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Museums 

Their  History  and  their  Use 


PUBLISHED    BY 

JAMES   MACLEHOSE  AND  SONS,   GLASGOW 
PtUiUslure  to  tht  anibcrsttg. 

MACMILLAN   AND   CO.,    LTD.,    LONDON. 
AVa'  Vcfrk,   ■     -     The  Macmiilan  Co. 
Lo>ido7i,    •     •     ■     Sinipkin,  Hamiiton  and  Ce. 
Cambridge,  ■     ■    MacfiitllaH  and  Bowes. 
Edinburgh    -     -    Douglas  and  Foidis. 


Museums 

Their    History  and   their  Use 

lVit6  a  Bibliography  and  hist  of  Museums 
in  the   United  Kingdom 


By   David    Murray 

LL.D.,    F.S.A. 


Volume   I 


Glasgow 

James   MacLehose  and   Sons 

Publishers  to  the  University 
1904 


^1 


Z- 


50C'" 
M91 


GLASGOW  :    PRINTED    AT    THE   UNIVRRSITY   PRESS 
BY   KOBERT   MACLEHOSE   AND  COMFANV,    LIMITED. 


PREFACE. 

I  Having  at  various  times,  during  the  last  thirty  years, 
visited  the  principal  museums  of  the  United  Kingdom, 
of  Denmark,  Norway  and  Sweden,  Finland  and 
Russia,  Austria,  Hungary,  Germany,  Italy,  Switzer- 
land, France,  Belgium  and  Holland,  the  United  States 
and  Canada,  I  was  anxious  to  learn  something  of  the 
history  and  development  of  museums  as  scientific 
institutions.  Strange  to  say,  however,  there  is  little 
or  nothing  bearing  upon  the  subject  in  the  ordinary 
books  of  reference.  There  are  only  twenty-three  lines 
upon  it  in  the  last  edition  of  Chambers'  Cyclopatdia  ; 
there  is  no  article  upon  Museums  in  the  last  edition 
of  the  Encyclopaedia  Britannica,  but  there  is  a  short 
notice,  principally  relating  to  art  museums,  in  the 
recent  supplement  to  this  work.  ''  Museum "  does 
not  appear  as  a  title  in  Leon  Vallee's  Bibliographie  des 
bibliographies  or  Petzholdt's  Bibliotheca  bibliographic  a. 
"  Museums "  is  not  an  independent  subject  in  Mr. 
Fortescue's  exhaustive  Subject-index  of  the  modern 
works  in  the  British  iNIuseum,  but  is  included  under 
"Exhibitions"  and  "Natural  History"  and  such 
headings  as  "Anatomy,"  "Art,"  "Ceramics"  and 
the  like.  The  title  only  casually  occurs  in  Mr. 
Sonnenschein's  valuable  Reader  s  Guide  and  The  Best 
Books. 


VI  PREFACE 

I  had  beside  me  several  of  the  catalogues  of  the 
older  collections  ;  amongst  others  those  of  Ole  Worm's 
museum  and  of  the  Copenhagen  museum,  Grew's 
Catalogue  of  the  Rarities  belonging  to  the  Royal  Society, 
Sibbald's  Auctarinm  Musei  Balfouriani,  Mercati's 
Metallotheca,  the  Museo  Cospiano,  and  Aldrovandi's 
Mtiseum  Metallicum.  I  often  consulted  them  and 
found  both  amusement  and  instruction  in  turning 
over  their  pages,  and  it  seemed  to  me  that  from  such 
sources  one  could  learn  something  of  the  idea  of  what 
a  museum  ought  to  be,  which  the  old  collectors  had, 
their  schemes  of  classification  and  the  science  on  which 
these  were  based.  Working  upon  these  lines,  with  1 
the  help  of  other  catalogues,  old  and  new,  and  of  sundry 
volumes  of  travels  and  general  works,  I  prepared  a 
paper  which  I  read  as  a  Presidential  Address  to  the 
Glasgow  Archaeological  Society  in  the  winter  of  1897. 
As  I  pursued  the  subject  I  gradually  ascertained  that 
it  possessed  a  considerable  literature  and  my  paper 
grew  into  the  following  volume.  Substantially,  how- 
ever, it  is  the  same  as  the  original  Address,  and  this 
explains  the  local  allusions  and  the  prominence  given 
to  museums  of  archaeology.  Had  I  known,  when  I 
took  up  the  subject,  that  so  much  had  already  been 
written  upon  it,  my  paper  would  no  doubt  have  taken 
a  different  shape,  or,  what  is  more  probable,  it 
would  not  have  been  written.  Previous  writers  have 
followed  much  the  same  method  as  I  have  done. 
Museum  catalogues  have  supplied  their  material ;  the 
actual  catalogues  used  varying  in  each  case.  Each 
writer,  however,  seems  to  have  been  unaware  that  he 
had  a  predecessor  in  the  same  field.     After  the  greater 


PREFACE  VU 

part  of  this  volume  had  been  printed  off  I  therefore 
thought  that  it  would  be  useful  to  future  inquirers  if 
I  were  to  add  a  list  of  the  works  cited  and  of  those 
which  I  had  consulted,  so  as  to  provide  a  tentative 
bibliography  of  museums.  This  list  was  prepared 
and  printed,  but  was  not  satisfactory.  Some  museums 
were  fully  dealt  with ;  others  were  merely  referred 
to ;  many  were  omitted.  With  this  draft  to  work 
upon  I  endeavoured  to  fill  up  the  blanks,  and  the 
work  gradually  increased  from  some  fifty  pages  to  two 
volumes.  These  do  not  by  any  means  exhaust  the 
subject.  It  was  not  my  aim  to  provide  a  complete 
bibliography,  or  to  include  all  the  works  relating  to 
the  general  subject  or  to  particular  museums,  and  I 
have  excluded  books  in  the  Russian  and  other  less 
generally  known  languages.  What  I  have  attempted 
is,  in  the  first  place,  to  give  a  short  list  of  the  books 
bearing  on  the  bibliography  of  museums,  which  I  had 
found  useful,  that  is  a  bibliography  of  bibliographies. 
The  list  could  easily  be  enlarged,  but  is  probably  sufifi- 
cient  for  the  purpose.  The  next  subject,  Museography, 
is  dealt  w^th  more  fully,  but  not  exhaustively,  and 
many  books  have  no  doubt  escaped  me.  This  section 
is  followed  by  a  selection  of  books  on  the  practical 
work  of  museums — the  collection,  preparation,  and 
preservation  of  specimens,  their  registration  and 
exhibition.  This  is  a  wide  field,  and  I  have  kept 
my  selection  within  moderate  limits,  but  have  prefixed 
to  the  section  a  short  subject-bibliography.  The 
greater  part  of  the  second  and  third  volumes  is 
devoted  to  Catalogues  and    other    works   relatino-   to 

o  o 

particular    museums    and    special     collections.       The 


Vlll  PREFACE 

museums  and  collections  dealt  with,  it  should  be  ex- 
plained, are  those  of  which  there  are  printed  catalogues 
or  descriptions.  Museums  of  which  there  are  no  cata- 
logues, or  which  are  not  otherwise  described  in  other 
works,  consequently  do  not  appear.  Many  museums 
therefore,  and  some  of  great  importance,  are  not  to 
be  found  in  the  list. 

The  difficulty  there  is  in  getting  information  re- 
garding museum  catalogues  will  scarcely  be  credited. 
As  a  rule,  I  ask  in  every  museum  I  visit  whether 
there  is  a  catalogue  or  handbook.  In  very  many 
cases  the  answer  is  in  the  negative.  I  have  been 
so  told  repeatedly  when  I  was  already  in  posses- 
sion of  the  catalogue.  The  explanation  I  found  to 
be  that  if  the  catalogue  or  handbook  is  out  of 
print  it  is  treated  not  only  as  non-existent,  but  as 
if  it  had  never  existed.  Having  been  unable  to 
get  information  regarding  a  certain  catalogue  I  wrote 
to  the  Museum  for  a  copy  of  the  title  page.  I  had 
no  reply.  In  answer  to  a  further  application  I 
received  this  :  "  We  certainly  have  a  small  Museum, 
but  have  lost  all  trace  of  our  catalogue  since  the 
death  of  Mr.  .  .  .  in  .  .  .,  who  then  was  the  Curator." 
Librarians  again  seem  to  take  little  interest  in  cata- 
logues of  museums,  except  in  the  case  of  Art 
collections,  and  do  not  collect  them  systematically. 
I  have  not  found  in  any  library,  at  home  or  abroad, 
anything  like  a  complete  collection  of  the  published 
works  relating  to  the  museums  in  the  same  town. 
The  British  Museum  possesses  far  more  works  on 
museums  in  general  than  any  other  library  with 
which    I    am  acquainted,    but    it   has   not  a  complete 


PREFACE  IX 

collection  of  the  works  relating  to  itself.  I  asked 
in  a  University  museum  whether  there  was  a  cata- 
logue. I  was  told  that  there  was  not  and  that  there 
never  had  been  a  catalogue.  I  then  went  to  the 
University  library  and  examined  the  catalogue  of 
the  library,  which  is  on  the  card  system  and  is  kept 
up-to-date.  The  library  did  not  contain  a  single 
volume  relating  to  the  museum.  A  printed  catalogue  of 
the  museum  nevertheless  exists.  In  another  Univer- 
sity Library  I  went  over  the  catalogue  to  ascertain  what 
had  been  published  in  reference  to  the  museums  in 
the  town,  and  found  several  entries.  The  University 
possesses  an  excellent  museum  ;  but  the  library  had 
nothinof  relating  to  it ;  and  the  librarian  told  me  that  he 
did  not  think  that  the  museum  had  issued  a  catalogue. 
I  walked  over  to  the  museum,  purchased  the  catalogue, 
and  brought  it  back  to  the  library.  The  librarian 
promised  to  make  a  note  of  it.  In  a  third  library, 
presided  over  by  one  of  the  leading  exponents  of  the 
art  of  cataloguingr,  I  found  that  the  title  "  Museum  " 
did  not  exist  in  his  own  catalogue,  and  that  the  library 
did  not  possess  a  copy  of  a  "Visitors'  Guide"  to  a 
well-known  museum  in  the  neighbourhood,  of  which 
there  had  been  at  least  two  editions. 

In  the  Bibliography  the  museums  are  arranged 
under  the  towns  or  places  where  they  are  situated, 
and  in  the  case  of  private  collections  under  the  name 
of  the  collector,  or  of  his  residence  when  it  is  well 
known.  Names  of  authors  are  given  separately  as 
cross-references. 

The  term  "  museum  "  I  have  taken  in  its  ordinary 
English   acceptation,  and  have  excluded   galleries   of 


X  PREFACE 

painting  and  sculpture  from  my  lists.  Collections 
of  coins  are,  as  a  rule,  likewise  excluded.  Numis- 
matics is  a  specialised  subject  with  an  extensive 
literature  and  it  would  have  served  no  good  purpose 
to  incorporate  catalogues  of  coin  collections  in  a 
work  dealing  with  museums  generally.  When  coins 
or  works  of  ancient  art  form  part  of  a  University 
or  similar  collection,  I  have,  however,  given  shortly 
the  principal  works  relating  to  them. 

Where  there  are  a  number  of  museums  in  one 
town  I  have  endeavoured  to  keep  them  distinct  and 
to  give  separately  the  works  relating  to  each  museum. 
This,  however,  is  not  always  possible.  One  volume 
often  treats  of  several  museums.  Museums  again 
change  their  names  or  are  split  up  or  are  ab- 
sorbed by  others.  One  edition  of  a  book  refers  to 
a  collection  when  it  was  an  independent  institution  : 
another  treats  it  as  part  of  a  larger  collection.  I 
have  done  the  best  I  could  to  meet  these  and  other 
difficulties,  not  altogether  successfully  I  fear,  as  local 
knowledge  is  often  necessary  to  unravel  the  history 
of  particular  museums  and  collections.  In  many 
cases  I  have  spent  both  time  and  trouble  in  identify- 
ing under  a  new  name  the  collection  to  which  some 
book  refers.  I  have  searched  numbers  of  local  his- 
tories for  information  of  this  kind,  generally  without 
reward.  Few  historians  concern  themselves  with 
details  about  museums. 

Following  the  bibliography  of  particular  museums 
and  collections,  I  have  given  a  list  of  travels  and 
books  of  a  general  nature  which  are  cited  in  the 
text    or   which     I    have    consulted.       It    would    have 


PREFACE  XI 

been  easy  to  increase  this  list,  as  many  books  of 
travel  and  most  guide-books  refer,  more  or  less  fully, 
to  museums,  but  a  mere  enumeration  of  collections 
or  the  repetition  of  what  has  been  already  said  by 
some  previous  writer  is  of  little  use  to  one  who  desires 
special  information.  As  it  is,  several  of  the  books 
included  are  of  this  character,  and  are  mentioned 
only  because  I  had  passed  them  through  my  hands. 
A  considerable  number  of  Travels  are  referred  to 
in  Part  IV.  as  authorities  on  particular  museums. 
These,  as  a  rule,  are  not  again  given  in  Part  V. 
I  have  also  omitted  from  this  Part  the  most  of 
the  old  scientific  and  oreneral  works  referred  to  in 
Volume   I.,   as  not  bearing  directly  upon  museums. 

The  references  to  the  transactions  of  learned  bodies, 
to  journals  and  other  periodical  publications  have 
mostly  been  made  ciirrente  calamo  and  generally 
when  I  was  engraoed  in  searchino-  for  other  infor- 
mation.  Had  I  been  able  to  go  systematically 
through  several  journals  of  different  countries  and 
relating  to  different  branches  of  science  for  a  series 
of  years,  a  great  deal  of  additional  information  would 
have  been  obtained,  but  this  would  have  required 
an  amount  of  time  and  opportunity  for  research  far 
beyond  what  I  could  command. 

I  have  endeavoured  to  give  the  names  of  authors 
in  full,  a  point  which  involves  more  trouble 
than  is  apparent.  I  have  also,  in  the  majority  of 
cases,  given  the  date  of  their  births  and  if  dead  of 
their  deaths,  with  an  indication  of  their  profession 
or  position.  This  has  added  much  to  my  labour. 
Even    in    the    case    of    names    to    be    found    in    the 


Xll  PREFACE 

ordinary  biographical  dictionaries,  it  takes  some  little 
time  to  extract  the  information  ;  but  a  very  large 
number  of  those  who  ficrure  in  the  literature  of 
museums  do  not  appear  in  such  dictionaries  and 
the  work  of  running  them  to  earth  is  often  very 
tedious,  but  I  ought  to  add,  very  fascinating.  In 
some  cases  I  have  failed.  With  plenty  of  time 
and  with  the  British  Museum  behind  me  I  would  have 
been  more  successful,  but  to  a  large  extent  I  have 
had  to  depend  upon  my  own  library,  and  in  addi- 
tion time  was  scant.  Engaged  all  day  in  an  exacting 
profession  and  with  many  of  the  duties  of  citizenship 
to  perform,  I  have  never  had  more  than  a  few 
hours  of  the  evening-  to  give  to  this  work  ;  I  have 
had  many  interruptions,  and  continuous  labour  has 
been  impossible. 

More  errors  have  crept  in  than  I  could  have 
wished.  In  some  cases,  in  deference  to  some 
accepted  authority,  I  have  altered  names  and  dates 
and  other  particulars  which  I  had  in  my  notes,  and 
have  found  when  too  late  that  my  original  note 
was  right  and  that  my  trusted  guide  was  wrong. 
In  other  cases  the  mistakes  are  slips  or  oversights. 
In  dealing  with  such  a  multitude  of  particulars,  and 
with  entries  in  many  languages,  it  is  difficult  to  avoid 
inaccuracy.  The  bibliography  has  been  written  on 
the  margins  and  backs  of  a  long  series  of  proof 
sheets,  so  that  occasionally  some  things  have  got  out 
of  joint  and  transcription  has  been  at  fault.  What 
has  been  done  I  have  done  myself  without  assist- 
ance of  any  kind. 

Now    that   the   work  is   finished  it   is   easy  to   see 


PREFACE  Xlll 

where  it  fails  and  how  it  could  have  been  improved, 
but  this  is  incident  to  most  undertakings  of  the 
kind  and  few  things  would  be  attempted  if  one 
could  see  at  the  commencement  the  difficulties  that 
were  to  be  surmounted  and  the  labour  to  be  encoun- 
tered. I  have  written  for  my  own  amusement,  but 
I  hope  not  altogether  without  profit  to  others.  Be 
this  as  it  may  the  preparation  of  the  book  has  given 
me  much  pleasure  during  several  years.  I  have  read 
a  great  deal  of  out-of-the-way  literature,  and  have 
m.ade  the  acquaintance  of  a  large  number  of  men 
who  were  prominent  in  their  day,  and  with 
whom  I  have  found  it  pleasant  to  hold  converse 
through  their  books.  Some  of  them  have  waited  long 
for  a  reader.  I  have  cut  the  leaves  of,  I  should  say, 
a  score  of  volumes  which  have  stood  unopened  on 
the  shelves  of  various  libraries,  some  for  two,  some 
for  three  hundred  years. 

Not  being  a  librarian  or  a  bibliographer  by  pro- 
fession, I  have  not  felt  myself  bound  by  any  of  the 
ingenious  rules  laid  down  for  cataloguing.  All  such 
rules  are  apt  to  be  embarrassing  when  carried  out 
rigidly,  and  with  long  experience  of  catalogues 
I  have  found  that  they  are  generally  more  useful 
when  not  too  systematic.  I  have  not  always  been 
consistent,  and  there  is  a  satisfaction  in  not  being 
subject  to  any  formal  rule.  The  French  De  is  a 
disturbing  element.  Sometimes  I  have  followed  the 
practice  of  the  British  Museum  and  in  other  cases 
I  have  not.  In  taking  an  entry  from  a  catalogue 
or  bibliography  one  naturally  accepts  it  as  given, 
and     as    each    cataloguer    treats    the    particle    as    it 


XIV  PREFACE 

pleases  him  it  is  difficult  for  a  third   person  to   alter      J 
the  entries  uniformly.      I  have  endeavoured  to  adopt 
the    form    that     I     thought    would    be    most    readily- 
recognised. 

The  list  of  Museums  in  the  United  Kingdom  is 
based  upon  that  prepared  by  the  British  Museum 
Association  in  1887,  which  the  Association  has  been 
CTood   enough  to  allow    me   to  use.      I    have  omitted 

o  o 

some  of  the  particulars  furnished  by  them,  as  being 
unnecessary  for  my  purpose,  and  have  inserted  at 
the  beo;inninor  a  list  of  museums  in  London.  A 
number  of  museums  will  be  found  in  the  Bibliography 
which  do  not  occur  in  the  list. 

At  the  end  of  volume  three  there  is  a  list  of  some 
corrections  and  of  some  books  accidentally  omitted 
or  published  since  the  bibliography  was  printed. 

In  conclusion  may  I  be  allowed,  without  undue 
assumption,  to  adopt  the  words  of  Aldo  Manuzio, 
"  Etsi  opere  in  magno  fas  est  obrepere  somnum  (non 
enim  unius  diei  labor  hie  noster,  sed  multorum 
annorum,  atque  interim  nee  mora  nee  requies,)  sic 
tamen  doleo,  ut  si  possem  mutarem  singula  errata 
nummo  aureo." 

DAVID  MURRAY. 


169  West  George  Street, 

Glasgow,  27th  September,   1904. 


CONTENTS. 

CHAPTEK  PAGE 

I.  Introductory, i 

II.  The  Renaissance;  the  Collecting  of  Objects  of 

Ancient  Art, 13 

III.  The  Progress  of  Science:    Collections  of  Nat- 

ural Objects, 19 

IV.  Early  Museum  Catalogues, 28 

V.  The  Use  of  the  Term  Museum,        '       '       '       '  34 

VI.  Some  Old  Exhibits,      -------  39 

VII.  Some  Early  Museums, 78- 

VIII.  Later  Museums, 102 

IX.  The  Beginnings  of  the  British  Museum,       -        -  127 

X.  Special  Collections, 145 

XI.  Scottish  Collectors  .\nd  Scottish  Museums,       -  151 

XII.  Museums  as  Shows, 170 

XIII.  Dispersion  of  Museums, 181 

XI\'.  Non-Scientific  Char.\cter  of  Early  Museums,     -  186 

XV.  Arrangement  of  Old  Museums,        -        -       -        -  205 

XVI.  The  Modern  Museum.    Archaeological  Museums,  231 

XVII.  Glasgow  Museums.     The  Museu.ms  of  Hamburg, 

Bremen  and  Lubeck, 245 

XVIII.  The  Use  of  Museums, 259 

APPENDIX. 

The  Levden  Catalogue  of  1591, 287 

List  of  Museums  in  the  United  Kingdom,          -        -        -  291 

INDEX, 3^3 


CHAPTER    I. 

INTRODUCTORY. 

A  Museum,  as  now  understood,  is  a  collection  of  the 
monuments  of  antiquity  or  of  other  objects  interesting 
to  the  scholar  and  the  man  of  science,  arranged  and 
displayed  in  accordance  with  scientific  method.  In 
its  original  sense  it  meant  a  spot  dedicated  to  the 
Muses,  and  secondarily,  a  place  for  study  and  for 
the  intercourse  of  learned  men,  or,  in  other  words, 
a  place  appropriated  to  literature  and  philosophy.  By 
far  the  most  important  museum  of  antiquity  was  the 
great  institution  at  Alexandria  founded  by  Ptolem.y 
Philadelphus  in  the  third  century  before  Christ  for 
the  promotion  of  learning  and  the  support  of  students.^ 
It  formed  part  of  the  palace  and  contained  cloisters, 
a  public  lecture-room  and  a  common  hall  with  botani- 
cal and  zoological  gardens  attached.  It  was  supported 
by  a  grant  from  the  treasury  and  was  under  the 
superintendence   of  a  priest   nominated   by   the   king, 

^  As  to  the  Alexandrine  Museum,  see  Strabo,  Geographica^  xvii.  i,  8  ; 
Gronovius  and  Neocorus,  De  Museo  Alexandrino,  in  Gronovii,  Thesaurus 
Graecariim  Antiquitatum,  viii.  2741-78  ;  Parthey,  Das  alexandrinische 
Museum,  Berlin,  1838;  Klippel,  Ueber  das  alexandrinische  Museum, 
Gottingen,  1838  ;   Weniger,  Das  alexandrinische  Museum,  Berlin,  1875. 

A 


2  THE    ALEXANDRINE    MUSEUM 

and,  after  Egypt  became  a  Roman  province,  by  the 
emperor.  In  the  language  of  modern  times  it  would 
be  called  an  Academy  or  perhaps  a  College  or  Uni- 
versity. After  Alexandria  passed  under  Roman  rule 
its  prosperity  began  to  decline  ;  its  public  buildings 
were  allowed  to  fall  into  disrepair,  its  works  of  art 
were  removed  to  Italy  ;  and  by  the  end  of  the  fourth 
century  of  our  era  it  had  well  nigh  been  ruined  and 
the  museum  closed. 

Those  authors  who  undertake  to  treat  of  museums 
in  a  thorough  and  exhaustive  manner  ^  find  in  Noah's 
Ark  the  most  complete  Museum  of  Natural  History 
that  the  world  has  ever  seen.  Coming  to  later 
times  they  make  sure  that  King  Solomon  had 
a  collection  of  curiosities ;  and  when  King  Hezekiah 
in  a  boastful  mood  showed  the  envoys  of  the  King 
of  Babylon  all  the  house  of  his  precious  things, 
the  silver  and  the  gold  and  the  spices  and  the 
precious  oil  and  all  that  was  found  in  his  treasures, 
they  are  certain  that  he  took  them  round  his 
museum.  Some  of  these  objects  of  interest  were 
thought  to  have  come  down  to  our  times,  all  duly 
catalogued  by  Collin  de   Plancy.-     The  Cathedral  of 

^  Neickelius,  [i.e.  Caspar  Friedrich  Einckel,]  "Von  dem  Ursprung  der 
Kunst-  und  Naturalien-Kammern,"  in  Muscographia,  p.  8,  Leipzig,  1727, 
4to  ;  Johann  Daniel  Major,  Unvorgreiffliches  Bede7icken  von  Kunst-  und 
Natur alien- Kamvierti  itisgemein,  Kiel,  1674,  8vo,  reprinted  by  Valentin!  in 
his  Museum  Museorum,  vol.  i. ;  and  Valentini  himself,  in  his  Museum 
Museorum,  Introduction,  vol.  i.,  Franckfurt-a.-M.,  1704,  fol. ;  Daniel  Wil- 
helm  Moeller,  Cotmnentatio  de  Techtiophysiotameis.,  p.  199,  in  Koehler, 
Sylloge  aliquot  Scriptorum  de  bene  ordinanda  et  ornanda  Bibliotheca, 
Francof.,  1728,  4to  ;  Koehler,  Aitiueisung  fiir  Reisende  gelehrte,  p.  217, 
Frankf.,  1762,  8vo  ;  p.  728,  Magd.,  1810,  8vo. 

^  Dictionnaire  critique  des  Reliques  et  des  Images  miraculeuses.  Paris, 
1 82 1,  8vo,  3  vols. 


EARLY    ORIGIN    CLAIMED    FOR    MUSEUMS  3 

Milan,  says  Addison,  "  is  very  rich  in  relics,  which 
run  up  as  high  as  Daniel,  Jonas,  and  Abraham":^ 
and  in  the  ninth  century  hair  from  the  beard  of 
Noah  was  shown  at  Corbie.-  The  great  Abbey  of 
St.  Denis  possessed  a  large  and  curious  goblet  of 
rock  cr)^stal  which  was  formerly  in  Solomon's  temple, 
a  gold  and  jewelled  cup  which  belonged  to  King 
Solomon  himself,  and  a  gamahe  of  white  agate  on 
which  was  impressed  the  likeness  of  the  Queen  of 
Sheba ;  ^  and  on  a  column  in  the  nave  of  San 
Ambrogio,  Milan,  travellers  are  still  shown  the  brazen 
serpent  which  was  raised  by  Moses  in  the  wilder- 
ness. These  learned  writers  come  to  firmer  ground 
when  they  refer  to  the  great  collection  of  animals, 
drawn  from  all  parts  of  the  world,  which  Alex- 
ander    the     Great    is     said    to     have     provided    for 

^"  Remarks  on  Italy,"  1701-1703,  lVorks,u.,  p.  13.     London,  1811,  8vo. 

In  the  Treasury  of  Durham  was  "a  piece  of  the  tree  under  which  were 
the  three  angels  with  Abraham,"  and  "a  part  of  the  rod  of  Moses."  Raine, 
Saint  Cjithbert,  pp.  122,  124.     Durham,  1828,  4to. 

^  A  wonderful  series  of  the  relics  of  his  cloister  is  catalogued  by 
Angilbert,  Abbot  of  St.  Riquier  (Abbas  Centulensis).  Ada  SS.O.S. 
Betiedicti,  ed.  Mabillon,  iv.  i.  108. 

^  Abrege  de  rinventaire  dti  Trhesor  de  St.  Denys,  pp.  12,  14,  Paris, 
1668,  8vo  ;  Evelyn,  Diary.,  i.,  p.  45,  London,  1879  \  Valentini,  Museum 
Museorum,  ii..  Appendix  ii.,  p.  7. 

A  foot  of  King  Solomon  and  an  arm  of  the  Queen  of  Sheba  were 
extant  until  recently,  but  seem  now  to  have  disappeared.  V Inicrniediaire 
des  ChercJieurs  et  Curieux,  xxii.  (1889),  291. 

The  engraved  figures  on  Gamahes  were  supposed  to  be  produced 
directly  by  nature,  and  were  considered  to  have  peculiar  virtues. 
See  post,  p.  237.  Another  theory  was  that  they  were  made  by  the 
children  of  Israel  during  their  forty  years'  wanderings  in  the  wilder- 
ness. The  words  gamahe  and  cameo  are  the  same.  The  art  of  cameo 
cutting  was  practised  by  the  Egyptians,  Greeks,  and  Romans,  but  was 
lost  in  the  Middle  Ages.  Labarte,  Arts  of  the  Middle  Ages,  p.  52, 
London,  1855. 


4  THE    ROMANS    AS    COLLECTORS 

Aristotle  to  enable  him  to  write  his  natural  history, 
but  even  if  the  tradition  be  well  founded  this  was 
a  zoological  garden  rather  than  a  museum,  which 
does  not  admit  live  specimens. 

While  the  Romans  were  industrious  collectors  of 
statues  and  paintings  they  sought  after  them  merely 
as  decorative  objects  and  not  for  the  purpose  of 
cultivating  taste,  or  as  instruments  for  the  study  and 
teaching  of  the  arts  of  design.  At  first  they  were 
employed  exclusively  for  the  decoration  of  temples 
and  places  of  public  resort ;  but  private  collections 
began  to  be  formed  and  by  the  close  of  the  Republic 
it  had  become  fashionable  for  wealthy  citizens  to 
have  a  room  in  their  houses  for  the  reception  and 
display  of  works  of  art.^  Vitruvius,  writing  in  the 
time  of  Augustus,  includes  the  pinacotheca  amongst 
the  apartments  of  a  great  house  and  gives  directions 
as  to  its  form  and  aspect.- 

A  collection  of  precious  stones  was  known  as  a 
"  dactyliotheca";  and  according  to  Pliny,  the  first 
person  who  possessed  one  at  Rome  was  Scaurus, 
the  stepson  of  Sulla.  For  a  long  time  there  was  no 
other,  until  Pompey  the  Great,  amongst  other  dona- 
tions, dedicated  in  the  Capitol  one  which  had  belonged 
to  King  Mithridates.  Following  his  example,  Julius 
Caesar  consecrated  six  collections  in  the  temple  of 
Venus  Genetrix,  and  Marcellus  the  nephew  of  Augustus 
presented  one  to  the  temple  of  the  Palatine  Apollo.^ 

^  See  Curtius,  Kunsttnuseeii j  ihre  Geschichte  und  ihre  Besti??iinufig, 
p.  15,  Berlin,  1870,  8vo;  Friedlander,  Sittetigeschichte  Roms,  ii.,  p.  154 
sqq.,  Leipzig,  1881,  5th  ed. ;  Evelyn,  Numistnata,  p.  69,  London,  1697,  fol. 

"^  De  Architectura,  i.  2  ;  vi.  5,  7  ;  cf.  Pliny,  Hisioria  Naiuralis,  xxxv. 
4;    Dezobry,  Rofne  an  Steele  cTAugusie,  i.,  p.  92,  Paris,  1875,  Svo. 

^  Pliny,  Hisioria  Naturalis,  xxxvii.  5  ;  Dezobry,  Op.  laud.,  i.,  p.  289. 


MUSEUM    OF    AUGUSTUS  5 

Natural  objects,  such  as  we  call  curiosities,  had  long 
been  preserved  in  temples,  both  in  Greek  and  Roman 
times,  not  as  scientifically  interesting  but  because 
of  their  rarity  or  peculiarity,  and  Pliny  incidentally 
mentions  numerous  examples  ;  ^  many  of  them,  it  is 
to  be  feared,  of  a  very  fanciful  description,  e.g.  the 
bones  of  the  monster  to  which  Andromeda  had  been 
exposed,  and  which  had  been  brought  to  Rome  from 
Joppa,  where  the  remains  of  the  chains  by  which 
she  had  been  fastened  to  the  rock  were  still  to  be 
seen.^  Suetonius  tells  us^  that  the  villa  of  Augustus 
was  remarkable  not  so  much  for  statues  and  pictures 
as  for  things  notable  by  their  age  and  rarity  {res 
vettistate  ac  rai'itate  iwtabiies),  such  as  the  huge 
members  of  wild  beasts  known  as  the  bones  of 
giants,^  and  the  weapons  of  heroes  ;  °  and  there  seems 

^  E.g.  Historia  Naturalis,  v.  lo ;  vi.  36  (31);  viii.  14;  xi.  36  (31); 
xii.  42  (19) ;  xxviii.  6.  Sachse  de  Lewenheimb,  Gammarologia.,  p.  49. 
Franc  of.,  1665,  8vo. 

2//.  N..,  ix.  4  ;   V.   14. 

^  Vita  Augusti,  c.  72.  See  Reinach,  "Le  Musee  de  rEmpereur  Auguste," 
in  Revue  d'Anthropologie,  1889,  p.  28  sqq. 

■*  Pliny  mentions  {Historia  Natiiralis,  vii.  16)  that  the  bones  of  two 
very  tall  men  over  nine  feet  in  height  were  kept  as  curiosities  in  the 
gardens  of  the  Sallust  family.  These  gardens  belonged  to  the  Emperor 
Augustus,  and  the  bones  in  question  may  have  been  part  of  those 
referred  to  by  Suetonius. 

Pliny  says  they  were  preserved  iti  co/iditorio,  from  which  it  might  be 
assumed  that  ^^ conditorium''  was  the  appropriate  term  for  a  cabinet  of 
curiosities.  Leibnitz  refers  to  museums  as  "  conditoria  renan  pere- 
grinarumr     Protogaea,  §  35,  Goetting.,  1749,  4to. 

5  The  latter  were  objects  which  the  Greeks  had  been  accustomed  to 
display  in  their  temples.  The  spear  of  Achilles  was  preserved  in  the 
sanctuary  of  Athena  at  Phaselis,  and  the  sword  of  Memnon  in  the  temple 
of  /Esculapius  at  Xicomedia.  Pausanias,  iii.  3.  8.  The  blade  and  the 
spike  at  the  butt-end  of  the  spear  and  the  whole  of  the  sword  were  of 
bronze,  which   Pausanias  adduces  as  showing  that  in  the  Heroic  Age 


6  RELICS 

some  ground   for  believino-  that  Tiberius  also  had   a 
museum.^ 

In  the  Middle  Ages  many  monasteries  had  collec- 
tions of  curiosities,  most  of  them  the  gifts  of  travellers 
on  their  return  from  distant  lands."  Princes  and 
ecclesiastics  had  collections  of  the  relics  of  saints  which 
they  carried  about  from  place  to  place  in  a  reliquary, 
chest  or  cabinet  {capelld),  and  these  had  a  most  import- 
ant bearing  on  the  life  of  the  time  in  peace  as  well 
as  in  war.'^  "The  reliquary  was  the  most  precious 
ornament  in  the  Lady's  chamber,  in  the  Knight's 
armoury,  in  the  King's  hall  of  state,  as  well  as  in 
that  of  the  Bishop  or  the  Pope."^  It  was  to  relics 
that  men,  of  a  faith  altogether  material,  gave  the 
greatest  credence,  and  they  were  employed  in  all  solemn 
acts  of  justice  and  administration.^  The  shift  of  the 
Virgin,  which  Charles  the  Bald  had  brought  with 
other  relics  from  Constantinople,  when  displayed  upon 

weapons  were  all  of  bronze.  Pausanias,  Description  of  Greece,  by  Frazer, 
i.,  p.   136;   iii.,  p.  314. 

The  expression  "arma  heroum"  has  been  thought  to  refer  to  palaeo- 
lithic weapons  of  stone  or  weapons  of  bronze  of  the  prehistoric  period. 
See  Reinach,  in  Revue  cT Anthropologic,  1889,  p.  28;  Reinach,  Antiquites 
natiotiales,  i.,  p.  83  ;   Evans,  Ancient  Stone   Weapons,  p.  4  (2nd  ed.). 

*  Reinach,  Antiquites  nationales,  i.,  p.  28,  Paris,  1889. 

-  Lacroix,  Science  et  Lettres  au  moyen  age,  pp.  124,  137,  Paris,  1877  ; 
English  translation,  pp.   no,  114.     London,   1878,  8vo. 

^See  Smith,  Dictionary  of  Christian  Antiquities,  s.v.  Relics  and 
Reliquary;  Milman,  History  of  Latin  Christianity,  \\.,^^.  153,  154;  ix., 
pp.  84-88.     London,  1864,  8vo. 

*  Milman,  Op.la7id.,\x.,Y>-  84;  Lacroix,  6*/. /a«^.,  p.  363  j^^.    London,  1878. 
°  De  Coulanges,  La  Monarchic  Franque,  p.  149,  Paris,  1888,  8vo;  Du 

Cange,  Glossarium,  s.v.  Capella ;  Spelman,  Glossariuin  Archaiologicuin, 
s.v.  Capella.  Smith,  Dictionary  of  Christian  Antiquities,  s.vv.  Relics, 
Reliquary,  Wonders. 


CHURCH    TREASURIES  7 

the  ramparts  of  Chartres,  brought  defeat  upon  the 
hitherto  all-conquering  Rollo.^  An  Eastern  king 
inserted  the  thumb  of  St.  Sergius  in  his  own  right 
arm,  and,  as  a  reward  for  his  faith,  was  able  to  conquer 
his  enemies  by  the  raising  of  that  arm."  Amongst  the 
relics  of  Croyland,  Abbot  Turketul  set  especial  value  on 
the  thumb  of  St.  Bartholomew  the  Apostle,  so  much  so 
that  he  always  carried  it  about  him,  and  in  all  times 
of  danger,  tempest,  and  lightning  crossed  himself 
therewith.^  As  Gregory  of  Tours  was  travelling  from 
Burgundy  to  Auvergne  a  thunderstorm  came  on  ; 
when,  plucking  some  relics  from  his  bosom,  he  held 
them  up  towards  the  threatening  cloud.  It  at  once 
parted  in  twain,  and  the  traveller  passed  on  in  safety.* 
Every  church  had  its  treasury,  and  most  treasuries 
contained  relics/  many  possessed  illuminated  manu- 
scripts and  works  of  art,  often  of  very  early  date  and 
of  great  historic  interest,*^  and  some  of  them  curiosities 

^Gulielmus  Malmesburiensis,  De gestis  regjivi  Anglorutn,  ii.  5. 

^  Gregorius  Turonensis,  Historia  Fraticorum,  vii.  31,  Opera  355,  Lutet., 
1699,  fol- 

^Ingulphus,  Historia  Croylandensis,  in  Gale  et  Fell,  Rerutn  Angli- 
carum  Scriptores,  i.,  p.  51,  Oxon.,  1684,  fol. 

^  De  Gloria  Mariyrum,  i.  84,  Opera  817.  Numerous  examples  of  the 
same  thing  are  recorded  by  the  hagiographers,  e.g.  Acta  SS.O.S.  Bene- 
diciti,  ed.  Mabillon,  iii.  2,  438. 

^  See  the  very  interesting  Inventory  of  Relics  which  belonged  to  the 
Cathedral  of  Durham  in  1383.  Raine,  Saitit  Cuthbert.,  pp.  120-130. 
Durham,  1828,  4to.  The  relics  of  Durham  were,  in  the  Middle  Ages, 
one  of  its  most  striking  features.  See  poem  in  Hickes,  Thesaurus,  i.,  p.  179. 
Oxon.,  1705,  fol. 

®The  older  authorities  are  conveniently  collected  in  Von  Schlosser, 
Quellenbuch  zur  Kunstgeschichte  des  abetidliindischen  Mittelalters.  Wien, 
1896,  8vo.  As  a  later  example  see  Ingulph's  description  of  the  treasury 
of  Croyland,  supra. 


8  RARITIES    IN    CHURCHES 

and  rarities  brought  home  by  pilgrims  or  travellers.^ 
*' In  some  churches,"  says  Durandus,  "two  eggs  of 
ostriches  and  other  things  of  the  like  kind,  which  cause 
admiration  and  which  are  rarely  seen,  are  accustomed 
to  be  suspended,  that  by  their  means  the  people  may 
be  drawn  to  church  and  have  their  minds  the  more 
affected."^  This  practice  was  more  common  in  the  East 
than  in  the  West,  and  is  still  continued  in  both  Chris- 
tian churches  and  Mohammedan  mosques.^  There  are, 
however,  examples  of  it  in  the  West.  An  ostrich 
Qgg,  for  instance,  used  to  hang  in  the  old  Dom  of 
Goslar  in  the  Harz  ;  while  the  griffin's  eggs,^  which 
appear  in  many  church  inventories  of  the  Middle  Ages, 

■^  Otte,  Handbuch  der  kirchlidien  Kitnst-Archdologie,  p.  48,  Leipzig,  1854, 
8vo  ;  i.,  p.  213,  Leipzig,  1883,  8vo.  Klemm,  GeschicJite  der  Sat/nnlungen 
fur  IVissetisc/iaft  und  Kttnst  in  DeutscJiland,  p.  142,  Zerbst,  1837,  8vo. 
Milman,  Op.  laud..,  iv.,  p.   171  ;  ix.,  p.  86. 

2  Rationale  divi7ioriim  Officiorutn,  i.  3,  §  42. 

Durandus  is  not  altogether  satisfied  with  this  explanation,  and  §  43 
suggests  another  :  "  Again  some  say  that  the  ostrich,  as  being  a  forgetful 
bird,  leaveth  her  eggs  in  the  dust  [Job  xxxix.  14],  and  at  length  when 
she  beholdeth  a  certain  star  returneth  unto  them,  and  cheereth  them  by 
her  presence.  Therefore  the  eggs  of  ostriches  are  hung  in  churches  to 
signify  that  man,  being  left  by  God  on  account  of  his  sins,  if  at  length 
he  be  illumined  by  the  Divine  Light,  remembereth  his  faults  and 
returneth  to  Him,  who  by  looking  on  him  His  mercy  cherisheth  him." 

^A^.  and  Q.,  3rd  S.  iv.  470;  5th  S.  xii.  46;  8th  S.  v.  434;  vi.  57. 
Tozer,  Visit  to  Mount  Athosj  Vacation  Tourists,  p.  103 ;  Burnaby, 
On  Horseback  through  Asia  Minor,  i.,  p.  310 ;  Valentini,  Museum 
Museoru7n,  vol.  ii.,  Appendix  xxi.,  p.  87.     Franckfurt-a.-M.,  17 14,  fol. 

*'R.2i\nQ,  Sai7it  Cuthbert,  p.  122;  Meyers,  Konversations-Lexikon,  s.v. 
Greif.  Amongst  the  relics  belonging  to  the  Cathedral  of  Durham  were 
several  griffin's  eggs.     Raine,  Saint  Cuthbert,  pp.  123,  125,  127,  128. 

An  ostrich  egg  was  often  used  as  a  stand  for  a  reliquary.  The  egg, 
clasped  in  a  metal  ring,  rested  on  a  metal  foot,  and  the  reliquary  stood 
on  the  top  attached  to  the  ring.  There  are  two  in  the  Welfen  Museum, 
Hanover ;  one  in  the  treasury  of  Quedlinburg ;  two  at  Hildesheim,  one 
of  them  dating  from  the  eleventh  century  ;  and  there  are  many  elsewhere. 


RARITIES    IN    CHURCHES  9 

are  believed  to  have  been  ostrich  eggs.  But  other 
rarities  were  to  be  found,  and  their  use  goes  to  strengthen 
the  suggestion  of  Durandus  that  they  were  kept  as 
attractions.  Thus,  in  the  porch  of  the  Cathedral  of 
Merseburg,  on  the  Saale,  there  is  a  large  carapace 
of  a  tortoise.^  There  are  "antediluvian"  (vorsilnd- 
fluthliche)  bones  in  the  church  of  St.  Kilian,  at 
Heilbronn,  in  Wurtemberg,  and  in  the  old  Roman- 
esque church  of  Alpirsbach,  in  the  Black  Forest.^ 
One  hangs  in  the  western  entrance  of  the  Cathedral  of 
Halberstadt,  and  used  to  be  passed  off  as  one  of  the 
bones  of  Jonah's  whale  ;  while  on  the  wall  opposite 
it  hangs  a  thunderbolt, — or  as  we  would  now  say, 
a  stone  axe, — which  was  kept  as  a  protection  against 
drought  and  lightning.^  In  the  sacristy  of  the  Cathe- 
dral of  Brunswick  there  is  the  horn  of  an  antelope, 
which  Duke  Henry  the  Lion  (1129-1195)  brought 
back  from  Palestine  as  being  the  claw  of  a  griffin.^ 
In  the  church  of  St.  Michael,  in  Hildesheim,  another 
griffin's  claw  was  exhibited,  which  was  in  reality  a  goat's 
horn,  and  two  others  were  to  be  seen  in  a  church 
near  Helmstadt.^     In  the   Schloss-Kirche  of  Witten- 

^  Briickmann,  Epistola  Itineraria,  53,  Cent.  i.  There  was  also  preserved 
in  this  church  the  hand  which  Rudolph  of  Suabia  lost  in  battle  with  the 
Emperor  Henry  IV.     Briickmann,  Op.  laud.,  49,  Cent.  i. 

-  Otte,  Op.  laud. 

^Hermes,  Der  Dom  zii  Halberstadt,  p.  50,  Halberstadt,  1896,  8vo. 
It  is  mentioned  in  the  Catalogue  of  Davila's  Museum,  iii.,  p.  15. 

A  large  axe  of  jade  was  found  in  1884  on  one  of  the  tie-beams  in  the  roof 
of  a  granary  belonging  to  the  old  Cistercian  nunnery,  known  as  Martha's 
Hof,in  Bonn.    Bonner Jahrbucher,\xx\\\.  (1884), p.  216 ;  Ixxix.  (1885),  p.  280. 

^  Oi\.e,ut supra.  See  Tylor,  Early  History  0/ Mankind,  p.  319,  3rd  ed. ; 
Y.vzx\s,Ani7nal  Sy>nbolismin  Ecclesiastical  Architecture,"^.  106.  Lond.,  1896. 
There  is  an  interesting  note  on  the  griffin  in  Frazer's  Pausanias,  ii.,  p.  318. 

°  Bartholin,  Epistolae  niedicinales.  Cent,  ii.,  Ep.  11,  p.  339. 


lO  RARITIES    IN    CHURCHES 

here — on  whose  doors  Luther  affixed  his  famous 
theses — two  whale  ribs  were  suspended,  when  Faber 
wrote  in  171 7,  which  were  said  to  have  been  brought 
from  the  Holy  Land,  but  which  in  fact  belonged  to  a 
whale  thrown  up  on  the  shores  of  the  Baltic.  Above 
them  hung  a  hunting  horn  reputed  to  be  made  of  a 
griffin's  claw  also  brought  from  the  Holy  Land/  The 
treasury  of  Durham  Cathedral  possessed  two  such 
claws."'  In  the  church  of  St.  Nicholas  at  Juterbog, 
in  Brandenburg,  there  is  the  rib  of  a  whale,^  In 
the  choir  of  the  parish  church  of  Ensisheim,  in  Upper 
Alsace,  there  is  a  portion  of  a  meteorite,  which  fell 
in    1492   and   weighed   260  pounds."*      In    the    parish 

^  Matthaeus  Faber,  Kurtzgefasste  historische  Nachricht  von  der  Schloss- 
Kirche  in  Wittenberg,  pp.  140-142.     Wittenberg,  1717,  8vo. 

At  p.  191  sqq.  he  gives  a  curious  list  of  the  Relics  preserved  in  the 
Treasury. 

2  Raine,  Saint  Cuthbert,  p.  122. 

^  Otte,  ut  supra. 

There  is  also  preserved  in  this  church  one  of  the  Indulgence  boxes  of 
Friar  Tetzel,  "der  Ablasskramer."  He  was  waylaid  in  a  wood  near  the 
convent  of  Zinna  by  a  robber  Knight,  Hans  von  Hacke,  as  he  was 
carrying  it  home  filled  with  gold,  the  produce  of  the  pardons  he  had  sold. 

There  is  another  such  bo.x  in  the  cathedral  of  Magdeburg. 

*  Gesner,  De  reriim  fossilitim,  lafidiun  et  gemtnaricm  Liber,  f.  66, 
Tiguri,  1565,  8vo  ;  Chladni,  Ueber  Feuer-Meteore,  pp.  xvi.,  90,  205,  427, 
Wien,  1819,  8vo  ;  Leonhard,  Geologic,  iv.,  p.  177.     Stuttgart,  1841,  8vo. 

The  Emperor  Maximilian,  arriving  at  Ensisheim  shortly  after  the  fall, 
presented  a  fragment  to  the  Archduke  Sigismund,  retained  another  for 
himself,  and  deposited  the  remainder  in  the  parish  church. 

During  the  Revolution  the  stone  was  taken  from  the  church  and 
placed  in  the  public  library  of  Colmar.  Fragments  were  broken  off  and 
presented  to  various  persons  and  institutions.  Fourcroy  obtained  a 
piece  of  9^  kilos,  for  the  Museum  of  Natural  History,  Paris.  The 
remainder  was  afterwards  returned  to  Ensisheim.  Chladni,  supra.  Meunir, 
"  Notice  historique  sur  la  collection  de  Meteorites  du  musdum  d'histoire 
naturelle,"  in  Centenaire  de  la  fondation  du  Museum  d'histoire  nalurelle, 
p.  403,  Paris,  1893,  4to. 


RARITIES    IN    CHURCHES  II 

church  of  Petty,  on  the  Moray  Frith,  the  bones  of  a 
^iant,  known  as  "  Httle  John,"  were  still  preserved  in 
the  sixteenth  century.^  Giants'  bones  were  preserved 
in  the  Cathedral  of  Vienna.'  Boccaccio  records  that,  in 
his  day,  in  the  church  of  the  Annunciation  in  Trapani, 
in  Sicily,  three  teeth  weighing  a  hundred  ounces,  of 
an  enormous  giant  of  200  cubits  in  height,  were 
hung  up  on  wire.^  Certain  elephants'  tusks,  found 
in  1605,  were  suspended  in  the  church  at  Halle/  In 
the  church  of  St.  Vulfran,  in  Abbeville,  a  cayman 
is  suspended  on  the  wall  near  the  north-west  door.^ 
The  drinking  horn  and  fork  of  Charlemagne  are 
still  shown  in  the  treasury  of  Hildesheim.  In  the 
treasury  of  St.  Denis  there  were  the  horn  of 
a  unicorn,*'  the  claw  of  a  griffin  presented  to 
Charlemagne  in  the  year  807  by  King  Aaron  of 
Persia,  and   two   tusks   of  a   walrus  or  hippopotamus 

^  The  Historic  of  Scotland^  by  Leslie.  Translated  in  Scottish  by  Dal- 
rymple,  i.,  p.  46.     Edinburgh,  1888,  8vo. 

2  Briickmann,  Epistolae  liinerariae,  5  and  12,  Cent,  i.,  Wolfenb., 
1729,  4to.  Also  in  the  Kreuz  Kirche  of  Breslau,  Kundmann,  Promtuariujn, 
p.  12,  Vratislav.,  1726,  4to  ;  but  no  longer  to  be  seen  there. 

'^ De  Genealogia  Deorufn,  Lib.  iv.,  c.  68,  p.  115,  Basil.,  1532,  fol.  Boc- 
caccio gives  a  most  graphic  account  of  the  finding  of  the  giant  sitting  in 
a  cave,  and  of  his  resolving  into  dust  when  touched.  Nothing  was  left 
but  these  teeth  and  part  of  the  skull. 

As  to  other  giants'  teeth,  see  Briickmann,  Op.  laud. 

*  Hoffmann,  Dissertatio  itiauguralis  physico-medica  de  ebore  fossili 
Suevico  Halensi,  p.  8.     Hal.  Magd.,  1734,  4to. 

*  A^.  and  Q.,  8th  S.  vi.  512  ;  Joanne,  Itin^raire  gmeral de  la  France — Le 
Nord,  p.  35.     Paris,  1892. 

'  This  was  a  famous  specimen  duly  described  and  commented  on  by 
writers  on  the  unicorn.  See  Bartholinus,  De  Unicornu,  p.  250,  Amstel., 
1678,  i2mo;    Historiariim  anatomicariim  Rariora,  Cent,  iv.,  4,  p.  217. 

There  were  two  similar  horns  in  the  Treasury  of  St.  Mark,  Venice. 
Bartholinus,  De  Ufticornu,  p.  253. 


12     PRESERVATION    OF   OBJECTS    OF   ART   IN    CHURCHES 

presented  to  the  Abbey  by  David,  King  of  Scotland,^ 
probably  indicating  that  there  had  been  a  find  of  fossil 
ivory  in  this  country  at  the  time.  In  the  treasury  of  St. 
Mark  in  Venice  "  they  shew  you  likewise  a  lilly,  offer'd 
by  Henry  III,  of  France  to  the  most  Serene  Republic, 
and  a  surprizing  pearl,  call'd  mother-pearl,  and  several 
things  of  that  nature."-  The  acquisition  of  articles 
prompted  by  piety  or  superstition  was  no  doubt  on 
a  different  footing  from  collecting  for  purposes  of  in- 
struction or  study,  but  it  stimulated  the  taste  for  col- 
lecting, and  secured  the  preservation  of  numerous 
interesting  objects.  The  treasuries  of  many  foreign 
churches  still  contain  some  of  the  finest  existing 
examples  of  ancient  art,  and  many  of  those  beautiful 
and  valuable  objects  which  now  adorn  our  great 
museums  at  one  time  belonged  to  churches. 

"^  Abrege  de  P Inventaire  du  Trhesor  de  St.  Deiiys,  p.  25,  Paris,  1668, 
8vo  ;  Valentini,  Museum  Museoriim,  ii.,  Appendix  ii.,  p.  7.  "  Deux  dents 
d'un  cheval  marin  de  grandeur  prodigieuse,"  according  to  the  official 
Inventory.  "  Zwei  tiberaus  grosse  dentes  Hippopotami,"  in  Valentini's 
version. 

^  Montfaucon,  The  Antiquities  of  Italy,  translated  by  Henley,  p.  40. 
London,  1725,  fol. 


CHAPTER    II. 

THE    RENAISSANXE  ;   THE    COLLECTING    OF    OBJECTS 
OF   ANCIENT  ART. 

The  revival  of  learning  in  the  fifteenth  century 
led  to  a  passionate  admiration  for  the  monuments 
of  classical  antiquity,  and  to  an  eager  desire  for 
their  acquisition  and  preservation.  Cosmo,  and  after- 
wards Lorenzo  de  Medici,  stood  forward  as  the 
patrons  of  the  new  learning,  assisted  and  encouraged 
the  numerous  scholars  who  made  Florence  famous. 
Popes,  princes  and  magistrates  promoted  and  carried 
on  vast  excavations  on  ancient  sites.  Between  the 
years  1450  and  1550,  an  immense  number  of  an- 
tiquities were  unearthed  in  Rome  and  its  neighbour- 
hood, and  many  palaces  were  filled  with  them.^ 
Coins  and  medals  were  especially  attractive  to  men 
filled  with  the  new  enthusiasm  for  art  and  antiquity. 
Petrarch  was  a  coin  collector  ;  Politian  used  coins 
as  vouchers  of  ancient  orthography  and  customs, 
Benedetto  Dandolo  is  said  to  have  been  the  first  to 

^  Fiorillo,  Geschichte  der  zeichietiden  Kiiiiste,  i.  125  sqq.  ;  ii.  48  sqg., 
Gottingen,  1798,  8vo  ;  Gregorovius,  Rovie  in  the  Middle  Ages^  vii., 
p.  588  sqq.,  London,  1900,  8vo ;  Miintz,  Des  Antiquites  de  la  Ville  de 
Rome,  p.  53  sqq.,  Paris,  1886,  8vo.  The  estimates  of  the  number  of 
statues  found  at  Rome  vary  from  6o,cxx)  to  170,000.  Miiller,  Attcietit 
Alt  and  its  Remains,  §  261,  London,  1852,  8vo. 

13 


14  CABINETS    OF    COINS 

form  a  cabinet  of  coins.     Cardinal  Pietro  Barbo,  after- 
wards Pope  Paul   II.,  was  a  specialist  in  this  branch 
of  antiquity,^  which  was  pursued  by  Pietro  Tommasi, 
Ciambatista  Egnazio,  and  Cardinal  Domenico  Grimani 
(1460- 1 523).      The    museum    collected    by    the    latter 
and    added    to    by    his    nephew    Giovanni,    was    so 
extensive  that  when  Alfonso,   Duke  of  Ferrara,  and 
Henry  III.  of  France  visited  Venice  in  1574,  it  took 
them  a  whole  day  to  look  over  it.^     Gian   Vincenzo 
Pinelli  (i 535-1 601)  is  best  known  as  a  book  collector, 
and  his  magnificent  library  was  long   celebrated,   but 
he   had   also  a  museum  of  crlobes,  mathematical  and 
philosophical  instruments,  fossils,  natural  objects,  and  | 
coins,'^  which  was  acquired  after  his  death  by  Cardinal  ' 
Federigfo    Borromeo.*     The  formation  of  cabinets  of 
coins  and  medals  grew  apace,^  and  by  the  middle  of 
the  sixteenth    century,  there    were    200    in    the    Low 
Countries,    175  in  Germany,  more  than  380  in   Italy, 

^  The  catalogue  of  part  of  his  collections  has  been  printed  by  Eugene 
Mlintz  in  Revue  Archeologique,  xxxvi.,  N.S.,  p.  87,  Paris,  1878,  8vo ; 
Zeitschrift  fiir  Museologie,   1878,  No.   16. 

-  Fiorillo,  Geschichte  der  zeichnenden  Kiinste,  ii.  56  ;  Tiraboschi,  Storia 
delta  Letteratura  Italiana,  w'u.,  t^.  342.  Milano,  1824.  Pflaumern,  il/^r- 
curius  Italicus,  Partii.,p.  58.  August.  Vindel.,  1650,  i2mo.  Montfaucon, 
The  Antiquities  of  Italy  ^  translated  by  Henley,  p.  29.     London,  1725,  fol. 

An  account  of  the  collection  was  published  at  Venice  in  1497  ;  and 
again  Courte  description  dcs  choses  plus  remarquables  du  Palais  Grimani 
a  Sainte  Marie  Formosa,  Svo,  n.p.,  n.d. 

^  The  Pinelli  library,  formed  by  another  member  of  the  family,  purchased 
in  1788  by  James  Robson,  was  sold  by  auction  in  London  in  1789. 
Nichols,  Literary  Anecdotes  of  the  Eighteenth  Century,  v.,  p.  324 ;  iii., 
pp.  438,  735  ;   The  Gentleman's  Magazine,  lix.,  Part  L  (1789),  p.  69. 

*  Tiraboschi,  Storia  delta  letteratura  Jtaliana,  vii.,  p.  356. 

^  Hubert  Goltz  in  his  C.  Ivtivs  Caesar  sive  Historiae  hnperatorvm 
Caesarvmque  Romanortim  ex  antiqvis  numismatibvs  restitvtae,  Brug., 
1563,  fol.,  enumerates  the  collectors  to  whom  he  was  indebted  for  infor- 
mation and  assistance. 


COLLECTIONS    OF    INSCRIPTIONS  1 5 

and  about  200  in  France.  Engraved  gems  were  speci- 
ally coveted  and  many  collections  were  made.  The 
first  English  collector^  was  Thomas  Howard,  Earl  of 
Arundel  (1586- 1646).  whom  Horace  Walpole  calls  the 
'*  Father  of  Vertu  in  Eno-land."  It  was  he  who  brought 
together  the  magnificent  collection  of  intaglios  and 
cameos  long  known  as  "The  Marlborough  Gems"; 
the  Arundel  MSS.,  now  in  the  British  Museum  ;  and 
the  "Marmora  Arundeliana,"  one  of  the  ornaments  of 
Oxford. 

The  value  of  inscriptions  had  long  been  recognised, 
and  from  the  seventh  century  onwards,  pilgrims  to 
Rome  had  been  in  the  habit  of  noting  such  as  they 
met  with  and  carrying  home  their  transcripts  for 
preservation.-       The    scholars    of    the     Renaissance, 

1  Evelyn,  writing  in  1689,  laments  that  there  was  no  collection  of  coins 
in  England,  Diary,  iii.,  p.  442,  London,  1879  ;  and  Zedler,  when  enumer- 
ating, in  1739,  the  principal  cabinets  of  Europe  does  not  mention  one  in 
this  country.     Universal  Lexicon,  s.v.  Aliintz-Kabinet. 

In  1719-20,  however,  Nicolas  Haym,  an  Italian  musician,  published  at 
London  (4to,  2  vols.)  his  //  Tesoro  Britannico,  in  which  he  proposed  to 
describe  all  coins,  gems,  statues  and  other  works  of  art  to  be  found  in  the 
cabinets  of  England  and  not  hitherto  described.  The  work  was  intended 
to  extend  to  about  12  quarto  volumes.  In  1746  the  Catalogue  of  the 
Collection  {Cinielinin)  of  Thomas,  Earl  of  Pembroke,  appeared  in  4  vols. 
4to  {infra,  p.  137),  and  in  1750  that  of  the  Bodley  Collection  at  Oxford. 
In  1780  the  Marlborough  gems  were  described,  Choix  de  pierres  antiques 
gravccs  dii  Cabinet  du  Due  de  Marlborough,  1780-91,  fol.,  2  vols. 

^The  earliest  collection,  of  this  description,  is  one  made  in  the  eighth  or 
ninth  century  which  is  preserved  in  the  monastery  of  Einsiedeln  and  was 
published  by  Mabillon,  Analecta,  p.  358  sqq.,  Paris,  1723,  fol.,  but  which 
first  appeared  at  Paris,  1675-85,  in  4  vols.  8vo.  The  collection  was  sub- 
sequently edited  by  Haenel,  in  Seebode  und  Jahn,  Archiv  fiir  Philologie 
und  Paedagogik,  v.,  idisic.  i.,  p.  116.  See  C.I.L.,  vi.,  pt.  i.,  p.  viii.  ;  De 
Rossi,  Inscriptioties  Christianae  Urbis  Romae,  ii.,  pt.  i.,  p.  9  sqq.,  and  pp. 
15,  47,  159;  Jordan,  Topographie  der  Stadt  Rom  im  Alterthicm,  ii.,  pp.  330 
sqq.,  6^6  sqq.     Berlin,  1871. 


1 6  USE    OF    INSCRIPTIONS 

Pastrengo,  Poggio,  and  Signorili,  devoted  themselves 
to  the  systematic  search  for  and  transcription  of 
epigraphic  monuments  in  Italy,  while  Cyriaco  of 
Ancona,  the  earliest  of  scientific  travellers,  travelled 
abroad  under  the  patronage  of  Pope  Nicholas  V., 
for  the  purpose  of  making  collections  in  foreign 
lands. ^  Criticism,  no  doubt  imperfect  but  at  all 
events  earnest,  followed  upon  collection.  Flavio 
Biondo  (1388-1463),  the  Secretary  of  Eugenius  IV., 
described  the  monuments  of  ancient  Rome  in  various 
works  commencing  in  1449.  He  was  followed  by 
Andrea  Fulvio,  the  contemporary  of  Raphael,  and 
somewhat  later  by  Bartolomeo  Marliani.^'  The 
accomplished  Venetian  humanist,  Ermolao  Barbaro, 
Patriarch  of  Aquileia  (1454- 1495),  "unus  ex  reliquiis 
aurei  saeculi,"^  turned  inscriptions  to  account  in 
interpreting  the  classics  and  amending  texts. "^  The 
celebrated  Cardinal  Bembo  (1470- 1547)  formed  a 
museum  in  which  were  several  fragments  of  bronze 
tables  on  which  certain  ancient  laws  were  engfraved 
which    have    been    of   great    service    to    jurists    and 

^  Fiorillo,  Op.  laud..,  i.  126.  Tiraboschi,  Storia  della  LetteraUira 
Italiana,  vi.,  p.  178  sqq.     His  family  name  was  PizzicoUi. 

^  Romae  Topographia,  Romae,  1534,  8vo  ;  and  1544,  folio,  with  wood 
cuts  ;  Basileae,  1550,  fol.,  and  Venetiis,  1588,  fol.  It  has  found  a  place 
in  the  great  Thesmirus  of  Graevius,  vol.  iii.,  p.  54  sqq. 

"^VoXxtx-AW,  Epistolae.,  Lib.  ii.,  Epist.  9,  p.  59,  Amstelod.,  1542,  i2mo  ; 
cf.  Lib.  i.,  Epist.  6;  Lib.  ix.,  Epist.  4  ;  Lib.  v.,  Epist.  i. 

*  His  Castigationes  Plinianae  were  printed  at  Rome,  1492,  fol.,  and  often 
subsequently.  He  was  a  good  Grecian  and  translated  several  portions  of 
the  works  of  Aristotle.  The  story  goes  that,  being  puzzled  by  the  word 
evT€\4x^La,  he  consulted  the  devil  as  to  the  meaning,  and  received  as 
answer,  "  perfectihabia."  Leibnitz,  however,  defends  his  rendering  {Theo- 
dice'e,  par.  i.,  §  87),  and  says  that  he  owed  it  to  good  scholarship  and  not 
to  an  evil  spirit. 


I 


NUMISMATICS  17 

philologists.^  The  first  comprehensive  printed 
Corpus  of  Inscriptions'^  was  the  work  of  two  pro- 
fessors of  Ineolstadt,  the  mathematician  Peter 
Apianus^  and  the  poet  Bartholomew  Amantius,  and 
was  published  in  1534  at  the  expense  of  Raimund 
von  Fugger,  baron  of  Kirchberg.  The  study  of 
coins  was  placed  upon  a  scientific  basis,  and  the 
foundations  of  numismatics  were  laid  by  the  writings 
of  two  learned  Venetians,^  Enea  Vico  and  Sebastian 

^  Tiraboschi,  Op.  land..,  vii.,  pp.  344,  369  ;  Fiorillo,  Op.  laud..,  ii.,  p.  53. 
On  the  Cardinal's  death  they  were  sold  and  dispersed.  One  has  dis- 
appeared, two  are  at  Vienna,  and  the  remainder  in  the  Museo  Borbonico 
at  Naples.     See  C.I.L.,  i.  49-54. 

2  The  first  printed  collection  of  Inscriptions  was  that  of  Desiderio 
Spreti  for  Ravenna  (Venet.,  1489,  4to).  Then  followed  those  of  Konrad 
Peutinger,  the  proprietor  of  the  MS.  of  the  famous  Roman  Itinerary 
known  as  the  Tabula  Peuti7igcria7ia,  for  Augsburg  (Augsb.,  1505,  fol.),  of 
which  a  second  edition  appeared  in  1520  (Mainz,  1520,  fol.),  and  in  the 
same  year  the  collection  of  Johann  Huttich  in  his  work  on  the  Antiquities 
of  Mainz  (1520,  fol.).  Francesco  Albertini  collected  those  for  Rome 
in  his  Mirabilia  Romac,  1520,  4to,  of  which  earlier  editions  had  been 
published  in  1508,  1510,  1515,  and  1519.  It  was  re-edited  by  Schmarsow, 
Heilbronn,  1886,  8vo. 

^  Originally  Bienewitz  which  he  rendered  Apianus,  after  the  fashion  of 
the  time.  He  was  one  of  the  earliest  writers  on  the  methods  of  arithmetic 
by  means  of  the  Arabic  numerals. 

Augustus  de  Morgan  doubts  whether  Apianus  was  the  author  or  only 
the  printer  of  the  Inscriptiones.  The  Biographical  Dictionary  of  the 
Society  for  the  diffusiott  of  useful  Knowledge,  iii.,  s.v.  Apianus.  But  there 
seems  no  foundation  for  the  doubt.  The  name  of  Apianus  appears  on  the 
title  page  as  author  as  well  as  printer.  Both  sign  the  dedication.  See 
also  Dr.  Siegmund  Giinther,  Peter  and  Philipp  Apia?t,  p.  13,  Prag,  1882, 
4to,  in  the  Abhandlungen  der  Konigl.  bohmischen  Gesellschaft  der  IVissen- 
schaften,  vol.  xi.,  6th  series,  1882;  and  note  by  David  Clement  in  his 
Bibliotheque  curieuse,  i.,  p.  402,  Gottingen,  1750,  4to. 

*  Fiorillo,  Geschichte  der  zeichnenden  Kilnste,  ii.  57 ;  Tiraboschi, 
Storia  delta  Letteratura  Italiana.,  vii.,  pp.  1248,  1249. 

The  cabinet  of  Erizzo  was  preserved  in  the  family  of  Capello.  Spon, 
Voyage  d'ltalie,  de  Dahnatie,  &'c.,  i.,  p.  74.     Lyon,  1678. 

B 


1 8  SEALS    AND    GEMS 

Echinus  or  Erizzo,  which  they  gave  to  the  world  in 
1555  and  1559.  In  1601  Abraham  Gorlee  of  Delft 
published  his  Dactyliotheca^  which  for  upwards  of  a 
century  remained  the  standard  authority  upon  rings, 
seals,  and  gems.^  Nearly  every  subject  of  classical 
antiquity  was  treated  more  or  less  exhaustively  by 
various  scholars  during  the  sixteenth  and  seventeenth 
centuries,  and  their  monographs  were  subsequently 
brought  together  and  methodically  arranged  in  the 
portly  volumes  of  Graevius  and  Gronovius,  Sallengre 
and  Polenus,  which  still  remain  cyclopean  monuments 
of  industry  and  learning,  and  indispensable  aids  in 
any  exhaustive  antiquarian  inquiry. 

The  vast  treasures  of  art  which  had  been  re- 
covered in  Italy^  were  gradually  absorbed  into  special 
collections  and  formed  the  foundation  of  the  museums 
of  the  Vatican  and  the  Lateran  at  Rome,  of  the 
museum  of  Florence  and  of  those  of  Vienna,  Dresden, 
Munich,   Paris,   St.  Petersburg,  and   London. 

^  Some  copies  bear  date  1605,  and  others  1609.  James  Gronovius 
prepared  a  new  edition  which  appeared  in  1695  (2  vols.  4to),  and  again  in 
1707.     The  plates  without  the  text  were  published  at  Paris  in  1778. 

2  It  has  been  said  that  the  learned  preface  to  the  Dactyliotheca  was 
written  by  Aelius  Everhard  Vorst,  and  that  Gorlee  was  ignorant  of  the 
Latin  language.  Bayle,  Dictionnaire,  vii.,  p.  158  (ed.  1820).  His  know- 
ledge of  Latin  was  limited,  but  he  had  a  thorough  knowledge  of  his 
subject.  Gassendi,  Vita  Peirescii,  p.  55,  Hag.  Com.,  1655,  4to  ;  Stark, 
Hatidbuch  der  Archdologie  der  Kunsf,  p.  122.  There  seems  to  be  no 
sufficient  foundation  for  depriving  him  of  his  own  preface. 

^  Dr.  John  Bargrave  who  visited  Rome  on  four  occasions  between  1646 
and  1660  mentions  that  statues  of  marble  or  bronze  were  constantly  being 
unearthed,  and  that  "  the  Pope's,  and  every  Cardinal's  and  Prince's 
pallaces  are  nobly  adorned  with  them."  He  himself  made  a  small  collec- 
tion which  he  bequeathed  to  the  Cathedral  library,  Canterbury.  Pope 
Alexander  the  Seventh  ....  by  John  Bargrave,  D.D.,  with  a  Catalogue 
of  Dr.  Bargrav^s  Museum,  p.  115.     The  Camden  Society,  1867,  No.  xcii. 


CHAPTER  III. 

THE   PROGRESS    OF   SCIENCE:    COLLECTIONS   OF 
NATURAL   OBJECTS. 

While  humanism  was  spreading  in  every  land  and 
literature  was  becoming  a  profession,  the  objects  of 
animated  nature  and  the  phenomena  of  the  material 
world  were  beoinninof  to  be  regarded  with  scientific 
interest.  Aristotle  and  Theophrastus,  Pliny  and 
Dioscorides  still  reigned  as  masters  in  natural  history,^ 
but  more  exact  observation  was  correcting  and  ex- 
panding their  statements  and  creating  a  new  science. 
"It  is  not  to  be  esteemed  a  small  matter,"  says 
Bacon,  "that  by  the  voyages  and  travels  of  these 
later  times,  so   much   more   of   nature   has   been   dis- 

^  Gitnther  Christoph  Schelhanimer  (1649-1716),  professor  of  the  practice 
of  medicine  at  Kiel,  a  prodigy  of  learning,  vigorously  defended,  in  the  early 
part  of  the  eighteenth  century,  Aristotle's  opinion  that  all  metals  are  the 
products  of  exhalations.  C.  S.  Scheffel,  Vi'/a  Schelhammeri,  p.  37,  in  ^^ 
G.  C.  Schelhammerum  Epistolae  Selectiores,W\sm2ir,  1727, 8vo.  Aristotle's 
opinion  will  be  found,  Meteorologica,  iii.  7  ;  iv.  8.  Exhalations  are  of 
two  kinds,  fuliginous  and  vaporous  ;  from  the  former  are  generated 
fossils  {opvKTo.)  which  are  of  a  stony  nature,  such  as  ochre,  sulphur, 
vermilion,  and  the  like.  From  vaporous  exhalations  metals  are 
generated. 

In  medicine,  Schelhammer  followed  the  system  of  the  peripatetics  and 
opposed  Van  Helmont,  Descartes,  Sylvius,  and  Stahl, 

19 


20  EARLY    COLLECTIONS 

covered  than  was  known  at  any  former  period.  It 
would,  indeed,  be  disgraceful  to  mankind,  if,  after 
such  tracts  of  the  material  world  have  been  laid 
open  which  were  unknown  in  former  times — so  many- 
seas  traversed — so  many  countries  explored — so  many 
stars  discovered — philosophy,  or  the  intelligible  world, 
should  be  circumscribed  by  the  same  boundaries  as  J 
before."  ' 

The  opening  up  of  the  sea  route  to  India,  the  dis- 
covery of  the  New  World,  the  founding  of  factories 
and  trading  stations  in  the  East  and  West  Indies  and 
on  the  American  continent,  and  the  establishment  of 
missions  by  the  Church  amongst  heathen  nations 
brought  Europeans  into  touch  with  many  remote  lands, 
and  enabled  them  to  become  acquainted  with  their 
natural  productions,  with  the  manufactures,  the  dresses, 
the  tools  and  weapons  of  their  people,  and  a  traffic  in  the 
rarities  and  curiosities  of  Eastern  Asia  soon  sprang  up. 

The  naturalists  of  the  sixteenth  and  seventeenth 
centuries  were  as  unwearied  in  their  search  after 
rocks  and  minerals,  flowers  and  plants,  as  were 
scholars  in  digging  up  antiques.  Collections  of 
natural  objects  became  as  common  as  collections  of 
works  of  art  and  the  two  were  often  included  in 
the  one  repository.  Maistre  Pierre  Borel  of  Castres 
(1614-1671),^  the  biographer  of  Descartes,  who  had 
himself  a  considerable  museum,  published  in  1649 
a  roll  of  the  principal  cabinets  of  curiosities  in  the 
chief  towns  of  Europe  in   alphabetical   order.-      Fol- 

^  The  dates  are  taken  from  the  Notice  of  Maistre  Pierre  Borel  by  Ch. 
Pradel  in  his  edition  of  Les  Atitiquitez  de  Castres. 

^"RooUe  des  Principaux  Cabinets  curieux,  et  autres  choses  remarqu- 


MUSEOGRAPHY  2 1 

lowing  his  example  Dr.  Jacob  Spon  of  Lyons 
(1647- 1 685),  who  too  was  a  collector/  gives  similar 
and  somewhat  extended  lists.^  Philipp  Jakob  Sachse 
von  Lowenheim  of  Breslau  (1627-1672),  another 
collector,^  in  his  very  curious  TajUfxapoXoyia,^  shortly 
describes  all  the  more  important  collections  of  his 
day,  largely  from  personal  inspection  and  appar- 
ently without  any  knowledge  of  Borel's  list.  This 
was  added  to  by  Johann  Daniel  Major  of  Kiel 
(1634-1693),    writing    in     1670;^     Everhard    Werner 

ables  qui  se  voyent  ez  principales  Villes  de  I'Europe.  Redige  par  ordre 
Alphabetique"  in  Les  Antiqnitez,  Raretez  .  .  .  de  la  Ville  et  Co?nte  de 
Castres  d'Albtgeois,  pp.  124-131,  Castres,  1649,  8vo  ;  ed.  Pradel,  pp.  137- 
145.     Paris,  1868,  i2mo. 

^  Discours  sur  une  piece  antiqtie  et  curieuse  du  Cabinet  de  Jacob  Spon. 
Lyon,  1674,  i2mo.  Reference  is  made  to  other  objects  belonging  to  him- 
self in  his  Recherches  curieuses  d'antiquite'.     Lyon,  1683,  4to.    Post,  p.  125. 

2  In  his  Recherche  des  Antiqtiites  et  Curiosites  de  la  Ville  de  Lyon, 
Lyon,  1673,  i2mo,  reprinted  1676  and  1857,  he  gives  lists  of  (i)  Collectors 
in  Lyons,  (2)  Collectors  in  Paris,  and  (3)  Collectors  and  Antiquaries  in 
other  towns  of  Europe.  The  Paris  portion  was  reprinted  at  Paris  in  1866. 
In  his  Voyage  d Italic,  de  Dahiiatie,  &^c.,  he  gives  a  list  of  the  principal 
collections  in  Rome,  i.,  pp.  39  sqq.,  388  sqq.     Lyon,  1678,  i2mo. 

'^  Responsoria  Dissertatio  de  miranda  Lapidum  Natura,  p.  59,  in  Johann 
Daniel  Major's  Dissertatio  Epistolica  de  cancris  et  serpentibus  petrefactis, 
Jenae,  1664,  8vo,  which  is  a  long  epistle  to  Sachse  von  Lowenheim. 

*  TAMMAPOAOriA  sine  Gaimnaroriini,  viilgo  Cancroricm  consideratio, 
pp.  46-53.  Francof.  et  Lipsiae,  1665,  8vo.  Some  correspondence  passed 
between  Sachse  von  Lowenheim  and  Thomas  Bartholin.  See  Bartholin, 
Epistolae  medicinales,  Cent,  iv.,  Epist.  15,  16,  35,  36,  62,  63.  Hag.  Com., 
1740,  i2mo. 

^  See-Farth  7iach  derneuen  Welt  ohtie  Schiff-  und  Segel,  p.  86,  Hamburg, 
1683.  i2mo.  The  first  edition  (Kiel,  1670,  4to)  is  very  inconvenient  for 
reference  from  want  of  pagination.  See  also  the  list  in  his  Unvorgreif- 
fliches  Bedencken  von  Kunst-  und  A'aturalien-Kamjnern  insgemein,  Kiel, 
1674,  fol.,  reprinted  by  Valentini  in  his  Museum  Museorum,  vol.  i., 
Francof.,  1704,  fol. 

As  to  Major,  see  Renauldin,  Les  medicins  numistnatistes,  p.  302  sqq. 
Paris  [1852],  8vo. 


2  2  MUSEOGRAPHY 

Happel  (1647-90)  about  the  same  time  gives  a 
detailed  description  of  a  considerable  number  ;  ^  Sir 
Robert  Sibbald  (1641-1722)  gives  a  short  account 
of  those  known  to  him.-  Daniel  Wilhelm  Moeller 
(1642-17 1 2)  mentions  the  principal  museums  of 
his  time  ;^  Caspar  Friedrich  Einckel,  a  merchant  of 
Hamburg,  (who  wrote  under  the  pseudonym 
Neickelius,)  a  few  years  afterwards,  gives  another 
long  list  which  is  added  to  by  his  editor. 
Johann  Kanold  (1679-1729);'  and  Michael  Bernhard 
Valentini  of  Giessen  enumerates  many  others.^ 
Professor  Beckmann  of  Gottingen  (1739-1811)  treats 
of  "  Collections  of  Natural  Curiosities  "  in  his  History 
of  Inventions  y  Discoveries,  and  Origins,  and  gives  ^  many 

^  Grosseste  Denkwurdigkeitefi  der  Welt,  oder  sogenarmte  Relationes 
Curiosae,  part  iii.,  1 17-139,  Hamburg,  1687,  4to. 

^  Auctarium  Musaei  Balfouriaiii  e  Musaeo  Sibbaldiano,  pp.  i.,  vii., 
Edinburgh,  1697,  i2mo. 

^  Conwientatio  de  Technophysiotafueis,  p.  228  (1704),  in  Koehler,  Sylloge 
aliquot  Scriptorutn  de  bene  ordinanda  et  ornanda  Bibliotheca,  Francof., 
1728,  4to. 

The  Cotmnentatio  as  originally  published  appeared  as  a  Thesis  to  be 
defended,  under  the  presidency  of  Moeller,  by  Friedrich  Sigismund 
Wurffbain  (whose  name  appears  on  other  theses  at  Altdorf  in  1702,  and 
Basle  in  1707),  Dissertatio  de  Technophysiotajneis  .  .  .  quani  .  .  . 
defenders  annitetur  .  .  .  Fridericus  Sigismundus  Wurffbain.  Altdorf, 
1704,  4to. 

'^  Museographia,^.  18  sqq.,"^.  138  sqq.,-^.  181  sqq.,  Leipzig,  1727,  4to. 
As  to  Neickelius,  see  Lesser  in  Hamburgisches  Magazin,  iii.  (1748),  p.  560. 

*  In  the  Musetim  Museorujti,  Appendices  to  vol.  ii.,  Franckfurt,  1714, 
fol.  Several  of  Valentini's  lists  are  taken  from  Edward  Brown,  M.D., 
Durch  Niederland,  Teiitschland,  Hungaren  .  .  .  Reiseti  (Niirnberg, 
1686,  4to),  the  German  version  of  Dr.  Edward  Brown's  Travels  in 
Divers  Parts  of  Europe  (London,  1673,  1679,  4to  ;  1685,  fol.)  ;  and,  as 
mentioned  above,  he  has  reprinted  in  his  first  volume,  p.  19,  J.  D. 
Major's  list  of  1674. 

^  Beytrdge  zur  Geschichte  der  Erfindungen,  Leipzig,  1 780- 1 805, 8vo,  5  vols. ; 


MUSEOGRAPHY  2  3 

curious  particulars  regarding  them  ;  while,  so  far  as 
concerns  German  museums,  Hirsching  (i 762-1800)/ 
Meusel  (1743-1820),^  Klemm  (1802-1867),^  and  the 
Berlin  Handbook  of  Museums'*  bring  down  our  infor- 
mation to  the  present  time.  Johann  Craft  Hiegel  of 
Mainz,  physician  to  the  Elector  of  Treves,  was  amongst 
the  first^  to  give  a  bibliography  of  museums.*^ 

Bd.  ii.,  3'^  Stiick,  p.  364  sqq.,  Leipzig,  1786,  8vo ;  English  translation,  i., 
p.  282  sqq.i  London,  1846,  8vo.  The  translation  has  not  been  made 
from  the  latest  German  edition,  and  lacks  some  of  the  author's  notes. 

^Friedrich  Karl  Gottlob  Hirsching,  Nachrichten  vofi  sehenswiirdigen 
Gemalde-  und  KiipferstichsammlHnge?i,  Afiinz-,  Gemtnen-,  Kuttst-  und 
Naturalienkabineten,  Sammlungen  von  Modellen,  Maschinen,  physikal- 
ischen  und  matliejnatischen  Instrutnenten,  anatoniischen  Prdparaten  und 
botanischen  Garten  in  Teutschland^  nach  alphabetischer  Ordnung  der 
Stddte.     Erlangen,  1786-92,  6  vols.,  8vo. 

^Johann  Georg  Meusel,  " Verzeichniss  sehenswlirdiger  Bibliotheken, 
Kunst-,  Miinz-,  und  Naturalienkabinette  in  Teutschland  und  in  der 
Schweiz,"  in  the  third  volume  of  his  TciitscJies  Kunstlerlexicoti^  2nd  edition, 
Lemgo,  1808-14,  8vo,  3  vols. 

^  Gustav  Klemm,  Ztir  Geschichte  der  Sammlungen  fiir  IVissenschaft 
und  Kunst  in  Deutsckland,  Zerbst,  1837,  8vo. 

*  Kunsthandbuch  fiir  Detitschland,  Berlin,  1897,  8vo,  fifth  edition  by 
Dr.  Ferdinand  Laban,  librarian  of  the  Royal  Museums,  Berlin. 

°  In  his  Museii7n  Hiegelianum,  Confluent,  17 14  4to.  This  is  a  short 
account  of  part  of  his  museum  which,  besides  paintings,  engravings, 
statues,  and  other  works  of  art,  contained  costumes  and  utensils  of  various 
peoples,  physical  and  mathematical  instruments,  and  specimens  of 
Natural  History.  There  is  prefixed  a  selected  list  of  books  in  his 
library,  bearing  on  the  subject  of  the  Catalogue,  which  includes  a  large 
number  of  the  books  then  published  relating  to  museums.  In  an  earlier 
work,  Collectaneoru7H  tiaturae^  artis  et  afitiquitatis  Specitneti  priynuni, 
Mogunt.,  1687,  4to,  .with  5  plates,  he  dealt  with  the  sepulchral  urns  found 
in  the  neighbourhood  of  Mainz. 

Hiegel  is  mentioned  by  Baier,  Sciagraphia  Musei  sui,  p.  21  ;  and 
James  Petiver  {infra,  p.  135)  was  indebted  to  him  for  various  fossils. 

*  Neickelius  in  his  Mtiseographia  also  gives  a  short  bibliography  of 
Museums.  Tiraboschi  Storia  delta  Letteratura  Jtaliana,  vii.,  p.  901 ;  Spon, 
Voyage  dltalie,  de  Daltnatie,  Qr'c.,  p.  i.,  p.  68,  Lyon,  1678,  i2mo. 

Lists   of  works   relating   to    Museums,  particularly  those  of  Natural 


24  EARLY   COLLECTORS 

Amongst  the  early  naturalists  who  had  collections 
of  specimens  of  natural  history  and  other  objects, 
were  Henry  Cornelius  Agrippa  von  Nettesheym 
(1486-1535),  best  known  as  the  author  of  Three 
Books  of  Occuli  Philosophy  and  of  The  Vanity  of 
Sciences  and  Arts  ;  Nicolas  Monardes  of  Seville 
(d.  1578);^  Paracelsus  (1493-1541);  Georg  Agricola 
(properly  Bauer,  1494-1555),^  the  father  of  miner- 
alogy,^   and     whose    writings    induced     the     Elector 

History,  will  be  found  in  Boehmer,  Bibliotheca  Scriptorum  historiae 
naturalis^  i.,  p.  369  sqq.^  Lipsiae,  1785,  8vo ;  Dryander,  Catalogus 
Bibliothecae  Historico-Naturalis  Josephi  Banks,  i.  217,  and  in  various 
parts  of  the  other  volumes,  London,  1796-1800,  8vo,  5  vols. ;  Engelmann, 
Bibliotheca  Historico-Naturalis,  p.  4  sqq.,  Leipzig,  1846  ;  Bibliotheca 
Zoologica,  i.,  p.  3  sqq.,  Leipzig,  1861. 

For  the  literature  of  anatomical  and  pathological  museums,  see 
Index  Catalogue  of  the  Library  of  the  Surgeon  GeneraVs  Office  United 
States  Army,  vol.  ix.,  pp.  581-589,  Washington,  1888;  Catalogue  of  the 
Library  of  the  Royal  Medical  and  Chirurgical  Society,  London,  vol.  ii.,  s.v. 
Museums,  London,  1879. 

^  He  was  the  author  of  various  works  ;  amongst  others,  Simplicitim 
Medicainentortim  ex  Novo  Orbe  delatorum,  quorum  in  Medicina  usus  est, 
Historia  (Antwerp  1579,  and  in  1574),  originally  published  in  Spanish  in 
1565  ;  translated  into  Latin  by  Clusius,  and  into  English  from  the 
Spanish  by  John  Frampton,  a  Spanish  merchant,  and  published  in  1577 
with  woodcuts  ;  Pulteney,  Sketches  of  the  Progress  of  Botany,  i.,  p.  114. 

^The  date  of  his  birth  is  usually  but  erroneously  stated  to  be  1490,  and 
his  family  name  Ackermann  or  Landmann.  See  Herzog  in  Afitthcilungen 
des  Freiberger  Alterthumsvereiiis,  1865,  p.  365,  Freiberg,  1866,  8vo. 

^  "  What  Conrad  Gesner,"  says  Cuvier,  "was  to  zoology,  Agricola  was 
to  mineralogy."  Schelhammer  styles  him  "  Decus  universae  Germaniae, 
deque  re  metallica  optime  meritus,"  Note  on  Conringii,  In  universam 
artein  medicam  Introductio,  p.  287,  Spirae,  1688,  4to.  As  to  his  scientific 
position,  see  G.  H.  Jacobi,  Der  Mineralog  Georgius  Agricola,  und  sein 
Verhdltnis  zur  Wissenschaft  seiner  Zeit,  Werdau,  1889.  A  new  edition 
of  his  works,  edited  by  Lehmann,  appeared  at  Freyberg  as  recently  as 
1 806- 1 81 3,  in  4  vols.,  8vo.  The  De  re  metallica  was  published  at  Basle, 
in  1546,  1556,  1558,  1561,  and  1657,  in  folio;  and  there  were  numerous 
other  editions  and  German  translations  (1557  and  1621). 


EARLY    COLLECTORS  25 

Augustus  of  Saxony  (1552- 1586)  to  form  a  collec- 
tion (Kunst  und  Naturalien  Kammer),  which  has  since 
developed  into  the  various  museums  at  Dresden  ;  ^ 
Valerius  Cordus  (151 5-1544),  the  botanist,  "felicissimus 
indagator  herbarum  antea  ignotarum " ;  Pier  Andrea 
Mattioli  of  Sienna  (i 501- 15 77),  the  commentator 
on  Dioscorides  ;  Jerome  Cardan  (1501-1576)  of 
Milan,  mathematician  and  physician,  still  remem- 
bered in  Scotland  by  his  visit  in  1552  to  the 
unfortunate  John  Hamilton,  abbot  of  Paisley,  then 
Archbishop  of  St.  Andrews  ;  Julius  Caesar  Scaliger 
(1484- 1 5 58),  the  antagonist  of  Cardan;^  Conrad  Gesner 
of  Zurich  (15 16-1565),  the  German  Pliny,^  to  whom 
archaeologists  are  indebted  for  an  account  illustrated 
with  drawings  of  the  various  forms  of  stone  axes 
and  stone  hammers  which  had  come  under  his  obser- 
vation;* Joachim  Camerarius  (in  German  books 
Kammermeister)  of  Nuremberg  (i 534-1 597),  who 
acquired  the  botanical  portion  of  Gesner's  collection.^ 

^  Guide  to  the  Royal  Collections  of  Dresden  translated  by  C.  S.  Fox, 
pp.  71,  119,  Dresden,  1897,  8vo. 

^  He  refers  to  his  museum  as  "  In  nostris  musarum  thesauris,"  De 
Subtilitate,  Exercitatio  112,  p.  422,  Francof.,  1612,  8vo.  See  also  Gassendi, 
Vita  Peirescii,  p.  42,  Hag.  Com.,  1656,  4to. 

^  His  collection  comprised  animals,  plants,  gems,  metals,  and  fossils, 
and  was  open  to  all  his  friends.  Adam,  Vitae  Ger7nanoriijn  Medicorum 
p.  160,  Heidelb.,  1620,  8vo  ;  see  post,  p.  97  ;  Sachse  von  Lowenheim, 
ut  supra,  p.   53  ;   and  Zedler,   Universal  Lexicon,  s.v.  Gesnerus. 

*  De  reriim  fossiliinn,  lapidiun  et  ^etntnarum  Liber,  p.  62  sqq.,  Tiguri, 
1565,  8vo.  The  book  is  somewhat  rare.  Clement,  Bibliotheque 
curieuse,  ix.,  p.  169;  Denis,  Die  Merkwiirdigkeiten  der  garellischen 
Bibliothek,  p.  509,  Wien,  1780,  4to. 

*  Adam,  Op.  laud.,  p.  340.  The  curious  history  of  Gesner's  wood- 
blocks is  given  by  Pulteney,  Sketches  of  the  Progress  of  Botany,  i.,  p.  160, 
London,  1790,  8vo. 


26  EARLY    COLLECTORS 

Pierre  B61on  (15 17-1564),  professor  at  the  College 
of  France,  a  busy  traveller  in  Palestine  and  Egypt, 
Greece  and  Arabia,  and  the  translator  of  Theo- 
phrastus  into  French  ;  Guillaume  Rondelet  (1507- 1566), 
professor  of  medicine  at  Montpellier,  an  accurate 
ichthyologist;^  Leonhardt  Thurneisser  (1530-1596), 
traveller,  chemist,  mineralogist  and  botanist ;  ^  Dr. 
James  Cargill  (d.  1616)  of  Aberdeen;^  Abraham  Ortel 
(i 527-1 598),  the  eminent  geographer  and  antiquary, 
who  assembled  in  his  house  a  collection  of  busts,  statues, 
coins,  shells,  marbles,  and  carapaces  of  tortoises  great 
and  small.*  Andrea  Cesalpini  (15 19-1603)  formed  an 
herbarium  which  is  still  preserved  at  Florence.  Anselm 
de  Boodt  (Latinised  Boetius,  d.  circa  1634)  of  Bruges, 
physician  to  the  Emperor  Rudolph  the  Second,  collected 
rocks,  minerals,  and  fossils,  and  wrote  a  work  on  gems 
and  stones  which  was  for  long  a  standard  authority 
on   the    subject.^     Dissatisfied   with    the    classification 

^ De  historia  Piscium  Libri  xviii.,  Lugd.,  1554,  fol.,  2  vols.,  with  illus- 
trations. Translated  into  French,  Lyon,  1558,  fol.  The  authorship  has 
been  attributed  to  Guillaume  Pelicier,  bishop  of  Montpellier,  but  without 
foundation. 

'^Thurneisser  was  the  first  person  in  Brandenburg  who  formed  a 
collection  of  natural  curiosities,  plants  and  seeds,  shells,  rocks  and 
minerals.  Moehsen  (J. C.  W.),  Beit7dge  ziir  Geschichte  der  Wissenschaften 
itt  der  Mark  Brandenburg,  p.  142,  Berlin,  1783,  4to. 

^  Pulteney,  Op.  laud.,  ii.,  p.  2.     Scottish  N.  and  Q.,  viii.,  p.  164. 

*Melchior  Adam,  Vitae  Germanorum  Philosophorum,  p.  431,  Heidelb., 
1615,  8vo. 

^  Gemmarum  et  lapidtim  Historia,  ii.,  c.  168.  Lugd.  Bat.,  1647,  8vo, 
originally  published,  Hanov.,  1609,  4to. 

There  is  a  French  translation  of  de  Boodt's  work  by  Jean  Bachou,  Le 
parfaict  loaillier  on  Histore  des  Pierreries,  Lyon,  1644,  8vo.  John  de 
Laet's  treatise,  De  gemtnis  et  lapidibus,  p.  103,  Lugd.  Bat.,  1647,  8vo, 
Hanov.,  1609,  4to,  is  a  kind  of  supplement  to  De  Boodt. 


ANSELM    DE    BOODT  2/ 

of  Gesner  he  proposed  another,  which  he  sets  out 
in  two  elaborate  tables.  But  although  he  was  learned 
in  the  predicables  and  could  accurately  distinguish 
between  genius  and  species,  differentia  and  accidens, 
this  did  not  enable  him  to  devise  a  logical  system  of 
mineralogy.  The  science  of  the  time  was  altogether 
inadequate  for  the  purpose.  It  proceeded  mainly  on 
the  external  shapes  of  stones,  and  form  was  made  a 
determining  element  in  classification. 


CHAPTER    IV. 

EARLY   MUSEUM    CATALOGUES. 

One  of  the  earliest  printed  catalogues  of  a  collection 
is  said  to  have  been  by  Samuel  von  Quiccheberg, 
Quiccelberg,  or  Quichelberg,  a  physician  of  Antwerp, 
who  resided  at  Ingolstadt  in  the  middle  part  of  the 
sixteenth  century.^  John  Kentmann  (Latinised  Chent- 
mannus,  15 18-1574),  a  physician  of  Torgau,  formed, 
at  very  considerable  expense,  a  cabinet  of  rocks 
and  minerals  of  1600  specimens,  a  catalogue  of  which, 
based  on  the  system  of  Agricola,  he  sent  to  Gesner 
by  whom  it  was  published  in  1565.^  Another  phy- 
sician, Michele  Mercati  of  San  Miniato  (i  541-1593), 
appointed  keeper  of  the  botanic  garden  of  Pope 
Pius    v.,  was    an    industrious    collector    and    formed 

^His  work  is  entitled  Inscriptiones  vel  tituli  Theatri  amplisswii  cofri- 
plectentis  rerian  universitatis  siiigulas  materias  et  imagines  eximias, 
Munich,  1565,  4to  ;  but  it  was  rather  a  scheme  for  a  general  antiquarian 
and  ethnographical  collection  than  a  catalogue  of  a  particular  museum. 
See  Stark,  Systematik  nnd  Geschichte  der  Archiiologie  der  Kuiist,  p.  151, 
Leipzig,  1880,  8vo  ;  Beckmann,  Beytrdge  zur  Geschichte  der  Erfindungen 
ii.,  pt.  3,  p.  388,  Leipzig,  1786;  English  translation,  i.,  p.  291,  London, 
1846,  Svo.  Klemm,  Geschichte  der  Sammlungen  fiir  Wissenschaft  und 
Kunst  in  Deutschland,  p.  196,  Zerbst,  1837,  8vo.  The  book  is  a  scarce 
one.     There  is  a  copy  in  the  Breslau  University  library. 

'It  is  the  first  piece  in  Gesner's  collection,  De  omni  rerum  fossilium 
genere,  Tiguri,  1 565,  Svo. 

28 


DRESDEN    CATALOGUE  29 

a  museum  at  the  Vatican.^  He  prepared  an  account 
of  its  most  interesting  objects,  which,  although 
well  known  to  scientific  men  and  often  quoted,  re- 
mained in  manuscript  until  17 19,  when  it  was  edited 
by  Monsignor  Lancisi,  with  notes  by  Pietro  Assalti, 
and  published  at  the  expense  of  Pope  Clement  XI.^ 

The  first  collections  for  the  great  museum  of  Dres- 
den were  made  by  the  Elector  Augustus  of  Saxony 
(1553- 1 586),  and  the  year  after  his  death  his  son  and 
successor,  the  Elector  Christian,  caused  an  elaborate 
inventory  of  the  collection  to  be  prepared,  which  is 
still  preserved  in  manuscript  at  Dresden.^ 

One  of  the  first  printed  catalogues  in  English,  if 
we  were  to  rely  upon  title  pages,  is  that  "  of  all  the 
cheifest  Rarities  in  the  Publick  Theater  and  Ana- 
tomie-Hall  of  the  University  of  Leyden  "  which 
bears  to  have  been  published  at  Leyden  in  1591, 
and  is  so  entered  in  the  British  Museum  Catalogue  * 
but  the  date  seems  to  be  a  mistake  for  1691.  It 
is  written  in  Roman  letters  and  apparently  a  C  has 
accidentally  dropped  out.  The  catalogue  was  prepared 
by  Jakob  Voorn,  the  keeper  of  the  collection,  for  the 
use  of  visitors,  and  is  certainly  curious  reading.^     The 

^Tiraboschi,  Storia  delta  Letteratiira  Italiana^xn.,^).  899,  Milano,  1824. 

-Metallotheca,  Romae,  17 17,  fol.  ;  Appendix,  lb.,  17 19,  fol.,  with  plates 
and  portraits,  and  a  life  of  Mercati  by  Monsignor  Majelli. 

Koehler  thought  that  the  MS.  was  lost,  Aniueisung  fiir  Reisende 
gelehrte,  p.  228,  Frankf,  1762. 

^  Klemm,  Geschichte  der  Sammlimgen  fiir  Wissenschaft  und  Kiinst  in 
Deutschland,  p.  166  sqq.,  Zerbst,  1837,  8vo.  Zeitschrift  fiir  Museologie, 
1879,  Nos.  2,  3,  and  4. 

^  Catalogue  of  the  Books  in  the  Library  of  the  British  Museum  .  .  . 
to  the  year  1640,  i.,  p.  343,  London,  1884,  8vo. 

*  Other  editions  of  this  Catalogue  in  English  were  published  at  Leyden 


30  LEYDEN    CATALOGUE 

exhibits  were  not  confined  to  anatomical  subjects  but 
were  very  g'eneral  in  their  character.  Here  are  a 
few  of  them  :  A  Norway  house,  built  of  beams  with- 
out mortar  or  stone ;  shoes  and  sandals  from  Russia, 
Siam,  and  Eg-ypt;  the  skin  of  a  man  dressed  as 
parchment ;  a  drinking  cup  of  the  skull  of  a  Moor 
killed  in  the  beleaguering  of  Haerlem  ;  warlike 
arms  used  in  China ;  Chinese  songs,  Chinese  paper, 
Chinese  books,  and  a  great  many  other  articles 
from  China;  Egyptian  mummies  and  Egyptian  idols; 
several  Roman  coins ;  a  Roman  lamp  which  burns 
always  under  ground  and  another  which  burned 
eternally ;  ^    an    hand   of  a   Meermaide   presented    by 

in  1683  and  1687.  In  1695,  I7ci)  ^7^3,  1707,  1716  the  name  of  Gerard 
Blancken,  who  was  the  next  keeper,  appeared  on  the  title-page.  He 
was  succeeded  by  Francis  Schuyl,  who  was  the  editor  of  an  edition 
pubUshed  in  1719;  and  in  the  edition  of  1753  John  Eysendrach  was  the 
editor.  All  these  editions  are  the  same,  except  that  the  later  ones  contain 
a  few  more  exhibits.  See  also  A  Cotnpleat  Volume  of  tite  Memoirs  for  the  1 
Curious^  i.,  pp.  189,  217,  London,  1710,  4to,  a  reprint  of  volumes  i.  and  ii.  j 
of  the  Monthly  Miscellany,  London,  1707-09,  4to. 

The  same    Catalogue  was  also   published   in    Latin,    Catalogus  anti- 
quaruin   et  novariitn   reriim   ex   longe  dissitis  terrarum   oris,   quarum   \ 
visendarum    copia    Ljigduni   iti  Batavis    in   Anatomia  publica.    Quae   ' 
ita  disposita  et  digesta   omnia   ut  suis   ordine  locis  facile  invenianfur, 
at  Leyden  in  1681  and  1690,  4to,  edited  by  Voorn  ;  and  in  1703  and  1709 
edited  by  Blancken.     The  latter  published  a  French  edition  in  17 13. 

In  1726  Francis  Schuyl,  who  was  then  keeper,  issued  it  with  a  new 
title-page,  Catalogus  rerum  tnemorabilium  quae  in  Theatre  Anatomico 
Academiae  qui  Lugduni  Batavorum  floret  demonstrantur,  Ludg.  Bat., 
1726,  4to.  Schuyl  also  issued  a  French  edition,  Catalogue  de  ce  qu'on 
voit  de  plus  remarquable  dans  la  cha7nbre  de  Fanatomie  publiqu6,  de 
rUniversite  de  la  ville  de  Leide.  Leyden.  1718,  1721,  1735,  4to.  A  Dutch 
version  published  at  Leyden  in  1669,  1690  and  17 10,  4to  ;  and  a  German 
one  is  given  in  Valentini,  Museum  Museorum,  vol.  ii..  Appendix  xv.,  p.  53. 

^  The  belief  that  there  were  such  lamps  was  common  in  the  sixteenth  and 
seventeenth  centuries,  and  many  of  them  were  reported  to  have  been 
found.      See   Peacham,    Valley  of  Varietie,  p.  49  sqq.,   London,    1638,    1 


LEYDEN    MUSEUMS  3  I 

Prince  Mauritz;^  a  mushroom  above  lOO  years  old, 
which  grew  on  the  banks  of  the  Haerlemer  river ; 
a  petrified  toad-stool ;-  a  box  of  very  large  amber 
presented  by  Daniel  Beckler ;  a  thunderbolt  given 
by  Melchior  de  Moncheson  and  a  mallet  or  ham- 
mer that  the  savages  in  New  Yorke  kill  with, 
presented    by    Herman    Broem.^ 

i2mo.  Deusing,  Vindiciae  foetus  extra  uterttm  geniti,  p.  98,  Groning., 
1664,  i2mo.  Fortunio  Liceto  (1577-1657),  an  Italian  physician,  a  man  of 
vast  learning  but  somewhat  credulous,  in  his  book,  De  lucernis  anti- 
quorum  rcconditis  Libri  zV.,  Van.,  162 1,  4to,  Utini,  1653,  fol.,  Patav., 
1662,  fol.,  while  remarking  upon  the  extraordinary  nature  of  the  pheno- 
menon, accepts  it  and  deals  with  it  at  length.  (See  pp.  7,  104,  190  of 
edition  of  1662.)  Montfaucon  has  doubts  on  the  matter.  Antiquity 
Explained,  translated  by  Humphreys,  v.,  p.  140,  London,  1722,  fol. 
They  are  referred  to  in  Hudibras  : 

Love  in  your  heart  as  idly  burns 

As  fire  in  antique  Roman  urns, 

To  warm  the  dead,  and  vainly  light 

Those  only  that  see  nothing  by't. — Part  ii..  Canto  i. ,  309. 

Dr.  Plot  explained  how  lamps  might  burn  perpetually,  or  at  least  for 
a  very  long  period,  by  leading  a  spring  of  petroleum  into  a  suitable 
position  and  burning  it  in  a  wick  of  asbestos  or  gold  wire.  The  Philo- 
sophical Transactio?is,  xiv.,  p.  106 ;  Kirchmaier,  Noctiluca  consta?is, 
Wittenb.,  1676,  4to  ;  Parkinson,  Orgajiic  Remains  of  a  former  World, 
i.,  p.  149,  London,  1804,  4to. 

^  In  the  museum  of  the  Royal  Society  of  London  there  was  "  a  bone 
said  to  be  taken  out  of  a  Maremaid's  head."  Grew,  Mzisaeufn  Regalis 
Societatis,  p.  81,  London,  1681,  fol. 

^  Canon  Bargrave  had  in  his  museum  "  a  fair  large  toadstool  or  mush- 
room, very  weighty,  which  is  not  a  mushroom  petrified,  but  grew  always  a 
stone,  in  this  shape  and  figure."  Catalogue  of  Dr.  Bargrave's  Museum, 
No.  35.  Pope  Alexander  the  Seventh  and  the  College  of  Cardinals,  p.  126, 
1867,  4to.     Camden  Society,  No.  xcii. 

