficient  and  have  acquired  at  best  only  half  an  education ; 
their  knowledge  is  limited  and  one-sided.  They  resemble 
the  empty  ear  of  grain,  which  stands  upright,  whereas  its 
neighbor,  laden  with  kernels,  bows  humbly  to  the  ground. 
How  is  it  possible  for  one  to  be  proud  who  at  every  step 
in  the  realm  of  knowledge  perceives  more  clearly  the  vast- 
ness  of  science  and  the  incapability  of  his  tiny  mind  to 
compass  it!  How  could  he  regard  himself  otherwise 
than  as  small  who  has  envisaged,  nay,  glimpsed  the 
immensity  of  the  universe !  How  puerile  is  it  to  take 
pride  in  the  fragments  of  knowledge  which  man  can  at 
tain,  in  view  of  the  infinite  realm  he  can  never  hope  to 
explore!  Need  we  wonder  that  the  highest  degree  of 
knowledge  attainable  to  man  is  invariably  united  with 
sincere  humility  and  modesty?  "  14 

Prudence  furthermore  manifests  itself 
b)   In  the  exercise  of  a  reasonable  caution. 
The  virtue  of  cautiousness  stands  midway  be 
tween  fatalistic  carelessness  and  indifference  on 
the  one  hand,  and,  on  the  other,  that  un-Christian 

i*  O.  Rottmanner,  O.S.B.,  Predigten  itnd  Ansprachen,  Vol.  I,  2nd  ed., 
Munich,   1904,  p.  256. 


i  io  INDIVIDUAL  DUTIES 

solicitude  and  worry  against  which  Jesus  has 
warned  us  so  earnestly.15 

We  are  commanded  to  employ  all  our  bodily 
and  mental  faculties  for  the  purpose  of  pressing 
the  laws  and  powers  of  nature  into  the  service  of 
humanity,  and  as  far  as  possible,  warding  off 
harmful  influences  from  ourselves  and  others. 
Hence  it  is  not  distrust  of  Providence,  nor  "  un- 
Christian  interference  with  the  plans  of  God,"  as 
one  writer  has  charged,  but  a  morally  licit  pre 
caution,  which  under  certain  conditions  may  be 
come  a  duty  and  a  virtue,  to  employ  those  means 
of  protection  which  human  foresight  and  pru 
dence  furnish,  and  take  all  proper  or  necessary 
measures  to  escape  harm  and  loss, — for  instance, 
by  insuring  one's  life  and  material  possessions 
against  death,  disease,  fire,  and  other  vicissitudes. 
The  time-honored  maxim,  "Help  yourself  and 
God  will  help  you,"  is  in  thorough  harmony  with 
the  Catholic  doctrine  of  Divine  Providence,  for, 
as  Sacred  Scripture  says,  "by  slothfulness  a  build 
ing  shall  be  brought  down,  and  through  the  weak 
ness  of  hands  the  house  shall  drop  through."  16 

"To  one  who  no  longer  takes  an  interest  in  the  sun, 
the  moon,  and  the  stars,"  says  a  modern  novelist,  "they 
cease  to  convey  a  message ;  and  if  a  man  neglects  his 
house,  it  will  go  to  ruin.  This  rule  is  of  general  applica- 

15  Matt.    VI,    25-34;    cfr.     Luke  16  Eccles.  X,   18. 

XII,  22-32;  Phil.  IV,  6. 


FOSTERING  THE  SPIRITUAL  LIFE       in 

tion.  Neglect  kills,  whereas  charity  inspires  all  things 
with  new  life." 

Therefore,  in  the  words  of  the  gentle  and  cultured 
Brother  Azarias,  whose  writings  are  not  as  highly  es 
teemed  among  us  as  they  deserve  to  be,  "it  is  worthy  of 
our  noblest  efforts  and  our  most  undivided  attention  to 
foster  in  ourselves  the  Spiritual  Life.  Herein  is  the 
highest  cultivation  of  the  moral  sense.  No  time  should 
be  thought  too  precious  to  devote  to  it,  for  it  deals  with 
the  things  of  eternity;  no  thought  too  sustained  or  too 
painful,  for  its  object  is  the  Light  of  all  intelligence."  1T 

"Gather  up  with  care,"  says  the  same  writer  in  another 
place,  "the  treasures  of  knowledge  and  wisdom  that  lie 
strewn  about  you.  Guard  them  with  a  jealous  eye.  See 
that  they  be  not  sullied  either  by  the  daubing  of  error  or 
the  turpitude  of  vice.  Cherish  them  as  a  heaven-sent  pat 
rimony  by  the  right  use  and  investment  of  which  you  are 
to  purchase  your  title  to  eternal  glory.  All  else  may  pass 
away,  but  the  wisdom  of  well-digested  knowledge  and 
methodical  thought  remains  through  sunshine  and  storm, 
making  the  sunshine  more  beautiful  and  the  storm  less 
severe."  18 

READINGS. — St.  Thomas,  Summa  Theol.,  23.  2ae,  qu.  47-55. — 
Brother  Azarias,  Phases  of  Thought  and  Criticism,  Boston  1896. 
— IDEM,  Books  and  Reading,  5th  ed.,  New  York  1896. — J.  L. 
Spalding,  Education  and  the  Higher  Life,  Chicago  1894. — J- 
Guibert,  Le  Caractcre,  Paris  1905. — C.  Krieg,  Die  Wissenschaft 
der  Seelenleitung,  Vol.  I,  pp.  506  sqq.,  Freiburg  1904. — Albert 
Muntsch,  S.J.,  The  Pilgrimage  of  Life,  St.  Louis  1918,  pp.  179 
sqq. 

IT  Brother  Azarias,  Phases  of  Thought  and  Criticism,  Boston,  1896,  p.  79. 
18  Op.  cit.,  pp.  10  sq. 


PART  II 
VOCATIONAL  DUTIES 

CHAPTER  I 

CHOICE  OF  A  VOCATION  AND  FAITHFUL  PERSEVER 
ANCE  IN   THE   CHOSEN   VOCATION 

SECTION  i 

CHOICE   OF   A   VOCATION 

i.  DEFINITION. — Man  must  live  and  move  in 
the  society  of  his  fellowmen.1  In  return  for  the 
physical  and  intellectual  advantages  which  he  re 
ceives  from  them,  he  must  endeavor  to  make 
himself  as  useful  to  them  as  he  can,  by  choosing 
or  accepting  certain  work  which  his  inborn  or 
acquired  faculties  or  means  enable  him  to  per 
form.  The  sphere  of  activity  to  which  he  de 
votes  his  powers  is  called  vocation  in  the  broad 
sense  of  the  term. 

2.  IMPORTANCE. — The  significance  of  such  a 
vocation  arises  from  the  fact  that,  when  sanc 
tified  by  religion,  it  becomes  the  natural  basis 

i  Cfr.    i    Cor.   XII,   12   sqq.;   Gal.  VI,   a;   Phil.   II,   4. 
112 


CHOICE  OF  A  VOCATION  113 

of  a  higher,  spiritual  life, — "the  garden,  as  it 
were,  in  which  the  seeds  of  eternal  life  are 
planted,  grow,  and  ripen  unto  Heaven." 

Every  man  is  in  duty  bound  to  choose  a  defi 
nite  vocation, — preferably  the  one  which  corres 
ponds  best  to  his  natural  endowments,  inclina 
tion,  and  bodily  constitution, — and  to  prepare 
himself  conscientiously  for  it.2 

3.  CHOICE  OF  A  VOCATION. — In  choosing  a  vo 
cation  the  individual  is  governed  by  subjective 
and  objective  influences,  some  of  which  may  ex 
ercise  a  certain  compulsion,  whereas  others  are 
entirely  under  the  control  of  the  will.3 

a)  A  degree  of  compulsion  is  exerted  over 
each  individual,  first,  by  the  social  conditions  and 
circumstances  of  the  country  or  race  to  which  he 
belongs,  be  they  differences  of  class  or  caste,  or 
of  material  means;  secondly,  by  the  social  posi 
tion  of  the  family  of  which  he  is  a  member; 
thirdly,  by  his  own  natural  talents  and  inclina 
tions,  which  dispose  him  favorably  for  certain 
occupations,  and  fourthly,  by  the  course  and  vicis 
situdes  of  his  life.  The  latter,  while  they  no 
doubt  have  a  certain  compelling  force,  are  still 
subject  to  the  guidance  of  Providence,  that  is,  the 

2  St.  Ambrose   says    (De   Offic.,   1.  aequalemque    se    iudicem    sui    prae- 

I,    c.   44):     "Unusquisque   suum   in-  beat,    ut   bonis   intcndat,   vitia    decli- 

genium  noverit,  et  ad  id  se  applied,  net."     (Migne,   P.   L.,   XVI,    87). 
quod  sibi  aptum  elegerit;  itaque  qui  3  Job   XII,    10;    Ps    XXXVI,    23; 

sequatur,   prius   consideret.     Noverit  Prov.  XVI,  33;  XX,  24;  Wisd.  VII, 

bena  sna,  sed  etiam  vitia  cognoscat,  16;    Acts   XVTI,    28;    Rom.    XI,   36. 


ii4  VOCATIONAL  DUTIES 

Will  and  Wisdom  of  God,  who  is  both  infinitely 
wise  and  infinitely  good.  "Man  proposeth,  but 
God  disposeth,  and  the  way  of  a  man  is  not  his."  4 
Free-will  and  moral  responsibility  are  never  en 
tirely  destroyed  by  what  is  commonly  known  as 
milieu.  Every  man,  even  he  who  has  his  voca 
tion  practically  pointed  out  to  him  by  circum 
stances  of  birth  or  parentage,  is  obliged  to  give 
his  interior  consent,  and  no  one  may  be  forced 
into  a  vocation  against  his  better  knowledge  or 
will.  Such  external  and  objective  factors  as 
birth,  parental  commands  or  wishes,  and  that 
which  thoughtless  men  call  chance,  sometimes 
contain  valuable  indications  in  regard  to  a  man's 
vocation,  but  they  should  not  be  allowed  exclu 
sively  to  determine  his  final  decision. 

This  is  true  especially  of  the  vocation  to  the  priesthood 
and  the  religious  life.  Foolish  parents  sometimes  com 
pel  their  children  to  embrace  the  one  or  other  of  these  im 
portant  states  by  undue  suasion,  nay  even  by  direct 
threats.  As  the  final  choice  is  generally  not  made  before 
the  individual  has  attained  a  somewhat  advanced  age,  the 
fear  of  offending  parents  (timor  reverentialis}  cannot 
exert  so  strong  an  influence  as  to  neutralize  free-will. 
The  liberty  of  choice  is  indeed  rendered  difficult, — not, 
however,  from  without,  but  from  within,  and  hence  the 
excuse,  "I  was  forced  into  this  state  of  life"  is  irrelevant. 

4  Thomas     a     Kempis,     De    Imit.        in  homine  via  eius."     (Ed.  Pohl,  II, 
Christi,  I,  c.    19:     "Nam  homo  pro-        33). 
ponit,    sed    Deus    disponit;    nee    est 


CHOICE  OF  A  VOCATION  115 

b)  Of  the  rules  to  be  observed  in  the  choice 
of  a  vocation,  the  first  and  most  important  is  that 
the  salvation  of  the  soul  must  outweigh  all  other 
considerations.  It  would  be  as  wrong,  there 
fore,  to  try  to  work  out  one's  salvation  without 
regard  to  others,  as  to  devote  oneself  entirely  to 
their  well-being,  regardless  of  the  fate  of  one's 
own  soul. 

Secondarily,  and  as  a  matter  of  considerably 
less  importance,  regard  may  be  had  for  temporal 
advantages  and  the  common  welfare  of  society. 
Time  contains  the  germs  of  eternity,  and  what 
ever  we  do  for  our  fellowmen  is  apt,  one  way  or 
another,  to  affect  their  eternal  destiny.  Hence  it 
is  forbidden  to  choose  a  vocation  that  is  posi 
tively  immoral  or  sinful  in  itself,  as,  e.  g.,  to  be 
a  slave-trader  or  a  pirate,  but  it  is  not  forbidden 
to  choose  an  occupation  which  does  not  redound 
to  the  immediate  and  tangible  benefit  of  society, 
as,  e.  g.,  that  of  a  hermit  or  member  of  a  contem 
plative  order.  Man  lives  not  by  bread  alone,  but 
he  has  spiritual  and  moral  needs,  and  prayer 
coupled  with  heroic  renunciation  is  of  great  social 
and  ethical  value,  as  any  one  can  see  who  will 
study  the  immense  benefits  conferred  upon  hu 
manity  by  the  Mendicant  Orders.5 

6  Cfr.    St.   Thomas   Aquinas,   Sum-  1899)     condemning    "Americanism," 

ma  Theologica,   23.  2ae,  qu.    190   sqq.  in   which   the   Pontiff   says:     "Quam 

and    the    Apostolic     Letter    of    Leo  hi  [ordines  religiosi]  etiant  praeclare 

XIII   to  Cardinal  Gibbons    (Jan.   22,  de     hominvm     soviet  ate     nteruerint, 


ii6  VOCATIONAL  DUTIES 

Catholic  moral  science,  as  such,  makes  no  distinction 
between  higher  and  lower  states  of  life,  or  between  hon 
orable  and  dishonorable  occupations,  but,  accepting  the 
differences  existing  in  society,  both  ecclesiastical  and 
civil,  commands  every  man  to  preserve  the  constituted 
order  and  to  refrain  from  breaking  down,  without 
sufficient  cause,  the  barriers  that  separate  the  different 
classes.  Let  no  one  be  ashamed  of  the  class  to  which 
he  belongs  or  the  occupation  in  which  he  is  engaged, 
but  let  all  remember  that  the  Divine  Founder  of  Christi 
anity  chose  to  sojourn  upon  earth  "in  the  form  of  a  serv 
ant."  6 

c)  Besides  the  fundamental  principles  stated 
above,  a  man  when  choosing  a  vocation  should 
have  some  knowledge  of  his  own  character  and 
the  work  for  which  he  is  fitted.  To  acquire  this 
knowledge  is  a  strict  duty.  Unless  a  man  knows 
his  own  character  and  has  an  earnest  desire  to 
save  his  soul,  he  will  not  be  able  to  select  the  vo 
cation  for  which  he  is  destined,  and  unless  he  has 
previously  familiarized  himself  with  the  obliga 
tions  and  difficulties  of  that  vocation,  he  is  likely 
to  experience  grievous  disappointment. 

mereant,     ii     norunt     profecto     qui,  tind     Aufsatze,     Vol.     II,     Ratisbon 

quid     ad     placandum     conciliandum-  1840;    M.    Heimbucher,    Die    Orden 

que    Numen    posset    deprecatio    iusti  und      Kongregationem       der      hath. 

assidua     (Jas.    V,     16)     minims    ig-  Kirche,  3  vols.,  2nd  ed.,  Paderborn 

norant,    ea    maxime    quae    cum    af~  1907-08. — On     vocation    to    the    re- 

fiictatione    corporis    coniuncta    est."  ligious   life   cfr.    M.    J.    Scott,    S.J., 

— On  the  work  of  the  religious  Or-  Convent  Life:  The  Meaning  of  a  Re- 

ders   see  Montalembert,    The  Monks  ligious    Vocation.   New    York    1919. 
of    the    West,    English    translation,  6  Phil.     II,     6     sq.— Cfr.     Pohle- 

witH    »n    introduction    by    Cardinal  Preuss,     Christology,     3rd     ed.,     St. 

Jasquet,  6  vols.,  1896.     See  also  F.  Louis   1919,  pp.  95  sqq. 
A.    Mohler,    Gesammelte    Schriften 


CHOICE  OF  A  VOCATION  117 

Let  it  be  further  borne  in  mind  that  all  voca 
tions  have  two  features  in  common,  namely,  work 
and  self-denial,  though  not,  of  course,  in  the  same 
degree.  This  is  another  reason  why  every  man 
who  is  about  to  select  his  vocation,  should  en 
deavor  to  ascertain  the  will  of  God  concerning 
himself,  and  then  set  to  work  to  obey  it.  The 
means  by  which  this  may  best  be  accomplished  are 
mature  deliberation  at  a  time  when  the  mind  is 
calm  and  undisturbed,  reading  good  books,  con 
sulting  prudent  and  experienced  advisers,  and, 
above  all,  praying  for  light  and  grace  from  above. 

READINGS.— J.  B.  Krier,  Der  Beruf,  4th  ed.,  Freiburg  1909.— 
Berthier,  Christian  Life  and  Vocation,  New  York  1897. — A.  Ver- 
meersch,  S.J.,  De  Vocatione  Religiosa  et  Sacerdotali,  Bruges 
1903  (Engl.  tr.  by  Kempf,  St.  Louis  1925). — Hettinger-Stepka, 
Timothy,  St.  Louis  1912,  pp.  i  sqq.,  20  sqq.,  34  sqq.,  40  sqq. — 
Jos.  Lahitton,  La  Vocation  Sacerdotale,  Paris  1909. — A.  Mulders, 
La  Vocation  Sacerdotale,  Bruges  1925. — J.  Mausbach,  Altchrist- 
liche  und  moderne  Gedanken  uber  Frauenberuf,  Miinchen- 
Gljadbach  1906,  pp.  93  sqq. — Bernard  Ward,  The  Priestly 
Vocation,  London  1918.' — H.  Davis,  S.J.,  "Religious  Vocation," 
in  the  Irish  Ecclesiastical  Record,  54th  year  (1918),  Nos.  608 
sqq.— H.  Noldin,  S.J.,  Summa  Theologiae  Moralis,  Vol.  II,  nth 
ed.,  Innsbruck  1914,  pp.  77  sq. — Thos.  Slater,  S.J.,  A  Manual  of 
Moral  Theology,  Vol.  I,  pp.  635  sq.— A.  Lehmkuhl,  S.J.,  Theologia 
Moralis,  Vol.  I,  nth  ed.,  pp.  362  sqq. — Damanet,  Choice  of  a 
State  of  Life,  Dublin  1880.— M.  J.  Scott,  S.J.,  Convent  Life: 
The  Meaning  of  a  Religious  Vocation,  New  York  1919. — 
J.  Goettsberger  in  Einfiihrung  in  das'  Studium  der  Kath.  The- 
ologie,  Munich  1921,  pp.  7-14. — Chs.  A.  Bruehl  in  the  Homtietic 
and  Pastoral  Review,  Aug.,  1924,  Vol.  XXIV,  No.  n,  pp.  1121- 
1128. 


SECTION  2 

FAITHFUL   PERSEVERANCE    IN    THE    CHOSEN 
VOCATION 

i.  Once  a  man  has  chosen  his  vocation,  he 
should  persevere  in  it  to  the  best  of  his  ability 
and  comply  faithfully  with  the  obligations  which 
it  imposes.1 

We  do  not  mean  to  insinuate  that  a  change  of 
vocation  is  never  permissible  or  advisable.  We 
merely  wish  to  lay  down  the  general  rule  that 
frequent  changes  of  vocation,  or  any  change  not 
dictated  by  reasonable  and  sufficient  motives,  is 
unjustifiable  from  the  moral  viewpoint.2  Doubts 
may  and  often  do  arise  with  regard  to  the  voca 
tion  chosen,  and  if  feelings  of  disgust  with  its 
duties  and  obligations  cannot  be  entirely  sup 
pressed,  they  should  be  regarded  as  temptations 
and  vigorously  combatted.  Even  when  one  has 
a  well-founded  fear  (dubium  prudens)  that  he 
may  not  be  able  to  attain  his  eternal  salvation  or 
perform  his  allotted  share  for  the  welfare  of  so 
ciety  in  the  vocation  he  has  selected,  he  should,  if 

1  Cfr.   Matt.   XXV,   14  sqq.    (par-  2  Cfr.    i    Cor.    VII,    17   sqq. 

able    of    the    talents);    Eph.    IV,    i 
sqq.;   Acts  XX,    18  sqq. 

