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H.R.  MacMillan,   18-4- b^ 


J/.  J^^.. //^.^M,, 


i  '^i^t//t/f<rf 


DEPAETMETTT  OF  THE  INTERIOR-U.  S.  GEOLOGICAL  SUEVET 
CHARLES  D.  WALCOTT,   DIEECTOK 


THE 


iEi^M\ri/" 


FRED    G-.    PLUMMiER 


EXTRACT  FROM  THE  TWENTY-FIRST  ANNUAL  REPORT  OF  THE  Sl'RVEY,  1S9!>-1900 

PART  V,   FOREST  RESERVES— HENRY  GANNETT,  CHIEF  OF 

DIVISION  OF  GEOGRAPHY  AND  FORESTRY 


WASHINGTOjST 

government   printing   office 

1900 


MOUNT  RAINIER  FOREST  RESERVE,  WASHINGTON 


FRED    G.    PL,UMMER 


21  GEOL,  PT  5 6 


Digitized  by  the  Internet  Archive 

in  2010  with  funding  from 

University  of  British  Columbia  Library 


http://www.archive.org/details/mountrainierforOOplum 


CONTENTS. 


Page. 

Boundaries - 87 

General  description 88 

Climate - - 89 

AraWe  lands  and  soil  formations 91 

C'cial  inilifatiuns 9:i 

Minerals  and  mining  claims 94 

^lineral  springs 94 

Kvidences  of  recent  volcanic  activity 96 

Caves ^ 96 

Ml  luntaiu  parks 97 

Tree  species 98 

Range  of  tree  species lOti 

Eate  of  growth  of  timber  trees 106 

Defects  and  diseases  of  timber  trees 109 

Estimates  of  timber Ill 

Wliite  River  watershed Ill 

Puyallu])  River  watershed 112 

Nisqually  River  watershed 113 

Cowlitz  River  watershed 114 

Cispus  River  watershed 115 

Lewis  River  watersheil 116 

Washougal  River  watershed 117 

Rock  Creek  watershed 117 

Wind  River  watershed 118 

Little  White  Salmon  River  watershed 119 

White  Salmon  River  watershed 120 

Klickitat  River  watershed 121 

Atanum  River  watershed 122 

Tieton  River  watershed 1 23 

Naches  River  watershed 124 

Yakima  River  watershed 125 

Summary  of  estimates - 126 

Commercial  uses  of  timber 127 

Markets  and  prices 1 28 

I'nderbrush.. 130 

Forest  litter 132 

Humus - 132 

Fires 133 

Extent  and  location 133 

Causes 134 

Restocking  of  burned  areas JlSO 

Timberless  areas 137 

Timber  cutting  in  the  reserve 138 

Logging  conditions 139 

Settlement  and  improvements 1^0 

Grazing HO 

S3 


ILLUSTRATIONS. 


Page. 

Plate  XXXIII.  Map  of  Mount  Rainier  Forest  Reserve,  showing  classification 

of  lands In  atlas 

XXXIV.  .4,  Mount  Rainier  and  Longmire  Springs,    i?,  Mount  Rainier.         88 

XXXV.  A,  Narada  Falls,  Paradise  Park.     B,  Ice  caves ,        90 

■  XXXVI.  ,I,Tatoosh  Range,  Mount  St.  Helens  in  distance.     B,  Small 
lake  near  Indian  race  track,  second  growth  of  mountain 

fir  and  hemlock 92 

XXXVII.  Map  of  Mount  Rainier  Forest  Reserve,  showing  distribution 

of  red  or  yellow  fir 94 

XXXVIII.  A,  Tsuga  pattoniana.     B,  Pinus  ponderosa.      C,  PinuK  jiwnti- 

colii.     D,  Pseudotstiga  taxifolia 96 

XXXIX.  ^Maji  of  Jlount  Rainier  Forest  Reserve,  showing  distribution 

of  hemlock 98 

XL.  ^-1,  Larix  occidentalis.     B,  Picea  engehnanni.      C,  Allies  Jasio- 

rarpii.     D,  Pinus  alhicaulis 100 

XLI.  Diagram  showing  range  and  development  of   timber  tree 

species 102 

XLII.  Map  of  Mount  Rainier  Forest  Reserve,  showing  distribution 

of  red  cedar ; 1 04 

XLIII.  A,  Pines  and  red  firs.     B,  Red  fir  in  Cowlitz  bottom 110 

XLIV.  A,  Maple  grove.     B,  Yellow  fir  12i  feet  in  diameter 130 

XLV.  A,  Fir,  maple,  and  ash  trees.     B,  Mount  Hood  witli  momi- 

tain  fir 132 

XLVI.  Map  of  Mount  Rainier  Forest  Reserve,  showing  distribution 

of  yellow  pine 134 

XLVII.  A,  Mount  Rainier   from   Goat  jMountain.     B,  Burn,    with 

second  growth 136 

XLVIII.  A,  Summit  of  range  in  southern  part  of  reserve,  looking  west. 

B,  Headwaters  of  Tieton  River  from  Goat  Mountain 138 

XLIX.  ..1,  Mount  Adams.     J5,  Cisjjus  Range  from  Goat  Mountain  . .       140 
L.  A,  Recent  cinder  cone   on   north   slope   of   ^Nlount  Adams. 

B,  Mount  Adams,  with  mountain  fir  in  foreground ...       142 

85 


MOUNT     RAINIER     FOREST     RESERVE 
WASHINGTON. 


Bv  Fred  G.  Plummer. 


BOtnS^D  ARIES. 

B_v  proclamation  of  the  President  made  February  22,  1897,  tlie 
Mount  Rainier  Forest  Reserve  was  established  with  the  following 
boundaries: 

Beginning  at  the  southeast  corner  of  township  four  (4)  north,  range  (9)  east,  Wil- 
lamette base  and  meridian,  Washington;  thence  northerly  along  the  range  line 
between  ranges  nine  (9)  and  ten  (10)  east,  subject  to  the  proper  offset  on  the  first 
(1st)  standard  parallel  north,  to  the  northwest  corner  of  township  six  (6)  north, 
range  ten  (10)  east;  thence  easterly  along  the  township  line  to  the  northeast  corner 
of  said  townshii^i  thence  northerly  along  the  range  line  to  the  northwest  corner  of 
township  seven  (7)  north,  range  eleven  (11)  east;  thence  easterly  along  the  town- 
ship line  between  townships  seven  (7)  and  eight  (8)  north  to  the  northeast  corner 
of  township  seven  (7)  north,  range  twelve  (12)  east;  thence  northerly  along  the 
surveyed  and  unsurveyed  range  Hne  between  ranges  twelve  (12)  and  thirteen  (13) 
east,  subject  to  the  proper  offset  on  the  second  (2nd)  standard  parallel  north,  to  the 
northwest  corner  of  township  eleven  (11)  north,  range  thirteen  (13)  east;  thence 
easterly  along  the  surveyed  and  unsurveyed  township  line  between  townships  eleven 
(11)  and  twelve  (12)  north  to  the  southwest  ccirner  of  tow-nship  twelve  (12)  north, 
range  fifteen  (15)  east;  thence  northerly  aloni;  tlie  surveyed  and  unsurveyed  range 
line  between  ranges  fourteen  (14)  and  fifteen  (15)  t-ast,  suV)ject  to  the  proper  offsets 
on  the  third  (3rd)  and  fourth  (4th)  standard  parallels  north,  to  the  point  for  the 
northeast  corner  of  township  eighteen  (18)  north,  range  fourteen  (14)  east;  thence 
westerly  along  the  unsurveyed  and  surveyed  township  line  between  townships 
eighteen  (18)  and  nineteen  (19)  north  to  the  southwest  corner  of  township  nineteen 
(19)  north,  range  seven  (7)  east;  thencesoutherly  along  the  surveyed  and  imsurveyed 
range  line  between  ranges  six  (6)  and  seven  (7)  east,  subject  to  the  proper  offsets  on 
the  township  line  between  townships  seventeen  (17)  and  eighteen  (18)  north,  and 
on  the  fourth  (4th),  third  (3rd),  and  second  (2nd)  standard  parallels  north,  to  the 
point  for  the  northeast  corner  of  township  five  (5)  north,  range  six  (6)  east;  thence 
westerly  along  the  unsurveyed  township  line  between  townships  five  (5)  and  six  (6) 
north  to  the  southeast  corner  of  township  six  (6)  north,  range  four  (4)  east;  thence 
southerly  along  the  unsurveyed  range  line  between  ranges  four  (4)  and  five  (5)  east, 
subject  to  the  proper  offset  on  the  first  (1st)  standard  parallel  north  to  the  point  for 
the  southwest  corner  of  township  four  (4)  north,  range  five  (5)  east;  thence  easterly 
along  the  unsurveyed  and  surveyed  township  line  between  townships  three  (3)  and 
four  (4)  north  to  the  southeast  corner  of  township  four  (4)  north,  range  nine  (9) 
east,  the  place  of  beginning. 

87 


88  FOKKST    RESKKVES. 

Exi'fptiri),'  from  tlip  force  and  effect  of  this  proclamation  all  lands  which  may  have 
l)een  prior  to  tlie  date  hereof  endjraced  in  any  legal  entry  or  covei-ed  by  any  lawful 
filing  duly  of  record  in  the  i)roper  United  States  land  ofiice,  or  upon  which  any 
valid  settlement  has  been  made  pursuant  to  law,  and  the  statutory  period  within 
which  to  make  entry  or  liling  of  record  has  not  expired,  and  all  mining  claimtf  duly 
located  and  held  according  U>  the  laws  t)f  the  United  States  and  rules  and  regulations 
not  in  conflict  therewith: 

Provided,  That  this  exception  shall  not  continue  to  apply  to  any  particular  tract 
of  land  unless  the  entryman,  settler,  or  claimant  continues  to  comply  with  the  law 
under  which  the  entry,  filing,  settlement,  or  location  was  made. 

GENERAL,  DESCRIPTIOX. 

The  tract  thus  reserved  includes  the  Cascade  Ran^e  in  the  southern 
part  of  AVashington.  The  Government  land  survej-s  which  partly 
))Ouud  and  fix  the  location  of  the  reserve  have  in  western  Washington 
been  made  from  the  Willamette  meridian  and  in  eastern  Washington 
from  the  Columbia  guide  meridian.  The  sum  of  the  discrepancies 
between  them  falls  in  th(>  unsurveyed  mountainous  region  partly  cov- 
ered by  the  reserve,  and  for  this  and  other  reasons  the  area  of  the 
reserve  is  2,146,600  acres,  and  not  2,234,880  acres,  as  would  be  implied 
by  the  above  description  if  all  the  townships  were  of  full  size.  Of 
this  total  area  890.440  acres,  or  41.4  per  cent,  lies  on  the  eastern  slope, 
and  1.256,160  acres,  or  58.6  per  cent,  on  the  western  slope  of  the 
mountains. 

These  two  slopes,  which  will  be  often  referred  to  in  this  report,  pre- 
sent widely  divei'gent  conditions  in  climate  and  flora,  but  they  share  a 
bold  topography  in  common.  The  line  dividing  these  slopes,  or  the 
line  separating  the  eastern  drainage  from  the  western,  has  a  general 
direction  of  N.  5-^  E.  Its  detailed  meanderiugs  within  the  reserve  are 
delineated  on  the  map,  PI.  XXXIII. 

All  of  the  eastern  slope  and  the  greater  portion  of  the  western 
drain  into  Colimil)ia  River,  the  tributary  streams  being  the  Cowlitz, 
Cispus,  Lewis.  AVashougal,  Rock.  Wind,  Little  White  Salmon,  White 
Salmon,  Klickitat,  Atamun.  Tieton,  Naches,  and  Yakima  rivers. 
The  total  watershed  area  of  these  streams  is  1,794,600  acres,  or  83.6 
per  cent  of  the  reserve.  The  remainder,  352,000  acres,  or  16.4  per 
cent,  is  drained  into  Puget  Sound,  the  tributarj'  streams  being-  the 
White.  Puyallup,  and  Nisqually  rivers. 

Within  the  reserve  are  four  mountain  peaks  or  domes  of  unusual 
magnitude:  ^Moutit  Rainier,  14.526  feet;  Mount  Adams,  12,470  feet; 
Goat  Mountain,  8,500  feet,  and  Mount  Aix,  7,623  feet.  Of  these 
Mount  Rainier  and  Mount  Aix  are  not  on  the  summit  line,  but 
like  Mount  St.  Helens,  Mount  Stewart,  and  Mount  Baker,  all  in 
Washington,  stand  on  one  side  or  the  other  of  the  range. 

The  glaciers  and  perpetual  snow  fields  of  Mount  Rainier  have  a  total 
area  of  32,500  acres,  and  are  therefore  an  important  item  in  the  estima- 


,   S.   GEOLOGICAL  SURVEY 


1^ 

pK^.^BHi 

^MoBilr^^:.-.*      1 

.1.     MOUNT   RAINIER   AND    LONGMIRE   SPRINGS. 


j:.     MOUNT   RAINIER. 


PLrMMER]  MOUNT   RAINIER    RESERVE,    WASHINGTON.  89 

tion  of  areas  without  timber.  Tiie  glaciers  of  Mount  Adams  cover 
onlj'  2,300  acres,  and  those  of  Goat  Mountain  are  insignificant.  In 
unusual  summer  seasons,  such  as  that  of  1899,  small  areas  of  high 
altitude,  protected  from  the  warm  chinook  winds,  may  remain  snow 
covered,  but  the  perpetual  snow  fields  and  glaciers  within  the  I'eserve 
are  limited  to  Mount  Rainier  and  Mount  Adams.  Probably  an  excep- 
tionally warm  season  would  leave  no  ice  or  snow  on  Goat  Mountain. 

The  routes  of  ti'avel  in  the  reserve  are  few.  Most  of  the  trails 
shown  upon  the  map  are  hardly  deserving  of  the  name,  but  indicate 
blazed  lines  where  better  progress  can  be  made  than  by  taking  a  course 
through  the  timber  and  brush.  The  Indian's  policy  was  to  go  only 
where  his  pony  could  take  him,  and  the  idea  of  cutting  and  logging  out 
a  trail  was  repugnant  to  him ;  therefore  his  lines  of  travel  were  along  the 
sparsel}-  timljered  ridges,  where  feed  was  generally  plenty,  where  game 
abounded,  or  where  huckleberries  grew.  Later  came  the  prospectors 
and  sheepmen,  and  in  some  places  thej'  did  considerable  work.  Since 
the  advent  of  settlers  in  the  valleys  of  the  Nisqually,  Cowlitz,  Wind, 
and  Little  White  Salmon,  wagon  roads  have  been  built  and  the  larger 
streams  bridged.  Since  1896  stages  have  run  from  Tacoma  to  Long- 
mires  Springs. during  July,  August,  and  September  of  each  year  to 
accommodate  the  tourist  travel  en  route  to  Paradise  Park.  Twch-e 
miles  of  this  stage  road  is  inside  of  the  reserve  and  was  constructed  on 
a  county  survey  prior  to  the  proclamation  of  the  reservation.  Public 
sentiment  strongly  favors  the  opening  of  this  scenic  region  by  better 
lines  of  travel  than  the  poor  wagon  road  and  pack  trails.  The  Yellow- 
stone and  Yosemite  will  have  a  strong  competitor  when  this  is  done. 
The  setting  aside  of  nine  townships  around  Mount  Rainier  as  a  national 
park  was  an  act  which  met  with  universal  approval. 

CL,I]>LVTE. 

Accurate  meteorological  data  are  not  obtainable  regarding  that  por- 
tion of  the  Cascade  Mountains  within  the  boundaries  of  the  reserve, 
as  the  Weather  Bureau  has  never  had  an  observer  in  that  area.  Dur- 
ing the  examination  a  large  amount  of  fragmentary  information  was 
collected  from  settlers,  prospectors,  and  trappers,  and  by  personal 
observation.  This  has  beien  used,  with  many  interpolations,  in  the 
preparation  of  the  accompanying  maps. 

The  bold  topography  of  the  reserve  is  the  cause  of  wide  di\ersi- 
ties  in  climatic  conditions,  some  of  which  are  general  and  aft'ect  large 
areas,  while  others  afl'ect  only  small  areas.  The  rain-bearing  clouds 
ai'e  brought  by  southwest  winds  from  the  Pacific  Ocean,  and  find  easy 
access  to  the  Cascade  Range  through  l)reaks  in  the  Coast  Range. 
The  mountains  along  the  coast,  owing  to  their  position  and  height, 
are  great  rain  producers  for  their  own  areas,  but  the  range  is  not 


itU  KOKKST    RESERVKS. 

continuous  and  the  j^i'l'^  i"  it  i*'''"  '"w.  Iniportsint  anionu-  t!ic  <;-iips.  as 
artVctin};"  the  rcj^ion  under  consKU'ration,  are  those;  made  liy  Grays  Har- 
bor. Willipa  Hay.  Coluiiil)ia  River,  Tillamook  Bay,  and  Yaquina  Bay. 

Tile  Cascade  Range,  rumiing  north  and  south,  parallel  with  thtr  coast, 
presents  a  more  continuous  harrier  to  the  rain-bearing  clouds,  the 
only  break  or  gap  being  that  through  which  Columbia  River  flows. 

The  winters  in  the  mountains  are  long  rather  than  severe.  Doubt- 
less upon  such  elevations  as  Mount  Rainier.  Mount  Adams,  or  Goat 
Mountain  the  prevailing  conditions  during  the  winter  are  of  extreme 
severity. 

A  strong  contrast  is  presented  betw(>en  the  c-orn  and  tobacco  fields 
of  the  Cowlitz  Valley  and  the  ice  fields  and  glaciers  of  Mount  Rainier, 
and  yet  among  these  same  glaciers  in  the  mountain  parks  a  profusion 
of  wild  flowers  and  grasses  results  from  the  mild  and  delightful  cli- 
mate that  prevails  during  the  short  summer  season.  It  is  always  a 
matter  of  surprise  to  the  tourists  that  they  maj-  camp  in  summer  gar- 
dens surrounded  l)y  arctic  scenery  on  such  a  grand  scale,  but  this 
camping  season  is  limited  to  Juh*,  August,  and  September. 

During  1886,  1887,  and  1888  the  engineer  dejjartment  of  the  North- 
ern Pacific  Railwa}'  kept  a  weather  record  at  Stampede  Pass  tunnel, 
and  from  those  observations  the  following  table  has  been  compiled: 


Average  temperature  and  snowfall  at  Stampede  Tunnel,  WaKhint/ton,  for  ISSO-ISSS. 
[Altitude,  2,840  feet.] 


Months. 

Greatest 

depth  of 

snow. 

Temperature. 

Highest. 

Lowest. 

January  

Feet. 
8.9 
7.5 
7.5 
5.5 
2.6 

Degrees. 
42 
47 
55 
61 
77 
72 
86 
82 
76 
62 
50 
42 

Degrees. 
10 
16 

February  

March 

20     ' 

April 

41 

May 

■luuf 

35 
43 
48 
51 
40 
32 
19 
18 

July 

August 

September 

October 

.  2 
1.1 
3.6 

November 

December 

^^^^^^^^^F^^'^o- 

« 

■ 

^^^^HP^ 

^ 

V:"     -i 

^ 

1.  ■         v> 

HHK               '^-^l^^.t^'''^iyK 

mn^m 

PLUMMER.]  MOUNT   EAINIER    RESERVE,    WASHINGTON.  91 

AR.VUIuE  L,AKDS  AXD  SOIL,  FORSIATIOTfS. 

Ouly  ubout  io.OOO  acres  or  2  per  cent  of  the  entire  reserve  is  fair 
farming  land,  and  of  this  amount  more  than  one-lialf  is  under  adverse 
climatic  conditions  due  to  great  altitude  and  exposure. 

Of  the  favorably  situated  areas  in  western  Washington  the  most 
important  is  the  Cowlitz  watershed. 

The  Cowlitz  Valley  widens  for  a  length  of  13  miles  within  the  reserve 
and  includes  some  very  good  land  known  as  the  "Big  Bottom,"  which 
contains  about  12,000  acres,  of  which  25  per  cent  is  slashed  and  partly 
cleared.  The  soil  formation,  as  shown  by  the  wells  and  river  banks, 
averages  as  follows: 

Section  in  Cowlitz  ]'a!leii,  Wnshinc/lon. 

Feet. 

Sand  or  sandy  loam 1.0 

Scoria  sand .5 

Sand  and  sandy  loam 12. 0 

Gravel  and  sand 4.0 

Scoria  sand 2.  0 

Clay  and  sand. 

Bear  Prairie,  in  sec.  8,  T.  14  N.,  R.  8  E.,  at  the  head  of  Snake  Creek, 
in  the  same  watershed,  contains  about  90  acres  of  good  hay  land  and 
has  been  drained  bj'  the  claimant.  The  formation  as  shown  by  the 
ditching  is  as  follows: 

Section  in  sec.  S,  T.  U  A',  B-.  S  E.,  Washington. 

Feet. 

Sandy  loam 1.0 

Scoria  sand 1 

Sandy  loam 1 .  25 

Scoria  sand 1.0 

Sandy  loam. 

The  Nisqually  below  the  mouth  of  Horse  Creek  has  an  area  of  about 
4,000  acres,  of  which  30  per  cent  is  a  liberal  estimate  of  the  arable 
portions.  The  balance  of  the  bottom  lands  ai'e  either  rock}',  gravel, 
or  clear- washed  .sands,  with  little  soil  or  humus.  The  areas  which  are 
arable  are  covered  with  thick  stands  of  forest  and  it  costs  §100  to  §150 
per  acre  to  prepare  them  for  the  plow.  The  settlers  on  these  lands 
often  leave  the  stumps  in  their  fields  and  garden  patches. 

On  the  South  Fork  of  Puyallup  River,  on  which  no  settlement  has 
been  made,  there  are  about  300  acres  of  arable  land  in  scattered  patches 
which  would  be  difficult  to  clear. 

The  Mowich  River  bottom  inside  the  reserve  has  about  1,000  acres 
of  veiy  fair  land  which  is  heavily  timbered. 

The  Carbon  River  Canj^on  is  uninviting  to  the  farmers.  The  steep 
side  hills  run  almost  to  the  river  and  a  few  little  patches  of  good  .soil 
are  all  that  can  be  mentioned.  The  same  is  true  of  the  White  River 
Canvon. 


92  FORKST    KESEKVES. 

Ill  tlu!  valley  of  CLspus  River,  below  the  mouth  of  Anatass  (h'eek, 
ther(>  are  about  1,000  acres  of  arable  ])ottoin  and  bench  lands  in  scat- 
tered tracts.  The  same  scoria  sand  found  in  the  Cowlitz  and  other 
watersheds  is  present.  In  sec.  2,  T.  11  N..  K.  7  E..  a  well  5  feet  deep 
in  a  swale  showed  the  following: 

Section  in  sec.  3,  T.  11  N.,  R.  7  E. 

Feet. 

Scoria  sand 1 

Black  muck 4 

Coarse  paml. 

The  valley  of  the  Lewis  River  within  the  reserve  is  a  canyon  at  its 
lower  end,  and  those  areas  nearer  the  headwaters  are  of  too  great 
altitude  to  be  of  any  use. 

Wind  River  Valley  is  low  and  broad  and  contains  about  8,000  acres 
of  good  land  but  difficult  to  clear.  Being  easily  accessible  from 
Columbia  River,  this  area  has  found  many  settlers. 

The  same  is  true  of  the  valley  of  the  Little  White  Salmon  River, 
which  contains  about  2,000  acres.  The  timber  is  smaller  and  has  ])cen 
partly  removed  by  logging  and  railroad-tie  cutting.  In  the  White 
Salmon  River  Valley  about  2,000  acres  might  be  mjide  profitable  bv' 
irrigation,  but  the  season  would  be  short. 

In  the  Klickitat  watershed  lying  between  the  Fish  Lake  Stream  and 
the  Clearwater  is  about  2,500  acres  of  moist  bench  land.  It  would 
cost  $75  per  acre  to  prepare  it  for  the  plow,  and  by  reason  of  the 
severe  winters  and  short  summers  it  would  be  of  doul)tful  value. 
Bordering  the  Klickitat  and  the  Lower- Fish  Lake  Stream  in  Ts.  8  and 
tt  N..  R.  12  E.,  there  is  an  area  of  about  10,000  acres  of  bench  land 
supporting  a  growth  of  yellow  piue  {P/'nus ponderosa)  and  pine  grass 
(Cafamaf/roatis  Kukudorjii).  When  cleared  it  would  be  fair  land  under 
irrigation. 

On  the  headwaters  of  the  main  Klickitat  River  are  a  series  of 
meadows  which  will  aggregate  about  800  acres.  The  level  bottom 
and  low  benches  of  fair  land  bordering  these  meadows  may  be  classed 
as  arable  land  and  will  add  1,200  acres  to  the  above,  making  a  total  of 
2,00(1  acres.  These  bottoms  are  divided  transversely  by  several  low 
ridges  both  in  appearance  and  formation  strongly  suggestive  of  ter- 
minal moraines  of  an  ancient  glacier.     No  stria?  were  noted. 

Conrad  Meadows,  on  the  South  Fork  of  Tieton  River,  contain  about 
Inu  acres  which  should  be  drained. 

At  the  head  of  Taunum  Lake  on  Bumping  River  is  about  500  acres 
of  bottom  land  with  a  growth  of  young  fir,  hemlock,  cedar,  and  light 
underbrush.     Small  areas  of  this  l)ottom  are  timberless  and  grassed. 

Other  small  and  unimportant  areas  of  arable  land  are  Goose  Prairie 
on  Bumping  River  and  Pleasant  Valley  on  American  River,  and  also 
a  few  benches  and  small  lake  beds  on  the  Naches  and  Tieton  rivers. 


A.     TATOOSH    RANGE;    MOUNT  ST.    HELENS    IN    DISTANCE. 


n.     SMALL   LAKE    NEAR    INDIAN    RACE  TRACK;    SECOND   GROWTH   OF    MOUNTAIN    FIR   AND    HEMLOCK, 


PLVMMER.]  MOUNT    RAINIER    RESERVE,    WASHINGTON.  i»3 

Near  the  headwaters  of  many  of  the  smaller  streams  are  small  mead- 
ows, but  their  elevation  and  exposure  forbid  their  use  for  agricul- 
tural purposes. 

The  surface  soils  other  than  above  detailed  are  entitled  to  only 
brief  mention.  The  bold  topography  of  the  area  prohibits  the 
accumulation  of  deep  or  rich  soils.  The  underlying  ledges,  talus, 
and  gi'avels  are  covered  with  sand,  resulting  from  decomposition, 
and  over  many  areas  with  scoria.  This  scoria  is  both  of  interest 
and  value.  Some  samples  were  taken  from  an  undisturbed  bank  on  a 
hill  in  the  SE.  i  of  SE.  i  of  sec.  18,  T.  12  N.,  R.  7  E.,  and  gave  a  weight 
of  49.55  pounds  avoirdupois  per  cubic  foot.  After  being  screened  a 
cubic  foot  of  the  sand,  whose  grains  ranged  in  size  from  one-half  to 
one-eighth  inch  in  diameter,  weighed  -tS  pounds.  The  same  screening 
after  being  dried  weighed  37. i  pounds. 

This  sand  follows  the  surface  of  the  country,  and  in  the  higher  ele- 
vations is  often  exposed,  and  over  small  areas  has  been  recentl}'  eroded. 
Its  color  is  a  dull  straw,  sometimes  deep  brown.  It  is  very  coarse, 
gritty,  and  free  from  loam  and  other  foreign  matters,  and  is  never 
watcrworn.  It  is  alwaj's  loose,  never  compact.  When  exposed  to  air 
by  the  plow  it  undergoes  a  slow  slaking  process,  and  is  regarded  as 
remarkably  fertile  soil.  In  Cowlitz  Valley  John  Blankenship  says  his 
field  of  sand  changed  very  much  by  working,  as  it  decomposed,  turned 
yellow,  and  made  good  soil,  which  he  has  used  for  growing  artichokes. 
His  flower  garden  blooms  freely,  but  the  plants  are  not  thrifty.  Scoria 
sand  taken  from  his  well  was  thrown  over  the  surface  of  the  ground, 
and  showed  its  fertility  by  the  growth  of  weeds  which  followed. 

All  of  the  evidence  presented  by  the  scoria  sand  points  to  the  prob- 
ability of  its  being  the  result  of  a  recent  volcanic  eruption,  but  to 
name  the  volcano  or  to  fix  the  date  will  require  more  extended 
examination. 

COAL   IXDICATIOXS. 

The  Columbia  River  lava  (Miocene)  has  overcapped  and  almost  com- 
pletely buried  the  coal-bearing  strata  (Eocene)  within  the  reserve. 
Rarely  has  erosion  uncovered  the  upper  measures,  which  are  found 
badly  faulted  and  broken,  and  in  several  cases  aietamorphosed  Ijy  heat. 

Eocene  sandstone  and  fossil-bearing  shales  were  recognized  near  the 
southwest  corner  of  sec.  18,  T.  17  N.,  R.  8  E. ;  also  on  Goat  Creek,  Coal 
Ci'eek,  and  Sweetwater  Creek  on  the  Nisqually  watershed.  The  fossils 
are  the  leaves  of  alders,  maple,  and  willow  and  resemble  those  found 
in  the  roof  rocks  of  the  Roslyn  coal  mine  in  eastern  Washington  and  in 
other  coal  mines  on  the  west  side  of  the  range.  Coal  float  was  found 
at  these  localities.  Fossil  leaves  are  also  reported  from  the  AViud 
River  watershed,  near  Lookout  Mountain. 


<,I4  FOREST   RESERVES. 

I'lio  Davns  coul  prospect  on  Summit  Creek  luis  liccn  worked  to  a 
siiijiJl  extent  to  determine  its  value.  A  vein  6  feet  wide  is  claimed, 
wliicli  crosses  Summit  Creek,  and  is  exposed  on  hoth  sides  of  the  canyon. 
Tlie  improvements  consist  of  two  small  cabins,  a  shaft  about  10  feet 
deep,  and  two  tunnels. 

Coal  veins  exist  in  sees.  13  and  14,  T.  12  N.,  R.  8  E.,  and  some 
prospecting-  has  been  done,  but  the  Avoi-k  has  been  abandoned.  Two 
miles  north  of  Padvwood  Lake  several  small  coal  veins  have  been 
prospected. 

On  the  headwaters  of  Cispus  River.  in'P.  10  N.,  R.  10  E.,  .several 
coal  veins  have  been  prospected,  but  no  real  development  work  has 
been  done.  Traces  of  coal  have  been  found  underlying  the  basalt  at 
Steamboat  Mountain. 

MIXERALS  AND  aiINIX(i  CLAIMS. 

The  Columbia  River  lava  is  not  a  favorable  formation  for  the  deposi- 
tion of  the  precious  metals  in  j)aying  quantities,  although  waters  .slightly 
charged  with  minerals  have  deposited  gold,  silver,  lead,  iron,  and 
silica  along  cleavage  planes  in  the  high  country  rock,  which  is  maiidy 
diabase  capped  with  lava.  On  the  surface  where  these  infiltrations 
occur  the  original  sulphide  deposit  has  been  oxidized  and  concentrated, 
so  that  by  panning  some  color  of  flour  gold  can  be  obtained.  Below 
the  line  of  oxidation,  at  a  depth  of  about  30  feet,  the  mineral  deposit 
changes  to  low-grade  iron  pyrites,  which  requires  smelting  and  is  not 
of  sufficient  value  to  make  it  profitable  to  mine. 

These  veins  do  not  show  any  characteristics  of  true  fissure  or  contact 
fissure  veins,  there  being  no  ribbon  structure  of  the  vein  matter  or 
striation  of  the  walls,  but  merely  an  impregnation  of  the  country 
rt)cks,  which  would  indicate  that  they  are  merely  gash  veins  which 
will  in  all  probability  terminate  at  a  sliglit  depth. 

The  placer  ground  on  Moore  Creek,  at  the  base  of  Gold  Hill,  is  said 
to  give  colors  to  every  pan,  Ijut  inasmuch  as  several  parties  have  operated 
it  in  years  past  and  have  given  it  up  it  can  not  be  very  profitable. 

The  Medina  Mining  Company  is  building  a  5  stamp  mill  on  the  west 
side  of  Silver  Creek  to  test  the  free  or  oxidized  ore.  On  the  opposite 
mdc  of  the  gulch  the  Florence  Company  is  running  a  crosscut  tunnel 
easterly  in  diabase  I'ock  for  the  purpose  of  tapping  some  ore  veins 
that  crop  on  the  slope  of  the  mountain  above.  If  the  company  is 
successful  in  this  it  may  prove  that  the  veins  at  this  point  have 
depth  and  are  not  gash  veins  in  the  cleavage  of  the  country  rock. 

MIXERAL,  SPRINGS. 

James  Longmire  patented  '20  acres  of  land  lying  in  sees.  29  and  32, 
T.  1.")  N.,  R.  8  E..  as  a  mineral  claim.  He  erected  an  inn,  barn,  two 
bath  houses,  one  storehouse,  and  two  small  shacks. 


U    S    GEOLOGICAL   SURVEY 


TWENTY-FIRST    ANNUAL    REPORT    PART  V   PL.  XXXVII 


LEGEND 


Less  than  10  percent  of  the  forest 


About  25percent  of  the  forest 


About  50perceiit  of  tliefoiest 


About  75  percent  of  the  forest 


Prepared  under  the  direction  of  Heniy  Gannett  Geogiapher  in  charge 

BY  FRED.GPLUMMER 

1899 


PLUMMEH]  MOUNT    RAINIER    RESERVK,    WASHINGTON.  95 

Within  tlie  limits  of  this  claim  are  about  twenty  mineral  springs 
having-  temperatures  from  50°  to  90°  F.  A  sample  of  one  of  the 
springs  was  sent  to  G.  A.  Mariner,  of  Chicago,  for  analysis,  who 
reported  as  follows: 

Analiists  of  imter  from  sees.  -29  and  33,  T.  15  N.,  R.  S  E. 

[Analyst:  G.  A.  Mariner.] 

Grams. 

Silica 0.  080410 

Calcium  carbonate 1.  077200 

Magnesium  carbonate 617780 

Iron  oxide 060500 

Sodium  sulphate 090251 

Sodium  chloride 1.  463600 

Potassium  chloride Trace. 

Sodium  carbonate 063195 

Sodium  silicate 062326 

Hydrogen  sulphide Trace. 

Tc  )tal  solid.s  iu  one  liter 3.  515262 

These  springs  are  steady  in  their  flow  and  hare  shown  no  .signs  of 
failing. 

On  the  north  side  of  Summit  Creek  in  the  Cowlitz  watershed  is  a 
mineral  spring  claimed  by  David  Longmire.  It  was  located  Septeml)er 
5,  ISiVT,  as  a  red  mineral  paint  spring  claim.  The  spring  is  4  feet  in 
diameter  and  is  100  feet  from  Summit  Creek.  The  amount  of  flow  is 
about  1  cubic  foot  per  minute.  It  tastes  like  soda  water  strongly 
impregnated  with  iron.  The  temperature  is  about  40°  and  the  water 
is  very  refreshing.     The  pack  animals  drank  it  with  relish. 

A  similar  spring  is  reported  on  the  right  bank  of  Bumping  Eiver,  5 
miles  below  Tannum  Lake. 

A  mineral  spring  i-s  located  on  the  north  side  of  Cowlitz  River  in 
sec.  32,  T.  13  N.,  R.  9  E.  The  waters  issue  from  several  Assures  of  the 
rock  in  place  and  flow  into  the  river,  which  is  only  10  feet  distant. 
The  spring  is  below  the  level  of  high  water,  and  its  waters  are 
strongly  impregnated  with  sulphur  and  iron,  and  have  a  temperature 
of  about  100°  F. 

In  sec.  34,  T.  14  N.,  R.  14  E.,  on  the  south  side  of  Tieton  River, 
are  mineral  springs  having  a  flow  of  about  0.25  cubic  foot  per  minute. 
One  has  a  temperature  of  105°  F.     The  others  are  cold. 

The  Klickitat  soda  springs  in  the  north  half  of  sec.  23,  T.  11  N.. 
R.  12  E.,  are  probably  the  finest  soda  springs  in  the  re.serve,  although 
the}-  have  not  so  great  a  flow  as  the  Longmire  Springs,  nor  are  they  as 
well  situated  for  use.  The  main  spring  issues  from  a  rock  crevice  on 
the  south  side  of  Klickitat  River,  below  the  high-water  line.  To  uiake 
the  water  accessiljle  the  stock  herders  have  built  a  wing  dam  which 
exposes  the  bubbling  spring.      Its  flow  is   about  1   cubic  foot  per 


',)(■)  FOREST    KESERVES. 

mimitc.  and  is  stosidy.  The  water  is  rli>ur  iiiid  sparkliiijr.  with  an 
a>rr(M'atilo  taste  resenibliiig-  viehy.  It  is  a  strong  appetizer,  and  acts 
(liiickiy  and  vigorously  upon  the  kidneys. 

On  the  nortli  side  of  the  river,  and  just  above  high-water  mark,  are 
two  harelv  perceptiJ)le  springs,  one  warm  and  the  other  cold.  Two 
other  springs  issue  in  the  bed  of  the  stream,  and  can  l)e  located  liy  the 
bubl)les  of  gas  which  ri.se  to  the  surface. 

In  sec.  3»;,  T.  !»  N.,  R.  12  E.,  is  a  line  .soda  .spring,  which  ha.s  long 
been  known  and  used  by  the  Indians.  Its  waters  are  clear  and  cold 
and  carry  iron,  as  is  shown  by  the  red  formation  about  it.  Its  flow  is 
0.-2')  cubic  foot  per  minute.  Near  this  spring  are  three  yellow  pines 
(Pinm  jwnderosa)  of  less  than  18  inches  diameter,  which  have  been 
art'ected  by  the  spring.  Their  foliage  is  of  a  light-brown  color,  is 
very  scanty,  and  droops. 

Numerous  small  .soda  and  iron  springs  are  found  along  the  Clear- 
water Fork  of  the  Klickitat  River  in  the  box  canyons. 

EVIDEXCES  OF  RECEXT  VOECAXIC  ACTIVITY. 

On  the  slopes  of  Mount  Adams  are  many  evidences  of  recent  vol- 
canic activity,  and  important  among  these  are  cinder  cones  and  bombs. 

The  cinder  cones  are  miniature  volcanoes  in  form.  One.  situated 
about  3  miles  northeast  of  the  summit  of  Mount  Adams,  at  an  eleva- 
tion of  7,000  feet,  is  worthj^  of  special  mention.  Its  height  is  about 
.50f»  feet  and  the  crater  at  its  summit  has  a  diameter  of  175  feet  and  a 
depth  of  75  feet.  The  cinders  which  form  its  mass  and  the  flora 
growing  upon  it  are  unique  and  interesting. 

The  lava,  scoria,  and  pumice  are  often  of  brilliant  colors — red, 
orange,  and  yellow  predominating.  Some  of  the  pumice  is  of  finer 
te.xture  than  that  in  u.se  commercially,  and  the  volcanic  glass  is  found 
in  all  shades,  from  black  to  clear,  transparent  globules. 

On  the  northern  side  of  Goat  Peak  an  area  of  over  1,000  acres  is 
completely  covered  with  .scoria  and  cinders,  and  this  area  is  timberless. 
If  a  crater  exists  it  was  covered  with  snow  at  the  time  of  the 
examination. 

The  bomt)s  found  on  the  lower  slopes  of  Mount  Adams  are  spherical 
masses  of  homogenous  lava,  and  lie  in  piles  upon  the  former  lava 
flows.  They  are  of  all  sizes  up  to  20  feet  in- diameter,  and  in  every 
case  have  been  fractured  and  their  hard,  glass}'  formation  exposed. 
Fre(iuently  the  fracture  planes  show  a  rind  of  several  inches  depth 
from  the  original  spherical  surface  toward  the  center. 

CAVES. 

At  the  headwaters  of  the  White  Salmon  and  Little  White  Salmon 
rivers  are  large  areas  of  parth'  exposed  lava  beds.  Where  a  soil  has 
formed  it  appears  to  be  good,  but  of  no  depth,  and  the  timber  which  it 


pi.iM.MKR.]  MOUNT   RAINIER   RESERVE,   WASHINGTON.  i»7 

supports  is  scrubby  and  of  small  size.  A  line  of  caves  may  be  traced 
along  this  formation  for  a  distance  of  10  miles  inside  of  the  reserve 
and  as  far  again  outside.  In  some  cases  the  caverns  appear  to  exist 
by  reason  of  the  sinking  of  the  flooring,  which  is  of  basalt,  l)ut  quite 
as  frequently  they  take  the  form  of  gigantic  bubbles,  the  roof  sti'atum 
being  buckled  up  and  broken,  permitting  an  entrance  to  the  interior. 

Often  these  caverns  arc  continuous  for  a  considerable  distance  under- 
ground, the  pas.sages  widening  in  the  vicinity  of  the  surface  opening. 
In  one  of  these  caves,  situated  in  sec.  25.  T.  6  N.,  R.  9  E.,  ice  remains 
during  the  entire  year,  and  it  has  merited  the  local  name  of  the  "  Ice 
Cave."  It  is  about  350  feet  in  length,  with  a  maximum  height  of  10 
feet  and  extreme  width  of  60  feet. 

The  ice  is  in  the  form  of  stalactites  and  stalagmites;  in  some  cases 
joined  into  pillars  3  feet  thick.  It  has  been  a  custom  of  visitors  to 
build  fires  in  the  caves,  and  much  of  the  natural  beaut}^  of  this  cave 
has  been  destroyed.  The  practice  of  wantonly  breaking  the  ice  forma- 
tions has  also  contributed  to  the  destruction  of  its  beauty. 

A  small  cave  was  found  on  the  southeast  slope  of  Mount  Adams, 
near  Hell  Roaring  River.     Deep  water  prevented  its  exploration. 

MOUNTAIN  PARKS. 

All  the  divides  become  beautiful  parks  as  they  approach  the  slopes 
of  Mount  Rainier.  In  place  of  the  close  stand  of  forest  which  charac- 
terizes the  lower  slopes,  the  mountain  firs  and  hemlocks  are  grouped 
upon  the  lesser  ridges  and  hummocks  from  which  the  snow  first  dis- 
appears in  the  spring.  At  least  80  per  cent  of  the  areas  above  5,000 
feet  and  below  the  timber  line  may  be  classed  as  mountain  meadows. 
The}'  are  plentifull}'  watered  by  little  streams  and  lakes  and  the  soil 
supports  a  heavy  growth  of  wild  flowers,  ferns,  and  juniper.  The 
limit  of  perpetual  snow  extending  through  some  of  these  parks  gives 
opportunities  for  coasting  and  snowballing,  which  are  enjoyed  by  the 
many  campers  who  make  these  grounds  their  summer  resort.  Parks 
which  are  well  known  because  of  their  beauty  and  accessibility  are 
Paradise  Park,  Magnetic  Park,  and  Indian  Henry's  Ground,  on  the 
southern  slope  of  the  mountain.  Spray  Park  on  the  northwest  slope, 
Moraine  Park  and  the  Elysian  Fields  on  the  northern  slope. 

The  summit  of  the  Cascade  Mountains  and  the  high  spurs  that 
extend  from  it  are  generally  a  succession  of  parks,  plentifully  grassed 
and  flowered.  On  the  eastern  slope  these  areas  have  been  considei'- 
ably  used  for  pasturing  sheep,  and  much  of  their  natural  beauty 
destroyed,  but  onl}^  in  the  regions  of  the  burns  do  any  of  the  grander 
vistas  bear  witness  to  the  carelessness  or  greed  of  man. 
21  GEOL,  PT  5 T 


\)S  KORKST   KKSKRVES. 

TUEK  SPECIKS. 
Tlio  coiiifiMous  trees  of  the  reserve  are  as  follows: 

Ci)iii/eninx  IreeK  of  Mminl  Itninin-  Forexl  JiiKi-rir,  ]\'<i.Kliiii;ilini. 

Pintis  monticola  I)on<;l White  piiio. 

Pinus  poiulerosa  Laws Yellow  |)ine. 

IMiuis  imirrayana  Oreg.  Coin LmlgeiHile  pino. 

rinus  alhicaulis  Kiigeliii Mountain  pine  ( wliite-liark). 

Al)ies  nobilis  Lindl Noble  fir  (larch). 

Abies  aniahilis  (Loud.)Forb Lovely  fir  (larch). 

Abie.s  concolor  ((Jord. )  Parry White  fir. 

Abies  lasiocarpa  (Hook.)  Nutt Alpine  fir  (subalpina). 

Tsuj;a  niortensiana  ( Bong. )  Carr Hemlock. 

Tsuga  pattoniaiia  Engelni Mountain  hemlock. 

Picea  engelmaiini  (Jeffr. )  Engelni  . .  Engelmann  spruce. 
Picea  sitchensis  (Bong)  T.  and  M...  Tideland  spruce. 

Pseudotsuga  taxifolia  Poir Red     and    yellow     fir     (hemlock 

spruce). 

Thuja  plicata  Don Red  cedar. 

t'haniiecyparis  nootkatensis  I  Lamb.  I  Alaska  cedar. 
Spach. 

Larix  occidentalis  Nutt Tamarack. 

Taxus  brevifoliaXutt Yew. 

Tlic  larixe  deciduous  trees  are  us  follows: 

Di'ciduoux  Ircct:  (if  llic  Mount  Raiuicr  Farcxl  ll/'.trrvc,   }ymhinc]tor). 

Fraxinus  oregona  Nutt Ash. 

Acer  macrophyllum  Pnrsh Maple. 

I'opuhis  trichocarpa  Torr.  anil  (ir  ..  Cottonwood. 

Populus  treniuloides  Michx CJuaking  aspen. 

Quercus  garryana  Dougl Oak. 

SniiiU  deciduous  trees  of  no  value  as  timber  are  included  in  the  list 
of  underbrash. 

In  the  deseriptious  which  follow,  the  order  of  arrang'ement  is  the 
saiue  as  given  at)ove,  the  trees  of  each  genus  lieing  together  witliout 
regard  to  (.'omnu^rcial  rank. 

PiNUS  MONTICOLA  Dougl.  (White  i)ine). 

Tliis  species  is  found  from  sea  level  to  an  elevation  of  fi.OOO  feet. 
The  greatest  diameter  is  5  feet  and  the  extreme  height  of  individuals 
oh.served  was  150  feet.  About  two-thirds  of  the  height  is  erown. 
Tlie  heartwood  is  white  and  the  supwood  light  yellow.  The  wood  is 
light,  soft,  not  very  strong,  ])ut  quite  durable.  It  reaches  its  greatest 
development  at  an  elevation  of  3,500  feet,  and  in  eomparison  with  the 
other  pines  occupies  a  middle  zone,  being  above  the  yellow  pine  (/*. 
jMmdcroga)  and  below  tlu^lodgepole  and  mountain  pines  {P.  imirrayana 
and  /'.  albicaul/.s).      Although  not  as  strong  as  the  yellow  pine,  the 


U.  S    GEOUDGICAL   SURVEY 


TWENTY-FIRST    ANNUAL    REPORT    PARTY   PL. XXXIX 


LEGEND 


MOUNT  RAINIER  FOREST  RESERVE 
WASHINGTON 

Showing  distribiition  of  hemlock 
(Tsuga  mertensiana) 

ft-epared  under  the  direction  of  Heniy  Gannett  Ceograplier  indiarge 

B\'  FRBD.G.PLUMMER 

1899 


PLUMMER]  MOUNT   KAINIEK   KESERVE,   WASHINGTON.  99 

absence  of  pitch  and  more  even  texture  makes  it  the  most  valuable  of 
the  pines  found  in  the  State  of  Washington.  The  typical  tree  is  erect 
and  graceful,  with  lighter  and  more  delicate  foliage  than  other  pines. 
It  is  found  on  both  sides  of  the  Cascade  Range,  but  attains  its  best 
development  on  the  moist  hillsides  and  benches  of  the  eastern  slopes. 
It  does  not  form  a  forest  of  pure  growth,  being  always  associated 
with  one  or  more  species  of  fir  or  with  the  red  cedar  {Thuja  jjlieata). 

PiXTJS  PONDEROSA  Laws.  (Yellow  pine). 

This  species  has  a  range  of  from  400  to  6,200  feet  in  altitude.  The 
extreme  diameter  noted  was  6  feet,  with  a  height  of  200  feet.  The  heart- 
wood  is  yellow  and  the  sapwood  is  white  and  resinous.  The  wood  is 
heavier  than  that  of  the  white  pine  and  stronger,  though  rather  brittle 
and  not  very  durable  when  exposed  to  moisture.  Among  the  pines  it 
occupies  the  lowest  altitudinal  zone,  reaching  its  maximum  develop- 
ment at  an  elevation  of  2,500  feet,  and  by  reason  of  its  greater  accessi- 
bility and  distribution  it  is  commercially  the  first  in  use.  The  inferior 
trees  are  called  bull  pines,  and  with  many  lumbermen  a  distinction  is 
made,  dependent  upon  the  amount  of  sapwood  in  the  log. 

The  yellow  pine  forms  an  open  forest  of  pure  growth  at  the  lower 
timber  line  in  eastern  AVashington  bordering  the  arid  region,  for  the 
reason  that  it  leads  the  other  conifers  in  the  spreading  of  the  timber. 
Its  ability  to  grow  on  worthless  rocky  soil,  on  the  face  of  clifl's,  or  on 
the  talus  is  maj-velous.  It  is  a  necessary  agent  to  promote  the  accumu- 
lation of  soil  and  humus  for  the  conifers  of  gi'eater  commercial  value 
which  follow  its  lead. 

The  yellow  pine  is  not  strictly  an  eastern  Washington  tree,  as  it 
occupies  many  small  and  scattered  areas  on  the  western  prairies  near 
Koy,  but  these  areas  are  insignificant  in  comparison  with  its  universal 
occurrence  in  the  lower  timbered  areas  east  of  the  mountains. 

At  its  highest  altitudinal  limit  the  j-ellow  pine,  although  dwarfed  in 
height,  attains  large  diameter  of  trunk  and  appears  strong  and  thrifty. 
The  crown  is  low  and  the  main  branches  abnormally  heavy  and  without 
the  symmetry  of  the  typical  forest  tree  at  lower  altitudes. 

PiNus  MURRAYANA  Oreg.  Com.  (Lodgepole  pine). 

The  extreme  i-ange  of  this  species  is  from  1,800  to  7.100  feet  in  alti- 
tude, but  its  growth  above  5,000  feet  is  very  scattered,  and  it  is  only  the 
presence  of  a  few  individuals  that  puts  the  upper  limit  at  7,100  feet. 
It  attains  a  height  of  80  feet  and  a  diameter  of  26  inches  I'arely.  The 
heartwood  is  creamy,  white,  or  pink,  and  the  sapwood  slightly  whiter. 
The  timber  being  generally  small  and  of  poor  quality,  it  is  chiefly  used 
for  fence  rails  and  firewood.  At  an  altitude  of  -i.OOO  feet  it  attains 
its  maximum  growth,  and  on  some  of  the  dry  river  benches  forms  pure 


100  FOKKST    RESEKVES. 

forests  uvor  small  areas.  Even  at  maturit}'^  the  crown  covers  three- 
fourths  or  scvcii-eighths  of  the  height.  Pinus  contorta,  also  called 
"black  pine,''  has  a  lower  range  to  sea  level,  but  wa.s  not  positively 
determined  within  the  ])oundaries  of  the  reserve. 

PiNf.s  ALBiCAULis  Engehii.  (Mountain  pine). 

This  species  of  pine  is  onh'  found  on  the  higher  elevation.s,  and  ha.s 
a  range  from  5,000  to  8,200  feet.  It  is  the  only  tree  found  above  T.'jOO 
feet.  Its  extreme  height  is  50  feet,  with  a  diameter  of  26  inches. 
According  to  its  exposure,  it  may  be  three-fourths  crown  or  with  only 
a  very  scanty  foliage  on  the  lee  side  near  the  top.  The  heartwood 
and  sapwood  are  light  straw  color.  The  wood  is  luird  and  tough,  and 
splits  with  difficulty. 

It  sets  cones  in  almndance  at  an  altitude  of  7.000  feet,  where  itoften 
comprises  !tO  per  cent  of  the  trees.  Its  associates  at  this  altitude  are 
Abies  laiiwcarjMi ,  Tmiga  imttonlana,  and  Chfima'cypnris  uoothifeitslii, 
all  of  which  "have  reached  their  growth  at  lower  elevations.  The  seeds 
are  edible,  and  the  trees  are  sometimes  cut  down  to  secure  them.  On 
one  ridge  of  Mount  Adams  aljout  100  trees  were  felled  for  this 
purpose. 

At  and  near  its  higher  altitudinal  limit  it  is  a  mere  shrub,  finding 
shelter  behind  larger  rocks  or  crags.  The  foliage  is  often  thickly 
matted,  and  in  its  procumbent  form  hides  the  gnarled  trunk,  which  is 
of  monstrous  size  in  comparison  with  its  crown. 

Abies  nobilis  Lindl.    (Noble   fir). 

This  is  the  finest  timber  tree  in  the  forests  of  the  reserve,  and  is 
found  between  altitudes  of  1,800  and  5,200  feet.  The  diameter  of  the 
largest  individual  found  was  6  feet,  with  a  height  of  225  feet.  In  the 
forest  the  crown  extends  oidy  one-third  of  the  height,  and  the  trunk 
is  generally  a  perfect  cylinder,  standing  perpendicular.  The  heart- 
wood  and  sapwood  are  light  straw  color,  light,  hard,  strong,  and  elastic, 
and  quite  free  of  resin.  The  elevation  at  which  it  flourishes  best  is 
3,000  feet,  but  with  the  lovely  fir  {Ahiea  amahUis)  it  often  forms  dense 
forests  at  3,500  and  even  ■4,000  feet. 

Abies  amabilis  (Loud.)  Forb.  (Lovely  fir). 

This  species  is  found  between  altitudes  of  800  and  5,500  feet.  The 
trees  attain  a  height  of  200  feet,  with  a  diameter  of  5  feet,  of  which 
one-third  to  one-half  is  crown  in*  the  forest  growth.  In  the  open 
it  often  has  branches  to  the  ground.  The  heartwood  and  sapwood  are 
light  straw  color,  the  heartwood  being  slightly  darker.  The  wood  is 
not  hard  nor  very  strong,  and  splits  easily  between  knots. 


PLUMMEE]  MOUNT   RAINIER    RESERVE,    "WASHINGTON.  101 

The  wood  of  tliis  fir  its  very  little  known  commereially  in  Washing- 
ton, but  has  been  cut  and  sold  with  the  noble  fir  under  the  name  of 
larch.  Its  wood  is  better  than  that  of  the  white  fir  {Abies  concolor), 
with  which  the  tree  is  sometimes  confounded,  but  will  not  rank  with 
that  of  the  noble  fir.     It  has  been  used  in  the  manufacture  of  excelsior. 

Abies  concolor  (Gord.)  Parry  (White  fir). 

This  fir  has  an  altitudinal  rang-e  from  sea  level  to  4,200  feet.  The 
extreme  diameter  noted  was  3.  .5  feet,  with  a  height  of  150  feet,  of 
which  two-thirds  was  crown.  The  heartwood  is  white  and  the  sap- 
wood  a  creamy  color.  The  timber  is  not  heavy,  hard,  nor  strong,  but 
is  rather  brittle,  and  perishable  when  exposed  to  alternate  moisture 
and  dryness.  There  is  a  prejudice  against  the  wood,  as  it  compares 
poorly  with  the  species  now  being  logged  for  building  timber.  It  has 
been  used  for  inside  finishing,  and  from  the  larger  trees  fine  shingles 
can  be  made. 

Abies  lasiocarpa  (Hook.)  Nutt.   (Alpine  fir). 

This  beautiful  fir  has  an  altitudinal  range  from  4,000  to  7,500  feet. 
The  greatest  diameter  is  2  feet  and  height  80  feet,  of  which  nine- 
tenths  is  crown.  Heartwood  is  a  creamy  color  and  the  sapwood  is 
white.  The  wood  is  not  very  heavy,  hard,  nor  strong,  but  is  elastic 
and  durable  when  seasoned.  It  is  almost  always  associated  with  Pat- 
ton's  hemlock  in  the  higher  altitudes.  The  typical  tree  is  an  acute 
cone  extending  almost  to  the  ground  in  strong  and  vigorous  branches. 
The  base  of  the  cone  is  about  one-fifth  of  the  height.  The  trunk  is 
generally  straight,  and,  by  observation  of  the  young  trees,  is  generally 
scrubby,  knotted,  and  twisted,  and  much  dwarfed  in  growth.  At  the 
timber  limit  of  7,500  feet  it  is  procumbent  and  attains  the  form  of  gro- 
tesque bushes  and  shrubs.  In  the  lower  valleys  where  this  species  is 
found  there  is  sometimes  30  feet  of  clear  trunk,  above  which  the 
branches  droop  in  graceful  curves.  The  wood  splits  straight,  but  with 
difficulty  between  the  knots,  which  run  to  the  center  of  the  tree. 

This  tree  is  not  known  to  the  local  lumbermen,  and  owing  to  its 
small  size  and  lack  of  clear  trunk  is  of  little  or  no  commercial  value. 

TsuGA  MKRTENSiANA  (Bong.)  Carr.   (Hemlock). 

This  tree  is  found  from  .sea  level  to  an  altitude  of  5,000  feet. 
Extreme  diameter  is  6  feet,  with  a  height  of  250  feet,  of  which  one- 
half  to  two-thirds  is  crown.  The  heartwood  is  grayish  white,  and 
the  sapwood  is  cream  color.  It  is  not  very  heavy,  but  is  hard  and 
quite  strong.  It  is  more  brittle  than  fir.  although  not  so  durable, 
and  the  knots  run  to  the  center  of  the  tree. 


102  1--ORKST    RKSKKVf:S. 

It  soinotimi's  forms  a  forest  of  pure  {growth.  Init  in  this  caso  tho 
tiiiil)fi'  is  irciifrally  vt-ry  tall  and  slender,  and  only  suitable  for  piles. 
Altiioiiirli  in  Washington  it  I'anks  next  to  tir  in  (jiiantity,  it  is  generally 
considered  an  inferior  wood,  and  has  been  logged  very  little  in  this 
State,  except  in  localities  where  the  fir  has  become  scarce.  Time  will 
proitably  overcome  the  prejudice  to  the  hemlock  timber,  as  it  makes 
very  good  floors  and  ceilings  and  has  a  very  good  surface  under  the 
l)lane.  It  does  not  splinter  like  the  eastern  hemlock,  and  takes  stain 
and  oil  easily.  The  bark  of  this  hemlock  is  useful  for  tanning,  and 
the  preparation  of  tanning  extract  is  an  industry  at  Clallam  Bay 
and  South  Bend.  The  bark,  l)eing  very  rich  in  taimic  acid,  makes  a 
very  superior  extract.  Owing  to  the  limited  market  on  the  Bacitic 
coast  and  the  cost  of  sending  the  product  Kast  to  compete  with  other 
extracts  in  a  falling  market,  incident  to  the  panic  of  LSltS,  it  was  found 
that  it  I'ould  not  be  manufactured  at  a  pi'oiit  at  South  Bend. 

TsuoA  I'ATTONiANA  Engelm.   (Mountain  hemlock). 

This  hemlock  is  found  from  an  altitude  of  3,500  to  7.500  feet.  The 
largest  diameter  is  3  feet,  and  height  1^5  feet,  four-lifths  of  which  is 
crown.  The  wood  is  yellow,  hard,  and  somewhat  brittle.  .It  some- 
times forms  a  forest  of  pure  growth  over  limited  areas.  i)ut  is  gen- 
erally found  associated  with  A.  Irix/'ocarpa  and  P.  alhicaulix.  The 
largest  and  heaviest  stands  of  these  hemlocks  were  found  at  an  ele^a- 
tion  of  6,000  feet  near  Jennies  Peak,  but  the  clear  trunks  were  sel- 
dom over  40  feet. 

FiCKA  EXGELMAXNi  Engelm.  (Engelmann  spruce). 

This  spruce  has  an  altitudinal  range  from  1,000  to  6,200  feet.  The 
greatest  diameter  is  3.5  feet,  with  a  height  of  150  feet,  of  which  one- 
half  to  two-thirds  is  crown  in  the  forest  trees.  Mature  trees  growing 
in  the  open  generally  have  a  symmetrical  cone-shaped  crown  to  the 
base.  The  heartwood  and  sapwood  are  white,  soft,  light,  and  not  \'ery 
strong.  It  has  even  grain  and  splits  easily  and,  being  without  pitch  or 
disagreeable  odor,  is  a  very  valuable  wood  commercially,  particularly 
for  cooperage  and  fruit  boxing. 

No  forest  of  pure  growth  was  found.  The  best  growth  is  upon  the 
lower  mount^iin  slopes  and  benches,  where  it  is  associated  with  pines, 
tirs,  atid  tamarack. 

PiCEA  siTCHENSis  (BoHg.)  T.  and  M.  (Tide-land  spruce). 

This  species  is  found  from  sea  level  up  to  an  elevation  of  l,8oO  feet 
within  the  boundaries  of  the  reserve,  west  of  the  Cascade  ^Mountains. 
It  sonu>times  reaches  a  diameter  of  5  feet  and  a  height  of  175  feet,  of 
which  two-thirds  would  be  crown.     The  wood  is  white,  light,  medium 


pi.iMMER]  MOUNT   EAINIER    RESERVE,    WASHINGTON.  103 

hard,  and  strong,  and  is  brittle  when  green,  but  qiiiti^  dural)le  and 
splits  easily.  This  spruce  was  positively  determined  only  at  one 
point  in  the  reserve — namely,  in  the  Nisqually  Valley,  near  the  west 
boundar}- — and  it  was  from  this  that  the  upper  limit  of  1,800  feet  was 
fixed.  As  its  name  indicates,  its  habitat  is  at  lower  elevations  than 
those  of  the  reserve. 

PSEUDOTSUGA  TAXIFOLIA  Poif.      (Yellow  and  red  tir). 

There  are  two  varieties  of  this  species  which  are  not  distinct  botan- 
ically,  although  the  difference  is  recognized  by  loggers  and  mill  men 
throughout  the  State.  The  yellow  fir  grows  from  sealevel  to  an  altitude 
of  5,600  feet,  (uid  i-eaches  an  extreme  diameter  of  LS  feet  and  a  height  of 
300  feet,  of  which  two-thirds  is  crown.  The  bark  is  very  thick  and 
deeply  fissured.  The  thickest  specimen  of  bark  found  measured  22 
inches  on  the  radial  line.  The  heartwood  is  yellow  and  the  sapwood 
is  white,  quite  heavy,  hard,  elastic,  durable,  and  splits  easily.  The 
red  fir.  which  grows  to  about  the  same  altitude,  does  not  exceed  7  feet 
in  diameter  and  225  feet  in  height,  of  which  two-thirds  is  crown. 
The  heartwood  is  salmon-red  color  and  the  sapwood  is  white  or  cream 
color.  It  is  slightly  heavier  than  the  yellow  fir,  more  resinous,  and 
not  so  strong  or  elastic.  When  seen  in  the  forest  the  red  fir  differs 
by  having  a  thin  bark  of  a  lighter  color,  and  in  general  does  not 
present  as  rugged  an  appearance  as  the  yellow  fir.  However,  many 
specimens  were  found  which  were  difficult  to  determine,  and  in  indi- 
vidual trees  it  would  not  be  easy  to  tell  the  difference  between  a  thin- 
barked  yellow  fir  and  a  heavy-barked  red  fir.  Many  of  the  larger  trees 
having  a  diameter  of  from  C  to  9  feet  are  in  process  of  decay,  being 
from  500  to  800  years  old.  The  bark  is  scaly  and  loose  f roui  the  trunk 
at  the  butt,  and  the  tops  are  dead.  In  estimating  the  amount  of  tim- 
ber per  acre  a  due  allowance  was  made  for  the  above  fact.  This 
timber  ranks  first  in  commercial  value  among  the  timbers  of  this  State 
by  reason  of  its  superior  strength,  wide  distribution,  and  accessibility. 

In  the  Cowlitz  Bottom  a  fallen  tir  tree  was  examined  and  found  to 
be  perfectly  sound  (excepting  2  inches  of  the  exposed  surface),  although 
it  had  laid  upon  the  ground  for  seventy -eight  3'ears,as  testitied  In"  the 
age  of  a  cedar  tree  which  had  grown  over  and  straddled  it. 

Thu.ja  plicata  Don.  (Red  cedar). 

This  tree,  which  is  also  known  as  arbor  vita?,  has  a  range  from  sea 
level  to  5,100  feet.  The  extreme  diameter  breast  high  was  found  to 
be  12  feet  with  a  height  of  175  feet,  of  which  three-fifths  is  crown. 
The  heartwood  is  very  light  brown  and  the  sapwood  generallj'  white. 
It  is  verj'  light,  soft,  and  is  not  strong  nor  elastic.  It  is  very  durable 
when  exposed  to  moisture  and  is  generally  of  straight  grain,  splitting 


1(14  FOKKST    RKSER\'ES. 

ivadilv  into  sliinji'lcs.  shakes,  iiiid  hoards.  It  ranks  next  to  the  red 
and  vcllow  lir  coniinerriallv.  and  to  the  pioneer  settlers  in  the  valley 
it  is  the  most  valuable  tiinl)er. 

At  least  Do  per  eent  of  the  larger  eedars  are  hollow  butted.  They 
ahvavs  have  a  swell  butt.  Of  three  hollow-butted  eedars  of  tt  feet  in 
diameter  tlie  rate  of  growth,  as  shown  by  the  shell  of  sound  wood. 
a\eraged  about  ten  years  per  inch  radius.  In  several  exceptional 
cases  noted  the  rate  of  growth  has  been  very  rapid,  as  much  as  one- 
half  inch  per  year  for  twenty  j-ears  of  successive  growth.  A  fallen 
cedar  tree  8(!  inches  in  diameter  was  observed  to  be  perfectly  sound, 
although  another  cedar  tree  40  inches  in  diameter  had  grown  over  and 
straddled  it.  In  swamps  and  swales  it  sometimes  grows  to  the  exchi- 
sion  of  other  conifers,  but  it  does  not  stricth-  form  a  forest  of  pure 
growtli,  iH'ing  accompanied  by  alders  and  maples. 

Chamjecyparis  nootkatensis  (Lamb.)  Spach  (Alaska  cedar). 

This  tree  is  found  between  elevations  of  2,600  and  7,400  feet.  The 
exti-eme  diameter  is  3  feet  and  the  height  is  100  feet,  of  which  three- 
tif  ths  is  crown.  The  wood  from  heart  to  the  bark  is  yellow.  It  is  light, 
not  very  hard  nor  strong,  but  is  more  elastic  than  the  red  cedar  and 
very  durable,  but  does  not  split  as  easily.  Generally  the  branches 
look  scrubliy  and  give  the  tree  a  poor  appearance.  The  outer  bark  is 
in  long,  thin  .scales  and  the  inner  bark  strips  easily.  It  never  forms  a 
forest  of  pure  growth,  but  is  generally  associated  with  the  mountain 
tir,  pine,  and  hemlock.  Generalh'  the  areas  on  which  this  cedar  grows 
have  well-defined  limits,  but  the  tree  seems  to  require  certain  condi- 
tions of  soil  and  climate,  preferring  shady  valleys  and  basins.  This 
timber  would  be  very  valuable  if  more  widelj^  distributed  and  more 
accessible  For  turnings  and  fine  woodwork  it  would  excel,  as  its 
grain  is  even  and  straight,  and  its  color  uniform.  It  would  be  better 
material  for  lead  pencils  than  many  varieties  of  wood  now  used. 

Larix  occidentalis  Nutt.  (Tamarack). 

This  tree  is  found  between  altitudes  of  2,200  and  5,000  feet. 
Extreme  diameter  is  4^  feet  and  height  150  feet,  of  which  one-half 
is  crown.  The  heartwood  has  an  orange  tinge  and  the  sapwood  is 
white.  It  is  heavy  and  hard,  not  very  strong,  but  is  durable  and 
does  not  split  easily.  It  .sometimes  forms  a  forest  of  pure  growth  on 
the  sides  of  the  river  canyons,  and  such  a  forest-was  found  upon  the 
flat  divide  between  the  Naches  and  American  rivers.  The  wood  makes 
good  tie  timber,  and  is  largely  used  for  fuel  in  eastern  Washington. 
Probably  this  is  the  only  timber  tree  of  Washington  which  is  not  rep- 
resented on  both  sides  of  the  Cascade  Mountains.  It  is  strictly  an 
eastern-slope  tree,  and  is  the  only  representivtive  of  the  deciduous 
conifers  in  the  reserve. 


U.  S    GEOLOGICAL   SURVEY 


TWENTY-FIRST    ANNUAL    REPORT    PARTVPL    XLI 


LEGEND 


lessthanlOpercejitnfthe  forest 


MOUNT  RAINIER  FOREST  RESURVE 
WASHIN(}TON 

Showing  distribution  of  red  cedar 

(Tliuja  plicata) 

Prepared  under  fl\e  direction  of  Heniy  Gannett  Geographer  In  ctiarge 

BY  FRED.G.PLUMMER 

1899 


PUMMER]  MOUNT   RAINIER    RESERVE,    WASHINGTON.  105 

Taxus  brevifolia  Nutt.  (Yew). 

This  species  of  yew  is  found  from  sea  level  to  au  altitude  of  -1:,200 
feet.  Generally  the  diameter  of  the  mature  tree  is  about  12  inches, 
but  a  few  individuals  were  found  with  a  diameter  of  2  feet  and  a 
height  of  40  feet,  of  which  three-fifths  is  crown.  The  heailwood 
is  a  deep  red  and  the  sapwood  has  a  narrow  zone  of  cream-colored 
wood.  It  is  very  heavy,  hard,  and  strong.  It  is  exceptionally  tough 
and  durable  when  not  exposed  to  extremes  of  moisture  and  dryness, 
and  will  not  split  after  being  seasoned.  Although  absolutely  sound 
on  the  outside,  one  tree  U  inches  in  diameter  was  found  to  be  badly 
split  on  concentric  lines  from  the  butt  to  a  height  of  25  feet. 

Fraxinus  oregona  Nutt.  (Ash). 

This  tree  has  a  range  from  sea  level  outside  of  the  reserve  to  an 
elevation  of  2,500  feet  within  the  reserve.  Its  diameter  is  3  feet  and 
height  80  feet,  of  which  two-thirds  is  crown.  The  wood  is  white, 
heavy,  hard,  but  not  very  strong  as  compai'ed  with  the  eastern  ash. 
It  is  springjr  and  quite  durable  when  seasoned.  It  splits  easily  and  is 
used  for  firewood  by  the  settlers.  The  only  large  quantit}'  was  found 
in  the  "Big  Bottom"  of  Cowlitz  Valley,  where  it  is  associated  with 
maples  and  alders. 

Acer  macrophyllum  Pursh.  (Maple). 

This  maple  is  found  from  sea  level  to  an  elevation  of  3,300  feet. 
The  extreme  diameter  is  5  feet  with  a  height  of  30  feet,  three-fourths 
to  seven-eighths  of  which  is  crown.  The  heartwood  is  straw  color  and 
the  sapwood  is  white.  It  is  not  heavy,  but  is  quite  hard,  although  the 
tree  is  locally  known  as  the  soft  maple.  The  wood  is  strong.  It  forms 
small  groves  of  pure  growth  in  the  Cowlitz  Bottom,  but  is  generally 
associated  with  the  ash,  j'ew,  and  alder. 

Popuxus  trichocarpa  Torr.  and  Gr.  (Cottonwood). 

This  tree  grows  from  sea  level  to  an  elevation  of  4,200  feet.  The 
greatest  diameter  is  5  feet  and  the  height  175  feet,  of  which  two-thirds 
is  crown.  The  heartwood  is  of  a  bufl'  color  and  the  sapwood  is  white. 
It  is  light,  and  is  not  hard  or  strong;  in  fact,  it  has  no  quality  to 
recommend  it  commercially  as  a  timber  wood,  but  has  been  extensively 
used  in  the  manufacture  of  paper  pulp. 

PopuLirs  tremuloides  Michx.  (Quaking  aspen). 

This  tree  is  found  in  the  wet  swales  and  bottoms,  and  has  an  alti- 
tudinal  range  from  2,500  to  5,800  feet.  It  does  not  exceed  20  inches  in 
diameter,  with  a  height  of  60  feet,  of  which  one-half  is  crown.     The 


10(3  FOREST    RKSKRVKS. 

wood  is  wliitc  iiiul  soft  iiiul  of  little  or  no  valuta  roiiiiin  icially.  All  of 
the  liirf,'!'  tiwsoxuiiiini'd  were  rotten  at  the  Initt.  althouuli  they  looked 
clean  and  healthy  outside. 

QUEKCLS   GAISUYANA    Douo-l.    (Oak). 

'J'his  oak  is  the  only  one  of  its  .speeies  founcl  in  the  reserve,  and. 
unless  the  ash  and  yew  he  included,  it  is  the  only  hardwood  tree  rep- 
resented, (ienerally  the  trees  are  small,  with  short  trunks,  and  ot!er 
nothinir  to  the  lunihernien.  but  a  few  individuals  Avere  noted  with  diam- 
eters of  2  feet  and  a  heiirht  of  5<i  feet.  They  are  seen  at  their  best  on 
the  eastern  slope  in  the  watershed  of  the  Klickitat  River  near  Hell 
Koarinj;:  Canyon.  This  oak  is  considered  first-class  fuel,  and  has  been 
cut  extensively  along  the  Columbia  River  (outside  the  reserve)  for  this 
purpose. 

IJAXtiE  OF  TREE  SPECIES. 

The  accompanying  diagram  (PI.  XLI)  shows  in  a  graphic  way  the 
altitudinal  range  of  the  species  of  timber  trees  found  in  the  reserve. 
The  datum  is  given  as  .sea  level,  and  those  species  which  extend  outside 
the  reserve  to  tide  water  are  so  shown  upon  the  diagram. 

The  lines  showing  each  species  have  been  widened  into  forms  which 
are  intended  to  shoM'  by  their  width  the  relative  development  of  the 
species.  This  diagram  was  compiled  from  observations  taken  at  521 
locations,  ranging  in  altitude  from  700  to  8,200  feet. 

The  name  <if  each  species  is  placed  in  the  zone  to  which  the  tree 
belongs. 

RATE  OF  <;H0WTH  OF  TIIVLBER  TREES. 

The  average  rate  of  growth  of  all  the  conifers,  as  determined  b}' 
measuring  over  8,000  annual  rings,  is  0.0741  of  an  inch  per  j^ear. 

In  the  table  which  follows  the  number  of  annual  rings  is  given  for 
each  8  inches  of  radius,  and  therefore  show  an  increase  or  decrease  in 
the  rate  of  growth.  For  example.  Pi  mis  inurrayana,  according  to 
the  table,  shows  an  increase  in  the  number  of  rings  for  each  3  inches 
of  radius.  Therefore  the  rings  are  closer  together  near  the  liark  than 
at  the  heart,  and  the  rate  of  growth  decrea.ses  with  age. 

When  the  diameter  of  a  tree  was  over  36  inches,  the  measurements 
are  contiiuied  in  regular  order  on  the  lines  below,  as  in  the  case  of 
PseudottuKju  ta,i'i folia. 


MOUNT    RAINIER    RESERVE,    WASHINGTON. 

Trible  xhoirin;/  rule  of  ffrouili  of  timber  trees. 


107 


Name  of  tree. 

1 

a 

(5 

o 

a 
1 

Number  of  rings  counted  on  radius 
from  the  center. 

Age  of 
tree. 

J5 
C 

2 

i 
3 

i 

1  ^ 

2  t 

i 

In. 

7 
22 
16 
25 
31^ 
22 
19 
14 
19 
18 

9 
13 
14 
20i 

9i 
22 
17 
31 
20 
12 
11 
20 
•0 
loj 
20 
12 
20 
17 
11 
14 
15 
10 
19 
10 
31 
29 

In. 
i 

i 
2 

2i 
2 

} 

} 

In. 
7* 
23J 
17 
29 
36J 
26 
194 
141 

36 
15 
19 
29 
27 
41 
34 
45 
26 
18 

130 

133 
85 
42 
48 
27 
37 
56 
16 
71 
68 

132 
40 
71 
40 
74 
52 
64 

119 
60 
60 
40 
38 
34 
64 
30 

11 

13 
19 
36 
33 
41 
38 
50 
31 
28 
55 
99 

115 
44 
33 
15 
18 
36 
20 
25 
73 
88 
28 
51 
60 

105 
37 
67 
98 
50 
48 
41 
43 
14 
70 
24 

I'rai  s 
47 
57 

Do               .  .. 

17 
17 
43 
28 
61 
82 
62 
45 
54 

12 

r)(.        

55 

39  1  7 
38  1  52 

154 

Do 

15 

193 
202 
193 

P(i 

59 
39 

Do      

157 

Do     

l\   194 
i\   18J 
i\    9J 

-i  ^^ 

i'  15 

}  21 
i\   10 
1  22| 
}  17J 
1   33 
}  20i 
i   13 

1  nj 

1  20J 
i   lOi 
i^  16 
1  '  22 
f  13^ 

j;  2u 

1   19 

5 

107 

Do 

100 

185 
267 
245 

Do 

35 
45 

59 

Do 

Do 

46 

j 

191 

Do.... 

j 

81 

14 
12 
28 
13 

9 

65 
67 
174 

Do 

Do 

34 
6 

24 

6 

55 

Do    .  ... 

96 
141 
288 

Do.... 

D.. 

Do 

55 

50 
96 

13 

68 

Do 

\ 

172 

38 

! 

234 
179 
169 
214 
217 

Do 

1 

Do 

53 

83 

27 

Do 

Do. 

Abies  lasiocarpa 

Do... 

1 
f 
J 

111 
154 

10 
17 

120 

125 

Do 

i'  11 
i\   20 
i    104 
1  33 
1  .■?0i 

81 

Do 

70 

151 

Do... 

\ 

48 

65  ;  63 
25  36 

84  12 

358  1 

Do 

41 

....   156  1 

1 

108  KOKKST    KKSKKVES. 

Table,  showing  rule  of  iimn'lh  uf  limber  trees — Continiicc 


Nnmciif  Irue. 

1 

1 

<5 

1 

"S 

i 

c 

i 

•5 

i 

Number  of  rings  counted  on  radius 
from  the  center. 

Age  of 
tree. 

i 
2 

S 

S 

3 

1 

D 

3 

i 

.a 

a 

2 

1 

3 

In. 
14J 
13 
13J 
29 
20 
72 

Jn. 

n 
n 

J 
1 

6 

III. 

17* 

15J 

14 

30J 

22 

84 

54 
58 
65 
30 
30 
39 
40 
9 
31 
18 
32 
38 
73 
15 
41 
11 
19 
17 
40 
58 
48 
20 
26 
27 
15 
25 
78 
48 
(a) 
60 
15 
25 
25 
34 
38 

62 
78 
23 
16 
40 
40 
40 
11 
19 
15 
37 
32 
14 
15 

60 
12 
4 
16 
43 
40 
41 
16 
18 
20 

y-earf. 
176 
148 
92 
106 
141 



484 

408 
108 
118 

242 

216 

362 
388 

182 
97 

113 

254 

272 

230 

380? 

283 

70 
142 
148 

34 

61 

Do                                 

Di, 

20 
28 
41 
41 
14 
21 
21 

24 

Ho                     

1 

Psfuclotsiiua  taxifolia 

1),, 

41 
40 
15 
18 

9.T 

41 
40 
25 
15 

"S 

l)(i 

Do 

120 

18 

156 

Do 

Do 

1 

Do     

30 
30 

40 

4 

31* 
31J 
48 

12 
10 
22 

9 
11 
35 

17 
10 

fSS 

Do. 

Do 

Do 

1     ' 

Do 

38 

3 

44 

18 

30 

38     46     56 

Do 

Do 

38 

2i 

43 

47 

34 

50     64    110 

Do 

Do 

31 
52 

2 

1 

35 
54 

54 
18 
22 
27 
21 

62 
16 
14 
10 
21 

88 
14 

98     28 

Ti       17 

Do  

Do  

34 
40 

i   34J 
i   40* 

10 
6 

14     10 
8     15 

Do  

Do  

Do  

CMiaiiiaryparia  nootkatensis . 
Do  

18 
19i 
19 
28J 
22 
19 
24 
26J 
5 
lOJ 

1 
i 
i 
i 
i 

2 

i 
i 
i 
1 

20 
20 
19i 
29* 
23 
23 
25i 
28 
5i 

35 
74 
60 

42 
97 
112 

46 
23 
10 

56     50 

Do 

Do 

Larix  occidentalis 

FraxiiuiM  oregona 

74 
14 
25 
25 

90 
32 
42 
29 

59 

9 

50 

44 

Do  

25 

Do 

Do 

23 



a  Rlnga  too  close  to  count  accurately. 


MOUNT   RAINIER    RESERVE,    WASHINGTON. 
Table  showing  rate  of  growth  of  timber  trees — Continued. 


109 


Name  nf  tree. 

1 

1 
1 

i5 

1 

C 

1 

1 
1 

1 

Number  of  rings  counted  on  radius 
from  the  center. 

Age  of 
tree. 

i 
7 

i 

c 

1 
a 

3 

i 

c 

i 

.a 

3 

Acer  macrophyllum 

Do  

In. 
11 
28 

6 

8 
23 
14 
18 

4 

5 
16 
10 

4 
6 
H 

4 
7 
4 
4 

In. 
h 
1 
i 

u 

\ 

s 

7n. 
12 
30 

6J 

9 
25  J 
15 
19J 

68 
48 
62 
33 
20 
24 
30 
53 
68 
63 
77 
36 
48 
60 
44 
50 
41 
18 
32 

35 
23 

Years. 
103 

26  1  M.S  1   33 

158 

Do 

62 

Popuhis  trichociirpa 

Do 

10 
21 
21 
26 

43 

84 
53 

17 

8 

30 

26 

Populus  tremuloides 

Do  

i 

86 

1 

53 

Do  

j'  lOV 

) 

68 

Do 

53 
81 
23 

63 

179 

Do 

158 

i 

i 
i 

i 

i 

4 

10 
6i 

5i 

4i 
7i 
4J 
4} 

59 

Pyrus  rivularis 

Rhamnus  pur.s}iiana 

Do 

1 

48 

60 

44 

50 

Do  .. 

7 

48 
18 
32 

'         1 

Cornus  nuttallii 

1 

! 

DEFECTS  A.ST)  DISEASES  OF  TIMBER  TREES. 

About  5  per  cent  of  the  fore.st  .stand  within  the  reserve  is  compcsed 
of  dead  snags  scattered  through  the  green  and  live  growth.  This  con- 
dition is  common  to  all  forests,  as  it  results  from  the  fact  that  trees 
die.  The  cause,  however,  is  not  only  that  of  final  maturity,  for  the 
great  majority  of  these  standing  snags  were  young  or  middle-aged 
trees,  many  of  which  died  from  lack  of  light  and  air — killed  by  their 
more  vigorous  neighbors. 

Indi\idual  cases  were  noted  where  camp  fires  had  run  up  and  killed 
single  trees,  also  where  lightning  had  struck  and  killed  trees  without 
the  fire  spreading.  Not  uncommonly  a  heavy  fall  of  snow  will  break 
the  upper  branches  of  a  tree,  and  these  falling  will  strip  the  trunk  of 
all  foliage — a  setback  that  only  a  vigorous  and  well-situated  conifer 
can  survive. 


]  1  n  FOKKST    KKSKRVES. 

Ill  those  aroiis  wlu'iv  the  wil  is  excessively  moist,  a  (■oiiuiion  defect 
is  tlie  liollow  l)utt  or  ground  rot.  In  such  places  the  root  hold  is  not 
good,  and  the  conifers,  lacking  the  taproot,  compensate  by  developing 
an  enormous  growth  of  roots  on  a  plane  conforming  with  the  surface 
of  the  ground,  thus  increasing  the  hase  area  upon  which  they  stand. 
Such  trees  have  the  "swell  butts,"  and  it  is  not  unusual  to  .see  a  tree 
of  which  a  .section  made  at  the  surface  of  the  ground  would  have  from 
five  to  ten  times  the  area  of  a  parallel  section  made  15  feet  above  it. 
In  these  swell  butts  there  is  no  straight-grain  lumber  and  the  wood  is 
coarse,  resulting  from  the  rapid  growth,  which  in  the  case  of  the  red 
cedar  {T/itiJaj>Ilcaia)  amounts  to  as  much  as  one-half  inch  annually. 

In  logging,  it  is  customary  to  cut  the  trees  above  the  swell  l)utts. 
leaving  on  the  stump  that  portion  of  the  trunk  with  the  decayed 
center,  and  in  the  case  of  the  firs  to  reject  the  sappy  base  of  the  tree. 
Cedars  with  decayed  butts  generally  show  dead  tops,  but  this  is  of 
minor  interest  to  the  lumberman,  who  seldom  cuts  logs  far  into  the 
crown. 

In  the  ideal  forest  of  the  lumberman  the  trees  have  clear  trunks 
to  100  or  125  feet  of  height  and  the  crowns  form  a  continuous  cover 
as  seen  either  from  below  or  above.  Seldom  is  the  seedling  in  such  a 
forest  able  to  compete  under  such  conditions,  for  the  existence  of 
such  a  forest  means  the  elimination  of  perhaps  a  hundred  seedlings 
before  supremacy  in  the  sapling  stage  had  been  established,  and  the 
final  elimination  of  at  least  90  per  cent  of  the  saplings  before  each 
successful  tree  grows  skyward  in  the  final  competition  for  light.  In 
areas  where  this  .severe  competition  does  not  obtain,  the  tree  trunks  are 
"  limby,"  and  even  when  the  trunks  appear  clear  at  first  glance  the  logs 
contain  "pin  knots."  which,  running  through  the  heartwood,  render  the 
lumber  second  or  third  class.  Large  trees  standing  in  the  open,  where 
the  winds  have  greater  effect,  generally  throw  very  few  limbs  toward 
the  prevailing  winds,  but  compen.sate  on  the  protected  side.  The 
growth  of  the  trunk  is  then  eccentric  to  the  heart  and  the  lumber  is 
not  even  grained.  In  the  higher  and  more  exposed  areas  the  trees  are 
often  without  limbs  on  the  storm  side,  generally  the  southwest  side, 
and  the  trees  are  .stunted,  as  described  elsew'here  in  this  report. 

It  can  not  be  .said  that  the  giant  shelf  fungus  {Poli/j)on/fi  sp.)  is  a 
factor  in  killing  or  even  in  hastening  the  death  of  the  large  dead 
timber  upon  which  it  is  found.  Of  the  manv  hundreds  of  these  fungi 
that  were  observed,  not  one  was  found  upon  a  living  tree.  The 
arceuthobium,  on  the  contrary,  attacks  the  living  trees,  and  its  range 
of  ai-tivity  appears  not  to  be  limited  by  altitude.  It  is  a  parasite  on 
the  foliage  of  the  pines,  firs,  and  hemlocks  of  eastern  Washington, 
and  in  some  cases,  particularly  on  the  mtiuntain  fir  (Ahies  lasiocarpa), 
will  cover  the  entire  tree  and,  turning  the  foliage  a  red  color,  makes 
the  tree  a  conspicuous  object. 


.1 .      P  I  N  ES   A  N  U    R  E  Li    I-  I 


^>4>*p^,^^.;i^^^^ 


v»       ~:ti^.  ■ 


RED    FIR    IN    COWLITZ    BOTT. 


MOUNT   RAINIER    RESERVE,    WASHINGTON. 


Ill 


ESTIMATES   OF   TIMBER. 

WHITE   RIVER  WATERSHED. 

Density  of  timber  in  \Miite  River  watershed,  Woihinglon. 


Stand  in  feet  B.  M.  per 

Number  of 
acres. 

Total  stand. 

Feet  B.  M 

0  to      2,  000 

33,  570 

33, 570,  Ot)0 

2,  000  to      5,  000 

18,  600 

65,  100, 000     1 

5,  000  to    10,  000 

16,450 

123,  375,  000 

10, 000  to   25,000 

29, 150 

510, 125, 000 

25, 000  to   50, 000 

16, 000 

600,  000,  000 

50,000  t(i  100,  000 

20,  850 

1, 563,  750, 000 

1 

Total 

134, 620 

2, 895,  920,  000 

1 

Average  stand  per  acre  for  entire  watershed,  18,544  feet  B.  M. 

Area  of  timbered  and  other  lands  in  White  Rieer  watershed,  Washington. 

Acres. 

Timbered  area 134,  620 

Burned  area 10,  200 

Glaciers 8,  900 


Timberless  area  . 


2,440 


Total 156, 160 

Proportions^  and  amoiuils  of  timber  species  in  White  River  watershed,  W  th'ngtun. 


Species. 

Proportion. 

Amount. 

Red  or  yellow  fir 

Hemlock ' 

Red  cedar 

Engelmann  spruce 

White  pine 

Alaska  cedar 

White  tir 

Lovely  fir 

Noble  fir 

Per  cent. 

45 

25 

15 

5 

3 

9 

5 

Feet  B.  M. 

1,303,164,000 

723, 980, 000 

434,  388,  000 

144,  796, 000 

86, 877, 600 

57, 918,  400 

144.  796,  000 

Mountain  hendock 

Total 

100 

2,895,920,000    : 

112 


KOKE.ST    KKSKKVKS 


PUYALLUP   RIVER  WATERSHED. 

Drn.iihj  of  timber  in  Puyallup  Rimr  viaterxhfd ,  Wasliint/lor). 


Stand  in  feet  B.  M.  peraere 

Number  of 
acref,. 

Total  stnlid. 

0  to      2, 000 
2,  000  to      5,  000 
5,  000  to    10,000 
10,000  to   25,000 
25, 000  to   50,000 

50,000  to  ion,  000 

Total 

30, 160 
26,  770 
11,150 
8,500 
10, 900 
12, 470 

Feet  B.  M. 
30, 160, 000 
93, 695, 000 
83,  625, 000 
148,  750,  000 
408,  750,  000 
935,  250, 000 

99, 950 

1,700,230,000 

Average  stand  per  acre  for  entire  watershed,  14,428  feet  B.  >I. 

Area  of  timbered  and  other  lands  in  Puyallup  loatenhed,  \\'as)iin(itnv. 

Aeres. 

Timbered  area 99, 950 

Burned  area 2,  580 

Glaciers :---  12,600 

Timberless  area 2,  710 


Total 117,  840 

I'ro/yortionx  and  amounts  of  timber  species  in  Puyallup  River  viatershed,  Washington. 


Species. 

Proportion. 

Amount. 

Kcd  or  yellow  fir 

Ilriiilock 

Per  eent. 

50 

25 

10 

5 

3 

2 

5 

Feel  B.  M. 

850,115,000 

425.  057,  500 

170,023,000 

85,011,500 

51,006,900 

34,  004,  600 

85,011,500 

Ri'd  cedar 

Noble  fir 

White  fir 

Kngelmann  spruce 

!     Mountain  hemlock 

'     White  pine 

Total 

1 

100 

1,700,230,000 

PLCMMEP..] 


MOUNT   KAINIER   KKSERVE,   "WASHINGTON. 

NISQUALLY  RIVER  WATERSHED. 

Density  of  limhcr  in  Nisqually  Rii'cr  tmtcrslied,  Waahinglon. 


113 


stand  in  feet  B.  M.  per  acre. 

Number  of 

Total  stand. 

0  to      2,  000 

2,  000  to      5,  000 

5,  000  to    10,000 

10, 000  to   25,000 

25, 000  to   50,000 

50, 000  to  100, 000 

Total 

16,  610 
3,360 
6,770 
5,960 
6,370 

Fat  B.  M. 

16,  610,  000 

11,760,000 

50,  775,  000 

104,  300,  000 

238, 875, 000 

39,  070 

422, 320, 000 

Average  stand  per  acre  for  entire  watershed,  5,414  feet  B.  M. 

Area  of  timbered  and  other  lands  in  Nisqually  River  watershed,  Washington. 

Acres. 

Timbered  area 39,070 

Burned  area 27, 810 

Glaciers 8,100 

Timberless  area 3, 020 


Total 78,000 

Proportions  and  amounts  of  timber  species  in  Xisfjuully  River  ir(derslied,  Washington. 


•Species. 

Proportion. 

Amount. 

Red  or  yellow  fir 

Per  cent. 
50 
25 
10 

5 

4 
1 

5 

Feet  B.  iV. 
211,  160,  000 
105,  580, 000 
42,  232,  000 
21,116,000 
16,  892,  800 
4,  223,  200 

21,116,000 

White  fir 

Noble  fir 

Engelmann  spruce 

Mountain  hemlock 

Total                 -   ... 

100 

422,  320, 000 

21  GEOL,  FT  5- 


114 


KOHEST    KKSERVE>: 


COWLITZ   RIVER   WATERSHED. 
Density  of  limhcr  in  Coidilz  liivrr  watcrsheiJ,  Wnxliington. 


Stand  in  feet  B.  M.  per  acre.'     ^'"a^re,";  °^ 

Total  stand. 

0  to      2,000 

2,000  to      5,000 

5,000  to    10,000 

10,000  to    25,000 

25,  000  to    50,  000 

50,  000  to  100,  000 

Total 

37, 850 
96,  380 
12,540 
47,610 
3,720 
2, 560 

Fid  J).  .V. 

37,  850,  000 
337,  330, 000 
94,  050,  000 
833,175,000 
139, 500, 000 
192,  000, 000 

200, 660 

1,633,905,000 

Average  stand  }>vv  acre  for  entire  watershed,  5.011  feet  B.  M. 

Area  of  timhi'ird  and  utlwr  Itindu  in  Cuwlit:  Rircr  wntfrnhed,  Wasliinyton. 


Timbered  area  . 
Burned  area  . . . 
Glaciers 


Timberless  area 

Total 

Proportions  and  amoanlii  of  timber  xpccie-^  in  ConHitz  River  imterslied,  ]yasliin 


200,  660 

86,  900 

2,900 

740 

291,  200 
mjlon. 

Species. 

Proportion. 

.\mount.             j 

Red  or  yellow  tir 

Fir  cent. 
55 
25 
5 
5 
4 
1 

5 

Fed  B.  .V. 
898,  647,  750 
40S,  476,  250 
81,  695,  250 
81, 695,  250 
65, 356, 200 
16,339,050 

81,  G95, 250 

1 

Red  cedar 

White  tir 

Mountain  hemlock 

Engelmann  spruce 

Total 

100 

1, 633, 905, 000 

MOUNT   RAINIER   RESERVE,   WASHINGTON. 

CISPUS    RIVER    WATERSHED. 

Den-silt/  of  timber  in  Cispus  Ricer  inderxlied,  Wa.iliington. 


115 


stand  in  feet  B.  M.  per  acre. 

Number  of 
acres. 

Total  stand. 

0  to      2,  000 

2,  COO  to      5,  000 

5,  000  to    10,000 

10,  000  to    25,000 

25, 000  to   50,000 

50, 000  to  100, 000 

Total 

27,  400 
64,  200 
24,  300 
76,  800 

Feel  B.  .V. 

27,400,000 

224,  700, 000 

182,  250,  000 

1,344,000,000 

1 

192, 700 

1,  778, 350, 000 

Average  stand  per  acre  for  entire  watershed,  7,535  feet  B.  M. 

Area  of  tlmhered  and  other  laiuh  in  Cispiix  River  watertihed,  WaxJiington. 

Acres. 

Timbered  area 192, 700 

Burned  area 43, 000 

100 


Glaciers 

Timberless  area  . 


200 


Total 236, 000 

Proportions  and  amounts  of  timber  species  in  Cisjjus  River  ivatershed,  WaMngton. 


Species. 

Proportion. 

Amount. 

Red  or  yellow  fir 

Per  cent 

45 

30 

10 

5 

5 

Feet  B.  M. 
800,  257, 500 
533, 505, 000 
177,835,000 
88, 917, 500 
88, 917, 500 

SS,  917, 500 

Noble  fir 

White  fir 

Mountain  hemlock 

White  pine 

Total 

100 

1,778,350,000 

116 


FOREST   RESERVES. 


LEWIS    RIVER    WATERSHED. 

Di'nxilij  !>/  limhif  in  Li'irlx  liiirr  iralershed,   Wn.tliiiiriton. 


Stand  in  feet  B.  M.  per 
acre. 

Number  of 
aeres. 

Total  stand. 

0  to      2,  000 

2,  000  to      5,  000 

5, 000  to    10,000 

10,  000  to    25,  000 

25,  000  to    50,  000 

50,  000  to  100, 000 

Total 

14,  730 
48, 450 
61,810 

7,900 
54,  730 

1,620 

Feet  B.  M. 
14,  730,  000 
169,57.5,000 
463, 575, 000 
1.38,  250,  000 
2, 052, 375, 000 
121, 500, 000 

189, 240 

2, 960, 005, 000 

Average  stand  per  acre  for  entire  watershed,  13,295  feet  B.  M. 

Area  of  limbered  and  other  landa  in  Lewiti  Rirer  watershed,  Washinr/lon. 


Acres, 


Timbered  area 189, 240 

Burned  area 32, 360 

Glaciers 350 


Timl>erles.s  area  . 


690 


Total 222,  640 

Proportions  and  amounts  of  timber  species  in  Leieis  River  iratershed,  Washine/ton. 


Species. 

Proportion. 

Amount. 

Ked  or  yellow  tir 

Per  cent. 
50 
20 
15 

5 
5 

Feet  B.  M. 
1,480,002,500 
592,  001,  000 
444,  000,  750 
148,  000,  250 
148,  000,  250 

148, 000, 250 

Eed  cedar 

White  fir 

Mountain  hemlock 

White  pine 

Total 

100 

2, 960, 005, 000 

MOUNT    RAINIER    RESERVE,    WASHINGTON. 

WASHOUGAL  RIVER  WATERSHED. 

iJensHy  of  liinhrr  In  ]\'iisliiiiignl  River  umiersheil,  Washington. 


117 


stand  in  tect  B.  M.  per 
acre. 

Number  of 

Total  stand. 

0  to       2,  000 

2, 000  to      5, 000 

5, 000  to    10,000 

10,  000  to    2.5,000 

2.5, 000  to    .50,000 

50, 000  to  100, 000 

Total 

Feet  li.  M. 

2,370 

17,  775,  000 

910 

68, 250, 000 

3,280 

86, 025, 000 

Average  stand  per  acre  for  entire  watershed,  26,227  feet  B.  M. 
Area  of  watershed,  all  timbered,  3,280  acres. 

Proportion)  and  amoHnts  of  timber  species  in  Washougal  River  watershed,  Washitiglon. 


.Species. 

Proportion. 

Amount. 

Eed  or  yellow  lir 

Noble  fir      .... 

Per  cent. 
30 
25 
25 
15 

1    • 

Feel  B.  M. 
25,  807,  500 
21,, 506, 2.50 
21,506,250 
12, 903,  750 

4,  301,  2.50 

1 

Hemlock 

White  fir 

Total 

100 

86, 025, 000 

ROCK  CREEK  WATERSHED. 

Density  of  timber  in  Rock-  Creek,  watershed,  Washington. 


Stand  in  feet  B.  M.  per  acre. 

Number  of 
acres. 

Total  stand. 

0  to      2,  000 

2,  000  to      5,  000 

5, 000  to    10,000 

10,  000  to    25,  000 

25,  000  to    .50,000 

50,  000  to  100,  000 

Total 

Fed  B.  M. 

690 

5, 175,  000 

690 
4,660 

25,  875,  000 
349, 500, 000 

6,040 

380, 550, 000 

Average  stand  per  acre  for  entire  watershed,  63,005  feet  B.  BI. 
Area  of  watershed,  all  timbered,  6,040  acres. 


118  FOBKST   EESERVES. 

Proporlioii.1  and  amounts  of  timber  itpccies  in  Hock  Creek  iratcrxhed,  Washington. 


Species. 

Proportion. 

.\mount. 

Red  or  yellow  &r 

Per  call. 
30 
25 
25 
15 

1      ' 

Feet  n.  M. 

114,165,000 
95, 137, 500 
95,137,500 
57, 082, 500 

19, 027, 500 

AVhiteflr 

Total 

100 

380, 550, 000 

WIND  RIVER   WATERSHED. 

Density  of  timber  in  Wind  River  watershed,  Washiuijlon. 


Stand  in  feet  B.  M.  per  acre. 

Number  of 
acres. 

Total  stand. 

0  to      2, 000 

2,  000  to     5,  000 

5, 000  to   10,000 

10, 000  to  25,000 

25, 000  to   50,000 

50, 000  to  100, 000 

Total 

21, 810 
7,970 
3,220 
17,700 
52, 900 
18, 430 

Feet  B.  M. 

21,810,000 

27, 895, 000 

24, 150, 000 

309, 750, 000 

1, 983,  750, 000 

1,382,250,000 

122,030 

3, 749, 605, 000 

Average  stand  per  acre  for  entire  watershed,  25,858  feet  B.  M. 

Area  of  timber  and  other  lands  in  the  Wind  River  watershed,  Washington. 

Acres. 

Timbered  area 122, 030 

Burned  area  22,  970 


Total 145,000 


PH.M.MER.]  MOUNT   RAINIER  RESERVE,   WASHINGTON.  119 

Proportions  and  amounts  of  timber  species  in]Vind  River  waterslied,  Washington. 


Species. 

Proportion. 

Amount. 

Red  or  yellow  fir 

Per  cent. 
45 
15 
10 
10 

5 
5 

Feet  B.  M. 
1,  687,  322,  250 
562,  440,  750 
374, 960, 500 
374, 960, 500 
187,  480,  250 
187, 480, 250 
187, 480,  250 

187,  480,  250 

Noble  fir 

Lovely  fir 

AVhite  fir 

White  pine 

Lodgepole  pine 

Mountain  hemlock 

Engelmann  spruce 

Total 

100 

3,  749, 605, 000 

LITTLE  WHITE  SALMON  RIVER  WATERSHED. 

nsitij  of  timber  in  Little  ]Vliite  Salmon  River  leatershed,  Washington. 


stand  in  £eet  B.  M.  per  acre. 

Number  of 
aeres. 

Total  stand. 

0  to       2,000 

2,000  to      5,000 

5,000  to    10,000 

10,000  to    25,000 

25.000  to    50,000 

50,000  to  100,000 

Total 

16, 080 

39,  590 

4,720 

6,430 

Fed  B.  M. 

16,  080,  000 
138, 565, 000 

35,  400, 000 
112, 525, 000 

66,  820 

302, 570, 000 

Average  stand  per  acre  for  entire  watershed,  4,223  feet  B.  M. 

Area  of  timbered  and  other  lands  in  Little  White  Salmon  River  luaterslted,  Washington. 

Acres. 

Timbered  area 66, 820 

Burned  area 4, 830 


120 


KORKST   KKSKKVES. 


Proporliona   and  amounls  of  timber  xpccien  In    Litttr    White   Sntimtn  I{iier  watershed, 
Wanhington. 


Species. 

Proportion. 

Amount. 

Red  or  yellow  fir 

Pereent. 
55 
10 
10 

5 

5 
3 

5 

Feet  li.  M. 

166,413,500 

30,  257, 000 

30,  257, 000 

15, 128, 500 

15, 128,  500 

15,128,500 

9,  077, 100 

6,051,400 

15, 128,  500 

Engclniann  spruce 

White  fir 

Jlountain  hemlock 

Total 

100 

302, 570, 000 

WHITE  SALMON   RIVER  WATERSHED. 

Density  of  timber  in  Wliite  Salmon  River  u-ater.ihed,  Washington. 


stand  in  feet  B.  M.  per 
aere. 

Number  of 
acres. 

Total  stand. 

Feet  B.  M. 

0  to       2,  000 

13,  370 

13, 370, 000 

2, 000  to      5,  000 

23,  670 

82,  845, 000 

5, 000  to    10, 000 

30, 650 

229,  875, 000 

10, 000  to    25, 000 

5,990 

104,  825, 000 

25,000  to    50,000 

2,890 

108,  375, 000 

50,000  to  100,000 
Total 

76, 570 

539, 290, 000 

Average  stand  per  acre  for  entire  waterslied,  5,106  feet  B.  51. 

Area  of  timbered  and  other  lands  in  White  Salmon  River  water.'^lied,  Washington. 

Acres. 

Timbered  area , 76, 570 

Burned  area 27, 200 

Glaciers 450 

Timberless  area 1 ,  380 

Total 105, 600 


PLUMMER.]  MOUNT   EAINIEE   RESERVE,   WASHINGTON.  121 

Prvportions  and  amounts  of  timber  species  in  White  Salmon.  Rlrer  irnlerslied,  Washington. 


Species. 

Proportion. 

Amount. 

Per  cent 
40 
30 
10 
5 
4 
3 
3 

5 

Feel  11.  M. 
215,  716,  000 
161,  787,  000 
53,  929,  000 
26,  964,  500 
21,571,600 
16, 178,  700 
16, 178,  700 

26, 964, 500 

Tamarack 

Hemlock 

Noble  fir  '. 

White  fir 

■ 
Lodgepole  pine 

Engelmann  s-pruce 

Mountain  fir 

Mountain  hemlock i 

Total 

100 

539, 290, 000 

KLICKITAT  RIVER  WATERSHED. 

Density  of  timber  in  Klickitat  Rirer  icatcrshed,  Washington. 


Stand  in  feet  B.M.per 
acre. 

Number  of 

Total  stand. 

0  to       2,  000 

2, 000  to      5, 000 

5, 000  to    10, 000 

10, 000  to    25, 000 

25,000  to    50,000 

50, 000  to  100, 000 

Total 

29, 580 
31, 660 
15, 070 
35, 440 
17, 600 
4,460 

Feet  B.  .V. 

29, 580, 000 
110, 810, 000 
113, 025, 000 
620, 200, 000 
660, 000, 000 
334, 500, 000 

133, 810 

1,868,115,000 

Average  stand  per  acre  for  entire  watershed,  11,075  feet  B.  JSI. 

Area  of  timbered  and  other  lands  in.  Klickitat  Hirer  watershed,  Washington. 

Acres. 

Timbered  area .• 133, 810 

Burned  area .' 30,230 

Glaciers .' 1,400 

Timberless  area 3, 240 


Total 168,  680 


122  FOREST    RESERVES. 

Proporlionx  mul  iiiiioiiiils  of  tiinliir  sjtcrii's  in  Klickitiit  liiirr  iralirxhrd,   Wdxiuiirjtoii. 


Species. 

Proportion. 

Amount. 

I'cr  mil. 

55 
20 
10 
5 
5 

5 

Feet  11.  if. 

1,027,463,250 
373,  623,  000 
186,811,500 
93,  405,  7.50 
93, 405,  750 

93,  405,  7.50 

Red  or  yellow  iir 

White  pine 

Mountain  hemlock 

AVhite  fir    

Enpeliiiann  spruce 

Alaska  cedar 

Total 

100 

1,  868, 115, 000 

ATANUM   RIVER  WATERSHED. 

DensUij  of  Hinhi:r  in  Atanum  River  imli-rKlwd,   ]y<i.'!liiti;ilon. 


Stand  in  lect  B.  M.  per 
iiore. 

Number  of 

Total  stand. 

0  to      2, 000 
2, 000  to      5,  000 
5, 000  to     10, 000 
10,000  to    25,000 
25,000  to     50,000 
50, 000  to  100, 000 

Total 

12,  790 

13,  240 

Feet  B.  M. 
12,  790, 000 
4G,  340,  000 

26,030 

59,130,000 

Average  stand  per  acre  for  entire  watershed,  1,454  feet  P..  M. 

Area  of  timbered  and  other  lands  in  Atanum  Hirer  ttatershcd,   Wanltinglon. 

Acre.*!. 

Timbered  area 26, 030 

Burned  area 14, 630 


Total 40, 660 


PLOiMER.]  MOUNT  RAINIER  RESERVE,   WASHINGTON.  123 

Proportions  and  amounts  of  timber  species   in  Alanum  Riiier  watershed,  Washington. 


Species. 

Proportion. 

Amount. 

Per  cent. 
60 
15 
10 

Feet  B.  M. 
35,  478,  000 
8,  869, 500 
5.  91 3  000 

Red  or  yellow  fir 

5                     2-  95fi-  500     1 

^lountain  hemlock 

3 
2 

5 

1,  773,  900 
1, 182,  600 

2,  956,  500 

White  fir 

Engelmann  spruce 

White  pine 

Total 

100 

59, 130, 000 

TIETON   RIVER  WATERSHED. 

Density  of  timber  in  TieUm  River  iratershed,  Waslnngton. 


Stand  in  feet  B.M.  per  acre. 

Number  of 

Total  stand. 

0  to      2,  000 
2,  000  to      5,  000 
5,  000  to    10,000 
10,  000  to    25,000 
25, 000  to   50,000 
50,  000  to  100,  000 

Total 

45,  270 

71,520 

29,  970 

4,610 

940 

Feet  B.  .V. 
45,270,000 
250, 320, 000 
224,  775, 000 
80, 675, 000 
35, 250, 000 

152,  310 

636,  290, 000 

Average  stand  per  acre  for  entire  watershed,  3,765  feet  B.  M. 

Area  of  timbered  and  other  land  in  Tieton  River  watershed,  Washington. 

Acres. 

Timbered  area 152, 310 

Burned  area 16, 370 

Timberlesa  area 320 


Total 169, 000 


12.4  FOREST   RESERVES. 

PropoHiom  and  lunouiitf  of  liinUr  species  in  Tielon  Rii'er  wnlcrsheil.  W/iKliint/lon. 


Species. 

Proportion. 

Amount. 

Per  cent. 
50 

:i5 

10 

5 

FrrI  IS.  .\T. 

.S18, 145, 000 
222,701,500 
63, 629, 000 

31,  814,  500 

Reil  or  yellow  fir 

Red  cedar 

Kngelmann  spruce 

White  fir 

White  pine 

Mountain  fir 

llountain  hemlock 

Total 

100 

636,290,000 

NACHES    RIVER    WATERSHED. 

Densiti/  of  limber  in  Xaches  River  watershed,  Wii.'ihitigton. 


Stanti  in  feet  B.  M.  per  acre. 

Number  of 
acres. 

Total  stand. 

0  to      2,  000 
2,  000  to     5,  000 
5, 000  to   10,000 
10, 000  to   25,000 
25, 000  to   50,000 
50, 000  to  100, 000 

Total 

108,  500 

188,  300 

16, 000 

5,410 

feetB.M. 
108, 500, 000 
659, 050, 000 
120,000,000 
94, 675, 000 

, 

318,210                   982.225.000 

, 

Average  stand  per  acre  for  entire  watershed,  3,002  feet  B.  M. 

Area  of  timbered  and  other  land.i  in  Xaches  Riier  iratershed,  ]Vn.'<hin;;l<m. 

.\cres. 

Timbered  area 318, 210 

Burned  area 7,  510 

Timberlet^s  area 1, 450 

Total 327,170 


PLUM5IER.]  MOUNT  KAINIER   RESERVE,   WASHINGTON.  125 

Proporlions  (ind  amount/^  nf  tiiiihi'r  xpecies  in  Aac/ifs  River  watershed,  Washington. 


Species. 

Proportion.               Amount. 

Per  cent. 
45 

20 
5 

5 

Feet  B.  M. 
442,  001,  250 
245, 556,  250 
196, 445, 000 
49,  111,  250 

49,111,250 

Red  or  yellow  fir 

Noble  fir 

White  fir 

1 

Mountain  hemlock 

Engelmann  spruce 

Total 

100 

982, 225, 000 

YAKIMA  RIVER  WATERSHED. 

Density  of  limber  in  Yakima  Hirer  watershed,  Washington. 


Stand  in  feet  B.  M.  per 
acre. 

Number  of 
acres. 

.   Total  stand. 

0  to      2,  000 
2,  000  to      5,  000 
5,  000  to    10,000 
10, 000  to    25,000 
25, 000  to    50, 000 
50, 000  to  100, 000 

Total 

3, 250 
4,430 

Feet  B.  M. 
3,  250,  000 
15,505,000 

1 

7,680     '                18.755.000 

Average  stand  per  acre  for  entire  watershed,  2,442  feet  B.  M. 
Area  of  watershed,  all  timbered,  7.680  acres. 


120  FOREST    RESKKVKS. 

I'roportiuiiK  nnd  amounts  of  timber  upecks  in  Ynkiiiia  Hirer  v<ilrrxlir<l,  W'lxhington. 


Species. 

Proportion. 

Amount. 

Per  cent. 
45 
30 
10 
10 

5 

Fed  B.  M. 
8,439,750 
5, 626, 500 
1,875,500 
1,875,500 

937, 750 

Red  or  yellow  fir 

Engelmann  spruce 

Mountain  hemlock 

White  fir        

Total           

100 

18, 755, 000 

SUMMARY    OF    ESTIMATES. 

Total  timber  estimntes,  arranged  by  viatersheds. 


Watershed. 

Area. 

Average  per 
acre. 

Total. 

White  River 

Acres. 

1.56, 160 
117,840 

78,000 
291, 200 
236, 000 
222, 640 
3,280 
6,040 
145,  000 

71,650 
105,  600 
168, 680 

40, 660 

169, 000 

327, 170 

7, 680 

Fed  B.  M. 

IS,  544 

14,  428 

5,414 

5,611 

7, 535 

13,295 

26, 227 

63, 005 

25, 858 

4, 223 

5, 106 

11,075 

1,454 

3, 765 

3, 002 

2,442 

Feel  B.  M. 

2,  895, 920,  000 
1,700,230,000 

422,  320,  000 

1,633,905,000 

1,778,350,000 

2, 960, 005, 000 

86, 025, 000 

380, 550, 000 

3,  749,  605,  000 
302, 570, 000 
539, 290, 000 

1,868,115,000 

59, 130, 000 

636, 290, 000 

982,  225, 000 

18,  755, 000 

Wind  River 

Little  White  Salmon  River 

AVhite  Salmon  River 

Tieton  River 

Naches  River 

Total 

2, 146,  600 

9,323 

20, 013,  285,  000 

MOUNT   EAINIER   RESERVE,   WASHINGTON. 


Tolal  timber  esti 


FeetB.M 

Red  or  yellow  fir 8,  555,  218,  750 

HemloJk 3,533,642,000 

Yellow  pine 2, 062, 371,  750 

Red  cedar 1 ,  317, 078, 500 

Noble  fir 1,247,883,500 

Lovely  fir 749, 267, 500 

"White  fir 538,  735,  000 

White  pine 519, 518,  000 


cstimnti'is,  arranr/e<l  hi/  f:pecii's  of  trees. 


Tamarack 

Mountain  hemlock 
Engelmann  spruce. 

Mountain  fir 

Alaska  cedar 

Lodgepole  pine 


127 


Feet  B.  ^[. 
512,  385,  000 
280,  677,  000 
271,  785, 000 
200, 130, 000 
151, 326, 000 
73, 267, 000 


Total 20,013,285,100 


COMMERCIAIi  USES  OF  TIMBERS. 

In  importance,  all  things  considered,  the  principal  timber  trees  of 
the  reserve  will  at  this  time  rank  commercially  in  the  following  order: 

Commercial  rank  of  timber  trees  in  ^fount  Rainier  Reserre,  Wa.tliiiiijloyi. 

Red  or  yellow  fir  (Pseudotsuga  taxifolia). 
Red  cedar  (Thuja  plicata). 
Tide-land  spruce  (Picea  sitchensis). 
Yellow  pine  (Pinus  ponderosa). 
White  pine  (Pinus  monticola). 
Noble  fir  (Abies  nobilis). 
Lovely  fir  (Abies  amabalis). 
White  fir  (Abies  concolor). 
Hemlock  (Tsuga  mertensiana). 
Tamarack  (Larix  occidentalis). 

The  above  order  results  from  size,  quantity,  and  accessilnlity  of  the 
trees  and  the  properties  of  the  various  woods. 

If  arranged  in  the  order  of  the  desirable  properties  of  the  woods 
and  ignoring  the  question  of  size,  quantity,  and  accessibility,  the  tim- 
bers will  take  rank  as  follows: 


Rank  of  timber  trees  in  order  of  desirable  properties. 


1.  Alaska  cedar 

2.  Noble  fir 

3.  Tideland  sjiruce 

4.  White  pine 

5.  Red  cedar 

6.  Red  or  vellow  fir 


7.  Lovely  fir 

8.  Hemlock 

9.  Yellow  pine 

10.  White  fir 

11.  Tamarack. 


128 


FORKST    RESERVES. 


Tho  iisos  to  wliicli  tlio  viiiioiis  woods  are geniMiilly  put  :in>  a.'^  follows: 

(«'.<  (){  (i-imh  uft'-ets  in  Moinil  Uniniir  Rewnc,    Wii.->hl,ii/lon. 

Bridge  timbers Kcd  and  yellow  fir. 

Lumber Red  and  yellow  fir,  red  cedar,  tiile- 

land  spruce,  yellow  pine,  white 
pine,  noble  fir,  lovely  fir. 

Shingles Red  cedar,  white  lir. 

Piles Kcd  fir. 

Telegraph  ])oles Red  cedar. 

Railroad  ties Tamarack,    red    and     yellow    fir, 

white  pine,  red  cedar. 

Fence  posts  and  fuel All  kinds. 

Paper  pulp Tlie  following  trees  in  the  order  of 

their  importance:  Tideland 
spruce,  Cottonwood,  quaking 
aspen,  white  fir,  red  and  yellow 
fir,  hemlock,  maple. 

Furniture  and  <-abinetwork In  addition  to  the  lumber  woods 

enumerated  some  oak,  ash,  and 
maple  have  been  used. 

MARKETS  AXD  PRICES. 

