REESEV LIBRARY
O¥ THK
OF CALIFORNIA.
5
deceived.
•was JVo.
Shelf No.
THE
MOULDER'S AND FOUNDER'S
POCKET GUIDE:
A TREATISE ON
H3ULDING AND FOUNDING IN GREEN-SAND, DRY-SAND, LOAM, AND CEMENT; TH«
MOULDING OF MACHINE FRAMES, MILL-GEAR, HOLLOTV-WARE, ORNAMENTS, TRINK-
ETS, BELLS AND STATUES; DESCRIPTION OF MOULDS FOR IRON, BRONZE,
BRASS, AND OTHER METALS; PLASTER OF PARIS, SULPHUR, \VAX, AND
OTHER ARTICLES COMMONLY USED IN CASTING; THE CONSTRUC-
TION OF MELTING FURNACES, THE MELTING AND FOUNDING OF
METALS; THE COMPOSITION OF ALLOYS AND THEIR NATURE.
WITH AN APPENDIX
RECEIPTS FOR ALLOYS, BRONZE, V^BMPHES AND COLOURS FOR CASTINGS,
TABLES ON THE STRENGTH AND OTHER QUALITIES Of OAST MSTAL8-
BY FRED. OVERMAN,
MINING ENGINEER.
iirr.aoR OF 'THE MANUFACTURE OF IRON," "A TREATISE ON STEEL,'
ETC. ETC.
35navabfns0.
PHILADELPHIA:
HENRY CAREY BAIRB & CO.,
INDUSTRIAL PUBLISHERS,
810 WALNUT STREET.
1878.
LIBRARY
UNIVERSITY OF
<
Kntered, according to the Act of Congress, in the year 1851, br
A. HART,
ia th« Clerk's Office of the District Court oe the United States, in anc foi
the Eastern District of Pennsylvania.
U-
CONTENT3.
CHAPTER 1.
MOULDING.
Afatsriah for Moulding t — Sand, 14; green-sand, 14; dry sand, 15;
core-sand, 16; clay, 17 j loam, 18; blackening, coal-dust, black-lead,
anthracite, 19; soapstone powder, 20; localities of materials, 21;
grind-mills for blackening, 22.
look. — Flasks or boxes, 23; crane, 25; small tools, trowels, cleaner,
stamper, shovels, sieves, 28; pease-meal, parting-sand, gato-pins,
screws, Ac., 30.
Moulding in Green-Sand. — Moulding of a wheel, 31 ; filling in the
drag-box, 32; the top box, 36; gits, 36; removing the top box, 38;
drawing of the pattern, 39 ; blackening the mould, 41 ; pattern fas-
tened to the moulding-board, 43 ; composition of moulding-sand, 43 ;
general observations, 43 ; division of labour, 43.
Moulding in Open Sand. — Making of the bed, 48 ; moulding in one
box, 50 ; moulding of a cog-wheel, 52 ; causes of failures, 57 ; mould-
ing in more than two boxes, 59"; small articles of machinery, 61:
ornamental moulding, 62; hollow-ware, 66; small articles, 67; mould-
ing of a coffee-kettle, 68 ; patterns for hollow-ware, 70.
Mixed Moulding. — Moulding in green-sand with dried cores, 73;
cores and their use, 7 I ; core-boxes, 75 ; moulding of a column, 76 ;
making a pipe-core, 80 ; moulding with plates, 82.
Dry-Sand Moulding. — Drying of the mould, 84; glands, 85; verti-
IV CONTENTS.
cal castings, 86; moulding of a large pipe, 87; loam core, 88; haj
rope, 88 ; core-iron, 89 ; making of the core, 89 ; casting pipes with-
out a core, 93 ; small ornamental castings, 94 ; trinkets, 94 ; moulding
a stag, 96 ; scr jwing together of ornaments, 99 ; soldering, 99 ; brass
castings, 99; fine iron castings, 99.
Loam-Moulding. — Quality of loam, 101; compounding loam, 101;
moulding of simple round forms, 104. Moulding of a soap-pan, 104 ;
the core, 105; the thickness, 108; the cope, 108; taking apart the
mould, 110; blackwash, 110; gates, 112; gas-pipe, 112; cast-gate,
112; covering of the flow-gate, 113; use of the flow-gate, 114; cast-
ing by a single gate, 115; gas-pipes, 115.
Moulding without Thickness. — A steam cylinder, 116; making of the
cope, 117; the steam-ways, 117; cores for the steam-ways, 121; core
for the cylinder, 122; sullage piece, 123 ; fastening of the cores, 124;
burying of the mould, 125; fastening of the exhaust-pipe core, 126;
use of chaplets, 126; general remarks on cylinder moulding, 127.
irregular Forms. — Moulding of a curved pipe, 128; oval forms, 132-
bathing-tub, 132; elbow-pipe, 133; complicated forms, 134.
Moulding of Bronze Ornaments. — Moulding of statues by the ancient
Greeks, 138; French mode of moulding statues, 139; present
mode of casting statues, 141; iron statues, 142; bas-reliefs, 142;
moulding of bells, 143.
Metal Mouldn. — The bore of wheels, 146 ; railroad-car wheels, 146 ;
chilled rollers, 148; casting together of iron and steel, 152 ; moulds
for tin, lead, pewter, zinc, types, Ac., 153; mould for copper or
brass, 154; plaster of Paris moulds, 155; stereotyping, 155.
fmpressions and Castings.— Wax, crumbs of bread, sealing-wax, 159, •
sulphur, 160; glass, 161; clay, artificial wood, 162; plaster of Paris,
163 ; mould of a coin, 165; mould of a statue, 168; casting of plaster,
172 ; taking of a mask, 173; sulphur castings, 174; wax castings,
sealing-wax, and other casts, 175 ; elastic mould, 175 ; alum, saltpetre,
moulding of natural objects, 17P.
CONTENTS. ¥
CHAPTER II.
MELTING OF METALS.
frcm.— Qualities of iron: No. 1 iron, 179; No. 2 iron, No. 3 iron,
181 ; characteristics of foundry pig, 181 ; mixing of iron, 184 ; kind of
castings, 187; kind of moulds, 188; melting of iron, 188; in tbe
blast furnace, 188; in crucibles, 192; in reverberator! es, 196; tbe
cupola, description of, 201; operation in a cupola, 205; pots, 210;
blast-macbines, 212; fans, 212; hot blast, 217; drying stoves, 217.
General Remarks. — Cleansing of castings, 218; time of casting, 220,
cost of moulding and casting, 221; melting of bronze metal, 223;
melting of lead, tin, antimony, 'and brass, 224.
APPENDIX— RECEIPTS AND TABLES.
Alloys of Iron. — Iron and sulphur, iron and carbon, iron and phos-
phorus, 226; iron and silicon, iron and arsenic, iron and chromium,
iron and gold, iron and silver, iron and copper, iron and tin, iron
and lead, 227.
Alloys of Precious Metals, 228.
Alloys of Copver. — Bronze, 228; bell metal, 229; bronze for guns,
229 ; bronze for statues, 230 ; bronze of the ancient Greeks, 231 ;
bronze of the Aztecs, speculum metal, speculum metal of Rosso'a
telescopes, 232; bronze for medals, bronze imitation of gold, 233.
Brass — Common brass, solder, button-brass, red brass, princes'
metal, brass and lead, tempering brass, 234; brass for ship nails,
brass forpans and steps, brass and platinum. German silver, Chinese
packfong, argentan for plating", 235; electron, solder for German
silver, copper and platinum, copper and silver, copper and anti-
mony, 236 ; copper and carbon, copper and phosphorus, copper and
arsenic, 237.
Lead and its Alloys. — Lead and arsenic, lead and antimony, stereo.
type metal, fusible metal, 238.
Tin and its Alloys. — Tin r.nd lead, pewter, queen's metal, Britannia
n CONTENTS.
metal, German tin, music metal, antifriction metal, spurious silve*
organ-pipes, 239 ; imitation of diamonds, tin foil, 240.
Zinc and its Alloys, 241.
Bronzing. — Natural bronze, antique bronze, 241 ; various colours, 242 ,
bronze paint, 243.
Gilding of bronze and brass, 243; of iron, 244.
Tinning of brass, bronze, and copper, 245.
Zinking of copper or bronze, 245.
Glazing of castings, enamel, 246.
Blackening of iron with plumbago, 247; with varnish, 247.
Grinding and polishing, 248.
Malleable iron, 248.
Silvering of iron, 24S,
Table I. 250.
II. 251.
III. 251.
IV. 253.
LIBRARY
UNIVERSITY OF
CALIFORNIA.
THE
MOULDER'S AND FOUNDER'S
POCKET GUIDE.
CHAPTER I.
MOULDING.
THE moulding of metals and other materials into
the various forms, required for the accomplishment of
certain purposes — whether of an economical or or-
namental character — is an object of high interest.
Moulding is the noblest of the arts ; it serves with
unvaried interest the fine as well as the useful arts.
The heavy castings for the construction of machinery,
to the weight of thirty tons and more ; the statues of
the ancients, and of modern heroes, are ornaments of
human genius. The minute, well finished castings
of iron and bronze are evidences of human skill and
ingenuity.
Moulding may be considered in two distinct
branches ; the one is the moulding proper, the other
2 ' (13)
14 MOULDER'S AND FOUNDER'S POCKET GUIDE
the forming of the pattern. Moulding proper is al-
most the same in principle and in practice for each of
the various kinds of metals or alloys. Slight varia-
tions in the materials for moulding, and in treatment,
are the only differences in moulds which are designed
to be used for iron, brass, bronze, tin, or lead, and
other metals. The principal materials used in mould-
ing, are, sand of various kinds, loam, plaster of paris,
blackening, and metal.
Sand is the most common, and certainly the most
perfect and convenient material. It is superior to
all other materials for moulding. Sand is more or
less porous, and very refractory, so that the hot
metals do not melt nor bake it ; two qualities of
great importance in the successful operations of the
business. The various kinds of good moulding sand,
employed in foundries for casting iron or brass, have
been found to be of an almost uniform chemical com-
position, varying in grain or the aggregate form
only. It contains between 93 and 96 parts of silex or
grains of sand, and from 3 to 6 parts of clay, and a
little oxide of iron, in each 100 parts. Moulding sand
which contains lime, magnesia, and other oxides of
metal, is not applicable, particularly for the casting
of iron or bronze. Such sand is generally too weak
or to 3 close; it will not stand, or retain its form,
MOULDING. 15
DI it will cause the metal to boil by its closeness.
In practice the different classes of castings require
different kinds of sand for the purpose of moulding.
For one kind of castings the sand is to be porous,
open, and is still to be adhesive ; for another
class it is to be very adhesive and fine, almost free
of grit, to make itself conform to the minutest parts
of the pattern imbedded in it. At the proper places
in the description of the process of moulding, we
shall allude to the various kinds of sand best quali-
fied for specific purposes.
The best moulding sand is generally found along
the banks of large rivers ; that procured from the
shores of mountain streams, is in most cases too coarse
or too poor and weak. Good sand, however, has
been found on the very top of high hills. The best
is generally found in the vicinity of the primary
rocks, or along those river banks which receive their
supply from the primitive mountains. The alluvium
of the transition or metamorphous rocks, as gray-
wacke, slate, and feldspar, forms a very superior
moulding sand, if it does not contain too much iron.
In the coal districts there is generally little or no
difficulty in finding good sand, for most of the river
flats arc composed of that useful material, which,
however, frequently contains too much iron, and
16 MOULDER'S AND FOUNDER'S POCKET GUIDE.
is liable to melt from the heat of heavy castings,
an evil which can be modified by mixing the sand
with coke-dust, or anthracite powder. In tertiary
regions, and along the sea-coast, some spot is always
found where fine and strong sand may be dug ; in these
localities the best kind is frequently deposited. The
greatest difficulty in obtaining sand of a good qua-
lity, is mostly encountered in limestone and volcanic
regions, also where porphyry, mica slate, and mica-
ceous rocks predominate. Sand which contains
too much iron or lime, or still worse, mica, will
not adhere, and is liable to absorb and retain too
much moisture, and cause rough and unsound castings.
Good moulding sand has in its green state a yellowish
earthy colour, balls easily on being squeezed in the
hand, and, if sufficiently fine, assumes the finest im-
pressions of the skin without adhering to it. White
or gray sand is generally either too strong or too weak'.
Sand for undried moulds — green sand moulds —
is generally more open or porous ; it should not con-
tain as much clay as that used for dried moulds, or it
cannot assume or retain the finest impressions of
the pattern. Sand for dry moulding is frequently of
the finest kind, and very strong ; for heavy castings
a coarse but adhesive sand is mostly selected.
Core-sand. — The material most difficult to obtain is
MOULDING. 17
good core-sand. Core-sand should be coarse, very
porous, but still very adhesive. Rock-sand — the
debris of abraded rock — free-sand from river banks or
from the sea-shore, pounded blast-furnace cinder, and
other kinds of coarse sand, are frequently mixed with
fine strong sand, or with clay ; the use of the latter,
however, is to be very limited. The best core-sand is
frequently found on hillsides, or the very top of
hills, in places where feldspathic or primitive rock
has recently been decomposed, where the rock con-
tains sufficient clay to make it adhere, and where
the coarse angular grains have not supported vege-
tation, and it is consequently free of all vege-
table or animal matter. Where sand of abraded
rock cannot be obtained, free-sand, or, which is pre-
ferable, pounded blast-furnace cinder may be used,
tempered with clay, barm, pease-meal, or horse-
dung. In the use of the latter vegetable and ani-
mal substances, caution is to be exercised to prevent
the boiling of the casting, because of the quantity of
gas liberated from such matter. For cores, fresh
sand must be used in each cast ; old sand, burned
sand, or sand mixed with coal, cannot be employed
for this purpose.
Clay is frequently used for improving the adhe-
siveness of sand. It is to be selected from the white
2*
IS MOULDER'S AND FOUNDER'S POCKET OUIDE.
aluminous kind, argillaceous earth, or fine clay. li
is either dissolved in a large quantity of water, and
kept in the foundry for occasional use, or is dried,
pounded, run through a fine sieve, and then mixed with
the sand. The best plan is, to mix sand and loam to-
gether, and run this mixture moist through a mill ; a
common grist-mill, or a dust-mill, will answer for this
purpose. One part of clay mixed with nine parts of
free-sand, or any other pure sand, is considered suffi-
ciently strong for core-sand ; still these proportions
depend very much on the nature of the sand, and
the adhesiveness of the clay, and also what kind of
cores are to be made from it. The sand for large
and complicated cores, is to be stronger than that
for small cores.
Loam. — Common loam, or clay of which common
bricks are made, is generally used for loam-moulding.
The loam ought to be as free from iron, lime, mag-
nesia, and other alkaline matter as possible, because
they make the loarn too hard and close, and cause boil-
ing of the metal. Such mixtures are also not suffi-
ciently refractory to resist the heat of a large mass
of melted iron. If good loam cannot be obtained, a
mixture of sand and clay, as described above, is pre-
ferable to any imperfect loam. Loam, or any
cement for loam-moulding, is to be mixed with saw-
MOULDING. 19
dust, horse-dung, hair, or cut straw, hay, or similar
matter, which makes the loam adhesive and porous.
Coal-dust, black-lead^ and anthracite dust, are
simply means of blackening the mould, by mixing it
with the sand or loam. If hot metal is allowed to
be in immediate contact with some kinds of fresh
sand, the sand will partially melt, or if the sand is
coarse, the hot metal will penetrate into the spaces
between the grains, and the casting in consequence
will be rough. Blackening, or a coating of carbon,
will prevent in a great measure the burning of the
sand, and consequent roughness of the casting. Black-
lead is a very effective material for this purpose ; but
if used in too large a quantity it is apt to fill the
necessary pores of the sand, and, as it is almost in-
combustible, will prevent the escape of gases from
the hot metal, and consequently cause unsound cast-
ings. Next to plumbago in refractory quality is
anthracite ; and its dust, if not too fine, is an excel-
lent means of preventing the burning of the sand.
If there is too much anthracite dust in the sand, it
will impair its strength; and if the dust is too fine,
it will fill the pores of the sand. Dust of bituminous
coal weakens the sand considerably, but it makes
it very porous and open, thus facilitating the escape
of the gas. It causes the castings to be very
20 MOULDER'S AND FOUNDER'S POCKET GUIDE.
smooth, but without fine impressions ; it entirely de-
troys the sharp angles. Bituminous stone-coal dust
appears to have a remarkable influence upon iron.
Cast in a mould composed of sand and bituminous
coal, the iron appears to be more gray and coarse-
grained than when in any other mould. It is in
consequence generally weaker ; pig No. 2 improves
by it. Coke-dust mixed with sand is better than any
of the enumerated materials for making large cast-
ings, and for casting stove-plates. It makes the
sand open, without impairing its strength too much.
Coke-dust is not well qualified for face-dust ; it
does not make smooth castings. The most gene-
rally useful coal-powder is charcoal dust— ground
charcoal of hard wood, such as oak, beech, sugar
maple, hickory, or dogwood, well burned. Char-
coal powder can be mixed with sand to nearly one-
tenth of its volume. It is an excellent face-dust
for small castings. Very small delicate castings
require a very strong fine sand, free of all coal
and coal-dust ; these cannot be dusted with char-
coal or any other dust, for such would impair the
finer parts of the mould. Very small moulds are
blackened by a rush candle, or the flame of a pine«
Knot.
Soapstone powder is a very efficacious means
MOULDING. 21
of preventing the burning of the sand. For thin
castings, as stove-plates and hollow-ware, it is not
excelled in making smooth, sharp castings. Its
use, however, is not to be carried to an excess, because
it is as weak as coal-dust, and finally spoils the sand
of the foundry by making it too weak. Coal will
burn out of the sand, but the magnesia of the soap-
stone will not ; both cause porosity, as well as weak-
ness of sand.
Sand, clay, coal of every kind, and blackening are
so abundant in the United States, that we hardly
need enumerate localities. Good moulding-sand is
found everywhere along the eastern slope of the
Alleghenies, from the old rocks of Maine, through
the metamorphic strata of New Jersey to the Missis-
sippi river, along the sea-coast in the tertiary de-
posit, or in the coal and gold regions of Penn-
sylvania, Maryland, Virginia, and the Carolinas.
In the coal basins of the Allegheny, Monongahela,
and Ohio rivers, there is no lack of good moulding-
sand, and the same may be said of the valleys of the
Missouri and Mississippi/ Clay is also found there in
abundance, and of good quality. Anthracite is in
Pennsylvania, in Massachusetts, Ohio, and North
Carolina, and where it is found, there is hard bitumin-
ous coal, or splint coal, which serves the same pur-
2*2 MOULDER'S AND FOUNDER'S POCKET-GUIDE.
pose. Bituminous coal and charcoal are found in every
region of the union. Plumbago is found in Pennsyl-
vania, Virginia, North Carolina, and other places.
Soapstone exists in Maryland, Pennsylvania, New
Jersey, New York, and along the Atlantic coast.
There is an abundance of good materials spread all
over the United States.
Mills for grinding blackening. — Coal-dust is pre-
pared in mills of a particular construction, to pre-
vent the flying about of the blackcoal. It is
commonly ground in iron barrels which turn around
their own axis, and in which a number of cast-iron
balls roll over the coal and break it, as represented
in figure 1. Such an iron cylinder is generally
Fig.
from 2 to 3 feet in diameter, and from 1 to 5 feet
long. It makes from 20 to 30 revolutions per
minute, and is moved by a strap and pulley, or cog-
MOULDING 23
wheels. The number of balls, of which each one weighs
from 25 to 50 pounds, is indifferent ; the more there
are at work the better. In the larger cities, as in
Boston, New York, and Philadelphia, the manufactur-
ing of blackening and dust is carried on by men
who make an exclusive business of it. Remote and
country foundries prepare their own dust.
TOOLS.
The instruments and tools used by the moulder
are various and expensive. For moulding in green
as well as in dry sand, boxes or flasks are used ;
these may be made of iron or of wood. Iron boxes
are in the course of time the cheapest. For mould-
ing in loam, iron plates, core spindles, wrought-iron
bars, hoops and wire, are used.
Fig. 2.
Boxes or flasks are the enclosures of
24 MOULDER'S ANP FOUNDER'S POCKET GUIDE.
which is filled around the pattern. A flask consists
of two parts, as is represented in figure 2, where A
is the upper box, and B the lower box. C shows
the flask from above. The traverses, which are
generally wider in the upper box than in the lower, are
best made of wood, even if the box is made of cast
iron. These traverses are moveable, and may be
put into such positions as to suit the varied forms
of the patterns. The three iron pins, D D D, are
to be well pointed and tapered, and long enough
to afford a safe descent of the one box upon the
other. In case there are high projections on the
pattern, these pins ought to be nearly as long as the
flask itself is high. On each side of the flask are
two hooks, fitting to eyes, which serve to connect
the two parts of the flask as firmly as possible, to
prevent a separation or the lifting of the upper box.
These hooks are to be strong without being unneces-
sarily heavy. The eyes in which these hooks fit, are
firmly fastened into the wood and clinched inside, or
are cast into the iron when the box is being cast. On
each box are four snugs or handles ; these are for
lifting and carrying the boxes or flasks. On large
boxes, and also on very small boxes, there are but
two handles, in the middle of the small side, strong
enough to bear the weight of the box when filled
MOULDING. 25
«rith sand. In this case the snugs, or swivels, are
in the axis of the box ; and if a box is suspended by
a crane, it may be turned around its swivels, and be
at rest in every position. Figure 3 shows a box
Fig. 3.
suspended from a crane; which in most instances
is the proper way of lifting it. We see here that a
box must be very strong to resist the influence
of the heavy weight of sand and iron. If the
box gives way, the sand will crack and drop out,
3
26 MOULDER'S AND FOUNDER'S POCKET- GUIDE.
spoiling the mould. Large boxes should always be
made of iron. The form of the box is generally
suited to the pattern ; if the pattern is round, the
box is made round. This close fitting of the box to
the pattern is in many instances expensive ; it causes
new boxes to be made where often but one or two
castings of a pattern are required. The only in-
convenience resulting from square boxes, is the
amount of dead sand in the corners of the flask,
which may be avoided by putting corners of wood
or iron in the upper or both boxes. As in most
cases the lower box is not moved, the weight of sand
in that part of the flask is of little consequence ; but
where the nature of the pattern renders it necessary
to lift and turn the bottom or drag-box, the cor
ners of a square box may be spared just as well as
in the upper box. The chief objection to a square
box for round castings, is its weight ; but where a
strong crane is in the foundry, a little more or
less weight to be lifted is of small consequence. In
all cases, at least two inches space ought to be be-
tween the box and the pattern, and in case of heavy
castings, more. This space is also to be larger in
wooden than in iron boxes. When the space between
the box and the pattern is too small, the mould is
liable to leak, the hot metal will flow out if th*
MOULDING. 27
parting between the box and the pattern is too
narrow.
Flasks are to be as rough inside as they possibly
can be made, for it is by adhesion chiefly that the sand
remains in the box. In large flasks, the adhesion
of the sand is increased by driving into the tra-
verses and sides of the box, when the box is made
of wood, nails of such a length that the points pro-
ject on the inside. In cast-iron boxes, nails are
either cast in the box, or its inner surface is covered
with projections, made by driving the piercer an
inch or so into the sand before casting the box ;
the latter mode is preferable. Nails are incon-
venient in many cases, and in all cases trouble-
some ; they frequently cause imperfect castings, as
the sand never can be rammed as close where nails
project, as where there are none. If the sand is
not of a uniform closeness, the cast will be imper-
fect ; for where the sand is too loose to resist the
pressure of the fluid metal, the casting will bulge.
A better method than the foregoing of making the
sand adhere, is to put as many traverses in a box
as can conveniently be done, and place them as
close together as possible. The interior of the box
is mad) wet, traverses and all, with a solution of
28 MOULDER'S AND FOUNDER'S POCKET GUIDE.
strong loam or clay. This loam or clay is put Ou. by
means of a whitewash or any other brush.
Moulding-boxes ought to be made of cast-iron ; it
makes strong and durable flasks. Wooden boxes
cost less than those made of iron, but are more
expensive in the course of time ; they are liable to
burning and leaking, and never make correct cast-
ings ; their pins never fit well, and the wood is apt
to warp. Hollow-ware, pipes, and ornaments are to
be cast in iron flasks exclusively, or such castings
are liable to incorrectness. Iron boxes are more
heavy than wooden ones, which is objectionable, but,
considering the greater security of the iron flask,
the work may be done to more advantage than in
wooden flasks.
Fig. 4.
Small Tools. — The trowels, Fig. 4, A, A, are from
the size of a small mason's trowel, down to one inch
long and half an inch wide. The trowel is used for
Bmoothing down the surface of the sand, and clear-
ing away superfluous sand, polishing the blackening or
MOULDING.
29
coal-dust, and repairing injuries in the mould. The
whole of the trowel is generally made of metal,
handle and all. B, B, are round forms of tools for
polishing hollow moulds of a cylindrical or spherical
form. C is a cleaner, often twelve and more inches
long; it is used for cleaning and smoothing sunken
surfaces, where the trowel cannot be used. These
tools are generally made of steel, but are thus liable
to corrosion, which injures their polish. The best
metal for tools is hard bronze, as this is not injured
by oxidation. A high polish and straight surfaces
are the chief requisites of these tools. Their shape
or form may be varied, according to individual
taste. The general forms as represented, are the
most in use.
Fig. 5.
Fig. 5 represents both a wooden rammer and an iron,
one. The wooden rammer, edge shaped on both ends,
is made on the turning-lathe, in one piece; it serves
for pressing the sand close into the corners of the pat-
tern, and also into the flask. The other figure repre-
30 MOULDER'S AND FOUNDER'S POCKET GUIDE.
sents an iron rammer, which, however, is merely cast-
iron at one end, where there is a round button of from
2 to 4 inches in diameter on the face. The wooden
shank or handle is generally tapered or pointed at the
opposite end of the knob, for piercing the sand, or to
reach more closely into corners. Each of these ram-
mers may be from 2 to 4 feet long, according to the
kind of work to be done with it.
Besides the tools here enumerated, the moulder has
short-handled light shovels, for filling boxes and for
working the sand; sieves of various sizes or meshes,
and a riddle for filling the flask ; small bellows, for
blowing dry loose sand from the mouldings, and part-
ing-sand from the pattern ; and also, coal-dust or black-
ening. The moulder needs an iron pot for holding
parting-sand, and also a water-pot : two or more linen
bags for coal-dust, black-lead, and pease-meal ; a piece
of rope for tufts, for which paint-brushes also can
be used. Piercers or prickers, are iron or brass
needles, made of wire, from J to J of an inch thick ;
they are from 6 inches to two and more feet long,
tapered the whole length, and drawn to a point.
Parting-sand, is that sand which is strewn over the
moulding sand where the boxes separate; it is either
free-sand, river-sand, sea-sand, or pounded cinder;
or it may be the burnt sand scraped off the castings
MOULDING. 81
in cleaning them. Pease-meal may be substituted
by any ether meal ; the first, however, is the best.
Many tapered pins of various lengths, round, square,
oval, and oblong, are needed in a foundry for making
gits or gates ; some strong, well-tapered and pointed
screws for lifting out the patterns; iron hammers and
wooden mallets, small crowbars, pinchers and tongs.
Moulding in green-sand. — There are three dis-
tinctions in moulding ; green-sand, dry-sand, and
loam moulding. Green-sand moulding is generally
applied to light iron castings; as small, unim-
portant parts of machinery, stove-plates and stoves,
hollow-ware, grate-bars and fire-grates, shot and
cart-wheel bushes, water-pipes, gas-pipes, and many
other articles. This method is seldom used for
any other metal than iron. In making a mould
for a small piece of machinery, say a wheel, in
green-sand, the pattern is put upon a flat board,
which is laid perfectly level upon the floor of the
foundry, or, for small articles, upon a pair of trusses,
or a box which contains sand. Upon this board
the pattern is laid with Its smooth side on the board.
If the pattern is divided in two halves, but one half
of it is laid down, the jointed side upon the board.
Figure 6 shows the arrangement seen from above.
The board is to be straight and well planed, and
31i MOULDER'S AND FOUNDER'S POCKET GUIDE.
Fig. 6.
made of two-inch pine plank, or, if the article is
small, but one-inch. After the wheel is laid down and
well adjusted, or made solid by sprinkling some sand
on those places where it does not touch the board,
the lower box of the flask is put down inverted upon
the board. Before the drag-box is put down, a
layer of sand of one inch thick is frequently spread
over the pattern and the board. In this sand the
box is imbedded, and rests more firmly in it than
upon the bare board ; the box and pattern are not so
liable to shake, or the board to vibrate. The first
layer of sand upon the pattern is to be worked
through a fine sieve : this sieve is to be finer, the
smaller and thinner the pattern, or the more smooth
the surface of the casting is to be. This facing-sand,
or the first layer, is, in instances where a very smooth
sharp impression is required, to be fresh sand from
the pit, which never before has been in a mould.
Of such fresh sand, a layer of J to J of an ir.ch in
MOULDING. 33
thickness is to be sifted over the pattern. One inch,
or, according to the pattern, a greater depth of fine
sand, is to form the facing of the mould. All coarse
grains of sand are to be prevented from coming in
contact with the pattern. If the pattern is compli-
cated, or contains many nooks and corners, the facing
is pressed to the pattern by hand, to secure a uni-
form covering and a uniform tightness of the sand.
After the facing is properly secured, common mould-
ing-sand is thrown into the box through a coarse
riddle, flush with the box. This sand is rammed down,
cautiously and uniformly, with the wooden and edged
stamper. When the first box-full of sand is secured
and well worked into the cavities of the pattern, the
box may be filled again by throwing in sand from
the pile, which is repeated until the box is properly
filled and of uniform tightness. The coarse, or last
sand, is rammed with the round iron stamper, the
superfluous sand is stricken off by running an edge
rule over the box, so as to make the sand perfectly
flush with the box. If this first, or the drag-box,
has traverses, as shown in the drawing, there are
often difficulties in getting the sand properly distri-
buted over the pattern, and it is not easy to obtain
a uniform compactness of the sand. Traverses in
the drag-box arc admitted only in cases of very
34 MOULDER'S AND FOUNDER'S POCKET GUIDE.
smooth single patterns. Most of the moulds are
made without traverses in the lower box ; it is con-
sidered more safe in working the sand, and the work
is done easier and faster. When there are no tra-
verses in the lower box, the sand, after being levelled,
is sprinkled over with some loose sand and covered
with a board, which covers the box all over ; it is
gently rubbed on, and the whole, box and board, turned
over, so that the former bottom is now the top of
the box. If the patterns are large, and the box is
heavy, it is necessary to fasten both bottoms to the
box by means of glands, so that no slipping of the
boards may happen while the box is turned over.
If traverses are in the box, and no bottom is used,
a smooth place on the floor of the foundry is to be
prepared beforehand, upon which the box is laid.
In case there are no traverses, it is set upon a
plank bottom. When the box is deposited in its
proper position, that is, in that place where the
casting is to be performed, the first bottom upon
which the pattern was laid is removed, in which
there is no difficulty, if the bottom is not fastened
to the pattern. This bottom is frequently fastened
to the pattern, which is done in cases where the
patterns are limber; as is the case with light and
ornamented railing, ornamented stove or fire-grate
MOULDING. 85
plates. In this case a few gentle taps are to
be given on the back of the board, either with a
wooden mallet where the bottom is of value, or with
an iron hammer ; these taps will loosen the sand at
the pattern, and there is less danger of breaking or
injuring the facing of the mould. In this case the
join-pins of the boxes are fastened to the drag-box,
and are to go through the bottom to secure the exact
position of the pattern in the sand, when repairs
are to be made to the mould, in which cases the pat-
tern is put in again after having been removed.
In ordinary cases these pins are fastened to the
upper box. In many instances no bottom for the
pattern is used, but the upper box of the flask is
filled with sand, rammed in and levelled ; upon this
the pattern is bedded, then the drag-box put on, and
the work done as described above. It is a bad
practice to work without a pattern-bottom ; it is a
slow way of working, the patterns are liable to be
injured or bent, and the castings are never very fine
or correct. After the bottom is removed, the uppe:
surface of the sand-parting is smoothed down, and
the superfluous sand cut away by means of a trowel.
Pattern, sand, and box are to form one flush surface ;
this surface forms the parting. The parting-surface is
thinly covered with parting-sand, gently sprinkled
36 MOULDER'S AND FOUNDER'S POCKET GUIDE.
on by hand ; as small a quantity as possible is to be
used, just enough to prevent the adhesion of the
moulding-sand. As it is impossible to avoid throw-
ing some of the parting-sand on the pattern, which,
if left there, would cause a rough surface to the
casting, this sand is gently blown off the pattern with
a small hand-bellows. After the one half of the
mould is so far prepared, the other parts of the pat-
tern are put on, in cases where the pattern is divided;
the upper box is then laid in its proper place, the
hooks fastened, the facing-sand is put on ; after
which the common sand is stamped in ; in short, the
same operation is performed as previously described
for the lower box. When the pattern is simple and
smooth, there is not much difficulty in adjusting the
traverses, which may be straight, and reach with
their lower edge down to within half an iL^h of the
pattern. If the pattern is not smooth, and parts of
it project into the upper box, the traverses are to be
cut out in those places where they touch the relief
parts of the pattern. For these reasons wooden
traverses are preferable to iron ones, because they
can be easily fitted to any pattern. Many boxes
have no traverses at all; this is the case with boxes
of less than eighteen inches or two feet square.
Crates. — Immediately after the face-sand is put in
MOULDING. 37
the upper box, and before the second layer is thrown
>n, preparations are made for the gits, gates or pas-
sages for the metal. This is done by setting in wooden
pins, very much tapered, and of a sufficient length
to reach above the edge of the upper box. These
pins are generally made of wood, and are of a greafc
rariety of forms, lengths, and thicknesses. The
setting of these for gits is a nice point, and requires
some discrimination on the part of the moulder ;
particularly where iron is to be cast, and where the
patterns are very thin. On the distribution of the
gits depends in a great measure the success of cast-
ing. If the pattern is of a heavy thick form, say
more than half an inch thick in its thinnest parts,
and its surface is not too large, one gate will be suf-
ficient. In proportion as the surface increases or
the pattern is thinner, the number of passages is to
be increased. In most instances it is preferable to
have the gits outside the. pattern ; but this always
requires a somewhat larger flask, for which reason
this rule is not adhered to. Thin plates require flat
gits of a very oblong form ; mere edges, in case the
gits are to be set upon the plate or the casting itself.
On round patterns, wheels, pulleys, or any others
of that description, the gits must always be set
outside. In all cases there is to be an air or
4
38 MOULDER'S AND FOUNDER'S POCKET GUIDE.
gas gate, "which is always set upon the pattern
directly, whether the passages are inside or out-
side of the latter^'For very light, thin, or open
ornamental castings, it is often difficult to find
the proper places for the gits, and it requires
some experience to decide, at first sight, where to
put the gates on a new pattern. Frequently more
than one of the first castings of a new pattern
are lost on this account. In all instances it is
a rule to put the gits in such places that the
metal may find the shortest way to fill the mould ;
where the metal, in passing through the narrowest
parts, will find wider and heavier channels to be
filled, so that the partially cooled metal may unite
again in the heavier parts of the mould. If one
passage is not sufficient, there are to be two or more;
in fact, as many as are necessary to secure success.
The fluid metal is to be poured into all the gits at
once, whatever number there may be, so as to fill the
mould in the shortest time, and promote a union of
the metal from the various passages.
When boxes, pattern, and gits are in their proper
places, the flask has the appearance of Figure 7.
When the upper box is well filled with sand and
levelled, the hooks are unfastened, and the top box
gently lifted by one, two, or more men, or, which is
MOULDING. «>9
Fig. 7.
safest, by means of a crane. The box is then set on
one edge, or turned edgeways in the crane ; the pins
for the gits are then withdrawn, and the tapering
holes are cut larger, bell-mouth shaped, at the top
of the flask. The gits are to be very tapering ana
smooth, to allow an easy passage for the hot metal,
and prevent the washing down of loose sand. When
the upper box is well mended and secured, and ready
to be put on again, the pattern in the lower box
is removed. Before this can be done, the edges
of the sand all around the pattern are wetted,
which is done with a swab, or with a paint-brush
soaked in water, and pressed gently between the
fingers while running it over the mould. In that way
a greater or smaller quantity of water may be thrown
on the edges, as the workman may find it necessary.
The sand is now examined with the finger all around
the pattern, in order to ascertain if it is of a uniform
closeness. If too loose, so as not to resist the with-
10 MOULDER'S AND FOUNDER'S POCKET GUIDE.
drawal of the pattern or the influence of the hot
metal, it is pressed down, and some fresh sand worked
in with the trowel. If the sand around the pattern is
uniformly close, the trowel is used for smoothing the
whole surface, and then the pattern is withdrawn.
To withdraw a pattern is in many instances a deli-
cate operation, for the sand will more or less adhere
to it and damage the mould, in case the pattern
is lifted without being properly liberated from the
sand. To free the pattern from the adherent
sand, the lifting-screws are put in, after which it
is loosened by striking it gently downward with
a wooden mallet. In lifting it, it is to be tapped
sideways against one of the corners of the pattern, or
against the lifting-screws, or against studs made for
the purpose.
The lifting-screws are sharp-pointed and tapered,
and of a coarse thread when the pattern is of wood,
In metal patterns the thread is cut into the pattern,
fitting the screw. Richly ornamented or carved
patterns, or those of complicated machinery, are
seldom lifted without breaking more or less of the
mould, and damaging it. The moulder repairs such
damages by putting some water on with the swab, and
adding as much sand as appears to him sufficient for
filling the break. The more prominent parts receive
MOULDING. 41
a touch of the swab. The pattern, when removed,
is well cleaned by means of a dry brush, and laid in
the sand again, in its former bed. With simple pat-
terns this latter operation is not necessary: a skilful
moulder can repair a damaged mould without resort-
ing to this expedient. In ornamental moulds there
is, however, no chance of successfully repairing
a break. The pattern is once more pressed down to
its former site, and then withdrawn, the mould
generally being then found to be perfect.
Blackening the mould. — By shaking a small bag
filled with blackening or ground charcoal, over the
mould, it is covered with a thin film of coal-dust.
This dust is to be distributed as evenly as possible.
If fresh sand has been used for facing, the dust will
adhere to the sand, and the pattern, after being well
brushed over, may be laid in again to smooth the
dust down. The sand around the pattern is smoothed
with the trowel. If the mould is faced with old sand,
the dust is not likely to adhere, and may be blown
off, which is to be avoided. In this case a coating of
fine meal is given to the mould; any meal will answer
for this purpose, either rice, corn, or pease-meal.
If meal has been used before the dust is put on, it is
not advisable to put the pattern again in the mould,
until a heavy coating of dust has been given over the
4*
42 MOULDER'S AND FOUNDER'S POCKET GUIDE.
meal. Care must be taken in using coal-dust or meal,
as both cause dull castings if used to excess. The
best and smoothest castings are made where the
facing consists of a thin coating of fresh sand, and
with as little blackening as possible brought upon it
Skilful moulders will however succeed in putting in
the pattern again, whether they have been using meal
or not. When the sand is well smoothed down, and
the pattern laid in again, the channels or passages
are scooped out of the parting surface. The pins
which formed the gits, have given an impression in
the sand of the lower box. Between these impres-
sions and the pattern, channels are dug a quarter
of an inch or more deep : where these channels
join the pattern, they are seldom more than of the
above-mentioned thickness, but may be thicker and
narrower towards the gate ; the channels must be
thinner at the pattern than anywhere else, to make
them break close to the pattern, when broken off.
If one of such channels is not deemed sufficient, two
or more may be cut from the same gate; the chan-
nel also may be widened towards the pattern,
to afford a sufficient inlet for the metal, and may
be swabbed, to give greater security against being
washed away by the hot metal. After this is done,
the pattern is taken out once more, the upper box
MOULDING. i /J > 43 * /'j*
put on gently, the hooks fastened, and the moulOjr * \r
ready for casting.
When parts of the pattern project into the upper
box, or the pattern is divided, the same process is
to be followed with the upper, as has been done with
the lower box. In this case the upper part of the
box is to be covered with a board after the gate-pins
are withdrawn, and the box laid upon its back, sc
as to have that part of the pattern uppermost, which
is to be withdrawn. The process of lifting the pat-
tern is here exactly the same as in th%.lower box,
except that more caution is required in patching up
damages than in the lower box, to prevent the
dropping of sand when putting this box on the other.
When a pattern is fastened to the pattern board,
it is lifted out before the upper box can be filled
with sand. In this case the upper box is filled
over a smooth board, well polished with the trowel,
and put on without further preparation. It is pre-
ferable in this instance to bear the upper box down
by weights of pig-iron, instead of hooks. This
mode of moulding is easy and works fast, but is only
applicable to very tapered and low patterns.
