Full text of "The music and musical instruments of southern India and the Deccan"

See other formats

\„ / 'J

>X. 'A. »

PRESENTED BY

Date Due

^ ~-^

V ^ ■ ,^ «.:

LIbrvry Bur«au Cat. HO. 1137

The Music

Musical Instruments

Soiitbcni 3^^ia anb cLbo X>cccaii.

'Flic i/npn'ssio/i of this 7voyk is liinitcd to joo copies
and jO cii'fisfs proofs.

i\'0 fittuyc impressions unll be printed.

NOVELLO, i:\VER & CO.

THE MUSIC

MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS

^nutljcrn SlnMa anD ^\jc Otccan

C. R. DAY

Captain, Oxi-ordshire Light Infantry

WITH AN INTRODUCTION BY
A. J. HIPKINS, F.S.A.

THE PLATES DRAWN 11 Y WILLIAM dlHB.

L0:N'B0C< & C\'EIV YORK: 0\'OVELLO, EWER i^ CO.

and

^'D-JO^'l & CH-4RLES BL-ACK, l.OfN'DOOi.

MDCCCXCI.

1 . V .

LONDON :

NOVELI.O, EWER AND CO.,

PRINTERS.

di:dicati:d hv permission

LIEUTENANT-GENERAL HIS ROYAL HIGHNESS

The Duke of Connaiight and Strathearn

K.G., K.T., K.P.

CONTENTS.

PAlit

Introduction .......----- ix

Preface .-.-..----•-- xv

CHAPTER I.

Iiuliaii music — How cluuiijed in the course of years— Its decline under Mahomcdan rule— -Hindu
ideas of music— How encouraged in the South of India — Connection with religion-
Influence of religion upon music— Legends— Difficulty of deciphering the ancient treatises
— How differing from European music — Most noticeable peculiarities . - - - i — 12

CHAPTER II.

Preservation of music in Southern India— Modern Karnatik system believed to be closely akin to the
ancient— Sanskrit treatises— Definition of s'ruti— System of twenty-two— Formation of scales
(grama)— Relation of major and minor modes— Deviation of intervals of system of twenty-two
from those of just intonation -Comparison of ancient scale with European diatonic-
Results of recent observation— Svstem of twelve hinted at in Sanskrit— Murchanas—
Raga— How differing from mode— tala or rhythm— Time, how estimated— Ancient varieties
of rlivthm — Ancient notation ....---- 13 29

CHAPTER III.

Modern theory— How differing from ancient — Notation— .Arrangement of gamut— Scales— Time,

how signified — .Application of measure to music - - - - - - 3" — 37

CHAPTER IV.

Raga — How defined — Notes essential to composition of^Vadi and Samvadi notes — Modem meaning
of Murchana — Examples of Murchana applied — Ancient and modern methods of performance
of raga— How differing — Alapa— Madhyamakala — Gamakas — Classification of ragas— Popular
scales for — Allied to certain passions — Peculiarities — How apportioned to seasons and hours
— •' Kattika," or list of modern ragas ..---- 3S — 56

CHAPTER V.

Taste of European and Oriental nations: how differing — Reason for non-employment of harmony —
Method of singing — Of Indian melodies — Form — Classification of— Rhythm — Employment of
mixed times — Tonality often doubtful — Resemblance of Indian music to that of other
countries — Examples of popular melodies — Hindustani musical system : how diftering from
Karnatik — E.\amples of Hindustani melodies — Scales employed in the Hindustani system 57—9'

CHAPTER VI.

Musical entertainments — Music and the Drama^Influence of the latter upon songs of the country
— Of the Indian orchestra — Religious music — Temple music — Employment of bells — Street
music — The Nahabet — Nautch music — Dancing ....-- gz — 9S

CHAPTER VII.

Of instruments — Decoration — Materials — How susceptible of improvement — Chief defects in
construction — Eastern origin of many European instruments — ^Descriptions of instruments
in common use ...-.....- gg — 154

CHAPTER VIII.

Principal seats of music in Southern India — Famous Indian musicians of the South — Bibliography

of Indian music — Sanskrit MSS. upon music ....-- 155 — 16S

Appendix .......----- 169—173

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.

PAGE

Pi.ATK I. A BIN PLAYER 109

Plate II. SOUTHERN INDIAN VINA. SMALL SITAR - - - in

Plate III. SUR-S'RINGARA. LARGE SITAR 117

Plate IV. BIN-SITAR. TAUS 123

Plate V. SARINDA. SARANGI 125

Plate VI. RABOB. CHIKARA. SARANGI ...... 127

Plate VII. TAMBURI. YEKTAR. PERSIAN SITARA .... 129

Plate VIII. SNARAMANDALA 133

Plate IX. KINNARI 135

Plate X. MRIDANG. TABLA AND BAHYA 137

Plate XL NAGARA. DHOL - - 139

Plate XII. KHANJERI. TAM TAM 141

Plate XIII. TALA. JALRA. BUDBUDIKA 143

Plate XIV. PUNGI. KURTAR 145

Plate XV. PILLAGOVI. MUKAVINA. S'RUTI. NAGASARA. ALGOA 147

Plate XVI. MOSHUQ. S'ANKHU 151

Plate XVII. TUTURI. NAFARI. S'RINGA. KURNA ... - 153

INTRODUCTION.

WHETHER music as an attribute of man is as old as speech or not,
we cannot sa)-; for present consideration it is sufficient that both
can be intensified into poetic expression with a common power in
affecting the emotions, notwithstanding that there is a vast and unbridgable
distance between the precision of articulate language and the vague suggestion
and glamour of musical sound. There is a quality in recited poetry not inaptly
described as musical, since it has a special charm due to the choice and rhythm of
words, assisted by the personal note of the reciter. But this rhythmic euphony is
onlv allied to the musician's art, it cannot correctly be said to be comprehended in
it, owing to the absence of defined musical intervals. From whatever point of view
we overlook the human race, its history and development, we can nearly alwaj's
trace music as having some connection, however slender, with the particular
form of culture, or it may even be the absence of culture, under notice. Let us
for the moment turn aside from the modern European musician's standpoint, as
for him Harmony, although of comparatively recent origin, is indispensable, and
we shall find melody in the succession of notes and their rhythmic movement
possessing a beauty and exerting a charm which have endured for ages and
comprehend the whole art of Music in the older civilisations. In Egypt; in
Babylonia, Persia, and Arabia ; in Asia Minor, Greece, and Rome — and in India,
modern as well as ancient, for here simple melody still reigns supreme. With
the exception of the Drone, apparently of Indian origin, which is literally

X INTRODUCTION.

preserved in the Bagpipe and Hurdy Gurdy, and is a characteristic feature in our
modern harmonic music — conspicuous as the Pedal point — the traces of any
combination of musical intervals, out of Europe, are unimportant and need not
be considered in a comparison of our Western music, with its elaborate system of
harmonv, and that of the rest of the world, whether ancient or modern, where
harmony has no place.

Among the heterogeneous populations of India much material may be found
that bears upon the history of melody. There is an Aryan strain probably as
old as the Vedic Sanskrit, and a Persian which has in these latter days, and
especially in Northern India, considerably modified the true Hindu. There are
also echoes of an indigenous music which prevails among the hill tribes,
remaining in the Indian music of to-day ; but yet not so clearly heard that we can
sa}' we identify here or there a refrain of an original or pre-historic music,
although we may unconsciously be very near it. In the present state of our
knowledge it is impossible to affirm that a pentatonic, or system of five notes in
the octave, is of greater antiquity than a heptatonic or seven-note system ; or
that a chromatic or half-tone scale preceded an enharmonic composed of quarter-
tones. All these varieties occur in our historic records, and if we argue from the
analogies of speech, or consider the measurement of vibrating strings, it is no
less plausible to decide for primitive narrow intervals than for primitive wide ones.
In every province, go where we will, may be found some melodic or rhythmic habit
or turn which it is possible to reckon as proper to it, having its peculiar scales or
modes, its figures, rhythms, graces to mark its authenticity, but we mav yet be far
away from its origin, even as to locality. In the native music of Africa, so far
as is known, there is much that may be traced to Asiatic sources.

The oldest civilisation that offers us any substantial information is Egypt.
It begins in the earliest historic monuments with a graphic sign representing a
fingerboard instrument of the tamboura or guitar kind, which already marks
a summit level in instrumental construction and musical conception. We
are not likely to learn from civilisations which may have preceded Egypt, as
from the non-existence of any form of graphic art they cannot now divulge
their secrets.

INTRODUCTION. xi

Another question that has arisen is that of the priority of instrumental or
vocal music. There are many difficulties attending a vocal origin of what we
understand in varied pitch and recurring rhythm hy melody. The poets' music
already touched upon, depending upon very small vocal inflections, can no more
be measured and retained than the notes of many song birds which yet give us
infinite pleasure. Very small musical intervals in traditional use which delight
Indian and other Eastern people are clearly of instrumental origin, and to be
attributed generally to facilities afforded by strings. This tradition may be of
very great antiquity, and such old forms of music that occur to us, it may be Vedic
chants or Hebrew psalms, are, in comparison, conceivably modern. A striking
instance of a purelv instrumental small interval is that of the Hindu musical unit,
the s'ruti. The consideration of the value of this interval and of a combination
of s'rutis to form an octave scale will be found in Captain Day's lucid exposition,
and is as interesting as it is important. There can be no doubt about the origin
of the s'ruti in the measurement of a stretched string.

The object of this introduction will be gained if we, for a little while, allow
ourselves to forget the glory and splendour of our modern harmony, in favour of
those melodic systems which once satisfied the great nations of classical antiquity,
and still content those hoary civilisations of the East which preserve so much that
is really ancient in their present daily life. Captain Day shows us interesting
resemblances between the leading modes of old Greece and Asia Minor and
certain favourite modes of the Hindus. There is no sure evidence of an intimate
musical connection between those countries and India, a few scattered references
in classical writers excepted ; but the relationship of sister Aryan languages may
have been paralleled by a relationship of musical types sufficient to justify a
theory of descent instead of one of imitation.

The greater freedom in musical intervals melodic systems allow must be
reckoned as compensating in some measure for the want of those harmonic
combinations of which our European music has such inexhaustible wealth. What
we lose in the possession of this rich estate is that we are effectually barred from
the use and enjoyment of a more pliant melody, free from the fetters imposed by
consonant chords, a melody which has a great privilege in easily touching the

xii INTRODUCTION.

emotions. Recent scale theories, claiming to have their foundation in natural
laws, are insufficient to account for the material which allows the pliahility of
Eastern melody. But they are insufficient even to account lor our common
diatonic scale, the structure of which rests upon three harmonic triads, and
with chromatic and enharmonic systems are utterly irreconcilable. Under
Captain Day's guidance we find that in India an ancient quarter-tone system has
become in modern times a half-tone one — substantially our equal temperament,
but permitting an expressive or ornamental use of smaller intervals than the
half-tone, according to the player's feeling or fancy. Whether this ideally half-
tone system is due to a natural transformation tending to simplicity — as we find
the rich Sanskrit reduced in modern vernacular dialects — or to an adaptation more
suitable for practical use than a fine-spun theory of ancient music teachers, must,
like nearlv all the questions that have here been propounded, remain open or be
regarded as beyond the possibility of answer.

It must not be overlooked that the Persian and Arab musicians have also their
enharmonic systems, and if these may be referred back to an older Babylonian,
the delight felt in such melodic freedom may have been widespread in a remote
antiquity. We would not, however, resign our harmony for this freedom, although
we admit its great power to incite a poetic impression when we are in certain
moods. What Indian music offers to mood will be found in Captain Day's pages,
and, studied from this point of view, the information he offers cannot but be of the
hisfhest value. He shows us the existence of a reallv intimate expressive melodic
music, capable of the greatest refinement of treatment, and altogether outside the
experience of the Western musician. What we learn from such inquiries is that
the debated opinions of musical theorists, the cherished beliefs of those who devote
themselves to the practice of the art, the deductions we evolve from historic
studies — all have to be submitted to larger conceptions, based upon a recognition
of humanity as evolved from the teachings of ethnology. We must forget what is
merely European, national, or conventional, and submit the whole of the
phenomena to a philosophical as well as a sympathetic consideration, such as, in
this century, is conceded to language, but has not yet found its way to music.

A. J. HIPKINS.

PREFACE.

OF late years so many works of importance, dealing with the subject
of National music, have appeared that for the publication of this
book the author feels that some apology is necessary.

The subject of Indian music, presenting, as it does, ideas so fresh and a
musical system so distinct from what we in Europe are accustomed to, necessarily
offers an ever-widening field for research and study. It is curious to note that
while so many works upon the arts or industries of India have, in recent times,
appeared, the subject of Indian music has been generally thought devoid of all
science and unworthy, therefore, of any serious consideration.

Sir William Jones, at the end of the last century, endeavoured to dispel
ideas of this nature, and his learned essay upon The Musical Modes of the
Hindus has formed the basis of almost all Indian musical research. Some forty
years later Captain Augustus Willard, who at that time commanded the troops
in the service of H.H. the Nawab of Banda, published an interesting little
Treatise upon the Music of Hindustan, a book which is now so scarce as to be
almost unobtainable. Notwithstanding the real interest of both these works
they are, unfortunately, of comparatively small practical use to the ordinarv
musical enquirer, unless, indeed, he is fortunate enough to possess a consider-
able previous knowledge of the subject.

The work which is now published has been the result of much study and
research during a term of foreign service while the author's regiment was in
India. And it is hoped that the information here offered for the first time may
prove of interest, and may assist in some small degree in supplying a want
hitherto felt among musicians and students of National musical literature. To
render the book of greater value, and to assist those who may make further

xvi PREFACE.

research, a catalogue of various works dealing with the subject has been added,
together with a carefully prepared list of various Sanskrit authorities. Notice
has been taken of the legendary origin of music among the Aryans, and of its
principles as understood in Modern India ; the peculiar scales and rhythms
employed have been described in detail ; and examples of various airs are given
in notation. In order to show the principles of form upon which the Indian
musicians construct their melodies an analysis of some of the examples has been
attempted.

The subject of Temperament, concerning which so many theories have been
propounded, has been treated of. The thanks of the author are due to the late
Dr. A. J. Ellis, F.R.S., for his great kindness in working out many special
experiments concerning the temperament of the Indian scale, and for his
permission to publish them here ; also for his exhaustive account of the S'ruti
vina, given in the Appendix.

The author takes this opportunity of acknowledging his thanks to his friend,
Mr. A. J. Hipkins, F.S.A., both for his great help and sympath}', without which
this work would never have been published ; also for his learned Introduction.
The author begs also to thank Mr. Cecil Bendall, of the British Museum, and
Professor T. \V. Rhys Davids, for much valuable help and information.

The Illustrations have been confided to the hands of Mr. William Gibb, and
form seventeen plates, all of them admirable representations of Indian musical
instruments. The author is indebted to the kindness of Miss Edith Hipkins for
her very beautiful drawings, which are reproduced in Plates II., III., and IV.

Many thanks are due to H.H. the late Maharajah of Travancore and to
H.H. the Maharajah of Mysore for their kindness in affording facilities for
enquiry, and for allowing access to valuable manuscripts ; and to the Rajah
Sir Sourendro Mohun Tagore for permission to quote from his various works.
Acknowledgment is also due to Messrs. Balwant Trimback Sahasrabadhe, and
T. M. Venkatasesha S'astri, of the Poona Gayana Samaj ; M. Narasimhayya, of
the London Mission High School, Bangalore ; Maula Bux of Baroda ; and
to many other native gentlemen too numerous, unfortunately, to mention by
name.

Army and Navy Club,
April, i8gi.

A SiTAR Player,
(From a Marathi Instruction Book.)

CHAPTER I.

Indian music — How chani^ed in the course of years — Its decline under Mahomedan rule — Hindu
ideas of music — How encouraged in the South of India — Connection with religion —
Influence of religion upon music— Legends— Difficulty of deciphering the ancient treatises
— How differing from European music — Most noticeable peculiarities.

AMONG the many arts and industries of India gradually decaying from
want of patronage, but which, since the accession of the British
Government, have again been fostered and encouraged, that of music
has hitherto found no place. To Europeans it is certainly the least known
of all Indian arts. Almost every traveller in India comes away with the idea
that the music of the country consists of mere noise and nasal drawling
of the most repulsive kind, often accompanied by contortions and gestures
of the most ludicrous description. Perhaps the traveller may have fancied that
he has seen a nautch — he has possibly been asked to some such entertainment
at the house of a wealthy native ; or, more likely, he has possessed a
treasure of a "boy," who has been able to make the necessary arrangements
with the " nautchnees " for a performance of the kind. But in certainly
two-thirds of such cases the singing and dancing witnessed has been ot
the commonest, and the performers of the most abandoned and depraved of
the citv — and the traveller has therefore received a false impression, which may
abide through life, or impede the progress of a more correct appreciation ot the real
value of Indian music. But it is hardly fair that an art so little really understood,
even among the natives of India themselves, should be judged by such a criterion
and then put aside as worthless because solitary individuals have been deceived
by parties of outcast charlatans whose object is mere gain. For that Indian music
is an art, and a very intricate and difficult one too, can hardly be denied. But to
appreciate it one must first put away all thought of European music, and then
judge of it by an Indian standard, and impartially upon its own merits — of the

2 THE MUSIC OF SOUTHERN INDIA.

ingenuity of the performer — the pecuhar rhythm of the music — the extraordinary
scales used — the recitatives — the amount of imitation — the wonderful execution
andmemory of the performer — and his skill in employing small intervals as grace.
Then when we hear old" Slokes "and •' Ghuzals," songs written hundreds of years
ago, sung with the same sweet dreamy cadences, the same wild melody, to the
same soft beats of little hands, and the same soft tinkle of the silver cymbals,
we shall perhaps begin to feel that music of this kind can be as welcome and
tasteful to ears accustomed to it as the music of the West, with its exaggerated
sonorousness, is to us ; and so our contempt will gradually give way to wonder,
and, upon acquaintance, possibly to love. For this music, let us remember, daily
gives pleasure to as many thousands as its more cultivated European sister gives
to hundreds. There is hardly any festivity in India in which some part is not
assigned to music — and for religious ceremonies its use is universal. Since the
Vedic times it has been cultivated as an art. The hymns of the Rig and Yagur
Vedas were set and sung to music ages ago. The Vedic chant, composed in the
simple Sanskrit spoken three thousand years ago, and handed down from
generation to generation for more than thirty centuries, has a thrilling effect
upon a cultivated Hindu mind. The Vedic chant is to Hindus what plain
song is to us. For this ancient chant — like plain song — is bound up with the
sacred ceremonials, and is wedded to language alike sonorous and dignihed.
And the place where it is heard, for it is only heard in the temple, is considered
so holy, and the strain itself is so simple and devotional, that all who hear it
cannot fail to be impressed.^

Indian music, like its sister art in Europe, seems to have undergone many
changes before reaching its present stage. In remote ages the art seems to
have been highly cultivated, and musicians were held in great esteem ; but
under the Mussalman dynasty, and owing to the almost perpetual strife between
petty princes, music, like other arts, through want of encouragement, fell almost
into abeyance. There is, therefore, little information to be had concerning the
music of those times.