Ih  the  absence  of  railroads  and  other  well-established  line.^  of  travel 
the  various  divisions  of  the  i*eserve  are,  b_v  watersheds,  comuicrcially 
tributary  to  the  outlying  markets,  namely,  Taeoma,  Chehalis,  Portland, 
and  North  Yakima.  The  following  tables  show  these  watersheds  and 
the  markets  which  they  at  present  would  naturally  suppl3\ 

Markets  for  watersheds  in  Mount  Rainier  Reserve,  Washington. 


Watersheds. 

Area. 

Tributary  tn— 

AVhite  River       

Acres. 
156, 160 
117,840 

78,  000 
291,  200 
236, 000 
222,  640 
3,280 
6,040 
145, 000 

71,650 
105, 600 
168, 680 

40,  660 
169, 000 
327, 170 

Tacoma. 

Do. 

Do. 
Tacoma  or  Chehalis. 

Do. 
Portland. 

Dq. 

Do. 

Do. 

Do. 

Do. 

Do. 
North  Yakima. 

Do. 

Do. 

Do. 

Cowlitz  River 

Yakima  River 

7,680 

PLiMMER.]  MOUNT    RAINIER    RESERVE,    "WASHINGTON.  129 

Prices  ofjir  litmhir  In  markets  adjacent  to  Minml  Rainier  Reserve,  Wasltlnijton. 


Grndf. 

Siae. 

Finish. 

PerMteetB.M.at— 

Tacoma 

or 
Portland. 

North 
Yakima. 

Indict. 

1  tiy  12 

,lo 

Rough  

Surface  2  si<les 

Dressed  and  luati'hed 

do 

$7.50 
10.  .^0 

19.  00 
14.  00 

1.5.  .50 
13.  50 

12.00 
10.00 
8.  .50 

7.50 
6.50 
10.  50 

1.65 

$13.  50 
16.50 

24.  50 
19.  50 

19.  00 
17.00 

17.00 
15.  00 
14.50 

14.  .50 

13.  .50 

14.  .50 

2.  75 

Do 

Flooring  V.  G.: 
Number  1 

1  1)v4 

do 

Ceiling: 

\  bv  (1 

Beaded  and  plain 

...do  .                     .... 

.   .   .dii 

Wainscoting: 

f  bv4 

do 

Shiplap,  common. . 
Fencing: 

Number  1 

1  bv  8  . 

1  bv4 

do 1  -   -   -   -       - 

Pickets 

1  bv  3  or  Ubv 

Lath 

u. 

f  by  U  by  4  per 
1,000. 

Prices  of  cedar  run  from  25  to  40  per  cent  more  than  above. 
Prices  of  spruce  run  from  10  to  50  per  cent  more  than  above. 
Prices  of  hemlock  run  same  as  fir  ( no  demand ) . 
Shingles  cost  from  SI  to  S3  per  thousand,  according  to  quality. 

^1  GEOL,  PT  5 '.I 


130 


FOREST   RESKRVKS. 

I'rirp  of  liin/i'  or  lonij  <lri:iseil  fir  tiinhfrs  id  Tacoimi. 


Size. 


I  Length. 


Ftel. 

8  by  8  inches 50 

,S  l)y  8  inches 100 

12  by  12  inches 50 

12  by  12  inches 100 

14  by  14  inches 50 

14  by  14  inches 100 

1(5  by  16  inches 50 

IG  by  16  inches 100 

1 8  by  18  inches 50 

15  by  18  inches 100 

20  by  20  inches i  50, 

20  l>y  20  inches '  100 

22  by  22  inches :  50 

22  by  22  inches 100 

24  by  24  inches I  50 

24bv24inches I  100 


$12.50 
35.  00 
12.50 

:«.  00 

13.25 
.37.  .50 
14.00 
40.  00 
15.  .Ml 
44.  00 
17.00 
48.  00 
20.  00 
53.  00 
23.00 
59.00 


Prices  of  larger  timbers  are  sjiecial. 

rXDEKBRl'SH. 

Small  areas  on  the  eastern  slope  are  of  open  pine  foi'ests,  carpeted 
■with  pine  grass  {('(dcnniK/rostis  xuA'sdorfi)  and  without  litter  or  under- 
brush, bift  the  general  statement  is  true  that  on  both  slopes  of  the 
mountuin.s  the  underbru.sh  is  heavA'  as  compared  with  eastern  fores-t 
areas,  and  on  the  western  slope  it  is  not  uncommon  for  the  growth  to 
be  so  rank  as  to  be  impenetrable. 

The  term  underbrush  as  here  used  does  not  include  young  trees  of 
the  same  species  as  those  composing  the  forest,  nor  does  it  include 
gras.ses.  sedges,  weeds,  or  ferns.  In  the  typical  forest  of  conifers 
there  is  considerable  growth  of  the  deciduous  shrubs,  which  are  prop- 
erly included  as  underbrush  and  are  so  called  locally.  The  species 
common  to  both  slopes  are  as  follows: 

I'nderhrush  in  Mount  Rninier  Reserve,  Washuifflon. 

SPECIES   ForXD   THROCGHOUT  THE   RESERVE. 

Oregon  grape Berberis  nervosa  Pui-sh. 

Washington  holly Berberis  aquifoliuni  Pursh. 

Pachystinia  myrsinites  Raf. 

Bearberry Rhaumus  purshiana  DC. 

Soapwood Ceanothus  velutinus  Dougl.,  com- 
mon. 

Ceanothus  sanguineus  Pursh . 


lER]  MOUNT    RAINIER    RESERVE,    WASHINGTON.  131 

Vine  maple Aier  circinatum  Pursh. 

Smooth  maple Acer  glabrum  Torr. 

I  Primus    emarginata    var.     mollis 
AVild  cherry Brewer. 

[  Prunus  demissa  Waljj. 
f  Rosa  gymnocarpa  Xutt. 

Wild  rose J  Rosa  nutkana  Presl. 

IRosa  oalifornicaCham.  and  Schlecht. 

Hardhack Spiraea  douglasii  Hook. 

Arrowwood Spira;a  discolor  Piireh. 

Alpine  spiraea Spira-a  rosea  Gray. 

Spira;a  corymbosa  Raf. 

Mountain  ash Pyrus    sambucifolia    (Cham,    and 

Schlecht)  Roem. 

Crab  apple Pyrus  rivularis  Dougl. 

Juneberry Vmelanchier  alnifolia  Xutt. 

Thimbleberry  Rubus  nutkanus  Moc. 

Salmon  berry Rubus  spectabilis  Pursh. 

Raspberry Rubus  leucodermis  Dougl. 

Blackberry Rubu.s  ursinus  Cham,  and  Schlecht. 

Snowy  or  birds' -foot  liramble Rubus  pedatua  Smith. 

Downy  bramble Rubus  lasiococcus  Gray. 

Grease  wood Purshia  tridentata  DC. 

Nine-bark Xeillia  ojuilifolia  B.  and  II. 

Mock  orange  or  wild  syringa.  _ Philadelphus  lewisii  Pursh. 

Red-flowering  currant Ribes  sanguineum  Pursh. 

Western  fetid  currant Ribes  bracteosum  Dougl. 

Ribes  viscosissimum  Pursh. 

Ribes  cereum  Dougl. 

Ribes  ciliosmn  Howell. 

Prickly  gooseberry Ribes  lacustre  var.  molle  Gray. 

Black-berried  gooseberr}- Ribes  divericatum  Dougl. 

Devil's  walking  club Fatsia  horrida  B.  and  H. 

Canada  dogwood Cornus  canadensis  Linn. 

Western  dogwood Cornus  nuttallii  Aud. 

White-berried  dogwood Cornus  pul lescens  Xutt. 

White  elder Sanibucus  nielanoc^rpa  Gray. 

Red-berried  elder Sambucus  racemosa  Linn. 

Sambucus  glauca  Xutt.  ? 

Viburnum Viburnum  paucifiorum  Pylaic. 

Snowberry Symphoricarpus  racemosus  Michx. 

Western  honeysuckle Lonicera  ciliosa  Poir. 

Bush  honeysuckle Lonicera  involucrata  Banks. 

Red  huckleberry Vaccinium  parvifolium  Smith. 

Myrtle-leaved  huckleberry Vaccinium  myrtilloides  Hook. 

Small  red  huckleberry Vaccinium    myrtillus  var.    micro- 

cephyllum  Hook. 

Cranberry ( species  not  determined. ) 

Manzanita Arctostaphylos  tomentosa  Dougl. 

Kinnikinick Arctostaphylos  uvaursi  Spr. 

^fountain  salal Gaultheria  ovatifolia  Gray. 

Pale  laurel Kalmia  glauca  Ait.  var. 

ilenziesia  ferruginea  Smith. 
AVhite  rhododendron Rhododendron  albiflormn  Hook. 


132  FOREST   RESERVKS. 

I.ulinidor  U:\ Leiluiu  latilnliiim  Ait. 

l)\\:irf  bircli Betula  (ilaiiduloj'a  Miclix. 

Mountain  aliliT Alnus  sinnata  Kyd. 

Alnu.s  rhunihil'olia  Xutt. 

Ilazlc Coryliis  rostrata  Ait.,  vi-ry  cnnnnun. 

Bee  willow Salix  i'iteheni'i.'-  Sanson. 

Marsh  willow Salix  la.siamlra  Rentli. 

Quakin;;  a,«pen I'opnlu^'  treninloiilcH  Miclix. 

Alpine  juniper Juniperns  I'onniiuni.s  ]Jnn. 

HPECIE-S   KOIXI)   o.Nl.Y    ox   THE    WhXTEHX    SI.OI'K. 

IMadrufia Arbutus  menziesii  Pursh. 

Salal Gaultlieria  .-liallon  Pur.-^h. 

State  flower Khoiloflendron  californicuni  Hook. 

Honeysuckle  Lonicera  liispidula  r)ou<rl. 

Black  huckleberry Vaceiniuni  ovatuni  I'ursh. 

SPECIKS    VOtXll    OXI.Y    ox    THE    K.VSTERX    SLOl'K. 

Scrub  oak Quercu-s  garryana  Dougl. 

Dogwood Cornus  stolonifera  Miehx. 

Oregon  grape Berberis  repens  Lindl. 

Sagebrush Artemisia  tridentata  Xutt. 

Missouri  currant Rilies  aureum  I'nrsli. 

Small  sagebrush  Aplopapi)US  bloonieri  Gray. 

FOREST   TWITTER. 

On  tlu'  oa.storii  .slope.s  the  fore.st.s  are  generally  open,  travel  ofl'  the 
trails  hciiig-  po:s.sible  with  pack  animal.s,  although  sometimes  difficult 
anil  slow.  On  the  western  slopes  the  fore.st  litter  makes  travel  on  the 
trails  or  roads  imperative,  and  the  explorer  or  prosi)eetor  nmst  expect 
to  carry  his  pack  on  his  back  and  climb  over  or  crawl  under  the  fallen 
logs  that  cover  the  ground,  bometimes  these  logs  arc  piled  20  feet 
high,  as  mute  but  eloquent  reminders  of  an  unusually  heavy  wind- 
storm. In  such  areas  logging  becomes  difficult  and  expensi\'e.  as  it 
increa.ses  the  proportion  of  "swampers"  in  the  logging  crew. 

The  litter  is  a  menace  to  the  forest,  inasnuich  as  it  is  the  best  con- 
ductor for  fire,  and  when  logs  are  favorably  placed  a  heavj'  downpour 
of  rain  will  not  extinguish  the  llanies.  whicli.  surviving,  proceed  with 
the  work  of  destruction. 

IIIMI'.S. 

An  iniijortant  factor  in  the  forest  growth  is  the  humus,  whicli  forms 
the  upper  soil  everywliere,  excepting  where  the  fires  have  been  .so 
severe  as  to  utterly  destroy  it.  This  loose  deposit  of  fallen  and 
decayed  vegetation  is  most  abundant  in  the  heavy  and  unharmed  for- 
ests, ■where  it  is  from  3  inches  to  a  foot  in  depth.  As  it  is  a  retainer 
of  moisture  and  a  protector  for  the  seedlings,  the  restocking  of  burned 
areas  is  a  slow  process  if  the  hmiuis  ha>  been  totally  destroyed. 


ASH   TREES. 


a.     MOUNT    HOOD;    MOUNTAIN    FIR    IN    FOREGROUND. 


PLUMMER.]  MOUNT   KAINIER   RKSERVE,   WASHINGTON.  133 

On  the  steeper  hillsides  it  acts  as  a  retarding-  element  to  the  surface 
drainage,  preventing  the  sudden  flooding  of  the  streams  during  rains, 
and  also  preventing  their  entire  cessation  during  the  dry  season.  On 
the  eastern  slope,  in  the  watershed  of  the  Yakima  River,  the  surface 
flow  continues  to  feed  the  river  for  three  months  after  the  cessation  of 
the  winter  rains  and  snows,  and  as  the  waters  of  this  river  are  largely 
used  for  irrigation,  the  importance  of  the  forest  cover  and  the  humus  is 
easily  seen.  Lands  are  irrigated  from  April  to  October,  inclusive, 
the  largest  demand  for  water  generally  being  made  in  July,  at  which 
time  at  least  one-half  of  the  flow  is  from  the  melting  snows.  The  time 
is  i-apidly  approaching  when  the  entire  flow  of  this  river  will  bo  util- 
ized in  the  necessary  and  desirable  conversion  of  deserts  into  gardens, 
and  it  is  conservative  to  say  that  a  fall  of  1  foot  in  the  river  aflects 
300,0(10  acres  of  land. 


EXTENT  AND   LOCATION   OF  BURNS. 

The  areas  which  may  be  classified  as  i)urns  amount  to  326.590  aci'es, 
or  about  loi  per  cent  of  the  total  area  of  the  reserve.  Of  this  area 
about  two-thirds  are  on  the  western  side  of  the  Cascade  Mountains. 

Ancient  burns,  of  which  traces  still  remain  in  the  standing  timber, 
cover  probably  40  to  50  per  cent  of  the  area  of  the  reserve,  but  being 
restocked  with  trees  of  large  size,  these  areas  can  not  be  called  burns. 
The  tires  of  comparatively  recent  occurrence,  whose  eflects  may  be 
studied  and  compared,  have  results  depending  upon  the  nature  of  the 
forest,  the  time  of  yea?-,  and  the  winds.  A  tire  ma}'  clear  the  ground 
of  brush,  litter,  and  humus,  but  not  materially  damage  the  standing- 
trees  beyond  charring  them  to  a  height  of  10  or  15  feet.  If  more 
severe  it  maj-  consume  some  of  the  standing  trees  without  much 
regard  to  species  or  location,  on  account  of  the  pi'oximity  of  under- 
brush and  litter  to  the  bases  of  the  trees  destroyed.  Such  tires  leave 
standing  Inirned  snags  surrounded  by  green  and  unharmed  old  timber. 

A  '"burn""  results  in  the  total  destruction  of  all  vegetation  within  the 
limits  of  the  burned  area,  leaving  only  standing  snags  and  stumps,  and 
the  ground  covered  with  partly  consumed  logs.  Small  areas  may  be 
"clean  burns"  and  show  few  signs  of  the  former  forest,  but  instead 
be  a  desert  of  burned  sandy  soil  in  which  the  traveler  will  sink  ankle 
deep.  The  burns  bear  little  relation  either  to  topograph}'  or  the  kind 
of  timber,  their  boundaries  and  extent  having  been  determined  by  the 
initial  fire  and  the  direction  of  the  wind.  The  smaller  deciduous  trees 
which  have  their  habitat  in  the  moist  bottoms,  such  as  alder  and 
maples,  are  more  immune  than  their  coniferous  associates,  but  even 
they  do  not  always  escape. 


134  FOREST    REriEKVES. 

The  ifivat  liuriis  in  the  Cowlitz  \v:it(>rsliO(l  occuiTpd  in  1S41  and  1850, 
but  |»ortions  of  the  area  have  been  Ijurned  or  reburned  at  intervals 
durinff  the  past  ten  years.  Over  hir<,'e  and  irregular  areas  this  region 
is  restocked  with  the  same  species  of  trees  which  l)order  it  and  prob- 
ably constituted  the  original  forest.  In  this  restocking  the  noble  fir 
(,li/t',v  iwIIIIk)  takes  an  important  part.  and.  together  with  the  other 
firs,  would  rapidly  retimber  this  most  unsightly  region  if  tires  could  be 
picvented.  On  the  Sawtooth  Range  a  large  lire  occurred  in  1896,  and 
reliable  witnesses  say  that  one  tree  burned  for  six  months. 

The  hills  on  the  north  side  of  the  Cowlitz  River  have  been  burned 
over  several  times  since  settlement,  the  last  burn  being  three  years 
ago.  In  this  and  adjoining  areas  the  second  growth  after  the  burn  is 
very  rapid. 

From  testimony  of  various  Indians  regarding  the  "big  tire"  it 
appears  that  it  was  of  unusual  severity.  Many  Indians  and  stock  per- 
ished, and  the  few  saved  who  were  in  its  path  were  submerged  in  the 
river  for  protection.  The  heat  was  so  intense  as  to  kill  some  of  the 
fish  in  the  river. 

The  large  burn  on  Bald  Mountain  occurred  about  1S60  and  must 
have  been  a  very  severe  and  destructive  fire,  destroying  all  the  vege- 
tation and  humus  and  exposing  the  thin  scoria  soil,  which  barely  covers 
the  eruptive  rocks.  Under  such  adverse  conditions  the  process  of 
restocking  is  necessarih*  slow,  particularly  as  the  seedlings  must  advance 
up  hill  unprotected. 

The  burn  about  Juniper  Mountain  and  the  head  of  McCoy  Creek 
occurred  in  July.  1898.  At  about  the  same  time  a  portion  of  the 
southwest  slope  of  Mount  Adams  was  burned,  leaving  an  unsightly 
patch  of  dead  snags  which  detracts  from  the  beauty  of  the  mountain 
view. 

The  recent  burns  near  Steamboat  Mountain  and  over  scattered 
patches  to  the  southward  have  occurred  periodically  during  the  past 
twenty  years,  the  last  and  most  extensive  tire  being  in  1S97. 

On  the  eastern  slope  of  the  Cascade  Mountains  the  majority  of  the 
burns  have  occurred  during  the  past  decade,  those  of  the  Ataiium  i>ud 
Tieton  watersheds  having  mostly  occurred  since  1896. 

A  portion  of  the  basin  of  Silver  Creek  was  burned  August  10.  1898, 
and  at  this  time  ashes  fell  at  Longmires  Springs,  which  is  distant 
about  -lO  miles.  Mineral  Creek  Basin,  which  is  a  tributary  to  Ameri- 
can River,  burned  over  in  IS'JS. 

CAUSES  OF   FIRES. 

The  fires  which  have  occurred  in  the  reserve  may  be  traced  to  the 
following  causes: 

Campers  and  packers  build  their  fires  against  logs  or  trees  and 
neglect  to  extinguish  them.     Small  fires  that  are  built  in  the  open  do 


U.  .q    GEOLOGICAL   SURVEY 


TWENTY-FIRST   ANNUAL    REPORT   PART  V  PL    XLVI 


LEGEND 


Less  than  10  percent  of  the  forest 


About25iH'R\'ntofthe  forest     p 


Ahdiii  "lOperrent  of  thefoR" 


About  75  percent  of  the  forest 


MOUNT  RAINIER  FOREST  RESERVE 

WASHINGTON 

Showing  distribution  of  yellow  pine 

{  Pinus  ponderosa) 

Prepared  underthe  direction  of  HerayCannett  Geographer  in  charge 

BY  FRED.  G  PLUM  MER 

1899 


10  15  MILES 


PLUMMER.]  MOUNT   EAINIER  EESEBVE,   WASHINGTON.  135 

not  spread  unless  the  humus  is  deep  and  dry.  They  will  smolder  until 
fanned  into  flame  by  the  wind. 

Sheep  men  start  fires  to  promote  the  growth  of  grass  near  the  sum- 
mits, believing  that  the  destruction  of  the  timber  is  generally  followed 
by  a  growth  of  those  grasses  upon  which  sheep  will  feed.  Severe  fires 
also  have  the  effect  of  clearing  the  ground  of  underbrush  and  litter  and 
make  it  easier  and  .safer  to  drive  sheep  from  point  to  point. 

Prospectors  fire  the  timber  with  the  object  of  clearing  the  ground 
to  make  prospecting  easier.  A  great  many  miners  are  strongly 
opposed  to  this  method  as  it  gives  a  very  dirty  area  to  work  in  and 
the  legitimate  miner  needs  the  timber  for  his  shafts  and  tunnels. 

Settlers  start  fires  for  the  purpose  of  clearing  the  land  for  cultiva- 
tion. As  the  settlei's  do  not  like  to  go  to  the  trouble  of  carrying 
their  brush  or  slashed  timber  away  from  the  standing  timber,  they 
burn  it  where  it  falls  in  slashing. 

Indians  also  start  fires  on  the  slopes  and  summits  for  the  purpose 
of  pi'omoting  the  growth  of  huckleberries,  blackberries,  and  raspber- 
ries, and  also  to  drive  game. 

Camping  parties  often  set  fire  to  the  resinous  trees  simph*  for  the 
the  pleasure  of  seeing  them  burn.  Cases  of  this  kind  were  not 
uncommon,  but  of  recent  years  sentiment  has  been  so  strongly  against 
this  practice  that  the  evil  has  almost  ceased  to  exist. 

Lightning  also  starts  fires. 

Since  the  inauguration  of  the  present  forest  policy  the  causes  may 
be  briefly  stated  as  ignorance,  carelessness,  and  lightning.  The  expert 
woodsman,  trapper,  hunter,  or  camper  for  pleasure  is  careful  about 
his  fires  and  knows  how  to  build  them  so  that  they  will  not  spread 
and  burn  his  tent  and  outfit.  His  cooking  fire  is  never  larger  than 
necessary  to  hold  a  coffee  pot,  kettle,  and  skillet,  and  is  usually  made 
between  two  rows  of  rocks  or  two  small  green  or  wet  logs.  The  fire 
will  measure  8  by  20  or  30  inches,  and  within  a  half  hour  from  the 
time  of  starting  every  small  twig  and  dry  cone  in  its  immediate  vicinity 
has  been  used  for  fuel  and  to  safeguard  against  burnt  shoes  or  trousers. 
The  tenderfoot,  on  the  contrary,  builds  his  fires  large  and  open,  and 
the  chance  of  their  spreading  is  much  increased  if  they  are  against 
logs  or  trees. 

The  fixing  of  a  cause  for  any  stated  fire  is  almost  impossible,  unless 
lightning  was  the  cause.  Sheep  men.  prospectors,  hunters,  and  ranchers 
accuse  one  another  promiscuously,  but  no  reliable  data  are  obtainable. 
In  the  case  of  lightning,  where  the  agencj'  of  a  human  being  is  not 
involved,  some  data  have  been  collected  and  will  be  here  given  at  the 
risk  of  giving  that  agent  moi'e  prominence  than  might  be  justified 
were  the  other  causes  capable  of  the  same  investigation.  These  well- 
authenticated  instances  do,  however,  prove  that  lightning  can  not  be 
omitted  from  the  list  of  causes,  although  it  may  be  argued  that  during 


\^Ci  FOREST    RESKRVKS. 

iiii  (■Ici-tric  storm  tlio  precipitation  siiould  he  so  j^'n-iit  as  to  pn-vcnt  a 
iarj^o  tiro  from  catrhing  or  spreading. 

In  May.  iS'.tT.  lightning  struck  the  timl)er  in  Cowlitz  Bottom  near 
the  town  of  Vance  on  several  occasions,  the  largest  l)urn  resulting  in 
the  destruction  of  about  three  acres  of  timber.  In  June.  180(3,  it 
struck  the  hills  in  sees.  1  and  2,  T.  12  N..  K.  7  E..  and  a  large  forest 
lire  in  the  second  growth  resulted. 

Timber  on  Juniper  Mountain  was  struck  by  lightning  in  July,  1S'.>8, 
and  a  large  burn  resulted  which  destroyed  considerable  fair  timber. 

In  the  basin  of  the  South  Fork  of  the  Ilattlesnake  on  July  22,  1898, 
at  7.30  p.  m..  lightning  struck  a  tree  and  also  killed  three  horses 
belonging  to  Joseph  Melini.  Another  stroke  set  a  .small  fire  which 
l)urn(^l  for  ten  or  tifteen  minutes.  Both  tires  were  extinguished  by 
the  accompanying  downpour  of  rain. 

On  August  10.  18!I8,  lightning  struck  several  trees  in  Silver  Creek 
Basin  and  a  large  burn  resulted.  There  was  no  rain  that  day,  nor 
was  there  at  Longmires  Springs,  di.stant  20  miles,  although  the  day 
was  heavily  clouded. 

Two  lires  were  .started  by  lightning  on  July  2S.  ISOK.  in  sec.  3t),- 
T.  7  N..  K.  »  E..  but  did  not  spread  l)eyond  the  trees  struck. 

RESTOCKING  OF  BURNED  AREAS. 

All  of  the  re.stocking  of  the  reserve  is  natural.  Xo  work  has  been 
done  by  man  toward  re.seeding  with  the  best  .species  nor  eliminating 
from  young  .second  growths  the  undesirable  species.  All  of  the 
activity  thus  far  has  been  toward  protection  against  tire,  which  ma\' 
in  a  day  destroy  what  would  Ijalance  the  work  of  years. 

The  process  of  reseeding  is  rapid.  All  of  the  timber  ti-ees  .seed 
aljundantly  and  at  a  .season  when  the  high  winds  may  distribute  the 
seeds  over  large  areas.  It  i.s  doubtful  if  any  assi.stance  from  man 
would  noticeably  aifect  the  progress  of  this  reseeding,  which,  if  con- 
ditions of  .soil  permit,  results  in  a  thicket  of  small  growth  in  spite  of 
the  numerous  animals  which  destroy  seeds.  In  cases  where  a  tire  was 
not  severe  and  representatives  of  one  or  more  hardy  species  withstood 
the  flames,  the  restocking  begins  from  these  survivors,  which  are  not 
always  the  best  timber  species.  The  mountain  hemlock  (7*w^a  ^x/<- 
tonldnit)  seems  to  resist  tire  more  successfully  than  the  other  species 
common  in  the  alpine  zone,  and  the  tamarack  {Larix  occidental ts)  sur- 
vives best  in  the  middle  zone.  In  Naches  Valley  above  the  junction  of 
Bumping  River  there  is  a  very  old  burn.  A  few  yellow  pine  and  red 
tir  of  the  old  forest  are  .still  .standing,  and  the  heavy  second  growth 
is  of  the  .same  species,  with  the  addition  of  tamarack.  Very  small 
recent  tires  in  the  same  area  have  injured  many  of  the  trees  and  made 
clean  burns  in  .some  locations.  From  Xaches  Pass  just  outside  the 
reserve  for  5  miles  down  the  river  and  into  the  reserve  there  is  aa 


.1,      MOUNT    RAINIER    FROM   GOAT   MOUNTAIN. 


B.     BURN,    WITH   SECOND   GROWTH. 


PLCMMEP..]  MOUNT   RAIXIER   RESERVE,   WASHINGTON.  137 

old  burn  about  2  miles  wide,  which  is  now  partly  second  growth  white 
tir  and  tamarack,  with  willows  along  the  banks.  In  the  watershed  of 
Atanum  River  there  are  indications  that  the  tamarack  stood  the  fires 
of  an  ancient  burn  better  than  other  species. 

After  a  clean  burn  the  restocking  must  proceed  from  the  bordering 
forests,  and  it  is  observed  that  although  these  bounding  forests  may 
be  mixed,  one  species  often  predominates  in  the  new  growth.  This 
fact  may  be  accounted  for  by  assuming  that  a  favorable  wind  pre- 
vailed whpn  that  particular  species  was  in  mature  fruit,  and  that  the 
soil  conditions  in  the  burn  were  such  as  to  give  encouragement  to  that 
species.  In  this  respect  the  tamarack  easily  takes  the  lead  in  eastern 
Washington,  and  the  hemlock  [Tsuya  mertimslana)  in  western  Wash- 
ington. Of  all  the  conifers  these  two  species  have  the  lightest  cones 
and  seeds,  and  are  most  exempt  from  the  attacks  of  squirrels  and  chip- 
munks. These  are  among  the  least  valuable  of  the  timber  trees,  and 
it  happens  that  the  best  of  the  pines,  the  white  pine  {P.  montlcola), 
and  the  best  of  the  firs,  the  noble  fir  (^4.  nuhiUx),  have  large  and  heavy 
cones,  and  being  subject  to  these  dejiredations  are  checked  in  their 
efforts  at  restocking. 

The  grazing  of  sheep  and  other  stock  upon  Inirned  areas  certainly 
retards  their  restocking  with  timber.  If  stock  pasturing  were  pro- 
hibited upon  all  burned  and  low  timberle»ss  areas  until  the  restocking 
had  resulted  in  such  suflicient  stand  and  age  of  timber  trees  that 
further  protection  would  ))e  unnecessary,  it  would  remove  a  seriois 
enemy  from  the  field,  and  in  all  pi'obability  would  result  in  extin- 
guishing forest  fires  in  their  incipiency. 

TIMBERLESS  AREAS. 

There  is  no  altitude  which  may  be  termed  a  timber  limit.  This 
results  from  the  fact  that  the  bold  topography  of  the  reserve  and  the 
presence  of  numerous  perpetual  snow  fields  and  glaciers  cause  diffei*- 
ent  climatic  conditions  to  obtain  in  areas  not  wideh*  separated.  Upon 
the  slopes  of  Mount  Rainier  the  alpine  trees  cover  the  sharp  ridges  to 
an  elevation  of  7.200  feet,  and  above  this  only  a  few  scattering  pro- 
cumbent individuals  rind  shelter  behind  some  rock  or  crag.  The 
extreme  altitude  there  reached  Ijy  trees  may  be  stated  at  7,600  feet, 
Init  at  Goat  Peak  the  same  forms  reach  an  altitude  of  8.400  feet.  The 
difl'erence  of  latitude  favoring  Goat  Peak  is  only  a  third  of  a  degree, 
but  the  local  climatic  conditions  are  quite  different.  At  lower  eleva- 
tions than  these,  however,  many  rocky  peaks  are  often  too  exposed  to 
permit  a  growth  of  trees  or  the  accumulation  of  a  scanty  soil,  except- 
ing in  the  rock  crevices  where  the  hardy  little  alpine  flowers  will  find 
strong  root  hold. 

Cliffs  at  all  altitudes  are  often  too  steep  and  smooth  to  permit  the 
spread  of  the  timber  which  struggles  for  existence  on  the  talus  slopes 


138  FOREST    RKSERVES. 

below.  Often  the  talus  slopes  are  timberless,  particularly  when  recent 
or  when  composed  of  line  chips,  hut  in  the  majority  of  cases  the  pines 
and  tirs  manage  to  advance  over  these  uninviting  areas. 

Upon  the  slopes  of  ]\lount  Kainier  the  glaciers  flow  to  the  lower 
altitudinal  limit  of  3,300  feet,  and  tliese  areas  arc  of  course  timberless, 
as  are  the  perpetual  snow  fields  which  border  the  glaciers  or  lie  upon 
the  ridges  which  form  the  divides  l)etween  the  "cradles "  of  the  glaciers. 

The  great  timberless  area  of  eastern  AVashington,  or  the  "arid 
region,"  does  not  extend  to  the  boundary  of  the  reserve,  but  approaches 
it  so  closely  that  it  is  germane  to  the  subject. 

It  appears  to  the  most  casual  observer  that  the  trees  of  the  lower 
mountain  slopes  are  forcing  their  way  over  these  arid  regions.  A 
similar  phenomenon  has  long  been  observed  on  the  beautiful  pai'ked 
prairies  of  western  "Washington  near  Tacoma,  where  the  ad\-ance  of 
the  red  firs  (Pseudofsiu/a  faxlfolid)  has  been  as  great  as  '2b  feet  per 
year.  On  the  eastern  slopes  of  the  Cascade  Mountains  it  is  the  yellow 
pine  {Plnm 2)07iderosa)  that  takes  the  lead  among  the  conifers  in  attack- 
ing these  arid  regions.  The  red  iir  follows  closely,  seldom  being 
more  than  2  miles  behind,  and  is  in  turn  closely  followed  h\  the 
tamarack  {Larix  occidental  is).  Other  species  follow  rapidly,  depend- 
ing upon  topography  and  soil. 

TIMBER  CUTTII^G  i:ff  THE  RESERVE. 

A  total  area  of  about  8,000  acres  has  been  cut  within  the  boundaries 
of  the  re.serve.  Of  this  amount  4-0  per  cent  has  been  cut  l)y  actual 
settlers  and  the  balance  by  loggers. 

The  largest  area  is  along  Tieton  River,  from  the  reserve  boundary 
westward.  The  lumber  is  reported  as  used  for  fluming  and  other  con- 
struction work  on  the  Selah  irrigating  canal.  The  cordwood  from  the 
same  area  was  marketed  in  North  Yakima. 

At  Tannum  Lake  about  200  logs  have  been  cut  and  dressed  on  two 
sides  ready  for  the  construction  of  an  impounding  dam  at  the  foot  of 
the  lake.  This  work  was  done  in  1891  under  the  direction  of  the 
Yakima  Investment  Company,  and  most  of  the  logs  have  been  piled 
up  at  the  point  of  proposed  construction.  Tannum  Lake  and  Lakes 
Kitchelos,  Katchess,  and  Clealum,  which  lie  outside  of  the  reserve, 
have  been  considered  in  connection  with  the  extensive  plans  for  the 
irrigation  of  the  fertile  slopes  of  the  Lower  Yakima  Basin,  which 
plans  have  been  partly  carried  to  completion.  There  is  little  doubt 
that  they  will  be  needed  for  storage  in  the  future,  as  the  nature  of 
the  Yakima  watershed  causes  extremes  of  high  and  low  stages  in  the 
river. 

At  the  ^Medina  mining  canij)  on  Silver  Creek  in  Sunnnit  district, 
a  small  mill  has  been  erected  to  furnish  luml)er  to  be  used  in  the  con- 
struction of  a  5-stamp  mill  and  the  necessary  fluming  and  buildings. 


A.     SUMMIT  OF    RANGE    IN    SOUTHERN    PART   OF  THE   RESERVE,    LOOKINli   WEST. 


li.      HEADWATERS  OF   TIETON    RIVER,    FROM   GOAT    MOUNTAIN. 


PLVMMER]  MOUNT   KAI:NIER   reserve,    WASHINGTON.  139 

They  have  slashed  an  area  of  about  2  acres  and  cut  a  total  of  about 
10,000  feet. 

A  sawmill  in  sec.  29,  T.  15  X.,  R.  7  E.,  was  run  for  a  short  time. 
The  logging  was  largely  from  an  area  subsequently  cleared  and  cul- 
tivated.    There  are  about  10,000  feet  of  lumber  in  the  mill  yard. 

A  mill  situated  near  Chenowith  post-office  in  sec.  22,  T.  4  N.,  R.  9  E., 
has  cut  a  total  of  about  40  acres  from  patented  land  within  the  reserve. 
Another  located  in  sec.  14,  T.  3  N.,  R.  9  E.,  outside  of  the  reserve, 
has  cut  about  l(iO  acres. 

A  shingle  mill  is  situated  in  sec.  20.  T.  4  N..  R.  9  E.,  and  has  a 
capacity  of  about  30,000  shingles  per  day.     It  cuts  from  patented  lands. 

In  1899  a  small  portal)le  mill  was  located  in  sec.  8,  T.  12  N.,  R.  7  E., 
but  is  now  idle  after  filling  a  few  small  orders.  The  country  triliutaiy 
to  it  is  patented  and  settled. 

liOGGIXG  COXDITIONS. 

It  may  be  said  generally  that  the  logging  of  those  areas  examined 
must  be  by  skid  and  railroads.  The  only  drivable  stream  is  the 
Lower  Cowlitz  River,  and  as  there  is  not  much  timber  in  its  valley 
skids  or  trams  will  be  needed  to  transfer  logs  from  the  timbered  slopes 
of  its  watershed  to  the  river.  The  exception  to  the  above  general 
statement  is  that  during  flood  seasons  several  of  the  rivers  carry  enough 
water  in  confined  channels  to  drive  logs  for  short  distances,  and  that 
shingle  bolts,  fence  posts,  and  cordwood  might  be  driven  during  the 
greater  part  of  the  year  if  drifts  and  other  obstructions  are  removed. 
Such  rivers  are  the  AVhite,  Carbon,  Little  AVhite  Salmon,  Cispus, 
Lewis,  Wind,  Puyallup,  Nisqually.  Klickitat,  and  Naches.  With  the 
present  method  of  logging  it  is  not  likely  that  any  of  these  streams 
will  ever  be  used. 

In  all  the  watei'sheds  the  method  and  route  of  logging  is  fixed  by 
the  location  of  the  main  and  secondary  divides,  which  are  usually  sharp 
and  well  defined,  without  table-lands.  In  such  cases  the  canyon  slopes 
arc  so  steep  that  log  chutes  might  be  used,  but  the  areas  tributary  to 
such  chutes  are  generally  limited  and  contain  little  timber. 

With  the  exception  of  a  short  narrow-gage  railroad  feeding  the 
Oregon  ]\Iill  Company's  mill  in  T.  4  N.,  R.  9  E.,  there  are  no  railroads 
in  the  reserve,  nor  are  there  any  wagon  roads  over  which  heavy  logs 
could  be  hauled.  The  Northern  Pacific  Railway  Company  has  made  a 
survey  up  the  Nisciually  Valley  via  Bear  Prairie,  down  Skate  Creek,  up 
the  Cowlitz  and  Summit  Creek  and  over  Carlton  Pass  in  the  Cascade 
Mountains,  thence  down  Bumping  River,  but  no  construction  work 
has  been  done.  The  Tacouia  and  Columbia  River  Railroad  has  made  a 
preliminary  survey  from  the  end  of  their  line  at  Lake  Park,  11  miles 
from  Tacoma.  This  survey  runs  up  the  Cispus  River  to  Cispus  Pass 
with  the  expressed  intention  of  tapping  a  timber  belt  and  certain  coal 
prospects  in  the  Cispus  watershed. 


14U  KOKEST    RESKKVKS. 

SKTTI.K^IKXT  AXl)  IMPIiON'KMKXTS. 

Witliiii  til.'  ivscrvc  thoiv  iiiv  Itio  s(>ttlcr>.  of  whom  u))out  T.J  per 
cut  liaw  iiuul.'  iinprovoinents  other  than  the  building  of  houses 
oi-  .•;il)in>.  From  detail  memoranda  made  during  the  examination 
the  followiiig  figures  are  obtained: 

I,„p,-<,r,mn,h  n,  .U.,»„/  /.•.,;„;,/■  I:,s,rn:    lIVw/i/'x;/'"" 

Niiiiilnr  i.f  hoiisi's  uiuluiling  tiapiiers  aii4  jinii^pi'di 
Nuiulicr  of  l)arni- . 


ISl 
90 


NmnlitT  of  acres  slashed •'•  -'•''•  °'^ 

Niimlier  of  acres  cleareil  (inosfly  in  pastures)  1.  864.  ,5 

Number  of  acres  in  gardens 'J'^-  "^ 

Number  of  acres  in  orchards 9 1 .  So 

CnMierally  the  clearing  of  land  for  pasturage  does  not  include  the 
removal  of  large  stumps,  as  this  work  is  expensive,  and  in  some  loca- 
tions would  mean  $150  per  acre.  The  garden  produce  Is  for  local 
consumption  and  is  only  limited  by  climate.  The  best  results  are 
from  potatoes,  onions,  turnips,  carrots,  beets,  parsnips,  squash,  and 
small  fruits.  Corn,  tomatoes,  and  cucumbers  are  raised,  but  not  to 
perfection.     The  orchards  are  principally  of  apples,  plums,  and  pears. 

GRAZIXG. 

The  grazing  lands  of  the  reserve  are  mainly  upon  the  eastern  slope 
of  the  Cascade  Mountains,  and  have  an  area  of  about  SOO.OOO  acres. 

During  the  season  of  18!t!>  approximately  200.000  sheep  were  herded 
on  this  area.  The  general  method  of  herding  sheep  in  the  State  of 
Washington  is  as  follows:  In  the  late  fall  and  winter  the  sheep  are 
pastured  in  the  vicinity  of  their  home  ranches  in  the  low  lands  and 
valleys  of  eastern  Washington,  and  in  severe  weather  feed  on  hay. 
In  the  early  spring,  after  lambing  and  sheai'ing.  the  bands  are  driven 
toward  the  mountains,  reaching  the  reserve  in  June.  They  follow 
the  receding  snows  to  the  very  summits,  grazing  and  browsing  upon 
the  new  growth  of  grasses  and  deciduous  vegetation.  Late  in  August 
they  commence  to  work  down  to  the  lower  altitudes,  and  generally 
leave  the  reserve  aliout  the  1st  of  October. 

As  might  be  expected,  there  is  a  wide  divergence  of  opinion  regard- 
ing the  ad\antages  or  disadvantages  resulting  from  this  practice,  and 
the  sheep  ownei-"s  position  has  become  one  of  active  defense  against 
public  sentin)ent. 

The  arguments  presented  against  the  grazing  of  sheep  in  the  reserve 
are  as  follows:  (1)  That  the  sheep  men  lire  the  forests  for  the  purpose 
of  promoting  the  growth  of  the  forage  plants.  ('2)  That  the  sheep 
browse  upon  the  young  timber  trees  and  trample  out  the  seedlings. 
(3)  That  the  removal  of  underbrush  I'auses  the  streams  to  become  more 


^ 

•(^ 

I^^ 

mt^'^^ 

^ 

•^"•g 

m 

*. 

'"■"i 

i 

i 

."f 

1 

^^^B?x  '??gv<y.'^j'a».. 

i 

^ 

■ 

3 

1 

.■1.      MOUNT   ADAMS 


;;.    cispus  range,  from  goat  mountain 


PLiMMER.]  MOUNT    KAINIER    RESERVE,    WASHINGTON.  1-11 

sensitive  to  molting-  snows,  and  the  summer  How  of  rivers  used  for 
irrigation  is  thereby  decreased,  (-i)  That  the  sheep  pollute  the  streams. 
(o)  That  the  natural  beauty  of  the  reserve  is  purtiallv  destroj-ed. 

The  sheep  owners  and  herders  not  only  deny  all  the  above,  but  claim 
in  addition:  (1)  That  the  removal  of  the  underbrush  by  the  browsing 
of  sheep  lessens  the  liability  of  tires  spreading.  (2)  That  the  herders 
are  exterminating  the  bears,  cougars,  wildcats,  wolves,  and  coyotes, 
which  pre}'  upon  domestic  animals. 

There  is  little  doubt  but  that  sheep  men  have  started  tires,  and  that 
burns  more  or  less  extensive  have  resulted,  but  it  is  equally  true  that  by 
reason  of  the  strict  regulations  and  enforcement  of  the  law,  together 
with  a  regard  for  their  own  interests,  due  to  a  wholesome  fear  of  the 
cancellation  of  their  permits,  the  practice  has  ceased,  and  any  tires 
now  originating  with  the  sheep  men  are  isolated  cases  resulting  from 
carelessness. 

Moreover,  it  is  contended  that  setting  tire  to  the  timber  does  not 
necessarih'  result  in  the  increase  of  the  areas  for  pasturage.  A  clean 
burn  more  frequently  results  in  a  rank  growth  of  huckleberries,  and 
if  the  burn  is  not  clean  the  ground  remains  covered  with  charred  logs 
and  snags,  making  travel  slow  and  dangerous  and  the  area  often  unfit 
for  sheeping.  The  coarse  grasses  and  weeds  that  immediately  follow 
the  tires  are  not  the  best  forage,  and  it  may  be  several  years  before 
they  are  succeeded  by  the  better  varieties. 

It  is  a  fact  that  the  greatest  number  of  burns  and  also  those  of  the 
greatest  extent  are  in  portions  of  the  reserve  which  have  not  been 
sheeped,  and  this  fact  has  at  least  a  general  bearing  on  the  subject,  as 
these  areas  of  great  burns  are  on  the  western  slopes  and  in  the  regions 
of  greatest  annual  precipitation. 

The  claim  that  the  sheep  browse  upon  the  young  timber  trees  is  not 
well  founded  so  far  as  it  relates  to  the  conifers,  and  within  the  grazing 
are'a  there  are  no  deciduous  trees  of  any  value  excepting  the  oak  {Qiitr- 
ciis  (jar/'i/ana),  and  that  is  genei'allv  of  a  size  onlv  tit  for  fuel.  Sheep, 
cattle,  and  horses  will  not  eat  foliage  from  the  pines,  firs,  and  other 
evergreens  which  comprise  the  timber  of  the  reserve,  unless  driven  to 
it  by  a  hunger  that  is  almost  starvation.  In  the  immediate  vicinity  of 
the  separating  corrals,  where  bands  of  sheep  may  be  confined  for  one 
or  two  days  during  the  process  of  separating,  small  evergreens  were 
nipped  by  the  sheep,  and  along  the  beaten  and  oversheeped  trails  the 
same  thing  may  be  noticed,  but  the  damage  is  insignificant  and  only 
worthy  of  mention  as  an  exception.  During  the  examination  our  pack 
animals  Mere  several  times  in  desperate  need  of  pasturage,  as  our  route 
of  travel  took  us  over  miles  of  deep  snow',  which  covered  everything 
but  the  timber  trees.  These,  however,  the  animals  would  not  touch. 
On  Pisco  Ridge  (outside  the  reserve),  at  an  elevation  of  6,000  feet,  we 
found  the  remains  of  over  20  horses,  which  had  perished  in  the  snow, 


14l'  FOKEST    KEtiEKVKS. 

lui(icll(>d  tofTotlior  ill  :i  biiiuli  of  youiiijf  tirs  iiiul  piin-s.  They  lisid  pawed 
tlic  <.rr()und  for  jrra.s.s  roots,  imd  had  jrimwcd  the  bark  from  the  troes 
and  hrowsod  on  .some  of  the  foliage,  but  not  to  any  extent. 

There  is  no  doubt  that  the  sheep  trample  out  seedlings  of  the  conifers 
as  they  do  of  other  trees  and  shrulis.  Along  the  routes  of  sheep 
travel  the  forest  tloor  is  sometimes  powdered  by  their  sharp  hoofs 
and  all  traces  of  undergrowth  obliterated,  and  if  this  condition  pre- 
vailed over  a  liurned  area  the  process  of  restocking  would  lie  very 
slow. 

All  of  the  conifers  .set  cones  in  abundance,  but  not  one  seed  in 
KMi.ooo  pi-oduces  a  mature  tree  under  ordinary  conditions.  Squirrels, 
chiinuunks.  and  liirdseat  most  of  the  .seeds;  forest  .shade  kills  many  of 
the  seedlings,  and  in  the  open  it  is  a  case  of  survival  of  the  fittest. 
Inasmuch  as  a  sufficient  number  of  the  seedlings  generalh'  survive  to 
take  part  in  the  final  competition  and  form  the  *"  thickets"  .so  commons 
in  the  more  open  areas,  it  is  evident  that  the  enemies,  including  .sheep, 
do  not  .seriously  affect  the  final  result  as  stated. 

The  effect  of  underbi-ush  and  forest  cover  in  retarding  or  accelerat- 
ing the  melting  of  snow  is  easily  demon.strated  by  observation  in  the 
area  of  the  Cascade  Mountains  examined.  However,  if  it  be  a.ssumed 
that  the  snow  melts  more  quickly  in  the  open  many  locations  may  be 
cited  as  evidence,  and  if  the  contrary  be  assumed  the  evidences  are 
quite  as  numerous.  This  is  for  the  general  hypothesis,  but  there  are 
details  of  exposure  and  altitude  which  enter  into  the  problem  and 
make  it  capable  of  solution.  The  masses  of  compact  snow  which  are 
found  in  the  open  or  timberle.ss  heights  late  in  the  summer  aiv  alwaj's 
upon  hillsides  protected  from  the  warm  chinook  winds,  and  these  are 
generally  the  northern  and  eastern  slopes.  Upon  timbered  mountains 
of  e(iual  altitude  and  where  similar  climatic  conditions  prevail  the  same 
slopes  hold  snow  the  longest.  The  effect  of  the  underbrush  and  fore.st 
litter  on  the  melting  of  snow  is  one  which  the  traveler  in  these  High 
altitudes  is  forced  to  observe  for  his  own  safety.  It  is  only  upon  the 
hard  snow  which  hides  no  brush  or  logs  that  .safe  footing  is  found. 
Wherever  a  log  or  brush  exists  the  snow  is  soft  and  melting  and  the 
pack  animals  and  men  fall  through,  a  matter  of  some  consequence 
where  the  snow  is  over  6  feet  deep. 

Although  the  temperature  in  the  forest  may  be  .slightly  higher  than 
in  the  open,  for  any  given  altitude,  there  can  be  no  doubt  that  a  stand 
of  timber  protects  the  snow  from  the  warm  winds  and  prevents  the 
sudden  ri.se  of  a  stream.  The  underbrush  does  not  give  this  protec- 
tion, but  is  au  agent  in  preventing  the  compacting  and  hastens  the 
melting  of  the  snow.  To  simimarize:  The  snows  will  remain  longest 
(other  conditions  equal)  in — 

(1)  A  forest  without  underbrush  or  litter. 

(2)  An  open  without  brush  or  litter. 


A.     RECENT  CINDER   CONE  ON    NORTH   SLOPE  OF   MOUNT   ADAMS. 


li      MOUNT  ADAMS,   WITH    MOUNTAIN    FIR    IN    FOREGROUND. 


PLfMMER.]  MOUNT   KAINIEK   KESEKVE,   WASHINGTON.  143 

(3)  A  forest  with  underbrush  or  litter. 

(4)  An  open  with  Ijru.sh  or  litter. 

The  question  of  the  pollution  of  the  streams  bj'  sheep  is  one  rather 
for  the  future  than  for  the  present,  inasmuch  as  provision  is  made 
that  the  sheep  "shall  not  be  corralled  within  500  3'ards  of  an\-  running 
stream  or  living  spring."  If  the  corrals  bordered  on  or  had  surface 
drainage  into  the  streams  the  waters  would  be  polluted  in  sentiment  if 
not  in  fact  when  they  reached  the  distant  settlements,  and  sentiment 
is  a  strong  factor  when  it  applies  to  drinking  water.  One  specifica- 
tion for  good  drinking  water  is  that  it  must  not  contain  more  than 
one  part  b}'  weight  of  dry  organic  matter  in  100,000  parts  of  liquid, 
and  it  is  safe  to  say  that  this  limit  is  not  exceeded  in  the  river  waters 
even  in  the  immediate  vicinity  of  the  corrals.  The  fact  that  running 
waters  are  self-clarifying  is  generally  conceded,  although  not  to  the 
extent  set  forth  by  Dr.  H.  Letheby.  medical  officer  of  health  for  the 
citj-  of  London,  in  relation  to  the  Thames.  His  statement  is  that 
"  sewage  "  when  it  is  mixed  with  twentj'  times  its  volume  of  running 
water  and  has  flowed  a  distance  of  10  or  12  miles  is  absoluteh^ 
destroyed;  the  agents  of  destruction  being  infusorial  animals,  aquatic 
plants  and  tish,  and  chemical  oxidation.  The  question  of  pollution  is 
therefore  one  to  be  considered  in  the  precautionarv  way,  and  this  has 
been  done. 

The  scenery  of  the  reserve  is  on  too  grand  and  extensive  a  scale  to 
be  ati'ected  by  any  operation  of  man,  such  as  grazing  or  mining.  The 
burns  are  the  only  disfigurement  to  the  magnificent  views  which 
reward  the  climber  of  the  peaks.  Areas  of  particular  beauty  or 
novelty  should  be  included  in  the  National  Park,  on  which  pasturing 
is  not  allowed. 

The  Secretaiy  of  the  Interior  on  June  30.  ISitl,  promulgatetl  rules 
and  regulations  relating  to  forest  preservation,  among  which  was  the 
following:  "13.  The  pasturing  of  live  stock  on  the  public  lands  in 
forest  reservations  will  not  be  interfered  with  so  long  as  it  appears 
that  injurj'  is  not  being  done  to  the  forest  growth  and  the  rights  of 
others  are  not  thereby  jeopardized."'  From  mj'  observations  the 
injury  done  the  forest  growth  bj^  sheeping  is  not  serious,  and  the 
attendant  evils  can  be  and  are  being  guarded  against. 


U.S.GEOLOCICAL  SURVEY 


TWENTY-FIRST  ANNUAL   REPORT    PART    V    PL    XXXIII 


1 


/:mu^^:c 


DEPARTMENT  OF  THE  INTERIOR-U.  S,  GEOLOGICAL  SURVEY 


1^  II  K 


EASTERN   PART 


WASHINGTON   FOREST  RESERVE 


JNIAK'IIX    \V.    (r<)]iMAX 


TXlKAil    lI:iiM    IHK  N-IXETKEXTH   ANXUAl,  ItKl'OKl'  ill'  THK  STKA- KV. 
PAiM    V.   FllliKST    i:i:SF.UVES-HENKY   GANNETT,   CHlEr   OF 
I.llVISlDN  (IF  GElliillAPHT  ANT  FdUESTKV 


WASH  I  Nd'l'ON 

G  f )  ^'  E  K  N  M  E  N  T     V  \l  I  N  T  1  X  ( J     i  O'  !•'  IC  K 
1  S  !»  It 


THE  EASTERN  PART  OF  THE  WASHINGTON 
FOREST  RESERVE 


MAirnX    \V.    (iOWMAX 


EASTERN  PART  OF  WASHINGTON  FOREST 
RESERVE. 


By  Martin  W.  Gorman. 


ITISTERAKY. 


In  compliance  witli  instrnctions  to  act  as  field  assistant  in  making  an 
examination  of  the  woodlands  and  forests  of  the  eastern  part  of  tlie 
Washington  Forest  Reserve  and  to  collect  specimens  of  the  vegetation 
of  the  region,  I  proceeded  to  Lake  (3helan,  where  on  August  7,  I  Joined 
the  topographic  party  engaged  in  snrveying  there,  in  charge  of  Mr.  W. 
T.  Griswold.  The  collecting  of  specimens  at  once  began  and  on  August 
9  the  party  jjroceeded  up  Twenty-five  Mile  Creek  to  the  neighborhood 
of  Pyramid  Peak,  which  was  reached  on  the  10th,  ascending  from  the 
lake  level — 1,100  feet — to  6,169  feet.  I^^umerous  trips  were  made  to  the 
surrounding  crests  and  ridges,  the  region  from  the  foot  of  the  yellow- 
pine  belt  to  the  timber  line  having  been  passed  in  the  ascent.  On  the 
14th  the  partj^  returned  to  the  lake  and  made  a  few  short  trips  to  the 
south  side  of  Twenty-five  Mile  Creek,  to  Grade  Creek,  and  to  the  head  of 
Camas  Creek.  From  the  19th  to  the  25th  the  shores,  creeks,  and  liills 
on  both  sides  of  the  lake  were  examined  as  far  north  as  the  vicinity  of 
Prince  Creek,  and  on  the  2r)th  the  main  camp  was  moved  to  Mitchell 
Creek,  from  which  point  numerous  short  excursions  were  made  to  the 
surrounding  hilltops  and  divides.  Leaving  camp  on  August  31,  we 
proceeded  to  the  head  of  Poison  Creek  and  made  a  temporary  halt  on 
the  Methow  side  of  the  divide  at  5,100  feet,  where,  on  September  2,  we 
experienced  our  first  snow  of  the  season.  On  the  4th  we  descended 
one  of  the  ridges  to  Squaw  Creek,  which  we  followed  to  the  Methow 
Eiver,  thence  to  the  Columbia,  and  along  the  latter  through  Antoine 
Coulee  to  Lake  Chelan,  where  we  again  joined  the  main  camp  on  Mitch- 
ell Creek  on  September  7,  and  remained  till  the  12th.  September  13 
we  moved  to  Stehekin,  and  on  the  14th  returned  to  Lakeside,  where 
preparations  were  begun  for  sounding  Lake  Chelan.  The  time  from 
September  15  to  October  1  was  spent  in  preparing  the  apparatus  and 
sounding  the  lake,  and  on  October  2  and  3  a  side  trip  was  made  about 
12  or  13  miles  up  Railroad  Creek.  From  October  5  to  October  1 7  the 
Stehekin  Valley,  Horseshoe  Basin,  Cascade  Pass,  Doubtful  Lake,  and 

315 


316  FOREST    UKSliKVES. 

Bridge  Creek  were  examined;  a  severe  rain  and  suovv  storm  on  the  1  Itb, 
12tli,  and  l.'5tli  interfered  somewhat  witli  the  progress  of  the  work.  On 
the  ISth  and  lltth  a  trip  was  made  up  Bridge  Creek  (on  tlie  Sontli  Fork 
and  tllt^  ICast  I'\)rk),  Copper  Creek,  and  State  Creek  to  tlie  summit  of 
the  divide— 5,800  feet— and  on  tlie  L'Otli  and  21st  down  I-larly  Winters 
Creek  to  .Methow  I iiver  and  u])  tlie  hitter  to  its  continence  with  Lost 
River.  From  this  point  an  effort  was  made  on  tlie  22d  and  23d  to  reach 
tlie  boundary  line  by  way  of  Rattlesnake  Creek,  Slate  Pass,  and  Windy 
Pass,  but  the  snow  was  about  18  inches  deep  in  both  passes,  and  we 
were  obliged  to  return  after  reaching  a  point  8  or  10  miles  from  the 
boundary  line.  The  return  trip,  which  occupied  the  24th,  25th,  and 
2(ith,  was  made  down  Rattlesnake  Creek  and  the  west  side  of  Methow 
River  to  a  point  o])posite  VVinthrop,  them'C  westward  to  the  Twisp 
River,  up  that  stream  to  the  mouth  of  War  Creek,  along  the  north  side 
of  the  latter  to  the  divide — r),7(iO  feet— and  thence  through  War  Creek 
Pass  to  Stehekiu,  where  we  arrived  on  the  night  of  the  26th.  Lakeside, 
at  the  foot  of  Lake  Chelan,  was  reached  on  October  31,  and  the  work  of 
the  season  was  thus  finished. 

It  is  somewhat  to  be  regretted  that  the  work  was  not  begun  at  least 
a  month  earlier,  as  the  ground  to  be  covered  was  so  extensive  that  it 
could  not  be  examined  as  thoroughly  as  desirable  in  the  time  available. 

Owing  to  the  dryness  of  the  climate  and  the  rapidity  with  which  vege- 
tation advances  in  the  hot  early  summer  season,  I  would  suggest  that 
the  collection  of  a  set  of  botanical  specimens  from  this  region  be  begun 
not  later  than  the  end  of  June,  as  on  my  arrival  on  August  6  some 
orders,  such  as  the  Liliacea^  and  a  great  portion  of  the  Poacea',  were  too 
far  advanced  for  collecting,  and  many  of  the  specimens  I  collected 
were  only  to  be  had  in  ripe  fruit. 

I'orOGRAPHY. 

The  ])ortioii  of  the  Washington  Forest  Reserve  described  in  this 
report  is  that  east  of  the  summit  of  the  Cascade  Range.  It  is  an  oblong 
tract,  72  miles  in  length  from  north  to  south  and  averaging  about  37.7 
miles  from  east  to  west,  with  the  western  line  somewhat  sinuous  and 
irregular,  owing  to  the  irregular  course  of  the  crest  line.  It  contains, 
in  round  numbers,  about  2,700  square  miles. 

Besides  the  (.!ascade  Range,  the  highest  point  on  the  crest  line  of  . 

which  probably  does  not  exceed  !»,()00  feet  (Glacier  Peak,  about  0,500'^^^'^^ 
feet,  being  a  little  west  of  the  main  divide),  the  principal  other  moun- 
tains in  the  reserve  constitute  the  Chelan  Range,  to  the  west  of  Lake 
Chelan,  which  divides  its  drainage  basin  from  that  of  the  Entiatqua 
River.  The  crest  line  of  this  divide  ranges  from  0,330  to  7,398  feet,  the 
latter  being  the  height  of  Stormy  Mountain. 

The  Methow  Range,  to  the  east  of  Lake  Chelan,  divides  the  latter 
from  the-draiiiage  basin  of  the  Twisp  and  Methow  rivers.  The  crest 
line  of  this  divide  ranges  from  5,353  to  8,000  feet.     The  most  prominent 


.1       VIEW    UP   RAILROAD   CREE 


1^  1^1 


li      BURN    IN   STEhEKIN    VALLEY 


GORMAN.i  EASTERN    PART    OF    WASHINGTON    RESERVE.  317 

peaks  in  the  vicinity  are  South  Jfavarre,  7,899  feet,  North  Xavarre, 
7,983  feet,  aud  an  unuained  moiiutaiii  a  little  to  the  east  of  Navarre, 
having  two  peaks,  the  south  one  7,785  feet  aud  the  north  one  7,874  feet. 

To  the  north,  among  the  most  prominent  summits  are  a  pair  of 
remarkable,  round,  dome-like  peaks,  known  as  "The  Towers,"  with 
a  height  of  probably  7,000  to  7,500  feet,  while  there  are  numerous 
unnamed  peaks  ranging  fi'oni  0,000  to  8,000  feet. 

Twenty-seven  miles  north  of  Lake  Ghelan  there  is  an  old  glacial 
trough,  known  as  "  Horseshoe  Basin."  The  floor  of  the  lower  basin  has 
an  average  elevation  of  4,300  feet  aud  that  of  the  upper  one  of  about 
5,800  feet.  The  lower  basin  is  surrounded  by  abrupt  horseshoe-shaped 
walls  of  rock,  as  the  name  indicates,  and  the  upper  by  rugged,  more  or 
less  snow-clad  j)eaks,  while  in  late  summer  both  constitute  a  veritable 
flower  garden  to  the  botanist,  as  well  as  a  piece  of  such  picturesque 
scenery  that  it  may  be  considered  by  the  tourist  the  gem  of  the  Cascade 
Eange.  A  small  and  steadily  diminishing  glacier,  the  remnant  of  one 
formerly  magnificent,  still  exists  in  the  upper  basin,  the  water  from  its 
slowly  melting  snow  and  ice  falling  into  the  lower  basin  in  seven  tiny 
■waterfalls,  which  unite  there  into  a  small  stream  aud  become  one  of  the 
sources  of  Stehekin  Eiver. 

At  the  head  of  IJailroad  Creek  are  two  mountains,  in  close  proximity, 
fully  8,000  feet  high,  not  laid  down  on  the  maps,  but  known  locally  as 
-'Bonanza"  and  "North  Star,"  the  glaciers  on  whose  sides  are  the 
source  of  four  streams,  viz,  Agnes  Creek  to  the  north,  Entiatqua 
Eiver  to  the  south,  Eailroad  Creek  to  the  east,  and  Suiattle  Eiver  to 
the  west.  The  lowest  elevation  of  this  part  of  the  reserve  is  the  shore 
line  of  Lake  Chelan — 1,108  feet — while  in  close  proximity  on  its  west 
side  is  Pyramid  Mountain,  with  an  altitude  of  8,281  feet. 

One  of  the  most  noticeable  features  of  the  whole  region  is  the  large 
number  of  ancient  water  levels,  or,  as  they  are  locally  called,  "benches." 
The  best  marked  of  all  these  is  probably  the  one  known  as  the  "  1,800- 
foot  level,"  which  is  in  reality  1,839  feet  above  sea  level,  or  731  feet 
above  the  present  level  of  Lake  Chelan.  This  bench  can  be  traced 
down  to  and  along  the  Columbia  Eiver,  and  up  the  Methow  Eiver  until 
it  reaches  the  corresponding  level  in  that  stream  at  the  present  time, 
and  it  is  easily  traceable  on  Squaw  Creek  and  numerous  other  small 
streams.  When  the  water  stood  at  that  level  the  waters  of  Lake 
Chelan,  the  Columbia,  the  Methow,  and  some  of  the  tributary  streams 
of  the  latter  were  united  in  a  large  lake,  while  the  present  Antoine 
Coulee  formed  a  narrow  strait  between  Chelan  and  the  Methow,  the 
summit  of  its  present  eastern  wall  forming  a  narrow,  rocky  island. 
Later  on,  when  the  Columbia,  farther  down  its  course,  had  deepened 
its  bed  by  erosion,  and  so  lowered  the  level  of  this  ancient  lake,  the 
Chelan  watershed  for  a  time  found  an  outlet  through  the  present 
Knapp  Coulee,  thus  forming  the  next  prominent  bench,  at  1,501  feet. 
At  a  still  more  recent  period  the  Chelan  Eiver,  oi  miles  long,  came 
into  existence,  and,  as  it  lowered  the  lake  level  by  alternate  periods  of 


318  KORKST    RESERVES. 

rapid  erosion  and  teini)orary  stationary  halts,  numerous  benches 
between  that  of  l,.")(il  feet  and  the  present  hike  level  were  formed, 
none  of  theui,  however,  so  well  defined  as  the  two  just  mentioned.  A 
similar  series  of  benches  may  be  seen  along  the  Methow,  caused  by 
alternate  eroding  and  stationary  periods  on  that  stream  and  the 
Columbia.  That  this  process  is  still  going-  on  in  the  Chelan  Basin  can 
scarcely  be  questioned,  but  owing  to  reduced  precipitation  in  the  region, 
with  consequent  reduction  in  volume  of  water  of  the  annual  spring 
freshets,  it  is  much  slower  and  less  noticeable,  but  1  think  none  the  less 
certain,  than  formerly. 

Of  the  many  Indian  pictographs  to  be  seen  painted  on  the  rocks  on 
the  shores  of  Lake  Chelan,  one  in  particular  would,  I  think,  go  to 
show  that  there  has  been  a  lowering  of  the  water  level  of  the  lake  even 
in  recent  times.  This  is  on  the  face  of  a  perpendicular  cliff  on  the 
west  bank,  near  the  head  of  the  lake,  and  the  upper  part  of  the  picto- 
graph  is  fully  25  feet  above  the  present  level  of  the  lake.  The  only 
other  theory  ou  which  its  presence  on  this  spot  can  be  explained  is 
that  the  artist  was  lowered  from  above;  but  as  the  painting  is  a  rather 
extensive  one,  I  do  not  think  such  an  explanation  tenable  in  view  of 
the  primitive  means  at  the  command  of  the  early  red  man.  A  lower- 
ing of,  say,  Itt  feet  in  the  Chelan  River  would  leave  a  bench  of  3  or  4 
square  miles  of  dry  laud  about  the  foot  of  the  present  lake. 

The  l)est  yellow  i)ine  {Piitus  2}on(lcrosa)  timber  in  the  whole  region  is 
to  be  found  growing  on  and  about  these  benches,  at  elevations  of  from 
1,200  to  3,.J0a  feet. 

The  work  of  glaciation  is  amply  evidenced  throughout  the  whole 
region.  Many  of  the  rocks  in  the  Stehekin  Valley,  and  particularly 
those  on  the  shores  of  Lake  Chelan,  are  as  distinctly  grooved  and 
burinated  as  though  the  ice  with  its  stone  chisels  had  passed  over 
them  within  the  present  century,  while  the  rounded  appearance  of  the 
hills  at  all  elevations  from  1,108  to  5,500  feet  is  characteristic  of  the 
region  from  the  foot  of  Lake  Chelan  to  the  headwaters  of  the  Methow. 
Chelan  Butte — 3,722  feet — may  be  taken  as  a  type  of  this  rounding. 
It  is  only  near  the  summits  of  the  peaks,  about  the  talus  slopes,  and 
along  the  crest  lines  of  ridges  and  divides,  that  the  rocks  still  remain 
sharp  and  angular. 

One  aiguille  to  the  west  of  Horseshoe  Basin,  near  a  mining  prospect 
known  as  the  "  Blue  Devil,"  can  not,  1  think,  be  surpassed  anywhere 
for  acuteuess  of  angle. 

The  surface  rock  of  the  region  is  chiefly  granite,  or  granitoid,  with 
occasional  exposures  of  calcareous  rock  about  Lake  Chelan,  mica  on 
Chelan  Butte,  some  red  porphyry  and  conglomerate  on  the  Methow,  a 
considerable  eruption  of  basalt  on  the  north  bank  of  Early  Winters 
Creek,  and  an  outcropping  of  lignite  on  the  Twisp,  while  large,  crum- 
bling bowlders  of  basalt  are  to  be  found  near  the  foot  of  Lake  Chelan 
and  along  the  Columbia,  where  they  were  left  by  the  retreating  ice. 


GORMAN.]  EASTERN    PART    OP    AVASHINGTON    RESERVE.  319 

Alkali  and  alkali-bearing  rocks  are  rather  scarce,  only  two  places 
with  such  indications  being  observed  on  the  trip,  a  small  alkaline  lake- 
let (partially  dry  in  summer)  on  the  east  side  of  Lake  Chelan,  and  a 
similar  one  near  theTwisp.  This  is  well  borne  out  by  the  fact  that  not 
a  single  specimen  of  the  true  greasewood,  Sareobatus  rermiculatus  (a 
shrub  well  known  to  favor  alkaline  soils)  was  collected  during  the 
season. 

Marshes  are  rare  iu  this  region,  only  two  being  seen,  one  on  the 
Entiatqua  divide  and  another  on  the  ]\Iethow  divide,  both  above  5,000 
feet  altitude.  Some  diminishing  lakelets  and  one  or  two  dried-up  lake 
beds  are  to  be  found  near  the  Twisp. 

CLIMATE. 

The  climate  of  this  portion  of  the  reserve  is  a  very  dry  one,  even  for 
the  country  east  of  the  Cascade  Range,  being,  in  fact,  drier  than  that 
of  the  sections  farther  east,  north,  or  south.  A  record  kept  by  the 
Weather  Bureau  on  Lake  Chelan  for  five  years  gives  a  mean  annual 
temperature  of  49.1°  and  a  precipitation  of  only  12.23  inches  per 
annum,  of  which  5.1  inches  is  in  the  form  of  snow,  the  mean  annual 
snowfall  for  five  years  being  51.4  inches.  At  Spokane,  about  100  miles 
to  the  east,  the  mean  annual  temperature  is  48.5°  and  the  precipitation 
1S.12  inches. 

As  the  above  record  was  kept  at  an  elevation  of  1,150  feet,  and  some 
85  miles  distant  from  Cascade  Pass,  the  annual  precipitation  is,  of 
course,  greatly  increased  as  a  higher  altitude  is  reached  and  the  sum- 
mit of  the  divide  approached;  thus,  while  the  average  greatest  depth 
of  snow  in  midwinter  at  the  foot  of  Lake  Chelan  is  36  inches,  at 
Steliekin  (head  of  Lake  Chelan),  1,150  feet  elevation,  it  is  60  inches, 
and  at  Bridge  Creek,  2,204  feet  elevation  and  15  miles  nearer  the 
divide,  it  is  96  inches.  In  Horseshoe  Basin  and  the  northern  section  of 
the  reserve  the  precipitation  is  still  greater. 

This  is  well  exemplified  by  the  vegetation,  particularly  the  grasses 
and  trees,  the  more  or  less  alpine  among  the  latter  being  found  grow- 
ing at  a  much  lower  elevation  in  the  valley  of  the  Stehekiu  than  any- 
where else  about  Lake  Chelan,  while  such  moisture-loving  shrubs  as 
Uchiuopanax  liorridum  and  Viburnum  paucijiorum  are  to  be  found  only 
in  moist,  more  or  less  elevated  ravines  and  valleys,  such  as  those  of  Eail- 
road  Creek,  Stehekin  River,  Copper  Creek,  and  about  the  headwaters 
of  Bridge  Creek.  But  in  proof  of  the  fact  that  the  whole  region  is  still 
much  drier  than  the  country  west  of  the  Cascade  Range,  not  a  single 
specimen  of  the  salal  ( Gaidtheria  shallon),  a  noted  Tnoisture-loving  shrub, 
was  seen  or  collected  on  the  trip. 

July  and  August  are  the  driest  months  of  the  year,  averaging  only 
0.18  inch — less  than  one-fifth  of  an  inch — per  mouth;  January  and 
December,  the  months  of  the  greatest  precipitation,  averaging  1.91 
inches  per  month.    August  is  the  hottest  month,  January  the  coldest. 


320  FOREST    KKSKRVES. 

The  hottest  day  on  record  was  August  17,  1897,  99''  V.;  the  cohlest, 
.Taiiuary  .'U,  189;5,-1S^  F.  The  prevailing  direction  of  the  wind  is 
west  and  southwest,  except  in  January  and  December,  when  it  is  east 
and  northeast. 

The  lirst  snow  at  lake  level  (1,108  feet\  usually  occurs  about  the  mid- 
dle of  November,  while  at  5,100  feet  elevation  iu  the  Methow  Range 
the  lirst  snow  of  this  season  was  experienced  on  September  2.  On 
October  L'O  there  was  18  inches  of  freshly  fallen  snow  in  War  Creek 
Pass  (6,760  feet),  with  the  snow  line  at  3,6r»()  feet  on  the  east  or  Twisp 
side  and  at  •1,650  on  the  Chelan  or  west  side  of  the  pass. 

The  combined  effect  of  the  sun  and  chinook  winds  in  causing  the 
early  disappearance  of  the  snow  from  the  west  and  southwest  .sides 
of  the  slopes  and  divides  in  spring,  leaving  them  comparatively  dry 
and  arid  in  summer,  is  so  great  that  it  is  not  uncommon  to  And  the  east 
and  northeast  sides  of  some  slopes  and  hillsides  fairly  well  timbered 
with  yellow  pine  and  red  fir,  while  the  west  and  southwest  sides  are 
comparatively  treeless. 

The  first  frost  of  the  season  at  lake  level  occurs  between  the  first 
and  the  middle  of  October,  usually  occurring  about  ten  days  earlier  at 
the  head  than  at  the  foot  of  Lake  Chelan. 

At  an  altitude  of  6,000  feet  and  upward  frost  is  liable  to  occur  under 
fiivorable  conditions  on  any  clear  night,  even  in  midsummer.  During 
the  trip  to  the  headwaters  of  Twenty-five  Mile  Creek,  August  9  to  14,  we 
camped  for  some  days  at  an  altitude  of  6,169  feet,  and  frost  occurred 
on  the  nights  of  August  11,  12,  and  13;  while  the  minimum  temperature 
on  the  corresponding  nights  at  1,150  feet  was  51°,  56°,  and  57°  F., 
respectively.  Notwithstanding  this,  many  of  the  alpine  and  subalpine 
plants  were  to  be  seen  in  full  bloom  around  camp  without  incurring  the 
least  apparent  injury  from  this  low  temperature. 

Along  the  canyon  of  Copper  Creek  at  an  elevation  of  5,150  feet,  on 
October  19,  iu  spots  entirely  sheltered  from  the  sunlight,  ice  2  inches 
thick  was  observed  on  the  creek,  while  in  early  morning  the  moist 
ground  along  the  banks  was  frozen  hard  enough  in  some  places  to  bear 
pack  horses.     The  temperature  at  7  p.  ni.  on  that  date  was  23°  F. 


The  soil  of  this  region  is  in  general  a  powdery  loam,  sand  and 
sandy  loam  being  found  only  along  some  of  the  stream  banks  and  in 
very  limited  quantity.  Alkaline  soil  and  alkaline  deposits  are  rarer 
still,  being  observed  in  only  two  places.  This  is  fully  corroborated  by 
the  vegetation,  which  is  lacking  in  most  of  the  alkali-loving  i)lants  and 
shrubs.     No  clay  soil  whatever  was  observed  on  the  trip. 

The  depth  of  the  soil  is  very  limited  in  all  parts  of  the  reserve,  the 
rocks  jutting  out  at  all  elevations  from  the  lake  level  to  the  summits  of 
the  divides,  and  the  soil  rarely  exceeding  a  foot  in  depth  anywhere 
except  in  the  alluvial  deposits. 


GOEMANi  EASTERN    PART    OF    WASHINGTON    RESERVE.  321 

Owing  to  the  repeated  forest  fires,  wliicli  have  devastated  the  region, 
humus  is  scarce,  but  where  it  occurs  the  soil  is  proportionately  fertile. 
Wherever  cidtivated  the  soil  has  been  found  \  ery  fertile,  the  cliief 
need  being  sufficient  moisture.  The  old  water  levels  or  benches,  prob- 
ably because  somewhat  level,  thus  retaining  longer  the  moisture  ft'O'ij^-^  ■  ■ 
the  accumulated  snows  of  winter,  are  remarkably  fertile— (Ffie  case  not 
only  in  the  few  isolated  spots  cultivated,  but  in  the  forest  growth  of 
these  benches,  where  the  yellow  jjine  (Pinun  poyideroisa)  is  to  be  found 
at  its  best,  both  in  (juality  and  in  (juantity. 

Alluvial  deposits  are  rather  limited,  the  rapid  descent  and  high 
sloping  banlis  of  most  of  the  streams  precluding  the  fi)rmation  of  such 
dej)osits.  The  Stehekin  River  for  about  6  or  7  miles  from  the  mouth 
probably  furnishes  the  best  exanii)le  in  this  portion  of  the  reserve,  the 
soil  about  the  mouth  being  very  fertile  and,  with  one  exception,  growing 
the  best  hay  seen  during  the  season. 

A  few  dried-up  lake  beds  were  observed  on  the  Methow  near  its  con- 
fluence with  the  Twisp.  Treeless,  except  about  the  margins,  where  a 
few  willows  and  occasional  alders  are  to  be  found,  these  spots  furnish 
at  once  the  only  black  mucky  soil  and  the  most  fertile  tracts  of  land 
seen  in  the  reserve,  and  produce  the  finest  hay  and  grain,  as  well  as 
garden  vegetables.  It  is  needless  to  add  that  these  tracts  were  all 
taken  up  before  the  formation  of  the  reserve. 

AGRICULTURE. 

Apart  from  the  few  holdings  already  taken  up,  the  amount  of  land 
fit  for  agriculture  iu  this  portion  of  the  leserve  is  almost  nil.  It  is  my 
judgment  that  there  is  not  a  single  tract  of  40  acres  or  more  in  extent 
in  one  piece  suitable  for  agriculture  tliat  has  not  already  been  filed 
upon,  and  any  tracts  that  would  hereafter  be  filed  upon  under  future 
concessionary  legislation  would  undoubtedly  be  with  other  objects  in 
view  than  those  of  pure  agriculture. 

A  small  area  about  the  shores  and  old  water  levels  of  Lake  Chelan, 
a  narrow  strip  in  the  valley  of  the  Stehekin,  and  a  few  tracts  along  the 
Twisp  and  in  the  Methow  Valley  constitute  the  very  limited  and  only- 
real  agricultural  land  iu  the  whole  region.  All  of  this  land  has  already 
been  filed  upon,  some  of  it  long  prior  to  the  setting  aside  of  the  reserve. 

Xearly  all  of  the  settlers  who  have  thus  taken  up  land  are  still 
obliged  to  have  recourse  to  irrigation  wherever  possible,  and  nearly  all 
of  the  small  streams  in  the  vicinity  of  these  tracts  are  utilized  when 
feasible,  such  as  Twenty-five  Mile  Creek,  IJainbow  Creek,  etc.,  near 
Lake  Chelan,  and  Wolf  Creek  and  other  streams  on  the  Methow  and 
Twisp. 

In  some  instances,  such  as  Wolf  Creek,  the  whole  stream,  although 
of  considerable  volume,  is  diverted  for  this  purjwse,  leaving  the  moiitii 
of  the  original  stream  bed  dry,  exce[)t  during  the  early  spring  freshets. 

In  proof  of  the  fact  that  some  even  of  the  so-called  agricull  ural  tracts 
19  GEOL,  PT  5 -'1 


322  FOREST    RESERVES. 

wbicli  have  been  tiled  or  settled  upon  are  unsuitable  for  agriculture, 
one  lias  but  to  observe  the  abandoned  cabins  to  be  found  here  and  there, 
in  order  to  become  convinced  that  many  of  them  are  not  adapted  for 
this  ])uri)ose. 

GBAZING. 

The  grazing  possibilities  of  this  portion  of  the  reserve  are  somewhat 
greater  than  would  be  anticipated  in  so  dry  a  climate.  Tlie  limited 
precipitation,  except  in  the  moist  ravines  and  canyons,  prevents  the 
prolitic  growth  of  underbrn.sh  in  the  woods  and  forest,  but  is  yet  suffi- 
ciently great  to  insure  a  fair  sni)ply  of  the  various  grasses.  In  early 
spring  the  grasses  are  abundant  and  nutritious  from  the  lake  level  to 
the  foot  of  the  lodgepole-pine  belt— say,  from  1,100  to  3,000  or  3,500 
feet.  In  this  lower  zone  the  prevailing  trees  are  yellow  pine  and  red 
fir.  Although  it  is  quite  true  that  about  pine  trees  in  general,  and 
this  one  in  particular,  there  is  usually  a  small  circle  almost  entirely 
devoid  of  grass,  owing  to  the  shade  and  tbe  presence  of  a  carpet  of 
decaying  pine  needles,  which  destroys  the  grass  on  these  spots,  the 
forest  in  this  zone  is  so  ojien  that  there  is  ample  space  in  which  the 
grasses  flonrish  luxuriantly.  In  this  lower  zone,  therefore,  the  grazing 
is  good  for  cattle  and  horses  from  spring  till  early  summer,  when  the 
grasses  begin  to  wither  from  lack  of  moisture. 

By  this  time  in  the  next  zone  above — that  of  the  lodgepole  pine, 
from  about  3,0(10  to  .5.500  feet — the  grasses,  though  not  so  luxuriant  as 
in  the  zone  either  above  or  below  it,  owing  to  the  denser  tree  growth, 
are  yet  fairly  abundant  and  furnish  good  summer  grazing.  The  dense 
growth,  though  apparently  inimical  to  the  growth  of  the  grasses,  is  in 
reality  very  beneficial  to  them. 

The  abundant  forest  litter  to  be  found  in  this  zone  enriches  the  soil, 
and  the  shade  furnished  by  the  close  growth  of  the  trees,  by  retarding 
the  melting  of  the  snows,  acts  as  a  conservator  of  the  water  supply  and 
thus  insures  moisture  during  the  dry  season,  both  for  the  grasses  grow- 
ing within  its  own  limits  and,  to  a  greater  or  less  extent,  for  those  of  the 
zone  below. 

In  late  summer  and  early  autumn  the  whole  region  from  the  upper 
limits  of  the  lodgepole-pine  belt  to  the  timber  line,  a  range  of  about 
2,000  feet  in  altitude,  supplies  grazing  until  the  snow  compels  stock  to 
again  seek  lower  levels.  In  this  upper  zone  grazing  is,  of  course,  scanty 
about  the  ridges  and  crest  lines  of  the  divides,  but  on  the  moist  slopes 
and  in  the  open  glades  and  ravines  the  grasses,  though  short,  are  quite 
nutritious. 

On  October  22,  at  5,400  feet  elevation  on  Rattlesnake  Creek,  although 
the  ground  was  covered  with  5  inches  of  freshly  fallen  snow,  the  grasses 
were  still  succulent,  and  our  pack  animals  found  very  good  grazing  for 
so  late  a  date. 

The  grazing  of  sheep  in  such  a  region  as  this  is  much  to  be  deplored 
and  should  be  prohibited  so  far  as  possible.    These  animals  crop  the 


QoRsiAN.]  EASTERN   PART    OF    WASHINGTON   RESERVE.  323 

grass  so  closely  that  no  other  stock,  with  the  possible  exception  of 
goats,  can  follow  in  a  tract  over  which  they  have  grazed  and  find 
enough  to  subsist  on,  and  the  roots  of  the  grass  are  left  so  exposed  that 
in  the  dry  summers  of  this  region  much  of  it  is  destroyed.  On  the  hill- 
sides and  mountain  slopes  the  effects  are  still  worse.  There,not  only  are 
the  grasses  cropped  as  closely  as  if  devoured  by  locusts,  but  the  sharp 
hoofs  of  the  animals  so  trample  the  steep  slopes  that  it  takes  years  for 
a  tract  over  which  they  have  grazed  to  recover  its  original  capacity  to 
supijort  other  stock. 

I  do  not  apprehend  any  direct  injury  to  a  forest  from  the  grazing  of 
sheej),  as  they  do  not  eat  the  conifers,  and  the  amount  of  young  conifer- 
ous saplings  trampled  by  them  is  not,  I  think,  of  material  consequence; 
but  a  slope  over  which  they  have  grazed  and  trampled  is  much  more 
liable  to  serious  erosion  by  the  water  of  the  melting  snows  of  the  fol- 
lowing spring  than  during  years  from  the  operation  of  natural  causes. 
This,  however,  is  but  a  trifling  injury  compared  with  the  irreparable 
damage  resulting  to  the  forests  from  the  fires  which  follow  the  sheep 
herder  and  his  omnivorous  band  as  constantlj'  as  foam  follows  in  the 
wake  of  a  steamer  at  full  speed. 

During  the  trip  to  the  head  of  Twenty-five  Mile  Creek  in  August  it 
was  my  privilege  to  traverse  a  tract  of  lodgepole  pine  {P.viKrraj/aua)  and 
subalpiue  fir  (Abies  laslocarpa)  some  siiuare  miles  in  extent  on  which  a 
band  of  sheep  had  recently  grazed.  Such  a  picture  of  forest  desolation 
I  have  seldom,  if  ever,  seen.  Scarcely  a  living  tree  was  left,  as  both 
these  species  succumb  readily  to  the  ettects  of  fire.  Many  of  the  pines, 
which  have  more  shallow  roots  and  are  taller  than  the  fir,  had  been  so 
undermined  by  the  bui'ning  of  the  dry  humus  about  their  roots  that 
they  had  fallen,  while  the  young  and  more  succulent  saplings  had  been 
scorched  on  one  side  and  bent  over  like  hoop  poles.  Scarcely  a  blade 
of  grass  was  to  be  seen  in  the  burnt  district,  the  only  vegetation  that 
survived  the  fiery  ordeal  being  one  or  two  species  of  lupines,  a  sand- 
wort (Artnaria  capillaris), aud  a  Gayophj'tum  ( G. ramosissimum).  A  few 
smoldering  logs  bore  evidence  to  the  recent  date  of  the  fire,  aud  it  is 
safe  to  say  that  the  forest  will  not  recover  from  the  havoc  wrought  in 
less  than  a  generation. 

In  early  spring  stock  will  readily  eat  the  foliage  and  young  shoots  of 
the  rabbit-brush  (Kunzla  tridentata,  locally  but  erroneously  called 
"greasewood"),  and  are  quite  fond  of  the  two  willows,  Salix  lasian- 
ilra  lanci/olia  and  S.  longifoUa,  besides  many  other  deciduous  shrubs. 
In  autumn,  when  the  grass  has  become  dry  and  scanty,  they  again 
turn  with  a  relish  to  the  willows,  and  are  particularly  fond  of  the 
flowering  heads  of  the  two  Bigelovias,  B.  douglasii  stenophylla  and  B. 
douglasii  tortifolid,  both  of  which  are  fall  bloomers.  They  are  also  very 
fond  of  an  Aplopappus.  The  local  thistle  [Cnicus  edtdis)  is  a  Sjiecial 
favorite  with  them;  and  in  early  autumn,  when  ponds  and  streams 
are  partly  dry,  there  is  a  considerable  growth  of  horsetail  [Equisetum 


324  FOREST    KESEKVES. 

(trvensef)  ou  the  moist  banks,  that  is  eateu  with  avidity  by  i)Oth  horses 
aud  cattle. 

DU.VIXAGE   SYSTEM. 

Althouj^li  the  eastern  ])ortioii  of  the  reserve  does  not  at  any  poiut 
impinye  ii])on  the  Golumbia  Itiver,  the  ulrimate  drainage  of  tlie  whole 
region  is  into  that  stream. 

The  two  principal  drainage  basins  are  Lake  Ohelan,  with  its  chief 
tributary,  the  Stehekin,  in  the  west,  and  the  Methow  River,  with  its 
many  tributaries,  in  the  east. 

In  the  southwest  corner,  between  the  main  divide  of  the  Cascades  and 
the  Entiatqua  Range,  the  drainage  is  through  the  various  forks  of 
White  River  aud  the  Chiwahwah  into  the  Wenache  and  thence  into 
the  Columbia.  A  little  farther  to  the  east  iu  the  same  section,  aud 
between  the  Eutiatqua  and  Chelan  divides,  the  drainage  is  through 
Mad  River  and  tlie  headwaters  of  the  Eutiatqua,  aud  thence  via  the 
latter  river  into  the  Columbia. 

This  southwest  basin  is  quite  limited  in  extent,  its  whole  area  not 
exceeding  300  square  miles.  The  floor  of  the  basin  is  about  3,500  to 
4,000  feet  in  altitude,  and  this,  combined  with  its  proximity  to  the  sum- 
mit of  the  Cascade  Range,  causes  an  inci-eased  annual  precipitation 
aud  consequent  erosion.  The  result  is  a  very  steep  slope  in  the  banks 
of  these  streams  in  proportion  to  their  volume. 

The  chief  tributaries  of  Lake  Chelan  on  tlie  east  are  Mitchell  Creek, 
Prince  Creek,  and  Fish  Creek,  and  on  the  west.  Twenty-five  Mile  Creek, 
Dumpke  Creek,  and  Railroad  Creek.  The  main  source  is  the  Stehekin 
River  on  the  north.  This  stream,  with  its  tributaries,  Agues  Creek  and 
Bridge  Creek,  has  a  drainage  area  of  about  280  scjuare  miles,  and  is 
included  in  that  of  the  Lake  Chelan  Basin.  Its  valley  ranges  in  alti- 
tude from  1,108  feet  at  the  mouth  to  3,130  feet  at  the  entrance  to  Horse- 
shoe liasin,  the  mean  level  being  about  -J.L'OO  feet,  the  elevation  at  the 
conriueuce  of  Bridge  Creek  with  the  Stehekin.  This  valley  has  a 
greater  annual  preci|)itation  than  any  other  section  of  equal  area  in  the 
eastern  ]>ortion  of  the  reserve. 

The  drainage  basin  of  Lake  Chelan  proper  ranges  iu  altitude  from 
1,108  feet  at  lake  level  to  about  0,500  feet  at  the  crest  line  of  the 
divides,  the  bulk  of  the  area  being  between  2,000  and  3,500  feet.  The 
whole  basin  has  a  drainage  area  within  the  limits  of  the  reserve,  includ- 
ing the  area  of  the  Stehekin  above  mentioned,  of  1)80  square  miles.  Its 
drainage  area  outside  of  tbe  reserve  would  i>robably  amount  to  100 
square  miles  additional.  The  best  yellow-pine  timber  in  the  reserve  is 
to  be  found  in  this  basiu.  The  lake  itself  is  navigable  for  its  entire 
length  of  ."lO  miles,  two  snuill  steamers  plying  on  it.  This  is  the  only 
uavigatiou  in  this  portion  of  the  reserve  at  the  present  time. 

Methow  River  is  the  largest  stream  iu  the  eastern  ])ortion  of  the 
reserve,  its  total  length  from  its  nu)st  northerly  source  to  its  contluence 
with  the  Columbia,  aj;  Ives,  being  about  100  miles.    It  is  not  navigable. 


QOKMAN]  EASTERN    PART    OF    "WASHINGTON    RESERVE.  325 

and  owiug  to  its  rapid  descent  its  erosive  powers  are  considerable. 
This  is  well  borne  out  by  tlie  numerous  benches  (indicating  former 
higher  levels)  to  be  seen  along  its  course,  the  steep  slope  of  its  banks 
in  many  places,  and  the  rounded  appearance  of  the  hills  in  the  lower 
part  of  its  valley.  Its  width  at  the  mouth  is  about  125  feet,  while  in 
some  parts  of  its  course,  notably  between  Ventura  and  the  mouth  of  Early 
Winters  Creek,  it  is  over  200  feet  wide.  In  summer  and  early  autumn, 
although  the  volume  of  water  is  yet  considerable,  it  disappears  in  some 
places  underneath  its  bed  of  bowlders  and  gravel,  to  burst  forth  again 
at  a  lower  level  farther  down  its  course.  The  most  notable  of  these 
disappearances  takes  place  immediately  after  it  is  joined  by  Lost  Eiver, 
a  stream  50  feet  wide  and  about  12  inches  deep  at  the  time  of  examina- 
tion, in  October. 

.There  are  several  indications  about  the  lower  part  of  the  valley  that 
at  a  former  period  this  whole  region  had  a  much  greater  annual  pre- 
cipitation than  at  present.  The  chief  tributaries  of  the  Methow  are  the 
TwisijKiver  and  Early  Winters  Greek  on  the  west  side,  and  Chewack 
Creek  (sometimes  called  the  north  fork  of  the  ^Methow),  Goat  Creek, 
Lost  River,  Eobinson  Creek,  and  Rattlesnake  Creek  on  the  east  and 
north.  Of  these  the  Twisp  is  the  largest  and  most  important  and 
drains  a  considerable  area,  including  some  agricultural  land  near  its 
mouth  and  a  well-forested  tract  about  its  headwaters. 

Almost  the  whole  basin  of  the  Methow  is  included  in  the  reserve,  the 
drainage  area  of  the  portion  included  being  a  little  less  than  that  of 
the  Lake  Chelan  Basin  and  amounting  to  about  940  square  miles.  The 
floor  of  the  basin  ranges  in  altitude  from  about  1,200  feet,  where  the 
Methow,  near  its  mouth,  leaves  the  reserve,  to  2,700  feet  at  its  conflu- 
ence with  Lost  River.  Methow  Valley  contains  the  best  agricultural 
land  to  be  found  in  this  portion  of  the  reserve,  and  the  bench  land 
along  its  course  produces  a  quantity  of  yellow  pine  suitable  for  lumber 
purposes. 

In  the  northern  section  the  drainage  is  by  Pasayton  Creek  and  i!fais- 
nuloh  River  through  British  Columbia  into  the  Similkameen,  and  thence 
through  Okanogan  River  into  the  Columbia.  The  drainage  area  of 
this  basin  is  about  120  square  miles.  The  annual  precipitation  is  greater 
than  farther  south  in  the  reserve,  but  owing  to  its  great  altitude  the 
region  is  so  alpine  in  character  that  the  forest  growth,  though  abundant, 
is  too  scrubby  and  stunted  to  produce  merchantable  timber. 

UTILIZATION  OF  THE  WATER  SUPPLY. 

The  annual  precipitation  of  this  portion  of  the  reserve,  particularly 
the  southern  section,  is  very  limited,  being  only  12.23  inches,  of  which 
8.85  inches,  or  a  little  over  72  per  cent,  falls  during  the  six  months  from 
November  to  April,  thus  leaving  only  3.38  inches — 0.56  inch  i)er  month — 
to  be  distributed  over  the  remaining  six  mouths  from  May  to  October. 
Irrigation  is  consequently  almost  a  necessity  for  even  such  limited  agi'i- 
culture  as  there  is  here.     As  a  result,  wherever  there  is  a  small  tract 


32r)  FOREST    RESERVES. 

suitable  for  agricultnre  the  rrceks  and  runs  in  its  vicinity  are  used  for 
irrigation.  Twenty-five  Mile  Creelc,  Rainbow  Creek,  and  a  few  otlier 
small  streams  are  utilized  very  successfully  for  this  purpose  about  Lake 
Chelan. 

On  the  Methow  at  the  time  of  my  visit  the  whole  volume  of  Wolf 
Creek  was  diverted  for  the  irrigation  of  adjoining  ranches.  Else- 
where along  the  river  some  smaller  creeks  were  being  wholly  or  par- 
tially utilized  for  the  same  purpose.  Along  Twisi>  River  a  few  of  the 
smaller  watercourses  were  likewise  being  used  with  very  gratifying 
results.  In  fact,  while  a  few  fruits  and  some  vegetables  maybe  raised, 
the  successful  raising  of  cereals  or  timothy  in  this  region  without  irri- 
gation is  out  of  the  question. 

I  found  that  the  water  of  Squaw  Creek,  a  tributary  of  the  Methow, 
had  been  used  for  some  years  for  the  reduction  of  ores  in  arrastres,  but 
at  the  time  of  my  visit  these  were  not  in  operation,  owing  to  the  reduced 
price  of  silver. 

In  all  I  found  ouly  three  sawmills  taking  their  supply  of  logs  from 
the  reserve,  all  of  them  operated  by  steam  power  and  usiilg  such  water 
only  as  was  required  for  boiler  purposes.  On  the  Methow,  however,  I 
found  a  flume  still  in  use,  where  oue  of  these  sawmills  had  until  recently 
made  use  of  a  considerable  stream  of  water  for  some  purpose;  but  this 
mill  had  been  removed  to  the  Twisp  some  months  before  my  visit. 

There  are  numerous  waterfalls  and  unused  water  powers  in  this  por- 
tion of  the  reserve  which  can  be  readily  and  successfully  utilized 
whenever  the  necessity  for  -its-emplovmeut  arises. 
'thtir- 

VEGETATIOX 

The  vegetation  of  the  eastern  portion  of  reserve  may  be  divided  into 
four  zones  or  belts,  in  ascending  order  as  follows: 

1.  The  yellow-pine  zone,  1,100  to  3,000  feet. 

2.  The  lodgepole-pine  zone,  3,000  to  5,200  feet. 

3.  The  subalpine-flr  zone,  5,200  to  6,000  feet. 

4.  The  white-barkpiiie  zone,  6,000  to  7,500  feet. 

It  should  not  be  inferred  that  these  trees  are  strictly  confined  to  the 
limitations  given.  Such  an  inference  would  be  misleading,  as  the  trees 
frequently  overlap.  The  j'ellow  pine  is  sometimes  found  gxowing  at  as 
high  an  altitude  as  5,700  feet;  the  lodgcpole  pine  as  high  as  the  lower 
limits  of  the  white-bark  pine,  and  the  subalpine  fir  at  slightly  higher 
and  sometimes  at  lower  altitudes  than  those  given.  In  the  main,  how- 
ever, the  limitations  given  will  be  found  to  apply  fairly  well  to  the 
whole  region  with  the  exception  of  the  moist  valleys  and  canyons  and 
the  vicinity  of  the  passes  on  the  main  divide  of  the  Cascade  Range, 
where  the  extra  moisture  will  be  found  to  produce  certain  modifications. 
In  these  moist  valleys  and  canyons  some  trees  will  be  found  that  do 
not  occur  outside  of  these  locations,  and  all  the  alpine  and  subaljiine 
trees  will  be  found  growing  at  lower  elevations  than  elsewhere  in  the 
reserve. 


EASTERN  PART  OF  WASHINGTON  RESERVE. 


327 


YELLOW-PIJiTE  ZONE. 


This  zone  extends  from  1,100  to  3,000  feet,  and  with  a  few  exceptions 
includes  all  the  merchantable  timber  to  be  found  in  this  region.  As 
the  name  indicates,  the  dominant  tree  in  this  zone  is  Pinus  ponderosa. 
This  tree,  it  is  well  known,  avoids  moist  climates  or  locations,  and 
consequently  finds  in  this  region  a  favorable  habitat.  It  is  to  be  found 
at  its  best  on  the  benches  in  this  zone,  where  it  attains  a  height  of  65 
to  90  feet,  with  a  diameter  ranging  from  18  to  52  inches,  including  bark. 
Its  growth  is  never  dense,  and  on  the  dry  hillsides  of  this  region  it  is 
quite  scattering,  but  constitutes  about  85  per  cent  of  the  trees  growing 
within  the  limitations  given.  ^^^^^  ^^^^ 

The  next  tree  in  importance  here  is  Pseudotsuga  iaxifolm,  which 
amounts  to  about  12  per  cent  of  the  tree  growth  of  this  zone,  thus 
leaving  but  3  per  cent  to  be  made  up  by  a  few  others.  It  is  not  at  home 
in  this  dry  situation,  and  falls  far  short,  both  in  size  and  in  quality,  of 
its  growth  west  of  the  range. 

Thuja  plicata  occurs  very  sparingly  in  this  zone,  being  found  only 
along  moist  ravines,  but  the  quality  is  good.  Its  favorite  habitat  here 
is  in  the  moist  valleys  and  canyons. . —seo^a/oru/nj 

Jimiperns  viiyiiimmi  is  here  almost  entirely  confined  to  lake  level, 
where  it  is  so  twisted  and  gnarled  by  the  winds  as  to  be  useless  for 
economic  purposes.  Only  one  tree  was  found  over  25  feet  in  height, 
and  not  a  single  specimen  was  seen  above  2,000  feet  elevation.    The 


Cratiegii8  opTTNoi  080); 
Acer  maciopli.vllum. 
A.  glabrnm. 
Cormis  uuttallii. 


other  trees  in  this  zone  are : 

Salix  lasiandia  lancifolia. 
S.  longifolia. 
Populus  trichocarpa. 
P.  tremuloides. 

Of  these  the  most  valuable  is  Acer  macrophyllum,  but  it  is  only  in 
moist  ravines  and  river  bottoms  that  it  attains  merchantable  size. 

This  zone  includes  nearly  all  the  shrubs  of  any  consequence  in  this 
region.  Alders  are  common  in  all  the  moist  ravines,  but  are  by  no 
means  confined  to  this  zone  and  may  be  found  almost  up  to  timber  line. 
The  two  cherries,  Prunus  emarginafa  and  P.  douglasii,  bear  fruit  here 
abundantly,  but  are  rarely  to  be  found  above  this  zone.  The  fruit  of 
P.  dotiglasii  only  is  edible. 

The  dominant  shrubs  and  undershrubs  may  be  enumerated  as  follows : 


Berberis  aquifolium. 
Philadelphus  lewisii. 
Ribes  ceTiim  ?. 
Holodiscus  ariaafolius. 
Rnbiis  nutkanus. 
Kunzia  tridentata. 
Amelanchier  florida.    • 
Rhus  glabra. 
Pachystiraa  myrsinites. 


Acer  glabrum. 
Ceanotbus  volutinus. 
Cornns  baileyi. 
Arctostaphylos  uva-ursi. 
Sambucus  glauca. 
Sympboricarpos  rotuudifolius. 
Bigelovia  douglasii  stenophyllaf. 
B.  douglasii  tortifolia. 
Artemisia  ludoviciana. 


328 


FOHEST    RESERVES. 


Apart  from  tlie  various  grasses  aud  ferns,  tlie  dominant  plants  iu 
tbis  zone  are: 


Selaginella  nipestiis. 
Zygailenus  veiieiiostis. 
Eriogondm  uivoiini. 
E.  elatiira. 

C'leiiiatis  ligusticifolia. 
Lotus  americana. 
Euphorbia  serpyllit'olia. 


Meutzelia  la-vicaulis. 
Pentstemiin  ricliardsonii. 
Balsamorrbiza  sagittata. 
Anapbali8  iiiargaritaeea. 
Acliilica  millcfnlivini. 
Coreopsis  atkiiisoniana. 
Cha'iiactis  iloiiglasii. 


THE   LiODGEPOLE-PINK  ZONE. 

The  limits  of  this  zone  are  from  3,000  t<)  5,200  feet  in  altitude,  and 
include  the  densest  growth  iu  tbis  region  outside  of  the  moist  ravines 
and  canyons.  The  principal  tree  to  be  found  here  is,  of  course,  Pinus 
vturrayana.  This  tree  is  more  closely  confined  to  the  limits  of  the  zone 
than  the  yellow  pine,  aud  is  not  found  at  lower  elevations,  except  iu 
moist  canyons.  In  some  lew  localities  it  ranges  upward  to  the  lower 
limits  of  P.  albicaulis.  Its  growth  is  so  dense  that  very  few  shrubs  are 
to  be  found  in  this  zone.  Toward  the  upper  boundary  it  is  largely 
intermingled  with  Abies  lasiocarpa  aud  Ficea  erujelmanni  and  small 
(juantities  of  Pinna  ponderosa  and  Pseudotsiifiu  faxi/olia,  but  its  dense 
growth  lower  down  prevents  the  latter  trees  from  getting  a  foothold  in 
the  central  j)ortiou  of  tbis  zone.  Owing  to  its  dense  growth  and  the 
consecjuent  shade  afforded  by  it,  this  tree  is  well  adapted  for  the  con- 
servation of  the  water  supply,  aud  large  patches  of  the  winter  snow 
may  be  found  under  its  protectiug  shadows  as  late  as  July.  On  the 
other  hand,  its  shallow  roots,  tall,  weak  stems,  and  exposure  to  the 
winds  at  these  high  altitudes  result  in  large  quantities  of  fallen 
timber,  which  leave  the  trees  an  easy  prey  to  forest  tires,  which  are 
only  too  frequent  iu  tbis  region.  Tbis  is  the  most  vulnerable  of  the 
four  zones  aud  should  be  protected  wherever  jjossible. 

Shrubs  and  undersbrubs  here  are  few,  comjiared  with  the  zone  below, 
the  principal  among  them  beiug: 


Aluns  rubra. 
Berberis  nervosa. 
Kibes  viscosissimum. 
Spira'a  luoiila. 
Aruucus  aruncus. 


Pacbystima  myrsinites. 
Ceanotbiis  velutinus. 
Arctostaphylos  uva-ursi. 
Leiluin  glandulosum. 


Amoug  the  plants  of  tbis  zone  may  be  noticed  a  ^ew  lupines: 

Castilleja  linariipfolia. 
Achillea  millefolium. 
Hieracium  cynoglossoitle 


Linna-a  bonalis. 
Auapbalis  luargaritacea. 
Hieraciuiu  albilloruui. 

About  the  upper  limits  there  are  also  a  few  arnicas  aud  seuecios. 


THE  SUBAIiPlXE-EIH   ZOXE. 

Tbis  zone  is  not  so  well  defined  as  the  last,  but  it  may  be  said  to 
extend  from  5,200  to  G,000  feet.  The  dominant  tree  here  is  .lines  tasio- 
carpa,  which  a[)pears  to  obtain  a  foothold  on  many  of  the  subalpiue 


GORMAN.]  EASTERN   PART    OF    WASHINGTON    RESERVE.  329 

grassy  slopes  long  before  they  are  occupied  by  any  other  tree.  It  is  a 
small  tree  and  is  easily  destroyed  by  fire,  but  it  is  much  more  firmly 
rooted  than  Pinus  murrayana,  and  is  therefore  useful  as  a  soil  binder 
on  the  steep  slopes. 

The  next  tree  in  amount  here  is  Picea  engelmanni.  It  has  a  greater 
altitudinal  range  than  the  preceding,  being  found  both  above  and 
below  it.  It  is  also  of  much  greater  economic  value,  as  it  is  a  large 
tree,  and  makes  very  serviceable  lumber.  The  greatest  drawback  here 
is  its  inaccessibility. 

Abies  amiiliili.s  belongs  to  this  zone  and  ranks  next,  both  in  quantity 
and  in  value,  to  P.  encielmanni.  It  is  a  much  larger  tree  than  A.  lasio- 
carpa  and  is  equally  vulnerable  to  the  attacks  of  fire,  but  prefers  the 
moist  valleys  and  canyons  more  than  the  latter. 

The  most  noticeable  shrubs  and  uudershrubs  in  this  zone  are: 

Pachystima  myrsiuitee.  Arctostaphylos  uva-ursi.     • 

Ceauothus  velutiuus.  Ledum  glandulosum. 

Vaccinium  parvifloriim.  Artemisia  liuloviciana. 

The  dominant  plants  found  here  are : 

Eriogonum  pyrolicfoliuiu.  Valeriana  sitchensis. 

Cardamine  lyallii.  Arnica  alpina. 

Sediim  steuopetalum.  A.  latifolia. 

Saxifraga  ipstivalis.  A.  parryi. 
Parnassia  fimbriata. 

THE  WHITE-BARK-PINE  ZONE. 

This  is  the  uppermost  of  the  four  zones,  and  ranges  from  6,000  to 
7,500  feet,  or  timber  line.  The  dominant  tree  here  is,  ot  course,  Pinus 
albicauUs.  It  is  the  most  alpine  of  all  the  pines  and  quite  valueless  as 
timber,  but  as  it  persistently  follows  up  the  slopes  and  divides  aud 
obtains  a  foothold  there,  it  performs  an  important  work  in  the  economy 
of  nature  by  retarding  the  too  early  disappearance  of  the  snow  from 
these  slopes,  and,  by  making  more  or  less  forest  litter,  encourages  the 
spread  of  other  vegetation. 

Tiie  second  tree  in  importance  in  this  zone  is  Lari.v  occidentalis.  This 
tree  seldom  grows  on  the  exposed  side  of  a  pass  or  divide,  but  on  the 
sheltered  side  can  be  found  in  this  region  up  to  7,000  feet  elevation. 
It  is  a  much  larger  and  finer  tree  than  P.  alhicauUs,  and  in  early 
autumn,  when  the  first  severe  frosts  have  turned  its  foliage  yellow, -it  is 
noticeable  on  the  clifls  and  mountain  sides  for  miles.  ^  h(>o7i9,ru 

The  only  other  trees  to  be  found  in  this  zone  are  Tsuga  2)attonii  and 
Picea  enyelmanni.  The  former  is  a  small  alpine  tree,  with  a  northern 
range  hundreds  of  miles  beyond  that  of  the  white-bark  pine,  and  is 
usually  found  on  exposed  ridges  and  cliffs,  much  twisted  and  gnarled 
by  the  winds.  In  these  situations  it  can  freciuently  be  found  VI  inches 
in  diameter  and  not  exceeding  10  or  12  feet  in  height.  It  differs  from 
the  type  in  being  smaller  and  more  alpine  and  having  great  masses  of 
small,  erect,  purple  cones,  tliose  of  the  type  being  pendulous- 


330  FORKST    KESEKVES. 

GkanKecyparis  nootkatrnsiH  belongs  iti  tliis  zone,  but  in  tliis  region  is 
not  to  be  found  outside  of  the  moist  canyons. 

Junipenis  iuitid,  tlie  most  diminutive  representative  of  the  conifer 
family,  is  fairly  common  about  rocky  cliffs  and  the  crest  lines  of  the 
ridges  and  divides  iu  this  zone.  It  usually  favors  moist  climates  and 
localities,  being  a  common  shrub  in  the  sphagnous  marshes  of  Alaska, 
but  in  this  region  it  appears  quite  at  home  in  even  the  driest  situations, 
and  was  found  growing  from  lake  level  (1,108  feet)  to  timber  line. 

The  few  shrubs  and  undershrubs  to  be  found  here  are  more  or  less 
alpine  in  habit,  such  as: 

Pachystima  myrsinites.  Ledum  glandulosum. 

liry.inthiis  eiiipetriformis.  Sambuciis  raceniosus?. 

(';issi()]io  mertensiana.  Artemisia  ludoviciana. 


~7(koe(o  eCtrt-iii'cyi^ 


albirtornm. 


The  fust  named,  although  projierly  belonging  to  the  lowest  zone,  can 
\w  found  growing  here  almost  to  timber  line. 

The  principal  plants  of  this  zone  are: 
EriogoQum  uml)ellatiini.  Polemonium  pulchellum. 

Oreobroma  coliiinbiana.  Peutstemoii  menziesii, 

Arenaria  oapillaris.  P.  scouleri. 

Sediim  stenopetalum.  P.  proceus. 

S.  divergens.  Macroiiema  suft'ruticosuni. 

Saxifraga  tolmiti.  Erigeron  cpi  (No,  58frj.  d(.l/if^it> . 

MOIST  VAIiT.T]YS  AND  CA]>CYOXS. 

Tiie  moist  valleys  and  canyons  here,  of  which  those  of  Stehekin 
River  and  Early  Winters  Creek  may  be  taken  as  typical,  have  a  more 
or  less  local  flora  of  their  own,  as  compared  with  the  rest  of  the  i-eserve. 

Trees  occurring  iu  them  and  not  specially  enumerated  in  the  above- 
mentioned  zones  are  briefly  described  below : 

Finns  monlicola  is  a  tall,  graceful  tree  of  considerable  economic  value  as  lumber. 
It  was  not  seen  outside  of  tbe  moist  valleys,  and  ranges  here  from  1,150  to  4,700  feet. 

Tsiifia  mertensiana  is  fairly  common  iu  tbe  valleys  of  the  Stehekin  River  and  Early 
Winters  Creek,  and  ranges  from  2,100  to  4,700  feet  elevation. 

Isiiga  patlonii  (type)  is  a  fine  subalpine  tree  occurring  in  all  the  moist  valleys 
close  to  the  i)asses  in  the  main  divide  of  the  Cascade  Range.  Its  extreme  altitudinal 
range  here  is  from  2,170  to  5,800  feet. 

Tsiii/n  pallonii  var.  hoolerif  Lemmon,  a  tree  somewhat  resembling  the  last  but 
much  more  alpiue  in  size  and  habit,  ranges  from  5,500  to  6,400  feet  elevation. 

Abies  amabilia  is  fairly  conmion  here,  and  its  altitudinal  range  is  from  1,800  feet  on 
the  Stehekin  to  5,500  feet  on  Early  Winters  Creek. 

Thuja  plieaia,  a  tree  quite  rare  outside  of  the  moist  valleys,  is  here  fairly  common, 
of  largo  size,  and  of  considerable  economic  value.  It  ranges  in  altitude  from  1,100  to 
4,700  feet. 

Chamacijparia  nootkatenais  is  fairly  common  on  the  Stehekin  and  its  tributaries, 
but  was  not  observed  elsewhere.     Its  range  here  is  from  2,100  to  5,500  feet  elev.atiou. 

Taxiis  hrevifoha  is  rare,  and  w.as  seen  only  on  ihe  Stehekin  and  its  tributaries, 
where  it  ranges  from  3,500  to  5,100  feet  elevation. 

Popiihia  triehocarpa  and  Acer  macrophylliim  were  found  in  the  Stehekin  Valley,  far 
surpassing  in  size  the  specimens  seen  anywhere  else  iu  tbe  reserve. 

Acer  ciroinatiim  was  seen  onlv  on  the  Stiliekin. 


floRMAN]  EASTERN    PART    OF    WASHINGTON   RESERVE.  331 

A  few  of  the  shrubs  and  undersbrubs  already  enumerated  were  found 
here,  and  many  not  elsewhere  seen,  such  as : 

Berberis  nervosa.  Echinopanax  borridum. 

Spirjea  arbuscnla.  Vacciniiim  sp. 

S.  menziesii.  Kalmia  glauca  microphylla. 

Rubiis  spectabilis.  Menzicsia  ferrugiiiea. 

Sorbus  orcldentale.  Viburnum  pauciflornm. 

Lepargyrisa  argentea.  Lonicera  involucrata. 

The  characteristic  plants  of  these  valleys  are : 

<I!lintonia  unillora.  Gentiana  sp.  ♦ 

Goodyera  menziesii.  Mimiiliis  lewisii. 

Oxyria  digyna.  Mimulus  moschatus. 

Aconitum  coliirabianum.  Castilkja  parviflora. 

Actipa  rubra.  Pentstemon  menziesii. 

Aquilegia  formosa.  Veronica  alpina. 

Bikuliulla  formosa.  Aster  peregrinus. 

Saxifraga  bronchialis.  A.  foliaoeus. 

Washingtnnia  occidentale?.  Luina  hypoleuca. 
Cbimaphila  unibellata. 

TREES    OF  THE    REGIOX. 

PiNUS  MoNTiCOLA  Dougl.     (Mountain  white  pine.) 

This  tall,  graceful  tree  is  comparatively  limited  in  quantity  in  this 
portion  of  the  reserve,  being  strictly  confined  to  the  moist  valleys,  where 
it  is  thus  to  a  great  extent  enabled  to  escape  damage  by  fire,  to  which 
it  is  much  more  liable  than  P.  ponderosa  or  Pseudotsuga  taxi/olia, 
owing  to  its  thinner  bark. 

It  occurs  on  Railroad  Creek,  Agnes  Creek,  Stehekin  and  Twisp  rivers, 
and  Early  Winters  Creek,  ranging  in  altitude  from  1,150  feet  on  the 
Stehekin  to  1,700  feet  on  Early  Winters  Creek.  The  best  grove  seen 
was  on  Early  Winters  Creek,  where  it  would  probably  average  10,000 
feet  per  acre.  Even  here  it  still  falls  short  of  the  height  and  size  it 
attains  in  other  parts  of  the  State.  It  ranges  in  size  here  from  20  to  42 
inches  in  diameter  and  from  110  to  IfiO  feet  in  height. 

Though  its  sapwood  is  much  greater  in  proportion  to  total  diameter 
than  that  of  Pimis  jionderosa,  it  makes  better  lumber,  as  it  is  far 
less  liable  to  warp  in  use  or  on  drying,  and  it  is  not  yet  used  for  lumber 
purposes  here  solely  because  it  is  more  inaccessible.  The  wood  contains 
much  less  pitch  than  that  of  P.  poiidirosa,  and  the  lumber  does  not  lose 
as  much  weight  in  drying  as  the  latter.  Notwithstanding  the  small 
quantity  of  pitch  contained,  the  logs  when  in  the  water  have  the  fur 
ther  advantage  of  not  becoming  waterlogged,  a  fault  to  which  those  of 
P.  ponderosa  are  peculiarly  liable.  As  fuel,  however,  it  is  inferior  to 
the  latter. 

It  is  a  remarkably  healthy  tree,  not  a  single  dead  specimen,  except 
a  few  that  had  been  killed  by  fire,  being  seen  on  the  trip,  and  all  the 


332  FOREST    RESERVES. 

niatiiie  trees  seen  were  well  loaded  with  coues.  The  miinber  <>f  young 
trees  seen  bear  evidence  that  it  is  being  well  propagated,  the  only 
requisite  for  its  greater  distribution  being  suflicient  moisture. 

The  tall  stems  with  the  crowns  elevateil  above  the  surrounding  forest 
growth,  the  mass  of  long  typical  cones  of  the  mature  trees,  and  the 
bluish  green  color  of  the  foliage  of  the  young  trees  and  saplings,  tend 
to  make  the  tree  so  noticeable  that  one  is  liable  to  overestimate  its 
quantity  in  the  forest  here. 