Composition of Moulding-sand. — Although mould-
ing in green-sand at first sight appears to be so
Birnple, yet great difficulties, and often failures, may
44 MOULDER'S AND FOUNDER'S POCKET GUIDE.
be encountered by not observing certain practical
rules. The composition of the moulding-sand is of
the first importance. If the sand is too strong, that
is, if it contains too much clay, it is only fit for small
or very thin castings. In this instance, care is to be
taken not to make it too wet, for it absorbs a great
deal of water without showing dampness, but it is
soon found to be too damp for casting. Such fa%
strong sand may be improved by burning it, or by
continual use. It may also be improved by a mix-
ture of charcoal-dust, coke-dust, or anthracite-dust.
If too much coal-dust is used to make the sand work
well, the castings are apt to be rough. Such strong
sand is to be avoided for heavy castings. The heavier
the cast, the poorer and coarser the sand is to be.
Fine moulding-sand is liable to the same objections
as strong sand ; it works well in small moulds, rf
mixed with charcoal-dust, but it will not do for heavy
castings. A large mass of hot metal generates a
great quantity of steam in the moist sand, also com-
pounds of carbon, which gases require vent : open
coarse sand is necessary to give that vent. Core-
sand is always coarser then moulding-sand, and
seldom fit to be mixed with it. Where many cores
are used, whether large or small, it is advisable to
carry the castings to some spot in or out of the
MOULDING. 45
foundry, where the cores may be withdrawn and
broken without their sand mingling with the mould-
ing-sand of the foundry. A lot of good, well pre-
paied old sand, is of great value in a foundry; its
proper aggregation ought to be kept up by daily
additions of fresh sand, or is liable to become too
weak in the course of time. After each casting
the sand is to be wetted with as much water as is
required to give it the dampness necessary for
its adhesion. The amount of water differs in almost
every instance, and can be determined only by
experience. All the sand of a foundry ought to be
riddled at least once a week, to free it from chips of
wood, pieces of iron, lumps of burnt sand, and similar
matters, which produce inconveniences in founding.
If green sand is rammed too tightly, especially for
large castings, it is frequently broken, and bad
porous castings are the consequence. This happen?
because the confined steam or gases cannot escape
through the sand, and in rushing over the face tear
it down. The running in of the piercer, to make
artificial air-holes, is in such cases of great service,
but is almost ineffectual in large or thick castings.
It needs open, porous sand, to make the best kind
of vent. Vent-holes pierced or left purposely, will
never replace the advantages of open sand. If the
46 MOULDER'S AND FOUNDER'S POCKET GUIDE.
sand is not rammed tight enough, the liquid metal
is apt to break down all the projections in the sand,
and by its fluid pressure cause unevenness and swell-
ing of the mould, and in consequence imperfect cast-
ings. Each kind of sand, and each form of pattern,
requires a different treatment to insure success.
Too loose open sand, and too much coal or blacken-
ing, will make rough, imperfect, dull castings. Fine
or strong sand is liable to cause boiling, explosions,
or porous castings. Many of the difficulties may be
removed by a skilful moulder ; still it cannot be
expected of him to make smooth sharp castings in
coarse sand, or in sand which contains too much
coal. The skill of a green-sand moulder is more
frequently put to the test, than that of any other
artisan. Every different form of pattern, different
sand, different coal, different metal, and different locali-
ty, makes it necessary to modify his mode of working
Division of labour. — The most successful way of
overcoming the practical difficulties of green-sand
moulding, is to divide the business into branches, so
that each different kind of casting may be carried on
in its own appropriate locality, and with its own
proper workmen and materials. The sand suitable
for heavy machine castings, is not fit for moulding
small cog-wheels, less so for hollow-ware, and still
MOULDING. 47
less proper for ornamental carved castings. The
moulder who has been trained to small articles, is
hardly able to do heavy machine work ; and those
moulders who have been used to moulding heavy
articles, cannot at once compete with moulders of
light castings. To work successfully in green-sand,
it is almost absolutely necessary to divide the articles
of manufacture. There ought to be a separate shop, ,
and separate hands, and particular sand for heavy
machine-frames; a division for small machine-cast-
ings ; a separate foundry for hollow-ware and stoves;
and another for casting ornaments and railings, for
brass and for bronze. Each branch of these articles
of founding requires peculiar conditions under which
it can be most perfectly done, and carried on with
the largest profit. The author has observed an instance
where a moulder had been making, for eight conse-
cutive years, a certain kind of flat-bottomed pot, with
great success. No other moulder could earn half as
much on the same article, nor make it equal in qua-
lity. This moulder could not make anything else
but that pot; he failed m everything else he tried.
Moulding generally is a very particular art, but
green-sand moulding more so than any other kind of
moulding, if we wish to economize in the prosecution
of the business.
48 MOULDER'S AND FOUNDER'S POCKET GUIDE.
Moulding in open sand is frequently resorted to,
to avoid the making of flasks. It is in no way
cheaper than moulding in boxes, and the castings
are always rough and uncouth ; but there are instances
where it cannot be avoided. To mould in open
sand, a particular bed is prepared in the foundry.
The ground below it is dug out to the depth of two
feet below the level of the foundry floor. This hol-
low is to be as large in extent as the largest mould
to be made ; a little larger does no harm. It is filled
with coarse charcoal, coke, or anthracite-dust, or even
with small, say half-inch pebbles, in the bottom.
Upon this bed of open matter, two inches thick of
the coarsest mould, or river sand, is riddled, and
upon this common moulding-sand is sifted. When
the bed is so far prepared, two straight edge-rules
are put edgeways, one on each long side of the bed.
These rules are adjusted by a level, so as exactly to
range with each other, as well as with a horizontal
line. If now an edge-rule is drawn slanting ovei these
edges, it of course will cut the sand between the
rules down where it is too high, and will fill any
cavities there may be. As this surface of the sand
will still be rough, even after this levelling is accom-
plished, some fine sand is now sifted over the whole
surface, and a long straight wooden roller, of about
MOULDING. 49
six or eight inches in diameter, and long enough to
reach over both edge-rules in the ground, is rolled
gently backwards and forwards over the bed, care
being taken that the edges of the rules are clean, and
that the roller never misses them. This operation
will smooth the surface of the bed ; and in case the
sand is not considered sufficiently solid, some more
fine sand is sifced on, and the roller used to press it
down. This process may be repeated as often as it
is found necessary, until the sand is sufficiently com-
pact to resist the pressure of the fluid metal. After
finishing the bed, the rules are removed. Upon this
level bed the pattern is laid ; if it has any projections,
these are turned downwards and pressed into the sand ;
the largest part of the pattern however is left above
the sand, particularly if the pattern forms a plate.
Around the pattern, which is to have a straight sur-
face, some sand is piled by hand to form a dam all
around the pattern, and flush with it. After the
pattern is withdrawn the sand-dam forms the en-
closure, and must be strong enough to resist the
pressure of the fluid metal. On a convenient side
of the mould the channel is elevated ; that is, a
place on the top of the dam is made broad enough
to receive the fluid metal, and distribute it gently
over the mould. If there are any cores in the
50 MOULDER'S AND FOUNDER'S POCKET UUIDE.
mould, these are to be held down by pieces of
iron, to prevent their being lifted by the fluid
metal. After casting, the hot congealed metal should
be covered by a thin coating of sand, to prevent
its radiating too much heat into the work-room.
This kind of moulding is hardly ever used but for the
roughest kind of iron castings ; it is seldom applied
to other metals. It is mostly in use for foundry
utensils, as plates and platforms for the loam-mould-
er, furnace-plates, grate-bars, and the like articles.
Plates of any size and form may be made without
pattern : the edges are then formed by rulers, and
the corners by wooden squares of the desired angle.
The thickness of such plates is determined by the
amount of metal poured into the mould. Rough
flooring plates, rough railing, and other indifferent
castings, are sometimes made in open sand.
Moulding in one box. — In castings which are to
be made from smooth patterns, and where no great
accuracy is required, the pattern may be sunk into
the foundry floor and covered by a box. Every
foundry floor is considered to consist of sand, at
least a couple of feet deep. A ditch is dug, or a
place as large as the pattern, and every coarse piece
of burnt sand, nails, iron, &c., removed, by riddling
the sand. If the place is too dry, some water is
MOULDING. 51
thrown over it, and if too damp, dry sand /s thrown
over until it is so far elevated that the moisture will
not injure the casting. The place is to be level.
The pattern to be moulded is laid upon the sand
and pressed into it, and the sand worked against
the pattern by hand. The filling-up around the
pattern is to be flush with the pattern, and to extend
far enough to resist the pressure of the fluid metal.
Upon this mould, which forms the lower box, the
upper box is laid, and kept in its place by four or
more wood-poles, driven around the box into the
ground. This upper box is managed just as any
other upper box, with only this difference, that weights
are used to bear down upon it and resist the fluid
pressure of the metal. If a pattern is large, and
there are no means in the foundry to lift a heavy
box, and if the upper side of the pattern is smooth,
the mould may be covered with iron frames in the
form of open network, cast in open sand, and covered
with a coating of coarse loam, well dried. By join-
ing the edges closely where these plates meet, a cast-
ing may be made just as'good as if an upper box had
been used. Castings mad« in these kinds of moulds
are never so good as if made in the regular way in
two boxes ; moulding in this manner is admissible
only where necessity compels, and quality is no desi-
52 MOULDER'S ANI POUNDER'S POCKET
deratum. It is in rather more general use than
there is need for. In a foundry where large machine
castings are made, it requires much room and con
siderable dead capital to keep a sufficient stock of
flasks, but the interest on capital thus invested is
easily paid for by the facilities and security afforded
in moulding, and the better quality of the castings.
Moulding in the floor of the foundry answers for
some kinds of pig-iron better than for others.
Moulding of a Cog-wheel. — Heavy green-sand
mouldings are very frequent, and it will not be amiss
to describe the moulding of a large piece. We will
select the moulding of a large face-cogwheel. Some
of the wheel-patterns are divided into arms and cir-
cumference, which is on many accounts preferable
to other methods, but particularly on account of
exactness. A wheel cast to its spokes is never round,
as the arcs between the arms stretch in cooling. We
will adopt a wheel with arms, and these arms divided
on account of their cross section.
Fig. 8.
A_CL
Figure 8 is a vertical section of a flask filled with
MOULDING. 53
sand, and ready for lifting the upper box. The dif-
ferent shades of the sand indicate what belongs to
the upper and what to the lower box. In a wheel
of this kind the face of the wheel is square, as a
matter of necessity ; no tapering is permitted, as in
patterns of other descriptions. The inside of the
rim may be tapered, and as the spokes of the wheel
cannot be lifted from the lower box, only the spokes
are divided so as to lift one half of each with the
upper box. The lifting of the upper box is now not
difficult, since a part of the pattern is carried with it.
The part of the pattern which belongs to the upper
box, is fastened to the box by the screws A, A, which
pass through the sand, and are fastened to planks
on the top of the box. These screws are drawn
tight, so as to leave no space for any motion of the
pattern. The half pattern in the lower box is with-
drawn, by lifting it perfectly vertical and in all its
parts at once. This work is done by several men ;
ten or more hands are often required to perform this
part successfully. While the pattern is being raised,
the men lift with one hand on iron pins firmly screwed
into the pattern, and strike the pattern gently but
in rapid succession, so as to loosen the adhering sand.
Before the pattern is lifted the damages done by re-
moving the upper box are repaired, which is easily ac>
54 MOULDER'S AND FOUNDER'S POCKET UUIDE.
eomplished by using some damp sand and the trowel.
In case the sand is not very porous, it is pierced close
to the pattern, to make air holes for the escape of
the gases. The number of holes required de-
pends entirely on the quality of the sand ; close,
strong, or fine sand requires more vent-holes than
that \vhich is coarse and open. If the pattern in
the lower box is smooth and varnished, the swah
may be used liberally, but if not, or if the wood
is porous or coarse, but little water is used, and
the pattern is to be withdrawn as soon as possible.
It is altogether a good rule in moulding to work fast,
and withdraw the pattern from the sand as soon as
possible, particularly a wooden one. It is no ad-
vantage to a metal pattern to remain long in the
sand ; no pattern ought to remain there over night.
It is almost unavoidable to prevent injury to the
mould, particularly at the periphery of a cog-wheel ;
the sand between the teeth will be always more
or less broken. To repair these injuries, one or
more single teeth are generally supplied by the pat-
tern-maker, of which two at once may be set in and
the sand between the two filled up by means of a.
long sleeker. A preferable mode is to have a seg-
ment of the wheel, of at least three teeth ; such a
segment may be easily withdrawn, and gives more
MOULDING. 55
correct divisions. To work with loose teeth requires
great experience not to injure the division or pitch
of the wheel. Other parts of the mould are generally
simple, and if any injury is done it is not difficult to
repair such with damp sand, by means of the trowel
or sleeker. A long, well made, and polished sleeker
is of great service in moulding wheels. The mould
is well polished over, after the pattern is withdrawn
and every broken part mended ; it then receives
a slight sprinkling of charcoal-dust, and is again
polished.
When the lower box is finished, the upper box,
which is still fastened to and suspended in the crane,
may be turned over and laid upon its back. If the
box is too heavy, or the means insufficient to turn
the box, it is left suspended in the crane as it is,
face down. Some temporary supports however ought
to be erected below the box, to hold it in case the
chain of the crane should break, which would en-
danger the life of the workman engaged in repairing
injuries. All the work to be done at the upper box is
in this case accomplished from below the box. While
one workman is below, first mending and wetting, and
then watching the mould, others unscrew the pins
from above, and in case there is any danger of sand
breaking loose, the unscrewing is stopped, and the
56 MOULDER'S AND FOUNDER'S POCKET GUIDE.
doubtful places soaked with water, and firmly pressed.
In many instances hooks of small wire, wet in
clay-water, are stuck around the edges of the pat-
tern in the sand. The pattern, after every injury
has been repaired, is removed, the mould polished,
and the upper box is then ready to be put on the
lower. In this instance no coal-dust can be used in
polishing the mould; the casting, therefore, will be
rough at the upper side. In all cases of divided
patterns the better plan is to turn the top box upside
down, which gives an equal chance to the upper as
to the lower box ; the proper work can then be per-
formed on it. To turn a box upside down, requires
a suspension of it on two points or swivels ; the ^ox
must of course be strongly made. In lifting, too
much attention cannot be paid to the uniform and
vertical raising of the box ; the least twisting of it
will break the sand and cause injury to the mould.
Boxes made too weak are very apt to bend, and
often cause the falling out of the sand altogether.
After the upper box is well repaired, the gits ready,
and the channels cut in the lower mould, the flask
may be closed. Hooks are useless on large boxes ;
the only means to keep the upper box down against
the pressure of the fluid metal, is by weights or
screws. Planks are laid over it to prevent damage to
MOULDING. 57
the mould, and the weight, which may consist of
broken pig-iron or any other heavy metal, is gently
laid upon these planks ; in this way the pressure is
more uniformly distributed. The gits to a wheel
should be between two spokes, near the periphery,
and two or three channels cut from each git, either
to the spokes, or, preferably, to the spokes and rim.
For a large wheel there Are to be at least two gits —
three would be better. There are also to be some
flow-gates, one in the centre and two or more at the
circumference. The gits should to be large, say
two inches wide, and also have a wide trumpet-shaped
mouth. The channels which conduct the fluid metal
from the gits to the mould, are to be smaller in section
than the git ; for in pouring the metal the git is to
be kept full, to avoid the passing in of impurities, as
coal, dross, or sand, which may float on the metal ;
such impurities would injure the casting if permitted
to pass into the mould.
Failures from some unforeseen difficulty frequently
take place in the moulding and casting of large pat-
terns. Fine strong sand is never to be used for
heavy mouldings in green-sand ; it invariably causes
boiling, or at best, causes the castings to be porous
and full of holes. If fine sand is mixed with much
coal-powder, it is liable to be too weak to resist th*
58 MOULDER'S AND FOUNDER'S POCKET GUIDE.
pressure of the metal, or even the drawing of the
pattern. It requires too much coal to make fine
sand porous enough for heavy castings. Coarse
open sand is the best for heavy castings where a large
quantity of metal is poured in a mould; such sand
however makes rough castings, which can be remedied
in various ways. The mixing of coal-powder with
coarse sand is not to be recommended, for it makes
the sand too weak, and causes the generation of too
much gas. Open porous sand, free from coal, can
be used to advantage, if the pattern is covered with
a layer of fine sand, say one quarter of an inch thick,
or such thickness as is sufficient to resist the pres-
sure of the iron ; a very thin coating is in most cases
sufficient. Such a coating of fine sand, well dusted
and polished, will make smooth castings. Coal is
not of much use in sand for heavy castings, for if
the iron retains its heat long, as it does in ponderous
masses, it destroys the coal nearest to it, in conse-
quence of which the casting assumes a peculiar
roughness. The only coal which resists the influence
of hot iron in large masses, is plumbago or anthra-
cite, but these, if they are so fine as to make a
smooth surface, are too fine to admit the freo escape
of the gases, and if such carbonaceous matter is
eoarse, it causes as rough castings as coarse sand.
MOULDING. 59
In practice, Coal mixed with the sand is advantage-
ous, but it is not,to be in excess, and coke or char-
coal-dust are to fee preferred on account of their
peculiar porosity. But in heavy castings, coal can
never prevent the metal from penetrating between
the grains of sand ; and if coal is of no service on
the facing, it is of none in the body of the mould.
Heavy castings are therefore best made in dried
sand or loam, as we shall hereafter describe. Ma-
chine frames of a large body of metal, or of little
importance, may be moulded in green-sand; but
frames which are to be strong, wheels, or beams,
ought to be cast in dry sand, for the unequal shrink-
age of iron in wet sand, caused by the moisture, is very
apt to impair the strength of a casting.
Mouldings of more than tivo boxes, are not so fre-
quent, and are generally avoided in moulding machine
frames. Many a complicated pattern may be
moulded in two boxes, if properly managed. If no
division of a pattern can be devisod to meet all the
difficulties, the moulding with cores is resorted to, to
meet the emergency. We will illustrate this in one
instance. Figure 9 represents a flask in which a
pulley is moulded. The pattern of the pulley is di-
vided at the dotted line. After the lower box ia
filled and turned, the sand is cut out around tho
60 MOULDER'S AND FOUNDER'S POCKET GUIDE.
fig. 9.
^mT*^$^m
circumference as indicated, the surface of the sand
smoothed and parting-sand sprinkled on, which is
carefully brushed or blown off the pattern. The
other or upper part of the pattern is now laid down,
and a core of fresh moulding-sand pressed carefully
into the groove of the pulley, in the form as indi-
cated. This core is filled flush with the pattern,
and slanted towards the edge of the box. It is well
polished, covered with parting- sand, and then the
upper box put on and moulded. When both boxes
are filled, the flask is covered with a board and
turned upside down, the drag-box is then lifted off
first, and the lower half of the pattern removed.
After this the flask is once more closed and turned,
putting it this time on its bottom part. The upper
box is now lifted, and the other half of the pattern
removed. While turning the box, and lifting the
pattern, the very brittle round core of green-sand
is here always supported, without danger of its
breaking. In a similar manner many complicated
MOULDING. 61
patterns may be moulded, by simply putting in cores
of this kind. Where green cores cannot be applied,
dry cores must be used, and the spaces for such pro-
vided for in the pattern ; but of these hereafter.
Small articles of machinery require in many
instances very skilful workmen, and a dexterous
handling of the patterns. There is no branch of
mechanics where more perfect castings are required
and made, than for spinning machines. These cast-
ings are to be true, smooth, sound, and malleable, con-
ditions which are not easily effected. To succeed
well, it requires particular sand, and a certain
amount of coal mixed with it, and workmen who are
experienced in that kind of work. Many advantages,
however, may be given to the moulder in the arrange-
ment of a pattern. If a small face-wheel is to be
moulded, and the teeth are to be parallel, it is
difficult to mould such a pattern. If however a ring
of lead is cast around the wheel, so that each
space between the teeth of the wheel is occupied
by a lead tooth, and the wheel may be drawn
through the lead without difficulty, the moulding
of such a small wheel is rendered comparatively
easy, by laying the lead ring upon the sand
around the wheel, when the weight of the lead will
hold the sand down, which otherwise is apt to fol-
6
62 MOULDER'S AND FOUNDER'S POCKET GUIDE.
low the wheel, particularly that portion between the
teeth. In moulding small machinery of iron, it ia
not so much the smoothness of the castings which
is to be considered, as the soundness of the metal ;
for this reason, the sand of such a foundry will bear
and requires more coal-dust in admixture, than other
foundry sand.
Ornamental Moulding. — The moulding of orna-
ments and railing is a subject of some interest,
besides being a branch of the fine arts. Railing of
simple forms, with one side smooth, may be cast in
open sand ; but there is the objection against it that
open castings, made of the same metal, are never so
strong as those cast in flasks. There is no economy
in casting railing in open sand. For coarse railing,
open porous sand is used, containing a good portion
of coal. Here we have to remember that coal causes
faint dull castings; the outlines are generally imper-
fectly developed. Carved work or sharp outlines
can never be expected to be good if too much coal is
used, either mixed with the sand, or dusted on. In
ornamental moulding, it is not generally the strength
of the metal which is the most valuable, but it is the
perfect representation of the pattern which is desir-
able. Sharp outlines and smooth castings are the
object of the moulder in this case. Some coal mixed
MOULDING. 63
wit> the sand, is necessary, but it ought to be as
little as possible. To secure sharp castings, the fac-
ing of the mould is made of fresh fine sand ; a layer
of one-twelfth of an inch thick is sufficient, and this
dusted with fine dust made of oak or hickory charcoal.
Ornamental work always is and can be sufficiently
tapered to leave the sand readily, and if the pattern
is made of metal, and well polished, it may be re-
peatedly laid in the mould, and all imperfections
of the mould may be repaired to the most minute
correctness. Dusting the facing of the mould is the
very last operation ; every damage is to be repaired
with fresh sand, and every line of the mould is to be
eorrect before the dust is put on. There is no more
coal-dust shaken over the mould, than is just suffi-
cient to make a smooth casting. Pease-meal or any
other meal is inadmissible in ornamental moulding;
it is injurious to the sharp outlines of the casting.
Common pannels of railing are generally smooth on
one side, and may be cast in wooden flasks; but
where both sides of a railing are ornamented, iron
boxes are to be chosen. "As an illustration of orna-
mental green-sand moulding, we will choose a square
hollow column or railing-post, represented in figure
1.0. Figure 11 is the post represented in a section
cutting through the post and the flask. The pattern
MOULDER'S AND FOUNDER'S POCKET GUIDE
Fig. 10.
is divisible in four parts ; it divides on each corner. In
moulding, one of these parts or one side is laid on a
board, and the lower box filled over the pattern; the box
is then turned, the sand smoothed, and the two other
parts A A put on. To keep these parts of the pattern
in their places, four or more small square boards are
put between them. These boards are of exactly the
size to fill the inside, B, of the square. Parting-
sand is now thrown on, and the middle box put in its
place. The middle box is divisible on both ends, kept
together by hooks, so that each part, A, of the box
can be removed by itself. The spaces, A A, and B,
are now rammed in and filled flush with the pattern
and the box. After this the fourth side of the pattern
MOULDING. 65
's put in its place, which forms the top ; parting-sand
and the upper box put on, and this box rammed in.
The pins for the gits are to pass through the middle
box into the lower ; and if the metal is to be not
more than half an inch thick in its thinnest parts, it
requires four gits, if thinner, six gits. On each end
of the column a flow-gate is set upon the upper part
of the pattern. Yfhen all the boxes are filled, and
the gate-pins in, the top is covered with a board, and
the flask inverted. The drag-box is now lifted, and
the side of the pattern removed. The four parts of
the pattern are to be fastened, each to its respective
box, by means of screws passing through the sand into
the pattern. Each of the four sides of the pattern
has its taper towards the box. This lower part of
the mould is to be well finished before closing, for there
will be no opportunity of getting at it again. The
small square boards, B, are now withdrawn, and the
spaces left by them in the core, filled up with sand.
When the requisite work on this side is performed, the
drag-box is put on again and the flask reversed.
The git-pins are now withdrawn, the upper box with
its part of the pattern removed and put aside, until
both parts of the middle box are ready. The pins
which hold the middle box to the lower, are not to
fit too closely^ or are to be moveable, for the parts
66 MOULDER'S AND FOUNDER'S POCKET GUIDE.
of the middle box are to be drawn in an angle, be-
cause it cannot be done straight. The process of
withdrawing the pattern from the middle and upper
box is simple, and requires no particular description.
For this kind of work a somewhat open sand, or fine
sand mixed with ground coke or ground charcoal, is
to be used. Too close or too strong sand is liable to
cause explosions in this case. Many apparently
complicated patterns may, like this pattern, be
very easily moulded, and by simple means, if they
are properly divided.
Moulding of Hollow -ware. — The distinct objects of
this branch are, however numerous, still of great
similarity. In no branch of the art of moulding is
skill and dexterity brought to such perfection as
here ; it is the result of the division of labour, prac-
tised in this department. The objects belonging to
this branch, are pots, kettles, fire-grates, stoves and
stove-plates, grate-bars, locks, latches, hinges, and
all such articles, which are standard articles of com-
merce. In this case it is not alone the sharp,
well expressed outlines of the pattern which are
essential ; besides these, well finished articles
require smooth surfaces, uniform thickness, and
a high degree of lightness. The sand of a hol-
low-ware foundry is to be fine, but it may be
MOULDING. G7
tiberally mixed with coal-powder ; blackening or an-
thracite may be used for dusting. The most elegant
patterns are now manufactured into stoves, and we may
say, that there is no nation where the art of construct-
ing elegant and economical iron stoves and fire-grates,
has been carried to so great an extent as in our country.
The moulding of these patterns is simple, there are
but few complicated forms, and therefore this branch
is no particular object of our investigation. In the
manufacture of hollow- ware, there is a great advan-
tage in good well-finished patterns. If the patterns
are perfect there is generally no difficulty found in
making good castings, for most of the articles are
thin, and there is little danger of the sand burning
and adhering to the metal. Articles of commerce
are generally worked to as much advantage as pos-
sible. Patterns of small articles, as parts of locks,
latches, hinges, knife-blades, knife-covers, and other
small articles, are generally put ten or twenty or
more together, connected by a permanent channel
which conducts the metal from the gits to the pat-
,erns, and forms a part of. the pattern. Such a batch,
or set of patterns, generally fills one flask. The
New England States, and Pittsburgh, are remark-
ably successful in manufacturing small articles.
Borne cases various articles are put
68 MOULDER'S AND FOUNDER'S POCKET GUIDE.
into one flask, in which, however, a similarity of
size is to be observed. Whatever number of pat-
terns there may be in one flask, it is always calcu-
lated to cast a flask of small objects with one ladleful
of metal.
Moulding of a Coffee Kettle. — As an object to illus-
trate hollow moulding, we will choose the form of a
common coffee pot, or water kettle, represented as
moulded, in figure 12. The form of a water kettle
Fig. 12.
is generally known. It is an almost spherical ves-
sel, with a snout or pipe. We have selected one which
fits to a cooking stove, with a contracted flat bottom ;
in other cases that bottom is round, with three studs
to stand on. The pattern is here an exact model
of the kettle as it is to be, with the exception of the
pipe, which is, or may be solid. The flask consists
of three boxes, of which the middle box is divided by a
vertical division into two halves — cheeks. This divi-
MOULDING.
sion runs through the pipe and divides the mould into
two halves, so that when both boxes are removed,
the pipe, which is not fastened to the pattern, may be
withdrawn. In this case the upper part of the pat-
tern is divided just in the division of the middle box,
which leaves an unsightly division, and is likely to
expose the pattern to injury. A better plan of work-
ing is, to have the middle box in one piece, and di-
vide at the lines A, A, and B, B. At the pipe the
upper box reaches down into the middle box, as far
as the pipe goes down, and divides the sand just along
the bend of the pipe ; the middle box parts with the
lower at the rim of the kettle, where the core also
separates, as indicated by the darker and lighter
shades of sand in the drawing. The pattern is
only divisible in the line A, A, through the pipe.
In moulding this kettle the lower ( in the drawing
the upper) half is put on a board and the upper
box rammed in, this box turned upside down and the
other half of the pattern put on. The middle box
is then set in its place, and fastened to the upper box.
Both boxes may also be. -put together, and rammed
in together, just as conveniently. Sand is then filled
in the middle box around the pattern, and after this
the sand is rammed inside of the kettle. The parting
is made between the lower and middle box, as indi-
70 MOULDER'S AND FOUNDER'S POCKET GUIDE.
cated, and the lower box filled. The flask stands
now inverted, and the kettle on its bottom. The
lower box — as the flask stands it is the upper box —
is now withdrawn, then the middle box lifted and
the upper half of the pattern withdrawn. First the
middle and then the upper box put on again, and
the flask turned, which will now stand as in the draw-
ing. We may now draw the upper box, remove the
lower part of the pattern, and put in the core for the
pipe, which is made in a separate core-box. The git-
pin is now drawn : this is very much tapered one way,
and thin, the other way three or four inches wide,
formed like a blunt wedge, whose edge is J of an inch
thick. The box is now put on again, and the mould
ready for casting.
Patterns for hollow-ware require to be very accu-
rate, if we expect the moulding to be well done.
The originals of these patterns are generally mould-
ed in loam, cast in brass, and turned in a turning
lathe, or, if not of a round form, worked by other
means until a perfect form is obtained. A pattern
having been smoothed and polished, is then cut into
such parts as are considered necessary to make it
available. Pins, ears for handles, and studs for feet
or handles, are generally put on loose. All dished
utensils are generally cast with their mouth down-
MOULDING. 71
wards, except covers. Where the neck of a core is
narrow, and there is any danger of the hot metal
lifting the core, as may occur in the case of the
coffee pot, the core is fastened to the bottom of
the flask by a thin iron rod with a cross at the
upper end, buried in the core and fastened below the
bottom. Hollow-ware moulders need a variety of
peculiarly shaped tools, and sleekers. Most of the
tools are button-shaped, with short studs for handles,
more or less round, or even cylindrical, to suit the
various hollow forms of the patterns; others are plain
and heart-shaped; others again have double plain sur-
faces at certain angles with each other, to suit certain
corners in the mould. Blackening — plumbago — is
chiefly used as dust, and if well polished, it will make
smooth and good-looking castings.
In this kind of moulding, iron boxes are generally
used ; this is necessary to secure good and correct
castings ; it is also the cheapest way. If iron flasks
are well made, the work in them is done fast, well,
and safe, while imperfectly made or wooden flasks
always cause more or less .delay in work. From well
made flasks many advantages may be derived : we
will mention one. Suppose a moulder is to mould
twenty flasks of one and the same pattern, if the
boxes are well made and fit one upon the other pro-
72 MOULDEK'S AND FOUNDER'** POCKET GUIDE.
nriseuously, there is no need of boards after the first
drag-box is moulded. Upon the first box which is
moulded, say the lower box, its complement the
upper box is ran^med in. After parting upon the
upper box, the next lower box is moulded, leaving of
course the pattern always in that box which serves as
the bottom of the flask. In this way the top box of
the first flask serves as the bottom to the next bottom
box, and so on through the whole range of boxes. Each
two boxes come together as they have been moulded,
and it may happen in the course of the work, that
one of the last boxes will not fit to one of the first,
which however does not make any perceptible differ-
ence in the correctness of the castings. It requires
some dexterity and experience to succeed well in this
mode of moulding.
There are many articles here not enumerated as
belonging to green-sand moulding ; such as iron cast-
ings, parts of architecture, which are now so exten-
sively used. To this belong window and door sills,
door and window frames, columns and railing. All
these forms are easily moulded, and require no par-
ticular details ; we shall, however, mention some of
them in the following chapters.
MOULDING. 73
Mixed Sand Moulding. — Moulding in green sand
with dried cores may be considered a mixed mould-
ing, which requires particular knowledge of the
composition and construction of cores. In previous
pages we have Spoken of core-sand, but we shall
here treat upon the formation of cores, and the
quality of the core-sand for particular purposes. The
management of cores is a matter which requires
some ingenuity ; malformation often causes perplexing
failures, and is in most cases the source of unsound
castings.
Cores are especially used in forming vacancies ii.
castings, which cannot be successfully formed by the
pattern. The forms of cores vary greatly, as may
be expected ; but in general, if made of open porous
sand, free of vegetable and animal matter, and of coal,
and if the sand does not contain too much clay, and
the cores are properly dried, there is hardly any
difficulty experienced on account of the cores.
A caution not to be neglected is, that cores a^e
never to be put into a green-sand mould until the
very latest moment before casting. Cores which
are not surrounded by metal on all sides, are
made of stronger sand than others which are
often not dried at all. In cores which are cov-
ered with metal on all sides, and have only one 01
7
74 MOULDER'S AND FOUNDER'S POCKET GUIDE.
two small vent-holes for the escape of the gases, aa
is the case with cores for narrow pipes, the sand is
moderately mixed with free-sand. It is to have no
more clay or adhesive matter 'than is just necessary
to make it adhere for being moulded and dried.
Sand of sharp grains, as pounded rock or slag, is
more open than the composition of round grains,
as river or sea-sand, and for this reason prefer-
able. In many cases, yeast or meal water is used
besides clay water to strengthen the core-sand, but
these ought to be used cautiously, for not only water,
but any other substance which generates gases is
injurious to core-sand, causing blower holes in the
castings. The safest core-sand is a natural sand which
can be used without any artificial admixtures.
Moulders ought to examine their neighbourhood until
they find sand suited to their purpose, in case they
are not already provided with it. Long or thin cores
are stiffened by iron wires, or small rods of iron,
which are moistened with clay water. Such wires
or rods are buried in the core, and recovered when
the casting is cleansed from its adhering sand. Cores
of considerable length, also those in which the sand
is rather strong, are pierced with long wires through
the whole length, taking care not to drive the piercer
through the surface of the core. Curved or angu-
MOULDING. 75
lar cores, which cannot be pierced, and are too long
to do without vent-holes, are made open by laying
one or more strings along the stiffening wire in the
heart of the core, which strings are drawn out after the
core is dry. If cores are too long to bear their own
weight and the pressure of the metal, they are to
be supported by chaplets or by staples. The latter
are simply nails with broad flat heads ; they are stuck
into the sand mould, and project with their heads just
so far as the thickness of the metal between the
mould and the core is to be. Chaplets are simply
bent pieces of sheet iron in the form of a [, or two
pieces of sheet iron riveted to a pin, the distance
between both being equal to the thickness of the
metal. Cores are covered with a coating of black-
ening, which is put on wet. This is the more ne-
cessary, as the cavities made by cores are mostly
difficult of access, and an easy scaling off of the sand
from the iron is therefore very desirable. Liquid
blackening for cores is the same as that used in loam-
moulding ; and by referring to that chapter a receipt
for its composition will be found. The blackening
is laid on the wet core, as it leaves the core-box, by
means of a heavy paint brush, and both the core
and its blackening are dried simultaneously.
Small common cores are made in simple core-
76 MOULDER'S AND FOUNDER'S POCKET GUIDE.
boxes, such as are represented in figure 13. A,
Fig. 13.
is two strips of boards, with a square projection on
each end. Both are at liberty to be moved, and
if laid upon a flat board, sand may be filled in the
space which is formed by the squares : for each size,
that is, section of core, such a box is required, but
any length of core of that size may be made in a
box of this kind. Round cores are made in boxes
similar to that represented in fig. B. Globular
cores are made in spherical cavities, and in fact any-
core in such a cavity as it is destined to form in the
casting. Cores are not always made because they
are necessary: they are frequently made to save
expense in patterns and in moulding, and to render
a successful cast more certain.
Moulding of a Column, — As an instance of mixed
moulding, we will describe the moulding of a fluted
column, wl1 icb may serve as an illustration for most
MOULDING.
eases of this kind, particularly for pipes. Figure
14 represents the pattern of a column with orna-
Fig. 14.
mented capital, as it is imbedded in the sand, mould-
ed, and ready for removal. A, A, are the core-prints,
which leave a cavity to be filled by the long core
which is to form the bore, or hollow in the column.
It is in many cases difficult to mould a richly orna-
mented capital in green-sand, along with the trunk
of the column, and still the capital ought to be in a
solid connexion with the shaft ; this case is here
represented. On the pattern of the column, instead
of the ornamented capital, a block of six or eight
sides, or of more or less than that number, occupying
the place of the cap, is inserted, as indicated by the
lines in the drawing, and more distinctly represen-
ted in figure 15, by the dotted lines which represent
a hexagon. The fluted shaft of the pattern is divided
through the whole length into two halves, which is
best done through the opposite channels, as indicated ;
for a seam which falls otherwise upon two ribs,
7*
r8 MOULDER'S AND FOUNDER'S POCKET GUIDE
Fig. 15.
makes these ribs always more or less imperfect, which
is not so glaring if it falls in the channels. Besides
this division of the pattern, each half of the pattern
is again divided into three subdivisions, or more, as
the case may be. These latter divisions, as shown
in the drawing, divide the circumference of the co-
lumn into six parts, each half in three, held together
by blocks and wood-screws. After the screws and
the blocks are drawn, the pattern may be taken
from the sand in parts, each part by itself. No se-
cond part is removed until the first impression is
mended in the mould, in case there is anything bro-
ken in the sand. The capital is formed in the follow-
ing manner. : If it consists of six equal ornaments,
as leaves or spirals, one of these is carved, and
prepared for being used as a pattern ; over this pat-
tern a core-box is made, and so calculated that a core
made in this box will fill one of the parts of tho
MOULDING. 79
polygon formed by the pattern. Such a core will
fit in the mould, and occupy one part of the space
having on one side the impressions of the ornaments
of the capital, joining with two sides the next cores,
and resting with one side in the sand of the mould.
The cores which belong to the upper box may have
wires or rods inserted to be fastened with, to the box.
After these cores are placed, the centre core is put
down, the flask closed, and in fact managed like any
other object of our consideration. In placing the cores,
care is to be taken that the liquid metal cannot pene-
trate below a core and lift it; all the crevices which
would lead to such a result are to be avoided, or
carefully filled up with green-sand ; and if there is
any doubt as to the safety of the cores, they are to
be wired down. At each end of the flask in the
parting a small opening is left to communicate with
the vent-holes of the core ; these openings are in no
way connected with the interior of the mould, so as
to endanger the cast by admitting hot metal to run
out this way. Gits and channels are as usual in the
proper places, and if means permit it, the column
ought to be cast inclined, into one gate which is at the
lowest part, the git raised, by means of small boxes,
to such a height as to balance the flow-gate. The
latter is to be at the highest point of the pattern and
80 MOULDER'S AND FOUNDER'S POCKET JUIDE.
the box. Here, as in any other case, the cast-gate is
to be kept full, in pouring in the metal, to prevent the
running in of impurities along with the iron. Direct-
ly after the column is cast, or better still while the
metal is pouring in, fire is to be applied at both ends
to kindle the gases escaping from the core, which
gases will explode if left to kindle spontaneously.
Water pipes, gas pipes, or pipes for any purpose
whatever, are moulded in tha same manner as column s.
There is no essential difference, but in the form of the
pattern. The core of a pipe is to be a fac simile of the
bore or hole to be formed. A core-box for water or
gas pipes is represented in figure 16 : it shows a
Fig. 16.
longitudinal section of an iron core-box. Frequently
such boxes are made of wood ; but in well conducted
establishments they are made of cast iron. Wood
is apt to twist and warp, and in consequence causes
imperfect cores. An iron core-box is generally
round, about half an inch thick in metal, and has
two square projections to rest upon when laid down ,
around these projections an iron strap is drawn, to
hold both halves together when in use. A core-box
MOULDING. 81
is to be true in its bore, for which reason it is bored
or planed, so as to make it true. Both edges, where
:he halves of the box join, are, if not quite sharp,
to form a blunt edge in case the core is made when
lying in a horizontal position. To make good cores
in a lying box requires a great deal of experience,
and it is for this reason not generally practised.
In most cases the box is rammed-in vertical or in-
clined ; the latter way is more convenient than the
first, and quite as good. The ramming-in of the sand
is done by a long iron ramrod. The centre of the
core is, in very thin cores, say 1 J inch diameter, an
iron rod, along which a wire is laid ; both are ram-
med in together, and the wire is withdrawn while
the core is in the box. This leaves a cylindrical
channel all through the core, and serves for the
escape of the gases. In thicker cores, of two or
three and more inches in diameter, the centre rod is
a hollow pipe of cast or wrought iron, full of holes.
The latter are necessary, or the gas would not find
its way to the interior of the pipe. Heavy cores
are made of loam, of whteh we shall speak in another
place. The centre rod is to be a few inches on each
end longer than the core. This forms the bearing
for the core to rest upon when it is to be dried, and
82 MOULDER'S AND POUNDER'S POCKET GUIDE.
also the journal on which it is to be turned, when the
blackening is to be laid en.