118 


CHOICE  OF  A  VOCATION  119 

the  choice  is  irrevocable  (as  in  the  case  of  a 
priest),  repel  all  thoughts  of  change  and  make  a 
virtue  of  necessity,3  nay,  try  to  recognize  in  that 
necessity  the  will  of  God.  Constant  brooding 
over  a  past  or  future  change  of  vocation  is  apt 
to  paralyze  a  man's  moral  power  and  to  destroy 
the  joy  with  which  he  ought  to  go  about  his 
duties,  whereas  a  firm  resolution  to  do  one's  best 
in  all  circumstances,  coupled  with  unremitting 
prayer,  invariably  brings  down  the  grace  of  God 
and  often  enables  a  man  to  perform  even  the 
seemingly  impossible. 

A  mere  change  of  occupation  may,  of  course,  be 
made  for  any  good  and  sufficient  reason,  pro 
vided  that  no  positive  duty  is  violated  thereby 
and  the  individual  is  satisfied  that  he  is  called  to 
some  other  state  of  life. 

He  who,  though  in  lowly  station,  fills  his  place  with 
honor,  is  better  off,  socially  and  morally,  than  he  who 
seeks  a  higher  vocation  for  which  he  is  not  fitted. 
Talent  and  energy  find  a  suitable  field  of  activity  in 
every  state,  and  if  properly  applied,  will  yield  personal 
satisfaction  and  social  benefit. 

In  laying  down  this  principle  we  do  not,  however, 
condemn  those  exceptional  natures  who  break  through 
the  barriers  of  an  humble  station  and  aspire  to  higher 
tasks  for  which  they  feel  themselves  qualified.  Nor 
do  we  believe  in  confining  people  too  rigidly  to  classes 
or  castes.  The  caste  system,  in  particular,  is  more  or 

3  Cfr.  St.  Jerome,  Epist.,  54   (a/.   10),  n.  6. 


120  VOCATIONAL  DUTIES 

less  immoral.  No  class  as  such  should  be  excluded  from 
social  honors  and  privileges.  Every  man  is  entitled  to 
the  advantages  of  civilization  and  culture,  and  where 
equal  opportunities  are  open  to  all,  we  usually  find 
that  ability  or  intellectual  power  joined  to  moral  probity 
succeeds  in  winning  a  fruitful  sphere  of  activity.  We 
hear  much  about  an  aristocracy  of  birth  in  Europe  and 
an  aristocracy  of  wealth  in  America ;  but  the  only  true 
aristocracy  is  the  aristocracy  of  character  and  talent.4 

The  security  of  those  in  humble  station  finds  graphic 
expression  in  the  old  Latin  saying,  "Procul  a  love,  procul 
a  fulmine."  Everywhere  and  always  fidelity  to  duty 
ranks  above  mere  success.5  "It  is  all  the  same,"  says 
Lessing,  "how  an  honest  man  makes  his  living,  whether 
he  splits  wood  or  pilots  the  ship  of  State ;  what  really  mat 
ters,  in  his  inmost  conscience,  is  not  the  thought  how 
useful  he  is,  but  to  what  extent  he  is  willing  to  make 
himself  useful."  A  man's  true  worth  consists  in  faith 
fully  endeavoring  to  fulfil  his  appointed  task,  whatever  it 
may  be ;  and  in  this  all  may  enjoy  equality,  regardless  of 
the  existing  differences  of  vocation  and  occupation. 

4  F.  X.  Linsenmann,  Lehrbuch  "Malo  successum  mihi  quam  fidem 

der  Moraltheologie,  pp.  683  sq  deesse." — IDEM,  Ep.,  14,  16:  "Con- 

6  Cfr.  Acts  XX,  18  sqq.;  XXI,  silium  omnium  rerum  sapiens,  non 

13;  Phil.  II,  17. — Seneca,  Ep.,  25,  a:  exitum  spectat." 


SECTION  3 

SINS   AGAINST   VOCATION 

There  are  various  ways  in  which  a  man  may 
sin  against  his  vocation. 

i.  He  injures  himself  and  society  if  he  neglects 
to  seize  the  opportunity  of  securing  a  living,  or 
to  acquire  the  necessary  facilities  by  developing 
his  bodily  and  mental  talents,  or  to  prepare  him 
self  for  what  he  perceives  to  be  his  vocation  by 
the  conscientious  employment  of  his  time  and  all 
available  means  of  training. 

The  first  and  greatest  sin  one  can  commit 
against  one's  vocation,  therefore,  is  to  refuse  to 
choose  a  vocation.  This  sounds  paradoxical, 
but  is  literally  true  nevertheless.  Failure  to 
choose  a  vocation,  when  inexcusable,  is  a  sign  of 
sloth,  and  sloth,  as  we  all  know,  is  the  source  of  in 
numerable  sins.  Tramping  and  vagabondage 
not  only  entail  grave  social  dangers,  but  their  vic 
tims  as  a  rule  deteriorate  morally. 

Any  man  who,  without  a  reasonable  excuse, 
fails  to  labor  in  some  legitimate  occupation, 
whether  intellectual  or  physical,  is  useless  to  so 
ciety,  and  forfeits  the  right  to  the  benefits  it  con 
fers  upon  its  members.  "If  any  man  will  not 

121 


122  VOCATIONAL  DUTIES 

work,  neither  let  him  eat,"  says  the  Apostle,1  and 
"in  the  Lord  Jesus  Christ"  he  charges  and  ex 
horts  those  who  "do  no  work  but  interfere  with 
others,"  to  "earn  the  food  they  eat,"  lest  they  be 
excluded  from  intercourse  with  their  brethren.2 

2.  A  man  also  sins  against  his  vocation  if  he 
undertakes  too  many  things  or  fails  to  make  him 
self  useful,  physically  or  intellectually,  to  himself 
or  to  the  community  in  which  he  lives,  either  be 
cause  he  is  dissatisfied  with  what  society  offers 
him  in  return  for  his  labor,  or  because  a  wrong  dis 
position  moves  him  to  seek  nothing  but  pleasure. 

3.  Another  grievous  sin  against  vocation  is  the 
pursuit  of  purely  temporal  rewards  without  re 
gard  to  the  supernatural.     To  lead  a  life  de 
voted  entirely  to  mundane  ambitions  and  ma 
terial  gain  degrades  man  to  the  level   of  the 
brute.     "A  voluptuous  life,"  says  the  Angelic 
Doctor,  "seeks  its  end  in  bodily  pleasure,  a  tend 
ency  which  is  common  to  us  and  the  beasts,  and 
hence,  in  the  words  of  the  Philosopher   [Aris 
totle],  such  a  life  is  bestial."  3     Unprofitable  like 
the  beast's  is  the  life  of  him  who  has  no  super 
natural   faith,    for   faith   is   the   foundation  of 
vocation,  and  without  it  no  one  can  pursue  his 
course  with  joy  and  spiritual  profit. 

12    Thess.    Ill,    10    sqq.;    cfr.    i  22  Thess.   Ill,  3,   10-12. 

Thess.    IV,    ii.— St.    Thomas,    Sum-  3  Summa  Theol.,  za  2&c,  qu.   179, 

ma   Theol.,  23  2ae,  qu.    187,  art.   5,  art.   2,  ad   i :  "Vita  voluptuosa  .  .  . 

ad  2:     "Non  otiose  vivit,  qui  quali-  est   vita   bestialis." 
tercunque  vtiliter  vivit." 


CHOICE  OF  A  VOCATION  123 

Work  performed  in  the  spirit  of  faith  and  prayer  is 
like  the  gold  standard,  says  Bishop  Keppler ;  it  has  a 
fixed,  nay  an  eternal  value.  "Thus  earthly  deeds  assume 
heavenly  worth ;  they  become  treasures  which  moths  and 
rust  cannot  consume,  nor  thieves  dig  up  and  steal;  they 
produce  everlasting  merits  which  give  title  to  a  crown. 
Performed  for  the  honor  of  God  and  with  the  help  of  the 
divine  power  of  grace,  they  become  copies  and  images  of 
God's  omnipotent  activity."  * 

READINGS. — F.  H.  Linsenmann,  Lehrbuch  der  Moraltheologie, 
Freiburg  1878,  pp.  683  sq—  Fr.  Probst,  Kath.  Moraltheologie, 
Vol.  II,  2nd  ed.,  pp.  389  sqq.,  Tubingen  1853.— H.  Noldin,  S.J., 
Summa  Theol.  Mor.,  Vol.  II,  pp.  77  sqq.— J.  Kearney,  C.  S.  Sp., 
"Vocation :  Its  Essential  Elements,"  in  the  Irish  Ecclesiastical 
Record,  No.  650  (Feb.,  1922),  pp.  165  sqq. 

4  P.  W.  von  Keppler,  More  Joy,  Louis  1914,  PP-  229  sqq.— Cfr.  Pi. 
tr.  by  Jos.  McSorley,  C.S.P.,  St.  CXXVI,  i;  i  Cor.  Ill,  7. 


CHAPTER  II 

THE   DUTY    OF    LABOR 


Labor  is  a  natural  necessity,  a  moral  obligation, 
and  a  religious  duty.  We  shall  treat  it  in  as 
many  sections,  adding  a  fourth  on  recreation  or 
rest,  which  is  the  necessary  correlative  of  labor. 


124 


SECTION  i 

LABOR   AS   A    NATURAL    NECESSITY 

i.  Labor  is,  first  of  all,  a  natural  necessity. 
Nature  compels  man  to  labor  for  the  necessary 
means  of  subsistence.  Since  the  fall  of  our  first 
parents,  the  earth,  which  is  the  ultimate  source 
of  all  things  required  for  the  support  of  the  hu 
man  race,  of  itself  bears  nothing-  but  thorns  and 
thistles,  and  man  is  compelled  to  till  the  soil  in 
the  sweat  of  his  brow  to  make  it  yield  the 
products  he  needs.  "With  labor  and  toil  thou 
shalt  eat  thereof  all  the  days  of  thy  life."  1  "The 
soul  of  him  that  laboreth,  laboreth  for  himself, 
because  his  mouth  hath  obliged  him  to  it."  2 

"Manual  labor,"  says  St.  Thomas,  "has  a  four 
fold  purpose.  The  first  and  principal  one  is  to 
procure  food,  wherefore  the  first  man  was  told: 
'In  the  sweat  of  thy  face  shalt  thou  eat  bread.' 8 
.  .  .  Therefore,  since  manual  labor  is  ordained 
for  the  obtaining  of  sustenance,  it  falls  under  the 
necessity  of  precept,  because  it  is  necessary  to  at 
tain  that  end.  For  that  which  is  ordained  to 
wards  an  end,  derives  necessity  from  that  end, 

i  Gen.   Ill,    17  sqq.  a  Gen.    Ill,    19. 

aProv.   XVI,   26. 

125 


126  VOCATIONAL  DUTIES 

i.  e.,  it  is  necessary  in  proportion  as  the  end  can 
not  be  attained  without  it.  Consequently,  he 
who  has  no  living  from  some  other  source,  is 
obliged  to  perform  manual  labor,  no  matter  what 
his  position  may  be."  4 

Having  in  view  both  the  natural  and  the  eco 
nomic  aspect  of  labor,  we  can  truly  say  that  the 
more  industriously  men  work,  the  more  abundant 
are  the  means  of  sustenance  and  enjoyment  at 
their  disposal,  and  the  less  danger  there  is  of  \vant. 

2.  As  man  consists  of  body  and  soul,  his  labor 
is  either  bodily  or  mental,  or  perhaps  it  would  be 
more  correct  to  say,  it  is  both  bodily  and 
mental;  for  as  a  rule  the  two  occur  in  combina 
tion,  though  one  or  the  other  may,  and  usually 
does,  predominate.  Moreover,  nearly  every  kind 
of  bodily  labor  is  more  or  less  planned  and  di 
rected  by  the  will  and  the  intellect; — by  the  will, 
because  all  labor  involves  the  overcoming  of  dif 
ficulties;  by  the  intellect,  because  the  proper  util 
ization  of  the  materials  and  powers  furnished  by 
nature  requires  a  preliminary  knowledge.  Pro 
ductive  labor  is  that  which  creates,  conserves, 

4  Summa  TheoL,  23  aae,  qu.   187,  praecepti,    prout    est   necessarius   ad 

art.    3:     "Labor    manualis    ad    quat-  talent  finem;  quod  enim  ordinatur  ad 

tuor    ordinatur.     Primo    quidem    et  finem,  a  fine  necessitate™  habet,  ut 

principaliter  ad  victum  quaerendum,  scilicet     intantum     sit     necessarium, 

unde    et    primo    homini    dictum    est:  inquantum    finis    sine    eo    esse    non 

'In  sudore  vultus  tui  vesceris  pane  potest.     Et  idea,  qui  non  habet  ali- 

tuo.'  .  .  .  Secundum    ergo    quod    la-  unde  unde  vivere  possit,  tenetur  ma- 

bor    manualis    ordinatur    ad    victum  nibus    operari    cuiuscunque   sit   con- 

quaerendum     cadit    sub    necessitate  ditionit." 


LABOR  A  NATURAL  NECESSITY         127 

acquires  or  transfers  material  or  economic 
goods,  and  likewise  that  which  produces,  pre 
serves,  communicates  or  spreads  personal  or 
social  values,  as  religious  and  moral  convic 
tions  or  endeavors,  useful  knowledge  or  fa 
cilities,  intellectual  and  spiritual  culture,  political 
order  and  security,  or  any  other  requisites  of 
intellectual  and  physical  well-being.5  While  the 
work  of  some  classes  of  men,  e.  g.,  physicians, 
teachers,  priests,  authors,  etc.,  does  not  pro 
duce  material  goods,  it  may  be  truly  said  to  be 
productive  in  a  mediate  and  indirect  way,  because 
the  creation,  acquisition,  and  preservation  of  eco 
nomic  values  depends  largely  on  personal  and  so 
cial  goods.  "He  who  writes  a  book,"  in  the 
words  of  a  modern  author,  "serves  the  intellect, 
and  by  serving  the  intellect,  serves  the  world." 
Thus,  in  the  natural  or  economic  sense,  labor  may 
be  denned  as  the  conscious  and  purposeful  appli 
cation  of  man's  faculties  with  a  view  to  produc 
ing  those  things  which  are  necessary  or  useful  for 
sustaining  life. 

6  Cfr.  St.  Thomas,  Summa  Theol.,  norum,  per  opus  manuum  omnis  ope- 

23  2ae,  qu.   187,  art.  3:     "Sciendum  ratio     intellegitur,     de     qua     aliquis 

tamen,   quod   sub   opere   manuali   in-  victum      licite      potest      lucrari." — 

telleguntuf     omnia    humana     officia,  Ibid.,   qu.    100,    art.    3,   ad    3:    "Ille 

ex  quibus  homines  licite  victum  lu-  qui  habet  scientiam  et  non  suscepit 

crantur,     sire     manibus    sire     pedi-  cum   hoc    ofUcium,    ex   quo   obligetur 

bus  sive  lingua  fiant.     Vigiles  enim  aliis      usum      scientiae      impendere, 

et    atrsores    et    alii    huiusmodi    de  licite  potest  pretium  suae  doctrinae 

suo     labore     viventes    intelleguntur  vel     consilii     accipere,     non     quasi 

de    operibus   manuum   vivere,     Quia  veritatem     aut     scientiam     vendens, 

enim     manus     est     organum     orga-  sed  quasi  operas  suas  locans." 


128  VOCATIONAL  DUTIES 

The  line  of  demarcation  between  work  and  play 
is  not  always  easy  to  draw ;  nevertheless  it  exists 
and  must  be  duly  attended  to. 

Charles  S.  Devas,6  because  of  the  invidious  and  mis 
leading  character  of  the  term  "unproductive,"  prefers  to 
divide  labor  into  industrial  and  non-industrial,  according 
as  its  end  is,  or  is  not,  the  preparation  of  material  goods 
or  the  production  of  wealth.  The  terms  industrial  and 
non-industrial  are  also  used  by  Dr.  H.  Sidgwick  7  and 
correspond  substantially  with  Prof.  Nicholson's  "material 
production"  and  "immaterial  production."  The  moralist 
may  disregard  this  controversy  as  irrelevant. 

3.  The  welfare  of  the  individual  as  well  as  that 
of  society  depends  not  only  on  the  amount  of 
labor  performed,  but  likewise  on  its  proper  dis 
tribution  among  the  different  individuals  and 
classes  that  constitute  the  community,  on  the  way 
in  which  the  laboring  men  are  treated,  and  on  the 
perfection  of  the  mechanical  means  employed, 
such  as  tools,  machinery,  power,  and  on  the  prog 
ress  made  in  industry,  trade,  and  commerce.  A 
higher  standard  of  living  with  less  expenditure 
of  labor  is  to-day  the  goal  of  all  classes  of  work 
ers,  including  the  farmer. 

The  necessity  of  working  for  a  living  entails 
the  obligation  of  employing  labor  efficiently  and 
economically,  so  as  to  make  it  as  fruitful  and  re- 

6  Political      Economy,      3rd      ed.,  7  The      Principles      of      Political 

London   1917,  pp.   15  sqq.  Economy,  p.  265,  London  1883. 


LABOR  A  NATURAL  NECESSITY         129 

munerative  as  possible  and  to  satisfy  not  only 
the  elementary  natural  needs  of  man,  but  likewise 
his  legitimate  craving  for  relaxation.8 

Of  the  "right  to  work"  we  shall  treat  in  the  fifth  vol 
ume  of  this  Handbook.9 

READINGS. — St.  Thomas,  Sumnta  Theol.,  2a  2ae,  qu.  187,  art. 
3. — Leo  XIII,  Encyclical  "Rerum  Novarum,"  May  15,  1891  (The 
Pope  and  the  People,  London  1912,  pp.  188  sqq.) — E.  Genicot, 
Theologiae  Moralis  Institutiones,  4th  ed.,  Louvain  1902,  Vol.  I, 
n.  365. — S.  Weber,  Evangelium  und  Arbeit,  Freiburg  1898. — H. 
Noldin,  S.J.,  Summa  Theologiae  Moralis,  Vol.  II,  nth  ed., 
Innsbruck  1914,  pp.  79  sqq. 

8  Cfr.    F.    Schaffle,    Kapitalismus  lagen,    and    ed.,     Freiburg     1895. 
vnd    Sosialismus,     2nd    ed.,     Tubin-  »  See  on   this   subject  J.   E.   Ross, 

gen   1878;   G.   Ratzinger,  Die   Volks-  C.   S.   P.,   The  Right  to   Work,   New 

•wirtschaft  in  ihren  sittlichen  Grund-  York,   1918. 


SECTION  2 

LABOR    AS   A    MORAL   OBLIGATION 

i.  Labor  is  not  only  a  natural  necessity,  it  is 
also  a  moral  obligation.1 

Labor  was  enjoined  upon  our  first  parents  in 
Paradise  as  the  primary  condition  and  chief 
means  of  moral  progress  and  perfection.  Man 
has  to  labor  in  order  to  ennoble  his  nature 
and  to  attain  sanctification.  Labor  should  be  his 
very  breath  and  life.  It  preserves  his  bodily  and 
mental  health;  it  steels  and  fortifies  his  will;  it 
makes  him  contented  and  happy.  Even  when  the 
tangible  products  do  not  seem  to  correspond  to  the 
energy  expended,  the  right  sort  of  work  has  an 
intrinsic  ideal  value  which  makes  it  worth  while, 
whereas  idleness  and  sloth  entail  spiritual  death 
and  at  the  same  time  are  a  gross  violation  of  the 
duty  which  the  individual  owes  to  society ;  for,  as 
St.  Paul  says,  "If  any  man  will  not  work,  neither 
let  him  eat."  z 

2.  To  toil  faithfully  and  assiduously  in  one's 

1  Job    V,     7. — Cfr.     St.     Thomas,  cadit    sub    necessitate    praecepti    se- 

Summa    Theol.,    23    aae,    qu.     187,  cundum  se  consideratum,  quia  tnultis 

art.      3:     "Secundo      [labor     manu-  aliis  modis  potest  vel  caro  macerari 

alts']   ordinatur  ad  tollendum  otium,  vel    etiam    otium    tolli,     quam    per 

ex    quo    multa    mala    oriuntur.  .  .  .  opus    manuale." 
Secundum    autem    quod    opus    ma-  22   Thess.   Ill,   10;   cfr.   A.  Win- 

nitale  ordinatur  ad  otium  tollendum  terstein,   Die   christliche  Lehre  vont 

vel   ad  corporis   macerationem,   non  Erdengut,  pp.    157  sqq. 
130 


LABOR  A  MORAL  OBLIGATION          131 

chosen  vocation  is  to  obey  a  divine  command. 
Labor  spells  life;  idleness,  death.  Distaste  for 
labor  has  its  source  in  repugnance  to  duty  and 
involves  contempt  of  the  divine  commandments 
which  bind  society  together.  There  can  be  no 
doubt  that  labor  brings  its  own  reward.  No 
matter  how  disagreeable  any  particular  task  or 
occupation  may  seem  at  first,  after  a  while  it  be 
comes  pleasant,  as  a  bitter  medicine  grows  sweet 
to  the  taste.  Labor  is  a  great  blessing,  and  he 
who  voluntarily  renounces  its  benefits  is  a  fool. 