From early periods, however, many learned and elaborate treatises
(mostly in MSS.) upon the art yet remain. The later of these show
that even then music had passed through several stages of transition. Since
the Sangita Parijata, which is believed to be one of the latest of these Sanskrit

' An interesting explanation of these chants is given by Mr. A. C. Burncll. Ph.D., in his ".\rshey-
abrahmana" [Mangalore, 1876], and reprinted in Tagore's " Hindu Music from \'arious Sources." This
explanation will enable anyone to note the Sania Vedic chant, as printed in the Bibliothcca Indica edition,
in ordinary notation.

THE MUSIC OF SOUTHERN IXDIA. 3

works, had been written bv Ahobala, two separate schools or systems of music
have arisen and are now known bv the names of Hindustani and Karnatik.
The Karnatik appears to have been elaborated as a distinct system subsequent
to the advent of the Aryans to the South of India. The two svstems, although
sprung from the same origin, have since undergone independently considerable
changes, and are now totally distinct from each other.

Of Hindu music in Southern India, since the fall of the Hindu Empire
of Vijayanagur, Tanjore has been the only school, and from it those of
Travancore and other places have doubtless been founded. Unfortunately,
there is no record remaining of what had been done in former times in Tanjore ;
but within the last few centuries the people there, as in Europe, have been
aroused to a great state of musical activity, and there had sprung up a school
of musicians, ending with Tiagyaraj, destined to eftect great changes and
improvements in the art. There are still papers in the library of the Tanjore
Palace which show that various attempts have been made to improve the
existing notation, such as it is, of Indian music. With the cession of the
Tanjore territory to the British, at the close of the last centurv, there came a
time when arts and sciences were cultivated m peace ; under encouragement of
the noble and wealthy, music, so long neglected, once more sprang up with
vigour to strike out for itself a new path and to enjoy a fresh existence. History
in parallel instances shows that such has always been the case when arts long
neglected are revived and become rapidly popular. The earlier music of the
Sanskrit period bears a close resemblance, as far as we can judge, to that of
the ancient Greeks, going far to prove that music has been derived from the
same Aryan source, which seems probable, and has been discussed freelv bv
different writers.

The most flourishing age of Indian music was during the period of native
princes, a little before the Mahomedan conquest ; and with the advent of the
Mahomedans its decline commenced ; indeed, it is wonderful that it survived
at all.

The Emperor Aurangzib abolished the court musicians. Mr. Blochmann, in
his translation of the " Ain-i-akbari," - quotes a curious story from the historian
Khan Khan as to what occurred when this order was given. The court
musicians brought a bier in front of the window where the Emperor used to
show himself daily to the people, and wailed so loud as to attract

^"Ain-i-akbari. or Institutes of the Emperor Akbar." Translated from tlie original Persian by
H. Blochmann. Vol. V.

4 THE MUSIC OF SOUTHERN INDIA.

Auranffzib's attention. He came to the window and asked what it meant.
They replied that melody was dead, and that they were taking him to the
graveyard. The Emperor replied, " Very well, make the grave deep, so that
neither voice nor echo may issue from it."

" The more severe of the Mussalman doctors," writes Captain Willard,
one of the few Englishmen who have studied the subject, " like the
Puritans, even now prohibit the use of music as irreligious and profane, while
others are somewhat indulgent and permit it with certain restrictions. A few,
convinced of its excellence, but dreading the censure of casuists, have prudently
preferred silence. Some have considered it as exhilarating the spirits, and
others, perhaps with more reason, declare it to be an incentive to the bent of
the inclination, and, consequently, possessing the property of producing both
good and evil.""

Opinions of the kind just quoted, held by the educated and influential,
naturally enough have tended to lower the standing of a musician, and the art
itself has suffered in consequence. Hence, though there are many Mahomedan
professors who are skilled executants, they are rarely men of any social position
or educational attainments, and their knowledge of the theory of their art is but
slight. Of course to this there are exceptions — men such as Maula Bux of
Baroda, or Bhande Ali of Indore, might be mentioned who have studied much and
who love their art for its own sake. But such are few and far between. Still,
Mahomedan music, taken as a whole, has little to recommend itself even at the
present day. The ideas professed bv Hindus offer a curious contrast. For
music, from a Hindu standpoint, is associated with all that is bright and sweet
in life ; its origin, ascribed directly to Divine providence, causes it to be regarded
as surrounded by a halo of sanctity. Almost all the religious literature of the
Hindus breathes music. The ancient writings on Hindu music are known as
the Gandhiirva Veda. The Gita Govinda, the Indian Song of Songs,^ is music
itself from beginning to end. It is difficult to imagine imagery more vivid, or
to picture scenes more charming than those in which Krishna, with his fair Gopi
companions, on the banks of the Yamna, played and sang those witching strains
that, like those of Orpheus, held all creation spellbound. And so music with
Hindus is a resource to which they always fly in joy or grief, for prayer or praise.

But still the old idea that music as a profession is a degraded employment,
fit only for the stroller or the dancing girl, to some extent lingers on, so strong is

^ " A Treatise on the Music of Hindustan." Capt. N. Willaid. Calcutta, 1834.

* Sir Edwin .Arnold's charming paraphrase of this beautiful poem should be read by all earnest students
of Oriental Music.

THE MUSIC OF SOUTHERN INDIA. 5

the influence caused by the long ordeal of Mahomedan conquest. And
Mahomedans even now, though liking and enjoying music, often prefer to engage
singers and instrumentalists rather than learn the art themselves ; indeed, it is
not difficult to find Hindus who do the same, and hold very similar prejudices.

Happily, in Southern India, ideas of this kind cannot be said to prevail
generally; proofs to the contrary may be found in the many living musicians who
are men of education and poets in their way. Music has almost without
interruption flourished there from very remote ages.^ This can be accounted for
by the country having been more under Hindu rule than other parts of India,
and having suffered perhaps less from internal commotions. From the study of
Sanskrit, which has been maintained amongst the musicians of the courts of
Mysore, Tanjore, and Travancore, music has not been left, as in other parts,
almost entirely in the hands of ignorant dancing girls and their attendants.

It is a common idea among the Hindus that the greatest musicians should
live like hermits, far removed from all people. This seems to have been the
practice of some of the ancients, and as similar legends are found in the mytho-
logies of other nations, there is reason to believe they are based upon facts.

The higher branches of the musical profession were formerly confined to
either Brahmins (Bhagavatas) or to men of very high caste. Music being of
Divine origin was regarded as sacred, and it was considered impious for any but
men of the sacred caste to wish to acquire any knowledge of its principles. It
was and still is called the fifth Veda. Hence the ancient Brahmins of the
country would have excommunicated any of their number who would have so far
presumed as to betray the sacred writings to any but the elect, whose mouths only
were esteemed sufficiently holy to utter words so sacred. Indeed, it was the
knowledge of which they were possessed that was the chief cause of the reverence
and adoration paid to the Brahmins of old, and which gave them the power and
influence they prized so much. It was thus that the ancient musicians sang
their own compositions. In later years music became a distinct trade, especially
under Mussalman rulers, and passed into the hands of the lower orders and the
unlearned, and to this cause operating through a long succession of years the
differences between the Hindustani and Karnatik systems must be in a great
measure attributed.

= Colonel Meadows Taylor, remarkiiif; upon this, says : " Mahomedan historians of the period relate
that when the Deccan was invaded by Allah-ood-deen Togluk in a.d. 1294, and the conquest of Southern
India completed by the Mogul General Mullikkafoor several years afterwards, the profession of music was
found to be in a condition so far in advance of the North that singers, male and female, and their Brahmin
instructors, were taken with the royal armies and settled in the North." — " Proceedings, Royal Irish
Academy." \'ol. IX., Part i.

6 THE MUSIC OF SOUTHERN INDIA.

Religion, bound up as it is with almost everything in India, naturally
exercises a most powerful influence upon all the arts, and upon music especially.
The earliest use of music was doubtless for religious purposes. Hindu music
can hardly be said to have ever shaken itself free from being in some way
or other connected with the religion of the country, traces of which are
everywhere apparent. Almost all the books, especially the most ancient, relating
to the art contain constant references to mythological traditions. The language
used is at times so figurative that in many cases no one but a finished scholar
can decipher its real purport. More importance is paid to such trifling details as
the proper attributes — colour, caste, or wives — -of each deified melody type (raga)
or mode (that) than to the arrangements of notes which compose it and to the
practical directions for its performance. Each note, scale, raga, and measure is
canonized, and long chapters are devoted to the description of the habitations,
wives, raiment, &c., of these demigods and nymphs. Much valuable information
can of course be gleaned from these books, but many of them contain a good
deal of what is quite useless to the musician, though most interesting from
an antiquarian point of view. Besides these Sanskrit works, there are few books
upon the art existing.

Most of the vernacular works upon music have been written by Pandits,
who have endeavoured to adapt the principles contained in the ancient
works to their own ideas. Many of these books consist but of a string
of quotations — often contradictory — taken at random from Sanskrit works
of all dates, and interlarded with comments rather worse than useless,
unless it be to mystify the reader. The writers of such books rarely know
anything of the modern practice of music. They still try to fetter it by hard
and fast rules learnt from books. Rules of the sort, of course, were made at a
time when music as an art was comparatively in its infancy, but were never
intended to apply to modern Indian music. It would be just as absurd to
suppose that treatises on the music of the eighth and ninth centuries, where
progressions by chords of -Uj were not only allowed but admired,'^ would apply
to the elaborate harmony of to-day.

Other works in the vernaculars have been written by practical musicians who
really do possess the knowledge they try to impart, but will not do so without
mixing it with the absurdities of these so-called Pandits. The fear of criticism

' Organiim was the name given to this rude harmony. An instrument called Organistrum, in use in
the ninth century, enabled these chords to be played in succession. And the organ itself appears to have
been so constructed, the origin in fact ot the modern mixture stops. — See Gerbert, " De cantu et musica
sacra,'' St. Blaise, 1774.

THE MUSIC OF SOUTHERN INDIA. 7

or ridicule is one cause of this ; but it is also due to the great dislike all native
musicians have to imparting instruction to any but a favoured few ; indeed, they
rather prefer that the general public should continue in ignorance. This has,
naturally enough, tended to hinder the growth of a popular taste for music until
quite within the past few years. Societies, such as the Gayan Samaj of Poona
and Madras, have recently sprung up and are doing much to encourage
popular music ; with the advance of general education there has been a growing
feeling in favour of teaching singing in the schools, and in future years it is to be
hoped that all such idle prejudices will have been rooted out completely, and
that the study of the national music of the country will occupy, as it should, a
foremost place in all Indian schools.

At the present day, however, it is absolutely impossible for anyone to gather
an accurate knowledge of the principles of Hindu music without the aid of
learned natives, a practical acquaintance with the capabilities of their instruments,
and without consulting the best living performers — things that few persons have
opportunity or leisure to attempt.

Of the astonishing power which music is believed by the ancients to have had,
not only over men and passions, but also over animals and inanimate things,
Hindu legends, like those of most ancient nations, are redolent.

" I have been assured by a credible eye-witness," says Sir William Jones,
" that two wild antelopes used often to come to the woods to the place where a
mere savage beast, Siraj ud Doulah, entertained himself with concerts, and that
they listened to the strain with an appearance of pleasure till the monster, in
whose soul there was no music, shot one of them to displav his archery ;
secondly, a learned native of this country told me that he had frequently seen
the most venomous and indignant snakes leave their holes upon hearing tunes
on a flute, which he supposed gave them peculiar delight ; and thirdlv, an
intelligent Persian, who repeated his story again and again and permitted me to
write it down from his lips, told me that he had more than once been present
when a celebrated lutenist, Mirza Mahomed, surnamed Bulbul, was playing to
a large company in a grove near Shiraz, that he distinctly saw the nightingales
trying to vie with the musician — sometimes warbling on the trees, sometimes
fluttering from branch to branch, as if they wished to approach the instrument
whence the melody proceeded, and at length dropping on the ground in a kind
of timid ecstasy, from which they were soon raised, he assured me, by a change
of the mode.'"

' -'On the Musical Modes of the Hindus." — See " Asiatic Researches." Vol. III. Calcutta, 179.;.

8 THE MUSIC OF SOUTHERN INDIA.

Musicians in the South of India believe that powers such as these are
associated with the performance of the melody types or ragas called Saranga
and Kaliani. Some legends of the influence of certain ragas over nature, that
are handed down and still believed by many, are very curious, and remind us
of the legends of Orpheus and Apollo.

Sir William Ouseley relates how Mir Tansen, a wonderful musician in the
time of the Emperor Akbar, sang one of the night ragas at mid-day. The
powers of his music were such that it instantly became night, and the darkness
extended in a circle round the palace as far as the sound of his voice could
be heard.

The ragas Nagavarali and Punagatodi are believed to have the power to
attract serpents and to make them leave their hiding places and come where
they hear the music. There is a story of a certain Mysore prince who wished
to test the truth of this, so, in company with one of the Court musicians, he
ascended a neighbouring hill known as the abode of numerous poisonous snakes.
The musicians then began to play their strains. From all sides the serpents
came and formed a ring around the two, erecting their heads and swaying to
and fro, fascinated by the music. As soon as the strains ceased they glided
rapidly away without attempting to injure the players.

Colonel Meadows Taylor relates a somewhat similar circumstance : " One
very large cobra which frequented my garden at Ellichpur, and of which
ever3'one was in dread, was caught by some professional snake charmers in
my own presence by means of the ' pungi.'^ It was played at first very softly
before the aloe bush underneath which the snake lived in a hole, and gradually
the performer increased the tone and time of his playing, and, as the snake
showed his head, he retreated gently till it was fairly outside and erected itself
in a defiant manner. At that moment another man stepped dexterouslv behind
and, while the snake's attention was absorbed by the player before, threw a heavy
blanket upon it, seizing it by the head under the jaws. The head was then
pinned down by a forked stick, and the fangs and teeth extracted by strong
pincers ; the snake was then turned loose, completely cowed and exhausted.
There was no doubt about the identitv of the reptile, for a portion of its tail
had been shot off in an attempt to destrov it."^

It is considered extremely unlucky for anyone to impart or receive instruction
in the Varali raga. When an unwelcome pupil presents himself, a master will

• The native name for the snake-charmer's pipe.

9 II Proceedings, Royal Irish Academy." Vol. IX., Part i.

THE MUSIC OF SOUTHERN IXDIA. 9

therefore decline to teach him anything else but this raga, knowing that to be
a sure way of ridding himself of the intruder.

The Megharangini (or Megh-mallar, as it is elsewhere called), when played
incessantly, was said to be productive of immediate rain. Stories of how skilful
musicians have averted famine by drawing down rain with the strains of this
raija are common all through the countrv.

Of the fiery power attributed to the raga Dipaka there are many legends.
One states that long ago the sacred lamps in the shrine of some temple in
Mysore, said to have been lighted ages ago by some Divine agency, had been
extinguished through the carelessness of the ministering priest, who neglected
to supply them with fresh oil. The soothsayers foretold some great disaster to
the surrounding country should they be rekindled by mortal hands. A famous
musician, hearing of this, offered his services to the authorities, and, at the
request of the Rajah, hastened to the temple. Sitting down in the " S'ri-Kovil "
— the most holy place of all— before the shrine, he played this raga, while the
priest made solemn supplication that success might attend his efforts. Presently
the darkness of the shrine was broken — for a moment a faint glimmering was
apparent, and the lamps became mysteriously lighted. Thus confidence was
restored to the country round and dire calamities averted.

Another favourite story is that the Emperor Akbar ordered Nayuk Gopal,
a celebrated musician, to sing this raga. " He endeavoured to excuse himself, but
in vain — the Emperor insisted on obedience. He therefore requested permission
to go home and bid farewell to his family and friends. It was winter when he
returned, after an absence of six months. Before he began to sing he placed
himself in the waters of the Jumna till they reached his neck. As soon as he
had performed a strain or two the river gradually became hot — at length began
to boil — and the agonies of the unhappy musician were nearly insupportable.
Suspending for a moment the melody thus cruelly extorted, he sued for mercy
from the monarch, but sued in vain — Akbar wished to prove more strongly the
power of the raga. Nayuk Gopal renewed the fatal song. Flames burst with
violence from his body, and though immersed in the waters of the Jumna he
was consumed to ashes." '"

The raga Gundakrj'a is so called from its having been first performed by
the god Hanuman, who was called upon to decide a dispute between the
celestial musicians Narada and Tumburu. Each was jealous of the other's

1° ".\n Essay on the Music of Hindustan," by Sir W. Ouseley.— See "Oriental Collections, illustrating
the History, Antiquities, and Literature, &c., of Asia." London, 1797-1800. Vol. L

10 THE MUSIC OF SOUTHERN IXDIA.

powers, and claimed to be most skilled. They appealed to Hanuman to settle
their differences and award the palm to the best performer. He heard them
both and was unable to decide, so taking the vina himself, he sat down, and
resting the instrument against the rock, began to play. So ravishing was the
strain that the very rock melted into tears, and the vina, dropping from the
hands of the god, sank into the lake thus formed. The music ceasing, the rock
once more assumed its natural form. Then the god, turning to the two who
stood by amazed, said : " The palm is his who plays this strain." Each essayed
the feat, but failed. Hanuman then decided that the skill of both was equal, and
thus settled their differences amicably. This raga, then played for the first time,
was called '• Gundakrj'a," or " that which melts rocks."