'  As  to  the  Leyden  museum,  see  post,  p.  1 90 ;  Journal  des  voyages  de 
Monsieur  De  Monconys,  Pt.  ii.,  p.  151,  Lyon,  1666;  Hegenitius,  Itiner- 
arium  Frisio-Hollandicum,  p.  61,  Lugd.  Bat.,  1667,  i2mo  ;  Northleigh, 
Topographical  Descriptions,  p.  37,  London,  1702,  8vo ;  Ray,  Travels 
through   the   Low   Countries,   i.,  p.    32,    London,    1738,    8vo  ;    Skippon, 


32  LEYDEN    MUSEUMS 

There  was  a  separate  collection  of  "  curiosities  and 
rarities  to  be  seen  in  the  Gallery  of  the  Garden  of  the 
Academie  of  Leyden,"  and  in  the  Indian  Cabinet  to 
which  the  gallery  led.  The  collection  in  the  Gallery 
consisted  of  natural  history  specimens  and  ethno- 
graphical objects  ;  birds,  fish  and  other  animals  of 
various  kinds,  amongst  them  "  Barnacles  a  sorte  of 
Geese  sayd  to  grow  in  Scotland  on  trees  "  ;  "  cups 
made  of  gourds,  and  pots  out  of  which  the  negroes  in 
Africa  drink  palm  wine";  "an  almanack  used  by  the 
Laplanders";  "an  hunting  pouch  used  by  the  Moores 
on  Guinea" ;  "  bows  and  arrows  used  by  the  negroes"  ; 
"a  Brasilian  weapon  used  in  war";  "stockings  and 
shoes  worn  by  the  Japonners  "  ;  "  the  foot  of  the  Bird 
Cassuaris";  "the  skin  of  a  mermaid";  "a  modell  of 
Muscoviter's  palace";  "paper  money  of  the  siege  of 
Leyden."  ^  This  consisted  of  pieces  of  card  issued 
when  the  town  was  besieged  by  the  Spaniards  in  1574, 

Journey,  in  Churchill,  Collection  of  Voyages,  vi.,  p.  414,  London,  1752, 
fol.  ;  Neickelius,  Museographia,  p.  62,  Leipzig,  1727,  4to;  Brown, 
Travels,  p.  93,  London,  1685,  fol.  ;  Misson,  A  New  Voyage  to  Italy,  \., 
p.  14,  London,  1699,  8vo ;  Wright,  Travels  in  Fraiice,  Italy,  Sr'C.,  ii.,. 
p.  512,  London,  1764,  4to  ;  Memoirs  of  Sir  John  Clerk  of  Pennicuik, 
p.   14,  Edinburgh,  1892. 

1  Curiosities  ajid  Rarities,  to  be  seen  in  the  Gallery  of  the  Garden  of  the 
Academie  of  Leyden,  n.p.,  n.d.,  bound  up  with  Blancken's  Catalogue  of  the 
Rarities  in  the  Anatomie  Hall,  Leyden,  1695,  4to  (Advocates'  Library, 
Edinburgh). 

There  is  another  copy,  circa  1700,  in  the  Rylands  Library,  Manchester, 
and  an  edition  of  1737.  A  Latin  edition  appeared  as  early  as  1659,  Res 
curio sae  <2^  exoticae  quae  in  Ambiilacro  Horii  Acculemiae  Leydensis 
curiositatem  amantibus  offeruntur  Anno  1659,  fol.  ;  often  reprinted  with 
a  slightly  different  title-page,  n.p.,  n.d.,  4to;  and  in  Valentini,  Museum 
Museorum,  vol.  ii..  Appendix  ix.,  p.  21. 

A?t  Index  to  the  Indian  Closset,  which  contains  several  foreign  creatures,. 


LEYDEN    MUSEUMS  33 

bearing  on  the  one  side  Haec  libertatis  ergo,  and  on  the 
other  side  Pugno  pro  patria}  An  EngHsh  catalogue 
of  this  collection  appeared  as  early  as  1665.^ 

The  museum  at  Leyden  is  now  one  of  the  great 
institutions  of  the  world,  remarkable  for  its  Egyptian 
and  Etruscan  antiquities  and  its  fine  ethnographical 
and  natural  history  departments,  which  were  enriched 
a  generation  ago  by  the  remarkable  collections  of 
the  ethnologist  Philipp  Franz  von  Siebold  (1796- 1866), 
an  officer  of  the  Dutch  Embassy  to  Japan.^ 

and  plants  swimming  in  Balsamick  liqiiours  as  if  now  alive.  To  be  seen 
in  the  Garden  of  the  Academy  of  Leyden.     [Leyden]  1688,  4to. 

Register  van't  Indiaanse  Cabinet  .  .  .  zijnde  te  sien  i7i  de  Thiiyn  van 
de  Academie  tot  Leyden,  n.p.,  n.d.,  4to. 

Musaei  Indici  Index,  n.p.,  n.d.,  4to,  several  editions. 

*  Misson,  A  new  Voyage  to  Italy,  i.,  p.  15,  London,  1699,  ^^'O-  This 
money  is  more  fully  described,  Museum    Wormianum,  p.  361. 

^  A  Catalogue  of  the  Rarities  that  are  shown  to  the  Curious,  i7t  the 
University-garden  at  Leyden  in  Holland.  Translated  out  of  Latin.  No 
doubt  that  of  1659,  supra.  This  forms  part  (pp.  72-76)  of  Hubert's 
Catalogue  of  tnany  Natural  Rarities,  London,  1665,  i2mo.  It  is  not  in 
the  edition  of  1664.     Post,  pp.  127,  128. 

^  Leemans,  Het  Rijks  Museum  van  Oudheden  en  het  Rijks  Ethno- 
graphisch  Museum  te  Leiden,  Leiden,  1870  and  again  1877,  8vo  ;  Ver- 
slag  van  den  Directeur  van^s  Rijks  Museum  van  Oudheden  te  Leiden, 
Leiden,  1888,  8vo. 

The  anatomical  museum  was  described  by  Sandifort,  Musaeum  ana- 
tomicum  Academiae  Lugduno-Batavae  descriptum,  Lugd.  Bat.,  1793- 
1835,  fol.,  4  vols. 


CHAPTER    V. 

THE   USE   OF   THE   TERM    MUSEUM. 

Kentmann  terms  his  collection  thesaurus  fossilium, 
and  the  cabinet  in  which  it  was  contained  area 
rerum  fossiliunt.  Gazophylacium^  Cimeliarehium  ^ 
or    its    English    equivalent    "Repository,"^  eimelium,^ 

^  This  was  a  common  and  appropriate  name  for  a  cabinet  of  coins  and 
gems.  It  was  originally  used  of  the  Treasury  of  a  church  ;  and  is  rendered 
in  German,  "  die  Schatzkammer." 

^Thus  Lorenz  Beger  uses  it  of  the  cabinets  of  the  Elector  Palatine 
of  the  Rhine  and  of  the  Elector  of  Brandenburg.  Thesaurus  Branden- 
burgicus  selectus,  sive  gemmarum  et  numistnatum  Graecorutn  in  cim- 
eliarchio  Electorali  Brandendurgico,  elegantiorutn  Series,  commetitario 
illustratae.  Coin.  a.  d.  Spree,  1 696-1 70 1,  fol.  3  vols,  with  engravings.  The 
Catalogue  of  the  Cimeliarehium  of  the  Elector  Palatine  was  published  at 
Heidelberg  in  1685.  We  have  also  Cimeliarehium  seu  Thesaurus  num- 
niorum  .  .  .  Friderici  AugJisti,  D2icis  Wurtembergiae,  Stuttg.,  17 10,  fol. 

^The  museum  of  the  Royal  Society  was  generally  spoken  of  in  its 
earlier  days  as  "the  Repository."  Weld,  History  of  the  Royal  Society,  i., 
pp.  186,  189,  224,  280,  London,  1848,  8vo.  In  the  Act  26  Geo.  II., 
c.  22,  establishing  the  British  Museum,  the  term  "Repository"  is  used. 
The  Museum  is  referred  to  as  a  "Repository"  in  1776,  and  objects  are 
said  to  be  "  reposited"  in  it.     Archaeologia,  ii.,  p.  121. 

Evelyn  speaks  of  "  the  Ceimeliarcha  or  Repository "  in  the  Palazzo 
Vecchio,  Florence,  Diary,  i.,  pp.  106,  224,  London,  1879;  see  also  his 
Numismata,  p.  244,  London,  1697.  Cimeliarcha,  however,  means  the 
keeper,  not  the  repository.  Thus  Edward  Lhuyd,  in  his  Lithophylacii 
Britannici  Ichnographia,  London,  1699,  8vo,  styles  himself,  "Apud 
Oxonienses  Cimeliarcha  Ashmoleanus." 

*  Robert  Ainsworth,  the  Lexicographer,  who  prepared  the  account  of 
John     Kemp's    museum    (London,    1720,    8vo),    terms    it    "cimelium." 

34 


OLD    TERMS    FOR    MUSEUMS  3  5 

KeifXi'iXiou,^  cimeliotheca^  rarotheca^  and  other  terms* 
were  sometimes  used,  but  gradually  the  word  7nuseum 
came  to  be  adopted  as  the  technical  term  for  a  collec- 
tion of  objects  of  art,  of  monuments  of  antiquity  or 

Praef.,  p.  iii.,  and  title-page  of  part  ii.  Nathaniel  Sendel  in  his  work  on 
amber  describes  the  examples  as  "  ex  regiis  Augustorum  Cimeliis 
Dresdae."  Historia  Succinoriim^  Lipsiae,  1742,  fol.  On  the  other 
hand,  Christian  Gottlieb  Ludwig,  when  describing  the  earths  in  the 
same  collection,  styles  it  "  Museum."  Terrae  Musei  Regit  Dresdensts, 
Lipsiae,  1749,  fol. 

^  E.g.  Powell,  Humane  Industry,  p.  51,  London,  1661,  i2mo;  Worm, 
Monumenta  Danica,  pp.  48,  49. 

^  Sachse  a  Lewenheimb,  Responsoria  dissertatio  de  miranda  Lapidum 
nafura,  p.  53,  with  Major,  Dissertatio  epistolica  de  Cancris  et  Serpentibus 
petrefactis,  Jenae,   1664,  8vo. 

^Schelhammer,  note  on  Conringii  In  universam  artem  medicam  Intro- 
ductio,  p.  294,  Spirae,  1688,  4to  ;  Briickmann,  Epistola  Itineraria,  Cent. 
i.,  p.  12,  Wolfenb.,  1728,  4to. 

*Gotfried  Hegenitius  of  Leyden  uses  Texfv/J-o-roipvXdKLov  or  Pinacotheca, 
Itinerarium  Frisio-Hollandicum,  p.  30,  Lugd.  Bat.,  1667,  originally 
published  1630.  Olaf  Bromel  of  Gothenburg  styles  his  collection  a 
Pinacotheca.  Catalogus  generalis  .  .  .  rerum  curiosarum  tarn  arti- 
ficialium  quam  7iaturaliutn  in  Pinacotheca  Olai  Bromelii,  M.D.,  Goth., 
1694,  4to.  Thomas  Bartholin  refers  in  1652  to  the  Copenhagen  museum 
as  "  Technicotheca  Regia."  Historiarum  anatoniicarutn  Rariora,  Cent, 
ii.,  Hist.  61,  Amstel.,  1654,  i2mo.  J0rgen  Hahn,  who  pronounced  a 
funeral  oration  over  Bartholin,  had  a  collection  which  he  styled  "  Phy- 
s'xcoth&cdL,"  Physicotkeca  beati  Doct.  Georgii  Hannaei.     Hafniae,  1699,410. 

Daniel  Wilhelm  Moeller  proposed  the  term  "Technophysiotameium" 
as  the  equivalent  of  the  German  "  Eine  Kunst-  und  Naturalien-Kammer, 
Zimmer  oder  Gemach,"  and  wrote  of  Museums  under  the  title  Com- 
fnentatio  de  Technophysiotameis,  Altorf,  1704;  reprinted  by  Koehler  in 
his  Sylloge  aliquot  Scriptorutn  de  bene  ordinanda  et  ornanda  biblio- 
theca,  Francof.,  1727,  4to.  Friedrich  Christian  Lesser  uses  "  Physiotech- 
notameum"  in  his  Epistola  de  praecipuis  tiaturae  et  artis  curiosis 
specimenibus  Musei  vel  potius  P/iysiotechnotamei  Friderici  Hofftnanni, 
Nordhusae,  1736,  4to.  Sachse  von  Lowenheim  suggested  "Litho-phyto- 
therophylacia"  and  invented  the  word  'E^uTiKoOav/xaTovpyrjfjLaTOTa/jLdov,  under 
which  title  he  describes  the  collection  at  Dresden.     Gammarologia,  p.  50. 

Johann  David  Major  makes  merry  over  this  ten  yards  word,  as  he 
calls    't,   and    explains    that    with    all    its    length   it   is   not   sufficiently 


36  USE    OF    THE    WORD    MUSEUM 

of  specimens  of  natural  history,  mineralogy,  and  the 
like,  and  generally  of  what  were  known  as  "rari- 
ties" and  "curiosities."  In  the  lano-uaQ^e  of  Dr. 
Johnson  a  museum  was  "a  repository  of  learned 
curiosities."^  Occasionally  the  Latin  musaeiifn  was 
rendered  into  English  and  "study"  is  used  as 
the  equivalent.^  Later  the  French  word  cabinet 
came  into  use  with  the  same  meaninof  and  was 
adopted  into  English^  or  translated  by  "  closet  "■*  and 

descriptive,  as  it  omits  artificial  objects,  and  that  it  should  have  been 
^Yi^wnKOT^voBa.vu-o.Tovpy^iw.roTa.^tov.  See  his  Bedenckett  von  Kunst-  und 
Nahir alien- Kamtnern^  p.  5,  in  V'alentini,  Museum  Museorum,  vol.  i., 
Francof.,  1704,  Neickelius,  Museographia,  p.  408  (Leipzig,  1827),  and 
Moeller,  Op.  laud..,  p.  194. 

Major's  own  See-Farth  nach  der  fteuen  Welt  ohne  Schiff  U7id  Segel,  is 
about  the  last  title  that  one  would  consult  on  the  subject  of  museums  ;  and 
the  title  of  Sachse's  Gammarologia,  i.e.  a  Treatise  on  Crabs,  is  not 
more  instructive. 

^Nathan  Bailey,  English  Dictionary  {17 ■^j),  defined  "Museum"  as  "a 
study  or  library  ;  also  a  college  or  publick  place  for  the  resort  of  learned 
men."  "The  Museum,  a  neat  building  in  the  city  of  Oxford,  founded  by 
Elias  Ashmole."  Defoe,  speaking  of  the  same  museum,  calls  it  "the 
museum  or  chamber  of  rarities."  A  Tour  thro'  the  whole  of  Great  Britaitt 
by  a  Gentleinafi,  ii.,  p.  227,  London,  1753,  8vo,  originally  published  in  1725. 

■•'Thus  Evelyn,  when  at  Rome  in  1644,  visited  "  Signor  Angeloni's  study; 
where  with  greater  leysure  we  survey'd  the  rarities,  as  his  cabinets  and 
medaills  especially."  Diary,  i.,  p.  128,  London,  1879.  See  also  Sibbald, 
Auctariutn  Musaei  Balfouriani,  Praef,  Edinb.,  1697. 

^E.g.  the  king's  "  cabinet  of  curiosities,"  Ward,  Lives  of  the  Professors 
of  Gresham  College,  p.  100,  London,  1740,  fol.  ;  "a  cabinet  of  shells," 
Evelyn,  Diary,  ii.,  p.  23,  London,  1879;  "a  paradise  and  cabinet  of 
rarities,"  lb.,  ii.,  p.  270  ;  cf.  ii.,  p.  1 19  ;  "  cabinets  or  collections  of  medals," 
Evelyn,  Numisviata,  p.  199,  London,  1697,  fol.  "  Nothing  can  be 
pleasanter  than  to  see  a  circle  of  these  virtuosos  about  a  cabinet  of 
medals,  descanting  upon  the  value,  rarity,  and  authenticalness  of  the 
several  pieces  that  lie  before  them."  Addison,  "  Dialogues  on  Medals," 
Works,  i.,  p.  340,  London,  181 1. 

*Thus  by  Henley  in  his  translation  of  The  Antiquities  of  Italy,  by 
De  Montfaucon,  pp.  16,  17,  London,   1725,  fol.;  Ashmole  {Diary, y.   126, 


GALLERY  AND  OTHER  TERMS  37 

the  terms  '' galerie^'  "■  chambre','  ''chambre  des  raretes,''^ 
Rarit at  en- cabinet ,  Curiosit'dten-Cabinet  are  also  found."- 

London,  1774)  refers  to  Tradescant's  museum  as  his  "Closet  of 
Curiosities."  "After  dinner,  his  highness  was  pleased  to  call  us  into  his 
closet,  and  show  us  many  curiosities."  Ray  [1663],  Travels  through  the 
Low  Countries^  ii.,  p.  71,  London,  1738,  8vo. 

'All  are  exemplified  in  the  works  of  the  antiquary,  Nicholas  Chevalier, 
a  Huguenot  refugee  in  Holland  : — 
(rt)  Catalogue  des  Medailles  doubles  qui  sont  dans  le  Cabinet  de  Nicholas 

Chevalier  a  Amsterdam.     Amsterdam,  1696,  4to. 
{b)  Catalogue  de  toutes  les  Raretez  qui  se  montrent  dans  la  Chambre  de 

la  Ville  d' Utrecht.     Utrecht,  1707,  4to. 
(^)  Remarques  sur  une  piece  antique  de  Bronze  trouvee  .  .  .  aux  environs 

de  Rome,  .  .  .  avec  une  description  de  la  Chambre  des  Raretez  de 

I'Auteur.     Amsterdam,  1694,  i2mo,  with  12  plates  by  Schoonebecks. 
{d)  Catalogue   de   toutes   les  Raretez   qui   se  montrent  dans  la  Gallerie 

d'Antiquitez  au  dessus  de  la  Bourse  a  Amsterdam.     Amsterdam, 

i2mo.     [n.d.,  circa^  1700.] 
{e)  Description  de  la  piece  d'ambre  gris  que  la  chambre  d'Amsterdam  a 

recue  des  Indes  Orientales,  pesant  182  livres  ;  avec  un  petit  traite 

de  son  origine  et  de  sa  vertu.     Amsterdam,  1700,  4to. 
(/)  Recherches  curieuses  des   Antiquitez   venues   d' Italic,    de   la  Grece, 

d'Egypte   et   trouvees   k    Nimegue,   k   Santen,      .     .     .     que  Ton, 

void  dans  la  gallerie  de  Raretez  de  I'auteur.     Utrecht,  1712,  fol. 
The  greater  part  of  Chevalier's  own  collection  was  purchased  by  the 
Elector  Augustus  of  Saxony  and  transferred  to  Dresden. 

Sir  Andrew  Balfour  uses  Gallery  as  synonymous  with  Museum;  e.g. 
"  Septalie's  Galerie";  ''His  Galerie  of  Curiosities."  Letters.,  p.  245.  It 
was  the  word  in  common  use  in  Italy. 

Bacon  says.  New  Atlantis.,  "we  have  two  very  long  galleries  ;  in  one  of 
these  we  place  patterns  and  samples  of  all  manner  of  the  more  rare  and 
excellent  inventions."     Works.,  ed.  Spedding,  iii.,  p.  165. 

^  The  Germans  used  the  terms  "Raritaten-Cabinet,"  "  Raritaten-  Kammer,'' 
and  "  Kunst- Kammer,"  while  a  particular  collection  was  styled  "  Natural- 
ien-Cabinet,"  "  Miinz-Cabinet,"  "  Mineralien-Cabinet,"  and  so  on.  Speak- 
ing of  the  Elector  of  Saxony  and  his  museum  at  Dresden,  Dr.  Edward 
Brown  says  :  "  But  that  which  affords  greatest  delight  is  his  Kunst- 
Kammer,  Art  Chamber  of  Collection  of  Rareties,  both  of  Art  and  Nature." 
Travels.,  p.  166,  London,  1685,  fol.  There  is  a  corresponding  definition 
in  Zedler,  Universal  Lexicon,  s.v.  "  Kunst- Kammer,"  where  "museum" 
and  "cabinet "  are  given  as  equivalents. 

Brown   mentions   the    "  Chamber   of   Rareties "    of  the    Burgomaster 


38  TERM    MUSEUM    ESTABLISHED 

Museum  was  used  not  only  for  the  collection  but  also 
for  the  place  where  it  was  kept  {conclave  redtcs  rarioribus 
et  pretiosoribtis  sive  nature  sive  arte  elaboratis  servandis 
destinatum) .  From  the  closing  years  of  the  sixteenth 
century  museum  is  constantly  used  in  both  senses.^ 

of  Leipsic.  Travels,^.  172.  In  the  German  version  it  is  "  Raritaten- 
Kammer,"  p.  293,  Niirnberg,  1686.  Neickelius  gives  "Eine  Schatz- 
Raritaten-Naturalien-Kunst-Vernunfft-Kammer,  Zimmer  oder  Gemach." 
Museographia,  p.  409.  In  the  Thesaurus  Ey-tiditionis  Scltolasticae  of 
Basil  Faber,  Francof.,  1749,  fol.,  Kunst-Kammer  and  Gallerie  are  with 
Bilder-gemach  given  as  the  equivalents  of  Pinacotheca. 

"  Material- Kammer"  is  a  collection  of  simples,  or  more  generally  of 
the  substances  used  by  the  druggist. 

^Goltz  uses  museutn  and  nuinismatarchia  for  a  coin  cabinet,  in  the  Dedi- 
cation to  the  Patrons  of  Antiquities  in  his  C.  Ivlivs  Caesar,  Drug.,  1563,  fol. 
In  1569  Enea  Vico  of  Parma  edited  certain  bronze  tables  containing 
Egyptian  hieroglyphics  "  ex  Torquati  Bembi  Museo  "  which  was  reprinted 
at  Venice,  1600,  fol.  Fuiren's  collection  was  a  "  Museum,"  Rariora 
Musaei  Henrici  Fuiren,  AI.D.,  quae  Academiae  regiae  Hafjiiae  legavit, 
publici  juris  facta  a  Thoma  Fuiren,  Hafniae,  1663,  4to.  From  Paris  we 
have  Selecta  Numismata  antiqua  ex  Musaeo  Petri  Seguini,  Paris,  1666,  4to, 
and  Selectiora  Numismata  e  Museo  Francisci  de  Camps,  Lutet.,  1695,  4to- 

In  1692  the  collection  of  coins  and  gems  of  Jacob  de  Wilde  of  Amster- 
dam, and  in  1740  that  of  Baron  de  Grassier  are  styled  ''•  musaeump  See 
Selecta  numismata  aittiqua  ex  musaeo  J acobi  de  Wilde.  Amst.,  1692,  4to. 
Signa  antiqua  e  museo  J.  de  W.,  veterum  poetarum  carminibus  illus- 
trata.  Amst.,  1700,  4to.  Ge7nmae  selectae  antiquae  e  museo  y.  de  W. 
Amst.  1703,  4to.  Descriptio  Gemmaruni  quae  in  museo  G.  Baronis  de 
Grassier  .  .  .  asservatitur.  Leodii,  1740,  4to.  Baron  de  Grassier  also 
collected  coins,  statues,  and  other  antiquities  of  which  he  printed  a 
Catalogue.  Liege,  172 1,  8vo.  The  great  collections  at  Florence  are 
termed  a  Museum  in  1731,  Museu7n  Flore)itinum,  exhibens  insigniora 
Vetustatis  monumenta,  quae  Floreiitiae  sunt  in  Thesauro  Mediceo. 
Florent.,  1731-66.     12  vols.,  fol. 

The  collection  of  gems  and  coins  made  by  Queen  Christina  of  Sweden, 
and  acquired  by  the  Duke  Odescalchi,  was  also  styled  "museum."  See 
Museum  Odescalchutn.  Romae,  175 1,  2  vols.,  fol.  Her  collection  is 
styled  "nummophylacium"  or  "cabinet"  in  Nummophylacium  Reginae 
Christinae,  by  Havercamp.     Latin  and  French.     Hag.  Com.,  1742,  fol. 

The  elder  Scaliger  improves  upon  museum  by  the  phrase  "  Musarum 
thesaurus."     Supra,  p.  25. 


CHAPTER    VI. 

SOME   OLD    EXHIBITS. 

Some  of  the  exhibits  of  the  old  museums — unicorn's 
horn,  giants'  bones,  petrified  toad-stools,  and  the  like — 
strike  us  as  somewhat  extraordinary,  but  they  were 
placed  there  in  accordance  with  the  opinions  and  teach- 
ing of  the  time.  Our  point  of  view  is  so  different  that 
we  are  inclined  to  look  upon  much  of  the  material  of 
the  old  collections  as  rubbish,  and  it  is  apt  to  be  so 
treated  by  keepers  only  interested  in  the  current  views 
of  museum  management,  but  this  is  a  mistake.  Many 
of  these  objects  are  of  much  interest  in  the  history  of 
science,  and  to  the  discussion  and  controversies,  which 
some  of  them  evoked,  we  are  indebted  for  the  science 
of  to-day.  The  illustration  of  the  growth  and  develop- 
ment of  culture  and  civilisation  is  one  of  the  aims  of 
the  modern  museum  ;  and  we  have  rooms  filled  with 
objects,  chronologically  arranged,  to  show  the  progress 
not  only  of  such  things  as  costume,  weapons,  and 
furniture,  but  of  trade  and  navigation  and  the  indus- 
trial arts,  of  geography,  of  education,  of  surgery,  and 
of  physical  research,  but  it  does  not  seem  to  have 
occurred  to  anyone  to  illustrate  in  a  museum  the 
'  i'ory  of  the  idea  of  the  museum,  its  arrangement 
\  39 


40  AN    OLD    MUSEUM    AS    AN    EXHIBIT 

and  contents.  The  nearest  approach  to  this,  so  far  as 
I  can  remember,  is  the  old  apothecary  booth  and 
chemical  laboratory  in  the  German  National  Museum 
at  Nuremberg,  and  another  in  the  Bohemian  National 
Museum  at  Prague.^ 

Some  explanation  of  the  current  opinions  regard- 
ing a  few  of  these  exhibits  may  enable  us  to  under- 
stand why  they  found  a  place  in  the  older  museums 
and  something  of  the  nature  of  these  collections. 

UNICORN    HORN. 

No  museum  of  any  repute  was  considered  complete 
without  one  or  more  specimens  of  unicorn's  horn,'^ 
an  article  which  was  believed  to  possess  wonderful 
virtues,  and  was  much  employed  in  medicine.  It 
was  a  recognised  preservative  against  poisoning,  and 
a  piece  was  placed  in  the  drinking  cup  of  the  King 
of  France  till  almost  the  close  of  the  monarchy.  At 
the  reception  of  Louis  Seigneur  de  la  Gruthuyse,  by 
Edward  IV.  in  England,  in  1472,  the  king  gave  him 
a  golden  cup  with  a  piece  of  unicorn  horn  in  it,  seven 
inches  in  circumference.^  The  Grand  Inquisitor  Tor- 
quemada  always  carried  about  with  him  the  horn  of  a 
unicorn  to  protect  him  against  poison  and  assassins.* 

^  Fiihrer  durch  die  Sammlungen  des  Museums  des  Kbnigreiches 
Bohmen  in  Prag,  p.  70,  Prag,  1897,  i2mo;  Die  Ku7ist-  und  Kultur- 
geschichtlichen  Satmnlungen  des  Germanischen  Museums^  p.  159,  Niirnberg, 
1899,  i2mo. 

This,  however,  is  only  a  reproduction  of  an  old  idea.  There  was  a 
laboratory  and  apothecary's  booth  in  the  Dresden  Museum  in  the  seven- 
teenth century. 

^  See  Leibnitz,  Protogaea,  §  35,  Goetting.,  1749,  4to. 

^  Archaeologia,  xxvi.,  p.  277. 

*  Collin  de  Plancy,  Dictionnaire  des  Reliques,  ii.,  p.  121,  Pari.'        ^f' 


UNICORN    HORN  4  I 

Above  the  drug  cases  in  one  of  the  old  apothecary- 
booths  exhibited  in  the  Prague  Museum — the  Apotheke, 
"Zur  goldenen  Krone" — are  two  conventional  unicorns' 
horns.  Above  one  of  those  in  the  Nuremberg  Museum, 
the  horn  of  a  narwhal — the  sea  unicorn — is  suspended,^ 
reminding  one  of  Shakespeare's  apothecary  : 

in  his  needy  shop  a  tortoise  hung, 
An  alHgator  stuff' d,  and  other  skins 
Of  ill-shap'd  fishes.^ 

The  "  true"  horn  commanded  a  very  high  price.  At 
Rome  as  much  as  90,000  crowns  were  given  for  a 
single  horn.^  The  Republic  of  Venice,  in  1595,  gave 
30,000  ducats  for  another ;  and  Brantome  mentions  a 
nobleman  who  sold  an  estate  for  50,000  crowns,  of 
which  he  took  payment  as  regards  45,000  in  gold  and 
silver,  and  for  the  balance  of  5000  crowns  a  piece  of 
unicorn  horn.*  In  the  Jewel  House  in  the  Tower 
there  were  in  1649,  "  The  unicornes  homes  weighing 
40  lb.  8  oz.,  valued  at  ^600."^  Bankers  and  money- 
lenders often  advanced  large  sums  of  money  upon  no 
other  security  than  the  pledge  of  a  bit  of  this  horn.^ 
The  existence  of  the  horn  was  proof  positive  that  the 

^  Hill,  writing  in  the  middle  of  the  eighteenth  century,  mentions  that 
the  narwhal's  horn  was  "kept  as  an  ornament  to  druggists'  shops." 
History  of  the  Materia  Medica,  p.  842,  London,  1751,  4to.  In  Germany, 
"Einhorn  Apotheke"  is  still  to  be  seen  amongst  the  street  signs. 

"^  Romeo  and  Juliet,  Act  v.  Sc.  i.  See  also  Hudibras,  Part  iii.,  Canto 
ii.,   1074. 

^  Bartholinus,  Historiarton  attatomicaruin  Rariora,  Cent,  iv.,  Hist.  4, 

^    "6,  Hafniae,  1657. 

Goe 

•  ■■    .arousse.  Grand  Didionnaire  miiversel du  xix^  Siecle,  x.,  s.v.  Licorne. 

•y    ;  op.  laud.,  p.  841,  mentions  that   one  of  the  French   kings  had   a 

hisii  valued  at  ^20,000.  ^  Archaeologia,  xv.,  p.  274. 

4^->etius,  Gemmartcm  et  lapidum  Historia,  p.  435,  Lugd.  Bat.,  1647. 


42  THE    EXISTENCE    OF    THE    UNICORN 

unicorn  itself  existed.  "  Some  have  made  doubt,"  says 
Guillim,  "  whether  there  be  any  such  beast  as  this 
or  no.  But  the  great  esteeme  of  his  home  (in  many 
places  to  be  seen)  may  take  away  that  needless  scruple."^ 
Another  old  writer  is  more  precise,  "  Albeit  there  be 
many  horned  beasts  which  may  improperly  be  called 
unicorns,  yet  that  which  is  the  right  unicorn  indeed  is 
like  unto  a  colt  of  two  years  and  a  half  old,  which  hath 
naturally  but  one  horn,  and  that  a  very  rich  one,  which 
groweth  out  of  the  middle  of  his  forehead,  being  a  horn 
of  such  virtue  as  is  no  beasts  horn  besides  ;  which, 
whilst  some  have  gone  about  to  deny,  they  have 
secretly  blinded  the  eyes  of  the  world  from  their  full 
view  of  the  greatness  of  God's  great  works.  "^  Many 
reputable  travellers  reported  that  they  had  seen  it.^ 
Sometimes  it  was  said  to  be  in  India,  at  other  times  in 
South  Africa,  and  latterly  in  West  Africa,*  but  although 
constantly  sought  after,  the  animal  itself  was  never 
brought  to  Europe.      Still  the  horn  was  forthcoming. 

'  A  Display  of  Heraldry,  p.  259,  London,  1660,  fol. 
■•    2  Swan,"  Speculum  Mundi  or  a   Glass  of  the  World,  p.  389,  London, 
1670,  4to. 

The  unicorn  has  appeared  as  one  of  the  supporters  of  the  Royal 
Arms  of  Scotland  since  the  reign  of  James  II L,  and  since  the 
union  of  the  crowns  it  has  occupied  the  same  position  on  the  arms  of 
the  United  Kingdom.  Woodward  and  Burnett,  Heraldry,  British  atid 
Foreign,  pp.  296,  632,  Edinburgh,  1892,  8vo  ;  Nisbet,  Sysievt  of  Heraldry, 
i.,  p.  311,  Edinburgh,  1722,  fol. 

^  Ludovico  di  Varthema  saw  two  live  unicorns  in  the  temple  at 
Mecca.  Travels,  p.  46,  London,  1863,  8vo  (Hakluyt  Society,  vol  -Kyj"  )■ 
Scaliger  founds  upon  this  passage  in  order  to  con^'-^-  P-  ^l.ven- 
Cardan  who  had  doubts  as  to  the  existence  of  the  un  *  I 

De  Subtilitate,  Exercit.  205,  p.  659,  Francof.,  1582.  ^'^W, 

*  Bartholinus,  Historiarum  anato^nicarum  Rariora,  L  °^" 

p.  251,  Amstel,  1654.     Varthema,  Op.  laud.,  p.  47  n.  ^<i 


CAVE-HUNTING  43 

Other  one-horned  animals,  notably  the  rhinoceros  and 
narwhal,  or  Unicornu  Gronlandicum,  as  it  was  termed, 
were  to  be  found  in  plenty,  and  it  was  ascertained 
by  experiment  that  their  horns  possessed  the  same 
qualities  as  those  of  the  "  true "  unicorn,  although 
in  a  less  degree.  Certain  small  differences  existed 
which  could  only  be  detected  by  an  expert,  and  his 
services  were  in  as  much  demand  as  those  of  an 
assayer  at  the  present  time.^ 

Besides  the  horns  of  existing  animals,  fossil  horn 
was  in  request.  This  was  horn  embedded  in  the  earth, 
generally  some  species  of  ivory,-'  and  was  found  prin- 
cipally in  caves.  Cave-hunting  was  in  consequence 
carried  on  in  the  seventeenth  century  almost  as  as- 
siduously as  in  the  nineteenth  ;  the  Baumanshole  at 
Riibeland  in  the  Harz  and  a  cave  at  Scharzfeld  in 
the  duchy  of  Grubenhagen  were  explored,  and  others 
were  opened  up  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Hildesheim, 
and  many  in  Hungary,  Moravia,  Silesia,  Saxony,  and 
elsewhere.^  The  nature  of  these  bones  was  much 
discussed,  and  many  curious  theories  were  propounded. 
The  supposed  skeleton  was  set  up  with  one  prominent 
horn  on  its  head  and  is  fio-ured  in  books.* 

^Museum  Wormianum,  p.  286;  Boetius,  Op.  laud.,  p.  429;  Schroder, 
Pharmacopoeia  Medico-Chymica,  lib.  iii.,  p.  42  ;  lib.  v.,  p.  292. 

'^  Woodward,  An  addi/ion  to  the  Catalogue  of  the  Foreign  and 
Extraneous  Fossils,  p.  13,  London  [1728],  8vo. 

^  Boetius,  Op.  laud.,  p.  425;  Philosophical  Tratisactions,  vi.  (^\bli), 
p.  3016  ;  Briickmann,  Epistolae  Itinerariae,  34,  "JT,  Cent.  i. ;  Valentini, 
Museum  Museorutn,  vol.  ii.,  p.  49;  Leibnitz,  Protogaea,  §§  34,  36,  37, 
Goetting.,  1749,  4to  ;  Parkinson,  Organic  Remains  of  a  former  World, 
iii.,  p.  415  sqq.;  Boehmer,  Bibliotheca  Scriptorum  historiae  naturalis, 
iv.,  2,  p.  355,  Lipsiae,  1789,  8vo  ;  Dryander,  Catalogus  Bibliothecae 
histonco-naturalis  fosephi  Banks,  iv.,  p.  56,  Lond.,  1799,  8vo. 

*  Valentini,  Museum  Museorwn,  i.,  p.  479. 


44  HORN    LOSES    ITS   REPUTATION    %. 

As  time  advanced  the  existence  of  the  unicgrn  itself 
became  matter  of  discussion,^  and  much  labour  wa^ 
expended  in  ascertaining  the  characteristics  of  the 
various  one-horned  animals  that  could  be  ad^ced. 
Ambroise  Pare  (1509- 1590),  the  great  French  sur- 
geon, doubted  whether  there  was  such  an  animal, 
and  disputes  the  virtues  attributed  to  the  horn."  As 
information  accumulated,  and  was  sifted,  the  truth 
was  gradually  arrived  at,  but  by  a  long  and  tedious 
process ;  and  even  yet  there  are  some  who  live  in 
hopes  of  seeing  a  "true"  unicorn,^  Lord  Bacon, 
writing  in  1623,  mentions  that  unicorn  horn  had  lost 
its  reputation  as  a  cordial,^  but  sixty  years  later 
Nehemiah  Grew,  and  the  rest  of  the  Faculty,  still 
believed  in  it  for  producing  perspiration  in  fevers  and 
curing  other  ailments.^ 

^  Boetius,  Op.  laiid.^  p.  429  ;  Bartholinus,  iit  supra;  Museum  Wormi- 
anum,  p.  287. 

^  Discours  asqavoir  de  la  Mumie,  des  Venifis,  de  la  Licorne  et  de  la 
Peste,  Paris,  1582,410.  The  work  is  illustrated  with  curious  woodcuts. 
Reprinted  in  his  Oeuvres  completes.,  by  Malgaigne,  iii.,  p.  492  sqq..,  Paris, 
1 84 1,  8vo.  He  takes  the  same  view  in  his  Chirurgie,  xxi.,  c.  39,  English 
translation,  p.  533,  London,  1649,  fol. 

His  opinions  were  challenged,  and  he  replied  to  the  criticisms  in 
Replique  d Ambroise  Pare  .  .  .  a  la  Response  faicte  contre  son 
Discours  de  la  Licorne.,  Paris,  1584,  4to. 

^  Mr.  G.  Percy  Badger,  writing  in  1863,  is  inclined  to  believe  the 
stories  of  the  old  travellers,  and  that  the  unicorn,  as  they  described  it, 
really  existed.  He  thinks  "that  further  research  in  the  unexplored 
parts  of  Central  Africa,  or  among  the  mountains  of  Tibet,  may  yet 
bring  it  to  light."     Varthema,    Travels.,  p.  48  n.,  London,  1863,  8vo. 

^  Historia  Vitae  et  Mortis.,  p.  188,  London,  1623,  8vo ;  Works,  ii., 
p.  1 56,  ed.  Spedding  ;  see  Hill,  Op.  laud.  ;  Hoffmann,  Clavis  pharma- 
ceutica  Schroderiana,  p.  691,  Hal.  Sax.,  1675,  4to  5  Alston,  Lectures  on 
the  Materia  Medica,  ii.,  pp.   527,  528,  London,  1770,  4to. 

*  Grew,  Musaeum  Regalis  Societatis,  p.  84 ;    Schroder,  Pharmacopoeia 


GIANTS     BONES  45 

Ralph  Thoresby  had  in  his  museum  "a  thin  slice 
of  the  sea-unicorn's  horn,  white  and  solid  ;  the  present 
of  Mrs.  Dorcas  Dyneley,  to  whose  great-grand- 
mother, Frances,  then  daughter-in-law  to  Archbishop 
Parker,  and  after  the  wife  of  Archbishop  Matthews, 
Queen  Elizabeth  gave  this  very  piece. "^  Unicorn  horn, 
veritable  and  substitute,  living  and  fossil  has  a  con- 
siderable literature  full  of  curious  learning.^ 

GIANTS'    BONES. 

The  belief  in  giants  was  universal.  They  were 
mentioned  in  Holy  Writ  and  by  classical  authors. 
Their  bones,  as  already  mentioned,  figured  in  the 
museum  of  Augustus,  and  formed  conspicuous  objects 
in  many  museums  of  the  sixteenth  and  seventeenth 
centuries.^  In  some  instances  they  were  even  passed 
off  as   the  bones   of  saints/     These    were    not    parts 

Medtco-Chytnica,  lib.  iii.,  p.  42,  Ulmae,  1644,  4to  ;    Salmon,  Neiv  London 

Dispensatory,  p.  422,  London,  1696,  8vo. 

^"A   Catalogue   and    Description   of  the    Rarities    in   this    Museum," 

p.  7,  in  Ducatus  Leodiensis,  vol.  ii.,   1816,  fol. 

Rev.  John  Ward  has  a  curious  anecdote  regarding  a  piece  of  unicorn 

horn.  Diary  (1648-79),  p.  171,  London,  1839,  8vo. 

-  Hoffmanni,  Lexicon,  s.v.  "  rhinoceros,"  "  unicornu,"  has  some  interest- 
•  ing  notes  on  the  unicorn.  The  whole  subject  has,  in  recent  times,  been 
I  fully  dealt  with  by  J.  W.  von  Miiller,  Das  Einhorn  vom  geschichtlichen 
'  und  naturalwissenschaftlichen  Siandptinkt,  Stuttgart,  1853.  Reference 
'  may  also  be  made  to  E.  P.  Evans,  Animal  Symbolistn  in  Ecclesiastical 

Architecture,    p.    105    sqq.,   London,    1896  ;     Charles    Gould,    Mythical 

Monsters,  p.   338  sqq.,   London,    1886;   Thomas   Hawkins,  Book  of  the 
j  Great  Sea  Dragons,  London,  1840,  fol. 

I  '"Nullum  fere  Musaeum  giganteis  dentibus  caret,"  Bartholinus, 
'  Historiariini  anat07nicarum  Rariora,  Cent,  i..  Hist.  96,  p.  144,  Amstel., 
i  1654,  i2mo  ;  77^1?  Philosophical  Transactions,  xxii.  (1700),  p.  489.     Major, 

Bevolckertes  Cimbrien,  p.  53  sqq.,  Plon,  1692,  fol. 

*ln    the    Jesuits'    Church    at    Munich    they   had    in    the   seventeenth 

century  "a  vertebra   or  joint   of  the   back-bone  as  big  as  that   of  an 


46  FINDS    OF    GIANTS 

of  the  skeletons  of  ordinary  men,  but  were  bones 
dug  up  from  the  earth  Hke  the  fossil  unicorn 
horn.  The  body  of  Pallas,  son  of  Evander,  was 
reported  to  have  been  found  in  Rome  in  the  time 
of  the  Emperor  Henry  III.  in  104 1  or  1054,  and  was 
of  such  size  that  it  exceeded  the  walls  of  the  city  in 
height.^  Boccaccio,  as  we  have  seen,  mentions  the 
finding  of  a  giant  in  Sicily.  In  1577  another  was 
disinterred  near  Lucerne.  Felix  Plater  (1536- 16 14), 
the  learned  physician  of  Basle,  made  a  drawing  of 
the  skeleton,  which  he  computed  to  be  nineteen  feet 
high,  and  the  Lucernese  adopted  the  giant  for  a 
supporter  of  the  city  arms.^  In  161 3  some  bones  of 
extraordinary  size  were  found  in  Dauphin^,  which  were 
brought  to  Paris  by  a  physician  named  Mazurier  and 
exhibited  as  a  show.  To  attract  visitors  he  issued  a 
pamphlet  descriptive  of  the  bones  in  which  he  attri- 
buted them  to  Teutobochus,  King  of  the  Teutons.^ 
This  opinion  was  adopted  by  Nicholas  Habicot  (1550- 
1604),  a  well-known  surgeon  and  anatomist.  His 
opinion  was  immediately  challenged  by  Jean  Riolan 
(157 7- 1 65 7),  professor  of  anatomy,  in  several  publica- 

elephant  or  some  huge  animal ;  and  this  great  bone,  as  we  were  inform'd, 
is  in  great  veneration  with  them,  as  being  one  of  the  vertebrae  of  the  huge 
St.  Christopher."  Misson,  A  New  Voyage  to  Italy^  i.,  p.  88,  London, 
1699,  8vo  ;  Keysler,  Reisen,  p.  56,  Hannover,  1751,  4to. 

As  to  Giants'  bones  in  churches,  see  supra,  p.  11.  Briickmann 
enumerates  several  other  instances,  Epistolae  Itinerariae,  12,  35,  Cent.  i. 

^Aldrovandi,  Musacum  Meiallicufn,  p.  236,  Bononiae,  1648,  fol.  ; 
Dom  Calmet,  Dictiofinaire  de  la  Bible,  s.v.  Geant,  i.  318,  Paris,  1722, 
fol.;  Martene,   Thesaurus  Anecdotarum,  iii.,  p.  576,  Paris,   1717,  fol. 

'^Platerus,  Observationum.  Libri  tres,  p.  566,  Basil,  1680,  8vo ; 
Bartholinus,  Historiarum  anatotnicarum  Rariora,  Cent,  i..  Hist.  98, 
p.  147,  Amstelod.,  1654,  i2mo.     Infra,  p.  98. 

^  Histoire  veritable  du  g^ant  Teutobochus.     Paris,  161 3,  l2mo. 


TEETH    AND    BONES  47 

tions,  most  of  which  he  issued  anonymously,  and  in 
which  he  personally  attacks  Habicot.^  After  all,  the 
bones,  it  is  said,  were  those  of  a  fossil  salamander. 
Thomas  Bartholin,  the  elder  (i 6 19-1680),  of  Copen- 
hagen, an  excellent  anatomist  and  author  of  a  standard 
work  upon  his  subject,  which  was  translated  into 
English,^  had  no  doubt  at  all  as  to  the  former  existence 
of  giants,  but  on  the  contrary  satisfied  himself  of  the 
fact  by  careful  measurements  of  a  tooth  in  Olaf  Worm's 
museum,  which  proved  that  it  was  in  exact  proportion 
to  the  human  tooth,  and  must  have  belonged  to  another 
Og.^  He  visited  Malta  in  1644,  and  in  his  description 
of  the  island  mentions  that  it  was  formerly  inhabited 
by  giants,  and  that  in  the  museum  of  John  Francis 
Abela  (1582- 165 5),  Vice-Chancellor  and  Commander 
of  the  Knights  of  Malta,  there  were  preserved  the  hip 
bones,  a  tooth,  and  a  rib  of  one  of  them.*  When  the 
remains  of  the  mastodon  were  first  discovered,  near 
Albany,  i  712,  they  were  believed  to  be  bones  of  giants 
and  a  confirmation  of  the  Mosaic  account  of  gigantic 
races  of  men.^     One  would  suppose  that  an  anatomist 

^An  account  of  the  controversy  is  given  by  Habicot  in  his  Anti- 
gigantologie,  ou  contre  discours  de  la  grandeur  des  Geatts.    Paris,  1618,  8vo. 

-  Bartholimis  Anatomy  .  .  .  in  four  books  and  four  tnanuals.  .  . 
published  by  Nich.  Culpeper,  Cent.,  and  Abdiah  Cole,  Doctor  of  Physick. 
London,  1668,  fol. 

^  Historiaru7n  anatomicarum  Rariora,  ut  supra,  p.  144.  Museujn 
IVormianum,  p.  343. 

*  His  account  is  contained  in  a  letter  to  Joseph  Donzelli,  Epistolae 
Medicinales,  Cent,  i.,  Epist.  53,  p.  223,  Hafniae,  1663,  and  again,  Hag. 
Com.,  1740,  i2mo. 

The  remains  of  a  species  of  small  elephant  have  been  found  in  caves  in 
Malta.     Boyd  Davvkins,  Cave  Huttiing,  p.  377.     London,  1874,  8vo. 

*  Letter,  Dr.  Mather  to  Dr.  Woodward,  The  Philosophical  Transactions^ 
vol.  xxix.  (17 1 2),  p.  62. 


48  EXISTENCE    OF    GIANTS    DISPUTED 

should  have  no  difficulty  in  distinguishing  between 
the  bones  of  a  man  and  of  other  animals,  but  Cuvier 
says  that  this  is  not  so,  and  that  there  is  considerable 
resemblance  between  some  of  the  human  bones  and 
those  of  the  elephant.^ 

The  existence  of  giants  was,  however,  disputed  by 
some.  Jan  van  Gorop,  surnamed  Becanus  (1518- 
1572),  physician  to  the  Lady  Mary,  sister  to  the 
Emperor  Charles  the  Fifth,  Queen  of  Hungary  and 
Regent  of  the  Netherlands,  writing  in  1569,  says  that 
the  so-called  giant's  bones  are  bones  of  large  animals, 
not  of  man  ^"^  but  this  heterodox  opinion  was  at  once 
disputed  by  Jean  Chassanion.^  Michael  Mercati,  while 
doubting  the  existence  of  giants,  maintained  that  men 
and  other  animals  were  not  larger  in  former  times 
than  they  are  now.  Some,  he  says,  explained  the 
great  size  of  the  fossil  bones  by  the  suggestion 
that    they   increased   in   size   while   lying   in   the  soil. 

'^  Recherchcs  siir  les  ossefnens  fossiles,  i.,  p.  75,  3"  ed.,  Paris,  1825,  4to. 
Cuvier  has  here  collected  a  vast  amount  of  information  on  the  subject  of 
giants'  bones,  which  is  reproduced  and  abridged  by  Pidgeon,  Fossil 
Remains  of  the  Animal  Kingdom^  p.  41  sqq.^  London,  1836,  8vo  ;  and  by 
Edward  J.  Wood  in  Giatils  and  Dwarfs^  London,  1868,  8vo. 

2  Origines  Antverpianae.  Book  ii.,  entitled  Gigantomachia,  p.  242. 
Antverp.,  1569,  fol.  There  is  a  long  notice  of  this  work  in  Clement, 
Bibliotheque  Curieuse,  ix.,  p.  243. 

Becanus  maintained  that  German  was  the  first  and  most  ancient 
language  m  the  world,  and  assumed  that  it  was  spoken  in  Paradise. 
In  allusion  to  this  Butler  says  that  Sir  Hudibras  knew  all  about  Adam 
and  Eve  and  the  Fall, 

Whether  the  devil  tempted  her 
By  a  High-Dutch  interpreter. 

Hudibras,  Part  i..  Canto,  i.,  180. 
See  Lord  Fountainhall's  Journals,  p.  81,  Edinburgh,  1900. 

^Cassanion,  De  Gigantibus  eorumque  reliquiis.  Basil.,  1580,  i2mo  ; 
Spirae,  1587,  i2mo. 


GIANTS     BONES    THOSE    OF    ELEPHANTS  49 

This  he  denies,  and  holds  that  the  bones  are  produced 
by  the  earth  itself.^  On  the  other  hand,  Nicolas  Steno, 
whose  views  on  the  formation  of  fossils  were  sound, 
was  of  opinion  that  giants  had  existed  and  that  the 
bones  which  were  found  were  their  very  bones  in  a 
fossilised  condition."  In  1696  a  skeleton  was  found 
at  Tonna  in  Gotha,  which  the  physicians,  consulted  by 
the  Duke,  declared  to  be  a  lus7is  naturae.  Tentzel, 
the  Duke's  librarian,  compared  each  bone  separately 
with  those  of  the  elephant,  and  found  that  they  were 
identical.^  Many  other  finds  were  made  in  Germany 
and  in  Italy,  and  it  gradually  came  to  be  accepted  that  the 
bones  were  those  of  elephants  and  not  of  men/  Then 
came  a  difficulty,  how  to  account  for  their  presence,  as 
the  elephant  is  not  a  European  animal.  As  regarded 
Italy,  an  easy  explanation  was  found  in  the  suggestion 

^  Metallotheca,  pp.  325,  326. 

"^  Prodromus  to  a  Dissertation  concerning  Solids  naturally  contained 
within  Solids.  English' d  by  H.  O.  [Henry  Oldenburg],  p.  89,  London, 
167 1,  8vo.     Originally  published  in  Latin  at  Florence,  1669,  4to. 

The  Prodromus  is  an  excellent  discussion  of  present  geological 
doctrines  .—the  deposition  of  horizontal  strata  by  water,  their  dislocation 
by  fire,  gas  or  other  upheaving  force,  the  scooping  out  of  valleys,  and 
the  formation  of  mountains.  The  whole  surface  of  the  earth  has  been 
repeatedly  submerged  and  again  elevated.  Fossils,  he  maintains,  were 
originally  living  organisms  converted  into  stone  by  certain  elements  in 
the  earth.     He  entirely  repudiates  the  doctrine  that  they  grew  in  the  earth. 

^His  account  is  printed  in  the  Philosophical  Transactions,  xix. 
(1695-97),  p.  757.  Separately,  Epistola  de  sceleto  Elephantino  Tonnae 
nuper  effoso,  1'^"  ed.,  Jenae  [1696],  8vo  ;  Briickmann,  Epistola  Itineraria, 
12,  Cent.  i. 

G.  A.  Helwing  {Lithographia  Angerbnrgica,  p.  92,  Regiom.,  17 17) 
mentions  the  frequent  finding  of  large  teeth  attributed  to  giants,  but 
he  did  not  think  that  they  were  such. 

*  Briickmann  devotes  a  letter  to  the  subject,  Epistola  Itineraria, 
12,  Cent.  i.  See  also  Epistolae  5,  11,  34,  35,  36,  55,  56,  61,  Cent.  i.  ; 
Keysler,  Rdsen,  pp.  96  sqq.,  Hannover,  1751,  4to,  ist  ed.,  1740,  4to. 


50  ANATOMY  OF  THE  ELEPHANT 

that  the  bones  were  those  of  elephants  brought  by  the 
Carthaginians  or  the  Romans.  As  this  could  not  apply 
to  Germany,  it  was  necessary  to  fall  back  upon  an 
elephant  sent  to  Charlemagne  by  the  Caliph  Haroun- 
al-Raschid,  which  had  to  do  duty  for  scientists  in 
all  parts  of  the  country.  The  difficulty  as  regarded 
England  w^as  still  greater.  Some  thought  that  the 
Emperor  Claudius  might  have  brought  an  elephant  with 
him,  and  that  it  died  here.  But  this  supposition,  being 
unsupported  by  evidence,  was  rejected.  A  live  elephant 
was  shown  at  Oxford  in  1676,  when  Dr.  Robert  Plot, 
afterwards  the  keeper  of  the  Ashmolean  Museum,  took 
the  opportunity  of  comparing  its  teeth  with  one  of  the 
fossil  grinders,  and  finding  that  they  differed,  triumph- 
antly decided  in  favour  of  giants.^  The  first  complete 
account  of  the  anatomy  of  the  elephant  was  by  Mr. 
Patrick  Blair,  the  botanist,  then  a  surgeon  in  Dundee, 
who  dissected  and  set  up  one  which  died  near  that  place 
in  1706.  His  account  occupies  no  less  than  116  pages 
of  the  Philosophical  Transactions.  The  drawings  were 
made  by  Mr.  Blair  and  engraved  in  Dundee  by  Gilbert 
Oram.^ 

MUMMY.3 

In  old  times  Egyptian  mummies  were  to  be  come 
by  only  with  difficulty,  and  were  rarely  to  be  found 
in  Europe.  When  one  was  obtained  for  a  museum, 
it   formed  a  prominent   object   in   the   collection,   and 

^  The  Natural  History  of  Oxfordshire^  p.  136,  London,  1705,  fol. 

"^  The  Philosophical  Transactions,  xxvii.  (1710-12),  p.  53  sqq.\  xxx. 
(1717-T9),  p.  385  ;  and  separately,  Osteographia  ElepJtantitia,  1713,  4to. 

An  account  of  Dr.  Patrick  Blair  will  be  found  in  Pulteney,  Sketches  of 
the  Progress  of  Botany,  ii.,  p.  134. 

3  Kundmann,  Promtuarium,  p.  120,  Vratislav.,  1726,  4to. 


MUMMY  5  I 

became  the  subject  of  elaborate  description/  Father 
Montfaucon  figrures  several  ;  one  of  them  had  been 
brought  to  Paris  in  1692  ;  two  of  the  others  were  in 
Father  Kircher's  museum  at  Rome.  The  town  of 
Leipsic  purchased  one  in  1693,  which  was  placed  in 
the  town  library,  and  an  account  of  it  occupies  nearly 
four  columns  of  Zedler's  Lexicon.  The  Jesuits  of 
Presburg  had  one  in  their  Pharmacy  (Apotheke),  which 
was  believed  to  be  that  of  Cleopatra.'  There  was  one 
in  the  Copenhagen  Museum,  one  in  the  Gottorp 
Museum,  and  others  in  those  of  Tobias  Reymers  of 
Luneburg^  and  Robert  Hubert  of  London.*  In  the 
Leyden  Museum  they  had  "  The  Mumie  of  an 
Egyptian  Prince  about  1800  years  old,"  and  "The 
Mumie  of  an  Egyptian  Princes  above  13CXD  yeares  old." 
The  Royal  Society  of  London  had  a  mummy  taken 
from  the  Royal  Pyramids,  and  presented  by  the  Duke 
of  Norfolk.^  It  was  unrolled,  and  various  experiments 
were  made  with  the  body,  which  enabled  Dr.  Grew  to 
advance  certain  opinions  regarding  the  method  of  em- 
balming practised  by  the  Egyptians,  but  everything 
concerning  the  personality  of  the  mummy  remained  a 
mystery.  Information  regarding  ancient  Egypt  and 
her  people   was   principally   derived   from    Herodotus 

^Zedler,  Universal  Lexuo?t,  s.v.  "  Mumie."  The  Leipsic  mummy  is  de- 
scribed and  figured  by  Bruckmann,  Epistola  Itineraria,  1 3,  Cent,  iii.,  p.  1 35. 

-Antiquity  Explained^  translated  by  Humphreys,  v.,  p.  121,  London, 
1722,  fol. 

^  Valentini,  Museum  Museorum,  vol.  ii..  Appendix  x.,  p.  26. 

*  A  Catalogue  of  many  Natural  Rarities,  with  great  industry,  cost,  and 
thirty  years'  travel  in  Foraign  Countries,  Collected  by  Robert  Hubert,  alias 
Forges,  Gent.,  and  sworn  servant  to  His  Majesty,  p.  i,  London,  1665,  i2mo. 

*  This  was  a  famous  specimen,  and  is  referred  to  by  Valentini,  Museu)n 
Museorum,  i.,  p.  418. 


52  MEDICINAL    USE   OF    MUMMY 

and  Diodorus  Siculus,  and  abounded  in  the  marvel- 
lous ;  while  the  writing,  with  which  mummy  cases  and 
wrappers  were  covered,  had  long  baffled  all  the  attempts 
of  scholars  to  interpret  it,  so  that  a  mummy  was  in 
truth  a  curiosity. 

Embalmed  bodies  were  found  to  be  endowed  with 
extraordinary  virtues.  Francis  I.  always  carried  about 
with  him  a  little  packet  containing  some  mummy 
mixed  with  pulverized  rhubarb,  ready  to  take  upon 
receiving  any  injury  from  a  fall  or  other  accident  that 
might  happen  to  him.^  According  to  Cardan,  mummy 
was  a  most  valuable  medicine  for  staunching  blood, 
and  for  healing  fractures  and  bruises,^  an  opinion 
which  has  the  support  of  Robert  Boyle  and  Lord 
Bacon. ^  "  Mummy,"  says  Ole  Worm,  "is  of  great 
use  for  contusions,  dissolves  clotted  blood,  assists 
labour,  relieves  spasms  and  convulsions,  and  cures 
all  wounds,  external  and  internal,  ulcerations,  and 
other  ailments  of  that  kind."^  This  was  disputed  by 
Ambroise  Pare  ^  and  others,  but  it  was  the  current 
opinion  of  the  time.  Mummy  accordingly  formed  an 
important  item  of  the  Materia  Medica,  and  was  to 
be  found  in  every  apothecary's  shop,  and  appears  in 

^  Belon,  ObsenuitioTis  de  phtsieiirs  Singularitez  et  Choses  memorables, 
p.  261 ;  quoted  by  Pettigrew,  A  History  of  Egyptian  Mummies,  p.  9, 
London,  1834,  4to. 

^ De  Subtilitate,  lib.  xviii.,  p.  645,  Lugduni,  1580,  8vo. 

^  Sylva  Sylvarum,  Cent,  x.,  §  980;   Works,  ii.,  p.  665,  ed.  Spedding. 

"^Museum  Wormianutn,  p.  344,  Lugd.  Bat.,  1655,  fol.  ;  see  further, 
Aldrovandi,  Musaeum  Metallicujn,  p.  403  ;  Zedler,  Universal  Lexicon,  s.v. 
'•  Mumie." 

^  Discours,  supra,  p.  44  ;  Oeuvres,  iii.,  p.  468  ;  Chirurgie,  ii.,  c.  7, 
Oeuvres,  ii.,  p.  202  ;  English  translation,  p.  332,  London,  1649,  fol. 


FRAGMENTS    OF    MUMMY  5  3 

the  Scottish  Customs  Tariff  of  1612,^  The  mummy  of 
commerce  was  of  various  colours.  Pierre  Pomet  of 
Rouen  (1658- 1699),  chief  druggist  to  the  Grand  Roi, 
recommends  one  to  choose  what  is  of  black  colour. 
"This  is  reckon'd  proper  for  contusions  and  to  hinder 
the  blood  from  coagulating  in  the  body;  but  its  greatest 
use  is  catching  fish."-' 

Although  all  museums  could  not  attain  to  an  entire 
mummy,  nearly  every  one  had  one  or  more  fragments. 
Thus,  besides  the  whole  mummies  in  the  Leyden  collec- 
tion, they  had  "The  head  and  foot  of  a  Mumie,"  "The 
cheek-bone  of  a  Mumie,"  "The  arme  of  an  Egyptian 
Mumie."    In  the  old  pharmacy  in  the  German  National 
Museum    at    Nuremberg    there    is   a    piece    of    black 
mummy    amongst    the    assortment    of   drugs.       Franz 
Ernst  Briickmann  of  Wolfenblittel  had  the  whole  left 
I  foot  of  an  Egyptian  mummy,  with  all  the  toes;'^   and 
Jakob  von  Melle  of  Liibeck  had  a  bit  in  his  cabinet, 
I  which  is  still  preserved  in  the  town  museum.^     There 
i  was  another  fragment   in   the    Balfour   Museum,    pre- 
i  sented  by  Sir   Robert   Sibbald   to   the    University   of 
'  Edinburgh.^ 

I       But  while  mummified  portions  of  human  bodies  were 
always  obtainable  for  pharmacies  or  museums,  it  is  to 

^Ledger  of  Andretu  Halyburto7i^  p.  301,  Edinburgh,  1867  (Lord  Clerk 
Register  Series). 

-  Histoire  getterale  des  Drogues,  Paris,  1694,  fol.,  English  translation, 
ii.,  p.  229,  London,  1712,  4to.  The  copy  of  this  translation  in  the  British 
Museum  bears  on  the  title-page  the  autograph  "  James  Petiver,  S.R.S." 
'Stt  post,  p.  135. 

^  Epistola  Itineraria,  58,  Cent,  i.,  Wolffenb.,  1737,  4to. 

^Festschrift  zur  XXVIII.  Versammlung  dcr  deutschen  anthropologi- 
schen  Gesellschaft,  p.  16,  Liibeck,  August,  1897. 

^  Auctarium  Musaei  Balfourtani,  p.  32. 


54  ARTIFICIAL    MUMMY 

be  feared  that  very  few  of  them  were  parts  of  em- 
balmed bodies.  "All  the  kinds  of  Mummy  are  brought 
from  yEgypt,  but  we  are  not  to  imagine  that  any  body 
breaks  up  the  real  /Egyptian  Mummies  to  sell  to  the 
druggists,  as  they  make  so  much  better  a  market  for 
them  in  Europe  whole,  when  they  can  contrive  to  get 
them.  What  our  druggists  are  supply 'd  with  is  the 
flesh  of  executed  criminals,  or  of  any  other  bodies  the 
Jews  can  get,  who  fill  them  with  common  bitumen,  so 
plentiful  in  that  part  of  the  world  ;  and  adding  a  little 
aloes,  and  two  or  three  other  cheap  ingredients,  send 
them  to  be  baked  in  an  oven  till  the  juices  are  ex- 
haled, and  the  embalming  matter  has  penetrated  so 
thoroughly,  that  the  flesh  will  keep,  and  bear  trans- 
porting into  Europe."^  Fortunately,  just  as  the  horn  of 
the  narwhal  was  found  to  possess  all  the  qualities  of 
the  "  true "  unicorn,  so  artificial  mummy  was  found 
to  be  quite  as  efficacious  as  the  genuine  article. 

Dr.  John  Schroder  (1600- 1664),  whose  Pha7'ma- 
copoeia  was  for  more  than  a  century  a  standard 
authority  on  the  simples,'^  advocates  the  use  of  artificial 
mummy  as  being  fully  as  good  in  all  respects  as  the 
best  Egyptian,  provided  it  be  properly  prepared.  The 
coarse  work  of  the  Jew  dealers  was  not  in  much 
esteem  ;  but  a  receipt  for  the  preparation  of  the  arti- 
ficial article  by  Oswald  Croll  was  highly  recommended. 
From  this  were  prepared  tincture  of  mummy,  elixir  of 
mummy,   and   balsam   of  mummy.       The   latter    "has 

^  Hill,  History  of  tJie  Materia  Medica,  p.  875,  London,  175 1,  410; 
Alston,  Lectures  on  the  Materia  Medica,  ii.,  p.  543,  London,  1770,  4to  ; 
Zedler,  Op.  laud. ;  Valentini,  Museum  Museortim,  vol.  ii..  Appendix  xxi., 
p.  83 ;  Pettigrew,  A  History  0/ Egyptian  Mummies,  p.  8,  London,  1834, 4to. 

2  Alston,  Op.  laud.,  i.,  p.  24. 


HUMAN    SKULL  5  5 

such  piercing  qualities,  that  it  pierceth  all  parts, 
restores  wasted  limbs,  consumptions,  heckticks,  and 
cures  all  ulcers  and  corruptions."^ 

HU-%LA.\    SKULL. 

A  collection  of  human  skulls  is  one  of  the  features 
of  a  modern  anthropological  museum ;  but  although 
skulls  were  to  be  found  in  the  old  museums,  they  were 
not  exhibited  for  anthropological  purposes,  but  as 
common  simples  of  the  Pharmacopoeia.  A  man's  skull 
was  a  specific  in  the  cure  of  most  diseases  of  the  head, 
and  was  administered  as  a  magistery  and  in  various 
other  forms. ^  Human  brains  again,  either  in  the  form 
of  a  spirit  or  an  oil,  was  a  noble  anti-epileptic. 
Nehemiah  Grew  catalogues  two  skulls  in  the  Royal 
Society's  museum  amongst  "  Human  Rarities,"^  The 
one  was,  "A  human  skull  that  was  never  buried. 
Whereof  there  are  several  medicines  prepar'd,  as 
Cranium  htimamiin  praeparatum,  Cra^imm  humatium 
calcinatuTn,  Cra^iii  huniani  magistermm,  Spiritus 
essentificatus,  Oleum,  Sal  volatile,  Ti?ictura,  Galreda, 
i.e.  Extractum  cranii  Theophrasti.  But  the  Cranium 
praeparatitm  and  the  spirit  are  the  most,  and  most 
deservedly,  in  use."       Directions  for   the   preparation 

^Salmon,  New  London  Dispensatory,  pp.  194,  195,  London,  1696,  8vo  ; 
Schroder,  Pharmacopoeia  Medico-Chymica,  lib.  v.,  p.  277,  Ulmae,  1644, 
4to;  Hoffmann,  Clavis  Pharmaceutica  Schrbderiana,  p.  673,  Hal.  Sax., 
1675,  4to. 

^Salmon,  Op.  laud.,  p.  195;  Daniel  Beckher  (1594-1655;,  Professor  at 
Konigsberg,  wrote  Medicus  Microcosmus,  sive,  Spagyria  Microcosmi, 
tradens  Medicinatn  e  corpore  Hominis,  turn  vivo,  turn  extincto,  docte 
eruendam,  scite  praeparandam  et  dextre  propinandam,  Rostochii,  1622, 
8vo;  Lugd.  Bat,  1633,  4to;  Lond.,  1660,  i2mo,  in  which  this  and  similar 
subjects  are  discussed. 

^Grew,  Musaeum  Societatis  Regalis,  p.  6,  London,  1681,  fol. 


56  USNEA 

and  use  of  all  these  and  many  others  are  given  in 
the  Neiv  London  Dispensatory^  In  the  Balfour 
Museum,  presented  by  Sir  Robert  Sibbald  to  the 
University  of  Edinburgh,  there  was  a  similar  skull. ^ 
Another  was  "A  humane  skull  cover'd  all  over  with 
moss,  by  the  Paracelsians  called  usnea.  This  moss  is 
by  them  commended  by  its  peculiar  virtue  in  stopping 
of  bleeding  at  the  nose."  In  consequence  of  a  schism 
in  the  sympathetical  school  of  curers,  a  serious  discus- 
sion was  long  maintained  "Whether  it  was  necessary 
that  the  moss  should  grow  absolutely  on  the  skull  of  a 
thief  who  had  hung  on  the  gallows?"^  The  general 
opinion  was  that  the  virtues  attributed  to  skulls  be- 
longed only  to  those  which  had  never  been  buried, 
and  particularly  of  persons  who  had  died  violent 
deaths,  and  had  lain  some  time  on  the  ground,  or 
hung  on  the  gibbet  or  the  like.  The  skulls  of  com- 
merce were  generally  those  of  criminals,  and  in  the 
old  days  of  hanging  there  was  always  a  plentiful 
supply.  French  writers  love  to  give  colour  to  tl 
subject,  and  Pierre  Pomet,  when  treating  of  skulls, 
says,  "  The  English  druggists  generally  bring  these 
heads  from  Ireland,  that  country  having  been  remark- 
able for  them  ever  since  the  Irish  massacre."*     About 

^  Salmon,  Neiv  London  Dispensatory,  p.  195  ;  Schroder,  Pharmacopoeia 
Medtco-Chytnica,  lib.  v.,  p.  280  ;  Hoffmann,  Op.  laud.,  p.  676. 

2  Sibbald,   Auctarium  Musaei  Balfouriatii,  p.    197,  Edinburgh,    1697,        1 
i2mo.    There  was  one  in  the  Anatomy  School  at  Oxford.     Fountainhall,       ] 
Journals,   p.    170,    Edinburgh,    1900;    see   also   Museum    Wormianitm, 
p.  344  ;  Salmon,  Op.  laud.,  p.  79  ;  Robert  Boyle,    Works,  ii.,  p.  177  ;  iv., 
767,  London,  1772,  4to. 

^Pettigrew,  Superstitions  comiected  with  the  History  atid  Practice  of 
Medicine  and  Surgery,  p.  162,  London,  1844,  8vo. 

*  Pomet,  Op.  laud.,  English  translation,  p.  229  ;  Boyle,  ut  supra. 


HUMAN    SKIN  57 

the  same  time  it  was  said  that  the  Germans  got  their 
supply  from  the  last  Turkish  war.^ 

HUMAN  SKIN. 

The  seat  on  which  the  Persian  judges  sat  was 
covered  with  the  skin  of  their  unjust  predecessor,  with 
the  inscription,  "  Remember  whereon  thou  sittest." 
Amongst  European  nations  the  skin  of  an  enemy  or 
of  a  notorious  criminal  was  often  tanned  and  preserved 
out  of  revenge  or  as  a  terror  to  others.  In  many  old 
collections  pieces  of  tanned  human  skin  were  to  be 
seen,"  but  these  were  placed  there  not  as  ethno- 
graphical objects,  but  as  specimens  of  officinal  pre- 
parations, as  this  material  was  said  to  be  possessed 
of  many  virtues.  "  Celebres  sunt  corii  humani 
praeparati  in  medicina  usus."^  A  belt  of  human  skin 
was  used  as  a  remedy  for  hysteria,  and  was  found 
to  be  useful  in  spasms  of  the  hands  and  feet.*  A 
bandao^e  round  the  wrist  checked  convulsions,  and  a 
thong  round  the  neck  cured  a  paroxysm  of  epilepsy.^ 

The  origin  of  this  strange  belief  is  illustrated  by 
the  practice  of  uncivilised  people  of  the  present  day. 
Some  of  the  aborigines  of  Queensland  carefully  flay 
their    slain     foes,    and    preserve    the    skin    with    the 

■' Valentini,  Museum  Museorujii,  i.,  p.  419. 
2  E.g.  in  the  Anatomy  Hall  of  Leyden. 

^  Bartholinus,  Historiariim  anatomicarinn  Rariora,  Cent,  iii.,  Hist.  87, 
p.  177,  Amstelod.,  1654. 

*  Rattray,  Aditus  itoviis.,  p.  25,  Glasguae,  1658,  i2mo  ;  Schroder,  Op. 
laud.,  lib.  v.,  p.  279  ;  Hoffmann,  Op.  laud.,  p.  679.  Briickmann  disputes 
this,  Epistola  Itineraria,  1 7,  Cent.  i. 

*  Bartholinus,  Op.  laud.  As  the  tanning  of  human  skin  was  a  disagreeable 
and  somewhat  difficult  art,  Bartholin  gives  directions  how  it  is  to  be  done. 


58  STAGS    HORNS 

hairy  scalp  and  even  the  finger  nails  attached.  They 
look  upon  it  as  a  powerful  medicine,  and  cover  their 
patients  with  it  as  with  a  blanket.^  In  some  parts  of 
Africa  the  natives  cover  their  idols  with  human  skin. 

THE  STAG  AND  THE  ELK. 

Hartshorn  (the  antlers  of  the  cervus  elephas)  is  a 
familiar  term  in  pharmacy,  and  oil  of  hartshorn,  spirits 
of  hartshorn,  and  the  like  are  still  ordinary  domestic 
remedies  ;  but  in  old  days  so  many  medicines  were 
compounded  from  various  parts  of  the  stag  that  they 
formed  the  subject  of  entire  volumes, ^  and  inspired 
a  poem.^  The  animal  itself  was  described  as  "a 
world  of  remedies,  of  commodities  and  advantages,  for 
men."  The  horn  that  was  most  in  repute  was  that  of 
the  red  deer,  the  eXetpa?  of  the  Greeks,  but,  as  it  was 
scarce  in  England,  the  horn  of  the  fallow  deer  was 
used  instead.  The  old  Schloss  Merlan  at  Grumberg 
in  Hesse-Darmstadt  was  so  set  out  with  rare,  cu  ,, 
and  valuable  stag-horns  of  all  descriptions  as  to  be  in 
itself  a  museum.*  In  the  Dresden  Museum  there  were 
various  stag-horns  and  preparations  from  stags,^  and 
in  the  Court  Pharmacy  there  were  fifty-one  of  such 
preparations,*^  a  selection  from   which   was    presented 

^  Frazer's  Paiisanias,  ii.,  p.  477,  who  refers  to  Fison  and  Howitt, 
Kamilarot  and  Kurnai,  p.  223,  Melbourne,  1880,  8vo. 

2  Boehmer,  Bibliotheca  Scriptorutn  historiae  naturalis^  ii.,  2,  pp.  360-7. 

^  Balduin  Ronsseus,  Venatio  Aledica,  Lugd.  Bat,  1584  and  1589,  8vo  ; 
and  in  his  Opuscula  Medica,  Lugd.  Bat.,  161 8  and  1654,  8vo. 

■*  Valentini,  Aluseum  Museoritm^  i.,  p.  430.  There  is  a  large  collection 
at  the  present  day  in  the  Schloss  Erbach  in  the  Odenwald. 

^  Beutel,  Cedern-Wald,  Dresden,  1671,  4to ;  Happel,  Relationes 
Curiosae,  iii.,  p.  121,  Hamburg,  1687,  4to. 

"Happel,  Op.  laud.,  iii.,  pp.  121,  122. 


MEDICINAL    USE  59 

by  the  Elector  John  George  II.  (1656-1680)  to  the 
Grand  Duke  of  Tuscany.^ 

Stag's  horn  was  esteemed  of  great  use  in  cases  of 
poisoning  and  of  malignant  diseases.  Snakes,  it  was 
said,  would  not  touch  a  person  clad  in  deer-skin. 
The  smell  of  burnt  horn  drove  away  serpents  and 
gnats.  Venison  was  a  specific  for  fevers.  A  stag 
could  not  only  swallow  a  snake  with  impunity,  but 
turned  it  into  stone  in  its  stomach."  Stag  tears,  "a 
thicken'd  excretion  from  the  inward  angle  of  his  eye," 
had  a  great  reputation  ;  and  were  "  affirmed  to  be 
sudorifick  and  of  an  alexipharmic  nature  "  ;  and  Dr. 
Grew  wickedly  adds,  "If  they  were  as  easie  to  be 
had  as  some  women's  it  were  worth  the  trying."^ 
But  they  were  scarce,  and  so  valuable  as  by  some  to 
be  preferred  to  all  the  treasures  of  a  king.*  The  elder 
Scaliger  had  one  which  he  considered  the  gem  of  his 
collection.^ 

Another  esteemed  remedy  was  Ossa  de  Corde  Cervi, 
a  kind  of  ossification  occasionally  found  in  the  hearts 
of  stags  and  of  oxen.  These  were  imported  from  Italy 
and  sold  by  the  thousand,''  and  we  find  them  in  use  in 

^  Major,  Dissertatio  Epistolica  de  Cancris  et  Serpentidus  petrefaclts, 
p.  9,  Jenae,  1664,  8vo. 

2  Major,  Op.  laud.,  pp.  7  sqq.,  36  ;  Sachse  von  Lowenheim,  Op.  laud., 
p.  58. 

^  Grew,  Afusaeum  Regalis  Socle  talis,  p.  21. 
*  Hoffmann,  Clavis  phar?naceutica,  p.  659. 

^  De  Subtilitate,  Exercitatio  112,  p.  422,  Francof.,  161 2,  Bvo.  Schroder 
mentions  that  he  had  the  gift  of  a  small  piece  from  Sophia  Eleonora, 
Princess  of  Saxony,  wife  of  George,  Landgrave  of  Hesse.  P harinacopoeia 
Medico-Chyrnica,  lib.  v.,  p.  266,  Ulmae,  1644,  410. 

"Valentini,  Museum.  Museorum,  i.,  p.  431. 


6o  elk's  hoof 

Scotland   in    1612.^      So  numerous  were  their  merits 
that  these  afforded  material  for  a  graduation  thesis.  ^ 

The  elk  and  its  parts  were  to  be  found  in  museums 
and  in  apothecaries'  shops.^  Elk's  hoof  was  a  specific 
remedy  for  epilepsy,  and  was  always  kept  in  druggists' 
booths  and  often  placed  in  museums.  That  which 
possessed  the  greatest  power  was  the  hoof  of  the  left 
hind  foot.  The  elk,  it  was  said,  was  itself  subject  to 
epilepsy,  and  cured  itself  by  putting  that  foot  into  its 
ear.*  Judging  from  the  form  of  the  animal,  such 
cures  must  have  been  few  and  far  between. 

The  medicinal  virtues  of  these  various  substances 
were  not  arrived  at  haphazard,  but  were  ascertained 
by  observation  and  by  what  were  believed  to  be 
careful  experiments.  Very  few  of  them  were  of  any 
real  toxicological  value  ;  but  that  cures  followed  many 
of  the  prescriptions  there  is  no  doubt.  In  some  raco- 
the  remedy  did  effect  a  cure.  In  other  cases  the  natural 
event  of  the  disease  was  mistaken  for  the  effect  of 
the  medicine  last  administered,  or  at  least  of  the  use  of 
some  medicine.^  Imagination,  too,  plays  an  important 
part  in  the  human  economy,  and  in  our  own  day  many 

^Andrew  Halyburtofis  Ledger,  ut  supra,  p.  301. 

"  Os  de  corde  cervi  gestantem  reddit  immunem  a  venanatorummorsibus." 
Rattray,  Aditus  novus,  p.  26,  Glasguae,  1658,  i2mo. 

"  Adami,  Dissertatio  i?iauguralis  de  Osse  Cordis  Cervi,  Giessae,  1684,  4to. 

^  Ray  notes  the  horns  and  feet  of  the  elk  in  the  museum  of  Jan  van  Der 
Mere  of  Delft,  and  the  horns  (25  lbs.  in  weight)  in  the  shop  of  Mr. 
Holney,  apothecary  in  Lewes.  Travels  through  the  Low  Countries,  ii., 
p.  24,  London,  1738,  8vo. 

^Valentini,  Museum  Museorum,  i.,  p.  428;  Schroder,  Pharmacopoeia 
Medico-Chytnica,  lib.  v.,  p.  252  ;  Salmon,  Neiu  London  Dispensatory,  p.  197. 

*  Alston,  Lectures  on  the  Materia  Medica,  i.,  p.  24,  London,  1770,  4to. 


IMAGINATION    AS    A   CURATIVE    POWER  6 1 

wonderful  cures  have  been  apparently  effected  by 
remedies  which  were  in  fact  powerless  ;  a  subject 
which  has  been  discussed  by  Dr.  T.  J.  Pettigrew/ 
who  records  many  interesting  cases.  "  Imagination," 
says  Lord  Bacon,  "  is  next  akin  to  miracle — a  working 
faith."  In  old  days  it  was  dangerous,  however,  to 
apply  a  harmless  remedy  and  leave  it  to  the  imagina- 
tion to  do  the  rest.  Sir  Georcre  Mackenzie  mentions 
the  case  of  a  poor  woman  who  was  charged  with 
witchcraft  because  she  cured  another  by  applying  a 
plantain  leaf  to  the  left  side  of  her  head,  and  binding  a 
paper  to  her  wrist,  upon  which  was  written  the  name 

T  2 

Jesus. 

FIGURED    STONES. 

Everyone  knows  what  is  meant  by  a  "fossil";  but 
the  present  meaning  of  the  word  is  somewhat  late. 
The  old  writers  understood  by  fossils  whatever  was  ex- 
tracted from  the  earth,  and  divided  them  into  three 
classes  :  media  mineralia,  stones,  and  metals.^  Media 
mineralia  were  of  a  nature  intermediate  between  stones 
and  metals,  and  comprised  earths,  salts,  sulphur,  and 
bitumen.  This  classification,  or  some  modification  of 
it,  was  the  groundwork  of  the  arrangement  of  all  old 

^  On  Superstitions  connected  with  the  History  and  Practice  of  Medicine, 
p.  89  sqq.,  London,  1844,  8vo.  See  also  Thomas  Fien,  De  Viribus 
Imaginationis  tractatus,  Lovan.,  1608,  8vo  ;  Lugd.  Bat.,  1635,  i2mo  ; 
Robert  Boyle,  Works,  ii.,  p.  174,  London,  1772,  4to  ;  Haygarth,  Of  the 
Imagination  as  a  Cause  and  Cure  of  Disorders  of  the  Body  exemplified 
by  Fictitious  Tractors  and  Epidemical  Convulsions,  Bath,  1800,  8vo  ; 
D.  H.  Tuke,  Illustrations  of  the  Infiuence  of  the  Mind  upon  the  Body 
in  Health  and  Disease,  designed  to  elucidate  the  Action  of  the  Imagination, 
London,  1872,  8vo. 
'^Pleadings  in  some  remarkable  Cases,  p.  192,  Edinburgh,  1673,  4to- 
^  Albertus  Magnus,  De  mineralibus  et  rebus  metallicis,  lib.  v.,  c.  i. 


62  FIGURED    STONES 

museums,  and  must  be  kept  clearly  in  view  in  studying 
their  catalogues  and  in  reading  the  descriptions  of  their 
contents.  Fossils,  it  was  held,  were  endowed  with  the 
power  of  growth  and  reproduction  ;  there  was  thought 
to  be  a  seminal  quality  or  plastic  power  {vis  plastica, 
fiisus  formativtis)  in  the  earth  by  which  fossils  were 
produced,  by  which  they  grew  and  took  shape.^ 

Stone  was  defined  to  be  a  fossil  body,  hard,  inductile, 
not  soluble  in  water,  generated  from  a  strong  juice 
{succus\  in  which  is  the  stone-forming  spirit  {lapidificus 
spiritus),'^  petrescent  liquor  or  petrifick  spirit,  as 
Robert  Boyle  called  it.^  One  of  the  principal  divi- 
sions of  stones  was  lapides  Jigurati  or  lapides  iSio- 
/jLopcpoi,  s.  ejujuopcpoi,  "  formed  stones,"  otherwise  lapides 
regiilares  or  "regular  stones,"  that  is,  stones  which 
had  a  specific  form  or  shape,  or  resembled  in  shape 
some  known  object,  animal  or  vegetable,  '^'^  -^'  - 
tinguished  from  lapides  a/uopcpoi.  For  example,  the 
Jew  stone  [lapis  yudaiacs^  was  of  various  shapes,  re- 
sembling a  pear,  an  almond,  an  acorn,  or  an  olive ; 
and  had   many   virtues.     These   stones   were   of   two 

1 "  Quis  non  obstupescit  animo,  cui  hominum,  piscium,  serpentum, 
ostrearum,  concharum,  et  infinitarum  aliarumque  rerum,  ab  archaeo 
subterraneo  fabricatae  et  lapidibus  metallicis  impressae,  occurrunt 
imagines.'"'  Zacharia-Pillingen,  Bitumen  et  lignum  fosstle  biiumt?tosum, 
p.  8,  Altenb.,  1674,  8vo.  To  the  same  effect,  see  Museum  Wormianum, 
p.  81. 

"^Museum  Wormianum,  p.  36  ;  Aldrovandi,  Museum  Metallicum, 
p.  818,  Bononiae,  1648,  fol.;  Agricola,  De  ortu  et  causis  Subterraneorum, 
lib.  iv.,  with  his  De  re  metallica,  p.  512  sqq.,  Basil,  1657,  fol.  ;  Boetius, 
Gemmarian  et  lapidum  Historia,  pp.  1 3,  24,  29 ;  Valentini,  Museum 
Museorum,  ii.,  Appendix  xxi.,  p.  92. 

^Steno,  Prodromus  Efiglish'd  by  H.  O.  [Henry  Oldenburg].  Preface, 
London,  1671,  8vo.  Boyle  thought  that  there  were  also  both  Metal- 
lescent  and  Mineralescent  juices. 


STONES    RESEMBLING    NATURAL    OBJECTS  63 

kinds,  male  and  female,  the  former  covered  with 
points,  the  latter  smooth,  and  found  in  Palestine ; 
and  were  supposed  to  grow  like  other  stones.  They 
were,  in  fact,  the  spines  of  an  echinus.  Belemnites, 
the  English  "bolt-head" — so  called  from  its  resem- 
blance to  an  arrow  ;  in  Scotland  known  as  an  elf- 
arrow,  and  in  Germany  as  Alpfschos,  because  they 
are  vulgarly  believed  to  be  shot  by  fairies — are  the 
petrified  internal  bone  or  shell  of  a  kind  of  cuttle-fish  ; 
the  ammonite  or  cornu  Ammonis,  so  called  from  its 
resemblance  to  the  horn  on  the  statue  of  Jupiter 
Ammon,  is  a  fossil  shell.  Then  we  have  bucardia  or  ox- 
heart  stone,  echmites  or  button-stone,  pear  stones,  apple 
stones,  gourd  stones,  stone  teeth, ^  and  so  on.  Some  of 
these  were  only  accidentally  shaped,  but  the  greater 
part  of  them  are  animal  remains  which  have  been  petri- 
fied. In  the  old  museums  they  were,  however,  treated 
as  natural  growths.  Thus,  in  the  beautiful  collection 
in  the  Schloss  Amras  near  Innsbruck,  were  "stones 
which  represent  trees,  fruits,  shells,  and  animals,  all 
which  are  the  pure  product  of  nature."  ^  The  stone 
oranges,  figs,  melons,  nutmegs,  mushrooms,  and  the 
like,  regarding  which  the  most  miraculous  stories 
were  current,^  were  fossil  zoophytes.      The  bufoniies, 

^  These  were  not  petrified  teeth,  but  figured  stones,  or  perhaps  some 
kind  of  coral.     Briickmann,  Episiola  Itmeraria,  64,  Cent.  i. 

^  Misson,  A  New  Voyage  to  Italy,  i.,  p.  113,  London,  1699,  8vo. 
Misson  was  anything  but  credulous.  When  they  showed  him  at  Ley  den  1 
a  serpent's  skin  with  Arabic  letters  on  it  naturally  formed,  he  at  once  / 
rejected  it  and  very  justly  adds,  "  There  is  so  universal,  and  so  odd  a  1 
diversity  in  all  things  in  the  world,  that  'wou'd  be  easie  to  find  the  i 
like  figures  on  the  first  thing  we  meet  with,  if  we  would  give  ourselves 
the  trouble  to  look  for  'em."     Op.  laud.,  i.,  p.  15. 

^  Parkinson,  Organic  Remains  of  a  Former   World,  i.,  p.  460. 


64  PLASTIC  POWER  OF  NATURE 

the  English  toad-stone,  a  semi-oval  or  semi-globular 
stone,  was  supposed  to  be  engendered  in  the  heads 
of  toads  and  frogs,  but  is  in  reality  a  petrified  portion 
of  the  teeth  or  dentary  plates  of  fishes ;  although, 
when  this  was  demonstrated,  the  defenders  of  the  old 
opinions  produced  another  stone,  convex  above  and 
concave  below,  which  they  said  was  the  real  toad- 
stone.^  The  fact  that  animal  or  vegetable  remains 
could  be  petrified  was  only  recognised  comparatively 
recently.  It  was  opposed  to  the  science  of  older 
times,  and  even  when  sounder  views  began  to  prevail 
they  had  to  encounter  theological  objections,  which 
stood  in  the  way  of  their  acceptance.  What  we 
now  know  as  fossils  were  popularly  explained  by 
some  to  be  sports, — lusus  naturae, — by  others,  to 
be    the    product  of  the  plastic   quality  of  *"^'  th, 

which  by  its  inherent  power  in  certain  places  pro- 
duced stones  having  these  particular  shapes.  Stones, 
it  was  said,  grow ;  vegetables  grow  and  live ;  animals 
grow,  live,  and  feel.' 

Another  group  of  stones  falling  within  the  class  of 
lapides  Jigurati,  or  regular  stones,  were  cerauniae,  the 
stone  axes  and  stone  hammers  of  modern  archaeologists. 
These  were  popularly  believed  to  fall  from  the  clouds, 
and  had  for  centuries  been  regarded  with  superstitious 
awe.^     Our   English   encyclopaedist,   Bartholomew  de 

^  Plot,   The  Natural  History  of  Oxfordshire^  p.  129,  London,  1705,  fol. 

2  Linnaeus,  Fundainenta  Botanica,  §  3  ;  Alston,  Lectures  on  the  Materia 
Medica,  i.,  p.  22. 

^  Stone  celts  are  still  viewed  as  thunderbolts  by  the  modern  Burmese. 
P. R.I. A.  2''S.,  i.  (1870-1879),  p.  396.  See  other  references  in  Reinach, 
Antiquith  nationales,  i.,  p.  79.     Paris,  1889. 

As  to  charms  in  the  form  of  stone  axes,  see  Mate'riaux,  x.  C1875),  p.  290, 


THUNDERBOLTS  65 

Glanville  [r,  1250],  gave  currency  to  the  current 
doctrine,^  and  quotes  the  curious  poem  of  Marbode, 
Bishop  of  Rennes  (f  1 1 23) : — 

Cum  tonat  horrendum,  cum  fulgurat  igneus  Aether 
Nubibus  illisis  caelo  cadit  ille  lapillus. 

Illis  quippe  locis,  quos  constat  fulmine  tactos, 
Iste  lapis  tantum  reperiri  posse  putatur. 

Qui  caste  gerit  hunc  a  fulmine  non  ferietur 
Nee  domus,  aut  villae,  quibus  asseruit  lapis  ille.- 

The  stone  axes  in  the  Cathedral  of  Halberstadt  and 
in  Martha's  Hof,  Bonn,  before  alluded  to,  exemplify 
this  belief. 

When  the  stone  fell  it  buried  itself  in  the  earth  as 
deep  as  the  highest  church  tower  is  high.  Every 
time  it  thundered  it  began  to  rise  nearer  to  the  surface, 
and  after  seven  years  you  may  find  it  above  ground.^ 
According  to  others  the  thunderbolt  penetrated  the 
earth  to  a  distance  of  nine  fathoms,  and  rose  up  a 
fathom  each  year  until  it  reached  the  surface.*    Agricola 

^  De  Proprietatibus  rertim,  lib.  xvi.,  c.  32.  He  relies  on  Isidore  as  his 
authority. 

^  Marbode,  Liber  de  Gemnn's,  §  28,  in  Migne,  Pairologiae  Ciirsus  coni- 
pleius,  torn.  171,  p.  1756.  Ropartz,  Poenies  de  Marbode  (Latin  and 
French),  p.  176,  Rennes  [1872],  8vo.  This  is  a  locus  classiais  quoted 
since  its  date  by  everyone  who  has  touched  upon  cerauniae.  It  was 
copied  on  a  slip  and  attached  to  a  Fubninis  sagitta  in  the  museum 
at  Leyden  in  1634.     Brereton,  Travels,  P-  41.     (Chetham  Society.) 

^  Grimm,  Teutonic  Mythology,  translated  by  Stallybrass,  i.,  p.  179. 
London,  1882,  8vo. 

■•  Gesner,  De  rerutn  fossiliuin,  lapidu7n  et  gcmniarum  Liber,  p.  66  ; 
Aldrovandi,  Mtiseum  jnetallicum,  p.  609 ;  Von  Scheelenberg  in  Zeitschrift 
filr  EtJmologie,  xii.  (1880),  p.  255. 


66  STONE    CELTS 

mentions  the  common  belief,  but  without  saying  that 
he  accepts  it/  and  in  this  he  is  followed  by  Gesner."^ 
De  Boodt  says  that  so  strong  was  the  vulgar  notion 
that  anyone  who  disputed  that  such  things  fell  from  the 
clouds  would  be  thought  a  fool.  Many,  however,  he 
adds,  are  doubtful,  while  others  explain  the  pheno- 
menon by  the  theory  that  cerauniae  were  the  product 
of  an  exhalation  from  lightning  acted  on  by  moisture 
and  heat  which  caused  them  to  assume  their  specific 
shapes  and  produced  their  various  colours.^  But  if 
this  explanation  be  well  founded,  it  is  strange,  he  adds, 
that  the  stone  is  not  entirely  round,  and  that  it  is 
perforated.  Others,  again,  could  not  understand  how 
stones  came  to  be  formed  in  the  clouds,  anu  suggested 
that  the  cerauniae^  or  the  material  which  composes 
them,  were  swept  up  from  the  earth  by  whirlwinds 
and  hurled  down  again  by  thunder  clouds.'^  This  de 
Boodt  considered  unsatisfactory.  Ulisse  Aldrovandi, 
the  great  naturalist  of  Bologna,  thought  that  they 
were  produced  like  other  stones,  by  the  plastic  power 
of  nature,  and  this  was  evidently  the  opinion  of 
Agricola,   of  Gesner,  and  of  de  Boodt. 

While  so  many  imaginary  virtues  were  attributed  to 
celts  it  is  interesting  to  know  that  they  are  possessed 
of  some  very  curious  dynamical  properties.  A  few 
years  ago  an  Aberdeenshire  farmer  ascertained  that  a 
perforated    celt    spins    perfectly   when    turned   in    one 

'^  De  naiura  fossiliutn,  lib.  \-.,  p.  6io,  with  the  De  re  metallica.  Basil., 
1657. 

■^  Ut  supra,  p.  65. 

^  This  is  explained  at  some  length  by  Lodovico  Moscardo,  Note  ovvero 
Memorie  del  suo  fnuseo,  p.  144.    Padua,  1656,  fol. 

*See  Von  Scheelenberg,  ut  supra,  p.  255. 


THUNDER    BALLS  6/ 

direction,  but  will  not  do  so  when  spun  in  the  opposite 
direction ;  a  phenomenon  which  was  subsequently 
investigated  and  explained  by  Mr.  G.  T.  Walker  of 
Trinity  College,  Cambridge.^ 

Another  thunder-stone  was  known  by  the  name  of 
brontea  (German  Trottenstein)  and  a  third  as  ombria. 
The  latter  falls,  says  Pliny,-  "  with  showers  and  light- 
ning, much  in  the  same  manner  as  the  ceraunia  and 
brontea,  the  properties  of  which  it  is  said  to  possess." 
The  bronteae  were  in  reality  petrified  bodies,  the 
ceratLuiae  were  the  product  of  human  handicraft,  yet 
both  were  treated  as  stones  which  had  assumed  their 
particular  shapes  by  virtue  of  an  occult  power  in  the 
earth.  Bronteae,  says  Mercati,  "  are  not  thunder- 
bolts but  naturally-formed  stones,"  by  w^hich  he  meant 
lapides  i§iofx6p(poi.^  Besides  thunder-bolts  there  were 
also  thunder-balls  {^globuliftUminares,  Donner-Kugeln), 
which  were  likewise  thouQ-ht  to  be  o'enerated  in  the 
air  and  thrown  down  by  thunder  clouds.  These  were 
egg-shaped  in  form,  and  were  apparently  merely  rolled 
stones. "^ 

Stones  have  often  an  accidental  resemblance  to 
some  known  object,  such  form  being  produced  by 
weathering,  by  ice,  water,  or  other  external  cause,  and 
it  is  sometimes   difficult  to  distinguish   between  such 

'^Proceedings  of  the  Cambridge  Philosophical  Society,  viii.  (1895),  P-  2>'^S- 

Valentini  notes  that  the  perforation  is  through  the  point  of  equilibrium. 
Museum  Museorum,  i.,  p.  54. 

^Historia  Naturalis,  xxxvi.  65. 

^Metallotheca,  p.  246. 

*  Briickmann,  Epistola  Itineraria,  32,  Cent,  i.,  and  Supplement,  p.  26. 
He  mentions,  Epistola  1 5,  a  curious  story  of  meal  which  some  credulous 
peasants  believed  to  have  fallen  from  the  clouds. 


68  GLOSSOPETRAE 

a  Sport  and  an  object  artificially  formed.  A  large 
number  of  the  stones  which  were  grouped  according 
to  a  fancied  likeness  to  some  natural  object  were  of 
this  character.  The  result  was  that  petrifactions, 
artifically  shaped  stones  and  mere  sports  were  placed 
in  the  same  group,  which  was  based  on  figure,  and 
such  figure,  it  was  assumed  in  each  case,  was  pro- 
duced by  the  plastic  power  of  the  earth. 

Glossopetrae  were  a  class  of  stones  which  caused 
much  discussion,  Pliny  says^  that  the  glossopetra 
resembles  the  human  tongue,  is  not  engendp»-'^d  in  the 
earth,  but  falls  from  the  heavens  dunng  the  moon's 
eclipse,  and  is  considered  highly  necessary  for  the  pur- 
poses of  selenomancy.  He  does  not,  in  terms,  refer 
to  flint  arrowheads,  but  that  he  did  was  assumed  by 
many  of  the  older  antiquaries,  who  classed  these  ob- 
jects under  the  head  glossopetrae,  and  attributed  to 
them  all  the  virtues  mentioned  by  Pliny  and  many 
others  besides.  Glossopetrae  were  found  in  great  num- 
bers in  Malta,  and  were  known  as  "  Serpents'  tongues  " 
from  the  belief  that  they  were  the  tongues  of  ser- 
pents which  had  been  turned  into  stone  by  the 
preaching  of  St.  Paul.'-  This,  says  de  Boodt,  is  all 
wrong;  "they  are  stones  of  their  own  kind,"  that  is, 
stones  which  so  grew.^  Michael  Mercati,  after  men- 
tioning that  there  are  three  kinds  of  glossopetrae, 
large,    middling,    and    small,    says    that    some    people 

^Historia  Aaturalis,  xxxvii.  59. 

-Bartholinus,  Epistolae  Medicinales,  Cent,  i.,  Epist.  53,  p.  223.  See 
also  lb.,  pp.  216,  240,  241,  242  ;  Major,  Bedencken  von  Kiinst-  und 
Naturalicn-Kammern,  c.  x.,  p.  59,  in  Valentini,  Museum  Museorum, 
vol.  i.     See  also  Valentini,  Op.  laud.,  i.,  p.  65. 

^ Getmnarznn  et  lapiduni  Historia,  p.  340. 


FOSSIL    SHELLS  69 

confound  the  large  kind  with  the  teeth  of  the  lamia 
or  shark,  and  that  their  mistake  is  excusable  as  there 
is  a  great  similarity.  He  figures  the  open  mouth 
of  a  shark  and  separately  one  of  its  teeth  and  also  a 
glossopetra.  He  then  goes  on  to  point  out  wherein 
they  differ.  Giossopetrae,  as  a  rule,  are  thinner  and 
less  bright ;  sharks'  teeth  are  always  bright,  while 
giossopetrae  vary  in  colour.  It  was  the  middle  size 
which  were  taken  for  serpents'  teeth,  which,  says 
Mercati,  is  an  error;  they  are  nature's  own  handiwork, 
"privatum  naturae  opus."^  Yet  they  are  undoubtedly 
the  fossilised  teeth  of  certain  kinds  of  shark. ^  The 
identification,  which  was  only  accepted  after  a  long 
controversy,  was  one  of  the  first  steps  towards 
determining  the  true  nature  of  fossils.  Fossil  shells, 
according  to  the  opinion  of  the  ancients,  were  the 
remains  of  fish  that  had  once  lived, ^  but  curiously 
enough  this  view  was  not  accepted  by  scientific  men 
of  the  sixteenth  and  seventeenth  centuries.  Accord- 
ing to  their  doctrine,  fossil  shells  were  not  regarded 
;is  having  any  connection  with  actual  shells,  but  were 
attributed  to  a  vegetative  virtue  in  the  particular  soil 
in  the  places  where  they  were  found,  which  deter- 
mined them  to  that  particular  and  regular  shape.  An 
argument  against  their  ever  having  been  the  coverings 
of  molluscs  was  that  they  were  found  far  from  the  sea. 

'^Metallotheca,  p.  333.  His  account  of  the  lamia  he  takes  from  Ron- 
dolet,  De  piscibtcs  marinis,  p.  390.     Lugd.,  1554,  fol. 

^Pidgeon,  The  Fossil  Remains  of  the  Animal  Kingdo7H,  p.  428,  London, 
1836,  8vo  ;  Hill,  History  of  the  Materia  Medica,  p.  307. 

'An  interesting  abstract  of  the  opinions  of  the  older  writers  tending  to 
prove  that  fossil  shells  were  once  real  shells  is  given  by  John  de  Laet,  De 
ge7?iinis  et  lapidibiis,  p.  177  sqq.     Lugd.  Bat.,  1647,  8vo. 


70  FOSSIL    TEETH 

Glossopetrae  for  instance  were  found  in  the  sands  of 
Deventer  and  in  the  alum  pits  at  Ltineburg/  as  well  as 
in  Malta,  and  sharks,  it  was  argued,  could  not  by  any 
possibility  have  been  in  such  inland  places.  John 
Baptista  Olivus  or  Oliva  of  Cremona,  writing  in  1584, 
states  that  they  were  believed  to  be  sharks'  teeth. 
"  dentes  lamiarum  credunt."'  Fabio  Colonna  (1567- 
1660),  a  physician  in  Rome,  an  exact  and  erudite 
observer,  published  a  treatise  in  1616,  </^  Glossopetris, 
in  which  he  maintained  that  they  were  the  teeth  of 
sharks.^  In  1669  Niels  or  Nicolaus  Steno  (1631-1687), 
a  Danish  naturalist  resident  in  Italy,  argued  that  they 
were  the  teeth  of  sea  doQ-s/  Aorostino  Scilla,  a 
Sicilian  painter,  writing  in  1670,  pointed  out  the  close 
resemblance  in  several  particulars  between  the  fossil 
teeth  found  in  Malta,  Calabria,  and  other  places,  and 
the  teeth  of  living  sharks,  and  added  that  they  are  just 
such  teeth  converted  into  stone. ^     John  Reiske  (1640- 

^Boetius,  Geinmarum  et  lapidum  Historia^  p.  341. 

-  De  recondifis  et  praecipuis  collcctaneis  in  Musaeo  Calccolarii,  p.  42. 
Venet.,  1584,  4to. 

^With  his  treatise,  De  Purpura,  Romae,  161 6,  4to  ;  reprinted  separately 
in  an  enlarged  form,  Romae,  1627,  and  with  Agostino  Scilla  De  Corportbus 
marinis  lapidescentibiis.  Romae,  1752,  and  again  1759,  4to.  He  had 
advocated  the  same  views  in  his  De  aquatilibus  aliisque  anitnalibus 
qtdbusdaiH  panels  Libelbis.     Romae,  1616,  8vo. 

An  account  of  Colonna's  museum  will  be  found  in  Major,  Bedencken 
von  Kunst-  und  Ahituralieti-Katnniern,  p.  68,  in  \"alentini,  Museum 
Museoriun,  vol.  i. 

*De  Solido  intra  Solidum  naturaliter  contento  dissertationis  Prodro- 
?nus.  Florent.,  1669,  4to ;  Lugd.  Bat.,  1679,  i2mo ;  translated  into 
English  by  H.  O.  [Henry  Oldenburg],  London,  167 1,  8vo.  In  Italian, 
Pistorii,  1763,  4to,  supra,  p.  49. 