"Honor  for  every  kind  of  work!  In  every  man's 
labor  a  human  will,  an  immortal  soul,  externalizes  itself, 
a  man's  heart  is  throbbing  and  a  man's  blood  is  circulat 
ing.  All  work  is  capable  of  being  spiritualized  and  en 
nobled  to  the  highest  degree.  We  must  come  at  last  to 
recognize  that  it  is  a  sin  against  both  culture  and  art  for 
the  'upper'  classes  to  brand  as  vulgar  and  dishonorable 
whole  groups  of  occupations  which  are  necessary,  and  in 
fact  indispensable,  in  the  human  household.  Those  per 
sons  should  rather  regard  themselves  as  under  personal 
obligations  to  all  who  perform  menial  offices  and  services. 
'If  there  were  nobody  to  perform  the  menial  tasks,  the 
higher  culture  could  not  exist.'  "  3 

READINGS. — See  the  authorities  cited  on  page  129,  and  in  ad 
dition:  J.  G.  Uhlhorn,  Die  Arbeit  im  Lichte  des  Evangeliums 
betrachtet,  Bremen  1877.— K.  Eger,  Die  Anschauungen  Luthers 
vom  Beruf,  Giessen  1900.— A.  Sabatier,  L'Eglise  et  le  Travail 
Manuel,  Paris  1895.— A.  Lehmkuhl,  S.J.,  Theologia  Moralis, 
Vol.  I,  nth  ed.,  Freiburg  1910,  pp.  410  sq. 

3  P.  W.  von  Keppler,  More  Joy,  tr.  by  J.  McSorley,  C.S.P., 
St.  Louis,  1914,  p.  228. 


SECTION  3 

LABOR   AS   A   RELIGIOUS   DUTY 

i.  Labor  would  have  been  a  duty  even  in  the 
pure  state  of  nature,  but  it  has  become  absolutely 
necessary,  and  sacred  as  well,  since  the  fall  of 
our  first  parents.  For  now  it  is  also  a  punish 
ment  and  a  means  of  penance,  nay,  more  than 
that, — a  means  of  atonement  and  redemption.1 
St.  Thomas  says:  "Thirdly,  [manual  labor]  is 
ordained  for  the  repression  of  concupiscence,  in- 
as  much  as  by  it  the  body  is  mortified.2  .  .  .  The 
Apostle  prescribes  manual  labor,  first,  to  avoid 
theft ; 3  secondly,  as  an  antidote  to  covetousness ;  4 
third,  against  dishonest  transactions  by  means  of 
which  some  men  make  a  living."  5 

iGen.    Ill,    17-19.— Cfr.    St.    Au-  52    Thess.    Ill,    10   sq.     The   quo- 

gustine,   De   Gen.    ad   Lit.,   \.   VIII,  tation    is    from    the   Summa    Theol., 

c.    8,   n.    15:     "Quidquid    deliciarum  23    aae,    qu.     187,    art.     3:     "Tertio 

habet       agricultura,       tune       utique  [labor       mattualis]       ordinatur       ad 

longe     amplins     erat,     quando     nihil  concupiscentiae      refrenationem,      in 

accidebat     adverse     vel      terra     vel  quantum     per     hoc     maceratur     cor- 

caelo,     Non    enim    erat    laboris    af-  pus.   .   .   .   Nam         primo         quidem 

flictio,     sed     exhilaratio     voluntatis,  praecipit     Apostotus     opus     manuale 

quum   ea,   qitae  Deus   creavcrat,   hu-  ad   vitandiim    furtum,    secundum    ad 

mani    operis    adiutorio    laetius    fera-  vitandam   cupiditatem   alienarum   re- 

ciusque  provenirent."    (Migne,  P.  L.,  rum,    tertio    ad    eritanda    turpia    ne- 

XXXIV,    379).  gotia,    ex    quibus    aliqui    victum    ac- 

2  2  Cor.  VI,  5.  quirunt."—Cfr.    M.    Hausherr,    Die 

3  Eph.  IV,  28.  geheiligte  Handarbeit,  Mayence  1873. 

4  i    Thess.    IV,    ii. 

132 


LABOR  A  RELIGIOUS  DUTY  133 

Christ  Himself  was  the  son  of  a  carpenter.6 
He  bore  the  burdens  of  an  humble  day  laborer 
as  part  of  His  great  work  of  sacrifice  and  atone 
ment  and  by  His  example  showed  men  how  to 
sanctify  and  ennoble  their  daily  task.  The 
faithful  Christian,  therefore,  labors  not  only  to 
earn  his  bread,  to  provide  for  his  family,  to 
heap  up  riches,  to  gain  the  means  of  enjoyment, 
or  because  he  prefers  activity  to  idleness,  but 
mainly  for  the  reason  that  labor  is  a  sacred  duty 
which  he  owes  to  God,  to  himself,  and  to  his  fel- 
lowmen.  He  works  for  the  honor  and  glory  of 
God,  for  the  sanctification  of  his  own  soul,  and 
for  the  relief  of  his  needy  neighbors.7 

The  last-mentioned  point  is  thus  explained  by 
St.  Thomas:  "In  the  fourth  place  [manual  la 
bor]  is  ordained  for  the  giving  of  alms.8  ...  In 
this  respect  it  does  not,  however,  fall  under  the 
necessity  of  precept,  except  where  one  is  under 
strict  obligation  to  give  alms  and  can  obtain  the 
means  of  succoring  the  poor  from  no  other  source. 
In  that  case  all  men,  religious  as  well  as  seculars, 
are  obliged  to  perform  manual  labor."  9 

Radulphus  Ardens,  a  famous  theologian  and 

6  Matth.    XIII,    55;    Mark   VI,    3;  faciendas,     non    cadit    sub    necessi- 
cfr.  John  IV,  34;  V,  38;  VIII,  29.  tate   praecepti,   nisi   forte   in   aliquo 

7  Acts  XX,  35;   Eph.   IV,   28.  casu,    in    quo    ex   necessitate    aliquis 

8  Eph.   IV,  28.  eleemosynas      facere      teneretnr      et 

9  Summa   Theol.,  23.  aae,  qu.    187,  non   posset   alias   habere,   unde   pau- 
art.    3:     "Quarto     [labor    manualis]  peribus  subveniret,  in   quo   casu  ob- 
ordinatur     ad     eleemosynas     facien-  ligarentur       similiter      religiosi       et 
ilas.   .   .   .   Inquantum       vero       opus  saeculares    ad    opera    manualia    ex- 
mnnualf    ordinatur    ad    eleemosynas  sequenda," 


134  VOCATIONAL  DUTIES 

preacher  of  the  twelfth  century,10  tersely  sums 
up  the  benefits  of  labor  as  follows:  It  destroys 
vice,  nourishes  virtue,  provides  the  necessaries  of 
life,  and  affords  the  means  of  giving  alms.11 

It  was  a  grand  and  thoroughly  Christian  idea,  which 
found  expression  throughout  the  Middle  Ages,  that  man 
shall  not  regard  his  work  and  earnings,  no  matter  how 
modest,  selfishly,  but  always  in  relation  to  his  neighbor. 
The  Pauline  passage  embodying  this  thought:  "Let  him 
labor,  working  with  his  hands  the  thing  which  is  good, 
that  he  may  have  something  to  give  to  him  that  suffereth 
need," 12  was  made  the  basis  of  a  number  of  ancient 
monastic  rules,  which  we  know  from  the  writings  of  St. 
Benedict  of  Aniane.13 

Intimately  related  to  this  idea  are  two  others,  namely, 
(i)  that  labor  is  a  duty  which  man  owes  to  God,  and  (2) 
that  it  is  a  necessary  means  of  developing  the  higher, 
spiritual  side  of  his  nature.  Together  these  three  con 
cepts  acted  as  a  ferment  in  the  conservative  social  and 
economic  life  of  the  Middle  Ages.  The  idea  that  the 
living  to  which  one  is  entitled  should  correspond  to  one's 
social  position,  was  thus  safeguarded  against  undue 
exaggeration.  A  man  was  permitted  to  earn  more  than 
he  required  for  himself  and  his  dependents,  but  only  on 
condition  that  he  took  good  care  of  his  soul,  made  becom 
ing  sacrifices  to  God,  gave  alms  to  the  poor,  and  faithfully 
performed  all  his  duties  to  society.14 

lOCfr.    M.    Grabmann,   Geschichte  12  Eph.    IV,    28. 

der  scholastischen  Methode,  Vol.   I,  13  On     Benedict    of    Aniane    see 

Freiburg    1909,   pp.   246  sqq.  J.    P.    Kirsch    in    the    Catholic    En- 

11  Horn.,    1.     II,    c.     32     (Migne,  cyclopedia,   Vol.   II,  p.   467. 

P.     L.,     CLV,     1615):     "Vitia     de-  14  Cfr.    F.    Schaub,    Der    Kampf 

struit,     virtutes     nutrit,     necessaria  gegen     den     Zinswucher,     Freiburg 

parat,   eleemosynam  donat."  I9°5.    PP-    J6    sq. 


LABOR  A  RELIGIOUS  DUTY  135 

"Nothing  hinders  us  from  raising  our  daily  work  to  the 
higher  Christian  plane  of  dignity  and  value.  Hence  there 
should  no  longer  be  question  of  compulsory  labor;  the 
loud,  cheerful  'aye'  of  a  man  perfectly  willing  to  work 
prevails  over  the  'nay'  of  indolent,  weary  nature.  Thus 
a  man  becomes  free,  even  if  born  in  labor's  chains.  He 
determines  the  kind  and  value  of  his  work;  and  he  ap 
propriates  its  best  fruit,  the  absolutely  sure  pay  which 
no  one  can  lessen.  With  his  work  he  is  serving  not  men, 
not  force,  nor  necessity,  nor  a  gloomy  fate,  nor  a  ma 
chine,  nor  the  owner  of  a  machine,  but  the  Overlord  of 
all  work,  his  God  and  Lord  and  Saviour  Christ  Jesus." 
"So  we  learn  to  prize  and  honor  and  love  work.  We 
know  that  we  never  labor  in  vain,  that  despite  all  human 
weakness,  misery,  and  imperfection,  our  work  has  a 
value.  We  know  how  much  we  owe  to  work,  and  what  a 
benefit  is  a  great  serious  life-task;  how  work  steels  the 
will,  trains  the  faculties,  strengthens  the  whole  man ;  how 
external  labor  helps  us  in  our  inner  work  with  ourselves, 
promoting  moral  purity,  mental  breadth  and  depth. 
Often  we  profit  as  much  by  failure  as  by  success, — some 
times  even  more.  In  a  great  sorrow  or  a  terrible  crisis, 
we  find  that  work  has  a  wonderful  power  of  healing. 
When  work  is  completed,  we  enjoy  inner  peace,  a  pleasant 
fatigue.  And  not  only  do  we  rejoice  after  work,  but  we 
learn  to  be  joyful  during  our  work,  and  even  to  enjoy  the 
work  itself.  That  is  the  true  joy  of  work ;  and  sometimes 
it  breaks  out  in  song.  'Give  me  the  man  who  sings  while 
at  work,'  says  Carlyle."  15 

16  Bishop  Keppler,  op.  cit.,  pp.  229  the  man  whom  His  Father  made  to 

sq.     A  modern  poet  describes  Jesus  sing    at    work.     He    looks    in    vain, 

going   through   a   great   factory,   not  (See    Catholic    Fortnightly    Review, 

impressed     by    its     marvellous     ma-  St.    Louis,    Mo.,   Vol.   XXV    (1918), 

chinery,     its    ipeed,    its    skill,     but  No.  23. 
"  looking    for    His    singing-man," — 


SECTION  4 

MANUAL   AND    INTELLECTUAL    LABOR, 
AND   RECREATION 

i.  Rest  or  recreation  follows  labor  as  inevit 
ably  as  day  follows  night  or  summer  follows 
winter.  To  the  duty  of  labor,  accordingly,  there 
corresponds  the  right  to  rest  and  recreation, — 
the  right  to  enjoy  an  earthly  Sabbath  here  below 
and  the  hope  of  a  heavenly  Sabbath  in  the  world 
beyond.1 

According  to  the  teaching  of  Revelation  there 
exists  the  right  and,  under  certain  circumstances, 
the  duty  of  performing  mental  or  spiritual  labor, 
consisting  in  prayer,  study,  or  contemplation  of 
the  eternal  truths.2 

The  Schoolmen  divided  life  into  the  active 
and  the  contemplative.3  "All  endeavors  of  hu 
man  activity,"  says,  e.  g.,  St.  Thomas,  "if  they 
are  ordained  towards  the  necessity  of  the  pres- 

1  Gen.   II,  2;    Ex.   XX,   n;   Apoc.  logica,     23.     aae,     qu.     179,     art.     i: 
XIV,    13.  "Quia     quidam     homines     praecipue 

2  Luke     X,     38-42. — Cfr.     St.     Je-  intendunt     contemplation     veritatis, 
rome,    Epist.,    XIV    (a/.    I),    n.    10:  quidam     •vero     intendunt    principali- 
"Labore  terreris?     At  nemo   athleta  ter  exterioribus  actionibus,  inde  est 
IC'hristi]     sine     sudore     coronatur."  quod   vita    hominis   convenienter   di- 
(Migne,  P.  L.,  XXII,  354).  viditur    per    activam    et    contempla- 

3  Cfr.    St.   Thomas,   Summa   Theo-  tivam." 


THE  CONTEMPLATIVE  LIFE  137 

ent  life  according  to  right  reason,  pertain  to  the 
active  life,  which  provides  for  the  necessities  of 
the  present  by  duly  disposed  actions,  .  .  . 
whereas  those  human  endeavors  which  are  or 
dained  towards  the  consideration  of  truth,  belong 
to  the  contemplative  life."  4 

The  essential  difference  between  the  active  and 
the  contemplative  life  has  been  frequently  lost 
sight  of,  even  by  Catholics.  Only  a  few  years 
ago  Pope  Leo  XIII  found  it  necessary  to  recall  the 
traditional  Catholic  teaching  on  this  point  in  a 
letter  to  Cardinal  Gibbons.5 

Labor,  both  bodily  and  mental,  if  it  is  not 
followed  by  sufficient  rest,  will  in  course  of  time 
cause  nervous  exhaustion  (neurasthenia),  which 
with  its  attendant  disorders  is  apt  to  prove  hered 
itary.  The  restless  pursuit  of  wealth  is  ex 
pressly  condemned  by  our  Lord  in  the  famous 
passage :  "What  doth  it  profit  a  man  if  he  gain 
the  whole  world,  and  suffer  the  loss  of  his  own 
soul?"6 

The  intellectual  and  the  material  aspects  of 
human  labor  as  a  factor  in  the  advancement  of 
civilization  and  culture  are  aptly  summarized  in 

4  Ibid.,     art.     2,     ad    3 :     "Omnia  mana   vero   studio,    quae   ordinantur 

studia  humanarum   actionum,  si   or-  ad    considerationem    veritatis,    perti- 

dinentur  ad   necessitatem  praesentis  rtent    ad    vitam    contemplativam." 
vitae    secundum    rationem     rectam,  6  "Testem  benevolentiae,"  Jan.  22, 

pertinent    ad    vitam    activam,    quae  1899. 
per    ordinatas    actiones   consulit  ne-  8  Matth.  XVI,  26. 

cessitati    vitae    praestntis,  .  .  .  hit- 


138  VOCATIONAL  DUTIES 

the  ancient  Benedictine  adage :  "Ora  et  labora — 
Pray  and  work !"  7 

The  duty  of  labor,  however,  must  not  be  urged 
beyond  reasonable  limits.  A  man  who  retires 
from  business  after  years  of  hard  work  to  rest 
and  prepare  for  death,  is  not  to  be  accused  of 
idleness.  Man  owes  to  his  fellowmen,  present 
and  future,  not  his  whole  being,  but  only  a  portion 
of  his  power  to  work.  No  matter  how  important 
his  position  in  life,  the  individual  is  never  indis 
pensable,  but  his  labor  is  merged  in  the  collec 
tive  toil  of  the  race.  Work  is  measured  by  hours 
and  days,  and  may  cease  for  hours  and  days  with 
out  perceptibly  retarding  the  progress  of  society. 
Then  again,  there  are  cases  in  which  it  is  better 
for  a  man,  especially  one  advanced  in  years,  to 
step  aside  than  to  cling  to  a  position  for  which  he 
is  no  longer  fit.8 

2.  There  are  some  species  of  human  activity 
which  afford  employment  to  many  thousands, 
yet  do  not  deserve  the  noble  name  of  labor. 
To  this  class  of  occupations,  which  do  not  pro 
duce,  but  merely  consume  and  destroy,  and  batten 
on  the  financial  and  moral  ruin  of  men,  belong 
usury,  prostitution,  gambling  in  "futures,"  9  etc. 

7  See   Anonymus,    Die   Regel   des  9  On    gambling    in    "futures"    see 
hi.   Benedikt,   pp.    345   sqq.  Th.  Slater,  S.J.,  Questions  of  Moral 

8  Cfr.    F.    X.    Linsenmann,    Lehr-  Theology,   New  York   1915,  pp.    154 
bjic/i    def   Moraltheologie,   p.    287.  »qq. 


MANUAL  LABOR  139 

With  these  Special  Moral  Theology  deals  in  con 
nection  with  economics.10 

There  is  another  kind  of  (predominantly  intel 
lectual)  labor  which  is  destructive  and  therefore 
worse  than  useless.  It  is  the  writing  and  pub 
lishing  of  books,  magazines,  and  newspapers  that 
attack  or  undermine  faith  and  morals. 

To  adjust  the  relative  claims  of  manual  and  intellectual 
labor  is  not  an  easy  task.  The  man  who  makes  his  living 
by  the  work  of  his  hands,  finds  it  hard  to  understand  that 
mental  labor  can  be  quite  as  exhausting  as  physical  exer 
tion,11  whereas  the  man  engaged  in  purely  mental  work  is 
apt  to  underestimate  the  hardships  of  the  physical  toiler. 
This  lack  of  mutual  understanding  and  sympathy  leads 
to  envy  on  the  one  and  undue  pride  on  the  other  side  and 
frequently  gives  rise  to  unjust  judgments  on  both. 

3.  Though  a  few  ancient  writers,  like  Hesiod, 
extolled  manual  labor  as  the  source  of  well-being, 
or,  like  Homer,  spoke  of  it  with  respect,12  pagan 
antiquity  for  the  most  part  'held  it  in  contempt.13 
Christianity  restored  it  to  honor  and  (respec 
tability.  The  Gospel  emphasized  the  universal 

10  See  Vol.   V  of  this  Handbook.  wrote    my    thoughts,    without    great 

11  Shelley    speaks    of    the    "agony  pain,   pain   reaching  to  the  body   as 
and    sweat    of    intellectual    travail."  well   as   to   the   mind.     It  has    mad« 
Newman    says    that    "every    book    I  me    feel    practically    that    labor    'm 
have  written  .  .  .  has  been  a  sort  of  sudore  vultus  sui'  is  the  lot  of  man." 
operation,   the   distress   has   been   so  (Ibid.,   p.   637.) 

great."     (Ward's   Life   of   Newman,  12  Cfr.     M.     Heinze,     Dtr    Eudd- 

I,     296).     And:     "The     composition  monismus  in  der  griechischen  Philo- 

of    a    volume    is    like    gestation    and  sophie,  Leipsic    1883,  pp.  671    sqq. 
child-birth.     I    do   not   think   that    I  13  Cfr.    Cicero,   Dt    Officiis,    I,    c. 

ever     thought     out    a     question,     or  42. 


