Full text of "Mosses and lichens : a popular guide to the identification and study of our commoner mosses and lichens, their uses, and methods of preserving"

See other formats

OOtiJraiuisco

tf $0 n* *n

,\ LIBR.AFOr /rn^

r~i

MOSSES AND LICHENS

Nature Books With Colour Plates

AMERICAN ANIMALS

Witmer Stone and Wm Everitt Cram

AMERICAN FOOD AND GAME FISHES

David Starr Jordan and Barton W Evermann

BIRD HOMES
BIRD NEIGHBOURS
GAME BIRDS
MOSSES AND LICHENS
NATURE'S GARDEN
THE BUTTERFLY BOOK
THE FROG BOOK
THE INSECT BOOK
THE MOTH BOOK
THE MUSHROOM BOOK
THE REPTILE BOOK
THE TREE BOOK

A. R Dugmore
Neltje Blanchan
Neltje Blanchan
Nina L. Marshall
Neltje Blanchan
Dr. W. J. Holland
MaryC Dickerson
Dr. Leland O. Howard
Dr.W. J Holland
Nina L. Marshall
Raymond L. Ditmars
Julia E. Rogers

MOSSES AND LICHENS

FRONTISPIECE, COLOUR PLATE I

.w.

Copyright, 1907, by Doubleday, Page & Company
OLD MAN'S BEARD, Usnea barbata, (L.) Fr.
" The murmuring pines and the hemlocks, bearded with moss "

MOSSES AND LICHENS

A POPULAR GUIDE TO THE IDENTI-
FICATION AND STUDY OF OUR COM-
MONER MOSSES AND LICHENS,THEIR
USES, AND METHODS OF PRESERVING

NINA L. MARSHALL

Author of "The Mushroom Book"

SIXTEEN PLATES IN COLOUR, THIRTY-TWO IN BLACK
AND WHITE, FROM PHOTOGRAPHS BY J. A. & H. C.
ANDERSON; AND MANY TEXT ILLUSTRATIONS

GARDEN CITY NEW YORK
DOUBLEDAY, PAGE & COMPANY

1919

PREFACE

MOSSES AND LICHENS has been written with the hope that it
may meet a need often expressed, for a book with pictures
which will help to identify some of the many beautiful growths
which, winter and summer, in wood and open, excite the
admiration and arouse the curiosity of all nature lovers.

It is the result of the author's desire to know something of
the dainty plants which are so lavishly employed by nature in
beautifying the trails and brooks of the North woods. The
more striking mosses and lichens were collected and carried
about until by the kindness of one friend and another "learned
in mosses," names were secured for them.

No book was found which offered an easy path to the
knowledge desired. In truth, no book was found which could
be used at all until many months of patient labor in a botankal
laboratory gave the necessary foundation.

Then the author, urged on by friends who would have an
easy path or none, set to work to make pen-and-ink sketches of
bits of moss and details of structure. After a number had been
made with some degree of success, a new plan was suggested
by experience. An accurate detail was made with the aid of
a microscope or was procured from a rare work, Bryologia
Europce ; and with this detail a tuft or cushion on a large scale
was built up and then reduced to natural size with a camera.
Later, with the success crowning persistent attempts, Mr. J. A.
Anderson and Miss H. C. Anderson succeeded in photographing
specimens not too small, direct from nature. The plates in the
book are the measure of their success.

Thanks are due to Dr. Lucien M. Underwood, of Columbia
University, for his never-failing readiness to give encouragement
and valuable assistance; also Mrs. E. G. Britton, who has named
most of the mosses collected by the author and has been ever
ready to suggest works for reference and to render assistance in
other ways. Thanks also are due to Dr. Howe, of the New

: I

Mosses and Lichens

York Botanical Gardens, and to Dr. Curtis, of Columbia, for
assistance with certain subjects; and especially to Mr. Williams,
a moss and lichen specialist of the New York Botanical Gardens,
who named the lichens pictured in the book and undertook the
laborious task of reading the copy before it was submitted to
the publishers.

The pen-and-ink drawings were made by the author direct
from nature or were redrawn from the works mentioned in the
''Authorities consulted."

CONTENTS
PART I

PAGE

PREFACE v

I. MOSSES AND LICHENS AT HOME 3

II. How TO KNOW THE LICHENS AND MOSSES AND WHAT
THEY ARE DOING ON ROCKS AND TREES

General comparison of Mosses and Lichens . 8

Poets' conception of Mosses and Lichens . . 9

Scientists' conception of Mosses and Lichens . 1 1

Soil makers 12

corroding rock 12

decomposing vegetable matter . . . 12

reclaiming marshes 15

Marsh-building on Mt. Marcy . . . . 17

Mosses which build up limestone . . . 17

III. LICHENS IN HISTORY

Mention by early Greek philosophers . . 19

Use in dye industry 19

Use as drugs 20

Use as food 20

IV. THE ORIGIN AND NATURE OF LICHENS

Spontaneous generation 22

Dual nature 22

The fungus partner 22

The alga partner 23

Experiments in artificial production of lichens . 24

How a lichen is made 24

Free fungus spore with free algal cell . . 24

Classification of algae associated . . . 25

Classification of fungi associated . . 25

Interest to the collector ..... 26

External beauty and form . . . . 26

Absorbing power of water . . • . . 27

vii

Mosses and Lichens

V. LEAFY-MOSSES

Sporophy tes in general 30

Sporophyte of Hairy-cap in detail . . -35

How spores escape from a spore-case . . , 37

How a spore becomes a leafy-moss ... 38

How a spore-case is formed .... 39
How a Hairy-cap procures a maximum amount

of light 42

How a Hairy-cap avoids too strong light . 43

Gametophyte 43

Leaves in general 43

Leaves of Hairy-caps 44

Stem 45

Antheridia 46

Archegonia 47

Development of a sporogonium .... 49

Veil or calyptra 50

Spore-case 51

Lid or operculum 51

Teeth or peristome 53

Teeth of Polytrichum Mosses . . . 55

Pedicel or seta 57

Asexual reproduction. Protonema from spores,
rhizoids, cellular bodies, sporogonium, leaves,

stems, gemmae 59

VI. THE POSITION OF HEPATICS AND MOSSES IN THE
PLANT-KINGDOM AS SHOWN BY A COMPARISON OF

HOMOLOGOUS PARTS . . . . . . . 61

VII. THE HERBARIUM

How to collect Hepatics, Mosses and Lichens . 73

How to preserve Hepatics, Mosses and Lichens . 73

How to study Hepatics, Mosses and Lichens . 73

with the naked eye 73

with a lens 74

How to dissect Hepatics, Mosses and Lichens . 74

with a compound microscope ... 74

NOMENCLATURE . v . .75

ABBREVIATIONS OF AUTHORITIES . . v . -. . . v . 75

viii

Contents

PART II

LICHENS, GENERA AND SPECIES

Genus Cetraria 79

Cetraria lacunosa 79

Cetraria Islandica 79

Genus Usnea 80

Usnea barbata 80

Usnea tricbodea 81

Genus Thelochistes 81

X author ia parietina 81

Genus Parmelia 81

Parmelia conspersa . 82

pbysodes 82

saxatilis 83

" perlata 83

" caperata 83

Genus Physcia 84

Pbyscia leucomela 84

Genus Umbilicaria 84

Umbilicaria pustulata 84

vellea 85

Dillenii 85

Mublenbergii 85

Genus Peltigera 85

Peliigera canina 86

apbtbosa 86

" polydactyla 86

Genus Sticta 86

Sticta pulmonaria 87

" amplissima 87

Genus Stereocaulon 88

Stereocaulon pascbale 88

" tomentosum 88

Genus Cladonia .88

Cladonia pyxidata ..... 89

jimbriata 89

cristatella 89

" rangiferina (typical) .... 90

" cornucopioides 90

Mosses and Lichens

PART III

PACK

LIVERWORTS OR HEPATICS

Ribbon-like or Thalloid Hepatics . . . • 93

Marcloantia polymorpha 93

Names of parts 95

Description of development 95

Leafy Hepatics, Scale Mosses and Foliose Hepatics 99

Porella platypbylla 99

Names of parts 99

Genus Porella 100

Porella platypbylla 101

Genus Frullania 102

Frullania eboracensis 103

Genus Ptilidium 104

Ptilidium ciliare 104

Genus Bazzania 150

Bahama irildbaia 106

PART IV

LEAFY-MOSSES

Genus Sphagnum 109

The method by which Peat-mosses encroach

upon water to form land 109

The pale tint of Peat-mosses 116

The method by which Peat-mosses absorb water 1 16

The development of organs 119

Synopsis of Genus Sphagnum 1 22

Sphagnum acuti folium 123

" molle 123

" subsecundum 124

rubellum . . . . . . .125

cuspidatum 126

squarrosum 128

cymbifolium 128

Genus Andreaea 130

Andrecea petropbila 132

" rupestris 133

Genus Sphaerangium 133

Spbarangium muticum 134

Genus Phascum 135

Pbascum cuspidatum 136

Contents
PAGE

LEAFY-MOSSES (Continued)

Genus Pleuridium . . ' 137

Pleuridium subulatum 138

Genus Bruchia 139

Brucbia ftexuosa . . . . . . .139

Genus Archidium 140

Arcbidium Obiense 140

Genus Astomum ......... 141

A sternum Sullivantii 142

Genus Gymnostomum 143

Gymnostomum calcareum 143

curvirostrum 144

Genus Weisia 145

Weisia viridula 146

Genus Trematodon 147

Trematodon ambiguum 149

longicottis 150

Genus Dicranella 150

Dicranella beteromalla 151

Genus Dicranum 152

Dicranum flagellare . . . . . .154

scoparium 155

Genus Fissidens 157

Fissidens adiantoides 160

Genus Leucobryum , .161

Leucobryum vulgare 163

Genus Octoblepharum 165

Octoblepbarum albidum 165

Genus Ceratodon 166

Ceratodon purpureum 167

" " var. xantbopous . .169

" " aristatus . . . .169

" " minor 169

Genus Pottia 169

Pottia truncate 170

Genus Ditrichum or Leptotrichum . . . .171

Ditricbum pallidum 171

Genus Barbula 172

Barbula unguiculaia . . . ... . 1/3

" ccespitosa

Mosses and Lichens

LEAFY- MOSSES (Continued) PAOE

Genus Tortula . . . 1 76

Tortula princeps 1 77

" ruralis 178

Genus Grimmia . 178

Grimmia apocarpa 1 79

Genus Racomitrium 180

Racomitrium lanuginosum . . . . .181

Genus Hedwigia 182

Hedwigia ciliata 183

Genus Ulota 184

Ulota crispa 186

" pbyllantba 187

" Hutclinsice 188

Genus Orthotrichum 1 88

Oribotrichum strangulatum 189

Genus Encalypta 190

Encalypta ciliata 192

Genus Georgia 193

Georgia pellucida 195

" geniculata 197

Genus Tetradontium 198

Tetradontium repandum 198

Genus Schistotega 199

Scbistotega osmundacea 201

Genus Tetraplodon 202

Tetraplodon mnioides 203

Genus Splachnum . 204

Splacbnum rubrum . , 206

luteum 207

Genus Physcomitrium 207

Pbyscomilrium turbinatum 208

Genus Funaria 209

Funaria flaricans 210

bygrometrica 210

Genus Bartramia 214

Bartramia pomiformis . . . . .1 . 215

Genus Leptobryum 216

Leptobryum pyrijorme . . . . . .217

xii

Contents

LEAFY-MOSSES (Continued) PAGK

Genus Webera 218

Webera nutans . . . 219

albicans 220

Genus Bryum 221

Bryum argenteum 222

" roseum 224

Genus Mnium 225

Mnium cuspidatum 228

a/fine 229

bornum 231

punctatum 232

var. elaium .... 234

Genus Aulacomnium 234

Aulacomnium androgynum 235

palustre 236

beterosticbum 237

POLYTRICHACE^E

Key to Genera 239

Genus Catharinea 240

Caibarinea angustata 241

undulata 242

Genus Pogonatum 242

Pogonatum brevicaule 243

bracbypbyllum 245

capillare 245

urnigerum 246

Alpinum 247

Genus Polytrichum, with key to species . . . 248

Polytricbum gracile 251

Obiense 252

formosum 252

piltferum 253

juniperinum 254

commune 256

Genus Diphyscium 258

Dipbyscium foliosum 259

Genus Buxbaumia 260

Buxbaumta apbylla 261

Genus Fontinalis 262

Fontinalis antipyretica, var. gigantca . . . 263
xiii

Mosses and Lichens

POLYTRICHACE^ (Continued) PAGE

Genus Neckera 265

Neckera pennala 265

Genus Anomodon 266

Anomodon rostratus 267

attenuatus 268

" apiculatus 269

Genus Climacium 271

Climacium dendroides ...... 272

" Americanum 273

Genus Hypnum with synopsis of sub-genera . . 274

Sub-genus Thuidium 280

Tbuidium minutulum . . . 282

" delicatulum . . . 282

Brachythecium 284

" Bracbytbecium rivulare . . 285

Starkii ... 286

Nava-Anglice . 287

" Eurhynchium 289

Eurbyncbium Boscii . . . 290

" Plagiothecium 291

" Plagiotbecium Muetterianum . 291

Amblystegium 292

Amblystegium varium . . . 293

Harpidium 294

Harpidium uncinatum . . 295

" Ctenium 296

Ctinium crista-castrensis . . 297

Euhypnum 298

Eubypnum reptile ... 299

imponens . . .301

" " curvifolium . . 303

Calliergon 305

Calliergon Scbreberi . . . 306

Pleurozium 307

Pleurofium splendens . . . 307

Hylocomnium 309

Hylocomnium triquetrum . . 310

AUTHORITIES CONSULTED 313

INDEX 317

xiv

COLOURED ILLUSTRATIONS

I. Old Man's Beard, Usnea barbaia, (L.) Fr Frontispiece

FACING PAGE

1 1 . Yellow Wall-lichen, Tbelocbistes parietinus, (L.) Norm. 4

III. Hypnum uncinatum Hedw 24

Golden Cord Moss 24

Georgia pellucida, Rabenh 24

Neckera pennata, Hedw. 24

Sphagnum cymbifolium, Ehrh 24

IV. Ceratodon purpureum, Brid 42

Catbarinea angustata, Brid. . . . . . .42

Climacium dendroides, Web. & Mohr .... 42

Pogonatum brevicaule, Beauv 42

V. Parmelia conspersa, (Ehrh.) Ach. . . . . 58

VI. A Forest Boulder . 70

[VII. Iceland Moss, Cetr aria Islandica, (L.) Ach. . . no

Sticta pulmonaria, Ach no

Sticta amplissima, (Scop.) Mass no

The Dog Peltigera, Peltigera canina, (L.) Hoffm. . no

VIII. Reindeer Lichen and variety . . . . .130

Reindeer Lichen, variety Alpestris . . . .130

Reindeer Lichen, Cladonia rangiferina, (L.) Hoffm. . 130

Pbyscia leucomela, (L.) Michx 130

IX. Wood Path 152

X. Hairy-cap Moss, Polytrichum commune, L. . . .162

XI. Umbilicaria vellea, (L.) Nyl. 174

Rock Tripe, Umbilicaria Mublenbergii, (Ach.)

Tuckerm 174

XII. Scarlet-crested Cladonia, Cladonia cristatella, Tuckerm. 1 84
Brown-fruited Cup Cladonia, Cladonia pyxidata,

(L.)Fr. 184

XIII. A Thalloid Hepatic, Marcbantia polymorpba, L. . 204

Mosses and Lichens

FACING PAGE

XIV. Hepatic, Dry, Frullania eboracensis, Gottsche . . 228

Hepatic, Porella platyphyUa 228

Hepatic, Moist, Frullania eboracensis, Gottsche . 228

Hepatic, Ptilidium ciliare, Nees 228

XV. Climacium dendroides, Web. & Mohr . . . .250

Climadum Americanum, Brid 250

XVI. Hypnum curvifolium, Hedw. . . . . . 276

xv I

BLACK AND WHITE PLATES

FACING PAGE

I. The ruby-throated humming-birds know these
lichens and so use them in decorating their
nests as to make it difficult to distinguish them

from lichen-covered knot-holes .... 34

II. The Pitted Cetraria, Cetraria lacunosa, Ach. . 80

III. Old Man's Beard, Usnea barbaia, variety Florida 82

IV. Old Man's Beard, Usnea longissima ... 84
V. Parmelia pbysodes, (L.) Ach., variety vittata. . 86

VI. Parmelia perlaia, (L.) Ach 90

VII. Spotted Lungwort, Sticta pulmonaria, (L.) Ach. . 96

VIII. StereocaulonPascbale, L 98

IX. The Fringed Cladonia, Cladonia fimbriaia, (L.) Fr. 102

X. Batfania trilobata, L. 106

XI. Acute-leaved Peat-moss, Sphagnum acutifolium,

Ehrh. 124

XII. The Spread-leaved Peat-moss, Sphagnum squar-

rosum, (Pers.) 128

XIII. The Broom-moss, Dicranum scoparium, Hedw. . 154

X I V. Whip-fork Moss — young, Dicranum flagellare, Hedw. 1 70
Whip-fork Moss — old, Dicranum flagellare, Hedw. 170

Ditricbum pallidum 170

Ortbotricbum 170

XV. The Curly-leaved Ulota, Ulota crispa, Mohr, and 186

Lichen, Parmelia saxatilis, (L.) Fr. . . .186

XVI. Top Moss, Pbyscomitrium turbinatum, Muell. ined. 210

The Pale Funaria, Funaria flavicans, Michx. . 210

The Water-measuring Cord-moss, Funaria bygro-

metrica, Sibth 210

XVII. Weber a nutans, Hedw 218

Weber a albicans, Schimp. L c 218

XVIII. The Rose Bryum, Bryum roseum, Schreb. . . 224
XIX. Mnium punctatum, variety elatum, Bruch &

Schimp 232

Mosses and Lichens

PLATE

XX. Buxbaumia apbylla, L

Aulacomnium heterostichum, Bruch & Schimp.
XXI. Juniper Hair-cap, Polytricbum juniperinum,Wi\\d.
XXII. Anomodon apiculatus, Bruch & Schimp. .

XXIII. The Dainty Cedar-moss, Tbuidium delicatulum,

Linn

XXIV. BracTjyihedum rivulare, Bruch, Ms.

XXV. Bracbytbecium Navce-Anglice, (Sull. & Lesq.)

Jaeger & Sauer

Bracbytbecium Starkii, (Brid.) Br. & Sc. .

XXVI. Hypnum Boscii, Schwaegr

XXVII. Hypnum reptile, Michx

Amblystegium varium, (Hedw.) Lindb.
XXVIII. The Knight's-plume Moss, Hypnum crista-

castrensis, L

XXIX. Hypnum imponens, Hedw

XXX. Hypnum Scbreberl, Willd

XXXI. The Glittering Feather-moss, Hypnum splendens,
Hedw.

FACING PAGE

236
236
254
27O

282
284

288
288
290
292
292

298
302
306

308

XXXII. The Triangular Wood-reveller, Hypnum triquei-

rum.L 310

PART ONE
MOSSES AND LICHENS AT HOME

CHAPTER I
MOSSES AND LICHENS AT HOME

" Children of lowly birth,
Pitifully weak ;

Humblest creatures of the wood
To your peaceful brotherhood
Sweet the promise that was given
Like the dew from heaven :
1 Blessed are the meek,
They shall inherit the earth* ;
Thus are the words fulfilled :
Over all the earth
Mosses find a home secure.
On the desolate mountain crest,
Avalanche-ploughed and tempest-tilled,
The sweet mosses rest ;
On shadowy banks of streamlets pure,
Kissed by the cataracts shifting spray,
For the bird's small foot a soft highway
For the many and one distressed .

Little sermon of peace."

Willis Boyd Allen.

No FREQUENTER of the woods can be unfamiliar with the
more conspicuous lichens and mosses. It is with them that
nature adorns her bare unsightly children. She drapes the time-
worn evergreens with gray fringes (see Frontispiece) and decks
the old tree-stumps with red or yellow corals. Soft lichens
spread over the ground in the deep shade of the pine trees, while
pale green or yellow rosettes creep over the fence-rails and the
big rocks in the pasture lot. (See Colour Plate II.)

" Far above among the mountains the silver lichen spots rest, starlike,
on the stone ; and the gathering orange stain upon the edge of yonder
western peak reflects the sunsets of a thousand years." — Ruskin.

Lichens and mosses are met with all over the world, in the
cold North and in the sunny South, in the East and in the West,

Mosses and Lichens

by the seashore and on the highest mountain peaks. They are
the first growths to appear on the rocks and in the places which
give no foothold to other plants. When the side of a mountain
is torn away by frosts and floods, and the bared rocks, shorn of
their forest trees and shrubs, are left unsightly with nothing to
tempt other plants to make a home on their ledges, then the
lichens come and cover the bared cliffs with delicate traceries and
mantles of exquisite grays and greens. They need no soil, a
polished rock will meet their need.

"Meek creatures; the first mercy of the earth, veiling with hushed
softness its dustless rocks ; creatures full of pity, covering with strange
and tender honour the scarred disgrace of time." — Ruskin.

The foothold of the lichens is often so insecure that one must
exclaim as he sees them, " How do you grow in such unfavour-
able places? On what do you subsist ? No soil! No water!
Dry as tinder! Crumbling at any rude touch!" If the plant
could answer, no doubt it would say, "There must be pioneers
to open up new territory for higher plants, so from the earliest
times nature has employed us to do this work. We travel swift
as the wind for we travel with the wind. We are fed by the
rains and the dews, the hard rocks soften at our touch and give
us food."

" The chapel and bridge are of stone alike,
Blackish-gray and mostly wet ;
Cut hemp-stalks steep in the narrow dyke,
See here again, how the lichens fret
And the roots of the ivy strike."

Browning — By the Fireside.

It is true that these little plants as they lie upon the rocks,
secrete an acid which dissolves the hard minerals. It is true that
they have the power to condense moisture from the air, however
little it may be, for they must have water as an item of food and
as a medium by which mineral-salts dissolved from the rocks may
enter the interior of the plant and may pass from cell to cell to
those parts where they are to be worked up into plant food.

The lichens are often the forerunners of rock-loving mosses
as without the scanty soil prepared by their chemical action and,
without the slight foothold which their debris afford, many
mosses would be unable to get a start upon the forbidding rock.

Mosses and Lichens at Home

With the mosses nature first clothes naked sides of ditches and
clay banks and spaces between stubble of hay and corn. These
otherwise unsightly spots she covers and makes attractive with a
bright green carpet. Even the hard soil along the city pavement
or in the tiny city yard she covers with a velvety coat of young
moss plants, although they rarely develop further than this
velvet stage.

" All green was vanished save of pine and yew,
That still displayed their melancholy hue ;
Save the green holly with its berries red,
And the green moss that o'er the gravel spread."

Crabbe — Tales of the Hall.

The blackened embers of the picnic fire are hidden with Golden
Cord-mosses (Colour Plate III) and the roadsides in the woods
and the slopes to the lake are carpeted with sturdy Hairy-caps
(Colour Plate X). The crumbling roofs of deserted cottages
and the unused well-sweep and old oaken bucket are decorated
with soft tufts of green. Indeed the mosses are lodged in the
crevices of the stones which line the well itself and late in the
winter when all the world is asleep under its blanket of soft
white snow, these little mosses grow and flourish unaffected by
the cold above.

Nature distributes the mosses lavishly in all humid climates,
regardless of altitude, cold or heat. They are found on trees
living or dead, on earth or on rock, in streams and on the land.

" The orange stain, which is time's finger mark on the gray wall, and
the cups with scarlet edges spread for fairy banquets — the soft green
beds into which our feet sink, and all the loveliness which we think of
when we think of — mosses." — Ruskin.

Who has not loved the mossy banks and the little velvet
cushions which cling to the plaster of the old wall (Colour Plate
IV) or spring up in the crevices of the pavement, giving restful
spots of green to the dreary monotony of brick and stone?
Children play with mosses and lichens. Poets sing their charms.
Artists endeavour to reproduce their wonderful colours traced on
bark and rock.

Aside from their artistic charm, mosses and lichens have
other charms for all who will pause awhile to study their habits,
and for all who will linger long enough to make out what the
plants are doing in their humble way. They have wonderful

Mosses and Lichens

mechanical contrivances for the physicist, curious processes of
interest to the chemist, and many suggestions for the philosopher.
Go into the woods and pastures after a rain. You will find
a beauty and loveliness on rocks and trees and fallen logs which
were not even suggested on a dry sunshiny day. The wood is
in her glory at such times, and everyone who once sees her in
her splendour will visit her again.

" Here are cool mosses deep,
And thro' the moss the ivies creep.''

Tennyson — The Lotos Eaters: Choric song.

The habit the mosses and lichens have of changing form and
colour is one full of interest. The crisp gray moss cushions,
which quickly turn green in the rain, must excite curiosity
(Colour Plate IV). Pause awhile by a fresh green bank of Hairy-
caps (Colour Plate X) wet with dew, and as the sun comes
out and shines upon the little plants, watch them shrink away,
changing the fresh bank into one brown and bare. Watch them
again in a rain or when the evening dew is falling, to see every
apparently dead brown plant revive and become green as before.
The cause of the change is easily seen by one looking closely.
The plant does not die when the sun shines, it simply folds the
edges of its leaves together and turns them up against the stem
so that their horny tips, instead of their delicate leaf surfaces, are
presented to the sun.

The cause of the upturning of the leaves of the Hairy-caps,
the change of colour of many mosses and lichens from gray to
green, the methods by which they subsist on bare and barren
rocks and soils, and endure extreme and sudden changes in the
dryness and humidity of the air, are all interesting questions to
be answered by the microscope, together with careful observa-
tions in the field.

Gray or crimson Bog-mosses (see Colour Plate III), steadily
working their way over swamps and ponds, preparing a foothold
for larger plants, illustrate to us how the great peat-bogs of
Ireland and of other parts of world were made.

Whether one study the mosses and lichens for their natural
beauty, for their habits, or from a botanical standpoint, they
are interesting. They are true lovers of fresh air and clear
running water, beautiful creatures in beautiful homes. They are

Mosses and Lichens at Home

beautiful even when dried and pressed for the herbarium, so that
one with a taste for collecting may regard the artistic as well as
the useful.

The wide distribution of the mosses and lichens and their
power of enduring great cold renders them available for study at
all times of the year. They are reported to have been found in
all parts of the globe.

Dr. Isaac I. Hayes who in 1854 discovered Grinnell Land, tells
of finding "moss" as far north as Booth Bay in Greenland, in
Latitude 76° 30'. The uses to which the moss was put in their
distress were varied. After improvising a hut from a crevice in
the rock by filling open places with loose stones pried from the
frozen ground, they made a roof of sails and thatched it a foot
thick with "moss" dug with their tin dinner plates from under
two feet of snow. All cracks were closed with the moss, and
tapers of "moss" dipped in oil were depended upon to light
their dismal quarters.

The habit of using moss for filling in chinks and cracks is a
common one among all pioneers, as one may see by observing
the log huts in newly opened districts, for mixed with clay it
forms a useful cement. This art is not known alone to man.

" Within a thick and spreading hawthorn bush
That overhung a molehill large and round,
I heard from morn to morn a merry thrush
Sing hymns of rapture, while I drank the
Sound with joy — and oft an unintruding guest,
I watched her secret toils from day to day;
How true she warped the moss to form her nest,
And modell'd it within with wood and clay."

Claire— The Thrush's Nest.

CHAPTER II

HOW TO KNOW THE LICHENS AND MOSSES — WHAT
THEY ARE DOING ON ROCKS AND TREES

Under the name of moss, in the popular mind, are included
all small flowerless plants which grow in cushion-like tufts on
stone or wood or bark. The name "moss" is made to do duty
for the lichens, the mosses and their near relatives, the Hepatics,
plants which differ widely in structure and appearance,
as those will see who give more than a passing glance.

LICHENS

If a small plant, rootless, of almost any colour
except bright green, grows as a dainty mat — a ibal~
lus— Hat (Colour Plate V) or ruffled (Plate II) on
its support, one may suspect that it is a lichen.
If in addition to this habit of growth, it bears its
fruits in flattened coloured disks (Colour Plate
VII) one may know it is a lichen, also if the
plants branch like corals (Colour Plate XI), or
hang in fringes (Colour Plate I) from the trees,
and are without leaves, one may suspect
that they are lichens and may be pretty
sure of it if the fruits are little coloured
disks or cushions on the tips of the
branches. The "Florida Moss," which
grows in long gray fringes from the
trees in the South, is neither a lichen
nor a moss, but is a true flowering
plant with stamens and pistils, the
old seed capsules are often
found still clinging to this
moss-appearing plant,
in the season when it

Aulacomnium Heterostichvm.
Moss.

How to Know the Lichens and Mosses

Hepatic. Hepatic. Hepatic.

is not in flower. It was probably to this plant Gannet referred
when he wrote:

"A cloister dim, where the gray moss waves,
And the live-oaks lock their arms at will."

TRUE MOSSES

If plants are small and green,
with leafy stems, and have the
habit of living in such close
proximity as to form

Spore-case
without lid.

Lid.

Spore-case

velvety cushions, (Cera- with lid re-

. ., : \ moved to

todon purpiireum) one

Spore-case
with lid.

Bryum argenieum.

show teeth
wanting.

Hedwigia ciliata

may suspect them of be-
ing mosses, but if they
have this habit of growth, or grow in clusters resembling tiny
ferns or miniature trees and bear their spores in little cases
opening by lids, one may feel confident that they are the true
mosses as distinguished from hepatics.

Hepatic. Spore-case split into
four symmetrical valves.

Ceratodon purpureum, Velvety Cushion.

Mosses and Lichens

HEPATICS

If the plants are green, growing flat and ribbon-like or as
prostrate stems with paired, veinless leaves and with fruits
umbrella-like or cups which do not open by lids but split
irregularly into symmetrical valves in order to permit their
spores to escape, one may know them to be hepatics.

The beauty which mosses lend to the surfaces upon which
they live is pretty generally conceded. One has but to recall the
frequent reference which our poets make to them to feel that
they have always appealed to the poetic eye.

Mnium ajfine. Moss.

" On our other side is the straight-up rock ;

And a path is kept 'twixt the gorge and it,
By boulder-stones where lichens mock

The marks on a moth, and small ferns fit
Their teeth to the polished block.

These early November hours,

That crimson the creeper's leaf across
Like a splash of blood, intense, abrupt,

O'er a shield else gold from rim to base,
And lay it for show on the fairy-cupped

Elf -needled mat of moss."

Browning — By the Fireside.

Ruskin says: "To them, slow-fingered, constant-hearted, is
entrusted the weaving of the dark, eternal tapestries of the hills."

How to Know the Lichens and Mosse

Whittier in " The Bridal of Pennacook," to the query of "Why
turns the bride's fond eye on him, in whose cold look is naught
beside the triumph of a sullen pride ?" replies:

" Ask why the graceful grape entwines
The rough oak with her arm of vines ;
And why the gray rock's rugged cheek
The soft lips of the mosses seek :
Why with wise instinct, Nature seems
To harmonise her wide extremes,
Linking the stronger with the weak,
The haughty with the soft and meek ! "

Shakespeare calls the mosses "idle":

" It is dross, usurping ivy, brier,
or idle moss."

Comedy of Errors, Act II, Sc. a.

Scientists of to-day tell us that the rock-loving mosses and
lichens are at work upon the "everlasting hills" to convert them
into new soil ; that the saprophytic mosses on dead logs in the
forest are at work returning to Mother Earth the materials which
her tree-children took from her many years ago. They tell us
that bog-mosses are reclaiming the marshes for higher plants,
and that the water-loving mosses are receiving from the brooks
lime-solutions which were brought up from depths below, and
are laying them down in places where they are useful to man.
As our knowledge of their practical value increases we shall not
lose sight of their beauty, a new wonder will be added to our
knowledge and many new interests to our trips "among the
nodding ferns and mosses cool."

Their association with aged castles and trees is so familiar to
everyone that the poet has but to mention mosses and lichens to
picture lonely places and peaceful decay. "Moss-muffled for-
ests dim" and "the rocks where the brown lichen whitens "
give to us a feeling of loneliness, while the picture of Oliver —

" A wretched, ragged man o'ergrown with hair "

is complete when Orlando finds him sleeping on his back
" under an oak, whose boughs are mossed with age."

As You Like It. Act. IV, Sc. 3.

Wordsworth tells us:

' ' There is a thorn — it looks so old,
In truth, you'll find it hard to say

Mosses and Lichens

How it could ever have been young,

It stands erect and like a stone
With lichens it is overgrown."

Spenser expresses another idea when he saysof the ancient oak :

"But now the gray moss marred his rine ;"

and Shakespeare also when he introduces Tamora, Queen of the
Goths, to

" A barren, detested vale . . .
The trees, though summer, yet forlorn
O'ercome with moss, and baleful mistletoe."

Titus Andronicus, Act II, Sc, 3-

Mosses and Lichens are both soil-makers. They work by
two methods. The one chemical, the other mechanical. By
chemical action they either construct plant tissue of gases taken
directly from the air or they first free from rock or wood or earth-
mould, the minerals needed and then construct them into plant
tissue. By mechanical action they pry off bits of soil from hard
rock, arrest dust and debris brought to them by the wind, and
constantly add to the mass, such plant tissue as they themselves
are continually shedding.

" Upon this herbless rock a small gray lichen
Did fix her home. She came with meek intent,
To bless her stern and sterile place of rest ;
And presently her gentle sisters followed,
Some vestal white , and some in robes of brown,
And some in yellow vestures, labouring all
At the same work, with tiny cups held out
To catch the raindrops, and with mattocks small
To pierce the rock. And well did they effect
Their destined purpose."

One of the most important sources of the nourishment of
plants is carbon dioxide (C O2). It is the gas which bubbles up
from "soda water" and it is the gas breathed out by animals.
It is formed wherever a candle, lamp, or wood is burning or
wherever vegetable or animal matter is decomposing. The gas
is itself a compound of an elementary gas, oxygen (O) united
with an elementary solid, carbon (C) known by the common
names of charcoal and graphite. Stated in a general way, the
carbon dioxide passes through the walls of the plant cells into
the cell-contents and there by the leaf-green (chlorophyll) the

How to Know the Lichens and Mosses

oxygen gas (O) is set free to return to the atmosphere, and the
solid carbon (C) is worked up with water into plant foods called
carbohydrates, compounds of carbon and water, of which starch,
sugar, and plant tissues are examples.

" A small sisterhood of plodding lichens
Wrought on the rock ; the sun, the wind and rain,
Helping then gladly, till each fissure filled
And fit for planting, mosses came in haste
And strewed small seeds (spores) among them, destined they
To clothe the stern old rock with softest verdure
With ferns and flowers, where yet the labouring bee
May find pasture."

Certain lichens carried by the winds to places unsuitable for
other plants, begin their work of dissolving the inhospitable rock
to obtain mineral salts which the leaf-green may, together with
water, manufacture into plant food; the delicate threads of the
lichen work their way in and out among the particles of rock too
small to be visible to the naked eye, and as they swell with
water absorbed from the atmosphere, they pry off tiny particles
of rock, thus slowly but surely preparing soil for higher forms.

The mosses also can take their start in life on bare and rugged
rock, although not so generally as the lichens.

If a tuft of Grimmia apocarpa is lifted away from the lime-
stone upon which it is growing, one may see corroded depressions
in the neighbourhood of the place where the stemlets of the moss
colony meet, and one may see the rhizoids of the moss imbedded
in loose particles of limestone which have been separated from
the main rock by a dissolving fluid which the rhizoids secreted
upon the rock. In this way the moss obtains mineral salts which
are necessary for its growth. The solid rock is crumbled to a
dust which may be blown by the wind to other localities, or
which may remain on the spot and furnish soil for higher plants.
In addition to the chemical action which the moss exerts in
dissolving the rock, it, as well as the lichen, exerts a purely
mechanical influence, for a growing rhizoid penetrates wherever
the merest particle of limestone has been dissolved and by
mechanical pressure separates the particles of limestone which
remain.

The mosses and lichens are truly efficient agents in rendering
rocks available for plant life by retaining minute particles of soil

Mosses and Lichens

but their work does not stop here, for as the older plants die and
crumble and mingle with the disintegrated rock, an incredible
amount of earth-mould is formed which is a favourable site for
higher forms of mosses, ferns, and other spore-bearing plants.

That the leafy parts above arrest to a remarkable degree the
dust which pervades the atmosphere, not only along dusty road-
sides and open plains, but also in remote mountain
valleys, in Arctic ice fields, and in most of the
elevated parts of the earth's crust, will be evident
to one who detaches and examines a small tuft of
Barbula, which everywhere occurs on roadside
walls. He will be surprised to learn the extent to
which the road dust has been lodged in the older
dead parts of the plants, and he will be equally sur-
prised to learn with what tenacity the dust is held.
The power the older parts of the plants have of
holding the dust is due to certain alterations which
take place in the lifeless cell-tissue. To be con-
vinced that fine dust is also carried to the more
remote and elevated regions, one must examine the
lichens and dark Grimmias, Andr&as and other rock
mosses which grow in small cushion-like tufts on
weather-beaten mountain crags, when he will find
that not much less dust has been arrested by them
than by the Barbula living near the dusty roadside.
Old crumbled lichens, together with dust blown

Andraa rupestnt ,.,.... , , ,

Plant with spore- thither by the wind, accumulate under the thallus,
case- or leaf-like expansion of the lichen, and soon form

a suitable home in which moss spores may grow. The mosses
in turn add their share to the accumulation of humus preparatory
to the coming of the ferns, and the ferns in turn prepare for the
trees with winged seeds, the evergreens and birches, which
require no very great depth of soil, sturdy pioneers of mountain
forests.

It is true that all green plants do a similar work, but they do
not work under such primitive conditions as do the mosses and
lichens.

Aquatic mosses possess, perhaps to a greater degree, the power
of arresting and retaining mud and fine sand hurried along by a
violent rush of water. The plants of Hypnum rusciforme and

How to Know the Lichens and Mosses

Atnblystegiwn riparium, which cling to rocks in streams, are so
conglomerated by mud and sand that they cannot be freed from
it until the plants have become dried and shrivelled. Limnobium
molle, which grows in the turbid waters from glaciers, has such
an abundance of earthly particles adhering to it that only the
green tips of the leaf-bearing stems are visible above the gray-
coloured cushions imbedded in the mud. It is the dead parts
alone which retain in their thick felt of interwoven filaments, the
firmly divided mud and sand. That they are able to do this is
due to the fact that the cell-membranes swell up and become
slightly mucilaginous. This mechanical retention and storage of
dust by rock-plants, and of mud by aquatic plants, is of the
greatest importance in determining the development of the earth's
covering of vegetation. The first settlers are crustaceous lichens,
minute mosses, and algae. Larger lichens and mosses are able
to gain a footing on the substratum prepared by them.

" Tis spring-time on the eastern hills!
Like torrents gush the summer rills,
Through winter's moss and dry dead leaves
The bladed grass revives and lives,
Pushes the mouldering waste away,
And glimpses to the April day."

Whittier — Mogg Megone, Pt. HI.

The dead filaments, stems, and leaves of this second genera-
tion arrest dust in the air and mud in the water, and thus prepare
a soft bed for the germs of a third generation, which on rocks
consists of grasses, composites, pinks, and other small herbs,
and in the water of pond- weeds, water-crowfoots, hornwort, and
related plants. The second generation is produced in greater
abundance than the first, and the third develops more luxuriantly
than the second. The third may be followed by a fourth, fifth,
and sixth, each successive generation crushing out and supplant-
ing the one preceding it.

Another marked and important change results from these
small beginnings. Streams on rather flat lands are turned from
their courses by the accumulation of debris made possible by the
arrested sand and mud, ponds have their outlets choked so that
often new outlets must be cut, and small lakes are often cut in two
by a natural divide which is due to the accumulation of sand and silt
bound together, first by water plants and later by shrubs and trees.

Mosses and Lichens

The fact that at the present time the lichens and mosses are
the first plants to appear on the soil, leads one to think that in
ages gone by these little plants may have been the first to appear
on the earth, and that they may have reigned supreme for a time
in the plant world. This view is not sustained by positive tes-
timony from the rocks, as there is no fossil evidence that mosses
existed in Paleozoic times, nor has any certain trace of a moss
been found in the coal-measures. Fossil mosses have been
obtained almost entirely from tertiary and quaternary deposits.

Notwithstanding that there is no fossil evidence that mosses
did exist, there is no evidence that they did not exist, as their
absence from the plant records written in the older formations is
probably to be accounted for by reason of their insignificant size
and the difficulty of their preservation.

Another use the lichens and mosses subserve in the economy
of Nature is illustrated by their habit of retaining great quantities
of water in their spongy mass both on lofty mountain heights and
in the forests of the valleys.

In many parts of the world it is principally the moss-covered
soil of the forests which, by collecting the rainfall, prevents the
pouring down from mountains of violent and excessive torrents
of water.

Above the tree-line, in slight depressions on the sloping,
rocky mountain sides, one may often find extensive patches of
Sphagnum-moss and Reindeer-lichens which are crisp and dry
on the surface, and yet retain so much water in their matted
bases as to render it possible for one to obtain a supply of clear
water. From areas of moss more extensive and of greater depth,
tiny rills often trickle on their way to join other rills of similar
origin. The sources of many a babbling brook or purling spring
in the valley may be traced to the supersaturated moss-bed of a
mountain forest.

" Desolate ledges, frost-riven and bare,
A tiny rivulet bore on their breast ;
Cloud-gray mosses and lichens fair
Mutely besought her to slumber and rest.''

Willis Boyd Allen.

"Thou hastenest down between the hills to meet me at the road,
The secret scarcely lisping of thy beautiful abode
Among the pines and mosses ot yonder shadowy height,
Where thou dost sparkle into song, and fill the woods with light."

Lucy Larcom.

How to Know the Lichens and Mosses

MARSH BUILDING ON MOUNT MARCY

Upon the open summit of Mount Marcy, 5,344 feet above sea
level, there are two small marshy areas. One is a decided
depression in the northeast slope; the other is on the eastern
slope and nearer the summit. The water necessary to maintain
the character of these marshes is probably supplied in part by
rainfall, and in part by melting of snows which have accumulated
in the crevices of the rocks above. The two marshes are cold
botanical gardens of natural formation, unique indeed, as there is
no evidence that the soil for them could have been brought from
other sources, while everything suggests that the mosses and
lichens at the present time growing on the bare surfaces of the
rocks are active soil-makers. The boulders of the summit are
variegated by the different colours of the lichens growing on
their hard and almost naked surface. The rock beneath the
lichens is more soft and scaly than elsewhere, and the moss tufts
have the spaces between their lower stems and leaves filled with
dirt and sand. The soil in most places is but a few inches deep,
and largely composed of dead vegetable matter. Only plants of
the most hardy nature are found here, and these are small and
imperfect representations of similar plants growing at lower alti-
tudes. The total number of species found on the summit is 206,
of which 103 — just half of the total number — are dependent for
their existence on the other half, the Lichens, Liverworts, and
Mosses.

MOSSES WHICH BUILD UP LIMESTONE

In trickling springs of mountainous regions, and on the lime-
stone rocks of Niagara Falls, and in other localities are found
mosses which obtain part of the carbon dioxide (C O2) they
require by the decomposition of the bicarbonate of lime
[HaCa ( CO3)2] dissolved in the surrounding water. The mono-
carbonate of lime (CaC O3), which is insoluble in ordinary water,
is then precipitated in the form of incrustations upon the leaves
and stems of the plants. Gymnostomum curvirostre, Trichosto-
mum tophaceum, Hypnum falcatum, and others which regularly
occur in streams arising from springs loaded with bicarbonate of
lime [HaCa(CO3)2] in solution become completely incrusted with
lime, but go on growing at the tips as the older and lower parts
imbedded in lime die off. In consequence, the bed of the stream

Mosses and Lichens

itself becomes calcified and elevated, and, in the course of time,
banks of calcareous tufa are formed, which may attain to consider-
able dimensions. Banks raised in this manner are known which
are not less than forty-eight feet in height. To construct them,
it is estimated that mosses must have been at work on them for
more than 2,000 years.

CHAPTER III
LICHENS IN HISTORY

Somewhat authentic reference to lichens is found in the
writings of the Greek philosopher Theophrastus (382-287 B. C.),
a pupil of Aristotle. He gives us imperfect descriptions of Old
Man's Beard (Usnea barbata) and Roccella tinctoria. Dioscorides,
a Greek physician, and the founder of botany, who flourished in
the first and second centuries, and also Gaius Plinius, a Roman
naturalist (23-79), wno perished in the eruption which destroyed
Pompeii, both wrote of lichens which may have been those
described by Theophrastus. It is not improbable, however, that
they were speaking of Marchantia or some other liverwort.
The fact that lichens had few qualities which rendered them
particularly conspicuous, caused them to be largely neglected by
the early botanists. They are not as a rule striking in colour,
size, or form and they have no marked useful or harmful properties.
The incentive which led to the early study of plants was a desire
to find properties which would be of use in medicine or in the
household, therefore the early herbalists gave their attention to
plants with real or imaginary medicinal properties.

The lichens which could yield a dye were among the first to
receive attention. Roccella tinctoria is supposed to have yielded
the blue and purple dye of the Old Testament (Ex. XXV: 4).
The dye called oricello, was certainly in use before the first
century of our era. The knowledge of the dye was lost after the
fall of the Roman Empire, but in 1300, Federigo, a Florentine of
German parentage, accidentally rediscovered the method of
preparing and using it. He is said to have achieved great success,
and to have become the head of a distinguished family, the
Oricellari, Roccellari, and Rucellai. From which we have orseille,
the name of the dye material, and Roccella, the name of the genus
of which Roccella tinctoria is a member. A blue litmus solution
is produced by fermenting this lichen. It may be turned red by
adding an acid and then turned blue again by adding an alkali as

Mosses and Lichens

ammonia or limewater. For this reason it serves as a test for
acid and alkaline substances.

LICHENS AS DRUGS

Since many lichens had a fancied resemblance to certain parts
of the human body, they were supposed to be a cure for the
disease of that part of the body which they resembled. Old
Man's Beard (Usnea barbata, Colour Plate I) was used to
promote the growth of hair. Yellow wall lichen (Xanthoria
parietina, Colour Plate II) was given for jaundice.

Peltigera canina dried and finely powdered and mixed with red
pepper formed an anti-hydrophobia powder (Pulvis antilyssus)
of the London Pharmacopoeia. In the history of the Royal
Society it is recorded that several mad dogs belonging to the
Duke of York were saved by this powder.

A prescription of Dr. Mead reads: "Patient is bled and
ordered to take a dose ofpeltt'gera in warm milk for four conse-
cutive mornings thereafter. He must take a cold bath every
morning for a month, and for two weeks subsequent, a bath
three times a week."

LICHENS AS FOOD

" Iceland moss" (Ceiraria Islandica, Colour Plate VII) is even
now used as an article of food, as it contains a high per cent, of
lichen-starch.

The Spotted Lungwort (Sticta pulmonaria, Colour Plate VII)
was considered a sure cure for lung trouble and was used in a
Siberian monastery for a beer which was noted for its peculiar
bitterness.

The manna of the Israelites is supposed to have been a species
of Lecanora (Lecanora esculenta). This lichen is plentiful in
Algeria and Tartary, as well as in mountainous districts of other
countries. It is its habit to grow and spread rapidly and, as it is
loosely attached, it is often carried by the wind down the sides
of mountains into the valley, where it is spoken of as " Rains of
manna." Kirghiz Tartars eat it as "earth bread."

It first forms thick-wrinkled and warted grayish-yellow crusts
on the stones. Within, they are as white as parched corn.

Lichens in History

As the plant grows older the crust is rent and loosened from
the substratum, while the edges curl over until the loosened piece
forms an elliptical warted body about the size of a hazel-nut.
The Manna Lichen is sometimes brought down in such quantities
by the rain that it accumulates to a depth of several inches, and
in the Steppe region, and in the high lands of southwest Asia is
used as a substitute lor corn.

From the time of Dioscorides in the first century, A. D., until
1825, advance in exact knowledge of lichens was practically
nothing. Between 1825 and 1868 considerable progress was
made in the chemical study of lichens, the investigations still
being primarily made with a view to improving the dye industry.

France took the lead in improved methods of extracting dye
as well as of applying it.

LICHENS

" Little lichen, fondly clinging
In the wild wood to the tree,
Covering all unseemly places,
Hiding all thy tender graces,
Ever dwelling in the shade,
Never seeing sunny glade."

R. M. E.. Lichens.

CHAPTER IV
THE ORIGIN AND NATURE OF LICHENS

STRANGE opinions were entertained in regard to the origin of
lichens. The belief was general that they were spontaneously
generated. In them the philosopher found the origin of plant
life. "Spontaneously, inorganic stone became living plant!"
Dr. Hornschuch wrote in 1819, "Algae, lichens, and mosses may
develop without seed from decomposing water. The decom-
position of water induced by warmth and sunlight gives rise
to the common ancestral type of algae, lichens, and mosses.
This ancestral type is a vegetable infusorium known as
monas lens which, when acted upon by light and air, under-
goes an evolutionary transformation into algae, lichens, and
moss."

Nees Von Esenbeck, in 1820, was wont to lead his pupils to
an old castle in order to demonstrate ad oculos, how the green
substance when occurring on rocks will develop into lichens.

De Bary was the first author to hint at the true nature of
lichens (1866). His conception of the lichen as a dual organism
composed of a fungus and an alga, was upheld by the researches
of Schwendener and Bornet in 1868.

Further investigation seems to prove that the lichen is not an
individual plant, but that it is the result of an alliance perhaps for
mutual benefit between two forms of plant life, an alga and a
fungus. The alga gives the green colour to the lichen and is a
relative of the simple plants which make damp stone or wood-
work green on the shady sides of streets and houses and trees.
The fungus is a relative of the toadstools and moulds. If one
look at a piece of white mouldy bread, or in the ground at the base
of a toadstool, one can see a true fungus plant which is simply a
network of fine white treads (hyphce) stealing their food instead of
manufacturing it for themselves. They have lost their leaf-green
granules, the tools with which plant-food is manufactured from
air and water and mineral salts, but they have acquired the

The Origin and Nature of Lichens

An Alga-fungus company. The cut shows a
magnified portion of a lichen, Stereocaulon ramu-
losum, (Sw.), (h) colourless hyphae of a fungus en-
veloping, (g) filaments of a blue-green alga
Scytonema.

power of absorbing great quantities of water and of resisting
alternate drying and wetting.

The alga will perish if exposed to dry air, but when kept
moist is capable of taking elements from the air and 01 manufac-
turing them into plant-food
by means of little granules
of leaf-green it has in its
cells.

In the alliance the fungus
is entirely dependent upon
the food manufactured by
the green alga and in return
keeps the sun's rays from
the alga and absorbs water
for its work.

The Alga-fungus com-
pany, or lichen, is perhaps
one of the earliest instances
of division of labour, a
little community in which
one party manufactures and supplies food to the other which
serves as protector.

The gray-green of a lichen is then due to the fact that a bright-
green plant is covered over by a translucent white plant, and the
brighter green of the wet lichen is due to the fact that the wet
strands of the fungus are rendered transparent by the absorbed
moisture, and permit the colour of the imbedded green to be seen.

A magnified portion of a dissected lichen very much resembles
a tangle of fine white threads in which are scattered bits of green.
The white threads of the fungus creep around in search of
moisture and as a rule determine the shape the lichen is to be,
while the green cells or threads of the alga follow their protecting
fungus. However little moisture there may be in the surrounding
air, the fungus threads absorb it for their working companion,
and so the lichen can live in places too dry and parched for
other plants.

"Strong in loveliness, they neither blanch in heat nor pine in
frost."

On account of this dual nature it has been difficult to decide
where to place the lichens in the plant kingdom ; to decide

Mosses and Lichens

whether they belong with the algae, with the fungi or have a
place as individual plants.

It is claimed that with the microscope one may often deter-
mine the species of the associated fungus, as well as that of the
associated alga and that this alga freed from the lichen-fungus
pursues its normal mode of life and can then be identified.

It is also claimed that lichens have been formed from the
spores of a fungus partner allowed to germinate on free-growing
algae, and that a variety of lichens have thus been developed and
that the same alga will produce different kinds of lichens if
associated with different fungi, and that spores of the fungus-
partner have been grown on nutrient solutions and have pro-
duced a fungus. One instance is known of a fungus- partner
(Cora pavonia) which can lead an existence independent of the
alga-partner.

HOW A LICHEN IS MADE

According to this theory, if a wandering fungus spore meets
a group of algal cells with which it can live in harmony, a lichen-
fungus-company may be founded on the spot. This lichen may

grow and flourish and may from time
to time send forth representatives to
found new colonies.

By another method, which is some-
what analogous to the budding of
higher plants, the partners for the new
colonies arise within the parent lichen
company. Certain groups of cells (So-
redia) separate from the rest, each group
consisting of one or more algal cells
enmeshed in a dense weft of fungus
hyphae. At the proper time the surface
of the parent lichen ruptures, and the
numerous social groups appear, giving
to the old lichen that attractive hoary
or frosted appearance they so often
have. With the aid of the wind these
easily travel, to form new companies.
The fungus spores (ascospores) which enter into partnership
with groups of alga cells are produced in sacs (asci, singular

Coccocarpia molybdia. A section
of the thallus showing the green
cells of the alga covered by the
colourless cells of the fungus. When
the lichen is damp the colourless
cells are more translucent and the
green cells show more and the
lichen is greener than when dry.

MOSSES AND LICHENS

COLOUR PLATE III

HYPNUM UNCINATUM, Hedw.

GOLDEN-CORD MOSS.
Funaria hygrometrica, Sibth.

GEORGIA PELLUCIDA, Rabenh.

NECKERA PENNATA, Hedw.
A moss creeping around the tree trunk . . .

SPHAGNUM CYMBIFOLIUM, Ehrh.
. , . Crimson bog-mosses . . . illustrate how the peat-bogs . . . were made . . .

The Origin and Nature of Lichens

ascus) in organs of various shapes, knobs, or flat disks (apothe-
cia), or cup and flask-like cavities (perithecia). In addition to
these large spores (ascosporcs) of the knobs and cups there are
smaller spores (conidia)
produced in smaller cavi-
ties scattered over the thai- '
lus. There is much conjee-
ture as to what may be the
function of these spores.

In tropical countries there
is found a very beautiful
fanlike, greenish - yellow
lichen (Cora pavonia) hav-
ing a thallus marked with
concentric ridges. This
lichen bears its spores on
the under surface on tiny
clubs (basidia) instead of
in sacs. The algal partner
is one of the unicellular
blue-green algae (Chrodcoc-
cus) often found in muci-

Usnea barbata. {Ft.) (A) A vertical section
through a strand of the lichen.

(B) A cross section of a strand at a point where
a radiating strand was cut in vertical section.
(*) Apex of strand, (r) cortex, (g) algae, (m) pith
layer, (*) a central card, (ja) section of a radiating
branch with its central cord, (*•)•

laginous masses in damp
places. Another tropical
form (Dictyonema) grows
as delicate blue-green, felt-
like plates standing out
from the tree-branches to

to which they are attached. The algal partner in this case is a
blue-green, branching, and thread-like species (Scytonema) found
enveloped in a mucilaginous mass in fresh water. The fungus-
partner in both the Cora pavonia and the Dictyonema is one of
the group which forms leathery crusts on twigs and tree trunks.

Another lichen, Laudatea, has the same partners as the Dic-
tyonema. It is a crustaceous form and in it we find the exception
to the rule, that the fungus is the leading member of the lichen
firm. In it the alga has the upper hand and determines the
direction of the growth.

One lichen (Emericella -variecolour), which resembles a
tiny puff-ball, is known to be due to the confederacy of a

Mosses and Lichen*

member of the pouch-fungi group (G aster omycetes) with an .
alga (Palmella).

In the majority of lichens the algae are arranged in definite
layers, sometimes — as in the gelatinous lichens — they are distri- \
buted through the whole thickness of the thallus. The fungus
partner which, with but few exceptions, directs the growth of
the lichen, determines whether it shall encrust the surface so
that it cannot be removed without injury, or whether it shall
form shields and ribbons lightly attached, or corals and fringes
fastened at one point.

Although it is impossible without microscopic examination
to determine the exact relations of one lichen to another, much
pleasure may be derived from an acquaintance with their external
form alone. No plants are more readily preserved and none will

so satisfactorily respond
to one's effort to revive
them. Even after they
have been dry for years
they will become as beau-
tiful as ever if placed in a
.moist atmosphere. One
may find them every-
where and at all times of
the year. Their power of
absorbing moisture is tru-
ly wonderful. It is stated
that if living lichens which
have become dry in the
air, are left in a place
saturated with moisture,
they take up 35 per cent,
of water in two days and
as much as 56 per cent, in
six days. Certain lichens
after a long continuance
of dry weather will absorb
one-half their own weight
of water in ten minutes and will lose it as quickly when exposed
to dry air. It is an interesting experiment to put a mass of
Reindeer-lichen in a glass of clear water, and note how quickly

Stictima ]vliginosa. (Dicks.) Nyl. A section
showing (o) the upper cortex, (u) the under cortex,
with (r) rhizoids: (m) Pith layer showing hyphae
in side and end views, (g) gonidial zone, with the
blue-green alga chroococcus.

The Origin and Nature of Lichens

it will expand into a beautiful fresh
plant. One may appreciate their
wonderful absorbing power by
comparing the dry forest trail with
a wet one. The old tree stumps
are decked, as for a banquet, with
branching, coral-like Cladonia, a
lavish display of fairy candelabra!
The red tips of Cladonia cristatella and the brown tips of Cla-
donia mitrula are in rich contrast with their frosted green
branches. The gray goblets of Cladonia pyxidata and Cladonia

A magnified portion of Cladonia fur-
cola (Huds.) Fr. (g.) The alga protococcus
enveloped by colourless strands (h) of a
fungus.

•Pith

An ideal section through the thallus of a lichen at a point where an apolhecium is situated.

gracilis are suggestive of many a wood-sprite revel. In cedar
woods and on sunny mountain slopes, Reindeer-lichen (Cla-
donia rangiferind), covers the ground with a carpet of loveli-
est grays, crisp
and crumbling
when dry but
soft as a sponge
when moist, and

"O'er yon bare
knoll the pointed
cedar shadows
drowse on the
crisp, gray moss."
J. R. Lowell — An
Indian Summer
Reverie.

Gyrophora cylindrica, (L) Ach. (A.) A magnified section of a lichen
thallus at a point where a perithecium (Pycnidium) is situated:
showing (o) the upper surface. («) the under surface, (m)the pithy
layer, (b) the interior and (c) the opering of the perithecium.