Hanuman after this became exceedingly proud of his musical abilities, and
used to boast of his skill continually. The demigod Rama, hearing of this, devised
a plan to humble the god, and accomplished it in the following manner : — There
lived in a forest near Ayodhya (Rama's capital) a certain Rishi or bard, who had
devoted himself to music all his life with such success that he had caused the
Septasvaras, or seven notes, to become embodied in the form of seven
daughters. To this forest Rama took Hanuman as if upon a hunting
excursion, and halting within hearing of the Rishi's dwelling, whose existence
was unknown to the other, asked for some music. Hanuman accordingly took
up his vina and began to accompany himself. Constant practice and self-
confidence had made him careless, and it chanced that as the seven nymphs
passed on their way to draw water for their father's house he sang a note falsely.
Xo sooner had the nymph to whom this note belonged heard it than she
swooned and died. Her sisters made piteous lamentations, and ran to tell their
father. The Rishi came, and seeing Hanuman engrossed in his art and still
singing, at once guessed the cause of his daughter's death. After listening for
a while he heard the same note sung constantly out of tune. Then going up
to the god he upbraided his want of care, and taking the vina from him played
the raga truly, when the dead nymph revived and merrily joined her sisters.

The raga Kadara is seldom heard, there being a superstition that trouble of
various kinds always follows in the footsteps of those who sing this strain.

It is said that those who play the raga Ahiri shall go without food for
the rest of the day. Many have essayed to do so, but have for some unaccount-
able reason always failed. Years ago— such is the story— there was a musician
who was determined to discover whether or not there was any truth in the power
attributed to this raga. After packing some food in a basket, he took his
instrument and set out upon his travels. Very soon he came to a large tank, with

THE MUSIC OF SOUTHERN IXDIA. ii

a cool and shady ,£jrove of bamboos by its side ; there he thought he would rest
during the heat of the day. Accordingly he hung up his basket on one of the
overhanging bamboos and began to sing. When he had sung for some hours he
becan to feel hungrv, and so looked about for a place to cook his mid-dav meal ;
but to his great chagrin he found that as the sun rose higher the bamboo upon
which his basket was hung had bent upwards out of his reach. This solution of
his difficulty did not however satisfy him, as he thought it due to his own neglect
rather than to Divine interference. Continuing his journey, in the evening he
arrived at a large town, the Rajah of which had built a " Chattram," or rest house,
for the free accommodation of all poor travellers. The musician was hospitably
received there, and food was laid before him. The Rani herself used to serve the
guests with ghi, or clarified butter, before they commenced to eat. As she served
the musician he was unable to restrain his glee, and exclaimed, '' At last have I
overcome thee, Ahiri ! " Unfortunately for him, the name of the Rani happened to
be Ahiri, and she naturally fancied that he intended some impertinence. He was
promptly arrested and condemned to be impaled. As he was led to execution he
implored the Rajah to grant him a hearing; his request was complied with, and he
told the whole storv. The Rajah then commanded that he should be set at liberty,
and dismissed him with a present, bidding him at the same time refrain from
tempting the gods farther, as it had already so nearly cost him his life.

Manv other such legends may be found in the works of poets and writers
upon religious subjects, and others have been handed down orally by musicians
and would well merit collection.

The ancient theory of Indian music has been comparatively little studied,
except by learned Pandits, many really good performers being ignorant of anything
but the modern custom. This is probably because many of the ancient treatises
that remain were purposely worded so that only Brahmins skilled in sacred lore
could decipher their meaning. And now the improvements and alterations
introduced from time to time by musicians of the day have come to be looked
upon as authentic, a fact that in some degree tends to account for the differences
that apparently exist between the ancient and modern systems.

The theoretical part of Hindu music when compared to that of Europe is
naturally very simple, as it treats entirely of simple melody and measure. The
most noticeable points are the extraordinary importance which the Hindus,
like all the ancient nations, have from the first attached to mode — the trans-
position of the natural scales ; the peculiar rhythmical measures, frequently
irregular ; the noisy methods of beating time ; and the almost entire absence of
harmonv. The onlv harmonv, if it can be called so, is a continuation as a

12 THE MUSIC OF SOUTHERX IXDIA.

pedal of the tonic or dominant, as was done in old "pastorales," and which is
still found in Scotch or Irish bagpipe music. The use of all kinds of grace is
common. The rules laid down for the composition of pieces in what are called
ragas are curious, and should be noticed ; certain progressions of melody
being forbidden, while others are lawful. Whether the ancient Greeks made
any employment of raga is not known, but it seems extremely probable, since
they attributed the greater part of their science of music to India," and that most
Eastern nations still emplo}' either raga or its equiyalent.^-

Roman music was brought to perfection by Greek musicians and their pupils,
and Greek modes were introduced by them. The early ecclesiastical modes
appear to haye been deriyed from those of the Greeks. Many of the older
contrapuntal rules as to the employment of interyals had their origin in the
imperfect scales in which the ecclesiastical modes were composed. All this
goes far to show the possibility of the elaborate counterpoint of the present day
haying had its prototype in the old Sanskrit raga system.

Of the two systems practised in Southern India at the present time, the
Hindustani is somewhat akin to that of Northern India and Bengal. It is
practised mostly by Mussalman musicians, while the Karnatik is confined more
to those of the Southern races. The latter, which may be called the national
music of the South, is far more scientific and refined than the Hindustani, and
its professors are, as a rule, men of much better education ; a fact that is not
without influence upon their music, and seems apparent in all their melodies,
but particularly in the renderings they give of them.

" Strabo X. iii.

'-The Greek practice of Melopceia appears very similar to tliat of raf;a. — I'idc Mr. Chappell's
'• History of Music." London, 1874. See also Plutarch, T^ipi MovaiKi'n. Cap. xviii., xix.

CHAPTKR II.

Preservation of music in Southern India— Modern Karnatik system believed to be closely akin
to the ancient— Sanskrit treatises— Definition of s'ruti— System of twenty-two— Formation
of scales (grama)— Relation of major and minor modes— Deviation of intervals of system
of twenty-two from those of just intonation — Comparison of ancient scale with European
diatonic— Results of recent observation — System of twelve hinted at in Sanskrit — Murchanas
— Raga — How differing from mode — Tala or rhythm— Time, how estimated — Ancient varieties
of rhythm — Ancient notation.

THE theory, modes, and notation in present use throughout the whole of
India are derived from that taught originally by the earlier Sanskrit
musicians ; but owing to the South of India having been less disturbed
by internal commotions, and having been more subject to Hindu rule than either
the Deccan or Northern provinces, the science of music would seem to have been
maintained and cultivated long after the original art had been lost in the North.

Hence Southern Indian music, or, as it is more usually called, Karnatik,
bears, as far as we can judge, a very close resemblance to what the Sanskrit
must have been, and in many cases we can clearly trace the development and
refinements introduced from time to time upon the original ragas.

One of the principal Sanskrit works upon the theory of music is the Sangita
Ratnakera, or "Ocean of IMusic," written by Sarnga Deva at a very early date,
probably about a.d. 200. This book, with the exception of Bharata S'astra,
noticed hereafter, is considered to be the oldest reliable musical work extant,
and is quoted in many subsequent treatises. The Sangita Damodara is also
a well known and very ancient work.

Later than this we have the Sangita Narayana, by Nariiyanadeva, in which
the Damodara is frequently quoted.

There are also the Raganava,^ or "Sea of Passions"; the Sangita

1 This work, together with the Sabha Vinoda and Raga Darpaiia. is quoted b}- Mir^a Khan, but there
seems to be no copy known at present.

,4 THE MUSIC OF SOUTHER X INDIA.

Ratnavali; the Sabha Vinoda,- or "Delight of AssembHes"; and the Sangita
Darpana, or " Mirror of Music," written by Damodara Misra — all works of
more or less value in the elucidation of the music of the ancients.

The Raga Vivodha, or " Doctrine of Musical Modes," by Somanath, or
Soma Raj, is one of the most valuable of the ancient treatises that have been
handed down to us. This book was evidently written at a much later date than
the Ratnakera, which it quotes from several times ; but it is doubtless a very
ancient composition. The first, third, and fourth chapters explain the doctrine
of musical sounds — their division and succession, the variation of scales by
temperament, and the enumeration of modes. The second chapter contains a
minute description of different vinas, with rules for playing upon them.^ The
last chapter contains strains noted in letters. The whole work is singularly clear
from mythological references.

The Persian waiter, Mirza Khan, under the patronage of Aazim Shah,
wrote a work entitled " Tohfuht-ul-Hind," which contains a chapter upon music,
the information for which was extracted, with the assistance of Pandits, from
various Sanskrit works. Mirza Khan describes four principal systems of music —
viz., those of Isvara ; of Bharata ; of Hanuman, or Pavan ; and of Callanath.
All four are mentioned also in the Raga Vivodha.

The main principles contained in most of these ancient works are very similar.
The differences consist mostly in the names and the constitution of the different
modes and ragas.

Written at a still later date than any of the former, to judge by all appearances,
is the Sangita Parijata,^ or " Flower of Music," by the Pandit Ahobala.

The system of music described in the Parijata differs from that of the
Ratnakera, in that it admits of greater intervals than a tone or four s'rutis,
and of less intervals than a semitone or two s'rutis, being, therefore, capable of
forming numerous enharmonic scales. All the notes, except the first and fifth,
are occasionally shifted above or below, and the fourth is never omitted in the
scale.''

This work contains the key to the present Karnatik system, and many of the
ragas contained in it are practically the same as those now in use in Southern India.

" This work is mentioned by Sir William Jones. As far as I have been able to ascertain, there is at
present no known copy in existence, unless, indeed, this work is identical with one called Sangita Vinoda,
a copy of which is in the librarj- of H.H. the Maharajah of Bikanir.

' Sir W. Jones.

' According to the Mahabharata, Parijata is the name of the celestial tree in Indraloka.

■'' See Preface to edition of Sangita Parijata, edited by Kalivara Vedantabagisa. Calcutta, 1S79. See
also the list of modern Karnatik scales given upon pages 32 — 35.

THE MUSIC OF SOUTHERN INDIA.

The ancients divided their octave into twenty-two intervals, called s'rutis.

The names of these s'rutis are differently given by the various authors, but
the following list, taken from the Sangita Ratnakera, is the one which, at the
present day, is best known : —

Shadja
- or
Sa.

] Rishaba

or
) Ri.
I Gandhara
or Ga.

10. Vajrika

1 1 . Prasarini

12. Priti

13. Majani

14. Kshiti

15. Rakta

16. Sandipa

17. Alapi

Madhyama

Ma.

Panchama
or
Pa.

18. Madanti
ig. Rohini

20. Ramya

21. Vugra

22. Kshobini

Dhaivata

or
I Dha.
Nishada
or Ni."

1. Tivra

2. Kumadvati

3. Aland a

4. Chandovati

5. Dayavati

6. Ranjani

7. Raktika

8. Rudri
g. Krodha

The exact definition of what constituted a s'ruti is difficult to determine, but
it is thus vaguely given by the Sangita Ratnavali : — "A s'ruti is formed by the
smallest intervals of sound, and is perceivable by the ear ; it is of twenty-
two kinds" {i.e., as shown above); also "every distinct audible sound is a s'ruti ;
it is a s'ruti because it is to be heard by the ear."

The scales are formed from the s'rutis, four s'rutis being allotted to
a major tone, three to a minor (which would appear to have been of a pitch
somewhat flatter than the tone and sharper than the semitone ; doubts,
however, exist as to whether the intervals of the s'rutis were equal or not),
and two to a semitone.

The s'rutis are differently arranged in gramas, or scales, three in number —
viz., Shadja-grama, Madhyama-grama, and Gandhara-grama.

The literal meaning of grama signifies "a stopping place" or "village."
Hence the word came to be used for scale, since the s'rutis are arranged in a
scale as mankind in villages.

The Shadja-grama consists of two tetrachords similar to each other, and
separated by a major tone — nearly our diatonic major scale.

The Madhyama-grama is formed from the preceding by a transposition of the
major tone, between Pa and Dha, and of a minor tone between Dha and Ni —
precisely our diatonic major scale.

' " In the arrangement of the s'rutis, modern usage is diametrical!}- opposite to the classical one : the
latter placing them before the note to which they respectivel}' belong, while the former gives their position
after the notes. It is difficult to determine when or by whom the alteration was effected. The arrangement
of the frets of the vina and other stringed instruments accords with the modern acceptation of the
principle. According to the rule laid down in the classical treatises, the disposition of the notes is reversed
in the case of Daravi (lit., wooden — i.e., stringed) instruments, and out of this reversed arrangement,
perhaps, the modern theory about the arrangement of the position of the s'rutis has been worked." — " The
Musical Scales of the Hindus." S. M. Tagore. Calcutta, 1884.

THE MUSIC OF SOUTHERN INDIA.

Hence the two gramas stand in the following relation

Ga Ma

Dha

Shadja-grama

Madhyama-grama

3 I 4

3l4

I |2

All
2 I 3

3l4

I|2

Dha Ni

Its construction is not clearly

Ga Ma

The third grama is called the Gandhara-grama
laid down, and if it ever existed in practice its use has long been discontinued.
According to the Damodara its construction is only known in Indraloka, the
mythical heaven of the god Indra, thus dispensing with the difficulty conveniently.

The Sangita Parijata mentions that it merely differs from the other gramas
in that the note Ni will have four s'rutis, and that Sa will consequently have
only three."

The Sangita Darpana points out three changes in the scales in forming
the Gandhara-grama from the Madhyama-grama.

Upon this Mr. Paterson" makes the following remarks : —
ist. Gandiiara takes one s'ruti from Rishaba and becomes of three— /.t'., by rendering the note
Ga flat, the interval between Ri and Ga is reduced a semitone, and that between Ga and Ma
becomes a minor tone.

and. Panchama loses one s'ruti to Gandhara. I am at a loss to know how this can take
place. I rather suspect an error in the te.xt, and would propose to substitute Dha, the sixth note,
instead of Gandhara. The three s'rutis of Panchama make the interval between the fifth and sixth;
by losing one, it is reduced to a semitone ; but it cannot lose this one to Gandhara, which is the
third note. There are but two methods of reducing this interval to a semitone — one by raising
the fifth note, the other by rendering the sixth flat. But here the interval between the fourth and
fifth remains unaltered. It must in this case be done by making Dha, the sixth note, flat ; or, in
the language of Hindu music, by giving one of Panchama's s'rutis to Dhaivata.

3rd. Suddhasvara gives one s'ruti to Nishada. Here Nishada is rendered one s'ruti flat.
Suddhasvara is not the name of a note, but is explained to me to be a term applied to a note
possessing its full complement of s'rutis. It may, therefore, in this case be applied to Dhaivata;
for although it may give one s'ruti to Nishada, yet it gains one from Panchama, and still retains
four complete s'rutis. If these conjectures are admitted, and we compare it with the Madhyama-
grama, to which these changes evidently refer, it will stand thus —

•

■

' The disposition of the s'rutis in this case would be preceding their respective notes, otherwise Sa would
be shifted one s'ruti, and this is not so, as has been already reinarUedwhen mentioning the Parijata first.
» " On the Gramas or Musical Scales of the Hindus." — " Asiatic Researches." Vol. IX. Calcutta, 1S07.

THE MUSIC OF SOUTHERN INDIA.

That the Hindus probably by this division of the octave meant nothing more than what I
have before supposed may appear from the following table, in which the intervals between each
note and the note above it are taken from Mr. Malcolm's series of the octave in the two modes (as
given by Mr. Chambers under the article " Scale "). This I have done in order to compare these
intervals with the s'ruti of the Hindus, and to show the differences —

Malcolm's Series of the Octave.
843238^^
9 5 4 3 5 '5 2
Major mode, or Madhyama-grama.

Malcolm's Series of the Octave.
853255^

9643892

Minor mode, or Gandhara-grama.

H
nr

•-I

n
n

Proportion of the intervals

between each note and the

note above it.

What they ought to be if the

scale was divided into 22 parts,

or the whole string into 44.

What they are as stated by
the Hindus.

3-
n
a.

1
CD

n
n
0-

Proportion of the intervals

between each note and the

note above it.

What they ought to be if the

scale was divided into 22 parts,

or the whole string into 44.

3*
U

a. u
c «

CI.

i&l

i&i

l&t

i&#

*&i

■h

2?-

t&i

l&§

f&t

3§

§&f

2if

f&f

l&A

5
T5

a s. 5

^&i

ItV

.5 ff, 1

In a paper read to the Royal Society,^ in 1877, upon the Hindu division of
the octave, Mr. Bosanquet shows that the fifths and thirds produced by dividing
the octave into twenty-two equal intervals do not deviate very widely from the
e.xact intervals which are the foundation of the diatonic scale, the fifth being only

' " Proceedings of Royal Society." Vol. XXVI., page 372.

THE MUSIC OF SOUTHERN INDIA.

•07 or very nearly ^ of a comma^'^ sharp, and the major third "045 or nearly }, of a
comma flat.

He also gives the following table in order to show the deviation of the other
intervals of the scale from those of just intonation: —

SYSTEM OF TWENTY-TWO.

Interval.

Difference of

Units.

Interval.

Exact
Interval.

Fourth

Fifth and Octave

4-9091

4-9805

Major Tone ...

Fourth and Fifth

2-i8i8

2-0391

Minor Tone ...

Third and Major Tone

1-6363

1-8240

Major Semitone

Third and Fourth

1-0909

1-1174

Minor Third ...

Fifth and Third

3-2727

3-1564

Minor Semitone

Major Tone and
Minor Third

•5454

-7067

"In regarding these numbers," he observes, "we must remember that as far as European
musicians are concerned, the deviation from equal temperament is the most important thing in a
melodic point of view.

" Intervals which deviate widely from equal temperament sound out of tune to the European
ear, and as harmony is not employed, the justification which derivation from perfect concords is
felt to give in harmony has no opportunity of asserting itself."

This calculation of Mr. Bosanquet's was made on the assumption
that all the s'rutis were equal. That such could not have been in realit}'
the case, or that the employment of the system of twenty-two never entered
practically into Indian music, would seem to be from all evidence almost
certain."

This will be more evident by a reference to the following comparative
diagram of the primitive Sanskrit Shadja-grama and the European diatonic
scale, as drawn for the Rajah Sir S. M. Tagore, and published in his work

" Comma of |^ = -21506.

" See also "The Twenty-two Musical S'rutis of the Hindus." S. M. Tagore. Calcutta, 18S6.

THE MUSIC OF SOUTHERN INDIA.

upon the " Musical Scales of the Hindus," from data supplied by the ancient
treatises, the measurements being those of a string go inches long : —

PRIMITIVE SANSKRIT SHADJAGRAMA.

90 inches.