Moulding with Plates. — In many cases cast-iron
plates with handles are used when one part of the
mould is to be removed before the pattern can be
drawn. This is the case with the sand between the
arms of a bevelled wheel ; also with face wheels, or
in cases where the pattern, and consequently the sand,
is too deep to admit the drawing of the pattern with-
out injury to the mould. Plate moulding is gener-
ally performed on bed-plates of steam engines, bed-
plates of turning lathes, house props, and in all cases
where the sand is surrounded on three sides by hot
metal. The sand lifted out in these instances is dried
and treated like a core. In the case of a bevelled
wheel the moulding by plates is effected as follows :
Figure 17 shows a section of a bevelled wheel as it is
Fig. 17.
imbedded in the floor of the foundry, which has been
levelled for the purpose. The sand, in immedi-
ate contact with the pattern, is sifted. The parting
MOULDING. 83
is in the line A, A. In the spaces between tho
spokes, cast-iron plates, B, B, are inserted, with
wrought-iron handles cast into them: these plates
are cast in open sand, and from J to f of an inch
thick. They have in this, case a triangular form,
similar to the space they serve to occupy, and are at
least two inches all round, smaller than that space.
These plates are laid upon the parting, or, in m my
instances, impressed into the sand about J of an inch
deep. They are then covered over with a layer of
small iron rods, or wire, or in many cases wooden
rods, dipped in clay-water. These rods overhang
the plate and reach near to the pattern. The body
of sand in the centre of the plate will sustain that
end of the rod which is to carry the sand beyond
the plate. The space between the arms is then filled
upon the plates with moulding sand, flush with the
pattern. This forms the parting for the box. After the
pattern is covered, and the top box removed, the sand
between the arms is removed, by means of the han-
dle C ; of which there may be more than one if the
core to be lifted is too heavy for one hand, or it is to
be lifted by the crane. This part of the mould
forms separate pieces : -cores in the form of triangles,
which may be blackened and dried. The pattern
being removed and the other parts of the mould
81
ready for casting, the plates are replaced, eithei
green or dried, just as convenient. The upper box
is put on, and the mould may be filled with metal.
This kind of moulding is very extensively used ;
it is a cheap and very convenient way of working.
Dry-Sand Moulding. — This is a very interesting
branch of moulding ; to it belong most of the brass
and bronze moulding, ornamental iron moulding, and
a great part of machine moulding. Dry-sand mould-
ing is in many respects preferable to loam-moulding ;
it gives a casting more true to the pattern than loam,
which latter, on account of its shrinkage, frequently
gives imperfect forms to the cast. The strength
and uniform texture of the castings is quite as well
secured in dry-sand moulds as in loam moulds.
Dried or baked sand often consists of a mixture of
loam which has been used, and fresh sand ; in most
cases, however, particularly in ornamental moulding,
fresh sand is used. Dry-sand obtains a very firm
and open texture, and is well qualified to cast machine
shafts, pipes, and such articles as require strength
and beauty. The manipulation of moulding in dry
sand is exactly the same as in green-sand, but is less
difficult. In this case no coal powder is mixed with
the sand, which leaves the sand stronger. If fresh
is used, it is of very easy moulding. When
MOULDING. 85
the moulds are finished and blackened, they are
conveyed to the drying stoves, for at least twelve hours,
twenty-four hours, is better to expel by the action of
heat the moisture contained in the damp sand. The
blackening is done by a paint brush, in the humid way,
just as loam moulds or cores are blackened. This is
done with some caution, so as not to injure the sharp
outlines of the mould. The blackening is applied
very thin. A moulder who understands mixing his
sand properly, so as to be strong and porous, and
assume at the same time fine impressions, will make
finer castings in this way than can be done in any
other mode of moulding. Dry-sand moulding requires
strong iron boxes ; wood is impracticable, for even if it
did not burn in drying the mould, its warping and
twisting would injure the mould. All the traverses, if
any are needed, are to be of iron. Long patterns,
as shafts, require particularly strong boxes, for these
are mostly cast in a vertical, or at least in an inclined
position. The pressure upon sand and boxes is then
very heavy. Hooks and eyes are in these cases
not strong enough to hold the boxes together ; it
requires glands to accomplish this. Glands are
double angles, made of flat wrought iron. The rods
are to be six inches longer than the height of the flask,
or of the two boxes together : these six inches are foi
3
86 MOULDER'S AND FOUNDER'S POCKET GUIDE.
bending a square angle at each end of the rod, after
which it assumes the form of a [ . f he distance
between the angular ends is to be a little greater than
the height of the boxes and bottom. In slanting
these glands upon the boxes, the flask may be drawn
together as tight as the strength of the glands will
permit. The drawing of the glands is performed by
small crow-bars gently, so as not to injure the mould.
We shall speak of this hereafter. Boxes for dry-sand
moulding, if heavy, are to be provided with swivels
on each end, for each box is to be turned, the facing
of the mould uppermost ; blackening and drying
require this. In moulding pipes, which need strength,
it is necessary to mould them in dry sand, in strong
boxes, and to cast them vertically, or at least inclined
80° or 40°. Pipes, or any other objects which are
cast horizontal, have always one bad side. The
upper side is in most cases porous, unsound, and,
in pipes, generally thinner than the bottom side.
The liquid metal is apt to lift the core, in spite of
staples or chaplets. Another advantage arises from
casting vertically, in the better escape of the gas,
and the greater security of the core against injury.
The core is not so liable to bend and the core-rod*
.nay be lighter.
MOULDING. 87
Moulding of a Large Pipe. — There is not the
slightest difference between moulding in dry-sand,
and moulding in green-sand, except in the composi-
tion of the sand, blackening, and drying of the mould :
and therefore it hardly seems necessary to illustrate
this branch. We will, however, describe the mould-
ing of a large water pipe, as illustrative of this case,
and introductory to loam moulding. All water pipes
of more than twelve inches diameter, ought to be
moulded in dry-sand, and with loam cores. Water
pipes are generally made from eight to nine feet
long — small pipes frequently but five or six feet long.
The pattern is like the exterior of the pipes as it is
to be when cast, having at each end a core print
five or six inches long. The pattern may be of a
solid piece of wood, but is generally composed of
strips of plank, to diminish the weight of it ; it is
divided parallel with its axis, into two halves. After
the moulding is performed in the usual way, the
mould is blackened and carried to the drying-stove,
on an iron tram-road, or by means of a crane. If the
foundry possesses no drying stove, or if the boxes
are too heavy for transport, some boxes may be put
together, a temporary wall of bricks or moulding
boxes set around it, covered with sheet iron, and a
fire of coke or charcoal or anthracite is kindled
88 MOULDER'S AND FOUNDER'S POCKET GUIDE.
below. The boxes are dried in this way on the flool
of the foundry. This mode of drying moulds, how-
ever, is imperfect, and slow, produces inconvenience in
the foundry, and is expensive, The making of a loam
core is a matter of no difficulty, if core-bars, loam-
board, and loam are in good condition. The core-
bar is in this case a hollow, cast-iron, cylindrical
pipe, perforated all over its surface, with either
round or oblong holes. The core-bar is about three
inches less in diameter than the core is to be, with
a view to provide room for a hay or straw rope, by
which the core is made porous, and so thick as to
leave just sufficient space for loam. The core-iron
has a journal at each end, made of wrought iron and
screwed to the cast pipe, leaving as much opening
as possible for the escape of the gases. These bear-
ings, or journals, may be of cast iron, in which case
they are made hollow and square inside, to receive
a winch by which the core-bar is made to turn upon
Fig. 18.
MOULDING.
its axis. The bar with its bearings is laid upon two
iron trestles, as represented in figure 18, on which
it may be turned to receive its hay rope and loam.
The trestles are about three or four feet long, and
are provided with various sized triangular dentations
for different-sized journals. The hay or straw for
ropes is kept in a moist place, to have it soft and
aiore fit for being twisted. To make a hay rope, a
simple winch, made of quarter inch iron rod, with a
wooden handle, is required, such as is represented in
figure 19, A. Hay ropes are made by the boys when not
Fig. 19.
otherwise engaged, and kept for use when required.
The method in which the rope is applied is simple :
the core-bar is laid with its journals in the trestles,
as shown in figure 18, the rope fastened at one end,
and the bar turned upon its axis ; the rope is led
so as to make a close and tight covering. If the
rope is loose on the spindle, it is liable to be pressed
together by the fluid metal, which would, in the
most favourable case, injure the casting, but would
8*
00 MOULDER'S AND FOUNDER'S POCKET GUIDE.
almost invariably cause a failure of the cast. Wood-
en core-bars are not to be recommended, as it
requires something stronger than wood to resist
the pressure of a high column of fluid metal. In
figure 19, B represents the cross section of a core,
in which the core-iron, journal, hay rope, and loan:
covering are shown. The '*aj rope receives a slight
covering of thin loam, just sufficient to cover the
hay, and remove the roughness of the rope. This
coating of loam being dried, the core is taken again
in the trusses and the loam-board is applied.
The loam-board is, in this case, an almost straight
board, of eight or ten inches wide. It is straight
every way, and to prevent its bending while in use,
it is supported by a rib, screwed to it, or by a strong
plank, upon which it rests. The board is so long
as to rest upon both trusses, and is fastened to these,
just so far from the centre of the core-iron, as to
form half the diameter of the finished core. The
edge of the board (in the drawing, the upper edge)
is shaped as the form of the core, which is in
this case almost a straight line, but is cut out, at
one end, to form the funnel, or cup-mouth, of the
pipe. When the board is in its proper position,
and fastened at both extremities by means of
weights or screws, it is obvious that when the core-
'
Oxl » *«/*
MOULDING. ^Jffl
bar is turned upon its axis, it will describe the 'i^\
form of the core along the edge of the board.
By turning the core bar with its hay rope and super-
ficial coating of loam, and throwing on additional
moist loam, the surplus moist loam will be stricken
off by the loam-board, or laid on in those places
where the board does not reach the loam. When
the core is properly filled up and closely covered with
loam, the loam-board is taken away, washed, and put
in its place again. The core is now turned some-
what faster than before, and receives a slight wash-
ing, merely by dipping the hands into water, and
moving them over the surface of the rotary core.
When smoothed, which is done with as little water
as possible, the core is brought to the stove and dried,
then blackened, dried again, and is then ready to be
put in the mould. If the cores are long and limber,
the staples are not to be forgotten.
The thickness of the covering of loam depends
partly on the quality of the loam, but chiefly on the
thickness of the metal, and the duration and amount
of pressure upon the core by the fluid metal. For
common water pipes, if cast inclined, and porous
loam is used, one inch" is sufficient for the core, but,
if cast standing, one inch a'ld a half of loam ought
to cover the hay-rope. If *ne thickness of loam on a
92 MOULDER'S AND FOUNDER'S POCKET GUIDE.
core be more than three-quarters of an inch, it is
necessary to lay on the loam in two or more layers,
always drying the first layer before the next is put on.
The loam which forms the core is made as open as
possible in its composition ; old moulding-sand,
old core-sand, or river-sand is mixed with the loam.
The working edge of the loam-board is not a square,
but is slanted so as to form an angle of nearly 45°
to the tangent of the periphery of the core. This
is necessary in order to make the board to sleek (to
make the loam smooth). A square edge would cause
a rough surface to the core. The slanting of the
edge is indicated in figure 19, C, at one end of the
board.
After careful drying, blackening, and polishing,
the core may be put into the mould, if required.
The mould is provided with staples so as to support
the core, and is then carefully closed. If the box,
or the pipe, is large, it is advisable to cover the box
by a strong board, and put the glands upon the board,
so that there is a board at top and bottom of the
flask, to protect the sand from being pushed out.
In many instances the moulding boxes are tapered
so as to form half a hexagon ; in these cases glands
are of no use, and heavy iron weights which reach
all across the boxes, are used to bear the top-box
MOULDING. 93
down. Air-holes at both ends of the box are to be
provided for, for the core in this case emits a great
deal of combustible gas, which is to be kindled in
proper time to prevent explosion.
Pipe moulding is a very common employment in
iron foundries, but still there is something peculiar
in it, which makes it inconvenient to cast pipes in a
foundry where green-sand or dry-sand moulding is
done at the same time. It suits best in a loam-mould-
ing establishment. There are great varieties in the
form of pipes, but as long as they arc straight, a
pattern is made and moulded in dry or green sand.
The core in this case being also straight, is easily
made. It is more difficult to form the core for a
bent pipe or knee. We will allude to this in the
next chapter.
Casting Pipes without Cores. — There was considera-
ble interest manifested, some time ago, in a process for
casting pipes without cores, by means of machinery.
An iron mould, well bored and polished, is made to
turn upon its axis in a horizontal position ; the fluid
metal cast in at one end, will naturally flow round in
the mould, and if sufficiently fluid, will make a pipe
of uniform thickness. How this machine turned
out in practice, we do not know, for nothing has
been said about it for a long time. Any improve-
94 MOULDER'S AND FOUNDER'S POCKET GUIDE.
ment which will reduce the price of iron water pipea
is worthy of notice, and the above machine ought to
attract sufficient attention to give it a fair trial.
One thing is certain, that every kind of pig-iron is
unsuitable for this process.
Moulding of Fine Castings. — Before we conclude
tl«is chapter we will give a short description of orna-
mental moulding; that is, the moulding of small orna-
ments and trinkets in iron or bronze. There is little
difference between moulding for iron, and moulding for
bronze ; the chief distinction is in the thickness of the
cast. Bronze must be cast very thin, if sharp, fine, and
distinct outlines are desired. In iron, the same atten-
tion need not be paid to the weight of the cast.
The principal thing to be attended to in moulding
small articles, is the quality of the moulding-sand.
This must be as fine as it possibly can be obtained.
It ought to have as little clay, or any other foreign
admixture, as possible, to prevent its shrinking, and
.in consequence breaking and cracking. Sand for
this purpose is to be an almost pure silicious com-
pound. Coal-powder or any other admixture is
inadmissible ; it is fatal to the beauty of the cast.
Good sand of this kind adheres easily with the
least amount of water, takes the finest impressions
of the skin, and may be cut into fine slices by a
MOULDING. 95
sharp knife. For this kind of work, the greatest
evil is too much clay in the sand ; other impurities
can be removed by sieves, or by washing. Fine
tripoli is the best sand for these purposes.
Small articles of bronze or iron, are moulded in
the same manner as larger parts of machinery, or
hollow-ware. The sand is rammed very close in small
iron moulding-boxes, and the boxes dried in the
stove, blackened if for iron, but not so if for bronze
or brass. For brass or bronze it is advisable to face
the mould each time with fresh sand, thrown on
through a fine silk sieve. If this coating is but
one-twelfth or one-eighth of an inch thick, it improves
the casting considerably. Moulds for iron cannot
be dusted with charcoal, or black lead, as these
would be too coarse. The moulds after they are dry
are blackened by a rush-candle, or the black smoke
from a pine knot. The box which contains the mould
is inverted, so as to turn the face of the mould down-
wards, rested upon two extreme points. The flame,
of the candle or wood is held under the mould, which
will assume in consequence a velvety coating of fine
carbon. There is to be as little blackening as possi-
ble ; too much will injure the mould and the casting.
To mould a simple rosette, or anything which gives
but a simple impression in the lower and upper box,
96 MOULDER'S AND FOUNDER'S POCKET GUIDE.
is of very easy performance. The case is different
with more complicated forms — articles which can
not be screwed together, but must be cast in one
piece, as statues, columns, and other similar objects
This is an interesting art, and it may be of some use
to illustrate a few cases of this kind.
Moulding of a Stag. — If the small form of a stag,
figure 20, resting upon a platform, is to be moulded,
Fig. 20.
it is at once visible that the antlers cannot well be
brought into the same mould with the body : they
are moulded by themselves, and screwed on. The
platform can be cast with the body, but it makes less
work in moulding to cast them separate, and screw
the platform also to the body. We have now only
the body of the animal left to make a mould for.
In this case the natural parting is over the back,
following the spine, and so dividing the face and
nreast. The pattern is accordingly cut in two in
MOULDING. 97
this line. When one half of the pattern is moulded,
th<3 box is turned up, and so much of the sand as can-
not be lifted, is cut out around that half of the pat-
tern ; this forms the parting of the boxes. The
surface of the parting is well polished, some parting-
sand thrown on, and the other half of the pattern
set upon the first. Cores are now to be provided in
those places where the upper box will not lift. We
find that a core is to be made between the two fore-
legs, as indicated by the dotted line. Another core
is needed on the face, from the nose to the ears ;
and a third core, joining the second at the ears,
running down its neck. This will be all the cores
needed, for the other parts of the pattern divide
naturally. These cores are made of fresh sand,
even if the other mould is made of old sand. Old
sand will not stand the necessary moving of these
cores. The cores are often moulded upon fine blot-
ting or oiled tissue paper, if small ; but if the cores
are large, wire is to be buried in them. When the
upper box is filled with sand, which is done after the
cores are well finished and parting-sand put on, the
upper box is lifted, one half of the pattern removed,
and the flask closed again. The flask is now inverted,
the lower box lifted, and the other half of the pat-
tern removed. The same manipulation, in principlet
98 MOULDER'S AND FOUNDER'S IOCKET GUIDE.
is used in moulding a grooved pulley. By this moclo
of moulding, the cores are not removed. This is only
practicable where the pattern can be and is divided,
and where it is of light material. If the pattern is
heavy, made of metal, and it cannot be divided, then
the cores are to be drawn back from it as soon as
the upper box has been lifted. There is no need
of moving the cores further than is just necessary
to have them out of the way for lifting the pattern.
Good parting-sand is sufficient to separate cores
so large as to take wire. Very small cores are
best bedded upon paper ; in pulling the paper,
the core resting upon it will follow. As soon
as the pattern is removed from the sand, the cores
are again put in their places, and the boxes removed
to the drying-stove for drying. It is a matter of
precaution to fasten the cores, if they are once in
their places, with hooks of thin iron wire, bent at
one end, and pin the cores to the mould. There is
less danger of injury happening to the mould, in hand-
ling the boxes, if the cores are secured in this man-
ner. When the mould is properly dried, which may
be done within twelve hours (though a longer time
would be preferable), it is joined together, glands or
screws put on, as the case may be, and cast. If the arti-
cle is to be cast in bronze, brass, or any pther nietal
MOULDING. 99
besides ire n, it is not blackened ; but if it is to be cast
m iron, it is blackened as before described. There
will be no difficulty in casting the antlers to this pat-
tern : the platform also is very simple. Moulders
who are skilled in this kind of work, will mould two
loose cores, one upon the other, but in most cases it
is preferable to dry one part of the mould with its
cores, and then put on the other cores ; in both
cases, however, it requires experience to handle such
render, brittle things, as small sand cores, often but
one-eighth of an inch thick, and half an inch in
area.
Ornamental compositions are screwed together,
to form an ornament of many parts. Small orna-
ments are soldered together, or riveted and soldered.
Solder for iron trinkets is a fluid composition of a
little silver and gold. The soldering is performed
by the blow-pipe. Solder for brass and bronze is
the same, if the articles are to be gilded ; in ordi-
nary cases, brass or tin solder is used.
Brass ornaments are mostly cast hollow ; this is
not so much for reasons of economy, as with a view
of making more perfect castings, and saving labour
in chipping and chiselling. As no coal can be used
to protect the metal against burning together with
the sand, it is necessary to cool it as quick as possi-
100 MOULDER'S AND FOUNDER'S POCKET GLTDE
ble, and in this way give it a smooth surface. The
making of cores in these instances is pften connected
with considerable difficulties. The cores of compli-
cated figures are composed of parts, that is, a core-
box is made for one part of the core, and the parts
cemented together to form the core. Iron castings
are but seldom cast hollow, if small, that is, articles
of less than six or eight inches extent ; larger figures
in iron are cast hollow, for if the body of hot iron
is large, it will burn the sand, or melt together with
it. Fluid iron, suitable for small castings, and the
use of good fine sand, will make ornaments finer and
sharper in expression than castings in any other
metal. Horse-hair and cotton thread may be imita-
ted to perfection. The wings of a fly with its micro-
scopic nerves may be copied in iron ; and green leaves
stiffened so as to be applicable as patterns, may be
cast in iron without difficulty.
Loam-Moulding. — This is the most ancient bran;ri
of moulding. In this department the moulder is
his own pattern maker. He furnishes in most
cases the pattern, and makes the mould also. In
some instances a pattern, or parts of a pattern, arc
made of wood, and buried in the loam, but these
cases do not happen frequently. The loam-moulder
will furnish patterns with great ease, which cannot
MOULDING. 101
be made- well or so cheaply in any other way. Any
torm of a pattern, or any casting of whatever kind,
may be done in loam. In practice, loam-moulding
is generally restricted to forms which cannot be cast
conveniently in any other way. Loam-moulding is
more expensive, generally speaking, than any other
kind of moulding, except in cases of simple forms
and heavy castings.
Every piece of loam-moulding is a regularly con-
structed edifice. No moulding in loam for a casting
of importance, is commenced until a perfect plan of
the whole operation from beginning to end is laid
down. If no such plan is made, it may happen,
and frequently does happen, to be impracticable
to mould in the way commenced, whereby often the
labour spent so far, is lost. The most important
part of this branch of moulding, is the composition
of the loam employed ; it demands the strictest
attention, and is varied according to the objects to
be moulded, as loam suitable in one case will not
answer in another. Fineness and porosity, and
as little shrinkage in being dried as possible, are
indispensable qualities. The mould must be dried
hard, to resist the pressure of the fluid metal,
which will otherwise break it or crumble it to
dust, and spoil 'he casting. If loam is too
9*
102 MOULDER'S AND FOUNDER'S POCKET GUIDE.
close, or imporous, it will retain the gases developed
by the heat of the metal, and cause either the metal
to boil and make porous castings, or in the worst
case cause explosion, and throw out the hot metal,
If loam shrinks too much in drying, it will inevitably
crack, make crevices into which the hot metal runs,
and what is still worse, some parts of the facing of
the mould will be pressed back, which causes uneven,
rugged castings. The most important quality of loam
is its porosity. The heat of the cast, and the pre-
sence of gas-generating material in every part of the
mould, renders it necessary that the gases should
escape through the substance of the mould, while it
is impervious to the metal. There is no use in pierc-
ing holes by the pricker; if the loam is too strong,
the cast will boil.
Moulding-loam is generally artificially composed
of common brick-clay, and sharp-sand. Instead
of the latter, old coarse foundry sand, or used core-
sand, or burnt brick-powder, may be used to greater
advantage. The quantity of sand to be mixed with the
clay can only be known by experience. It is impossible
to give receipts for compositions, because the qualify
of loam as well as that of the sand is variable, and diifers
in every instance. For heavy, thick castings, the loam
is to be stronger than for small or thin castings.
MOULDING. 1CW
Cow-hair obtained from tanneries is used to prevent
the cracking of loam and make it porous. Mill-seeds,
sawdust, horse dung, hacked -hay or straw, are still
more extensively used than cow-hair. Loam is to be
worked diligently, to make its texture as uniform as
possible. The matter to be mixed with it is to be
distributed equally through the whole mass. Each
part of the mould requires a different kind of loam :
one for the facing of the mould, and another for the
body ; a stronger loam for brick-work, and a weaker
one, with more straw or horse-dung, for a common
mould. Parts of a mould which are almost surround-
ed by the pattern, and of course by the metal, are
to be burned in a fire almost to a red heat, not
only to expel water, but also to destroy, everything
which could generate gas, and to destroy every par-
ticle of vegetable and animal matter. This operation
is necessary to be performed on all cores, and such
parts of a mould as form the interior of it. The
gases generated in a loam mould are of a complex
nature ; there are gases of water — steam — carbonic
acid, carbonic oxide, and ammonia cal compositions
which are not determined. The flarne issuing from
a loam mould, generally burns with a blue light, inter-
spersed with greenish yellow streaks and specks.
104. MOULDER'S AND FOUNDER'S POCKET GUIDE.
Moulding of Simple Round Forms. — Articles oi
a round form, that is, a spheroid, or a segment of it,
a cylinder and its auxiliaries, are moulded by means
of a loam-board fastened to an iron spindle, which
may be turned upon an imaginary axis, or the axis
of the spindle. Wherever a loam-mould is built up,
it must be always in the sweep of a crane, or it is to
be built in that pit where it is finally to be cast. We
will commence our illustration by the moulding of a
soap-kettle in the pit. A soap-kettle — or soap-pan —
is generally partly cylindrical, with a round bottom,
broad brim, and a collar, for the wooden superstruc-
ture of planks to be set into it. All kettles are
moulded and cast in an inverted position, as is shown
in figure 21. It would be better for the quality of
the cast if kettles could be cast bottom down, but
this is almost impossible on account of the core.
The moulding of a kettle is represented in figure 21.
Fig. 21.
MOULDING. 105
It is here performed, for want of a crane in the pit,
on the very place where it is to be cast. A hole is
dug in the floor of the foundry sufficiently deep to
bury the whole mould, and wide enough to permit
tne moulder to walk around the mould when he is at
work. The first thing to be done is to cast a round
plate or ring in open sand. This is to reach at least
six inches into the kettle : that is, its smallest dia-
meter is to be twelve inches smaller than the shorter
or interior diameter of the kettle, and its largest
diameter is to be from eight to twelve inches longer
than the longest diameter of the pattern. This plate
may be three-quarters of an inch or one inch thick.
It is placed in a perfectly level position on the bot-
tom of the pit, and raised by bricks to the height of
six or eight inches from the bottom. In the centre
of this ring-plate a pole or piece of cast iron is
driven in the ground, and covered by sand to protect
it against heat. In this pole a pan, or step, is cut.
for the pivot of the spindle to move in. A spindle
of one and a half or two inches square wrought iron,
having a round bearing at its upper end, and a steel
point at its lower extremity, is now erected ; resting
below in the centre step, and above in a plank laid
across the pit, borne down and held in its place by
weights placed upon it at the extremities. Thiy
106 MOULDER'S AND FOUNDER'S POCKET GUIDE.
spindle is to stand perfectly plumb, being exactly IP
the centre of the foundation plate. To this spindle
a moveable arm is screwed, made of two rods of flat
iron, with many holes in it. At the spindle these
two flat bars are bent in such a manner as to catch
two corners of the spindle, and be irnmoveably fast-
?ned to it by two screws. In other cases a cast-iron
forked arm is made with holes for screwing on the
loam-board, and a spindle-box with pinching-screw
for adjustment, To this arm the loam-board is
screwed, which is an inch thick pine board, clear of
knots. The loam-board is at first a skeleton of the
interior of the kettle with the brim, and that slant-
ing part beyond the brim, called the knee ; if turned
upon the axis of the spindle, it will describe the form
and size of the interior of the kettle. In commenc-
ing the mould, a four inch brick wall is built upon
the foundation plate, or platform, round, so as to
leave two inches space between it and the loam-board.
At the height of six inches below the corner of the
bottom, a layer of one and a half inch iron bars is
laid, and these are crossed by smaller bars, all
walled-in in the brick work. Upon these bars the
bricks forming the crown are founded. If the bot-
tom is round, forms half a sphere, these iron bars
are not needed ; an arch may be sprung of bricks,
MOULDING. 107
ivhich generally is strong enough to resist the pres-
sure of the fluid metal. The moulder leaves a small
opening around the spindle, serving the purpose of
a drafthole for the fire which is to be kindled inside.
This first brick wall is dried by a stone coal or char-
coal fire, kindled inside below the mould. The
loam-mortar for putting up the wall, is to be porous,
out also strong ; some horse-dung is generally mixed
vith it. It is composed mostly of sand, and the
layers of rnortar are from half an inch to one inch
thick. The bricks used for this purpose are hard-
burnt, light, but such as have not been melted,
or burned too hard. Bricks are used in halves
or bats. While the brick wall is drying, a thin
layer of loam may be given to the mould, which
here constitutes the core, in case the work is pressing ;
but if there is time, it is better to dry the bricks
first. The loam may after this be increased to within
a quarter of an inch to the loam-board, still keeping
up the fire, and drying the core gradually. The
last layer of loam is put on when the first loam-
coating is nearly dry. It consists of finer and
stronger loam. It is free from horse-dung, straw, or
any other admixture, but is mixed with some cow
hair. The surface is finished off by a smooth coat-
ing of wet fine loam, the redundancies being
108 MOULDER'S AND FOUNDER'S POOKET GUIDE.
off by the loarn-board, which has been washed and
freed of all adherent loarn and straw. As the sur-
face gradually dries, it is painted over, by means of a
paint-brush, with a mixture of charcoal-powder, clay,
and water. This coating forms the parting between
the core and the metal-thickness.
The loam-board with which the core has been
formed is now removed, and is replaced by another
board, called the thickness board. The edge of the
thickness board describes the external form of the
kettle, and merely touches the knee made by the
first board. We see here the use of the knee : it
serves not only for the more perfect closing of the
mould below, but it is the standard mark of the loam-
boards. Over the nearly dry core a layer of porous
sandy loam is now spread, and made smooth by sweep-
ing the thickness board around it. This layer of
loarn forms the exact pattern of the kettle as it will
be after casting. When well dried, this layer of
loam receives a blackwash as the core did, and is tc
be well dried. The spindle may now be removed,
for there is no more use for it in this instance.
Over the first foundation plate, or platform, is now
laid another platform, whose interior diameter ia
equal to the diameter of the knee, so that this ring
when laid down just fits, or is a little larger than
MOULDING. 109
the largest part of the core. Upon this platform
another layer of loam of nearly two inches thick is
laid, and smoothed over by hand. There is no need
of a smooth surface. As long as the loam continues
soft, the mould is kept under bars of iron bent in
the shape of the bottom, or crown of the mould,
and reaching down to the platform, to which they
attach themselves by being bent under the platform.
Two or three of such bars reach all over the kettle,
others may be shorter and reach merely along the
sides. These bars are laid over the soft loam, and
then the mould is gradually dried. When nearly
dry, iron hoops, which keep together the rods, are
laid around the mould, and fastened to the rods by
means of wire. The whole mould, iron and all,
receives after this a good coating of straw loam,
with horse-dung, the iron bars being partly covered
with it. In this manner, iron and loam are com-
bined and form one solid part of the mould. The
structure of the mould is now completed, so far as
the form is concerned. The whole is now thoroughly
dried or baked by keeping up a constant fire in the
interior of the mould. Fire may be applied on the out-
side also. In this instance, which is that of moulding
a kettle with an open core, not so much fire is re-
quired as if the core was solid. In the latter case
10
110 MOULDER'S AND FOUNDER'S POCKET GUIDE.
it requires a thorough burning ; the core is then to
be made red hot; but in this instance a good drying
is sufficient to secure a safe cast. In twenty-four
hours the mould will be found to be dry, and ready
to be taken apart.
The taking apart of the mould is done by means
of a crane, in case there is one ; otherwise it is to
be done by hand, by a pulley, or by some other
means which are sufficient to lift the cape or cope.
The first step to be taken is to lift, by means of a
sharp crow-bar, the platform of the cope from the
platform of the core, that is, to loosen the first from
the latter part, after which it may be lifted and set
upon a pair of timbers over the pit, or on any other
convenient place where it is not exposed to moisture.
When the cope is removed, the " thickness" is peeled
off from the core, the draft-hole in the crown is closed
by a brick-bat and plastered over with loam. The
hole in the centre of the cope is also fiUod up to
within two inches, all the damages on the mould
repaired, and these patches dried. After this the
mould receives a blackwashing, and is then finally
dried once more.
Blackwash. — The black wash for parting consists
chiefly of charcoal-powder, and a little clay. This
is almost entirely lost in taking the mould apart.
MOULDING. Ill
and the remainder is lost in sleeking the mould by
the finishing clay-wash. Blackwash is always on
hand in the foundry ; it is contained in the black-
wash tubs, of which there is one for parting and one
for finishing. The latter is composed of finely ground
plumbago, often mixed with a little charcoal, the
whole diluted with horse-dung water, or a solution
of the soluble parts of horse-dung. This blackwash
is frequently mixed with pease-meal or other meal,
glue, and extracts from the refuse of tanneries ; but
all these latter compositions are more or less too close,
and cause a dull surface to the cast. The first is
the best, if applied not too much diluted.
The sleek-washing as well as blackwashing is to
be done with proper caution, so as not to injure the
sharp outlines of the mould ; it is better if the first
of these two operations can be dispensed with, and
the mould finished just as the loam-board left it.
This latter can be done in following the plan to be
described in cylinder forming, which is also appli-
cable in this case ; that is, working without thick-
nesses. When the parts of the mould are properly
dried, it is put together again ; but before this is
done, a hole of two inches round is cut in the brim
of the cope, to connect the gates with, for casting.
? Hie cope is to rest firmly upon the core, that is, it
112 MOULDER'S AND FOUNDER'S POCKET GUIDE.
is to be put exactly in that position in which it was
before, and shut tightly at the knee. A pipe is now
laid below the foundation of the mould, which pipe
is to be carried through the sand which is subse-
quently rammed in, to conduct the gas from the
interior of the core to the surface. This pipe may
be either an iron pipe, or may be of baked clay, or
it may be a space left in the sand. The latter is
objectionable, because it may fill up, and cause an
explosion by stopping the escape of the gas. The
mould is now rammed in with sand, which is done by
iron stampers with strokes in rapid succession. This
operation is performed by at least three hands at
once, to break the vibrations caused by stamping, and
prevent injury to the mould in consequence. With the
ramming-in of the mould, the gate for the reception
of the metal is to be provided for. This we con-
template to be in the lower part of the mould ; it;
is frequently done from the top, but the latter mode
is not quite safe, and never makes as sound castings
as the way proposed here. The gate may be formecf
by a wooden pattern or pin, as in green-sand mould
ing, but this is at best a very doubtful operation ir
its consequences ; for the gate will be a long one h
all cases, and in pulling out the pin, sand may droj
in the gate and stop it up altogether, or drop s-
MOULDING.
Much sand as to injure the casting. The best plan
is to have pipes ready made of burned loam ; such
pipes may be conical, and tapered so that the smaller
end of one pipe will fit in the larger end of another.
In this way any length of gate may be formed, per-
fectly secure against damages from stamping. On
the top of the mould a flow-gate is set, which may
be also formed of one of burned loam-pipes, or it
may be moulded in the sand. The first plan, how-
ever, is preferable. The whole space around the
mould is in this way filled up with sand, and tightly
rammed. Over this sand, that is, over the mould
covered by the sand, pieces of pig-iron or other heavy
pieces of iron are laid, or iron beams tied down by
screws which reach to the platform, and are fastened
to the latter, to prevent the least motion of the
mould upwards, for such a motion would spoil the
mould. Before casting, the flow-gate is covered with
a dry ball of loam, to be removed when the fluid
metal shows itself in the gate and the mould is filled
with iron. Over that channel or pipe, communi-
cating with the interior of the core, a handful of
dry wood shavings, or dry straw, is laid, and kin-
dled as soon as the hot metal is being poured in.
The stopping up of the flow-gate is a necessary
operation, and the flow-gate itself also is necessary
10*
114 MOULDER'S AND FOUNDER'S POCKFT
in all cases of large castings. The flow-gate is
very useful, because it is always put on the highest
point, or at a point to which most of the light impuri-
ties which float on the melted metal are very apt to
flow. If the flow-gate is placed in such a situation,
the impurities will naturally flow into it. For these
reasons the flow-gate is always made wider than the
cast-gate. The stopping of the flow-gate until the
metal appears, is an operation equally important. If
the flow-gate, or any other aperture to the interior of
the mould, is open, the gases or hot air will rush to
the opening with a force equal to the space of the
mould and the amount of hot metal to be poured into it.
This rush of air is very apt to tear loose some loam or
sand of the mould, or even break the mould. By stop-
ping the openings, a certain amount of confined gas
finds its way through the sand or loam of the mould,
and opens the pores of the mould. This stopping up
of the air channels is the safest way of preventing
explosions and making good castings. In case there
is no flow-gate to a mould, and only a cast-gate, the
latter is to be kept full all the time during which
metal is poured in. If there is an interruption of
the flow, and the rush of air finds its way through
the cast-gate, it is very apt to cool the metal, tear
some sand loose, and by that means stop up the gate,
MOULDING. 115
or even break the mould, Such accidents happen
frequently, and are the common causes of failure in
founding. When castings are made by a single cast-
gate, it is advisable to make a reservoir for the
fluid metal at the top, that is, to make the mouth of
the gate very wide, and skim the metal well to pre-
vent the flowing in of any impurities. In moulding
hollow-ware, the wedge-shaped gits are made partly
for causing an easy separation of the git from the
cast, but chiefly to have a git of large capacity and
small opening, to be kept full while casting.
Gf-as Pipes. — -The air pipes leading from the core
of a heavy casting ought to be made of iron, for
these pipes have an important office to perform. In
case such a pipe is stopped up, an explosion is
almost inevitable. The atmospheric air confined in
the hollow space of the core, and that air contained
in the pores of the sand, mixed with the carbonic
oxide gas generated of the vegetable or animal mat-
ter in the mould, will form an explosive mixture of
the most dangerous kind, and will destroy any mould
if it explodes. The mouth of the air pipe may be
covered with burning shavings, but it is advisable first
to lay over the mouth of it a piece of wire-gauze,
tc prevent the falling in of any dirt or fire. If
there is fire in the pipe before the air is moving.
116 MOULDER'S AND FOUNDER'S POCKET GU DZ.
that is, before there is any metal in the mould,
an explosion will take place.
Removing of the Core. — As soon as the casting
is done, the mould is dug up, and a portion of the
core removed before the cast is entirely cooled.
Cylindrical castings are liable to be split by the core,
if the core is too strong. For these reasons the
core is made chiefly of sand, and only enough of
clay is used to keep it together. Brick cores are
preferable to loam cores, if put together with
sand and thick joints, because bricks offer some
resistance to the fluid metal by their mass, and are
easily moved by a strong power, such as metal in
the act of contraction. This is one of the evils
attending iron core pipes. If there is no hay-rope
or a thick layer of sand around a core-iron, the cast-
Ing will split upon the core before it is cool, and
before it can be prevented. In all cases it is advisa-
ble to remove the core as soon as possible, and if it
cannot be taken out altogether, then remove at least
a part of it, that is, cut it in some place so as to
afford room for the contracting cast.
Moulding without Thickness. — As an illustration
of moulding in loam without thickness, which is cer-
tainly the most advantageous plan of loam-mould-
ing, we will describe the moulding fcf a cylinder
MOULDING. 117
The operation is similar in all cases : whether for a
^team-engine, a blast-machine, or a cylinder for any
other purpose ; for illustration, however, we prefer
that of a steam-engine, as the most complicated. In
cases of narrow cylinders it is preferred to have
the core fixed, and move the cope, particularly
where the latter is to be divided. Dividing the
cope ought to be avoided, if possible, for it is
almost impossible to make a correct casting in
such a mould. We will take a case for illustration
where core and cope are each in one piece, and the
latter stationary, that is, moulded in that place
where the cylinder is to be cast. In this instance
the mould for the cope is put in the pit, the same as
the mould of the pan, above described, and founded
the same way upon a platform. It is not advisable
to make the cope above ground, even if there is a
crane strong enough to carry it to the pit. In
a mould like this, a crevice may open in trans-
porting it, and give access to hot metal, which
may frustrate the purpose for which the mould has
been made. In figure 22, the moulding of a sliort
cylinder is represented, such as is now used in steam-
engines to turn the screw propellers of steamboats.
A pattern of the steam-ways is made in wood, solid,
as represented in figure 23, which figure shows a sido
118 MOULDER'S AND FOUNDER'S POCKET GUIDE.
elevation, and a view from above. This block has the
length of the cylinder between its flanges, and iu
Fig. 23.
case there are any mouldings in the flange which
run across the steam-ways, they are to be moulded
in the wood. The three core-prints are of con-
siderable length, because the cores find here their
chief support. The middle core finds another sup-
port in the opening for the exhaust pipe, as shown in
figure 23. One side of the pattern is hollow and
cylindrical, fitting the exterior diameter of the cylin-
der, or the sweep of the loam-board. Having la;d
MOULDING. 119
the platform, erected the spindle, and screwed in the
loam-board — -which is almost a straight board, with
the exception of the two knees, one above and one
below, and the moulding or hoops around the cylin-
der— the brick enclosure is laid, leaving from two
to two and a half inches space for loam. The pat-
tern of the steam-ways is fastened, just touching
the loam-board in its travel upon its axis, and walled
in, giving it a loam coating where the bricks touch
it. After the brick wall is nearly dry, a coating of
loam is given ; this loam may be pretty Strong, and
mixed with hay, for the pressure upon it will be
great, and if the loam gives way to this pressure,
the cylinder will be defaced. This coating is super-
ficially dried, and another coat of hair-loam laid on,
which is to reach very near the loam-board, so that
the last coating is but a little thicker than a clay-
wash. In drying the previous loam coats, and
making the coats thin, an almost perfectly smooth
surface of the mould may be obtained. It will be
as round and straight as a turned and polished iron
cylinder, and of course the casting will be similar to
the moulding. Clay which shrinks a great deal, or
is plastered on in too heavy coats, causes uneven
and rugged surfaces in the mould, which is the case
also if the ground is not dry before ihe last washing
120 MOULDER'S AND FOUNDER'S POCKET GUIDE.
is performed. A good facing is as smooth, sharp,
and distinct in its outlines as a well made pattern
of wood. The blackwashing is here to be the very
last operation, and to be well performed, and when
dry must be polished by a large sleeker fitting the
circle of the cylinder. Before the blackwashing
of the cylinder is performed, however, the steam-
ways are moulded ; while the cylinder is under the
influence of the fire. The pattern of the steam-ways
is covered by hair-loam, leaving the core-prints pro-
jecting, so as to afford access to the interior through
the holes left by the core-prints. The pattern
receives two or three coatings of loam, sufficient to
make the loam at least two inches thick. Close to
the brick, or as far off as the square of the pattern
goes, a groove is cut in the loam, around the pattern,
indicated by the dotted line, figure 23. This groove
cuts the loam nearly through, so that the mould
may be separated at this mark. The mould around
the steam-ways pattern is provided with iron, bent
around it, and also irons bent around the cylinder.