PiNUS  ALBiCAULis  Engelm.     (White-bark  pine.) 

This  hardy  ali)ine  tree  is  quite  common  at  all  the  higher  elevations 
in  this  region,  and  is  a]>parently  as  much  at  home  in  the  humid  atmos- 
phere of  the  passes  as  on  the  dry  crest  lines  east  of  Lake  Chelan.  The 
lowest  altitude  at  which  it  was  observed  on  our  trip  was  at  4,G00  feet,  on 
Early  Winters  Creek,  from  which  limit  it  can  be  found  ranging  upward 
at  all  elevations  to  7,500  feet,  or  timber  line. 

The  tallest  specimens  seen  did  not  exceed  40  feet  in  height,  while 
the  diameter  ranged  from  12  to  24  inches,  with  an  occasional  veteran  of 
28  to  30  inches.  The  diameter  is  no  index  to  the  height,  as  one  of  the 
largest  seen  was  on  a  wind-swept  ridge  and  did  not  exceed  20  feet  in 
height. 

The  tree  is  of  very  slow  growth  and  slow  propagation,  but  few  young 
trees  or  saplings  were  seen,  and  only  a  limited  number  of  the  trees 
seen  bore  cones,  while  such  cones  as  were  found  had  in  almost  every 
instance  been  visited  by  Clark's  crow  (Xucifiaga  columhiana)  and  the 
seeds  dexterously  picked  out.  The  best  specimens  of  the  tree  seen 
were  in  the  vicinity  of  Slate  Pass  and  Windy  Pass,  between  C,000  and 
6,800  feet  in  elevation.  It  is'of  no  economic  value,  but  its  alpine  nature 
enables  it  to  encroach  steadily  u])  the  steep  slopes  almost  to  snow 
line,  where  its  long,  firm  roots  act  as  soil  binders  and  its  shelter  olfers 
protection  for  the  advent  of  other  vegetation.  Its  wood  is  dose  grained 
and  resinous,  and  it  is  thus  enabled  to  resist  decay  for  a  long  period, 
■when  felled  or  uprooted. 

PiNUS  PONDEROSA  Dougl.     (Ycllow  pine;  Piskwans  name,  Kuh-chin.) 

This  is  preeminently  the  most  useful  tree  in  this  portion  of  the 
reserve,  lieing  used  not  only  for  lumber  but  for  fuel,  building  purposes, 
and  various  other  e(!onomic  uses.  It  ranges  in  altitude  from  1,100  feet 
on  Lake  Chelan  to  fully  6,000  feet  above  the  head  of  Poison  Creek  and 
in  the  Chelan  Ilangc,  but  it  is  found  at  its  best  for  lumber  i)uri)oses  on 
the  benches  between  1,.jOO  aiid,3,000  feet.  It  is  a  lover  of  dry  climates 
and  dry  situations,  being  'Mv'wxfy  confined  to  the  east  side  of  the  Cas- 
cade Range,  and  is  not  at  home  even  in  such  moderately  moist  locali- 
ties as  the  valley  of  the  Stehekin  or  Early  Winters  Creek,  where  it  is 
to  be  found  only  in  very  limited  quantities.  Its  usual  height  in  this 
region  is  from  05  to  90  feet,  and  in  favorable  situations  trees  can  be 


GOBMAN]  EASTERN   PART    OP    WASHINGTON    RESERVE.  333 

found  110  feet  in  lieiglit;  the  diameter  ranges  fiom  IS  to  52  inches. 
Aiuoug-  the  si)ecimens  measured  may  be  mentioned  one  on  Lake  Che- 
lan: Diameter  at  stump  height,  I'OJ  inches;  diameter  of  wood,  17J 
iuclies;  height  of  tree,  07  feet;  age,  110  years.  And  one  on  S(]uaw 
Creek:  Diameter  at  stump  height,  52f  inches;  diameter  of  wood,  47J 
inches;  height  of  tree,  91  feet;  age,  411  years. 

When  young  it  is  a  veiy  rapid  grower  and  when  mature  its  resist- 
ance to  damage  by  fire  is  very  great,  more  than  50  per  cent  of  the 
mature  trees  seeu  here  showing  evidence  of  having  escai>ed  from  one 
or  more  forest  fires  without  serious  injury.  For  these  reasons  the  tree 
is  a  valuable  one  in  this  dry  regiou. 

Fully  00  per  cent  of  the  lumber  used  here  is  supplied  bj'  this  tree. 
This  is  owing  solely  to  its  accessibility,  as  the  qualitj^  is  not  eiiual  to 
that  of  either  the  mountain  white  pine  or  the  Engebnaun  spruce.  The 
lumber  from  it  is  very  much  inclined  to  warp  when  sun  or  air  dried,  but 
when  kiln  dried  is  found  to  be  very  nuich  improved. 

Formerly  there  were  three  sawmills  taking  their  supply  of  logs  from 
this  portion  of  the  reserve,  one  on  Lake  Chelan,  one  on  Methow  liiver, 
and  one  on  Squaw  Creek;  but  at  the  time  of  my  examination  the  last 
mentioned  had  been  taken  away  from  the  reserve  altogether  and  the 
one  on  the  Methow  had  been  removed  to  the  Twisp,  thus  leaving  only- 
two  in  oiteration,  both  on  a  very  limited  scale.  The  logs  cut  here 
average  only  2  to  a  tree,  and  7  logs  to  1,000  feet  of  lumber.  This  tree 
is  very  healthy  and  produces  large  quantities  of  cones,  but  for  some 
reason  does  not  propagate  very  abundantly  here. 

Apart  from  tliose  killed  by  tire,  only  a  few  dead  trees  were  seeu, 
chierty  about  the  head  of  Poison  Creek;  very  few  were  found  to  be 
iufested  with  Arceuthobium,  and  none  afflicted  with  fasciatiou  were 
observed. 

PiNtTs  MTTRRAYANA  Balf.     (Lodgepolc  pine.) 

The  lodgepole,  or  tamarack  pine,  as  it  is  sometimes  called,  is  capable 
of  enduring  much  more  humidity  than  the  yellow  pine,  and  conse- 
quently is  found  to  be  as  much  at  home  in  the  moist  valleys  as  on  the 
dry  slopes  and  hillsides.  It  is  unsuitable  for  lumber,  but  makes  excel- 
lent fuel,  and  is  used  to  some  extent  locally  for  building  purposes, 
fencing,  etc.,  for  which  it  is  better  adapted  than  the  yellow  pine.  Its 
general  altitudinal  range  in  this  regiou  is  iiom  3,000  to  5,200  feet,  but 
I  have  observed  it  at  2,100  feet  on  tlie  Stehekin  and  as  high  as  5,900 
feet  in  the  Chelan  Range.  When  found  growing  near  its  upper  limits, 
particularly  in  tlie  less  fertile  spots,  the  foliage  is  short  and  frequently 
has  a  whorled  appearance,  so  that  at  a  distance  it  bears  some  resem- 
blance to  a  larix,  thus  giving  rise  to  the  common  name  tamarack  i>iue, 
by  which  it  is  known  in  some  localities. 

It  grows  from  GO  to  110  feet  in  height  and  ranges  in  diameter  from  S 
to  IC  inches.    The  largest  specimen  observed  on  the  trip  was  at  5,1(»0 


334  FOREST    RESERVES. 

feet  elevation,  and  measured  16^  inches  in  diameter  inside  bark  at 
stump  height.  It  is  a  very  slow  grower;  a  sapling  33  inches  in  height 
was  cut  and  found  to  be  20  years  old;  it  had  not  yet  borne  cones,  but 
had  well-developed  male  flowers  of  this  season's  growth.  A  mature 
tree  examined  at  the  same  locality  was  found  to  be  TJ  inches  outside 
bark,  7J  inches  inside  bark,  04  feet  in  height,  and  11.5  years  old. 
Owing  to  its  shallow  roots  and  tall,  weak  stems,  the  tree  is  pecu- 
liarly liable  to  be  uprooted  or  broken  by  the  high  winds  that  usually 
prevail  at  these  altitudes,  and  consequently  in  the  forest  where  it  is 
the  principal  tree  there  is  much  fallen  and  dead  timber.  This  con- 
dition of  afl'airs,  together  with  its  thin  bark,  makes  it  an  easy  prey  to 
the  forest  fires,  to  which  this  region,  with  its  dry  climate,  careless  camp- 
ers, and  roving  sheepmen,  is  liable.  In  fact,  during  the  course  of  my 
examination  1  found  that  more  than  50  per  cent  of  all  the  dead  timber 
observed  was  composed  of  this  tree.  Many  dead  and  a  few  dying  trees 
were  also  seen  that  showed  no  evidence  of  having  been  injured  by  fire, 
and  the  cause  of  their  decay  was  not  apparent.  All  the  dead  trees,  and 
to  a  greater  or  less  extent  the  dying  ones,  were  thickly  overgrown  with 
a  bright  greenish-yellow  lichen,  which  1  take  to  be  Evernia  vulpina; 
but  this  is  an  effect  rather  than  a  cause  of  the  decay.  At  about  5,000 
feet  altitude  in  several  localities  this  tree  was  also  found  to  be  so  badly 
infested  with  a  small  green  aphis  that  all  the  vegetation  beneath  it 
was  constantly  bespattered  with  a  transparent  viscid  substance  exuded 
by  the  insects;  but  as  the  surrounding  snbalpine  firs  were  similarly 
infested  without  any  apparent  injury,  the  decay  of  the  lodgepole  pine 
must  be  attributed  to  some  other  cause. 

Larix  occiDENTALis  Nutt.     (Western  larch.) 

This  is  the  only  deciduous  conifer  in  this  portion  of  the  reserve,  and 
differs  somewhat,  both  in  appearance  and  in  habit,  from  the  same  tree 
farther  south,  where  it  frequently  occurs  in  moist  situations  and  at  as 
low  altitudes  as  2,000  feet.  It  was  not  seen  at  all  in  the  moist  valleys, 
and  was  generally  found  to  favor  the  passes  and  the  sheltered  sides  of 
the  crest  lines  and  divides,  where  it  ranges  in  altitude  from  5,800  to 
7,100  feet.  The  best  grove  seen  was  at  about  0,700  net  elevation,  near 
War  Creek  Pass.  The  tree  ranges  in  height  from  50  to  90  feet  and  iu 
diameter  from  10  to  25  inches.  The  mature  tree  has  a  rather  thick 
grayish  bark,  and  is  well  fruited  with  oval,  mostly  erect,  i^ersistent 
cones.  The  branches  are  mostly  lateral,  very  brittle,  and  quite  small  in 
proportion  to  the  size  of  the  tree.  The  foliage  changes  color  here  with 
the  first  severe  frosts,  about  October  1,  and  on  October  20  I  found 
about  half  still  remaining  on  the  trees,  while  on  October  20  the  surface 
of  the  snow  was  yellow  with  the  foliage  blown  off  by  a  recent  storm.  It 
is  not  used  for  lumber,  but  would  make  good  fuel  where  accessible, 
owing  to  its  hard  wood  and  close  grain. 


GORMAN]  EASTERN    PART    OF    WASHINGTON   RESERVE.  335 

PiCEA  ENGELMANNI  Engeltii.     (Eugeliiiauu  spruce.) 

This  tree  requires  much  more  moisture  than  the  preceding,  though 
I  have  fouufl  them  growiug  together  in  one  or  two  instances.  It  has 
also  a  much  greater  altitudiual  range,  being  found  from  2,100  feet  eleva- 
tion in  the  Stehekin  Valley  to  0,800  feet  on  the  sheltered  slopes  of  some 
of  the  ridges  and  divides.  It  generally  avoids  the  wind-swept  crest 
lines  and  passes,  and  is  usually  a  robust,  healthy  tree,  but  in  some 
localities,  as  on  Early  Winters  Creek,  I  observed  specimens  aflected 
■with  fasciatiou.  The  tree  is  well  adapted  by  nature  for  propagation, 
being  fully  fruited  with  large  quantities  of  cones,  which  are  massed 
near  the  top.  When  young,  the  cones  are  erect  and  reddish  purple  in 
color,  becoming  pendent  and  fading  to  a  light  brown  as  they  mature. 

Near  its  upper  limits  the  tree  is  quite  stunted,  the  cones  rather 
scanty,  and  a  large  percentage  abortive.  It  is  one  of  the  finest  trees  in 
this  region,  ranging  from  90  to  l.")0  feet  in  height  and  from  IS  inches 
to  i  feet  in  diameter,  the  largest  specimen  measured  being  i  feet  54 
inches.  The  best  grove  seen  was  at  4,2.50  feet  elevation,  on  Bridge 
Creek,  where  it  would  cut  about  10,000  or  12,000  feet  to  the  acre. 
Though  not  used  here,  it  makes  fair  lumber  and  excellent  fuel,  but 
is  very  vulnerable  to  forest  tires,  the  least  injury  about  its  base  being 
fatal  to  it. 

TsuGA  MERTENSIANA  (BoDg.)  Carr.     (Western  hemlock.) 

The  western  hemlock  is  here  confined  entirely  to  the  moist  valleys, 
and  occurs  in  limited  quantities  along  the  Stehekin  Eiver,  Agnes 
Creek,  and  Early  Winters  Creek,  ranging  in  altitude  from  2,100  feet 
on  the  Stehekin  to  •1,700  feet  on  Early  Winters  Creek.  It  was  not 
observed  on  Bridge  Creek  or  on  Twisp  Kiver.  In  comparison  with  the 
size  it  attains  west  of  the  Cascade  Kange,  particularly  near  sea  level, 
it  is  a  small  tree  here,  being  from  50  to  75  feet  high  and  from  10  to 
25  inches  in  diameter.  It  is  much  superior  to  the  eastern  hemlock 
(T.  canadensis)  both  in  quality  of  wood  and  in  the  quantity  of  tannin 
contained  in  the  bark,  and  makes  very  fair  lumber.  When  thoroughly 
dry,  it  makes  better  fuel  than  any  of  the  pines  growing  here. 

TsuGA  PATTONii  (Jeff.)  Coville.     (Alpine  hemlock.) 

This  hemlock  is  also  confined  to  the  moist  valleys  and  the  vicinity 
of  the  passes.  It  is  the  prevailing  tree  in  Cascade  Pass  (5,421  feet) 
and  is  quite  common  about  the  headwaters  of  the  Stehekin,  where  it 
attains  a  very  fair  size  for  this  region,  ranging  from  50  to  90  feet  in 
height  and  from  12  to  27  inches  in  diameter.  The  altitudiual  range  of 
the  tree  here  is  much  greater  than  was  expected,  being  not  uncommon 
at  3,100  feet  and  ranging  up  to  5,800  feet;  and  a  tree  supposed  to  be  of 
this  species  was  observed  as  low  as  2,100  feet  elevation  in  the  Stehekin 
Valley. 


33(5  FOREST    RKSKKVES. 

Tliis  tree  is  .sometimes  mistaken  for  tlie  western  liemlock,  but  close 
observation  at  once  disi>els  sucli  an  error;  the  top  of  tlie  sapling  is 
erect,  the  cones  arc  long,  pur[)le,  and  more  or  less  massed  about  tiie 
top  of  the  tree,  and  the  mature  tree  has  an  unusually  thick,  rouglily 
corrugated  bark,  while  in  the  western  hemlock  the  top  of  the  sapling 
is  generally  drt)0[)ing,  the  cones  are  small,  oval,  and  browu  iu  color 
and  well  distributed  ou  tlic  branches,  and  the  matured  tree  has  a  com- 
paratively thin  bark. 

The  alpine  liendock  is  of  slwv  growth;  the  wood  is  close  grained  and 
of  fine  texture  and  is  (piite  suitable  for  lumber  or  fuel,  but  is  not  used 
for  either  purpose  here  on  account  of  its  iiuiccessibility. 

The  bark  is  grayish  brown  in  color  aud  ([uite  noticeable  iu  the  forest 
owing  to  its  thickness,  which  api)ears  to  increase  toward  tlie  upper 
limits  of  the  range  of  tiio  tree.  The  general  altitude  of  this  region  is 
favorable  to  the  growth  of  the  tree,  but  the  amouut  of  moisture,  out- 
side of  the  valleys  and  canyons,  is  insufficient. 

TsuGA  PATTONii  var.  HOOKEEi?     (Hooker's  hemlock.) 

Among  the  hardy  alpine  trees  Hooker's  hendock  stands  preeminent, 
ha\ing  a  northern  range  far  beyond  that  of  even  the  white-bark  pine, 
it  is  a  small,  dwarfed,  aud  stunted  tree  compared  with  the  type,  and 
seldom  exceeds  12  inches  iu  diameter  or  30  feet  in  height.  It  usually 
ranges  in  altitude  here  irom  5,500  to  0,400  feet,  but  is  occasionally 
found  up  to  and  beyond  7,000  feet,  wherever  it  can  find  sufficient 
moisture.  Though  gencrallj^  favoring  the  heads  of  moist  valleys,  it  is 
sometimes  to  be  found  on  the  leeward  sides  of  peaks  aud  slopes  where 
snowbanks  of  sufficient  size  have  formed  iu  winter  to  maintain  au 
adecjuate  supply  of  moisture  during  the  rest  of  the  year.  It  is  in  the 
latter  situations  that  the  tree  reaches  its  highest  altitude. 

In  addition  to  its  smaller  size  and  more  alpine  habit,  it  further  differs 
from  its  nearest  (tongener  in  having  thinner  bark  and  small,  erect  cones, 
all  the  other  hemlocks  having  pendent  cones.  The  tree  is  too  small 
and  inaccessible  to  have  any  economic  value. 

PSEUDOTSUGA   quAXiFOiiiA  (Raf.)   Sudw.     (Red  fir;    Piskwaus   name, 
Tsuh-kalp.) 

Next  to  the  yellow  pine  this  is  the  most  economically  important  tree 
in  tills  region  at  the  present  time.  It  ranges  in  altitude  liom  1,100  to 
0,000  feet,  and  forms  about  IU  per  cent  of  the  tree  growth  of  the  yellow- 
pine  zone  (1. 100  to  3,000  feet),  where  it  attains  its  best  development, 
both  in  size  and  in  cpiality,  on  the  benches  aud  in  the  sheltered  ravines. 
It  occurs  only  sparingly  in  the  lodgepole-pine  zone,  ])articHlarly  in  all 
dense  growths  of  that  tree,  but  reappears  again  about  its  iii)per  limits. 
Though  a  well-known  lover  of  nuiistuie,  it  is  (|uite  limited  in  quantity 
in  th(!  moist  valleys  and  canyons,  juobably  owing  to  low  temperature. 


GORMAN]  EASTERN    PART    OP    WASHINGTON    RESERVE.  337 

It  ranges  in  height  here  from  70  to  120  feet  ami  iu  diameter  from  20 
to  50  inches.  It  grows  very  rapidly  for  the  first  one  liuudred  and  fifty 
years,  but  after  tliat  period  gradually  becomes  of  slower  growth.  The 
bark  is  very  thick,  exceeding  even  that  of  the  yellow  pine,  and  on  this 
account  the  grown  tree  is  enabled  to  withstand  a  forest  fire  in  which 
the  lodgepole  pine,  Engelmanu  spruce,  or  any  of  the  firs  would  perish. 
Among  the  specimens  measured,  a  tree  at  5,510  feet  elevation,  132 
years  old,  gave  a  diameter  at  stump  height  of  18|  inches  inside  and 
213  outside  bark,  while  one  at  1,200  feet  elevation,  244  years  old,  was 
43  inches  in  diameter  inside  and  4!)  inches  outside  bark.  About  10  per 
cent  of  the  lumber  used  here  is  supplied  by  this  tree,  and  its  wood 
excels  that  of  all  others  iu  this  region  for  fuel.  For  some  reason  the' 
tree  is  not  so  healthy  here  as  west  of  the  Cascade  Range,  fully  50  per 
cent  of  the  grown  trees  being  found  to  be  aft'ected  with  fasciation. 
About  lake  level  it  is  rather  stunted  iu  growth  and  much  twisted  and 
gnarled  by  the  winds,  so  that  the  benches  and  higher  levels  must  be 
sought  for  trees  suitable  for  lumber. 

All  the  trees  observed  here  bore  cones  abundantly,  and  all  the  cones 
examined  were  found  to  be  well  filled  with  seed.  The  tree  bears  cones 
at  an  earlier  age  than  any  other  conifer.  Among  the  saplings  examined, 
one  12  years  old  had  two  well-developed  cones  of  this  season's 
growth;  It  would  undoubtedly  spread  rapidly  here  if  sufiBcieut  mois- 
ture were  obtainable,  as  on  a  level  spot  only  20  feet  square  at  3,400  feet 
elevation  15  saplings  were  seen.  In  late  autumn  all  the  grouse  killed 
were  found  to  have  their  craws  literally  filled  with  the  seeds  of  this 
tree,  to  the  exclusion  of  almost  every  other  kind  of  food. 

Abies  lasiocabpa  (Hook.)  Nutt.     (Subalpine  fir;   Piskwaus  name, 
Skwe-whe-alp.) 

Outside  of  the  moist  valleys  and  canyons  this  tree  is  fairly  well  con- 
fined in  altitudinal  range  to  the  moist  slopes  between  5,000  and  G,UOO 
feet,  the  lack  of  moisture  preventing  it  from  finding  a  foothold  on  the 
dry  crest  lines  and  ridges  above,  and  the  dense  growth  of  lodgepoW 
pine,  combined  with  lack  of  moisture,  prohibiting  its  spread  below.  In 
the  moist  valleys,  on  the  other  hand,  it  has  much  more  extended  alti- 
tudinal limits,  ranging  from  2,150  feet  <m  the  Stehekin  to  about  7,000 
feet  in  the  vicinity  of  Slate  Pass  and  Windy  Pass.  The  tallest  speci- 
men seen,  about  90  feet,  was  iu  a  moist  ravine  about  the  head  of  Twenty- 
five  Mile  Creek,  while  on  some  of  the  wind-swept  ridges  it  could  be 
found  less  than  10  feet  high,  with  branches'spread  out  along  the  ground 
fully  10  feet  on  each  side  of  the  trunk.  In  diameter  it  ranges  from 
about  8  to  18  inches.  Though  a  decidedly  alpine  tree,  its  capacity  for 
standing  cold  is  not  equal  to  the  white  bark  pine  or  Hooker'sjiemliack. 

Owing  to  its  thin  bark  the  tree  is  very  easily  injured  or  killed  by  for- 
est fires,  as  even  a  moderate  degree  of  heat  causes  the  bark  to  blister 
or  separate  from  the  trunk ;  but  notwithstanding  this,  the  wood  makes 
19  GEOL,  PT  5 22 


33S  FOREST    RESEKVES. 

very  poor  fuel,  even  when  dry — burns  slowly  and  gives  very  little  heat. 
This  was  the  only  conifer  in  tlie  region  with  a  scanty  crop  of  cones 
this  year.  Unlike  the  red  lir,  which  hears  an  average  crop  every  year, 
this  tree  bears  a  large  crop  but  once  in  three  years,  and  being  loaded 
with  cones  last  year  the  grown  trees  were  sparingly  fruited  this  season 
and  only  the  young  trees  which  bore  for  the  lirst  time  were  well  fruited. 
Ko  economic  use  whatever  is  made  of  it  iu  this  region. 

Abies  amaimlis  (Loud.)  Forbes.     (Lovely  or  amabilis  fir.) 

The  regional  range  of  this  tree  is  much  more  limited  here  than  that  of 
the  subalpine  fir,  but  its  altitudinal  range  is  almost  equal  to  that  of  the 
latter,  being  found  from  1,800  feet  on  the  Stehekin  to  G/MO  feet  at  the 
head  of  IJattlesuake  Creek.  It  is  also  a  much  larger  tree,  ranging  from 
30  feet  in  alpine  sitnations  to  100  feet  or  more  in  moist  ravines,  with  a 
diameter  ranging  from  12  to  25  inches.  Xo  groves  wholly  composed  of 
this  tree  were  seen,  but  it  is  to  be  found  in  scattering  (piautities  along 
Stehekin  River,  Bridge  Creek,  Early  Winters  Creek,  and  Itattlesuake 
Creek,  and  about  its  upper  limits  it  is  always  found  mingled  with  its 
near  congener,  A.  lasiocarpa. 

Though  the  wood  is  straight  grained  and  apparently  suitable,  it  is 
not  used  for  lumber,  and  it  is  comparatively  worthless  for  fuel.  The 
bark  is  thin,  being  only  slightly  thicker  than  that  of  the  subalpine  fir, 
and  the  tree  is  almost  as  easily  injured  by  fire  as  the  latter. 

Tni  JA  PLIOATA    Don.      (Pacific   red    cedar    or    Pacific   arbor   vitse; 
.    Pickwaus  name,  "Suk-wum.") 

This  cedar,  owing  to  its  moisture-loving  liabit,  is  mostly  confined  to 
the  moist  valleys  in  this  region,  and  outside  occurs  only  in  a  few  moist 
ravines;  but  wherever  seen  it  was  always  healthy  and  tliriving,  whether 
a  sai)ling  or  grown  tree.  It  begins  to  bear  when  quite  young,  and  all 
the  grown  trees  were  found  to  be  well  covered  with  cones.  Though  nat- 
urally inclined  to  grow  in  groves  by  itself,  none  were  seen  in  this  region, 
but  the  tree  was  observed  in  fair  quantities  mingled  in  the  forest  on 
Stehekin  Eiver,  Bridge  Creek,  Early  Winters  Creek,  and  Twisp  and 
Methow  rivers.  It  ranges  in  altitude  from  1,100  feet  on  the  Stehekin  to 
4,700  feet  on  Early  Winters  Creek.  In  height  it  ranges  from  50  to  100 
feet  and  in  diameter  from  15  to  (JO  inches,  the  largest  specimen  meas- 
ured being  4  feet  7.i  inches  inside  and  4  feet  9h  inches  outside  bark  at 
stump  height.  It  grows  slowly,  the  annual  rings  being  so  fine  as  to  be 
dillicult  to  count  in  most  cases;  but  judging  from  the  number  of  annual 
growths  in  some  of  the  small  trees,  the  large  ones  of  this  species  are 
undoubtedly  the  oldest  living  trees  iu  this  region. 

The  bark  is  rather  thin,  but  nevertheless  the  grown  tree  resists  the 
ettects  of  forest  fires  fairly  well  and  can  be  found  flourishing  where  both 
the  firs  have  succumbed.    Nearly  all  the  large  trees  are  found  to  have 


GORMAN.]  EASTERN   PART    OF    WASHINGTON   RESERVE.  339 

the  core  rotten  near  the  ground,  apparently  witliout  the  health  or  vigor 
of  the  tree  being  at  all  impaired.  Notwithstanding  this  early  rotting 
of  the  core,  the  tree  itself  is  so  well  known  to  resist  decay,  even  when 
exposed  to  moisture  or  contact  with  the  ground,  that  it  is  very  gener- 
ally used  for  the  foundations  of  buildings,  etc.  Though  it  makes  excel- 
lent sash  and  doors,  it  is  not  sawed  into  lumber  here,  and  while  superior 
to  the  firs,  makes  only  indifferent  fuel,  as  it  burns  too  quickly. 

Owing  to  its  straight  grain  it  rives  easily,  and  on  this  account  is  much 
used  for  shingles,  shakes,  stakes,  rails,  etc.,  besides  which  it  is  a  gen- 
eral favorite  for  feu(;e  posts,  bridge  piles,  bridge  flooring,  and  where 
accessible  it  is  preferred  for  building  purposes. 

Cham^ecypakis  NOOTKATENSis  (Lamb)  Spach.     (Alaska  cedar,  yel- 
low cedar.) 

Of  all  the  ti'ees  of  this  region  the  Alaska  cedar  is  the  most  pronounced 
lover  of  moisture,  and  on  this  account  it  is  not  only  confined  to  the 
moist  valleys,  but  is  further  restricted  to  such  only  as  head  in  or  about 
the  main  divide  of  the  Cascade  liange.  In  not  a  single  instance  was  it 
observed  in  the  moist  ravines  or  canyons  elsewhere.  Its  altitudiual 
range  was  greater  than  anticipated,  being  from  2,100  feet  on  the  Ste- 
hekin  to  6,000  feet  about  the  headwaters  of  the  Methow  and  liattle- 
snake  Creek.  The  finest  specimens  of  the  tree  are  to  be  seen  on  the 
Stehekin  and  Agnes  Creek,  where  it  ranges  from  50  to  75  feet  in  height 
and  from  10  to  25  inches  in  diameter. 

About  its  upper  limits,  particularly  in  Horseshoe  Basin,  the  tree  was 
quite  alpine  in  habit  and  very  much  stunted  in  growth,  but  even  the 
most  stunted  trees,  some  of  which  did  not  exceed  10  feet  in  height,  were 
found  to  be  fairly  well  covered  with  the  typical  small  barbed  cones, 
which  take  three  years  to  mature  their  seed.  This  slow  maturing  of  the 
seed,  coupled  with  the  moisture-loving  habit  of  the  tree,  tends  greatly 
to  restrict  its  regional  range.  The  branches  are  somewhat  declined, 
and  the  brauchlets  mostly  pendulous,  giving  the  tree  a  dejected  ajipear- 
auce  in  the  forest.  AriaUu 

The  bark  of  the  young  tree  is  somewhat  red  and  otringyf  becoming 
checked  and' gray  in  age,  when  it  bears  a  strong  resemblance  to  that  of 
Thuja  plicaia,  but  the  mature  tree,  unlike  the  latter,  continues  perfectly 
sound  at  the  core. 

The  wood  is  close  grained,  firm,  and  durable,  and  is  undoubtedly  the 
most  valuable  in  this  region.  It  takes  a  high  polish,  and  is  highly 
prized  for  cabinetwork  and  certain  kinds  of  finishing. 

^Co/o  otto  VU  /-8-t/  /%»  U.H&UH. 

JUNIPERUS  vtniiiiNiANA  J  J.     (Vii'g'inia  juniper,  or  red  juniper;  Pisk- 
waus  name,  Pon-ilp.) 

The  regional  range  of  this  tree  is  more  restricted  than  that  of  any 
other  in  the  eastern  portion  of  the  reserve,  being  strictly  limited  to  a 
few  spots  about  the  shores  of  Lake  Chelan;^  and  its  immediate  vicinity, 


340  FOREST    RESERVES. 

where  the  tree  may  be  seen  struggling  for  an  existence  in  the  dry,  rocky 
soil.  Its  altitmliual  range  is  equally  as  limited  as  its  regional,  extend- 
ing upward  only  a  short  distance  from  lake  level— 1,108  feet.  Xot  a 
single  specimen  was  seen  above  1,800  feet  elevation. 

The  tree  is  much  twisted  and  gnarled  by  the  winds  about  the  lake 
shore,  but,  notwithstanding  this,  appeared  to  be  quite  healthy,  all  the 
specimens  observed  being  well  loaderl  with  the  typical,  glancous-blue, 
berry-like  cones,  which  take  two  years  to  mature  their  seed.  It  is  quite 
stunted  in  growth  in  this  region,  the  tallest  tree  seen  not  exceeding  30 
feet  in  height,  and  the  diameter  ranging  from  7  to  12  inches. 

The  sapwood  is  white,  the  heartwood  a  decided  red,  odorous,  compact, 
and  very  durable.    ^S^o  economic  use,  however,  is  yet  made  of  the  tree. 

JuNiPEEUS  NANA  Willd.     (Creeping  juniper.) 

This  diminutive  representative  of  the. cone- bearing  family — the  only 
shrub  among  them — has  an  altitudinal  range  far  exceeding  that  of  any 
other  tree  in  this  region,  being  found  from  1,100  feet  on  the  shores  of 
Lake  Chelan  to  7,500  feet,  or  timber  line.  Although  usually  fovoring 
a  moist  habitat,  it  was  found  quite  at  home  in  very  dry  situations  here, 
and  in  favorable  locations  was  found  well  fruited  with  masses  of  dark- 
bine,  berry-like  cones.  It  is  fairly  common  in  sheltered,  rocky  spots 
about  all  the  moist  slopes  and  passes  in  this  portion  of  the  reserve. 
The  only  other  shrub  that  at  all  approaches  it  in  altitudinal  range  here 
is  the  Oregon  bos,  Pachystima  myrsinites,  which  ranges  from  1,100  to 

7,000  feet. 

Taxus  bbevifoliA  Nutt.     (Pacific  yew.) 

The  Pacific  yew  is  the  only  dicecious  conifer  here,  and  has  a  very 
limited  regional  range,  being  found  only  on  the  Stehekin,  iu  Horseshoe 
Basin,  and  about  some  of  the  passes.  It  ranges  in  altitude  from  3,300 
to  5,500  feet.  All  the  specimens  observed  here  were  dwarfed  and 
shrub-like,  ranging  from  8  to  18  feet  iu  height,  and  none  were  seen 
exceeding  7  inches  in  diameter.  The  pistillate  trees  were  sparingly 
fruited  with  a  bright-red,  fleshy,  cup-shaped  berry,  quite  sweet  to  the 
T  . ,  taste,  and  bearing  one  seed.  The  bark  is  thin,  reddish,  tough,  and 
/otringiy.  The  wood  is  close  grained,  tough,  elastic,  and  very  durable, 
but  it  is  too  rare  here  to  be  of  economic  value. 

Salix   lasiandra  lyalli  Sargent.     (Lyall  willow;  Piskwaiis  name, 
Thl-kiith.) 

This  hardy  willow  is  the  most  common  here,  and  has  a  considerable 
altitudinal  range,  being  found  from  lake  level,  1,100  feet,  to  5,500  feet 
elevation.  It  ajjjjcars  to  be  little  attected  by  altitude,  the  chief  requisite 
being  sufiieient  moisture.  A  specimen  (55  years  old  at  5,100  feet  eleva- 
tion was  found  to  be  39  feet  in  height  and  7i  inches  in  diameter,  while 
the  largest  seen  at  lake  level  was  only  8  inches  in  diameter.  The 
foliage  is  much  eaten  by  stock  wherever  it  can  be  reached. 


GOEMA.V.]  EASTERN   PART    OF    WASHINGTON    RESERVE.  341 

Salix  fluviatilis  Nutt.     (Longleaf  willow.) 

The  longleaf  willow  lias  not  nearly  as  great  altitudinal  range  as  tbe 
last,  being  mostly  confined  to  moist  sitnations  about  lake  level.  It 
ranges  from  10  to  40  feet  in  height  here,  and  the  diameter  rarely  exceeds 
6  inches.    The  foliage  of  this  willow  also  is  much  relished  by  stock. 

PopuLtrs  TREMULOIDES  Michx.     (Aspeu  poplar.) 

The  altitudinal  range  of  this  tree  is  almost  identical  with  that  of  the 
yellow  pine,  1,100  to  6,000  feet.  Though  not  common  here,  its  regional 
range  is  considerable,  and  it  may  be  found  in  small  quantities  even 
on  the  driest  hillsides,  but  it  is  only  along  stream  banks  and  in  moist 
situations  that  it  appears  to  find  a  favorite  habitat  or  attain  large  size. 
One  of  the  largest  trees  examined  was  found  to  be  75  feet  high  and  19 
inches  in  diameter  at  stump  height.  It  is  occasionally  used  for  fuel 
and  for  fencing,  but  it  makes  very  indifferent  material  for  either  purpose, 

PopuLtTS  trichocabpa  Torr.  and  Gray.     (Cottonwood,  black  cotton- 
wood;  Piskwaus  name,  Thuthilp.) 

The  Cottonwood  ranges  in  altitude  here  from  1,100  to  4,000  feet,  and 
is  mostly  confined  to  the  moist  valleys  and  canyons,  where  it  sometimes 
attains  magnificent  proportions,  ranging  from  12  to  48  inches  in  diam- 
eter and  from  60  to  100  feet  in  height. 

In  the  rich  river  bottoms  the  young  trees  grow  in  dense  thickets  and 
the  foliage  attains  a  very  large  size,  as  comiiared  with  that  of  the  grown 
tree.  The  bark  of  the  young  tree  is  smooth  and  green,  strongly  resem- 
bling that  of  the  poplar,  but  the  bark  of  the  grown  tree  is  gray  and 
roughly  seamed  and  more  nearly  resembles  that  of  the  basswood  or  the 
Oregon  maple.  The  wood  makes  very  fair  fuel  and  is  used  to  some 
extent  for  that  purpose,  and  is  also  split  into  rails.  Its  principal  eco- 
nomic use  here  at  present,  however,  is  the  manufacture  of  berry,  grape, 
peach,  and  fruit  boxes  generally. 

Alnus  oeegona  IJ^utt.     (Eed  alder;  Piskwaus  name,  Kuh-skwe'alp.) 

This  is  the  commonest  alder  here,  and  ranges  in  altitude  from  1,100  to 
5,500  feet.  When  found  in  dry  situations  it  only  grows  to  shrub-like 
proportions,  but  in  the  moist  valleys  and  along  stream  banks,  particu- 
larly at  the  lower  elevations,  it  attains  a  sufficient  size  to  be  classed  as 
a  tree. 

Along  the  banks  of  some  of  the  smaller  perennial  runs  it  forms  in 
places  a  fringe  so  dense  as  to  necessitate  seeking  an  opening  to  cross 
them. 

SoBBUS  SAMBXJCiFOLiA  (C.  and  S.)  Rcem.      (Mountain  ash,  elder-leaf 
mountain  ash.) 

This  mountain  ash,  which  in  many  places  attains  the  dignity  of  a 
tree,  is  here  only  a  shrub.    It  is  confined  to  moist  mountain  slopes  and 


342  FOREST   RESERVES. 

to  the  higher  portions  of  the  moist  valleys,  where  it  ranges  in  altitude 
from  2,700  to  5,000  feet.  It  is  well  fruited  with  great  clusters  of  exceed- 
ingly acid,  inedible  berries,  whose  brilliant  red  color  makes  it  a  notice- 
able object  on  the  mountain  sides  in  late  autumn. 

SoRBUS  occiDENTALE  (Wats.)  Greene.     (Little  mountain  ash.) 

This  was  found  to  be  much  rarer,  more  shrub-like  and  more  alpine 
than  the  last  named.  It  was  observed  only  in  Horseshoe  Basin  and  on 
Agnes  Creek,  where  it  ranges  in  altitude  from  3,100  to  6,000  feet.  The 
fruit  is  smaller  and  less  abundant  than  that  of  the  preceding,  but  is 

equally  acid  and  inedible. 

t 

Amelanchier  FLORIDA  Lindl.      (Service  berry,  western  service  tree.) 

One  of  the  commonest  shrubs  here  is  the  service  berry,  ajjparently 
as  much  at  home  on  the  dry  hillsides  as  in  the  moist  valleys,  and  rang- 
ing in  altitude  from  1,100  to  5,700  feet;  it  is  only  at  the  lower  elevations 
that  it  grows  to  be  tree  like  in  size.  It  is  missing  from  the  lodgepole- 
pine  belt,  but  reappears  again  above,  and  is  observed  in  a  considerably 
dwarfed  form  a  little  below  snow  line  iu  Horseshoe  Basin.  About  the 
lower  levels  it  bears  great  quantities  of  sweetish  edible  berries,  the 
amount  of  fruit  borne  gradually  diminishing  toward  its  upjier  limits, 
but  even  near  snow  line  iu  Horseshoe  Basiu  it  is  still  found  to  bear 
fruit. 

Crat^GUS  BOUGLASir  Lindl.     (Western  haw.) 

This  tree  is  not  common  in  any  part  of  this  region,  being  mostly  con- 
fined to  the  lake  level  and  to  moist  slopes  and  stream  banks.  It  bears 
a  fair  amount  of  dark  edible  fruit  that  is  almost  black  when  ripe. 
Forked  sections  of  the  smaller  parts  of  the  trunk  are  much  used  here 
by  settlers,  packers,  and  Indians  for  making  the  hooks  used  on  the  end 
of  the  cinch  in  packing,  as  it  is  the  toughest  aud  best  wood  to  be  found 
for  this  purpose. 

Crat^giis  sp.  (Xo.  803.) 

This  shrubby  haw  was  observed  only  about  the  lower  limits  of  the 
white-bark  pine.  The  specimen  collected  was  found  at  6,100  feet 
elevation. 

Prunus  emarginata  (Doug.)  Walp.     (Bitter  cherry.) 

This  tree  ranges  in  altitude  from  1,100  to  3,500  feet,  but  toward  its 
upper  limits  it  is  more  or  less  shrubby  in  form  aud  size.  Wherever 
seen  it  was  loaded  with  large  quantities  of  luscious-looking  but  exceed- 
ingly bitter  fruit  which  neither  man  nor  beast  will  eat.  The  amount  of 
fiuit  borne  is  apparently  not  much  aflected  by  altitude,  as  even  about 
its  upper  limits  it  is  well  fruited.    A  peculiar  fact  regarding  this  tree 


QOEMAN.J  EASTERN    PART    OP    WASHINGTON    RESERVE.  343 

is  that  when  the  cultivated  cherry  is  grafted  on  to  the  stump  of  this 
cue  by  fruit  growers,  the  tree  is  uot  only  healthier  and  hardier  but  the 
fruit  is  found  to  excel  in  flavor  that  of  the  cultivated  cherry  when  grown 
on  its  own  stump. 

Prdnus  demissa  (Nutt.)  Walp.     (Western   chokecherry;    Piskwaus 
name,  Pvrh  kal-uh-halp;  fruit,  Puhkal-uh.) 

•  The  chokecherry  is  quite  common  here  and  has  an  altitndinal  range 
identical  with  that  of  the  preceding.  The  amount  of  fruit  borne  is  even 
greater  than  on  the  bitter  cherry,  and  has  the  further  advantage  of 
being  edible.  Both  tree  and  fruit  were  observed  to  thrive  best  on  the 
benches  near  lake  level. 

Acer  maceophyllum  Pursh.     (Oregon  maple;  Piskwaus  nam(>, 
Thliih-.thluh-al-pitch-kil.) 

The  Oregon  maple  was  found  to  be  fairly  well  distributed  over  this 
whole  region,  although  it  generally  prefers  the  moist  slopes  and  stream 
banks.  It  attains  its  greatest  development,  however,  in  the  rich  river 
bottoms  like  the  Stehekin,  where  it  ranges  from  10  to  25  inches  in 
diameter  and  from  40  to  70  feet  in  height.  Outside  of  such  valleys  it 
rarely  exceeds  8  inches  in  diameter.  It  ranges  in  altitude  from  1,100 
to  3,500  feet,  but  decreases  rapidly  in  size  towaid  its  upper  limits.  The 
wood  is  straight  grained,  compact,  quite  suitable  for  lumber,  and  excel- 
lent for  fuel,  but  the  latter  is  the  only  economic  use  yet  made  of  it  here. 

Acer  circinatum  Pursh.     (Vine  maple.) 

This  straggling  tree  was  observed  only  in  the  Stehekin  Valley,  where 
it  ranges  in  altitude  from  1,150  to  4,000  feet.  It  rei|uires  much  more 
moisture  than  the  jneceding,  but  is  not  of  any  economic  value. 

Acer  glabrum  Torr.     (Dwarf  maple;  Piskwaus  name,  Sum- 
whum  alp.) 

The  dwarf  maple  is  capable  of  withstanding  a  much  drier  climate 
than  either  of  the  two  preceding,  and  consequently  its  regional  distri- 
bution here  is  much  greater.  Its  altitndinal  range  is  also  greater, 
being  from  1,100  to  4,500  feet.  It  is  a  very  small  tree  even  in  favorable 
situations,  and  is  generally  only  a  shrub.  It  has  no  economic  value. 
Fully  50  per  cent  of  the  specimens  observed  had  the  foliage  much 
aflected  by  a  bright-red  fungus. 

CoRNirs  NUTTALLii  And.     (Western  dogwood;  Piskwaus  name, 
Pil-pilalp.) 

This  tree  is  very  showy  in  the  woods  in  spring,  owing  to  the  great 
white  involucres  surrounding  its  ilowers.  It  is  still  more  noticeable 
here  in  late  autumn,  when  the  masses  of  bright-red  berries,  the  rich 


344  FOREST    RESERVES. 

dark  red  of  the  foliage,  aud  the  glaring  white  involucres  of  its  autumn 
tlowers  comhine  to  make  it  a  very  conspicuous  tree  in  the  forest.  Its 
altitudinal  range  is  quite  limited— 1,100  to  2,.j00  feet— and  it  is  mostly 
confined  to  moist  ravines  and  stream  banks.  In  moist  valleys  like  the 
Stehekiu  it  grows  large  enough  to  be  used  for  fuel. 

CoENUS   BAiLEYi  Coult  and  Evans.     (Bailey's  dogwood:   Piskwaus 
name,  Shtuksh-walp;  fruit,  Shta-kluh.) 

Though  classed  as  a  shrub,  this  is  entitled  to  notice  on  account  of  its 
habit  of  growing  iu  dense  thickets  on  the  moist  river  bottoms,  where 
it  is  sometimes  almost  inpcnetrable.  It  was  not  observed  outside  of 
the  moist  ravines  aud  valleys,  and  ranges  iu  altitude  here  from  1,100  to 
3,000  feet.  AVherever  seen  it  was  well  fruited  with  great  masses  of 
white  to  bluish-white  berries,  which  form  the  favorite  food  of  pheasants 
in  autumn. 

Sambucus  callicarpA  Greene.     (Redberry  elder.) 

This  occurs  only  as  a  shrub  in  the  moist  valleys  and  canyons  of  this 
region,  where  it  has  a  rather  peculiar  altitudinal  range — 2,790  to  0,000 
feet.  It  was  observed  almost  up  to  snow  line  in  Horseshoe  Basin,  and 
bore  fruit  only  sparingly  wherever  seen. 

Sambucus  glauca  ifutt.     (Pale  elder;  Piskwaus  name,  Chu-kweek- 
winlp;  fruit,  Chu-kweek.) 

The  pale  elder  is  much  more  common  than  the  preceding,  and,  though 
generally  preferring  the  ravines  and  valleys,  may  also  be  found  on  the 
moist  slopes  and  hillsides.  It  ranges  in  altitude  from  1,100  to  4,000 
feet,  but  attains  tree-like  proportions  only  about  its  lower  limits.  At 
all  altitudes  it  was  found  to  bear  fruit  in  such  immense  quantities  that 
the  branches  were  bent  downward  by  the  weight  of  the  great  masses 
of  its  jiale  glaucous-blue  berries. 

FOREST  FIRES. 

There  can  be  no  doubt  iu  the  mind  of  any  thoughtful  observer  who 
has  traversed  this  region  that  it  was  once  much  better  forested  than  it 
is  at  the  present  time.  The  cause  of  this  deforestation  is  not  far  to 
seek.  The  numerous  burnt  stumps,  the  bare  slopes  of  the  west  and 
southwest  faces  of  the  hillsides,  the  charred  and  dead  trees,  the  burnt 
areas  of  ditt'ereut  ages,  and  the  paucity  of  humus  outside  of  the  moist 
ravines  and  valleys  all  attest  that  the  region  has  been  burned  over, 
not  once,  but  many  times.  Of  the  whole  region  traversed  by  our  party 
during  the  season,  a  few  STuall  spots  about  the  passes  and  a  small  tract 
on  Bridge  Creek  were  the  only  sections  that  showed  no  evidence  of 
ever  having  been  visited  by  fire.  Even  the  moist  valleys  of  Stehekin 
River,  Early  Winters  Creek,  and  Railroad  Creek  gave  ample  proof  of 
having  been  burned  over  seriouslv  more  than  once. 


GORMAX.]  EASTERN    PART    OF    WASHINGTON    RESERVE.  345 

According-  to  the  testimony  of  settlers,  some  forest  fires  occur  here 
every  summer;  for  instance,  during  the  present  season,  in  addition  to 
three  simultaneous  tires  in  the  vicinity  of  Lake  Chelan,  there  were  also 
one  on  the  Entiatqua  divide  and  two  in  the  iVfethow  Valley.  They 
further  allege,  apparently  on  good  evidence,  that  this  region  had  been 
burned  over  long  before  the  coming  of  the  first  white  settlers.  This  is 
well  borne  out  by  the  scarred  bases  of  the  mature  trees  in  the  yellow- 
pine  belt,  nearly  all  of  which  show  traces  of  more  than  one  forest  fire. 
As  the  two  principal  trees  of  this  belt — the  yellow  pine  and  red  fir — 
are  well  fruited  with  fully  seeded  cones,  the  great  paucity  of  seedlings 
and  saplings  in  this  belt  is  undoubtedly  attributable  in  a  much  greater 
degree  to  fires  than  to  dryness  of  climate,  as  the  repeated  burnings 
have  so  deprived  the  soil  of  humus  that  the  seedlings  fail  to  take  per- 
manent root,  and  sooner  or  later  perish. 

In  the  yellow-pine  belt  the  first  visit  of  a  forest  fire  rarely  does  more 
than  burn  the  dry  grass,  kill  the  sapliugs,  and  scorch  the  bases  of  the 
grown  trees,  but  a  second  or  third  fire  usually  results  in  the  destruction 
of  many  fine  timber  trees.  A  slope  or  hillside  in  this  belt  with  south 
or  southwest  exposure  that  has  once  been  completely  burned  over  sel- 
dom or  never  becomes  reforested ;  but  the  north  or  northwest  exposures, 
where  burned,  are  generally  found  to  be  slowly  recovering. 

In  the  lodgepole-pine  belt,  on  the  other  hand,  a  forest  fire  at  any 
time  proves  most  disastrous,  as  even  on  the  first  visit,  if  there  is  a  high 
wind,  many  trees  are  burned  outright,  or,  if  not,  the  fire  slowly  burns 
in  the  humus  about  their  roots  until  the  trees  are  uprooted  or  destroyed, 
while  a  second  or  third  fire  over  such  a  tract  rarely  leaves  a  living  tree 
of  this  species.  Besides  its  dense  growth,  the  liability  of  this  tree  to 
injury  by  fire,  and  the  number  of  windfalls  and  broken  trees,  tend  still 
further  to  make  a  fire  in  this  belt  exceedingly  destructive.  The  wind 
also  does  much  more  damage  in  this  belt  than  in  any  other  by  uproot- 
ing and  breaking  so  many  of  the  trees  that  on  the  approach  of  a  serious 
forest  fire  this  material  acts  as  fuel  among  the  green  timber  and 
seriously  aids  in  the  destruction  of  the  surrounding  forest. 

On  August  13,  about  the  head  of  Twenty-five  Mile  Creek,  we  exam- 
ined a  large  tract  in  this  belt  that  had  recently  been  burned  over  by  a 
fire  left  by  a  careless  sheep  herder  who  had  been  grazing  his  flock  in 
the  vicinity.  This  was  apparently  the  first  fire  that  had  occurred  here, 
but  the  destruction  was  most  complete  and  not  a  single  sapliug  escaped. 
The  trees,  of  which  about  75  per  cent  were  lodgejjole  pine  and  25  jjer 
cent  subalpiue  fir,  were  burned,  fallen,  and  u])rooted  on  all  sides,  less 
than'  3  per  cent  of  the  trees,  large  or  small,  having  escaped.  Even  the 
humus  was  so  totally  burned  that  nothing  but  a  drj',  powdery  ash  mixed 
with  charcoal  dust  was  left,  into  which  one  sank  ankle-deep  at  every 
step,  and  each  footfall  sent  up  such  a  cloud  of  dust  and  ashes  that  after 
walkiiig  a  mile  or  two  one  looked  like  a  coal  heaver  or  chimney  sweep. 
A  few  smoldering  logs  still  lay  about,  in  proof  of  the  recent  time  of 
the  tire,  while  the  quantity  of  dead  and  fallen   trees  left  will  prove  a 


346  FOREST    KESERVKS. 

source  of  danger  to  any  new  growth  that  might  appear  for  many  years. 
The  lodgepole  pine  being  so  slow  in  growth,  and  all  of  the  fnll-grown 
trees  of  that  species  being  more  than  one  liumlred  years  old,  it  will 
probably  take  a  century,  in  the  slow  process  of  nature,  to  reforest  this 
tract  to  the  extent  existing  before  the  tirti,  while  the  loss  to  the  soil  by 
denudation  in  its  present  unprotected  condition  is  irreparable. 

The  subalpine-tir  belt  suffers  next  to  that  of  the  lodgepole  pine  in 
the  amount  of  injury  done  by  forest  fires.  The  most  typical  examjjle 
in  this  belt  seen  during  the  trip  was  on  Kattlesnake  Creek,  where  the 
parties  who  were  making  the  trail  to  the  Slate  Creek  mining  district 
in  1S!).5  set  Are  to  or  allowed  the  lire  to  run  in  a  large  tract  of  forest 
here,  composed  of  Abies  lasiocarpa,  A.  amahilis,  and  Picea  em/elmanni. 
In  this  tract  about  7.5  per  cent  of  the  trees  had  been  destroyed,  very 
few  of  them  having  been  burned  outright,  but  the  heat  from  the  burn- 
ing resin  vesicles  in  the  bark  of  the  firs  was  sufliciently  intense  to  cause 
the  bark  to  blister  or  separate  from  the  trunk,  thus  destroying  the  trees. 
These  two  ftrs  being  much  more  deeply  rooted  than  the  lodgepole  i)ine, 
very  few  of  them  had  become  uprooted  or  had  fallen,  nor  was  the  humus 
destroyed  to  anything  like  the  extent  it  had  been  in  the  tract  of  lodge- 
pole pine  referred  to  above.  Though  the  bark  of  the  Engelinann  spruce 
does  not  blister  from  excessive  heat,  like  that  of  the  firs,  the  fire  was 
proportionately  more  fatal  to  it  tlian  to  the  latter,  and  wherever  burned 
about  the  base  the  trees  perished.  This  belt  appears  to  recover  from 
the  effects  of  a  fire  more  readily  than  any  of  the  others,  and  more  sap- 
lings in  proportion  to  tlie  number  of  grown  trees  were  seen  here  than 
anywhere  else  outside  of  the  moist  valleys. 

In  the  white-barkpine  belt  tiie  loss  of  timber  by  a  forest  fire  is  com- 
paratively light,  but  the  damage  to  the  soil  is  very  great.  Once  tlie 
grass  is  burned  off  these  elevated  slopes  and  ridges,  the  amount  of 
denudation  caused  by  water  from  the  accumulated  snows  of  winter  is 
so  great  tliat  it  requires  many  years  for  vegetation  or  young  seedlings 
to  regain  a  foothold  there. 

The  damage  resultiug  from  a  forest  fire  in  the  moist  ravines  and 
valleys  is  much  greater  than,  in  their  moist  condition,  one  would  suppose 
possible.  The  tree  growth  is  much  denser,  tTie  saplings  and  young 
deciduous  trees  are  more  numerous,  and  the  quantity  of  hunuis  and 
forest  litter  is  very  much  greater  than  in  tlie  region  outside  of  these  val- 
leys. This  abundance  of  humus  and  forest  litter  is  undoubtedly  the 
cause  of  fires  continuing  so  long  and  creating  such  havoc  in  the  inclosed 
valleys.  Even  when  the  bottom  lands  of  a  valley  are  too  moist  to  be 
much  injured  by  fire  the  slopes  on  each  side  will  continue  smoldering 
and  burning  until  quenched  by  the  fall  rains. 

Judging  fioni  the  universal  traces  of  fire  in  the  forest,  the  number  of 
old  burnt  tracts  where  reforestation  has  failed  to  take  place,  and  the 
abundant  evidence  of  the  damage  done  during  this  season  alone,  it  is 
safe  to  estimate  that  50  per  cent  of  the  trees  of  the  eastern  portion  of 


GORMAN.]  EASTERN    PART    OP    WASHINGTON    RESERVE.  347 

the  reserve  liave  beeu  destroyed  by  fire,  while  the  total  amount  used  for 
lumber,  fuel,  and  other  economic  purposes  will  not  exceed  5  per  cent. 

Among  the  principal  causes  of  forest  tires  may  be  named  sheep 
herders,  campers,  hunters,  prospectors,  miners,  trail  and  road  makers, 
and  settlers.  The  tirst  named  are  generally  the  most  culpable.  Some 
of  the  numerous  camp  tires  which  they  make  as  their  herd  moves  from 
place  to  place  are  allowed  to  ignite  the  surrounding  forest,  by  accident 
or  by  design,  and  iires  once  started  in  this  dry  region  are  seldom  extin- 
guished before  the  arrival  of  the  fall  rains  or  until  they  burn  out  for 
lack  of  more  material  to  feed  on. 

Campers  and  hunters  are  mostly  to  blame  for  carelessly  neglecting 
to  extinguish  their  fires  thoroughly  on  moving  or  breaking  camps.  A 
camp  Are  supposed  to  be  burned  out  is  frequently  found  to  be  still 
smoldering  in  the  humus,  and  only  awaits  a  favorable  wind  to  flare 
into  activity  and  spread  to  the  nearest  timber. 

Prospectors  and  miners  frequently  set  out  a  tire  for  the  purpose  of 
clearing  off  the  ground,  so  that  the  rock  or  ledge  may  be  more  accessible 
and  the  claim  or  mine  more  easily  worked,  and  the  fact  that  the  tire 
may  communicate  to  the  adjoining  forest  and  destroy  much  valuable 
timber  is  entirely  ignored  or  lost  sight  of. 

There  are  few  roads  in  this  region,  but  the  State  and  private  parties 
have  made  numerous  trails  to  the  mines  and  over  the  passes,  and  in 
almost  every  instance  a  line  of  charred  and  burnt  forest  was  found  to 
exist  in  the  vicinity  of  these  trails.  This  is  sometimes  caused  by  the 
carelessness  of  the  contractors  or  laborers  in  allowing  their  work  tires 
to  spread,  but  occasionally  it  is  the  result  of  design  on  their  part,  for 
the  purpose  of  clearing  off  the  timber  and  facilitating  the  making  of 
the  trail.  One  of  the  most  seriously  burnt  tracts  of  timber  seen  in  the 
reserve  was  along  the  line  of  the  trail  from  the  Methow  Yalley  to  the 
Slate  Creek  mining  district. 

The  settlers  in  and  about  this  portion  of  the  reserve  are  responsible 
for  many  of  the  forest  tires,  perhaps  not  intentionally.  It  is,  however, 
a  well-known  fact  that  a  fire  once  started  for  the  purpose  of  clearing 
land  is  seldom  or  never  confined  to  the  tract  to  be  cleared,  but  gradu- 
ally finds  its  way  into  the  adjoining  forest,  where  it  continues  until 
burned  out  or  extinguished  by  the  fall  rains.  One  of  the  tires  seen  in 
the  Methow  Valley  had  its  origin  in  this  way.  Nearlj^  all  the  ranches 
here  are  in  the  yellow-pine  belt,  and  the  customary  method  of  clearing 
the  land  of  large  timber  is  to  "ring"  the  trees  for  a  year  or  two  until 
dead  and  fairly  dry.  The  fire  is  then  set  out,  and  spreads  rapidly  along 
the  dry  grass  till  it  reaches  the  trees,  when  it  ignites  the  pitch  oozing 
from  the  "ring'' or  cut  and,  spreading,  soon  envelops  the  tree.  The 
only  precaution  taken  by  the  rancher  is  to  set  out  the  fire  to  the  lee- 
ward of  his  buildings  or  fences,  and  then  no  effort  whatever  is  made  to 
prevent  it  from  reaching  the  neighboring  timber.  Even  his  own  fences 
frequently  fall  a  prey  to  the  devouring  element,  which  a  high  wind  soon 
places  beyond  his  control. 


348  FOREST   RESERVES. 

The  fire-resisting  power  of  the  trees  in  this  region  varies  greatly  in 
the  (lifterent  sjiecies.  The  thick  bark  of  the  yellow  pine  and  red  Qr 
enables  them  to  survive  a  fire  to  which  most  of  the  others  would  suc- 
cumb, and  it  is  some  matter  of  doubt  whicli  of  them  possesses  the 
greatest  fire  resisting  qualities.  Tlie  Pacific  arbor  vita-  and  Alaska 
cedar,  although  thin  barked,  are  deep  rooted  and  iiouresinous  and 
resist  the  attacks  of  fire  fairly  well.  The  highly  resinous  bark  of  the 
subalpine  and  amabilis  firs  leaves  them  an  easy  prey  to  forest  fires, 
while  the  Engelmann  spruce,  though  not  resinous  barked,  is  fully  as 
vulnerable  as  either  of  the  firs,  probably  owing  to  its  thin,  scaly  bark 
and  the  paucity  of  sap  in  the  tree  itself. 

A  list  of  the  principal  conifers  here,  in  the  order  of  their  resistence 
to  fire,  would  bo  about  a^  follows : 

1.  I'seuilotsugatiuiilolin,  (Ka?^)  Sudw Red  fir. 

2.  Piuus  ponderosa,  Dougl Yellow  pine. 

3.  P.  albicaulis,  Engelm White-bark  pine. 

4.  Tsiiga  pattonii,  (Jeff. )  Coville Patton's  hemlock. 

5.  Thuja  plicata,  Don Pacific  arbor  vitae. 

6.  Cham;i!cyparis  nootkatensis,  (Lamb)  Spach Alaska  cedar. 

7.  Larix  occidentalis,  Nutt  -  -  -  ^  -  -  , Western  larch,.,,      _j_- 

8.  .luuiperus  virgininun,  \j*.ry.... '. ^ttea  luniper. 

9.  Teuga  pattonii  hookeri,  Lemmou Hooker  hemlock. 

10.  Pimis  murrayana,  Balf Lodgepole  pine. 

11.  P.  monticola,  Dougl Monntain  white  pine. 

12.  Tsuga  mertonsiana,  (Bong. )  Carr Western  hemlock. 

13.  Abies  amabilis,  (Loud.)  Forbes Amabilis  fir. 

U.  A.  lasiocarpa,  (Hook.)  Nutt Subalpine  fir. 

15.  Picea  engelmanni,  Engelm Engelmann  spruce. 

FOREST  PRESERVATIOX. 

The  rapidity  with  which  our  forests  are  being  denuded  for  lumber 
and  fuel,  the  immense  amount  of  timber  destroyed  each  year  by  forest 
fires,  the  value  of  our  timber  as  a  natural  resource,  and  the  importance 
of  the  forest  in  the  conservation  of  the  water  supply,  particularly  in  a  dry 
climate  like  that  of  this  regiou,  all  tend  to  make  forest  preservation  a 
question  on  which  the  average  citizen  should  be  much  better  informed 
than  he  is  at  present. 

The  history  of  all  countries  where  forests  have  been  neglected  or 
destroyed  is  similar.  The  more  mountainous  the  regiou  and  thedrier  the 
climate  the  more  serious  the  resulting  damage.  First,  great  freshets 
in  the  streams  iu  .spring,  with  consequent  soil  erosion;  next,  drying  up 
of  the  stream  beds  and  desiccation  of  the  soil  in  summer,  followed  by 
climatic  changes  and  the  failure  of  crops  without  irrigation.  Even  now 
the  successful  raising  of  crops  in  this  region  can  be  assured  only  by 
the  use  of  irrigation,  and  already  many  of  the  small  runs  which  formerly 
contained  water  throughout  the  season  are  dry  in  summer,  owing  to 
the  removal  of  the  forestcovering  about  their  sources  and,  consequently, 
too  early  melting  of  the  snows  in  spring.     Outside  of  the  moist  valleys 


GORMAN.]  EASTERN    PART    OF    WASHINGTON    RESERVE.  349 

the  lodgepolepiiie  belt  contains  the  densest  growth  and,  consequently, 
by  preventing  too  rapid  evaporation  from  the  soil  and  retarding  the 
melting  of  the  snow,  is  the  greatest  conservator  of  the  water  supply. 
It  is  also  the  zone  most  liable  to  damage  by  fire,  and  on  this  account  is 
entitled  to  great  consideration  in  the  matter  of  forest  protection.  The 
snow  in  the  j'ellow-piue  belt  disappears  very  early  in  spring,  and  for 
the  remainder  of  the  season  this  belt  must  depend  for  its  moisture,  to 
a  great  extent,  on  the  belt  of  the  lodgepole  pine  above. 

The  apparent  indifference  of  the  public  to  the  importance  of  this  mat- 
ter is  undoubtedly  due  in  great  measure  to  misconception  and  lack  of 
information  on  the  subject,  and  it  is  but  fair  to  our  more  intelligent 
citizens  to  assume  that  when  they  are  made  fully  aware  of  the  dangers 
of  delay  or  neglect^orest  preservation  will  receive  the  consideration 
to  which  it  is  entitled. 

The  erroneous  ideas  that  have  prevailed  in  the  popular  mind  for  many 
years  regarding  the  inexhaustibility  of  our  timber  supply  on  the  Pacific 
coast  are  largely  responsible  for  the  great  recklessness  with  which  our 
forests  are  laid  waste  and  the  utter  apathy  and  lack  of  interest  of  tlie 
general  public  in  all  matters  relating  to  forest  j)rotection  or  preserva- 
tion. The  ignorance,  sensationalism,  and  sectional  boastfulness  of 
newspapers  are  chiefly  responsible  for  the  spread  of  such  pernicious 
ideas,  and  the  error  of  such  statements  can  not  be  pointed  out  too 
forcibly,  nor  the  public  mind  be  educated  too  promptly  to  the  fact  that 
our  forests  are  fast  disappearing  and  unless  protected  will  in  the  course 
of  another  generation  become  so  limited  as  to  be  barely  sufficient  for 
local  consumption.  Not  only  the  newspapers  but  the  sheepmen  as  well 
are  instrumental  in  circulating  these  mischievous  ideas  regarding  the 
unlimited  supply  of  timber  in  our  forests.  The  former  have  at  least  the 
excuse  for  their  misstatements  that  they  are  made  for  the  public- 
spirited  imrpose  of  booming  their  own  particular  section,  but  the  latter 
have  no  excuse  whatever,  and  are  actuated  only  by  cupidity.  In  order 
to  oVjtain  free  grazing  in  the  forest  reserves  for  their  omnivorous  herds, 
they  seek  to  lull  the  public  into  complacent  indifference  under  the  pre- 
text that  the  forests  are  inexhaustible  and  that  the  grazing  of  sheep  in 
them  entails  no  injury  or  reduction  of  the  timber  supply.  It  is  only 
necessary  for  a  careful  observer  to  examine  a  forest  in  which  a  baiul  of 
these  "hoofed  locusts"  have  grazed  and  their  careless  herder  with  his 
numerous  camp  fires  has  dwelt  for  a  seasou  to  have  so  fallacious  a 
theory  completely  dispelled,  and  to  become  thoroughly  convinced  that 
the  need  of  forest  protection  and  supervision  is  imperative. 

One  frequently  hears  the  statement  made,  by  persons  presumably 
capable  of  knowing,  that  "there  is  just  as  much  timber  in  this  State 
now  as  there  was  when  the  first  white  settlers  came";  the  theory  being 
that  the  growth  of  red  fir  is  so  rapid  as  to  counterbalance  the  amount 
of  timber  used  and  destroyed  each  year.  A  more  erroneous  idea 
than  this  would  be  hard  to  conceive,  and  it  should  unhesitatingly  be 


SfiO  FOKEST    RESERVES. 

corrected.  It  is  (luite  true  that  the  growth  of  this  tree  is  very  rapid  in 
the  open  woods  on  the  west  side  of  the  Cascade  Range,  where  trees  can 
be  found  larji'e  euough  for  railroad  ties  at  40  years  old,  but  on  the  east 
side  of  the  range,  or  iu  a  dense  forest,  the  growth  is  very  much  .slower, 
aud  a  tree  large  enough  for  this  purpose  would  be  80  year.s  old.  Trees 
of  this  species  large  enough  for  lumber  purposes  have  to  be  200  years 
old  or  more,  and  thousands  of  square  miles  of  forest  ou  this  coast  have 
been  overrun  by  lire  since  the  arrival  of  the  first  white  settlers,  to  say 
nothing  of  the  lumber  and  fuel  consumed. 

That  our  forests  are  diminishiug  at  an  alarming  rate,  there  can  be  no 
doubt,  and  it  remains  for  the  Federal  Government  to  devise  some  system 
by  which  the  reserves  may  be  controlled  and  supervised  so  effectually 
that  damage  from  forest  tires  will  be  reduced  to  a  minimum,  and  that 
persons  responsible  for  fires  will  be  held  strictly  accountable. 

The  first  step  in  this  direction  should  be  the  sti'ict  maintenance  of 
our  forest  reserves  as  at  present  constituted. 


DEPAETMENT  OP  THE  DfTEEIOE-U.  S.  GEOLOGICAL  SUEVET 
CHAKLES  U.  WALOOTT,  DIRECTOR 


THE 


PIKES  PEAK,  PLUM  CREEK.  AND  SOUTH 
PLATTE  FOREST  RESERVES 


JOHlSr    Gr.   JACK 


EXTRACT  FROM  THE  TWENTIETH  ANNUAL  REPORT  OF  THE  SURVEY,  1898-99 

PART  V,    FOREST   RESERVES— HENRY   GANNETT,  (3hIEF  OP 

DIVISION  OF  GEOGRAPHY  AM)  FORESTRY 


I 


WASHINGTON 

GOVERNMKNT     PRINTING     OFFICE 
19  0  0 


THE  PIKES  PEAK.  PllIM  CREEK.  AND  SOUTH 
PLATTE  FOREST  RESERVES 


JOHK   O.  JACK 


I 


PIKES  PEAK,  PLUM  CREEK,  AND  SOUTH  PLATTE 
RESERVES. 


Bv  .John  G.  Jack. 


SITUATIOX. 


These  throe  reserves,  known  as  the  Pikes  Peak  Timber  Land  Re- 
sei"ve,  the  Plum  Creek  Timber  Land  Reserve,  and  the  South  Platte 
Timber  Land  Reserve,  are  all  eoutiguous  at  some  part  of  their  bound- 
aries, and  are  situated  between  latitude  38°  45'  and  39°  45',  and 
between  longitude  104°  45'  and  106°  15'  west  from  Greenwich  (PL 
Vin,  in  pocket).  The  situation  is  practically  in  the  very  center  of 
the  State,  Colorado  Springs  lying  just  outside  the  eastern  boundary 
line,  while  the  western  limit  is  several  miles  east  of  Leadville.  The 
three  reserves  are  practically  contained  within  the  counties  of  El  Paso, 
Douglas,  Jefferson,  and  Park,  nearly  half  the  total  area  being  in  the 
last-named  county.  Very  small  areas  on  the  south  and  west  are 
understood  to  be  within  the  jurisdiction  of  Chaffee  County  and  Smnmit 
Count}'. 

The  Pikes  Peak  Timber  Land  Reserve  contains  about  184,?yi0  acres; 
the  area  of  the  Plum  Creek  Timber  Land  Reserve  is  placed  at  179,200 
acres;  while  there  are  683,520  acres  in  the  South  Platte  Timber  Land 
Reserve,  about  one-fourth  of  which  lies  in  Jefferson  County  and  the 
remainder  in  Park  County.  The  total  area  of  the  three  reserves, 
therefore,  aniounts  to  about  1,047,040  acres. 

In  general  outline  the  Pikes  Peak  Reserve  is  a  parallelogram  30 
miles  in  length  by  9  miles  in  width,  with  some  small  unreserved  areas 
within  these  parallel  lines  and  some  reserved  tracts  extending  beyond 
them. 

The  Plum  Creek  Reserve  is  somewhat  triangular  in  outline,  the 
south,  east,  and  north  sides  being  arbitrary  straight  lines,  the  west 
side  being  the  South  Platte  River. 

The  South  Platte  Reserve  is  extremely  irregular  in  outline,  the 
main  body  of  it  lying  south  of  and  having  for  its  northern  boundary 
the    North   Branch   of   the  South   Platte   River,   while  South  Platte 

39 


40  FORKST    KESKKVf;S. 

Rivor  itself  sciJiiratcs  tlic  ri'scrvc  from  the  riuiii  Crook  Koserve  on  the 
east,  !xnd  a  laii|:o  unrosorvod  traot  1<)  miles  in  width  lies  between  its 
southern  portion  and  the  Pikes  Peak  Reserve.  Between  the  main 
body  of  the  South  Platte  Reserve  and  its  extreme  western  portion 
lies  South  Park,  an  extensive,  comparatively  level,  and  open  graz- 
ing region,  24  miles  in  width  in  its  widest  part  and  over  50  miles 
long,  which  is  not  included  in  the  reserve.  The  extreme  western 
portion  of  the  reserve,  lying  between  this  unreserved  portion  and  the 
longitude  of  Leadville,  is  the  narrowest  and  most  irregular  of  all, 
varj'ing  in  widtii  from  11  miles  at  its  southern  end  to  1^  miles 
near  Alma. 

With  the  exception  of  the  natural  boundaries  formed  by  the  rivers 
mentioned,  the  limits  of  the  reserves  are  purely  arbitrary,  following 
the  straight  section  or  township  lines  drawn  by  surveyors.  On  this 
account,  and  as  there  are  no  fences  or  well-defined  points  to  mark  the 
actual  boundaries,  they  are  but  little  known  or  respected,  and  the  result 
is  that  there  is  locally  frequent  disagreement  as  to  how  far  the  reserve 
lines  extend,  and  it  is  not  unusual  to  find  settlers  who  are  not  aware 
that  thej'  are  located  within  the  area  set  apart  by  the  Government  for 
the  preservation  of  the  timber  and  the  conservation  of  the  water 
supply. 

GEXEKAL   SOIL,   COXBITIONS. 

Throughout  almost  all  parts  of  the  three  reserves  disintegrated 
granite  soils,  often  resembling  finely  broken  gravel,  are  everywhere 
manifest,  and  the  abundant  granite  rocks  and  mountains  from  which 
the  soils  have  been  derived  show  the  general  geological  character  of 
the  country;  and  it  is  only  on  a  very  limited  strip  along  the  lowest 
eastern  edge  of  the  Pikes  Peak  and  the  Plum  Creek  reserves  that  the 
tilted  sandstone  formation,  so  conspicuous  and  well  known  at  Man- 
itou,  is  evident.  There  are  frequent  outcroppings  of  quartz  and 
other  rock  in  different  parts  of  the  reserves,  and  prospecting  has 
shown  that  mineral-bearing  material  is  likely  to  be  found  almost  any- 
where. On  the  western  arm  of  the  South  Platte  Reserve  limestone 
and  volcanic  rock  are  abundant. 

On  the  higher  mountains  the  broken  granite  is  generally  piled  in 
gi"eat  masses,  as  on  Pikes  Peak,  or  in  huge  weather-worn  lilocks,  as 
on  .some  of  the  Tarryall  peaks  to  the  west.  In  the  course  of  ages  the 
interstices  between  these  rocks  have  become  tilled  with  smaller  frag- 
ments upon  which  minute  plants  grow,  thus  forming  some  humus 
upon  which  other  species  grow  more  vigort)usly,  so  that  some  vegeta- 
tion, like  lichens,  grasses,  sedges,  and  other  herl)aceous  plants,  is  found 
at  the  top  of  the  loftiest  summits.  In  natural  hollows  or  cavities  and 
with  decreasing  altitude  and  deeper  deposit  of  decayed  granite  and 


.1     VERY    ROCKY   SLOPES    EAST   OF   TARRYALL    ^/10U^ 
PARK   CREEK. 


/;    ENGELMANN    SPRUCE   AND    DOUGLAS   SPRUCE   ON    GRANITE   ROCKS  ALONG    LOST 
PARK   CREEK 


JACK.]  RESERVES    IN    CENTRAL    COLORADO.  41 

humus  the  vegetation  is  richer  and  more  rank,  including  various  species 
of  dwarf  shrubs. 

On  steep  slopes  the  finer  material  and  humus  is  necessarily  accumu- 
lated in  pockets,  and  in  the  ravines  and  gulches  through  which 
streams  run,  the  greatest  accumulation  of  humus  is  found. 

Wherever  the  soil  has  been  increased  by  winds  blowing  debris  or 
sand  from  other  places,  or  where  it  is  subject  to  accretion  bj-  washing, 
the  decayed  granite  and  hunms  is  commonly  found  more  or  less  mixed. 
The  decaying  roots  of  trees  and  other  plants  in  the  soil  also  add  in  a 
small  degree  to  the  fertility.  Throughout  the  greater  part  of  the 
reserves,  however,  there  is  a  general  and  very  noticeable  absence  of 
hunuis  or  accumulation  of  decayed  vegetable  matter  of  any  kind, 
which  is  no  doubt  largely  due  to  the  dry  conditions  favorable  for 
oxidation  and  to  the  prevalence  of  both  heavy  forest  and  light  ground 
fires  at  various  times,  as  well  as  to  the  general  poverty  of  the  natural 
living  vegetation  itself.  Probably  not  5  per  cent  of  the  entire  area 
bears  any  appreciable  amount  of  humus  over  the  coarse  material 
beneath,  and  most  of  such  himius  as  exists  is  shallow,  not  more  than 
from  1  to  6  inches  in  depth. 

As  a  rule  the  lower  hills  are  rounded  and  formed  of  great  beds  of 
disintegrated  granite  resembling  small  gravel  or  coarse  sand,  upon 
which  most  of  the  forest  and  vegetation  grows.  Naturally  the 
material  accumulated  near  the  base  of  the  hills  and  in  the  gulches  is  of 
finer  composition  and  contains  more  vegetable  matter  than  that  found 
above,  and  this  is  shown  in  the  finer  development  of  the  trees  and 
plants,  although  increased  moisture  and  shelter  are  also  factors  to  be 
considered  in  connection  with  improved  soil  conditions. 

The  granite  rock  shows  much  variation  in  character  in  different 
parts  of  the  reserves.  For  the  most  part  natural  decay  and  disinte- 
gration are  very  evident;  but  in  some  areas  the  rocks  present  a  hard, 
polished,  and  enduring  surface,  and  the  wearing  away  of  these  areas 
proceeds  more  slowly,  and  great  bare  masses  often  ri.se  conspicuouslj- 
above  the  surrounding  territory.  In  cracks  and  crevices  of  these 
rocks  and  bo  elders  the  seeds  of  trees  and  shrubs  have  .sometimes  lodged, 
and,  germinating,  have  survived  droughts  and  storms,  although  often 
dwarfed  and  growing  very  slowly  under  these  trying  conditions.  These 
plants  serve  to  hasten  the  disintegration  of  such  rocks. 

Along  some  of  the  narrow  vallej's  through  which  streams  run,  time 
has  brought  in  an  accumulation  of  plant-food  material,  which  is  the 
basis  of  the  small  farms  or  ranches  which  have  been  established  in  the 
most  available  and  suitable  sites  in  the  reserves.  Although  the  coarse 
sandy  or  gravelly  soil  on  many  areas  looks  unproductive,  fair  crops  of 
grass  and  a  few  other  farm  products  are  raised  wherever  artificial  irri- 
gation can  be  applied.  Manures  or  artificial  fertilizers  are  seldom  used 
except  by  a  very  few  of  the  more  progressive  and  industrious  farmers. 


42  FOREST  kesp:kves. 

Riircly.  the  hiiimis  or  ••imick"  is  of  considcnil)!*^'  depth  in  natural 
basins,  as  near  Lake  Moraine.  There  are  many  acres  of  boggy  ground 
in  the  high  Lost  Park  i-egion,  and  much  hunuis  occurs  south  and 
southwest  of  Florissant. 

CLIMATK  AND    HAIXFAL,L. 

The  great  elevation  of  this  whole  region  gives  it  a  comparativeh' 
cool  summer,  with  liability  of  nightly  frosts  near  the  timber  line.  On 
the  so-called  agricultural  area.s,  mostly  devoted  to  grazing,  snow 
sometimes  falls  in  midsummer  and  frosts  are  not  very  rare.  On 
this  account  the  variety  of  crops  it  is  possible  to  raise  within  the 
reserves  is  very  limited,  consisting  chiefly  of  hay,  oats,  barlej-,  rye, 
and  a  little  wheat  in  some  localities  at  the  lower  altitudes.  Alfalfa  is 
also  grown  locally  on  the  lowest  levels,  where  potatoes  also  can  be 
grown  successfully,  although  it  is  not  economicall}'  profitable  to 
attempt  the  cultivation  of  this  crop  at  altitudes  above  8,500  feet. 
The  growing  season  is  short,  as  is  plainly  shown  in  the  slow  growth  of 
the  trees.  In  winter  the  temperature  at  8,500  to  9,000  feet  altitude 
sometimes  falls  to  20°  or  30°  below  zero. 

As  showing  the  possibilities  in  this  countrj-,  it  may  be  mentioned 
that  on  July  19,  1897,  there  was  hard  frost,  with  several  inches  of 
snow,  throughout  the  country  from  Mauitou  Park  (8,000  feet  altitude) 
to  South  Park,  and  snow  and  frost  was  recorded  at  Florissant  (8,500 
feet  altitude)  on  July  1,  1898. 

There  exist  few  accurate  records  of  rainfall  taken  at  various  points 
and  during  a  number  of  years  to  show  the  average  annual  precipi- 
tation of  this  region.  The  Weather  Bureau  maintained  a  station  on 
the  summit  of  Pikes  Peak,  at  over  1-4,000  feet  altitude,  during  fifteen 
years,  and  the  average  during  that  time  was  28.65  inches,  the  extremes 
being  9  and  10  inches.  At  Colorado  Springs,  at  about  6,000  feet 
altitude,  or  8,000  feet  lower  than  the  summit  of  Pikes  Peak,  the  aver- 
age during  the  same  years  was  a  little  less  than  15  inches.  As  a  rule 
the  precipitation  decreases  rapidly  with  decrease  in  altitude.  Addi- 
tional observations  were  taken  during  several  years  in  or  near  South 
Park.  The  average  annual  rainfall  of  the  whole  region  covered  by 
the  reserves  may  be  placed  at  between  16  and  18  inches. 

This  small  rainfall,  combined  with  the  drj'  atmosphere,  poor  soil,  and 
cool  climate,  causes  nearly  all  the  natural  vegetation  to  be  of  relatively 
slow  development,  and  nowhere  can  there  be  said  to  be  a  strong,  rank 
growth,  such  as  would  be  found  in  more  fertile,  warmer,  and  more 
freely-watered  regions  of  nearly  the  same  latitude. 

The  snowfall  is  heavy  on  some  of  the  mountains.  Snowslides,  liow- 
ever,  are  very  rare,  although  they  occur  more  frequently  on  the 
mountain  slopes  located  outside  the  western  limits  of  the  South  Platte 
Reserve. 


JACK.]  RESERVES    IN    CENTRAL    COLORADO.  43 

There  are  no  data  to  .show  that  there  i.s  any  les.s  a\-erage  annual 
rainfall  than  existed  tiftj'  year.s  ago. 

It  i.s  the  general  te.stimony  of  persons  who  have  lived  longest  in  the 
central  part  of  Colorado  that  there  is  now  a  decided  diminution  of 
watfU'  in  the  streams  compared  with  the  flow  of  water  twenty-five  or 
thii-ty  years  ago.  This  refers  especialh'  to  the  summer  flow,  as  there 
is  more  than  the  normal  amount  of  water  in  the  early  spring.  The 
causes  ai'c,  locally,  variously  attributed  to  excessive  pasturage,  by 
which  the  ground  becomes  trampled  hard  and  the  protecting  vegetation 
along  streams  destroyed;  to  the  cutting  of  timber  along  streams,  par- 
ticularly at  high  altitudes;  and  especially  to  the  great  areas  which 
have  l)een  denuded  of  forest  by  tires,  allowing  the  snows  to  melt  more 
rapidly  and  the  waters  to  flow  off  less  gradualh'  than  they  did  under 
conditions  existing  before  the  earliest  settlement  of  the  country. 

FOREST  CONDITIONS. 

Of  all  the  reserves  established  by  the  Federal  Goverimient,  the  three 
under  consitleration  have  probably  been  the  most  damaged  by  fire 
and  been  subject  to  greatest  depredations  by  timber  cutters.  A  com- 
paratively small  portion  of  the  total  area  fails  to  show  traces  of  forest 
or  surface  fires,  some  of  the  more  recently  burned  sections  presenting 
a  desolate  aspect,  which  luider  present  natural  developments  is  likely 
to  continue  for  many  scores  of  years.  There  are  a  very  few  thousand 
acres  of  merchantable  timber  where  the  ax  has  not  been  used  with 
evident  effect.  The  best  of  the  remaining  timber  can  not  be  called 
large,  but  it  is  greedily  sought  by  the  liuul)ermen,  who  take  any  kind 
of  sufficient  dimensions  without  much  discrimination  regarding  species. 
Such  forests  as  exist  are  generally  open  and  may  be  traversed  by 
wagon  or  on  horseback,  and  it  is  only  on  comparatively  limited  areas 
that  any  close  or  dense  growth  of  trees  is  encountered.  In  young 
growths  of  lodgepole  pine  only  are  there  what  might  be  called  thickets, 
and  occasionally  a  dense  growth  of  small  red  fir  and  its  accompanying 
species  is  found  on  some  locally  favored  northern  slope. 

In  a  few  places  at  high  altitudes  there  is  much  dead  and  fallen  tim- 
ber among  the  living,  piled  2  or  3  feet  deep,  this  deadwood  usually 
representing  the  accimiulation  of  many  scores  of  years;  but  this  con- 
dition is  rare  in  the  reserves,  although  common  in  forests  in  other 
parts  of  the  M'est. 

On  the  high  altitudes,  or  between  10,000  and  11,500  feet,  the  forest 
growth  is  generally  most  dense,  but  much  depends  upon  exposures  or 
slopes.  The  forest  found  on  slopes  facing  the  south  is  usually  greatlj^ 
inferior  to  that  growing  on  the  colder,  .shaded  northern  slopes,  pines 
usually  pre^'ailing  on  the  former  and  spruce  on  the  latter ;  but  on 
steep  southern  slopes  the  pines  are  commonly  thinly  distributed,  small 
in  size,  and  often  so  much  branched  as  to  be  nearlv  worthless  for  com- 


44  FOKKST    KKSERVKS. 

mcrciiil  purposes  (PI.  IX).  Indeed,  the  southern  slopes  are  soinet'nnos 
pnu'tically  hare  of  tiiul)er  of  any  kind,  wlien  th(>  opposite  northern 
slopes  are  well  covered. 

The  ifencrally  open  character  of  the  forest  over  a  large  j'art  of  the 
reserves  allows  of  the  growth  of  grasses  and  herljaceous  plants,  which 
usuallj'  occur  in  tufts  or  bunches  and  furnish  a  limited  amount  of 
food  for  cattle,  the  grasses  naturally  ))eing  most  a))undant  on  the 
cooler  slopes,  in  gulches,  and  in  the  vicinity  of  streams. 

On  tinibci-  areas  burned  over  at  high  altitudes  the  grasses  generally 
spring  up  in  greater  abundance,  excepting  on  some  of  the  more  arid 
or  dry,  warm  southern  slopes. 

The  tops  and  branches  of  trees  cut  by  lumbermen  are  rarely  accu- 
mulated in  great  masses  in  the  open  forest,  the  tops  of  each  tree  cut 
usually  being  isolated,  because  suitable  sawmill  timber  is  so  scattered. 
They  do,  howe\-er,  furnish  material  to  increase  the  destructiveness  of 
fires.  The  finer  and  softer  parts  of  this  refuse  material  soon  decaj's 
and  about  it  a  few  unusually  vigorous  grasses  are  generallj'  found. 


Probably  at  least  75  per  cent  of  the  total  area  of  the  reserves  clearly 
shows  damage  by  fire,  much  of  it  within  the  last  half  century  or  since 
the  advent  of  white  settlers  in  the  region;  and  a  great  deal  of  ground 
shows  traces  of  fires,  which  must  have  occurred  prior  to  that  time, 
and  the  forest  has  partially  recovered  the  areas  then  burned  over  (PI. 
X,  in  pocket). 

LUMBERING. 

Lumbering  is  carried  on  at  all  seasons  of  the  year,  although  it  is 
generally  stated  that  cutting  in  autumn  and  winter  is  preferable. 
The  trees  furnishing  the  Imnber  are  almost  exclusively  yellow  pine, 
red  fir,  and  Engelmann  spruce,  while  some  lodgepole  pine  and  blue 
spruce  are  also  used  when  found  large  enough  in  the  localities  in  which 
they  grow. 

The  trees  are  usually  felled  by  sawing  nearly  through  and  wedging 
the  side  on  which  the  cut  is  made,  so  that  the  tree  falls  in  the  opposite 
direction.  Trees  and  logs  above  a  foot  in  diameter  are  usuallv  taken, 
although  some  of  the  smaller  sawmills  accept  logs  not  less  than  8  inches 
in  diameter  at  the  small  end.  The  logs  are  cut  in  various  lengths, 
usuall}'  12,  14,  or  16  feet,  the  branches  and  tops  being  trimmed  oil' 
and  generally  allowed  to  remain  and  decay  on  the  gi'ound. 

The  logs  are  usually  draM'n  to  the  loading  skids  In'  single  horses 
trained  to  the  work,  and  are  hauled  to  the  mill  in  wagons.  The  active 
mills  are  exclusively  portable  steam  sawmills,  with  a  capacity  varj'ing 
from  about  5,000  to  25,000  feet  of  lumber  a  dav.     The  fires  for  the 


JACK]  RESERVES    IN    CENTRAL    COLORADO.  45 

boilers  are  fed  by  refuse  luinber  left  in  cutting.  The  saws  used  are 
thick,  and  about  25  per  cent  of  the  sawn  timber  is  lost  in  sawdust 
when  the  lumber  is  .sawn  into  boards  an  inch  thick,  the  saw  taking-  a 
quarter  of  an  inch  with  each  cut. 

All  of  the  hauling  of  logs  to  the  mill  and  of  the  lumber  to  market 
or  shipping  station  is  done  with  lumber  wagons  and  2-  or  i-horse 
teams.  It  is  now  commonly  necessary  to  haul  the  lumber  considerable 
distances,  requiring  a  day  or  longer  to  make  a  round  trip  to  and  from 
a  shipping  station. 

No  timber  or  lumber  is  now  floated  down  any  of  the  streams,  although 
formerly  a  small  amount  appears  to  have  been  carried  in  this  way. 
Limiber  roads  or  trails  have  been  made  to  the  best  timbered  areas  in 
all  parts  of  the  reserves,  so  that  there  is  no  great  difliculty  in  getting 
to  almost  any  part.  The  length  of  the  haid  to  market  has  been  the 
chief  factor  in  preserving  such  good  timber  as  still  remains  uncut. 

DISEASES  AND   ACCIDENTS   TO   TIMBER  TREES. 

As  a  general  rule  the  forest  trees  appear  to  be  in  a  healthj^  condition 
and  seem  to  be  subject  to  few  diseases  caused  by  insects  or  fungi,  the 
cool  climate  and  dry  atmo.sphere,  no  doubt,  being  adverse  to  these 
pests,  which  are  often  so  destructive  in  other  parts  of  the  country 
more  favorable  to  their  development.  Even  dead  timber,  often  stand- 
i!ig  dry  for  twenty  or  thirty  years,  is  little  damaged,  although  l)orers 
generally  attack  the  base  of  such  trees.  Occasionally  tips  of  twigs 
of  red  tir  or  yellow  pine  were  found  affected  by  destroying  insects, 
and  the  cones  were  sometimes  destroyed  by  insects  burrowing  into 
them.  Larvae  of  a  species  of  Cllsiocmnpa  sometimes  defoliate  the 
quaking  aspen  over  a  wide  range  of  territory,  and  when  this  defo- 
liation is  repeated  during  several  successive  seasons  the  trees  usually 
die,  to  be  succeeded  bj'  new  stems  from  the  roots.  While  the  aspen 
is  of  comparatively  little  commercial  importance  in  this  region,  it  is, 
when  large  enough,  used  for  the  manufacture  of  excelsior,  or  for  paper 
pulp,  and  the  defoliation  of  the  plants  prevents  them  from  attaining 
merchantable  size. 

The  most  serious  damage  to  the  development  of  the  yellow  pine, 
lodgepole  pine,  and  Douglas  spruce  noted  was  caused  b^'  three  small 
species  of  mistletoe  belonging  to  the  genus  Arceutlwbium  {Razoumof- 
xkya.,  Hoffm).  This  parasite  was  found  to  check  and  distort  the 
growth  of  a  great  many  trees  in  some  localities,  and  in  some  cases  it 
eventually  caused  their  death.  Affected  trees  are  often  dwarfed  and 
have  their  branches  shortened  or  distorted  by  it,  and  tho.se  bearing  the 
parasite  are  usually  readily  detected.  Trees  of  various  ages  and  sizes 
are  afflicted,  from  those  only  a  few  years  old  and  a  foot  or  two  high 
up  to  those  150  years  or  more  of  age  and  40  or  50  feet  or  more  in 
height.     As  the  parasite  occasionalh'  occurs  on  at  least  50  per  cent  of 


46  FOREST    KESERVES. 

tile  voimi;'  trees,  it  may  1"'  roiulily  seen  that  the  noniiul  development 
of  timber  i.s  seriously  interfered  with.  Fortuiuiti'ly  these  parasites 
are  not  very  generally  distributed  throughout  all  places  where  their 
hosts  grow. 

In  some  parts  of  this  mountainous  eountry  a  great  many  trees  are 
annually  struck  by  lightning,  which  sometimes  causes  death,  some- 
times kills  only  the  top  or  some  of  the  limbs,  or  leaves  signs  of  its 
work  by  a  split  in  the  trunk,  injuring  its  \-alue  for  lumber. 

Ground  or  surface  tires  or  timber  tires  have  often  left  th(^  trunks 
scarred  or  have  desti'oyed  the  bark  on  one  side,  causing  a  defect  which 
injures  the  tree  for  lumber. 

Snowslides  of  sufficient  magnitude  to  damage  timber  are  rare, 
although  they  sometimes  occur  on  the  high  mountains  west  of  the 
South  Platte  Reserve.  At  low  altitudes  heavy  snowstorms  occasion- 
ally break  down  large  numbers  of  young  trees,  or  the  tops  of  older 
ones,  both  conifers  and  aspen.  Besides  the  damage  to  timber,  the 
dry  debris  thus  formed  increases  danger  from  fire. 

Occasionally  local  windstorms  or  hurricanes  occur  with  sutBcient 
force  to  blow  down  large  areas  of  green  timber,  either  by  uprooting 
the  trees  or  by  breaking  off  the  trunks. 

It  was  also  the  general  belief,  in  the  region  south  of  Tarryall  Creek, 
that  the  death  of  many  yellow  pines  was  caused  by  some  unusually  dry 
seasons  which  have  prevailed  in  recent  years. 

FOREST  TREES  IN  THE  RESERVES. 

That  this  region  once  had  a  climate  and  forest  tlora  differing  con- 
sidei'ably  from  that  which  at  present  exists  is  shown  by  the  fossil 
remains  of  trees  and  other  plants  to  be  found  at  various  places,  and 
particularly  easily  accessible  at  Florissant,  near  the  southeastern 
boiuidary  line  of  the  main  body  of  the  South  Platte  Reserve. 

In  the  soft  shale  rock  are  found  fossil  leaves,  fruit,  and  twigs  of  trees 
closel}'  allied  to  the  living  .species  of  redwoods  or  .sequoias  of  California, 
to  oaks,  hornbeams,  alders,  walnuts,  chestnuts,  elms,  ashes,  sumachs, 
hollies,  and  other  trees  and  shrubs.  Fossilized  stumps  of  prehistoric 
trees,  apparently  sequoias,  still  exist,  although  many  have  been 
destroj-ed  or  have  been  removed  by  collectors.  About  a  mile  south 
of  Flori-s.sant  one  of  these  stumps  is  standing,  with  a  frame  work 
about  it,  and  saws  still  in  it,  as  evidence  of  the  unsuccessful  efforts  of 
collectors  to  cut  and  remove  it.  The  hardness  of  the  fossilized  wood 
rendered  the  cost  of  cutting  so  great  that,  after  the  expenditure  of  much 
money,  the  work  of  removal  was  abandoned.  This  stump  was  partly 
exposed  by  removing  the  accunuilation  of  soil  about  it.  and  at  present 
it  is  between  8  and  10  feet  in  height  and  about  50  feet  in  circumference 
at  the  ground.  It  is  a  standing  witness  to  the  fact  that  many  thousands 
of  vears  ago  the  meteorological  and  other  conditions  here  allowed  of 


U.    S.   GEOLOGICAL  SURVEV 

TWENTIETH  A 

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J..   YELLOW    PINE   APPARENTLY    KILLED    BY    MISTLETOE.    PLUM    CREEK    RESERVE 


It    ENGELMANN    SPRUCE    BLOWN    DOWN    BY    WINDSTORM,    LOST    PARK,   SOUTH 
PLATTE    RESERVE 


JACK.]  RESERVES    IN    CENTRAL    COLORADO.  47 

the  growth  of  much  larger  trees  and  a  greater  variet\'  than  is  now 
possible.  In  comparison  with  this  ancient  growth,  the  forest  growth 
here  to-day  is  small  and  insignificant,  and  compared  with  some  of  the 
present  living  forests  of  the  Pacific  coast  in  AVashington,  Oregon,  or 
California  the  timber  of  these  reserves  would  be  regarded  as  little 
better  than  scrub  or  third-rate  growth. 

Within  the  actual  limits  of  the  three  reserves,  covering  an  area  of 
nearly  2,000  square  miles,  the  number  of  difi'erent  species  of  trees 
now  occupying  the  ground  is  much  more  restricted  than  is  commonly 
supposed  (PI.  IX).  Within  these  boundaries  there  may  be  counted 
five  species  of  pine,  two  spruces,  two  firs,  Douglas  spruce,  two  species 
of  cedar  {Juni-pei^us),  one  species  of  oak,  and  four  species  of  poplars — 
seventeen  species  in  all.  Of  these  the  cedars  are  small,  local,  and  scat- 
tered ;  the  oak  scarcly  more  than  a  shrub,  specimens  20  feet  high  or  10 
inches  in  diameter  being  rare  ;  three  of  the  poplars  are  very  local  and 
are  usually  found  sparsely  along  creeks  near  the  reserve  borders, 
and  have  no  commercial  importance,  while  the  fourth,  though  widely 
distributed,  does  not  often  grow  to  a  size  sufficient  to  make  it  of  much 
present  economic  value. 

PiNis  roNDEROSA  Laws.     (Yellow  pine,  bull  i>ine.)' 

Of  the  pines  within  the  reserves  the  most  al)undant,  most  widely 
distributed,  and  locally  most  valuable  species  is  Pmus  j)onderosa,  most 
conmionly  known  as  black-jack  pine,  but  also  passing  under  the  local 
names  of  yellow  pine,  bull  pine,  black  pine,  etc.  So  far  as  observed,  it 
here  attains  a  larger  size  than  any  other  tree,  not  excepting  the  red 
fir,  which  most  closely  approaches  it  in  dimensions.  The  largest  yellow- 
pine  stumps  or  trees  seen  did  not  exceed  4  feet  in  diameter,  and  the 
tallest  trees  were  not  more  than  from  110  to  125  feet  in  height. 
These  extreme  proportions  are  exceptional,  however,  and  the  greater 
part  of  existing  merchantable  timber  of  this  species  ranges  between 
1  and  2  feet  in  diameter  of  trunk  and  50  and  75  feet  in  height.  As 
the  timber  is  more  or  less  open,  the  stems  of  the  trees  are  usually 
well  furnished  with  branches,  so  that  the  clear  trunk  is  usually  short, 
often  furnishing  but  one  free  saw  log  12  or  14-  feet  long,  although 
the  liml)s  are  genei'ally  removed  and  two  or  even  three  saw  logs  are 
thus  obtained.  Trees  of  the  larger  sizes  often  have  clear  trunks  for 
50  feet,  and  as  many  as  five  or  six  saw  logs,  each  12  or  14  feet  in 
length,  are  secured. 

The  relative  proportions  of  size  and  age  of  such  trees  vary  some- 
what with  the  conditions  under  which  they  grow.  Trees  growing  in 
coarse  granite  soil,  on  ground  having  a  slight  slope  to  the  south  and 

'  This  yellow  pine  in  the  region  under  consideration  is  considered  by  some  botanists  ns  distinct 
from  the  type,  and  is  known  as  Piiius  poJidirosa  scopulorum  Engelm. 


48  KOREST    KKSERVES. 

lyiiiji' at  an  altitude  of  about  SJAH)  feet,  showed  the  followiiij;- ages 
and  dimensions,  which  represent  a  fair  average. 

A  tree  100  feet  high  measured  38  inches  in  diameter  at  5  feet  from 
the  ground.  Trunk  very  i)ranehy,  furnishing  only  one  .saw  log  12  feet 
long  free  from  branches  or  knots,  but  altogether  would  furnish  five 
logs  of  similar  length,  the  topmost  of  which  would  measure  a  foot  in 
diameter  at  the  small  end.  Annual  rings  showed  this  tree  to  be  about 
270  years  old. 

Another,  70  feet  high,  measured  15  inches  in  diameter  at  5  feet 
from  the  ground  and  12  inches  in  diameter  at  40  feet  from  the-  groiuid. 
First  25  feet  free  from  limbs  excepting  a  few  small,  dead  branches. 
Annual  rings  showed  about  200  years  of  age. 

Another  of  the  same  height  and  base  diameter  as  the  last  was  8 
inches  in  diameter  at  40  feet  from  the  gi'oundand  more  branchy  on  its 
upper  parts,  and  showed  annual  rings  approximating  about  160  years 
of  age. 

These  measurements,  taken  from  a  considerable  numoer,  represent 
a  fair  average  of  the  better  class  of  trees  where  the  timber  is  heaviest. 
Great  quantities  of  trees  are  cut  for  sawmills,  however,  which  do  not 
produce  more  than  one  log  of  from  12  to  16  feet  in  length  and  from 
12  to  16  inches  in  diameter,  the  remainder  tapering  too  rapidly  and 
bearing  too  many  limbs  to  be  considered  of  value.  The  activity  of 
sawmills  has  removed  nearly  all  trees  above  a  foot  in  diameter  in  most 
of  the  territory  under  consideration  except  in  a  few  of  the  least  acce.ss- 
ible  localities  farthest  removed  from  a  ready  market.  Where  the 
timber  has  been  cut  over  it  is  unusual  to  find  any  perfect  large  speci- 
mens fit  for  the  sawmill  remaining.  Where  large  trees  are  left  on 
such  land  it  is  usually  because  they  have  some  defect,  as  having  been 
.struck  by  lightning,  partially  decayed,  or  having  divided  trunks. 

What  to  the  eye  of  the  botanist  appears  to  be,  and  is  considered, 
as  one  species  is  in  this  case  divided  by  the  lumberman  into  what  he 
calls  yellow  pine  and  black  pine,  the  former  being  most  valued,  hav- 
ing a  wood  lighter  in  weight  and  with  less  sapwood,  while  the  latter  is 
claimed  to  be  of  poor  quality,  to  have  much  sapwood,  and  to  be  much 
heavier  when  green.  Few  lumbermen  claim  that  they  can  always  dis- 
tinguish the  two  when  standing,  although  it  is  asserted  that  the  less 
valuable  tree  can  he  separated  by  the  darker,  rougher,  thicker  bark 
and  greater  abundance  of  large  living  branches.  Somewhat  similar  dis- 
tinctions are  insisted  upon  by  lumbermen  of  the  white  pine  of  the  East- 
ern States.  While  our  present  understanding  of  them  does  not  allow 
that  they  are  specifically  distinct,  there  is  no  doubt  that  the  qualit}"  of 
the  wood  is  affected  by  the  age  of  the  tree,  rate  of  growth,  soil,  and 
other  conditions. 

The  yellow  pine  is  found  from  the  lowest  altitude  in  the  reserves, 
which  is  under  6.000  feet,  up  to  above  10,000  feet,  where  it  is  generally 


JACK.]  RESERVES    IN    CENTRAL    COLORADO.  49 

supplanted  by  other  species.  In  some  sections  it  occurs  almost  alone, 
but  as  a  rule  the  Douglas  spruce  is  moi-e  or  less  plentifully-  associated 
with  it,  and  occasionally  it  occurs  mixed  with  the  other  pines  and 
spruces.  On  the  higher  altitudes  it  does  not  appear  so  localized  as  on 
the  lower,  where  it  predominates  on  slopes  facing-  the  south,  while  the 
Douglas  spruce  is  more  plentiful  on  those  facing  the  north.  This  is  a 
marked  feature  in  most  of  the  canyons  and  gulches,  which  chiefly 
extend  in   an  ea.sterly  and  westei'ly  direction. 

The  3'ellow  pine  is  the  prevalent  tree  over  nearly  all  of  the  Plum 
Creek  Reserve,  and  of  the  South  Platte  Reserve  east  of  Craig  Creek,  the 
Tarryall  Mountains,  and  Puma  Hills.  It  does  not  occur  in  the  Lost  Park 
or  Craig  Park  country,  lying  north  of  the  Tarryall  ^Mountains,  although 
part  of  this  ground  lies  nearlj-  a  thou.sand  feet  below  the  maximum 
altitude  which  the  species  reaches  in  other  parts;  and  it  is  only  occa- 
sionally found  within  and  near  the  borders  of  the  long,  narrow  ai'm  of 
the  reserve  l.ying  west  of  South  Park,  on  the  hills  and  buttes  of  which 
it  occurs  plentifully,  and  usually  associated  with  Douglas  spruce,  blue 
spruce,  and  two  other  pines.  It  is  a  hardy  and  much-enduring  tree, 
and  will  gain  a  foothold  and  grow  on  coarse,  dry  soils  and  sunny  slopes 
on  which  other  species  do  not  seem  able  to  become  established  or 
maintain  their  existence. 

The  yellow  pine  is  chieflj'  sawed  into  lumber  for  various  purposes, 
especiallj'  for  rough  building,  mine  timbers,  etc.  It  is  also  cut  for 
railroad  ties,  is  used  as  fuel,  and  is  an  important  tree  in  the  develop- 
ment of  the  country  in  which  it  grows. 

The  lumber  is  coarse  grained  and  is  not  durable  when  subjected  to 
moisture.  Its  market  value  varies  somewhat  in  price,  according  to 
quality,  local  demands,  etc.,  but  at  the  present  time  it  usualh'  sells 
for  $11  or  $12  per  1,000  feet,  board  measure,  delivered  at  railroad 
stations. 

PiNUS  MURRAYANA  Engelm.     (Lodgepole  pine,  white  pine,  spruce  pine.) 

The  pine  of  second  importance  in  the  reserves  is  the  lodgepole  pine, 
locally  little  known  under  that  name,  however,  and  more  generally 
called  white  pine,  occasionally  spruce  pine  or  tamarack  pine,  and  at 
Alma  passing  as  j^ellow  pine.  It  is  a  smaller  tree  than  the  yellow  pine 
{Plnu.s ponderosa),  and  specimens  are  not  often  found  exceeding  2  feet 
in  diameter  of  trunk  or  above  100  feet  in  height.  It  is  sometimes 
found  mixed  vdih  other  pines  or  spruces,  but  its  most  characteristic 
growth  is  found  in  those  areas  where  it  occurs  alone  or  greatly  pre- 
dominates over  other  species.  It  is  apparently  a  tree  of  slow  growth, 
especially  when  crowded,  and  will  endure  for  many  j-ears  without 
showing  an}'  ver}^  material  increment  of  the  wood.  One  out  of  a 
number  of    specimens,  measured  imder  fair  average   conditions   of 

20  GEOL,  PT  5 J: 


50  FOREST   KESERVES. 

mixed  open  woods,  growing  on  nearlj'  level  disintegrated  granite  soil 
southwest  of  Fairplay  and  at  an  altitude  of  about  t>,0(JO  feet,  showed 
tlie  following  dimensit)ns:  Height,  05  feet;  diameter,  -i  feet  from  the 
ground,  IT  inches;  saw  log  furnished,  30  feet,  the  small  end  being  11^ 
inches  in  diameter,  the  remainder  being  vcr}^  branchy  and  rejected. 
Tlie  annual  rings  showed  about  one  hundred  and  sixty  years  of 
gi-owth,  tiie  first  fiftj'  years  showing  much  the  greatest  annual  incre- 
ment, the  last  tift_v  years  with  very  thin  annual  rings  and  all  sapwood. 
This  fairly  represents  all  those  examined  under  simihir  conditions. 

In  the  Lost  Park  region,  north  of  the  Tarryall  Moiuitains,  at  an 
altitude  of  al)out  10,000  feet,  two  saw  logs  cut  on  a  cold  slope  facing 
north  measured,  respectively,  12^  and  15  inches  in  diameter  at  the  butt 
and  showed  260  and  310  rings  of  annual  growth.  These  trees  were 
growing  with  Engelmann  spruce  on  granite  soil  with  slight  humus. 
They  represent  about  the  best  of  their  species  fit  for  the  .sawmill. 
The  height  of  such  trees  here  usually  varies  from  60  to  75  feet,  accord- 
ing as  they  may  be  growing  with  abundaiu'c  of  room,  so  as  to  produce 
many  branches,  or  crowded  by  other  individuals. 

In  other  places,  where  the  lodgepole  pine  occurs  practically  alone, 
a  great  lumiber  of  individuals  often  spring  up  on  a  small  area,  forming 
a  close  and  not  easily  penetrable  growth  while  young,  becoming  more 
open  with  age  and  size  by  the  death  and  decay  of  the  weaker  and 
smaller  individuals.  On  such  areas  the  annual  gi-owth  is  verj-  slow, 
but  the  young  trees  show  a  remarkable  power  of  shade  endurance  when 
overtopped  by  more  sturdy  or  older  individuals. 

Many  such  areas  were  examined,  and  an  idea  of  the  general  condi- 
tions may  be  given  in  a  single  exaiuple,  in  which  four  or  five  trees 
were  crowded  into  a  square  foot,  these  trees  varying  from  -4  to  8  feet 
high,  1  to  2  inches  in  diameter  of  stem,  and  with  from  15  to  30  annual 
rings.  Sometimes  the  stand  of  young  trees  is  smaller  and  more  dense, 
sometimes  larger  and  proportionally  more  open,  by  the  natural  elim- 
ination of  manj^  weaker  individuals.  Nowhere  are  there  any  consid- 
erable areas  of  pure  timber  of  this  species  large  enough  for  cutting 
into  lumber  by  sawmills.  Most  of  the  existing  lodgepole-pine  areas 
consist  of  slender,  pole-like  growths  of  varying  sizes,  but  not  often 
exceeding  6  or  8  inches  in  diameter  or  50  feet  in  height.  Wherever 
found  of  sufficient  size,  however,  it  is  cut  into  rough  lumber  and  gen- 
erally sold  mixed  with  yellow  pine  or  spruce.  Trees  too  small  for  the 
mill  are  often  cut  for  mine  timbers.  A  few  years  ago  great  quantities 
of  all  sizes  were  cut  on  territory  lying  to  the  north  and  west  of  the 
Kenosha  Twin  Cone  Mountains,  and  converted  into  charcoal  for  smelt- 
ing purposes.  This  industry  is  noV  abandoned  in  the  region  about 
the  reserves,  so  that  at  present  the  lodgepole  pine  is  of  ver}'  limited 
commercial  value  and  local  use. 


JACK.]  RESERVES    IN    CENTRAL    COLORADO.  51 

The  range  of  this  tree  is  much  more  restricted  than  that  of  the 
yellow  pine.  It  appears  to  be  uncommon  and  very  local  in  the  Pikes 
Peak  Reserve,  having  been  observed  in  any  numbers  only  at  its 
northern  end.  In  the  Plum  Creek  Reserve  it  is  found  in  small  num- 
bers about  Devils  Head  Mountain,  but  occurs  in  abundance,  either 
nearly  alone  or  mixed  with  other  trees,  from  that  point  south  and 
southwest  to  the  Pikes  Peak  Reserve.  Its  distribution  in  the  South 
Platte  Reserve  is  peculiar  and  irregular.  It  is  found  more  or  less 
scattered  through  the  Puma  Hills,  in  the  southern  portion,  sometimes 
occurring  in  small  separate  groves.  It  is  found  on  the  slopes  of  Free- 
man Peak,  Green  Mountain,  and  Stormy  Peak,  and  is  more  or  less 
scattered  through  the  forest  of  the  hills  in  the  Lost  Park  and  Craig- 
Park  region,  lying  north  of  the  Tarryall  Moimtains.  It  is  plentiful 
on  the  north  slopes  of  the  Platte  River  Mountains,  and  is,  or  was,  the 
predominant  species  found  on  the  slopes  north  and  west  of  the 
Kenosha  Twin  Cone  Mountains.  It  is  distributed  more  or  less  plenti- 
fuU}'  through  all  the  long,  narrow,  western  arm  of  the  South  Platte 
Reserve. 

When  occurring  in  mixed  growth  its  most  common  associate  is 
Engelmann  spruce,  genei'ally  known  here  as  white  spruce.  It  is 
found  most  abundantly  on  the  higher  plateaus  and  on  northerly 
slopes,  and  at  altitudes  ranging  between  8,000  and  10,500  feet, 
descending  below  8,000  feet  and,  exceptionally,  reaching  up  to  about 
11,000  feet,  but  never  extending  to  the  highest  timber  line. 

PiNUS  ARiSTATA  Engelui.     (Range  pine,  bastard  pine.) 

This  species  does  not  appear  to  have  any  generally  known  popular 
name  in  the  reserves,  but  in  part  is  called  range  pine,  pitch  pine,  or, 
as  in  the  region  about  Tarryall  Mountains,  passes  under  pinon  pine, 
a  name  more  properly  belonging  to  Pinus  edulis,  which  occurs  within 
the  reserves  only  on  a  small  area  near  Manitou.  The  names  of  fox- 
tail pine  and  hickory  pine,  in  some  places  applied  to  this  tree,  seemed 
to  be  rarely  if  ever  used  in  this  region.  Pitch  pine  was  the  name 
applied  to  the  tree  about  Alma,  where  it  is  common. 

The  range  pine  is  never  a  large  tree,  rarely  exceeding  40  or  50  feet 
in  height,  although  the  trunk  is  often  stout  in  proportion  to  the  height, 
frequently  measuring  2  or  3  feet  in  diameter.  It  is  usually  of  low, 
branching  habit  of  growth,  with  many  large  limbs  and  rapidly  taper- 
ing stems,  which  are  often  forked,  so  that  it  is  not  common  to  get 
more  than  one  saw  log  of  from  12  to  16  feet  in  length  from  a  tree. 

Much  of  this  timber  bears  branches  almost  to  the  ground,  or  the 
clear  trunks  of  a  great  majority  of  the  trees  are  so  short  that  not  even 
an  ordinary  saw  log  can  be  obtained,  so  that  this  species  is  not  often 
found  among  the  logs  which  are  to  be  cut  by  sawmills  into  ordinary 
lumber.     It  is  frequently  used  for  mine  timbers,  however,  and  for  fuel. 


52  FOREST  KESERVE8. 

In  its  distribution  the  ranfjo  pine  is  found  mostly  on  I'idges,  rocky 
ledges,  and  south  slopes  from  about  8,000  feet  altitude  to  timber  line, 
which  in  these  reserves  averages  about  11,500  feet,  but  in  exception- 
ally favorable  situations  may  extend,  in  twisted  and  dwarf(;d  speci- 
mens, to  12,000  feet  altitude.  It  is  often  the  chief  tree  on  the  upper 
parts  of  southern  slopes  of  many  mountains,  the  upper  northern  slopes 
being  chiefly  occupied  by  Engelmann  spi'uce.  This  division  of  the 
territory  by  the  trees  is  often  a  marked  feature  in  the  canyons  and 
gulches  which  lie  in  an  easterly  and  westerly  direction. 

The  range  pine  is  common  on  the  slopes  of  Pikes  Peak,  where  it 
was  originally  discovered,  and  on  the  higher  ridges  in  that  region;  it 
appears  local  and  uncommon  in  the  Plum  Creek  Reserve,  it  is  plenti- 
ful through  a  large  portion  of  the  South  Platte  Reserve,  particularly 
on  the  south  slopes  of  unburned  parts  of  the  Tarryall  Mountains  and 
the  mountains  in  the  Lost  Park  region,  continuing  all  through  the 
branch  of  the  reserve  l.ving  west  of  South  Park.  As  a  low,  bushy 
tree  it  is  scattered  on  the  rocks  and  ridges  of  the  open,  uneven,  or 
broken  country  lying  within  the  reserve  boundaries  on  the  eastern 
side  of  South  Park,  as  about  Bordenville. 

As  would  naturally  be  expected  from  the  dry,  poor,  or  rockj^  situa- 
tions on  which  it  most  commonly  grows,  this  pine  is  of  very  slow 
growth.  Few  opportunities  were  had  to  make  measui-ements,  but  an 
idea  of  average  relative  size  and  age  may  be  had  from  dimensions  of 
a  typical  individual,  under  average  conditions,  which  measured  about 
40  feet  in  height,  17  inches  in  diameter  at  5  feet  from  the  ground,  and 
showed  annual  I'ings  approximating  290  years  of  age.  Individuals  of 
larger  diameter  of  trunk,  and  growing  nearer  timber  line  were 
undoubtedly  of  considerably  greater  age. 

PiNus  FLEXiLis  Jamcs.     (White  pine,  limber  pine.) 

This  is  the  least  common  of  any  of  the  pines  found  in  the  reserves; 
it  is  less  known  or  distinguished  from  other  species  by  people  living 
in  the  region,  and  it  has  least  economic  importance.  Nowhere  does 
it  appear  to  be  recognized  by  any  general  familiar  name,  although  it 
is  occasionally  refen-ed  to  as  white  pine;  was  also  pointed  out  as 
sugar  pine;  and  is  said  to  pass  under  the  name  of  bull  pine.  As  a 
rule,  howev^er,  it  seems  to  be  confounded  with  the  range  pine,  with 
which  it  most  commonly  grows  and  to  which  it  bears  some  general 
superficial  resemblance. 