13*

I of

15 12

EUROPEAN DIATONIC SCALE.

The only difference, it will be seen, is in the fact that the sixth is in the
European diatonic scale flatter than in the ancient one ; so that the ancient
Sanskrit sixth had apparently the same ratio, theoretically, as the Pythagorean
sixth of the Greeks.

This seems probable, for the historian Strabo says that among the Greeks
those who regard all Asia as far as India as a country sacred to Dionysius,
" attribute to that country the invention of nearly all the science of music." ^^

But as concerns string measurements by the monochord, the late Mr. A. J.
Ellis, F.R.S., in a most exhaustive paper read before the Society of Arts, '^notices
the above table of the Rajah's and remarks : " These divisions are made
on the supposition that the vibrations are inversely as the length of the
strings, which all my observations and experiments show is not the case on
any practical instrument."

Mr. T. M. Venkatas'esha S'astri, a well-known authority upon theoretical
music in Southern India, in a letter to the author, says that the word " s'ruti "
appears to have undergone a great change in its meaning, and he inclines to the
belief — but on what grounds it is difficult to say— that the suddha septa svaras,
as understood at present in Southern India, meaning, as already explained,
the seven notes of the scale containing their full number of s'rutis, are as
follows : —

This tends to account in some measure for the preference given to the scale
Mayamalavagaula, described in another chapter.

Mr. A. J. Ellis has given a table in the above-mentioned paper ^^ of the

'- Strabo, book X., iii.

i»On "The Musical Scales of Various Nations," by A. J. Ellis, F.R.S., F.S.A.. &c.— See "Journal of
Society of Arts." 27th March, 1885, No. 1,688, Vol. XXXIII.
'* See previous note.

20 THE MUSIC OF SOUTHERN INDIA.

comparative differences in the chromatic scales formed hy the di\ision of

a string into parts, according to both the ancient directions and to what

the Rajah Sir S. M. Tagore states '° to be the modern Bengali use. The

figures are in cents— that is to say, the hundredth parts of an equal semitone.

He says : —

I give the number of degrees (s'rutis) and the calculation of their value on both plans, old and new,
with the names of the nineteen Indian notes, assuming that the pitch varies inversely- as the length of
the string, as shown by the position of F and the octave, and that any errors thus arising have been
corrected by ear.

INDIAN CHROMATIC SCALES.

Degrees

Notes

D'77

Eb?

E-

—

Old

102

153

204

2645

3251

386

442

498

549

New

•19

151

204

259

316

374

435

498

543

Degrees

Notes

A7\?

Br>t7

Old

600

651

702

753

804

855

906

9663

10271

1088

1 144

New

5«9

637

685

736

7S7

841

S96

952

lOII

1070

JI35

The only values agreeing in each are C, D, F, while new E? is the just minor third — a mere
accident. The nine degrees from C to F vary from 49 to 63 cents, and then there is a sudden
break, after which the thirteen degrees from F to the octave vary from 45 to 65 cents. This is
the first intelligible presentment of the Indian scale which I have been able to effect. It will be seen
that C, D^, D, E?, E, F, FJ, G, A\>, A, Bb, B are represented pretty well by our equally tempered
notes; but that the seven intermediate notes— Db>, Ebb, E^, r^:;:, A^b, Bbb, BJ— could only be
tempered in the quarter-tone system used in Syria. Hence in the usual transcription these seven
notes are identified with some of the others. . . . These comparisons necessarily injure
the original character of the music and give it a harmonisable appearance which is entirely foreign
to Indian music.

Mr. Ellis also examined a vina from Southern India, now in the South
Kensington Museum, with the following result : —

Cents o 97 195 312 397 515 596 692 782 8S3 997 1092 1207
Notes G At? A Bb B c d? d ebb e f f; g

He remarks : " This is very close indeed to our scale of twelve semitones,
and may be taken for it"; thus proving scientifically what has been found by
e.xperiment to be invariably the case with vinas used b}' Karnatik musicians
{vide page 31 — footnote).

In a communication received from Mr. A. J. Hipkins, it is not acknowledged
that there is any connection between the old Indian gramas of 22 quarter-tones,
or s'rutis, and the modern European scales, which, with major and minor tones

'^ "The Musical Scales of the Hindus." Calcutta, 1SS4.

THE MUSIC OF SOUTHERN INDIA.

and semitones, are founded upon the knowledge and practice of harmony.
The Indian scale intervals ought to be understood as they are explained by
native writers — namely, as a tone,'*^ a i^-tone, and a J-tone, composed of 4, 3,
and 2 s'rutis respectively. With this conception of intervals, and it must
be borne in mind the ^-tone is still approved of in the East, a division of
the octave into 24 equal quarter-tones becomes impossible. For as it was
essential to secure an approximately perfect fourth with g s'rutis, and a
fifth with 13, the division of the octave by 22 was the only one available.
The error in the fourth of g equal s'rutis of a 22 division is no more than
^-comma, in melody scarcely noticeable, but the error in a 21 or in a 23
division could not have been easily tolerated. The s'rutis thus being a little
wider than exactly equal quarter-tones, 54x1 cents instead of 50, the Indian
gramas in most intervals come near to those of our just intonation scales,
but this resemblance is accidental, as the foundation is different. It must,
however, not be forgotten that this scale of probably equal s'rutis was
theoretical, and has long since been superseded by another and more
practical system, and that equal measurements of a string will not represent
accuratelv this old Hindu conception.

The comparison of the 22 s'ruti scale with the European one of just
intonation is as follows. The figures are equal semitones to two places of
decimals (or the late Mr. A. J. Ellis's cents).

3-82

4-91

7-09 9-27 lo-gi

12-00

3-86

4-98

7-02 j 8-84 ) 10-88

1 or 9*o6, with comma added i
[ to make 5th to D. J

I2-00

Indian 2"i8

European 2-04

The following table, kindly sent me by the late Mr. Ellis, shows the results
obtained from a most minute and careful examination made by him and by
Mr. A. J. Hipkins of a beautiful old vina, in perfect condition, now in my
possession. This instrument is between two and three hundred years old, and
is from the collection in the Tanjore Palace. The results, as will be seen,
tend to prove that the frets were purposely arranged for something like equal
temperament. We see, therefore, that in India much the same results have
been independently arrived at by native musicians as have been attained by
subsequent science in Europe.

'"■ Mr. Hipkins states : "The Pythagorean tone — i.e., the distance by which a perfect fifth overlaps a
perfect fourth — which is here meant, is 2-04 equal semitones, and the greater tune that from the harmonic
seventh completes the octave is 2-31. The four s'rutis amount to 2-18. '"

THE MUSIC OF SOUTHERN INDIA.

Pitch or num-

Cents in the in-

Millimetres

Sounding

bers of double

Cents in the interval

Intervals in cents

Intervals in

terval from the

Frets.

from nut.

lengths of string.

vibrations.
Nov. 18, 1887.

from the lowest note.

from note to note.

cents calculated
from column 3.

lowest note from
column 3.

Nut

555

2107

524

222-8

496

236-6

201

104

195

«5

470

246-2

270

288

1X0

445

260-9

370

100

382

134

421

275-0

461

478

156

399

289-2

548

571

179

376

310-5

671

123

104

675

200

355

325-3

752

774

219

336

346-3

860

108

869

236

319

365-6

954

959

253

302

385-8

1047

1054

269

286

421-5

1200

153

1148

286

269

447-2

1303

103

106

1254

301

254

472-5

1398

1353

3'4

241

494-1

1476

1444

327

22S

523-6

1576

100

1548

341

214

553-3

1672

107

1650

352

203

583-4

1763

1741

19
20

363
373

383

192
182

The rest of the

97
102

1838
1990
3028

The great uncertain-

172

notes were too
high for my
forks.

Auxiliary Table.

ty in these intervals
renders any hypo-
thesis as to the in-
tended nature of the

392

163

Cents.

Intervals.

2121

23
24

401
410

154
145

scale impossible.
Butcol. 7, in conjunc-
tion with the auxi-

99
104

2220
2324

The height of
thestringabove
the frets varied
from I to 5 milli-

128:135

bridge

553

liary table in col. 5,

..hnu'c that thA

or larger , me'chanicaTrule "of

to the beginning

From these

metres.

limma

maKing iiic s.u*.».ca-

Compared with

of the bridge.

lengths are caU

« . ,C . T^

sive lengths as iS: ig,

column 5, this

100 times
these ncm-

but the real
sounding length

culated columns
7 and 8 on the

94
99

17 : 18
84 : 89
16 : 17

or 17 : 18, or 16 ; 17
was applied, and

shows the erro-
neous nature of

bers give

is as 555 milli-

hypothesis that

hencethat the maker

the hvpothesis

the cents in
equal tem-
perament.

metres.

pitch varies
inversely as
the sounding

A cent is the
hundredth part
of an equal

100
105

intended the frets to
be arranged for
equal temperament.

that pilch va-
ries as the
sounding

lengths

semitone.

112
151

15 : 16
II : 12

length on
fretted instru-
ments.

155

32:35

Applied in column 7.

The system by which the octave is divided into twelve semitones is clearly
hinted at in the Sani^ita Darpana, which states that there are seven pure tones
(Suddha or Prakrita), which appear to refer to the intervals composing the
diatonic major scale ; and twelve impure tones (Vikrita), by which we may
conclude that the chromatic scale is implied.'^

" For other information about Prakrita and Vikrita notes, see
M. 'fagore. Calcutta, 1884.

'The Musical Scales of the Hindus.'

THE MUSIC OF SOUTHERN INDIA. 23

The s'rutis are arranged in their different svaras, or intervals of the scale,
according to the " murchanas." Of what these murchanas really consisted
is very doubtful.

Sir William Jones states that the murchanas, of which there are seven in
each grama, appear to be no more than "seven pieces of diapason multiplied by
three, according to the difference of pitch in the compass of the three octaves."

This view seems to be that taken by Kohala, an ancient musician, from
whose pen fragments of a treatise in Sanskrit are still remaining.'^

Mr. Paterson, on the other hand, conjectures that they are the intervals ol
each grama, and arranges them in the following classification : —

Shadja-grama Sa to Ri ist znd)

,, ,, Ga ,, 3rd - ist Tetrachord.
,, ,, Ma ,, 4th )
Pa ,, Dha ,, 2nd\
,, ,, Ni ,, 3rd ^nd Tetrachord.
,, ,, Sa ,, 4th)
Sa ,, Sa ,, Octave
Madhvama-grama ....Sa ,, Ri 2nd

,, ,, Ga Greater third
„ ,, Ma 4th
,, „ Pa 5th
,, ,, Dha Greater sixth
„ „ Ni 7th
,, ,, Sa Octave
Gandhara-grama ....Sa to Ri 2nd

,, ,, Ga Minor third
,, ,, Ma 4th
,, ,, Pa 5th
,, ,, Dha Minor sixth
„ „ Ni 7th''
,, ,, Sa 8th
The seven intervals of each scale are arranged in what are called ragas.
Sir W. Jones employs the term raga as synonymous with mode.
Mode and raga are, however, perfectly distinct from each other — Mode

1* The Sangita Darpana gives a totally different meaning to nuirchana, describing the murchanas
as the permutations produced by a method somewhat like change ringing; the number of murchanas
being the continued product of the number of notes employed. Hence, from a grama of seven tones we
get 5,040 different murchanas. The method of producing these permutations is called " Kundameru " by
native musicians.

" Whether major or minor is not stated by Mr. Paterson.

24 THE MUSIC OF SOUTHERy INDIA.

being termed t/uit, and not raga or ragini. Now that consists in determining
the relative intervals between several sounds, which constitute an octave with
respect to each other. A raga is formed from these, in its composition
employing the whole or less number of the intervals of the that, and with a
peculiar melodic style of its own ; in fact, a melody type formed upon a mode.
This, however, is more fully explained in another chapter.

In no two Sanskrit works do we find that the ragas agree either as to their
names or their notation ; the modes or scales of these different ragas are not
given, and, in most cases, it is therefore only a matter of conjecture as to how
they were performed. In almost all these works a somewhat similar classification
of the rags and raginis has been adopted. There are six principal ragas personified
as demigods, each of which has a certain number of raginis (personified as the
wives of the ragas) — sometimes five and sometimes six — appended to it.
The following classification is that of Hanuman'-*: —

I- — Bhairava Dha, ni, sa, ga, ma, dha.

Madhyamadi ....Ma, pa, dha, ni, sa, ri, ga, ma.
Bhairavi ....(i.) Ma, pa, dha, ni, sa, ri, ga, ma. (i.) Ascending.)
(2.) Dha, ni, sa, ga, ma, pa. (2.) Descending. )

Vangali Sa, ga, ma, pa, ni, sa, |

Ma, pa, dha, ni, sa, ri, ga, ma. )

Varati Sa, ri, ga, ma, pa, dha, ni, sa.

Syinda\i Sa, ri, ga, ma, pa, dha, ni, sa,|

Sa, ga, ma, pa, dha, ni, sa. )

II. — ^Malavakusika Sa, ri, ga, ma, pa, dha, ni, sa.

Todi Ma, pa, dha, ni, sa, ri, ga, ma.

Sa, ri, ga, ma, pa, dha, ni, sa.

Kambavati Dha, ni, sa, ri, ga, nia, dha.

Gauri Sa, ga, ma, dha, ni, sa.

Gunakeri Dha, ni, sa, ga, ma, pa, ni.j

Sa, ga, ma, pa, ni, sa.

Kakobha Dha, ni, sa, ri, na, ma, pa, dha.

III. Hindola Sa, ga, ma, pa, ni, sa, ni, pa, ma, ga, sa.

V'elavcli Dha, ni, sa, ri, ga, ma, pa, dha.

Ramakeri Sa, ri, ga, ma, pa, dha, ni, sa.)

Sa, ni, dha, ma, ga, ri, sa.

Deshaks'ya Ga, ma, pa, dha, ni, sa, ga.

Palamangeri ....Pa, dha, ni, sa, ri, ga, ma, pa.

" See " Sangita Sara Sangraha," a collection of various Sanskrit authorities, edited by S. M. Tagore.
Calcutta, 1875.

THE MUSIC OF SOUTHERN INDIA. 25

Lalita Sa, ri, (^a, ma, pa, dha, ni, sa, sa.[

Dha, ni, sa, ga, ma, dha, dha. j
IV. — Dipaka Sa, ri, ga, ma, pa, dha, ni, sa.

Kadara Ni, sa, ga, ma, pa, ni, ni.

Kanada Ni, sa, ri, ga, ma, pa, dha, ni, ni.

Deshi Ri, ga, ma, dha, ni, sa, ri.

Kaumodi Dha, ni, sa, ri, ga, ma, pa, dha.

Natika Sa, ri, ga, ma, pa, dha, ni, sa.

V. — S'ri-Raga Ni, ga, ma, pa, dha, ni, sa, ri.

Vasantha Sa, ri, ga, ma, pa, dha, ni, sa.

Mahiva Ni, sa, ga, ma, dha, ni.

Mahiva-s'ri Sa, ri, ga, ma, pa, dha, ni, sa.

Dunasri Sa, ga, ma, pa, dha, ni, sa.

Asaveri Dha, ni, sa, ma, pa, dha. 1

Ma, dha, ni, sa, ri, ga, ma.)
\'I. — Megharaga Dha, ni, sa, ri, ga, ma, pa, dha.

Gauri Dha, ni, ri, ga, ma, dha.

Deshakari Sa, ri, ga, ma, pa, dha, ni, sa.

Bhupali Sa, ri, ga, ma, pa, dha, ni, sa.)

Sa, ga, ma, pa, ni, sa. I

Gaurjeri Ri, ga, ma, pa, dha, ni, sa, ri.

Dakha Sa, ri, ga, ma, pa, dha, ni, sa, sa.

The Sangita Narayana shows that thirty-six " modes " or ragas are in
general use, and the rest very rarely applied to practice. These modes are
shown by Sir William Jones in his essay on the musical modes of the Hindus,
and will be found in many respects similar to those described in the Sangita
Darpana, and shown above. Thirtv-si.K modes from the Raga Vivodha, and
thirty-six from the work of Mirza Khan, have also been described by the same
eminent scholar, and need not, therefore, be reproduced here.

The rhythm of the early music seems to have been very complicated, and
the most exact directions as to the value of notes and the division into " talas "
or rhythmical periods are given. These, again, vary in different authors.

For example, in order to estimate the relative time value of successive

notes, the sage Anginayya gives the following poetical directions : —

Take one hundred petals of the lotus flower, place them then one upon the other ; and
when pierced with a needle, the time in which the point passes through a single petal is called
one second ; eight such seconds are called one lava ; eight lavas one koshta ; eight koshtiis one
nimisha ; eight nimishas one kala ; four kalas one anudrutha ; two anudruthas one drutha ;
two druthas one lagu ; two lagus one guru ; three lagus one plutha ; four lagus one kakupatha.

THE MUSIC OF SOUTHEKy INDIA.

Of these, later on in his work, he employs the following, calling drutha
a half matra, and this he takes as the limit.

Hence we can deduce the following table : —

Written

Name

Value

Drutha

•5 Matras

Lagu

I Matra

«t

Guru

2 Matras

Plutha

3 Matras

Birama (or rest)

Not stated

The common and triple time here implied is striking, and in some
measure tends to prove that the employment of triple time is not of such
comparatively recent introduction as some writers endeavour to show.

Formed upon the above basis, several hundreds of different talas or
measures — many of them extremely complicated — are given."^

The rhythm of some of these ancient talas is still employed in practice,
although the complicated system of signature is no longer in use. The following
table, taken from the work of Anginayya, comprises some of these ancient talas,
together with their value in modern notation.

The sign of C or rest, although its value is not definitely stated by
Anginayya, can be — judgingfrom the performances of modern Mridang or Tabla
players — correctly taken to be of the same value as the note immediately
preceding; or else it may be employed as a "dot," when placed after a note, to
lengthen its value by one-half.

Captain Willard, in his " Treatise upon the Music of Hindustan," has given
another and very complete list of these ancient talas, differing in many ways
from the following ; but, unfortunately, he does not state from what authority he
gathered them.

To judge by the very complicated nature of many of these talas, and the fact
that they vary widely in almost all the authorities, it seems hardly likely that
they were ever in very common use ; but they are, nevertheless, interesting as
showing the great variety of rhythm that can be produced by such simple means
as beating the two hands together — the earliest kind of rhythmical accompaniment ;
and some slight idea of the peculiarities of modern Indian drum playing can also
be gleaned from this table : —

" Extracts from Anginayya's work have been given by the Rajah Sir S. M. Tagore, in " Sangita Sara
Sangrahd," which see for further information upon this subject, p. 207 and following pages.