These irons meet at the joint or parting, and are
secured in their places by wire and loam, the ends
of the irons at the parting terminating in hooks.
Fastening a mould in this way by iron straps is con-
venient and advantageous, and answers every pur-
MOULDING. 121
pose, if the mould is made strong enough. If a
cope is made too weak because of the iron straps,
the above is a bad fastening, and the cause of fail-
ures or imperfect castings. Fastening a mould with
iron is expensive, and where it can be avoided it is
advisable so to do. In this instance it can be avoided,
and the mould may be made serviceable without iron
fastenings. When the steam-ways pattern is re-
moved, and the mould ready to be closed again, it is
simply closed and secured by brick-work, which latter
is commenced at the bottom. While the brick-work
is progressing, the cope of the steam-ways is secured
temporarily by some wire fastened around the cylin-
der. The brick-work forming the enclosure to this
part of the mould is dried by external fire, or the
united heat of the fire inside and outside of the
mould.
The cores, forming the steam-tvays, must be strong
and porous. They are to be as long as the hollow
they are to form in the casting, to which is to be
added the length of the core-prints. Cores of this
description are generally moulded in a wooden core-
box; but this plan is not to be recommended, for
wood will twist and warp, particularly where it is
wet on one side and charring hot on the other, as
is the case in this instance. The best plan of mak
11
122 MOULDER'S AND FOUNDER'S POCKET GIIDE.
ing the cores, is to make a wood pattern of a core-
box, and cast it at once in iron and in open sand.
In such an iron box, a good and correct core may
be made without much labour. The cores for the
steam-ways are made of strong loam, and provided
with several core-irons, which are rods of quarter
or half inch square iron, bent in the curves of the
core. The core-irons are dipped in strong clay-
water before they are buried in the core.
Besides the core-irons, strings of hemp, cotton, or
straw, are laid in the core, which burn out in drying
and form channels for the escape of air. A great
many of these strings may be used, but they must
be thin, so as to arrest the fluid iron, in case any of it
finds access to the interior of the core. The core-loarn
may contain cow-hair if necessary, but this is a
matter which depends entirely on the quality of the
loam of which the core is made. The cores, after
being moulded, are heated to redness in a coal fire,
with liberal access of air, to expel every trace of
water, vegetable and animal matter, and carbon.
When well burned, the cores receive a good black-
washing of black-lead and clay, as little as possible
of the latter. These cores are the very last to be put
in the mould.
Core for the Cylinder.— -While the cope of the
MOULDING 123
cylinder is progressing, the core for it is moulded
somewhere near it, on the floor of the foundry, but
within the sweep of the crane. The core is founded
upon an iron platform, which has its snugs inside,
and its diameter is six inches less than the diameter
of the interior of the cope. The platform of the core
is to rest upon the platform of the cope. The core is
Fig. 24.
limply built of bricks, finished in loam, blackened
and polished, and is then ready to be set in its cope.
The core has two knees, one below and one above,
which are at an angle of 45° These two knees
are necessary to keep the core in its position. In
case the metal is liable to porosity, which is frequently
the case with some of the anthracite iron, and gene-
rally so with charcoal iron, it is necessary to prolong
the mould of the cylinder, above its flange, as shown
124 MOULDER'S AND FOUNDER'S POCKET GUIDE.
in the drawing, figure 24, into which the sullage rises.
In cast iron which does not form holes, or raise any
sullage, this precaution is not required. Upon the
sullage piece, or in want of that, upon the upper
edge of the cylinder, the flow-gates are set, of which
there are to be at least two or three, and more if the
iron is doubtful and the diameter of the cylinder
large. Before the core is put in its place, two rests
for the steam-way cores are cut into it. The steam-
way cores are suspended only at their two ends,
and liable to be lifted out at the centre core. A
deep rest in that core, or an iron fastening which
passes through that core, is required to secure it in
its place, when the cylinder core is set and well secur-
ed, resting upon the platform of the cope, where it is
secured by iron wedges. For these reasons the knees
of the mould may be made to catch before the platform
plates touch one another, and the space left between
them can be filled up by iron wedges or scraps.
The cores of the steam-ways, when put in, are well
secured to the core, and then the cope of the steam-
ways put in its place. The cores are after this
secured in the openings left by the core-prints of the
pattern, and well stopped up by moist loam, which
is to be dried. In many cases, that straight part
of the steam- wiys cope where the cores pass through,
MOULDING. 125
is covered by an iron plate, coated with loam, and
the core-irons fastened to this plate. This caution
is unnecessary, as the projecting cores can be well
secured by dry brick-bats. The mode of fastening,
however, depends very much on the size and form
of the steam-box, and the form of the cores.
The burying of the mould and ramming-in of the
sand is done in the usual way, but here the space
below the mould is filled with sand and well secured,
to prevent the hot metal entering below the core, in
case the lower knee does not fit tightly, which in
this case is always doubtfu], and cannot be secured
beforehand. The interior of the core is also filled
with sand, if there is any doubt of its being
strong enough and tight. It is better when there is no
sand in the core, at least but very little in the bot-
tom of it. The opening of the core at the top is
covered by an iron plate which is well secured,
leaving but a small opening for the escape of the
gases ; which opening is, as in any other instance,
covered by a piece of wire gauze and burning straw.
The whole mould is covered, as well as the core-plate,
with a load of iron or screws, to prevent any motion
of the core or cope by the static pressure of the
fluid metal, for the leist lifting will inevita^C^y
11
1'26 MOVLDER'S AND FOUNDER'S POCKET GUIDE.
destroy the cast. The cast-gate is at the lower flange,
and the metal is to rise gradually from below.
The cores of the steam-ways are often of such
f )rms as not so easily to be secured in their places,
which is particularly the case with the middle, or
exhaust core. In this, the assumed case, there is no
difficulty ; for we have two strong core-prints, and the
core cannot be large, as the steam-chest is but small.
If a core-print can be given on each side of the
chest, there will be no difficulty at all, for then the
core has three points to rest upon, and can be made
safe enough. If the other two cores are strong
enough to take strong core-irons, there is no danger
of their failing. Where such advantages cannot
be had, and where the cores are in danger of being
lifted off their seats, it is necessary to secure the
cores by chaplets, which are put between the cores
and the cope of the steam-ways, for there are none
applicable to the core of the cylinder.
The use of chaplets m the steam-ways cannot
be recommended, if it can be avoided by any
means. The chaplets must be strong and of good
wrought iron, or the fluid iron will melt or dissolve the
chaplets, and the effect is worse than if they had not
been used ; for the moulder depended upon a support
which failed, and would have done better without
MOULDING. 127
supports,. If chaplets are not^nade of good and very
pure wrought iron, they are liable to melt, or are
dissolved in the mass of cast iron. The greater
the amount of the latter and the longer it keeps
fluid, and the hotter it is, the greater is the danger
of the chaplet being destroyed. Impure iron, or
iron which contains much cinder, or thick scales of
hammer-slag, is apt to produce holes in the casting,
for the oxygen of the scales, or cinder, will combine
with the carbon of the cast iron and form carbonic
oxide, which cannot escape, ;>s it is in the interior
of the casting, and the iron next to the mould is
generally chilled before such gas appears.
Creneral Remarks on Loam-Moulding. — Precau-
tions which are to be taken in loam- moulding in
general, are to be particularly observed in moulding
steam cylinders, for here the object is to make a
smooth, well finished casting, and one of compact
sound metal, free of pores or holes. To accomplish
this, particular attention must be given to the following
requisites : A strong but still a porous loam ; drying in
coats ; a well smoothed facing before the blackening
is put on ; well burnt cores for the steam-ways, and
the air-holes in these so small and so arranged, as
to prevent any possible entrance of hot iron into
these air channels ; the absence of all chaplets if
128 MOULDER'S AND FOUNDER'S POCKET GUIDE.
possible : and every part of the mould well dried. The
bearing down of the mould, and the stamping in, are
operations which are in all cases the same.
If there are any square or unusual forms on a
cylinder, as, for example, if one or both flanges are
square, or if there are extra steam-ways, or orna-
ments, all such forms are made in wood or in
metal (the latter is preferable), buried in the mould,
and removed before the finishing of the mould.
Irregular Forms. — Where forms are to be mould-
ed which do not permit the use of the spindle, a
loam-mould is made either by hand, or over a wood
pattern. There are also cases where both instances
happen in one mould, We will illustrate this by
giving an instance of the first and an instance of the
latter case. In figure 25, a bent pipe is represented,
which cannot well be moulded in sand, and for which
Fig. 25.
MOULDIJJG. 129
a loam-core is to be made in every instance. It
may be moulded in sand or in loam. This pipe
forming a knee, is bent in such a way as to make
the moulding over a wood pattern and in sand almost
out of the question. The first step taken is to make
a drawing of the actual size of the object upon a
board, and in drawing two or three sections of it,
giving sufficient length for the core-prints. This
board is given to the blacksmith, and one or
more bars of iron bent in the shape of the core, and
these bars united to form the core-iron. If the
pipe is more than eight inches in diameter, these
bars are to be laid around small rings, forming in
this way an open channel in the centre of the core.
These iron bars are covered with hay-rope as usual,
and then by loam, which latter is laid on by hand,
referring repeatedly to the drawing. The last loam
coating is thin and well smoothed off, before the
parting-blackwash is given. In such cases as this,
it is all important to have the flanges at the right
distance and in correct angles ; and as such castings
generally are designed to fill a space or form a con-
nexion between two pipes, it is necessary to form a
skeleton pipe of two boards, of which each fits to
the flange of the corresponding pipe. Such a skele-
ton is easily formed bj nailing boards together in
130 MOULDER'S AND FOUNDER'S POCKET GUIDE.
that place where the pipe is to be. Figure 26 will
show how it is performed. The boards are fitted and
nailed together, stayed by some lath, and the place of
the flanges marked by scribing around them. Over
Fig. 26.
this another skeleton of boards is made, so as to have
the dimensions of the pipe inside which are here out-
side, with the addition of one-eighth of an inch for
each foot in the length of the pipe, for shrinkage. In
this latter skeleton the inner diameter of the pipes is
marked and cut out, the newly made core laid in this
board skeleton, in the exact position in which the new
pipe is to be attached to the other pipes. The core
is fastened in this position to the skeleton, and the
" thickness," which of course includes the flanges,
is laid on the core, and gently dried. When the
thickness is so far dried as to be secure against
warping, it is removed from the skeleton boards,
dried, blackened, and the cope put on. If the pipe
MOULDING. 131
is heavy the cope is to be fastened with iron, taking
care to have the parting free. Moulds for light
pipes may be secured by a succession of wire fasten-
ings which are laid at certain distances around the
cope. The parting of the cope is done as usual, by
cutting two grooves along the pipe in such a direction
as to divide the cope into two halves, but so that
each half may be lifted off the core. If the flanges
or the thickness break off in removing the cope there
is no harm done, if the core is not damaged in this
operation. After the usual finish of the facing, the
mould may be put together, and rammed in sand
as usual. In this case the core cannot be kept in
its place without chaplets, and a liberal number of
them is to be distributed between the core and the
cope. This pipe is rammed in and cast in the usual
manner.
When the object to be moulded presents more
complicated forms than the one represented, the
experience of the moulder must be his guide in form-
ing the plan of the mould. Analogous processes
are here everywhere, but it is the sagacity of the
moulder which gives to the most complicated forms
tangibility, which analyzes a pattern, and finds a
mode of execution in cases where success at first
sight appears to be impossible. If the form of a
13*2 MOULDER'S AND FOUNDER'S POCKET GUIDE.
pattern does not happen to be divisible into two
parts, or permit a mould of two parts, there is no
objection to dividing it into three, four, and more
parts, but it is a rule to make as few partings as
possible. In every mould, it is to be a standard
rule to provide liberally for the escape of the
gases. If forms are to be moulded which require
more than two platforms, there. is no objection to
taking as many as may secure the greatest advan-
tage and security to the mould.
Oval Forms. — Oval, curved, or triangular forms
must be traced by corresponding platform-plates,
for no application of the spindle is possible in
these cases. For example, to mould an oval bath-
ing-tub, without a pattern, a foundation plate in
the form of the upper side of the tub is cast in
open sand. There is no need of its being solid —
it may be an oval ring. Figure 27 represents the
Fig. 27.
moulding of such a tub. The loam-board A is guided
by hand around the platform, and if kept in close
MOULDING. 133
contact -with the edge of the plate, there is no diffi-
culty in obtaining a correct mould. If there are
any projections, or departures from the regular form,
they are made by hand. Curved forms are made
in a way similar to the above. A core, or a mould
to an elbow pipe, is moulded on a platform which has
the form of the curved pipe, as shown in figure 28.
Fig. 28.
The loam-board A can make only the current part
of the mould, also a mouth or bell-shaped widening ;
but if there are any flanges, for these a wood pattern
is to be made. In this instance two halves of a
pipe-core are made ; and these joined by moist loam
and wire. In most instances of this kind a wood
pattern of the object is made, and this moulded in
sand ; but as the core of such forms cannot well be
moulded in sand, it is made in loam and applied in
the usual way. Square forms of objects which are
to be moulded without patterns, are made in a similar
12
134 MOULDER'S AND FOUNDER'S POCKET GUIDE.
manner as those of an oval or irregular form ; suoh
moulds, however, require more strength than the
moulds of round forms, for the pressure of the fluid
metal upon a plain surface, tends to drive the core
and mould apart, with more energy than it does in
round forms. To guard against this pressure in flat
or straight forms, is an object which requires some
judgment on the part of the moulder.
If complicated forms are to be moulded, the best
plan always is, first to make a pattern in wood of the
object. Even if the pattern is not used in moulding
directly, it is of great service to the moulder, in
having a form to imitate, which is more plastic
to his mind than a mere drawing. All heavy
and complicated castings, such as heavy bed-plates
for steam engines, housings, and rollers for iron
works, are moulded in loam, if good work is ex-
pected. The heat and pressure of a mass of hot
iron like that poured into the mould for the bed-
plate for the engines of the Collins Atlantic steamers,
being forty tons or more, will destroy any sand mould,
no matter how carefully made. Complicated forms
of this kind are partly made to drawings and partly
over wood or metallic patterns. We will illustrate
this subject by an instance which is not complicated,
but sufficiently so to show the principle upon which
MOULDING 135
a mould of this kincl is constructed. In figure 29
a screw-propeller is shown, such as are now frequent-
ly used to propel steamboats. These propellers are
cast in iron, copper, brass, or bronze ; this, however,
does not cause an essential difference to be made in
the mould. The four wings of this
Fig. 29.
pattern are twised as shown in B. It is advisable
to make a wood pattern of this propeller, dividing
it at the dotted line in B into two halves. An
experienced moulder will prefer to make the mould
by hand, but generally the pattern is buried in the
loam, and kept there until the mould is nearly dry.
There is little difficulty in moulding this object in
the latter way. As the pattern is divided, the one
half is moulded upon an iron platform, the larger
spaces filled by brick, a'nd over these the usual coat-
ing of loam. The four wings of the pattern are
fastened by wood-screws to the nave, which may be
136 MOULDER'S AND FOUNDER'S POCKET GUIDE.
drawn and the pattern removed in parts ; this forms
the lower part of the mould. The other half of the
pattern is moulded in parts, upon quadrant plates,
with its dividing side downwards. The mould of
this half is taken apart, each quarter resting upon
its quadrant platform. These four quarters are set
upon the first half of the mould which is whole,
and has a solid platform. The edges of the four
wings or paddles are generally sharpened out, so
that there is little difficulty in hitting the thickness
of the paddles. A better mould than that described
may be made by hand ; it is then divided into two
halves as the above, but it affords a better opportu-
nity of having the facings of the mould correct and
uniform in texture. Many screw-propellers are
moulded by dividing the pattern at the nave, and
making a cope over each paddle, which is fitted and
fastened to the cope of the nave. The first way of
moulding is preferable to the latter ; it is perfectly
safe, and makes a more correct and smooth casting.
Moulding of Bronze Ornaments. — The art of
casting bronze statues has been traced to remote
antiquity, and, to all appearance, the ancients were
more skilful than the moderns in this art. Bronze
statues were so plentiful in Greece at the time of
Alexander the Great, tha,t Pliny calls them the mob
MOULDING. 187
of Alexander. It is recorded that the Romans found
3000 bronze statues in Athens, and as many in
Rhodes. The Temple of Solomon was adorned
with heavy and richly ornamented bronze castings.
The pillars of Jachin and Boaz at the portal were
of bronze ; the molten sea of the priests to wash
in, was cast of bronze, and the metal basins at the
entrance were of the same metal. The world-renown-
ed Colossus of Rhodes was a bronze statue of 130
feet high ; it was broken by an earthquake fifty-six
years after its erection, and its remains lay scattered
over the ground for nearly nine hundred years, when
they were sold by a king to a Jew, who carried at
that time 360 tons of metal away. More recently,
in the middle ages, bronze was extensively used for
doors and gates of churches and cities. The doors
at the Battisterio in Florence were of such ex-
quisite workmanship, that Michael Angelo, the
great architect of St. Peter's at Rome, declared
that these gates were worthy to be the gates of
heaven. More recently, in our own times, this
beautiful art has been degraded to the manufacture
of implements of war, and in other cases to celebrate
the memory of military heroes — an application no
better than the other. The ancients were not
ucquainted with a definite alloy, to make their bronze
12*
188 MOULDER'S AND FOUNDER'S POCKET GUIDE.
castings of. Their mixtures were accidental; but
we will speak of this hereafter.
Moulding of Statues. — The mode of forming the
moulds for bronze castings of large size, as statues
and bas-reliefs, was never reduced to a systematic
art. There is satisfactory evidence to show that the
knowledge of this art lay dormant for centuries.
The ancient Greeks were the most skilful in the execu-
tion of statues of this kind, not only so far as form is
concerned, but also in their preparation of the moulds
and the casting of the statue. Their plan of mak-
ing a mould, was to make a skeleton of plastic clay,
which was to form the core. This skeleton was kept
wet — just as the sculptors of the present day mould
a figure in clay — and made into an exact mould
of the figure to be produced. Over this wet
clay pattern the cope was made, and so far dried as
to admit of removal, after which core and cope were
finally dried and burned. The space resulting from
the shrinking of the core, formed here the thickness
for the metal. The way in which such a mould was
made is an evidence of the high skill of the artists
of that time ; for in case the casting fails, all the
labour of the artist and the moulder is lost, for pat-
tern and mould are destroyed at each cast. It requires
MOULDING. 18£
great experience and skill to succeed in this mode
of casting statues and larger ornaments.
French Mode of Moulding Statues. — A more safe,
but very expensive plan of making moulds, was
practised in the seventeenth and eighteenth centu-
ries. The pattern for larger statues was made of
plaster of paris, instead of clay, because the latter
shrinks a great deal in large masses. This plaster
was laid on and fastened to a skeleton of iron. Over
this pattern, which might be either an original or a
pattern at hand, a cast of plaster is made, and this
plaster mould divided so as to remove it conveniently.
Over parts of this plaster mould coats of wax are
laid, which form the "thickness." The -wax is a
compound of six parts of wax and one of white pitch,
with which a little tallow or oil is mixed. The
plaster mould receives a film of oil before th« wax
is put on, and the first coating of wax is laid on
warm by means of a paint brush. A skeleton of
iron bars is now made, composed of heavy and small
iron, also iron wire and wire gauze, having, a? near
as possible, the form of the object to be cast. The
segments of wax are fastened to this iron skeleton,
and finally the whole surrounded by the plaster
cope. Into this hollow mould, which is composed of
the cope of plaster, a thickness of wax, and an iron
.140 MOULDER'S AND FOUNDER'S POCKET GUIDE.
skeleton in the interior, the cement forming the
core is cast. This cement is composed of two parts
of plaster of paris, and one of brick-dust, or ground
bricks, cast through an opening made in a convenient
place as high as possible on the mould. When this
core is hardened, which takes but a short time, the
plaster cope is removed, the damages in the wax
mould repaired, and a number of small gits for con-
ducting the metal, and other gates for letting out the
gases, are fastened around the figure. These gates
are made of wax, from half an inch to one inch thick,
and fastened to the figure in such places where the
least injury will be done. None are to be on the
face, hands, or other delicate parts. Small wire is
used to keep these gates in their places. The final
cope is then made in the usual way of sand-loam,
mixed with cow-hair, or horse-dung. The first coat-
ing on the wax figure, however, consists of finety
ground brick-dust, mixed with the white of egg
or glue, forming a kind of paint. This is painted
twenty times and more over the pattern. After this
first coat follows a coating of hair-loam, and finally
horse-dung loam. This loam-cope is to be provided
with iron fastenings, and at last receives a brick
enclosure, which is also secured by iron binders
Below and around this mould fire-places are erected.
MOULDING. 141
which are so distributed as, when fire is made in them,
to make the mould uniformly warm outside and inside,
and heat it to an almost red heat. The wax forming
the thickness is the first that flows out, and leaves a
space in the mould of the same thickness as the cast
is to be. The quantity of metal needed to fill the
mould is exactly that space occupied by the wax.
This process of moulding is complicated, but it is
safe and insures good castings. It has the advantage
over the Grecian mode, that the original pattern, the
plaster cope, is never lost.
By skill and dexterity the artist may shorten the
above process. One wray is to build the plaster cope
directly over the iron skeleton for the core, cast the
mould full of core-cement, remove the plaster cope,
and shave the "thickness" off the core. Then put
the plaster cope again around this core, and cast the
thickness space full of wax. Over this wax cast, the
loam cope is made, as described above.
At the present time there is no settled system in
the casting of bronze statues : the artists follow then
own individual inclinations and experience. In many
instances cores are built up first, covered by hand
with loarn, and burned'; then the wax is put on, and
the pattern made upon the core ; over this pattern
the loam cope is moulded, the wax melted out, and
142 MOULDER'S AND FOUNDER'S POCKET GUIDE.
the mould filled with metal in the usual way. In
this way the pattern is lost. In other cases they
make a core as above, cover it by wax plates made
in the plaster mould, and proceed as described before.
All the difference from that described in the past pages
is here the making of the core, which, if made in
the latter way, is more perfect, and more certain to
secure success.
Iron Statues require more metal than bronze
statues, and also strongly burnt moulds, Here
the core is built up first, and the " thickness" laid
on in fine clay. The pattern is made by the sculp-
tor upon the core. The cope is made and divided
as in common loam-moulding, the thickness removed,
and the mould put together with that caution re-
quired to make the operation successful. The pattern
of course is lost, and if the casting fails it is to be
made anew. A mould over a pattern at hand, may
be made over that pattern, but the core is to be
made by hand. In all cases core as well as cope
are to be well provided with iron stays, and chaplets,
and are to be perfectly dry. If such cautions are
taken, there will be no failure in casting.
Bas-reliefs. — Flat bronze castings, as ornamented
pannels, facings, and single ornaments, are cast in
the usual way in iron flasks, in new sand, and dried.
MOULDING. 143
If the patterns are too complicated, or underworked,
so as to make many cores necessary, the facing of
the mould is made in fine strong sand, entirely com-
posed of cores, and over these cores, as a parting,
the whole of the cores are covered with common mould'
ing sand and dried all together. The parting between
the cores and the sand is made by common parting-
sand. To avoid the division of the mould, the pat-
terns are frequently cut in such places and directions
as to remove the pattern in parts. This latter mode
of moulding, because it is the cheapest, is practised
in the manufacture of articles which are in common
use.
Moulding of Bells. — Small bells are generally
moulded in sand, from a metal or wood pattern, and
the sand mould is dried in a stove, as before
described. We shall give no description of the
manufacture of small bells, to which class bells of
from one hundred to two hundred -pounds' weight
belong, but confine ourselves to a description of the
moulding of the larger kinds. The most important
part of this art, is the construction or the form of
the bell. Another equally interesting is the com-
position of bell-metal. In this place we shall only
speak of the moulding of a large bell. In figure
80, a mould is represented as it is sunk in the pit
144 MOULDER'S AND FOUNDER'S POCKET GUIDE.
for casting. There is no essential difference between
moulding a bell and a cast-iron kettle. The core is
built in brick upon an iron platform, which is to
Fig. 30.
have snugs, in case the mould is made above ground
This brick core is covered with three-fourths of an
inch or one inch thick of hair-loam, and the last sur-
face-washing is given by a finely ground composition
of clay and brick-dust. This latter is mixed with an
extract of horse-dung, to which is added a little sal-
ammonia. Upon the core the " thickness" is laid
in loam-sand, but the thickness is again washed
with fine clay to give it a smooth surface. Orna-
ments which have been previously moulded, either
in wax, wood, or metal, are now pasted on by means
of wax, glue, or any other kind of cement. If
the ornaments are of such a nature as to prevent the
lifting of the cope without them — for the cope
cannot be divided — the ornaments are fastened to
MHJLDIN3. 145
the thickness by tallow, or a mixture of tallow and
wax. A little heat given to the mould will melt the
tallow, after which the ornaments adhere to the cape,
from which they may be removed when the cope is
lifted off the core. The thickness is to be well
polished ; and, as no coal can be used for parting, the
whole is slightly dusted over with wood-ashes. The
parting between the core and the thickness is also
made with ashes. The cope is laid on at first by
means of a paint-brush, the paint consisting of clay
and ground bricks, made thin by horse-dung water.
This coating is to be thin and fine; upon it hair-
loam, and finally straw-loam is laid.
The crown of the bell is moulded over a wood
pattern, after the spindle is removed. The iron or
steel staple for the hammer is set in the core, into
the hollow left by the spindle. It projects into
the thickness, so as to be cast into the metal. The
facing of the mould ought to be finished when the
cope is lifted off. Small defects may occur, and
are, if not very large, left as they are; the excess
of metal in those places is chiselled off after the bell
is cast. All that can be done in polishing the facing
of the mould is to give it a uniform dusting of ashes.
When the mould is perfectly dry, it is put together
for casting. The core may be filled with sand, if
1ft
U6 MOULDER'S AND FOUNDER'S POCKET /JUIDE.
preferred, but there is no harm done if it is left open :
for bell-metal does not generate much gas, and
there is no danger of an explosion. The cope is in
some measure secured by iron, but its chief security
is in the strong, well rammed sand of the pit. The
cast-gate is on the top of the bell, either on tfte
crown, or, if the latter is ornamented, on one side
of it. Flow-gates are of no use here, the metal is
to be clean before it enters the mould : there is
no danger of sullage.
Moulds consisting partly of loam or sand, and
partly of metal, are in frequent use in iron foundries.
Small car-wheels, boshes for cart-wheels, and car-
wheels for mining establishments, receive their bore
by being cast over an iron or steel core. Such a
core-iron is a little tapered, to admit of its being freed
from the casting by a smart stroke of the hammer.
The casting is never left to cool entirely before the
core is removed. It is generally removed when the
casting is hot, but so far cooled as to resist the draw-
ing out of the core-iron.
Chilled railroad-car wheels are another article
where iron is employed as a part of the mould. The
cast and chilled railroad wheels now in general use,
are cast in a mould composed of green sand and
iron. In figure 31 is shown a mould in which a chilled
MOULDING. 147
wheel is cast. It consists of three boxes. The
lower is i box of common round form, merely to
hold the sand and give support to the centre core
Fig. 31.
and the middle box. The upper box is of a similar
form, also round. The middle box is a solid ring
cast of strong gray or mottled iron, and bored
out upon a turning lathe, giving it the reverse
of the exact form of the rim of the wheel. This
middle box ought to be at least as heavy as the
wheel is to be after casting, and it is preferable if
it has two or three times that weight. All the three
boxes are joined by ears and pins as usual, and the
latter ought to fit well without being too tight. The
chief difficulty in casting these chilled wheels is to
make the cast of a uniform strain to prevent the
wheels from breaking. Wheels with spokes or arms
are very liable to this evil, and are to be cast with
their hubs divided into three or more segments, which
are afterwards buided by wrought-iron tires before
fastening them to the car axles. At present, most
148 MOULDER'S AND FOUNDL.IS POCKET GUIDE.
of these wheels are cast with corrugated discu or
plates; in this way the hub may be cast solid, and
the wheel is not so liable to be subjected to an un-
equal strain in the metal as when cast with spokes.
In such plate-wheels the whole space between the
rim and the hub is filled by metal, which, however,
in most cases is not more than three-quarters of an
inch or one inch thick. The rim of a good wheel
is to be as hard as hardened steel at its periphery,
but soft and gray in its central parts. The first
requisite is more safely attained by having a heavy
chill ; but if the chill is too heavy, the inner parts
are apt to suffer the cooling qualities of the chill.
Success in this branch of founding depends very
much on the quality of the iron of which the wheels
are cast ; but of this we shall speak again in another
place. Soon after casting such wheels it is advi-
sable to open the mould, and remove the sand from
the central parts, so as to make it cool faster; this
precaution saves many castings, not only in this
particular case, but in many other instances. Uni-
formity in cooling is as necessary to success as good
moulding. The thinnest parts of castings which cool
first, will invariably break ; but if a casting cools
iniformly, there is no danger of strain in the metal.
Chilled Rollers. — One of the most important cases
MOULDING. 149
of this kind of moulding and casting in iron moulds,
is the casting of chilled rollers. There are some
good chilled rollers man ifactured in the Western
foundries, particularly at Pittsburgh. We will not
allude to any particular case, but describe the pro-
cess of making chilled rollers, generally. The mould
for a chilled roller consists of three parts, as shown
in figure 82. The lower box of iron or wood is
Fig. 32.
filled with "new sand" or a cement, a strong com
position of c!ay and sand, in which a wood pattern
is moulded which forms the coupling and the neck
of the roller. The middle part of the mould is the
chill, a heavy iron cylinder well bored. The upper
part of the mould consists again of a box, but is
higher than, tho lower box, so as to make room for
the head in wV/ /i the impurities of the iron, "sullage,"
13*
150 MOULDER'S AND FOUNDER'S PC DKET GUIDE.
are to be gathered. The two boxes with their oon
tents of sand are to be well dried. In many estab-
lishments the two ends of the roller are moulded in
loam, over the chill, to secure concentricity of roller v
and coupling ; but this can be quite as safely arrived
at by fitting the ears and pins of the boxes well to
the chill. The chill is the important part in this
mould : it ought to be at least three times as heavy
as the roller which is to be cast in it, and provided with
wrought-iron hoops to prevent its falling to pieces,
for it will invariably crack if not made of very strong
cast iron. The iron of which a chill is cast is to be
strong, fine-grained, and not too gray. Gray iron
is too bad a conductor of heat ; it is liable to melt
with the cast. Iron that makes a good roller will
make a good chill. The facing of the mould is
blackened like any other mould, but the blacken-
ing is to be stronger than in other cases, to resist
more the abrasive motion of the fluid metal. The
chill is blackened with a thin coating of very fine
black-lead, mixed with the purest kind of clay ;
this coating is to be very thin, or it will scale off
before it is of service. The most important point in
making chilled rollers is the mode of casting them,
and the quality of iron used. Of the latter we shall
Rpeak in another place. To cast a roller, whether a
MOULDING. 7 51
chilled roller or any other, from above, would cause
a failure, for the roller will be useless. All rollers
are to be cast from below. It is not sufficient to
conduct the iron in below ; there is a particular
way in which the best roller may be cast, for
almost every kind of iron. The general mode is
represented in figure 33, which shows the upper
Fig. 33.
side of the lower box. In A is represented
the cast-gate and channel, as it is seen from above.
The gate is conducted to the lower journal of
the roller, and its channel continues to a certain
distance around it ; it touches the mould in a tan-
gential direction. In casting fluid metal in this gate
the metal will assume a rotary motion around the
axis of the roller, or, which is the same, the axis of
the mould. This motion will carry all the heavy
and pure iron towards the periphery or the face of
the mould, and the sullage will concentrate in the
centre. It is a bad plan to lead the current of hot
iron upon the chill, for it would burn a hole into it.
152 MOULDER'S AND FOUNDER'S POCKET GUIDE.
and melt chill and roller in that place together.
The gate must be in the lower box, in the sand or the
loam-mould. The quality of the melted iron modifies
in some measure the form of the gate, for stiff or cold
iron requires a rapid circular motion, while fluid,
thin iron is to have less motion, or it is liable to
melt to the chill. The roller is kept in the mould
until perfectly cool, but the cooling may be accele-
rated by digging up the sand around the chill.
Casting Iron to Steel. — One branch of moulding
and casting we have to mention before we leave this
subject: it is the casting together of iron and steel.
At present many anvils, vices, and other articles are
made of cast iron, mounted with steel, which are in
a fair way of driving all the wrought-iron articles
of this kind out of the market. The welding together
of steel and cast iron is not difficult, if the steel is
not too refractory. This process will not succeed
at all with German or shear steel, and hardly so
with blistered steel, but it is easily performed with
cast steel, by soldering it to cast iron by means of
cast-iron filings and borax. Of the manufacture
of these cast-iron articles with steel faces we can
give but the outlines, having had no opportunity of
becoming thoroughly acquainted with this branch.
The cast-steel plates ti be welded to the faces
MOULDING. 153
of anvils, are generally from a half to five-eighths
of an inch thick, and as wide as the face itself.
These are ground or filed white on one side, and
then covered on that side with a coating of calcined
borax. The plate, with the borax on it, is heated
gently until the borax melts, which covers it with a
fusible transparent glaze. The plate in this condi-
tion is laid quite hot in the mould, which latter is
made of dry and strong sand. The iron is poured
in and rises from below ; the steel plate being the
lowest part of the mould, it will have the hottest
iron. The heat to be given to the iron will depend
in some measure on the quality of the steel; shear
steel requires hotter iron than cast steel. The cast
iron used for these purposes, is to be strong and
gray, but not too gray, or the union of the iron and
steel is not strong. White cast iron will not answer
in this case, partly because the casting would be too
weak, but chiefly because the cast iron would fly or
crack, in hardening the steel. The hardening is
done under a considerable heat, with an access of
water falling from an elevation of ten feet or more.
Moulds for Lead, Tin, $c. $c. — Besides these
moulds of sand, loam, 'and partly iron, there are
moulds which are entirely constructed of ~ietal,
either of iron, copper, brass, or bronze. Such
154 MOULDER'S AND FOUNDER'S POCKET GUIDE.
moulds are used for casting tin, lead, pewter, Bri-
tannia metal, zinc, types, and other articles of economy
and ornament. Brass or bronze moulds are gene-
rally preferred to iron moulds, because they do not
corrode as iron moulds do, and retain a more perfect
polish. Such moulds are constructed on the same
principle as sand or loam-moulds. If a metal mould
is divided into two, three, or more parts, each part
is provided with a handle sufficiently long to protect
the hands against the heat of the mould. The parts
of such a mould must be nicely fitted together, and
kept in their position by ears and pins, or in many
instances by wedges. The mould is gently heated
before any metal is poured into it, to secure the fill-
ing of the space in the mould, for many of the most
fusible metals and alloys cannot lose much heat
from melting to congealing. The moulds must be
well polished after each cast, and are then rubbed
over with a rag containing oil or tallow, and which
spreads a thin film of oil or tallow over the facing of
the mould. In many cases a covering or film of
pounce-powder — sandarach — beaten up with the
white of an egg, is preferred, particularly for alloys.
Single metals work better with oil or fat.
x for Copper and Brass, if it is intended to
MOULDING. 155
make sheets of these metals, are for the first metal,
simply cast-iron boxes, in which the iron is from one
and a half to two inches thick. These boxes are form-
ed so as to be taken apart, for the copper will adhere
to the iron if it is very hot. These iron moulds are
to be very clean, or the cast of copper, which is from
two to three inches thick, is apt to have holes, which
makes it useless for sheets. Brass may be cast in
the same way as copper, but it is more safe to cast
brass plates for sheets between two stone-plates.
These stones may be of granite, freestone, or any other
kind of hard fine-grained quartz stone. They are
to be from six to twelve inches thick, and secured
against falling to pieces, in case they crack, by iron
hoops. The space between the stones for making
the thickness, is formed by iron rods. Su^h a mould
is to be in the sweep of a strong crane, and is in
the whole a somewhat complicated operation, foreign
to our subject.
Stereotyping. — Plaster of Paris moulds are used
for many articles cast of fusible metal, but particu-
larly for stereotyping plates used in printing books.
Fine plaster of paris is first cast over a page of
letter composition, and this thin coating strengthened
by coarse plaster. This plaster mould is dried at a
boiling heat in appropriate stoves, and then dipped
156 MOULDER'S AND FOUNDER'S POCKET GUIDE.
in a kettle filled with melted type metal. When
the mould is cooled the plaster is broken off, and, ac-
cording to the skill of the operator, a more or less
true copy of the letters which served as a pattern
is obtained.
There was a kind of stereotype process for-
merly practised, which deserves, on account of
the principles involved, not to be forgotten. Before
the invention of the present mode of casting stereo-
types under the influence of pressure in a metallic
bath, they were made simply by pressing the pat-
tern,— which might be a wood cut, or a composed
form, — upon the liquid metal, just when at the point
of congelation. It was a process which required
skill and dexterity, but made better casts than the
present mode of stereotyping. The fine stereotyped
prints made at the end of the last and the first
part of this century were stereotyped in this way.
The beautiful stereotypes of Firmin Didot in Paris
were done in this manner. The metal used for mak-
ing the mould was lead with a little tin ; this was melted
and cast in a paper-box as large as the cast was to
be. The fluid metal was but one-eighth of an inch
thick and resting upon a level table, cooled very uni-
formly. The moment when the metal was going to
crystallize (assume its solid form) was the time to
MOULDING. 157
put the wood engraving or form of types down upon
it, with a certain force. This process, performed
with skill, made better and more correct impressions
than the present plaster of paris mould. This first
or lead impression served as a mould for the next
cast. The next cast was made of type metal, or an
alloy still more fusible. This metal was cast like the
first, in a low paper box, and the moment when it was
going to congeal, the lead mould was with force put
down upon it. This latter cast was the true copy of
the pattern. The paper boxes were surrounded
by a screen of sheet iron, to protect the operator
against the flying hot metal. The thin film of oxide,
covering the melted metal, was the means of prevent-
ing the adherence of one metal to the other. Machines
have been in operation to perfect this process, and
make it less dependent upon the operator ; still, the
present mode of casting stereotypes has prevailed
over the old method, as it is supposed to be more
advantageous. If there is no advantage in stereo-
typing letter-press in the old way, it is certain that
engravings are made more perfect in that manner.
The composition of the metal for this art, may be
varied from the melting" point of lead to the melting
of an alloy which requiren but the boiling he? t of
water.
158 MOULDER'S AND FOUNDER'S POCKET GUIDE.
Impressions and Castings. — Before we proceed to
the consideration of metals, we will speak of SOHK
interesting operations connected with the fine arts.
We allude here only to relief impressions, not to
those in ink or colours. The materials in which
impressions may be made, are wax, paper, whalebone,
horn, glass, sulphur, and many other materials to be
mentioned in the course of this chapter. Impres-
sions are made in many materials, and a variety of
operations in the useful arts depend upon this mani-
pulation. The operations in the mint, and stamping
of medals and utensils, as spoons, forks, and pans,
are parts of this branch of art ; reliefs in copper,
brass, and silver sheets, the pressing of wooden snuff
or other boxes, of handles for canes and umbrellas,
of leather, cloth, and paper, all belong to a different
branch from that we are investigating. Most of
this work is performed by stamping-machines and
dies, where the relief part of the die is station-
ary, and the counterpart or intaglio moveable.
Some of these operations are closely connected with
our art, and for these reasons we will describe
a few of them. Impressions of small objects are
easily taken : the difficulty in making large im
pressions increases rapidly with the size of the
impression. The use of impressions in this case, is
MOULDING. 151*
co obtain moulds from patterns which will not bear
a cast or mould, as coins, gems, &c.
Wax is one of the best materials to take impres-
sions with ; yellow wax is particularly qualified for
this purpose. Before using it, it is to be gently
warmed and worked between the fingers, after which
it is more uniform in composition, less adherent to
other matter, and stronger in itself. The only objec-
tion to it is, that it is not very durable, and is to be
kept with caution to save the sharp impressions of the
original. Such impressions in wax are made where the-
original pattern will not bear heat or water. Their use
is to make plaster coats over them, and prepare the
plaster cast for patterns to be moulded in sand.
Bread in crumbs, is another material for taking
impressions. If this is well worked between the
fingers before the impression is taken, it can be dried
without cracking, and casts of sulphur, plaster, or
other matter may be made in it with success.