In  stature  it  is  somewhat  similar  to  the  range  pine;  it  has  much  the 
same  kind  of  short,  rapidly  tapering  trunk,  often  divided,  and 
generally  bearing  many  large  limbs.  The  trunk  is  more  free  from 
lower  branches  and  attains  a  larger  diameter,  however,  than  the  range 
pine,  and  it  more  often  makes  good  sawmill  logs,  although  on  account 
of  the  general  scarcity  of  the  tree  its  wood  is  not  often  seen  in  lum- 
ber piles. 


.1.    RANGE    PINE    .PINUS    ARISTATAi   AT   TIMBER    LINE     PIKES    PEAK       SOUTH    SLOPE. 


B    LODGEPOLE    PINE    iN    SOUTH    PLATTE    RESERVE 
A  little  timber  has  been  cut  here-all  under  10  inches  .n  diameter. 


JACK. I  RESERVES    IN    CENTRAL    COLORADO.  53 

"While  the  white  pine  is  nowhere  abundant,  it  is  quite  general^ 
scattered  through  most  parts  of  the  reserves,  occuring  from  about  the 
.  lowest  levels,  or  between  6,000  and  7,000  feet,  up  to  timber  line,  or 
about  11,500  feet,  although  it  appeared  to  attain  the  latter  altitude 
only  occasionally,  and  was  not  seen  to  reach  the  extreme  limits  of 
stunted  specimens  of  the  range  pine.  It  grows  with  the  latter  and  with 
Engelmann  spruce  at  timber  line  on  the  south  and  east  slopes  of 
Pikes  Peak,  and  occurs  here  and  there  through  most  of  that  reserve, 
and  appears  to  have  been  more  than  usually  plentiful  on  that  portion 
of  it  north  of  Ute  Pass  which  was  burned  over  about  twenty  years 
ago.  Jt  is  scarce  in  the  Plum  Creek  Reserve;  and  in  the  South  Platte 
Reserve  it  is  very  irregular,  but  appears  to  occur  most  often  through 
its  extreme  western  arm. 

Whenever  of  sufficient  size  and  development  of  clear  trunk,  the 
white  pine  is  sawed  into  lumber  or  used  for  mine  timbers,  but  on 
account  of  its  comparative  rarity  it  is  of  veiy  slight  economic  value 
in  this  region. 

PiNUS  EDULis  Engelm.      (Pinon,  pinon  pine,  nut  pine.) 

This,  the  true  pinon,  or  pinon  pine,  only  occurs  within  the  reserve 
limits  in  the  vicinity  of  Williams  Canyon,  north  of  Manitou,  under 
8,000  feet  altitude,  where  it  is  commonly  mixed  with  Junlpenis  monns- 
ferma  and  Juniperus  scopulorum.  It  is  here  a  low,  bushy  tree,  rarely 
more  than  15  feet  high,  not  often  exceeding  12  or  15  inches  in  diameter, 
and  with  a  very  short  or  no  clear  trunk.  It  is  locally  valued  for  fuel, 
and  in  the  Arkansas  Valley,  south  and  west  of  the  reserves,  it  was 
formerly'  nuich  cut  and  used  in  the  manufactiu'e  of  charcoal  for 
smelting  purposes. 

PsEUDOTSUGA  TAXiFOLiA  (Laui.)  Britton.      (Red  fir,  Douglas  spruce, 
red  spruce.) 

The  tree  generally  known  to  botanists  and  dendrologists  as  Douglas 
spruce  is  in  the  reserves  almost  universally  known  as  red  spruce, 
sometimes  red  pine,  and  certain  trees  which  contain  a  large  proportion 
of  sapwood  are  sometimes  called  bastard  spruce  by  lumbermen.  It  is 
the  red  or  j^ellow  fir  of  the  Pacific  coast. 

This  tree  has  almost  exactly  the  same  range  in  the  reserves  as  the 
yellow  pine  {Pinxis ponderosa)  with  which  it  is  usualh*  found  associated, 
sometimes  one  preponderating,  sometimes  the  other,  according  to  the 
peculiar  local  conditions  and  exposures.  It  grows  well  at  the  lower 
altitudes  in  the  reserves,  or  at  about  6,000  feet  altitude,  and  the  highest 
altitude  at  which  it  was  noted  was  between  10,500  and  11,000  feet,  on 
the  south  slopes  of  the  Tarryall  Mountains,  near  Mountaindale.  The 
altitude  reached  here  seems  to  be  exceptional,  however,  for  as  a  rule 
the  upper  limits  of  this  species  appeared  to  be  about  10,000  feet,  or 
occasionally  10,500  feet.      Growing  mainly  under  similar  conditions 


54  FOREST    RESERVKS. 

the  red  Hr  appears  to  roac-h  about  the  same  dimensions,  in  this  ])art  of 
the  country,  as  the  yellow  pine. 

Trees  with  trunks  i  feet  in  diameter  at  the  stumj)  aiul  111)  or  120 
feet  in  height,  with  a  clear  trunk  of  50  or  60  feet,  are  very  rare  and 
apparently  never  were  common,  even  before  the  coming  of  sawmills. 
.\  trunk  diameter  of  2  feet  at  3  or  4  feet  from  the  ground  and  a  total 
height  of  100  or  110  feet,  giving,  perhaps,  60  feet  of  saw  log,  the 
upper  20  feet  or  more  of  which  bears  branches,  the  small  end  about  or 
little  less  than  a  foot  in  diameter,  is  considered  fine  timber  of  this 
species  in  this  region.  Trees  of  this  extra  size  are  verj'  exceptional, 
however,  and  are  found  in  few  localities  and  on  limited  areas,  either 
alone  or  so  intermixed  with  poorer  material  or  other  species  that  the 
amount  of  lumber  per  acre  on  any  given  square  mile  or  quarter  sec- 
tion is  not  great,  probablj'  never  exceeding  an  average  of  2,000  feet 
to  the  acre.  Wherever  easily  and  profitably  accessible,  nearly  all 
trees  of  suitable  sizes  have  been  cut  for  the  sawmill  or  for  rail- 
road ties. 

Most  of  the  Douglas  spruce  which  remains  on  the  reserves  consists 
of  rather  small,  much-branched  trees  with  not  more  than  12  or  15  feet 
of  clear  trunk,  or  those  in  which  some  defect  unfits  them  for  profitable 
luml)er  purposes,  or  they  are  under  8  inches  in  diameter  and  therefore 
not  useful  either  for  sawmill  lumber  or  for  making  of  railroad  ties. 

On  the  lower  altitudes  and  along  canyons  and  gulches  the  red  fir 
is  found  mixed  with  blue  spruce  as  well  as  yellow  pine,  and  in  its 
upper  limits  it  is  often  scattered  among  Engelmann  spruce  and  lodge- 
pole  pine.  It  occurs  throughout  the  Pikes  Peak  Reserve  up  to  about 
10,000  feet  altitude,  and  is  commonly  mixed  with  other  species  over 
all  the  Plum  Creek  Reserve,  particularly  in  gulches  and  on  northern 
slopes. 

The  Douglas  spruce  is  distributed  through  the  main  body  of  the 
South  Platte  Reserve,  but,  like  the  yellow  pine,  it  seems  strangely 
absent  from  the  Lost  Park  region  lying  north  of  the  Tarrvall  Moun- 
tains and  east  of  South  Park,  although  the  lower  part  of  this  region 
has  an  altitude  decidedly  lower  than  the  species  generally  reaches; 
and  on  the  long  narrow  extreme  western  arm  of  this  reserve  it  is 
found  only  at  irregular  intervals  near  the  edge  of  the  eastern  slope 
adjoining  South  Park,  upon  the  low  hills  and  buttes  of  which  it  occurs, 
generally  small  in  size,  and  mixed  with  yellow  pine  and  blue  spruce. 

The  best  trees  yet  uncut  l)y  lumbermen  are  found  at  altitudes 
of  from  7,000  to  8,500  feet,  on  the  ground  drained  by  Wigwam 
Creek  and  Lost  Park  or  Goose  Creek,  extending  4  or  5  miles  back 
from  their  junctions  with  South  Platte  River;  and  on  the  nearly 
opposite  slopes,  of  this  river  in  the  southwest  corner  of  the  Plum 
Creek  Reserve,  southwest  of  Thunder  Butte.  In  these  places,  how- 
ever, the  forest  covering  is  thin  and  there  is  a  preponderance  of  other 
kinds  of  trees,  or  of  those  too  small  for  anv  present  use. 


A..   WHITE    PINE   (PINUS   FLEXILISl,    EASTERN    SLOPE  OF    PIKES    PEAK. 
Living  tree.  1 8  incnes ;  dead  tree,  24  inches  in  diameter. 


i;   ^:.  jElmann  spruce  on  breckenridge  pass,  west  slope. 

La.-gest  tfees  80  or  90  feet  high  ;   trunks  3  feet  m  diameter.      Above  1  1 ,000  feet  altitude. 


JACK.]  EESERVES    IN    CENTRAL    COLORADO.  55 

As  a  rule  the  Douglas  spruce  seems  to  maintain  about  the  same 
relative  rate  of  growth  and  increase  in  size  as  the  yellow  pine  when 
growing  together  and  under  similar  conditions. 

On  north  slopes  and  decayed  granite  soil,  in  the  favoralile  localities 
just  mentioned,  a  number  of  red  firs  were  measured  and  their  ages 
ascertained.  A  tree  growing  without  having  been  much  crowded 
measured  58  feet  in  height,  was  17  inches  in  diameter  at  3  feet  from 
the  ground,  and  the  small  end  of  the  second  saw  log,  cut  at  26  feet  from 
the  large  end  of  the  lirst  log,  was  12  inches  in  diameter.  The  remain- 
ing 32  feet  of  length  liore  many  large  green  branches  and  was  rejected 
by  the  lumberman.  The  aiuuial  rings  showed  this  tree  to  be  about  175 
years  old. 

Another  having  a  total  height  of  75  feet  was  ISi  inches  in  diameter 
at  3  feet  from  the  ground,  12  inches  in  diameter  at  small  end  of  log 
30  feet  in  length,  the  remaining  45  feet  being  rejected  on  account  of 
branches.     Annual  rings  showed  about  180  years  of  growth. 

Douglas  or  red  spruce  is  considered  more  desii'able  for  lumber  and 
railroad  ties  than  yellow  pine,  but  although  the  railroad  ties  made  from 
Douglas  spruce  generally  command  10  cents  each  more  than  those 
made  from  pine,  the  sawmills,  when  cutting  the  logs  into  boards  and 
other  building  liunber,  rarely  separate  the  spruce  and  pine,  but  all  are 
mixed  and  sold  at  the  same  price  per  thousand  feet.  This  is  undoubt- 
edly in  part  due  to  the  fact  that  the  hunber  is  largely  used  locally,  or 
in  mining  camps,  for  the  construction  of  rough,  hastily-erected,  and 
cheap  buildings,  the  lowest-priced  lumber  being  sought;  and  also 
because  the  Douglas  spruce  fit  for  the  sawmill  is  so  scattered  and  mixed 
with  pine  that  any  slight  difference  in  price  it  might  command  would 
not  pay  for  sorting  and  separating  at  the  mills. 

It  is  the  principal  tree  used  in  constructing  bridges  over  creeks 
and  streams,  being  more  dui-able  in  contact  with  water  than  most  other 
timbers  locallj^  available. 

PiCEA  ENGELSiANNi  Engelm.     (Engelmann  spruce,  white  spruce.) 

The  Engelmann  spruce  is  almost  universally  called  white  spruce 
throughout  the  reserves.  It  is  the  most  abvindant  tree  on  all  the 
uppermost  forest  ranges,  and  to-day  would  probably  furnish  more 
ready  sawmill  timber  than  any  other  species  within  the  territory  under 
considei'ation.  It  often  grows  as  almost  pure  spruce  woods,  but 
commonly  some  lodgepole  pine,  range  pine  [P.  aristata),  or  alpine  fir 
{Aljies  laslocarpa)  is  found  uiixed  with  it. 

Often  extending  down  cool  northern  mountain  slopes  and  following 
cold  canj-ons  and  gulches  in  small  numbers  to  6,000  or  7,000  feet 
altitude  it  is  most  abundant,  and  seems  most  at  home.  It  reaches  its 
best  development  at  an  elevation  between  10,000  and  11,500  feet,  cover- 
ing the  tops  of  mountains  under  timber  line  and  forming  a  belt  around 


56  FOREST   RESERVES. 

the  highest,  of  ten  furnishing  fair  .siiwniill  tini1)(>r  up  to  fi'oni  11.500  to 
11,700  feet,  and  extonding  in  more  or  less  dwarfed  or  .stunted  form, 
according  to  the  exposures,  to  the  highest  limit  readied  by  trees  in 
the  reserves.  As  a  rule  this  appeal's  to  be  between  11,700  and  11,800 
feet,  but  in  some  situations  straggling  groups  or  individuals  are  found 
at  about  12,000  feet  altitude. 

While  the  range  pine  (Pinus  aristata)  often  chiefly  occupies  rocky 
southern  slopes  opposite  the  northern  slopes,  which  are  covered  by 
Engelmann  spruce,  the  latter  species  also  appears  to  occupy  most 
intermediate  locations,  and  often  crowds  the  pine  from  the  extreme 
upper  limits. 

In  its  best  condition,  as  found  in  these  reserves,  the  Engelmann 
spruce  is  a  tree  with  regularly-tapering  stem,  sometimes  110  to  120 
feet  high,  and  with  a  trunk  over  3  feet  in  diameter  at  3  or  -1  feet  from 
the  ground.  Commonh-  it  ranges  between  70  and  80  feet  in  height 
and  8  or  10  inches  to  2  feet  in  diameter,  although  specimens  3  feet  in 
diameter  and  much  shorter  in  proportion  are  found  near  timber  line. 
Branches,  living  and  dead,  are  generally  borne  from  near  the  ground 
to  the  top,  so  that  there  is  practically  no  clear  trunk,  or  only  a  few 
feet  of  it,  this  condition  prevailing  even  where  the  trees  are  growing 
comparatively  close  together.  The  branches  are  slender  and  generally 
not  more  than  6  or  7  feet  long  and  markedly  depressed,  so  that  besides 
offering  comparatively  little  resistance  to  winds,  to  which  the  trees 
are  much  exposed,  the  drooping  branches  carry  very  little  of  the  snow 
which  falls  upon  them. 

As  might  be  expected  on  the  poor  granite  soils  on  which  the  Engel- 
mann spruce  generally  grows,  and  the  cool  high  altitudes  at  which  it 
reaches  its  best  development,  where  frosts  are  common  and  snows 
not  verj'  rare  throughout  the  simimer,  the  growth  of  the  trees  is 
slow,  and  a  great  many  j^ears  are  required  to  produce  the  best  of 
the  sawmill  timber  now  found.  Many  trees  and  logs  were  measured 
and  the  ages  ascertained  from  specimens  growing  in  different  sec- 
tions, and  the  results  showed  a  fairly  uniform  rate  of  growth  and 
increment. 

In  the  Lost  Park  region,  on  a  northern  slope,  in  coarse  granite  soil, 
and  at  about  10,000  feet  altitude,  one  of  the  best  trees  seen  cut  for 
lumber  measured  110  feet  in  height  (the  top  being  dead),  was  28  inches 
in  diameter  at  3  feet  from  the  ground  and  had  clear  annual  rings  show- 
ing about  275  years  of  grow^th.  This  tree  gave  five  good  saw  logs  of  a 
total  length  of  72  feet,  the  first  three  each  16  feet  and  the  last  two  12 
feet  in  length,  and  measuring  respectiveh'  24,  21,  19,  16i,  and  12^ 
inches  in  diameter,  at  the  small  end,  giving  upward  of  1,200  feet  of 
lumber.  At  the  top  of  the  last  log,  72  feet  from  the  butt  end  or  75 
feet  from  the  ground,  annual  rings  show'ed  140  years  of  growth,  so 
that  the  remaining  35  feet  of  height  had  developed  in  about  135  yeai's. 


A.    ENGELMANM    SPRUCE   TRUNK,   OVER   3    FEET    IN    DIAMETER,    BRECKENRIDGE    PASS 
WEST  SLOPE, 

Altitude  above  1  1 ,000  feet. 


yj,    ENGELMANN   SPRUCE   AT   TIMBER    LINE,    NORTH    SIDE   OF    PIKES    PEAK 
Altitude  nearly  12,000  feet. 


JACK.]  RESERVES    IN    CENTRAL    COLORADO.  57 

Another  tree,  with  its  top  broken  and  decayed,  showed  325  clear 
annual  rings  of  growth  and  gave  three  saw  logs;  the  first  12  feet  long, 
35^^  inches  in  diameter  at  large  end  and  28  inches  at  small  end;  the 
second  1(3  feet  long  and  25  inches  in  diameter  at  small  end;  and  the 
third  also  16  feet  long  and  22  inches  in  diameter  at  small  end.  Up  to 
about  200  years  the  annual  rings  were  of  fairly  uniform  thickness,  but 
largest  in  the  second  half  of  the  first  century.  After  200  years  the  rings 
become  distinctly  thinner  with  the  age  of  the  tree.  Trees  of  the  dimen- 
sions of  these  two  are  exceptional,  the  average  being  much  smaller. 

Another  specimen,  cut  near  the  last,  measured  12^  inches  in  diameter 
at  the  stump  and  68  feet  in  total  height,  and  annual  rings  showed  it  to 
be  about  225  j'ears  of  age.  Thirty  feet  of  saw  log  was  taken  from  it, 
fhe  small  end  measuring  Si  inches  in  diameter,  the  remaining  35  feet 
being  rejected  as  too  small  and  bearing  too  many  branches  for  profita- 
ble lumber. 

Near  Boreas,  on  Breckenridge  Pass  on  the  northern  slope,  at  an 
elevation  of  11,500  feet,  the  larger  trees  did  not  measure  more  than 
from  60  to  70  feet  in  height,  although  at  3  feet  from  the  ground  some 
of  the  trunks  measured  over  2  feet  in  diameter  and  showed  as  much  as 
31:0  annual  rings  of  growth. 

All  of  these  trees  were  growing  on  a  coarse  rocky  or  granite  soil, 
where  no  traces  of  former  forest  fires  were  to  be  found,  and  where 
there  was  an  accumulation  of  several  inches  of  humus.  The  trees  on 
Breckenridge  Pass  probably  receive  more  moisture  from  westerly 
winds  than  those  in  Lost  Park. 

Most  of  the  timber  land  in  the  reserves  which  does  not  show  any 
trace  of  damage  by  fire  is  situated  at  the  higher  altitudes  where  this 
spruce  occurs,  but  the  areas  which  have  had  such  immunity  are  gener- 
ally not  large. 

The  Englemann  spruce  is  sawed  into  much  the  same  class  of  lumber, 
and  is  mainly  used  for  the  same  purposes  and  commands  about  the  same 
prices  as  the  yellow  pine  and  Douglas  spruce,  although  it  does  not 
appear  to  be  much  cut  for  railroad  ties.  It  was  formerly  used  in 
making  chai'coal,  and  recently  has  been  cut  for  the  manufacture  of 
paper  pvilp.  Being,  as  a  rule,  the  least  accessible  of  all  the  good  tim- 
ber trees,  it  has  been  the  last  to  be  attacked  by  lumbermen,  and  con- 
sequently there  is  more  of  it  of  a  size  fit  for  lumber  standing  on  a  given 
area  than  of  any  other  species.  It  is  found  throughout  most  of  the 
Pikes  Peak  Reserve  and  is  particularly  abundant  on  the  higher 
mountains  and  slopes  around  Pikes  Peak,  especially  to  the  south  and 
west,  and,  although  the  principal  tree,  it  does  not  occur  of  large  size 
over  any  considerable  areas  uubi-oken  b_v  fire,  the  ax,  or  by  predomi- 
nance of  other  kinds  of  trees  which  occur  on  exposures  peculiarly 
suited  to  them.  It  is  still  plentiful  near  Lake  Aloraine  and  the  Seven 
Lakes  on  the  south,  and  in  the  so-called  Black  Forest,  occupj'iug  a 


58  FOREST    RESERVES. 

iiiiricw  licit  to  till"  north  iiiid  west.  It  is  uncommon  in  the  northern 
part  of  the  reserve;  and  so  little  of  it  is  to  be  found  in  the  Plum  Creek 
Reserve  that  it  is  there  of  no  economic  importance. 

In  the  eastern  part  of  the  South  Platte  Reserve  it  is  rarely  seen 
within  i  or  5  miles  of  the  South  Platte  River.  It  is  found  on  the 
Puma  Hills  in  the  south(>rn  part,  and  the  Tarryall  Mountains  in  the 
central  part,  and  is  most  abundant  to  the  north  of  the  latter,  over  the 
region  covered  by  the  Kenosha  and  Platte  mountains,  with  the  inter- 
vening Lost  Park  and  Craig  Park.  Here  it  is  the  prevailing  tree, 
although  it  is  often  mi.xed  mth  lodgepole  pine,  the  so-called  range 
pine  {Pmm  arislata),  and  occasionally  with  alpine  fir  {Abies  lasiocarpa). 

In  this  area  it  forms  the  only  considerable  body  of  original  timber 
remaining  within  the  limits  of  any  of  the  reserves,  although  even  here 
it  has  not  been  exempt  from  the  ravages  of  fire,  and  the  lumberman 
has  been  at  work  in  the  heart  of  it.  This  spruce  is  also  found  through 
the  long  western  arm  of  the  reserve,  west  of  South  Park,  although 
unfortunately  the  best  and  most  valuable  forested  areas  are  chiefly 
outside  the  western  boundaries  of  the  reservation. 

PiCEA  PAKEYANA  (Andre)  Parry  (Picea  pungens,  Engelm.).     (Colo- 
rado blue  spruce.) 

This  tree  is  found  passing  under  vari(ius  local  names,  among  them 
blue  spruce,  silver  spruce,  white  spruce,  fan-leaf  spruce,  and  water 
spruce.  Two  or  three  names  are  sometimes  applied  to  different  indi^'id- 
uals  when  growing  side  by  side,  according  as  they  may  \ary  in  color 
of  foliage,  peculiarities  of  branching,  etc. 

In  its  best  condition,  as  found  in  these  reserves,  the  blue  spruce  may 
attain  a  height  of  110  or  l:i()  feet  and  a  diameter  of  trunk  of  about  3 
feet  near  the  base.  It  is  a  more  horizontally  branched,  broader  spi'ead- 
ing,  more  symmetrical  tree  than  the  Engclmann  spruce  and  grows  much 
more  rapidly,  especiall^^  in  the  first  few  decades  of  its  development. 

An  example  of  the  rate  of  growth  may  be  given  from  a  specimen 
on  the  banks  of  Tarrj-all  Creek,  near  Farnham's  ranch,  at  about 
9.000  feet  altitude,  which  measured  90  feet  in  height  and  31  inches  in 
diameter  at  4  feet  from  the  ground,  and  which  the  annual  rings  of 
growth  showed  to  be  between  180  and  200  years  old. 

On  exposed  situations,  when  the  species  grows  old,  the  branches 
often  have  a  straggling,  stunted  aspect,  which  gives  the  trees  anything 
but  the  beautiful,  symmetrical  appearance  which  they  have  in  youth, 
in  sheltered  places,  or  in  cultivation. 

As  a  rule  there  is  little  of  clear  trunk  even  where  the  trees  are 
comparatively  crowded  among  other  species. 

The  blue  spruce  is  peculiarly  uneven  in  its  distribution,  is  confined 
to  the  lower  altitudes,  and  is  usualh'  found  along  rivers  and  creeks  or 


.1.    BLUE  SPRUCE   (PICEA    PARF?YANA)     NEAR    BUFFALO   SPRINGS,    SOUTH    PARK, 


/;.   CHARACTERISTIC   GROWTH    OF   ASPEN    IN    PIKES   PEAK    RESERVE,    WHERE   FOREST    HAS 

BEEN    DESTROYED   AND   GROUND    BURNT   OVER    MORE  THAN    ONCE. 

Prostrate  trees  burnt  fifteen  or  twenty  years  before. 


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JACK.]  RESERVES    IN    CENTRAL    COLORADO.  59 

where  more  than  the  average  amount  of  moisture  is  obtained  from  the 
soil,  although  it  occurs  also  on  the  north  slopes  of  some  low  hills 
and  ridges.  It  commonly  occurs  over  the  same  territorj^  occupied 
by  the  yellow  pine  and  Douglas  spruce,  which  usually  groAV  on  the 
slopes,  while  the  blue  spruce  more  closely  follows  the  water  courses. 
As  a  rule,  it  seems  to  range  between  6.000  feet  and  9,000  feet  in 
altitude,  but  sometimes  reaches  fully  1.0(;)0  feet  above  the  latter 
elevation. 

It  never  occurs  as  pure  forest,  and  is  nowhere  sufficiently  abundant 
to  be  of  commercial  value,  generally  being  scattered  among  other 
species. 

It  is  found  scattered  along  the  creeks  and  gulches  of  the  lower  parts 
of  the  Pikes  Peak  Reserve,  crossing  it  through  Ute  Pass,  and  occuring 
here  and  there  over  the  lower  unburned  parts  to  the  north.  It  is  to 
be  met  scattered  along  creeks  through  the  Plum  Creek  Reserve,  and 
all  around  the  main  body  of  the  South  Platte  Reserve,  being  more  than 
usually  plentiful  in  the  southern  portion,  ascending  Lost  Park  Creek 
almost  to  Lost  Park  itself,  and  crossing  the  reserve  diagonally  by  way 
of  Tarryall  Creek  from  the  South  Platte  River  to  South  Park.  It 
occurs  at  intervals  along  the  eastern  margin  of  the  narrow  western 
arm  of  the  reserve,  especially  near  its  southern  end,  where,  in  spots, 
it  most  nearly  appears  as  the  pre\'ailing  growth.  It  is  commonly  scat- 
tered over  the  hilly  portion  of  South  Park  lying  between  the  two  parts 
of  the  reserve. 

Its  altitudinal  distribution  is  peculiar  and  variable  according  to 
locality  and  other  conditions.  As  examples  it  may  be  mentioned  that 
in  the  canyons  east  of  Pikes  Peak  8,500  to  9,500  feet  seems  to  be  the 
upper  limit;  along  the  North  Branch  of  the  South  Platte  it  disappears 
a  little  above  Webster,  at  about  9,000  feet  altitude,  and  its  place  is 
taken  by  the  Engelmaun  spruce;  it  exceeds  this  altitude  when  follow- 
ing the  course  of  Tarryall  Creek  to  South  Park;  is  found  at  an  eleva- 
tion of  fully  9,800  feet  to  the  west  of  the  town  of  Como;  while  to  the 
south,  within  a  mile  or  two  of  Platte  Station  or  Rich's  ranch,  it  is 
found  reaching  up  to  quite  10,000  feet  altitude  before  it  is  entirely 
supplanted  by  Engelmann  spruce  and  other  trees. 

The  wood  of  the  blue  spruce  is  generally  coarse  and  otherwise  of 
poor  quality.  Nevertheless,  in  this  region,  where  rough  timbers  are 
chiefly  in  demand,  wherever  found  of  sufficient  size,  it  is,  with  the 
yellow  pine  and  Douglas  spruce,  usually  sawed  into  boards  and  other 
classes  of  lumber  and  sold  mixed  with  the  better  kinds. 

Young  plants  showing  the  most  blue  or  glaucous  foliage  are  some- 
times collected  and  shipped  to  nurserymen  to  be  grown  for  ornamental 
purposes.  Plants  growing  side  b}'  side  show  much  variation  in  foliage, 
many  having  an  ordinary  green  coloring,  while  others  are  verj'  strik- 
inglv  glaucous  or  blue. 


60  FOREST   RESERVES. 

Abies   con  color   (Gord.)   Parry.     (Colorado   white   fir,   balsam   fir, 
blue  fir.) 

This  tree  may  be  regarded  as  rare  and  very  local  in  the  reserves.  It 
was  not  observed  anywhere  to  reach  an  altitude  greater  than  about 
8,500  feet;  and  its  best  developement  was  attained  along  water  courses 
or  on  adjacent  cold  north  slopes,  where  it  was  sometimes  found  70  or 
80  feet  in  height  and  with  a  trunk  2  feet  or  more  in  diameter. 

When  not  crowded  it  is  usually  a  beautifidly  symmetrical  tree,  coni- 
cal in  outline,  with  regular  horizontal  branches.  It  is  most  often  to  be 
seen  along  creeks  and  gulches  on  the  eastern  slopes  of  the  Pikes  Peak 
and  Plum  Creek  reserves;  and  is  apparently  a  veiy  rare  tree  in  the 
South  Platte  Reserve,  not  being  found  at  all  in  the  main  body  or 
extreme  western  portion  of  it. 

It  is  not  of  any  special  economic  importance  in  this  region,  although, 
whenever  large  enough,  it  may  be  cut,  with  other  species,  for  the 
sawmill. 

Abies  lasiocarpa  (Hook.)  Nutt.  (Abies  subalpika,  Engelm.).    (Alpine 
fir,  balsam.) 

AVhilc  the  preceding  species  is  onl_v  found  at  the  lower  levels,  the 
alpine  fir  reaches  up  to  the  average  timber  line;  also  extending  well 
down  the  mountain  sides  on  cold  northern  slopes,  but  apparently  not 
meeting  or  mingling  with  Aiies  concolor. 

It  is  also  rare  and  local,  and  nowhere  occurs  in  sufficient  numbers 
to  be  taken  into  commercial  account.  It  is  usually  found  scattered 
among  Engelmann  spruce,  and  is  also  sometimes  foimd  associated 
with  lodgepole  pine.  But  it  is  by  no  means  always  found  wherever 
these  trees  occur. 

It  is  most  often  to  be  seen  in  the  mountainous  region  between  the 
Tarryall  Mountains  and  the  North  Branch  of  the  South  Platte  River, 
and  on  the  high  range  of  the  narrow  western  arm  of  the  South  Platte 
Reserve. 

It  is  usuallj'  a  smaller  tree,  with  decidedly  shorter  branches  than 
Abies  concolor.  It  is  occasionally  70  or  80  feet  high,  with  a  trunk  2  feet 
in  diameter,  the  height  of  the  tree  diminishing  as  timber  line  is  ap- 
pi'oached,  as  is  the  case  with  Englemann  spruce. 

At  Boreas,  on  Breckenridge  Pass,  at  fully  11,500  feet  altitude,  an 
average  tree  of  this  fir  measured  53  feet  in  total  height,  was  IS^-  inches 
in  diameter  at  3  feet  from  the  ground,  and  12  inches  in  diameter  at  20 
feet  from  the  larger  end  of  the  log. 

It  showed  185  annual  rings  of  age,  the  first  100  rings  of  nearly 
uniform  size,  the  remainder  appreciably  smaller  with  the  advancing 
age  of  the  tree. 


JACK.]  RESERVES    IN    CENTRAL    COLORADO.  61 

AYhen  large  enough  the  alpine  fir  is  sometimes  cut  with  the  spruce 
for  lumber  or  paper  pulp. 

JuNiPEKUS  scopuLORUM  Sargent.     (Cedar.) 

This  tree  sometimes  passes  in  the  same  locality  under  the  names  of 
juniper,  cedar  or  red  cedar,  and  white  cedar,  the  latter  name  being 
applied  to  trees  with  unusally  glaucous  foliage. 

It  is  local  and  never  abundant  in  the  reserves,  usually  growing  scat- 
tered on  the  most  rocky  ledges  or  soils,  and  apparently  chiefl}'  limited 
to  altitudes  under  9,000  feet,  or  less  than  the  general  range  of  the 
yellow  pine. 

It  is  rarely  found  25  feet  in  height,  and  the  trunk  is  usually  very 
much  branched  to  the  base  or  has  a  divided  stem.  It  is  of  verv  slow 
growth  and  very  tenacious  of  life.  Many  individuals  are  in  part  dead, 
probably  mainly  by  reason  of  unusually  dry  seasons,  the  trees  being 
situated  on  the  driest  and  most  exposed  situations. 

This  cedar  is  found  on  rocky,  dry  hills  and  rocks  in  parts  of  the  lower 
levels  of  all  of  the  reserves,  but  is  nowhere  sufiiciently  abundant  to 
make  it  of  much  commercial  importance.  It  is  much  prized  and  used 
locally,  however,  its  durability  under  nearly  all  conditions  being  fully 
recognized  and  appreciated. 

JuNiPERUs MONOSPERMA  (Engelm.)  Sargent.    (One-seed  juniper,  cedar, 
red  cedar.) 

This  juniper  or  cedar  is  generally  at  once  distinguished  from  the 
preceding  species  by  having  more  rigid  twigs  and  darker  green  foliage, 
never  showing  the  glaucous  coloring  characteristic  of  Junipenis  scojni- 
lorum.  It  is  found  near  Manitou  with  J.  scopuhmun  and  piiion  pine 
{Pimm  eduUs),  and  rarely  at  several  other  points  near  the  reserve 
boundaries,  but  it  does  not  grow  to  the  same  altitudes  on  the  hills  as 
J.  scojjularum,  being  practically  confined  to  very  nearly  the  same  limits 
as  the  pinon  pine. 

The  one-seed  juniper  appeal's  to  grow  to  about  the  same  size  as  the 
other,  and  is  used  for  similar  purposes;  but  it  is  so  rare  in  the  territory 
under  consideration  as  to  be  practically  not  deserving  more  than  mere 
mention. 

PoPULUS  TREMULOiDES,  Michx.     (Quaking  asp,  trembling  aspen.) 

This  is  the  only  deciduous  tree  which  occurs  plentif  ullj'  over  any  con- 
siderable area  of  the  reserves.  It  is  found  in  almost  all  parts,  from 
the  low  levels  near  the  reserve  borders  up  to  10,500  or  11,000  feet 
altitude,  and  even  higher  in  favored  localities  and  in  small  specimens. 
It  may  be  seen  at  these  higher  altitudes  on  the  slopes  about  Pikes 
Peak,  and  also  in  other  places. 


62  FOREST    RESERVES. 

It  commonly  occurs  most  iibundiintly  over  areas  that  have  been 
swept  by  forest  fires,  and  if  the  ground  gives  evidence  of  having  been 
burned  over  more  than  once  the  growth  of  "quaking  asp"  is  usually 
proportionately  more  dense.  It  is  also  found  to  a  limited  extent  in 
open  woods  which  show  no  trace  of  fire  since  white  men  came  into  the 
country.  It  reaches  its  best  development  along  streams  or  in  places 
where  there  are  springs  or  more  than  the  usual  amount  of  moisture, 
but,  in  smaller  size,  it  grows  on  ordinary  levels,  slopes,  or  mountain 
sides,  being,  as  a  rule,  less  abundant  on  very  warm  southern  slopes 
than  in  other  situations. 

Under  most  conditions  in  which  it  is  found  it  is  rareh'  more  than 
25  or  30  feet  high,  with  a  stem  5  or  6  inches  in  diameter,  and  com- 
monly- it  is  so  small  and  poorly  grown  as  to  be  practically  worthless 
under  present  conditions  and  demands.  In  a  few  favored  situations 
it  sometimes  attains  a  height  of  60  or  70  feet,  with  a  long  clean  trunk 
over  a  foot  in  diameter  at  4  or  5  feet  from  the  ground.  Such  trees, 
however,  are  exceptional. 

Wherever  large  enough  the  quaking  asp  has  lately  been  cut  for 
shiiDment  to  Denver  for  the  manufacture  of  excelsior  and  also  of  paper, 
but  the  quantity  obtainable  for  this  purpose  is  so  limited  as  to  be 
totally  exhausted  with  the  shipment  of  a  few  carloads. 

The  vast  areas  of  smaller  timber  furnish  at  present  only  firewood 
and  fencing.  For  the  latter  purpose  it  has  been  found  that  fence  rails 
made  of  quaking  aspen,  stripped  of  the  bark,  will  last  for  man}-  years, 
rails  in  use  for  twent}'  j'ears  being  yet  perfectly  durable.  In  the 
moist  atmosphere  of  the  Eastern  States  these  would  probably  be 
decayed  and  useless  at  the  end  of  two  or  three  seasons.  It  is  not 
found  so  enduring  for  fence  posts,  however,  and  for  this  purpose  it  is 
usual  to  employ  either  cedar,  Douglas  spruce,  or  yellow  pine. 

The  remarkable  power  of  the  quaking  aspen  to  spring  up  and  par- 
tially cover  the  ground  soon  after  a  forest  fire  is  largely  due  to  the 
fact  that  many  plants  exist  in  a  more  or  less  suppressed  condition 
through  these  open  woods.  The  roots  are  very  widespreading  and 
mostly  near  the  surface  of  the  soil,  and  when  the  ground  is  burned 
over  adventitious  buds  produce  stems  at  irregular  intervals  along 
these  roots,  so  that  from  a  single  original  plant  there  may  spring  up 
a  colony  of  stems  extending  for  man}'  feet  around  it. 

PopuLUS  ANGUSTiFOLiA  James.     (Cottonwood,  narrow-leaved  cotton- 
wood.) 

This  tree  is  only  found  along  rivers  and  creeks,  sometimes  ascend- 
ing these  streams  to  between  9,000  and  10,000  feet  altitude.  It  is 
nowhere  abundant,  occurring  only  as  scattered  individuals  or  groups, 
and  on  account  of  its  scarcity  it  is  of  little  economic  value  in  and  about 


JACK.]  PIKES    PEAK    RESERVE.  63 

the  reserves,  excepting  that  it  is  planted  for  shade.  It  may  be  con- 
sidered as  the  largest  deciduous  tree  found  in  this  region,  but  the  best 
specimens  seen  hardly  exceeded  2  feet  in  diameter  of  trunk  and  50 
feet  in  height. 

PopuLUS  BALSAMiFERA  Linn.     (Balm  of  Gilead  poplar,  cottonwood.) 

This  tree  is  found  along  streams  in  and  about  the  reserves  up  to 
10,000  feet  or  greater  elevation,  but  it  is  nowhere  common  or  of  any 
extensive  use.  It  sometimes  attains  about  the  same  size  as  the  narrow- 
leaved  cottonwood,  to  which  it  often  bears  a  close  general  resemblance. 

POPULUS  DELTOIDES  Marsh.       (P.  MONILIFERA  Ait.) 

The  broad-leaved  cottonwood,  so  common  along  creeks  and  rivers 
on  the  plains,  did  not  appear  to  be  actually  indigenous  within  the  limits 
of  the  reserves,  although  it  occurs  in  the  vicinity  of  them  and  is  planted 
for  shade  and  other  useful  purposes. 

Populus  acuminata  Rydberg,  was  seen  only  about  Colorado  Springs 
and  Manitou,  where  a  few  individuals  may  be  found.  In  all  specimens 
seen  they  showed  features  which  suggested  a  hybrid  between  the 
broad-leaved  and  the  narrow-leaved  cottonwoods. 

PIKES  PEAK  FOREST  RESERVE. 

BOUNDARIES. 

The  boundaries  of  this  reserve,  as  established  by  Executive  order  of 
March  18,  1892,  supplementary  to  that  of  February  11,  1892,  are  as 
follows  : 

Beginning  at  the  northeast  corner  of  section  four  (4) ,  township  eleven  (11)  soutli, 
range  .sixty-seven  (67) ,  west  of  the  sixth  (6th)  principal  meridian  ;  thence  westerly 
along  the  second  (2nd)  correction  line  south,  between  townships  ten  (10)  and  eleven 
(11)  south,  to  the  northwest  corner  of  section  six  (6) ,  township  eleven  (11)  south, 
range  sixty-eight  (68)  west ;  thence  southerly  along  the  range  line  between  ranges 
sixty-eight  (68)  and  sixty-nine  (69)  west,  to  the  southwest  corner  of  section  eighteen 
(18) ,  township  thirteen  (13)  south,  range  sixty-eight  (68)  west ;  thence  westerly 
along  the  section  line  between  sections  thirteen  (13)  and  twenty-four  (24) ,  fourteen 
(14)  and  twenty-three  (23),  fifteen  (15)  and  twenty-two  (22),  sixteen  (16)  and 
twenty-one  (21),  seventeen  (17)  and  twenty  (20),  and  eighteen  (18)  and  nineteen 
(19),  to  the  northwest  corner  of  section  nineteen  (19),  township  thirteen  (13) 
south,  range  sixty-nine  (69)  west ;  thence  southerly  along  the  range  line  between 
ranges  sixty-nine  (69)  and  seventy  (70)  west,  to  the  southwest  corner  of  section 
thirty-one  (31)  of  said  township ;  thence  easterly  along  the  township  line 
between  townships  thirteen  (13)  and  fourteen  (l4)  south,  to  the  quarter 
section  corner  on  said  township  line  between  section  thirty-five  (3.5) ,  township  (13) 
south,  range  sixty-nine  (69)  west,  and  section  two  (2),  township  fourteen  (14)  south, 
range  sixty-nine  (69)  west;  thence  southerly  through  the  middle  of  sections  two  (2) , 
eleven  (11) ,  and  fourteen  (14) ,  township  fourteen  (14)  south,  range  sixty-nine  (69) 
west,  to  the  quarter  section  corner  on  the  section  line  between  sections  fourteen 
(14)  and  twenty-three  (23)  of  said  township  and  range;  thence  easterly  along  said 


64  FOREST   RESEKVE8. 

section  line  to  the  northeast  corner  of  section  twenty-three  (23)  of  said  township 
and  range;  thence  southerly  along  the  section  line  to  the  quarter  section  corner  on 
said  line  between  sections  twenty-three  (23)  and  twenty-four  (24)  of  said  township 
and  range;  thence  easterly  through  the  middle  of  section  twenty-four  (24)  to  the 
quarter  section  corner  on  the  range  line  between  section  nineteen  (19),  township 
fourteen  (14)  south,  range  sixty-eight  (68)  west,  and  section  twenty-four  (24), 
township  fourteen  (14)  south,  range  sixty-nine  (69)  west;  thence  southerly  along 
said  range  line  to  the  southwest  corner  of  section  thirty-one  (31) ,  township  fifteen 
(15)  south,  range  sixty-eight  (68)  west;  thence  easterly  along  the  third  (3rd)  correc- 
tion line  south  between  townships  fifteen  (15)  and  sixteen  (16)  south  to  the  south- 
east corner  of  section  thirty-four  (34),  township  fifteen  (15)  south,  range  sixty-seven 
(67)  west;  thence  northerly  along  the  section  line  between  sections  thirty-four  (34)  and 
thirty-five  (35),  twenty-six  (26)  and  twenty-seven  (27)  to  the  point  for  the  quarter 
section  corner  on  the  section  line  between  sections  twenty-two  (22)  and  twenty-three 
(23),  township  fifteen  (15)  south,  range  sixty-seven  (67)  west;  thence  westerly  to  a 
point  for  the  legal  center  of  section  twenty-one  (21)  of  said  township  and  range; 
thence  southerly  to  the  southwest  corner  of  the  southeast  quarter  of  section  twenty- 
eight  (28)  of  said  township  and  range;  thence  westerly  along  the  section  line  between 
sections  twenty-eight  (28)  and  thirty-three  (33),  twenty-nine  (29)  and  thirty-two 
(32) ,  thirty  (30)  and  thirty-one  (31)  to  the  northwest  comer  of  section  thirty-one  (31) 
of  said  range  and  township;  thence  northerly  on  the  range  line  between  ranges  sixty- 
seven  (67)  and  sixty-eight  (68)  west  to  the  southwest  corner  of  section  six  (6)  of 
said  township  and  range;  thence  easterly  along  the  section  line  to  the  southeast 
corner  of  section  six  (6)  of  said  township  and  range;  thence  southerly  along  the  sec- 
tion line  to  the  southw-est  corner  of  section  eight  (8)  of  said  township  and  range; 
thence  easterly  along  the  section  line  to  the  southeast  corner  of  section  ten  (10)  of 
said  township  and  range;  thence  northerly  along  the  section  line  between  sections 
ten  (10)  and  eleven  (11) ,  two  (2)  and  three  (3) ,  township  fifteen  (15)  south,  range  sixty- 
seven  (67)  west,  to  the  northeast  corner  of  section  three  (3)  of  said  township  and  range; 
thence  westerly  along  the  township  line  between  townships  fourteen  (14)  and  fifteen 
(15)  south  to  the  northwest  corner  of  section  three  (3) ,  township  fifteen  (15)  south, 
range  sixty-seven  (67)  west;  thence  northerly  along  the  section  line  between  sections 
thirty-three  (33)  and  thirty-four  (34) ,  twenty-seven  (27)  and  twenty-eight  (28) ,  twenty- 
one  (21)  and  twenty-two  (22)  to  the  northeast  corner  of  section  twenty-one  (21) ,  town- 
ship fourteen  (14)  south,  range  sixty-seven  (67)  west;  thence  westerly  along  the  section 
line  between  sections  sixteen  (16)  and  twenty-one  (21) ,  seventeen  (17)  and  twenty  (20), 
eighteen  (18)  and  nineteen  (19)  to  the  northwest  corner  of  section  nineteen  (19)  of  said 
township  and  range;  thence  northerly  along  the  range  line  between  ranges  sixty- 
seven  (67)  and  sixty-eight  (68)  west  to  the  northeast  corner  of  section  one  (1), 
township  fourteen  (14)  south,  range  sixty-eight  (68)  west;  thence  easterly  along  the 
township  line  between  townships  thirteen  (13)  and  fourteen  (14)  south  to  the  south- 
east corner  of  section  thirty-three  (33) ,  township  thirteen  (13)  south,  range  sixty- 
seven  (67)  west;  thence  northerly  along  the  section  line  between  sections  thirty-three 
(33)  and  thirty-four  (34) ,  twenty-seven  (27)  and  twenty-eight  (28) ,  twenty-one  (21) 
and  twenty-two  (22) ,  fifteen  (15)  and  sixteen  (16) ,  nine  (9)  and  ten  (10) ,  and  three 
(3)  and  four  (4)  of  townships  thirteen  (13),  twelve  (12)  and  eleven  (11)  south, 
range  sixty-seven  (67)  west  to  the  place  of  beginning. 

TOPOGRAPHY  AND  DRAINAGE. 

Of  the  184,320  acres  contained  within  the  Pikes  Peak  Reserve,  that 
having  the  lowest  altitude  consists  of  a  small  corner  near  Manitou 
with  an  elevation  of  between  6,000  and  7,000  feet  above  sea  level. 
Almost  the  whole  of  the  Pikes  Peak  Reserve  is  composed  of  rugged 


lEW   AT   SEVEN    LAKES,    PIKES    PEAK    RESERVE     LOOKING   SOUTh 


Jl    VIEW    LOOKING    EAST   TO    LAKE    MORAINE.    SHEEP    MOUNTAIN,   AND   CAMERON    CONE 
FROM   SLOPES   OF    PIKES    PEAK. 


JACK.]  PIKES    PEAK    RESERVE.  65 

hills  and  mountains  which  attain  an  extreme  elevation  in  Pikes  Peak 
itself,  the  height  of  whieh  is  14,108  feet.  To  the  south  and  southeast 
of  Pikes  Peak  are  numerous  mountains  and  ridges  between  11,000 
and  13,000  feet  in  elevation  ;  a  very  small  portion  is  below  8,500  feet, 
and  probably  the  average  altitude  exceeds  10,000  feet.  To  the  north 
of  Pikes  Peak  the  land  falls  much  more  abruptly,  and  most  of  the  ter- 
ritory lying  in  the  reserve  between  the  Peak  and  the  Plum  Creek 
Reserve  ranges  between  8,000  and  9,500  feet  in  altitude,  the  highest 
points  not  exceeding  10,000  feet. 

The  soil  is  generally  a  coarse,  broken,  or  decayed  granite,  among 
which  are  distributed  manj'  ledges,  rocks,  or  bowlders.  There  is  little 
huuuis  or  loam,  and  whatever  there  may  be  is  generally  accumulated 
in  hollows,  along  creeks,  or  in  small  areas  of  forest  which  show  no 
trace  of  fire.  In  the  Lake  Moraine  vicinity  there  is  a  good  deal  of 
deep  muck,  the  accumulation  of  many  centuries. 

Several  small  creeks  have  their  sources  in  the  Pikes  Peak  Reserve, 
most  of  them  falling  to  the  east  or  west  into  larger  streams,  which  in 
turn  empty  into  the  South  Platte  River  on  the  north  or  the  Arkansas 
River  on  the  south,  most  of  the  water  falling  into  the  latter  stream. 
The  most  important  of  these  creeks  is  Fountain  Creek,  which  rises  in 
the  western  part,  where  it  is  known  as  Catamount  Creek,  and,  passing 
across  the  center  of  the  reserve,  is  joined  by  Monument  Creek  near 
Colorado  Springs  and  falls  into  the  Arkansas  River  at  Pueblo.  It  is 
fed  by  a  number  of  small  tributaries,  among  them  Ruxton  Creek, 
which  carries  the  waters  flowing  from  the  east  of  Pikes  Peak  and 
joins  Fountain  Creek  near  Manitou.  The  waters  of  Ruxton  Creek  are 
used  both  for  power  purposes  and  water  saipply  for  the  towns  below. 

The  southern  end  of  the  reserve  is  chiefly  drained  by  Beaver  Creek 
and  its  tributaries,  and  Cheyenne  Creek  and  its  branches  carry  off  the 
water  from  a  comparatively  small  area  in  the  southeastern  part. 

There  are  no  large  bodies  of  water  on  the  reserve.  The  largest, 
known  as  Lake  Moraine,  is  less  than  100  acres  in  area,  and  is  now,  in 
fact,  an  enlarged  artificial  reservoir,  forming  part  of  the  Ruxton  Creek 
water  s_ystem. 

The  small  bodies  of  water  known  as  the  Seven  Lakes  are  above,  and 
are  separated  from  Lake  Moraine  by  a  high  divide,  and  have  Beaver 
Creek,  which  flows  southward,  for  their  outlet.  These  lakes  are  situated 
at  an  altitude  of  about  10,500  feet,  are  of  various  depths,  and  alto- 
gether, when  full,  may  cover  a  hundred  or  more  acres  in  area. 

A  tunnel,  known  as  the  Strickler  tunnel,  is  in  process  of  construc- 
tion, with  the  object  of  drawing  some  of  the  waters  near  the  head  of 
Beaver  Creek  into  Lake  Moraine  in  order  to  increase  and  perpetuate 
the  water  supply  for  Colorado  Springs  and  other  places  below.  In 
its  fall  of  several  thousand  feet  the  water  will  be  utilized  to  furnish 
power  for  various  purposes. 

20  GEOL,  I'T  5 5 


66  FOREST    RESERVES. 

Palmer  Lake,  a  small  artificial  reservoir  in  the  northeastern  corner 
of  the  reserve,  is  situated  outside  the  mountain  region,  so  that  it  is  of 
no  special  importance  in  relation  to  the  reserve  proper. 

Considering  the  ranching,  manufactures,  and  especially  the  large 
transientandpei'manenthealth-seeking  population  at  Colorado  Springs, 
Manitou,  and  other  places  along  thii  eastern  slope  of  this  reserve,  the 
importance  of  preserving  a  jjure  and  undiminished  water  supply  c'an 
not  be  overestimated;  and,  as  this  purest  water  comes  from  the  higher 
mountains  in  the  vicinity  of  and  including  Pikes  Peak,  every  means 
should  be  taken  to  preserve  it  from  damage  of  any  sort. 

Among  the  chief  sources  of  the  streams  are  the  great  snowdrifts 
above  timber  line,  which  accmnulate  in  winter  in  deep  gulches  or  hol- 
lows, and,  slowly  melting  in  sunmier,  still  exist  on  the  north  or  shaded 
sides  of  the  mountains  when  they  arc  replenished  by  the  snows  of  the 
succeeding  autumn  and  winter. 


It  is  well  known  in  mountainous  regions  that  a  constant  and  equable 
distribution  of  the  water  in  summer  is  greatly  helped  b}-  a  good  forest 
covering  of  the  upper  slopes  and  valleys,  the  effect  being  to  cause  a 
more  gradual  melting  of  snow  where  shaded  and  checking  the  water 
from  precipitately  rushing  to  streams  lielow,  as  is  generally  the  case 
on  denuded  gi'ound.  Unfortunately  there  are  no  very  large  continu- 
ous forest  areas  on  this  reserve,  fire  and  the  ax  having  removed  the 
best  portion  of  the  timber,  so  that  there  is  little  of  the  primeval  forest 
remaining  or  which  does  iiot  show  molestation  by  man.  The  best  of 
the  remaining  timber  is  found  in  a  narrow  belt  near  Glen  Cove,  north- 
west of  Pikes  Peak,  in  the  so-called  Black  Forest,  to  the  west  of  Glen 
Cove,  and  perhaps  3  or  4  square  miles  in  irregular  patches  and  very 
variable  density,  lying  south  of  Pikes  Peak  and  mosth'  to  the  west  of 
Lake  Moraine  and  the  Seven  Lakes.  Here  and  there,  as  near  the 
Halfway  House  and  a  few  other  favored  points  near  the  line  of  the 
Manitou  and  Pikes  Peak  Railway,  groves  of  a  few  .acres  of  fine  trees 
may  be  found,  but  these  are  exceptional.  As  a  rule  the  best  remain- 
ing timber  is  on  the  least  accessil>l(>,  although  not  inaccessible,  slopes. 

A  consideral>le  portion  of  the  Black  Forest  district,  situated  between 
Cilen  Cove  and  Midland  Station,  lies  outside  the  reserve  boundaries. 
It  has  nearly  all  been  cut  over  and  the  l)est  of  the  timber  taken  out, 
although  nuich  still  remains  of  sufficient  size  for  immediate  use.  The 
activitj'  of  sawmills  is  indicated  by  munerous  abandoned  sawmill  sites 
(or  sawmill  '"settings,"  as  they  are  called  locally)  which  are  fovuid  along 
the  creeks.  In  June,  1896,  fires  destroyed  a  cozisiderable  portion  of 
tlie  living  timber,  and  there  was  strong  suspicion  that  the  flames  were 
started  by  lumbermen  in  order  that  their  operations  might  come  within 


FOREST     LOOKING   SOUTH    TO   SENTINEL    POINT,    WEST  OF    PIKES    PEA 
MUCH    CUT   OVER   AND    BURNT 


-'••=St 


-»«:s::*' 


:^^^  ^  "'.^.€'&5^^^^'' 


J!    RASPBERRY    MOUNTAIN   .CATAMOUNT 

HAYDEN  Divide  road    about 


AND    PIKES    PEAK,    LOOKING    EAST  ON 
SOUTH    OF    DIVIDE  STATION 


.1     VIEW    LOOKING   SOUTH-SOUTHEAST    FROM    SLOPES   OK    PIKES    PEAK    TO    HILLS   SOUTH 
OF    LAKE    MORAINE 


B    ENGELMANN    SPRUCE    IN    PIKES    PEAK    RESERVE, 
r  fifty  years  ago    enough  old  tiees  escaping  to  seed  tile  ground  .   the  old  t 


JACK.]  PIKES    PEAK    RESERVE.  67 

the  provision  allowing  dead  timber  to  be  removed  from  the  Govern- 
ment reserves. 

The  timber  near  Lake  Moraine  has  mostly  been  cut  over  and  the 
best  taken  for  Imnber  or  other  purposes.  About  the  Seven  Lakes  and 
along  Beaver  Creek  the  greater  pnvt  of  the  original  forest  has  been 
destroyed  by  fire,  many  of  the  dead  trees  still  standing,  in  spite  of  their 
destruction  more  than  a  quarter  of  a  century  ago.  These  trees,  as  well 
as  the  areas  about  Glen  Cove  and  those  composing  the  Black  Forest, 
aie  mostly  Engelmann  spruce,  among  which  are  some  range  pine 
{Pinus  aristatci)  and  white  pine  {Piniis  Jlexilis),  which  are  most  plen- 
tiful on  south  slopes,  while  the  higher  altitudes  with  a  northerly  slope 
are  most  exclusively  occupied  b_v  Engelmann  spruce.  The  tree  ordi- 
narily .sought  here  for  lumber  is  the  latter  species.  "While  occasion- 
ally 80  or  00  feet  high,  with  a  trunk  2^  feet  in  diameter,  the  average 
available  timber  trees  would  not  measure  above  6()  or  70  feet  in  height 
and  12  to  1.5  inches  in  diameter,  and  on  many  portions  there  is  practi- 
cally no  timber  left  of  a  size  suitable  for  the  sawmill,  although  nmch 
could  ])e  utilized  for  paper  pulp. 

On  account  of  the  extreme  varialiilit}'  of  the  timber  on  these  areas, 
caused  by  cutting,  by  burnings  at  various  times,  and  by  very  diverse 
quality  according  to  exposure  or  elevation,  so  that  no  section  or  even 
quarter  section  of  living  timber  ground  can  be  found  giving  a  fairly 
uniform  growth,  it  is  impossible  to  give  a  close  estimate  of  the  amount 
of  lumber  remaining  here  without  more  time  for  examination  and 
measurements  than  was  available  in  the  present  exploration.  There 
are  many  acres  which  would  cut  over  5,000  feet  of  lumber  to  the  acre 
if  trees  less  than  10  or  12  inches  in  dlauieter  were  included,  but  not 
many  acres  of  such  timber  could  be  found  together. 

AVith  the  exception  of  a  few  scattered  small  areas,  which  are  hardly 
more  than  groves,  there  are  practically  no  forests  deserving  of  the 
name  on  all  the  remaining  portion  of  the  reserve.  In  the  southern 
portion,  as  along  North  and  South  Cheyenne  creeks,  and  especially 
along  the  line  of  the  wagon  road  between  Colorado  Springs  and  Crip- 
ple Creek,  there  are  some  patches  of  light  timber;  but  most  of  the 
territory  here  has  been  burned  over  azid  no  important  new  growth  has 
yet  developed,  or  it  bears  a  very  scattered  growth  of  very  small  or 
medium-sized  trees.  Some  of  the  ground  on  south  slopes  and  in  val-. 
leys  is  absolutely  bare  of  trees  of  any  kind. 

The  species  found  here  are  Engelmann  spruce.  Douglas  spruce,  vel- 
low  pine  {Pimvs  pond-erosd)^  some  range  pine  (/'.  uristata),  and  white 
pine  {P.  Jfexills). 

In  all  the  remaining  part  of  the  reserve,  lying  to  the  north 
of  the  Manitou  and  Pikes  Peak  Riilway,  and  comprising  about 
120,000  acres,  or  two-thirds  of  its  entire  area,  there  is  no  timber 
worthy  of  the  name.     Between  the  Pikes  Peak  Railway  and  Fountain 


68  FOREST   RESERVES. 

Creek,  or  the  line  of  the  Colorado  Midland  Kailwaj',  the  principal 
conspicuous  growth  is  small  aspen  or  "  quaking  asp,"  among  which  are 
scattered  individuals  or  small  groves  of  conifers,  chiefly  yellow  pine, 
white  pine,  and  Douglas  spruce.  Some  of  these  trees  are  of  good  size, 
being  the  survivors  that  escaped  the  earlier  great  fires,  and  they  bear  the 
seed  which  is  gi'adually,  although  very  slowly,  reforesting  this  ground, 
which  was  mostly  burned  over  between  two  and  three  score  yeai's  ago. 
The  new  trees  are  of  various  ages,  I'anging  from  seedlings  to  trees 
above  30  j^ears  old.  They  are  usually  growing  with  the  aspen,  but 
they  are  rarely  in  sufficient  numbers  together  to  ultimately  produce 
good  timber.  This  rising  generation  of  trees  must  arrive  at  seed- 
bearing  age  before,  in  the  course  of  nature,  the  ground  will  become 
properly  and  sufficiently  stocked. 

On  the  slopes  and  hills  about  Fountain  Creek,  for  several  miles 
northwest  of  Manitou,  there  is  still  left  a  generally  open,  irregular 
growth  of  small-sized  or  medium-sized  yellow  pine  and  Douglas  spruce. 
There  is  little,  however,  to  furnish  ready  material  for  sawmill  luml)er. 

Excepting  a  comparatively  small  area,  nearly  all  of  the  territory 
lying  to  the  north  of  Fountain  Creek,  or  more  than  one-third  of  the 
total  area  of  the  reserA-e,  may  be  classed  as  practically  destitute  of 
livnng  timber  of  any  kind  except  small  aspen.  This  ground,  after 
being  cut  over,  is  said  to  have  been  burned  al)out  the  _year  1880,  only 
a  few  small  belts,  groups,  or  individuals  of  the  timber  then  standing 
escaping  the  flames.  This  timber  was  not  large,  and  the  surviving 
remnants  to-day  would  make  mediocre  sawmill  Imnber.  They  stand 
like  oases  in  a  desert,  and  the  seeds  which  they  produce  are  the  chief 
hope  of  natural  reforestation  of  this  burned  district.  Nevertheless, 
there  are  yet  hundreds  of  contiguous  acres  upon  which  not  a  single 
young  conifer  has  yet  started  to  take  the  place  of  those  destroyed. 
Near  the  living  ti'ees  which  escaped  burning  there  is  generally  a  good, 
although  not  dense,  growth  of  young  trees  coming,  the  individuals 
becoming  more  and  more  isolated  and  rare  with  increased  distance 
from  the  old  seed-bearing  trees. 

The  trees  killed  by  the  fire  are  mostly  quite  sound,  and  arc  either 
standing  or  fallen  to  the  ground,  and  are  used  locally  for  fuel  and 
other  purposes.  Over  most  of  this  tract  the  white  pine  ( P'mm  fi'.rilis) 
appears  to  have  been  plentiful,  but  yellow  pine  and  Douglas  spruce  were 
the  prevailing  trees,  some  Engelmann  spruce  and  blue  spruce  being 
mixed  with  them.  A  narrow  strip  along  the  extreme  northern  end  of 
the  reserve,  and  bordering  on  the  Plum  Creek  Reserve,  escaped  the  gen- 
eral conflagration  of  the  time,  and  here  are  growing  small  or  medium 
sized  trees  of  the  species  mentioned,  with  a  considerable  percentage 
of  lodgepole  pine  among  them.  The  best  of  the  timber  has  been  cut 
out,  but  what  remains  is  well  worth  care  and  protection,  and  in  future 
should  furnish  a  continual  small  local  supply  of  building  timber. 


.1     NORTHERN    PART   OF    PIKES    PEAK    RESERVE,    BURNT    ABOUT    1380 


B    ASPEN    AND   SCATTERED    PINUS    FLEXILIS   ON    GROUND    IN    PIKES    PEAK    RE 
Burnt  probably  about  frity  years  ago 


PIKES    PEAK    RESERVE.  69 


No  great  forest  fii-es  have  occurred  within  the  Pikes  Peak  Reserve 
in  recent  years.  The  most  serious  of  the  later  fires  burned  over  con- 
siderable valuable  timber  lying  to  the  west  of  Pikes  Peak,  partly 
within  and  partly  outside  the  reserve.  This  area  is  said  to  have 
been  burned  in  June,  IS'M.  and  the  owners  of  sawmills  were  accounted 
responsible. 

The  early  fires  which  devastated  a  great  part  of  the  forest  land  are 
said  to  have  taken  place  when  the  country  was  first  explored,  about 
half  a  century  ago;  and  it  is  claimed  that  they  were  started  by  Indians, 
who  thus  attemjited  to  drive  out  the  game  before  them  when  they  were 
compelled  to  leave  this  region  for  more  distant  reserves. 

The  more  recent  fires  have  generally  been  confined  to  small  areas, 
and  the  damage  has  not  been  very  great  in  comparison  with  the  earlier 
fires,  which  swept  the  ground  and  destroyed  the  primeval  growth. 

Sparks  from  locomotives  of  the  Colorado  Midland  Railway  and  the 
Manitou  and  Pikes  Peak  Railway  have  caused  numerous  small  fires,  but. 
in  recent  years  at  least,  these  corporations  seem  to  have  taken  reasona- 
ble precautions  to  prevent  them.  Campei's,  prospectors,  and  other 
persons  making  fires,  and  careless  about  guarding  or  extinguishing 
them,  ha^'e  sometimes  been  responsible  for  considerable  damage. 
Onl}^  one  tire  was  recorded  during  the  past  season.  It  occurred  in 
early  October  among  some  timber  south  of  Pikes  Peak,  burned  slowly 
for  several  days,  and  was  finally  extinguished  by  a  snowstorm.  The 
origin  of  this  fire  or  the  extent  of  the  damage  could  not  be  ascertained, 
as  there  was  not  time  to  make  a  personal  inspection  of  the  ground. 

Small  grass  fires  are  sometimes  started  from  sparks  from  locomo- 
tives, but  they  are  usually  quickly  suppressed  before  the\'  get  beyond 
control. 

It  is  probably  safe  to  say  that  75  or  80  per  cent  of  the  total  area 
shows  marks  of  damage  b_v  fire.  Some  of  this  burning  occurred 
before  the  coming  of  white  men,  and  these  tracts  have  a  considerable 
growth  of  trees  or  timber.  Most  of  the  forest  has  been  burned  since 
the  country  was  first  explored,  the  great  fires  about  Pikes  Peak 
occurring  about  fift}-  j-ears  ago,  or  about  1848,  according  to  the  best 
information  obtainable.  Aspen  and  some  shrubs  are  abundant,  l)ut 
conifers  are  coming  in  very  slowh'  except  in  the  vicinity  of  groves  or 
individuals,  which  escaped  the  general  conflagration. 

Dr.  W.  A.  Bell,  of  Colorado  Springs,  states  that  the  large  burned 
tract  in  the  northern  part  of  the  reserve,  north  of  Fountain  Creek, 
was  destroyed  by  fire  about  1880.  The  few  trees  and  groves  which 
escaped  are  seeding  the  gi'ound  about  them,  but  it  will  be  centuries 
before  another  coniferous  forest  exists  here  if  natural  conditions  pre- 
vail.    The  fire  burned  the  hunuxs  so  thorouohlv  that  the  bare  disin- 


70  FOREST   KESERVES. 

tejjratod  granite  is  everywhere  apparent.  Aspen  has  come  in,  aiid  a 
few  shrubs,  but  grasses  and  grazing  herbs  are  not  abunchmt,  except 
along  some  of  the  small  streams. 

SETTLEMENTS. 

Excepting  at  Palmer  Lake,  situated  in  the  northeastern  corner 
there  are  no  large  settlements  or  aggregations  of  dwellings  located 
within  this  reserve.  There  are  few  ranches  or  mining  camps,  and  a 
relatively  small  proportion  of  the  entire  ai'ea  comes  under  the  pro- 
visions of  patented  or  homestead  lands. 

A  large  proportion  of  the  lands  in  private  ownership  are  located 
near  the  line  cf  the  Colorado  Midland  Railway,  between  Manitou  and 
Woodland  Park,  the  latter  small  settlement  being  just  on  the  reserve 
boundary. 

Cascade  and  Green  Mountain  Falls  are  the  principal  stations  along 
this  route,  the  total  permanent  population  being  but  a  few  score 
persons,  although  in  summer  it  is  greatly  augmented  by  tourists 
and  people  seeking  rest  and  recreation  in  the  mountains.  Ute  Park 
is  another  small  summer  resort  situated  between  the  two  stations  men- 
tioned, and  there  are  a  number  of  small  ranches  distributed  along  the 
creek  and  its  tributaries  up  to  Woodland  Park,  where  several  dwell- 
ings ai'e  located  within  the  i"eserve  limits.  Although  Palmer  Lake  lies 
within  the  reserve,  the  fact  is  not  generally  known  among  the  inhal)- 
itants.  It  is  located  on  the  line  of  the  Denver  and  Rio  Grande  and  of 
the  Atchison,  Topeka  and  Santa  Fe  railroads,  and  has  a  population  of 
between  100  and  150  persons,  this  number  being  very  greatly  increased 
during  the  warm  season  by  summer  residents,  lodgers,  and  campers. 

Glen  Cove,  on  the  wagon  road  on  the  north  side  of  Pikes  Peak,  is 
mei'ely  a  lodging  and  way-station  house  for  tourists  and  is  vacated  in 
winter.  Along  the  line  of  the  Manitou  and  Pikes  Peak  Railway  there 
are  a  number  of  cottages  and  boarding  establishments,  occupied  in 
summer,  l)ut  usually  vacant  in  winter,  and  near  Lake  Moraine  and 
above  it  are  the  stations  and  lodgings  of  those  employed  in  the  develop- 
ment of  the  waterworks. 

Along  Bear  Creek  and  North  Cheyenne  Creek  are  two  or  three 
small  so-called  ranches,  and  several  are  on  the  Cheyenne  Mountain 
wagon  I'oad  between  Colorado  Springs  and  Cripple  Creek,  the  largest 
and  most  important  being  located  at  Beaver  Creek  and  consisting  of 
four  or  live  occupied  buildings,  forming  a  halfway  station  between 
the  two  important  towns  on  the  road. 

Throughout  the  reserve  there  are  scattered  a  few  solitary  cabins  of 
prospectors  or  miners,  but  at  present  there  are  no  mining  camps. 

During  summer  there  are  many  camping  parties  throughout  the 
reserve,  either  merelv  traveling  through  it  or  remaining  in  one  location 
for  several  weeks  together. 


B    VIEW   ON    LINE  OF   MANITOU    AND    PIKES    PEAK   RAILWAY 
Aspen  burnt  about  five  years  ago      new  growth  of  aspen  coming 


JACK.]  PIKES    PEAK    RESERVE.  71 

AGRICULTURE    AND    GRAZING. 

There  is  little  practical  agriculture  possible  in  this  reserve  and  little 
is  attempted.  A  few  of  the  hardier  grains  and  vegetables  may  be 
raised  in  limited  areas  of  low  altitude  where  irrigation  is  possible,  as 
at  Palmer  Lake,  along  Fountain  Creek,  and  similar  situations. 

Along  the  creeks  the  ground  available  and  suitable  is  confined  to 
very  narrow  strips,  rarely  more  than  a  few  rods  wide  excepting  in  a 
few  places  where  it  broadens  into  so-called  parks.  It  is  chiefly  devoted 
to  the  raising  of  hay  or  forage  for  cattle  in  winter. 

The  chief  business  of  the  ranches  consists  in  the  grazing  of  cattle, 
of  which  there  are  a  considerable  number,  variously  estimated  at  from 
two  to  five  thousand  head,  ranging  over  most  parts  of  the  reserve 
where  pasturage  is  to  be  obtained.  Fewer  cattle  range  in  the  northern 
portion  than  in  the  southern  part  of  the  reserve.  The  largest  herds 
belong  to  a  company  whose  cattle  chiefly  range  in  the  Beaver  Creek 
region. 

A  large  proportion  of  the  cattle  found  in  the  reserve  do  not  belong 
to  persons  located  upon  it,  but  are  branded  and  driven  in  from  settle- 
ments in  the  surrounding  country,  being  taken  out  at  the  approach  of 
winter.  On  this  account  it  is  not  easily  practicable  to  get  a  close  esti- 
mate of  the  average  number  of  cattle  pastured  on  the  Government 
land. 

The  pasturage  is  undoubtedly  greatly  inferior  to  that  which  for- 
merly existed,  and  in  past  years  much  of  the  ground  has  been  made 
to  support  a  larger  number  of  cattle  than  was  warranted  by  the  con- 
ditions. There  are  some  areas  where  grazing  should  be  restricted  or 
abandoned.  This  is  especially  true  of  some  of  the  high  slopes  or 
meadow-like  intervales  at  the  head  of  .some  of  the  streams  to  the 
south  of  Pikes  Peak.  Even  moderate  pasturage  here  has  a  tendency 
toward  injuriously  affecting  the  purity  of  the  water  supply  for 
domestic  purposes  upon  which  the  towns  below  are  dependent.  Exces- 
sive pasturage  near  the  streams  has  greatly  reduced  or  destroyed  the 
grasses  and  other  herbage  and  shrubs  which  should  hold  the  .soil  and 
modif}'  the  flow  of  surface  waters. 

MINING    AND     LUMBERING. 

There  are  no  active,  profitable  mines  located  within  the  reserve 
limits,  but  considerable  prospecting  is  carried  on  in  almost  all  parts 
by  individuals  perennially  hopeful  of  finding  rich  ore.  Gold  and 
silver  are  found,  and  it  seems  very  probable  that  important  discoveries 
may  yet  be  made,  such  as  have  been  made  within  2  or  3  miles 
of  the  .southwestern  boundai-y.  It  was  reported  that  small  mills  for 
the  treatment  of  low-grade  ore  or  gravel  were  to  be  erected  2  or 
3  miles  to  the  north  of   Green   Mountain   Falls,  and  should  these 


72  KOKKST    KKSKK^■KS!. 

prove  successful  it  is  lii<('iy  tliiit  un  inijxjrtaiit  iiiflustry  nmy  he  devel- 
oped in  the  treatment  of  a  low  grade  of  mineral-bearing  rock  or 
gravel,  of  M'hich  there  seems  to  be  an  abundant  supplv. 

No  sawmills  are  now  at  work  in  the  reserve.  As  most  of  the  val- 
uable timber  has  been  either  cut  or  burned,  there  is  little  left  to  induce 
extensive  lumbering  operations.  On  the  Cheyenne  Mountain  road  to 
Cripple  Creek  a  few  trees  were  being  cut  for  telegraph  or  trolley 
poles,  and  in  places  a  few  railroad  ties  were  taken.  A  small  portable 
sawmill  was  located  at  Woodland  Park,  just  at  the  reserve  boundaries, 
and  undoubtedly  nuxch  timber  which  supplied  it  was  taken  from  Gov- 
ernment land,  although,  of  course,  it  was  claimed  that  it  had  been  cut 
on  patented  land  within  the  I'eserve  limits. 

In  October,  1898,  this  mill  was  moved  to  another  location  farther 
from  the  reserve  boundary.  Another  sawmill,  located  at  Midland  Sta- 
tion, must  necessarily  draw  a  large  part  of  its  supplies  from  public 
lands,  perhaps  also  from  the  reserve,  the  boundary  of  which  is  within 
a  mile  of  the  mill. 

The  most  extensive  recent  cutting  has  taken  place  within  three  or 
four  years  on  the  portion  of  the  reserve  bearing  the  heaviest  timber, 
sometimes  called  the  Black  Forest,  and  located  to  the  west  of  Pikes 
Peak  and  Glen  Cove. 

The  numerous  sawmill  sites  or  "settings,"  indicating  the  moving  of 
the  mill  from  time  to  time  in  order  to  get  neai'er  the  trees  cut,  and  the 
heaps  of  sawdust  and  refuse  attest  the  activity  and  extent  of  the  lum- 
bering carried  on  here.  The  locations  of  the  mill  and  the  cuttings 
were  situated  in  part  on  reserve  land  and  in  part  on  ground  outside  of 
it,  but  belonging  to  the  Government.  The  destruction  of  timber  by 
the  ax  was  finally  supplemented  by  the  action  of  iire,  which  burned 
over  a  large  area  of  that  which  remained.  This  tire  was  believed  to 
be  of  incendiarj-  origin,  in  order  that  the  forest  might  come  under  the 
head  of  dead  tiuiber,  which  is  allowed  to  be  taken  freely  from  the 
reserves.  After  the  cutting  and  fires  had  deprived  the  tract  of  its 
best  value,  Government  officials  interfered  and  the  sawmill  operations 
were  stopped. 

In  spite  of  the  havoc  already  accomplished,  there  is  still  some  good 
living  Engelmann  spruce  and  a  small  proportion  of  Douglas  spruce 
here  well  worth  guarding  from  further  damage. 

The  fires,  which  occurred  in  June,  1896,  have  left  a  great  deal  of 
standing  dead,  but  sound,  timber,  which  is  now  being  utilized  for  mine 
timbers.  The  trees  are  cut  in  the  forest  into  various  convenient 
lengths  and  hauled  to  the  Midland  Station  of  the  Midland  Terminal 
Railway,  where  they  are  loaded  upon  flat  cars  and  shipped  to  Cripple 
Creek  and  other  mining  camps.  The  logs  are  shipped  without  squar- 
ing or  dressing,  or  even  the  removal  of  bark.  Delivered  at  the  cars, 
logs  16  feet  long  are  paid  for  at  the  rate  of  2i  to  3  cents  per  inch  of 


JACK.]  PIKES    PEAK    RESERVE.  73, 

diameter,  measured  at  the  small  end.  and  logs  from  4  inches  in  diameter 
and  upward  are  taken. 

At  Woodland  Park  some  aspen  or  quaking  asp  {Pojiulus  treinuloides) 
was  collected  and  shipped  to  Denver  to  be  manufactured  into  excelsior. 
No  sticks  less  than  4  or  5  inches  in  diameter  were  shipped.  They 
were  usually  cut  into  lengths  of  8  or  12  feet,  and  stripped  of  bark, 
and  commanded  about  $4  per  cord,  delivered  at  the  shipping  station. 
This  kind  and  quality  of  lumber  is  very  limited  in  quantitv  in  this 
region,  and  the  few  cords  accumulated  represented  gleanings  from 
both  Government  and  patented  ground  in  the  vicinity.  A  considerable 
quantity  was  also  collected  and  shipped  at  Divide,  a  station  about 
midway  between  Woodland  Park  and  Florissant  and  2  or  3  miles  north 
of  the  westernmost  part  of  the  reserve.  Aspen  of  fair  size  grew 
more  pleutifulh'  in  this  vicinity  than  in  most  other  places  seen. 

SUGGESTIONS. 

As  may  be  readily  seen  from  the  foregoing  observations  and  the 
accompanying  photographs,  which  are  selected  to  show  fair  average 
conditions,  there  is  but  a  small  portion  of  the  area  of  this  re- 
serve suiBciently  covered  with  trees  to  deserve  the  name  of  timber 
land;  and  from  such  timber  land  as  exists  the  best  has  been  already 
taken  out  for  sawmill  lumber  and  other  purposes.  Such  timber  is 
confined  to  the  southern  portion,  the  northern  half  being  practically 
timberless.  South  and  west  of  Pikes  Peak  a  few  million  feet  of 
lumber  could  yet  be  found  and  taken  out  without  material  injury  to 
the  present  forest  covering,  but  care  should  be  taken  in  removing  old 
trees,  as  .seedlings  or  young  growths  are  not  abundant.  A  great  many 
of  the  trees  killed  by  tire  are  .still  sound  and  in  good  condition  and 
will  be  of  value  both  for  mining  timbers  and  for  fuel,  and  for  the 
latter  purpose  will  furnish  a  local  supply  for  many  j'ears  to  come. 

On  large  areas  which  were  completely  burned  over,  and  where  no 
conifers  escaped  destruction,  it  is  probable  that,  left  to  natural  condi- 
tions, two  or  three  centuries  must  elapse  before  the  gi'ound  again  bears 
a  scant}'  covering  of  medium-sized  trees  such  as  formerly  grew  upon 
it.  Meanwhile  aspen  and  various  shrubs  will  occupy  the  ground  in 
part.  In  places  where  a  few  trees  or  groves  escaped,  or  in  the  neigh- 
borhood of  unburned  areas,  the  ground  is  likely  to  be  much  sooner 
tilled  with  a  new  growth. 

The  northern  part  of  the  reserve  may  be  regarded  as  of  little  or  no 
present  value  as  a  timber  reserve  or  for  agriculture,  and  on  account 
of  the  poverty  of  the  soil  the  grazing  is  poor  and  meager.  Moderate 
pasturage  here,  however,  will  not  seriously  aliect  the  returning  forest 
conditions,  which  will  naturally  be  very  slow. 

That  these  conditions  could  be  supplemented  and  aided  artiliciall_v 
and  economically  by  dissemination  of  seed  would  seem  probable.  Cer- 


74  FOKKST    RKSERVES. 

tain  it  is  that  this  territory  is  fit  for  littlp  else,  than  the  cfrowth  of  siuii 
trees  as  will  exist  upon  it. 

If  practicable,  it  might  l)e  well  to  modify  the  Ixmndaries  of  the 
reserve  so  that  Palmer  Lake  should  not  he  included  within  them.  It 
is  also  important  that  the  actual  boundaries  should  b'e  more  clearly 
marked,  and  the  persons  living  near  them  be  better  informed  in  regard 
to  them.  This  is  particularly  desirable  along  the  boundaries  where 
there  is  timber,  especially  in  the  Black  Forest  region,  in  the  western 
part  of  the  re.serve,  where  inquiries  were  made,  and  ignorance  was 
professed  in  regard  to  the  boundaries  by  persons  who  were  removing 
dry  timber  from  what  was  probably  Government  land. 

Without  injury  to  an\-  private  rights,  at  least  15  or  20  square  miles 
lying  to  the  west  and  southwest  of  Pikes  Peak  could  be  added  to  the 
reserve  with  great  advantage.  This  would  include  Sentinel  Point  and 
other  territory  above  timber  line,  and  the  springs  or  sources  of  vari- 
ous small  streams  flowing  westward  or  south w-ard. 

The  irregular  boundary  line  in  the  southeastern  part  of  the  reserve  is 
inconvenient  and  without  any  apparent  geographical  or  topographical 
significance. 

PliUM   CREEK  TIMBER   LAND   RESERVE. 

BOUNDARIES. 

The  boundaries  of  this  reserve,  as  established  by  Executive  order  of 
June  23, 1892,  are  as  follows: 

Township  ten  (10)  south,  of  ranges  sixty-eight  (68),  sixty-nine  (69),  and  seventy 
(70)  west;  township  nine  (9)  south,  of  ranges  sixty-eight  (68)  and  sixty-nine  (69) 
west;  township  eight  (8)  south,  of  range  sixty-nine  (69)  west;  and  so  niucli  of  town- 
ship ten  (10)  soutli,  of  range  seventy-one  (71)  west;  township  nnie  (9)  south,  of 
range  seventy  (70)  west;  township  eight  (8)  south,  of  range  seventy  (70)  west,  and 
township  seven  (7)  south,  of  range  sixty-nine  (69)  west,  as  he  to  the  eastward  of 
the  South  Platte  River. 

TOPOGRAPHY   AND    DRAINAGE. 

This  reserve  is  situated  directly  to  the  north  of  the  Pikes  Peak  Reserve, 
which  adjoins  it  for  6  miles  along  its  southern  boundary.  It  is  located 
entirely  within  Douglas  Coimty.  and  the  area  is  given  as  179,200 
acres.  The  average  altitude  is  much  lower  than  that  of  any  of  the 
three  reserves  examined,  the  highest  point  reaching  to  le.ss  than 
9,800  feet,  in  Thunder  Butte,  near  West  Creek,  in  the  southwestern 
portion;  the  lowest  falling  below  5.600  feet  in  the  extreme  northeast 
corner.  The  reserve  as  a  whole  might  be  likened  to  a  high,  hilly 
plateau,  having  a  diminishing  slope  northward,  and  cut  by  many  gidches 
or  canyons  having  a  general  easterly  or  westerly  direction.  The 
greater  part  of  the  area  lies  at  an  altitude  between  7,000  and  8,000  feet. 
Irregular  ridges,  extending  from  north  to  south  through  the  central 


.1     VIEW    LOOKING   OVER   CASCADE   TO    NORTH    SLOPES   OF    HILLS   ALONG    UTE    PASS, 
PIKES    PEAK    RESERVE. 


/>'    EXCEPTIONALLY   GOOD   STAND   OF   YOUNG    DOUGLAS   SPRUCE   ON    NORTH    SLOPE 
IN    PLUM    CREEK    RESERVE   AMONG   ASPEN    AND   SCRUB   OAK 

Alt.tude  7,500  feet. 


JACK.]  PLU>f    CREEK    RESERVE.  75 

part  of  the  reserve  throw  the  waters  in  an  easterly  direction  into  Plum 
Creek,  which  falls  into  the  South  Platte  River  below  the  reserve 
boundaries,  or  in  a  westerly  direction  into  small  streams,  which  also 
flow  into  the  South  Platte  along  the  reserve  boundary. 

The  most  important  stream  flowing  through  this  reserve  is  West 
Creek,  with  its  important  tributary  known  as  Trout  Creek.  These 
really  have  their  .sources  and  .some  of  their  most  important  feeders 
outside  the  reserve  limits,  in  the  high  comparativelv  level  and  partly 
open  country  h'ing  to  the  west  of  the  northern  part  of  the  Pikes 
Peak  Reserve.  They  pass  through  and  drain  the  southwestern  por- 
tion of  the  reserve,  coming  together  and  forming  what  is  locally  called 
Horse  Creek,  which  runs  4:  or  5  miles  before  entering  the  South  Platte 
River.  The  eastern  slope  of  the  reserve  is  drained  b\-  .several  small 
branches  of  Plum  Creek,  the  most  important  of  which  are  West  Plum 
Creek  and  Jackson  Creek,  which  falls  into  it. 

There  are  practically  no  lakes  or  ponds  or  important  natural  reser- 
voirs in  the  Plum  Creek  Reserve,  but  there  are  several  small  private 
storage  reservoirs  and  numerous  situations  where  such  could  be  eco- 
nomically constructed,  as  they  are  especially  necessary  to  ranches 
along  the  eastern  slope. 

The  amount  of  water  flowing  from  this  reserve  is  not  large,  and  it 
is  liable  to  great  variation.  On  account  of  its  relatively  low  altitude 
and  the  ab.sence  of  dense  forest  covering,  the  snows  disappear  early  in 
the  sea.son,  so  that  during  summer  the  smaller  creeks  sometimes 
become  dr}-  or  have  a  vei"y  much  diminished  flow. 

On  the  west  side  the  extended  area  of  the  watershed  of  West  Creek 
and  its  tributaries  enables  this  stream  to  maintain  a  fair  flow  of  water 
throughout  the  year,  although  much  diminished  in  summer,  when 
many  of  the  smaller  tributaxy  creeks  and  springs  become  dry. 

While  passing  through  the  reserve  very  little  of  the  water  is  changed 
from  its  course  for  irrigation  purposes,  although  much  is  used  on  the 
lands  below. 


The  trees  of  chief  economic  value  in  this  reserve  are  yellow  pine 
(Pinm  jxmderosa)  and  Douglas  spruce  {Pseudot8\cyatax!folia),  and  with 
these  are  associated  a  small  amount  of  blue  .spruce,  Engelmann  spruce, 
Pintis  aristatd  and  PinmflexlUs;  while  in  the  southeastern  portion, 
south  of  Devils  Head  or  Platte  Mountain,  there  is  an  abundance  of 
lodgepole  pine  {Pinus  murrayana).  North  of  Devils  Head  Moun- 
tain a  large  proportion  of  the  hills  or  ridges  are  practically  destitute 
of  timber,  at  best  only  a  few  scattered  trees  being  found  upon  them, 
although  along  the  intervening  gulches  or  creeks  there  is  or  has  been  a 
fair  growth  of  small-sized  or  medium-sized  timber  trees.  These  nearly 
treeless  hills  generallv  do  not  show  manv  indications  of  ever  having 


7(?  FOREST    RESERVES. 

l>oi-ne  any  heavy  forest.  The}'  support  several  species  of  shrubs, 
which  partly  cover  the  coarse  granitic  soil. 

In  the  southern  portion,  which  largely  has  an  altitude  of  from  500 
to  1,000  feet  greater  than  the  territory  to  the  north  of  Devils  Head 
Mountain,  the  country  has  much  more  of  the  appearance  of  a  forest, 
although  the  trees  are  nowhere  large  or  would  produce  over  2,000  feet 
of  good  sawed  lumber  to  the  acre  on  any  a^'erage  measured  section  of 
land. 

The  local  demand  for  lumber  and  the  facility  with  which  it  could 
here  be  taken  out  has  caused  nearly  the  whole  of  this  reser\e  to  be 
very  thoroughly  gone  over  bj-  lumbermen,  and  the  best  has  been 
removed.  In  some  places  a  second  or  third  culling  out  of  the  best 
trees  has  taken  place.  Notwithstanding  the  activity  of  sawmills,  how- 
ever, there  are  still  a  good  many  million  feet  of  coarse  lumber  pro- 
curable from  yellow  pine  and  Douglas  spruce  in  the  southern  and 
southwestern  part  of  the  I'eserve.  This  fact  is  well  known  to  the  saw- 
mill men.  and  three  or  four  portable  steam  sawmills  are  at  work  upon 
what  timber  remains.  Trees  3  feet  in  diameter  of  trunk  are  very  rare 
and  most  of  the  logs  cut  range  between  12  and  20  inches  in  diam- 
eter at  the  stump.  AVith  the  trees  lit  for  cutting  protitably  into 
lumber  there  is  a  very  large  proportion  of  material  of  various  ages 
and  sizes  which  will  not  be  servicable  for  man_v  years  to  come  and 
which  should  receive  greater  consideration  and  protection  than  is 
usually  accorded  by  wood  choppers  w'hen  taking  out  the  trees  which 
they  consider  worth  cutting. 

As  in  most  other  parts  of  this  region,  it  is  coumion  to  find  the 
slopes  facing  the  south  almost  bare  or  producing  a  ver}'  scattered 
growth  of  yellow  pine,  while  the  opposite  northern  slopes  are  much 
more  closely  timbered  with  Douglas  spruce  and  yellow  pine,  although 
that  w'hich  remains  is  chiefly  of  small  size. 

On  account  of  great  variation  in  the  conditions  and  quality  of  the 
standing  timber,  the  extensive  culling  out  of  the  best  over  all  parts, 
and  the  numerous  practically  bare  tracts  or  those  which  have  been 
l)urned  over,  it  is  extremely  difficult  to  give  any  close  approximate 
estimate  of  the  quantity  of  ready  available  sawmill  or  railroad-tie  tim- 
ber still  standing  upon  tlie  reserve.  From  as  careful  oljservations  and 
estimates  as  could  be  hurriedlj-  made,  however,  it  is  probable  that,  by 
taking  trees  above  8  or  10  inches  in  diameter,  at  least  50  million  or 
60  million  feet  of  rough  sawmill  lumber  could  still  be  gleaned  from 
the  wooded  parts  of  the  reserve. 

The  clear  trunk  furnished  by  the  ready  sawmill  timber  is  very  short, 
probably  not  over  25  or  30  feet,  but  a  considerable  portion  of  the 
limb  bearing  parts  of  the  trunks  are  used.  Douglas  sprace  100  feet 
high,  with  50  feet  of  clear  trunk,  and  20  inches  in  diameter  at  the 
stump,  is  still  found  in  sheltered  locations  in  canyons,  but  such  good 


.-1     LOOKING   WEST,    ABOUT   2    MILES   ABOVE    FOOT   OF    HILLS   ON   JACKSON    CREEK 
ROAD,   PLUM    CREEK    RESERVE 

Timber  long  ago  cut  off  of  burnt. 


n    AREA   EAST   OF   DEVILS   HEA[> 
Yellow  prne  and  Doughs  spruce  ,   few  trees  large  enouf 


-LUM    CREEK    RESERVE 

uch  bunrt  or  showrng  effects  of  forr 


.1.    SOUTHWEST    PART    OF    PLUM    CREEK    RESERVE 
Exceptionally  favorable  condiliori  of  timber      not  yet  entered  by  lumbermen.     Yellow  pine  and  Douglas  spn 


li    VIEW    ALONG    FOURMILE   CREEK    W  Ei  ^  ■-        .      ER  BUTTE,    PLUM    CREEK    RESERVE 

Remnants  of  yellow  pine  and  Unugias  ipruce  left  by  lumbermen. 


JACK.]  PLUM    CKEEK    RESERVE.  77 

trees  are  rare.     Some  lodgepole  pine   is  lit  for  use,  but  most  of  it  is 
undersized. 

In  some  of  the  gulches  qualving  aspen  occasionally  attains  a  height  of 
50  or  60  feet  or  more  with  the  trunlv  a  foot  in  diameter,  but  timber  of 
this  species  and  size  is  too  rare  to  be  of  much  commercial  import*ince. 


Throughout  this  reserve  there  are  in  different  parts  large  areas  which 
have  in  past  years  been  visited  by  forest  tires,  and  over  much  of  the 
territory  there  are  evidences  of  ground  tires  which  have  destroyed  the 
humus,  leaving  only  the  bare  granite  sand.  The  forest  fii'es  have  not 
swept  any  such  extensive  continuous  areas  as  in  the  Pikes  Peak 
Reserve;  though  thej'  have  bXirned  over  considerable  tracts,  they  have 
left  intervening  groups  or  belts  of  living  timber,  especially  in  the 
northern  and  eastern  parts.  On  some  of  the  burned  ground  a  new 
growth  of  conifers  is  gradually  coming  in  and  has  already  attained 
good  size  and  density;  in  others  the  ground  is  practically  1)are,  except- 
ing for  aspen  and  various  shrubs.  Chief  among  these  latter  are  scrub 
oak  {Quercus  (/ambelii),  Ribes  cereum,  Cercocarpus  parvifolins,  IIolo- 
discus  discolor,  Ruhus  delwiomw.  Primus  2}'}n)isylvanica,  Ceanotlius 
fendJeru  Janmsia  americana,  and  Ardostaphylos  uva-ursi. 

The  best  timber  remaining  is  in  the  southern  and  southwestern  part 
of  the  reserve  and  along  the  South  Platte  River,  and  foi'tunately  these 
parts  have  not  been  seriously  devastated  b}-  tire. 

Small  burned  areas  which  were  set  on  tire  by  sparks  from  sawmill 
engines  are  occasionallv  seen.  Several  cases  of  fires  started  by  lightning 
were  reported.  No  railroad  crosses  the  reserve,  but  the  Colorado  and 
Southern  Railway,  commonly  called  the  South  Park  Line,  follows  the 
course  of  the  South  Platte  River  along  the  northern  boundary. 

North  of  Devils  Head  Mountain  there  are  large  areas  of  nearh'  bare 
hills  which  have  been  swept  by  tire,  although  they  do  not  appear  to 
have  ever  had  a  dense  growth  upon  them.  Upon  these  hills  are  a  few 
scattered  yellow  pines,  but  little  else  which  can  be  called  arborescent, 
as  the  aspen  on  these  dry  exposures  apparently  never  grows  large. 
Recovery  from  the  burns  must  be  exceedingly  slow,  especially  on 
southern  slopes.  On  northern  slopes  seeds  appear  to  germinate  more 
freely  and  seedlings  more  easily  get  a  foothold.  South  and  southwest 
of  Devils  Head  Mountain  the  young  lodgepole  pine  is  of  various 
sizes,  according  to  the  age  of  the  burns,  and  it  sometimes  forms  almost 
impenetrable  thickets. 

The  lodgepole  pine,  on  account  of  its  dense  growth  and  resinous 
character,  burns  more  freely  than  the  other  species,  and,  apparently, 
small  strips  are  sometimes  burned,  the  tires  eventually  dying  out,  so 
that  it  is  not  uncommon  to  find  different  areas  with  trees  of  two  or 


78  FOREST    EESEKVES. 

thivo  distinct  ages  or  periods  >;ri)wiiijr  upon  a  tract  of  a  few  linndn-d 
acres. 

In  the  more  open  woodland  evidences  of  surface  or  ground  tires  are 
comnion,  and  on  tiiese  areas  there  are  few  or  no  seedling  trees,  and  older 
trees  sometimes  show  blackened  bark,  or  destruction  of  the  bark  on  one 
side,  as  evidence  of  damaging  tires  which  did  not  reach  up  among  the 
limbs  of  the  trees,  nor  were  hot  enough  to  destroy  the  entire  bark  at  the 
base,  iind  so  cause  death. 

SETTLEMENTS. 

A  larger  proportion  of  the  total  area  of  this  reserve  is  in  private 
ownership,  under  patent  and  homestead  laws,  than  in  any  of  the  three 
reserves  examined.  At  least  one-third  of  the  territory  is  claimed 
under  the  provisions  of  these  laws.  The  largest  proportion  of  these 
lands  is  situated  in  those  parts  having  the  lowest  altitude  and  most 
level  surface,  as  at  the  northern  end,  and  also  the  middle  eastern  side, 
including  Perry  Park,  where  there  is  a  solid  contiguous  block  of  al)out 
20  square  miles  of  patented  land  included  within  the  reserve  lines. 
A  considerable  portion  of  the  patented  land  is  not  used  or  occupied 
by  the  owners. 

The  western  side  of  the  Plum  Creek  Reserve  has  been  the  scene  of 
intense  mining  excitements  within  the  past  four  or  five  years,  result- 
ing in  the  establishment  of  half  a  dozen  small  settlements  or  ''town 
sites."  The  boom  having  passed,  on  account  of  disappointing  expecta- 
tions as  to  the  richness  of  the  discoveries,  the  so-called  towns  are 
partially  deserted  for  other  fields,  so  that  many  of  the  hastily  con- 
structed buildings  are  now  without  tenants. 

The  largest  of  these  mining  camps  is  Pemberton,  sometimes  called 
West  Creek,  located  on  West  Creek  9  or  10  miles  above  its  junction 
with  the  South  Platte  River  and  near  the  southern  boundaiy  of  the 
reserve.  Probably  two-thirds  of  the  hundred  or  more  habitable  build- 
ings were  vacant  in  the  summer  of  18SI8,  but  the  population  here  is 
liable  to  considerable  fluctuation,  from  time  to  time,  according  to  the 
activity  of  sawmills  in  the  vicinity  or  the  development  of  mines  or 
mining  prospects. 

Other  small  settlements  are  Given,  al)out  '2  miles  atiove  the  mouth 
of  West  Creek;  Daflodil  or  Trumbull,  near  the  junction  of  West 
Creek  and  the  South  Platte  River ;  Dunaway  and  Nighthawk,  at  inter- 
vals of  3  or  4  miles  down  the  South  Platte  River.  These  last  three 
places  are  in  part  located  across  the  ri\-er  in  the  South  Platte  Reserve, 
in  .Jefferson  County.  They  are  each  composed  of  merely  a  few  occupied 
biuldings  of  very  cheap  construction,  and  are  lialile  to  have  their 
populations  depleted  or  increased  any  day,  according  to  the  rise  of 
mining  excitements  in  other  places  or  developments  in  the  inmiediate 
vicinity.     At  present  they  derive  most  of  their  life  from  prospectors, 


,W    AT   DUNAWAY,    LOOKING    NORTHEAST   ACROSS  SOUTH    PLATTE   RIVER. 


7!,   VIEW    ABOVE    PEMBERTON   (WEST   CREEK..    PLUM    CREEK    RESERVE     LOOKING    NORTHWEST 
OVER   SAWMILL   TO   THUNDER    BUTTE 


JACK.]  PLUM    CREEK    RESERVE.  79 

or  from  those  employed  in  the  lumber  business,  as  much  lumber  is 
hauled  by  team  through  these  places  on  the  way  down  the  valley  of 
the  South  Platte  River  to  South  Platte  Station  on  the  South  Park 
Line,  whence  it  is  shipped  by  rail  to  Denver  and  other  points. 

Besides  these  '"town  sites,"  other  settlements,  mostly  abandoned  or 
with  but  a  single  occupied  dwelling,  and  prospectors'  cabins  or  ranches 
are  scattered  through  the  reserves,  chiefly  along  the  more  important 
creeks.  The  largest  and  best  ranches  are  located  in  the  comparatively 
low  region  toward  the  northern  end  and  about  Perry  Park  on  the 
eastern  side  of  the  reserve,  where  there  are  five  or  six  considerable 
ranches  chiefly  devoted  to  the  raising  of  cattle.  Perry  Park  itself  was 
originally  designed  as  a  summer  resort  by  its  owners,  but  at  present 
contains  only  two  or  three  occupied  dwellings,  and  the  hotel  is  not  in 
use.  As  the  situation  is  a  very  picturesque,  interesting,  and  attractive 
one,  it  is  probable  that  at  some  future  time  a  considerable  population 
will  be  centered  here. 

At  Dafl^odil,  on  the  South  Platte,  are  so-called  mineral  springs, 
which  are  visited  by  a  varying  numlier  of  people  during  the  sum- 
mer, who  occupy  inexpensive  cabins  or  cottages  put  up  for  their 
accommodation . 

The  only  expensive  buildings  on  the  reserve,  or  those  costing  more 
than  a  few  hundred  dollars,  are  located  outside  of  the  hills,  about 
Perry  Park. 

AGRICULTURE  AND   GRAZING. 

Timber,  and  possibly  mining,  must  ever  remain  the  chief  consider- 
ations of  commercial  value  in  this  reserve.  Incidentally,  grazing  for 
several  thousand  cattle  may  be  furnished,  but  much  development  of 
pure  agriculture  is  out  of  the  question.  At  the  lowest  altitudes,  at 
the  northern  end  of  the  reserve  and  the  extreme  eastern  side,  as  rep- 
resented by  the  vicinity  of  Perry  Park,  lying  southwest  of  Dawson 
Butte,  it  is  possible  to  raise  the  hardier  cereals  and  forage  crops,  pota- 
toes, and  other  hardy  vegetables.  Attempts  have  been  made  to  raise 
some  of  the  hardier  fruits,  but  as  yet  with  uncertain  success.  The 
areas  suited  to  such  crops  are,  however,  limited  to  a  comparatively 
few  acres  of  irrigable  land.  Oats,  rye,  potatoes,  and  other  hardy 
crops  are  also  grown  on  the  narrow  strips,  of  fertile  or  irrigable  land 
bordering  the  creeks  in  some  places  and  along  the  South  Platte  River. 
There  is  a  ready  local  demand  for  anything  that  can  be  raised,  and,  in 
fact,  most  of  the  food  supplies  used  in  the  reserve  have  to  be  brought 
in  from  outside.  Grain  and  fodder  are  the  chief  interests  cultivated, 
and  are  used  on  the  ranches  for  the  cattle  and  horses  in  winter. 

The  so-called  ranches  vary  much  in  size  and  value.  Some  are 
deserted,  some  merely  prospectors'  cabins,  others  comprise  perhaps 
an  acre  or  two  of  arable  land  and  three  or  four  head  of  stock,  while 


80  FOREST    RKSKRVEH. 

tlio  largest  may  have  300  head  of  catth;  grazing  both  on  patented  and 
reserve  (Tovernment  lands.  Two  of  the  largest  of  these,  I'anches,  esti- 
mated to  graze  about  300  head  of  cattle  each,  are  located  in  the  north- 
ern and  western  slopes  of  the  reserve,  and  another  large  one  is  in  the 
extreme  south,  near  Manitou  Park.  The  size  of  herds  is  no  indi- 
cation of  proportionate  territorial  ownership.  In  summer  the  cattle 
on  these  ranches  are  usually  allowed  to  roam  at  large  over  any  part 
of  the  reserve  and  are  brought  into  sheltered  places  at  the  apprt)ach  of 
severe  winter  weather. 

There  ma}'  be  50  or  60  persons  having  ranches  upon  the  reserves, 
Avho,  in  the  aggregate,  probably  have  between  1.500  and  2.000  cattle 
and  horses.  This,  however,  does  not  represent  the  total  number  of 
cattle  grazed  on  the  reserve  in  summer,  liecause  a  great  many  are 
annually  sent  into  the  reserve  from  ranches  outside  of  the  boundai'ies, 
sometimes  at  a  considerable  distance  from  them.  By  thus  grazing  on 
the  public  lands  the  ranchmen  are  enabled  to  keep  a  much  greater 
herd  than  would  be  possible  on  their  own  comparatively  small  ranches. 
On  their  patented  areas  they  commonly  allow  the  native  grass  to  grow 
for  winter  grazing  or  harvest  it,  and  also  i-aise  other  forage  where 
irrigation  is  possible. 

As  the  forested  lands  are  rarely  densely  covered,  some  grasses,  fur- 
nishing scattered  and  limited  grazing,  are  found  almost  everywhere; 
but  it  is  naturally  along  the  creeks  that  the  best  and  only  important 
pasturage  is  found.  As  it  is  here  that  cattle  find  necessary  water,  and 
as  it  is  customar}^  to  furnish  them  with  salt  in  such  localities  in  order 
to  keep  them  together  as  much  as  possible,  it  naturally  follows  that 
these  regions  are  most  closely  grazed.  That  the  grazing  is  often  exces- 
sive and  too  localized  is  apparent  to  anyone  following  many  of  the 
streams,  particularly  the  tributaries  of  Trout  Creek  and  West  Creek, 
in  the  southwestern  part.  The  consequence  is  that  the  pasturage  has 
deteriorated  greatly,  the  ground  produces  much  less  food  for  animals 
than  it  did  a  few  years  ago,  and  the  conditions  are  j'early  becoming 
worse.  The  best  forage  grasses,  having  no  chance  to  reproduce  them- 
selves by  seed,  and  being  constantly  cropped  almost  to  the  very  roots, 
and  crushed  or  displaced  by  hoofs,  must  inevitably  become  greatly 
weakened  or  die  out.  Moreover,  the  shrulis  and  herbaceous  vegeta- 
tion bordering  the  streams  are  constantly  cropped,  trampled  upon,  and 
eventually  destroyed.  These  served  to  pi'otect  the  banks  f)f  the  creeks, 
and  prevent  them  from  washing,  and  also  served  to  check  and  hold  the 
flow  of  water  in  times  of  unusually  heavy  precipitation. 

The  slender  streams  themselves  are  trampled  and  the  waters  are  so 
polluted  as  to  be  unfit  for  human  use,  if,  indeed,  the  streams  are  not 
practically  dry,  as  they  are  very  apt  to  be  during  the  late  summer  sea- 
son, owing  to  the  unnatural  conditions  which  prevail.  Moreover,  the 
excessive  number  of  cattle  in  some  localities  is  more  or  less  damaging 


ijg  southeast  from  high  rock. 

r.d  C    A.  Roberts's  house  on  left- 


l;    bAKAN   (PERRY    PARK.,    LOOKING    NORTH,    DAWSON    BUTTE   ON    RIGHT 
Datk  patches  are  chiefly  scrub  oak 


JACK.j  PLtTM    CREEK    RESEBVE.  81 

to  young-  forest  growth,  as  even  young  conifers  like  Douglas  spruce 
are  oecasionally  lirowsed  upon,  and  many  seedlings  are  desti'oyed  by 
trampling. 

Unless  the  grazing  is  restricted  and  regulated  the  pasturage  must 
certainly  grow  even  poorer  than  it  is  now.  Under  proper  regulations 
and  limitations  a  considerable  number  of  cattle  might  be  pastured  on 
the  reserve  without  serious  injury,  but  it  would  in  the  end  be  of  greater 
benefit  to  the  State  and  (Tovernment  to  prohibit  grazing  altogether 
than  to  allow  it  to  be  overdone. 

Sheep  grazing  does  not  appear  to  be  carried  ou  in  or  about  the 
reserve. 


No  well-established  paying  mines  are  yet  in  operation,  although  it 
is  claimed  that  numerous  promising  •' prospects"  have  l)ecn  discov- 
ered and  only  lack  capital  for  their  proper  development. 

Two  or  three  small  mills  are  in  course  of  construction  in  the  Trout 
Creek  Valley  north  of  the  southern  boundarj-  of  the  reserve.  These 
are  intended  to  treat  by  cyanide  process  low-grade  ore-bearing  rock 
or  the  gravel  or  sand  so  abundant  in  this  region  and  which  is  said  to 
contain  a  sufficient  percentage  of  gold  to  make  the  workings  profit- 
able. Should  this  prove  to  be  the  case,  it  is  likely  that  it  will  mean 
a  considei'able  and  permanent  addition  to  the  pop«lation  of  this 
locality.  Prospectors  are  busily  engaged  in  developing  shafts  or  tun- 
nels, constantly  having  before  them  the  hope  that  they  may  make 
discoveries  which  will  lead  to  the  building  up  of  a  second  Cripple 
Creek.  That  gold  exists  here  there  is  ample  evidence,  and  it  is  chiefly 
a  question  of  the  abundance  of  mineral-bearing  rock  and  of  the 
employment  of  capital  necessar}-  to  get  it  out  economically.  Persons 
having  ranches  or  cattle  in  the  reserve,  or  in  other  kinds  of  business, 
besides  professional  miners  and  pi'ospectors,  give  some  time  to  pros- 
pecting when  not  otherwise  employed. 

While  the  principal  mining  or  prospecting  has  been  developed  in 
the  West  Creek  and  Trout  Creek  regions  and  along  the  South  Platte 
River,  there  are  men  in  other  parts  of  the  reserve  who  are  prosecut- 
ing the  search  for  the  precious  metals.  On  the  eastern  side  of  the 
reserve,  in  Spring  Creek  Canyon  near  Perry  Park,  a  tunnel  170  feet 
in  length  was  found,  from  which  it  was  stated  that  pay  ore  had  lieen 
taken  which  assayed  about  ^35  in  gold  and  300  ounces  in  silver  to  the 
ton.  The  statements  of  prospectors  are  not  always  to  be  implicitly 
relied  upon,  however,  as  they  are  likely  to  be  biased  by  their  hopes. 

In  the  Perry  Park  territory,  on  the  eastern  edge  of  the  reserve,  a 
small  mill  has  been  started  for  the  manufacture  of  plaster  and  similar 
products  from  gypsum  and  other  rock  suitable  for  such  purposes, 
which  is  plentiful  in  this  locality.     The  product  is  shipped  by  railroad 

20  GEOL,  PT  5 0 


82  FOREST    RESERVES. 

to  Denver,  ("olorudo  Spriiiu-s,  or  wherever  :i  iiiiirket  can  be  found. 
The  work  is  yet  largely  experimental,  l)ut  may  tle\elop  into  a  consid- 
erable business. 

LUMBERING. 

A  good  deal  of  lumbering  is  still  carried  on  in  this  reserve,  no  doubt 
largeh'  illegally,  although  usually  claimed  to  be  under  the  provisions 
of  existing  laws.  At  the  time  the  reserve  was  examined  six  portable 
steam  sawmills  were  in  operation  upon  it,  altogether  capable  of  turn- 
ing out  between  60,000  and  70,000  feet  of  lumber  a  daj-  when  running 
full  time.  The  largest  of  these  mills  was  located  on  Fourmile  Creek, 
west  of  Thunder  Butte,  and  was  stated  to  be  able  to  produce  from 
15,000  to  18,000  feet  a  day.  This  mill  had  exhausted  the  adjacent 
supplies  and  was  preparing  for  removal  to  another  location  within  a 
few  miles.  It  was  claimed  that  the  mill  was  located  on  private  hold- 
ings of  land  and  that  the  cuttings  were  from  a  purchased  school  section. 

Another  mill  is  situated  about  a  mile  south  of  Pemberton.  Its 
reported  capacity  was  12,000  or  13,000  feet  of  lumber  a  day,  and  it 
had  been  located  on  the  same  site  for  over  a  year  and  a  half,  a  longer 
time  than  the  average  period  for  an  active  mill  to  remain  in  the  same 
place. 

A  large  mill  with  a  capacity  of  about  15,000  feet  of  lumber  a  day 
had  been  at  work  near  the  mouth  of  West  Creek  but  was  in  process  of 
removal  to  a  location  outside  of  the  reserve,  whei'e  a  more  aliundant 
timber  supply  was  obtainable. 

A  mill  capable  of  cutting  8,000  or  10,000  feet  a  day  had  been 
recently  relocated  at  the  head  of  Jackson  Creek,  to  the  west  of  Devils 
Head  Mountain,  cutting  from  what  was  claimed  to  be  homestead  and 
school-section  land.  It  had  previously  been  located  farther  down 
Jackson  Creek.  About  3  miles  east  of  Nighthawk.  on  the  road  to 
Sedalia,  a  small  sawmill  was  at  work,  and  another  was  located  ou 
the  eastern  slope  south  of  Perry  Park. 

Along  rivers  and  creeks  throughout  the  reserve,  piles  of  sawdust 
and  sawmill  refuse  are  frequently  met,  each  one  indicating  the  base 
of  active  operations  of  some  lumberman  for  a  time.  These  piles  are 
commonly  left  to  sink  graduallj'  into  decay,  but  at  Given  the  great 
accumulation  of  sawdust  left  bj'  a  recently  removed  mill  was  burning 
and  probably  continued  to  burn  for  several  weeks. 

The  lumber  cut  and  .sold  by  these  mills  is  practically  all  yellow  pine 
and  Douglas  spruce,  the  pine  constituting  decidedly  the  larger  pro- 
portion. It  is  used  locally  for  buildings,  mines,  and  other  uses,  and 
commonly  sells  for  §8  or  $9  per  1,000  feet  at  the  sawmill.  The  lumber 
sold  for  use  in  the  reserve,  however,  constitutes  but  a  very  small 
fraction  of  the  total  amount  cut,  most  of  it  being  shipped  to  markets 
far  outside  the  reservation  limits.     This  involves  long  hauls  by  team 


A.    PERRY    PARK.    LOOKING  SOUTH-SOUTHEAST    FROM    HIGH    ROCf 


;;     PERRi     PARK     LOOKII. 


JACK.]  PLUM    CREEK    RESEEVE.  83 

to  distant  railroad  stations.  The  chief  shipping  point  for  lumber  from 
this  reserve  is  South  Platte,  ou  the  South  Park  Line.  Florissant,  on 
the  Colorado  Midland  Railway,  also  receives  some  of  it,  and  lumber 
from  the  Jackson  Creek  region  is  hauled  to  Sedalia  for  sale  and  ship- 
ment. 

At  South  Platte  it  was  estimated  that  from  25,000  to  50,000  feet  of 
lumber  was  loaded  on  cars  and  shipped  daily,  the  points  to  which  it  was 
consigned  being  Denver  and  other  commercial  or  demand  centers. 
The  lumber  here  is  usually  hauled  by  teams  of  four  horses  drawing 
two  wagons  together,  and  carrying  3,000  or  4,000  feet  of  lumber. 
Delivered  at  the  railroad  station  it  is  worth  $11  or  $12  per  1,000  feet, 
pine  and  spruce  generally  being  sold  together  and  not  sorted.  Some- 
times Douglas  spruce  is  kept  separate  and  cut  into  planks  for 
bridges. 

The  lumber  roads  are  in  fair  condition,  especiallj^  along  the  South 
Platte  River,  where  the  present  wagon  road  was  once  graded  for  a 
railroad,  but  upon  which  the  rails  were  never  laid. 

Nearlj'  all  parts  of  the  reserve  are  comparatively  easy  of  access,  and 
roads  are  sought  or  cut  as  the  encroachments  and  demands  of  the 
sawmill  necessitate  in  order  to  obtain  fresh  supplies  of  logs.  Some 
of  the  ground  has  been  cut  over  a  second  time,  and  e\'en  a  third  time, 
the  first  cuttings  having  taken  only  the  larger  trees,  the  last  taking 
whatever  can  be  found  of  sufficient  size  to  yield  a  cash  profit.  Sticks 
not  more  than  8  inches  in  diameter  are  sometimes  used  by  the  smaller 
mills. 

Whenever  possible  it  is  the  custom  to  locate  the  sawmill  on  patented 
or  homestead  land,  the  timber  thereon,  and  perhaps  also  the  timber 
upon  a  school  section,  being  purchased.  But  the  tree  cutter  knows  no 
boundaries,  and  the  best  timber  is  taken  wherever  found  so  long  as 
there  is  no  interference  by  Federal  authorities. 

The  excuse  is  made  by  lumbermen  and  inhabitants  that  the  cutting 
and  shipping  of  lumber  is  necessary  to  give  employment  to  people 
settled  in  the  reserve,  who  may  be  prospecting  part  of  their  time, 
and  who  practically  depend  upon  what  they  maj^  earn  at  lumbering 
for  subsistence.  But  at  the  present  rate  of  cutting  the  ready  lumber 
will  soon  be  exhausted,  although  such  considerations  give  little  trouble 
to  the  men  who  think  only  of  themselves  and  their  inmiediate  welfare — 
a  class  too  common  in  the  region  of  mining  camps. 

Should  important  mining  industries  ever  be  developed  here  all  the 
timiier  in  the  region  around  would  be  needed  for  local  use,  but  if  it  is 
allowed  to  be  shipped  to  othei'  parts  of  the  State  at  the  present  rate 
the  time  may  come  when  lumber  will  be  brought  in  from  outside,  at 
a  much  higher  cost  to  the  miner. 

Among  other  schemes  for  illegally  getting  timber  from  Government 
land,  both  in  and  outside  the  reserve,  is  the  practice  of  staking  out 


84  FOREST    KKSERVKS. 

ii  iiiiiiiiiii'  flaiiH  on  sonio  heavily  tiiiit«'re(l  spot,  cuttiiifi'  and  sellino-  the 
timber,  and  then  abandoning'  the  claim  without  attempting  to  get 
linal  deed  or  patent  for  it.  As  a  mining  elaim  includes  aliout  10  acres, 
it  is  apparent  that  by  frequent  repetition  of  this  scheme  upon  the 
very  localized  areas  of  good  timbei-  much  of  the  best  would  very 
speedily  be  removed. 

Besides  the  sawmills  found  at  woi-k  within  the  reserve,  several  arc 
or  were  located  on  unreserved  Government  land  to  the  south,  procur- 
ing their  timbei'  largely  from  ground  upon  which  they  had  secured  no 
right  to  trespass.  There  were  rumors  of  the  coming  of  other  mills  to 
this  section,  in  which  much  good  timber  is  still  tobefound,  l)etterinfact 
than  now  exists  within  the  boundaries  of  the  reserve.  It  is  altogether 
probable  that  other  mills  will  locate  within  the  reserve  unless  pre- 
vented by  legal  action.  As  it  is  generally  considered  more  economical 
to  move  the  mill  from  place  to  place  as  the  local  supply  of  timber  is 
exhausted,  instead  of  hauling  the  logs  to  the  mill  from  any  consid- 
erable distance,  most  of  the  active  mills  occupy  a  given  site  for  only 
a  few  months. 