THE MUSIC OF SOUTHERN INDIA.

No.

Name of Tala.

Originally written.

Value in English Notation.

Adi

J-

Dviteya .

0 0 1 1

^.^.^J^

Triteya

0 1 °.

-^/n

Chaturushra

1 0 .

J'Ji

Panchama

00.

-%J»

Nis'ankalila

vv«f«(i

J. J- J J ,>

Durpana .

0 0 V

.%.^J r

Simhavikrama .

*, «, 1, 1 *,= 1 ^ V

J J J ^J-/J J r

Ratilila .

\\i,% . .

.^.N J

Simhalila

1 0 0 0

^^ .%.*.*

Kanderpa

0 0 V ^ 1 •

.*-ftJ-J J-

Virevikruma

1 0 0 4;

J-J^JiJ

Rangaha .

0 0 0 0^.

.ft^^.%j

S'ri-Rangaha .

1 1 ^ 1 V ■ ■

J" J- J .^J r

Chachari .

(0 0' 1 0 0' 1 0 0' 1 0 0' 1
lo o'l 0 0' 1

0 o'l

0 0' 1

•

.%.%. .>.%.%. .V.

Pratianga

^^*tl 1 . .

J J J ^^

Yetilagna

0 0 1

J4 % ^

Gajalila .

1 1 1 1"

-^/.^.N

Hamsalila

II'.

^/n

Vcrnabhina

0 0 1 t,

.^^^J

Tribhinha

1 ^ V • .

.N J ,-

Raga-chudamanni

0 0 1 II 0 0 1 t(

^-fe.f^.^j^.%.*,N

Rangadiotaha .

«f ^ ^ 1 V

J J J .^J r

Rangapradipaka

%i,%\i,^--

J J J ^J J r

Rajah-chasraha

1 1 0 0 M

J* .^ -* -■» S" m"

Mitravernaha .

it'' % 0 0 \ if if

J.J .5.%/J J

Simhavikridita.

1 1 Vi*,ViV«tV<

. c

.'^.N.-^JJ./J.JJ.Jr

Savaha

1 1 «, 1 1 00

/^^J /^.*.*

Vanumali.

1 0 0 0 0 f,

,>.%.% .5.% J

Hamsanada

1 V 0 0 V

.N.-%.*J r

S'imhanada

\ifif\if . .

^J J /J

Kiirdukaha

00 1 1

.ft.*-^.^

Turangalila

0 0' 0 0

.*.* J!.%

S'arabhalila

1 1 0 0 0 0 II .

.■^.^ .*.*.%.*//

Chaturasraha .

^ 1 0 0 S{ .

J /.*-%J

Simhanandana

«, «f 1 V 1 ^ 0 0 «, «, 1

VII

iif ■

JJ/J.^JJ».*JJ.V.VJ

Tribhangihi

Wifif . .

> > 1 1

0> m m m

Rangabhirnaha

«f *( 1 1 V . ■

J J /.^J r

Mangikaha

1 1 «, 1 1 1 r

/.N Z.^.^/-,

Majaba .

If 1 1 0' 0'.

1 ^ N ^. % :]

Madrita-mangaha

I( 1 1 1 1 1 I'

J M^^.'-Vi

Vamangaha

«, II 0' 0' .

J/.^-'!-.'5^

28 THE MUSIC OF SOUTHERN INDIA.

There exist, as will be explained later on, at present in Karnatik music
seventy-two modes or scales, all formed from seven of the twelve semitones in
the octave differently disposed upon a tonic of equal pitch. If we are to under-
stand that the ragas described by Sir W. Jones were simply such scales or
modes, the only way in which it is possible to reconcile the theory to the present
system is to imagine that for ascending the scale they employed a perfect fourth
(or, as a Karnatik musician would say, for Arohana Suddha-madhyama), and for
descending the augmented fourth (Prati-madhyama), or possibly the reverse, like
the Chinese practice at the present day.

From the earliest time the ragas seem to have been appointed to be sung at
certain hours of the day or night, and no musician, unless specially ordered,
would deviate from custom so far as to sing a raga out of its appointed season.

The ragas are, however, differently distributed in the different works, and
the modern custom differs widely from the directions of the Sanskrit.

The notation given in all the ancient treatises is very similar to that at

present in use, letters only being employed to express the notes. The following,

?i facsimile of the most ancient form of notation, is from the work of Soma, and

has been thus rendered into the European notation by Sir William Jones, who

remarks : —

I have noted Soma's air in the major mode-^of A, or Sa, which, from its gaiety and brilliancy,
well expresses the general hilarity of the song ; but the sentiment, often under pain even in a
season of delights, from the remembrance of pleasures no longer attainable, would require in our
music a change to the minor mode ; and the air might be disposed of in the form of a rondo ending
with the second line, or even with the third, where the sense is equally full, if it should be thought
proper to express by another modulation that imitative melody which the poet has manifestly
attempted : the measure is very rapid, and the air should be gay or even quick in exact proportion
to it : —

^^ It is rathfr difficult to understand why Sir William Jones employs this key instead of that of C,
which seems to have been the most natural that would have suggested itself.

THE MUSIC OF SOUTHERN INDIA.

Translation of the above.-

^^^^^^

* *

iy~r"

-^^ — ^-

*fe

^ This translation must, of course, be more or less hypothetical ; and as it is so entirely different in
character and style to all modern Indian music, and airs heard now in India which are said to be very
ancient, its correctness appears to be very doubtful. A comparison with the examples quoted later will
show how u idely it differs.

CHAPTER III.

Modern theorj- — How difTering from ancient — Notation — Arrangement of gamut — Scales — Time,
how signified — Application of measure to music.

THE modern theory of Indian music differs widely from that described in
the ancient Sanskrit treatises, having, as has been said, passed throuiijh
many changes in the course of time before assuming its present form.

The pecuhar division of the octave into twenty-two parts or s'rutis exists
no longer in practice, and the employment of s'rutis or intervals less than
semitones is liinitcd to grace.

The ragas in present use in most respects differ from those previously
mentioned, and, in fact, the whole system has undergone a complete change and
gradual refinement, until between the ancient and modern music there exists a
difference as clearly marked and perceivable, to even the most casual observer, as
between the modern Anglican chant and the ancient Gregorian tones.

The notes employed in Indian music are expressed by the following
characters' (termed, when sounded, svaras). These characters are repeated as
often as is necessary, should more notes be required to complete a passage. No
stave, as in the European system, is necessary, the characters being written in
one line onlv.

Name

How sung

Signified

Corresponding
to European

Shadja

Rishaba

Gandhara

Madhyama

Panchama

Sol

Dhaivata

Dha

Nishada

' The characters here represented arc Tclegu, that being the most musical language of Southern Iuiii:i.
The corresponding letters of Tuniii, Mahrathi, Sanskrit, &c., are frequently employed in the same way.

THE MUSIC OF SOUTHERN INDIA.

These seven notes correspond to those of the European diatonic major scale,
unless the intervals are modified to those of some special scale.

The Hindu octave, like the European, is divided into twelve semitones.-

From these twelve semitones, seventy-two scales or modes, each consisting
of seven notes, are formed upon a tonic of the same pitch.

As the intervals of every scale or mode are signified by the above letters, it
will be seen that there exists no method by which accidentals can be noted.

The following table shows the arrangement of the twelve semitones under
their respective significations.

The note Pa (Sj), as will be seen, is invariably the fifth of the scale.

The keynote Sa {Xj) may be of any pitch as may best suit the requirements
of the performer.

Relation.

Sa.

Ri.

Ga.
X

Ma.

Pa.

Dha.
6

Ni.

Sa.
!6

C
B

At
A

Gt
G

KakeH=

Shat-s'ruti

Kaisika'

Chatur-s'ruti

Suddha

Prati

Suddha

Sadharama

Shat-s'ruti

Antara'

Chatur-s'ruti

Suddha

"'1

" This view is supported by both Sir W. Jones and Mr. Fuwke (".Asiatic Researches"). Sir W. Jones
remarks: " I tried in vain to discover in practice any difference between the Indian scale and that of our
own; but knowing my ear to be very insufficiently exercised, I requested a German professor of music to
accompany on his violin a Hindu lutenist, who sang by note some popular airs on the loves of Krishna and
Radha, and he assured me that the scales were the same; and Mr. Shore afterwards informed me that when
the voice of a native singer was in tune with his harpsichord, he found the Hindu series of seven notes to

^ M. Grosset gives an interesting explanation of these terms, as used by Bharata, in his Contribution a
VHude dc la musiquc Hindoue. Paris, 1888. The terms are used in a slightly different sense, but the
explanation should be read by those who wish to make further research.

THE MUSIC OF SOUTHERN INDIA.

From the above table it may be easily understood that although every scale
is sung to the syllables " Sa, Ri, Ga, Ma, Pa, Dha, Ni," the intervals implied
by these syllables vary in the different scales.

For instance, Ri may be employed to denote either D?, Di^, or DJf, as the
case may be ; assuming, of course, that Sa corresponds with C. When the
names of the notes vary it has been noticed in the column under each respective
head. These names should be prefixed to those of the notes, as Suddha-
gandhara, Antara-gandhara.

The scales formed upon these intervals are seventy-two in number, and are
divided into two divisions of thirty-six in each.

Those of the first division are styled " Suddha-madhyama," from the fact
that in their construction they employ that note, or the perfect fourth, throughout.
Those of the second, for a similar reason, are styled " Prati-madhyama," and
employ the augmented or tritone fourth. In theoretical works the scales are
classified in sets or " chacrams " of six ; the construction of each chacram, as
will be noticed, being very similar.

The following is a list of all the scales,^ with their names and reference
numbers, arranged by "chacrams" or sets of six precisely as given in treatises
in the vernacular, the only difference being that European notation has been
substituted for the Indian : — ■

Karnakangi. No. i.

Suddha-Madhyama.

Rhatnangi. No. 2.

t=F

H bW

]vj bi

icJ b?or

=^^=^

IZ3Z

Ganamurti. No. 3.

■<s>-

Vanaspati. No. 4.

^§

i^=M

=bS=^

rJ O-

?o-

Manavati. No. 5.

-o-
Tanarupi. No. 6.

d rJ

HsgEg^^j .1 ^m

bJ i'bt

ascend like ours — by a sharp third." From many experiments I am led to beHeve that a wrong idea as to
the temperament of the Indian scale — as practically employed — has hitherto been held. I played over all
the various scales shown later upon a pianoforte — tuned to equal temperament— in the presence of several
well-known Hindustani and Karnatik musicians, all of whom assured me that they corresponded e.xactly to
those of the vina. Upon comparing the two instruments this was found to be the case — as far as could be
judged by the ear alone— in every instance. Native airs are played by the private band of H.H. the
Maharajah of Mysore; and as far as mdody is concerned they are acknowledged to be perfectly in tune,
according to Indian ideas, by all. Native airs are also played by the band of H.H. the Gacckwar of Baroda,
the chief musician at whose court — " Professor" Maula Bu.x — a man of considerable attainments, took pains
to explain to me that the tempering of the modern Indian scales differed in no whit from the European.
In fact, in practice, as among the ancient Greeks, the old enharmonic genus would seem to have given
place to the chromatic.

* The scales here shown are those of the Karnatik system. Those used in the Hindustani system are
fewer in number and are differently named They will be found upon page 91.

Sanapati. No. 7.

THE MUSIC OF SOUTHERN INDIA.

Hanumatodi. No. 8.

-t>o — ^

g- i^f-J

^gJ <■>

:tJ=i

g^^

-0-

Danuka. No. 9.

Natakaprya. No. 10.

Kokilaprya. No. 11.

^^^g^

Rupavati. No. 12.

^^^=^d=r^

^^=M=^^=^

=zi:

:^H^=J-b«i^

^P^

J fJ-

Gaiakaprya. No. 13.

Vakhulabharna. No. 14.

i^d-

ri Q-

-j^rJ t''

Mayamalavagaula. No. 15.

-f3>-
Chackravaka. No. 16.

=^=^

Tl-d^^

Suryakanta. No. 17.

Hatakambari. No. 18.

izi:

-^ Q-

=sHrJ^

-rj O

S'ankaradvani. No. ig.

Natabhairavi No. 20.

-^d — ^

^^'?=!^^^

-i^d <^-

^^^ — J=

Kyravani. No. 21

Karaharaprj'a. No. 22.

1=^=1=

1=3=^=1^

3±:

^3^

-J I

ICJt

=^3=

3=£;

Gaurimanohari. No. 23.

^•■^

ESEEi

Varunaprya. No. 24.

TT'^r-p^

^^^

Mararangini. No. 25.

Charukali. No. 26.

Z^_^

lesi:

::U?=t:

Harikambogi. No. 28.

32!=

-iS^ C3 «

Sarasangi. No. 27.

^^^^^

J J .1 J .^:^^fl

b'-j '^

Dehras'ankarabharna. No. 2g.

-r^^^JE

Naganandini. No. 30.

^^^

Yagaprya. No. 31.

THE MUSIC OF SOUTH ERX INDIA.

Ragavardani. No. 32.

J— ^-4-

=tel— ^H

^?<s> ''^

^^s

3222:

dJ=t

rj g*

Gangaiabhusani. No. 33.

Vagadesvari. No. 34.

Shulini. No. 35.

=^^^

|v^ g^

:2±

ij^i:

Chalan^ta. No. 36.

H — i-

3£:

fj o

zsiz

^3-t=^

Salanaga. No. 37.

Prati-Madhyama.

Salanava. No. 38.

,J__J_lJEgdE

Ed=^

33Z

I2S2I

^^si=*

yj ^

9?^s-

Jalavarali. No. 39

^-- — M
Nivanita. No. 40

j=^=^

itjQ

=ri=^[^^=i

-^' — ^

Pavani. No. 41.

Ragonprja. No. 42.

^^^^^^^^^^

'»==±=?d^>iHj'-£

=^-^?s!— $■

Gavambodi. No. 43.

Bhavaprya. No. 44.

'^ J. ,J=ife#^^^3^^^

i^;j=t>^^=^

^3=PS^|-^=

rhJ=k^

Sabhapantovarali. No. 45.

S'adivedamangini. No. 46.

1 h

i=;p*

Suvaranangi. No. 47.

i^3^^^

il=:j=2z

=?S=|^

-r3 ?s-

Davyamani. No. 48.

=?^Mr=

q=4:

! „ I -^-

^^^^

«./ -S>-

~?c<

t>a — ?'

Duvalambberi. No. 49.

Namanagini. No. 50.

Kamavdrdini. No. 51.

-t=fe

5^^^^E^

^i=3^

icbizPSi

-7-J-

Ramaprya. No. 52.

a-_^i .] >^3s||

^^^=3=^

t=2'Oz

rj~

-^=^=^^

GSmanas'rya. No. 53.
n —

^#=^=^

Visvambari. No. 54.

=^=t^---^=

Syamalangi. No. 55.

THE MUSIC OF SOUTHERN INDIA.

S'anmukaprya. No. 56.

^=^^-t-^— ^

±^

?-?£) C>_

^^^E^EE^.

j— Kio^— ?e-=Q=

S'rimhandra. No. 57.

Hamo-vasantha. No. 58.

j-i>.^-^

=)=

-bJ ^^ II

=^^^P

iL d ?Q ?r-

Dharmovati. No. 59.

Nettimatti. No. 60.

1^37^^=^^^^^^^^

Kanlamani. No. 61.

Rishavaprya. No. 62.

I^S=35=

i^^^

Tt.'J g>

fl,^J i>T»C' ''"'

^^^ V

4?ji:

Latangi. No. 63.

Vachaspati. No. 64.

_._ ^ ^ ^

Matsy^ikaliani. No. 65.

tei:

■^ Q

32:

4=^

ftrj Q-

ChintSmani. No. 66.

^^Ei

^^^

=*=^

Suchantra. No. 67.

Jotisvarupeni. No. 68.

f=Sta

=*=

-|7^-^?^-

iffci:

-?€>' Q-

Nas'icabharna. No. 70.

Dhartov^rdani. No. 6g.

J 41,1 J 1'^=^

:c3z

let

-f»ej g^c

-f3 «■'

Rasikaprya. No. 72.

Kosala. No. 71.

-*^

;=£

In Hindu music usually three octaves only, termed Sthayis, are taken
into consideration.

Instruments such as the vina, kc, have, however, a compass of nearl}- four
octaves. In order to sii^nify the octave in which a note is to be plaved, a dot or
dots are usually placed above or below it. There is no definite rule for this; each
musician or writer upon music apparently advocates some method of his own.

Music is not, as with us, divided by bars of equal duration. Divisions
styled Gitalu are in use, and are signified thus | or — ; they can be placed
anywhere, at the composer's discretion, and denote parts or phrases so to speak.

They are frequently marked thus || or =, when they denote the repetition
of a part, or the conclusion of a strain.

3*5

THE MUSIC OF SOUTHERX INDIA.

The sign of the lotus flower G?) is used by some writers for the same
purpose.

Time, bv which is imphed the relative values of a succession of notes, cannot
be expressed with anv degree of accuracy without indeed so complicated an
arrangement of signs as to be almost unintelligible. The method is described
fully in the Sanskrit works, but from this reason it has fallen into disuse. The
value of the note is invariably taught orally by a master, and the ear is thereby
cultivated to a very high degree.

The following signs (or their equivalents if the character is Devanagari) are,
however, made use of in order to convey — approximately only — whether notes
are to be of long or short duration :^

Dirgha : This sign, used in conjunction with the musical characters,
signifies that they represent " long notes" —

Votu : This sign in the same way represents " short notes "—

The different degrees of time are termed Talas, of which there are seven,
each being sub-divided into five "jatis," or kinds; so that there are in use no
less than thirty-five distinct measures.

By the annexed table the various talas and their respective jatis will be
understood at a glance, the figures signifying the number of beats of equal
duration made in a bar.

Name of Jati.

Name
of J

Tala.

Chaturushra.

Tishra.

Mishra.

Ciindha.

Sankirna.