Impressions in sealing-wax can only be made in
cases where the pattern is not liable to injury from the
heat of melted sealing-wax. In this operation seal-
ing-wax of the best quality is required ; it is to be
molted in a thin layer in a metallic capsule over the
flame of a lamp, and the pattern, as lapidary or
Reals, is impressed upon it when near the point of
160 MOULDER'S AND FOUNDER'S POCKET GUIDF.
congelation. Impressions in sealing-wax are very
useful for taking casts in clay or plaster, and
if enclosed in a metal capsule they may be moulded
in sand. The melted wax must be free of blisters,
and the pattern which gives the impression very-
clean.
Sulphur, is a material very useful in taking im-
pressions, but it is somewhat difficult to succeed with
it. There are two ways in which it can be done : we
will mention both. If sulphur is melted to nearly its
boiling point, it assumes a pasty appearance. If in
this condition it is quickly cast into a large vessel of
cold water, it will retain that pasty form. The
detached parts may be united under water, without
injury to the condition of the sulphur. This putty
Kulphur will take fine impressions, and regain in a
few days its natural hardness. A less difficult opera-
tion is the following. In melting sulphur it first
assumes a watery appearance, is clear and liquid,
but by increased heat becomes brown and tough, and
at last it burns with a blue flame. In this state it
is cast upon a plate, where, in gradually cooling, it
becomes liquid, and after this congeals all at once.
When the sulphur is just beginning to harden, the
pattern is pressed firmly upon it, and a good sharp
•tnpression is thus obtained.
MOULDING. 161
G-lass impressions are very durable, but are not
so easily made. To copy a coin, cameo, or medal in
glass, an iron welded ring about a half or three-fourths
of an inch high, a little larger than the pattern, is
laid around it. In this iron ring upon the pattern,
damp tripoli of Corfu, — other kinds of rotten stone
cannot be recommended, because the chemical com-
position of this tripoli is the chief condition of suc-
cess— is rammed on just as in sand moulding.
The facing is to be the finest part of the tripoli, and
worked through a fine silk sieve. When the pattern
is removed, this mould is at first gently dried and
gradually exposed to a stronger heat, to expel every
particle of moisture. Upon the face of this mould
a round piece of fusible glass is laid a little larger
than the pattern, and the whole exposed to the heat
of a cupola or muffle, such as assayers use for
refining and assaying. The glass will soften by
degrees and fill the mould, the refractory character
of the silicious tripoli preventing it from melt-
ing together with it. Coloured impressions may
be made simply by melting the coloured glass first
down into those parts which are to be coloured, and
then covering the whole with such glass as we intend
the body of the impression to consist of. This latter
process, however, requires two moulds, and two opera'
14*
102 MOULDER'S AND FOUNDER'S POCKEV GUIDE.
tions ; the first mould makes but one colour of glass,,
which is to be ground on its reverse, before the second
or body plate can be melted to it. The glass used
in this art is that of which pastes or artificial gems
and precious stones are made.
Clay is an excellent material for taking impres-
sions, but its shrinking, and consequent crack-
ing, make it less useful as a material for taking
impressions. It is most extensively employed as
a means of raising ornaments upon porcelain. If
coloured ornaments are wanted, the white clay is
coloured by a fire-proof colour, pressed into a bronze
mould, made flush with the mould by a bone spatula.
The ground mass is laid over it, to which it will ad-
here. The contraction incident to clay impres-
sions may be brought to useful account. By
repeated moulding and drying a diminution of the
original pattern may be obtained, true in all particu-
lars, but somewhat less sharp.
Artificial-wood impressions may be made by mix-
ing saw-dust with a solution of glue 5 parts and
isinglass 1 part. The moulds for this mass may
be made of metal, wood, sulphur, or even plaster of
ptiris, covered with a film of oil. The mass is
pressed into the mould by hand. Impressions of this
kind are never sharp, but answer for many purpose
MOULDING. 163
instead of wood-carvings. They may be varnished
and gilded like wood, but cannot be used in damp
places. Saw-dust of willow, maple, gum, and similar
kinds of wood, is preferable to that of hard wood,
as mahogany, or pine wood. An addition of finely
powdered chalk, rotten-stone, or fine sand, improves
the sharpness of the impression. Clay does not
answer in this composition, on account of its affinity
for water.
Castings of other materials than metals are
not extensively in use, but are of importance aa
means of making patterns.
Plaster of Paris is the most important in this
range of materials. It is made by calcining pounded
or ground gypsum gently in an oven : a common
bake-oven is sufficient for a small quantity, for there
is no other ingredient in the composition of the
gypsum to be driven off but the water of crystalliza-
tion. Too much heat deadens the plaster, and too
little heat makes it work slow and absorb less water
of crystallization. Plaster of paris exposed to atmo-
spheric air loses its quality of hardening with water ;
gentle heat in an iron kettle and stirring, restores
the lost capacity for water. To work successfully
in plaster, experience and skill are required, but we
164 MOULDER'S AND FOUNDER'S POCKET GUIDE.
will try to give as good practical information as is in
our power.
One of the first requisites to success in this
work is a thorough acquaintance with the nature
of the plaster. If the material is a strange one, it is
advisable to calcine it in an iron kettle under repeated
stirring to a red heat, or so far as the kettle will
admit of, before running the risk of a cast. The
quantity of water with which any kind of plas-
ter will assume its greatest hardness, is to be tried
by experiments. Some qualities absorb more water
than others. The hardest casts are made with the
least water, but it requires dexterity to make sharp
castings of a stiif pasty plaster. The casts are also
harder if warm water is used. To prevent large
pores, and blisters in the cast, the solution is
to be constantly stirred, and kept in motion until
the plaster is hardened in the mould. The best
plaster casts are made if a very thin solution is first
spread over the face of the mould, and upon this,
while wet yet, a stronger cast is made. This will unite
strength and beauty in the same cast. Foreign
matter ought not to be mixed with plaster : it invari-
ably impairs the strength of the cast. If plaster
is to be used for making patterns, one-third of slack-
ed lime may be mixed with it. This keeps the plas-
MOULDING. 16.1
ter for & long time in a pasty condition, and oflors
an opportunity to alter the form of it so long as it
is in that state. A little lime mixed with pure
plaster, makes it more useful for moulds, particu-
larly where metals are to be cast in it. The best
mixture for making moulds of plaster for metal, is
to mix it with one-third of finely ground pumice-stone,
and a little clay. All other admixtures to improve
the hardness or strength of plaster are useless. The
strongest casts are casts of fresh, well burnt plaster,
which was not too thin when cast. A mould of plaster
may be made over any pattern which is impervious
to water ; therefore all patterns which absorb water
are to be covered by a varnish which excludes water.
In varnishing a pattern the varnish is to be laid on
thin, and uniform, not to mutilate the pattern, or fill
up fine cavities. As an illustration of this subject,
we will give a description of some practical cases.
To cast a mould of a coin, or of a wood engraving,
the pattern is first brushed over with oil or soap-
water, and then laid on a level place upon a board or
table. It is now surrounded with an enclosure of var-
nished pasteboard, tin-plate, or anything light and
flexible, which is to be fastened tightly around the
pattern. This is to project above the face of the pat-
tern the proposed thickness of the plaster cast — if
166 MOULDER'? AND FOUNDER'S POCKET GUIDE.
ifc is higher there is no harm done. Plaster of paris
is now mixed with an excess of water, in a common
water pitcher, well stirred, and after remaining a
moment at rest, the coarse plaster will settle at the
bottom, and the finer portion be suspended in the
water. The lighter part of this liquid is gently cast
over the pattern, while the latter is constantly and
gently struck, so as to settle the particles of plaster
in the finest crevices of the pattern, and make air
bubbles rise, which often pertinaciously adhere to
the pattern. The coarse sediment of the plaster is
thrown away, or saved and exposed to another fire
before being used again. After five or ten minutes'
standing, the fine plaster is settled in the mould,
and clear water stands over it. This water is cast
off as dry as possible, and some fresh plaster, mixed
very stiff, is cast over the first thin facing to strength-
en it. The first cast is made very thin merely to
cover the pattern, for it will be too weak and porous
for any practical purpose, even if cast thicker. The
two casts will unite firmly, and form a useful whole,
giving a very minute impression and being strong
besides. Such a plaster mould is dried, to expel
all the water from it, and may then be used to
cast fusible metal, wax, or sulphur in. If this mould
is to be used for making plaster casts, it is varnished
MOULDING. 167
first, which is done by a gum-shellac varnish, or
by soaking the mould in wax. The first is the pre-
ferable plan. The first coating or facing of plaster
may be put on by a fine camel's-hair brush, but this
way is not so sure of making perfect impressions as
that described. There is a certain time for re-
moving the cast from the pattern ; if this is
done too soon the cast is too soft, and will break,
and if done too late it will adhere to the pattern.
For small objects, and strong plaster, from ten to
fifteen minutes is sufficient ; for larger ones, from
fifteen minutes to one hour will be required, before
the cast <can be separated from the pattern. The
patterns are to be covered by a film of oil, as remark-
ed before; this subject requires more attention than
at first sight appears necessary. Pure oil is liable
to fill the finer parts of the pattern and prevent
the access of the plaster ; it has, besides, the evil
influence upon the cast that it prevents the harden-
ing of it, and if, therefore, the cast is sharp at first,
the least rubbing will abrade the facing, at leapt the
finer parts of it. A solution of white hard soap
brushed over the pattern is preferable, but if the
pattern is not very well smoothed or well varnished,
if of wood, the cast is apt to adhere to the. pattern.
In most cases a mixture of a strong solution of soap.
168 MOULDER'S AND FOUNDER'S POCKET GUIDE.
and a little oil, is found to be the best parting material.
Oil generally gives a colouring to the white plaster,
white hard soap does not.
The Moulding of Statues in plaster of paris is
not an object of general interest, and for this reason
is hardly worth the pains of describing and reading
an essay on it ; but as it affords the best illustration
of moulding busts and statues, we will give this
subject more attention than we otherwise should
do. There are three different ways of moulding
a complicated statue. The first is to make the
mould and the cast in parts, and screw or cement
these parts together. This is an imperfect mode
of forming statues, which never makes correct
work, for it depends not only on the moulder, but
also on the finisher who puts the parts of the statue
together, how far the cast may be true to the
original pattern. The parts of metal statues are
screwed together ; if plaster they are cemented
together by plaster, and the joints smoothed. Statues
of this kind are weak, nor can they be correct, as
it is almost impossible to destroy all traces of the
joints.
The second manner of forming statues is to cover
the original with a thin coating of plaster, one-fourth
to one-half of an inch thick, and paint this coat black,
MOULDING.
ery thin film of charcoal-powder,
lue, and over this coating a thick coat of
giving it a
ened with
gypsum, two or three and more inches thick, accord-
ing to the size of the pattern. This is laid on with
the trowel. When this last coat is sufficiently dry
to admit working at it, the cope is divided by black
chalk into so many parts as are necessary to
secure the separation of the cope from the pat-
tern. The moulder of course is to be well acquainted
with the pattern, or he could not with any certainty
mark the parting-lines on the cope, having no means
of ascertaining and tracing the lines on the pattern.
To make this operation less difficult, a part of the
pattern may be left uncovered, say the back (of a
statue) ; this makes the tracing of the partings more
safe. The omitted part is covered in a second opera-
tion, where the joining is formed by that line, and
those parts of the cope which enclosed the covered
space. The partings are effected by cutting down
with a chisel or saw through the cope to the black
stratum, and breaking the first covering of the pattern.
The black paint forms here a uniform stratum inter-
lining the cope ; it gives warning to the operator to
stop cutting, for the pattern is near. This mode of
operating is easy and safe, as it makes a good
and correct mould ; but the broken edges which form
15
1 70 MOULDER'S AND FOUNDER'S POCKET GUIDE.
the parting are very soon injured, and show un-
sightly joints on the casts. For plaster this me-
thod is imperfect, because it does not make many
good casts. One cast may be made very correctly,
but the following casts are not certain. The parts
of the mould are held together by winding tape or
twine around the mould.
The third plan of making a plaster mould is tedious
and slow, but is the safest and most correct, and by
good treatment of the mould may admit of sixty
and more castings being made in it. The manner
of forming such a mould is the following, which,
with unimportant modifications, is practised in making
moulds for metal casts. The surface of the pattern
is marked by a lead pencil with such divisions as
will secure the lifting of that part of the mould
from off the pattern, as is enclosed by such marks.
The operation of making the mould commences on
a convenient place, by enclosing one division with
fine plastic clay, and giving the borders towards the
enclosed space that form which will cause the plaster
to have the shape desired for that particular spot.
The space enclosed by the clay is then filled by
plaster, and when the latter is settled, and so fai
iried as to admit its removal, the clay enclosure is
first removed. This leaves a part of the mould to
MOULDING. 171
be made, or the plaster cast standing. This cast
may be one, two, or three inches thick, according to
circumstances, it being the object to equalize the
surface of the mould, so as to have less abrupt re-
liefs. This first part of the mould is taken off the
pattern, and the edges cut smooth by a knife, The
taper of the edges is so calculated as to form the joints
of an arch, so that when all parts of the mould are
laid together without the pattern, no part of it can
move or fall off from the others. To secure the
relations of the parts of the mould still more per-
fectly, each part is provided with warts in the joints,
fitting into opposite hollows of the next part. These
warts are made with the point of a knife, by turning
it backward and forward, and are set in the
middle of the joints, or in such places as are con.
sidered more convenient than the middle. When
the first part is dressed, it is again put in its place,
and one side of it joined by clay enclosures. If the
space now to be covered is square, the plaster will
form one side of it, and the three other sides are
formed with clay. This second space is again filled
by plaster, and it forms part No. 2 of the mould.
One side of No. 2 fits to one side of No. 1, and
three are to be dressed and provided with' hollows
for warts. In this way the whole pattern is covered
172 MOULDER'S AND FOUNDER'S POCKET GUIDE.
with small parts of the mould, which in many cases
require fifty or more cores or parts. The last part
of course is cast without any clay to form the en-
closure, and is generally without warts to form the
starting point in separating the mould. When the pat-
tern is perfectly covered with this mould, the surface
of the mould is dressed and cut smooth, to remove
all sharp angles and abrupt reliefs. Over this first
cope is made a second cope, but the first ought to
be in such a condition that the second divides only
into two, or at most into three parts. The divisions of
the first cope of course fit exactly hito the second, and
if there is any doubt or danger that cue of the parts
$f the first cope would fall out from the others in
turning the mould, that part is to be provided with
a wire staple to which a string is fastened. This string
passes through the second cope and is secured out-
side. The second cope may also be provided with
warts which fit in corresponding holes in the first
cope, if found necessary, which, however, is not often
the case. The whole mould, forming a comparatively
heavy mass of plaster, is held together as in other
cases by means of tape.
Large Plaster Castings are made hollow. This is
done by casting first a small quantity of fine plaster
in the raou'.d, and in turning, the mould is led into
MOULDING. 173
all parts of it, and gives a thin covering to the whole
face of the mould. A second cast of coarse plaster
follows the first soon after, and this is equally dis-
tributed over the mould. A succession of such
casts will give any thickness desired. Parts which
require extra strength are laid on by hand or the
trowel. Statues and busts generally require no cast-
gate, because they are open below and are cast from
that side.
Patterns and moulds in which plaster casts are to
be made, are coated with a film of oil or soap ; but,
valuable pieces of art, as marble statues or busts, do
not admit of oil or soap without injury, and these
means cannot be employed. In such cases the pat-
tern is covered by tea-chest-tin or tin foil, but so as
not to show the joints of the foil. The tin-foil is
pressed on by a cloth-brush in such a manner as to
secure the perfectly close covering in the undulations
The face of a living or dead person may be
copied in plaster by making a plaster cast over
the face. The limits of the mask are marked
by laying a wet cloth around the face. The
hair and eyebrows are covered by pasting some
tin-foil over them. Living persons are to have two
paper or tin-plate pipes in the noso, to admit of
breathing while the plaster is put on the face. Such
15*
174 MOULDER'S AND FOUNDER'S POCKET GUIDE.
masks are generally used as patterns for making
busts of those persons from whom they are taken.
The hair, ears, and the back part of the head, are
to be supplied by the artist.
Sulphur is, next to plaster of paris, the most valu-
able material for sharp castings ; but its application
is limited to very small castings, on account of its
brittleness. It can be cast over metals and many
other materials without oil, and gives for these
reasons very sharp impressions. Sulphur may be
cast over a coin by surrounding the coin with a ring
of paper ; the melted sulphur will not kindle the
paper if it has the proper heat. In melting sulphur
for casting, it is not to be overheated ; at first heat
it melts to a transparent clear fluid, and that is the
time to cast it. More heat transforms it into a
pasty mass, which cannot be used. The kindling
of the sulphur should be prevented, by all means, for
it will impart a dirty gray colour to the sulphur.
Sulphur may be mixed with foreign matter to aug-
ment its strength. One part of plaster of paris,
and two of sulphur, improve the tenacity of sulphur
without diminishing its capacity for fine impression
Next to the above, fine Spanish brown, fine chalk, or
ilay in powder, maybe mixed with it. Three parts
MOULDING. 175
of sulphur, and one of silver, is a good composition
for sharp and durable impressions.
Wax in its pure state, as well as mixed with other
matter, is a useful material for castings, but it shrinks
considerably. It requires skill not to cast it too
warm, or too cold. In the first case its castings
will be defaced, in the latter they will not take
snarp impressions. Wax may be mixed and suc-
cessfully used with plumbago, cinnabar, white-lead,
plaster of paris, and other substances. The mould
wherein wax is to be cast, is to be very cold or
wet, if the material admits of the absorption of
moisture. When the face of the mould is covered
by a thin coating of wax, the surplus fluid wax may
be cast back into the ladle. A thin cast will not
shrink so much as a thick cast.
Sealing-ivax, isinglass, and glue, are also materials
for making casts of, and are frequently used for small
articles. There is one composition to which we
have to allude more particularly ; it is a composition
used in making elastic moulds, for casting in plaster of
paris — eight parts of glue, four parts of molasses,
mixed and boiled together, and to this gradually
added one part of varnish or boiled linseed-oil.
This mass is cast hot over a pattern, and when cooled
may be easily removed. It forms a gelatinous
176 MOULDER'S ATI D FOUNDER'S POCKET GUIDE.
mass, and makes an excellent mould for plaster
casts, having the great advantage of admitting of
under-carving the pattern. Such a mould will not
make more than six or eight sharp casts ; but as the
making of the mould is no object, it is the cheapest
and quickest way of forming a mould for casting
plaster in.
Alum cautiously melted, so as not to expel its
water of crystallization, will assume a very fluid
appearance, and may be cast in small moulds with
success. Thirty parts of alum and one of salt-
petre is still better ; it makes opaque castings of
a beautiful white. Five parts of alum and one of
common salt melted together, makes transparent
sharp castings. Melted saltpetre by itself, may be
cast in hot metallic moulds, and makes castings
of a fine alabaster appearance.
Moulding Natural Objects. — A mould over an
object of nature, as over a small animal, a flower, or
leaves, may be made in the following way. The
dead animal, say a fly, or a bug of any kind, is put
with its feet upon a ring of wax, so as to place the
feet and everything else in such a position as we
want it in the cast. This wax ring will form the
channel or gate for the fluid metal. The object —
animal or leaf — is painted with a very thin solution
MOULDING. 177
of gum-shellac in alcohol; and, after being dried, ia.
placed in a small pasteboard box, and so fixed by means
of small wires as to secure it in a permanent position.
These wires, after being withdrawn, form air channels
through the mould. A small tapered pin of wood is
fastened in some convenient place for making a
cast-gate. A mixture of three parts of fine plaster
of paris, and one part of fine brick-dust, formed by
an adequate amount of water, to which a little alum
and an equal portion of sal-ammonia is added, into
a thin pap, is now gently cast over the pattern,
under continued shaking of the mould, or if that
cannot be done because the pattern is too delicate,
the pattern may be first covered by means of a fine
camel's-hair brush, with a thin coating of the above
mixture, and then the remainder cast over it. When
this cast is hardened, the pasteboard enclosure is
removed, and the cast gently but very strongly dried.
After all the water is expelled, the mould is brought
slowly and gradually to a cherry-red heat, to expel and
burn all the animal and vegetable matter. A mould
of pure plaster would not resist such a heat without
falling to pieces, but an addition of brick-dust and alum
gives it that resistance to heat which is needed.
The sal-ammonia is added to facilitate the destruction
of the natural pattern, the animal or plant. The
178 MOULDER'S AND FOUNDER'S POCKET GUIDE.
cooling of the burnt mould is to be performed equally
as slowly as the burning itself, to prevent its breaking.
In the cooled mould some mercury is cast and gently
shaken. By gradually adding more quicksilver, the
remains of the pattern which may be left in the
mould will float on the mercury, and may be brought
out. By repeating the latter operation, all impurities
may be effectually removed. Before casting any
metal in this mould it ought to be heated to a certain
degree, which degree will depend in some measure
on the mass of the pattern, and the metal to be cast
in it. Very thin fine patterns, and metals which con-
geal quickly, require a hotter mould than the reverse
qualities. Silver is the best qualified for such casts :
after this, type metal, tin-solder, and fusible alloys.
A cast made in this way may be prepared to form
a pattern for the current business of the foundry.
If the mould has been hot and the metal also, the
casts are generally so perfect as to show the finest
nerves of the pattern. Larger objects may be mould-
ed quite as successfully as small ones, but it; requires
more experience to succeed as well.
CHAPTER II.
FOUNDING.
MELTING OF METALS.
Iron. — It is impossible to qualify the va ^i
kinds of pig-iron brought into the market, by
local terms and marks. It would, after all, not
be of any use, because the produce of one and
the same furnace may change in one week's time
from No. 1 iron to No. 2 or even No. 3, which
certainly makes a great difference in its application
in the foundry. There are, however, distinctions
in the quality of iron caused by the ore, or by
the fuel which has been used in its manufacture, as
charcoal or anthracite ; as well as by manipula-
tion. We will allude to these local and practical
differences when pointing out the specific qualities of
metal for certain purposes, and confine our demon-
strations at present to general remarks. Taking no
notice of the difference between charcoal, anthracite,
and coke or stone-coal iron, we have three distinct
qualities, known as No. 1, No. 2, and No. 3 iron,
No. 1, or Dark G-ray Pig-iron, is the foundry iron.
(179)
1^0 MOULDER'S AND POUNDER'S POCKET GUIDE.
This pig-iron is, if anthracite and charcoal, mostly
of a coarse-grained, apparently crystalline fracture.
There are, however, no crystals ; the form of the
fracture is an aggregation of leaves. Iron, and the
black graphite with which it is intermixed, appear to
assume the same crystal form ; they are so closely
united that no distinction can be made of the differ-
ence in the form of the crystals, if there is any. Coke-
pig, No. 1 stone-coal iron, and hot-blast iron, are
generally finer in the grain than the above-mentioned
qualities. Pennsylvania anthracite pig No. 1, and
Pittsburgh or Hanging Rock No. 1, are generally very
coarse and black in the grain fracture. Charcoal
iron No. 1 from the Eastern States, Maryland, Alle-
gheny river, and Ohio river, Tennessee and Ken-
tucky, is generally hot-blast, and finer in the grain
than the above. Scottish pig, is of a fine-grained
fracture.
The pig-iron of this class is soft, and often tender:
most of our own manufactured iron is strong. It
melts very fluid, and cools very slowly, which quali-
fies it particularly for castings. This iron, if very
gray, may be remelted once or twice, but the fine-
grained kinds, and those which contain less carbon,
or are exposed to too much fresh air in melting, turn
into the following, or
FOUNDING. 181
No. 2 Iron. — This contains less carbon than the
above, is more gray in appearance, and of a finer
grain. If approaching near to No. 1, it is
the best foundry iron, for it is stronger than No. 1.
If this iron assumes a more gray colour, it is not
qualified for small castings, but is very excellent for
large castings in dry moulds. It melts fluid, fills
the mould well, makes less sullage than No. 1, and
does not burn the mould so much as the above.
It is tenacious, may be filed, turned, planed, and
polished ; it is close, and more certain to be frqe
from impurities than No. 1.
No. 3, is white pig-iron. By remelting No. 1 and
No. 2 under the influence of a liberal access of air,
they will be converted into No. 3. This iron is
white, and most of it of a bright crystalline fracture.
It is of no use in the foundry.
The quality of foundry-pig in our Atlantic cities,
also in Pittsburgh, Cincinnati, and other cities along
the western rivers, is no doubt of such perfection that
there is no difficulty in making any quality and kind of
castings in any of these places. There is hardly alimit
to the variety of good foundry-pig in these markets.
Some general remarks on the characteristics of pig-
iron for foundry purposes will however be in place.
Dark dray pig-iron, with large leaves of plumbago
1C
182 MOULDER'S AND FOUNDER'S POCKET GUIDE,
is qualified for small castings, as hollow-ware and
small machinery, but would not answer so well for
heavy castings, which require strength. There are,
however, exceptions to this rule. The pig-iron most
useful for the very finest kind of castings, is to be
fine-grained. Coarse-grained pig will not fill a fine
mould, at least will give but dull impressions. If pig-
iron contains a little phosphorus, it may be fine-
grained and still be an excellent foundry iron, par-
ticularly for hollow-ware and stoves. Hollow-ware
made of gray iron which contains much carbon or
plumbago, is liable to cooking black ; this evil is not
so apparent where pig-iron of lighter colour, contain-
ing a little phosphorus, is used. Black iron is not
qualified for large or heavy castings, as it is generally
too spongy.
Hot-blast and cold-blast iron are simultaneously
brought into the market, and the former is frequently
sold for the latter. For foundry-pig it makes bufc
little difference whether made with hot or cold-blast,
and we may say, generally speaking, that hot-blast
iron is preferable to cold-blast, because the grain is
finer, the iron more uniform, and it runs more fluid
than the latter. In anthracite and stone-coal pig
there is but one kind, and that is hot-blast. A
difference is often found in charcoal-pig, but then it
FOUNDING. 183
is generally marked cold or hot-blast, when made at
an establishment of reputation. To distinguish cold-
blast from hot-blast iron, is almost impossible. The
only permanent difference is a finer grain in hot
than in cold-blast, provided the amount of carbon
in both kinds of iron is the same, and the iron is made
from the same kind of ore. This mark of distinction
is, however, very doubtful, and may lead to errors.
A more certain criterion is the colour and lustre of
the pig, in a fresh fracture. Provided all other
things — as ore, coal, manufacture — are equal, the
fracture of hot-blast iron is duller than that of cold
blast; the latter shows more life than the first, and a
freshness of colcur, which is not so clearly expressed in
hot-blast iron. Hot-blast iron is frequently found
to be of a fine grain, interspersed with clusters
of coarse grains, the fine parts of a dull appearance.
These distinctions of colour are a safer criterion
than the size of the grain, but both together may
afford some means of distinguishing between the
two. It would be of little value to know whether
a specimen of iron was smelted by hot or by cold-
blast ; but as the cold-blast iron contains less carbon
and impurities, if of the same colour as hot-blast,
and as a mixture of cold-blast and hot-blast iron
184 MOULDER'S AND FOUNDER'S POCKET GUIDE.
makes the strongest castings, it is desirable to have
the two qualities separated.
The. mixing of different kinds of iron is an object
of considerable interest, and all foundries ought to
make their own experiments to ascertain the strength
of the material they are working. In making orna-
mental casts, strength is of secondary consideration,
but in machinery, and beams for architecture, it is
of the first importance. In foundries where machi-
nery is cast, or water pipes or beams for bridges or
architecture, there should be means of testing the
strength of their cast-iron. The safest and best
way of doing this, is to have a standard pattern,
say a prism of two feet long, one inch thick, and
two inches wide. This pattern is to be moulded in
a particular flask, with uniformly dry sand, and
cast inclined at a particular degree. The mix-
ture of iron is made in a crucible melted in an
air furnace. This trial or proof-bar is fastened
with one end in a vice, and at the other end a plat-
form is suspended, upon which so much weight is
piled as to break the bar. In the mean time the
deviation from the straight line, or from its original
position, is measured. In this way the relative
strength as well as the degree of elasticity may be
measured, and the relations of the strength of ono
FOUNDING. 185
mixture of iron to the other, decided on with great
certainty. This is not to be considered a scientific
experiment — it is a mere matter of local, practical
interest. Under all conditions, a mixture of iron
melted together is stronger than the average strength
of the whole, each measured by itself. Hot-blast
iron has the advantage of being of a more uniform
texture than cold-blast iron, and being more firmly
united with carbon. A mixture of hot-blast iron
may therefore be made which supersedes any cold-
blast iron, in respect to strength, provided hot and
cold-blast are made of the same materials, and in
the same manufactory. The kinds of pig-iron which
are to be mixed together to form the strongest com-
pound, are difficult to decide upon here. It depends
very much upon the experience of the founder,
and also on circumstances which are beyond
his control. Few of our blast-furnaces have yet
settled upon a definite quality and mixture of
ore, shape of the furnace, and other matters which
influence the quality of the iron smelted. So long
as such matters are not definitely settled, no brand
of pig-iron can be depended upon for its quality.
In purchasing, the buyer is to depend upon his own
experience and chance. If pig-iron is too gray, or
too spongy, it may be improved by adding No. 3
16*
186 MOULDER'S AND FOUNDER'S POCKET GUIDE.
iron, or in most cases scraps of old castings arc-
preferable. Very black-gray iron will bear an
addition of 30 per cent, of No. 3 pig or scrap. Iron
which contains too little carbon is successfully im-
proved by adding No. 1 until the wished-for strength
and texture are obtained. In all cases iron from
different furnaces ought to be mixed together, and if
there is any possibility of obtaining iron from differ-
ent localities and different ores, it is to be preferred.
An anthracite pig of the Schuylkill region is stronger
if some Scottish pig is added to it; charcoal iron from
the State of New York, or from Baltimore, is still
better for that purpose. The superior qualities
of Ohio iron may be made still stronger by mix-
ing it with some kinds of Allegheny or Tennessee
iron. In all cases, however, it is better to mix No.
1 of one kind with No. 2 or No. 3, or scraps of
another kind. And if possible, mix cold-blast with
hot-blast iron. The strength of iron depends a
great deal upon the mode of melting it, but we shall
speak of this hereafter.
Besides the consideration of strength, economy
in many instances decides the qualities of iron to
be worked in a foundry. True economy, however,
is that which secures the jest castings, and gives
most security in avoiding scraps. A mixture which
FOUNDING. 187
makes a close and compact soft gray iron, is the
best in all these instances.
An important influence in mixing iron is due to the
kind of casting, its size, and its purposes. Iron of
which beams and rolls for iron mills are cast would
make poor hollow-ware or ornaments, and iron
which makes sharp impressions on small articles, is
generally not qualified for heavy articles. Heavy
machinery is best made of No. 2 anthracite iron,
or a mixture of No. 1 anthracite, and No. 3 char-
coal. The variety of anthracite iron is not indifferent
in this question, for there is some very weak, also
some very superior iron. Hanging Rock pig of good
quality is no doubt the strongest cast iron in the
world, and it would be an advantage to western
enterprise if scientific experiments were made to
decide the value in numbers of its superiority ovei
other pig-iron. Small castings and ornamental
castings require a fusible iron which coagulates soon
and is not too gray, so as to assume sharp impres-
sions. Iron containing a little phosphorus, being a
little cold-short, is preferable for these purposes ;
that smelted of bog-ores is the proper kind for small
castings. Railings and ornaments which require
strength to resist sudden jerks, are to be cast of
a fine-grained, pure iron, free frorr phosphorus or
188 MOULDER'S AND POUNDER'S POCKET GUIDE.
any such admixture. Chilled rollers or chilled
wheels require a very strong No. 2 iron, but it is
preferable to make No. 2 of No. 1 and scraps or
No. 3 charcoal. In hard rollers a little phosphorus
does no harm, but in wheels an} pig-iron mado of
bog- ore is to be rejected.
The kind of mould in which iron is cast has a
decided influence upon the strength of the cast.
Machine frames, beams, rollers, and all castings
which require strength, are to be cast in dry sand or
loam, for green sand will cool the cast too rapidly,
and cause it to chill, or become hard and brittle. Cast-
ings which ought to have a good smooth surface, to
be perfect, require a green-sand mould. A mould
well dusted by blackening will make smooth and
good-looking castings. Thin castings, that is, cast-
ings which soon cool, are always more smooth than
those where heavy masses of metal are confined to
a small space. Castings which require strength are
to be cast upright, or at least inclined, having the
east-gate to enter from below, and a flow-gate at the
highest part of the mould.
MELTING OF CAST IRON.
Iron in the Blast-Fur nace. — Iron is in some few
instances used directly from the blast-furnace to
make castings of. It is done in those places where
FOUNDING. 189
fusible ores, as bog-ores and hematites, are smelted
by charcoal in small blast-furnaces. There are
but few establishments where this is practised :
some are along the Atlantic sea-coast, a few in the
interior of the Eastern States, and but very few in
the Western States. The whole business done in
this way does not amount to much. There is really
no advantage in casting directly from the blast-fur-
nace, for the iron is never of such uniform quality
as to secure good castings. It is on the whole dis-
advantageous, and more expensive than remelting
the cast iron, and giving it a proper quality by mix-
ing it with other kinds of iron. There are, however,
instances where casting from the blast-furnace is not
only excusable but necessary. Where bog-ores are
smelted which make cold-short iron, it is advisable
to transform the iron directly from the blast-furnace
into castings. Iron, cold-short of phosphorus, irf
generally not used in forges, and it has too little
carbon to admit of remelting. There is hardly any
other way left but to make castings of such iron.
It is not qualified, however, for machine frames, 01
castings which ought to be strong. The only and
best purpose it is adapted to, is for casting hollow-
ware and stoves ; it will form fine and sharp castings,
and cooking pots made of such cold-short iron can-
190 MOULDER'S AND FOUNDER'S POCKET GUIDE.
not be surpassed in quality. It makes enamel super-
fluous. The usual way of casting from the blast-fur-
nace is to prepare a stopper of slag, just fitting in
below the timp of the furnace. This stopper will
separate the interior slag and that in the forehearth
of the furnace, provided the stopper reaches down
into the liquid iron, the blast at the furnace of course
being stopped. The surface of the iron in the fore-
hearth, after being cleared of its slag, is clear and
will keep so, provided the stopper is thick enough
and remains in its place. The iron is dipped, with
dippers or ladles of cast or wrought iron, as far as
this can be accomplished ; after this the stopper is
removed, the cinder from the back of the hearth drawn
forward, and the furnace put into blast again. A
more perfect way of taking iron from the blast-fur-
nace is to make a dip-pool in one of the tuyere
arches, provided for that purpose, and where there
is no blast-pipe. If the back arch, opposite the
work arch, is chosen, the moulding and casting may
be carried on very conveniently, without coming in
contact with the smelter and his operations. A hole
like a tap-hole is here pierced through the back stone,
or one of the flanks of the hearth, down at the
bottom or near the bottom, and around this hole a
round basin is walled up in fire-brick, and well secu-
FOUNDING. 191
red in its place by iron binders. This basin need
not be larger than to admit a ladle. The hole which
puts this basin in connexion with the interior of the
furnace-hearth is to be of such a height over the
bottom of the hearth as to leave a cover of fluid
iron always on it. This pool is filled with some
burning charcoal to keep it warm, and as the iron
rises in the hearth it will rise in the pool, from which
the moulders may dip and take it at any time they
choose. When the pool is once thoroughly hot, it
requires no charcoal to keep it so.
In figure 34 are represented two ladles. The one
is made of cast iron, the other of wrought iron.
The latter is preferable for dipping, because there
is less danger of its being burned. These ladles are
covered with a thin coating of loam, indicated by
the dotted lines. A, the cast-iron ladle, receives a
Fig. 34.
strong washing of loam;-B, the wrought-iron one, forma
merely the bottom to a clay ladle. The well worked
clay is set upon the edge of the ladle and forms r*
192 MOULDER'S AND FOUNDER'S POCKET GUIDE.
dipper as large as the moulder may choose it to have.
The clay is put on every day, or every cast, anew,
and it is to be well burned before it is dipped into
the iron, or dangerous explosions may be the con-
sequence of such neglect.
Melting Iron in Crucibles. — This mode of melting
is not now practised, but it was formerly in use, and
is i?till so for some particular purposes. All the fine
iron castings, as trinkets and similar objects, are cast
from crucibles. The iron melted in a crucible is
very quiet, and generally not so hot as to burn the
sand ; it makes smoother and more solid castings
than iron melted in a different way. Compositions
of iron may be made and melted in a crucible, which
would not retain their quality in any other mode of
melting. The melting in crucibles is expensive,
because of the cost of crucibles, coal, and labour ;
but there are instances where these are secondary
considerations. A good black-lead crucible ought
to last ten or twelve heats of fifty pounds each, and
as the plumbago is found in large masses, is cheap,
and coal is no object, it may be found a profitable
way of making small castings for carpenters and
knife-manufacturers. The air furnace for melting
iron in crucibles is the same as that used for melting
brass, bronze, and similar metals; it is represented
FOUNDING.
193
in figure 35. This figure explains itself; the fur-
nace is put below ground to a chimney whose lower
interior part is built of fire-brick, as well as the
interior of the furnace. The furnace is covered by
Fig. 35.
a cast-iron plate, a kind of trap-door, which is
balanced by a weight and an iron chain passing over
a roller; or in any other convenient way. The
grate bars are simply square inch-rods of wrought
or cast iron, and may be pulled out one after the
other, to drop coal and cinders at once, or to clean
the furnace. The crucible is set upon a piece of fire-
brick which rests upon the grate. The bottom of a
broken crucible inverted, is preferable to brick as a
17
194 MOULDER'S AND FOUNDER'S POCKET GUIDE.
sole-piece. The crucible is to be raised from three
to six inches above the grate, according to the fuel
employed. Charcoal requires the highest elevation,
coke less, and anthracite the least. The best form
for the furnace pit is a square : the four corners
resulting from this arrangement are very useful to
charge fresh fuel in, which, if the furnace is round,
requires more room than can be advantageously
given. The crucibles are to be perfectly dry before
they are put in the furnace ; the least moisture will
destroy a crucible if not removed before exposing
it to the heat of a furnace. The iron, or other metal,
is to be heated before it is charged, and the fuel
must be dry and warm, before being laid around
the crucible. . The mode of operation is simply as
follows. The grate is put in the furnace, and
upon it the brick-bat or broken crucible, which
is to form the pedestal — sole- piece — of the crucible.
The fire is then kindled and made to burn briskly,
while the crucible and metal are heated on the door-
plate. When the interior of the furnace is red hot,
and the fuel burnt as low down as the sole-piece in
the centre, the empty crucible is put upon it, and
then the metal in pieces gradually charged, until
the crucible is filled. When the metal is partially
melted, there will be room for more, which is
FOUNDING. 195
piled upon the other, and the whole covered with a
few scraps of glass, which, when melted, will form a
film on the surface of the iron to protect it against
the access of air. A moveable cover of crucible
clay will serve the same purpose as glass, but it is
more troublesome than the latter. In fifteen minutes
the first portions of iron are melted, and the addition
may be charged. In three-quarters of an hour the
whole of the iron is melted, if properly attended to,
and is ready for casting. The fuel is always kept
as high as the crucible, and from the first somewhat
higher, but the last fuel is given when the metal is
not entirely melted, so as not to cool the fire after
that by fresh fuel. The fuel is burned down at last
so far as to free the crucible of it to a certain depth,
and to admit the access of the tongs for removing
the crucible. The tongs are made of strong bars
of iron, three-quarters or seven eighths square, and
and from four to six feet long, one end provided
with prongs bent in such a manner as to form a
basket to catch the crucible as low down as possible.
These tongs are suspended in a chain and a crane,
or, the chain very long and fastened to the ceiling
of the building. The first operation is to move the
crucible from the fire and at the same time put it
intc a pot-handle for casting. This handle is the
196 MOULDER'S AND POUNDER'S POCKET GUIDE.
same as those on iron pots, to be described hereafter.
It is to be heated previously, to prevent injury by
cold to the crucible. Two men carry the crucible
to the mould and cast, and return the crucible di-
rectly to the furnace, into which it is set without
delay. Gradual charges of metal are now given,
arid the melting goes on as before, In case no more
metal is to be melted, the crucible is put inversely
in the fire to let it cool slowly. In all instances a
hot crucible is to be put inversely in case it is set
down anywhere; the heated bottom of a crucible
never is to come in contact with anything colder
than itself. Four or more furnaces may be put at
one stack, and as many may be put in a row as is
considered necessary. Charcoal may be used in
these furnaces, coke is better, but the best fuel is
anthracite coal. The danger from the latter is its
being too severe upon the crucibles, on account of the
great heat it evolves.
Melting in Iteverleratory Furnaces. — The best
melting furnaces on the large scale are the reverbe-
ratories. They are in use in some foundries where
the proprietors are desirous of making good castings,
but are in a great measure replaced by cupola fur-
naces. The revert eratory is next to the crucible in
making good foundry metal: it gives uniformity
FOUNDING.