140  VOCATIONAL  DUTIES 

duty  of  labor  and  introduced  a  spirit  of  fraternal 
charity  among  all  classes  of  people,  high  and  low, 
learned  and  ignorant.14  The  fact  that  St.  Peter 
"abode  many  days  in  Joppe  with  one  Simon,  a 
tanner,"  15  shows  that  even  "unclean"  and  de 
spised  trades  were  regarded  by  the  Apostles  as 
honorable.  Protestants  assert  that  it  is  only  since 
the  so-called  Reformation  that  ordinary  labor  has 
received  its  due  in  the  Christian  Church.  This  is 
not  true.  The  two  principal  ideas  which  Protes 
tantism  claims  for  its  own,  viz.:  that  labor  is  a 
form  of  prayer,  or  a  sacred  office,  and  that  it  is 
a  duty  which  the  individual  owes  to  society,  were 
strongly  enforced  by  the  Catholic  Church  all 
through  the  Middle  Ages.10  Again  and  again 
people  of  all  classes  were  exhorted  to  labor  and 
warned  against  idleness. 

Bishop  Ratherius  of  Verona  (  -f  974)  says  in  a  sermon 
addressed  to  farmers :  "You  wish  to  be  a  good  Chris 
tian?  Well,  then,  be  not  only  a  just  but  a  constant  la 
borer."  ir  To  the  artisan  he  says :  "Listen  to  what  is 
written  in  Ecclesiasticus  XXXVIII,  39,18  in  order  that 
you  may  know  that  you  are  able  with  your  labors  to  offer 

14  Cfr.  A.  Sabatier,  L'Eglise  et  le        Bremen    1877;    K.    Eger,    Die    An- 
Travail  Manuel,   Paris    1895,   PP-    24        schauungen     Luthers     vom     Beruf, 
sqq.,   45   sqq.,   85    sqq.,   211    sqq. ;   A.        Giessen    1900. 

Stockl,    Das    Christentum    und    die  17  "Laborator." 

grossen      Fragen      der      Gegemuart,  is  Ecclus.    XXXVIII,     39:     "But 

Vol.  I,  pp.   169  sqq.,  Mayence  1879.  they    shall    strengthen    the    state    of 

15  Acts  IX,  43;  X,   6,   17,   32.  the    world,    and    their    prayers    shall 

16  Cfr.     F.     Schaub,    Der    Kampf  be    in    the    work    of   their    craft,    3p- 
gegen      den      Zinswucher,      p.      15;  plying   their   soul,  and   searching  In 
also  J.    G.   Uhlhorn,  Die  Arbeit  im  the   law  of  the  most   High." 
Lichte    des   Evangeliums   betrachtet, 


RECREATION  141 

God  an  acceptable  prayer  of  praise."  And  to  the  beggar : 
"Woe  to  thee  if  thou  art  able  to  work  for  a  living!" 
With  equal  insistence  the  same  prelate  admonishes 
poor  soldiers  and  rich  burghers  to  work.19  The 
Emperor  Charlemagne,  in  806,  forbade  his  subjects  to 
feed  the  many  idlers  who  roamed  about  the  country  beg 
ging  but  unwilling  to  work.  Long  before  Luther,  John 
Herolt,  a  famous  Dominican  preacher  of  the  fifteenth 
century,20  said  in  a  sermon  that  whatever  a  man's  pro 
fession  may  be,  his  daily  labor  is  ordained  by  God  and 
therefore  morally  good.21  When  St.  Francis  Xavier,  on 
his  journey  to  India,  was  urged  to  employ  a  servant  be 
cause  it  was  beneath  his  dignity  as  Apostolic  delegate  to 
wash  his  clothes  and  cook  his  food,  he  replied :  "As  long 
as  I  have  hands  and  feet,  I  will  allow  no  one  to  serve  me, 
for  there  is  but  one  thing  that  is  unworthy  of  man,  and 
that  is  sin."  22 

With  recreation  we  have  already  dealt  in  the 
first  part  of  this  volume,23  and  here  will  only  add 
that  all  forms  of  recreation  are  licit,  provided 
they  do  not  violate  the  laws  of  modesty  and 
chastity,  and  are  rightly  ordered  according  to 
time,  place,  duration,  and  manner.  Athletic 
sports  are  especially  to  be  recommended,  within 
proper  limits,  as  they  help  to  keep  a  sound  mind 
in  a  healthy  body,  arid,  in  the  words  of  Father 

1»  Praeloquia,    1.    I,    tit.     1-3,    17,  Landmann,     Das     Predigtwesen     in 

19    (Migne,    P.    L.,    CXXXVI,    149  li'estfalen,    Minister     1906,    pp.    179 

sqq.,    179,    188).  sq. ;    K.    Braun,    Die    kath.    Predigt 

20  He  died  in   1468.  vitihrend  der  Jahre  1450-1650,  Wurz- 

21  See    N.    Paulus,    "Luther    und  burg    1904,   pp.    90    sqq.,    100    sq. 
der     Beruf     in     neuester     Beleuch-  22  F.     X.     Brou,     Saint    Frangois 
tung,"    in    the    Katholik,    Mayence,  Xavier,    Paris,    Vol.    I,    1915. 
1902,   Vol.    I,   pp.   327  sqq.     Cfr.   F.  23  Supra,    pp.    35    sqq. 


142  VOCATIONAL  DUTIES 

Noldin,  are  apt  to  serve  not  only  the  principal 
object  of  recreation,  as  such,  but  to  aid  in  preserv 
ing  and  augmenting  the  virtues  of  chastity  and 
temperance.  Hence  there  is  no  reason  why  pas 
tors  of  souls  should  condemn  clubs  and  associa 
tions  formed  for  the  practice  of  wholesome  sports, 
but  there  is  every  reason  why  they  should  pro 
mote  such  and  endeavor  to  have  them  conducted 
in  accordance  with  the  rules  of  probity  and  re 
ligion.24 

Having  dealt  with  labor,  we  pass  by  a  natural 
transition  to  its  product,  i.  e.,  property.  This, 
too,  may  be  twofold,  material  or  ideal.  Among 
ideal  goods  the  most  valuable  is  honor. 

READINGS. — H.  Noldin,  S.J.,  Summa  Theologiae  Moralis,  Vol. 
II,  nth  ed.,  Innsbruck  1914,  p.  76.— F.  A.  Gopfert,  Moraltheolo- 
gie,  Vol.  II,  6th  ed.,  pp.  12  sq.,  Paderborn  1909. — J.  E.  Ross, 
C.S.P.,  Christian  Ethics,  New  York  1919,  pp.  177  sq.,  329  sq. 

24  Noldin,  Summa  Theol.  Mor.,  Vol.  II,  p.  76. 


CHAPTER  III 

RIGHT  AND  DUTY  OF  ACQUIRING  AND  POSSESSING 
PROPERTY 

I.  From  the  duty  of  labor  flows  the  right  of 
property  or  ownership,  i.  e.,  the  right  to  acquire, 
hold,  and  dispose  freely  of  the  material  fruits 
of  labor,  that  is  to  say,  the  goods  which  are  the 
result  of  man's  individual  and  personal  endeavor. 

The  right  to  acquire  and  possess  property  is 
by  no  means,  as  the  Communists  and  Socialists 
maintain,  a  fictitious  claim  based  on  robbery  and 
injustice,1  but  corresponds  to  the  natural  duty 
of  labor  from  which  it  arises,  and  therefore  is  a 
natural  right. 

Under  certain  conditions  the  acquisition  of  a 
limited  amount  of  earthly  goods  even  becomes  a 
duty.2  The  supreme,  though  not  the  sole,  title 
of  ownership  is  labor. 

1  Cfr.    V.    Cathrein,    S.J.,    Social-  competunt  homini,  quorum  union  est 
ism:     Its      Theoretical      Basis      and  potestas    procurandi    et    dispensandi, 
Practical  Application,  tr.   and  adapt-  et  quantum  ad  hoc  licitum  est  quod 
ed     to     conditions     in     the     United  homo    propria   possideat.     Est    etiam 
States  by  V.  Gettelmann,  S.J.,  New  necessarium     ad      humanam     vitam 
York    1904.  propter    tria:    primo    quidem,    quia 

2  Gen.    Ill,    19;   Eccles.   V,    17;    2  magis   sollicitus   est   unusquisque   ad 
Thess.    Ill,    10. — Cfr.    St.    Thomas,  procurandum  aliquid,   quod  sibi  soli 
Sumtna  Theol.,   2a  2ae,  qu.   66,  art.  competit,    quam    id    quod    est    com- 
a:     "Circa      rem      exteriorem      duo  mune    omnium    vel   multorum,    quia 

143 


144  VOCATIONAL  DUTIES 

Private  ownership  is  a  wonderful  institution,  to 
which  humanity  owes  the  development  of  trade, 
commerce,  and  industry,  nay  whatever  deter 
mines  the  differences  between  civilized  man  and 
the  savage.  Without  it  labor  would  languish 
because  the  laborer  would  no  longer  be  sure  of 
the  product  of  his  industry.  The  surer  he  feels 
that  he  is  toiling  for  himself  and  his  own,  rather 
than  for  strangers,  the  greater  the  persistency 
and  diligence  which  he  will  bestow  upon  his  work. 
Private  ownership  safeguards  the  future,  as  far 
as  this  is  humanly  possible,  and  without  it  dili 
gence  and  thrift  would  never  increase  the  movable 
capital  that  lends  so  powerful  an  impetus  to  pro 
duction,  nor  would  the  constantly  renewed  and 
always  laborious  work  of  cultivating  the  soil  in 
sure  to  the  earth  that  increase  of  fertility  with 
out  which  society  would  be  condemned  to  endless 
misery.3 

Barely  touching  the  traditional  arguments  as 

unusquisque    laborem    fugiens    relin-  J.  Kelleher,  in  what  is  probably  the 

quit  alteri  id  quod  pertinet  ad  com-  best  modern   treatise  on  the  subject 

mune,    sicut    accidit    in    multitudine  (Private    Ownership,    Dublin    1911) 

ministrcrum;    alio    modo,    quia   ordi-  points  out    (p.    149)    that   the   classi- 

natius    res    humanae    tract  antur,    si  cal    theologians    almost    unanimously 

singulis  imminet  propria  cura  alicu-  taught   that   the    division   of    private 

ius     rei    procurandae;     esset    autem  property    does    not    depend    directly 

confusio,      si      quilibet      indistincte  upon  the  natural  law,  but  is  derived 

quaelibet  procuraret;  tertio  quia  per  from  the  ius  gentium."     (Cfr.  Ross, 

hoc  magis  pacificus  status   hominum  Christian   Eethics,    pp.    278    sqq.) 
conservatur,     dum     unusquisque     re  3  Chas.     Perm,    Les    Lois    de     la 

sua    contentus    est.     Unde    videmus,  Societe    Chretienne,    2    vols.,    Paris 

quod    inter    eos    qui    communiter    et  1876,  especially   Vol.   I;    F.   Walter, 

ex    indiviso    aliquid    possident,    fre-  Naturrecht  und  Politik,   Bonn   1863, 

quentius     iuriga     oriuntur." — Father  pp.    145   sqq. 


RIGHT  OF  PROPERTY  145 

developed,  e.  g.,  by  St.  Thomas,  Pope  Leo  XIII, 
in  his  famous  Encyclical  "Rerum  Novarum," 
bases  private  ownership  on  the  rational  nature 
of  man. 

"Every  man,"  he  says,  "has  by  nature  the  right  to 
possess  property  as  his  own.  This  is  one  of  the  chief 
points  of  distinction  between  man  and  the  animal  creation, 
for  the  brute  has  no  power  of  self-direction,  but  is  gov 
erned  by  two  main  instincts,  which  keep  its  powers  on 
the  alert,  impel  it  to  develop  them  in  a  fitting  manner, 
and  stimulate  and  determine  it  to  action  without  any 
power  of  choice.  One  of  these  instincts  is  self-preserva 
tion,  the  other,  the  propagation  of  the  species.  Both  can 
attain  their  purpose  by  means  of  things  which  lie  within 
range ;  beyond  their  verge  the  brute  creation  cannot 
go,  for  beasts  are  moved  to  action  by  their  senses  only, 
and  in  the  special  direction  which  these  suggest.  But 
with  man  it  is  wholly  different.  He  possesses,  on  the 
one  hand,  the  full  perfection  of  the  animal  being,  and 
hence  enjoys,  at  least  as  much  as  the  rest  of  the  animal 
kind,  the  fruition  of  things  material.  But  animal  nature, 
however  perfect,  is  far  from  representing  the  human 
being  in  its  completeness,  and  is  in  truth  but  humanity's 
humble  handmaid,  made  to  serve  and  to  obey.  It  is  the 
mind  or  reason  which  is  the  predominant  element  in  us 
who  are  human  creatures ;  it  is  this  which  renders  a  man 
human,  and  distinguishes  him  essentially  and  generically 
from  the  brute.  And  on  this  very  account — that  man 
alone  among  the  animal  creation  is  endowed  with  reason — 
it  must  be  within  his  right  to  possess  things  not  merely 
for  temporary  and  momentary  use,  as  other  living  beings 
do,  but  to  have  and  to  hold  them  in  stable  and  permanent 


146  VOCATIONAL  DUTIES 

possession;  he  must  have  not  only  things  that  perish  in 
the  user,  but  those  also  which,  though  they  have  been 
reduced  to  use,  continue  for  further  use  in  after  time. 
This  becomes  still  more  clearly  evident  if  man's  nature 
be  considered  a  little  more  deeply.  For  man,  fathoming 
by  his  faculty  of  reason  matters  without  number,  and 
linking  the  future  with  the  present,  becoming,  further 
more,  by  enlightened  forethought,  master  of  his  own  acts, 
guides  his  ways  under  the  eternal  law  and  the  power  of 
God,  whose  providence  governs  all  things.  Wherefore 
it  is  in  his  power  to  exercise  his  choice  not  only  as  to 
matters  that  regard  his  present  welfare,  but  also  about 
those  which  he  deems  may  be  for  his  advantage  in  time 
yet  to  come.  Hence  man  not  only  can  possess  the  fruits 
of  the  earth,  but  also  the  very  soil,  inasmuch  as  from  the 
produce  of  the  earth  he  has  to  lay  by  provision  for  the 
future.  Man's  needs  do  not  die  out,  but  recur ;  although 
satisfied  to-day,  they  demand  fresh  supplies  for  to-mor 
row."  4 

The  Pontiff  goes  on  to  show  that  private  own 
ership  was  established  through  individual  efforts 
before  the  existence  of  the  State,  and  that  it  is 
recognized  by  history,  by  civil  law,  and  by  divine 
law.5 

It  is  frequently  asserted  that  the  first  Chris 
tians,  especially  those  at  Jerusalem,  practiced 
Communism.6  Learned  scholars  who  have  in 
vestigated  the  question  with  great  care  deny  that 

4  English  tr.  from   The  Pope  and  5  Cfr.    A.    C.    Breig,    Papal    Pro- 

the   People,    London    1912,    pp.    181  gram    of    Social    Reform,    Milwau- 

sq.     A    better    tr.    in    Bolshevism —  kee    1913,   pp.    14   sqq. 

The    Remedy,    New    Haven,    Conn.,  «  Cfr.  Acts  II,  44  sq.;  IV,  32-37; 

1919,  pp.  5  sq.  V,   1-4. 


RIGHT  OF  PROPERTY  147 

there  was  Communism  in  the  primitive  Church. 
The  early  Christians  were  allowed  to  keep  their 
property,  and  if  some  of  them  sold  it,  they  did  so 
voluntarily,  for  the  purpose  of  assisting  the  poor.7 
The  most  that  can  be  said  is  that  in  some  sections 
of  the  great  congregation  of  Jerusalem  there  ex 
isted  a  sort  of  religious  community  of  goods.8 

Those  Church  Fathers  who  are  represented  as  hav 
ing  preached  Communism,  did  not  oppose  private  owner 
ship,  but  merely  its  abuse.  The  passages  quoted  from 
their  writings  by  Socialist  authors  are  largely  spuri 
ous,  and  those  which  are  genuine  prove  nothing  more  than 
that  God  did  not  distribute  temporal  goods  directly  among 
individual  men,  but  gave  the  earth  with  its  resources  to 
the  race  at  large  for  the  common  use  of  all,  so  that  no 
one  may  claim  anything  as  his  own  as  if  he  had  the  right 
to  exclude  all  others  absolutely  and  for  ever  from  its  use.9 
The  Fathers  simply  wished  to  express  the  same  truth 
which  St.  Thomas  in  the  thirteenth  century  set  forth  as 
follows :  "Man  may  not  have  exterior  things  for  his  own, 
but  as  the  common  property  of  all,  namely  in  such  a  way 
that  one  readily  shares  them  with  others  in  case  of 
need." 10 

There  are  many  Patristic  texts  which  unmistakably  as 
sert  the  right  of  private  ownership.11  Lactantius  defends 

7  Cfr.      E.      Baumgartner,      "Der  art.    2:     "Non    debet    homo    habere 
Kommunismus    ini     Urchristentum,"  res    exteriores    ut    proprias,    sed    ut 
in    the     Innsbruck    Zeitschrift    ftir  communes,   ut   scilicet   de  facili   ali- 
kath.  Theologie,  1909,  pp.  625  sqq.  quis     eas     communicet     in     necessi- 

8  O.      Schilling,      Reichtum      und  tate    aliorum." 

Eigentum      in     der       altkirchlichen  n  See    G.    Ratzinger,    Die    Volks- 

Literatur,  Freiburg  1908,  pp.   16  sq.  wirtschaft,    and    ed.,    pp.    82    sqq.; 

9  Cfr.    J.    Biederlack,    S.    J.,    Die  A.    Vermeersch,    S.    J.,    Quaeetiones 
sosiale  Frage,    7th   ed.,  p.    134,   n.    i.  de    Ittstitia,    2nd    ed.,    pp.    266    sqq.: 

loSutnma  Theol,  sa.  aae,  qu.  66,        V.    Cathrein,     S.    J.,    Moralphiloso- 


148 


VOCATIONAL  DUTIES 


it  with  great  scientific  acumen.  St.  Ambrose,  who  fre 
quently  censures  the  wealthy,  teaches  that  the  condemna 
tion  pronounced  by  Christ  does  not  affect  all  who  have 
wealth,  but  only  those  who  abuse  it,  and  adds  that  every 
man  is  allowed  perfect  freedom  in  giving  alms.12 

The  phrase,  "Omnis  dives  aut  iniquus  aut  inigui 
heres,"  13  which  occurs  repeatedly  in  the  writings  of  St. 
Jerome,  has  led  to  his  being  classed  as  a  Socialist.  But 


phie,  4th  ed.,  Vol.  II,  pp.  313  sqq.; 
J.  Seipel,  Die  tvirtschafts-ethischen 
Lehren  der  Kirchenvater,  Vienna 
1907,  pp.  49  sqq.,  120  sqq.,  190 
sqq.;  J.  A.  Ryan  Alleged  Socialism 
of  the  Church  Fathers,  St.  Louis 
1913- 

13  St.  Ambrose,  Expos.  Evangel, 
sec.  Luc.,  1.  V,  n.  69:  "Licet  in 
pecuniarily  copiis  multa  sint  leno- 
cinia  delictorum,  pleraque  tamen 
sunt  etiam  incentiva  virtutum. 
Quamquam  virtus  subsidia  non  re- 
quirat  et  commendatior  sit  collatio 
pauperis  quam  divitis  liberalitas, 
tamen  non  eos  qui  hdbeant  divitias, 
scd  cos  qui  uti  his  nesciant,  senten 
tial  coelestis  auctoritate  condcm- 
nat."  (Migne.  P.  L.,  XV,  1654).— 
IDEM  De  Nabuthe  lezrael,  c.  13, 
n-  55'  "Qui  in  divitiis  potuerit 
comprobari,  is  vere  perfectus  et 
dignus  est  gloria."  (P.  L.,  XIV, 
748). — IDEM,  De  Officiis,  1.  I,  c.  30, 
n.  14:  "In  tua  potestate  est  lar- 
giri  quod  velis."  (P.  L,,  XVI, 
66). — On  the  teaching  of  St.  Am 
brose  consult  O.  Schilling,  Reich- 
turn  und  Armut,  (see  note  8,  supra) 
pp.  134  sqq.,  and  J.  A.  Ryan,  Al 
leged  Socialism  of  the  Church 
Fathers,  St.  Louis  1913,  pp.  52-66. 
"What  St.  Ambrose  teaches  is  not 
communism  in  any  correct  sense  of 
the  word,"  says  Dr.  Ryan  (op. 
cit.,  p.  57  sq.).  "It  is  rather  a 
first  principle  of  the  natural  law, 


namely  that  the  earth  belongs  to  all 
the  children  of  men,  and  not  to  a 
few  only.  He  tells  the  rich  to 
restore  their  excessive  wealth  to  the 
poor,  while  a  communist  would  or 
der  them  to  turn  it  over  to  the 
community.  It  is  true  that  he  calls 
these  donations  of  the  rich  by  the 
name  of  restitution,  but  this  is  be 
cause  the  rich  have  accumulated 
so  much  that  the  poor  have  been 
deprived  of  their  birth-right. 
Hence,  he  commands  them  to  give 
back  their  unjust  gains.  Any  one 
who  will  read  the  history  of  the 
oppression  of  the  poor  in  Italy  in 
the  fourth  century,  will  know  that 
St.  Ambrose  was  right  when  he 
told  the  rich  that  they  had  robbed 
the  poor,  and  were  consequently 
bound  to  make  reparation.  The 
most  zealous  defender  of  individ 
ual  ownership  could  speak  the  same 
way  in  the  same  circumstances. 
What  St.  Ambrose  demands,  there 
fore,  is  not  a  return  to  common 
property,  but  a  recognition  of  com 
mon  rights." 