Dhruva

4. 2, 4. 4^

3.2,3.3

7.2,7.7

5.2,5.5

9,2,9,9

Matsya

4. 2, 4

3. 2,3

7.2,7

5.2,5

9.2,9

Rupaka

4, 2

3.2

7-2

5.2

9,2

Jhampa

4- I. 2

3. I. 2

7, 1. 2

5, 1.2

9. I. 2

Triputa

4. 2, 2

3. 2, 2

7, 2, 2

5. 2, 2

9. 2, 2

Atatala

4,4,2,2

3.3.2,2

7.7.2,2

5. 5. 2, 2

9,9.2,2

Ekatala

Soiiictiiiics ill practice this is jjlayed 6, 4, 4, although theoretically wrong.

THE MUSIC OF SOUTHERN INDIA.

Talas can be denoted by the following signatures

denotint

I unit of time.

-7

Should

Anudrutha u

Drutha o

Lagu I

Guru 6

Plutha 3

Kakupatha -(-

The jati of the tala is usually appended to the signature in words,
nothing be appended, then the Chaturushra is generally understood.

In order to employ these signs they should be substituted for the figures
in the table: thus ion will denote the Chaturushra jati of Druvatala. Hence,
when written in European notation, there is often a constant rotation cor-
responding to the tala of bars of different time signatures.

Each tala can be played in any order — i.e., 4244 can be played 2444,
4424, or 4442.

The application of the talas to an air is called Graha, and is of four
kinds, viz. : —

(i.) Sama" — When the first beat of the tala falls upon the first note

of the air.
(2.) Anagata — When the air commences after the first beat of the tala

which therefore falls upon a rest.
(3.) Atiyita — When the tala continues after the air is finished, the last

beat therefore falling upon a rest.
(4.) Vichama — Comprises anv irregularity not included in the above
three, such as the beat of a tala falling upon the first note of a
bar tied to the last note of the bar preceding, &c.
The Chaturushra jati of Triputa Tala is also known by the name of
Aditala, and is a very common time for javadis, and other love songs.

There being practically no harmony in Hindu music, clefs, as in the European
system, are not employed. The kevnote is always Sa, and, as already stated, is
taken of any pitch to suit the requirements of the performer or the nature of the
instrument.

' This term is also used to signify the strong accent.

CHAPTER IV.

Ka<ja — How dtlined — Notes essential to composition of — \'adi and Samvadi notes — Modern
meaning of Murchana — Examples of Murchana applied — Ancient and modern methods of
performance of raga — How differing — Alapa — Madhyamakala — Gamakas — Classification of
ragas — Popular scales for — Allied to certain passions — Peculiarities — How apportioned to
seasons and hours — " Kattika," or list of modern ragas.

AS raga constitutes what may be called the very foundation of Indian
music, it merits a chapter to itself. The term raga may be best
explained as " melody type," since it is a melodic extension of certain
notes of a particular scale or mode (that), according to certain fixed rules called
the murchana.'

The literal meaning of the word raga is "that which creates passion," and
hence, according to the Hindu idea, a raga signifies a succession of notes so
arranged, according to prescribed rules, as to awaken a certain feeling of the
mind and an effect differing, it may be, in the minutest particulars from that
derivable from another raga.

These notes can be played in any degree or movement of time without
destroying the inherent character of the raga, though the mode or that must
remain the same throughout.

The notes essential to the composition of a raga are of four kinds — viz.,
vadi, samvadi, anuvadi, and vivadi.

By the vadi is meant any note which, by reason of its continual recurrence.

' The word Raga docs not appear to have been used in its jirosent technical sense until a date later than
has been generally supposed. It is worthy of note that in the oldest Indian musical treatise, the Bhdrata
Natya S'astra, the word Raga appears hardly at all; and no special adhyaya is devoted to it, as is invarial)ly
the case in all subsequent Sanskrit treatises. The employment of raga as understood in the Sangita
Ratnakcra and subsequently was evidently unknown at the time when Bharata wrote. But in its place
there was a system of what are called by Bharata 7«/;s. This word, meaning literally genus, would seem to
be of kindred meaning to the old Greek musical term yivoc. Some centuries later, when the Sangita
Ratndkera was written, the term raga appears to have been substituted for jati.

THE MUSIC OF SOUTHERN INDIA.

or bv its being specially accentuated or dwelt upon, shows to the best advantage
the characteristics of the raga. Hence the vadi is called the " Rajah " (king),
and by Hindustani musicians the "Jan " or life and soul of the raga.

The samvadi is usually either the fourth or fifth, the vadi being taken as the
tonic, or both fourth and fifth when both are admissible in the raga.

The samvadis are commonly arranged as follows : —

Vadi.

Samvadi.

Madhyama and Panchama

Shadja

Rishaba

Dhaivata

Gandhara ...

Nishada

Madhyama..

Nishada and Shadja

Panchama ...

Shadja

Dhaivata

Rishaba

Nishada

Gandhara and Madhyama

A list of these notes has been given because in many of the Sanskrit
treatises directions are given to employ samvadi alternating or otherwise in
conjunction with the vadi notes in the performance of certain ragas. In the text
these samvadi notes are not shown ; but they are known from their respective
vadis, in much the same way that an accompanying harmony to an air used
to be, in European music, often merely figured.

In modern dispositions Panchama is admitted as a samvadi to Rishaba and
vice versa. According to the authorities, Nishada cannot be samvadi to any
other note than Gandhara, and vice versa. Madhyama therefore can have only
one samvadi, which will be Shadja ; though, according to the calculations, it is
shown to have Nishada too for its samvadi ; Nishada will have Gandhara only
for its samvadi.

Bv the vivadi, or enemy, is meant a note which, being inadmissible,
would therefore destroy the special characteristics of any raga.

All other notes not comprised among the foregoing are stvled Anuvadi.

The rules for determining the succession and style of the notes composing
a rasfa are called the murchana of that ratra.

By the murchana is meant not only the stvle, but also the time ; it gives
the relative values assigned to the different notes, the accentuation, and anv

4°

THE MUSIC OF SOUTH ERS INDIA.

peculiarity of expression or tempo essential to the correct execution of the raga,
such as can only be learned by actually hearing it performed.

In a musician's kattika, or scale book, the ascending and descending
modes alone of a raga are given, no directions as to the value of the notes, &c.,
being assigned ; indeed, often the scale itself is not given.

All this is implied in the murchana, and without understanding the murchana
it is therefore impossible to play any raga.

The murchana is never written, but is invariably taught orally ; often by
means of songs, &c., in the same raga.

For example, in the kattika, the te.xt of the raga " S'ri " is given thus : —
Ascending mode — Sa, ri, ma, pa, ri, sa.
Descending mode — Sa, ri, pa, dha, ni, pa, ma, ri, ga, ri, sa.

These notes must follow each other in proper succession ; for instance,
when the melody is ascending, the note Ma must follow Ri ; in descending, a
similar method of progression must be adhered to. Hence from these notes,
without breaking the rules, many melodies can be formed.

But yet there is a certain style peculiar to each raga : certain notes must
be dwelt upon, some played staccato; others with a peculiar expression, grace
or tremor.

If the notes of one of these melodies were written as No. i below, no two
persons could play them alike ; each would naturally put his own interpretation
upon them. The interpretation, therefore, is supplied by the murchana, when
the melody appears as No. 2 : —

No. I. S'ri Raga.

No. 2.2

Andante.

-^^-^

. rail. .
tr tr

a tempo.

mil.
w

1^^

m^'-

When a composition is said to be in a certain raga, it means that it employs

' The grace here implied is more the " Bebung," or vibrato, than anything else, and cannot therefore be
executed upon a pianoforte. In the clavichord it consists in giving to the key a certain trembling pressure
producing a pulsation of sound without any interval of silence. In stringed instruments the effect is obtained
by a rocking movement of the finger without raising it from the string. This peculiar grace must be
remembered as applying specially to all Indian melodies. It should be borne in mind that Indian stringed
instruments, owing to the great length of their strings in proportion to the thickness, are far less confined
in their intonation than are European instniuionts, conseijucntly they are capable of producing an infinity
of delicate grace by modification of pitch that cannot be expressed in our notation.

THE MUSIC OF SOUTHERN INDIA.

the same scale, melod3'-type and notes ; and, in fact, illustrates the character
and st3le of that raga in every way.

How widely the characters of the various ragas differ can be told by a
glance at the following short melodies, all of which show as much as possible
the full murchanas of their respective ragas : —

Andante.

S'aiikarabbarna Raj^a.

■W VI

-ji — w-

~^ r r r y'

^=^

^r^4^^-=^

Nata Raga.

^g^^^^fe^-^^i^gs^^^f

Kombodi Raga.

-0-

fej^fe^

j^pi

^m-9-

Mukari Raga.

:fl^

1 (. ,, rT^^

-tea

Bhupali Raga.

Since the early days of Indian music the essential conditions under which
the ragas were composed and performed have altered greatly. Formerly, we
learn, the ragas in performance were divided into four parts or movements, called
respectively the Sthayi, (2) the Antara, (3) the Sanchari, (4) the Abhoga. The
precise meaning attached to these terms, when applied thus,^ seems to have been
lost in obscurity. At the present time, however, it matters little, for the modern
theory teaches that in the performance of raga as a solo, two movements onlv
are taken into consideration. These movements are known as the Alapa and
the Madhyamakala, and answer approximately to the Adagio (perhaps
rhapsody would convey a nearer meaning) and Scherzo of a sonata.

To convey in writing an adequate idea of what an alapa consists is
somewhat difficult ; it is not exactly a song, the music not being set to any
particular words ; neither is it an air, for it is not confined in its rhvthm. An
alapa may be said to be rather a kind of rhapsody, which abounds with grace
and embellishments of all kinds, and is formed by an extension, according to the
murchana, of the notes of the raga, in such a way that all the characteristics of

' For the modern iuterpretation of these terms, see page S6.

THE MUSIC or SOUTHERN INDIA.

that raga arc prominently shown, and scope is given to the performer's power of
improvising.

The phrases vary in length, some being slow, with quick modulations
succeeding, and others vice versa, the beats upon the accompanying strings
marking the time being given at the performer's fancy.

As a rule the voice is not employed in the performance of an alapa ; but if
used at all it is either in unison with the instrument or else accompanied by a
simple running accompaniment upon the open strings. Occasionally the voice
is relieved by the instruments taking up the melody, varied with soft imitations
in the same raga. In fact, so much is left to the taste and fancy of the musician,
that it is impossible to lay down any definite rules for the constitution of an
alapa ; hence, as may be imagined, in movements of this sort, there is a kind of
wild charm which seems to carry with it a plaintive refrain that lingers on in the
mind of the listener long after the music has ceased. Perhaps the only composer
who appears to have caught the entire spirit of these peculiar improvisations is
Chopin ; though, as far as we know, his acquaintance with Oriental music must
have been limited.

Following the alapa is the madhyamakala, or second movement. This, as
has been said before, can be compared to the Scherzo of a sonata — the music being
very lively and catchy, while the tempo is quick and regular throughout.

Like the alapa, the madhyamakala consists of an extension according to the
proper rules of the raga ; in fact, a development of thanas, explained else-
where, reduced to a definite measure. The periods are usually shorter, and the
rhvthm regular throughout. The original subject is imitated and varied, as the
performer's fancy may dictate, in the same raga. The whole construction of this
movement is symmetrical.

The madhyamakala consists usually of two parts, the second only differing
from the first in that the tempo is more rapid.

In the performance of a raga there is usually a short pause between the two
movements ; also between the two parts of the madhyamakala ; but it is entirely
optional to the plaver.

The methods by which the different notes are varied, or follow each other,
are styled by the Sanskrit treatises " Gamakas," and are arranged as follows : —

1. Arohana — ascending.

2. Avarohana — descending.

3. Dhalu — alternating with anv given note.

4. Sphurita — repeated ; ascending.

5. Kampita — trembling.

THE MUSIC OF SOUTHERN INDIA. 43

6. Ahata — slurred.

7. Pratya-ahata — repeated ; descending.

8. Tripastya — the first and second notes thrice repeated, the third

twice, thus : wuw | ^wvj | — v^ | or ^^ uu | wu w | wu |
g. Andhola — the two first notes and the fourth of short duration ; the
third long, thus : uu — w
Racjas are fjenerallv classified as follows :—

(i.) Sampurna — in which all seven notes of the gamut are employed,
(ii.) Sharava — in which six notes only are employed,
(iii.) Orava — in which five notes only are employed.
These three classes are again sub-divided into three, viz : —

Suddha, or pure, which show the characteristic of one raga only.
Salanka, or mi.xed, showing the characteristics of two ragas.
Sankirna, or mixed, showing the characteristics of more than two ragas.
The six original ragas are the only instances of the Suddha class ; but
opinions differ so widely as to the present names of these six ragas, and as to
how the modern ragas have assumed their present form, that it would be nearly
impossible to make any classification. The nomenclature of all the ragas differs
in various parts of India; and so many and subtle are the distinctions between
the different ragas, each of which has a character of its own, exclusive, if a mixed
raga, of that of the ragas from which it may be derived, that to give more than a
few examples would be an almost endless, if not impossible, task.
Ragas in the following scales seem to be the most popular * : —
Mayamalavagaula Harikambogi Kamavardini

Nata-Bhairavi Dehra-S'ankarabharna Matsyakaliani

Karaharaprya Chalanata Jalavarali

Hanumatodi
Some ragas are commonly supposed to create particular passions. Those
more usuallv met with are the followinjr : —
Bhupali — beauty

Nata — valour
Malava — fear
S'ri — fjrandeur

to'

Mangari — kindness
Bhairavi — anger

Bhangala — wonder
Ragas derived from any of the above are said to possess the same inherent
qualities.

* It may be interesting to notice that the Greek chromatic genus is represented by the scale
Mayamalavagaula, and the Greek diatonic modes thus: Dorian, Hanumatodi; Phrygian, Karaharaprya:
Lydian, Dehra-S'ankarabharna; Hypolydian, Matsyakaliani; Ionic, Harikambogi; and /Eolic, Nata-Bhairavi.

THE MUSIC OF SOUTHERN INDIA.

The following ragas resemble each other so closely that they are very
difficult to distinguish apart, and are frequently used as tests of skill by
musicians of repute : —

Mohanna and Regupti
Lalita and Vasantha
Bhaiili and Bhupali
Todi and Deshyatodi
Arabi and Devagandari
Mangfi and Huseni

Durbar and Nayuki
Bilahari and Deshackshi
Pantovarali and Karmavirdini
Purvi-Kaliani and Gamanasrama
Saranga and Bhupa-Kaliani
Mohanna-Kaliani and Kaliani-Keseri

In the performance of certain ragas it is usual to employ accidentals in place
of some of the notes shown in the text. The reason for this is not evident, but
it seems to be an almost universal custom among Hindu musicians. This might
be accounted for as being in imitation of Northern Indian music, in which a pure
raga is seldom played, but usually a melody composed of three or four ragas.
It seems far more likely, however, that the use of accidentals has been employed
from the undeniable beauty that they add to a melody, much as when a change
of keys is made in modulation. Examples of melodies in mixed ragas will be
found upon pages 88, 8g.

The most important of these ragas are the following : — ■

Raga.

Mode.

Note marked.

Note played.

Kombodi

Harikambogi

Kaisika Ni, B? ...

Kakeli Ni, Bl]

Biag

Suddha Ma, Ft] ...

Prati Ma, FJ

Athana

Sadharama Ga, Et]

Antara Ga.Djf

Nn talcii rAn iJ'i

Pa, Gtl

Chatusruti Dha, A'^

Bhaiiavi

Nata-Bhairavi

Suddha Dha, Ab..

Ananda-Bhairavi. .

Kaisika Ni, A? ...

Kakeli Ni, Bt]

Todi

Hanumatodi

Anta Ga, D5

Suddha Ga, Dlj

Kafi

Karaharaprja

Kaisika Ni, B? ...

Kakeli Ni, Bt]

Biagada

Dehra-S'ankarabharna

Kakeh Ni, Btj ...

Kaisika Ni, AJf

Bilahari

Matsya-Kaliani

KakeH Ni, Bl] ...

»» j»

Severi ...

Mayamalavagaula ...

Antara Ga, E
Kakeli Ni, B

Sadharama Ga, DJJ i
Kaisika Ni, AJ |

Ananda-Bhairavi..

Nata-Bhairavi

Suddha Dha, Al?...
Sadharama Ga, Eb

Chatusruti Dha, Ail) i
Antara Ga, Et| ]

Khamas

Harikambogi

Kaisika Ni, B:' ...

Kakeli Ni, B

Kedara Gaula ...

i»

,, », ...

M »)

Surati

,, ,, • • •

)) J»

Janjuti

j»

Antara Ga, E

Sadharama Ga, Dj

* The Ananda-Bhairavi uf this kind is very popular iu Travancore and the adjacent parts.

THE MUSIC OF SOUTHERN IXDIA. 45

In the extension of some ragas a note, either above or below a particular
note of the text, may be employed, although itself not an essential part of the
raga. If this is done the performer will invariably take the preceding
note of the text ai:^ain before he plays that following. For example, the
text may show " dha sa " {i.e., " ni " omitted). If " ni " is employed,
"dha" is repeated immediately before " sa," as "dha, ni, dha, sa," and not
" dha, ni, sa."

The foresoine: are some of the more important of the manv rules attached
to the performance of ragas, and only by the strict observance of them can a
piece be correctly executed.

It is perhaps needless to add that in so intricate and scientific a system
justice is seldom done except at the hands of very skilful musicians, and they are
but rarely met with.

In all the Sanskrit treatises a system seems to have been laid down by
which the different ragas are apportioned to certain seasons of the year and
hours of the day.

In modern times this system, as far as the hour of the day is concerned, is
still carried out, and no musician, unless specially ordered, will sing any raga
out of the prt)per time of day apportioned for it. The reason given for this is,
according to Willard, that musicians declare that the times and seasons
allotted to each are those at which the divinities are at leisure to attend
at the place where their favourite tune is sung, and to inspire the performer
with due warmth in his execution. Superstition seems to have given birth
to this absurd custom, and it still exercises a strong hold upon all professional
musicians, principally from the fact that it has been handed down from time
immemorial ; therefore it would be considered improper to make any change.
Even in educated circles among Hindus it would be thought a display of
ignorance to call for a particular raga, unless for some special reason, at
an improper season.

The modern custom which lays down this hard and fast law seems to differ
widely from that of all the ancient authorities, the names of the ragas now
apportioned to the different periods of the day being quite at variance with the
directions contained in the Sanskrit ; indeed, the writer of each treatise seems to
have had a classification of his own distinct from that of other authorities. At
the present time musicians divide the twenty-four hours of the day into four
periods, each of which is sub-divided into two parts. The following table shows

46 THE MUSIC OF SOUTHERX INDIA.

at a glance the hours appointed for the performance of the popular ragas
according to the Karnatik system : —

In Northern India, and among Hindustani musicians, a different time
classification of the ragas is in use.