^La  vana  speculaziotie  disingafmata  del  Senso.  Naples,  1670,  4to  ;  in 
Latin,  Rome,  1752,  1759,  4to.  Abridged  in  The  Philosophical  Trans- 
actiofts,  xix.  (1695-97),  p.    181   sqq.,  by  Dr.  Wotton.      The  subject  was 


THEIR    ORIGIN  7  I 

1 701),  Rector  of  the  Gymnasium  at  Liineburg,  took  a 
different  view,  combatted  the  doctrines  of  Colonna, 
Steno,  and  Scilla,  and  advanced  as  his  own  opinion 
that  glossopetrae  were  neither  tongues  nor  parts  of 
animals  but  simply  stones,  that  is,  figured  stones  which 
had  so  grown/  Still  later,  Ole  Worm  (1667- 1708), 
grandson  of  the  great  collector  of  the  same  name,  gives 
it  as  his  opinion  that  the  glossopetra  was  a  stone  con- 
densed by  some  saline,  nitrous,  and  bituminous  juices 
in  the  bowels  of  the  earth,  as  well  on  the  sea  shore  as 
on  the  tops  of  mountains."  In  1717  Georg  Andreas 
Helwing  (1666- 1748),  pastor  of  Angerburg,^  refutes 
the  old  story  of  glossopetrae  being  serpents'  tongues 
and  describes  several  species  of  sharks'  teeth  under 
the    titles    Glossopeh^a    and    Odo7itopeira^     He    was, 

taken  up  and  discussed  by  Dr.  John  Arbuthnot.  An  Exaj)iitiatio)i  of 
Dr.  Woodward's  Account  of  the  Deluge.,  etc.,  London,  1697,  8vo,  in  which 
he  deals  not  only  with  Dr.  Woodward,  but  also  with  Steno,  Scilla,  and 
Wotton. 

An  interesting  account  of  the  whole  question  and  of  the  views  of  Robert 
Hooke  is  given  by  Ray,  Travels  througJi  the  Loiu  Countries.,  i.,  pp.  96- 
iio,  252,  267,  London,  1738,  Svo. 

Scilla's  collections  are  in  the  Woodwardian  Museum,  Cambridge. 

^De  Glossopetris  Lihiebiirgensibus.    Lips.,  1684,  4to  ;  Norimb.,  1687,  8vo. 

"^De  Glossopetris  dissertatio.     Hafniae,  1686,  4to. 

^ Lithographia  Angerburgica,  pars  i.  Koenigsb.,  1717;  pars  ii.  Lips., 
1720,  4to.  Prefixed  to  Part  i.  is  a  very  quaint  engraving  of  Angerburg. 
De  lapidibus  et  fossilibus.  Koenigsb.,  1717.  His  chapter  (Part  i.,  c.  vii., 
p.  79  sqq})  on  Thunder-bolts  {lapidesfulininares)  is  reprinted  in  Materiaux., 
X.  (1875),  P-  297  sqq.     See  also  lb..,  p.  98. 

In  his  plate  x.  he  gives  representations  both  of  stone  and  bronze  axes 
and  fibulae. 

''This  was  pretty  much  Scilla's  view,  that  minerals  and  metals  were 
generated  by  a  penetrating  juice  or  vapour,  arising  out  of  the  bowels  of 
the  earth,  which  alters  and  turns  all  manner  of  earth  into  itself. 

Briickmann  deals  fully  with  the  subject  in  Epistola  Itineraria.,  29, 
Cent.  i. 


72  FOSSIL    BONES 

however,  a  believer  in  fossil  man,  and  describes 
many  petrified  parts  of  the  human  body  and  stones 
bearing  the  figure  of  man.^  A  few  years  later,  Dr. 
John  Woodward  {1665-1728)  catalogues  a  large 
number  of  objects,  which  had  been  sent  to  him  by 
Scilla,  as  fossil  sharks'  teeth. ^  Chemistry  was 
dragged  into  the  dispute.  Elias  Camerarius  (1672- 
1734),  Professor  of  Medicine  in  the  University 
of  Tubingen,  was  unable  to  persuade  himself  that 
the  glossopetrae  could  ever  have  been  the  teeth 
of  any  fish  because  of  the  small  quantity  of  volatile 
salt  and  oil  which  they  afforded  on  distillation.  To 
which  Woodward  replied  that  they  no  doubt  lost  the 
best  part  of  their  volatile  principles  from  being  so 
long  buried  in  the  earth.  Camerarius  next  objected 
that  when  exposed  to  the  naked  fire  they  turn  to  a 
coal  and  not  to  a  calx  as  asserted  by  Colonna.^  To 
this  Woodward  answered  that  it  was  quite  probable 
that  in  burning  they  might  assume  the  form  of  a 
coal  before  it  arrived  at  that  of  a  calx. 

Fossil  bones  which  were  not  petrified  were  treated 
just  the  same  as  teeth  that  were  petrified.  It  was 
assumed  that  they  were  not  bones  at  all.  By  some  it 
was  thought  that  they  were  produced  naturally  in  the 
earth.      Others    were    of   opinion    that    stone    marrow 

^  op.  laud..,  part  i.,  p.  55  sqq. ;  ii.,  p.  127. 

"^Catalogue  of  foreign  fossils.  Part  ii.,  pp.  23-29.  London,  1728, 
8vo. 

3  Woodward,  Naturalis  historia  Telluris  illustrata  et  aucta  una  cum 
ejusdem  defensione  praeserfim  contra  jiuperas  objectiones  El.  Camerarii, 
London,  1714,  Svo.  In  English,  London,  1726,  Svo ;  in  French,  by 
Noguez,  Amst.,  1735,  ^^o* 


MEDICINAL    USE    OF    FOSSILS  73 

[me7'-ga),^  being  dissolved  and  percolating  through  the 
earth,  ultimately  assumed  the  form  of  bones.' 

Glossopetrae,  like  arrow-heads,  were  used  as  charms.^ 
At  one  time,  too,  they  occupied  a  prominent  place 
in  the  pharmacopoeia  and  were  administered  in 
various  forms  as  a  remedy  for  snake  bites  and  for 
the  cure  of  many  diseases  ;  *  but  latterly  they  were 
less  esteemed  and,  like  the  teeth  of  present-day 
sharks,  were  used  only  for  tooth  powder."" 

Nearly  every  stone,  figured  and  otherwise,  was 
used  in  medicine  in  old  days.  Cerauniae — stone 
axes — when  reduced  to  powder,  was  a  famous  remedy 
for  jaundice,  and  belemnites — the  bolt-head — was  an 
accepted  cure  for  nightmare ! 

THE   BARNACLE   GOOSE. 

An  exhibit  which  was  eagerly  sought  after  was  the 
Claik  or  Barnacle  Goose, — the  French  IMargueroUe 
or    Macreuse — the    origin    of  which    long  vexed    the 

^As  to  merga,  see  Agricola,  De  natura  fossiliiim,  lib.  ii.,  with  the  De  re 
metallica,  p.  578^.  Basil.,  1657.  Aldrovandi,  Mtisaeum  metalliaivi,  p. 
630  ;  Valentini,  Museum  Aluseorum,  ii.,  pp.  3, 4  ;  Leibnitz,  Protogaea,  §  36 ; 
Schroder,  Pharmacopoeia,  lib.  iii.,  p.  42. 

^Boetius,  Op.  laud.,  p.  426  ;  Valentini,  Op.  laud.,  ii.,  Appendix  i.,  p.  92  ; 
Hill,  History  of  the  Materia  Medica,  p.  260. 

3  One  is  figured  in  Materiaux,  xi.  (1876),  p.  540. 

*  Hoffmann,  Clavis  pharmaceutica  Schroderiatta,  p.  131,  Halae,  1675, 
4to ;  Alston,  Lectures  on  the  Materia  Medica,  \.,  p.  271;  Valentini, 
Museum  Museoruni,  i.,  p.  66.  Keysler,  explains  their  virtues  by  the 
presence  of  coralline  salts.     Reisen,  p.  102,  Hannover,  1751,  4to. 

^Leibnitz,  Protogaea,  §  32;  Rondelet  mentions  {De  piscibus  marinis, 
P-  393)  Lugd.,  1554,  fol.)  that  from  sharks'  teeth  the  best  dentifrice  is  made. 
It  whitens  the  teeth  by  reason  of  its  hardness.  Goldsmiths,  he  says, 
covered  the  teeth  with  silver  and  called  them  "  Serpents'  teeth,"  and 
mothers  hung  them  round  their  babies'  necks  in  the  belief  that  they 
assisted  dentition  and  kept  off  frights. 


74  BARNACLE    GOOSE 

scientific  world.  Hector  Boyis,  "a  man  nocht  les 
notable  in  lugement,  than  famous  in  eruditione,  and 
a  maist  curiouse  sercher  out  of  this  secrete  and 
nature  of  this  foule,"^  had  given  currency  to  the  fable'^ 
that  they  were  produced  either  in  rotten  timber  float- 
ing in  the  sea,  or  from  the  fruit  of  certain  trees  when 
it  fell  into  the  sea;^  which  are  actually  figured  by 
Gerarde*  and  Aldrovandi.  Michael  Maier  (1568- 
1622),  physician  and  alchemist,  Count  of  the  Imperial 
Consistory,  wrote  a  special  treatise  upon  these  birds/ 
The  elder  Scaliger  disputed  that  they  grew  upon 
trees,  but  was  satisfied  that  they  sprang  from  floating 
wreckage.*^  Sir  Robert  Moray,  the  President  of  the 
Royal  Society,  declared,  in  1678,  that  when  he  was 
last  in  the  Western  Islands  of  Scotland  he  saw 
multitudes  of  shells  adhering  to  trees,  "having  within 
them  little  Birds  perfectly  shap'd."  He  opened  several 
of  them  and  found,  he  says,  nothing  wanting  for 
"  making  up  a  perfect  Sea  Fowl,"  '  a  statement  which 
is  alluded  to  in  Hitdibras  (Part  iii.,  Canto  ii.,  652)  : 

And  from  the  most  refin'd  of  saints, 

As  nat'rally  grow  miscreants, 

As  barnacles  turn  soland  geese 

In  th'  islands  of  the  Orcades. 

^  The  Historie  of  Scotland,  by  Leslie,  translated  in  Scottish  by  Dal- 
rymple,  i.,  p.  60,  Edinburgh,  1888,  8vo. 

-  Boece's  History  was  published  in  1527.  The  stor)'  is  to  be  found  three 
hundred  years  earlier  in  the  Speculum  of  Vincent  de  Beauvais  (t  1264). 

^  Boethii,  Scotorum  Historia,  p.  8,  verso.     Paris,  1574,  fol. 

*Herball,  p.  1 39 1.     London,  1597,  fol. 

'  Tractatus  de  Volucre  Arborea,  absque  patre  et  matre  in  Insulis 
Orcadum  forma  Anserculorum  proveniente.     Francof.,  1619;  i2mo. 

^  De  Siibtilitate,  Exercitatio  59,  p.  215.  Francof,  161 2,  8vo.  See 
Gassendi,  Vita  Peirescii,  p.  42,  Hag.  Com.,  1656,  4to. 

'Philosophical  Transactions,  xii.,  No.  137,  p.  925.     John  Ray,  who  was 


USED    IN    LENT  75 

Ole  Worm^  adopted  the  popular  belief,  with  some 
additional  marvels  taken  from  John  Monipennie's 
A  bridge7ne7it  or  Sumniarie  of  the  Scots  Chronicles. 
"At  Dumbarton,  directly  under  the  castle,  at  the 
mouth  of  the  river  of  Clyde,  as  it  enters  in  the  sea, 
there  are  a  number  of  clayk  geese,  blacke  of  colour, 
which  in  the  night  time  doe  gather  great  quantity 
of  the  crops  of  the  grasse,  growing  upon  the  land, 
and  carry  the  same  to  the  sea ;  then  assembling 
in  a  round,  and  with  a  wondrous  curiositie,  do 
offer  everie  one  his  own  portion  to  the  sea  fioud, 
and  there  attend  upon  the  flowing  of  the  tide,  till 
the  grasse  be  purified  from  the  fresh  taste,  and 
turned  to  the  salt ;  and  lest  any  part  thereof  should 
escape,  they  labour  to  hold  it  in  with  their  nebs  ; 
there  after  orderly  every  fowie  eats  his  portion ; 
and  this  custome  they  observe  perpetually.  They  are 
very  fat  and  delicious  to  be  eaten."-  In  some  places 
they  were  eaten  instead  of  fish,  and  not  being  flesh 
or  being  produced  from  flesh,  the  Theologians  of  the 
Sorbonne,  it   is  said,^  decided   that   they   were   to   be 

a  fellow  of  the  Royal  Society,  writing  in  1663,  says  that  the  story  is 
"  without  all  doubt  false  and  frivolous."  Travels  through  the  Low 
Countries^  i.,  p.  250.     London,  1738,  8vo. 

^Museum  IVormianum,  p.  257. 

^  Edinburgh,  1671,  p.  289;  Glasgow,  1820,  p.  202.  The  first  edition  was 
published,  London,  1612,  4to.  Again,  Edinburgh,  1633,  i2mo  ;  Glasgow, 
1750,  i2mo. 

The  Claik  is  still  found  on  the  Clyde  and  Loch  Lomond,  but  the 
picturesque  details  of  the  old  chronicler  have  vanished.  See  Lumsden 
and  Brown,  Guide  to  the  Natural  History  of  Loch  Lo7no?id  and  Neighbour- 
hood, p.  47,  Glasgow,  1895,  8vo. 

3  Worm,  Op.  laud. ;  Dr.  Tancred  Robinson,  "  On  the  French  Macreuse 
and  Scotch  Bernacle,"  in  The  Philosophical  Transactions,  xv.  (1685),  pp. 
1036,  1041. 


^6  HATCHED    FROM    EGGS 

classed  with  fish,  and  not  with  birds ;  they  were 
therefore  deemed  suitable  for  use  during  Lent,  and 
used  to  be  sent  from  Normandy  to  Paris  in  great 
numbers  at  that  season.^  Andre  Graindorge  of  Caen 
(i6 16-1676)  rejected  all  such  stories  and  decided,  in 
accordance  with  the  opinion  of  many  writers,  whom 
he  quotes,  that  they  were  hatched  from  eggs  like 
other  birds."  Sir  Robert  Sibbald,  about  the  same 
time,  examined  the  whole  subject  personally,  and 
showed  that  the  Barnacle  goose  [Bernicla  leucopsis) 
was  a  bird  produced  from  an  ^'g'g,  and  that  the 
Barnacle  shell  {Concha  miatiferd)  instead  of  being 
that   ^^<g  was  a  pholas — the  Scots  piddocks.^ 

It  still,  however,  held  its  place  in  the  Phar7nacopoeia, 
and  Salmon  repeats  the  old  story  that  "they  breed 
unnaturally  of  the  leaves  or  apples  of  a  certain  tree  in 
Scotland."  It  agreed  in  nature  and  virtues  with  the 
common  goose.     The  grease  is  exceeding  good  against 

^  This  was  still  the  case  in  1698.  Lister,  A  Journey  to  Paris,  in  1698, 
p.  156,  London,  1699,  8vo. 

2  Traite  de  Vorigine  des  MacrcKscs  par  feu  M.  de  Graifidorge,  doctcur  de 
la  Faculte  de  Medecine  de  M otitpellier,  et  fiiis  en  lumiere  par  M.  Thomas 
Malouin,  Docteur  de  la  Faculte  de  Medecine  en  PUniversite  de  Caen. 
Caen,  1680,  8vo.  Reprinted  by  P.  J.  Buchoz  in  Traites  fres-rares,  con- 
cernant  Vhistoire  naturelle  et  les  arts.     Paris,  1780,  i2mo. 

^  Pf'ody-omus  NaturaUs  Hisioriae  Scotiae,  Pt.  ii.,  lib.  3,  pp.  21,  27,  and 
Appendix,  p.  36,  Edinburgh,  1684,  fol.  ;  Auctarium  Musaei  Balfouriani, 
p.  170,  Edinburgh,  1697,  i2mo.  See  Wallace,  Description  of  the  Isles 
of  Orkney,  pp.  21,  189,  and  Plate  ii.,  ed.  Small,  Edinburgh,  1883,  8vo. 
Deusing,  Dissertatio  de  anseribus  Scoticis,  in  his  Dissertationum  Fasciculus, 
Groning.,  1660,  i2mo  ;  Valentini,  Museum  Museorum,  i.,  p.  465  ;  Laskey, 
Account  of  the  Hunterian  Museum,  pp.  30,  99,  Glasgow,  1813,  8vo. 
Migne,  Dictionnaire  des  Superstitions,  s.v.  Paris,  1856. 

An  interesting  account  of  the  Barnacle  goose  myth  is  given  by  Max 
Miiller  in  Lectures  on  the  Science  of  Language,  2nd  Series,  pp.  536-551. 
London,  1864,  8vo. 


MEDICINAL    USE  J  J 

palsies,  lameness,  and  the  like  ;  the  blood  is  an  anti- 
dote against  poison  ;  the  gall  with  honey  helps  contused 
eyes  ;  the  dung  is  excellent  against  scurvy  and  dropsy, 
gout  and  jaundice  ;  the  skin  of  the  feet  dried  and  given 
in  powder  was  a  specific  for  certain  ailments.^ 

^  Salmon,  Ncio  London  Dispensatory,  pp.  223,  224,  5th  ed.,  London, 
1696,  8vo ;  Schroder,  Pharmacopoeia  medico-chymica,  lib.  v.,  p.  295, 
Ulm.,  1684,  4to. 


CHAPTER   VII. 

SOME    EARLY    MUSEUMS. 

Passing  by  national  collections  such  as  those  of 
Rome,  Florence,  Vienna,  Dresden,  Munich,  Berlin, 
Paris,  Brussels,  and  London,  and  Galleries  of  Art  and 
special  collections,  as  of  coins,  medals  and  gemS;  and 
anatomical  and  pathological  preparations,^  it  may  be 
instructive  to  run  over  some  of  the  more  important 
museums  of  the  seventeenth  and  eio-hteenth  centuries. 
One  of  the  earliest  and  most  notable  was  that  of 
the  great  naturalist  Ulisse  Aldrovandi  (1527-1605),^ 
"  omnis  fere  eruditionis  oceanus^"^  which  is  still  pre- 
served at  Bologna,  a  monument  of  his  industry  and 
learning.  His  ambition  was  to  describe  and  illustrate 
all  external  nature.  For  thirty  years  he  employed 
and  paid  a  painter  two  hundred  crowns  a  year,  and 
spared  no  expense  in  obtaining  the  assistance  of  the 
first  artists  of  the  day ;  but  his  labours  exceeded 
his  strength  and  wealth,  and  he  died  poor  and  blind 
in  the  hospital  of  his  native  city. 

^  See  supra,  p.  24  ;  itifra,  p.  145. 

^C.  S.  Schefifel,  Vita  Schelhammeri,  p.  25,  in  Ad  G.  C.  Schelhavimerum 
Epistolae  selectiores,  Wismar,  1727,  8vo.  "  Rondeletius,  Gesnerus  at 
Aldrovandus,  qui  tres  constituunt  trigam  historicorum  physicorum 
absolutissimam,"  Alsted,  Scientiarum  omnium  Eficylopadia,  xxxii.  10,  §  4. 

78 


ALDROVANDI S    MUSEUM  79 

His  works  published  in  1599  and  subsequent  years 
fill  no  less  than  thirteen  folio  volumes,  and  were  in 
part  edited  by  Thomas  Dempster  of  Muresk,  then 
professor  of  humanity  in  the  University  of  Bologna.^ 
"  But  above  all,  I  must  entreat  you,"  writes  a  learned 
Scot,  "  buy  me  Aidrovandiiss  workes,  which  are 
13  or  14  Tomes  in  Folio;  you  may  buy  them  in 
sheets  and  have  them  packt  up  in  your  own  things 
for  Venice,  where  you  will  not  fail  to  meet  with 
frequent  occasions  of  sending  them  to  London.""^ 
One  of  the  rarest  of  these  volumes  is  the  Musaezmt 
metallicwn^  a  description  of  rocks  and  earths, 
minerals  and  metals,  including  amongst  rocks, — 
fossil  plants,  shells  and  fish,  and  such  artificial 
productions  as  stone  axes  and  flint  arrowheads. 
It    is    copiously    illustrated    and    brings    together   all 

^After  Aldrovandi's  death  the  Senate  of  Bologna  employed  Dempster 
along  with  John  Cornelius  Uterverius  of  Delft,  who  was  also  a  professor 
at  Bologna,  to  assist  in  preparing  his  MS.  material  for  the  press.  Only  a 
portion  was  published.  There  still  remain  in  manuscript  between  two 
and  three  hundred  memoirs.  Maximilian  Misson,  who  visited  the  com- 
bined museums  of  Aldrovandi  and  Cospi  in  1688,  says,  "But  there  is 
nothing  in  both  those  cabinets  so  rare  and  surprising  as  what  I  am  going 
to  relate  to  you.  In  a  chamber  near  to  the  first  we  saw  a  hundred  and 
eighty-seven  volumes  in  folio,  all  written  by  Aldrovandus  his  own  hand, 
with  more  than  two  hundred  bags  full  of  loose  papers.  'Tis  true  the 
margins  are  large,  and  the  lines  at  a  considerable  distance."  A  Neiu 
I'oyage  to  Italy,  ii.,  p.  197,  London,  1699,  8vo. 

-Letters  'written  to  a  friend  by  tJie  learned  a)id  judiciotts  Sir  Atidrcw 
Balfour,  M.D.,  pp.  213,  268,  Edinburgh  1700,  i2mo.  See  the  remarks  of 
Schelhammer  in  notes  on  Conringii,  In  7tniversam  artein  niedicam  Intro- 
ductio,  p.  293.     Spirae,  1688,  4to. 

'^ Musaetim  7netallicum  in  libros  iiii.  distributum,  Barth.  Ambrosinus 
composuit.  Bononiae,  1648,  fol.  Bartholomeo  Ambrosini,  the  editor,  was 
Director  of  the  Botanic  Garden  of  Bologna.  The  Musaeum  was  abridged 
by  David  Kellner,  Synopsis  Musaei  Metallici  U.A.     Lipsiae,  1701,  i2mo. 


80  ZANONl's    MUSEUM 

the  information  of  the  time,  which  instead  of  being 
a  blemish,  as  Buffon  suggests,  adds  considerably 
to  the  utility  of  a  work  whose  value  is  nowadays, 
to  a  great  extent,  historical.  In  treating  of  the 
metals  Aldrovandi  deals  with  them  not  only  in  their 
native  but  also  in  their  manufactured  condition,  and 
enumerates  and  describes  the  uses  to  which  they  are 
put  for  weapons,  utensils,  and  otherwise.^  Although 
he  mentions  that  in  India  the  natives  used  stone 
knives  and  stone  axes,  and  figures  beautifully  hafted 
examples  of  both,^  it  apparently  did  not  occur  to  him 
that  they  corresponded  with  the  cerauniae  which  he 
describes  at  length.^  He  represents  a  stone  arrowhead 
as  lapis  sagittariiLs  or  artificial  belemnite,  and  men- 
tions that  these  objects  were  used  by  the  old  Romans 
in  warfare.* 

There  was  another  contemporary  museum  at  Bo- 
logna, that  of  Giacomo  Zanoni  (1615-1682),  the 
botanist,  which  was  remarkable  for  its  collection  of 
stones,  learnedly  termed  a  XSoTafxelov}  "  Dr.  Mont- 
albanus,"  says  John  Ray,  writing  in  1663,  ''very 
civilly  brought  us  to  the  house  of  Jacobus  Zenoni,  an 

^In  treating  of  bronze  he  refers  to  frequent  finds  of  bronze  objects  in  the 
earth,  and  concludes  that  the  ancient  Saxons  used  weapons  of  bronze. 
Musaeum  Metalltcum,  p.  122. 

^Musaeiim  Aletallicum,  pp.  156-158. 

^Op.  laud.,  p.  606,  et  sqq.  He  repeats  the  illustrations  of  Gesner  and 
adds  some  of  his  own. 

^  Op.  laud.,  pp.  618,  634,  635.  \'alentini  comments  on  the  passage, 
Museum  Museoru?n,  ii.,  p.  16. 

^C.  S.  Scheffel,  Vita  Schelhajnmen,  p.  25,  in  Ad  G.  C.  Schel- 
hammerum  Epistolae  Selectiores.  Wismar,  1727,  8vo.  See  also  Jocher 
Gelehrteti- Lexicon,  s.v.  ;    Fantuzzi,  ScrittoH  Bolognesi,  viii.,  p.  412. 

Zanoni  was  the  author  of  Istoria  Botanica  (Bologna,  1675,  fol.)  ; 
translated  into  Latin  by  Cajetano  Monti,  Bologna,  1742,  fol. 


/ 


BOLOGNA    AND    MODENA  8  I 

apothecary,  a  skilful  herbarist,  and  a  collector  of 
rarities  ;  who  among  other  things  shewed  us  three 
pieces  of  rock-chrystal,  with  drops  of  water  inclosed 
in  the  middle  of  them,  which  we  could  plainly  per- 
ceive when  the  chrystal  was  moved  to  and  fro."^ 
The  museum  was  maintained  by  Zanoni's  son, 
Pelleorino." 

When  at  Bologna,  Ray  mentions  that  he  visited 
"  Signor  Gioseppi  Bucemi,  a  chymist,  who  prepares 
the  Bononian  stone  or  Lapis  phosphortts,  which,  if 
exposed  a  while  to  the  illuminated  air,  will  imbibe  the 
light,  so  that  withdrawn  into  a  dark  room,  and  there 
look'd  upon,  it  will  appear  like  a  burning  coal ;  but 
in  a  short  time  gradually  loses  its  shining,  till  again 
exposed  to  the  light."  ^ 

At  Modena,  Ray  saw  the  Duke's  palace,  but  "  what 
we  most  minded  was  the  cabinet  or  musaeum,  furnished 
with  choice  of  natural  rarities,  jewels,  ancient  and 
modern  coins  and  medals,  ancient  and  modern  en- 
taglias,  curious  turn'd  works,  dried  plants  pasted  upon 
smooth  boards  whiten'd  with  ceruss,  which  may  be 
put  in  frames  and  hung  about  a  room  like  pictures ; 
and  a  great  collection  of  designs  of  the  best  painters. 
Among  other  things  we  took  notice  of  a  human  head 

^  Ray,  Op.  laud..,  i.,  p.  200. 

^  Paolo  Boccone  in  A  conipleat  Volume  of  the  Memoirs  for  the  Curious, 
ii.,  p.  \oz  sqq.^  London,  1710,  4to.  He  mentions  several  other  museums 
in  Bologna  and  the  neighbourhood. 

*As  to  the  Bononian  stone,  see  Robert  Boyle,  Works,  iv.,  p.  380; 
The  Philosophical  Transactions  Abridged,  by  Hutton,  i.,  p.  139  ;  ii.,  pp. 
382,  515;  Grew,  Musaeum  Regalis  Societatis,  p.  311 ;  Valentini,  Museilm 
Museorum,  ii.,  p.  56  ;  Beckmann,  History  of  Inventiofts,  ii.,  p.  429  ;  and 
list  of  treatises  in  Dryander,  Catalogus  Bibliothecae  historico-naturalis 
Josephi  Banks,  iv.,  p.  254. 

F 


82  OBJECTS    OF    INTEREST 

petrified ;  a  hen's  egg  having  on  one  side  the 
signature^  of  the  sun,  which  I  the  rather  noted, 
because  some  years  before  Sir  Thomas  Brown  of 
Norwich  sent  me  the  picture  of  one,  having  the 
perfect  signature  of  a  duck  swimming  upon  it,  which 
he  assured  me  was  natural.  Moss  included  in  a  piece 
of  chrystal,  silver  in  another.  A  fly  plainly  discernible 
in  a  piece  of  amber.  A  Chinese  calendar  written  on 
wooden  leaves."^ 

This  description  gives,  in  short  compass,  an  excellent 
idea  of  the  contents  of  a  seventeenth  century  museum, 
and  tells  us,  not  merely  what  attracted  the  ordinary 
visitor,  but  what  the  scientific  traveller  looked  at  and 
deemed  to  be  of  importance. 

Mercati's  museum,  already  referred  to,  was  an  ex- 
cellent one,  and  he  was  himself  a  good  observer  and 
a  man  of  considerable  independence  of  judgment.  He 
was  among  the  first  to  establish  that  flint  arrowheads, 
known  in  Italy  as  "  saette,"  were  really  manufactured 
weapons.  He  appeals  to  history,  and  refers  to  the  use 
of  flint  knives  amongst  the  Jews,  and  to  the  employ- 
ment of  stone  for  tools  and  weapons  by  the  American 
Indians.  The  early  inhabitants  of  Italy  likewise,  he 
thought,  used  stone,  which  gave  way  to  iron  only  on  the 
introduction  of  the  latter  by  commerce.^  He  describes 
true  meteorites,  and  distinguishes  them  from  cerauniae 

1  As  to  signatures,  cf.  p.  85  and  see  Prof.  P.  J.  Veth  of  Arnheim  in 
hiternationales  Archiv  fiir  Ethnographie,  vii.  (1894),  pp.  75,  105. 

2  Ray,  op.  laud.,  i.,  p.  201.  His  remarks  on  the  Florentine  museum 
are  in  the  same  strain.     lb.,  p.  285. 

^  Metallotheca,  pp.  243-245.  He  figures  nine  examples.  The  passage 
has  been  reproduced  in  Matdriaux  pour  Phistoire  primitive  et  naturelle 
d£  P  horn  me,  x.  (1875),  pp.  49-57. 


CALCEOLARI    MUSEUM  83 

and  other  stones  supposed  to  have  fallen  from  the 
clouds.^  Ceratmtae,  that  is,  stone  celts  {cerauniae 
CHiieaiae),  he  mentions,  were  used  in  his  day  for 
burnishing  gold  and  silver,  and  by  the  shoemakers  of 
old  for  polishing  women's  shoes,-  Mummy,  he  points 
out,  is  not  a  bitumen,  as  fancied  by  the  Arabians, 
but  human  remains  preserved  by  spices.  It  is  an 
excellent  remedy,  he  explains,  for  ruptures  and  con- 
tusions, and  for  stopping  bleeding,  either  taken 
internally  or  applied  externally.^  Pit-coal  he  treats 
as  a  mere  museum  curiosity.  It  is  not  used  for  cook- 
ing, he  says,  on  account  of  its  heavy  smell.* 
"*■■  Francesco  Calzolari  or  Calceolari  of  Verona  added 
greatly  to  the  museum  which  had  been  commenced 
by  his  father  of  the  same  name — from  whom  the  well- 
known  yellow  flowers,  with  long  baggy  lips  which 
ornament  our  o^reen-houses  and  wardens,  are  said 
to  take  their  name^ — who  was  an  intimate  friend  of 
Mattioli  and  Aldrovandi.  He  grudged  neither  trouble 
nor    expense    in  obtaining    specimens    from    all  parts 

^  Op.  laud.,  p.  248. 

^  Op.  laud.,  p.  241.  This  seems  to  have  been  a  fairly  general  practice. 
See  Evans,  A?tdent  Stone  Implements,  p.  440,  2nd  ed.     London,  1897. 

^Op.  laud.,  pp.  84,  85. 

*  Op.  laud.,  p.  87. 

^  So  say  the  scientists.  Father  Feuillet,  the  distinguished  French 
traveller  and  observer,  is  said  to  have  given  the  name  in  honour  of 
Calceolari.  The  Dictionary-makers — English,  French,  and  German — 
on  the  other  hand  derive  the  name  from  calceohis,  a  slipper.  With 
strange  inconsistency  Pierre  Larousse,  in  that  most  useful  work  Grand 
Dictionnaire  Universel  du  xix^  Steele,  on  the  same  page  (Tom.  iii.,  p.  in) 
gives  the  slipper  etymology,  and  mentions  that  Father  Feuillet  bestowed 
the  name  in  honour  of  the  Italian  botanist.  The  plant  does  not  appear 
in  Boehmer,  Commentatio  botanico-literaria  de  Plafitis  in  memoriam 
Cultorum  noininatis,  Lipsiae,   1799,  8vo. 


84  MOSCARDO    OF    VERONA 

of  the  world,  and  made  the  collection  one  of  the 
most  complete  and  valuable  in  Italy.  An  account 
of  the  museum,  as  it  existed  in  the  father's  time,  was 
drawn  up  by  John  Baptista  Oliva  of  Cremona;^ 
and  a  detailed  account  of  the  enlarged  collection, 
prepared  by  Benedetto  Ceruti  and  Andrea  Chiocco, 
was  published  in  1662."  Prefixed  is  a  view  of 
the  interior  of  the  museum.  The  collection  passed 
into  the  hands  of  Ludovico  Moscardo,  a  noble- 
man of  Verona,  who  added  it  to  his  own  which 
was  particularly  rich  in  antiquarian  objects — inscrip- 
tions, statues,  fibulae,  lacrymatories,  lamps,  weapons, 
implements.  Of  these  he  wrote  an  account  and  gave 
drawings  of  all  the  more  important.^ 

*  De  7'econditis  et  praecipuis  collectaneis  ab  honestissimo  et  solertissimo 
Francisco  Calceolario  VeroJicnsi  in  Miisaco  adserieafis,  Venet.,  1584,  4to. 
Prefixed  is  a  tabular  index. 

'^  Musaeuin  Francisci  Calceolari  Jnnioris^  a  Benedicio  Cervto,  nudico, 
incoeptitm  et  ab  Andrea  Chiocco  luculenier  descriptiirn  et  perfectum. 
Veronae,  1622,  fol.,  with  plates.  Tiraboschi,  Storia  delta  Letteratura 
Italiana,  viii.,  p.  124.  It  was  a  scarce  and  dear  book  in  17 19. 
Nichols,  Literary  Illustrations  of  the  Eighteenth  Century,  i.,  p.  358. 

^  Note,  ovvero  Memorie  del  suo  Aluseo  .  .  .  in  tre  libri  distinte,  Padoa, 
1656,  fol.,  with  plates  ;  and  enlarged,  Verona,  1672,  fol.  The  book  is 
somewhat  rare,  and  the  chapter  on  ceratiniae  is  reprinted  in  Materiaux, 
xi.  (1876),  p.  I  sqq. 

The  Museum  was  visited  by  Ray  in  1663  {Travels  through  the  Low 
Countries,  i.,  p.  186,  London,  1738,  8vo) ;  by  Gilbert  Burnet  in  1685 
{Letters  cotttaining  an  account  of  what  seemed  most  remarkable  in 
Switzerland,  Italy,  &^c.,  p.  122,  Amsterdam,  1686);  by  Misson  and  his 
pupil  in  1687  {A  New  Voyage  to  Italy,  i.,  p.  130  sqq.;  ii.,  p.  332);  in 
1700  by  Father  Montfaucon,  who  describes  it.  The  Antiquities  of  Italy, 
translated  by  Henley,  p.  294,  London,  1725,  fol.  No  part  of  it  was  to 
be  seen  in  1730.  Keysler,  Reisen,  p.  1020,  Hannover,  175 1,  4to.  See 
Maffei,  Verona  illustrata,  Verona,  1731-32,  folio  ;  1792-93,  4to  ;  and 
Blume,  Iter  Italicum,  i.,  p.  266  (Berlin,  1824). 

A  part  of  the  Calceolari  collection  seems  to  have  come  into  the  hands 


CUSANUS    AND    IMPERATI  85 

Another  museum  at  Verona,  at  this  time,  belonged 
to  IMapheus  Cusanus,  an  apothecary,  "Wherein  were 
shewn  many  ancient  y^gyptian  idols,  taken  out  of 
the  mummies,  divers  sorts  of  petrified  shells,  petrified 
cheese,  cinnamon,  spunge  and  mushroomes.  A  jasper 
stone  and  an  agate  having  chrystal  within  them. 
Stones  having  upon  them  the  perfect  impression  or 
signature  of  the  ribs  and  whole  spines  of  fishes.  .  .  . 
A  stone  called  Ocichis  mundi,  n.  d.,  which  when  dry 
shews  cloudy  and  opake,  but  when  put  into  water, 
grows  clear  and  transparent."^ 

The  museum  of  Ferrante  and  Francesco  Imperati 
of  Naples  was  very  celebrated  in  its  day,  and  did 
much  for  the  advancement  of  science.^  It  was  visited 
in  1 60 1  by  Fabri  de  Peiresc,  who  found  it  well 
furnished  with  the  rarities  of  nature,^  Ferrante  seems 
to  have  been  the  first  who  ascertained  the  true  nature 
of  bronteae  and  07nbriae,  and  showed  that  the  Jew 
stones  were  the  petrified  points  of  an  echinus. 

of  Mario  Sala,  an  apothecary  of  Verona,  who  had  a  museum  in  1663. 
Ray,  ut  supra. 

^  Ray,  Op.  laud..,  i.,  p.  186.  As  to  the  Ocuhis  muiuii,  see  De  Laet,  Dc 
Gemniis  et  Lapidibus,  cap.  xviii.,  p.  69,  Lugd.  Bat.,  1647,  8vo.  Dryander 
enumerates  twenty-seven  papers  on  this  stone,  Catalogus  Bibliothecac 
historico-naturalis  Josephi  Banks,  iv.,  p.  90. 

^  BarthoHnus,  Episiolae  Medicinalcs,  Cent,  i.,  Epist.  49,  p.  201,  Hag. 
Com.,  1740,  i2mo;  Happel,  Eelatiojics  curiosae,  iii.,  p.  136,  Hamburg, 
1687  ;  Aldrovandi,  Musaeum  Metallicum,  p.  825  ;  Pflaumern,  Merciiriiis 
Italicus,  Part  ii.,  p.  65  ;  Major,  Bedencken  von  Kunst-  und  Naturalien- 
KaniJiiern,  pp.  27,  71,  72,  in  Valentini,  Museum  Museorutn,  vol.  i. 

The  Museum  was  the  foundation  of  Ferrante's  Natm-al  History, 
Naples,  1599,  and  of  Francesco's  work  on  Fossils,  Naples,  16 10.  There 
is  no  foundation  for  the  allegation  made  by  Bartholin  that  N.  A.  Stelliola 
was  the  real  author  of  the  latter. 

^Gassendi,  Vita  Peirescii,  p.  22,  Hag.  Com.,  1655,  4to. 


86  SCHLOSS    AMRAS 

In  1564  Schloss  Amras,  near  Innsbruck,  became 
the  property  and  favourite  residence  of  the  Archduke 
Ferdinand  II.  and  his  first  wife,  the  beautiful  Philip- 
pine Welser.  Here  he  brought  together  a  rich 
collection  of  books  and  manuscripts,  works  of  art, 
weapons,  antiquities,  and  curiosities,  which  attracted 
sightseers  from  every  part  of  Europe.  Maria  Theresa 
removed  the  rarer  books  and  the  finest  of  the  medals 
to  Vienna,  and  presented  the  remainder  of  the  library 
to  the  University  of  Innsbruck.  In  1806,  on  the 
occasion  of  the  French  invasion,  the  greater  part  of 
the  armour,  art  and  other  valuable  objects  were  taken 
to  Vienna,^  and  now  form  the  Ambras  collection 
(Ambraser  Sammlung)  in  the  National  Museum.' 
The  remains  of  the  collection  have  been  considerably 
added  to  in  recent  years,  and  the  museum  is  once 
more  open  to  the  public.  Misson  visited  x^mras  in 
1687,  and  his  account  indicates  that  the  museum  was 
well  and  intelligently  arranged.^  The  collection  of 
weapons  is  still  one  of  its  features,  and  seems  par- 
ticularly to  have  interested  Misson.  Like  all  travellers 
of  his  day,  he  is  careful  to  note  anything  rare  or  out 
of  the  way,  and  mentions,  amongst  other  weapons, 
a  cross-bow  which  worked  four  and  thirty  bows  and 

^  Hirsching,  Nachric/ifen,  i.,  p.  12  ;  iv.,  p.  256,  Erlangen,  1786,  8vo. 

Primisser,  Die  Kaiserlich-Konigliche  Ambraser  Sammlung,  Wien, 
1 8 19,  8vo.  A  second  edition  was  published  in  1827,  with  an  account  of 
the  ethnographical  collections  from  the  South  Sea  Islands  and  Green- 
land in  the  Imperial  Museum. 

-  Fiihrer  diircJi  die  K.K.  Ambraser  Sai)imhc77g.  Wien,  1S79,  1882, 
and  later  years,  8vo. 

''Misson,  A  New  Voyage  to  Italy,  i.,  p.  iii  sqq.  ;  ii.,  p.  331,  London, 
1699.  This  account  is  repeated  by  Neickelius,  Museographia,  p.  20. 
Keysler,  Reisen,  p.  25  sqq,  Hannover,  1751,  4to. 


SETTALA    OF    MILAN  87 

discharged  as  many  arrows  at  once  ;^  and  a  piece  of 
the  rope  with  which  Judas  hanged  himself. 

Lodovico  Settala,  a  physician  of  Milan,  and  his 
son  Manfredo,  a  Canon  of  the  Cathedral,  collected 
a  museum,  particularly  of  what  were  then  known 
as  "artificial  curiosities"  {artificia  rariorct),  such  as 
medals,  intaglios,  cameos,  chemical  preparations, 
philosophical  instruments,  and  articles  of  glass  and 
metal.  *'  Manfredo  Septali,"  says  Sir  Andrew 
Balfour,-  "is  one  of  the  greatest  virtuosi  in  Italy. 
His  Studie  of  Books  consists  of  2  or  3  Roomes. 
His  Galerie  of  Curiosities  of  three  Roomes.  The 
Curiosities  are  both  Natural  and  Artificial,  of  so 
great  a  Number  and  Varietie,  that  I  must  not  insist 
upon  particulars;  but  only  refer  you  to  the  descrip- 
tion thereof  in  Latine  by  Paulus  Maria  Tersagus  ; 
the  Book  is  in  4to,  Dertono,  1664,  and  bears  the 
name     Musaeum     Septalianum.""       Canon     Settala's 

^  The  ordinary  repeating  cross-bow  was  the  so-called  Chinese  cross-bow 
(die  chinesische  Armbrust)  which  discharged  a  score  of  arrows  in 
succession.  Demmin,  Die  Kriegstuaffeji,  pp.  102,  900,  908.  Gera- 
Untermhaus,  1891,  8vo. 

Gilbert  Burnet,  Professor  of  Divinity  at  Glasgow  (1669-1674),  afterwards 
Bishop  of  Salisbury,  when  at  Basle  in  1686  saw  a  wind-giin  that  discharged 
ten  shots  at  once,  or  could  concentrate  the  force  required  for  ten  upon 
one,  a  kind  of  weapon  the  use  of  which  he  thought  it  the  interest  of  man- 
kind to  forbid.  Letters,  p.  265,  Amsterdam,  1686,  8vo,  p.  236;  Rotterdam, 
1687,  8vo. 

-Letters  Written  to  a  Friend  by  the  Learned  and  Jiidicious  Sir 
Andreiu  Balfour,  M.D.,  p.  245,  Edinburgh,  1700,  i2mo.  It  was  also 
visited  and  described  by  John  Ray  in  1663.  Travels  through  the  Low 
Countries,  i.,  p.  209,  London,  1738,  8vo. 

^  There  is  also  an  Italian  translation  by  Sig.  P.  F.  Scarabelli,  Museo 
b  Galeria  adimata  dal  sapere,  e  dalle  studio  del  Sig.  Canonico  Man/redo 
Settala     .     .     .     ,  et  hora  in  Italiano  dal  Sig.  P.  F.  Scarabelli,  Tortona, 


88  VISIT    TO    A    MUSEUM 

cabinet,  says  Addison,  "is  always  shown  to  a  stranger 
among  the  curiosities  of  Milan,  which  I  shall  not 
be  particular  upon,  the  printed  account  of  it  being 
common  enough."^  Misson's  description  shows  how 
a  museum  was  visited  and  what  was  observed,  in  the 
seventeenth  century.  "  Here  we  observ'd  several 
sorts  of  very  ingenious  machines  contriv'd  for  finding 
out  the  Perpetual  Motion,  looking-glasses  of  all  sorts, 
dials,  musical  instruments  both  ancient  and  modern, 
some  of  which  were  invented  by  Settala  himself; 
Books,  medals,  curious  keys  and  locks,  seals,  rings, 
pictures,  Indian  works,  mummies,  arms,  strange  habits, 
lamps,  urns,  idols,  with  an  infinite  number  of  other 
sorts  of  antiquities  ;  Fruits,  stones,  minerals,  animals ; 
a  prodigious  variety  of  shells ;  works  in  steel,  wood, 
amber  and  ivory  ;  a  great  piece  of  cloth  made  of  the 
stone  Amianthtcs;  and  without  engaging  further  in 
those  tedious  enumerations  I  promis'd  to  avoid,  all  the 
most  rare  and  curious  productions  of  art  and  nature, 
not  forofettine  Monsters."^  It  was  Settala's  wish  that 
after  his   death   the   museum   should  be  deposited   in 

1666,  4to.  Folding  plate  and  frontispiece.  Again,  Tortona,  1677,  4to. 
Ouirini  based  his  treatise,  De  Testaceis  Fossilibiis  Musaei  Septalliani, 
Yen.,   1676,  4to,  on  the  specimens  in  the  museum. 

The  collection  was  visited  by  Evelyn  in  1646,  Diary,  i.,  p.  275, 
London,  1879.  See  also  Happel,  Relationes  Ctiriosae,  iii.,  p.  133, 
Hamburg,  1687,  4to. 

In  Karl  W.  Hiersemann's  Katalog,  223  (Leipzig,,  1899),  there  are 
advertised  (No.  263)  two  quarto  volumes,  containing  138  original  water- 
colour  drawings  of  the  more  important  objects  in  the  Settala  collection,  of 
date  circa  1670. 

^"Remarks  on  Italy,"  Works,  ii.,  p.  15,  London,  181 1,  8vo. 

"A  New  Voyage  to  Italy,  ii.,  p.  220;  cf.  p.  387,  London,  1699,  8vo. 
Bishop  Burnet's  account  is  much  the  same.  He  dwells  on  the  monsters, 
Letters,  p.  114,  Amsterdam,  1686,  i2mo. 


COSPI    OF    BOLOGNA  89 

the  Ambrosian  Library,  but  the  arrangement  fell 
through,   and   the   collection  was  dispersed.^ 

The  Senator  Ferdinando  Cospi  of  Bologna  made 
a  very  valuable  collection  which  he  gifted  to  his  fellow- 
citizens  as  an  addition  to  the  museum  of  Aldrovandi. 
An  excellent  catalogue,  prepared  by  Lorenzo  Legati, 
Professor  of  Greek  in  the  University  of  Bologna, 
was  published  in  1678.^  It  contains  a  large  folding 
plate  showing  the  arrangement  of  the  museum. 

There  was  great  eagferness  in  France  during-  the 
sixteenth  and  seventeenth  centuries  to  collect  coins, 
medals,  and  antiquities,  and  natural  objects  of  all 
descriptions.  Borel  and  Spon  record  a  vast  number 
of  collections,  of  various  kinds,  in  Paris  and  other 
parts  of  the  country,  during  the  earlier  part  of  the 
seventeenth  century  f  Dr.  Martin  Lister  gives  an 
account    of   those   he    found    in    Paris   in    1698  ;^  and 

'  Tiraboschi,  Storia  della  Lcttcratura  Italiana,  viii.,  p.  140,  Milano, 
1824.  The  Duke  of  Modena  had  been  in  treaty  for  its  purchase  some 
years  earher  at  the  price  of  1000  pistoles.  Ray,  Travels  through  the 
Low  Countries,  i.,  p.  202. 

'^  Museo  Cospiano  aijnesso  a  quello  del  fanioso  Vlisse  Aldrovandi, 
Bologna,  1677,  fol.  Woodcuts  and  portrait  of  Cospi.  Tiraboschi, 
Op.  laud.,  viii.,  p.  108.  This  is  often  treated  as  a  fourteenth  volume 
of  the  works  of  Aldrovandi  and  bound  uniformly  with  them.  To  this 
must  be  added  Inventario  semplice  di  tutte  le  materie,  che  si  trovano 
nel  Mtiseo  Cospiaiw.     Bologna,  1680,  4to. 

See  also  Neickelius,  Museographia,  pp.  28,  186,  Leipzig,  1727,  4to  ; 
Filippo  Schiassi,  Guida  del  forestiere  al  Museo  delle  Antichita  della 
Regia  Universita  di  Bologna.     Bologna,  18 14,  8vo. 

^  Supra,  p.  21.  See  also  Bonnafte  in  Gazette  des  Beaux- Arts,  2^^  S., 
i.  (1869),  pp.  254,  316  ;  xvii.  (1878),  p.  414  ;  Les  collectionneurs  de  Vancienne 
France,  Paris,  1873,  8vo  ;  Dictionnaire  des  Amateurs  Frafigais  aic  XVI F 
Siecle,  Paris,  1884,  8vo. 

*  A  Journey  to  Paris  in  the  year  i6g8,  London  1699,  8vo,  reprinted  in 
Pinkerton,  Voyages  and  Travels,  vol.  iv.,  p.  i.     There  is  an  edition  by 


90  FRENCH    COLLECTORS 

Neickelius  and  Kanold  bring  down  the  list  a  few  years 
later.  Most  of  these  collections,  however,  seem  to 
have  been  comparatively  small  and  to  have  been  soon 
dispersed.  There  are  detailed  catalogues,  such  as  we 
have  of  the  more  important  private  museums  of  Italy 
and  Germany,  of  very  few  of  them. 

Bernard  Palissy  (1510-90),  the  Huguenot  potter,  had 
a  remarkable  museum  of  natural  objects — shells,  fossils 
and  minerals — and  also  of  enamels  and  pottery,  and 
gratefully  records  the  gifts  of  many  friends.^ 

Pierre  de  I'Estoile  (i 546- 161 1),  the  diarist,  was  an 
enthusiastic  collector,  and  the  dangers  of  the  League 
did  not  deter  him  from  carrying  on  his  favourite  pur- 
suits and  steadily  adding  to  his  library  and  cabinet.- 

Fabri  de  Peiresc  (1580- 1637)  of  Aix,  an  exact 
scholar  and  profound  antiquary,  occupied  his  lifetime 
in  study,  in  travelling,  corresponding  with  the  scholars 
of  Europe  and  in  gathering  books,  manuscripts,  and 
antiquities  and  natural  curiosities  from  all  parts  of  the 
world.^  These  he  bestowed  with  munificent  liberality. 
Though  he  bought  more  books  than  any  man  of  his 
time,  his  library  was  not  a  large  one.  As  fast  as  he 
purchased  he  made  presents  to  the  learned  of  what- 
ever might  be  useful  in  their  studies.^      He  dealt  in 

George  Henning,  I\LD.,  with  notes,  London,  1823,  but  it  omits  large 
portions  of  the  text ;  also  a  French  translation,  Paris,   1872,  8vo. 

^  Morley,  Palissy  the  Potter,  ii.,  p.  87,  London,  1852,  8vo  ;  p.  251  sqq., 
London,  [1878,]  8vo. 

^  Lacroix,  XVIP'^  Steele,  Sciences,  Lettres  et  Arts,  p.  141,  Paris,  1882, 8vo. 

3  Bonnaffe  in  Gazette  des  Beaux-Arts,  supra,  xvii.  (1878),  p.  421  ;  Les 
Collectionneurs  dc  Pa7tcietif!e  France,  p.  2)7 1  Paris,  1873,  8vo  ;  Dictionnaire 
des  Amateurs  Franqais  au  XVI P  Steele,  p.  245,  Paris,  1884,  Svo. 

*  Gassendi,  Vita  Peirescii,  p.  229  sqq..  Hag.  Com.,  1655,  4to. 


FABRI    DE    PEIRESC  91 

the  same  way  with  the  contents  of  his  museum,  and 
gave  coins  and  antiquities  to  ever^^one  to  whom  he 
thought  they  would  be  of  use.  Athanasius  Kircher 
records  with  oratitude  that,  in  order  to  assist  him, 
Peiresc  sent  him  all  the  Egyptian  things  in  his  col- 
lection {antiquitatuvi  gazophylaciiuii)^  and  many  others 
besides.  His  biography  by  Gassendi  presents  a  vivid 
picture  of  his  labours  and  travels,  of  the  learned  men 
he  met  or  corresponded  with,  and  the  museums  he 
visited.-  He  had  agents  in  all  parts  of  the  world 
on  the  outlook  for  manuscripts,  antiquities  and 
curiosities.  It  was  one  of  these  agents  who,  at  his 
expense,  unearthed  the  Arundel  marbles,  which  went 
astray  at  Smyrna  on  their  way  to  France,  but  were 
afterwards  found  and  acquired  from  the  finder  by  the 
Earl  of  Arundel.  Peiresc  sent  Theophilus  Minutius, 
a  Franciscan  friar,  on  two  expeditions  to  the  East,  pro- 
viding him  with  money  and  licenses  from  the  Pope  and 
the  General  of  his  Order,  and  through  him  obtained 
a  great  quantity  of  Samaritan,  Coptic,  Arabic  and 
Greek  manuscripts,  coins,  roots,  seeds  and  various 
other  objects,  including  two  Egyptian  mummies. 

Peiresc  was  a  man  of  sound  judgment  and  consider- 
able observation.  He  carefully  examined  an  elephant 
which  was  brought  to  Toulon,  and  had  drawings  of  it 
made.  He  satisfied  himself  that  what  passed  for 
oiants'  teeth  and  bones  were  the  orinders  and  bones 

o  o 

'  The  passages  are  collected  by  Gassendi,  Op.  laud..,  p.  281. 

-  Illustris  Nicolai  Claiidii  Fabricii  de  Peiresc  Vita.,  Hag.  Com.,  1655, 
4to,  and  previously  165 1,  4to.  Originally  published  at  Paris,  1641,  4to. 
Translated  into  English  by  William  Rand,  Doctor  of  Physik,  London, 
1657,  8vo.  Dedicated  to  John  Evelyn.  Granger,  Biographical  History 
of  England.,  ii.,  p.  84,  London,  8vo,  1779.  See  Leopold  Delisle,  Fabri  de 
Peiresc,  Toulouse,  1889,  8vo. 


92  GASTON,  DUKE  OF  ORLEANS 

of  elephants  and  discredited  the  Teutobochus  myth.^ 
He  held  that  fossil  shells  had  been  the  coverino-s 
of  living  animals,  and  that  they  and  the  leaves 
and  wood  of  trees  had  been  turned  into  stone  by 
a  petrifying-  humour  which  penetrated  them.  This 
liquid  he  thought  arose  from  a  lapidific  or  stone- 
forming  spawn  or  seed  contained  in  the  earth.  He 
believed  that  the  sea  had,  at  one  time,  covered  the 
highest  mountains  and  that  it  was  still  retreating  from 
certain  places  and  encroaching  in  others.  The  city  of 
Venice,  he  said,  would  one  time  or  other  be  joined  to 
the  continent,  seeing  that  within  a  definite  period  the 
continent  had  been  lengthened  1500  paces  or  a  mile 
and  a  half.^ 

The  museum  was  dispersed  on  Peiresc's  death.  A 
portion  of  it  found  its  way  to  Paris,  and  was  incor- 
porated with  the  Cabinet  de  la  Bibliotheque  de  Sainte 
Genevieve,  where  it  w^as  seen  by  Lister.  "  Nothing 
pleased  me  more,"  he  notes,  "than  to  have  seen 
the  remains  of  the  cabinet  of  the  noble  Pieresc,  the 
greatest  and  heartiest  Maecenas,  to  his  power,  of 
learned  men  of  any  of  this  age."^  A  considerable  part 
fell  to  ]M.  Borilly  of  Aix,  secretary  of  the  King's 
chamber,  who  had  already  a  considerable  collection  of 
all  kinds  of  rarities,  amongst  which  were  a  meteorite, 
of  50  lbs.  weight.* 

Gaston,  Duke  of  Orleans  (1608- 1660),  son  of 
Henry    IV.    of    France,     and    brother    of    Henrietta 

*  Gassendi,  Vita  Peit'escn,  pp.  90,  152,  156.  ^  lb.,  p.  151. 
^  A  Journey  to  Paris,  p.  123,  London,  1699,  8vo. 

*  Borel,  Les  Antiquites  de  Castres,  p.  138,  Paris,  1868,  i2mo  ;  Spon, 
Les  Antiquites  de  la  Ville  de  Lyon,  p.  255,  Paris,  1857  ;  Lacroix, 
XVII"^  Siecle,  p.  150  ;  Bonnafife,  Diction?taire  des  Amateurs,  p.  32. 


PAUL    CONTANT  93 

Maria,  Queen  of  Charles  I.,  devoted  some  attention 
to  natural  history,  established  a  botanic  garden  at 
Blois — which  for  ten  years  was  under  the  charge  of 
the  distinguished  Scots  naturalist  and  Royalist  refugee, 
Dr.  Robert  Morison  (1620-1683)^ — and  formed  a 
museum  in  his  palace.^  His  gold  coins  were  the 
commencement  of  the  great  Cabinet  dtc  roi;^  and  a 
portion  of  his  natural  history  collections  was  purchased 
by  Colbert  in  1660,  and  became  the  foundation  of 
the  Cabinet  d' histoire  7iatti,relle,^  which,  after  being 
enriched  by  numberless  accessions  was,  in  1793,  trans- 
formed into  the  Museum  of  Natural  History  of  Paris, 
Another  Frenchman,  Paul  Contant,  Master  Apothe- 
cary of  Poitiers  {circa  15 70- 163  2),  was  an  enthusiastic 
botanist,  took  long  journeys  in  pursuit  of  science,  and 
made  an  interesting  collection  of  plants  and  their 
parts,  earths,  stones,  minerals,  shells,  and  fish,  of  which 
he  published  a  short  catalogue,  Exagoge  mirabiliuni 
naturae  e  Gazophylacio  Pauli  Contanti,  which  he 
dedicates  to  Sully.  He  also  described  various  plants 
and  animals  in  two  poems,  Second  Eden,  and  Le 
yardin  et  Cabinet  po^tiq^ce  de  Panl  Contajit.""  '^^  ^ 

*  Morison  assisted  in  the  preparation  of  the  Hortus  Regius  Blesenszs, 
Paris,  1653,  fol.,  which  appeared  under  the  authorship  of  Abel  Brunyer. 
In  1669  he  pubhshed  Hortus  Regius  Blesensis  anctus.     London,  1669,  8vo. 

-  Bonnaffe,  Diction7iaire  des  Amateurs,  p.  35. 

'Peignot,  Dictionnaire  raisonne  de  Bibliologie,  i.,  p.  443.  Paris, 
1802,  Bvo. 

*See  Memoires  de  PAcadanie  des  Sciences  de  Paris,  1753)  P-  369; 
Deleuze,  Histoire  et  description  du  Museum  d^histoire  naturelle,  Paris, 
8vo,  2  vols  ;  Centenaire  de  la  fondation  du  Museum  d^ histoire  natureile, 
Paris,  1893,  4to. 

^  His  father,  Jacques  Contant,  had  commenced  a  commentary  on 
Dioscorides,    which    his  son    completed.      Les    Ocuvres  de  Jacques  et 


94  PIERRE    BOREL 

Maistre  Pierre  Borel  of  Castres  had  himself  a  large 
collection,  of  which  he  published  a  catalogue  in  1645, 
and  an  enlarged  edition  in  1649.^  It  comprised 
antiquities  of  all  kinds,  artificial  curiosities,  and  speci- 
mens of  natural  history.  Amongst  human  rarities, 
he  includes  the  shoulder-blade  of  a  giant,  weighing 
35  lbs.,  4  palms  in  height  and  7  in  width,  two 
giants'  teeth  half  the  size  of  one's  fist,^  and  various 
fragments  of  Egyptian  mummy.  He  had  a  piece 
of  a  veritable  horn  of  an  Ethiopian  unicorn,  and 
teeth  of  fossil  unicorns.^  His  birds  embraced  the  bill 
and  wing  of  the  Barnacle  goose  (les  oyes  d'Ecosse), 
which  he  explains  spring  from  the  decaying  wood 
of  vessels,  a  piece  of  which  was  also  in  the  collec- 
tion.* Amongst  the  fish  was  a  sea-devil  or  Galanga, 
which  he  gives  as  an  alternative  name :  and, 
amongst  the  leaves  of  plants,  the  "herb  divine" 
or   tea   which,    infused    in    wine    and    drunk,    enables 

Paul  Contant  pere  et  fils.      Poictiers,  1628,  fol.,  7  plates  and  engraved 
title-page. 

Our  own  Cowley,  it  will  be  remembered,  also  wrote  a  botanical  poem, 
although  in  Latin;  Plantarinn  libri  duo,  Lond.,  1662,  8vo;  enlarged  to 
six  books  in  1668,  and  translated  into  English  by  Nahum  Tate,  London, 
1705,  i2mo.  For  other  poems  on  botanical  subjects,  see  Dryander, 
Catalogus  BibliotJiecae  historico-naturalis  JosepJii  Banks,  iii.,  p.  191. 

^ "  Catalogues  de  choses  rares  qui  sont  dans  le  Cabinet  de  Maistre 
Pierre  Borel,  Medecin  de  Castres  au  haute  Languedoc,  Edition  2  aug- 
mentee  de  beaucoup,"  in  Les  Antiginfez,  Raretez  .  .  .  de  Castres,  pp. 
132-149,  Castres,  1649;  pp.  146-165,  Paris,  1868. 

2  Supra,  p.  47. 

^That  is,  of  some  kind  of  fossil  ivory.     Supra,  p.  43. 

*As  to  the  Barnacle  goose,  see  supra,  p.  73.  He  describes  the  arbor 
conchifera  in  his  Historiaruni  et  Observationum  medicophysicarum 
Centuriae  IV.,  Obs.  96,  p.  351,  Paris,  1656,  8vo. 


BERNON,    SIEUR    DE    BERNONVILLE  95 

one  to  do  without  sleep  for  a  long  time,  without 
suffering  inconvenience/ 

In  1670  Leonard  Bernon,  Sieur  de  Bernonville,  a  la 
Rochelle,  published  a  catalogue  of  curiosities,  in  his 
cabinet,  brought  from  the  Indies,  Egypt,  and  Ethiopia; 
which  contains  an  interestinof  list  of  curiosities  formine 
the  personal  equipment  of  a  savage  chief  ("diverses 
curiositez  servant  a  la  personne  dun  General  des 
sauvages ").  Amongst  them  were — A  trophy  of 
Christians  slain  in  battle  and  of  enemies  whom  he 
had  eaten.  Two  halters  with  which  he  bound  poor 
Christian  prisoners,  mocassins,  shoes,  bows  and 
arrows,  and  his  tobacco  pipe  "made  of  marble,  very 
curious."-^ 

Berend  Ten  Brocke,  better  known  as  Bernardus 
Paludanus  (1550-1633),  a  learned   Dutch   physician  of 

^  Tea  was  coming  into  favour  at  this  time.  In  167 1  Dufour  published 
De  Pusage  du  Caphe,  du  The  et  du  Chocohit,  Lyon,  i2mo,  which 
passed  through  several  editions  and  was  translated  into  Latin  by 
Dr.  Jacob  Spon,  and  into  English  by  John  Chamberlayn,  London,  1685, 
i2mo. 

Sibbald  states  that  tea  restores  the  appetite  and  prevents  drowsiness. 
"  About  twelve  leaves  are  thrown  into  six  ounces  of  boiling  water ;  the 
pot  is  then  removed  from  the  fire,  a  little  sugar  is  added  and  the  tincture 
is  sipped."  Atictarium  Musaei  Balfouriani,  p.  105.  "  It  causeth  wakeful- 
ness, so  that  whole  nights  may  be  spent  in  study  without  hurt  to  the  body, 
because  it  binds  the  mouth  of  the  stomach,  thereby  restraining  those 
vapours  which,  ascending,  would  cause  sleep."  Salmon,  New  Dispensa- 
tory^ p.  108.  Others  were,  however,  ready  to  cry  out  against  it,  and  as 
early  as  1665  Professor  Simon  Paulli  of  Copenhagen  wrote  Co7)wicntarius 
de  abusu  Tabaci  et  herbae  Thee,  Argent.,  1665,  4to.  Some  curious  in- 
formation on  the  subject  will  be  found  in  Alston,  Lectures  on  the  Materia 
Aledica,  ii.,  p.  233  sgq. ;  Hoffmann,  Clavis  pharmaceutical  p.  556. 

^  Recueil  des  pieces  ciirieuses  apporiees  des  Indes,  d'Egypte  &"  d'Ethiopie 
qui  se  trouvent  dans  le  Cabinet  de  Leonard  Bernon,  Sieur  de  Berno7iville, 
a  la  Rochelle.     Paris,  1670,  Svo,  15  pp. 


96  PALUDANUS  :    GOTTORP 

Enkhuizen,   had    a   famous    collection  of   rarities   {em 
W under- Kainmer).  ^ 

In  the  old  world  or  new,  what  wonderous  thing, 
Did  art  to  light  or  nature  lately  bring, 
This  Paludanus  house  doth  show  a  rare 
Proof  of  the  owner's  soveraign  wit  and  care.- 

The  museum  was  visited  in  1592  by  Frederick, 
Duke  of  Wiirtemberg- — "the  Jarmane  Duke"  of  The 
Merry  Wives  of  Windsor — when  on  his  way  to 
England.^  In  1651  it  was  purchased  by  Adam 
Olearius  (the  Latinised  form  of  Oelschlager),  the 
celebrated  traveller  and  orientalist,  for  Frederick  III., 
Duke  of  Schleswig-Holstein-Gottorp,*  and  added  to 
the  collection  at  Gottorp.  Olearius  prepared  a  cata- 
logue which  was  published  in  1666,^  and  was  long 
used  by  collectors  as  a  convenient  hand-book.  The 
whole  of  the  Gottorp  collection  ultimately  found  its 
way  to  St.  Petersburg,  and  was  absorbed  in  the 
Imperial  collection. 

^  Sachse  de  Lewenheimb,  Gaimnarologia,  p.  50,  Francof.,  1665,  8vo ; 
Major,  See-Farth,  p.  107,  Hamburg,  1683,  i2mo ;  Neickelius,  Mtiseo- 
graphia,  p.  195,  Leipzig,  1727  ;  Jacobus  Kok,  Vaderlandsch  Woorden- 
bock,  xxiii.,  p.  320,  Amst.,  1790,  Svo. 

2  Powell,  H'.tinane  Industry,  p.  188,  London,  1661,  i2mo.  The 
original  lines  are  quoted  by  Gotfried  Hegenitius  {Ifineraftiwi  Frisio- 
Hollandicimi,  p.  30,  Lugd.  Bat.,  1667,  originally  published  1630),  who 
gives  as  their  author  Tobias  Schultze  van  Schwensche  Bregoshutz.  He 
also  gives  others  by  the  learned  lawyer,  Privy  Councillor  Hippolyt  von 
Colli,  otherwise  a  Collibus  or  a  Colle. 

3  Jacob  Rathgeb,  Warhaffte  Bescreibung  z-weyer  Raisen;  with  Index 
rerum  .  .  .  natiiralium  a  B.  Paludano  .  .  .  coUectaritm.  Tubingen, 
1603,  and  again  1604,  4to. 

■*  Neickelius,  Museographia,  p.  197.  He  also  acquired  the  Foucault 
collection  of  coins. 

^  Gottorffische  Kunst-Kammer,  Schlesswig,  1666,  4to,  and  again  in 
three  parts,  lb.,  1674,  4to.     See  ZeitscJirift  fiir  Mtcseologie,  1800,  No.  20. 


BAUHIN    AND    PLATER  97 

Johann  Bauhin  (1541-1613),  the  great  botanist, 
physician  to  Duke  Ulrich  of  Wiirtemberg  and  his 
successors,  made  a  large  collection  of  the  fossil  shells 
and  other  objects  of  interest  to  be  found  in  the 
neighbourhood  of  the  baths  of  Boll,  and  published 
an  account  of  them  in    1598.^ 

P^elix  Plater  of  Basle  (1536- 16 14)  had  one  of  the 
most  notable  museums  of  the  period,  which  re- 
mained in  possession  of  his  family  for  many  years. 
It  contained  curiosities  of  all  kinds,  works  of  art  in 
gold  and  silver,  pictures  and  portraits  of  eminent 
men,  and  a  cabinet  of  coins,  Greek,  Roman,  and 
modern.  Its  strong  point  was  the  natural  histor)' 
section,  which  was  rich  in  specimens  from  all  the  three 
kingdoms,  and  had  a  particular  interest  as  containing 
the  collections  of  Conrad  Gesner.-'  When  Skippon 
visited  it  with  Ray  in  1663,  he  describes  the  specimens 
as  "somewhat  negflected,"  although  "in  Ljood  order." 
He  adds,   "  The  doctor's  son,   who  shewed  us  them. 


^  See  Book  IV.  of  his  Historiae  novi  et  admirabilis  Fontis  Balneique 
Bollensis  ifi  Dvcaiv  Wirtembergico  ad  acidulas  Goepingenses^  Montisb., 
1598,  4to,  illustrated  with  woodcuts.  Amongst  them  are  some  wonderful 
representations  of  belemnites.  The  book  was  republished  under  the  title 
De  aquis  medicatis  ?tova  Methodus,  Montisb.,  1612.  The  part  treating  of 
stones,  fossils,  and  natural  productions  is  given  as  a  separate  treatise 
with  separate  pagination.  A  German  translation  of  the  original  was 
published  at  Stuttgart,  1602,  410. 

^Miescher,  Die  nudizinische  Facultdt  in  Basely  P-  52,  Basel,  i860,  4to  ; 
Adam,  Vitae  mediconim  Germanoriini,  p.  430,  Haidelb.,  1620,  8vo ; 
Monconys,  Journal  des  voyages.  Part  ii.,  p.  310,  Lyon,  1666  ;  Sachse  von 
Lowenheim,  Responsoria  Disseriaiio,  p.  83,  in  Major,  Dissertatio  epistolica 
de  Cancris  et  Serpentibus  petrefactis,  Jenae,  1664,  8vo.  Ray,  Travels 
through  the  Low  Countries,  i.,  p.  85.  His  museum  is  also  referred  to  by 
Bauhin,  Op.  laud.,  "Thesaurum  habes  multarum  rerum  exoticarum 
amplissimum  artificiosissimaque  methodo  digestum." 

G 


98  BASIL    BESLER 

brought  us  a  book  wherein  we  w^rote  our  names,  and 
then  gave  a  golden  ducat,  it  being  covetously  expected  / 
of  us." '  Plater  was  a  sound  botanist,  and  made  ^ 
observations  in  all  branches  of  Natural  History.  It 
was  in  1584,  when  on  a  professional  visit,  of  several 
months'  duration  to  Lucerne,  being  in  search  of  curio- 
sities, that  the  bones  of  the  oriant,  to  which  reference 
has  already  been  made,  were  shown  to  him  in  the 
Court  House.^  He  is  a  fluent  and  lucid  writer.  His 
statements  of  the  cases  he  deals  with  in  his  three  books 
of  Observations,^  the  symptoms,  remedies  applied  and 
their  effects,  are  as  precisely  set  out  as  in  the  pages 
of  a  modern  medical  journal.  His  descriptions  of 
certain  mental  and  psychological  conditions  are  very 
instructive,*  and  when  dealing  with  deformities,  he 
gives  an  account  of  various  dwarfs  and  giants — in  the 
ordinary  sense — that  he  had  met  with  in  practice. 

Basil  Besler  of  Nuremberg  (156 1- 1629),  an  excellent 
botanist,  was  also  a  collector  and  the  author  of  a 
beautiful  work,  Fasciculus  rariorum  et  aspectu  dig- 
7ior  11771    varii  generis    quae    collegit    et    stiis   i77tpensis 

^Journey  in  Churchill,  Collection  of  Voyages  and  Travels,  vi.,  p.  460, 
London,   1752,  fol. 

"^  Supra,  p.  46. 

^  Observationum  medicalium  libri  tres,  Basil.,  1641,  and  again  1680,  8vo. 

*Sir  William  Hamilton  quotes  {Lectures  on  Metaphysics,  i.,  p.  336) 
a  curious  instance  of  the  activity  of  the  mind  while  the  body  is  asleep 
which  his  father  Thomas  Plater,  the  printer  of  Basle,  met  with  {Observa- 
tiones,^.  12,  ed.  1641;  p.  11,  ed.  1680). 

Plater  gives  a  number  of  instances  of  longevity  (p.  233,  ed.  1641 ;  p.  221, 
ed.  1680);  amongst  others  of  his  maternal  grandfather,  Johann  Summer- 
matter.  On  a  copy  of  the  1680  edition  in  the  Library  of  the  University 
of  St.  Andrews,  which  formerly  belonged  to  Professor  Thomas  Simson, 
he  has  noted  the  case  of  Nicholas  Vilant,  grandfather  of  Dr.  William 
Vilant,  Principal  of  the  New  College,  St.  Andrews. 


SMET    OF    NYMEGEN  99 

aeri  ad  viva7)i  incidi  ciiravit  Basiliiis  Besler}  His 
nephew,  Michael  Rupert  (1607-1661),  continued  to 
add  to  the  museum  and  pubhshed  a  further  account 
of  it."^  One  of  the  objects  he  figures  (pi.  31)  as 
dtus  inaxillaris  lapideits  seems  to  be  the  tooth  of  a 
fossil  hippopotamus. 

Jan  Smet  van  der  Ketten  of  Nymegen,  an 
eminent  antiquary,  began  to  form  a  collection  of 
coins  and  of  Roman  and  other  antiquities  in  1618. 
It  passed  to  his  son,  the  pastor  of  Alkmaar,  who 
added  to  it  and  published  an  illustrated  account  of 
the  whole  in  1678.^  The  coins  were  sold  to  the 
Elector  Palatine,  John  William  (1690- 17 16),  for  20,000 
florins,  for  the  electoral  museum  at  Heidelberg. 

The  first  museum  at  Heidelberg  was  founded  by 
Carl  Ludewig  (Elector,  1632-80),  grandson  of  our 
James  I.  and  brother  of  "  Rupert  of  the  Rhine,"  who 
purchased  a  cabinet  of  coins  and  other  antiquities  in 
Italy,  and  various  curiosities  and  rarities,  and  appointed 
his  librarian,  Lorenz  Beger  (1653- 1705),  keeper.  On 
the  death  of  the  next  Elector  in  1685,  the  whole 
collection  passed  by  bequest  to  the  "Great  Elector" 

^Nuremberg,  1616,  and  continuation,  1622,  4to,  with  24  plates. 

-  Gazophylacium  reriim  nattcraiiuin,  Lipsiae,  1642,  fol.,  24  plates; 
and  Leipzig,  1733,  with  35  plates.  Johann  Heinrich  Lochner  published 
Rariora  Miisei  Besleriaiii  .  .  .  aejieis  tabulis  incisa  .  .  .  Nurem- 
berg, 17 16,  fol.,  with  40  plates  and  portrait,  which  had  been  prepared 
by  his  father,  Michael  Lochner  von  Hummelstein.  See  Nichols,  Literary 
Illustrations  of  the  Eighteenth  Ceiitiiry^  i.,  pp.  358,  363. 

^ Antiqtiitates  Neoinagenses,  Nov.  Bat.,  1678,  4to.  It  was  a  new 
edition  of  the  father's  work.  Thesaurus  antiquarius  Sinetiatiiis,  Amstd., 
1658,  i2mo. 

See  also  Nicholas  Chevalier's  Recherches  ciirieuses.  Utrecht,  1709, 
fol.     Supra,  p.  37. 


lOO  MUSEUM    OF    HEIDELBERG 

of  Brandenburg,  and  was  transferred  to  Berlin. 
Beger  accompanied  it,  and  was  put  in  charge  of 
the  cabinet  which  Friedrich  W^ilhelm  was  forming. 
The  two  collections  he  described  in  the  stately 
folios  above  mentioned,^  which  still  remain  useful 
books  of  reference  in  the  coin  room.  A  less  known 
work  of  Beger  is  a  defence  of  polygamy,  which 
he  wrote  at  the  request  of  his  patron,  Carl  Ludewig, 
who,  having  quarrelled  with  his  wife  and  married 
another,  required  a  piece  justificative}  Ray  visited 
Heidelberg  in  1663,  before  this  domestic  rupture 
occurred.  The  Elector,  he  says,  spoke  six  languages 
perfectly,  and  was  greatly  beloved  of  his  subjects. 
Ray  and  his  fellow-travellers  were  invited  to  dinner, 
and  "after  dinner  his  highness  was  pleased  to  call  us 
into  his  closet  and  shew  us  many  curiosities,  among 
others  (i)  a  purse  made  of  alumen  pltcmosiim,  which 
we  saw  put  into  a  pan  of  burning  charcoal,  till  it  was 
thoroughly  ignite,  and  yet  when  taken  out  and  cool, 
we  could  not  perceive  that  it  had  received  any  harm 
at  all  from  the  fire.  (2)  Two  unicorns  horns,  each 
eight  or  ten  foot  long,  wreathed  and  hollow  to  the  top. 
.  .  .  (3)  The  imperial  crown  and  globe  of  Rupe^'tus 
Imp.  ...  (4)  An  excellent  and  well-digested  col- 
lection of  ancient  and  modern  coins  and  medals  of  all 
sorts,  in  which  the  Prince  himself  is  very  knowing."^ 
Ray   mentions   that   they  also   saw  the  great   church 

^  Supra,  p.  34.  The  Thesaurus  ex  thesauro  Palatino  selectus  was 
published  at  Heidelberg  in  1685,  fol. 

^  This  he  wrote  under  the  name  Dap/ifmeus  Arcuarius  and  published 
in  1679,  4to,  without  place  or  printer's  name. 

^  Ray,  Travels  through  the  Low  Countries,  i.,  p.  71,  London,  1738, 
8vo. 


LOSS    OF    THE    UNIVERSITY    LIBRARY  lOI 

where  the  famous  Hbrary  was  kept.  It  will  be  remem- 
bered that,  after  the  battle  of  Prague  and  the  defeat  of 
the  Elector  Friedrich,  the  "Winter  King,"  Tilly  took 
Heidelbero-  in  1622,  and  havincr  on  behalf  of  Maxi- 
milian  of  Bavaria  presented  the  University  library  to 
Pope  Gregory  XV.,  the  whole  of  the  books  and  manu- 
scripts were  carried  to  Rome,  and  added  to  the  Vatican 
library.^  Napoleon  Bonaparte  in  turn  removed  the  best 
of  the  Vatican  manuscripts  to  Paris  in  1797.  After  his 
fall  the  general  question  of  the  restoration  of  collec- 
tions arose,  and  was  decided  in  favour  of  the  despoiled 
proprietors.  Heidelberg  got  whatever  parts  of  the 
library  were  to  be  found  in  Paris.  The  principle  was 
extended  to  what  was  still  in  Rome,  and  in  1816  all 
the  German  manuscripts  which  had  formerly  belonged 
to  the  University  were  restored. 

Very  little  of  the  Palatinate  museum  is  now  at 
Berlin,  the  greater  part  having  been  transferred  to 
Dresden  in  the  time  of  King  Friedrich  Wilhelm  I.- 

^  According  to  Lord  Fountainhall,  the  Bodleian  library  was  exceeded 
by  the  Vatican  only  by  the  augmentation  the  latter  got  by  that  of  Heidel- 
berg.   Journals^  p.  169,  Edinburgh,  1900,  8vo  (Scottish  History  Society). 

Leone  AUacci,  better  known  as  Leo  Allatius,  afterwards  librarian  of 
the  Vatican,  was  entrusted  with  the  duty  of  transferring  the  library  to 
Rome,  and  wrote  Tra7isporto  dclla  biblioteca  Palaiina  da  Heidelberg 
a  Roma. 

^  Klemm,  Geschichte  der  Sammlungeji  fiir  Wissoischaft  und  Kiinst  ifi 
Deutschland,  pp.  83,  120,  206,  282,  305,  Zerbst,  1837,  8vo. 


CHAPTER   VIII. 

LATER    MUSEUMS. 

The  Novum  Organmn  was  given  to  the  world  in 
1625,  and  the  Nfew  Atlantis  in  1627;  in  1657  the 
Accademia  del  Cimento  was  founded  at  Florence ; 
the  Royal  Society  of  London  received  its  charter 
in  1660,  and  the  Academie  des  Sciences  of  Paris 
was  established  in  1666.  At  the  same  time  Journals 
devoted  to  science  were  set  on  foot ;  the  Journal 
des  Scavans  was  commenced  in  1665,  and  in  1670 
the  Miscellanea  C^criosa^  of  the  German  Academy 
of  Natiwae  Curiosi,  which  had  been  founded "  by 
Johann  Laurenz  Bausch  of  Altdorf  (1605- 1665),  in 
1652.^  These  agencies  exercised  much  influence; 
they  aroused  a  spirit  of  inquiry  ;    quickened  observa- 

1  The  transactions    of  the   Academia    Caesarea  Naturae    Curiosorum 

appeared    under    the    title    Miscellanea    Curlosa,  1670- 1705,    32    vols.; 

Ephenierides,  1712-1722,  5  vols.;  Acta  and  Noz'a  Acta,  I72)7i  ^QQ-i  and 

latterly  Leopoldina.  See  Morhof,  Polyhistor,  ii.,  p.  139,  Liibeck, 
1732,  4to. 

-  It  had  no  home.     In   1687  it  was  taken  under  the  patronage  of  the 
Emperor  Leopold,  from  whom  it  took  the  title  Leopoldine  Academy. 

3  Bausch    had   a   museum,  which   he   mentions   in   his   De    Uiiicornu 
fossili  Schediasma,  printed  with  Fehr,  Anchora  Sacra,  pp.  173,  183. 

102 


THE    COPENHAGEN    MUSEUM  IO3 

tion  ;  taught  accuracy ;  provided  new  and  improved 
means  of  communicatino-  discoveries,  and  discussed 
and  criticised  opinions.^ 

The  Copenhagen  Museum,  which  has  done  so  much 
in  recent  times  to  advance  archaeological  science,  had 
its  beginning  in  the  seventeenth  century  and  even 
earlier.  The  principal  collections  were  made  under 
King  Christian  V.  (1670-99),  and  his  son  and  suc- 
cessor Frederick  IV.  When  the  Earl  of  Carlisle 
visited  Copenhagen  in  1664  as  ambassador-extra- 
ordinary of  Charles  II.  he  was  shown  "the  Rarities 
also  in  the  King's  Pallace,  which  were  several 
very  curious  pieces  of  Mechanicks,  besides  many 
Curiosities  brought  from  the  remotest  countries. 
The  Rareties  were  disposed  in  five  or  six  several 
appartements  on  one  floor,  and  indeed  were  the 
only  observable  things  almost  he  saw  in  that 
Pallace.  Amongst  other  things,  in  one  of  these 
appartements,  he  had  the  sight  of  an  excellent  piece 
of  Art,  which  was  called  a  little  ship  ready  rigged, 
whose  mast,  ladders,  sails,  and  cannon  were  all 
of  Ivory."-  The  museum  was  famous  for  its  cabinet 
of  coins,  and,  besides  many  other  interesting  objects, 
contained  a  number  of  articles  from  Greenland,  such 

^John  Ludovic  Hannemann  of  Kiel  gives  a  most  enthusiastic  account 
of  the  Royal  Society  of  London  and  of  its  methods  in  the  Dedication 
addressed  to  Thomas  Bartholin  (1619-1680),  the  anatomist  and  antiquary 
of  Copenhagen,  of  his  E.xercitatio  de  vero  et  genuino  sangiiificaiidi  orga7io, 
Kiel,  1675,  4to. 

^  A  Relation  of  the  three  Embassies  .  .  .  performed  by  the  Right 
Honble.  the  Earle  of  Carlisle  iti  the  years  1663  and  1664,  p.  410,  London, 
1669,  8vo.    The  author  was  Guy  Miege,  Under-Secretary  to  Lord  Carlisle. 

It  was  also  described  by  Dr.  William  Oliver  in  the  Philosophical 
Transactions,   xxiii.    (1702-3),    pp.   1400-1410. 


I04  THE    COPENHAGEN    MUSEUM 

as  were  to  be  found  in  many  museums  of  the  period,^ 
and  other  ethnographical  material."  In  one  of  the 
rooms,  says  Dr.  Oliver,  "there  is  nothing  but  the 
garments,  arms  and  utensils  of  Indians,  Turks,  and 
Greenlanders,  and  other  barbarous  nations ;  which 
for  their  number  and  variety  entertain  the  eye  with 
a  very  agreeable  pleasure."^ 

In  1696  Holger  Jacobaeus  (1650-1701),  a  pupil  of 
Steno,  and  son-in-law  of  Thomas  Bartholin,  professor 
of  medicine  at  Copenhagen,  published  a  sumptuous 
catalogue  of  the  whole  collection,  which  was  followed 
in  three  years  by  a  supplement,*  and  was  edited  and 
improved  by  Johan  Lorentsen  or  Lauerentzen  in  1710.^ 

One  of  the  most  celebrated  collections  of  the 
seventeenth  century  was  that  of  Ole  or  Olaf  Worm 
{1588- 1 654),  a  Danish  physician — from  whom  the 
ossicula  Wormtana,  the  supernumerary  bones  of  the 
skull,  have  their  name — who  may  be  considered 
the   founder  of   what    has    now   become    the    science 

^  E.g.  Museo  Cospiano,  p.  297. 

2  These  are  again  described  by  Valentini  in  bis  Museum  Museorum., 
ii.,  p.  130,  chapter  xxiv.,  "Concerning  wild  men  such  as  Hottentots, 
Greenlanders,  and  the  like." 

3  Op.  laud..,  p.    1404. 

'^Museum  Regium.,  Hafniae,  1696-99,  fol.,  2  vols.,  with  37  plates. 

Noticed  in  Memoirs  of  Literature.,  iv.,  p.  139,  London,  17 14,  4to.  See 
also  Valentini,  Museum  Museorutn,  ii..  Appendix  iii.,  p.  8  ;  Regenfuss, 
Choix  de  coquillages  et  de  crustace'es,  Copenh.,  1758,  fol.,  French  and 
German ;  and  The  King  of  Denmark's  Collection  of  Shells  a?id  Petri- 
factions, with  Descriptions  by  Regenfuss,  with  plates,  in  some  copies 
coloured  from  the  originals.  Copenh.,  1758,  fol.  The  introduction, 
p.  I  sqq.,  contains  a  bibhography  of  works  on  natural  history,  including 
the  catalogues  of  various  museums. 

^To  this  was  added  in  1726  an  alphabetical  Index  in  two  parts.  It 
is  more  of  a  precis  than  an  index. 


OLE    WORMS    MUSEUM  IO5 

of  prehistoric  archaeology.^  A  tabular  view  of  his 
museum  drawn  up  by  Georg  Seger '  appeared  in 
1653,  and  a  more  complete  account  prepared  by  him- 
self was  published  after  his  death  by  his  son,  Willum 
Worm.^  The  Mtisaeum  Wormiaimm  was  not  a 
mere  inventory,  but  was  a  descriptive  catalogue,  and 
for  more  than  a  century  held  its  place  as  a  recognised 
text-book  of  archaeology ;  and,  with  other  works  of 
the  same  class,  such  as  Mercati's  Metallotheca  and 
Aldrovandi's  Ahisaeum  Metallictcm,  is  still  valuable 
as  a  summary  of  the  scientific  opinion  of  the  times 
on  archaeology  and   natural   history,    and    a    practical 

^  Pope  takes  Worm  as  the  type  of  what  he  chose  to  think  an  antiquary 
was  : 

But  who  is  he,  in  closet  close  y-pent, 

Of  sober  face,  with  learned  dust  besprent? 

Right  well  mine  eyes  arede  the  myster  wight, 

On  parchment  scraps  y-fed  and  Wormius  hight. 

To  future  ages  may  thy  dulness  last, 

As  thou  preserv'st  the  dulness  of  the  past. 

The  Duttciad,  iii.  185. 

See  Granger,  Biographical  History  of  England,  ii.,  p.  433,  London, 
1779,  8vo. 

In  the  first  edition  the  fourth  Hne  read, 

"That  wonnes  in  haulkes  and  hemes,  and  H —  ne  hight," 
which  evidently  alkided  to  the  antiquary  Thomas  Hearne.     Pope  protested 
that  this  was  not  so,  and  next  that  "  Wormius "  was   purely  fictitious, 
but  res  ipsa  loquitur. 

-Synopsis  niethodica  Rarioruin  .  .  .  in  Musaeo  Olai  Wormii. 
Hafniae,  1653  and  1658,  4to. 

Seger  (1629-1678)  was  a  German,  but  studied  under  Thomas 
Bartholin,  of  Copenhagen,  whose  Historiariwi  anatomicarum  Rariora 
he  translated  into  German.      Francof.,  1657,  8vo. 

'^ Musaeum  Wormianiim,  Lugd.  Bat.  (L.  &  U.  Elzevir),  1655,  fol., 
with  plates.     Some  copies  have  Amsterdam  as  place  of  publication. 

There  was  also  a  small  hand  catalogue,  Catalogtis  Musaei  Wormiani, 
published  at  Copenhagen  in  1642  and  1645  in  i2mo. 


io6  kircher's  museum 

exposition  of  the  scope   and   aims   of  the   museology 
of  the  seventeenth  century. 

Athanasius  Kircher,  S.J.  (1602- 1680),  bequeathed 
to  the  Jesuit  College  at  Rome  the  splendid  museum 
of  antiquities,  philosophical  instruments,  and  other 
objects,  which  he  had  brought  together.  It  has 
since  received  many  additions,  and  is  one  of  the 
great  museums  of  the  world,  notable  for  its  collec- 
tion of  aes  grave}  It  was  first  described  by  Sepi 
in  1678,  and  next  by  Buonanni  (1638- 1725)  in 
1709,  and  often  subsequently.-  "  Father  Kircher," 
says  Sir  Robert  Southwell  {1635-1702),  ''is  my 
particular  friend,  and  I  visit  him  and  his  gallery 
frequently.  Certainly  he  is  a  person  of  vast  parts 
and  of  as  great  industry.  He  is  likewise  one  of 
the  most  naked  and  good  men  that  I  have  seen,  and 
is  very  easy  to  communicate  whatever  he  knows ; 
doing  it,  as  it  were,  by  a  maxim  he  has.  On  the 
other  side,  he  is  reputed  very  credulous,  apt  to  put 
in  print  any  strange,  if  plausible  story,  that  is  brought 
unto   him."  ^      It  was    Kircher  who   found   in  Noah's 

1  The  aes  grave  was  described  by  Giuseppe  Marchi,  S.J.,  Rome,  1839, 
4to,  with  Atlas  of  40  plates. 

2  Sir  Andrew  Balfour  visited  Rome  between  1651  and  1665;  see 
Sibbald,  Memoria  Balfouriana,  p.  94,  Edinburgh,  1699.  All  that  he 
says  of  the  Roman  College  is  that  "  there  is  a  famous  Shop  and 
Laboratorie  for  Pharmacie,  as  also  a  Garden."  Letters,  p.  134.  This 
is  probably  explained  by  what  Misson  writes  in  1688  :  "  Father  Kircher's 
Cabinet,  in  the  Roman  College,  was  formerly  one  of  the  most  curious  in 
Europe,  but  it  has  been  very  much  mangl'd  and  dismember'd  :  yet  there 
remains  still  a  considerable  collection  of  natural  rarities,  with  several 
mechanical  engines."  A  New  Voyage  to  Italy,  ii.,  p.  117,  London,  1699,  ^^O- 
Keysler  gives  a  long  account  of  it  in  1729,  Reisen,  p.  485  sqq. 

^Letter,  30th  May,  1661,  Robert  Boyle's  Works,  vi.,  p.  299,  London, 
1772,  4to. 


TRADESCANT  S    MUSEUM  I07 

ark   the    first   museum   of   natural   history.^     He   was 
sound,   however,   on   the   subject  of  perpetual   motion 
^    and  machines  to  exhibit  it.^ 

John  Tradescant  (d.  1638)  and  his  son  of  the  same 
name  (d.  1662)  were  two  of  the  earliest  English 
naturalists  and  collectors.^  Their  museum  attracted 
much  attention  and  is  often  alluded  to  by  contem- 
porary writers  ; 

.     Nature's  wliinisey  that  outvies 
Tradescant  and  his  ark  of  novelties."* 

In  1656  the  younger  Tradescant  published  Mitsaeum 

'  Koehler,  Amueisimg  fiir  Reisende  gelehrte,  p.  217,  Frankf.,  1762; 
p.  728,  Magdeb.,  1810;   Kircher,  Area  Noe,  Amst.,  1675,  fo'- 

-  Motus  perpetui  differentia  experimenta  in  suo  Musaeo  exhibebit 
Kircherus,  quibus  motum  perpetuum  non  tarn  asseverat  sed  reprobat." 
De  Sepibus,  Romani  Collegii  S.  J.  Musaeum,  p,  56,  Amst.,  1678. 
Evelyn,  writing  in  1644,  says  Father  Kircher  took  him  to  his  own 
study, "  where  with  Dutch  patience  he  shew'd  us  his  perpetual  motions, 
catoptrics,  magnetical  experiments,  modells,  and  a  thousand  other 
crotchets  and  devices."  Diary,  i.,  p.  125.  As  to  these,  see  Dircks, 
Perpetuum  Mobile,  2nd  Series,  p.   17  sqq.,  London,  1870,  8vo. 

'^Memoirs  of  Dr.  Stukeley,  iii.,  p.  201  (Surtees  Society,  No.  Ixxx.).     -^ 

As  to  the  Tradescants,  see  The  Tatler,  i.,  pp.  388,  435  ;  vi.,  p.  34, 
ed.  Nichols,  Lond.,  1786;  Gx^ng^x,  Biographical  History  of  England, 
ii.,  p.  370,  London,  1 779,  8vo;  Pulteney,  Sketches  of  the  Progress  of  Botany, 
i.,  p.  175  sqq.,  London,  1790,  8vo;  The  Philosophical  Tra?tsactions,  vol. 
xlvi.,  p.  160;  Ixiii.,  p.  82  ;  Weld,  History  of  the  Royal  Society,  i.,  p.  187, 
London,  1848  ;  P.  B.  Duncan,  A  Catalogue  0/  the  Ashmolean  Museum, 
p.  iv.,  Oxford,  1836,  8vo  ;  Parker,  The  Ashmolean  Museum  .  .  .  A 
Lecture,  p.  27,  Oxford,  1870,  8vo  ;  Hamel,  Tradescant  der  aeltere  in 
Russland,  St.  Petersburg,  1847,  4to  ;  N.  and  Q.,  ist  S.,  iii.,  pp.  353, 
391,  393,  469  ;  v.,  pp.  367,  385,  474- 

■'Cleveland,  Poems,  p.  55  (London,  1687).  In  the  Epistle  Dedicatory 
reference  is  made  to  John  Tradeskant  as  a  collector  of  curiosities — 
"minims  of  art  and  nature." 

The  ark  in  Lambeth  was  well  known.  Evelyn,  Dia?y,  ii.,  p.  94, 
London,  1879;    Powell,  Humane  Indjistry,  p.  187,   London,  1661,  8vo; 


I08  ELIAS    ASHMOLE 

Tradescantianuni ;  or,  A  Collection  of  Rarities  pre- 
served at  South  Lambeth  neer  London}  This  was  a 
bare  list,  partly  in  English  and  partly  in  Latin,  of 
the  objects  which  father  and  son  had  accumulated 
during  many  years.  The  museum,  which  was  con- 
sidered to  be  the  most  extensive  in  Europe  at 
the  time,  contained  a  vast  quantity  of  material — 
natural  history  specimens  and  specimens  of  industrial 
art,  ethnographical,  anthropological  and  archaeological 
objects,  coins  and  curios — but  was  of  little  scientific 
value  for  want  of  proper  arrangement.  It  was 
acquired  in  1659  by  Elias  Ashmole^  and  incorporated 
with  his  own  collection.  The  whole  passed  by  gift 
to  the  University  of  Oxford  in  1682,  and  was  the 
foundation  of  the  great   Ashmolean    Museum.      "  On 

Kippis,    Biographia    Britannica,   iv.,    p.    347.      If  we   are    to    rely   on 
Thomas  Flalman,  it  does  not  seem  to  have  been  particularly  accessible. 
Thus  John  Tradeskin  starves  our  greedy  eyes 
By  boxing  up  his  new  found  Rarities. 
Flatman's  Poems,  p.   147,  London,   1682  ;    Nichols,  Illustrations  of  the 
Literary  Histo7'y  of  the  Eigliteenth  Century,  iv.  626. 

^London,  1656,  i2mo,  with  portraits  of  father  and  son,  by  Hollar. 
At  the  end  there  is  a  list  of  donors  to  the  museum,  which  fills  five 
pages. 

Tradescant's  house  and  garden  at  Lambeth  were  latterly  occupied 
by  William  Heseltine,  the  friend  of  Horace  Smith.  Beavan,  James 
and  Horace  Smith,  p.   125.     London,  1899. 

2  The  deed  remained  in  Mrs.  Tradescant's  hands,  and  after  her 
husband's  death  Ashmole  instituted  a  suit  in  Chancery  to  compel  the 
widow  to  transfer  the  collection  to  him.  Mrs.  Tradescant  replied  to 
the  bill,  denying  that  such  a  conveyance  had  ever  been  executed,  and 
cited  her  husband's  Will,  of  a  later  date  than  the  alleged  conveyance, 
in  which  the  collection  was  left  to  her  during  life,  with  power  to  be- 
queath it  to  O.xford  or  Cambridge  University.  The  Lord  Chancellor 
(Clarendon),  however,  gave  judgment  in  1664  in  favour  of  Ashmole, 
subject  to  the  widow's  life  interest.     N.  and  Q.,  ist  S.,  v.,  p.  385. 

When    Ashmole    transferred    his     collection     to    the     University    of 


THE    ASHMOLEAN    MUSEUM  IO9 

the  fifteenth  day  of  May  (Thursday),  1679,  the  first 
stone  of  that  stately  fabric,  afterwards  called  Ash- 
mole's  Musaeum,  was  laid  on  the  west  side  of  the 
theatre,  and  being  finished  by  the  beginning  of 
March,  1682,  were  put  therein,  on  the  20th  of  the 
same  month,  about  1 2  cart  loads  of  rarities  sent  to 
Oxon  by  Mr.  Ashmole ;  which,  being  fixed  in  their 
proper  places  by  Rob.  Plot,  LL.D.,  who  before  had 
been  intrusted  with  the  custody  of  the  said  musaeum, 
were  first  of  all  publicly  viewed  on  the  21st  day  of 
May  following  by  his  royal  highness  James  Duke 
of  York,  his  royal  consort  Josepha  Maria,  princess 
Anne  and  their  attendants,  and  on  the  24th  of  the 
same  month  by  the  doctors  and  masters  of  the 
university."  ^ 

How  unsatisfactory  the  classification  of  the  day  was 
may  be  judged  by  Plot's  method  of  dealing  with  formed- 
stones,  or  as  we  now  term  them  fossils.     He  adhered  to 

Oxford  he  removed  everything  that  might  connect  the  name  of  either 
of  the  Tradescants  with  it.  "  The  name  of  Tradescant  was  unjustly  sunk 
in  that  of  Ashmole."  Pulteney,  Sketches  of  the  Progress  of  Botany,  i., 
p.   179.     London,  1790,  8vo. 

A  portion  of  the  collection  remained  with  the  widow  in  17 12, 
Thoresby  Diary,  W.,  p.  108. 

^Wood,  Athenae  Oxonienses,  iv.,  358  (ed.  Bliss).  By  a  fire  in  his 
chambers  in  the  Middle  Temple  in  1678,  Ashmole  lost  his  library  and 
a  large  collection  of  coins  and  medals.  lb.;  Evelyn,  Diary,  iii.,  p.  442  ; 
Family  Correspondence  of  the  Family  of  Hatton,  i.,  p.  171  (Camden 
Society,  1878). 

The  museum  is  described  by  Thoresby  in  1684,  Diary,  i.,  pp.  173, 
303;  ii.,  p.  427.     London,  1830,  8vo. 

There  is  an  account  of  the  Ashmolean  Museum  by  Llewellyn  Jewitt 
in  The  Art  fourtial,  xi.,  N.S.  (1872),  pp.  177,  213.  See  also  Duncan 
and  Parker,  supra,  p.  107,  note,  and  another  lecture  by  Parker,  The 
Ashmolean  Mitsetini.  .  .  .  The  Additions  made  to  it  in  the  Season 
1870-71,  Oxford,  1 87 1. 


IIO  TLOTS    CLASSIFICATION 

the  old  view  of  the  origin  of  such  stones,  and  main- 
tained the  doctrine  of  the  plastic  power  of  nature,  which, 
he  explains,  operates  through  certain  salts,  it  being  the 
undoubted  prerogative  of  the  saline  principle  to  give 
bodies  their  figure,  as  well  as  solidity  and  duration. 
The  astroites  and  the  bronteae,  he  thinks,  were  formed 
by  an  antimonial  salt,  the  belemnites  by  a  nitrous  salt, 
and  the  ammonites  by  the  joint  operation  of  two  salts. 
He  accordingly  classifies  formed-stones  or  fossils 
according  as  they  resemble  plants,  fishes,  shells  or 
the  lower  animals,  or  some  part  of  them  or  some 
part  of  man  ;  with  a  result  that  is  surprising,  as  he 
duly  catalogues  stone  horse-heads  and  bulls'  hearts, 
and  various  parts  of  man — stone  brains,  stone  eyes, 
stone  thighs,  and  so  on.-^  A  stone,  in  the  form  of  a 
button-mould,  found  near  a  gfigfantic  thig^h  bone  and 
tooth  in  Cornwall,  he  suggests,  had  belonged  to  the 
owner  of  the  bone.  He  has,  however,  the  merit 
of  having  pointed  out  that  stone  axes  and  similar 
utensils  were  the  actual  tools  of  the  early  inhabitants 
of  the  country,  and  appeals  to  a  hafted  modern 
example  in  the  museum  as  showing  how  they  might 
be  fastened  to  a  helve,"'     His  successor  as  keeper  of 

^  The  Natural  History  of  Oxfordshire^  being  an  Essay  towards  the 
Natural  History  of  B.nglaiid,  chapter  v.,  p.  112  sqq.  ;  cf.  p.  33,  Oxford, 
1705,  fol.,  2nd  ed.  As  to  his  collections  on  which  he  founded  these 
works,  see  Evelyn,  Diaty,  ii.,  p.  311.     London,  1879. 

Bartholin  gives  a  long  list  of  petrified  portions  of  the  human  body. 
Epistolae  Medicinales,  Cent,  iii.,  Ep.  viii.,  p.  31,  Hag.  Com.,  1740  ;  and 
many  are  referred  to  by  Briickmann,  Epistolae  Itinerariae,  11,  36,  37, 
Cent.  i.  See  also  Valentini,  Museum  Museorurn,  ii.,  pp.  19,  27  ; 
Koehler,  At77veisung  fiir  Reisende  gclehrte^  p.  251,  Frankf.,  1762,  8vo, 
p.  817,  Magdeb.,  18 10,  8vo. 

2  The  Natural  History  of  Staffordshire^  p.  397.     O.xford,  1686,  fol. 


JOHN    RAY  S    MUSEUM  I  I  I 

the  museum  was  Edward  Lhuyd  (1660- 1709),  the 
Celtic  philologist,  who  published  a  copious  catalogue 
of  the  English  fossils  in  the  collection  in  1699/  As 
regards  their  origin,  he  supported  the  doctrine  that 
fossils  were  produced  from  the  semina  of  fishes  and 
other  creatures,  raised  by  vapours  from  the  sea,  which, 
tailing  with  the  rain,  were  carried  into  the  inner  parts 
of  the  earth. 

John  Ray  (1628- 1705),  the  botanist,  made  a  collection 
of  natural  curiosities  which  he  presented  to  his  friend 
and  neighbour,  Mr.  Samuel  Dale,  author  of  the 
Pharmacologia,  to  whom  they  were  delivered  about 
a  week  before  his  death.  Ray  had  sounder  views 
than  Plot  regarding  petrified  shells  and  figured  stones, 
which  he  held  to  be  the  remains  of  once-oro-anised 
bodies.^ 

Kippis  refers  to  the  museum  of  John  James  Swam- 
merdam,  "  apothecary  at  Lambeth, "^  but  this  is  a 
mistake.  Swammerdam  was  a  Dutchman,  and  his 
collection  was  at  Amsterdam,  and  was  visited  by  Dr. 
Edward  Brown  in  1668.^  A  sale  catalogue  was  pre- 
pared after  his  death,  which  shows  that  the  collection 
was  a  large  and  varied  one.  One-third  of  the  whole 
consisted  of  artificial  curiosities,  another  third  of  coins, 
and  the  remainder  of  fossils,  vegetable  and  animal 
specimens.^ 

Michael   Bernhard  Valentini  (165 7- 1729),  Professor 

^  Lithophylacii  Britannici  Ichnographia.     London,   1699,  8vo. 
-Ray,  Travels  through  the  Low  Countries  (in  1663),  i.,  pp.  96  sqq.^  252, 
267.     London,  1738,  8vo. 

^  Biographia  Britannica^  iv.,  347. 

*  Travels^  p.  100,  London,  1685,  fol. 

°  Catalogus  musei  tJistructissuni,  e.xhibeits  copiosam  supeUectilem  varia- 


I  r  2  VALENTINI  S    MUSEUM 

at  Giessen,  and  a  Fellow  of  the  Royal  Society  of 
London,  to  whom  frequent  reference  has  been  made, 
was  himself  a  collector,  and  published  in  his  Museum 
Mnseoruni^  2.  catalogue  of  what  he  calls  the  "  Re- 
positorium  Valentinianum."  It  comprised  natural 
history  specimens  arranged  according  to  the  mineral, 
vegetable,  and  animal  kingdoms ;  things  sacred  and 
superstitious  ;  artificial  rarities  ;  philosophical,  mathe- 
matical, anatomical,  surgical,  and  chemical  apparatus  ; 
coins    and    medals. 