13  This  remarkable  saying,  which 
seems  to  have  been  of  pagan  or 
igin,  was  evidently  current  in  St. 
Jerome's  day,  for  he  quotes  it  in 
three  distinct  passages  of  his  writ 
ings.  For  an  analysis  of  these  pas 
sages  see  J.  A.  Ryan,  Alleged  So 
cialism  of  the  Church  Fathers,  pp. 
67  sqq. 


RIGHT  OF  PROPERTY  149 

the  fact  that  St.  Jerome  makes  this  sentiment  his  own  and 
quotes  it  with  approval,  does  not  prove  that  he  looked 
upon  every  property  holder  as  a  thief.  "Iniquus — from 
in  -f-  aequus — refers  literally  to  a  want  of  equality  or 
want  of  proportion.  Taken  figuratively,  it  has  about  the 
same  meaning  as  iniustus,  for  which  it  was  often  used 
as  a  synonym  by  the  best  authors.  Now  St.  Jerome's 
style,  as  well  as  his  own  confession,  assures  us  that  he 
was  well  acquainted  with  classical  Latin.  We  may  safely 
infer  then  that  he  uses  this  word  in  the  specific  sense  of 
iniustus,  and  not  in  the  more  general  sense  of  peccator. 
This  inference  is  confirmed  by  his  manner  of  speaking  in 
a  sentence  where  he  distinguishes  between  an  impius  on 
the  one  hand,  and  an  iniquus  and  a  peccator  on  the  other. 
Even  if  he  meant  merely  'wrong  doer'  when  he  wrote 
iniquus,  the  specific  wrong  doing  referred  to  must  have 
been  an  act  of  injustice,  since  it  was  committed  in  acquir 
ing  riches.  When  a  man  gets  possession  by  wrong-doing, 
the  greater  part  of  the  wrong  will  fall  under  the  head 
of  injustice,  violation  of  personal  rights.  St.  Jerome, 
therefore,  subscribed  to  the  opinion  that  every  dives  was 
an  unjust  man,  and  by  dives  he  meant,  not  a  man  of  some 
property,  but  a  man  of  much  property.  All  the  synonyms 
of  dives  and  its  use  by  the  best  authors  show  that  it  refers 
to  an  abundance  of  goods,  and  not  to  mere  ownership,  as 
some  would  have  us  believe."  14 

14  Ryan,  op.  cit.,  pp.  70  sq.  Fur-  ning,  these  are  the  sources  to  which 
ther  on  in  his  booklet  (p.  74)  these  titles  may  be  traced."  The 
Dr.  Ryan  shows  that  Herbert  passage  occurs  in  Spencer's  Social 
Spencer  spoke  in  much  the  same  Statics  and  was  omitted  in  later 
way  of  the  present  titles  to  landed  editions,  but,  as  Dr.  Ryan  correctly 
property  as  St.  Jerome  did  of  those  says,  "the  question  is  one  of  fact, 
of  his  time.  "It  can  never  be  pre-  not  of  opinion."  W.  S.  Lilly  de- 
tended  that  the  existing  titles  to  clares:  "I  say,  without  shadow  of 
such  property  are  legitimate.  .  .  .  doubt,  that  to  much  property  the 
Violence,  fraud,  the  prerogative  of  saying  of  Proudhon  [namely,  that 
force,  the  claims  of  superior  cun-  property  is  theft]  is  strictly  ap- 


150  VOCATIONAL  DUTIES 

The  proposition,  "No  Christian  should  be  engaged  in 
commercial  pursuits,  and  those  who  persist  in  them, 
should  be  expelled  from  the  Church," 15  which  it  fre 
quently  ascribed  to  St.  Chrysostom,  does  not  occur  in  his 
genuine  writings,  but  in  the  Opus  Imperfectum  in  Mat- 
thaeutn  of  an  Arian  writer  falsely  attributed  to  the  Saint.18 
Certain  communistic  ideas  that  occur  in  the  genuine 
works  of  St.  Chrysostom  must  be  interpreted  as  the 
product  of  a  sort  of  ideal  Communism,  resembling  that 
of  Plato,  which  marked  a  reaction  against  the  dominating 
power  of  wealth,  the  materialism  and  egotism  of  certain 
rich  people,  and  the  exaggerated  esteem  in  which  worldly 
possessions  were  generally  held  at  that  time  and  which 
manifested  itself  in  an  insane  pursuit  of  wealth  similar  to 
that  which  we  behold  all  around  us  to-day.  In  attacking 
these  flagrant  and  serious  abuses  St.  Chrysostom  occa 
sionally  employed  expressions  which,  when  read  through 
modern  glasses,  seem  to  stamp  him  as  an  opponent  of 
the  principle  of  private  ownership.17 

plicable."     Charles    S.    Devas    says:  mercatof,  out  si   voluerit   esse,  pro- 

"As  a  matter   of   fact,   much   of  the  iiciatur    de    ecclesia    Dei." 
wealth   of   the   rich   classes  in   mod-  is  Cfr.      F.      X.      Funk's     paper, 

ern    Europe    has   been    gathered    to-  "Ueber    Reichtum    und    Handel    im 

gether,    and    is    still    kept     up,    by  christlichen    Altertum,"    in    his   Kir- 

dreadful  deeds  of  cruelty,  injustice,  chengeschichtliche        Abhandlungen 

and      fraud." — "Mr.      Lilly,"     com-  und      Untersuchungen,      Paderborn 

ments   Dr.    Ryan,    "is  neither   a   So-  1917,    Vol.    Ill,    pp.     150    sqq. 
cialist  nor   a   radical,   but   above  all  "  On  the  teaching  of  St.  Chryso- 

a  pleader  for  law,  while  Mr.   Devas  stom,     see     O.     Schilling,    Reichtum 

was    an    unimaginative    student    of  und  Armut,  (note  8,  supra),  p.   123 

economics.     If   men   of   this  charac-  and  J.   A.    Ryan,   Alleged  Socialism 

ter  can  write  thus  of  titles  to  pro-  of  the  Church  Fathers,  pp.    1-7;  on 

perty    in    modern    times,    is    it    any  the  teaching  of  St.  Basil,  ibid.,  pp. 

wonder    that    St.    Jerome   used   sim-  7    sqq.,     17    sqq.;    of    St.    Gregory 

ilar    language    in    his    day?"     (Al-  of    Nyssa,    pp.    10    sq.;    of    Clement 

leged     Socialism     of     the     Church  of    Alexandria,    p.    n;    of    St.    Au- 

Fathers,  pp.    74  sq.)  gustine,  pp.   12   sq.;   of  St.  Gregory 

iS"Nullus    christianus    debet    esse  the  Great,  pp.  15  sq. 


WEALTH  AND  POVERTY  151 

2.  In  all  that  regards  wealth  and  earthly  pos 
sessions  (bona  fortunae)  Catholics  must  be 
guided  by  the  following  principles. 

a)  Broadly  speaking,  every  man  is  in  duty 
bound  to  acquire  the  means  which  are  necessary 
to  support  himself  and  his  dependents  and  to  ful 
fil  the  obligations  that  rest  upon  him  as  a  member 
of  society.     He  may,  moreover,  acquire  a  super 
fluity  of  earthly  possessions,  but  if  he  does  so,  he 
incurs  the  additional  obligation  of  making  good 
use   of   his   surplus;   in   other   words,   he   must 
not  acquire  or  cherish  wealth  for  its  own  sake, 
but  in  order  to  share  it  with  the  needy.18 

b)  The  possession  of  wealth  is  no  sin  in  itself, 
but  involves  great  danger  because  a  rich  man  is 
constantly  tempted  to  seek  his  happiness  in  this 
world  and  to  neglect  his  soul.19     It  is  in  this  sense 
that  Christ  speaks  of  "the  care  of  this  world  and 
the  deceitf  ulness  of  riches,"  20  and  warns  His  dis 
ciples  that  "a  rich  man  shall  hardly  enter  into 
the  kingdom  of  heaven."  21 

Neither  is  poverty  in  itself  a  virtue,  or  a  source 
of  virtue,  though  apt  to  become  such.  That  it  is 

18  Eph.    IV,    28;    I    Tim.    VI,    18.  animae,   aut  pauper  sis   oportet,    au-t 
— Cfr.    St.   Thomas,  Summa    Theol.,  pauperi  similis." — Cfr.  G.  Ratzinger, 
2B    2ae,    qu.    187,    art.    3.  Die    Volkswirtschaft,    2nd    ed.,    pp. 

19  Cfr.    I    Tim.    VI,    9    sq.,    17. —  43    sqq. 

Seneca     says     (Epist.,     XVII,     3) :  20  Matth.  XIII,   22. 

"Multis     ad     philosophandum     obsti-  21  Matth.  XIX,  23   sq.;  cfr.  Mark 

tere  divitiae,  paupertas  expedita  est,  X,    23    sqq.;    Luke    XII,    16    §qq.; 

secura   est."     And   in   another  place  Jas.   V,    i    sqq. 

(Ep.,    XVII,     5):     "Si    vis    vacart 


152  VOCATIONAL  DUTIES 

no  disgrace  to  be  poor,  appears  from  the  example 
of  Christ  and  His  disciples,  who  were  all  poor 
laboring-men.  "Jesus  saith  to  him:  The  foxes 
have  holes,  and  the  birds  of  the  air  nests :  but  the 
Son  of  man  hath  not  where  to  lay  his  head."  2Z 
"Being  rich,"  says  St.  Paul,  "He  [Jesus]  became 
poor  for  your  sakes,  that  through  his  poverty 
you  might  be  rich."  2S 

When  poverty  is  the  result  of  sloth  and  shiftless- 
ness,  it  easily  leads  to  immorality  and  is  in  itself  a 
sin  if  it  makes  a  man  discontented  and  covetous  of  the 
possessions  of  others.  We  read  in  Sacred  Scripture : 
"Give  me  neither  beggary  nor  riches :  give  me  only  the 
necessaries  of  life,  lest  perhaps  being  filled,  I  should  be 
tempted  to  deny  and  say:  Who  is  the  Lord?  or  being 
compelled  by  poverty,  I  should  steal  and  forswear  the 
name  of  God." 2i  Poverty  becomes  a  virtue  if  borne 
humbly  and  with  resignation  to  the  will  of  God. 
"Blessed  are  the  poor  in  spirit,  for  theirs  is  the  kingdom 
of  heaven."  25  St.  Ambrose  explains  this  text  as  follows : 
"Not  all  the  poor  are  blessed,  for  poverty  is  merely  a 
means :  both  good  men  and  bad  may  be  poor,  unless  per 
haps  that  poor  man  is  to  be  considered  blessed  of  whom 
the  prophet  says,  'Better  is  the  poor  man  that  walketh 
in  his  simplicity  than  a  rich  man  that  is  perverse.'  .  .  ,28 
Blessed  the  poor  man  who  cried  to  the  Lord  and  was 
heard :  poor  in  crime,  poor  in  vice,  a  poor  man  in  whom 

22  Matth.  VIII,  20;  X,  9  sq.  angustiis.  Illae  elevant  ad  super- 

232  Cor.  VIII,  9;  IX,  i  sqq.  biam,  hae  incitant  ad  querelam." 

24  Prov.  XXX,  8-9.— St.  Leo  the  (Migne,  P.  L.,  LIV,  302). 

Great   says    (Serm.,   49    [al.    48],   c.  25  Matth.  V,  3;  cfr.  Jas.   II,  5. 

i):     "  Insidiae    sunt    in    divitiarum  28  Prov.  XIX,  I. 

amplitudine,    insidiae    in    paupertatis 


WEALTH  AND  POVERTY 


153 


the  prince  of  this  world  finds  nothing,  who  imitates  Him 
who,  being  rich,  was  made  poor  for  our  sake.27  St. 
Matthew  unfolded  the  full  truth  when  he  said :  'Blessed 
are  the  poor  in  spirit,' 28  for  he  who  is  poor  in  spirit  does 
not  become  puffed  up  and  proud  in  his  conceit."  20 

"Cheerful  poverty  is  an  honorable  thing,"  says  Epi 
curus,30  and  Seneca,  who  quotes  this  sentiment  with  ap 
proval,  adds :  "Not  he  is  poor  who  has  little,  but  he  who 
attempts  to  gain  more  by  dishonest  means."  31  In  another 
place  the  great  Roman  philosopher  says :  "Great  is  the 
man  who  remains  poor  [i.  e.,  in  spirit]  amid  riches,  but 
safer  is  he  who  does  without  them."  32 

c)  Those  who  devote  themselves  entirely  to 
intellectual  or  mental  labor,  have  a  just  claim  to 
such  material  goods  as  they  require,  not  merely 
to  satisfy  their  necessities,  but  to  enable  them  to 
live  according  to  their  rank  or  station.  St.  Paul's 
dictum  that  "they  who  serve  at  the  altar  share 
with  the  altar,"  33  applies  in  a  wider  sense  to  all 
who  devote  themselves  to  spiritual  and  intellec- 


272    Cor.    VIII,    9. 

28Matth.   V,   3. 

29  St.  Ambrose,  Expos.  Evangel. 
in  Lucam,  i.  V,  n.  53:  "Non  omnes 
beati  pauperes,  paupertas  enitn 


media  est:  possitn 
esse  pauperes.  N 
tellegendus  paupe 
propheta  descrips 
meli&i*  pauper  iustu 


et   boni   et   tnali 

si    forte    Hie    in- 

beatus,     quern 

t      dicens :     Quia 

quam  dives  men- 


dax.  Beatus  pauper  qui  clamavit 
et  Dominus  exaudivit  eum:  pauper 
a  crimine,  pauper  a  vitiis,  pauper 
in  quo  muttdi  princeps  nihil  invenit, 
pauper  illius  aemulus  pauperis,  qui 
quum  dives  esset,  propter  nos  pau 
per  foetus  est.  Unde  plene  Mat- 


thaeus  aperuit  dicens:  Beati  pau 
peres  spiritu;  pauper  enim  spiritu 
non  inflatur,  non  extollitur  mente 
carnis  suae."  (Migne,  P.  L.,  XV, 
1650). — Cfr.  A.  Wintcrstein,  Die 
christl.  Lehre  vom  Erdengut,  pp. 
73  sqq. 

So  "Honesta  res  est  laeta  pauper 
tas;"  quoted  by  Seneca,  Ep.,   II,   5. 

31  Ep.,    n,    6:     "Non    qui   parum 
habet,    sed    qui    plus    capit,    pauper 
est." 

32  E p.,     XX,     10 :     "Magnus     est 
ille,   qui   in    divitiis   pauper   est,   sed 
securior,  qui  caret  divitiis." 

83  i   Cor.   IX,    13.     ' 


154  VOCATIONAL  DUTIES 

tual  labor  for  the  benefit  of  their  fellowmen,  and 
includes  pre-eminently  the  members  of  contem 
plative  orders. 

d)  As  the  individual,  so  also  each  social  group 
(the  family,  the  Church,  the  State,  etc.)  has  the 
right  and  the  duty  to  acquire  property.  But  the 
group  no  less  than  the  individual  is  exposed  to  the 
dangers  that  arise  from  wealth.  History  fur 
nishes  abundant  examples  of  the  truth  of  the 
Apostle's  saying:  "They  that  will  become  rich, 
fall  into  temptation  and  into  the  snare  of  the  devil, 
and  into  many  unprofitable  and  hurtful  desires, 
which  drown  men  into  destruction  and  perdi 
tion."  34 

Man  is  not  the  absolute  owner,  but  rather  the  steward 
of  his  possessions,  and  as  such  must  give  a  strict  ac 
count  to  God.  Material  wealth  should  never  be  the  ulti 
mate  aim  either  of  the  individual  or  of  society,  but  should 
be  regarded  and  employed  merely  as  the  basis  and 
foundation  of  a  higher  life.  "Charge  the  rich  of  this 
world,"  says  St.  Paul,  "not  to  be  proud,  nor  to  trust  in  the 
uncertainty  of  riches,  but  in  the  living  God,  who  giveth 
us  abundantly  all  things  to  enjoy,  to  do  good,  to  be  rich 
in  good  works,  to  give  easily,  to  communicate  to  others, 
to  lay  up  in  store  for  themselves  a  good  foundation 
against  the  time  to  come,  that  they  may  lay  hold  on  the 
true  life."  85 

The  concentration  of  great  fortunes  in  the 
hands  of  a  few  is  becoming  a  serious  danger, 

84i      Tim.      VI,      9;      cfr.      Ps.  35  i  Tim.  XVI,  17-19;  cfr.  Matth. 

XXXIII,    n;    Luke    XII,    15-21.  VI,   19-21. 