The followinir is a list of all the ratras used in Southern Indian music,
together with their modes and text, arranged precisely as in a native musician's
Kattika or scale book. Notes that are specially emphasised or continually
dwelt upon are underlined : —

THE MUSIC OF SOUTHERN INDIA.

SCALE OF MAYAMALAVAGAULA.

Name of Raga.

Ascending Mode.

Descending Mode.

Matsya-Bhauli

C D? E G A> B C .

C B Ab G F E Db C

Malahari

C D7 F G A? C

C A:^ G F E D7 C

Bhauli .

C U7 E G A-" C

C B A7 G E D? C

Sindutha-Rangini .

C U7 E F a:? B C .

C B G A7 F E D7 C

Karnatika-Sarant;a

C DP E F E G B A> F G

Ab B C .

C A7 F G F E Db C

Gauri .

C D? F G B C

C B A7 G F E D7 C

Saranga-Nata

C Di> F G Ab C

C B A? G F D? F E Db C

Megha-Rangini

C D7 F G A> B C .

C Ab G F E D? C

Purvi t

C D> E F G A^ B G C

C B AC G F E D7 C

Kohkila-virdani

C F E G A? B C .

C B A? F E D7 C

Nebo-Rangini

C D? E D? F G A? B C

C B A? F E C

Gaula .

C D> F G B C

C B G F E F Db E F Db C

Maruva f

C D> F G B C

C B Ab G F E F Db C

Sudda-krya .

C Di? F G Ab G B C

C B A? G F Db E F D7 C

Jagan-mohini

C E F G B C .

C B G F E D? C

Gaujari.

C D7 E F G A> C .

C Ab G F E D? C

Sindhu-ramakrya .

C Di? F G A7 B A? C

C B G F D? E D7 C

Gundakrya t •

C D? E Di? F G B A7 B C

C B A7 G F E Di> E C

Phirju .

C F G A? F E D? E Dl? E F G a!? B C

C B A? G F E Db C

Ramakrya

CDi?EFGFAi?BC .

C B A7 G F K F C

Purna-sadyama

C D? E F G Ai?

G F E Db C B Ab B C

Sarasa-mangala .

C E F B A7 C .

C Ab G F E Db C

Rama-Lalita .

CD7EFGBGC.

CBAbFGFEC

Lalita .

C F E Ai? B C .

C B Ab F E D7 C

Bibasu .

C Di? E G A? C

C Ab G E Db C

Gaulipantu t .

C D? F G B C .

C B A7 G F Ab F E D7 C

Vasantha

C E F Ai? B C .

C B Ab F E D7 C

Severi .

C D-- F G Ab C

C B Ab G F E D7 C

Bulangi

C E D7 E F G Ai? G C

C B Ab G F E D7 C

Bogi .

C D? F G Ab C

1 C Ab B Ab G F D7 F E D? C

Nada-namakrya .

C D7 F E F G Ai? C

C B A7 G F E D7 C

Desya-gaula .

C Di? C G A7 B C .

C B A7 G Db C

SCALE OF NATA-BHAIRAVL

Sudda-Deshi.

C D F G Ab Bi? C .

C Bb Ab G F Eb D C

Bhairavi

C Eb D Eb F G A'' B-- C

C B7 Ab F G F E? D C

Riti-gaula

C E? D E? F B? A? B7 C

C B7 Ab F Eb F G F E7 D C

Ananda-Bhairavif.

C E:? D E? F G C .

C B7 Ab G F E? D C

Nata-Mangala

C Ey E7 F G A? B7 C

C Bb Ab G F D E7 D C

Suddha-Danyashi .

C E7 F G B? C.

C B7 G F E.-- C

Hindola-Vasantham

C D F G A? B? Ab C

C B7 A7 G F Ab F Eb D C

Amruta-vahini

C E? F G Ab Bb C .

C Bb Ab F E? D C

Jankaravani .

C D D Eb F G Bb C

C Bb Ab G F D C

Abheri .

C E7 D Eb F B7 C

C B7 A7 G F Eb D C

Abhogi .

C D E? F Ab C

C Ab F Eb D C

Kanaka- Vasdntha .

C D F G BP C .

C Bb G F E7 D F Eb C

Karyamati

C D Eb G Ab C

C Bb Ab G Ab F E7 D C

Yoga-Bhairavi

C D E7 F G A? C .

C Bb Ab G D C

Adi-Bhairavi

C E? D Eb F G A? C

C A7 G F G E7 D C

Mangi .

C D E7 F G B7 Ab Bb G Ab B7 C .

C B7 Ab G F E7 F G E"" D C

Chalana-Varali

C D E? F Ab Bb Ab C .

C B7 A7 F E7 D C

NoiE.— Ragas marked f have two readings, the otlier readings are given at tlie end oi this chapter.

THE MUSIC OF SOUTHERN INDIA.

SCALE OF NATA-BHAIRAVI— co;i<i««ei.

Name of Raga.

Ascending Mode.

Descending Mode.

Nava-Manohari
Vasantha-Varali .
W'oodya-chandrika I
Kanara-gaula
Mara-Rangini
Rudraganthara
Mukari .
Hamakrya
Chandrika-Bhairavi

C U F Ab Bl? C

C E? F G At* B? .

C D E7 F G A7 B? C

C E? D E7 F G A? B> C

C D E? F G a:' B7 C

C U E? D F G F Ab B? G C .

C D F G B:? A? C .

C D E.-' F G Ab B? C

C Eb D Eb F Ab Bb C .

Bb G F D C

Ab G E? D C
A7 G F D C

b:' a? g f e:* d c

Ab G E7 D C
Bb A? F E7 C
Bb Ab G F E? D C
Ab G F D E? F D C
B? A? F Eb D C

SCALE OF HANUMATODL

Naga-Varali .
Punaga-Todi .
Danyas'i
Todi .
Des'ya-Todi .
Ghambhira-
Vasantha
Hima-virdini
Suddha-samantiia
Shadola-rava

C Bb Cb Db F G Ab

Bb Ab Bb C Db E? F G A,'' B.-*

C Eb F G Bb C

C Db Ei? F Ab Bb C

C D? E? F G Ab Bb C .

C F Eb F Db Eb F G Bb Ab B? G C

C Db F G Bb C

C D? E7 F G Bb Ab C .

C Db F G Ab C

G F Eb Db C Bb C

Ab G F Eb Db C Bb Ab Bb c

C Bb A7 G F E7 D7 C

C B7 A7 F Eb Db C

C Bb A? Bb Ab G F Eb Db C

C Ab G F D7 C

C Bb A7 G F A7 F Eb D7 C
C Ab B7 G A7 F Eb D7 C
C Bb Ab B7 G F Eb Db C

SCALE OF CHACRAVAKA.

Vaga-vahini .

CDbEFGABbAC .

C Bb A G F E Db C

Kalavati

C D7 E F G A Bb G C .

C Bb A Bb G F E D7

Bhalati .

C Db E F G A Bb C

C Bb G F Db E

Rudra-Panchama .

C E F Bb A C

C Bb A F E Db C

Vasantha-lila

C Db F G A B7 C .

C Bb A G E D7 C

Bhujangha .

C D7 C F E F Bb A Bb C

C Bb A F E Db C

SCALE OF SURYAKANTA.

Saurashtra

Ahiri + .
Sahuli .
Sindhu .
Ragamalini .
Suddiia-gandirvi

CDbFEFGABC
CFEFGABC
C E F G B C .
C E Db F G A B C
C Db E F G A C
CDbEFGABC

C A G F E C
C B A G F E Db C
C B A G E Db C
C A G F E Db E C
C A D7 A G F E F D7
C A G F D7 C

SCALE OF KARAHARAPRYA.

Manirangu .

C D F G Bb C

S'riraga

C D F G Bb C

Madvamavati

C D F G B7 C

Sindlni-Danvasi .

C D E7 F G Bb

Thano-Vasantha .

C Eb F G Bb C

Karnaka-Varali

C D F G Bb C

Panchama .

C D A G Bb C

A C

C B'' G F Eb D C

C Bb G A B7 G F D Eb

C Bb G F D C

C Bb A G F Eb D C

C Bb A Bb G F Eb D C

C B7 A G F Eb D C

Note. — Kagas marked f have two readings, the other readings arc given at the end of this chapter.

THE MUSIC OF SOUTHERN INDIA.

SCALE OF KAKAHAKAPRYA— coH/iHi/fif.

Name of Riga.

Ascending Mode.

Descending Mode.

Deva-krya

' C F> D Eb F G A Bb A C

C B> A G F E7 D C

Syindavi

B? A B7 C D Eb F G A B?

B? A G F E? D C B> A B7 C

Manohari

C E> D E7 F G A C

' C A G F E? D Ef C

Suddha-Bliangala

C D F G A C .

C B? A G F E7 D C

Suddha-Bhairavi

C E? D F G B7 A B7 C .

C B7 A G F D E7 F D C

Kapi + .

C D E7 F G A B? C

C A G F D E? F D C

Pala-Mangeri i

C E7 F A C .

C B7 A G F E7 D C

Jey-Manohari

C D E? F A C

C B7 G F E? D C

Nayuki .

C D F G A B? G C .

C B7 A G F E7 D C

Vasani .

C D E7 F G B.-' A Bb C .

C Bb A F G F E? D C

Mangeri

C D Ei? F G B.^ C .

C Bb A F Ej? D C

Nadatha-Rangini

C D F G A G B? C .

C A Bb G A F E7 D Eb C

Bhoga-Kanara

C D Ei7 F A B7 C .

C Bb A F Eb D C

Brundavana-[
Saranga)

C U F G B7 C

C Bb G F D Eb F D C

Aruna-chandrika .

C E7 F G B,^ C

C Bb G A G F E7 C

Deva-Mukari

C D E7 F G A B> C

C Bb A F G F D E7 F D C

Sama-Mukari

C D E? F G A Bi? C

C A Bb A F G F Eb C

Suddhanapala

C D Eb F G A C .

C Bb A F Eb D Eb C

Durbar f

C D F G A B? C .

C Bb A G F G A G E7 D C

S'arnga Rama

C D F A B> G C .

C Bb A E7 D C

Deva-Manohari

j C D F G B7 A B7 C

C Bb A G F E7 D C

SCALE OF HARIKAMBOGL

Kambogi t •

C D E F G A C . . . . ' C B> A G F E D C

Kathara-gaula

C D F G Bb C

CB7AGFEDC

Narayani

C D F G A C .

C Bb A G F D C

Purna-Kambogi

C D E F G B7 C .

C A G F E D C

Narayana-gauki

C D F G B> A Bb C

C Bb A G F E D C

Chaiatha-Rangini .

CUEDEFGABbABbC

C Bb A Bb F E F D E D C

Balahamsa .

C D F G A C .

CBbAGFDFE C

Prathapa-Varali .

C D F G A B? A G A B? C

CBbAGFEDC

Matha-kohkila f .

C D G A B7 C

. ! C A B7 A G D C |

Kohkila-dvani

' C D E F A BP A C .

CBbAB7GFEDEFEDC

Sarasvati

CDEFGB7AB7C .

C B7 G A F G D E C

Sarasvati-Manohar

i C D E F A C .

CBbAB^GFEDC

Navarasa-Kanara .

C E F G A G C

C Bb A F E D C

Bhangala

C D E FG C .

C Bb A G F D E D C

Ravi chandrika

1 C D E F A B"- A C .

C Bb A F E D C

Janjuti f

C Bb A C D E F G A Bi*.

. i A G F E D C B7 A G A C

Kanthala-Varali .

; C F G A B? A C .

. C B> A G F C

Yedukula- Kambogi

+ C D F G A C .

.^CBbAGFEDC

Mohanna

i C D E G A C .

.ICAGDEGDC

Surati .

C D F G B? C .

CB7AGFEGFDC

Malava .

C D E F G Bb F A B7 C

CBbABbGFEFDC

Nata-Kurangi

C D E F A B7 G A BP C

C B? A F E C

Athi\na .

C D F G A B? C .

! ! C B7 A G F G E D C |

Kamachi

CFEFGAB7C.

C Bb A G F E F C

Drijaranti

C D E F G F A G Bb A Bb C

CAGABbAGFEFEDC

Note.— Ragas marked \ have two readings, tlie other readings are given at the end of tliis chapter.

THE MUSIC OF SOUTHERX INDIA.

SCALE OF HARIKAMBOGI-

continued.

Name of Riga.

Ascending Mode.

Descending Mode.

Biagt .

C D K F C E F G B? A B? G A B7 C

C B.-» G A B7 A G F E D E F E C

Nagasvaravali

C E F G A C

C A G F E C

Sara-vilambi .

C E F G B? C

C B7 A G F E D C

Jeyarama

C D E F G A B> C .

C B7 A G F E C

Surabi-pr5a .

C D E G B7 C

C B7 A G F E D C

Kalabharna .

CDEFGABbC.

C A G E D C

Megha-jcyanti

CDFEGAB7C.

C G F E D C

S'rangi .

C D F G A B? C .

CG FEDC

Jelasheykera .

C D E F G B7 A B!? C .

CAGFDEDC

Siva-Kambogi

C D E F B7 C

C B:* G F E D C

Ratna-joti

C E F G B7 C

C B> A E D C

Jogi-Bhairavi

C D E F G A B? C .

C B? A G F B? A F E D F E C

Nilamberi t .

CDEFCAFGB?C.

! CBi^GAB? GFEFDEDFEC

Regupti

C DEG AC

C A G E D C

Deva-Rangini

C D EG AC

C A G F E D C

Arunakantha

C D F G F A B? C .

C Bb A G F A F E D C

Ben-Kambogi

CFEDCFGAB>C.

C B7 G B? FEDC

SCALE OF DEHRA-S'ANKARABHARNA.

Hari-Nata .

CFEFGABC.

CBGABGFEC

Kanara .

C E F A B C

C A G F E F D C

K&nada.

CDEFGFABC

CBABGFGEDC

Biagada

C E D E I- G A G C

CBAGFEDC

Jenkaram

C D E F A D C

C B A F E D C

Suddha-Saianga .

CDEFGABAC

CAGFDEDC

Vivardini

C F G C

CBAGFEDC

Vedangini

CEFGFABC.

CBAGAFEDC

Navaraju

GABCDEFG.

F E D C B A C

Gaja-virdinam

C E F A B C

! C A G F E D C

Kadaram

C F E F G B C

C B G F E D C

Mahori

CFEFDEFGABC

C A G F D E F C

Jana-Rangini.

CDEFGAGBC

C A G F D C

KoIahaHam .

CDEFGBABC

CBGAFEDC

Deshachsi

C D F G A B C

CBAGFEDC

Purnodiam .

C D F G A C

C B G F D E D C

Bhinnavikrama

C D E F G A C

C BAG DC

Suddha-Saveri

C D F G A C

C A G F D C

Purna-chandrika .

CDEFGFABC

CBGAGFEFDC

Gauda-malari

CDEFGEFGABC

CBAGFEDC

Parti-rava

CFEFGABC.

C B A G F E F E D C

Arabi .

C D EG A C

CBAGFEDC

Puruhutika .

C F G A B C

C B A G F C

Nagadvani

CEDEFEFGABAGBABGABC

C B A B AG FAG F D E F E DEC

Garudadvani .

C D E F G A B C .

C A G E D C

Hamsadvani .

C D E G B C

C B G E D C

Girvana-prya.

C B E F A C

C B A F E D C

S'ankarabharna

C D E F G A B C .

C A G F E D C

Kurangi

CBCEUEFGA

G F E D C B C

Kandadruma.

C E F A F B C

CBFEDC

Note. — Ragas marked \ have two readings, the other readings are given at the end of tliis chapter.

THE MUSIC OF SOUTHERN INDIA.

Name of Kaga.

S'ahannat .

Jogi-Vasantha

Druthavirdana

Gamanabhaskera

Bilahari

Sambhu-krya

Girganambheri

Virapratapa .

SCALE OF DliHKA-S'ANKARABHARNA— co/a/HUti/.

Ascending Mode.

C D E
C D E
C D E
C D E
D E
E D
D E

E FG

FAB
ABC
AC
AGE
C .
B F E
ABC
B .

D F G B C .

Descending Mode.

CBAGFEFIvD

ABAGFEDC

CBAGFDEDC

C A G F E C

CBAGFEDC

C B G B F E D C

C B A G F D C

CBAGFEDC

SCALE OF CHALANATA.

Woodya ravi-
chandrika
Ghambhirya-Nata
Nata .
Suddha-Nata
Maravasimanta

C D$ E F A$ B C .

C E FG B C .
C Df E F G A$ B G
C E F G B A* B C .
CFEFGAfGC .

B C

C B A$ F E D$ C

C B G F E C
C B G F D$ C
C B A? G F DJ C
C B A| G F E D| C

SCALE OF KANAKANGL

Kamakambiieri
Suddha-Mukari

C Db Ei?b F G A? C

c Ei?b Db Ebb F G Bbb Ab c

C B7b Ab G F Ebb Db C

c Bbb Ab F Ebp Db c

SCALE OF RHATNANGL

Ghantarava .
Asaveri t
Penaduti
Savakala-Mangeri

C B7 C E.''? D7 E7? F G B7
C D7 F G A7 C
C D7 F G A7 Bb C
C D7 E77 G Ab B7 C

C B7 Ab G F E77 D7 C
C Bb Ab G F E7b D7 C
C Bb Ab F E^b Db C
C B7 Ab F E77 Db C

SCALE OF VANASPATL

Bhanumati
Rasavali

C Db Ebb D7 F G C
C Db Ebb F A Bb C

C A G F E?7 D7 C

C Bb A G F Ebb Db C

SCALE OF SANAPATL

Bhogi-chintamani
Bhogi .
Malini .

C D7 F G Ab C

C E7 F G A7 G Ab B7b C

C D7 E7 F G C

C B7b Ab G F E7 D7 C

C Bbb Ab G F A7 G F E7 Db C

C B7b A7 F E7 D7 C

SCALE OF XATAKAPRYA.

S'oka-Varali f
Magada-S'riraga

C D7 F Eb F G F A D C F G A Bb A C
C Db Eb F G A C .

C B7 A F E7 D7 C
C B7 G Eb C

Note — Ragas marked f have two readings, the other readings are given at the end of tliis chapter.