(B) A highly magnified bit from the interior of A; (j) sterig-
mata — the tiny stalks upon which the spores are borne, (w) Wall
of the pycnidium. (m) Side and end views of hyphae from the

in Lapland feed Pittv laver-

. ... (v) Sterigmata with spores from the lichen Cladonia Novae

almost entirely

The reindeer

Mosses and Lichens

upon this lichen, and in times when food has been scarce, even

man has been glad to avail himself of it.

In Sweden at one time the people made their bread
from this lowly plant.

In moist places, velvety green ruffles
(Pdtigera, Colour Plate VII) spread on
the ground or on stones and stumps,
the edges of the ruffles set with fruit-
disks curled in such a way as to resem-
ble brown finger nails, or dogs' teeth.
In the days when drugs were selected
because of a fancied resemblance to the
part of the body in need of cure, Pelti-
gera canina was considered a cure for
Section hydrophobia and received its specific

ot thaiius toshow aig* and hyp- name canina because of the resemblance

hae in definite layers.

of its fruit-disks to a dog's teeth. When

dry the surface of the ruffles is a light quaker-drab, which quickly
changes to a bright green when the lichen is damp.

It is on the bark of trees that one finds the richest har-
vest of lichens. They are found in the greatest profusion
on the north sides of -^

the trees and for this
reason serve the wood-
man as a guide through
the forest. Emerson in
"Wood Notes" refers
to this, when he says:

" The moss upon the for-
est bark
Was pole-star when the

night was dark."
(Colour Plate IX)

The encrusted lichens,
Parmelia (Colour Plate
V), and Stic fa (Colour
Plate VII) which grow flat on rocks and trees, cling so closeiy
that they can with difficulty be separated. Their pretty gray or
green mats dotted with shining brown fruits grow from the
centre outward in an ever-widening circle, covering old fence

Epkebe Kerneri. A gelatinous lichen with the alga
distributed throughout the thallus.

The Origin and Natuie of Lichens

rails, unpainted cabins, and all other hard unsightly things which
Nature wishes to render soft and beautiful.

"O'er yon low wall, . . . whose rough, discordant

stone

Is massed to one soft gray by lichens fine
The tangled blackberry, crossed and recrossed,

weaves
A prickly network of ensanguined leaves."

J . R. Lowell — An Indian Summer Reverie.

Coliema pulposum (nat.
size). A gelatinous lichen
with Nostoc as alga.

The ruby-throated hummingbirds know
these lichens and so use them in decorating
their nests (Plate I) as to make it difficult to distinguish them
from lichen-covered knot holes. The Lungwort (Sticta ptilmo-
naria, Colour Plate VII), so called from the resemblance of the
pitted surface to the surface of a lung, does not encrust the bark
on which it grows, but clings lightly to its support when moist
and curls up its under white surface when dry, to protect its
green surface. On the same tree with
the Lungwort one often finds an hepatic
(Porella platyphylla, Colour Plate XIV),
with braided strands, and a moss (Neck-
era pennata, Colour Plate III) creeping
around the tree trunk its strands in
parallel rows.

On overhanging cliffs by lake or
stream, or on huge rocks in the forest,
one finds the oddest lichen of all, the
Rock Tripe (Colour Plate XI). When wet,
the velvety green shields lie flat, held by
a stout cord at their centres. As the air
around them becomes dry, the edges
begin to curl, bringing the soot-black
under surfaces to the light to form black tubes here and there
over the rocks. With every change in the moisture of the air
the Rock Tripe curls and uncurls, writhes, and twists; at
one time presenting its gray or green surface, at another its
black. This lichen is also used for food and is said to have
saved the life of Sir John Franklin in the Arctic seas, when he
was reduced to starvation.

Section of CV/Vma pulposvmto
show uniform distribution of
the alga throughout the whole
thickness of the thallus.

CHAPTER V

LEAFY MOSSES

The tiny moss, whose silken verdure clothes

The time-worn rock, and whose bright capsules rise,

Like fairy urns, on stalks of golden sheen,

Demand our admiration and our praise,

As much as cedar, kissing the blue sky,

Or Krubul's giant flower. God made them all,

And what He deigns to make should ne'er be deemed

Unworthy of our study and our love."

All true mosses produce their
spores in a spore-case of one shape
or another which opens, with few
exceptions, by a lid. The spore-
case may be situated at the summit
of the stem of the moss-plant or on
one side of the stem. It may or
may not be supported upon a
pedicel (seta).

Many species of moss have two
rows of teeth about the rim of the
spore-case, while some have one
row and some have none. The

Spore -case
Plant with closed opening with-
spore-case. out a lid.

Andrea rupeslris. An exception
to the rule that a moss spore-case
opens by a lid.

Pottia trun-
cata; spore -
case opening
by a lid.

Plant with
spore-case im-
Spore-case open mersed by the
and spores falling. leaves.

Archidium Ohiense. An excep-
tion to the rule that a spore-case
opens by a lid.

Leafy Mosses

Spore-case
with lid re-
mo ved to show
single row of
teeth.

Neckera pennata.

Gymnostomum ca2-
careum. Spore-case
without teeth.

Hypnum uncinalum. Por-

teeth may vary greatly in shape and num- tion of penstome to show
her; as a rule, there are four, sixteen, thirty- ciUa fnd teeth °f the inner

' membrane and one tooth

tWO, Or SiXty-four. of outer membrane with

The spore-case when immature is often annuius at the base.
covered by a cap or veil (calyptra). The veils vary in shape
and in size, sometimes persisting a long time, sometimes falling
away in the early stages.

All leafy mosses have
leaves which may vary
in size, in shape, in

Funaria hygrometrica. Spore-
cases borne on pedicels grow-
ing at the summit of stem.

Thuidittm
delicalulum.
Spore - case
sho wi ng
two rows
of teeth.

Brachythecium rivulare. Spore-case borne on a
pedicel growing from the side of the stem.

Mosses and Lichens

texture, in colour, and in the nature of the margin, this being
sometimes entire, and sometimes toothed, sometimes with a
thickened margin or with one made up of cells very different
from those within.

The species of mosses are based on the characters of the
plant, the spore-case, the pedicel, and the leaves, together with
their habit of growth.

Everything about the moss-plants indicates that their purpose
in living is to reproduce their kind. Each part is designed and
perfected with this end in view. In the struggle for existence
they have come to adapt themselves to the most varied condi-
tions, but a certain amount of water is as necessary to them as to
all other forms of life. Without water the male cells can never
reach the egg-cells and the leaf-green (chlorophyll) cannot manu-
facture plant food. It is true that there are species which have
ceased to attempt the formation of spores in localities where the
rainy season is never long enough to permit their reaching
maturity. In such species the plants become very dry, the leaves

Funaria hy-
trometrica. With
an immature
spore-case cov-
ered by its veil. '

Polylrichum
brachyphyllum.
Spore-case with
hairy veil

Fissidens adi-
antoides. Spore-
case with one
row of teeth.

Dicrantlla heteromdla. Spore-case
with and without a veil.

Polytrich-
um pilifer-
um. Leaf
with apex
prolonged
into an
awn.

Gtorgia
geniculata.

Spore -case
with four
teeth.

Leafy Mosses

and branches break off and are blown hither and thither by
the wind, each piece being capable of growing into a new plant,
if it has moisture long enough to permit it to get well started.
It can then endure long periods of drought and can avail itself
of small quantities of moisture which may be condensed from
the air.

It must be remembered that normally all plant food is manu-
factured by the green colouring matter in the leaves and stems of
plants, nnd that these little agents can work only in the light.
The light must not be too weak, or the leaf-green becomes yellow
and cannot work; again the light must not be too strong or the
leaf-green is destroyed and the water in the plant is too rapidly

evaporated, with the result that

the plant dies.

In order that moss plants

may avail themselves of small

quantities of water and may

Polytrichum commune. Summit of spore-
case showing membrane surrounded with
sixty-four teeth.

Apex of leaf to show
entire margin.

Catharinea undttlaia.
Tip of spore-case with
thirty-two teeth at-
tached by their tips to
a membrane.

Octoblepharum
albidum. Spore-
case with eight
teeth.

Spore-case. Part of peristome.

Ulota Hutchinsue.

Aulacomnium heterostichum. Leaf apex
to show serrate margin.

Mosses and Lichens

withstand the fierce heat of the sun, they have various interesting
contrivances for folding their leaves so as to retain what moisture
they have absorbed, and they have methods of trans-
ferring their delicate leaf-green from one part of the
plant, too much exposed to the sun, to a part less
exposed, or of surrounding the leaf-green-bearing cells

Stem with

Portion of leaves,

leaf to show
marginal cells
different from
body cells.

Mnium punctatum.

Mnium cuspidatum.
Stem with leaves.

Pogonatitm
Alpinum. Apex
prolonged into
an awn. Margin
serrate- Surface
covered with
delicate cells.

in a wall of large colourless cells. This arrange-
ment accounts for the fact that some mosses, as
the peat-mosses (Sphagnum, Plate XI), white-
mosses (Leucobryum, Colour Plate IV), and others
appear light gray when dry and green when wet.
The luminous moss has given up- the struggle
for a place in the outer world
and has retreated to caves where
but a few rays of light enter. It
has adapted itself to the semi-
darkness by
devising a
method where-
by it can con-
verge the sev-
eral feeble rays
which fall upon
it so that they
form one beam

Cell.

Sphagnum cymbifolium. Surface view of leaf-

Bryum argenteum.
Leal with open cell -
structure.

MOSSES AND LICHENS

PLATE I
!

The ruby-throated hummingbirds know these lichens and so use them in decorating their nests as to
make it difficult to distinguish them from lichen-covered knot-holes. . .

Leafy Mosses

sufficiently strong to permit their leaf-green to manufacture plant
food.

THE HAIRY-CAP MOSSES

Among the best subjects for a beginner are the
Hairy-caps, the most common mosses, which every-
one who frequents the woods will find bordering
trails and wood-roads, or covering the ground in

con-

tcn-wtyxij UO.J-

Leucobryum vulgare. Cross-section of open leaf.

Pogonalum ur-
nigerum. Leaf
open to expose
the delicate
surface.

almost all open places. They are so large that with
a hand-glass many of the principal parts may be made
out and will thus serve as a foundation for a study of
other mosses.

FRUITING PORTION (SPOROPHYTE).

The most striking part of the plant (Gametophyte) is
the fruiting portion (sporophyte) with its parts. The
spore-case is a thin-walled cylindrical box with
four or six sharp edges running lengthwise. The
spore-case is borne on a
flexible pedicel (seta), the
two together resembling a
tiny Turkish pipe. In cer-
tain stages of this moss the
spore-case is entirely

Folytrichutn , , . '

juniperinum. COVered With 3 COniCal

Leaf closed to \\a\\\. - bro wn, hairy

cover the del- . . , ,

icate surface, veil fringed about the

Sporf-caae
o.po/»h«j«i« :

Pdytric

Mosses and Lichens

base. When this veil falls, the case is tightly shut by a round
lid, resembling in some species a tiny Tam-o-Shanter, and in
others a tiny dunce-cap.

The lid has a point in the centre and its edges fit closely
about the rim of the spore-case.

When the lid is thrown off, sixty-four blunt teeth are seen
to border the rim of the case. They are bent inward, and bear

at their extremities a thin mem-
branous disk (epipkragm) which
now closes the case.

Spore -case
without veil

and with a Spore-case
short-pointed with veil-
lid.
Polytrichum juniperinum.

Polytrichum
gracile. Spore-
case with
long-pointed
lid.

Polytrichum piliferum.
Moss Gametophyte.

Polytrichum commune. Summit of
spore-case with sixty-four teeth
surrounding a membrane.

Within the spore-case are
myriads of green, dust-like
spores, which, when scattered

Leafy Mosses

by the wind, will grow into new plants,
if they fall in favourable places.

HOW THE SPORES ESCAPE FROM
THE SPORE-CASE

When the weather is damp, although
the spores are ripe, the teeth of the Poly-
trichum mosses hold the membranous
disk so that the spores cannot escape.
When the weather is dry the teeth are so
modified as to make a ring of holes be-
tween the teeth and the edge of the disk,
through which the spores may pass.

There are mosses with their teeth trian-
gular in shape. These have the bases of the
triangles fastened at the rim and the points

Tetraplodon mnioides.
Spore-case with eight
pairs of teeth turned
back.

Leucobryum vulgare. Portion
of single peristome showing
four teeth split half way to the
base.

.Jh. emir a HE.
Tttth.

P... Spope-ca.se

Polytrichum juni-
per inum. An old
sporophyte with
lid removed.

Georgia pellucida.
Top of spore -case
with four teeth.

meeting at the centre. In some species the teeth simply arch up,
remaining fastened at the points, and let the pores escape, while
in other species they turn back like
the ray flowers of a daisy.

Some species have at the base
of the teeth a single or double row
of short bead-like cells (annulus)
which swell up at the proper time
to push off the spore-case lid.

Sport-case.

...annulus

...TeetX

Funaria hygrometrica. Summit of
spore -case.

Mosses and Lichens

When the spores of the Hairy-cap are mature, the pedicel
bends to bring the spore-case into a horizontal position, and the
sides of the spore-case wrinkle up, and by so doing oust the
spores.

HOW A SPORE BECOMES A LEAFY -MOSS PLANT

The spores which the wind carries from the spore-case to
favourable places germinate. The spore first swells and sends
forth a delicate tube which divides into a net-work of cells
(protonema). Some cells (rhi^oids) of the pro-
tonema contain leaf-green (chlorophyll) and
extend over earth or wood or stone as a Tine
green web. Upon this green web little bud-like
structures appear which develop into leafy

Spores.

Widely branching protonema. Spore germinating.
w. Rhizoid of the moss-plant starting at K. v>. Rhizoid; .». Outside wall
h. A main filament of protonema from which branch- of spore; v. Vacuole; p. Pro-
ing protonema h has grown. tomena.

Funaria hygrometrica

moss-shoots. The leafy structure is the part one ordinarily sees
and knows as "moss."

As a rule, when the Hairy-caps and other mosses are well
grown, the protonema disappears. In a few species, as in the
Beard Moss (Pogonatum brevicaule), it persists, being visible as a
soft green covering on the ground, with small plants on its
surface and conspicuous spore-cases erect upon the plants.

Leafy Mosses

HOW A SPORE-CASE IS FORMED

Upon the leafy part which is known as the moss-plant there
soon appear little organs which together are to produce the
sporophyte, spore-case, pedicel and foot.

Plant stripped of
leaves to show male
t and female 9
Fertile branch. branches.

Tetraplodon mnioides. — Monoicous

in florescence. Fvnaria hygromelrica. — Monoicous inflorescence.

One organ contains an egg-cell and is known as the arche-
gonium; the other organ contains the fertilising cells (sperm-
cells) and is known as the antheridium.

The archegonia and antheridia of the Hairy-caps are on

Mosses and Lichens

different plants (dioicous, two households). This
plan is common to many species of mosses, while
other species have the antheridia
and archegonia on the same plant
(monoicous, one household).

JftauU. ctttJtcr of

ale cluster
of first jj

Terminal male
Female plant. Male plant. flower-cluster.

Polytrichum. — Dioicous inflorescence.

Sperm cell.

Antheridium bursting and sending
forth sperm cells. (See page 46.)

Phascum cuspidatunt. — Paroicous inflores-
cence. Vertical section through stem to
show (an) male and (ar) female flowers side
by side on the same plant. (6) Leaf
blades, (p) Paraphyses.

Trematodon ambiguum. Examples of
autoicous inflorescence. Two male
clusters and one female cluster.

Leafy Mosses

The sperm-cells which develop in the antheridia are tailed and
swim in water to an archegonium which contains an egg-cell.

The sperm-cells pass down the necks of the
archegonia, unite with the egg-cells, and after

Cut leaf Vetx

Funaria hygromelrica.
Moss stem cut vertically
to show (a) archej?onia
alone, (b) leaf blades.

Bryum binum. Stem cut vertically.

the union, each egg-cell be-
gins to divide, forming new
cells until a spor-
ogonium is com-
pleted.

As the spor-
ogonium, still
within the
archegonium
wall, grows up-
ward, the wall
of the archego-
nium is torn
away at the
base and is
carried up as
a veil on the

Summit of a stem
with two perfect
sporogonia and five
withered antheri-
dia. One sporogo-
nium i s entirely
within the arche-
gonium wall, the
other is raising the
archegonium wall
as a calyptra.

Phascum cuspidatunt. Stem cut ver-
tically to show , (ar ) archegonia on one
branch and (on) antheridia nearby on
another branch; (p) paraphyses and
(b) leaf blades.

Mosses and Lichens

growing sporogonium, thus the veil of the spore-case is the old
archegonium wall.

Anomodon apicu-
latus. Leaf with
vein extending to
the apex.

HOW A HAIRY-CAP PROCURES A MAXIMUM AMOUNT

OF LIGHT

The leaves of a Polyirichum have many points of interest.
It is a recognised law in nature that the position of the leaves
of a tree or plant is such as to admit the greatest amount of
light and air possible to the great-
est number of leaves. Since it
is the habit of these mosses to
grow perpendicularly with little
or no branching and to have the
leaves long and slender, the leaves
are so placed on the stem as to
form a spiral of leaves, every
eighth leaf lying directly above
the first one counted. If a line
be started atone leaf, and wound
about the stem joining all eight
leaves, it will be found that it
has coiled three times about the
stem. The leaves joined form
"one story." If a plant with
several stories of eight leaves
each has straight perpendicular
lines drawn joining leaves which
lie one directly above another,
it will be found that the dis-
tance between each line is % of
the circumference of the stem.
The fraction which represents
distance will always have for a numerator the
number of spirals in a story and will always have for the denomi-
nator the number of leaves in a story. In some Polytrichum
mosses every thirteenth leaf is directly over the first one counted,
so that it would require a spiral of five coils to connect all
thirteen and would require the circumference to be divided by
thirteen perpendicular lines, each line •£% of the circumference

Pogonatwm Alpinum.
Upper view showing
transparent base
and lamelias cover-
ing the surface ex-
cepting along the
serrate margin.

Ceratodon purfur-
eum. Cross section
of leaf showing
blade one cell
thick, and vein
several cells thick.

the horizontal

Leafy Mosses

from the next line. If the two fractions are reduced to the same
denominators ^°T and •&$ and compared, it will be seen that the
leaves were but little more crowded. The extra crowding is
compensated for by the greater distance between two succeeding
leaves in the same line and by the fact that the leaves in the
second instance are narrower than the first.

HOW A HAIRY-CAP AVOIDS TOO STRONG LIGHT

The devices for avoiding the extreme heat of the sun are per-
haps still more wonderful than those for obtaining a sufficient
amount. It is a fact that in the leaves of the Hairy-caps only the
upper surface of the leaves is so constructed as to be injured by
too dry heat. The cell walls of the lower surfaces are on the
contrary thick and impervious to water, so that they cannot give

Bryvm argenteum. Leaf
with open cell - structure
and midvein extending
only part way to the apex.

Catharinea ttndtilata. Cross
section of leaf to show the leaf-
blade one cell thick, and the
lamellae rising from a thickened
vein.

Dicranwm flagellate. Part
of leaf to show open cell-
structure of base. Solid vein
on the right of cut.

up moisture to the air when it is dry, a character which insures
against loss by evaporation, for when the air is dry the mosses
simply turn the awn-pointed leaves upwards with the points and
the impervious under-surfaces to the sun and the delicate cells
toward the stem.

VEGETATIVE PART
(Gametophyte)

The structure of the leafy-mosses is mostly very simple. The
leaves are generally but one cell thick from surface to surface,
except along a line from apex to base where they form a
mid-vein (costa).

Mosses and Lichens

The leaves have no epidermis' and no breathing pores as do
the leaves of higher plants.

LEAVES OF POLYTRICHUM

The leaves of a Polytrichum represent about the highest stage
in the development of mosses. The mid-vein is broad, and only
at the extreme margins is the leaf-blade one-layered.

The central tissue of the mid-ribs of the leaves
continue so as to unite with the central axis of
the stem in a manner quite analogous to that found
in stems of higher plants. A cross section of a
leaf shows that the marginal cells and a
line of cells running through the central
part are comparatively thin- walled and are

Pogonatum Al-
pinum. Upper face
of leaf to show deli-
cate lamellae.

Catharinea angustata. Cross
section of leaf to show the thin
blade and two lamellae rising
from the vein.

Catharinea undulata. Upper
surface of the apex of a leaf
showing lamellae with thin
leaf-blade on either side.

empty water-conducting cells similar to the wood-ducts
(tracheae) of a fibro-vascular bundle in a higher plant. The next
layer is composed of similar but smaller cells containing starch.
The rest are thick-walled cells (sclerenchyma) . The outer cells
contain more or less leaf-green (chlorophyll). When breathing
pores occur they are on the spore-case walls.

The cells of the upper surfaces, have their walls exceedingly
delicate, so that they can absorb gases and permit gases or water
to leave them. The thin blades (lamella) are undoubtedly the

Leafy Mosses

result of an effort on the part of the plant to increase to the high-
est degree its absorbing surface without widening the leaf-blade
itself. By directing the growth of the delicate cells upward in
thin blades, this end is accomplished.

Polytrichum. Cross section of a portion of a leaf to show: Co) lamellae, (s) sclerenchyma.
Thickened cells of vein. The leaf -blade one cell thick shows on the left.

Polytrichum slrtctum. Cross section of leaf through the mid vein to show bead-like lamell»
on the upper surface and thick-walled cells on the under-surface.

THE STEM

The stems of most mosses are simple in structure, they have
no vascular bundles for strengthening the stem and for the pur-
pose of carrying liquids from one part to another. The cells of
one part differ but little from the cells of another part ; those on
the exterior may have thicker walls so as to form a firmer rind-
layer, and those of the interior may be elongated and serve for
the storage and transmission of albumen and hydrocarbons.

The stem of the Hairy-cap is perhaps the most highly devel-
oped of all moss stems.

A cross section shows a central portion of thick- walled cells

Mosses and Lichens

with here and there cells whose walls have remained thin and
yellowish. Immediately without the central portion is a
zone of several layers of thin-walled narrow cells, bounded

_,. . . , .. Mnium undulatum. Cross

Macomnium faluitre. Cross Chmacium dendrotdes ^.^ Q{ stem ^ ^^ ^

•ection of central part of stem. Cross f >f central structure without fibro-vascu-

part of stem.

lar bundles.

on the outside by from one to three layers of cells with
thin, mostly dark-brown, walls. These as well as the cells

lying immediately within are char-
acterised by the starch contained in
them as are the narrow cells of the
leaf-traces.

The "roots" are very simple in
structure, being either hair-like tubes
or simply chains of cells. To dis-
tinguish them from the roots of higher
commune. plants they are called rhizoids.

Cross section of stem.

ANTHERID1A

Antheridia, or the male organs of the Bryophytes, are spheri-
cal, oval, or club-shaped bodies, with long or short stalks. They
consist of an outer wall of a uniform layer of cells, and an interior
tissue formed of numerous small cells, in each one of which a
sperm-cell has its origin. (See diagram on page 40).

The sperm-cell is a spirally coiled filament, thickened at the
rear and pointed at the forward end with two long fine cilia
projecting from the point.

When mature, the antheridia walls rupture, and the sperm-
cells, in virtue of their coils, spring from the antheridia and by
means of their cilia swim in water to the archegonia.

Leafy Mosses

ARCHEGONIA

An archegonium is produced by a multiplication of cells which
form a flask-shaped body. The lower or swollen part of the

flask contains an
egg-cell (ovum)
and the upper
portion is drawn
out to form the

IMUa^yein neck which in

-711 the early stages
is filled with a
layer of cells.
Later the chain of
cells becomes
a mucilaginous
jelly, w h
swelling with
water, bursts
openthelidofthe
neck, and lying
on the summit
arrests the sperm
cells which pass

that way in the water, and directs their course down the neck
of the flask to the egg-cell (ovum) with which they are to blend.

hec*

ivrc h, e o o n lu>n

SUM
Cut leaf

Bryunt binum. Vertical section of stem.

....Walt.

___..£ m b T 4 o OV,
•Sporoqonium

Sections of archegonia, Sphagnum cuspidatum.

Mosset and Lichens

The archegonia and antheridia are developed among the
leaves of the moss-plant. As has been stated before, they may
be on separate plants (dioicous, of two households), or they may

Pedicel

Climaciunt dendroidet. Sporogo-
nium. (a) Spore-case with lid.

(b) Columella attached to lid.

Fun aria hygrometrica.
Autoicous inflorescence.

both be separated on different parts of one plant (autoicous), or
side by side on the same plant (paroicous) or on the same part
of the same plant (synoicous) — Monoicous — one household — is a
general term including the last three forms.

Leafy Mosses

THE DEVELOPMENT OF A SPORE-CASE

(Sporogonium)

After the union of the sperm-cell of the antheridia, with the
egg-cell of the archegonium, a division of the egg-cell takes place,

Vertical section through male flower-cluster, (a) Young Vertical section through

•ntheridium. (6) Mature antheridium. (c) Paraphysis. female flower-cluster, (a) Ar-

(d) Leaf -vein, (e) Leaf -blade. chegonium. (6) Leaf-blade. "

Funaria hygrometrica. — Dioicous inflorescence. (See page 48).

which brings about a multiplication of cells, the ultimate result of
which is a mass of tissue called a sporogonium, which is the

Sphterangtum muticum. Sporogonium
•with wall partly removed to show colum-
ella with spores attached.

Funaria kygrometrica. Summit of spore*
gonium to show the annulus rolling back
from the teeth.

fruit of the moss made up of the lid, spore-case, teeth, annulus,
spores, and columella. (See diagrams on pages 48 and 53.)

Mosses and Lichens

CALYPTRA

The calyptra or veil is the dry remains of the outer wall of
the archegonium in which first the egg-cell and then
the embryo moss-plant were developed, for as the em-
bryo within enlarges, the wall of the archegonium sooner

Funaria hygrometrica,
Young sporogonium still
covered with its veil.

Encalypta ciliata. Old
sporogonium with fringed
and transparent veil.

Two developing sporogonia
with five shrivelled arche-
gonia at their base. The
figure on the left shows the
archegonium wall severed
from its base thus disclosing
the pedicel of the spore-case
within.

Pogonatum brachy-
pkyllum. Spore-case
with hairy veil.

or later ruptures near the base,
and is carried up by the grow-
ing spore-case. This severed
archegonium wall may be thin
and smooth and often split up
one side, or it may be as in the
Hairy-caps rough with hairs,
caused by the stretching and
ultimate rupturing of the fibres
which composed the tissue of
the walls.

Tetradontium
repandum. Spore-
case with conical
veil.

Leafy Mosses

SPORE-CASE

In the early stages of a developing spore-case the cells may
be distinguished as forming two groups, first an outer wall con-
sisting of a number of layers of cells and second an inner mass
of cells; the outer wall is separated from the inner mass by a

Veil split up one side.

Spore-case borne on a short
pedicel, lid wanting.

Astomum Sullwantii. (See page 50).

Spore-case with veil.

space filled with air. The centre portion of the inner mass will
become the columella and the enclosing stratum of cells (arche-
sporium — beginning of spores), will be the "mother-cells" of
the spores. Just outside the mother-cells between them and the
air-space will be a layer of cells (the endothecium).

UJ ...
.tu.rt tilth.

2Tbn t of ttUt
IfutUTt anx

i»VieH will**
Co»vt (listen
13. loVth tvatt*
a.nl f-r ic tkt.
Cdlt al>ov t to
form *UL.

Funaria hygrometrica. Portion of
a vertical section through a young
sporogonium.

Sphagnum acutifolium. Ehrh. Vertical
section through an early stage of a
sporogonium.

THE LID OR OPERCULUM

The upper part of the spore-case is in the leaf-bearing mosses
usually thrown off as a lid (operculum). In order that the upper
portion of the spore-case may be separated from the lower, either

Mosses and Lichens

one of two things happens : The walls of a zone of cells of the
spore-case wall, in the exterior layer, separates from the adjoining
walls when the spore-case is mature, or a zone of cells consisting
of one or more rows has the cell-walls modified so that when
they are distended by absorbed moisture, the zone of cells is dis-
placed as a ring or annulus and so frees the outer layer of cells
in the upper part of the spore-case to form a lid.

Spore-case with lid.

Mnium af/

Lid.

Spore-case without lid,

Polytrichwn commune.

Tooth.

Spore-case
with lid.

Spore-case

without lid.

Bryum argenteum.

Lid.

Trtmalodon ambiguum. Vertical section of
a single peristome. (See page 53).

Lid

Ulota crispa . Double row of teeth.
(See page 53).

Spore-case with lid. Spore-case without lid,
Polytrickum sexangvlare.

Leafy Mosses

TEETH OR PERISTOME

When the lid falls, as a rule, one or two rows of teeth are
discovered. They are the remains of the cell-walls lying just
within the layer which separated as a lid. (See diagrams on
page 52.)

If the outer walls of this layer of cells become thickened and
split from the summit downward, but one row of teeth will be
formed; if the inner walls as well, become thickened, and only

Groove

pedicel.
tcal I eaves.

Sphagnum acuttfolium. Ehrh. Vertical section from & young sporogonium,
(See page 49).

Funaria hygrometrica.

Annulus.

Fissidens adianioides.
Old spore-case.

Tetraplodon mnioidtt,
Tip of spore-case.

Mosses and Lichens

the side walls break down, then an inner row of teeth or cilia
will be formed. All the varied forms of teeth are determined by
the portions of the cell-walls which remain.

Upper part of
epore-case with
four teeth.

Cross-section of the four teeth
to show their solid nature.

Georgia pellucida.

Tayloria splachnoidts. Colum-
ella attached to the base of the
spore-case.

In the genus Georgia, after the outer layer of the upper part
of the spore-case has fallen away as a lid, the whole inner layer
splits into four triangular valves which form the teeth.

Portion of peristome to show
Summit of Spore-case Spore-case a singie row of teeth,

spore-case. without lid. with lid.

Tetraplodon mnioides. To show a single row of teeth in pairs.

In Fontinalis antipyreiica the inner peristome forms a lattice
work due to the breaking down of the inner cell-wall faces and
the retention of the side walls.

The columella of many mosses shrivels up and disappears

Leafy Mosses

when the spores are ripe; in some cases it remains attached to
the base of the spore-case when the lid falls; in some cases it is
severed from the base and remains attached to the lid.

Spore-case with Spore-case with
columella attached short pedicel and
to the base and conical veil,
summit.

Sph&rangiitm muticum.

Veil.

Spore-case
with lid.

Snore-case Climacium dendroidet.

...... (a) Spore-case with lid

with shnv- Lid with colum- hfted to show teeth,

elled lid. ella attached. (b) Columella attached

Gymnostomitm curvvostrum. to the lid.

In Polytrichum mosses it remains standing in the spore-case
and retains at its summit a plate of cells (epiphragm) in the form
of a thin membrane to the rim of which are attached the tips of
the teeth.

CoUmlto.

TeitV.

Thuidium minuiulum.
Vertical section o f
double peristome.

The structure
entirely different
posed of bundles
form. The ends

Splachnum rubrum.
Columella attached to
the base of the spore-
case ; teeth turned
back.

Pogonatum brevicavle. Up-
per part of spore-case with
thirty-two teeth surround-
"ing the epiphragm.

of the peristome in the Polytrichum mosses is
from that of other mosses. The teeth are com-
of thickened fibrous cells arranged in crescent
of the crescent point upward and are united

Mosses and Lichens

with the adjacent ends of the bundle next to it. On the inner
face of each tooth is a growth of cells extending inward as a thin
blade; the tip of each tooth is connected with a thin, papery
membrane which covers the opening of the spore-case. From
the under surface of this membrane, processes like little curtains

Spore-case
with lid.

Spore-case with
lid removed to show
epiphrasm.

Polytrichum commune.

Fontinalis antipyretics. Sum-
mit of spore-case with inner
teeth forming a cone; outer
teeth curled in.

Three teeth showing bundles
of fibres.

hang down and in the young stages of the spore-case reach the
basal membranes, so that the case is completely closed. Later,
when the spores are mature, the "curtains" shrink away from the
basal membranes and leave little
holes between the teeth for the exit
of the spores.

In the species of Catharinea the epi-
phragm is not attached to the apices
of the teeth, but hangs from them
by processes which at first exactly
line the inner surfaces of the upper
parts of the teeth. As the spores
within the spore-case mature they
exert a pressure upon the under
surface of the epiphragm which
causes it to rise and at the same
time to peel upward the lining of
each tooth. As the linings of the
teeth are torn away, they curve
upward and inward until they lie
against the under surface of the
epiphragm, which then appears to
rest upon the tips of the teeth. ^^SKSSSSJ"
When in this position, the tiny Potytrichum commw*.

Leafy Mosses

spaces between the teeth open into the spore-case and through
them spores may escape.

THE PEDICEL OR SETA

The seta has undoubtedly been developed for the purpose of
raising the spore-case to a height where the spores may be most
advantageously scattered. In many mosses the seta becomes

illicit

Catharine a undulata.
Summit o f spore-cast
with thirty-two teetj.
attached to the epi
phragm.

Buxbaumia aphylla.
Sporophyte.

Ulota crispa.

Fuaariahygrontetrica. Cross-section
of seta.

abruptly larger just below th»
spore-case to form an apophysis.
This may be long and cylindrical,
or of many other forms. In the
Polytrichum mosses it is a more
or less flattened disk.

The seta is surrounded at the
base by a sheath which is the
vaginule and may be the remains
of the base of the archegonium.

The pedicels (setce) have vari-
ous methods of twisting or turn-
ing while growing so as to bring
the developing spore-case into
positions most favourable with
reference to light and moisture.

Mosses and Lichens

Lfucobryitm vulgare.
(a) Young plant. (6) Terminal
leaves with root-hairs, each
capable of growing into a new
plant.

Bryum erythrocarpum. Gemmae
in the axis formed by leaf and
stem.

Georgia pellucida. Vertical section of
gemmae cluster.

Ulola phyllantha.
Portion of a leaf
with gemmae on the
apex.

Gemmse cluster
enlarged.

Aulacomnium andiagynum.

MOSSES AND LICHENS

COLOUR PLATE V

PARMELIA CONSPERSA, (Ehrh.) Ach.
Where lichens mock the marks of a moth . . . Elf-needled mat of moss "

...CLpophvjsis

a. PedU«t.

Splachnutn rubrwn.

Splachnum luteum.

ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION

The ultimate aim of the plant in developing all these complex
parts is to produce tiny dust-like spores which are found in a
ripened spore-case, to insure their safe keeping until all conditions
are favourable for their dispersal, and then to disperse them in
the most effectual way. Why it has been
favourable for the perpetuation of the mosses
to evolve these complicated methods, is a
marvel and past the mind of man to reveal,
for the plants have other and simpler methods
of reproducing their kind which are, as far as
man can see, just as effectual as the com-
plicated method.

Almost any part of the moss plant is
able to develop protonema cells from which new plants may
grow.

Every one of the hair-like roots (rhi%pids) from any part of
the plant has the power of developing protonema.

The protonema of Phascum and Ephemerum lives on from
year to year, reproducing new plants which live but one year.

In the species Barbula, little cellular bodies covered with a dark

Phascum. cuspidatum.
Spore-case with veil
and short pedicel.

Mosses and Lichens

membrane and with their cells filled with food material appear in
abundance on the protonema. Each one of these is capable of
growing directly into a moss-plant or of producing protonema
upon which moss-plants may grow.

Portions of a growing sporogonium, or of leaves, or of stems,
may produce protonema.

Special buds or gemmae are also formed on many species.
Georgia pellucidd produces cellular bodies with stalks in clusters
at the extremities of special stems, the clusters surrounded with
a rosette of leaves. That all gemmae are modified leaves is an
accepted theory.

Plant with

two gemmae Gemmse cluster
clusters. enlarged.

Georgia pellucida.

Barbula unguicu-
lata. Sporophyte
with twisted seta.

Tetraplodon mnioides. Plant
with slender pedicel and apo-
physis larger than the spore-
case.

CHAPTER VI

THE POSITION OF HEPATICS AND MOSSES IN THE
PLANT KINGDOM AS SHOWN BY A COMPARISON
OF HOMOLOGOUS PARTS

" Quorsum, inquient multi, tantum laboris in rebus adeo tenuibus
insumtum ? — cui bono haec omnia ? Primo ; ut cognoscamus sapientiam
creatoris, quas in minimis non minus elucet, quam in magnis plantis."

Dillenius in prczfatione ad Hist. Muse.

" Wherefore, many ask, is so much labour spent on such small things?
— for what good are all these things ? Primarily ; that we may know the
wisdom of the Creator, which shows itself not less in the smallest plants
than in the great ones.

Dillenius, in the preface to The History of Mosses.

" If by the microscopic glass
Survey 'd, you'll see how far surpass
The works of nature, in design,
And texture delicately fine,
And perfectness of every part,
Each effort of mimetic art ;
And as the gardener's watchful care,
The ground, of native clothing bare,
Indues with vegetable soil ;
And with the waste's collected spoil
The tender plants exposed defends ;
So the Great Gardener, mindful, sends
The mossy tribes wherewith to shun
The pinching frost, the scorching sun."

AFTER one has become familiar with the conspicuous parts of
a thalloid and leafy hepatic, and a leafy moss, it is interesting to
study the homologies or origin of the parts, and to determine the
position of the plants in the plant kingdom.

To quote Dr. L. M. Underwood : *

"The group known since the time of Adanson as the
Hepaticce stands in a unique position on the boundary line of

*L. M. Underwood, Bot. Gazette Vol. xix, 1894, p. 347.

Mosses and Lichens

thallose plants, and its position is not only intermediate from a
structural standpoint, but in its relation to the evolution of the
higher plants it stands as a key or link between the lower or
simpler, and the higher or more complex.

"The hepatics possess almost no utilitarian aspect. Beyond
the doubtful use of one or two for medicine, and the occasional
occurrence of one or more tropical species as weeds, they are, so
far as the physical condition of the human race is concerned, an
entirely useless group of plants . . . and yet from the higher
standpoint of genetic relationship, there is probably no single
group of plants that occupies such a unique position in the plant
world. What the group 'Vermes' is to the animal kingdom,
the Hepaticce are to plants, with this difference, that we have here
a much less complicated group of organisms with which to deal."

MINUTE STRUCTURE

To understand the relation of this plant group it is necessary
to have some knowledge of the microscopic structure of a
developing moss plant, both liverwort and leafy-moss, and a
knowledge of plants less and more complicated in structure than
the mosses. This knowledge can to a certain degree be acquired
by a study of somewhat diagrammatic drawings of magnified
sections of algae, mosses and ferns. If after this preliminary
knowledge has been acquired, an opportunity occurs to see the
sections themselves under a compound microscope, the interest
will be intensified.

PROTONEMA

As was stated, a germinating moss or hepatic spore results
in a single cell or a group of cells (protonema.} A part of the cells

....".Moss-pla-nt*

Sphagnum cymbifolium. First or sexual generation.

of the more elaborate protonema are without leaf-green (chloro-
phyll) and seek the darkness afforded by the structure of the

The Position of Hepatics and Mosses

substratum in which they serve to anchor the protonema, while
they assist in procuring food-materials. Another part of the

Point wntrt plant will orcur.

Sphagnum cymbifoliwm. Protonema.
The protonema resembles a leaf-like thallophyte.

protonema remains above ground,
each cell containing leaf-green and
in the light doing its work of con-
verting mineral matter, gases, and
liquids into plant foods.

Upon this protonema appear
plants which are to produce male
and female organisms.

These plants, together with the
protonema are known as the first
or sexual generation in the life-
history of mosses and hepatics, in
distinction from the spore-cases
which, in connection with their
pedicels and "foot" constitute the
second generation.

The protonema resembles some
of the Thallophytes, examples of Branch stripped of

... , . . - leaves to show S male

which are bacteria, algae, and fungi, ^d ? feraale clusters.
The Thallophytes are so called Tttrapiodo*

Pemala
Branch

Mosses and Lichens

because their vegetative body is a "thallus," that is to say, is
not divided into stem and leaf, like that of higher plants, but
grows in water or over a substratum in the form of single cells,

(b) Protonema branching from (h) a primary

filament of protonema.

(*) A bud from which a new plan t will grow,
(if) ARhizoid.

Funaria hygrometrica.

Germinating spore
(i) Spore wall.
(w) Rhizoid.

(v) Vacuole in protonema
cell.

chains of cells, or ribbon-like patterns of varying designs. The
Bryophytes or moss-plants agree in many of their stages of
development with the Thallophytes. Many of the liverworts
(Hepaticce),o\\e division of the Bryophytes, have never developed

Under side showing stipules.

Upper side.
Stipule.

Ptttidivm ciliart. A leafy-hepatic. The magnified stipule shows
the simple cell-structure.

further in form than the ribbon-stage or thallus, while others
show transitional stages from this ribbon-like form to a leafy
stem such as all leafy-mosses possess.

The Position of Hepatics and Mosses

Lii

Porella plalyphylla. The
leaf and stipule show
the simple cell structure;

Asexual generation.

Asexual generation on the
sexual generation.

Viola crispa.

A bit of the lichen
Cladonia furcala,showing
an alga of one cell (Pro-
tococcus ) 1 i ving with a fun-
gus consisting of chains
of cells.

HEPATIC

LEAFY-MOSS

FERN

A germinating
spore produces an
insignificant proto-
nema.

A germinating
spore produces a
well-defined proto-
nema.

A germinating
spore produces a
plate of cells (pro-
thallium).

Protonema pro-
duces ordinarily, an
hepatic plant (ga-
metophyte).

Protonema pro-
duces a moss plant
(gametophyte).

Gamelophyte bears
antheridia and arche-

Gametophyte bears
antheridia and arche-

Prothallium bears
antheridia and arche-

gonia.

gonia. Therefore,
prothallium is game-
tophyte.

All ferns develop from spores, the spores germinate to form —
generally a flat plate of cells (prothallium} large enough to be
seen well with the naked eye. The prothallia are heart-shaped

Mosses and Lichens

and green. They are common around the bases of ferns in the
woods and may be found in green-houses where ferns are propa-
gated. The prothalJium is the sexual or first generation in the

life-history of a fern, for on it
are produced the antheridia
and archegonia necessary for
the production of the embryo
which shall grow into a fern
plant.

It is not an easy matter to
keep clearly in mind the rela-
tion of the fern parts and the
leafy-moss parts. It will help
to do this, if one remember

The alga scytonema growing with a fungus that the Criterion by which
to form the lichen Stereocaulon ramulosum. ^ decision k to he madf U
Both alga and fungus consist of chains lfle aecisic

of cells and belong to the group of Thaiio- one of origin of parts rather

than of function and appear-
ance. A glance at the parallel columns will show that if one

.2rotKa.lliu.wx cell.
.Chlorophyll..

A vertical section of an
•fche ;;oa:u»a >r female organ
t a torn*

Hepatics with leafy stems.

The leaves have no veins and are but on* cell thick.

The Position of Hepatics and Mosses

employ the origin and position of antheridia and archegonia as a
criterion, then the vegetative part of hepatic plants and moss
plants is an homologous stage with a fern prothallium.

,ProtH*lllu,>n..

The sexual or first generation.
Under side of a mature fern-pro-
thallium on which are borne an-
theridia— male organs, and arche-
gonia— female organs.

A young fern prothallium.

Again, if one employ as a criterion that which originates
from a fertilised archegonium, then the spore-case, foot, and
pedicel (sporophyte) of an hepatic and moss are homologous

.Wall-cell.

Sperm cells coiled in little
vesicles in an antheridium.

..Sperm- tell.

Sperm-cells escaping from an antheridium.
Vertical sections of Antheridia.

with the spore-cases, fronds, stems, and roots of a "fern-plant"
(sporophyte). The sporophyte is known as the asexual gen-
eration.

Mosses and Lichens

Fern sporophyte. The asexual generation.

Moss gametophyte — Sexual generation supporting
a sporophyte.

Moss sporophyte.
The asexual generation.

Torn Rametophyte — The sexual generation
supporting a sporophyte.

Hepatic gametophyte
supporting a sporo*

phyte.

The Position of Hepatics and Mosses

HEPATIC

Moss

FERN

Archegonia pro-

duce foot, and pedi-

duce fern- "plants,"

cel, and spore-cases

— roots, stems,

containing spores

fronds, and spore-

(sporophyte).

cases containing

spores (sporophyte).

Tittle,

One pinnule from a leaf of
Ruta-muraria.

Fern-prothallium — (sexual generation) with
young sporophyte (asexual generation),

In comparing hepat-
ics, mosses, and ferns
with a view to deter-
mining their relative
positions in the plant
kingdom one must be
careful to compare
homologous parts, gam-
etophyte with gameto-
phyte, sporophyte with
sporophyte.

A study of the asexual generation, the sporophyte, (spore-
case, foot, and pedicel) of leafy-mosses, will show that they
have suggestions of the more complex structure found in the
asexual stage, (sporophyte), of the pteridophytes, a group
including ferns (filices), horse-tails (equisetums), and Christmas-
greens (lycopodiums), which possess tissue composed of tubular
cells (vascular bundles), set apart for the purpose of strengthening
the plant and of carrying liquids from one part to another. The
Pteridophytes have also true roots or underground organs with
a vascular tissue.

ftoots.

Complete sporophyte — Asplenium Ruta-muraria.

Mosses and Lichens

Equisetum arvense. Nat.
size Vernal spore-bearing
shoot with whorls of scale-
like leaves. Asexual gen-
eration.

Eguisetnm arvense. Natural size Summer sterile
shoot with whorls of branches bearing scale-like
leaves.

Single spore-
bearing scale,
from 3.

Spore with ela-
ters coiled.

Spore with elaters
expanded.

MOSSES AND LICHENS

. i, ;

, v . t^^^^fn

COLOUR PLATE VI

A FOREST BOULDER

A huge boulder showing all stages in Nature's preparations for plant growth. The lower sides are now
covered with lichens alone, while the parts above are covered with leafy-mosses which made their start in lichen
debris. Ferns nestle in the mosses and a spruce tree sits astride the rock . . .

The Position of Hepatics and Mosses

The hepatics and mosses are therefore classified between
the lowest group of plant life (Thallophytes), bacteria, algae,

fungi, etc., without stem,

(Sport-Case leaves' h and roots and the
m i mir. man spore-bearing plants which

Vttl I ] H ft/ have well-developed stems,

leaves and roots, such as ferns,
horse-tails, and lycopodiums,
(Fteridophytts).

The genus Riccia has no
foot and no pedicel, simply a
spore case.

.PttUttl

.Veil

Hepatic sporophyte. The asexual generation.

Fvnaria hygrometrica. A cross-section
from the pedicel of the sporophyte. The
cells through the centre of the pedicel are
modified to form rudimentary fibro-vascular
bundles, which one may interpret as fore-
shadowing the true fibro-vascular bundles
found in the sporophyte of ferns, etc.

Equisetum sylvaticum with fertile
cone and whorls of branches.

Male prothallium of a horse-tail with
antheridia. Sexual generation.

Mosses and Lichens

Pores (stomata) for the inlet and outlet of gases which serve
for food and respiration are found on certain parts of the
sporophyte of leafy mosses and not on the gametophyte ; they
are found on the sporophyte of ferns and not on the gametophyte
(prothallium). They are on the gametophyte and not on the
sporophyte of hepatics, (except in the Anthocerotacece).

Fvnaria hygrometrica. A
pore from the spore-case
of the sporophyte.

Hypnum Boxii. Sur-
face view of pore from
the sporophyte.

Polytrichum juniperinum. Sur-
face view of a pore from the
spore-case of the sporophyte.

Polytrichunt piliferum. Vertical
section through a pore.

M. polymer pha,
Surface view of
pore.

ct U«.

Marchantia polymorpha. Vertical section of a "plant" (gametophyte) through
a pore which leads into an air chamber.

CHAPTER VII

THE HERBARIUM

HOW TO COLLECT HEPATICS, MOSSES AND LICHENS

Search for them in damp places at all times of the year. They
are so much more beautiful when in a moist atmosphere that
you will feel inspired to learn as much as possible about them.
Collect the finest specimens you find, selecting some in fruit,
if possible.

Place your specimens in a convenient receptacle, box, bag or
basket; in such a way as to keep them separate, each specimen
with a few notes in pencil telling its habitat and the date and
place of finding.

Clasp-envelopes, such as are used by dry-goods merchants for
samples, will be found particularly desirable as the mosses may
be dried in them and may be kept indefinitely before being per-
manently mounted.

HOW TO PRESERVE HEPATICS, MOSSES AND LICHENS

The specimens to be preserved should be laid between ab-
sorbent paper, under a moderate pressure until dry, then they
may be placed in envelopes which come for the purpose and
these may be glued to regular herbarium sheets or the specimens
themselves may be mounted directly upon sheets of paper.

Several specimens of the same species from different localities
may be mounted on one sheet; but it is undesirable to put
different species on a sheet as this interferes with a proper
classification of material.

HOW TO STUDY HEPATICS, MOSSES AND LICHENS
WITH THE NAKED EYE AND WITH A LENS

Have both fresh and dry material before you for comparison.
If you have only dry material to start with, freshen part of it by

Mosses and Lichens

soaking in clean hot water and learn what you can with the
unaided eye about the colour, texture, manner of branching, and
character of pedicel and spore-case. Many of these pretty plants
can be easily recognised with the naked eye. If necessary, use
a hand lens to determine the shape of the leaves and the character
of the spore-case rim.

To study the specimens more in detail have a lens so mounted
that it will be possible to dissect the parts with needles while
watching the process through the lens.

HOW TO DISSECT HEPATICS, MOSSES, AND LICHENS

To remove leaves from stems, grasp them near their bases
with a pair of forceps and strip them downward.

To obtain cross sections of leaves, grasp a bunch between the
thumb and forefinger and slice it across from apex to base with
a sharp knife. Among the sections there should be found some
which will show the structure.

To study the spore-case, cut off the upper portion with a pair
of scissors and then holding this on a slide with a needle, split it
lengthwise and lay the two parts flat on the glass so that a view
is given of the inner and outer surfaces.

Cross sections of stems and rhizoids may be made while
holding them between two pieces of pith or candle-wax.

HOW TO STUDY THE HEPATICS, MOSSES, AND LICHENS
WITH A COMPOUND MICROSCOPE

To study any part still more in detail, place it in a drop of
water or dilute glycerine between two pieces of mica or glass
and view it through a compound microscope.

If it seems desirable to preserve the detail, let the glycerine
mica-mount remain without- a cover-glass in a place free from
dust until the water has entirely evaporated, then slightly warm
the slide and place a drop of warm glycerine-jelly on a mica
cover and invert this over the mount.

Glycerine jelly and mica may be procured of any dealer in
microscope supplies. Small bits of mica may also be procured
at slight cost from wall-paper factories or from factories where
mica is used in the manufacture of electrical supplies.

The Herbarium

NOMENCLATURE

When anyone for the first time refers a newly discovered
species to a genus, he gives the species a specific name and
appends his own name or an abbreviation of it as the authority,
thus, Bryum argenteum, L. means that Linnaeus referred a species
to Bryum and gave it the specific name argenteum and that his
classification has not been changed.

If a plant has been referred by one man to a certain genus
that later is proved by another man to belong to a different genus,
the name or abbreviation of the first author is placed in paren-
thesis and followed by that of the second author thus: — Ramalina
ceruchis (Ach.) De Not., means that De Notaris placed the species
ceruchis in its proper genus Ramalina after Acharius had placed
it in another genus (Borrera).

ABBREVIATIONS OF AUTHORITIES CITED

Ach. — Acharius, Erik, 1757-1819.

Beauv. — Beauvois, Palisot de, A. M. F. J., 1752-1820.

Bosc, Louis Augustin Guillaume, 1759-1828.

Brid. — Bridel, Samuel Elisee, 1761-1828.

Bruch, Philipp, 1781-1847.

Bruch. ms. — A name in manuscript never printed by Bruch.

Bruch & Schimper.

Delise, Dominic Frangois, 1780-1841.

De Not. — De Notaris, Giuseppe, 1805-1877.

Dicks. — Dickson, James, 1738-1822.

Dill. — Dillenius, Johan Jacob, 1687-1747.

Ehrh. — Ehrhart, Friedrich, 1742-1795.

emend. — emended, corrected.

Fee, Antoine Laurent Apollinaire, 1789-1874.

f. — fils, son.

Fr. — Fries, Elias Magnus, 1794-1878.

Fuern. — Dr. August Emanuel Furnrohr.

Girgens. — Girgensohn, Gustav Karl.

Gottsche, Carl Moritz, 1808-1892.

Gr. & Benn or B. Gr. — Gray, Samuel Frederick. B. or Benn.
— Bennett, either Edward or John; two London surgeons who
devoted their leisure time to botany in the first part of XIX century.

Hall. — Haller, Albrecht von, 1708-1777.

Mosses and Lichens

Hampe, Ernst.
Hampe, I.e., locus citatus.
Hedw.— Hedwig, Joannis G., 1730-1799.
Hoffm. — Hoffman, Georg Franz.
Hook. — Hooker, William Jackson, 1785-1865.
Hornsch. — Hornschuch, Christian Friedrich, 1793-1850.
Huds. — Hudson, William, 1730-1793.
Hueben. — Huebener, J. W. P., -1847.
Jaeger & Sauer. — Jaeger and Sauerbach.
Lindb. — Lindberg, Sextus Otto, 1835-
Lindle. — Lindley, John, 1799-1865.

Linn, or L. — Linnaeus, Carolus, 1707-1778, or Linne, Carl von.
Linn. 1. c. — 1. c., locus citatus, previously cited.
Marchant, Nicholas, -1678.
Michx. — Michaux, Andre, 1746-1802.
Michx., f. — Michaux, Francois Andre, 1770-1855.
Mohr, Dr. Charles, 1824-1901.
Muell. ined.— Karl Mailer (Halle), 1818-1899.
Note : — ined. means unedited manuscript.

Muell. — Mueller, Jean (ofAargau), 1849-1851.

Neck. — Necker, Noel Joseph de, 1729-1793.

Nees von Esenbeck, Christian Gottfried, 1776-1858.

Norm. — Norman, Johannes Musaeus.,

Nyl. — Ny lander, William, 1822-1899.

Pers. — Persoon, Christian Henrik, 1755-1837.

Rabenh. — Rabenhorst, Ludwig Christian Gottloeb, 1806-1881,

Raddi, Giuseppe, 1770-1829.

Roehl. — Roehling, Johann Christoph., 1757-1813.

Schimp.— Shimper, Wilhelm Philipp, 1808-1880.

Schreb. — Schreber, Johann C. D.

Schwaegr.— Schwaegrichen, Christian Friedrich, 1775-1853.

Scop. — Scopoli, Giovanni Antonio, 1723-1788.

Sw. — Swartz, Olaf, 1760-1818.

Tayl. — Taylor, Thomas.

Timm, C. T.

Tuckerm. — Tuckerman, Edward, 1817-1886.

Turner, Dawson, 1775-1853.

Web.— Weber, Friedrich, 1781-1823.

Weis. — Weiss, Frederigo Wilhelm, 1744-

Willd. — Willdenow, Carl Ludwig, 1765-1812.

PART TWO
LICHENS, GENERA AND SPECIES

LICHENS, GENERA AND SPECIES

The Genus CETRARIA, (Ach.) Fries

The Spanish-shield Lichens. — The members of this genus
are generally found on trees, although sometimes they are found
on rocks or even earth. The colour on the upper surface is bright
yellow, greenish-yellow, straw, olive, or brown.

The thallus is expanded and leaf-like or shrubby (fruiiculose
or fruticose) with branches compressed or channelled; the lobes
are flattened and broad; root-like growths on the under surface
(rhi^oids) are few or wanting.

Fine hairs (cilia) are frequently present and sometimes are
numerous.

Soredia are rare.

The fruiting disks (apothecia) are medium in size or large; they
are attached on or near the margin of the lobes; the disk itself is
shield-shaped, light chestnut to dark reddish-brown. The shape
of the disk suggested the name Cetraria, from ceira, a Spanish
shield.

The Pitted Cetraria, Cetraria lacunosa, Ach. — See Plate II.

Habitat. — On trees and old fence-rails, easily detached.

Vegetative organ (thallus). — Leaf-like (foliaceous) the lobes
rounded, the surface pitted (lacunose) ; pearl to slate colour above,
white to darker below, margins scalloped.

Fruiting disks (apothecia). — Abundant on the lobes, some-
what elevated, the disk light chestnut, growing darker, the
margin entire.

Name. — The specific name lacunosa is from the Latin lacus,
a saucer, referring to the pitted surface of the thallus.

Iceland Moss, Cetraria Islandica, (L.) Ach. — See Colour
PJate VII.

Habit and habitat. — On earth.

Vegetative organ (thallus). — Cartilaginous and shrubby
(fruticulose); usually brown above, lighter toward the base
where there is sometimes a red stain.

Mosses and Lichens

Fruiting disks (apothecia). — Not numerous, shield-like and
dark chestnut.

Branches. — Flattened, not hollow, rolled in on the margin
which is beset with a fringe of dark-coloured hairs 0.3 to 0.5
mm. long.

Name. — The specific name (hlandica) refers to the fact that
this lichen is very abundant in Iceland.

Genus USNEA (Dill.) Ach.

Thallus shrub-like (fruticulose) or pendulous, in cross-section
round or angular, grayish-green, to greenish-white, sometimes
straw-coloured ; the interior consisting of a central tough cord

surrounded by a
cottony layer.

The fruits (apo-
thecia) shield-
shaped (scutellce-
form), pale, with a
fibrillous margin,
spores more or less
ellipsoid, undivi-
ded, colourless.

The name is de-
rived from achneh,
the Arabic for
lichen.

The Bearded
Lichen, Usnea bar-
bata, (L.) Fr. — See
Colour Plate I, fron-
tispiece, also Plate
HI.

Habitat.— On
trees, both living,
and dead.

Vegetative organs (thallus). — Shrubby (fruticulose) often
pendulous, greenish, covered with numerous radiating fibrils of
the same colour; the interior tissue (medulla) consisting of a
central cord surrounded by a cottony layer. The branches are
circular (terete) in cross-section and are rough with papillae.

Cross section through Vertical section through

the thallus. the thallus.

Usnea barbata. Fr. (*) central tough cord; (*) central tough
cord of radiating fibre; (w) cottony layer; (g) algae; (so) radi-
ating fibre; (r) cortical layer; (s) apex of thallus.

< •
« "S

w
u •

Lichens, Genera and Species

Fruiting organ (apothecia) — Shield-like (scutellceform) with
a pale disk.

Name. — The specific name barbata is the Latin for "bearded."