197
to the various qualities of pig-iron charged, and the
melted iron is quite free from air-holes, and flows like
lead into the mould. All founders and engineers agree
that castings made from the reverberatory are stronger
than those from the cupola, if made of the same
iron. In figure 36 a reverberatory furnace is repre-
Fig. 36.
sented in section. The whole interior is constructed
of fire-bricks, and cemented by fire-proof clay. The
enclosure is generally made of cast-iron plates, but
we also find furnaces which are enclosed in common
bricks, bound together by iron cross ties or binders.
The stack is generally 40 and more feet high, even as
high as 80 feet ; but there is no need of that, as 40
1 *
198 MOULDER'S AND FOUNDER'S POCKET GUIDE.
feet makes sufficient draft. The grate is 3J feet
long and from 5 to 6 feet wide, or as wide as the
interior of the furnace. The hearth is from 5 to 8
feet long and equally as wide ; it slopes gradually
towards the chimney, and forms a basin for the
accumulation of the melted metal. The fire-bridge,
which separates the fireplace from the hearth, is from
10 to 15 inches high, according to the capacity of
the furnace. One side of the furnace is provided
with a large iron sliding-door for charging iron and
repairing the hearth ; this door is at the highest part
of the hearth, near the fire-bridge. In the lowest
part of the hearth, in the centre of the basin, is the
tap-hole. This may be at one side of the furnace,
or behind the stack at the flue. A damper on
the top of the stack is a useful fixture to regulate the
draft. A furnace of this kind is to be very thick
in the walls, so as to be as bad a conductor of heat
as possible. Too much attention cannot be paid to
close joints in the brickwork; open crevices which
admit air are to be carefully stopped up, or the iron
is liable to a loss of carbon, and will make, in con-
sequence, hard and brittle castings. There are va-
rious forms of reverberatory furnaces in use, but the
most general is that represented above. There are
furnaces with double arches ; that is, where iron is
FOUNDING. 199
melted at the fire and at the flue-bridge, and the
melted metal concentrates in the centre of the
hearth where the arch is drawn down. There are
also furnaces where the cold pig is charged in the
centre of the basin, which is the centre of the
hearth ; but none of all these various forms is supe-
rior to the above. The pig-iron is here charged
behind the fire-bridge, and, as it melts, flows down
into the basin. The impure matter adhering to the
pig-iron, and which does not melt, as sand and coal,
will remain behind the bridge, and may be removed
at any time after the heat. In this way, the melted
iron is not in contact with any impurities which
can injure it. The heat of the furnace is generally
greatest near the flue, and the melted metal is in this
case exposed to the strongest heat of the furnace.
The manipulation at this furnace is very simple.
When a cast is to be made at a certain time, the
furnace is heated some five or six hours before,
and a brisk fire kept all the time ; for it will take
from three to four hours before the furnace is
sufficiently hot to charge iron. The furnace is to
be white hot before pig-iron is charged. The large
door is then opened and the pig-iron charged, one
ton or more at once ; in fact, as much iron as is
required to make the cast desired ; for it is not con
200 MOULDER'S AND FOUNDER'S POCKET
sidered advantageous to charge cold iron while a
part is already melted. All the iron contained in a
liquid form in the basin, is to be tapped before any
fresh pig can be charged. When all the iron con-
tained in the furnace is melted, the tap-hole is
opened with a sharp crowbar, and the liquid iron
either let into pots or directly into the mould. The
tap-hole is stopped with damp sand, or a mixture of
loam and coal-dust. When the furnace is charged
with iron, all the crevices and joints at the door and
in the brick-work are to be cautiously stopped with
moist loam, to prevent the access of any air npon
the hearth. The firegrate is also to be well attended
to, and kept well filled with coal, but not too high,
so as to impair the draft of air through the fuel.
The grate should be kept free from clinkers, and the
formation of holes where the air could pass through
unburnt, is to be prevented.
The reverberatory furnace is not only used for melt-
ing iron, but is also employed for the melting of large
quantities of brass, bronze, tin, lead, and other alloys
and metals. Large bells, statues, machine-frames,
and similar objects, are cast from the reverberatory
furnace. All metals, except very gray, fusible iron,
which may be cast from a pot, are to be run in dry
sand-ditches, directly from the furnace into the
FOUNDING. 201
mould. The best fuel for the reverberatory is bitu-
minous coal. Hard coal or coke may be used, but
is not so well adapted as the first. The disquali-
fication of the latter arises partly from their incom-
bustible nature, but chiefly on account of the mass
of fine ashes which is carried over from the fireplace
to the hearth, covering the melted iron and prevent-
ing its absorption of heat. This evil is more appa-
rent in the use of anthracite than of coke. Wood,
particularly green wood, is not at all qualified for
use in the reverberatory ; if no mineral coal can be
obtained, charcoal is to be substituted for it. For the
general character and quality of castings, it is to be
regretted that the reverberatory furnace for the
melting of iron is fast disappearing. Machine-
frames of large size, rollers for iron mills, and even
chilled rolls, are cast from the cupola. Machine,
engine, and iron manufacturers, bridge builders, and
architects, ought to insist on having their castings
done from iron melted in the reverberatory furnace.
Casts from the blast-furnace directly, are the very
weakest, and, next to it, ranges the iron of the
cupola. The reverberatory and the crucible make
the strongest, closest, and safest castings.
The Cupola, has the advantage of melting iron
cheaper than any other furnace. Besides this, it is a
202 MOULDER'S AND * DUNDEE'S POCKET GUIDE.
very convenient apparatus, because a small amount
of iron, say fifty pounds, or as large a quantity as
five or six tons, may be melted in a short time, with
comparatively a small amount of fuel, and in furnaces
showing but little difference in size as well as form.
In casting small objects, as hollow-ware, agricultural
implements, architectural ornaments, and similar
forms, and, in fact, in all cases where the strength
of the metal is a secondary consideration, there is
no question but the cupola is the best form of
melting-furnace. There is a great variety in the
form of cupolas, but only in minor points; all
cupolas generally agree with the form represented
in Fig. 37. In A, a section of the cupola-furnace
Fig. 37.
FOUNDING. 20tf
is shown, with another section to represent the
sloping bottom. It consists of a cylindrical cloak
or enclosure of boiler-plate or cast-iron, of from
three to six feet in diameter. This rests upon two
brick walls, B B, which are overlaid by a square
iron plate, having a round orifice as large as the in-
terior of the furnace. This orifice is closed when
the furnace is in operation, by an iron door, C, shut
and held close by means of an iron bar propped
against it. When the furnace is going out of blast,
and is to be emptied of its contents, this door is let
down, and with it the slag and hot coal of the inte-
rior will drop. The inside of the furnace is lined
with fire-brick, or it may be lined with a mixture of
fire-clay and river-sand, firmly rammed in and
gently dried. A good lining for a cupola may be
made of turnpike-mud, where the road is macadam-
ised with flint or hard sand-stone ; but, where iron
or lime is contained to some extent in such mud, it
should be rejected. Some cupolas are but four feet
in height, while others are made from eight to nine
feet high. We consider five feet as too great a height ;
there is no other advantage in it than having a
larger body of fuel at once on fire, which may be
effected to more advantage by a greater diameter.
Low furnaces, even as low as three feet, use
204 MOULDER'S AND FOUNDER'S POCKET GUIDE.
fuel than the higher ones. The width of cupolas
is quite as variable as the height; there are fur-
naces of eighteen inches in diameter, and some
are four feet. With charcoal, eighteen inches wide
and one tuyere will make hot iron, but coke requires
at least twenty-four inches and two tuyeres, and
anthracite thirty inches or more to produce the
same result. A cupola is generally overbuilt by a
spacious chimney, to lead the hot gases over the
roof of the building ; but a sheet-iron pipe will serve
quite as well as a brick chimney. The lining of a
cupola should be at least nine inches thick, and may
be still thicker, if made of fire-brick. These bricks are
to be laid in fire-clay mortar, a mixture of refractory
sand, and as much fire-clay as is needed to hold the
sand together. The tuyeres are generally from ten
to fifteen inches above the iron bottom of the fur-
nace, and are simply round orifices, of the size of the
nozzle, cut through the in-wall. For small fur-
naces, but one tuyere is used at the back of the
furnace ; for larger furnaces, at least two tuyeres
are needed ; and for still larger, and particularly
hard-coal furnaces, we frequently find six or eight
tuyeres, cut in the same horizontal plane, in one
furnace. If the diameter of the furnace is large,
the tuyeres are multiplied, in order to generate
FOUNDING. 205
a uniform heat at all points in the furnace. Where
a large quantity of iron is to be melted at once,
tuyeres are cut one above the other ; if the melted
iron is raised to the height of the lowest tuyeres,
these are stopped with fire-clay, and the next above
opened, and if the iron is raised to the second, it is
also stopped up, and the next higher put in ope-
ration. This process is continued until all the iron
required for the cast is in the furnace. The ver-
tical distance between the tuyeres is generally six
inches. The nozzles of the tuyeres are simply sheet-
iron conical pipes, of from three to five inches in
width at the narrowest part. The conducting-pipe
from the fan to the furnace ought to be at least
twice the diameter of the nozzle, or four times as
large as the area of all the nozzles. Where more
than two tuyeres are used in one furnace, we fre-
quently see a square cast-iron pipe surrounding the
furnace ; in this pipe are as many orifices, directed
towards the centre of the furnace, as there are
tuyeres ; the nozzles are attached to these orifices.
The operation in a cupola is simple. If iron is
to be melted, the first thing to be done, is to lock
the iron door at the bottom, then fill in a bottom of
sand : moulding-sand is generally used in cases where
but a small quantity of iron is to be melted. If a large
18
206 MOULDER'S AND FOUNDER'S POCKET GUIDE.
quantity of melted metal is required, a more re-
fractory sand is used. The fire is kindled by laying
a few chips of wood on the bottom, and placing
upon them some coke, stone-coal, charcoal, or anthra-
cite. The fire is kindled through the tap-hole,
which is at least six or eight inches wide. The tap-
hole is left open to admit fresh air for promoting the
combustion. The tuyeres are also left open. The
furnace is now filled to its mouth with fuel, which
is kept at a brisk combustion. It generally re-
quires two or three hours to heat or prepare the
furnace for blast, which is not put on until the flame
appears on the top of the fuel. When the furnace
is thoroughly heated, the nozzles are laid in and the
blast-machine is put in operation. Previous to
this, however, the large tap-hole is stopped up with
moulding-sand, or with a more fire-proof sand mixed
with clay, leaving a small orifice at the bottom,
which forms the tap-hole for the iron. This tap-
hole is 1 J or 2 inches wide, and is formed by placing
a tapered round iron bar in the place where the
hole is to be, ramming the sand tightly around
it, and removing it as soon as the hole is filled up.
The blast, when put on, will drive a flame through
the small tap-hole as well as out of the top of the
furnace. The small tap-hole is kept open to drjr
FOUNDING. 207
the fresh loam or sand more perfectly, and also to
glaze the tap-hole so as to resist the abrading fric-
tion of the tapping-bar. The flame, also, helps to
glaze the lining of the furnace, which is more or
less injured after every smelting, and requires
mending with fresh fire-clay. * When the furnace is
to hold a large quantity of metal, the large tap-
hole is covered by an iron plate, which is fastened
by wedges to the iron enclosure, leaving only the
small tap-hole free. The iron is charged as soon as
tne lower parts of the furnace show a white heat,
wnich is best known by the colour of the flame that
issues from the tap-hole, it being at first a light blue,
but, with increasing heat, assumes a whitish colour,
and apparently a higher heat. In about ten minutes
after charging the iron the melted metal appears at
the tap-hole, which is now closed by a stopper made
of loam, which is worked in the hand until it assumes
a certain degree of tenacity ; a round ball of it is
then fastened on the end of a stick of wood, pro-
vided with a disc of iron, which, being previously
wet, is then pressed into the tap-hole. A charge of
iron never consists of less than two hundred pounds,
and, in most cases, of four or five hundred pounds.
Pig-iron is broken into pieces of from ten to fifteen
inches in length before it is charged. From ten to
twelve pounds of fuel are consumed and charged
with every hundred pounds of iron in good furnaces.
Small furnaces, and those which are driven slowly,
use more fuel, and the amount often rises to twenty
pounds of fuel to one hundred pounds of iron.
Along with the charges of coal and iron, a little
limestone, broken into two-inch pieces, or oyster
shells, is charged, to about two, or three, and often
five per cent, to the weight of the iron. Too
much limestone, as well as too little, causes the
iron to become white, lose some of its carbon, and
in most cases, its strength and softness. The
furnace should be kept full while in blast, or at
least so long as iron is melted, by alternate charges
of iron and coal. Coal is generally put on first,
then iron, and on the top of these the limestone is
laid. When all the iron needed for the occasion is
melted, the charges are stopped. The blast, how-
ever, is urged on, until all the iron has been tapped.
The sand bottom of the furnace is made sloping,
so as to admit of discharging the last portions
of the iron. A. well-constructed cupola furnace will
inelt one ton of iron every hour; some furnaces as
much as three tons per hour ; small ones, frequently
not more than half a ton in an hour. Most fur-
naces are wider at the bottom than at the top ; they
FOUNDING. 209
therefore work hotter than those with parallel sides,
and also have the advantage of lasting longer, as
the melted iron, which is apt to cut the fire-brick,
does not run down along the brick. The taper to
be given to a lining is dependent upon the size of
the cupola ; a large furnace will bear more taper
than a narrow, or small furnace. If different kinds
of iron are to be melted in the same heat, a thick
layer of fuel is interposed between the various
qualities, so as to admit of the extraction of all the
iron which was first charged before the second ap-
pears at the bottom. In such cases, it is advisable
to melt the gray iron, or that iron which is to make
soft castings first, and the white or hard iron last.
When as much iron is melted as is needed for filling
one or more moulds, the clay plug of the tap-hole is
pierced by a sharp, steel-pointed bar, and the metal
run into pots, which are carried by hand or with a
crane, or it is run directly into the mould by means of
gutters moulded in the sand of the floor. Between
each successive tapping of the iron, the tap-hole is
closed, and more iron gathered. Where more iron
than the furnace will hold is required for one cast, a
portion of it is tapped into a large pot, which pro-
cess may be carried so far, as to make castings of
five or more tons from a small furnace.
18*
210 MOULDER'S AND FOUNDER'S POCKET GUIDE.
Pots in which iron is carried from the furnaces tc
the moulds are represented in figures 38 and 39,
Fig. 38.
Fig. 39.
The first is generally of a capacity sufficient to hold
from two to three hundred pounds of melted iron.
It can be carried by three or more men ; the forked
part of the handle is used for tipping the pot, so as
to pour the iron gradually into the mould. Figure
39 is designed to be raised by means of a crane, and
emptied therefrom into the mould. The cupola or
reverberatory at which such a pot is used, as well as
the mould, should be within the sweep of the crane.
Pots of this description are of various sizes ; we
FOUNDING. 2il
find some which will hold five hundred pounds, and
others will hold two tons and more. The swivels
on such pots are generally strong, and their ends
square, with a key-hole to fasten one or two forks
to them, for the purpose of tilting the pot and pour-
ing its contents into the mould. These pots are
always made of boiler-plate, as it would be dan-
gerous to make them of cast-iron. Before each
cast, the pots receive a wash of strong clay-water,
to prevent corrosion by the hot iron.
The foregoing are the most important means of
melting metal ; in the cupola, no metal but iron is
melted. Copper, bronze, brass, German-silver, sil-
ver, gold, and the alloys of these metals, are either
melted in crucibles, or, if large quantities are to bo
smelted, in the reverberatory furnace. The fur
naces, crucibles, and other tools, are essentially the
same for other metals as those described for melting
iron. Slight variations in the form of melting appa-
ratus are often advised, but there is no essential
difference, no alteration in the principle. Fusible
metals, such as lead, tin, zinc, antimony, and the
alloys of those metals, may be melted in iron pots,
kettles, crucibles, and iron ladles, and also in clay
crucibles. The heat required to melt these metals is
not so high as the melting-heat of iron.
"212 MOULDER'S AND FOUNDER'S POCKET GUIDE.
BLAST-MACHINES.
Formerly, cylinder blast-machines were used to
Bupply the cupola with air for combustion, and in
some few establishments they are still retained for
fanning the furnaces ; the impression being, that
iron melted by cylinder blast is stronger and less
injured than that melted by other blast-machines
There is no doubt that the cylinder blast is pre-
ferable to the blast generated in machines where
water is in contact with the compressed air; in all
other respects the impression is erroneous, as there is
evidence sufficient to satisfy the most sceptical. In
the present case, only, a blast is required for the
cupola; in other furnaces it is not needed. To
nourish a cupola, no better or more perfect blast
can be generated than that made by the fan,
or the centrifugal blast-machine. Practice has
proved that the fan makes the cheapest blast, and
also saves fuel ; it has no deteriorating influence
upon the iron, provided the quantity of blast sent
into the furnace is sufficient to generate a strong
heat. In figures 40 and 41, a common fan is
represented. It is an iron box, consisting of
two cast-iron sides, with a rim of sheet-iron be-
tween them. In the centre of the box is a hori-
FOUNDING. 213
zontal shaft, with four fans or wings, which move
with great rapidity, drawing in the air at the centres
on each side, and driving it towards the periphery,
Fig. 40. Fig. 41.
thus imparting to the particles of air a momentum,
by the centrifugal motion, which presses them against
the circumference, and if there is any opening a.t
the circumference, the air will escape with a speed
proportionate to that pressure. These fans have
been constructed of various sizes and forms ; their
depth is varied according to the quantity of air to
be derived from them ; the wings are from four to
twenty-four inches wide ; eight inches wide is suffi-
cient to supply a well-sized cupola. The diameter is
as various as the width of the fan, but it is gene-
rally admitted that three feet in diameter is the
most profitable and practical size. The wings are
often placed in the direction of the diameter,
as is shown in the engraving; sometimes in an
214 MOULDER'S AND FOUNDER'S POCKET GUIDE.
inclined position to the diameter; and also have been
curved in a spiral line, but without any appreciable
difference in effect. The latter form of the wings
does not cause as much noise as the radial vanes.
The chief obj ect in constructing a fan is to form it so as
to do the greatest amount of work. The case should
be strong and solid, and for these reasons wood is
not the proper material for its construction. The
shaft and vanes are to be as light as possible ; the
shaft, of steel, hardened at both ends, where it runs
in brass, steel, or cast-iron pans, The vanes of the
fan are to be of thin sheet-iron or sheet-copper, and
the arms to them of wrought iron. One of the most
important conditions of a fan, is the equal weight,
and the equal distance from each other of the vanes ;
and each arm supporting them is to be exactly
of the same weight as the other. If these condi-
tions are not complied with, the machine will shake,
and soon be out of order. A mere adjustment of
the axis, and the vanes attached to it, is not suffi-
cient ; it is absolutely necessary, for a good machine,
tfiat all the parts around the shaft should be of an
equal thickness. In a fan of three feet diameter, the
centre openings are generally one foot; in larger
fans the openings are larger. Very large apertures
will not answer; the air is conducted too quickly to
FOUNDING. 21 5
the periphery of the vanes, and there is not sufficient
time to impart to the particles the momentum
requisite to produce a good effect.
The chief difficulty in constructing a fan is, in the
close fitting of the vanes to the sides of the case.
The latter cannot he made very straight without
incurring much labour, and, on the other hand, it
would be very difficult to adjust the axle so perfectly
in the centre of the case as not to touch it, which,
considering the great speed of the vanes, is almost
impossible. It is also easily perceived that the loss
in pressure is in the space between the vanes and
the cast-iron sides of the case. To diminish this loss,
fans are now constructed in which the vanes are
covered on both sides with two concentric plane
rings, so that the axle with the vanes, forms a hollow
drum, open in the centre and at the periphery.
The vanes are fastened to these two bottoms or
rings, and also to the arms, radiating from the
centre. The two bottoms move round with the axis,
and parallel with, and close to the sides of the
case. In the centre, where the air is drawn in, the
case is turned perfectly round, as well as the rim on
the centre of the bottoms; both fit closely, but do
not touch each other. Where these join there is
but from eight to twelve inches diameter, which may
216 MOULDER'S AND POUNDER'S POCKET GUIDE.
be kept tighter than the larger surface and circum-
ference at the vanes. By these means the loss in
pressure is greatly diminished, and it is an estab-
lished fact that these fans require less power, and
make stronger blast than fans of other descriptions.
Fans of this construction are now most commonly
used. The bottoms and vanes in these fans are made
of thin sheet copper. The effect of a fan does not
depend so much upon its size, as upon its speed and
the size of the nozzle. It does not require large
varies to make strong blast; it is sufficient if
the surface of each is one-and-a-half times the area
of the nozzle, or, if there are more nozzles than
one, of the sum of the areas of all the nozzles.
More than four vanes in one fan are useless. In
the conducting-pipes from the fan to the furnace,
there is to be a throttle-valve at each nozzle to shut
off the blast at each without disturbing the others.
The speed of the axle of a fan is from seven
to twelve hundred revolutions per minute. It is
driven by a belt and pulley on one side of its
axle. To melt a ton of iron in an hour's time,
requires about seven hundred cubic £pet of air per
minute, or, by a three-foot fan, eighteen hundred
revolutions, and two three-inch nozzles. Six horses
FOUNDING. 21 i
power is needed to drive a fan with the above speed
and size of nozzles.
Hot blast has been tried in various instances, but
not with such results as to induce a continuance of
it. In this instance, hot blast has no other advan-
tage than a small saving of fuel, and as the fuel
consumed is not to be considered expensive, the
getting up of the apparatus, repair, and disturb-
ances caused by it, amount to more than the gain
of fuel.
Drying Stoves are simply brick chambers, one side
of which is entirely open. Three sides are formed by
a nine or twelve-inch brick wall. In one of the sides
is a fire-place, which can be supplied with fuel from
the outside of the stove, and may be shut by a close-
fitting iron door. In the opposite side of the fire-
place is a flue which leads to a chimney ; this flue
is also low down, almost below the ground. The
three sides are covered by a brick arch. The fourth
side is provided with iron doors, which open to both
sides, and leave the whole fourth side open to any
piece of moulding which may be put in. Iron
shelves are generally put up along the walls towards
the roof, for drying small cores and boxes on. A
railroad, which is within the sweep of a crane, leads
into the stove, and any heavy mould which is to bo
218 MOULDER'S AND FOUNDER'S POCKET GUIDE.
dried may be laid upon a car running on this track,
and both car and mould are shoved into the stove,
the doors closed, and fire put in the furnace. The
size of a drying-stove is varied according to the size
of the castings commonly made in a foundry. A
stove of twelve feet in all directions, and seven feet
high, is a good-sized stove. Foundries which make
large castings have to be provided with drying-stoves
of the proper size. There are frequently more than
one drying-stove in a foundry, often as many as five
or six, small and large. If there is no occasion for
using a large stove, a small one is selected, because
it works faster, and with less fuel. In figure 43 a
drying-stove is represented.
Fig. 42.
GENERAL REMARKS.
Cleansing of castings. — When the metal of a case
is so far cooled as to adhere together, and strong
enough to bear removal, the moulds are taken apari
FOUNDING. 219
and the sand or loam is removed from the casting.
Small castings require but a few minutes to cool,
while heavier casts take hours and days. A massive
casting, such as a forge-hammer of five tons weight,
will take twenty-four hours cooling in a green, and
forty-eight hours in a dry mould. A bed-plate for
the engine of one of the New York line of Atlantic
steamers, weighing thirty-five tons, took a week for
cooling and the removal from its mould. Heavy
castings are chained to a crane and hoisted by it.
Very heavy castings require the united strength of
two and more cranes. Small castings are removed
from their moulds by tongs ; one, two, or more per-
sons taking hold of it at the same time, carry it to
a place designed for the reception of such hot cast-
ings. The excrescences which may happen to have
been formed in the partings or core-joints are broken
off as soon as the cast is removed to the general
deposit of hot castings. The gates are, at the same
time, broken off by the moulder ; it requires some
degree of skill to break a gate off smoth. Gates
and accidental excrescences which cannot be removed
in the foundry, are chiselled and chipped off in the
yard or in the cleansing-shop. Heavy cores, and
particularly hard cores, are removed in the foundry
before the casting is entirely cold.
220 MOUIDER'S AND FOUNDER'S POCKET GUIDE.
Time of casting. — The casting in iron foundries
is generally performed in the afternoon after three
o'clock, so as to make it the last business of the day.
This time is chiefly selected to escape the heat of the
hot sand after casting, which will then cool during
the night. After casting, the castings are removed,
and the moulding-boxes piled in a corner of the
building, so as to be handy for the next day's work ;
the sand, after receiving some water, is shovelled
over, mixed, and thrown in heaps, where it remains
during the night. If the latter work has been pro-
perly performed, the sand will be of a proper and
uniform dampness the next morning. Each moulder
takes charge of his own sand, and but little practice
is required to learn the proper amount of water
to be used in damping the sand.
The cleansing of castings is a simple operation in
an iron foundry where common castings are made ;
any workman is fit to trim a coarse casting, or
scour it. The first is done by means of chisels
or sharp hammers; the latter, with dull, coarse files,
which have been used and rejected by machinists.
Cast-iron files are also used for the latter purpose.
The trimming and cleansing of valuable castings,
such as statues or ornaments of art, is not so easily
performed. An unskilful workman could undo almost
FOUNDING. 221
the whole casting, and all the labour spent upon it,
by trimming off a channel or gate. This kind of
work is done by an artist skilled in the performance
of such labour; and, on valuable statues, it is per-
formed by the original designer of the work, at least
80 far as particular parts, such as the face, or cha-
racteristic elements, are concerned. The trimming
of fine castings is an art in itself, which requires
more explanation than our limited means allow us
to give.
The expenses of moulding and casting are very
variable. Moulding of common articles of commerce
and machinery in iron, is done by the ton, at prices
varying from two to twelve dollars per ton, and even
at higher prices. Dry-sand moulding is paid higher
than moulding in green-sand, and loam-moulding
higher than either of them. The moulding of brass,
bronze, or other metals, for monuments of art, is of
such variety, and so different are the expenses,
that no standard price can be assigned to it. The
expenses incurred in melting metal are not very great,
— the loss in the metal which is melted is greater than
the labour and fuel in melting it. In the cupoln,
twenty-five per cent, of fuel is consumed in melting
iron, including all the fuel used in warming the fur-
nace, the drying stoves, and other incidental usea
19*
222 MOULDER'S AND FOUNDER'S POCKET GUIDE.
of fuel. Besides fuel, there are two labourers at
the cupola, one smelter, and one filler. The rever-
beratory takes from seventy-five to one hundred
pounds of fuel to each hundred pounds of iron,
including the heating of the furnace. Exclusive of
warming, the reverberatory will take but fifty
pounds of fuel. One workman can do the work at
the reverberatory, but there are generally two. The
melting of iron in the crucible is the most expensive :
it consumes from fifty to two hundred pounds of coal
to one hundred pounds of iron. The greatest ex-
penses are, however, in the crucibles : a good cru-
cible, well-managed, will not last more than twelve
heats, and if each heat is fifty pounds, it will melt
six hundred pounds of iron. A crucible of this kind
will cost fifty cents ; but very few crucibles will melt
six hundred pounds, and, on an average, not more
than three hundred pounds can be calculated upon.
The loss in iron is invariably from five to six per
cent, in every case of the different forms of melt-
ing ; the reverberatory furnace consuming most
iron. Each casting always requires more metal than
it will finally contain; this surplus iron, consisting of
gates, channels, and false seams, increases the above
loss ; and as small castings make more scrap iron
than large ones, it is obvious that the actual loss
FOUNDING. 223
will be larger on small casts than on large ones.
Machine castings make, on an average, thirty-three
per cent, of refuse or scrap in a well-conducted
foundry. Commercial articles twenty-five per cent.,
and large castings less ; very small articles fre-
quently make more scrap than ware. The remelt-
ing of these scraps costs fuel, and causes a waste of
metal, which increases the expense of melting.
Other metals than iron are generally less expep-
sive in melting, being more fusible ; and, as far as
copper is concerned, there is but little waste if the
copper is pure. Bronze will waste a little ; the waste
in volatile metals, as tin and zinc, can be prevented
in some measure, if the surface of the melted metal is
covered with a mixture of equal parts of potash and
soda, mixed with some charcoal powder. To melt and
make bronze in the reverberatory, the copper is
melted first, and if there is any bronze on hand, in
scraps or other forms, it is added as soon as the
copper is melted down ; after this, the tin is laid
near the liquid copper, upon the hearth, and if any
zinc or antimony is to be used, it is added last.
Before casting bronze, it is to be well stirred by
previously heated iron bars. The amount of potash
and soda used to protect the metal, is two pounds to
one ton of metal ; it is added when all the metala
22-1 MOULDER'S AND FOUNDER'S POCKET GUIDE.
are melted and a white scum is visible on the surface ol
the metal. Bronze metal designed for strong castings,
particularly bells, ought to be exposed to the fire in a
fluid state for at least eight or ten hours ; this will give it
a more homogeneous texture and less crystallization.
If any zinc is to be added to such an alloy, it is
advisable to add it in the form of brass, calculating.
of course, the quantity of copper it contains. The
relative quantity of the metals forming the alloy
can be calculated and mixed according to this
arrangement ; but the melting operation has an influ-
ence upon the strength of the metal. Tin or zinc
may be evaporated, and the alloy would not be
of the quality intended; the founder, therefore,
takes proofs before casting, and if they are not
satisfactory, either copper or tin is added to the
melted mass. It requires some experience to judge
of the quality of an alloy by appearances. Proof
is taken by a small iron ladle, the little metal in it
is broken after it has cooled, and the form of crys-
tallization and the tenacity of the metal is decisive
of the quality of the composition.
Lead, tin, and antimony may be melted in a
reverberatory furnace ; brass, however, is to be
melted in crucibles. Brass is sometimes made by
melting copper, and adding, after it is melted, as
FOUNDING. 225
much zinc as is needed to form the alloy. A cheaper
method is to melt a mixture of copper scraps and
zinc ore together with some charcoal powder ; or,
melt both copper and zinc ore together with carbon.
In both cases, however, the brass is to be remelted,
because the first smelting does not produce strong
and pure brass.
APPENDIX.
RECEIPTS AND TABLES.
-Alloys of Iron. — All admixtures added to iron
make it more fusible than it originally is ; these may
be metals or metalloids.
Sulphur causes iron to be more fusible if melted toge-
ther, but this mixture is more liable to corrosion than
pure iron. A little sulphur does not injure cast iron,
but more than one per cent, makes it brittle when
cold. If there is any sulphur in iron when hot, it
causes the iron to be brittle.
Carbon is contained in all cast iron from two to
six per cent. ; it makes the iron fusible ; if the amount
contained is too large, it renders it brittle. A little
carbon makes cast iron brittle and hard. Hard cast
iron assumes as beautiful a polish as hardened steel.
Phosphorus makes iron brittle when cold. It
imparts a brilliancy and white colour to iron more
perfectly than any other matter. Phosphorus makes
iron very hard, but renders it liable to corrosion ;
one-half or one per cent, causes a great alteration in
the quality of iron.
(226)
RECEIPTS AND TABLES. 227
Silicon is a constant companion of cast iron ; hot-
blast iron contains more of it than cold-blast ; it also
contains more sulphur, and phosphorus if any is pre-
sent in the ore or coal. Silicon makes iron brittle
and hard, and has a similar effect on it as phos-
phorus.
Arsenic imparts a fine white colour to iron, but
makes it brittle.
Chromium causes iron to be as hard as diamond,
but it is difficult to make this combination.
Grold combines very readily with iron ; it serves as
a solder for small iron castings, as breast-pins and
similar articles.
Silver does not unite well with iron, but a little
may be alloyed with it; it causes iron to be very hard
and brittle. The alloy is very liable to corrosion.
Copper, if alloyed with iron, causes it to be brittle
when hot, but increases its strength considerably
when cold, if the amount of copper is not more than
one-fourth of 1 per cent. ; more copper than this
causes cold-short.
Tin9 with iron, makes a hard, but beautiful alloy,
which, if nearly half-and-half, assumes a fine \vhite
colour, with the hardness and lustre of steel.
Lead combines with iron, but, like silver, in a small
proportion; it causes iron to be soft and tough.
228 MOULDER'S AND FOUNDER'S POCKET GUIDE.
Alloys of iron are very little in use at present,
but we call attention to such alloys, because the easy
method by which, at present, iron is gilded, silvered,
or coated with other metals, and also the covering
of iron with glass, enamel, and varnish, may, and
undoubtedly will lead to the use of iron alloys with
greater advantage than the common cast iron is
used.
Alloys of Precious Metals. — There are but few
which claim our attention. The gold coin of the
United States is composed of 90 parts of gold, 2.5
silver, and 7.5 copper : 75 parts of gold, 25 of cop
per, and often a little silver, is the composition for
most trinkets; 66.6 gold, 16.7 silver, and 16.7
copper, forms the solder for gold and iron. Fine
silver plate and medals are generally composed of
95 parts silver and 5 copper. Silver solder is 66.6
silver, 30.4 copper, and 3.4 brass.
Alloys of Copper are the most numerous and use-
ful. Bronze, or bell-metal, is one of the most beau-
tiful of these alloys.
72 parts copper, 26J parts tin, and 1J parts of
iron is said to be a superior bell-metal. Iron, tin,
and copper do not unite well if each is added sepa-
rately to the other, but if tin-plate scraps are melted
in a crucible together with tin, and then this tin
RECEIPTS AND TABLES. 229
and iron alloy added to the melted copper, it will
unite readily.
Common Bell-metal consists of 100 parts copper
and 30 or 40 tin ; it is more brittle and of not so
good a tone as the other. Another receipt prescribes
78 parts of copper and 22 of tin as a first rate bell-
metal. Another highly recommended composition
is 80 copper, 10.1 tin, 5.6 zinc, and 4.3 lead. The
latter composition is of a good sonorous sound, even
if the mould has not been quite dry. The silver bell
of Rouen, France, consists of 80 copper, 10 tin, 6
zinc, 4 lead. Too much tin causes the composition
t,o be very brittle. Some bell-founders recommend
the addition of a small portion of silver to the com-
position, but it appears there is no particular necessity
for it.
Bronze of great tenacity is composed of 9, 10, or
11 parts of copper to 1 of tin. If this alloy is cast
in large masses, it has the peculiarity of separating
into parts which contain more or less tin or cop-
per. The tin is generally found on the higher
parts of the cast, the copper predominating in
the, lower parts. This composition, besides being
strong, is very hard, and resists abrasion very effec-
tually; it also is very little acted upon by the atmo-
sphere. The ancients used to make their weapons
20
280 MOUIDER'S AND FOUNDER'S POCKET CUIDP-
and edged tools of a similar composition, — to which,
however, a little phosphorus appears to have been
added, — hefore the invention of steel. If bronze is
suddenly cooled, by heating and plunging it in cold
water, it becomes less dense and hard, and increases
its malleability; but this is not the case in the same
degree with all compositions, but the tone of the
metal is decidedly impaired, and bells ought never
to be cast in damp moulds. Bronze made of the last
composition is improved by being tempered, while
the tenacity of bell-metal, by the same process, is
reduced to one-third of its original strength. The
alloy of 80 copper and 20 tin bears tempering best,
and increases in strength. The gongs or cymbals,
and tamtams of the Chinese, are composed of 80
copper and 20 tin. To give these musical instruments
their sonorous property, they are plunged in cold
water after being cast ; a reheating to ignition, how-
ever, is to precede the refrigeration. After this
latter process, which deprives the metal of almost all
its sound, it is tempered, and very slowly cooled, which
imparts to it the capacity of emitting that peculiarly
powerful sound.
Bronze for Statues is of a great variety of compo-
sition. We also find alloys for this purpose com
posed like bell-metal, and also of almost pure copper
RECEIPTS AND TABLES. 2P>1
Modern statues are composed of a composition of 80
copper and 20 tin. The present state of the art of
making valuable bronze castings is, however, so im-
perfect, that our age cannot be considered competent to
give a standard of metal compositions for that purpose.
The French artists, in the first part of this century,
were so ignorant in this peculiar art, that some parts
of the Yendome column are an alloy of 94 copper
and 6 tin, while other parts contained but J of alloy
to 99* of copper. These defects caused bad cast-
ings, so that the chisellers had to cut off seventy tons
of protuberances on this one monument. At the
time of Louis XIV., a period when the art of
casting statues was more cultivated in France,
statues were cast of an alloy consisting of 91.3 cop-
per, 1 to 2 tin, 5 to 6 zinc, and 1 to 1.5 lead. The
statue of Louis XV. is cast of copper 82.4, zinc 10.3,
tin 4, and lead 3.2.
The Bronze of the Ancient Q-reeks consisted chiefly
of copper and tin, but was frequently alloyed with
gold, silver, lead, zinc, and arsenic. The Greeks
not only made statues, tripods, lamps, and other
articles of art of bronze, but also their weapons,
shields, coin, nails, kitchen utensils, and chirurgical
instruments. The ancients understood the art of
hardening and tempering bronze to perfection, so
232 MOULDER'S AND FOUNDER'S POCKET GUIDE.
that the want of steel was not so severely felt as we
may be inclined to believe at the present time.
The Ancient Mexicans — Aztecs — understood the
art of converting bronze into edged instruments in a
high degree. To small castings, an addition of iron,
in the form of tin-plate scraps, appears to be advan-
tageous : large articles are liable to crystallize by the
addition of that metal.
Speculum Metal is generally composed of 66J cop-
per and 33-| tin, it is white, and has a brilliant lustre,
and is susceptible of a high polish. An ancient
mirror was found to consist of 62 copper, 32 tin,
and 6 lead. In France, 2 parts of copper and 1
part of tin are used, which are melted separately in
crucibles, and mixed just before casting. The addi-
tion of a little arsenic, one or two per cent., makes
the metal more compact, and gives it a greater lustre
and hardness, but renders it liable to be tarnished
by the air. The speculum metal of Lord Rosse's
large telescope is composed of 126.4 copper and 58.9
tin. This alloy is of a brilliant white lustre, and
has a specific gravity of 8.811; it is nearly as hard
as steel, and as brittle as sealing-wax. The specu-
lum is cast 6 feet in diameter and 5| inches thick,
and weighs upwards of three tons. The casting of this
mirror was an interesting pr cess. After repeated
RECEIPTS AND TABLES. 233
failures and experiments, a mould was made whose
bottom consisted of a wrought-iron ring, packed full
of hoop-iron laid edgeways, so close that air, but no
metal, could escape through the crevices. This bot-
tom was turned convex on a turning-lathe, true to
the concavity of the speculum ; it was then placed
upon a level floor and enclosed by a sand-dam, left
open from above. The metal was melted in cast-iron
crucibles, because wrought iron or clay would have
injured the alloy. The cast was carried while red
hot into the annealing oven, which was previously
heated to a red heat, and left there sixteen weeks
to cool.
Bronze for Medals generally contains least tin.
100 copper with 4.17 tin has been proposed, but this
alloy is so hard, that it has been found necessary to
cast the coin. Bronze medals are, however, stamped
when composed of 92 copper and 8 tin, a little zinc
being added in a form of brass.
Bronze in imitation of G-old, consists of 90.5 cop-
per, 6.5 tin, and 3 zinc.
If bronze is to be gilt, it should be of easy fusion,
and take perfect impressions of the mould. A combi-
nation of copper, tin, zinc, and lead, as previously
noticed for statuts, is the best in this case. An
alloy which is said to possess the best properties for
20*
12.34 MOULDER'S AND FOUNDER'S POCKET GUIDE.
being gilt, was composed of 82.25 copper, 17.48
zinc, .23 tin, .02 lead. An alloy for gilding is to be
compact and of close grain. It absorbs gold and
mercury in proportion to its porosity.
Brass is a composition of copper and zinc; 2 parts
of copper and 1 of zinc — or more correctly 63|
copper and 32.3 zinc — form common brass. Two
parts of brass and one of zinc form hard solder ; to
this a little tin may be added. If the solder is to
be tough, as for pipes or kettles, which are to be
drawn or beaten, but f of zinc are to be added to 2
of brass. Button-brass consists of 8 parts of brass
and 5 of zinc. Red-brass or tombak is made of 8
or 10 copper, and 1 zinc, or, as in some German
works, of 11 copper and 2 zinc. Princes wetal,
Similor, Nurnberg gold, or Manheim gold, are differ-
ent compositions, varying between 3 copper and 1
zinc, and 2 copper and 1 zinc. These elements are
separately melted, and mixed together by constant
stirring. Brass containing a little lead, from one to
two per cent., is more easily turned than common
brass, but is more brittle. Brass which is best
adapted for hammering consists of 70 copper and
30 zinc. Tempering and sudden refrigeration has
a similar effect on brass as upon bronze ; the first
renders it hard and more tenacious, and the latter
RECEIPTS AND TABLES. 235
soft. A little zinc makes a reddish brass, and im-
parts a golden hue ; larger quantities make it a green-
ish yellow, and more than fifty per cent, of zinc
causes brass to be of a bluish gray colour. Brass
for ship nails consists of 10 copper, 8 zinc, and 1
iron. Brass for pans and steps to run machine
shafts in, is to contain less zinc than common brass;
an addition of bronze to brass increases its applica-
bility for such purposes. It is said that 16 copper,
1 zinc, and 7 platinum is almost equal to gold. If
melted red-brass is stirred with an iron or steel
rod, so as to impart a little iron to it, its strength is
sensibly augmented. The variety of brass composi-
tions is so numerous, as to make it impossible to note
all the known compounds. In the above, the most
useful alloys are enumerated.