Franz  Ernst  Bruckmann  of  Wolfenbiittel  (1697- 
1753),  who,  like  Valentini,  wrote  much  about  other 
people's  collections,  found  time  during  a  busy  life  to 
form  a  large  museum  of  his  own,  which  he  has 
described  in  his  curious  Epistolae  Itinei^ariae^  dedi- 
cated to  Sir  Hans  Sloane  and  the  Royal  Society. 
He  had  large  collections  illustrative  of  natural  history, 
botany,  and  mineralogy;  many  antiquities  and  other 
artficial  rarities,  and  a  great  assemblage  of  Curiosa 
mathematico-arithmetica.  Amongst  the  latter  was  a 
field  glass,  which   he  calls  a  Polemoscope,  otherwise 

ruvi  7-eruin  exoticaruiii  tarn  naturalium  qiiam  arte  factariim  quas  collegit 
Jo/i.Jac.  Siuammerdam  (Dutch  and  Latin),  1679,  S^'O)  PP-  I43- 

See  also  Le  Cabhiet  de  Mr.  Swanunerdam,  doctciir  en  Me'decine,  on 
Catalogue  de  toiites  sortes  dhtsectes  et  de  diverses  preparations  anato- 
7niques^  que  Pon  petit  dire  etre  tin  supplement  tres  considerable  de  PHistoire 
naturclle  des  Afii7naux,  n.p.,  n.d.,  but  apparently  published  at  Amsterdam. 

^  Vol.  ii.,  Appendix  xxiii.,  pp.  100-108. 

^Epistolae  39-47,  57-6o,  64,  65,  and  81-84,  Cent.  i. ;  Epistola  50, 
Cent.  ii. 

Centuria  i.  was  published  Wolfenbiittel,  1742  ;  Centuria  ii.,  1749  ;  and 
Centuria  iii.,  1750-53,  all  in  4to.  The  Epistles  seem  to  have  been  origin- 
ally published  separately,  and  each  has  an  original  title-page  of  earlier 
date  than  the  complete  collection. 


BRUCKMANN  S    MUSEUM  I  I  3 

Kriegs-Perspectiv  or  Bataillen-Ktuker ;  ^  two  magic 
lanterns  with  two  hundred  sHdes ;  and  a  catoptric 
camera,  with  four  plain  mirrors  placed  parallel  and 
opposite,  in  which  was  represented  the  marriage  at 
Cana  ;  the  figures  were  of  wax,  and  moved  to  the 
sound  of  music,  gesticulating  with  their  hands,  arms, 
and  eyes,  as  if  engaged  in  conversation  ;  and  many 
other  optical  toys.  Amongst  the  aerometric  objects 
was  the  still  familiar  hygrometer  in  the  form  of  a 
tiny  house,  with  a  boy  and  girl  that  indicated  fine 
or  bad  weather  according  as  the  one  or  the  other 
came  out  or  went  in,  which  he  calls  Hamburgische 
Wetter- Machine  or  Wetter- Hdusgenr  His  anatomical 
appliances  included  glass  eyes  ^  and  a  human  figure  of 
wood,  prepared  by  Dr.  Friedrich  Hoffmann  of  Halle, 
which  could  be  taken  to  pieces  so  as  to  show  the 
arrangement  of  the  internal  parts.*  The  artificial 
curiosities  were  very  numerous,  and  of  such  a  mis- 
cellaneous description  that  they  must  have  brought 
I  any  visitor  who  tried  to  view  them  into  a  state  of 
!  complete  distraction.  There  w^ere  Turkish  and  Tartar 
j  weapons  ;  a  crucifixion  in  various  coloured  amber  ; 
wax  fruits  and  figures  ;  Indian  reed  pens  and  China 
\  ink ;  Chinese  paper,  wood  pulp  paper,  and  cotton 
paper  ;  tobacco  boxes  and  snuff  boxes  ;  puzzle  purses 

^  See  \'alentini,  Museum  Museorutn,  ii.,  Part  iii.,  pp.  60,  no. 

-See  also  Valentini,  Museum  Museorutn,  ii.,  Part  iii.,  pp.  25,  in. 
At  p.  19  he  describes  the  Magdeburg   Wetter-Mdnnchen. 

^  See  also  Epistola  32,  Cent.  i.  Lister  describes  the  perfection  of  the  arti- 
ficial eyes  made  in  Paris.     A  Journey  to  Paris,  p.  144,  London,  1699,  8vo. 

*  There  were  similar  exhibits  in  the  museum  of  Albert  Ritter  of  Ilfeld. 
Briickmann,  Epistola  Itineraria,  32,  Cent.  i. ;  and  in  Dr.  Kahn's  Ana- 
tomical Museum,  Catalogue,  p.  31,  London,  1851. 


I  1 4  BRUCKMANN  S    MUSEUM 

and  puzzle  boxes  ;  tea  and  coffee  cups  ;  games  and 
tops ;  a  silver  coin  which,  when  put  into  the  fire, 
exhibits  the  sign  which  appeared  in  the  clouds  to 
Constantine  the  Great,  with  the  words,  In  hoc  signo 
vinces  ;^  bread  of  all  kinds  ;  febrifuges  ;  shoes  ;  knives 
and  chop-sticks  ;  a  small  cart  or  carriole,  in  which  one 
was  wheeled  about  the  garden,  and  which  at  the  same 
time  weeded,  hoed,  and  rolled  the  walks  and  alleys, 
and  gathered  up  the  rubbish  ;  a  pedometer  ;^  a  hand 
warmer,  such  as  is  nowadays  extensively  advertised 
under  the  name  of  Instra;  a  magnetic  ring  or 
Avicenna 's  fortune,  which  when  carried  on  the  finger 
attracts  the  poison  of  malignant  diseases  and  becomes 
black;  so  long  as  the  wearer  is  in  sound  health  the  ring 
retains  its  brioht  Qolden  colour,  if  he  turns  ill  it  loses 
its  brightness  and  becomes  tarnished  ;  a  witch's-dollar, 
Hexen-  Thaler,  made  of  a  mixture  of  the  seven  metals, 
and  inscribed  with  magical  characters  ;  a  talisman,  of 
lead  covered  with  Arabic  letters,  which  was  used  as  an 
amulet  by  being  placed  in  burning  soda. 

The  museum  had  a  section  devoted  to  ecclesiastical 
objects  [Curiosa  ecclesiae  Romano -Cat  holicae).  Ap- 
parently, however,  it  was  not  intended  to  illustrate 
Christian  antiquities  or  ecclesiastical  art,  but  rather 
to  gratify   the   love   of  the   marvellous.     There   were 

^  It  is  also  described  and  figured  in  Epistola  Ilinefaria,  32,  Cent,  i., 
in  which  he  describes  the  museum  of  Albert  Ritter.  This  coin  when  hung 
round  the  neck  rendered  the  weai'er  proof  against  bullets  and  all 
weapons.  There  was  a  similar  coin  in  Kilter's  collection.  Briickmann 
gives  several  references  to  writers  on  this  curious  subject;  amongst  others 
to  Happel,  Relationes  Curiosae,  iv.,  pp.  291,  534. 

2  Beckmann,  History  of  Inventions,  i.,  p.  5  ;  Nicolai,  Reise,  i.,  Beilage  i, 
Berlin,  1783,  8vo. 


SEBA  S    MUSEUMS  I  I  5 

a  great  number  of  charms  and  amulets  ;  a  crystal  of 
red  glass,  containing  St.  John's  Gospel,  which  was 
hung  upon  infants  to  preserve  them  from  poison  ; 
Spanish  weather-crosses,  which  were  believed  to  ward 
off  thunder  and  storms,  and  other  metal  crosses ; 
vertigo-crosses,  made  of  glass  of  various  colours,  which 
prevented  giddiness  ;  a  cross  of  horn  which  had  been 
touched  by  the  Pope,  and  was  therefore  a  remedy  for 
all  ailments  ;  Indulgence  pence  ;  St.  Benedict's  pence  ;^ 
a  perfume  plant,  whose  smoke  puts  to  flight  spectres 
and  witches  ;  various  relics  of  saints  ;  raw  silk,  white 
and  red,  consecrated  in  St.  Stephen's  Cathedral, 
Vienna,  and  good  against  erysipelas ;  earth  from  St. 
Ulric's  grave,  near  Augsburg,  which  keeps  away  mice.^ 
A  portable  altar,  with  two  wings,  figures  in  the  list, 
probably  on  account  of  its  small  size.^ 
*  One  of  the  largest  private  museums  of  the  seven- 
teenth century  was  that  of  Albert  Seba  (1665- 
1736),     Commencing  life  as  a  druggist  in  Amsterdam, 

'  he  entered  the  service  of  the  Dutch  East  India 
Company,  and  acquired  great  wealth.  His  early 
studies  had  given  him  a  taste  for  natural  history,  and 

j  he  employed  his  large  fortune  in  forming  a  collection 
of  the  most  interesting  objects  in  the  animal,  vege- 

,  table,  and  mineral  kingdoms.  When  Peter  the  Great 
visited  Amsterdam,  in  1716,  he  purchased  the  museum 

• 

^  He  again  refers  to  St.  Benedict's  pence,  which  were  a  preservative 
against  magical  practices,  in  Epistola  Itineraria,  i8,  Cent.  i. 

^He  treats  at  length  of  St.  Ulric's  Earth  in  Epistola  IHneraria,  6, 
Cent.  i. 

^  In  Epistola  8,  Cent,  i.,  he  mentions  the  portable  altar  of  the  Emperor 
Henr)'  at  Quedlinburg. 


ii6  ruysch's  museums 

and  removed  it  to  St.  Petersburg ;  ^  but  Seba  im- 
mediately undertook  the  collection  of  another,  which 
soon  surpassed  every  other  in  Europe.  It  was,  how- 
ever, dispersed  on  his  death  in  1736.  He  began 
a  description  of  this  museum,  one  volume  of  which 
was  published  during  his  lifetime  and  three  more 
after  his  death. ^ 

Another  celebrated  museum  at  Amsterdam  belonged 
to  the  great  anatomist,  Frederik  Ruysch  (1638- 1731), 
which  "  in  the  extent,  variety,  and  arrangement  of  its 
contents,  became  ultimately  the  most  magnificent  that 
any  private  individual  had  ever  accumulated,  and  was 
the  resort  of  visitors  of  every  description.  Generals, 
ambassadors,  princes,  and  even  kings,  were  happy  in 
the  opportunity  of  examining  it.""  Peter  the  Great, 
when  in  Holland  in  1698,  often  dined  with  Ruysch 
that  he  might  have  an  opportunity  of  examining  his 
cabinet,  and  on  his  next  visit  to  Holland  he  purchased 

^  See  Bacmeister,  Essai  siir  la  bibliotJieqiie  et  le  cabi7iet  de  Curiositez  et 
d' Histoire  naturelle  de  T'Aca,d^niie  des  Sciences  de  S.  Petersboia-g^  p.  149. 
Petersb.,  1776,  8vo. 

-  Locupletissimi  reriun  ?iaturalmm  thesauri  accurata  Descriptio  et 
iconibus  Expressio,  per  universam  physices  historiam.  Amst.,  1734-65, 
4  vols.  fol.  A  French  translation  accompanies  the  Latin  text,  and  in 
some  copies  a  Dutch  translation  is  substituted  for  the  French.  A  copy 
was  advertised  by  B.  &  J.  White  in  1795  {Catalogue,  No.  37,  p,  3,  London, 
1795),  iri  which  the  plates  were  coloured  by  J.  Fortuyn,  at  Leyden,  soon 
after  the  publication  of  the  work,  from  the  specimens  themselves  in 
Seba's  museum.. 

The  plates  were  reprinted  at  Paris  in  1827,  and  a  new  tey.t  was 
promised,  but  was  not  issued.  The  plates,  says  Cuvier,  are  excellent, 
but  the  text  ',5  of  no  authority  whatever,  being  written  without  accuracy 
or  judgment.  Cuvier,  The  Animal  Kingdotn,  by  Griffith,  vol.  xvi. 
(Index),  p.  321.      London,  1835. 

^  Chalmers,  Ge?ieral  Biographical  Dictionary,  s.v.  Ruysch.  It  was 
visited  by  Dr.  Edward  Brown  in  1668.     Travels,  p.  100,  London,  1685,  fol. 


MUSEUM    NATURAE    CURIOSORUM  117 

it  for  30,000  florins,  and  sent  it  to  St.  Petersburg  in 
1717.^  Like  Seba,  Ruysch,  although  an  octogenarian, 
immediately  set  about  the  formation  of  a  new  collection, 
which  was  ultimately  acquired  by  the  King  of  Poland 
for  20,000  florins."  He  published  a  catalogue  of  the 
original  collection  in  1691/ and  of  part  of  the  second 
in  1710.^  To  this  there  is  prefixed  a  long  poem  in 
Latin,  descriptive  of  the  museum,  by  Lambert  Bidloo, 
with  a  Dutch  translation,  and  a  shorter  Dutch  poem 
by  Hermann  Schyn.  After  Ruysch's  death  an  auction 
catalogue  of  the  whole  of  this  collection  was  issued.^ 

The  Academy  of  Naturae  Ciiriosi  was  for  long- 
anxious  to  establish  a  library  and  museum  similar  to 
those  of  the  Royal  Society  of  London,  but  w^ant  of 
funds  prevented  the  execution  of  the  plan  for  many 
years.  Johann  Jakob  Baier  (1677-1735)  of  Altdorf, 
the  fifth  President,  who  had  spent  much  time  and 
money  in  forming  a  private  collection,*^  vigorously 
supported  the  scheme,  fixed  upon  Nuremberg  as  the 

^  Scheltema,  Afiecdotes  historiques  siir  Picrre-le-Gnmd  et  sur  ses 
voyages  en  Hollande,  p.  127,  Lausanne,  1842,  8vo  ;  Bacmeister,  Op.  laud., 
p.  isosqg. 

^  Van  der  Aa,  Biographisch  Woordetiboek  der  Nederlanden,  s.v.  Ruysch. 

■*  Catalogus  rariorum  quae  in  Museo  Ruyschiano  asservantur  appended 
to  his  Observationum  anaiomico-chirurgicarum  C^«/z^rza,  Amstelod.,  1691, 
4to. 

•*  Thesaurus  aninialiuiii  primus.,  Amstel.,  1710,  4to — Latin  and  Dutch 
— with  plates.  A  synopsis  of  the  contents  of  the  whole  museum  is  given 
by  Valentini,  Museum  Museorum,  ii..  Appendix  xviii.,  p.  59. 

°  Catalogus  Musaei  Ruyschiani,  Amstel.  [1731],  8vo,  94  pp.  See  also 
J.  F.  Schreiber,  Historia  vitae  et  ineritorum  Frederici  u^uysck,  p.  jj, 
Amstel,  1732,  4to.  James  Petiver  acknowledges  his  indebtedness  to 
Ruysch  for  various  reptiles,  insects,  etc. 

^  He  describes  his  library  and  museum  in  his  Sciagrapkia  Musei  sui, 
Norimbergae,  1730,  4to.     Infra.,  p.  219. 


Il8  DR.    JOHN    woodward's    MUSEUM 

most  central  place  for  the  institution,  and  made  some 
progress  in  obtaining  books  and  specimens.  After 
his  death  its  quarters  were  changed  to  Erfurt,  and 
accommodation  for  it  was  found  in  the  convent  of 
the  Augustinian  monks.  The  museum  contained  ana- 
tomical and  pathological  preparations,  coins  and  medals, 
minerals,  petrifactions  and  shells.  The  collection  seems 
never  to  have  been  very  extensive,  and  was  in  1805 
transferred  to  the  University  of  Erfurt.^ 

Dr.  John  Woodward  (1665-1728),  with  unwearied 
industry  during  forty  years,  and  at  great  expense, 
formed  a  very  extensive  museum  of  minerals,  fossils, 
and  shells,  both  English  and  foreign. ^  It  ranked 
with  Sloane's,  and  was  well  known  at  the  time. 

A  verier  monster,  than  on  Afric's  shore 

The  sun  e'er  got,  or  sUmy  Nikis  bore. 

Or  Sloane  or  Woodward's  wondrous  shelves  contain.^ 

The  foreign  fossils  w^ere  sold  after  his  death,  but  the 
greater  part  of  the  English  ones  he  bequeathed  to 
the  University  of  Cambridge,  together  with  a  sum  of 
money  for  the  endowment  of  a  professorship  for  the 
study  of  geology.     The  collection  was  remarkable  for 

•^  Biichner,  Acadeniiae  .  .  .  Naturae  Curiosoruin  Historia,  p.  565  sqq. 
Halae  ]\Iagd.,  1755,  4to,  with  a  View  of  the  Hall.  Hirsching,  NachricJiten 
von  seJiensiuurdigen  Gcmcilde  .  .  .  Kunst-  und  Naiuralien-Kabineten 
.  .  .  in  Teutschland,  iii.  22  ;  vi.  91. 

-An  attanpt  toivards  a  Natural  History  of  the  Fossils  of  England,  in 
a  Catalogue  of  the  English  Fossils  in  the  Collection  of  f.  Woodward, 
M.D.,  part  i.,  tome  i.,  London,  1729,  8vo,  pp.  xvi.,  243,  dealing  with  1574 
specimens;  part  ii.,  pp.  115;  tome  ii.,  London,  1728,  contains  Addi- 
tional English  Native  Fossils,  pp.  no.  This  is  followed  by  Catalogue  of 
the  Foreign  Fossils,  part  i.,  pp.  52,  and  part  ii.,  pp.  33,  and  Ati  Addition, 
pp.  21,  and  another  Addition,  pp.  15. 

^  Pope,  Satires  of  Dr.  Donne  versified,  iw  28. 


ITS    CONTENTS  I  I  9 

its  extent  and  variety,  and  is  particularly  worthy  of 
note  as  having  been  made  with  the  express  object 
of  determining-  the  true  nature  of  petrified  bodies. 
His  views  regarding  the  relative  positions  of  the 
various  strata  of  the  earth's  crust  were  accurate,  and 
he  clearly  saw  that  water  had  played  an  important 
part  in  their  formation,  and  that  what  is  now  dry 
land  had  formerly  been  submerged.  This  submer- 
sion he  assumed  was  the  Noachian  deluge,  which 
implied  a  very  short  period  of  time,  so  that  in  account- 
ing for  geological  phenomena  he  had  to  attribute  to 
it  extraordinary  powers.  Its  waters,  he  maintained, 
had  an  almost  universal  solvent  power,  by  which 
rocks  and  mountains  were  melted  down,  and  were 
thus  able  to  admit  foreign  bodies,  such  as  shells, 
into  their  interior,  and  so  themselves  became  rock.-^ 
Woodward  had  also  "a  curious  collection  of  Roman 
antiquities,  not  only  of  urns,  but  gems,  signets,  rings, 
keys,  stylus  scriptorius,  res  turpiculae,  ivory  pins,  brass 

^  Dr.  Woodward's  views  are  alluded  to  in  a  satirical  broadside  ballad 
of  the  period  Tauronomachm  relating  to  the  quarrel  between  him  and 
Dr.  Mead,  in  which  he  appears  under  the  title  Onos. 

First  Onos  there  of  great  Renown, 

A  fam'd  Empirick  of  the  Town, 

Noted  for  skill  in  occult  Arts 

And  Sciences 

He,  by  Deduction  long  and  sage, 
Teaches,  How  with  impetuous  Rage 
Th'  Abyss,  deserting  dark  Abode, 
From  subterranean  Caverns  flow'd, 
And  dissipating  all  the  World 
Into  a  Hodge-Podge  Deluge  hurl'd. 

Both  Doctors  are  alluded  to  in  another  contemporary  broadside,  The 
Drury  Lane  Monster,  in  which  Dr.  Mead  is  described  as, 
A  famous  Physician  as  ever  was  seen, 
WTiio  once  had  a  Patient  and  she  was  a  queen. 


I20  HIS    SHIELD 

Jibidae,  etc.,"-^  and  a  very  extensive  library,  all  of  which 
were  sold  in  1728.^ 

One  of  his  specimens  gave  rise  to  a  storm  of  contro- 
versy and  many  personalities.  This  was  a  small  but 
curious  iron  shield  of  a  round  form,  which  he  had 
acquired  at  the  sale  of  Mr.  Conyer's  museum  about 
1693.^  The  latter  had  purchased  it  of  a  brazier,  who 
bought  it  amongst  some  brass  and  iron  fraoments 
which  came  out  of  the  armoury  in  the  Tower  of 
London  near  the  end  of  Charles  II.'s  reign.  When 
it  passed  into  Woodward's  possession,  it  became  an 
object  of  interest  to  antiquaries.  He  had  several 
casts  of  it  taken,  and  had  it  engraved  at  Amsterdam 
in  1705.  On  the  concave  side  were  represented,  in 
the  upper  part,  the  ruins  of  Rome  when  burnt  by  the 
Gauls  ;  and  below,  the  weighing  out  of  the  gold  to 
purchase  their  retreat,  together  with  the  arrival  of 
Camillus  and  the  flight  of  the  Gauls;  and  in  the  centre 
a  grotesque  mask  with  horns  very  large  and  promi- 
nent.* Antiquaries  could  not  agree  as  to  its  age.  The 
Dutch  thought  that  it  was  an  antique  ;  the  French 
that  it  was  modern.  Henry  Dodwell  wrote  a  dis- 
sertation upon  it,  in  which  he  fixed  its  date  as  the  time 
of   Nero,    and    suggested    that    it   had    come    out    of 

^  Thoresby's  Diary,  i.,  p.  340.     London,  1830,  8vo. 

^A  catalogue  of  the  library,  antiquities,  etc.,  of  the  late  learned  Dr. 
Woodward.  .  .  .  By  Mr.  Christopher  Batenian,  bookseller,  aitd  Mr. 
John  Cooper.  London  [1728],  8\'o.  The  catalogue  of  the  library  contains 
4756  numbers. 

The  University  of  Cambridge,  in  order  to  make  their  collection  com- 
plete, purchased  two  of  the  cabinets,  ordered  to  be  sold,  at  the  price 
of  ^500. 

^  See  inf7-a,  p.   134. 

^  Biographia  Britannica,  vi.  4330,  London,  1766,  fol. 


FIGURES    AS    CORNELIUS    SCRIBLERUS  12  1 

some  public  collection  such  as  the  Shield  Walk,  White- 
hall.^ Theophilus  Downes  took  a  different  view,  and 
would  not  allow  that  it  was  ancient.  Ainsworth 
abridged  Dodwell's  paper,  and  inserted  it  at  the  end 
of  the  Museum  Woodwardianum,  and  re-edited  and 
improved  it  in  1734.^ 

Woodward  was  not  popular  with  his  contempor- 
aries,^ and  some  of  those  whom  he  had  offended  took 
"all  occasions  to  vex  him,  which  they  thought  might 
be  done  to  purpose  by  decrying  the  antiquity  of  this 
monument."'*  Amono-st  these  "  ino-enious  o-entlemen  " 
was  Pope,  who  ridiculed  both  him  and  the  shield. 
In  the  Memoirs  of  Martinus  Scriblerus  he  figures 
as  Cornelius,  "a  grave  and  learned  gentleman,  by 
profession  an  antiquary,"  who  had  chosen  his  wife 
because  on  the  father's  side  she  was  related  to 
Cardan,  and  to  Aldrovandi  on  the  mother's.  He 
was  fond  of  an  antique  buckler  which  he  held  as  a 
most  authentic  relic,  and,  remembering  that  the  cradle 
of  Hercules  had  been  a  shield,  determined  that  the 
infant   Martinus  should  be  cradled  in  his  own.     The 

^  De  parmn  equestri  Woodwardiana  Disscrtatio,  published  by  Hearne, 
Oxonii,  17 1 3,  8vo.  See  N\cho\s,  Afiecdofcs  0/  Afr.  Boiuyer,  p.  109,  Lon- 
don, 1782,  4to  ;  Illustrations  of  the  Literary  History  of  the  Eightec7ith 
Century^  iv.,  pp.  100-102. 

-De  Clipeo  Caiiii/li  aittiquo.  .  .  .  Disscrtatio,  Lond.,  1734,  4to. 

^  Woodward  was  evidently  of  a  somewhat  jealous  and  petulant 
temperament.  See  Letter  by  Sir  Hans  Sloane  in  Nichols,  Literary 
Illustrations  of  the  Eighteenth  Cefitury,  i.,  p.  272.  Thoresby,  Corre- 
spondence, i.,  p.  409.  Sloane  mentions  that  Woodward's  collection  was 
a  very  fine  one.  Sir  John  Clerk  of  Penicuik  says  "he  himself  was  the 
greatest  curiosity  of  the  whole  collection,"  Memoirs  of  Dr.  Stukcley,  i., 
p.  213;   Metnoirs  of  Sir  John  Clerk,  p.   127. 

*  Thoresby,  Correspondence,  ii.,  p.   108. 


122  DR.    MEADS    MUSEUM 


housemaid,  "  concern'd  for  the  reputation  of  her  own 

cleanliness,  and  her  young  master's  honour,  scoured  it 

as  clean  as  her  And-irons,"  to  the  inexpressible  grief 

of  Cornelius.      In  the  Epistle  to  Addison,  Pope  reverts 

to  the  subject : 

Poor  Vadius,  long  with  learned  spleen  devour'd, 
Can  taste  no  pleasure  since  his  Shield  was  scour'd. 

At  Woodward's  sale  the  shield  was  purchased  by 
Colonel  Richard  King,  one  of  his  executors,  for  £\oo, 
and  at  the  sale  of  his  effects  in  1768  it  was  sold  to  Dr. 
Wilkinson  for  forty  guineas.^ 

A  physician  in  Glasgow  got  a  similar  shield  from 
Spain  in   1737.^ 

Dr.  Richard  Mead  (1673- 17 54)  spent  three  years  at 
the  University  of  Utrecht,  under  the  great  classical 
scholar  and  antiquary,  Graevius,  and  probably  imbibed 
from  him  a  taste  for  classical  learning  and  classical 
antiquities,  which  he  cultivated  during  the  rest  of  his 
long  life.  From  Utrecht  he  passed  to  Leyden  and 
became  a  pupil  of  Paul  Hermann  (1646- 1695),  Pro- 
fessor of  Botany.  Hermann  had  lived  for  several 
years  in  the  East  Indies,  and  had  made  a  large  collec- 
tion of  oriental  plants,  animals,  and  other  objects  which 
he  used  in  illustration  of  his  lectures.  How  far  the 
influence  of  Hermann,  and  a  residence  in  Leydipn,  with 
its  great  museums,  stimulated  the  collecting  spirit,  it  is 
impossible  to  say,  but  both  Mead  and  his  fellow- 
student,    Hermann    Boerhaave'^   (1668- 1738),   became 

^  Biographia  Britanntca,  ict  supra  ;  Gough,  British  Topography,  i.,  p. 
720,  London,  1780. 
^Memoirs  of  Dr.  Stukeley,  ill.,  p.  411  (Surtees  Society,  No.  Ixxx.). 
3  See  post,  p.   146. 


SALE    OF    HIS    COLLECTIONS  1 23 

collectors  and  formed  museums.  Mead  was  a  success- 
ful physician,  and  the  wealth  which  he  acquired 
enabled  him  to  indulge  his  tastes.  His  spacious 
house  in  Great  Ormond  Street  "became  a  repository 
of  all  that  was  curious  in  nature  or  in  art,  to  which 
his  extensive  correspondence  with  the  Learned  in  all 
parts  of  Europe  not  a  little  contributed."^  His 
collections  were  always  available  for  the  use  of 
students,  and  were  freely  open  to  the  public. 

Egyptian  mummies  were  still  rarities,  and  the  hiero- 
glyphics on  their  cases  had  not  ceased  to  puzzle  scholars. 
Mead  was  the  fortunate  possessor  of  a  mummy,  and 
Alexander  Gordon — Jonathan  Oldbuck's  Sandy  Gordon 
— endeavoured  to  solve  the  mystery  by  a  comparative 
study  of  this  and  all  the  other  mummies  in  England, 
which  do  not  seem  to  have  exceeded  three. ^ 

^[Maty],  Memoirs  of  the  Life  of  Richard  Mead,  M.D.,  p.  51,  London, 
1755,  8vo.  Prefixed  is  a  view  of  the  Library  and  Museum;  Nichols, 
Anecdotes  of  William  Botuyer,  pp.  255,  550,  London,  1782,  4to. 

-An  Essay  toward'^  explaining  the  ant  lent  Hieroglyphical  Figures 
on  the  Egyptian  Mummy  in  the  Museum  of  Doctor  Mead,  London, 
1737,  fol. 

Gordon  pubHshed  25  plates  of  all  the  mummies  and  other  Egyptian 
antiquities  in  England,  as  also  this  Essay  and  another  on  the  mummy 
belonging  to  Captain  William  Lethieullier,  London,  1737,  fol.  He  in- 
tended to  publish  similar  essays  explanatory  of  the  other  plates,  but  no 
more  appeared.  Two  plates  of  the  Lethieullier  mummy  had  been  pre- 
viously engraved  by  G.  Vertue,  London,  1724,  fol. 

Mead's  mummy  and  Gordon's  book  are  referred  to  in  Koehler,  Anwei- 
sung  fiir  Reisende  gelehrte,'ip.  219,  Frankf,  1762,  8vo  ;  p.  736,  Magd., 
1 8 10,  8vo. 

The  mummy  was  purchased  at  Dr.  Mead's  sale  by  Dr.  John  Hunter  for 
thirteen  guineas,  and  its  remains  are  now  in  the  museum  of  the  Royal 
College  of  Physicians.  The  Royal  Society's  mummy  was  opened  in  1763 
and  caused  the  death  of  Dr.  Hadley,  Gough,  British  Topography,  i., 
p.  662. 


124  KEMPS    MUSEUM 

Mead's  various  collections  were  brouoht  to  sale  after 
his  death,  and  realised  upwards  of  ;^i 6,000.  The 
library,  which  was  particularly  rich  in  rare  and  curious 
editions  of  the  classics,  produced  over  ^5000.  His 
coins  and  medals  brought  nearly  ^2000,  and  his  anti- 
quities ^3246.^ 

Another  London  collection  of  repute  was  that  of 
John  Kemp  (1665-1717).-  Its  foundation  was  one 
which  had  been  formed  a  number  of  years  before  by 
Jean  Gailliard,  a  Frenchman,  who  had  been  governor 
to  George,  first  Lord  Carteret,  to  whom  he  sold  it 
for  an  annuity  of  ^200.^  After  Lord  Carteret's 
death,  in  1695,  Kemp  purchased  the  museum  from  his 
representatives  and  added  largely  to  it.  The  objects, 
says  a  writer  of  the  day,  "are  neatly  dispos'd  in  ex- 
cellent order  in  a  square  room,  tho'  at  your  entrance 
you  would  not  imagine  to  find  such  treasure  there."* 

Ralph  Thoresby,  who  visited  it  in  January,  1709, 
found  much  to  interest  him,  "  I  visited  Mr,  Kempe, 
who  showed  me  his  noble  collection  of  Greek  and 
Roman    medals,    several    of   the    laroe    medallions   in 

^  Nichols,  Anecdotes  of  Mr.  Bowyer,  pp.  252-255  ;  Museum  Afeadiaman, 
London,  1755,  8vo.  This  is  in  two  parts.  The  first  (pp.  210)  is  of  the 
coins.  The  second  (pp.  213)  embraces  antiquities,  gems  and  objects  of 
natural  history.  A  month  later  there  was  a  second  sale  of  the  general 
antiquities.  A  Catalogue  of  the  .  .  .  Collection  of  valuable  geiiis^  bronzes., 
marble  and  other  busts  and  antiquities  of  the  late  Doctor  iJ/^i^^^  [London, 
1755],  8vo. 

There  were  separate  sales  and  catalogues  of  the  library,  the  prints  and 
drawings  and  the  pictures. 

-  Nichols,  Anecdotes  of  Mr.  Bowyer,  p.  108  ;  Literary  Anecdotes  of  the 
Eighteenth  Century,  v.,  pp.  249,  519  ;  Literary  Illustrations,  iv.,  p.  432. 

^  A  Compleat  Volume  of  the  Memoirs  for  the  Curious,  ii.,  p.  259,  London, 
1710,  4to  ;  Gough,  British  Topography,  i.,  p.  761,  London,  1780,  4to. 

*  A  Compleat  Volume  of  the  Memoirs  for  the  Curious,  ii.,  p.  260. 


KEMPS    MUSEUM  125 

silver,  and  others  larger  in  copper,  valued  at  vast 
sums  of  monies  ;  he  had  also  two  entire  mummies  (in 
their  wooden  chests,  shaped  with  a  human  head,  &c.), 
one  of  which  has  the  Egyptian  hieroglyphics  painted 
upon  the  swathing-bands;  he  had  fragments  of  another 
and  gave  me  a  piece,  which  seems  converted  into  a 
dark  coloured  rosin  or  gum  by  the  embalming,  which 
has  penetrated  the  very  bones,  which  are  not  only 
outwardly  but  quite  through  of  a  black  colour,  as  is 
evident  per  a  piece  he  gave  me  ;  but  what  1  was  most 
surprised  with  was  his  closet  of  the  ancient  deities, 
lares,  lamps,  and  other  Roman  vases,  some  of  which 
were  Monsieur  Spon's,  and  are  described  in  print, 
others  not  yet ;  being  the  noblest  collection  I  ever 
beheld  of  this  kind.     The  Duke  of  Buckinoham  had 

o 

O  a  design  upon  them,  but  not  yielding  to  the  price, 
Mr.  Kempe  advanced  ;^io  and  procured  the  treasure, 
and  has  wrote  over  thai  part  of  the  museum  '  Hie 
sitis  Lm'ibus  laetor'  "^  Three  years  later  on  a  second 
visit  he  found  that  it  had  been  considerably  added  to. 

With  a  view  of  keeping  his  collection  together, 
Kemp  directed  in  his  will  that  it  should  be  offered,  to- 
gether with  his  library,  to  Robert,  first  Earl  of  Oxford, 
or  his  son  Edward,  Lord  Harley,  for  ^2000.  The 
offer  was  declined,  and  the  museum  was  brought 
to  sale  in  1721,  when  Mead  was  an  extensive  pur- 
chaser.- Some  objects  fell  to  Ebenezer  Mussel,  who 
was    subsequently    a    considerable    purchaser    at    the 

^  Diary,  ii.,  pp.  31,  112. 

2  Note  on  a  copy  of  the  Momnnenta  Vetustatis  Kempiana,  London, 
1719-20,  8vo,  in  the  library  of  the  Royal  Medical  and  Chirurgical  Society 
of  London. 


126  ainsworth's  museum 

Mead  sale,  and  were  again  dispersed  at  the  sale  of 
his  own  curiosities  in  1765.^  An  elaborate  catalogue  of 
Kemp's  collection^  was  prepared  by  Robert  Ainsworth 
(1660- 1 743),  the  author  of  the  well-known  Latin 
Dictionary,  who  was  a  hunter  after  antiquities  and 
ofot  tooether  a  small  museum.^ 

One  of  the  most  industrious  collectors  of  the  period 
was  Ralph  Thoresby  (1658- 1725),  the  historian  of 
Leeds.  Another  was  William  Stukeley  (1687- 1768), 
the  antiquary.  Both  kept  diaries  and  preserved  their 
correspondence.  These  have  been  published  and  give 
much  interesting  information  regarding  collectors  and 
collectino-  in  Eng-land  in  the  first  half  of  the  eighteenth 
century.* 

^  Infra,  p.  1 84. 

"^  Monumenta  Vetustatis  Kempiana,  London,  1719-20,  8vo,  in  two 
parts. 

3  Nichols,  Anecdotes  of  Mr.  Bowyer,  pp.  108- no  ;  Literary  Anecdotes  of 
the  Eighteenth  Century,  v.,  p.  248. 

*  Thoresby,  Diary,  London,  1830,  2  vols.,  8vo  ;  Letters  of  Emijieiit 
Me7i  addressed  to  R.  T.,  lb.,  1832,  2  vols.,  8vo  ;  Stukeley,  Family 
Memoirs,  1882-87,  3  vols.,  8vo  (Surtees  Society),  Infra,  p.   183. 


CHAPTER    IX. 

THE   BEGINNINGS   OF   THE   BRITISH    MUSEUM. 

Robert  Hubert  alias  Forges/  "Gent,  and  sworn 
servant  to  his  Majesty,"  had  a  collection  "  of  many 
natural  rarities  "  which  he  had  collected  ''  with  great 
industry,  cost,  and  thirty  years'  travel  in  foraign 
countries."  He  withdrew  it  from  England  during 
the  troubles  of  the  Commonwealth  period,  and  ex- 
hibited it  at  Leipzig  in  1651,  and  thereafter  at 
Hamburg,  and  printed  a  catalogue  in  German  for 
the  use  of  visitors."  Amongst  those  "whose  love 
of  virtue,    learning,    and   of   the   admirable   works   of 

^A  change  of  name  was  often  a  necessity  in  those  times.  Courtine 
adopting  the  name  of  Charleton  {infra,  p.  129)  is  another  example. 
Carte,  the  historian,  lived  in  France  under  the  name  of  Phillips. 
Maty,  Memoirs  of  the  Life  of  Richard  Mead,  M.D.,  p.  39,  London, 
1755,  8vo.  We  have  William  Hubord,  alias  Lowden,  a  plotter  in 
Westmoreland  in  1663.  Cale7idar  of  State  Papers,  Domestic,  1665-66, 
P-  377- 

'^Sachse  de  Lewenheimb,  Gammarologia,  p.  53,  Francof.,  1665,  8vo. 
He  gives  some  further  particulars  in  Major,  Dissertatio  Epistolica  de 
Cancris  et  Serpentibus,  pp.  63,  85,  Jenae,  1664,  8vo  ;  amongst  others, 
that  the  collection  originally  belonged  to  King  Charles  I.  See  also 
Major,  See-Farth,  p.  109,  Hamburg,  1683.  In  the  printed  Catalogue 
Charles  I.  heads  the  list  of  donors. 

127 


128  Hubert's  museum 

God  in  natural  rarities,"  had  been  shewed  "  by  their 
bountiful  addingr  of  somethino-  to  the  encrease  of  the 
fore-mentioned  collection,"  were  "  Gaston,  Duke  of 
Orleans,  Dr.  Housewetel,  Physitian  to  the  King 
of  Sweden  and  chief  Physitian  in  Hamburg,"  Doctor 
Towers  of  Hamburgh,  and  Dr.  Bezler,  Chief 
Physitian  in  Nuremberg.^  After  the  Restoration 
Hubert  brought  it  back  to  England,  and  in  1664 
exhibited  it  "at  the  place  called  the  Musick  House,  at 
the  Miter,  near  the  west  end  of  St.  Paul's  Church.""^ 
It  was  considered  a  good  collection  at  the  time, 
but  now  would  be  thouo-ht  to  have  little  scientific 
value.  Amongst  the  specimens  from  the  animal  king- 
dom were  "a  rib  of  a  Triton  or  Mereman,  taken  by 
Captain  Finny  upon  the  shoals  of  Brasil,  five  hundred 
leagues  from  the  Maine " ;  "  the  head  and  beak  of  a 
true  Griffin  "  ;  "a  very  perfect  great  and  true  Remora 
of  India,  whose  property  is  to  hinder  or  stay  ships  as 
they  swim  (if  we  will  believe  Heathen  philosophers)."^ 

^A  Catalogue  of  Natural  Rarities,  London,  1665,  i2mo. 

''■A  Catalogue  of  Natural  Rarities,  London,  1664,  and  again  in  1665, 
i2mo.  The  two  editions  differ  slightly.  I  have  quoted  from  both.  There 
is  another  catalogue,  A  Catalogue  of  part  of  the  Rarities  collected  by 
R.  H.  alias  Forges,  Gent,  London,  n.d.,  8vo,  mentioned  in  Catalogus 
Bidliot/iecae  Harleianae,  \\.  13,398.  London,  1743,  8vo.  Aga.ss\z,  £il>lio- 
graphia  zoolo^iae  et  geologiae,  s.v.  Forges,  London,  1848-54,  8vo. 

As  to  this  collection,  see  The  Tatler,  vi.,  p.  33,  ed.  Nichols,  Lon- 
don, 1786.  Kippis,  Biographia  Britannica,  iv.,  p.  347,  London, 
1789,  fol. ;    Weld,  History  of  the  Royal  Society,  i.,  p.   188. 

^The  Remora  is  the  sucking-fish  {echefieis)  of  which  the  ancients  related 
the  most  wonderful  stories  (Pliny,  Histoj'ia  Naturalis,  ix.  41  (25),  xxxii. 
i),  faithfully  repeated,  with  additions,  until  comparatively  recent  times. 
It  is  figured  and  described  by  Briickmann,  Epistola  Itineraria,  50, 
Cent,  i.,  and  by  Ignazio  Bracci,  Reinorae  pisciculi  Effigies,  Romae,  1643, 
fol. 


COURTEN  S    COLLECTIONS  I  29 

Besides  "divers  stones  of  strange  shapes  and  regular 
forms,"  he  had  a  considerable  assortment  of,  what  was 
then  a  favourite  exhibit,  "natural  landskips  in  stone. "^ 
Amongst  them  "a  white  stone  that  represents  a  tree, 
as  if  it  was  made  by  art  with  a  pen  "  ;  "a  stone  with 
the  natural  land-skip  of  a  castle  on  a  hill,  a  town  at 
the  bottom,  and  a  pathway  between,  very  pleasant  to 
behold."  Hubert  mentions  that  he  had  an  Arcuata 
coccmea,  a  sort  of  sea-curlew,  ''given  me  together  with 
the  full  relation  of  it,  by  the  learned  Dr.  Charlton, 
one  of  the  King's  Majestis  Physitians  in  ordinary, 
and  excellently  knowing  in  Natural  Rarities,"  and 
"  a  great  Crocodile  given  by  noble  Squire  Courtine, 
a  lover  of   vertue  and  ingenuity." 

Squire  Courtine  was  William  Courten  (1642- 1702), 
better  known  as  William  Charleton,  a  name  which 
he  assumed  and  under  which  he  lived  for  many 
years.  His  collection  Evelyn  declared  to  be  one 
of  the  largest  and  most  perfect  he  had  seen,  and  cost 
;!^8ooo.""  Petiver  alludes  to  it  as  "  the  incomparable 
Museum  of  that  most  curious  preserver  of  both 
natural   and  artificial   rarities,   and   my  worthy  friend 

^  For  instance,  Briickmann,  Epistolae  Itinerariae,  25,  50,  Cent.  i.  Grew, 
Musaeiim  Regalis  Societatis,  p.  311,  London,  1681,  fol.  In  the  Copen- 
hagen museum  they  had  "  a  piece  of  marble  with  a  natural  representation 
of  a  Crucifix  on  its  outside,  mightily  valued  by  the  Lutherans."  The 
Philosophical  Transactions,  xxiii.  (1702-3),  p.  1412. 

-Evelyn,  Diary,  iii.,  pp.  29,  86,  99,  442,  London,  1879;  Numismata, 
pp.  246,  251,  282,  London,  1697;  Thoresby,  Diary,  i.,  p.  299;  ii., 
p.  250,  London,  1830,  8vo  ;  Brown,  Travels,  p.  102,  London,  1685,  fol-  \ 
[M.  de  la  Combe  de  Vrigny]  Travels  through  Denmark  and  sotne 
parts  of  Germany,  p.  7,  London,  1707,  8vo  ;  Neickelius,  Museographia, 
p.  67,  Leipzig,  1727,  4to ;  Cramer's  Introduction  to  Rumph,  Amboi- 
nische  Raritdten-Kammer,  p.  vii.,  Wien,  1766,  fol. 

I 


I30  DR.    WALTER    CHARLETON 

Mr.  William  Charleton  in  the  Middle  Temple."^  It 
was  bequeathed  on  his  death  in  1702  to  Sir  Hans 
Sloane  ;^  but  was  in  confusion  when  it  came  into  his 
possession.^  It  now  forms  part  of  the  British  Museum.^ 
Dr.  Charleton  (1619-1707)  was  the  well-known 
physician,^  and  author  of  the  Chorea  Giganturn^  in 
which,  supported  by  arguments  supplied  by  Ole 
Worm,  he  essays  to  prove  that  Stonehenge  was 
erected  by  the  Danes,  and  which  was  the  occasion 
of  Dryden's  spirited  Epistle  : 

Stonehenge,  once  thought  a  temple,  you  have  found 
A  throne,  where  Kings,  our  earthly  gods,  were  crown'd ; 
"\\Tiere  by  their  wond'ring  subjects  they  were  seen, 
Joy'd  with  their  stature  and  their  princely  mien. 

Shortly  after  its  incorporation  the  Royal  Society, 
on  the  initiative  of  Daniel  Colwal,  began  to  form 
a  museum  of  curiosities  at  Gresham  College.  "  Those 
of  the  Society  that  are  now  in  London,"  writes  Henry 
Oldenburg,  "  do  endeavour  to  get  a  good  collection  of 
natural  and  artificial  curiosities  for  the  Society's  reposi- 

■*  The  Philosophical  Tratisacfiotis,  xxi.  (1699),  p.  295. 

-Letter  by  John  Calder,  1788,  in  Nichols,  Literary  Illustrations  of  the 
Eighteenth  Century,  viii.,  p.  265 ;  Jb.  i.,  p.  800 ;  Kippis,  Biographia 
Britannica,  iv.,  p.  334  sgq. ;  The  Taller,  vi.,  pp.  476,  488-502,  ed. 
Nichols,  London,  1786  ;  Weld,  History  of  the  Royal  Society,  L,  p.  452  ; 
Chambers,  Edinburgh  Journal,  xv.  (1851),  p.  310;  Edwards,  Memoirs 
of  Libraries,  i.,  p.  440,  London,  1859,  8vo  ;  Lives  of  the  Founders  of 
the  British  Museum,  p.  248  sqq.,  London,  1870,  8vo. 

*Thoresby,  Correspo?ide?tce,  i.,  p.  409.     London,  1832,  8vo. 

*  Gentleman^ s  Magazitie,  vol.  86,  pt.  ii.  (18 16),  p.  395  ;  Dryden,  Works, 
ed.  Scott,  xi.  p.  12,  Edinb.,  182 1,  8vo. 

^  Weld,  History  of  the  Royal  Society,  i.,  p.  190. 

®  London,  1663,  4to.  See  Bartholin,  Epistolae  Medidnales,  Cent,  iv., 
Epist.  92,  pp.  479,  480.     Hag.  Com.,  1740,  i2mo. 


ROYAL    SOCIETY  S    MUSEUM  I  3  I 

tory ;  and  they  hope  to  make  shortly  an  acquest  of  a 
very  good  stock  of  that  kind,  which  will  look  as 
somethinor  towards  a  foundation."^  This  was  a 
collection  ''which  had  belonged  to  Mr.  Hubbard,"^ 
which  was  purchased  with  ;^ioo  presented  by  Mr. 
Colwal.^  Many  additions  were  made,  and  the 
museum  soon  became  one  of  the  attractions  of 
London  ;  "  Inquire  at  Gresham  Colledge  for  Dr. 
Pope,"  says  Sir  Andrew  Balfour,  "  that  by  his 
means  you  may  see  a  verie  fine  collection  of 
naturall  rarities  kept  in  that  Colledge."*  In  1678 
Nehemiah  Grew  (1628-1711),  the  vegetable  ana- 
tomist and  physiologist,  was  requested  to  prepare  a 
descriptive  catalogue  of  the  collection,  which  was 
published  three  years  afterwards,  and  w^hich  passed 
throuQfh  several  editions.^  The  Catalosfue  was  founded 
on  several  lectures  read  by  the  author  before  the  Royal 

^Robert  Boyle,  Works,  vi.,  p.  215.     London,  1772,  4to. 

■^Weld,  History  0/ the  Royal  Society,  i.,  p.  186,  London,  1848,  8vo. 

'  Colwal  himself  is  said  to  have  been  a  collector.  Granger,  Biographical 
History  of  England,  iii.,  p.  402,  London,  1779,  8vo. 

■*  Letters  written  to  a  Friend  by  the  Learned  and  Jttdicioies  Sir  Andrew 
Balfour,  M.D.,  p.  4.  Edinburgh,  1700,  i2mo.  The  letter  in  question 
was  written  about  1668. 

^  A  Catalogue  and  description  of  the  natural  and  artificial  rarities 
belonging  to  the  Royal  Society  and  preserved  at  Creshatn  College. 
London,  1681,  fol.,  with  engravings,  prepared  at  the  expense  of  Daniel 
Colwal,  the  founder  of  the  museum.  Valentini,  Museujn  Museorum, 
ii..  Appendix,  p.  19,  gives  a  short  account  of  the  collection  founded  on  the 
Acta  Lipsiensia  of  168 1 -1686. 

Sir  Hans  Sloane  wrote,  "  An  account  of  a  China  Cabinet,  filled  with 
several  instruments,  fruits,  etc.,  used  in  China ;  sent  to  the  Royal  Society 
by  Mr.  Buckly,  Chief  Surgeon  at  Fort  St.  George."  The  Philosophical 
Transactions,  xx.  (1698),  pp.  390,  461  ;  xxi.  (1699),  pp.  44,  70. 


132  FOUNDED    ON    HUBERTS 

Society  in  1676.     The  collection  itself  was  ultimately- 
transferred  to  the  British  Museum/ 

There  seems  little  doubt  that  the  stock  which 
formed  the  foundation  of  the  Royal  Society's  Mu- 
seum was  that  of  Robert  Hubert  alias  Forges.^ 
Hubert's  collection  was  for  sale  at  the  time;^  and 
a  comparison  of  his  catalogue  with  that  of  Grew 
seems  to  settle  the  question.  Take  but  a  few 
examples.  The  first  entry  in  the  former  is  "A 
Giants  Thigh-bone,  more  than  four  feet  in  length, 
found  in  Syria.'  Grew  describes  it,  "The  leg  bone 
of  an  Elephant.  It  was  brought  out  of  Syria  for  the 
Thigh-bone  of  a  Giant."  Hubert  had  the  horns  of  a 
hare  which  had  belonged  to  the  Prince  Electors  of 
Saxony,*  and  a  rhinoceros'  horn  which  was  given  to 
him  by  the   Duke  of  Holstein.      Both  objects  appear 

1  Flower,  "The  Museum  of  the  Royal  College  of  Surgeons,  England," 
in  Transactions  of  the  International  Medical  Congress,  7  Sess.,  i.,  p.  133, 
London,  1881;  Essays  on  Musetans,  p.  76. 

2 The  purchase  was  made  in  February,  166^,  and  Hubert's  museum 
was  on  exhibition  in  1664  and  1665  [supra,  p.  127).  According  to 
Oldys,  "  this  collection,  or  a  great  part  of  it,  was  purchased  by  Sir 
Hans  Sloane;"  (Hawkins,  History  of  Music,  iv.,  p.  379,  London,  1776, 
4to).  But  I  think  part,  at  any  rate,  went  to  the  Royal  Society.  There 
was  no  Mr.  Hubbard,  a  collector,  so  far  as  I  have  been  able  to  ascertain, 
and  I  take  it  that  Hubbard  is  a  mistake  for  Hubert. 

Sir  Hans  Sloane's  part  of  the  museum  seems  to  have  come  by  way 
of  Mr.  Courten  {The  Tatler,  vi.,  p.  34,  ed.  Nichols,  London,  1786). 
Allibone,  Dictionary  of  EnglisJi  Literature,  i.,  p.  909,  London,  1859, 
8vo,  says  that  the  collection  was  destroyed  in  the  great  fire  of  1666, 
but  there  seems  to  be  no  authority  for  the  statement. 

'^  A   Catalogue  of  many  Rarities,  p.  68,  London,  1665,  l2mo. 

*  Hares'  horns  were  great  curiosities.  King  James  L  of  England  had 
one  of  the  horns.  The  horned  hare  was  found  in  Saxony.  Mtcseum 
Wonnianiim,  p.  321  ;  Keysler,  Reisen,  p.  1309,  Hannover,  175 1,  4to. 


THOMAS    WILLLSEL  133 

in  Grew's  catalogue,  with  the  same  note  of  former 
ownership.  Grew  seems  to  have  been  puzzled  by 
the  horns  of  the  hare,  for  he  adds,  "so  I  find  them 
inscribed."'  The  flamingo  i^phaenicopter)  which  he 
describes  was,  he  says,  "  Given  by  Thomas  Povey, 
Esq."  Hubert's  specimen  was  "given  by  the  in- 
genious lover  of  rarities,  Mr,  Povey,  treasurer  to  His 
Hignesse  the  Duke  of  Yorke."  Hubert  had  a  leg  of 
a  dodo,  which  duly  figures  in  the  Royal  Society's 
collection.  They  were  likewise  indebted  to  him  for 
the  leg  and  t.<g^  of  the  cassow^ary.  Besides  the  ob- 
jects catalogued,  Hubert  mentions  that  he  had  forty 
chests  or  boxes  furnished  with  many  hundred 
rarities. 

As  an  assistant  in  the  great  work  of  collecting, 
mention  should  be  made  of  Thomas  Willisel,  a 
Northamptonshire  man,  who  "  was  employed  by  the 
Royal  Society  in  the  search  of  natural  rarities,  both 
animals,  plants,  and  minerals;  for  which  purposes  he 
was  the  fittest  man  in  England,  both  for  his  skill  and 
industry.  He  gave  great  assistance  to  Ray  and  other 
botanists  in  collecting  specimens  for  them,"^  He 
served  as  a  foot-soldier  in  the  army  of  Oliver  Crom- 
well. "  Lying  at  St,  James's  (a  garrison  then,  I 
thinke),  he  happened,"  writes  Aubrey,  "to  go  along 
with  some  simplers.'-  He  liked  it  so  well  that  he 
desired  to  goe  with  them  as  often  as  they  went,  and 
tooke    such   a   fancy    to    it    that   in   a   short    time    he 

^  Pulteney,  Sketches  of  the  Progress  of  Botany,  i.,  pp.  348,  349.  Ray, 
Travels  throug]i  the  Low  Countries,  i.,  p.  98. 

^A  "simpler"  is  what  Ray  {supra,  p.  81)  terms  an  "herbarist."  Dr. 
Adam  Littleton  in  his  Latin  Dictionary  explains  Herbarius  as  "  an 
herbarist  or  simpler  ;  he  that  has  knowledge  of  herbs,  plants,  etc." 


134  CONYERS     MUSEUM 

became  a  good  botanist.  He  was  a  lusty  fellow,  and 
had  an  admirable  sight,  which  is  of  great  use  for  a 
simpler ;  was  as  hardy  as  a  Highlander ;  all  the 
clothes  on  his  back  not  worth  ten  groates,  an  ex- 
cellent marksman,  and  would  maintain  himselfe  with 
his  dog  and  his  gun  and  his  fishing-line.  The 
botanists  of  London  did  much  encourage  him,  and 
employed  him  all  over  England,  Scotland,  and  good 
part  of  Ireland,  if  not  all ;  where  he  made  brave 
discoveries,  for  which  his  name  will  ever  be  remem- 
bered in  herballs.  If  he  saw  a  strange  fowle  or  bird, 
or  a  fish,  he  would  have  it  and  case  it."^  Some  of  his 
collections  were  in  Sir  Hans  Sloane's  Herbarium  and 
so  found  their  way  to  the  British  Museum. 

John  Conyers,  by  profession  an  apothecary  in  Shoe 
Lane,  and  by  taste  an  antiquary,^  had  a  museum  of 
rarities  which  he  had  collected  during  thirty  years. 
In  1691  he  had  it  newly  "methodized,"  and  made 
"a  Proposal  to  the  publick  of  exposing  his  col- 
lections to  such  as  shall  be  curious  to  see  them." 
The  Athenian  Society  "  for  the  resolving  all  nice 
and  curious  questions "  was  consulted  upon  the  pro- 
posal, and  after  viewing  the  collection  and  shortly 
describing  it,   pronounced  this  somewhat  enigmatical 

^  Aubrey,  The  Natural  History  of  Wiltshire,  ed.  Britton,  p.  48,  note, 
London,  1847,  4to.     (The  Wiltshire  Topographical  Society.) 

2  He  was  also  inventor  of  an  improved  Hygroscope,  an  improved  Pump, 
and  an  improved  Speaking-Trumpet.  The  Philosophical  Transactions, 
xi.  (1676),  No.  129,  p.  715,  xii.  (1677-78);  No.  136,  p.  888;  No.  141, 
p.  1027.  Sloane  MS.  958,  contains  a  number  of  observations  by  Conyers 
from  1673  to  1690.  See  also  Harleian  MS.  5953,  f.  112.  He  mentions 
finding  of  the  tooth  and  bone  of  an  elephant,  supposed  to  have  been 
"  slain  in  the  battle  between  ye  Romans  and  ye  Britains."    Cf.  supra,  p.  50. 


JAMES    PETIVER  135 

opinion  :  "  Now  of  what  use  a  carefull  and  observant 
view  of  these  things  may  be  to  the  Divine,  the 
Naturalist,  Physician,  Antiquary,  Historian,  or  indeed 
any  person  of  Curiosity  will  not  be  hard  to  deter- 
mine."^ It  was  sold  apparently  about  two  years  later. '"^ 
James  Petiver  (d.  17 18),  apothecary  to  the  Charter- 
house, an  excellent  botanist  and  entomologist,'^  corre- 
sponded with  naturalists  all  over  the  world,*  and  formed 
a  large  miscellaneous  museum,  which  he  described  in 
various  publications  between  1695  and  171 7.'     On  his 

^  The  Athenian  Merairy,  vol.  iv.,  No.  i6,  2ist  November,  1691.  Of 
Conyers  himself,  see  Nichols,  Literary  Anecdotes  of  the  Eighteenth 
Century,  i.,  p.  535. 

There  is  mention  about  this  time  of  an  exhibition  on  Ludgate  Hill, 
Where  Crocodile,  Rhinoceros,  and  Baboon 
With  other  Prodigies  are  daily  shown  : 
which  may  refer  to  this  collection.     State  Poems   Cojitifiucd,  p.   162,  in 
Poems  on  Affairs  of  State,  vol.  i.,  London,  17 10,  8vo. 

2  Nichols,  Literary  Illtistratioiis  of  the  Eighteenth  Century,  iv.,  p.  10 1  ; 
Supra,  p.  120. 

^  Sloane,  A  Voyage  to  the  Islands  of  Madeira  .  .  .  and  famaica,  ii., 
p.  iv.,  London,  1725,  fol.;  Pulteney,  ^'^^/'^r/z^i-  of  the  Progress  of  Botany, 
ii.,  p.  31.  There  are  a  great  many  notices  of  Petiver  in  the  first  volume 
of  Nichols,  Literary  Illustrations  of  the  Eighteenth  Century. 

*  He  occasionally  got  specimens  from  Scotland,  e.g.  "  Muscus  Scoticus 
corallio  incrustatus.  Got  in  a  fresh  River  near  Clacmannan  on  Forth 
within  a  few  miles  of  Stirling  ;  procur'd  me  thence  by  my  Curious  and 
Worthy  Friend,  Mr.  James  Hamilton,  Surgeon  in  Edinburgh."  Gazo- 
phylacii  Naturae  et  Artis  Decas  Priina,  Tab.  x..  No.  10,  p.  16,  Londini, 
1702. 

At  the  end  of  the  Museum  Petiverianum,  infra,  he  returns  thanks  for 
specimens  to  many  friends.  Amongst  them  are  No.  13,  Mr.  James 
Hamilton,  Surgeon  in  Edinburgh  ;  and  No.  26,  Mr.  James  Sutherland, 
Superintendent  of  the  Physick  Garden  at  Edinburgh.     Itfra,  p.  159. 

''Museum  Petiverianum,  London,  1695- 1703,  8vo  ;  in  ten  centuries, 
each  describing  one  hundred  plants,  animals,  or  fossils.  Petiveriana, 
London,  1716-17,  fol.  See  also  A  Compleat  Volume  of  the  Memoirs  for 
the  Curious,  p.  222,  London,  17 10,  4to  ;  Valentini,  Museum  Museorum,  ii., 
Appendix  xiv.,  pp.  43-52  ;     The  Philosophical  Transactions,  xx.  (1698), 


136  SIR    HANS    SLOANE 

death  Sir  Hans  Sloane  purchased  the  collection  to- 
gether with  his  books  and  manuscripts/  all  of  which 
subsequently  passed  to  the  British  Museum.  The 
Herbarium  has  recently  been  transferred  from  Mon- 
tague House  to  the  Natural  History  Museum  at 
South  Kensington. 
-    One  of  the  orreatest  collectors  whom  the  world  has 

o 

ever  seen  was  Sir  Hans  Sloane  ( 1 660-1 75 1),  the 
celebrated  physician,  President  of  the  College  of 
Physicians  and  of  the  Royal  Society,"'  and  a  con- 
temporary of  Dr.  Mead.  He  early  commenced 
to  form  a  museum,  and  continued  to  add  to  it 
without  intermission  until  the  close  of  his  long  life. 
In  1687  he  made  a  voyage  to  Jamaica,  and  is  said 
to  have  been  the  first  man  of  learning  whom  the 
love  of  science  alone  led  to  that,  then  distant,  part 
of  the  orlobe.  He  brouo-ht  home  with  him  not 
fewer  than  800  different  species  of  plants,  and  this 
was  the  first  laro^e  accession  to  his  collection. 
Amongst  other  important  acquisitions  which  he 
made  in  later  years  were  the  Charleton  or  Courten 
and  Petiver  collections,  which  have  already  been 
mentioned,    and    those    of    Dr.    Christopher    Merret 

PP-  313,  393  ;  xxi.  (1699),  PP-  289,  295  ;  xxiii.  (1702-3),  p.  141 1  sqq.  ;  xxvii. 
(1710-12),  p.  142  sqq. 

Petiver  also  published  Brief  Directions  for  the  easie  making  and  pre- 
serving Collections  of  all  Natural  Curiosities,  n.d. 

1  Sloane,  tit  supra;  Pulteney,  Op.  laud.,  ii.,  p.  78;  Nichols,  Illustra- 
tions of  the  Literary  History  of  the  Eighteenth  Century,  i.,  p.  276. 
Edwards,  Lives  of  the  Founders  of  the  British  Museum,  p.  290.  London, 
1870,  8vo. 

2  See  Briickmann,  Epistola  Itineraria,  64,  Cent.  i.  ;  Memoirs  of  Dr. 
Stukeley,  i.  pp.  65,  125  (Surtees  Society,  No.  Ixxiii.). 


FORMATION    OF    SLOANE  S    MUSEUM  137 

(1614-1695)/  of  Dr.  Leonard  Plukenet  (1642-1706),^ 
a  friend  of  Courten,  and  of  Rev.  Adam  Buddie, 
Reader  at  Gray's  Inn,^  which  consisted  chiefly  of 
botanical  specimens  or  other  objects  of  natural  history. 
Pope,  speaking-  of  the  connoisseur  or  agent,  mentions 
the  principal  collectors  of  the  day  : 

He  buys  for  Topham,  Drawings  and  Designs, 
For  Fountain  Statues,  and  for  Pembroke  Coins ; 
Rare  monkish  Manuscripts  for  Hearne  alone, 
And  Books  for  Mead,  and  Rarities  for  Sloane.'^ 

The  arrangement  of  his  treasures  cost  Sloane  much 
time  and  trouble.  In  1725  he  had  5497  specimens 
of  earths,  bitumens,  metals,  minerals,  stones,  and 
fossils;  804  corals;  8226  vegetable  and  vegetable 
substances  ;  200  large  volumes  of  dried  samples  of 
plants  ;  3824  insects  ;  3753  shells  ;  1939  echini, 
Crustacea,  fishes,  and  the  like  ;  568  birds  and  185 
eggs;    1 1 94  quadrupeds  and   their  parts;    345  vipers 

^  Sloane,  A  Voyage  to  the  Islands  of  Madeira  .  .  .  and  /amaz'ca,  ii., 
p.  ii.,  London,  1725,  fol. 

-Pulteney,  Sketches  of  the  Progress  of  Botany,  ii.,  p.  28. 

^  Nichols,  Literary  Illustrations  of  the  Eighteenth  Century,  i.,  pp. 
269,  282,  364. 

*  Pope,  Moral  Essays,  Ep.  iv.,  7.  "  Rarities  "  became  "  Butterflies  "  in 
the  later  editions.  In  these  editions  the  name  of  Sir  Andrew  Fountain 
(1676-1763)  was  dropped  out.  He  was  a  well-known  antiquary  and 
virtuoso.  "  By  his  skill  and  judgment  he  furnished  the  most  considerable 
cabinets  of  this  kingdom,  to  his  own  no  small  emolument."  Nichols, 
Literary  Anecdotes,  v.,  p.  253,  "Walked  with  Mr.  G.  Plaxton  to  the  in- 
genious Sir  Andrew  Fountain's,  who  showed  me  several  admirable 
curiosities  and  antiquities  from  Ireland,  both  Roman,  Danish,  and  Irish, 
of  copper  and  other  metals,"  Thoresby,  Diary,  ii.,  p.  28.  Of  Lord  Pem- 
broke's coins  Thoresby  says,  "  It  is  incomparably  the  best  collection  in 
the  nation,  if  not  in  the  universe,"  Op.  laud.,  ii.,  p.  35.  As  to  the  catalogue 
of  this  collection  see  supra,  p.  1 5. 


138  ITS    EXTENT 

and  serpents;  507  JiMviana  \  1169  miscellaneous 
objects,  both  natural  and  artificial ;  302  things  relating 
to  the  customs  of  ancient  times,  or  antiquities,  urns, 
instruments,  etc.;  and  81  large  seals  ;  319  pictures, 
many  relating  to  natural  history ;  54  mathematical 
instruments;  441  "large  vessels,  handles,  and  other 
things  made  of  agats,  jaspers,  cornelians,  christals, 
besides  many  camei  and  seals,  excisa  and  incisa ; 
20,228  coins  and  medals,  ancient  and  modern;  136 
books  in  miniature  or  colours,  with  drawings  of  plants, 
etc.,  and  all  sorts  of  natural  and  artificial  curiosities  ; 
580  books  of  prints  ;  2666  volumes  of  manuscripts, 
the  greater  part  of  them  relating  to  physick  and 
natural  history,  travels,  etc."^  In  all  he  had  53,018 
separate  specimens,  which  by  1733  had  increased  to 
69,352,^  and  went  on  increasing  for  the  next  twenty 
years.^  He  was  equally  industrious  in  collecting  a 
library  relating  to  the  medical  art,  natural  history, 
chemistry,  anatomy,  etc.,  which  contained  40,000 
printed  volumes  and  4100  mss.  In  1740  he  re- 
signed the  presidentship  of  the  Royal  Society,  which 
he  had  held  since    1727,  and  next  year  removed  his 

■'This  is  his  own  account  in  the  Introduction  to  vol.  ii.  oi  A  Voyage  to 
the  Islands  of  Madeira  .  .  .  and  Jainaica^  London,  1725,  fol. 

^Maitland,  History  of  Lofidon,  ii.,  p.  1287,  London,  1772,  fol. 

^The  museum  as  it  stood  in  1748  is  described  in  T/ie  Getitlema-n's 
Magazine,  xviii.  (1748),  p.  301.  See  also  John  Ragford's  account,  lb. 
(1816),  part  ii.,  p.  395.  The  number  of  articles  in  1753  is  given  in 
Edwards'  Lives  of  the  Founders  of  the  British  Museum.,  p.  303,  London, 
1870,  8vo.  See  also  Wendeborn,  Zustand  des  Staats,  der  Religion,  der 
Gelehrsamkeit  und  der  Kunst  in  Grosbfitannieft,  vol.  ii.,  p.  162,  Berlin, 
1785-88,  8vo.  English  translation,  i.,  p.  317,  London,  1791,  8vo,  but  this 
is  an  abridgment  and  does  not  give  the  particulars  in  the  original. 


SLOANES    WILL  I  39 

library  and  museum  to  Chelsea,  where  he  died  nth 
January,  1753.  ^^^  museum  and  library  had  cost 
upwards  of  ^50,000,  and  its  value,  according  to  his 
own  and  other  accounts,  was  ^80,000.^  By  his  Will 
he  bequeathed  the  whole  to  the  nation  on  condition 
that  ^20,000  should  be  paid  to  his  family.  The 
document   is  an  interestino-  one  : 

Whereas  from  my  youth  I  have  been  a  great  observer 
and  admirer  of  the  wonderful  power,  wisdom,  and  contrivance 
of  the  Almighty  God,  appearing  in  the  works  of  his  creation, 
and  have  gathered  together  .  .  .  books,  both  printed  and 
manuscript,  .  .  .  natural  and  artificial  curiosities,  precious 
stones,  .  .  .  dried  plants,  .  .  .  and  the  like,  .  .  . 
amounting  in  the  whole  to  a  very  great  sum  of  money  :  Now, 
desiring  very  much  that  these  things,  tending  many  ways  to 
the  manifestation  of  the  glory  of  God,  the  confutation  of 
atheism  and  its  consequences,  the  use  and  improvement  of 
the  arts  and  sciences,  and  benefit  of  mankind,  may  remain 
together  and  not  be  separated,  and  that  chiefly  in  and  about  the 
city  of  London,  where  they  may,  by  the  great  confluence  of 
people,  be  of  most  use.  ...  Do  hereby  request  that  .  .  .  (my) 
trustees  ...  do  make  their  humble  application  to  Parlia- 
ment ...  to  pay  .  .  .  ;^2o,oco  .  .  .  unto  my  executors 
.  .  .  in  consideration  of  the  said  collection  (it  not  being, 
as  I  apprehend  and  believe,  a  fourth  of  the  real  and  intrinsic 
value),  and  also  to  obtain  .  .  .  sufficient  and  effectual  powers 
...  for  the  preserving  and  continuing  my  said  collection, 
in  such  manner  as  they  shall  think  most  likely  to  answer  the 
public  benefit  by  me  intended. 

The  gift  was  accepted,  and  in  1753  an  Act  (26 
Geo.  II.,  c.  22)  was  passed  for  the  purchase  of  the 
Sloane   library  and   museum   and   of  the   Harley  col- 

1  Letter  by  Horace  Walpole,  who  was  one  of  his  trustees,  to  Sir  Horace 
Mann,  14th  February,  1753.  Walpole,  Letters^  ed.  Cunningham,  vol.  vii., 
p.  320,  London,  1857,  8vo. 


140  MUSEUM    ACQUIRED    BY   THE    NATION 

lection  of  charters  and  manuscripts,  which  was  in 
the  market  at  the  time,  for  uniting  them  with  the 
Cotton  Library,  and  for  providing  one  "general  reposi- 
tory "  for  these  and  any  other  additions  that  might 
thereafter  be  made.  The  Act  authorised  the  raising 
of  the  funds  required  by  means  of  a  lottery,  and 
fully  ^95,000  was  obtained.  Of  this,  ^20,000  went 
to  the  two  daughters  of  Sir  Hans  Sloane,  Mrs.  Stanley 
and  Lady  Cadogan ;  ;i^i 0,000  to  the  Duchess  of 
Portland,  heiress  of  the  second  Earl  of  Oxford; 
^10,000  for  the  purchase  of  Montagu  House;  ^13,000 
for  altering  and  repairing  it ;  and  ^30,000  was  set 
aside  as  a  capital  fund,  the  interest  of  which,  it  was 
hoped,  would  meet  salaries  and  cost  of  maintenance. 
The  three  collections  thus  acquired  and  housed  be- 
came the  British  Museum,  which  was  opened  to  the 
public  on  Monday,  the  15th  of  January,  1759,  and  is 
now  one  of  the  greatest  museums  and  libraries  of 
the  world. 

While  the  Harleian  manuscripts  were  secured  for 
the  nation,  it  is  to  be  rei^retted  that  the  o'reat  Harleian 
Library  had  been  allowed  to  be  dispersed  a  few  years 
earlier.  It  was  purchased,  in  1742,  by  Tom  Osborne, 
the  bookseller,  for  ^13,000,  a  sum  which  is  said  to 
have  represented  less  than  the  price  of  the  bindings,^ 
and  was  sold  off  in  detail.  Grateful  to  the  deceased 
Earl  of  Oxford  for  many  favours,  Osborne  determined 
to  issue  a  sale  catalogue  that  would  be  a  monument  to 
his  memory,  and  employed  Samuel  Johnson  to  assist 
in  its  preparation.      "  Hie  artiuni  liber alium  disciplin- 

^  Oldys,  in  Brydges,  Censttra  Literaria,  i.,  p.  438,  London,  1805,  8vo. 


LETHTEULLIER    AND    BRANDER  I4I 

artmiqiie  aniatoribus  offertur  catalogiis ;  tanquam 
perefDie  qiiidam  literariitm  Musei  Harleiani  momi,- 
mefttum."  ^ 

The  first  donor  to  the  new  establishment  was 
Colonel  William  LethieulHer,  who  bequeathed  to  the 
museum  a  collection  of  English  and  Egyptian  anti- 
quities and  a  very  perfect  mummy,  which  had  been 
described  by  Gordon.^  A  committee  of  the  trustees 
waited  upon  the  Colonel's  executors  upon  23rd 
February,  1756,  to  return  thanks  for  the  legacy, 
when  Pitt  LethieulHer,  the  Colonel's  nephew,  pre- 
sented them  with  several  antiquities  which  he  had 
himself  collected  during  his  residence  in  Cairo.^ 

Gustavus  Brander  (i  720-1 787),  a  wealthy  London 
merchant,  employed  his  leisure  and  his  means  in 
making  various  collections,  and  amongst  others  a 
collection  of  fossils  found  in  the  cliffs  about  Christ- 
church  and  the  west  of  Hampshire.  These  he 
presented  to  the  British  Museum,  and  a  description 
of  them  prepared  by  Daniel  Charles  Solander,  the 
keeper  of  the  printed  books,  was  published  in  1766/ 

^  The  catalogue,  Catalogus  Biblioihecae  Harleianae^  London,  1743-45, 
is  in  five  volumes  and  contains  36,690  lots,  representing  probably  100,000 
to  150,000  volumes,  in  addition  to  251  volumes  of  books  of  prints  and  36 
lots  of  drawings.  Gough  states  {British  Topography,  i.,  p.  658)  that  the 
last  three  volumes  were  only  shop  catalogues,  in  which  the  unsold  articles 
are  repeated.  This  may  be  true  to  some  extent,  but  they  likewise  contain 
a  great  quantity  of  books  which  are  not  in  the  first  or  second  volumes. 

2  Supra,  p.  123. 

^ '^\<:ho\'s,,  Anecdotes  of  Mr.  Bcwyer,  pp.  108,  548  ;  Literary  Attecdotes 
of  the  Eighteenth  Century,  v.  p.  372. 

*  Fossilia  Hantonieiisia  colleeta,  et  in  Musaeo  Britatinico  deposita,  a 
Gustavo  Brander,  London,  1766,  4to,  with  plates;  London,  1829,  410; 
Nichols,  Op.  Laud.,  vi.,  p.  260 ;  Edwards,  Lives  of  the  Founders  of  the 
British  Museum,  pp.  22,  401,   London,   1870,  8vo. 


142  HAMILTON    AND    BANKS 

In  1764  and  1765  a  collection  of  birds,  insects,  and 
other  objects  was  exhibited  at  Spring-  Gardens,  and 
was  ultimately  absorbed  by  the  Museum.^ 

But  the  first  large  and  comprehensive  addition  to 
the  archaeological  department  was  that  made  in  1772 
by  the  purchase  by  means  of  a  Parliamentary  grant  of 
the  museum  of  antiquities  which  had  been  formed 
during  seven  years'  researches  in  Italy  by  Sir  William 
Hamilton,  British  Ambassador  at  Naples.- 

One  of  the  most  eminent  of  the  benefactors  of  the 
British  Museum  was  Sir  Joseph  Banks  (1743- 1820), 
who,  like  Sir  Hans  Sloane,  occupied  the  chair  of  the 
Royal  Society  for  a  long  series  of  years.  Like  Sloane, 
he  made  a  voyage  in  early  life  for  the  study  of  natural 
history  and  for  collecting  and  describing  specimens.^ 
He  continued  to  collect  during  the  remainder  of  his 
lone  life,  but  as  a  rule  limited  himself  to  what  he 
acquired  personally  and  did  not  ransack  the  market 
or  buy  up  whole  museums  as  Sloane  did/  Much  of 
his  time  and  energy  were  given  to  the  formation  of 
his  library.      His   opinion  was  that   private   collectors 

^  A  Catalogue  of  Birds,  Insects,  etc.,  now  exhibiting  at  Spring  Gardens. 
[London],  1764  and  1765,  i2mo. 

2  Edwards,  Lives  of  the  Founders  of  the  British  Museum,  p.  247 
sqq.     London,  1870,  8vo. 

^  Dr.  Samuel  Johnson  had  some  thoughts  of  being  a  member  of  this 
expedition,  "  I  see  but  at  a  small  distance.  So  it  was  not  worth  my  while 
to  go  to  see  birds  fly,  which  I  should  not  have  seen  fly  ;  and  fishes  swim, 
which  I  should  not  have  seen  swim,"  Boswell,  Life  of  Johnson,  ed.  Croker, 
iii.,  p.  172,  London,  1859,  8vo. 

*  He  bought  Dr.  William  Fothergill's  natural  history  collections  after 
his  death  in  1780,  but  the  Doctor  had  by  his  will  ordered  that  they  should 
be  offered  to  him  at  a  valuation.     Nichols,  Op.  laud.,  ix.,  p.  740. 


SIR    JOSEPH    BANKS     LIBRARY  1 43 

should  "confine  their  libraries  to  one  individual  branch 
of  human  knowledge,  by  which  means  a  great  number 
of  particular  collections,  each  complete  in  its  kind, 
would  quickly  be  brought  forward,  and  the  purposes  of 
instruction  be  more  easily  attained,  than  whilst  the 
rage  of  indiscriminate  collection  subsisted,  and  the  num- 
ber of  competitors  for  the  same  book  precluded  the 
possibility  of  completion."-^  Acting  upon  this  rule  he 
confined  himself  to  books  relating  to  natural  history, 
with  the  result  that  his  collection  is  one  of  the  most 
complete  ever  brought  together  by  one  man.  It  was 
under  the  charge  first  of  Dr.  Solander,  and  subse- 
quently of  Jonas  Dryander  (i 748-1810),  Librarian  of 
the  Linnaean  Society,  who  prepared  an  accurate  and 
valuable  catalogue  of  its  contents.-  Sir  Joseph  left  the 
library  and  all  his  collections  to  the  British  Museum.^ 
The  library  is  still  kept  in  a  room  by  itself,  and  con- 
tains probably  more  books  relating  to  museums  than 
any  other  existing  collection. 

As  originally  organised,  the  British  Museum  was 
divided  into  three  departments  :  (i)  manuscripts, 
medals,  and  coins,  {2)  Natural  and  artificial  produc- 
tions, and  (3)  Printed  books.'* 


^  Nicolai,  Das  Gelehrte  England,  English  Preface  by  George  Forster, 
Berlin,  1791,  8vo.,  quoted  in  Brj'dges,  Censiira  Literaria^  ii.,  p.  248, 
London,   1806,  8vo. 

-  Catalogus  Bibliothecae  hislorico-naturalis,  Josephi  Banks,  Baronetti, 
London,  1796- 1800,  8vo,  5  vols.;  Nichols,  Op.  land.,  ix.,  p.  43. 

^  Edwards,  Op.  laud.,  p.  507. 

■*  The  General  Contents  of  the  British  Museum,  London,  1761,  8vo  ; 
Letters  on  the  British  Museion,  London,  [By  A.  Thomson]  1767,  i2mo. 


144  THE    BRITISH    MUSEUM 

In  1802  the  great  collection  of  Egyptian  antiquities 
acquired  under  the  Capitulation  of  Alexandria  passed 
into  the  museum.  This  was  followed  in  1805  by  the 
purchase  of  the  Towneley  marbles  and  terracottas,  and 
of  the  bronzes,  coins,  gems  and  drawings  in  18 14. 
These  acquisitions  rendered  it  necessary  to  create  a 
new  department,  that  of  Antiquities  and  Art,  to 
which  were  united  the  Prints  and  Drawings  as  well 
as  the  Medals  and  Coins.  Botany  was  added, 
as  a  fifth  department,  in  1S27.  after  the  bequest  of 
Sir  Joseph  Banks'  collections.  In  1837  the  Prints 
and  Drawings  were  separated  from  the  department 
of  Antiquities  and  became  an  independent  depart- 
ment. At  the  same  time  the  department  of  Natural 
History  was  divided  into  two,  one  of  Geology, 
including  Palaeontology-  and  Mineralogy,  the  other 
of  Zoolocf^-.  In  1 8^7  Mineralocry  was  constituted  a 
separate  department.  In  1S61  the  department  of 
Antiquities  was  subdivided  into  (i)  Greek  and 
Roman  Antiquities,  (2)  Coins  and  IMedals,  (3) 
Egyptian  and  Assyrian  Antiquities;  and  in  1866  the 
British  and  Mediaeval  Antiquities  were  formed  into 
a  separate  department  along  with  the  Ethnographical 
collections.  Between  1880  and  18S3  the  Natural 
History  collections  were  transferred  to  the  new 
Natural   Historv  Museum  in  Cromwell  Road. 


CHAPTER   X. 

SPECIAL  COLLECTIONS. 

The  greater  number  of  the  old  museums  were  what 
are  now  known  as  general  collections,  but  there 
were  also  many  special  museums.  Anatomical  and 
pathological  preparations  were  recognised  as  neces- 
sary for  the  intelligent  study  of  the  structure, 
physiology,  and  diseases  of  the  human  body,  and 
Leyden,  Amsterdam,  and  Cassel  were  long  famous 
for  their  collections.^  The  Gottorp  Museum  was  to  a 
considerable  extent  ethnographical,^  as  was  likewise  that 

^As  to  the  Leyden  Museum,  see  pp.  29,  190,  209. 

As  to  the  Amsterdam  Anatomical  Museum,  see  Valentini,  Musewn 
MuseoruJti,  ii.,  Appendix  xv.,  p.  52  ;  Ausfuhrlicfie  Beschreibung  der  Nie- 
derlande,  p.  309. 

The  Cassel  Museum,  which  is  now  a  large  and  excellent  general  collec- 
tion, is  known  as  the  Museum  Fridericiamutn  ;  Stoltz,  Beschreibung  des 
Kurfurstlidien  Museu?ns  zu  Cassel^  Cassel,  1832,  8vo;  Valentini,  Op. 
laud.,  ii.,  Appendix  v.,  p.  14. 

Theodore  Kirkring  of  Hamburg  (+1693)  made  a  large  anatomical 
collection,  which  was  acquired  by  Anthony  Verbrocht  of  Hamburg,  on 
whose  death,  about  1727,  it  was  catalogued  and  advertised  for  sale,  but 
was  bought  in  by  the  town.  Ripke,  Dissertatio  historico-litteraria  de 
meritis  Hamburgensium  in  Hisioriam  naiuralem,  p.  30,  Hamb.,  1791, 
4to. ;  Neickelius,  Museographia,  ^.  199;  Kirkring,  Spicilegium  anatomi- 
cwn,  AmsL,  1670,  4to. 

^  Olearius,  Gottorffische  Kunst-Kammer,  p.  3  sqq.  Schlesswig,  1674,  4to. 
K  145 


146  TECHNICAL    MUSEUMS 

of  Lorenz  Hofmann  of  Halle.^  Friedrich  the  Great 
was  amongst  the  first  to  appreciate  the  value  of  such  a 
collection,  and  despatched  first  Polemann,  and  after 
his  death,  Cleyer  to  the  East  to  collect  arms,  clothing, 
utensils,  and  the  like  for  the  Berlin  Museum.'^ 
Augustus  II.,  Elector  of  Saxony  and  King  of  Poland, 
in  1 73 1  sent  Professor  Johann  Ernest  Hebenstreit, 
with  four  companions  and  an  artist,  to  collect  specimens 
for  the  Dresden  Museum  and  for  his  zoological  garden.^ 
The  collections  of  Johann  Georg  Kisner  of  Frank- 
fort* and  G.  F.  Richter  of  Jena^  were  com.posed  largely 
of  fossils.  Hermann  Boerhaave  (1668- 1738)  had  a 
museum  of  chemical  and  pharmaceutical  prepara- 
tions.^ Many  collections  were  principally  illustrative 
of  natural   history,   as    for    instance    those    of  Johann 

1  GATMATO'i'TAAKIOX,  sive  Thesaurus  variarum  Rerum  antiquarum 
et  exoticarum  tarn  naturalium  quam  artificialium  collectus.  Latin  and 
Germ.     Halae,  1625,  8vo. 

^  Klemm,  Geschichie  der  Sajfimlungen  fiir  Wissenschaft  und  Kunst  in 
Deutschland,  p.  206,  Zerbst,  p.  1837. 

^Gundling,  Historic  der  Gelahrheit,  i.,  p.  590,  iv.,  p.  5280,  Franckf., 
1734-37,  4to,  5  vol. 

On  his  return  Hebenstreit  gave  an  account  of  the  Roman  remains  in 
Africa,  Oratio  de  antiquitatibus  Romanis per  Africanis  exstantibus,  Leipzig, 

*  Catalogus  figuratorutn  fossilitwi  in  Museolo  D.  Kisneri  Francofurti^ 
171 1,  in  Valentini,  Museum  Museorum,  ii.,  Appendix  xiii. 

Petiver  dedicates  his  48th  Table  to  Kisner. 

*  Museum  Richterianum  continens  fossilia,  anijnalia,  vegetabilia,  marina 
cum  comment.  Jo.  Ernesti  Hebenstreitii.     Lips.,  1743,  fol.,  with  figures. 

^Museum  Boerhavianum.  Lugd.  Bat,  1739,  8vo.  This  was  a  sale 
catalogue  drawn  up  after  his  death.  The  chemical  preparations  all  made 
by  Boerhaave's  own  hand  comprise  422  lots.  There  were  215  lots  of 
dried  or  preserved  specimens  of  natural  history'  and  54  lots  of  physical 
instruments  and  rarities. 


TECHNICAL    MUSEUMS  1 47 

Conrad  Ratzel  of  Halberstadt,^  Gottfried  Nicolai  of 
Wittenberg,^  and  Christopher  Gottwaldt  of  Danzig 
(1636- 1 700),  which  last  ultimately  found  its  way 
to  the  Academy  of  Sciences  of  St.  Petersburg.^ 
Georg  Eberhard  Rumph  (1634-1706),  an  enlightened 
merchant  at  Amboyna,  in  the  Dutch  service — a 
member  of  the  Academy  of  Nahirae  Curiosi,  in 
which  he  took  the  title  "  Plinius  Indicus," — made  an 
excellent  collection  of  shells.*  The  States  of  Holland 
presented  a  fine  collection  to  Charles  II.,  but  it  was 
soon  dissipated  and  lost.^  Nicolao  Gualtieri  (1688- 
1744),  of  Florence,  previously  a  physician  at  Pisa, 
made  another,*^  and  Signor  Micconi  of  Genoa  had  one 

^  Valentini,  Op.  land..,  ii.,  Appendix  xix. 

^  lb..,  Appendix  xxi.  ;  Neickelius,  Museographia,  p.  131  ;  and  Christian 
Wurlitz,  Museum  Curiosum,  Wittenberg,  17 10,  4to. 

^  Bacmeister,  Op.  laud..,  p.  1 50 ;  Nouvelle  Bios,raphie  generale,  s.v. 
Gottwald  ;  Musaeum  Gott-ivaldianutn  sive  Catalogus  rerum  rariarum, 
.  .  .  collectarmn  a  D.  Christophero  Gottivaldio  patre  et  D.  Joh. 
Christoph.  Goilivaldio  Jilio^DdiTiZig,  17 14,  8vo.  A  sale  catalogue.  The 
collection  was  principally  natural  history  specimens  ;  but  there  was  also 
a  considerable  number  of  artificial  curiosities,  antiquities,  and  works  of 
art ;  amongst  others,  "  Reliquiae  tunicae  S.  Catherinae  Bononiensis "  ; 
Musei  Gotiuialdiani  testaceorum,  siellarutn  marinaruin  et  coralliorum 
Tabulae.     Norimb.,  1782,  fol.,  with  plates,  ed.  by  J.  S.  Schroter. 

*  Thesaurus  Imaginum  pisciu?n  testaceorutn  cochlearu7ii,  Lugd.  Bat., 
171 1,  fol.,  with  60  plates  ;  first  published,  D Ambonische  Rariteit  Kamer, 
Amst.,  1705,  fol.,  and  again  Latin  and  Dutch,  1741,  fol.,  7  vols.;  trans- 
lated into  German  under  the  title  Amboinische  Raritdten-Katmner,  by 
P.  L.  S.  Miiller,  with  additions  by  J.  H.  Chemnitz,  and  an  Introduction 
by  J.  A.  Cramer.     Wien,  1766,  fol.,  with  33  plates. 

^Granger,  History  of  England,  iii.,  p.  402.  London,  1779,  ^vo  ;  Lister, 
A  Journey  to  Paris.,  ed.  Henning,  p.  82.     London,  1823,  8vo. 

^  Index  testarum  conchy liorum  quae  adservantur  in  Musaeo  Nicolai 
Gualtieri  J  et  methodice  distributae  exhibentur  tabulis  aeneis  ex.., 
Florent.,  1742,  fol.,  with  portrait.  The  figures,  says  Cuvier,  are  numerous 
and  exact. 


148       COLLECTIONS    OF    PHILOSOPHICAL    INSTRUMENTS 

of  the  best  in  Italy  ;^  and  cabinets  of  shells  were 
common  elsewhere."  Dru  Drury  (172 5- 1803)  brought 
together  a  remarkably  fine  collection  of  insects,  which 
was  of  material  service  in  the  advancement  of  ento- 
mology.^ 

The  university  of  Giessen  had  a  collection  of 
philosophical  and  scientific  instruments ;  *  there  was 
another  large  and  well  arranged  one  at  St.  Peters- 
burg.^ Similar  collections  were  formed  by  Henry 
Johann  Bytemeister  of  Helmstadt,*"  Johann  Jakob 
Spener  of  Halle/  and  by  the  astronomer,  Professor 
Erhard  Weigel  of  Jena^  (1625-1699).  The  last  was 
included  amongst  the  seven  wonders  of  the  town. 

Ara,  Caput,  Draco,  Mons,  Pons,  Vulpecula  Turris, 
Weigeliana  domus,  septem  miracula  Jenae.^ 

^Addison,  "  Remarks  on  Italy,"  Works,  ii.,  p.  6.     London,  1811,  8vo. 

2  M.  de  la  Combe  de  Vrigny  who  accompanied  Mr.  Vernon  on  his  em- 
bassy to  Denmark  in  1702,  mentions  the  Cabinet  of  shells  of  M.  de  la 
Faille,  bailiff  of  Delft  as  particularly  interesting.  Travels  through 
Denmark  and  some  parts  of  Germany,  p.  6.     London,  1707,  8vo. 

A  notice  of  various  collections  of  shells  and  other  objects  of  natural 
history,  principally  in  Denmark,  will  be  found  in  Regenfuss,  Choix  de 
CoqiiiUages  et  de  crustace'es,  p.  vi.  sqq.      Copenhag.,  1758,  fol. 

^  See  Saint-Fond,  Travels  in  England,  Scotland,  and  the  Hebrides, 
i.,  p.  123,  London,  1799,  8vo. 

^Valentini,  Op.  laud.,  vol.  ii.,  Appendix  xvi.,  p.  56. 

^Museum  Imperiale  Petropolitanum,  vol.  ii.,  pt.  i.,  pp.  3-72.  Petrop., 
1 74 1,  8vo. 

^  Bibliothecae  Appendix,  sive  Catalogus  Apparatus  curiosorum  arti- 
ficialium  et  Tiaturaliu7n.     Helmstadt,  1731,  8vo  ;  1735,  4^0- 

This  collection  also  contained  natural  and  artificial  curiosities.  He 
figures  a  beautiful  perforated  stone  hammer  and  a  stone  chisel  (Tab. 
xvi.  219)  as  "  lapides  ceraunii  seu  fulminares  nigri,"  p.  47. 

"^  Museum  Spenerianiwi.     Lips.,  1693,  Svo. 

8  Valentini,  Op.  laud..  Appendix  xvii.,  p.  58. 

^  Neickelius,  Museographia,  p.  57.  These  verses  are  explained  by 
Keysler,  Reisen,  p.  1344,  Hannover,  1751, 4to;  Nicolai,  Reisc durch  Deutsch- 


PRESENT-DAY    COLLECTIONS  149 

A  considerable  portion  of  Dr.  Bargrave's  museum 
consisted  of  philosophical  instruments  and  toys,^  and 
Briickmann,  as  has  been  mentioned,  had  a  large 
number  of  the  same  kind  of  things.^  Johann  Hubner 
of  Hamburg  formed  a  collection  of  maps,  charts,  and 
astronomical  instruments.^ 

The  nature  of  such  collections  is  well  described 
by  Kinderling, *  and  may  be  seen  in  the  present 
Mathematisch-Physikalischer  Salon  at  Dresden, °  which 
was  part  of  the  original  Kunst-Kammer,  and  is  still 
very  much  what  it  was  in  the  early  part  of  the 
eighteenth  century.  There  is  a  similar  but  recent 
collection  in  the  Germanic  museum  at  Nuremberg, 
which  is  more  instructive,  as  it  forms  one  section 
of  an  organized  whole.  A  room,  in  the  Imperial 
Art- History  Museum  at  Vienna,  is  devoted  to  such 
objects,  many  of  them  from  the  Schloss  Amras  and 
from  the  Imperial  Schatz-Kammer,  admirably  shown 
and  excellently  arranged.'' 

There  is  a  collection  of  surgical  instruments  in  the 
Nuremberg ;     there    is    another    and    more    extensive 

land  iind  Sc/iiveiz,  i.,  p.  58,  Berlin,  1783.  Keysler  mentions  in  1730 
that  Weigel's  instruments  had  gone  to  ruin. 

^  Pope  Alexander  the  Seventh  and  the  College  of  Cardinals  .  .  .  luith  a 
Catalogue  of  Dr.  Bargrave's  Museimi,  1867,  4to.  Camden  Society, 
No.  xcii. 

"^  Supra,  p.  112. 

^Museum  Geographicuni^  Hamburg,  1726,  8vo. 

*  Koehler,  Aniveisung  mit  nutzen  zu  reiscn,  edited  by  Kinderling,  pp. 
837-845,  Alagdeb.,  18 10,  8vo. 

^Drechsler,  Katalog  der  Sammlung  des  K.  JMathematisch-Physikali- 
schen  Salon.     Dresden,  1874,  i2mo. 

^  Filhrer  durch  die  Sammlung  der  Kunstindustrielle7i  Gegenstdnde,  p. 
14  sqq.     Wien,  1891,  8vo. 

The  best  collection  is  probably  that  in  the  \'ictoria  and  Albert  (late 
South  Kensington)  Museum. 


ISO  ARMS    AND    ARMOUR 

one  in  the  Museum  of  the  Royal  College  of  Surgeons, 
London,  and  others  in  various  anatomical  museums. 

A  collection  of  arms  and  armour  was  considered 
especially  appropriate  in  royal  palaces  and  in  the 
castles  of  wealthy  nobles.  It  was  regarded  as  a 
symbol  of  rank  and  power,  and  was  particularly 
attractive  at  a  time  when  almost  every  gentleman 
was  a  soldier.  Such  objects  were  gradually  in- 
troduced into  ordinary  museums,  and  are  now  an 
essential  feature  of  every  historical  museum  and  of 
every  collection  of  industrial  art.  There  are  large 
and  instructive  collections  in  London  and  Paris, 
Madrid  and  Venice,  Stockholm  and  Copenhagen, 
Berlin  and  Dresden,  Vienna  and  Buda  Pesth,  Mos- 
cow^ and  St.  Petersburg,^  and  in  nearly  every 
important  museum  in  Europe.^ 

1  Weltmann,  Le  tresor  de  Moscou  {Oroujeynaja  Palatd).  Moscou,  1861, 
8vo. 

-At  Zarskoje-Selo.  Described  by  Gille,  Muse'e  de  Tzarskoe-Selo, 
St.  Petersbourg,  1835-53,50!.  3  vol.;  K^mratx^r,  Arsenal  de  Tsarskoe'-Selo, 
lb.  1869,  fol. 

•^  See  Demmin,  Die  Kriegstvaffeti,  Introduction,  Gera-Untermhaus,  1891, 
8vo ;  Guide  des  amateuis  d^ Amies  et  Armures  anciennes,  Paris,  1869,  8vo. 


CHAPTER    XI. 

SCOTTISH  COLLECTORS  AND  SCOTTISH  MUSEUMS. 

Amongst  early  Scottish  collectors  were  Timothy 
Pont,  the  topographer,  and  Robert  Maule,  Commissary 
of  St.  Andrews,  but  by  far  the  most  celebrated  were 
the  illustrious  brothers  Sir  James  Balfour  {1600- 1657) 
and  Sir  Andrew  Balfour  (1630- 1694).  Sir  James, 
"  with  unwearied  industry  and  at  great  expense," 
says  his  biographer,  "  collected  a  library  filled 
with  the  choicest  books  in  every  branch  of  litera- 
ture, but  more  especially  in  those  which  illustrate 
the  history  of  Scotland,  antiquities  and  heraldry. 
And  seeinof  that  thinofs  and  events  involved 
in  obscurity  are  often  illustrated  by  ancient  coins, 
rings,  collars,  bracelets,  seals,  and  other  remains 
of  a  former  age,  he  carefully  collected  this  precious 
antiquarian  material,  and  arranged  it  in  cabinets 
{tit  loczilis)  as  a  supplement  to  his  library.  The 
Romans  had  long  been  settled  in  this  northern  part 
of  Britain,  which  now  comprehends  the  Kingdom  of 
Scotland,  and  for  protecting  the  Provincials  against 
the  Scots  and  Picts  had  constructed  walls  and  many 
camps,   and   had   left   some    buildings   in  which    were 

151 


152  SIR    JAMES    AND    SIR    ANDREW    BALFOUR 

inscribed  stones ;  these  he  was  assiduous  in  investi- 
gating and  in  recording  the  inscriptions.  ...  He 
likewise  cultivated  Natural  History.  He  wrote  on 
gems  and  prepared  an  alphabetical  treatise  in  the 
Scots  tongue  containing  the  description,  names, 
virtues,  qualities,  of  every  kind  with  the  places 
where  they  are  found.  He  also  compiled  an  account 
in  Latin  of  the  frauds  practised  in  preparing  imitations 
of  precious  stones."  ^ 

Sir  Andrew,  after  completing  his  education,  went 
to  London  where  he  lived  for  some  time,  and  then 
spent  fifteen  years  in  travel  abroad.  Returning  to 
Scotland  about  1667  he  brought  with  him  the 
best  library,  particularly  in  medicine  and  natural 
history,  that  had  appeared  in  Scotland ;  as  also  a 
series  of  medals  and  a  collection  of  arms,  costume, 
and  ornaments,  mathematical,  philosophical  and 
surgical  instruments,  a  complete  cabinet  with  all 
the  simples  of  the  materia  medica  and  some  com- 
positions in  pharmacy  ;  and  large  collections  of  fossils, 
plants,  and  animals.^  He  continued  to  add  to  the 
museum  during  the  rest  of  his  life.^  On  his  death 
it  passed  into  the  hands  of  Sir  Robert  Sibbald,  while 
the  library  was  sold. 

^  Sibbald,  Metnoria  Balfouriana,  pp.  33,  34,  45.  Edinburgh,  1699, 
i2mo  ;  Michael  Balfour,  Preface,  p.  11,  to  Letters  written  to  a  Friend  by 
the  Learned  a7id  Judicious  Sir  Andrew  Balfour,  M.D.,  Edinburgh,  1700, 
i2mo. 

^Sibbald,  Op.  laud.,  pp.  63-67;  Walker,  "Memoirs  of  Sir  Andrew 
Balfour,"  in  Essays  on  Natural  History,  p.  353,  London,  8vo  ;  Letters 
by  Sir  Andrew  Balfour,  pp.  iii.  iv.  ;  Remains  of  Sir  Robert  Sibbald, 
p.  21,  Edinburgh,  1837. 

^  Auctarium  musaei  Balfouriani  e  musaeo  Sibbaldiano,  Pref  Edin- 
burgi,  1697,  i2mo  ;  Walker,  Essays,  p.  362. 


SIR    ROBERT    SIBBALD  I  53 

Sir  Robert  Sibbald  (1641-1722)  was  an  industrious 
naturalist  and  antiquary,  and  a  diligent  collector, 
and  was  the  first  to  give  a  systematic  account 
of  the  natural  history  of  Scotland/  Imitating  the 
recent  example  of  Ashmole  in  gifting  his  collection 
to  the  University  of  Oxford,  Sibbald,  in  1697, 
presented  Balfour's  collection  to  the  University  of 
Edinburgh  that  it  might  be  open  to  the  public, 
and  in  the  hope  that  it  would  receive  numerous 
additions  and  be  the  means  of  creating  a  general 
interest  in  natural  history  in  Scotland.  In  order 
that  the  museum  might  be  as  complete  as  possible 
he  added  a  large  number  of  additional  specimens 
from  his  own  collection,  which  he  described  in  a 
catalogue  or  handbook  for  the  use  of  students.^ 
The  volume  is  instructive  as  indicating  the  scope 
and  character  of  the  science  of  the  day,  and  is  inter- 
esting on  account  of  the  local  information  it  contains 
and  the  number  of  Scottish  words  and  quaint  ex- 
pressions which  it  preserves.  Defoe  mentions  that 
the  collection  was  placed  in  the  upper  Common  Hall 
of  the  old  College  on  the  south  side  of  the  Cowgate. 
He  calls  it  "a  curious  and  noble  museum";  and 
says  that  "it  contains  a  vast  treasure  of  curiosities 
of  art  and  nature,  domestic  and  foreign,  from  almost 
all  parts  of  the  world  ;  and  is  greatly  valued  by  the 
Virtuosos,   containing    some   rarities    that   are   not    to 

^  His  Scotia  illustrata  sive  Prodromus  historiae  yiaturalis  was  published 
at  Edinburgh  in  1684  in  folio.  See  also  The  Philosophical  Transactions, 
xxii.  (1700),  p.  693.  J.  K.  Cramer  in  his  Introduction  to  Rumph, 
Amboinische  Raritciten-Kaminer,  p.  ix.,  Wien,  1766,  fol. 

"^  Auctarium  musaei  Balfouriani  e  Mnsaeo  Sibbaldiano.  Edinburgi, 
1697,  i2mo. 


154  GIFT    TO    UNIVERSITY    OF    EDINBURGH 

be  found  either  in  those  of  the  Royal  Society  at 
London,  or  the  Ashmolean  at  Oxford."^  So  little, 
however,  did  the  University  appreciate  the  treasures 
which  had  been  entrusted  to  its  care  that  it  allowed 
the  collection  to  be  made  away  with,  and  in  less 
than  a  century  from  the  date  of  the  gift  not  a 
vestige  of  it  remained," — a  fate  which  likewise  nearly 
overtook  Ashmole's  collection.^  In  1753  the  greatest 
rarity  the  University  of  Edinburgh  possessed  was 
a  crooked  transparent  horn,  eleven  inches  in  length, 
which  had  been  removed  from  the  head  of  a  woman 
in  1672,^  a  kind  of  curiosity  which  possessed  great 
attractions  for  the  collectors  of  the  seventeenth  century.^ 

^A  Tour  thro'  the  whole  Island  of  Great  Britain  by  a  Gentleman  (1727), 
iv.,  p.  79,  London,  1753,  8vo ;  The  Gentle?nan's  Magazine,  xv.  (1745),  p.  687. 

^Memorial  to  the  Lord  Advocate  for  the  Society  of  Scottish  Antiquaries 
(1783),  p.  4.  Reprinted  by  Smellie,  in  Account  of  the  institution  and 
progress  of  the  Society  of  Antiquaries  of  Scotland,  part  ii.,  p.  27. 

In  a  printed  letter  by  the  Earl  of  Buchan  and  the  Secretary  to  the 
members  of  the  Society  of  Antiquaries  it  is  said  :  The  University  "  seem 
to  be  ashamed  that  the  Society  has  already  been  entrusted  with  a  more 
valuable  collection  of  natural  objects,  than  the  University  have  allowed 
to  perish  since  the  days  of  James  VI.,  the  founder  of  their  incorporation." 

^Gough,  British  Topography,  ii.,  p.  629.     London,  1780,  4to. 

*  Maitland,   The  History  of  Edinhirgh,  p.  371.     Edinburgh,  1753,  fol. 

Thomas  Kirk  saw  it  in  1677,  Thoresby's  Correspondence,  ii.,  p.  418. 
Thoresby  himself  saw  it  in  1681,  Diary,  i.,  p.  102  ;  and  it  is  also  men- 
tioned in  the  Catalogue  of  the  Rarities  in  his  Museum,  p.  2,  reprint  in 
the  Ducatus  Leodiensis,  1816,  fol.  Sir  Robert  Sibbald  refers  to  it,  and 
had  it  copied  and  engraved  by  John  Adair.  It  was  removed  on  14th 
May,  1671,  by  Arthur  Temple,  a  well-known  surgeon  in  Edinburgh. 
Sibbald,  Prodrofnus  naturalis  historiae  Scotiae,  Part  ii.,  lib.  2,  p.  60. 
Edinburgh,  1683,  fol. 

George  Buchanan's  skull  was  another  of  the  attractions.  Memoirs  of 
Dr.  Stukeley,  i.,  p.  316  ;  iii.,  p.  416  (Surtees  Society,  No.  Ixxx.). 