The Hair-like Usnea, Usnea trichodea, Ach.

Habit and habitat. — On trees in long waving tufts.

Vegetative organ (thallus). — Pendulous, greatly elongated.
The few secondary branches are smooth, bearing numerous lax
fibrils of variable lengtli, cross-section circular (terete).

Fruiting organ (apothecia). — Small, disk pale flesh-colour
with margin bearing very few fibrils.

Name. — The specific name trichodea is derived from the
Greek rplxoeiS^, resembling hair, and refers to the thallus.

Genus THELOCHISTES, Norm., emend.

The thallus is leaf-like (foliaceous) or scale-like ; usually yellow,
appressed or sometimes ascending and scrub-like; the fruits
{apothecia) are yellow and shield-like (scutellceform). The spores
are colourless, ellipsoid, simple, or with the ends divided off by
partitions (polar-bilocular) the end spaces sometimes united by
a tube running through the middle space.

The Yellow Wall-lichen, Thelochistes parietinus (L.)
Norm. (Xanthoria parietina) — See Colour Plate II.

Habit and habitat. — On trees and rocks usually near bodies of
water.

Vegetative organs (thallus). — Leaf-like, pale yellow to orange
above, white below; loosely appressed to the surface on which
it grows, the margins sometimes ascendant, not gelatinous
when moist.

Fruiting organs (apothecia). — The disk orange, the margin
(thalline exciple) entire.

Spores. — Colourless, ellipsoid, polar-bilocular.

Name. — The specific name parietina, is from the Latin parie
(/-) 5, a wall, referring to its habit of growing on stone walls.

Genus PARMELIA, (Ach.) De. Not.

Parmelias usually grow as horizontal mats, gray, blue-green,
dark brown, or brown tinged with green. They are closely
attached by black rhizoids to rocks and trees and are distinctly

Mosses and Lichens

branched and lobed. If the thallus is torn across and viewed
with a hand lens, the torn edge shows that the thallus is com-
posed of a layer of long, loose, white fibres (the medullary layer)
between thin but more substantial surface tissues (cortical layers).
Over the surface of the mat are scattered flat or saucer-shaped
disks (apothecia) generally brown with a thin margin. These
are numerous toward the centre. The apothecia have suggested
the generic name Parmelia from parma, a small round shield.
Many species have also a powdery appearance due to the bursting
of the surface to emit little bodies (soredia) which may grow
into lichens.

Parmelia conspersa, (Ehrh.) Ach. — See Colour Plate V.

Habit and habitat. — On rocks and stones; degenerate on dead
wood.

Vegetative organs (thallus). — Leaf-like, not gelatinous when
moist. Pale green or straw-coloured above, blackening below,
appressed, the margin sometimes ascendant; cartilaginous, mem-
branaceous, the lobes mostly rather narrow sub-linear and much
divided, smooth, not wrinkled, the centre often bearing little
stalked bodies with knobs (isidiophorous) .

Fruiting organs (apothecia). — Disks chestnut; margin (thai-
line exciple) entire.

Spores. — Ellipsoid, simple, colourless.

Name. — The specific name conspersa, besprinkled, refers to its
surface which looks as if sprinkled with little grains.

Parmelia physodes, (L.) Ach. — See Plate V.

Habit and habitat. — Common on dead limbs of pines and
hemlocks, lightly attached to its support. When it completely
encircles the smaller twigs the tree has a particularly attractive
appearance.

Vegetative organs (thallus). — Gray-green above with finely
cut, inflated lobes, usually overlapping; black beneath except at
the margins where it is smooth and brown.

Fruiting organs (apothecia). — Large shallow cups; reddish-
brown with entire margins.

Name. — The specific name physodes is from the Greek <f>vo-a,
bellows, and olB, like, and refers to the inflated character of the
lobes.

NOTE : The illustration shows a variety (vittata) with the thallus
more narrowly dissected than in the species.

MOSSES AND LICHENS

PLATE III

OLD MAN'S BEARD, Usnea barbata, variety Florida

Lichens, Genera and Species

Parmelia saxatilis, (L.) Fr.— See Plate XV.

Habit and habitat. — On rocks.

Vegetative organs (thallus). — Greenish or ashen-gray above
(sometimes reddish) somewhat ornamented with a fine network
and with shallow depressions; black beneath with dense hairs
(rhi^oids) reaching the margin, much cleft with narrow lobes,
with margins wavy and bordered with a fine white beading
(soredia).

Fruiting organs (apothecia). -Chestnut border (thalline ex-
ciple), rather thick, somewhat evenly notched.

Spores. — Simple, ellipsoid, colourless.

Name. — The specific name saxatilis, the Latin for "rock,"
refers to the habitat.

Parmelia perlata, (L.) Ach. — See Plate VI.

Habit and habitat. — The lichen is found on both rocks and
trees.

Vegetative organs (thallus). — Greenish-yellow, gray green,
slate colour and even light brown above; black beneath with a
reddish-brown border which rolls up so as to bring the brown
lobes in rich contrast to the surface colours. The lobes have no
fine hairs on their margins and are frequently covered with a
white powder (soredia).

Fruiting organs (apothecia). — Large, greenish-brown, entire
margins which split down to the centre when the disk is mature.

Name. — The specific name perlata is the Latin for "widely
spread."

The Wrinkled Parmelia, Parmelia caperata, (L.) Ach.

Habit and habitat. — Grows on trees and rocks to form light
pea-green, wrinkled and wavy mats.

Vegetative organs (thallus). — Leaf-like, appressed, hori-
zontal, cartilaginous; lobes usually broad and rounded with
entire margins; the upper surface usually covered with a
very light green powder (soredia)] the under surface, black
with a reddish-brown margin and scattered thread-like bodies
(fibrils').

Fruiting organs (apothecia). — Cup-shaped, with wavy
margins often grainy (sorediferous).

Spores. — Ellipsoid.

Name. — The specific name caperata, the Latin for "wrinkled,"
describes the habit of growth.

Mosses and Lichens

Genus PHYSCIA, Fries.

The vegetative portion (thallus) of the Genus Physcia is leaf
like, star-like, or sometimes with narrowly linear divisions,
beneath it has usual fibres of varying length; the generic name
is from the Greek <j>v<rtcr), a blister, evidently referring to the
inflated appearance of the thallus in some species.

The fruiting portion (apothecia) are shield-shaped, with the
surface often covered with a whitish powder:

The spores are elliptical, brown, two-celled in our species.

Physcia leucomela, (L.) Michx. — See Colour Plate VIII.

Habit and habitat. — On trees, most common southward.

Vegetative organs (thallus). — Ascendant and elongated,
mostly smooth, often narrowly linear, the densely entangled
lobes irregularly divided; beneath white, the margins beset with
strong, branched blackish fibrils.

Fruiting organs (apothecia). — Medium-sized, on short pedi-
cels, the disk white, powdery, the border lobed; the spores are
bilocular.

Name. — From the Greek \eu/co<?, white, and /*A,a?, black,
referring to the strong contrast between fibrils and surface.

Genus UMBILICARIA, Hoffm.

Thallus horizontal, leaf-like (foliaceous), scarcely divided,
leathery; either smooth or fibrillose beneath, attached to its
support by a single point.

Fruits (apothecia) black, round, convex or sometimes irregular
in outline.

Spores somewhat coloured, ellipsoid, either without cross-
walls or with both horizontal and vertical walls.

The generic name is from the Latin umbilicus, a navel, referring
to the single point at which the thallus is attached to its support.

The Blistered Umbilicaria, Umbilicaria pustulata, (L.)
Hoffm.

Habit and habitat. — On rocks in dry localities.

Vegetative, organs (thallus). — Horizontal and leaf-like, carti-
laginous; ash-coloured above, whitish toward the centre,
pale brownish or ash- coloured below ; smooth on both surfaces,

MOSSES AND LICHENS

PLATE IV

OLD MAX'S BEARD, Usnea longissima

Used to promote the growth of hair. A member of the genus Ramalina is seen on the lower end of the
twig, and a member of the genus Parmelia is seen on the upper end

Lichens, Genera and Species

often covered with a white powder (pruinose), with numerous
pustular prolusions above and corresponding indentations below.

Fruiting organs (apothecia). — Somewhat shield-like.

Name. — The specific name pustulata is the Latin for "blistered"
and refers to the protusions on the thallus.

Rock Tripe, Umbilicaria vellea, (L.) Nyl. — See Colour Plate
XI.

Habit and habitat. — On rocks in high mountains.

Vegetative organs (thallus). — Large, one-leaved, leathery and
somewhat smooth, ash-coloured with a bloom above; brownish
to black, and hairy, below.

Fruiting organs (apothecia) — Small, appressed, orbicular and
plaited, becoming convex.

Name. — From the Latin vellus, fleece, referring to the hairy
nature of the under surface.

Umbilicaria Dillenii, Tuckerm.

Habit and habitat. — On rocks.

Vegetative organs (thallus). — Leaf-like, leathery, the largest
species known; brownish-green above, smooth and even; in-
tensely black below with crowded, short fibrils, attached only at
one point.

Fruiting organs (apothecia). — Orbicular, convex, attached only
at the centre, the disk ridged concentrically.

Name. — Named in honour of the great botanist Dillenius.

Umbilicaria Muhlenbergii, (Ach.) Tuckerm. — See Colour
Plate XI.

Habit and habitat. — On rocks.

Vegetative organs (thallus). — Large, leathery to rigid, irregu-
larly pitted ; olive-brown above, darker below.

Fruiting organs (apothecia). — Oblong and appressed, passing
into irregular, often star-like plaited clusters without a common
margin.

Name. — The specific name was given in honour of a Henry
H. Muhlenberg.

Genus PELTIGERA, (Willd.) Fee.

The Crescent-shield Lichen. The vegetative portion
(thallus) of the Genus Peltigera is leafy and often large; it is
veiny and rough, hairy beneath; the algal layer is blue-green,
excepting in two species (venosa and aphthosa).

Mosses and Lichens

The generic name Peltigera from the Latin pelta, a shield, and
gerere, to carry, refers to the fruits which are shield-shaped with
a more or less scalloped border; they are borne close to the upper
surface of the thallus, usually some distance back from the margin
but occasionally on the margin.

The spores are long and narrow, four- to many-celled, at
length colourless. It is a small genus of mostly cooler regions.

The Dog Peltigera, Peltigera canina, (L.) Hoffm. — See
Colour Plate VII.

Habit and habitat. This lichen grows in extensive patches
on logs or on the ground.

Vegetative organ (thallus). — Large greenish-gray, ashy, or
brownish: membranaceous, round-lobed; furrowed and downy
on the upper surface: whitish beneath with light-coloured veins
and hairs, sometimes becoming dark.

Fruiting disks (apothecia). — Reddish-brown; of large size;
rounded, becoming semi-revolute and vertical. Supposed to
resemble dogs' teeth and for this reason, on the supposition that
"Like cures like," used as a remedy for hydrophobia.

Name. — The specific name canina from the Latin canis, a dog.

Spores. — Somewhat needle-shaped; four- to eight-celled.

Peltigera aphthosa, (L.) Hoffm. and P. polydactyla, (Neck.)
Hoffm., are quite similar in general appearance to P. canina, (L.)
Hoffm. P. aphthosa however, has the thallus smooth above,
more or less sprinkled over with brown warts, and contains green
algae, not blue-green as in the two following species. P. poly-
dactyla differs from canina in being smooth above and nearly
naked beneath and conspicuously reticulated with brown veins.

Genus STICTA (Schreb.) Fr.

The thallus is leaf-like, variously lobed but with the lobes
usually wide, rounded, or elongated. The under surface is some-
times smooth but is commonly covered with short, soft hairs
(vtllous), and dotted with little cups or rounded heaps (cyphels).
A cross-section of this lichen shows that the irregular, coloured
zone (gonimous layer) is composed of either green cells (gonidia)
or bluish-green cells (gonimia).

The fruiting organs (apothecia) are shield-like (scutcllceform),
elevated, and near the margin of the thallus.

MOSSES AND LICHENS

PLATE V
1

PARMELIA PHYSODES, (L.) Ach., variety w«a<a
Lightly attached to its host — reddish-brown fruiting disks, large and shield-shaped with entire margins

Lichens, Genera and Species

The generic name Sticta from the Greek CTTJ/CTOS, dappled,
refers to the strikingly spotted appearance of some species.

The spores are spindle or needle-shaped with 2 to 4 cross-
walls; they are reddish or colourless; they vary but slightly in
the different species.

Sticta pulmonaria (L.),
Ach.— See Colour Plate VII ; '
also Plate VII.

Habit and habitat. — On g/ffiAsr^
rocks and trees. &$*&*

Vegetative organs (thal-
lus) . — Leaf-like, leathery ;
tawny or olive, loosely
attached to the surface on
which it grows, lobes
large, entire, with
rounded sinuses; upper
surface netted and deeply
pitted; under surface pale
to white with rounded
prominences outlined with
slender hairs. Often bor-
dered with little white
grains (soredia).

Fruiting organs (apothe-
cia).— Not very common sessile on the margin of the lobes.

Name. — The specific name pulmonaria, lung, refers to the
resemblance the under surface has to the surface of a lung.

Sticta amplissima, (Scop.) Mass. — See Colour Plate VII.

Habit and habitat. — On fallen trunks and trees.

Vegetative organs (thallus). Extending over quite large areas,
in an ever-widening circle appressed to the surface on which it
grows; leathery, smooth, becoming wrinkled with age; ashen-
green above; tawny, and covered with short, soft hairs (villous)
beneath; the lobes elongated, wide, usually compacted, or narrow
and repeatedly lobed.

Fruiting organs (apothecia). — Scattered, sometimes quite
large, the disk chestnut; the margin entire and inflexed.

Name. — The specific name amplissima, the Latin for "very
extensive," refers to its habit of growth.

Stictina fuliginosa. (o) Upper cortex; (u) lower
cortex; (r) rhizoids; (m) pith layer; (g) gonidial
layer.

Mosses and Lichens

Genus STEREOCAULON, Schreb.

The vegetative organ or thallus is two-fold, consisting 01 a
scale-like (squamulose) or granulose, horizontal growth which
usually disappears, and a vertical growth which becomes shrub-
like, with fruit-bearing branches (podetia}. The podetia are
solid and clothed more or less with a white powder (soredia)
and with granules (phyllocladia) which become scale-like or pass
into coral-like branchlets.

The fruiting organs (apothecia) are at first little disks soon
becoming convex; solid, terminal, or lateral; dark-brown, or
black.

The generic name Stereocaulon is compounded of the Greek
<rre/?eo9, solid, and tcav\b<j, a stalk.

When dry these lichens are very brittle, but when moist they
may be handled freely.

Stereocaulon paschale, (L.) — See Plate VIII.

Habitat. — On rocks.

Vegetative organs (thallus). — Primary, usually wanting.
Secondary, growing in round thick mats; podetia long and
slender, much branched and covered with scale-like (squamulose),
crenate, dark-gray granules and inconspicuous cottony fibres.

Fruiting organs (apothecia). — At or near the apicus of the
podetia, small, with disk convex dark-brown.

Name. — The specific name paschale is the Latin for "Pass-
over." Its significance is not evident.

NOTE :— 5. paschale is closely related to S. tomentosum which is as its
name implies conspicuously covered with cottony fibres.

Genus CLADONIA, Hoffm.

The horizontal thallus of the Genus Cladonia is scale-like,
rarely granulose; and may or may not persist.

The fruiting branches (podetia) are hollow, sometimes opening
to the exterior; leathery, cup-shaped, or funnel-shaped; some-
times shrub-like, and very much branched; rarely club-shaped.

The fruiting organs (apothecia) are usually little heads (cepha-
loid) hollow within, they are variously coloured, but never black.
The spores are ovoid-oblong; simple; colourless.

The generic name Cladonia from the Greek, /t\a8o9, a branch,

Lichens, Genera and Species

was given by Georg Franz Hoffman to describe the characteristic
habit of growth.

Brown-fruited Cup Cladonia, Cladonia pyxidata (L.) Fr. —
See Colour Plate XII.

Habit and habitat. — On stumps and on the earth.

Vegetative organs (thallus). — Primary, thallus scale-like and
variously lobed. Fruit-bearing branches (podetia) hollow, 5 to
25 mm. tall, top-shaped, short-stalked, granulose, warty or
scurfy; margin spreading, bearing sessile or stalked apothecia.

Fruiting organs (apothecia). — Brown.

Name. — The specific name pyxidata, suggested by the pode-
tia, is derived from the Greek trv^ 1?, a small box.

The Fringed Cladonia, Cladonia fimbriata, (L.) Fr. — See
Plate IX.

Habitat. — Earth, stumps, etc.

Vegetative organs (thallus). — The primary commonly per-
sistent as little scales variously incised on the margin, sea-green
above, olive to white or dusky below; often powdery (sorediate).

Fruiting organs (apothecia). — Brown, sometimes on tooth-like
projections of the goblet-shaped podetia.

Fruit-bearing branches (podetia). — Hollow, i to 3 cm. tall,
goblet-shaped, rather long-stalked and slender; the margin erect,
often with tooth-like projections sometimes bearing fruits (apo-
thecia) ; surface (cortex) disintegrating into a fine white powder.

Name. — The specific namejimbriata, the Latin for "fringed,"
refers to the margin of the goblet-shaped branches. The forms
of Cladonia fimbriata are extremely varied and difficult to deter-
mine. Dr. Wainio recognises sixteen varieties and a large
number of sub- varieties, twelve varieties are well known in
North America.

The Scarlet-crested Cladonia, Cladonia cristatella,
Tuckerm. — See Colour Plate XII.

Habit and habitat. — Dead wood, etc.

Vegetative organs (thallus). — Coral-like (cladoniceform); fruit-
ing branches (podetia) hollow, cylindrical, sometimes branched,
2 to 4 mm. tall; smooth or with the surface wrinkled.

Fruiting organs (apothecia). — Scarlet knobs at the tips of the
fruiting branches.

Name. — The specific name cristatella, suggested by the bright
fruits, is derived from the Latin crista, a crest.

Mosses and Lichens

Reindeer Lichen, Cladonia rangiferina, (L.) Hoffm. — See
Colour Plate VIII.

Habit and habitat. — On earth often covering extensive areas.

Vegetative organs (thallus). — Shrubby (fruticulose). Fruit-
ing branches (podetid) 4 to 10 cm. tall, branches cylindrical and
hollow, 5 to 1.5 mm. thick, the divisions mostly wide-spreading;
the sterile tips curved and drooping; without a distinct outer
layer (ecorticate) , the surface fibrous sometimes mealy or warty;
ashy-white or tinged with greenish straw-colour.

Fruiting organs (apothecia). — Tiny brown knobs on the tips
of the fruiting branches.

Name. — "Reindeer lichen" because reindeer feed upon it in
winter.

The Cornucopia Cladonia, Red-fruited Cup Cladonia,
Cladonia cornucopioides, (L.) Fr.

Habit and habitat. — On the earth.

Vegetative organs (thallus,). — Branching like coral cladonia-
form) ; fruiting branches Codetta) hollow, elongated-top-shaped,
about 15 to 35 mm. tall; smooth, becoming warty.

Fruiting organs (apothecia). — Scarlet knobs on the tips of the
fruiting branches.

Name. — The specific name cornucopioides, ^suggested by the
podetia, is compounded of three Latin words: cornu, a horn,
copia, plenty, and aid, like.

MOSSES AND LICHENS

PLATE VI

PARMELIA PERLATA, (L.) Ach

PART THREE
HEPATICS

LIVERWORTS OR HEPATICS

HEPATIC/E

Liverworts are as a rule found only in damp shady places,
and it is not their habit to occupy very large areas of ground.
With but few exceptions the plant lies close to the object upon
which it grows holding to it by short hair-like cells (rhiqoids).

Excepting the fruiting portion, the liverwort plant (the vege-
tative body) is either ribbon-like (thalloid), or a stem with scale-
like leaves (f otiose)] the greater number of liverworts are
therefore distinguished as thalloid and foliose.

RIBBON-LIKE OR THALLOID HEPATICS
Genus MARCHANTIA, (L.)

Marchantia polymorpha (See Colour Plate XIII) is a good
example of a thalloid form, and from it one may learn, without
a microscope, the principal parts.

Vertical section through

Geixiixi&«

showing pore.

a pore. Gemma. _ ,

Surface view

Marchantia polymorpha

The plant itself lies flat upon the earth and has a distinct
upper and lower tissue.

The lower tissue develops short root-like hairs which serve
to anchor the plant.

The upper tissue appears as if marked off into small rhom-
boidal spaces in tfc* centre of each of which a pore may be seen.

Mosses and Lichens

Little cups are often present on the upper surface, with green
disks (gemmae) in them.

Upright umbrella-like growths on which are borne the male
and female organs are found also on the upper surface.

Fals«

Peduncle.

Marchantia polymorpha. Vertical section of female receptacle.

The male peduncle is capped with a flat, slightly lobed
receptacle. The female peduncle is capped with a receptacle
bordered with deep finger-like lobes.

The male organs (antheridia) are developed in the upper
surface of the scalloped receptacle.

.7*a*«etc Elater.

Under-surface view of female receptacle.
Marchantia polymorpha.

A spore- case shedding its spores.
See page 95.

The female organs (archegonia) are developed on the under
surface of the receptacle bearing the finger-like lobes.

Spore-cases filled with spores and spirally twisted threads
(daiers) later occupy the place of the archegonia between the
long lobes.

Liverworts or Hepatics

A veil (calyptra) surrounds the spore-case.

A false perianth surrounds the veil.

A fringed covering (involucre] encloses all the spore-cases
between two lobes. When the spore-case is mature, it bursts
irregularly for the scattering of the spores.

The spore germinates to form one cell or a small group of
cells (protonema) from which later will be developed the plant
already described.

Marchantia polymorpha. Vertical sec-
tion of male receptacle. See pags 94.

Marchantia polymorpha. Vertical section of
Antheridium from male receptacle, Sperm
cells at the right.

Marchantia polymorpha, (L.)

habit and habitat. — Along wet banks, in bogs, beside
streams, about green-houses, and on damp ashes on the shady
side of houses.

Name. — The generic name Marchantia was given by the son
in honour of his father, Nicholas Marchant, a French botanist
who died in 1678. The specific name polymorpha is com-
pounded of the Greek, TroXu?, many, and popfyri, form.

Plant (gametophyte) . — Peculiar dull-green, with broad ribbon-
shaped thallus generally once or twice forked. Costa or mid-
vein broad. Upper surface divided off into rhomboidal spaces
(areolce). One stoma or pore in the centre of each rhomboidal
space. Gemmae cups, saucer-shaped with toothed margins,
are often present.

Mosses and Lichens

Section of plant. — (i) Shows well-marked epidermis.

(2) Shows that each pore leads into an air-chamber.

(5) That the side walls of each air-chamber support the
epidermis as a roof.

(4) That cells containing chlorophyll spring up from the floor
of each chamber. These cells assimilate gases which enter the
air-chamber through the pores, they also take in oxygen gas and
give out carbon-dioxide gas. The floor-cells transmit or store
up food.

Marchantia polymorpha. Vertical section through the thallus at a point
where a pore occurs.

Habit of flowering. — Antheridia or male organs are imbedded
in the upper surface of a shield-shaped, radially lobed disk sup-
ported by a peduncle and bearing scales on the
under surface. This male receptacle (androecium)
grows from the upper surface of the thallus.
Archegonia or female organs are borne on the
under side of a radially lobed disk supported
upon a peduncle on the upper surface of the
thallus. The lobes are finger-like, 8 to n, usually
curved downward.

Section of male disk. — Shows antheridia con-
cealed in depressions in the surface of the disk.

Male flowers (antheridia). — Oval upon a pedi-
cel (seta}. Section shows a wall and numerous
tdopmenthofdan cells containing spermatozoids, each with two

antheridium. fine Cilia.

Section of female disk. — Shows archegonia on the under
side of the disk.

polymorpha. In
ascending order
the cuts show

MOSSES AND LICHENS

PLATE VII

SPOTTED LUNGWORT, Slicta pulmonaria, (L.) Ach.
. . " a sure cure for lung trouble "

Liverworts or Hepatics

Female flowers (archegonia). — Flask-shaped. Cuts i, 2, },
4, 5, 6, 7, 8, show stages in development. Section in early
stage, 3, shows a wall of cells ; an egg-cell and canal-cell in the

The false peri-
anth is growing
down to en-
velope the old

archegonium
wall.

The false
perianth en-
velopes the
archegonium
wall.

enlarged base of the flask ; a canal in the neck of the flask and
the summit of the neck closed. Section in a later stage, 6, shows
a wall of cells: the egg-cell rounded up; the canal-cell shrivelled;
the canal open at the summit of the neck.

..._TcU»t perianth.

...JftiJU

— -Peiicel,

—Spore -case.

_.!. Maters.

Gemma.

Spore-case discharging spores.

Marchantia polymorpha.

Development of sporophyte. — A section, 7, of the archegonium
after the spermatozoids have entered and fertilised the egg-cell
shows the wall of the enlarged portion of the flask surrounded
by an involucre, made up of segments, awl-pointed and finely
cut, into an irregular fringe often reddish in colour; the egg-cell
is divided into eight cells; the summit of the neck is shrivelled.
Section later, 8, shows the eight cells multiplied to form an upper

Mosses and Lichens

portion, the future spore-case and a lower portion, the future
foot and pedicel.

Spore-case. — At maturity is exserted, when it bursts some-
what irregularly to discharge its spores.

Spores. — Yellow, nearly smooth, mingled with twice-spiral
elaters.

M. polymorpha.

Gemmce. — Receptacles bowl-shaped, on the upper-surface of
the thallus, and open at the top. Gemmae flat, upright cellular
bodies with two indentations at the sides, the growing points.
When gemmae germinate, the side toward the light develops
pores (stomata) for the admission of gases and for the egress
of gases and water vapour. If germination takes place on land,
the stomata are on the upper surface, but if in water lighted from
below, then they are on the under surface. Gemmae are a means
of reproducing plants.

MOSSES AND LICHENS

PLATE VIII

STEREOCAULON PASCHALE, L.
A gray lichen with black fruits

Liverworts or Hepatics

LEAFY HEPATICS, SCALE MOSSES, OR FOLIOSE HEPATICS

Porella platyphylla (See Colour Plate XIV), is a good ex-
ample of the foliose or leafy hepatics and from a study of it
one may become familiar with the conspicuous parts of this class
of mosses.

Margins irregular.

Margin inrolled.
Leafy hepatics.

Margin toothed.

The plants grow flat upon the bark of living trees. Each
plant consists of a creeping stem, with side branches which may
in turn bear branches.

The principal leaves are set at right angles to the stem and
their sides overlap so as to conceal the stems.

They are two-lobed with one lobe above the stem and one
below.

A third row of leaves grows on the underside of the stem.

Creeping stem and branch.

Two leaves showing lobe
and lobule.

Under view of stem showing

third row of leaves.
Porella platyphylla.

In some leafy hepatics, the tips of the leaves overlap the base
of the leaf in front; in others the tips of the leaves are under-
neath the bases of the leaves in front.

The margins of the leaves of different species vary, they are
recurved, toothed, fringed, inrolled, or entire.

The apex may be blunt or pointed or of many other designs.

Mosses and Lichens

The male organs (antkeridia) are borne in the axils of the
leaves of modified branches.

The female organs (archegonia) are on the terminal branches.

...TcUtt perianth.
.Mill.

.— -Telitti.

.._£»(>•?$ -C9U,

! UtirS.

Marchantia polymorpha.

One leaf magnified to
show cell structure.

Porella platyphylla.
Male branch.

The spore-cases with their enveloping parts are terminal on
the branches; although they appear often to be on the sides
because a side branch has grown in the same direction and
beyond the main stem.

JPeriatitlu
.Ytti.

Veil

.Vttl

Female branch. Young Sporophyte. Sporophy te.

Porella platyphylla.

Beginning with the spore-case as a centre, and observing the
parts in order outward, a veil (calyptrd) may be found, and then
a perianth, and outside of all, several slightly modified leaves.

Genus PORELLA, (L.)

The Genus Porella is composed of large plants, dark-green
to yellowish-brown, usually 2 to 3 times feather-branched.

The lobes of the leaves are very deeply two-parted; the dorsal
large, and roundish egg-shaped, usually entire, the ventral lobes
smaller, sometimes nearly separate from the dorsal, varying in
different species from ovate to lanceolate; underleaves large,
entire or toothed.

100

Liverworts or Hepatics

The antheridia are spherical, in the axils of overlapping leaves
which form short rigid branches.

The perianth is oval to obovate, flattened at the mouth, which
is fringed, toothed or entire. The spore-case is spherical to
ovoid-oblong on a short stalk (seta) splitting nearly to the base
into four parts. The spores are covered with spines. The elaters
are once to thrice spiral.

The generic name is a diminutive of the Latin porus, a pore.
Its significance is not evident.

Porella platyphylla, (L.) Lindle. Plant (gametophyte). —
Stems 2 or 3 inches long, prostrate, rigid with the tips bent
upward; i to 3 times regularly or irregularly pinnate; root-hairs
in tufts at the base of the under-leaves.

View of upper surface of
•tern with two leaves.

Two leaves showing lobe
and lobule

Under view of stem.
Porella platyphylla.

Leaves. — Deeply two-parted, dorsal lobes overlapping in two
rows so as to conceal the stem, obliquely placed relatively to the
stem, oval to oblong, apex obtuse, toothed or entire. Ventral
lobes oval to oblong obtuse, diagonally pressed to the surface of
the upper lobes; margins recurved and entire or with a single
tooth at the base; under leaves tongue-shaped, parallel with the
stem, margins recurved, decurrent, entire, or sparingly toothed
at the base.

Name. — The specific name platyphylla from the Greek TrXctrw,
flat, and <f>v\\ov, a leaf, describes the prostrate habit of the plant.

Perianth. — Ovate, inflated, narrowed above, margin toothed
with a notch on one side.

Veil (calyptra). — Persistent, globose, splitting above.

Spore-case. — Pale yellow-brown on a short pedicel, splitting
into four, often irregular valves ; elaters bi-spiral.

Spores. — More or less spiny.

101

Mosses and Lichens

Habit of flowering. — Male flowers (antheridid) and female
flowers (archegonia) on separate plants (dioicous).

Antheridia. — Spherical, short-stalked, single in the axils of
two-lobed, pouch-shaped leaves which lie opposite on the stem.
These antheridial leaves are united by their margins to the under
leaves, and with them form short oval branchlets on the sides of
the main branches.

Archegonia. — Numerous, terminal on very short lateral
branches.

Genus FRULLANIA, Raddi

The plants are usually in shades of red or brown or even
black, although sometimes green. They grow in delicate tra-
ceries over the bark of trees or rocks.

F. ecklonii. A lobule
separated from its lobe.
A tiny stylus is present
at the point where the
lobule is attached to
the main stem.

F. ecklonii Under view of a
portion of the stem ; with eight
inflated lobules, each on its
lobe, the amphigastra have
been removed.

F.complanata, Under

view of stem showing 3
cup-like lobules each
lying on its lobe: two
notched amphigastra
are on the stem.

The stems are opaque and branched, each branch arising from
the axil of a stem-leaf from which it is always free.

The upper leaves are alternate and are inserted somewhat
obliquely. They are two-lobed, one lobe folded to lie over the
other. The upper and larger is known as the lobe and the lower
and smaller as the lobule.

The lobule, is an inflated water-sac, in shape resembling a
helmet or hood or cylinder and often has at the base a tiny pro-
cess (stylus).

102

Liverwort! or Hepatic*

The under leaves or stipules (amphigastrd) are strongly two-
cleft and have often tufts of rootlets at their bases.

The male flowers (antheridia) are found on short branches
either on the same plant with the female flowers (archegonia) or
on separate plants.

The envelope of the flower (perianth') is free and exserted
from the leaves. It is 3- to 4-angled and tipped with a short
tubular beak (mucronate). The veil (calyptra} is free and included

The involucre opened

out.

Perianth with beak. Amphigastra with

F. tcklonii. rootlets.

in the perianth. The spore-case is somewhat spherical on a
stout pedicel 2 to 3 times longer than the perianth. It opens by
four valves to eject its spores. There are about 150 species in all,
which are well represented in both temperate and tropical zones;
about twenty are found in North America.

The generic name Frullania was given in honour of Signer
Leonardo Frullani, an Italian minister of state.

Frullania Eboracensis, Gottsche. — See Colour Plate XIV.

Transverse Upper view of

section of the stem with two

perianth. leaves.

F. eboracencts,

This dainty hepatic is usually found in some shade of green
or red, forming delicate traceries on the bark of trees. It is par-
ticularly beautiful on the smooth bark of the yellow birches in
the North woods.

The leaves lap as shingles (imbricate). The lobule is hood-
like (galeate), bluntly terminating at the base. The perianth is
somewhat compressed with a short, broad beak.

103

Mosses and Lichens

Genus PTILIDIUM, Nees

The species of the Genus Ptilidium grow usually in dense
and brownish mats, the stems prostrate or ascending, i to 2
pinnate or irregularly and sparingly branched, without whip-like
branches, the branches are lateral; root-hairs are few and short.

The leaves are obliquely inserted, variously cut or fringed, a
character which suggested the name Ptilidium, derived from the
Greek TTT(\OV, down, the dorsal segment larger and with its tip
lying over the base of the leaf next above it (incubus), under-
leaves (ampbigastra) similar but much smaller.

Male flowers (antberidia) short-stalked in the axils of more
closely imbricate leaves.

Female flowers (arcbegontd) terminal, sometimes apparently
lateral because a side branch has grown on beyond the stem
which bears it. Bracts commonly two pairs, similar to the leaves.

Perianth free, several times longer than the bracts, cylindrical
egg-shaped with constricted mouth.

Veil (calyptrd) free.

Spore-case egg-shaped on a moderately long stalk (seta) de-
hiscing to the base by four rather rigid valves; spores dotted.

Elaters two to three spiral.

There are about eight species.

Ptilidium ciliare, Nees. — See Colour Plate XIV.

Habit and Habitat. — On fallen logs growing in loosely entan-
gled purple, brown, or dark-green tufts.

Upper view of Under view of stem to show Lobule enlarged to

stem. show cell-structure.

P. Ciliart.

Name. — The specific name ciliare, from the Latin cilia, lash,
refers to the fine hairs on the margins of the leaves.

Plants (gametopytbe). — The plants have stems I to i£ inches
long, mostly erect; root hairs few at the base. Branches short,
once or twice pinnate.

104

Liverworts or Hepatics

Leaves. — Crowded, hiding the stem, roundish; lobes lance-
shaped, folded toward each other, the front lobe convex and
parted half-way down, the back lobe similar, but much smaller;
the margins all divided into numerous long hair-like teeth. Under
leaves (ampbigastra) pressed to the stem, rectangular, nearly as
large as the upper, four- to five-lobed with marginal teeth. Leaf-
cells small, roundish, with thick walls.

Habit of flowering. — Male and female flowers on separate
plants, dioicous.

Perianth. — Pear-shaped, pale, dull yellow, mouth narrow, and
margined with small short teeth. The bracts at the base un-
equally four-lobed with teeth like the leaves.

Spore-case. — Nearly spherical.

Genus BAZZANIA, Gr. and Benn.

The vegetative part of these plants grows in large mats,
bright or dark green; the branching stems are 2 to 4 inches long,
mostly creeping and bearing many long whip-like shoots with
minute leaves and few whitish root-hairs.

Leaf -apex 3-toothed.

Leaves from the base of
the perianth.

Perianth.
Battania trilobata.

Leaves from male branch.

The leaves are egg-shaped, over-lapping and embracing the
stem half-way around, they are narrowed to the apex which is
bluntly three-to five-toothed. The leaf-cells are six-sided and
opaque. The male and female flowers are on separate plants
(dioicous). The perianth is white and tubular with slight folds in
the wall and splits open at one side, the leaves at the base (bracts)
are very small, scale-like and slightly toothed.

The genus Bahama may be easily distinguished from all other
genera by the leaves which are dark green, three-toothed and

105

Mosses and Lichens

have the anterior margin of each leaf lapping the posterior margin
of the leaf in front.

The genus was named for M. Bazzani, an Italian professor of
anatomy.

Bazzania trilobata, L. — See Plate X.
Habit and habitat. — On damp shady banks, forming extensive
cushions.

Name. — The specific name trilobata is com-
pounded of Ires (Iff-), three, and lobatus, lobed,
referring to the apex of the leaf.

Plants (gdmetopbyte). — Shining olive-green;
stems simple or once- or twice-forked, 3 to 5
inches long; procumbent or creeping, rootlets
few, beset on the under side with minute leafy
scales; and numerous thread-like whips (flagella)
about an inch long.

Stem with sporo- Under

phyte, the long View of under side of Stem with leaf leaf.
slender pedicel ris- stem to show the third enlarged to show
ing from the per- row of leaves. cell-structure.

ianth.

Bazzania trilobata

The tip
of the per-
ianth.

Leaves— Olive-green, the upper about i* times longer than
broad and placed at right angles to the stem in two rows, the
sides of the leaves overlapping like shingles, the anterior margin
of one leaf overlapping the posterior margin of the leaf in front,
apex with three acute teeth, texture firm; the under leaves
(ampbigastra) broad, four-sided, apex three- to five-toothed.

Habit of flowering. — Female flowers on short branches on
separate plants. Male flower-clusters minute aments, with folded
and toothed bracts, antheridia solitary.

Pmanto.— Highly exserted, nearly white, oblong, narrower
upwards; mouth slit on one side and with a few teeth. Bracts
at the base oval, fringed at the apex and delicate in texture.

Spore-case.— Dark shining-brown, ovate, on a long, slender,
white pedicel, the valves slit to the base to form a Roman cross;
elaters twice spiral.

106

PART FOUR
MOSSES

MOSSES
PEAT-MOSSES

Genus SPHAGNUM, Dill.

THE peat- or bog-mosses are usually of large size, green or
gray, dark-red, yellow, or purple, growing over extensive areas
in the wet places of lowlands or mountain summits. They are
attractive both to travellers and to botanists and are always a
source of wonder on account of their habit of changing colour
with every change in the humidity of the air. The individual
plants are so perfectly preserved when carefully pressed that they
are attractive to the collector, whether artist or botanist. Nature
employs these mosses to redeem shallow waters for the use of
higher plants. The geologist solves many problems by reading
their life-history. The economist uses them for fuel in localities
where other vegetation is scanty, and finds them useful packing
for plants on account of their ability to hold moisture.

The great Linnaeus calls them "flowers of Lapland " and tells
us that the Lapland mothers use them for their children's cradles.

THE METHOD BY WHICH PEAT-MOSSES ENCROACH
UPON WATER TO FORM LAND

The bog-moss plays an important part in the formation of
peat. In a peat-moor the plants on the surface are the tips and
branches of the very same plants whose under parts long ago
died away.

When a peat-moss spore germinates in water, a meshwork
of fine thread-like strands is formed, called the protonema; upon
this protonema bud-like growths occur which in later stages are
known as the peat-moss plants. These plants very soon lose
any root-like growth which they may have possessed, and con-
tinue to grow, year after year, from the apex of the stem or from
lateral branches just below the apex of the stem.

109

Mosses and LIcbens

As the floating plants multiply along the borders of a body of
water, extending outward over the water as an anchored raft,
the immersed dead parts of the moss are continually dropping
disintegrated plant-tissue and so build soil from the bottom up-
ward. The accumulation of vegetable matter attached to the
living and floating plants on the under side causes the raft to
sink gradually ; so gradually that the new growth always rests
just at the surface of the water until the depth of the moss-raft is
sufficient to permit it to reach the bottom. In time, the weight
of the superimposed mass, together with chemical changes which
take place in the dead plant-tissue, convert the moss plants into
more or less compact peat.

Ideal section of pond showing bog-moss growing outward from the shore.

Ideal section of old pond showing bog-moss growing on the surface of the water
and forming a " quaking-bog."

Thus a border of peat-moss soil is built around the shore;
and as new plants are continually growing on the water-line,
forming new rafts which in turn sink and make new moss-soil,
the body of water becomes gradually less until finally it dis-
appears altogether. During this process of marsh building a
"quaking bog" occurs, when the moss covers the whole surface
of the water but has not yet filled up the underlying water.
Both men and animals, while endeavouring to cross a "quaking
bog," have sunk through the overlying moss to be entombed in
the underlying peat; and, owing to the antiseptic quality of the
peat, the bodies have been kept in a state of preservation for
hundreds of vears,

MOSSES AND LICHENS

COLOUR PLATE VII

ICELAND MOSS, Cetraria Islandica, (L.) Ach.

STICTA PULMONARIA, Ach.
" A cure for lung trouble "

STICTA AMPLISSIMA, (Scop.) Mass.
Fruits in flattened coloured disks

THE DOG PELTIGERA.

Peltigera canina, (L.) HofTm.
" A cure for hydrophobia"

Peat-Mosses

The building of bog-mosses is not confined to depressions
filled with water. Strange as it may seem, it is true, that they
can climb the slopes of the surrounding shore and extend the
marsh up a hill. The hill-climbing character of the moss is due
to its habit of absorbing water like a sponge. If one recall the
moss habit of making the new growth upon the dead and water-
soaked remains of the old plants, he will readily understand
that it is as simple for the moss plants to grow up a slope, if it is
not too steep, as it is for .them to grow on a level.

The value of the bog-mosses as peat producers in the belt
over which the great continental glacier swept is greater than
that of any water-loving plant. It will be remembered that the
great glacier of the Ice Age moved in North America from the
northwest in a southeasterly direction as far down as the northern
part of New Jersey, and as the climate changed and the great ice
sheet receded by melting backwards to its source, it left in its
wake numerous small lakes, ranging from a few feet to several
miles in diameter. It is in these lakes, when not over a mile in
width, that the peat-mosses have found most favourable quarters
for their work, for the smaller sheets of water are less liable to be
lashed into waves by the wind.

Examples of this method of marsh building are found all over
the world. Professor H. W. Brewer reports finding peat-mosses
building marshes on Lassen's Peak, California, at an altitude of
5,000 feet. He found Sphagnum fimbriatum on the Sierra Nevada
Chain, California, at an altitude of 11,000 feet; and Sphagnum
mendocinum forming swamps near King River, California, at an
altitude of from 800 to 900 feet. Examples may be found on the
Palisades of the Hudson and on the summits of Mount Marcy and
the Shawangunk Mountains in New York, or on the Pocono
Mountains, Pennsylvania.

In the pass between Mount Marcy and the highest point in
New York State, and Mount Skylight, near the camp and about
half a mile from the summits of the mountains, lies "Lake Tear
of the Clouds." To-day it is a mere bog-hole, neither large nor
deep, but when named by Verplanck Colvin not very many years
ago, its clear waters nestling in a rocky basin suggested to him
the pretty name. At that time a fringe of peat-moss wreathed
its shores and was reflected from it as from a mirror. To-day it
is surrounded by boggy shores and is dotted with little islands of

Mosses and Lichens

similar character; its bottom is soft mud made of decayed vege-
table matter. There is no visible inlet that could bring in sedi-
ment; it is fed only by the slight drainage of rain and melting ice
under the rocks on the adjacent mountain sides, and yet it is
never dry.

There are many places all through the Adirondacks which
illustrate the same thing in different stages of completion —
Connery Pond, Mud Pond, Calamity Pond, Hidden Swamp and
Averyville Swamp are examples, all within walking distance of
Lake Placid, New York.

Mr. Charles H. Peck tells of an example within fifteen miles
of Albany. He says:

"A marsh covered with Sphagnum, in my boyhood days,
was so soft and yielding that it seemed dangerous to go over
some places. It was then productive of cranberries in nearly
all parts. Now it is firm in nearly all parts. The cranberry
vines have almost disappeared and shrubs and young trees
have come up. It is greatly changed. The same sluggish stream
flows through the centre; nothing has been done to ward draining
it, but the mosses, growing at their summits and decaying at
their base, have gradually made more dense the soft ooze beneath,
till now there is sufficient soil to support sedges, marsh-shrubs
and even young trees of tamarack, balsam, and spruce."

The climbing bogs may be found on the east shores of Maine,
near the Bay of Fundy, in New Hampshire, Michigan, and Min-
nesota. They are rare in the United States on account of the
short hot summers, and for the same reason, when they do occur,
they do not climb declivities of more than 2°. In northern
Europe, on the other hand, they climb declivities of 5° and a bog
often rises a score of feet above the water in which it stands.

Peat bogs represent the accumulated remains of thousands of
generations of plants, among which were the Sphagnum mosses.
There is conclusive evidence that the Sphagnum mosses are an
important constituent of peat-bogs now forming; and there is
every reason to believe that in ages gone by they served as soil-
makers for more complex peat-producing plants. Extensive
peat-bogs occur in the northern parts of the world, New England,
Ireland, India, and northern Europe, where the peat is used as
fuel to a limited extent.

Owing to a peculiar odour given off from burning peat, as
well as to other contingencies, it is not popular as a fuel. Its
great value lies in the fact that, when bogs are properly drained,

112

Peat-Mosses

they afford the most desirable land for farming purposes. One-
fifth of the most fertile fields in Great Britain and Ireland have
been won from bog districts by draining. During the time of
the Saxon kingdoms, England was to a grea; extent occupied by
morasses which have since been cleared away. Sites of ancient
bogs in northern Germany and in the valley of the River Po,
Italy, are indicated by the great and persistent fertility of the soil.
Probably not far from ore-twentieth of :he tillable land in Europe
was inundated and unfit for agri-
culture in the eighth century.

Sphagnum acutifolium, var. rubellum.
A bit of stem with three stem-leaves
and a fascicle of three branches, one
appressed and two spreading.

A bit of stem with one stem-leaf and a
fascicle of five branches, two appressed
and three spreading.

Sphagnum cytnbifolittm.

(Genus SPHAGNUM)

Peat-mosses are common, growing in more or less compact
green or purple patches on the surface of bogs, or along mountain

Mosses and Lichens

springs and rivulets, or even floating on water. The genus is an
easy one to recognise and the plants form an attractive feature
of one's walk through woods or over fen-land.

The name Sphagnum (Greek o-^cryvo?) was used by the an-
cient botanists Theophrastus, Dioscorides, and Pliny to indicate
certain non-flowering plants. The name was restricted to a
more limited use in 1719 by Johann Dillenius, a German, who
was the first professor of botany
at Oxford.

Cttt.

Leaf magnified to show large cells with
perforations and spiral thickenings and
small cells with leaf-green grains.

Sphagnum cymbifotium.

Surface view of leaf cells.

The plants are soft and weak-stemmed mosses, generally of
large size, white or yellow, light green or sometimes red. The
stems appear almost simple with clusters of branches at the
summit and on the sides ; the branches at the summit are
grouped to form a dense rosette (capitulum), while each side
cluster (fascicle) consists of from 2 to 7 or more branches, some
spreading and some appressed to the stem. A cross section of
the stem shows three zones of cells — the outer (cortex) of large
loose cells, the central of pithy cells and the intermediate of
woody cells.

The leaves are translucent, without veins, and consist of a
single layer of two kinds of cells : (i) Large colourless and
transparent cells (utricles), generally perforated and lined with

114

Peat-Mosses

spiral or circular thickenings (fibrils) to secure them against
collapse. They have lost the cell-contents which were present
in a younger stage and are, when dry, filled with air. (2)
Smaller cells (ducts), containing active cell-contents and leaf-green.
They are narrowly linear and form a net of rhomboidal or hexa-
gonal meshes around the large cells. The stem-leaves are distant,
obliquely inserted, erect or bent downward, flat or
concave, tongue-shaped, oval, inserted at the small

Apex.

Leaf from branch. Stem leaf.

Leaf from base of
pedicel.

Male branch
(perigonium).

Sphagnum cymbtfolium.

or large end generally obtuse. The "branch-leaves are smaller,
round, oval or lance-like, concave or rolled-up lengthwise. Each
leaf apex overlaps the base of
the next leaf above and every
fifth leaf lies in a perpendicular
line on the stem, directly over
the first leaf counted, that is they
are five ranked.

The veil (calyptra) is a ragged
membrane left at the base of

5. acuiifolium, var. rubellum. Cross-sec-
tion of leaf showing cells with cell contents
and empty cells with perforations.

the

as the latter

spore-case
grows.

The spore-cases are chestnut brown, globular, without teeth.

115

Mosses and Lichens

Normally they are in the crown (capihiluni) of the plant, but
by an elongation of an erect branch near the apex of the stem
they are often left behind so as to appear to have
grown from the side.

The pedicels are thick and stocky. [The Sphag-
num pedicel (pseudopodium) does not have the same
origin as the pedicel of other mosses].

The lids (opercula) are flattened in the form of
an inverted saucer. These are normally cast off
by the contraction of the spore-case wall. Some-
times a lid remains attached at one point and opens
to permit spores to escape or closes to protect
them. Sometimes, if wet, a lid does not fall, then
the spores germinate within the spore-case and
the growing embryos burst the spore-case and
escape.

The spores are of two kinds — large four-angled
spores (tetrahedral macrospores) and small many-
angled spores (polyhedral microspores). The small
spores are supposed to be the spores of a parasitic
fungus which lives upon the developing spores of
the moss. Two hundred and fifty-eight species in
all are known, seventy-four being found in North
America.

Sphagnum
tguarrosum. A
plant with a
sporophyte
rising from the
perichaetial
leaves at its
summit ; the
slender pedicel
bears a globu-
lar spore-case
closed with a
saucer-like lid
and having a
ragged veil at
its base.

THE PALE TINT OF PEAT-MOSSES

The pale tint of peat-mosses is due to the struc-
ture of the leaves. When the moss is wet, the large cells are
rendered more transparent and the colour of the small cells can
be seen through them. When the moss is dry and the green
cells are less evident, then it is paler green or even white.

THE METHOD BY WHICH PEAT-MOSSES ABSORB WATER

The tiny openings of the large cells communicate with similar
openings in adjoining cells. When the atmosphere is dry, as
has already been said, the large cells are filled with air; but as
soon as the atmosphere is moist, the surrounding water rushes
through the holes on one side of the large cells and the air is

116

Peat-Mosses

forced out through the holes on the opposite sides. When all
the large cells are filled with water, the contents of the small
cells can absorb through their thin walls the water from the
adjoining large cells.

It may help one to comprehend the structure to imagine a
number of thin, transparent-glass capsules of irregular shape,
with spiral or circular thickenings of glass in their walls and tiny
openings here and there. Imagine the capsules piled up with
the openings of each capsule contiguous to the openings of
adjoining capsules and all the spaces between filled with very
small capsules containing a colourless jelly and green granules.

Diagram to show plan of cell-structure.

If the base of this imaginary pile be immersed in water, immedi-
ately the water will creep up through the whole system. This
is in accordance with nature's law that water rises in fine hair-
like tubes or crevices. To understand the process by which the
water passes from a large cell to a small cell one must recall
another of nature's laws, that whenever a non-crystallisable
substance, as the cell-contents of the small cells, is separated by
a membranous partition from a crystallisable liquid, as the water
in the large cells, the crystallisable liquid will pass through the
membranous wall into the non-crystallisable substance.

It is evident that one function of the large cells is to procure
water for the small cells to work with ; but since this same
function would be performed as well if all the cells were filled

117

Mosses and Lichens

Point whtrt.
Proton tmo,.*, «,.

Protonema of Sphagnum cymbifolium. (See page 119.)

Sphagnum acutifolium. Stem of moss-plant with
leafy branches ; (ch) involucral leaves of the female
flower ; (a) involucral leaves of the male flowers;
(fc) stem leaves. (See pages 120 and 121.)

118

Sphagnum acutifolium. (A) Male
flower-cluster with involucral leaves
stripped off to show male flowers (a)
antheridia. (B) Antheridium burst-
ing and emitting antherozoids. (0
Coiled antherozoid with two lashes.
(See pages 120 and lai.)

Peat-Mosses

with non-crystallisable cell-contents as in other mosses, one must
conclude that the large cells serve other purposes beside that of
water carriers. Perhaps they are, when filled with air, a protec-
tion to the cells containing leaf-green, serving both as shields
against excessive heat and light and as a barrier to excessive
evaporation.

THE DEVELOPMENT OF ORGANS

Protonema. — The large spores germinate in water to form a
thread-like protonema ; or, on land, to form a flat plate of cells,
from which the moss-plant develops. Several stages from spore
to adult plant are shown in diagrams i, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 and 7.
(See also diagrams on pages 118 and 120.)

Sphagnum acutifolium. Vertica
section to show: (or) archegon-
ium; (ch) cut edges of perichaetial
leaves; (y) involucral leaf.
(Seepage 120.)

Sphagnum acutifolium.

Plant (gametopbyte).—The cells of the protonema by division
at one point form the plant — stem, leaves and rhizoids — then the
protonema disappears. Upon the moss plant are developed the
male flowers (antberidta) and the female flowers (archegonia) .
In Sphagnum acutifolium the male and female flowers mature
in late autumn and in winter and may often be found by digging
under the snow.

Antberidium.—An antheridium has its origin in a cell of the
outer wall of a branch. This cell divides to make two, one of

119

Mosses and Lichens

which divides to form a stem or pedicel, while the second divides
to form the globular part of the antheridium. The mature
antheridium bursts at the apex, the margins roll back and a cloud

."JVtoss-plo/nt*
.JpTotontwou

Sphagnum acutifolium.
Male flower-cluster with
sterile branch at base.

Moss plant on protonema of Sphagnum acutifolium.

of flattened membranous sacs (vesicles), each containing one
spirally coiled antherosoid, are thrown out. The antherosoids
are soon set free by the breaking down of the vesicle wall.
Each antherosoid is a spirally coiled cell, club-shaped, with two

vibratile lashes at the
attenuated end.

.Wait

Sphagnum
subsecundum.
Young arche-
gonium.

Sphagnum
papillosum.
Vertical sec-
tion of a de-
v e 1 o p i n g
archegonium.

Sphagnum cuspidatum. Vertical
section to show young embryo.

Sphagnum cuspida-
tum. Vertical section
of a ripe archegonium
to show egg-cell.

Archegonium. — The archegonium is developed by cell-division;
it is similar to a tiny flask, at the base of which is an egg-cell
(ovum) which, after fertilisation, is to become a spore-case (i, 2, 3).

120

Peat-Mosses

Fertilisation occurs early in the spring, that is, sperm-cells
(antherosoids) from antheridia, swim over in water to a mature
egg-cell of an archegonium, coalesce with it and make possible
the development of an embryo spore-case (4).

The Spore-case. — The first embryos may be found late in
February. A study of their development shows that the fertilised
egg-cell divides into four cells and then by repeated division of
cells takes the form of the several diagrams in order, A, B, C, and
D. The embryo which has been formed as a result of fertilisation
is divided into two regions, the
three upper segments with the

Okttr luxlX.

Inner >nas«

Vertical section of developing embryo.
Sphagnum acutifolium.

apical cell give rise to spores, while the lower segments with the
basal cell form a "foot." The rudimentary spore-case is at first
sessile, but later is raised by the lengthening of the apex of the
branch upon which it is borne.

Veil (calyptrd). — The veil is the fragmentary remains of the
old archegonium wall which was burst by the enlarging spore-
case within and left at the base, or carried up on the lid.

Pedicel (seta). — The "foot" of the Sphagnum* is homologous
with the pedicel of other mosses, as it is due to a development
of the base of the archegonium. The so-called pedicel (pseudo-
podium] is the result of a lengthening upward of the apex of the
branch which bears the archegonium. This branch so enlarges
just below the developing spore-case as to completely envelop
the "foot."

Lid (operculum). — When the spore-case is mature enough to
open, the upper portion separates from the lower by the breaking
down of the walls of a zone of cells. This zone of weak cells is

121

Mosses and Lichens

first noticeable in a young spore-case as a groove. This groove
is due to one zone of cells growing less rapidly than the zones of
cells on either side. The breaking along the groove is due to
the thinner walls of the groove cells. One zone of thicker-
walled cells forms a rim to the spore-case and the other zone of
thicker-walled cells forms the rim of the lid.

pedicel.
ieaves,

Vertical section of a young sporogonium.

The character of the leaves and the manner of branching,
both of which are visible to the naked eye, enable one to separate
the species with some accuracy into eight groups, which are
helpful to a beginner, in that they gave him some definite points
of difference to look for in a genus of which to the novice all
species appear alike.

SYNOPSIS OF GENUS SPHAGNUM

i. Acuta. — With branch-leaves erect and stem leaves large.
Examples: Sphagnum acutifolium and Sphagnum rubellum. (See
diagram on page 123.)

122

Peat-Mosses

2. Cuspidata. — With branch-leaves longer and narrower than
the Acuta group, erect, spreading and wavy on the margins
when dry; stem-leaves small. Example: Sphagnum cuspidaium.

Stem leaves.

Branch leaves.
Sphagnum acutifolium.

3. Squarrosa. — Plants stout, branch-leaves spreading open
widely and abruptly from the middle of the branch. Example:
Sphagnum squarrosum. (See diagram below.)

4. Mollia. — Plants short, densely crowded, very soft when

Stem leaves. Branch leaf.

Sphagnum mollt.

Branch leaves.
Sphagnum cuspidaium.

Branch leaf.
Sphagnum squarrosum.

Branch leaf. Stem leaf.
Sphagnum subsecundum.

123

Stem leaf. Branch leaf.
Sphagnum cymbifolium.

Mosses and Lichens

wet, brittle when dry, branch leaves short. Example: Sphag-
num molle. (See diagram, page 12^.)

5. Subsecunda. — Branch-leaves more or less turned to one
side or strongly curved and more or less folded.
Example: Sphagnum subsecundum. (See diagram,
page 123.)

6. Cymbijormia. — Plants robust; stem-leaves
large, tongue or boat-shaped, branch-leaves very
concave. Example: Sphagnum
cymbifolium. (See diagram, page
123.)

7. Cyclophylla. — Plants not
crowded, stems short, usually
without short hanging branches;
leaves loosely overlapping,
roundish or oval, with a broad
blunt apex.

Acute-leaved Peat-moss
(Sphagnum acutifolium) , E h rh . —
See Colour Plate XI.
Habit and habitat. — Green or purple or red, common in open,
shaded bogs, in valleys or on mountains; many varieties are
noted; the variations due to their special habitat.

Name. — The specific name acutifolium is compounded of two
Latin words acutus, sharp, and folium, a leaf, referring to the
apex of the leaf.

Plants (gametophyte). — Stem without pores in the triple layer
of cells which form the outer covering ] cluster branches spreading,
3 to 5, one to two pendent.

Branch. Leaf.

Sphagnum cyckphylla.

Transverse section of leaf.

Part of cross section of stem
showing triple layer of cells.

Sphagnum acutifolium.