Great  quantities  of  railroad  ties  have  in  the  past  been  cut  in  the 
resei-ve  and  soldtothe  various  railroads  having  stations  within  hauling 
distance.  The  cutting  of  ties  is  still  carried  on,  although  only  locally 
and  in  comparatively  small  numbers.  The  work  has  been  done  under 
certain  rights  and  privileges  claimed  by  the  railroads,  by  cutting  upon 
homestead  and  patented  lands,  upon  mining  claims,  or  the  timber  has 
been  ])oldly  taken  from  Govermnent  land  wherevei'  trees  of  suitable 
size  were  found.  Most  of  the  cutting,  however,  has  been  done  under 
cover  of  concessions  claimed  to  have  been  granted  to  the  raili'oads.  but 
about  the  legality  of  which  there  appeared  locally  to  be  doubt  and  dis- 
pute. Douglas  (locally  called  I'ed)  spruce  is  the  species  almost  exclu- 
sively used.  Standard  ties  are  cait  8  feet  long  and  dressed  or  hewn  on 
two  opposite  sides  to  7  inches  in  diameter,  the  other  two  sides  being 
allowed  the  full  diameter  of  the  tree  stripped  of  bark.  All  sticks  must 
be  large  enough  to  square  7  inches  when  dressed,  but  no  limit  is 
placed  upon  the  maximum  size  or  diameter  of  the  tie  in  the  broadest 
or  undressed  direction.  This  usuallj'  regulates  itself,  as  very  large 
trees  involve  too  much  hewing  and  are  too  heavy  and  bulky  for  haul- 
ing most  economically,  inasmuch  as  the  railroads  pay  no  more  for  extra 
large  ties  than  for  those  coming  just  within  acceptable  minimum 
dimensions.  Such  standard  railroad  ties  are  worth  35  cents  each, 
delivered  at  a  railroad  station. 

From  some  of  the  best  of  the  Douglas  spruce  to  be  found,  which  are 
trees  about  20  inches  in  diameter  at  the  stimip  and  100  feet  in  height, 
8  good  ties  may  be  cut,  making  a  total  length  of  (ii  feet.  Such  trees 
are  rare,  and  are  found  in  only  a  few  favored  canyons;  and,  as  a  rule, 
not  more  than  three  or  four  ties  are  procured  from  each  tree. 


JACK.]  PLUM    CREEK    RESERVE.  85 

The  cutting-  is  done  by  outsiders,  who  come  in  for  the  sole  purpose 
of  getting-  out  ties,  or  bv  persons  owning-  ranches  or  laud  in  the  reserve, 
or  by  prospectors  who,  in  many  cases,  having  spent  all  their  capital 
in  sinking-  shafts  or  tunneling,  cut  ties  as  almost  their  only  means  of 
obtaining-  subsistence  to  prosecute  their  mining-  work  in  their  par- 
ticular locality.  The  cutting  of  ties  is  often  very  wasteful  of  good 
Douglas  .spruce,  which  could  he  made  to  yield  tine  sawmill  timber. 

Dry  yellow  pine  or  Douglas  spruce  which  has  died  or  been  killed 
by  lire  is  sometimes  collected,  hauled  to  railroad  stations,  and  shipped 
for  fuel.  Such  wood  delivered  at  South  Platte  Station  was  paid  for  at 
the  rate  of  about  ^2.75  per  cord.  It  invohed  a  haul  of  (j  or  8 
miles. 

SUGGESTIONS. 

This  reserve  must  be  considered  as  essentially  a  timber  reserve, 
rather  than  one  likely  to  furnish  very  important  water  supplies.  The 
timber  should  be  much  more  rigidly  protected  from  inroads  by  thieves 
and  damage  by  fire.  On  thinly -wooded  areas  no  trees  should  be 
allowed  to  be  cut,  even  although  mature,  because  they  are  essential  as 
seed  producers  and  give  shelter  and  shade  to  the  ground  while  the 
seed  is  germinating  and  j'oung  trees  are  getting  established. 

Such  treatment  would  apply  to  nearly  all  the  territory  to  the  north 
of  a  line  drawn  ea.st  and  west  of  Devils  Head  Mountain  and  much 
other  to  the  south.  South  of  Devils  Head  Mountain  is  located  nearly 
all  the  timber  which  has  an  immediate  marketable  value  and  ^^hich 
could  be  cut  without  great  damage  to  the  forest  covering.  Much  of 
this,  however,  is  second-rate  or  third-rate  in  size  and  could  advan- 
tageously be  allowed  to  remain  for  many  years.  When  cut,  it  should 
be  under  the  general  supervision  of  someone  who  would  see  that  the 
young  growth  remaining-  was  not  needlessly  injured. 

All  the  lumber  grown  on  the  reserve  may  j^et  be  necessary  for  con- 
sumption within  or  near  it,  and,  as  a  means  of  conservation,  a  rule 
prohibiting-  the  .shipping  of  lumber  to  distant  points  might  be  bene- 
ficial. The  exclusion  of  sawmills  altogether  from  the  reserve  for  a 
term  of  years  would  certainly  be  no  injury  to  the  forest  crop  and 
would  eventually  be  a  gain  to  bona  tide  residents.  At  present  the 
lumber  is  chiefly  taken  by  outside  lumber  companies  which,  after  tak- 
ing out  what  they  are  allowed  to  or  can  conveniently  find,  move  out 
to  other  places,  leaving-  the  country  deprived  of  its  best  crop,  for 
which  little  or  no  return  has  been  given.  One  or  two  licensed  saw- 
mills conscientiouslj'  managed  could  be  worked  with  profit  and  would 
yield  some  retui-n  to  the  Government,  but  the  wholesale  indiscrim- 
inate destruction,  carried  on  as  in  the  past,  should  be  stopped. 

Pasturage,  too,  should  be  regulated  and  restricted,  and  it  is  believed 
that  a  tax,  however  small  or  nominal,  ou  all  cattle  allowed  to  range 


8()  FOREST    RESERVES. 

on  (Tovcriinient  land  or  found  thereon,  would  have  a  lieneficial  oft'eot. 
A.S  all  cattle  are  branded,  the  collection  of  such  a  tax  or  the  registering 
of  licenses  should  be  practicable. 

The  boundaries  of  the  reserve  include  some  nearly  treeless  and 
purely  agricultural  or  grazing  lands  along  the  eastern  side,  which  are 
almost  entirely  held  in  private  ownership.  For  this  reason  it  may  be 
considered  best  to  eliminate  a  strip  which  includes  Perry  Park,  and  is  6 
or  7  miles  in  length  by  about  3  in  width.  This  portion  of  the  reserve 
is  traversed  by  about  5  miles  of  the  direct  public  road  between  Palmer 
Lake,  Sedalia,  and  Denver.  Perrj-  Park  itself  is  a  very  interesting 
and  attractive  locality,  chiefly  on  account  of  the  peculiar  tilted  sand- 
stone rocks  and  cliffs  which  are  the  distinguishing  features  of  its 
surface  and  which  in  some  respects  are  not  excelled  by  the  similar 
formations  of  the  Gai'den  of  the  Gods,  near  Manitou. 

The  laws  regarding  the  cutting  of  railroad  ties  and  sale  of  them  to 
railroads,  also  the  rights  pf  railroads  to  timber  from  the  reserves, 
should  be  better  known  among  the  people.  The  laws  regarding  lum- 
bering are  also  imperfectly  understood. 

If  copies  of  rules  and  regulations  and  some  plan  of  description  of 
the  reserve  boundaries  could  be  served  upon  property  owners  in  the 
reserve,  and  posted  in  public  places  in  the  couutiy  about  it,  there 
would  be  less  excuse  for  trespass  than  now  exists. 

"Where  there  are  no  guideposts  or  natural  features  to  indicate  Ijound- 
aries  notices  posted  along  roads  or  trails  crossing  them  should  also 
serve  for  the  same  purpose. 

The  considerable  area  of  land  in  private  ownership  is  likely  to  be  a 
constant  source  of  trouble  in  maintaining  the  integrity  of  the  reserve 
for  timber  production. 

Of  the  three  reserves  examined  the  Plum  Creek  Reserve  is  the  least 
important  for  the  general  welfare  of  the  community,  and  at  least  the 
northern  half  could  be  eliminated  without  appreciably  affecting  the 
present  oi-  future  water  or  timber  supplies. 

THE     S<)UTH     PLATTE    FOREST     KESERVE. 

BOUNDARIES. 

The  boundaries  of  the  reserve  as  estaltlished  by  Executive  order  of 
December  9,  1892,  are  as  follows  : 

Beginning  at  the  confluence  of  the  North  Fork  of  the  South  Platte  River  witli  the 
Soutli  Platte  River  ;  thence  up  the  middle  of  the  channel  of  the  North  Fork  of  the 
Sout  h  Platte  River  to  the  range  line  between  township  seven  (7)  south,  ranges  seventy- 
four  (74)  and  seventy-five  (75)  west  of  the  sixth  (6th)  principal  meridian  :  thence 
northerly  on  said  range  line  to  the  northeast  corner  of  township  seven  (7)  south, 
range  seventy-five  (75)  west ;  thence  westerly  on  the  township  line  between  town- 
ships six  (6)  and  seven  (7)  south  to  the  northwest  corner  of  township  seven  (7) 
south,  range  seventy-six   (76)   west ;  thence  southerly  on  the  range  line  between 


JACK.]  SOUTH    PLATTE    RESERVE.  87 

ranges  seventy-six  (76)  and  seventy-seven  (77)  west  to  the  northeast  corner  of  sec- 
tion thirteen  (13) ,  township  seven  (7)  south,  range  seventy-seven  (77)  west ;  thence 
westerly  on  the  section  line  between  sections  twelve  (12)  and  thirteen  (13)  to  the 
northwest  corner  of  section  thirteen  (13)  of  said  township  and  range  ;  thence  south- 
erly on  the  section  line  between  sections  thirteen  (13)  and  fourteen  (14) ,  twenty- 
three  (23)  and  twenty-four  (24),  and  twenty-five  (25)  and  twenty-six  (26)  to  the 
northeast  corner  of  section  thirty-five  (35)  of  said  township  and  range  ;  thence 
westerly  on  the  section  line  between  sections  twenty-six  (26)  and  thirty-five  (35) , 
and  twenty-seven  (27)  and  thirty-four  (34)  to  the  northwest  corner  of  section 
thirty-four  (34)  of  said  township  and  range;  thence  southerly  on  the  section  line 
between  sections  thirty-three  (33)  and  thirty-four  (34)  of  said  township  and  range, 
and  sections  three  (3)  and  four  (4),  nine  (9)  and  ten  (10)  and  fifteen  (15)  and 
sixteen  (16),  township  eight  (8)  south,  range  seventy-seven  (77)  west  to  the 
northeast  corner  of  section  twenty-one  (21)  of  said  last-named  township  and  range; 
thence  westerly  on  the  section  line  between  sections  sixteen  (16)  and  twenty-one 
(21),  seventeen  (17).  and  twenty  (20),  and  eighteen  (18)  and  nineteen  (19)  to 
the  northwest  corner  of  section  nineteen  (19)  of  said  township  and  range;  thence 
southerly  on  the  range  line  between  ranges  seventy-seven  (77)  and  seventy-eight 
(78)  west  to  the  northeast  corner  of  section  thirteen  (13),  township  nine  (9) 
south,  range  seventy-eight  (78)  west;  thence  westerly  on  the  section  Ime  between 
sections  twelve  (12)  and  thirteen  (13)  and  eleven  (11)  and  fourteen  (14)  to  the 
northwest  corner  of  section  fourteen  (14)  of  said  township  and  range;  thence 
southerly  on  the  section  line  between  sections  fourteen  (14)  and  fifteen  (15)  to 
the  southwest  corner  of  said  section  fourteen  (14) ;  thence  westerly  on  the  section 
line  between  sections  fifteen  (15)  and  twenty-two  (22)  and  sixteen  (16)  and  twenty- 
one  (21)  to  the  northwest  corner  of  section  twenty-one  (21)  of  said  township 
and  range;  thence  southerly  on  the  section  line  between  sections  twenty  (20)  and 
twenty-one  (21)  and  twenty-eight  (28)  and  twenty-nine  (29) ,  to  the  southwest 
corner  of  section  twenty-eight  (28)  of  said  township  and  range;  thence  eastei'ly 
on  the  section  line  between  sections  twenty-eight  (28)  and  thirty-three  (33) ,  to  the 
southeast  corner  of  said  section  twenty-eight  (28)  ;  thence  southerly  on  the  sec- 
tion line  between  sections  thirty-three  (33)  and  thirty-four  (34)  of  said  township 
and  range,  and  sections  three  (3)  and  four  (4) ,  nine  (9)  and  ten  (10) ,  and  fifteen 
(15)  and  sixteen  (16),  township  ten  (10)  south,  range  seventy-eight  (78)  west, 
to  the  northeast  corner  of  section  twenty-one  (21)  of  said  last-named  township 
and  range ;  thence  w-esterly  on  the  section  line  between  sections  sixteen  (16) 
and  twenty-one  (21),  seventeen  (17)  and  twenty  (20),  and  eighteen  (18)  and 
nineteen  (19),  to  the  northwest  comer  of  section  nineteen  (19)  of  said  township 
and  range ;  thence  southerly  on  the  range  line  between  ranges  seventy-eight  (78) 
and  seventy-nine  (79)  west,  to  the  southwest  comer  of  township  ten  (10)  south, 
range  seventy-eight  (78)  west ;  thence  westerly  on  the  second  (2nd)  correction  line 
south  to  the  northwest  corner  of  section  one  (1) ,  township  eleven  (11)  south,  range 
seventy-nine  (79)  west ;  thence  southerly  on  the  section  line  between  sections  one 
(1)  and  two  (2),  eleven  (11)  and  twelve  (12),  thirteen  (13)  and  fourteen  (14), 
twenty-three  (23)  and  twenty-four  (24),  twenty-five  (25)  and  twenty-six  (26), 
and  thirty-five  (35)  and  thirty-six  (36)  of  said  township  and  range,  and  sections 
one  (1)  and  two  (2) ,  eleven  (11)  and  twelve  (12) ,  and  thirteen  (13)  and  fourteen 
(14),  township  twelve  (12)  south,  range  seventy-nine  (79)  west,  to  the  southwest 
corner  of  section  thirteen  (13)  of  said  last-named  township  and  range;  thence  east- 
erly on  the  section  line  between  sections  thirteen  (13)  and  twenty-four  (24)  of  said 
township  and  range,  and  sections  eighteen  (18)  and  nineteen  (19) ,  seventeen  (17)  and 
twenty  (20) ,  sixteen  (16)  and  twenty-one  (21) ,  and  fifteen  (15)  and  twenty-two  (22) , 
township  twelve  (12)  south,  range  seventy-eight  (78)  west,  to  the  quarter  section 
comer  between  said  sections  fifteen   (15)  and  twenty-two    (22) ;    thence  southerly 


88  FOREST    RESERVES. 

through  the  middle  of  sections  twenty-two  (22),  twenty-seven  (27),  and  thirty-four 
(34)  to  tlie  quarter  section  corner  on  the  south  boundary  of  section  tliirty-four  (;54) 
of  said  township  and  range;  thence  easterly  on  the  township  line  between  townships 
twelve  (12)  and  thirteen  (13)  south,  range  seventy-eight  (78)  west,  to  tlie  northwest 
corner  of  township  thirteen  (13)  south,  range  seventy-seven  (77)  west;  thence 
southerly  on  the  range  line  between  ranges  seventy-seven  (77)  and  seventy-eight 
(78)  west  to  the  southwest  corner  of  section  six  (6),  township  thirteen  (13)  south, 
range  seventy-seven  (77)  west;  thence  easterly  on  the  section  line  between  sections 
six  (6)  and  seven  (7) ,  five  (5)  and  eight  (8) ,  and  four  (4)  and  nine  (9)  to  the  south- 
east corner  of  section  four  (4)  of  said  townshij)  and  range;  thence  northerly  on  the 
section  line  between  sections  three  (3)  and  four  (4)  of  said  township  and  range  and 
sections  thirty-three  (33)  and  thirty-four  (34) ,  township  twelve  (12)  south,  range 
seventy-seven  (77)  west,  to  the  northeast  corner  of  section  thirty-three  (33)  of  said 
last-named  township  and  range;  thence  easterly  on  the  section  line  between  sections 
twenty-seven  (27)  and  thirty-four  (34) ,  to  the  southeast  corner  of  section  twenty- 
seven  (27)  of  said  township  and  range;  thence  northerly  on  the  section  line  between 
sections  twenty-six  (26)  and  twenty-seven  (27),  tw'ent}'-two  (22)  and  twenty-three 
(23),  fourteen  (14)  and  fifteen  (15),  ten  (10)  and  eleven  (11),  and  two  (2)  and  three 
(3)  of  said  township  and  range,  and  sections  thirty-four  (34)  and  thirty-five  (35) , 
township  eleven  (11)  south,  range  seventy-seven  (77)  west,  to  the  northeast  corner 
of  section  thirty-four  (34)  of  said  township  and  range;  thence  westerly  on  the  sec- 
tion line  between  sections  twenty-seven  (27)  and  thirty-four  (34) ,  to  the  northwest 
corner  of  said  section  thirty-four  (34) ;  thence  northerly  on  the  section  line  between 
sections  twent\'-seven  (27)  and  twenty-eight  (28) ,  to  the  northeast  corner  of  section 
twenty-eight  (28)  of  said  township  and  range;  thence  westerly  on  the  section  line 
between  sections  twenty-one  (21)  and  twenty-eight  (28),  twenty  (20)  and  twenty- 
nine  (29) ,  and  nineteen  (19)  and  thirty  (30) ,  to  the  northwest  corner  of  section 
thirty  (30)  of  said  township  and  range;  thence  northei'ly  on  the  range  line  between 
ranges  seventy-seven  (77)  and  seventy-eight  (78)  west,  to  the  northeast  corner  of 
township  eleven  (11)  south,  range  seventy-eight  (78)  west;  thence  easterly  on  the 
second  (2d)  correction  line  south,  to  the  southeast  corner  of  township  ten  (10)  south, 
range  seventj'-eight  (78)  west;  thence  northerly  on  the  range  line  between  ranges 
seventy-seven  (77)  and  seventy-eight  (78)  west,  to  the  southwest  corner  of  section 
eighteen  (18) ,  township  nine  (9)  south,  range  seventy-seven  (77)  west;  thence  easterly 
on  the  section  line  between  sections  eighteen  (18)  and  nineteen  (19),  seventeen  (17) 
and  twenty  (20),  sixteen  (16)  and  twenty-one  (21),  and  fifteen  (15)  and  twenty-two  (22), 
to  the  southeast  corner  of  section  fifteen  (15)  of  said  township  and  range;  thence 
northerly  on  the  section  line  between  sections  fourteen  (14)  and  fifteen  (15) ,  and  ten 
(10)  and  eleven  (11),  to  the  southwest  corner  of  section  two  (2)  of  said  township  and 
range;  thence  easterly  on  the  section  line  between  sections  two  (2)  and  eleven  (11), 
and  one  (1)  and  twelve  (12),  to  the  southeast  corner  of  section  one  (1)  of  said  town- 
ship and  range;  thence  northerly  on  the  range  line  between  ranges  seventy-six  (76) 
and  seventy-seven  (77)  west,  to  the  southwest  corner  of  township  eight  (8)  south, 
range  seventy-six  (76)  west;  thence  easterly  on  the  township  line  tetween  townships 
eight  (8)  and  nine  (9)  south,  range  seventy-six  (76)  west,  to  the  southeast  corner  of 
section  thirty-one  (31),  township  eight  (8)  south,  range  sevent3'-six  (76)  west;  thence 
northerly  on  the  section  line  between  sections  thirty-one  (31)  and  thirty-two  (32), 
to  the  southwest  corner  of  section  twenty-nine  (29)  of  said  township  and  range; 
thence  easterly  on  the  section  line  between  sections  twenty-nine  (29)  and  thirty-two 
(32),  to  the  southeast  corner  of  said  section  twenty-nine  (29);  thence  northerly  on 
the  section  line  ijetween  sections  twenty-eight  (28)  and  twenty-nine  (29)  and  twenty 
(20)  and  twenty-one  (21),  to  the  southwest  corner  of  section  sixteen  (16)  of  said  town- 
ship and  range;  thence  easterly  on  the  section  line  between  sections  sixteen  (16)  and 
twentv-une  (21),  to  the  southeast  corner  of  said  section  sixteen  (16);  thence  north- 


JACK]  SOUTH   PLATTE   RESERVE.  89 

erly  on  the  section  line  between  sections  fifteen  (15)  and  sixteen  (16),  nine  (9)  and 
ten  (10) ,  and  three  (3)  and  four  (4)  of  said  township  and  range,  and  sections  thirt)'- 
three  (33)  and  thirty-four  (34),  township  seven  (7)  south,  range  seventy-six  (76) 
west,  to'  the  southwest  corner  of  section  twenty-seven  (27)  of  said  township  and 
range;  thence  easterly  on  the  section  line  between  sections  twenty-seven  (27)  and 
thirty-four  (34) ,  twenty-six  (26)  and  thirty-five  (35) ,  and  twenty-five  (25)  and  thirty- 
six  (36)  of  said  township  and  range,  and  sections  thirty  (30)  and  thirty-one  (31), 
twenty-nine  (29)  and  thirty-two  (32) ,  twenty-eight  (28)  and  thirty-three  (33) ,  and 
twenty-seven  (27)  and  thirty-four  (34),  township  seven  (7)  south,  range  seventy- 
five  (75)  west,  to  the  northwest  corner  of  section  thirty-five  (35)  of  said  township 
and  range;  thence  southerly  on  the  section  line  between  sections  thirty-four  and 
thirty-five  (35)  of  said  township  and  range,  and  sections  two  (2)  and  three  (3) ,  ten 
(10)  and  eleven  (11),  fourteen  (14)  and  fifteen  (15),  twenty-two  (22)  and  twenty- 
three  (23),  twenty-six  (26)  and  twenty-seven  (27),  and  thirty-four  (34)  and  thirty- 
five  (35),  township  eight  (8)  south,  range  seventy-five  (75)  west,  to  the  southwest 
corner  of  section  thirty-five  (35)  of  said  township  and  range ;  thence  easterly  on 
the  township  line  between  townships  eight  (8)  and  nine  (9)  south,  range  seventy- 
five  (75)  west,  to  the  northwest  corner  of  township  nine  (9)  south,  range  seventy- 
four  (74)  west ;  thence  southerly  on  the  range  Hue  between  ranges  seventy-four  (74) 
and  seventy-five  (75)  west  to  the  southwest  corner  of  township  ten  (10)  south, 
range  seventy-four  (74)  west ;  thence  easterly  on  the  second  (2nd)  correction  line 
south  to  the  northwest  corner  of  township  eleven  (11)  south,  range  seventy-three 

(73)  west ;  thence  southerly  on  the  range  line  between  I'anges  seventy-three  (73) 
and  seventy-four  (74)  west  to  the  northeast  corner  of  section  thirteen  (13),  township 
twelve  (12)  south,  range  seventy-four  (74)  west  ;  thence  westerly  on  the  section  line 
between  sections  twelve  (12)  and  thirteen  (13),  and  eleven  (11)  and  fourteen  (14) 
of  said  township  and  range,  to  the  quarter-section  corner  between  said  sections 
eleven  (11)  and  fourteen  (14) ;  thence  southerly  through  the  middle  of  sections 
fourteen  (14),  twenty-three  (23),  and  twenty-six  (26)  to  the  center  of  section 
twenty-six  (26)  of  said  township  and  range  ;  thence  easterly  through  the  middle  of 
sections  twenty-six  (26)  and  twenty-five  (25)  to  the  quarter  section  corner  on  the  range 
line  between  section  twenty-five  (25) ,  township  twelve  (12)  south,  range  seventy-four 

(74)  west,  and  section  thirty  (30),  township  twelve  (12)  south,  range  seventy-three 
(73)  west;  thence  southerly  on  said  range  line  to  the  southwest  corner  of  township 
twelve  (12)  south,  range  seventy-three  (73)  west;  thence  easterly  on  the  township 
line  between  townships  twelve  (12)  and  thirteen  (13)  south,  to  the  southeast  corner 
of  township  twelve  (12)  south,  range  seventy-three  (73)  west;  thence  southerly 
on  the  range  line  between  ranges  seventy-two  (72)  and  seventy-three  (73)  west, 
to  the  northeast  corner  of  section  twenty-four  (24) ,  township  thirteen  (13)  south,  range 
seventy-three  (73)  west;  thence  westerly  on  the  section  line  between  sections  thir- 
teen (13)  and  twenty-four  (24),  fourteen  (14)  and  twenty-three (23) ,  fifteen  (15)  and 
twenty-two  (22),  sixteen  (16)  and  twenty-one  (21) ,  seventeen  (17)  and  twenty  (20), 
and  eighteen  (18)  and  nineteen  (19),  to  the  northwest  corner  of  section  nineteen 
(19)  of  said  township  and  range;  thence  southerly  on  the  range  line  between  ranges, 
seventy-three  (73)  and  seventy-four  (74)  west,  to  the  quarter  section  corner  on  the 
west  boundary  of  section  eighteen  (18) ,  township  fourteen  (14)  south,  range 
seventy-three  (73)  west;  thence  easterly  through  the  middle  of  sections  eighteen 
(18),  seventeen  (17),  sixteen  (16),  fifteen  (15),  fourteen  (14),  and  thirteen  (13), 
township  fourteen  (14)  south,  range  seventy-three  (73)  west,  and  sections  eighteen 
(18)  and  seventeen  (17),  township  fourteen  (14)  south,  range  seventy-two  (72)  west, 
to  the  quarter  section  corner  between  sections  seventeen  (17)  and  sixteen  (16)  of  said 
last-named  township  and  range;  thence  northerly  on  the  section  line  between  sections 
sixteen  (16)  and  seventeen  (17) ,  and  eight  (8)  and  nine  (9) ,  to  the  northeast  corner  of 
section  eight  (8)  of  said  townshipand  range;  thence  easterly  on  the  section  line  between 


90  FOREST   RESERVES. 

sections  four  (4)  and  nine  (9),  three  (3)  and  ten  (10),  two  (2)  and  eleven  (11),  and 
one  (1)  and  twelve  (12),  to  the  southeast  comer  of  section  one  (1)  of  said  township 
and  range  ;  thence  northerly  on  the  range  line  between  ranges  seventy-one  (71)  and 
seventy-two  (72)  west,  to  the  southwest  comer  of  township  thirteen  (13)  south, 
range  seventy-one  (71)  west ;  thence  easterly  on  the  township  line  between  townships 
thirteen  (13)  and  fourteen  (14)  south,  to  the  southeast  corner  of  section  thirty-three 
(33),  township  thirteen  (13)  south,  range  seventy-one  (71)  west;  thence  northerly 
on  the  section  line  between  sections  thirty-three  (33)  and  thirty-four  (34),  twenty- 
seven  (27)  and  twenty-eight  (28) ,  twenty-one  (21)  and  twenty-two  (22) ,  fifteen  (15) 
and  sixteen  (16) ,  nine  (9)  and  ten  (10) ,  and  three  (3)  and  four  (4)  of  said  township 
and  range,  and  between  sections  thirty-three  (33)  and  thirty-four  (34) ,  twenty-seven 
(27)  and  twenty-eight  (28) ,  twenty-one  (21)  and  twenty-two  (22) ,  fifteen  (15)  and 
sixteen  (16) ,  nine  (9)  and  ten  (10) ,  and  three  (3)  and  four  (4) ,  township  twelve  (12) 
south,  range  seventy-one  (71)  west,  and  between  sections  thirty-three  (33)  and 
thirty-four  (34),  twenty-seven  (27)  and  twenty-eight  (28),  twenty-one  (21)  and 
twenty-two  (22) ,  fifteen  (15)  and  sixteen  (16) ,  nine  (9)  and  ten  (10) ,  and  three  (3) 
and  (4),  township  eleven  (11)  south,  range  seventy-one  (71)  west,  to  the  northeast 
comer  of  section  four  (4)  of  said  last-named  township  and  range  ;  thence  easterly  on 
the  second  (2nd)  correction  line  south,  to  the  southeast  comer  of  section  thirty-three 
(33) ,  township  ten  (10)  south,  range  seventy-one  (71)  west ;  thence  northerly  on 
the  section  line  between  sections  thirty-three  (33)  and  thirty-four  (34)  of  said  town- 
ship and  range,  to  the  middle  of  the  channel  of  the  South  Platte  Eiver  ;  thence  down 
the  middle  of  the  channel  of  the  said  river  to  its  confluence  with  the  North  Fork  of 
the  South  Platte  River,  the  place  of  beginning. 

TOPOGRAPHY    AND    DRAINAGE. 

The  South  Platte  Reserve  includes  683,520  acres,  an  area  nearly 
twice  that  of  the  combined  extent  of  the  Pikes  Peak  and  Plum 
Creek  reserves.  The  main  body  of  it  lies  directly  west  of  the  Plum 
Creek  Reserve  and  South  Platte  River,  a  small  portion  extending 
south  of  the  latter  stream.  A  long,  narrow  strip  or  arm  extends 
from  the  northwest  corner  of  the  main  part  of  the  reserve  along  the 
eastern  base  of  the  Park  Range  of  mountains,  forming  a  western 
boundar}^  to  the  district  known  as  South  Park. 

Most  of  this  reserve  lies  at  a  much  greater  average  altitude  than  the 
Plum  Creek  Reserve,  and  the  extremes  of  altitude  are  much  greater. 
The  lowest  point  is  in  the  northea.st  corner,  at  the  junction  of  the 
North  Branch  of  the  South  Platte  with  the  South  Platte  River,  where 
the  altitude  is  a  little  above  6,000  feet  for  some  distance  along  the 
shores  of  these  streams.  From  this  point  the  area  within  the  reserve 
rises  abruptly  and  rapidly  in  irregular  ridges,  hills,  and  mountains, 
divided  by  innumerable  ravines,  gulches,  or  canyons.  In  the  main 
body  of  the  reserve,  which  lies  between  South  Platte  River  and 
the  unreserved  ai'ea  known  as  South  Park,  there  are  a  number  of 
mountains  and  ranges  which  rise  well  above  timber  line,  reaching  an 
altitude  of  12,400  or  12,500  feet.  These  nearly  surround  the  regions 
known  as  Lost  Park  and  Craig  Park  or  Mountain  Meadows,  which 
have  a  minimum  elevation  of  about  9,000  feet  and  form  most  impor- 
tant feeders  to  the  streams  which  flow  out  of  them. 


JACK.]  SOUTH    PLATTE    RKSERVE.  91 

South  of  Tarryall  Creek  the  average  altitiido  is  much  less  than  to 
the  north,  and  there  are  no  mountains  reachino-  the  timber-line  limit. 
The  larger  portion  of  the  important  territory  of  the  reserve  lies 
between  8,000  and  10,000  feet  altitude. 

West  of  the  main  body  of  the  South  Platte  Reserve  is  the  agri- 
cultural or  grazing-  country  known  as  South  Park,  the  free  limits  of 
which  are  not  generally  locally  known  and  which,  topographically, 
can  not  be  distinguished  from  considerable  areas  included  within  the 
reserve.  It  is  in  part  composed  of  a  nearl}'  level,  treeless  plain, 
having  an  altitude  mostly  between  8,500  and  9,500  feet  or  higher,  and 
m  part  of  irregular,  thinly-timbered  hills  or  ridges  with  open  treeless 
areas  or  "parks"  between  them.  It  serves  for  the  pasturage  of  many 
thousands  of  cattle  and  sheep,  the  grass  being  good  and  much  hay  being 
raised  where  irrigation  from  the  Platte  River  and  Tarryall  Creek  is 
possible,  these  streams  crossing  it  in  a  southeasterly  direction. 

North  and  west  of  South  Park  lies  the  western  branch  or  arm  of 
the  South  Platte  Reserve,  a  narrow  strip  over  40  miles  long  and  vary- 
ing in  width  from  li  to  11  miles,  ^vith  an  average  width  of  pei'haps  4 
or  5  miles.  It  is  mainly  composed  of  high,  broad  hills  or  mountains, 
and  practically  forms  the  lower  eastern  slope  of  what  is  known  as  the 
Park  Range.  Some  of  these  mountains  included  in  the  reserve  rise 
above  timber  line,  but  most  of  them  bear  trees  to  the  summits. 

The  highest  peaks  and  the  highest  parts  of  the  Park  Range  of 
mountains  lie  to  the  west,  outside  the  limits  of  the  resei've,  and  con- 
spicuously above  timber  line.  In  the  ravines  and  gulches  near  the 
summits  of  some  of  these  there  are  huge  drifts  of  snow  which  do  not 
disappear  during  the  summer,  and  it  is  from  these  pei"petual  snow 
banks  that  many  of  'the  streams  start  which  cross  the  narrow  western 
arm  of  the  reservation,  and  which  form  the  South  Platte  River  and 
Tarryall  Creek,  these  streams  draining  the  entire  eastern  slope  of  the 
Park  Range,  and  also  the  South  Park. 

The  main  body  or  eastern  portion  of  South  Platte  Reserve  is  chiefly 
drained  by  the  South  Platte  River  itself  and  the  very  numerous 
streams  which  fall  into  it,  the  most  important  of  which  is  Tarryall 
Creek,  while  the  tributary  known  as  Goose  Creek  or  Lost  Park  Creek 
carries  the  waters  from  an  extensive  area  most  valuable  as  a  water 
reservoir.  This  area  is  also  partly  drained  by  Craig  Creek,  the  waters 
of  which,  and  also  of  Bufl'alo  Creek,  flow  into  the  north  branch  of  the 
South  Platte  River,  which  drains  a  small  watershed  sloping  to  the  north. 

While  South  Platte  River  and  Tarryall  Creek  drain  most  of  the 
reserve,  their  true  sources  are  many  miles  to  the  west,  in  the  higher 
Park  Range,  just  outside  the  limits  of  its  western  arm  of  the  reserve. 
The  South  Platte  is  a  comparatively  small  stream,  rarely  more  than  a 
few  rods  in  width,  and  easily  forded  at  many  points,  but  it  is  very 
important  to  the  region  through  which  it  flows. 


92  FOREST    KESKRVES. 

The  largest  and  practically  the  only  largo  natural  Ixuly  of  water  in 
the  reserve  is  known  as  Jefferson  Lake,  located  at  an  altitude  between 
10.500  and  ll.ODO  feet,  at  the  head  of  Jetfersou  Creek,  one  of  the 
branches  of  Tarryall  Creek.  This  lake  is  more  than  half  a  mile  across 
in  its  widest  part,  and  soundings  are  said  to  have  shown  a  depth  of 
850  feet.  A  few  feet  of  its  waters  are  now  artificially  drawn  off  to 
supply  the  necessities  of  a  number  of  ranchmen  along  .Jefferson  Creek, 
in  South  Park,  below.  It  is  a  very  valuable  natural  reservoir, 
chiefly  fed  from  perpetual  snow  lianks.  lying  west  of  and  outside  the 
reserve  lines. 

,  Lake  George  is  merely  an  artificial  reseiToir  foi-med  by  danuning  the 
South  Platte  River,  and  Wellington  Lake  was  made  by  building  a  dam 
near  the  head  of  Buffalo  Creek.  The  altitude  of  each  of  these  reser- 
voirs is  about  8.000  feet. 

There  are  various  reservoirs  projected  or  in  course  of  construction 
in  this  reserve,  the  most  important  being  on  the  South  Platte  River, 
on  Goose  Creek  .(also  known  as  Lost  Park  Creek),  and  on  Tarryall 
Creek.  Near  the  outlet  of  the  latter  active  preparations  were  being 
made  during  the  summer  of  1898  for  the  constructit)n  of  a  reservoir  which 
would  have  a  maximum  depth  of  over  100  feet  of  water  and  cover  over 
2.000  acres.  The  conservation  of  these  waters  is  primarily  intended 
for  the  supply  of  the  city  of  Denver,  about  50  miles  away. 

Throughout  the  reserve,  especially  in  the  higher  altitudes,  there  are 
innumerable  springs,  most  of  which  maintain  a  good  flow  of  the  finest 
water  in  the  driest  seasons.  In  the  Lost  Park  and  Craig  Park  dis- 
trict there  are  large  areas  of  treeless,  boggy,  or  peaty  ground  which 
are  practically  reservoirs  holding  and  gradually  giving  out  large  and 
perpetual  supplies  of  pure  and  very  cold  water  to  the  streams  which 
run  through  them.  These  boggy  areas  are  commonly  covered  with 
low  shrubby  willows  from  2  to  8  feet  high,  and  mixed  with  them 
are  various  grasses,  sedges,  and  mosses  which,  with  the  accumulated 
humus  of  centuries,  hold  and  but  slowly  release  the  water  which 
stands  beneath  or  among  them.  These  areas  might  properly  be  likened 
to  slowly -flowing  reservoirs  or  lakes  which  are  concealed  by  the  sub- 
alpine  vegetation  growing  over  them.  As  a  feeder  of  streams,  this 
region,  giving  its  waters  to  Lost  Park  Creek  and  Craig  Creek,  is  the 
most  valuable  of  any  found  within  any  of  the  three  reserves  examined, 
and  no  effort  shoidd  be  spared  to  preserve  or  improve  the  pi-esent  con- 
ditions existing  there. 

On  account  of  its  limited  area  and  topographical  position,  much  of 
the  extreme  western  section  of  the  reserve  contributes  comparatively 
little  water  to  the  streams,  most  of  it  coming  from  farther  to  the  west, 
from  the  eastern  slope  of  the  high  Park  Range,  several  of  the  summits 
of  which  exceed  Pikes  Peak  in  altitude. 

A  number  of  small   natural  ponds  or  artificial  storage  reservoirs 


,-1     biTE   OF    PROPOSED    RESERVOIR    ON    SOUTH    PLATTE    RIVER,    ABOVE    MOUTH    OF 
TARRYALL  CREEK 


;;    SITE   OF    PROPOSED    DAM    ON    SOUTH    PLATTE   RIVER,   2   OR   3    MILES   ABOVE  SOUTH 
PLATTE   STATION. 


JACK.]  SOUTH    PLATTE    RESERVE.  93 

occur  at  various  points  along  this  range.  The  broader  southern  end 
of  this  part  of  the  reserve  is  the  most  valuable  as  a  stream-feeder,  as 
it  includes  the  apex  of  the  watershed  and  the  beginnings  of  the  creeks. 


The  South  Platte  Reserve  contains  a  varied  assortment  of  forest 
conditions,  and,  like  most  parts  of  the  country  accessible  to  markets 
or  railroads,  the  surface  has  been  very  largely  deprived  of  its  most 
valuable  timber  bj'  the  i-apacity  of  sawmill  men  and  of  railroad-tie 
hunters;  many  thousands  of  acres  also  having  been  cleared  by  manu- 
facturers of  charcoal  for  smelting  purposes. 

What  remains  of  unmolested  primeval  forest  is  chiefly  located  far- 
thest awa}'  from  local  markets  or  shipping  stations,  or  is  situated  in 
limited  areas  on  slopes  not  easily  accessible.  The  timber  in  which  the 
operations  of  lumbermen  have  not  j^et  been  very  destructive  comprises 
but  a  few  thousand  acres,  mostly  located  north  of  the  Tarrvall  Moun- 
tains, about  the  head  waters  of  Lost  Park  Creek,  Wigwam  Creek,  and 
Craig  Creek,  in  and  about  the  vagixely  defined  region  generally  known 
as  Lost  Park,  having  an  altitude  of  from  above  9,000  to  11,500  feet  or 
more. 

The  valuable  timber  here  is  almost  all  Engelmann  spruce,  but  some 
good  lodgepole  pine,  range  pine  {Pinun  arhtata)^  and  Pinus  ^ffexilis 
also  occur,  although  rarely  used. 

The  spruce  attains  a  larger  size  than  the  other  ti'ees  in  this  region. 
The  largest  specimens  seen  and  measured  showed  a  total  height  of  110 
or  115  feet  and  a  diameter  of  3  feet  at  the  stump.  This  size  is  excep- 
tional, however,  and  the  mature  timber  obtained  would  probably  not 
average  more  than  15  inches  in  diameter  at  the  stump  and  70  to  80 
feet  in  height,  furnishing  35  or  -±0  feet  of  saw  logs. 

The  large  trees  or  those  immediately  available  for  the  sawmill  are 
interspersed  with  many  too  small  for  present  profitable  use,  but 
selected  acres  may  be  found  which  would  yield  10,000  feet  of  lumber 
to  the  acre  by  taking  trees  above  10  inches  in  diameter  at  the  stump. 
But  when  a  square  mile  is  taken  as  a  unit  the  average  is  greatly 
reduced  on  account  of  lightly  timbered  areas,  burned  strips,  and  the 
treeless  ground  or  "parks"  along  the  creeks  and  on  the  tops  of  the 
higher  ridges  and  mountains. 

Throughout  the  remainder  of  the  reserve  the  best  of  the  timlier  has 
already  been  removed  or  is  in  process  of  removal.  A  little  fair  tim- 
ber occurs  at  various  places  along  the  western  arm  of  the  reserve, 
west  of  South  Park,  about  Jefferson  Lake,  on  the  slopes  of  Mount 
Silverheels,  and  at  other  points,  although  the  best  and  most  valuable 
parts  of  the  forest  actually  lie  to  the  westward,  among  the  mountains, 
well  outside  the  present  boundaries  of  the  reserve.  On  these  outside 
slopes   some  very  good  timber  still  remains,  although  in  no  very 


94  FOREST   RESERVKS. 

extended  areas  without  interruption  l)y  poor,  burned,  cut-over,  or 
open  tracts  intervening-.  In  this  region  also  the  prevailing  useful  tree 
is  Engclniann  spruce,  although  there  is  nuich  lodgepole  pine  mixed 
with  it  in  some  places,  or  this  pine  may  occupy  the  ground  in  some 
localities  almost  to  the  complete  exclusion  of  other  species. 

Fully  three-fourths  of  the  total  territory  upon  which  trees  grow  is 
occupied  1)V  yellow  pine  and  Douglas  spruce,  among  which  a  .small  pro- 
portion of  ))lue  spruce  is  found  along  or  near  creeks,  while  some  lodge- 
polo  pine,  range  pine  (Pini/s  aristata),  and  Pimis  fiexilis  occur  on  the 
hills.  The  yellow  pine  and  Douglas  spruce  prevail  over  all  the  eastern 
half  of  the  reserve  and  the  portion  lying  south  of  the  Tarryall  Moun- 
tains. As  this  gi'ound  has  nearlj'  all  been  cut  over  at  various  times 
during  the  past  thirtj-  years,  some  of  it  having  been  twice  or  even  three 
times  searched  for  suitable  sawmill  trees,  there  are  few  trees  of  large 
size  remaining.  Some  of  the  best  trees  of  these  species  seen  were 
found  north  of  Lost  Park  Creek,  a  few  miles  from  its  mouth  or  junc- 
tion with  the  South  Platte  Kiver,  where  trees  which  would  furnish  from 
500  to  1,000  feet  of  lumber  each  were  scattered  over  a  few  hundred 
acres  which  had  escaped  fire  and  had  not  been  entered  by  lum1)ermen, 
although  some  had  been  cut  for  local  ranches.  These  exceptionally 
tine  trees  were  surrounded  by  much  timber  of  undersize  or  poor  qual- 
ity, and  indications  seemed  to  show  that  forest  lire  had  many  years  ago 
burned  out  smaller  trees,  leaving  a  scattered  growth  of  larger  ones. 

Upon  a  good  deal  of  the  area  the  yellow  pine  is  more  plentiful  than 
the  Douglas  spruce,  and  it  commonly  occurs  in  very  open  or  scattered 
growth  and  well  furnished  with  branches,  so  that  there  is  but  a  short, 
clear  trunk.  Some  trees  are  ready  to  be  culled  out  for  the  sawmill 
now  according  to  the  present  standard  accepted  by  the  lumbermen, 
this  standard  being  modified  so  as  to  include  smaller  material  as  the 
trees  become  scarcer  and  the  ground  is  repeatedh'  gleaned.  A  large 
proportion,  however,  is  too  small  for  any  present  purpose.  In  some 
parts  the  soil  is  so  rocky,  poor,  or  dry  that  it  is  unlikely  that  the  trees 
upon  it  will  ever  reach  a  large  size. 

In  the  soiithern  part  of  the  I'eserve,  west  of  Florissant,  a  consider- 
able percentage  of  blue  spruce  occurs  with  the  other  trees  found  there, 
and  it  is  also  plentiful  in  some  parts  of  the  reserve  liordering  South 
Park. 

The  lodgepole  pine  occurs  in  great  abundance  on  the  north  and  west 
slopes  of  the  Platte  River  Mountains,  in  places  through  the  Park 
Range,  and  on  some  parts  of  the  slopes  of  Stormy  Peak,  Fi-eeman 
Peak,  etc.  It  often  occurs  almost  pure,  but  it  is  also  frequently  mixed 
with  Engelmann  spruce,  as  in  the  Lost  Park  region,  among  the 
Puma  Hills,  and  along  the  Park  Range.  Trees  2  feet  in  diameter  of 
trunk  and  100  feet  in  height  are  considered  rare  throughout  this 
region  and  although  the  species  is  plentiful,  or  even  extremely  abuu- 


.1    VALLEY   OF  TARRYALL   CREEK 

.11  from  Mountaindale  to  Bison  Peak,  at  about  1  1 .000  feet  a 


/EST    FROM    ROCK   AT   GRAHAM'S    RANCI- 
OF    LOST    PARK    CREEK 


OVE    MOUTH 


JACK.]  SOUTH   PLATTE   RESERVE.  95 

dant  in  certain  sections,  there  is  very  little  of  it  lai'ge  enough  to  be 
manufactured  into  the  ordinary  kinds  of  sawmill  lumber,  as  now 
accepted  bj'  the  lumbermen.  If  preserved  from  damage  in  future  the 
existing  lodgepole  pine  should  eventually  yield  a  considerable  amount 
of  medium-sized  merchantable  timber.  This  pine  seems  to  be  espe- 
cially susceptible  to  damage  from  forest  fires,  which  apparently  sweep 
through  a  forest  of  these  trees  moi-e  readily  than  through  growths  of 
any  of  the  other  species  in  this  reserve.  This  is,  no  doubt,  largely 
due  to  the  resinous  character  of  the  tree,  to  its  thin  bark  and  slender 
twigs,  and  especially  to  its  dense  or  close  growth  when  young,  several 
living  plants  sometimes  standing  to  the  square  foot  until  they  are  sev- 
eral feet  high.  Standing  thus  relatively  close,  the  ilames  easily  pass 
fi'om  tree  to  tree  as  among  dry  grass  in  a  meadow. 

The  lodgepole  pine  reproduces  itself  more  easily  and  generally 
forms  a  better  stand  of  young  trees  than  any  other  species.  In  the 
case  of  the  yellow  pine  and  the  spruces  the  stand  of  seedling  or  young- 
trees  is  commonly  insufficient  to  produce  what  would  be  considered 
good,  clear  timber  in  other  regions.  Locally,  however,  as  in  some 
gulches  and  on  north  slopes,  good,  fair  stands  of  young  trees  are 
found,  although  they  do  not  cover  any  very  extended  continuous  areas. 

The  range  pine  [Pinus  aristata)  occurs  abundantly  on  many  ridges 
or  ranges,  particularly  on  south  slopes,  but  the  trunks  are  generally 
so  short,  divided,  or  covered  with  large  branches,  that  this  tree  is 
seldom  cut  to  be  sawed  into  ordinary  lumber,  although  it  is  some- 
times used  for  mine  timbers. 

Pinus  Jlexilis,  the  limber  pine,  or  white  pine,  or  sugar  pine,  as  it 
is  sometimes  called,  is  not  abundant  enough  anywhere  to  obtain  com- 
mercial consideration,  although  it  becomes  a  much  better  timber  tree 
than  Pinus  aristata. 

Probably  at  least  one-fifth  of  the  total  area  of  this  reserve  is  practi- 
cally destitute  of  trees  of  any  kind,  excepting  in  parts  where  a  few 
widely-scattered  pines  and  small  aspens  grow  in  situations  where  they 
will  not  attain  arborescent  proportions.  This  treeless  area  includes 
bare  mountain  tops,  valleys,  or  parks  between  the  mountains  and 
along  streams,  grazing  lands  included  within  the  present  reserve  lines, 
and  areas  so  completely  burned  that  they  are  not  likely  to  be  recovered 
for  a  century  or  two.  These  irregular  treeless  areas,  the  frequent 
burned  tracts,  those  covered  with  practically  useless  kinds  of  timber 
(as  range  pine),  the  depredations  of  lumbermen,  and  the  varied  char- 
acter of  the  so-called  wooded  ground,  make  it  extremely  difficult 
or  almost  impossible  to  get  any  clear  idea  of  the  approximate  amount 
of  timber  remaining  on  the  reserve.  Where  lumbermen  have  already 
been  at  work  once  or  twice,  they  may  yet  find  a  good  many  saw  logs 
of  medium  or  small  size,  and  doubtless  several  small  movable  steam 
sawmills  would  continue  to  find  employment  for  several  years  to  come 


*)()  FOREST    KESEKVES. 

hpforc  the  aviiiliil)lo  supplies  were  totally  oxhaustcd.  Such  clo^o  cut- 
tiii"',  however,  would  be  injufious  to  true  forest  interests,  l)eeause,  iu 
open  },frowth  of  yellow  pine  and  Dout^las  spruce,  the  mature  trees,  or 
those  simply  large  enough  for  the  mill,  should  be  allowed  to  remain 
until  the  ground  has  a  sutficient  number  of  seedlings  upon  it  for 
proper  restocking  of  the  land.  The  destruction  of  necessary  seed- 
bearing  trees  is  often  a  serious  loss  in  this  country,  where,  in  the 
struggle  for  existence,  so  nmch  of  the  seed  is  taken  by  birds  and 
rodents  for  food,  and  the  conditions  of  germination  are  so  unfavorable 
that  a  smaller  percentage  of  plants  results  from  any  given  quantity  of 
seed  than  is  the  case  in  other  regions,  where  the  conditions  are  more 
favorable. 

In  the  region  north  of  the  Tarrvall  Mountains,  including  what  is 
known  as  Lost  Park  and  the  Kenosha  Range  and  Platte  River  Moun- 
tains, it  is  probable  that  50  million  feet  of  lumber  could  be  taken 
without  serious  injury  to  the  forest  covering  if  the  work  were  prop- 
erly conducted,  with  due  regard  to  the  preservation  of  the  imma- 
ture growth  and  the  prevention  of  forest  tires.  This  forest  is  the  best 
on  the  reserve  and  is  chiefly  composed  of  Engelmann  spruce,  which 
also  occurs  iu  considerable  quantity  on  the  western  arm  of  the  reserve. 

The  remainder  of  the  ready  timljer  is  chiefly  yellow  pine  and  Douglas 
spruce,  and  altogether  the  supplies  of  all  properly  grown  sawmill  lum- 
V)er  in  the  reserve  may  be  placed  at  150  million  to  200  million  feet, 
although  such  an  estimate  is  largely  guesswork,  necessitated  by  the 
strangely  unequal  conditions  met  with  everywhere ;  and  yet  it  would 
be  impossible  to  estimate  more  nearly  without  a  careful  measuring  and 
studv  of  each  section  of  ground  containing  merchantable  timber. 
Doubtless  more  than  the  above  amount  could  be  immediately  cut  if 
the  reduced  standard  of  the  size  of  trees  taken  by  the  smaller  saw- 
mills should  be  accepted ;  but  a  too  close  and  early  cutting  is  often 
hurtful  to  the  forest  and  the  adjacent  country,  and  is  certainly  not 
alwavs  the  most  economical  timber  management. 


Probably  between  60  and  TO  per  cent  of  the  total  forested  area  of 
this  reserve  has  damage  by  fire  very  clearly  marked,  and  on  a  larger 
area  there  are  evidences  of  ground  fires  or  of  forest  tires  which  occurred 
so  long  ago  that  traces  of  them  have  become  nearly  obliterated  and  a 
natural  forest  growth  has  almost  recovered  the  ground. 

The  damage  by  fire  is  confined  to  no  particular  section  of  the 
reserve,  but  spots,  streaks,  or  extended  areas  of  burned  ground  are  fre- 
quent on  most  parts,  especially  on  those  longest  settled  or  near  routes 
most  traveled,  such  as  long  passes  through  the  mountains.  The 
burned  tracts  are  often  comparatively  small  and  frequent;  Ijut  there 


.1     EAST   SIDE   O 


3RECKENRIDGE   PASS,    LOOKING   SOUTH    TO/Va 
Engelmann  spruce  and  lodgepole  pine  ;   mostly  burr 


MOUN  r   SILVERHEELS 


li.    VIEW    AT    MOUNTAINDALE 


burnt  in  1863  or  1869. 


JACK.]  SOUTH    PLATTE    KKSERVE.  97 

are  three  or  four  areas  upon  which  the  burnings  have  been  very 
extensive. 

The  most  widespread  of  these  eonflagrations  occurred  in  IStiS  or  18(5'.) 
and  burned  over  the  larger  portion  of  the  Tarryail  Mountains,  which 
extend  northwest  and  southeast  through  the  central  part  of  the  reserve. 
The  burning  here  was  very  complete  over  many  thousands  of  acres, 
where  barely  a  conifer  has  yet  started  to  reforest  the  ground,  and 
the  onh'  living  woody  vegetation  consists  of  small  cjuaking  aspen  and 
scattered  shrubs  of  various  species, 

Sometimes  groups  or  belts  of  trees  escaped,  or  a  whole  mountain 
side  was  passed  unharmed  by  the  flames,  and  it  is  from  seeds  of 
these  living  pines  and  spruces  that  a  new  natural  forest  must  be 
derived. 

This  lire  covered  a  stretch  of  mountains  over  20  miles  in  length  and 
6  or  8  miles  wide  at  the  widest  parts,  although  sometimes  cjuite  nar- 
row and  generally  very  irregular.  It  was  said  to  have  originated  from 
the  burning  of  a  heap  of  brush  by  one  of  the  early  settlers;  but  other 
information  placed  the  responsibility  for  the  fire  upon  the  Indians,  who 
probably  are  charged  with  more  than  their  share  of  such  occurrences. 

The  forest  of  this  burned  region  consisted  chiefly  of  yellow  pine 
{Pinus pondtrosa),  range  pine  {Pinuft  nristafa),  limber  or  white  pine 
(^Pimis  fiexilU),  Douglas  spruce,  and  Engelmanu  spruce. 

Lesser  tires  have  more  recently  occurred  in  the  woods  north  of  the 
Tarryail  Range,  many  within  a  few  years  or  since  the  advent  of  saw- 
mills. 

Large  tracts  have  also  been  burned  on  the  western  arm  of  the 
reserve,  especially  along  the  slopes  east  of  AVestou  Pass,  and  other 
routes  into  or  over  the  range. 

A  great  deal  of  ground  shows  traces  of  fire,  which  must  have 
occurred  from  thirty  to  one  hundred  or  more  years  ago,  and  upon 
this  is  a  more  or  less  dense  growth  of  small  timber  of  various  ages 
and  sizes,  accoi-ding  to  the  length  of  time  since  the  fire  and  the  time 
elapsing  before  fresh  seed  stocked  the  ground.  As  many  of  these 
fires  appear  to  have  been  comparatively  small  and  local,  or  to  have  left 
living  individuals  or  many  intervening  strips  of  living  trees  which 
soon  produced  seed  for  the  burned  areas,  the  ground  has  become  fairly 
well  i-e-covered,  much  sooner  than  is  possible  when  many  thousands  of 
acres  are  burned  over  and  no  living  trees  escape.  Almost  the  only 
exception  to  this  general  rule  is  found  in  the  case  of  the  lodgepole 
pine,  which,  if  burned  under  certain  conditions,  leaves  seed  enough 
unharmed  to  restock  the  ground  with  the  same  species. 

No  ver}^  extensive  fires  have  occurred  on  this  reserve  during  the 
past  four  or  five  years,  and  only  one,  covering  considerable  area,  was 
noted  during  the  season  when  this  examination  was  made.  This 
20  GEOL,  PT  5 7 


98  KORKST    KESKRVES. 

Ofi-urt'd  on  BriH'kciii'iclffo  Pass,  on  tlu'  Colorado  and  Southern  Rail- 
way, gein>rally  known  as  the  South  Park  Line,  which  crosses  the 
reserve  at  this  point.  The  lire  was  supposed  to  have  originated  from 
sparks  from  a  locomotive,  and  it  burned  one  of  the  snowsheds  belong- 
ing to  the  railroad,  besides  several  hu!idred  acres  of  woodland,  in  st)me 
of  which  no  trace  of  former  tires  was  evident,  although  the  best  of 
the  tiinbei'  had  long  since  been  cut  out.  This  tire  burned  to  timber 
line  or  to  an  altitude  of  over  11,500  feet,  the  trees  here  being  chiefly 
Engehiiann  spruce,  and  it  reached  down  to  considerable  tracts  of  lodge- 
pole  piue.  A  number  of  other  small  tires  wei'e  i>urning  at  this  time 
(October  8)  among  the  timber  on  both  the  slopes  east  and  west  of  the 
pass.  Some  of  these  were  presumably  started  bv  sparks  from  loco- 
motives, others  perhaps  from  other  causes.  They  were  burning  slowly 
and  soon  afterwards  were  extinguished  by  snowstorms.  The  railway 
employees  were  making  no  efl'ort  to  extinguish  the  fires  on  the  wood- 
.land,  but  the  snowsheds  were  guarded.  Near  Kenosha  Pass,  also, 
grass  fires  and  incipient  timber  fires  were  seen,  which  were  started 
from  sparks  thrown  out  by  locomotives  of  the  same  railway. 

SETTLEMENTS. 

This  reserve  is  crossed  l)v  two  lines  of  railroad.  The  Coloi'udo 
Midland  Railway  crosses  the  southern  portion  west  of  Florissant,  fol- 
lowing the  course  of  the  South  Platte  River  into  South  Park.  The 
Colorado  and  Southern  Railway,  otherwise  known  as  the  South  Park 
Line,  follows  the  North  Bi'anch  of  the  South  Platte  River  along  the 
entire  noi'thern  boundary  of  the  main  body  of  this  reserve.  It  leaves 
this  boundary  and  passes  into  South  Park  by  crossing  the  reserve 
at  Kenosha  Pass,  and  the  main  line  again  crosses  the  reserve  over 
Breckenridge  Pass,  between  Como  and  Breckenridge.  Two  spurs  or 
branch  lines  have  been  built  to  mines  or  mining  camps  located  near 
or  outside  of  the  western  boundary.  One  of  these  runs  from  Fairplay 
through  Mosquito  Gulch  to  the  lower  London  mine,  near  the  foot  of 
Mosquito  Peak.  The  other  branch  also  starts  from  Faii-play  and 
follows  Horseshoe  Gulch  to  the  mining  camp  of  Leavick,  formerly 
known  as  Horseshoe,  located  near  the  eastern  base  of  Horseshoe 
Mountain  at  about  10,800  feet  altitude. 

The  amount  of  land  held  in  private  ownership  is  smaller  in  propor- 
tion to  the  total  area  than  on  either  of  the  other  resen'es  examined. 
It  is  chiefly  situated  in  the  northeastern  and  southern  parts,  and  in 
open  grazing  areas  lying  east  of  South  Park. 

The  largest  settlement  included  within  the  limits  of  this  reserve  is 
Alma,  which  is  located  at  the  narrowest  part  of  its  western  arm,  at  an 
altitude  of  above  10,000  feet.  It  is  situated  on  the  Mosquito  Pass 
wagon  route,  between  South  Park  and  Leadville,  and  has  a  popu- 
lation estimated  at  400  or  500,  which  is  likely  to  increase  or  decrease 


M 


A.    VIEW    AT    KENOSHA    PASS      LOOKING    SOUIHtA 
Small  aspen,  scattered  lodgepote  pine,  and  Engelmann  sprue 


B.    LEAVICK     LOOKING    NORTHWE 


JACK.]  SOUTH    PLATTK    RESERVE.  99 

considerably,  according  to  the  activity  of  the  mining  industries  in 
the  adjacent  country.  Alma  is  an  important  supply  station  for  the 
miners  and  prospectors  in  the  mountains  to  the  north  and  west.  A 
smelter  is  located  here,  but  this  was  idle  during  the  past  summer. 
Another  smelter,  also  idle,  is  located  near  London  Junction,  which  is 
the  railroad  station  for  Alma.  Park  City,  a})out  a  mile  and  a-half 
west  of  Alma,  has  several  occupied  cabins,  but  appears  to  be  just  out- 
side the  reserve  limits. 

East  Leadville,  about  6  miles  south  of  Alma,  is  now  nearly  aban- 
doned for  the  acti\e  mining  camp  of  Leavick,  on  the  western  border 
of  the  reserve.  The  population  of  Leavick  was  roughly  estimated  at 
perhaps  100  persons,  but  is  likely  to  vary  greatly  according  to  the 
activity  of  the  mines,  amount  of  timber  cutting  being  carried  on,  and 
other  industries. 

Throughout  this  region  miners'  or  prospectors'  cabins  are  not  rare, 
but  not  so  immerous  as  they  are  on  the  more  mountainous  range 
west  of  the  reserve  limits. 

In  the  southern  part  of  this  western  division  of  the  reserve  there 
are  several  small  ranches,  the  best  known  being  that  called  Platte  Station, 
on  the  route  over  Weston  Pass,  at  nearly  10,000  feet  altitude.  Near 
the  summit  of  this  pass  there  is  also  a  small  mining  camp. 

At  the  summit  of  Breckenridge  Pass,  at  Boreas  Station,  are  a 
number  of  buildings,  chiefly  occupied  bj'  employees  of  the  railway. 

In  the  main  body  of  the  reserve  east  of  South  Park  the  most 
important  settlements  are  situated  along  the  North  Branch  of  the 
South  Platte  River  and  near  Tarryali  Creek.  Most  of  the  settlements 
along  the  former  stream  are  located  on  its  north  side  and  are  therefore 
outside  the  reserve  limits.  The  largest  on  the  south  side  is  Buii'alo, 
at  the  mouth  of  Buffalo  Creek,  the  population  of  which  is  estimated 
at  about  150,  Ijeing  very  much  increased  in  summer  by  residents 
whose  cottages  are  vacant  in  winter.  This  land  is  in  control  of  a 
regularly  organized  company  known  as  the  Buffalo  Creek  Park 
Company. 

At  Wellington  Lake.  T  or  S  miles  up  Buffalo  Creek,  there  is 
also  established  a  small  colony  of  summer  residents.  Cassells,  on 
the  North  Branch,  near  Chase,  is  another  summer  resort  with  accom- 
modations for  50  or  more  persons.  South  Platte  and  Estabrook  are 
small  stations  from  which  is  shipped  considerable  timber  cut  on  the 
reserve. 

South  of  Tarryali  Creek  are  several  small  mining  camps.  The 
largest  of  these  is  Puma  City,  which  a  couple  of  years  ago  had  a 
"  boom  "  and  a  population  of  several  hundred  prospectors,  but  which 
was  reduced  to  two  or  three  score  when  seen  in  the  autumn  of  1898. 
Gold  City  and  Jasper  are  other  small  prospecting  camps. 

In  the  southeastern  corner  of  the  reserve  and  along  Wigwam  Creek, 


100  FOREST   RESERVES. 

Lost  Park  Creek.  Tiunyall  Creek,  and  the  principal  creeks  of  the 
southern  portion  are  a  considerable  number  of  small  ranches,  with 
cattle  raising  as  the  chief  business,  but  where  lumbering  and  pros- 
pecting also  usually  receive  some  attention. 

Bordenville,  on  Tarrvall  Creek,  consists  simply  of  two  or  thi'ee 
ranches,  with  buildings  located  comparatively  near  each  other,  and  at 
the  post-ofSce  of  Alountaindale.  on  the  same  stream,  there  is  a  single 
dwelling  with  accompanying  farm  buildings.  Weekly'  mails  are  re- 
ceived here  for  other  settlers  or  prospectors  who  are  widelj'  scattered 
in  the  region  around. 

At  the  post-ofEce  known  as  Rocky,  in  the  southern  part,  similar 
conditions  prevail,  there  being  no  aggregation  of  inhabited  buildings 
to  form  a  village,  but  simply  a  mail  center  for  the  scattered  population 
of  the  country. 

Along  the  Colorado  ^Midland  Railway  are  five  or  six  small  stations 
within  the  reserve,  rarely  composed  of  more  than  the  dwellings  of 
railroad  employees  and  an  occasional  ranch.  Some  attempt  has  been 
made  to  make  Lake  George  a  summer  resort,  but  apparently  with 
slight  success. 

AGRICULTURE   AND  GRAZING. 

Tht>  high  altitude  of  the  greater  part  of  this  reserve  makes  the  prac- 
tice of  ordinary  agriculture  impossible.  Along  some  of  the  creeks, 
however,  especially  on  the  eastern  slope  at  the  lower  altitudes,  some 
hardy  grains  are  raised  and  a  few  potatoes,  but  the  total  amount  is 
inconsiderable,  and  is  of  no  importance  in  outside  markets,  although 
potatoes  are  taken  to  Cripple  Ci'eek  or  similar  local  markets.  Potatoes 
are  an  uncertain  crop,  as  they  are  liable  to  be  damaged  by  late  frosts. 
Hay  and  grain  are  the  staples  cultivated,  and  what  is  grown  is  mostly 
fed  to  stock  upon  the  ranches.  Stock  raising  is  therefore  really  the 
only  important  agricultural  interest,  and  this  would  be  very  limited  if 
stock  owners  were  compelled  to  graze  their  cattle  on  their  own  lands 
instead  of  allowing  them  to  range  upon  Government  territory,  as  is 
the  general  practice. 

The  patches  of  cultivated  ground  are  usually  so  small  and  irregular 
that  it  is  difficult  to  obtain  a  true  idea  of  the  total  amount  actually 
tilled,  but  after  a  careful  estimate  it  is  probably  safe  to  sa\'  that  the 
total  area  of  the  ground  under  cultivation  in  the  reserve  is  less  than 
3,000  acres,  although  more  may  be  irrigated  and  cut  over  for  native 
ha^',  but  is  not  cultivated. 

On  account  of  high  altitude,  narrowness  of  fertile  valleys,  and  limited 
water  supply  it  is  probable  that  there  will  be  no  very  great  increase  of 
the  profitable  tillable  area,  and  the  country  here  must  be  considered  as 
essentially  a  grazing  one.     The  large  areas  of  land,  covered  with  a  very 


,1,    HERDSMEN  S    CABIN    IN    LOST    PARK:    TIMBER    BURNT    IN    1893 


/.■     MOUNTAINDALE     LOOKING    NORTHWEST    ACROSS   TARRYALL    CREEK 


.    GEOLOGICAL  SURVEY 


I  • 


.1      VIEW    LOOKING    UP    LOS 


TARRYALL    POST-OFFICE       LOOKING    NORTH    THROUGH    MAIN    STREET. 


JACK.]  SOUTH   PLATTE    RESERVE.  101 

scant  growth  of  timbei',  produce  a  scattered  growth  of  grasses  and 
herbage  sufficient  to  furnish  food  for  a  limited  number  of  animals. 

East  of  Craig  Creek  and  the  Tarryall  iMountains  it  is  estimated 
that  from  -1:,000  to  5,000  cattle  have  been  grazed  by  the  ranchmen  dur- 
ing some  seasons,  but  during  the  past  year  the  number  was  probaljly 
not  more  than  one-half  as  great  because  of  sales  on  account  of  a  good 
cattle  market.  On  all  the  remainhig  poitions  of  the  reserve  it  is 
probable  that  a  maximum  of  about  5,000  cattle  have  been  kept,  the 
number  being  subject  to  great  fluctuations  in  difl'erent  seasons. 

The  bona  tide  residents  or  settlers  of  the  reserve  are  not  alone  in 
pasturing  cattle  on  public  lands,  as  large  numbers  of  cattle  are 
annually  driven  in  from  outside,  often  the  property  of  persons  in  no 
way  connected  with  agricultural  pursuits.  It  was  found,  for  instance, 
that  persons  living  in  Fairplay,  on  the  western  side  of  South  Park, 
made  a  practice  of  sending  cattle  into  the  Tarryall  Mountain  region, 
on  the  east  of  the  park;  and  others  living  at  Woodland  Park,  on  the 
borders  of  the  Pikes  Peak  Reserve,  had  herds  over  30  miles  awav  in 
the  heart  of  the  South  Platte  Reserve,  to  the  west.  Many  of  the 
ranchmen  in  South  Park  distribute  some  of  their  cattle  on  the  reserve 
during  the  summer.  Many  of  these  cattle  are  annually  sent  uito 
the  so-called  Lost  Pai"k,  a  region  showing  more  of  the  original  con- 
dition of  the  country  and  less  molestation  by  human  agencies  than 
any  othei-  in  the  reserves.  The  number  annually  pastured  here  is  said 
to  vary  in  difl'erent  seasons,  from  several  hundred  to  two  or  three 
thousand.  When  visited  in  September,  1898,  it  was  estimated  that 
there  were  then  not  more  than  -±00  or  500  in  that  particular  region. 
Cattle  belonging  to  different  owners  commonly  run  together,  but  as 
they  are  branded  they  are  easilv  separated  in  the  autumn  "round-up," 
when  they  are  sent  to  market  or  removed  to  lower  altitudes  or  shelter 
for  wintering.  Cattle  have  l)een  brought  hundreds  of  miles  to  this 
region  to  be  temporarily  kept  until  in  prime  condition  for  final  ship- 
ment, or  for  advantageous  markets. 

It  will  thus  be  seen  that  it  is  vevy  difficult  to  make  any  close  estimate 
of  the  number  of  cattle  which  the  reserve  annually  supports. 

^lany  sheep  are  kept  on  South  Park  or  ai"e  bi-ought  there  to  be 
finally  fattened  before  marketing.  During  the  summer  some  thou- 
sands of  them  are  pastured  above  timber  line  on  Mount  Bross,  Mos- 
quito Mountain,  and  other  mountains  lying  west  of  the  reserve,  across 
which  they  are  driven  in  order  to  reach  the  gi'azing  ground.  Little 
of  this  sheep  pasturage  lies  within  the  present  boundaries  of  the  reserve. 
The  sheep  are  usually  in  charge  of  herders  who  temporarily  live  in 
cabms  near  the  timber  line. 

The  pasturing  of  sheep  as  here  practiced  is  an  injury  to  the  sources 
of  the  small  streams  and  incidentalh'  to  the  struggling  young  trees 


102  FOREST    RESERVES. 

near  timber  line.  The  vegetation  of  the  high  mountain  slopes 
becomes  badly  trampled  and  cut  up  by  hoofs,  as  well  as  reduced  l\v 
excessive  grazing;  and  in  the  hollows  or  ravines,  where  the  streams 
originate  or  take  definite  form,  the  protective  covering  of  low  shrubs, 
which  are  chiefly  willows,  become  A-ery  much  injui'ed  or  totally 
destroyed  by  trampling  and  browsing,  leaving  the  ground  1)are  and 
exposed,  and  liable  to  be  washed  away  by  any  heavy  rain. 

In  regard  to  the  pasturage  afforded  for  cattle  on  those  parts  of  the 
reserve  principally  used  for  grazing  purposes,  it  seems  to  be  the 
unanimous  opinion  of  the  earlier  settlers  that  there  has  been  a  veiy 
decided  reduction  of  the  grazing  value  of  the  land  as  compared  with 
its  condition  when  first  used  for  this  purpose.  The  chief  reason  is 
obvious  to  these  ranchmen,  who  admit  that  there  has  been  over- 
pasturage,  too  many  cattle  on  the  same  ground  year  after  year 
trampling  it,  especially  near  water,  so  as  to  expose  the  roots  of  the 
grasses,  keeping  the  latter  as  closely  cropped  as  though  devoured  by 
grasshoppers,  and  preventing  any  possibilit}'  of  production  of  seed 
for  regeneration.  Unusually  dry  seasons  have  also  helped  to  reduce 
the  grazing  power  of  the  laud,  droughts  being  so  serious  that  it  is 
claimed  to  have  caused  the  death  of  mature  yellow  pines. 

The  estimated  area  given  as  now  necessary  to  support  each  animal, 
steer,  or  cow  on  these  lands  varied  from  15  to  40  or  more  acres, 
which  may  give  some  idea  of  the  scanty  forage  afforded  on  a  good 
deal  of  the  territorv  under  consideration. 


Throughout  a  large  part  of  the  South  Platte  Reserve  more  or  less 
prospecting  has  been  done,  much  is  still  prosecuted,  and  recently 
several  small  new  mining  camps  have  been  established.  The  largest  of 
these  is  Puma  City  (Tarryall  post-office)  south  of  Tari-yall  Creek, 
10  or  12  miles  from  its  outlet  into  the  South  Platte.  "When  visited 
during  the  past  summer  the  "boom"  in  this  camp  had  passed,  and 
a  large  proportion  of  the  liuildings  were  vacant.  It  was  claimed, 
however,  that  good  ore  had  been  found  and  only  capital  was  wanted 
to  develop  gold  mines  and  make  Puma  City  a  thriving  place.  Since 
the  past  summer  (1898)  rich  strikes  and  a  new  rush  of  gold-seekers  to 
this  place  has  been  reported,  but  whether  or  not  there  is  really  cause 
for  excitement  has  not  been  settled. 

Smaller  camps  are  Gold  City  and  Jasper,  both  also  south  of  Tarryall 
Creek,  but  nearer  the  South  Platte  River  than  Puma  City.  ]\Iore  or 
less  prospecting  is  done  by  most  of  the  ranchmen  living  on  or  about 
the  reserves,  as  well  as  by  persons  who  give  all  their  time  to  it.  As 
yet  little  has  been  done  in  the  northern  part  of  the  main  body  of  the 
reserve,  in  the  region  lying  north  of  the  Tarryall  Mountains,  although 


■H4i«i£^s£^tiM:^^ 

W 

.1.   GOLD   CITY,    ABOUT  7    MILES    NORTHWEST   OF    FLORISSANT,    LOOKING   WEST. 


;;    ABANDONED   SAWMILL  SITE  ON   JEFFERSON    CREE 


JACK.]  SOUTH   PLATTE    RESERVE.  103 

the  northeastern  portion,  between  Craig  Creek  and  the  South  Platte, 
has  been  more  carefully  examined. 

On  the  extreme  western  arm  or  branch  of  the  reserve  lying  west  of 
South  Park  there  is  considerable  activity  in  mining,  both  for  gold  and 
silver.  The  reserve  limits  are  here  so  narrow  in  part  that  most  of 
the  actual  mining  ground  lies  to  the  west  of  the  present  boundaries. 

Mount  Bross,  Moimt  Lincoln,  Mount  Buckskin,  Mosquito  Mountain, 
Horseshoe  Mountain,  and  other  peaks,  which  geographically  should 
be  included  within  the  reserve,  are  all  situated  outside  of  it.  On  all 
of  these  acti\e  prospecting  and  some  profitable  mining  is  conducted. 

The  comparatively  old  town  of  Alma  lies  just  within  the  reserve 
lines  and  is  an  important  outfitting  post  for  miners  in  the  adjacent 
mountains,  and  flourishes  or  loses  its  importance  with  the  rise  or  fall 
of  mining-  development  in  the  country  aliout  it. 

The  mining  camp  of  Park  City,  a  few  miles  west  of  Alma,  also  lies 
just  on  the  reserve  borders.  It  has  been  partially  abaudonetl  for  more 
promising  localities. 

Some  other  old  but  small  camps,  such  as  East  Lead^^lle  and  Sacra- 
mento, situated  within  the  reserve  limits,  have  been  nearl}^  abandoned 
for  more  promising  localities  mostly  lying  outside  the  reservation 
boundaries.  East  Leadville  has  been  supplanted  by  the  camp  known 
as  Leavick  or  Horseshoe,  situated  farther  up  Horseshoe  Gulch,  at  the 
edge  of  the  reserve  and  near  the  base  of  Horseshoe  Mountain,  where 
there  is  active  and  profitable  gold  and  silver  mining.  Farther  south, 
within  the  reserve  limits,  on  Weston  Pass,  there  is  some  mining, 
although  it  is  necessary  to  haul  the  ore  many  miles  to  mills  for 
treatment. 

Few  of  the  operated  mines  possess  proper  mills  or  smelters  of  their 
own  or  in  close  vicinitj',  and  usually  the  ore  is  shipped  to  some  dis- 
tance, as  to  Leadville,  Colorado  Springs,  Buena  Vista,  and  other  places, 
to  be  ti'eated  in  large  establishments.  A  smelter  at  Alma  and  another 
within  2  or  3  miles  of  that  place  have  not  been  working  recently. 

From  most  parts  of  the  reserve  the  ore  is  either  hauled  by  wagon 
to  the  nearest  railroad  or  smelter,  or  it  is  bi'ought  out  over  trails 
on  the  backs  of  burros  or  donkej's,  locally  known  as  "jackies."  By 
the  aid  of  these  patient  and  enduring  animals  the  miner  without  much 
capital  is  able  to  bring  ore  over  narrow  trails  from  places  which  would 
be  otherwise  inaccessible  without  the  expenditure  of  considerable 
money  in  the  making  of  roads  or  the  erection  of  costly  machinery. 

At  the  London  mine,  at  about  12,000  feet  altitude,  on  Mosquito 
Pass,  and  at  the  mines  at  the  head  of  Horseshoe  Gulch,  both  outside 
the  present  limits  of  the  reserve,  the  ore  is  brought  from  high- slopes, 
diflicult  of  access,  to  the  mill  or  cars  in  ])uckets  suspended  on  endless 
wire  rope  or  cables,  no  other  power  than  the  natural  gravity  of  the 
laden  buckets  being  required. 


104  FOREST    RESERVES. 

In  some  places  wagon  roads  for  haiilincr  ore  have  l)eeii  constriu'ted 
at  considerable  cost  to  the  promoters. 

There  is  very  little  placer  mining  prosecuted  within  the  I'eserve 
limits,  the  most  extensive  workings  being  those  near  Alma  and  on 
Tarryall  Creek,  above  Como.  During  several  mouths  in  some  years 
these  placers  can  not  be  worked  on  account  of  lack  of  water.  Recently 
those  near  Alma  have  been  idle  on  account  of  litigation,  a  too  common 
hindrance  to  the  development  of  mines  and  other  industries  in  this 
part  of  the  countrv. 

Thei'e  seems  to  be  no  doubt  as  to  the  permanent  richness  of  the 
mines  in  the  mountain  range  to  the  west  of  South  Park,  and  the 
industry  is  likely  to  increase. 

Protitable  mining  in  the  main  body  of  the  reserve  east  of  South 
Park  has  not  yet  been  proved  a  permanent  and  paying  business,  but 
there  are  indications  that  really  good  mines  may  yet  be  opened  there. 

LUMBERING. 

Ever  since  this  part  of  the  country  was  first  settled  l>y  ranchmen, 
about  forty  vears  ago,  the  business  of  cutting  lumber  from  the  terri- 
tory now  included  within  the  boundaries  of  the  reserve  has  been  unre- 
mittingly prosecuted,  although  during  the  earlier  years  most  of  the 
timber  cut  was  for  strictly  local  use.  With  the  advent  of  railroads 
and  the  development  of  mining  the  shipping  of  lumber  became  import- 
ant, and  numerous  sawmills  have  been  almost  steadily  at  work  taking 
timber  from  private  or  public  lands,  legally  and  illegally.  Beginning 
with  the  supplies  available  nearest  to  market  or  shipping  station,  por- 
table sawmills  have  Ijeen  moved  graduall}'  to  the  farthest  and  least 
accessible  of  the  timbered  parts  of  the  mountains,  until  now  they  have 
reached  Lost  Park,  where  is  located  the  last  of  any  considerable  area 
of  timber  laud  which  has  not  had  the  best  picked  from  it  or  been 
totally  destroyed  by  lire. 

The  timber  nearest  the  South  Platte  River  and  for  several  miles 
back  from  this  stream  was  naturally  the  first  to  be  taken,  and  much 
of  this  easily  accessible  ground  has  been  gone  over  a  second  time  in 
the  search  for  sawmill  logs  or  for  the  few  railroad  ties  which  might 
be  found. 

Abandoned  sawmill  sites,  with  their  heaps  of  decaying  sawdust  and 
lumber  refuse,  are  plentiful  along  the  courses  of  the  numerous  small 
streams,  but  at  present  there  are  fewer  sawmills  in  active  operation 
than  were  to  be  found  on  this  reserve  several  years  ago.  This  is  iu 
part  due  to  exhaustion  of  supplies  in  certain  localities,  and  in  part  to 
the  energy  of  forest  rangers  appointed  by  the  Department  of  the  In- 
terior during  the  past  summer. 

During  the  past  autunm   there  were   only  four  or  five  mills  at  Avork 


I:    ENGELMANN   SPRUCE   UNTOUCHED    BY    AX   OR    FIRE,    NEAR   SAWMILL    IN    LOST    PARK. 
NORTH   SLOPE. 


Altitude  above  10,500  feet:   tiees  3  to  15  inches  in  < 


JACK.]  SOUTH    PLATTE    RESKRVE.  105 

in  the  entire  reserve.  The  largest  and  most  important  of  these  was 
found  located  in  Lost  Park,  in  the  midst  of  the  last  considerable 
body  of  unburned  and  uncut  forest  to  be  found  in  all  this  region. 
When  running  at  full  capacitj'  this  mill  could  cut  about  25,000  feet 
of  lumber  per  da}".  It  had  been  gradually  moved  from  location  to 
location  as  the  good  timber  was  cut  out,  a  ver}-  fair  lumber  road  being 
constructed  and  extended  as  necessities  arose  in  order  to  facilitate  the 
hauling  of  the  product  to  the  shipping  station  at  Estabrook. 

It  was  moved  to  the  present  site  in  the  spring  of  1893,  but  was  then 
run  for  a  feM'  months  only,  when  it  was  closed  and  not  reopened  until 
the  spring  of  1898.  Like  many  of  the  larger  mills  in  operation  in  this 
part  of  the  country,  this  one  was  outfitted  by  a  large  lumber  com- 
pany which  has  extensive  lumber  yards  at  Denver,  Colorado  Springs, 
and  other  points.  It  was  claimed  by  the  mill  operators  that  they  had 
title  to  two  sections  of  land,  upon  which  they  were  working. 

This  mill  is  located  beside  a  small  stream  in  one  of  the  open  "parks,"' 
at  an  altitude  of  about  10,000  feet.  The  hills  and  ridges  surrounding  it 
are  covered  with  timber  of  variable  quality,  according  to  exposure,  and 
composed  mainly  of  Engelmann  spruce,  here  known  as  white  spruce, 
which  is  almost  the  only  tree  used  for  lumber,  although  some  lodge- 
pole  pine  is  cut  and  mixed  with  it.  The  Engelmann  spruce  reaches  its 
best  development  on  cool  slopes  having  a  northerly  aspect;  on  southerly 
slopes  it  is  poorer  and  is  often  supplanted  by  Pinus  aristata,  which 
rarely  makes  good  saw  logs.  The  best  spruce  timber  here  is  not  veiy 
large,  trees  3  feet  in  diameter  at  the  stump  being  unconmion,  as 
has  already  been  stated.  Most  of  the  logs  obtained  and  sawed  are 
between  12  and  15  inches  in  diameter  at  the  small  end,  the  trees  pro- 
bably averaging  35  to  40  feet  in  length  of  log  used  after  stripping  off 
the  branches,  as  there  is  commoidy  a  very  short  clear  trunk,  or  practi- 
cally none. 

The  trees  are  felled  by  sawing  nearly  through  and  wedging  the 
sawed  side,  so  that  the  tree  falls  in  the  opposite  direction.  The 
branches  are  stripped  off  just  so  much  of  the  trunk  as  is  considered 
desii'able,  usually  up  to  about  a  foot  in  diameter  at  the  small  end. 
The  timber  is  cut  usually  into  lengths  of  12, 1-1,  or  16  feet,  the  heavier 
logs  usually  into  the  shorter  lengths.  Two  men  generally  work  to- 
gether in  felling  the  trees  and  cutting  the  logs,  although  sometimes 
the\-  are  assisted  by  a  "  trimmer,"  whose  chief  work  is  to  remove  the 
branches  from  the  logs. 

Single  horses  with  whippletree  and  chain  are  usually  employed  in 
hauling  the  logs  to  the  skids,  at  the  side  of  a  wagon  road,  where  they 
are  loaded  upon  wagons  and  taken  to  the  mill.  These  skidding 
horses  often  suffer  much  injury  to  their  feet  and  legs,  especially 
where  there  is  much  debris  from  tree  tops  and  branches,  and  on 


10(5  FOREST   KESERVKS. 

st(>ep  slopes  they  are  liable  to  be  injured  by  th(;  loj^s  wliirli  tlicy  are 
hauling. 

The  refuse  tree  tops  and  branches  are  left  to  decay  where  they  fall, 
furnishing  dry  fuel,  which  would  cause  very  destructive  burning  if 
tire  should  get  started. 

Seedlings  and  young  trees  are  ruthlesslj'  sacrificed  wherever  they 
appear  the  least  in  the  way  of  operations,  but  on  most  of  the  ground 
now  being  cut  over  a  fair  number  of  medium-sized  trees  remain  to 
shade  and  seed  the  ground  and  protect  the  new  growth,  although 
many  of  these  trees  now  left  or  rejected  are  liable  to  fall  when  visited 
a  second  time  by  the  lumberman  after  gleaning  the  best  from  a  first 
cutting,  or  ai'e  sure  to  be  taken  when  the  manufacturer  of  wood  pulp 
can  not  get  material  nearer  a  shipping  station. 

Like  most  of  the  movable  mills  in  this  part  of  the  country,  the  saw- 
mill in  Lost  Park  is  of  cheap,  rough  construction,  simply  an  open- 
framed  building  roofed  over.  One-fourth  of  the  timber  is  lost  in  saw- 
dust by  the  thick  circular  saw,  which  consumes  a  quarter  of  an  inch  in 
thickness  with  every  board  cut. 

The  sawed  lumber  costs  about  $3  per  1,000  feet  to  haul  to  Esta- 
brook,  the  nearest  shipping  station,  1-1  or  15  miles  distant,  where  it  is 
worth  111  or  |12  per  1,000  feet. 

Choppers  were  here  paid  fl  per  1,000  feet  (Scribner's  measure)  for 
cutting  logs  ready  for  the  mill.  The  lumbermen  roughlv  calculated 
that  li  or  1.5  logs  of  the  mixed  lengths  cut  (12,  1-i,  and  16  feet)  were 
required  to  produce  1,000  feet  of  lumbei'. 

Strong  efforts  were  being  made  to  have  the  operations  of  this  mill 
stopped,  and  at  last  accounts  they  were  at  least  temporarily  successful. 

A  sawmill  was  at  work  beside  a  small  creek  flowing  from  the  Platte 
River  Mountains  into  the  North  Branch  of  the  South  Platte,  near 
Chase.  Another  small  mill  was  located  near  Grant,  farther  up  the 
river,  but  on  the  north  or  luireserved  side  of  the  stream.  In  October 
the  mill  was  closed  and  the  proprietor  was  placed  under  arrest. 

Another  mill,  with  a  daih'  producing  capacity  of  about  10,000  feet 
of  lumber,  was  at  work  several  miles  south  of  Puma  City,  About 
•±50,000  feet  of  lumber  was  cut  from  ground  within  a  radius  of  2  or  3 
miles  from  the  sawmill.  At  the  end  of  October  this  mill  was  moved 
to  another  location  near  Signal  Butte,  outside  the  eastern  boundary  of 
the  reserve.  The  lumber  cut  in  all  this  comparatively  low  counti'v 
(8,000  to  9.000  feet  altitude)  is  yellow  pine  and  Douglas  spruce,  and 
occasionally  a  blue  spruce. 

It  is  here  considered  worth  while  locating  and  operating  a  portable 
steam  sawmill  if  500,000  feet  of  lumber  can  be  obtained  within  a  radius 
of  y  or  3  miles,  so  that  the  average  amount  of  lumber  obtained,  around 
some  locations  of  the  mills,  is  sometimes  under  100  feet  to  the  acre. 
A  mill  may  move  to  new  locations  several  times  in  the  course  of  a 


U.   S.   GEOLOGICA: 


A.   CHOPPERS    FOR   SAWMILL    IN    LOST    PARK   CUTTING    ENGELMANN   SPRUCE. 


B    HORSES   '   SKIDDING"   SAW    LOGS    IN    LOST    PARK 


LOl'T    PARK. 


,  Engelmann  spruce,  together  containing  over  1,000  feet  lumber;   largest  log  25  inches  in  diameter 
at  small  end.      Exceptionally  large  timber  for  this  region. 


7;.   VIEW    IN    LOST    PARK. 
Logs  among  refuse,  cut  and  ready  for  "  skidding"  out  to  luniber  road- 


JACK]  SOUTH    PLATTE    RESERVE.  107 

year,  and  during  the  last  twenty -five  years  much  of  the  ground  has 
had  two  or  three  visitations  from  lumbermen.  The  distance  for  haul- 
ing logs  depends  somewhat  upon  the  character  of  roads  and  the  prac- 
tice of  mill  managers,  some  preferring  frequent  moving  of  the  mill  to 
a  long  haul  of  the  logs. 

One  or  two  small  mills  were  at  work  near  the  reserve  boundaries 
south  of  Florissant. 

No  active  sawmills  were  found  in  the  western  arm  of  the  reserve 
west  of  South  Park,  but  three  or  four  were  located  close  to  the  bound- 
aries. One  of  these  was  on  the  western  slope  of  Breckenridge  Pass, 
another  east  of  Hoosier  Pass,  near  the  base  of  Mount  Silverheels,  and 
one  close  to  the  eastern  boundary  of  the  reserve  on  the  i-oad  through 
Horseshoe  Gulch  to  Leavick.  The  timber  cut  by  these  mills  was 
chiefly  Engelmann  spruce  and  lodgepole  pine. 

At  Mountaindale  was  seen  the  only  water-power  sawmill  in  any  of 
the  resei'ves.  Its  power  was  obtained  fi'om  Tarryall  Creek  and  its 
output  was  small,  as  it  is  operated  only  occasionally  in  order  to 
suppty  some  local  demands. 

A  great  many  railroad  ties  have  been  cut  and  removed  from  this 
reserve,  and  the  cutting  of  ties  is  still  carried  on,  although  the  business 
is  much  diminished  in  comparison  with  former  years.  Apparently 
few  ties  are  cut  by  regular  lumbermen  or  by  persons  having  tie  making 
for  their  sole  occupation,  such  cutting  as  is  now  carried  on  being 
done  chiefly  by  ranchmen,  squattei's,  or  prospectors.  The  work  is 
generally  incidental  to  some  other  undertaking,  and  it  is  almost  impos- 
sible to  obtain  any  very  definite  idea  of  the  somewhat  limited  number 
of  ties  now  annually  cut  within  the  reserves.  Douglas  spruce  is  prac- 
ticall}'  the  only  species  cut  for  this  purpose,  and  to  be  acceptable  to 
the  railroads  it  is  considered  essential  that  it  should  be  cut  in  autumn 
or  winter,  although  it  was  during  August  and  September  that  the  two 
or  three  cases  of  actual  tie  cutting  were  observed. 

The  cutting  of  Engelmann  spruce  for  manufacture  into  paper  is  a 
comparatively  recent  industry-  in  this  region,  but  is  one  likely  to  grow 
very  rapidly  and  to  the  great  damage  of  the  spruce  forest  unless 
restrictive  measui'es  are  enforced.  No  cutting  for  pulp  was  actually 
seen  within  the  reserve  lines,  although  some  was  reported;  but  in  two 
places,  close  to  the  boundary,  timber  cut  for  this  purpose  was  in  proc- 
ess of  removal  from  Government  land.  One  of  the  locations  was  in 
Halls  Valley,  2  or  3  miles  north  of  the  most  northerly  part  of  the 
reserve.  The  wood  is  cut  into  short  lengths  on  the  hills  and  sent 
down  timber  chutes  to  the  valley  below,  whence  it  is  hauled  to  Web- 
ster, a  small  station  on  the  Colorado  and  Southern  Railway,  and  there 
loaded  on  box  cars  and  shipped  to  Denver. 

Another  shipping  point  was  Leavick,  near  the  head  of  Horseshoe 
Gulch,  so  close  to  the  western  ))oundarv  of  the  reserve  that  it  was  a 


108  FOREST   RESERVES. 

disputed  matter  whether  or  not  the  work  came  within  the  reserve 
lines.  Sticks  of  any  size  down  to  4  inches  in  diameter  are  taken  here. 
The  logs  are  hauled  by  horses  down  the  slopes  to  a  small  steam  saw- 
mill, which  is  used  for  cutting- them  into  pieces  2  feet  long,  after  which 
they  are  loaded  on  Vrax  cars  for  shipment.  A  machine  for  stripping 
off  the  bark  before  shipment  was  on  the  ground,  but  had  not  been  set 
up  or  operated. 

In  the  northern  part  of  the  reserve,  north  and  west  of  the  Kenosha 
Twin  Cone  Mountains,  during  several  years  previous  to  1893,  a  large 
gang  of  men  were  employed  cutting  timber  for  manufacture  into  char- 
coal for  smelting  purposes.  Many  thousands  of  acres  were  cut  over, 
and  practically  all  of  the  lodgepole  pine  and  Engelmann  spruce  were 
taken  to  the  charcoal  kilns,  the  pine  being  the  principal  tree  of  this 
section.  Twenty-five  or  thirty  kilns  wei-e  operated,  part  of  them  being 
located  at  Webster,  others  near  Kenosha. 

The  timber  was  taken  from  public  lands  and  the  depredations  were 
stopped  only  bj'  the  establishment  of  the  reserve  in  1893.  The  kilns 
are  now  abandoned,  some  of  them  broken  and  fallen  to  decay,  others 
still  in  a  fail'  state  of  preservation. 

A  great  deal  of  apparenth'  needless  destruction  attended  this  cutting. 
Hundreds  of  thousands  of  small  lodgepole-pine  trees  were  cut  and  left 
on  the  ground,  so  as  to  not  only  destro_y  a  crop  already  partly  grown, 
but  to  invite  worse  damage  bj'  fire.  In  some  places  a  portion  of  the 
small  trees  was  left  standing,  in  others  they  are  gradualh^  coming  in 
to  re-cover  the  ground. 

Destructive  to  forest  as  the  cutter  for  wood  pulp  may  be,  he  is  out- 
classed by  the  manufacturer  of  charcoal  from  wood. 

Some  timber  is  cut  and  used  locally  in  mines  and  a  small  amount  of 
dead  and  dry  material  is  collected  and  sold. 

SUGGESTIONS  AS  TO  BOUNDARIES. 

As  they  are  at  present  drawn  the  boundaries  of  parts  of  the  reserve 
are  far  from  satisfactory,  especially  considering  the  objects  of  con- 
servation of  timber  and  water  supplies.  The  irregular  artificial 
boundary  lines  of  certain  parts  are  little  known  or  respected,  although 
natural  boundary  lines,  like  the  South  Platte  River,  are  too  obvious 
to  admit  of  any  excuse  for  trespassing. 

On  account  of  the  irregularity  and  narrowness  of  much  of  the 
western  arm  of  the  reserve,  west  of  South  Park,  the  timber  of  almost 
any  part  is  easily  removed  by  persons  outside  of  the  reservation  while 
the  reserve  lines  are  in  dispute.  For  the  purpose  of  water  conserva- 
tion the  reserve  is  of  comparatively  little  value.  It  is  unfortunate  that 
the  entire  eastern  watershed  of  the  Park  Range  of  mountains  is  not 
included  within  the  reserve,  and  indeed  it  would  have  been  advanta- 


A     VIEW    NORTH    OF    LOST    PARK   CREEK    4  OR   5    MILES    FROM    ITS    MOUTh 


B    VIEW   AT   PUMA   CITY,    LOOKING   WEST. 
Yellow  pine  and  remnants  after  cutting. 


KILNS   AT    WEBSTEK     I^KONI     VIEW. 
Openings  are  for  filling  /^ith  wood 


/;    CHARCOAL    KILNS   AT   WEBSTER,    BACK   VIEW. 
Openings  are  for  taking  out  charcoal. 


JACK.]  SOUTH   PLATTE    KESERVE.  109 

geous  if  much  of  the  western  slope  had  been  taken  in,  as  here  are 
important  feeders  of  the  Arkansas  River,  and  also  of  the  Blue  River, 
which  flows  into  the  Grand.  It  is  true  that  the  perpetual  snow  banks 
on  the  sides  of  these  high  unreserved  peaks  an;  likely  to  furnish  a 
certain  amount  of  water  during  the  summer,  independent  of  forest 
conditions  on  the  lower  slopes,  but  the  presei'vation  of  the  forest 
would  be  certain  to  add  to  the  flow  of  water  and  to  distribute  it  more 
evenly  in  the  early  part  of  the  summer,  when  the  snows  of  the  lower 
slopes  are  melting. 

The  main  body  of  the  reserve  would  be  better  and  more  simply 
inclosed  by  making  the  South  Piatte  River  the  boundary  along  the 
entire  eastern  and  southern  sides,  leaving  out  the  territory  on  the 
south  side  of  the  stream.  This  ground  is  not  mountainous,  and  is  not 
of  much  value  as  a  source  of  water  supply.  It  is  true  that  it  has  fur- 
nished and  may  furnish  some  timber,  but  in  this  respect,  and  also  for 
its  small  streams,  it  is  not  so  valuable  as  a  large  portion  of  the  unre- 
served territory  lying  north  of  Florissant  and  Hayden  Park,  bounded 
on  the  east,  north,  and  west,  respectively,  by  the  Pikes  Peak,  Plum 
Creek,  and  South  Platte  reserves.  Much  of  this  area,  especially  on 
the  western  side,  might  well  have  been  included  within  reservation 
lines  in  order  to  preserve  valuable  timber  upon  it  and  to  protect  the 
small  tributaries  of  West  Creek  and  the  South  Platte  River. 

There  is  nnich  territory  of  an  open  and  almost  useless  character 
lying  east  of  the  Puma  Hills  and  south  of  Tarryall  Creek,  but  as  it 
could  not  very  well  be  separated  and  may  in  time  become  better  tim- 
bered, it  is  probably  best  to  continue  it  as  an  integral  part  of  the 
reserve,  unless,  indeed,  it  should  ever  be  found  advisable  to  eliminate 
from  the  reserve  altogether  all  of  the  region  lying  south  of  Tarryall 
Creek,  this  region  being  of  much  less  value  for  water  conservation 
than  the  higher  mountain  region  north  of  the  creek. 

West  of  the  Puma  Hills  and  the  Tai'rvall  Mountains  and  east  of  South 
Park  there  are  included  within  the  reserve  limits  considerable  areas  of 
open,  level,  or  but  slightly  timbered  and  rolling  land,  which  is  much 
used  for  grazing  purposes.  As  this  land  is  of  little  use  for  the  pur- 
poses for  which  the  reserves  were  established,  it  would  seem  the  best 
policy  to  relocate  the  boundaries  so  that  such  areas  would  not  come 
within  the  rules  governing  the  reservation. 

TREES  AND  SHRUBS  OBSERVED  IK  THE  PIKES  PEAK, 
PLt  M  CREEK,  AND  SOUTH  PliATTE  RESERVES,  AUGUST, 
SEPTE3IBER,  AND  OCTOBER,  1S9S. 

The  following  list  of  trees  and  shrubs  is  undoubtedly  incomplete, 
but  there  are  probably  very  few  more  species  to  be  found  within  the 
limits  under  consideration.  The  list  will  serve  to  show  the  paucity 
of  the  ligneous  flora  of  the  region  examined,  embi'acing  over  2,000 


110  FORKST    KKSEKVKS. 

square  niile.s   in  area   and   varying  in  altitude  from  under   6,000  to 
o^•el•  14,000  feet.     The  list  is  given  alphabetically  according  to  genera. 

Abies  concolor  (Gord.)  Parry.     (Silver  fir,  white  fir.) 

Not  abundant.     Alonj;  streams  or  f-anyons  np  to  8,000  or  9,000  fuet. 

Abies  lasiocarpa  (Hook.)     Nutt.     (^1.  tmhaljunti  Engelm.)     (Alpine  fir 
or  balsam  spruce.) 
•  trows  with  Engelmann  spruce  up  to  timber  line.     Plentiful  in  few  loralities. 

Acer  glabrum  Torr.     (Maple.) 

Common  along  creeks  anfl  on  many  mountain  slopes,  from  6,000  to  10,000  feet 
altitude.     A  large  shrub,  never  arborescent,  not  growing  above  20  feet  high. 

Acer  negundo  Linn.     (See  Negundo  aceroides.) 
Alnus  tenuifolia  Nutt.     (Alder.) 

A  large  shrub  or  small  tree,  near  streams. 
Amelanchier  alnifolia  Nutt.     (Juneberry.) 

Occasional:  from  6,000  to  10,000  feet  altitude. 
Ampelopsis  quinquefolia  Michx. 

Local,  near  streams;  6,000  to  7,000  feet  altitude. 
Arceuthobium.     (See  Easoumofskya.) 

Arctostaphylos  uva-ursi  Spreng.     (Bearberry.) 

Common  on  mountain  slopes,  on  coarse  granite  soils,  and  prevents  washing. 

Artemisia  tridentata  Nutt.     (Sagebru.sh.) 

In  western  part  of  the  South  Platte  Reserve,  with  other  Arlemima. 

Berberis  repens  Lindl. 

Common  in  some  localities  and  on  south  slopes  up  to  9,000  feet  altitude.     Springs 
up  freely  from  the  roots  after  a  fire  has  passed  over  the  ground. 

Betula  occidentalis  Hook.     (Birch,  black  birch.) 

Along  streams,  up  to  10,  .500  feet  altitude  or  more.     A  tall  shrub,  with  numerous 
stems.     Never  truly  arborescent,  although  sometimes  15  or  20  feet  liigh. 

Betula  glandulosa  Michx. 

Along  streams  and  in  wet  places  at  high  altitudes.     A  small  shrul.i. 

Bigelovia. 

There  are  several  species  of  small  shrubby  Bigeloma  in  this  region. 

Ceanothus  fendleri  Gray. 

(Observed  in  Pikes  Peak  and  Plum  Creek  reserves  up  to  9,000  feet  altitude. 

Ceanothus  ovatus  Desf. 

About  same  range  as  C.  fendleri. 

Ceanothus  velutinus  Dougl. 

Eastern  side  of  Plum  Creek  Reserve,  7,000  to  7,500  feet  altitude. 


.    GEOLOGICAL  SURvE 


A.  VIEW    ON    FISH    CREEK.    5   OR   6    MiLES   iOjrn/.'EST   OF    F  LuRISSAi.  T,    LOOMNG    EAST. 


B    VIEW    LOOKING    WEST  TO    PUMA    HILLS,    ALONG    ROUTE   BETWEEN    PUMA   CITY    AND 
LAKE   GEORGE, 

Timber  on  hills  much  burnt- 


JACK.J         TREES  AND  SHRUBS    IN  CENTRAL  COLORADO  RESERVES.    Ill 

Celtis  occidentalis  Linn.     (Hackberry.) 

Karc,  iiiily  ^■e^.'n  on  lower  eastern  slope  of  Plum  Creek  Reserve.     Small,  scrubby. 

Cercocarpus  parvifolius  Nutt.     (Mountain  mahogany,  Buffalo  bush.) 
OtXen  loL-ally  uljundant  on  coarse,  granite,  soils,  at  altitudes  from  6,000  to  9,000 
feet.     Usually  an  upright  bush  7  or  8  feet  high,  but  never  arborescent. 
When  burned,  new  shoots  spring  from  the  stumps. 

Clematis  ligusticifolia  Nutt. 

Frequent  ahiiig  rrefks  under  .S,000  feet  altitude. 
Clematis  verticillaris  De  C. 

(Occasional,  up  to  10,500  feet  altitude. 
Cornus  stolonifera  Michx.     (Red-stemmed  cornel  or  dogwood.) 

Occasional,  along  streams. 
Corylus  rostrata  Ait.     (Hazelnut.) 

(Occasional,  on  lower  slopes  of  mountains. 
Crataegus  rivularis  Nutt.     (Hawthorn.) 

This  species  was  found  near  Grant,  on  the  North  Branch  of  the  South  Platte 
River,  and  along  the  South  Platte  near  the  junction  with  West  Creek.  It  is 
apparently  rare  and  local  in  these  reserves. 

Cratsegus  sp. 

A  thorn  bearing  some  resemblance  to  but  apparently  distinct  from  C.  maeraeaniha 
was  noticed  in  the  South  Platte  Reserve  on  Buffalo  Creek,  2  or  3  miles  from 
its  mouth.  It  was  hardly  arborescent,  although  there  were  large,  vigorous- 
stemmed  plants,  8  or  10  feet  high,  accompanied  by  many  suckers.  Late 
spring  frosts  had  destroyed  blossoms  so  that  no  fruit  was  produced  this 
season. 

Dryas  octopetala  L. 

Low  creeping  .^hvub,  above  timber  line,  11,500  to  12,500  feet  altitude. 

Gaultheria  myrsinites  Hook.     (Wintergreeu.) 

I'lentifnl  in  sonic  loralities. 

Holodiscus  discolor  Ma.xim. 

( 'oninion  on  coarse  poor  soils  and  rocks  up  to  10,000  feet  altitude  or  more. 
Jamesia  americana  Torr.  and  Gray. 

Common  on  rocks  and  coarse  granite  soil  up  to  9,000  or  10,000  feet  altitude. 
Juniperus  nana  Willd.     (Connnon  juniper.) 

Occasional;  never  abundant.     X  low  spreading  shrub. 
Jtmiperus  monosperma  (Engelm.)  Sarg.     (Cedar,  red  cedar.) 

Observed  only  along  eastern  edge  of  Pikes  Peak  and  Plum  Creek  reserves, 
under  7,000  feet  altitude. 

Juniperus  scopulorum  Sarg.    (Red  cedar;  locally  also  called  white  cedar.) 

ilore  generally  distributed  through  the  reserves  and  growing  at  a  much  higher 
altitude  than  /.  monosperma,  reaching  at  least  9,500  or  10,000  feet. 


112  KUKEST    RKSERVES. 

Lepargyraea  canadensis  (L.)  Crreciic   (Slu-j/herdia   canadensis,   Xutt.). 
(Buttalo  berry.) 

Loi-al  U|i  to  10,")()0  feet  ultitiuii;  or  more. 

Lonicera  involucrata  Bank.s. 

Occa.'^idiuil,  e.«pc'cially  near  stream^',  reaching  to  lO.-'iOl)  t'eet  altitude  or  more. 

Negundo    aceroides  Mooiicli    {Acer  lu/gundo  Liiiii).     (Box    (>ldpr.  iish- 
leuved  maple.) 

Seen  only  along  South  Platte  Kiver  in  northeai^t  part  of  I'linu  Creek  Reserve, 
below  6.000  feet  altitude. 

Pachystima  myrsinites  Kaf. 

Observed  only  on  west  slope  from  BreekenridKe  J^ass,  and  not  actually  within 
reserve  limits. 

Physocarpus  torreyi  Maxim. 

Common  on  ilisintegrated  granite  soils  well  up  mountain  slopes. 
Picea  engelmanni  Engelm.     (Engelmaun  .spruce,  white  spruce.) 

The  prevailing  tree  at  high  altitudes  to  timber  line. 
Picea  parryana  (Audre)  Parry  {P.jjunc/ens  Engelm.).     (Blue  spruce.) 

Along  creeks  and  gulches  along  the  lowerparts  of  the  mountains  and  on  some  of 
the  "  parks,"  up  to  10,000  feet  altitude. 

Pinus  ednlis  Engelm.     (Piiion,  pifion  pine,  nut  pine.) 

Occurs  only  within  the  Pikes  Peak  Reserve  north  of  Maniton. 
Pinus  flexilis  James.     (Limber  pine,  white  pine,  "sugar"  pine.) 

( ienerally  scattered  through  the  reserves  and  reaching  to  timber  line.  Rarely 
abundant  at  any  place. 

Pinus  aristata  Engelm.     (Range  pine,  also  miscalled  "pinon  pine.") 
Abundant  on  south  slopes  of  mountains  and  reaching  to  timber  line.     Also  scat- 
tered to  the  base  of  the  mountains  and  on  hills  or  "buttes." 

Pinus  ponderosa  scopulorum  Engelm.     (Yellow  pine,  bull  pine.) 

The  prevailing  timber  tree  up  to  10,000  feet  altitude.  Showing  a  great  deal  of 
variation  and  hardly  considered  distinguishable  from  the  typical  P.  ponderosa 
Lawson,  although  the  variety  scojmlorum  is  considered  distinct  by  some  bot- 
anists and  is  the  tree  found  in  this  region. 

Pinus  murrayana  Engelm.     (Lodgepole  pine,  white  pine.) 

Abundant  in  many  regions,  either  growing  with  Engelmann  spruce  and  other 
trees  or  forming  close  pure  forest  of  this  species  alone. 

Populus  acuminata  Rydb.     (Cottonwood.) 

Only  a  few  trees  seen,  near  Manitou  and  Colorado  Springs. 
Populus  angustifolia  James.     (Narrow-leaved  cottonwood.) 

The  most  common  cottonwood  or  poplar  along  streams  in  this  region. 
Populus  balsamifera  Linn.     (Balm  of  Gilead,  balsam  poplar,  cotton- 
wood.) 

Frequent  along  streams;  foimd  at  altitu<Ies  of  10,.i00  feet  or  higher. 


TACK.l      TREES  AND  SHRUBS  IN  CENTRAL  COLORADO  RESERVES.        113 

Populus   deltoides   ^Nlarsh  {P.   wonllifera  Ait.).     (Cottonwood.    l>ro:id- 
leaved  cottoawood.) 

The  tree  most  commonly  planted  for  shatle  at  places  along  the  eastern  base  of 
the  mountains  below  7,000  feet  altitude.     Not  found  in  the  mountains. 

Populus  tremuloides  Michx.     (Quaking  aspen  or  quaking  asp,  aspen.) 
Abundant  almost  everywhere,  especially  after  forest  fires.     Tsually  small,  but 
in  moist,  sheltered  canyons  or  gulches  sometimes  attaining  60  feet  in  height 
and  a  trunk  diameter  of  a  foot  or  more.     Occasionally  reaches  to  11,000  feet 
altitude. 

Potentilla  frutieosa  Linn. 

This  is  probably  the  most  generally  distributed  shnili  in  the  reser^'es.  Observed 
at  different  altitudes  from  6,000  to  12,500  feet  arid  possibly  higher.  Often 
very  abundant  on  open  "parks"  used  for  grazing. 

Prunus  americana  ^Nlarsh.     (Wild  plum.) 

Local,  along  creeks  on  eastern  side  of  Plum  Creek  Reserve,  under  7,000  feet  alti- 
tude. A  shrub  or  small  tree  10  to  12  feet  high.  The  fruit  is  valued  for 
culinary  purposes. 

Prunus  pennsylvanica  Linn.     (Bii'd  cherry.) 

Common  in  many  places  from  6,000  to  10,000  or  higher  altitude.  Always  very 
small,  never  arborescent.  Springs  up  freely  from  roots  af*er  fire.  Possibly 
a  distinct  variety  or  species  from  the  eastern  type. 

Prunus  virginiana  Linn.     (Chokecherry.) 

Frequent,  especially  along  creeks,  sometimes  on  rocky  mountain  slopes,  t  snally 
6,000  to  8,500  feet  altitude. 

Pseudotsuga  taxifolia  (Lam.)  Britton    {P.  doiu/Jaiiii.  Carr).     (Douglas 
.spruce,  red  spruce.) 
Abundant,  with  yellow  pine  up  to  10,000  feet  or  higher  altitude.) 
Pyrus  sambueifolia  Cham.  &  Schlect.     (Mountain  asL.) 

Rather  rare  and  local. 
ftuercus  gambelii  Nutt.     (Oak.  scruli  oiik.) 

Usually  growing  to  7  or  8  feet  in  height,  forming  thickets.  Rarely  tree-like  or 
20  feet  high. 

Razoumofskya  americana  (Nutt.)   Kuntze  iArciuflinhiimi   americanuni 
Nutt.). 
Parasitic  on  lodgepole  pine;  plentiful  in  .some  localities  and  causing  considerable 
injury  to  the  growing  trees. 

Razoumofskya  douglasii    (Engelni.)   Kuntze    {Arc>-iithohium    dmigJasii 
Eugelm.). 
Parasitic  on  Douglas  spruce;  local. 
Razoumofskya   robusta    (Engelni.)    Kuntze    {Arceutliohvum    rohutiftmi 
Enocliii.). 
Parasitic  on  yellow  pine   (/'.  jioitdcrtixti) .      Abundant    in   many  localities  and 
sometimes  causing  nmch  injury. 
20  GEOL,  PT  5 S 


114  FOHEST    KKSKKVES. 

Rhus  glabra  T/mii.     (Sniootli  sumac.) 

(Iccasi.iiial,  at  li>\v  altitudes.     Springs  up  a>.'ain  after  liri'. 
Rhus  toxicodendron  Linn.      (Poison  siuiiiic,  ])oisoii  "ixv.") 

Occasiciiial;  dwarf,  nrvi'V  rlimliiiii;;   fiuiiid  mily  at  li  i\v  altitudes. 

Rhus  trilobata  Nutt. 

A  coninion  spreading  busli  in  many  jilaces  from  (5,000  to  8,000  feet  altitmic. 

Ribes  aureum  Piireh.     (Mi.ssonri  currant,  Imffalo  currant.) 
ITncommoii  an<l  loeal,  along  streams  at  lower  levels. 

Ribes  cereum  Dougl. 

Common  on  rocks  and  poor  granite  soils,  on  mountain  slopes  uj)  tii  above  10,000 
feet  altitude. 

Ribes  lacustre  Poir.  v;ir.  parvulum  (rrtiv. 

Freijuent,  especially  at  high  altitudes,  reaching  to  12,000  feet  or  more. 

Ribes  leptanthum  Gray. 

Occasional. 

Ribes  oxyacanthoides  Linn.     (Gooseberry.) 

Along  streams  up  to  9,000  feet  altitude  or  more.  Fruit  edible;  value<l  for 
culinary  purposes. 

Robinia  neomexicana  Gray. 

Naturalized  at  !Manitou  from  another  part  of  the  8tate.  iS'ot  within  the  reserve 
boundary. 

Rosa  arkansana  Porter. 

Rosa  engelmanni  Watson. 

Rosa  woodsii  Liudl. 

The  roses  showed  great  variability,  and  other  species  may  occur.  Typical  R. 
engelmanni  occurs  on  the  Cheyenne  Mountain  wagon  road,  between  Colorado 
Springs  and  Cripple  Creek. 

Rubus  deliciosus  Jame.s.     (Flowering  raspberry.) 

Common,  usually  with  PJii/socarinis,  Holodiscu.'i,  etc. 

Rubus  strigosus  Michx.     (Red  raspberry.) 

Common  in  localities,  but  not  so  abundant  as  is  generally  supposed.  Plentiful 
in  a  few  burned  districts  and  along  some  roadsides.  Always  dwarf,  rarely 
more  than  18  inches  higlt. 

Rubus  americanus  (Pers.)  Bi'itton  (/?.  fr/ff-ari's  Richardson). 

Uncommon;  in  moist  places. 

Salix  bebbiana  Sarg.     {S.  rostnitd,  Richardson.) 

Occasional. 

Salix  cordata  Muhl. 

Frequent  along  streams. 


lACK]      TREES  AND  SHRUBS  IN  CENTRAL  COLORADO  RESERVES.        115 

Salix  desertorum  Richardson,  viir. '. 

Aliumlant  almigcold  mountain  streams  or  on  wet  mountain  mea<iows  or  "parks" 
reaching  12,000  feet  altitude. 

Salix  flavescens  Nutt. 
Salix  irrorata  Anders. 

A   liandsome  willow  found  along  streams  uj)  to  10,.500  feet  altitude  or   more. 
Grows  S  to  10  feet  high. 

Salix  lasiandra  Benth. 

!Mueh  resembling  Salix  hichht  of  the  east. 
Salix  longifolia  Muhl. 

Noticed  only  along  streams  below  S,000  feet  altitude. 
Salix  monticola  Beblt. 

Occasional. 
Salix  novae-Anglise  Anders. 

Ciinnnon  along  streams  at  liigli  altitudes. 
Salix  phylicifolia  {S.  chlorophylla,  XivXi'Vs.). 

Xear  streams  at  high  altitudes. 
Salix  reticulata  Linn. 

A  creeping,  very  small  willow,  growing  on  exposed  slopes  above  tiuiber  Hne. 
Sanibucus  racemosa  Linn.     (Red-berried  elder.) 

Occasional  on  mountain  slopes  up  to  10,500  feet  or  more.     Usually  dwarf,  and 
less  woody  stems  than  eastern  form. 

Symphoricarpos  occidentalis  Hook. 

(_)ccasiiinally  al)undaiit,  especially  near  streams. 
Symphoricarpos  pauciflorus  (Robbins)  Britten.     (Snowberry.) 

Plentiful  in  a  few  localities. 
Symphoricarpos  oreophilus  (.iray. 

Occasional. 
Vaccinium  myrtillus  Linn,  var.  microphyllum.     (Whortleberry.) 

Abundant  in  some  localities,  but  not  generally  distriljuted.     Dwarf,  rarely  more 
than  3  or  4  inches  high. 