*Worm,  Danicorum  M onujnentorum  Libri  sex,  p.  364.  Hafniae, 
1643,  fo'-     Bartholinus,  De  Unicornu,  p.  i  sqq.,  Amstd.,  1678,  who  refers 


LOSS    OF    THE    BALFOUR    MUSEUM  155 

When  Pennant  visited  Edinburgh  in  1772  he  found 
the  museum  "totally  empty,  for  such,"  he  adds 
"has  been  the  negligence  of  past  times,  that  scarce 
a  specimen  of  the  noble  collection  deposited  in  it 
by  Sir  Andrew  Balfour  is  to  be  met  with,  any  more 
than  the  great  additions  made  to  it  by  Sir  Robert 
Sibbald."^  John  Macky,  on  the  other  hand,  states 
that  in  1723  Sir  Andrew  Balfour's  museum  was  in 
the  Hall  of  the  College  of  Physicians  in  the  Cowgate, 
while  in  the  University  library  there  were  only  a 
few  natural  curiosities,  but  he  evidently  confuses  the 
collections. - 

In  1764  the  Incorporation  of  Surgeons  proposed 
to  transfer  their  library  and  collection  of  natural 
curiosities  to  the  University  of  Edinburgh,  as  an 
addition  to  the  library  and  the  inconsiderable  museum 

to  numerous  examples.  See  also  his  Epistolae  Medicinalcs,  i.,  p.  95. 
Hag.  Com.,  1740.  Such  curiosities  are  still  in  repute  with  the  crowd. 
In  Dr.  Kahn's  Anatomical  Museum  there  was  shown  a  horn  ten  inches 
long  which  had  been  extracted  from  the  forehead  of  a  woman,  80  years 
of  age,  and  who  lived  seven  years  afterwards.  Catalogue  of  Dr. 
Kahn's  Anatomical  Museum,  p.  25,  London,  1851,  and  various  other 
editions. 

■^  Tour  in  Scotland  in  1772,  Part  ii.,  p.  246,  London,  1776,  410. 

^A  Journey  through  Scotland,  pp.  68,  70.  The  Physicians  had  a 
meeting-house  and  some  property  near  the  Cowgate  Port.  Arnot,  History 
of  Edinburgh,  p.  322.  The  old  University  buildings  were  a  little  to  the 
south  of  the  Cowgate,  and  Macky  probably  confounded  them.  Defoe's 
precise  statement  at  the  very  time  at  which  Macky  was  writing  shows 
that  the  latter  was  in  error.  A  Tour  thrd  the  whole  Island  of  Great 
Britain  by  a  Gentleman,  iv.,  p.  79,  5th  ed.,  originally  published  in  1727. 

Wallace  mentions  that  a  Finnish  boat,  with  the  oar  and  dart 
for  striking  the  fish,  was  preserved  in  1693  "in  the  Physicians'  Hall," 
Edinburgh  (Wallace,  Description  of  the  Isles  of  Orkney,  p.  34,  ed.  Small, 
Edinburgh,  1883,  8vo),  so  that  the  Physicians  had  some  sort  of  a  collec- 
tion. 


156  FURTHER    GIFTS    TO    EDINBURGH 

which  Still  belonged  to  the  University.^  The  gift 
was  accepted,  and  next  year  the  old  library  was 
fitted  up  "as  a  museum  for  natural  curiosities." 
In  1766  the  Earl  of  Buchan  presented  another 
collection  of  natural  objects  to  the  University  for 
the  purpose  of  supplementing  this  new  museum  f 
and  when  Dr.  Robert  Ramsay  was  shortly  after- 
wards appointed  Regius  Professor  of  Natural  History 
and  Keeper  of  the  Museum,  the  Town  Council 
confirmed  the  appointment  on  condition  that  he 
"  deliver  to  the  clerk  a  full  list  or  inventory  of 
all  the  curiosities  or  rarities  belonging  to  the  Uni- 
versity."^ The  fitting  up  of  the  new  museum 
completed  the  ruin  of  the  Balfour  collection.  Part 
of  it  existed  in  1 750,  and  was,  Professor  Walker 
tells  us,  the  first  thing  that  inspired  him  with  a  love 
for  Natural  History;  but  when  the  rearrangement  of 
1765  was  carried  out,  "it  was  dislodged  from  the  hall 
where  it  had  long  been  kept  ;  was  thrown  aside ; 
and  exposed  as  lumber  ;  was  further  dilapidated,  and 
at  length  almost  completely  demolished."^ 

The    Earl    of   Buchan's   collection    shared    the    fate 

^  Dunbar,  History  of  the  University  of  Edinburgh,  ii.,  pp.  433.  434,  435; 
Session  Papers  in  Magistrates  of  Edinburgh  v.  University  of  Edinburgh, 
Revised  Answers  for  the  University,  p.  88,  reprinted  15th  January,  1829. 
The  case  is  reported  7  S.,  p.  255. 

Defoe  speaks  of  their  "chamber  of  rarities,  in  which  there  are  several 
skeletons  of  uncommon  creatures,  a  mumy  and  many  other  curiosities." 
A  Tour  thrd  the  whole  of  Great  Bj-itain,  iv.,  p.  J 7,  London,  1755,  8vo, 
originally  published  in  1727  ;  Maitland  also  mentions  it.  History  of 
Edinburgh,  p.  182. 

2  Smellie,  Account  of  the  Society  of  Antiquaries  of  Scotland,  p.  95, 
Edinburgh,  1782,  4to. 

^  Dunbar,  Op.  laud.,  ii.,  p.  440. 

*•  Essays,  pp.  353,  365,  London,  181 2,  8vo. 


PROFESSOR    WALKERS    COLLECTION  I  57 

of  Balfour's,  and  by  1783  had  wholly  disappeared.^ 
Pennant  states  in  1769  that  by  Dr.  Ramsay's 
assiduity  "  the  museum  bids  fair  to  become  a  most 
instructive  repository  of  the  naturalia  of  these  King- 
doms."' This  probably  refers  to  his  private  collection, 
as  in  1772  he  records  that  the  "  University  museum 
is  at  present  totally  empty. "^  When  John  Walker 
(173 1- 1 803)  became  professor  in  1779/  he  com- 
menced the  formation  of  a  museum  for  teachingr 
purposes,  and  included  in  it  a  few  objects  which  still 
remained  from  Balfour's  collection.^  M.  Faujas 
Saint- Fond,  who  visited  it  in  1784,  describes  it 
as  excellently  arranged,  and  on  that  account  more 
interesting-  than  the  British  Museum.*^  On  Walker's 
death,  in  1803,  the  museum  was  claimed  by  his 
representatives  as  his  private  property,  removed  from 
the  precincts  of  the  University,  and  sold.  The 
University,  however,  possessed  a  few  cases  con- 
taining specimens  of  birds,  serpents  and  minerals, 
and  some  ethnological  objects  ;   but  whether  any  part 

■*  Smellie,  Account  of  the  Society  of  Antiqiiaries  of  Scotland,  p.  95. 
Smellie  presented  the  inventories  to  the  Society. 

*  Tour  in  Scotland  in  jydg,  p.  55,  2nd  ed.  London,  1772,  8vo.  The 
passage  quoted  does  not  appear  in  the  later  collected  edition  of  the  Tours, 
e.g.  London,  1776,  4to,  which  bears  to  be  the  fourth  edition  ;  or  in  the 
fifth,  London,  1790. 

^  Tour  in  Scotland  in  1772,  Part  ii.,  p.  246,  London,  \  776,  4to. 

*  While  holding  the  professorship  of  Natural  History,  Walker  was  a 
parish  minister  and  was  Moderator  of  the  General  Assembly  in  1790.  In 
1765  the  University  of  Glasgow  conferred  upon  him  the  degree  of  M.D., 
and  in  the  same  year  the  University  of  Edinburgh  gave  him  that  of  D.D. 

^Walker,  Essays,  p.  353  ;  Arnot,  History  of  Edinburgh,  p.  405,  Edin- 
burgh, 1788,  4to. 

^Travels  in  England  and  Scotlaftd,  ii.,  p.  228,  London,  1799,  ^^o. 
The  date  is  fixed,  vol.  i.,  p.  249  n. 


158  REORGANIZATION    OF    EDINBURGH    MUSEUM 

of  Sir  Robert  Sibbald's  gift  was  amongst  these 
does  not  appear.^  Walker  was  succeeded,  in  1804, 
by  Robert  Jameson  (1774- 1854),  who  placed  his 
own  collection  in  the  University  Museum,  and  made 
great  exertions  to  add  to  it."  It  was  enriched  by  the 
bequest  of  the  collection  of  minerals  made  by  Dr. 
Thompson,  of  Palermo,  and  by  the  gift  of  the  similar 
collection  made  b}^  the  great  geologist,  Dr.  James 
Hutton  (1726-1797).^  The  latter  had  not  been 
unpacked  in  1845,  ^^^  ^^  seems  doubtful  whether  it 
is  now  extant.*  In  1807  Professor  Jameson  suggested 
that  an  application  should  be  made  to  the  King  for 
an  Order  directing  the  officers  of  the  Navy  to 
forward  to  the  museum  such  specimens  of  Natural 
History  as  they  could  obtain.  The  request  was 
granted,  and  by  this  means  a  vast  quantity  of  valuable 
material  was  obtained.  In  18 19,  on  the  dispersion  of 
the  great  collection  of  William  Bullock, — known  as  the 
London  Museum, — a  large  number  of  specimens  were 
purchased  by  the  Senatus  Academicus,  and  at  the  same 
time  the  entire  collection  of  M.  Dufresne,  of  Paris, 
was  acquired,  the  total  expenditure  being  ^3000. 
The  museum  was,  however,  for  long  badly  managed. 
The    Scottish    Universities    Commissioners    of    1826 

^  Report  of  the  Scottish  Universities  Commission  of  1826  ;  Visitation 
at  Edinburgh,  Appendix,  p.  48. 

2  It  was  evidently  popular  in  18 13.  A  Walk  through  Auld  and  New 
Reekie  in  the  year  181  j,  by  John  Millar,  pp.  16,  17,  Edinburgh,  1829, 
8vo. 

3  Report  of  the  Universities  Commission  of  1826 ;  Visitation  at  Edinburgh, 
Appendix,  p.  48 ;  Report  relative  to  the  University  of  Edinburgh,  p.  90. 

*  New  Statistical  Account,  i.,  p.  682.  According  to  the  Dictionary  of 
National  Biography,  s.v.  "  Hutton,"  the  collection  cannot  now  be  traced. 


COLLECTION    OF    FACULTY    OF    ADVOCATES  I  59 

reported  that,  although  it  was  practically  a  national 
institution  supported  by  public  funds,  the  majority 
of  the  students  were  excluded  from  it,  and  scientific 
men  were  only  allowed  to  use  it  under  very  stringent 
and  restrictive  regulations.^ 

In  1854  the  Town  Council  of  Edinburgh,  as  patrons 
of  the  University,  transferred  the  museum  to  the 
Science  and  Art  Department  of  the  Board  of  Trade,^ 
and  in  1857,  along  with  that  department,  it  was  placed 
under  the  charge  of  the  Committee  of  Council  on 
Education.  There  were  afterwards  added  an  Industrial 
Museum,  and  a  library  of  reference  and  in  1864  its 
title  became,  The  Edinburgh  Science  and  Art  Museum. 
It  stands  alongside  the  University  buildings,  so  that  it 
is  to  all  intents  a  University  Museum  maintained  at 
public  expense.  The  annual  charge  is  upwards  of 
^13,000,  over  and  above  the  use  and  maintenance 
of  buildings. 

Besides  books  and  manuscripts,  the  Faculty  of 
Advocates  began  shortly  after  the  establishment  of 
their  library  in  1682  to  collect  antiquities.  In  1707 
they  purchased  from  James  Sutherland,  the  keeper  of 
the  Edinburgh  Botanic  Garden,^  a  large  and  valuable 

^  General  Report,  p.  95  sqq. 

2  Gentleman's  Magazine,  xli.,  N.S.  (1854),  p.  605  ;  xliii.  (1855),  p.  394. 

^  He  was  a  well-known  collector.  {Supra,  p.  135,  note  4.)  He  sent 
Edward  Lhuyd  a  number  of  coins  and  a  stone,  found  in  the  north  of 
Scotland,  which  smelt  strongly  of  violets.  Another  of  these  he  sent  to 
Mr.  Charleton  and  a  third  to  the  Ashmolean  Museum.  Thoresby,  Corre- 
spondence, ii.,  p.  416.  Such  stones  {Lapides  odorati)  were  in  much 
request  amongst  collectors,  and  are  often  mentioned  by  the  old  writers, 
and  are  discussed  at  length  by  Briickmann,  Episiola  Itineraria,  13, 
Cent.  i.  The  smell  came  from  "  the  corrected  vitriol  of  the  stone," 
Keysler,  Reisen,  p.  104,  Hannover,  1751,  4to.  ;  i.,  p.  119,  London,  1756. 


l60  GLASGOW    UNIVERSITY    MUSEUM 

collection  of  Greek,  Roman,  Scottish,  Saxon,  and 
English  coins  and  medals,^  Inscribed  stones  from 
the  Roman  Wall  and  other  antiquities  were,  from 
time  to  time,  presented  to  the  curators  for  deposit 
in  the  library  as  partaking  of  the  character  of  a 
national  institution. 

Towards  the  end  of  the  seventeenth  century  the 
University  of  Glasgow  received  by  donation  many 
Roman  altars,  legionary  stones,  and  other  monuments; 
and  during  the  eighteenth  century  several  additional 
Roman  stones  and  other  objects  of  interest  were  added 
to  the  collection.^  Writing  in  1732  Horsley  says, 
"  The  two  principal  collections  in  Scotland  are  those 
of  the  University  of  Glasgow  and  of  Baron  Clerk  ; 
for  I  do  not  know  of  three  inscriptions  together  in  any 
other  place  in  Scotland."^  By  his  Will,  dated  in  1781, 
Dr.  William  Hunter*  bequeathed  to  the  University 
his    splendid    museum    valued    at    ^65,000.       It    was 

*  Edward  Lhuyd  in  The  Philosophical  Transactiotts^xxvm.,  17 13,  p.  100; 
Maitland,  The  History  of  Edinburgh,  p.  417.  Edinburgh,  1753,  fol. 
Sibbald,  Collections  Concertiing  the  Roman  Ports,  Preface  (Edinburgh, 
171 1);  Memoirs  of  Dr.  Stukeley,  i.,  p.  317;  iii.,  p.  416.  The  coins  are 
described  by  Gordon,  Itinerariiim  Septentrionale,  p.  119  sqq. 

^Dr.  Thomas  Reid,  when  describing  the  University  in  1794,  says,  "In 
an  adjoining  apartment  the  College  has  placed  a  number  of  milestones 
altars,  and  other  remains  of  antiquity,  which  have  been  discovered  in  the 
ancient  Roman  Wall  between  the  Forth  and  Clyde."  Works,  ed.  Hamil- 
ton, p.  738  ;  Old  Statistical  Account,  xxi.,  Appendix,  p.  48. 

^Britannia  Romana,  p.  181.     London,  1732,  fol. 

*In  1781  Dr.  William  Hunter  presented  a  considerable  number  of  coins 
to  the  Museum  of  the  Society  of  Antiquaries  of  Scotland.  Smellie, 
Account  of  the  Society,  p.  62.  Edinburgh,  1782,  4to.  Dr.  Hunter  was 
M.D.  of  the  University  of  Glasgow,  and  an  honorary  member  of  the 
Faculty  of  Physicians  and  Surgeons  of  Glasgow. 


ANDERSONIAN    MUSEUM  l6l 

removed  to  Glasgow  in  1807,  ^""^^  considerable  addi- 
tions have  since  been  made  to  it.  ^ 

John  Anderson  (i 726-1 796),  Professor  of  Natural 
Philosophy  in  the  University  of  Glasgow,  formed  a 
considerable  collection  of  natural  history  specimens 
and  physical  apparatus.  The  Rev.  John  Lettice,  who 
visited  Glasgow  in  1792,  was  struck  by  its  excellence, 
and  assuming  that  it  belonged  to  the  University  calls 
it  the  "  repository  of  their  philosophical  apparatus  and 
natural  history."  "  I  have  seen  no  repository  of  this 
kind,"  he  says,  "  in  any  university,  either  at  home  or 
abroad,  more  abundantly  furnished  with  mathematical, 
mechanical,  and  optical  instruments,  and  every  sort  of 
machinery  or  model  requisite  for  the  illustration  of 
science ;  nor  any  so  agreeably  and  conveniently 
arranged,  as  this  in  the  college  of  Glasgow.  It 
is,  indeed,  a  splendid  collection  ;  and  few  perhaps 
have  been  rendered  more  successfully  subservient  to 
the  purposes,  for  which  they  were  designed."^  On 
the  Professor's  death,  it  was  transferred  to  the  Institu- 
tion  which  he  founded,  and  to  which  his  name  was 

^  Ma.wma.n,  Excursion  to  the  Highlands  of  ScotIa?id,  p.  no,  London, 
1805,  8vo.  Hughson,  London,  iv.,  p.  331.  London,  1807,  8vo. 
D'Archenholz,  Picture  of  England,  ii.,  p.  219.  Captain  James  Laskey, 
A  General  Account  of  the  Hiinterian  Museum,  Glasgow.  Glasgow, 
18 1 3,  8vo.  P.S.A.Sco.,  xxii.  (1888),  p.  349.  A  short  but  good  account 
by  Professor  John  Young  appeared  in  The  Glasgow  University  Magazine, 
February,  1889. 

Catalogue  of  Anatoniical  preparations  in  the  Hunteriaji  Museum. 
Glasgow,  1840,  8vo.  The  preface  bears  date  ist  Nov.,  1841.  Catalogue 
of  anatomical  and  pathological  preparations  of  Dr.  William  Hunter  in 
the  Hunterian  Museum,  University  of  Glasgow.  By  John  H.  Teacher, 
Glasgow,  1900,  2  vols.,  8vo.     This  is  an  admirable  catalogue. 

"^  A  Tour  through  various  Parts  of  Scotland,  p.  61.     London,  1794,  8vo. 

Garnett,  Tour  itt  Scotland,  ii.,  p.  196.     London,  1800,  410. 

L 


I  62  PATHOLOGICAL    MUSEUMS 

given.  It  was  added  to  from  time  to  time,  and  a 
short  account  of  it,  prepared  by  Dr.  John  Scouler 
(1804- 1871),  was  pubHshed  in  1831,^  When  this 
Institution  was  merged  in  the  Glasgow  and  West 
of  Scotland  Technical  College,  in  1887,  the  natural 
history  and  general  specimens  were  presented  to  the 
Hunterian  Museum,  and  the  remainder  was  retained 
as  the  nucleus  of  a  mineralogical  and  geological  col- 
lection to  be  used  for  teaching  purposes  in  the  new 
College.  This  technical  museum  is  being  organised 
and  extended,  and  will  soon  be  a  valuable  educational 
instrument. 

Repeated  efforts  were  made  by  the  Faculty  of 
Physicians  and  Surgeons  of  Glasgow  during  the 
eighteenth  and  nineteenth  centuries  to  form  a  museum, 
but  these  invariably  resulted  in  failure.  The  collection 
of  "rarities"  in  natural  history  to  which  occasional 
references  are  made  in  the  Minutes  of  last  century 
appears  to  have  left  no  trace  in  the  present  century. 
In  1823,  and  again  ten  years  later,  movements  towards 
the  institution  of  a  pathological  museum  resulted  in 
the  formation  of  a  considerable  nucleus  of  such  a 
collection.  In  the  former  year  a  sum  was  voted  for 
the  museum,  and  in  the  latter  proposals  were  made 
for  the  erection  of  a  suitable  building,  but  the  scheme 
eventually  came  to  nothing,  and  in  1852  the  entire 
collection  was  handed  over  to  the  Pathological  Museum 
of  the  Royal  Infirmary.^     Of  that  museum  a  catalogue 

^  Accomit  of  the  Andersonian  Museum,  Glasgow.  Glasgow,  1831, 
8vo. 

2  Duncan,  Memorials  of  the  Faculty  of  Physicians  and  Surgeons  of 
Glasgow,  p.  215.     Glasgow,  1896,  4to. 


ABERDEEN    MUSEUMS  I 63 

has  been  published.^  In  the  Western  Infirmary,  Glas- 
gow, there  is  an  excellent  Pathological  Museum,  of 
which  a  catalogue  is  in  preparation  and  is  expected  to 
be  published  presently. 

Dr.  Peter  Wright  (d,  1819),  five  times  President 
of  the  Faculty  of  Physicians  and  Surgeons,  one  of 
the  Trustees,  and  the  first  President  of  the  Ander- 
sonian  Institution,  Mr.  Gilbert  Hamilton  and  Mr. 
Alexander  Brown,  of  Glasgow,  were  collectors,  and 
made  various  gifts  to  the  museum  of  the  Society  of 
Antiquaries  of  Scotland, 

Many  objects  of  curiosity  were  acquired  by 
Marischal  College,  Aberdeen,  during  the  seventeenth 
and  eighteenth  centuries,  which  were  deposited  in  the 
College  library.  The  collection  gradually  grew  and 
included  natural  history  objects,  coins,  and  medals.^ 
In  1764  it  was  proposed  to  provide  a  separate  apart- 
ment for  it,  but  this  was  not  done  until  1786.  The 
collection  of  philosophical  instruments  was  in  1798 
considered  one  of  the  best  in  the  kingdom ;  and  was 
supplemented  by  models  of  the  most  useful  machines 

^  Catalogue  of  the  Pathological  Micseum  of  the  Glasgow  Royal  In- 
firmary^ edited  by  Joseph  Coats,  Glasgow,  1872,  8vo  ;  again  edited  by 
David  Foulis,  Glasgow,  1878,  Svo. 

^Stuart,  Essays  on  Scottish  Antiquities^  p.  31,  Aberdeen,  1846,  4to. 
Old  Statistical  Accounts,  xxi.,  Appendix,  p.  131  ;  Gough,  British  Topo- 
graphy, ii.,  p.  628. 

In  Marischal  College  the  teaching  of  Civil  and  Natural  History  was 
in  1827  entrusted  to  one  professor.  He  dealt  with  both  in  one  course, 
and  his  teaching  embraced  in  one  session  the  history  of  the  Egyptians, 
Phoenicians,  Greeks,  Persians,  and  Romans ;  Mineralogy  and  Zoology ; 
Chemistry,  Electricity,  Galvanism,  and  Magnetism,  Light  and  Heat. 
Report  of  the  Universities  Commission  of  1826,  Visitation  at  Aberdeen, 
Marischal  College,  pp.  22  sqq.,  40  sqq. 


164  ST.    ANDREWS    MUSEUM 

in  the  various  arts  and  manufactures,  acquired  out  of  a 
grant  made  during  several  years  by  the  Board  of 
Trustees  for  promoting  Fisheries  and  Manufactures  in 
Scotland. 

There  was  a  separate  museum  in  King's  College, 
Aberdeen,  which  was  much  increased  by  the  exertions 
of  Professor  William  Ogilvie  (i  736-1819),  and  his  own 
valuable  collection  of  Greek  coins  was  ultimately  trans- 
ferred to  it.^  In  i860  King's  College  and  Marischal 
College  were  united,  when  the  Natural  History  section 
of  Kino's  Colleo^e  was  transferred  to  the  museum  in 
Marischal  College,  and  the  remainder  became  the 
Archaeological  Museum  of  King's  College.^ 

There  seems  to  have  been  no  attempt  to  form  a 
museum  in  the  University  of  St.  Andrews  until  com- 
paratively recently,  and  it  was  only  in  embryo  in  1827.^ 
The  Literary  and  Philosophical  Society  of  St.  Andrews, 
soon  after  its  foundation  in  1838,  began  to  form  a 
collection,  and  this  together  with  various  departmental 
museums  belonging  to  the  University  are  deposited 
in  a  suite  of  rooms  in  the  University  buildings. 
The  archaeological  collection  is  illustrative  of  the 
neighbourhood,   and  contains  a  number  of  objects  ot 

■'Douglas,  General  Description  of  the  East  Coast  of  Scotland,  p.  198, 
Paisley,  1782,  8vo  ;  Ogilvie,  Birthright  in  Land,  with  Biographical  Notes 
by  D.  C.  Macdo7iald,  p.  239.     London,  1891,  8vo. 

-  P. S.A.Scot.,  xxii.  (1888),  p.  356.  Catalogue  of  Antiquities  in  the 
Archaeological  Museum,  King's  College.     Aberdeen,  1887,  8vo. 

^  Report  of  the  Scottish  Universities'  Commission  of  1826,  Visitation  at 
St.  Andrews,  p.  19,  and  Evidence  of  Dr.  Chalmers,  p.  68,  and  of  John 
M 'Vicar,  pp.  183,  184.     Report  of  the  Commissioners,  p.  28. 

In  1782  the  skeleton  of  the  college  carrier  and  a  few  objects  of  a 
similar  character  were  preserved  in  the  library.  Douglas,  General 
Description  of  the  East  Coast  of  Scotland,  p.  31.     Paisley,  1782,  8vo. 


STUDY    OF    NATURAL    SCIENCE    IN    GLASGOW  1 65 

much  interest.  The  natural  history  museum  is  of 
considerable  extent,  and  there  are  excellent  collec- 
tions of  fossils  and  geological  specimens,  a  number 
of  ethnological  objects,  and  a  well-arranged  osteo- 
logical   collection/ 

Robert  Wodrow  {1679- 1734),  the  minister  of  East- 
wood, had  some  taste  for  natural  science,  and  although 
unwearied  in  gathering  materials  for  his  History  of 
the  SingtLla7'  Sufferings  of  the  Church  of  Scotland, 
found  time  to  collect  a  small  museum  of  antiquities 
and  fossils,  the  use  of  which  he  gave  to  Sir  Robert 
Sibbald.  Writing  to  Sibbald,  he  says,  "If  there  are 
any  of  your  Roman  curiositys  that  are  perfectly 
doubles,  or  any  natural  products  that  you  have  doubles 
of,  it  would  be  a  new  obligation  to  send  some  of  them 
to  augment  my  small  collection."-  The  collection  was 
dispersed  on  his  death." 

"^Report  of  the  Si.  Aftdrezvs  University  Commissioners^  p.  19,  London, 
1845,  fol.  ;  Roger,  History  of  St.  Andrews,  p.  119,  2nd  ed.,  Edinb.,  1849, 
8vo  ;  P.S.A.Scot.,  xxii.  (1888),  p.  345. 

-23rd  November,  1710,  Remai?is  of  Sir  Robert  Sibbald,  pp.  21-40. 
Wodrow  Correspondence,  i.,  pp.  32,  171  ;  ii.,  pp.  289,  344  ;  iii.,  p.  no. 

George  Crawfurd,  in  his  General  Description  of  the  Shire  of  Renfrew 
(Edinburgh,  171 1,  fol.),  mentions  "several  curiosities  observed  by  Mr. 
Robert  Wodrow."  There  is  a  letter  from  Professor  Robert  Simson,  6th 
August,  1725,  to  Wodrow  introducing  Gordon,  the  author  of  the  Itiner- 
arium  Septe7tt7'ionale,  and  referring  to  this  collection.  Gordon  himself 
mentions  it,  Itinerariicm  Septe?itrionale,  p.  118.  Maidment,  Analecta 
Scotica,  ii.,  p.  220.     Edinburgh,  1837. 

^  Memoir  of  Wodrow  by  Dr.  Robert  Burns,  prefixed  to  his  edition  of 
Wodrow's  History,  i.,  p.  iii.     Glasgow,  1829,  8vo,  4  vol. 

Dr.  Stevenson  Macgill,  his  successor  in  the  parish  of  Eastwood,  states 
{Old  Statistical  Account,  xviii.,  p.  211)  that  Wodrow  "was  among  the 
first  who  attended  to  natural  history  in  this  country  ;  and  he  left  behind 
him  a  small  Museum  of  fossils,  chiefly  collected  from  his  own  parish,  and 
also  a  collection  of  medals." 


1 66       SOME  OTHER  SCOTTISH  COLLECTORS 

The  study  of  natural  science  was  just  commencing 
in  Glasgow  at  this  time.  Caleb  Threlkeld  (1676- 1728), 
the  author  of  the  tirst  treatise  on  the  plants  of  Ireland, 
commenced  Master  of  Arts  in  the  University  of 
Glasgow  in  1698,^  and  it  was  probably  when  a  student 
there  that  he  first  beo-an  to  interest  himself  in  the  study 
of  botany.  In  1704  part  of  the  College  Yards  was 
laid  out  as  a  Physic  or  Botanical  Garden,-  and  John 
^Marshall,  surgeon  in  Glasgow,  was  appointed  teacher 
or  professor  of  botany.^  It  was  through  his  opportuni- 
ties for  study  in  this  garden  that  Robert  Simson,  the 
mathematician,  became  a  learned  botanist ;  and  it  was 
there  that  Charles  Alston  (1683- 1760),  whose  work 
on  the  Matej'ia  Medica  has  been  repeatedly  quoted 
in  these  pages,  acquired  his  first  knowledge  of  the 
science  of  botany  which  he  afterwards  so  successfully 
cultivated.'^ 

Amongst  other  private  museums  in  Scotland,  the 
most  extensive  was  the  collection  of  antiquities  made 
by  Sir  John   Clerk,  of  Penicuick  (1684-1755),  better 

^  Pulteney,  SketcJies  of  the  Progress  of  Botany,  ii.,  p.  196.  Cf.  Mitnivienia 
Universitatis  Glasguensis,  iii.,  p.  159.     Glasg.,  1854,  4to. 

^  Muniinenta  Universitatis  Glasguensis,  iii.,  pp.  512,  514. 

In  the  librar}'  of  the  University  of  Glasgow  (of  which  Wodrow  was 
keeper  for  several  years),  there  are  copies  of  Gesner,  De  reruvi  fossiliuvi 
lapidujii  et  ge»i?>iaruvi  Liber  {supra,  p.  25),  and  of  Boetius,  Geminarum  cf 
lapidutn  Hisioria  {supra,  p.  26),  presented  by  him  in  the  same  year,  1704. 

3  In  his  Testament  (recorded  27th  November,  1719,  Commissariot  of 
Glasgow)  he  is  styled  "  Professor  of  Botanie  in  the  University  of 
Glasgow." 

■*He  commenced  M.A.  in  the  University  of  Glasgow  in  1717  and  M.D. 
in  1719,  Munitmnta,  iii.,  pp.  173,  305.  He  had  gone  to  Leyden  in  1716, 
but  e\-idently  returned  to  Glasgow  next  year  to  take  his  degree.  In  1720 
he  began  to  lecture  in  Edinburgrh. 


MUSEUM    OF    THE    SOCIETY    OF    ANTIQUARIES         1 6/ 

known  as  Baron  Clerk. ^  Somewhat  later  Mr,  James 
MacgoLian,  of  Edinburgh,  made  a  similar  collection 
which  was  described  by   Pennant  in   1772.^ 

The  most  important  museum  of  archaeology  in  Scot- 
land is  that  collected  by  the  Society  of  Antiquaries, 
which  is  now  national  property.  The  Society  was 
founded  in  1780  on  the  initiative  of  the  Earl  of  Buchan. 
One  of  its  objects  was  the  formation  of  a  museum, 
which,  it  was  intended,  should  embrace  not  onl)' 
antiquities  but  also  specimens  of  the  natural  productions 
of  Scotland.  Many  donations  were  received,  and  the 
museum  quickly  took  shape.  In  1782  the  Society 
applied  for  a  Royal  Charter  of  incorporation.  The 
application  was  most  strenuously  opposed  by  all  the 
vested  interests  of  Edinburgh — by  the  University,  the 
Faculty  of  Advocates,  and  the  Philosophical  Society — 
but  the  opposition,  which  was  evidently  prompted  by 
jealousy,  fortunately  failed.  It  was  supported  on 
various  flimsy  grounds,  one  of  which  was  the  in- 
advisability  of  sanctioning  the  formation  of  a  museum. 
The  opponents  apparently  despaired  of  being  able  to 
extinguish  the  Society,  but  endeavoured  to  supersede 
it  by  suggesting  the  incorporation  of  another  upon  a 
more  extensive  plan,  to  embrace  literature  and  science, 
and  to   be  called   "  The   Royal   Society  of  Scotland." 

Mn  1857  Clerk's  inscribed  Roman  stones  were  presented  to  the 
National  Museum.  P.S.A.Sco.,  iii.,  p.  37.  It  is  to  be  regretted  that 
they  were  not  added  to  the  collection  in  Glasgow,  which  would  then  have 
approached  completeness. 

2  Tour  in  Scotland  in  1J72,  Part  ii.,  p.  241.     London,  1776,  4to. 

Gough  also  refers  to  the  collection  of  John  Cay,  Deputy  Secretary  of 
Excise  at  Edinburgh.  British  Topography,  ii.,  pp.  628,  744.  He  was 
grandson  of  Robert  Cay,  the  Antiquary,  often  mentioned  in  Stukeley's 
correspondence. 


1 68  OPPOSITION    OF    THE    UNIVERSITY 

Dealing  with  the  question  of  museums,  the  University 
of  Edinburgh,  headed  by  Principal  Robertson,  the  his- 
torian, say  "  The  library  of  the  Faculty  of  Advocates 
has  been  during  a  century  the  repository  of  every  thing 
that  tends  to  illustrate  the  history,  the  antiquities,  and 
the  laws  of  this  country.  The  collection  is  very  con- 
siderable, though  still  far  from  being  complete.  By  its 
situation  it  is  easily  accessible  to  the  Courts  of  Justice, 
and  to  the  practitioners  at  the  bar.  It  is  humbly 
submitted,  whether  an  attempt  to  form  a  new  and  rival 
collection  be  a  measure  prudent,  expedient,  and  of 
advantage  to  the  public.  The  musaeum  of  the 
University  of  Edinburgh  contains  those  objects  of 
natural  history  which  are  exhibited  by  the  professor 
of  that  branch  of  science  to  his  students,  and  are 
illustrated  by  him  in  the  course  of  his  lectures. 
It  appears  to  the  Senatus  Academicus  that  the  estab- 
lishment of  another  Musaeum  would  not  only  interrupt 
the  communication  of  many  specimens  and  objects 
which  would  otherwise  have  been  deposited  in  the 
Museum  of  the  University,  but  may  induce  and  enable 
the  Society  of  Antiquaries  to  institute  a  lectureship  of 
natural  history,  in  opposition  to  the  professorship  in 
the  University."  After  detailing  their  scheme  for  the 
Royal  Society  which  they  advocated  they  next  propose 
"  that  whatever  collections  of  antiquities,  records, 
MSS.,  etc.,  shall  be  acquired  by  this  Royal  Society 
shall  be  deposited  in  the  library  of  the  Faculty  of 
Advocates,  and  all  the  objects  of  natural  history 
acquired  by  it  shall  be  deposited  in  the  Musaeum  of  the 
University  of  Edinburgh,  so  as  both  may  be  most 
accessible  to  the  members  of  the  Society,  to  the  public, 


PERTH    MUSEUM  169 

and  of  most  general  utility."  The  Lord- Advocate 
Henry  Dundas,  to  whom  the  petition  for  the  Charter 
had  been  referred,  was  not  to  be  duped  by  such 
arguments,  and,  appreciating  the  aims  of  the  Society, 
recommended  that  the  Charter  should  be  granted,  and 
it  passed  accordingly  in  May,  1783.^ 

The  museum  has  now  been  transferred,  under 
certain  conditions,  to  the  Government,  and  receives 
an  annual  grant  in  aid. 

In  1784  the  Literary  and  Antiquarian  Society  of 
Perth  was  established  after  the  pattern  of  that  of 
Edinburgh,  and  the  formation  of  a  museum  was 
commenced.^  It  contains  a  considerable  number  of 
objects  of  various  kinds,  but  it  is  not  very  extensive, 
and  has  not  had  the  good  fortune,  like  that  of 
Edinburgh,  to  have  been  taken  over  and  maintained 
by  the  State. 

^  Memorial  for  the  Principal  and  Professors  of  the  University  of  Edin- 
burgh. Reprinted  by  William  Smellie,  Account  of  the  Institution  and 
Progress  of  the  Society  of  Antiquaries  in  Scotla7id,  part  ii.,  p.  13.  Edin- 
burgh, 1784,  4to.  Smellie  (1740-95)  was  superintendent  of  the  Society's 
museum. 

'^  Transactions  of  the  Literary  and  Anfiquaria?i  Society  of  Perth. 
Perth,  1827,  4to.  This  volume  contains  a  catalogue  of  the  contents  of 
the  museum  at  that  date.  See  further  P. S.A.Scot.,  xxii.,  p.  337  ;  Nature, 
xlvi.  (1892),  p.  472  ;  Museums  Association,  Proceedings  at  Seventh 
Meeting,  ed.  by  Howarth  and  Platnauer,  p.  43.  London,  1896,  8vo  ;  Sir 
William  Henry  Flower,  Address  at  the  Opening  of  Perth  Museum,  29th 
November,  1895.  Garnett,  Tour  in  Scotland,  ii.,  p.  104.  London, 
1800,  4to. 


CHAPTER    XII. 

MUSEUMS   AS  SHOWS. 

It  is  unnecessary,  for  the  present  purpose,  to  trace  the 
history  of  other  museums.  Dealing  in  curiosities  had 
become  a  recog^nized  callino",^  Collections  continued  to 
be  formed  both  by  private  persons  and  public  bodies 
in  England  and  on  the  Continent,  and  many  of  great 
extent  and  value  were  made.  They  could  be  counted 
by  the  score  in  Rome,  and  in  every  important  town  in 
Italy,-  Holland,  France,  and  Germany  there  were 
numerous  collections.  "  I  am  now  makino-  a  collec- 
tion  of  natural  rarities,"  says  Robert  Hooke  in 
1666,  "and  hope  within  a  short  time  to  get  as  good 

^Evelyn,  Diary,  i.,  p.  51  ;   Nuniismata,  p.  199. 

Giovanni  Ciampolini  was  a  noted  dealer  in  antiquities  in  the  time  of 
Pope  Leo  X.,  and  was  a  friend  of  Politian. 

Philippe  Sylvestre  Du  Four  (1622- 1687),  druggist  in  Lyons  and  friend 
of  Dr.  Jacob  Spon,  was  an  antiquary  and  collected  on  his  o^vn  account, 
but  he  was  always  prepared  to  sell  his  pieces  as  readily  as  his  drugs  when 
opportunity  occurred.  At  least,  so  says  Niceron,  Mcmoires  pojir  servir 
a  Vhistoire  des  homines  illustres,  vol.  xvi.,  p.  362. 

Kanold  prints  a  catalogue  of  antiquities  for  sale  by  Matthaeus  Bayer 
of  Ulm.     Neickelius,  Museographia,  p.  70. 

^  For  example,  Misson,  A  New  Voyage  in  Italy,  ii.,  p.  368,  London, 
1699  ;  and  Spon,  supra,  p.  21.  See  Bonnafte,  Les  Collectioneurs  de 
rancienne  Rome,  Paris,  1867,  8vo. 

170 


THE    COLLECTING    SPIRIT  I/I 

as  any  have  been  yet  made  in  the  world."  ^  "  I  am 
extremely  glad  you  tell  me  you  intend  to  collect 
Natural  Curiosities,"  writes  Sir  Hans  Sloane  to  a 
correspondent.  "  I  have,"  says  another,  just  back 
from  India,  "collected  innumerable  Specimens  of 
Plants.  ...  I  have  likewise  made  a  good  Collection 
of  Insects,  Fishes,  etc.,  which  are  partly  dried  and 
partly  preserved  in  spirits.  Of  Shells  I  have  a  good 
store,  many  of  them  very  fine;  and  have  not  neglected 
antiquities,  but  have  collected  a  great  number  of 
Pagods,  Amulets,  and  other  curiosities  of  the  kind, 
which  the  country  afforded."-  John  Evelyn,  as  Beck- 
mann  subsequently  did,  included  amongst  inventors, 
"  the  diligent  and  curious  collectors  of  both  artificial 
and  natural  curiosities,  types,  models,  machines,  &c."^ 
Every  traveller  visited  the  principal  collections,  and 
many  of  them  have  left  a  record  of  what  they  saw. 

So  popular  had  such  collections  become  in  the 
eighteenth  century  that  a  museum  of  curiosities  was 
thought  an  attraction  in  a  London  coffee  house.  One 
of  the  sights  of  London  during  the  eighteenth  century 
was  the  repertory  of  curiosities  in  Don  Saltero's  Coffee 
House  in  Cheyne  Row,  Chelsea.*  It  was  established 
in  1690,  and  sold  off  in  1799.  The  founder  was  James 
Salter,  an  old  servant  of  Sir  Hans  Sloane,  who  helped 
him  with  the  collection.  ''  From  Putney  we  returned 
to  Chelsea  to  see  Mr.  Salter's  Collection  of  Curiosities, 

^Robert  Boyle,    Works,  vi.,  p.   505.     London,   1772,  4to. 

^Nichols,  Literary  lllustraiions  of  the  Eighteenth  Century,  i.,  pp. 
270,  314- 

"^ Xiimis7nata,  p.  282,  London,  1697,  fol. 

■*  Don  Saltero  appears  frequently  in  the  pages  of  The  Tatler.  In 
Number  34  he  and  his  coffee-house  are  described  by  Steele. 


172  DON    SALTEROS    AND    ADAMS  S    MUSEUMS 

which  is  really  surprising  considering  his  circumstances 
as  a  coffee-man  ;  but  several  persons  of  distinction 
have  been  benefactors."^  There  was  a  printed  Cata- 
logue which  was  sold  to  visitors,  and  passed  through 
about  fifty  editions. 

"  Monsters  of  all  sorts  here  are  seen, 

Strange  things  in  nature  as  they  grow  so, 
Some  relics  of  the  Sheba  queen, 

And  fragments  of  the  famous  Bob  Crusoe." 

This  success  led  to  imitation.  Ralph  Thoresby 
records  that  in  17 14  Mr.  Miers,  who  kept  a  coffee- 
house which  was  frequented  by  Sir  Hans  Sloane  and 
other  learned  men,  "  hath  a  handsome  collection  of 
curiosities  in  the  room  where  the  virtuosi  meet."^ 

Another  London  attraction  in  the  middle  of  the 
eighteenth  century  was  Adams's  museum  at  the  Royal 
Swan  in  Kingsland  Road.  It  was  shown  in  three 
rooms,  in  an  entry  or  passage  and  a  long  room  at  the 
back.  There  were  no  less  than  567  numbers  com- 
prising a  most  miscellaneous  lot  of  things,  most  of 
them  rubbish,  many  of  them  fictitious  or  absurd,  but 
all  appealing  to  popular  curiosity  :  Charles  of  Swede- 
land's  boots  ;  Harry  the  Sth's  spurs  ;  tobacco  stopper 
made  from  the  royal  oak  King  Charles  was  hid  in 
at  Boscobello  Grove  in  Staffordshire  ;  Vicar  of  Bray's 
clogs  ;  caps,  gloves,  and  shoes  from  Hudson's  Bay  ; 
Mandarin's  hubble-bubble  from  Gambroon  in  Persia  ; 
Chinese  chop-sticks  ;  Star  and  Garter  made  of  Indian 
arrows,  with  a  George  in  the  middle  ;  a  corn-mill  in  a 
bottle,  that  goes  without  wind,  water,  or  clock  work  ; 

^  Thoresby,  Diary,  ii.,  p.  376.  -  Op.  laud.,  ii.,  p.  229. 


cox  S    MUSEUM  173 

thunderbolt  stones,  and  many  relics  of  the  risings  of 
of  1 7 15  and  1745.1 

Another  popular  collection  was  that  of  James  Cox 
in  Spring  Gardens,  Charing  Cross.  It  consisted  of 
mechanical  contrivances,  waterfalls,  Asiatic  temples, 
jewellery,  and  curiosities  in  richly  decorated  rooms,  and 
was  for  some  time  a  fashionable  resort-  "  I  promised 
precisely  at  twelve  to  call  on  Lady  Frolic,  to  take  a 
turn  in  Kensington  Gardens,  to  see  both  the  exhibi- 
tions, the  stain'd  glass,  dwarf,  giant,  and  Cox's 
museum."^  When  the  attendance  began  to  fall  off. 
Cox  applied  to  Parliament  and  was  successful  in 
obtaining  an  Act  authorising  him  to  dispose  of  it  "by 
way  of  chance."*  It  is  alluded  to  by  Foote.  "His 
father,"  says  the  incoherent  Mr.  Aircastle,  "keeps  a 
pastry  cook's  shop  in  Spring-gardens,  just  where  Cox's 
museum  is — by  the  by,  they  tell  me,  Cox  will  get 
devilish  rich  by  his  lottery."''  So  it  was  generally 
thought.** 

Hubert's     museum    and     that    of    John     Conyers, 

^  A  Catalogue  of  the  Rarities  to  be  seen  at  Adams's  at  the  Royal  Swan 
in  Kingsland  Road,  leading  from  Shoreditch  Church.  London,  1756,  8vo. 
The  third  edition. 

^  A  descriptive  Catalogue  of  the  several  superb  attd  magnif cent  pieces  of 
jnechanism  and  jexvellery  exhibited  iii  the  Museum  at  Spring  Gardens, 
Chari?ig  Cross.     London,  1772,410. 

The  Museum  is  well  described  in  Miss  Burney's  Eveliria,  Letter  xix. 

D'Archenholz,  Picture  of  England,  i.,  p.  106  sqq.     London,  1789. 

3 Mrs.  Simony,  in  Foote's  "The  Cozeners,"  Works,  ii.,  p.  157,  infra. 

*  13  Geo.  III.,  c.  41.     The  contents  are  scheduled  to  the  Act. 

*  Foote,  op.  laud.,  ii.,  p.  195.     London,  1799,  Svo. 

"  In  the  debate  on  Sir  Ashton  Lever's  Bill,  i?if?-a,  p.  176,  it  was  said  that 
both  Cox's  lottery  and  that  of  the  Messrs.  Adam  for  the  disposal  of  their 
Adelphi  Buildings  had  been  frauds  on  the  public.  The  Gefttleman's 
Magazine,  liv.  (1784),  p.  705.    As  to  the  Adelphi  lottery,  see  lb.,  xliv.,  p.  138. 


174  GREENES    MUSEUM 

although  of  a  superior  kind  to  any  of  these,  were  also 
open  to  the  public,  and  seem  to  have  been  formed 
for  the  purpose  of  exhibition.  Others  followed  their 
example.  Richard  Greene  (i  716- 1793),  surgeon  and 
apothecary  in  Lichfield,  began  collecting  curiosities 
about  1740,  and  continued  to  do  so  with  unremitting 
zeal  until  his  death,  nearly  fifty  years  later.^  His 
museum  was  shewn  to  the  public  gratuitously.  It  was 
visited  by  Dr.  Johnson  in  1774,  and  again  in  1776  along 
w^ith  Boswell,  who  describes  it  as  "  truly  a  wonderful 
collection  both  of  antiquities  and  natural  curiosities  and 
ingenious  works  of  art.""  A  descriptive  catalogue 
was  published  in  1773  and  passed  through  several 
editions.^  In  that  year  the  collection  contained  coins 
and  medals,  Christian  antiquities,  and  natural  history 
specimens.  In  later  years  there  were  added  many 
ethnographical  objects  from  the  South  Seas,  books 
and  manuscripts,  arms  and  armour.  After  Greene's 
death  the  collection  was  broken  up  ;  first  the  fossils 
were  sold  in  1799  to  Sir  John  St.  Aubyn,  and  next 
year  the  arms  and  armour  to  William   Bullock;    and 

^ There  is  an  account  of  Greene  and  his  museum  in  Nichols  Illustra- 
tions of  the  Literary  History  of  the  Eighteenth  Century,  vi.,  p.  318-326  ; 
see  also  Literary  Anecdotes  of  the  Eighteeiith  Century,  ix.,  p.  380.  The 
museum  is  shortly  described,  and  a  plan  of  part  of  it  is  given  in  The 
Gentleman^s  Magazine,  Iviii.,  part  ii.  (1788),  p.  847. 

-Life  of  fohnson,  ed.  Croker,  vi.,  p.  98,  London,  1859.  Johnson 
said  of  it,  "  Sir,  I  should  as  soon  have  thought  of  building  a  man- 
of-war  as  of  collecting  such  a  museum." 

^The  New  and  Accurate  Survey  of  the  Lichfield  Museum,  3rd  edition, 
Lichfield,  1786,  extends  to  84  pages. 

Amongst  the  specimens  was  "the  tusk  of  an  Elephant  dug  out  of  a 
gravel  pit  near  Stratford-upon-Avon  six  feet  beneath  the  surface  of  the 
ground." 


LEVERS    MUSEUM  1/5 

afterwards  nearly  the  whole  of  the  remainder  to 
Walter  Honeywood  Yate,  of  Bronsberrow,  who 
printed  a  catalogue  of  it  in  1801/  This  part  was 
ultimately  acquired  by  Richard  Wright,  of  Lichfield, 
Greene's  grandson,  but  was  finally  dispersed  on  his 
death  in   1821. 

Sir  Ashton  Lever  (i  729-1 788)  early  in  life  be- 
came a  collector  of  natural  history  specimens,  and 
began  the  formation  of  a  museum  at  his  house, 
Alkrington  Hall,  near  Manchester.  In  this  he  was 
assisted  by  James  Douglas,  the  antiquary,  author  of 
Nenia  Britannica.  In  later  years  he  added  ethno- 
graphical objects,  coins,  medals  and  casts,  and  all 
kinds  of  curiosities.^  In  1775,  "flattered  by  his  great 
success,"  he  removed  the  museum  to  London,  styled 
it  Holophusikon,  and  exhibited  it  in  Leicester  House, 
Leicester  Square,  "  not  doubting  but  he  would  make 
it,  by  its  pre-eminence  over  all  other  collections,  a 
national  honour."  He  entered  upon  the  undertaking 
"with  a  determined  spirit,"  and  "secured  every  capital 
article  that  offered  itself."  By  selecting  out  of  some 
hundred  thousand  specimens,  he  formed  a  "  collection 
of  subjects  of  natural  history  and  of  art  superior  to 

^  A  concise  .  .  .  CatalogTie  of .  .  .  the  .  .  .  curiosities  in  the  Museum 
of  W.  H.    v.,  8vo.  [1801]. 

-Described  in  T/ie  Ge?itleviati s  Magazine,  xliii.  (1773),  p.  219  ;  and  in 

Wendeborn,  Der  Zustand  des  Staats,  der  Religion,  der  Gelehrsatnkeit  und 

der  Kunst  iti    Grosbritannien,  ii.,  p.    142.     Berlin,   1785,   8vo.     English 

abridged   translation,    i.,   pp.    323,    350,    London,    1791,   8vo.      See   also 

Compayiioti  to  the  Museum   late   Sir  A.   Lever's,   London,    1790,   8vo  ; 

I'    Shaw,  Micsei  Leveriani  Explicatio  (Latin  and  English),  London,  1792-96, 

n    2  vols.,  4to,  with  72  coloured  plates  ;    Skelton,  Engraved  Illustrations 

\    of  Meyric^s  collectioti  of  Ancient  Armour,  contains  several  of  the  general 

I  objects  from  Lever's  museum  in  addition  to  the  armour,  1830,  2  vols.,  fol. 


176  OFFERED    TO    THE    BRITISH    MUSEUM 

anything  of  the  kind  in  Europe."^  Whether  this  be 
so  or  not,  it  was  evidently  an  attractive  show, 
as  one  httle  lad  of  ten  was  so  carried  away 
with  excitement  that  he  addressed  a  set  of  verses 
to  Sir  Ashton,  which  were  printed  in  the  Gentle- 
mans  Magazine : 

View  there  an  urn  which  Roman  ashes  bore, 
And  habits  once  that  foreign  nations  wore, 
Birds  and  wild  beasts  from  Afric's  burning  sand, 
And  curious  fossils  rang'd  in  order  stand.- 

The  collection  had  cost  him  ^53,000,  which  made  so 
serious  an  inroad  on  his  fortune,  that  he  became  anxious 
to  dispose  of  it,^  and  offered  it  to  the  Trustees  of 
the  British  Museum  for  a  moderate  sum,  but  they 
declined  to  purchase  it.  Dr.  Johnson  was  in  favour 
of  the  acquisition  by  the  nation  both  of  it  and  of  the 
Houghton  collection  of  pictures  belonging  to  Lord 
Oxford,  which  was  likewise  for  sale  at  this  time.^ 
The  Government  allowed  the  pictures  to  slip  through 
their  fingers,  and  they  are  now  one  of  the  principal 
ornaments  of  the  Hermitaoe  Museum  in  St.  Peters- 
burg.  In  1783  Sir  Ashton  petitioned  Parliament 
for  an  Act  to  authorize  him  to  dispose  of  his 
museum  by  way  of  chance.^  The  petition  was 
referred    to    a    committee,    who    reported    favourably, 

^  Preamble  to  the  Act  24,  Geo.  iii.,  Sess.  2,  cap.  22  ;  House  of  Commons 
Journals^  xxxix.  (1783-84),  p.  161.  Duncan,  Catalojriie  of  the  Ashmolean 
MKseum,  p.  iii.     Oxford,  1836,  8vo. 

=  xlix.  (1779),  P-  319- 

^The  Gentlemaiis  Magazine,  Iii.  (1783),  p.  919. 

•*Boswell,  Life  of  fohnson,  ed.  Croker,  ix.,  p.  337,  London,  1859. 

^  H.  of  C.  Journals,  xxxix.,  p.  161. 


SOLD    BY    LOTTERY  1/7 

Next  session  an  enabling  Bill  was  introduced,  and 
after  some  discussion  was  passed.^  A  lottery  was 
then  an  accepted  method  of  raising  money,  and,  as 
we  have  seen,  it  was  by  this  means  that  money  was 
obtained  for  establishing  the  British  Museum  and  for 
paying  for  the  collections  out  of  which  it  grew. 
Sir  Ashton's  Act"-  allowed  him  to  sell  36,000  tickets 
at  a  guinea  apiece,  but  of  these  only  8000  were 
applied  for  by  the  public.  The  museum  fell  to  Mr. 
James  Parkinson,  a  holder  of  two  tickets,  who 
exhibited  it  in  the  Rotunda  near  the  Surrey  end 
of  Blackfriars  Bridge.^  It  was  very  popular  for 
some  years. ^  "  The  trouble  to  obtain  a  sight  of 
the  British  Museum,"  says  an  American  writer, 
"renders  it  of  less  value  to  the  public  than  a 
private  collection  belonging  to  Mr.  Parkinson,  called 
the  Leverian  Museum."^  In  the  course  of  time  it  was 
neglected  and  was  sold  off  in  1806.^  A  few  of  the 
objects  are  now  in  the  Hunterian  Museum,  Glasgow. 

'^  Gcntlemaii s  Magazine,  liii.  (1783),  919;    liv.,  (1784),  622,  705. 

^24  Geo.  iii.,  2  Sess.,  c.  24,  "An  Act  for  enabling  Sir  Ashton  Lever  to 
dispose  of  his  Museum  as  no\s'  exhibited  at  Leicester  House  by  way  of 
chance." 

The  contents  of  the  museum  are  scheduled  to  the  Act. 

"Nichols,  Literary  Illustratiotis  of  the  Eighteenth  Century,  vii.,  p.  469  ; 
Hughson,  London,  iv.,  p.  329.     London,  1807,  8vo. 

^See  the  Advertisement  in  Thornbury,  Old  and  Netv  London,  vi.,  p.  382. 

'"  Peale,  Discourse  on  the  Science  of  Nature,  p.  20.  Philadelphia,  1800, 
8vo. 

'^Catalogue  of  the  Leverian  Museum,  London,  1806,  4to,  pp.  410.  There 
is  a  copy  in  the  British  Museum,  with  the  prices  and  the  purchasers' 
names. 

Part  of  the  ethnographical  collection  was  purchased  for  the  Vienna 
museum.  Klemm,  Geschichte  der  Sainmlungen  fiir  IVissenschaft  und 
Kunst  in  Deutschland,  p.  299,  Zerbst,  1837,  8vo. 


178  bullock's  museum 

William  Bullock,  a  goldsmith  in  Liverpool,  in  early- 
life  began  to  form  a  museum.  In  1800  he  bought 
the  greater  part  of  the  arms  and  armour  from 
Greene's  Museum,  the  remainder  being  acquired  for 
the  collection  in  the  Tower  of  London.  He  like- 
wise made  considerable  purchases  at  the  sale  of  Sir 
Ashton  Lever's  Museum.^  In  1805  he  opened  the 
"  Liverpool  Museum "  at  22  Piccadilly,  in  the  room 
originally  occupied  by  Astley  for  his  evening  perform- 
ance.'- In  1808  he  had  the  Egyptian  Hall  erected 
for  him,  transferred  his  collection  to  it  and  opened  it  to 
the  public  as  the  London  Museum,  which  soon  became 
one  of  the  most  attractive  sights  in  London.  By 
1 8 10  it  had  cost  him  ^22,000,  and  in  the  next  year 
he  spent  on  it  ^8000  more.^  In  1 819  he  sold  off  the 
whole,*  and  commenced  an  extensive  scheme  of  travel 
extending  over  several  years.  During  this  time  he 
formed  a  Mexican  collection,  which  he  exhibited 
at   the   Egyptian    Hall   in    1824.     The    University   of 

^A  Companio7i  to  the  Liverpool  Museum.  6th  edition.  Hull,  1808,  8vo. 
A  seventh  edition  was  published  in  1809. 

-  Timbs,  Cu7'iosities  of  London,  p.  266.     London,  1855,  8vo. 

^  A  Compa7iion  to  Mr.  Bullocks  museum  .  .  .  now  open  for  public 
inspection  in  the  Great  Room  No.  22  Piccadilly,  London,  8th  edition. 
London,  18 10,  8vo.  This  is  called  the  eighth  edition,  being  a  continua- 
tion in  a  new  form  of  the  original  Liverpool  Companion.  A  seventeenth 
edition  was  published  in  18 16. 

*  Catalogue  of  the  Roman  Gallery  of  A}itiquities  and  Works  of  Art  and 
the  London  Museum  of  Natural  History  .  .  .  at  the  Egyptia7i  Hall  .  .  . 
which  will  be  sold  by  auction.     London,  1819,  4to. 

The  whole  collection  was  first  oft'ered  to  the  British  Government 
for  ^50,000;  but,  the  age  of  lotteries  having  passed,  they  declined  to 
purchase. 

A  large  portion  of  the  ethnographical  section  went  to  the  Berlin 
museum.  Klemm,  Geschichte  der  Sammlungen  fiir  IVissenschaft  und 
Kunst  in  Deutschland,  p.  210,  Zerbst,  1837,  8vo. 


PEALE  S    PHILADELPHIA    MUSEUM  179 

Edinburgh,  as  already  mentioned,  purchased  a  con- 
siderable portion  of  the  original  collection.  The 
armour  which  Bullock  had  acquired  from  Greene's 
Museum  was  purchased  by  Sir  Samuel  Meyrick 
(1783- 1 848),  and  in  1871  was  sold  with  the  rest  of 
Sir  Samuel's  magnificent  collection  to  M.  Frederic 
Spitzer,  of  Paris.  In  1893  the  Spitzer  collection 
was  in  turn  disposed  of  by  auction. 

Charles  Wilson  Peale  (i  741-1827),  the  portrait 
painter  of  Philadelphia,  was  one  of  the  first  to  form  a 
museum  in  the  United  States.  He  was  much  inter- 
ested in  Natural  History,  delivered  lectures  on  the 
subject,  and  was  indefatigable  in  collecting  material. 
The  foundation  of  the  collection  was  a  few  of  the  bones 
of  a  mammoth,  which  he  acquired  in  1785.  Sixteen 
years  later  he  obtained  the  first  entire  skeleton  which 
had  ever  been  found.  Besides  specimens  of  natural 
history  the  museum  contained  wax  figures  of  the  dif- 
ferent nations  of  the  North  American  Indians,  "dressed 
in  their  proper  habiliments,"  a  collection  of  their 
arms  and  utensils,  other  Indian  and  European 
curiosities,  and  casts  of  ancient  gems  and  statues. 
For  ten  years  it  was  kept  in  the  Philosophical  Hall, 
but  in  1802  the  greater  part  of  it  was  transferred  to 
the  State- House,  the  use  of  which  was  granted  by 
the  Legislature  of  Pennsylvania  for  its  display.  There 
were  also  some  models  of  machines,  and  in  one  of  the 
rooms  there  was  a  person  "with  Hawkins'  ingenious 
Physiognotrace,  who  draws  the  Profiles  of  such  as 
chuse  to  pay  the  cost  of  paper,  free  of  other  expence."^ 

^  Scientific  a7td  Descriptive  Catalogue.      Philadelphia,  1796,  8vo;  Guide 
to  the  Philadelphia  Museum.,  Philadelphia,  1804,  8\o.    See  also  Rembrandt 


l8o  DELACOSTE's    new    YORK    MUSEUM 

In  one  of  his  lectures  Peale  gives  a  succinct  account 
of  various  European  museums,  and  of  the  uses  such 
institutions  are  intended  to  serve. ^ 

In  1804  Messrs.  Delacoste  and  Curling  exhibited 
an  extensive  cabinet  of  Natural  History  in  New  York. 
Delacoste,  who  evidently  was  a  precursor  of  Barnum, 
solicited  subscriptions,  and  undertook  to  augment  the 
collections  and  make  it  as  useful  and  interestino-  as 
possible.  Not  to  be  behind  Peale,  he  bound  himself 
"to  travel  throuoh  the  whole  continent  of  North 
America  for  the  purpose  of  procuring  a  skeleton  of 
that  anonymous  animal  called  the  Mammoth,  which 
has  given  so  much  credit  to  the  museum  of  Phila- 
delphia, and  of  completing  as  much  as  can  reasonably 
be  expected  the  collections  of  the  natural  productions 
of  the  United  States,  so  that  the  cabinet  of  New  York 
might,  in  an  inconsiderable  time,  rival  not  only  the 
above-said  museum,  but  all  institutions  of  the  kind  in 
other  parts."- 

VtaXe,  Accoiinf  of  the  Skeleton  of  the  Mammoth,  London,  1802,  4to;  An 
historical  Disquisition  on  the  Mammoth,  London,  1803,  8\-o. 

He  exhumed  two  specimens,  one  of  \\hich  was  erected  in  his  father's 
museum.     The  other  he  brought  to  London  for  exhibition. 

^  Discourse  itttroductory  to  a  course  of  Lectures  on  the  Science  of  Nature 
luith  original  Music  composed  for  a7ici  sting  on  the  occasion.  Philadelphia, 
1800,  8vo. 

He  published  an  earlier  lecture  in  the  same  year,  Introduction  to  a 
course  of  Lectwes  on  Natural  History.     Philadelphia,  1800,  8vo. 

-  Catalogue  of  the  natural  'productions  and  curiosities  lohich  compose  the 
collection  of  the  Cabinet  of  Natural  History,  opetied  for  fo'thcr  exhibition 
at  No.  38  William  Street,  New  York.     New  York,  1804,  8vo,  pp.  87. 

The  New  York  Lyceum  of  Natural  History  was  formed  shortly  after- 
wards. See  Catalogue  of  the  orga7iic  remains  and  other  geological  and 
mineralogical  articles  cofitained  i?i  the  collection  Presented  .  .  .  by  S.  L. 
Mitchell.     New  York,  1826,  8vo,  pp.  40. 


CHAPTER    XIII. 

DISPERSION    OF    MUSEUMS. 

A  FEW  private  collections,  as  for  instance  those 
of  Consul  Sherard  (1659- 17 28)/  John  Martyn  (1699- 
1768),  and  Richard  Pulteney  (i  730-1 801),  have  been 
absorbed  in  public  museums,  but  the  greater  number 
have  been  dispersed,  **  as  it  com'only  fares  with  such 
curiosities  where  the  next  heire  is  not  a  virtuoso.'"^ 
The  money  represented  by  a  collection  was  in  many 
cases  needed  for  a  widow  or  children,  so  that  a  sale 
could  not  be  avoided  ;  and  pathos  may  be  found 
in  a  sale  catalogue.  j0rgen  Hahn,  or,  as  Latinised, 
Georgius  Hannaeus  of  Copenhagen  (163  7- 1699),  the 
friend  and  eulogist  of  Thomas  Bartholin,  formed  a  con- 

'  Described  by  Thoresby,  Diary,  ii.,  p.  374. 

'-'Letter  by  Evelyn  to  Pepys,  Diary,  iii.,  p.  443  (London,  1879). 
"  NonnuUis  hujusmodi  Thesauris  baud  raro  accidit  ;  ut,  quos  longus 
pertinaxque  labor  una  accumulavit,  defuncto  possessore,  brevi  distra- 
hantur."  Catalogus  Bibliothccae  Harleianae,  vol.  i.,  Dedication  written 
by  Michael  Maittaire.     London,  1743,  Svo. 

War  was  also  a  disturbing  element.  Dr.  Edward  Brown  mentions 
that  his  father,  Sir  Thomas  Brown,  had  a  piece  of  unicorn's  horn 
which  had  formerly  been  amongst  the  Duke  of  Curland's  rarities,  which 
were  apparently  dispersed  after  he  was  taken  prisoner  by  Douglas  in  the 
wars  between  Sweden  and  Poland.     Travels,  p.  102,  London,  1685,  fol- 

iSi 


1 82        SALE    OF    HAHN    AND    SCHVNVOET's    MUSEUMS 

siderable  museum  of  natural  history.  On  his  death 
his  widow  issued,  in  1699,  a  catalogue  of  the  objects 
"  ancient  and  recent,  natural  and  artificial,  home  and 
foreign  which  are  preserved  in  the  museum  of  the  late 
Professor  {beati  professoris),  arranged  therein  with 
much  labour  and  no  less  cost  and  are  to  be  seen  in 
beautiful  order  and  now,  since  his  death,  long  for  a  sym- 
pathetic purchaser  (curiosum  desiderunt  emptorem)."' 
The  reasons  assigned  for  a  sale  are  sometimes 
rather  far-fetched.  Simon  Schynvoet  (165 2- 1727), 
the  naturalist  and  friend  of  Rumph,^  was  a  diligent 
collector,  and  by  1698  his  museum,  or  at  least  the 
numismatic  portion  of  it,^  was  of  sufficient  importance 
to  be  annexed  by  Peter  the  Great.  Like  his  country- 
men, Ruysch  and  Seba,  he  immediately  began  again, 
and  at  his  death  left  a  large  collection  of  shells,  fossils, 
minerals,  precious  stones,  and  petrifactions,  which 
passed  to  his  only  daughter,  as  heir-at-law.  Her 
husband,  however,  not  being-  a  man  of  science,  could 
make  no  use  of  it,  and,  being  of  opinion  that  it 
would  injure  the  reputation  of  his  late  father-in-law 
if  such  a  collection  was  practically  buried,  he  resolved 
to  offer  it  for  sale  in  two  parts — minerals  and  shells 
— to  some  prince  or  great  person.  If  not  sold  to 
such  a  purchaser  by  a  fixed  day,  he  reserved  right 
to  deal  with  it  as  he  might  think  proper.^ 

^  PJiysicotlieca  beati  Doct.  Geoj'gii  Haujiaei.     Hafniae,  1699,  4to. 

'  Supra ^  p.  147. 

^  Muntkabinet  der  Roomsche  Keyzers  e?i  Keyzcrinncn.  hi  vaarcn 
beschreven  door  Abraliam  Bogaert.     Amst.,  1695,  8vo,  with  70  plates. 

*  Catalogiis  Musaei  p7-aestantissimi  Fossiliian  .  .  .  Simon  Schynvoet, 
n.p.,  n.d.,  8vo  [but  Amst.,  1744].     Latin  and  Dutch. 

Catalogue  d'un  tres  famcux  et  ires  excellent  Cabinet  Royal  de  toutes 


SALE    OF    OTHER    MUSEUMS  I  83 


Besides  those  already  mentioned,  or  referred  to, 
the  museums  of  Kirke,'  Thoresby,'  and  Stukeley,^ 
of  Edward  Harley  (i  689-1 724),  second  Earl  of 
Oxford/  and  of  his  daughter,  Lady  Margaret  Caven- 
dish-Harley    (171 5-1 785),    Duchess    of    Portland,^   of 

sortes  des  Coqiiilles  .  .  .  assembles  .  .  .  par  .  .  .  Simon  Schynvoet, 
n.p.,  n.d.,  8vo  [but  Amst.,  1744].  French  and  Dutch.  See  Gersaint, 
Catalogue  raisoimc  dc  Coquilles,  p.  40.     Paris,  1736,  i2mo. 

^  Nichols,  Literary  Illustrations  of  the  Eighteenth  Century,  iv.,  p.  174. 

-Musaeum  Thoresbyanum  (London,  1725,  8vo),  reprinted  with  additions 
in  Ducaius  Leodie?isis,  18 16,  occupying  123  folio  pages,  followed  by  A 
Catalogue  and  Description  of  the  Natural  and  Artificial  Rarities  in  this 
Musaeum,  lb.,  116  pp.,  with  plate.  The  Philosophical  Transactions, 
xxiii.  (1702-3),  p.   1070.     Supra,  p.  126. 

He  was  much  pressed  to  give  part  of  his  collections  to  the  Ashmolean 
Museum,  "  but  kept  off  promising  till  I  see  how  it  please  God  to  dispose 
of  me  as  to  marriage,  posterity,  etc."     Diary,  ii.,  p.  429. 

The  museum  was  bequeathed  to  Thoresby's  son,  Ralph,  and  after 
his  death  what  remained  of  it  was  sold  by  auction  in  London  in  1764. 
See  Notes  and  Queries,  ist  S.,  iii.,  p.  247. 

Thomas  Hearne,  writing  in  1726,  says,  "I  am  much  obliged  to  you 
for  your  information  concerning  Mr.  Thoresby  and  his  curiosities. 
I  wish  they  may  fall  into  good  hands  ;  methinks  they  might  be  proper 
to  be  joined  with  Sir  Hans  Sloane's."  Nichols,  Literary  Illustrations 
of  the  Eighteenth  Century,  i.,  p.  307. 

^  A  Catalogue  of  the  Collection  of  Coins  and  Medals,  various  Anti- 
quities, Fossils,  and  other  Curiosities  of  William  Stukeley.  London, 
1766,  8vo.     Supra,  p.  126. 

*  A  Catalogue  of  the  Collection  of  the  Right  Honourable  Edward  Earl 
of  Oxford,  deceased.  London,  1742,  4to.  A  sale  catalogue.  The  collec- 
tion consisted  of  pictures  and  works  of  art,  and  a  few  Roman  and  other 
antiquities.  Amongst  the  latter  some  British  celts,  one  of  them  in  the 
mould  it  was  cast  in  (p.  14).  There  was  a  separate  catalogue  and  sale  of 
the  coins  and  medals. 

*  Nichols,  Literary  Anecdotes  of  the  Eighteenth  Century,  v.,  pp.  494,  495. 
Catalogue  of  Coins  and  Medals  of  a  person  of  distinction.  London,  n.d. 
A    Catalogue  of  the  Portland  Museuin,   lately    the   property   of  the 

Dowager  Duchess  of  Portland.     London,  1786,  4to. 

Horace  Walpole  writes,  30th  May,  1751 :  "I  have  just  seen  her  collection, 
which  is  indeed  magnificent,  chiefly  composed  of  the  spoils  of  her  father's 


1 84  SALES    OF    VARIOUS    MUSEUMS 

Henry,  third  Lord  Coleraine  (i 693-1 749),  Arthur 
Pond,  Ebenezer  Miissell/  John  Neilson,  George 
Scott,"  James  West,^  Richard  Bateman,^  Samuel Tyssen, 
George  Humphrey  of  St.  Martin's  Lane,' Dr.  Lettsom, 
the  famous  Quaker  physician,  Daniel  Boulter  of  Yar- 
mouth,^ Rackstrow,^  and  Professor  Ramsay  of  Edin- 
burgh, were  sold.  Sir  John  Soane,  profiting  by  the 
experience  of  these  and  of  many  other  eminent 
collectors,  obtained  during  his  lifetime  an  Act  of 
Parliament  for  settling  and  maintaining  his  museum 
and  works  of  art.^ 

The   extensive    museum    of   Marmaduke    Tunstall, 

and  the  Arundel  collections.  The  Gems  of  all  sorts  are  glorious." 
Letfet's,  ed.  Cunningham,  ii.,  p.  225.     London,  1857,  8vo. 

The  catalogue  was  prepared  by  Rev.  John  Lightfoot,  the  author  of  the 
"Flora  Scotica."  Nichols,  Literary  Anecdotes  of  the  Eighteenth  Century, 
iii.,  p.  670. 

It  is  said  that  Linnaeus  readjusted  his  system  of  Shells  after  visiting 
the  Duchess'  Museum.  Laskey,  Account  of  the  Hiinterian  Mjtseinn,  p. 
104.     Glasgow,  1813,  Svo. 

^  Nichols,  Literary  Illustrations  of  the  Eighteenth  Century,  iv.,  p.  432. 

Catalogue  of  the  genuine  and  curious  collection  of  Roinan  atid  Egyptian 
antiquities  .  .  .  and  other  effects  of  Ebenezer  Mussel  I,  Esq.,  of  Bethnal 
Green,  deceased.  London,  1765,  8vo.  A  sale  catalogue.  There  were 
separate  catalogues  and  sales  of  his  Coins  and  Library.  The  library  con- 
tained many  examples  of  the  presses  of  Caxton,  Pynson,  and  Wynken  de 
Worde. 

-Correspondence  of  John  Ray,  p.  482.     London,  1848,  Svo. 

"^  Catalogue  of  the  Museum  of  James  West.  London,  1772,  Svo.  Two 
parts.     Memoirs  of  Dr.  Stukcley,  iii.,  p.  3  (Surtees  Society,  No.  Ixxx.). 

^A  Catalogue  of  that  much  esteemed  and  truly  valuable  Museum  of  the 
late  Hon.  Richard  Bateman,  deceased.     London,  1774,  Svo. 

•^  Fox,  Synopsis  of  the  Newcastle  Museum,  p.  179.  Newcastle,  1827, 
Svo. 

"Fox,  Op.  laud.,  p.  179, 

'  Catalogue  of  Rackstro^Lfs  Museum.     London,  1794,  Svo. 

^  Descriptioti  of  the  House  and  Museum  .  .  .  of  Sir  John  Soane, 
p.  loi.     London,  fol.,  n.d. 


THEFTS    FROM    MUSEUMS  1 85 

of  Wycliffe,  was  sold  on  his  death  in  i  790,  and  pur- 
chased by  George  Allan,  of  Darlington,  who  added 
it  to  his  own  collection,  and  threw  the  whole  open 
to  the  public.  Mr,  Allan  died  in  1800,  when  his 
collection  was  sold.  It  was  purchased  by  his  son,  who 
retained  it  until  1822,  when  he  advertised  it  for  sale 
by  auction,  but  disposed  of  it  privately  to  the  Literary 
and  Philosophical  Society  of  Newcastle-upon-Tyne, 
and  it  thus  became  the  foundation  of  the  Newcastle 
Museum.^ 

The  valuable  collections  of  shells  and  insects  made 
by  Dr.  John  Fothergill  (1712-80)  were  acquired  by 
Dr.  William  Hunter,  and  are  now  in  the  Hunterian 
Museum  at  Glasgow.  His  series  of  drawings  of  rare 
plants  in  his  famous  botanical  garden  at  Upton  was 
purchased  after  his  death  for  a  large  sum  by  the 
Empress  of  Russia. 

Museums  have  sometimes  suffered  from  theft. 
Samuel  Stryk  (1640-17 10)  the  celebrated  jurist, 
president  of  the  Faculty  of  Law  in  the  University  of 
Wittemberg,  had  a  collection  of  coins,  which  was  made 
away  with  by  his  servant,  a  misfortune  which  caused 
him   great  grief. - 

^Fox,  Synopsis  of  the  Newcastle  Museum,  Newcastle,  1827,  8vo ;  Nichols, 
Literary  Anecdotes  of  t lie  EigJiteejith  Century,  viii.,  pp.  366,*  752,  753. 

-Gundling,  Historic  der  Gelahrheit,  iii.,  p.  4072.  Franckfurt,  1734-37, 
4to,  5  vol.  Gundling  has  a  chapter  on  Museums,  abridged  from  Bertram, 
Valentini,  Neickelius,  Major,  Morhof,  and  Misson. 

Two  cases  of  museum  theft  are  reported  in  December,  1900  :  the  one  of 
Nelson  relics  from  Greenwich  Hospital  Museum,  and  the  other  of  old 
silver  from  West  Ham  School  and  Technical  Museum,  Stratford. 


CHAPTER    XIV. 

NON-SCIENTIFIC  CHARACTER  OF  EARLY  MUSEUMS, 

While  an  enormous  quantity  of  material  was  col- 
lected, it  was  only  gradually  that  its  real  value  began 
to  be  appreciated,  and  that  it  was  turned  to  proper 
account.  The  early  museums  had  often  certain 
definite  aims,  and  were  intended  to  be  exponents 
of  science;^  but  natural  history  was  hampered  by 
traditional  opinions,  and  physical  science  was  over- 
weighted by  metaphysics.  Everything  was  explained, 
but  the  explanations  had  always  to  be  in  accord  with 
the  accepted  doctrines  of  logic  and  metaphysics,  which 
had  themselves  in  turn  to  square  with  theology.  The 
wonders  of  nature  had  an  extraordinary  fascination 
for  men  of  science,  who  were  constantly  on  the 
outlook  for  them.  Any  variation  of  the  ordinary 
type  of  a  common  object  was  eagerly  sought  after, 
and  the  more  extraordinary  it  was  the  greater  was 
its  attraction.  Hence  museums  had  a  tendency  to 
represent  the  abnormal  rather  than  the  normal,  what 
was  rare  rather  than  what  was  common.      A  museum 

^Leibnitz,  for  instance,  appeals  to  '■'•  curiosprum   Musea''  in   his  Pro- 
tbgaea^  %  24. 

186 


CURIOSITIES  187 

was  a  collection  of  curiosities,  and  although  the 
word  ''curiosity"  in  its  older  sense^  had  a  broader 
meaning  than  at  present  and  as  it  still  has  in  France,^ 

'Thus  Addison  describes  the  museums  at  Florence  as  "the  noblest 
collections  of  curiosities  to  be  met  with  in  any  part  of  the  whole 
world."     "Remarks  on   Italy,"    IVor/cs,   ii.,  p.    157,    London,   1811,  8vo. 

Canon  Bargrave  says  that  the  seeing  of  the  various  collections  at  Rome 
"  put  me  likewise  into  a  humour  of  curiosity,  and  making  this  collection 
insuing."  Po/>t'  Alexander  the  SeventJi  and  the  College  of  Cardinals,  p. 
116,  1867,  4to,  Camden  Society,  No.  xcii. 

Bishop  Burnet  entertained  Ralph  Thoresby  "  most  agreeably  with  the 
sight  of  several  valuable  curiosities,  as  the  original  of  Magna  Charta  of 
King  John."  Diary,  ii.,  p.  27.  Mr.  Wanley,  the  keeper  of  the  Harleian 
Library,  was  "a  gentleman  of  great  curiosity."     lb.,  p.  36. 

"  Mr.  Thomas  Knowlton  was  a  man  of  general  curiosity  and  observa- 
tion ;  and,  amongst  other  matters,  not  inattentive  to  the  pursuits  of  the 
antiquary."     Pulteney,  Sketches  of  the  progress  of  Botany,  ii.,  p.  240. 

One  of  the  oldest  examples  of  the  use  of  the  word  is  Curiostifu 
Urbis  Romae  regioniim  xiv.,  probably  dating  somewhere  between  the 
fourth  and  the  eighth  centuries.  See  Jordan,  Topographie  der  Stadt 
Rom  itn  Alterthiaii,  ii.,  p.   3  sqq.,  541  sqq. 

Robert  Estienne  renders  Antiquarius,  as  Ung  homme  curietilx  d'auuoir 
OH  scatioir  chases  antiques.  Dictionnarium  Latino-Gallicuin,  s.  v.  Paris, 
1538,  fol.  ;  Les  mots  Francois  .  .  .  iournez  e7i  latin  pour  enfants.  Paris, 
1 544,  4to.  Bargrave  uses  "  Antiquarian  "  for  a  dealer  in  curiosities.  Op. 
laud.,  p.   127;  again,  "a  rare  antiquity  and  curiosity,"  p.   135. 

-In  France  Curiositc'  corresponds  pretty  much  to  what  we  call 
"  applied  art," — ceramics,  furniture,  and  the  like.  The  Catalogue  of  the 
Orleans  Museum  (Orleans,  185 1,  i2mo)  is  '■^Explication  des  Tableaux, 
Dessins,  Sculptures,  Antiquites  et  Curiosites  qui y  sont  exposes.'''  The  old 
usage  was  the  same,  e.g.  Gersaint,  Catalogue  raisojinc  de  diffcrens  effets 
curieux  et  rares  contenus  dans  le  cabinet  de  Mr.  de  la  Roque  comine 
Tableaux,  Dessins,  Estainpes,  Bronzes,  Porcelaines  ancienncs,  Diamants, 
Pierres  fines,  Pieres  gravies,  etc.  Paris,  1745,  i2mo  ;  Catalogue  raisonne 
des  diver ses  curiosites  de  Mr.  Quoit  in  de  POrangere,  composees  de 
Tableaux  origitt.  des  tneilleurs  Mattres  de  Flandres,  etc.  Paris,  1744, 
1 2mo.     See  Gersaint's  remarks  in  the  preface  to  the  latter. 

In  France  the  contents  of  the  South  Kensington  Museum  would 
be  described  as  cu7-iositc's.  Edmond  Bonnaffe,  the  originator  of  the  cor- 
responding collection  in  the  Louvre,  writes  Le  Commerce  de  la  curiosite 
(Paris,   1895,  8vo),  and  many  other  works   on   the   same   subject.      In 


I  88  COLLECTION    DETERMLN^ED    BY    ODDITY 

there  was  generally  implied  in  it  the  idea  of  strange- 
ness or  rarity.^  The  object  to  which  it  was  applied 
was  to  be  regarded  as  worthy  of  being  looked  at 
because  it  was  odd  or  rare.  Of  Sir  Hans  Sloane, 
Edward  Young  writes: 

.    .    .    Sloane,  the  foremost  toyman  of  his  time, 
His  nice  ambition  lies  in  curious  fancies. 

The  Ashmolean  Museum  he  terms  "  Ashmole's 
baby-house."^  At  Antwerp,  says  a  well-known  Scots- 
man, "  I  saw  the  oddest  whim  of  this  kind  that 
could  be  imagin'd,  which  was  a  collection  of  eggs 
from  the  Ostridge  down  to  the  Tom  Tit."^  In  the 
Tradescant  Museum  were  pieces  of  stone  from 
Apollo's  Oracle,  Diana's  tomb,  and  the  like.  The 
same  sort  of  things  figure  in  Valentini's  collection. 
Amongst  sacred  curiosities  he  includes  a  stone  from 
the  wall  of  Damascus  ;  another  stone  from  the  same 
city  where  St.  Paul  prayed  ;  a  stone  from  Mount 
Guarantana  where  our  Saviour  was  tempted  of  the 
devil ;  wood  from  an  olive  tree  in  the  Garden  of 
Gethsemane.     Amongst  his  artificial  curiosities  he  had 

Gazette  des  Beaiix-Arts,  2^^  S.,  i.  (1869),  p.  327,  he  gives  the  history  of  the 
word.  See  H Intermediaire  des  Chercheurs  et  Curieux,  xxvii.  (1893),  587. 
The  Germans  use  the  term  "  Kunstgewerbe,"  art-industry. 

'"The  downfall  of  May-Fair  has  quite  sunk  the  price  of  this  noble 
creature  [the  elephant],  as  well  as  of  many  other  curiosities  of  nature." 
Addison,  "The  Tatler"  No.  20,  Works,  ii.,  p.  209,  London,  181 1.  Bulph 
the  pilot  "  had  the  little  finger  of  a  drowned  man  on  his  parlour  mantel- 
shelf, with  other  maritime  and  natural  curiosities."  See  Dickens,  Nicholas 
Nickleby,  c.  xxiii. 

-Young,  Love  of  Fame,  Satire  iv. 

^  [John  Macky]  A  Journey  through  England,  p.  260,  2nd  ed.  London, 
1722,  8vo.  The  owner  of  this  collection  was  Monsieur  Peters.  He  had 
also  a  collection  of  shells  and  another  of  pictures. 


OR    RARITY  189 

a  MS.  of  the  Koran  ;  Chinese  ink,  which  was  then  a 
great  rarity,  and  various  other  objects  from  China  ;  a 
Turkish  tobacco  pipe  and  an  English  tobacco  box 
with  a  burning  glass  ;  a  piece  of  writing  done  by  a 
cripple  with  but  one  finger  on  each  hand,  and  a  model 
of  a  mine  cut  in  wood.^  Sometimes,  when  sounder 
ideas  of  arrangement  began  to  prevail,  such  articles 
were  relegated  to  a  special  class  under  the  title 
" fj'hola,"^  but  such  cases  are  exceptional. 

Very  considerable  numbers  of  objects,  such  as  are 
now  known  as  ethnographical  exhibits,  were  to  be 
seen  in  various  museums,  but  they  were  brought 
together  not  for  the  purpose  of  enabling  the  visitor 
to  study  the  arts,  industries,  and  instruments  of  primi- 
tive peoples,  but  to  excite  in  the  spectator  a  feeling 
of  wonder  and  surprise,  in  some  cases  by  their  rude- 
ness and  clumsiness,  in  others  by  their  finish  and 
elegance.^  "  The  older  naturalist,"  says  Professor 
Ferguson,  "collected  chiefly  the  exceptional  things 
of  nature  (the  more  wonderful,  the  better  for  his 
purpose),  w^hich  he  found  on  record,  without  question  ; 
or.  if  he  questioned,  without  attempting  to  substan- 
tiate his  opinion  by  a  personal  observation  or 
experiment.  The  ordinary  phenomena  were  passed 
by  as  of  no  importance,  or  as  too  familiar  to  deserve 
notice  or  to  require  explanation."^ 

Leyden  was  one  of  the  most  famous  schools  of  ana- 

'  \'alentini,  Museum  Museoruvt,  vol.  ii.,  Appendix  xxiii.,  pp.  103,  104. 
-This  was  so  in  the  case  of  the  St.   Petersburg  Museum.     Muscuni 
imperiale  Petropolitaniim,  ii.,  pt.  i.,  p.  127.     Petrop.,  1741,  8vo. 
^  See  the  Preface  to  the  third  part  of  \'alentini's  book,  vol.  ii. 
■*  Trartsactions  Archaeol.  Soc,  Glasgow,  ii.,  p.  11. 


190  CURIOSITIES    AT    LEVDEN 

tomy  of  the  seventeenth  century.^  "Amongst  all  the 
rarities  of  Leyden,"  says  John  Evelyn,  "  I  was  much 
pleased  with  a  sight  of  their  Anatomy  schole,  theater, 
and  repository  adjoyning,  which  is  well  furnish'd  with 
natural  curiosities ;  skeletons  from  the  whale  and 
eliphant  to  the  fly  and  spider,  which  last  is  a  ver)^ 
delicate  piece  of  art.  .  .  .  Amongst  a  great  variety 
of  other  things,  I  was  shewn  the  knife  newly  taken 
out  of  a  drunken  Dutchman's  guts  by  an  incision 
in  his  side,  after  it  had  slipped  from  his  fingers 
into  his  stomach."-  The  account  of  Leyden  given 
by  Gotfried  Hegenitius  half  a  century  earlier  is 
very  similar.^  Balthasar  de  Monconys  (1611-1665) 
particularly  mentions  an  anatomical  preparation  made 
after  the  method  of  Lodewijk  de  Bils.^  Amongst 
the  considerable  things  in  the  university  Edward 
Leigh  notes,  "  the  Anatomy-Theatre,  where  there  is 
mummies  of  Egypt,  the  idols  of  the  heathens,  birds 
which  came  from  China  and  other  far  countreys."^ 
When     speaking    of     the    collection     of     Paludanus, 

'C.  S.  Scheffel,  Vita  Schelhatmneri  in  Ad  G.  S.  Schelhammcrum 
Epistolae  Selectiores,  pp.   i8,  19,  Wismar.,  1727,  8vo. 

-Evelyn,  Diary,  i.,  p.  24,  London,  1879.  There  was  a  similar  exhibit 
in  the  Vienna  Museum.  Dr.  Edward  Brown,  Travels,  p.  149,  London, 
1685,  fol.  See  also  Briickmann,  Epistola  Itineraria,  23  Cent.  i.  Dr. 
William  Oliver  saw  at  Konigsberg  a  knife  which  had  been  swallowed  by 
a  peasant  in  1685  ^"d  cut  out.  The  PJiilosopJiical  Transactions,  xxiii. 
(1703),  p.  1408. 

'^  Itinerarium  Frisio-Hollandicmn,  p.  61,  Lugd.  Bat.,  1667.  The 
account  in  Les  Delices  de  la  Hollande,  p.  51.  Amsterd.,  1697,  i2mo.,  is 
also  similar. 

^Journal  des  Voyages  de  Monsieur  de  Monconys,  Pte.  ii.,  p.  151.  Lyon, 
1666. 

'=>  A  treatise  of  Religion  and  Lear?iing  and  of  religious  and  learned  Men, 
p.  74.     London,  1656,  fol.     Thoresby's  account  is  similar,  Diary  i.,  p.  18. 


APPRECIATION    OF    THE    MARVELLOUS  I9I 

of  Enkhuizen,  Hegenitius  mentions  the  stellio  ^  or 
newt,  which  he  describes  as  a  fish  not  unHke  a 
Hzard,  and  adds  that  although  the  skin,  which  it 
sheds  once  a  year,  is  a  sovereign  remedy  against 
epilepsy,  it  nevertheless  deprives  man  of  its  use  by 
swallowing  it  as  soon  as  it  is  cast ;  -  and  that  hence 
the  crime  "  stellionate  "  has  its  name.^  In  short,  the 
first  requisite  of  a  museum  exhibit  was  that  it  should 
be  something  rare  or  costly,*  which  was  apt  to  degene- 
rate into  what  was  bizarre  or  outlandish. 

The  more  an  explanation  appealed  to  the  mar- 
vellous, the  more  acceptable  it  was ;  and  the  belief  in 
the  miraculous,  which  had  characterized  the  ^liddle 
Ages,  had  not  died  out  in  the  seventeenth  century. 
"Piety,"  says  Arnauld,  the  great  Port  Royalist,  "does 
not   oblioe   a   man   of   orood   sense   to  believe   all   the 

o  o 

miracles  related  in  the  Golden  Legend,  or  in  Simeon 
Metaphrastes,  since  these  authors  are  full  of  so  many 
fables  that  we  have  no  ground  to  be  assured  of  any- 

^ Hegenitius,  Op.  laud.,  p.  32. 

^All  the  newts  treat  their  cast  skin  in  this  manner.  See  Alfred 
Brown  in  Lumsden  and  Brown,  Natural  History  of  Loch  Lomond, 
p.  68.     Glasgow,  1895,  8vo. 

3 There  is  a  long  and  interesting  note  in  Hoffmani  Lexicon  Universale, 
S.V.,  on  the  Stellio.  See  also  Agncola,  De  ajiimafiiidus  subterraneis 
with  his  De  re  Metallica,  p.  487.  Basil.,  1657,  fol.  Theophrastus 
mentions  that  the  skin  of  the  newt  icioXtiln-(]%)  is  good  against  epilepsy 
Frag.  175,  Opera,  p.  460,  ed.  Trimmer,  Paris,  1866,  8vo. 

Stellionate  in  Roman  law  was  applied  to  a  crime  which  involved  fraud 
and  had  no  special  name.  Dig.,  47.  20.     See  Pliny,  Hist.  Nat.,  30,  27  (10). 

*Gundling,  Historic  der  Gelahrheit,  i.,  p.  589.  Franckfurt,  1734-37, 
4to,  5  vol.  At  the  same  time,  he  says,  the  objects  must  not  be  trifling, 
like  the  Judas  rope  at  Amras  {supra,  p.  87). 

A  wonderful  catalogue  of  wonders  collected  by  Sachse  von  Lowen- 
heim  is  given  by  him  in  Major,  Dissert  alio  Epistolica  de  Cancris,  et 
Serpentibiis  petrefactis,  p.  '^\sqq.     Jenae,  1664,  8vo. 


192  THOMAS    BARTHOLIN 

thing  on  their  testimony  alone.  But  I  maintain  that 
every  man  of  good  sense,  though  he  has  no  piety, 
ouo-ht  to  receive  as  true  the  miracles  which  St.  Aug-us- 
tine  relates  in  his  Coufess707is  ^.nd  in  the  City  of  God,  as 
having  happened  before  his  eyes,  or  of  which  he  testi- 
fies himself  to  have  had  most  minute  information  from 
the  persons  themselves  to  whom  these  things  had  hap- 
pened."^ It  was  indeed  no  longer  allowable  to  ascribe 
every  extraordinary  phenomenon  to  a  miracle,  but  a  firm 
belief  in  extraordinary  and  exceptional  powers  of  nature 
was  an  easy  means  of  explaining  away  every  difficulty. 
Take  the  case  of  Thomas  Bartholin,  the  elder, 
(i 6 1 9- 1 680)  of  Copenhagen.  He  was  an  excellent 
anatomist,  author  of  a  standard  work  upon  the  subject 
which  was  translated  into  English,"-  travelled  over 
the  greater  part  of  Europe,  and  corresponded  with 
all  the  savants  of  the  time.  Yet  notwithstanding 
his  culture,  learning,  and  experience,  his  range  of 
view  was  very  narrow.  He  was  oppressed  by  the 
traditional  science  of  the  day,  and  found  it  im- 
possible to  form  an  independent  judgment  upon  the 
vast  array  of  facts  that  came  before  him.  He  visited 
Malta  in  1644,  and  seems  to  have  found  much  that 
was  interesting  and  instructive  in  the  island,  but 
he  records  only  what  is  of  the  nature  of  the  marvel- 

^The  Port-Royal  Logic  by  Baynes,  Pt.  iv.,  c.  14,  p.  358.  Edinburgh, 
1854,  8vo. 

-  Bartholinus  Atiatoiny  .  .  .  iti  four  books  and  four  manuals  .  .  . 
■biiblished  by  Nich.  Odpeper  and  Abdiah  Cole,  Doctor  of  Physick. 
London,  1668,  fol. 

Of  Culpepper  the  Rev.  John  Ward  records  :  "  Nick  Culpepper  says  that  a 
physitian  without  astrologie  is  like  a  pudden  without  fat."  Diary,  p.  95. 
London,  1839,  8vo. 


i 


MARVELS    OF    MALTA  1 93 

lous  and  out  of  the  way.^  The  whole  land,  he 
says,  produces  plants  that  are  antidotes  against 
poison  {liniversa  terra  alexipharmaca  est),  which  is 
attributed  to  the  blessing  of  St.  Paul.^  Earth  is  dug 
from  a  grotto  in  which  St.  Paul  spent  a  night, ^  and 
is  used  for  the  cure  of  many  ailments,  and  yet,  strange 
to  say,  although  this  has  gone  on  for  centuries  the 
supply  never  diminishes.^ 

^His  account  is  contained  in  a  letter  to  Joseph  Donzelli,  Epistolae 
Medicinales,  Cent,  i.,  Epist.  53,  p.  223,  Hafniae,  1663,  and  again  Hag. 
Com.,  1740,  i2mo.  See  also  Hoffmann,  Clavis  pharmaceutical  p.  130. 
Halae,  1675,  4^0- 

"According  to  popular  belief  the  blessing  of  St.  Patrick  conferred 
similar  qualities  on  the  soil  of  Ireland.  There  are  no  serpents  in 
Ireland,  says  Bartholomew  de  Glanville  {De  Proprietatibus  rerum,  lib.  xv., 
c.  80),  and  the  soil  is  such  an  antidote  to  poison  that  if  carried  elsewhere 
and  scattered  on  the  ground  it  kills  snakes  and  toads. 

^  See  Reiske,  De glossopetris  Luneburgensibus,  p.  51.    Norimb.,  1687,  8vo. 
Caruana,   Monografia    critica    della    Grotta    di   San    Paolo.      Malta, 
1 896.     8vo. 

*This  is  also  mentioned  by  Ray,  Travels  through  the  Low  Countries,  i., 
p.  262.  The  virtues  of  Malta  earth  were  recommended  in  a  printed  sheet, 
distributed  in  the  island,  which  is  preserved  by  Ole  Worm  {Museum 
lVor7}iianuin,  p.  7),  to  whom  it  was  no  doubt  sent  by  Bartholin.  It 
is  also  given  in  French  and  Latin  by  Reiske.  Op.  laud.,  p.  53;  in  German 
and  Latin  by  Valentini,  Museum  Museorum,  i.,  p.  66. 

There  was  a  specimen  in  the  Copenhagen  Museum  and  another  in 
the  Royal  Society's  Museum.  Nehemiah  Grew  refers  to  the  Musaeum 
Calceo larii  {Stci.  2,  p.  130)  for  a  description  of  its  virtues,  but  seems  him- 
self rather  sceptical  regarding  them,  J/usaeum  Regalis  Societatis,  p.  347. 

It  found  a  place,  however,  in  the  pharmacopeia  of  the  day.  See,  for 
instance,  Catalogus  medicamentorum  quae  in  officina  Dietriciana  sunt, 
p.  36  (xvii.  cent.),  MS.  in  the  Germanic  Museum  at  Nuremberg 
(Room  64).  It  was  esteemed  a  cordial,  a  sudorific,  and  a  certain  remedy 
for  the  bites  or  stings  of  venomous  animals  of  all  kinds. 

In  the  eighteenth  century  it  was  sent  from  Malta  made  up  in  little 
cakes  of  the  form  of  segments  of  a  cylinder,  stamped  with  the  impression 
of  a  Cherubim's  head  and  wings,  and  with  the  words  Terra  sigillata 
underneath.     Hill,  History  of  the  Materia  Medica,  p.  206. 


194  FOSSIL    MAN 

He  has  no  doubts  as  to  fossil  man.^  After  referring 
to  the  case  of  Lot's  wife,  as  a  crucial  example,  he  goes 
on  to  relate  that  recently  a  city  in  Africa,  near  Tripoli, 
had  been,  by  the  judgment  of  God,  turned  into  stone, 
and  that  a  petrified  boy  had  been  sent  from  it  to 
Cardinal  Richelieu.^  As  evidence  of  the  truth  of  this 
story  he  adduces  a  piece  of  petrified  wood  which 
he  saw  in  Abela's  museum/  and  which  was  said  to  have 
been  brought  from  the  same  town.  The  story  is  a 
striking  one,   and  evidently  made  a  deep  impression 

'  Fossil  man  came  into  great  prominence  next  century  on  the  publication 
of  Scheuchzer's  Homo  diluvii  testis  et  Qeda-Kovos,  Zurich,  1726,  4to.  He 
maintained  that  a  petrifaction  found  in  the  quarries  at  Oeningen,  on  the 
lake  of  Constance,  was  a  petrified  man  who  had  been  witness  of  the  flood. 
Cuvier  ultimately  proved  it  to  be  a  salamander.  The  object  now  is  or 
was  in  the  museum  at  Harlem. 

James  Parkinson  cites  some  wonderful  stories  of  fossil  men.  Organu 
Remains  of  a  Former  World,  i.,  p.  38.  Briickmann  mentions  some 
examples  {Epistolae  Itinerariae,  ii.,  35  Cent,  i.),  but  cautiously  adds 
regarding  one  of  them,  "  haec  relatio  magnam  requirit  fidem."  In  Epistola 
55,  Cent,  i.,  he  relates  the  story  of  a  monk  who,  having  stolen  a  chalice 
and  denied  it  upon  oath,  was  turned  into  stone. 

-The  story  was  again  repeated  in  London  in  1728.  Kundmann,  Rariora 
naturae  et  artis,  p.  31,  Breslau,  1737,  fol. 

Another  petrified  child  seems  to  have  been  one  of  the  sights  of  Paris. 
See  John  Baptist  van  Helmont,  De  Lithiasi,  p.  25,  in  his  Opuscula  medica. 
Col.  Ag.,  1644,  i2mo.  It  was  purchased  by  a  merchant  in  Paris,  carried 
to  Venice,  and  sold  there  in  1653  to  Frederick  III.,  King  of  Denmark, 
and  became  one  of  the  most  noted  objects  in  the  Copenhagen  Museum ; 
Jacobaeus,  Museum  Regium,  Sect,  i.,  No.  6,  where  it  is  figured;  Valentini, 
Museum  Museorum,  i.,  pp.  417, 420.  Dr.  William  Oliver  was  disappointed 
of  seeing  the  carved  cherry-stone,  but  he  saw  the  stone  child  and  an  egg 
laid  by  a  woman,  the  size  of  a  hen's  egg,  and  many  other  things  equally 
strange.     The  Philosophical  Transact iotrs,  xxiii.  (1703),  p.  1401. 

Some  other  wonders  of  a  similar  kind  are  related  in  The  Spottiswoode 
Miscellany,  ii.,  p.  522.     Edinburgh,  1845,  8vo. 

^  Montfaucon  saw  in  the  museum  of  Bernard  Tarvisiano,  at  Venice, 
"  a  board  petrify'd,  with  the  knots  in  it,  in  such  manner  that  it  appears  to 
the  eye  like  wood,  and  is  found  to  be  stone  by  the  touch."  The  Antiquities 
of  Italy,  translated  by  Henley,  p.  55.    London,  1725,  fol. 


EXCEPTIONAL  POWERS  OF  NATURE        1 95 

Upon  him,  as  he  refers  to  it  in  at  least  three  of 
his  published  works ;^  but  what  surprises  the  modern 
reader  is  that  a  man  of  undoubted  ability,  and  one 
able  to  form  a  sound  judgment  on  all  ordinary  matters 
should  have  been  so  influenced  by  authority  as  to 
surrender  his  own  powers  of  reasoning  and  observa- 
tion. The  assumption  that  nature  constantly  operated 
in  an  exceptional  manner  and  contrary  to  com- 
mon experience,  and  the  desire  to  record  instances, 
are  probably  the  explanation.  This  tendency  is 
apparent  even  in  his  professional  papers.  He  is 
too  fond  of  monsters  and  other  things  strange  and 
unusual ;  he  believes  in  spells  and  charms,^  and  pins 
his  faith  on  peculiar  remedies  and,  in  the  case  of 
epilepsy,  even  upon  amulets.^ 

But  Bartholin  was  not  singular  in  his  attitude. 
His  opinions  were  those  of  most  of  his  contemporaries. 
Johann    Daniel    Major,   to    whom    reference   has    fre- 

^Epistolae  Medicinales,  ut  supra;  De  Unicornu,  p.  371,  Amstd.,  1678, 
i2mo  ;  Historiaruni  anatoniicaritin  Rariora,  Cent,  ii..  Hist.  100,  p.  319, 
Amstd.,  1654.     The  account  in  the  last  is  the  most  detailed. 

Bartholin's  statement  is  quoted  and  relied  on  by  Antonius  Deusing  in 
\{\%  Hi storia  foetus  extra  Uteriim  geniti,  p.  121.  Groningae,  1661,  i2mo. 
This  work  involved  the  author  in  a  storm  of  controversy,  carried  on,  like 
a  Chinese  duel,  with  the  most  provocative  personalities. 

'' Historianmi  atuito/nicariein  Rariora^  Cent,  iii.,  Hist.  71,  p.  141.  His 
use  of  a  charm  to  cure  epilepsy  was  adduced  by  Sir  George  Mackenzie, 
when  defending  a  woman  charged  with  the  crime  of  witchcraft,  because 
she  had  tied  a  paper  with  a  few  words  upon  it  to  the  wrist  of  her  patient, 
as  showing  that  there  was  nothing  objectionable  in  the  practice.  Plead- 
ings in  some  Remarkable  Cases,  p.  192.     Edinburgh,  1673,  4to. 

* Historiarum  anatomicarum  Rariora,  Cent,  ii.,  Hist.  78,  p.  278.  He 
frequently  reverts  to  the  subject  of  epilepsy,  e.g.  Op.  laud.,  pp.  301,  304. 

Robert  Boyle  was  a  firm  believer  in  the  virtues  of  amulets,  and  ex- 
plained their  effect  by  asserting  that  they  emitted  effluvia  which  passed 
through  the  skin.     Works,  ii.,  p.  171  ;  iv.,  pp.  767,  768.    London,  1772, 4to. 


196  EXPLANATION    OF    PETRIFACTION 

quently  been  made,  not  only  accepted  the  story  of 
the  city  turned  into  stone,  but  explained  how  it 
came  about.  No  petrifaction  is  possible  without  a 
certain  predominant  presence  and  activity  of  salt. 
Salt  is  the  basis  of  all  combinations  and  of  all 
changes.  If  there  be  an  excess  of  some  pure, 
free,  and  volatile  salt,  which  is  impelled  forcibly 
forwards,  it  fills  up  the  pores  of  the  first  permeable 
body  that  it  meets,  unites  with  its  volatile  particles, 
and  the  spirits  being  dispersed,  destroys  the  power  of 
fermentation.  Hence  the  earthy  portion  of  the  body 
being  deprived  of  volatile  salt  congeals  and  hardens 
in  virtue  of  the  power  of  the  fixed  salts.^  Sachse 
von  Lowenheim,  commenting  on  this,  mentions  that 
during  an  earthquake  in  Austria,  in  1348,  fifty 
peasants  who  were  milking  cows  were  turned  into 
statues  of  salt  by  the  earthy  spirit  which  was 
liberated  by  the  violent  commotion.^ 

Everything,  it  was  held,  might  be  changed  into 
stone, ^  as,  for  instance,  the  head  and  legs,  even  the 
tongue  and  heart  of  man  ;  a  hen  hatching  eggs ;  a 
stag  with  a  serpent  in  its  stomach.  These  were 
mostly  produced  by  what  were  known  as  stone-forming 
waters,  the  uSara  XiOoyova  of  Gesner,  which  were  to  be 
found  in  all  parts  of  the  world.*     One  of  these  was  the 

^  Disserta/io  Episiolica  de  Cancris  et  Serpentibus  petrefactis^  pp.  13,  22. 
Jenae,  1664,  8vo.  Lot's  wife  was,  he  thinks,  transformed  in  this  manner, 
but  the  change  was  effected  in  a  moment. 