Leaves.— Stem-leaves large, erect, oval or tongue-shaped ; apex
irregularly notched ; with the large cells lined with a few or no

124

Peat-Mosses

spiral thickenings; branch-leaves deeply concave, erect, oval
lance-shaped and awl-shaped, apex toothed; margin in-rolled.

Habit of flowering. — Male and female flowers on the same
plant (monoicous) or on separate plants (dioicous) ; male branches
usually red.

Leaves at the base of the spore-case (perichatial leaves). — Ob-
long, gradually narrowed to a point, apex sinuous, toothed,
recurved.

Sphagnum- acutifolittm. Stem of moss plant with leafy
branches; (d) involucral leaves of the female flower; (a)
involucral leaves of the male flowers.

Male branch,
perigonium.

Sphagnum acuttfolium.

Spore-case. — Numerous, on long false pedicels.
Spores. — Rust-colour, mature in July.
Distribution. — Universal.

The Reddish Peat-moss (Sphagnum rubellum), Weis.
Habit and habitat. — Common in the Adirondack Mountains.
The plants cover sunny bogs with a deep red carpet.

Name. — The specific name is the Latin rubellum, somewhat red.

125

Mosses and Lichens

Stem with three leaves
and three branches, two
spreading and one pen-
dent.

Female branch.

Sphagnum rubellum.

Branch leaf.

Plant (gametophyte). — Resembling Sphagnum acutifolium,
stems softer and more slender.

Leaves. — Stem-leaves broad, obtuse, sometimes with fibrils in
the cells ; branch-leaves shorter, oval oblong, apex obtuse, three-
toothed.

Habit of flowering. — Male and female flowers on separate plants
(dioicous).

The Pointed Peat-moss (Sphagnum cuspidatum), Ehrh.

Habit and habitat. — Green or brown, floating in loose tufts in
ponds and on the borders of streams flowing from bogs.

Apex.

Leaves of divergent
branch.

Stem leaves.

Sphagmim rubellum ,
126

Peat- Mosses

Male branch
perigonium.

Sphagnum rubellum.

Perigonial
leaf.

Sphagnum rubellum. Portion
of cross section of stem.

Branch leaves.
Sphagnum cuspidatum.

Name. — The specific name is the Latin cuspidatum, sharpened
at the end, referring to the cluster-branches.

Plants (gametophyte). — Long and slender, 6 to 18 inches or even
several feet; cluster-branches (fascicles), spreading or hanging,
not closely appressed to the stem, 3 to 5, tapering to a stout point
owing to the fact that the terminal leaves are rolled lengthwise.

Leaves. — Stem-leaves small, triangular, apex 2- to jj-toothed ;
branch-leaves loose, erect spreading, wavy on the margins when dry,
lance-like and taper-pointed, deeply concave, apex with several
small teeth; awl-shaped at the ends of the branches.

Leaves at the base of the spore-case. — Distant, broadly ovate,
apex cut square or obtuse; large cells lined with fibrils.

Habit of flowering. — Male and female flowers on separate
plants (dioicous).

Spore-case. — Scattered down the stem, small, the false pedicel
often half an inch long.

Spores. — Light brown, mature in July.

Distribution. — Universal.

Sphagnum squarrosum. Transverse
section of leaf.

Apex.

Leaves from divergent branch.
Sphagnum squarrosum.

127

Mosses and Lichens

The Spread-leaved Sphagnum (Sphagnum squarrosum),
Pers.— See Plate XII.

Habit and habitat. — Bluish-green, stout, loosely crowded, the
summits appearing like edelweiss, almost white when dry; com-
mon in boggy places.

Name. — The specific name is the Latin squarrosum, scurfy,
applied to describe the scale-like leaves of the stem.

Plant (gametopbyte). — Stems solid, simple or
forking, red; cluster-branches
4 to 5, 2 to 3 divergent, the
others pendent and appressed.

Stem leaves:

Leaf at base of
pedicel.

Femalebranch.

Sphagnum squarrosum.

Leaves. — Stem leaves soft, spreading or turned backward from
the stem, tongue-shaped; apex rounded and ragged; branch-leaves
spreading widely and abruptly from the middle of the branch
oblong lance-shaped, apex four-toothed.

Leaves at tbe base of tbe spore-case (perichcetial leaves). — Very
broad, thin apex rounded and notched.

Habit of flowering. — Male and female flowers generally on the
same plants (monoicous).

Spore-case. — Large, nearly spherical, shining dark brown,
numerous at and near the summit of the plant.

Spores. — Yellow, mature in August and September.

Distribution. — North America, Europe, Asia, Africa.

The Boat-leaved Moss (Sphagnum cymbi folium), Ehrh. —
See Plate III.

Habit and habitat. — Common in bogs, robust, yellow-green
or red, densely crowded when growing out of water, rarely
floating, male plants slender with thick flower-clusters.

128

•

Peat-Mosses

Name. — The specific name cymbifolium is compounded of two
Latin words, cymba, a small boat, and folium, a leaf, referring to
the branch-leaves. Stem solid, simple or two-parted; cortical
cells in 3 to 4 layers; cluster-branches (fascicles), swollen, 4 to 5,
2 to 3 hanging, the rest curved.

Leaves. — Stem leaves large, tongue-shaped or spatulate, gener-
ally turned back from the stem ; apex rounded and irregularly
notched; branch-leaves broadly oval and
boat-shaped, apex finely serrate and
rough, densely overlapping; translucent

rtt*.

Bit of stem with one leaf
and fascicle of four branches,
two appressed and three
spreading.

Cross section of stem

Female Bract of
branch, male branch.

Perichsetial Apex of Male

leaf. leaf- flower-cluster.

Sphagnum cymbifolium.

cells (utricles) large, with spiral thickenings (fibrillose) and few
pores, green cells (ducts) narrowly oval.

129

Mosses and Lichens

Leaves at the base of the spore-case (pericbcetial leaves). — Small,
oval.

Habit of flowering. — Male and female flowers on separate
plants (dioicous), male branches rather thick, yellow-brown, red,
or olive-green.

Veil (calypird). — As in genus.

Spore-case. — Large, almost spherical, dark brown.

Stem leaf.

Branch leaves.
Sphagnum cytnbifoliutn.

Pedicel. — As in genus.

Lid (operculum). — Saucer-like.

Teeth (peristome). — None.

Spores. — Rust-colour, mature in July.

Distribution. — Universal.

Antheridium.

Genus ANDRE^A, Ehrh.

The species of the Genus Andreaea are found in small, brown
or black, fragile tufts on granite or slate rocks in high altitudes.
They are among the first mosses to grow on rock and are

Andreato Hartmanii. Leaves.

Andrecea «-
pes-tris. Spore-
case open ins
by four valves.

efficient agents in preparing soil for higher forms of plant life.
The plants are small with forked branches which start from just
below the flower-bearing apex. The leaves are thick, open or

130

MOSSES AND LICHENS

COLOUR PLATE VIII

REINDEER LICHEN— A VARIETY.

REINDEER LICHEN, VARIETY ALPESTRIS.

REINDEER LICHEN.

Cladonia rangijerina, (L.) Hoffm.
Reindeer feed upon it ...

PHYSCIA LEUCOMELA, (L.) Michx.

Peat- Mosses

spreading, ovate to lance-shaped and usually have their surface

covered with projecting points.

The terminal oval spore-cases are immersed among the leaves

before maturity, but later are protruded by the elongation of the

cellular sheath (vaginule) surrounding the base of the spore-case.
This is known as a false pedicel (pseudo-
podium). There is no lid, as the case
opens by splitting perpendicularly into
four or rarely six equal segments
which cohere at the apex. There are,

Veil

Fertile plant.

A sporophyte
separated from
the cellular
sheath.
Andrecea Hartmanii.

Sterile plant.

of course, no teeth when there is no lid. The small spores are
at first coherent in fours, later, when the case splits into valves,
they are disseminated by the wind, if the weather is dry; if it is
damp, the valves draw together to protect the spores.

There are about one hundred species known at present, six
or more of them occurring in North America. The specific char-
acters are drawn mainly from the leaves.

131

Mosses and Lichens

By the early writers these mosses were classed with the leafy
hepatics (Jungermania) on account of their manner of opening
the spore-case by valves instead of by a lid. They agree in
structure with the true mosses. Their proper place seems to lie
between the peat-mosses and leafy-mosses. They agree with
the peat-mosses because the spore-case is first enclosed in a sac-
like vail and then elongated on a false pedicel. They agree with
the genus Grimmia in habitat, manner of growth and in structure
of their leaves, differing chiefly in the opening of the spore-case.

The name was given by Fredrich Ehrhart, in honour of his
friend J. G. R. Andreae, a Hanoverian naturalist.

The Stone-loving Andresea (Andrecea petrophila), Ehrh.
Habit and habitat. — Found in small olive or dark brown tufts
on wet rocks of high mountains.

Name. — From irerpa, a rock, and <f>i\eiv,
to love, referring to its choice of habitat.

Plants (gametophyte). — Stems slender, $
to i inch long, leafless below.

A . petrophila. Vertica
section of spore-case.

A. petrophila. Leaves.

Leaves. — Spreading or turned to one side, lance-shaped, rough
on the back with projecting points; apex sometimes oblique,
transparent; vein none, margin incurved, entire.

Habit of flowering. — Male and female flowers on one plant
(monoicous) .

Veil (calypird). — Thin, closely fitting the spore-case.

Spore- case. — Egg-shaped, immersed in the leaves at its base
until maturity and then protruded by the elongation of the cel-
lular sheath (vaginule) surrounding its base.

Pedicel (seta). — None.

Lid (operculum).—None.

Teeth (peristome) .— None.

132

Peat- M os sea

Spores. — Small, mature in June- August.

Distribution.— Widely distributed in cooler regions.

The Rock Andreaea (Andrecea rupestris), Turner.

Andreaea rupestris has lance-shaped leaves, smooth
with a vein extending beyond the apex.

This moss is common
in the mountains of
Georgia and North Caro-
lina, descending to the
plains northward.

The specific name
from the Latin rupes, a
rock, refers to its habitat, spore-case

open.

and

Leaves.

Fertile plant, spore-
case immersed.

Sporophyte
still carrying its
veil, one peri-
chaetial leaf at
the base of the
pedicel.

A. ruptstris.

Genus SPH^iRANGIUM, Schimp.

The Species of the Genus Sphasrangium are minute bud-like
plants with spore-case immersed, without stems, growing on the
ground in clusters, but with no protonema at the base. The lower
leaves are small, while the upper are large, somewhat twisted and
overlapping as shingles. They are concave or keeled and covered
with minute protuberances on the back or on both surfaces. The
spore-cases are spherical and for this reason Wilhelm Philipp
Schimper gave them their generic name Spbarangium, from the
Greek <r<f>aipa, a ball, and ayyeiov, a vessel. The cases with their

133

Mosses and Lichens

tiny erect veils are borne on pedicels and are enclosed in the
leaves at their base; when mature they split irregularly and
transversely for the emission of the spores, which are small,
somewhat globular, minutely granulous and brown.

There are fourteen species known in all, four of them in North
America.

Spore.

Spore -case.

Spore-case
split open to
show columella
of spores.

VeU.

S. muticuin.

Leaf -cells.

Sphaerangium muticum, Schimp. Individual plants are
more or less separated.

Habit and habitat. — On bare clay or sandy soil.

Name. — The specific name muti-
cum, blunt, refers to the apex of
the spore-case.

Plants (gametophyte). — Like
yellow-brown buds j of an inch
high.

Leaves. — The lower and middle
oval and long taper-pointed; apex
recurved, with a short sharp point;
vein passing beyond the apex ; the
upper two or three, twice as large
as the lower; apex irregularly toothed.

Habit of flowering. — Male and female flowers on the same
plant (monoicous).

Veil (calyptra). — Very small, erect, conical, with a long beak.

Spore-case. — Orange, spherical, immersed.

Pedicel. — Very short.

Lid (operculum). — None.

Teeth (peristome). — None.

Spores.— Mature in winter and early spring.

Distribution.— Europe, Africa, and North America.

134

Spore-case split-
ting irregularl y and
emitting spores.

Sfheerangium Schimferanum.

Peat-Mosses

Male and female
branches at the left
and (a) rhizoids.

Lower leaf.

Upper leaves.

Plant.

Spharangium muticum

Genus PHASCUM, Linn.

The plants of the Genus Phascum are very small with
simple distinct stems. They grow in loose clusters on bare
ground under old willows and along brooks and garden paths.
The protonema is not persistent.

The leaves are crowded, forming small
heads and are lance-shaped with taper-pointed
apex and a broad base with a
vein extending as an awn be-
yond the apex. The cells are
distinct and pale below, smaller
and green above, sometimes
with minute projecting points
on one or both faces.

The spore-cases are spherical
or egg-shaped with a short point
or a blunt beak. They are raised
on a short, erect or curved
pedicel and break irregularly and transversely for the emission of
the large, rough spores, which are borne on a thick, central
column (columella) .

There are ten species known in all, three of them in North
America. By some they are believed to be mosses in a primitive
condition ; by others they are believed to be degenerate forms of
higher mosses.

Leaf.

Sporophyte.
Spore - case
with veil.
Pedicel short,
with the vag-
inule a t the
base.

Spore-case
split open to
show colu-
mella.

Phascum cuspidalum.

Mosses and Lichens

The generic name Pbascum is derived from the Greek <j>do-/covt
an ancient name for a moss. It was originally applied by Theo-
phrastus to a lichen, Usnea barbata, and first used as a generic
name for these mosses by Linnaeus in 1753. He enumerated
three species, all founded on figures made by Dillenius and pub-
lished in 1741. Schreber limited the name more closely to its
modern sense. In a quaint little pamphlet printed in 1770, he
praises the invention of lenses which make it possible to see the
tiny mosses as if they were of greater stature, and says that the
ancients spoke well and wisely when they said "Nature is never
more perfect than in small things."

Plant with immersed
spore-case and new
shoots.

Plant with nodding
spore-case.

Male flower.
Phase-urn cuspidatum.

Phascum cuspidatum, Schreb.

Habit and habitat. — In loose yellow-green tufts in old fields.

Name. — The specific name cuspidatum, pointed, refers to the
apex of the leaves.

Plants (gametopbyte). — Stems simple or branched, ITT to TTF of
an inch high, often bushy with numerous fertile stems, dividing
from the base or branching above, occasionally whip-like.

Leaves. — Small and few below, much larger and crowded
above, broadly lance-like, twisted when dry: apex awl-like;
margins recurved, entire \vein thick and extending beyond the

136

Peat-Mosses

apex; basal cells large, clear; upper cells small, green, with
tiny projecting points.

Habit of flowering, — Male and female flowers on the same
plant (monoicous) ; male flowers sessile in the axils of the upper
leaves.

Veil (calyptra).— Split on one side.

Spore-case.— One or several on a plant, erect or nodding,
spherical with a sharp point at the top, -£$ °f an incn in diameter.

Pedicel. — Short and curved, immersed or slightly emergent.

Spores. — Brown, rough, mature in March and April.

Distribution. — North and South America, Europe, Asia, Africa.

P. nenosum. Vertical
section of spore-case to
show columella and
spores.

P. tubulatum. Plants.

P. tubulatum. Leaves.

P. subulatum. Spore-
case split open to show

columella.

Genus PLEURIDIUM, Brid.

The plants of the Genus Pleuridium are minute and erect
with simple or branching stems clustered to form dense cushions
on the ground.

The leaves are small and few below, but longer and crowded
above; they are oval at the base, tapering to a long awl-like
point with a broad vein forming most of the apex.

Mosses and Lichens

The spore-cases are solitary and terminal, immersed on a
short pedicel. They are almost spherical with a point on the
summit and a persistent columella.

There are thirty-six species known in all, five in the United
States.

The generic name Pleuridium is derived from the Greek
7r\€vpiSiov, at the side. The name is suggestive of the position of
the spore-cases, which in some species appear to be on the sides
of the stems instead of on the summits, because a side branch has
grown from near the base of the spore-case — but in the same
direction as the main stem — leaving the spore-case behind.
Pleuridium subulatum, (Huds.), Rabenh.

Habit and 'habitat. — In loose bright-green and
silky tufts on earth and clay, along woods, banks
and heaths.

Name. — The specific name subulatum, from the
Latin subula, an awl, refers to the shape of the
upper leaves.

Spores.

Spore-case Veil.

Leaves. with veiL

P. subulatum.

Plants (gametopbyte). — Minute, ^ to -nrof an inch high, simple
or branching.

Leaves. — The lower distant, short, oval and taper-pointed; the
upper longer, more crowded, spreading; apex an awn minutely
toothed and rough on the back; vein broad, forming most of the
awn.

Habit of flowering. — Male and female flowers close together
on the same plant (paroicous) ; male flowers naked in the axils of
the leaves at the base of the spore-case.

Veil (calyptra). — Split on one side.

Spore-case. — Immersed in the leaves at the base, egg-shaped
with a tiny point at the apex (apiculate).

Pedicel (seta). — Short, immersed.

Lid (operculum). — None.

138

Peat- Mosses

Teeth (peristome). — None.

Spores.— Rough, mature from March to June.

Distribution. — Quite universal.

Genus BRUCHIA, Schwaegr.

The species of the Genus Bruchia are minute, with simple
or two-forked stems. They are found growing in loose clusters
on the ground.

The stem-leaves are
small and distant, those
toward the apex being long-
er and crowded to form a
rosette. The vein of all
leaves is distinct to the apex.

The spore-cases are
emergent, oval and beaked,
with a base which tapers
into a long solid neck
(collum). They open irregu-
larly for the emission of the
spores as they have no lid.

There are eighteen
species in all, two in Europe
and eleven in North
America.

The generic name
Bruchia was applied by D. Fridericus Schwaegrichen in 1824,
in honour of the distinguished bryologist Ph. Bruch, one of
the authors of " The Bryologia Europaea."

Bruchia flexuosa, Muell.

Habit and habitat. — Found on clay or OR fcase soil in fields or
under old willows and along brooks.

Name. — The specific name flexuosa, the Latin for "crooked,"
refers to the curving of the stems near the bases.

Plant (gametophyte) . — In loose tufts, stems comparatively
long, curved downward at the base.

Leaves. — Stem-leaves distant, very small, nearly smooth,
narrowly lance-shaped and prolonged into an awn; apex ob-
scurely serrate.

Habit of flowering.— Male and female flowers close together on

'39

Leaf.

Leaf, side view
Plant. showing vein.

Bruchia flexuosa.

Mosses and Lichens

Bruchia flex-

uosa.
Sporophyte.

the same plant (paroicous) or in separate buds on the same plant.
Veil (calyptrd). — Resembling a bishop's mitre, thin, lobed, or
torn at the base.

. Spore-case. — Not immersed in the leaves at the

0 base, egg-shaped with a neck (collum) shorter or equal
to the spore-sac, long-beaked.

Pedicel. — One-tenth to two-tenths of an inch long.
Lid (operculum). — None.
Teeth (peristome). — None.
Spores. — Mature in the fall.
Distribution. — Found in the central part of North America.

THE PRIMITIVE MOSSES

Genus ARCHIDIUM, Brid.

The species of the Genus Archidium are minute terrestrial
plants having stems with branches short and erect or long and
prostrate.

The leaves are narrowly or broadly lance-
shaped ; with a vein ; the cells are loose and contain
but little leaf-green.

The spore-cases are terminal, sessile and
globular, opening irregularly and
transversely for the exit of the
spores, which are few, smooth
and larger than those of any other
moss.

There are thirty-five species in
all, five of them in North America.
Their structure is more simple
than that of most mosses; and
for this reason Bridel gave it the generic name Archidium from
the Greek apxt&on, a beginning.
Archidium Ohiense, Schimp.
Habit and habitat. — Moist meadows and waste fields.
Name.— The specific name Ohiense refers to the fact that this
moss was first found in Ohio.

Plant (gametophyte). — Minute; stems slender.
Leaves. — Narrowly lance-shaped, spreading; apex awl-like,
finely toothed; vein extending into the apex of the leaf-blade.

140

Archidium
ense. Vertical
section through
sporophyte to
show large spores,
foot immersed in
the upper part
(vaginule) of the
spore-pedicel.

Archidium Ohiense.
Exit of spores.

The Primitive Mosses

Leaves at the base of the spore-case (pericljcetical leaves). —
Broader and longer.

Habit of flowering. — Male and female flowers in separate clus-
ters on the same plant (autoicous).

Veil (calyptra). — Very thin, irregularly torn below.

Spore-case. — Spherical, on short side branch.

Pedicel. — Very short.

Lid (operculum). — Wanting.

Teeth (peristome). — Wanting,

Spores. — Sixteen to twenty, angular, smooth, mature in fall
and winter.

Distribution. — North America, Ohio and southward.

Plant.

Archidium Ohienst.

Sporophyte. Spore-
case with veil.

Plant with spore-case
Leaf. immersed in leaves.

Astomum Stdlivantii.

Genus ASTOMUM, Hampe

The species of the Genus Astomum are minute, simple or
branching plants, living in matted tufts on the ground.

The leaves are lance-shaped, tufted and curling toward the
apex of the stems.

141

Mosses and Lichens

The spore-cases are erect and symmetrical on a short pedicel
and are immersed in the leaves. They have distinctly formed,
beaked lids, which are not easily detached. There are no teeth.

The generic name Astomum, from a, privative, without, and
a-rofj.a, a mouth, was given because when first known this moss
was supposed to have no lid.

There are seventeen species in all.

Bract.

Sporophyte.

Upper leaves.

Papillose leaf. Veil.

Leaves.

Astomum Suilivantii.

Astomum Suilivantii, Schimp.

Habit and habitat. — In fields and gardens, living from year to
year.

Name. — The specific name Suilivantii was applied to this
moss by Wilhelm Philipp Schimper, in honour of William S.
Sullivant, a noted bryologist.
; Plant (gametophyte). — Minute, simple, or branched.

Leaves. — The lower leaves small, narrowly oval; the upper
narrowly lance-shaped, densely tufted, covered on the back with
tiny projections papillosa; curled in various directions when dry;
apex pointed ; margins rolled in ; vein round, extending beyond
the apex of the leaf-blade (percurrenf).

Habit of flowering. — Male and female flowers on the same
plant (monoicous).

142

The Primitive Mosses

Veil (calyptrd). — Split up one side.

Spore-case. — Bright orange, symmetrical.

Pedicel (seta). — Shorter than the spore-case.

Lid (operculum}. — Short, conical.

Teetb (peristome). — None.

Spores. — Bright, rusty brown, mature in autumn.

Distribution. — North America.

Genus GYMNOSTOMUM, Hedw.

The species of the Genus Gymnostomum are found in
matted tufts on the ground and on limestone walls and rocks.

The plants have slender stems branching
twice or many times to form clusters, with
terminal erect spore-cases, cylindrical or globose,
exserted on erect pedicels.

The leaves are small, generally larger upwards
and tufted at the apex of the stem ; they are
lance-shaped with a solid vein prominent on
the back.

The lid is long-beaked and falls to permit the
escape of the spores. There are no teeth, a
character which suggests the generic
name, from the Greek 71/^1/0?, naked,
and (TTOfj,a, a mouth.

There are fifty-five species in all,
eight of them known in North America.

Gymnostomum calcareum,
Nees & Hornsch.

Habit and habitat. — Densely tufted,
bright-green above, rusty below ; on
shaded limestone rocks.

Name. — From calcarius, pertaining
to lime, a name suggested by the
plant's habit of depositing lime.

Plants (gametophyte) . — Stems 1 to
| of an inch long, covered with root-

. Leaf and

IclS. cross -section

Leaves. — The lower very small, t ° show

• 11 . . prominent

gradually or abruptly larger upward ; vein.

slender lance-shaped ; apex blunt ; Gymnostomum cakargum.

Mosses and Lichens

vein extending to near the apex ; margin minutely blunt-toothed.

Habit of flowering. — Male and female flowers on separate
plants (dioicous).

Veil (calyptra). — Split up one side.

Spore-case.— Exserted, oblong, yellow-brown, slightly con-
stricted under the mouth when dry.

Spore-case
without
teeth.

Spore-case
with veil.
Gymnostomum cakareum

Leaves.

Pedicel. — £ to f of an inch long.

Lid (operculum). — Base conical ; beak awl-like.

Teeth (peristome). — None.

Annulus. — Short and persistent.

Spores. — Rare, mature in summer.

Distribution. — Universal.

Gymnostomum curvirostrum, Hedw.

Habit and habitat. — This moss is found on limestone rocks
and on deposits of carbonate of lime about springs
and streams. The plants obtain the carbonic acid
gas (CO2) which they need, from bicarbonate of
lime which is dissolved in the surrounding water.
By decomposition of the bicarbonate of lime [Ha
Ca (CO3)a], which is soluble in water, the mono-
carbonate of lime (Ca CO3), which is insoluble in
water is precipitated in the form of incrustations
upon the leaves and stems of the moss, so that
in time a very appreciable deposit of limestone
is made.*

Name. — From the Latin curvus, curved, and rostrum, a beak.

G. curvirostrum.
with long beak.

*See page 17.

144

The Primitive Mosses

Plants (gametopbyte) . — Dark red or brown, matted, stems % to
5 inches long ; branches of equal height, in close clusters, covered
with a felt of red radicles.

Leaves. — Spreading, slightly incurved when dry, pointed,
lance-shaped, keeled, smooth, or with tiny projections ; base
transparent ; margin entire or slightly serrate and recurved above
the base ; vein vanishing below the apex.

Habit of flowering. — Male and female
flowers on separate plants (dioicous).

Veil (calyptra). — Split up one side.

Spore-case . — E gg-
shaped, oblong, or nearly
spherical, thick-walled,
chestnut colour, shining,
top-shaped when dry and
empty.

Pedicel — I to f of an
inch long.

! Lid (operculum). — With
a long oblique beak, at base attached to a central column (coin-
melld) in the spore-case, by which it is held long after it has
split away from the rim.

Annulus. — Two rows of persistent cells.

Spores. — Mature in late summer.

Distribution. — Common in North America, Europe, and Asia.
Very abundant in Niagara Falls.

Genus WEISIA, Hedw.

The species of this genus are small and
slender, growing in tufts or cushions on the
ground. The leaves are lance-shaped and
twisted when dry, the apex is awl-like and
the vein single.

Spore-case

Spore-case with lid lif-
with lid. ted.
G. curvirostrum.

Peristome.

Portion of peristome.
Weisia viridula.

Leaves.

Mosses and Lichens

The spore-case is erect, oval-oblong, symmetrical or rarely
incurved on an erect exserted pedicel. There is but one row of
sixteen teeth, often imperfect or wanting, granular and trans-
versely barred.

The generic name Weisia was given in honour of Frederigo
Wilhelm Weiss, a German professor of botany.
About twenty-four species are known in all.

Weisia viridula, Brid.
Habit and habitat. — Common,
forming more or less compact cush-
ions on the ground in meadows,
broken fields, borders of ditches
and grassy roadsides, where it is
conspicuous for its bright green
colour. Very variable.

Name. — The specific name viri-
dula is the Latin diminutive of
viridis, green.

Plants (gametopbyte). — Stems
about \ of an inch long, simple or
branched.

Lid in veil.
Weisia viridula.

Spore-case
with veil.

Leaves. — The lower minute ; the upper much larger, narrowly
lance-shaped and curled when dry; base enlarged, pale, concave;
vein (costa) stout and extending beyond the apex into a short
sharp point ; margin inrolled in the upper part to form a tube,
flat toward the base ; cells opaque, dot-like, with tiny pro-
jecting points.

146

The Primitive Mosses

Habit of flowering. — Male and female flowers on the same
plant (monoicous).

Veil (calyptra). — Smooth, split on one side and reaching to
the middle of the spore-case.

Spore-case. — Light-brown, oval,
oblong, of thick texture, slightly con-
stricted under the mouth, wrinkled
lengthwise when dry.

Dry spore-case.

Top of spore-case
with peristome.

Portion of peristome.

Weisia viridula.

Pedicel (seta).-^ to £ of an inch long and twisted to the right.

Lid (operculum). — Beak, long, straight or bent obliquely.

Teeth (peristome). — Orange-red, variable, slender or broad,
often ending abruptly (truncate) or split into two parts with
2 to 5 cross bars, sometimes rudimentary.

Annulus. — Narrow, persistent.

Spores. — Mature from March to May.

Distribution. — Universal.

Genus TREMATODON, Michx.

The species of the Genus Tremato-
don are short plants, sparingly branched
and forming pale-green or dusky-brown
tufts on the ground. The leaves are
lance-shaped, tapering toward the apex;
a vein is present, and the cells are large
and long-hexagonal. The spore-cases
are oblong, slightly arched with a long
neck (coUum) once or twice as long as
the spore-case. They have long-beaked
lids with conical bases and are raised on
slender pedicels % to i£ inches long. A
simple or compound annulus is present and a single row of
sixteen red-brown narrowly lance-shaped teeth cleft to near the
base into two unequal forks.

'47

r ambiguum Portionof

Mosses and Lichens

The generic name, compounded of two Greek words:
a perforation, and 6So>v, a tooth, was suggested by the character
of the teeth of one species, Trematodon ambiguum, which often
have a cleft or perforation running lengthwise of each tooth.

Plant.

T. ambiguum.
148

Plant.

The Primitive Mosses

There are sixty-four species in all, two in the United States.

Trematodon ambiguum, Hornsch.

Habit and habitat. — Wet sandy places on hills ; in peat-bogs,
ditches, etc., of Alpine regions.

Name. — The specific name ambiguum, doubtful, was given to
this species at the time it was classified in the genus Dicranum
(1792) and expressed the doubt as to its rightful position, which
was determined in 1803.

Plants (gametophyte) . — Short, | to I inch long.

Leaves. — Open, lance-shaped, channelled ; apex long and
slender ; base concave, oval-oblong ; margins entire, inrolled ;
vein extending beyond the leaf-blade (excurrent).

Leaves at the base of the pedicel. — Large, oblong,
with a short tapering point. Perichaetial leaves.

Plant stripped of
leaves to show two
male and one fe-
male cluster.

Tooth.

Spore-case with

veil. Lid.

T. anibiguum.

Vertical section of peristome
showing two cells of the annulus
at the base of a single tooth.

Habit of flowering. — Male and female flowers in different places
on the same plant (autoicous) ; male flowers terminal on a basal
branch, bracts small, taper-pointed.

Veil (calyptra). — Translucent, slit on one side (cucullate).

Spore-case. — Oblong, straw-coloured or orange-brown ; in
length equal to or shorter than the slightly arched neck (collum)
which is swollen on one side at the base.

Pedicel (seta) .—Long, twisted, £ to i£ inches long, straw-
coloured.

Lid (operculum). — Conical at the base; beak, long and oblique.

149

Mosses and Lichens

Teeth (peristome}. — Cleft to near the base or in the middle
only; segments sometimes irregularly torn.

Annulus. — Large, rolling
back when mature.

Spores. — Mature in July and
August.

Trematodon longicollis,
Michx.

Trematodon longicollis, the
long-necked Trematodon, may be
distinguished from Trematodon
ambiguum by the neck, which is
twice as long as the spore-case,
by the shorter plants, and by
the slender character of the teeth
and the leaves at the base of
the pedicel. The specific name
longicollis is compounded of two
Latin roots, longum, long, and
collum, a neck.

T. ambiguum. (a) and (b) old spore-
cases; (c) mature spore-case; (d) young
spore-case.

THE LITTLE FORK-MOSSES
Genus DICRANELLA, Schimp.

The species of this genus are generally small with slightly
branching stems. The leaves are very long and narrow from a
broader often clasping base and are never curled, but spread on
all sides or turn in one direction. Usually they are smooth with
the margins plane and the vein broad.

The spore-cases are erect or inclined, symmetrical or un-
equal on yellow or red pedicels. They have lids with long
awl-like points.

The peristome consists of sixteen large teeth, two-cleft to
about the middle, closely cross-barred and marked with fine
parallel bars running lengthwise.

There are one hundred and twelve species in all, thirty-two
known in North America.

The generic name Dicranella, is the diminutive of Dicranum,
from Sfapavos, a fork.

150

Fork-Mosses

Dicranella heteromalla, Schimp.

Habit and habitat. — Forming silky, green
tufts of moderate size on rocks, clay banks, naked
soil and roots of trees.

Name. — The specific name heteromalla is de-
rived from the Greek ere/ao'/iaXXo?, having hair
only on one side, referring to the habit the
leaves have of turning to one side.

Plants (gametophyte) . — Stems simple or fork-
ing, % to 2 inches high.

Leaves. — Glossy, crowded, turned to one
side, lance-shaped from the base; apex slender,
awl-shaped, toothed or entire.

Leaves at the base of the pedicel (perich&tial
leaves). — Abruptly and narrowly awl-shaped from
a half-clasping base.

Habit of flowering. — Male and female flowers
on separate plants (dioicous).

Veil (calyptrd). — Split up one side.

Spore-case. — Egg-shaped or oblong with the
summit inclined. The base tapers to form a
short neck (collum) and is slightly constricted
under the mouth. Plaited when dry.

Pedicel. — Slender and pale yellow,
to i inch long.

Perichaetial.
D. htteromaUa. Leaves.

Mosses and Lichens

Lid (operculum). — Long-beaked.

Teeth (peristome). — Showy, red, two- or three-forked to the
middle.

Annulus. — Simple, very narrow.

Spares. — Mature from November to February.

Distribution. — North America, Europe and Asia.

a e d e f

D.heteromalla. (a) Spore-case with veil; (b) veil; (c) and (d) spore-cases with lid; («) spore-
case with peristome; (f) portion of peristome.

FORK-MOSSES
Genus DICRANUM, Hedw.

The species of this genus are universally distributed, and
include some of our most easily recognised mosses. They

usually grow in dense tufts or
cushions on the ground or on
old decaying logs or even on
rocks. About two hundred and
thirty-four species are known in
all ; about sixty-three are found
in North America, six of these
within the limits of New York
City. Their showy dark-green
or glossy yellow-green cushions
are often conspicuous in damp
shady places and consist of
numerous more or less erect and
forking stems, often crowded
together and covered with a felt of reddish hairs at least below,
with lance-shaped often curved leaves above that spread all
about the stem or turn to one side.

152

Tuft of Dicranum scoparium

MOSSES AND LICHENS

COLOUR PLATE IX

WOOD PATH

" The moss upon the forest bark
Was polestar when the night was dark "

Fork-Mosses

The leaves have a slender apex with a vein usually broad and
extending into the apex. The character of the vein and the cell-
structure are relied upon for perfect classification of the species.
The cells vary from short to linear oblong in the upper part of the
leaf, to long and narrow in the lower part ; four-sided, inflated,
orange or brown, in the angles of the base. The leaves at the
base of the pedicel are sheathing and abruptly pointed. The
spore-cases are erect or turned to one side, the base, which is
often swollen so as to be unsymmetrical, tapers to an erect
pedicel, long and smooth. An annulus
is generally present. The lid is conical
with a long beak. The perisiome is sin-
gle, of sixteen teeth, two-cleft to the
middle and red-brown at the base.

D. scoparium.
Perichaet ial
leaf.

D. subidatum.

D. congestum.

D.scoparium. Leaf.

The name of the genus is derived from a Greek word.
o?, a flesh-hook or fork, from a supposed resemblance of
its teeth to that instrument. The American Indians call Fork-
mosses "Women's heads," "because when you trample them
under foot they spring right up again."

Although at first glance the Dicranums appear to have their
spore-cases on the sides of the plants, they truly belong to the
group of mosses which bears them on the summits of the
stems (acrocarpi) and not to the group which bears them on
the sides of the stems (pleurocarpi), for a closer examination
shows that a side stem grows on after the spore-case has

153

Mosses and Lichens

begun to develop, leaving the spore-case and pedicel behind
on the apex of the main stem. The felt of hairs on the
stems serves as a sponge through which water may creep to
the upper parts of the plants.

" How glorious are the summer woods,
Where the bright Broom Fork-moss grows,
With their gush of love-born melody,
And their world of verdant boughs."

Perforated Portion of leaf to show
leaf -cells. basal leaf -cells.

D. scopariutn.

D. undulatum.

Whip Fork-Moss, Dicranum flagellare, Hedw. — See Plate
XIV.

Habit and habitat. — Growing in bright green, dense tufts
producing fragile, small-leaved branches (flagelke) in the axils of
the upper leaves. Common on decayed trunks in deep woods.

Name. — The specific name flagellum, the Latin for "whip,"
refers to the young branches, which are so small as to be easily
overlooked. They fall away as the plant dries.

Plant (gametopbyte). — Repeatedly branching ; stems I to 2
inches high ; covered with a thick felt of hairs.

Leaves. — Forming little clusters on the summits of the stems ;
lance-shaped, convolute ; apex toothed, turned back from the
stem, the upper twisted when dry ; margin below entire,
incurved ; vein broad, compressed, extending to the apex ;
cells inflated at the basal angles, yellow-brown, four-sided. The
leaves of the "whips" have no vein.

Leaves at tie base of the pedicel (pericbcetial leaves). — Rolled
about the pedicel.

Habit of flowering. — Male and female flowers on separate
plants (dioicous).

154

Fork-Mosses

Veil (calyptra). — Split on one side.

Spore-case. — Erect symmetrical, long, cylindrical, grouped
lengthwise when dry.

Pedicel (seta). — Pale, twisted to the left when dry.

Lid (operculum). — Conical, with long
oblique beak.

Annulus. — Narrow.

Teeth (peristome). — Sixteen, narrow, cleft
nearly to the base.

Spores. — Mature in autumn.

Distribution. — North America, Asia,
Africa ; rare in Great Britain.

Spore-case with lid.

Old spore-case
Basal leaf -cells. with teeth.

D. flagellare.

Leaf.

The Broom-moss, Dicranum scoparium, Hedw. — See Plate
XIII.

Habit and habitat. — The Broom-moss, Dicranum scoparium,
is a conspicuous species. It commonly grows in the woods
forming large and symmetrical cushions on the ground, although
it may extend in large patches over decaying stumps and logs or
on the ground where there is a rich vegetable mould. The long-

155

Mosses and Lichens

beaked spore-cases, tilted on one side, commonly point one way,
and the leaves also are all turned to one side pointing in the
same direction as the beaks. Children fancy they resemble duck
heads and see in them flocks travelling toward the water. Some
call them soldiers and sing "The troops of Dicranum are tilting
their lances."

Name. — The specific name scoparium, the Latin for "broom,"
is suggested by the resemblance of the plants to small counter-
brooms.

D. scoparium. Leaves.

D. scoparium. Sections of vein toward
apex of leaf.

Plant (gametopbyte) . — Large ; stems 2 to 5 inches high in
loose yellow, rarely green, tufts, covered with rootlets to the
newest growth, forking once or twice.

Leaves. — Glossy, turned to one side, or scythe-shaped, rarely
erect, crowded at the tops of the stems ; apex awl-shaped ; base
lance-shaped ; vein compressed, with four-toothed ridges on the
back toward the apex ; margin sharply serrate and wavy toward
the apex ; cells perforated, elongated in the upper part, narrow
and worm-like toward the base, large, four-sided and orange-
coloured at the angles.

Leaves at the base of the pedicel (periclcelial leaves) . — Sheathing
at the base.

156

Fork-Mosses

Habit of flowering. — Male and female flowers on different
plants (dioicous}.

Veil (calyptra). — Thin, smooth, beaked and split
up one side.

Spore-case. — Long, with summit somewhat in-
clined, rarely erect, cylindrical, somewhat incurved,
arched and grooved when dry.

Pedicel (seta). — Solitary, golden-yellow.

Lid (operculum). — Conical at the base, gradually
narrowed into a strong beak, reddish, and as long
as the spore-case.

Teeth (peristome) . — Sixteen, dark-red, cleft to the
middle.

Annulus. — None.

Spores. — Mature in summer.

Distribution. — North America, Europe, Asia.

Perforated
leaf cells

Tuft of D. scoparium.

Basal leaf -cells.
D. scoparium.

Genus FISSIDENS, Hedw.

The species of this genus are metallic green, plume-like,
simple or sparingly branched, growing in mats upon shady
wet banks and rocks ; sometimes on tree-trunks, and sometimes
floating in water.

The leaves grow in two opposite rows (distichous), and are
double below as if folded together, they are winged along the

157

Mosses and Lichens

back and expanded toward the apex into a vertical simple blade;
the vein extends to or beyond the apex ; the cells are small and
filled with leaf-green.

The spore-cases are erect, horizontal or pendent, always
smooth and terminal, unless they have been thrust to one side
by the growth of a branch at the base of the pedicel.

Leaf with double-
base lid.

Portion of peristome.

The apex of the main stem is
at the base of the pedicel ; a side
branch on the right has grown
on beyond the main stem.

Cross sections

of leaf.
F. adiantoides.

Spore-case with veil.

The peristome is single with sixteen teeth, red at the base and
cleft at the apex, a character which has suggested the generic
name from the Latin fissus, split, and dens, a tooth. When dry
the teeth are incurved. The annulus consists of from one to
four rows of large cells.

158

Fork- Mosses

Five hundred and seventy-eight species are known in 'all,
seventy-four in North America. The genus is represented
throughout all the tropical and temperate regions of the world.
It is probably to this pretty moss that Mungo Park, the African
traveller, referred when he wrote the lines :

" Sad, faint and weary, on the sand
Our traveller sat him down ; his hand
Oover'd his burning head.
Above, beneath, behind, around,
No resting for the eye he found ;
All nature seemed as dead.
One tiny tuft of moss alone,
Mantling with freshest green a stone,
Fix'd his delighted gaze ;
Through bursting tears of joy he smiled,
And while he raised the tendril wild,
His lips o'erflowed with praise.
Oh ! shall not He who keeps thee green,
Here in the waste, unknown, unseen,
Thy fellow-exile save ?
He who commands the dew to feed
Thy gentle flower, can surely lead
Me from a scorching grave.
Thy tender stalks, and fibres fine,
Here find a shelter from the storm ;
Perhaps no human eye but mine
Ere gazed upon thy lovely form.
He that form'd thee, little plant,
And bade thee flourish in this place,
Who sees and knows my every want,
Can still support me with His grace.'

Leaf.

Cross section of
leaf.

Stem to show distichous
leaves.

F. taxifolium.
159

Mosses and Lichens

Fissidens adiantoides, Hedw.

Habit and habitat. — In bright or dark-green mats on moist
shady ground, wet rocks and roots of trees. Varying according
to locality.

Name. — The specific name is compounded of aSiavros, maiden-
hair, and the suffix olB, like, referring to the habit the leaves of the
maidenhair have of shedding water, aSiairo?, being compounded
of a, without, and Statvw, wet.

Plant (gametophyte) . — Stems I to 5 inches long ; branches
growing from the apex or base of
the stem, with root-like fibres at
their base.

Portion of peristome.

Empty spore-case.
F. adiantoides.

Stem with male flower-
cluster at the base and
female cluster above on
the right.

Leaves. — Numerous, close, overlapping like shingles, linear-
oblong, clasping at the base ; apex taper-pointed and tipped with
a short point continuous with the vein, the wing long and con-
tinuous ; margins transparent, irregularly and minutely serrate.

Habit of flowering. — Male and female flowers on different parts
of the same plants (autoicous)] male flower-clusters small,
axillary, bud-like.

Veil (calyptrd). — Split on one side.

Spore-case. — Oval, red-brown, much constricted under the
orifice when empty.

Pedice. — Red, % to I inch long, appearing as if attached to the
side- of the stem.

160

White Mosses

Lid (operculum). — Conical, with a long beak.
Teeth (peristome). — Red, sixteen, each cleft into two slender
segments with numerous cross-bars; inclined when dry.
Annulus. — One or two rows of large cells.
Spores. — Mature in December.
Distribution. — Universal.

WHITE MOSSES

Genus LEUCOBRYUM, Hampe

The white mosses are found in conspicuous greenish-white
cushions about the roots of trees, in woods and on the borders

of swamps. The moist
cushions are soft and
spongy and decidedly
greener than the dry, which
are so brittle that they can
be readily crumbled to
dust; and so colourless that
they lead one to think they
are parasitic or sapro-
phytic plants. The change
from brittle to soft is due
to large cells in the leaves
being filled alternately with water and air.

The pale colour is due to the fact that the cells which contain
leaf-green and active cell-contents are relatively small and are
hidden between transparent cells many times as great. This
arrangement of the cells is a contrivance for protecting the

Leucobryum vulgare. Cross-section of leaf.

• 161

Mosses and Lichens

delicate leaf-green bearing cells from the fierce heat of the sun,
and for providing a means by which water may be quickly trans-
ferred to all parts of the plants.

ctU.

Perforation.

Leucobryum vulgare. Model to show structure.

The walls of these large colourless cells are very thin and are
punctured with small holes which communicate with the holes
of adjacent cells, so that the moment the plants are moistened,
the cells fill with water by capillary attraction. The large cells
when filled with water serve as reservoirs to the adjacent small
cells, making it possible for the leaf-green to do its work of
assimilating plant food. The greater transparency of the water-
filled cells makes the leaf-green of the small
cells more apparent from the exterior and gives
the plants their deeper hue, when wet.

Dry spore-
Empty case to show
spore-case, swollen base.

Spore-case.

Leucobryum vulgare.

162

Leaf.

White Mosses

The name Leucobryum, from the Greek Xev*o<?, white, and
fipvov, a moss, was suggested by the pallid colour.

The leaves are lance-shaped with
an awl-like apex and a vein occupy-
ing the width of the leaf with the
exception of a few rows of cells on
each side.

The spore-cases are exserted on
long pedicels, they are erect or have
the summit somewhat inclined, and
the base more or less swollen on
one side. When dry the wall is
grooved lengthwise.

The lids have an awl-like beak
and the teeth are two-parted and
purple at the base.

The genus is universal, with
seventy-four species in all, nine
of them being known in North

America L. glaucttm. Portion of peristome.

Common White Moss, Leucobryum vulgare, Hampe.

Habit and habitat. — Conspicuous in white cushions about the
roots of trees in woods and on the borders of swamps. It is
not uncommon to find on the terminal leaves of female plants

a b

(a) Young plant. (6) Terminal
leaves.

Leucobryum vulgare.

minute tufts of root-like hairs developing a cluster of young
plants, which may fall to the ground and form a new colony.
Name. — From the Latin, vulgaris, common.

163

Mosses and Lichens

Plant (gametophyte). — Whitish ; stems 2 to 8 inches high,
two-forked with the primary branches of equal height and the
secondary in clusters (fastigiate).

Leaves. — Half-clasping at the base, lance-shaped, and tubular
from the middle upward ; vein occupying most of the leaf blade ;
apex acute or obtuse with a short, sharp point.

Female pknt.

Male plant.
Leucobryum vulgare.

Leaf.

Habit of flowering. — Male and female flowers on separate plants
(diofcous). The male plants in distinct tufts, and more slender,
with the flower-clusters terminal, in a rosette of six oval bracts.

Veil (calyptra). — Large, white.

Spore-case. — Oblong-egg-shaped, chestnut colour, black when
old, slightly wrinkled lengthwise when dry. The base (collum)
distinctly swollen on one side.

164

White Mosses

Pedicel (seta). — Dark-brown, twisted to the left when dry ;
i to | of an inch long.

Lid (operculum). — Conical, long-beaked, oblique.

Annulus. — None.

Teeth (peristome'). — Sixteen, lance-shaped, red at the base,
cleft to below the middle into two unequal forks.

Spores.— Mature in winter or early spring.

Distribution.— Common all over the
world, except in Asia.

Mature
Spore-case.

Dry

spore-case.
Leucobryum vulgore.

Portion of peristome.

THE EIGHT-TOOTHED WHITE MOSSES
Genus OCTOBLEPHARUM, Hedw.

The Genus Octoblepharum very much resembles the genus
Leucdbryum, the principal difference being that the genus Octoble-
pharum has but eight teeth instead of sixteen. This characteristic
gives it its name from the Greek OKTW, eight, and fi\e<j>dpov, eye-
lash.

There are fifteen species in all, eight of them in North America.

The Eight-toothed White Moss, Octoblepharum albidum,
Hedw.

Habit and habitat. — In small white cushions on bark and on
shady rocks.

165

Mosses and Lichens

Name. — The specific name albidum, white, refers to the
colour of the leaves.

Plant (gametopbyte) . — Spongy, soft when wet, brittle and
white when dry.

Leaves. — Close, thick, composed, except on the borders, of
two or three superimposed layers of large porous cells without
leaf-green, these separated by a layer of simple, narrow cells
containing leaf-green.

Veil (calyptrd). — Large, split on one side.

Spare-case. — Erect.

Pedicel (seta) .—Short.

Ltd (operculum). — Plane at the base with
an oblique and awl-shaped beak.

Natural size.

Spore-case with
eight teeth.

Leaf.

O. albidum.

Teeth (peristome). — Eight, short, broadly lance-shaped, pale-
yellow and transparent.

Spores. — Mature in spring.

Distribution. — Common in the warmer parts of the world
except Europe.

Genus CERATODON, Brid.

The species of this genus are small erect plants growing in
bright or dark-green cushions on soil or in the crevices of rocks.

The leaves are lance-shaped and keeled, with entire or toothed
margins, and a vein extending to or beyond the apex.

1 66

The Horn-tooth Mosses

The mature spore-cases are long-egg-shaped, erect or slightly
arched, with a short neck. They are dark or pale-red with wine-
red or yellow pedicels, and short-beaked, conical lids, becoming
deeply furrowed, inclined, and contracted below the mouth
when old.

Leaf.

Pel'tca.

C. purpureum.

There is but one row of teeth, each tooth being cleft into two
equal and strongly jointed segments, which suggest the generic
name Ceratodon, a compound of two Greek words, fcepa<;, Keparo?,
a horn, and 6Sa>v, a tooth. The two characteristics by which one
may feel sure that his
moss is a horn-tooth,
are the cleft teeth and
the shape and groov-
ing of the spore-cases.

There are eighteen
species in all, one
common in North
America.

The Purple
Horn-tooth Moss,
Ceratodon purpureum,
Brid. — See Colour
Plate IV.

Habit and "habitat. — Look for the Purple Horn-tooth Moss on
rocky ledges in open sunny places of the woods, in pastures and
along roadsides, and in vacant city lots. Bright-green cushions
of this moss may be found in depressions of the rocks during

167

Mosses and Lichens

February and March. At this time the pedicels are often numer-
ous and well-grown and their wine-red colour makes the moss
conspicuous even while the spore-cases themselves thus early in
the season are but little larger in diameter than the pedicels and
are concealed by their veils. With the
approach of warmer weather they mature
rapidly still carrying their transparent veils.
These are discarded before a great while
and then the spore-cases and their conical
short-beaked lids are glossy and wine-red.
Later the lids fall, exposing a fringe of horn-
like teeth about the rim. The spore-
cases finally become deeply furrowed,
inclined, and contracted below the
mouth and in this condition may be
found during most of the year.

Name. — The specific name pur-
pureum is the Latin for "purple," It
refers to the colour of the spore-cases
and pedicels.

Plant (gametophyte).
— Slender, erect, branch-
ing from the base of the
pedicels ; stems £ to 3
inches long.

Leaves. — Lance-
shaped, keeled ; vein ex-
tending to or beyond the
apex ; margin somewhat
irregularly toothed re-
flexed, opaque ; surface
with slight protuber-
ances; cells distinct.

Habit of flowering. — Male and female flowers on
separate plants (dioicous).

Veil (calyptra). — Smooth, transparent, split on
one side.

Spore-case. — Long, egg-shaped with a short neck, dark-red,
erect, somewhat arched ; four- or five-angled and deeply
furrowed when dry.

168

C. purpureum.

The Horn-tooth Mosses

Pedicel. — Slender, wine-red, erect.

Lid (operculum). — Conical, short-beaked.

Teeth (peristome). — Purple, each split into two equal, strongly
cross-barred segments, with tiny projections toward the apex.

Annulus. — Large, rolling back as the lid falls.

Spores. — Mature in early spring, when they are ousted by the
shrinking of the wall tissue.

-Ui.

VeiL

Spore-case with
veil.

Spore-case. Annulus.

C. purpure-um.

Distribution. — Almost universal.

Variety Xanthopous. — Greek fayflo's, yellow, and 77-01)9, a foot;
has a pale-yellow pedicel.

Variety Aristatus. — Latin "awned"; has the spore-case and
pedicel pale and the mid-vein of the leaf extending beyond the
apex of the leaf blade.

Variety Minor. — Latin "smaller"; is said to have narrower
teeth jointed only from the middle downward.

Genus POTTIA, Ehrh.

The species of this genus are small and grow in tufts or
cushions on the ground or in crevices of rocks. The stems are
simple or sparingly branched from the base. The
leaves are oval to oblong and obovate, soft, opaque,
smooth or covered with tiny projections;
the apex is usually taper-pointed, or
hair-pointed ; the base transparent ; the
vein round in section.

The cylindrical to obovate spore-case
nas sometimes a very short pedicel and

169

P. truncate. Leaves.

Mosses and Lichens

sometimes a long one. The peristome may have imperfect
teeth or none or sixteen tiny flat ones.

There are about eighty-three species in all, fourteen in North
America.

The genus was named for Professor D. F. Pott,
a German botanist.

Pottia truncata, Fuern., 1. c.
Habit and babitat. — Common in loose brighb-green
tufts in fields and gardens and along hedge-rows.
Name. — The specific name is the Latin truncata,
cut off squarely, and refers to the abrupt
summit of the spore-case which appears as
if it had been sliced off.

Plant (gametopbyte'). — Small, J of an inch
high and simple, or longer and branching.

Leaves. — Long-oval with the narrow end
attached to the stem, concave, smooth ;
apex taper-pointed, tipped with a sharp
point ; margin flat ; vein extending below
or beyond the apex.

Habit of flowering. — Male and female flowers on the same
plant (monoicous).

Veil (calyptra). — Split on one side, smooth.
Spore-case. — Egg-shaped, broad end up (truncate).
Pedicel. — Short, red.

P. truncata.

Spore-cases with

veils.

Veil.

Spore -cases.
P. truncata.

Sporo-cano
with Jifted
lid.

Lid (operculum). — Plano-convex with an oblique beak, falling
with the columella attached.
Teeth (peristome). — None.
Spores. — Brown, mature in fall and winter.
Distribution. — North America, Europe, Asia.

170

The Ditrichum Mosses

Ditrichum pallidum. (a) cells
from annulus ; (6) annulus ; (c)
portion of peristome.

Genus DITRICHUM, Timm, (1788)

LEPTOTRICHUM, Hampe, (1842)

The species of this genus are smooth and glossy plants
growing in pale yellow-green tufts on soil or on rocks. The

plants are dwarf, or tall and slender
with lance-shaped, long- pointed
leaves, and oval or cylindrical, erect
spore-cases on long and straight,
rarely flexuous, pedicels.

The peristome has a compound
annulus, and a single row of purple
teeth cleft to the base into two slender,
cross-barred segments, which have
suggested the name of the genus.

The generic name Leptotricbum,
used by some for the genus, from
Xe7TT09, narrow, and 0plg, T/J^W, a
hair, has been shown by Hampe to be
untenable, having previously been
given to a genus of fungi. It has been
replaced by Ditrichum, from 845, two, and 6pl%, T/W^W, a hair.
This name has also the right of priority,

There are seventy-two species in all, seventeen in North
America.

Ditrichum pallidum, Leptotricbum pdllidum, Hampe, 1. c. —
See Colour Plate XIV.

Habit and habitat. — Common in loose tufts, pale or yellow-
green, on bare sandy or clay-soil, in fields or by roadsides.
Name. — The specific name pallidum, pale, refers to the colour.
Plant (gametopbyte). — Slender, erect.

Leaves. — Open, erect, spreading or curved to one side, lance-
shaped at base and prolonged to an awl-shaped apex ; vein
extending beyond the apex and distinctly toothed.

Habit of flowering. — Male and female flowers on the same plant
(monoicous) ; the male flower-clusters bud-like at the apex of
the stem.

Veil (calyptrd). — Split up one side.
Spore-case. — Long, egg-shaped, brown.
Pedicel. — Bright yellow, I to 2 inches long.
Lid (operculum). — Conical, short-beaked.

171

Mosses and Lichens

Teeth (peristome) . — Dark-red, each tooth divided into two
unequal forks, free or united by the cross-bars.
Annulus. — Double.

Spores. — Very small, smooth, mature in early spring.
Distribution. — Nearly universal, but not found in Great Britain.

Leaves.

Vein at Spore-case Spore-case
apex. with veil, with lid.
D. pallidum.

Plant.

The

tinged
and the
The

THE LITTLE-BEARD MOSSES
Genus BARBULA, Hedw.

species of this genus are found in tufts or cushions

with rusty-brown, on stone walls, rocks, tree-trunks

ground.

leaves usually much curled and twisted when dry are

small, and gradually
lance-shaped from an
oval base, with a
round vein vanishing
below or rarely ex-
tending beyond the
apex ; the basal cells
are small rectangular
and transparent ; the
upper are small, round
or four-sided, often
obscure.

B. caspiiosa. Leaves.

I72

The Little-beard Mosses

B. coespitosa.
Tip of spore-
case to show
twisted teeth.

The spore-cases are egg-shaped or cylindrical on long pedi-
cels, and have lids with either long or short beaks. The
peristome consists of a very
short membrane with sixteen
short, straight, imperfect teeth,
or of sixteen long teeth each cleft
to the base into two long slender
forks very much twisted.

The generic name from barba,
a beard, refers to the long twisted
teeth of some species.

There are in all three hundred
and ninety-four species, nineteen being found
in North America.

The Claw-leaved
Barbula, Barbula ungui-
culata, Hedw.

Habit and habitat. — Com-
mon and variable in soft
bright or dirty-green tufts
on damp black soil, along
fences, on rocks, stones, etc.
Name. — The specific
name unguiculata from the
Latin unguis, a claw, refers
to the sharp-pointed leaves.
Plant (gametophyte). —
Variable, J to i inch high.
Leaves. — Narrowly ob-
long, apex obtuse with an
abrupt sharp point ; vein
rough with tiny points and passing beyond the
apex ; margin rolled back from the middle down-
ward ; cells, the upper obscure, nearly square,
the basal longer, small, narrow, transparent.
Leaves at the base of the spore-case (perichatial
leaves). — Transparent to near the apex.
Habit of flowering. — Male and female flowers on separate plants
(dioicous) ; male plants more slender, flower-clusters terminal
and bud-like, bracts broadly egg-shaped.

'73

B. caespitosa.
Fertile plant.

Barbula unguiculata.

Mosses and Lichens

Veil (calyptra). — Narrow, long-beaked.

Pedicel (seta). — Brown-red or purple, variable in length.

Spore-case. — Oblong-elliptical or sub-cylindrical, regular or
incurved.