Vitis  vulpina  Linn.     (V.  /-//jarw,  Michx.)     (Wild  grape. ) 

Very  local  along  creeks  on  eastern  borders  of  Plum  Creek  Reserve  at  about  (>,000 
feet  altitude. 


r^ 


us.  GEOLOGICAL  SURVEY 


WENTIETH    ANNUAL    REPORT    PART   V     PL.VIU 


U.S.  GEOLOGICAL  SURVEY 


TWENTIETH    ANNUAL    REPORT    PART   V     PL.   IX 


U.S.  GEOLOGICAL  SURVEY 


TWENTIETH    ANNUAL    REPORT    PART    V     PL  .    X 


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PIKES  PEAK,PLUM  CREEK  AND  SOUTH  PLATTE 

1^^ () HE  S T  RE  S E  RVE  S 


Showing'  burned  ai'eas 

BY.  JO  UN  G..JACK 
1898 
Scale 


LEGEND 

■ITMMKR  SHOWING  \T.RY  UTnJC  OB  NO  TRACE  OF  DAMACJK  BY  T'lHES 
MUCH  UrHNKO  OVEH  ITi' OLD  OR  RKCKNT  KIRJ5S 
BADLY   nUHJJKn 


O         MININfJ  OH  PUO.SPECTINU  TOWNS 
+  SMAI.I.  CAMPS,  STATIONS  OR  L.AUGEH  RANCHES 
*          SAWMriJ.S 
pniNClPALLY   I'SKD  WAGON  OR  LtlMBKR  ROADS  (OTHER  LUM  BER  ROADS  AND  TRAILS  ARE  ABUNDAUT) 

NoierUiicoloi'ed  areas  within  i-esei-si-  boundaj-ies  are  naturallv  treeless 


U.S.G 


MTARK     Y' 
.t, 


DEPARTMENT  OF  THE  INTERIOR-U.  S.  GEOLOGICAL  SURVEY 
ClIAKLKS    1).  M'ALCOTT,   DIUECTOI: 


T  il  E 


PRIEST  RIVER  FOREST  RESERVE 


.T()iix   ]-5.  T.i:n;i;K'( 


KXTKACT  FKOM  THK  XIXETEEXTir  AXXCAL  EEroKT  OF  THK  SlkVIV 
PAKT  V,  FOREST  KESEEVES—HEXET  OAXXETT.  CHIEJ'  ol' 
IlIVISIIIX  ciF  llEllrtKAI'HY   AXM  Fl  IIIKSTK  V 


NV  A  S  1 1  1  N  ( ;  'J'  O  X 

GOV  J-:  K  X  :\r  k  x  t    r  i;  i  x  'I'  i  x  ( ;    <i  v  r  t  <  y. 

l.S'.lll 


THE  PRIEST  RIVER  FOREST  RESERVE 


.Toiix   li.  i.kikkim; 


PRIEST  RIVER  FOREST  RESERVE. 


By  John  B.  Leibero. 


INTKODUCTIOI^. 

The  data  on  whicli  this  report  is  based  were  in  part  obtained  during 
several  preliminary  trips  along  the  eastern  and  southern  iiortions  of 
the  reserve  during  the  months  of  May  and  June,  and  in  part  during 
the  month  of  July  and  the  first  half  of  August,  1897,  when  the  reserve 
was  traversed  from  north  to  south  along  three  different  routes,  with 
frequent  crossings  from  east  to  west. 

In  a  region  so  difficult  of  traverse  as  the  Priest  River  Reserve,  and 
without  areal  surveys  to  guide  in  determining  superficial  contents  of 
the  several  tracts,  it  is  not  to  be  expected  that  every  small  subdivision 
has  been  examined  in  detail  in  the  brief  time  allotted  to  the  work,  nor 
that  the  average  estimate  is  absolutely  exact.  A  general  summary  of 
the  conditions  is  all  that  has  been  attempted.  It  is  believed,  however, 
that  all  estimates  are  conservative  and  approximately  correct.  An 
absolutely  accurate  account  can  not  be  had  until  the  entire  area  shall 
have  been  surveyed  and  subdivided,  and  each  quarter  section  suc- 
cessively examined — a  labor  that,  even  on  the  comparatively  small 
area  embraced  within  the  limits  of  the  reserve,  would  require  the  work 
of  several  seasons. 

TOPOGRAPHY. 

The  Priest  River  Forest  Reserve  as  at  present  delimited  consists  of 
the  drainage  basin  of  Priest  River,  a  stream  having  its  ultimate  head 
at  or  slightly  bej-ond  the  forty-ninth  parallel  and  flowing  in  a  southerly 
direction  to  a  junction  with  the  Pend  Oreille  River,  together  with  a 
small  area  in  the  immediate  valley  of  the  Pend  Oreille.  It  is  situated 
mainly  within  the  borders  of  the  State  of  Idaho,  in  Kootenai  County, 
a  small  portion  of  the  western  area  extending  beyond  into  the  State  of 
Washington. 

It  is  essentially  a  mountain  region,  the  flat  or  approximately  level 
tracts  probably  not  forming  more  than  12  to  U  per  cent  of  the  whole. 
In  elevation  it  varies  from  2,000  to  about  8,000  feet,  the  mean  being 
about  3,800  feet  above  sea  level. 

The  long  diameter  of  the  basin  is  from  south  to  north,  being  rather 
more  than  55  miles;  the  short  one,  from  east  to  west,  has  an  average 

217 


218  FOREST   RESERVES. 

■width  of  about  20  miles.  It.s  position  presents  a  broad  opening  toward 
the  south  and  southwest,  an  ideal  one  in  this  region  to  insure  a  heavy 
j'early  precipitation  over  the  entire  area,  and  as  a  result  a  dense 
forest  growth.  The  region  is  limited  on  the  east  and  west  by  two  north- 
south  mountain  ranges,  which  converge  at  their  northern  extremities 
and  form  the  head  of  the  basin,  but  recede  from  each  other  toward 
the  south.  The  eastern  range  is  here  named  the  Priest  Eiver  Range; 
the  western  one  the  Pend  Oreille  Range.  From  each  of  these  primary 
ranges  secondaries  project  far  into  the  basin,  and  by  repeated  subdi- 
vision nearly  fill  it  with  a  rugged  mass  of  spurs  and  ridges. 

The  Priest  River  Range  is  the  loftier.  Its  central  regions  are  the 
most  elevated;  the  sinuous  crest  line  of  the  backbone  maintains  an 
altitude  between  5,000  and  6,000  feet  for  the  greater  portion  of  its 
length,  rising  in  some  localities  to  about  8,000  feet.  Its  rock  formation 
consists  of  hard  but  much  fissured  granites  and  syenites,  with  occa- 
sional areas  of  slates  and  gneisses  along  the  southern  extremity.  It 
has  been  deeply  sculptured  and  eroded  by  glacial  action,  creating  deep 
canyons  and  wearing  the  crest  in  many  localities  to  a  mere  narrow 
margin  between  great  precipices  on  either  side. 

The  Pend  Oreille  Range,  which  incloses  the  basin  on  the  west,  forms 
the  divide  between  Pend  Oreille  and  Priest  rivers.  It  is  much  less 
rugged  than  the  Priest  River  Range  and  has  a  less  elevated  crest  line, 
rarely  rising  above  G,000  feet.  It  is  mostly  composed  of  schistose  rocks, 
traversed  more  or  less  by  granitic  extensions  from  the  eastern  areas. 
Owing  to  the  softer  materials  composing  its  rocks,  tlie  lines  of  erosion 
are  more  rounded,  i^resenting  longer  slojies  that  incline  toward  the 
central  depression  with  angles  much  less  acute  than  is  the  case  with 
the  Priest  River  Range.  The  troughs  between  the  lateral  ridges 
are  broader,  less  cauj'onlike,  forming  fiat,  often  swampy  valleys  with 
lake-like  expansions  that  occasionally  hold  small  ponds.  The  diversity 
in  rock  formation,  with  consequent  unequal  sculpturing  and  erosion, 
divides  the  basin  into  two  areas  with  very  dissimilar  topographical 
features  and  of  difierent  degrees  of  economic  importance.  The  present 
shape  of  the  basin  is  largely  due  to  the  pressure  and  wear  of  a  large 
glacier  that  once  filled  the  basin.  It  appears  to  have  originated  in  the 
high  eastern  range,  moving  thence  toward  the  west,  and  eventually 
sliding  southward  into  the  Pend  Oreille  Valley.  The  hard  granitic 
areas  on  the  east  were  cut  into  steep  spurs  and  narrow,  deep  canyons, 
while  the  softer  schistose  ridges  on  the  west,  offering  less  resistance, 
were  extensively  ground  down  and  the  depressions  between  tliem  filled 
with  glacial  d('bris,  forming  broad  flats  and  valleys.  Upon  the  perma- 
nent recession  of  the  glacier  a  lake  occupied  a  large  portion  of  the 
basin,  submerging  the  low  areas,  depositing  a  lacustrine  sediment,  and 
thereby  further  smoothing  out  the  surface  of  the  valleys.  The  lake  has 
gradually  dwindled  in  size,  due  in  part,  perhaps,  to  the  removal  of  a 
terminal  moraine  at  the  south  end  of  the  basin,  in  part,  certainly,  to  the 
channel  excavated  by  Priest  River  to  its  junction  with  the  Pend  Oreille 


.1       A    PORTION    OF   THE    PRIEST    RIVER    DIVIDE     LOOKING   WEST 


E      PRIEST    RIVER   AT    ITS   OUTLET    FROM    LOWER    PRIEST    LAKE, 


I 


LEiBEKG.]  PRIEST    RIVER    RESERVE.  219 

tbrougli  the  mass  of  glacial  debris  aloug  its  course,  aud  in  part,  not 
unlikely,  to  a  continued  uplift  of  the  rocks  forming  the  basin.  Since  the 
disapi)earauce  of  the  glacier  aud  after  the  rapid  drainage  began,  the 
valleys  have  been  more  or  less  excavated  by  their  shifting  drainage 
channels,  causing  the  terraced  formation  which  we  now  find. 

The  drainage  system  of  the  basin  consists  of  Priest  Kiver,  the  prin- 
cipal stream,  with  several  large  forks  and  numerous  smaller  tributaries 
as  feeders.  The  two  upper  main  forks  of  the  river  are  about  10  miles 
in  length.  They  head  partly  in  the  angle  of  convergence  formed  by 
the  two  great  north-south  divides  that  inclose  the  basin  and  partly 
in  the  northern  portion  of  the  west  range.  The  western  of  these 
forks  is  named  Gold  Creek;  the  eastern  is  considered  as  the  upper  por- 
tion of  Priest  River.  About  3  miles  below  the  junction  of  the  two 
forks  the  stream  enters  Upper  Priest  Lake,  a  shallow  sheet  of  water 
about  2  miles  long  and  1  mile  wide.  At  its  southern  end  it  is  con- 
nected with  Lower  Priest  Lake  through  a  somewhat  tortuous  channel, 
named  the  Thorofare,  about  2  miles  long  and  varying  in  width  from 
75  to  120  feet.  A  sluggish  current  runs  through  this  channel,  which 
has  a  depth  of  2i  to  12  feet  at  medium  stage  of  water.  Lower  Priest 
Lake  is  about  18  miles  in  length  aud  from  one-half  to  5  miles  in  width. 
Its  position  is  nearly  on  the  dividing  line  between  the  two  rock  forma- 
tions of  the  basin.  The  eastern  shore  is  bold  and  rocky,  rising  rapidly 
by  steep  encarpments  and  spurs  to  the  summit  of  the  main  divide. 
The  spurs  and  ridges  that  form  the  western  shore  are  mostly  low  and 
are  broken  at  frequent  intervals  by  broad  valley  openings  and  swampy 
areas  stretching  westward.  The  lake  serves  as  a  central  reservoir  and 
receives  about  65  per  cent  of  the  entire  drainage  of  the  basin.  There 
are  no  data  obtainable  as  to  its  depth.  The  deepest  portion  is  evi- 
dently east  of  the  center  line.  Numerous  shallow  gravel,  sand,  and 
bowlder  bars  project  far  out  from  the  western  side,  especially  at  the 
outlet  of  the  various  creeks.  The  lake  contains  six  islands.  Three  of 
these  are  merely  the  projecting  tips  of  rock  spurs  still  submerged. 
The  others  are  larger,  but  none  are  of  any  economic  importance.  The 
outlet  of  the  lake  is  by  Priest  River,  which  leaves  it  at  the  southwest 
corner  through  a  channel  about  ■lOO  feet  wide  and  averaging  about  3 
feet  in  depth  at  medium  stage  of  water.  The  course  of  the  river  to  its 
junction  with  the  Pend  Oreille  is  generally  southward,  with  a  length  of 
about  32  miles.  A  number  of  tributaries  enter  along  the  way,  the  most 
important  being  the  upper  and  lower  West  Forks  from  the  west  and 
the  East  Fork  from  the  east. 

The  current  is  swift,  especially  in  the  lower  one-third  of  its  length, 
where  there  exists  a  series  of  rapids  extending  a  distance  of  7  miles. 
These  rapids  are  mainly  due  to  huge  bowlders  dropped  into  the  bed  of 
the  river  by  its  excavation  through  the  moraine  material.  The  total 
fall  in  the  river  from  the  outlet  in  the  lower  lake  to  its  junction  with 
the  Pend  Oreille  is  about  COO  feet.  At  the  point  of  junction,  or  about 
one-third  of  a  mile  above,  it  is  nearly  300  feet  wide,  with  a  depth  in  mid- 


220  FOREST   RESERVES. 

channel  of  about  7  feet  at  its  summer  stage  and  a  current  of  between  2 
and  3  miles  an  hour.  The  valley  of  Ui)i>er  Priest  River  is  a  mere  nar- 
row canyon  for  about  10  miles  of  its  length,  as  is  that  of  its  principal 
upper  fork,  Gold  Creek.  Below  the  junctiou  of  tbis  fork  to  tiie  head 
of  the  upper  lake  the  river  flows  through  a  low  swampy  valley  about 
throe-fourths  of  a  mile  wide. 

The  valley  below  the  lower  lake  has  a  width  varying  from  about  2  to 
4  miles.  Low  isolated  ridges  rise  here  and  there,  their  bases  buried 
in  the  mass  of  glacial  detritus  that  has  tilled  up  the  ine(iualif.ies 
and  approximately  leveled  the  area  that  now  constitutes  tlie  valley. 
Through  this  mass  of  transported  material  the  stream  has  cut  its  way, 
excavating  a  channel  that  at  the  present  time  varies  from  20  to  150  feet 
in  dearth  from  the  water  line  to  the  top  of  the  inclosing  banks. 

WATKR  SUPPLY. 

The  reserve  is  situated  within  one  of  the  zones  of  heavy  piecipitation 
in  northern  Idaho.  Just  how  great  the  annual  precipitation  is  we  do 
not  know,  no  data  being  obtainable  iu  regard  to  it,  but  that  it  is  excep- 
tionally heavy  is  proved  by  the  enormous  development  of  the  arbores- 
cent flora  of  the  region.  It  is  probable,  however,  that  it  lies  between 
50  and  60  inches  for  areas  under  3,500  feet  elevation  above  sea  level, 
and  from  60  to  90  inches  for  those  above  that  altitude.  The  depth  of 
snow  on  the  ridges  at  6,500  to  7,000  feet  elevation  varies  from  12  to 
20  feet,  as  indicated  by  marks  on  standing  trees.  Considering  the 
extremely  wet  nature  of  northern  Idaho  snows,  80  to  90  inches  is  prob- 
ably rather  under  than  above  the  actual  annual  precipitation  at  these 
heights.  The  water  of  precipitation  is  discharged  slowly  into  the 
streams.  The  granitic  rocks  of  the  eastern  range  are  much  broken 
and  fissured,  permitting  the  water  to  sink  freely  and  emerge  as  springs 
at  lower  elevations.  There  is  a  permanent  snow  line  on  the  northern 
slopes  in  the  central  sections  of  the  range,  but  the  amount  of  snow 
retained  through  the  summer  is  not  large  enough  to  aflect  materially 
the  water  supply.  Many  of  the  streams  that  head  in  the  range  expand 
into  semicircular  basins  near  their  heads.  Some  of  these  basins  con- 
tain small  ponds;  others  are  partially  filled  with  great  masses  of  slidden 
rock  which  retain  large  quantities  of  water.  Owing,  however,  to  the 
precipitous  nature  of  the  range,  and  the  short  distance  between  the 
sunmiit  and  the  lake  basin,  the  drainage  is  too  rapid  on  the  whole,  and 
but  one  stream  of  considerable  size,  the  East  Fork,  heads  in  the  range. 
The  streams  that  enter  the  lake  and  river  from  the  west  are  longer  and 
carry  a  greater  volume,  of  water.  Their  heads  are  at  greater  distances 
from  their  points  of  discharge,  and,  flowing  through  valleys  with  but 
little  slope,  their  currents  are  rather  sluggish.  Many  of  them  head  in 
large  marshy  or  springy  tracts,  and  in  their  course  are  frequently  inter- 
rupted by  large  timbered  flats  or  low  swampy  meadows  or  sphagnous 
bogs.    These  flats  and  bogs  are  important  conservators  and  regulators 


LEiBKRo.l  PRIEST    RIVER    RESERVE.  221 

of  the  water  supply  of  the  basin.  The  flow  of  water  in  the  basin  is 
apparently  not  subject  to  very  violent  fluctuations.  Tlie  tlifl'erence 
between  high  and  low  water  in  the  lake  is  said  to  be  but  5  feet. 
Whether  the  present  condition  of  the  forest  in  the  region  aflects  the 
drainage  as  compared  with  the  flow  of  water  in  the  past,  when  differ- 
ent conditions  existed,  can  not  be  learned,  as  the  observations  extend 
back  only  seven  years.  I  am  of  opinion,  however,  that  the  spring 
freshets  are  greater  than  formerly  and  the  summer  stage  of  water  less. 
The  water  in  the  streams  and  lakes  is  not  utilized  in  any  way  at  the 
present  time.  The  existing  agricultural  interests  are  small,  and  irri- 
gation has  not  been  found  necessary  for  their  maintenance,  nor  are 
there  within  the  reserve  any  industrial  enterprises  tliat  require  water 
power.  All  the  larger  streams  that  enter  the  lake  and  river  from  the 
east  have  volume  and  fall  sutticient  to  furnish  great  quantities  of 
power,  a  few  from  the  west  could  be  utilized  in  the  same  way,  and  the 
main  Priest  River,  especially  below  the  rapids,  is  capable  of  supplying 
enough  for  all  enterprises  likely  to  be  located  within  the  reserve  for 
generations  to  come.  There  appears,  so  far,  to  be  but  oue  location  for 
purposes  of  power  ou  any  of  the  streams.  This  is  at  Blue  Creek,  about 
one-third  mile  above  its  junction  with  Priest  Iliver.  The  creek  here 
runs  over  a  ledge  of  outcropping  rocks,  forming  a  series  of  falls  and 
raijids  with  a  total  descent  of  between  30  and  -10  feet. 

SOIL,. 

The  soil  of  the  basin  varies  considerably  with  location  and  elevation. 
In  the  eastern  half  of  the  basin,  where  the  underlying  rock  is  largely 
composed  of  hard  quartzose  granites,  the  soil  is  very  siliceous.  The 
softer  schistose  formations  of  the  western  half  have  yielded  a  soil  with 
less  silica  and  more  magnesia  and  alumina.  The  soil  on  the  summit 
of  the  main  ridges,  spurs,  and  upper  slopes  is  a  coarse  gravel  or 
sand  thinly  mixed  with  mold  derived  from  ages  of  decaying  forest 
growth,  usually  but  a  few  inches  in  depth  and  resting  on  a  substratum 
of  still  coarser  fragments  of  rock  or  bowlders.  The  lower  slopes  and 
bottoms  of  the  canyons  heading  in  the  eastern  range  are  covered  with 
masses  of  bowlders  and  slidden  rock  fragments,  more  or  less  cemented 
together  by  stift' clays  and  overlain  by  thick  deposits  of  black  mold  and 
humus,  in  part  accumulations  washed  down  from  the  heights  above. 
The  low-lying  broader  and  less  sloping  valleys  on  the  west,  together 
with  the  main  Priest  River  Valley,  have  a  subsoil  wholly  made  up  of 
glacial  detritus,  consisting  in  some  localities  of  stiff,  impermeable,  gray, 
or  extremely  ferruginous  clays,  but  mostly  composed  of  fine  or  coarse 
gravel.  The  depth  of  this  subsoil  is  unknown.  It  is  commonly  topped 
off  by  several  feet  of  lacustrine  silt,  on  which  rests  mold  and  humus  of 
varying  thickness,  from  3  or  4  inches  to  15  or  20  inches.  The  marshy 
flats  or  meadows  occurring  in  the  western  half  of  the  reserve  are  often 
the  result  of  beaver  dams,  constructed  ages  ago  when  the  animals  were 


222  FOREST   BESERVES. 

plentiful  and  worked  comparatively  uudistiirbed.  Owing  to  tlie  more 
rapid  growth  and  decay  of  vegetation  on  such  tracts,  tliere  is  a  greater 
accumulation  of  mold  than  elsewhere,  and  it  is  also  more  fertile.  The 
fertility  of  the  soil  resides  largely  in  the  superficial  layer  of  mold  and 
humus.  When  stripped  of  this  the  underlying  silt  deposit  comes  into 
view.  While  not  so  siliceous  as  the  soils  of  the  granitic  half  of  the 
reserve,  it  contains  too  much  silica  to  be  classed  as  a  prime  soil  for 
agricultural  purposes.  One  chief  drawback  is  its  failure  to  retain 
moisture,  losing  it  rapidly  both  by  evaporation  and  by  percolation. 
When,  therefore,  denuded  both  of  its  forest  covering  and  the  top  layer 
of  humus,  the  soil  is  apt  to  become  quite  sterile,  owing  to  aridity.  The 
soils  on  the  small  portion  of  the  reserve  that  abuts  on  Pend  Oreille 
Eiver  are  mostly  similar  to  those  of  the  Priest  River  Basin  proper. 
Exceptions  are  found  on  lands  periodically  overflowed,  which  are  cov- 
ered by  a  slimy  subalkaline  mud  deposited  from  the  waters  of  the 
river. 

FOREST  CONDITIONS. 

The  Priest  River  Basin  is  essentially  a  forest- covered  region.  There 
are  but  few  tracts  within  its  boundaries  that  do  not  now,  or  did  not  a 
few  years  ago,  support  a  dense,  magiiiliceut  forest.  The  areas  desti- 
tute of  forest  from  natural  causes  are  the  low  marshy  expanses  and 
sphagnous  bogs  along  certain  of  the  water  courses,  and  rocky  crests 
and  slides  of  the  main  divides  and  of  their  higher  laterals.  Of  the 
entire  land  area  within  the  reserve,  I  estimate  that  about  3.5  per  cent 
is  uatui-ally  devoid  of  forest.  Assuming  that  lakes  and  streams  of  the 
reserve  cover  in  the  aggregate  about  30,000  acres,  and  that  the  entire 
reserve  consists  of  GoO,000  acres,  we  have  a  trifle  more  than  7.9  per 
cent  deforested  through  the  operation  of  natural  causes.  It  would  be 
possible  to  reclaim  about  2.5  per  cent  of  this  by  sylvicultural  means, 
leaving  but  5.4  per  cent  permanently  timberless.  The  distribution  of 
the  timberless  areas  is  nearly  ecjual  for  each  of  the  two  divisions  of  the 
reserve,  but  their  respective  situations  are  diametrically  opposite,  for 
while  the  timberless  tracts  that  exist  in  the  western  half  are  mainly 
grassy  marshes  at  low  elevations,  those  of  the  eastern  half  are  regions 
of  bare  rocky  expanses  along  the  upper  slopes  of  the  divides. 

The  forest  growth  on  the  reserve  is  composed  of  sixteen  species  of 
trees  that  are  always  arborescent,  and  seven  that  are  either  small  trees 
or  shrubs,  depending  on  soil  and  altitude.  (See  tables,  p.  li-44.)  Eleven 
of  the  trees  are  gymnosperms,  or  cone  bearei'S;  ten  are  evergreens; 
one,  the  larch,  deciduous  leaved.  Five  are  augiosperms;  three  belong- 
ing to  the  willow  and  two  to  the  birch  family.  Nine  belong  to  the 
species  commonly  utilized  as  lumber  trees,  seven  being  conifers,  two 
cottonwoods.  Ninety-nine  per  cent  of  the  lumber  trees  are  comprised 
in  five  species,  namely,  western  white  pine,  western  larch,  hemlock- 
spruce,  cedar,  and  yellow  pine.  Of  these,  the  white  pine  and  tamarack 
(the  larch)  form  about  91  per  cent  of  the  total.    The  distribution  of 


LEiBERG]  PRIEST    EIVER    RESERVE.  223 

the  arborescent  flora  lies  within  three  of  the  western  forest  zones,  the 
zones  (1)  of  the  yellow  pine,  (2)  of  the  white  pine,  and  (3)  of  the  sub- 
alpine  fir. 

The  zone  of  the  subalpiue  fir  comprises,  in  general,  the  ridges  and 
sloi^es  above  -4,800  feet  elevation.  It  follows,  however,  many  of  the 
smaller  streams  and  tlie  northern  slopes  of  the  ridges  to  lower  altitudes, 
in  such  cases  mingling  with  the  white-pine  zone.  It  covers  about  10 
per  cent  of  the  reserve  area,  or  about  60,000  acres  in  the  aggregate. 
The  best  development  of  the  zone  occurs  on  the  summits,  slopes,  and 
higher  portions  of  the  canyons  of  the  eastern  or  Priest  Eiver  Eange.  It 
is  found  likewise  on  many  "of  the  spurs  that  extend  into  the  basin  from 
both  the  eastern  and  the  western  divide.  It  is  less  prevalent  on  the 
summits  and  slopes  of  the  Tend  Oreille  divide,  and  has  there  a  greater 
admixture  of  species  from  the  zone  below.  Of  the  total  area  included 
within  the  zone,  7  per  cent,  or  about  42,000  acres,  is  situated  in  the 
eastern  half  of  the  reserve,  and  3  per  cent,  or  about  18,000  acres,  in 
the  western  half.  The  difterence  in  development  of  the  zone  between 
the  eastern  and  western  portions  of  the  basin  is  owing,  in  part,  to  the 
greater  height  of  the  Priest  Eiver  Eange,  with  the  consequent  increase 
in  precipitation  and  lowering  of  the  mean  annual  temperature,  and,  in 
part,  to  the  ditference  in  rock  formation.  The  granites  of  the  eastern 
range,  with  their  extensive  fissuring  and  no  definite  cleavage,  hold 
precipitation  far  better  than  the  schistose  rocks  of  the  western  range, 
which  are  either  water-tight  or  else  aftbrd  a  more  or  less  rapid  drain- 
age along  their  cleavage,  depending  on  their  angle  of  inclination. 
The  characteristic  trees  of  the  zone  are  the  subalpine  fir  and  white- 
bark  pine.  (See  tables,  p.  244.)  According  to  the  direction  of  slope 
exposure,  there  also  occur  the  Eugelmann  spruce,  the  red  fir,  the  lodge- 
pole  pine,  the  western  white  pine,  and  the  tamarack,  together  with  the 
American  aspen.  About  98  per  cent  of  the  forest  growth  of  the  zone 
is  composed  of  two  species,  the  white-bark  pine  and  the  subalpiue  fir, 
about  28  per  cent  of  the  former  and  70  per  cent  of  the  latter.  (For 
range  in  sizes  see  table,  p.  246.)  This  zone  possesses  but  little  economic 
importance.  The  trees  that  form  the  bulk  of  it  are  not  commonly 
utilized,  and  its  considerable  altitudes  make  it  inaccessible  to  the 
lumberman. 

The  white-pine  zone  is  the  predominant  one  in  the  reserve.  It  lies 
principally  between  altitudes  of  2,400  and  4,800  feet  above  sea  level, 
and  reaches  its  greatest  development  between  elevations  of  2,800  and 
3,500  feet.  Its  area  is  about  80  per  cent  of  the  forested  portion  of  the 
reserve,  or  about  480,000  acres,  including  such  tracts  as  are  now  in  a 
state  of  reforestation  and  covered  with  pure,  or  nearly  pure,  growths 
of  lodgepole  pine.  The  principal  species  of  trees  growing  within  the 
zone  are  the  western  white  pine,  tamarack,  cedar,  Engelmann  spruce, 
Merten  hemlock,  and  white  fir.  Mixed  with  them  are  scattered  indi- 
viduals of  the  red  fir,  cottonwoods,  birches,  and  semiarborescent 
willows.    The  western   white   pme  and   the  tamarack  are  the  chief 


224  FOREST    RESERVES. 

componeuts  of  tbe  zone,  forming  about  77  per  cent  of  tlie  entire  growth, 
western  white  pine  constituting  about  42  per  cent  and  tamarack  about 
35  per  cent.  (See  tables,  p.  246.)  The  heaviest  growth  of  the  zone 
occurs  on  the  level  areas  bordering  the  principal  streams.  The  white 
l)iue  is  therefore  more  abundant  in  the  western  half  of  the  reserve 
and  along  the  Lower  Priest  River  than  elsewhere.  Some  of  the  stream 
bottoms  in  the  southeast  corner  of  the  reserve,  opening  into  the  Pend 
Oreille  Valley,  have  also  considerable  bodies  of  it.  The  region  of  the 
white  [)ine  is  the  most  important  in  the  reserve  from  au  economic  stand- 
point. It  contains  by  far  the  largest  quantity  of  commercial  timber 
that  exists  on  any  of  the  growing  areas. 

This  zone  is  generally  easy  of  access,  and,  if  the  natural  conditions 
of  soil  and  humjas  are  not  disturbed,  is  capable  of  maintaining  and  of 
rapidly  producing  a  heavy  forest  growth.  The  zone  is  remarkable  for 
the  prodigious  development  of  its  two  ijrincipal  components,  the  white 
pine  and  the  tamarack,  surpassing  in  density  any  other  area  of  similar 
composition  in  the  West.  Two  stages  of  growth  occur  in  the  commer- 
cially valuable  bodies  of  this  timber.  They  are  the  "old  growth"  and 
the  "second  growth."  The  former  ranges  in  age  from  250  to  400  yeai's, 
the  latter  from  100  to  250.  The  old  growth  is  found  as  small,  scattered 
groves  throughout  the  reserve,  but  in  a  large  block  only  in  the  main 
Priest  River  Valley  below  its  junction  with  the  East  Fork.  It  forms 
here  a  tolerably  compact  body  of  about  2,500  acres,  with  extensions  up 
several  of  the  adjacent  canyons  on  the  east  amounting  to  about  1,000 
acres  more.  The  total  area  of  the  old  growth  is  approximately  10,000 
acres.  The  second  growth  was  well  developed  in  all  portions  of  the 
reserve  uj)  to  within  the  last  thirty  years.  At  the  present  time  the 
heaviest  bodies  exist  in  the  valleys  of  the  Upper  and  Lower  West 
Forks,  especially  in  the  latter.  (For  relative  sizes  of  trees,  see  tables, 
p.  247.)  The  zone  is  not  so  well  defined  as  that  of  the  subalpine  fir. 
Along  its  upper  limits  it  contains  more  or  less  subalpine  elements,  and 
at  its  lower  limits  trees  from  the  zone  of  the  j^ellow  pine.  The  only 
species  of  tree  within  the  reserve  not  found  in  the  white-pine  zone  is 
the  white-bark  pine. 

The  zone  of  the  yellow  pine  occupies  mostly  a  lower  position  than 
that  of  the  white  pine.  It  is  not  generally  possible,  however,  to  draw 
a  well-defined  line  of  demarcation  between  the  upper  limits  of  one  and 
the  lower  limits  of  the  other.  The  two  zones  overlap  constantly, 
depending  largely  on  soil  and  moisture  conditions.  The  main  compo- 
neuts of  the  zone  are  the  yellow  pine,  red  fir,  and  white  fir,  in  about 
the  following  proj-ortions :  Yellow  pine,  10  per  cent;  red  fir,  70  per 
cent;  white  fir,  15  per  cent.  (See  table,  p.  246.)  The  altitudinal  limit 
of  the  yellow  pine  as  a  commercially  valuable  tree  on  the  reserve 
is  under  3,500  feet  above  sea  level,  while  the  red  fir  readily  ascends 
to  elevations  of  4,500  feet  on  the  slopes  fronting  on  the  south,  west, 
and  east.  The  area  covered  by  this  zone  is  about  10  per  cent  of  the 
forested  portions  of  the  reserve,  or  about  60,000  acres.     It  is  therefore 


LEiBERQ]  PRIEST    RIVER    RESERVE.  225 

equal  to  the  area  of  the  subalpine  zone,  and,  as  a  whole,  is  more  ennally 
distributed  betweeu  the  east  and  west  halves,  about  4.7  per  cent  being 
in  the  former  and  5.3  per  cent  in  the  latter  division  of  the  reserve. 
There  is,  however,  a  marked  difference  in  the  distribution  of  the  yellow 
pine  and  the  red  fir,  the  pine  predominating  in  the  eastern  half  and  the 
red  fir  in  the  western.  The.  commercially  valuable  areas  of  yellow  pine 
are  much  scattered.  There  are  small  tracts  of  it  along  the  eastern 
shore  of  Lower  Priest  Lake,  and  some  scattered  growths  facing  the 
south  and  west  on  the  rockier  spurs  tiiat  come  into  the  main  valley 
from  the  east  below  the  lake.  The  largest  bodies  of  it  are  found  in 
the  southeast  quarter  of  the  reserve,  but  are  not  continuous  over  any 
considerable  area,  as  most  of  the  canyons  which  radiate  from  the  main 
valleys  carry  the  white-pine  zone  in  their  bottoms.  The  tracts  which 
are  covered  with  commercially  valuable  hemlock-spruce  occur  all  over 
the  reserve  below  the  upper  altitudinal  limits  of  the  zone  to  which  they 
belong.  The  largest  continuous  growth  of  the  species  occurs,  or  rather 
occurred,  along  the  summitii  and  slopes  of  the  southern  portion  of  the 
Pend  Oreille  divide,  before  the  forest  fires  had  done  their  work  in  that 
locality.  The  yellow  pine  is,  on  the  whole,  more  difficult  of  access  than 
the  white  pine,  due  to  its  habitat  upon  the  rocky  slopes  and  benches. 

ASPECT  OF  THE  FOREST. 

The  appearances  of  the  growing  forest  are  different  for  each  of  the 
zones,  and  several  varying  aspects  occur  in  each  subdivision;  but  as 
like  conditions  have  produced  them,  they  are  (juite  uniform  throughout 
the  reserve.  There  are  no  forests  of  pure  growth  on  the  reserve,  the 
nearest  being  the  forests  of  the  subalpine  zone,  and  the  tracts  covered 
with  lodgepole  pine,  within  the  limits  of  the  white-pine  region. 

The  subalpine  zone  presents  four  chief  features.  The  fli'st  and  most 
typical  consists  of  a  forest  of  medium  density — 300  to  400  trees  to  the 
acre.  The  trees  are  mostly  straight  and  symmetrical.  There  is  but 
little  underbrush,  the  ground  being  covered  with  low  shrubs  of  species 
of  huckleberries,  or  with  a  growth  of  alpine  sedges  or  junci,  or,  as  is 
generally  the  case,  with  a  dense  sward  of  the  common  bear  grass 
(Xcrophylium  tcnajc).  Litter  is  scanty,  consisting  of  a  few  broken 
branches  or  tree  tops.  Humus  is  either  wholly  absent  or  but  2  or  3 
inches  in  depth.  Forests  of  this  character  are  found  on  the  ridges  and 
slopes,  mostly  above  5,500  feet  elevation,  and  represent  the  mature  but 
still  vigorous  subalpine  forest. 

The  second  aspect  is  that  of  a  forest  of  great  dens'ty — 1,000  to  2,000 
trees  to  the  acre.  A  tract  of  this  character  is  usually  littered  with  vast 
quantities  of  broken  and  dead  trees,  dead  branches,  and  growing  brush, 
consisting  in  the  main  of  mountain  alders,  mountain  ash  (Sorhiis  sam- 
hucifoUo),  and  ^Menziesia  shrubs.  There  is  sometimes  a  sparse  growth 
of  bear  grass,  but  the  sunlight  admitted  through  the  dense  masses  of 
19  OEOL,  PT  5 15 


226  FOREST    RESERVES. 

trees  is  usually  too  scauty  to  permit  the  growth  of  many  herbaceous 
plants.  Such  tracts  represent  the  young  and  rapidly  growing  su1)al- 
pine  forest  in  the  last  stage  of  the  reforesting  process  subsequent  to 
complete  destruction  by  burning.  At  the  present  time  this  type  of 
forest  is  most  prevalent  on  the  slopes  and  summits  of  the  lateral  spurs 
with  northern  exposure,  and  in  the  sa<ldles,  or  sags,  in  the  main  divides. 

The  third  aspect  is  that  of  densely  brush-covered  areas  with  a  thin 
forest — 10  to  100  trees  to  the  acre— rising  from  the  midst  of  a  sea  of 
brush  composed  of  siiecies  of  alders  (Alnus  alnobctula),  mountain  ash 
{Sorbus  samhuci/olia),  and  especially  of  Menziesia  and  Azalea  shrubs 
(Menziesia  J'crruginca  and  Azalea  alhijtora,  respectively).  There  is  a 
great  amount  of  litter,  consisting  of  large  fallen  trees,  dry  or  in  a  state 
of  decay.  Humus  is  almost  lacking,  and  the  young  growth,  to  take 
the  place  of  the  dead  old,  is  scanty.  Forest  stands  which  present  this 
phase  are  either  ia  a  state  of  decay,  owing  to  advanced  age,  or  are  pro- 
duced by  forest  tires  occurring  either  early  or  late  in  summer  when  the 
litter  was  not  sufiBciently  diy  to  flame,  but  underwent  slow  incineration, 
cooking  the  bases  and  roots  of  the  trees.  Tracts  of  this  sort  0(;cur  every- 
where in  the  zone,  but  are  more  abundant  on  the  slopes  leading  into  the 
saddles  of  the  ridges. 

The  last  aspect  is  confined  almost  wholly  to  ridges  having  an  easterly 
and  westerly  trend,  and,  in  consequence,  presenting  their  sloping  sides 
directly  north  and  south.  The  southern  face  in  such  situations  may 
contain  expanses  of  50  to  500  acres  having  but  scattered  trees  and 
shrubs,  but  covered  with  a  dense  and  heavy  growth  of  many  species  of 
mountain  grasses.  Such  tracts  are  areas  that  once  were  heavily  tim- 
bered, but  have  had  their  forest  burned  off,  and,  owing  to  direction 
and  angle  of  slope  causing  too  rapid  drainage  and  evaporation,  have 
been  rendered  too  arid  to  permit  a  renewal  of  forest  growth.  The  only 
litter  on  these  tracts  are  the  charred  stumi)s  of  trees  consumed  by  fire 
centuries  ago.  The  northern  slopes  of  such  ridges  usually  bear  a  forest 
with  the  aspect  of  number  two,  unless,  as  in  some  cases,  covered  with 
rock  slides,  while  the  comb  of  the  ridge  has  a  dense,  low-growing  belt 
of  young  subaliiine  firs  bent  and  twisted  in  all  directions  by  the  weight 
of  the  snow  that  is  blown  up  over  the  southern  face  of  the  ridge. 

The  white-pine  zone  disj^lays  fewer  aspects.  There  is  usuallj'  a  large 
amount  of  litter,  consisting  of  fallen  trees,  that  have  accumulated  for 
centuries,  in  various  stages  of  decaj'.  The  undergrowth  is  mostly 
dense,  consisting  of  young  trees,  the  white  fir  and  Merten  hemlock 
jiredominating.  In  the  low  and  wet  places  along  the  streams  various 
species  of  shrubs,  as  alders  and  dogwood,  form  dense  thickets.  There 
is  always  a  considerable  layer  of  humus,  varying  in  depth  from  S  to  14 
inches,  composed  of  decaying  vegetable  debris.  The  forest  is  generallj' 
wet,  often  swampy,  the  humus  serving  as  a  sponge  and  preventing 
evaporation  from  the  soil  beneath.  By  reason  of  the  considerable  size 
of  the  trees  the  asj^ect  of  the  forest  is  that  of  excessive  density,  but  it 


LEiBEEQ.]  PRIEST    RIVER    RESERVE.  227 

is  rather  medium  than  otherwise,  having  from  150  to  400  trees  C  inches 
or  more  in  diameter  to  the  acre  on  tracts  of  second  and  old  growth. 

To  the  white  pine  zone  belong  the  areas  supporting  a  nearly  inire 
growth  of  lodgepole  pine.  They  are  found  throughout  the  reserve  on 
the  lower  flats  and  terraces  of  the  stream  valleys.  In  some  localities 
they  are  of  considerable  extent,  the  largest  area  being  just  below  the 
south  end  of  Lower  Priest  Lake  and  stretching  theuce  nearly  to  the 
junction  of  the  East  Fork  with  the  main  Priest  River.  This  character 
of  forest  is  usually  very  dense,  the  areas  containing  from  800  to  2,000 
or  more  trees  to  the  acre.  There  is  often  a  considerable  amount  of 
littei-,  consisting  wholly  of  broken  down  young  growth.  Where  the 
forest  has  reached  an  age  of  90  yeiirs  and  upwards  there  has  accumu- 
lated a  depth  of  huaius  ranging  from  3  to  C  inches.  The  undergrowth 
is  low  and  scattered,  composed  mainly  of  Pachystima,  service  berry, 
Holodiscus,  and  various  species  of  alders  and  willows. 

The  forests  of  yellow  pine  present  two  phases.  First,  the  areas  where 
the  preponderance  of  growth  belongs  to  the  yellow  pine.  This  occurs 
on  rocky  slopes  of  low  elevation  facing  the  south  or  west.  The  forest 
floor  is  generally  covered  with  grass  or  sedges  that  grow  in  dry  soil. 
The  undergrowth  is  at  minimum  density  and  is  formed  of  low  shrubs, 
such  as  Holodiscus,  Opulaster,  wild  syriuga,  mountain  ash,  and  the 
sanguineous  Ceanothus.  Humus  is  lacking  or  is  a  mere  top  dressing 
of  dry  pine  needles  and  cones.  There  is  no  litter  except  where  a  fire 
has  recently  swept  through. 

The  second  phase  of  the  forest  occurs  where  the  red  fir  replaces  the 
yellow  pine.  This  takes  place  whenever  there  exists  a  deeper,  less 
rocky  soil,  heavier  precipitation,  and  less  rai)id  drainage. 

The  grassy  slopes  characteristic  of  the  former  phase  of  the  zone 
are  mostly  lacking,  and  are  replaced  by  a  heavier  and  moi-e  extended 
growth  of  the  shrubs  previously  enumerated.  The  forest  growth  is 
dense,  in  some  localities  ranging  from  800  to  1,500  trees  to  the  acre, 
but  where  such  density  exists  the  diameters  of  the  individual  tree  are 
small.  The  litter  is  generally  abundaut,  consisting  of  fallen  trees,  and 
the  humus  attains  a  depth  of  3  to  5  inches. 

AMOUNT  OF  AVAILABLE  TOIBER. 

By  reference  to  the  table  on  page  249  it  will  be  seen  that  the  estimated 
amount  of  merchantable  timber  on  the  reserve  is  4,833,600,000  feet  B.  M. 
Less  than  2,000,000,000  feet  are  contained  in  sizes  suitable  for  saw 
logs.  This  shows  that  there  is  a  vast  amount  of  young  growth.  The 
large  areas  covered  with  this  growth  are  due  to  the  burnings  of  120 
to  150  years  ago,  the  reforesting  process  just  entering  the  fourth 
stage,  or  second  growth.  They  bear,  however,  very  nearly  as  great 
quantity  of  timber  as  the  areas  of  old  growth,  by  reason  of  their 
excessive  density,  but  the  diameters  of  the  standing  trees  are  relatively 


228  FOREST   RESERVES. 

small.  The  availability  of  the  timber  depeiuls  on  two  conditions :  first, 
accessibility,  as  determined  by  the  topographical  features  of  the  coun- 
try; second,  the  particular  line  of  forestry  i)olicy  adopted  with  regard 
to  the  amounts  that  may  be  safely  cut  without  impairment  of  tlie 
strength  of  the  forest.  By  strength  is  here  meant  the  collective 
resistance  offered  bj'  the  living  growth  to  the  wind,  which  is  by  far  the 
most  destructive  natural  agent  that  operates  in  the  basin. 

It  would  require  a  long  and  close  exploration  of  the  reserve  to 
estimate  with  accuracy  the  amount  of  timber  available  under  the  two 
conditions  named,  and  the  table  of  estimates  prepared  in  this  counec 
tion  should  only  be  taken  as  indicative  of  a  rough  average. 

The  following  estimate  of  the  total  amount  of  standing  merchantable 
timber  is  given : 

Feet. 

Young  growth 3,141,840,000 

Second  and  old  growths  1,691,760,000 

Total 4,833,600,000 

The  amount  accessible  is  estimated  as  follows: 

Feet. 

Young  growth 2,073,614,400 

Second  and  old  growths  1,353,408,000 

Total 3,427,022,400 

Of  this  the  following  amount  may  be  safely  cut  without  impairment 
of  the  forest  strength : 

Feet. 

Young  growth 377,020,800 

Old  growth 270,681.600 

Second  growth 406,022,400 

Total 1,  053,  724,  800 

The  real  area  of  accessibility  is  an  uncertain  factor.  It  is  one  that 
varies  constantly  with  the  price  of  lumber  products  and  of  labor,  the 
character  of  seasons,  etc. 

Practically  there  are  no  areas  in  the  white  and  yellow  pine  zones 
beyond  reach.  It  is  .simply  a  matter  of  profit  and  loss  in  providing 
means  of  transportation  from  the  steep  upper  hillsides  and  narrow  can- 
yons to  the  flats  and  valleys  below.  The  possible  output  may  also  be 
greatly  increased  by  increasing  the  cutting  in  each  of  the  tracts  beyond 
the  limit  here  suggested. 

SOUNDNESS  OF  THE  TI]>EBER. 

The  dominant  tree  in  the  subalpine  zone,  Abies  lastocarpa,  is  com- 
monly subject  to  heart  rot  at  an  early  period  in  its  growth.  It  is  rare 
to  find  trees  with  diameters  of  10  inches  and  upward  that  do  not  show 
a  ring  of  decaj-  at  the  core.  The  white-bark  pine,  on  the  contrary,  is 
commonly  sound  even  at  the  most  advanced  age.  The  wood  is  hard 
and  tough,  resisting  decay  to  a  remarkable  degree,  and  if  the  tree  grew 
in  accessible  localities  would  be  of  value  in  cases  where  it  forms  a  siz- 


LEiBERo.]  PRIEST    RIVER    RESERVE.  229 

able  clear  trunk,  as  is  soraotiines  the  case.  The  other  trees  of  the 
subalpiue  zone  are  generally  free  from  defects,  except  such  as  are 
caused  by  external  violence,  as  breakage  by  wind  and  snow.  It  may 
be  estimated  that  of  the  total  growth  in  this  zone  about  CO  per  cent 
of  the  trees  from  C  inches  in  diameter  at  the  base  and  upward  are 
defective  from  some  cause.  The  timber  in  the  white-pine  zone  contains 
considerable  defective  portions.  Aside  from  the  damage  done  by  forest 
fires,  which  is  not  taken  into  account  now,  there  is  a  great  deal  of  heart 
rot,  wind  shakes,  and  gum  cracks.  Most  of  the  damage  occurs  in  the 
white  pine,  which  appears  to  be  more  subject  to  decay  here  than  else- 
where in  the  West.  The  percentage  of  defect  varies  with  character  of 
soil  and  age  of  growth.  It  is  greatest  on  areas  of  old  growth  and  on 
low  ground,  and  least  in  the  second  growth  and  on  moderately  dry  soils. 
The  percentage  runs  from  15  to  as  high  as  2a  per  cent  in  the  former,  and 
from  5  to  15  per  cent  in  the  latter,  all  species  of  trees  included.  More 
than  three-quarters  of  these  amounts  belong  to  the  white  pine  alone. 
Next  in  frequency  of  defect  come  the  cedar,  Merteu  hemlock,  and  west- 
ern tamarack,  in  the  order  named.  The  most  common  defects  are  attacks 
by  fungi,  causing  either  decay  of  the  heartwood  or  destruction  of  the 
cambium  layer  in  the  growing  trees,  wind  shakes,  gum  cracks,  and 
breakage  and  splitting  of  the  trees  by  the  excessively  violent  winds  or 
snows.  Aside  from  the  agencies  of  man  and  wind,  fungi  are  the  most 
destructive.  The  white  pine  and  cedar  are  especially  subject  to  their 
attacks.  The  weakening  effect  of  decaying  heartwood  on  such  tall 
trees  is  to  render  them  less  capable  of  resisting  great  wind  stress,  and 
therefore  more  liable  to  development  of  wind  shakes  and  gum  cracks. 
The  defects  at  the  heart  of  the  white  pine,  cedar,  and  tamarack  do  not 
wholly  destroy  their  usefulness,  though  very  materially  lessening  the 
value  of  the  individuals  so  affected.  In  shingle  making,  to  which  pur- 
pose the  larger  cedars  are  mostly  i)ut,  the  decay  at  the  core,  if  not  too 
great,  does  not  matter  very  much,  as  the  central  portions  are  usually 
discarded  in  any  case,  and  in  the  white  pine  it  is  a  common  practice 
at  the  mill  to  saw  around  the  decayed  core.  The  defects  in  the  tama- 
rack are  chiefly  gum  cracks  and  wind  shakes,  due  in  part  to  the  sway- 
ing of  the  tall  trees  under  wind  pressure.  They  are  produced  mainly 
in  the  lower  part  of  the  trunk  and  are  pretty  sure  to  enlarge  as  time 
passes. 

The  defects  in  the  yellow-pine  zone  are  mostly  gum  cracks  and  crooked 
and  deformed  trees.  Owing  to  the  open  character  of  the  forest  in  many 
places  the  wind  has  a  free  sweep.  The  damage  is  confined  chietiy  to 
the  red  fir,  aggregating  about  5  per  cent,  against  less  than  2  per  cent 
in  the  yellow  pine. 

MEANS  OF  TRANSPORTATION  OF  LUMBER. 

The  only  method  available  at  the  present  time  to  transport  lumber 
out  of  the  reserve  is  by  driving  on  Priest  Kiver  to  its  junction  with  the 
Pend  Oreille,  at  which  point  the  Great  Northern  Eailway  is  reached. 


230  FOREST    RESERVES. 

The  Lower  Priest  Lake  is  navigable  for  steamers  of  any  draft;  the 
upper,  owing  to  shallowness  in  the  Thorofare,  only  for  boats  of  light 
draft.  Above  the  upper  lake  the  river  can  be  utilized  for  driv'ing 
for  several  miles  by  removing  the  snags  that  block  it  here  and  there. 
Not  many  of  the  side  streams  can  be  used  for  this  purimse  without 
expensive  improvements  in  their  beds.  Some,  notably  those  tliat 
enter  from  the  east,  are  full  of  big  bowlders  and  interrupted  by  series 
of  falls,  while  those  from  the  west  either  have  a  sluggish  (airrent 
which  meanders  through  marshy  expanses  or  are  much  obstructed 
by  windfalls  and  in  some  cases  by  rocky  ledges.  The  valleys  on  the 
west  half  of  the  reserve,  however,  with  their  easy  slopes,  offer  good 
opportunities  for  the  construction  of  logging  roads  to  bring  their  tim- 
ber to  the  main  river.  The  water  in  the  river  usually  maintains  until 
the  1st  of  August  a  sufficient  depth  to  permit  driving,  but  by  building 
a  dam  across  the  point  where  it  leaves  the  lake,  an  undertaking  easily 
accomplished,  a  sufficient  volume  of  water  could  be  held  back  in  the 
lake  to  float  logs  down  Priest  River  at  any  time.  The  area  in  the  south- 
east corner  of  the  reserve  fronting  on  Pend  Oreille  Valley  is  adjacent 
to  the  Great  Northern  Railway,  and  the  timbered  valleys  are  easy  of 
access  from  that  side  by  mfeans  of  logging  roads.  Tbe  most  feasible 
way  to  utilize  the  water  in  the  tributary  streams  for  logging  purposes 
would  be  to  construct  flumes  and  turn  the  streams  into  them. 

r,OCAL,  DEMAXn   FOR   I.U]\tBER. 

There  is  scarcely  any  local  demand.  Small  quantities  of  timber  are 
used  locally  for  fencing,  building  material,  shingles,  logs,  etc.,  but  the 
total  consumption  for  these  purposes  is  insignificant.  There  are  uo 
sawmills  in  the  reserve.  The  nearest  point  at  which  a  sawmill  is  located 
is  Sand  Point,  at  the  northwest  corner  of  Lake  Pend  Oreille.  If  the 
lumber  on  the  reserve  could  be  obtained  without  trespass  and  its  attend- 
ant difficulties,  it  is  pretty  certain  that  sawmills  would  soon  be  estab- 
lished near  the  outlet  of  Priest  River,  in  the  Pend  Oreille  Valley,  for 
the  manufacture  of  lumber  and  shingles.  The  quantity  of  tie  timber 
on  the  reserve  is  immense,  and  railroad  ties  are  nearly  always  in  demand 
at  good  prices  to  the  producer. 

TIMBER  CUTTING. 

The  cutting  done  in  the  past  on  the  area  now  included  in  the  reserve 
■was  chiefly  in  connection  with  the  construction  of  the  Great  Northern 
Railway  some  years  ago.  The  timber  taken  was  almost  wholly  tie 
timber  and  piling,  consisting  of  young  trees  12  to  20  inches  in  diameter, 
of  cedar,  hemlock,  spruce,  and  tamarack.  Most  of  the  cutting  was 
adjacent  to  the  line  of  tbe  road  where  it  passes  through  the  southeast 
corner  of  the  reserve.  Along  a  distance  of  about  <!  miles  the  tie  timber 
on  the  north  side  of  the  road  was  cut  nearly  90  per  cent  on  lands  within 
one-half  a  mile,  and  from  35  to  60  per  cent  on  lands  a  mile,  from  the  line 


LEiBEHG]  PRIEST    RIVER    RESERVE.  231 

of  road.  Since  the  road  was  completed  small  quantities  of  ties  have 
beeu  cut  on  lands  adjacent  to  the  main  Priest  River  from  the  outlet 
into  the  Pend  Oreille  to  a  point  about  12  miles  above.  The  cutting 
done  at  the  present  time  consists  of  clearings,  wood  for  fuel,  building, 
and  fencing.  During  the  last  summer  (1898)  parties  were  cutting  the 
white  pine  on  Lower  West  Fork  and  floating  it  to  the  Great  Northern 
Railway  crossing  of  Priest  River,  whence  it  was  shipped.  Ostensibly 
the  cutting  was  done  with  a  view  of  furnishing  samples  of  western 
white  pine  to  lumbermen  in  the  East.  The  trees  were  felled  on  the 
Lower  West  Fork  and  along  the  main  Priest  River,  squared  in  the 
forest,  and  floated  down  the  river  to  a  boom  at  Priest  River  Station. 

PRESENT   CONDITION   OF  THE  FOREST— FIRES. 

In  the  foregoing  pages  the  forest  conditions  have  been  detailed  with, 
reference  to  the  state  of  the  growing,  more  or  less  commercially  valuable 
timber.  It  now  remains  to  examine  the  extent  of  the  actual  area  cov- 
ered with  a  forest  of  this  charactei-.  The  area  capable  of  growing  a 
forest,  and  that  did  grow  one  not  very  many  years  back,  is  about  90  per 
cent,  or  600,000  acres.  Of  this  amount  about  60,000  acres  belong  to  the 
subalpine  zone,  leaving  540,000  acres  as  the  area  capable  of  producing 
merchantable  timber.  The  density  of  the  present  forest  varies  con- 
siderably. On  small  tracts  in  the  white-piue  zone  it  may  run  as  high 
as  120,000  feet  per  acre,  including  all  timber  above  8  inches  diameter 
at  the  butt,  and  it  may  dwindle  to  2,000  feet  or  less,  as  in  some 
localities  in  the  yellow-pine  districts.  Had  there  been  no  fires  in  this 
reserve,  30,000  feet  jier  acre  might  be  safely  assumed  as  a  fair  average, 
including  all  kinds  of  merchantable  timber  above  8  inches  basal  diam- 
eter. Given  an  area  of  540,000  acres,  we  should  have  a  total  of 
16,200  million  feet.  But  the  entire  amount  on  the  reserve  should  be 
greater.  In  the  lower  portion  of  the  subalpine  zone  there  are  many 
tracts  containing  appreciable  quantities  of  white  pine,  tamarack,  cedar, 
and  red  flr.  There  are  probably  10,000  acres  of  this  that  would  yield 
an  average  of  3,000  feet  per  acre,  adding  30,000,000  feet  to  the  tigures 
above.  We  should  have  then  as  a  total  16,230  million  feet  as  the 
amount  of  standing  timber  on  the  reserve.  These  figures  are  confidently 
believed  to  be  under  rather  than  above  the  true  value.  Large  areas 
where  the  forest  is  untouched  have  an  extremely  dense  growth,  and 
the  long  slopes  of  the  ridges  and  spurs  increase  the  actual  acreage  con- 
siderably over  the  horizontal  measurements,  which  are  the  only  ones 
considered  here.  By  reference  to  the  tables  of  standing  timber  on  the 
reserve,  it  will  be  seen  that  the  estimated  amounts  standing  at  the 
present  time  are  as  follows : 

Feet. 

Saw  timber 1,903,600,000 

Ties,  at  20  feet  per  tie 2, 720, 000,  000 

Telegraph  poles,  at  100  feet  per  pole 210,  000,  000 

Total 4,833,600,000 


232  FOREST   RESERVES. 

This  leaves  a  total  of  11,396  million  feet  unaccounted  for.  This 
immense  quantity  of  timber,  of  which  the  total  cutting  for  all  purposes, 
clearings,  etc.,  does  not  exceed  20,000,000  feet,  and  is  doubtless  much 
below  this  figure,  has  been  burned  during  the  last  thirty  years — burned 
and  wasted  to  absolutely  uo  purjwse.  Tlie  estimates  made  on  this  point 
while  examining  the  forest  were  as  follows: 

Feet. 

Saw  timber 4,  488,  800,  000 

Tie  timber,  .-it  20  feet  per  tie 4,900,000,000 

Telegraph  poles,  at  100  feet  per  pole 600, 000,  000 

9,  988,  800,  000 
Add  for  clearings,  cuttings,  etc 20,  000,  000 

10, 008,  800,  000 

This  leaves  1,387  million  feet  uuiiccounted  for.  We  will  assume, 
what  is  doubtless  true,  that  the  burnt  areas  were  not  necessarily  as 
heavily  timbered  in  all  their  parts  as  are  the  growing  ones  now.  We 
can  not,  of  course,  be  certain  on  this  poiut.  Our  estimates  must  be  based 
on  the  character  of  the  forest  that  adjoins  the  burnt  tracts,  and  on  the 
number  and  size  of  the  partially  consumed  stumps  and  other  wreckage. 

To  keei)  our  estimates  low  we  will  therefore  ignore  the  balauce  of 
1,387,600,000  feet,  although  this  amount  could,  with  safety,  enter  into 
the  estimate  as  representing  other  species  than  those  furnishing  mer- 
chautable  timber.  The  amount  could  even  be  increased.  Thousands 
of  acres  of  the  subalpine  forest  have  been  totally  destroyed,  leaving 
not  a  tree  of  the  original  growth  alive.  It  is  true  that  the  trees  which 
form  the  bulk  of  its  growth  have  no  market  value  at  the  sawmill,  but  for 
local  use,  such  as  mining  timbers  in  small  workings  situated  in  the  high 
elevations,  where  no  other  species  are  obtainable,  the  subalpine  fir 
and  white  bark  pine  are  vastly  superior  to  the  lodgepole  pine,  often 
used  elsewhere  for  this  purpose.  We  should  not  exaggerate  if  there 
were  added  another  billion  feet  to  our  fire  losses  from  that  source. 

This  timber  has  not  all  been  literally  consumed  by  flre.  The  forest 
fires  in  this  region  seldom  burn  the  timber  completely.  They  kill  more 
by  cooking  the  roots  and  the  lower  portions  of  the  trunks  than  they 
consume.  The  severe  wind  storms  of  the  fall  and  winter  throw  down 
great  quantities  of  both  dead  and  living  trees,  soon  completely  denuding 
the  burnt-over  area.  Of  the  640,000  acres  below  the  subalpine  zone, 
280,000  acres  average  now  less  than  12,000  feet  per  acre  of  all  sizes,  an 
insignificant  amount  for  a  region  with  normally  so  dense  a  forest  growth 
a«  the  Priest  River  Basin,  while  260,000  acres  have  less  than  7,300  feet 
per  acre. 

These  averages,  however,  do  not  show  the  real  state  of  the  matter. 
Of  the  510,000  acres  that  make  up  the  white-pine  and  yellow-pine  xones, 
there  are  not  80,000  acres  that  are  not  seared  by  fire.  Excepting  a 
small  area  of  about  1,600  acres  along  the  Lower  West  Fork,  there  is 
no  body  of  timber  of  1,000  acres,  or  even  500  acres,  extent  not  scorched 


LEiBERo]  PRIEST    RIVER   RESERVE.  233 

by  fire.  In  the  two  lower  zones  there  are  over  200,000  acres  on  which 
the  destruction  is  practically  complete.  In  the  subalpine  zone  at  least 
40,000  acres  of  the  60,000  have  been  more  or  less  injured  by  fires. 

One  meets  with  burnt  areas  everywhere — in  the  old  growth,  in  the 
second  growth,  in  the  young  growth,  and  where  the  seedlings  that  are 
beginning  to  cover  the  deforested  areas  have  just  commenced  to  obtain 
a  fair  hold.  The  burnt  tracts  are  in  large  blocks,  thousands  of  acres 
in  extent,  and  in  small  patches  of  15  to  50  acres  which  extend  in  all 
directious  through  the  forest,  which  at  a  distance  is  apparently  green; 
sometimes  they  are  in  broad  swaths,  sometimes  in  narrow,  tortuous 
windings  just  sufficient  to  open  a  lane  for  the  destructive  high  winds  to 
tear  the  living  forest  down.  The  burnt  areas  are  scattered  all  over 
the  reserve,  but  the  largest  amount  of  damage  lies  within  the  zone  of 
the  white  pine,  by  reason  of  its  greater  extent  and  peculiar  suscepti- 
bility to  destructive  fires.  The  most  extensive  plats  of  burnt  forest 
are  found  in  the  northern  and  western  portions  of  the  reserve,  corre- 
sponding exactly  to  the  regions  that  are  supposed  to  contain  the  largest 
areas  of  mineral-bearing  country. 

Forest  fires  occurred  in  the  Priest  Kiver  Basin  ages  ago.  About  one 
hundred  and  fifty  years  ago  the  area  surrounding  the  lower  and,  in 
part,  the  upper  lake  was  burned  over  to  the  extent  of  more  than  60  jjer 
cent.  Later,  a  large  tract  south  of  the  lower  lake  shared  the  same  fate. 
This  is  proved  by  the  great  quantities  of  young  growth,  less  than  100 
years  old,  that  exist  in  many  places  with  very  old  trees  in  their  midst. 
After  these  fires  came  an  interval  of  sixty  to  seventy  years  with  but  few 
burns,  involving  only  small  areas.  The  beginning  of  the  fires  of  modern 
times  in  the  basin  dates  back  about  thirty  years.  They  owe  their  origin 
mainly  to  the  universally  wanton  disregard  for  the  value  of  the  growing 
forest  in  general,  and  for  public  property  of  this  kind  in  jiarticular, 
which  is  so  unfortunately  prevalent  in  the  West.  Many  of  the  fires 
have  originated  within  the  j)reseut  boundaries  of  the  reserve.  Those 
of  late  years  have  all  started  there.  Others  have  come  in  by  way  of 
the  Pend  Oreille  Valley,  from  the  Metaline  mining  districts,  and  from 
other  real  or  supposedly  mineral  districts.  Still  others  have  oiaginated 
east  of  the  Pend  Oreille  divide  near  Lake  Pend  Oreille,  and  between  it 
and  the  Kootenai  River,  thence  spreading  westward  into  the  basin. 
The  areas  adjoining  the  reserve  are  indeed  more  devastated  by  fires 
than  those  coutanied  within  it.  Prospectors,  hunters,  and  trappers 
have  kindled  most  of  the  fires,  and  still  continue  to  do  this.  Large 
areas  in  the  main  Priest  Kiver  Valley,  in  the  dense  old  and  second 
growths,  have  been  burned  by  the  various  supervisors  in  charge  of  the 
wagon  road  from  Priest  Eiver  Station  to  the  south  end  of  Lower  Priest 
Lake.  They  set  fire  to  the  heaped-up  brush  along  the  side  of  the  road, 
aud  the  fire  spreads  thence  into  the  adjoining  timber  without  check  or 
hindrance.  This  is  done  as  an  expeditious  aud  inexpensive  way  of 
improving  a  wagon  road. 


234  FOREST    RESERVES. 

The  pecuuiary  loss  to  tho  (Government,  and  to  the,  eoinmuuity  in 
whose  neighborliood  the  burnt  areas  are  situated,  is  immense.  The 
marvelous  apathy  of  public  sentiment  at  the  destruction  of  such  impor- 
tant sources  of  wealth  as  the  Western  forests  can  only  be  accounted  for 
on  the  supposition  that  the  enormous  interests  involved  and  the  vast 
losses  that  the  forest  llres  cause  are  never  realized.  It  is  true  that  the 
forest  growth  in  the  Priest  River  Basin  has  been  exceptionally  heavy, 
and  that  therefore  the  losses  elsewhere,  on  areas  of  like  extent,  have 
not  been  so  great,  but  they  are  nevertheless  of  suflficieut  magnitude  in 
any  locality  to  demand  a  speedy  and  decided  change  in  public  sentiment. 

Our  estimates  place  the  tire  loss  in  forest  material  throughout  the 
Priest  River  Basin  for  the  last  thirty  years  at  4,488  million  feet  of  saw 
logs,  245,000,000  railroad  cross-ties,  and  6,000,000  telegraph  poles. 
These  have  a  monetary  value  in  the  forest  about  as  follows: 

4.488,800,000  feet  of  logs,  at  50  cents  per  thousand  feet $2,244,400 

245,  000, 000  ties,  at  2  cents  per  tie 4,900,000 

6,000,000  telegraph  poles,  at  5  cents  per  pole 300,  000 

Value  of  young  growth  during  thirty  years 1,500,000 

8,944,400 
Less  depreciation  by  windfalls,  etc 447,  220 

Net  loss 8,497,180 

These  figures  are  based  on  the  low  and  customary  stumpage  that 
obtains  now.  The  stumpage  loss,  however,  is  in  fact  but  a  small 
percentage  of  the  real  loss.  The  community  that  has  in  its  midst,  or 
adjacent  to  it,  a  large  area  of  mature  forest  in  a  state  of  good  preserva- 
tion has  a  mine  of  wealth,  if  not  at  once  in  the  not  far-distant  future. 
The  working  and  business  interests  of  such  a  community  are  the  chief 
losers  in  the  destruction  of  the  neighboring  forest.  It  has  in  the  past 
been  customary  to  compute  the  loss  from  forest  fires  on  the  basis  of 
stumpage,  but  any  account  that  does  not  include  the  losses  to  the 
working  and  business  interests  of  the  community  most  nearly  inter- 
ested fails  to  gage  the  matter  properly. 

To  brijig  the  products  of  the  forest  to  the  hands  of  the  consumer 
requires  a  large  amount  of  labor  of  various  sorts.  Large  sums  of 
money  are  brought  in  and  set  loose  in  ditferent  business  channels. 
Taking  this  into  account,  let  the  computation  be  based  on  the  value 
of  the  product  when  ready  for  consumption  at  the  mill  or  railroad 
track. 

4,488,800,000  feet  lumber,  at  $10  per  thousand $44, 888,  000 

245,000,000  railroad  ties,  at  20  cents  per  tie 49,000,000 

6,000,000  telegraph  poles,  at  25  cents  per  pole 1, 500,  000 

Value  of  young  growth  during  thirty  years 15, 000, 000 

110,  388, 000 
Less  depreciation  during  thirty  years 4,  447, 220 

Net  loss 105,940,780 


LKiBEEQ.l  PRIEST    RIVER    RESERVE.  235 

This  amount  could  readily  be  further  increased.  There  is  the  added 
loss  to  the  sections  obliged  to  import  lumber  from  long  distances,  owing 
to  the  supply  near  home  having  been  burned  up.  Then  the  value  of 
the  young  growth  is  placed  low — less  than  90  cents  per  acre  per  year — 
and  110  account  is  taken  of  the  utter  destruction  of  the  humus  of  the 
forest  floor  which  usually  ensues.  The  humus  is  absolutely  necessary 
to  a  lirst-class  growth  of  such  species  as  the  western  white  pine,  the 
tamarack,  the  cedar,  and  the  hemlocks;  and  one  of  the  most  serious 
results  of  forest  tires  is  the  destruction  of  this  vegetable  layer.  On 
areas  where  the  burning  of  it  has  been  complete,  it  may  reijuire  fully 
one  hundred  years  before  a  sutticient  depth  has  accumulated  to  make 
possible  the  growth  of  the  species  enumerated.  It  rarely  requires  less 
than  twenty  years,  unless  the  situation  is  exceptionally  favorable  as 
regards  moistuie. 

When  it  is  considered  t'nat  forest  fires  can  easily  be  kept  in  check, 
the  destruction  they  bring  seems  all  the  more  deplorable.  All  that  is 
required  is  an  active,  healthy  public  demand,  in  the  localities,  counties, 
or  States  where  they  occur,  that  they  must  cease,  and  a  proper  enforce- 
ment of  the  laws  bearing  on  the  subject.  But  so  long  as  people  living 
in  the  forested  districts  believe  in  and  applaud  the  sentiments  fre- 
quently heard  uttered  on  the  reserve,  so  long  fires  will  rage,  unless 
stopped  by  Government  interference.  It  has  been  a  common  occurrence 
to  hear  such  remarks  as,  "If  the  Government  intends  to  guard  and 
preserve  the  timber  from  fires  and  prevent  unlimited  cutting,  we  will  try 
to  burn  up  what  is  left  as  soon  as  possible;"  or,  "Since  the  reserve  has 
been  set  aside  every  prospector  carries  an  extra  box  of  matches  along 
to  start  forest  fires  with."  These  sayings  were  not  made  in  a  spirit  of 
bravado,  but  with  the  conviction  that  the  course  outlined  was  the 
proper  one  to  pursue  to  show  their  disapproval  of  Government  inter- 
ference in  what  they  have  heretofore  considered  their  rights,  namely, 
to  cut,  slash,  or  burn,  as  convenience  or  fancy  might  dictate.  Such 
sentiments  are  common  almost  everywhere  in  the  forested  region  in  the 
West  among  those  classes  whose  occupations  bring  them  into  closest 
touch  with  the  living  forest.  The  other  classes  care  but  little  one  way 
or  another.     It  is  deplorable  that  such  should  be  the  case. 

EFFECT   OF  FIRES   ON  REPRODUCTION. 

The  after  effects  of  fires  depend  on  the  season  of  the  year  in  which 
they  occur,  the  supply  of  moisture  to  the  portion,  slope,  or  terrace 
burned  over,  and,  last  and  most  important  in  the  white-pine  region,  the 
more  or  less  complete  incineration  of  the  humus,  as  this  layer  of  mold 
is  indispensable  to  the  growth  of  a  commercially  valuable  white-pine 
forest.  By  humus  is  here  meant  the  topmost  layer  of  the  forest  tioor, 
composed  of  decaying  pine  needles,  wood,  and  vegetable  debris  of  all 
sorts.  It  is  always  in  an  active  stage  of  decay,  accelerated  by  its 
ability  to  retain  moisture  and  by  the  vast  number  of  fungi  that  send 


236  FOREST   RESERVES. 

tbeir  mycelia  tlirougli  it  in  all  directious.  It  is  not  a  fertile  bed  for 
grasses  or  small  herbaceous  plants,  but  for  certain  forest  trees  it  is 
indispensable.  None  of  the  conifers  that  noruially  belong  to  the  white- 
pine  zone  possess  a  taproot.  Tiiey  penetrate  into  the  layer  of  soil  but 
a  lew  feet,  sending  out  their  roots  widely  Just  under  the  humus.  Forest 
fires  and  their  after  effects  vary  more  or  less  in  different  regions.  The 
account  here  given  of  the  tires  within  the  Priest  River  lieserve  are 
therefore  not  to  be  considered  as  furnishing  a  standard  applicable  to 
other  sections. 

Forest  fires  prevail  at  three  seasons  of  the  year:  Spring,  ft-om  late 
April  to  June;  summer,  from  the  middle  of  July  to  the  beginning  of 
September;  and  fall,  from  the  beginning  of  September  to  the  middle  of 
October.  Conflagrations  during  the  first  two  seasons  are  more  common ; 
during  the  latter  they  are  comparatively  rare  and  are  mostly  survivals 
of  the  summer  fires  not  quenched  by  the  fall  rains.  The  spring  fires 
burn  slowly  and  flame  but  little ;  the  humus  incinerates  slowly,  and  many 
patches  are  thoroughly  drenched  with  contained  moisture  and  do  not 
biirn;  the  subalpine  areas  are  covered  with  snow,  or  at  least  are 
extremely  wet,  and  fires  can  not  readily  spread  beyond  the  lower  zones, 
thei'efore  not  across  ridges  high  enough  to  touch  the  upper  zones.  The 
summer  fires  find  the  humus,  if  not  thoroughly  dry,  yet  suflicieutly  dry 
to  permit  rapid  incineration,  and  conifers  are  ready  to  shed  their  leaves, 
which  now  contain  little  moisture  but  sufficient  terebinthiue  matter  to 
flame  furiously,  communicating  the  fire  to  whatever  dead  branches  exist 
in  the  trees.  The  summer  fires  therefore  flame  considerably,  and  when 
fanned  by  a  strong  wind,  which  frequently  happens  in  this  basin,  open 
to  the  south,  burn  furiously.  Fires  at  this  season  are  most  destructive, 
and  encounter  no  particular  check  to  their  progress.  The  fall  fires 
resemble  those  that  occur  in  the  spring,  but  are  even  less  extensive. 

Fires  in  the  subalpine  zone  occur  in  the  summer.  If  very  early  they 
resemble  the  spring  fires  in  the  zones  below.  Occurring  on  the  high 
ridges,  the  wind  has  a  better  chance  to  accelerate  their  spread  and 
create  a  hotter  fire,  which  burns  the  humus  completely. 

Eeforestation  in  this  zone  proceeds  more  or  less  rapidly  according  to 
the  intensity  of  the  fire  and  the  slope  exposure.  In  general  it  is 
extremely  slow,  but  usually  the  same  species  that  occupied  the  ground 
originally  come  in  again  as  the  predominant  forest  growth.  Sometimes 
in  the  lower  edge  of  the  zone  a  preponderance  of  the  lodgepole  pine 
forms  the  growth,  but  usually  it  is  either  the  subalpine  fir  or  white- 
bark  pine,  or  both,  that  come  in  on  the  burnt  tracts.  On  areas  where 
the  fires  ran  in  the  early  summer  or  fall,  or  on  humid  northern  slopes, 
where  they  occurred  during  the  summer  and  did  not  wholly  destroy  the 
humus,  although  cooking,  killing,  and  partially  burning  the  forest, 
there  come  in,  as  the  first  attempt  at  reforesting,  dense  masses  of  Meu- 
ziesia  shrubs  with  a  liberal  admixture  of  alders  and  mountain  ash. 
These  shrubs  exist  everywhere  throughout  the  subalpine  zone  in  certain 
proportions  at  all  times.    Their  roots  extend  far  below  the  humus  into 


i-EiBERo.]  PRIEST    RIVER    RESERVE.  237 

the  uuderlyiug  rocky  soil,  aucl  they  are  not  extermiuated  by  a  slow 
spring  or  fall  fire.  After  the  forest  is  burned  they  often  attain  an 
excessive  development.  Their  density  is  such  that  they  effectually 
choke  out  all  seedlings  of  the  subalpine  forest  trees  for  long  periods  of 
time.  Eventually,  however,  the  oiigiual  sylva  again  covers  the  ground 
and  the  shrubs  die  out.  The  new  forest  develops  great  compactness, 
especially  on  slopes  well  provided  with  seepage;  the  trees  are  set  close 
and  are  too  slender  and  tall  to  resist  effectually  the  force  of  wind  and 
snow.  In  consequence  large  numbers  are  uprooted  annually,  never- 
theless, the  forest  regains  its  normal  open  character  very  slowly.  On 
slopes  that  have  been  ravaged  by  summer  fires  where  the  wind  has 
assisted  to  fan  the  flames  the  destruction  is  often  complete  to  the  entire 
extermination  of  the  roots  of  the  shrubs.  The  first  vegetation  to  appear 
after  such  a  fire  comes  in  the  form  of  small  herbaceous  plants,  promi- 
nent and  characteristic  among  them  being  Epilohium  angustifoJimn. 
The  shrubby  growth  comes  more  slowly,  fifteen  to  twenty  years  usually 
passing  before  the  ground  is  fairly  covered  with  it.  After  that  refor- 
estation proceeds  as  on  the  burnt  areas  of  the  early  summer  and  fall. 
When  the  exposure  of  the  clean-burnt  slope  is  toward  the  south  the 
primary  effect  is  sterility.  The  impact  of  wind  and  rain  is  sure  to  carry 
considerable  of  the  loose  soil  of  the  denuded  slope  into  the  canyons 
below,  leaving  it  bare  and  rocky.  If,  however,  suflicient  soil  is  left, 
various  species  of  alpine  grasses  and  sedges  obtain  a  footing.  Later 
the  bear  grass  supplants  the  grassy  growth,  and  in  its  turn  is  crowded 
out  by  dense  masses  of  the  vellum-leaved  Ceanothus  {Geanofhufi  reluti- 
mis)  or  the  thin  leaved  huckleberry  (  Vacciiiium  membranaceum),  which 
finally  prepare  the  soil  for  a  forest  growth  of  the  original  species,  more  or 
less  mixed  with  the  lodgepole  pine.  The  time  required  for  these  changes 
to  take  place  is  not  known,  but  must  be  centuries. 

Fires  in  the  white-pine  zone  are  more  widespread  and  destructive 
than  elsewhere.  The  humus  and  litter  are  much  greater  and  the  trees 
more  susceptible  to  the  killing  e&'ects  of  the  heat.  Most  of  the  destruc- 
tion is  wrought  by  the  slow  incineration  of  the  humus,  less  destruction 
by  the  flaming  process.  Hundreds  of  thousands  of  trees  were  seen  on 
the  reserve  that  presented  no  other  evidence  of  having  been  subjected 
to  fire  than  that  the  leaves  were  turned  red.  There  had  been  no  flam- 
ing, nothing  but  the  slow  cooking  of  the  roots,  which,  however,  killed 
as  surely  as  the  flames  could  have  doue.  The  wind  has  less  sweep  in 
the  white-pine  forest  than  on  the  subalpine  slopes;  therefore  it  is  rare 
to  find  an  area  burned  clean  by  the  forest  fire.  After  a  fire  the  wind 
soon  throws  down  the  dead  trees,  and  in  a  few  years,  when  the  mass  is 
dead  and  dry,  a  second  fire  thoroughly  cleans  up  the  accumulated 
wreckage.  The  phases  exhibited  by  the  reforesting  process  in  the 
white-pine  zone  are  normally  five,  up  to  the  time  that  the  forest  again 
begins  to  assume  the  appearance  characteristic  of  the  old  growth,  but 
sometimes  one  of  these  phases  is  lacking.  The  time  required  for 
reforesting  is  exceedingly  uncertain,  and  the  bulk  of  tlie  species  of 


238  FOREST    RESERVES. 

trees  tluit  at  first  appears  are  almost  invariably  others  than  the  white 
piue.  The  factor  that  determines  the  length  of  time  that  mnst  inter- 
vene between  a  burning  and  a  reforesting  with  the  original  species  is 
moisture  supply.  A  burnt-over  valley  terrace  exhibits  best  the  differ- 
ent aspects  of  the  process.  Let  us  suppose  that  it  is  a  case  where  the 
dead  trees  have  been  thrown  down  by  wind  and  the  debris  cleaned  up 
by  a  second  tire.  The  first  effect  is  sterility,  brought  on  in  part  by 
excessive  evaporatiouf  producing  aridity,  and  doubtless  in  part  by 
chemical  changes  in  the  top  layer  of  the  soil,  for  it  is  a  notable  fact 
that  the  iron  in  the  soil,  previously  existing  as  sulphurets,  is  desul- 
phurized and  oxidized,  coloring  the  soil  shades  of  red  and  brown.  Ou 
this  sterile  surface  mosses  begin  to  grow,  rolytrichum  jumperinum, 
Funaria  hytjrometrica  and  Lcptobryum  pyriformum  being  the  most  com- 
mon. Gradually  bei'baceous  plants  come  in  and  a  top  layer  of  mold  is 
formed,  representing  the  first  stage.  The  second  commences  when 
shrubs  begin  to  obtain  a  foothold.  In  dry  situations,  like  the  valley 
terraces  in  the  Priest  iiiver  Basin,  the  principal  shrubs  are  Gcanothiis 
velutinus,  G.  sanguineus,  Salix  jlavescens,  strictly  a  bush,  Populus  trem- 
vloides,  and  Amelanchier  alnifolia,  also  shrubby.  These  species  add  to 
the  top  layer  of  mold  one  in  which  decaying  leaves  constitute  the 
principal  part,  not  deep  but  sufficiently  retentive  of  moisture  to  serve 
as  a  seed  bed  for  the  conifer  that  conies  in  at  the  third  stage,  the  lodge- 
pole  pine.  It  comes  in  with  extreme  density,  soon  driving  out  nearly 
all  other  vegetation,  herljaceous  and  shrubby.  It  may  persist  in  that 
aspect  for  twenty-five  to  thirty-five  years,  but  is  gradually  thinned  out 
by  natural  processes  and  the  forest  floor  begins  to  be  covered  with  a 
sward  of  sedge,  usually  Carex  f/eyeri,  and  a  thin  growth  of  shrubs,  such 
as  Pachystima  myrtiinites,  Vacciniiim  ca'spitosum,  llolodiscus  discolor, 
and  Opulaster  malvaceus.  This  is  the  liumusforming  period,  which 
may  persist  for  more  than  a  hundred  years.  As  the  humus  accumu- 
lates the  fourth  stage  of  reforesting  begins  with  species  of  the  original 
forest  again  occupying  the  area,  bnt  the  restoration  of  the  ancient 
balance  between  the  species  is  a  very  slow  jjrocess.  The  fifth  process 
is  simply  the  growth  of  the  young  trees  as  they  progress  toward  the 
second  and  old  growths. 

When  the  white  pine  is  burned  ou  a  tract  of  low-lying  land  sujiplied 
with  plenty  of  moisture,  and  the  trees  are  thrown  down,  they  often 
remain  as  they  fall  until  they  decay.  The  logs  do  not  always  dry  out 
sufficiently  to  burn  the  second  time,  or  they  burn  but  partially.  If  the 
humus  is  burned  entirely  out  to  the  underlying  soil,  shrubs,  willows, 
alders,  and  the  like  are  the  first  to  put  in  an  appearance.  As  the  fallen 
logs  decay  a  humus  is  formed  that  serves  as  a  germinating  bed  for 
seeds  of  the  Merten  hemlock  and  the  cedar,  which  come  in  in  immense 
numbers  and  soon  cover  the  ground  with  a  compact  mass  of  seedlings. 
The  Merten  hemlock,  obtaining  a  hold  on  the  soil  in  such  localities, 
often  persists  for  ages  to  the  almost  complete  exclusion  of  the  white 
piue  and  tamarack.     Where  the  humus  is  not  completely  wiped  out. 


LEiBERQ.j  PRIEST    RIVER    RESERVE.  239 

the  white  pine,  tamarack,  and  white  fir  usually  come  in  from  the  first, 
mixed  to  some  extent  with  alders  and  willows. 

The  yelIow-])iDe  zone  has  little  humus — often  none  at  all.  Fires 
in  these  areas  burn  rapidly,  and  always  with  a  tlame.  The  grass  that 
covers  the  forest  floor  is  the  chief  agency  in  spreading  the  conflagra- 
tions. The  fires  occur  in  spring,  summer,  and  early  autumn,  especially 
in  late  summer  when  the  grass  is  dry.  The  destruction  is  greater 
where  the  red  fir  prevails  than  where  the  yellow  pine  is  the  priiu/ipal 
species.  The  yellow  pine  resists  the  Are  better  than  any  other  forest 
tree  in  this  region,  while  the  red  flr  is  readily  killed.  The  after 
effects  of  the  fires  here  also  depend  on  the  moisture  supply.  Both  the 
yellow  pine  and  the  red  fir  will  germinate  without  the  humus  layer, 
provided  there  is  sufficient  seepage  under  the  soil.  Seeds  of  the  yellow 
pine  will  germinate  if  there  be  but  a  moderately  grassy  forest  floor  for 
their  reception.  Where  the  yellow  pine  grows  the  forest  is  open  and 
the  ground  supports  a  grassy  growth.  The  fire  runs  rapidly,  but  does 
not  kill  out  the  grass,  which  comes  up  again  in  the  fall  of  the  same 
year  or  tlie  following  spring.  The  fires,  however,  destroy  the  year's 
seedling  plants,  thus  preventing  reproduction,  and  weaken  the  old 
trees  by  development  of  gum  cracks  and  barkless  pitch  streaks  that 
furnish  an  entrance  for  subsequent  fires  to  the  center  of  the  tree. 
Where  red  fir  prevails  in  the  zone  there  is  a  heavier  growth  of  timber 
and  brush,  with  some  humus.  The  fires  often  sweep  such  areas 
entirely  clean  of  living  timber.  If  there  is  no  seepage  near  the  sur- 
face the  soil  is  rendered  arid,  as  in  the  white-pine  terraces,  and  goes 
through  nearly  the  same  coarse  of  reforesting,  except  that  in  place  of 
the  lodgepole  pine  white  fir  often  comes  in.  Where  there  is  an  abun- 
dance of  seepage,  as  on  the  humid  slopes  of  the  spurs,  the  red  fir  may 
come  in  as  the  first  tree  in  the  reforesting  process  after  a  short 
course  of  willow  and  Geanothus  growth. 

It  may  be  well  to  summarize  briefly  the  conclusions  reached.  The 
effect  of  fires  in  the  subalpiue  zone  is  to  cause  permanent  deforested 
tracts  on  the  southern  slopes  above  water  level;'  below  this,  when 
exposure  of  slope  is  toward  the  west,  north,  or  east,  brush-covered 
ridges  for  an  indefinite  period,  reforesting  slowly,  but  with  preponder- 
ance from  the  first  of  the  species  that  composed  the  original  growth. 

The  after  ettects  of  fires  in  the  white-pine  zone  are  decided  sterility 
of  the  soil  on  valley  terraces,  coupled  with  aridity  due  to  excessive 
evaporation ;  in  low  places,  and  on  north,  east,  and  west  slopes,  densely 
brush-covered  tracts.  Reforesting  proceeds  slowly  on  lands  of  the 
former  character,  but  more  rapidly  on  the  latter,  provided  the  humus  is 
not  wholly  destroyed.  Lodgepole  pine  is  usuallj^  the  first  tree  in  the  re- 
foresting process  on  the  bench  lauds ;  cedar,  Merten  hemlock,  and  Eugel- 
mann  spruce  on  the  lowlands  and  on  humid  slopes;  on  south  slopes, 

'  Water  level  ia  the  line  ou  any  given  slope  where  the  seepage  from  the  crest  above  first  comes  to 
the  surface.  It  varies  with  changes  in  angle  of  slope,  dip,  and  strike  of  the  strata,  Assuring  of  the 
rock  formation,  etc. 


240  FOREST   RESERVES. 

lodgeiiole  pine  and  red  fir.  The  approximate  time  required  to  reestab- 
lisli  the  wbitepine  fore.st  through  natural  i)ro(;esses  is  from  eighty  to 
one  hundred  and  fifty  years  on  bench  lands;  twenty  to  eighty  years  on 
lowlands  and  north,  east,  and  west  slopes  of  mountains;  and  apparently 
centuries,  in  some  cases,  on  south  slopes.  Approximately  sixty  to  one 
hundred  and  twenty  years  is  required  after  reestabllshment  of  the  forest 
before  it  will  supply  merchantable  timber.  The  total  time  required, 
under  the  most  favorable  circumstances,  for  the  white-pine  forest  to 
furnish  merchantable  timber  after  destruction  by  fire  is  one  hundred 
and  sixty  to  two  hundred  and  seventy  years  on  bench  lands  and  ter- 
races, eighty  to  two  hundred  years  on  lowlands  and  humid  slopes  of  the 
elevations,  and  several  centuries  on  the  dry  southern  slopes. 

The  results  from  fire  in  the  yellow-pine  zone  are:  Where  the  yellow 
pine  predominates,  entire  cessation  of  reproduction  by  the  repeated 
burning  of  the  seedlings  and  very  young  trees,  slow  but  certain 
destruction  of  the  large  growing  timber,  and  enlargement  of  the  grass 
tracts,  which  eventually  become  covered  with  brush  growth;  where 
the  red  fir/ is  the  prevailing  tree,  excessively  dense  development  of 
brush  on  the  burnt-over  land.  Reforesting  in  the  yellow-pine  districts 
begins  as  soon  as  fires  cease,  with  yellow  pine,  red  fir,  and  lodgepole 
pine;  and  in  the  red  fir  districts,  with  red  fir  and  white  flron  the  drier 
tracts  and  lodgepole  pine  on  the  more  humid.  The  brush  period  lasts 
from  fifteen  to  fifty  years  before  the  original  type  of  forest  is  reestab- 
lished, but  where  lodgepole  pine  growth  has  become  firmly  fixed  the 
time  is  indefinite. 

AGRICUIiTURAr,  LAI^D. 

The  Priest  River  Reserve  is  a  forest  region.  Its  natural  peculiai'i- 
ties  are  such  that  it  can  never  become  an  agricultural  section,  and  all 
efforts  to  make  it  such  should  be  discontinued.  Its  chief  value  lies  in 
the  immense  forest  growth  it  is  capable  of  maintaining,  and  in  whatever 
mineral  deposits  time  may  disclose. 

The  agricultural  lands  amount  to  about  9,990  acres,  distributed  as 
follows : 

Acres. 

East  half  of  reserve 1,  850 

West  half  of  reserve 6. 9-10 

Pend  Oreille  Valley 1,  200 

Total 9,990 

Situated,  as  to  localities,  as  stated  in  table  on  pages  251-252. 
These  lands  consist  of  tracts  covered  with  coarse  sedges  or  grass; 
sphagnous  bogs  capable  of  being  reclaimed;  alder  and  willow  swamps 
too  wet  for  forest  growth ;  and,  in  the  valley  of  Pend  Oreille  River,  of 
grass  lands  subject  to  overflow,  and  of  cleared  lands  on  the  benches 
adjacent  to  the  streams.    The  agricultural  lands  within  the  reserve  are 


LEiBEBG]  PRIEST    RIVER    RESERVE.  241 

found  adjoining  the  streams.  They  are  nearly  always  wet  and  swampy, 
but  may  be  reclaimed  by  ditching.  The  bulk  of  these  lands  is  situated 
in  the  western  half  of  the  reserve,  where  the  rock  formation  is  softer 
and  in  consequence  the  valleys  are  broader  and  more  level.  Some  tracts 
are  clear  of  brush;  others  require  removal  of  the  mass  of  willows  and 
alders  that  covers  them.  The  clearing  of  the  latter  class  is  not  diflicult 
and  only  moderately  expensive. 

All  of  the  partially  clear  or  grassy  tracts  are  held  by  settlers,  as  are 
some  of  the  alder  and  willow  swamps.  The  natural  meadows  are  util- 
ized for  hay  production,  the  sedges  and  grass  furnishing  a  sort  of  coarse 
hay.  In  a  few  cases  small  patches  of  the  boggy  meadow  land  have 
been  ditched.  In  such  cases  crops  of  oats,  potatoes,  and  common  gar- 
den vegetables  have  been  raised.  Along  the  Lower  West  Fork  a  few 
acres  of  the  natural  meadows  have  been  seeded  to  timothy.  Nearly 
all  these  lands  are  subject  to  frost  at  any  time  during  the  growing  sea- 
son. Crops  of  potatoes  or  garden  vegetables  are  therefore  never  cer- 
tain. There  is  no  market  for  farm  products  within  the  reserve.  Were 
such  articles  produced  in  greater  quantities  than  the  home  demand 
required  they  could  not  be  shipped.  There  is  no  cheap  transportation 
available  to  the  railway,  and  if  there  were  the  producer  would  come 
into  competition  with  like  articles  trom  other  sections  where  they  can 
be  grown  much  cheaper. 

The  agricultural  lands  are  separated  by  blocks  of  green  or  burnt 
forests.  If  any  attempt  at  segregation  is  made,  they  will  have  to  be 
separated — each  small  parcel  by  itself — in  order  to  avoid  cutting  out 
the  intervening  areas  of  timber  from  the  reserve. 

The  lands  in  the  Pend  Oreille  Valley  are  situated  in  the  southeast 
corner  of  the  reserve.  Some  consist  of  low  flats  near  the  river  and  are 
periodically  inundated,  others  are  clearings  made  in  the  yellow-pine 
timber  on  the  bench  lands.  These  lands  are  far  more  valuable  for  agri- 
culture than  those  in  the  Priest  River  Basin,  and  being  nearly  in  a  body, 
can  readily  be  segregated. 

The  actual  values  of  all  agricultural  improvements  in  the  reserve  to 
date  are  insignificant.  There  are  many  squatter's  claims,  but  only  a 
minimum  of  cultivation  has  been  done  on  any  of  these.  There  is  not 
a  single  holding  that. produces  nearly  enough  for  the  support  of  even  a 
small  family.  Agricultural  settlements  date  back  seven  years,  but  the 
total  of  all  lands  in  the  basin  brought  under  the  plow  since  that  time 
does  not  exceed  70  acres.  Of  this,  perhaps  30  acres  represent  brush 
clearings,  20  acres  ditched  and  drained  meadows  and  bogs,  and  15  acres 
clearings  on  bench  lands  burned  off  by  forest  fires. 

Agricultural  improvements  on  the  lands  in  the  Pend  Oreille  Valley 
are  of  a  more  substantial  character.  Between  150  and  200  acres  are 
under  the  plow  there.  In  the  heavy  timber  south  of  Lower  Priest  Lake 
considerable  land  has  been  surveyed  and  subdivided,  especially  in  town- 
ship 57.  There  is  here  scarcely  a  quarter  section,  on  any  eveu-num- 
19  GEOL,  PT  5 16 


242  FOREST    RESERVES. 

bered  section,  carrying  a  good  body  of  white  pine  that  has  not  a  squat- 
ter's claim  on  it,  ostensibly  for  agricultural  purposes;  yet  it  is  a  positive 
fact  that  after  seven  years  of  settlement  there  is  not  in  the  basin  a  total 
of  5  acres  cleared  from  the  living  white-pine  forest. 

Such  claims  at  the  present  time  consist  simply  of  a  log  cabin  of 
the  rudest  kind  surrounded  by  a  "clearing,"  which  means  a  more  or 
less  completely  burnt  area  involving  the  destruction  of  1,000,000  to 
4,000,000  feet  of  merchantable  timber.  These  burnings  Avere  made 
with  the  purpose  in  view  of  establishing  a  lawful  holding  with  habita- 
tion and  improvements.  The  parties  claiming  these  tracts  live  on 
them  but  a  short  time  during  the  year,  there  being  absolutely  no  way 
to  gain  a  livelihood  from  the  laud  with  its  present  "improvements." 

The  boggy  meadows  and  brush-covered  tracts  along  the  streams  have 
here  been  considered  as  agricultural  lands.  That  has  been  done  for 
the  reason  that  under  proper  supervision  and  rules  agricultural  opera- 
tions on  such  lands  need  not  necessarily  infringe  on  the  forest.  It 
would  be  an  entirely  practical  matter,  however,  to  drain  these  lands 
at  small  expense,  when  they  would  soon  become  covered  with  a  dense 
forest  growth.  No  sheep  are  pastured  in  the  reserve.  Several  hundred 
head  of  stock  belonging  to  settlers  living  south  of  the  lower  lake  range 
through  the  white-pine  forest,  but  they  do  no  material  damage. 

MINERAIi  RESOURCES. 

At  the  present  time  there  are  known  to  exist  three  mineral-bearing 
belts,  one  in  the  region  above  the  upper  lake,  one  in  the  central  por- 
tion, and  one  midway  between  the  lower  lake  and  the  south  line  of  the 
reserve.  Two  of  these  belts  have  their  long  diameter  easterly  and 
westerly,  and  very  likely  stretch  entirely  across  the  reserve,  while  the 
northern  one  lies  in  a  northerly  and  southerly  direction.  A  great 
many  quartz  claims  have  been  located  in  the  mineral-bearing  zones. 
There  are  none  sufficiently  developed  as  yet  to  prove  the  region  a  com- 
mercially profitable  one  in  the  valuable  metallic  minerals.  It  is  well 
within  the  range  of  possibility  that  profitable  discovei-ies  will  event- 
ually be  made  in  this  direction. 

CONCLUSIONS. 

The  Priest  River  Eeserve  is  admirably  situated  for  sylviculture.  It 
needs  no  experiments  in  this  direction,  but  merely  immunity  from  for- 
est fires  and  encroachments,  ostensibly  for  agricultural  purposes,  but 
in  reality  for  purposes  of  rapine  on  the  merchantable  forest.  If  pro- 
tected, nature  will  do  the  reforesting.  It  is  a  demonstrable  fact  that 
ujiless  active  measures  are  taken  for  policing  the  reserve  the  present 
timber  will  soon  share  the  fate  of  the  other  portions  of  the  once  mag- 
nificent forest.    Mere  reserve  lines  will  have  no  effect  whatever  iu 


.1       SETTLEMENT   ON    A    NATURAL    MEADOW   AT  JUNCTION    OF    EAST 
RIVER 


aQUATTER  S    HUT    NEAR    REEDER   CREEK. 


LEiBERG.]  PRIEST    RIVER    RESERVE.  243 

preventiug  the  destruction  so  loug  as  public  seutiment  regarding  forest 
preservation  remains  indifferent.  The  forest  fire  evil  is  gigantic  and 
appalling.  If  not  checked,  within  twenty  five  years  there  will  be  no 
accessible  forests  to  furnish  lumber  products  between  the  Rocky  Moun- 
tains and  the  Cascades  except  such  tracts  as  are  under  private  owner- 
ship. Up  to  the  present  time  the  public  has  not  suffered  any  particu- 
lar mconvenieuce  from  the  tires,  but  signs  are  rapidly  maltiplying  that 
a  pinch  is  beginning  to  be  felt  in  the  home  timber  supply.  If  the  next 
ten  years  sees  as  large  a  percentage  of  burnt-over  tracts  as  the  last 
decade,  the  pinch  will  become  decidedly  painful.  To  combat  the  evil 
heroic  measures  are  necessary.  A  condition  confronts  us  that  is  not  a 
mere  distant  shadow,  but  a  stern  jiresent  reality.  To  compromise  it  is 
to  stultify  ourselves.  It  will  never  cease  so  long  as  there  is  an  acre  of 
public  forest  to  burn  unless  we  lirmly  put  an  end  to  the  evil  and  accom- 
plish by  coercive  measures  what  an  appeal  to  logic  has  failed  to  pro- 
duce. The  Priest  River  Reserve  as  a  fire-swept  region  is  no  worse 
devastated  than  many  other  regions  in  Idaho  and  Washington.  There 
are,  however,  in  some  other  places  compensation,  small  as  it  is,  iu  the 
fact  that  portions  of  the  denuded  tracts  are  utilized  for  agricultural 
purposes.  In  this  reserve,  on  the  contrary,  for  the  tens  of  thousands 
of  acres  burned  over  and  the  millions  of  dollars'  worth  of  timber 
destroyed  there  is  absolutely  no  gain  to  show.  If  it  is  intended  to 
make  a  permanent  reserve  of  the  Priest  River  Basin,  agricultural 
settlements  shoukl  be  rigorously  confined  to  the  parcels  of  land  now 
naturally  devoid  of  timber.  I  do  not  consider  the  burnt  tracts  as 
coming  under  this  category.  The  denuded  areas  are  still  to  all  intents 
and  purposes  timber  lands,  requiring  only  sufficient  time  for  reforest- 
ing. It  would  be  better  to  exclude  agricultural  operations  altogether 
from  the  reserve.  Failing  iu  this,  no  claim  should  be  permitted  to 
extend  into  the  forest,  even  if  it  became  necessary  to  break  up  the 
legal  subdivisions  into  fractional  parts.  Existing  squatters'  claims 
on  the  timbered  lands  in  the  reserve  should  be  ignored  as  regards  any 
acquired  "rights." 

To  prevent  further  destruction,  the  reserve  should  be  policed.  There 
are  no  tracts  of  equal  extent  iu  this  region  that  can  be  guarded  so  easily 
and  with  so  little  expense.  The  past  burnings  have  nearly  surrounded 
it  on  three  sides  with  denuded  areas,  which  for  years  to  come  will  act  as 
natural  ramparts.  The  danger  lies  from  within  and  from  along  the  south 
line.  To  guard  it  effectually,  a  patrol  of  six  men  from  the  1st  of  April  to 
the  15th  of  October,  during  the  first  year,  furnished  with  at  least  twelve 
horses  and  the  necessary  equipments,  would  be  required.  Two  stations 
should  be  provided  for  the  patrol,  located  on  the  natural  meadows  of  the 
reserve,  so  as  to  furnish  the  necessary  pasturage  and  hay  for  the  ani- 
mals. Buildings  suitable  for  quarters  should  be  erected,  for  which  the 
adjacent  forest  would  furnish  the  material.  There  should  be  one  station 
just  above  the  junction  of  the  East  Fork  and  main  Priest  River,  and  the 


244  FOREST    RESERVES. 

other  ou  Reeder  Creek,  about  4  miles  west  from  the  lake  shore.  During 
the  summer  the  patrol,  in  conjunction  with  police  duties,  should  build 
trails  to  connect  the  stations  and  the  diflereut  portions  of  the  reserve. 
The  burut  areas,  with  their  huge  masses  of  debris,  make  traveling 
without  a  trail  slow,  and  in  many  places  impossible.  Trails  should  be 
built  as  follows:  One  from  the  south  end  of  the  lower  lake  along  the 
lake  shore  to  the  north  end  of  the  reserve,  following  the  valley  of  the 
Cpper  Priest  River  to  its  head;  one  from  the  point  where  the  present 
wagon  road  crosses  Blue  Creek  to  the  summit  of  Priest  River  Range, 
along  this  creek  or  on  adjoining  slopes;  one  up  the  East  Fork  to  the 
summit  of  the  rauge;  one  up  Bear  Creek,  and  one  up  Caribou  Creek, 
both  to  the  summit  of  the  range;  and,  on  the  west  side,  a  trail  from  the 
south  line  of  the  reserve,  on  the  west  bank  of  the  river,  turning  up 
lower  West  Fork  and  following  it  to  its  head,  thence  along  the  Pend 
Oreille  divide  to  the  north  end  of  the  reserve,  and  turning  southeast- 
erly down  Gold  Creek  to  its  junction  with  Upper  Priest  River,  thence 
along  the  west  side  of  the  lake  and  river  to  a  point  opposite  the  junc- 
tion of  East  Fork  and  Priest  River,  which  should  there  be  crossed. 
From  this  trail  side  trails  should  be  run  as  necessity  may  demand. 

This  system  of  trails,  with  the  roads  already  existing,  would  render 
all  the  vulnerable  portions  of  the  reserve  easy  of  access  and  capable 
of  being  thoroughly  patrolled.  After  the  lirst  construction  of  these 
trails,  three  men  with  the  necessary  horses  would  be  sufficient  to  police 
efficiently  the  entire  area  embraced  in  the  reserve  as  at  present 
limited. 

TABLES. 

LIST  OF  SPECIES. 

Species  of  forest  tries. 

I.— ALWAYS  ARBORESCENT. 

Pinus  albicaulis White-bark  pine. 

F.  murrayana Lodgepole  piue. 

P.  ponderosa Yellow  pine. 

P.  nionticola Western  white  pine. 

Abies  grandis White  fir. 

A.  lasiocarpa Subalpiue  or  balsam  fir. 

Tsuga  mertensiana Merten  hemlock. 

Thuya  plicata Cedar. 

Pseudotsnga  taxifolia Hemlock-spruce,  red  fir,  etc. 

Picea  engelmanni Engelmann  spruce. 

Laris  occidentalis Western  tamarack. 

Betula  occidentalis Western  birch. 

B.  papyracea Paper  or  canoe  birch. 

Populus  tremuloldes Aspen. 

P.  balsamifera Balm  of  Gilead. 

P.  trichocarpa Cottonwood. 


LEiiiERG.)  PRIEST    RIVER    RESERVE.  245 

II.-VARYING  FKOil  SHRUBS  TO  TREES. 

Amelanchier  aluifolia Service  berry. 

Salix  nuttallii Nuttall  willow. 

S.  lasiandra Willow. 

Acer  glabrum Maple. 

Prunus  douglasii Cherry. 

Juniperns  virginiaua Red  cedar. 

Taxus  brevifolia Yew. 

Species  of  trees  in  the  Priest  Biver  lieserre  utilized  as  lumber  trees. 

Pinus  ponderosa Yellow  pine. 

P.  monticola Western  wbite  pine. 

Tsuga  mertensiana Merten  hemlock. 

Thuya  plicata Cedar. 

Pseudotsuga  taxifolia Hemlock-spruce,  red  fir,  etc. 

Picea  engelmanni Engelmanu  epriioe. 

Larix  occidentalis Western  tamarack. 

Populus  balsamifera Balsam  poplar. 

P.  tiichocarpa Cottonwood. 

PROPORTION  OF  SPECIES. 

Proportion  of  trees  composiny  the  forests. 

I— IN  THE  ENTIRE  FOREST  AREA'. 

Pinus  monticola 33 

Lari.x  occidentalis 25 

Pseudotsuga  taxifolia 15 

Abies  lasiocarpa 8 

Pinus  murrayana 7 

Thuya  plicata 6 

Picea  engelmanni 3 

Tsuga  mertensiana 2 

Pinus  pouderosa (^) 

P.  albicaulis (•) 

Abies  grandis (- ) 

Betula  papyracea (-) 

B.  occidentalis (-) 

Populus  tremuloides (2) 

P.  trichocarpa (-) 

P.  balsamifera (•; 

n.— IN  THE  SUBALPINE  ZONE. 

Abies  lasiocarpa 70 

Pinus  albicaulis 28 

Picea  engelmanni 1 

Larix  occidentalis 

Pinus  monticola 

P.  murrayana 

Populus  tremuloides 

Pseudotsuga  taxifolia 

1  In  this  table  are  included  only  indivldaals  of  the  species  enumerated  having  diameters  near  the 
ground  of  4  inches  and  upward  and  showing  a  distinct  trunk. 

2  Trifling. 


246 


FOREST    RESERVES. 


Ill— IN  THE  WHITE  PINE  ZONE. 

PinuB  moiitioola 42 

Larix  occideutalis 35 

Thuya  )>licata 8 

Picea  engelmamii 6 

Tsuga  inertensiana 3 

Abies  granilis 2 

Species  of  Populus,  Betula,  etc 4 

IV.— IN  THE  TELLOW.PINE  ZOXE. 

Pinus  pomlerosa 10 

Pseudotsuga  tasifolia 70 

Abies  grandis 15 

Species  of  Populus,  Betula,  Acer,  Salix,  aud  Amelanchier 5 

Proportion  of  lumber  trees  of  commercial  8i:e. 

(By  commercial  size  is  understood  a  measurement  of  16  inches  aud  apward  at  the  base.] 

Pinus  monticola  .-^ 50 

Larix  occidentalis 41 

Pseudotsuga  tasifolia 5 

Thuya  plicata 2 

Pinus  ponderosa 1 

Picea  engelmanni (') 

Tsuga  mertensiana (') 

Populus  tricbocarpa (') 

P.  balsauiifera (') 


SIZE  AND  AGE  OF   TREES. 

Mange  in  size  and  aiic  of  trees. 

IBy  clear  trunks  is  meant  height  to  first  branches  of  distinctive  crown.] 

I.— SUBALPINE  ZONE,  MATURE  FOBEST.= 


Species. 

Height. 

Diameter. 

Clear  trunks. 

Age. 

Feet. 

Feel. 

Feet. 

Tears. 

Abies  lasiocarpa 

20  to    60 

1  toli 

10  to  25 

40  to  100 

Pinus  albicaulis 

20  to    50 

1  to3 

0to20 

50  to  200 

Picea  engelmanni 

40  to    60 

1  toli 

0to30 

30  to    90 

Pinus  munayaua 

40  to    60 

ItoH 

20  to  25 

100  to  150 

Larix  occideutalis 

60  to  100 

lto2 

30  to  50 

80  to  100 

Pinus  monticola 

80  to  150 

lto2| 

30  to  60 

50  to  120 

Pseudotsuga  taxifolia . . . 

30  to  100 

lto4 

0  to60 

50  to  — 

Populus  tremuloides 

20  to    25 

itoH 

0 

» Trifling. 

'The  larger  heights  and  diameters  are  found  near  the  lower  limits  of  the 
tades  above  5,500  feet. 


the  smaller  at  alti- 


PRIEST    RIVER    RESERVE. 


247 


Eange  in  size  and  age  of  trees — ^Continued. 
II.— WHITEPINE  ZONE,  OLD  TO  SECOND  GROWTH. 


Species. 

Height. 

Diameter. 

Clear  trunks. 

Age. 

Pinus  monticola 

Larix  occideutalis 

Pinus  murrayana 

Pseudotsuga  taxlfolia  .. 

Thuya  plicata 

Picea  engelmanni  

Tsuga  merteusiana .... 

Abies  grandis  (c) 

Betiila  papyraeea 

B.  occideutalis 

Populns  tremuloides 

Feet. 
150  to  250 
150  to  200 
60  to  100 
80  to  150 
80  to  120 
80  to  100 

100  to  120 

20  to    70 
50  to    75 
Small. 
20  to    40 
50  to  100 

Feet. 
2  to  5 
2  to  4 
itoli 
li  to  2i 
o  2  to  3^ 
itoli 

6  li  to  3 

f  tol 
1  to  2 

Feet. 
80  to  120 
50  to  120 
20  to    60 
50  to    90 
25  to    60 
Oto    30 

0  to    30 

0 
0 

Tears. 

200  to  375 

175  to  420 

30  to    90 

100  to  200 

120  to  800 

50  to  120 

1     100  to  200 

I           to  500 

30  to    75 

i  to  1 
■  li  to  3 

10  to    20 
20  to    40 

a  Rarely  up  to  8  feet.  b  Rarely  up  to  5  feet. 

c  Rarely  3  feet  in  diameter,  with  cle.Tr  trunks  40  to  80  feet  in  height. 


III.— YELLOW. PIXE  ZONE,  MATURE  FOREST. 


50  to    90 
50  to  100 

lito3 
l}to2 
Small. 
Small. 

20  to  40 
20  to  60 

.  80  to  200 
80  to  150 

Pseudotsuga  taxifola.  .... 

AREAS  OF  FOREST   ZONES. 
Areas  occupied  by  each  forest  zone. 


Zone. 


Yellow  pine. 
White  pine. . 
Subalpine  fir 

Total  - . 


60,  000 
480,  000 
60,  000 


600,  000 


In  estimating  the  areas  of  the  different  zones  regard  is  had  to  the 
species  of  forest  trees  that  grew  on  the  various  tracts  before  their 
deforestation  by  fires  began  about  thirty  years  ago,  and  not  to  the 
present  conditions  of  the  bunit  areas. 


248 


FOREST   RESERVES. 


.       AMOUNT  AND  VALUE  OF  TIMBER. 
listimate  of  standing  merchantable  timber. 
SAW  TIMBER. 

In  the  absence  of  surveys  the  various  areas  are  computed  from 
estimates  as  to  the  relative  percentages  that  each  bears  to  the  total 
area  embraced  in  the  reserve,  which  is  reckoned  at  620,000  acres, 
exclusive  of  tracts  xiermanently  covered  with  water. 


Acres. 

Average  per 
acre. 

Total. 

134,400 

60,  800 

28, 800 

3,840 

150, 000 

FeetB.M. 

4,000 

8,000 

20,  000 

40, 000 

1,000 

Feet  B.  31. 
537,  600,  000 
486,  400,  000 
576, 000,  000 
153,  600, 000 
150,  000,  000 

377,  840 

1,903,000,000 

In  this  estimate  only  trees  having  a  diameter  of  16  incnes  at  tne  base 
are  included,  and  only  such  species  as  are  commonly  sawed  in  this 
region,  for  enumeration  of  which  see  table  on  p.  245. 

Living  timber  only  is  included  in  the  above  estimates.  The  amount 
of  standing  dead  timber  can  not  be  computed  even  approximately.  It 
varies  from  day  to  day,  depending  on  the  force  and  direction  of  the 
wind,  on  rain,  snow,  the  degree  of  rot  in  the  dead  trunk  and  the  position 
of  the  decay,  together  with  the  age  of  the  burn,  its  location  and  exposure, 
the  more  or  less  complete  burning  of  the  humus,  the  character  of  the 
soil,  and  many  other  factors. 

RAILROAD  TIES. 


Acres          ,  Average  Dum- 
Acres.        1  ^g^  pg^  ^^^ 

Total. 

1 
60, 800     i              296 

134, 400                  755 

28,800     1              100 

3,800     i               55 

160,000                    84 

17, 998, 800 

101,  472,  000 

2,  880,  000 

211,  200 

13,  440, 000 

387,800     

136,  000, 000 

j 

This  gives,  at  20  feet  per  tie,  a  total  of  2,720,000,000  feet  B.  M.  Trees 
having  diameters  at  the  ground  of  8  to  16  inches  are  considered  tie 
timber.    The  following  species  are  included  in  the  list: 


Paeudotsuga  taxi  folia. 
Larix  occidentalis. 


Tsuga  mertensiana. 
Thuya  plicata. 


PRIEST    RIVER    RESERVE. 

Estimate  of  standing  merchant-able  timber — Continued 
TELEGRAPH  POLES. 


249 


Acres. 

Average  per 
acre. 

Total. 

20,  000 
150,  000 

30 
10 

600,  000 
1,  500,  000 

170,  000 

2, 100, 000 

This  gives,  at  100  feet  per  pole,  a  total  of  210,000,000  feet  B.  M.  The 
only  species  utilized  for  purposes  of  telegrajih  poles  in  this  region  is 
Thuya  plicata,  which  is  not  abundantlyrepresented  in  the  forests  of  the 
reserve. 


RECAPITULATION. 


Kind  of  timber. 

FeetB.M. 

1,  903,  600,  000 

2,  720, 000,  000 
210,  000,  000 

Total 

4, 833, 600, 000 

Estimated  value  on  root  of  standing  timber. 


Kind  of  timber. 

j      Amount. 

Average 

stilmpage 

value. 

Total  value. 

Saw  logs... 

Ties 

Poles 

Total 

...M.  feet. 
..number. 
do... 

.      1,903,600 
.  |136, 000, 000 
.1     2,100,000 

i 

$0.50 
.02 
.05 

$951,  800 

2, 720,  000 

105,  000 

3,  776,  800 

1 

Approximate  value  of  timber  when  ready  for  consumption  at  first  point  of  manufactur*. 


Kind  of  timber. 

A—*-  ;  ^^^^^ 

Total  value. 

1,903,600  [      $10.00 

136,000,000              .20 

2, 100,  000  1            .25 

$19,  036,  000 

27, 200,  000 

525,000 

Poles do 

Total ' 1 

46,  761.  000 

Living  timber  only  is  included  in  above  estimates.    Dead  timber  there 
has  no  commercial  value. 


250 


FORKST  BESKRVES. 


DESTRUCTION    BY    HIRES. 

Etlimale  of  mrrchantahU  timber  rontumeii  by  foreit  firm  in  (Ac  Intt  thirty  year: 

SAW  TIMIIKK. 


Aon*. 

Avenge  per 
■ore. 

Total  deelroj'Nl. 

134,400 

60,800 

28,800 

3,840 

100,000 
50,000 

160,000 

»«( II.  M. 

1,000 
800 
200 

20,  (WO 
30,000 
5,000 

Ftel  It.  it. 

i:m,  400, 000 

48,  MO.  000 
5,  -liO,  000 

2, 000, 000, 000 

1,500,000,000 

800, 000. 000 

537,840 

4,488,800,000 

RAILROAD  TIES. 


Number. 

Knmber. 

50,000 
100,000 
120, 000 
250,000 

20,000 

30 

100 

800 

1,500 

3,000.000 

12,  000,  000 

200,  IHK),  000 

30, 00<  1,000 

540,000 

245,000,000 

TELEGRAPH   POLES. 


200,000 

30                 6, 000, 000 

Estimated  value  of  limber  burned. 

4,488,800,000  feet,  .it  50  cents  per  thousand $2,244,400 

245,000,000  ties,  at  2  cents  per  tie 4,  9(H),  000 

6,000,{XX)  telegr.nph  jioles,  at  5  cents  per  pole 300,  (XK) 

Value  of  young  growth  during  thirty  years 1, 500, 000 


Less  5  per  cent  ilepreeiation  caused  by  windfalls,  rot,  etc.,  during  thirty 


8,  044. 400 


Total 8, 497, 180 

Approximate  raliie  of  timber  burned  at  fimt  point  of  manufacture. 

4,488,800,000  feet  saw  logs,  at  -tlO  per  thousand  feet $44. 888. 000 

24.'),O00.00O  ties,  at  20  cents  per  tie 49.0(XI.000 

6,000,000  telegraph  poles,  at  25  cents  per  pole 1.50(1.  (MK) 

Value  of  young  growth  during  tliirty  years 15, 000, 000 

110,388,000 
Less  depreciation  in  value  during  thirty  years  cau.sed  by  rot,  windfalls, 
etc - 4,447,220 


Total 105,940,780 


LEiBERG.]  PRIEST    RIVER    RESERVE  251 

SUMMARY. 