German-silver, Argentan, or Chinese Packfong,
is one of the most valuable alloys ; it nearly com-
bines the durability of silver and the utility of iron,
steel, and copper. Common German-silver is com-
posed of 60 copper, 25 zinc, and 15 nickel. A better
quality is 50 copper, 25 zinc, and 25 nickel. Chinese
packfong consists of 55 copper, 17 zinc, 23 nickel,
and 3 iron. A highly sonorous, tenacious Argentan,
which can be hammered and rolled, resembling sil-
ver more than any other compound, is composed of
•236 MOULDER'S AND FOUNDER'S POCKET GUIDE.
10.4 copper, 25.4 zinc, 31.5 nickel, 2.6 iron. At
present, aline argentan, and one the best qualified to
'je plated with silver by the galvanic process, is made
of 62 copper, 19 zinc, 13 nickel, and 4 to 5 cobalt
and iron. This argentan is very close, strong, and
cheap, and may be covered by one or two per cent,
of silver, forming a good fine plate. A very tena-
cious, ductile, and hard argentan may be made of
57.4 copper, 25 zinc, 13 nickel, and 9 iron. This
alloy can be substituted for steel in many of the
common uses of steel, particularly where corroding
influences upon steel are strong, because this alloy
is not affected by atmospheric air. Electron, a fine
quality of argentan, is composed of 8 copper, 4
nickel, and 3.5 zinc. Solder for German silver is
made by adding 4 parts of zinc to this composition,
then laminate and pound it to a coarse powder.
Before we part with copper alloys it will be proper
to allude to some combinations of copper with other
matters which are useful to know. Copper and
platinum form a yellow alloy hardly distinguishable
from gold. Copper and silver do not form any dis-
tinguished amalgam; the addition of a little arsenic
to such an alloy makes it whiter and more like silver.
A little copper and antimony make a fine rose-
floured alloy ; if the copper is increased, it assumes
RECEIPTS AND TABLES. 23T
a darker hue ; equal quantities make a violet com-
pound, and more copper increases the dark shade
This alloy is brittle in all proportions; 90 parts
of copper, 5 antimony, and 5 zinc, are used for
plumber-blocks, and pans and steps for steel and
iron gudgeons to run in. Carbon makes copper very
brittle. Phosphorus makes copper as hard as steel, so
that it can be used for knives and edge-tools; it,
however, renders copper more liable to corrosion.
The appearance of this compound when newly
polished is like pure copper, but it is very soon
covered or tarnished with a greenish-black covering.
This greenish black being the colour of ancient wea-
pons, renders it probable that the ancients hardened
their copper or bronze tools by means of phosphorus.
Copper and arsenic form a bright white alloy, which
is used for candlesticks, buttons, dials, and similar
articles, but as this compound is easily soluble and
highly poisonous, it cannot be used where food is
brought in contact with it. This alloy is made by
melting copper scraps and white arsenic — arsenious
acid — in a crucible, covering it with a layer of com-
mon salt. It has almost the colour and density of
pure silver, but is very liable to corrosion.
Lead and its alloys are very extensively used ; the
alloys are usually harder and less tough than lead. ^1
238 MOULDER'S AND FOUNDER'S POCKET GUIDE.
small amount of arsenic is added to the lead to make
shot; arsenic is more fusible and more brittle than
lead ; for fine shot, three pounds of arsenic, and for
coarse eight pounds, to one thousand pounds of lead,
are generally used. To alloy lead with arsenic,
nothing more is needed than to melt white arsenic
together with metallic lead ; half the weight of the
arsenic employed will be absorbed by the lead. 5
lead and 1 antimony, to which frequently a little
zinc and bismuth are added, forms type metal. A
good French type metal is said to consist of 2 lead,
1 antimony, and 1 copper. Common type metal is
80 lead and 20 antimony ; a more fusible stereotype
metal is 77 lead, 15 antimony, and 8 bismuth. Some
stereotype founders add tin to the above, that is, add
to lead, antimony, and bismuth, tin ; or leave the
bismuth out and supply its place by tin. If much
tin is used it renders the metal rather soft, but fusible
and fit for fine impressions. A superior alloy is said
to consist of 9 lead, 2 antimony, and 1 bismuth. To
alloy lead with these metals, the lead is first melted,
and the other metals added to the fluid lead, Fusible
metal may be compounded of various degrees of
fusibility; 31 lead, 19 tin, and 50 bismuth may be
fused at 203°. An alloy which fuses at 149°, and
which is used for plugging teeth, consists of 28.5
RECEIPTS AND TABLES. 239
lead, 45.5 bismuth, 17 tin, and 9 mercury. 8 of
bismuth, 5 of lead, and 3 of tin, will melt at the
boiling heat of water, or 212°. Bismuth makes
lead stronger if the amount of bismuth does not
exceed that of the lead ; two parts of bismuth and
three parts of lead is said to be ten times stronger
than lead, and as the durability of bismuth is equal
to lead, it forms a good alloy for making pipes and
wire.
Tin forms a range of very useful alloys. Tin
and lead melt together in all proportions. Most of
the tin vessels which are called pure tin are alloyed
with lead. Soft solder is 33 tin to 67 lead, and in
all proportions from that to 67 tin to 33 lead ; half-
and-half is common soft solder. Plate pewter is
composed of 89 tin, 2 bismuth, 7 antimony, and 2
copper. Queen s metal, of 75 tin, 9 lead, 8 bismuth,
8 antimony. Britannia metal, of 89 tin, 2 copper, 6
antimony, 2 brass, and 1 iron. Common pewter, or
German tin, is composed of 4 tin and 1 lead. The
best plate pewter is 100 tin, 8 antimony, 2 bismuth,
and 2 copper. Music metal is 80 tin and 20 inti-
mony. Spurious silver leaf is 50 tin and 50 zinc.
Antifriction metal is a variable compound of lead,
antimony, tin, and copper. Organ pipes are made of
a composition of 9 tin and 1 lead ; these proportions
1140 MOULDER'S AND FOUNDER'S POCKET GUIDE.
are varied by different artists. 29 tin and 19 lead
form a fusible compound, of which imitations of
diamonds and precious brilliants are made. To
make such imitations, a glass rod is ground at one
end in the form which is to be represented, whether
a brilliant or rose-diamond. The melted metal is
skimmed by a paper card, and the ground facetted
end of the glass rod dipped in the clear metal; on
withdrawing the rod a thin film of metal will adhere
to the cold rod, which, when taken off, will show a
hollow capsule having the lustre of a diamond. We
find such diamonds at present used to make sign-
boards in show windows. This metal forms excellent
reflectors, which may easily be made by dipping a
round bottle or the bottom of a retort in the
rnetal ; but the metal is tarnished by anything
coming in contact with it. 1 part tin, 1 lead, 2 bis-
muth, and 10 mercury is very fusible ; with this com-
pound glass pipes and glass globes are coated with a
thin film, by placing some of this metal in the article
to be coated, and allowing it to flow round, thus
giving it the brilliancy of silver. Tin foil, if designed
for mirrors, is pure tin, but common tin-foil is lead
and tin — often tin, zinc, and lead ; it has so great a
variety of composition, that no standard can be
assigned it. Tin-foil is made either by hammering
RECEIPTS AND TABLES. 241
or rolling, but most of it is made by casting the hot
metal over an inclined plane, made of a frame
covered with cotton or linen canvas. It requires
some skill to perform the latter operation.
Zinc, alloyed with other metals, has already been
enumerated. In its pure state it forms fine sharp cast-
ings, good for ornamental purposes ; but as these
castings have no strength, they are not much used
for other purposes. A composition of lead and zinc
is used for patterns, but with little advantage ; it is soft
and flexible, and the patterns soon lose their shape.
BRONZING.
When bronze metal has been exposed to the atmo-
spheric air for a long time, it assumes a dark green
colour. This colour, a rich hue, may be imitated by
chemical agencies, or by paint. Bronze metal, after
being cleaned, is bronzed by being painted or immersed
in a solution of two parts of verdigris and one part of
sal-ammonia, dissolved in vinegar, boiled and filtered,
and used very dilute. It is left in this solution or
brushed over until the desired hue is obtained. The
colour of antique bronze is obtained by painting the
bronze cast with a solution of one part of sal-ammo-
nia, three parts cream of tartar, six parts of common
salt, the whole dissolved in twelve parts of hot
21
242 MOULDER'S AND Ft UNDER' s POCKET GUIDE.
water; with this are to be mixed eight parts of a
solution of nitrate of copper. This solution should
be laid on in a damp place- The first mixture will
give a more reddish dark green colour to bronze than
the latter. Different tints may be imparted to
bronze and brass, from red to bright yellow, and from
dark to light green. Boiling bronze in muriatic acid
will give it a red colour ; and soaking it in ammonia
renders it whiter than it already is. Bronze painted
with a thin solution of equal parts of sal-ammonia
and oxalate of potash, in a warm room, or in the
heat of the sun, gives it a fine green colour, parti-
cularly if rubbed with it. If a dark blackish bronze
colour is required, the foregoing solution is laid on
in a room where some liver of sulphur — sulphuret of
potassium — is dissolved in water, and set out in flat
dishes to generate sulphuretted hydrogen, which
will cause a uniform blackish brown colour on bronze
or brass. The foregoing receipts answer for brass
as well as bronze. When the desired colour is
obtained, the object is washed in clean water, dried,
and then rubbed with a brush and wax. The bronze
for the latter operation is heated, but not so much
so as to burn the wax.
Bronze, colour is imparted to other castings besides
brass and bronze, by paint. Cast iron may be bronzed
RECEIPTS AND TABLES. 243
by dipping it in a thin solution of sulphate of cop-
per, or muriate of copper, and when sufficiently
covered with copper, it is washed and painted with
oil varnish. All objects to be bronzed may, how-
ever, be painted of any colour, either a shade
of green, from the faintest to an almost black
green, or of a blue or bluish green. The paint
cover should be coated with pure varnish, and when
that is nearly dry, a metallic powder is dusted
over it by a dusting-bag, or rubbed on by the fin-
gers, a linen pad, or a paint-brush. The metallic
powder is generally mosaic gold, which is made of
almost every shade,. and is of great beauty; or it
may be copper in powder, gold leaf, silver leaf, and
similar articles ; dry paint of a convenient shade
may also be used. The highest parts of the articles
are generally bronzed so as to appear as if rubbed
and worn by use. Over the whole of these, a last
coating of spirit varnish is laid on.
The gilding of bronze and brass castings is per-
formed, in the dry way, by making the surface
perfectly smooth, then brushing it over with an
amalgam of gold, and dissipating the mercury by heat,
which leaves a durable film of gold over the surface.
This surface may be burnished or deadened. The
amalgam is made by heating one part of gold, in
244 MOULDER'S AND FOUNDER'S POCKET GUIDE.
thin laminae, in a crucible, and when it becomes,
faintly red, pour over it eight parts of mercury,
pour the combined gold and mercury into cold water,
and squeeze the surplus mercury out. The amalgam
is then enclosed in canvas or chamois leather, and
some more mercury pressed out : the remainder will
contain one part of gold to two parts of mercury.
This amalgam is rubbed over the objects to be
gilded : it may be had in its true composition from
the gold mines of Virginia, and of the best quality
from North Carolina. It is advisable to brush the
brass over with a thin solution of nitrate of mercury
and some free nitric acid, as this facilitates the ad-
herence of the amalgam. The gilt and burnished
articles may be coloured by a simple process to any
shade from a bright and crimson red to a violet
and deep blue, by being submerged in a bath of
caustic potash in which some metallic oxide is dis-
solved, but, as a galvanic process is to be applied
here, it is beyond our province to describe it. There
are other methods of gilding which, for the same
reason, must be excluded.
Iron may be gilded by brushing it over with a
solution of gold in sulphuric ether. The iron is to
be bright and polished, and the gold rubbed on Ir?
the burnisher. This is not very durable gilding.
RECEIPTS AND TABLES. 245
Tinning of brass, bronze, and copper, is done by
washing the surface of the cast with very diluted
sulphuric acid, after which, wash in water, and scour
with sand. The object is then heated to the melt-
ing point of tin, and the tin, having been previously
melted, is rubbed over the surface by means of a
damp rag or piece of oakum, first covered with
rosin, to protect the tin against oxydation. Cast
iron must be turned or filed, so as to offer a clean
surface, before it can be tinned. A solution of
tin, as muriate of tin, mixed writh an equal part
of sal-ammonia, if brushed over the metal, will
highly facilitate the operation of tinning. A more
convenient mode of tinning than the above, is to
plunge the object to be tinned in a solution of tin
and caustic potash, which solution is to be as hot
as it can possibly be made. Such a solution of tin
is made by dissolving oxyde of tin — putty of tin —
in potash ley, adding to the saturated solution some
metallic tin, in the form of filings or shavings of
tin. A few minutes are sufficient to cover brass or
copper with tin.
Zinking of copper or bronze may be done by
exposing the objects to the fumes of zinc. On cop-
per castings, it is often desirable to have some parts
of a golden or yellow hue, which may be don^^yw V*
246 MOULDER'S AND FOUNDER'S POCKET GUIDE.
exposing those parts to the fumes of zinc. A ver}
perfect coating of zinc may be obtained by placing
the objects, well cleaned, in a solution of chloride
of zinc, in which a surplus of metallic zinc is present.
Chloride of zinc is made by dissolving zinc in muri-
atic acid, always having so much zinc in the acid,
that some of it will remain undissolved. Zinc dis-
solved in sal-ammonia is as efficacious as the fore-
going.
Glazing of metal castings, or coating with enamel,
is very little practised, and will hardly ever amount
to a lucrative operation. Iron to be coated with an
enamel is first well cleansed by means of acid and
scouring with sa.,d. It is then uniformly covered
with the enamel, which has been previously prepared
or melted, finely ground, and mixed with water for
the purpose of laying it on. This operation is very
little practised, as it is very expensive and the pro-
duct is not durable. It has been, and still is used for
covering the interior of cooking utensils to prevent
their cooking black. A better means to accomplish
this object in a cheaper way, is the application of
cast iron, which contains a little phosphorus, and not
too much carbon, as has been previously remarked.
More recently, a new invention, that of covering
iron with transparent glass, and also with coloured
RECEIPTS AND TABLES. 247
glass, has made its appearance in England. Serious
doubts, however, may be entertained as to its ulti-
mate success. Iron coated with enamel or glass can
never be brought to a successful competition with
porcelain either in beauty or price.
Blackening of iron casts is either done with black-
lead, moistened with alcohol, or, in many instances,
with spirits of turpentine. This is laid on by a brush,
and rubbed until the blackening is dry, and assumes
a metallic lustre. This is the blackening used for
stoves. If the object to be blackened is a little warm,
the operation works better and much more quickly.
Fine ornamental castings are heated to the blue
annealing heat, and then covered with black copal
varnish, and dried at the same degree of heat. The
heat takes most of the gloss of the varnish off. The
copal varnish is then blackened by an admixture of
finely rubbed lamp-black, or printers' ink, or, still
better, by finely ground pure bone-black. Larger
castings are blackened with common black paint. A
rich lead-colour may be imparted to castings by an
oil paint, made of fine litharge gently heated in an
iron pan, and, when hot, some flour of sulphur
finely and uniformly sprinkled over it under constant
storing. The resulting sulphuret of lead assumes a
'248 MOULDER'S AND FOUNDER'S POCKET GUIDE.
rich lead- colour, which is not altered by oil or
the atmosphere.
Grinding of cast iron is resorted to where any
smooth, polished surface is required. It is done on
large, fast-revolving sand or grind stones. Cast iron
is generally hard on its surface and sandy, so that it
would require too much labour to file it, besides wearing
out too many files. Machine castings are planed or
turned by proper machinery.
Malleable cast iron, an article now very much in
use for carriage and harness furniture, and various
other purposes, is made of the best kind of No. 2
charcoal pig. Where the foundry scraps are of a
good quality of iron, they are preferable. A good
article may be made by mixing No. 2 and No. 3 iron.
Any pig iron which makes good bar iron will make
malleable iron. Most of the malleable iron is cast
from the cupola, but the crucible makes better cast-
ings of the same material. The cast articles arc
tempered in an iron cylinder, and imbedded in fine
fresh river sand, or finely pounded iron ore, or black
manganese, or a mixture of the whole of these mate-
rials. An exposure of the hardest cast iron, if pure,
from twenty-four to thirty-six hours to the fire, will
render it malleable to a certain degree. When tem-
pered, the articles are put in a revolving iron barre)
RECEIPTS AND TABLES. 2iO
together with some sand, to be cleaned and polished,
to a certain extent, by rubbing one against the
other. This malleable iron is particularly quali-
fied for being tinned, or plated with brass or
silver. For the silvering of iron, a process has
been lately recommended which appears to be valu-
able: it is performed by means of galvanism. The
iron article, well cleaned and freed of all oil and
grease, is immersed in a solution of silver, and con-
nected with the zinc pole of a galvanic battery ; the
copper pole is connected with a platinum plate placed
in the solution at some distance from the cast iron.
The silver solution consists of cyanide of silver. It
is made by putting cyanide of potassium in a well-
corked vessel, together with freshly prepared chloride
of silver ; the whole is then covered with water and
violently shaken. It is advisable to use an excess of
chloride of silver, and if a little remains undissolved,
add a few pieces of cyanide of potassium. A little
chloride of silver ought to remain after all the cyanide
is saturated. This solution is filtered, to render it
perfectly clear, and is then ready for use. It is
said that a few minutes' time is sufficient to cover a
large surface of iron with silver.
250 MOULDER'S AND FOUNDER'S POCKET GUIDE.
TABLE I.
Weight of a lineal foot of cast-iron pipes in pounds.
Il.ameter of bore in
inches.
Thickness of metal in inches.
I
}
i
1
i
1
14-
H
2
8.8
12.3
16.1
20.3
2|
10.6
14.7
19.2
23.9
I 3
12.4
17.2
22.2
27.6
33.3
39.3
45.6
19.6
25.3
31.3
37.6
44.2
51.1
- *i
3£
14.2
22.1
28.4
35.0
41.9
49.1
56.6
64.4
4
16.1
24.5
31.4
38.7
46.2
54.0
62.1
70.6
4i
18.0
27.0
34^5
42.3
50.5
58.9
67.6
76.7
5
19.8
29.5
37.6
46.0
54.8
63.8
73.2
82.8
5i
21.6
31.9
40.7
49.7
59.1
68.7
78.7
8S.8
6
23.5
34.4
43.7
53.4
63.4
73.4
84.2
95.1
8i
25.3
36.8
46.8
56.8
67.7
78.5
89.7
101.2
7
27.3
7i
29.0
39.1
49.9
60.7
72.0
83.5
95.3
107.4
8
30.8
41.7
52.9
64.4
76.2
88.4
100.8
113.5
8J
32.9
44.4
56.2
68.3
80.8
93.5
106.5
119.9
9
34.5
46.6
59.1
71.8
84.8
98.2
111.8
125.8
9k
36.3
49.1
62.1
75.5
89.1
103.1
117.4
131.9
10
38.2
51.5
65.2
79.2
93.4
108.0
122.8
138.1
10i
54.0
68.2
82.8
97.7
112.9
128.4
144.2
11
56.4
71.3
86.5
102.0
117.8
133.9
150.3
Hi
58.9
74.3
90.1
106.3
122.7
139.4
156.4
12
61.3
77.4
93.6
110.6
127.6
145.0
162.6
13
82.7
101.2
118.2
137.4
154.1
173.5
14
89.3
108.2
126.5
146.2
165.3
185.2
15
95.2
115.7
135.3
156.2
176.2
198.1
16
123.3
143.1
166.1
187.5
211.3
17
130.2
152.5
178.5
198.2
223.4
18
137.0
161.2
185.3
209.1
235.6
19
169.2
195.7
222.3
247.1
20
178.1
205.2
233.2
259.0
N. B. The two flanges of a pipe are considered equal to the weight
of one foot in length.
RECEIPTS AND TABLES, VOl
TABLE II.
Dimensions of cylindrical columns of cast iron to sustain a grvev.
load with safety.
Diameter
in iiH'hc.i.
Height in feet.
4
6
8
49
145
288
479
573
1289
10
12
14
16
18
20 | 22
21
' ^
1
5'
5
?
2
3
4
5
6
8
72
178
326
522
607
1333
60
163
310
501
592
1315
40
128
266
452
550
1259
32
111
242
427
525
1224
26
97
220
394
497
1185
22
84
198
365
469
1142
18
178
337
440
1097
15
64
160
310
413
1052
13
56
144
285
386
1005
11
49
130
202
. 360
I 959
N. B. If the columns are hollow, the area to the given diameter is to
be converted into the ring, or the difference of the outer and inner
diameters multiplied by §, because hollow cast-iron columns are
stronger than solid ones in that proportion.
TABLE III.
Showing the tenacities, and resistances to compression, of various
simple metals and alloys.
METALS AND ALLOTS.
Tenacity.
A bar of one inch square
section, will be torn asun-
derby
Resistance to Compression.
One square inch will be
crushed by
Resistance
to
Tomo-i.
|
Pounds
Pounds
Cast Iron
15,000 to 30,000
86,000 to 100,000
9.0
Copper, Wrought
33,000
4.3
Malleable Iron
56,000 to 70,000
10.0
Lead
1824
1.0
Steel
120,000 to 150,000
200,000 to 250,000
16 to 19
Tin
5000
1*
Zinc
9000
Common Brass
17,90C
10,300
4.6
Swedish Copper 6 parts,
Malacca Tin 1 part
64,000
5.0
Chili Copper 6 parts, Ma-
lacca Tin 1 part
60,.**
Common Block Tin 4 parts,
Lead 1 part, Zinc 1 part
13,OW)
Common Block Tin 3 parts,
Lead 1 part
10,200
Common Block Tin 3 parts,
.
Zinc 1 part
10,000
1 Lead 1 part, Zinc 1 part
4500
252 MOULDER'S AND FOUNDER'S POCKET GUIDE.
TABLE IV.
Specific gravities of metals and alloys. Water 1000.
METALS AND ALLOTS.
Specific Gravity.
The weight of a
cubic inch is in
pounds
Number of cubic
inches in one
pound.
*a
"5.2
Hi
ill
Melting point in |
degrees.
Platinum
19.500
1208
Gold
19.258
1.435
1203
2016°
Mercury
13.500
2.038
843
Lead
11.352
.4103
2.435
708
612°
Silver
10.474
2.638
652
1873°
Bismuth
9.823
2.814
613
476°
Copper, Cast
8.788
.3185
3.146
550
1990°
" Wrought
8.910
.3225
3.103
555
Iron, Cast
7.264
.2630
3.806
450
2780°
Steel
7.816
3.530
489
Tin, Cast
7.291
.2636
3.790
456
442°
Zinc, Cast
7.190
.2600
3.845
449
773°
Gold 90, Silver 2.5, Copper 7.5
17.40
Gold 66.6, Silver, 16.7, Copper 16.7
12.40
(Solder for Gold.)
Zinc 10.0, Silver, 66.6, Copper 23.4
9.84
(Solder for Silver.)
Bronze
8.48 to 8.94
537
German Silver
8.48 to 8.57
Brass
8.4 to 8.5
3.533
537
1900°
Type Metal
9.854
615
!
Soft Solder
9.55
Music Metal
7.1
1
Water
1.000
62.5
i
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ductions necessary to the Prosperity of the Ameri-
can Farmer.
By HENRY CAREY BAIRD. 8vo., paper. . .. .. . * , . . 10
BAIRD.— Some of the Fallacies of British Free-Trade
Revenue Reform.
Two Letters to Arthur Latham Perry, Professor of History and Politi-
cal Economy in Williams College. By HENRY CAREY BAIRD.
Pamphlet - .... 05
BAIRD. — The Rights of American Producers, and the
Wrongs of British Free- Trade Revenue Reform.
By HENRY CAREY BAIRD. Pamphlet. . . . . . 05
BAIRD.— Standard Wages Computing Tables :
An Improvement in all former Methods of Computation, so arranged
that wages for days, hours, or fractions of hours, at a specified rate per
day or hour, may be ascertained at a glance. By T. SPANGLER BAIRD.
Oblong folio "• ' . • $5.00
BAIRD. — The American Cotton Spinner, and Mana-
ger's and Carder's Guide :
A Practical Treatise on Cotton Spinning ; giving the Dimensions and
Speed of Machinery, Draught and Twist Calculations, etc. ; with
notices of recent Improvements : together with Rules and Examples
for making changes in the sizes and numbers of Roving and Yarn.
Compiled from the papers of the late ROBERT II. BAIRD. 12mo. $1.50
HENRY CAREY BAIRD'S CATALOGUE. 3
BAKER.— Long-Span Railway Bridges :
Comprising Investigations of the Comparative Theoretical and Prac-
tical Advantages of the various Adopted or Proposed Type Systems
of Construction ; with numerous Formulae and Tables. By B. BAKER.
12mo $2.00
BAUERMAN.— A Treatise on the Metallurgy of Iron :
Containing Outlines of the History of Iron Manufacture, Methods of
Assay, and Analysis of Iron Ores, Processes of Manufacture of Iron
and Steel, etc., etc. By H. BAUERMAN, F. G. S., Associate of the
Royal School of Mines. First American Edition, Revised and En-
larged. With an Appendix on the Martin Process for Making Steel,
from the Report of ABRAM S. HEWITT, U. S. Commissioner to the
Universal Exposition at Paris, 1867. Illustrated. 12mo. . $2.00
BEANS.— A Treatise on Railway Curves and the Loca-
tion of Railways.
By E. W. BEANS, C. E. Illustrated. 12mo. Tucks. . . $1.50
BELL. — Carpentry Made Easy :
Or, The Science and Art of Framing on a New and Improved System.
With Specific Instructions for Building Balloon Frames, Barn Frames,
Mill Frames, Warehouses, Church Spires, etc. Comprising also a
System of Bridge Building, with Bills, Estimates of Cost, and valuable
Tables. Illustrated by 38 plates, comprising nearly 200 figures. By
WILLIAM E. BELL, Architect and Practical Builder. 8vo. . $5.00
BELL.— Chemical Phenomena of Iron Smelting :
An Experimental and Practical Examination of the Circumstances
Avhich determine the Capacity of the Blast Furnace, the Temperature
of the Air, and the proper Condition of the Materials to be operated
upon. By I. LOWTHIAN BELL. Illustrated. 8vo. . . $6.00
BEMROSE.— Manual of Wood Carving :
With Practical Illustrations for Learners of the Art, and Original and
Selected Designs. By WILLIAM BEMROSE, Jr. With an Introduction
by LLEWELLYN JEWITT, F. S. A., etc. With 128 Illustrations. 4to.,
cloth $3.00
BICKNELL.— Village Builder, and Supplement :
Elevations and Plans for Cottaeres, Villas, Suburban Residences,
Farm Houses, Stables and Carriage Houses. Store Fronts, School
Houses, Churches, Court Houses, and a model Jail ; also, Exterior and
Interior details for Public and Private Buildings, with approved
Forms of Contracts and Specifications, including Prices of Building
Materials and Labor at Boston, Mass., and St. Louis, Mo. Containing
75 plates drawn to scale ; showing the style and cost of building in
different sections of the country, being an original work comprising
the designs of twenty leading architects, representing the New Eng'
land, Middle, Western, and Southwestern States. 4to. . $12.00
4 HENRY CAREY BAIRD'S CATALOGUE.
BLENKARN.— Practical Specifications of Works exe-
cuted in Architecture, Civil and Mechanical Engi-
neering, and in Road Making and Sewering :
To which are added a series of practically useful Agreements and Re-
ports. By JOHN BLEN&ARN. Illustrated by 15 large folding plates.
8vo. ...........
BLINN.— A Practical Workshop Companion for Tin,
Sheet-Iron, and Copperplate Workers :
Containing Rules for describing various kinds of Patterns used by
Tin, Sheet-Iron, and Copper-plate Workers; Practical Geometry";
Mensuration of Surfaces and Solids; Tables of the Weights of Metals,
Lead Pipe, etc. ; Tables of Areas and Circumferences of Circles ;
Japan, Varnishes, Lackers, Cements, Compositions, etc., etc. By
LEROY J. BLINN, Master Mechanic. With over 100 Illustrations.
12mo .......... *. . $2.50
|
BOOTH.— Marble Worker's Manual:
Containing Practical Information respecting Marbles in general, their
Cutting, Working, and Polishing ; Veneering of Marble ; Mosaics ;
Composition and Use of Artificial Marble, Stuccos, Cements, Receipts,
Secrets, etc., etc. Translated from the French by M. L. BOOTH.
With an Appendix concerning American Marbles. 12mo., cloth. $1.50
BOOTH AND MORFIT.— The Encyclopedia of Che-
mistry, Practical and Theoretical :
Embracing its application to the Arts, Metallurgy, Mineralogy, Ge-
ology, Medicine, and Pharmacy. By JAMES C. BOOTH, Melter and
Refiner in the United States Mint, Professor of Applied Chemistry in
the Franklin Institute, etc., assisted by CAMPBELL MOEFIT, author
of " Chemical Manipulations," etc. Seventh edition. Royal 8vo.,
978 pages, with numerous wood-cuts and other illustrations. . $5.00
BOX.— A Practical Treatise on Heat:
As applied to the Useful Arts ; for the Use of Engineers, Architects,
etc. By THOMAS Box, author of " Practical Hydraulics." Illustrated
by 14 plates containing 114 figures. 12mo. . . ... $4.25
BOX.— Practical Hydraulics :
A Series of Rules and Tables for the use of Engineers, etc. By
THOMAS Box. 12mo $2.50
BUOWN.— Five Hundred and Seven Mechanical
Movements :
Embracing all those which are most important in Dynamics, Hydrau-
lics, Hydrostatics, Pneumatics, Steam Engines, Mill and other Gear-
ing, Presses, Horology, and Miscellaneous Machinery ; and including
many movements never before published, and several of which have
only recently come into use. By HENRY T. BROWN, Editor of the
" American Artisan." In one volume, 12mo. ; . . $1.00
HENRY CAREY BAIRD'S CATALOGUE. 5
BUCKMASTER.— The Elements of Mechanical Phy-
sics :
By J. C. BUCKMASTEK, late Student in the Government School of
Mines ; Certified Teacher of Science by the Department of Science
and Art; Examiner in Chemistry and Physics in the Royal College
of Preceptors; and late Lecturer in Chemistry and Physics of the
Royal Polytechnic Institute. Illustrated with numerous engravings.
In one volume, 12mo $1.50
BULLOCK.— The American Cottage Builder :
A Series of Designs, Plans, and Specifications, from $200 to $20,000,
for Homes for the People; together with Warming, Ventilation,
Drainage, Painting, and Landscape Gardening. By JOHN BULLOCK,
Architect, Civil Engineer, Mechanician, and Editor of " The Rudi-
ments of Architecture and Building," etc., etc. Illustrated by 75 en-
gravings. In one volume, 8vo $3.50
BULLOCK. — The Rudiments of Architecture and
Building :
For the use of Architects, Builders, Draughtsmen, Machinists, Engi-
neers, and Mechanics. Edited by JOHN BULLOCK, author of " The
American Cottage Builder." Illustrated by 250 engravings. In one
volume, 8vo $3.50
BURGH.— Practical Illustrations of Land and Marine
Engines :
Showing in detail the Modern Improvements of High and Low Pres-
sure, Surface Condensation, and Super-heating, together wit a Land
and Marine Boilers. By N. P. BURGH, Engineer. Illustrated by
20 plates, double elephant folio, with text . . . . $21.00
BURGH.— Practical Rules for the Proportions Ox Mo-
dern Engines and Boilers for Land and Marine
Purposes.
By N. P. BURGH, Engineer. 12mo. . . . . . $1.50
BURGH.— The Slide- Valve Practically Considered.
By X. P. BURGH, Engineer. Completely illustrated. 12rao. $2.00
BYLES.— Sophisms of Free Trade and Popular Politi-
cal Economy Examined.
By a BARRISTER (Sir JOHN BARNARD BYLES, Judge of Common
Pleas). First American from the Ninth English Edition, as published
by the Manchester Reciprocity Association. In one volume, 12mo.
Paper, 75 cts. Cloth $1.25
'PYRN.— The Complete Practical Brewer :
Or Plain, Accurate, and Thorough Instructions in the Art of Brewing
Beer, Ale, Porter, including the Process of making Bavarian Beer,
all the Small Beers, such as Root-beer, Ginger-pop, Sarsaparilla-
beer, Mead, Spruce Beer, etc., etc. Adapted to the use of Public
Brewers and Private Families. By M. LA FAYETTE BYRN, M D.
With illustrations. 12mo $1.25
6 HENRY CAREY BAIRD'S CATALOGUE.
B YRN.— The Complete Practical Distiller :
Comprising the most perfect and exact Theoretical and Practical De-
scription of the Art of Distillation and Rectification ; including all of
the most recent improvements in distilling apparatus; instructions
for preparing spirits from the numerous vegetables, fruits, etc. ; direc-
tions for the distillation and preparation of all kinds of brandies and
other spirits, spirituous and other compounds, etc., etc. By M. LA
FAYETTE BYKN, M. D. Eighth Edition. To which are added, Prac-
tical Directions for Distilling, from the French of Th. Fling, Brewer
and Distiller. 12mo $1.50
BYRNE.— Handbook for the Artisan, Mechanic, and
Engineer :
Comprising the Grinding and Sharpening of Cutting Tools, Abrasive
Processes, Lapidary Work, Gem and Glass Engraving, Varnishing
and Lackering, Apparatus, Materials and Processes for Grinding and
Polishing, etc. By OLIVER BYRNE. Illustrated by 185 wood en-
gravings. In one volume, 8vo. . . " ..... . . $5.00
BYRNE.— Pocket Book for Railroad and Civil Engi-
neers :
Containing New, Exact, and Concise Methods for Laying out Rail-
road Curves, Switches, Frog Angles, and Crossings; the Staking
out of work ; Levelling ; the Calculation of Cuttings ; Embankments ;
Earth-work, etc. By OLIVER BYRNE. 18mo., full bound, pocket-
book form. . . . — *'.-.-". . . . . $1.75
BYRNE.— The Practical Model Calculator:
For the Engineer, Mechanic, Manufacturer of Engine Work, Naval
Architect, Miner, and Millwright. By OLIVER BYRNE. 1 volume,
8vo., nearly COO pages . . . . . .. \ . $4.50
BYRNE.— The Practical Metal- Worker's Assistant:
Comprising Metallurgic Chemistry ; the Arts of Working all Metals
and Alloys ; Forging of Iron and Steel ; Hardening and Tempering ;
Melting and Mixing ; Casting and Founding; Works in Sheet Metal ;
The Processes Dependent on the Ductility of the Metals ; Soldering ;
and the most Improved Processes and Tools employed by Metal-
Workers. With the Application of the Art of Electro-Metallurgy to
Manufacturing Processes ; collected from Original Sources, and from
the Works of Holtzapffel, Bergeron, Leupold, Plumier, Napier,
Scoffern, Clay, Fairbairn, and others. By OLIVER BYRNE. A new,
revised, and improved edition, to wrhich is added An Appendix, con-
taining THE MANUFACTURE OF RUSSIAN SHEET-IRON. By JOHN
PERCY, M. D., .F.R.S. THE MANUFACTURE OF MALLEABLE IRON
CASTINGS, and IMPROVEMENTS IN BESSEMER STEEL. By A. A.
FESQUET, Chemist and Engineer. With over GOO Engravings, illus-
trating every Branch of the Subject. 8vo $7.00
Cabinet Maker's Album of Furniture :
Comprising a Collection of Designs for Furniture. Illustrated by 48
Large and Beautifully Engraved Plates. In one vol., oblong $5.00
HENRY CAREY BAIRD'S CATALOGUE. 7
CALLINGHAM.— Sign Writing and Glass Emboss-
ing:
A Complete Practical Illustrated Manual of the Art. By JAMES
CALLINGHAM. In one volume, 12mo $1.50
CAMPm.— A Practical Treatise on Mechanical Engi-
neering :
Comprising Metallurgy, Moulding, Casting, Forging, Tools. Work-
shop Machinery, Mechanical Manipulation, Manufacture of Steam-
engines, etc., etc. With an Appendix on the Analysis of Iron and
Iron Ores. By FRANCIS CAMPIN, C. E. To which are added, Obser-
vations on the Construction of Steam Boilers, and Remarks upon
Furnaces used for Smoke Prevention ; with a Chapter on Explosions.
By R. Armstrong, C. E., and John Bourne. Rules for Calculating
the Change Wheels for Screws^on a Turning Lathe, and for a Wheel-
cutting Machine. By J. LA NICCA. Management of Steel, Includ-
ing Forging, Hardening, Tempering, Annealing, Shrinking, and Ex-
pansion. And the Case-hardening of Iron. By G. EDE. 8vo. Illus-
trated with 29 plates and 100 wood engravings ... $6.00
CAMPIN.— The Practice of Hand-Turning in Wood,
Ivory, Shell, etc. :
With Instructions for Turning such works in Metal as may be re-
quired in the Practice of Turning Wood, Ivory, etc. Also, an Appen-
dix on Ornamental Turning. By FRANCIS CAMPIN ; with Numerous
Illustrations. 12mo., cloth $3.00
CAREY.— The Works of Henry C. Carey :
FINANCIAL CRISES, their Causes and Effects. 8vo. paper . 25
HARMONY OF INTERESTS: Agricultural, Manufacturing, and
Commercial. 8vo., cloth $1.50
MANUAL OF SOCIAL SCIENCE. Condensed from Carey's " Prin-
ciples of Social Science." By KATE McKEAN. 1 vol. 12mo. $2.25
MISCELLANEOUS WORKS : comprising " Harmony of Interests,"
"Money," "Letters to the President," "Financial Crises," " The
Way to Outdo England Without Fighting Her," "Resources of
the Union," "The Public Debt," "Contraction or Expansion?"
"Review of the Decade 1857-'67," "Reconstruction," etc., etc.
Two vols., 8vo., cloth $10.00
PAST, PRESENT, AND FUTURE. 8vo $2.50
PRINCIPLES OF SOCIAL SCIENCE. 3 vols., 8vo., cloth $10.00
THE SLAVE-TRADE, DOMESTIC AND FOREIGN ; Why it Ex~
ists, and How it may be Extinguished (1853). 8vo., cloth . $2.00
LETTERS ON INTERNATIONAL COPYRIGHT (1867) . 50
THE UNITY OF LAW : As Exhibited in the Relations of Physical,
Social, Mental, and Moral Science (1872). In one volume, 8vo.,
pp. xxiii., 433. Cloth $3.50
CHAPMAN.— A Treatise on Ropemaking :
As Practised in private and public Rope yards, with a Description
of the Manufacture, Rules, Tables of Weights, etc., adapted to the
Trades, Shipping, Mining, Railways, Builders, etc. By ROBERT
CHAPMAN. 24mo $1.50
8 HENRY CAREY BAIRD'S CATALOGUE.
COLBURN.— The Locomotive Engine :
Including a Description of its Structure, Rules for Estimating its Capa-
bilities, and Practical Observations on its Construction and Manage-
ment. By ZEEAH COLBUKN. Illustrated. A new edition. 12nio. $1.25
CRAIK. — The Practical American Millwright and
Miller.