Lid (operculum). — Conical, beak long, straight, or curved.

Teeth (peristome). — Long and slender, deep-red and twisted
two or three times.

Annulus. — None.

Spores. — Mature in winter or spring.

Cross-sec-
tion of leaf to
show round
vein.

Leaves.

Pericnxtial
leaf.

Sporophyte
with twisted
teeth and
twisted pedi-
cel.

Spore-case with veil.

B. unguiculata.

174

Spore -case
with veiL

Spore-case
with lid.

MOSSES AND LICHENS

COLOUR PLATE XI

•

UMBILICARIA VELLEA, (L.) Nyl.

ROCK TRIPE, Umbilicaria Muhlenbergii, (Ach.) Tuckerm

The Little -beard Mosses

The Tufted Barbula, Barbula ccespitosa, Schwaegr.

Habit and habitat. — Common and variable, roots of trees in
grassy places.

Name. — The specific name ccespitosa, from the Latin ccespes,
turf, refers to the tufted manner of growth.

B. ctespitosa. Leaves.

B. ceespitosa.

B. caspitosa. Spore-cases.

Plant (gameiopkyte) . — Loosely tufted, soft, variable in size.

Leaves. — Long and narrow, more or less wavy, curled or bent
in various directions and with a very narrow wavy point when
dry; apex bearing a short sharp point; vein strong, yellow,
prolonged beyond the leaf-blade; cells, the basal loose and
transparent, the upper green and indistinct.

Habit of flowering. — Male and female flowers on the same

Mosses and Lichens

plant (monoicous) ; male flowers in axillary buds, with short pedi-
cels and two or three leaves.

Veil (calypira). — Split up one side.

Spore-case. — Red, thin, long, egg-shaped, more
or less incurved.

Pedicel. — Long and slender, twisted when dry.
Lid (operculum) . — Conic, taper-pointed.
Teeth (peristome). — Basilar membrane none or
scarcely visible; teeth very long, purple, twice or
three times twisted.
Annulus. — None.

Spores. — Minute, greenish, translucent, smooth;
mature in May and June and late summer.
Distribution. — Hills of the Southeastern States; also in Europe,
Asia, Africa, South America

B. unguicu-
lata. Tip of
spore-case with
twisted teeth.

Genus TORTULA, Hedw.

The plants of this genus are variable in size with simple stems
forming yellow-green tufts on walls, rocks, or rarely on trees.

The leaves are oblong or spatulate and are covered with
tiny protuberances. The apex is obtuse with the vein extending

T. princeps. (a) Leaf, (b) Apex of leaf
tip with transparent awn.

beyond as a point or as a long transpar-
ent hair. Toward the apex the cells are
six-sided, opaque and filled with chloro-
toward the base they are transparent
and elongated.

The spore-cases are erect, oblong or cylindrical and
somewhat incurved on usually long pedicels. The

1*76

T. princeps.
Portion of
peristome.

phyll grains:

T. ruralis.
Tip of spore-
case, (a) Bas-
i lar m em -
b r a n e . (b)
Teeth.

The Tortula Mosses

peristome is sometimes absent; when present, it consists of thirty-
two thread-like teeth remotely cross-barred and covered with tiny
protuberances. The teeth are either straight, incurved, or spirally
twisted, all united at the base into a distinct tubular more or less
elongated basal membrane. The spores are small and nearly
smooth.

The generic name Tortula, the diminutive of the Latin tortus,
twisted, refers to the teeth.
Tortula princeps, De Not.

Habit and habitat. — In tall, loose, red-brown tufts on rocks,
walls, and sometimes trunks of trees. A fine moss, easily known
by its interrupted stems and dense,
broad, rust-coloured leaves.

Name. — The specific name prin-
ceps, the Latin for "chief" refers to
the striking character of the moss.
It is described under the name of
Barbula Muelleri, Bruch and
Schimp., in Lesquereux & James
Manual.

Plant (gametophyte) . — Stems re-
peatedly interupted by new growths
with root-like fibres at their bases.
Leaves. — Soft, dense, broad and
rust-coloured in interrupted rosettes
along the stem and at the summits
of the branches ; apex obtuse ; margin
rolled back to below the middle;
vein red, extending beyond the apex
in a slender transparent, faintly
spiny hair-point; cells at the base
loose, rectangular and transparent.
Habit of flowering. — Male and
female organs in the same flower (synoicous).
Veil (calyptra). — Split on the side.
Spore case. — Cylindrical, brown, arched like a bow.
Pedicel— Red.

Lid (operculum). — Long and conical.

Teeth (peristome}. — The lower half tubular and pale, the
teeth red.

177

T, prince ps.
Spore-case
with veiL

T. princeps.

Tip of
spore-case,

Mosses and Lichens

Annulus. — Double.

Spores. — Mature in spring.

Distribution. — Headquarters in the Mediterranean basin;
rare in England, common in the western states of
North America.

Tortula ruralis.

Tortula ruralis is much like the
preceeding, but smaller, with flowers
dioicous. It grows on thatched
roofs or stony ground, in tall
cushions I to 3 inches deep; bright
green above and bright red-
brown below. The awn at the apex of
the leaf is strongly spiny, transparent
above and often red at the base, some-
times equalling the rest of the leaf.
The spore cases are narrowly cylin-
drical with a lid half as long and a

T. ruralis. Tip , ,. • ,

of spore-case, (a) StOUt red pedicel about 3tt inch long,
basilar mem- T. ruralis.

brane , (6) twisted Awn at the apex

teeth. of the leaf.

Genus GRIMMIA, Ehrh.

The species of the Genus Grimmia sometimes form con-
spicuous gray tufts, often hoary from the white hair-points which
terminate the leaves; sometimes they form soft fragile patches on
exposed rocks of higher mountain regions. The tufts vary in
size from little dense cushions one-third of an inch high, to the
mats of Gr. bypnoides, whose stems attain a length of eight inches.

The dingy colour of their leaves, tipped with long or short
white hairs is their most striking character. The chlorophyll is
not only absent from the hair-point but often from the apex of the
leaf-blade as well, thus adding to the grayish-white appear-
ance of the tufts. The plants are usually short, with forked
stems, crowded with lance-shaped leaves, frequently thick-
ened along the margin, which is mostly entire; the vein is
percurrent or extends into the transparent hair; the cells
of the lower part are rectangular, of the upper part small,
often obscure.

178

The Grimmia Mosses

The generic name was given in honour of J. F. C. Grimm, a
German botanist, who was a physician of Gotha.

The spore-cases are oval «nd smooth, borne on arched or
straight pedicels. The peristome consists of sixteen red, lance-
shaped teeth, entire or cleft at the apex and often perforated below.
There are about two hundred and forty species known at
present, fifteen of them in North America.
Grimmia apocarpa, Hedw.

Habit and habitat. — Loosely tufted to form olive-green or
black tufts on rocks or stone walls or even on roofs. There are
varieties which grow in streams.

Name. — The specific name apocarpa from airo, without and
tcapTros, a fruit, was given by J. G. Hedwig, in 1787, to describe
the hidden spore-case.

Plant (gametophyte). — Robust, the stems one inch
long, branching in pairs, free from root-like fibres.

Leaves. — Lance-shaped, open when moist, erect
when dry; apex sometimes slightly toothed, the upper
leaves usually prolonged into a short, rough hair about
one-quarter as long as the leaf; the base is concave,
becoming keeled upward; margin recurved; the vein
continued into the transparent hair, or vanishing below
the apex ; cells, the basal rectangular, then narrow, the
upper rounded.

Leaves at the base of iloe -pedicel (pericbcetial leaves'). —
Broader, thinner; vein narrow; apex with or without short
'point.

Habit of flowering. — Male and female flowers on separate part
of the same plant (autoicous); male flower-clusters bud-like.

Veil (calyptra).—Very small, not reaching
below the lid, lobed at the base.

Spore-case. — Egg-shaped, almost concealed
in the leaves at the base, red.
Pedicel. — Very short.

G.apocarpa. ^id (o^fCM/WW).— Bdght-red, tipped With

Spore - case .

with lid. a sharp point ; columella attached to the lid
and falling with it.

Annulus. — None.

Teeth (peristome').— Arising below the mouth, large, purple-
red, entire or perforated, spreading when dry.

179

Mosses and Lichens

Spores. — Mature in winter.
Distribution. — Universal.

R. lanugino-

THE TORN-VEIL MOSSES

Genus RACOMITRIUM, Brid.

The species of the Genus Racomitrium are usually of large
size, with stems branching in pairs, the branches simple and all

reaching the same height,
or unequal, in lateral clus-
ters. They are widely and
loosely tufted on rocks in
mountainous regions.
Many of the species resem-
ble the Hypnum mosses on
account of their long pros- num. veil,
trate stems, their numerous short
branches, and their apparently lateral
spore-cases. .

The name is from the
Greek pd/cos, a shred, and
fiirptov, a veil, referring to
the torn base of the veil.

The leaves are not tufted

Racomitrium lanuginosum. at the tOp Of the Stems but

are close, nearly equal, long, lance-shaped, concave
and channelled, with an apex blunt or ending in a fine
point or hair; the margin is recurved;
the cells are usually obscure, rounded
or four-sided in the upper part, and
long and narrow in the lower part.

The spore-cases are oblong cylin-
drical, narrowed at the orifice and
usually erect on erect pedicels. The R.\
lids are small and more or less beaked v*rticalsef ion

o i penstome

and the peristome consists of a single with two ceils
row of sixteen long teeth cleft two or °( ^ *nnulu*

Portion ot peris- , .... at the base of

tome. three times to below the middle, or one tooth.

divided into two thread-like, knotty, nearly equal segments,

180

The Torn-veil Mosses

erect when dry, rarely spreading. The annulus is compound,
rolling back when the lid falls.

Eighty-one species are known at present, twenty in North
America. They are mostly distinguished from the species
of the genus Grimmia by the peculiar narrow and wavy cell-
structure of the leaf-base in conjunction with their habit of
growth.

The Woolly Torn-veil Moss, Racomitrium lanuginosum,
Brid.

Habit and habitat. — Common on the tops of walls and on
rocks in mountainous regions. The thick grayish-white tufts
extending in wide patches.

Spore-case
Spore-case with lid.

with veil.

R. lanuginosum.

R. lanuginosum.
Apex of leaf.

R, lanuginosum. Leaf.

Name. — The specific name lanuginosum, woolly, was applied
by Bridel to describe the white appearance due to the transparent
tips of the leaves.

Plant (gametopbyte) . — Long and slender, stems I to 12
inches long, prostrate, branches in pairs, the side branches
numerous.

Leaves. — Close, long-spreading, erect or recurved narrowly
lance-shaped, bent to one side toward the apex; apex tapering to
a white transparent hair-point often longer than the leaf-blade;

181

Mosses and Lichens

vein narrow ; margin from the middle upward a pellucid mem-
brane bearing tiny protuberances, and bordered with hair-like
teeth, wavy when dry; cells, those of the
margin very small, dot-like; those of the
leaf-blade narrow.

Habit of flowering. — Male and female
flowers on separate plants (dioicous).

Veil. — Resembling a bishop's mitre,
long-beaked, rough at the apex only.

Spore-cases. — Oblong, egg-shaped, pale-
brown, finally darker.

Pedicel. — Short, £ to ^ of an inch long
on a lateral branchlet.

Lid (operculum). — Tapering from a con-
ical base.

Teeth (peristome). — Long, cleft into two
forks ; orange-red.

Annulus. — Broad.

Spores.— Mature in summer.

Distribution. — Universal.

Vertical section of peristome
showing two cells of the an-
nul us at the base of one tooth
R. laMuginosum.

HEDWIG'S MOSS

Genus HEDWIGIA, Ehrh.

The species of the Genus Hedwigia have two-forked stems
with roots at the base. They are usually
found in hoary fragile patches
on rocks.

The leaves are broad, oval,
veinless, and coarsely toothed
or fringed on the margins.

The spore-cases are globu-
lar, immersed with almost no
pedicel and no peristome.

There are ten species in
all, three in North America.

The generic name was
given in honour of J. G. Hed-
piant stripped of wig, a distinguished German

leaves to show two male flower- , . ... , . n

clusters on the stem and one botanist, who llVCd in 1782.

spore-case surrounded with
three fringed leaves.

H.ciliata.
Leaf.

182

Hcdwig's Moss

Hedwig's Fringe-leaf Moss, Hedwigia ciliata, Ehrh.
Habit and "habitat. — In small or wide patches, loosely tufted,

and hoary-green ; common on rocks.
Name. — The specific name ciliata,

H. ciliata. Apex of perichaetiai leaf.

H. ciliata. Sterile plant.

Vefl. Veil.

H. ciliata.

I83

Mosses and Lichens

referring to the fringed perichaetial leaves, is derived from the
Latin cihum, an eyelash.

Plant (gametopbyte). — Pale-green, stems slender, I to 4 inches
long, at first erect, then procumbent, repeatedly twice-forked.

Leaves. — Spreading all round when moist, crowded and over-
lapping like shingles when dry, broadly lance-shaped; apex re-
curved, translucent by the absence of leaf-green ; margins wavy,
base growing down the stem and yellow at the point of attach-
ment; cells with tiny projections.

Leaves at the base of the spore-case (perichcetial leaves). — Thin
and transparent, taper-pointed, fringed on the margins.

Habit of flowering. — Male and female flowers on one plant
(monoicous) .

Veil (calyptrd). — Small, covering the lid, conical, with or

without hairs.

Spore-case. — Immersed, globular, light-
brown, red at the mouth.

Pedicel. — Almost none.

Lid(operculum). — Convex, with or with-
out an obtuse point in the centre.

Annulus. — None.

Teeth (peristome}. — None.

Spores. — Mature in spring.

Distribution. — Universal.

H. ciliata. Plant stripped
of leaves to show spore-
case surrounded with three
fringed leaves; two male
flower-clusters on the stem.

Spore-case.

H. ciliata.

THE CURLED-LEAF MOSSES
Genus ULOTA, Mohr

The species of the Genus Ulota usually grow in small
rounded cushions, which live year after year on trees but never
on soil. They are common on the trunks and small stems of
mountain trees.

184

MOSSES AND LICHENS

COLOUR PLATE XIT

SCARLET-CRESTED CLADONIA, Cladonia cristatetta, Tuckerm.

The Curled-leaf Mosses

The leaves are narrowly lance-shaped from a broad oval base
and are usually curled when dry. It is this character which
gives them their generic name from 6v\oTr)<;t curled.

The cells are very narrow, coloured and thickened along the
median line while the marginal cells below are transparent in
several rows.

Fresh spore-case with vaginule
at the base of the pedicel.

Plant with exserted
spore-case.

Perigonial leaf.

Leaf.

Dry spore-case.

Male flower-
cluster.

The veils are conical bell-shaped, usually covered with erect,
yellow hairs; they are lobed at the base and folded lengthwise
in plaits.

185

Mosses and Lichens

The spore-cases are exserted on straight pedicels; they are
pear-shaped, narrowed at the base into a long neck, 8-striate
and twisted to the left when dry.

The peristome is single or double, the outer of the sixteen
white teeth usually united in pairs; the inner of 8 to 16 narrow
processes alternate with the teeth or wanting.

There are fifty-seven species in all, sixteen in North America.
The Curly-leaved Ulota, Ulota crispa, Brid.— See Plate XV.
Habit and habitat. — In small dense round cushions, yellow-
green on the surface and rust-colour within. Common in
mountain woods on trunks and branches of trees, especially
beeches, firs and birches.

Name.— The specific name from the Latin crispus, curled,
refers to the special curling of the dry leaves.
Plant (gametophyte). — Small, erect.

Leaves. — Linear, lance-shaped from an enlarged oval concave
base ; apex narrow or
hair-like, curled when
dry ; cells at base long
and narrow, worm-
like, thick-walled, on
the margin enlarged
and 4-sided.

Habit of flowering. —
Male and female flow-
ers on same plant (mo-
noicous) ; male flower-
clusters bud-like.

Veil (calyptra). —
Yellow, bell-shaped,
split at the base,
plaited lengthwise and covered with soft hairs.

Spore-case. — Pale-green or light-brown, thin-walled, pear-
shaped, narrowed end extending almost to the base of the
pedicel, constricted under the mouth and deeply grooved when
dry and empty.

Pedicel (seta). — Short and erect.
Lid (operculum) . — With a comparatively short beak.
Teeth (peristome). — The outer of eight pairs, at first spreading,
then recurved, the inner eight, rarely sixteen.

186

U. crispa.
Leaves.

U. crispa. Sporophyte
spore-case with a long
neck and tooth, pedicel
short with vaginule.

MOSSES AND LICHENS

PLATE XV

THE CURLY-LEAVED ULOTA, filota crispa, Mohr.
The lichen is Parmelia saxatilis, (L.) Fr.

The Curled-leaf Mosses

Spores. — Mature in August.
Distribution. — Universal.

The Bud-leaved Ulota, Ulota pbyllantba, Brid.
Ulota pbyllantba grows in dense cushions ^ to i^ inches
high, green or yellow above and rich red or brown below.

U. Hulchinsite.
Dry spore-case.

U. fhyllantha.
Leaf apex with gemmae.

Ulota Hutchinsia.

Ulota Hutchinsia.
Veil.

U. Hutchinsice. Leaves.

The leaves are acutely pointed with percurrent vein, upon
the apex of which are abundant red-brown, club-shaped and
jointed gemmae which have suggested the specific name from
the Greek <f>v\\ov, a leaf, and avOos, a flower or young bud.

This moss has been found on the highest plant-line of Chim-
borazo as well as close to sea-level, and is widely distributed
over the world.

187

Mosses and Lichens

Hutchins's Ulota; Ulota Hutclinsice, Schimp.
Habit and habitat. — The plant grows in dark red-brown tufts,
rigid and fragile. They are common on granite rocks in the
mountains.

Name. — The specific name was given by Wilhelm Philipp
Schimper in honour of Miss Hutchins, who first collected the
plants on the lake shore near Bantry, Ireland.

Leaves. — Close and overlapping like shingles, rigid and
appressed when dry; erect or slightly spreading when moist;
oblong, lance-shaped; apex obtuse; base oval or oblong; margins
turned back; vein strong; cells, the basal linear or worm-like, the
marginal somewhat 4-sided, the upper small.

Habit of flowering. — Male and female flowers on the same
plant (monoicous) ; the male flower-
clusters bud-like.

Veil (calyptra). — Very hairy.
Spore-case. — Oval, narrowed to a
very long neck 8-furrowed the whole
length, hardly contracted at the mouth.
Pedicel (seta). — Long.
Lid (operculum). — Conical, taper-

U. Hutchinsicc. Portion nointed

of peristome with four cilia *

and six teeth in pairs. Teeth (peristome). — Eight; long,

lance-shaped, in pairs, entire or split at the apex, reflexed when
dry ; the inner segments eight, a little shorter than the teeth.

Spores. — Mature in summer.

Distribution. — Common in mountainous regions

MOSSES WITH STRAIGHT-HAIRED VEILS
Genus ORTHOTRICHUM, Hedw. (See Plate XIV.)

The species of the Genus Orthotrichum grow in round
cushions on rocks, trees and walls. The plants are usually erect,
with branching stems having radicles at the bases.

The leaves are lance-shaped, lapping like shingles, rarely
twisted when dry, the surface is covered with minute protuber-
ances, or is rarely smooth in the upper part; the margin is
recurved; the cells toward the apex of the leaf are dot-like and
contain chlorophyll, toward the lower part they are longer and

1 88

Mosses with Straight-haired Veils

transparent; the veil is bell-shaped, more or less split at the base
and keeled or deeply grooved throughout, it may be naked or may
have a few straight hairs, a character which suggested the name
Orthotrichum, from o/30oV, straight, and Opll;, r/at^o'?, hair. The
spore-cases are immersed or exserted on a short pedicel and have
usually, when dry, 8 to 16 grooves running lengthwise, but they
may be smooth. The pedicels are gen-
erally short with an enlarged base (vagi-
nule] crowned with a minute cup-like
sheath. The peristome is simple or
double, the outer consisting of 16 single
teeth or 8 pairs, with either no annulus
or a very narrow one.

In all there are two hundred and
thirty-five species, fifty-seven being
found in North America.

Orthotrichum strangulatum, Beauv.

Habit and habitat. — In small, loose
dirty-green tufts ^ of an inch deep; on
trees, rarely on rocks.

Name. — The specific name strangula-
tum, strangled, refers to the constriction
under the mouth of the spore-case.

Plant (gametophyte) . — One-quarter of
an inch long.

Leaves. — Linear lance-shaped from an
oblong base, keeled; apex pointed or
blunt; margins rolled back; cells, the
upper, round, small, close, with slight
protuberances; the basal, long and quad-
rangular.

Leaves at the base of the -pedicel (peri-
chcetial leaves'). — Longer, erect, some-
what sheathing.

Habit of flowering. — Male and female
flowers on the same plant (monoicous} .

Veil (calyptra). — Resembling a bish-
op's mitre (mitriform) furrowed and
nearly naked.

Spore-case. — Oblong egg-shaped,

189

Portion of peristome, w ith

two cilia and four teeth.

0. strangulatum.

Mosses and Lichens

half-emergent, dirty-brown when old, strongly constricted under
the mouth.

Lid (operculum). — Conical, obtusely short-pointed.
f Teeth (peristome) . — The outer eight double teeth, dirty-yel-
low, granulose, reflexed when dry; the inner, of eight filiform
strong segments.

Spores. — Mature in May and June.
Distribution. — North America only.

With veil. Without veil

Mature sporophyte.

O. rtipestris.

O. strangulatum
Dry spore-case.

O. strangulatum.
Leaf.

O. rupestris.
Dry sporo-
phyte with-
out lid.

Mature sporo-
phyte with

veil.
O. strOKguiatum.

O. strangulatum.
Spore-case without lid.

O. ruptstris. Plant.

THE EXTINGUISHER MOSSES
Genus ENCALYPTA, Schreb.

The species of the Genus Encalypta grow on bright-green
cushions on rocks or on the ground.

The leaves are linear, spatulate or tongue-shaped and are

190

The Extinguisher Mosses

covered with tiny double-pointed projections. The cells toward
the base are thin and transparent, while those toward the apex
are small and opaque with leaf-green.

The spore-cases are borne on long solid pedicels ; they are
regular, erect and ribbed or twisted
when dry with conic and long-beaked
lids.

E.ciliato, Leaf.

E, ciliata. Veil

E. ciliata.
Plant with spore-case still in the veil.

Perigonium.

Perigonial

leaves.
E. ciliata.

E. ciliata. Lid.

The veils are large, cylindrical and bell-shaped, longer than
the spore-cases, tapering at the apex and sometimes fringed at
the base. This character suggested the generic name, from the
Greek eweaXvTrro?, veiled. The peristome is variable, having
no teeth or a single or double row. The spores are large and
beset with small projections.

191

Mosses and Lichens

In all there are thirty-nine species, sixteen being found in
North America.

The Extinguisher Mosses with Fringed Veils, Encalypia
ciliata, Hedw.

Habit and 'habitat. — In loose bright or pale-green tufts on
shaded rocks and soil; not rare.

Name. — The specific name ciliata, from the Latin cilium, an
eyelash, refers to the fringed base of the veil.

E. ciliata. Portion of peristome.

ffl

E. ciliata. Spore-case
(a) with lid, (fc) with-
out lid.

E. ciliata. Spore-cases in their veils.

Plant (gametopbyte). — Stems ^ to 2 inches high, thick, cov-
ered with rooting filaments, simple or sparingly branched.

Leaves. — Soft, large, crowded, recurved-spreading, oblong,
egg-shaped or tongue-shaped, slightly concave; apex short, taper-
pointed with a tiny sharp point; margin wavy; vein pale-yellow,

192

Pour-toothed Mosses

vanishing below the apex or passing into it; cells, toward the
base loose, red, the marginal of several rows narrower and paler.

Habit of flowering. — Male and female flowers on one plant
(monoicous).

Veil (calyptra). — Straw-colour, descending far below the
base of the spore-case, bordered at the base by lance-shaped
solid white or orange segments.

Pedicel. — Long; yellow or pale- red.

Spore-case. — Cylindrical, smooth, slightly constricted under
the mouth when dry, the neck short and indistinct.

Lid (operculuni). — Conic, with a long slender beak.

Teeth (peristome). — Rarely absent, single, of 16 narrowly
lance-shaped red teeth, sometimes divided into two irregular seg-
ments, connivent when dry, incurved when moist.

Distribution. — Mountain regions of New England, the Rocky
Mountains and the Pacific slope, Europe and Africa.

FOUR -TOOTHED MOSSES
Genus GEORGIA, Ehrh.

The species of the Genus Georgia are erect, growing in clus-
ters but not matted, on the ground, on rotten wood and sandstone.

The lower leaves are small, distant and scale-like; the upper
leaves are longer, broadly lance-shaped, close and tufted at the
apex of the stems; the vein reaches to below the apex; the cells
are somewhat six-sided, less crowded and linear rectangular at
the base. Linear root-leaves (frondiform) or whip-like leafy
branches are often present. These frondiform leaves appear in
some species only in the protonemal stage, while in other species
they persist at the base.

The spore-cases are cylindrical or oval on long slender, smooth,
brown pedicels which are straight or abruptly bent. The lids
are conical with mitre-like veils. The four teeth arising from
just below the rim of the box are a conspicuous character of the
genus. They are formed by the splitting of a solid mass of pithy
tissue within the lid into four slender triangular segments, red
and slightly furrowed on the back. A cross section of a tooth
shows it to be triangular and composed externally of large trans-
parent cells and internally of small thick-walled pointed cells.
There is no annulus.

193

Mosses and Lichens

G. pellucida. Cross section
of four teeth to show that
they were formed by the
splitting of a solid mass.

With veil. With lid.
G. pellucida. Spore-case.

G. Brovmii.
Prondiform leaves

G. pellucida.
Branch with
gemmae cluster.

G. pellucida.
Gemma.

G. pellucida.
Side view of gemma cup.

G. pellucida.
Bract from gemma cup.

Spore-case

• Tip of spore-case, with teeth.
G. pellucida. Lid. G. pellucida. Veil. G. pellucida. Tooth. G, pellucida.

194

Four-toothed Mosses

There are but two spe-
cies known and both of
these are found in North
America.

The genus was named
by Friedrich Ehrhart, in
honour of King George III.
of England, whom he con-
St sidered one of the greatest

' patrons of botany.

Georgia pellucida,
Rabenh. — See Colour
Plate III.

Habit and "habitat.— Erect,
rather densely crowded,
bright-green above, red
damp places,

G. pettwcida. Vertical section of gemma cup
showing gemmae with slender stems and cut
edges of leaves on either side.

below. On decayed wood in
common.

Name. — The specific name pellucida from the
Latin per, through, and lucida, transparent, refers
to the texture of the leaves, which are very
translucent.

Plant (gametophyte). — Stems of two kinds, ( i )
the fertile ^ to I inch long, pale red, simple or
branching in pairs, fibrous at the base with
crowded leaves tufted at the summit of the stem;
(2) gemmae-bearing, the gemmae disk-like with
short stalks, greenish, transparent, inclosed in a
rosette of 4 to 5 bracts.

Leaves. — The lower leaves
are small, remote, erect, ap-
pressed, broadly lance-shaped

G. pcttucidd.
Lower leaves of fertile plant.

G. pellucida.
Upper leaf of gem-
mae plant.

195

G. pellucida.
Pericluetial leaf.

Mosses and Lichens

and red ; the upper leaves are larger, broader, not lying against
the stem; margin entire; vein vanishing below the apex; cells
round-hexagonal above, elongated and
rectangular at the base. It is not an
uncommon thing to find gemmae which
have fallen from the cups, entangled and
growing among the leaves.

Leaves at the base of the pedicel (peri-
cbcetial leaves'). — Lance-shaped, sheath-
ing elongated, rather obtuse.

H obit of flowering. — Male and female
flowers on the same plant (monoicous) ;
male flower-clusters bud-like at the
apex of the shoots which arise in
pairs.

Veil (calyptra). — White below, more
solid and red above, mitreform, reach-
ing to the middle of the spore-case,
irregularly folded lengthwise into 8
or 9 ridges, somewhat ragged at the
base.

Spore-case. — Erect, elongated,
cylindric, pale-brown with the mouth
red.

Pedicel (seta). — Straight, smooth,
purple; when dry twisted to the left in
the lower part, to the right above, }4 to
Y^ of an inch long.

Lid (operculuni) . — Thin, conical,
straight or oblique,

Annulus. — None.

Teeib (peristome). — Four, erect, brown,
pyramidal, grooved lengthwise on the
back, arising from below the rim of the
spore-case.

Columella. — Slender, cylindrical.

Spores. — Small, smooth, green, ma-
ture from July to September.

Distribution. — Widely in America,
Europe and Asia.

G. pettucida. Fertile
plant, with male branch
at the left.

196

Four-toothed Mosses

Georgia geniculata, Girgens.

Georgia geniculata may be distin-
guished from G. pellucida in having the
pedicel suddenly bent near the middle, a
character which suggested the specific
name geniculata from the Latin geniculum,
a little knee.

It is found in Japan and in North
America.

Gemmae -bearing

branch.
G. pellucida.

G. geniculata.
Sporophyte with
four teeth and a
twisted spiny pedi-
cel.

G. geniculata. Plant with two spore-cases on
bent pedicels; male branch on the right.

197

Mosses and Lichens

Georgia

fellucida.
Spore-case
•with veil.

FOUR-TOOTHED MOSSES

Genus TJETRADONTIUM, Schwaegr.

This genus was established by Schwaegrichen, but
differs so little from the genus Georgia that many think
it should not be considered a separate genus.
There are two species in all, one in North
America.

It differs from Georgia in having both
teeth and stems shorter, in having the
spore-case oval instead of cylindrical and
in having the veil cover the spore-case.
The name is derived from the Greek

Tetradontium TCTpa, four, and 68a>V, 3. tOOth.

repandum Tetradontium repan-

Spore-case

with veil. dum, Schwaegr.

Habit and habitat.

small, growing
shaded rocks.

in loose

Very
clusters on

Name. — The specific name repan-
dum, the Latin for "curved," refers to the
margin of the mouth of the spore-case.

Plant (gametophyte) . — Stems very
short, bearing little gemmae at the base
of thread-like leafy branches.

Leaves. — Ovate-lance-shaped, rigid,
red-brown, closely overlapping like
shingles.

Leaves at the base of the pedicel (peri-
chcetial leaves). — Ovate and oblong, very
concave, vein obscure; scales about the
male flowers (perigonium) smaller,
thinner, vein absent.

Habit of flowering. — Male and female
flowers on the same plant (monoicous). with male branch

Veil(calybird).— Conical, resembling °ntheri«htattl>e

x * *• & D3.sc unci tnrcso-

a bishop's mitre and covering the spore- like branch on
case to the base.
Spore-case. — Thick, oval, the margin of the orifice somewhat
notched between the teeth.

T. rcpandum.
Female branch

male plant with
thread- like
branch at the
base.

Four-toothed Mosses

Perichatial
leaves.

Leaf.

Two teeth and curved spore-case Perigonium and

margin. perigonial leaves.

Tetradontium repandnm.

Pedicel (seta). — Thick and rigid.
Lid (operculum) . — Conical, erect, short.
Teeth (peristome). — Simple, of four short, triangular teeth.
Spores. — Mature in autumn.

Distribution. — Near Glen House and at Dixville Notch, White
Mountains. Very rare.

Genus SCHISTOSTEGA, Mohr

The Genus Schistostega contains but one species; this is
found growing in bright-green patches on the ground in caverns
and grottoes and under the shade of rocks. The protonema is
persistent, and shines with a weird light in the semi-darkness
where it grows. The most striking character of the moss is the
highly refractive power of the protonema cells. These are able
to converge the feeble rays of light which enter the caves and

Vertical section of a protonema to show paths of refracted
and reflected light rays; (5) an incident ray refracted to t,
then reflected from * to t and again reflected and refracted
T. repandum. Thread- from * to 5'; (v) clear cell contents; (c) chlorophyll grains;
like branch. (P) plasma.

199

Mosses and Lichens

grottoes so that they fall upon the chlorophyll grains and enable
them by light-energy to build up plant foods from gases and
water. When searching for this moss one must be careful not
to intercept the rays of light which enter the cave and then one
may be fortunate enough to get the feebly reflected rays which

VeiL

Protonema in natural position, very highly magni-
fied. Illumination from above.

Spore-case
with lid.

Three cells of protonema from L to show position
of chlorophyll grains when the light rays enter per-
pendicular to the surface.

Three cells of protonema to show position of chloro-
phyll grains when light rays enter obliquely.
Schistostega osmundacea

Spore-case with
lid raised show-
ing spores.

5. osmundacea.

emerge from it. The four diagrams if taken in Older with their
legends, will give one a clear idea of how the light rays are
refracted and reflected by the cell-contents and of how the chlo-
rophyll grains move to that part of the cell which is illuminated.

200

The Luminous Moss

Schistostega osmundacea, Web. & Mohr.
Plant (gametopbyte) . — Living but one year, produced from a
persistent, thread-like growth (protonema); stems tender and deli-
cate, usually simple, ^ of an inch high with root-like filaments

at the base. Two

forms are found,

the barren which

are naked below

and have two rows

of vertically placed

leaves above,

the fertile which

resemble the bar-
ren or are naked

except for a small

tuft of terminal

leaves.

Name . — The

specific name os-

mundacea suggests

a resemblance to

the ferns of the

same name.

Leaves. — Ob-
long-pointed, con-
fluent at the base;
cells large, rhom-
boidal, containing
leaf-green.

Habit of flower-
ing. — Male and fe-
male On Separate S. osmundacea. Barren
..... plant with male branch at

plants (dlOlCOUS) the left.

male flower -clus-
ters bud-like.

Veil (calyptra).— Minute, narrow,
resembling a bishop's hat, covering the lid only.
Spore-case. — Small, almost spherical, soft.
Spore-sac (sporangium). — Distinct.
Columella. — Present, thick.

S. osmundacea. Fertile plant.

2O I

Mosses and Lichens

Pedicel. — Long and soft.

Lid (operculum). — Small, convex, with a red border.
Teeilo (peristome). — None.
Spores. — Minute, maturing in the spring.
Species. — But one known.

Distribution. — It has been found in northern and central Europe
and in New York and the White Mountains.

THE aUARTETTE MOSS
Genus TETRAPLODON, Bruch & Schimp.

The plants of the Genus Tetraplodon are perennial, growing
in densely crowded cushions. They closely resemble the plants

T. mnioides. Growing on porcupine bones.

T. mnioides. Leaf apex.

Empty
spore-
case.

T. mnioides.

of the genus Splacbnum, but differ
principally in that the enlarged part
(apopbysis) of the pedicel under
the spore-case is not inflated and
is of the same colour and consis-
tency as the spore-case. The plants
are peculiar in their choice of hab-
itat, being invariably found on ani-
mal substances. Tetraplodon an-

Mature

spore- gustdtus JS Said tO have been found T. mnioides. Per-
case. . ..... istome of sixteen

growing on an old stocking near double teeth.

202

The Quartette Moss

Veil.

T. mnioides.

7*. mnioides

the summit of Ingles-
borough, Yorkshire,
and also on an old hat
on Mt. St. Bernard,
Switzerland. The
stems are branching
and bear root-like
filaments. The leaves
are lance -shaped or
oval-oblong, and are
prolonged into an
awl-like point.

The spore-cases are small and erect
with conical-convex, obtuse lids. They
are borne on pedicels which are enlarged
just under the spore-case to form a club-
shaped apophysis. The apophysis is of
importance as an assimilating and trans-
piring organ and is the only part of the
moss which bears pores (siomata).

The peristome is single with sixteen
dark-purple double teeth
r e fl e x e d when dry.
These are at first in
T. mnioides. groups of four, and af-

terward in pairs, a character which
has suggested the generic name
Tetraplodon from the Greek
T6T/3a7rXo'o9, four-fold, and oSovs,
oSoVro?, a tooth.

Nine species are known in
all, four being found in North
America.

Tetraplodon mnioides, Bruch
& Schimp.

Habit and habitat. — Growing in
dense tufts on decaying animal
matter in mountainous regions.
The specimen illustrated was
Leaf. found on porcupine bones in
203

T. mnioides. Plant
stripped of leaves to
show ( t ) male and
(?) female flower-
clusters.

Mosses and Lichens

Vermont. The specific name mnioides is derived from
moss, and the suffix olS, like.

Plant (gametopbyte) . — Robust, pale-green, J4 to 3 inches high,
stems branched, covered with matted root-like filaments below.

Leaves. — Crowded, ovate-lance-shaped or narrowly obovate-
lance-shaped ; apex pointed, suddenly narrowed into a flexuous yel-
low awn ; vein prolonged to form the awn ; margin yellow, entire.

Habit of flowering. — Male and female flowers on one plant
(monoicous) .

Veil (calyptra}. — Small, conical, usually split
up one side.

T. mnioides. Portion of peristome
to show teeth.

T. mnioides. Tip of spore-
case to show position of
teeth when closed.

T. mniodes. Per-
istome with reflect-
ed teeth.

Spore-case. — Short-cylindrical, fawn-colour, with a cylindrical
green apophysis, both become dark-red, and the spore-case is
contracted below the mouth when empty.

Pedicel (seta). — Stout, orange to red, variable in length, £ to
2 inches long. Enlarged under the spore-case.

Lid (operculum). — Obtusely conic.

Teeib (peristome). — Reflexed when dry, orange-red.

Spores. — Small, mature in summer.

Distribution. — Universal.

COLLAR MOSSES

Genus SPLACHNUM, Linn.

The species of the Genus Splachnum are easily recognised
by the extraordinary enlargement of the pedicel at the base of the
spore-cases. They are perennial and grow in tufts, invariably
on the dung of animals. The branches are soft and slender
with broadly lance-shaped leaves, the lower distant and open;
the upper tufted ; all with a vein.

204

Collar Mosses

The name is the Greek <nr\dyxvov, used by Dioscorides for
some lichen or non-flowering plant.

The spore-cases are small, oval or short-cylindrical with con-
vex mammillate lids, and a central column (columella) capped
and generally exserted after the falling of the lid.

P'edUcl.

5. lutewm.

S. rubrutn. Sporophyte with spore-
case open showing the exserted colu-
mella and bell-shaped apophysis.

rubrutn. Fertile plant, all but the
lower part of the pedicel removed.

S. rubrum.

The pedicels are long and
very much enlarged under the
spore-case, the enlarged portion (apophysis) increasing after
maturity and becoming pear-shaped, round or umbrella-like and
diversely coloured. There are sixteen linear teeth in pairs

205

Mosses and Lichens

5. rubr-unt. Leaf.

(geminate), orange-coloured and formed ol two layers, the outer
thicker and covered with tiny protuberances. The spores are
minute.

Eight species are
known in all, five of
them in North America.

The Red Collar-
moss, Splacbnum ru
brum, Linn., 1. c.

Habit and habitat. —
Chiefly on dung in peat-
bogs.

Name. — The specific
name, Latin rubrum, red,
refers to the colour.

Plant (gametopbyte) . —
Living but one year,
small, the male plants
smaller.

Leaves.— Large, open;
apex recurved ; base nar-
rowed from an enlarged
middle, above more
s. rubrum. Tip of spore- abruptly narrowed to a

case with columella exert-
ed and teeth reflexed. long taper-point; mar-
gin distinctly serrate from below the middle;
leaves of the male plant smaller.

Habit of flowering. — Male and female flowers on separate
plants (dioicous).

Veil (calyptra). — Small, conical, slightly split or mostly en-
tire at the base, soft and falling early.

Spore-case. — Small, oval and ending abruptly at the summit as
if cut off, thin, membranous and dirty-yellow.

Pedicel (seta). — Very long and red, enlarged just below the
spore-case to form a purple, bell-shaped or umbrella-like portion
(apopbysis).

Lid. — Highly convex.

Teeth (peristome). — Sixteen, large, densely cross-barred, joined
in pairs at the base and sometimes at the apex.

Spores. — Small, mature in summer.

206

5. rubrum. Veil.

The Bladder-cap Mos«

Distribution. — In the Rockies and in Maine, also in Europe.

The Yellow Collar-moss, Splachnum luteum, Linn., 1. c.

The Yellow Collar-moss differs from the Red Collar-moss in
having the margins of the leaves not so coarsely toothed and in
having the enlarged portion of the pedicel under the spore-case
convex, umbrella-like, bright-yellow, and £ an inch in diameter.
The pedicel is often six inches long.

The name is from the Latin luteum, a weed, probably a yellow
one as the derivatives all signify "yellow." This moss is also
found on dung in bogs. The spores are mature in autumn.

THE BLADDER-CAP MOSS

Genus PHYSCOMITRIUM, Brid.

The species of the Genus Physcomitrium rarely live more
than one year. They have a delicate texture and grow in loose
tufts. The plants are sparingly branched, and bear compara-
tively large, soft, obovate or spatula-shaped, taper-pointed leaves

Plant.

P. twrbinatwm.

Leaf.

with large transparent cells. The spore-cases are ovate or spher-
ical, and erect upon immersed or exserted pedicels. They have
convex lids but no teeth, and the spore-sac (sporangium) is free
from the spore-case wall, adhering to it only by thread-like
strands. The veils are lobed at the base and scarcely descend
to the middle of the spore-case.

The generic name Physcomitrium is a combination of two

207

Mosses and Lichens

Greek words, fyixricwv, a fat paunch, and jurpiov, a conical cap.
The two words together describe the veil (calyptra) as a conical
cap with an inflated base.

L. Top-moss, Physcomitrium turbmatum, Muell. ined. — See
Plate XVI.

Habit and habitat. — Top-moss is everywhere common in
old fields and grassy open places in gardens. It is conspicuous
both with and without spore-cases, and maybe easily recognised
from its picture. In September and October the bright-green
rosettes of both male and female plants may be found in loose

Young plant
with spore-case
immersed.

Spore-case with
veil.

Physcomitrium pyriforme, Brid. Ideal
vertical section through a green spore-
case.

Lid.

Spore-cas* with lid.
P. turbinatum.

clusters growing on the ground in protected spots, and if exam-
ined with a compound microscope, may reveal the archegonia
and antheridia. About the middle of May the same locality
should show colonies of plants with their perfect spore-cases on
slender pedicels (setae). One is almost sure of finding this moss
about flower-pots in green-houses where the ground has not
been too recently worked over. The shape of the spore-cases,
the contraction below the mouth of the dry spore-case and the
amount of thickening of the elongated cells about the mouth,
and the degree of roughness of the spores, all depend upon the
stage reached in their development before they become dry and
shrivelled; and again the stage in their development depends
upon the amount of rain and heat in their environment.

208

Cord Mostei

The differences resulting from changes in environment were
shown in an interesting manner by plants examined from pots
which were under steam-pipes in comparative darkness in the
New York Botanical gardens. In September the plants were
small with pedicels only about half an inch long. In January the
pots were removed to benches with bottom heat and more light
and then plants were developed with pedicels twice as long, paler
of colour, and with spore-cases more top-shaped and smaller.

Name. — The specific name, turbinatum, the Latin for "pointed
like a top," refers to the top-shaped spore-case.

Plants (gametophyte). — Light-green, stems short and simple, or
taller and branching, -fa to I inch long.

Leaves. — Broadly-lance-shaped or egg-shaped with the broad
end tapering toward the stem (obovate) ; margin serrate above the
middle; vein vanishing below the apex or extending beyond to
form a tapering point. Cells, the lower oblong, the upper rhom-
boidal or hexagonal, the marginal longer and narrower, often
yellow and inflated at their upper ends.

Veil (calyptrd). — Conical, oblique, and cleft unequally 5- to
8-lobed and beaked, covering about half the spore-case.

Spore-case. — Erect, green and round pear-shaped when fresh;
becoming dark-brown, and urn-shaped, often contracted below
the rim, when dry and empty.

Pedicel (seta). — Erect or twisted, sometimes arched, % to ^
of an inch long.

Lid (operculum). — Convex or tipped with a small nipple
(mammillate) occasionally with an acute point (apiculate).

Teeih (peristome). — None; the rim is bordered by 8 to 12 rows
of transversely, elongated cells, the uppermost very narrow and
orange-coloured.

Annulus. — Persistent, of transparent, bladder-like cells
incurved after the falling of the lid.

Spores. — Rough, maturing in spring.

Distribution. — Ontario to Florida, west to the Rocky Moun-
tains.

CORD MOSSES
Genus FUNARIA, Schreb.

The species of the Genus Funaria are short, simple, or
branching, growing in clusters on the ground. The leaves are

209

Mosses and Lichens

variable; with loose transparent cells. The spore-cases are pear-
shaped, erect and symmetrical, or oblique and curved on long
pedicels, straight or arched above. The pedicels twist one about
another when dry, a habit suggesting the generic name Funaria,
from the Latin funis, a cord. The lids are plano-convex. Some-
times there is a compound annulus which rolls back as the lid falls.
The teeth are sometimes rudimentary but more generally they
are double, the outer sixteen obliquely
curving to the right and connected at
the apex by a small mesh-like disk.
The outer surface of the teeth is pale
and granulose and the inner face is
marked with prominent purple cross-
bars. The inner membrane is divided
into sixteen more or less rudimentary
segments opposite to the outer teeth
and adhering at the base. They are
yellow and lance-shaped with longi-
tudinal median line.

The spore-sac is much smaller than
the spore-case and is attached to it by
loosely entangled filaments. The
spores are often very large.

Seventy-nine species are known in
all, fourteen being found in North
America.

The Pale Funaria, Funaria flari-
cans, Michx. — See Plate XVI.

This species is found in the Middle
and Southern States. It differs from
Funaria hygrometrica in being paler in
colour. The leaves are more abruptly
narrowed into a long flexuous point,
the mouth of the spore-case is more enlarged and less oblique.

The Water-measuring Cord-moss, Funaria hygrometrica,
Sibth.— See Colour Plates III and XVI.

Habit and habitat. — Like Cinderella, the Cord-moss is to be
found among the ashes. One may look for it where picnic fires
have been, or in wood-lots which have been swept by flames.
One may also expect to find it in vacant lots used as dump

210

F. hygrometrica. Portion of
peristome with two inner teeth
and with two outer teeth attached
to a terminal disk.

MOSSES AND LICHENS

PLATE XVI

TOP MOSS
Physcomitrium turbinatum, Muell. ined.

THE PALE FUNARIA

Funaria flaricans, Michx.

THE WATER-MEASURING CORD-MOSS. Funaria hygrometrica, Sibth.

Cord Mosses

grounds, or even on the crumbling mortar of old
stone houses and neglected walls.

Name. — The specific name hygrometrica is a com-
pound of two Greek words, £7/009, water, and
measuring, and refers to the habit the

Spores.

(fc) Branching protonema with a moss plant starting at (k);
(w) rhizoid; (A) a primary filament of protonema.

Ftinaria hygrometrica.

Germinating spores.
(v) Vacuole; (if) rhizoid
) spore wall.

F. hygrometrica.

F. hygrometrica. Fe-
male flower in vertical
section, (a) archegon-
ium; (b) leaf.

211

F. hygrometrica.
Plant with imma-
ture spore -case still
in its veil.

Mosses and Lichens

plants have of twisting and untwisting their pedicels as they
are alternately moistened or dried.

Plant (gametophyte). — The young plants
are found in the fall. They are yellow-green
with simple or branching stems, living but
one year, or continuing by new growths.

Leaves. — Variable; tufted at the apex of the
stem, usually erect and pressed together; ob-
long egg-shaped; apex short-pointed; margin
entire ; vein reaching the apex.

Habit of flowering. — Male and female flow-
ers on the same plant (monoicous) ; terminal;
the male on prirflary stems, the female on sec-
ondary.

F. hygrometrica. Leaf.

L pyrtforme.
(See page 2 1 7.)

F. hygrometrica. Cross section of young
pedicel.

Veil (calyptra).— Conical, shining, inflated at the base, split
up one side, composed of bladder-like cells.

Spore-case. — When immature, erect, nearly symmetrical;
when mature, pear-shaped, with the small end narrowed to an
elongated and curved neck (collum). One side is more swollen
than the other (gibbous) ; leathery, reddish, and deeply furrowed
when old.

Spore-sac. — Much smaller than the spore-case, attached to it
by loosely tangled threads.

Pedicel (seta). — Straight or arched above,
i to "2\ inches high, twisting and untwisting
with the changes in the humidity of the air.

Lid (operculwri). — Small like a flat saucer. F. hygrometrica.

2C2

Cord Mosses

F. hygrometrica. Plant with two
sporophytes.

/Innulus. — Com-
pound, rolling back
as the lid falls.

Teeth (peris-
tome). — The outer
teeth sixteen, ob-
liquely curving to
the right, with hor-
izontal prominent
purple cross - bars
on the inner face
(trabeculate) : pale and granular on the
outer face, connected at the apex by
a small disk with mesh-like veins
(reticulated); the inner teeth sixteen,
lance-like or more or less rudimentary,
opposite to the outer teeth and adher-
ing at the base, yellowish with a line

F. hygrometrica. Breath-
ing pore from the spore-
case.

Tip of female shoot with
archegonia, two containing
sporogoniums half -grown. The
one on the left has severed F. hygrometrica. Vertical section through a male
the upper part of the arche- flower: (o) young antheridium in vertical section . (6) old
gonium wall, calyptra, from antheridium in vertical section; (c) paraphysis; (d) vein
the base. of leaf in section; (<?) blade of leaf in section.

213

Mosses and Lichen*

running from apex to base, distinctly beset with minute points
(papillate).

Spores. — Of medium
size, maturing all summer.
Distribution. — U n i v e r -

•CoUunt. \ sal.

F . hygrometrica. Portion
of peristome with two outer
teeth attached at their tips
to a reticulated disk; and two
innner teeth free.

F. hygrometrica. A plant with a female branch
supporting a sporophyte on the left; a male branch
with male flower-cluster on the right.

Genus BARTRAMIA, Hedw.

The species of the Genus Bartramia live from year to year,
their erect, two-forked stems with soft felted hairs toward the

214

Bartram's Moss

base forming extensive tufts on soil and rock, or occasionally on
trees.

The leaves are long and narrow, opaque and yellowish-green ;
with a round vein which vanishes in the serrated apex or passes
beyond to form a rough point.

The spherical spore-cases marked with parallel ridges are
erect, or nodding, on long erect pedicels. The lids are small,
convex or obtusely pointed.

Teeth are rarely absent or simple, usually double, the outer
attached to basilar membrane. There is no annulus.

The genus contains one hundred and three species in all, thir-
teen of them being known in North America. The name was
given by J. G. Hedwig in hon-
our of John Bartram, one of
the earliest American botanists.

The Apple-moss, Bartra-
mia pomiformis, Hedw. — See
cut on page 216.

Habit and habitat. — In soft
bright or yellow-green tufts
on shady banks and in clefts
of rocks.

Name. — From the Latin po-
mum, apple, and forma, form,
referring to the spore-cases.

Plant (gametopbyte). —
Stems i to 3 inches high with
densely felted hairs below.

Leaves. — Long, open, and
somewhat twisted when
moist, more erect and crisped
when dry. Narrowly linear
and awl-like from a paler base;
vein extending beyond the
apex to form a spiny awn;
margin sharply serrate above,
rolled back from the middle
downward.

Habit of flowering. — Male and female flowers on the same
plant (monoicous).

B. pomiformis. Plant stripped of leaves
toshowantheridia.archegonia, and paraphy-
ses on the left branch; the base of an old
pedicel lies between the two branches.

215

Mosses and Lichens

Veil (calyptra).— Conical, split up one side, falling early.
Spore-case. — Spherical, grooved longitudinally.

Pedicel (seta}. — Slender, £an inch high.

Teeth (peristome}. — Outer teeth regular,
densely cross-barred, inner segments
shorter than the teeth and cleft, cilia imper-
fect or none.

Annulus. — None.

Spores. — Mature in spring.

Distribution. — Universal.

B. pomiformis.

Bartramia pomiformis.

B. pomiformis. Leaves.

THREAD-MOSS
Genus LEPTOBRYUM, Schimp.

The species of the Genus Leptobryum live but one year, the
plants are unbranched above, new growths coming only from
the base. The generic name from the Greek XeTrro?, slender, and
fipvov, a moss, refers to the slender character of the plants.

The leaves are narrow, glossy, and turn in different directions.
The apex is like an awl and the cells are narrowly rhomboidal
above, looser toward the base and rectangular-six-sided.

The spore-cases are inclined or pendent, long-necked and
thin-coated with convex lids tipped with a small point. The
teeth are double, the intermediate hair-like segments having cross-
bars projecting beyond the edge.

There are but few species known at present, one of these is
found in North America.

216

Thread-moss

The Pear-shaped Thread-moss, Leptobryum pyriforme,
Schimp. — See cuts on page 218.

Habit and habitat.— In dense silky green patches on shady
rocks and walls, and sandy or turfy soil, also on burnt and decay-
ing trees. Common.

W. nutans. Leaves. (See page 219.)

L. pyriforme. Por-
tion of peristome.

L. pyriforme. Spore-case with lid and
long neck.

W. nutans.

Plant.
(See page 219.)

Name. — The specific name pyriforme is from the Latin pyrum,
a pear, and forma, form, referring to the spore-case.

Plant (gametophyte). — Slender, simple, stem short. One-
half to one inch high.

Leaves. — The lower distant, narrowly lance-shaped, the upper
tufted and longer; apex awl-like, flexuose, serrate; cells above,

217

Mosses and Lichens

narrow and long, below, broader. Vein dilated at the base, ex-
tending below the apex.

Habit of flowering. — Male and female flowers together, (syn-
oicous).

Spore-case. — Pear-shaped or oval, yellow-brown, glossy, sym-
metrical, neck long.

Pedicel. — Red, slender, i to 2 inches long.
Lid (operculum). — Convex, with a tiny nipple.
Teeth (peristome). — Pale yel-
low, lance-shaped, segments of
the inner membrane keeled
and perforated; the thread-
like segments bearing little
knots on the edges.

Annulus. — Broad, rolling
back as the lid falls.

Spores. — Mature in May
and June.

Distribution. — Universal.

L. pyriforme. Plant
with pyriforme.
(See page 217.)

L. pyriforme.
Apex of leaf.

Genus WEBERA, Hedw.

The members of this genus
are similar to those of the
genus Bryum, the essential
characters which separate the
two are that Webera has rhom-
boidal-hexagonal, narrow, and
more or less linear leaf-cells
with a

Bryum has rhomboidal-hexa-
gonal, smooth, usually broad
and loose cells, with a solid,
round vein generally passing
beyond the apex of the leaf.

The name was given by
J. G. Hedwig, a German bot-
anist, in honour of G. H.
Weber.

218

W. albicans. Stem.

slender vein, while (See page 2j0).

L. pyriforme
Annulus.

W. nuians. Spore-
case.

MOSSES AND LICHENS

PLATE XVII

WEBERA NUTANS, Hedw.

WEBERA ALB1CANS, Schimp, 1. c.

Thread-moss

Webera nutans, Hedw. — See Plate XVII. Also see cuts
on page 217.

Habit and habitat. — This pretty moss is common, growing in
soft cushions on moist ground, in peat
bogs and swamps and in fissures of rocks.

Spore-case.

Lids.

Annulus.
W. nutans.

Inner membrane.

Name.— The specific name nutans, the Latin for "nodding,"
describes the spore-case.

Plant (gametopbyte). — Yellow-green ; stem slender and flexible,
\ to 2, inches high.

Leaves. — The lower ovate-lanceolate, margin entire ; the upper
linear-lanceolate, serrate at the apex; vein thick, reddish, glossy,
vanishing below the apex.

Lids.

Tip of spore-case with
two rows of teeth.

Empty spore-cases

without lids.
W. albicans. (See page 220.)

Spore-cases with lids.

Habit of flowering. — Male and female flowers on the same
plant (monoicous).

Spore-case. — Oblong-ovate with a broad opening, yellow-
brown, short-necked, inclined or pendent.

Pedicel. — Glossy red, often two inches high.

Lid (operculum). — Highly convex, with a tiny nipple.

Teeth (peristome). — Dark orange, pale and thread-like at the
apex, the segments of the inner membrane pale-yellow, split,
slender segments (cilia) 2 to 3 strongly jointed, as long as the
teeth.

219

Mosses and Lichens

Annulus.— Large, rolling back as the lid falls.
Spores. — Mature in summer.
Distribution. — Almost universal.
Webera albicans, Schimp. — See Plate
XVII.

Habit and habitat. — This pretty moss
grows in soft tufts of a light-green colour in
wet sand on the borders of streams, and in
swampy land along wheel ruts.

Name. — The specific name albicans, whitish,
has reference to its peculiar pale-green colour.
Plant (gametopbyte). — Simple, erect or
inclined; i to 4 inches long; stem reddish or
dark-purple.

Leaves. — The lower ovate, oblong and taper-pointed, the upper
oblong-lanceolate, soft, yellowish or pale-green; vein vanishing
below the apex; margin serrate near apex; leaves around the male
flowers broad and concave at the base, open and lanceolate above.

W. albicans.
Male plant.

W. albicans. Leaves.

Habit of flowering. — Male and female flowers on separate
plants, male flowers in a disk-like head.

Spore-case. — Inclined or pendent, short-pear-shaped, inflated

220

Thread-moss

at the neck (collum) ; green with a bloom, becoming brown ;
somewhat round and wide-mouthed when empty.

Pedicel. — Long, generally reddish and bent at the base.

Lid (operculum). — Conical with a nipple (mammittaie) .

Teeth (peristome). — Large, orange-coloured.

Annulus. — None.

Spores. — Mature in spring and early summer.

Distribution. — Almost universal.

Genus BRYUM, Dill.

The plants of the Genus Bryum live on from year to year on
the ground or on rocks, seldom on trees. The stems are covered
with small red-brown filaments.

The generic name is an ancient word for moss used both by
Gaius Plinius, "The Elder," a Roman naturalist, who perished in
the eruption that destroyed Pompeii,
and by Pedanius Dioscorides, a Greek
physician, who was the founder of

Spore-case Spore-case

with lid. without lid.

B. roseum.

B. argenteum. Portion
of peristome.

B. argenteum. Leaf.

botany and flourished in the first and second century. The name
Bryum was restricted to the present genus by Johann Dillenius,
a German, who was the first professor of botany at Oxford.

The leaves are smooth with a solid round vein generally
extending beyond the apex; the cells are smooth, six-sided and
more or less elongated.

The spore-cases are leathery, pear-shaped, narrowing down
to a solid neck (collum) with breathing pores (stomata) on the
surface; they are regular or rarely recurved. They have convex
lids with a tiny blunt point at the centre and are borne on long
and stout pedicels.