*  Major,  Op.  laud.,  p.  68.  Conrad  von  Meidenberg,  an  eminent  mathe- 
matician, states  that  he  and  the  Chancellor  of  Austria  saw  the  statues. 
Other  similar  cases  are  mentioned  by  J.  B.  Van  Helmont,  Op.  laud..,  p.  25, 

Kundmann,  Op.  laud..,  p.  31  sqq..i  treats  fully  of  the  subject,  and  relates 
many  examples.  ^  Supra,  pp.  62,  72,  no. 

*A  long  list  is  given  by  Sachse  von  Lowenheim  in  his  Responsoria 


THE    WHITE    CAVE    OF    SLAINS  197 

water  of  the  Rattray  Cave,  or  White  Cave  of  Slains,  in 
Aberdeenshire,  which  had  a  European  reputation,  and 
is  vouched  for  by  Dr.  Sylvester  Rattray,  a  Glasgow 
physician.^  This  water  "doth  in  a  short  time  congele 
into  stone.  .  .  .  Here  you  would  take  notice  of 
i  a  story  which  will  convince  you  of  the  possibility  of 
this.  A  Scottish  Gentleman,  having  been  in  France 
and  there  acquainted  with  another  of  that  country, 
who  (it  seemeth)  was  curious  to  know  the  various 
and  (almost)  miraculous  operations  of  Nature,  did 
inform  him  by  writing  concerning  this  well  and  its 
water.  The  Frenchman  returned  this  answer,  '  I  am 
sorry,  that  you  should  think  me  such  a  fool  as  to 
believe  such  a  paradox  as  this  is,  that  water  should, 
in  a  short  time,  be  converted  into  stone.'  Thereupon 
our  countryman  fearing  least  the  other  should  think 
this  a  meer  fiction,  he  took  the  pains  to  set  a  glass 
under  the  droping  water,  untill  it  became  full,  and 
then  he  sent  the  glass  unto  him,  the  water  therein 
contained  being  converted  into  a  stone.  A  very 
increnious  argument  for  convincincr  so  confident  a 
Gain-sayer."^  In  course  of  time  it  was  ascertained 
that  the  stone-forming  power  of  such  waters  arose  not 
from  a  creative  spirit,  but  because  they  carried  lime  in 
solution.  Sibbald  understood  this,  and  a  specimen 
appeared  in  his  museum  as  stalactite  ;    but  alongside 

dissertatio  de  miranda  lapidiiin  natura  with  Majors  Dissertatio  Epistolica 
de  Cancris  et  Serpentibus  peirefactis^  p.  70  sqq.    Jenae,  1664,  8vo. 

^Aditus  novus  adoccultas  Sympathiae  et  Antipathiae  causas  inveniendas^ 
p.  52.    Glasguae,  1658,  i2mo. 

"Matthew  MacKaile,  The  Oyly-Well ;  or  a  topographico-spagyricall 
Description  of  the  Oyly-  Well  at  St.  Cathrinis-chappel,  in  the  paroch  of 
Libberton^  p.  136.    Edinburgh,  1664,  i2mo. 


198  RARITIES    SOUGHT    AFTER    BY    TRAVELLERS 

of  it  he  had  "the  yolk  of  a  stone  of  the  figure  of  an 
Holland  cheese,"  "a  white  pebble  resembling  a  Hen's 
^tog"' "  "^  stone  resembling  a  heart,"  another  resem- 
bling a  human  foot,  and  another  resembling  the  mould 
of  a  button.  All  these  were  placed  under  the  head 
"Regular  stones."^  So  great  was  the  belief  in  the 
creative  power  of  the  earth  that  some  writers  main- 
tained that  the  old  urns  found  buried  in  the  soil  were 
products  of  nature.^ 

Rarities  and  freaks  of  nature  and  art  engfagfed  the 
attention  of  everyone.  Amongst  the  things  which 
Lord  Bacon  recommends  the  intelligent  traveller 
to  see,  are  "  treasures  of  jewels  and  robes  ;  cabinets 
and  rarities."  Sir  Andrew  Balfour  directs  the  Baron 
of  Livingstone,  when  visiting  the  Abbey  of  St. 
Denis,  "  to  take  notice  of  Charles  the  Great's  Crown, 
in  which  there  is  a  Rubie  of  the  Bigness  of  a 
Pidgeon's  Egg ;  A  large  Cup  of  oriental  Aggat, 
which  they  count  much  of;  One  of  the  Nails 
that  fixed  our  Saviour's  Bodie  to  the  Cross,  sent 
to  Charles  the  Great  by  Constantine  V.,  Emper- 
our  of  Constantinople ;  One  of  the  Potts  wherein 
our    Saviour   changed    the   water    into     wine    at   the 

"^  Auctarium  Mtisaci  Balfouriani,  p.  55  sqq. 

'  Hagendorn  in  Miscellanea  Cnriosa,  Ann.  iii.  (1672),  Lipsiae,  168 1, 
4to  ;  Stieff,  De  Urnis  iti  Silesia  .  .  .  Epistola^  p.  15,  Wratislav.,  1704, 
4to,  5  plates  ;  Reusch,  De  Tiimulis  et  Urnis  sepnlchralibus  in  Prussia, 
p.  45,  Regismonti  [1724],  4to  ;  Kundmann,  Rariora  naturae  et  artis,  p.  31 
sqq.,  Klemm,  Handbuch  d.  germ.  Alterthumskunde,  p.  188. 

The  popular  belief  was  that  they  were  fashioned  in  the  earth  about 
Whitsuntide  or  St.  John's  day  by  pigmies,  and  they  were  in  consequence 
known  as  Johannis-Topflein.  It  was  thought  that  milk  creamed  better 
in  them  and  that  they  produced  better  butter,  and  hence  they  were  called 
Milch-Tdpfe.  Many  other  virtues  of  a  like  kind  were  attributed  to  them 
Stieff,  Op.  laud.,  p.  15  ;  Reusch,  Op.  laud.,  pp.  45,  47  ;  Klemm,  ut  supra. 


THE  GREEN  VAULTS  OF  DRESDEN        1 99 

marriage  of  Cana  in  Galilee  ;  The  Pucel  of  Orleans 
Sword,  wherewith  she  overcame  the  English ;  the 
Lantern  that  was  carried  before  Judas,  when  He 
betrayed  our  Saviour ;  and  a  thousand  other  things 
of  great  value. "^  The  slippers  of  the  Virgin  Mary 
used  to  be  one  of  the  sights  of  Upsala;-  part  of  her 
skirt;  and  another  of  the  water  pots  of  Cana  are  still  to 
be  seen  in  the  treasury  of  the  Abbey  Church  of  the  old 
town  of  Quedlinburg.^ 

The  famous  Green  Vaults  of  Dresden — the  Treasury 
of  the  Electors  and  Kings  of  Saxony — founded  by 
the  Elector  Augustus  in  1560,  is  a  survival  of  the  old 
type  of  museum,  and  possesses  much  of  its  original 
character  and  arrangement.  The  objects  are  still 
arranged  according  to  their  substance — bronze,  silver, 

^Letters  written  to  a  Friend  by  the  learned  and  judicious  Sir  Andrew 
Balfour,  M.D.,  p.  14,  Edinburgh,  I7cx>,  i2mo.  Evelyn  gives  a  similar 
list,  Diary  i.,  pp.  43-45,  London,  1879  5  ^^^  adds  a  mirror  that  belonged 
to  Virgil.     See  also  Montfaucon,  The  Antiquities  of  Italy,  p.  42. 

^Bremner,  Excursions  in  Denmark,  Norway,  and  Stueden,  ii.,  p.  304, 
London,  1840,  8vo. 

'The  water  pot  is  an  onyx  vase  about  18  inches  in  height,  and  was 
brought  home  from  the  East  by  the  Empress  Theophano  (955-991), 
wife  of  the  Emperor  Otto  IL,  and  presented  to  this  church.  It  is 
figured  and  described  by  Briickmann,  Epistola  Itineraria  19,  Cent.  i.  The 
Treasury  also  contains  a  number  of  relics  of  Mary  Magdalene,  St.  Paul, 
and  others.  These  e.xcited  the  curiosity  of  Bnickmann,  who  deals  with 
them  in  the  same  Epistola  and  in  the  Supplement,  pp.  11,  12. 

More  than  twenty  of  these  Cana  pots  were  to  be  seen  in  various 
European  collections.  There  was  one  at  Bologna.  It  is,  says  Montfaucon, 
"  entirely  like  the  funeral  urns  discovered  lately  by  Cardinal  Bouillon, 
Dean  of  the  Sacred  College,  at  the  gates  of  Ostia.  It  is  of  marble,  a 
foot  high,  grac'd  on  the  outside  with  foliage."  The  Antiquities  of  Italy, 
translated  by  Henley,  p.  284,  London,  1725,  fol. 

One  of  the  nails  that  fastened  our  Saviour  to  the  cross  ;  the  knife  He 
used  at  the  Passover  feast ;  and  the  Virgin  Mary's  comb,  are  figured  by 
Valentini,  Museufn  Museorum,  ii..  Tab.  xxxvii. 


200      CURIOSITIES    IN    THE    ROYAL    SOCIETY  S    MUSEUM 

gold,  ivory,  and  so  on — set  out  on  valuable  tables  or  on 
brackets  placed  on  boards  across  the  great  mirrors 
which  line  the  walls.  There  are  no  doubt  many 
beautiful  objects  in  the  collection,  but  they  are  not 
brought  together  to  illustrate  beauty  of  design  or  of 
workmanship  or  the  development  of  art.  The  ivory 
ship,  the  tower  of  Babel,  the  Court  of  the  Great 
MoguV  and  other  costly  gimcracks,  the  objects  in 
amber  and  rock  crystal,  mother  of  pearl,  coral  and 
ivory,  are  intended  to  exhibit  the  technical  skill  and 
patient  labour  of  the  craftsman  and  the  wealth  and 
magnificence  of  his  patron,  and  to  impress  the 
imagination  of  the  spectator  with  feelings  of  wonder 
and  surprise.  The  collection  as  it  stands,  notwith- 
standing the  costliness  of  its  specimens,  is  of  little 
educational  or  scientific  value. 

The  Tradescant  Museum  was  "a  collection  of 
rarities."  Oldenburg,  writing  on  3rd  March,  166^, 
of  a  meeting  of  the  Royal  Society,  says  "there  were 
also  produced  several  curiosities  to  be  lodged  in  our 
repository  ;  as  a  great  bone  petrified ;  a  whole  egg 
in  an  egg ;  a  stone  bottle  which  seven  years  ago 
was  filled  full  with  Malaga  sack,  and  well  stopped, 
but  is  now  empty,  though  said  never  to  have  been 
opened,  and  the  outside  is  all  covered  over  with  a 
thick  mucous  coat,  having  stood  in  a  corner  of  a 
wine-celler  all  that  time."^  Grew  described  the 
Museum  as  a  collection  "of  Natural  and  Artificial 
Rarities."     Addison,  while  insisting  on  the  advantage 

'  There  is  a  series  of  articles  on  this  object  in  Zeitschrift fur  Museo- 
logie,  vol.  ii.,  pp.  99  sqq.     Dresden,  1879,  4^°- 
^  Robert  Boyle,  Works,  vi.,  p.  272.     London,  1772,  4to. 


MONTFAUCON S    TRAVELS  201 

to  be  gained  by  visiting  a  well  arranged  museum  ot 
Roman  antiquities,  adds,  "  This  would  perhaps  be 
much  more  useful  to  universities  than  those  collections 
of  whalebone  and  crocodile  skins  in  which  they  com- 
monly abound."^ 

Even  an  antiquary  of  such  eminence  as  Bernard 
de  Montfaucon  hardly  rises  above  the  feeling  of 
interested  curiosity,  and  his  accounts  of  the  various 
collections  he  visited  in  Italy  are  entirely  wanting 
in  grasp.  "On  the  6th  of  July  [1698],  we  went 
to  the  Closet  of  the  Renown'd  Bidelli,  well  stor'd 
with  Rarities,  Antiquities  and  Coins.  In  the  Series 
of  Brass  Medals  of  the  largest  and  middle  size 
are  some  that  are  very  rare."  "One  day  it  was 
our  amusement  in  the  afternoon  to  view  the  Closet 
of  Septala,  where  we  observ'd  in  particular  a  certain 
King  of  France  (they  call  him  Charlemaign)  cut 
in  a  Lapis  Lazuli,  bearing  a  scepter  in  one  hand 
and  a  sword  in  the  other,  surrounded  with  flower-de- 
lys's.  On  another  stone  is  Alexander  the  Great,  with 
the  Horns  of  Jupiter  Ammon.""-  The  collection  of 
Signer  Rugini,  of  Venice,  "abounded  in  things  petri- 
fied, wallnuts,  eggs  in  which  y^  yealk  rattl'd,  a  peare, 
a  piece  of  beefe  with  y^  bones  in  it,  an  whole  hedge- 
hog, a  plaice  on  a  wooden  trencher  turn'd  into  stone 
and  very  perfect,  charcoale,  a  morsel  of  cork  yet 
retaining  its  levitie,  sponges  and  a  piece  of  taffety 
part  roll'd  up,  with  innumerable  more."^ 

^"  Dialogues  on  Medals,"  Works,  i.,  p.  347.     London,  181 1,  8vo. 

^Montfaucon,  T/te  Antiquities  of  Italy,  translated  by  Henley,  pp.  16, 
17.     London,  1725,  fol.     Supra,  p.  87. 

'Evelyn,  Diary,  i.,  p.  257,  London,  1879;  see  also  De  Montfaucon, 
Op.  laud.,  p.  48. 


202         MUSEUMS    AS    COLLECTIONS   OF    CURIOSITIES 

Stone  bread  {Japides  paniforntes),  stone  biscuits, 
cakes,  pancakes  (laganites),  and  stone  cheese  [tyro- 
7norphites)  abounded  in  every  museum^  ;  and  the 
most  marvellous  tales  were  related  of  them.  Take 
but  one  instance.  In  1316  a  poor  woman,  with 
a  numerous  family,  being  distressed  by  hunger,  ap- 
plied to  a  wealthy  sister  for  bread  to  save  the  lives 
of  herself  and  her  perishing  children.  The  sister 
answered  that  she  had  no  bread  in  the  house,  and 
adjured  God  that  if  there  was  it  might  be  turned 
into  stone.  To  the  horror  of  all  the  bread  which  she 
had  beside  her,  and  which  she  denied,  immediately 
became  stone.  One  of  these  loaves  was  for  long  pre- 
served in  the  Church  of  St.  Peter  in  Leyden.^ 

In  1 79 1  the  British  Museum  was  described  as  "an 
Exhibition  of  a  great  variety  of  Antiquities  and 
Natural  Curiosities";  while  Timbs  in  1855  describes 
*'  the  leading  curiosities  of  the  several  collections."^  In 
1847  Mr.  Albert  Way  entitles  the  Catalogue  which 
he  prepared  for  the  Society  of  Antiquaries,  "Cata- 
logue of  Antiquities,  Coins,  Pictures,  and  miscellaneous 
curiosities  in  the  possession  of  the  Society  of  Anti- 
quaries."^ At  the  beginning  of  the  present  century  the 
leg  bone  of  an  elephant  was  exhibited  and  labelled  in 

*  Aldrovandi,  Musaeum  metallicum^  pp.  5 1 5,  869  ;  Museutn  IVormi- 
anum,  p.  84  ;  Sibbald,  Auctarium  Miisaei  Balfouriani^  p.  55  ;  Briick- 
mann,  Epistolae  Itincrariae,  11,  36,  yj^  66,  Cent.  i.  ;  Catalogue  of  all  the 
chiefest  Rarities  .  .  .  of  the  University  of  Leyden. 

2  Briickmann,  Op.  laud.,  Ep.  66,  Cent.  i. 

*  Curiosities  of  London,  p.  515.     London,  1855,  8vo. 

*  It  is  the  accepted  expression,  and  occurs  in  the  Ashmolean  Catalogue 
of  1836,  by  Phihp  Bury  Duncan,  A  Catalogue  of  the  Ashmolean  Museum 
descriptive  of  the  Zoological  Specimens,  Antiquities,  Coins,  and  Miscel- 
laneous Curiosities,  Oxford,  1836,  8vo. 


FABRICATION    OF    CURIOSITIES  203 

the  Ashmolean  Museum  as  the  thigh  bone  of  a  giant.^ 
Henry  the  Eighth's  hawking  glove;  King  Charles  the 
First's  spurs  ;  the  hat  he  used  at  his  execution  ;  Oliver 
Cromwell's  skull,  and  many  other  curiosities  of  this 
description  were  to  be  found  in  it."  The  Scottish 
University  Commissioners  of  1826  reported,  as  re- 
gards the  Hunterian  Museum,  Glasgow,  that  the 
students  were  allowed  to  visit  it  only  once  a  year, 
and  "  this  visit  is  regarded  rather  as  an  oppor- 
tunity of  witnessing  an  exhibition  of  curiosities  than 
as  an  auxiliary  study.  "^ 

The  craving  for  what  w^as  strange  and  uncommon 
led  to  the  fabrication  of  curiosities.  The  basilisk  was 
an  animal  not  to  be  found  in  nature,  but  it  was 
exhibited  in  museums.  "  The  invention  is  prettily 
contriv'd  and  has  deceiv'd  many  ;  for  they  take  a 
small  Ray,  and  having  turn'd  it  after  a  certain  manner, 
and  rais'd  up  the  fins  in  the  form  of  wings,  they  fit  a 
little  tongue  to  it,  shap'd  like  a  dart,  and  add  claws 
and  eyes  of  enamel,  with  other  little  knacks  dexter- 
ously piec'd   together;  and  this   is  the  whole  secrecy 

1  Parker,  The  Ashmolean  Museum  .  .  .  A  Lecture, 1^.  31.  Oxford,  1870, 
8vo  ;  Llewellyn  Jewett  in  The  Art  Journal,  xi.,  N.S.,  1872,  p.  177. 

^Zedler  (1739)  particularizes  Anne  Boleyn's  straw  bonnet.  Universal 
Lexicon,  s.v.  Museum  Ashmoleanum,  xxii.,  1878  ;  Wendeborn,  Der 
Zustand  des  Staats,  der  Religion,  der  Gelehrsamkeit  und  der  Kunst  in 
Grosbritafinien,  iv.,  p.  287,  Berlin,  1788,  8vo  ;  Duncan,  Catalogue,  supra, 
pp.  140,  141. 

Evelyn  mentions  the  rarities  in  the  Anatomy  school  at  Oxford  in  1654. 
Diary,  ii.,  p.  56.  London,  1879.  They  are  also  described  by  Olaf 
Borrick  in  1663,  in  Bartholin,  Epistolae  medicinales.  Cent,  iv.,  Epist.  92, 
p.  471.     Hag.  Com.,  1740,  i2mo. 

•*  Report  relative  to  the  University  of  Glasgow,  p.  77.  This  is  not 
remedied  yet.  See  Finlayson,  Plea  for  a  Reform  of  the  University  teach- 
ing in  Scotland,  p.  27.     Glasgow,  1890. 


204  CURIOSITIES    AS    ATTRACTIONS 

of  making  basilisks,"^  There  were  many  similar 
cheats."  The  object  of  showing  such  things  was  that 
they  were  expected  and  that  the  museum  should  not 
seem  to  be  incomplete  by  their  not  being  there.  This 
is  how  IVIisson  explains  the  presence  of  the  unicorn's 
horn  and  of  the  Remora  that  stopped  the  galley  of  the 
unfortunate  Antony,  "another  fabulous  animal,  which 
for  all  its  fame  may  be  plac'd  in  the  ranks  of  unicorns."^ 
The  presence  of  mere  curiosities,  even  in  the 
modern  museum,  has  been  defended  by  no  less  an 
authority  than  Mr.  John  Henry  Parker,  curator  of 
the  Ashmolean  Museum:  "  I  do  not  wish  to  exclude 
curiosities  from  it ;  they  attract  people,  and  when  they 
are  brought  hither  by  curiosity,  they  may  stop  to  learn 
something  better  ;  they  may  want  to  know  something 
of  the  history  of  the  curiosities  they  have  come  to  see."^ 

^  Misson,  A  New  Voyage  to  Italy,  i.,  pp.  134,  135.      London,  1699,  8vo. 

-Jacob  Bobart,  the  botanist,  transformed  a  dead  rat  into  the  feigned 
figure  of  a  dragon,  which  imposed  upon  the  learned  so  far  that  "  several 
fine  copies  of  verses  were  wrote  on  so  rare  a  subject."  Pulteney,  Sketches 
of  the  History  of  Bo  tatty,  \.,  p.  313. 

In  1822  a  mermaid  valued  at  £1000  was  brought  to  London,  and  was 
exhibited  at  the  Egyptian  Hall,  Piccadilly.  It  was  in  reality  the  head  and 
shoulders  of  a  monkey  neatly  attached  to  a  headless  fish.  A  pretended  mer- 
maid was  also  exhibited  in  London  in  1775  ;  and  another  in  Broad  Court, 
Covent  Garden,  in  1794.  Timbs,  Curiosities  of  London,  p.  266.  London, 
1855,  8vo.  "A  mermaid  from  Ceylon"  was  exhibited  in  1835  i^^  the 
Caledonian  Museum  of  Practical  Science,  Straiten  House,  Wemyss  Place, 
Edinburgh.  Catalogue  of  the  Works  of  Art  .  .  .  also  of  the  fohnston 
Gallery  of  Pictures  .  .  .  now  deposited  in  the  Caledonian  Museum  of 
Practical  Science,  Edinburgh,  1834,  8\-o. 

^The  Chinese  turn  the  Remora  to  account  for  taking  the  turtle.  Bullen, 
Idylls  of  the  Sea,  p.  170,  London,  1899,  8vo. 

*  TJie  Ashmolean  Museum  .  .  .  the  Additions  tnade  to  it  in  the  Season 
1870-1871,  p.  4.     Oxford,  1871. 


CHAPTER   XV. 

ARRANGEMENT   OF   OLD    MUSEUMS. 

The  defects  of  the  old  museums  were  want  of 
space,  insufficient  means  of  displaying  the  objects, 
and  bad  arrangement.  There  was  no  proper  staff  of 
attendants,  so  that  the  collections  could  neither  be 
kept  in  good  order  nor  made  sufficiently  accessible  to 
students.  The  keepership  of  the  Ashmolean  Museum, 
for  instance,  was  "  a  mean  place."  No  salary  was 
attached  to  it,  and  a  scholar  of  the  eminence  of 
Edward  Lhuyd  had  to  depend  for  his  subsistence 
on  the  fees  paid  by  strangers  for  seeing  the  curiosities. 
The  fee  for  visiting  the  Green  Vaults  at  Dresden,  in 
1730,  was  from  four  to  six  gulden,  or  about  nine  to 
fourteen  shillings,  the  greater  part  of  which  went  to 
the  superintendent.^  There  was  thus  a  great  tempta- 
tion to  make  museums  attractive  to  the  vulgar 
rather  than  useful  to  the  learned.  Visitors  were 
often  hurried  through  the  rooms,  and  were  some- 
times allowed  to  inspect  part  only  of  the  collection. 
A    traveller,    says    Montfaucon,    can   seldom    make  a 

^  Keysler,  Reisen,  p.   1299,  Hannover,  175 1,  4to  ;  English  translation, 
iv.,  p.  100,  London,  1757,  4to. 

205 


206  LABELS    IN    OLD    MUSEUMS 

just  advantage  of  the  Musaea  or  closets  of  rarities  ; 
"for  they  that  preserve  them  in  custody  are  com- 
monly pall'd  with  a  task  they  are  oblig'd  so  often 
to  repeat,  and  hurry  it  over  too  hastily  for  the 
conveniency  of  the  observer."^  When  he  visited 
Bologna  he  was  unable  to  see  the  Aldrovandi 
museum,  because  the  keeper  was  absent;^  while  in 
Keysler's  time  it  was  so  carefully  kept  that  it  was 
never  shown  except  in  the  presence  of  a  senator.^ 

Then,  as  now,  there  were  "  eyes  and  no  eyes  " ; 
and  the  intelligent  sight-seer  was  recommended  in 
visiting  a  museum  to  have  his  magnifying  glass  and 
his  note-book  with  him,  that  he  might  examine  and 
record  all  that  was  most  worthy  of  observation,^ 
advice  which  is  equally  pertinent  at  the  present 
day.  The  virtue  of  labels  had  also  been  discovered. 
Everything  in  the  Aldrovandi  museum  at  Bologna 
was — at  least  in  1688 — described  on  a  ticket  attached 
to  it  ;^  and  the  same  thing  was  done  in  the  Plater 
museum  at  Basle  in  1663.^  Exhibits  were,  however, 
often  badly  placed,  and  were  nearly  always  arranged 
in  relation  to   their  accidental   and   not   to   their  dis- 

1  The  Antiquities  of  Italy,  translated  by  Henley,  p.  xvii.  London,  1725, 
fol.  See  also  p.  32.  Misson  complains  of  the  same  thing,  A  Nczu  Voyage 
to  Italy,  ii.,  p.  388.     London,  1699,  8vo. 

^  Montfaucon,  Op.  laud.,  p.  285. 

^Reisen,\>.  950.     Hannover,  175 1,  4to. 

*Zedler,  "  Universal  Lexicon,"  s.v.  Raritaten-Cabinet,Raritdten-Kani- 
mer,  xxx.  890. 

^Misson,  A  Neto  Voyage  to  Italy,  ii.,  p.  197.     London,  1699,  8vo. 

8  Ray,  Travels  through  the  Low  Countries,  i.,  p.  85.     London,  1738,  Svo, 

Friedrich  Christian  Lesser  of  Nordhausen  followed  the  same  practice 
Briickmann,  Epistola  Itineraria,  51,  Cent.  i.  He  was  also  careful  to 
record  the  provefiance  of  every  object. 


FANTASTIC    ARRANGEMENT  20/ 

tinguishing  features.  Things  were  disposed  accord- 
ing to  size,  like  pipes  in  an  organ  ;  and  the  two 
sides  of  a  room  had  to  balance,  so  that  the  most 
incongruous  objects  were  often  placed  alongside  of 
each  other ;  an  armadillo  beside  an  ostrich  egg  ;  a 
cocoa  nut  beside  a  stone  swan  ;  a  bird  of  paradise 
beside  a  remora.^  Not  that  the  matter  of  arrange- 
ment was  not  considered,  for  the  space  that  a  col- 
lection should  occupy,  the  uses  it  should  serve,  and 
its  proper  disposition,  the  position  and  size  of  the 
rooms,  and  their  decoration,  were  all  questions 
discussed  by  the  old  writers  upon  museums  ;^  but 
their  ideas  were  too  vague  and  ill-defined  to  lead 
to  useful  results,  and  they  contented  themselves  with 
merely  reciting  what  one  collector  or  another  had 
done.  Happel  considers  the  arrangement  of  the 
Electoral  Museum  at  Dresden  to  be  so  perfect  as  to 
be  in  itself  a  memoria  artificialis,  but  his  own  account 
shows  how  imperfect  and  confusing  it  was.^  It  had, 
however,  one  department  which  might  well  have  been 

^  Major,  "  Bedencken  von  Kunst-und  Naturalien-Kammern,"  p.  17,  in 
Valentini,  Museum  Museorum,  vol.  i. 

''Major,  Op.  laud.,^.  16;  Moeller,  Coinmentaiio  de  Tec/mopkysiotameis, 
p.  204  sqq.;  Neickelius,  Museogmphia^  p.  418  sqq.;  David  Hultman, 
InstrucHo  Musei  rerum  Jiaturalium,  a  Thesis  supported  under  the  pre- 
sidency of  Linnaeus  at  Upsala,  14th  November,  1753,  Upsala,  1753, 
4to  ;  and  reprinted  in  Linnaeus,  Amoenitates  Acadetnicae,  iii.,  p.  446. 
(Erlangen,  1767);  Briickmann,  Epistola  liineraria,  51,  Cent.  i. 

^Happel,  Relationes  Curiosae,  iii.,  p.  118.  The  accounts  of  this 
famous  museum  by  Martin  Zeiller  {Handbuch  von  allerley  nutzlichen 
Errinerungen,^.  475,  Ulm,  1655,  i2mo),  by  Dr.  Edward  Brown  {Travels, 
p.  166,  London,  1685,  fol.),  and  in  the  official  Catalogue  of  Tobias  Beutel 
{Cedern-Wald,  Dresden,  1671,  4to,  and  again  1683,  4to,  Latin  and 
German)  are  much  more  intelligible.  In  1755  an  official  guide  to 
the  Natural   History   department  was   published,  Kmser  E?itzuurf  der 


208  DISPLAY    OF    ANATOMICAL    OBJECTS 

imitated  elsewhere.  This  was  a  Cabinet  d'tgnorance, 
in  which  were  kept  such  products  of  nature  as  could 
not  be  named  or  classified,  such  as  lapides  polyniorphi 
and  other  petrifactions.^ 

The  object  in  view  was  to  create  surprise  rather 
than  to  afford  instruction.  For  example,  the  anatomical 
collection  at  Dresden  was  arranged  like  a  pleasure 
erarden.  Skeletons  were  interwoven  with  branches 
of  trees  in  the  form  of  hedges  so  as  to  form  vistas.^ 
Anatomical  subjects  were  difficult  to  come  by/  and, 
when  they  were  got,  the  most  was  made  of  them.  At 
Leyden  they  had  the  skeleton  of  an  ass  upon  which 
sat  a  woman  that  killed  her  daughter ;  the  skeleton 
of  a  man,  sitting  upon  an  ox,  executed  for  stealing 
cattle  ;  a  young  thief  hanged,  being  the  Bridegroom 
whose  Bride  stood  under  the  gallows,  very  curiously  set 
up  in  his  ligaments  by  P.  S.  V.  Wiel  the  Younger.* 
Even  in  Paris  at  the  present  day  the  skeleton  of  an 
assassin  is  exhibited  in  the  museum  of  natural  history.^ 

Kdniglichen  Naturalien-Kammer  211  Dresden^  and  also  an  authorized 
French  translation.  The  arrangement  in  this  guide  is  far  from  perfect, 
and  some  objects  are  placed  in  curious  juxtaposition. 

The  best  of  the  older  accounts  of  the  various  Dresden  collections  is 
that  by  Johann  Georg  Keysler  in  1730.  Reisen,  p.  1299  sqq.  Hannover, 
1 75 1,  4to.  ^  Keysler,  Op.  laud.,  p.  1308. 

-  Beutel,  Cedern-  Wald,  ut  supra.  Neither  edition  is  paged.  This 
anatomical  collection  was  transferred  to  the  University  of  Wittenberg  in 
1732,  and  a  new  one  commenced  at  Dresden.  Description  du  Cabinet 
Roial  de  Dresden,  pp.  3,  34.     Dresden,  1755,  4to. 

^  See  William  Hunter,  Two  Introductory  Lectures  .  .  .  with  papers 
relating  to  his  phot  for  establishing  a  Museum  iti  London,  p.  41.  London 
1784,  4to. 

^  A  Catalogue  of  the  cheifest  Rarities  in  the  publick  Tfieater  and  Ana- 
tomie  Hall  of  the  University  of  Leyden.  Leyden,  1591  [but  ?i69i]  4to. 
Supra,  p.  29.     The  young  thief  was  not  in  the  edition  of  1683. 


IN    OLD    MUSEUMS  209 

The  great  museum  of  Frederik  Ruysch  was  set  off 
with  all  the  nicety  and  ornamental  taste  belonging"  to 
his  countrymen.  Plants  disposed  in  nosegays,  and 
shells  arranged  in  figures  were  mixed  with  skeletons 
of  animals  and  anatomical  preparations,  and  suitable 
inscriptions  from  the  Latin  poets  were  placed  at  proper 
intervals.'^  Levinus  Vincent  of  the  Haoue  arranged 
his  corals  so  as  to  represent  shrubs  and  trees. ^ 

There  is  a  print  of  1610  of  the  Anatomical  Hall 
and  Library  of  the  University  of  Leyden,  but  it  is 
all  library.  The  anatomical  exhibits  seem  to  be 
arranged  round  the  walls,  but  they  are  not  prominent 
in  the  picture.  John  Macky,  writing  in  1714  of  the 
collection  of  the  Royal  Society,  says,  "  The  Repository 
of  curiosities  is  a  theatrical  building  resembling  that 
of  Leyden  in  Holland.  .  .  .  The  rarities  are  put  up 
into  boxes  as  abroad ;  and  the  beasts  and  birds  hang-ino" 
round  the  room."*  The  Leyden  Catalogue  professes 
that  the  objects  "are  so  set  in  order  that  all  may 
easily  be  found  in  their  Places."  But  some  of  the 
places  were  not  very  accessible.  These  were  the 
Entrance  Hall,  the  Anatomy  Chamber,  "  about  the 
circle  of  the  theatre,"  "about  the  beams  and  walls 
of  the  theatre,"  in  four  presses,  six  cases  and  three 
cupboards.       These    cases,    however,    seem    to    have 

'The  skeleton  of  the  young  Syrian  who  assassinated  General  Kl^ber. 
Guid^  des  Etraiigers  dans  le  Museum  d'histoire  ?7aturelle,  p.  62.     Paris,  1873. 

-See  his   Thesaurus  Anirnalhun  priinus,  Kmstt\.   1710,410. 

'  Elenehus  iabularum  .  .  .  in  Gazophylacio  Levini  Vincenti.  Harlem, 
1 7 19,  4to  (Latin  and  French).  A  series  of  plates  showing  the  arrange- 
ment of  this  museum.     A  library  of  natural  history  was  attached  to  it. 

^A  Journey  through  England,  pp.  260,  261,  2nd  edition.  London, 
1722,  8vo.     As  to  this  arrangement,  see  Major,  Op.  laud.,  p.  16. 

O 


2  10  FEATURES    OF    THE    ENTRANCE    HALL 

been  olazed  and  the  rooms  were  well  lio-hted/  A 
print  of  the  Royal  Library  and  Museum  at  Vienna 
shows  the  walls  are  lined  with  drawers  and  numerous 
objects  hanging  from  the  roof  or  on  the  walls  above 
the  drawers.^  The  principal  part  of  the  museum  was 
contained  in  a  long  gallery  in  which  were  a  double 
row  of  cabinets,  twenty  in  number,  joined  by  the  back 
and  sides  and  carried  up  to  the  roof,  but  with  so 
little  space  round  them  that  the  visitor  could  hardly 
pass  ;  while  "  an  infinite  number  of  things  were  fast- 
ened to  the  ceiling  and  walls."^ 

The  entrance  hall,  it  was  held,  ought  to  present  a 
striking  appearance  and  be  set  out  with  crocodiles  and 
tortoises,  bears  white  and  grizzly,  sword-fish,  whales, 
sharks,  Egyptian  mummies,  and  so  on.^  Like  the  old 
apothecary's  shop  : — 

Here  Mummies  lay  most  reverently  stale, 
And  there  the  Tortoise  hung  her  Coat  o'  Mail ; 
Not  far  from  some  huge  Shark's  devouring  Head 
The  Flying-Fish  their  finny  Pinions  spread. 
Aloft  in  rows  large  Poppy  Heads  were  strung, 
And  near  a  scaly  Alligator  hung. 
In  this  place,  Drugs  in  musty  heaps  decay'd, 
In  that  dry  Bladders  and  drawn  Teeth  were  laid.^ 
Keysler  complains  of  the  ineffective  arrangement  of 
the   Kircherian   Museum  ;    and   the   list  of  curiosities 
which  he  gives  shows  that  its  method  was  very  faulty.'' 

^  yionconys, /oitrtial  des  Voyages,  Ft*,  ii.,  p.  151.     Lyon,  1666. 

-  Valentini,  Museum  Museorum,  ii.,  PI.  38. 

^  Misson,  A  New  Voyage  to  Italy,  i.,  pp.  II2,  114.     London,  1699,  8vo. 

*  Major,  Unvorgreijffliches  Bedencken  von  Kunst-  und  Naturalien-Kam- 
iiiern,  p.  16  in  Valentini,  Museum  Museorutn,  vol.  i. 

^  Garth,  The  Dispensary,  Canto  ii.,  p.  17.  London,  1726,  8\'o.  Cf. 
"  The  Doctor,"  in  T.  E.  Brown's  "  Fo'c's'le  Yarns,"  Collected  Poems,  Lon- 
don, 1900,  8vo.  There  is  a  curious  picture  of  a  druggist's  shop  in 
Renodaeus,  Institutioncs  Pharmaceuticce.     Paris,  1605,  4to. 

^ Keisen,  p.  485.     Hannover,  1751,  4to. 


INEFFECTIVE    ARRANGEMENT  2  I  I 

Antiquities  and  artificial  rarities  suffered  most  in  the 
old  museums.  Of  the  great  Medicean  Museum  at 
Florence  Father  Montfaucon  says,  in  1700,  "In 
another  room  adjoyning"  is  amass'd  a  vast  quantity  of 
ancient  vessels,  the  like  number  I  never  saw,  but  in 
no  order  because  a  proper  place  is  providing  to  range 
them  in.  I  cursorily  took  notice  of  two  most  ancient 
tripods,  basons  for  sacrificing,  and  ladles,  a  measure 
call'd  sextans^  and  vessels  for  liquids,  clasps  or  buckles, 
curry-combs,  a  kettle-drum,  and  much  more  of  that 
sort."^  In  the  Gaddi  Museum  at  Florence  he  found 
"many  ancient  sacrificing  vessels,  statues,  seals,  and 
other  thinors  of  that  sort.  There  is  also  a  series  of 
medals  or  coins,  but  in  no  order  so  that  we  could  not 
examine  them."^ 

It  is  obvious  that  to  lump  all  archaeological  objects 
in  one  division  under  the  oreneral  title  "artificial 
curiosities"  could  convey  no  real  idea  of  their  nature, 
nor  was  the  arrangement  helped  by  subdividing  them 
into  articles  of  wood,  of  metal,  of  glass,  and  so  on. 
Addison,  when  describing  the  Florentine  Museum, 
says,  "  The  next  two  chambers  are  made  up  of  several 
artificial  curiosities  in  ivory,  amber,  crystal,  marble  and 
precious  stones,  which  all  voyage  writers  are  full 
of."^  Amongst  them  were  the  Venus  de  Medici  and 
other  pieces  of  sculpture. 

^  A  century  later  things  were  little  better.  "  The 
British  Museum,"  says  one  who  visited  it  in  1786,  "  con- 
tains many  collections  in  natural  history  ;  but,  with  the 

^  The  A  niiqiiiiies  of  Italy, irsinslBX&dhy  Henley,p.255.     London,  1725, fol. 

"^  Op.  land.,  p.  256. 

^"Remarks  on  Italy,"  Works,  ii.,  p.  161.     London,  181 1,  8vo. 


212  KENT.MANN  S    METHOD 

exception  of  some  fishes  in  a  small  apartment,  which 
are  begun  to  be  classed,  nothing  is  in  order,  every- 
thing is  out  of  its  place  ;  and  this  assemblage  appears 
rather  an  immense  magazine,  in  which  things  have 
been  thrown  at  random,  than  a  scientific  collection, 
destined  to  instruct  and  honour  a  great  nation."^  In 
addition,  the  museum  was  difficult  of  access."- 

When  the  objects  were  classified  it  was  of  course 
in  accordance  with  the  science  of  the  day,  so  that 
classification  represented,  as  it  must  necessarily  do, 
the  contemporaneous  state  of  scientific  opinion. 

Kentmann,  following  very  much  the  system  of 
classification  proposed  by  Agricola,  arranged  his 
mineralogical  collection  in  twenty-six  divisions  : 


I. 

Terrae. 

14. 

Aurum. 

2. 

Succi  nativi. 

IS- 

Argentura. 

3- 

efflorescentes. 

16. 

Argentum  vivum. 

4- 

pingues. 

17. 

Aes  seu  Cuprum. 

5- 

Lapides. 

18. 

Cadmia  metallorum 

6. 

Lapides  ab  animantibus 

Plumbago. 

appellati. 

19. 

Pyrites. 

7- 

Fluores. 

20. 

Plumbum  nigrum. 

8. 

Silices. 

21. 

cinereum. 

9- 

Gemmae. 

22. 

candidum 

lO. 

Marmora. 

23- 

Stibi. 

II. 

Saxa. 

24. 

Ferrum. 

12. 

Ligna  in  saxa  corporata. 

25- 

Stomoma. 

13- 

Arenae. 

26. 

Marina  varia. 

^  Saint  Fond,  Travels  hi  England,  Scotland,  a?id  the  Hebrides,  i.,  p.  89. 
London,  1799,  8vo.  He  contrasts  with  the  British  Museum  the  better 
arrangement  of  the  Edinburgh  Museum.     Supra,  p.  157. 

-  Peale,  Discourse  on  the  Science  of  Nature,  p.  20.  Philadelphia,  1800, 
8vo. 

A  French  traveller  (Louis  Simond),  who  visited  the  Museum  in 
1810,  says,  "We  had  no  time  allowed  to  examine  any  thing;  our  con- 


MERC ATI S  213 

The  first  division  "Earths"  contains  "earths"  proper 
of  fifty  kinds,  and  eight  other  sub-divisions,  clay,  marl, 
stone  marrow  (medu/la),  and  so  on,  ending  with  vessels 
made  from  clay.  The  title  "Stones"  includes  male 
loadstone  {magnes)  and  female  [theamedes),  which  repels 
instead  of  attracting  iron,  gypsum,  asbestos,  brontiae, 
cerauniae,  and  glossopetrae ;  stones  which  take  their 
names  from  animals  or  parts  of  animals,  stones  pro- 
duced from  wood,  stones  that  melt  with  heat. 

Mercati  arranged  his  collection  under  ten  heads : 
(i.)  Earths;  (ii.)  Salts  and  nitres;  (iii.)  Clays;  (iv.)  Sued 
acres,  which  included  copperas,  misy,^  metallic  ink 
{meianteria)  ]  (v.)  Siicci  pingues.XhdX  is,  sulphur,  bitu- 
men, pit  coal,  and  the  like  ;  (vi.)  Marine  objects,  such 
as  alcyonium — the  Halcyon  stone,  a  stony  concretion 
bred  of  the  waves  of  the  sea,  from  which  the  Halcyon 
was  fabled  to  make  its  nest;^  true  coral  and  sponge; 
(vii.)  Earths  like  stones,  sarcophagus,'^  calamine, 
manganese,  and  others  ;    (viii.)   Stones  engendered  in 

ductor  pushed  on  without  minding  questions,  or  unable  to  answer  them, 
but  treating  the  company  with  double  ciitcndres  and  witticisms  on  various 
subjects  of  natural  history,  in  a  style  of  vulgarity  and  impudence  which  I 
should  not  have  expected  to  have  met  in  this  place,  and  in  this  country." 
Jour?ial  of  a  Tour  imd  Residence  in  Great  Britain  during  the  Years  1 8 1 0 
and  181 1,  i.,  p.  84.     Edinburgh,  181 5,  8vo. 

'  i.e.  green  vitriol.  See  Lesser,  Epistola  de praecipids  Naturae  et  Artis 
curiosis  speciniinibus  Musei  vel  potius  P hysiotechnotamei  .  .  .  Friderici 
Hofffuanfii,  p.  7.  Nordhausae,  1736,  4to.  Hoffmann  (1660-1742)  was  a 
physician  and  professor  of  medicine  at  Halle,  and  a  F.R.S. 

'^  Pliny,  Historia  Naturalis,  xxxii.,  28. 

'  Sarcophagus,  or  the  stone  of  Assos,  is  described  by  Pliny,  Historia 
Naturalis,  xxxvi.,  27.  According  to  De  Boodt  {Gonmarum  et  lapidum 
Historia,  p.  405)  there  seem  to  be  included  under  the  term  sarcophagus 
stones  of  a  light  and  spongy  character  which  contain  alum,  nitre  and 
salt.     See  Aldrovandi,  Musaeuni  metallicum,  p.  692. 


214  BRACKENHOFFER  S    MUSEUM 

animals,  bezoar,  stag's  tears,  toad-stone,  pearls  ;  (ix.) 
Lapides  ISiojixopcpoi ;  (x.)  Marbles. 

Elias  BrackenhofFer,  of  Strasburg,  followed  the  four- 
fold division  of  Fossil,  Vegetable,  Animal,  and  Artificial 
objects,  and  all  the  specimens  in  his  great  collection 
found  their  place  under  one  or  other  of  these  heads. 
Fossils  included  stones,  mineralia  media,  and  metals. 
The  subdivisions  of  stones  show  the  uncritical  charac- 
ter of  the  mineralogy  of  the  time.  These  were,  Lapides 
majores  molles  ;  stones  taken  from  animals  ;  meteoric 
stones,  including  ceratmiae  and  bronteae ;  Lapides fossiles 
minor es ;  Silices  minores  ;  various  stones ;  petrifactions, 
amongst  which  were  petrified  wood,  the  petrified  molar 
of  an  elephant,  the  stone  horn  of  a  cow,  an  ox  tongue 
petrified,  petrified  earth  showing  the  mark  of  a  horse's 
shoe  ;  gems  and  precious  stones,  including  lapis  lazuli, 
and  many  others  ;  and  corals.  The  mineralia  media 
included  earths  and  sulphurs.  Amongst  Animals  a 
crocodile  was  to  be  found,  as  also  parts  of  animals, 
and  zoophytes.  Vegetables  stood  by  themselves.  The 
primary  division  of  Artifical  objects  was  into  those  of 
wood,  of  glass,  or  of  ivory.  Other  artificial  objects 
were  pictures,  gold  and  silver  work,  works  of  art  in 
marble,  wax,  and  other  materials ;  antiquities  and 
coins.^ 

Ole  Worm  divided  his  museum  into  two  sections  : — 
Natural    Objects   and   Artificial   Objects ;    the   former 

^  Mtisaeuni  Brackenhofferianmn,  Strasburg,  1683,  8vo. 

There  was  also  another  catalogue  of  this  Museum,  by  Johann 
Joachim  Bockenhoffer,  Musaeum  Brackenhofferia?ium.  Strasburg,  1677, 
4to,  pp.  52.  Reprinted  in  Valentini,  Miiseiiin  Muscorum,  ii.,  Appendix 
XX.,  pp.  69-81.     Franckfurt-a-M.   17 14,  fol. 


WORMS    MUSEUM  21  5 

being  subdivided  into  Fossils,  Plants,  and  Animals. 
Artificial  Rarities  were  classed  according  to  the  sub- 
stance of  which  they  were  made.  The  subdivisions  of 
fossils  were  similar  to  those  of  Kentmann,  but  Worm's 
descriptions  are  fuller  and  more  exact.  The  section 
relating  to  the  animal  world  included,  what  would  now 
be  treated  as,  anthropological  specimens.^  The  section 
"  Artificial  Rarities  "  deals  with  coins  and  with  vessels, 
utensils,  tools,  weapons  and  other  articles  of  clay, 
amber,  stone,  gold,  silver,  bronze,  iron,  glass,  and 
wood.  The  tabular  synopsis  of  the  contents  of  Worm's 
museum,  by  Seger,"  gives  at  a  glance  a  view  of  the 
whole  arrangement  and  of  the  system  of  classification 
of  the  animal,  vegetable,  and  mineral  kingdom  then 
in  use. 

A  view  of  the  interior  of  the  Museum  is  prefixed  to 
the  Museum  Wonnianmn  which  gives  a  very  good 
idea  of  the  appearance  and  arrangement  of  a  seven- 
teenth century  museum,  ^n  the  floor  and  on  two 
shelves  above  it  were  boxes  and  trays  containing  the 
smaller  objects,  beginning  with  earths  and  salts,  and 
proceeding  in  order  through  the  mineral,  vegetable  and 
animal  kingdoms,  till  they  ended  with  parts  of  animals. 
Interspersed  amongst  the  trays  or  hung  from  the 
shelves  were  various  freaks  and  oddities.  On  a  shelf 
over  these  there  was  a  miscellaneous  assemblage  of 
statuary,  antiquities,  birds,  fish,  bones,  coral  and  petri- 
factions. The  upper  parts  of  the  walls  were  covered 
with  tortoises,  crocodiles,  and  lizards,  skeletons,  spears, 

^  Afuseuin  IVoriinafiuin,  p.  344.     Lugd.  Bat.,  1655,  fol. 
^  Synopsis   niethodica   rarioriini   .   .   .   in  Mtisaeo  .   .   .    Ohn    Wormii. 
Hafniae,  1653  and  1658,  4to. 


2l6  COPENHAGEN    MUSEUM 

lances,  and  arrows,  paddles  and  costumes  from  Green- 
land. Between  the  windows  hung  horns,  antlers  and 
heads  of  deer  and  other  animals  :  underneath  on  the 
floor  lay  vertebrae  of  a  whale.  From  the  roof  were 
suspended  a  great  polar  bear,  a  shark  and  other  fish, 
various  birds,  and  an  Esquimaux  Kayak. 

The  Copenhagen  Museum  as  arranged  by  Holger 
Jacobaeus  was  divided  into  two  parts.  The  first  part 
had  seven  sections  :  (i.)  Man — commencing  with  an 
Egyptian  mummy ^  and  what  was  called  a  Danish 
mummy- — and  other  animals,  quadrupeds  ;  (ii.)  birds  ; 
(iii.)  fish;  (iv.)  shells;  (v.)  reptiles  and  insects;  (vi.) 
plants;  (vii.)  metals,  minerals,  stones,  and  earths.  In 
the  second  part  there  were  five  sections  :  (i.)  Artificial 
objects  of  metal,  wood,  bone,  horn,  and  amber — 
amongst  which  was  the  ivory  ship  [navis  bellica  ex 
ebore)  which  had  attracted  the  attention  of  the  Earl 
of  Carlisle's  secretary'- ;  (ii.)  weapons,  clothes,  imple- 
ments and  utensils  from  India,  China,  and  elsewhere; 
(iii.)  antiquities  ;  (iv.)  scientific  and  mechanical 
apparatus — amongst  which  is  included  a  magic 
Lantern  ;  and  (v.)  coins,  medals,  and  seals. 
^  Nehemiah  Grew,  in  his  Catalogue  of  the  Royal 
Society's  Museum,  followed  the  same  general  classifi- 
cation as  Worm,  but  arranged  the  classes  in  a  different 
order,  Animals,  Plants,  Minerals,  and  Artificial  Curi- 
osities. He  places  "  Humane  Rarities  "  at  the  head  of 
the  division  "Animals,"  beginning  with  an  Egyptian 
mummy;  and  then  proceeds  to  others   "according  to 

^  This  was  a  favourite  arrangement.      It  was  adopted  by  Legati  in  his 
account  of  the  Cospi  Museum.     Museo  Cospia?io,  p.  i.     Bologna,  1677,  fol. 
^i.e.  a  desiccated  body.     Bartholin  wrote  considerably  on  this  subject. 


GREW    AND    SIBBALD  217 

the  degrees  of  their  approximation  to  human  shape  and 
with  one  another  ";  a  classification  which  is  approved 
of  in  Zedler's  Lexicon}  He  finds  fauh  with  Aldro- 
vandi  who  commenced  with  the  horse  because  of  its 
use  to  man.  His  whole  volume  is  full  of  curious  in- 
formation. Rings  made  of  the  teeth  of  the  hippo- 
potamus are  believed  to  be  very  effectual  against  the 
cramp.  In  Scandinavia  the  otter  is  tamed  and  "will 
bring  the  fishes  into  the  very  kitchen  to  the  cook." 
"  The  squirrel,  when  he  hath  a  mind  to  cross  any  water 
for  a  good  nut-tree,  picks  out  and  sits  on  some  light 
piece  of  barque  for  a  boat,  and  erecting  his  tail  for  sail 
he  makes  his  voyage." 

Sir  Robert  Sibbald  adopted  the  old  fourfold  arrange- 
ment of  Fossil,  Vegetable,  and  Animal  substances,  and 
Artificial  rarities,  "Fossils"  are  divided  into  Minerals 
{media  mineralia),  Stones,  and  Metals.  "  Minerals  " 
include  earths,  salts,  sulphur,  and  bituminous  sub- 
stances, amongst  which  he  reckons  petroleum,-  asphalt 
{pissaphalhiin),  jet,  cannel  coal  or  bastard  jet,  as  well 
as     mummy,     amber/     and     ambergris.        "  Stones " 

^Zedler,  "  Universal  Lexicon,"  s.v.  Naturalien-Cabiiiet. 

'  Sibbald's  specimen  of  petroleum  was  "  the  oyl  found  floating  in  Saint 
Catherine's  Well,  near  the  Church  of  Liberton "  {supra,  p.  197,  n.  2). 
His  asphalt  was  found  in  a  stone  quarry  belonging  to  the  laird  of 
Roughsols,  now  Rochsoles,  and  was  presented  to  him  by  Alexander 
Monteith,  Deacon  of  the  Surgeons  of  Edinburgh.  Auctarium  Musaei 
Balfoiiriani,  pp.  31,  32. 

^  Amber  was  for  a  long  time  classed  with  the  bitumens.  Zacharia- 
Pillingen,  Bitujnen  et  lignum  fossile  Mtumittosum,  pp.  32,  40.  Altenb., 
1674,  8vo  ;  Parkinson,  Organic  remains  of  a  former  World,  i.,  p.  224. 

Bog  butter  was  known  as  "  mineral  tallow,"  was  also  treated  as  a  bitu- 
men, although  it  was  questioned  whether  it  might  not  be  of  animal  origin. 
Parkinson,  Op.  laud.,  i.,  p.  214  sqq.  ;  Jameson,  Mineralogy  of  the  Scottish 
Isles,  ii.,  p.  129.     Edinburgh,  1800,  4to. 


2l8  CLAUDE    DU    MOLINET 

include  slate,  flint,  marble,  alabaster,  loadstone,  crystals 
and  gems,  pearls,  corals,  and  petrifactions.  Amongst 
human  rarities  he  includes,  "a  piece  of  human  skull, 
that  was  never  buried,  with  a  moss  growing  upon 
it,  commended  for  peculiar  virtues  in  medicine."^ 
Artificial  curiosities  embrace  various  philosophical 
instruments;  and  such  things  as  "cochleare  Hirtense 
a  spoon  of  an  odd  shape  made  in  Hirta  of  the  horn 
of  one  of  their  sheep " ;  nine  portraits ;  Slezer  s 
views ;  and  drawings  of  many  antiquities ;  maps ; 
inscribed  stones  from  the  Roman  wall,  coins,  books, 
and  manuscripts. 

The  arrangement  of  the  Cabinet  de  la  Bibliotheque 
de  Sainte  Genevieve,  adopted  by  Father  Claude  du 
Molinet  (1620-1687),"  was  much  more  orderly,  and 
has  been  commended  as  a  model.  ^  The  collection 
was  divided  into  two  main  sections,  Antiquities  and 
Natural  History.  In  the  first  came  Antiquities  (a) 
relating  to  the  Christian  religion,  (d)  to  the  religion 
of  the  Egyptians  and  Romans,  and  (c)  to  the  rites 
of  burial,  (d)  Roman  weights  and  measures.  Then 
followed  coins  and  medals,  arranged  according  to 
countries  and  periods,  and  engraved  gems  and  talis- 
mans in  stone  and  metal,  and  lamps.  The  Natural 
History  section  was  divided  into  birds,  animals,  fish, 
fruits  and  plants,  shells,  stones  and  minerals. 

'  Siip7'a,  p.  56. 

-Paris,  1692,  fol.  See  also  Lister,  A  Journey  to  Paris  in  i68g^  p.  loo. 
London,  1823,  8vo  ;  p.  115,  Paris,  1887,  8vo. 

Northleigh  mentions  that  Father  Molinet  had  "  a  curious  collection 
of  Rarities  of  his  own." 

"^Encyclopedic  incthodiqtie j  A?itiquities^  T.  i.,  p.  549,  s.  v.  Cabinet. 
Paris,  1786,  4to. 


VON    MELLE    AND    BAIER  219 

Jakob  von  Melle  {1659- 1743),  pastor  at  Lubeck, 
otnni  nostra  laiide  viajor,^  arranged  his  extensive 
museum  on  a  scheme  similar  to  that  of  Sibbald. 
There  were  two  main  divisions,  Natural  and  Artificial. 
The  former  comprehended  Fossils,  Vegetables,  and 
Animals,  at  the  end  of  which  he  places  homo  sapiens. 
Artificial  curiosities  he  sub-divided  into  ei^ht  classes  : 
(i.)  Things  pertaining  to  religion  and  superstition  ;  (ii.) 
coins  ;  (iii.)  engraved  gems  ;  (iv.)  sepulchral  urns 
and  the  like;  (v.)  arms  and  utensils;  (vi.)  costume 
and  personal  ornaments  ;  (vii.)  books,  charters,  and 
manuscripts  ;    (viii.)   miscellaneous, - 

Professor  Baier  of  Altdorf  (1677- 1735)  arranged 
his  natural  collection,  or  Physiotameion,  in  seven  over- 
lapping divisions  (i.)  minerals  and  metals  ;  (ii.)  earths 
and  stones  ;  (iii.)  figured  stones,  which  he  regards  as 
liiS2is  natnrae^  but  which  evidently  took  shape  largely 
according  to  the  observer's  imagination ;  (iv.)  petri- 
fications, animal  and  vegetable  ;  (v.)  petrified  shells  ; 
{y\.)  exangtiia,  shell  fish,  sea  urchins,  etc.;  (vii.)  litho- 
phytes,  corals  and  the  like.  He  had  also  a  collection 
of  Artificial  objects,  including  antiquities,  gems  and 
coins  and  works  in   marble,   wood  and  amber. ^ 

Friedrich  Christian  Lesser  (1692- 1754),  a  Lutheran 

^  Briickmann,  Epistola  itineraria,  31,  Cent.  i. 

'''Festschrift  zur  xxviii.  Versamvilung  dcr  deiitschen  anthropologischen 
Gesellschaft.  Lubeck,  August,  1897,  p.  16.  A  contemporary  collection  at 
Lubeck  was  that  of  Hermann  Eeckhoff,  which  was  sold  by  auction  in 
1732.     Musetan  Eeckhoffianum,  Lub.,  1732,  8vo. 

^  Sciagraphia  musei siii.    Norimb.,  1730,  4to,  three  plates  {supra,  p.  117). 

Amongst  the  friends  to  whom  he  was  indebted  for  specimens  were  (pp. 
20,  21)  John  Woodward,  F.R.S.,  Johann  Georg  Kesner  of  Frankfurt 
{supra,  p.  146),  Johann  Craft  Hiegel  {supra,  p.  23),  and  Jacob  von  Melle. 


2  20  LESSER 

clergyman  of  Nordhausen  and  a  well-known  natu- 
ralist and  museographer,  took  the  Mosaic  account 
of  the  creation  as  the  basis  for  arranging  the  con- 
tents of  his  museum/  He  accordingly  placed 
the  mineral  kingdom  first,  then  the  vegetable,  and 
next  the  animal  ;  and,  in  each  division,  the  more 
perfect  object  followed  the  less  perfect.  In  the 
first  division  he  began  with  casts,  followed  by  salts, 
sulphur,  stones  and  metals.  Amongst  vegetables, 
funguses  were  placed  first,  then  came  mosses,  plants 
aquatic  and  terrestrial  and  parts  of  plants,  the  roots, 
wood,  bark,  sap,  leaves,  fruit  and  seeds.  In  the 
animal  kingdom  he  put  insects  first,  then  soft-shelled 
and  hard-shelled  animals,  creeping  things,  fish,  birds, 
animals  void  of  reason,  and  lastly  reasoning  man. 
Artificial  objects  were  arranged  in  the  same  order,  that 
is,  according  as  the  substance  from  which  they  were 
formed  belonoed  to  the  mineral,  the  vegfetable,  or  the 
animal  kingdom.  Paper  and  books  thus  fell  into  the 
division  of  artificial  objects  made  from  vegetable  sub- 
stances.^      Lesser    held    views    similar    to    those    of 

'  It  was  visited  and  described  by  Briickmann,  Epistolae  Itinerariae,  50, 
51,  Cent.  i.  ;  33  Cent.  ii. 

^  He  gave  a  detailed  account  of  the  museum  (Naturalien-und-Kunst- 
cabinet),  the  size  and  disposition  of  the  cabinets  and  cases,  the  labelling 
and  arranging  of  the  objects,  and  his  system  of  classification  in  the 
Hainburgischcs  Magaziii^  iii.  (1748),  p.  549  sqq.  This  is  followed,  p.  559 
sqq.,  by  an  account  of  the  Naturalien-Cabinet  of  Professor  Carl  Clusius 
of  Leyden.     See  also  Briickmann,  Op.  laud. 

Lesser  had  previously  described  the  collection  of  Friedrich  Hoffmann 
(1660-1742),  professor  of  medicine  at  Halle  and  F.R.S.  Epistola  de 
praecipius  naturae  et  arils  curlosls  speclnilnlbus  Miisei  vel  poll  us  Physlo- 
technotainel  .  .  .  Friderlcl  Hoffmann.  Nordhusae,  1736,  4to.  Supra 
PP-  35.  213. 


THORESBV    AND    KOEHLER  22  1 

Derham  in  reference  to  the  works  of  creation,  as 
evidence  of  the  beino-  and  attributes  of  God,  and 
advocated  them  in  a  series  of  works.^ 
--  Thoresby,  like  Grew,  set  out  with  human  rarities, 
and  includes  "a  pugill  of  the  dust  (unmix'd  with  earth) 
of  a  noble  Countess,  not  easily  distinguish'd  from  com- 
mon dust  and  ashes,"  and  the  hand  and  arm  of  the 
great  Montrose.  The  division  "Artificial  Curiosities" 
is  subdivided  into  a  great  number  of  heads  which, 
although  not  altogether  logical,  made  it  comparatively 
easy  to  trace  a  particular  object.^ 

Johann  David  Koehler  (1684-1755),  historian  and 
numismatist,  and  the  editor  of  Moeller's  book  on 
museums,  prepared  a  Travellers'  Guide  to  libraries, 
coin-cabinets  {innnophylacia),  picture-galleries  i^pinac- 
othecae),  museums  of  antiquities  {inusea  antiquarid), 
of  natural  history  [gazopkylacia  naturae),  and  of 
artificial  curiosities,  or  industrial  art  {rerzwi  ai^tijicium 
thesauri\  which  was  published  after  his  death  in 
1762,    and    again    in    1788    and     i8io.'^       His    views 

^  Lithotheologia,  Nord.,  1732,  8vo  ;  Hamb.,  1735  ^"^^  I75i-  I"  French, 
La  Haye,  1742,  8vo  :  Insecto-Theologia,  Franckf.,  1738,  8vo,  and  later 
editions.  Originally  published  in  1735  under  a  different  title.  In  French, 
La  Haye,  1742,  8vo  ;  Italian,  Venezia,  1751,  8vo ;  English,  Edinburgh, 
1799,  8vo ;  Testaceo-Theologia,  Leipzig,  1744,  8vo,  which  passed  through 
several  editions,  and  was  also  translated  into  French. 

■■^"A  Catalogue  and  Description  of  the  Rarities  in  this  Museum,"  p.  36 
sqq.,  in  Ducat  us  Leodicnsis,  vol.  ii.,  18 16,  fol. 

"^  Aiiii'eisung  fiir  Reisende  gelc/tric,  Bidlioi/ieken,  Miinzkabinette,  .  .  . 
Naturalien-  tind  Ku7istknmi)icr7i  init  Nutzen  zu  besehen.  Leipzig,  1762, 
8vo.     Magdeb.,  1788  and  1810,  8vo. 

There  was  an  earlier  work  of  the  same  kind  by  Johann  Reiske, 
Dissertatio  qua  pinacoihecas,  ciineliothecas,  et  societates  doctoruin  ifi 
Europa praecipuas  breviter  explicare  ....  voluit.     Guelferb.,  1685,  4to. 


222  KOEHLERS    CLASSIFICATION 

as  to  the  scope  and  object  of  a  museum  were  definite 
and  decided. 

A  museum  of  antiquities,  he  holds,  consists  of  three 
parts  ;  statues,  inscriptions,  and  vessels  or  utensils  {in- 
st7'u)nenta\  sacred,  military  and  domestic— of  metal  or 
clay.  Cabinets  of  natural  history  are  to  be  regarded 
as  the  treasure-house  of  God  ;  and  embrace  objects 
from  the  animal,  the  vegetable,  and  the  mineral 
kingdoms.  He  places  man  at  the  head  of  the  animals, 
and  begins  the  list  with  mummies — Egyptian  and 
others,  including  desiccated  bodies — foetuses,  monsters, 
skeletons,  giants'  bones, — which  he  points  out  are 
really  bones  of  beasts, — and  calculi.  Then  follow 
in  order  quadrupeds,  reptiles,  birds,  insects,  fish, 
and  shells.  Herbariums  are  included  amongst  exhibits 
of  the  vegetable  kingdom,  but  he  explains  that 
botanical  specimens  generally  form  special  collections. 
The  mineral  kinofdom  is  divided  into  metals,  semi- 
metals,  inflammable  matter,  salts  and  stones.  The 
metals  he  takes  in  detail.  Inflammable  matter  in- 
cludes sulphur,  bitumen,  pit-coal — the  best  of  which,  he 
says,  is  found  in  Scotland.^  Salts  include  vitriol  and 
alum.  The  earths  he  enumerates  in  order.  Stones 
he  classifies  as  common  and  precious.  Alternatively 
they  may  be  arranged  according  to  some  special 
quality,  e.g.  porosity  or  sweet  scent. ^  Amongst  the 
more  remarkable  common  stones  are  marble,  por- 
phyry, and  alabaster.  He  then  takes  up  precious 
stones,  beginninor  with  the  as^ate  and  endingr  with 
the  diamond,  the  king  of  gems.  Then  follow  the 
figured  stones  [gebildete  Steine,  lapides  Jigurati,  lapides 

'Ed.  1762,  p.  234.  '-^Cf.  supra,  p.  159. 


INDUSTRIAL    ART  223 

petrifacti).  He  mentions  that  two  opinions  had 
been  advanced  as  to  their  origin  ;  the  one  that 
they  were  due  to  diluvial  forces,  the  other  that  they 
were  produced  by  the  plastic  power  of  nature.  Of 
fiofured  stones  belonoino-  to  the  animal  kingfdom  he 
deals  first  with  man.  As  yet,  that  is  in  1755,  he 
says,  no  part  of  a  human  body  has  been  found 
petrified,  although  in  mines  bodies  have  been  met 
with  encrusted  in  stone.^  He  next  takes  up  figured 
stones  of  quadrupeds,  birds,  and  fish,  glossopetrae 
and  shells ;  then  those  of  the  vegetable  kingdom, 
wood,  fruit,  and  leaves. 

A  museum  of  Industrial  Art  iyKimst-Kannnci^)  he 
defines'-  as  a  collection  of  objects  which  man  has 
produced  by  untiring  industry  and  the  imitation  of 
nature,  and  consists  of  objects  which  indicate  great 
intelligence  and  industry.  Art  and  nature  must  be 
distinguished. 

Linnaeus  has  remarked  that  those  who  visit 
museums  of  natural  productions,  generally  pass  them 
over  with  a  careless  eye,  and  immediately  take  the 
liberty  of  expressing  a  dogmatic  opinion  upon  their 
merits.  "The  indefatigable  collectors  of  such  objects," 
he  adds,  "  sometimes  have  the  fate  of  beingf  reckoned 
monsters ;  many  people  wonder  at  their  great  but 
useless  labours,  and  those  who  judge  most  tenderly, 
exclaim  that  such  things  serve  to  amuse  persons 
of  great    leisure,   but  are  of  no    real    service    to   the 

^  Ed.  1762,  p.  251.  As  to  such  bodies  see  Mercati,  Metallotheca^  pp.  6, 
227,  note  by  Lancisi, 

2  Ed.  1762,  p.  256,  In  the  ed.  of  i8ro,  p.  832  technotheca  or  techno- 
thylacium  is  given  as  an  equivalent. 


224  VIEWS    OF    LINNAEUS 

community."  To  correct  such  views  he  proceeds 
to  examine  the  design  and  end  of  such  collections.^ 
The  globe,  he  says,  may  be  regarded  as  a  museum 
furnished  with  the  works  of  the  Supreme  Creator, 
disposed  in  three  grand  classes,  fossils,  vegetables, 
and  animals.  The  world  is  destined  to  the  celebration 
of  the  Creator's  glory,  and  man  has  been  placed 
in  it  as  the  herald  and  interpreter  of  the  wisdom 
of  God.  Hence  a  collection  of  natural  productions 
is,  as  it  were,  an  offering  from  all  the  inhabitants 
of  the  earth,  in  which  the  spectator  may  behold 
the  works  of  creation  and  the  Divine  order  of  the 
universe.  "He  who  views  only  the  produce  of  his 
own  country  may  be  said  to  inhabit  a  single  world  ; 
while  those  who  see  and  consider  the  productions  of 
other  climes  bring  many  worlds  in  review  before 
them.  We  are  but  on  the  borderland  of  knowledge  ; 
much  remains  hidden,  reserved  for  far-off  generations, 
who  will  prosecute  the  examination  of  their  Creator's 
works  in  remote  countries,  and  make  many  discoveries 
for  the  pleasure  and  convenience  of  life.  Posterity 
will  see  its  increasing  museums  and  the  knowledge 
of  divine  wisdom  flourish  together ;  and  at  the  same 
time  antiquities  and  history,  the  natural  sciences, 
the  practical  sciences  of  the  manual  arts  will  be 
enriched." 

King  Adolf  Friedrich  of  Sweden  (b.  1710,  d.  1771) 
formed   a  museum   in   the    palace   of   Ulricsdahl,  and 

'  Museum  Adolphi  Friderici  Regis,  Swedish  and  Latin,  33  plates, 
Hobiiiae,  1754,  fol.     Preface. 

The  Preface  was  translated  by  James  Edward  Smith  under  the  title. 
Reflections  on  the  Study  of  Nature,  London,  1785,  8vo,  reprinted  in  his 
Tracts,  London,  1798,  8vo.     It  was  his  first  publication. 


MUSEUMS    ARRANGED    BY    LINNAEUS  22  5 

Queen  Louisa  Ulrique  (b.  1720,  d.  1782,  sister  of 
Friedrich  the  Great)  had  another  at  Drottningholm, 
which  were  arranged  by  Linnaeus  according  to  his 
own  system.  The  king's  collection  consisted  mainly 
of  quadrupeds,  birds,  insects,  and  shells,  with  a 
valuable  herbarium  ;  the  queen's  of  insects,  shells, 
corals,   and  crystals.^ 

In  a  thesis  propounded  by  David  Hultman.  a 
pupil  of  Linnaeus,  at  Upsala  in  1753,  similar  views 
are  expressed  ;""  and  reference  is  made  to  the  museums 
of  the  king  and  queen,  of  Count  Tessin  (1695-1771),^ 
and  of  the  University  of  Upsala'*  as  examples  of 
well-ordered  collections.  The  museum  building, 
he  states,  should  be  of  brick,  longer  than  it  is  broad, 
with  windows  facing  the  north.  He  gives  practical 
directions  as  to  the  best  methods  of  preparing, 
preserving,  protecting,  and  setting  out  the  specimens, 
many  of  which  are  still  of  value  and  are  interesting 
as  no  doubt   embodying  the  methods  of  Linnaeus.^ 

^  Musemn  Ludovicae  Ulricae  Reginae,  Holmiae,  1764,  8vo.  To  this  is 
added  a  Supplement  to  the  king's  collection  in  which  various  animals 
acquired  since  the  date  of  the  earlier  catalogue  are  described. 

"^  Instructio  Musei  rerum  natura/iuiu,  in  Linnaei,  Ainoenitates 
Academicae,  vol.  iii.,  p.  446,  Erlangae,  1787,  Svo. 

^Museum  Tessimanu7n,  Holmiae,  1753,  fol.  Edited  by  Linnaeus. 
Latin  and  Swedish,  with  12  plates. 

^As  to  the  Upsala  Museum  see  Thunberg,  Museum  naturaliutn 
Academiae  Upsaliensis,  Upsaliae,  1787-98,  4to,  2  vols.;  Peale,  Discourse 
on  the  Science  of  Nature^  p.  23.     Philadelphia,  1800,  8vo. 

^The  library,  herbarium,  and  museum  of  Linnaeus  were  purchased  in 
1784  for  a  thousand  guineas  by  James,  afterwards  Sir  James,  Edward 
Smith,  and  after  his  death  were  presented  to  the  Linnaean  Society  of 
London,  Gentleman^ s  Magazine,  liv.  (1784),  pp.  393,  488,  869  ;  Lady  Smith, 
Memoir  and  Correspondence  of  the  late  Sir  fames  Edward  Smith., 
London,  1832,  Svo. 

P 


2  26  SCHEME    OF    ARRANGEMENT 

Lonor  and  minute  directions  are  s^iven  in  the 
Encyclopaedia  Pertheiisis^  for  the  formation  of  a 
museum  of  Natural  History,  the  construction  and 
furnishinor  of  the  buildino-  and  the  arrangement  of 
the  contents.  The  windows  ought  to  be  placed  in 
the  two  longest  sides  of  the  building,  that  it  may 
be  equally  lighted  during  the  whole  day.  On  one 
wing  must  be  placed  eleven  presses  with  shelves, 
supported  on  wooden  brackets.  These  presses  were 
intended  to  contain  the  eleven  classes  of  the  mineral 
kingdom,  viz.,  i.  Waters.  2.  Earths.  3.  Sands.  4. 
Stones.  5.  Salts.  6.  Pyrites.  7.  Semi-metals.  8.  Metals. 
9.  Bitumens  and  sulphurs.  10.  Volcanic  productions. 
II.  Petrifactions,  fossils,  and  lusus  naturae.  On  the 
second  wing  of  the  cabinet  ten  presses  were  to  be 
placed  for  specimens  from  the  vegetable  kingdom,  i. 
Roots.  2.  Barks.  3.  Woods  and  stalks.  4.  Leaves.  5. 
Flowers.  6.  Fossils  and  seeds.  7.  Parasite  plants, 
agarics  and  mushrooms.  8.  The  juices  of  vegetables  ; 
as  balsams  and  solid  resins,  resinous  gums  and  gums 
properly  so  called.  9.  Extracted  juices,  sugars,  and 
dregs.  10.  Marine  plants,  and  plants  growing  on  the 
shores  of  the  sea.  The  third  wino-  was  also  to  have 
three  presses  for  objects  from  the  animal  kingdom. 
I.  Lithophytes.  2.  Zoophytes.  3.  Testaceous  animals. 
4.  Crustaceous  animals.  5.  Insects.  6.  Fishes.  7.  Am- 
phibious animals,  reptiles,  and  oviparous  quadrupeds. 
8.  Birds  w4th  their  nests  and  eggs.  9.  Viviparous 
quadrupeds.  10.  Man.  Like  the  older  museums  the 
last-mentioned  section  was  to  include  embryos  and 
monsters,  an  Egyptian  mummy,  and  stony  concretions. 

^Vol.  XV.,  pp.  593-597.     Edinburgh,  1816,  8vo,  second  edition. 


IN    "ENCYCLOPAEDIA    PERTHENSIS  2  2/ 

The  so-called  decoration  of  a  cabinet  was  still  deemed 
a  matter  of  importance.  "  For  this  purpose  the  tops 
of  the  presses  are  commonly  ornamented  with  shells 
of  a  very  great  size,  foreign  wasps'  hives,  the  horn 
of  a  rhinoceros,  an  elephant's  trunk,  the  horn  of  an 
unicorn,  urns  and  busts  of  alabaster,  jasper,  marble, 
porphyry,  or  serpentine  stone.  Here  likewise  are 
placed  figures  of  antique  bronze,  large  lithophytes, 
animals  made  of  shells,  bouquets  made  of  the  wings 
of  Scarabaeus,  gourds  cut  into  two,  painted  and  made 
into  bowls,  plates,  vases,  etc.,  as  they  are  used  by 
savages ;  little  trunks  of  bark,  books  made  of  the 
leaves  of  the  palm  tree,  globes,  spheres,  etc.  The 
floor  of  the  cabinet  may  likewise  be  paved  with 
different  kinds  of  common  stones,  which  are  susceptible 
of  a  polish."  The  ceiling  was  to  be  painted  white, 
divided  into  three  spaces  and  furnished  with  hooks 
and  brass  wires  on  which  were  to  be  hung  all  sorts  of 
things,  sugar  canes,  palm  leaves,  knotted  sticks,  stuffed 
animals,  lizards,  crocodiles,  caimans,  sharks  and  sword 
fish,  large  serpents,  deer  and  other  horns  ;  Indian 
and  Chinese  dresses,  arms,  weapons,  and  utensils ; 
"  in  short,  various  curiosities  from  nations  ancient 
and  modern,  if  they  can  be  found ;  and  various 
furniture  and  utensils  of  different  nations  ancient 
and  modern."  The  piers  of  the  windows  were  to 
be  furnished  with  presses  to  hold  mathematical  and 
philosophical  instruments.  "  On  the  semi-circular 
shelves  below  are  placed  stones  formerly  used  by 
savages  for  hatchets,  some  curious  pieces  of  lacker- 
work,  Indian  pagodas,  trinkets  belonging  to  the 
savages  of  the  north  and  to  the  Chinese,   which  are 


2  28  SURVIVAL    OF    OLD    VIEWS 

made  of  ivory  or  yellow  amber,  or  of  coral  mounted 
with  gold,  silver,  porcelain-clay,  kriacks  of  Siam, 
and  Turkish  cangiars,  which  are  a  kind  of  pogniards, 
Indian  curiosities  of  silver,  and  the  galians  which 
the  Turks  and  Persians  use  in  smoking  tobacco  and 
aloes.  The  drawers  under  the  press  contain  a  collec- 
tion of  medals,  china-ink,  lachrymatory  phials,  and 
the  most  beautiful  engraved  stones  of  Europe,  or  an 
impression  of  them  in  wax  or  sulphur,  counters, 
cameos,  antiques,  talismans,  ancient  weights  and 
measures,  idols,  urns,  lamps,  instruments  of  sacrifice 
and  false  jewels." 

This  idea  of  a  museum  was,  thus,  in  1816  practically 
what  it  had  been   two  centuries  earlier,  a  collection 

Of  unicorns  and  alligators, 

Elks,  mermaids,  mummies,  witches,  satyrs, 

And  twenty  other  stranger  matters.^ 

The  subdivisions  of  the  three  kingdoms  of  nature 
are  different,  but  otherwise  the  museum  was  set  out 
as  in  the  days  of  Aldrovandi  or  Worm.  The  only 
modern  idea  is  that  the  museum  should  contain  a 
library,  that  the  rarer  objects  should  be  figured  and 
the  drawings  placed  on  the  wall,  and  that  there 
should  be  a  section  of  comparative  osteology,  including 
those  animals   which  most  nearly  approach  to  man.2 

In  1823  Mr.  John  Shute  Duncan  was  appointed 
Curator  of  the  Ashmolean  Museum.  Finding  that 
it  was  in  a    very   neglected  state  he  applied  for  and 

*  Prior,  Epistle  to  Fleetwood  Shepherd^  Esq. 

2  The  directions  in  the  Encyclopaedia  Perthensis  are,  however,  trans- 
lated without  acknowledgment  from  Valmont  de  Bomare's  Dictionnaire 
d'Histoire  naiurelle,  iv.,  p.  384,  Paris,  1775,  8vo ;  iv.,  p.  128,  Lyon, 
1 79 1,  4to. 


DUN'CAN  S    CLASSIFICATION  229 

obtained  authority  to  have  the  specimens  cared  for, 
rearransi^ed.  and  added  to.  It  consisted,  he  savs, 
of:    I.  Ancient  ReHcs.     2.   Arms  of  different  nations. 

3.  Dresses  and   implements    of  half-civilized   nations. 

4.  Rarities — (a)  Royal  gifts.  {/>)  Memorials  of  re- 
markable persons,  (r)  Amulets,  (^/)  Curious  works 
of  Art.  5.  Pictures.  6.  Books,  MS.  and  printed.  7. 
Specimens  illustrative  of  zoological  arrangement — 
"  collected  with  a  hope  of  continually  exciting  a  remem- 
brance of  the  pious  works  of  Derham  and  of  Paley."^  A 
taste  for  the  study  of  natural  history  had  been  excited 
at  Oxford  at  this  time,  by  Paley's  A^atnral  Theology 
and  other  popular  works,  in  which  Duncan  partici- 
pated.- He  rearranged  the  specimens  in  three 
divisions  according  to  Paley's  plan,  and  so  gave 
"an  exalted  interest  to  the  collection,  such  as  no 
exhibition  of  the  kind  had  hitherto  displayed.  "^ 

"The  first  division  proposes  to  familiarize  the  eye 
to  those  relations  of  all  natural  objects,  which  form  the 
basis  of  argument  in  Dr.  Paley's  Natural  Theology  ; 
to  induce  a  mental  habit  of  associatinof  the  view 
of  natural  phenomena  with  the  conviction  that  they 
are  the  media  of  Divine  manifestation  ;  and  by  such 
association  to  give  proper  dignity  to  every  branch 
'•f  natural  science.  " 

^Introduction  to  the  Catalogue  of  the  Ashmolean  Museum  [Oxford, 
1826],  8vo  ;  apparently  not  published  and  not  followed  by  a  catalogue. 
There  is  a  copy  in  the  British  Museum,  7206,  h  5.  (i). 

-He  published  Botano-Theology,  1825,  8vo  ;  and  Analogies  of 
Organized  Beings.  Oxford,  1831,  8vo. 

'Philip  Bury  Duncan,  A  Catalogue  of  the  Ashmolean  Museum,  Oxford, 
1836,  p.  vi.  Mr.  P.  B.  Duncan  succeeded  his  brother  as  Keeper  of  the 
Museum  in  1829,  and  held  office  until  1854. 


230  OXFORD    MUSEUMS 

"The  second  division  exhibits  relics  of  antiquity, 
arranged  according  to  the  order  of  time,  with  some 
specimens  of  curious  art  of  uncivihzed  as  well  as  of 
refined  nations." 

"  In  the  exhibition  of  animals  the  order  of  Cuvier 
has  been  generally  adopted.  The  name  of  every 
specimen  is  conspicuously  affixed,  and  hand-catalogues 
explain  the  general  principle  of  the  arrangement, 
and  the  contents  of  each  cabinet  to  which  they  refer.  "^ 

The  view  of  the  interior  of  the  Museum  on  the 
title-page  of  Mr.  P.  B.  Duncan's  Catalogue  shows  an 
arrangement  similar  to  that  of  a  seventeenth  century 
collection. 

In  recent  years  the  books,  coins,  and  medals  were 
transferred  to  the  Bodleian  Library,  and  the  natural 
history  department  separated  from  the  antiquarian, 
and  transferred  to  the  New  Museum.  The  collections 
have  been  largely  increased  by  the  liberality  of  Mr. 
Parker  and  Dr.  Hortnum,  and  by  the  acquisition  of 
a  long  series  of  Egyptian,  Roman,  British,  Anglo- 
Saxon,  and  English  objects ;  and  the  Ashmolean 
is  now  strictly  an  Archaeological  and  Ethnological 
Museum  of  great  value  and  excellently  arranged.^ 


^  P.  B.  Duncan,  Op.  laud.,  p.  vii. 

^Arthur  John  Evans,  The  Ashmolean  Museum  as  a  Home  of  Archaeo- 
logy in  Oxford.     Oxford,  1884,  8vo. 


CHAPTER   XVI. 

THE   MODERN   MUSEUM. 
ARCHAEOLOGICAL    MUSEUMS. 

Sir  William  Flower  thinks,  and  probably  with  justice, 
that  John  Hunter  is  to  be  regarded  as  the  founder  of 
the  modern  museum,  the  distinguishing  features  of 
which  are  speciaHzation  and  classification.^  A  museum 
has  been  described  by  Huxley  as  "a  consultative 
library  of  objects";  and  just  as  special  libraries  are  re- 
quired, so  special  museums  have  become  a  necessary 
aid  in  scientific  research.  Instead  of  one  museum 
embracing  every  subject,  or  at  least  many  subjects, 
we  have  museums  which  are  limited  to  one  or  to  a  few 
special  subjects,  as,  for  instance,  museums  of  Natural 
History,  museums  of  Geology  and  Mineralogy,  In- 
dustrial, Commercial,  Agricultural,  Chemical,  Educa- 
tional and  Military  museums,  museums  of  Archaeology, 

^  An  excellent  exposition  of  a  systematic  classification  of  natural  history 
objects  will  be  found  in  Fritsch,  Principien  der  Organisation  der  natur- 
historischen  Abtheilung  des  neuen  Museums  zu  Prag.  Prag,  1888,  8vo  ; 
Koch,  Die  Aufstellung  der  Tiere  im  neuen  Museum  zu  Darmstadt, 
Leipzig,  1899,  8vo.  As  to  the  classification  of  archaeological  museums 
see  Schwartz,  Grundsdtze  fiir  die  Ordnung  von  Sammlungen  vorge- 
schichtlicher  Altertiimer,  1898,  8vo. 

231 


232  CHRISTIAN    THOMSEN 

museums  of  Art  and    of  Antiquities — Christian    and 
secular — and  sundry  others. 

Archaeology  furnishes  a  good  example  of  what  is 
gained  by  careful  and  accurate  classification,  and  the 
bringing  together  of  objects  for  comparison.  Archae- 
ology has  been  called  ''the  science  of  sepulchres." 
This  is  true,  in  a  sense,  for  it  is  from  the  rest- 
ing-places of  the  dead  that  we  have  recovered  the 
greater  portion  of  the  material  remains  of  prehistoric 
peoples  which  we  now  possess;  and  the  recognition  of 
the  fact  that  interments  afforded  valuable  aid  in  the 
elucidation  of  the  past  was  one  of  the  great  steps 
in  archaeological  science.^  But  while  this  is  so, 
it  is  the  museum  which  has  made  them  intelligible. 
Whoever  it  may  be  that  first  spoke  of  the  "three- 
age  system,"^  it  was  Christian  Thomsen  who  first 
turned  it  to  practical  account,  and  it  was  the  ar- 
rangement of  the  great  museum  of  Copenhagen, 
according  to  this  system,  that  created  the  science 
of  Archaeology.  Prior  to  his  time  the  museum  was 
but  a  valley  of  dry  bones ;  in  his  hands  and  by 
his  genius  these  were  made  to  live  and  to  tell  the 
story   of  the    past.      The    co-relation   of   the    various 

1  Johann  Daniel  Major  and  Christian  Stieff  were  amongst  the  earliest  to 
recognize  the  value  of  interments  for  archaeological  purposes.  See  Stieff, 
De  Urnis  in  Silesia  .  .  .  Epistola^  Wratislav.,  1704,  4to  ;  Major,  Bevol- 
ckertes  Cimbrien,  Plon,  1692,  fol.  The  latter  observes  (p.  44)  that  in  many 
sepulchral  urns  one  or  more  stone  axes  have  been  found,  and  therefore 
he  concluded  they  must  have  been  the  work  of  man. 

^  James  Douglas  (1753-1819)  clearly  distinguished  three  periods  about 
1790,  Nctiia  Britannica^  pp.  150,  I54n.  London,  1793,  fol.,  but  published 
1786-93.  It  was  present  to  the  mind  of  William  Cunnington  of  Heyles- 
bury  in  1802,  Archaeologia,  xv.,  p.  126  ;  and  was  adopted  by  Sir  Richard 
Hoare  in  1812,  Ancient  Wiltshire,  i.,  p.  76. 


THE    THREE-AGE    SYSTEM  233 

monuments  of  antiquity  to  one  another  and  to  the 
present  time  was  sketched  out  by  him  in  broad  outline, 
and  soon  a  host  of  observers  all  over  the  world 
arose  to  fill  in  the  details.  Immense  progress  has 
been  made  since  the  publication,  in  1836,  of  Thomsen's 
classification;  and  the  history  of  the  past,  the  growth 
of  culture  and  the  progress  of  civilization  are  now 
being  investigated  and  recorded  in  every  country 
on  sound  scientific  lines.  "  Archaeology,"  says  M. 
de  Quatrefages,  "which  formerly  was  regarded  as  a 
matter  of  curiosity,  having  interest  only  for  a  few 
privileged  persons,  has  become  a  science  well  nigh 
positive  in  its  character." 

Every  museum  of  archaeology  is  now  arranged  more 
or  less  in  accordance  with  Thomsen's  principles,  with 
such  modifications  as  circumstances  require.  German 
museums  generally  follow  this  classification  ; — the  Stone 
Age  is  divided  into  Older  and  Younger,  that  is  Palaeo- 
lithic and  Neolithic;  the  Bronze  age  is  similarly  divided, 
the  latest  portion  of  that  age  being  known  as  the 
Hallstatt  period  ;  the  transitional  period  leading  to  the 
Iron  Age  is  known  as  the  La  Tene  or  pre-Roman 
period,  then  comes  the  period  of  Roman  domination, 
followed  by  the  period  of  the  great  migrations  (Volks- 
wanderungszeit),  the  Franko-Merovingian  period  and 
the  Wendish  period.^  The  Musee  de  Saint  Germain 
is  arranged   according   to  epochs  suitable  to   France  : 

^  In  most  German  museums  sheets  are  hung  up,  on  which  are  figured 
in  colour  the  characteristic  objects  of  each  period.  Those  prepared  by 
the  West  Prussian  museum  and  pubUshed  at  Dantsic,  six  in  number, 
are  perhaps  the  most  useful.  Others  are  published  at  Hanover  by 
the  Provincial  Museum  ;  at  Halle  for  Saxony  ;  at  Stuttgart  for  the 
Rhine   and  the  German  Danube  districts  ;   and  at  Vienna  for  Austria- 


2  34  OBJECTS    FOR    COMPARISON 

Gaul  prior  to  the  use  of  metals  ;  Gaul  after  the 
introduction  of  metals  ;  the  Gaulish,  the  Roman,  and 
the  Gallo-Roman  epochs.  This  system  is  practically 
that  of  M.  Gabriel  de  Mortillet  by  whom  the  museum 
was  organized  and  who  classified  the  great  collection 
in  the  Paris  Exhibition  of  1867.  His  classification 
is,  however,  merely  a  modification  of  that  of  Thomsen. 
Starting  with  the  three  x^ges  of  Stone,  of  Bronze,  and 
of  Iron,  he  divides  them  into  six  periods,  Eolithic, 
Palaeolithic,  Neolithic,  Tsiganian,  Galatian,  Roman 
and  INIerovingian,  and  these  periods  again  he  divides 
into  Epochs  named  from  the  places  where  the  objects 
characteristic  of  each  have  been  found/ 

The  names  given  to  ages,  periods,  or  epochs,  are 
immaterial.  What  is  of  value  and  what  is  aimed 
at  in  every  properly  organized  museum  of  archaeology 
is  to  discriminate  and  illustrate  the  stages  of  human 
culture,  in  other  words  to  trace  the  growth  and 
development  of  civilization. 

A  most  useful  feature  of  modern  museums  is 
the  separation  of  objects  into  national  and  foreign, 
the  latter  being  reserved  as  objects  with  which  to 
compare,  and  by  which  to  illustrate  the  former. 
Nothing  has  done  more  than  this  to  place  archaeo- 
logical science  upon  a  sound  basis ;  and  yet  fifty 
years  ago  so  little  had  this  principle  been  thought 
of,  that  there  was  not  a  single  room  in  the  British 
Museum  specially  appropriated  to  British  Antiquities, 

Hungary.  See  Von  Hauer,  Allgemeiner  Fiihrer  durch  das  K.  K.  natur- 
historische  Ho/museum,  p.  137.     Wien,  1898,  8vo. 

^G.  de  Mortillet,  For?nation  de  la  nation  Francaisey'p-p.  192,  193.    Paris, 
1897,  8vo.     Musee  Prehistorique,  Introduction.     Paris,  1881,  fol. 


ARCHAEOLOGY,    ANTIQUITIES,    ETHNOGRAPHY        235 

and  even  gifts  of  national  antiquities  were  reluct- 
antly received  and  sparingly  acknowledged.  The 
few  that  were  preserved  were  mostly  unclassed 
and  practically  unavailable  for  reference  and  com- 
parison.^ 

As  we  approach  recent  times  archaeology  shades 
into  antiquities,  and  the  archaeological  collection 
grows  into  the  historical.  In  every  considerable 
museum  therefore,  the  archaeologrical  section  is 
followed  by  an  historical  and  is  supplemented  by  an 
ethnographical,  and  in  some  cases  by  an  anthropo- 
logical, section. 

One  of  the  greatest  museums  of  the  day  is  the 
Germanic  National  Museum  at  Nurembercr,  estab- 
lished  in  1852  for  the  illustration  of  German 
historical  research.-  It  contains  an  enormous  amount 
of  material,  much  of  it  of  the  kind  that  was 
to  be  found  in  the  museums  of  the  seventeenth  and 
eighteenth  centuries  ; — -stone  implements  and  clay 
urns,  Roman  and  other  antiquities,  carvings,  glass  and 
porcelain,   ecclesiastical   vessels   and  vestments,  scien- 

^  Roach  Smith,  Collectanea  Antigua,  i.,  p.  171  ;  iii.,  p.  183.  London, 
1848. 

-  Hektor,  Geschichte  des  Germanisches  National  museums  von  seinem 
Ursprunge  bis  sum  Jahre  1862,  Nuremberg,  1863  ;  Das  Gerjnanische 
Nationalmuseum  und  seine  Sainmlungen.  Wegweiser  fiir  die  Besu- 
chenden.  Niirnberg,  1861,  8vo,  and  other  editions  ;  Essenwein,  Das 
Germanische  Nationalmuseum,  Nuremberg,  1884  ;  Leitschuh,  Das  Ger- 
manische  Nationalmuseum  in  Niirnberg,  Bamberg,  1870;  Die  Kunst- 
und  Kultur-geschichtlichen  Sammlungen  des  Germanischen  Museums, 
Niirnberg,  1 899 ;  Stegmann,  Das  Germanische  National- Museum  zu  Niirn- 
berg in  seinen  Rdumen  und  Gebaulichkeiten,  fol.,  Niirnberg,  1896  ; 
Anzeiger  des  Germanischen  National-Museums,  Leipzig,  1884-94,  8vo. 
This  was  a  continuation  of  Anzeiger  fiir  Kunde  der  deutschen  Vorzeit, 
1832-39,  and  N.S.  1853-83,  8vo. 


236  GERMANIC    NATIONAL    MUSEUM 

tific  apparatus,  and  all  that  used  to  pass  under 
the  name  of  artificial  curiosities.  These  have,  how- 
ever, been  arranged  so  as  to  tell  the  history  of 
the  German  land  and  the  German  people,  chapter 
by  chapter,  and  subject  by  subject,  from  the  earliest 
period  down  to  the  present ;  prehistoric,  Roman  and 
German.  Objects  illustrative  of  civil  life  and  ecclesi- 
astical life,  war,  agriculture,  handicrafts  and  trade,  art 
and  science,  are  set  out  in  order,  so  that  the  student 
has  everything  grouped  before  him  and  the  mere 
passer-by  can  read  and  understand  their  import.  The 
I  lesson  of  the  museum  is  the  importance  of  order  and 
method.  These  are  what  orive  scientific  value  to  the 
collection.  It  was  the  want  of  these  that  made  the  old 
museums  comparatively  worthless. 

The  recognition  of  the  fact  that  the  products  of  the 
lower  forms  of  civilization  of  the  present  time  materi- 
ally assist  in  understanding  the  life,  the  thought  and 
culture  of  prehistoric  peoples,  and  of  many  of  the 
manners  and  customs  of  our  own  day,  was  a  great 
help  to  the  progress  of  archaeology.  The  importance 
of  this  comparison  seems  to  us  to  be  obvious, 
but  it  was  not  grasped,  or  at  least,  was  not  acted 
upon  until  comparatively  recent  times.  Aldrovandi, 
as  we  have  seen,  did  not  recos^nize  that  the  ancient 
stone  weapons  dug  out  of  the  soil  of  Italy  were 
identical  with  the  stone  knives  and  stone  axes  in  use 
in  India  in  his  own  day,  examples  of  which  he  had  in 
his  own  museum.^     So  little  was  comparison  thought 

^Chiocci,  in  his  description  of  the  Musaeian  Calceolari,  mentions  (p.  308) 
when  treating  oi  cerminiae,  that  in  the  New  World  stones  were  found  of  so 
sharp  an  edge  as  to  equal  iron,  and  were  fashioned  into  axes,  shovels,  and 
other  tools  and  weapons  which  in  Italy  were  made  of  iron. 


OBJECTS    IN    OLD    MUSEUMS    NOT    COMPARED         237 

of  that  Anselm  de  Boodt,  after  describing^  ccrauniae, 
adds  that  because  all  these  stones  resemble  a  hammer, 
a  wedge,  an  axe,  a  plough-share  or  some  such  other 
implement  pierced  for  a  handle,  some  persons  thought 
that  they  are  not  thunderbolts,  but  tools  of  iron  which 
have  been  petrified.^  In  the  Imperial  library  of  Vienna 
amongst  other  curiosities  was  shown  an  Arabian  sacri- 
ficial knife  or  axe  shaped  like  a  ceraunia  and  hafted  in 
wood.^  The  ceraunm  itself  was  apparently  not  recog- 
nized as  an  artificial  object.  Ole  W^orm  describes  a 
flint  exactly  like  the  point  of  a  hunting  spear,  which 
was  found  in  a  low  hill  in  Ripen  along  with  an  urn  con- 
taining ashes  and  bones.^  He  had  in  his  collection* 
an  arrow  point  of  Lydian  stone  sent  to  him  from 
Iceland  in  1643,  which  had  been  found  in  the 
blubber  of  a  whale,  but  this  did  not  enable  him  to 
decide  as  to  the  character  of  the  Ripen  object.  But  for 
the  assumed  impossibility  of  working  flint  he  would 
probably  have  come  to  the  conclusion  that  it  was 
artificial.  As  it  was  he  remained  in  doubt,  and  refers 
to  Paracelsus  who  styled  such  things  Gamahu.  Of 
these  there  were  two  varieties  the  one  found  in  sand 
and  streams,  fashioned  exactly  as  if  made  by  man,  but 
in  fact  created  by  God,  and  endowed  with  miraculous 
powers.^     The  artificial  Gamahu  were  stones  on  which 

^  Gemmariim  et  Lapidii^n  Historia,  ii.,  c.  260. 

2  Briickmann,  Epistola  Ithieraria,  i  Cent,  i.,  p.  6.     Wolfenb.,  1728. 

^Museum  IVormianutn,  p.  85. 

*0p.  laud.,  p.  350. 

^  "  Gamachies,"  says  Sibbald,  "  are  found  near  to  Marlsfield,  the  Laird  of 
Grubbet's  house.  The  young  laird,  a  worthy  gentleman,  gave  me  this 
account  of  them.  There  is  a  steep  precipice  of  clay  on  the  side  of  the 
Cttle  river  that  passeth  by  Marlsfield  House  ;  towards  the  middle  of  this  pre- 


238  SUPERNATURAL    ORIGIN    OF    STONE    OBJECTS 

by  a  peculiar  constellation  images  of  man  and  animals 
have  been  impressed/  Nehemiah  Grew  following 
Worm  includes  these  objects  amongst  regularly 
shaped  stones  under  the  name  anchorites,  from 
their  resemblance  to  an  anchor,  or  "flat  bolt-head," 
or  "  to  the  head  of  a  bearded  dart  from  whence 
I  have  named  it."  As  proof  of  their  origin,  he 
quotes  a  story  told  of  Terzago  "  That  the  corps 
of  one  struck  dead  with  thunder,  being  inspected 
in  the  presence  of  Septalius  and  several  others, 
and  a  black  wound  observed  about  the  hip,  and 
searched  to  the  bone,  they  found  therein  a  round 
and  edged  stone,  which  being  broken  had  a  very 
strong  sulphurious  stink.  With  this  author,"  he 
adds,  "I  scarce  think  anything  of  this  nature  incredible 
to  those  that  read  the  relation  given  at  large  by 
Wormius  of  the  Norwegick  mouse."  ^  Sir  Robert 
Sibbald  adopted  Grew's  opinions.^  Worm,  Grew,  and 
Sibbald  were  all   physicians  of  large   experience  and 

cipice  there  boileth  out  a  red  shining  clay,  as  tough  as  melted  wax,  with  a 
blue  sliminess  on  the  top  ;  when  any  of  this  clay  falleth  in  the  stream,  'tis 
rolled  down  by  the  current,  and  is  moulded  into  an  hundred  dififerent 
shapes,  of  birds  and  beasts  and  other  things ;  and  groweth  to  the  con- 
sistence of  a  stone  in  a  few  days,  although  at  first  very  soft  and 
malleable."     AuciariuDi  Musaei  Balfouria?ii,  p.  57. 

^  Supra,  p.  3,  Paracelsus,  "  De  Imaginibus,"  c.  7.  Opera,  ii.,  pp.  499, 
502,  Genevae,  1658,  fol.  Jacques  Gaffarel  collects  all  the  learning  on 
Gamahes  in  his  Curiositez  inouyes  sur  la  sculphire  talistnaniques  des 
Persons,  chap.  v.  (Paris,  1629,  8vo).  In  English,  by  Edmund  Chilmead, — 
Grecian  and  musician, — p.  96  sqq.  (London,  1650)  ;  in  Latin,  ed.  J.  A. 
Fabricus,  p.  74  sqq.  (Hamburg,  1706);  Valentini,  Museum  Museorutn, 
i.,  p.  52. 

2  Op.  laud.,  pp.  303,  304. 

"^  Auctarium  Musaei  Balfouriani,  pp.  58,  67;  Miscellanea  eruditae 
Antiquitatis,  p.  36.  d 


NO    COMPARISONS    MADE  239 

men  of  undoubted  ability,  and  although  it  may  seem 
surprising  that,  with  all  the  facts  before  them,  they 
went  so  far  astray,  it  is  not  difficult  to  understand  their 
position.  To  arrive  at  a  different  opinion  would  have 
required  almost  a  complete  break  with  the  whole 
science  of  the  day.  Errors  of  a  similar  kind  have 
been  committed  in  our  day.  The  bone  objects  found 
in  prehistoric  cave  deposits,  which  were  long  known 
as  batons  de  commandemeiit,  have,  by  comparing  them 
with  similar  objects  used  by  the  Eskimo,  been  shown 
to  be  arrow-stretchers  ;  and  it  is  probable  that  many 
of  the  opinions  which  we  now  think  beyond  question 
will  be  shown  by  future  inquirers  to  be  erroneous. 

In  the  Catalogue  of  the  Copenhagen  Museum,  of 
1 710,  lapides  ceratmiae  and  glossopetrae  appear  as  in 
older  collections,^  but  they  are  not  looked  upon  as  in 
any  way  explaining  the  true  nature  of  cerauniae.  Stone 
hammers  and  flint  daggers  are  described  by  name, 
and  reference  is  made  to  Louis  Hennepin's  account 
of  Louisiana  and  the  use  of  stone  weapons  by  the 
Indians,"  and  also  to  their  use  by  the  Greenlanders.^ 
Attention  is  directed  to  bronze  weapons,  and  although 
the  author  cannot  understand  why  the  early  inhabitants 
of  the  country  preferred  bronze  to  iron,  he  admits 
that  such  was  the  case  and  cites  the  well-known 
passage  in  Hesiod,  and  refers  to  Homer  and  the 
figures  on  Trajan's  column.  He  quotes  Claude  Du 
Molinet's  suggestion,  that  the  reason  why  bronze 
objects  only  of  early  date  were  found  is  that  iron 
more  readily  decayed. 

'^Museum  regiutn,  i.,  7,  Nos.  64  and  67  (ed.  1710). 
-'  Op.  laud.,  ii.  3,  Nos.  24,  25,  26.  '^3.,  ii.  2,  No.  80. 


- 


240      USE  OF  STONE  BEFORE  METAL  PROVED 

The  fact  that  the  use  of  stone  had  preceded  the  use 
of  bronze,  and  the  use  of  bronze  that  of  iron,  had  long 
been  vaguely  suspected.  Sir  William  Dugdale,  being 
perhaps  ignorant  of  the  speculations  of  the  learned 
world  regarding  gamahus  and  other  cognate  subjects, 
recognized  flint  implements  as  artificial  objects  made  by 
the  ancient  Britons,  "  inasmuch  as  thev  had  not  then 
attained  to  the  knowledge  of  workino-  iron  or  brass 
to  such  uses."^  This  inference  was  not,  however, 
arrived  at  from  a  consideration  of  what  was  to  be 
seen  amongst  uncivilized  tribes,  but  by  reasoning  on 
the  finds  in  ancient  graves.  Professor  Johann  Christoph 
Iselin,  of  Basle  (1681 -1737),  writing  to  Father  Mont- 
faucon  in  17 18,  points  out  that  the  earliest  weapons 
were  of  stone,  followed  by  those  of  bronze,  and  then 
by  those  of  iron.  This,  he  says,  is  proved  by  the 
sepulchres  of  the  Germans.  The  oldest  have  most 
frequently  arms  of  brass  and  those  of  a  later  age  have 
commonlv  iron."  A  laroe  number  of  stone  axes  and 
bone  objects  were  found  in  an  interment  at  Cockerel 
in  Normandy  in  1685,  which  satisfied  Montfaucon 
that  they  belonged  to  a  people  who  were  ignorant 
of  the  use  of  metals.^  Plot  seems  to  have  been  the 
first  to  appeal  to  modern  examples  to  illustrate  the 
old.^ 

When    Edward    Lhuyd    was    in   the    Highlands    of 

^  The  Antiquities  of  Warwickshire  Illustrated,  p.  765  (1656,  fol.),  where 
a  flint  celt  in  the  collection  of  Elias  Ashmole  is  figured.  See  Wood, 
AtJienae  Oxonienses,  iv.  358. 

^  Montfaucon,  Antiquity  Explained,  translated  by  Humphreys,  v., 
p.  135.     London,  1722,  fol. 

^  Op.  laud.,  p.  132. 

*  Supra,  p.  no. 