Estimnte  of  nvailabJe  sound  limber. 

Feet.      . 
Total  amount  of  standing  merchantable  timber 4, 833, 600,  000 

Young  growth  less  than  110  years  old,  from  8  to  16  inches  in  diameter, 

about  65  per  cent,  or 3, 141, 840,  000 

Second  and  old  growths  over  110  years  old  and  16  inches  in  diameter, 
about  35  per  cent,  or 1,691,760,000 

Total 4,  833,  600,  000 

Solid  young  growth,  about  40  per  cent,  or 1,  256,  736,  000 

Young  growth  mixed  with  old  and  second  growths,  about60  per  cent,  or.  1,  885, 104, 000 

Total  young  growth 3, 141, 840, 000 

Accessible  solid  young  growth,  about  60  per  cent,  or 754, 041,  600 

Accessible  young  growth  mixed  with  second  and  old  growths,  about 

70  per  cent,  or 1,319,572,800 

Accessible  young  growth 2, 073,  614,  400 

Accessible  old  and  second  growths,  about  80  per  cent,  or 1,  353,  408,  000 

Total  accessible  timber,  about  70.9  per  cent,  or 3,  427,  022,  400 

Amounts  that  may  be  safely  cut  from  the  accessible  places  with  due  regard  to  the 
strength  of  the  forest. 
Young  growth :  Feet. 

Of  solid  growth,  about  50  per  cent,  or 377,020,800 

In  mixed  old  and  second  growths none. 

Total  young  growth 377,020,800 

Old  and  second  growths: 

Of  old  growth,  reckoned  at  20  per  cent,  about  80  per  cent,  or 270, 681, 600 

Of  second  growth,  reckoned  at  80  per  cent,  about  30  per  cent,  or.       406,  022,  400 

Total  old  and  second  growths 676,  704, 000 

Total  available  merchantable  timber 1,  053,  724,  800 

Cord  wood  and  fencing  material  are  excluded  from  above  estimates. 
Fencing  material  is  an  uncertain  factor  and  cord  wood  has  no  other 
value  in  the  reserve  than  the  labor  expended  upon  it. 

Aijricultural  lands. 

Acres. 

Fork  of  Upper  Priest  River  (Gold  Creek) 300 

North  end  of  Upper  Priest  Lake 280 

North  end  of  Lower  Priest  Lake 200 

Upper  Granite  Creek 500 

Reeder  Creek 1^  030 

Kalispel  Creek 100 

Bear  Creek 350 

Soldier  Creek 200 

Medly  Creek 140 

South  end  of  Priest  Lake 2.'i0 

Junction  of  East  and  Priest  rivers 425 

Big  Creek 160 


252  FOREST    RESERVES. 

AcreB. 

Lower  Priest  River  above  rapids 300 

Long  Creek  (Blue  Creek) 250 

East  Pine  Creek 50 

Lower  West  Branch  of  Priest  River,  including  swampy  country  between  the 

heads  of  West  Branch,  Benars,  Lamb,  and  Granite  creeks 3,380 

Peiid  Oreille  Valley 1,200 

Small  creeks  (no  names) 375 

Narrow  strips  of  alder  swamps  along  small  creeks,  beaver  ponds,  drainable 

lakelets,  and  cranberry  bogs 500 

Total 9,990 

These  areas  comprise  laud  more  valuable  for  agricultural  thau  for 
forestry  purposes. 


,  S  GEOLOGICAL  SURVEY 


NINETEENTH   ANNUAL    REPORT    PART     VPLXLVI 


LEGEND 


AGiu<-ri;ni;Ai.i.AXD 


I 


2,01)1)  TO  ,i,O0() 


r),ono  10  lo.ooo 


10,000  TO  2SiOOO 


25.000  ro  50,000 


MAP  or  PIUKST  RI\'KRFORKST  RESERAT: 
SHOWING  LAND  CLASSIFICATION  AND  DENSl'lY  OF  MERCR\NTABL?:  TIMlil'-Pv 


us  GEOLOGICALSURVEY 


NINETEENTH   ANNUAL    REPORT    PART  V  PLXL\ 


LEGEND 


CKDAll.KNOI.I.MWN 
SPIMICK,  r.\MAll/«K. 

vviiniU'iNi':  AMI.) 


MERTON  HK.MmCK 


MAP  OV  1>IMEST  RWY:U  FOREST  HESEHAT: 
SH(nVlX(J  THE  DISTRIBUTION  OF  ITIE  PRINCIPAL  TIMBER  SPECIES 


Scale 


DEPAKTMENT  OF  THE  INTEKIOE-tl.  S.  GEOLOGICAL  SUEVET 
CHARLES   D.  WALCOTT,  UlKECTOl; 


THE 


STANISLAUS  AND  LAKE  TAHOE  FOREST  RESEPyVES 
AND  ADJACENT  TERRITORY 


GEORG^E   B.  SXJDA^^ORTH 


EXTRACT  FROM  THE  TWENTY-FIRST  ANNPAL  REPORT  OF  THE  SURVEY,  1S99-1900 

PAET    V,    FOREST    RESERVES— HEXEY    GANXETT.    CHIEF    OF 

DIVISION  OF  GEOGRAPHY  AND  FORESTRY 


WASHINGTON 

GOVERNMENT     PRINTING     OFFICE 

1900 


STANISLAUS  AND  LAKE  TAHOE  FOREST  RESERVES, 
CALIFORNIA,  AND  ADJACENT  TERRITORY 


GEORGE  B.   SUDWOKTII 


CONTENTS, 


Page. 

Introduction 505 

Boundaries 506 

Lake  Tahoe  Forest  Reserve 506 

Stanislaus  Forest  Reserve 506 

Territory  examined 507 

General  topographic  features 507 

Water  supply 508 

Settlements 508 

Industries 509 

Mining 509 

Grazing 510 

Agriculture  and  agricultural  lands 511 

Lumbering 512 

Timber  industries  allied  to  lumbering 513 

Forest  land 514 

General  character  and  distribution  of  forests 514 

Composition  of  forests 516 

Character  and  distribution  of  species 517 

Lower  belt 517 

Abundant  and  important  trees 517 

Gray  pine 517 

California  rock  oak 518 

Rare  or  unimportant  trees 518 

California  white  oak 518 

California  live  oak 519 

Other  species 519 

Middle  belt 519 

Abundant  and  impoi'tant  trees 519 

Yellow  pine 520 

Incense  cedar 521 

Sugar  pine 522 

White  fir 523 

Jeffrey  pine 524 

Red  fir 525 

Big  tree ' 526 

California  lilack  oak 532 

Rare  or  unimportant  trees 532 

Canyon  live  oak 533 

Oregon  maple 533 

Pacific  dogwood 533 

Black  Cottonwood 533 

AVhite  alder 533 

Madroiia 534 

Tan-bark  oak 534 

501 


502  CONTENTS. 

Character  and  distribution  of  species — Continued. 
Middle  belt — Continued. 

Rare  or  unimportant  trees — Continued.  Page. 

California  scrub  oak .5.'M 

Short-fiower  mahogany .'i:!5 

Coffee  berry 535 

Western  chokecherry 535 

Pacific  plum 535 

California  torreya 535 

Pacific  yew 535 

Shrubs 536 

Upper  belt 536 

Abundant  and  important  trees 536 

Lodgepole  pine 536 

California  red  fir 537 

Jeffrey  pine 538 

White  fir 538 

Eare  or  unimportant  trees 539 

Western  white  pine 539 

Black  hemlock 539 

Western  juniper 540 

White-bark  pine 541 

Other  species 542 

Shrubs 542 

Recapitulation 543 

Uses  and  market  price  of  timber 544 

Lumber 544 

Studding  and  lagging  timber 545 

Shake  timber  , 545 

Fencing  timber 546 

Fuel 546 

Standing  commercial  timber 547 

Modification  of  forests  by  industries  and  their  effect  on  reproduction 551 

Lumbering  and  other  timber-consuming  industries 551 

Grazing 552 

Forest  fires 557 

Effect  on  reproduction  and  standing  timber 557 

Origin 559 

Precautions  against  fires 560 

Public  sentiment  toward  forest  reserves 560 


ILLUSTRATIONS, 


Page. 
Plate  LXXXV.  Placerville  sheet,  California,  showing  classification  of  lands.  In  atlas 
LXXXVI.  Pyramid   Peak  sheet,   California,   showing    classification 

of  lands In  atlas 

LXXXVII.  Jackson  sheet,  California,  showing  classification  of  lands..  In  atlas 
LXXXVIII.  Big  Trees  sheet,  California,  showing  classification  of  lands. .  In  atlas 
LXXXIX.  Markleeville  sheet,   California-Nevada,    showing  classifica- 
tion of  lands In  atlas 

XC.  Dardanelles    sheet,    California,    showing    classification    of 

lands In  atlas 

XCI.  A,  California  white  oak  (Qtiercus  douglasii  Hook.  &  Am.), 
southern  Calaveras  County.  B,  A  typical  wagon  road  in 
yellow-pine    forest;    southwestern    section  of    Stanislaus 

Forest  Reserve 506 

XCII.  A,  Long  Barn,  a  typical  road  station  in  yellow-pine  belt,  North 
Fork  of  Tuolumne  River.     B,  Interior  of  yellow-pine  forest 

on  North  Fork  of  Tuolumne  River 506 

XCIII.  A,  Jeffrey  pine  (Pinusjeffreyl  "Oreg.  Com." ),  4  feet  diameter, 
showing  best  form  as  timber  trees  in  yellow-pine  belt; 
headwaters  of  South  Fork  of  Stanislaus  River,  Stanislaus 
Forest  Reserve.  B,  White  fir  (.4 6 i'm  concotor  Parry),  4i 
feet  diameter;   headwaters  of  South  Fork  of  Stanislaus 

River,  Stanislaus  Forest  Reserve 508 

XCIV.  A,  Yellow  pine  (Pinns  ponderosa  Laws. ),3  feet  diameter; 
near  the  Middle  Fork  of  Stanislaus  River,  west  section 
Stanislaus  Forest  Reserve.  B,  Characteristic  distribution 
of  yellow  pine  in  forests;  east  slope  of  Middle  Fork  of 
the  Stanislaus  River,  between  Cow  Creek  and  Lily  Creek, 

Stanislaus  Forest  Reserve 510 

XCV.  A,  A  cattle  herder's  summer  cabin;  Bear  Meadows,  Stan- 
islaus Forest  Reserve.  B,  California  red  fir  {Abies  mag- 
nifica  Murr. ),  39  inches  diameter;  west  slope  of  the  Middle 
Fork  of  Stanislaus  River,  near  headwaters  of  Lily  Creek, 

Stanislaus  Forest  Reserve 512 

XCVI.  A,  Sugar  pine  [Pinus  lamhertiana  Dougl. ),  50  inches  diam- 
eter; west  slope  of  Middle  Fork  of  Stanislaus  River,  near 
headwaters  of  Cow  Creek,  Stanislaus  Forest  Reserve.  B, 
Characteristic  scattered  and  stunted  growth  of  California 
red  fir,  Jeffrey  pine,  and  juniper  on  high,  rocky  summits 
on  headwaters  of  Lily  Creek  (tributary  of  Middle  Fork 

of  Stanislaus  River),  Stanislaus  Forest  Reserve 514 

XCVII.  A,  Canyon  of  Middle  Fork  of  Stanislaus  River  at  Donalds 
Flat,  looking  south  from  near  the  mouth  of  Dardanelles 
Creek,  Stanislaus  Forest  Reserve.  B,  Western  juniper 
{Juniperus  occidentalis  Hook.),  28  and  30  inches  in  diam- 
eter; northwest  border  Stanislaus  Forest  Reserve 516 

503 


504  ILLUSTRATIONS. 

Paga 

Plate  XCVIII.  A,  Falls  of  the  Middle  Fork  of  the  Stanislaus  River  at  north 
end  of  Donalds  Flat,  Stanis^laus  Forest  Reserve.     B,  Tyi>e 

of  Jeffrey  pine  forest,  headwaters  of  Summit  Creek 518 

XCIX.  A,  Incense  cedar  (JJhocedrua  decurrenx  Torr. ),  50  inches 
diameter,  showing  the  effect  of  annual  burning;  near  Dry 
Meadows  on  headwaters  of  Soaj>  Creek  (tributary  of 
North  Fork  of  Stanislaus  River).     B,  Trunk  of  big  tree 

{Si'qiwia  gigantea),  Tuolumne  big-tree  grove 520 

C.  A,  Young  growth  of  yellow  pine,  white  fir,  and  incense  cedar 
killed  by  surface  fires  near  the  mouth  of  Soap  Creek  (triV)u- 
tary  North  Fork  of  Stanislaus  River) .  B,  Abundant  repro- 
duction of  yellow  jjine  on  Middle  Fork  of  Stanislaus  River.  520 
CI.  A,  Sawmill  near  headwaters  of  Love  Creek.  B,  Effects  of 
annual  surface  tires  and  excessive  grazing  in  preventing  all 

reproduction;  headwaters  of  Jesus  Maria  Creek 526 

CII.  A  and  B,  Calaveras  big-tree  grove 528 

cm.  A,  California  black  oak  (Quercus  californka  (Torr.)  Cooper). 
B,  Best  development  and  maximum  density  of  a  mixed 

forest 530 

CIV.  A,  Band  of  sheep  in  yellow-pine  forest;  near  South  Fork  of 

Mokelumne  River.     iJ,  Shake-maker's  cabin. 530 

CV.  ^1,  Reproduction  of  California  red  fir  {Abies magnifica  Murr.) 
on  gravelly  mountain  summits  near  headwaters  of  Blue 

Creek.     B,  Subalpine  lake  and  marshy  meadow 532 

CVI.  A,  Forest  fire  set  by  lumbermen  to  burn  out  a  "jam"  of  tops. 

B,  Interior  of  yellow -pine  forest  on  sandy  bench  land  ...       534 
CVII.  .1,  South  Fork  of  American  River  near  Bullion  Bend,    i?.  Can- 
yon of  South  Fork  of  American  River 536 

CVIII.  .1,  Cascade  Lake,  looking  southwest  from  north  end  of  lake. 

B,  West  slape  of  Rubicon  River  Canyon 538 

CIX.  .1,  Little  South  Gerl(5  Creek   at  west  end   of   Loon   Lake. 

B,  Sugar  pine  4  feet  diameter,  felled  by  persistent  burning.      540 
ex.  A,  A  gold  miner  and  his  cabin;  settled  in  1849.     B,  Com- 
mon method  of  hauling  yellow-pine  logs  to  sawmills 542 

CXI.  .4,  Waste  in  liunbering.     B,  Lower  limit  of   yellow-pine 

belt 544 

CXII.  ^,  South  Fork  of  Cosumnes  River  near  Coyoteville.  B,  Dense 

second  growth  of  yellow  jjine 546 

CXIII.  ^4,  Defect  in  all  large  incense-cedar  timber.     5,  Yellow-pine 

"studding"  skidded  for  hauling  to  gold  mines 548 

CXIV.  .1,  The  great  quantity  of  yellow-pine  cord  wood  consumed 
by  large  mining  plants.  Angels  Camp.  B,  Canyon  of 
Coyote  Creek,  looking  north  from  a  point  2  miles  south 
of  Vallecito 550 


STANISLAUS  AXD  LAKE  TAHOE  FOREST  RESERVES, 
CALIFORNIA,  AND  ADJACENT  TERRITORY. 


By  George  B.  Sudworth. 


INTRODUCTION. 

The  information  presented  in  this  report  is  based  on  a  personal 
reconnaissance  of  the  territory,  made  during-  the  summer  of  1899. 
The  half-tone  illustrations  are  from  photographs  taken  at  the  same 
time. 

The  lack  of  railroad  facilities  and  the  insufficient  number  of  stage 
lines  made  it  necessary  to  perform  the  necessary  travel  on  horseback, 
with  an  attending  pack  outfit. 

Much  of  the  territory  examined  has,  from  the  value  of  its  mineral 
and  other  resources,  been  long  traversed  by  miners  and  other  transient 
settlers.  As  a  result  the  region  is  penetrated  and  crossed  in  certain 
portions  by  a  number  of  rough  wagon  roads  (see  PI.  XCI,  B)  and 
innumerable  intricate  trails.  Unfortunately,  however,  several  im- 
portant wagon  roads  and  trails  used  by  early  emigrants  have  been 
abandoned  and  are  now  so  thickly  overgrown  by  forest  trees  as  to 
be  impassable.  This  fact  and  the  roughness  of  the  country  made  it 
difficult  to  penetrate  some  parts  of  the  territory  studied. 

The  western  part  of  the  territory  is  directly  accessible  by  roads  and 
trails  and  the  country  is  of  such  a  nature  as  to  allow  direct  routes, 
while  much  of  the  eastern  part  can  not  be  reached  except  by  long 
detours.     This  is  due  to  the  existence  of  deep,  impassable  canyons. 

The  territory  was  traversed  by  crossing  and  recrossing  from  east  to 
west  at  sufficient  intervals  to  aflord  an  accurate  idea  of  the  composi- 
tion of  the  forests  and  also  of  the  area!  and  altitudinal  distribution  of 
the  timber  species.  In  order  to  make  the  examination  still  more  com- 
prehensive, manj'  side  trips  were  made  into  territory  lying  between 
the  regular  routes  of  travel.  General  features  and  the  relationships 
of  different  forest  types  were  studied  from  numerous  elevations 
throughout  the  region.  The  composition  of  the  various  types  of  forest 
and  the  relative  abundance  of  timber  and  other  tree  species  was  deter- 
mined by  careful  study  and  measurements  of  sample  wooded  areas. 

505 


506  FOREST   RESERVES. 

These  sample  areas  were  so  selected  from  various  parts  of  coiiiim'rcial 
forests  that  it  is  believed  an  adequate  idea  of  eoniposition  and  stand 
was  thus  obtained  for  the  entire  region  examined. 

About  .500  photographs  were  taken  as  an  integral  part  of  field  notes, 
and  also  with  a  view  to  securing  a  systematic  photographic  description 
of  all  the  forest  and  related  features  of  the  region.  A  part  of  these 
pictures  are  reproduced  for  illustration  in  the  present  report. 

liorXDAKIEfS. 

LAKE   TAHOE    FOREST   RESERVE. 

The  boundaries  of  this  reserve  are  as  follows: 

Townships  eleven  (11),  twelve  (12),  and  thirteen  (13)  north,  range  sixteen  (16) 
east.  Mount  Diablo  ba.se  and  meridian,  California;  townships  eleven  (11),  twelve 
(12),  and  thirteen  (ll-i)  north,  range  sevent<,'en  (17)  east,  and  so  mnch  of  township 
eleven  (11)  north,  range  eighteen  (18)  east,  a.s  lies  west  of  the  .summit  of  the  Sierra 
Nevada  Range  of  mountains  in  El  Dorado  County,  California. 

The  area  is  218  square  miles,  or  13H.88.T  acres. 

STANISLAUS  FOREST  RESERVE. 

Beginning  at  the  southea.«t  corner  of  township  three  (3)  north,  range  twenty-four 
(24)  east.  Mount  Diablo  base  and  meridian,  California;  thence  northerly  along  the 
range  line  to  the  northeast  corner  of  said  township;  thence  westerly  along  the  town- 
ship line  to  the  northwest  corner  of  said  township;  thence  northerly  along  the  range 
line  to  the  township  line  between  townships  four  (4)  and- five  (5)  north,  range 
twenty-three  (23)  east;  thence  easterly  along  the  township  line  to  the  southea-st 
comer  of  township  five  (-5)  north,  range  twenty-three  (23)  east;  thence  northerly 
along  the  range  line  to  the  northeast  corner  of  said  township;  thence  westerly  along 
the  first  (1st)  standard  parallel  north  to  the  southwest  corner  of  township  six  (6) 
north,  range  twenty-two  (22)  east;  thence  northerly  along  the  range  line  between 
ranges  twenty-one  (21)  and  twenty-two  (22)  east  to  the  northeast  corner  of  town- 
ship seven  (7)  north,  range  twenty-one  (21)  east;  thence  westerly  along  the  town- 
ship line  to  the  northwest  corner  of  said  township;  thence  northerly  along  the  range 
line  to  the  northeast  corner  of  township  eight  (8)  north,  range  twenty  (20)  east; 
thence  westerly  along  the  surveyed  and  unsurveyed  township  line  between  town- 
ships eight  (8)  and  nine  (9)  north  to  the  northwest  corner  of  township  eight  (8) 
north,  range  .seventeen  (17)  east;  thence  southerly  along  the  range  line  to  the  south- 
ea.«t  corner  of  township  eight  (8)  north,  range  sixteen  (16)  ea.«t;  thence  ea.«terly 
along  the  unsurveyed  township  line  to  the  point  for  the  southeast  corner  <  >f  township 
eight  (8)  north,  range  seventeen  (17)  east;  thence  southerly  along  the  unsurveyed 
and  surv^eyed  range  line  between  ranges  seventeen  (17)  and  eighteen  (IS)  east,  sub- 
ject to  the  easterly  offset  on  the  first  (1st)  standard  parallel  north,  to  the  southeast 
corner  of  township  four  (4)  north,  range  seventeen  (17)  east;  thence  ea.sterly  along 
the  township  line  to  the  northea.st  corner  of  township  three  (3)  north,  range  eighteen 
(18)  east;  thence  southerly  along  the  range  line  to  the  southeast  corner  of  said 
township;  thence  easterly  along  the  township  line  between  townships  two  (2)  and 
three  (3)  north  to  the  southeast  corner  of  township  three  (3)  north,  range  twenty- 
four  (24)  east,  the  place  of  l)eginning. 

The  area  is  1,080  square  miles,  or  691,200  acres. 


U.    S.    GEOLOGICAL  SURVE 


A       CALIFORNIA  WHITE  OAK   (QUERCUS   DOUGLASII    HOOK  AND   ARN),   SOUTHERN    CALA- 
VERAS COUNTY. 


j:      TYPICAL   WAGON    ROAD    IN    "lELLOW-PINE   FOREST,   SOUTHWESTERN    SECTION    OF 
STANISLAUS    FOREST   RESERVE, 


U     S.   GEOLOGIC 


A.     LONG    BARN,   A  TYPICAL   ROAD   STATION    IN    YELLOW-PINE   BELT,    NORTH    FORK   OF 
TUOLUMNE    RIVER 


B      INTERIOR  OF    YELLOW-PINE   FOREST   ON    NORTH    FORK  OF  TUOLUMNE   RIVER. 


sxiDWORTH.]  STANISLAUS    AND    LAKE    TAHOE    RESERVES.  507 

Ti: HRiTOR Y  examixp:d. 

The  territoiT  oxamined  is  comprised  in  the  six  following  atlas  sheets 
of  the  United  States  Geological  Survey:  Big  Trees,  Pyramid  Peak, 
Placerville,  Jackson,  Dardanelles,  and  Markleeville.  Practically  all 
of  the  Lake  Tahoe  and  Stanislaus  forest  reserves  are  included  in  these 
quadrangles. 

Roughly  estimated,  the  area  of  the  territory  examined  amounts  to 
5,116  square  miles,  or  about  3,270,000  acres. 

GElSrERAL  TOPOGRAPHIC  FEATURES. 

This  region  is  representative  of  the  general  character  of  the  Sierra 
Nevada,  the  high  crests  of  which  are  reached  by  a  long  rise  from  the 
broad  San  Joaquin  River  Valley.  The  western  liorder  of  the  region 
ha.s  an  altitude  of  about  500  feet,  which  increases  to  10.000  feet  and 
over  as  the  summit  is  reached.  This  general  slope  is  made  up  of 
rolling,  wide  valleys  and  low,  soil-covered  foothills  on  the  west,  while 
going  eastward  the  valleys  grow  smaller  and  the  foothills  are  replaced 
by  high,  rocky  mountain  ranges  and  peaks.  Scattered  among  these 
high  ranges  are  a  few  large  subalpine  lakes,  the  principal  of  which  are 
Lake  Tahoe  and  Fallen  Leaf  Lake.  Cascade,  Echo,  Blue,  Silver,  and 
Loon  lakes  are  important,  but  much  smaller.  Most  of  these  lakes  are 
situated  in  the  north-central  part  of  the  region  examined.  Smaller 
lakes,  ponds,  and  marshes  are  more  or  less  common  among  the  high 
mountains  (Pis.  CV,  B.  and  CVIII,  .1). 

The  salient  features  in  the  eastern  or  more  mountainous  part  of  the 
territory  are  the  high  peaks  known  as  the  Dardanelles,  Pyi-amid  Peak, 
Mokelumne  Peak,  Round  Top,  Elephants  Back.  Jacks  Peak,  Dicks  Peak, 
Moun*'  Tallac,  and  Rubicon  Peak.  These  peaks  rise  from  high,  rockv 
ranges,  and  have  altitudes  ranging  from  9,000  to  10,400  feet.  There 
are  also  numerous  lesser  peaks,  i-anging  from  8,000  to  9,000  feet  in 
elevation.  The  common  elevation  of  the  mountain  valleys  and  canyon 
bottoms  in  the  region  of  these  peaks  is  from  5,000  to  7,000  feet. 

Equally  striking  features  in  the  general  topography  of  the  region 
are  the  deep  river  canyons  which  traverse  the  countrj'  more  or  less 
from  northeast  to  southwest.  Five  important  riv^ers  and  their 
numerous  tributaries  drain  the  region.  Tlie  Rubicon  River  and  the 
North  and  Middle  forks  of  American  River  drain  the  northwestern  and 
northern  border  of  the  region,  while  the  South  Fork  of  American 
River  crosses  the  entire  northern  part,  the  headwaters  of  this  stream 
lying  south  of  Lake  Tahoe.  The  North,  Middle,  and  South  forks  of 
Cosumnes  River  lie  mainly  in  the  west-middle  portion  of  this  terri- 
tory, while  a  few  head  branches  extend  eastward  about  halfway  acro.ss 
the  region.  The  upper  main  Mokelumne  River  and  its  North  Fork 
cut  the  south  half  of  this  region  from  east  to  west,  and  this,  with 


508  FOREST    RESERVES. 

American  River,  is  the  only  .stream  whicii  completely  crosses  the  strip 
of  country  studied. 

Calaveras  River  drains  only  the  southwestern  part,  wiiile  the  North. 
Middle,  and  South  forks  of  Stanislaus  Ri\'er  drain  the  south-central 
ar.d  southeastern  portion  of  the  rejfion. 

These  streams  and  their  larger  tributaries  are  similar  in  general 
character.  E.vcept  for  parts  of  the  streams  within  the  west  border  of 
the  region,  the  beds  of  these  rivers  are  rough  with  huge  bowlders  and 
lie  in  deep  gorges,  canyons,  or  narrow  valleys  (.see  Pis.  XCVII.  .1.  and 
CVII,  ^4  and  B).  At  high  water  the  principal  rivers  in  the  middle 
and  eastern  sections  vary  from  10  to  20  yards  in  width,  and  the  main 
channels  of  these  streams  in  the  western  sections  are  from  25  to  50 
jards  in  width.  The  depth  of  water  carried  during  the  dry  months — 
August,  September,  and  October— ranges  from  3  or  -i  inches  to  1  or  2 
feet,  while  .several  of  even  the  larger  streams  contained  no  water  at 
all,  or  only  a  few  pools  (.see  Pis.  CVII,  .1  and  B,  and  CXII  A).  Low 
water  is  most  common  in  the  western  sections  of  the  region.  This 
scarcity  of  water,  or  entire  lack  of  it,  is,  however,  partly  explained  by 
the  fact  that  numerous  large  ditches,  supplying  mining  camps  and 
other  settlements,  take  large  quantities  of  water  from  near  the  head- 
waters of  all  these  streams. 

As  a  rule,  the  flow  of  streams  in  the  high  mountain  region  is  verj- 
rapid,  while  in  the  western  sections  the  fall  in  the  streams  is  much  less, 
and  the  water  flows  slowly  (.see  PI.  CXII,  ^1). 

The  sides  of  the  canyons  are  usually  rocky  and  steep,  especially  in 
the  eastern  sections,  while  in  some  localities  they  are  pi'ecipitous  or 
almost  perpendicular  walls  of  granite  rock  (see  Pis.  XCVII.  ^1,  CVII.  B, 
CVIII.  B.  and  CXIV,  B). 

Where  soil  is  present  it  is  for  the  most  part  a  light-brown  clayey 
loam.  A  very  striking  feature,  however,  of  the  eastern  and  northern 
sections  is  that  the  surface  of  the  mountains  is  bare  granite  rock, 
supporting  the  tree  and  other  growths  in  pockets  and  crevices  of  the 
rock,  or  on  small  soil-covered  rocky  benches  (see  Pis.  XCVI,  B^  and 
CVIII.  B). 

WATER  SUPPLY. 

Only  a  general  impression  could  be  gained  as  to  the  supply  and 
consumption  of  water  in  this  region.  But  it  may  be  .safely  stated  that 
the  natural  supply  of  water  for  all  purposes  is  generally  adequate  dur- 
ing the  dry  months.  A  few  localities  were  found  where  the  local  wells, 
springs,  and  streams  were  dry,  forcing  the  settlers  to  haul  water  from 
distant  sources. 

SETTLE3IENTS. 

Although  the  territory  has  been  thoroughly  explored  and  long 
traversed  by  miners,  lumbermen,  shake  makers,  and  by  sheep  herders 


U.  &.  GEOLOGtCAL  SURVEY 


A.     JEFFREY    PINE   iPINUS  JEFFREYI    "OREG,   COM  "  i   4   FEET    IN    DIAMETER 


J:.     WHITE   FIR   lABIES   CONCOLOR    PARRY)   4J   FEET    IN    DIAMETER, 
Headwaters  of  South  Folk  of  Stanislaus  Rivei,  Stir.islaus  Forest  Reseivc. 


SVDWORTH]  STANISLAUS    AND    LAKE    TAHOK    KESEKVES.  509 

and  cattlemen,  there  is  little  permanent  settlement  except  in  the  south- 
western and  western  sections.  The  principal  towns  in  these  sections 
are  Confidence,  Columbia.  Robinsons  Ferrv,  Vallecito,  Murphy,  Sheep 
Ranch,  Mountain  Ranch,  Lotus,  Coloma,  Georgetown,  Amador,  Sut- 
ter Creek,  Angels,  San  Andreas,  Mokelumne  Hill,  Jackson,  and 
Placerville,  the  last  eight  being  the  largest  and  most  important. 
Nearly  all  are  situated  at  ele^^ations  between  1,000  and  2,000  feet. 
The  location  and  permanency  of  these  settlements  is  determined  by 
the  presence  and  continuance  of  mining  interests.  With  few  excep- 
tions, the  agricultural  and  horticultural  interests  of  these  localities  are 
merely  incidental. 

Throughout  the  more  mountainous  teri'itory  there  are  numerous 
unimportant  points  called  .settlements,  which  are  chietiy  temporary 
lumber  "camps,"  provision  stores,  toll  hou.ses,  taverns,  and  feed  sta- 
tions, or  isolated  cabins  occupied  by  ti'ansient  settlers  during  the  sum- 
mer months  only.  Temporary  post-offices  are  located  at  a  few  of 
these  mountain  points,  and  are  reached  b\'  rough  wagon  roads.  Sum- 
mer resorts  are  maintained  at  several  points  on  Lake  Tahoe  for  the 
benefit  of  tourists.  The  resorts  within  the  territory  examined  are 
Tallac  f)ost-ofiice  at  the  southwest  extremity  of  tlie  lake,  and  two 
other.s — Murphv  and  Tahoe  post-offices — on  the  west  side  of  Lake 
Tahoe.  Communication  with  these  points  and  railroad  connection  at 
the  north  end  of  the  lake  is  maintained  b)'  small  steamers.  Land 
communication  with  these  resorts  is  only  by  rough  trails. 

As  already  stated,  the  mountain  settlements,  or  most  of  those  at 
elevations  above  3,000  feet,  are  temporary,  being  occupied  during  the 
summer  onh'.  This  is  due  to  the  heavy  winter  snows,  which  prevent 
communication  with  the  lower  permanent  villages  from  which  the 
mountain  .settlements  derive  nearlv  all  provisions  and  other  supplies. 
\evy  few  people  remain  in  this  snowy  region  during  the  winter,  the 
majority  leaving  l\v  the  middle  or  last  of  October. 

INDUSTRIES. 

The  principal  industries  of  this  territorj^  are,  in  order  of  their 
importance,  gold  and  copper  mining,  grazing,  agriculture  and  fruit 
growing,  and  lumbering  and  alli(>d  timber  industries. 


Mijung  is  carried  on  chiefiy  in  the  southern  and  western  .sections, 
and  is  concerned  mostly  with  the  production  of  gold.  Only  three 
important  copper  mines  were  found.  These  were  near  Campo  Seco 
and  Copperopolis.  The  largest  mining  operations  are  confined  to  the 
vicinity  of  the  various  towns  mentioned  as  permanent  settlements, 
while  a  large  numl)er  of  small  operations  are  carried  on  more  or  less 
distant  from  these  places  (see  PI.  CX,  A). 


510  FOREST    KKSKRVES. 

At  present  deep-.shaft  mininir  i.s  resorted  to  almost  entirely,  and  as 
this  reiiuires  the  use  of  expensive  machinery,  it  is  jxjssihle  foi-  only 
large  capital  to  carry  on  such  operations  (see  PI.  CXIV,  .1).  Placer 
mining  and  shallow  pocket  mining  in  (juartz  are  carried  on  in  many 
localities  by  individuals  whose  eijuipment  consists  of  a  shovel,  pick 
and  sluice  or  hand  drill,  and  a  few  sticks  of  dynamite.  With  few 
exceptions,  the  returns  from  these  forms  of  mining  appear  to  be  small. 
The  thrifty  Chinaman,  who  is  satistied  with  the  small  but  sure  daily 
income  from  washing  the  gravel  and  silt  of  rivei-  l)eds.  is  the  only  one 
of  these  poorer  miners  who  is  improving  his  condition. 

The  highly  profitable  placers  of  the  early  fifties  and  sixties  appear 
to  be  generally  exhausted.  In  all  the  foothill  sections  everj'where 
there  is  evidence  of  former  extensive  mining  of  this  kind,  where  now 
there  are  standing  forests  of  oO-year-old  trees.  Towns  at  one  time  of 
some  importance  have  disappeared,  and  their  sites  are  now  marked 
only  l)y  heaps  of  gravel,  the  ruins  of  log  cabins,  and  crumbling  stone 
chimneys. 

The  larger  mining  operations  of  the  present  time  give  the  principal 
life  to  the  small  towns.  They  are  important  to  the  region  also,  as 
they  afford  a  market  for  the  lumber  derived  from  the  higher  wooded 
country  and  for  agricultural  and  other  products  from  the  lower  hill 
and  plains  districts.  Owing,  however,  to  the  lack  of  railroad  facili- 
ties, all  commodities  are  freighted  long  distances  by  teams  and  are 
high  priced  in  proportion  to  the  distance  hauled. 

GRAZING. 

Grazing  is  an  important  industry  throughout  this  region  in  con- 
nection with  the  production  of  beef,  mutton,  wool,  and  butter.  The 
grazing  of  cattle  for  beef  and  the  grazing  of  stock  cattle  for  dairy 
products  are  separate  industries,  and  there  is  also  the  grazing  of  sheep 
and  goats.  The  grazing  of  beef  cattle  and  sheep  is  the  largest  of 
these  industries.  With  some  exceptions  sheepmen  are  not  landown- 
ers, but  depend  for  forage  on  transiently  hired  pasturage  or,  to  a 
greater  extent,  on  the  public  domain.  Cattle  raisers  are  more  often 
owners  of  ranches  in  the  foothills  or  \'allevs,  where  for  a  portion  of 
the  year  their  stock  is  cared  for. 

The  low  valle3's  and  foothill  country  of  the  southern  and  western 
sections  afford  grazing  for  both  stock  and  beef  cattle,  and  also  for 
sheep  during  the  fall,  winter,  and  spring.  About  July,  however, 
cattle  and  sheep  are  driven  for  the  sununer  to  ranges  in  the  high 
mountain  regions,  from  which  they  ai'e  withdrawn  by  the  middle  or 
last  part  of  October.  No  animals  are  intentionally  left  in  the  moun- 
tains during  winter  on  account  of  the  deep  snow. 

Most  of  the  cattlemen  claim  to  own  large  tracts  of  the  mountain  land, 
a  portion  of  which  is  fenced,  but  the  larger  part  of  the  range  used  by 


.1.     YELLOW    PINE   iPINUS    PONDEROSA   LAWS.)   3    FEET    IN    DIAMETER. 
Neat  Middle  Fork  of  Stanislaus  River,  west  section  of  Stanislaus  Forest  Reseive. 


^0i% 

1— ^- —    '.  ^  r,  ■ — am 

7{.     CHARACTERISTIC    DISTRIBUTION   OF   YELLOW    PINE    IN    FORESTS. 
East  slope  of  Middle  Fork  of  Stanislaus  River,  between  Cow  Creek  and  Lily  Creek,  Stanislaus  Foie; 


SUDWOETH.]  STANISLAUS    AND    LAKE    TAHOE    RESERVES.  511 

beef  cattle  is  unfenced  forest  land.  Simple  cabins  are  maintained  on 
the  fenced  parts  of  the  range  and  are  the  headquarters  of  the  riders 
who,  in  this  exceedingly  rough  and  broken  country,  are  obliged  to  fol- 
low the  drifting  of  cattle  during  the  entire  summer  (see  PI.  XCV,  A). 
If  a  careful  wat(^h  is  not  kept  on  the  general  movement  of  the  cattle, 
many  animals  are  likely  to  be  missed  in  the  fall  round-up.  Dairy 
ranchmen  graze  their  herds  entirely  within  fenced  ranges  in  the  higher 
mountains,  always  including  as  much  alpine  meadow  land  as  possible. 
The  exti'eme  precautions  taken  by  dairymen  not  to  lose  animals  from 
their  herds,  even  on  a  fenced  range,  is  illustrated  by  the  fact  that 
every  animal  wears  a  bell.  The  din  raised  by  300  or  400  of  these 
cattle  close  to  camp  at  night  is  not  conducive  to  slumber. 

The  necessity  for  constantly  seeking  new  pasture  makes  it  impos- 
sible for  sheepmen  to  maintain  headquarters  at  one  point  in  the  moun- 
tain range  longer  than  a  week  or  two  at  most,  but  they  graze  their 
flocks  over  areas  within  boundaries  fixed  by  common  consent,  or  bj- 
priority  of  possession  from  year  to  year.  The  ranges  used  by  sheep- 
men are  usually  those  not  claimed  or  used  by  cattlemen,  for,  although 
sheep  will  graze  after  cattle,  the  latter  will  not  graze  after  sheep.  On 
account  of  this,  and  also  because  forage  is  exceedingly  short  on  all 
the  luifenced  mountain  i-anges,  very  bitter  feeling  exists  between  cat- 
tlemen and  sheepmen.  The  latter  are  constantly  encroaching  not  only 
on  unfenced  but  also  on  fenced  cattle  ranges.  When  discovered  these 
encroachments  are  resented,  and  sometimes  result  in  the  destruction 
of  large  numbers  of  sheep  and  not  infrequently  in  the  loss  of  human 
life  on  both  sides. 

AGRICULTURE  AND  AGRICULTURAL  LANDS. 

Agriculture,  including  also  fruit  growing,  is  a  relatively  small  indus- 
try in  this  region  for  the  reason  that  only  a  small  percentage  of  the  total 
area  is  a\'ailable  for  this  purpose.  As  shown  by  the  accompanying 
maps  (Pis.  LXXXV-XC),  the  most  extensive  tracts  of  agricultural 
lands  lie  near  the  western  and  southwestern  borders,  at  elevations 
of  from  500  to  1,500  feet.  Small  isolated  bodies  of  arable  land  are 
found  in  the  nari'ow  valleys  of  the  foothills,  while  still  smaller  parcels 
are  found  throughout  the  western  half  of  this  region  at  elevations 
ranging  from  2,000  to  3,000  feet.  ]\Iost  of  these  small  tracts  are  near 
mining  towns,  which  afi'ord  markets  for  the  fruit  and  ha}'  produced. 
Unlike  the  ranchmen  of  lower  elevations,  who  depend  entirely  on 
agriculture  or  fruit  growing,  or  both  combined,  many  of  the  ranch- 
men of  the  foothills  and  mountain  valleys  derive  onlv  a  part  of  their 
support  from  tillage.  They  resort  also  to  hauling  lumber,  mining- 
timber,  wood,  ore.  hay,  etc. 

Wheat  hay  and  barley  huy  are.  the  principal  forage  crops  raised. 
Alfalfa  and  timothv  are  raised  for  hav  in  the  lower  broad  rivci-  val- 


512  FOREST    RESERVKS. 

leys,  and  also  in  the  Carson  Valley  country,  but  with  these  exceptions 
the  hay  of  this  region  consists  mainly  of  wheat  and  barley  cut  and 
cured  when  from  one-half  to  two-thirds  ripe.  A  wild  oat  (Artnit), 
which  grows  verj^  abundantly  without  cultivation  on  all  the  foothills, 
is  extensively  cut  for  hay,  but  is  a  poor  substitute  for  the  more 
nutritious  wheat  and  barley.  Comparatively  little  wheat  and  barley 
are  cut  for  grain,  except  in  the  larger  border  agricultural  districts. 
The  bulk  of  the  grain  comes  from  grain-producing  centers  west  and 
southwest  of  this  region. 

The  highest  altitude  at  which  wheat  and  barley  were  seen  growing 
in  the  mountain  valleys.was  5,000  feet,  which  is  exceptionally  high, 
as,  for  the  most  part,  these  grains  are  not  grown  above  3,000  feet. 

Piactically  none  of  these  agricultural  lands  are  irrigated,  the  main 
grain  and  hay  crops  depending  entirely  on  the  fall  and  spring  rains. 
The  lack  of  irrigation  water  makes  it  impossible  to  raise  alfalfa  and 
other  perennial  forage  crops,  as  they  can  not  sur\'ivc  the  long  drought 
whicli  succeeds  the  spring  rains.  Crops  of  this  kind  were  seen  only 
in  the  lower  moist  river  bottoms  near  the  southwestern  border  of  this 
region. 

Fruit  growing  is  not  a  large  industry,  and,  like  the  more  extensive 
agricultural  operations,  is  carried  on  chiefly  in  the  southwestern  and 
western  border  vallej'  and  hill  country  below  1,000  feet  elevation. 
Small  fruit  ranches  are  occasionally  found  in  the  vicinity  of  settle- 
ments as  high  as  3.500  feet,  but  usually  not  above  1,500  feet. 

The  fruits  raised  are  mostly  wine  grapes,  peaches,  apricots,  almonds, 
pears,  and  apples  of  small  size  and  inferior  quality.  English  walnuts 
are  also  raised  to  a  limited  extent,  and  near  Coloma  and  Oimpo  Seco  a 
few  hundred  orange  trees  were  seen  in  bearing. 

The  quantity  of  fruit  produced  is  comparatively  small,  and  in  some 
localities  is  annually  growing  less  and  of  poorer  quality,  while  a  gi'eat 
many  vineyards  have  been  abandoned.  Total  failures  and  small  and 
decreasing  production  are  said  to  be  due,  howe^'er,  to  the  scanty  rain- 
fall of  recent  years  and  the  general  lack  of  irrigation  water.  Large 
almond  orchards  in  the  southwestern  hill  countiy  failed  to  mature  their 
heavy  crops  during  ISitO  on  account  of  lack  of  rain. 

LUMBERING. 

Lumbering  is  carried  on  in  the  south-central  and  middle  districts, 
and  the  output  of  all  sawmills  is  consumed  largely  at  the  shaft  mines 
and  towns  in  the  vicinity.  The  following  nine  sawmills  are  the  princi- 
pal and  largest: 

Bradford  mill,  on  and  near  the  headwaters  of  the  North  Fork  of  Tuol- 
umne River;  McKay  mill,  on  the  headwaters  of  Love  Creek  (tribu- 
tary of  North  Fork  of  Stanislaus  Riyer);  Monucle  mill,  near  the  mouth 
of  Moran  Creek  (tributar}'  of  above  river);  Whitmore  mill,  on  the  head- 


A.     CATTLE   HERDERS  SUMMER   CABIN,  BEAR    MEADOWS,  STANISLAUS   FOREST    RESERVE. 


I!.     CALIFORNIA   RED    FIR   lABIES    MA 
West  slope  of  Middle  Fork  of  Stanislaus  River,  r 


:-;  -    INCHES    IN    DIAMETER. 

f,f  Lily  Creek,  Stanislaus  Forest  Reserve. 


siDwoRTH.]  STANISLAUS    AND    LAKE    TAHOE    RESERVES.  513 

waters  of  Mill  Creek  (tributary  North  Forlv  of  INlokeluinne  River); 
Banner  mill,  on  the  headwaters  of  Jesu.s  Maria  Creek  (tributary 
North  Fork  of  Calaveras  River),  a  few  miles  north  of  Mountain  Ranch; 
Beeeh  mill,  near  the  head  of  Big  Iowa  Canyon  (tributary  to  South  Fork 
of  American  River),  IS  miles  northeast  of  Placerville;  Blair's  mill,  in 
Sly  Park,  on  the  middle  course  of  Sly  Park  Creek  (tril)utar\-  North 
Fork  of  Cosumnes  River);  Chicacola  mill,  near  the  headwaters  of  the 
South  Fork  of  Cosumnes  River;  Twelvemile  House  mill,  near  the  head 
of  Deep  Canj'on  (tributary  of  Pilot  Creek,  a  south  tiranch  of  the  ]\Iid- 
dle  Fork  of  American  River). 

The  following  five  sawmills  are  the  smallest  and  least  impoitaiit  in 
the  region: 

Loon  Lake  Flume  Company  mill,  S  miles  southwest  of  Loon  Lake 
on  a  branch  of  Little  Gerle  Creek;  McCarty  and  Bruce  mill,  near 
West  Point;  Barclay  mill,  '1  miles  north  of  Indian  Diggins;  Blue 
Lakes  Water  Company  mill,  near  the  head  of  Bear  River;  and  a  very 
small  mill  (owner  unknown)  3  miles  northeast  of  Pleasant  Valley  on 
Clear  Creek. 

A  nearly  equal  number  of  abandoned  sawmills  were  found  thi'ough- 
out  the  regions  in  which  the  present  active  mills  are  located.  Most 
of  these  old  mills  were  abandoned  for  lack  of  saw  timber.  The  work 
of  these  mills  dates  back  from  fifteen  to  twenty  years. 

The  active  mills  have  been  in  operation  from  one  to  ten  years,  and 
the  daily  capacity  of  the  larger  ones  is  comparatively  greater  than 
those  of  former  times  and  is  from  7,000  to  15,000  feet  B.  M.,  while 
the  smaller  mills  cut  from  2,000  to  6,000  feet  per  day.  The  period, 
of  activity  is  from  April  to  November.  A  common  practice  of  mill 
operators  is  to  consume  all  saw  timber  in  a  radius  from  the  plant  of 
from  2i  to  3  miles,  and  then  move  to  another  site.  Logs  are  hauled 
to  the  mills  chiefly  by  two-  and  four-wheeled  trucks  (see  PI.  CX,  B),. 
or  occasionally  by  the  combined  use  of  horse  tram  cars  and  steel  cables 
and  donkey  engines.  The  timber  cut  is  mainly  yellow  pine.  In  some 
localities,  however,  25  to  40  per  cent  of  the  cut  consists  of  white  tir, 
red  fir,  sugar  pine  and  Jetfrey  pine,  the  latter,  however,  passing  for 
yellow  pine.  Incense  cedar  is  sawed  for  telephone  and  telegraph 
poles.  The  lumber  cut  from  the  other  kinds  mentioned  consists 
largely  of  inch  boards,  planking,  and  large  square  timber. 

All  the  lum})er  manufactured  is  consumed  within  the  region. 

TIMBER    INDUSTRIES   ALLIED    TO   LUMBERING. 

There  are,  in  addition  to  sawmill  opi'rations,  two  other  important 
timber-consuming  industries.  These  are  the  cutting  of  round  and 
rived  mining  timber  and  shakes.  The  round  timber  is  extensively 
used  for  heavy  props  in  all  shaft  mining,  while  the  rived  material, 
known  as  lagging,  is  used  for  minor  stay  work  in  these  mines  (see  PL. 
•M  (iEOL,  PT  5 33 


514  KOKKST    KESKKVKS. 

CXIII,  B).  Tho  riving'  of  shiilvcs.  whicii  ai'f  !i  t'oininoii  siil)stitiit('  for 
shingles,  is  an  old  and  important  industry.  A  very  large  number 
of  ordinary  dwellings  and  other  huildings  throughout  th(>  region  are 
roofed  and  a  great  many  sided  also  with  this  material.  The  newer 
buildings  of  the  larger  towns,  espcH'ially  those  near  railroad  eomuiu 
nieations.  are  roofed  with  sawed  shingles.  Itut  prior  to  the  advent  of 
railroads  in  the  foothill  region,  shakes  were  the  oidy  rooting  niiiterial 
used. 

Round  mining  timber  and  lagging  are  derived  entirely  from  yellow 
and  Jeffrey  j)iii(\  while  shakes  are  made  almost  entirely  from  sugar 
])inr.   veliow  pine  and  wiiite  fir  being  seldom  used. 

FOIIEST   LAND. 

Seventy-tive  or  SO  per  cent  of  this  region  is  more  or  less  wooded. 
In  traversing  this  area  fi'om  the  lowest  to  the  highest"  timber  line 
there  are  three  natural  divisions  which  can  be  made  in  the  forest  land. 
These  are:  First,  a  narrow  belt  of  thinly  stocked  woodland,  occupy- 
ing the  foothills  and  ranging  from  an  elevation  of  about  500  feet  up 
to  about  2,000  feet;  second,  a  ])roader,  more  or  less  dense  and  impor- 
tant belt  of  timber  forest,  extending  from  about  3,000  feet  elevation 
up  to  6,000  feet;  third,  a  belt  of  open,  less  important  timber  forest, 
ranging  from  about  6.000  feet  elevation  up  to  .s,500  and  !t,500  feet. 
These  higher  elevations  represent  the  variation  of  tmiber  line.  For 
convenience  these  divisions  uiay  be  termed  the  lower,  middle,  and 
upper  timber  belts. 

The  lower  or  foothill  belt  merges  on  the  west  into  rolling  grass 
lands  with  only  ver\'  scattered  tree  growth,  forming  where  this  prac- 
tically disappears  an  irregular  line  running  in  a  northwest-southeast 
direction.  Tongues  of  the  lower  tree  belt  extend  eastward  into  the 
middle  belt,  forming  where  they  terminate  an  etjually  irregular  line. 
The  line  of  separation  Ijetween  the  middle  and  ujjper  timber  belts  is 
similarly  intricate. 

The  basis  of  this  separation  into  timber  belts  is  the  more  or  less 
regular  occurrence  of  certain  timber  trees  within  successive  intervals 
of  altitude.  The  lines  of  separation  are  very  irregular  and  not  always 
sharply  defined,  for  there  is  a  greater  or  less  overlapping  where  the 
species  of  adjoining  belts  come  together.  But  the  lines  separating 
these  belts  are  perfectly  dLscernible  where,  for  example,  the  species 
of  the  lower  l)elt  cease,  and  the  species  of  the  next  higher  belt  appcMir. 

GENEUAL,  CHARACTER   AND    DISTRIBUTION"   OF  FORESTS. 

The  general  character  of  the  three  timber  belts  which  make  up  the 
forests  of  this  region  is  strikingly  different.  The  lower  ))elt  is  rightly 
termed  woodland  of  little  conmiercial  value,  while  the  middle  })elt  is  a 


_1       SUGAR    Pll:E      PltJUS    LAMEERTiArjA    DOUGL.)   50    INCHES    IN    DIAMETER. 
West  slope  of  Middle  Fork  of  Stanislaus  River,  near  headwaters  of  Cow  Creek,  Stanislaus  Forest  Rese 


CHARACTERISTIC   SCATTERED   AND    STUNTED   GROWTH    OF    CALIFORNIA   RED    FIR, 
JEFFREY    PINE,   AND  JUNIPER. 

High  rocky  sumnnits  on  headwaters  of  Lily  Creek,  Stanislaus  Forest  Reserve. 


siuw.>KTH]  STANISLAUS    AND    LAKE    TAHOE    RESERVES.  515 

true  timber  forest  of  the  highest  commercial  value,  ))oth  on  account 
of  the  quality  and  quantity  of  its  timber  and  also  on  account  of  acces- 
sibility. Covering  large  watersheds,  it  is  also  of  great  value  as  protec- 
tive forest.  The  upper  belt  is  in  part  a  timber  forest,  but  altogether 
of  less  commercial  value  than  the  middle  section,  because  of  inacces- 
sibility and  the  poorer  quality  and  smaller  quantity  of  timber  it 
contains.  The  greatest  value  of  this  high  mountain  forest  lies  in  the 
protection  it  gives  to  the  headwaters  of  important  streams. 

The  lower  belt  comprises  a  thinly  stocked  open  forest  mostly  of  oak 
at  the  lowest  elevations,  with  a  preponderance  of  scrubby  pine  at  the 
higher  elevations  (see  PI.  XCI,  .1).  Interspersed  throughout  this 
growth  are  strips  of  \'alle_y  grass  land  I'anging  in  size  from  100  to 
1,000  acres  or  more.  In  the  southwestern  border  sections  low,  broad 
hills  of  considerable  extent  are  frequently  covered  with  a  dense  growth 
of  heath  brush. 

The  trees  of  this  belt  are  usually  low,  of  small  diameter,  crooked, 
and  much  scattered,  admitting  everywhere  a  thick  growth  of  annual 
grasses. 

The  middle  timber  belt  is  characteristically  coniferous.  Pines  pre- 
dominate at  the  lower  elevations,  but  in  the  higher  sections  cedar  and 
fir  are  miugled  with  the  pines  in  more  or  less  equal  numbers.  These 
trees  constitute  the  principal  forest  growth  and  are  the  commer- 
cially important  features  of  the  belt.  As  a  rule  the  growth  is  con- 
tinuous but  rather  open  (see  Pis.  XCII,  B,  and  XCIV,  B)\  there  are, 
however,  areas  of  considerable  extent  on  broad  benches  where  the 
forest  is  dense  (see  PI.  CVI,  B).  The  trees  are  usuallv  of  large 
dimensions.  A  few  small,  unimportant  broad-leafed  trees  predominate 
along  streams  in  the  bottoms  of  canyons,  and  in  some  places  mingle  in 
extended  patches  with  the  general  coniferous  growth. 

The  upper  forest  belt  is  likewise  coniferous  in  character,  hut  the 
bulk  of  this  timber  is  fir,  with  mingled  areas  of  inferior  pines,  juniper, 
and  hemlock.  The  lower  elevations,  including  soil-covered,  rocky 
benches  and  the  muckv  borders  of  subalpine  meadows,  contain  the 
denser  growths,  while  the  bare,  rocky,  higher  elevations  have  only  a 
very  scattered  growth  of  stunted  trees  (see  PI.  XCVl,  B).  The  size 
and  quality  of  the  timber  in  this  belt  is  inferior  to  that  of  the  middle 
belt.  The  tirs  are  the  only  large  trees  in  the  upper  region,  and  these 
do  not  compare  in  size  or  value  with  the  pines  and  tirs  of  the  middle 
region. 


516  FOREST    KKSEKVES. 

COMPOSITIOX   OF   FOHESTS. 

Tho  following  limits  of  trees  show  the  various  species  found  in  the 
forests  of  this  region.  The  appearance  of  a  few  species  in  the  lists  of 
two  separate  regions  indicates  a  wide  overlapping,  which  will  t)e  dis- 
cussed lat(>r. 

<_',nnpnsilh,ii  ijffuivsl  ;,i  Liil;,'  T<ilii»-  iiihI  SlaHlxli(ii.'<  fnri'st  nxn-irs,  <  Uli/nnilii. 

I.OWEI!    liKl.T. 

Gray  pine Piniis  saliiniaua  1)< mgl. 

Western  black  willow Salix  lasiandra  Benth. 

Silver-leaf  willow Salix  sessilifolia  Xutt. 

Fremont  cotton  wood Populus  fremontii  \Vat.«. 

California  white  oak Quercus  lobata  Nee. 

'     California  rock  oak Quercus  douglasii  Hook.  &  Am. 

Curl-leaf  scrub  oak Quercus  dumosa  var.  revoluta  Sarf?. 

Morehus  oak Quercu.s  morehus  Kell. 

California  laurel Umbellularia  californica  1 1  look,  it 

Arn.)  Nutt. 

California  live  oak Quercus  wislizeni  A.  de  ('. 

Christma.s  berry Heteromeles     arl )utifolia      I  I'l lir.  i 

Roem. 

Oregon  maple Acer  macrophylhun  Pursli. 

(California  buckeye Esculu.s  californica  (Spach.)  Xutt. 

Coffee  berry Rhamnus  purshiana  de  C. 

Oregon  ash Fraxinus  oregona  Nutt. 

Pale  elder Sambucus  glauca  Nutt. 

MIDDLE    BEI.T. 

Sugar  i)ine T'iuus  lambertiana  Pougl. 

Yellow  pine Piiuis  ponderosa  Laws. 

.Jeffrey  pine Pinus  jcffreyi  Oreg.  Com. 

Red  tir Pseudot.iuga  taxifolia  (Poir. )  Britt. 

White  fir Abies  concolor  (Gord. )  Parry. 

California  red  flr Abies  magnifica  Murr. 

Big  tree Sequoia  gigantea. 

Incense  cedar Libocedrus  decurrens  Torr. 

Pacific  yew Taxus  brevifolia  Nutt. 

California  torreya Tumion  californicum  (Torr. )  Greene. 

Black  Cottonwood Populus  trichocarpa  Torr.  ct  Gr. 

White  alder Alnus  rhomliifolia  Nutt. 

(xolden  chinquapin Ca.stanopsis  chrysophylla  (  Hook. ) 

deC. 

Canyon  live  oak '. Quercus  chrysolepis  Liebiii. 

( 'aliforuia  lilat-k  oak Quercus  californica  (Torr. )  Coop. 

I  CJuercus  densiflora  Hook.  &  Arn. 
Tan-liark  oak {  Quercus  densiflora  var.  echinoides 

I     ( R.  Br.  Campst. )  Sarg. 

California  scrul)  oak Quercus  dumosa  Nutt. 

Short-flower  niahf)gany Cercocarpus  parvifolius  var.  l)rcviflorus 

(Gr. )  Jones. 
AV'estern  chokecherry Prunus  demi.>isa  i  Xiiit.  i  Wal|i. 


,1.     CANYON    OF    MIDDLE   FORK   OF  STANISLAUS    RIVER   AT    DONALDS    FLAT. 
Looking  south  from  near  the  mouth  of  Dardanelles  Creek,  Stanislaus  Forest  Reserve. 


l;.     WESTERN   JUNIPER    iJUNIPERUS   OCCIDENTALIS    HOOK, 
DIAMETER, 

Northwest  borcfer  of  Stanislaus  Forest  Reserve, 


\H0    30    INCHES    IN 


siDWORTH]  STANISLAUS    AND    LAKE    TAHOE    RESERVES.  517 

Pacific  plum Pruniis  subcordata  Bcntli. 

Oregon  maple Acer  macrophylluiu  Pursli. 

Coffee  berry Rhaninus  purshiana  de  C 

Pacific  dogwood Cornuy  nuttallii  Au<l. 

Madroiia Arbutus  menziesii  Pursli. 

ri'I'EU    BELT. 

Wentern  white  pine Pinus  mnnticnla  Pouirl.  . 

Wliite-Vjark  pine Pinus  alliicuulis. 

Jeffrey  pine Pinus  jeffreyi  <  )reg.  t'om. 

Lodgepole  pine Pinus  nnirrayana  Oreg.  Com. 

Black  hemlock Tsuga  pattonii  Balf. 

White  fir Abies  concolor  (Gord.)  I'arry. 

California  red  tir Abies  raagnifica  JIurr. 

Western  juniper Juniperus  occidentalis  Hook. 

Aspen Populus  tremuloides  ]\Iichx. 

Paper-leaf  alder Alnus  tenuifolia  Nntt. 

Bitter  cherry Prunus  emarginata  (I)ougl. )  Walj). 

Dwarf  maple Acer  glabrum  Torr. 

CHARACTER  AXI>  DISTUIBUTIOX  OF  SPECIKS. 

LOWER  BELT. 
Abundant  and  Important  Trees. 

Two  .species  are  conspiciiou.s  iti  thi.s  belt  and  deserve  .special  notice. 
The.se  are  the  gray  pine  and  California  rock  oak. 

GHAY    PINK. 

The  g'ra\-  pine  is  the  only  pine  found  in  the  lower  belt,  and,  together 
with  the  California  rock  oak,  forms  the  conspiciiotis  open  tree  growth 
on  all  the  dry,  gravelly  foothills.  Its  range  in  altitude  is  from  500  to 
3.000  feet,  the  region  of  greatest  abundance  being  between  1,000  and 
2.000  feet  elevation.  This  pine  shows  a  marked  tendency  to  stretch 
beyond  its  general  limits  into  the  middle  pine  belt.  Straggling  lines 
are  thus  frequently  seen  extending  beyond  the  main  range,  and  in  a 
few  localities  detached  groups  were  found  well  up  among  the  yellow 
pine  of  the  middle  region. 

The  gray  pine  is  in  no  sense  a  timber  tree.  Its  form  is  usually 
scraggy,  with  a  low,  much-branched  crown  and  very  little  clear  trunk; 
in  most  cases  even  the  largest  trees  bear  stout  limbs  nearly  to  the 
ground.  Thirty  to  forty  j'ears  ago  this  pine  is  said  to  have  been  very 
abundant,  of  large  size,  and  to  have  formed  continuous  forests  of  con- 
siderable density.  At  the  present  time,  however,  the  stand  is  thin 
and  composed  chiefly  of  trees  from  10  to  40  feet  in  height.  Occasional 
old  trees,  60  to  80  feet  high,  are  found  towering  far  above  the  present 
growth.  These  are  doubtless  remnants  of  the  original  forest.  .The 
common  diameter  of  this  species  ranges  from  12  to  24  inches,  while 
the  occa.sional  old  trees  are  from  28  to  37  inches  in  diameter. 


518  FOREST    RKSKKVKS. 

The  reproduction  of  this  pine  is  almndant.  Wlicrcvcr  sm-facc  tires 
have  not  oeeurred  t're(]uently.  seedlings  spring  up  lajjidly  and  coxcr 
the  driest  and  rockiest  hills  and  shallow  vallc_vs. 

(CALIFORNIA    HOCK    OAK. 

The  only  conspicuous  broad-leaf  tree  of  this  l)elt  is  the  California 
rocJ<  oak  (see  PI.  XCI,  ^1).  Like  the  gray  pine,  it  is  not  a  tinil)cr 
tree.  It  spreads  over  the  lowest  foothills,  forming  a  very  open  forest, 
in  which  .scattered  low  brush  and  abundant  annual  grasses  thrive.  It 
occurs  on  the  foothills  farther  westward  and  considerably  outside  of 
the  region  under  consideration.  Within  this  region  the  distribution 
is  between  300  and  1.500  feet  elevation,  and  is  most  common  between 
500  and  1.000  feet.  It  is  rather  exclusive,  not  generally  mingling 
with  other  species,  and  then  only  with  the  gray  pine.  Areas,  rather 
than  individuals  of  the  two  species,  are  more  often  mingled. 

As  a  rule  the  California  rock  oak  occurs  on  the  richer  hill  soils, 
occasionalh',  as  stated,  sharing  poor  gravelly  and  stony  sites  with  the 
gray  pine.  Stragglers  of  this  oak  are  occasionally  found  within  the 
middle  pine  belt,  especially  in  shallow  valleys  or  along  small  streams. 
The  trunks  of  the  California  rock  oak  are  short  and  crooked,  and  the 
crown  is  much  branched  (see  PI.  XCI,  A).  Diameter  measurements 
range  from  l-l  to  21  inches  or.  exceptionally,  28  inches;  The  usual 
height  is  25  to  40  feet. 

It  reproduces  itself  very  persistently,  soon  taking  possession  of 
abandoned  oi'  long-neglected  ranch  land  within  its  rang(\ 

Rare  or  Unimportant  Trees. 

Most  of  the  other  sixteen  species  found  in  this  l)elt  are  of  sucli  rare 
occurrence  and  frequently  also  of  such  small  size  as  to  deserve  only  a 
passing  notice.  Moreover,  the  majority  are  restricted  to  the  courses 
of  streams  or  the  narrow  bottoms  of  dry  canyons,  and  so  form  but  a 
small  part  of  the  general  tree  growth  of  the  region.  The  most  con- 
spicuous of  these  species  are  California  white  oak  and  live  oak. 

CALIFORNIA    WHITE    oAK. 

The  California  white  oak  is  a  tree  similar  in  form  to  the  California 
rock  oak,  but  is  much  larger,  and  is  found  only  in  low.  rich  ))ottom 
lands;  however,  it  occurs  more  extensively  to  the  west  of  and  outside 
of  this  region  than  within  it.  A  number  of  large  trees  2  to  1  feet  in 
diameter  were  seen  on  ranches  in  the  vicinitj'  of  Green  Valley  and 
Shingle  Springs,  at  Pleasant  Valley,  along  the  Calaveras  River  at 
Jenny  Lind,  and  in  the  valley  of  Bear  Ci'eek  (west  side  of  Bear  Moun- 
tains). It  is  .said  to  have  been  once  abundant  and  to  have  formed  open 
forests  in  the  above  localities;  but  as  it  occupied  the  best  agricultural 


siDwi.RTM  1  STANISLAUS    AND    LAKE    TAHOE    RRSERVES.  519 

lands,  it  lia.s  been  very  largely  cleared  ofl',  and  is  represented  now 
b}'  only  a  few  widely  scattered  trees,  which  ranchmen  preserve  for 
fuel  and  shade  for  stock.  Under  these  conditions  there  is  little  repro- 
duction. A  few  trees  of  much  smaller  size,  standing  far  beyond  the 
main  range,  probably  stragglers,  were  seen  also  near  Garden  Valley, 
Coloma,  Lotus,  Indian  Diggins,  Coyoteville,  West  Point.  Glencoe, 
Railroad  Flat,  and  Sheep  Ranch. 

CALIFORNIA    LIVE    OAK. 

The  live  oak  also  has  a  greater  range  westward,  outside  of  this 
region,  but  it  occurs  more  or  less  abundantly  in  the  lower  tree  belt 
near  the  western  and  southwestern  borders.  It  is  confined  entirelj- 
to  ravines,  gulches,  and  creek  canyons,  and  is  most  common  in  the 
region  of  Bear  Mountains,  Gophei-  Ridge,  and  Bald  Mountain.  It  was 
seen  sparingly  on  creek  canyons  from  Garden  Valley  southward  to  the 
can^'on  of  the  South  Fork  of  American  River  near  Coloma  and  Lotus. 
It  was  seen  also  on  Hangtown  and  Webber  creeks,  west  of  Placer- 
ville,  but  disappeared  one-half  mile  east  of  the  latter  place.  It  like- 
wise appears  at  Pleasant  Valley  and  southward  and  in  canyons  from 
Indian  Diggins  westwai'd  to  Coyoteville  and  Oleta. 

It  is  always  a  low,  bushy,  intricately  l)ranched  tree  from  ti  to  18 
inches  in  diameter  and  15  to  25  feet  high.  It  prefers  dry,  gravelly, 
and  rock\-  soils,  and  is  usually  widely  scattered. 

OTHER   SPECIE.S. 

The  one  other  white  oak  of  this  region  is  a  rare,  inconspicuous 
shrubby  species,  6  to  15  feet  high,  forming  occasional  dense  thickets 
somewhat  similar  to  those  of  the  Rocky  ^Mountain  scrul)  oak.  It  was 
seen  only  in  the  vicinity  of  Volcanoeville  and  Georgetown. 

Querciis  morehus  (so-called  "black  oak")  is  a  very  rare  species  and 
previously  not  known  to  occur  in  this  region.  It  is  reported  only 
from  Lake  County,  California.  It  is  usually  associated  with  live  oak. 
Single  trees  20  to  30  feet  high  and  10  to  14  inches  in  diameter  were 
seen  on  a  head  branch  of  Canyon  Creek  (2  miles  northeast  of  George- 
town), on  the  head  of  Indian  Creek  (near  Plymouth),  on  Mokelunme 
River  (west  of  West  Point),  several  times  on  Bear  Creek  Canvon 
(west  side  of  Bear  Mountains),  on  the  head  of  Murray  Creek  (2  miles 
north  of  Mountain  Ranch),  and  on  San  Domingo  Creek  (2  to  'P>  miles 
north  of  Murphj-). 

MIDDLE   BELT. 
Abundant  and  Important  Trees. 

The  trees  of  this  belt  form  the  greater  and  most  valuable  part  of  the 
forests  of  the  entire  region.  Five  species,  the  sugar  pine,  yellow  and 
Jefl'rey  pine,  white  fir,  and  incense  cedar,  make  up  the  forests  of  great- 


520  FOREST   kes?:rves. 

est  t'xtciit,  iiiid.  with  the  except  ion  of  the  rarer  and  isohited  red  fir 
and  the  giant  big-trcc,  exceed  the  dimensions  of  all  other  tVces  in  the 
regfion.  In  order  of  abundance  the  yellow  pine  i-anks  first,  white  fir 
second,  incense  cedar  third,  sugar  pine  fourth,  and  Jeffrey  pine  fifth. 
Of  equal  or  of  nearly  as  great  connuercial  importance,  but  of  less 
common  occurrence,  are  the  red  fir  and  big-tree.  The  big-tree 
attains  the  greatest  dimensions  of  all  cone  bearers  in  this  region,  and 
on  this  account  is  the  most  widely  renowned  of  Sierra  forest  trees. 
The  red  fir  ranks  in  size  with  the  other  large  timber  trees  of  the  terri- 
tory, but  has  a  limited  range  here  and  is  the  least  abundant  of  this 
group. 

YKLI.OW    PINE. 

This  species  is  the  most  abiuidant  and  the  second  largest  pine  in  the 
middle  belt.  The  area  over  which  it  grows  ranges  in  altitude  from 
2,000  to  6,0oo  feet,  while  the  region  of  greatest  abundance  and  best 
development  lies  between  .3,000  and  5,000  feet  elevation.  The  relative 
amoiuit  of  yellow  pine  in  the  average  stand  varies  considerably 
throughout  the  altitudinal  range  of  the  species  and  also  in  different 
localities  at  the  same  level.  Large  areas,  however,  especially  at  the 
middle  and  lower  levels,  often  contain  80  to  90  per  cent  of  yellow  pine. 
For  the  most  part,  however,  there  is  a  larger  admixture  of  incense 
cedar,  white  fii'.  and  sugar  pine,  the  yellow  pin(^  amounting  to  from 
45  to  sometimes  50  per  cent. 

Yellow  pine  is  very  adapti\(>  in  point  of  soil  and  situation.  It 
appears  to  be  most  common  on  southern,  eastern,  and  western  slopes, 
but  in  some  localities  is  found  also  on  northern  slopes.  It  grows 
vigorously  and  attains  large  dimensions  in  the  poorest  gravelly  days 
or  in  the  crevices  of  bare,  rocky  moimtain  or  canj-on  sides  (see  PI.  CVI, 
B).  The  largest  and  finest  timber  trees  are,  however,  found  growing  on 
rich  sandy  or  gravelly  loam  benches  of  from  one  to  several  hundred 
acres  in  extent  on  the  principal  river  and  lower  mountain  slopes. 
Forests  of  large,  mature  timber  are  rarely  if  ever  dense;  the  single  big 
trees,  or  groups  of  three  to  six  trees,  stand  far  apart,  forming  a  char- 
acteristically open  forest  (see  PI.  XCII.  B).  Younger  forests,  40 
to  60  years  old.  are  often  very  dense,  but  later  these  become  open  by 
natural  thinning,  excessive  shade,  and  frequent  tires.  The  common 
height  of  yellow  pine  is  from  150  to  ISO  feet,  \nt\\  a  diameter  of 
from  3  to  4  feet;  exceptionally  large  trees  are  185  to  190  feet  high 
and  6  to  7  feet  in  diameter.  The  maximum  age  reached  is  500  to  520 
,years,  but  such  trees  are  rare;  the  average  age  is  from  250  to  350. 

The  reproduction  of  this  pine  is  remarkably  persistent  and  abundant 
wherever  it  is  not  checked  by  fires  and  the  excessive  trampling  of 
grazing  h.-rds  (see  Pis.  C.  B.  CI.  /?,  and  CXII.  B).     The  frecjuent  open 


YOUNG   GROWTH    OF   YELLOW    PINE,    WHITE   F 
SURFACE   FIRES,    NEAR    MOUTI- 


R.   AND    INCENSE  CEDAR   KILLED    BY 
OF  SOAP   CREEK. 


3UNDANT    REPRODUCTION    OF    YELLOW    PINE   ON    MIDDLE    FORK   OF   STANISLAUS 
RIVER. 


suDwoRTHl  STANISLAUS    AND    LAKK    TAHOp:    RESERVES.  521 

spiK'e.s  in  _yellow-pine  forests  are  sooner  or  later  covered  with  dense 
patches  of  young  trees.,  hut  these  thickets  may  in  turn  be  swept  off  bj' 
fire.  So  continuous  and  widespread  are  these  forest  fires  that,  except 
where  some  natural  barrier  or  chani'e  has  prevented,  they  keep  a  very 
large  percentage  of  the  seedling  growth  down.  Hence,  with  the 
added  damage  done  by  other  agencies,  the  general  impression  is  that 
there  is  little  reproduction  of  this  pine.  The  forest  floor  looks  clean 
swept.  But  the  remarkable  reproductive  power  of  this  pine  is  seen 
only  in  localities  where  fences  and  the  exclusion  of  fire  have  protected 
the  incoming  seedlings.  Here  the  stand  is  so  dense  as  to  be  quite 
impenetrable.  Cut-over  lands  thus  protected  are  quickly  reclothed 
with  yellow  pine.  It  is  believed,  therefore,  that  except  in  the  few 
localities  where  this  pine  has  been  cleared  and  kept  down  the  area 
originally  claimed  by  it  is  veiy  largely  the  same  as  that  over  which 
the  tree  now  grows.  Necessarily  the  amount  of  commercial  timber 
has  been  greatly  reduced  on  an  area  formerly  well  stocked,  but  the 
power  of  this  pine  to  hold  its  own  is  unsurpassed  by  any  other  associated 
species. 

INCENSE    t'EDAK. 

Incense  cedar  is  an  abundant  tree  in  these  forests.  It  is  closely 
associated  with  the  yellow  pine,  but  reaches  a  higher  altitude,  occur- 
ring at  elevations  of  from  2.000  to  7,000  feet.  It  is  most  common 
between  3.500  and  5.500  feet,  where  it  forms  from  20  to  30  per  cent 
of  the  total  stand,  while  on  occasional  small  areas  it  may  be  the  pre- 
vailing tree.  Like  the  yellow  pine,  the  older  growth  of  incense  cedar 
appears  in  an  equally  open  stand,  having  to  suffer  in  common  with  the 
pine,  and  with  equal  resistance,  the  thinning  effects  of  fire.  While 
following  the  pine  closely  in  point  of  soil  and  slope,  the  cedar  descends, 
more  often  than  the  pine,  into  the  bottoms  of  canyons,  where  it  .some- 
times shares  the  moist,  rocky  banks  of  streams  with  red  fir,  alder,  and 
Cottonwood. 

The  trunk  form  of  incense  cedar  is  strongly  conical,  and  appears  in 
marked  contrast  to  the  cylindrical  boles  of  the  yellow  pine.  The  taper 
of  large  cedar  trunks  ranges  from  -i  to  sometimes  6  inches  in  16  feet. 
The  height  attained  is  small  compared  with  the  proportionately 
greater  diameter.  Mature  trees  are  80  to  100  feet  in  height  and  -i  to 
7  feet  in  diameter.  It  is  a  comparatively  short-lived  tree,  as  it  attains 
these  dimensions  in  from  100  to  260  years.  Old  trees  are  quite  gen- 
erally dead  or  damaged  at  the  top.  and  lack  the  thrifty  appeai'ance  of 
younger  trees,  or  even  of  much  older  pines  and  firs  on  the  same  ground 
(see  Pis.  XCIX,  .1,  and  CXIII,  A). 

The  reproduction  of  incense  cedar  appears  to  be  equal  in  abundance 
to  that  of  the  yellow  pine,  especially  in  the  drier  situations;  but,  as 
alreadv  stated,  the  cedar  is  far  less  abundant  as  a  mature  forest  tree 


522  FOREST    RESERVKS. 

than  thf  iiiiic.  This  may  ho  accounted  for.  howcvt'i'.  hy  tlic  fart  that 
iM'iiig  fragile  and  disoascd  in  middle  and  old  age  it  .succuini)s  more 
rapidlv  than  the  pine  to  high  winds.  Otherwise  it  is  difficult  to 
explain  the  persistent  and  abundant  reproduction  of  cedar  e\ery where 
visilile  in  the  range  of  the  species. 

SVCAK   riXK. 

The  sugar  pine  is  quite,  generally  distrilnited  throughf)ut  the  middle 
timber  belt,  but  is  the  least  common  species  of  pine  over  the  entire 
area.  There  is  evidence,  however,  that  formerly  it  was  considerably 
more  alnridant  than  now.  and  also  that  it  once  occupied  areas  from 
which  it  has  since  nearly  or  entirely  di-sappeared.  Undoubtedly  the 
high  commercial  value  of  the  timber  for  certain  ])urposes  and  the 
comparativeh'  less  prolific  reproduction  of  this  pine  must  largely 
account  for  this  reduced  (luantity  of  the  timber  and  its  total  disap- 
pearance in  some  localities.  The  reduction  and  tiiinnings  referred  to 
took  place  chiefly  along  the  western  border  of  this  timber  lielt.  neari'st 
to  the  settled  districts. 

The  range  of  sugar  pine  in  altitude. is  from  -2.000  to  T.ooii  feet. 
Only  straggling  small  trees  represent  the  species  at  the  lower  eleva- 
tion, while  stunted,  scattered  trees  are  found  at  the  higher  elevatio-i. 
The  area  of  greatest  abiuidance  and  finest  growth  lies  between  i-i.ood 
and  5,000  feet.  Sugar  pine  is  nowhere  common.  At  most  it  forms  .) 
to  20  per  cent  of  the  total  stand,  while  in  a  few  exceptionally  favor- 
able situations  small  areas  contain  20  to  25  per  cent  sugar  pine.  Large 
stretches  of  forest  possess  only  occasional  trees.  Like  the  white 
pines,  the  sugar  pine  is  partial  to  north  slopes  and  to  the  protected 
coves,  broad  valleys,  and  mountain  benches  of  southern  and  western 
slopes;  it  is  found  also  on  the  summits  of  low  mountains.  This  pine 
thrives  under  practically  the  same  soil  couditions  as  the  associated  yel- 
low pine  and  incense  cedar,  but  it  usually  seeks  the  moister  and  richer 
sandy  or  gra\'elly  loam  soils,  where  the  largest  and  best -grown  trees 
are  found.  Of  all  the  pines  in  this  region,  it  is  the  tallest  and  attains 
the  greatest  diameter.  The  usual  height  is  from  180  to  200  feet,  and 
in  exceptional  trees  210  to  218  feet.  Diameter  measurements  range 
from  4  to  6  feet,  or  exceptionally  from  6i  to  S  feet.  The  trunks  are 
clear  of  branches  for  60  to  100  feet  and  are  cylindrical  (see  PI. 
XCVI,  A).  Mature  trees  are  350  to  400  years  old.  while  the  oldest 
tree  found  was  515  years. 

The  reproduction  of  sugar  pine  is  evident  throughout  the  range  of 
the  species.  Moderate  numbers  of  seedlings  and  saplings  are  always 
to  be  found  in  the  vicinity  of  old  trees  and  are  usually  mingled  with 
the  young  growth  of  other  timber  trees.  There  is  a  marked  difi'er- 
ence  between  the  persistent,  prolific  reproduction  of  j-ellow  pine  and 
the  slower,  less  aggressive  advance  of  the  sugar  pine.     The  former 


sii>«..KrM.]  STANISLAUS    AND    LAKE    TAHOE    RESEKVES.  b'lS 

readih"  tsikes  possession  of  dry.  exposed  sites,  while  the  latter  est-ih- 
lishes  itself  more  often  on  moister,  protected  places;  and  when  it  takes 
to  drier  situations,  it  Ts  usually'  after  the  hardier  yellow  pine  and  cedar 
have  gained  a  foothold.  Once  established,  however,  the  young-  trees 
show  everj'  ability  to  hold  their  own,  being  rarely  crowded  out  after 
they  attain  a  height  of  6  to  10  feet.  They  usually  soon  pass  the  more 
numerous  j-ellow  pines  in  height,  and  remain  abo\e  them  to  the  end. 
It  is  interesting  to  note,  in  connection  with  the  limited  reproduction 
of  sugar  pine,  that  in  addition  to  the  common  destruction  of  seedlings 
b}-  fires,  the  paucity  of  its  numbers  is  due  also  to  a  comparati\"ely 
small  seed  production.  Moreover,  there  is  usually  a  longer  interval 
(two  to  three  jears)  between  the  seed  years  of  sugar  pine  than  between 
the  seeding  years  of  the  yellow  pine.  The  latter  also  produces  larger 
quantities  of  seed.  Besides,  the  big,  rich,  nut-like  seeds  of  the  sugar 
pine  appear  to  be  eaten  more  frequently  by  squirrels  than  are  the 
smaller  yellow-pine  seeds. 

WHITE    FIR. 

Twotirs,  the  white  iir  and  California  red  tir,  occur  in  this  timber  licit. 
The  former  is  of  greater  commercial  importance,  both  on  account  of 
its  more  general  distribution  with  the  three  preceding  species  and  also 
on  account  of  the  superior  quality  of  the  timber.  This  fir  is  more  or 
less  closely  associated  with  yellow  pine,  incense  cedar,  and  sugar  pine 
in  the  eastern  part  of  their  range,  but  does  not  descend  to  as  low  an 
altitude  as  these  species;  as  a  straggler,  however,  in  the  upper  timber 
belt  it  reaches  a  higher  altitude  than  any  of  them.  It  appears  in  lim- 
ited numbers  at  an  elevation  of  about  3,800  feet  and  extends  up  to 
7,;iOO  feet.  As  a  timber  tree  it  is  common  only  from  about  4,000  feet 
up  to  about  5,500  feet  elevation.  It  grows  under  practically  the  same 
conditions  as  the  jellow  pine  and  incense  cedar,  but  is  more  partial  to 
the  situations  and  soil  chosen  by  the  better  growth  of  sugar  pine.  As 
a  rule,  therefore,  it  is  a  closer  associate  of  this  species  than  is  either 
of  the  above  trees.  It  forms  from  30  to  45  per  cent  of  the  stand  over 
the  area  of  its  greatest  abundance.  On  small  benches  of  southern 
slopes  near  the  lower  limit  of  its  range  areas  may  be  found  where, 
alternating  with  those  containing  an  almost  pure  growth  of  yellow 
pine,  the  stand  of  white  fir  amounts  to  50  or  60  per  cent;  the  remain- 
ing stand  is  usually  ^yellow  pine  with  a  small  percentage  of  incense- 
cedar.  The  occun-ence  of  so  large  a  percentage  of  white  fir  is,  how- 
ever, not  general,  but  rather  exceptional,  and  is  mentioned  only  to 
show  more  fully  the  character  of  the  species. 

The  trunk  form  of  this  fir  is  cylindrical  and  straight  throughout. 
The  crown  is  small  and  narrow,  often  leaving  a  clear  trunk  40  to  SO 
feet  long,  or  with  only  an  occasional  branch.  The  common  height  of 
mature  trees  is  from  175  to  190  feet;  in  exceptional  cases  a  height  of 


524  KoHKST    KKSKHVKS. 

:i()()  t'i'ct  is  rcaclii'd.  niiiiiictcr  moiisiirciiicnts  I'aiitj^c  from  I5A  to  5^  feet, 
or  very  ('X((']3ti.)iiiilly  7  feet.  Large  trees  are  from  '.UM)  to  ;W(i  years 
old. 

The  reproduction  of  white  fii-  is  very  general  over  the  range  of  the 
.species,  and  in  .some  sections  the  young  growth  is  exceedingly  abun- 
dant. Thickets  of  seedlings  and  saplings  are  often  found  covering 
many  acres,  and  to  the  exclu.sion  of  all  other  .species.  In  locations 
where  other  young  growth  is  present  the  white  fir  may  compri.se  40 
to  60  per  cent  of  the  whole  growth.  The  wonder  is  that  mature  trees 
of  this  species  are  not  more  abundant.  But  when  fires  occur,  the  richly 
resinous  foliage  and  ])ranches  of  the  young  growth  suffer  more  severely 
than  tli(^  pines  or  cedars.  Owing  to  thinness  of  foliage  and  less  resin, 
a  few  oi  the  latter  may  e.scape  fatal  burning;  but  it  is  rare  that  any 
of  a  low  thicket  of  firs  ever  survives  even  a  surface  fire.  Moreovei', 
the  rather  small  seed  production  of  this  fir,  and  also  the  long  intervals 
between  seed  years,  has  much  to  do  with  the  frequency  at  which 
burned  stock  is  replaced  by  reseeding. 

JEFFRFA'    PINE. 

As  a  commercial  tree  this  pine  need  not  be  separated  from  the  yel- 
low pine,  as  th(^  timber  of  both  is  practically  the  same.  Lumbermen 
and  woodmen  readily  distinguish  the  two  trees,  but  the  lumber  of  both 
passes  for  yellow  pine.  Without  referring  to  the  botanical  status  of 
Jeffrey  pine  as  a  distinct  species  or,  as  some  would  have  it.  a  variety 
of  yellow  pine,  the  distribution  of  this  tree  is  interesting.  It  appears 
sparingly  near  the  southeastern  section  of  this  region  at  an  elevation  of 
5,000  feet  and  extends  up  to  8,500  feet.  Between  5.000  and  ti.OOO  feet 
it  is  a  large  timl)er  tree;  liut  above  the  latter  level  it  is  stunted  and  of 
little  commercial  value.  From  its  marked  abundance  between  rt.r)00 
and  8,500  feet  this  tree  appears  to  belong  more  properly  to  the  upper 
timber  belt.  Its  occurrence  in  the  middle  belt  is  little  more  than  strag- 
gling, at  most  constituting  not  more  than  5  per  cent  of  the  totiil  stand. 
It  is,  moreover,  not  generally  distributed  over  the  middle  belt,  appear- 
ing irregularly  and  only  at  wide  intervals:  while  in  the  upper  lu'lt 
Jeffrey  pine  is  one  of  the  prevailing  trees.  In  its  lower  range,  Jeffrej' 
pine  is  as.sociated  with  yellow  pine,  sugar  pine,  and  white  fir  on  the 
richer  mountain  benches,  or  on  the  rich  borders  of  mountain  uieadows 
(.see  PI.  XCIII,  A).  In  its  higher  range,  Jeffrey  pine  grows  almost 
entirely  in  the  crevices  of  granite.  It  is  often  much  .scattered,  but  is 
met  everywhere,  taking  the  place  of  the  yellow  pine  in  this  high,  rocky 
region  (see  PI.  XCVI,  B).  When  not  the  sole  or  principal  tree  it  is 
mixed  with  western  juniper,  silver  pine,  lodgepole  pine,  and  groups  of 
California  red  fir.  But  for  the  bare,  soilless  .surface  of  these  rocky 
sununits.  Jeffrey  pine  would  doubtless  form  forests  comparable  with 
those  of  the  yellow  pine  of  lower  levels.  For  wherever  in  protected 
hollows  or  little  rocky  plateaus  disintegrat(Ml   rock  has  formed  a  .soil 


simvoRTH]  STANIf^LAUS    AND    LAKE    TAHdE    RESERVES.  525 

cover,  den.se  stands  of  Jeffrey  pine  are  always  found.  The  patches  of 
Jeffrey  pine  seen  on  the  small  sandy  and  gravelly  plains  among-  the 
high  mountains  to  the  west  and  southwest  of  Lake  Tahoe  give  splendid 
illustration  of  this  forest-forming  tendency  in  high  altitudes  wherever 
sufficient  soil  is  present.  As  a  timber  tree,  efeflrey  pine  reaches  a  height 
of  125  to  160  feet  or  more,  with  a  diameter  of  3  to  5  feet.  The  trunks 
of  these  trees  are  usually  straight,  cylindrical,  and  free  from  branches 
for  50  to  60  feet.  The  age  of  this  timber  is  from  200  to  350  years. 
Jeffrey  pine  of  the  upper  tree  belt  is  generally  low  and  stunted,  rarely 
exceeding  40  or  50  feet  in  height  and  2  or  3  feet  in  diameter.  The  age 
of  such  trees  is  from  150  to  200  years.  Evidently,  from  the  extremely 
unfavorable  conditions  under  which  this  tree  exists,  it  is  much  shorter 
lived  than  trees  in  lower  and  more  protected  situations.  It  suffers 
considerably  from  the  high  winds  which  sweep  over  these  rocky  slopes, 
as  they  fr(>quentl_v  tear  it  from  its  scanty  hold  in  crevices. 

The  reproduction  of  Jeffrey  pine  is  observable  everywhere  in  the 
vicinity  of  old  trees  in  its  lower  range,  but  is  nowhere  abundant.  In 
higher  altitudes,  however,  seedlings  and  young  trees  are  frequent. 
Reference  has  alread\-  been  made  to  the  thickets  of  this  pine  west  and 
southwest  of  Lake  Tahoe,  where  the  full  capabilities  of  the  tree  are  to 
be  seen.  It  shows  the  same  vigorous  and  persistent  reproduction  in 
high  altitudes  that  yellow  pine  exhiliits  at  lower  levels. 


On  account  of  its  limited  I'ange  and  sparing  occurrence  in  this  belt, 
the  red  tir  is  of  only  secondary  importance  as  a  timber  tree.  Its  origi- 
nal range  here  was  probably  not  much  greater  than  now,  but  evidently 
considerable  large  timber,  represented  now  by  young  trees,  was  cut 
out  long  ago.  The  present  value  of  red  lir  depends  entirely  on  its 
occurrence  with  other  more  abundant  timber  trees  with  which  it  mav 
be  prolitaljly  lumbered.  In  has  a  range  in  altitude  from  2.000  to  5,500 
feet.  Between  2,000  and  3,000  feet  elevation  it  is  inferior  in  size, 
widely  scattered,  and  appears  chieflv  on  the  steep  north  slopes  of  river 
canyons,  while  between  3,500  and  5.O00  feet  it  becomes  more  abundant 
and  is  a  large  timber  tree.  From  5,000  to  5,500  feet  red  tir  is  much 
reduced  in  size  and  only  occurs  scattered  along  rocky  river  and  creek 
canyons  from  the  water's  edge  up  to  500  or  1,000  feet  above.  The 
general  distribution  of  this  species  is  exceedingly  irregular  and  there 
is  little  or  no  connection  between  the  areas  of  growth.  Two  localities 
are  worthy  of  special  notice,  as  thej'  include  about  all  the  commercial 
timber  found  in  the  entire  region.  Thej"  are  located  at  points  20  to 
25  miles  northeast  and  southwest  of  Placerville.  The  first  area  lies  to 
the  south  and  east  of  Mutton  Canyon.  The  second  area  lies  between 
Grizzly  Flat  and  Indian  Diggins,  and  is  more  or  less  connected  by 
straggling  growth  with  a  third  small  area  southeast  of  Indian  Diggins, 
on  Mill  Creek  (tributary  of  North  Fork  of  Mokclunmc  River).     These 


526  FOREST    RESERVKS. 

.stations  are  accessible  for  lumbering  the  icd  fir  witii  other  tinil)er, 
while  most  of  thi>  other  points  at  which  th(>  species  occurs  are  iiiaci'es- 
sible  or  too  remote  from  pine  timber  with  which  it  could  be  linnbered. 

Where  most  abundant,  red  fir  is  usually  associated  with  sujjfar  i)ine, 
3'ellow  pine,  incense  cedar,  and  white  tir,  in  sandv  or  gravelly  loam 
soils.  Here  it  represents  from  2  to  5  per  cent  of  the  stand.  Ai'eas  of 
one-half  to  1  acre  may  be  found,  however,  where  red  Hr  amounts  to 
40  per  cent  or  more.  The  trunks  of  the  best  trees  are  straight,  free 
from  branches  for  50  to  75  feet,  but  taper  quite  rapidly  from  a  widely 
buttressed  base.  The  height  is  from  150  to  175  feet,  and  the  diameter 
is  from  -4  to  7  feet,  while  the  average  age  is  850  years.  The  .scattered 
growth  of  red  fir  is  from  75  to  100  feet  high  and  2  to  3  feet  in  diam- 
eter, the  trunks  generally  bearing  limbs  near  the  ground. 

Red  fir  shows  but  little  reproduction  in  the  region  of  its  be.^t  growth, 
only  occasional  seedlings  or  young  trees  being  seen  among  the  greater 
abundanc'c  of  pines  and  cedar.  Young  growth  is  much  more  frequent 
on  the  .sides  of  rocky  canyons  where  the  old  trees  are  .scattered.  Ked 
fir,  howevei',  does  not  seed  frequently,  and  the  forest  trees  beai'  uiuch 
less  seed  than  the  larger  crowned  trees  of  the  canyon. 

liKi    TUEE    (sEyUOI.'V). 

The  big  tree  is  the  largest  conifei'  foiuid  in  the  middle  timbci'  l)elt. 
in  fact,  within  the  United  States.  Concerning  the  general  history  of 
this  species  it  may  be  briefl_v  stated  that  it  grows  only  on  the  west 
slope  of  the  Sierra,  and  is  restricted  in  its  distribution  here  to  eleven 
more  or  less  isolated  groves.  These  groves  extend  irom  the  southern 
border  of  Placer  County  southward  for  a  distance  of  about  260  miles. 
The  elevation  of  the  groves  is  from  4, GOO  to  8,400  feet.  The  north- 
ernmost grove  is  the  smalle.st,  consisting  of  only  six  trees,  while  the 
other  groves  are  much  larger,  comprising  from  one  thousand  to  sev- 
eral thousand  trees,  the  southernmost  groves  being  the  largest.  Most 
of  the  groves  were  discovered  between  1841  and  1870.  Their  exact 
location,  however,  and  their  full  extent  can  hardly  be  said  to  be  .satis- 
factorily determined  even  now.  Beginning  at  the  north,  the  names  of 
these  groves  are  as  follows: 

Bi(j-lree  firnvc.s  in  ( 'iilifornia. 
North  grove. 

Calaveras  or  "Maiiiiuoth"  grove. 
Stanislau."  or  "South  Calavera.'^ "  grove. 
Tuolumne  grove. 
Merced  grove. 
Mariposa  grove. 
Fresno  grove. 
Dinky  grove. 
Kings  River  grove. 
Kawcah  River  grove. 
Tule  River  groves. 


.1.     SAWMILL   NEAR   HEADWATERS   OF    LOVE  CREEK. 


if.     EFFECTS  OF  ANNUAL  SURFACE   FIRES  AND    EXCESSIVE  GRAZING    IN    PREVENTING   ALL 
REPRODUCTION,    HEADWATERS  OF  JESUS   MARIA   CREEK, 


SII.W..KTH.]  STANISLAUS    AND    LAKE    TAHOE    RESERVES.  521 

Two  of  these,  the  Calaveras  and  Stanislaus  groves,  are  included  in 
the  territory  under  consideration.  The  Calaveras  grove  is  situated  at 
the  post-ofiice  Big  Trees  and  is  the  smaller  grove.  The  Stanislaus 
grove,  also  called  "  South,''  or  "  South  Calaveras  "  grove,  is  the  larger, 
and  is  situated  about  6  miles  southeast  of  Big  Trees,  south  of  the 
North  Fork  of  the  Stanislaus  River,  and  on  a  high  divide  between 
Beaver  Creek  (on  the  north)  and  Griswold  Creek  (on  the  south),  both 
tributaries  of  the  above-named  river.  The  elevation  of  the  Calaveras 
grove  is  about  4.600  feet,  and  that  of  the  Stanislaus  grove  about  5.000 
feet.  The  former  occupies  50  acres  and  contains  about  100  ti'ees; 
while  the  latter  includes  about  1.000  acres  with  1,880  trees. 

Historically  these  two  groves  appear  to  be  the  most  widely  known, 
most  of  the  popular  literature  extant  relating  to  them.  The  Calaveras 
groA'e  is  said  to  have  been  the  tirst  one  discovered;  but  there  is  con- 
siderable doubt  as  to  the  exact  date,  and  also  as  to  the  name  of  the 
discoverer.  John  Bidwell — afterwards  candidate  for  Congress  from 
California — is  credited  with  discovering  the  grove  in  18il,  while  a 
more  current  story  is  that  a  hunter,  A.  T.  Dowd,  found  the  grove  in 
185^.  It  is  not  definitely  knoWn  when  the  Stanislaus  grove  was 
discovered. 

Man}-  of  the  trees,  standing  and  prostrate,  in  both  groves  are  named 
or  marked  with  marble  tablets  which  bear  the  names  of  States,  distin- 
guished statesmen,  generals,  scholars,  and  other  people  of  note. 
Seventy-live  standing  trees  of  the  Calaveras  grove  are  named  as 
follows: 

yioiii's  of  hi()  tnrx  in  Cain rerrrx  fjrorf,  California. 

Two  Sentinels. 

V.  S.  Grant,  named  in  1865. 

\V.  T.  Sherman,  named  in  186.5. 

.r.  B.  McPherson,  named  in  1865. 

Pride  of  the  Forest,  once  named  The  Eagle. 

Daniel  Webster. 

Phil  Sheridan. 

Mother  of  the  Forest. 

Three  Graces,  three  trees  standing  in  close  line. 

Henry  Clay. 

Andrew  Johnson,  named  in  1865. 

Florence  Nightingale,  once  named  Nightingale:  named  in  1S65  by  a  nephew 

of  the  English  lady. 
Bay  State. 

AV.  C.  Bryant,  named  in  1865  by  a  lady,  an  admirer  of  the  poet. 
W.  H.  Seward. 
Pioneer's  Cabin,  named  from  the  cabin-like  chamlier  and  chimney  formed  by 

its  hollow  trunk. 
Pluto's  Chimney,  hollowed  out  on  one  side  by  fire  for  90  feet  above  ground. 
Quartette;  a  cluster  of  four  trees. 
.\^merica,  named  in  1865  by  a  San  Francisco  lady. 
California,  once  called  Ada;  named  in  1865. 
Broderick,  once  called  Mary;  named  in  1865. 


52S  KOKKST    KESKRVES. 

Henry  Wiinl  Bccclicr. 

Aliraluuii  MiK'nln.  once  i-iillcd  llcniiit. 

Klilm  liiirritt. 

L'liclo  .Sum. 

Alta  (Upper)  Califoniia. 

Vnion. 

General  Waflswortli. 

The  T\vin.«. 

General  Sutter.     The  trunk  divides  at  .SO  feet  al)ove  firiiiuid  and   I'nnus  Uvo 

trunk.". 
Salem  Witch. 
Ixingfellow. 
Prof.  A.sa  Gray. 
Pr.  John  Torrey. 

The  Trinity;  three  trees  fmni  i.ne  trunk,  tlie  circumferenre  <<i  wliich  is  (in  feet. 
Starr  King. 
Richard  Cohden. 
John  Bright. 
Daniel  O'C'onnell. 
Edward  Everett. 
General  Scott. 
Keystone  State. 

Sir  John  Franklin,  \  xamed  in  IS.c'l.v  Ladv  FrankHn. 

Dr.  Kane,  ' 

Century,  named  in  18(>t  in  luinnr  of  Century  .Vs.soeiaticn.  of  New    Ym-k.  of 

which  the  poet  Bryant  was  ])resid<'nt. 
John  LeConte. 
Joseph  LeConte. 
Sequoia  Queen,    ^ 
Maids  of  Honor,  J 
Sir  Joseph  Hooker,  named  in  honor  of  the  English  botanist. 
John  Lindley,  named  in  honor  of  the  English  botanist  who  wa.s  tlie   liist   to 

name  and  describe  the  big-tree. 
Mother  and  Son;  a  large  and  suiall  tree  together. 
Old  Bachelor. 
James  King  of  William. 
Kentucky. 
The  Siamese  Twins. 
Granite  State. 
The  Old  Republican. 
General  Jackson. 
Vermont. 

Empire  State;  94  feet  in  circumference. 
Old  Dominion. 
George  Washington. 
Uncle  Tom's  Cabin. 
The  Beauty  of  the  Forest. 

Several  very  large  tive.s  in  this  groxo  liave  been  blown  down  and 
one  ha.s  been  cut  down;  but  the  wood  being  of  very  lasting  eharaetor, 
the  trunks  are  still  in  a  fair  .state  of  pre.servation  and  will  remain  intact 
for  a  lontr  time.     These  trees  are  named  as  follows: 


■A  cluster  of  three,  tlie  Queen  in  the  center. 


SUDWORTH.I  STANISLAUS    AND    LAKE    TAHOE    RESERVES.  529 

Xaincs  of  big  trim  Uoirn  iloira  in  Caliirrnis  i/nne,  California. 

Father  of  the  Forest,  cut  down  in  1853. 

Miner's  Cabin,  blown  down  in  1860. 

Fallen  Monarch,  fell  probably  fifty  or  more  years  ago. 

Twenty-five  standino-  trees  in  th(>  Stanislau.s  grove  are  named  a.s 
follow.s: 

Xamix  of  hiij  tree's:  in  Slaninlam  groce,  California. 

Columbus. 

Kew  York. 

Correspondent 

Fred. 

Electra. 

Ohio. 

Grand  Hotel. 

Smith's  Cabin. 

General  Custer. 

Sir  Francis  Hucks. 

Dr.  J.  W.  Dawson. 

Two  Lovers. 

Massachusetts. 

General  Garfield. 

Hancock. 

Grover  Cleveland. 

Mrs.  Grover  Cleveland. 

Cyclops. 

Palace  Hotel. 

Knight  of  the  Forest. 

The  Three  Graces. 

Noah's  Ark. 

The  notable  fallen  tree  of  this  grove  i.s  Old  Goliath. 

The  big  tree  i.s  always  as.*;ociated  with  yellow  pine,  sugar  pine,  white 
fir,  and  incense  cedar,  but  more  commonly  with  sugar  pine  and  white 
fir.  Clusters  of  two  to  four  trees  are  frequent,  and  often  .several  of 
these  are  found  in  close  proximity,  but  in  general  the  big  tree  is  much 
more  scattered,  and  forms  from  1  to  3  per  cent  of  the  total  stand. 
The  forests  in  which  it  occurs  are  somewhat  den.ser  than  elsewhere  in 
the  middle  timlier  belt,  a  fact  which  is  accoimted  for  by  the  exception- 
ally rich,  deep  soil  and  the  protected  sites  where  the  big  tree  grows 
(see  PI.  CTI, .  1  and  B).  Conditions  elsewhere  similar  to  these  are  condu- 
cive to  the  greatest  density  of  the  same  pines  and  fir.  which  are  here 
associated  with  the  big  trees. 

The  big  tree  of  these  groves  grows  on  northern,  .southern,  andwes*' 
ern  slopes  of  gentle  incline,  and  also  in  the  inclosed  broad  shallow  val- 
leys. The  soil  is  a  deep,  rich,  .sandy  loam,  with  considerable  humus 
on  the  lower  levels  of  the  tracts.  Toward  the  outskirts  of  the  groves, 
especiallj'  on  higher  ground,  the  soil  grows  poorer  and  drier,  and  the 
21  GEOL,  VT  .5 3i 


530  FOREST   KKSERVKS. 

big  trees  grow  scarcer,  while  yellow  pine  iiiid  iiiei'iisc  ci'diir  l>ecoiTie 
more  eonimon.  Frequent  fires  and  extensivt;  grazing  in  the  Stiuiisluuw 
grove  have  reduced,  and  in  some  parts  destroyed,  tiu^  naturally  thiek 
ground  cover  of  underbrush  and  herbaceous  plants.  In  the  Cala- 
veras grove,  however,  the  protection  from  fire  and  the  exclusion  of 
grazing  during  the  last  thirty  or  forty  years  have  preserved  in  this 
forest  the  most  perfect  ground  cover  of  low  woody  and  herl)aceous 
plants  (see  PI.  CII).  As  a  result,  the  top  layers  of  deep  humus  and 
earth  are  moderately  moist,  even  in  the  driest  months;  while  100 
yards  outside,  where  fires  are  frequent  and  the  forest  land  is  over- 
grazed, there  is  no  humus  and  the  soil  is  dry  and  dusty.  The  forest 
conditions  of  these  two  tracts  are  therefore  markedly  difl'erent.  The 
Calaveras  tract  represents,  through  its  long  protection,  probably  the 
only  bit  of  strictly  virgin  forest  anywhere  in  the  Sierra.  The  Stan- 
islaus tract  approaches  nearest  to  these  conditions  of  any  other  body 
of  forest  in  the  region  examined.  The  vigorous  undergrowth  which 
persists  in  parts  of  this  forest,  even  under  the  trying  conditions  of  an 
open  stock  range,  is  due  almost  entirely  to  the  small  but  continuous 
flow  of  water  during  the  dry  season.  It  is  evident,  therefore,  that  had 
this  grove  been  rigidly  protected  the  luxuriousness  of  its  forest  growth 
would  have  far  surpassed  that  seen  at  present  in  the  Calaveras  grove. 

The  trunk  of  the  big  tree  has  an  enormous  swell  at. the  ground. 
This  swell  is  2  to  8  feet  greater  than  the  diameter  at  6  feet  from  the 
ground.  The  trunk  above  the  swell  is  also  rather  strongly  conical, 
often  showing  a  decrease  in  diameter  of  from  (>  to  13  inches  or  more 
in  every  It)  feet.  The  length  of  clear  pole  varies  from  100  to  1<S0  feet; 
occasionally  two  or  three  branches  may  ])e  si-attered  over  this  length. 

As  might  be  expected,  the  Calaveras  grove  big  trees  are  less  dam- 
aged by  fire  or  wind,  or  other  agencies  than  those  in  the  Stanislaus 
forest.  Only  a  few  of  the  former  bear  fire  marks,  which  do  not,  how- 
ever, disfigure  the  trees  badly.  The  damage  from  fire  occurred  many 
years  ago.  The  largest  tree  in  the  grove  is  dead,  but  still  standing. 
The  bai'k  was  stripped  ofl"  in  the  earl}'  fifties  to  a  height  of  about  116 
feet,  and  sent  to  England  for  exhibition  purposes.  The  peeled  trunk 
appears  to  be  perfectly  sound  throughout. 

A  greater  number  of  the  Stanislaus  grove  big  trees  ))ear  fire  marks 
than  do  those  of  the  Calaveras  grove.  The  damage  is  also  greater 
and  more  conspicuous;  in  one  or  two  trees  the  fire  has  hollowed  out 
immense  cavities.  Moreover,  considerable  burning  has  taken  j)lace  in 
recent  years. 

The  following  table  of  measurements  shows  the  range  of  height  and 
diameter  growth  for  trees  in  the  Calaveras  grove,  and  will  also  .serve 
to  illustrate  the  dimensions  of  trees  in  the  Stanislaus  grove.  The  trees 
of  the  two  groves  are  altogether  quite  similar  in  size  and  appearance. 


U.   S.   GEOLOGICA 


BAND   OF  SHEEP    IN    YELLOW-PINE   FOREST,    NEAR   SOUTH    FORK  OF   MOKELUMNE 
RIVER. 


]i.     :.r.,.\E. MAKER  b   CABIIJ, 


SHDWoRTii]  STANISLAUS    AND    LAKE    TAHOE    KESERVES. 

Table  showing  diameter  and  height  of  big  trees  in  tlie  Calai-eras  grove. 


531 


Tree 
No. — 

Diameter  6 
feet  above 
ground. 

Height. 

Tree 
Ne- 

Diameter 6 
feet  above 
ground. 

Height. 

Tree 
No. — 

Diameter  6 
feet  above 
ground. 

Height. 

Feel. 

Feet. 

Feet. 

Feet. 

Feel. 

Feet. 

1 

9.0 

235 

ll 

12.5 

250 

21 

15.0 

325 

2 

9.0 

251 

12 

12.5 

266 

22 

15.5 

268 

3 

9.5 

260 

13 

13.0 

286 

23 

15.5 

272 

4 

10.0 

237 

14 

13.5 

320 

24 

15.5 

289 

5 

10.0 

243 

15 

14.0 

259 

25 

16.0 

262 

6 

10.0 

261 

16 

14.0 

265 

26 

16.0 

275 

7 

10.5 

248 

17 

14.0 

269 

27 

16.5 

266 

8 

11.0. 

255 

18 

14.5 

278 

28 

16.5 

268 

9 

11.0 

260 

19 

15.0 

285 

29 

16.5 

288 

10 

12.0 

248 

20 

15.0 

307 

30 

19.5 

315 

It  is  at  present  very  difficult  to  determine  the  age  of  big  trees  in 
these  groves.  With  the  exception  of  a  weather-beaten  section  of  the 
tree  cut  down  in  the  Calaveras  grove  in  1853,  there  is  no  available 
material  on  which  to  ba.se  age  determinations.  The  diameter  of  the 
stump  of  this  tree  measured  27  feet  inside  the  bark  and  the  age  of  the 
tree  is  about  1,300  years.  Mr.  John  Muir  states  that  a  tree  of  similar 
diameter  cut  down  in  the  Kings  River  grove  was  2,200  years  old.  He 
also  mentions  another  tree  of  the  .same  grove  as  being  4,000  years  old, 
and,  probably  older,  as  all  the  rings  could  not  be  clearly  counted. 
Probably  none  of  the  Calaveras  or  Stanislaus  grove  trees  are  older  than 
this,  and  most  likely  the  majority  are  under  2,500. 

The  big  tree  is  not  being  repi'oduced  at  all  in  the  Calaveras  grove, 
and  at  onlj-  two  points  in  the  Stanislaus  forest.  Here  the  j'oung 
growth  occurs  in  small,  dense  patches  covering  about  one-fourth  of 
an  acre.  The  seedlings  are  from  2  inches  to  4  feet  high,  and  the  sap- 
lings are  from  10  to  30  feet  high.  Thej'  have  sprung  up  in  open  places 
almost  completely  shaded  by  old  big  trees,  sugar  pines,  and  white 
firs.  The  soil  has  a  deep  humus  and  is  constantly  and  thoroughly 
moist.  A  barrier  of  fallen  timl)er  has  doubtless  for  a  number  of  years 
prevented  the  large  herds  of  cattle  which  roam  this  forest  from  tramp- 
ling the  younger  seedlings  to  death.  AH  the  young  trees  are  vigorous 
and  growing  rapidly. 

The  drier  .soil  conditions  of  the  Calaveras  grove  account  for  the  lack 
of  recent  reproduction.  Judging  from  the  large  amount  of  soil 
moisture  attending  reproduction  in  the  Stanislaus  grove,  it  is  perfectly 
evident  that  the  soil  of  the  Calaveras  grove  is  too  dry  to  stimulate 
germination;  otherwise,  young  trees  would  be  found.  The  production 
of  seed  appears  to  be  abundant,  and  30  to  40  per  cent  of  the  seed  ex- 


532  FOKKST   RESERVKS. 

auiinod  was  good.  Tlu'rc  has  prol)a)ily  Ix'cii  no  ri'productioii  in  Ihi.s 
grove  for  at  least  forty  or  Hfty  yoars.  for  tlic  smallest  ti'ees  found  arc 
now  18  to  2i  inches  in  diameter. 

CALIFORNIA    HI.ACK    OAR. 

Of  the  remaining  sixteen  trees  found  in  tiif  middle  timtx'r  Ixdt,  the 
California  hlaek  oak  is  the  onlj-  one  deserving  special  notice.  This 
is,  however,  entirely  on  account  of  its  large  size  and  frequent  occur- 
rence. Its  poor  form  and  inferior  wood  make  it  a  tree  of  no  economic 
value.  It  is  more  conspicuous  as  an  associate  of  yellow  pine  and 
incense  cedar  than  any  of  the  other  large  trees.  The  altitiulinal  range 
is  from  1,500  to  6,500  feet,  while  it  occurs  most  commonly  and  of 
largest  size  between  elevations  of  3,500  and  4,500  feet.  At  the  lower 
and  higher  elevations  mentioned  this  oak  is  usually  rare  and  of  small 
size.  In  its  middle  range  it  forms  5  to  10  per  cent  of  the  total  stand. 
In  man}'  localities,  however,  small  areas  may  be  found  where  this  tree 
constitutes  one-half  or  more  of  the  forest  growth.  Such  areas  are 
frequent  on  dry,  rocky  benches  of  the  southern  and  western  slopes  of 
river  canj-ons,  and  also  on  the  gravelly  summits  of  the  low  mountains 
within  the  yellow-pine  belt. 

In  its  greatest  abundance  the  California  black  oak  occurs  only  in  an 
open  stand,  and  being  of  short  stature  its  presence  is  lost  sight  of  in 
general  views  of  the  prevailing  coniferous  growth.  It  is  conspicuous 
only  in  a  careful  exaiuination  of  the  forest.  The  usual  height  is  from 
40  to  50  and  exceptionally  70  feet.  The  diameter  ranges  from  1  to  2^ 
feet,  while  occasional  old  trees  are  3  to  4  feet  in  diameter  (see  PI. 
CIII).  Largo  trees  are  150  to  200  years  old.  The  trunks  are  uni- 
'formly  short  and  very  crooked;  the  crowns  are  broad  and  composed  of 
a  few  large  sprawling  limbs.  The  wood  being  brittle,  the  tops  of  the 
trees  are  frequently  broken  by  winds,  and  as  a  result  the  trunks  of 
the  majority  of  old  trees  are  hollow  or  decayed.  Many  of  these  are 
blown  down  or  broken  oil'. 

The  reproduction  of  this  species  is  very  persistent  and  abiuidant 
throughout  its  range.  Frequent  surface  iires  damage  or  kill  the  seed- 
lings down  to  the  ground,  but  rarely  injure  the  strong  deep  n)ots, 
which  sprout  vigorously  from  j'ear  to  year,  until  one  shoot  grows 
large  enough  to  survive  burning.  The  hard,  thick  bark  of  even  young 
trees  endures  considerable  scorching  without  damage  to  the  tree. 

Rare  or  Unimportant  Trees. 

The  remaining  trees  of  the  middle  timl)er  belt  are  comparatively 
rare,  being  confined  in  their  range  either  to  the  bottoms  of  canyons  or 
to  other  similarly  restricted  localities.  With  few  exceptions,  they 
are  of  small  size,  and  few  are  of  economic  value.    Together,  however. 


A.     REPRODUCTION    OF   CALIFORNIA   RED   FIR   (ABIES    MAGNIFICA   MURR. 
Gravelly  mountain  summfts.  near  headwaters  of  Blue  Creek, 


Jl      SUBALPINE   LAKE  AND    MARSHY    MEADOW. 


suDwoKTH.]  STANISLAUS    AND    LAKE   TAHOE   BESKRVES.  533 

the}'  form  a  low  protective  forest  cover,  chiefly  broadleaf  in  character, 
in  localities  where  conifers  are  least  abundant.  Brief  notes  are  given 
for  the  more  conspicuous  or  otherwise  notable  species. 

CANYON    LIVE    OAK. 

The  canyon  live  oak  is  the  largest  of  these  trees,  and  the  most 
widely  distributed.  It  is  scattered  through  all  canyons  from  1,500  to 
6,000  feet  elevation,  and  occasionally  ascends  low  mountain  ridges  and 
sjireads  over  high,  broad  valleys.  The  largest  trees  occur  between 
about  3,000  and  5,000  feet  elevation.  It  is  a  low,  broad-crowned  tree 
with  huge  branches  extending  from  a  trunk  i  to  8  feet  in  length.  The 
trunks  are  1  foot  to  sometimes  i  feet  in  diameter. 

OREGON    MAPLE. 

The  Oregon  maple  is  the  next  most  widely  distributed  species,  and 
the  only  one  of  its  kind  in  the  middle  belt.  It  is  mostly  a  low,  very 
crooked  tree,  occurring  sparingly  near  streams  or  in  the  bottoms  of 
canyons,  at  elevations  between  2,000  and  4,500  feet.  Occasionally  it 
forms  the  principal  tree  growth  for  short  distances  along  small  streams. 
The  short  crooked  trunks  are  8  to  20  inches  in  diameter. 

PACIFIC    DOGWOOD. 

Pacific  dogwood  is  a  small  tree,  sparsel}'  but  generallj-  distributed 
between  elevations  of  3,000  and  5,000  feet.  It  is  partial  to  deep  shade 
and  moist  soils  in  the  vicinity  of  small  streams  and  coves.  The  com- 
mon size  is  10  to  20  feet  high  and  2  to  8  inches  in  diameter. 

BLACK    COTTONWOOD. 

Black  Cottonwood  grows  along  streams,  or  less  commonly  near  the 
shores  of  large  lakes.  It  appears  rather  abundantly  at  several  points 
in  the  bottoms  of  the  larger  river  canyons.  The  growth  is  rarely  con- 
tinuous for  any  considerable  distance,  but  more  often  groups  oi-  small 
patches  of  trees  are  widely  .scattered.  Its  range  in  altitude  is  from 
3,000  to  6,500  feet.  Where  most  abundant  the  trees  form  dense 
patches  down  to  the  water's  edge,  to  the  exclusion  of  other  trees. 
Here  the  trunks  are  straight  and  clear  of  branches  for  15  to  20  feet. 
The  largest  trees  are  25  to  35  feet  high  and  10  to  24  inches  in  diameter. 