221

Mosses and Lichens

The peristome is double, the outer teeth are long and linear or
lance-shaped, marked with many cross-bars internally, prominent
below; the inner membrane is divided above into keeled seg-
ments adherent to or free from the teeth, and separated by usually
two to five hair-like divisions (cilia) mostly with spurs attached
at intervals to the margin.

The annulus is large, compound, and rolls back as the lid falls.

There are 800 or more described species, one hundred and
thirty-two in North America.

Leaves.

Plant with sporo-
phyte.

Male.

Female.
B. argenteum.

With lid. Without lid.
Spore -cases.

The Silvery Bryum, Bryum argenteum, Linn.

Habit and habitat. — In green or silvery-white irregular cushions,
on exposed ground, roofs, pavements, burnt places and almost
everywhere except on trees. Very common.

Name. — The specific name refers to the colour. Latin argen-
teum, silvery. Johann Dillenius, a German botanist, called this
moss "Catkin-stemmed Silver Moss" from its resemblance to the
catkins of a poplar tree.

222

Thread-moss

Plant (gametopbyte) . — Stems short, | to i inch high covered
with root-like filaments; there are numerous shining catkin-like
branches, each tipped with a brush of hairs.

Leaves. — At the apex of the stem, oblong-lance-shaped, taper-
pointed, silvery-gray; stem and branch leaves broadly oval, or
inverted oval, deeply concave; apex abruptly pointed; margin
entire, flat; vein (cosla) vanishing above the middle; cells loose.

Habit of flowering. — Male and female on separate plants
(dioicous). Male flowers terminal.

V'il (calyptra). — Narrowly hood-like, falling before the
spore-case ripens.

Lid.

Young spore-
case with veil.

Veil.

With lid. Empty.

Spore-cases.

Portion of peristome with two outer
teeth, two inner and five cilia.

B. argenteum.

Annulus.

Spore-case. — Abruptly pendulous, oblong, deep purple when
ripe, constricted under the mouth when old.

Pedicel. — Long and curved at the summit, £ inch high, dark
red when mature.

Lid (operculum). — Convex, slightly pointed, dark-orange.

Teeth (peristome'). — As in the genus. Inner membrane yellow.

Annulus. — Present.

Spores. — Mature in fall and winter. Rarely fruiting in Great
Britain.

Distribution. — Found in America, Europe and Asia. This is
one of the five mosses which Sir Wm. Jackson Hooker found in
the early part of the igth Century at "Ultima Thule" of Antarctic
vegetation.

223

Mosses and Lichens

The Rose Bryum, Bryum roseum, Schreb. — See Plate XVIII.
Habit and habitat. — Bryum roseum is one of the largest and
showiest of the Bryums known outside the tropics. It is found
in shaded woods at the bases of trees and
decayed logs. Under favourable circum-
stances this species forms tufts, but usually
the plants are scattered among other mosses.
Name. — The specific name refers to the
rose-like arrangement of the crown leaves,
Latin roseus, a rose.

Plant (gametophyte). — Fine and large,

Plant with stolons.

Leaves.

B. roseum.

stems i to 2 inches long, with few branches; creeping stems
(stolons) present, from which new plants arise.

Leaves. — At the apex crowded to form a rosette, each leaf spat-
ulate; apex taper-pointed; margin acutely toothed from the middle
upward, reflexed to the base, wavy when
dry ; -vein (costa) broad and reddish at the
base, narrowed upward and produced be-
yond the apex ; cells loose and filled with
chlorophyll. Stem-leaves lying close to the
stem, oblong-lance-shaped, small and thin.

Apex of leaf.

Male flower and bracts.
Bryum roseum.

224

Male plant.

Mnium Mosses

Habit of flowering. — Male flowers in separate tufts from the
female flowers (dioicous), arranged at the apex of the stems and
surrounded with radiating leaves.

Veil (calyptra). — Split up
one side.

Spore-case. — Single or in clus-
ters, oblong-conical, pendent,
and slightly incurved, solid and
not constricted under the mouth
when dry.

Pedicel (seta). — Dark purple,

With lid. Without lid.

long and solid. I to i£ inches

B. roseum. Portion
of peristome.

high.

Lid (operculum). — Slightly convex with a tiny nip-
ple in the centre, dark-purple.

Teeth (peristome}. — Very long, inner segments
orange-coloured, perforated along the keel.
Annulus. — Compound, rolling back as the lid falls.
Spores. — Mature in autumn.

Distribution. — On the Eastern and Western slopes of North
America, also in Europe, Asia and Africa.

Genus MNIUM, Linn.

The species of the Genus Mnium are handsome mosses, usu-
ally tall and robust, with large, translucent leaves. They may
be looked for about the bases of trees, on lawns, along roadsides,
and in damp woods. They are especially attractive on the banks
of mountain brooks or in the cool water of bubbling springs.
The beginner may recognise some members of the genus
by the dainty rosettes on the summits of the male plants,

M . pttnctatum. Var. elatum.

M. affine. Apex of leaf-
spiny border, single.

Mosses and Lichens

each rosette made of pale-green leaves with a beaded centre of
darker green. Some species have the fertile stems erect with
branches growing from near their bases or from creeping stems.
The branches are often different from the main stems, being fern-
like, prostrate, or curved with rooting tips so as to form succes-
sions of miniature arches.

The great Swedish botanist, Carolus Linnaeus, named the
group from the Greek pvfov, an ancient word for "moss."

M. cuspidatum. Spiny border, single.

M. hornum. Spiny
border, double.

M. punctatum.
Border entire.

Af . punctatum. Apex of leaf

M . cuspidatum.
Spiny border,
single.

Af. hornum. Apex of leaf.

f The leaves of all the Mniums are dainty and fresh and their
cell-structure and their colour are so delicate that it will repay one
to examine them with a hand lens or the low power of a com-
pound microscope. The leaves are usually large, rounded, more
or less elliptic or tongue-shaped ; the margin usually has a dis-
tinct border and is frequently spiny toothed; the vein either van-
ishes below or extends beyond the apex; the cells are smooth,
rounded-hexagonal or rarely elongated.

226

Mniutn Mosses

'M.cuspidatwr.. Plant with
fertile branch on the right
and sterile branch on the left.

The spore-cases are more or
less pendulous, on long and
slender, often clustered pedicels.
They are oblong-cylindrical or
oval, never pear-shaped. The
lids are convex, long-beaked,
taper-pointed, or tipped with a
tiny blunt point. The annulus
is usually conspicuous, rolling
back as the lid falls.

The peristome is double, the
outer teeth being long and nar-
row or lance-shaped, closely
cross-barred below, with the
bars evident on the inner surface;
the inner membrane is keeled
and reaches to the middle of
the outer teeth, where it divides
into large segments alternating
with two or three thread-like

M. affine. Portion of
peristome.

M . cuspidal-urn.
Inner membrane.

M. cuspidatum.

227

Mosses and Lichens

segments (cilia). Sometimes the cilia have spurs attached at
intervals to the margins.

There are ninety-nine species in all, thirty-three in North
America. Of the fifteen species which appear in the Eastern
States, five will be found with entire borders to the leaves, five
with a single row of teeth, and five with a double row.

The Pointed Mnium, Mnium cuspidatum, Hedw.

Habit and habitat.— The Pointed Mnium (Mnium cuspidatum)
is one of the prettiest of the genus and is to be found in shaded
places on the ground in almost every state and territory in the
Union.

Name. — J. G. Hedwig, a German botanist, named this species
from the Latin cuspidatum, a point, on account of the apex of
the leaves.

Leaves.

M, cuspidatum.

Branch leaf.

Plants (gametophyte). — Simple, the young shoots bright pale-
green, the older stems dark-green, the sterile shoots prostrate
or somewhat erect.

Leaves.— All with a short sharp point at the apex, vein
extending beyond the apex to form the point. Stem-leaves
with the base growing downward on the stem (decurrent)
oval-oblong or obovate-spatulate ; branch-leaves smaller,
rounded-oval; all much crisped when dry; margin with 3 to 5
rows of yellow cells, and a single row of spiny teeth in the
upper half.

Leaves at the base of the pedicel (perichatial leaves).— Spat-
ulate.

228

MOSSES AND LICHENS

COLOUR PLATE XIV

HEPATIC, DRY.

Frullania Eboracensis, Gottsche

HEPATIC, MOIST.

Frullania Eboracensis, Gottsche

HEPATIC.

Porella platyphylla

HEPATIC.
Plilidium ciliare, Nees

Thread-moss

Habit of flowering. — Male and female flowers in the same
cluster (synoicous).

Veil (calyptrd). — Split up one side.

Spore-case. — Solitary, somewhat pendulous, oval-oblong.

Pedicel. — Solitary, pale.

Lid (pperculum). — Conical, obtuse.

Annulus. — Narrow, rolling back as the lid is pushed off.

Teeth (peristome). — The outer yellow, the inner orange, solid,
the segments open on the keel, thread-like and sharp-pointed at
the apex ; cilia usually three between each tooth.

Spores. — Mature in spring.

Distribution. — In almost every state of the Union, also in
Europe.

Mnium affine, Bland.

Habit and habitat. — Common on shaded banks and roots of
trees. Bright, pale-green, loosely tufted with long sterile shoots
arched or prostrate.

Name. — The specific name, affine, from the
Latin affinis, related, refers to the resemblance of
this species to Mnium cuspidatum with which it
has often been confused.

Plant (gametophyte}. — One to two inches
high with brown filaments at the base.

Leaves. — Spreading, recurved and crisped on
the borders when dry; the lower stem-leaves
round egg-shaped with the narrow end next to
the stem; the middle stem-leaves oblong egg-
shaped, growing more or less down the stem; the upper

Stem with leaves.

Apex with vein and marginal cells.
M. cuspidatum.
229

Spore -case
without lid.

Mosses and Lichens

stem-leaves inverted egg-shaped and long spatulate crowded
into a rosette; margins acutely toothed all round; vein extending
beyond the apex to form a sharp point.

Habit of flowering. — Male and female flowers on separate
plants (dioicous) ; male plants terminating in disks.

Veil (calyptra). — Split up one
side.

Spore-case. — Clustered, i to
3, rarely 5 to 6; pendent, oblong;
green until fully ripe, then yel-
low-brown.

Pedicel (seta). — Slender, i to
inches long.

Jl. cMspidatum. Spore-cases with lids.

Stem.

M . affine.

Leaves.

Lid (operculum). — Convex, short, sharp-pointed.
Teeth (peristome). — As in the genus. The outer yellow, the
inner orange.

Annulus. — Narrow, rolling back as the lid falls.
Spores. — Mature in spring.
Distribution. — Universal.

230

Thread-moss

Portion of peristome
with three outer teeth,
four inner and groups
of cilia.

Inner peri-
gonial leaf

with an-
ther idi a
and para*
physes.

Lid.

M. afflnt.

Spore-caso
with lid.

Mnium hornum, Linn.
Habit and habitat. — Robust in dense tufts, on damp earth in
woods, about the roots of trees, and on rocks.

Name. — The specific name, hornum, probably refers to the
horny border.

Plant (gametophyte). — The young plants are bright-green, the
older are dark-green ; stems, \ to 2 inches high, simple erect;
sterile shoots, erect from the base.

Leaves. — The lowest minute, the upper gradually increasing
in size, the terminal forming a rosette, all oblong-lance-shaped,

apex more or less acute with a
sharp little point; base growing
slightly down the stem ; margin
with a strong red border, spiny
toothed from below the middle,
the teeth in a double row ; vein

Plant with
sporophyte.

Spiny margin;
the spines in a
double row.

Mosses and Lichens

vanishing below the apex, spiny above at the back ; cells thick-
walled.

Habit of flowering. — Male and female flowers on separate
plants (dioicous). Male flowers surrounded with a rosette of
leaves.

Veil (calyptra). — Split up one side.

Spore-case. — Narrowly oval with a narrow tapering neck
somewhat pendulous, finally horizontal, somewhat inflated when
empty, pale-yellow with a red rim.

Pedicel (seta). — Solitary, I to i£ inches long, arched above.
Lid (operculum). — Conical, tipped with a short, sharp point.
Annulus. — Narrow.
Teeth (peristome). — As in the genus.
Spores. — Mature in spring.

Distribution. — Europe, Africa, and North America.
The Dotted Mnium, Mnium punctatum, Hedw.
Habit and habitat. — The Dotted Mnium may be looked for
about cold springs and along the borders of mountain brooks.

It grows in loose dark or yellowish
green tufts, each plant standing stiff and
erect with rusty-brown hairs.

The leaves are large, not very close
together on the stem and of a delicate
translucent green. A hand lens will
show them to have a hard, brown, entire
margin notched at the rounded apex,
and a tiny little point in the notch.
The fruits are not often found, but when present are oval, green
cylinders with sharp-pointed lids, hori-
zontal or inclined on slender pedicels.

Name. — The specific name, the Latin
punctatum, dotted, was given by J. G.
Hedwig, on account of the cell structure.
Plant (gametophyte).— Tall, robust, j
to 6 inches high, the dark-green sterile
shoots erect; all covered the whole length
with brown filaments.

Leaves. — Remote on branches and
stems, open, turned back from the stem,
large, the lower round, oval, inserted onl

232

M.hornum. Spore-case with
lid and with a bract on the
pedicel.

M . hornum. Apex of leaf
to show spiny margin.

Thread-moss

Stem.

by the enlarged vein ; the upper 4 to 6
in a rosette, each leaf broadly oval,
tapering toward the base; apex slightly
notched, with a sharp point in the notch;
margin entire, brown, thick and hard;
vein purplish, abruptly vanishing near
apex, extending down the stem.

Habit of flowering. — Male and female
flowers on separate plants (dioicous);
male plants more slender than the female,
with but few stem leaves, and the leaves at the summit arranged
as a rosette about the male flowers (antheridia).

Veil (calyptra). — Split up one side, remaining on the spore-
case all winter but falling early in the spring.

Spore-case. — Oval, green when mature, brown when older,
ovate-oblong, somewhat pendulous, finally horizontal.

Stem with

hairs.
M. punctatutn.

Var. elatum.

M. punctatum.

Spore-case with lid.

Mosses and Lichens

Aulacomnium palustre, Schwaegr.

Habit and habitat. — In loose or dense tufts i to 5 inches
deep, yellow or dirty-green above, red-brown within. Found on
borders of swamps, on plains, or on mountains.

Name. — The specific name palustre, Latin, palus, a swamp,
refers to the habit of the moss.

Female plant with sporophyte and two
Whip-like"branch sterile branches with rhizoids at their Stem with whip-

with gemmae, base. like branch.

A. palustre.

Plants (gametophyte). — Robust, closely covered with red-
brown felted filaments, often producing whip-like branches with
clusters of bud-like growths at the apex.

Leaves. — Usually crowded, more or less crisped and twisted
when dry, narrowly lance-shaped; apex obtuse or pointed;
margin finely toothed toward the apex, rolled back below; vein
vanishing below the apex; cells with tiny projections on both
faces.

236

MOSSES AND LICHENS

PLATE XX
!

BUXBAUMIA APHYLLA, L.

4ULACOMNIUM HETEROSTICHUM, Bruch. & Schimp.

Thread-mots

Habit of flowering. — Male and female flowers on separate
plants (dioicous). Male flower-clusters bud-like.
Veil (calyptra). — Split up one side.
Spore-case. — Oblong, unsymmetrical.
Pedicel. — i to 2 inches long.
Lid (operculum). — Conical.
Annulus. — Large, compound, rolling
back as the lid falls.

Teeth (peristome}. — Long, acute, the seg-
ments of the inner membrane about as long,
with 3 to 4 cilia intermediate.

Spores. — Maturing in early summer.
Distribution. — Universal.
Aulacomnium heterostichum, Bruch &
Schimp.— See Plate XX.

Habit and habitat. — In wide pale-
green tufts on shady banks and slopes in
the woods.

Name. — The specific name, hetero-
stichum, is a compound of two Greek
words, ere/905, other, and ort^o?, rank,
referring to two kinds of leaves.

Plant (gametophyte). — Stems densely
covered with red-brown filaments (to-
mentose).

Leaves. — Inclined to one side; lower
obovate, upper gradually longer and ob-
ovate-oblong, incurved on one side ; apex
nearly flat, obtusely pointed (apiculate) ;

A. androzynum.
Old spore-case.
(Seepage 235.)

Cross section of central
strand of stem.
A, falustre

Cross section of leaf. Spore-case with veil.

A. heterostichum.

237

Mosses and Lichens

A. hetetoftichum.
Stem.

margin saw-toothed from the middle up-
ward; vein (costa) yellow-brown, vanishing
below the apex.

Habit of flowering. —
Male and female flowers on
one plant (monoicous).
The male flower-clusters,
sessile along the stems,
and with rootlets at the
base. The inner leaves of
the clusters broadly ovate-
concave, abruptly pointed
and veined.

Veil (calyptra).— Split
up one side.

Spore-case. — Oblong, slightly incurved
and inclined.

Pedicel (seta), — Short, erect.

Lid (operculuni). — Con-
vex, obtusely short-beaked.
Annulus. — Large, roll-
ing back as the lid falls*.

Teeth ( peristome ) . —
Large, the inner segments
open, but not disjoined,
cilia 2 to 3.

Spores. — Mature
in June.

Distribution. —
Asia, Japan, North

Old spore-case. .

A. heterostichum. America.

Antheridia and

paraphyses.
heterostichittn.

A. heterostichttm. Leaves.

Polytrichaceae

POLYTRICHACE^E

The Polytrichaceae form a large family which has been
divided into some three tribes, nine genera, and about two
hundred species, if the plants of the whole world are considered.

The species are often of large size and are probably the most
highly developed of all the mosses. One may look for the Amer-
ican species by roadside banks, in fields and open woods. They
grow in conspicuous patches and may be easily recognised by
their mitrate or hood-like veils, their long wiry pedicels, their
regularly cylindrical or angular spore-cases with mouths covered
by a thin membrane bordered with 32 or 64 blunt teeth, and by
their firm and rigid leaves with delicate vertical blades of cells
(lamella?) on the upper surface.

KEY TO GENERA

Veil. — Hood-like, spore-case symmetrical or nearly so; leaves
wavy and crisp when dry, lamellae few (2 to 8),
straight, teeth 32 Catharinea.

Lamellae (two).
Cross sections of leaves.

P. brachyphylltMn.
Spore -case with
hairy veiL

Pogonatum
tenue. Spore-
case, not angu-
lar.

Leaf.

Tip of spore-case; teeth

thirty-two.
C. undulata.

Veil. — Mitrate, densely hairy.

Spore-case not angular, teeth often 32
Spore-case 4- to 6-angled, teeth 64 . .
239

P. pili]crv.m.

Spore-case

angled.

. Pogonatum.
Polytrichum.

Mosses and Lichens

To«i>

CATHARINE MOSSES
Genus CATHARINEA, Ehrh.

The members of this genus will always attract attention from
their habit of growing in extensive patches in partly shaded
places. The leafy part of the plant is erect and large enough to

form soft and luxuriantly
green areas very conspicuous
when beset with slender ped-
icels bearing either pale im-
mature spore-cases or shining
rich-coloured mature ones.
The genus was founded by
Friedrich Ehrhart in honour of
Catharine II, Empress of Rus-
sia. The leaves are strap-

P, commune. Teeth sixty-four, summit , .

of spore-case. (See page 239.) shaped Or OVal-Oblong, rich 111

leaf-green and wavy when fresh, and curled
or twisted in various directions when dry;
the apex is acute or obtuse and the base is
not sheathing; the vein bears a few lamellae
toward the apex.

The veils are split up one side and are
sometimes rough.

Pogonatum. Teeth
thirty-two. (See p. 239.)

The spore-cases are oval cylindrical, nodding, or arched, with
long-beaked lids and are borne on long exserted pedicels.

The little column (columella) within the spore-case is termin-
ated by a disk-like mem-
brane (epiphragm).

The peristome is
simple, of 32 tongue-
like teeth united at the
base; the tips are united
by their inner faces to
processes on the edge of
the epiphragm so that
the epiphragm hangs
down irom them by
the length of the pro-
cesses.

C. undulata. Apex of leaf
with lamellae.

With lid. With veil
C. angustata. Spore-

24O

Catharine Mosses

Apex of leaf.

C , angustata.
Leaf.

There are about forty-eight species known in all, nineteen
being found in North America.

The Slender Catharinea, Catharinea angustata, Brid. — See
Plate IV.

Habit and habitat. — Very com-
mon in conspicuous patches on the
ground at the bases of trees, along
roadsides, and in
woods. The fruits
and the bright red
rosettes of the male
plants may be found
in winter. In cold
or dry weather this
moss curls up its
leaves so as to protect the upper deli-
cate surface from frost and too
rapid evaporation.

Name. — The specific name
angustata, the Latin for "narrow-
ed," refers to the slender habit of
the plant.

Plant (gametophyte). — Simple or
forked, erect, bearing one to three
spore-cases.

Leaves. — Long, narrowly strap-
Male plant shaped, wavy on the borders. Apex
serrate; base not sheathing; mar-
gin serrate only in the upper half. Lamellae 5 to 7.

Habit of flowering. — Dioicous, male flower on one plant,
female flowers on another.

Veil (calyptra). — Membranous, split up one side, hairy at the
summit.

Spore-case. — Nearly erect, narrowly cylindrical, green or dark-
purple, shining.

Pedicel (seta). — Red, about one inch high.
Lid (operculum). — Dome-like, abruptly long-beaked.
Teeth (peristome) . — Thirty-two, blunt, connected at the
base, attached by the tips to the disk at the summit of the
«olumella.

241

Female plant.

C. angustata.

Mosses and Lichens

Spores. — Mature in winter.

Distribution. — North America, Europe, Asia.

The Wavy-leaved Catharinea, Catharinea
undulata, Web, & Mohr.

Catharinea undulata differs from C. angustata
in the leaves being more acute and with margins
toothed throughout. Also it is a rather larger plant
with less-prominent lamellae and
with a monoicous inflorescence.

Apex of leaf.

Top of spore-case with

Spore-case the teeth united near Cross section of a leaf to show
with veiL their tips to an epiphragm. lamellae erect from the vein. Leaf.

C. undulata.

HAIR-CAP MOSSES

Genus POGONATUM, Beauv.

The Pogonatum mosses grow in tufts on the ground, often
with a green felt of thread-like cells (protonema) at the base. The
plants are short and simple, or long and robust; with branches
starting below the leaves at the base of the pedicel, or half-way
up to the stem. The male plants continue to grow from the cen-
tre of a terminal rosette of bracts.

The leaves are erect or spreading, the upper-half lance-shaped
or strap-shaped; the base is clasping, with large pale cells;
the margins are entire or serrate; the vein is broad, with numer-
ous lamellae occupying almost the entire width of the leaf-blade,
and with their terminal cells smooth or bearing tiny projections
(papillose).

The generic name Pogonatum, from the Greek Tr&xy&n/, a beard,
refers to the veil, which is hairy and almost covers the spore-case.

The spore-cases are cylindrical, but not angular. They are

242

Hair-cap Mosses

P. brevicaule. Top of spore-case with 33 teeth
united by their tips to a membrane.

P. Alpinum Leaf
with serrate mar-
gin and numerous
lamella*,

P. brevicaule.
Stem with peri-
chaetial leaves.

P. breviccuk.
Spore-case with
reil.

P. urnigerum.
Spore-case with
lid.

nearly symmetrical, erect, or

turned to one side, with flat

lids having a central point. They

are borne on erect pedicels.
The peristome is simple, of

32 blunt teeth, orange in the

middle, united at the base and

appearing as if attached at the

apices to a membranous disk

(epiphragni) .

There are one hundred and

fifty-six species known in all,

nine in North America.

The Short-stemmed Hair-
cap Moss, Pogonatum brevi-

caule, Beauv. — See Colour Plate

IV.

Habit and habitat. — The short-
stemmed Pogonatum is remarkable
because of its habit of retaining the
protonema, which persists as a
bright-green felt covering the
ground at the base of the plants.
It binds the crumbling earth so that
one may gather it in sheets. As
the moss commonly grows in clay-
banks, in ditches, and in places
rather insecure, it may be that the
habit of retaining the protonema
has been evolved in the struggle for
existence to enable it to live in situ-
ations too insecure to be occupied by other mosses.

243

P. brevicavle.
Spore-case with

id.

Mosses and Lichens

Name. — The specific name brevicaule, from the Latin brevis,
short, and caulis, stem, refers to the height of the plant.

Plant (game topbyte) . — Short, sim-
ple; J to i of an inch high. The
male plants are minute and bud-
like.

Leaves. — Five or six, erect, lance-
shaped; apex awned; base broad,
transparent; margin serrate, with
appressed teeth ; lamella few, 5 to 6
cells deep, the terminal one smooth

Blunt teeth.

Lid.

P. brevicaule.

Leaf.

P. brevicaule. Plant
with a sporophyte.

and elliptic in section. Male-duster
leaves erect, curved back from the
middle, lapping as shingles,broadly
obcordate; vein passing beyond the
apex to form a sharp point.

Leaves at the base of the pedicel. —
Sheathing, long, membranous, ab- Section of lameAe.
ruptly narrowed to a long, erect, P. brevicaule.
obtusely serrate point.
Habit of flowering. — Male and female flowers on separate
plants (dioicous). Male plants bud-like.

Veil (calyptra). — Hairy, reaching to the base of the
case.

Spore-case. — Cylindrical, broadest at the mouth,
below the mouth when dry, rough with tiny
(papillose).

Pedicel (seta}. — Twisted, i to 2 inches long.
Lid (operculum). — Flat, with a point at the centre.
Teetb (peristome). — White, simple, of 32 blunt teeth.
Spores. — Mature in winter.

244

spore-
contracted
projections

Hair-cap Mosses

Distribution. — North America ; Eastern States, north to New-
foundland, west to Ontario.

The Short-leaved Hair-cap Moss, Pogonatum brachyphyl-
lum, (Michx.) Beauv.

Habit and habitat. — The short-leaved Pogonatum is found on
sandy or loamy soil. The plants do not grow close together,
but scattered somewhat, on a persistent green felt of slender alga-
like threads.

Name. — The specific name brachyphyllum is compounded of
the Greek fipaxu, short, and <j>v\\ov, a leaf.

Plants (gametopbyte) . — Olive-green or dark-brown when old;
stems rigid, short, £ to f of an inch long.

Leaves. — In rosettes at the
summit of the stems, curved,
appressed and brown when
dry, very short, strap-shaped;
apex blunt; margin entire;
•vein broad; lamellce numer-
ous, 6 to 7 cells deep, irregu-
lar, the terminal cell smooth,
elliptic in section; base clear
with large cells.

Habit of flowering. — Male
and female flowers on separate plants (dioicous).

Veil (calyptra). — Hairy, dirty-brown, reaching to the middle
of the spore-case.

Sport -case. — Yellow-brown, erect or curved, broadest at the
mouth, rough with tiny projections.

Pedicel (seta).— Erect, short i to i£ inches long, twisted.
Lid (operculum). — Flat, beak short, blunt-pointed.
Teeth (perislome).— Simple and blunt. Thirty-two in num-
ber.

Spores. — Mature in winter.

Distribution. — Pine barrens of New Jersey, south to Florida
and Louisiana.

The Hair-like Hair-cap, Pogonatum capillare, (Michx.) Brid.
Habit and habitat.— Pale-green plants growing rather close
together.

Name. — The specific name capillare is the Latin for "hair-
like," referring to the slender character of the stem, leaves and teeth.

245

P. brachyphyllum.
Spore-case with veil.

P. brachyphyllum.
Spore-case with lid.

Mosses and Lichens

Plant (gametopbyte). — Simple, or increasing by shoots from
the summit of the main stem, I to } inches high, naked below,
loosely leafy above.

Leaves. — Curled when dry, spreading when moist, \ to f of an
inch long, broadly lance-shaped; base transparent; margin ser-
rate, with many-celled, triangular teeth; lamellae, numerous, 30 to
35, cells of the lamellae 5 to 7 deep, the terminal broadest in sec-
tion with tiny projections on the flat surface.

Habit of flowering. — Male and female flowers on separate
plants (dioicous).

Veil (calyptra). — Hairy, covering the spore-case to the base.

Spore-case. — Erect, egg-shaped, -^ of an inch long, with tiny
projections on the surface, not contracted below the mouth when
dry.

Pedicel (seta). — One-half to one and a half inches long,
slender, flexuous, erect.

Lid (operculum). — Hemispherical at the enlarged base, abruptly
straight-beaked.

Teeth (peristome) . — Thirty-two in number, long and narrow.

Spores. — Mature in winter.

Distribution. — Rare in the mountains of New York, common
in the mountains of New England; also along the Gaspe Coast to
Newfoundland, west to the Rocky Mountains.

The Urn-bearing Hair-cap Moss, Pogonatum urnigerum,
(L.) Beauv.

Habit and babitat. — Pale-green or with a bloom, growing in
wide mats but not crowded. On the banks and by streams.

Name. — The specific name urnigerum, urn-bearer, refers to
the spore-case.

Plants (gametopbyte). — Erect, i to 3 inches high, the branches
reaching the same height and densely leafy, each branch of the
female plant bearing a spore-case. Male plants continue to grow
from the centre of the terminal rosette.

Leaves. — Pale-green or brown, lance-shaped, erect when
dry, spreading when wet; apex acute; base short, clasping; vein
extending slightly beyond the apex of the leaf as an awn; lamel-
lae numerous, 40 to 50; 6 cells high, the terminal oval, with tiny
projections (papillose}, lower leaves scale-like.

Habit of flowering. — Male and female flowers on the summits
of separate plants (dioicous).

246

Hair-cap Mosse

Veil (calyptrd). — Yellow-brown, covering the spore-case.

Spore-case. — Erect, red-brown,
cylindrical or egg-shaped, con-
tracted below the mouth when
dry, the surface rough with tiny
projections (papillose), the neck

nearly SmOOth. r^'w^of^ameUas

Pedicel. — Red-yellow, slender, ceils, the terminal
i to i£ inches long.

Lid (operculwri) . — Broad, coni-
cal, beak short and straight, sur-
face rough with tiny projections.

Teeth (peristome). — Thirty-two,
symmetrical, short and broad.

cell papillose.

Spores. — Mature
and winter.

in autumn

. Leaf.

p- w*iger™:.,

The Alpine Hair-cap Moss, Pogonatum Alpinum, (L.)
Roehl.

Habit and habitat. — Growing in wide mats on rough stony
and grassy places on all mountains. This is a
pretty moss, larger than most Hair-cap mosses
and may be readily distinguished from the others
by its smooth spore-case, narrower at the mouth
than below, obliquely inclined to the red pedi-
cel, and by its veil which does not reach to the
base of the spore-case.

Name. — The name refers to its habit of grow-
^ ing in mountain regions.

Plant (gametopbyte). — Erect, 2$
to 7 inches high, the branches at-
taining an equal height, and densely
leafy; stems naked and subterra-
nean at the base. Male plants i to 2^
inches high.

Leaves. — Erect, or recurved,
narrowiy lance-shaped ; apex awl-

tical row of cells J

from lamellae, shaped, spiny on the back; base
white' sheathing, margins incurved,
red, serrate; lamellae numerous p-Al&»«m- Leaf.

247

Mosses and Lichens

20 to 30, covering most of the upper half of the blade, 6 to 7
cells deep, the terminal cell oval in section with tiny projection
(•papillose).

Leaves at the base of the -pedicel (pericbcetial leaves). — Sheath-
ing, longer, without lamellae.

Habit of flowering. — Male and female flowers on the summits
of separate plants, (dioicous).

Veil (calyptra). — Hairy, not covering the spore-case.

Spore-case. — Nearly cylindrical to egg-shaped, smooth, light-
green, inclined or horizontal, somewhat curved.

Pedicel (seta). — Flexuose, i to 2 inches long.

Lid (operculum). — Small with a slender beak.

Teeth (peristome). — Thirty-two in number, blunt.

Spores. — Mature in late summer.

Distribution. — In mountainous regions.

nea

HAIRY-CAP MOSSES
Genus POLYTRICHUM, Linn.

sJioot Found in extensive patches by

roadsides and in °Pen woods-

Brown and unattractive when dry,

fresh and luxuriantly green when

moist, owing

to the habit of

inrolling the

ale cluster thin margins

of Jt-rst year, of the leaves

and folding
them against the stem
in dry air and of un-
rolling and turning
them at right angles to
the stem in damp air.
The Genus Poly-
trichum contains
plants which were
the first to be recog-

P. j-uniperinum. . . .

Male plant. niSCd 3S plants With-

P. juniperinum. Leaves with
inrolled margins.

248

Hairy-cap Mosses

out flowers." Pliny called them "golden maiden-hair." They
were dedicated to Venus and afterward to the Virgin Mary.
Because of this fancied resemblance of the veils to a maiden's
tresses, they were used to make a wash which was supposed to
strengthen the hair.

Polytrichum commune. Crc ss-
section of stem.

With lid. Without lid. With veil

P. commune. Spore-cases.

The plants are very tall, i to 18 inches high, and live on year
after year, growing perpendicularly from the centre of the male
(aniberidial) flower-heads or from horizontal underground stems,
or from the side of main stems. The stems (see
page 45) are stout, with almost woody fibres run-
ning up through them.

The leaves are long and slender, with a lance-
shaped, awned apex and a membranous sheathing
base; the vein is broad and covered by numerous
thin green blades (lamella, see page 44), and the
margins are entire or serrate, often inrolled.

The generic name Polytrichum is composed of
two Greek words, TTO\W, many, and 0pl%, a hair,
and refers to the large mitrate, hairy veil which
may partially or entirely cover the spore-case.

The spore-cases are erect or horizontal with 4 to
6 angles, a distinct basal portion (apophysis, see
page 57), and lids conical or flattened-convex with
a point at the centre.

The peristome is single, of 64 short, rigid teeth
united at the base and joined above to a thin circular
disk (epiphragm) which terminates a central column.

249

M. juniperin-
um. Leaf with
unrolled mar-
gins.

Mosses and Lichens

The spores small and smooth.

There are ninety-nine species in all, about fifteen of them
known in North America.

Genus POLYTRICHUM

KEY TO SPECIES

I. — Leaves entire, margins inflexed,
apex obtuse, P. sexangulare.

Apex rough-awned.

Awn coloured brown or red,
short. Leaves spreading
when moist, somewhat re-
curved . . P. funiperinum.

Awn whitish, transparent,

long P. piliferum.

II. — Leaves serrate.

Marginal cells of lamellae not
enlarged in section, higher
than broad.

Spore-case egg-shaped, ob-
scurely angled.

Lid beaked P. gracile.

Spore-case oblong, 4- to 6-
angled.

Lid acutely conic, P. formosum.

Marginal cells of lamellae en-
larged, broader than high,
2 to i P. Ohiense.

Marginal cells of lamellae semi-
lunar, with two prominent
horns at corners, P. commune.

P. in nipsrinum.
Leaf.

P. piliferum.
Leaf.

P. Ohiense.

Vertical rows of cells from lamella.
(a) Terminal cell broader than
high; (6) terminal cell semilunar.

250

P. gracile.
Spore-case.

Hairy-cap Mosses

Slender Hairy-cap, Polytrichum gracile, Dicks.

Habit and habitat. — The slender Polytrichum is not common.
It may be found densely tufted — on the ground in woods, or on
rocks.

Name. — The specific name gracile is from the Latin gracilis,
slender.

Plant (gametopbyte).— Light green, erect, I to 4 inches high,
simple above, divided at the base and covered with soft matted hairs.

Leaves. — Spreading or erect when
dry, broadly lance-shaped ; apex sharply
taper- pointed ; base sheathing ; vein
broad ; margins serrate ; lamellae 50 to 40,
not covering all of the leaf blade, 4 to 6
cells deep, the terminal cell elliptic in
section.

Leaves at the base of the pedicel (peri"
cbcetial leaves}. — Sheathing, £ an inch long.

Habit of flowering. — Male and female
flowers on separate plants, (dioicous).

Veil (calyptra). — Orange, not quite
covering the spore-case.

Spore-case. — Erect or horizontal,
broadly egg-shaped; indistinctly six-
angled, mouth small ; apophysis obscure.

Pedicel (seta). — Slender, orange,
2 inches long.

Lid(operculum). — Conic, beaked.

Teeth (peristome). — With 64 teeth often confluent and unequal.

Spores. — Mature in summer.

Leaf.

P. gracile.

Portion of peristome.

Spore-case with lid.

P. gracile.

Distribution. — From the mountains of Virginia to .Newfound-
land and west to the Rocky Mountains. Also in Europe, Asia
and the Pacific Isles.

251

Mosses and Lichens

Ohio Hairy-cap, Polytrichum Ohiense, Ren. and Card.

Habit and habitat. — Found on the ground growing loosely in
patches. Distinguished from P. formosum* by the form of the
spore-case, which is more or less narrowed toward the base and
has an indistinct apophysis, but chiefly distinguished by the form
of the marginal cells of the lamellae, a character which separates
it from all our other species of Polytrichum.

Name. — The specific name Ohiense refers to the fact that the
type specimen came from Ohio.

Plant (gametophyte). — Erect, simple or divided, i£ to 3 inches
high, woolly below.

Spore-case.

Vertical sections of lamellae to show terminal cells.
P. Ohiense.

Leaves. — Spreading when moist, erect and slightly twisted
when dry; apex narrowly taper-pointed, the awn spiny; base
white, sheathing; margin serrate; lamella 30 to 40; cells 5 to 7
deep, the marginal cell much larger, broader than high, stirrup-
shaped in section.

Leaves at the base of the pedicel (perichatial leaves). — Resembling
the stem-leaves, longer and with a longer transparent base.

Habit of flowering. — Male and female flowers on separate
plants (dioicous).

Veil (calyptra). — Pale, small, ragged, not concealing the
spore-case.

Spore-case. — Erect, finally horizontal, with 4 to 6 acute angles,
the base tapering into an indistinct apophysis.

Pedicel (seta). — Red below, paler above, 2 to 4 inches long.

Lid (operculum). — Conic and taper-pointed, bordered with
orange.

Teeth (peristome) . — Si xty-four.

* NOTE. — Polytrichum formosum seems to be rare in America, having
been reported only from Miquelon Island, near Newfoundland.

252

Hairy-cap Mosses

Spores. — Rust colour, ripe in summer.
Distribution. — North Carolina to Prince
Edward's Island, and west to Minnesota and
British Columbia. Also in Norway and Sweden.
The Awned Hairy-cap, Polytricbum pili-
ferum, Schreb.

Habit and babitat. — Found in sandy fields, on
rocks or on old roofs, conspicuous on account of the white

hair-like tips and the bluish-
white bloom of the leaves;
the plants in clusters but not
matted together. The male
flower-clusters surrounded with
red bracts. The specific name
piliferum is compounded of two
Greek words, mXc?, hair, and
<£e/3&), to bear, referring to the
numerous white hairs of the
leaves.

Plants (gametopbyte) . — Short,
I to i finches high, simple from
subterranean creeping shoots,
wiry and naked below, densely
leafy above.

Leaves. — The upper long
lance-shaped, the lower oval,
appressed to the stem when dry,
spreading when moist ; apex
smooth on the back, prolonged
iectylifr into a rough, hair-like awn;
margin entire, inflexed upon the
upper surface of the leaf-blade;
vein red, becoming suddenly

I YoUnj Shoot' transparent at the apex; lamella

about 30, 4 to 7 cells deep, the
upper cell pointed in section.

Leaves at the base of the seta
(pericbcetial leaves). — Narrowly
tongue-shaped, erect, concave,

253

P. piltferum. Plant with sporophyte and
with creeping shoots at the base.

Mosses and Lichens

without lamellae; base sheathing, transparent, shorter than the
awn.

Habit of flowering. — Male and female flowers on separate
plants (dioicous).

Veil (calyptra). — Mitrate, covering the spore-case.

Spore-case. — Erect, finally
horizontal, egg-shaped,
4-angled. Apophysis distinct,
constricted above where it
passes into the spore-case.
\ /N Pedicel (seta). — Erect, I to

\ \ii l^ mcnes l°ng-

Lid (operculum). — With a

short stout beak, red or orange.

Teeth (peristome). — Sym-
metrical, sixty-four in number.

Spores. — Smooth, ripe in
summer.

Distribution. — America,
Europe and Asia.

P. filiferum.
Perichaetial leaves.

P. piliierum.
Leaves.

Spore-case.

Perigonial leaves.
P. piliferum.

Vertical section
of lamellate show
pointed terminal
celL

Juniper Hairy-cap, Polytrichum juniperinum, Willd. — See
Plate XXI.

Habit and habitat. — Common by damp sandy roadsides, or in
peat-bogs. This is one of the Hairy-caps which in dry air turns
its leaves up against the sun in order to protect the delicate
lamellae from his rays. It as well as P. piliferum, is conspicuous
for its bluish-white bloom, but differs from P. piliferum in that
the leaves are tipped with a short red awn instead of with one
long, white, and hair-like.

Name. — Carl Ludwig Willdenow named this pretty moss
juniperinum from its resemblance to tiny Juniper trees.

254

Hairy-cap Mosses

Plant (gametophyte). — Simple or forked, erect, i to 4 inches
high from subterranean shoots.

Leaves. — Erect, when dry, spreading when
moist, lance-like ; apex a rough red awn ; base
enlarged and sheathing; vein rough; margins
entire, indexed lamella 40 to 50, 5 to 6 cells deep ;
cells square in section, the terminal ^-toothed.
Bracts of male flower-cluster short and abruptly
awned.

P. p&ifentm.
Subterranean shoot.

P. juniperinutn. Vertical
sections of lamellae to show
papillose terminal cell.

Spore-case Spore-case
with veil. with lid,
Cluster- P. juniperinum.

P. juniperinum.
Leaves.

JITS* ije,an

two years growth marked by the
bracts of a terminal rosette.

Leaves at He base of the pedicel
(perichatial leaves). — Sheathing, with-
out lamellae.

Habit of flowering. — Male and
female flowers on separate plants
(dioicious).

Veil (calyptra). — Large, covering
the spore-case.

Spore-case. — Erect, finally hori-
Male plant with zontal, 4~angled ] apophysis small,
red, shield-like.

255

Mosses and Lichens

Pedicel (seta). — Red-orange, becoming brown, stout, glossy,
to 2\ inches high.

Lid (operculum). — Red, flattened-convex with a short beak.
Teeth (peristome). — Pale, symmetrical,
rather short, sixty-four in number.
Spores. — Ripe in summer.
Distribution. — From Florida to Alaska,
also in Europe.

The Common Hairy-cap, Poly-
tricbum commune, L. — See Colour Plate X.
Habit and habitat. — This moss is
widely distributed and attains its largest
size in peat-bogs where it may usually
be recognised by the long stems covered
below by the silvery bases of the leaves
and by the angular
spore -case which
bears a flat disk at the
base. It has the dis-
tinction of being one
of a few mosses
which have served in
the economy of the
household. In the

P. juniperinum. Spore-cases.

north of England the plants are made into small dust-
ing brooms and mats. Withering states that the
plants are used for bedding by bears, and Carolus
Linnaeus, the renowned Swedish botanist, is said,

f . conttnttnt,

Spore-case.

P. juttiperinum. Cross section of leaf to show (a) lamellae growing from the inner
surface of the vein, (s) The vein. On the left, the blade is shown one cell thiok
and seven cells wide.

Hairy-cap Mosses

while on a trip in the North, to have used the dry
plants as stuffing for his pillow and mattress and to
have recommended it as not harbouring fleas and
infectious diseases.

Name. — The specific name commune, common,
describes the general distribution of this moss.

Plant (gametopbyte} . — Tall, 6 to 18 inches high;
dark-green or red-brown. The male plants often with
the flower-heads in an ascending series of five to six,
marking the age of the plant; stems simple,
rarely forking; below, leafless, with the
basal portions of old leaves adhering;
growth erect from the centre of the male
heads or directly from the ground.

Leaves. — Crowded above, about ^ of
an inch long; apex spreading and recurved,
lance-shaped and pointed, base enlarged,
white, glossy, sheathing; vein rough on the
back 2nd bearing from 50-60 lamellae on the
upper surface; margin inrolled when dry,
serrate ; lamella 5 to 6 cells deep, the ter-
minal the largest, semilunar or concave in
section.

Leaves at tbe base of the pedicel (pericbcetial leaves). — White, "$.
of an inch long, without lamellae; awn long and horny.

Habit of flowering. — Male and female flowers on separate
plants, (dioicous).

Veil (calyptra). — Covered with long silky hairs,
concealing the spore-case.

Spore-case. — Erect, finally horizontal,
4-angled; apophysis distinct, disk-like.

Pedicel (seta). — Stout,
2\ to 4 inches long.

Apex of leaf. Leaf.

P. commune.

Polytrichum lamella seen
from the side.

Spore-case.
P. commune.

Veil.

Veil on spc re-
case.

Mosses and Lichens

Lid (operculum). — Flattened with an acute point at the centre.
Teeth (peristome). — Sixty-four, blunt at the apex, continuous
at the base. United at the tips with a thin disk (epiphragm).
Spores. — Red-brown, ripe in summer.
Distribution. — Universal.

Too*

Lid.

Portion of peristome.

P. commune.

Summit of spore-case with 64
teeth around the thin disk.

Genus DIPHYSCIUM, Mohr

The species of the Genus Diphyscium are minute stemless
plants growing scattered on the ground and on rocks. The leaves
are strap-shaped or lance-
shaped with a vein. The
cells are a to 3 layers
deep. The leaves at the
base of the spore-cases
are large, saw-toothed
or cut into a ragged

fri n ere ®' i°l*°SMm- Growing on the ground.

The spore-cases are immersed or exserted on an
inconspicuous pedicel, they are oval and taper-pointed,
oblique and swollen on one side, with a conical lid.
The outer teeth are none, or rudimentary and the
inner membrane forms a pale blunt cone of 16
twisted folds.

The name, from Sk, twice, and <f>vatctov, a vesicle,
refers to the double wall of the spore case, which is
due to the spore-sac being widely separated from the outer wall.
There are eleven species known in all, one of them being
found in North America.

258

D. folum,

The Genus Diphyscium

The Leafy Diphyscium, Diphyscium foliosum, Mohr.

Habit and habitat. — Dark-green, widely tufted; growing on
clay soil and shady banks along roads, also on rocks.

Name. — From the Latin foliosus, leafy.

Plant ( gametophyte} . — Simple with short stems.

Leaves. — Strap-shaped, thick, or curled in various directions
when dry, vein (costa) present ; margin roughened with minute
projections above and sometimes with a few distinct teeth, cells
small and containing leaf-green.

Top of spore-case
with inner teeth.

D. foliosum.

Top of spore
case with outer
teeth.

Single
plant.

Perigonial
leaf.

Leaves at the "base of ike spore-case. — Ovate lance-shaped, mem-
branous, and without leaf-green; vein excurrent, forming a
bristle point almost as long as the blade of the leaf.

Habit of flowering. — Male and female flowers on separate
plants, (dioicous).

Veil. — Acute, conical, covering the lid.

Spore-case. — Immersed in colourless
leaves; swollen on oneside, ovate, lance-
shaped, yellowish-green.

Pedicel (seta). — Very short.

Lid (operculum). — Conical, acute.

Teeth (peristome). — Double, the outer short, triangular, grainy,
and with transverse bars, often perforated in the middle, pale-
yellow, purple at the apex; the inner membranaceous, and form-
ing a blunt cone of twisted folds.

Spores. — Small, mature in summer.

Distribution. — Europe, Asia and North America.

259

Male plant. Veil.

D. foliosum.

Mosses and Lichens

Genus BUXBAUMIA, Hall.

The species of the Genus Buxbaumia are tiny stemless
plants growing scattered over decayed wood or on the ground.
The leaves are extremely minute, some broadly
oval or oblong terminating in broad, spread-
ing cilia.

The spore-cases are the conspicuous part
of the plant, they are egg-shaped with a con-
ical cap, depressed above, swollen on the
lower side, and are borne obliquely on a thick
pedicel covered with wart-like protuberances.
The outer skin at the margin of the mouth is
split into irregular fragments which roll back
from the thickened rim which is formed of
several layers of cells (the pseudo-annulus). The teeth are in
several rows, the outer short and rudimentary; the inner mem-
brane (endostome) is conical tubular, of 32 fan-like plaits, slight-
ly twisted to the right.

There are five species known at present, three of them in
North America.

Albrecht von Haller, the founder of the genus, named it
Buxbaumia in honour of its discoverer, J. C. Buxbaum.

B. aphylla. Young
plant with spore-case
with a veil and sur-
rounded by leaves.

B. aphylla. Sporophyte
with depressed spore-case ; and
hairy vaginule at the base of a
rough pedicel.

B. aphylla. Inner membrane.

The Genus Buxbaumia

Buxbaumia aphylla, L. — See Plate XX.

Habit and habitat. — Small stemless plants growing on earth
and decayed wood. Coloured patches of a peculiar green-black
felt appear at first, and on this felt, which under the microscope
is shown to be a web of minute-branched threads (protonema),
young plants, minute and spherical, appear. The moss has an
annoying habit of disappearing from a station so that one can-
not rely upon finding it the second time in the same locality.
This sporadic habit and the scanty numbers of this moss invest
its discovery with a charm known only to
one who has collected it. The young spore-
cases appear early in September. During
the winter they remain green and with the
warm days of early spring begin growth
again and the colour changes from green to
brown. By the middle of March the plants
are ready to disperse their spores.

Name.— The specific name aphylla is a B.aphyOa. Leaf,
compound of a, privative, without, and <f>v\\ov, a leaf.

History. — In 1712, J. C. Buxbaum, a German botanist, dis-
covered the curious plant on which the genus was founded. He
collected it near Astrakhan, on the banks of the Volga, and says,
"I wished to make it into a new genus and name it after my
father, but called to mind the fox, who was derided by the others,
because he begged the grapes, not for himself, but for his sick
mother." It was for a time regarded as a fungus; but in 1741
Johann Dillenius correctly referred it to the mosses. Schimdel
made a careful study of it in 1758, and Linnaeus also wrote of it.

Plant (gametophyte) . — Stemless, the male plants solitary in
red-brown felt at the base of the female plant.

Leaves. — Extremely minute, oval or palm-shaped, soon disap-
pearing; margin in shreds, or coarsely saw-toothed; cells, loose,
colourless, long six-sided; leaves of the plant only two and with-
out a shredded margin.

Habit of flowering. — Male and female flowers on
separate plants (dioicous).
Veil (calyptra). — Conical.

Spore -case. — Inclined, boat-shaped, and
depressed above, swollen below, smooth, greenish-

B. aphylla. , _ , , ... , ,

Veil. brown; coat, firm, glossy, and thickened on the

261

Mosses and Lichens

margin, rolling back at the mouth irregularly to form a crown-like
border.

Pedicel (seta). — Rigid, erect,
straight, i inch high, deep pur-
ple, rough; the base (vaginule)
thick, covered with rusty hairs.

Lid (operculum) . — Short,
conic, obtuse, remaining for
a time attached to the columella
after separating at its margin.

Teeth (peristome). — The outer
of short irregular teeth; the inner,
a deeply plicate, funnel-shaped
membrane.

Spores. — Very small, mature
from April to September. *. <*Wfa.

_ . \ ., , . r . . A, . . phyte with de-

DlStnbUtlOn— North Amen- pressed spore-case

ica, Europe and Asia. and hairy vaginule

at the base of rough
pedicel.

B. aphylla. Top
of spore-case show-
ing the peristome
with cone of inner
membrane rising
from a cone of
outer teeth.

THE FOUNTAIN MOSSES
Genus FONTINALIS, L.

The species as the name suggests grow either submerged or
floating in streams and ponds.

Peristome with latticed cone
protruding from outer teeth.

Stem.

F. antipyretica.

Female branch with
immersed spore-case
at the summit.

The plants are branched, often naked at the base. Every
third leaf is directly over the first one counted ; usually concave
or keeled, with a base often auricled and growing slightly down

262

The Fountain Mosses

the stem. They have no vein. The cells are linear, those of the
basal angles more or less enlarged.

The spore-cases are oval or cylindrical with conical lids and
are immersed in the leaves at the base.

The peristome is double, the
outer of sixteen lance-shaped
teeth, the inner of sixteen slender
cilia united into a latticed cone.

There are about forty species
in all, over twenty-five being
known in the United States.

Fontinalis antipyretica,
var. gigantea, Sulliv.

Habit and habitat. — Glossy,
yellow-green or bronzed plants
growing in fresh water.

Name. — The specific name
antipyretica is a compound of
the Greek avrl, against, and
irvpeicTuccK, fever, given because
of a belief in its efficacy in fevers.
The varietal name gigantea re-
fers to its size.

Fontinalis antipyretica with tiny female
branches.

Plants. — One to two feet
long, rooting only at the base
and growing attached to stones,
and roots of trees in streams.

Leaves. — Keeled and overlap-
ping; vein none; apex finely
toothed; cells of the basal angles
enlarged.

263

F. antipyretica. Leaves.

Mosses and Lichens

Leaves at the base of ibe pedicel (pericbcetial leaves). — Over-
lapping, broad and blunt.

Perichaetial leaves.

Veil.
F. antipyretica.

Spore-case with lid.

Habit of flowering. — Fruiting branch £ an inch long, male and
female flowers on separate plants.
Veil (calyptra). — Beaked.
Spore-case. — Cylindrical.

Top of spore -case with
the inner teeth forming a
latticed cone in the centre
of the outer teeth.

Cone

Portion of peristome show-
ing one outer tooth on the
left and a portion of the inner
membrane on the right.

F. antipyretica.

Lid (operculum). — Conical.
Teeth (peristome}. — As in the genus.
Spores. — Mature in summer.

Distribution. — In temperate regions of both continents.

264

The Genus Neckera

Genus NECKERA, Hedw.

The species of the Genus Neckera grow in extensive mats
on tree-trunks or rocks. The primary stems are creeping, and
the secondary are once or twice feather-branched, erect or pen-
.LU. dent, often whip-like, and covered at the
base with red-brown filaments.

The leaves are glossy, translucent, often
flat and generally wavy. The cells are
minute rhomboidal, oblong in the upper
part, linear in the middle and quadrate
on the borders.

N. pennata. Sporophyte The spore-cases are immersed or ex-
with paraphyses at the serted, with a short or somewhat elongated
pedicel. They are erect and symmetrical
with conical beaked lids.

The peristome is double, without an annulus, the outer
teeth being long, linear, lance-shaped, and closely cross-barred.
The inner membrane consisting of a basal por-
tion with 1 6, often short, processes without
intermediate cilia.

The genus was named by J. G. Hedwig in
honour of J. N. Necker, a distinguished botanist.
158 species are known at present, 8 being found
in North America.

The Feathered Neckera, Neckera pennata,

Hedw. See Colour Plate III. N. pennata. Por-

u 7 ., 777 M j r- • • • j t tion of peristome

Habit and habitat. — Growing in widely -withf our long outer
spreading pale-green matted tufts (cespitose) on teeth and three

. short inner.

tree trunks. It is a conspicuous moss on trees
of the Adirondack woods. The older parts of the plants are
shabby, while the newer parts are pale yellow-green and grow
horizontally around the tree.

Name. — The specific name pennata, from the Latin penna, a
feather, was suggested by the arrangement of the branches.

Plant, (gametophyte). — The primary stems are long, the
secondary 2 to 4 inches long in opposite rows (distichous), close
or distant, erect.

Leaves. — In the same plane with the branches, spreading,
glossy, broadly lance-shaped, transversely wrinkled ; apex
acute ; margin entire or slightly saw-toothed from the middle

265

Mosses and Lichens

upward ; vein faint and short, single, or two-forked, or want-
ing ; base slightly unequal ; cells very small, rhomboidal-oblong,
4-sided at the basal angles.

Leaves at tie base of the
•pedicel (perichcetial leaves). —
Long and sheathing, taper-
pointed, surpassing the spore-
case.

Habit of flowering. — Male
and female flowers on the
plant (monoicous).

Veil (calyptra). — Small,
white, covering the lid only,
oval-oblong, dirty-yellow, brown

N. pennata. Leaves.

Spore-case. — Immersed,
when old, thin-walled.

Pedicel. — None, the
cellular sheath at the base
of the spore-case hairy.

Lid (operculum.) —
Conical, beaked.

Teeth (peristome). —
Pale-yellow, the outer of
linear awl-shaped teeth
from a narrowly lance-
shaped base, cohering at
the apex, densely cross-
barred, irregularly
divided, the inner segments rudimentary.

Spores. — Mature in spring.

Distribution. — Common in North America

Perichaetial leaves.

N. pennata.

Old spore- ( 9 ) Female
case with- branch. ( 4 )
out lid. Male branch.

universal.

Genus ANOMODON, Hook & Tayl.

The species of the Genus Anomodon are found on the roots
of trees in woods, on rocks and on decayed logs.

The primary stems are prostrate, with horizontal shoots from
the base and erect secondary stems irregularly branched. The
stem-leaves are distant and minute, while the leaves of the branch-
lets are crowded, spreading, or turned to one side, and have
minute cells, usually with tiny protuberances on both faces.

266

The Genus Anomodon

The spore-cases are erect, cylindrical, regular, chestnut-
coloured with conical beaked lids, and are borne on more or
less elongated pedicels. Annulus narrow or wanting.

The peristome is pale, with narrowly lance-shaped
teeth, and the segments of the inner membrane short,
narrow and more or less irregular from a narrow base.
The character of the teeth was not very well understood
at first and so the genus was named Anomodon, from
ai>o/zo9, irregular, and 6Swv, tooth, from the supposed
unusual construction.

There are forty-nine species known in all, eleven
being found in North America.

Branch.
Anomodon apiculat«s.

Plant.

Anomodon rostratus, Schimp.

Habit and habitat. — Densely tufted, bright green at the sur-
face, yellow-brown within. Growing on trees, roots, and
limestone rocks. v

Perichaetial leaves.

Leaves.

A. rostratus.

267

Mosses and Lichens

Spore -case.
A. rostratus.

Veil.

Name. — The specific name rostratus, beaked, refers to the lid.
Plant (gametopbyte) . — Primary stems brittle and bearing
numerous thread-like branches, forming dense tufts.

Leaves. — Dense, overlapping as shingles, lance-
shaped ; apex long-pointed ; vein solid, vanishing
below the apex ; base oval.

Leaves at tie base of the pedicel (peri-
cbcetial leaves). — Long, white and thin;
apex of the inner leaves narrowed into a
thread-like, reflexed point as
long as the leaf-blade.

Habit of flowering. — Male ;tnd
female flowers on separate plants
(dioicous).

Veil (calyptrd). — Split up one
side.

Spore-case. — Red-brown,
oval-oblong.