SEPARATION    OF    ETHNOGRAPHICAL    OBJECTS         24 1 

Scotland  in  1699  he  was  shown  many  stone  arrow 
heads  which  the  people  ascribed  to  the  fairies,  and 
remarks,  "  They  are  just  the  same  chipp'd  flints  the 
natives  of  New  Engrland  head  their  arrows  with  at 
this  day;  and  there  are  several  stone  hatchets  found 
in  this  kinodom  not  unlike  those  of  the  Americans." 

o 

He  adds  that  Elf-arrow  heads  had  not  been  used  as 
amulets  above  thirty  or  forty  years,  from  which  he 
concluded  that  they  were  not  invented  for  charms, 
but  were  once  used  in  shooting  here,  as  they  are  still 
in  America.^ 

In  his  arrangement  of  the  Copenhagen  Museum 
Thomsen  sorted  out  and  arranged  the  ethnographical 
objects  as  a  separate  and  independent  collection,  and 
took  steps  to  provide  material  for  this  part  of  the 
museum  from  every  available  source.  After  his  death 
it  was  taken  in  hand  by  Worsaae,  who  modified  and 
improved  the  system  of  arrangement,  and  the  museum 
is  still  one  of  the  foremost  of  its  kind  in  Europe. 
Similar  collections  have  been  organized  at  Christiania 
and  Stockholm.  In  Eno^land  we  have  the  g-reat  collec- 
tions  of  the  British  Museum  ;  of  the  India  Museum, 
and  of  the  Ashmolean  at  Oxford ;  in  Paris  there  is 
one  in  the  Louvre  and  another  in  the  Musee  du 
Trocadero;"  besides  the  Musee  Guimet  founded  at 
Lyons  in  1879  by  M.  Emile  Guimet,  presented  to  the 
State  and  transferred  to  Paris  in  1885,  the  leading 
object  of  which  is  to  illustrate  the  history  and  practice 

'  The  Philosophical  Tra?tsaciiof2s,  xxviii.  (171 3),  p.  99. 

'  Hamy,  "  Les  origines  du  Musee  d'Ethnographie "  \x\  Revue  cPEthnO' 
graphic,  viii.,  p.  305. 

Q 


242  ETHNOGRAPHICAL    MUSEUMS 

of  religion.^  There  is  a  magnificent  ethnographical 
museum  in  Berlin,-  and  others  in  Leipsic,  Hamburg", 
Dresden,  Darmstadt,  and  various  other  German  towns. 
There  are  two  in  Vienna,  one  in  Rome,"  and  others  in 
Florence,  Modena,*  Venice,  Madrid,  Lisbon,  Leyden, 
and  Moscow.^  The  Asiatic  Museum  of  St.  Petersburg 
is  one  of  great  importance,  and  is  founded  on  the  old 
collections  of  Paludanus  and  others,  acquired  by  Peter 
the  Great.^  The  anthropological  and  ethnological 
collections  in  the  National  Museum  at  Washington  are 
amongst  the  finest  in  the  world,  and  the  ethnographical 
and  ethnological  publications  of  the  Smithsonian  Insti- 
tution, founded  upon  the  collections  in  the  museum 
and   upon  personal  observation   of  the  agents  of  the 

^  Milloue,  Catalogue  du  Musee  Guimct.     Lyon,  18S3,  and  later  editions. 

-  Fiihrer  durch  das  Mitseiim  fur  Volkerkufide,  Berlin,  1895,  ^^'O ! 
Bahnson  in  Mittheilungen  der  ajithropologischen  Gesellschaft  in  Wien^ 
xviii.  (1888),  p.  115. 

There  is  also  in  Berlin  an  excellent  museum  of  German  National 
costumes — Museum  fiir  deutsche  Volkstrachten  und  Erzeugnisse  des 
Hausgewerbes — described  in  Fiihrer  durch  die  Sammlung  des  Museums. 
Berlin,  1895,  8vo.     Second  and  enlarged  edition. 

Q<?olini,  Cronaca  del  Museo  Prcistorico  ed  ettiograjico  di  Roma.    3  parts. 
Roma,  1884-87,  8ao.     There  is  likewise  the  Museo  Borgiano, ^<?j/,  p.  247. 

*  Gaddi,  //  museo  etnografico-ajitropologico  dclla  R.  Universita  di 
Modena,  Modena,  1870,  4to. 

^  There  is  an  account,  translated  from  the  Danish,  of  the  Ethnographical 
museums  of  Europe  particularly  in  Germany,  Austria,  and  Italy,  by  Dr. 
Kristian  Bahnson  of  Copenhagen,  in  Mittheilungen  der  anthropologischen 
Gesellschaft  in  Wien.,  vol.  xviii.,  pp.  109-164.  Wien,  1888.  Translated 
from  the  Danish  into  EngHsh,  The  Archaeological  Review.,  ii.  (1889),  pp.  i, 
73,  145,  217,  289. 

^  Supra,  pp.  96,  115,  116,  182.  The  Catalogue  of  1741  contains  a  large 
quantity  of  Oriental  objects,  well  arranged.  Museum  Imperiale  Petro- 
politanum,  ii.,  Pt.  i.,  p.  94  sqq.  See  also  Dorn,  Das  asiatische  Museum 
der  kaiserlichen  Akademie  der  Wissenschaften  zu  St.  Petersburg.  St. 
Petersburg,  1846,  8vo. 


AIMS    OF    THE    ETHNOGRAPHICAL    MUSEUM  243 

institution,  have  been  of  the  greatest  value  to  science. 
7'here  is  a  fine  collection  of  ethnographical  objects 
in  the  New  York  Museum,  another  at  Chicago  (the 
Field  Columbian  Museum),  and  there  are  similar 
collections  in  many  other  of  the  museums  of  the 
United  States/  and  a  good  one  in  the  Australian 
Museum  at  Sydney.^ 

The  objects  to  be  served  by  an  Ethnological 
Museum  are  well  stated  by  General  Pitt-Rivers  in 
a  memorandum  reoardins:  the  collection  which  he 
presented  to  the   University  of  Oxford  : 

"The  specimens,  Ethnological  and  Prehistoric,  are  arranged 
with  a  view  to  demonstrate,  either  actually  or  hypothetically, 
the  development  and  continuity  of  the  material  arts  from  the 
simpler  to  the  more  complex  forms. 

"  To  explain  the  Conservatism  of  savage  and  barbarous  Races, 
and  the  pertinacity  \nth  which  they  retain  their  ancient  types  of 
art. 

"  To  show  the  Variations  by  means  of  which  progress  has 
been  affected,  and  the  application  of  Varieties  to  distinct  uses. 

"To  exhibit  Survivals^  or  the  vestiges  of  ancient  forms, 
which  have  been  retained  through  Natural  Selection  in  the 
more  advanced  stages  of  the  arts,  and  Reversions  to  ancient 
types. 

"  To  illustrate  the  arts  of  Prehistoric  times,  as  far  as  practic- 
able, by  those  of  Existing  Savages  in  corresponding  stages  of 
civilization. 

"To    assist    the    question    as    to   the  Monogenesis  or   Poly- 

1  The  Academy  of  Natural  Sciences  of  Philadelphia,  Pa.,  has  a  good 
collection  of  human  crania.  Catalogices  by  J.  A.  Meigs,  Philadelphia, 
1857,  8vo. 

-[Bennett],  A  Catalogue  of  the  specimens  of  Natural  History  and  mis- 
cellaneous curiosities  belonging  to  the  Australian  Museunt,  Sydney,  1837, 
8vo  ;  Guide  to  the  Australian  Museum,  Sydney,  Sydney,  1890,  8vo. 


244  PITT-RIVERS    OPINIONS 

genesis  of  certain  arts  ;  whether  they  are  exotic  or  indigenous  in 
the   countries  in  which  they  are  now  found  ;   and,  finally  : 

"  To  aid  in  the  solution  of  the  problem  whether  Man  has 
arisen  from  a  condition  resembling  the  brutes,  or  fallen  from 
!  a  high  state  of  perfection. 

"  To  these  ends  objects   of  the  same   Class  from  different 

>    countries  have  been  brought  together,  but  in  each  Class  the 

Varieties  from  the  same  localities  are   usually  placed  side  by 

I    side,    and    the    geographical    distribution    of   various    arts    is 

shown  in  distribution  maps. 

"Special  Finds,  ser\-ing   to  illustrate  the  correlation  of  the 
arts,  or  of  forms,  have  been  kept  together."^ 

^  See  also  Introduction  to  Catalogue  of  the  Anthropological  Collection 
lent  by  Colonel  Lane  Fox  for  exJiibition  in  the  Bethnal  Green  Museum. 
London,  1874,  8vo.  This  was  the  collection  subsequently  presented  by 
the  author  to  the  University  of  Oxford. 

Of  an  earlier  date  we  have  Jomard,  "  Caractere  et  essai  de  classifi- 
cation d'une  Collection  ethnographique "'  appended  to  Lettre  a  M.  Fr, 
de  Siebold  sur  les  Collectiom  Ethnographiqucs,  Paris,  1845,  Bvo  ;  and 
\^on  Siebold,  Lettre  sur  Vutilite  des  musees  ethnographigues,  Paris, 
1843,  8vo. 


CHAPTER   XVII. 

GLASGOW  MUSEUMS,  THE  MUSEUMS  OF   HAMBURG,  BREMEN, 

AND   LUBECK. 

In  Glasgow  we  have  considerable  collections,  both 
archaeological  and  ethnographical,  in  the  Hunterian 
and  Kelvingrove  Museums.  In  the  former  there  is 
an  extensive  and  varied  collection  of  South  Sea 
weapons,  paddles,  carvings  and  manufactured  articles 
brought  home  by  Captain  Cook.  The  Kelvingrove 
Museum  is  primarily  a  museum  of  the  Industrial 
and  Economic  Arts,  but  has  likewise  a  natural 
history  and  an  ethnographical  department  ^ ;  and 
contains  the  Livingstone  collection  of  implements, 
utensils,     and    other     articles     from     Central    Africa, 

^  See  Paton,  Sketch  Guide  to  the  City  Indiist}'ial  Museum  of  Glasgow, 
Glasgow  [1877],  8vo  ;  and  Report  on  the  Kelvingrove  Museum,  published 
annually  since  1877  ;  P.S.A.Sco.,  xxii.  (1888),  p.  351. 

The  origin  of  this  museum  dates  back  to  1846.  In  the  winter  of 
1846-47  the  Glasgow  Philosophical  Society,  with  the  assistance  of  the 
Town  Council,  had  an  Exhibition  of  Industrial  Art,  which  proved  very 
attractive  and  financially  successful.  There  was  a  surplus  of  ^1000, 
which  was  set  aside  for  purposes  of  a  similar  kind,  and  it  was  hoped  that 
the  exhibition  "may  thus  have  laid  the  foundation  of  a  museum  which 
may  become  gigantic  in  extent."  Statistical  Account  and  Catalogue  of 
the  Glasgow  Philosophical  Society's  Exhibition  of  Models  of  Works  of 
Art,  etc.,  Glasgow,  1847,  8vo.  The  Daily  Exhibitor,  Glasgow,  1847,  8vo; 
Eleven  numbers  issued  (24th  December,  1846— 9th  January,  1847)  during 
the  exhibition. 

245 


246  SHIPMASTERS  AS  COLLECTORS 

a  collection  of  tools  and  weapons  from  New  Guinea, 
and  smaller  collections  from  Australia  and  New 
Zealand.  There  is,  however,  no  organized  system  of 
collection,  and  yet  no  place  is  more  favourably  situated 
than  Glasgow  for  obtaining  the  necessary  specimens. 
Glaso'ow  has  a  magnificent  mercantile  fleet  and 
commercial  relations  with  every  country  under  the 
sun,  and  especially  with  the  islands  of  the  Indian 
Archipelago  and  of  the  Pacific,  but  practically  no 
advantage  has  been  taken  of  this  for  obtaining  material 
for  her  museums.  Hull  has  been  more  fortunate.  The 
large  ethnographical  collection  in  the  museum  of  that 
town  owes  much  to  the  merchants  of  Hull,  and  to  the 
commanders  of  vessels  sailing  from  the  port  of  Hull. 

It  is  not  to  be  expected  that  a  shipmaster  can  turn 
himself  into  a  museum-agent,  but  the  commanders  of 
vessels,  trading  to  out-of-the-way  places,  have  many 
opportunities  of  obtaining  objects  illustrative  of  the 
life  of  the  people,  their  religion,  their  warfare,  their 
arts  and  industries.  They  often  do  not  know  that 
such  things  are  of  scientific  value.  If  they  do  know- 
that  they  are  appreciated  by  scientific  men,  they  are 
generally  ignorant  of  what  to  get,  and  what  inquiries 
they  are  to  make  and  what  to  record  concerning  the 
objects  they  secure.  It  would  be  of  immense  advantage 
to  our  museums  if  a  short  memorandum  were  prepared, 
stating  what  sort  of  objects  are  wanted  and  the  par- 
ticulars to  be  recorded  regarding  them,  and  a  copy 
given  to  each  officer  of  a  ship  going  foreign.  Along 
with  the  note  it  would  be  desirable  to  issue  a  book  of 
blank  schedules,  in  which  each  article  as  obtained  would 
be  described  in  a  systematic  and  uniform  manner. 


MISSIONARY    MUSEUMS  247 

The  British  Museum  invites  the  co-operation  of  all 
persons  interested  in  Natural  History  in  collecting- 
specimens  for  the  Natural  History  collection,  and  has 
issued  a  series  of  short  manuals  for  their  cruidance/ 
Other  institutions  might  follow  this  example.  The 
Natural  History  section  of  the  Edinburgh  Museum 
was,  as  we  have  seen,-  built  up  from  the  collections 
of  officers  in  the  Royal  Navy. 

In  these  days  of  missionary  enthusiasm  more  advan- 
tage might  be  taken  of  the  presence  of  cultured  and 
experienced  men,  in  uncivilized  countries,  to  obtain 
systematic  collections  of  the  arts  and  industries  of  the 
people  amongst  whom  they  reside.  Livingstone  was 
one  of  the  noblest  of  missionaries,  but  he  was  at  the 
same  time  a  most  accurate  and  careful  observer,  and 
did  much  towards  our  knowledge  of  the  anthropology 
of  Africa.  The  Jesuit  missionaries  of  the  seventeenth 
century  made  large  collections  in  the  countries  to  which 
they  were  sent,  which  they  forwarded  to  Paris.^  The 
Museo   Borgiano   in   the   college    of  the    Propaganda 

^The  following  notice  has  been  issued  by  Dr.  Ray  Lankester,  the 
Director  of  the  Natural  History  Department  of  the  British  Museum  : 
"  Notice. — Persons  going  abroad,  who  are  willing  to  help  the  Natural 
Museum  by  collecting  Specimens,  are  invited  to  apply  for  information 
regarding  Specimens  wanted,  and  the  method  of  their  preservation  at 
the  Secretary's  Office  on  the  first  floor.  There  is  no  part  of  the  world 
from  which  Specimens  of  scientific  value  may  not  be  obtained.'' 

The  Museum  publishes  nine  small  tracts,  "  Hints  for  collecting  and 
preserving  Specimens  of  Natural  History." 

-Supra,  p.  158. 

2  See  Evelyn,  Diary,  ii.,  p.  165.  London,  1879.  These  collections  are 
still  continued.  See,  for  example,  Milne-Edwards  Rapports  sur  diverses 
collections  envoy ees  au  Museum  par  le  P.  Armand  David,  Missionaire 
de  la  congregation  des  Lazaristes  a  Pekin  in  Nouvelles  Archives  du 
Museum  d'Histoire  naturelle,  i.  (1865).     Bulletin  i. 


248  COLLECTING    SHOULD    BE    SYSTEMATIC 

Fide  at  Rome  is  filled  with  the  contributions  of 
Roman  Catholic  missionaries  of  the  present  day/ 
Although  a  large  number  of  its  objects  have  been 
deposited  in  the  British  Museum,^  the  museum  of  the 
London  Missionary  Society  still  contains  a  consider- 
able amount  of  valuable  material  collected  by  their 
missionaries  in  the  lands  in  which  they  labour.^ 
The  Evangelical  Missionary  Museum  at  Basle  is 
of  a  similar  character.*  There  is  a  missionary 
museum  at  Canterbury ;  and  another  at  Utrecht  sup- 
plied with  objects  sent  home  by  the  Dutch  missionaries 
in  New  Guinea  and  other  parts  of  the  East.^  The 
American  missionaries  have  a  museum  in  their  college 
at  Ooroomia  in  Persia.  The  Moravian  missionaries 
have  done  much  for  the  increase  of  our  knowledge 
of  the  lands  in  which  they  labour,  both  by  their 
writings  and  by  the  collections  which  they  have  formed.^ 

^  G.  A.  Colini,  CoUezioiii  etnografiche  del  Museo  Borgiano  in  Bollettino 
della  Societa  Gcografica  Italiana,  vol.  xxii.  (1885),  pp.  316,  914  ;  Schmeltz, 
Ethnographische  Musea  in  Midde7i-Eiiropa^  p.  49,  Leiden,  1896,  410. 

"^British  Micseum  Report^  1891,  p.  62. 

^  Several  of  the  illustrations  in  Professor  Ratzel's  History  of  Mankind 
(London,  1896,  8vo,  3  vols.)  are  from  objects  in  this  collection.  The 
collection  of  the  Church  Missionary  Society  has  also  provided  a  number 
of  the  illustrations. 

*  Katalog  der  Ethnographisclien  Sammhmg  iin  Miiseiivi  des  Missions' 
hauses  zii  Basel,  Basel,  1882,  1883,  and  1888,  8vo  ;  Schmeltz,  Op.  laud., 
p.  40. 

There  is  another  and  larger  ethnographical  collection  belonging  to  the 
University  of  Basle. 

^  The  Archaeological  Review,  ii.,  p.  311. 

''  Bossart,  Kiirze  Aniueisiuig  Natitralicn  zit  sanimlen.  Barby,  1774,  8\-o. 
The  author  was  Superintendent  of  the  Museum  of  the  United  Brethren's 
Seminary,  and  gives  some  account  of  its  origin  and  progress.  This 
volume  was  intended  for  the  use  of  the  missionaries. 

Glitsch,    Versiich    einer   Geschichic    der    /tistorischen    Sajmnhing  der 


GERMAN    COLLECTIONS  249 

Temporary  museums  of  ethnographical  objects  arranged 
by  the  various  missionary  organizations  with  a  view 
of  promoting  interest  in  their  work  are  common, 
and  are  often  very  attractive.^  Glasgow  contributes 
largely  to  the  support  of  foreign  missions,  and,  if 
the  attention  of  missionaries  were  directed  to  the 
subject,  there  is  no  doubt  they  would  give  valuable 
assistance  in  providing  additions  to  our  museums. 
One  requisite,  however,  is  that  a  scheme  be  pre- 
pared, and  distinct  instructions  given  of  what 
is  wanted.  At  present  whatever  comes  into  the 
museum  is  by  chance  and  in  a  haphazard  way.  A 
museum  cannot  be  built  up  in  this  fashion.  Objects 
must  be  sought  for  systematically,  and  unfortunately 
must  often  nowadays  be  paid  for,  as  there  are  many 
competitors  in  the  market.  In  addition  to  money, 
time  and  trouble  and  skill  must  be  expended  in 
making  a  collection,  and  an  agent  must  know  what 
he  wants,  and  be  able  to  distinguish  what  is  valuable 
from  what  is  useless. 

Compare  the  position  of  Glasgow  with  that  of 
any  of  the  three  great  trading  towns  of  Northern 
Germany,  Lubeck,  Hamburg,  and  Bremen — ocelli 
Germaniae.-  Bremen  has  a  population  of  somewhat 
less  than  200,000  persons.      Its  Cathedral  and  Rathaus 

Briider-Unitdi^  Herrnhut,  1891,  8vo;  Fiihrer  diirch  das  ethnographisches 
.  .  .  Museum.     lb.,  1891,  Svo. 

^  A  manual  on  the  subject,  edited  by  C.  J.  Fison  and  H.  G.  Malaher, 
has  been  published  by  the  Church  Missionary-  Society.  A  Manual  for 
Stewards  at  Missionary  Loan  Exhibitions.  London,  1899,  8\-o.  There 
was  a  temporary  exhibition  in  Glasgow  of  this  kind,  5-14  March,  1899, 
which  was  visited  by  many  thousands  of  interested  visitors. 

^Heineccius,  Scriptorcs  de  Jure  nautico,  Dedication.     Hal.  Mag.,  1730. 


2  50  BREMEN    MUSEUMS 

and  quaint  street  architecture  bear  witness  to  its 
greatness  and  artistic  taste  in  times  long  past  ;  while 
its  parks,  its  library,  and  museum  mark  the  scientific 
spirit  and  culture  of  the  present  and  the  generosity 
of  its  citizens,  A  recent  deputation  sent  to  inspect 
the  parks  of  continental  cities  reported  that  Glasgow 
had  nothing  to  learn.  The  deputation  evidently  did 
not  visit  Bremen  or  its  park.  The  town  library  is  a 
collection  of  over  100,000  volumes,  beautifully  kept 
and  housed  in  a  spacious  building  of  purple  brick, 
with  a  reading-room  which  the  British  Museum 
might  envy.  The  museum  (Stadtisches  Museum  flir 
Natur-Yolker-  und  Handelskunde)  occupies  another 
large  and  well-planned  building  near  by.  It  contains 
a  small  collection  of  archaeological  objects,  mostly  from 
the  neighbourhood,  and  a  special  collection  from  north- 
western Germany  presented  by  Mr.  P.  I.  Sparkuhle ; 
a  good  botanical  museum  and  a  large  natural  history 
collection.  The  latter  cannot,  of  course,  vie  with  a 
national  collection,  such  as  that  in  Cromwell  Road, 
London,  but  it  is  very  comprehensive  and  is  most 
methodically  arranged  and  labelled,  and  includes 
anatomical  and  other  preparations  and  microscope 
exhibits.  In  London  they  have  recently  set  up 
a  new  whale-house,  but  the  specimens  in  Bremen 
are  just  as  interesting,  and  are  even  better  shown. 
The  orround  flat  of  the  new  buildinor  contains  a 
large  ethnographical  collection  gathered  from  all 
the  uncivilized  portions  of  the  globe,  arranged  accord- 
ing to  countries,  with  models  of  dwellings,  costume, 
and  illustrations  of  the  domestic  life  of  various  peoples. 
Alongside  this  are  specimens   of  the   raw   and  manu- 


LUBECK    MUSEUMS  25  I 

factured  products  of  these  and  of  other  countries, 
mostly  non- European  ;  tobacco  from  every  place  where 
it  is  grown,  and  in  every  state  of  preparation  ;  all 
sorts  of  fibres,  grains,  and  wood  ;  models  of  cotton 
plantations  and  cotton  preparation,  of  indigo  fields 
and  indigo  manufacture,  of  Chinese  tea  gardens,  of 
saltpetre  works  and  petroleum  works.  Great  numbers 
of  the  exhibits  and  many  of  the  most  valuable  are  gifts 
from  citizens  of  Bremen.  Bremen  has  also  an  In- 
dustrial museum  (Gewerbemuseum),  and  proposes  to 
set  up  an   Historical  museum/ 

Georg  Blohm,  a  merchant  of  Liibeck,  on  his  death 
in  March,  1878,  bequeathed  150,000  marks  for  the 
good  of  the  town,  and,  after  consideration  of  how  it 
might  be  best  applied,  it  was  resolved  to  expend  it  in 
the  erection  of  a  museum  building.  The  municipality 
granted  a  site ;  the  building  was  proceeded  with  and 
was  opened  on  i6th  May,  1893.  It  is  a  handsome 
structure  of  red  and  black  glazed  brick  in  the  old 
Liibeck  style;  and  contains  a  splendid  collection  of 
objects  illustrative  of  the  history  and  life  of  Liibeck, 
a  museum  of  industrial  art  (Gewerbemuseum),  a 
commercial  museum  (Handelsmuseum),  and  excellent 
ethnographical  and  natural  history  collections.  The 
Liibeck  collection  extends  from  prehistoric  to  com- 
paratively recent  times,  so  as  to  present  a  continuous 
picture  of  the  life  of  the  old  Hanse  city.  Amongst 
the  objects  illustrative  of  Liibeck  in  the  medieval  and 
historical  periods  are  models  of  ships  and  boats,  houses 

^  There  is  a  short  account  of  the  B:  emen  Museum  in  Schmeltz,  Ethno- 
graphische  Miisea  in  Midden-Europa,  p.  92.  Leiden,  1896,  4to.  The 
stipend  of  the  museum  is  £2^00  per  annum. 


252  LtJBECK    MUSEUMS 

and  workshops,   domestic   furniture,  tools  and   imple- 
ments, instruments  of  punishment  and  of  torture,  dress 
and   costume,   books  and    bookbindings,   manuscripts, 
coins,  medals  and  seals,  maps,  plans  and  views  of  the 
town  and  its  buildings.      Ecclesiastical  life  is  shown,  in 
a  separate  section,  in  clerical  vestments  and  altar  furni- 
ture,   pictures,    plate,    carvings,    and    the    like.      The 
natural   history  collection   was   commenced   about  the 
beginning  of  the  present  century  and  is  of  considerable 
extent,   well   arranged  and   well   shown.     The   ethno- 
graphical collection  is  large  and  valuable,   and  dates 
from  the  end  of  the  seventeenth  century,  when  Jakob 
von  Melle  commenced  the   formation  of  his  museum, 
which  subsequently  passed  to  Dr.  J.  C.   Lindenberg, 
burgomaster    of    Liibeck,    by   whose   son    it   was  be- 
queathed   to    the   Society    for    the   encouragement  of 
popular     Industry     (Gesellschaft      zur      Beforderung 
gemeinniitziger   Thatigkeit).       It  was   then  combined 
with    other    collections,    and    the    ethnographical    side 
was    enriched    from    time    to    time    with    gifts    from 
Liibeckers    sojourning    in    Brazil,    Australia,    Eastern 
and    Western    Africa,    and   other    distant  lands.      In 
1897    the    German   Anthropological   Society  held    its 
congress  at   Liibeck  so  as  to  have  the  advantage  of 
the   rich    stores    of   the    museum   for  illustration   and 
discussion    at    its    meetino^s.     The    whole   museum   is 
under  the  management  of  a  joint  committee  appointed 
by  the    Senate   of  Liibeck   and   the   Gesellschaft   zur 
Beforderung  gemeinniitziger  Thatigkeit.^     In  addition 

1  Filhrer  diircJi.  das  Mtisetiin  zii  Liibeck,  Liibeck,  1 896,  8vo  ;  Festschrift 
zur  xxviii.  Versa>iiinlitfjg  dcr  deutscken  atitJiropologischen  Gesellschaft, 
Liibeck,  August,  1897.     [Liibeck,  1897,  8vo.] 


I 


HAMBURG    MUSEUMS  253 

to  the  museum  the  town  possesses  a  large  and  valuable 
library  of  nearly  100,000  volumes. 
^  Hamburg  is  a  great  seaport,  an  industrial  and  manu- 
facturing centre,  somewhat  resembling  Glasgow.  In 
the  fifties  a  small  collection  of  objects  illustrative  of 
archaeology  and  ethnography,  prehistoric  antiquities, 
and  Hamburg  antiquities,  was  established  in  the 
rooms  of  the  Natural  History  Society  of  Hamburg. 
These  were  embraced  under  the  general  title  of  His- 
torical-Culture Museum  (Culturhistorisches  Museum), 
and  placed  under  the  management  of  a  Commission. 
In  1878  the  ethnographical  department  was  trans- 
ferred to  the  hall  in  the  museum-building  in  the 
Steinthorplatz,  and  took  the  name  of  "  Museum  fiir 
Volkerkunde."  A  new  Commission  was  appointed, 
and  at  the  same  time  Herr  C.  W.  Luders  gave  his 
valuable  collection  to  the  city,  and,  later,  parts  of  the 
ethnographical  and  anthropological  sections  of  the  rich 
museum  brought  together  by  the  untiring  efforts  of 
the  great  mercantile  firm  of  Godeffroy  were  acquired.^ 
When  the  new  Natural  History  Museum  was  built, 
the  collections  were  transferred  to  it  and  arranged 
in     1 89 1.     The     ethnographical     and     archaeological 

'  There  is  an  excellent  catalogue  of  these  sections,  by  Schmaltz  and 
Krause,  Die  Ethnoi^raphisch-Aiithropologische  Abtheiliing  dcs  Museum 
Godeffroy  in  Ha7}ilmrg.  Hamburg,  1881,  8vo.  See  also  Schmeltz,  Filhrer 
durch  das  Museum  Godeffroy.  Hamburg,  1882,  8vo.  Schmeltz  is  now 
keeper  of  the  Ethnographical  Museum  at  Leyden. 

As  to  Johann  Cesar  Godeffroy  himself  (1813- 188 5),  see  Meyers,  Konver- 
sations-Lexikon,  s.v.  ;  and  "  Museum  Godeffroy  "  in  The  Popttlar  Science 
Monthly,  viii.,  p.  699.     New  York,  1876. 

The  principal  part  of  the  ethnographical  collection  went  to  Leipzig. 
The  remainder  of  the  museum  was  purchased  by  Mr.  Damon,  of 
Weymouth. 


2  54  GLASGOW    CITY    MUSEUMS 

objects  occupy  the  upper  floor  in  the  new  building  ; 
they  are  very  numerous  and  representative,  and 
are  admirably  arranged. 

Besides  its  museum  of  natural  history  and  archae- 
ology, ethnography  and  anthropology,  Hamburg  has 
a  museum  of  Arts  and  Industries,  a  botanical  museum 
and  laboratory,  excellent  chemical,  physical  and  metal- 
lurgical laboratories,^  and  a  great  town  library  of 
600,000  printed  and  5000  manuscript  volumes.^  The 
population  of  Hamburg  is  considerably  less  than  that 
of  Glasgow,  but  its  appliances  for  scientific  research 
are  far  superior  to  ours.^ 

What  is  required  in  Glasgow  as  in  Hamburg  is  a 
Special  Commission  to  take  charge  of  and  enlarge  the 
museums  of  Archaeology,  Ethnography,  and  the 
Applied  Arts.  It  is  not  questioned  that  the  inten- 
tions of  the  Town  Council  have  been  o-ood  ;  but  in 
order  fully  to  develop  the  collections,  it  is  necessary 
that  there  should  be  added  to  the  administration  a 
certain  number  of  citizens  who  have  special  knowledge 
of  the  subject.  The  plan  of  a  hybrid  Commission 
composed  partly  of  citizens  and  partly  of  members  of 
the  municipal  body,  is  universal  in  France,  Germany, 
and  the  United  States,  and  has  been  found  to  work  to 

^  Brinckinann,  Das  HanibiifgiscJie  Museum  fiir  Kunst  und  Gewerbe, 
Hamburg,  1894,  8vo ;  Mittheilungen  der  anthropologischen  Gesellschaft 
in  Wicn^  xviii.  (1888),  p.  143. 

■^Petersen,  Geschichte  der  Hamburger  Stadtbibliothek.  Hamburg, 
1838,  8vo. 

2  The  Hamburg  Observatory  is  maintained  by  the  town,  and  does 
excellent  service  in  the  interests  of  the  port.  The  Town  Council  of  Glas- 
gow recently  withdrew  a  small  annual  grant  to  the  Glasgow  Observatory 
for  transmitting  correct  time,  and  it  was  with  great  difficulty  that  it  could 
be  induced  to  restore  it. 


GLASGOW  CITY  MUSEUMS  255 

the  greatest  advantaofe.  It  is  also  the  rule  in  this 
country  where  the  Library  Acts  are  in  operation,  and 
this  would  be  one  of  the  advantages  that  would 
have  been  gained  if  these  Acts  had  been  adopted  in 
Glasgow. 

Instead  of  adopting  the  Acts  the  Corporation  ob- 
tained, in  1899,  special  powers,  under  a  Tramways 
Act,^  for  taxing  the  city  for  the  maintenance  of  public 
libraries.  Their  object  was  to  get  rid  of  a  Commis- 
sion, as  required  by  the  general  law,-  and  to  secure  to 
the  Town  Council  the  sole  and  uncontrolled  adminis- 
tration.^ Unfortunately,  no  body  less  fitted  than  the 
Town  Council  to  create  and  administer  libraries  could 
have  been  selected.  The  administration  must  neces- 
sarily be  that  of  officials,  which  may  be  good  or  may 
be  bad,  but  can  never  be  independent,  while  the 
Council  can  thwart  good  or  accentuate  bad  manage- 
ment. The  town  museums  ars  in  the  same  plight.  A 
more  vigorous  and  enlightened  administration,  and  a 
more  liberal  expenditure  of  money  are  required  in 
order  to  place  the  municipal  museums  of  Glasgow  in 
anything  like  the  position  which  they  ought  to  occupy. 

When  Professor  Bastian  was  put  in  charge  of  the 
great  Ethnographical  Museum  of  Berlin,  one  of  the 
first  steps  that  he  took  was  to  bring  together  a  Com- 
mittee of  Assistance  of  prominent  citizens,  which  has 

^ "  An  Act  to  authorise  the  Corporation  of  the  City  of  Glasgow  to  con- 
struct new  tramways,  to  establish  libraries,  to  extend  the  boundaries  of 
the  city,  to  raise  further  moneys,  and  for  other  purposes  "  (62  and  63  Vict, 
c.  clxvi.)  §§  29-41. 

2  "  The  Pubhc  Libraries  Act  (Scotland)  1867  "  (30  and  31  Vict.  c.  37)  §  14. 

3  This  was  so  stated  by  the  Lord  Provost  at  a  meeting  of  the  Council 
on  20th  September,  1897.     The  Glasgow  Herald,  21st  September,  1897. 


256  GLASGOW    UNIVERSITY    MUSEUM 

been  of  the  orreatest  use  in  obtaininof  funds,  enllstinor 
sympathy,  and  in  organising  collecting  expeditions 
and  other  work. 

Glasgow  has  an  ancient  history  extending  back  to 
the  period  of  the  Roman  domination,  with  many  evi- 
dences of  a  much  earlier  occupation.  A  museum  of 
Old  Glasgow,  similar  to  the  museum  of  the  City  of 
Vienna,  to  the  Provincial  Museum  of  Berlin  or  the 
Musee  Carnavalet  of  Paris,  could  still  be  formed,  but 
the  lapse  of  each  succeeding  year  adds  to  the  difficulty. 
Alongside  of  such  a  museum  would  appropriately  be 
placed  a  collection  illustrating,  chronologically  and 
topographically,  the  domestic  life,  home  industries  and 
costumes  of  the  people  of  Scotland,  such  as  we  find  in 
every  town  of  any  importance  on  the  Continent  and 
in  many  in  America.  If  there  be  much  further  delay 
in  commencing;  the  formation  of  a  Museum  of  Scottish 
History  and  Civilization,  every  trace  of  Scotland  as  it 
was  will  have  vanished.^ 

Considering  the  limited  funds  at  the  disposal  of  the 
authorities  the  collections  in  the  University  museum 
are  good  and  are  well  shown.  A  large  sum  of  money 
is,  however,  necessary  to  bring  the  museum  and  the 
University  library  up  to  present-day  requirements  and 
to    maintain    them    in    an    efficient    state.      The    late 

1  The  Museum  fiir  osterreichische  Volkskunde,  in  Vienna,  is  an  excel- 
lent example  of  this  kind  .of  museum.  Another  is  the  Museum  flir 
deutsche  \'olkstrachten  und  Erzeugnisse  des  Hausgewerbes,  in  Berlin. 

One  of  the  features  of  the  National  Museum  at  Wellington,  N.Z.,  is  a 
beautiful  Maori  house.  The  house,  besides  being  a  perfect  specimen  of 
Maori  art,  contains  a  large  collection  of  weapons,  household  appliances, 
and  other  objects  illustrative  of  Maori  life  and  culture. 

Maori  art  is  well  described  by  Hamilton,  T/ie  Art  Workmanship  of 
the  Maori  Race  iii  Neiv  Zealand.     Dunedin,  1896,  410. 


FURTHER    ENDOWMENT  257 

University  Commission  made  no  provision  for  either. 
They  disposed  of  the  whole  of  the  additional  grant 
made  by  Parliament  for  University  purposes  without 
reference  either  to  library  or  museum,  and  left  the 
income  of  both  much  as  it  had  been  half  a  century 
before,  althousfh  the  number  of  students  and  of  the 
teach ino-  staff  is  doubled,  and  the  need  of  a  well- 
equipped  library  and  museum  has  been  becoming  more 
pressing  every  year.  The  only  step  which  the  Com- 
mission took  in  reference  to  the  museum  was  to  issue 
a  draft  ordinance  for  the  sale  of  the  Hunterian  coins, 
which  they  were,  with  some  difficulty,  induced  to  cancel.^ 
To  bring"  the  Universitv  abreast  of  the  times  a  further 
grant  is  urgently  needed  for  the  library  and  museum 
as  well  as  for  laboratories,  apparatus  and  additional 
staff.  This  provision  is  required  not  only  for  medicine 
and  science,  but  also  for  philology  and  history. 
L'  The  anatomical  collections  in  the  University  museum 
and  the  collections  of  natural  history  and  geology 
are  used  as  aids  in  the  teaching  of  certain  subjects, 
but  no  practical  use  is  made  of  the  other  collec- 
tions, as  no  means  exist  at  present  for  doing  so. 
The  recently  published  catalogue  —  the  first  of  an 
intended  series  —  of  the  coins  in  Dr.  Hunter's 
collection  shows  the  rich  store  of  material  that  the 
University  possesses  in  this  department,-  and  yet  it  has 

^  General  Report  of  the  Commissioners  under  the  Universities  {Scotland) 
Act;  1889,  pp.  xlii.,  237.     Edinburgh,  1900.     fol. 

2  Since  the  above  was  written  a  Lectureship  of  Classical  Archaeology 
has  been  established  in  the  University  of  Glasgow.  New  rooms  for  the 
botanical,  anatomical  and  surgical  museums  have  been  provided  and  a 
museum  of  materia  medica  has  been  organized. 

A  grant  by  the  Carnegie  Trustees  has  also  done  something  towards 
filling  up  blanks  in  the  library. 

R 


258  MUSEUMS    IN    TEACHING 

to  lie  dormant  for  lack  of  a  professor  of  classical 
archaeology.  In  most  Continental  Universities  ample 
provision  is  made  for  subjects  such  as  this,  and  for 
takino-  full  advantaoe  of  museum  collections.  In 
the  University  of  Berlin  there  is  not  only  a  professor 
but  also  five  privat-docents  of  classical  archaeology 
whose  lectures  are  based  on  the  collections  in  the 
museum,  and  several  of  the  numerous  professors  and 
lecturers  on  classical  philology  use  the  same  collections 
for  illustrating  their  expositions  of  the  classics.  In 
some  German  Universities  there  is  likewise  a  Chair 
of  Christian  Archaeology,  with  a  special  collection 
of  objects  and  a  library  of  reference  for  the  use 
of  the  department.  This  subject  is  not  confined  to 
Roman  Catholic  institutions,  but  is  thoroughly  and 
systematically  studied  in  several  of  the  Protestant 
Universities,  and  one  of  the  leading  German  text-books 
is  by  the  pastor  of  a  rural  parish.^  In  Germany 
museums  are  made  the  basis  of  instruction,  and  every 
subject  which  can  be  made  intelligible  by  means  of 
a  museum  is  provided  with  a  teacher.  With  us 
museums  are  regarded  too  much  as  mere  exhibitions, 
and  are  too  little  employed  for  practical  teaching. 

^  Handbuch  der  kirklichen  Kwist-Archdologie  des  deiitscJien  Mitt  el- 
alters^  by  Dr.  Henrich  Otte,  pastor  of  Frohden.  Leipzig,  1883-84.  Fifth 
edition.     See  as  to  museums  of  Christian  Archaeology.  Op.  laud.,  i.,  p.  7. 

In  Berhn  there  is  a  "Verein  fiir  religiose  Kunst  in  der  evangelischen 
Kirche  "  with  a  membership  of  between  300  and  40c. 


CHAPTER  XVIII. 


THE    USES    OF    MUSEUMS. 


The  faculty  which  is  the  least  trained,  under  our 
present  system  of  education,  is  that  of  observation, 
and  yet  none  is  of  greater  value  and  none  is  de- 
serving- of  more  careful  cultivation.  While  accurate 
observation  is  the  foundation  of  all  original  scientific 
work,  we  do  comparatively  little  to  develop  the 
habit  in  the  young.  Their  eyes  are  holden  that 
they  can  see  nothing  save  book-print.  The  museum 
ought  to  be  an  adjunct  of  the  schoolroom,  as  it 
now  is  of  the  University  lecture-room,  and  children 
should  be  trained  to  observe  just  as  they  are  taught 
to  cypher  or  to  swim. 

In  a  general  sense  a  museum  is  a  popular  educator. 
It  provides  recreation  and  instruction  for  all  classes 
and  for  all  ages.  Its  doors  are  open  to  all  alike,  and 
each  visitor  gets  profit  or  pleasure  by  viewing  its 
objects  just  as  he  does  from  a  visit  to  a  picture 
gallery.  The  modern  museum  has,  however,  more 
definite  aims.  A  museum  has  now  become  a  recog- 
nised and  necessary  instrument  of  research  ;  it  plays 
an  important  part  in  university  and  technical  instruc- 

259 


26o  MUSEUMS    AS 

tion,  and  it  should  be  adopted  as  an  aid  in  elementary 
and  secondary  education. 

The  majority  of  our  museums  are  general  museums 
open  to  the  public  and  intended  for  the  preservation 
of  suitable  objects  of  various  kinds,  and  for  rendering 
these  useful  for  instruction  and  amusement.  In  some 
cases,  general  museums  have  been  established  or 
extended  with  the  special  object  of  assisting  in 
education,  and  in  others  provision  is  made  for  carrying 
on  research  work.  But  taking  museums  as  a  whole, 
far  too  little  use  is  made  of  them  as  ordinary  instru- 
ments of  education. 

It  is  the  practice  in  Denmark  and  Sweden  for 
schoolmasters  to  conduct  their  pupils  through  a  depart- 
ment of  their  town-museum,  and  to  explain  to  them 
the  more  important  and  typical  objects  of  some  section 
of  it.  This  familiarises  the  children  with  the  objects, 
it  teaches  them  what  to  observe  and  how  to  dis- 
tinguish points  of  difference,  and  to  recognise  points 
of  resemblance.  It  compels  them  to  employ  their 
own  eyes  and  not  to  depend  upon  those  of  others. 
Black-board  illustrations,  photographs,  coloured  draw- 
ings, lantern  demonstrations,  are  all  excellent  in  their 
way,  but,  as  a  rule,  a  lesson  from  the  object  itself  is 
superior  to  one  from  a  picture  of  the  object.  Size,  in 
particular,  is  a  characteristic  which  is  very  imperfectly, 
and  often  inaccurately,  learnt  from  a  drawing.  Book 
illustrations  are  not  made  to  any  particular  scale. 
Each  draughtsman  pleases  himself,  and  objects  in 
the  same  set  of  illustrations  are  frequently  drawn  to 
different  scales.  The  result  is  that  one  often  forms 
a  wrong   conception    of  an    object,   which   he  knows 


INSTRUMENTS    OF    EDUCATION  26 1 

only  from  a  drawing  or  a  photograph.  Museum 
lessons  to  school  children  are  not  unknown  in  this 
country,  but  they  are  not  carried  on  systematically 
as  part  of  our  educational  methods,  and  are  intended 
rather  for  amusement  than  for  serious  instruction. 

Some  of  our  museums  are  designed  for  educational 
purposes ;  and  others  prepare  specimens,  which  are 
lent  to  schools  in  their  neighbourhood.  Some  schools 
are  furnished  with  type  specimens  of  certain  classes 
of  objects,  just  as  some  are  provided  with  casts  of 
works  of  ancient  art  or  models  of  modern  machines.^ 
All  these  are  excellent  in  their  way,  but  do  not 
supersede  the  necessity  for  larger  and  more  general 
collections.  A  school  cannot  be  turned  into  a  scientific 
academy,  and  a  school  museum  can  seldom  be  of 
such  extent  as  to  make  it  independent  of  other  col- 
lections. There  is  too  much  of  so-called  science 
taught  in  schools  at  present,  and  to  add  to  this  any- 
thing like  technical  instruction  in  a  museum  would 
ruin  elementary  education.  But  children  ought  to 
understand  something  of  the  ordinary  things  mentioned 
in  their  lessons.  These  are  explained  nowadays  by 
woodcuts  in  school  books,  or  in  books  of  reference, 
or  by  diagrams  or  plates  on  the  walls  of  the  school- 
room, but  this  should  be  supplemented  by  an  in- 
spection of  the  actual  objects.  The  canoes,  weapons, 
implements  and  house-goods  of  primitive  times,  the 
arms  and  armour,  horse  trappings  and  banners  of  the 

^When  the  Glasgow  Normal  School  was  founded  in  1836  it  was 
arranged  to  provide  it  with  a  museum  and  a  library.  Third  Report  of 
the  Glasgozu  Educational  Society's  Norinal  Seminary,  p.  22.  Glasgow, 
1837,  8vo. 


262  MUSEUM    VISITORS 

middle  ages,  as  seen  in  a  museum,  and  explained  by 
a  competent  teacher,  will  make  a  far  more  vivid 
impression  on  the  pupil,  and  will  give  far  more 
accurate  ideas  than  a  library  of  illustrated  books. 
The  same  applies  to  the  natural  productions  of  our  own 
and  of  foreign  countries;  to  the  ordinary  beasts,  birds, 
and  fishes.  The  sight  of  even  a  poorly  set  up 
whale  in  a  museum  will  tell  more  to  a  learner  than 
an  accurate  drawing  to  scale. 

The  usefulness  of  a  town  or  general  museum  should 
not,  however,  be  dependent  upon  the  services  of  a 
guide.  As  far  as  possible  it  should  be  self-interpreting; 
it  should  explain  itself.  Museum  lectures  and  demon- 
strations, in  which  certain  objects  or  sections  are 
explained  by  an  expert,  are  of  the  greatest  value 
and  are  a  happy  means,  in  some  cases,  of  popularising 
science,  and  in  others  of  assisting  scientific  students. 
The  success  of  such  lectures  and  demonstrations  is, 
nevertheless,  dependent,  to  a  large  extent,  upon  the 
arrangement  and  display  of  the  exhibits,  and  the  better 
the  work  of  the  curator  is  done  the  more  does  the 
museum  become  an  instrument  of  education  in  the 
hands  of  the  lecturer. 

The  majority  of  the  visitors  to  museums  are  not 
classes  or  societies,  but  units.  Some  are  students  who 
come  for  a  definite  purpose,  and  to  obtain  certain 
information.  Others  are  beginners  groping  their  way, 
and  seeking  to  grasp  more  clearly  what  they  have  been 
learnino;  from  text-books.  The  laroer  number  of  all 
visitors  have  probably  no  very  distinct  aim  before  them, 
but  all  wish  to  know  what  the  object  is  they  are  look- 
ing at,  and  to  have  some  general  information  about  it. 


MUSEUM    ARRANGEMENTS  263 

For  all  visitors,  methodical  and  scientific  arrangement, 
easy  and  unobstructed  means  of  observing,  and  proper 
labelling  are  essential.  The  objects  must  be  arranged 
according  to  the  best  accepted  system.  They  must 
be  placed  so  as  to  be  seen.  One  must  not  interfere 
with  the  other.  The  cases  must  not  be  overcrowded, 
and  every  object  must  be  shortly  and  systematically 
described.  There  was  something  to  be  said  for  the 
scheme  of  the  old  museums  which  brought  a  number 
of  large  and  striking  objects  into  view  as  the  visitor 
entered  the  museum.  The  modern  method  of  setting 
out  natural  history  specimens  impresses  the  imagina- 
tion of  the  ordinary  visitor,  and  gives  him  in  a 
concrete  form  the  result  of  years  of  patient  observa- 
tion of  many  trained  naturalists.  The  display  and 
grouping  of  the  objects  are,  as  far  as  possible,  an 
exact  reproduction  of  nature  itself,  and  the  sight  of 
birds,  or  other  wild  creatures  in  their  native  haunts, 
is  a  source  of  much  pleasure  to  the  least  instructed 
visitor,  while  it  enables  the  student  to  see  with  ease 
what  he  probably  may  never  have  an  opportunity  of 
observing  for  himself.  Better  methods  of  taxidermy, 
improved  methods  of  arrangement  have  done  much 
to  make  the  zoological  departments  of  our  museums 
most  valuable  educational  aids.  He  must  be  a  dull 
man  who  does  not  derive  pleasure  or  instruction  from 
a  natural  history  museum  arranged  on  modern  lines. ^ 
J'v  good  guide  book  with  a  clue-plan  should  be  found 

^  Since  the  above  was  written  an  interesting  account  of  Sir  William 
Flowers  work  in  museum  arrangement  and  the  preparation  and  exhibition 
of  specimens  has  appeared  in  Charles  J.  Cornish's  Sir  William  Hetiry 
Flower:  A  personal  I\Ie?noir.     London,  1904,  8vo. 


264  HANDBOOKS    AND    LABELLING 

in  every  museum,  but  in  many  museums  no  cata- 
logue of  any  kind  is  to  be  had.  The  Trustees  of  the 
British  Museum  have  pubHshed,  for  the  use  of  students, 
elaborate  catalogues  of  every  department  and  collec- 
tion. They  have  also  issued  a  series  of  short  popular 
handbooks,  prepared  by  the  ablest  officers  of  the  staff, 
which  have  been  of  immense  service  in  making  known 
the  contents  of  this  vast  storehouse,  and  in  helping 
intelligent  visitors  to  understand  and  appreciate  the 
objects  placed  on  view.  The  handbook  to  the  Miner- 
alogical  Department  in  Cromwell  Road,  for  instance, 
is  admirably  adapted  for  enabling  any  person  of  ordi- 
nary intelligence  to  view  the  collection  with  pleasure 
and  profit.  Directions  are  placed  in  the  gallery 
informing:  the  visitor  how  to  examine  the  exhibits  in 
the  most  profitable  manner,  and  each  exhibit  is  fully 
described  on  its  own  ticket.  Of  a  similar  character 
is  the  handbook,  by  Dr.  W.  D.  Matthew,  to  the  re- 
markable collection  of  fossil  horses  in  the  American 
Museum  of  Natural  History  in  New  York. 

The  full  and  systematic  labelling  of  specimens  is  a 
matter  which  has  of  late  received  much  attention  and 
is  carefully  carried  out  in  the  best  museums.  The 
provenance  of  the  object  is  not,  however,  always 
recorded  upon  the  ticket,  which  in  many  cases  is  a 
serious  omission.  As  a  rule  it  is  of  importance  that 
the  exact  locality  from  which  each  specimen  has  been 
obtained  should  be  recorded,  and  also  in  many  cases 
the  geological  position  of  the  spot.  If  it  came  from 
any  particular  collection  this  should  be  specified.  This 
does  not  apply  to  archaeological  objects  alone  ;  it 
is  equally  necessary  as  respects  zoological,  geological, 


LOCAL    MUSEUMS  265 

and  other  similar  specimens.  The  date  of  finding  or 
of  acquisition  is  often  Hkewise  of  importance.  All 
these  particulars  and  various  others,  such  as  the  name 
and  address  of  the  donor,  or  of  the  vendor,  should  be 
recorded  in  the  accession  register,  so  that  as  far  as 
possible  the  history  of  each  specimen  may  be  traced. 
The  price  paid  should  be  recorded  in  the  case  of 
purchases.  Every  entry  should  be  drafted  and  revised 
before  being  inserted  in  the  register,  and  every  ticket 
should  be  checked  with  the  reoister  before  beinor 
issued. 

Every  museum  should,  as  far  as  possible,  have  a 
predominant  character.  This  goes  without  saying  in 
the  case  of  a  technical  museum  ;  its  special  char- 
acter must  necessarily  predominate.  But  even  in 
the  case  of  a  general  museum  it  should  have  some 
distinctive  feature.  Local  museums  are  necessarily 
general  museums,  and  should  aim  at  illustrating  the 
town  or  district  in  which  they  are  established.  Such 
museums  are  often  crowded  with  what  are  popularly- 
known  as  curiosities  ; — odds  and  ends  connected  with 
the  town,  furniture  and  utensils  presented  to  the 
museum  simply  because  they  are  old  and  out  of 
date,  gifts  by  friends  in  foreign  lands, — birds,  beasts, 
eggs,  and  fossils.  When  huddled  together  in  cabinets 
or  on  shelves  such  objects  are  useless  for  scientific 
purposes,  and  curators  are  far  too  ready  to  con- 
sign to  the  dust  cart  what  they  do  not  like,  and 
much  valuable  material  has  in  this  way  been  de- 
stroyed. What  is  wanted  in  such  cases  is  patience 
and  method.  Antique  furniture  and  utensils,  old- 
fashioned    clothes,    old    prints    and    the     like,    when 


2  66  SPECIMENS 

properly  arranged,  become  an  historical  museum,  one 
of  the  most  instructive  and  attractive  sections  of  any 
collection.  The  materials  of  the  great  Northern 
Museum  at  Stockholm,  of  the  Historical  Museums 
at  Berne  and  Basle,  of  the  Carnavalet  Museum  in 
Paris,  are  mostly  of  a  common-place  character  when 
taken  individually,  but  when  grouped  together  so  as 
to  bring  before  the  eye  the  life  of  former  days,  they 
become  of  the  greatest  interest  and  value. 

Neither  a  local  nor  any  other  museum  is  to  be 
filled  with  whatever  comes  handiest,  without  regard 
to  its  fitness.  Every  object  acquired  for  the  museum 
should  be  selected  with  a  definite  end  in  view,  and 
should  be  placed  in  its  appropriate  position  in  relation 
to  the  other  objects  which  it  is  intended  to  supplement 
or  explain.  As  a  rule,  a  poor  specimen  is  better  than 
a  blank  ;  when  a  better  one  turns  up  the  other  will  be 
removed.  Every  museum  should  aim  at  having  the 
best  available  specimens.  But  while  this  is  so,  there 
is  too  great  a  tendency  to  get  rid  of  exhibits  merely 
because  they  are  not  in  fashion,  or  because  they 
represent  some  exploded  doctrine.  Obsolete  speci- 
mens and  old  arrangements  ought  in  many  cases  to 
be  retained,  for  the  very  reason  that  they  embody  for- 
gotten ideas,  and  are  to  be  shown  as  illustrating  these. 

A  museum  should  illustrate  the  growth  and  develop- 
ment of  civilisation  and  the  arts.  Early  printed  books 
are  of  great  interest  and  of  considerable  value  ;  and 
in  many  museums  the  progress  of  the  art  of  printing  is 
illustrated  by  examples.  The  first  forms  of  machines 
are  often  highly  prized,  and  museums  of  early  inven- 
tions   and    old    machines    are    not    unknown.      The 


MUSEUMS    ACTS  267 

Specimens  which  ilhistrated  the  geology  and  natural 
history  of  two  hundred  years  ago  would  be  just  as 
instructive,  in  their  own  way,  if  we  could  get  hold 
of  them,  but  many  of  them  have  been  swept  away 
by  modern  curators,  who  forget  that  at  the  end  of 
fifty  years  much  of  what  they  now  value  will,  in 
its  turn,  have  become  obsolete,  and  will  be  useful 
only  for  illustrating  the  science  of  the  nineteenth 
century.^ 

Free  libraries  supported  by  the  rates  have  spread, 
and  are  spreading  all  over  the  country.  The  oppor- 
tunity of  consulting  the  best  books  is  a  boon  to  all 
classes  of  the  community.  The  results  have  not, 
however,  corresponded  with  the  expectations  that 
were  formed  by  the  advocates  of  free  libraries.  These 
libraries  have  no  doubt  afforded  amusement  to  large 
numbers  of  the  population,  and  the  free  library  is 
a  comfortable  lounge  for  idlers  on  a  rainy  day  and 
during  strikes,  but  the  solid  advantages  of  the 
scheme  have  been  confined,  almost  wholly,  to  those 
who  are  students.  Free  museums  were  in  the  field 
before  free  libraries,  but  have  not  been  so  vigorously 
pushed.      In    1845   an   Act  (8  and  9   Victoria,   c.  43) 

1  One  of  the  survivals  is  the  fine  chipped  flint,  "  coup  de  pong,"  found 
near  Gray's  Inn  Lane  about  1690,  and  now  in  the  British  Museum.  It 
is  the  earliest  recorded  find  of  a  flint  implement  in  the  Quaternary 
gravels,  whether  in  Britain  or  in  any  other  country.  See  Evans,  Ancient 
Stone  Implements,  p.  581,  second  edition,  London,  1897;  Boyd  Davvkins, 
Early  Man  in  Britain,  p.   158,  London,  1880. 

It  seems  to  have  been  acquired  by  John  Conyers  [supra,  p.  134)  ; 
from  whose  collection  it  passed  into  that  of  John  Kemp  {supra,  p.  124)^ 
then  to  Sir  Hans  Sloane,  and  with  his  collection  to  the  British  Museum 
{supra,  p.  139).  If  all  the  old  collections  had  been  preserved,  it  may 
be  that  other  equally  interesting  finds  would  have  been  disclosed. 


268  TOWN    MUSEUMS 

was  passed,  enabling  Town  Councils  of  boroughs 
having  a  population  exceeding  10,000  persons  to 
levy  a  small  rate  for  the  establishment  of  museums 
of  Art  and  Science  for  the  instruction  and  amuse- 
ment of  the  inhabitants.  This  was  followed  in 
1850  by  the  Public  Libraries  Act  of  that  year 
(13  and  14  Victoria,  c.  65),  which  recited  "that  it  is 
expedient  to  promote  the  establishment  and  exten- 
sion of  Public  Libraries,  and  to  give  greater  facilities 
than  now  exist  for  establishing  and  extending  Public 
Museums  of  Art  and  Science  in  Municipal  Boroughs, 
for  the  instruction  and  recreation  of  the  people,"  and 
made  provision  accordingly.^  Various  amending  Acts 
have  been  passed  enlarging  the  scope  of  both  statutes, 
and  free  museums  are  now  commonly  joined  with  free 
libraries,  but  there  are  many  such  libraries  without 
corresponding  museums. 

Town  Museums,  whether  supported  by  the  rates  or 
otherwise,  are  necessarily  local  museums,  and  should 
have  a  local  character.^  The  history  of  the  town,  the 
flora  and  fauna,  the  geology  and  archaeology  of  the 

^  In  the  same  year  the  Act  for  the  better  preservation  of  Works  of 
Art  and  Scientific  and  Literary  Collections  (8  and  9  Victoria,  c.  44)  was 
passed. 

2  Lord  Bacon  recommended  that  for  the  proper  pursuit  of  natural 
science  histories  should  be  written,  or  at  least  exact  catalogues  prepared, 
of  the  metals,  minerals,  plants,  and  animals  of  each  district.  Acting 
upon  the  suggestion,  Joshua  Childrey  (1623-70)  prepared  and  published  : 
Britannia  Baco7iica;  or  the  7iattiral  rarities  of  Enxiajid,  Scotland  and 
Wales,  according  as  they  are  to  be  found  in  every  Shire,  historically 
related  accordini^  to  the  precepts  of  the  Lord  Bacon.  London,  1660, 
8vo,  and  again  1661  and  1662.  It  was  translated  into  French,  Paris, 
1667,  8vo. 

Sibbald's  Scotia  lllustrata,  Edinburgh,  1684,  fol.  was  another  attempt 
in  the  same  direction. 


BENEFITS    FROM    MUSEUMS  269 

district  ought  to  be  represented  as  fully  as  practicable, 
so  that  the  townsfolk  may  have  the  opportunity  of 
becoming-  acquainted  with  their  own  town  and  neigh- 
bourhood from  the  point  of  view  of  history  and  science. 
/  A  town  museum  should  have  as  its  aims  amusement, 
culture,  scientific  study  and  research,  and  technical 
instruction.  If  you  join  any  knot  of  labouring  men, 
or  some  family  party  as  they  go  round  a  good 
museum  on  a  holiday,  you  will  be  surprised  to  find 
what  intense  enjoyment  they  have  in  looking  at 
well-known  natural  objects,  the  larger  animals,  the 
brilliant  plumage  of  birds  from  far-off  lands.  They  go 
for  amusement  and  they  get  it,  but  in  addition  they 
carry  away  a  certain  amount  of  information  which  is 
useful  in  itself  and  gives  pleasure  when  recalled.  A 
museum  is  the  easiest  means  of  self-instruction. 
It  is  one  of  the  surest  means  of  producing  en- 
lightenment and  of  raising  the  people  above  the 
depressing  influence  of  dull  and  common-place  sur- 
roundings, 

Ingenuas  didicisse  fideliter  artes 
Emollit  mores,  nee  sinit  esse  feros. 

^'  To  the  more  thoughtful  visitor  the  museum  is  an 
instrument  of  culture  and  education.  In  it  he  has 
presented  to  him  the  results  of  science  in  an 
easily  intelligible  form.  A  museum  has  inspired 
many  a  youthful  visitor  with  a  love  of  nature,  and  is 
the  means  by  which  the  amateur  naturalist  can  most 
readily  and  most  certainly  enlarge  his  knowledge 
and  test  the  correctness  of  his  own  observations. 
Schoolboys  and  young  men  are  always  to  be  seen 
comparing  their  specimens  with  those  in  the  museum 


270  TRADES    AND    INDUSTRIES 

cases,  identifying  species,  or  checking  their  own 
identifications.  To  the  man  of  science  a  crood 
museum  is  essential.  Its  collections  are  a  fair 
index  of  what  has  been  ascertained  on  any  particular 
subject,  and  give  him  a  definite  basis  from  which 
to  w^ork. 
^,  A  local  museum  may  be  made  conducive  to  the 
development  and  improvement  of  the  trade  and  indus- 
tries of  the  place.  Commercial,  economic,  and  tech- 
nical museums,  to  which  reference  has  already  been 
made,  have  been  of  the  greatest  benefit  to  the  towns 
in  which  they  exist.  Several  of  our  town  museums 
have  added  to  their  collections  a  special  section  to 
illustrate  the  industries  of  the  place.  This  is  as  it 
should  be,  but  the  system  might  be  greatly  extended. 
A  handicraftsman  may  be  no  great  reader,  and  may 
not  be  able  to  follow  detailed  accounts,  such  as  are 
given  in  technical  handbooks,  of  machinery,  designs,  or 
manufacturing  processes,  but  every  workman  under- 
stands and  is  interested  in  his  own  craft,  and  can 
appreciate  and  profit  by  actual  examples  illustrating 
the  development  and  improvement  of  some  pattern  or 
movement,  some  tool  or  process.  The  eye  of  the 
artificer  is  trained  and  his  taste  cultivated  by  the  study 
of  form  and  colour  as  displayed  in  the  productions  of 
the  most  skilful  workmen.  Chantry  often  mentioned 
the  inconvenience  he  had  experienced  in  his  early  days 
from  the  want  of  opportunity  of  training  his  eye  by  the 
inspection  of  the  best  models.  Familiarity  with  such 
models  insensibly  cultivates  the  taste  and  trains  the 
eye  of  the  artist.  It  is  said  that  the  Romans  only 
besfan  to  esteem  art  after  the  collection  of  statues  in  the 


SERVICES    RENDERED    BY    MUSEUMS  2/1 

city  had  increased  to  such  an  extent  as  to  make  them 
common.  Having  become  accustomed  to  look  upon 
beautiful  objects,  they  gradually  came  to  understand 
and  to  appreciate  them.  "  Where  a  people  have  free 
access  to  the  means  of  instruction  afforded  in  the 
memorials  of  their  past  success,  in  the  arts  of  civil- 
ization, and  can  glory  in  the  names  which  have  made 
their  country  renowned  by  genius, and  skill,  there  is 
hope  of  a  new^  birth  to  greatness  ;  \nd  however  free 
and  powerful,  where  our  people  ar6\  systematically 
excluded  from  the  sight  and  enjoyment\of  the  proofs 
of  our  present  refinement  and  progress  in  the  arts, 
and  never  by  the  remotest  chance  see  such  testi- 
monies of  the  national  growth  to  greatness — of  our 
progress  from  early  times  in  art  and  science,  or  learn 
to  be  proud  of  our  national  history  by  its  monu- 
ments— of  its  heroes  by  the  memorials  of  them  which 
art  can  alone  provide,  there  is  an  element  of  decay,"  ^ 
■-^  The  establishment  of  science  and  art  museums 
has  been  of  great  service  in  improving  the  artistic 
side  of  our  manufactures,  and  has  in  this  way  been 
of  substantial  advantage  to  the  manufacturing 
industries  of  the  country,  and  if  these  museums 
were  more  systematically  used  they  would  be  of  still 
greater  advantage.  Technical  schools  and  colleges 
are  springing  up  on  all  hands,  but  a  technical  museum 
is  a  necessary  adjunct ;  and  every  town  that  has  a 
technical  school  or  college  should  endeavour  to  supple- 
ment the  teaching  of  lecturers  by  the  town  museum, 

^  C.  H.  Wilson,  On  the  Formation  of  Provincial  MuseujHs  and  Collections 
of  Works  of  Art,  in  Transactions  of  the  Architectural  htstitute  of  Scotland, 
1854-55,  P-  56. 


272  MUSEUMS    AS    AIDS 

just  as  they  provide  technical  books  in  the  town 
library.  In  Glasgow  we  have  an  admirable  School  of 
Weaving,  Dyeing  and  Printing,  with  a  small  but 
appropriate  museum.  As  a  complement  to  technical 
instruction  in  the  construction  of  the  loom,  in  the 
arts  of  weaving,  calico  printing  and  dyeing  and  in 
designing,  a  series  of  carefully  selected  examples  of 
different  kinds  of  looms,  of  woven  and  printed  fabrics 
of  various  descriptions,  of  the  materials  used  and  the 
designs  employed,  such  a  museum  is  essential.  But 
in  a  manufacturinQ['  town  in  which  weavino-  and  calico 
printing  are  amongst  its  leading  industries,  the  public 
museums  should  make  special  provision  for  assisting 
these  industries.  To  a  certain  extent  it  is  now  done, 
but  the  scheme  could  with  advantage  be  much 
extended.  Glasgow  is  one  of  the  great  centres  of 
shipbuilding,  and  its  museums  ought  to  represent  much 
more  fully  than  they  do  models  of  the  hulls  of  vessels 
of  all  types  arranged  in  sequence  of  development, 
the  scheme  of  rigging  and  sails  of  sailing  vessels,  the 
machinery  of  steamboats,  and  the  various  apparatus 
required  on  shipboard. 

Writing  nearly  fifty  years  ago,  an  eminent  Glasgow 
citizen,  Mr.  Charles  Heath  Wilson,  pointed  out  how 
municipal  museums  might  be  utilised  in  connection 
with  local  architecture:  "To  take  one  item  of  a  munici- 
pal museum — architectural  designs — let  us  think  for  a 
moment  what  London  might  have  possessed,  had  the 
municipality  but  entertained  the  idea  which  I  now  pre- 
sent to  you,  had  the  plans,  elevations,  perspective  views, 
and  models  of  all  the  buildings,  which,  since  the  time 
of  Sir  Christopher  Wren,  have  been  successively  laid 


OF    MANUFACTURES    AND    COMMERCE  273 

before  that  great  corporation  been  preserved  in  one 
place.  Consider  for  one  moment  the  priceless  value, 
the  indescribable  interest  of  such  a  collection.  When 
in  London  with  my  colleagues  of  the  Council,  we 
visited  dusty  depositories  in  search  of  such  municipal 
treasures,  we  found  one  sketch  by  Wren,  the  sketches 
by  Thornhill  for  his  Chiaroscuri  in  the  Cupola  of 
St.  Paul's,  and  very  little  sketches  they  were,  and 
besides  these,  thickly  coated  with  dust,  some  half- 
dozen  models  of  city  improvements.  Our  municipali- 
ties pay  for  drawings  and  models,  it  is  only  necessary , 
to  frame,  glaze,  register,  and  preserve  them.  I  think 
that  I  need  hardly  speak  of  the  value  of  such  collec- 
tions, for  reference,  for  instruction,  and  for  a  variety  of 
purposes  which  must  present  themselves  to  your 
minds."  ^ 

/  The  arts  and  crafts  a.re  not  the  only  things  that 
can  be  advanced  by  a  museum.  It  can  do  much  for 
a  trading  community.  Articles  of  commerce,  the 
raw  materials,  the  processes  by  which  these  are 
obtained,  the  manufactured  goods,  the  style  in 
which  they  are  made  up,  the  boxes  and  bales  and 
wrappers  most  suitable  for  each  market  can  all  be 
shown  with  advantage  in  a  commercial  and  economic 
museum,  and  the  town  museum  of  a  commercial 
community  should  as  far  as  possible  serve  the  purpose 
of  such  a  museum.  We  are  being  constantly  reminded 
that  trade  is  lost  to  this  country  because  British 
manufacturers    and    merchants    will    not    provide   the 

*  On  the  Formation  of  Provincial  Museums  and  Collections  of  Works  of 
Art,  in  Transactions  of  the  Architectural  htstitute  of  Scotland,  1854-55, 
p.  59. 

S 


2  74  COUNTY    MUSEUMS 

class  of  goods  wanted  by  particular  countries  or  will 
not  make  them  up  as  foreign  buyers  desire.  This, 
to  a  certain  extent,  is  true,  and  insular  conservatism 
is  blamed,  but  it  is  not  the  only  reason  why  our 
manufacturers  do  not  meet  the  requirements  of  foreign 
customers.  Ignorance  has  more  to  do  with  the  matter. 
Whenever  the  British  manufacturer  knows  precisely 
what  is  wanted,  and  is  satisfied  that  it  will  pay  him 
to  make  the  necessary  alterations  on  his  machinery, 
designs  or  methods  he  will  make  it.  If  he  could 
examine  the  article  required,  ascertain  by  inspection 
how  it  is  to  be  used,  and  what  form,  size,  or  design 
is  more  suitable  for  one  market  than  another,  he 
would  have  reliable  data  on  which  to  act.  Without 
this  the  reason  for  the  change  proposed  may  not 
be  obvious. 

The  museum  of  a  county  town  ought  to  have  an 
agricultural  section.  Many  County  Councils  provide 
lectures  on  agricultural  subjects ;  but  there  is  much 
that  the  farmer  and  the  husbandman  can  learn  by  the 
eye  in  an  appropriate  museum,  and  it  is  far  easier  and 
pleasanter  to  learn  by  observation  than  by  the  ear. 
Information  so  obtained  is  more  firmly  grasped  and 
retained  than  if  got  from  a  book  or  a  lecture. 
Hence  the  necessity  and  the  importance  of  methodical 
arrangement,  of  concise  and  accurate  labelling  in 
every  museum. 

As  an  instrument  of  scientific  research  a  well- 
equipped  museum  is  nowadays  indispensable  A 
museum  is  once  again,  as  in  the  days  of  the  Ptolemies, 
a  place  for  study  ;  and  one  of  the  features  of  a  great 
museum  such  as  those  of  W^ashington,  and   Harvard, 


MUSEUMS    OF    RESEARCH  275 

of  the  Natural  History  Museums  of  London  or  of 
Paris,  is  the  provision  made  for  systematic  study 
and  for  following  out  special  lines  of  research.  A 
working  library,  a  laboratory,  and  a  workshop  are  the 
essential  adjuncts  of  the  modern  museum,  just  as  a 
lantern,  with  screen  and  slides,  and  an  electro-motor 
are  part  of  the  apparatus  of  every  scientific  lecture 
room.  Every  Professor  of  a  branch  of  science 
requires  a  museum  and  a  laboratory  for  his  depart- 
ment ;  and  accordingly  in  all  our  great  universities 
and  other  teaching  institutions  we  have  independent 
museums  of  botany,  palaeontology,  geology,  miner- 
alogy, and  zoology,  of  anatomy,  physiology,  pathology, 
and  materia  medica,  of  archaeology — prehistoric  and 
historic,  classical  and  Christian — each  subject  taught 
having  its  own  appropriate  collection.  The  provision 
and  maintenance  of  these  collections,  and  of  the 
apparatus  needed  for  turning  them  to  account,  add 
largely  to  the  cost  of  scientific  education  as  com- 
pared with  even  a  few  years  ago,  but  it  is  impossible 
to  teach  any  branch  of  science  or  to  carry  out  any 
scientific  investigation  without  such  appliances.  The 
subdivision  of  labour,  the  specialisation  on  small 
sections  of  a  great  subject  demand  special  collec- 
tions and  apparatus  to  meet  their  needs,  so  that  the 
cost  of  scientific  museums  and  their  accessories  is 
ever  expanding.  One  general  museum  used  to  be 
thought  enough  for  a  well-equipped  University. 
This  is  now  supplemented  by  a  score  of  depart- 
mental collections,  and  these  are  found  insufficient. 
Such  collections,  however,  are  for  teaching  and 
working  purposes   merely,  and   do   not  supersede  the 


276  ACCESSORIES 

general  collection,  which  requires  to  be  far  more 
extensive  and  representative  than  was  formerly  deemed 
necessary,  even  in  a  strictly  scientific  museum.  Each 
branch  of  science  is  dependent  upon  its  neighbour, 
and  each  shades  into  the  other.  It  is  impossible,  for 
instance,  to  study  living  forms  of  plants  or  animals  with- 
out reference  to  extinct  forms,  and  a  palaeontological 
collection  must  supplement  the  botanical  and  zoo- 
logical departments.  The  palaeontological  shades  into 
the  geological  and  the  geological  into  the  mineral- 
ogical  department,  and  so  on.  If  we  seek  to  illustrate 
human  progress,  we  enter  upon  a  vast  and  ever-widen- 
ing field.  Anthropologists  and  archaeologists  are 
slowly  reconstructing  in  visible  form  the  history  of  the 
past.  Each  part  is  being  fitted  into  its  place  like  the 
articulations  of  some  ancient  animal,  and  the  skeleton 
is  being  clothed  with  muscle  and  tissue  and  skin  as  it 
was  in  life.  It  is  in  the  museum  that  this  is  being 
done,  and  to  enable  it  to  be  accomplished  the  museum- 
authority  must  aim  at  full  and  extensive  collections, 
and  these  must  be  arranged  with  the  greatest  care  and 
fulness  of  knowledge. 

The  laboratory  and  the  work-room  make  consider- 
able demands  upon  the  resources  of  a  museum.  Large 
quantities  of  material  for  research  must  be  provided,  a 
thing  which  was  hardly  thought  of  until  recently.  The 
note  books  of  a  student  in  his  laboratory  work  are 
now  considered  a  better  test  of  his  training  and  pro- 
gress than  a  sheaf  of  certificates  of  attendance  upon 
lectures.  Observation,  reflection  and  resource  are 
developed  in  the  laboratory. 

Skilled   assistance   is  required  in  a  museum   to  an 


MUSEUM    BULLETINS  277 

extent  which,  a  generation  since,  was  unknown.  It 
is  impossible,  however,  without  such  assistance  to 
utilise  the  collections  for  the  purposes  of  research 
or  to  employ  them  as  means  of  instruction  and  for 
the  training^  of  observers  and  investio-ators.  The 
relation  between  collection  and  apparatus,  teachers 
and  workers  must  balance.  Material  is  useless 
without  apparatus  for  treating  it,  research  cannot 
be  pursued  without  workers,  teaching  without 
demonstrators  and  students.  The  salary  account 
has  consequently  increased  and  will  continue  to 
increase.  Printing  is  an  additional  item  of  expense 
which  a  good  museum  must  incur.  The  work  in  the 
museum  to  become  useful  must  be  communicated  to 
the  world  and  bulletins  containing  information  as  to 
the  results  of  research,  the  preparation  and  mounting 
of  specimens  and  the  accessions  to  the  collection 
should  be  issued.  Several  of  the  American  museums 
publish  such  bulletins  and  collect  them  into  volumes 
at  intervals.  The  Novitates  Zoologicae  of  the  Hon. 
Mr.  Rothschild's  museum  at  Trin^  are  well  known. 

A  oreneral  museum  cannot  be  turned  into  a  school  of 
research,  and  it  would  cease  to  be  a  means  of  general 
instruction  and  information  if  it  were.  But  by  means 
of  type  specimens  and  judicious  arrangement  it  can 
at  once  satisfy  the  wants  of  the  scientific  visitor,  of 
the  student,  and  of  the  ordinary  visitor.  From  lack 
of  space  very  few  museums  are  able  to  display  all 
their  specimens  in  such  a  subject  as  natural  history, 
and  even  if  they  could  it  would  not  be  wise  to  do  so, 
as  many  objects  are  injured  by  exposure  to  light 
and  also  by  dust  which  invades  the  best  constructed 


278  MUSEUM    EXHIBITS 

cases.  It  is  sufficient  for  ordinary  purposes  to  exhibit 
merely  the  typical  objects,  but  a  notice  placed  beside 
the  examples  shown  should  state  that  the  other 
members  of  the  series  can  be  seen  upon  application 
to  the  curator.  It  is  also  desirable,  in  some  instances, 
to  change  the  exhibits  from  time  to  time,  so  that 
all  the  more  important  should  be  shown  in  turn. 
Most  museums  have  duplicates.  These  should 
not  be  shown,  as  this  only  leads  to  confusion : 
duplicates  are,  however,  always  useful  for  special 
examination  or  experiment,  or  for  exchange. 

A  picture  gallery  and  a  library  are  regarded  as 
essential  in  every  well-regulated  town.  Why  should 
a  museum  not  be  considered  equally  necessary  ?  A 
museum  is  a  library  of  illustrations,  bibliotheca  sine 
libris,  as  it  has  been  termed  by  Schelhammer,  and 
it  is  just  as  important  to  provide  objects  for  study 
as  to  provide  books  which  tell  about  them.  A  library 
of  classical  archaeology  is  of  little  use  without  a 
museum  of  ancient  sculpture  or  of  casts  to  illustrate 
it.  No  one  can  become  a  palaeontologist  or  a  miner- 
aloQ:ist  without  a  cabinet  of  fossils  or  of  minerals. 
History,  as  now  pursued,  is  founded  upon  the  study 
not  only  of  original  documents,  but  of  all  the  objects 
of  public  and  private  life  that  are  accessible.  The 
novelist  is  not  satisfied  unless  he  portrays  the  times 
he  describes  with  the  accuracy  of  an  archaeologist, 
and  the  stage  depicts  the  scene  it  presents  as 
faithfully  as  possible.  The  material  for  such  study 
and  equipment  are  to  be  found  principally  in  museums. 
The  descriptions  in  books,  and  even  the  delineations 
of  artists,   can   be    made   thoroughly   intelligible    only 


MUSEUM    STUDIES  279 

by  an  examination  of  the  object  described  or  repre- 
sented. To  study  archaeology  without  a  museum  is 
like  studying  art  without  a  gallery,  or  anatomy  with- 
out a  subject.  Many  of  the  best  modern  works  on 
archaeology,  such  as  those  of  Sir  John  Evans,  Joseph 
Anderson,  and  Dr.  Robert  Munro,  of  Bertrand  and 
Reinach,  Montelius,  and  Sophus  Miiller,  Linden- 
schmidt  and  Von  Sacken,  are  practically  museum 
studies,  systematic  expositions  of  museum  exhibits. 

An  objection  often  urged  against  rate-supported 
libraries  is  the  excessive  quantity  of  poor  fiction  that  is 
provided  and  read.  But  go  beyond  this  and  note  the 
books  in  the  hands  of  the  readers  in  the  Reading  Room 
of  any  free,  rate-supported  library,  and  which  figure  in 
the  official  returns  as  "history,"  "biography,"  "travels," 
"science,"  or  under  some  other  imposing  title,  and  it 
will  be  seen  that  they  are  mostly  books  of  ephemeral 
interest,  of  no  real  value,  and  not  possessing  the  merit 
which  many  works  of  fiction  have,  of  being  literature. 
The  proportion  of  standard  works  either  of  literature 
or  science  that  is  consulted  is  very  small,  and  of 
those  that  are  read  still  smaller.  The  readers  who 
call  for  such  books  are  mostly  university  or  technical 
college  students,  who  sometimes  find  the  public  refer- 
ence library  a  convenient  place  for  working  up  a 
subject.  Comparatively  few  general  readers,  and  it 
is  they  who  chiefly  use  such  libraries,  consult  any- 
thing but  the  class  of  books  that  are  supplied  by  the 
ordinary  circulating  library. 

In   the   museum   there  are   no    "penny    dreadfuls,' 
no  "pot-boilers."    The  exhibits  placed  on  view  are  the 
best  that  can  be  obtained  and  are  the  same  to  every 


28o  MATERIAL    FOR    MUSEUMS 

visitor.     The  casual   observer    looks  upon    the    same 
objects  as  the  man  of  science.      The  one  may  derive 
more   instruction  from   his   inspection  than   the  other 
does,    but    this    is   the    result    of   training.     The    one 
has    learned    to    use    his    eyes,    the    other    has    not. 
The    museum,    however,    does    not,    like   the    library, 
require   to  provide   material  for   the   idler  as  well   as 
for  the  man  of  science.      Its  collections  are  all  of  the 
highest  class  and  of  permanent  value.     The  specimens 
do  not  grow  out  of  date,  nor  are  they  superseded  by 
newer  ones.      On  the  contrary,  each  addition  generally 
enhances   the   value   of  those   on   hand.      It    helps   to 
complete  a  group ;   it   illustrates   some  feature  in  the 
former  exhibits,    and    will  probably  be   itself  in   turn 
illustrated  by  some  later  addition.     Another  advantage 
a  museum  has,  as  compared  with  a  library,  is  that  the 
objects  are  not  depreciated  in  value  by  being  passed 
through  the  hands  of  casual  visitors  or  made  vehicles 
of  disease,  as  often  happens  with  books.      It  is  sad  to 
see  in  the  rate-supported   libraries  a  so-called  reader 
with   foul   clothes   and    filthy   hands   vacantly   turning 
over    the    plates    of    some    handsome    volume,    and 
another  burying  his   face   in   the   outspread   pages   of 
a  stately  folio,  and  going  to  sleep. 

In  no  way  can  time  or  money  be  more  profitably 
employed  than  in  providing  and  maintaining  museums. 
Much  requires  to  be  done,  and  the  work  should  be 
pressed  on  without  delay.  Exhibits  of  many  kinds 
are  becoming  scarcer  and  more  difficult  to  obtain. 
This  applies  even  in  the  case  of  some  Natural 
History  specimens,  and  it  is  especially  so  as  regards  j 
ethnographical  objects.      Material  is  rapidly  disappear- 


EXPENDITURE  281 

ing.  It  would  be  more  difficult  to  furnish  an  historical 
museum  now  than  it  would  have  been  fifty  years 
ago,  but  it  would  be  easier  to  do  so  now  than  it 
will  be  even  a  generation  hence.  Objects  of  archaeo- 
logical value  are  constantly  being  found,  but  as  a  rule 
they  are  more  suitable  for  supplementing  the  collec- 
tions of  existing  museums  than  of  setting  out  new 
ones.  Every  year  increases  the  difficulty,  for  there 
are  certain  classes  of  objects  which  turn  up  only 
occasionally,  and  when  they  do  they  generally  pass 
into  some  existing  collection.  On  the  other  hand 
there  is  a  considerable  amount  of  material  that  is 
lost  because  there  is  no  museum  to  receive  it.  This 
would  not  be  so  if  there  was  a  local  museum.  (Objects 
which  would  be  of  comparatively  small  interest  in  a 
general  museum  acquire  a  value,  when  preserved  in 
the  place  where  they  are  found. ^  This  is  the  function 
of  local  museums.  A  museum  is  wanted  in  every 
county  to  bring  together  the  objects  of  interest 
found  in  the  district,  particularly  such  as  illustrate 
its  antiquities  and  history,  its  people  and  their 
surroundings,  their  industries  and  trade. 

A  large  expenditure  is  requisite  for  maintaining 
the  older  and  well-established  museums.  A  general 
museum  must  endeavour  to  keep  all  its  sections  abreast 
of  the  times,  and  this  requires  constant  watchfulness, 
sound  learning,  great  labour,  and  considerable  expendi- 
ture of  money.    The  weakest  part  of  a  museum  is  gener- 

^  A  notable  example  of  what  can  be  done  in  this  way  is  the  collection 
made  by  James  Smith,  "the  Whitechapel  antiquary,"  a  working  man 
in  London,  whose  collections  have  found  a  place  in  the  Guildhall 
Museum,  and  add  materially  to  its  interest  and  value.  As  to  James 
Smith  see  the  Bibliography^  Vol.  III.,  s.v.  Smith  (James). 


252  EXPENDITURE 

ally  the  financial,  but  as  a  rule  it  is  the  part  which  can 
most  easily  be  strengthened. 

Money  is  grudged  for  museum  purposes  by  the 
Imperial  Exchequer  as  well  as  by  the  finance  com- 
mittees of  towns  and  counties.  This  arises,  to  a 
large  extent,  from  ignorance.  Funds  are  voted  readily 
for  the  purchase  of  pictures,  but  very  sparingly  for 
museum  exhibits.  Town  councillors  and  county 
councillors  are  slow  to  appreciate  the  value  of 
museums  and  the  necessity  of  keeping  them  up-to- 
date.  There  is  a  general  impression  amongst  those 
who  have  the  control  of  public  money  that  any  col- 
lection will  answer  the  purposes  of  a  museum,  that 
once  a  museum  is  established  it  requires  little  or  no 
attention,  and  that  any  person  can  take  charge  of  it. 
The  truth  is,  that  considerable  and  increasing  ex- 
penditure is  essential.  Large,  well-designed,  well- 
equipped,  well-heated,  and  well-lighted  buildings  are 
required.  A  sufficient  and  competent  staff  is  neces- 
sary, and  must  be  liberally  remunerated.  A  museum 
curator  ought  to  be  a  man  of  culture  and  resource ; 
his  assistants  must  have  a  thorough  knowledge  of 
several  branches  of  science,  and  must  possess  much 
manual  dexterity.  Specimens  niust  be  got  and  paid 
for,  and  in  many  cases  carefully  prepared  for  exhibi- 
tion. A  museum  cannot  depend  for  its  supply  upon 
the  generosity  of  friends  or  the  resources  of  the 
dealer.  Collection  in  the  field  is  often  necessary  and 
a  scientific  expedition  of  the  most  modest  character 
is  apt  to  be  costly.  Provision  must  be  made  for  the 
staff  and  for  a  certain  number  of  students  carrying 
on  research  work,  and    for  the  provision  of  scientific 


MANAGEMENT    OF    MUSEUMS  263 

apparatus.  For  these,  and  many  other  purposes, 
liberal  orants  are  required.  The  money  can  in  most 
cases  be  provided  if  the  authorities  see  fit  to  vote  it ; 

[^   the    material    to   be    collected,   the    men    to  carry  on 

ythe  work  are  more  difficult  to  find. 

Some  museums  are  under  the  management  of  univer- 
sities and  scientific  institutions.  Others  are  controlled 
by  town  councils  and  other  local  bodies.  It  is  essential 
to  transfer  the  management  of  the  latter  to  specially 
selected  commissions,  composed  of  persons  possessed 
of  knowledo^e  of  the  needs  and  aims  of  a  modern 
museum.  It  is  sheer  waste  of  public  money  to  entrust 
to  town  councils  the  administration  of  the  funds  raised 
by  assessment  for  libraries  and  museums.  Institutions 
in  the  hands  of  such  bodies  are  no  doubt  managed, 
after  a  fashion,  but  they  are  managed  not  by  the 
councillors  but  by  the  officials  they  appoint,  and  just 
to  the  extent  that  these  gentlemen  possess  the  art  of 
handlingf  and  humourinor  a  committee.  A  museum  is 
the  best  exponent  of  science.  It  tells  more  than  the 
best  text-book.  It  can  give  lessons  which  the  pro- 
fessor cannot  teach.  No  one  would  venture  to  entrust 
the  preparation  of  a  treatise  on  archaeology  or 
zoology  to  a  town  council,  but  it  is  not  seen  to  be 
quite  as  ridiculous  to  entrust  the  same  body  with  the 
organization  of  a  museum  of  archaeology  or  zoology. 
Complete  devolution  is  in  this  case  absolutely  essential 
for  the  well-beingr  of  museums  and  for  enablinor  them 
to  afford  the  aid  that  is  required  for  the  advancement 
of  trade,  of  the  arts,  of  science,  and  of  culture. 

Prior  to  1858  the  University  of  Edinburgh  was  con- 
trolled and  managed  by  the  Town  Council  of  Edin- 


284  SHORTCOMINGS    OF    MANAGEMENT 

burgh,  but  the  arrangement  was  inconvenient  and 
inadequate,  and  adverse  to  the  best  interests  of  the 
institution,  and  was  aboHshed  in  that  year,  and  the 
administration  committed  to  a  body  acquainted  with 
university  work,  a  change  which  has  been  of  the 
greatest  advantage  to  the  university.  The  manage- 
ment of  a  university  by  a  municipal  corporation  is  no 
more  anomalous  than  the  administration  of  a  museum 
by  a  similar  body,  and  it  is  as  much  in  the  interests  of 
museums,  as  it  was  of  the  University  of  Edinburgh, 
that  municipal  control  should  cease. 
y^  The  formation  and  administration  of  museums,  their 
adaptation  to  changing  circumstances  and  to  the  re- 
quirements of  the  time  are  of  supreme  importance  for 
the  well-being  of  the  State,  for  the  instruction  and 
advancement  of  the  people,  and  should  be  entrusted, 
in  every  case,  to  a  governing  body  of  a  stable  and 
non-fluctuating  character,  independent  of  party  and 
of  the  ballot-box,  and  composed  of  persons  of  scien- 
tific training,  who  understand  and  sympathize  with 
the  ends  which  the  museum  is  intended  to  serve,  and 
who  are  able  to  assist  the  administration  by  their  skill 
and  experience. 

The  principal  museums  of  other  countries  issue 
bulletins,  memoirs,  and  other  periodical  and  occasional 
publications  founded  upon  and  explanatory  of  the 
museum  collections,  and  the  results  of  the  work  in 
their  laboratories.  To  some  extent  this  is  carried  out 
in  Eng-land,  but  it  is  on  a  much  more  limited  scale  than 
is  done  abroad.  Many  of  our  museums  do  nothing  but 
exhibit  specimens;  they  make  no  provision  for  research, 
and  give  no  encouragement  to  systematic  study.      Our 


MUSEUMS    OF    THE    FUTURE  285 

municipalities  receive  large  sums  of  money  from  the 
State  for  educational  purposes,  but  no  municipality,  so 
far  as  I  am  aware,  has  devoted  any  part  of  its  funds 
for  utilizing  its  museums  and  publishing  the  results  of 
research. 

The  country  is  slowly  awakening  to  the  necessity 
there  is  for  an  adequate  and  regulated  training  in 
every  field  of  culture  and  every  department  of  industry. 
One  of  the  most  potent  engines  by  which  this  is  to  be 
secured  is  the  museum.  Some  of  our  museums  are 
amongst  the  finest  in  the  world  ;  many  are  lending 
valuable  assistance  to  the  advancement  and  apprecia- 
tion of  art  and  science.  A  large  number,  however,  are 
still  content  to  be  mere  holiday  resorts.  All,  even  the 
best,  must  advance,  and  for  this  end  enlightened  and 
sympathetic  administration  and  a  liberal  income  are 
required.  The  museum  of  1897  is  far  in  advance 
of  the  museum  of  1847  !  but  it  in  turn  will  be  old- 
fashioned  by  the  end  of  twenty  years  and  when  the 
coming  century  is  half-way  through  its  methods  and 
arrangements  will  probably  be  wholly  superseded  by 
something  better.  We  are  ever  moving  onwards,  but 
we  do  not  reach  the  goal. 

And  men  through  novel  spheres  of  thought, 
Still  moving  after  truth  long  sought, 
Will  learn  new  things,  when  I  am  not. 

Thou  hast  not  gained  a  real  height, 
Nor  art  thou  nearer  to  the  light, 
Because  the  scale  is  infinite. 


APPENDIX. 

THE  LEYDEN   CATALOGUE  OF  1591. 
Supra  p.   29. 

There  can  be  no  doubt  that  the  date,  1591,  on  one 
edition  of  the  Leyden  Catalogue,  is  a  mistake  for  1691. 
The  University  was  only  founded  in  1575  after  the 
great  siege,  and  there  is  no  evidence  that  a  museum 
of  any  kind  existed  in  1591.  The  first  collections 
seem  to  have  been  made  by  Peter  Pauw  or  Pavius, 
who    became    professor    of    botany    and     anatomy    in 

1589-^ 

The  title-page  of  the  edition  of  1683  is  practically 

identical  with  that  of  1591  :  "In  Leiden  a.  cid  ioc 
Lxxxiii."  The  1 59 1  edition  is  dated  in  the  same  way 
except  having  Leyden  for  Leiden  and  apparently  c  has 
dropped  out  after  id.  The  edition  of  1683  was  printed 
by  Jacobus  Voorn,  that  of  1591  by  J.  Voorn,  pre- 
sumably the  same  person,  as  the  Address  to  the 
Reader  is  in  both  cases  by  Jacobus  Voorn.  If  so  he 
could  not  print  both  in  1591  and  1683. 

There  are  two  copies  of  the  1683  edition  in  the 
British  Museum,  entered  in  the  catalogue  under  Voorn 
(Jacobus) ;  the  one  is  marked  b.  482  (3)  and  belonged 
to    Sir    Joseph    Banks;     the    other    1044,    c.    34    (i). 

'Adam,  Vitae  Medicoruvi  Cerinajiorutn,  p.  434,  Heidelb.  1620,  8vo 

287 


288  THE    LEYDEN    CATALOGUE 

The  Catalogue  of  1591  is  identical  with  that  of  1683, 
except  that  it  contains  some  additional  articles.  In 
the  second  British  Museum  copy,  1044,  c.  34  (i)  there 
is  a  contemporary  slip  inserted  as  follows  "  After  that 
these  books  were  printed,  these  following  rarities  were 
brought  into  the  Anatomy  Chamber."  They  are  six  in 
number  and  all  appear  in  the  1591  edition.  One  of 
them  ''Two  blue  coat  soldiers  in  their  skins"  is 
entered  as  No.  32  at  the  foot  of  page  2  and  is  preceded 
and  followed  by  two  other  specimens  numbered  respec- 
tively 31  and  T,T,.  Page  2  of  the  1683  edition  ends 
with  No.  30.  Page  3  of  both  editions  begins  with 
No.  31,  and  the  numbers  run  on  consecutively,  clearly 
showing  that  Nos.  31,  32  and  7^2)  of  the  1591  edition 
were  an  insertion.  The  second  object  mentioned 
in  the  slip  is  "a  Saw-fish."  This  is  entered  in  the 
1 591  edition  as  No.  104'',  there  being  already  a 
No.  104  as  in  the  1683  edition.  It  is  needless  to 
deal  with  the  other  numbers. 

The  last  page  of  the  1683  catalogue  ends  with 
No.  53.  There  are  six  additional  articles  in  that  of 
1 59 1.  One  of  them  is  "a  curious  sceleton  set  up  by 
Professor  Nuck."  The  oreat  anatomist,  Professor 
Anton  Nuck  of  Leyden,  was  born  about  1660  and 
died  prematurely  in  1692.  He  could  have  made 
a  preparation  in  1691  but  not  in  1591.  Many  of 
the  objects  in  both  catalogues  are  gifts  from  "  Dr.  de 
Bils."  There  can  be  no  doubt  that  this  is  Lodewijk 
or  Louis  de  Bils,  the  anatomist  who  died  about  1672. 
There  are  also  various  gifts  by  "  Pr.  Carpenter, 
Governor  in  the  East  Indies."  Pieter  de  Carpenter, 
from   whom  the   Gulf  of  Carpentaria  takes  its  name. 


OF    I59I  289 

was  born  in  161 6  and  died  in  1659,  which  proves,  if 
more  were  required,  that  the  apparent  date  1591  is 
wrong. 

There  is  an  edition  in  Latin,  also  printed  by 
Jacobus  Voorn  at  Leyden  in  1690  (Br.  Mus.  b. 
482  (3) )  which  inspection  shows  was  subsequent  to 
the  edition  of  1683  but  corresponds  with  that  of 
1 59 1.  The  Latin  equivalent  of  "two  blue-coat 
soldiers  in  their  skins,"  is  "  Sceletus  duorum  militum 
qui  sua  signa  deseruerant." 


LIST   OF 
MUSEUMS   IN  THE  UNITED   KINGDOM. 

This  is  a  reprint  of  a  list,  prepared  by  a  Committee 
of  the  British  Association/  which  the  Association  has 
been  good  enough  to  allow  me  to  use.  As  that  list 
was  limited  to  Provincial  Museums,  I  have  prefixed 
a  list  of  London  Museums.  I  have  omitted  the 
columns  containing  the  name  and  address  of  the 
curator,  principal  officer  or  owner ;  the  number  of 
visitors  weekly ;  the  duplicates  for  exchange  ;  and 
terms  of  admission,  as  also  a  considerable  portion  of 
the  "Remarks"  column.  In  some  cases  other 
remarks  have  been  substituted. 

In  the  British  Association  list  "the  collections  are 
named  in  the  order  of  their  numerical  importance  in 
each  Museum  ;  that  is  according  to  the  numbers  of 
specimens  in  each  department."  Where  two  dates 
are  given,  the  second  refers  to  removal  to  the 
premises  occupied  in   1887. 

M.  stands  for  Museum. 

The  figures  1,  2,  3,  4  in  the  "  Class"  column  denote 
the  four  classes,  in  which  the  Committee  arranged 
the  museums  in  their  schedule,  founded  upon  the 
superficial  area  of  the  rooms,  the  size  and  character 
of  the  collections,  the  annual  cost,  the  staff,  and  the 
number  of  visitors. 

'  Report  ...  of  the  British  Association  .  .  .  Manchester  .  .  .  1887, 
p.  97.     London,  1888,  8vo.     lb.  Bath,  1888,  p.  124.     London,  1889,  8 vo. 

291 


292      LIST    OF    MUSEUMS    IN    THE    UNITED    KINGDOM 


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Carlylc  M., 
Donaldson  M., 

(Juildhall  M., 
(niy's  Hospital  M., 
Horniman  M., 
Kew  Gardens  M., 
King's  College;  M., 

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LIST    OF    MUSEUMS    IN    THE    UNITED    KINGDOM         293 


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INDEX. 


Abbeville,  Cayman  in  the  church  at,  ii. 

Abbolsford,  308. 

Abela  (J.  F.)  and  his  museum,  47,  194. 

Aberdeen, 

Museums,  163,  164,  30S. 

King's  College,  164. 

Marischal  College,  163,  164. 
Aberystwilh,  312. 

Academia    Naturae    Curiosorum,    102, 
117. 

their  museum,  117. 

their  hall,  118. 
Academic  des  Sciences,  102. 
Accademia  del  Cimento,  102. 
Accession  Register,  265. 
Achilles,  Spear  of,  5. 
Adams's  Museum,  172. 
Addison  (Joseph),  3,  36,  88,  148,  171, 

178,  187,  201. 
Adelphi  lottery.  The,  173. 
Administration  of  Museums,  252,  254, 

255,  274,  283,  284. 
Adolf  Friedrich,  King  of  Sweden,  224. 
Advocates,  Faculty  of,  159,  167. 
Aesculapius,  Temple  of,  5. 
Aes  grave,  106. 
Africa,  collections  from,  245,  252. 

Roman  remains  in,  146. 

City  turned  into  stone,  194. 
Agate  cup  at  St.  Denis,  198. 
Agricola  (Georg),  24,  62,  65,  73,  212. 
Agricultural  Museums,  231,  265,  274. 
Agrippa  von  Nettesheym  (H.  C.)>  24. 
Ainsworth  (Robert),  121,  126. 
Aix,  92. 

Albertini  (Francesco),  if. 
Albertus  Magnus,  61. 
Alcyonium,  the  Halcyon  stone,  213. 
Aldborough,  293. 


Aldrovandi  (Ulisse),  46,  52,  62,  65,  66, 
73.  74,  83,  85,  105,  121,  202,  213, 
217,  228,  236. 

his  museum,  78,  202,  206,  217,  236. 
Alexander  the  Great, 

zoological  collections,  3. 

representation  of,  201. 
Alexander  VII.,  Pope,  187. 
Alexandria,  Capitulation  of,  144. 
Alexandrine  museum,  \. 
Alkmaar,  99. 
Allan  (George),  185. 
Allatius  (Leo),  loi. 
Alloa,  308. 
Alnwick,  293. 
Alpfschos,  63. 
Alpirsbach,  Church  of,  9. 
Alston  (Charles),  44,  54,  60,  73,  95,  166. 
Altar,  Portable,  115. 
Altdorf,  117,  219. 
Alton,  293. 

Amantius  (Bartholomew),  17. 
Amber,  217,  219. 
Ambrosini  (Bartholomeo),  79. 
America,  Discovery  of,  20. 
Ammonite,  63. 

its  formation,  110. 
Amras,  Schloss,  63,  86,  149,  191. 
Amsterdam,  37,  iii,  115,  116,  120. 
Amulets,  114,  115,  195,  229,  241. 
Anatomical  collections,  24,  29,  33,  78, 
118,  14s,  257,  275. 

arrangement,  208. 

models,  113. 
Anchorites,  238. 
Anderson  (Prof.  John),  161. 
Anderson  (Dr.  Joseph),  279. 
Andersonian  Institution,  Glasgow,  161, 

163. 
iVndover,  294. 
Andromeda,  Relics  of,  5. 


313 


314 


INDEX 


Angeloni,  Signer,  36. 

Angilbert,  Abbot,  3. 

Animals  grow,  live,  and  feel,  64. 

Anthropological  collections,  215,  235. 

Antiquaries  of  London,  Society  of,  202. 

of  Scotland,  Society  of,  163. 
Antiquities,  Study  of,  18,  235. 
Antwerp,  188. 
Apianus  (Peter),  17. 
Apothecary  booth,  210. 

as  an  exhibit  in  old  museums,  40. 
Apparatus  for  use  in  museums,  277. 
Apparatus    on    exhibition.        See    In- 
struments. 
Apple,  Stone,  63. 
Arbor  conchifera,  74,  94. 
Arbuthnot  (Dr.  John),  71. 
Archteological    collections,    15,    81-91, 
99,   loS,   120,   123,   125,  134,  135, 
230,  235,  245,  250. 

museums,  231,  265,  275. 
Archceolog}', 

the  science  of  sepulchres,  232. 

study  of,  18,  230,  232,  233,  235. 

modern  writers  on,  279. 

Christian,  232,  252,  258,  275. 

Classical,  232,  257,  275,  278. 
Architectural  Museums,  273,  278. 
Aristotle,  Natural  History,  4,  19. 
Arma  heroum,  6. 
Armagh,  31 1. 

Armbrust,  Die  chinesische,  87. 
Arms  and  armour,  collections  of,  150, 

152,  174,  175,  179. 
Arnauld  (Antoine),  191. 
Arrangement  of  Exhibits,  236,  262,  263, 

266,  274. 
Arrow-heads,  Stone,  63,  68,  80,  237. 

not  recognised  as  artificial,  236,  237, 

239-. 
ascertained  to  be  manufactured,  82, 240. 
Art  museums,  232,  267,  271. 
Artificial  curiosities,  87,  iii,  211,  214, 
215,  216,  217,  219,  220,  221. 
now  known  as  Industrial  Art,  221. 
Arundel,  Thomas,  Earl  of,  15. 
Arundel  MSS.,  15. 
Marbles,  15,  91. 
Collections,  184. 
Ashmole  (Elias),  108,  109,  153,  240. 
Ashmolean  Museum,  36,  50,  108,  154, 
i59j  183,  1S8,  203,  204,  205,  228, 
230,  240,  241,  303. 
arranged  on  basis  of  Paley's  Natural 

Theology,  229. 
Archaeological    and     Ethnographical 
collections,  230. 


Assistants,  Museum,  277. 

Assos,  Stone  of,  213. 

Astroites,  no. 

Astrology,  192. 

Athena,  Sanctuary  of,  5. 

Athenian  Society,  The,  134. 

Augustine,  St.,  192. 

Augustus,  The  Emperor,  a  collector,  5, 

^45- 

his  villa,  5. 
Augustus  I.,  Elector  of  Saxony,  25,  29, 

199. 
Augustus    II.,    Elector    and    King   of 

Poland,  37,  117,  146. 
Australia,  Collections  from,  246,  252. 
Australian  Museum,  243. 
Avicenna's  fortune,  114. 
Axes,  stone,  64,  71,  80,  no. 

bronze,  71. 

hafting,  no. 

prehistoric,  recognised  to  be  artificial, 
241,  241. 
Aylesbury,  294. 

B. 

Bacon,  Lord,  on  the  advance  of  science, 

19. 
referred  to,  37,  44,  52,  61,  102,  198, 

268. 
Badger  (G.  Percy),  44. 
Bagford  (John),  138. 
Bahnson  (Khristian),  242. 
Baier  (J.  J.),  n7,  219. 
Bakewell,  294. 
Balfour  (Sir  Andrew),  53,  56,  76,  1 5 1, 

152,  155,  156,  217. 
Balfour  (Sir  James),  151. 
Balfour  (Michael),  152. 
Banff,  308. 
Bangor,  312. 

Banks  (Sir  Joseph),  24,  142,  143. 
Barbo  (Pietro).     See  Paul  II. 
Barby,  248. 

Bargrave  (John),  18,  31,  149,  187. 
Barnacle  Goose,  The,  32,  73,  76,  94. 
Barnacle  shell,  76. 
Barnard  Castle,  294. 
Bartholin  (Thomas),  9,  11,  21,  47,  192. 
Basilisk,  how  made,  203,  204. 
Basle,  87,  97,  206,  248,  266. 
Bastian  (Adolf),  255. 
Bateman  (Richard),  184. 
Bath,  294. 

Batons  de  commandement,  239. 
Bauhin  (Johann),  97. 
Bausch  (J.  L.),  102. 