LIMITING  WEALTH  155 

not  only  to  the  individual,  since,  as  St.  James  says, 
the  rich  oppress  the  poor  by  might,36  but  also  to 
society,  because  so  many  rich  men  now-a-days 
employ  their  wealth  to  establish  monopolies,  ob 
tain  excessive  profits,  defraud  their  fellowmen, 
purchase  political  power,  etc.  The  fact  that  it 
is  possible  under  present  conditions,  for  the  ex 
ceptionally  able,  the  exceptionally  cunning,  and 
the  exceptionally  lucky,  to  accumulate  enormous 
riches  through  the  clever  and  unscrupulous  utili 
zation  of  special  advantages,  natural  and  other 
wise,  has  given  rise  to  a  just  demand  for  the  legal 
limitation  of  fortunes.  Various  methods  are  sug 
gested.  The  law  might  directly  limit  the  amount 
of  property  to  be  held  by  any  individual.  One  of 
our  leading  Catholic  authorities  on  social  and  po 
litical  science,  Dr.  John  A.  Ryan,  thinks  that  if 
the  limit  were  placed  fairly  high,  say  at  one  hun 
dred  thousand  dollars,  such  a  law  "could  scarcely 
be  regarded  as  an  infringement  on  the  right  of 
property.  In  the  case  of  a  family  numbering  ten 
members,  this  would  mean  one  million  dollars. 
All  the  essential  objects  of  private  ownership 
could  be  abundantly  met  out  of  a  sum  of  one  hun 
dred  thousand  dollars  for  each  person.  More 
over,  a  restriction  of  this  sort  need  not  prevent  a 
man  from  bestowing  unlimited  amounts  upon 

36  Jas.     II,     6;     cfr.     Henry     H.        Andrew    Carnegie,    The    Gospel    of 
Klein,  Dynastic  America  and  Those        Wealth,   New   York    1900. 
Who    Own    It,    New    York,     1921; 


156  VOCATIONAL  DUTIES 

charitable,  religious,  educational,  or  other  benev 
olent  causes."  37 

On  the  other  hand,  "the  dangers  and  obstacles 
confronting  any  legal  restriction  of  fortunes  are 
so  real  as  to  render  the  proposal  socially  inexpedi 
ent.  It  would  easily  lend  itself  to  grave  abuse. 
Once  the  community  had  habituated  itself  to  a 
direct  limitation  of  any  sort,  the  temptation  to 
lower  it  in  the  interest  of  better  distribution  and 
simpler  living  would  become  exceedingly  power 
ful.  Eventually  the  right  of  property  might 
take  such  an  attenuated  and  uncertain  form  in 
the  public  mind  as  to  discourage  labor  and  initia 
tive,  and  thus  seriously  to  endanger  human  wel 
fare.  In  the  second  place,  the  manifold  evasions 
to  which  the  measure  would  lend  itself  would 
make  it  of  very  doubtful  efficacy."  38 

Another  suggestion  is  that  the  amount  of  prop 
erty  capable  of  being  received  by  heirs  of  any 
person  be  limited,  say,  to  one  million  dollars.39 
This  would  be  a  restriction  of  the  rights  of  be 
quest  and  succession,  which  are  integral  elements 
of  the  right  of  ownership.  Is  such  restriction 
admissible  ?  The  answer  to  this  question,  accord 
ing  to  the  same  authority,  "depends  upon  the  ef 
fects  of  the  measure  on  human  welfare.  ...  A 

37  J.  A.  Ryan,  Distributive  Jus-  Commission  on  Industrial  Rela- 

tice,  New  York  1916,  pp.  292  sq.,  tions,  p.  32;  H.  E.  Read,  The  AboK- 

cfr.  Hy.  H.  Klein,  Dynastic  Amer-  tion  of  Inheritance,  N.  Y.,  1919; 

ica,  N.  Y.,  1921,  pp.  164  sqq.  A.  Carnegie,  The  Gospel  of  Wealth, 

aslbid.,    p.    293.  N.   Y.,    1901,  pp.    u    sqq. 

s»  Final    Report    of    tho    Fediral 


LIMITING  WEALTH  157 

person  needs  private  property  not  only  to  provide 
for  his  personal  wants  and  those  of  his  family 
during  his  life-time,  but  also  to  safeguard  the  wel 
fare  of  his  dependents  and  to  assist  other  worthy 
purposes,  after  he  has  passed  away.  .  .  .  All  the 
necessary  and  rational  ends  of  bequest  and  suc 
cession  could  be  attained  in  a  society  in  which  no 
man's  heirs  could  inherit  more  than  one  million 
dollars.  Under  such  an  arrangement  very  few  of 
the  children  of  millionaires  would  be  prevented 
from  getting  at  least  one  hundred  thousand  dol 
lars.  That  much  would  be  amply  sufficient  for 
the  essential  and  reasonable  needs  of  any  human 
being.  Indeed,  we  may  go  further,  and  lay  down 
the  proposition  that  the  overwhelming  majority 
of  persons  can  lead  a  more  virtuous  and  reason 
able  life  on  the  basis  of  a  fortune  of  one  hun 
dred  thousand  dollars  than  when  burdened  with 
any  larger  amount.  The  persons  who  have  the 
desire  and  the  ability  to  use  a  greater  sum  than 
this  in  a  rational  way  are  so  few  that  a  limitation 
law  need  not  take  them  into  account.  Corporate 
persons,  such  as  hospitals,  churches,  schools,  and 
other  helpful  institutions,  should  not,  as  a  rule, 
be  restricted  as  to  the  amount  that  they  might  in 
herit;  for  many  of  them  could  make  a  good  use 
of  more  than  the  amount  that  suffices  for  a  nat 
ural  person."  40 

40  Ryan,  Distributive  Justict,  p.  294. 


158  VOCATIONAL  DUTIES 

The  limitation  of  inheritance  would,  of  course, 
also  be  liable  to  abuse,  and  while  its  bad  effects 
would  probably  not  be  as  great  as  those  following 
a  similar  abuse  with  regard  to  possessions,  they 
are,  in  Dr.  Ryan's  opinion,  "sufficiently  grave  and 
sufficiently  probable  to  suggest  that  the  legal  re 
striction  of  bequest  and  succession  should  not  be 
considered  except  as  a  last  resort,  and  when  the 
transmission  of  great  fortunes  had  become  a 
great  and  certain  public  peril."  41 

An  indirect  way  of  limiting  large  fortunes  would  be 
through  a  progressive  tax  on  incomes  and  inheritances. 
This  is  a  more  feasible  method,  though  the  maximum  limit 
that  justice  would  set  to  the  rate  of  taxation  is  not  easy 
to  determine.  Some  years  ago  Andrew  Carnegie 42 
recommended  an  inheritance  tax  of  fifty  per  cent  on 
estates  amounting  to  more  than  one  million  dollars. 
While  no  country  has  yet  reached  this  high  level,  the 
proposal  cannot  be  stigmatized  as  unjust  either  to  the 
testator  or  his  heirs,  nor  can  it  be  proved  that  it  is  in 
any  other  manner  injurious  to  human  welfare.  In  a 
general  way,  all  that  can  be  said  with  confidence  concern 
ing  the  just  rates  of  inheritance  taxation  is  that  "the 
increments  of  the  tax  should  correspond  as  closely  as  pos 
sible  to  the  diminishing  intensity  of  the  wants  which  the 
tax  deprives  of  satisfaction ;  in  the  case  of  each  heir  a 
certain  fairly  high  minimum  of  property  should  be  en 
tirely  exempt;  on  all  the  highest  estates  the  rate  should 
be  uniform,  and  it  should  fall  a  long  way  short  of  confis- 

41  Ibid.,    p.    295. 

42  The  Gospel  of  Wealth,  pp.  1 1  sqq. 


DISTRIBUTING  SUPERFLUOUS  WEALTH      159 

cation ;  and  the  tax  should  at  no  point  be  such  as  to  dis 
courage  socially  useful  activity  and  enterprise."  43 

It  would  be  still  better,  perhaps,  instead  of  clip 
ping  off  wealth  from  the  top,  by  limiting  pos 
session  and  transmission,  to  prevent  these  things 
by  going  to  the  root,  i.  e.,  by  abolishing  the  wage 
system  and  admitting  workingmen  to  a  share  in 
the  possession  of  the  means  of  production.  This, 
too,  could  best  be  brought  about,  not  by  legal  en 
actment,  but  by  molding  public  opinion.44 

e)  We  will  close  this  chapter  with  a  few  re 
marks  on  the  duty  of  distributing  superfluous 
wealth.  Here,  also,  we  shall  follow  Professor 
Ryan. 

It  is  the  fundamental  teaching  of  Christianity 
that  ownership  is  stewardship  and  that  he  who 
possesses  superfluous  goods  must  regard  himself 
as  a  trustee  for  the  needy.  St.  Thomas  clearly 
and  concisely  formulates  this  principle  as  fol 
lows:  "As  regards  the  power  of  acquiring  and 
dispensing  material  goods,  man  may  lawfully  pos 
sess  them  as  his  own ;  as  regards  their  use,  how 
ever,  a  man  ought  not  to  look  upon  them  as  his 
own,  but  as  common,  so  that  he  may  readily 
minister  to  the  needs  of  others."  48  This  teach- 

43  Ryan,    Distributive    Justice,    p.  1919;      Cardinal      Bourne's     Lenten 
300.  Pastoral    for     1918,    "The    Nation's 

44  See    Social    Reconstruction,     a  Crisis,"      London,      Catholic      Social 
brochure   issued  by  the  four  bishops  Guild,    1918. 

constituting        the        Administrative  45  Sitmma  Theol.,  23  aae,  qu.  66, 

Committee  of  the  American  Catholic        art.    3. 
War    Council,    Washington,    D.    C., 


160  VOCATIONAL  DUTIES 

ing  is  in  perfect  conformity  with  reason.  Since 
the  goods  of  the  earth  were  intended  by  the  Crea 
tor  for  the  common  benefit  of  all  mankind,  the  pos 
sessor  of  a  surplus  is  reasonably  required  to  use 
it  in  such  a  way  that  this  original  purpose  of  all 
created  goods  will  be  fulfilled.  To  refuse  to  do 
so  is  to  treat  one's  less  fortunate  neighbor  as 
something  different  from  and  less  than  oneself,  as 
a  creature  whose  claim  upon  the  common  bounty 
of  nature  is  something  less  than  one's  own. 

Is  this  obligation  one  of  charity  or  of  justice? 
In  the  case  of  wealth  unjustly  acquired  it  is  clearly 
one  of  justice.  But  how  about  wealth  honestly 
acquired?  St.  Thomas  says :  "The  goods  which 
a  man  has  in  superfluity  are  due  by  the  natural 
law  to  the  sustenance  of  the  poor."  46  This  is  the 
official  teaching  of  the  Church,  for  Pope  Leo 
XIII  says:  "When  one  has  provided  sufficiently 
for  one's  necessities  and  the  demands  of  one's 
state  of  life,  there  is  a  duty  to  give  to  the  indigent 
out  of  what  remains.  It  is  a  duty  not  of  strict 
justice,  save  in  case  of  extreme  necessity,  but  of 
Christian  charity."  47 

There  seems  to  be  a  contradiction  between  this  teach 
ing  and  that  of  certain  Fathers,  but  the  contradiction  is 
apparent  rather  than  real.  "The  truly  important  fact  of 
the  whole  situation,"  says  Dr.  Ryan,  "is  that  both  the 
Fathers  and  the  later  authorities  of  the  Church  regard  the 

4«  Ibid.,   art.    7.  of  Labor,"  15  May,  1891;  The  Pope 

47  Encyclical    "On    the    Condition        and  the  People,  p.   192. 


DISTRIBUTING  SUPERFLUOUS  WEALTH      161 

task  of  distributing  superfluous  goods  as  one  of  strict 
moral  obligation,  which  in  serious  cases  is  binding  under 
pain  of  grievous  sin.  Whether  it  falls  under  the  head 
of  justice  or  under  that  of  charity,  is  of  no  great  practical 
importance."  *8 

What  portion  of  his  superfluous  wealth  is  a 
man  obliged  to  distribute  among  the  needy?  Dr. 
Ryan,  proceeding  from  the  unanimous  teaching 
of  moral  theologians  that  the  entire  mass  of  su 
perfluous  wealth  is  morally  subject  to  the  call 
of  grave  need,  and  from  the  principle  of  the  moral 
law  that  the  goods  of  the  earth  should  be  en 
joyed  by  the  inhabitants  of  the  earth  in  proportion 
to  their  essential  needs,  attempts  to  answer  this 
question  from  the  standpoint  of  common  welfare. 
He  thinks  that,  in  view  of  available  statistics,  the 
conclusion  is  inevitable  "that  the  greater  part  of 
the  superfluous  income  of  the  well-to-do  and  rich 
would  be  required  to  abolish  all  grave  and  ordi 
nary  need."  He  adds:  "The  proposition  that 
men  are  under  moral  obligation  to  give  away  the 
greater  portion  of  their  superfluous  goods  or  in 
come  is,  indeed,  a  'hard  saying/  .  .  .  No  Catho 
lic,  however,  who  knows  the  traditional  teaching 
of  the  Church  on  the  right  use  of  wealth,  and  who 
considers  patiently  and  seriously  the  magnitude 
and  the  meaning  of  human  distress,  will  be  able 
to  refute  the  proposition  by  reasoned  arguments. 

48  Distributive  Justice,  pp.  303  sq.,  307  sq. 


i62  VOCATIONAL  DUTIES 

Indeed,  no  man  can  logically  deny  it  who  admits 
that  men  are  intrinsically  sacred,  and  essentially 
equal  by  nature  and  in  their  claims  to  a  reason 
able  livelihood  from  the  common  heritage  of  the 
earth.  The  wants  that  a  man  supplies  out  of  his 
superfluous  goods  are  not  necessary  for  rational 
existence.  For  the  most  part  they  bring  him 
merely  irrational  enjoyment,  greater  social  pres 
tige,  or  increased  domination  over  his  fellows. 
Judged  by  any  reasonable  standard,  these  are 
surely  less  important  than  those  needs  of  the 
neighbor  which  are  connected  with  humane  living. 
If  any  considerable  part  of  the  community  rejects 
these  propositions,  the  explanation  will  be  found 
not  in  a  reasoned  theory,  but  in  the  conventional 
assumption  that  a  man  may  do  what  he  likes  with 
his  own.  This  assumption  is  adopted  without 
examination,  without  criticism,  without  any  seri 
ous  advertence  to  the  great  moral  facts  that  own 
ership  is  stewardship,  and  that  the  Creator  in 
tended  the  earth  for  the  reasonable  support  of  all 
the  children  of  men."  49 

READINGS. — St.  Thomas,  Summa  Theologica,  2a  2ae,  qu.  66, 
art.  I  sq. — Theodore  Meyer,  S.J.,  Institutiones  luris  Naturalis, 
Vol.  II,  pp.  126  sqq.,  Freiburg  1900. — V.  Cathrein,  S.J.,  Moral- 
philosophic,  4th  ed.,  Freiburg  1904,  Vol.  II,  pp.  285  sqq. — IDEM, 
Das  Privateigentum  und  seine  Gegner,  4th  ed.,  Freiburg  1909. — 
A.  Vermeersch,  S.J.,  Quaestiones  de  lustitia,  2nd  ed.,  pp.  240 
sqq.— Ch.  Perin,  De  la  Richesse  dans  les  Societes  Chretiennes,  3rd 

48  Ibid.,  p.  314. 


DISTRIBUTING  SUPERFLUOUS  WEALTH      163 

ed.,  2  vols.,  Paris  1881. — F.  Walter,  Das  Eigentum  nach  der 
Lehre  des  hi.  Thomas  von  Aquin  und  des  Socialismus,  pp.  266 
sqq.,  Freiburg  1895. — H.  Pesch,  S.J.,  Lehrbuch  der  National- 
okonomie,  Vol.  I,  Freiburg  1905,  pp.  179  sqq.— Michael  Cronin, 
The  Science  of  Ethics,  Vol.  II,  Dublin  1917,  pp.  113  sqq.— R.  I. 
Holaind,  S.J.,  Natural  Law  and  Legal  Practice,  New  York  1899, 
pp.  203  sqq. — Jos.  Rickaby,  S.J.,  Moral  Philosophy:  Ethics,  De 
ontology  and  Natural  Law,  4th  ed.,  London  1918,  pp.  278  sqq. 
— J.  A.  Ryan,  Distributive  Justice:  The  Right  and  Wrong  of 
Our  Present  Distribution  of  Wealth,  New  York  1916,  pp.  3  sqq., 
291  sqq.,  303  sqq. — J.  Husslein,  S.J.,  The  World  Problem: 
Capital,  Labor,  and  the  Church,  New  York  1918,  pp.  232  sqq. — 
H.  Noldin,  S.J.,  Summa  Theologiae  Moralis,  Vol.  II,  nth  ed., 
Innsbruck  1914,  pp.  387  sqq. — Thos.  Slater,  S.J.,  A  Manual  of 
Moral  Theology,  Vol.  I,  pp.  344  sqq.,  350  sqq.,  New  York  1919. 
—A.  Lehmkuhl,  S.J.,  Theologia  Moralis,  Vol.  I,  nth  ed.,  Frei 
burg  1910,  pp.  499  sqq. — J.  Kelleher,  Private  Ownership,  Dublin 
1911. — J.  E.  Ross,  C.S.P.,  Christian  Ethics,  pp.  271  sqq.,  New 
York  1919.— H.  Belloc,  The  Catholic  Church  and  the  Principle 
of  Private  Property,  London  1920. — J.  A.  Ryan,  The  Christian 
Doctrine  of  Property,  New  York  1923. 


CHAPTER  IV 

DUTIES    IN    REGARD   TO    HONOR 

SECTION  i 

NOTION    AND   VALUE   OF    HONOR 

i.  NOTION. — The  term  honor  may  be  taken 
either  subjectively  or  objectively. 

Subjectively,  honor  is  the  dignity  of  a  person 
(honor,  dignitos)  based  on  his  worth,  character, 
or  distinguished  service.  Objectively,  it  is  any 
consideration  due  or  paid  to  a  person  by  oth 
ers,  on  account  of  worth,  character  or  distin 
guished  service;  or,  to  express  the  same  idea 
somewhat  differently,  recognition  of  a  man's  per 
sonal  excellence,  virtue,  and  ability  by  his  fel- 
lowmen  (aestimatio,  existimatio)* 

There  are  several  degrees  of  honor. 

i  St.  Thomas,  Summa  Theol.,  la  Comp.  Theol.  Mor.,  Vol.  I,  n.  459: 
zae,  q.  2,  art.  2 :  "Honor  exhi-  "Fama  est  bona  aestimatio,  quam 
betur  alicui  propter  aliquam  eius  alii  habent  de  vita  et  moribus  ali- 
excellentiam,  et  ita  est  signum  et  cttius." — Aug.  Lehmkuhl,  Theologia 
testimonium  quoddam  illius  excel-  Moralis,  Vol.  I,  nth  ed.,  p.  819: 
lentiae,  quae  est  in  honorato." —  "Fama  est  bona  aestimatio,  qua 
IDEM,  ibid.,  23  2ae,  qu.  103,  art.  2:  homo  apud  alias  fruitur :  honor 
"Honor  nihil  aliud  est  quam  quae-  huius  aestimationis  secundum  virtu- 
dam  protestatio  de  excellentia  boni-  tent,  dignitatem,  meritum  significa' 
tatis  alicuius." — Cfr.  J.  P.  Gury,  tio  sen  manifestatio." 
I64 


HONOR  165 

a)  The  first  or  lower  degree  is  a  good  name  or 
reputation   (fama  sen  gloria  humana)?     This 
may  justly  be  claimed  by  every  man  who  conscien 
tiously  follows  his  chosen  vocation  and  has  not 
forfeited  his  claim  to  the  recognition  and  esteem 
of  his  f ellowmen  by  public  crimes  or  blunders. 

b)  The  second  or  higher  degree  of  honor  is 
that  which  is  due  to  a  man  on  account  of  his  state 
of  life  or  social  position,  regardless  of  whether 
these  are  acquired  by  his  own  labor  or  inherited 
from  his  ancestors. 

2.  VALUE. — Although  intrinsic  honor,  i.  e.,  the 
consciousness  of  one's  personal  worth,  is  superior 
to  exterior  honor,  which  is  merely  the  considera 
tion  or  recognition  received  from  others,  the  lat 
ter,  too,  is  a  valuable  possession,  whose  loss  may 
entail  serious  consequences. 

The  high  value  of  exterior  honor  becomes  evi 
dent  from  the  following  considerations : 

a)  Honor  is  the  medium  through  which  the 
individual  exercises  his  authority  or  influence 
upon  society; 

b)  Without  honor  no  man  can  exercise  a  fruit 
ful  activity  among  and  upon  his  fellows,  and  the 

3  Lehmkuhl,     ibid. :     "Fama    bona  laesio    grmius    etiam    feratur    quam 

est  fundamentum  honoris,  ita  ut,  si  laesio   famae;   nam   quum  aestimatio 

praecisive     ipectetur,     fama     maius  intus  lateat,  honor  autem  et  exterius 

bonum    sit    quam    honor,    honor   au-  prodatur    et    internae    aestimationis 

tern,   si   cum   suo  fundamento  sumi-  naturalis    index    sit:    qui    honorem 

tur,    aliguid   plus   dicat   quam   fama.  exhibet,    plus    censetur    dare,    quam 

Hinc   est,   cur   honor   apud   homines  qui    intus    aliquem    aestimat." 
pluris    valeat    quam    fama,    honoris 


i66  VOCATIONAL  DUTIES 

loss  of  honor  often  entails  moral  death  or  abso 
lute  exclusion  from  the  society  of  respectable 
men.3  "Take  my  honor,  take  my  life,"  says  an 
Irish  proverb. 

c)  A  man's  moral  character  not  infrequently 
depends  upon  his  good  name,  and  many  are  de 
terred  from  doing  evil  by  the  fear  of  disgrace. 