By DAVID CRAIK, Millwright. Illustrated by numerous wood en-
gravings, and two folding plate's. 8vo $5.00
DE GRAFF.— The Geometrical Stair Builders' Guide :
Being a Plain Practical System of Hand-Railing, embracing all its
necessary Details, and Geometrically Illustrated by 22 Steel "Engrav-
ings ; together with the use of the most approved principles of Prac-
tical Geometry. By SIMON DE GKAFF, Architect. 4to. . $5.00
DE KONINCK.— DIETZ.— A Practical Manual of Che-
mical Analysis and Assaying :
As applied to the Manufacture of Iron from its Ores, and to Cast Iron,
Wrought Iron, and Steel, as found in Commerce. By L. L. DE KON-
INCK, Dr. Sc., and E. DIETZ, Engineer. Edited with Notes, by ROBEUT
MALLET, F.R.S., F.S.G., M.I.C.E., etc. American Edition, Edited
with Notes and an Appendix on Iron Ores, by A. A. FESQUET, Cliernirt
and Engineer. One volume, 12rno. $2.50
DUNCAN.— Practical Surveyor's Guide:
Containing the necessary information to make any person, of common
capacity, a finished land surveyor without the aid of a teacher. By
ANDREW DUNCAN. Illustrated. 12mo., cloth. „ .' . $1.25
DUPLAIS.— A Treatise on the Manufacture and Dis-
tillation of Alcoholic Liquors :
Comprising Accurate and Complete Details in Regard to Alcohol from
Wine, Molasses, Beets, Grain, Rice, Potatoes, Sorghum, Asphodel,
Fruits, etc. ; with the Distillation and Rectification of Brandy, Whis-
key, Rum, Gin, Swiss Absinthe, etc., the Preparation of Aromatic Wa-
ters, Volatile Oils or Essences, Sugars, Syrups, Aromatic Tinctures,
Liqueurs, Cordial Wines, Effervescing Wines, etc., the Aging of Brandy
and the Improvement of Spirits, with Copious Directions and Tables
for Testing and Reducing Spirituous Liquors, etc., etc. Translated
and Edited from the French of MM. DiiPLAiS, Ainc et Jeune. By
M. McKENNiE, M.D. To which are added the United States Internal
Revenue Regulations for the Assessment and Collection of Taxes on
Distilled Spirits. Illustrated by fourteen folding plates and several
wood engravings. 743 pp., Svo. . . . , . . $10.00
DUSSAUCE.— A General Treatise on the Manufacture
of Every Description of Soap :
Comprising the Chemistry of the Art, with Remarks on Alkalies, Sa-
ponifiable Fatty Bodies, the apparatus necessary in a Soap Factory,
'Practical Instructions in the manufacture of the various kinds of SOMJ>,
the assay of Soaps, etc., etc. Edited from Notes of Larme, Fontenelle,
Malapayre, Dufour, and others, with large and important additions by
Prof. H. DUSSAUCE, Chemist. Illustrated. In one vol., Svo. . $10.00
HENRY CAftEY BAIRD'S CATALOGUE. 9
DUSSAUCE.— A General Treatise on the Manufacture
of Vinegar :
Theoretical and Practical. Comprising the various Methods, by the
Slow and the Quick Processes, with Alcohol, Wine, Grain, Malt, Cider,
Molasses, and Beets ; as well as the Fabrication of Wood Vinegar, etc.,
etc. By Prof. H. DUSSAUCE. Jn one volume, 8vo. . . $5.00
PUSSAUCE.— A New and Complete Treatise on the
Arts of Tanning, Currying, and Leather Dressing :
Comprising all the Discoveries and Improvements made in France,
Great Britain, and the United States. Edited from Notes and Docu-
ments of Messrs. Sallerou, Grouvelle, Duval, Dessables, Labarraque,
Payen, Rene, De Fontenelle, Malapeyre, etc., etc. By Prof. H. DUS-
SAUCE, Chemist. Illustrated by 212 wood engravings. 8vo. $25.00
J3USSAUCE.— A Practical Guide for the Perfumer :
Being a New Treatise on Perfumery, the most favorable to the Beauty
without being injurious to the Health, comprising a Description of the
substances used in Perfumery, the Formulae of more than 1000 Prepa-
rations, such as Cosmetics, Perfumed Oils, Tooth Powders, Waters,
Extracts, Tinctures, Infusions, Spirits, Vinaigres, Essential Oils, Pas-
tels, Creams, Soaps, and many new Hygienic Products not hitherto
described. Edited from Notes and Documents of Messrs. Debay, Lu-
nel,etc. With additions by Prof. H. DUSSAUCE, Chemist. 12mo. $3.00
DUSSAUCE.— Practical Treatise on the Fabrication
of Matches, Gun Cotton, and Fulminating Powders.
By Prof. H. DUSSAUCE. 12mo. . $3.00
Dyer and Color-maker's Companion:
Containing upwards of 200 Receipts for making Colors, on the most
approved principles, for all the various styles and fabrics now in exist-
ence ; with the Scouring Process, and plain Directions for Preparing,
Washing-ofF, and Finishing the Goods. In one vol., 12mo. . $1.25
EASTON.— A Practical Treatise on Street or Horse-
power Railways.
By ALEXANDER EASTON, C. E. Illustrated by 23 plates. 8vo.,
cloth. . . $2.00
ELDER.— Questions of the Day :
Economic and Social. By Dr. WILLIAM ELDER. 8vo. . $3.00
FAXRBAIR1SF.— The Principles of Mechanism and Ma-
chinery of Transmission :
Comprising the Principles of Mechanism, Wheels, and Pulleys,
Strength and Proportions of Shafts, Coupling of Shafts, and Engaging
and Disengaging Gear. By Sir WILLIAM FAIRBAIRN, C.E., LL.D.,
F.R.S., F.G.S. Beautifully illustrated by over 150 wood-cuts. In
one volume, 12mo $2.50
FORSYTH.— Book of Designs for Headstones, Mural,
and other Monuments :
Containing 78 Designs. By JAMES FORSYTH. With an Introduction
by CHARLES BOUTELL, M. A. 4to., cloth $5.00
10 HENRY CAREY BAIRD'S CATALOGUE.
GIBSON.— The American Dyer:
A Practical Treatise on the Coloring of Wool, Cotton, Yarn and
Cloth, in three parts. Part First gives a descriptive account of the
Dye Stuffs ; if of vegetable origin, where produced, how cultivated,
ami how prepared for use ; if chemical, their composition, specific
gravities, and general adaptability, how adulterated, and how to de-
tect the adulterations, etc. Part Second is devoted to the Coloring of
Wool, giving recipes for one hundred and twenty-nine different colors
or shades, and is supplied with sixty colored samples of Wool. Part
Third is devoted to the Coloring of Raw Cotton or Cotton Waste, for
mixing with Wool Colors in the Manufacture of all kinds of Fabrics,
gives recipes for thirty-eight different colors or shades, and is supplied
with twenty-four colored samples of Cotton Waste. Also, recipes for
Coloring Beavers, Doeskins, and Flannels, with remarks upon Ani-
lines, giving recipes for fifteen different colors or shades, and nine
samples of Aniline Colors that will stand both the Fulling and Scour-
ing process. Also, recipes for Aniline Colors on Cotton Thread, and
recipes for Common Colors on Cotton Yarns. Embracing in all over
two hundred recipes for Colors and Shades, and ninety-four samples
of Colored Wool and Cotton Waste, etc. By RICHARD H. GIBSON,
Practical Dyer and Chemist. In one volume, 8vo. . . $12.50
GILB ART. —History and Principles of Banking :
A Practical Treatise. By JAMES W. GILBART, late Manager of the
London and Westminster Bank. With additions. In one volume,
8 vo., 600 pages, sheep . .. ' i V. . V . . $5.00
Gothic Album for Cabinet Makers :
Comprising a Collection of Designs for Gothic Furniture. Illustrated
by 23 large and beautifully engraved plates. Oblong . . $3.00
GRANT. — Beet-root Sugar and Cultivation of the
Beet.
ByE. B. GRANT. 12mo. . ...» *••';.• • $1-25
GREGORY.— Mathematics for Practical Men :
Adapted to the Pursuits of Surveyors, Architects, Mechanics, and
Civil Engineers. By OLINTHUS GREGORY. 8vo., plates, cloth $3.0(J
GRISWOLD.— Railroad Engineer's Pocket Compan-
ion for the Field :
Comprising Rules for Calculating Deflection Distances and Angles,
Tangential Distances and Angles, and all Necessary Tables for Engi-
neers ; also the art of Levelling from Preliminary Survey to the Con-
struction of Railroads, intended Expressly for the Young Engineer,
together with Numerous Valuable Rules and Examples. By W.
GRISWOLD. 12mo., tucks . . , ... . . . $1.75
GRUNER. — Studies of Blast Furnace Phenomena,.
By M. L. GRUNER, President of the General Council of Mines of
France, and lately Professor of Metallurgy at the Ecole des Mines.
Translated, with the Author's sanction, with an Appendix, by L. D. B.
Gordon, F. R. S. E., F. G, S. Illustrated. 8vo. . . . $2.50
HENRY CAREY BAIRD'S CATALOGUE. 11
GUETTIER.— Metallic Alloys:
Being a Practical Guide to their Chemical and Physical Properties,
their Preparation, Composition, and Uses. Translated from the
French of A. GCETTIER, Engineer and Director of Foundries, author
of" La Fouderie en France," etc., etc. By A. A. FESQUET, Chemist
and Engineer. In one volume, 12mo $3.00
HARRIS. — Gas Superintendent's Pocket Companion.
By HARRIS & BROTHER, Gas Meter Manufacturers, 1115 and 1117
Cherry Street, Philadelphia. Full bound in pocket-book form $2.00
Hats and Felting:
A Practical Treatise on their Manufacture. By a Practical Hatter.
Illustrated by Drawings of Machinery, etc. 8vo. . . . $1.25
HOFMANIST.— A Practical Treatise on the Manufac-
ture of Paper in all its Branches.
By CARL HOFMANN. Late Superintendent of paper mills in Ger-
many and the United States; recently manager of the Public Ledger
Paper Mills, near Elkton, Md. Illustrated by 110 wood engravings,
and five large folding plates. In one volume, 4to., cloth; 398
pages $15.00
HUGHES.— American Miller and Millwright's Assist-
ant.
By WM. CARTER HUGHES. A new edition. In one vol., 12mo. $1.50
HURST.— A Hand-Book for Architectural Surveyors
and others engaged in Building:
Containing Formulae useful in Designing Builder's work, Table of
Weights, of the materials used in Building, Memoranda connected
with Builders' work, Mensuration, the Practice of Builders' Measure-
ment, Contracts of Labor, Valuation of Property, Summary of the
Practice in Dilapidation, etc., etc. By J. F. HURST, C. E. Second
edition, pocket-book form, full bound $2.50
JERVIS.— Railway Property :
A Treatise on the Construction and Management of Railways ; de-
signed to afford useful knowledge, in the popular style, to the holders
of this class of property; as well as Railway Managers, Officers, and
Agents. By JOHN B. JERVIS, late Chief Engineer of the Hudson
River Railroad, Croton Aqueduct, etc. In one vol., 12mo., cloth $2.00
JOHNSTON.— Instructions for the Analysis of Soils,
Limestones, and Manures.
By J. F. W. JOHNSTON. 12mo 33
12 HENRY CAREY BAIRD'S CATALOGUE.
KEENE.— A Hand-Book of Practical Gauging :
For the Use of Beginners, to which is added, A Chapter on Distilla.
tion, describing the process in operation at the Custom House for
ascertaining the strength of wines. By JAMES B. KEENE, of IT. M.
Customs. 8vo. $1.25
KELIiEY.— Speeches, Addresses, and Letters on In-
dustrial and Financial Questions.
By Hon. WILLIAM D. KELLEY, M. C. In one volume, 544 pases,
8vo. . ._ . . •• . . $3.00
KENTISH.— A Treatise on a Box of Instruments,
And the Slide Rule ; with the Theory of Trigonometry and Loga-
rithms, including Practical Geometry, Surveying, Measuring of Tim,
ber, Cask and Malt Gauging, Heights, and 'Distances. By THOMAS
KENTISH. In one volume. 12mo. .-•*'". . . . $1.25
KOBELL.—EBNI.— Mineralogy Simplified :
A short Method of Determining and Classifying Minerals, by means
of simple Chemical Experiments in the Wet Way. Translated from
the last' German Edition of F. VON KOBELL, with an Introduction to
Blow-pipe Analysis and other additions. By HENKI ERNI, M. D.,
late Chief Chemist, Department of Agriculture, author of " Coal Oil
and Petroleum." In one volume, 12mo. .... $2.50
LANDBIN.— A Treatise on Steel:
Comprising its Theory, Metallurgy, Properties, Practical Working,
and Use. By M. H. 0. LANDRIN, Jr., Civil Engineer. Translated
from the French, with Notes, by A. A. FESQUET, Chemist and Engi-
neer. With an Appendix on the Bessemer and the Martin Processes
for Manufacturing Steel, from the Report of Abram S. Hewitt, United
States Commissioner to the Universal Exposition, Paris, 1867. In one
volume, 12mo. . $3.00
LABKIN.— The Practical Brass and Iron Pounder's
Guide :
A Concise Treatise on Brass Founding, Moulding, the Metals and their
Alloys, etc. : to which are added Recent Improvements in the Manu-
facture of Iron, Steel by the Bessemer Process, etc., etc. By JAMES
LAEKIN, late Conductor of the Brass Foundry Department in Reany,
Neafie & Go's. Penn Works, Philadelphia. Fifth edition, revised,
with Extensive additions. In one volume, 12mo. . . $2.25
LEA VITT.— Facts about Peat as an Article of Fuel :
With Remarks upon its Origin and Composition, the Localities in
which it is found, the Methods of Preparation and Manufacture, and
the various Uses to which it is applicable ; together with many other
matters of Practical and Scientific Interest. To which is added a chap-
ter on the Utilization of Coal Dust with Peat for the Production of an
Excellent Fuel at Moderate Cost, specially adapted for Steam Service.
By T. H. LEAVITT. Third edition. 12rno. * : . . . $1.75
HENRY CAREY BAIRD'S CATALOGUE. 13
LER.OTJX, C.— A Practical Treatise on the Manufac-
ture of Worsteds and Carded Yarns :
Comprising Practical Mechanics, with Rules and Calculations applied
to Spinning ; Sorting, Cleaning, and Scouring Wools ; the English
and French methods of Combing, Drawing, and Spinning Worsteds
and Manufacturing Carded Yarns. Translated from the French of
CHARLES LEROUX, Mechanical Engineer, and Superintendent of a
Spinning Mill, by HORATIO PAINE, M. D., and A. A. FESQUET,
Chemist and Engineer. Illustrated by 12 large Plates. To which is
added an Appendix, containing extracts from the Reports of the Inter-
national Jury, and of the Artisans selected by the Committee appointed
by the Council of the Society of Arts, London, on Woollen and Worsted
Machinery and Fabrics, as exhibited in the Paris Universal Exposi-
tion, 1867. 8vo., cloth $5.00
LESLIE (Miss).— Complete Cookery:
Directions for Cookery in its Various Branches. By MiSS LESLIE.
60th thousand. Thoroughly revised, with the addition of New Re-
ceipts. In one volume, 12mo., cloth $1.50
LESLIE (Miss).— Ladies' House Book :
A Manual of Domestic Economy. 20th revised edition. 12mo., cloth.
LESLIE (Miss).— Two Hundred Receipts in French
Cookery.
Cloth, 12mo.
LIEBEB,.— Assayer's Guide :
Or, Practical Directions to Assayers, Miners, and Smelters, for the
Tests and Assays, by Heat and by Wet Processes, for the Ores of all
the principal Metals, of Gold and Silver Coins and Alloys, and of
Coal, etc. By OSCAR M. LIEBER. 12mo., cloth. . . $1.25
LOTH.— The Practical Stair Builder:
A Complete Treatise on the Art of Building Stairs and Iland-Rails,
Designed for Carpenters, Builders, and Stair-Builders. Illustrated
with Thirty Original Plates. By C. EDWARD LOTH, Professional
Stair-Builder. One large 4to. volume. .... $10.00
LOVE.— The Art of Dyeing, Cleaning, Scouring, and
Finishing, on the Most Approved English and
French Methods:
Being Practical Instructions in Dyeing Silks, Woollens, and Cottons,
Feathers, Chips, Straw, etc. Scouring and Cleaning Bed and Window
Curtains, Carpets, Rugs, etc. French and English Cleaning, any
Color or Fabric of Silk, Satin, or Damask. By THOMAS LOVE, a
Working Dyer and Scourer. Second American Edition, to which are
added General Instructions for the Use of Aniline Colors. In one
volume, 8vo., 343 pages. $5.00
14 HENRY CAREY BAIRD'S CATALOGUE.
MAIN and BROWN.— Questions on Subjects Con-
nected with the Marine Steam-Engine :
And Examination Papers ; with Hints for their Solution. By THOMAS
J. MAIN, Professor of Mathematics, Royal Naval College, and THOMAS
BROWN, Chief Engineer, R. N. 12mo", cloth. . . . $1.50
MAIN and BROWN.— The Indicator and Dynamo-
meter :
With their Practical Applications to the Steam-Engine. By THOMAS
J. MAIN, M. A. F. R., Assistant Professor Royal Naval College, Ports-
mouth, and THOMAS BROWN, Assoc. Inst. C. E., Chief Engineer, R.
N., attached to the Royal Naval College. Illustrated. From the
Fourth London Edition. 8vo. $1.50
MAIN and BROWN.— The Marine Steam-Engine.
By THOMAS J. MAIN, F. R. ; Assistant S. Mathematical Professor at
the Royal Naval College, Portsmouth, arid THOMAS BKOWN, Assoc.
Inst. C. E., Chief Engineer R. N. Attached to the Royal Naval Col-
lege. Authors of a Questions connected with the Marine Steam-En-
gine," and the " Indicator and Dynamometer." With numerous Illus-
trations. In one volume, 8vo. $5.00
MARTIN.— Screw-Cutting Tables, for the Use of Me-
chanical Engineers :
Showing the Proper Arrangement of Wheels for Cutting the Threads
of Screws of any required Pitch ; with a Table for Making the Uni-
versal Gas-Pipe Thread and Taps. By W. A. MARTIN, 'Engineer.
8vo. 50
Mechanics' (Amateur) Workshop:
A treatise containing plain and concise directions for the manipula-
tion of Wood and Metals, including Casting, Forging, Brazing, Sol-
dering, and Carpentry. By the author of the " Lathe and its Uses."
Third edition. Illustrated. 8vo. . ^ . ^. . . . $3.00
MOLESWORTH.— Pocket-Book of Useful Formulae
and Memoranda for Civil and Mechanical Engi-
neers.
By GUILFORD L. MOLESWORTH, Member of the Institution of Civil
Engineers, Chief Resident Engineer of the Ceylon Railway. Second
American, from the Tenth London Edition. In one volume, full
bound in pocket-book form. . . •.•"«-• • • $2.00
NAPIER.— A System of Chemistry Applied to Dyeing.
By JAMES NAPIER, F. C. S. A New and Thoroughly Revised Edi-
tion. , Completely brought up to the present state of the Science, inclu-
ding the Chemistry of "Coal Tar Colors, by A. A. FESQUET, Chemist
and Engineer. With an Appendix on Dyeing and Calico Printing, as
shown at the Universal Exposition, Paris, 1867. Illustrated. In one
Volume, 8vo., 422 pages $5.00
HENRY CAREY BAIRD'S CATALOGUE. 15
NAPIER.— Manual of Electro-Metallurgy :
Including the Application of the Art to Manufacturing Processes. By
JAMES NAPIER. Fourth American, from the Fourth London edition,
revised and enlarged. Illustrated by engravings. In one vol., 8vo. $2.00
NASON.— Table of Reactions for Qualitative Chemical
Analysis.
By HENRY B. NASON, Professor of Chemistry in the Rensselaer Poly-
technic Institute, Troy, New York. Illustrated by Colors. . 63
NEWBERY.— Gleanings from Ornamental Art of
every style :
Drawn from Examples in the British, South Kensington, Indian,
Crystal Palace, ane1 >ther Museums, the Exhibitions of 1851 and 1862,
and the best Eng^iiJi and Foreign works. In a series of one hundred
exquisitely drawn Plates, containing many hundred examples. By
ROBERT NEWBERY. 4to $15.00
NICHOLSON.— A Manual of the Art of Bookbinding :
Containing full instructions in the different Branches of Forwaiding,
Gilding, and Finishing. Also, the Art of Marbling Book-edges and
Paper. By JAMES B. NICHOLSON. Illustrated. 12mo., cloth. $2.25
NICHOLSON.— The Carpenter's New Guide:
A Complete Book of Lines for Carpenters and Joiners. By PETER
NICHOLSON. The whole carefully and thoroughly revised by H. K.
DAVIS, and containing numerous new and improved and original De-
signs for Roofs, Domes, etc. By SAMUEL SLOAN, Architect. Illus-
trated by 80 plates. 4to $4.50
NORRIS.— A Hand-book for Locomotive Engineers
and Machinists:
Comprising the Proportions and Calculations for Constructing Loco-
motives ; Manner of Setting Valves ; Tables of Squares, Cubes, Areas,
etc., etc. By SEPTIMUS NORRIS, Civil and Mechanical Engineer.
New edition. Illustrated. 12mo., cloth. . $2.00
NYSTROM.— On Technological Education, and the
Construction of Ships and Screw Propellers :
For Naval and Marine Engineers. By JOHN W. NYSTROM, late Act-
ing Chief Engineer, U. S. N. Second edition, revised with additional
matter. Illustrated by seven engravings. 12mo. . . $1.50
O'NEILL.— A Dictionary of Dyeing and Calico Print-
ing:
Containing a brief account of all the Substances and Processes in use
in the Art of Dyeing and Printing Textile Fabrics ; with Practical
Receipts and Scientific Information. By CHARLES O'NEILL, Ana-
lytical Chemist ; Fellow of the Chemical Society of London ; Member
of the Literary and Philosophical Society of Manchester ; Author of
" Chemistry of Calico Printing and Dyeing." To which is added an
Essay on Coal Tar Colors and their application to Dyeing and Calico
Printing. By A. A. FESQUET, Chemist and Engineer. With an Ap-
pendix on Dyeing and Calico Printing, as shown at the Universal
Exposition, Paris, 18G7. In one volume, 8vo., 491 pages. . $0.00
1C HENRY CAREY BAIRD'S CATALOGUE.
ORT ON. —Underground Treasures :
How and Where to Find Them. A Key for the Ready Determination
of all the Useful Minerals within the United States. By JA.MKS
ORTON, A. M. Illustrated, 12mo $1.50
OSBORN.— American Mines and Mining:
Theoretically and Practically Considered. By Prof. H. S. OSBORN.
Illustrated by numerous engravings. 8vo. (In preparation.)
OSBORN.— The Metallurgy of Iron and Steel :
Theoretical and Practical in all its Branches ; with special reference
to American Materials and Processes. By H. S. OSBORN, LL. 1).,
Professor of Mining and Metallurgy in Lafayette College, Easton,
Pennsylvania. Illustrated by numerous large folding "plates and
wood-engravings. 8vo. $15.00
OVERMAN.— The Manufacture of Steel :
Containing the Practice and Principles of Working and Making Steel.
A Handbook for Blacksmiths and Workers in Steel and Iron, Wagon
Makers, Die Sinkers, Cutlers, and Manufacturers of Files and Hard-
ware, of Steel and Iron, and for Men of Science and Art. By FRED-
ERICK OVERMAN, M-ning Engineer, Author of the " Manufacture of
Iron," etc. A new, enlarged, and revised Edition. By A. A. FESQUET,
Chemist and Engineer • . . . . $1.50
OVERMAN.— The Moulder and Founder's Pocket
Guide :
A Treatise on Moulding and Founding in Green-sand, Dry-sand, Loam,
and Cement; the Moulding of Macliine Frames, Mill-gear, Hollow-
ware, Ornaments, Trinkets, Bells, and Statues ; Description of Moulds
for Iron, Bronze, Brass, and other Metals ; Plaster of Paris, Sulphur,
Wax, and other articles commonly used in Casting ; the Construction
of Melting Furnaces, the Melting and Founding of Metals ; the Com-
position of Alloys and their Nature. With an Appendix containing
Receipts for Alloys, Bronze, Varnishes and Colors for Castings ; also,
Tables on the Strength and other qualities of Cast Metals. By FRED-
ERICK OVERMAN, Mining Engineer, Author of " The Manufacture
of Iron." With 42 Illustrations. 12mo $1.50
Painter, Gilder, and Varnisher's Companion :
Containing Rules and Regulations in everything relating to the Arts
of Painting, Gilding, Varnishing, Glass-Staining, Graining. Marbling,
Sign-Writing, Gilding on Glass, and Coach Painting and Varnishing;
Tests for the Detection of Adulterations in Oils, Colors, etc. ; and a
Statement of the Diseases to which Painters are peculiarly liable, \vith
the Simplest and Best Remedies. Sixteenth Edition. Revised, with
.an Appendix. Containing Colors and Coloring -Theoretical and
Practical. Comprising descriptions of a great variety of Additional
Pigments, their Qualities and Uses, to which are added, Dryers, and
Modes and Operations of Painting, etc. Together with Chevreul's
Principles of Harmony and Contrast of Colors. 12mo., cloth. $1.50
HENRY CAREY BAIRD'S CATALOGUE. 17
PALLETT.— The Miller's, Millwright's, and Engineer's
Guide.
By HENRY PALLETT. Illustrated. In one volume, 12mo. $3.00
PERCY.— The Manufacture of Russian Sheet-Iron.
By JOHN PERCY, M.D., F.R.S., Lecturer on Metallurgy at the Royal
School of Mines, and to The Advanced Class of Artillery Officers at
the Royal Artillery Institution, Woolwich ; Author of " Metallurgy."
With Illustrations. 8vo., paper 50 cts.
PERKINS.— Gas and Ventilation.
Practical Treatise on Gas and Ventilation. With Special Relation to
Illuminating, Heating, and Cooking by Gas. Including Scientific
Helps to Engineer-students and others. With Illustrated Diagrams.
By E. E. PERKINS. 12mo., cloth. $1.25
PERKINS and STOWE.— A New Guide to the Sheet-
iron and Boiler Plate Roller :
Containing a Series of Tables showing the Weight of Slabs and Piles
to produce Boiler Plates, and of the Weight of Piles and the Sizes of
Bars to produce Sheet-iron; the Thickness of the Bar Gauge in
decimals ; the Weight per foot, and the Thickness on the Bar or Wire
Gauge of the fractional parts of an inch ; the Weight per sheet, and
the Thickness on the Wire Gauge of Sheet-iron of various dimensions
to weigh 112 Ibs. per bundle; and the conversion of Short Weight
into Long Weight, and Long Weight into Short. Estimated and col-
lected by G. H. PERKINS and J. G. STOWE $2.50
PHILLIPS and DARLINGTON.— Records of Mining
and Metallurgy;
Or Facts and Memoranda for the use of the Mine Agent and Smelter.
By J. ARTHUR PHILLIPS, Mining Engineer, Graduate of the Imperial
School of Mines, France, etc., and JOHN DARLINGTON. Illustrated
by numerous engravings. In one volume, 12mo. . . $2.00
PRO TEAUX.— Practical Guide for the Manufacture
of Paper and Boards.
By A. PROTEAUX, Civil Engineer, and Graduate of the School of Arts
and Manufactures, and Director of Thiers' Paper Mill, Puy-de-Dome.
With additions, by L. S. LE NORMAND. Translated from the French,
with Notes, by HORATIO PAINE, A. B., M. D. To which is added a
Chapter on the Manufacture of Paper from Wood in the United
States, by HENRY T. BROWN, of the " American Artisan." Illus'
trated by six plates, containing Drawings of Raw Materials, Machi-
nery, Plans of Paper-Mills, etc., etc. 8vo $10.00
frEGNAULT.— Elements of Chemistry.
By M. V. REGNAULT. Translated from the French by T. FORREST
BETTON, M. D., and edited, with Notes, by JAMES C. BOOTH, Melter
and Refiner U. S. Mint, and WM. L. FABER, Metallurgist and Mining
Engineer. Illustrated by nearly 700 wood engravings. Comprising
nearly 1500 pages. In two volumes, 8vo., cloth. . . . $7.50
18 HENRY CAREY BAIRD'S CATALOGUE.
REID.— A Practical Treatise on the Manufacture of
Portland Cement :
By HENRY REID, C. E. To which is added a Translation of M. A.
Lipowitz's Work, describing a New Method adopted in Germany for
Manufacturing that Cement, by W. F. REID. Illustrated by plates
and wood engravings. 8vo. . . .' .' V . . $0.00
KIFFAULT, VERGNAUD, and TOUSSAINT.-A
Practical Treatise on the Manufacture of Var-
nishes.
By MM. RIFFAULT, VERGNAUD, and TOUSSAINT. Revised and
Edited by M. F. MALEPEYRE and Dr. EMIL WINCKLER. Illustrated.
In one volume, 8vo. (In preparation.)
RIFFAULT, VERGNAUD, and TOUSSAINT.— A
Practical Treatise on the Manufacture of Colors
for Painting:
Containing the best Formulas and the Processes the Newest and in
most General Use. By M M. RIFFAULT, VERGNAUD, and TOUSSAINT.
Revised and Edited by M. F. MALEPEYRE and Dr. EMIL WINCKLER.
Translated from the French by A. A. FESQUET, Chemist and Engi-
neer. Illustrated by Engravings. In one volume, 650 pages, 8vo.
$7.50
ROBINSON.— Explosions of Steam Boilers:
How they are Caused, and how they may be Prevented. By J. R.
ROBINSON, Steam Engineer. 12mo $1.25
ROPER.— A Catechism of High Pressure or Non-
Condensing Steam-Engines :
Including the Modelling, Constructing, Running, and Management
of Steam Engines and Steam Boilers. With Illustrations. By
STEPHEN ROPER, Engineer. Full bound tucks . ; ." $2.00
ROSELEUR. — Galvanoplastic Manipulations :
A Practical Guide for the Gold and Silver Electro-plater and the
Galvanoplastic Operator. Translated from the French of ALFRED
ROSELEUR, Chemist, Professor of the Galvanoplastic Art, Manufactu-
rer of Chemicals, Gold and Silver Electro-plater. By A. A. FESQUET,
Chemist and Engineer. Illustrated by over 127 Engravings on wood.
8vo., 495 pages. $6.00
^3" This Treatise is the fullest and by far the best on this subject ever
published in the United States.
SCHINZ.— Researches on the Action of the Blast
Furnace.
By CHARLES SCHINZ. Translated from the German with the special
permission of the Author by WILLIAM H. MAW and MORITZ MUL-
LER. With an Appendix written by the Author expressly for this
edition. Illustrated by seven plates, containing 28 figures. In one.
volume, 12mo. $4.25
HENRY CAREY BAIRD'S CATALOGUE. 19
SHAW.— Civil Architecture :
Being a Complete Theoretical and Practical System of Building, con-
taining the Fundamental Principles of the Art. By EDWARD SHAW,
Architect. To which is added a Treatise on Gothic Architecture, etc.
By THOMAS W. SILLOWAY and GEOKGE M. HARDING, Architects.
The whole illustrated by One Hundred and Two quarto plates finely
engraved on copper. Eleventh Edition. 4to., cloth. . $10.00
SHUNK. — A Practical Treatise on Railway Curves
and Location, for Young Engineers.
By WILLIAM F. SHUNK, Civil Engineer. 12mo. . . $2.00
SLOAN.— American Houses :
A variety of Original Designs for Rural Buildings. Illustrated by 26
colored Engravings, with Descriptive References. By SAMUEL SLOAN,
Architect, author of the " Model Architect," etc., etc. 8vo.
SMEATON.— Builder's Pocket Companion: '
Containing the Elements of Building, Surveying, and Architecture ;
with Practical Rules and Instructions connected with the subject.
By A. C. SMEATON, Civil Engineer, etc. In one volume, 12mo. $1.50
SMITH.— A Manual of Political Economy.
By E. PESHINE SMITH. A new Edition, to which is added a full
Index. 12mo., cloth $1.25
SMITH.— Parks and Pleasure Grounds :
Or Practical Notes on Country Residences, Villas, Public Parks, and
Gardens. By CHARLES II. J. SMITH, Landscape Gardener and
Garden Architect, etc., etc. 12mo • . $2.25
SMITH.— The Dyer's Instructor:
Comprising Practical Instructions in the Art of Dyeing Silk, Cotton,
Wool, and Worsted, and Woollen Goods : containing nearly 800
Receipts. To which is added a Treatise on the Art of Padding ; and
the Printing of Silk Warps, Skeins, and Handkerchiefs, and the
various Mordants and Colors for the different styles of such work.
By DAVID SMITH, Pattern Dyer. 12mo., cloth. . . . $3.00
SMITH.— The Practical Dyer's Guide:
Comprising Practical Instructions in the Dyeing of Shot Cobourgs,
Silk Striped Orleans, Colored Orleans from Black Warps, Ditto from
White Warps, Colored Cobourgs from White Warps, Merinos, Yarns,
Woollen Cloths, etc. Containing nearly 300 Receipts, to most of which
a Dyed Pattern is annexed. Also, A Treatise on the Art of Padding.
By DAVID SMITH. In one volume, 8vo. Price. . . $25.00
STEWART.— The American System.
Speeches on the Tariff Question, and on Internal Improvements, princi-
pally delivered in the House of Representatives of the United States.
By ANDREW STEWART, late M. C. from Pennsylvania. With a Portrait,
and a Biographical Sketch. In one volume, 8vo., 407 pages. $3.00
20 HENRY CAREY BAIRD'S CATALOGUE.
STOKES.— Cabinet-maker's and Upholsterer's Com-
panion :
Comprising the Rudiments and Principles of Cabinet-making and Up-
holstery, with Familiar Instructions, illustrated by Examples for
attaining a Proficiency in the Art of Drawing, as applicable to Cabi-
net-work ; the Processes of Veneering, Inlaying, and Buhl-work ; the
Art of Dyeing and Staining Wood, Bone, Tortoise Shell, etc. Direc-
tions for Lackering, Japanning, and Varnishing ; to make French
Polish ; to prepare the Best Glues, Cements, and Compositions, and a
number of Receipts particularly useful for workmen generally. By
J. STOKES. In one volume, 12mo. With Illustrations. . $1.25
Strength and other Properties of Metals:
Reports of Experiments on the Strength and other Properties of Metals
for Cannon. With a Description of the Machines for testing Metals,
and of the Classification of Cannon in service. By Officers of the Ord-
nance Department U. S. Army. By authority of the Secretary of War.
Illustrated by 25 large steel plates.' In one volume, 4to. . $10.00
SULLIVAiST.— Protection to Native Industry.
By Sir EDWARD SULLIVAN, Baronet, author of " Ten Chapters on
Social Reforms." In one volume, 8vo. . . - . . . $1.50
Tables Showing the Weight of Round, Square, and
Flat Bar Iron, Steel, etc.,
By Measurement. Cloth. . .."... . . 63
TAYLOR.— Statistics of Coal:
Including Mineral Bituminous Substances employed in Ai'ts and
Manufactures; with their Geographical, Geological, and Commercial
Distribution and Amount of Production and Consumption on the
American Continent. With Incidental Statistics of the Iron Manu-
facture. By R. C. TAYLOR. Second edition, revised by S. S. II A L-
DEMAN. Illustrated by five Maps and many wood engravings. 8vo.,
cloth $10.00
TEMPLETON.— The Practical Examinator on Steam
and the Steam-Engine :
With Instructive References relative thereto, arranged for the Use of
Engineers, Students, and others. By WM. TEMPLETON, Engineer.
12mo. $1.25
THOMAS.— The Modern Practice of Photography.
By R. W. THOMAS, F. C. S. 8vo., cloth. .'.;•'. . . 75
THOMSON.— Freight Charges Calculator.
By ANDREW THOMSON, Freight Agent. 24mo. . . . $1.25
TUKNING: Specimens of Fancy Turning Executed
on the Hand or Foot Lathe:
With Geometric, Oval, and Eccentric Chucks, and Elliptical Cutting
Frame. By an Amateur. Illustrated by 30 exquisite Photographs.
4to. $3.00
HENRY CAREY BAIRD'S CATALOGUE. 21
Turner's (The) Companion:
Containing Instructions in Concentric, Elliptic, and Eccentric Turn-
ing : also various Plates of Chucks, Tools, and Instruments ; and Di-
rections for using the Eccentric Cutter, Drill, Vertical Cutter, and
Circular Rest ; with Patterns and Instructions for working them. A
ne\v edition in one volume, 12mo. $1.50
URBIN.— BRITIiL.— A Practical Guide for Puddling
Iron and Steel.
By ED. URBIN, Engineer of Arts and Manufactures. A Prize Essay
read before the Association of Engineers, Graduate of the School of
Mines, of Liege, Belgium, at the Meeting of 1 865-6. To which is added
A COMPARISON OF THE RESISTING PROPERTIES OF IRON AND STEEL.
By A. BRULL. Translated from the French by A. A. FESQUET, Che-
mist and Engineer. In one volume, 8vo $1.00
VAILE. — Galvanized Iron Cornice- Worker's Manual:
Containing Instructions in Laying out the Different Mitres, and Ma-
king Patterns for all kinds of Plain and Circular Work. Also, Tables
of YVeights, Areas and Circumferences of Circles, and other Mattel-
calculated to Benefit the Trade. By CHARLES A. VAILE, Superin-
tendent " Richmond Cornice Worksj" Richmond, Indiana. Illustra-
ted by 21 Plates. In one volume, 4to. . .... . $5.00
VILLE.— The School of Chemical Manures :
Or, Elementary Principles in the Use of Fertilizing Agents. From the
French of M. GEORGE VILLE, by A. A. FESQUET, Chemist and Engi-
neer. With Illustrations. In one volume, 12 mo. . . $1.25
VOGDES.— The Architect's and Builder's Pocket Com-
panion and Price Book :
Consisting of a Short but Comprehensive Epitome of Decimals, Duo-
decimals, Geometry and Mensuration ; with Tables of U. S. Measures,
Sizes, Weights, Strengths, etc., of Iron, Wood, Stone, and various
other Materials, Quantities of Materials in Given Sizes, and Dimen-
sions of Wood, Brick, and Stone ; and a full and complete Bill of
Prices for Carpenter's Work ; also, Rules for Computing and Valuing
Brick and Brick Work, Stone Work, Painting, Plastering, etc. By
FRANK W. VOGDES, Architect. Illustrated. Full bound in pocket-
book form - . . . . $2.00
Bound in cloth. 1.50
WARN.— The Sheet-Metal Worker's Instructor:
For Zinc, Sheet-Iron, Copper, and Tin-Plate Workers, etc. Contain-
ing a selection of Geometrical Problems ; also, Practical and Simple
Rules for describing the various Patterns required in the different
branches of the above Trades. By REUBEN H. WARN, Practical Tin-
plate Worker. To which is added an Appendix, containing Instruc-
tions for Boiler Making, Mensuration of Surfaces and Solids, Rules for
Calculating the Weights of different Figures of Iron and Steel, Tables
of the Weights of Iron, Steel, etc. Illustrated by 32 Plates and 37
Wood Engravings. Svo $3.00
22 HENRY CAREY BAIRD'S CATALOGUE.
WARNER.— New Theorems, Tables, and Diagrams
for the Computation of Earth- Work :
Designed for the use of Engineers in Preliminary and Final Estimates,
of Students in Engineering, and of Contractors and other non-profes-
sional Computers. In Two Parts, with an Appendix. Part I. — A
Practical Treatise ; Part II.— A Theoretical Treatise ; and the Appen-
dix. Containing Notes to the Rules and Examples of Part I. ; Expla-
nations of the Construction of Scales, Tables, and Diagrams, and a
Treatise upon Equivalent Square Bases and Equivalent Level Heights.
The whole illustrated by numerous original Engravings, comprising
Explanatory Cuts for Definitions and Problems, Stereometric Scales
and Diagrams, and a Series of Lithographic Drawings from Models,
showing all the Combinations of Solid Forms which occur in Railroad
Excavations and Embankments. By JOHN WARNER, A. M., Mining
and Mechanical Engineer. 8vo. . '» . . . . . $5.00
WATSON.— A Manual of the Hand-Lathe :
Comprising Concise Directions for working Metals of all kinds, Ivory,
Bone and Precious Woods ; Dyeing, Coloring, and French Polishing ;
Inlaying by Veneers, and various methods practised to produce Elabo-
rate work with Dispatch, and at Small Expense. By EGBERT P.
tch, and at Small Expense.
WATSON, late of " The Scientific American," Author of " The Modern
Practice of American Machinists and Engineers." Illustrated by 78
Engravings. . $1.50
WATSON.— The Modern Practice of American Ma-
chinists and Engineers:
Including the Construction, Application, and Use of Drills, Lathe
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with the most Economical Speed for the same ; the Results verified by
Actual Practice at the Lathe, the Vice, and on the Floor. Together
with Workshop Management, Economy of Manufacture, the Steam-
Engine, Boilers, Gears, Belting, etc., etc. By EGBERT P. WATSON,
late of the " Scientific American." Illustrated by 86 Engravings. In
one volume, 12ino. . . » . . . . . $2.50
WATSON.— The Theory and Practice of the Art of
Weaving by Hand and Power :
With Calculations and Tables for the use of those connected with the
Trade. By JOHN WATSON, Manufacturer and Practical Machine
Maker. Illustrated by large Drawings of the best Power Looms.
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WEATHEBLY.— Treatise on the Art of Boiling Su-
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Goods.
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WEDDING.— The Metallurgy of Iron ;
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Academy, Berlin. Translated by JULIUS Du MONT, Bethlehem, Pa.
Illustrated by 207 Engravings on Wood, and three Plates. In one
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HENRY CAREY BAIRD'S CATALOGUE. 23
WILL. — Tables for Qualitative Chemical Analysis.
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WILLIAMS.— On Heat and Steam :
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By CHARLES WYE WILLIAMS, A. I. C. E. Illustrated. 8vo. $3.50
WOHLER.— A Hand-Book of Mineral Analysis.
By F. WOHLER, Professor of Chemistry in the University of Gottin-
gen. Edited by HENRY B. NASON, Professor of Chemistry in the
Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, Troy, New York. Illustrated. In
one volume, 12mo $3 00
WORSSAM.— On Mechanical Saws:
From the Transactions of the Society of Engineers, 1869. By S. W.
WOKSSAM, Jr. Illustrated by 18 large plates. 8vo. . . $5.00
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