INDEX 


315 


Bavaria,  Maximilian  of,  loi. 
Bayer  (Matthaeus),  170. 
Bayle  (Pierre),  18. 
Becanus  {].),  48. 
Beckher  (Daniel),  55. 
Beckmann  (Johann),  22. 
Beger  (L.),  34,  99,  100. 
Belemnites,  63,  73. 

artificial,  80. 
Belfast,  311. 
Belon  (Pierre),  26,  52. 
Bembo  (T.),  38. 
Berlin,   78,    100,    146,    150,   242,   255, 

256,  258. 
Berne,  266. 
Bernon  (Leonard),  95. 
Bertrand  (Alexandre),  279. 
Ber\vick-on-T\veed,  294. 
Besler  (Basil),  98. 
Eesler  (Michael  Rujierl),  99. 
Bethnal  Green  Museum,  244,  292. 
Beutel  (Tobias),  207,  208. 
Bidelli  Museum,  201. 
Bidloo  (Lambert),  117. 
Bils  (L.  de),  190,  288. 
Birmingham,  294,  295. 
Blackburn,  295. 
Blair  (Patrick),  50. 
Blancken  (Gerard),  30. 
Blohm  (Georg),  251. 
Blois,  Botanic  Garden  and  Museum,  93. 
Bobart  (Jacob),  botanist,  204. 
Boccaccio  (Giovanni),  11,  46. 
Boccone  (Paolo),  81. 
Bodleian  Library,  15,  230. 
Boece  or  Boethius  (Hector),  74. 
Boerhaave  (H.))  122,  146. 
Boetius.     See  Boodt. 
Bog  butter,  217. 

Boleyn's  (Ann)  straw  bonnet,  203. 
Boll,'  baths  of,  97. 
Bologna,  museums,  78-81,  89,  206. 

Cana  water-pot  at,  199. 
Bolt-head,  the,  63,  73,  238. 
Bolton,  295. 

Bomare  (Valmont  de),  228. 
Bonn,  Martha's  Hof,  9,  65. 
Bononian  Stone,  81. 
Boodt  (A.  de),  26,  41,  42,  44,  62,  66, 

68,  70,  73,  166,  213,  237. 
Bootle,  295. 

Borel  (Pierre),  20,  21,  94. 
Borgiano  Museo,  242,  247. 
Borilly  of  Aix,  collector,  92. 
Borric'k  (Olaf),  203. 
Borromeo  (Federigo),  Cardinal,  14. 
Botanical  Museums,  257,  275. 


Boulter  (Daniel),  184. 

Bow,  cross,  repeating,  86,  87. 

Boyis  or  Boece  (Hector),  74. 

Boyle  (Hon.   Robert),  52,  56,  61,  81, 

106,  131,  171,  195. 
Bracci  (Ignazio),  128. 
Brackenhoffer  (Elias),  214. 
Brackenhoffer  (Joachim),  214. 
Bradford,  295. 
Brains,  Human,  as  an  anti-epileptic,  55. 

petrified,  no. 
Brandenburg,  100. 
Brander  (Gustavus),  141. 
Brazen  Serpent,  The,  of  Moses,  3. 
Brazil,  collections  from,  252. 
Bread,  Stone,  202. 
Bremen,  249,  250. 

Breslau,  Giants'  Bones  in  Church,  II. 
Brighton,  295. 
Bristol,  295. 

British  Antiquities  only  recently  made  a 
separate  department  in  Museums, 

234- 
British  Association,  291. 
British  Museum,  15,  18,  127,  132,  136, 
139-144,  202,  211,  212,  234,  241, 
247,  250,  264,  267,  274,  292. 

established,  140. 

catalogues,  143,  264. 

departments,  143,  144. 

Ethnographical  collections,  241. 

Natural   History  department,  Crom- 
well Road,  144,  264,  275. 
Bromel  (Olaf),  35. 
Brontia,  67. 

its  nature,  67,  85,  no,  213,  214. 

how  formed,  no. 
Bronze  Age,  5,  233, 
Bronze  weapons,  5,  80,  239. 

why  bronze  preceded  iron,  239. 
Brown  (Alexander),  163. 
Brown  (Ed.),  Traveller,  22,  32,  37,  38, 

III,  116,  129.  181,  190,  207. 
Brown  (T.  E.),  210. 
Brown  (Sir  Thomas),  82,  181. 
Briickmann  (F.  E.),  9,  II,  35,  43,  49. 
53,  112,   115,  128,  136,   149,   159, 
199,  202,  219,  220,  237. 

his  museum,  1 12,  149. 
Brunswick,  Cathedral  of,  9. 
Brussels,  78. 
Bucemi  (Giuseppe),  81. 
Buchan,  Earl  of,  156,  167. 
Buchanan's  ((jeorge)  skull,  154. 
Bucardia,  63. 
Buda  Pesth,  150. 
Buddie  (Rev.  Adam),  137. 


i6 


INDEX 


Buffon,  80. 

Bufonites,  63. 

Buildings,  Museum,  225,  226,  250,  251, 

282. 
Bulletins,  Museum,  277. 
Bullock  (William),  158,  174,  178. 
Buonanni  (Filippo),  106. 
Buiney  (Frances),  173. 
Burslem,  295. 
Burton-on-Trent,  295. 
Buiy-St. -Edmunds,  296. 
Butler's  Hudibras,  41,  48,  74. 
Button  stone,  63. 

mould,  no,  19S. 
Bytemeister  (H.  J.),  148. 


Cabinet  =  collection,  5,  6,  36. 
Cabinets  of  coins,  growth  of,  14. 

of  gems,  15. 
Cabinet  d'ignorance,  208. 
Caerleon,  296. 
Caesar  (Julius),  4. 
Calceolari  (Francesco),  83,  236. 
Calceolaria,  83. 
Calculi,  214,  222,  226. 
Caledonian  Museum,  204. 
Cambridge,  118,  120,  296. 
Cameos.     See  Gamahes. 
Camerarius  (Elias),  72. 
Camerariu;  (Joachim),  25. 
Camps  (F.  de),  38. 
Cana,  water  pot  from,  199. 
Cange  (Charles,  du  Fresne,  Sieur  du),  6. 
Canterbur)-,  Collections  at,  18,  248,  296. 
Capella  =  a  cabinet,  6. 
Cardan  (Jerome),  25,  42,  52,  121. 
Cardiff,  312. 
Cargill  (James),  26. 
Carlisle,  296. 

Carlisle,  Earl  of,  103,  216. 
Carlyle  Museum,  292. 
Carnarvon,  312. 
Carnavalet  Museum,  256,  266. 
Carnegie  Trust,  257. 
Carpenter  (P.  de),  288. 
Carte  (Thomas),  127. 
Cases  for  Museums,  220,  263. 
Cassel,  145. 
Cassowary,  The,  133. 
Catalogues  of  Museums,  28,  264. 
Catherine's,  St.,  oil  well,  197,  217. 
Cave  hunting,  43. 
Cavendish  (Lady  Margaret). 

See  Portland,  Duchess  of. 
Cay,  (Robert),  167. 


Celts,    Stone,    as    protecting     against 
lightning,  9. 
known  as  thunderbolts,  9,  64,  71. 
in  Cathedral  of  Halberstadt,  9,  65. 
in  Nunnerj'  at  Bonn,  9,  65. 
believed  to  fall  from  the  clouds,  64, 

238. 
perforated  celts,  66,  14S. 
curious  quality  of  perforated  celts,  66. 
use  of  celts  by  uncivilized  tribes,  80, 

236-240. 
use  as  burnishers,  83. 
Cerauniae,  64,  81,  82,  213,  214,    236, 

237.  239. 

supposed  origin,  64,  66,  237. 

remedy  for  jaundice,  73. 
Ceruti  (B.),  84. 
Cesalpini  (A.),  26. 
Chambre,      Chambre      des     raretes  = 

museum,  37. 
Chard,  296. 
Charles  I.,  93,  127. 

his  spurs,  203. 

hat,  203. 
Charles  II.,  147. 
Charlemagne,  Relics  of,  li. 

his  elephant,  50. 

his  crown,  198. 

his  figure  in  lapis  lazuli,  201. 
Charleton  (Walter),  129,  130. 
Charleton  (William),  127,  129,  159. 
Charms,  115,  194,  241. 

in  form  of  stone  axes,  64. 

of  glossopetrae,  73. 
Chassanion  (Jean),  48. 
Chatham,  296. 
Cheese,  Stone,  85,  198,  202. 
Chelmsford,  297. 
Chelsea,  171. 
Cheltenham,  297. 
Chemical  Museums,  231. 

preparations,  146. 
Chemistry,  72. 
Chester,  297. 
Chesterfield,  297. 
Chevalier  (N.),  2,1  ■>  99- 
Chicago,  243. 
Chichester,  297. 
Child,  petrified,  194. 
Childrey  (Joshua),  268. 
Chiocci  (A. ),  84,  236. 
Chipped  flint,  267. 
Chladni(E.  F.  F.),  10. 
Christ ; 

nail  from  the  Cross,  198,  199. 

knife  used  at  the  Passover,  199. 
Christchurch,  Hants,  296. 


INDEX 


Z^7 


Christian  antiquities,  II4,  174,  188,218. 
Archaeology,  Museums  of,  232,  258, 

.275- 
Christian  V.  of  Denmark,  103. 
Christiania,  241. 
Christina,  Queen  of  Sweden,  38. 
Church  Missionary  Society,  248,  249. 
Church  treasuries  as  museums,  7. 

curiosities  in,  8,  S(/ij.,  34. 
CiampoHni  (Giovanni),  a  dealer,  170. 
Cimeliarchium  =  museum,  34. 
Cinieliotheca  =  museum,  35. 
Cirencester,  297. 
City  turned  into  stone,  194. 
Civilisation,  growth   and   development 

of,  233,  234,  256,  266. 
Claik  or  Barnacle  Goose,  32,  73,  75,  94. 
Clark  (Baron),  160. 
Classical  Archaeology,  231,  257,   275, 

278. 
Philology,  258. 
Classification  of  exhibits,  212-230. 

of  mineralogical  specimens,  212,  213. 
Claudius,  Emperor,  50. 
Clement  (David),  17. 
Cleopatra,  mummy  of,  51. 
Clerk  (Sir  John),  160,  166,  167. 
Cleveland  (John),  107. 
Closet  =  museum,  36. 
Clusius  (Carl)  museum,  220. 
Clyde,  The,  75. 
Coal,  Pit,  a  museum  curiosity,  83,  213, 

222. 
best  is  found  in  Scotland,  222. 
not  to  be  used  for  cooking,  83. 
Coalbrookdale,  297. 
Cockerel,    Find    of    stone    and    bone 

objects  at,  240. 
Coins,  Collections  of,    17,   26,  38,  78, 

81,  89,  90,  93,  96,  97,  99,  100,  103, 

III,  124,  138,   160,  163,  164,  175, 

182,  201,  228,  230,  257. 
Coins,  Study  of,  by  early  scholars,  13, 

17- 

Colchester,  297. 
Cole  (Abdiah),  192. 
Coleraine,  Earl  of,  184. 
Colini  (G.  A.),  248. 
Collecting  as  a  calling,  133. 
Collections.     Sec  Museums. 
Collectors  included  amongst  inventors, 
171. 

Directions  for,  246,  247. 

Missionaries  as,  247-249. 

Shipmasters  as,  246. 
Collin  de  Plancy  (J.A.  S.),  2,  40. 
Colmar,  Meteorite  in  public  librar\- at,  10. 


Colwal  (Daniel),  130,  131. 
Commercial   Mu.seums,  231,  251,   265, 

270,  273. 
Commission      for      administration      of 

Museums,  254,  255. 
Conditorium  =  a  cabinet,  5. 
Constantine  V. ,  Emperor,  198. 
Contant  (Paul),  93. 
Conyers  (John),  120,  134,  173,  267. 
Cook  (Captain  James),  Ethnographical 

collections,  245. 
Copenhagen,  35,  51,  103,  150, 192, 193, 

216,  232,  239,  241. 
Corbie,  Abbey  of,  3. 
Cordus  (Valerius),  25. 
Corium  humanum,  57. 
Cork,  311. 

Cornelius,  in  Martinus  Scn'blerus,  121. 
Cospi  (Ferdinando),  79,  89,  216. 
Countess,  The  dust  of  a,  as  an  exhiljit, 

221. 
Coup  de  pong,  267. 
Coulanges  (F.  de),  6. 
Courtine  (William),  127,  129. 
Cowley  (Abraham),  94. 
Cows,  Milk,  turned  into  stone,  196. 
Cox  (James),  173. 
Cox's  Lottery',  173. 
Cramp,  remedy  for,  217. 
Cranium  humanum  prseparatum.  55. 
Grassier  (Baron  de),  38. 
Crocodile,  214,  215. 
Croll  (Oswald),  54. 
Cromwell's  (Oliver)  skull,  213. 
Croyden,  297. 
Croyland,  relics  at,  7. 
Crucifixion  ;  nail  of  the  Cross,  198. 
Culpepper  (Nicholas),  192. 
Cunnington  (William),  232. 
Curator  of  Museum,  98,  205,  206,  278, 

282. 
Curiositaten-Cabinet  =  museum,  37. 
Curiosities,  36. 

collected  by  pilgrims  and  travellers,  8. 

artificial,  87,  III,  211. 

described,  81. 

examples,    188,   200,   202,   203,   211, 

265. 
fabrication  of,  203,  204. 
Curiosity,  meaning  of  the  word,  187. 
Curland,  Duke  of,  181. 
Current  opinion  dominating  the  judg- 
ment, 239. 
Curtius  (Ernst),  4. 
Cusanus  (Mapheus),  85. 
Cuvier  (G.   L.   C.  F.  D.),  24,  48,  116, 

147,  194,  230. 


3i8 


INDEX 


D. 

Dactyliothcca,  The,  of  ihe  Romans,  4. 

Dale  (Samuel),  in. 

Dandolo  (Benedetto),  13. 

Danish  Mummy,  216. 

Danzig,  147,  233. 

Daphnaeus  Aicuarius,  100. 

Darmstadt,  231,  243. 

Darwen,  297. 

Date  of  acquisition  of  specimens  to  be 

recorded,  265. 
Daventer,  70. 

David  I.  King  of  Scotland,  12. 
David  (Armand),  missionary,  247. 
Davila's  collection,  9. 
Dealers  in  antiquities  and  other  museum 

objects,  170,  187. 
De  Camps  (F.),  38. 
Deer  skin,  its  virtues,  59. 
Defoe  (Daniel),  36,  I53.  I54.  I55.  IS6- 
Delacoste  and  Curling's  Museum,  180. 
De  Laet  (T-),  69,  85. 
Delft,  60,  148. 

Deluge,  The,  as  a  geological  force,  119, 
Demonstrations,  Museum,  262. 
Demonstrators,  Museum,  277. 
De  JNIorgan  (Augustus),  17. 
Dempster  (Thomas),  79. 
Denis,  St.,  Treasury,  3,  11,  12. 
Denmark,    Use    of    Museums    in,    for 

popular  education,  260. 
Dentition,  helps  in,  73. 
Derham,  (William),  221,  229. 
Derby,  297. 
De  Rossi  (G.  B.),  15. 
Deusing  (Ant.),  31,  76,  195. 
Devizes,  298. 
Devonport,  298. 
Dezobrs'  (L.  C),  4. 
Dickens  (Charles),  188. 
Diodorus  Siculus,  52. 
Dioscorides,  19. 
Dircks  (Henry),  107. 
Directions  for  collectors,  246,  247. 

for  visitors  to  Museums,  206,  264. 
Dodo,  the,  133. 
Dodwell  (Henry),  120. 
Donaldson  Museum,  292. 
Donations  to  Museums,  249,  265,  282. 
Donner-Kugeln,  67. 
Donors,  90,  108,  135. 

names  of  Donors  to  be  recorded,  265. 
Dorchester,  298. 
Douglas  (James),  175,  232. 
Dover,  298. 
Downes  (Theophilus),  121. 


Dragon  made  out  of  a  rat,  204. 

Drawings,  261,  262. 

Dresden  Museums,  18,  25,  29,  35,  37, 

40,    59,  78,    loi,    149,    150,    199, 

205-208,  242. 
The  Green  Vaults,  199. 
Drottningholm,  225. 
Druggists'  shops,  40,  41,  210. 
Drury  (Dru),  148. 
Drury  Lane  Monster,  The,  1 19. 
Dryander  (Jonas),  24,  143. 
Dryden  (John),  130. 
Dublin,  311. 
Dudlev,  298. 
Dufour  (P.  S.),  170. 
Dufresne  of  Paris,  158. 
Dugdale  (Sir  William),  240. 
Dulwich,  298. 
Dumbarton,  75. 
Dumfries,  308. 
Duncan  (John  Shute),  228. 
Duncan  (Philip  Bury),  229,  230. 
Dundee,  50,  309. 
Duplicate  specimens,  278. 
Durandus,  8. 

Durham,  Treasury  of,  3,  7»  lO- 
Durham,  Museum,  298. 
Dwarfs,  98. 

E. 

Earth,  Plastic  and  formative  powers  in 
the,  62,  67,  69,  92,  no,  192,  195, 
198,  223. 

Saline  qualities,  no,  196. 
Earths,  ^'arious  kinds,  212,   2 1 3,  2 16, 
217,  222,  226. 

St.  Ulric's,  n5. 

Malta,  193. 
Earthquakes  producing  petrifaction,  196. 
Eastbourne,  298. 

Ecclesiastical  objects  in  museums,  1 14. 
Echinites,  63. 
Echinus  (Sebastian),  18. 
Economic  Museums,  270,  272,  273. 
Edinburgh,  53,  56,  135,  153-159,  167, 
169,  179,  212,  247,  308. 

Botanic  Garden,  159. 

Town  Council,  156,  159. 

College  of  Physicians,  153,  155. 

Incorporations  of  Surgeons,  155. 

Faculty  of  Advocates,  159,  167. 

Philosophical  Society,  167. 

Society  of  Antiquaries,  167,  16S. 

University  Museum,    153,    155,    168, 
179,  212,  247,  283. 

Gifts  to  museum,  153,  155,  156. 

Caledonian  museum,  204. 


INDEX 


19 


Education,   Use  of  museums   in,  258, 
259,  262,  275. 

increasing  cost  of,  275. 
Educational  Museums,  231. 
Eeckhoff  (Hermann),  219. 
Egg  laid  by  a  woman,  194. 
Egnazio  (Ciambatista),  14. 
Egyptian      Antitjuiiies     presented     by 

Peiresc  to  Kircher,  90. 
Egyptian  Antiquities  acquired  by  British 

Museum,  144. 
Egyptian  Antiquities  acquired  by  Ash- 

niolean  museum,  230. 
Egyptian  mummy,  50,  216. 

counterfeit,  54. 
Einckel  (C.  F.),  2,  22,  36. 

Set;  Neickelius. 
Einhorn  Apotheke,  41. 
Einsiedeln,  monastery,  15. 
Elephant,    supposed    discovery    of   its 
bones,  49,  133. 

in  England,  50,  133,  174. 

its  anatomy,  50,  91. 

fossil,  47. 

teeth  and  hones  supposed  to  belong 
to  giants,  45-48,  91,  203. 

in  shows,  188. 
Elf  arrow,  63,  241. 
Elgin,  309. 

Elk,  preparations  from,  60. 
Encyclopaedia  Pcrthensis,  226. 
Enkhuizen,  96,  191. 
Entomological  collections,  137,  148. 
Eolithic  Period,  234. 
Epilepsy,  remedies  for,  55,  57,  60,  191, 

195- 
Erbach,  Schloss,  58. 
Erfurt,  118. 
Erizzo  (Sebastian),  18. 
Eskimo  arrow  stretchers,  239. 
Estienne  (Robert),  187. 
Ethnographical  collections,  33,  86,  95, 

104,  108,  113,  145,  174,  178,  189, 

216,  227,  230,  235,  241,  242,  245, 

246,  248,  250,  252,  255. 
their  object,  243. 
Eton,  298. 

Etruscan  Antiquities,  33. 
Evangelical  Missionary  Society  at  Basle, 

248. 
Evans  (A.  J.),  230. 
Evans  (E.  P.),  9,  45- 
Evans  (Sir  John),  6,  83,  279. 
Evelpi  (John),  3,  4,  15. 
Exeter,  298. 
Exhibits,  30,  39,  80,  81,  84,  85,  88,  94, 

95,   100,    103,    108,   113-115,   118, 


123,  125,  128,  129,  132,  137,  138, 
146-148,  152,  164,  172-174,  190, 
191,  200,  203,  234,  236,  261,  262, 
263,  266,  278,  280,  288. 

Badly    placed   and   arranged    in   old 
Museums,  206,  208,  209,  sijq. 

National    and    foreign     to    be    dis- 
tinguished, 234. 

Acquisition,  246,  249,  282. 

Selection,  266. 

Arrangement,  236,  262,  263,  266,  278. 

Type  specimens,  261,  278. 

Obsolete,  266. 

Duplicate,  278. 

Not  depreciated  by  use,  280. 

Becoming  scarcer,  256,  280. 
Expeditions  for  collecting  material  for 

Museums,  91,  146,  282. 
Expenditure   on    Museums,    275,    277 

281,  282. 
Eysendrach  (John),  30. 

F. 

Faber  (Basil),  38. 

Faber  (Matthaeus),  10. 

Fabri  de  Peiresc.     See  Peiresc. 

Fabrication  of  curiosities,  203,  204. 

Faille  (F.  de  la),  148. 

Farmers,  Benefitof agricultural  museums 

to,  274. 
Febrifuges,  59,  114. 
Fees  for  admission  to  old  museums,  98, 

205. 
Ferdinand  II.,  Archduke,  86. 
Ferguson  (Professor  John),  189. 
Ferrara,  Alfonso,  Duke  of,  14. 
Fevers,  remedies  for,  59- 
Fien  (Thomas),  61. 
Figs,  Stone,  63. 

Figured  stones,  61,  71,  219,  222. 
Finlayson  (James),  ^I.D.,  203. 
Fiorillo  (J.  D.),  13,  14,  17. 
Fire,  Museums  destroyed  b),  109. 
Fish,  caught  with  mummy  as  bait,  53. 
Flamingo,  133. 
Flatman  (Thomas),  108. 
Florence,  78,  102,  242. 

Museum,  18,  38,  78,  147,  1S7,  211, 

242. 
Gaddi  Museum,  211. 
Flower  (Sir  William),  231,  263. 
Folkestone,  298. 
Foote  (Samuel),  173. 
Forges,  otheiwiie  Hubert  (Robert),  127, 

132. 
Formed  stones,  62,  67,  109,  no. 


320 


INDEX 


Forres,  309. 
Fossils,  61,  27S. 

power  of  reproduction,  62. 

Itisus  naturae,  64. 

Plot's,  views  as  to  their  origin,  1 10. 

Lhuyd's,  iii. 

Ray's,  III. 

See  Petrifactions. 
Fossil  bones,  46-50. 

teeth,  47. 
Fossil  ivor)',  49;  in  Scotland,  12. 

shells,  69,  92. 

unicorn  horn,  43. 

horses,  264. 

man,    70,    82,    110,    194;    doubled, 
223. 

Catalogue  of  English  fossils,  1 1 1 . 
Fothergill  (Dr.  John),  185. 
Fothergill  (Dr.  William),  142. 
Foucault's  collection  of  coins,  96. 
Fountain  (Sir  Andrew),  137. 
Fountainhall  (Lord),  48,  56,  lOl. 
Frankfort  on  the  Main,  146. 
Franko- Merovingian  Period,  233. 
Frazer  (J.  G.),  9. 
Freaks,  198,  200,  215. 
Frederick  III.  of  Denmark,  194. 
Frederick  IV.  of  Denmark,  103. 
Frederick  the  Great,  146,  225. 
Friedlander  (Ludwig),  4. 
Frivola  in  museum  classiiication,   189, 

200. 
Frome,  298. 

Fugger  (Rairaond  von),  17. 
Fuiren  (H.)  museum,  38. 


Gaddi  museum  at  Florence,  21 1. 
Gailliard  (Jean),  124. 
Galanga  or  sea-devil,  94. 
Galatian  Period,  234. 
Galerie,  gallery  =  museum,  37,  38. 
Gal  way,  311. 

Gamahe,  or  Gamahu,  3,  237,  240. 
Garth  (Sir  Samuel),  210. 
Gassendi  (P.),  18,  91. 
Gazophylacium,  34,  91,  93,  221. 
Gems,  collections  of,   15,  87,  138,  184, 
214,  218. 

study  of,  18. 

treatise  on,  in  Scots,  152. 

imitations,  151. 
General  Museums,  260,  265,  275. 
Genoa,  147. 

Genevieve,  Cabinet  de  la  Bibliotheque 
de  Ste.  Genevieve,  92,  218. 


Gentkina)is   Magazine,   14,    138,    159, 

173.  176,  177- 
Geological  museums,  231,  265,  275. 

opinions,  92,  1 19. 
Gerarde's  Herball,  74. 
German  Anthropological  Society,  252. 
German  language,  its  antiquity,  48. 
German  Museums,  233. 
Germaniae  ocelli,  249. 
Germanic  National  Museum,  235. 
Germany,    Museums    used    as    aids   in 

education,  258. 
Gesner  (Conrad),    10,  24,   25,  27,  28, 
65,  66,  78,  80,  97,  166. 

His  wood-blocks,  25. 
Gethesemane,  Garden  of,  188. 
Giants'  bones,  what,  45,  48,  91,  203. 

preserved  by  the  Romans,  5,  45. 

in  various  churches,  11,  46. 

in  the  Ashmolean  museum,  203. 

passed  off  as  bones  of  saints,  45. 

various  finds,  46,  98. 

opinions  as  to,  48,  92. 

mastadon  bones,  mistaken  for,  47. 

giant's  shoulder-blade,  94. 

thigh  bone,  132. 

teeth,  47,  91,  94. 
Giessen,  148. 
Giggleswick,  299. 

Glanville  (Bartholomew  de),  65,  193. 
Glasgow, 

Museums,  76,  160-163,  '77)  185,  245- 
259,271,  309. 

University,  160,  245,  256,  309. 

Hunterian    Museum,    76,    160,    162, 
177,  245,  256,  309. 

Andersonian  Institution,  161,  163. 

Technical  College,  162. 

Faculty  of  Physicians  and  Surgeons, 
162,  163. 

Kelvingrove  Museum,  245,  309. 

Historical  Museum  of,  suggested,  256, 

Royal  Infirmary,  162. 

Western  Infirmary,  163. 

Philosophical  Societ3%  245. 

Exhibition  in  1846,  245. 

School  of  Weaving  and  Museum,  272. 

Botanic  Gardens,  166. 

Science  teaching  in,  166. 

Physician,  122, 
Glass  eyes,  113. 
Glastonbur}',  299. 
Glossopetrae,  68,  73,  213,  223. 
Gloucester,  299. 
Goddefroy  Museum,  253. 
Goltz  (Hubert),  14,  38. 
Gordon  (Alexander  or  Sandy),  123,  165. 


INDEX 


321 


Gorlee  (Abraham),  18. 

Gorop  (J.  Van),  48. 

Goslar,  Dom  of,  8. 

Gosport,  299. 

Gotha,  49. 

Gottorp,  96,  145. 

Gottwaldt  (Christopher),  147. 

Gould  (Charles),  45. 

Gourd  stone,  63. 

Graevius(J.  G.),  18. 

Graindorge  (Andre),  76. 

Green  vaults,  Dresden,  199,  205. 

Greene  (Richard),  174,  178,  179. 

Greenland,  104,  239. 

Greenock,  309. 

Greenwich,  185,  299. 

Gregorovius  (F. ),  I3- 

Gregory  of  Tours,  7. 

Gresham  College,  131. 

Grew  (Nehemiah),  44,  51,  SS:  59.  Si, 

129,  131,  193,  216,  238. 
Grimani  (Domenico),  Cardinal,  14. 

(Giovanni),  14. 
Grimm  (Jacob),  65. 
Griffin,  A  true,  128. 

eggs,  8. 

claws,  9,  10,  II. 
Gronovius  (J.  F.),  i,  18. 
Gualtieri  (Nicolo),  147. 
Guarantana,  Mount,  188. 
Guidebooks  to  Museums,  221,  263,  264. 
Guildhall  Museum,  281,  292. 
Guillim  (John),  42. 
Guimet  (Emile),  241. 
Guimet  Museum,  241. 
Guinea,    New,    collections    from,    246, 

248. 
Guns,  wind,  87. 

Gundling  (N.  H.),  146,  185,  191. 
Gunther  (Siegmund),  17. 
Guy's  Hospital  Museum,  292, 

H. 
Haarlem,  194. 
Habicot  (Nicholas),  46. 
Hagendorn  (Ehrenfrid),  physician,  198. 
Hahn  or  Hannseus   (Jorgan),  35,   181, 

182. 
Haileybury,  299. 
Halberstadt,  Cathedral  of,  9,  65. 

Museums,  147. 
Halcyon  stone,  213. 
Halifax,  299. 
Halle,  Church  at,  11. 

Museums,  146,  148,  233. 
Hallstatt  Period,  233. 


Halyburton  (Andrew),  53,  60. 
Hamburg,  127,  128,  145,  149,  242,  249, 

253- 
Hamburgische  Wetter-Machme,  113. 

Hamilton  (Gilbert),  163. 
Hamilton  (James),  135. 
Hamilton  (John),  Archbishop,  25. 
Hamilton    (Sir    William),    of    Preston, 

Philosopher,  9S. 
Hamilton    (Sir  William),  Ambassador, 

142. 
Handbooks.     See  Guidebooks. 
Hand  warmers,  114. 
Hannemann  (J.  L.),  103. 
Hanover,  Welfen  museum,  8. 

Provincial  museum,  233. 
Happel  (E.  W.),  22. 
Hare's  horns,  132,  133. 
Harleian  librar}',  128,  140,  181,  187. 

MSS.,  140. 
Harley  (Edward).     See  Oxford,  Earl  of. 
Hartshorn,  58. 
Har\'ard  (Mass.),  274. 
Hawick,  309. 
Hawkins  (Thomas),  45. 
Hawkin's  Physiognotrace,  179. 
Haygarth  (John),  61. 
Ha}Tn  (Nicholas),  15. 
Hearne  (Thomas),  105,  183. 
Hebenstreit  (J.  E.),  146. 
Hegenitius  (Gottfried),  31,  35,  96,  190. 

191. 
Heidelberg,  99. 

Heilbronn,  Church  of  St.  Kilian,  9. 
Plelmont  (J.  B.  van),  194. 
Helmstadt,  9. 
Helwing  (G.  A.),  49,  71. 
Hen,  hatching  eggs,  turned  into  stone, 

194,  196. 
Hennepin  (Louis),  239. 
Henry  HI.  of  France,  14. 
Henry  VIII.,  hawking  gloves,  203. 
Heraldry,  42. 
Herbarius,  a  simpler,  133. 
Hereford,  299. 
Hermann  (Paul),  122. 
Hermes  (E.),  9. 
Hermitage  museum,  176. 
Herodotus,  51. 
Heroes,     weapons    of,     preserved     by 

Greeks  and  Romans,  5,  6. 
Hezekiah's  treasures,  2. 
Hexen-Thaler,  114. 
Hickes  (George),  philologist,  7. 
Hiegel  (J.  C),  23,  219. 
Hildesheim,  8,  9,  li,  43. 
Hill  (Sir  John),  41,  44,  54.  69,  73.  I93- 


122 


INDEX 


Hippopotamus'  teeth,  12,  99. 

Rings  made  from  them  cure  cramp, 
217. 
Hirsching  (F.  K.  G.),  23. 
Hirta,  218. 
Historical  collections  in  Museums,  235, 

251,  266,  26S. 
Museums,  251.  253,  266. 
Hoare  (Sir  Richard'Colt),  232. 
Hoffman     (Friedrich),     Physician,     of 

Magdeburg,   44,   55,    59,    73-  95. 

.193- 
Hoflmarin     (Friedrich),     Professor     at 

Halle,  113,  213,  220. 
Hoffmann  (J.  J.),  Philologist,  45,  191. 
Hofmann  (Lorenz),  146. 
Holnev   (Mr.),  Apothecarv  in  Lewes, 

60 
Hooke  (Robert),  71,  170. 
Homiman  Museum,  292. 
Horsley  (John),  160. 
Hortnum'(Dr.),  230. 
Hottentots,  104. 
Houghton,  pictures  at,  176. 
Hubert,  othei^'ise  Forges  (Robert),  51, 

127,  128,  131,  132,  173. 
Hnddersfield,  299. 
Hudibras,  41,  48,  74. 
Huebner  (Johann),  149. 
Hull,  246,  299. 
Hultmann  (Da\"id),  225. 
Human  skin,  its  uses,  57. 

skull,  its  uses,  55. 
Humphrey  (George).  184. 
Hungar}-,  43. 
Hunter  (John),  123,  231. 

(William),   160,   162,   177,   185,  208, 

257- 
Huntingdon,  299. 
Husbandmen,      uses     of     agricultural 

museums  for,  274. 
Huttich  (Johann),  17. 
Hutton  (tames),  158. 
Hygrometer,  113. 
Hygroscope,  134. 
Hysteria,  remedies  for,  57. 


Iceland,  stone  arrow  point  from,  237. 
Illustrations  in  books,  260. 
Imagination  in  the  cure  of  disease,  60. 
Imperati  (F.),  85. 
India  Museum,  London,  24I. 
Indians,  American,  82,  179,  239. 
Indulgence  boxes,  10. 
pence,  115. 


Industrial  An,  188,  221,  223. 

Museums,  231,  245,  251,  254. 
Ink.  metallic  or  melanteria,  213. 
Innsbruck,  63,  86. 

Inscriptions,  Early  collections  of,  15. 
Instra,  114. 

Instruments    and    Apparatus,    Philoso- 
phical, Surgical  and  other,  87,  88, 
106,  113,  148,  149,  152,  161,  163, 
218,  227. 
Interments,    value    for    archaeological 

purposes,  232. 
Inverness,  309. 
Ipswich,  300. 

Ireland,  no  serpents  in,  193. 
Iron  Age,  233. 
Iron  supersedes  stone,  82. 

supersedes  bronze,  239,  240. 
Iselin  (Professor  J.  C.),  240. 
Ivory,  Fossil,  49. 

in  Scotland,  12.; 

J- 
Tacobaeus  (Holger).  104.  194,  216,  239. 
Jacobi(G.  H.),  24. 
Jameson  (Robert),  158. 
Jaundice,  cure  for,  73. 
Jena,  146,  148. 

its  seven  wonders,  148. 
Jermyn  Street  ^Museum,  London,  292. 
Jesuit  Missionaries,  247. 
Jew  stone,  Judaicus  lapis,  62,  85. 

male  and  female,  63. 
Jews,  use  of  stone  tools  by  the,  82. 
Johannis-Topflein,  198. 
John's  Day,  St.,  Urns  fashioned  in  the 

earth,  on,  198. 
Johnson  (Dr.   Samuel),  36,    140,    142, 

174,  176. 
Jomard  (E.  F.),  244. 
Jonah's  whale,  rib  of,  9. 
Jordan  (H.),  15. 
Journal  des  Stravans,  I02. 
Judas,   rope    with    which    he    hanged 
himself,  87,  191. 

lantern    carried    before   him   at    the 
betrayal,  199. 
Jiiterborg,  church  at,  whale  rib  in,  10. 


Kahn  (Joseph),  M.D.,  113,  155. 

Kanold  (Johann),  22. 

Kelso,  309. 

Kelvingrove    museum,    Glasgow,    245, 

309- 
Kemp  (John),  34,  124,  267. 


INDEX 


Kendal,  300. 
Kentmann,  John,  28,  34. 

his  .system  of  classification,  212. 
Kesnei  (J.  G.),  219. 
Keswick,  300. 
Kew  Gardens,  292. 
Kilkenny,  312. 
Kilmarnock,  309. 
Kinderling  (J.  F.  A.),  149. 
King,  (Col.  Richard),  122. 
King's  College,  London,  292. 
King's  Lynn,  300. 

Kircher  (Athanasius),  51,  91,  106,  210. 
Kirkcudbright,  310. 
Kirke  (Thomas),  (d.  1706),  154,  183. 
Kirkleatham,  300. 
Kirkring  (Thomas),  145. 
Kisner  (J.  G. ),  146. 
Klemm  (G.  F.),  8,  23,  28. 
Klippel  (G.  H.),  I. 
Koehler  (J.  D.),  2,  29,  107,  110,  123, 

149,  221. 
Konigsberg,  190. 
Koran,  MS.  of,  189. 
Kimstgewerbe,  188. 
Kunsthandhiich  fiir  Deutschland,  23. 
Kunst-Kammer  =  museum,  37. 
Klister  (Ludwig)  or  Neocoms  (L.),  I. 


Labels,  206,  220,  264,  274. 

their  early  use,  206. 

particulars  to  be  entered  on,  264. 

preparation  of,  265. 
Laboratory  for  a  museum,  275,  276. 

work  of  students,  its  value,  276. 
Lacroix  (Paul),  6. 
Lambeth,  108. 
Lamia,  69,  70. 

Landscapes,  natural,  in  stone,  129. 
Lancaster,  300. 
Lane-Fox.     See  Pitt-Rivers. 
Lankester  (Dr.  Ray),  247. 
Lapides  fossiles  minores,  214. 

majores  moUes,  214. 

odorati,  159,  222. 

polpnorphi,  208. 
Lapidificus  spiritus,  62,  92. 
Lapis  phosphorus,  81. 

Sagittarius,  80. 
Largo,  310. 
La  Tene  Period,  233. 
Lateran  Museum,  18. 
Launceston,  300. 
Lectures,  ^luseum,  262. 
Leeds,  3(X),  301. 


Leek,  301. 

Legend,  the  Golden,  191. 

Leibnitz,  5,  40,  73,  186. 

Leicester,  301. 

Leigh  (Edward),  190,  240. 

Leipsic,  51,  127. 

Burgomaster  of,  38. 

Museums,  242,  253. 
L'Estoile  (Pierre  de),  90. 
Leopoldine  Academy,  102. 
Lesser  (F.),  219. 
Lesser  (F.  C),  219. 
Lethieullier  (Wm.),  123. 
Lettice  (John),  161. 
Lettsom  (J.  C),  184. 
Lever  (Sir  Ashton),  175. 
Lewes,  301. 

Leyden,  29,  31,  32,  51,  53,  57,  63,  64, 
145,  189,  160,  208,  209,  220,  242, 
253.  287. 
Lhuyd  (Edward),   34,    iii,    159,    i6o, 

205. 
Libraries, 

Banks,  143. 

Bremen,  250. 

Glasgow,  255,  257. 

Hamburg,  254. 

Heidelberg,  loi. 

Liibeck,  253. 

Vatican,  10 1. 

as  part  of  a  museum  equipment,  228. 

Free,  267,  268,  280. 

Working  library  for  a  museum,  275. 

Town    libraries,    now   considered    a 
necessity,  278. 

Museum  is  a  librarv  of  illustrations, 
278. 
Liceto  (F.),  31. 
Lichfield,  174,  301. 
Lightfoot  (John),  184. 
Lime  in  solution  forming  petrifactions, 

197. 
Lindenberg  (J.  C),  252. 
Lindenschmidt  (L. ),  279. 
Linnaean  Society,  143. 
Linnsus,  64,  184,  207,  223,  225. 

his  library,  herbarium,  and  museum, 
225. 
Lisbon,  242. 

Lithophytes,  219,  226,  227. 
Liverpool,  178,  301. 
Livingstone     (David),    Ethnographical 

collections,  245,  247. 
Loadstone,  male  and  female,  213. 
Local  museums,  261,  265,  268,  281. 

their  aims,  268,  270,  281. 
Lomond,  Loch,  75. 


;24 


INDEX 


London,  15,  18,  41,  51,  78,  107,  121, 
122,  124,  126,  128,  132,  134,  140- 
150,   170-178,  204,  267,  275,  292, 

293- 

The  Tower,  41,  178,  293. 

British    Museum,    15,    18,    127,    132, 

136,   139-144.  202,  211,  212,  234, 

241,  247,  250,  264,  267,  274,  287, 

292. 

South  Kensington,  now  Victoria  and 

Albert,  Museum,  149,  187,  293. 
Guildhall  Museum,  281,  292. 
Post  Office  Museum,  292. 
Sloane's  Museum,  130,  132,  134-138, 

183,  188,  267. 
Sloane's  Museum,  184,  293. 
Sir  A.  Lever's,  175. 
William    Bullock's,    158,    174,    178, 

204. 
other  museums,   135,   171,   172,   173, 

292,  293. 
London  Missionary  Society,  248,  292. 
Church  Missionary  Society,  248,  249. 
St.  Paul's  Cathedral,  273.' 
The  Royal  Society,  31,  34,  51,  55, 
102,   117,   123,  130,  132-134,  138, 
142,  154,  193,  209,  216. 
L'Orangere  (Quentin  de),  187. 
Lorentsen  (J.),  104. 
Lot's  wife,  194,  196. 

how  turned  into  salt,  196. 
Lotteries,  140,  173,  176,  177. 
Louisa  Ulrique,  Queen  of  Sweden,  225. 
Louvre,  18,  241. 
Lubeck,  53,  219,  249,  251. 
Lucerne,  Giant  at,  46. 
Luders  (C.  W.),  253. 
Ludgate  Hill  Museum,  135. 
Ludlow,  301. 
LUneburg,  51,  70,  71. 
Lusus  naturae,  64,  219,  226. 
Lydian  stone,  237. 
Lyons,  170,  241. 

M. 

Mabillon  (Jean),  15. 
Macclesfield,  301. 
Macgowan  (James),  169. 
Machines,  Early  forms  of,  266. 
Mackenzie  (Sir  George),  61,  195. 
Macreuse,  or  Barnacle  Goose,  73,  75. 
Madrid,  1 50,  242. 
Magdeburg,  Cathedral  of,  10. 
Magdeburg,  Wetter- Mannchen,  113. 
Maidstone,  301. 
Maier  (Michael),  74. 


Maiitaire  (Michael),  181. 
Major  (J.  D.),  2,  21,  35,  45,  59,  68,  85, 
97.   127.  191,  195,  196,  207,  209, 
210,  232. 
Malta,  47,  68,  70,  192. 

earth  its  virtues,  193. 
Mai  ton,  302. 
Malvern,  302. 
Mammoth,  179,  180. 
Man,  Fossil,  194,  196. 

doubted,  223. 
Manchester,  175,  302. 
Marbode,  Bishop,  65. 
Marcellus,  4. 
Marchi  (G.),  ro6. 

Marguerolle,  or  Barnacle  Goose,  73. 
Maria  Theresa,  86. 
Markets,  Foreign,  Museums  as  aids  to 

their  requirements,  273. 
Marlborough  College,  302. 
Marlborough  gems,  15. 
Marrow,  Stone,  73,  213. 
Marshall  (John),  166. 
MartjTi  (John),  181. 
Marvellous,  The,  191,  202. 
Mary  Magdalene,  relics  of,  199. 
Mary,  \'irgin, 

her  shift,  6. 

slippers,  199. 

comb,  199. 
Mason  College,  Birmingham,  294. 
Mastadon,  discovery  of,  47. 
Materia  medica,  The,  41,  52,  55,  57, 

59.  73,  76,  152,  166,  193. 
Material -Kammer,  38. 
Material  for  research  students,  276. 

Museums  of,  257,  275. 
Matthew  (W.  D.),  264. 
Mattioli  (P.  A.),  25,  83. 
Maule  (Robert),  151. 
Mead  (Richard),  119,  122,  125,  137. 
Meal  that  fell  from  the  clouds,  67. 
Medici  (Cosmo  and  Lorenzo,  de),  13. 
Medulla,  or  stone  marrow,  213. 
Meidenberg  (Conrad  von),  196. 
Melanteria,  or  metallic  ink,  213. 
Melle  (Jacob  von),  53,  219,  252. 
Melons,  Stone,  63. 
Melton  Mowbray,  302. 
Memnon,  Sword  of,  5. 
Mercati  (Michele),  28,  29,  48,  67,  68, 

82,  105,  213,  223. 
Mere  (J.  van  der),  60. 
Merga,  or  stone  marrow,  73. 
Merlan,  Schloss,  58. 
Mermaid,  30,  204. 
Merovingian  Period,  234. 


INDEX 


32:) 


Merret  (Dr.  Christopher),  136. 
Merseburg,  Cathedral  of,  9. 
Metaphrastes  (Simeon),  191. 
Metaphysics    a    hindrance    to    natural 

science,  i86. 
Meteorite  at  Ensisheim,  10. 
Meteorites,  82,  92. 
Meusel  (J.  G. ),  23. 
Mexican  collection,  178. 
Meyrick  (SirS.),  175,  179. 
Micconi,  Signor,  of  Genoa,  147. 
Mice,  remedy  against,  115. 
Middlesborough,  302. 
Miege  (Guy),  103,  216. 
Miers  museum,  172. 
Migne,  L'Ahbe,  76. 
Migrations,  Three  great,  233. 
Milan,  87. 

Cathedral  treasury,  3. 

Church  of  San  Ambrogio,  3. 
Milch-Topfe,  198. 
Milk-cows  turned  into  stone,  196. 
Military  Museum,  231. 
Milman  (H.  H.),  6. 
Mineralia  media,  61,  214,  217. 
Mineralogical  collections,  264,  275,  278. 
Minutius  (Theophilus),  91. 
Mirahilia  A'oniae,  17. 
Miracles,  191,  192. 
Miscellanea  Curiosa,  102. 
Mistakes  of  the  learned,  239. 
Mitliridates,  as  a  collector,  4. 
Missionary  Museums,  248,  249,  292. 
Missionaries   extend  our  knowledge  of 
distant  lands,  20. 

as  collectors,  247-249. 
Misy,  or  green  vitriol,  213. 
Modena  Museums,  81,  242. 
Moehsen  (J.  C.  W.),  26. 
Moeller  (D.  W.),  2,  22,  35,  207,  221. 
Molinet  (Claude  du),  218,  239. 
Monardes  (Micholas),  24. 
Monastries  had  collections  of  curios,  6. 
^^onipennie's  Abridgemejit  of  the  Scots 

Chi-onicles,  75. 
Monk  turned  into  stone  for  perjury,  194. 
Monsters  as  museum  exhibits,  88,  188, 

195,  226. 
Montagu  House,  140. 
Montelius  (Oscar),  279. 
Montfaucon  (B.  de),  12,  14,  51,  84,  194, 
199,  201,  206,  211,  240. 

Visits  to  sundry  museums,  201. 
Montrose  museum,  310. 
Montrose,  Marquis  of,  hand  and  arm 
exhibited  in  Thoresby's  museum, 


Moravia,  43. 

Moravian  Missionaries,  248. 

Moray  (Sir  Robert),  74. 

Morison  (Dr.  Robert),  93. 

Mortillet  (Gabriel  de),  234. 

Mosaic  account  of  the  creation  as  a  basis 

of  museum  arrangement,  220. 
Moscardo  (Lodovico),  66,  84. 
Moscow,  150,  242. 
Moses,  Rod  of,  3. 

Brazen  serpent  of,  3. 
Mueller  (J.  W.  von),  45. 
Mueller,  Max,  76. 
Mueller  (C.  O.),  13. 
Mueller  (Sophus),  279. 
Mummies,  30,  50,  83,  85,  88,  91,    125, 

210,  216,  226. 
Mummy  as  a  curative  agent,  52,  S3. 

as  fish  bait,  53. 

artificial  mummy,  54. 

elexir  of,  54. 

balsam  of,  54. 

Egyptian  mummy,  216. 

Danish  ,,        216. 

list  of  mummies,  123. 
Munich,  Museum  at,  18,  45,  78. 

Jesuits'  Church  at,  45. 
Municipal    Museums,    251,    261,    265, 

268,  273. 
Munro  (Dr.  Robert),  279. 
Miintz  (Eugene),  13,  14. 
Museum, 

Original  meaning  of  the  term,  i,  38, 
274. 

Its  present  meaning,  i,  38. 

Dr.  Johnson's  definition,  36. 

Bailey's  , ,  36. 

Huxley's  ,,         231. 

Schellhammer's     ,,         278. 

Is  a  library  of  illustrations,  27S. 

Equivalent  terms,  34,  80,  91,  93,  96, 
112,  219,  221,  223. 
Museums — (i)  Early  Museums. 

Their  origin  and  development,  20. 

Lists  of,  20-27,  89. 

Bibliography  of,  23,  24. 

Aims  of,  39. 

Early  Catalogues,  28. 

Some  of  the  old   Museums,  63,  78, 
sqq.  180. 

Museum  of  the  I7lh  centurj-,  82,  88. 

Their  non-scientific  character,  186. 

Want  of  space  and  staff,  205. 

Their  internal  appearance,  207,  209, 
210,  215. 

Entrance  hall,  210,  211. 

Difficulty  of  obtaining  access,  206. 


326 


INDEX 


Museums,  iontitmed. 

Fees  for  admittance,  98,  205. 
Visitors  hurried  over  the  collections, 

206. 
Directions  to  \"isitors,  206. 
Labels,  206,  220. 
Cabinets,  220. 
(2)  Later  Museums,  102,  180. 

Expeditions  for  collecting   material, 

146,  2S2. 
Objects  exhibited,  30,  39,  80,  81,  84, 
85,  88,  94,  95,  100,  103,  loS,  113- 
115,  iiS,  123,  125,  128,  129,  132, 
137,  138,  146-148,  152,  164,  172- 
174,  190,  191,  194,  200-203. 
Curiosities,  188,  200,  202,  203,  211, 
265,  288. 

as  attractions,  204,  288. 
Rarities,  198,  200. 
Freaks  and  oddities,   198,  200,  215, 

227. 
Monsters,  88,  188,  195. 
Dealers     in     antiquities    and    other 

museum  objects,  170. 
Museums  destroyed  by  fire,  109. 
Plan  and  position  of  buildings,  225, 

226. 
Decoration,  227. 

Methods  of  arrangements,  112,  205- 
230. 

Scheme  of  Kentman,  212. 

Mercati,  213. 

Brack enhoft'er,  214. 

Wonn,  214. 

Copenhagen,  216. 

Royal  Society,  216. 

Sibbald,  217." 

Zedler,  217. 

Aldrovandi,  217. 

St.  Genevieve,  218. 

Jacob  von  Melle,  219. 

Baier,  219. 

Lesser,  219. 

Thoresby,  221. 

Koehler,  221. 

Linnaeus,  224. 

Valmont  de  Bomare,  226,  22S. 

J.  S.  Duncan,  229. 

Christian  Thomsen,  232,  241. 

German  archaeological  museums, 

233- 
St.  Germain,  233. 
Worsaae,  241. 
Pitt-Rivers   243. 
Jomard,  244. 
Purchase  of  museums,  96,  99,    115, 
116. 


Museums,  continued. 

Sale  of  museums,  89,  92,   99,    iii, 
116,  116,  124,  124,  126,  147,  174, 

175'  177,  178. 
Gifts  of  museums,  106,  loS,  ill,  118, 

153.  155- 
Disappearance  of  museums,  147,  154, 

156,  157- 
Dispersion  of  museums,  181. 
Thefts  from  museums,  185. 
Museums  as  shows,  170-180,  258. 
(3)  Modern  Museums. 
Modern  Museums,  231. 
List  of,  292-312. 

Their  aim,  258,  262,  266,  276,  283. 
Museums  as  places  of  recreation,  258. 
Museums  as  aids  to  education,  258, 

260,  269. 
Again  places  of  study,  275,  276. 
Museum  lessons  for  children,  261. 
Museum  lectures  and  demonstrations, 

262. 
A  museum  should  be  self  interpreting, 

262. 
Handbooks,  221,  263,  264. 
Catalogues,  264. 

Visitors,  203,  206,  223,  262,  264,  269. 
Museums     should    have     distinctive 

character,  265. 
Museums  Acts,  267. 
Museums  as  aids  to  amateur  natural- 
ists, 269. 
Museums  as  an  index  of  the  progress 

of  science,  270. 
Museums     essential     for      scientific 

students,  270,  274,  275,  276,  283, 

284. 
Museum   buildings,    225,    226,    250, 

251,  282. 
Museum  accessories,  libraries,  labora- 
tory, workshop,  275,  276. 
Museum  apparatus,  277. 
printing,  277. 
Bulletins  and  Memoirs,  277, 

2S4. 
Museum  expenditure,  275,  277,  2S2. 

staff.  277,  282. 
Importance  of  order  and  method,  236, 

262,  263,  266,  274. 
Type  specimens,  261,  278. 
Management,  252,  274,  283,  284. 

By  commission,  252,  254,  255,  284. 
Curator  of  Museum,   98,  205,   206, 

278,  282. 
Selection  of  exhibits,  266. 
Illustrations  on  walls,  233,  264. 
Museum  cases,  220,  263. 


INDEX 


r-1 


Museums,  continued. 

Labels,  206,  220,  264,  274, 
Display  of  exhibits,  206,  262,  263. 
Exhibits  that  can  not  be  identified, 

208. 
Obsolete  specimens,  266. 
Donations,  249,  264,  265,  2S2. 
Search  for  exhibits,  146,  249,  282. 
Officers   of   the   Navy   employed   to 

collect  specimens,  158,  247. 
Shipmasters  as  collectors,  260. 
Missionaries  as  collectors,  247-249. 
Registrations  of  specimens,  265. 
{4)  Special  Museums  and  collections, 
Local,  261,  265,  268,  281. 
Municipal,  251,  261,  265,  268,  273. 
University,  275. 
School,  261. 

Agricultural,  231,  265,  274. 
Anatomical,  24,  29,  ^^i,  78,  118,  145, 

257.  275>  278. 
-Archaeological,  231,  265,  275. 
Architectural,  273. 
Art,  232,  267. 
Botanical,  257,  275. 
Chemical,  231. 

Commercial,  231,  251,  265,  270,  273. 
Economic,  270,  272,  273. 
Educational,  231. 
Ethnographical,  241,  242.  248,  253, 

255- 

Geological,  231,  265,  275. 

Historical,  251,  253,  278. 

Industrial,  231,  270. 

Instruments  and  Apparatus,  Philo- 
sophical, Surgical,  and  other,  87, 
88,  106,  113,  148,  149,  152,  161, 
163,  218,  227. 

Materia  Medica,  257,  275. 

Mineralogical,  264,  275,  278. 

Natural  History,  224,  226,  231,  264. 

Palaeontological,  275,  278. 

Pathological,  162,  163,  265,  275. 

Religious,  218,  219,  242. 

Weaving,  272. 

Zoological,  265,  275. 

(5)  General  Museums, 

General  Museums,  260,  265,  275. 

(6)  Museums  of  the  Future,  2S5. 
Museums  and  collections  referred  to  : 

Abbotsford,  308. 
Abela"s,  47,  194. 
Aberdeen,  163,  164,  308. 
Aberystwith,  312. 
Academia,  Nat.  Cur.  ,117. 
Adams's,  172. 
Agricola  (G. ),  24. 


Museums,  continued. 
Agrippa  von  Nettesheym,  24. 
Aix,  92. 

Aldborough,  293. 
Aldrovandi,  78,  206,  236. 
Alexandria,  i. 
Allan  (George),  185. 
Alloa,  308. 
Alnwick,  293. 
Alton,  293. 

Amras,  Schloss,  63,  86,  149,  191. 
Amsterdam,  37,  iii,  115,  116,  145. 
Andersonian,  Glasgow,  161. 
Andover,  294. 
Angeloni,  36. 
Antwerp,  188. 
Armagh,  31 1. 
Ashmolean,   36,   50,   108,    154,   159, 

183,  188,  203,  204,  205,  228,  230, 

240,  241,  303. 
Augustus,  Emperor,  5,  45. 
Aylesbury,  294. 
Baier(J.'j.),  117. 
Bakewell,  294. 
Balfour  (Sir   A.),    53,    56,   76,   152, 

156,217. 
Balfour  (Sir  James),  151. 
Banff,  308. 
Bangor,  312. 
Banks  (Sir  Joseph),  142. 
Barby,  248. 

Bargrave,  Canon,  31,  149 
Barnard  Castle,  294. 
Basle,  97,  206,  248,  266. 
Bateman  (Richard),  1S4. 
Bath,  294. 
Bauhin  (J.),  97. 
Bausch  (J.  L.),  102. 
Bayer  (Matthaeus),  170. 
Belfast,  311. 
Bclon  (P.),  26. 
Berhn,  78,  100,  146,  150,  242,  255, 

256,  258. 
Berne,  266. 
Bernon  (L.),  95. 
Berwick-on-Tweed,  294. 
Besler  (Basil  and  Rupert),  98,  99. 
Bethnal  Green,  244,  292. 
Bidelli's,  201. 
Birmingham,  294,  295. 
Blackburn,  295. 
Bodleian,  15,  230. 
Boerhaave  (H.),  122,  146. 
Bologna,  78,  80,  81,  89,  206. 
Bolton,  295. 
Boodt  (A.  de),  26. 
Bootle,  295. 


,28 


INDEX 


jNIuseums,  continued. 

Borel's,  20,  94. 

Borgiano,  242,  247. 

Borilly's,  92. 

Boulter  (D.),  184. 

Brackenhoffer  (E.),  214. 

Bradford,  295. 

Brander  (Gustavus),  141. 

Bremen,  249. 

Brighton,  295. 

Bristol,  295. 

British  Museum,  15,  18,  127,  132, 
136,  140-144,  202,  211,  212,  234, 
241,  247,  250,  264,  267,  274,  287, 
292. 

Bromel  (O.),  z^. 

Briickmann  (F.  E.),  112,  149. 

Brussels,  78. 

BDcemi(G.),  81. 

Buda  Pesth,  150. 

Buddie  (A.),  137. 

Bullock's,  154,  174,  204. 

Burslem,  295. 

Burton-on-Trent,  295. 

Bur}--St. -Edmunds,  296. 

Bytemeister  (H.  J.),  148. 

Caerleon,  296. 

Calceolari,  83,  236. 

Caledonian,  204. 

Cambridge,  118,  120,  296. 

Camps  (F.  de),  38. 

Canterbury,  18,  248,  296. 

Cardan  (J.  )>  25. 

Cardiff,  312. 

Cargill  (flames),  26. 

Carlisle,  296. 

Carlyle,  292. 

Carnarvon,  312. 

Carnavalet.  256,  266. 

Cassel,  145. 

Cay  (Robert),  167. 

Cesalpini  (A.),  26. 

Chard,  296. 

Charles  II.,  147. 

Charleton  (W.),  129,  136. 

Chatham,  296. 

Chelmsford,  297. 

Chelsea,  171. 

Cheltenham,  297. 

Chester,  297. 

Chesterfield,  297. 

Chevalier  (N.),  37. 

Chicago,  243. 

Chichester,  297. 

Christiania,  241. 

Christchurch,  Hants,  296. 

Christina,  Queen,  38. 


Museums,  continued. 

Church  Missionarv-  Society,  248. 

Cirencester,  297. 

Clark  (Baron),  160. 

Clusius  (C),  220. 

Coalbrookdale,  297. 

Colchester,  297. 

Coleraine  (Lord),  184. 

Colwal  (D.),  131. 

Contant  (Paul),  93. 

Conyers  (John),  120,   134,  173,  267. 

Cook  (Captain  James),  245. 

Copenhagen,    35,  51,    103,  150,  193, 

194.  216,  232,  239,  241. 
Corbie,  Abbey  of,  3. 
Cordus  (V.),  25. 
Cork,  311. 
Cospi,  79,  89,  216. 
Courtine.     See  Charleton. 
Cox  (James),  173. 
Crassier  (Baron  de),  38. 
Croyden,  297. 
Curland,  Duke  of,  181. 
Cusanus  (JNI.),  85. 
Danzig,  147,  233. 
Darmstadt,  231,  242. 
Darwen,  297. 
Davila,  9. 
De  Camps  (F.),  1^. 
Delacoste  and  Curling,  180. 
Delft,  60,  148. 

Denis,  St.,  Treasury,  3,  11,  12,  198. 
Derby,  297. 
De%azes,  298. 
Devonport,  298. 
Donaldson,  292. 
Dorchester,  29S. 
Dover,  29S. 
Dresden,  18,  25,  29,  35,  37,  40,  59, 

78,   loi,   149,   150,  199,  205,  206, 

208,  242. 
Drottningholm,  225. 
Di-ury  (Dru),  148. 
Dublin,  311. 
Dudley,  298. 
Du  Four  (P.  S.),  170. 
Dufresne,  158. 
Dumfries,  30S. 
Dundee,  309. 
Durham,  29S. 

Durham,  Treasury  of,  3,  7,  10. 
Eastbourne,  29S. 
Edinburgh,    53,    56,    153-159.    167, 

169,  179,  212,  247,  308. 
Eeckhoff(H.),  219. 
Elgin,  309. 
Enkhuizen,  96,  191. 


INDEX 


,29 


Museums,  continued. 
Erfurt,  118. 
Eton,  29S. 
Exeter,  298. 
Faille  (De  la),  148. 
Florence,   18,  38,  78,  147,  187,  211, 

242. 
Folkestone,  298. 
Forres,  309. 
Fothergill  (John),  1S5. 
Fothergill  (W.),  142. 
Foucault,  96. 
Fountain  (Sir  A.))  I37- 
Frankfort,  146. 
Frome,  298. 
Fuiren  (H.),  38. 
Gaddi,  211. 
Gailliard  (Jean),  124. 
Gal  way,  311. 
Genoa,  147. 

Gesner  (Conrad),  25,  97. 
Giessen,  148. 
Giggleswick,  299. 
Glasgow,  76,   160-163,  I/?!  245-259, 

271,  309. 
Glastonbury,  299. 
Gloucester,  299. 
Goddefroy,  253. 
Gosport,  299. 
Gottorp,  51,  96,  145. 
Gottwaldt  (C),  147. 
Greene  (R.),  174,  178,  179. 
Greenock,  309. 
Greenwich,  185,  299. 
Grimani,  14. 
Gualtieri  (N.),  147. 
Guernsey,  299. 
Guildhall  Museum,  281,  292. 
Guille-Alle,  299. 
Guimet,  241. 
Guys  Hospital,  292. 
Haarlem,  194. 
Hahn  (G.),  35,  181. 
Haileybury,  299. 
Halberstadt,  147. 
Halifax,  299. 
Halle,  146,  148,  233. 
Hamburg,  145,  149,  242,  249,  253. 
Hamilton  (G.),  163. 
Hamilton  (Sir  Wm.),  142. 
Hanover,  8,  233. 
Harvard  (Mass.),  274. 
Hawick,  309. 
Heidelberg,  99. 
Helmstadt,  9,  148. 
Hereford,  299. 
Hermann  (Paul),  122. 


Museums,  continued. 
Hermitage,  176. 

Hildesheim,  Treasury  of,  8,  9,  11. 
Hoffmann  (F.),  220. 
Hofmann  (L. ),  146. 
Hooke  (Robert),  170. 
Homiman,  292. 
Hubert's,  51,  127,  173. 
Htibner  (J.),  I49- 
Huddersfield,  299. 
Hull,  246,  299. 
Humphrey  (George),  184. 
Hunterian,   Glasgow,   76,    160,   162, 

177,  185,  245,  257,  309. 
Huntingdon,  299. 
Hutton  (James),  158. 
Imperati,  85. 
India,  London,  241. 
Innsbruck,  63,  86. 
Inverness,  309. 
Ipswich,  300. 
Jameson  (Robert),  158. 
Jena,  146,  148. 
Jermyn  Street,  London,  292. 
Kahn  (Joseph),  113,  155. 
Kelso,  309. 

Kemp  (John),  34,  124,  267. 
Kendal,  300. 

Kentmann  (Johann),  28,  34,  212. 
Keswick,  300. 
Kew  Gardens,  292. 
Kilkenny,  312. 
Kilmarnock,  309. 
King's  College,  London,  292. 
King's  Lynn,  300. 
Kircher    (Athanasius),   51,  91,    106, 

210. 
Kirkcudbright,  310. 
Kirke  (Thomas),  183. 
Kirkleatham,  300. 
Kirkring  (T.),  145. 
Kisner  (J.  G.),  146. 
Konigsberg,  190. 
Lambeth,  108. 
Lancaster,  300. 
Largo,  310. 
Lateran,  18. 
Launceston,  300. 
Leeds,  300,  301. 
Leek,  301. 
Leicester,  301. 
Leipsic,  38,  51,  242,  253. 
L'Estoile  (P.  de),  90. 
Lethieullier,  123. 
Lettsom  (J.  C),  184. 
Lever's,  175. 
Lewes,  301. 


330 


INDEX 


Museums,  continued. 

Leyden,  29,  31,  32,  51,  53,  57,  63, 
65,  145,  189,  190,  208,  209,  242, 
253,  287. 

Lichfield,  174,  301. 

Linnaeus,  225. 

Lisbon,  242. 

Liverpool,  301. 

"  Liverpool  Museum,''  178. 

Livingstone,  245,  247. 

London,  18,  51,  78,  107,  121,  122, 
124,  126,  128,  132,  134,  140,  142, 
143,  149,  150,  158,  172,  17s,  178, 
241,  247,  248,  264,  27s,  292,  293. 

London  Hospital,  292. 

London  ^Missionary  Society,  248,  292. 

Louvre,  18,  241. 

Liibeck,  53,  249,  251. 

Luders  (C.  W.),  253. 

Ludlow,  301. 

Ludgate  Hill,  135. 

Lyons,  170,  241. 

Macclesfield,  301. 

Madrid,  150,  242. 

Maidstone,  301. 

Malton,  302. 

Malvern,  302. 

Manchester,  302. 

Marlborough,  15. 

Marlborough  College,  302. 

Mart)^!  (John),  181. 

Mason  College,  294. 

Mead  (Dr.  R.),  122,  125,  137. 

Melle  (J.  von),  53,  219,  252. 

Aleiton  Mowbray,  302. 

Mercati  (M.),  28,  82,  213. 

Mere  (|.  van  der),  60. 

Merret  (C),  136. 

Meyrick  (Sir  S.),  I75,  I79- 

Micconi,  147. 

Aliddlesborough,  302. 

Miers  (Mr.),  172. 

Milan,  Churches  of,  3 
Museums,  87. 

Mithridates,  4. 

Modena,  81,  242. 

Monardes  (Nicolas),  24. 

Montrose,  310. 

Moscardo  (L.),  84. 

Moscow,  150,  242. 

Munich,  18,  45,  78. 

Mussell  (E.),  125,  184. 

Naples,  17,  85. 

Neath,  312. 

Neilson  (John),  184. 

Newbury,  302. 

Newcastle-upon-Tyne,  185,  302. 


Museums,  continued. 
Newport,  303. 
New  York,  180,  243,  264. 
Nicolai  (G. ),  147. 
Northampton,  303. 
Northwich,  303. 
Norwich,  303. 
Nottingham,  303. 
Nuremberg,  40,  41,  53,98,  117,  149, 

193,  235. 
Nymegen,  99. 
Odescalchi,  38. 
Ogilvie  (Wm.),  164. 
Oldham,  303. 
Olearius,  96. 
Ooroomia,  248. 
Orangere  (Q.  de  T),  187. 
Orleans,  Duke  of,  92. 
Orleans,  Town,  187. 
Ortel  (A.),  26. 
Oxford,    15,  36,  56,   108,  203,   243, 

244,  Z^l>- 
Oxford,  Earl  of,  183. 
Paisley,  310. 

Palatine  Apollo,  Temple  of,  4. 
Palissy,  90. 

Paludanus  (B.),  96,  242. 
Paracelsus,  24. 
Paris,  10,  18,  78,  92,  93,   150,   208, 

241,  247,  256,  266,  275. 
Parkes,  292. 
Parkinson  (James),  177. 
Peale(C.  W.),  179. 
Peiresc,  91. 

Pembroke  (Earl  of),  15,  137. 
Penrith,  303. 
Penzance,  304. 
Perth,  169,  310. 
Peterborough,  304. 
Peterhead,  310. 
Peters',  188. 
Petiver  (James),  135. 
Philadelphia,  179,  243. 
Pinelli,  14. 

Pitt-Rivers  (General),  243,  244. 
Plater  (Felix),  97,  206. 
Plukenet  (L.),  137. 
Plymouth,  304. 
Poitiers,  93. 
Pond  (Arthur),  184. 
Poole,  304. 

Portland,  Duchess  of,  183. 
Post  Office,  London,  292. 
Prague,  40,  41,  231. 
Presburg,  51. 
Preston,  304. 
Pulteney  (R.),  181. 


INDEX 


;3i 


Museums,  continued. 

Quedlinburg,    treasury    of,    8,     115, 

199. 
Rackstrow  (B. ),  184. 
Ramsay  (Prof.  R.),  157,  184. 
Ratzcl  (J.  C),  147- 
Ray  (John),  ill. 
Reading,  304. 
Reymers  (Tobias),  51. 
Richmond,  304. 
Ripen,  304. 

Ritter  (Albert),  113,  114. 
Rome,  4,  5,  18,  78,  106,  242,  248. 
Rondelet  (G. ),  26. 
Roque  (M.  de  la),  187. 
Rothschild  (Hon.  L.  W.),  277. 
Royal  Architectural  Society,  292. 
Royal  Botanic  Society,  293. 
Royal  College  of  Surgeons,  293. 
Royal  Society,  31,  34,  51,  55,   123, 

154,  193,  209,  216. 
Royal  United  Service  Institution,  293. 
Rugini  of  Venice,  201. 
Runiph  (G.  E. ),  147. 
Ruysch  (F.),  116,  182,  209. 
Ryde,  305. 

Sachse  von  Lowenheim,  21. 
Saffron  Walden,  305. 
Sala  (Mario),  85. 
Salford,  305. 
Salisbuiy,  305. 
Sallust,  5. 
Saltero  (Don),  171. 
ScaligerQ.  C),  25. 
Scarborough,  305. 
Scaurus,  4. 
Schynvoet  (S.),  182. 
Scotland,  Society  of  Antiquaries,  167. 
Scott  (George),  184. 
Seba  (A.),  115,  182. 
Seguin(P.),  38. 
Settala  or  Septala,  37,  87,  201. 
Shakespeare,  306. 
Shefheld,  305. 
Sherard  (Consul),  181. 
Shield  Walk,  121. 
Shrewsbury,  305. 
Sibbald  (Sir  K.),  153,  217. 
Sloane  (Sir  H.),  130,  132,   134,   136, 

137,  138,  183,  iSS,  267. 
Smet  van  der  Ketten  (Jan),  99. 
Soane  (Sir  J.),  184,  293. 
Southampton,  305. 
South  Kensington.     See  Victoria  and 

Albert. 
Southport,  305. 
South  Shields,  305. 


Museums,  continued. 
Sparkuhle  (P.  J.),  250. 
Spener  (J.  J.),  148. 
Spitzer  (F.),  179. 
Spon  (Jacob),  21. 
Spring  Gardens,  142,  173. 
Slaftord,  305. 
Stalybridge,  305. 
Stamford,  306. 
St.  Andrews,  164,  310. 
St.  Bartholomew's  Hospital,  293. 
St.  Denis,  3,  11,  12,  198. 
St.  Genevieve,  92,  218. 
St.  George's  Hospital,  293. 

Museum,  Sheffield,  198. 
St.  Germain,  233. 
St.  Neots,  306. 
St.  Petersburg,  18,  96,  147,  148,  150, 

176,  182,  189,  242. 
Stirling,  310. 

Stockholm,  150,  241,  266. 
Stockport,  306. 
Stoke-upon-Trent,  306. 
Stratford-on-Avon,  306. 
Stryk  (Samuel),  185. 
Stukeley  (William),  126,  183. 
Stuttgart,  233. 
Sunderland,  306. 
Swammerdam  (J.  J.),  ill. 
Swansea,  312. 
Sydney,  243. 

Tarvisiano  (Bernard),  194. 
Taunton,  306. 
Ten  Brocke  (Berend),  96. 
Tenby,  312. 
Tessin,  Count,  225. 
Thoresby  (Ralph),  45,  126,  183,  221. 
Thornhill,  310. 
Thurneisser  (L. ),  26. 
Torquay,  306. 
Tower,  The,    of  London,    41,    178, 

293- 
Towneley  (Charles),  144. 
Tradescant  (John),  37,  107,  188,  200. 
Tring,  277. 
Truro,  306. 

Tunstall  (Marmaduke),  184. 
Tynemouth,  306. 
Tyssen  (Samuel),  184. 
Ulm,  170. 
Ulrichsdahl,  224. 
Upsala,  225. 
Utrecht,  37,  248. 
Valentini  (M.  B.),  in,  188. 
Vatican,  18,  29. 
Venice,   11,    12,    14,    150,   194,  201, 

242. 


332 


INDEX 


Museums,  continued. 

Venus-Genetrix,  Temple  of,  4. 

Verona,  83-85. 

Victoria  and  Albert,  149,  187,  293. 

Vienna,  17,  18,  78,  86,  149,  150,  190, 
210,  233,  237-242,  256. 

Vincent  (L. ),  209. 

Wakefield,  307. 

Warrington,  307. 

Warwick,  307. 

Washington,  242,  274. 

Watford,  307. 

Weigel(E.),  148. 

Welfen,  8. 

Wellington,  N.  Z.,  256. 

Welshpool,  312. 

Wenlock,  307. 

West  Ham,  185. 

West  (James),  184. 

West  Prussian,  233. 

Weymouth,  253. 

Whitby,  307. 

Whitechapel,  293. 

Whitehall,  121. 

Wilde  (J.  de),  38. 

Winchester,  307. 

Windsor,  307. 

Wisbech,  307. 

Wittenberg,  147,  208. 

Wodrow  (Robert),  165. 

Wolverhampton,  307. 

Woodward  (Dr.  J.),  118. 

Woolwich,  293,  307. 

Worcester,  307. 

Worm  (Ole),  43,  47,  56,  104,  214. 

Wright  (Dr.  Peter),  163. 

Yate(W.  H.),  175. 

York,  308. 

Zanoni's,  80. 
Mushrooms,  Stone,  63. 
Mussell  (Ebenezer),  125,  184. 


N. 
Naples,  17,  85. 
Napoleon,    removal    of  museums   and 

art  objects  by,    loi.     See  vol.    ii. 

p.  49. 
Narwhal  horn,  41,  42. 
Natural    Historj-  Museums,   224,    226, 

231,  264. 
Directions  for  formation  of,  226. 
Nature,    Exceptional    powers,    62,   67, 

69,  92,  no,  192,  195,  198. 
Navy,  Officers  of  the,  as  collectors  for 

Museums,  158,  247. 
Neath,  312. 


Neickelius  (C.   F.),   2,  22,  23,  36,  38, 

90,  96,  129,  145,  147,  170,  207. 
Neilson  (John),  184. 
Neocorus  (Ludolphus),  i.     .SV.:  Kiister. 
Neolithic  Period,  234. 
Newbur}-,  302. 

Newcastle-upon-Tyne,  185,  302. 
Newport,  303. 
Newt,  The,  191. 
New  York,  180,  243,  264. 

Delacosteand  Curling's  museum,  180. 

Lyceum  of  Natural  History,  1 80. 

Natural  History  Museum,  264. 

Ethnographical  collections,  243. 
Nicolai  (Gottfried).  147. 
Nightmare,  remedy  for,  73. 
Nisbet  (Alexander),  42. 
Nisus  formativus,  62. 
Noah's  ark,  a  museum,  2,  107. 

Hairs  from  Noah's  beard  at  Corbie,  3. 
Nordhausen,  220. 
Northampton,  303. 
Northwich,  303. 
Norwich,  303. 
Nottingham,  303. 
Nuck  (Professor  Anton),  288. 
Numismatics,  origin  of  science  of,  13, 

17- 
Numophylacium=:a   coin   cabinet,    38, 

221. 
Nuremberg,  40,  41,   53,  98,   117,   128, 

149,  193,  235. 
Nutmegs,  Stone,  63. 
Nymegen,  99. 

O. 

Observation,    Faculty   of,    training   of, 

258,  274. 
Obsolete  specimens,  267. 
Oculus  mundi,  85. 
Oddities  and  freaks,  198,  200,  215. 
Odescalchi,  Duke,  38. 
Odontopetra,  71. 

Oeningen,  fossil  man,  found  at,  194. 
Ogilvie  (Prof.  William).  164. 
Oil  Well,  197. 

Oldenburg  (Henry),  62,  70,  130,  200. 
Oldham,  303. 
Oldys  (William),  132,  140. 
Olearius  (Adam),  96,  145. 
01iva(J.  B.),  70,84. 
Oliver  (Dr.   William),    103,    104,    190, 

194. 
Ombria,  67,  85. 
Ooroomia,  248. 
Oram  (Gilbert),  of  Dundee,  50. 


INDEX 


133 


Orangere  (Q.  de  1').     Sc'e  L"Orangere. 

Oranges,  Stone,  63. 

Order  and  Method,  236,  262,  263,  265. 

Orleans,  Gaston,  Duke  of,  92,  12S. 

Orleans,  Maid  of,  Sword  of,  199. 

Orleans  museum,  187. 

Ortel  (Abraham),  26. 

Osborne  (Tom),  140. 

Ossa  de  corde  Cervi,  59. 

Ossicula  Wormiana,  104. 

Osteolog)',  comparative,  228. 

Ostrich  eggs,  hung  up  in  churches,  8. 

Otte  (Christian),  8,  9,  10,  258. 

Otter,  The,  217. 

Otto  II.,  Emperor,  199. 

Oxford,  15,  36,  56,  108,  203,  241,  243, 

244.  303- 

Bodleian  library,  15,  230,  303. 

Pitt-Rivers,  collection,  242. 

See  Ashmolean  Museum. 
Oxford,  Earl  of,  declined  to  purchase 
Kemp's  museum,  125. 

his  library,  140. 

pictures,  176. 

museum,  183. 
Ox-heart,  Stone,  63. 
Oyes  d'Ecosse,  Les,  94. 

P. 
Paisley,  310. 

Paleolithic  Period,  233,  234. 
Palceontological  Museums,  275,  278. 
Palatine  Apollo,  temple  of,  4. 
Palatine,  Elector,  99. 
Paley  (William).     His  Natural  Theo- 
logy as  a  basis  for  Museum  arrange- 
ment, 229. 
Palissy  (Bernard),  90. 
Pallas,  Body  of,  46. 
Paludanus  (B. ),  95,  242. 
Paracelsus,  24,  237,  238. 
Pare  (Abraham),  44,  52. 
Paris,  78,  92,  102,  150,  179,  194,  247. 
Cabinet  du  roi,  93. 
Natural    History    Museum,    10,    93, 

208,  275. 
Louvre,  18,  241. 
Spitzer  collection,  179. 
Musee  Guimet,  241. 
Carnavalet  Museum,  256,  266. 
Parker  (J.  H.),  204,  230. 
Parkes  Museum,  292. 
Parkinson   (James),    31,    43,    63,    177,' 

194,  217. 
Parthey  (Gustav),  i. 
Pathological  collections,  162,  163,  265, 
275- 


Paul,  St.,  at  Malta,  193. 

relics  of,  199. 
Paul  II.,  as  a  coin  collector,  14. 
PauUi  (Professor  Simon),  95. 
Pansanius,  5. 

Pauw  or  Pavius  (Peter),  287. 
Peacham  (Henry),  30. 
Peale  (C.  W.),  179,  212,  225. 
Pear  Stone,  63. 
Pedometer,  1 14. 
Peiresc  (Fabri  dc),  85. 

as  traveller,  85. 

collector,  90. 

his  library,  90. 

his  agents,  91. 

opinions  on  fossils,  92. 
Pembroke,  Thomas,  Earl  of,  15,  137. 
Pennant,  Thomas,  155. 
Penrith,  303. 
Penzance,  304. 
Perpetual  motion,  88,  107. 
Perth  museums,  169,  310. 

Library.and  Antiquarian  Society,  168. 
Peter  the  Great,  115,  116,  182,  242. 
Peterborough,  304. 
Peterhead,  310. 
Peters  (Mons.),  188. 
Petiver  (James),  23,  117,  129,  135,  146. 
Petrarch,  as  a  coin  collector,  13,  53. 
Petrifactions,  62,  64,  68,  85,  119,  196, 
201,  202,  208,  214,  218,  219,  223, 
226. 

Shells,  85. 

Wood,  194,  214. 

Sponge,  85. 

Fruit,  63,  201. 

Cinnamon,  85- 

Mushroom,  85. 

Bread,  202. 

Biscuits,  202. 

Eggs,  196,  198,  201. 

Cheese,  85,  198,  202. 

Teeth,  63,  99,  214. 

Man,  94,  233. 

Child,  194. 

Monk,  194. 

Human  head,  82. 

Brains,  no. 

Eyes,  1 10. 

Tongue,  196. 

Heart,  no. 

Foot,  198. 

Horse  head,  no. 

Bull's  heart,  no. 

Cows,  196. 

Cow's  horn,  214. 

Hen  and  Eggs,  196. 


134 


INDEX 


Petrifactions,  continued. 

Stag  and  Serpent,  194. 

Hedgehog,  201. 

Glass  and  water,  197. 

Sepulchral  ruins,  198. 

African  city,  194. 

Stone  tools  supposed  to  be  petrifac- 
tions, 237. 

Petrifaction  explained,  119,  196. 
Petroleum,  217. 
Pettigrew  (T.  T.),  54,  56,  61. 
Petty  Church,  bones  of  giant  at,  11. 
Peutinger  (Konrad),  17. 
Pflaumern  (J.  H.  von),  14,  85. 
Pharmaceutical  preparations,  146. 
Pharmacopoeia,  The,  41,  52,  55,  57,  59, 

73>  76,  193- 
Philadelphia,  179,  180,  243. 
Phosphorus,  81. 
Photographs,  261. 
Physicotheca,  physiotechnotameum  = 

museum,  35,  220. 
Physiological  Museums,  275. 
Physiotameion  =  a  museum,  219. 
Picture  Galleries,  278. 
Piddocks,  the  barnacle  shell,  76. 
Pilgrims  of  the  Middle  Ages,  8. 

as  collectors  of  inscriptions,  15. 
Pinacotheca,  the,  of  the  Romans,  4. 

=  Museum,  35. 
PinelH  (G.  V.),  14. 

his  library,  14. 

his  museum,  14. 
Pitt-Rivers  (General),  243,  244. 
Plancy  (Collin  de). 

See  Collin  de  Plancy. 
Plastic  power  of  nature,  62,  67,  69,  92, 

no,  192,  195,  198,  223. 
Plater  (Felix),  46,  97,  206. 
Plater  (Thomas),  98. 
Pliny,  4,  5,  19,  67,  68,    128,  213. 
Plot  (Robert),  31,  50,  64,  109,  240. 
Plukenet  (Dr.  Leonard),  137. 
Plymouth,  304. 

Poems  on  Affairs  of  State,  135. 
Poison,  preservatives  against,  40,  115. 
Poitiers,  93. 

Poland,  King  of.     See  Augustus  II. 
Poleni  (Giovanni),  18. 
Politian,  use  of  ancient  coins  by,   13  ; 

referred  to,  170. 
Pomet  (Pierre),  53,  56. 
Pompey  the  Great,  4. 
Pond  (Arthur),  184. 
Pont  (Timothy),  151. 
Poole,  304. 
Pope  (Alexander),  105,  118,  122,  137. 


Pope,  The,  115. 
Popes, 

Alexander  VII.,  187. 

Clement  XL,  29. 

Eugenius  IV.,  16. 

Gregory  XV.,  loi. 

Leo  X.,  170. 

Nicholas  V.,  16. 

Paul  II.,  14. 
Portland,  Duchess  of,  183. 
Post  Office  Museum,  London,  292. 
Povev  (Thomas),  133. 
Powell  (Thomas,  D.D.),  35,  96. 
Prague,  40,  41,  loi,  231. 
Prehistoric   tools   and  weapons   recog- 
nised  as   similar   to   those  of  un- 
civilized people  of  the  present,  82, 
240,  241,  243. 

Collections  of  prehistoric  objects,  243. 
Pre-Roman  Period,  233. 
Presburg,  51. 
Preston,  304. 

Prices   paid    for    specimens   to   be   re- 
corded, 264. 
Printing,  Specimens  of  early,  266. 
Printing  required  for  museum  work,  277. 
Prior  (Matthew),  228. 
Propaganda,  College  of  the,  247. 
Provenance  of  objects,  264. 
Ptolemy  Philadelphus,  i,  274. 
Pulteney  (Richard),  24,  25,  26,  50,  107, 
109,  133,  135.  137.  166,  181,  187, 
204. 


Quaternary  gravels,  267. 
Quatrefages  (A.  de),  233. 
Quedlinburg,  Treasury  of,  8,  115,  199. 
Queensland,  Aborigines  of,  57. 
Quiccheberg  (Samuel),  28. 

R 

Rackstrow  (B.),  184. 

Raine  (James),  7,  8,  10. 

Ramsay  (Dr.  Robert),  156,  157,  184. 

Raritaten-cabinet  =  museum,  37. 

Rarities,  36,  186,  198,  229. 

Rarotheca,  35. 

Rattray  Cave,  197. 

Rattray  (Svlvester),  57,  60,  197. 

Ratzel  (J.  C.),  147. 

Ray  (John),  a  collector,  in. 

refe'rred  to  31,  37,  71,  74,  81,  82,  84, 
85.  87,  89,  97,  100,  III,  132,  133, 
193,  206. 


INDEX 


Reading,  304. 

Red  deer,  5S. 

Regenfuss  (F.  M.).  104,  147. 

Register  of  accessions,  265. 

Regular  stones,  62. 

Reinach  (Salomon),  6,  64,  279. 

Reiske  (J.),  70,  193,  221. 

Relics  of  saints,  3,  sqq. 

Religion   as   a   museum    subject,    218, 

219,  241. 
Reliquaries,  6. 
Reniora,  The,  128,  204. 
Repository  =  museum,  34,  36,  157. 
Renauldin  (L.  J.),  21. 
Renodaeus  (Johannes)  or  Renon  (Jean), 

210. 
Research,  Museum  necessary  for,  274, 
283. 

material  for,  277. 
Reusch  (C.  F.),  198. 
Reymers  (Tobias).  51. 
Richelieu,  Cardinal,  194. 
Richmond,  304. 
Richter  (G.  F.),  146. 
Rings,  Study  of,  18. 
Riolan  (Jean),  46. 
Ripon,  304. 

Ritter  (Albert),  113,  114. 
Robinson  (Tancred),  75. 
Rochelle,  95. 
Roman  College,  106. 
Roman  Period,  233.  234. 
Roman  Wall  in  Scotland,  160,  167,  218. 
Romans,  The,  as  collectors,  4. 
Rome,  Unearthing  of  antiquities  in,  13. 

Museums,  4,  5,  18,  78,  106,  242,  248. 
Rondelet,  (G.),  26,  69,  73,  78. 
Ronsseus  (Baldwin),  58. 
Roque  (M.  de  la)  museum,  187. 
Rossi  (G.  B.  de),  15. 
Rothschild  (Hon.  L.  W. ),  277. 
Royal  Architectural  Society,  292. 
Royal  Botanic  Society,  293. 
Royal  College  of  Surgeons,  293. 
Royal  Society,  31,  34,  51,  55,  102,  117, 

'  123,  13d,  132,  133,  134,  138,  142, 
154,  193,  209,  216. 

Museum.     See  s.v.  Museums. 
Royal  United  Service  Institution,  293. 
Riibeland,  43. 
Ruby,  large,  19S. 
Rudolph  of  Suabia,  9. 
Rudolph  II.,  Emperor,  26. 
Rugini's  collection,  201. 
Rumph  (G.  E.),  147,  153,  182. 
Ruysch  (Frederik),  n6,  182,  209. 
Ryde,  305, 


S 

Sachse  von  Lowenheim  (T.  f.),  21,  35,. 

59.  96,  97,  127,  I9i>  194.  196. 
Sacken  (Eduard  von)  Baron,  279. 
Saette  =  flint  arrow  heads,  82. 
Saffron  Walden,  305. 
Saint, 

Andrews,  25,  98,  164,  310. 

Aubyn,  174. 

Bartholomew,  thumb  of,  7. 

Bartholomew's  Hospital,  293. 

Benedict's  pence,  115. 

Christopher's  bones,  46. 

Denis,  3,  il,  12,  198. 

Genevieve,  92,  218. 

George's  Hospital,  293. 

Museum,  Sheffield,  305. 

Germain,  233. 

Neots,  306. 

Patrick,  193. 

Paul,  193,  199. 

Paul's  Cathedral,  London,  273. 

Petersburg,    18,  96,   116,    117,    147, 
148,  150,  176,  182,  189,  242. 

Riquier,  3. 

Sergius,  thumb  of,  7. 

Ulric's  earth,  115. 
Saints,  Bones  of,  45. 
Sala  (Mario),  85. 
Salamander,  Fossil,  47,  194. 
Sal  ford,  305. 

Saline  principle  in  the  earth,  1 10,  196. 
Salisbury,  305. 
Sallengre,  (A.  H.  de),  18. 
Sallust,  Gardens  of,  5. 
Salmon  (William),  45,  55,  56,  60,  77,  93. 
Saltero  (Don),  171. 
Sarcophagus,  213. 

Saxons,  use  of  bronze  weapons  by,  80. 
Saxonv,  43,  159,  233. 
Scaliger  (J.  C.),  25,  38,  42,  59,  74. 
Scarborough,  305. 
Scarcity  of  specimens,  256,  280. 
Scaurus,  as  a  collector,  4. 
Scented  stones,  159,  222. 
Scharzfeld  cave,  43. 
Schatzkammer  =  Museum,  34,  38. 
Scheelenberg,  (         von),  65,  66. 
Schelhammer  (G.   C.),   19,  35,  78,  79, 

81,  190,  278. 
Schleswig-Holstein-Gottorp,  96. 
Schlosser  ([ulius  von),  7. 
Schmeltz  (j.  D.  E.),  253. 
School  Museums,  261. 
Schroder  (Dr.  Johann),  43,  44,  54,  55, 
56,  57,  59.  60,  73,  77- 


136 


INDEX 


Schultze  van  Schvvensche  Bregoschutz 

(Tobias),  96. 
Schuyl  (Francis),  30. 
Schyn  (Hermann),  I17. 
Schynvoet  (Simon),  182. 
Science  and  Art  Museums,  271. 

Set-  Art. 
Science  teaching  in  Schools,  261. 
Scilla  (Agostino),  70. 
Scotland, 

Specimens  from,  135. 

Barnacle  Geese,  32,  73,  76,  94, 

Collectors  in,  135,  151. 

Museums  in,  151. 

Natural  History  of,  153. 

Early  libraries,  151. 

Language,  152,  153. 

History  of  civilization,  256. 

Customs  tariff,  53. 

Society  of  Antiquaries,  167. 

Universities  Commission,  257. 

Museum    of    Scottish    History    and 
Civilization  wanted,  256. 
Scott  (George),  184. 
Scoular  (Dr.  John),  162. 
Seals,  Study  of,  18. 
Seba  (Albert),  115,  182. 
Segar  (Georg),  105,  215. 
Seguin  (P.),  38. 
Selenomancy,  68. 
Seminal  quality  in  the  earth,  62. 
Sepi  (G.),  106. 
Sepulchral  urns,  232, 
Serpent,  Brazen,  of  the  Wilderness,  3. 
Serpents,  to  keep  away,  59,  193. 
Serpents,  petrified,  59,  196. 
Serpents'  tongues,  68,  71,  73. 

See  Snakes. 
Settala  or  Septala  (Ludovic  and  Man- 

fredo),  37,  87,  201,  238. 
Shakespeare,  41. 
Shakespeare  Museum,  306. 
Shark's  teeth,  69,  71,  72,  73. 
Sheba,  Queen  of,  3,  172. 
Sheffield,  305. 
Sherard  (Consul),  181. 
Shield  Walk  collection,  121. 
Shipmasters  as  collectors  for  Museums, 

246. 
Shrewsbury,  305. 

Sibbald   (Sir  Robert),   22,  36,  53,  56, 
76,  95,   152,   153,   154,    158,    165, 
198,  202,  217,  238,  268. 
Siebold  (P.  F.  von),  33,  244. 
Silesia,  43,  198. 
Signatures  explained,  82,  85. 
Simond  (Louis),  212, 


Simplers,  133. 

Simson  (Prof!  Robert),  166. 

Skeletons  in  Museums,  208,  209. 

Skin,  Human,  its  uses,  57. 

Skull,  Human,  in  medicine,  55. 

Slains,  stone  forming  cave  at,  197. 

Sloane  (Sir  Hans),  112,  121,   130,  131, 

132,  134.  135.  136,  137.   138,  139, 
140,  142,  171,  188,  267. 

his  Museum  described,  136-138. 

referred  to,   130,  132,   134-138,    18^, 
188,  267. 

gift  to  the  Nation,  139. 
Smet  van  der  Ketten  (Jan),  99. 
Smith  (C.  Roach),  235. 
Smith  (James),  the  Whitechapel  anti- 
quary, 281. 
Smithsonian  Institution,  242. 
Snakes  will  not  attack  a  person  clad  in 
deerskin,  59. 

Malta  earth  keeps  them  away,  193. 

Turned  into  stone  if  swallowed  by  a 
stag,  59,  I96._ 

Cure  for  their  bites,  73. 
Soane's  (Sir  John)  Museum,  184,  293. 
Solander  (D.  C),  141,  143. 
Solomon's  curios,  3. 

relics  of,  3. 

goblet     of    rock    crystal    from     the 
temple,  3. 
Southampton,  305. 
South  Kensington.     See  London. 
Southport,  305. 
South  Shields,  305. 
Southwell  (Sir  Robert),  106. 
Sparkuhle  (P.  J.),  250. 
Speaking  trumpet,  134. 
Special  finds,  244. 
Specimens.     See  Exhibits. 
Spener  (J.  J.),  148. 
Spitzer  (Frederic),  179. 
Spon  (Jacob),  17,  21,  95,  125,  170. 
Spreti  (Desiderio),  17. 
Spring  Gardens,  142,  173. 
Squirrel,  The,  217. 
St.     See  Saint. 
Staff,  Museum,  277,  282. 
Stafibrd,  305. 
Stag's  horn  as  a  remedy,  58. 

collections  of,  58. 
Stag's  tears,  59,  214. 

Ossa  de  corde  cervi,  59. 
Stag  and  serpent  petrified,  59,  196. 
Stalactite,  197. 
Stalybridge,  305. 
Stamford,  306. 
Stark  (C.  B.),  18. 


INDEX 


337 


Stellio,  The,  191. 
Stelliola,  (N.  A.),  85. 
Stellionate,  crime,  191. 
Steno  (Nicolas),  49,  62,  70,  104. 
Stieff  (Christian),  198,  232. 
StirHng,  310. 

Stockholm,  150,  241,  266. 
Stockport,  306. 
Stoke-upon-Trent,  306. 
Stone  Age,  232. 

Palaeolithic,  233,  234. 
Neolithic,  233,  234. 
Stone, 

defined,  62. 

figured,   formed,    regular  stones,   61, 

198,  219. 
stt)ne  forming  spirit,  62,  67,  92. 
stones  grow,  64. 
stone  marrow,  73,  213. 
stone  forming  water,  196,  197. 
stone  arrow  heads,  63,  68,  80,  82. 
weapons,  64,  71,  80,  no,  148,  232, 

236,  267. 
tools,  82,  236. 

prehistoric  and  modern,  236,  239. 
supposed  to  be  petrifactions,  237. 
stone  knife  likened  to  a  ceraunia, 

237- 

natural  landscapes  in  stone,  129. 

scented  stones,  159,  222. 

petrifaction  explained,  197,  198. 

See  Petrifactions. 
Stones,  classification  of,  214. 
Stonehenge,  130. 
Strabo,  I. 
Strasburg,  214. 
Stratford -on- Avon,  174,  306. 
Stryk  (Samuel),  185. 
Students  in  Museums,   270,   274,   275, 

276. 
Study  =  museum,  36. 
Stukeley  (William),  107,  122,  126,  136, 

154,  167,  183. 
Stuttgart,  233. 
Succi  acres,  213, 

Pingues,  212,  213. 
Suetonius,  5. 
Sulla,  4. 

Sunderland,  306. 
Survivals,  243. 

Sutherland  (James),  135,  159. 
Swammerdam  (J.  J.),  in. 
Swan  (John),  42. 
Swansea,  312. 
Sweden,     Use    of    Museums     in,    for 

popular  education,  260. 
Sydney,  Australian  Museum  at,  243. 


Talisman,  n4,  218,  228. 
Tanned  human  skin  in  museums,  57. 
Tarvisiano  (Bernard),  194. 
Taunton,  306. 
Taiironomachia,  \\<). 
Tiixidermy,  improved  methods  of,  263. 
Tea,  "  the  herb  divine,"  94. 
Technical  instruction,  258. 
Museums,  270,  271,  272. 
Schools  and  Colleges,  271. 
Technicotheca  =  museum,  35. 
Teeth,  Stone,  63,  99. 
Ten  Brocke  (Berend),  95. 
Tenby,  312. 
Tene,  La,  Period,  233. 
Tentzel  (J.  F. ),  49. 
Terzago  (P.  M.),  87,  238. 
Tessin,  Count,  225. 
Tetzel,  Friar,  10. 

Teutobochus,  King,  Bones  of,  46,  92. 
Theophano,  Emperor,  199. 
Theophrastus,  19,  191. 
Thompson  (Dr.,  of  Palermo),  15S. 
Thomson  (Christian),  232,233,  234,241. 
Thoresby  (Ralph),  45,    109,    120,    121, 

124,  125,  126,   130,  137,  154,  159, 

172,  181,  183,  187,   190,  221. 
Thornhill  (  ),  273. 

Thornhill  Museum,  310. 
Three  age  svstem,  232,  234,  240. 
Threlkeld  (Caleb),  166. 
Thunderballs,  67. 
Thunderbolts,  stone  axes  considered  to 

be,  64,  71,  173,  237. 
Thurneisser  (L. ),  26. 
Tiberius,  6. 
Tickets.     See  Labels. 
Tiraboschi  (Girolamo),  14,  17,  23,  29, 

84,  89. 
Toadstone,  64,  214. 
Tommasi  (Pietro),  14. 
Tonna,  49. 
Tooth  powder,  73. 
Torquay,  306. 

Torquemada,  Grand  Inquisitor,  40. 
Tower  of  London,  41,  178,  293. 
Town     history    illustrated     in     Town 

Museum,  256,  266,  268. 
Towneley  (Charles),  144. 
Tradescant  (John),  37,  107,  188,  200. 
Trapani,  Church  at,  giant's  teeth  at,  1 1. 
Tra%-ellers  early,  made  a  point  of  visiting 

collections,  171. 
Guide     books    for,     to     Museums, 

libraries,  etc.,  221,  264. 


33^ 


INDEX 


Treasuries  of  Churches.     See  Museums. 

Tring,  277. 

Tripoli,  194. 

Trottenstein,  67. 

Truio,  306. 

Tsiganian  Period,  234. 

Tuke  (D.  H.),  61. 

Tunstall  (Marmaduke),  184. 

Turketul,  Abbot,  7. 

Tuscany,  Grand  Duke  of,  59. 

Tylor  (E.  B.),  9- 

Tynemouth,  306. 

Type  specimens,  261,  278. 

Tyssen  (Samuel),  184. 

U. 
Ulm,  170. 

Ulrichsdahl,  Museum  at,  224. 
Unicorn  described,  42. 

its  existence  doubted,  42,  44. 

in  the  Arms  of  Scotland,  42. 
Unicorn  horn,  40  si/^. 

at  St.  Denis,  11. 

at  St.  Mark's,  Venice,  11. 

at  Heidelberg,  100. 

a  preservative  against  poisoning,  40. 

value,  41. 

as  a  security  for  banker's  advance,  41. 

true  horn,  43,  44,  94. 

fossil,  43,  94. 

as  a  museum  exhibit,  204. 
United  Brethren,  The,  248,  249. 
Upsala,  199,  207,  225. 
Urns,  sepulchral,  treated  as  fossils,  198. 
used  as  milk  vessels,  198. 
known  as  Johannis-Topflein,  198. 
or,  Milche-Topfe,  198 
Usnea,  56,  218. 

Uterverius  (J.  C),  of  Delft,  79. 
Utrecht,  37,  122,  248. 

V 

Valentini  (M.  B.),  2,  3,  8,  12,  21,  22, 
30,  36,  43,  51,  54,  57,  58,  59,  60, 
62,  67,  68,  73,  76,  80,  85,  104, 
no,  III,  117,  131,  135,  145,  146, 
147,  148,  194,  199,  207,  210,  214, 

239- 
Valmont  de  Bomare  (J.  C. ),  226,  228. 
Varthema  (L.  di),  42,  44. 
Vatican  Museum,  18,  29. 
Vendors  of  specimens,  their  names  to 

be  recorded,  265. 
Venice,  11,  12,  14,  150,  194,  201,  242. 
Treasury  of  St.  Mark,  11,  12. 
Grimani  Museum,  14. 


Venison,  a  specific  for  fevers,  59. 
Venus  Genetrix,  Temple  of,  at  Rome, 

4- 

Verbrocht  (Anthony),  145. 
Verona,  Museums  at,  83-85. 
Vertigo  crosses,  115. 
Vico  (Enea),  17,  38. 
Victoria   and   Albeit,    formerly    South 
Kensington    Museum,     149,    187, 
293. 
Vienna,  Cathedral  of,  giant's  bones  in, 
II. 

Museums,  17,   18,  78,  86,   149,  150, 
190,  210,  233,  237-242,  256. 
Vilant  (Nicholas),  98. 
Vilant  (William),  98. 
Vincent  (Levinus),  209. 
Violet-scented  stones,  159. 
Virgil,  mirror  of,  199. 
Virgin  Mary,  shift  of,  6. 

her  slippers,  199. 

her  comb,  199. 
Vis  riastica,  62,  67,  69,  92,  no,  192, 

195,  19S. 
Visitors  to  Museums,  223,  262,  269. 

fees,  205. 

difficulties,  206. 

directions,  206,  221,  264. 
Vitruvius,  4. 

Volkswanderungszeit,  233. 
Voorn  ([acob),  29,  30,  287,  289. 
Vorst  (A.  E.),  18. 


W. 

Wakefield,  307. 

Walker  (G.   T. ),  on  curious  quality  of 

perforated  celts,  67. 
Walker  (Professor  John),  156,  157. 
Wallace  (James),  76. 
Walpole  (Horace),  139,  183. 
Ward  (John),  45,  192. 
Warrington,  307. 
Warwick,  307. 
Washington,  Natural  Museum  at,  242, 

274. 
Water,  Stone-forming,  196,  197. 

explained,  197,  19S. 
Watford,  307. 
Way  (Albert),  202. 
Weaving  School  and  Museum,  Glasgow, 

271. 
We^gel  (Erhard),  148. 
W^elfen  Museum,  8. 
Wellington,  N.  Z.,  256. 
Welser  (Philippine),  86. 
Welshpool,  312. 


INDEX 


339 


Wentlish  Period,  233. 

Weniger  (Ludwig),  i. 

Wenlock,  307. 

West  (James),  184. 

West  Ham,  185. 

West  Prussian  Museum,  233. 

Weymouth,  253. 

Whale  ribs  from  the  Holy  Land,  10. 

from  the  Baltic,  10. 

specimens  of,  in  museums,  216,  250. 
Whitby,  307. 

Whitechapel  Antiquary,  the,  281. 
Whitchapel  Museum,  293. 
Whitehall,  121. 

Wiel  (P.  S.  v.),  the  Younger,  208. 
Wilkinson  (Dr.),  122. 
Wilde  (Jacob  do),  38. 
Willisel  (Thomas),  133. 
Wilson  (Charles  Heath),  271,  272. 
Winchester,  307. 
Windsor,  307. 
Wisbech,  307. 
Witches' dollar,  114. 

means  of  driving  witches  away, 
115. 
Wittenberg,  147,  208. 

Church  of,  9. 

collections,  147,  208. 

University,  185. 
Wodrow  (Rev.  Robert),  as  a  collector, 

165,  166. 
W'olfenbiittel,  53. 
Wolverhampton,  307. 
Wood  (A.  a),  109. 
Wood(E.  J.),  48. 

Woodward  (John),  43,  47,  71,  72,  118, 
219. 

his  Museum,  118. 

his  geological  opinions,  119. 

his  shield,  120. 

endows  chair  at  Cambridge,  118. 

figures  in  Martinus  Scriblerus,  121. 


I   Woodwardian    Professorship   at    Cam- 
bridge, 118. 

Woolwich,  293,  307. 

Worcester,  307. 

Workshop  for  a  Museum,  275,  276. 

Worm  (Olc),  43,  44,  47,  52,  62,  71,  75, 
104,  130,  132,  154,  193,  202,  215, 
228,  237,  238. 
His  Museum,  43,  47,  56,  104,  214. 
Scheme  of  its  arrangement,  214. 
Its  internal  appearance,  215. 

Worm  ((d\(t),  grandson  of  the  above,  71. 

Worm  (William)  105. 

Wormiana  ossicula,  104. 

Worsaae  (J.  J.  A.),  241. 

Wren  (Sir  Christopher),  272,  273. 

Wright  (Dr.  Peter),  163. 

Wright  (Richard),  175. 

Wurflbain  (F.  S.),  22. 

Wurliiz  (Christian),  147. 

Wuttemberg, 

Frederick,  Duke  of,  96. 
Ulrich,  Duke  of,  97. 


Yate(W.  H.),  175. 
York,  308. 

York,  James,  Duke  of,  109. 
Young"(Edward),  18S. 
Young  (Prof.  John),  161. 


Zacharia-Pillingen,  62,  217. 
Zanoni  (Giacomo),  80. 

(Pellegrino),  81. 
Zealand,  New,  collections  from,  246. 
Zedler(J.   H),' 15,  25,  37,  51,  52,  54, 

203,  206,  217. 
Zoological  Museums,  265,  275. 
Zoophytes,  fossil,  63,  214. 


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