Pedicel (seta). — Short.
Lid (operculum). — Long-beaked.

Teeth (peristome). — The segments of the inner membrane
about as long as the teeth, keeled, dirty-yellow, with cilia
between, solitary, rudimentary or none.
Spores. — Mature in Fall.

Distribution. — North America, Europe and Asia.
Anomodon attenuatus, Hueben.

Habit and babitat. — In loose wide tufts on roots of trees and
on rocks along streams ; common.

Name. — The specific name
attenuatus, slender, refers to
the branches.

Plants (gametopbyte). —
Irregularly branched and intri-
cate, the branches short and
rather obtuse; i to 2 inches
high, or elongated and whip-
like with minute leaves.

Leaves. — Spreading or
turned to one side ; oblong lance-shaped from a widely oval
base ; apex acute with a tiny sharp point ; base narrow at the

268

A. attenuatus. Perichastial leaves.

The Genus Anomodon

point of attachment and growing slightly down the stem;
margin plane, minutely wavy, with papillae ; vein translucent,
vanishing below the apex ; surfaces densely covered with tiny
protuberances.

Habit of flowering. — Male and female flowers on
separate plants (dioicous).

Veil (calyptra). — Split up one side.

Pedicel (seta}. — Twisted, f of an inch long.

Spore-case. — Red-brown, shining, cylindrical, straight
or slightly curved.

Lid (operculuni). — Conic and beaked.

Teeth (perislome}. — Narrowly lance-shaped ; segments
of the inner membrane, thread-like, fragile and irregular.

Annulus. — Narrow.

Spores. — Mature in autumn, not found in Britain.

Distribution, — North America, Europe and Asia.

Lid.

Spore -case.

Male
plant

Leaves.

A. attenuates.

Plant.

Anomodon apiculatus, Bruch & Schimp. — See Plate XXII.

Habit and Habitat. — Loosely and widely tufted on trees and
rocks in mountains.

Name. — The specific name apiculatus from the Latin apex,
apicis, refers to the short-pointed leaves.

Plants (gametophyte). — Green, with a bloom, dirty-red when
old. Primary stems prostrate and whip-like ; secondary stems
straight, simple or divided at the base.

Leaves. — Two-ranked, tongue-shaped, thick, opaque ; apex
pointed; margin wavy; vein transparent, vanishing below the

269

Mosses and Lichens

apex ; surface covered with tiny protuberances ; base oblong-oval

with ear-like and fringed appendages; cells dense, minute, round.

Leaves at the base of the pedicel (perichcetial leaves}. —

Long and sheathing, tongue-
shaped toward the apex.

Stem.

A. apiculatus.

Leaf.

A. apiculatus.
Male flower-cluster.

Habit of flowering. — Male
and female flowers on separate
plants, (dioicous}.
Veil (calypira). — Split up one side.
Spore-case. — Egg-shaped or elliptical.
Pedicel (seta}. — Short.
Lid (operculum). — Conic, beaked.

Teeth (peristome).— Narrowly lance-shaped and awl-shaped,
cross-barred and knotty. Segments of the inner membrane very
short from a very narrow base, sometimes wanting.

Female branch.

. Lid.
Perichsetial

leaf. Spore-case.

A, apiculatus.

Veil.

Annulus. — None.
Spores. — Mature in autumn.
Distribution. — North America, Europe, Asia.

270

Tree Mosses

TREE MOSSES
Genus CLIMACIUM, Web. & Mohr

The species of the Genus Climacium are large, resembling
miniature evergreen trees. They are common in shady woods,
in damp places on decayed logs, on roots of trees and on
hummocks in swamps, and will be easily recognised from the
photograph.

The primary stem is creeping, and the secondary
erect and robust, with stout branches. The stem-
leaves are scale-like ; the branch-leaves oblong lance-
shaped with a thin vein, and
the leaves at the base of the
pedicel are long and sheath-
ing.

The spore-cases are clus-
tered on long, erect
pedicels ; they are
cylindrical with a
beaked lid and a long
calyptra split up one
side and embracing the base.

The peristome is double, the outer teeth large
and united at the base ; the inner keeled and
perforated.

Stem
leaf.

Branch leaves
c.

Perichaetial
leaf (base of
pedicel) .

Spore-case with
veil.

Top of spore-case
with columella ex-
tending above the
inner teeth.

C. dendroides.

271

Portion of peristome.

Mosses and Lichens

The generic name Climacium is derived from the Greek
K\ifjidKiov, a little ladder, referring to the appearance of the
inner teeth.

Six species are known at present, two in North America.
Climacium dendroides, Web. & Mohr. — See Colour Plate
IV ; also Colour Plate XV.

Habit and habitat. — Bright green, tree-like,found in wet places.

Name. — The specific name
is from the Greek SevSpov, a
tree, and eiSo?, like.

Plant (gametophyte}. —
Primary stem creep-
ing, secondarysimple,
erect, often sharp-
pointed at the apex,
2 to 4 inches high;
branches clustered at
the summit.

Leaves. — Stem-
leaves broad, clasp-
ing ; branch leaves nar-
rower, oblong, folded
lengthwise; base only

a c d e

(a) Spore-case with lid ; (J>) lid with columella ;

Cross-section of stem to
show central strand.

Top of spore-case

with columella ex- Portion of peristome with five outef
tending above the and five inner teeth-

inner teeth.

C. dendroides.
2J2

Tree Mosses

slightly growing down on the stem at the hollow basal angles;
apex sharply serrate; vein vanishing below the apex.

Habit of flowering. — Male and female flowers on separate
plants (dioicous).

yeil (catyptrd). — Thin, smooth, extending below the spore-
case.

Spore-case. — Erect, cylindrical, red-brown.

Pedicel (seta). — An inch long or more,
deep-red.

Lid (operculum). — Straight, acutely
beaked, remaining for some time attached
to the central column of the spore-case.

Teeth (peristome). — As in the genus.

Annulus. — None.

Spores. — Olive-green, small, mature in
the autumn and winter.

Distribution. — Common in North Amer-
ica, Europe, Asia and Africa.

Climacium Americanum, Brid. — See
Colour Plate XV.

This species closely resembles the last,
but may be distinguishedby the long de-
current stem-leaves broadly eared at the
base and coarsely serrate at the apex, as well
as by the longer and more narrowly cylindrical spore-cases with
more abruptly, longer beaked lids.

Spore-case
with lid.

Stem
leaf.

C. Americanum.

HYPNUM RUSCIFOLIUM, Neck.

" Where, through some meadows, soft and green,
Gemm'd with the daisy's silver bloom,
A gentle stream is wandering seen,
'Mid flowering banks of rare perfume ;
There you may look beneath the waters
Sweetly gliding on serene,
For one of Beauty's lovely daughters —
Lovely though of humble mien ;
And where the stream, in childish glee,
Leaps o'er the rocks with infant pride,
This little moss, in eddying swirl
Of foaming waves, its head doth hide."

273

Mosses and Lichens

Genus HYPNUM, Dill.

The species of the Genus Hypnum in its wider sense all
agree in having the peristome double and perfect, the outer of
sixteen, strong, lance-shaped, taper-pointed and densely cross-
barred teeth; the inner a broad membrane
divided to the middle, or about, into
sixteen, keeled, yellow segments, dis-
tantly cross-barred, entire, or cleft more
or less along the keel, the segments
generally separated by i to 3 filiform
divisions (cilia) cross-barred and often
bearing tiny spurs on the margin.

The difference in the species will
perhaps better be understood by refer-
ence to the following synopsis of the
sub-genera represented by the species
which follow.

Dr. Johnston in speaking of the
genus Hypnum said that perhaps it
formed one-fourth of the vegetable cloth-
ing of Great Britain.

The word bypnum is the Greek
VTTVOV, an ancient name for some sort of
moss supposed to promote sleep.

Hyfmum triquetrunt. Por-
tion of peristome showing one
outer tooth on the left with
annulus cells at its base, two
keeled inner teeth on the
right with three spurred cilia
between.

SYNOPSIS OF SUB-GENERA

Thuidtum. — Primary stems prostrate
and irregularly divided; leaves with tiny
protuberances (papillose} ; paraphyllia
more or less numerous.

Stem-leaf.

Branch.

Thuidium delicatuhim.

274

Cross-section
of leaf to show

papillae.

Spore -case
with lid.

i The Genus Hypnum

Secondary stems regularly feather-branched ; stem-leaves
differing decidedly from the branch-leaves ; vein translucent;
spore-case curved ; lid conic, beaked.

Brachythecium. — Plants often large, prostrate, irregularly
divided, the branches erect; leaves usually smooth with folds

Brachythecium Starkii.
Leaf.

Brachythecium rivulare. Plant
with sporophyte.

Brachythecium Starkii. Base of
leaf to show cells enlarged at the
angles.

extending lengthwise of the leaf and veined to the middle or
above; cells loose, elongated, rhomboidal, enlarged at the base
and angles ; lid conical, obtuse, or short-pointed.

Eurhynchium. — Plants somewhat feather-branched ; leaves
heart-shaped, growing down the stem at the basal angles,

275

Mosses and Lichens

serrate ; cells narrowly rhomboidal; spore-case oval, nodding
or horizontal, inflated and with long sharp beak.

Lid. Leaf.

Eurhynchium; Hypnutn Boscii.

Plagiothecium. — Stems irregularly branching,
not pinnate ; leaves usually flattened out in
the same plane or all turned in one direction,
ovate or oblong lanceolate, often somewhat
oblique at base, two-veined or veinless. Leaf-
cells elongated hexagonal to linear; seta smooth,

spore-case oblong to cylindrical, curved. Lid from conical

to short-beaked.

Eurhynchium;
Hypnum Boscii.
Spore-case.

Spore-case.

Leaf -cells.
Plagiothecium Muellerianum.

Leaves.

Amblystegium. — Plants usually small or medium size with
numerous irregular entangled branches, often forming broad
soft mats over the ground. Leaves mostly small, ovate acute,
spreading regularly around the stem, straight or sometimes

276

The Genus Hypnum

slightly curved. Leaf-cells comparatively broad, short six-sided,
usually not abruptly enlarged in the angles. Pedicel tall and
smooth. Spore-case more or less
cylindrical and curved, with conical
lid obtuse or acute.

Base.

Apex.
Leaf -cells.

Leaves.

Amblystegittm varium.

Harpidium. — Stems usually tall, more or less feather-
branched ; leaves scythe-shaped and turned to one side, very
acutely pointed ; win simple, often reaching the apex ; cells

Portion of leaf to show
Leaf. enlarged alar cells.

Harpidium -uncinatum.

narrow, linear, the alar much inflated. Plants often growing
in water.

Ctenium. — Plants in compact tufts of a pale yellow-green,
the branches and branchlets regularly and closely placed feather-

277

Mosses and Lichens

like, giving the plant a beautiful plume-like appearance. Leaves
hooked and turned to one side, with short double veins or

Leaves.

Spore-case without
lid.

Ctenium: Hypnum crista-castrensis.

none, somewhat serrate at apex. Spore-case large, curved
horizontal.

Euhypnum. — Plants variously divided ; branches more or
less densely feather-branched ; leaves obscurely two-veined,

Leaf-cells. Leaf. Spore-case.

Euhypnum: Hypnum curuiiolium.

Spore-case. Leaf.

Euhypnum: Hypnum imponens.

membranous, shining, usually curved ; cells compact, narrowly
linear, distinctly four-sided at the angles ; spore-case oblong
cylindrical, curved, usually somewhat inclined or horizontal.

278

The Genus Hypnum

Calliergon.— Large plants with stem erect or inclined and
with few cylindrical branches ; leaves very concave, mem-
branous, round to oblong or heart-shaped ; cells very com-
pact, narrow, alar sells inflated ; spore-case oblong, horizontally
curved.

Leaves.

Spore-cases.
Calliergon: Hypnum Schreberi.

Pkurofium. — Plants feather-like, branches twice to three
times divided ; leaves membranous, shining ; veins short, single
or double; paraphyllia numerous; cells
linear, uniform ; spore-case short, egg-
shaped ; lid beaked.

Hylocomnium. — Plants of large size with
few irregular branches, or sometimes more
or less feather-branched. Leaves widely

Paraphyllia.

Spore -case.
Pleiurosium: Hypnum splendens.

Leaf.

Mosses and Lichens

spreading or recurved ; -veins two, and short ; cells long and
narrow ; spore-case short, broadly ovate, horizontal.

Leaf.

Spore-cases.
Hylocomnium: Hypnum triquetrum.

THE CEDAR MOSSES

HYPNUM: Sub-genus THUIDIUM, Schimp.

The species of this sub-genus are fern-like and grow in
dense flat mats on decaying wood.

The generic name is derived from the Greek Ova, or 0via, an
ancient name for some resinous-bearing evergreen. The moss
was so called by Wm. Philipp Schimper, from its resemblance

to a tiny cedar tree.

The primary stems are densely
covered with rootlets, and the sec-
ondary are i to 3 times pinnately
branching. The leaves
on the stem are tri-
angular heart-shaped
with a strong vein, a
more or less long-
pointed apex, and a
base extending down-
ward on the stem ;
papillae are found on
one or both faces ;
leaf-'ike organs (para-

Vertical section
of peristome show-
ing three cells of
the annulus and an
Inner and outer Spore-case
tooth. without lid.

Spore-cases with
lids.

Thuidium delicatulum.

280

The Cedar Mosses

phyllia) on the stem between the true leaves are numerous
and of many forms. The leaves on the branches are smaller,
ovate, lance-shaped, concave
and overlapping; the cells are
small, round, six-sided, some-
times long, linear at the base
and four-sided on the borders.
The leaves at the base of the
pedicel are long, and over- stem-leaf.
lapping.

The spore-cases are nar-
rowly ovate or cylindrical and
arched, with conical or more
or less long-beaked lids and
long pedicels. The teeth are
as in the genus Hypnum.

Two hundred and forty-
four species are known at
present, fifteen of them in
North America.

Cross-section
of leaf to show
papillae.

Branch-leaves.

Leaf at base
of pedicel.

Thuidium delicatulum.

untrtootX.

Vertical section of peristome showing
three cells of the annulus on the right and
an outer and an inner tooth.

(a) and (6) Spore-cases with
lids ; (c) spore-case without lid ,
(J) spore-case with lid.

Portion of peristome showing
four outer teeth on the left with
the inner membrane on the right,
annulus at the base of the tooth
on the extreme left.
Tkuidittm minutulitm.

28l

Paraphyllia.

Mosses and Lichens

Branch-leaves.

Veil (calyptra). — Split up one side.

Spore-case. — Oblong-egg-shaped, nodding or horizontal, dark
yellow-brown when old.

Pedicel (seta). — Smooth and f to I inch long.
Lid (operculuni). — With a long awl-shaped beak.
Annulus. — Large, of three rows of cells.
Teeth (peristome). — Double, as in genus Hypnum.
Spores. — Mature in autumn.
Distribution. — North America, Europe, Africa.
The Tiny Cedar Moss, Hypnum ( Thuidimn) minutulum,
Hedw.

Habit and habitat. — Tiny fern-like mosses growing in woods
on decaying trees and stumps.

Name. — Hedwig, a great German botanist,
gave this dainty moss its specific Latin name,
minutuium, tiny, on account of its small size.
Plant (gametophyte) . — Minute, twice pin-
nate; stem irregularly divided, densely covered
with soft matted hairs ; branches pinnately
branching.

Leaves. — Stem-leaves triangular, opaque ;
apex taper-pointed or with an abrupt short
point ; margins somewhat rolled back ; vein
stout, vanishing near the apex ; branch-leaves
oval, with taper point, concave ; vein shorter;
leaves covered with tiny protuberances.

Leaves at the base of the pedicel. — Thin,
nearly smooth, the inner lance-shaped with
a taper point.

Leaf-like organs (paraphyllia). — Numer-
ous, and of various shapes covered with tiny
projections.

Habit of flowering. — Male and female
flowers on the same plant ; monoicous.
The Dainty Cedar Moss, Hypnum (Thuidium) delicatulum,
Linn.— See Plate XXIII.

Habit and "habitat. — Creeping fern-like plants on ground,
roots of trees, and rocks. Common and exceedingly beautiful.
The specimen photographed grew on a stone in a babbling
brook.

282

Leaf at base Ot

pedicel.
T. minutultttn.

The Cedar Mosses

Name. — The Dainty Cedar Moss is most attractive ; it was
well known to the great Swedish botanist, Carolus Linnaeus,
who gave it the specific name delicatulum, dainty.

Plant (gametophyte). — Three times feather-branched, the
primary stems densely rooting.

Leaves. — The stem-leaves densely crowded, enlarged at the
base ; branch-leaves broadly oval ; apex long-pointed ; base
concave ; "vein strong ; margin serrate ; cells small, the apical
truncate and crowned with 2 to 3 acute papillae ; paraphyllia of
varied forms.

Vertical section
of peristome show-
ing three cells of
the annulus on the
left and an inner
and outer tooth.

Stem -leaf with
paraphyllia.

Stem -leaf.

Spore-case
with peris-
tome. Spore-cases with lids.

Thuidium delicatulum.

Branch-leaf.

Leaves at the base of the pedicel. — Long-ciliate.
Habit of flowering.— Male and female flowers on separate
plants (dioicous).

Veil (calyptra). — Split up one side.
Spore-case. — Cylindrical, arched.
Pedicel (seta).— One to one-and-a-half inches long.
Lid (operculum). — Conical.
Annulus. — Double.

Teeth (peristome).— Double as in Hypnum.
Spores. — Mature in winter.
Distribution.— Europe, North and South America.

283

Mosses and Lichens

HYPNUM: Sub-genus BRACHYTHECIUM, Schimp.

The plants of this sub-genus are generally large, prostrate
or creeping, forming loosely matted tufts ; the stems branch
irregularly, the branchlets somewhat regularly branching again,
and covered densely with leaves.

The leaves are broadly oval and oblong-lance-shaped, usually
with folds lengthwise; the apex is acutely pointed, either broadly
or narrowly so ; the base is heart-shaped (cordate)] the vein is
single, continuous or vanishing half-way ; the cells are usually
smooth and much elongated, the alar enlarged. There are no
small leaf-like organs (paraphyllia).

Spore -cases.

Stem-leaf.

Portion of the base of leaf to show
enlarged cells at the angle .

Brachythecium Starkii.

The spore-cases are oval or oblong, short, nodding, usually
arched with a convex-conical, obtuse, or short-pointed lid ; they
are borne on smooth or rough pedicels.

The generic name Brachythecium is derived from two Greek
words, @pa%v<;, short, and #77/07, a case, relating to the short
spore-case.

The peristome is double, the outer teeth being united at the
base, slender, lance-shaped, closely and regularly cross-barred,
with a distinct median line ; the inner teeth are lance-shaped
with 2 to 3 well-developed cilia all attached to a wide basal
membrane.

There are one hundred and sixty-three species known at
present, about forty being found in North America.

284

The Sub-genus Brachythecium

Brachythecium rivulare, Bruch, Ms.— See Plate XXIV.

Habit and habitat. — Growing in dark or yellow-green mats
on rocks and stones about springs and in swamps of moun-
tainous woods.

Namt. — The specific name rivulare refers to the habit of
growing in wet places

Portion of peristome with one outer tooth
on the right with annulus cells at its base,
two keeled and perforated inner teeth are
seen on the left with cilia between.

(a) Spore-case
with lid showing
point; (6) spore-
case without lid.

Branah-leaf.

Brachythecium rivulare.

Plants (gamefophyte). — Woody, prostrate, naked, or with
rooting filaments, secondary stems ascending from old stems,
arched £ to 3 inches long, nearly free from branches below,
irregularly branching above.

Leaves. — Branch leaves erect spreading, oval to oval lance-

285

Mosses and Lichens

shape, concave or somewhat grooved ; apex acute to short taper-
pointed ; margin with small sharp-pointed teeth above ; base grow-
ing somewhat down the stem; -vein extending Z/T, of the length
of the leaf; cells, median, linear; basal, broader; alar, enlarged.
Habit of flowering. — Male and female flowers on different
plants (dioicous).

Veil (calyptra). — Split up one side.

Spore-case. — Large, oblong or egg-shaped, horizontal or
inclined.

Pedicel (seta). — Thick and rough, red-brown, I to i£ inches
long.

Lid (operculum). — Conical, with an abrupt slender point.
Teeth (per is tome} . — As in the genus.
Annulus. — Large.

Spores. — Chestnut colour, mature in
autumn.

Distribution. — Universal in mountainous
regions.

Brachythecium Starkii, (Brid.) Br.
&Sc.

Habit and habitat. — In dark-green, loose
mats on fallen logs and old tree-trunks in
moist mountain regions.

Name. — The specific name was given
in honour of Robert M. Starke.

Plant (gametophyte). — Prostrate, branch-
ing, the branches ascending, arched, % to i
inch long.

Leaves. — Branch-leaves distant, spread-
ing, oval, lance-shaped, narrowly acute or
taper-pointed; apex usually half twisted;
base somewhat decurrent; margin
serrate; vein extending beyond the
middle; cells, the middle linear, the
basal shorter and broader; the alar
starku. plant. few> rhomboidal to quadrate; stem-
leaves broadly oval and long taper-pointed, less strongly serrate,
cells looser.

Leaves at the base of the pedicel (perichatial leaves'). — Longer
and narrower.

286

The Sub-genus Brachythecium

Habit of flowering. — Male and female flowers on one plant
(monoicous).

Veil (calyptra). — Split up one side.

Spore-case. — Abruptly horizontal, short egg-shaped, dark red-
brown, black when old.

Pedicel (seta). — Rough, red-brown,
1 to iX inches high.

Pt&Oll

Portion of peristome show-
ing two outer teeth on the left
with annulus cells at the base,
two keeled and perforated cells
with cilia are seen at the right.

Spore-case Plant w ith female branch
with peri- on the left and male branch
stome. on the right.

Brachythecium Starkii.

Leaf.

Lid (operculum). — Convex, conical, tipped with a short, sharp
point.

Annulus. — Large, of about two rows of cells.
Teeth (peristome'). — As in the genus.
Spores. — Chestnut, maturing in autumn and winter.
Distribution. — In the northern United States and Canada,
across the continent, south to New Jersey; Europe.

Brachythecium Novae- Angliae, (Sull. & Lesq.) Jaeger &
Sauer.— See Plate XXV.

Habit and habitat. — On earth and
stones.

Name. — The specific name is the
Latin for "New England."

Plant (gametophyte). — Forming
loosely entangled mats; stem i£ to 2
inches long, irregular; branches cylin-
drical, with rather short, overlapping,
slightly spreading leaves.

Leaves. — Erect, spreading, some-
times very concave, not plaited,
not glossy, incurved, broadly ovate,
287

Female plant. Male plant.
B. Novce-Anglice.

Mosses and Lichens

narrowly taper-pointed; base growing down the stem; decur-
rent; vein reaching the middle: margin finely saw-toothed all

around; cells narrowly oblong-
hexagonal, shorter and broader
at the basilar angles.

Leaves at the base of the pedi-
cel.— Ovate, long, taper-pointed,
recurved from the middle; vein
not easily distinguishable.

Habit of flowering. — Male and
female flowers on separate plants.
P erichaiial leaves (dioicous).
Veil (calyptra). — Thin, split

B. Novce-Anglice. Spore-cases. uo one side

Spore-case. — Oblong, erect, slightly curved.
Pedicel (seta). —Rough, purple.
Lid (operculum). — Long, conical, taper-pointed.
Annulus. — Double, large.

Stem.

Leaves at base of pedicel.
B. Novce-Anglice.

Teetb (peristome). — Teeth denseiy articulate, segments of the
inner membrane as long as the teeth. Cilia well developed but
without transverse spurs attached at intervals to the margin.

288

MOSSES AND LICHENS

PLATE XXV

BRACHYTHECIUM NOV.E-ANGLLE, (Sull. & Lesq.) Jaeger & Sauer

BRACHYTHECIUM STARKII, (Brid.) Br. & Sc.

The Sub-genus Eurhynchium

Spores. — Mature in late fall and early spring.
Distribution. — Northeastern United States and Canada.

Leaves.

Cells.

B. Novae-Anglice.

THE LONG-BEAKED HYPNUM
HYPNUM: Sub-genus EURHYNCHIUM, Schimp.

The species of this genus are robust, glossy plants, more or
less feather-branched, prostrate or creeping.

The leaves are open, overlapping as
shingles ; they resemble the bowl of a
spoon, with the apex abruptly drawn out
into a slender point and the margin serrate
all around ; a vein extends to
the middle or beyond ; the
cells are smooth or slightly
covered in a few species with
tiny protuberances, they are
narrowly rhomboidal, some-
what worm-like and enlarged
at the basal angles. The
leaves at the base of the
pedicel have root-like filaments.

The spore-cases are oval-oblong nodding or horizontal, on a
smooth or rough pedicel, with lids more or less long-beaked.
This character suggested the generic name from the Greek eu, well,
and pvyx0*' a beak. The annulus is compound or rarely none.

Stem-leaf.

Stem.

H. Boscit.

Mosses and Lichens

Seventy-four species are known in all, nineteen in North
America.

Hypnum (Eurhynchium) Boscii, Schwaegr. — See Plate
XXVI.

Habit and habitat. — A very beautiful and easily identified
moss, growing in thick soft-golden cushions or in loose thin
mats on the ground among grass or on
the ground and on rocks in shady places
and open fields.

Name. — The specific name Boscii
was given by D. Fridericus Schwae-
grichen, in honour of Louis Augustin
Guillaume Bosc, a distinguished natur-
alist.

Plants. — Stems prostrate, somewhat
pinnately branching ; branches mostly
simple, inflated, blunt, and cylindrical
by the arrangement of the leaves.

Leaves. — Thin, dry and shining,
closely overlapping, oblong-oval, very
concave ; apex narrowed to a twisted
slender point ; base clasping ; margin
finely serrate to the base ; cells narrowly
linear, those of the base shorter, thick
and yellow-brown.
Leaves at the base of the pedicel. — Narrowly long taper-
pointed.

Habit of flowering. — Male and female flowers on the same
plant (monoicous).

Veil (calyptra). — Split up one side.

Spore-case. — Brown, oblong, erect-incurved, gradually nar-
rowed into the pedicel, strongly arched under
the mouth when dry.

Pedicel (seta). — Smooth, red to red-brown,
slightly twisted to the right.

Lid (operculuni). — Conic, the beak about
£ the length of the urn.

Teeth (peristome). — As in the genus
Hypnum.

Annulus. — Compound.

Lid.

Spore-cases.
H. Boscii.

H. Boscii.
Breathing pore.

290

MOSSES AND LICHENS

PT.ATE XXVI

HYPNUM BOSCH, Schwaegr.

The Sub-genus Plagiothecium

Spores. — Mature in autumn.

Distribution. — Vermont to Florida and Louisiana, west to
Missouri and Illinois.

HYPNUM: Sub-genus PLAGIOTHECIUM, Schimp.

The species of this genus are partly prostrate, irregularly
branching plants with rooting stems. They are soft and vari-
able in size.

The leaves are thin, glossy and mostly entire ; a vein is
wanting or double ; very short and thin ; the
cells are long and narrowly rhomboidal-
hexagonal; larger at the base.
Male and female flowers are usually
found on the same plant.

The veil is narrow and falls
early. The spore-case is somewhat
erect, oblique or almost horizontal,
oval-oblong to cylindri-
cal, somewhat arched,
short-necked, thin,
smooth or rarely wrin-
kled when dry.

The teeth are whitish.
The name is derived

from the Greek TrXayio?, oblique, and dqictov, a little
chest, referring to the spore-case.

Plagiothecium Muel-
lerianum, Schimp.

Habit and habitat. —
This moss is found in rocky
ravines ; it grows in loose,
bright and shining green
tufts.

Name. — The specific
name, Muellerianum,
was given by William
Schimper in honour of
Baron Ferdinand Mueller,
Government botanist of
Australia.

Stem-leaves.

Cells.

P. Muellerianum.

Spore-case
with lid.

Leaves at base of pedicel.
P. Muellerianum.

291

Mosses and Lichens

Portion of peris-
tome showing one
outer tooth on the
right with annulus
cells at its base, one
keeled inner tooth
and two cilia on the
left.

Dry
spore -case.

Plant (gametophyte). — Very small; stems with runners,
creeping, with branches erect, rooting at the base and some-
times at the apex.

Leaves. — In two rows, spreading, concave,
ovate-lance-shaped at the base, taper-pointed,
with an abrupt, short, acute point ; margin
entire ; •vein wanting ; base not growing down
the stem ; cells narrow, uniform.

Leaves at the base of the pedicel (perichcetial
leaves). — Half-clasping at the base, oblong-ovate,
taper-pointed, entire.

Habit of flowering.
— Male and female
flowers on separate
plants (dioicous).

Veil (calyptra). —
Small.

Spore-case. —
Somewhat nodding,
tapering from the en-
larged mouth toward
the pedicel, long-
necked, enlarged at the mouth and bell-shaped when dry.
Pedicel (seta}. — Short, purple.
Lid (operculum). — Conical, short-beaked.
Teeth (peristome). — Distantly jointed, cilia short, robust,
unequal.

Annulus. — Narrow, simple.

Spores. — The fruit is very rare.

Distribution. — Found in Europe and eastern North America.

HYPNUM: Sub-genus AMBLYSTEGIUM

The species of the Sub-genus Amblystegium vary in size
from minute to large and robust and vary in colour from bright
yellow-green to dark dull-green. The stems are prostrate, creep-
ing, decumbent, ascending, or erect. The male and female
flowers are usually on separate plants.

The stems are usually tender and soft, but are occasionally
rii>id. They are repeatedly branched, commonly irregularly so,
\vith the branches more or less erect.

292

Spore-cases with

peristome.
P. Muellerianum.

MOSSES AND LICHENS

PLATE XXVII

HYPNUM REPTILE Michx.

AMBLYSTEGIUM VARIUM, (Hedw.), Lindh.

A. varium. Leaves.

The Sub-genus Amblystegium

The leaves spread in all directions. They are narrowly lance-
shaped to broadly egg-shaped, concave, or flat, never eared at
the base and never with the cells
narrowly linear. The base may
or may not grow downward on the
stem. Vein absent or prominent,
margins entire or serrate.

The spore-cases are oval to cylin-
drical, symmetrical or unsymmetrical,
erect to horizontal and usually con-
stricted under the mouth when dry.
The base tapers into a large or small
collum. The colour varies from
uniformly purple or brown through
two shades to pale throughout. The
peristome is normal, with usually 2 to
4 cilia, although in a few cases they
are absent or rudimentary. The
generic name from the Greek

a/*/3\t"?, blunt, and trr^yo?, a cover, refers to the character of the
lid, which is convex or conic, usually bluntly pointed, rarely
sharply pointed. The annulus consists of from i to 3 rows of
cells. The calyptra is small and falls early. Sixteen species are
known in North America, ten of them being found in both

America and Europe.

Amblystegium varium, (Hedw.)
Lindb.— See Plate XXVII.

Habit and habitat. — This species is
found growing in extensive loose or
crowded tufts, bright green, dull dark-
green or pale yellow-green, on ground,
decayed wood, bases of trees and
rocks in moist, wet or shady places.

Name. — The specific name, varium,
refers to the variable character of the
plant.

Plant (gametoplyte) . — The plants are of small or medium size,
the stems obscurely angled, prostrate and branched, the branches
slender, irregular, erect or ascending, never plume-like, straight
or with tips incurved.

293

Base. Apex.

A. varium. Leaf -cells.

Mosses and Lichens

Leaves. — Leaf-cells spreading or appressed, flat or concave;
variable in size and shape, lance-shaped to ovate-lance-shaped or
broadly ovate; apex usually slender, straight or slightly curved;
margin entire to toothed above; vein extending to the apex or
well into the point; cells broad and applied end to end (parencby-
matous) toward the base, and narrow, with the ends overlapping
(prosenchymatous) toward the apex.

Habit of flowering. — Male and female flowers on separate
plants.

Veil (calyptra). — Small and falling early, equal to or shorter
than the spore-case, split half the length.

Spore-case. — Cylindrical, unsymmetrical, upright to horizontal,
pale yellow-green when young, chestnut when mature; con-
stricted under the mouth when dry; neck i to i the length of the
spore-case.

Pedicel (seta). — One-half inch to 2 inches long, stout, reddish
at the base, pale-yellow or dark throughout.

Lid (operculum) . — Obliquely pointed from a high convex or
conical base.

Annulus. — With two to three rows of cells.

Teeth (peristome) . — Cinnamon brown or yellow, paler above,
lance-shaped; cilia 2 to 4.

Spores. — Mature in late spring.

Distribution. — Common and widely distributed.

THE BOAT-HOOK MOSSES
HYPNUM: Sub-genus HARPIDIUM, Sulliv.

The species of the Sub-genus Harpidium are found usually
in marshes. They have stems divided irregularly into long
ascending rootless branches sometimes plume-like with short
branchlets which are all more or less
curved at the apex like a boat-hook.

The leaves are firm and membranous
with the apex prolonged into a slender
point and turned to one side as a scythe-
blade ; a single vein extends to above
the middle or to the apex ; the cells are
narrow, enlarged and inflated at the
basal angles.
294

H. uneinatum. Leaf.

The Sub-genus Harpidiurc

The name Harpidium, the Latin for "hook," describes the
hooked leaves, the important character of the sub-genus.

The spore-cases are borne on long smooth pedicels, they
are oblong-cylindrical, often arched, with short and conical
lids. The teeth are as in
the genus Hypnum.

H. uncinatum. (a) and (6) Spore-cases with
Kds ; (c) spore-case without lid.

H. uncinatum. (a) Vertical section
of peristome showing three annulus
cells on the right at the base of an
outer tooth, inner tooth on the left ;
(b) portion of peristome showing on
the right one outer tooth, on the left
two keeled inner teeth and four cilia
below three rows of annulus cells.

There are numerous species.
In the "Kryptogamen Flora," of
1898, K. Gustav von Limpricht,
a prominent bryologist, devotes
about seven pages to a most intricate classification of the
sub-genus Harpidium.

The Hooked Boat-hook Mosses, Hypnum (Harpidium)
uncinatum, Hedw. — See Colour Plate III.

Habit and habitat. — In pale yellow-
green tufts, erect or drooping, on stones
bordering streams, or on shaded ground,
rarely on decayed wood, common and
variable in mountain regions.

Name. — The specific name, Latin un-
cinatum, hooked, refers to the character
of the leaves.

Leaves. — Long, lance-shaped, grooved
lengthwise, the taper-point spreading,
scythe-shaped or hooked ; apex minutely
serrate; vein thin; cells narrow, more en-
larged at the base, broader and rectangu-
lar at the angles, which are slightly hollow.

Leaves at the base of the pedicel (perichaztial leaves).— Very long,

295

H. uncinatum. Right side
from base of a leaf to show en-
larged cells in the angle.

Mosses and Lichens

the outer recurved from the middle, the inner soft, long, with a
slender thread-like point; apex sharply serrate; vein present.

Habit of flowering. — Male and female flowers on the same
plant (monoicous) .

Veil (calyptra).— Split up one side.

Spore-case. — Nodding, cylindrical, incurved, constricted under
the mouth when dry, brown-orange, darker when old.

Pedicel (seta). — Variable in length, smooth.
Lid (operculum). — Orange, highly convex, conical,
acute.

Teeth. — Orange at the base, yellowish above; seg-
ments of the inner membrane slightly cleft; cilia two,
as long as the outer teeth.

Annulus. — Broad, of three rows of cells.
Spores. — Mature in summer and autumn.
Distribution. — Universal.

COMB MOSSES

HYPNUM: Sub-genus CTENIUM

The species of the Sub-genus Ctenium are large
and grow in loose tufts with stems erect or prostrate,
rigid and compressed, simple and two-forked, closely

H . uncinatum. (a) Leaf from
base of pedicel ; (b) perigonial
leaf ; (c) an antheridium
and a paraphysis.

C.crista-castrensis. Stem -leaves.

and regularly feather-branched; the branches are fern-like and the
branchlets close, resembling the teeth of a comb, a characteristic
which has suggested the generic name from the Greek, /cret?
a comb.

296

Sub-genus Ctenium

The leaves have longitudinal folds with the apex turned to
one side.

The spore-cases are raised on long pedicels; they are cylin-
drical-oblong, arched, and with broadly conical lids
tipped with a point.

Stem-leaf.

Cells at base of leaf.
C. crista-castrensis.

Female plant.

The Knight's Plume Moss, Hypnum (Ctenium) crista-
castrensis, L.— See Plate XXVIII.

Habit and habitat. — In loose, rigid, yellow-green tufts on
decaying logs, in mountainous regions.

Spore-case with lid.

Leaf at base
Spore-case without lid. of pedicel.

C. crista-castrensis.

Paraphyllia.

Name.— The great Linnaeus named this pretty moss crista-
castrensis from its resemblance to a military plume or crest— Latin
crista, a crest, and castrensis, military.

Plant (gametopbyte).—The stems prostrate, 3 to 5 inches long,
the tips upright ; simple or twice-branched, closely and

297

Mosses and Lichens

regularly feather-branched, the branches resembling a fern frond ;
branchlets close, diverging horizontally and curved back at the
apex like a plume.

Leaves. — Stem-leaves broad, gradually long lance-like and
taper-pointed, thin, turned to one side as a scythe blade, with
longitudinal folds ; vein double or none ; margin sharply serrate
from the middle upward.

Leaf -like organs (paraphyllia). —
Numerous, long, narrowly lance-shaped.
Leaves at the base of the pedicel (peri-
chcetial leaves'). — Long, sheathing, white,
veinless.

Habit of flowering. — Male and female
flowers on separate plants (dioicous).

Veil (calyptra). — Thin, smooth,
pointed and split up one side.

Spore-case. — Cylindrical-oblong,
arched, green-brown when ripe, dirty-
yellow when empty.

Pedicel (seta). — One-and-a-half to two
inches long.

Lid (operculum) . — Broadly conical,
sharp-pointed.

Teeth (peristome). — The outer teeth orange below, pale,
serrate, and awl-pointed above ; the inner teeth long-pointed
and cleft ; cilia three or four, thick and as long as the teeth.
Annulus. — Simple and narrow.
Spores. — Mature in summer and autumn.
Distribution. — North America, Europe, Asia.

HYPNUM: Sub-genus EUHYPNUM

The plants of this group generally
have creeping stems which are more or
less regularly feather-branched. The
leaves are usually scythe-shaped and
turned to one side, ovate lanceolate be-
low and narrowly taper-pointed. The
vein (costa) is short and double or none.
The cells are linear and narrow, 4-sided

298

C. crista-castrensis. Portion
of peristome showing on the
left two outer teeth; on the
right two keeled teeth of the
inner membrane and six cilia.

H. curvifolium.
Branch -leaf.

H. imponens,
Spore-cases
with lids.

The Sub-genus Euhypnum

at the angles ; the inner leaves at the base of the pedicel are
deeply folded; small leaf-like organs (paraphyllia) on the stem
are few. The spore-cases are cylindrical-oblong on smooth

Paraphyllia.

Spore-case with lid.

H , curvifolium.

Cells.

Leaf at base* of
pedicel.

Stem-leaf.

H. imponens.

pedicels ; the lids are large, from very acutely pointed to
convex-conical. The prefix ev, proper, indicates that this
sub-genus is the most typical among the different groups of
Hypnum.

Hypnum (Euhypnum) reptile, Michx.— See Plate XXVII.

Habit and habitat. — Found in pale- or dusky-green, wide
and loose tufts on the bark of living or decayed trees. Com-
mon and variable in sub-alpine regions, rare in the plains except
northward.

Name. — From the Latin rcptilio, creeping.

Plant (gametophyte). — Drooping, stems branching, the
branches feather-branched, the branchlets erect and incurved.

Leaves. — Crowded, concave, long taper-pointed from an ob-
long base ; margin sharply serrate above, flat or recurved below ;
vein double, short, yellowish; leaf -like organs (paraphyllia) on
the stem, few and very small, lance-shaped or palm-like.

Leaves at the base of the pedicel (perichcetial leaves}. — The
inner long, taper-pointed, longitudinally grooved with double
vein and toothed apex.

299

Mosses and Lichens

Habit of flowering. — Male and female flowers on the same
stems, (monoicous).

Veil (calyptra). — Thin, split up one side.

Spore-case. — Somewhat erect, cylindrical, yellowish, curved
when dry.

H. reptile. Stem-leaves.

Pedicel. — Smooth.

Lid (operculum). — Large, yel-
low, shortly beaked from a highly
convex base.

Teeth (peristome}. — Long taper-
pointed, orange at the base, seg-
ments of the inner membrane cleft
between the cross bars ; cilia shorter
than the segments.

Annulus. — Large, compound.

H. reptile. Plant.

Spore-cases with lids.

Portion of the peris-
tome showing on the
left two outer teeth ; on
the right two inner
teeth and four cilia.

H. reptile.

3OO

Spore-cases with-
out lids.

The Sub-genus Euhypnum

Spores. — Mature in August.
Distribution, — North America and
Europe.

Perigonial leaves.

Male and female
plant.

H. reptile.

Leaves at base of pedicel.

Hypnum imponens, Hedw. — See Plate XXIX.

Habit and habitat. — This moss is exceedingly handsome,
growing in flat yellowish-green
tufts on decayed trunks and about
the bases of trees.

Paraphyllia.

Stem leaves.

H. imponens.

Plant )gametophyte). — Prostrate, stems feather-branched.

Leaves. — The stem-leaves overlapping, lying in two rows on
the lower side, base broadly ovate, orange, at the angles minutely
ear-like ; apex thread-like, and turned to one side ; borders
reflexed below, minutely toothed all around or almost entire ;
vein double or none ; cells very narrow, linear, somewhat

301

Mosses and Lichen*

worm-like, enlarged, and 4-sided at tne basilar angles, the
branch-leaves narrower, hooked, and rolled together at the apex
of the branches ; the leaf-like appendages (paraphyllia) attached
to the stem, large, palm-like or lance-like.

Branch-leaves.

Leaf at base of

pedicel.
H. imponens.

Apex of leaf.

Leaves at the base of the -pedicel (perichcetial leaves). — Without
a vein, gradually narrowed to a long thread-like flexuous and
finely toothed point.

Habit of flowering. — Male and female
flowers on separate plants (dioicous).

Veil (calyptra). — Thin, split up one side-

Female plant

Perigonial leaf.
H. imponens.

Spore-cases
with lids.

Spore-case. — Cylindrical, pale-brown, somewhat erect or
slightly incurved.

Pedicel (seta). — Long and slender.

The Sub-genus Euhypnum

Lid (operculum). — Convex, with an oblique point, orange
at the apex.

Teeth (peristome). — Inner segments slightly cleft and as long
as the cilia; outer, normal, cilia single, with small transverse
spurs attached to the margin.

Annulm. — Large, compound, adherent to the mouth.
Spores. — Mature in the autumn.

Distribution. — Common in sub-alpine America,
rare in Europe.

Spore-case
with peristome.

Spore -case
with lid.
H. imponens.

Portion of peristom*
showing on the left two
outer teeth ; on the right
two inner teeth and two
cilia.

Hypnum curvifolium, Hedw. — See Colour Plate XVI.

Habit and habitat.— This attractive moss grows in intricate
tufts, yellowish-green and glossy. It is very common on
decayed logs in shady woods.

Stem.

Branch-leaves.
H . curvifolium-

303

Cells.

Mosses and Lichens

Name. — The specific name, is from the Latin curvum, bent,
and folium, a leaf.

Plant (gametophyte). — Large, stems, 3 to 4 inches long,

prostrate with but few

branches, these feather-

branchlets compressed,

unequal, and short

Spore-case, dry.

fc>pore-case with lid.

H. curvijolium.

Veil

Perigonium.

Leaves. — Crowded, in two rows, each leaf overlapping
one in front, scythe-shaped concave and turned to
one side; base, eared; apex gradually long taper-
pointed; margin slightly serrate; vein absent or
slightly evident at the base, cells above pale, narrow,
linear and worm-like; cells of the base and angles,
shorter, broader, and golden-yellow.

the

Branch-leaves.

Leaves at base of pedicel.

H. curvifoltttm

Sub-genus Calliergoa

Leaves at the base of the pedicel (pericb&tial leaves). — Numerous,
whitish, erect ; and close, the cells loose.

Habit of flowering. — Male and female flowers on separate
plants (dioicous).

Veil (calyptra). — Thin and split up one side.

Spore-case. — Large, oblong, swollen, and arched, when young;
thin and distinctly ribbed, when dry.

Pedicel. — Long and slender.

Lid (operculum). — Conical, with a short abrupt point.

Teeth (peristome). — Yellow with small blade-like projections
on the inside ; segments of the inner membrane slightly cleft ;
cilia 2 to 3, nearly as long as the segments.

Annulus. — With three rows of cells, rolling back as the
lid falls.

Spores. — Mature in fall.

Distribution. — North America.

THE EXQUISITE FEATHER-MOSS
HYPNUM, Sub-genus CALLIERGON

The species of the Sub-genus Calliergon are large, erect, or
prostrate plants growing in wide mats on the ground, or on
rocks; the branches are simple or compound and have but a few
rooting filaments.

The sub-generic name is the Greek word Ka\\tepyov, beauti-
fully made.

Stem-leaves. Spore-cases with lids.

H. Schreberi.

The leaves are heart-shaped, oval or oval-oblong, deeply con-
cave, spreading or overlapping, rarely turned to one side; the
apex is obtuse, the vein variable, and the cells linear above and
four-sided at the basal angles.

305

Mosses and Lichens

Spore-cases with lids

H . Schreberi.

Spore -case
without lid.

The spore-cases are borne on variable pedicels; they are oblong
and incurved with convex-conical lids. An annulus is sometimes
present, and the teeth are as in the genus Hypnum.

The Red-stemmed Feather-moss, Hypnum (Collier gon)
Schreberi, Willd.— See Plate XXX.

Habit and habi tat . — On
shaded ground of hills and
mountains. The specimen
photographed grew on the
dry knolls of a swamp in Lake
Placid.

Name. — The specific name
was given by Karl Ludwig
Willd enow in honour of
D. J. C. Schreber.

Plant (gametopbyte). — Stems rigid, dark-red, branching, the
branches with somewhat regularly arranged branchlets; branches
and branchlets obtuse at the apex.

Leaves, — Pale-green or yellow, loosely overlapping, broadly
oval-oblong, slightly concave; apex ©btuse or obtusely
pointed, incurved; base recurved on the borders; vein double,
short; margin entire; base extending down the stem; cells
narrow, four-sided, orange at the base and the basal angles.

Leaves at the base of the pedicel
(pericbcetial leaves'). — The inner
sheathing, erect, not plaited; apex
short-pointed; vein none.

Leaf -like organs among the leaves (para-
pbyllia). — None.

Habit of flowering. — Male and female
flowers on separate plants (dioicous).

Veil (calyptra). — Thin, split up one
side.

Spore-case. — Oblong, dark-coloured,
incurved.

Pedicel (seta). — Dark-red, long,
twisted above.
-Red, conical, with a sharp point.

H. Schreberi.
Leaves at base of pedicel.

Lid (operculum) .-
Annulus. — None.
Teeth (peristome). — Long, with lamellae on the inside, inner

The Sub-genus Pleurozium

segments split nearly the whole length ; hair-like segments three,
slightly shorter.

Spores. — Mature in autumn.

Distribution. — North and South America, Europe and Asia.

THE ARCHED FEATHER-MOSS

HYPNUM Sub-genus PLEUROZIUM

The species of this sub-genus increase yearly by arched
branches or by rigid erect growths, the branches are short,
unequal, and grow outward from the main stem, a character
which suggested the name Pleurozium, a compound of the
Greek m-\evpbv, a side, and of 09, a branch.

The leaves on the stem are larger than those on the branches,
and are different in shape. Besides these leaves there are numer-
ous large and many-parted leaf-like organs (parapbyllid).

The other characters of this sub-genus are similar to those of
the genus Hypnum.

THE GLITTERING FEATHER-MOSS
HYPNUM (PLEUROZIUM) splendens, Hedw.

(See Plate XXXI.)

Habit and babitat. — The Glittering Feather-moss is one of the
most beautiful species. It is common on rocks in deep woods,
in swampy places, on stumps, and on fallen trees.

" Glittering with yellow, red and green,
As o'er the moss, with playful glide,
The sunbeams dance from side to side."

Female plant.

Male plant.
H. splendens.
307

Paraphyllia.

Mosses and Lichens

Name, — J. G. Hedwig showed his appreciation of its beauty
when he called it splendent.

Plant (gametophyte).—ln loose tufts, rigid, pale olive-green;
stems glitterjng, 4 to 8 inches high, increasing by annual arched
branches, or by rigid, upright branches;
branches once or twice feather-branched.

Leaves. — Stem-leaves, at the base, distant,
small and scale-like; above, loosely overlap-
ping, slightly concave, broadly oval-long, often
narrowed into a long wavy point; vein (costa)

Stem-leaf.

Apex.

Perigonial leaf
with paraphysis
and antheridium.
H. splendens.

Branch-leaves.

faintly double; margin finely toothed; branch-leaves smaller,
oval-oblong, shorter pointed.

Leaves at the base of the pedicel (perichcetial leaves). — Narrowly
pointed, sub-erect or recurved at the apex.

Leaf-like organs (paraphyllia) . — Numerous, large, varied in
form.

Habit of flowering. — Male and female flowers on different
plants, (dioicous).

Veil (calyptra). — Thin, transparent, pointed, split on one side,
large and persistent.

Spore-case. — Egg-shaped, horizontal by a curve of the pedicel
under the base.

Pedicel (seta). — Curved under the spore-case, about one inch
high, smooth.

Lid (operculum). — Large and beaked.

Teeth (peristome). — Double, as in the genus Hypnum.

308

Sub -genus Hyloc omnium

Annulus. — Single.

Spores. — Fruit not common, mature in spring.
Distribution. — Common in mountains or northward, America,
Europe, northern Asia and Africa.

Portion of peristome showing on the
left four outer teeth ; on the right

two cilia, two inner teeth split along Spore-case Leaves at base of

their length. with peristome. pedicel.

H. splendcns.

THE WOOD REVELLERS
HYPNUM: Sub-genus HYLOCOMNIUM, Schimp.

The species of the Sub-genus Hylocomnium are large and
robust, two or three times irregularly feather-branched. The
stems grow from the apex only, or produce lateral
branches.

The generic name Hylocomnium is derived from
the Greek v\r), wood, and *o//,t>5, a reveller; it was
given to these mosses by William Philipp Schimper,
to describe their habit of growing on wood.

The leaves spread abruptly from the base, or
spread and turn to one side. There are no leaf-like
organs (paraphyllia) among the leaves.

The spore-cases are red-brown, swollen egg-
shaped or nearly globular, abruptly horizontal, inclined when dry on
pedicels twisted to the right. The lids are convex, or conic, with
no annulus, or a double one. The teeth are as the genus Hypnum.

309

H. triquetrum.
Spore-case with-
out lid.

Mosses and Lichens

Twenty-one species are known in all, five in America.

The Triangular Wood-reveller, Hypnum (Hylocomnium)
triquetrum, Linn. — See plate XXXII.

Habit and habitat. — In large yellow or light-green mats 4 to
8 inches deep, on decayed wood in plains and mountains.

H. triquetrum. Female plant.

Name. — The specific name triquetrum was given to the moss
by Linnaeus to describe its habit of pointing its branches in three
directions, the Latin triquetrum meaning "having three angles."

Plants (gametopbyte) . — Stems stout and rigid, erect, simple
or slightly divided, branched unequally and irregularly or with
feather branches not all in the same plane.

H. triquetrum. Branch leaves.

Leaves. — Very large, horizontally spreading both when wet or
dry, stiff and membranous, glossy, triangular; apex acute; vein

510

The Sub-genus Hylocomnium

double to the middle; margin closely toothed; base auriculate;
cells of the basal angles wide, transparent, oblong six-sided.
Branch-leaves narrower, and gradually smaller upward.

Habit of flowering. — Male and female flowers on separata
plants (dioicous).

Veil (calyptra*). — Split up one side.

Leaf at base of

pedicel.

Stem leaves.
H. triqtutrum.

Apex of leaf.

Spore-case. — Oblong, horizontal or inclined by a curve of its
pedicel under the base, narrowed at the mouth when dry.

Pedicel (seta).— Curved below the spore-case, i to i£ inches
high.

Base of leaf.

(a) Spore-case with veil;
(6) Spore-case with lid.

H. trigtutrvm.
IM

Mosses and Lichens

Lid (operculum). — Convex with a tiny point in the centre.
Annulus. — Simple.

Teeth (peristome) . — As in the genus Hypnum.
Spores. — Mature in autumn and winter.
Distribution. — Common in Europe; widely spread in America;
common in the Adirondacks.

H. triquetrum. Portion of
peristome showing on the left
one outer tooth with annulus
cells at its base ; on the right
two keeled and perforated in-
ner teeth with three spurred
cilia between.

AUTHORITIES CONSULTED

BRAITHWAITE. The Sphagnaceae of Europe and North America.

London, 1880.

BAUER. Mosses Collected in California, in Linnea. 1859.
BRIDEL. Bryologia Universa. Leipsic, 1826-1827.
BRITTON. How to Study the Mosses. The Observer, 1894-1897.

Contributions to American Bryology. Bull. Torr. Bot. Club,

1889.

BRUCH AND SCHIMPER. Bryologia Europaea. Stuttgard, 1836-1855.
CHENEY. North American Species of Amblystegium. Botanical

Gazette, 1897.
CORRENS. Unterauchungen tiber die Vermerung der Laub-

moose. Jena, 1899.

CROMBIE. British Lichens. London, 1894.
ENGLER AND PRANTL. Die naturlichen Pflanzenfamilien. Leipzig,

1889.

EKHART. Synopsis Jungermaniarum. Coburg, 1832.
EVANS. Hepatics. Trans, of the Conn. Ac., Vol. III. 1892.
GOEBEL. (Dr. K.., Professor in University of Rostock, Germany).

Outlines of Classification and Special Morphology of Plants.

Polytrichum commune. Translated by H. E. F. Garnsey,

M. A., Revised by I. B. Balfour, M. A., Oxford, 1887.
GROUT. Revision of North American Isotheciacea and Brachy-

thecia. Memoirs Torr. Bot. Club, 1897.
GROUT AND SMITH. The Bryologist. Brooklyn, 1898.
HAMPE. Mosses Collected in Southern United States by Beyrich,

in Linnea. 1839.
HEDWIG. Species Muscorum Frondosorum. Edited by Schwaeg-

richen. Species Muscorum. Leipsic, 1801-1842. Musci

Frondosi. Leipsic, 1787-1792.

HOOKER. WM. JACKSON. British Flora. London, 1830.
HOOKER AND TAYLOR. Muscologia Britannica. 1827.
HOWE. Hepaticae and Anthocerotes of California. Memoirs Torr.

Bot. Club, New York, 1899.
JAGER AND SAUERBACH. Adumbratio Florae Muscorum. 1870-1878.

Mosses and Lichens

KINDBERG. European and North American Bryineae. 1897.
LESQUEREUX AND JAMES. Manual of the Mosses of North America.

Boston, 1884.

LIMPRECHT. Die Laubmoose. 1895.
MICHAUX. Flora Boreali Americana.
MUELLER. Synopsis Muscorum Frondosorum.
PARIS. Index Bryologicus. 1894-1898.
PIERCE. The Nature of the Association of Algae and Fungi in

Lichens. Proceedings Calif. Acad. Sci. 1899.
SCHIMPER. Synopsis Muscorum Europaeorum. Stuttgard, 1860.
SCHNEIDER. General Lichenology.
SULLIVANT AND LESQUEREUX. Icones Muscorum. Musci Alleghani-

ensis. Columbus, O., 1846.
SULLIVANT. Mosses and Hepatics of the United States. New

York, 1856.
TUCKERMAN. North American Lichens. Boston, Parti, 1882; and

New Bedford, Part II, 1888.
UNDERWOOD. North American Hepaticae. 1883.
WILSON. Bryologia Britannica. London.