"Honor,"  says  St.  Thomas,  summarizing  the 
doctrine  of  the  Fathers,  "is  the  greatest  among 
the  exterior  things  that  affect  man,  both  because 
it  ranks  next  to  virtue,  being  as  it  were  a  testi 
mony  to  man's  virtue,  and  also  for  the  reason  that 
it  is  shown  to  God  and  those  in  authority,  and 
men  prefer  the  attainment  of  honor  and  the  avoid 
ance  of  disgrace  to  all  other  things."  4 

3  Cf r.     Prov.     XXII,     i ;     Ecclus.  tef  ad  salutem,   ad  nostrum  quoque 

XLI,    15;   John  V,  44;    Rom.   XIII,  redundat  utilitatem."     (P.   L.,   XL., 

7;    i    Cor.    IX,    15;    2    Cor.    VIII,  448). — IDEM,    Contra    Faustum    Ma- 

21 ;     Phil.     IV,     9. — St.     Augustine  nich.,    \.    22,    c.    56:     "Fama    popu- 

says,   Serm.,   355    (a/.    49   de  Diver-  laris,    qua    etiam    tnaior    et    clarior 

sis),  c.  i,  n.  i:  "Duae  res  sunt  con-  notitia    comparatur,     non    ipsa    per 

scientia    et    fama.     Conscientia    tibi,  sese  expetenda,  sed  intentioni  bono- 

fama  proximo  tuo.     Qui  fidens  con-  rum,  quo  generi  humano  consulunt, 

scientiae  suae  neglegit  famam  suam,  pernecessaria."  (P.  L.,  XLII,  436). 
crudelis  est,  maxime  in  loco  isto  4  Summa  Theol.,  23  2ae,  qu.  129, 

positus,  de  quo  dicit  Apostolus  (Tit.  art.  i:     "Res  quae  in  usum  hominis 

II,  7)  scribens  ad  discipulum  suum:  veniunt,    sunt    res    exteriores,    inter 

Circa   omnes   teipsum   bonorum   ope-  quas       simpliciter       maximum       est 

rum  praebens  exemplum."     (Migne,  honor,    turn     quia    propinquissimum 

P.    L.    XXXIX,    1569).— IDEM,    De  est   virtuti,   utpote   testificatio   quae- 

Bono   Viduit.,  c.   22,  n.   27:     "Quis-  dam    existens    de    virtute    alicuius, 

quis   a   criminibus   flagitiorum  atque  turn   etiam  quia  Deo  et  optimis  ex- 

facinorum  vitam  suam  custodit,  sibi  hibetur,     turn    etiam     quia    homines 

bene  facit,  quisquis  autem  etiam  fa-  propter    honorem    consequendum    ut 

mam,  et  in  alias  misericors  est.     No-  et   vituperium  vitandum   alia  omnia 

bis  enim  necessaria  est  vita  nostra,  postponunt." — Cfr.    qu.    131,   art    i, 

aliis    fama    nostra,    et    utique    etiam  ad  3. 
quod   aliis    ministramus   misericordi- 


HONOR  167 

READINGS. — St.  Thomas,  Summa  Theol.,  la  2ae,  qu.  2,  art.  2 
sq. ;  2a  2ae,  qu.  103,  art.  i  sq. — F.  Kattenbusch,  Ehren  und  Ehre, 
Giessen  1909. — H.  Noldin,  S.J.,  Summa  Theologiae  Moralis, 
Vol.  II,  nth  ed.,  pp.  76  sq.,  655  sqq.,  678  sq.— J.  E.  Ross,  C.  S.  P., 
Christian  Ethics,  pp.  258  sqq. 


SECTION  2 

THE   DUTY    OF    PRESERVING   HONOR 

i.  Every  man  is  in  duty  bound  to  safeguard 
and  preserve  his  honor  or  good  name  to  the  best 
of  his  ability. 

a)  This  means,  first  and  above  all,  that  he 
must  endeavor  to  acquire  the  basis  of  a  good  repu 
tation  by  irreproachable  conduct  and  to  become 
ever  more  worthy  of  honor  by  faithfully  per 
forming  his  vocational  duties  and  especially  by 
conforming  himself  to  Christ.1 

b)  We  are  exhorted  to  let  our  "light  shine 
before  men,"  that  they  may  see  our  good  works 
and  glorify  the  Father  who  is  in  Heaven,2  and 
to  declare  the  virtues  of  Him  who  hath  called  us 
out  of  darkness  into  His  marvellous  light.3     We 
comply  with  this  duty  if  we,  each  in  his  own  par 
ticular  sphere,  faithfully  and  punctually  do  the 
things  that  are  given  us  to  do,  or,  as  the  Apostle 
puts  it,  "provide  good  things  not  only  in  the  sight 
of  God,  but  also  in  the  sight  of  men," 4   and 

i  Rom.     VIII,    29.— Cfr.     Virgil,  3  i   Pet.   II,  9;  cfr.  Acts  XXIV, 

Aeneis:    "Famam     ostendere     fac-        16. 
tit,  hoc  irirtutis  opus."  4  Rom.  XII,  17;  a  Cor.   VII,  at. 

a  Matth.    V,    16. 

168 


HONOR  169 

avoid  even  the  semblance  of  evil.  "Do  ye  all 
things  without  murmurings  and  hesitations,  that 
you  may  be  blameless  and  sincere  children  of 
God,  without  reproof,  in  the  midst  of  a  crooked 
and  perverse  generation,  among  whom  you  shine 
as  lights  in  the  world."  5 

He  who  does  his  share  towards  the  well- 
being  of  society  according  to  his  insight  and 
gifts,6  has  no  responsibility  with  regard  to  the 
recognition  of  his  work  by  others.  For,  in  the 
first  place,  the  duty  of  providing  for  the  proper 
recognition  of  his  personal  dignity  and  activity 
does  not  go  beyond  that  of  furnishing  the 
object  of  recognition,  which  is  dignity  and  activ 
ity  itself ;  and,  secondly,  the  judgments  of  society 
upon  the  moral  worth  of  an  individual  and  his 
work  are  uncertain  and  fallacious,  because  men 
do  not  always  esteem  one  another  according  to 
their  true  value,  but  are  often  deceived  by  appear 
ances  and  swayed  hither  and  thither  by  error  and 
prejudice.  "Not  he  who  commendeth  himself  is 
approved,  but  he  whom  God  commendeth,"  says 
the  Apostle,7  and  our  Divine  Saviour  admonishes 

6  Phil.     II,     14-16. — Cfr.     St.     Je-  nomen  Dei  blasphemaretur  in  genti- 

rome,    Ep.,     123     (a/,     n),    n.     15:  bus.      (Rom.   II,   24).     Habebat  uti- 

"Fuge    personas,    in    quibits    pottst  que     potestatem     sororem     mulierem 

malae    conversational    esse    suspicio,  circumducendi,   sed   nolebat    (i    Cor. 

nee    paratum    habeas   illud    e   trivia:  X,    29)    se   iudicari   ab   infideli   con- 

SttMcit    mihi    conscientia    tnea,    non  scientia."       (Migne,    P.    L.,    XXII, 

euro,     quid     de    me    loquantur     ho-  1056).     Cfr.  Ep.,   148  (a/.  14),  n.  33 

mines.     Et  certe  Apostolus  provide-  (P.  L.,  XXII,  1215). 
bat    bona,    non    tantum   coram    Deo,  8  Rom.    XII,    5. 

itd   etiam   hominibits,   ne   per   ilium  7  a   Cor.    X,    18. — Cfr.    It.   XI,   3. 


i;o  VOCATIONAL  DUTIES 

us  to  "judge  not  according  to  the  appearance,  but 
judge  just  judgment."  8 

It  is  entirely  legitimate  for  a  man  to  try  to  make 
himself  worthy  of  honor  before  God  and  his  fel- 
lowmen  by  leading  a  virtuous  life.  The  love  of 
honor,  in  its  true  sense,  is  not  opposed  to  humil 
ity,  for  humility  does  not  enjoin  self-contempt, 
but  merely  forbids  conceit.  Both  Church  and 
State  acknowledge  man's  right  to  strive  after 
positions  or  offices  of  honor,  and  reward  with 
titles  and  privileges  those  who  distinguish  them 
selves  by  extraordinary  courage,  zeal,  or  fidelity. 
Monuments  are  sometimes  erected  in  their  honor, 
whereas  those  guilty  of  certain  public  crimes,  e.  g., 
perjury,  are  formally  deprived  of  honor  (capitis 
deminutio ) . 

To  seek  honor  for  its  own  sake,  or  as  an  end  rather 
than  as  a  means  to  a  higher  end,  to  delight  in  it  unduly 
(vanity),  to  covet  it  without  regard  to  God,9  to  demand 
recognition  for  qualities  which  one  does  not  possess 
(hypocrisy)  or  to  seek  it  through  actions  which  are  for 
bidden,  e.g.,  by  neglecting  one's  duty,  or  doing  evil,  or 
omitting  good  which  one  is  bound  to  do,  are  sinful  acts.10 
It  is  also  sinful  to  be  careless  of  honor  or  reputation,  to 

8  John   VII,    24;    VIII,    15. — Cfr.  est,    eius    gloria    semper    vera    est, 

St.  Thomas,  Summa  Theol,   la  aae,  propter    quod    dicitur:    Ille    proba- 

qu.     2,    art.     3:     "Est    etiam    aliud  tut   est,   quern  Deus  commendat." 
consider 'andum,    quod    humana   noti-  9  Ps.  CXIII,  9;  2  Cor.  XI,   30.— 

tia    saepe    fallitur    et    praecipue    in  Cfr.    St.    Thomas,    Summa    Theol., 

singularibus     contingentibus,     cuius-  23  aae,  qu.    131,  art.   i. 
modi    sunt    actus    humani,    et    idea  10  Cfr.  Luke  IX,  26. — St.  Thomas, 

frequenter     humana     gloria     fallax  Summa    Theol.,    za    zae,    qu.     132, 

est.     Sed   quia  Deus   falli   non   pot-  art.     1-4. 


HONOR  171 

hold  them  lightly  or  to  despise  them  cynically.  The 
last-mentioned  attitude  is  generally  a  result  of  disguised 
pride. 

"There  are  honors  which  dishonor  him  who  seeks 
them,"  truly  says  a  modern  novelist.11  Every  honor  or 
dignity,  according  to  an  ancient  proverb,  entails  its  own 
peculiar  responsibilities  and  burdens.12 

An  ancient  saw  declares  that  honors  and  dignities 
often  change  a  man's  character.13  Unfortunately,  the 
change  is  not  always  for  the  better,  and  consequently 
those  who  receive  honors  or  dignities  should  strive  to 
employ  them  as  a  means  of  moral  improvement.  "It  is 
sure  proof  of  nobility  of  character,"  says  Jean  Paul,  "if 
a  man  uses  honors  and  dignities  as  means  of  acquiring 
virtue." 

The  foundation  of  true  happiness  is  neither  honor  nor 
wealth,  but  honesty,  sincerity,  and  trust  in  God.  Human 
glory  frequently  evaporates  like  smoke,  but  nobility  of 
character  is  a  stable  possession.  "The  Lord  rewards 
his  servants,  not  according  to  the  dignity  of  their  of 
fice,"  says  St.  Francis  de  Sales,  "but  in  proportion  to  the 
humility  and  love  with  which  they  discharge  the  same."  14 

c)  Every  man  is  bound  to  preserve  his  honor 
and  good  name  by  faithfully  complying  with  the 
duties  of  his  vocation,  leading  a  pure  and  upright 
life,  and  avoiding  whatever  might  justly  cause 
offense  to  others.  If,  despite  all  reasonable  care, 
he  has  the  misfortune  to  give  scandal,  either 
by  making  mistakes  or  letting  his  zeal  run  to  ex- 

11  "//   y   a   des   honores    qui   dis-  is  "Honores    mutant    mores." 

honorent"    (G.    Flaubert).  1*  De   la    Vie  Devote,   III,  a. 

ia  "Honos  habet  onus." 


172  VOCATIONAL  DUTIES 

cess,  let  him  candidly  admit  his  fault  and  humbly 
seek  forgiveness.  One  whose  honor  is  unjustly 
attacked  has  the  right  to  defend  it,  nay,  he  is  in 
duty  bound  to  do  so  if  his  office,  or  the  interest  of 
his  family,  or  the  good  name  of  those  associated 
with  him,  or  the  danger  of  scandal  render  it  nec 
essary.  Sometimes,  however,  it  is  an  act  of 
heroic  virtue  to  suffer  persecution  silently,  like 
Christ  and  His  Apostles,  or  to  sacrifice  one's  good 
name  for  the  honor  and  glory  of  God.  Our  Lord 
says :  "  Blessed  are  ye  when  they  shall  revile 
you,  and  persecute  you,  and  speak  all  that  is  evil 
against  you,  untruly,  for  my  sake."15  And  St. 
Paul :  "We  labor,  working  with  our  own  hands, 
we  are  reviled,  and  we  bless;  we  are  persecuted, 
and  we  suffer  it."  16  A  good  conscience  and  the 
conviction  that  an  omniscent  God  governs  the  uni 
verse  and  draws  good  out  of  evil,  will  give  us 
the  consoling  assurance  that  we  have  nothing  to 
fear,  especially  since  we  know  from  Revelation 
that  the  names  of  Christ's  faithful  servants,  even 
though  they  be  traduced  by  men,  are  held  in 
high  honor  by  God  and  indelibly  graven  in  the 
Book  of  Life.17 

IB  Matth.   V,    ii ;   Luke   XVII,    3.  ex    pane    vitare,    ubi    pro    existima- 

16  i    Cor.    IV,    12;    Col.    Ill,    12;  tione     nostra     quidquid     recte    pos- 

i  Thess.  V,   15;   i   Pet.  II,  23.  sumus   fecerimus,  si  aliqui  de  nobis 

IT  Luke  X,  20;  XII,  7;  Phil.  IV,  ve\  mala  fingendo  vel  male  credendo 

3- — Cfr.     St.     Augustine,    De    Bono  famam    nostram     decolorare    conan- 

Viduitatis,    c.    22:     "Quoniam   quart-  tur,      adsit      conscientiae      solatium 

talibet    humana    cautela    suspiciones  planeque  etiam  gaudium,  quod  mer- 

malevolentissimas    non    potest    omni  ces  nostra  magna  est  in  coelis,  etiam 


HONOR  173 

When  a  man  has  lost  his  good  name  through 
his  own  fault,  silence  and  patience  may  be  rec 
ommended  as  suitable  means  of  atonement.  A 
person  who  has  been  innocently  robbed  of  his 
good  name  and  sees  his  career  endangered  or 
ruined,  may  find  that  the  simple  continuance  of  his 
accustomed  mode  of  life  is  the  most  effective 
weapon  of  self-defence.  Where  deeds  fail  to 
convince,  words  generally  prove  of  little  or  no 
avail. 

It  is  never  allowed  to  employ  immoral  means, 
such  as  lies  or  duelling,  for  the  restoration  of 
one's  honor. 

To  hide  secret  sins  and  defects  from  others,  in  order  to 
preserve  one's  honor  and  good  name,  is  not  forbidden. 
No  human  authority  can  pass  judgment  upon  the  secret 
deeds  and  motives  of  men.  ("De  internis  non  iudicat 
praetor.") 

d)  If  a  man  has  lost  his  good  name  through 
his  own  fault,  he  must  try  to  regain  it  as  soon  and 
as  fully  as  possible.  The  means  by  which  it  may 
be  regained  depend  as  a  rule  on  the  manner  in 
which  it  was  lost.  A  reputation  that  is  com 
pletely  shattered  may  be  difficult  to  rebuild;  but 
the  obligation  of  trying  to  do  so  remains  and 

</iium  dicunt  homines  mala  multa  de  Cor.    VI,    7-8)    non    solum    dextera, 

nobis    pie    tamen    iusteque    viventi-  verum  et  sinistra,  per  gloriam  scili- 

bus     (Mt.     V,      11-12).     Ilia     enim  cet    et    ignobilitatem,    per    infamiam 

tnerces      tamqtiam      stipendium      est  et   bonam   famam."     (Migne,   P.   L., 

tnilitantiuin    per    arma    iustitiae     (2  XL,   449). 


174  VOCATIONAL  DUTIES 

binds  especially  in  those  cases  where  the  welfare 
of  a  family  or  the  good  name  of  a  community  de 
pend  upon  the  honor  of  the  individual  member. 
If  honor  has  been  lost  through  neglect  or  the 
commission  of  some  minor  fault,  it  may  be  re 
stored  by  increased  zeal,  fidelity,  diligence,  and 
prudence.  If  the  fault  was  grievous,  sincere  pen 
ance  and  a  genuine  purpose  of  amendment  are  not 
only  a  strict  duty,  but  the  only  suitable  means  of 
making  amends  for  the  sin  committed  and  repair 
ing  the  scandal  given.  However,  as  Christ  has 
expressly  declared  that  there  will  be  more  joy  in 
Heaven  over  one  sinner  who  does  penance  than 
over  ninety-nine  just  who  need  it  not,  every  peni 
tent  sinner  who  atones  his  fault,  regains  the  right 
to  his  good  name,  and  it  must  not  be  denied  him. 
Nor  should  it  be  forgotten  that  even  in  the  im 
penitent  sinner,  no  matter  how  deeply  he  may 
have  fallen,  there  is  always  the  human  dignity  to 
be  respected.18 

a)  The  teaching  of  Catholic  Moral  Theology  on  the 
subject  of  honor  has  been  denounced  as  a  hindrance  to 
progress  and  as  subversive  of  that  self-respect  which  no 
man  can  afford  to  surrender.  This  is  a  grievous  mistake. 
Seeking  honor  and  fleeing  from  it  seem  indeed  contra 
dictory  acts,  but  the  apparent  contradiction  is  solved  by  a 
higher  unity.  In  preaching  contempt  of  the  world  and  of 
oneself  19  the  Church  does  not  mean  to  imply  that,  to  be 

18  Cfr.  Luke  XV,  7,  10;  Gal.  VI,  ie  "Spernere     mundum,     spernere 

i;  Eph.  VI,  8  sq.;  Jas.  II,  1-9.  sese,    spernere   nullum,    spernere   se 

sperni." 


HONOR  175 

truly  humble,  a  man  must  be  indifferent  to  mundane 
things,  but  merely  that  he  who  is  truly  humble  will  pa 
tiently  suffer  contempt  for  Christ's  sake,  though  he  will 
never  stoop  to  anything  that  would  degrade  his  dignity 
as  a  man.  Inordinate  self-humiliation  is  not  a  virtue, 
but  a  sin  (per  excessum)  against  humility,  which  consists 
essentially  in  submission  to  God,  and  to  men  for  God's 
sake,20  in  the  service  of  truth  and  charity.21  Humility, 
therefore,  keeps  the  pursuit  of  honor  within  the  bounds 
of  reason  and,  together  with  charity,  is  the  foundation  of 
the  Christian  life.  This  noble  virtue  was  practiced  in  a 
preeminent  and  exemplary  degree  by  Jesus  Christ,  "the 
truth,  the  way,  and  the  life,"  who  was  able  to  say  of 
Himself:  "Learn  of  me,  because  I  am  meek  and  humble 
of  heart."22 

Catholic  ascetics  neither  condemns  the  striving  after 
honor  nor  justifies  carelessness  in  this  regard,  but  merely 
forbids  vainglory  (gloria  vana},  which  has  for  its  end 
and  purpose  not  God,  but  self. 

Contempt  of  worldly  distinctions  and  honors  does  not 
imply  want  of  self-respect  if  it  is  inspired  by  a  desire  for 
eternal  glory.  This  desire  lives  only  in  noble  souls.  St. 
Paul,  who  did  not  hesitate  to  say  of  himself  that  he  had 

20  St.     Thomas,     Summa     Theol.,        praemium  veritatis."     (Migne,  P.  L., 
2a   aae,   qu.    161,   art.    i,   ad   5. — St.        XLIV,    265). 