WHITE    ALDER. 

White  alder  is  nowhere  abundant,  but  frecjuent  on  streams  between 
elevations  of  2,000  and  5,000  feet.  In  a  few  instances  it  descends  on 
small  streams  to  1,000  feet.  It  usually  grows  close  to  the  water  and 
in  a  more  or  less  continuous  fringe  for  a  considerable  distance.  It  is 
especially  at  home  in  a  wet  soil,  and  occasionally  quarter-acre  patches 


534  FOKEST    RESKRVE8. 

of  pure  growth  occur  in  wet  boggy  creek  liottonis.  The  trees  are  "25 
to  30  feet  high  and  O  to  20  inches  in  diameter.  The  trunks  are  short, 
straight,  and  much  l)ranche(l,  somewhat  resembling  a  l)eech. 

MAD  RON  A. 

The  main  range  of  the  madroiia  lies  in  the  coast  region  of  California 
and  northward,  and  so  far  as  known  to  me  this  tree  has  never  been 
reported  from  any  localit\-  in  California  as  far  east  as  the  Sierras. 
The  madrona  occurs  rather  abundantly  in  a  few  localities  in  the  middle 
timber  bolt  at  elevations  of  from  about  2,500  to  4,000  feet.  It  occurs 
in  the  moist  soil  of  shady  coves,  on  small  streams,  or  in  dry,  clayey 
and  gravelly  soils  of  low  slopes,  here  mingled  with  yellow^  pine. 
Almost  pure  growths  of  several  acres'  extent  occur  on  low  slopes  and 
in  bottoms.  It  was  found  in  greatest  abundance  on  the  headwaters 
of  Sutter,  Pioneer,  Mill,  and  Jesus  Maria  creeks.  It  was  found  also, 
but  less  abundantly,  on  Empire  Creek,  between  Garden  Valley  and 
Georgetown,  and  on  Otter  Creek  (tributary  to  Middle  Fork  of  Ameri- 
can Kiver).  Large  trees  are  crooked  and  scraggy,  ranging  in  height 
from  30  to  40  feet,  and  in  diameter  from  12  to  20  inches.  It  forms  a 
dense  shade  in  pure  growth,  and  appeal's  to  spread  and  hold  its  own 
in  the  densest  thickets  of  yellow  pine.  It  sprouts  vigorously  from 
stumps  when  cut,  and  also  from  the  roots  when  the  trees  are  ])urned 
to  the  ground. 

TAX-BARK    OAK. 

The  range  of  this  tree  appears  to  l)e  limited.  Although  occurring 
rather  abundantly  where  discovered,  it  was  found  in  only  a  few  local- 
ities at  altitudes  ranging  from  3,000  to  5.000  feet.  These  are  on  the 
west  slope  of  Tunnel  Hill,  on  the  headwaters  of  Otter  Creek,  on  Pilot 
Creek,  in  the  vicinity  of  Deep  Canyon  and  Mutton  Canyon;  also  in 
Big  Iowa  Canyon  (tributary  to  South  Fork  of  American  Eiver).  It 
grows  in  dry  sandy  and  gravelly  soils  on  exposed  slopes,  and  fre- 
quently in  deep,  shady  coves  and  canyons.  Rarely  more  than  two  or 
three  trees  occur  together.  It  is  a  low,  nuich-branched  tree,  the  trunk 
dividing  near  the  ground  into  large  Iminches.  The  height  is  under 
30  feet,  and  the  diameter  is  from  6  to  18  inches. 

The  low,  bushy  variety  of  this  species  {Q.  deiisifora  var.  echlnoides) 
forms  thickets  on  the  north  slope  of  Rubicon  River  Canyon  at  4.000 
to  4,500  feet  elevation. 

CALIFORNIA    SCRUB    OAK. 

The  California  scrub  oak  completes  the  list  of  oaks  found  in  this  belt. 
It  is  a  slender,  shrubby  species,  6  to  15  feet  high,  forming  small 
thickets  near  the  bottoms  of  canyons.  It  was  seen  at  elevations  of 
2,500  to  3,000  feet  on  the  headwaters  of  Esperanza  Creek  (tributarv 


A.     FOREST    FIRE  SET   BY    LUMBERMEN    TO    BURN    OUT   A   "JAM"   OF  TOPS 


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iJ.      INTERIOR   OF    YELLOW-PINE   FOREST   ON   SANDY    BENCH    LAND. 


snDwoRTH.]  STANISLAUS    AND    LAKE   TAHOE    RESERVES.  535 

to  North  Fork  of  Calaveras  River)  and  on  San  Antonio  and  Indian 
Creek  (tributaries  to  Soutli  Fork  of  Calaveras  River). 

SHORT-FLOWER   MAHOGANY. 

The  short-tiower  mahogany  is  a  rare  shrubby  tree  seen  onh'  on  the 
south  slope  of  Indian  Creek  Canyon,  near  the  headwaters,  at  3.000 
feet  elevation. 

COFFEE  BEERY. 

The  eofl'ee  berry  {Cascara  sagrada)  is  a  rather  eommon  shrub,  4  to 
()  feet  high,  and  occasionally  occurs  as  a  slender  tree  10  to  20  feet 
high  on  dry,  gravelly,  and  rocky  slopes  and  summits,  at  elevations 
from  1,500  to  6,000  feet.  It  is  most  abundant  between  2,500  and 
4,000  feet  elevation,  and  is  a  fre([uent  associate  of  the  shrubby  man- 
zanita. 

WESTERN    CHOKECHERRY. 

The  western  ehoKecherry  is  a  rare,  slender  tree  seen  in  the  canyon 
of  the  South  Fork  of  American  River  at  an  elevation  of  4,000  feet 
and  also  on  the  north  slope  of  Mokelumne  River  at  2.500  feet  elevation. 

PACIFIC    PLUM. 

The  Pacific  plum  is  also  a  rare  tree  of  shrubby  habit,  forming  small 
thickets  on  dry  slopes  of  canyons  at  elevations  of  3,000  to  4,000  feet. 
It  was  seen  on  the  headwaters  of  Camp  Creek  (tributaiy  of  North 
Fork  of  Cosumnes  River)  and  at  the  head  of  Pioneer  Creek  (tributary 
of  Sutter  Creek). 

CALIFORNIA    TORREYA. 

This  species  is  exceedingly  rare,  if  it  is  not  the  rarest  in  the  region. 
Only  16  trees  were  seen.  These  were  in  the  canyons  of  tlie  following 
streams:  Empire  Creek  (tributary  of  South  Fork  of  American  River) 
at  3,500  feet  elevation;  north  slope  of  South  Fork  of  Mokelumne 
River  at  2,000  to  2,500  feet  elevation;  San  Antonio  Creek  (tributary 
of  South  Fork  of  Calaveras  River)  at  2,000  feet  elevation,  and  on 
South  Fork  of  Webber  Creek  at  3,000  feet  elevation.  They  are  small, 
straight  trees,  10  to  30  feet  high,  with  branches  down  to  the  ground, 
and  thrive  in  the  densest  shade  of  yellow  pine,  cedar,  and  red  fir.  A 
few  seedlings  were  found  near  one  group  of  trees  only.  The  repro- 
duction of  this  species  is  apparently  very  limited,  owing  to  the  fact 
that  being  dicecious  only  a  part  of  the  trees  bear  fruit;  and  this,  too, 
is  produced  sparingly. 

PACIFIC    YEW. 

The  Pacific  yew  is  also  comparatively  rare  and  isolated.  It  occurs 
in  the  deepest  shade  of  I'ed  fir,  white  fir,  and  incense  cedar,  in  moist 
soil  along  small  streams,  and  in  ravines  and  narrow  coves.     Only  a 


536  FdKKST    RKSKRVES. 

few  tnH'S  (K'ciii'  ill  each  locality,  and  these  are  coniinonly  low  and 
widely  branched  to  the  <rr(>iind.  The  height  is  from  10  to  20  feet  and 
the  diameter  is  from  (i  to  10  inches.  Moderate  reproduction  was  seen 
near  groups  of  these  trees.  The  localities  in  which  this  species  was 
found  are  as  follows:  Vicinity  of  Mutton  Canyon  and  Deep  Canyon 
(branches  of  Pilot  Creek,  a  tributary  of  Rubicon  River)  at  -i.OOO  feet 
elevation;  Big  Iowa  Canyon  (tributary  of  South  Fork  of  American 
River)  at  8.000  feet;  headwaters  of  Sly  Park  Creek  (tributary  of 
North  Fork  of  Cosumnes  River)  and  North  Fork  of  Webber  Creek, 
at  4.000  feet;  at  2,500  to  3,000  feet  on  the  headwaters  of  Cedar  Creek 
(tributary  same  river);  at  3,500  feet  on  CJlear  Creek  (tributary  of 
Webber  Creek);  headwaters  of  Mill  Creek  (tributary  of  North  Fork 
of  Mokelumne  River)  at  3.500  to  -i.oOO  feet  elevation. 


Besides  the  trees  of  this  timber  belt,  there  are  several  large  shrubs, 
of  which  the  manzanita  {Arcfosfaj)/i.i//os  j)>(nge7is)  is  the  most  conspic- 
uous. It  is  widely  distributed  on  all  dry  gravelly  slopes  at  elevations 
of  from  1,500  to  6,000  feet.  It  grows  abundantly  in  open  places 
among  yellow  pines,  and  quickly  taktj,s  possession  of  exposed  slopes 
wherever  patches  of  forest  have  been  cut  or  burned  off.  Here  its  stiff 
harsh  stems  form  almost  impenetrable  thickets  from  6  to  10  feet  high. 
Surface  tires  repeatedly  kill  the  growth  down  to  the  ground,  but  the 
roots  sprout  vigorously  and  continue  to  maintain  a  strong  protective 
cover,  which  is  important  on  steep  slopes.  In  localities  where  the 
ground  is  not  too  constantly  burned  over  this  chaparral  does  not 
exclude  the  linal  but  slow  recovery  of  the  land  by  conifers. 

UPPER   BELT. 
Abundant  and  Important  Trees. 

The  major  part  of  this  belt  is  made  up  of  three  conifers — the  lodge- 
pole  pine.  Jeffrey  pine,  and  California  red  tir.  The  white  fir  is  more 
or  less  frequent  at  the  lower  limit  of  the  belt,  but  even  here  must  be 
regarded  as  a  straggler  from  below.  The  other  conifers  and  broad- 
leaf  trees  of  the  belt  form  no  considerable  part  of  the  forests. 
Altogether  the  commercial  importance  of  this  forest  is  small,  except 
at  the  lower  limit,  where  most  of  the  large  timber  is  found  and  where 
also  this  timber  is  most  easily  accessible. 

LODGEPOLK    PINE. 

This  pine  is  widely  distributed  between  elevations  of  0.000  and  tt. 300 
feet,  while  the  area  of  greatest  abundance  lies  between  6,000  and 
8,500  feet.  A  few  trees,  however,  were  discovered  at  elevations  of 
3,500,  4,000,  and  5.000  feet.  These  stations  are  far  distant  and  in  no 
way  connected  with  the  wider  range  of  the  species,  and  must,  there- 
fore, be  considered  mere  outposts.     The  lodgepole  pine  occurs  most 


A.     SOUTH  FORK  OF  AMERICAN  RIVER,  NEAR  BULLION  BEND. 


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i;.  CANYON  OF  SOUTH  FORK  uf  AMERICAN  RIVER. 


sinwoRTH.]  STANISLAUS    AND    LAKE    TAHOE    RESERVES.  537 

abundantly  in  pure  growth  on  the  margins  of  mountain  meadows.  On 
higher  ground  it  is  associated  more  or  less  with  Jeffrey  pine,  Cali- 
fornia red  fir,  western  white  pine,  and  occasionally  with  black  hem- 
lock, here  forming  50  per  cent  of  the  stand.  The  forests  of  pure 
growth  are  rather  dense  (100-150  trees  to  the  acre),  but  in  mixture  on 
higher,  rocky,  broken  ground  the  stand  is  open  and  often  scattered 
(iO  to  50  trees  per  acre).  This  tree  shows  a  remarkable  adaptation  to 
widely  different  soil  conditions  and  site.  It  thrives  best  in  the  mea- 
dow bottoms,  but  spreads  persistently  over  low  rocky  ridges  and 
stretches  of  high  granite  plateaus,  establishing  itself  everywhere  in 
crevices  and  pockets.  The  trunk  form  is  poor,  though  moderately 
cj'lindrical,  and  is  altogether  much  inferior  to  that  produced  in  the 
Rocky  Mountain  range  of  this  species.  Except  in  patches  of  the 
densest  stand,  the  trunks  bear  large  limbs  down  to  the  ground.  The 
height  is  from  30  to  80  feet,  with  diameters  ranging  from  11  to  39 
inches;  diameters  from  11  to  ii-t  inches  are  most  common.  On  the 
high,  wind-swept  sites  at  the  upper  limits  of  distribution  the  trunk 
becomes  very  short,  in  fact  the  form  is  reduced  to  a  sprawling  shrub 
under  2  feet  in  height.  The  age  of  the  largest  trees  is  from  100  to 
150  j-ears. 

The  reproduction  of  lodgepole  pine  is  everywhere  abundant  and 
most  persistent.  Dense  thickets  of  young  trees  and  seedlings  are  com- 
mon wherever  there  is  soil,  and  are  always  present  in  crevices  and 
pockets  where  the  tree  occurs  on  granite.  Patches  of  fire-killed  tim- 
ber are  replaced  in  a  few  years  by  reseeding  from  cones  on  the  dt-ad 
trees,  the  cones  being  rarely  destroyed  by  surface  fires.  A  notable 
difference  between  the  Sierra  and  Rocky  Mountain  form  of  this  tree  is 
that  cones  of  the  former  usually  open  and  shed  their  seed  during  the 
same  year  they  mature.  Mature  cones  of  the  Rocky  Mountain  lodge- 
pole  pine  are  likely  to  remain  closed  for  several  seasons  before  opening. 

CALIFORNIA    RED    FIR. 

The  California  red  fir  is  one  of  the  three  conspicuous  trees  in  the 
upper  timber  belt,  and  is  also  the  fir  most  commonly  met  with. 
Although  generally  distributed,  the  bulk  of  this  timber  occurs  in  for- 
ests more  or  less  separate  from  those  of  lodgepole  and  Jeffrey  pine. 
The  altitudinal  range  is  between  6,000  and  8,500  feet,  and  the  prevail- 
ing growth  lies  between  6,500  and  7,500  feet.  Its  occurrence  at  levels 
between  5,000  and  6,000  feet  is  straggling.  Forests  of  pure  growth 
are  frequent  on  the  soil-covered  lava-rock  benches  on  the  eastern,  south- 
ern, and  western  slopes  of  the  larger  mountain  peaks  and  ranges. 
Interspersed  with  such  areas  are  those  with  a  mixed  forest  of  lodge- 
pole pine,  Jeffrey  pine,  silver  pine,  and  black  hemlock,  in  which  the 
California  red  fir  forms  40  to  50  per  cent  of  the  stand.  The  forests  of 
pure  growth  are  usuallj-  of  considerable  extent  and  uniformly  so  dense 
as  to  exclude  all  undershrubs.     In  this  respect  these  fir  forests  are 


538  KORKST    RESERVES. 

exceptional  for  the  entire  territory,  as  no  other  timber  tree  produces 
so  dense  a  stsind.     The  mixed  growths  are  more  open. 

The  trunk  form  of  this  species  at  the  lower  levels  of  its  range  is  cj-lin- 
drical,  and  the  shafts  are  remarkably  straight  and  clear  of  branches 
for  40  to  t;0  feet  or  more.  At  the  middle  and  upper  levels  of  distri- 
bution the  trunks  are  very  conical,  short,  and  invariably  strongly 
curved  at  the  ])ase.  This  curve  in  the  trunk  is  traceable,  however,  to 
the  annual  bending  of  young  .seedlings  to  the  ground  by  heavy  falls  of 
snow.  After  the  snow  is  gone,  the  young  trees  are  partially  straight- 
ened up  by  each  season's  upward  growth,  but  the  wide  curve  in  the 
stem  is  retained  and  becomes  a  marked  featui-e  in  the  matuie  trunk. 
The  height  of  this  tir  is  from  80  to  175  feet,  with  diameters  ranging 
from  l;i  to  <!0  inches.  In  the  area  of  greatest  aljundant'c  the  couunon 
sizes  are  100  to  140  feet  in  height  and  24  to  40  inches  in  diameter. 
The  largest  dimensions  are  attained  by  scattered  trees  at  the  lowest 
limit  of  distribution,  while  the  smallest  trees  are  found  at  tli(>  upper 
limit.     The  age  of  mature  trees  is  from  250  to  300  years. 

The  reproduction  of  this  fir  is  exceedingly  abundant.  The  smallest 
openings  made  in  high  tir  forests  is  promptly  tilled  by  seedlings.  The 
shade  endurance  of  seedlings  under  such  conditions  is  very  great. 
Frequently  they  remain  suppressed  for  10  to  20  years  and  are  no  more 
than  2  or  8  feet  high.  The  remarkable  capacity  of  California  red  tir 
for  re-covering  large  denuded  areas  is  seen  where  fire  and  excessive 
grazing  have  left  the  gravelly  soil  bare  and  dusty.  Here,  if  by  acci- 
dent those  spots  are  undisturbed  for  se\'eral  years,  this  fir  springs  up 
in  the  clos(>st  possible  stand,  and  the  young  trees  grow  rapidly,  reach- 
ing a  height  of  8  to  10  feet  in  five  to  seven  years.  Their  thrifty,  vigor- 
ous appearance  is  striking  (see  PI.  XCV,  B).  Comparatively  speaking, 
this  fir  is  reproduced  more  plentifully  than  the  white  fir.  The  reasons 
for  this  appear  to  be  three — greater  seed  production,  more  soil  mois- 
ture, w'hich  alone  insures  full  germination  of  the  seed,  and  less 
destruction  by  fire.  There  is  one  other  advantage  which  this  fir  has 
over  the  white  fir.  A  smaller  percentage  of  California  red-fir  seed  is 
eaten  by  rodents  than  of  white-fir  seed,  a  fact  which  is  accounted  for 
because  these  animals  are  far  more  at)undant  in  the  yellow-pine  belt, 
where  the  white  fir  abounds,  than  in  the  higher  range  of  the  Califor- 
nia red  fir. 

JEFFREY    PINE. 

This  pine  has  been  fully  discussed  as  a  tree  of  limited  occurrence  in 
the  middle  timber  belt,  where  the  small  production  of  useful  tim- 
ber gives  the  tree  its  only  connnercial  importance. 

WHITE    FIR. 

The  white  fir,  which  is  fully  described  as  a  principal  species  of  the 
middle  or  yellow-pine  timber  l)elt,  is  mentioned  in  the  present  connec- 


U.   S.   GEOLOGICAL  SURVEY 


A.     CASCADE   LAKE,    LOOKING   SOUTHWEST   FROM    NORTH    END   OF   LAKE. 


H      WEST  SLOPE  OF    RUBICON    RIVER   CANYON. 


SUDWOKTH.I  STANISLAUS    AND    LAKE    TAHOE    RESERVES.  539 

tion  only  as  a  species  irregular  in  its  extension  into  the  upper  timber 
belt.  It  occurs  here  very  sparingly  and  is  usualh'  associated  only  with 
California  red  fir.  There  appears  to  be  great  irregularity  in  the 
extension  of  this  fir  into  the  upper  Ijelt,  the  extension  consisting  in 
isolated  trees  or  small  gi'oups. 

Rare  or  Unimportant  Trees. 
WESTERN    WHITE    PINE. 

Western  white  pine  is  rather  rare  but  widely  distributed  between 
6,500  and  9,400  feet  elevation,  being  most  f  ref(uent  between  7,000  and 
8,500  feet.  It  appears  as  scattered  individuals,  or  at  most  several 
trees  together,  associated  with  California  red  fir  and  black  hemlock, 
or  less  frequently  with  k)dgepole  pine.  In  rare  instances  small  areas 
of  mixed  forest  may  contain  5  to  15  per  cent.  On  ^'ery  rocky  exposed 
high  slopes  it  is  sometimes  conspicuous  in  being  about  the  only 
straggling  tree.  The  trees  are  gnarled  and  twisted  in  such  locations, 
becoming  greatly  stunted  at  the  extreme  upper  limit  of  distribution. 
The  trees  found  in  the  mixed  forests  of  lower  levels  are  generally  of 
good  timber  form,  the  trunks  being  straight,  cylindrical,  and  clear  of 
branches  for  30  or  40  feet.  The  height  of  such  trees  is  from  100  to 
140  feet  and  the  diameter  is  from  15  to  40  inches.  Isolated  trees  on 
high  exposed  slopes  are  rarely  over  50  feet  in  height,  but  frequently 
30  to  50  inches  in  diameter,  the  limbs  on  these  trees  extending  nearlj^ 
to  the  ground.     Matui-e  trees  are  160  to  '225  years  old. 

Very  little  reproduction  of  the  species  was  observed,  although  both 
the  forest  grown  and  other  trees  bear  seed  plentifully.  Only  a  few 
scattered  seedlings,  from  6  inches  to  3  feet  high,  are  found  near  trees 
in  the  mixed  forests,  and  still  more  rarely  are  seedlings  found  about 
trees  in  the  open.  The  sparse  reproduction  of  this  pine  is  in  marked 
contrast  with  that  of  the  prolific  lodgepole  and  Jefl'rey  pines,  and  indi- 
cates the  much  smaller  capacity  of  this  tree  to  multiply  e\en  under 
apparently  favorable  conditions. 

But  for  the  very  limited  supply  of  this  timber,  its  excellent  quality 
in  mixed  forests  would  give  the  species  great  commercial  importance 
as  a  timber  tree. 

BLACK    HEMLOCK. 

Black  hemlock  is  a  strictly  subalpine  tree,  confined  chieiiy  to  north- 
ern slopes  at  elevations  between  6,!»00  and  9,400  feet.  It  is  generally 
distributed  within  these  limits  and  associated  often  with  lodgepole 
pine  only,  or  with  western  white  pine,  lodgepole  pine,  and  California 
red  fir;  while  in  its  highest  range  it  occurs  in  small  patches  by  itself, 
interspersed  with  those  of  white-bark  pine.  The  mixed  growths  of 
lower  levels  are  usually  low,  rather  thin  forests,  entirel_y  protective 
in  character,  largeh'  on  bare,  broken  lava  rock  or  granite.  Mixed 
with  lodgepole  pine  it  grows  also  on  the  mucky  borders  of  subalpine 


540  FOKE8T    KESEKVES. 

meadows  and  lakes  (see  PI.  CV,  B).  Black  hemlock  is  most  abundant 
between  7,()0()  and  8,500  feet  elevation.  Within  this  area  the  hemlock 
sometimes  forms  from  10  to  25  per  cent  of  the  total  stand.  At  the 
highest  and  lowest  limits  of  distribution  the  occurrence  of  this  species 
is  irregular  and  at  wide  intervals.  The  common  trunk  form  is  rather 
strongly  conical  and  the  stem  bears  branches  quite  to  the  ground.  A 
few  of  the  larger  trees  in  protec-ted  gulches  or  on  benches  are  fairly 
cylindric^al,  and  the  trunks  are  clear  of  branches  for  20  feet  to  30  feet. 
The  trunks  are  never  quite  straight,  being  slightly  curved.  The 
height  is  from  25  to  90  feet,  the  prevailing  height  being  30  to  50  feet. 
Diameter  measurements  are  from  12  to  32  inches,  but  the  latter  dimen- 
sion is  rather  rare.  The  age  of  low  timber  in  open  forests  on  rocky 
sites  is  from  80  to  150  years,  and  that  of  larger  trees  in  denser  growth 
in  protected  localities  is  from  160  to  190  years.  The  largest  trees  of 
the  open,  exposed  forests  are  often  uprooted  by  high  winds,  a  fact 
which  may  account  for  the  general  absence  of  old  trees  in  this  type  of 
forest,  while  large  trees  in  protected  localities  are  less  commonly 
destroyed  by  storms. 

Black  hemlock  is  reproduced  plentifully  throughout  the  major  part 
of  its  distribution,  the  extreme  upper  limits  of  range  being  the  excep- 
tion to  this,  here  showing  only  occasional  reproduction.  Numerous 
small  seedlings  and  patches  of  young  trees  3  to  10  feet  high,  are  present 
everywhere  among  the  older  trees.  The  old  and  even  half-grown  trees 
bear  large  crops  of  cones  which  yield  an  abundance  of  seed,  and  the 
high  range  of  the  tree  on  northern  slopes  usually  insures  to  the  fallen 
seed  more  prolonged  moisture  conditions  than  ai'e  available  to  species 
prevailing  on  the  dryer  southern,  eastern,  and  western  slopes. 

The  black  hemlock  has  no  commercial  value,  but  is  an  important 
concomitant  of  protective  forests  on  and  near  the  extreme  headwaters 
of  the  larger  streams  or  their  tributaries. 

WESTERN    .TUNIPER. 

This  is  a  tree  of  high  altitudes  and  of  exposed  situations.  It  is 
nowhere  abundant,  but  is  frequent  as  a  scattered  tree  on  bare  granite- 
rock  slopes  and  low  summits  between  7,000  and  8,500  feet  elevation. 
On  some  of  the  mountain  ranges  it  is  more  common  on  southern  than 
on  other  slopes,  yet  elsewhere  it  is  found  on  eastern  and  western 
exposures  also.  The  western  juniper  never  forms  a  close  stand. 
Single  trees,  or  clumps  of  two  or  three  trees  verj'  close  together, 
occur  at  rather  wide  intervals,  at  most  not  averaging  more  than  three 
trees  to  the  acre  (see  Pis.  XCVI,  B,  and  XCVII,  B).  Its  principal 
associate  is  the  similarly  scattered  Jeffrey  pine.  In  the  more  exposed 
situations  the  trees  are  low  and  of  disproportionately  large  diameter. 
The  tops  are  frequently  broken  l)y  storms,  Init  the  trees  are  so  strongly 
rooted  in  the  crevices  of  rock  that  few  are  ever  uprooted.  Occasional 
protected  gulches  have  much  taller  and  better  proportioned  trees.     The 


A.     LITTLE  SOUTH    GERLE   CREEK   AT    WEST    END   OF    LOON    LAKE, 


^■g^^^^^^^K^^d^ps^^^^^^^BL 

ii 

hi*''^'''f '  tl    '^•^  - lEC'';  V^^B^H^''  IH 

1^     ^' 

'"'"Si 

.-■■■   ■■-    '**"Si 

?!SI^HH^BHHBHiH^lK?^P 

S.     SUGAR    PINE  4   FEET   IN    DIAMETER    FELLED    BY    PERSISTENT   BURNINC 


srcwoRTH]  STANISLAUS    AND    LAKE    TAHOE    RESERVES.  541 

height  growth  i.s  from  20  to  30  feet,  and  in  rare  instances  35  to  40 
feet,  with  diameters  from  2  to  4  feet.  The  trunks  are  very  irregular 
in  form,  usually  having  prominent  broad  ridges  and  being  widely 
buttressed  at  the  base.  Stout  branches  are  borne  nearly  down  to  the 
ground,  leaving  little  or  no  clear  trunk. 

The  reproduction  of  this  juniper  is  sparing.  l)ut  young  trees  and 
seedlings  are  nearly  always  to  be  found  in  numbers  quite  propor- 
tionate to  the  stand  of  mature  trees.  There  is  evidence  in  this  and 
in  the  profusion  of  berries  borne  that  this  species  holds  its  own. 
It  is  a  tree  of  '^o  economic  importance,  howev,  r.  and  because  of  its 
.scattered  growth  contributes  very  little  to  the  protective  forest  cover 
of  the  high  mountains. 

WHITE-BARK    PIXE. 

This  pine  has  the  most  limited  range  in  altitude  of  any  conifer  in 
the  upper  timber  belt,  but  reaches  a  higher  elevation  than  any  other 
tree  within  these  limits.  It  grows  among  broken  bare  rocks  and  in 
beds  of  disintegrated  granite  at  elevations  between  8,000  and  0,500 
feet,  forming  small  patches  of  stunted  and  storm-beaten  trees  with 
which,  except  at  the  upper  levels,  are  interspersed  groups  and  single 
trees  of  black  hemlock.  Western  white  pine  and  lodgepole  pine.  At 
the  upper  limits  of  its  distribution  the  white-bark  pine  is  the  only  tree 
and  is  the  one  which  fixes  the  timber  line  for  this  belt.  AVhite-bark 
pine  grows  on  eastern,  southern,  and  western  slopes  onl\',  showing  no 
tendency  to  establish  itself  on  contiguous  northern  slopes,  even  at 
points  where  descent  to  such  locations  would  seem  natural. 

The  largest  trees  occur  at  the  lowest  levels  of  distribution,  while 
successively  smaller  trees  are  met  as  higher  levels  are  reached.  The 
form  of  this  species  found  at  and  near  timber  line  is  represented  bj^  a 
sprawling  mat  of  branches  lying  flat  on  the  rocks:  the  branches  often 
grow  to  great  length  from  a  trunk  less  than  a  foot  high.  Ti-ees  of 
greater  height  can  not  withstand  the  terrific  winds  which  sweep  over 
these  high.  1)are  slopes  and  summits. 

The  trunks  of  this  pine  are,  for  the  most  part,  crooked  and  twisted 
or  gnarled.  Occasional  trees  on  the  lower  levels  are  straight,  but 
these  still  show  in  their  conical  trunks  the  effects  of  exposure  to  heavy 
winds.  The  usual  height  of  the  largest  trees  is  from  8  to  20  feet,  with 
diameters  from  14  to  24  inches.  "While  these  short,  sturdy  trees  gen-  - 
erally  withstand  the  tierce  winds  and  the  falling  and  sliding  of  tons  of 
snow  and  ice,  many  trunks  are  uprooted  or  torn  asunder. 

The  reproduction  of  white-bark  pine  is  rather  scanty.  A  few 
.stunted  seedlings  and  young  trees  can  be  found  near  the  patches  of 
old  trees;  but  more  often  seedlings  take  root  under  the  low  protecting 
branches  of  the  old  trees.  Those  beyond  this  shelter  are  so  constantly 
and  violently  swayed  by  wind  that  many  of  the  stems  are  gradually 
ground   ofi'  by  rubbing  against  sharp  particles  of    rock.      It  is  evi- 


542  KOEKST    RE8KKVES. 

dent  from  this  diftirulty  in  .spreading,  that  the  existing  patx-hes  of  this 
pine  have  been  established  after  a  hard  struggle.  Most  of  the  repro- 
diietion  being  within  these  groups,  the  latter  long  I'emain  narrowly 
eircuMiscribed. 

OTHER    SPKCIES. 

The  rciiiaining  trees  of  the  upper  belt  are  so  insignificant  in  size  as 
to  deserve  only  passing  notice.  All  arc  practically  shrubs,  forming 
low,  tangled  thic-kets  along  small  streams  on  the  borders  of  moist 
meadows,  or  on  the  lower  edges  of  timber  belts  occup3ang  steep 
slopes.  In  this  they  are  useful  adjuncts  to  the  general  protective 
forest  cover  of  high  altitudes. 

The  smallest  and  the  least  abundant  of  these  species  is  the  dwarf 
maple  found  at  altitudes  between  5,000  and  7,500  feet,  and  mainly 
between  6,500  and  7,500  feet.  Its  slender  stems  are  3  to  10  feet  high, 
and  almost  prostrate  from  the  weight  of  heavj-  snows.  The  aspen  is 
rather  widely  distributed  at  elevations  between  6,500  and  8,500  feet, 
only  occasional  patches  occur  at  5,000  feet  elevation.  The  small  stems 
are  rarel_y  over  10  or  15  feet  in  height,  and  in  the  majority  of  instances 
the  lower  part  of  the  trunk  is  greatly  twisted  or  coiled  and  nearly 
pi'ostrate.  The  bitter  cheny  forms  dense  sprawling  thickets  in  local- 
ities similar  to  those  of  the  aspen,  and  is  fairly  frequent  throughout 
the  same  range.  The  bent  and  semiprostrate  stems  are  6  to  12  feet 
high  and  2  to  6  inches  in  diameter.  The  paper-leaf  alder  is  also  a 
thicket-forming  species  confined  to  the  uppei'  coui'ses  of  small  streams, 
bogg3^  places,  spring  heads,  and  the  moist,  mucky  l)orders  of  mead- 
ows.. It  occurs  at  6,000  feet  elevation,  but  is  abundant  onh'  between 
7,000  and  S.OOO  feet. 


Besides  the  small  trees  just  mentioned,  there  are  several  shrubs 
which  are  conspicuous  in  forming  a  low  thick  chaparral  cover  on  rocky 
and  gravelly  summits  and  slopes  between  6,500  and  8,000  feet  eleva- 
tion. This  cover  is  of  consideral)le  importance  as  a  ground  protection, 
and  where  abundant  prevents  the  rapid  descent  of  water  on  steep 
slopes.  It  is  most  abundant  among  the  open  and  scattered  growth  of 
Jeffrey  pine,  lodgepole  pine,  and  juniper,  and  with  these  trees  consti- 
tutes the  sole  protection  of  the  upper  watersheds  (see  PI.  XCVI,  B). 
Large  areas  of  this  low  cover  are  freq  -.ently  killed  to  the  ground  by 
fire,  but  the  roots  are  almost  never  injured,  so  that,  if  the  burning 
does  not  recur  within  two  or  three  sea.sons,  the  cover  is  replaced  by  a 
crop  of  new  shoots.  It  is  evident  in  certain  parts  of  these  brash-cov- 
ered areas,  that  the  existence  of  the  shrubs,  the  roots  of  which  break 
up  the  softer  rocks,  finallv  make  it  easier  for  timber  trees  to  become 
established  than  would  otherwise  be  po.ssible. 

The  most  important  of  these  shrubs  is  the  "deer  brush''  {Ceanot/ius 


A.     A  GOLD    MINER   AND    HIS   CABIN,    SETTLED    IN    1849. 


THOD   OF    HAULING   YELLOW-PINE    LOGS  TO   SAWMILL. 


SUDWORTH.j 


STANISLAUS    AND    LAKE    TAHOE    RESERVES. 


543 


jtrostratus  Benth.),  and  a  green-leafed  manzanita  {Arctostaphijlos),  com- 
mon at  the  lower  levels,  and  Palmer  oak  (Quercus  vaccimifolia  Kell.) 
and  chinquapin  {Castmiopsis  chryxoplnjlla  minor  de  C.).  abundant  at 
the  higher  elevations. 

RECAPITULATION. 

Tallin  shati'hvj  the  all'dufUmd  range  of  principaJ  Irers  in  tlic  Inun-,  middle,  and  upper 
timber  heltK. 


LOWER   BELT. 

Gray  pine 

California  rock  oak 


MIDDLE    BELT. 

Yellow  pine 

Incense  cedar. 

Sugar  pine 

White  fir 

Jeffrey  pine 

Red  fir 

Big  tree 

Calfornia  black  oak 

Canyon  live  oak 

Oregon  maple 

Pacific  dogwood 

Black  Cottonwood 

White  alder 

Madrona 

Tan-bark  oak 

Short-flower  mahogany 

Coffee  berry 

Western  chokecherry 

Pacific  plum 

Pacific  yew 

California  torreva 


VPI'EK    KELT. 


Lodgepole  pine 

California  red  fir ... . 
Western  white  pine  . 

Black  hemlock  

Western  juniper 

White-bark  pine  . . . . 
Aspen 


Feet. 
500  to  3, 000 
300  to  1,.500 

2,  000  to  6,  000 
2,  000  to  7,  000 

2,  000  to  7,  000 

3,  800  to  7,  500 
5,  000  to  8,  500 
2, 000  to  5, 500 

4,  600  to  5,  000 
1,500  to  6,  500 
1,500  to  6, 000 
2,  000  to  4,  500 
3, 000  to  5, 000 
3, 000  to  6, 500 
2, 000  to  5, 000 
2, 500  to  4, 000 
3, 000  to  5, 000 

3,000 
1,500  to  6, 000 
2, 500  to  4, 000 
3, 000  to  4, 000 
2, 500  to  4, 000 
2, 000  to  3, 000 


6,  OOI  to  9,  300 
6,  000  to  8,  500 
6,  500  to  9,  400 
6, 900  to  9, 400 
7, 000  to  8,  500 
8, 000  to  9,  500 
6,  000  to  8,  500 


Fed. 
1, 000  to  2, 000 

500  to  1.000 

3, 000  to  5, 000 
3, 500  to  5, 000 
3, 000  to  5, 000 
4, 000  to  5, 000 
6, 500  to  8, 500 
3, 500  to  5, 000 


3,  500  to  4,  500 
3, 000  to  5, 000 


4,  000  to  4,  500 
2,  500  to  4,  000 


6,  000  to  8,  500 
6,  500  to  7, 500 
7, 000  to  8, 500 
7, 000  to  8, 500 


54-i  FOKKl^T    UKSKRVKS. 

USES  AND  MAUKKT  PRICES  OF  TIMBER. 

The  tiinher  trees  of  greatest  commercial  value  in  this  region  are  tlie 
yellow  pine,  .Tetfery  pine,  sugar  pine,  white  fir,  red  tir,  and  incense 
cedar.  These  supplj'  nearly  all  of  the  sawed  timi)er  and  all  of  tiie 
round  and  rived  material  used.  The  less  important  useful  trees  are 
the  gray  pine,  live  oak,  California  black  oak,  lodgepolc  pine,  and 
California  red  fir.  Together  with  several  of  the  above  more  valuable 
species,  these  timber  trees  supply  the  fuel,  fencing  material,  and 
round  logs  used  for  buildings. 

LUMBER. 

The  major  part  of  all  sawed  luml)er  is  cut  from  yellow  pine  (includ- 
ing the  small  amount  of  available  Jeffrey  pine).  This  is  supplemented 
to  a  considerable  extent  by  sugar  pine,  white  fir,  and  red  fir.  A  lai'ge 
proportion  of  the  lumber  .sawed  consists  of  inch  boards  and  planking, 
and  to  a  less  extent  of  large-dimension  square  timber.  High  percent- 
ages of  the  best  grades  of  clear  stock  are  produced  by  all  these  trees. 
The  sugar  and  yellow  pines  furnish  the  greatest  quantities  of  clear 
luml)er  and  are  u.sed  most  widely  for  construction.  The  excellent 
quality  of  yellow  pine  fits  it  for  the  finest  interior  finish,  while  its 
strength  and  durability  make  it  applicable  for  general  construction. 

All  of  the  sawed  lumber  derived  from  the  forests  of  this  ten-itory 
is  consumed  here,  principally  by  settlers  in  the  mining  and  agricul- 
tural districts,  a  very  small  amount  being  used  in  the  higher  wooded 
regions.  This  local  consumption  prevails  because  without  railroad 
facilities  the  lumber  can  not  be  placed  on  markets  outside  this  region 
at  prices  low  enough  to  compete  with  larger  lumber  manufacturers 
operating  in  territory  served  by  railroads.  The  chief  uses  made  of 
sawed  lumber  is  for  general  house  building  in  settlements,  and  also  for 
construction  at  gold-mining  plants,  where,  with  other  lumber,  con- 
siderable large  square  timber  is  consumed.  Very  little  round  timber 
is  used  at  the  present  time  for  houses  and  other  buildings,  except  for 
summer  cabins  in  the  high  mountains. 

All  lumber  is  hauled  by  wagon  from  mills  to  the  various  local 
markets.  The  length  of  the  haul  is  from  10  to  25  miles,  and  the  aver- 
age cost  of  such  transportation  is  about  $5  per  1.000  feet.  The  price 
for  second-class  yellow  pine,  sugar  pine,  white  tir  and  red  fir  lumber  at 
the  mills  is  from  $9  to  $10  per  1,000  feet,  while  the  price  for  first-class 
or  clear  lumber  hauled  to  the  towns  and  mining  camps  is  from  |16  to 
$23,  and  dressed  clear  lumber  is  worth  from  $25  to  $30  per  1,000  feet. 

Sawed  incen.se-cedar  telephone;  and  telegraph  poles  are  used  to  a 
limited  extent,  and  are  the  most  durable  poles  available  in  the  region. 
Apparently  the  diseased  condition  common  in  incense-cedar  timber 
(see  PI.  CXIII,  ^1)  does  not  unfit  the  wood  for  such  purposes,  as  badly 
affected  .samples  were  constantly  seen  doing  good  service. 


A.     WASTE   IN    LUMBERING. 


11.     LOWER    LIMIT  OF   YELLOW-PINE   BELT. 


SLDwoRrii]  STANISLAUS    AND    LAKE    TAHOK    RESERVES.  545 

STUDDING  AND    LAGGING   TIMBER. 

In  addition  to  suwed  tinibor  used  in  mining'  operations,  large  quan- 
tities of  round  studding  and  rived  lagging  are  consumed  in  deep  shaft 
mining.  These  materials  are  derived  almost  entirely  from  yellow 
pine.  Studding,  which  is  used  for  large  props,  is  cut  from  compara- 
tively young  pine — .50  to  125  years  old.  The  size  of  studding  is  10  to 
20  inches  in  diameter  and  from  1(3  to  18  feet  in  length  (see  PI. 
CXIII,  B).  These  logs  are  cut,  peeled,  skidded,  and  in  order  to 
lighten  them  are  left  to  dry  out  for  a  time  before  hauling.  The  first 
cost  of  studding  is  about  50  cents  per  stick;  hauled  to  the  mines  (dis- 
tant 8  to  20  miles)  it  Ijrings  from  $1  to  $2  per  stick.  The  large  quan- 
tities of  this  timber  used  and  the  difficulty  of  hauling  such  heavy 
material  in  any  but  small  amounts  appears  to  keep  up  a  lively  demand. 

Lagging  timber,  a  small  split  or  rived  prop  used  extensively  in  sur- 
facing mine  shafts,  is  an  important  commodity.  It  is  derived  princi- 
pallj'^  from  mature  yellow  pine  and  occasionally  from  red  fir.  The 
pieces  are  i  feet  long,  1  to  (3  inches  wide,  and  about  2  inches  thick. 
The  average  price  paid  for  lagging  delivered  at  the  mines  is  about 
$16  per  1.000  pieces,  and  the  distance  hauled  is  from  10  to  IS  miles. 

SHAKE  TIMBER. 

••.Shakes"  are  a  form  of  shingle  used  exclusively  in  thi.-^  region 
from  an  early  day  for  roofing,  and  to  some  extent  also  for  weather- 
boarding  (.see  Fl.  CIV,  B).  Except  in  some  of  the  larger  settlements 
near  railroad  communications,  where  .sawed  shingles  can  be  had.  shakes 
are  still  in  common  use.  The  best  shakes  are  made  from  sugar  pine, 
which  is  the  timber  u.sed  most  commonly.  They  are  also  made  from 
extra  clear  and  straight-grained  yellow  and  Jeflrey  pine,  and  also  from 
white  and  California  red  fir;  but  all  are  inferior  to  the  sugar  pine  in 
wearing  cjualities.  The  sugar  pine  is  preferred  also  because  the  tim- 
ber can  be  rived  more  easily  and  because  of  the  greater  length  of 
clear  trunk  available.  For  the  most  part,  it  is  only  when  sugar  pine 
is  not  available  that  other  timber  is  used.  Shakes  are  usuall}'  36 
inches  long,  5  to  6  inches  wide,  and  from  one-fourth  to  one-half  inch 
thick.  Sugar  pine  of  perfect  quality  for  making  shakes  splits  so 
smoothly  that  the  shakes  do  not  require  shaving.  The  market  price 
of  shakes  is  from  §5  to  f 7  per  1,000. 

The  widespread  and  long-continued  u.'^e  of  sugar  pine  for  shakes  has 
resulted  in  the  destruction  and  waste  of  much  prime  timber.  Onl)-  a 
very  small  part,  15  to  20  per  cent  of  each  trunk,  can  be  used,  for  the 
reason  that  the  straight-grained  portion  of  the  trunk  is  of  limited 
length;  and  as  soon  as  the  gi^ain  of  shake  bolts  shows  any  twisting, 
the  remainder  of  the  tree  is  abandoned.  A  common  sight  throughout 
the  middle  timber  belt  are  the  huge  partly  used  trunks  of  sugar  pines 
felled  for  shakes.  All  degrees  of  waste  are  seen.  After  felling  and  a 
21  GEOL,  FT  5 35 


54<)  FOREST    RESERVES. 

few  trisils  iit  riviiijif,  some  trees  are  found  to  l)e  unfit  and  t-an  not  be 
used  at  all,  while  only  lid  to  4i)  feet  of  other  trunks  have  })een  used. 
This  wa.ste  of  good  log  timber  left  to  rot  seems  wanton  to  the  last 
degree,  but  in  former  years  had  some  justification  in  the  fart  that 
necessity  alone  compelled  settlers  to  use  good  shakes.  Moreover,  at 
that  time,  when  the  largest  quantities  of  sugar  pine  were  cut  for 
shakes,  there  wore  few  or  no  sawmills  for  utilizing  the  waste  timber. 
There  is,  however,  little  excuse  at  the  present  time  for  the  contiiuiance 
of  this  waste,  which  is  still  to  be  seen  in  the  middle  timl)cr  belt  (see 
PI.  CXI.  .1.) 

FENCING   TIMBER. 

In  the  inuHcdiate  vicinity  of  the  larger  settlements  fencing  is  done 
with  sawed  pine  and  fir  lumber  and  oak  or  incense  cedar  posts.  The 
majoritv  of  ranches  in  the  agricultural  districts  are  fenced  with  barbed 
wire  and  rock  oak  and  cedar  posts:  while  in  the  timbered  mountain 
districts  sawed  fencing  is  used  only  at  occasional  road  stations.  Barbed 
wire  and  split  incense  cedar  posts  and  rails  are  most  common  in  this 
region.  Lodgepole-pine  logs  are  also  used  in  the  range  of  this  species 
for  slieep  and  cattle  corrals  and  oth(>r  fencing.  In  some  parts  of  the 
yellow-pine  and  upper  timber  belt  thousands  of  acres  of  timber  land 
are  fenced  for  holding  cattle  by  felling  the  largest  trees  in  a  line  so  as 
to  form  a  continuous  barrier.  If  skillfully  felled,  the  huge  trunks  of 
incen.se  cedar,  sugar  pine,  yellow  and  Jefi'rey  pine,  white  and  red  fir, 
form  effective  and  durable  fences.  However,  the  millions  of  feet  of 
prime  saw  timber  destroyed  by  this  method  of  fencing  is  strikingly 
disproportionate  to  the  amount  of  timber  legitimately  required  to 
fence  the  land  in  the  ordinary  way. 

Incen.se-cedar  rails  and  posts  are  the  lightest  and  most  durable  of 
all  fencing  timbers  in  this  territory,  and  wherever  available  are  gen- 
ei'ally  used  in  preference  to  any  other  kind.  There  is  a  good  demand 
for  post  timber  of  this  kind  throughout  the  settled  districts,  but  posts 
are  rarely  hauled  farther  than  18  or  20  miles  to  supply  this  demand. 
The  extensive  use  of  incen.se  cedar  posts  and  rails  in  the  past  has 
resulted  in  the  disappearance  of  almost  all  large  trees  within  the  above 
distance  from  settlements.  The  species  is.  however,  very  persistently 
reproduced  in  the.se  sections,  and  if  allowed  to  grow  will  furnish  a 
continuous  supph'. 

FUEL. 

The  fuel  of  this  territory  is  very  largely  wood.  Coal  is  used  only 
in  the  southern  and  western  border  settlements  near  railroad  com- 
munications. The  trees  furnishing  fuel  are  chiefly  gvAV  pine,  yellow 
pine,  California  black  oak.  rock  oak  ("  white  oak"),  highland  oak  (''live 
oak"),  and  California  white  oak.  Red  alder  is  used  occasionally,  as  is 
al.so  red  tir  and  incense  cedar.  California  red  fir  and  lodgepole  pine 
are  used  to  some  extent  by  settlers  in  the  upper  timber  belt.     Gray 


A.     SOUTH    FORK  OF   COSUMNES    RIVER,    NEAR   COYOTEVILLE. 


.^?v:^^: 


Esv-  .  ..f-'-^  ■■»»>' -Kn">" 


QS^ 


li      DENSE  SECOND   GROWTH   OF   YELLOW    PINE 


sHDwuRTH.]  STANISLAUS    AND    LAKE    TAHDE    RESERVES.  5-47 

pine,  yellow  pine,  rock  oak,  and  highland  oi-  "•live  oak''  are  exten- 
sively used  for  domestic  wood,  and  the  latter  is  most  highly  prized. 
Fourteen-inch  ""live  oak"  readily  commands  the  enormous  price  of 
$4  and  $o  per  cord  at  settlements.  Four-foot  wood  of  other  oaks  brings 
$6  to  $7.  Gold-mining  plants  consmiie  the  greatest  quantities  of  cord- 
wood,  which  is  derived  entirely  from  gray  and  yellow  pine  (see  PI. 
CXIV,  A).  The  wood  of  these  species  contains  a  great  deal  of  tur- 
pentine, and  is  therefore  considered  the  best  fuel  for  making  steam. 
Yellow-pine  fuel  is  superior  to  the  gray  pine.  Large  mines  consume 
from  2,000  to  3, .500  cords  of  4-foot  pine  wood  annually.  The  prices 
paid  for  this  wood  delivered  at  the  mines  varies  from  §3  to  $Q  per 
cord.     The  distance  hauled  is  7  to  IS  miles. 

AVith  the  present  demand  for  pine  fuel,  yellow-pine  woodland  on 
the  lower  border  of  the  middle  timber  belt  can  be  profitably  managed 
for  cordwood.  To  be  fully  productive  such  woodland  needs  only  pro- 
tection against  tire,  and  cutting  .so  regulated  that  four  to  six  seed  trees 
per  acre  are  left  to  insure  rapid  reproduction.  Young  yellow-pine 
forests  25  to  50  years  old  are  now  cut  clean  in  the  region  of  mining 
districts,  and  no  seed  trees  are  purposely  left.  As  already  shown,  how- 
ever, seed  trees  or  groups  are  sometimes  left  by  accident,  and  the  cut- 
over  areas  are  re-covered  hj  the  same  pine.  The  gva.y  pine,  although 
far  less  productive  than  the  yellow  pine,  could  be  made  to  give  simi- 
larly good  returns  on  otherwise  barren  foothills. 

STAXDIXG  COaOIERCIAIi  TniBER. 

The  .standing  commercial  timber  of  this  territory  is  pine  and  fir, 
and  is  confined  chieflv  to  the  middle  timber  belt.  The  lower  belt 
yields  no  saw  timber.  Considerable  fir  lumber  could  be  obtained 
from  the  lower  levels  of  the  upper  belt,  but  the  rough,  inaccessible 
nature  of  this  region  is  likely  to  make  lumbering  in  such  high  alti- 
tudes unprofitable  for  some  time  to  come.  These  forests  are  not  likely 
to  be  lumbered  until  the  more  valuable  timber  of  the  middle  belt  is 
severely  depleted,  and  it  is  believed  this  can  not  occur  within  twenty- 
five  years  or  more. 

As  already  stated  in  describing  the  distribution  of  various  timber 
species,  the  original  area  of  commercial  timber  has  been  considerably 
reduced  by  complete  clearing.  Only  a  small  percentage  of  such  clear- 
ing has  been  done  for  securing  agricultural  land.  The  major  part  of 
forest  land  has  been  cleared  by  lumbering  operations,  since  which  it 
has  been  abandoned  and  more  or  less  recovered  by  the  same  lumber 
species.  A  still  smaller  pei-centage  of  originally  well-stocked  forest 
land  has  been  culled.  Cuttings  of  this  kind  have  been  confined 
largely  to  the  immediate  vicinity  of  roadways,  where  mostly  sugar 
pine  has  been  taken  out  for  shakes.  The  accompanying  maps  show 
the  cut-over  for(>st  land  which  must  be  regarded  now  onlv  as  wood- 


548 


FOREST   EESERVES. 


land.  The  markedly  pei-sistciit  ri-produetion  of  yellow  pine  ana  other 
timber  species  on  these  lands  indicates,  however,  that  they  could  be 
profit;ibly  mainfaiincd  in  forest  if  protected  from  lire  and  conserva- 
tively mauaired. 

The  timber  forests  of  commercial  value  contain  yellow  pine.  Jeftrey 
pine,  sugar  pine,  white  fir,  red  fir,  and  incense  cedar.  An  examina- 
tion of  the  following  table  will  show  the  percentage  of  each  species 
found  in  these  forests.  For  completeness  the  percentage  of  stand 
has  been  given  for  a  few  other  species  also.  The  percentages  of  stand 
given  are  based  on  an  extensive  study  of  sample  areas  selected  from 
repi'esentative  parts  of  the  various  timber  belts.. 

Table  showing  the  percentage  of  stand  for  the  principal  timber  trees,  in  localities  vliere  they 
arc  found. 


Species. 

Per  cent  of  tola!  sUiud. 

45  to  50. 

5;  30  to  40  on  small  areas. 

5  to  20. 

30  to  45. 

2  to  5;  40  on  small  areas. 

20  to  30. 

1  to  3  on  limited  areas. 

40  to  100. 

50  to  100. 

5  to  15. 

10  to  25. 

Sugar  pino 

White  fir 

Red  fir 

As  a  basis  for  computing  the  j'ield  of  timber  per  acre,  the  trees  on 
a  large  number  of  sample  acres  were  measured.  A  few  of  these  sam- 
ple areas  are  presented  in  the  accompanying  tables,  a  study  of  which 
will  give  an  accurate  idea  of  the  actual  composition  and  character  of  the 
fore.sts.  Table  1  shows  the  number  and  size  of  each  kind  of  tree, 
obtained  by  actual  count  and  measurement,  on  sample  areas  so  selected 
as  to  fairly  represent  the  stand  of  timber  in  all  parts  of  the  terri- 
tor}-.  Tal)le  2  gives  the  same  species  grouped  so  as  show  a  compar- 
ison of  dimensions  and  number  of  trees  of  the  same  species  found 
on  the  different  sample  areas.  Table  3  gives  the  average  size  and 
average  numl^er  of  difi'erent  kinds  of  trees  for  all  sample  areas.  The 
figures  derived  from  these  and  other  measurements  are  regarded  a.s 
sufiiciently  representati\e  of  the  entire  timbered  area  to  form  a  basis 
for  the  acre  yields  given,  and  also  for  the  estimated  total  stand  of 
commercial  timber. 

The  acre  yield  of  merchantable  timber  in  these  regions  varies  from 
2,000  to  50,000  feet  B.  M.,  giving  an  average  acre  yield  of  about 
20,000  feet  for  the  middle  belt,  and  3,000  feet  for  the  upper  belt. 


artcr  acre). 


sr 

Average 
diameter 
(inches). 

Average 
height 
(feet). 

Num- 

61 

62 

63 

64 

65 

66 

67 

68 

69 

70     71 

72 

73 

74 

75 

76 

77 

78 

79 

80 

ber  of 
trees. 

Jeffrey  pine ' 
White  flr.... 

46.  S 
46.2 
47.3 
42.0 
36.4 
49.8 
40.0 
62.5 
44.8 
37.0 
49.0 
28.2 
39.5 
34.8 
38.1 
35.7 
27.6 
43.9 
62.5 
51.2 
34.6 
37.4 
35.0 
35.5 
39.0 
40.5 
43.7 
26.5 
27.8 
22.5 
60.6 
39.6 
44.0 
65.8 
55.9 
45.2 
40.4 
53.3 
16.7 
28.1 
21.8 
18.8 
23.3 
42.8 
44.1 
37.1 
37.6 
45.4 
24.2 
35.0 
23.4 
23.0 
35.0 
39.2 
49.5 
27.6 
25.6 
21.7 
37.0 
18.0 
44.3 
4.5.5 
40.6 
34.2 
60.0 
41.6 

1.50 
182 
175 
161 

90 
190 
172 

89 
185 
168 

97 

50 
176 
100 
130 
158 

60 
160 
190 

98 
145 
16« 
139 

88 
125 
187 
151 
120 
127 

70 
152 
145 

97 
166 
147 
169 
171 
160 

75 
110 
122 

65 

lis 

73 
146 
157 
156 
164 
145 
118 
70 
50 
143 
1.54 
76 
48 
145 
.      62 
120 
39 
87 
158 
152 
90 
200 
170 

White  fir  ...; 

1 

Yellow  pine. 

3 
2 

Incense  ceda 

J 

SuKarpine.j- 

■icllow-  pine. 

Incense  cede. 

19 

Sugar  pine.. 

....j.... 

1 

White  fir  ... 

1 

'"! 

Incense  cede. 

California  bl 

Yellow  pine . 



Incense  ceda 

I 

1 

8 
12 
11 
20 

California  re. 

White  fir  .... 

Lodgepole  pi 

White  fir.... 

Sugar  pine  .. 

1 

1 

1 

California  re 

1 

White  fir.... 

1 

California  rej. 

20 

Incense  cedi 

Jeffrey  pine 

Sugar  pine  . 

;:; 

Jeffrey  pine  . 

2 
9 

n 

41 
15 

Western  whi: 

California  rei 

Black  hemloi 

Jeffrey  pine  . 

White  ffr...| 

1 

Incense  cedft 



8 
5 

4 

Sugar  pine  . . 

Jeffrey  pine  . 

1 

1 

White  fir  .... 

1 



White  fir.... 



4 
6 
13 

Red  fir 



... 

Incense  ceda; 

1 

1 

1 

1 

Sugar  pine  . . 

California  re( 

.... 



2 
16 
28 

4 

Lodgepole  pi: 
Western  wfiil 

.... 

j  -••;■ 

Incense  cedai 

j        1 

Red  fir 

White  fir.... 

Sugar  pine  . . 

15 
3 
4 

19 
4 
6 
1 
4 

Y'ellow  pine . 

Yellow  pine . 

Sugar  pme  . . 

Incense  cedai 

■ 

Call  forma  blfl 

; 

Y'ellow  pine . 

' 

.... 

.... 

Red  fir 

Incense  cedai 

California  bl^ 

. ..!.... 

1 

2 
2 
17 
9 
1 
1 
5 
13 
12 
5 
1 
3 

Y  ellow  pine  .| 

Incense  ceda 

::::;:::! 

1 

Sugar  pme  . . 

1 

1. 

California  bh 

[ 

Incense  ceda 

Yellow  pine. 

Red  fir 

1 

Incense  cedai 

) 

Sugar  pine  . . 

j 

White  fir  ....! 

j 

1 

..... 

...| 

- 



L 





T"'T-T-| 

■""i-"T-r-,--| 

21 


Table  I. 

Tahle  shouting  a  cojnjyarixmi  of  the  numher,  diameter,  and  height  of  timber-  trees  on  22  sample  areas  (quarter  acre). 


1                 j                                                                                                                                                                                   Number  of  trees  of  various  diameters  on  each  sample  urea  (rliameter  in  inches,  breast  high). 

j 

ATerage    Average   Num- 

>"P«J*^                 ;  area  So'        T 

1               l"l 

12 

13 

14  1 

L 

15     16 

I- 

18 

19 

20 

21 

22 

23 

24 

25 

26 

27 

28 

29 

30 

1 
2 

31 

32 

33 

34 

35 

36 

37 

38 

39 

40 

41 

42 

43 

u 

45 

46 

4- 

48 

49 

so     51     52     63 

M     55 

56 

57 

58 

59 

60 

61     62 

63 

01 

65 

66 

67 

68 

69 

70     71 

— 

73 

74 

± 

77 

78 

79  1  80 

dlameter    height 
(Inches),     (feet). 

berol 
trees. 

-T 1,              J. 

1 

.... 

1 

46.8  '           150 

46.2  1           IS 

47.3  175 
42.0              161 

36.4  90 
49.8              190 

^ 

f""-"-"-"::::: 

1 

"i' 

'i' 

'i' 

'i' 

'i' 

'i' 

!!!!  !!!! 

!!!'!!!! 

1 

.-. 

.;;:  i 

"i'........ 

;;;; 

.... 

... 

15 
8 
2 

... 

T 

..-- 

"i' 

""2" 

■3' 

.... 

.... 

;;::e; 

i'  !!!!i.!!: 

' 

"!:i!!!!i!!!! 

:::: 

;;;; 

::;  ;;;; 

■^■; .:      i 

i' 

i' 

i' 

"i 
.... 

.... 

11 

,  cedai 

2 

1 

1 

"i" 

V 

i' 

2 

'i' 

3 

40.0              172 

19 

'■^•; }      S 

1 

.'..  '.'.'.'. 

.... 

.... 

1 
1 

V.'.'. 

.... 

"i' 

•J 

-■-|--j- 

::::!::!i:!!! 

"i' 

::::i:::: 

62.5 
44.8 

89 
185 

4 

-^«dar 

!!!i:!!!i"i'|!!!! 

■"1"" 

i 

.... 

16 

;;:1 

....1!--- 

""!.... 

37.0 

ll» 

5 

... 

.;;;i;;;; 

49.0 

97 

2 

i.-^  cedar 

.... 

28.2 

50 

:jhiL.mJfl  black  oak 

.... 

.... 

!:!:i:!;! 

:;;;i;;;; 

.... 

39.5 

8 

Velkrtrpine o 

1 

.... 

.... 

..-.1  1 

34.8 

100 

12 

iBMOse  cedar    

i 

i 

i 

........ 

38.1 

130 

aliiomiarcdfir 1       g       I 

... 

2 

1 

.... 

....i 



35.7 

1.58 

20 

ffhiWfe /        _        I 

"i' 

....1.-.. 

....L... 

27.6 

60 

14 

Lxlgepole  pine < 

1 

1 

^ 

... 

^ 

^ 

.... 

— 

1 

"2' 

i 

i 

I 

!!!!l"i' 

;;;; 

.... 

.... 

.... 

.... 

43.9 

160 

8 

W^t*fir ,1 

.... 

.... 

62.5 

190 

SJgirpiue ■      e      \ 

51.2 

98 

4 

ln«a=e  cedar 

1 

.... 

.... 

2 

1 

"i' 

""l"!! 

34.6 

145 

47 

(iiilomia  red  fir 

9 

1 

2 

1 

3 

1 

....!.... 

S7.4 

166 

20 

(iluiefir 

.... 

!!!: 

. 

35. 0 

139 

4 

ftlironiia  red  fir 



.... 

■;;■ 

35.6 

88 

3 

Id  ctaw  cedar 

10 

— — ■ 

!!!!!!!! 

.... 

;;;; 

:;;; 

39.0 

125 

1 

Jc5reypine 

ai|srpine 

Mrerpine 

... 

""1:"." 

;;;; 

40.5 

187 

2 

n 

.... 

1 

"1 

"{■ 

"i 

.... 

.... 

"i"]!!!! 

i 

.... 

.... 

:::: 

:;;: 

;;;; 

;;;;i;;;; 

43.7 
26.5 

151 
120 

9 
U 

( 

.... 

i 

i 

:;;; 

....!.... 

27.8 

127 

12     \ 

.... 

1 

2 

.... 

3 

2 

3 

1 

2 

2 

- 

"■:i;;;: 

22.6 

70 

15 

1 

T 

2 

1 

3 

1 

2 

....  .... 

"i' 

........ 

;;;;i;;;; 

60.6 

152 

10 

Jearey  pine 

ffhiiefir 

11      1 

1 

39.6 

145 

s 

13      \ 

.... 

;.;.!.... 

.... 

44.0 

97 

5 

laoenseeedar |               i 

^ 

1 

.... 

;;;;i.... 

"i 

1 

"i' 

65.8 

166 

4 

\\\ 

.... 

.... 

;;::;::: 

.... 

.... 

"i 

— ' — 

.... 

....1....1.. 

....1....1... 

.... 

..'.. 

....L... 

.... 

.... 

55.9 
45.2 
40.4 

147 
169 
171 

3 
4 

6 

1 

"i' 

53.3 

160 

U 

1 

....;;:: 

16.7 

2 

Inceascedar 

Sosarpine 

Cilitoniia  red  fir 

fe'^ ••••••••■ 

"UleJi '.'.'.'.'.'..'..'. 

^supine 

Wottpme 

Moitfine 

?WpiBe 

ffttlK  cedar 

Milomia  black  oak 

ftr 

femse.Mdai 

16 
17 

;;;; 
.... 

.... 

4 

"i 

"i' 
"i" 

"i' 

"1 

"i' 

1 
1 

"4' 

.... 

"i' 

3 

■3' 

2 

"2' 

2 
1 

.... 

"2' 

1 

"i' 
"i 

.... 

3 

"i 

"i 

.... 

1 

;;! 

"2" 

"i 

■"i 

"i 

"i 

::;: 

"i 
1 

"2 

"2 

"i 

2 

.... 

.... 

1 

2 

.... 

:;!j!::: 
!!!:i:!:; 

:::: 

.... 

.... 

"i 

:;;; 

;;;; 

::;:t:;;: 

;;;; 

.... 

;;;; 

28.1 
21.8 
18.8 
23.8 
42.8 
44.1 
87.1 
37.6 
45.4 
24.2 
35.0 
23.4 

UO 
122 

115 

73 
146 
157 
156 
164 
145 
118 

70 

2 
16 
28 
4 
3 
S 
15 
S 

19 
4 
« 

18 

"}. 

"i 

.}. 

"i 

.}. 

y.! 

^ 

::: 

::!!!::: 

23.0 
35.0 
39.2 

50 
143 
151 

1 
4 

19 

"i 

"i 

1 

"2 

"i 

"i 

"2 

!!■■ 

... 

"i 

!!!! 

1 

49.5 
27.6 
25.6 
21.7 

48 
M5 
62 

2 

9 

g«ie  cedar..;;";;;!!"; 

I      » 

"i 

..! 

"2 

"i 

"2 

'  i 

!!!!'"i'l..' 

.."A.t 

1 

1 

1 

"i 

... 

— ; — 

;;;; 

:;;:';;;; 

87.0 
18.0 

120 
39 

1 

JwJomia  biaii'oak 

20 

!!! 

44.3 

87 

"i 

"i 

"i 

"i 

45.6 

IS 

I     o,      '!■.- 

"i 

"3 

"i 

.... 

1 

3 

;;;; 

1"" 

40.6 

152 

i'ji"»  pine. .;;:;;;; 

I      21 

"2 

"i 

1 

1 

.... 

1 

31.2 

..- 

"i 

.... 

;;;;i;;;; 

CO.O 

200 

^^ttdar';;;;;;;;;;;"" 

I      „„ 

.... 

41.6 

.5 

,'PiM 

r 

;;;;;;; 

1 

.... 





'L 

ii 

1 

i!i 







ZL 

_L 



_ 

11 

11 

11 

— 

11 

^^^^ 

'""''"'"'""''"" 

11 

_^ — \ Lll '. 

21  GeoL.Pt.  5— Faces  p.  5-iS. 


I  sample  areas. 


Average 
diameter 
(inches). 

Average    Num- 
heiglit     ber  of 
(feet),      trees. 

Sp 

61 

62 

63 

64 

65 

66 

67 

68 

69 

70 

71 

72 

73 

74 

75 

76 

77 

78 

79 

80 

Sugar  pine... 

49.8 
44.8 
62.5 
40.5 
65.8 
28.1 
37.6 
35.0 
37.0 
60.0 
42.0 
40.0 
39.5 
45.4 
24.2 
35.0 
25.6 
45.5 
46.8 
39.0 
43.7 
50.5 
65.9 
27.6 
18.8 
26.5 
23.3 
83.3 
44.1 
39.2 
40.6 
46.2 
47.3 
37.0 
35.7 
43.9 
37.4 
39.6 
45.2 
40.4 
37.1 
41.6 
38.1 
34.6 
35.0 
27.8 
21.8 
22.5 
36.4 
62.6 
49.0 
34.8 
51.2 
35.5 
44.0 
15.7 
42.8 
23.4 
49  5 
21  7 
44  3 

190              2 

1 

185 

190 

187 

186 

110 

156 

118 

120 

200 

161 

172 

176 

164 

145 

143 

145 

158 

150 

125 

151 

152 

147 

60 

65 

120 

115 

160 

146 

154 

152 

182 

175 

168 

158 

160 

166 

145 

169 

171 

157 

170 

130 

145 

139 

127 

122 

70 

90 

89 

97 

100 

98 

88 

97 

75 

73 

70 

.       76 

62 

87 

16 

1 

1 

1 

4 

:::.;;. 

2 

1 

1 

4 

2 

::::::::i 

3 

..      .. 

4 

1 

1 

Yellow  pine , 

2 

19 

1 

8 

4 

1 



19 

::::  ::::i 

1 

4 



1        1 

17 

13 

Jeffrey  pine. 



6 

1 

9 

1 
1 

18 

....!.... 

3 

Ludgepole  pi 

.-...1 

14 

1 

28 

Western  whif 

11 

4 

Red  fir , 

1 

1 

1 

1 

13 

2 

1 

12 

White  fir  .... 

1 

1 

15 

■■  (..  ; 

1 

3 

1 

5 

..!.... 

20 

1 

8 

i 

20 

8 

....1.... 

4 

1 

1 

6 

j 

1 

15 

1 

1 

3 

California  re<- 

1 

11 

1 

1. 

47 

....1.... 

"■■■i:. 

4 

"J  ___ 

1  ... 

1 

41 

j 

16 

Black  hemlo(. 
Incense  ceda]- 

15 

11 

1 

4 

2 

....!.... 

12 

1 

4 

I 

3 

1  . 

5 

1 

2 

1 

3 

6 

, 

1... 

2 

9 

1 

5 

1 

:: 

34  2  1             90 
28.2  i            50 
23.0  '             80 
27.6  i             48 
18.0  1             39 

5 

California  bla- 

7 

1 

1 

1 

1 

2 

j 

1 

j 

1 

i 

1 

1 

21 


_  .iltiole  pine 

iVdJeni  whitt  pine . 


aiHictiWMackook. 


Table  II. 
Tahle  shmring  a  cninpartsrm  nf  the  number  and  dimemiom  oftlrnber  trees  of  the  same  species  found  on  differmt  sample  areas. 


Number  of  trees  of  v 


s  diameters  of  each  species  (diameters  in  inches,  breast  high). 


11     12     18     H     16     16  I  17     IS     19     20     21     22     23     24     2i 


3       2 
2       3 


"i' 

1 

"i' 

"i' 

.... 

1 
.... 

29     SO     81     32     33     34     35 


iil  Geo!.,  Pt.  5— Faces  p.  548. 


61     62     63     64     65 


Arerage    Koni- 
height  jberof 


U2 
28.2 
23.0' 


tv). 


Totf.l 

number 

of 

trees. 

Total 
number 

of 
sample 
areas. 

-Werage 

diameter 

for  total 

number  of 

trees 
(inches). 

Average 
height 

for  total 

number  of 

trees 

(feet). 

Arerage 

age 
(years). 

s 

1 

Co 

CO 

c- 

68 

G9 

70 

VI 

V2 

73     74 

75 

76 

77 

78 

79 

80 

Sugar  pine. 

1 

1 

1 

1 

39 

80 
29 
42 
15 
34 

lo- 
ng 

15 

■73 

11 

10 

8 

2 
2 
4 

11 
5 
1 

14 
4 

47.7 
37.9 
47.5 
23.6 
24.9 
44.6 
41.2 
32.0 

lo'g 

24.5 

164.2 
158. 0 
14.5.0 
62.  5 
117. 5 
153.0 
166. 0 
132.  6 
70.0 
85.0 
47.0 

„— 

■i  ellow  pine 

1 

380 

Jeffrey  pine 

1 

. 

260 

Lodgepolep 
AVestern  ^vh 

135 

210 

1 

White  pine 

290 

California  r« 

■ 

275 

Black  heml 

185 

Incense  ced 

1 

1 

1.50 

California  b 

190 

1 

■"T" 

21 


Table  III. 
Tallin  shmi'ing  avei'cuje  diameter  measurements  of  various  timher  sj-iecies  for  smnple  areas  (Quarter  aav). 


s  diameters  on  sample 


I,  diameter  in  incites,  breast  high. 


13  '  14     15     16     17     18     19     20     21     22     23     24     25     26 


i\  Geol..  Pt.  .5 — Face,5  p.  548. 


49     50     51     62     53     54     55     56 


59     CO     ei     62     63     CA    C5     CG 


9 
5 

158 
145 

9 
« 
2 
0 

117 
153 
166 
132 

9 
6 

86 
47 

REPORT      PART  V      PL.  CX1II 


B      YELLOW-PINE   "STUDDING"   SKIDDED   FOR   HAULING  TO   GOLD    MINES. 


srDw..p.Tn.]  STANISLAUS    AND    LAKE    TAHOE    KESERVES.  549 

Following  are  the  statistics  of  area  and  estimated  stand  of  timber 
in  each  of  the  six  quadrangles  examined: 

Land  ckisttitication  in  PUirn-riHe  r/uaflranifli;  C'aliforiiiK. 

Square  miles. 

Cultivable  lands 178 

Lands  covered  with  chaparral 317 

Grazing  lands 2 

Burned  lands 5 

Cut  lands,  restocking  with  timber 122 

Culled  lands 162 

Virgin  timber. 152 

T(3tal 938 

The  total  stand  of  timber  upon  this  «juadrangle  is  estimated  at  1,600 
million  feet  B.  M.  The  average  stand  of  tim})er  per  acre  on  the  tim- 
bered land,  including  the  culled  land,  is  S,000  feet  B.  M. 

Land  ddsxiticatlon  in  Jackson  quadrangle,  California. 

Square  miles. 

Cnltivaljle  lands : 373 

Lands  covered  with  chaparral 349 

Burned  lands 23 

Cut  lands,  restocking  with  timber _ 17.5 

Culled  lands 18 

Total 938 

The  total  stand  of  timber  remaining  upon  the  culled  lands  is  esti- 
mated at  40  million  feet  B.  M.  There  is  no  virgin  forest  land  upon 
this  quadrangle. 

Jjind  liamjicatioti  in  Pi/ramid  Peak  quadrangle,  California. 

Square  miles. 
Barren  lands  (partly  chaparral-covered  foothills  and  partly  high  mountain 

smnmitsi ■ 110.  o 

Grazing  lands 7.  5 

Culled  lands 148.  0 

Lands  covered  with  virgin  timber 642.  0 

Total  land  area 908.  0 

The  total  stand  of  timber  upon  this  quadrangle  is  estimated  at 
3,400  million  feet  B.  M.,  an  average  of  6,700  feet  per  acre  of  timbered 
land. 

Land  da.'isijicatioii  in  Big  Tree.s  ijiiadrangle,  California. 

Square  miles'. 

Cultival)le  land 7 

Barren  lands,  consisting  in  part  of  cliaparral  and  in  part  of  rocky  summits 164 

Grazing  lands .' 4 

Burned  lands 2 

Cut  lands,  restocking 89 

Culled  lands 104 

Lands  covered  with  virgin  timber 564 

Total 934 


550  FOREST    KESEKVKS. 

The  totivl  .stand  of  timl)(>r  upon  the  quiidranj^lc  is  estinuitcd  at 
3,750  million  feet  H.  M.  The  average  .stand  of  tinihcred  land  per 
aere  is  7,700  feet. 

Jjund  clnxiiiticiiliiiii  in  MarklfevilU;  ijiuiilriiKgU-,  Oilijuriiin. 

Scjimre  miles. 

Lands  covered  with  chaparral 318 

Grazing  land.s 283 

Lands  covered  witli  virjriii  timber .322 

Total  land  area 923 

The  total  stand  of  tiinlter  upon  thi.s  (juadrangde  i.s  estimated  at 
320  million  feet  B.  M.  The  average  stand  per  aere  of  timbered 
lands  is  1,500  feet. 

Lmid  cidsaificdiian  in  Ddi-ilniifllex  (juiulrtnitjlf,  Ciitiforniii. 

s<]uaro  miU'S. 

Chaparral-coverei  1  lands? 240 

Grazing  lands .39 

Lands  covered  with  virgin  timber Ii59 

Total - 938 

The  total  stand  of  timber  upon  the  quadrangle  is  estimated  at  3.000 

million  feet  B.  M..  giving  an  average  stand  per  aere  of  7,100  feet. 
The  total  stand  of  timber  upon  these  six  (juadrangles  is  estimated  at 

12.110  million  feet  B.  M. 

Of  the  total  area  of  Stanislaus  Re.serve — 1.080  .square  mile.s — 924 

square  mile.s  were  included  in  this  examination.     Of  this  area,  the 

lands  are  classified  as  follows: 

Land  classiticalion  in  Slanislans  /icwrrc,  Cnlifornia. 

Square  miles. 

Barren,  consisting  mainly  of  high,  rocky  lands 251.  0 

Grazing  lands 32. 5 

Timlsered  lands 640.  .5 

Ti ilal - 924. 0 

The  total  stand  of  timber  upon  this  area  is  estimated  at  2,000  million 
feet  B.  M..  giving  an  average  stand  per  acre  of  5.000  feet. 

Of  the  total  area  of  Lake  Tahoe  Reserve — 213  square  miles — 193.5 
square  miles  were  examined.  The  following  is  the  classification  of 
these  lands: 

Land  i-ldssitiraiion  in  Lake  Talioe  JReseri-e,  California. 

.Square  miles. 

Barren,  consisting  of  hinh,  rocky  summits 58.  0 

Grazing  lands 3. 0 

Culled 3.0 

Timbered  lands , 129. 5 

Total 193. 0 

The  total  stand  of  timber  upon  this  area  is  estimated  at  322.5  million 
feet  B.  M.     The  average  stand  per  acre  is  nearly  3,000  feet. 


.1.      LARGE   MINIMG    PLANT  AT  ANGELS   CAMP.   SHOWING   THE  GREAT  QUANTITY   OF 
YELLOW-PINE   CORD   WOOD   CONSUMED. 


E.     CANYON    OF   COYOTE   CREEK,  LOOKING    NORTH    FROM    A    POINl    2    MILES   SOUTH   OF 
VALLECITO. 


sri>«<>itTii.l  STANISLAl'S    AND    LAKE    TAHOE    RESERVES.  551 

Ttf:DUCTI01^  AJXD  MODIFICATIOX  OF  FORESTS  BY  VARIOUS 
IXDUSTRIES  AXD  THEIR  EFFECT  OIV  REPRODUCTIOX. 

LUMBERING  AND   OTHER  TIMBER-CONSUMING  INDUSTRIES. 

The  hirycst  sireas  of  forest  hincl  hiive  l)een  donuded  and  cut  over  for 
saw  timber  and  mining'  timber.  Altogether,  shake  making  has  also 
made  large  inroads  on  the  prime  sugar  pine.  As  this  pine  occurs  in 
mixture  only,  the  more  extensive  cutting  for  shakes — sometimes  tak- 
ing the  sugar  pine  clean — ha.s  resulted  in  only  a  thinning  of  the  orig- 
inal forest.  The  enormous  amount  of  timber  wasted  by  shake-makers 
has  already  been  referred  to.  Naturally,  the  constant  demand,  from 
an  early  date,  for  shake  timber  has  carried  this  industry  over  a  large 
part  of  the  middle  timber  belt.  The  major  part  of  this  cutting  has, 
however,  been  carried  on  along  and  near  the  principal  wagon  roads. 
Occasional  transient  settlements  were  formed  in  regions  of  the  largest 
supply  of  sugar  pine,  and  continued  for  a  number  of  years,  but  with 
the  failure  of  timber  these  settlements  were  moved  to  other  points. 
Squaw  Hollow  was  originally  a  shake  makers'  settlement  of  con- 
siderable size,  but  has  long  since  disappeared,  along  with  its  once 
abundant  supply  of  sugar  pine.  It  was  situated  between  the  Calaveras 
and  Stanislaus  big-tree  groves. 

Unlike  the  cuttings  for  .sawmills,  those  for  shake  making  commonly 
left  small  trees,  and  occasional  large  trees  unfit  for  riving  on  account 
of  a  too  twi.sted  grain.  As  a  result,  with  few  exceptions,  the  forests 
cut  over  by  shake  makers  have  not  been  deprived  of  seed  trees,  and 
there  has  been  acontinued  reproduction  of  sugar  pine  (see  PI.  XCVl.  A). 

But  the  cutting  for  lumber  and  mining  timber  has  been  quite  dif- 
ferent. Considerable  areas  have  been  stripped,  as  shown  in  the  accom- 
panying maps  (Pis.  LXXXV-XC.  in  atlas).  As  a  consequence  of  clear- 
ing, the  reproduction  of  all  the  species  removed  has  been  prevented  or 
retarded  to  a  great  extent.  With  the  subsequent  ravages  of  fire,  some 
cut-over  lands  have  remained  in  a  denuded  state  for  many  years,  and 
are  still  in  this  condition.  Moreover,  the  proportions  of  the  original 
composition  have  been  materially  changed,  because,  even  under  the 
same  circumstances,  all  the  tree  species  concerned  i>,re  not  equally  per- 
sistent in  reproducing  themselves.  The  sugar  pine  is  the  least  so.  The 
yellow  pine,  incense  cedar,  and  white  fir  are  persistent  species,  and  are 
the  first  to  come  back  to  denuded  lands;  and  the  proportion  in  which 
they  form  the  second  growth  varies  according  to  the  nesirness  and 
abundance  of  seed  trees  of  each  kind.  I'^nder  all  circumstances  the 
yellow  pine  will  return  in  the  largest  proportion,  while  the  sugar 
pine,  originallv  a  considerable  part  of  the  forest,  is  likely  to  be  the 
last  to  come  back  and  may  require  many  years  to  establish  its  former 
propoi'tion  of  stand  in  the  forest. 

Conservative  cutting  for  sawmills,  in  place  of  the  prevailing  method 
of  stripping  the  land,  would  not  disturl)  the  advantageous  proportions 


552  KORKST    RESERVES. 

of  iiiixtiirc  i)i'('sciit  111  forests  not  yet  luniltcrcd.  Proxision  could  tlicn 
be  iiuule  for  the  reiJi'oduction  of  all  useful  tiinlxT  trees. 

The  method  of  liiniborin<f  employed  in  this  territory  fi-oin  tiie  eiirliest 
time  to  the  present  is  very  wiisteful  of  timbei-.  A  very  common  sight, 
in  all  districts  where  lumbering  is  going  on,  is  the  enormous  waste  of 
tops.  The  elear  trunk  is  cut  into  log.s,  and  the  remainder  of  the  stem 
left  (see  PI.  CXI,  A).  The  size  of  the  tops  left  is  from  1 S  to  86  inches  or 
more  in  diameter  at  the  large  end,  with  a  total  length  of  2.5  to  40  feet. 
This  timber  is  usually  sound,  but  has  limbs  throughout  its  length,  and 
is  therefore  considered  undesirable.  An  estimate  of  this  waste  gives 
from  3.000  to  5,000  feet  B.  M.  per  acre.  To  one  familiar  with  the 
extreme  economy  of  timber  now  practiced  in  the  depleted  pine  forests 
of  the  East,  this  waste  is  wanton.  Without  discussing  the  I'easons  for 
this  practice,  among  which  are  urged  that  top  lumber  is  too  knotty' 
to  be  saleable  and  that  there  is  enough  clear  timber,  the  neglect  of  so 
much  top  timbei'  makes  forest  fires  very  destructive.  The  lumberman 
himself  is  in  position  to  feci  this,  for  cases  were  s(umi  where  the  big 
timber  not  yet  lumbered  out  was  destroyed  or  greatly  damaged  bj' 
uncontrollable  tires  in  masses  of  tree  tops  (see  PI.  CVI,  .1).  A  moi-e 
complete  destruction  also  of  all  young  growth  takes  place  in  such 
localities  than  is  possiljle  from  the  ordinary  light  surface  fii'es. 

The  cutting  of  cord  wood  and  mining  timber  is  attended  with  little 
or  no  waste.  This  is  not  from  design,  but  chiefly  bec-ause  mining  tim- 
ber and  wood  are  cut  in  thinly  stocked  parts  of  the  pine  belt,  and  it  is 
most  profitable  to  be  economical.  The  entire  trunks  are  worked  up  in 
cutting  cord  wood,  leaving  only  the  branches,  while  the  tops  left  from 
studding  timber  ai'e  cut  into  cord  wood  (see  PI.  CXII.  B).  Such 
methods  arc  ideally  thrifty.  The  branches  left  soon  decay,  and  alto- 
gether there  is  much  less  del)ris  left  for  fires  than  thei"e  is  in  the  track 
of  the  lumberman. 

GRAZING. 

Grazing  in  this  region  is  mostly  by  sheep,  goats,  and  cattle,  and  to 
a  much  less  extent  by  horses.  Next  to  mining,  grazing  is  the  oldest 
industry  of  the  region.  Its  importance  is  also  very  great,  and  in  con- 
sidering the  possible  evil  effects  the  industry  maj'  have  on  the  forests, 
this  must  be  fully  borne  in  mind.  The  bare  condition  of  the  surface 
throughout  the  forests  is  so  easily  referable  to  grazing  and  the  latter 
is  thus  so  apparently  destructive  to  forest  reproduction  and  the  con- 
servation of  water  that  a  very  careful  studj'  must  be  made  of  all 
possible  conditions  bearing  on  the  subject  before  a  fair  conclusion  can 
be  drawn.  The  effect  of  grazing  on  reproduction  and  water  flow  is  a 
subject  of  great  contention  among  those  interested  in  grazing  privi- 
leges on  public  forest  lands  and  those  believing  such  rights  should  be 
denied.     The  opinions  given  and  the  evideuce  adduced  on  both  sides 


svDwuRTH]  STANISLAUS    AND    LAKE    TAHOE    RESERVES.  553 

seem  foncliisive  from  the  standpoints  of  the  contestants.  This  may 
argue  that  enthusiasm  on  the  one  side  and  vital  interests  on  the  other 
have  overlooked  some  facts  which  should  lie  appreciated  by  both  sides. 
Carefully  considered,  the  propriety  of  grazing  forest  land  in  this  ter- 
ritory can  not  be  denied  nor  affirmed  by  the  study  of  any  one  locality, 
a  kind  of  investigation  which  is  believed  to  have  formed  the  basis  of 
opinion  for  and  against  grazing  privileges. 

The  investigation  of  the  effects  of  grazing  on  forest  growth  and  its 
protective  functions  involves  a  cai'eful  consideration  of  the  relation  of 
forest  tires  to  grazing.  Just  how  far  the  one  or  the  other  maj'  be 
responsible  for  certain  conditions  avowedly  unfavorable  to  forest 
growth  is  difficult  to  show,  but  that  the  combined  effects  of  fire  and 
grazing  are  or  may  be  damaging  to  forest  reproduction  and  the  con- 
servation of  water  can  not  be  denied. 

In  traversing  the  timbered  portions  of  this  territory  the  observer 
is  inipressed  with  the  following  facts.  First,  in  unfenced  forests: 
The  general  lack  of  herbaceous  growth  and  irregular  reproduction  of 
timber  species;  the  general  absence  of  small-sized  timber  intermediate 
between  seedlings  and  the  large  timber.  Second,  in  fenced  and  other- 
wise protected  forests:  The  uniform  abundance  of  herbaceous  growth; 
a  plentiful  reproduction  of  tim})er  species;  the  presence  of  interme- 
diate sizes  of  small  timber.  These  conditions  prevail  in  proportion  to 
the  length  of  time  during  which  complete  protection  has  been  given. 

Pis.  XCII,  A;  CI,  B;  CII:  CV,  A,  and  CVl,  B  illustrate  clearly 
the  above  extreme  conditions.  The  best  opportunity  offered  for 
observing  protected  forest  conditions  was  in  the  Calaveras  big-tree 
grove,  which  has  been  protected  from  all  kinds  of  grazing  and  almost 
entirely  from  fire  for  30  to  40  years.  Another  case  of  several  thou- 
sand acres  protected  for  1.5  to  20  years  was  found  on  and  near  the 
headwaters  of  the  North  Fork  of  Tuolomne  River.  Smaller  areas  pro- 
tected for  5  to  15  years  were  studied  at  various  points  in  the  upper 
timber  belt;  while  the  effects  of  unchecked  fire,  promiscuous  grazing, 
and  the  separate  effects  of  sheep  and  cattle  grazing  were  observed 
throughout  the  unprotected  forests  of  the  entire  region.  These  latter 
conditions  have  prevailed  more  or  less  for  40  or  50  years.  No  check 
has  been  given  to  the  annual  fires,  and  practically  no  restraint  has  been 
put  upon  the  number  of  animals  grazed  in  the  region. 

As  a  rule,  there  is  no  promiscuous  grazing  of  cattle  and  sheep  on  the 
same  range  during  the  same  season,  for  the  reason  that  cattle  will  not 
graze  on  a  range  over  which  sheep  have  previously  gone.  The  two 
kinds  of  grazing  are  separated,  each  continuing  more  or  less  over  its 
own  range  for  one  or  several  seasons.  Sheep  and  cattle  ranges  on 
public  and  other  unfenced  forest  lands  are  held  mainly  by  the  right  of 
priority,  or  sometimes  by  the  common  agreement  of  sheepmen  and 
cattlemen.     Most  of  the  cattlemen  claim  to  own  summer  ranches,  in 


554  I'OKKST    KKSEKVKS. 

the  vicinity  of  which  they  eiicU'inoi'  to  luaiiituiii  u  fi'ee  nmjre  for  tlieir 
stock.  At  the  present  time  very  few  .sheepmen  have  summer  niuches 
in  the  lum})cred  regions,  Init  select  such  ranges  as  are  not  seized  for 
cattle,  and  assiduously  encr()a<-h  upon  adjoining  cattle  i-anges  whenever 
possible.  There  is  evidence  that  years  ago  there  were  many  perma- 
nent sheep  ranches  in  various  parts  of  this  territory.  None  of  these 
are  maintained  now-.  Tiie  sheepmen  appear  to  be  wanderers,  while 
the  cattlemen  seem  to  hold  the  balance  of  power  in  point  of  preferred 
range  land.  This  advantage  is  strengthened  also  by  a  right  to  graze 
in  the  forest  reserves,  from  wliich  the  sheepmen  are  nominally  excluded 
by  law. 

It  is  evident,  however,  that,  although  cattle  grazing  is  now  carried 
on  over  the  best  range,  sheep  grazing  has,  on  the  whole,  obtained  over 
a  far  more  extensive  territory  and  for  a  much  longer  time.  As  is  well 
known,  there  is  a  striking  diflerence  between  the  effects  of  sheep  and 
cattle  grazing  on  vegetation.  This  is  be.st  seen  in  protected  ranges 
used  by  cattle  and  those  used  exclusively  by  sheep.  The  latter  feed 
so  closely  that  if  the  range  is  overstocked  for  anj'  length  of  time 
there  will  not  be  a  vestige  of  forage  left.  Cattle  feed  much  less 
closely,  and  even  in  overstocked  ranges,  unless  the  animals  are  confined 
by  fences,  the  gi'aziug  is  not  so  continuously  close  and  is  never  wholW 
destructive  to  herbaceous  plants.  The  animals  wander  much,  and  will 
even  grow  thin  when  a  habit  of  closer  feeding  would  give  them  suf- 
ficient food.  There  is  one  other  important  difference  between  the 
grazing  of  sheep  and  cattle.  The  latter  usually  feed  singly,  or  not 
more  than  a  few  individuals  together,  while  sheep  almost  always  feed 
in  close  bands.  As  a  result,  the  surface  of  the  ground  is  more  contin- 
uously trampled  by  sheep  than  })y  catth^,  from  which  it  follows  that 
with  closer  feeding  and  closer  trampling  sheep  may  do  greater  damage 
to  low  vegetation  than  cattle.  Just  these  differences  can  be  observed 
in  localities  where  the  two  kinds  of  grazing  are  separate.  Moreover, 
it  may  be  said  that  several  liands  of  sheep  seen  in  this  territory  were 
so  driven  by  hunger  and  the  lack  of  all  other  forage  that  they  ate 
small  conifer  seedlings,  browsed  young  firs  and  pines,  and  where 
these  were  not  available  they  devoured  even  the  fallen  dead  pine  and 
fir  leaves.  Cattle  never  browse  on  conifers,  even  under  the  severest 
stress  of  hunger,  but  do  feed  on  broad-leaf  shrubs  and  young  ti'ees 
within  their  reach. 

Pjxcejiting  in  high  mountain  meadows,  all  of  which  arc  fenced  and 
w'hich  are  grazed  l)y  cattle,  the  principal  forage  for  sheep  and  cattle  on 
the  open  forest  range  consists  of  a  few  very  hardy  shrulis  and  low 
broad-leaf  trees.  There  are  practically  no  grasses  or  other  herbaceous 
plants.  The  forest  floor  is  clean  (see  Pis.  CI,  B;  CIII,  .1,  and  CIV,  A). 
The  writer  can  attest  the  inconvenience  of  this  total  lack  of  grass  for- 
age, for  in  traveling  over  nearh-  3,000,000  acres  not  a  single  day's  feed 


SL-DwoBTH]  STANISLAUS    AND    LAKE    TAHOE    RESEEVES.  555 

for  .saddle  and  pack  animals  was  secured  on  the  open  range.  This  is 
in  strilving-  contrast  to  the  rich  forage  i"ange  in  the  timber  forests  of 
the  Rocky  Mountains.  Barrenness  is.  however,  not  an  original  sin. 
From  a  study  of  long-protected  forest  land  in  the  same  region,  and 
from  the  statements  of  old  settlers,  it  is  evident  that  formerly  there 
was  an  abundance  of  perennial  forage  grasses  throughout  the  forests 
of  this  territory.  A  dense  growth  of  these  grasses  and  many  other 
herbaceous  plants  are  plentiful  now  in  all  long-pi'otected  forests, 
whether  grazed  or  not  by  cattle  and  horses.  It  is  also  true  that  the 
severest  annual  surface  tires  kill  these  plants  only  to  the  ground; 
unless  uprooted  they  sprout  up  the  following  season.  It  would  seem 
that  this  bare  condition  of  the  surface  in  the  open  range  has  been  pro- 
duced only  through  j'ears  of  excessive  grazing  by  millions  of  sheep — 
a  constant  overstocking  of  the  range. 

The  inference,  however,  that  sheep  grazing  is  largely,  if  not  entirely, 
accountable  for  the  lack  of  forage  plants  in  these  forests  can  not  at 
present  be  made  to  include  entirely  the  destruction  of  young  seedling 
trees.  Nor  can  it  be  concluded  that  a  limited  number  of  sheep  may 
not  be  grazed  without  completely  baring  the  surface. 

The  more  important  consideration  in  this  matter  is  the  kind  of  dam- 
age and  the  manner  in  which  sheep  grazing  maj^  affect  the  usefulness 
of  timber  and  protective  forests.  Unquestionably  many  millions  of 
tree  seedlings  have  been  trampled  to  death  by  sheep,  but  frequent 
forest  tires  have  also  gone  over  the  same  ground.  With  the  evidence 
now  at  hand  all  that  can  be  safely  said  is  that  together  fires  and  excess- 
ive grazing  have  reduced  the  ground  cover  to  almost  nothing.  What 
the  one  has  left  the  other  has  most  likely  destroyed. 

To  determine  exacth'  how  much  damage  sheep  grazing  does  to  re- 
production would  requii'e  extended  t'arefid  study  of  sheep-grazed 
forest  land  entirely  free  from  tire;  t)ut.  carefullv  considered,  there  is 
a  close  relationship  between  the  origin  of  man\-  forest  tires  and  sheep 
grazing.  How  generally  sheep  herders  are  accountable  elsewhere  for 
fires  can  not  be  stated,  but  the  writer's  observations  in  the  region 
under  consideration  show  that  a  large  number  of  fires  are  due  to  the 
presence  of  sheep  herders.  Some  of  these  fires  were  due  to  careless- 
ness and  some  were  purposely  set.  Several  fires  destroyed  thousands 
of  conifer  seedlings  and  also  set  fire  to  hundreds  of  acres  of  large  stand- 
ing pines  previously  burned  in  the  trunk  and  thus  continued  this 
peculiar  gradual  destruction  of  timber  which  is  going  on  so  generally 
from  year  to  year  (see  PL  CI,  B.) 

These  fires  proceed  from  neglected  camp  fires,  from  purposely  fired 
fallen  timber,  and  also  from  the  deliberate  setting  of  iii-es  in  high 
chaparral.  Fallen  timber  forms  troul)lesome  barriers  to  dri\ang 
sheep  along  regular  routes,  and  the  herders  set  fire  to  these  logs, 
usuallv  as  they  are  leaving  a  •* fed-out"  range,  in  order  that  the  way 


5r)('  FOREST    KESKKVES. 

may  ln'  open  on  their  return.  No  loss  tliun  seventeen  tires  of  this 
kind  were  found  on  the  trail  of  one  band  of  sheep,  coverin^^  a  distance 
of  10  miles.  The  other  kind  of  burning  referable  to  sheep  herders 
oceur.s  in  hio-h  manxanitu  and  eeanotlius  chaparral.  Thi.s  brush  finally 
grows  so  high  that  sheep  can  not  feed  from  it,  and  in  places  is  often 
so  dense  that  they  can  not  pass  through  it.  These  areas  are  burned 
over  either  to  produce  low  sprouts  or  for  the  double  purpose  of  feed 
and  access.  It  frequently  requires  two  seasons'  burning  to  clear 
away  manzanita  brush — the  first  to  kill  the  brush  and  the  second  to 
consume  the  dead,  horny  stems.  Frequent  fires  of  this  kind  destroy 
all  young  tree  growth  within  the  area  burned,  for.  when  once  started, 
even  the  green  manzanita  burns  very  fiercely. 

In  conclusion,  it  maj'  be  again  stated  that  surface  denudation  of  forest 
land  is  general  throughout  the  middle  timber  belt  and  in  the  lower 
part  of  the  upper  belt.  It  is  believed  that  the  excessive  sheep  grazing 
of  the  past  and  present,  together  with  the  fires  known  to  be  caused  by 
sheep  herders,  have  contributed  very  largely  to  the  production  of  this 
bare  condition.  Proportionately  this  industry  has  also  retarded  for- 
est reproduction  and  through  incidental  fires  destroyed  much  young 
growth  and  diuuaged  old  timl)er.  As  a  conse(iuence.  the  general  pro- 
tective functions  of  the  forests  have  lieen  appreciably  lessened,  for  the 
bare  surface  allows  a  rapid  run-ofi'  of  water  and  destroys  an  e(jual)le 
flow  of  water  in  streams. 

The  inference  from  these  conditions  is  that  there  should  be  a  prompt 
regulation  of  the  excesses  producing  these  conditions.  The  preserva- 
tion of  a  most  important  industry — sheep  grazing — and  the  fullest 
usefulness  of  the  forests  of  this  region  demand  such  action.  An 
inspection  of  the  region  will  show  that  certain  areas  require  imme- 
diate exemption  from  sheep  grazing  and  al)solute  protection  from  fire 
in  order  to  allovv  a  full  reproduction  in  all  open  ground.  This  is 
imperative  if  the  fullest  sustained  yield  of  timber  is  to  be  secured  in 
these  forests,  because  almost  all  of  the  timber  now  standing  is  matui-e. 
A  complete  harvesting  of  this  timber  would  result,  as  it  has  in  old 
lumbering  operations,  in  almost  total  denudation.  With  some  excep- 
tions, reproduction  has  been  so  generally  sup]iressed  that  there  is  little 
young  timber  to  replace  the  old  stand  within  a  reasona))le  time  (see 
iPl.  CI.  B). 

Following  the  establishment  of  a  young  forest  growth,  limited  graz- 
ing can  be  practiced  for  a  term  of  years  without  fear  t)f  retarding 
reproduction.  Adequate  regulation  of  such  grazing  should,  however, 
not  allow  the  close,  successive  feeding,  of  sheep  especially,  which  will 
denude  and  extirpate  all  hei'baceous  growth,  a  cover  so  nuich  needed 
as  a  help  in  preventing  surface  washing.  The  thrifty  stock  raiser  of 
old  countries  does  not  graze  his  pastures  into  the  earth.  He  limits 
the  number  of  animals  or  the  time  for  using  a  range.     In  the  present 


suDwoRTH.]  STANISLAUS    AND    LAKE    TAHOE    RESERVES.  557 

regiou,  however,  regulation  of  this  kind  can  not  be  left  to  .sheep 
herders,  who  consider  the  feed  for  the  season  only.  Unbiased,  com- 
petent inspection  of  this  forest  range  should  determine  the  number  of 
animals  and  the  length  of  time  they  should  graze  in  one  locality,  or 
whether  certain  parts  of  the  range  should  be  grazed  at  all.  With  this 
is  also  needed  a  perfect  enforcement  of  pro^^sions  against  violations. 
Incidentally  it  may  be  remarked  that  the  wi'iter's  observations  of  this 
season  show  that  in  a  number  of  cases  unless  a  ranger's  warnino-  to 
sheep  herders  to  leave  the  forest  reserves  is  accompanied  by  the  power 
of  immediate  eviction  the  request  was  treated  with  contempt,  or  with 
a  reply  that  •"  bullets  alone  will  be  obeyed." 

FOKEST  FIRES. 

EFFECT   ON    REPRODUCTION   AND   STANDING   TIMBER. 

Forest  fires  have  prevailed  in  this  territory  since  a  very  early  period, 
and  they  are  still  freipient  and  widespread.  There  is  evidence  that  a 
much  older  forest  than  is  represented  in  the  present  growth  once  existed 
here  and  that  much  of  this  growth  has  been  gradually  destroyed  by  tire. 
A  very  ievr  of  these  trees — yellow  pine,  sugar  pine,  and  white  fir — are 
occasionally  met  with  now.  They  are  nearly  twice  as  old  as  the  oldest 
recent  growth  and  could  not  well  have  disappeared  through  any  other 
agency  than  fire.  What  the  character  of  the  older  fires  was  is  impos- 
sible to  state.  Most  likely,  however,  they  were  similar  to  those  com- 
mon in  this  region  to-day.  The  fires  of  the  present  time  are  peculiarly 
of  a  surface  nature,  and  with  rare  exception  there  is  no  reason  to  believe 
that  anj^  other  type  of  fire  has  occurred  here.  Parts  of  the  older  for- 
ests may  have  had  a  deep  humus,  which,  being  burned,  M'ould  have 
destroyed  timber  by  deep  burning  at  the  roots.  But  there  being  no 
humus  at  the  present  time,  deep  burning  is  impo.s.sible.  The  tree  roots 
are  for  the  most  part  buried  deep  in  the  crevices  of  bare  rock,  in  gravel, 
sand,  or  .shale,  over  which  surface  fires  run  annually  without  the  slight- 
est direct  injury  to  the  roots.  Barring  the  det)ris  left  from  timber- 
cutting,  the  only  food  for  these'  fires  is  the  .scantj^  fall  of  pine  and  fir 
needles,  irregular  patches  of  low  conifer  seedlings,  and  chaparral. 
In  general,  these  materials  limit  the  fires  to  surface  burning.  The 
destruction  wrought  is,  however,  serious.  Millions  of  tree  seedlings 
are  destroyed  annually  in  one  or  another  part  of  the  region  (see 
PI.  C,  A).  The  exemption  of  certain  localities  from  fire  is  a  mere 
accident,  and  except  where  special  protection  is  maintained  a  locality 
is  not  likely  to  be  spared  longer  than  a  dozen  years.  This  young 
growth  is  killed  outright  save  such  trees  as  have  grown  high  enough 
to  escape  a  complete  singeing.  Dense  stands  of  3'ellow  pine  25  to 
50  years  old  sufl'er  a  thinning  every  time  surface  fii'es  run  through 
them,  and  not  infrequently  the  younger  stands  succumb  entirelv.     The 


558  FORKST    RESKKVKS. 

amoiiiil  of  diiinag"''  done  lo  young  pine  foirsts  by  surfac-e  tires  depends 
largely  on  whether  the  burning  is  aeeonipanied  by  high  winds.  With 
little  or  no  wind  th(>  tire  may  consume  the  scant  litter  in  a  desultory 
sort  of  advance,  but  if  fanned  by  a  stitf  breeze  the  flames  usually  reacli 
the  branches  and  scoiH'h  the  close-standing"  crowns.  This  usually  kills 
even  the  40  or  ;')(•  year  old  trees. 

The  instiinces  in  this  region  where  large  timber  has  been  killed  out- 
right by  surface  fires  are  comparati\'ely  I'are.  Two  cases  only  were 
found,  and  are  shown  on  the  accompanying  map  (see  Pi.  LXXXVIII, 
in  atla.s).  One  of  these  ))urns  involved  less  than  an  acre,  and  the  other 
included  several  hundred  acres.  They  are  exceptional  cases,  and  the 
killing  of  the  trees  is  accounted  for  by  the  fact  that  long  protection  from 
fire  and  from  all  but  cattle  grazing  had  resulted  in  the  accumulation  of 
much  fallen  timber,  considerable  humus  in  depressions  and  on  benches, 
and  a  dense  undergrowth  of  brush  and  seedlings.  The  fires  l)urned 
deep  enough  to  badly  injui'e  the  surface  roots,  which  resulted  in  the 
subsequent  death  of  the  timl)er. 

The  most  serious  and  widespread  injuiy  to  mature  timber  caused  by 
surface  fires  is  in  the  gradual  hollowing  out  from  year  to  year  of  the 
•green  trunks  near  the  base.  The  extent  of  this  damag(>  is  very  great. 
In  the  middle  or  main  timber  belt  it  is  scarceh'  possible  'to  rind  a  tree 
trunk  not  blackened  by  fire,  and  from  oO  to  76  per  cent  of  the  trees 
have  fire  scars  burrowed  out  in  the  green  wood  (sec  Pis.  XCII,  B; 
XCIV,  A;  XCIX,  A,  and  CII,  A).  The.se  scars  are  from  a  few 
inches  to  15  or  20  feet  long  and  from  6  inches  to  2  feet  wide.  Fre- 
quently also  the  trunks  are  scorched  for  30  to  60  feet  above  the  scar. 
Burning  in  the  scar  continues  more  or  less  from  year  to  year,  and 
results  in  felling  the  tive  (see  PI.  CIX,  B).  The  cause  of  this  peculiar 
damage  is  due  primarily  to  the  presence  of  resin  on  the  bark,  while 
the  persistence  of  the  burning  is  due  to  the  resin  on  the  surface  of 
the  fire  scar.  In  the  first  place,  the  bark  of  many  trees  is  punctured 
by  woodpeckei's  in  search  of  l)orers,  which  are  especially  i^lentiful 
in  3'ellow  pine.  A  great  many  sugar  pines  also  have  been  chipped 
by  shake  makers  to  test  the  straightness  of  the  grain.  Quantities 
of  resin  exude  from  these  wounds  and  smear  the  trunks  down  to 
the  ground.  Surface  fires  ignite  the  inflammable  resin,  and  it  burns 
fiercely,  deepening  the  chip  marks  and  burrowing  into  the  green 
wood  wherever  woodpeckers  have  exposed  even  the  smallest  surface. 
The  green  wood  is  so  thoroughly  charged  with  resin  at  the  points 
of  injury  that  the  fire  persists  for  a  long  time,  heating  the  wood  to  a 
depth  of  several  inches.  After  the  fire  has  ceased  a  congestion  of 
resin  follows  at  this  point,  and  during  the  next  season  or  two  more 
resin  is  exuded  and  smears  the  scar  and  adjoining  parts.  The  next 
fire  burrows  in  deeper.  Others  follow  from  time  to  time,  each  burn- 
ing with  greater  vehemence,,  until  at  last  the  trunk  becomes  a  thin 


suDwop.TH]  STANISLAUS    AND    LAKE    TAHOE    RESERVES.  559 

shell  and  the  tree  falls.  The  rapidity  and  persistence  with  which 
these  fires  burn  in  the  screen  wood  of  trunks  is  almost  inconceivable. 
After  the  lire  has  burned  well  into  the  trunk  the  heat  produced  is 
very  intense,  drying  out  the  moisture  and  drawing  out  the  abundant 
resin  to  feed  the  flames.  The  pines  are  damaged  more  severely  at 
each  burning  than  are  the  much  less  resinous  firs  and  incense  cedar. 
Being  most  persistent  in  resinous  woods,  this  type  of  fire  is  confined 
chiefly-  to  the  middle  pine  belt  I'egion. 

The  amount  of  destruction  wrought  by  trunk  fires  is  difficult  to 
estimate,  but  involves  appro.vimately  from  1  to  5  per  cent  of  the  total 
stand.  It  is  difficult,  also,  to  determine  how  many  attacks  the  trees 
endure  before  succumbing.  The  amount  burned  each  time  is  exceed- 
ingly irregular,  as  are  also  the  periods  at  which  the  timber  takes  fire. 
Strangely  enough,  trees  with  half  burned  ofl'  trunks,  and  some  even 
more  severely  damaged,  show  no  signs  of  declining  vigor.  Such  trees 
fruit  freely  and  appear  vigorous  to  the  last. 

ORIGIN    OF   FOREST   FIRES. 

The  habitual  dryness  of  this  region  during  the  summer  renders  it 
most  susceptible  to  fire,  and  therefore  the  greatest  care  needs  to  be 
taken  to  prevent  very  frequent  occurrence  of  fires. 

The  origin  of  a  large  number  of  forest  fires  has  already  been  referred 
to  under  the  heading  Reduction  and  modification  of  forests  Ijy 
various  industries  and  their  effect  on  reproduction.  The  causes  there 
described  were  determined  by  actual  observations,  and  are  believed 
to  account  iov  the  majority  of  fires  occurring  in  the  timber  belts  of 
this  region.  This  conclusion  is  strengthened  by  the  fact  that  the 
people  carrying  on  grazing,  milling,  etc..  have  occasion  to  use  fire  in 
forested  regions  more  than  any  other  class  of  settlers  or  sojourners. 
Sheep  herders  are  campers,  and,  in  addition  to  carelessness  with  camp 
fires,  find  it  to  their  interest  to  deliberately  set  fires  under  certain  con- 
ditions. Cattlemen  are  summer  settlers  in  the  forests  and  have  some 
interest  in  the  suppression  of  fires  through  the  fact  that  they  maintain 
fences  and  rude  buildings  which  would  be  endangered  by  careless- 
ness M'ith  fire.  Moreover,  the  burning  of  brush  and  fallen  timber  are 
r-areh'  of  the  same  advantage  to  these  men  as  to  the  sheepmen.  Cattle 
are  not  herded  as  are  sheep  in  feeding,  but  allowed  to  roam  at  large; 
and  they  feed  from  the  tallest  brush  without  difficulty,  and  otherwise 
give  the  ranger  little  trouble  except  to  see  that  they  do  not  wander  ofl' 
the  range. 

Milling  operations  arc  productive  of  fires  through  carelessness. 
Jams  of  tops  are  frequentlj'  set  on  fire  by  loggers  to  open  Ijlockaded 
roads  or  ways.  These  tires  usually  escape  and  do  damage  elsewhere. 
The  use  of  imperfect  spark  arresters  on  donkey  logging  engines  is 
also  a  source  of  manv  tires.     A  serious  tire  from  this  cause  was  wit- 


560  FOREST   RESERVES. 

nessod  in  timber  iieiir  tlic  lioiidwiit(M-s  of  Love  Creek,  where  :i  eonsid- 
enihle  quantity  of  staiidiii<j:  and  I'lit  saw  timber  was  destroyed  through 
the  burning  of  innuense  quantities  of  waste  tops.  Fires  oeoasionally 
originate  from  the  small  clearing  operations  of  settlers  in  timbered 
districts.  Two  fires  of  this  kind  escaped  fi'oni  smouldering  log  heaps 
and  .spread  through  a  wide  strip  of  timber. 

There  are  probably  comparatively  few  tires  caused  by  campers  and 
huuter.s.  This  is  due  to  the  fact  that  of  necessity  such  camping  is  con- 
tined  largely  to  the  vicinity  of  road  stations  and  ranches  where  only, 
for  the  most  part,  it  is  possible  to  get  horse  feed.  To  a  groat  extent 
this  prevents  the  promiscuous  use  of  lire  by  these  people  at  points 
unguarded  by  settlers.  Moreover,  as  compared  with  other  regions 
plentifully  supplied  Mitli  game  and  fish,  the  depleted  supplies  of  this 
region  ofl'er  few  inducements  to  hunters:  and  hence  there  are  few  such 
excursions. 

PRECAUTIONS   AGAINST   FIRES. 

Foi"est  fires  were  very  prevalent  during  the  summer  of  1899;  so 
much  so  that  travel  through  a  large  part  of  the  territory  was  at  times 
difficult  on  account  of  dense  suioke.  They  began  during  the  latter 
pai't  of  August  and  continued  to  increase  till  near  the  end  of  October, 
when  they  were  put  out  by  snow  and  rain. 

While  there  is  a  wholesale  fear  of  forest  fires  among  settlers  in  the 
timbered  districts,  almost  no  precautions  are  taken  to  guard  against 
the  spread  of  fires,  except  when  threateningly  near  at  hand.  Perma- 
nent settlers  in  the  foothill  country'  express  much  graver  fears  of  fires 
from  the  adjoining  timber  which  are  likely  to  spread  wildly  through 
the  dead  grass  and  brush  of  the  lower  levels.  Fires  of  this  kind  ai'e 
not  infrequent  and  often  destroy  fences,  buildings,  and  hay  ci'ops. 
The  entire  lack  in  these  sections  of  green  herbaceous  vegetation  from 
July  to  October  and  the  excessive  dryness  of  the  ground  make  the 
region  most  susceptible  to  fire.  As  a  consequence  some  precautions 
are  taken  to  prevent  the  spread  of  fires  in  these  sections;  in  fact  the 
safeguards  seen  here  were  the  only  ones  found  anywhere.  They  con- 
sist in  clearing  lanes  4  to  10  feet  wide  across  dangerous  parts  of  the 
country.  This  requires  principally  the  scraping  away  of  the  dead 
grass  from  the  hard,  dry  surface.  Usually  these  firebreakers  are 
efi'ective,  especially  the  wider  ones.  A  still  more  efl'ective  break,  but 
moi"e  rarely  resorted  to.  is  made  15  to  20  feet  wide  by  carefully  l)urn- 
iug  over  a  strip  between  two  scraped  lanes. 

PUBLIC  SEXTIMENT  TOWARB  FOREST  RESERVES. 

Nearly  all  settlers  intei'ested  in  grazing  and  wood-consuming  indus- 
tries within  this  territory  are  opposed  to  the  maintenance  of  forest 
resei'ves.     The  greatest  objection  to  the  reserves  is  expressed  by  men 


suDwoniH.J  STANISLAUS    AND    LAKE    TAHOE    RESERVES.  561 

concerned  in  grazing,  and  of  these  the  sheepmen  are  the  loudest  in  their 
denunciation.  The  past  unlimited  use  of  (lovernment  mountain  for- 
est land  for  a  summer  range  has  made  it  possible  for  a  large  number 
of  settlers  to  engage  in  stock  raising  with  little  outlay  for  feed.  The 
range  of  the  foothills  is  sufficient  from  November  to  about  the  1st  of 
July;  but  high  mountain  forest  range  must  besought  from  July  to 
October,  during  which  time  there  is  no  green  feed  in  the  foothills. 

As  yet  the  cattlemen  are  allowed  free  range  in  the  reserves,  but 
maiiy  of  these  men  are  opposed  to  maintaining  the  reserves,  for  fear 
that  cattle  may  soon  be  excluded.  Sheepmen  are  bitter  in  their 
denunciation  of  the  reserve  policy  for  the  reason  that  the^^  are  (at 
least  nominally)  excluded  from  grazing  in  the  reserves.  American 
sheep  raisers  have  usually  respected  warnings  to  leave  the  reserves, 
and  not  being  able  to  secure  sutficient  range  elsewhere,  have,  in  some 
cases,  been  compelled  to  reduce  their  flocks  or  go  out  of  the  business 
entirely.  These  men  see  no  public  good  to  be  derived  from  the 
reserves  when  gi-azing  privileges  are  denied.  Their  permanent 
ranches  are  so  distant  from  the  high  mountain  watersheds  that  the 
idea  of  protecting  water  supplies  is  looked  upon  as  visionary  or 
impractical.  Moreover,  the  fact  that  snow  remains  longer  on  the 
high,  bare  mountain  peaks  than  it  does  in  the  forest  below  proves  to 
these  men  conclusively  that  forests  have  no  influence  in  conserving 
water.  The  general  feeling  is  that  in  reserving  forest  land  the 
National  Government  has  no  sympathy  with  the  settlers,  some  of 
whom  say  that  they  shall  have  to  leave  the  countr}^  if  this  policy 
continues. 

Most  other  settlers  also,  not  directh'  interested  in  grazing,  voice  the 
protests  of  stock  I'aisers.  The  feeling  against  forest  reserves  ex- 
pressed by  settlers  along  the  Carson  Valley  toll  road  was  very  bitter. 
However,  the  sheepmen  pay  large  tolls  in  "driving"  through  this 
region. 

•21  (;eol,  pt  a 30 


U  S.  GEOLOGICAL  SURVEY 

CHARLES  D,  WALCOTT. 
PIPECTOR 


PLATE  LXXX\^ 

TWENTY-FIRST  ANNUAL  REPORT  PART  V 

LAND  CLASSIFICATION  AND  DEN  PITY 

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(CoUaJc  I 


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LEGEND 


r::;^^::s"To^o^^s-- 


GhOLOGlC.-\L   SURVEY 
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Henry  Gannett.  Geographer  in  charge 
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U  a  GEOLOGICAL  SURVEY 

CHARLES  D.WALCOTT, 

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.-  HARLE  S  D.  WALCOTT. 
riRECTOR 


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Henry  Gannett,  Geographer  in  charge 
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Contour  inter\*al  100  feet 


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