INDEX

Abbreviations, 75
Achneh, 80
Acrocarpi, 153
Adanson, 61
Air chamber, 7 a
Albumen, 45
Alga, chain-celled, 66

determination of, 24

green colour of lichen, a a

one-celled, 65

producing different lichens, 24

scytonema, 66

thallophyte, 66
Algae, 71, 80
Amblystegittm riparittm, conglomerated with

mud, i s

Amphigastra, 102 (cut)
Amphigastrum, 100 (cut)
Andreae, J. G. R., 132
Andre cea, genus, 130-133

pelrophila, 132 (cuts)

rupestris, 133 (cuts)

exception to rule that spore-case

opens by lid, 30
plant with spore-case, 14
Andreaeas, retainers of dust, 14
Androecium, 96
Annulus, 52, 55 (cuts)

defined, 37

function of, 51 (cut)

origin of, 49

rolling away, 49 (cut)
Anomodon, genus, 266-270

apiculatus, 269
leaf, 42

attenuates, 268 (cuts), 269

rostratus, 267 (cut)
Antheridia, 41 (cut), 65

defined, 46

stages in development of, 96 (cut)

where developed, 48
Antheridium, bursting, 118 (cut)

criterion for classification, 67

development of, 119 (cuts)

immature, 49

mature, ^49, 49 (cut)

of Equisetum, 71 (cut)

on prothallium, 67

position of, 39, 40, 118 (cut)

sending forth sperm-cells, 40, 46 (cuts)

sperm-cells coiled in, 67
escaping from, 67

vertical section of, 67
Antherozoid, 118, 120, 121
Apiculate, 237
Apophysis, 35 (cut), 37, 52, (cuts), 205

bell-shaped, 59

defined, 57

in Polytrichum mosses, 57

larger than spore-case, 6

umbrella-shaped, 59

varieties of, 57
Apothecia, 25
Apothecium, 27 (cut)
Apple-moss, 215
Archepronia, 6.s

criterion for classification, 67 (cut)

Archegonia, origin of, 47

section of archegonia, 47 (cut)
where developed, 48
Archegonium, 49 (cut), 50
character of wall, 50
development of, 120 (cuts)
position of, 39, 40, 119 (cuts)
stages in development of, 96 (cut)
wall in Marchantia, 98 (cut)

severed from base, 50 (cut)
Archesporium, defined, 51
Archidium, genus, 140, 141

Ohiense, spore-case not opening by

lid, 30 (cut), 140, 141
Aristotle, 19
Asci, 24

Ascospores, 24, 25
Ascus, 24

Asexual, generation, 65, 68, 69, (cuts)
Equisetum, 70 (cut)
fern, 68, 69 (cut)
Hepatic, 71, (cut)
moss, 68 (cut)
reproduction, aim of, 59
Asplenium Ruta-muraria, 69 (cut)
Astonrnm, genus, 141—143

Sullivantii, 51 (cut), 141 (cut), 14*

(cuts)
Aulacomnium, genus, 234-239

androgynum, 235 (cut), 237 (cut)

gemmae cluster enlarged, 58 (cut)
plant, 58 (cut)
heterostichum, 237 (cut), 238 (cuts)

leaf apex to show margin, 33 (cut)
plant, 8 (cut)
palustre, 236 (cuts), 237
annulus, 237 (cut)
branch, 236 (cut)
cross-section of stem, 237 (cut)
lid, 237 (cut)
plant, 236 (cut)
stem, 46 (cut)

with whip-like branch, 236

(cut)

veil, 237 (cut)

whip-like branch, 236 (cut)
Authorities, 75
Autoicous, 40, 48
Awned Hairy-cap, 253 (cut)

Bacteria, 63, 71
Barbula, genus, 172-175

ccespii-osa, 173 (cut), 175 (cuts)
protonema of, 59
retainer of dust, 14
unguiculata, 173, 174, 176 (cut)

sporophyte with twisted seta,

60 (cut)

Bartram, John, 215
Basidia, 25
Bazzania, genus, 150

trilobata, 106
Bazzani, M., 106
Beard Moss, protonema of, 38
Bicarbonate of lime, 17, 144
Bladder-cap Moss, 207
Boat-leaved Moss, plate III., 128 *

Index

Bog-mosses, colour plate III.
crimson, 6

forming peat-bogs, no, iia
gray, 6

reclaiming marshes, n
see Sphagnum (under Mosses), 109
Booth Bay, 7
Bornet, 22

Brachythecium rivulare, 31 (cut)
Branch, fertile, 58

sterile, 58
Breathing pores, 44
Brewer, H. W., in
Broom-moss, 155
Browning, 4, 10
Bryum, genus, 221-225

argenteum, leaf, 34 (cut), 222 (cuts), 223
leaf of, 43 (cut)

spore-case without lid, lid of, 9, 52
stem cut vertically, 41, (cut)
binum, stem cut vertically, 41 (cut)

vertical section of stem, 47
erythrocarpum, gemmae in axis of leaf

and stem, 58 (cut)
roseum, 224 (cuts), 225 (cuts)
Bryophytes, compared with thallophytes, 64
Bud-leaved Ulota, 187
Buxbaum, J. C., 260, 261
Bttxbaumia, genus, 260-262

aphylla, plate XX., 57, 261, 262
collum of, 57 (cut)
inner membrane, 260 (cut)
leaf, 261 (cut)

sporophyte of, 57 (cut), 260, 262
top of spore-case, 262 (cut)
vaginule of, 57
veil, 261 (cut)
young plant, 260 (cut)

Calyptra, 122

denned, 50

Hepatic, 95 (cut)

origin of, 41 (cut)

Sphagnum, 115 (cut)

variation of, 31
Canal-cell, 97 (cut)
Carbohydrates, 13
Carbon, i 2

dioxide, 12, 17
Carbonate of lime, 17, 144
Caiherinea, genus, 240—242

angustata cross section of leaf, 44, (cut)
epiphragm of, 56

undulata; cross section of leaf, 43 (cut),
242 (cuts)

summit of spore-case, 57 (cut)
surface of leaf, 44 (cut)
tip of spore-case, 242 (cut)
Catkin-stemmed Silver Moss, 222
Cells, 134 (cut)

chains of 23, 46, 65, 66

contents, 12, 99 (cut)

floor-cells, 72 (cut)

large loose, 114

mother, 51

open at base, 43

pithy, 114

single 27

structure open, 43

tubular, 69

without leaf -green, 62

woody, 114

zone which forms lid, 53
Cellular bodies of Barbula, 59

sheath, 131, 132 (cuts)
Central cord, 80
Cephaloid, 88
Ceratodon purpureum, 9

cross section of leaf, 42
Cetraria Islaiidica as food, ao

316

Chimborazo, 187

Chlorophyll, 12, 32, 38, 44, 62, 67, 199 (cut)

Christmas-greens, see Lycopodiums, 69

Chroococcus, 25, 26

Cilia, origin of, 54

Cinderella, 210

Cladonia, genus, 88

coral-like, colour plate XII., 27

cornucopioides, 90

cristatella, colour plate XII., 27, 89

fimbriata, plate X., 89

furcate, 27 (cut)

bit showing alga and fungus, 27 (cut)

tnitrula, 27

Novce-Anglicc, 27

pyxidata, colour plate XII., 89

rangiferina, colour plate VIII., 27
Cladoniaeform, 89
Claw-leaved Barbula, 173
Climacium, genus, 271-273

Americanum, 273

dendroides, 271, 272

lid with columella attached, 55 (cut)
spore-case with lid lifted to show

teeth, 55 (cut)
sporogonium, 48 (cut)
Coccocarpia molybdcea, 24, 28 (cuts)
Collar Mosses, 204
Collema pulposum, 29 (cut)

section of, 29
Collum, 39, 147, 149

in Buxbauwia, 57

Leptobryum pynforme, 58 (cut)

Ulola crispa, 57 (cut)
Columella, 31, 49, 59, 122, 135, 205 (cuts)

attached to base and summit, 55 (cut)

development of, 53 (cut)

lid, 35 (cut)

origin of, 49, 51

varieties of 55,
Colvin, Verplanck, in
Common Hairy-cap, 256
Continental glacier, in
Cora pavonia, 24
Cord-moss, 209

mosses on blackened embers, 5, colour

plate III.

Cornucopia Cladonia, The, 90
Cortex, 87

Cortical layer, 80, 82
Costa denned, 43
Cottony layer, 80
Crabbe, 5
Criterion for relation between ferns and

mosses, 66
Cucullate, 149
Cups with scarlet edges, 5
Curled-leaf Mosses, 184
Curtains in peristome of Polytrichum

mosses, 55
Cyphels, 86

De Bary, 22

Development of organs, 119

Dicranella heteromalla, spore-cases, 32 (cut)

Dicranum ftagellare, leaf for cell-structure,

43 (cut)
Dictyonema, 25

Dillenius, Johann, 61, 114, 136, 221, 222, 261
Dioicous, 40, 48
Dioscorides, 19, 21, 205, 221
Diphysctum, genus, 258

ioliosum, 259

leaf, 258 (cut)

lid lifted to show teeth, 259 (cut)

male plant, 259 (cut)

perigonial leaf, 259 (cut)

peristome, 259 (cut)

plant, (250 (cut)

spore-case, 259 (cut)

Index

Diphyscium, veil, 259 (cut)
Distichous, 157
Dotted Mnium, 232
Ducts, 115, 129

Duke of York, dogs belonging to, 20
Dust of open plains in mountain valleys ot
Arctic ice fields, 14

Earth bread, 20

Ecorticate, 90

Egg-cell, 39, 41, 47, 49, 120 (cut)

division of, 49

Ehrhart, Friedrich, 132, 195
Eight-toothed White Moss, 165
Elater, 70, 94
Embryo, 50

of ferns, 66

Emericella variecolour, 25
Emerson, 28
Endothecium, 51
Ephebe Kerneri, 28 (cut)
Ephemerunt, protonema of, 59
Epidermis, 72 (cut)
Epiphragm, 36 55, 56 (cut),

of Catharinea, 56
Equisetum, 69

arvense, 70 (cut)

asexual generation of, 70 (cut)
fertile cone, 70 (cut)
plant with fertile cone, 71 (cut)
sexual generation of, 71 (cut)
spore bearing scale, 70 (cut)

shoot, 70 (cut)
spore with elaters coiled, 70 (cut)

expanded, 70 (cut)
sterile, shoot 70 (cut)
sylvaticum, 71 (cut)
Excurrent, 149
Extinguisher Mosses, 190

False pedicel, 122

defined, S3 (cut)
Fascicle, 113, 114
Female flower-cluster, vertical section of,

49 (cut)
Fern, antheridium of, 67

archegonium of, 67

gametophyte, 69

life history, 66

pinule, 68, 69

prothallium of, 65, 66, 67

relative position of in plant kingdom, 69

Ruta-muraria, 69

sporophyte of, 67

stem, 69
Fibrillose, 129
Fibrils, 115
Filices, see ferns, 69
Fissidens, genus, 157-161

adiantoides, 32 (cut), 158 (cuts), 160
old spore-case, 53

taxifolium, 139 (cut)
Flagellae, 106 (cut)
Florida Moss, 8

Flower-cluster, vertical section, 49 (cut)
Flowers of Lapland, no
Foliaceous, 80
Foliose, 93

Hepatics, see Hepatics, leafy, 99
Fontinalis, genus, 262-264

antipyretica, 262 (cuts), 263

formation of peristome, 54, 56 (cuts),
Foot, S3 (cut), 67, 122 (cut), 140

in Marchantia, 98 (cut)

origin of, 39
Forests, moss-muffled, 11
Four-toothed Mosses, 193-198
Franklin, J., 29
Frondiform, 193, 194 (cut)

Frullani, Signor Leonardo, 103
Fruticulose, 79
Futtaria, genus, 209-214

flavicans, plate XVI., 210
hygrontetrtca, colour plates III. and XVI.,
210-214

annulus, S3 (cut)

archegonia of, 41 (cut)

bud from which new plant will grow.

64 (cut)

cross section of seta, 57 (cut)
of stem, 71 (cut)
dioicous inflorescence, 49 (cut)
germinating spore, 64 (cut)
immature plant, 32 (cut)
infloresence, 48 (cut)
mature plant, 31 (cut)
plant to show parts and monoicous

inflorescence, 39 (cut)
protonema, 64 (cut)
spore germinating, 38 (cut)
summit of spore-case, 37, 49 (cuts)
surface view of pore, 72
vertical section through young

sporogonium, 51 (cut)
widely branching protonema, 38

(cut)

young sporogonium, 50 (cut)
Fungi, 63, 71
Fungus, chain-celled, 66
determination of, 24
partner in lichen, 23
stealing food, 22
Fungus-partner, independent of, 34

Gaius Plinius, 221
Galeate, 103
Gannet, 9

Gametophyte, 35, 36, 43
fern, 68 (cut)
Hepatic, 68 (cut), 69
Marchantia showing pore, 72 (cut)
moss, 68 (cut)
without pores, 72
Gasteromycetes, 26
Gemma, 58
Gemmae, 58 (cut)

cluster of Georgia pellucida, 60 (cut)
homology of, 60

in axis formed by leaf and stem, 58
producing protonema, 59, 60
terminal cluster, 58 (cut)
terminal head, 58 (cut)
tip of leaf, 58 (cut)
Gemmate, 206

Generations, succession of, 15
Georgia, genus, i93-iQ7<

character of teeth in genus, 54
Brownii, frondiform leaves, 194 (cut)
geniculata, 197

spore-case, 32 (cut)
pellucida, 195

cluster enlarged, 60 (cut)

cross-section of four teeth, 54 (cut)

gemmae cluster, 58 (cut)

plant with gemmae cups, 60 (cut)

produces cellular bodies, 60

spore-case, 198 (cut)

tip of spore-case, 37, S4(cuts)

vertical section of gemmae cluster,

. 58 (cut)

Glycerine ielly, 74
Gonidja, 27 (cut)
Gonidial layer, 87

zone, 26
Gonimia, 86
Gonimous layer, 86
Gray fringes, i, 8
Grimm, J. F. C., 179

317

Index

Grimmia, genus, 178, 179
apocarpa, 179

corroding work of, 13
Gritnmias, retainers of dust, 14
Hair-like Hair-cap, 245
Hairy-cap Mosses, 242, 248
short-stemmed, 243
subjects for beginners, 35
Hairy-caps, plate X., 5
hairy veils due to, 50
how to avoid too strong light, 43

to procure maximum amount of

light, 42

leaves proof against dryness, 43
stem most highly developed, 45
upturning of leaves, 6
Haller, Albrecht von, 260
Hayes, Dr. Isaac I., 7
Hedwig, J. Q., 182, 215, 228
Hedvrigia ciliata, 183, 184

spore-case with lid removed, 9 (cut)
Hepatics, 9, 91, 93

Bazzania, leaf apex, 105 (cut)

leaves from base of perianth. 105
(cut)

male branch, 105 (cut)
perianth, 105 (cut)
stem with leaf, 106 (cut)

sporophyte, 105 (cut)
tip of perianth, 106 (cut)
trtolobata, plate X., 106 (cut)
under leaf, 106 (cut)
view of underside of stem, 106 (cut)
classified between, 71 (cut)
compared with leafy moss and fern, 65
genetic relationships, 62
foliose, 93
Frullania, genus, 102

amphigastra with rootlets, 103

(cut)
complanata, 102 (cut)

cross section of perianth, 103

(cut)
eboracensis, 103

transverse section of perianth

103 (cut)

upper view of stem, 103 (cut)
ecklomt, 102 (cut)

lobule of, 102 (cut)
stylus of, 102 (cut)
under view of stem, 102 (cut)
gametophyte, 65
how to collect, 73
to dissect, 73
to know them, 10
to preserve, 73
to study, 73

involucre opened out, 103 (cut)
leafy, inrolled, 99 (cut)
irregular, 99 (cut)
stipule of, 64 (cut)
third row of leaves, 99 (cut)
toothed, 99 (cut)
with lobe and lobule, 99 (cut)
Marchantia polymorpha, air-chamber, 96
androecium of, 96
antheridia, stages in development of,

96 (cut)

archegonia of, 96
areolae of, 95
canal-cell, 97 (cut)
egg-cell of, 07 (cut)
elater, 94 (cut), 98 (cut)
epidermis of, 96 (cut)
false-perianth, 94, 97, 98
floor-cells of, 96 (cut)
foot of, 98 (cut)
fringed involucre of, 94
gemmae of, 93, 94, 97, 98 (cut)
peduncle of, 94, 97, 98

Hepatics,

Marchantia polymorpha,
pores of, 96 (cut)
protonema of, 95
ray, 94

sperm-cells of, 95 (cut)
spore-case of, 94 (cut)
sporophyte developing, 97, 98 (cut)
stages in a developing archegonium,

96 (cut)

surface of pore, 93 (cut)
under surface of female receptacle,

95 (cut)

vertical section of antheridium,
95 (cut)

female receptacle, 94 (cut)
male receptacle, 95 (cut)
through pore, 93 (cut), 96
no utilitarian aspect, 62
perianth, 103 (cut)

Porella platyphylla, colour plate XIV..
29, 99

amphigastrum, 100 (cut)
antheridia of, 100
archegonia of, 100
calyptra, 100 (cut)
creeping stem, 99 (cut)
female branch, 100 (cut)
leaf magnified to show cell structure

100 (cut)

lobes and lobules, 99 (cut), 100
lobule, 100 (cut)
male branch, 100 (cut)
pedicel, 100 (cut)
perianth, 100 (cut)
spore-case, 100 (cut)
sporophyte, 100 (cut)
under view of stem, 99, 100 (cuts)
upper surface of stem, 101
veil, 100 (cut)

position in plant kingdom, 61
Ptilidiwn ciliare, colour plate XIV.,
104 (cut)

lobule of, 104 (cut)
under view of stem, 104
upper view of stem, 104 (cut)
relative position in plant kingdom, 69
ribbon-like, 93
spore-case, 71 (cut)

cut into four symmetrical valves, 9
sporophyte, 71 (cut)
veil, 71

Hepaticce, analogous to Vermes, 62
degree of development, 64
unique position of, in plant kingdom, 61
Herbarium, the, 73
Hermaphrodite, 235
Hoffman, G. F., 89
Homologies, study of, 61
of fern parts, 61
of Hepatic, 61
of moss, 6 1
Homologous parts, 61
Hooker, Sir Wm. J., 223
Horn-tooth Mosses, 166
Hornschuch, Dr. Christian Friedrich, 22
Horse-tails, 69, 71
Humming-bird, 29
Hutchins, Miss, 188

Ulota, 1 88
Hypnunt, 180

Boscii, surface view of pore, 72 (cut)
falcatum, 17

rusciforme, conglomerated with mud, 14
•uncinatum, to show cilia, teeth and

annulus, 31 (cut)
Hyphae, 22, 24, 26, 28

Ice Age, in
Iceland Moss, 20

3l8

Index

Inflorescence, 39, 40

autoicous, 48

dioicous, 48, 49

monpicous, 48

paroicous, 48

synoicous, 48
Involucre, 94 (cut), 95
Isidiophorous, 82

Jaundice, 20
Jungermania, 132
Juniper Hairy-cap, 254
Jumper inum, 249

Key to genera of Polytrichaceaet*3Q

to species of Genus Polytrichum, 250
King George III., 195

Lake Tear of the Clouds, 1 1 1

Lamellae, 35, 43 (cut), 44 (cut), 45 (cut), 239

(cut), 240 (cut)
Lapland, 27
Larcom, Lucy, 16

Leaf apex prolonged into an awn, 32, 34 (cuts)

cell-structure in hepatic, 100 (cut)

cross section of, 1 24

mf ~sin entire, 33 (cut)
serrate, 33 , 34 (cut)

structure of, 43

•with antheridium, 125
Leaf -green, 12, 32, 62, 67

transparence of, 34

variation of, 3 1

work of, 33

Leafy Diphyscium, 259
Leafy Hepatics, 99

mosses, 30
Leaves defined, 36 (cut)

frondiform, 194 (cut)

modified to form gemmae, 60

producing protonema, 60

scale-like, of Equisetums, 70

variation of, 31

with root hairs, 58
Lecanora, earth bread, 20

esculenta, 20

manna of Israelites, 20
Leptobryum pyriforme, 217

collum, 58

spore-case, 58
Leptotrichum, 171
Leucobryum, genus, 34, 161

colour due to, 161

vulgar e, 163

portion of peristome, 37 (cut)
section of open leaf, 35 (cut)

closed leaf, 35 (cut)
terminal leaves with root-hairs, 58

(cut)

young plant, 58 (cut)
Lichens, absorbing power of, 26

advance in exact knowledge of, 21

algae distributed, 26

in definite layers, 26

alliance for mutual benefit, 22

as drugs, 20

bearded, 80

Blistered UmbiUcaria, The, 84

blue-green felt-like plates, 25

branching like corals, 8

Brown-fruited Cup Cladonia, colour plate
XII., 89

cause of neglect of, by early botanists, 19

Cetraria Iskmdica, colour plate VII., 79
Jacunosa, 79

check against torrents, 16

chemical action of, 13
work of, 12

Lichens,

Cladonia carnucopioides, 90

cristatella, colour plate XII., 89
fimbriata, plate IX., 89
pyxidata. colour plate XII., 89
rangiferina, colour plate VIII., 90
colour due to, 23
common ancestral type of, 22
condense moisture, 4
constant hearted, 10
Cornucopia Cladonia, The, 90
cortical layer of, 80 (cut)
cortex of, 87
cottony, 80 (cut)
debris of, a source of humus, 14
delicate threads prying rock, 13
dissolving rock, 13
distribution, i, 7

Dog Peltigera, The. colour plate VII., 86
dual organism, 22
dye industry, 21
encrusted, 28
endurance of cold, 7
exact relation of one to another, 26
fancied resemblance to injured parts, 20
fan-like greenish-yellow, 24
first growths, 4

first plants to appear on soil, 16
forerunners of rock-loving mosses, 4
fossil evidence of, 16
from spores of fungus, 24
fruits of fungus, 24
fruits in flattened coloured disks, 8
gelatinous, 26, 28 (cut)
genera and species, 77
gonidial layer of, 87
growing flat or ruffled, 8
Hair-like Usnea, The, 81
how they are made, 24
how to collect, 73

to dissect, 73

to know them, 8

to preserve, 73

to study, 73

Iceland Moss, colour plate VIII., 79
ideal section to show apothecium, 27
in history, 14
in moist atmosphere, 26
isidiophorous, 82
magnified portion of, 23
manufacturing plant food, 13
mechanical action of, 13

work of, 12
meek creatures, 4
"mock the marks on a moth," 10
not an individual plant, 22
origin and nature of, 22
Parmelia, genus. Si

caperata, 83

conspersa, colour plate V., 82

perlata, plate VI., 83

physodes, var. vittata, plate V., 82

saxatilis, plate XV., 83
Peltigera, genus, 85

apthpsa, 85, 86

canina, colour plate VII., 86

polydactyla, 86

venosa, 85

Physcia leucomela, colour plate VIII., 84
pioneers, 17

among plants, 17
pith, layer of, 87

Pitted Cetraria, The, plate II., 79
place in plant kingdom, 23
"plodding," 13
poem to R. M. E., 21
Red-fruited Cup Cladonia, The, 90
Reindeer, The, colour plate VIII., 90

used for bread, 27
resembling puff-ball, 25

319

Index

Lichens, retainers of rainfall, 16
of soil, 13
of water, 16

Rock Tripe, colour plate XI., 85
ruffled on support, 8
Scarlet-crested Cladonia, The, colour

plate XII., 89
scutellseform, 80
secrete acid, 4
sections of thallus, 80 (cut)
"silver spots" — Ruskin, 3
"slow fingered," 10
soredia, 82

sought for medicinal properties, 19, 20
source of brooks, 16
spontaneous generation of, 22
starch, 20
Stereocaulon, genus, 88

paschale, plate VIII., 88
tomentosum, 88
Sticta, genus, 86, 87

amplissima, colour plate VII., 87
pulmonaria, colour plate, VII., 87
Stictina fuliginosa, 87 (cut)
surface, hoary, 25
flat disks, 25
ruptured, 24
with knobs, 25
Thelochistes, genus, 81

parietinus, colour plate II., 81
true nature of, 22
Umbilicaria, genus, 84, 85
Dillenii, 85

Muhlenbergii, colour plate XI., 85
pustulata, 84

veiled, colour plate XI., 85
uniform distribution of alga, 29
Usnea, genus, 80
barbata, 80

cross sections of thallus, 80 (cut)
trichodea, 81

vertical section of thallus, 80 (cut)
what they are doing on rocks and trees, 8
which yield a dye, 19
with coloured disks or cushioned, 8

concentric edges, 25

work done under primitive conditions, 14.
Wrinkled Parmelia, The, 83
Xanthoria parietina, colour plate II.,8i
Yellow Wall-lichen, The, colour plate

II.. So

yielding litmus, 19
Lid, 35

defined, 36
development of, 51
origin of, 49

with columella attached, 55
Limestone, 17, 144
Limnobium molle, in turbid water of glaciers,

Linnaeus, Carolus, 109, 136, 261
Little -beard Moss, 172
Little Fork-Mosses, 150
Litmus, how obtained, a test for acid and

alkalies, 19
Liverworts, 93

pioneers, 17
Lobe, 99 (cut)
Lobule, 99 (cut), 102 (cut)
Lowell, James Russell, 27, 29
Luminous moss, 34

power of conveying light, 34
Lungwort, 29
Lycopodiums, 69, 71

Male flowers-cluster, vertical section, 49

(cut)

Male flowers, 125
Mammillatc, 221
Manna, lichen, 20

Manna of Israelites, 20
Marchantia, genus, 19, 93, 98
polymorplia, 93-98 (cuts)

surface view of pore, 72 (cut)

vertical section of pore, 72 (cut)
Marsh building on Mt. Marcy, 17
Medulla, 80
Medullary layer, 82
Membrane, 33 (cut), 56
Mica, 74
Minute structure, how to gain a knowledge

of, 62

Mnium, genus, 225-234
affine, 10, 229

anmilus, 231, (cut)

apex of leaf. 225, 231 (cut)

leaves, 230

lid, 231 (cut), 52

male plant, 230 (cut)

perigonial leaf, 231 (cut)

peristome, 227 (cut), 231 (cut)

spore-case with lid, 52 (cut)

spore-cases, 231 (cut)

stem, 230 (cut)

tuft, 230 (cut)
cuspidatum, 226-230

annulus, 228 (cut)

apex of leaf, 226 (cut)
of leaves, 229 (cut)

border of leaf, 226 (cut)

inner membrane, 226 (cut), 339
(cut)

leaves, 228 (cut)

plant, 226 (cut)

spore-case, 229 (cut), 236 (cut)

stem with leaves, 34 (cut), 229 (cut)

tuft 226, (cut)
hornum, 231

apex of leaf, 226 (cut)

leaves, 231 (cut)

plant, 231 (cut)

spiny leaf border, 226 (cut)

spore-case, 232
futtctaium var. elatum, 225, 234, plate

apex of leaf, 226 (cut), 233 (cut)

leaf border, 226 (cut), 235

leaves, 233 (cut)

marginal cell of leaf, 226 (cut)

spore-case, 233 (cut)

stem, 233 (cut)

with hairs, 233 (cut)
with leaves, 34 (cut)
undulatum, stem, 46
Monocarbonate of lime, 144
Monoicous, 40, 48
Mosses, 107, 109

and Lichens, poem by Willis Boyd

Allen, 3
as a cement, 7

at work on the everlasting hills, u
change of colour, 6
check against torrents, 16
chemical work of, n
classified between, 71
distinguishing character, 30
distribution, 5, 7
"elf-needled mat," 10
endurance of cold, 7
first plants to appear on soil, 16
fossil evidence, 16
fruiting portion, 35
gametophyte, 65
how to collect, 73

to dissect, 73

to know them, 8

to preserve, 73

to study, 73
idle, 10
in rock crevices, 5

32O

Index

Mosses, mechanical work of, 1 2
method of obtaining water, 34
necessity for light, 33
pioneers, 15, 17
plants wrongly so called, 8
pores of, 72

position in plant kingdom, 61
produced without spores, 33
relative position in plant kingdom, 69
reproduction of, 32
resembling miniature trees, 9

tiny ferns, 9
retainers of rainfall, 16
of soil, 13
of water, 16

retention of mud by aquatic, 14
rock-loving, 5
saprophytic, n
"soft lips of," 10
soil makers, 12, 17
source of brooks, 16
species based on, 32
start in life not general on rocks, 13
velvet stage, 5
velvety coat of young, 5

cushions, 5

what they are doing on rocks and trees, 8
which build up limestone, 17

do not produce spores, 32
with straight-haired veils, 188
work done under primitive conditions , 1 4
Andrecea, genus, 130-^133

Hartmanii, fertile plant, 131 (cut)
leaves, 130 (cut)
sporophyte, 131 (cut)
sterile plant, 131 (cut)
petrophila, 132

leaves, 132 (cut)

vertical section of spore-case,

132 (cut)

rupestris, fertile plant, 133 (cut)
leaves, 133 (cut)
spore-case open, 133 (cut)
sporophyte, 133 (cut)
with four valves, 130 (cuts)
Archidium, genus, 140, 141
Ohiense, 140, 141

exit of spores, 140 (cut)
plant, 141 (cut)
sporophyte with veil, 141 (cut)
vertical section of sporophyte,

140 (cut)
Astomum, genus, 141

Sttliivantii, bract, 142 (cut)
leaves, 142, (cut)
plant, 141 (cut)
spore-case with veil, 142 (cut)
sporophyte, 142 (cut)
upper leaves, 142 (cut)
veil, 142 (cut)
Attlacomnium, genus, 234
androgynum, 235

head of gemmae, 234 (cut)
plant, 234 (cut)
spore case, 234 (cut), 235, 237
heterostichunt, plate XX., 237
annuhis, 238 (cut)
cross section of leaf, 237 (cut)
lid, 237 (cut)
male flower, 230 (cut)
spore cases, 237, (cut), 238 (cut)
palustre, 236

antheridia and paraphyses, 238

(cut)

leaves, 238 (cut)
plant, 238 (cut)-
stem, 238 (cut)
Barbula, genus, 172-176
caspitosa, 175

fertile plant, 173 (cut)

Mosses, Barbula,

caspitosa, leaves, 172, 175 (cuts)
male flower-cluster, 175 (cut)
plant, 173, 175 (cuts)
spore-case, 175 (cut)
tip _ of spore-case, 173 (cut)

Muellcri, 177 (cut)

unguiculata, 173

cross-section of leaf, 174 (cut)
leaves, 174 (cut)
plant, 173 (cut)
spore-cases, 174 (cut)
sporophyte, 174 (cut)
_tip of spore-case, 174 (cut)
Bartramia porni]onnis, 214, 215

leaves, 216 (cut)

plant, 216 (cut)

stripped, 215 (cut)

tuft, 216 (cut)
Bruchia flexuosa, 139

leaves, 139 (cut)

plant, 130 (cut)

sporophyte, 140 (cut)
Bryum, genus, 221-225

argenteum, 222

annulus, 223 (cut)

leaf, 221 (cut)

lids, 222 (cut)

peristome, 221, 222 (cuts)

plants, 222 (cut)

spore-case, 221, 222, 223 (cut)

veil, 223 (cut)

roseum, plate XVIII., 224
annulus, 225 (cuts)
apex of leaf, 224 (cut)
leaves, 224 (cut)
peristome, 225 (cut)
plants, 225

spore-case, 225 (cut)
Ceratodon, genus, 166-169

ptirpureum, colour plate IV., 167
annulus, 169 (cut)
leaf, 167, 1 68 (cuts)
lid, 169 (cut)
peristome, 167, 169 (cut)
plant, 1 68 (cut)
spore-cases, 167, 169 (cuts)
tuft, 167 (cut)
variety aristatus, 169
minor, 169
xanthopous, 169
veil, 169 (cut)
Dicranella, genus, 150—152

heteromalla, 151

leaves, 151 (cut)
peristome, 152 (cut)
plant, 151 (cut)
spore-cases, 152 (cut)
Dicranunt, genus, 152

congestum, 153 (cut)

flagellare, plate XIV., 154

basal leaf -cells, 155 (cut)
leaves, 155 (cut)
spore-cases, 155 (cut)

xopariunt, plate XIII., 152,155
base of leaf, 154, 157 (cuts)
leaf -cells, 154, 157 (cuts)
leaves, 153, 156, 157 (cuts)
sections of vein, 156 (cut)
tuft, 152, 157 (cuts)

subulatum, 153

undul.it um. 154
Ditrichum pallidunt, genus, colour plate

XIV, 171-172

annulus, 171 (cut)
leaves, 172 (cut)
peristome, 171 (cut)
plant, 171 (cut)
spore-cases, 172 (cut)
vein, 173 (cut)

321

Index

Mosses, Encalypta, genus, 190-193
ciliata, 192

leaf, 191 (cut)
perigonial leaves, 191 (cut)
perigonium, 191 (cut)
peristome, 192 (cut)
plant, 191 (cut)
spore-cases, 192 (cut)
veil, 191 (cut)
Fissidens, genus, 157-161
adiantoides, 158, 160

cross section of leaf, 158 (cut)
flower-clusters, 160 (cut)
leaves, 138 (cut)
peristome, 158, 160 (cuts)
plant, 158 (cut)
_ spore-cases, 158, 160 (cuts)
taxifoUum, 159 (cuts)

cross section of leaf, 159 (cut)
leaf, 159 (cut)
spore-case, 159 (cut)
stem, 159 (cut)
Funaria, genus, 209-214

hygrometrica, colour plates III.
XVI., 210

annulus, 212 (cut)
breathing pore, 213 (cut)
cross-section of young pedicel

212 (cut)

female flower, 211 (cut)
leaf, 212 (cut)
peristome, 210, 214 (cut)
plant immature, 211, 214 (-.%ut)
plants, 211, 213 (cuts)
protonema, 211, 213 (cuts)
spores, 21 1 (cut)
tip of female shoot, 213 (cut)

spore-case, 211 (cut)
vertical section of female flower,
211 (cut)

through male flower, 213
. (cut)

Georgia, genus, 193-197

Braumii, frondiform leaves, 194
geniculata, gemmae-bearing branch
197 (cut)
plant, 197 (cut)
sjxwophyte, 197 (cut)
pellttcida, colour plate III., 195

bract from gemma cup, 194

(cut)
branch with gemmae clusters,

1 94 (cut)

cross section of four teeth, 194

(cut)

gemma, 194 (cut)
leaves, 195 (cut)
lid, 194 (cut)
plant, 196 (cut)
side view of gemma cup, ip4(cut)
spore-cases, 194 (cut)
tip of spore-case, 194 (cut)
tooth, 194 (cut)
veil, 194 (cut)
vertical section of gemma cup

195 (cut)
Grtmmta, genus, 178, 181

hypnotdes, 178

apocarpa, 179

plant, 179 (cut)
spore-cases, 179 (cut)
Gymnostomum, genus, 143-145

calcareum, 143

leaf and cross section, 143 (cut)
leaves, 144 (cut)
plant, 143, (cut)
spore-cases, 144 (cut)

dtrvirostrum, 144, 145
lid, 145 (cut)
spore-case, 145 (cuts)

Mosses, Hedwigia, genus, 182-184

ciliata, 183

apex of leaf, 183 (cuts)
leaves, 182, 183 (cuts)
plant sterile, 183 (cut)

stripped, 183, 184 (cuts)
spore-cases, 184 (cut)
Leptobryum, genus, 216-218

pyriforme, 216, 217

annulus, 218 (cut)
apex of leaf, 218 (cut)
leaves, 217 (cut)
peristome, 217 (cut)
plant, 218 (cut)
spore-case, 217 (cut)
Leitcobryutn, genus, 161-165

glaucum, 163

portion of peristome, 163 (cut)

vulgare, 163

cell structure, 162 (cut)
cross section of leaf, 161 (cut)
leaves, 162, 164 (cuts)
peristome, 1 65 (cut)
plants, 164 (cut)
spore-cases, 162, 163, 165 (cuts)
terminal leaves, 163 (cut)
young plant, 163 (cut)
Octobiepharum, genus, 165, 166

aloidum, 165

leaf, 1 66 (cut)
plants, 1 66 (cut)
spore-case, 166 (cut)
Ortitotrichum, genus, plate XIV., 188-194

rupestris, 190

plant, 190 (cut)
sporophytes, 190 (cut)

strangulatum, 189
leaf, 190 (cut)
peristome, 189 (cut)
plant, 189 (cut)
spore-cases, 100 (cut)
sporophyte, 190 (cut)
Phascum, cenus, 135-137

cuspidatum, 136
leaf, 135 (cut)
male flower, 136 (cut)
plants, 136 (cut)
spore-case split to show colum-

ella, 135 (cut)
with veil, 135
veil, 136 (cut)
Physcomitrium, genus, 207-209

pyrifortne, ideal section of young
spore-case, 208 (cut)

tttrbinatum, plate XVI., 208
leaf, 207 (cut)
plants, 207
fid, 208 (cut)
spore-cases, 208 (cut)
young plant, 208 (cut)
Pleuridium, genus, 137, 138

subidalum, 138

leaves, 137, 138 (cut)
plants, 137
spores, 138 (cut)
spore-case split, 137 (cut)

with veil, 138 (cut)
veil, 138 (cut)

nervosunt, spore-case split to show

columella, 137
Pottia, genus, 169, 170

truncata, 169, 170 (cut)
leaves, 169 (cut)
lid, 170 (cut)
plants, 170 (cut)
spore-cases, 170 (cut)
veil, 170 (cut)
Racomitrium, genus, 180-182

lanuginosum, 181

apex of leaf, iSi (cut)

322

Index

Mosses, Racomitrium,

fanuginosum, leaves, 181 (cut)
peristome, 180, 182 (cut)
spore-cases, 181 (cut)
veil, 1 80 (cut)
vertical section of peristome

1 80, 182 (cuts)
Schistostega, genus, 199-30*
osmundacaa, 201

barren plant, 201 (cut)
fertile plant, 201 (cut)
protonema in natural position,
201 (cut)

cells light, perpendicular,
200 (cut)

oblique, 200 (cut)
veil, 200 (cut)
vertical section of protonema,

200 (cut)

Sphaerangium, genus, 133-135
muticum, 134

branches, male and female, 135

(cut)

leaves, 135 (cut)

Schimperanum, leaf cells, 134 (cut)
spore-case emitting spores, 134

(cut)

Sphagnum, genus, colour plate XI., 113-
130 (cuts)

absorbing quality of, in, 116
acutq, 122
acutifolium, 124

antheridia, 118 (cut)
antheridium bursting, nS(cut)
development, 119, 120
mature, 119

antherozoid, n8(cut), 120
archegonia mature when, 119
branch leaves, 123
development of spore-case, 121

(cut)
female branch, 123 (cut), 126

(cut)

gametophyte, 126
male flower-cluster, 118 (cut)

120 (cut), 125 (cut)
moss plant on protonema, 120

(cut)

penchastial leaf, 125 (cut)
perigonial branch, 125 (cut)

leaf, 125 (cut)
protonema, 119 (cut)
section of leaf, 124 (cut)

stem, 1 24 (cut)
stem leaves, 123

of moss plant, 118 (cut)

120, 121, 125
vertical section to show arche-

gpnium, 119 (cut)
antiseptic quality of, no
cell, structure of, 113, 114, 115,

117, (cuts)

change of colour, 109
climbing habit of, in, 112
euspidata, 123, 126

branch leaves, 127

stem leaves, 127

vertical section of ripe arche-

gonium, 1 20 (cut)
young embryo, 120 (cut)
cyclophylla, 124

branch, 1 24 (cut)
leaf, 124 (cut)

cymbifoliutn, 1 23, plate III., 124, 128
antheridium, 130
apex of leaf, 115 (cut), 127
bit of stem, 113 (cut), 129
bract, 115 (cut), 129
branch leaves, 130

Mosses, Sphagnum,

cymbifolium, cross section of leaf,
115 (cut)

stem, 113 (cut), 129
female branch, 115 (cut), 129
leaf from branch, 115 (cut)
from base of pedicel, 115

(cut)

magnified, 114 (cut)
male branch, 115 (cut)
perichastial leaf, 129
protonema of, 118 (cut)
stem leaf, 113 (cut), 130
surface view of leaf cells, 114.

(exit)
zones of cells in stem, 115 (cut)

foot of, 121

formation of peat by, 109, no
quaking bog by, no (cut)
raft by, no

germination of spore in water, ioj>

growth from apex, 109

outward from shore, no (cut)

lid of, 121

loss of root-like growth, 109

marsh building by, in
at Albany, 112
in Averyville swamp, na
in Connery Park, 112
in Hidden Swamp, iia
in King River, Cal., in
at Mt. Marcy, in
at Mt. Pocono, in
at Mud Pond, 112
near Palisades of Hudson, in
in Shawangunk Mts., 111

tnendocinum, 1 1 1

methods by which they encroach
upon water, 109

molle, 124

branch leaves, 124 (cut)
stem leaves, 124 (cut)

tnollia, 123

pale tint of, due, 116

papillosum, vertical section of
developing archegonium, 120
(cut)

pedicel of, 121

problem solved by geologists, 109

protonema of, 109

pseudopodium, 121

rubellum, 122, 123

apex of leaf, 126 (cut)
branch leaf, 126 (cut)
female branch, 126 (cut)
leaves of divergent branch,

126 (cut)

male branch, 127 (cut)
perigonial leaf, 127 (cut)
section of leaf, 115 (cut)

stem, 127 (cut)
stem, 113 (cut), 126 (cut)

squarrosa, 123

squarrosum, plate XII., 128
branch leaf, 123 (cut)
female branch, 128 (cut)
leaf at base of pedicel, 1 28 (cut)
leaves of branch, 127 (cut)
sporophyte, 116 (cut)
stem leaves, 128 (cut)
transverse section of leaf, 127
(cut)

subsecundum, 124

leaves, 123 (cut)

young archegonium, 120 (cut)

synopsis of, 123

use to economist, 109

veil of, 121

vertical section of young sporo»
gonium, 122

323

Index

Moses, Splachnum, genus, 204-207

iwteum, 207

sporophyte, 205 (cut)

rubrum, 206

capsule, 205 (cut)
fertile plant, 205 (cut)
leaf, 206 (cut)
male plant, 206 (cut)
sporophyte, 205 (cut)
tip of spore-case, 206 (cut)
veil, 206 (cut)
Tetradontium, genus, 198, 199

repandum, 198

leaves, 199 (cut)
perigonial leaves, 199 (cut)
perigonium, 199 (cut)
plants. 198 (cut)
teeth, 199 (cut)
thread-like branch, 199 (cut)
Tetraplodon, genus, 202

mnioides, 203

leaf, 203 (cut)

leaf apex, 202 (cut)

peris tome, 202, 204 (cuts)

plant, 203 (cut)

plant with male and female

flower-clusters, 203 (cut)
tuft, 202 (cut)
veil, 203 (cut)
Tortula, genus, 176-178

princeps, 177

leaves, 176 (cut)
peristome, 176 (cut)
plant, 177 (cut)
spore-case, 177 (cut)
tip of spore-case, 177 (cut)

ruralis, 178

awn of leaf, 178 (cut)
tip of spore-case, 1 76, 1 78 (cuts)
Trematodpn, genus, 147-150

ambtguum, 149

annulus, 148 (cut)
leaves, 148 (cut)
ltd, 149 (cut)
peristome, 147, 149 (cuts)
plants, 148, 149 (cuts)
spore-cases, 148, 149, 150 (cuts)

longicottis, 150
Ulota, genus, 184-188

congesium, spore-cases, 153 (cut)

crispa, plate XV., 186

leaves, 185, 186 (cuts)
peristome, 185 (cut)
plant, 185 (cut)
male flower-cluster, 185 (cut)
spore-case, 185 (cut)
sporophyte, 185, 186 (cuts)

Hutchinsice, 188

leaves, 187 (cut)
peristome, 188 (cut)
plant, 187 (cut)
spore-case, 187 (cut)
sporophyte, 187 (cut)
veil, 187 (cut)

phyllantha, 187

leaf apex with gemmae, 187
(cut)

subulatum, spore-cases, 153 (cut)

undulatum, spore-cases, 154
Webera, genus, 218-221

albicans, 220

leaves, 220 (cut)

lid, 219 (cut)

male plant, 220 (cut)

peristome, 220 (cut)

spore-cases, 219 (cut)

stem, 218 (cut)

tip of spore-case, 219 (cut)

nittans, 218

annulus, 219 (cut)

Mosses, Webera,

•nutans, apex of leaf, 217 (cut)
inner membrane, 219 (cut)
leaves, 217 (cut)
lids, 219 (cut)
plant, 217 (cut)
spore-case, 218, 219 (cuts)
Weisia, genus, 143-147
viridula, 146

leaves, 145 (cut)
lid with veil, 146 (cut)
peristome, 145, 157 (cuts)
plant, 146 (cut)
spore-cases, 146, 147 (cuts)
Mother cells, 51, 53 (cut), 121 (cut), 122 (cut)
Mucronate, 103
Mungo Park, 159
Mount Marcy, height of, 17
marsh building on, 17
variety of flora on, 17

Nomenclature, 75

Oak, "moss marred," 12
Octoblepharunt, genus, 165
albidum, 33 (cut), 165

spore-case, 33 (cut)
Ohio Hairy-cap, 252
Old Man's Beard, 19, 20
Oliver, picture of, n
Operculum, development of, 51
Orange stain, 3
Orlando, 1 1
Ovum, 47, 120 (cut)
Oxygen, 1 2

Palmella, 26

Papillate, 214

Paraphyllia, 279

Paraphyses, 40 (cut)

Paraphysis, 49 (cut), 213

Parma, 82

Parmelia, 28

Paroicous, 48

Pear-shaped Thread -moss, 217

Peat bogs, 6

Peat-moss, 126

Peat-mosses (see Spliagnwm under Mosses) , 34,

109

Peck, Chas. H., 112
Pedicel, 30, 35 (cut)

cross section of, 57

defined, 36 (cut)

function of, 37

origin of, 39

purpose of, 57

change in position of, 57

to show rudimentary bundles, 71 (cut)

twisted, 60 (cut)
Peltigera, genus, 8s, 86

apthpsa, 86

canina, 20

a cure for hydrophobia, 28
for hydrophobia, 20

polydactyla, 86
Perichaetial leaves, 53 (cut)
Percurrent, 142
Perigonium, 115 (cut), 125
Peristome, character in genus Catharinea, 56

opening of, in Catherinea, 56

structure of, in Polytrichum mosses, 55
56 (cut)

vertical section of double, 55

of single, 52
Perithecia, 25
Perithecium, 27 (cut)

324

Index

Phascum, genus, 135-13?

cttspidatum, 59 (cut), 135, 136

paroicous inflorescence, 40, 41
protonema of, 59 (cut)
Pinnule, 68, 69 (cuts)
Pith layer, 26, 87
Plants, nourishment of, 12
Plasma, 199
Pleurocarpi, 153
Pliny, 249
Porella, genus, 100—102

platyphylla, 99 (cuts), 100, ica
cell structure of, 65 (cut)
Podetia, 88
Pogonatum, genus, 242-248

Alpinum, 34 (out), 42, 247
lamellae, 247 (cut)
leaf, 242 (cut)
brachyphyllum, 245 (cut)

spore case, 32, 50 (cuts)
brevicaule, colour plate IV., 243 (cut)
leaf, 244 (cut)
lid, 244 (cut)
plant, 244 (cut)
protonema of, 38
section of lamellae, 244 (cut)
spore-cases, 243
stem, 243 (cut)
teeth, 244 (cut)
tip of spore case, 243
capHlare, 245 (cut)
tenue, spore-case, 239 (cut)
urnigerum, 246, 247 (cuts)
lamellae, 247 (cut)
leaf, 35 (cut), 247 (cut)
spore-case, 47 (cut)
Pointed Mnium, The, 228
Pompeii, 221
Polytrichacece, 239

Catherinea, genus, 239, 240
angustata, 241

apex of leaf, 241 (cut)
female plant, 241 (cut)
leaf, 241 (cut)
male plant, 241 (cut)
spore-cases, 240 (cut)
•undulata, 242

apex of leaf, 240 (cut), 242 (cut)
cross section of 239
leaves, 239 (cut), 240 (cut)
spore-case, 242 (cut)
tip of spore-case, 239 (cut),
242 (cut)

Polytrichwn, genus, 239, 248, 250
arrangement of leaves, 42
commune, 256

apex of leaf, 257 (cut)
cross section of stem, 46 (cut),

249 (cut)

lamella see from side, 257 (cut)
leaf, 250 (cut), 257 (cut)
lid, 258 (cut)

row of lamellae cells, 350 (cut)

spore-cases, 249, 256, 237 (cuts)

with lid, 5- (cut), 56

without lie!, 52, 56 (cuts)

summit of spore-case, 33, 36,

240 (cuts),
teeth around membrane, 258

(cut)

veil, 257 (cut)
cross section of leaf, 45 (cut)
dioicous inflorescence, 40 (cut)
female plant, 40 (cut)
forntosum, 252
gracile, 251

leaves, 257 (cut)
peristome, 251 (cut)
spore-case, 231 (cut), 250 (cut)
with pointed lid, 36 (cut)

Polytrichacece,
Polyirichum,

juniperinum, cross section of leaf.
257 (cut)

leaves, 248 (cut)
leaves, 44

chlorophyll, 44
mid-vein, 44
sclerenchyma, 44, 45
male plant, 40, 255, 248 (cuts)
Ohiense, spore-case, 252 (cut)
old sporophyte, 37 (cut)
piliferum, 250 (cut)
leaf, 32 (cut)
leaves, 254 (cut)
perichaetial leaves, 254 (cut)
perigonial leaves, 254 (cut)
plant, 253 (cut)
spore-case, 239, 254 (cuts)
subterranean shoot, 255 (cut)
vertical cells of lamella, 254

(cut)
sexangulare, leaves, 250 (cut)

spore-case with lid, without

lid, 52 (cuts)

spore-case, 35, 355, 356 (cuts)
strictum, 45

structure of peristome, 55
surface view of spore, 72 (cut)
vertical cells of lamellae, 255 (cut)
Pores, 72, 203
Primitive Mosses, 140
Protococcus, 27, 65 (cuts)
Protonema, defined, 62

development of, 120 (cut), 118
of Barbula, 59
of Ephemerum, 59
of fern, 65
of Hepatic, 65
of leafy moss, 6 5
of Phascum, 59
origin of, 38

permanent in Beard-moss, 38
persistence, 38
Prothallia, of ferns, 66
Prothallium, defined, 65
mature, of fern, 67
young, of fern, 67
Pseudopodium, 122, 131 (cust)
Pteridpphytes, 69, 71
Ptilidium, genus, 104, 105
ciliare, 64 (cut)
stipule, 64
under side, 64
upper side, 64
Pycnidium, 27 (cut)

Quartette-moss, The, 203

Rays of light, 199
Red Collar-moss. 206
ReddHi Feat-moss, 125
Reindeer-lichen, 27

as food, 28

Reproduction, asexual, by cellular bodies o«
protonema, 59

gemmae, 60

portions of leaves, 60
sporogonium, 60
stems, 60

rhizoids, 59
Rhizoids, 26, 64 (cut)

defined, 36 (cut)

dissolving fluid from, 18

imbedded in limestone, 18

mechanical action of, 13

origin of, 38
Ribbon stage, 64
Roccella, a source of Etmus, 19

tinctoria, 19

325

Index

Rock Andreaea, The, 133

Rock tripe, The, colour plate XI., 99

Root-hairs, terminal, 58

Roots, 69

definition of, 46
Ruskin, 4

Scale-mosses, see Hepatics, leafy, 99

Schimper, Wilhelm Philipp, 142, 188

Schimdel, 261

Schreber, Johann C. D., 76, 136

Scutellaeform, 80

Schwaegrichen, Christian Friedrich, 76, 198

Schwendener, 22

Scytonema, 23, 25

Seta, 30

cross-section of, 57

enlargement under spore-case, 57

purpose of, 57

change in position of, 57
sheath at base, 57
Sexual generation, 65

of ferns, 66
Shakespeare, n, 12
Short-leaved Hair-cap, 245
Silvery Bryum, 222
"Silver lichen spots," 3
Slender Catherinea, plate IV., 241

Hairy-cap, 251
Soreciia, 24, 82

Spanish-shield Lichens, see Cetraria, 79
Spenser, 12
Sperm-cells, 39, 40 (cut), 41, 49

defined, 46
Sphccrangif.'m, genus, 133-133

muticum, 49 (cut), 134 (cuts)

sperm-case of, 55 (cut)
Schimperanum, 134 (cuts)
Sphagnum, genus, 34, 109-130

acutifolium, 51 (cut), 118, 119, 121, 123,
124 (cuts)

vertical section of young sporogon-
ium, 51 (cut)
to show development of young

spore-case, 53 (cut)
cuspidatutn, 120 (cuts), 123, 126

sections of archegonia, 47 (cut)
cymbifolium, n (cut), 114, 115, 118
(cuts), 128, 129

first or sexual generation, 62 (cut)
protonema, 63 (cut)
resemblance to thallophyte, 63 (cut)
surface view of leaf, 34 (cut)
rubellutn, 125
squarrosum, 128
SpJachnum, genus, 204-207
luieunt, 207

apophysis, 59 (cut)
columella, 59 (cut)
rubrum, 31 (cut), 206
Sporangium, 207

of fern, 69
Spores, 30, 38 (cut)
defined, 36
ellipsoid, 80
exit of, in genus Catharinea, 56, 57

in Polytrichum mosses, 55
germination of, 38 (cut)
fern, germinating, 65
Hepatic, germinating, 65
how they escape from Polytrichum

mosses, 37

leafy-moss, germinating, 65
origin of, 51 (cut)
polar-bilocular, 81
Soreciia, 82

326

Spore-case, borne on side of stem, 3 1 (cut)
borne on summit of pedicel, 31 (cut)
cell structure of, 51
closed, s (cut),
columella exposed, 55 (cut)
defined, 35 (cut), 36
developing in Marchantia, 97 (cut)
development of, 49

illustrated by Sphagnum acuti-

folium, 53 (cut)

favourable positionsfor obtaining light, 5 7
formation of, 39
homologies of, 67
immature, 31
immersed, 30 (cut)
of fern, 68

opening by a lid, 30 (cut)
opening without lid, 30 (cut)
rim, origin of, 53
situation, 30
split in four valves, 9
spores falling, 30
teeth four, 37
teeth in one row, 30
in two rows, 30
of, in Catharinea, 56
wanting, 9
thirty-two teeth surrounding an ept-

phragm, 55 (cut)
to show columella, 54 (cut)
twisted, 60 (cut)
two rows of teeth, 31 (cut)
wall, origin of, 53 (cut)
with anmilus rolling away, 37
conical veil, 50 (cut)
eight teeth in pairs, 37 (cut)
four teeth, 32, 54, (cuts)
hairy veil, 32, 50, (cuts)
lid, 9, 48 (cut), 52
lifted, 48 (cut)
short pedicel, 51
thirty-two teeth, 57, 123 (cut)
veil, 48 (cut), 51
without lid, 52, 57

teeth, 30

wrinkling of wall to oust spores, 38
Spore-sac, 207, 53
Sporogonia, 41
Sporogonium, 48, 49
defined, 49

producing protonema, 60
wall removed, 49 (cut)
Sporophyte, 35
fern, 68 (cut)
Hepatic, 68, 69, (cuts)
homologies of, 67
moss 68, 69, (cuts)
origin of, 39
with pores, 72

Spotted Lungwort, a cure for lung trouble, 30
Spread-leaved Sphagnum, plate VII., 128
Squamulose, 88
Starch, 44
Stem, The, 45

cross section of, 46 (cut), 124
producing protonema, 60
Stereocaulon ramulosum, 23, 66
Sterigmata, 27 (cut)
Sticta, genus, 28, 86, 87
amplissima, 87
pulmonaria, colour plate XIV. 39, 87

used for beer, 20

Stictina fuliginosa, 26, 87, (cuts)
Stipule, 64 (cut)
Stolons, 224 (cut)
Stomata, 203

function of, 73
of Funaria, 72 (cut)
of Hypnum. 72 (cut)
of Marchantia, 72 (cut)

Index

Stomata, of Polytrichum, 72 (cut)

vertical section of, 72 (cut)
Stone-loving Andreaea, 132
Stylus, 102 (cut)
Sugar, 13

Sulliyant, William S., 142
Synoicous, 48

Tayloria splachnoides, 54 (cut)

columella attached to base of spore-case,

54 (cut)
Thuidium, sub-genus, 280, 281

delicatulunt, 31, 282, 283 (cuts)
minutulum, 55, 282, (cuts)

vertical section of double peristome.

55 (cut)

Teeth, attached by tips, 33 (cut)
cross-section of four, 54 (cut)
development of, 53
eight, 33. 37, (cuts)
four, 37 , 54 (cut)
function of, 37
in pairs, 54 (cut)

lattice work, character of, 54, 56 (cut)
methods of opening, 37
opening of, in Catharinea, 56
origin of varied forms, 54
sixty-four, 33 (cut)
split half-way to base, 37
thirty-two, 33 (cut)
varieties of, 37
with crescent-shaped fibres, 56
Tennyson, 6.
Terete, 80

Tetraplodon, genus, 202—204
angustatus, 202
mnioides, 203, 204 (cuts)

branch with male and female

clusters, 39 (cuts)
female branch, 63
monoicous inflorescence fertile

branch, 39 (cut)
peristome with single row of teeth

in pairs, 54
plant sho wing male and female

branches, 39 (cut)
spore-case without lid, 54 (cut)
summit of spore-case, 54 (cut)
with lid 54 (cut)
with teeth, 37 (cut)
tip of spore-case, 53 (cut)
with apophysis larger than spore-
case, 60 (cut)
Tetradontium, genus, 198

repandum, 198 (cuts), 199

spore-case with conical veil, 50 (cut)
Thalline exciple, 27
Thalloid, 93
Thallophytes, 66, 71
algae, 63
bacteria, 63

compared with bryophytes, 63
fungi, 63
why so called, 63
Thallus, 8, 64

cross section of, 80 (cut)
denned, 64

vertical section of, 80 (cut)
Theophrastus, 19

"Thorn with lichens overgrown," 12
Thread -moss, 216
Tooth, 52 (cut)
Top-moss, 208
Torn-veil Mosses, 180
Trabecvdate, 213
Tracheae, 44

"Trees o'ercome with moss," 12
Trematodon, genus, 147-150
ambiguum, 149 (cuts)

autoicous inflorescence, 40

Trematod&H,

ambiguum, vertical sections of single
peristome, 52 (cut)

longicollis, 150
Trichostomum tophaceum, 17
True mosses, distinguishing characters, 9

Ulota, genus, 184-188

asexual generation, 65
crispa, 186

collum of, 57, 65
double row of teeth, 52
lid, 65
pedicel, 65
spore-case, 65
vaginule, 57, 65
veil, 65 (cut)

Hutchinsia, 187 (cuts), 188 (cut)
part of peristome, 33 (cut)
spore-case, 33 (cut)
phyllantha, 187

portion of leaf with gemmae on the

apex, 58

Ultima Thule, 223
Underwood, Dr. L. M., 61
Usnea, genus, 80, 81,

barbata, 19, 25 (cut), 80 (cuts), 136

promotes growth of hair, 20
trichodea, 81
Utricles, 114, 129

Vacuole, 38 (cut), 64 (cut)
Vaginule, 57 (cut), 122 (cut)

defined, 53 (cut)

homology of, 57

of Ulota crispa, 57 (cut)
Vascular bundles defined, 69

rudimentary, 71
Vegetative part, 43

homologies of, 67
Veil, 31

conical, 50, 55 (cuts)

covering young sporogonium, 50 (cut)

defined, 35

hairy, 32, 50 (cuts)
due to, 50

of Hepatic, 71 (cut), 94 (cut), 95

split up on one side, 51 (cut)
Vein defined, 43

extending part way to apex, 43 (cut)
to apex, 42

solid, 43 (cut)

thickened cells of, 45 (cut)
Venus, 249

Vermes compared with Hepaticce, 62
Vesicle, 67
Villous, 86
Virgin Mary, 249

Wainio, Dr., 86

Water, necessity of, 32

Water-measuring Cord-moss, 210

Wavy-leaved Catharinea, 242

Weiss, Frederigo Wilhelm, 146

Whip Fork-nioss, 1 54

White mosses, 34, 161

Whittier. n, 15

Wildenow, Carl Ludwig, 254

Wood-ducts, 44

Woolly Torn- veil Moss, 181

Wordsworth, n

Xanthoria parictina, colour plate II., 20, 81
a cure for jaundice, 20

Yellow Collar-moss, 207
rosettes, 3
Wall-lichen, 20. 81

327

THE COUNTRY LIFE PRESS
GARDEN CITY, N. 7.

o* %

,/ r^-1 f

"H9n

— r

SRARJ

Internet Archive Audio

Featured

Top

Images

Featured

Top

Software

Featured

Top

Books

Featured

Top

Video

Featured

Top

Mobile Apps

Browser Extensions

Archive-It Subscription

Save Page Now

Full text of "Mosses and lichens : a popular guide to the identification and study of our commoner mosses and lichens, their uses, and methods of preserving"

See other formats