Bernard,    De    Gradibus    Humilitatis,  22  Matth.  XI,  29;  John  XIV,  6.— 

c.    i,    n.    2:     "Humilitas    est    virtus,  Cfr.    St.    Augustine,    Ep.,    118    (o/. 

qua    homo    verissima    sui    agnitione  56),   c.   3,    n.    22:     "Huic    [Christo] 

sibi    ipsi   vilescit."     (Migne,    P.    L.,  te,  mi  Dioscure,  ut  tola  pietate  sub- 

CLXXXII,   942).  das  velim,   nee  aliam   tibi  ad  capes- 

21  Matth.    XX,    28;    XXIII,     ii ;  sendam     et     obtinendant     veritatem 
Gal.     V,     13. — S|.     Augustine     says  viant     munias,     quam     quae     munita 
(De  Natura  et  Gratia,  c.  34,  n.  38) :  est  ab   illo,    qui  gressum   nostrorum 
"Recte  placet,   ut  in   parte  veritatis,  tamquam     Deus    vidit    infirmitatem. 
non  in  parte  falsitatis  magis  humili-  Ea   est   autem   prima,    htimilitas;   se- 
tas  collocetur,  .  .  .  ne  humilitas  con-  citnda,  humilitas,  tertia.  humilitas,  et 
stituta     in     parte     falsitatis     perdat  quoties    interrogares,    hoc    dicerem." 

(Migne,   P.   L.,   XXXIII,   442)- 


1 76  VOCATIONAL  DUTIES 

labored  more  than  all  the  rest  and  was  "made  a  spectacle 
to  the  world,  and  to  angels,  and  to  men,"  23  nevertheless 
declared :  "I  am  the  least  of  the  apostles,  who  am  not 
worthy  to  be  called  an  apostle."  24 

ft)  The  question  has  been  raised  whether  a  man  may 
deprive  himself  of  his  good  name  (seipsum  infamare). 
In  answering  this  question  the  casuists  draw  a  distinction. 
If  one  can  defame  himself  without  detriment  to  his  voca 
tional  duties  and  without  injury  to  others,  they  say  the 
sacrifice  is  permissible  because  it  violates  neither  justice, 
as  man  has  full  ownership  of  his  good  name  (dominium 
famae  suae),  nor  charity,  because  charity  requires  regard 
for  external  goods  only  in  so  far  as  they  are  necessary  for 
one's  own  salvation  or  the  salvation  of  others.  Accord 
ing  to  Gury  and  others  of  this  school,  however,  it  would 
be  grievously  sinful  to  deprive  oneself  of  one's  good 
name  if  the  latter  were  an  indispensable  requisite  of  one's 
official  position  or  if  the  defamation  would  result  in 
danger  to  one's  own  life  or  injury  to  the  good  name  of 
others.26 

We  cannot  quite  agree  with  this  view,  but  maintain  that 
defamation  of  one's  own  character  is  forbidden  for  rea 
sons  which  may  be  briefly  stated  as  follows : 

a)  To  preserve  one's  honor  and  good  name  is  a  pre 
cept  of  the  moral  law  of  nature  as  well  as  of  divine  law, 
and  the  duty  arising  from  both,  while  it  differs  in  pro- 

23  i    Cor.    IV,   9.  quisquc     sit     famae    suae    dominus, 

24  i    Cor.    XV,    9    sq.  nee  contra  caritatem,  quia  haec  non 

25  J.  P.  Gury,  Comp.  Theol.  Mor.,  obligat     ad     bona     externa     conser- 
Vol.     I,     n.     469:     "Quaeritur,     an  vanda,  nisi  quantum  id  exigat  salus 
lii-e>it     seipsum     infamare.     Respon-  propria    vel   proximi.     Per   accident 
detiir    affirmative    per    se,    si    recta  autem  peccabis,  et  quidem  graviter, 
intentione    fiat,    secluso   scandalo    et  si    fama    tua    necessaria    sit    muneri 
aliorum      damno.     Ratio     est,     quia  two    vel    si    tibi    damnum    vitae    vel 
non     est     contra     iustitiam,     quum  aliis  infamiae  ex  hoc  sequi  deberet." 


HONOR  177 

portion  to  the  concrete  conditions  or  circumstances  of 
each,  can  never  cease  entirely. 

b)  Self -defamation  no  matter  by  what  motives  it  is  in 
spired  or  how  useful  it  may  appear  to  be,  by  its  very 
definition  presupposes  the  telling  of  a  lie.  Now,  no  one 
is  allowed  to  attribute  to  himself  sins  or  vices  of  which 
he  is  not  guilty  because  to  lie  is  forbidden  absolutely  and 
in  all  circumstances. 

To  reveal  one's  real  but  secret  faults  (e.  g.,  to  a  su 
perior)  is  not  self -defamation  but  an  act  of  humiliation 
or  the  expression  of  a  strong  purpose  of  amending  one's 
life  and  correcting  the  fault  in  question.  Such  an  act  of 
humility,  far  from  injuring  one's  good  name,  is  apt  rather 
to  enhance  it. 

For  the  rest,  there  is  hardly  a  vocation  in  which  men 
do  not  feel  the  need  of  occasional  recognition  and  en 
couragement  from  their  fellowmen. 

READINGS.— H.  Noldin,  S.  J.,  Summa  Theologiae  Moralis,  Vol. 
II,  nth  ed.,  pp.  76  sq.,  656  sq. — Thos.  Slater,  S.  J.,  A  Manual 
of  Moral  Theology,  Vol.  I,  New  York  1919,  p.  346-— A.  Lehm- 
kuhl,  S.J.,  Thcologia  Moralis,  Vol.  I,  nth  ed.,  pp.  818  sqq.— 
F.  A.  Gopfert,  Moraltheologic,  Vol.  II,  6th  ed.,  Paderborn  1909, 
pp.  326  sqq.— J.  E.  Ross,  C.S.P.,  Christian  Ethics,  pp.  258  sqq. 


INDEX 


ACTORS,  51. 

Adam,  5,  130. 

Agape,  40. 

Alms,  134. 

Aloysius,  St.,  19. 

Alphonsus,  St.,  99. 

Amado,  R.  A.  (S.J.),  62. 

Ambrose,  St.,  148,  152. 

Amputation,  83. 

Amusements,  36,  56. 

Apartment  houses,  31. 

Aragon,  99. 

Aristocracy,  120. 

Aristotle,  105,  122. 

Arms,  37. 

Art,  36,  47  sqq. 

"Art  for  art's  sake,"  47  sq. 

Asceticism,  18. 

Athletic    sports,    44    sqq.,    141 

sqq. 

Augustine,  St.,  21  sq.,  75,  87,  89. 
Azarias,  Brother,  in. 
Azpilcueta,  M.  de,  62. 

B 

BACON,  LORD,  102. 

Balls,  36. 

Banquets,  36,  40. 

Bathing,  69. 

Baumgartner,  Alex.  (S.J.),  52. 

Beasts,  Man's  relation  to,  58 
sqq. 

Beasts  of  prey,  64. 

Benedict  of  Aniane,  St.,  134. 

Bernard,  St.,  n,  32. 

Birds.  64. 

Blessing  at  meals,  26. 

Body,  Moral  significance  of 
the,  9  sqq.;  Care  of  the,  21 
sqq.;  Various  means  of  car 
ing  for  the,  25  sqq. 


Books,  46  sq.,  127. 
Bossuet,  52. 
Bull-fights,  61  sq. 


CALVINISTS,  51. 
Card-playing,  37,  41. 
Carnegie,  Andrew,  158. 
Castration,  84. 
Catholic  Encyclopedia,  The,  46 

Cathrein,  V.  (S.J),  72. 

Cautiousness,  109  sq. 

Censorship  of  motion  pictures, 
52  sqq. 

Character-training,  37  sq.,  105 
sq. 

Charity,  i,  18,  35,  95,  108. 

Charlemagne,  141. 

Chastity,  87  sq. 

Children,  37  sqq. 

Choice  of  a  vocation,  112  sqq. 

Christ,  6,  7,  10,  12,  14,  16,  17, 
19,  24,  25,  26,  40,  58  sqq.,  96, 
no,  116,  122,  133,  135,  151, 
152,  168,  169,  172,  174,  175. 

Chrysostom,  St.,   150. 

Cinema  peril,  52  sqq. 

Civics,  Community,  31  sqq. 

Cleanliness,  68  sq. 

Clement  of  Alexandria,  29,  45. 

Clergy,  29,  36  sq.,  86,  95,  127. 

Clothing,  27  sqq. 

Comforts,  30,  32,  65,  68. 

Communism  in  the  primitive 
Church,  146  sqq. 

Community  sanitation,  31  sq. 

Compulsory  school  laws,  104. 

Concupiscence,  10,  22. 

Congestion,  Urban,  31  sq. 

Contemplative  life,  136  sq.,  154- 


179 


i8o 


INDEX 


Credulity,  108. 

Cross,  The,  14,  19. 

Cruelty  to  animals,  59  sq. 

Culture,  105  sq.,  137. 

Cultus  muliebris,  29. 

Custom  in  regard  to  attire,  29. 


DANCING,  36,  42  sq.,  55. 

Death,  16,  87  sq. 

Devas,  C.  S.,  18,  31,  128,  150. 

Dignities,  171. 

Don  Bosco,  Ven.,  17,  19,  56. 

Drama,  51. 

Drinking,  21  sq.,  25  sq. 

Dullness,  Intellectual,   108. 

Dwellings,  30  sqq. 

Duties,    2    sq. ;    Individual    or 

personal,  4  sqq.;  Vocational, 

112  sqq. 
Dymond,  81. 


EATING,  21  sq.,  24,  25  sq. 
Education,  101  sqq. 
Egotism,  6,  8. 
Elbel,  99- 

Elyot,  Sir  Thos.,  44. 
Emasculation,  84. 
Environment,  104. 
Epicurus,  153. 


Esquirol,  79. 
Eternity,  16. 


Etiquette,  70  sq. 
Euthanasia,  91  sq. 
Excursions,  36. 
Extravagance,  66  sq.,  68. 
Extreme  Unction,  57. 


FACTORIES,  33. 
Factory  workers,  33. 
Failure,  135. 
Fall,  The,  21. 
Family  home,  30  sq. 
Fashion,  27,  29. 
Fidelity  to  duty,  120. 


Films,  52  sqq. 

Flesh,  Emancipation  of  the,  10, 

66. 

Food,  25  sq.,  72. 
Football,  44,  46. 
Foster,  S.  C.,  31. 
Francis  de  Sales,  St.,  42,  171. 
Francis  Xavier,  St.,  141. 
Frugality,  67. 
"Futures,"  Dealing  in,  138. 


GAMBLING,  41  sq.,  138. 
Games  of  chance,  37,  41  sq. 
Games,  36,  37,  41  sq. 
Garden  city  plan,  33. 
Gentleman,     Newman's    defini 
tion  of  a,  71. 
Gibbons,  Card.,  137. 
Gladness,  17  sq. 
Goethe,  15. 
Good  name,  165  sqq. 
Good  things  of  nature,  23  sq. 
Goyau,  76. 

Gregory  the  Great,  i. 
Gymnastics,  43  sq. 


H 


Habitus  clericalis,  29. 

Haunold,  99. 

Health,  21   sq.,  24  sqq.,  29,  33, 

36,  57,  97- 

Herplt,  John  (O.P.),  141. 
Hesiod,  139 
Hettinger,  F.,  47. 
Homer,  139. 

"Home,  Sweet  Home,"  31. 
Honor,    75;    Duties   in   regard 

to,  164  sqq. 
Housing,  30  sqq. 
Humility,  175. 


ILLNESS,  13,  24  sq. 
Illsung,  99. 
Income  tax,  158  sq. 
Industrial  hygiene,  33. 


INDEX 


181 


Infanticide,  88. 

Inheritance,  Limitation  of,  156 

sq. 

Inoculation,  98. 
Insanity  and  suicide,  76  sqq. 
Instruction,  105. 
Intemperance,  26. 


JANSENISTS,  49. 
Jean  Paul,  171. 
Jerome,  St.,  148  sq. 
Joy,  14,  15,  16,  17  sq.,  135. 

K 


KEPPLER,  BISHOP  P.  W.  VON,  14 

sq.,  123. 
Knowledge,  102  sqq.,  106. 

L 

LABOR,  As  a  natural  necessity, 
125  sqq.;  Manual,  125  sq. ; 
Mental,  126;  As  a  moral  ob 
ligation,  130  sqq. ;  As  a  reli 
gious  duty,  132  sqq. 

Lacroix,  99. 

Lactantius,  147  sq. 

Laurentius,  Jos.  (S.J.),  19. 

Laveleye,  E.  de,  64. 

Lehmkuhl,  Aug.  (S.J.),  99. 

Leo  XIII,  30,  84,  137,  145,  160. 

Lessing,  120. 

Liberalism,  19  sq. 

Libraries,   Public,  46  sq. 

Life,  A  blessing,  11,  16 ;  A  pil 
grimage,  ii  sq. ;  Duty  of 
cherishing  it,  12  sqq. ;  Duty 
of  giving  it  up,  86  sqq. 

Lucy,  St.,  87  sq. 

Luther,  51. 

Luxury,  32,  40,  64  sqq. 

Lynchings,  62. 

M 

MACHINERY,  33. 
Macksey,  Chas.  (S.J.),  45. 


Mariana,  52. 

Mary,  Blessed  Virgin,  40. 

Materialism,  10. 

Medicine,  90. 

Melancholia,  77,  82. 

Mendicant  Orders,  115. 

Menial  tasks,  131. 

Milieu,  114. 

Mind,  Duty  of  cultivating  the, 

101  sqq. 

Miracle  plays,  49. 
Modesty,  27,  29,  35,  69  sq. 
Monopolies,  155. 
Morality,  Public,  30. 
Mortification,  n,  18,  36,  80. 
Motion  pictures,  52  sqq. 
"Movies,"  52  sqq. 

N 

NEEDS  of  Man,  23. 
Neglect,  1 10  sq. 
Neurasthenia,  137. 
Newman,  J.  H.,  71. 
Newspapers,  81  sq. 
Nicholas  I,  69. 
Nicholson,  Prof.,  128. 
Nietzsche,  F.,  15. 
Noe,  59. 

Noldin,  H,  (S.J.),  50,  142. 
Nude  in  art,  48  sq. 

O 

OBERHOLTZER,  ELLIS  P.,  52,  54. 
Obscenity  in  art,  48  sq. 
Occupations.  116,  138. 
Occupations,  Dangerous,  93  sq. 
O'Neill,  A.  B.  (C.S.C.),  71. 
Operations,  Surgical,  88,  90,  97. 
Ovaries,  Excision  of  the,  84. 


PAIN,  12  sq.,  18. 

Paramimia,  82. 

Parks,  33. 

Parrots,  64. 

Parsimony,  67. 

Paul,  St.,  I,  7,  12,  13,  14,  16,  21, 
23,  24,  25,  45,  102,  108,  122, 
152,  iS3s  154,  169,  172,  175. 

Payne,  J.  H.,  31. 


182 


INDEX 


Peabody,  16. 

Perfection,  7,  18. 

Perseverance  in  the  chosen  vo 
cation,  118  sqq. 

Peter,  St.,  140. 

Peterson,  Dr.,  82. 

Philip  Neri,  St.,  19. 

Physicians,  57,  86,  go,  95,  127. 

Pius  IX,  19. 

Pius  X,  45. 

Plato,  150. 

Playing,  37  sqq.,  128. 

Playgrounds,  Public,  33,  56. 

Pleasure,  36,  39,  122. 

Pleasure  trips,  49. 

Politeness,  70. 

Poor,  30,  151  sq. 

Poverty,  151  sq. 

Prayer,  35,  123. 

Pride,  109. 

Priesthood,    114,   119. 

Private  ownership,  143  sqq. 

Prize  fights,  62. 

Property,  Right  and  duty  of 
acquiring  and  possessing,  143 
sqq. 

Prostitution,  138. 

Protestantism,  140. 

Prudence,  107  sqq. 

Public  dance  halls,  55- 

Puritans,  51. 


QUAKERS,  49. 


RADULPHUS  ARDENS,  133. 
Railroads,  33. 
Ratherius  of  Verona,  140. 
Recovery  of  health  in  sickness, 

57- 
Recreation,    35    sqq.,    136   sqq., 

142. 

Religious  life,  114. 
Reputation,  165  sqq. 
"Rerum  Novarum."  145. 
Rest  (see  Recreation). 
Resurrection,  14. 


Revealing   one's    secret   faults, 

177- 

Rickaby,  Jos.   (S.J.),  104. 
Roscher,  67. 

Rottmanner,  O.  (O.S.B.),  109. 
Ryan,  J.  A.,   148  sq.,   155,  158, 

159,  160,  161. 


SA,  99. 

Sabbath,  136. 

Sacraments,  10. 

Saloon,  30,  55. 

Samson,  89. 

Scandal,  171  sq. 

Schiller,  109. 

Schools,  104. 

Self-defamation,   176. 

Self-denial,  72  sq.,  117. 

Selfishness,  6,  8. 

Self-love,  4  sqq. 

Self-mutilation,  83  sq. 

Self-preservation,  5,  21,  76. 

Self-respect,  7. 

Seneca,  7,  76,  153. 

Sensuality,  25  66. 

Sentimentalism,  60. 

Shops,  33. 

Sickness,  13,  24  sq.,  57. 

Sidgwick,  H.,   128. 

Single  Tax,  34. 

Slater,  Thos.  (S.J.),  41,  92. 

Slums,  30. 

Smiles,  Sam,  67. 

Smith,  J.  T.,  51. 

Sociability,  36,  39  sqq. 

Social  intercourse,  39  sqq. 

Societies  for  the  prevention  of 

cruelty  to  animals,  61. 
Socrates,  24,  99. 
Soldiers,  86. 
Solicitude,  109  sq. 
Sorrow,  18. 
Spencer,  Herbert,  149. 
Spiritualism,  False,  9. 
Spiritual  life,  ill. 
Sports,  36,  43  sq.,  141  sq. 
Stage,  49  sqq. 
Standard  of  living,  128. 


INDEX 


183 


State,  Rights  of  in  regard  to 

education,  103  sqq. 
Sterility,  84. 
Stoics,  39,  77- 
"Story  hours,"  46. 
Street  cars,  33. 
Streets,    32   sq. 
Suffering,  12  sq.,  18. 
Suicide,  12,  74  sqq.,  99. 
Suicidia  martyrum,  89. 
Superstition,  108. 
Suprcmus  debendi  titulus,  I. 
Sybaritism,  25. 


TABLE,  Pleasures  of  the,  40. 

Talents,  24,  102. 

Taxation  reform,  34. 

Teachers,  127. 

Temperance,  72  sq. 

Temptations,  90. 

Theatre,  49  sqq. 

Thomas  a  Kempis,  17,  46,  57. 

Thomas  Aquinas,  St.,  i,  5,  59, 
60,  63,  107,  122,  125,  132,  133, 
136,  145,  147,  159,  160,  166. 

Thrift,  67. 

Tobias,  8. 

Toilet,  arts  of  the,  28  sq. 

Travelling,  36,  49. 

Trent,  Council  of,  36. 

Truth,  102,  107. 

U 

UNCLEANNESS,  28. 


Unearned  increment  tax,  34. 

Usury,  138. 

Uterus,  Excision  of  the,  84. 


VANITY,  27,  28,  29,  108. 

Vasectomy,  84. 

Vegetarianism,  27. 

Viaticum,  57. 

Victoria,  99. 

Vincent  de  Paul,  St.,  19. 

Virtues,  106  sq. 

Vivisection,  63. 

Vocation,     Choice    of    a,     112 

sqq.;    Fidelity    in,    118   sqq.; 

Sins  against,  121  sqq. 

W 

WAGE  SYSTEM,  159. 

Walsh,  Jas.  J.,  45,  77- 

War,  94. 

Wastefulness,  23  sq.,  28. 

Wealth,  75,  137,  151;  Concen 
tration  of,  154  sqq.;  Duty  of 
distributing  superfluous,  159 
sqq. 

Wisdom,  107. 

Work,  117,  123  (see  also  La 
bor). 

Workingmen,  30  sq. 

Worry,  109  sq. 


Zoolatry,  60. 


DATE    DUE 


ure  7 


>RINTED  IN  CAN AD/ 

BY 
RYERSON  PRESS 


KOCH  &  PREUSS 

A  handbook  of  moral  theology 

v.  III.