THE MUSIC OF SOUTHERN INDIA.

SCALE OF KOHKILAPRYA.

Name of Raga.

Kohkila-rava.

l^atnaniani .
Chitramaiii .

Ascending Mode.

C Db Et? F G A C .
C Dl? El? F G A B C
C Db F G A B C .

Descending Mode.

C B A G F Eb D? C
C B A G Eb Dl7 C
C B A G F E> Dr C

SCALE OF GAIAKAPRYA.

Kaiakanti
Kalgarda

C Di? E F G Bbb Ab Bbb C .
C D> F E Db E F G Ab Bbb C

C Bbb Ab F E D? C

C Bbb G Ab Bbb A? G F E D? C

SCALE OF VAKULABHARNA.

Vasantha-Mukari .
Kamala-Manohari .

C E Db E F G Bb Ab Bb C
C E F G Bb C .

C B7 A? G F D!' C
C Bb Ab G F E C

SCALE OF KYRAVANL

Kiranavaii
Sangivani
Kaliana-Vasantha
Madavi f
Sarasa-vahini
Nepala .

C D F G Ab B C .

C Eb D Eb F G Ab B C .

C F Eb F G Ab B C

C D Eb F Ab B Ab F G Ab B C

CDEbDFGAbBC .

C D F Eb F G B C .

C B Ab G F E? D C
C B Ab G F Eb D C
C B Ab G F E? U C
C B G E? D C
C Ab G F Et' D C
C B Ab G F D C

SCALE OF SARASANGL

Sarasanana .

Rama-Manohari

Bhogalila

C D E F Ab B C
C E FG B C .
C D E G Ab B C

C B Ab F E D C
C B A? G F E C
C B Ab F E D C

SCALE OF YAGAPRYA.

Kalahamsa

C D| R F G Ab C

C Bbb Ab G F E D# C

SCALE OF GANGAIABHUSANL

Anandalila

C D| E F G B C

C B Ab G F E D# C

SCALE OF SHOLINL

Trishuli

C E FG B C

C B A G F DJ C

SCALE OF JALAVARALL

Kohkila-P.incliami
Kusunia-Kangini .
Varali .

Bhopala-Pantliami
Vijaya-kohkila

C D7 Ebb G Ab B C
C Db F$ G Ab B C

c Ebb Db Ebb Ff G Ab b c
C V>^ D? Ebb G F# A7 C
c \V Eb? FtG Ab c

C B Ab G Ff Eb? D? C
C B Ab B G F$ E?? D? C
C B A? G F* E?? Db C
C G A? F$ E?? D? C
C B Ab G F$ E?? Db C

Note. — Ragas marked | have two readings, tlie other readings are given at the end of this chapter.

THE MUSIC OF SOUTHERN INDIA.

Name of Raga.

Nabomani
Deviamani

SCALE OF NAVANITA.

Ascending Mode.

C Di? Et'b Di' Ff G C

C D? K'^" Fi G A G B7 C

Descending Mode.

C B? A G F$ E:>'? dp C
C B? A G F| EP? D? C

SCALE OF PAVANL

Chandrajoli

C D7 Eff F# G A G B C

C B G A G F# Ebb Db C

Ghandarva
Ghomatti

SCALE OF REGONPRYA.

G A| B G Db E?b Db C B G
B C Db Ebb F|: G A# B .

F# G A* B C B G

G Ft EP? Db C B C

Kalamurti

SCALE OF BHAVAPKYA.

C Eb Db Eb F$ G C

C Bf Ab G F# Eb Db C

SCALE OF SABHAPANTOVARALL

Panto-Varali .

Rudra-mangen

Bhaulamuki .

Saddaks'eri .

Deviakanthala

Kamarangini

Govirdani

Naga-Panchami

Garudavirdani

Latamati

Rati .

Vrushabha-vahini
Mamachsheri
Ratnamati

C D7
C D?
C D?

C Eb
C Db
C Db
£■• D
C Ei?
C Db
C D-i

E?
E?
E?
D?

? E

Ft G Ab B C .
G B Ab C

Ft G B C
E? F;: G A- B C
Ft G A? C
D7 Ft G Ab B C
P G Ab C .
G B C
Ft B Ab Ft G a:' B C
G Ft G A? G C

C B Ab G Ft Ab Ft Eb D!^ C

C B A7 G Ft E? D? C

C B Ab G Ft E? Db C

C B Ab Ft E? Db C

C B Ab G Ft E7 D7 C

C B Ab Ft E? Db Eb C

C B Ab B Fi E? Db C

C B Ab G Ft E.7 Db C

C B G Ft Db C

C B Ab G Ft Ab Ft Ei? Db C

SCALE OF SUVARANANGL

C E? D.-- E? Ft G A B C
C d: Ff G a B C .
C D? E7 Ft G B C .
C E7 Ft G Ft A B C

C B A G Ft Eb D"" C
C H A Ft E? Db C
C B A G Ft E." F? D-' C
C A G Ft G Eb DP C

SCALE OF KAMAVIRDANL

Ramakrva

Dipaka

Devagiri t

Vilambini

Rudragandari

Vipramandara

Svatambodi .

Pankaruham

Viagranandanam

Manmatalata

Pushpalalita .

Kumudaprabha

C D7 E Fit G Ab B C

C E Ft G A!^ G C .

C D? Ft G AC C .

C Ft E Ft G B Ab B C

C D? E Ft B C

C B? Ft G A? B C

C Db E Ft G C

C Ft E Ft G B Ab B C

C D7 E G Ab C

C B C Db E Ft G A7 B C

C E Ft Ab B C

C Db E Ab B C

C B Ab G Ft Db Ft E Db
C B Ab B C E G Fi E D?
C B Ab G Fi E D"* C
C B Ab B GFt E C
C B G Ft Db C
C Ab G Ft E D? C
C B AP G Ft E D:
C B G Ft E Db C
C B Ab B Ab G Ft
C Ab G Ft E Db C
C Ab G Ft D? C
C G Ft E B C

E D7
B C

Note. — Ragas marked f have two readings, the other readings are given at the end of this chapter.

THE MUSIC OF SOUTHERN LXDIA.

SCALE OF GAMANAS'RYA.

Name of Raga.

Gamakakrya .

Purvi-Kaliani

Partiravam .

Jeya-Mohannaf

S'ri-Lalita

Darpa-Mangeri

Maivra-Vasantha

Ascending Mode.

Descending Mode.

C D?
C D?
C D?

li F# G B C .

EFfGABGABGC

E F| G A B C
C E F| G A C
C D? E D? F| G B A G C
C E Dt» E F|: G B C
C D? E Ff G A B C

C B G Fit E D> C

C B A G F| E D7 C

C B A B G A G F;i E Ff E Db Ff C

C B A G Ff E D? C

C B A G F* E D? C

C B A G Ff E C

CBGABAGFitD> F#EDl>EC

SCALE OF S'RIMHANDKA.

Siimala

Simanthini .
Madhava-Manohari
Suddha-raga f
Mara-jej'antham .

C El7 D Eb F|; G Ab B Ab C

C D E> F| G A? B C

C Eh D E7 F| G B A^ B C

C D E> Ff G B C .

C D Ff G Ab B C .

C B Ab G FS Eb CD
C G Ff Eb D C D C

C B Ab Ff Eb Fit E7 D C

C B G Ff E-- C

C B Ab G FS E'"- D C

Sinharavam .
Ciiandi'arckha
Sankaravam .
Yeshaprta
Sinhadvani .
Chackoradvani

SCALE OF HEMOVASANTHA.

C D Ff G Bb C

C D Et? Ff G A C .

C E7 D Eb F| G A B7 C

C D F$ G B? C

C D C Eb Ff G A B.7 C .

C D Eb Ff G A B? C

C Bb G Ff D Eb D C
C Bb A Ft Eb D C
C Bb G Ff Eb D C
C Bb A G Ff Eb D C
C B? A G Ff E7 C
C Bb Ft Eb D C

Rangini

Dumyaraga

Arunajualita

SCALE OF DHURMOVATL

C D Ei? Ff A C
C D Eb Ff G A C
C D Eb f1 A B C

C B A Ff Eb C D C
C B A G Ff Eb D C
C B A G Ff Eb D C

SCALE OF NliTTIMATTI.

Hamsanada
Gaurikrj'a

C D Ff G Af B C .
C Eb Ff G Af B C

C B A;
C B A;

B G F:
B G F;

Bhus'aval
Barbara
Sarasvati
Vutari .
Sunva-ma

dhy

SCALE OF VACHASPATL

C D E F$ G A C .

C E I>t D E I-f A B?
C E F4 G a C '
C E I-'f G A 15,^ C .
C D Ff G Bb AC .

A C

C Bb A G F# E D C
C B-- A Ff I-: D C
C B-" A G I'f D C
C B? A Ff E C
C Bb A G Ff E D C

KoTi;. — Raj;as marked | have two readings, tlic otlicr readings arc given at the end of this chapter.

THE MUSIC OF SOUTHERN INDIA.

SCALE OF MATSYA-KALLANL

Name of Raga.

Ascending Mode.

Descending Mode.

Kalian i .

C D E F$ G A B C .

CBAGFtEGDC

Saran.i;a |-

CDEF;fGABC.

C A G Ft D E Ft D C

Kumurdaki

C D E Fl B C

C B Ft E D C

Hamiro-Kaliani

CDEF$GABGAB(

C B A G Ft E D C

Yamuna-Kaliani

C D E Ff G A C .

C A G f; G E D C

Shama-Kaliani

C D E F|: G B C .

C B G A G Ft E D C

Mohiinna-Kaliani .

C 1) E G A C .

C B A G Ft E D C

Bhupa-Kaliani

C U Fi (i A C

C B A G FS E D C

Sarasa-Kaliani

C D E Ff G A B C .
C D E Ft G A C

C B AG ri;E FtD C

Shrar-Nava .

C B A G F?: E C

Bhurangini .

C D E G A B C

C B A Ft E D C

C B G Ft E D C

Shahradamati

C D Ft G A B C .

Nai^avagi

C D E Ft G C

CBAGFtEDC

Kaliana-Keseri

C D E G A C .

C A — Ft G Ft E D C

Kajah-Kaliani

C E F4 A B C .

C B A Ft E D C

Shambharantakani

C E F$ G A C

C B A G Ft E D C

C B A G Ft E Ffi C

Dhirgadurslii

cdfIgabac .

Yogajoti

C D F|: G B A C .

. ! C B A G Fi E D C

Dvimokaprya

C E D Ft G B C .

. ' C B A Ft E D C
. C A G Ft E D C

Deshakaliani

C D E Ft G A G B C

Chitaduti

C D Ff G A B C

. C B A G Ft E D C

Mruganandana

C D E A B C .

. C B A Ft A E D C

Kryabharna .

CDEFtGBAC.

. r 13 A I't I", n e-

SCALE OF SUCHARITRA.

Chato-Rangini

C Ft E Ft G B?? C

C Bbi? Ab Bbb G E Ft Dt C !

SCALE OF DHARTOVARDANL

Devarashtra .

CD*
C D

; E Fi G B C . . . . C B A? G Ft E Dt C

; E fJ G B G C . . . C B AP G Ft Dt E Ft Dt C

Dhato-panchami .

Note. — Ragas marked f have two readings, the other readings are given at the end of this cliapter.

Some MSS. give the text of the ragas marked J in the foHowing Hst as
here shown.

The authenticity of the others is doubtful, but they are generally accepted
by Indian musicians.

SUPPLEMENTARY LIST OF RAGAS.

Name of Raga.

'' Bhupali
{Ahiri .
JAsaveri .

Ascending Mode.

C D? Eb G A7 C

Descendirg Mode.

C A? G Eb D,7 C

C F G Ab G F Eb Db C D; C El F G A^ B.? C C Bb Ab G F El Db C

C D) EG A7 G F G Ab C

+ S'oka-VaraIi . . I C Eb F Bb Ab G F Eb F G

C B? Ay G F Eb Db C
G F Eb Db F E? Db C

Scale.
No. 8

This raga is sometimes called Bhauli. Another reading will be found under the scale of Mayamalavagauh

THE MUSIC or SOUTH ERX LXDTt

SUPPLEMENTARY LIST OF RAGAS-coiitiiiufd.

Name of RSga.

Ascending Mode.

Descending Mode.

Scale.

{Purvi .

F G Ab B C Db E F G Ab B C .

C B Ab G F E Db C

No. 15

JMaruva .

C E F G A'i B AJ7 G C .

CBGFAbFGFED^C

■ . .•

^Gundakrya

C D? F G F E Db F G B C

C B G Ab G F E Di? C .

.. ..

{Gaulipaniu

C Ub E Db F G Ab G B C

C B Ab G F A7 F E Db C

Chaia-Nata .

CDbEFGFGC

C Bb A Bb G F Db C .

„ 16

JPurna-s'adyama

C Eb D Eb F Bb C

C Bb G F Eb D C .

„ 20

JAnanda-Bhairavi

C Eb D C Eb F G Ab G B? C .

C Bb Ab F G F Eb D C .

.. ..

IWoodyachandiika .

C E? F G Bb C G Bb C .

C Bb G F Eb C

;Madavi .

C F Eb F G Ab B C

C B Ab G F G F Eb D C

., 21

JPala-Mangeri .

CEbFGFAEbFAC.

CBbAGFE?FDC .

., 22

jDurbar .

CDFDGAB?C

C B? A G F Eb D C

.. ,.

tKapi .

C D Eb F G F Eb D Eb F G A B? C

C Bb A G F Eb D C

■. M

Velavali

CDEbFGAC

CBAGFEbDC.

■■ 23

Kesefi .

C D E F G F Ab G Ab C .

C Ab Bbb Ab G F E D C

., 25

JKambogi

FEFGAGAC

B AG F E D C

„ 28

JMatha-kohkiU

C D G A Bb

A G D C

.. ..

JJanjiti .

CDEFGAB?

A G F E D C .

JVedii'iiula-Kambogi

CDFGABbAGAC.

C Bb A G F E F E D C .

JBiag .

CDEFGABbC

C Bb A B^G A G F E D E C .

. „

JNilambtri

CDEFGABbAC

CBbAGFEDEC

.. ..

JS'ahanna

GAGFEDCDEFGABC

CBAGDEFGFEDC

,. 29

Deva-gandari .

CDEFGABC

CBAGFEDCDEDC

K <•

IJeya-Mohanna

c d; f|: g vjj: D'y vjj^ G Ab Bb c .

C Bb Ab Bb Ab G F^ E.-'b Db c

.. 38

Mandara

C Db E Fl G Ab G Vj^ E F| G A Bb C .

C Bb G F^i E Db C

,. 50

Pratapa .

C E F$ G Ab Bi5 C

C Bb Ab G F|: E D1 C .

,. ,,

Namada

C Db E F| Db E F| Ab B; C

C Bb Ab Fi G F|: E D? C

JDeviiglri

C Db Fl G fJ G fI E D? F| G C

C B Ab G Fj E Db C

■• 51

Rama-Manohaii

C Db E F|; G A Bb A C .

C Bb A G F| E Db C

• 52

Gurugad a

E7 F| G Ab Bb

Ab G F$ Eb D

.. 55

Triniurti

C D E? Ab Bb

C Bb Ap G Eb D C

|Suddha raga .

C D Eb D Eb f|: G F:jj: G B C .

C B G B G F$ Eb D E? C

.. 57

S'ruti-Rangini

C D E F| G A7 G F^^ E F|; G A? H,'^.-' .

C Bbb Ab G EC D C

., 6r

JSaranga

C D E F| G A G F| E F| G A B C .

C B A G FJ D C

1 ,. 65

Jotismatti

C D| E F| G C

c Bb Ab ~i~(i F:| c u| c .

„ 68

CHAPTER V.

Taste of European and Oriental nations : how differing — Reason for non-employment of harmony —
Method of singing — Of Indian melodies — P'orm — Classification of — Rhythm — Employment
of mixed times — Tonality often doubtful — Resemblance of Indian music to that of other
countries — Examples of popular melodies — Hindustani musical system : how differing from
Karnatik — Examples of Hindustani melodies — Scales employed in the Hindustani system.

THE wide divergence of taste in the matter of music between European
and Asiatic nations has doubtless arisen from the fact that while
^Vestern nations gradually discarded the employment of mode, and
clothed the melody with harmony, the Eastern nations in this respect made
little or no progress ; and now, in India, the employment of authentic modes
and melody types (or ragas) is still jealously adhered to.

Speaking of this, Willard remarks : " To expect an endless variety in the
melody of Hindustan would be an injudicious hope, as their authentic melodv is
limited to a certain number, said to have been composed by professors universally
acknowledged to have possessed not only real merit, but also the original genius
of composition, beyond the precincts of whose authority it would be criminal
to trespass. What the more reputed of the moderns have done is that they have
adapted them to their own purposes, and found others bv the combination of two
or more of them. Thus far they are licensed, but they dare not proceed a step
farther. Whatever merit an entire modern composition might possess, should
it have no resemblance to the established melody of the country, it would be
looked upon as spurious. It is implicitly believed that it is impossible to add to
the number of these one single melodv of equal merit, so tenacious are the
natives of Hindustan of the ancient practices."^

■ A Treatise on the Music of Hindustan." Capt. N. A. Willard. Calcutta, 1S34.

58 THE MUSIC OF SOUTHERN INDIA.

This continued employment of mode, combined with the almost entire
absence of harmony, has prevented Indian music from reaching anv higher
pitch of development, such as has been attained elsewhere. It stands to reason
also that this is the chief cause of the monotony which causes Indian music to
be little appreciated by, if not repellent to, European ears.

Since the early periods of Indian history, music would seem to have been
cultivated more as a science than an art. More attention seems to have been
paid to elaborate and tedious artistic skill than to simple and natural melody.
Hence arose technical rules that marred the pristine sweetness of melody — the
very life of all real music. To a great extent this must be attributed to the art
falling into the hands of illiterate virtuosi. Their influence, which caused music
to suffer both in purity of style and simplicity, is being felt less and less. The
great aim of all music — " Rakti," or the power of affecting the heart — now
asserts itself more and more, and is slowly but surely bringing about a return
to the early type of sweet, simple melody.

Very little of the good or classical music of India is heard b}' Europeans.
What is usually played to them consists, as Colonel Meadows Taylor very trulv
remarks, of modern ditties, sung by ill-instructed, screaming, dancing women,
at crowded native durbars, marriages, and other ceremonials. And when this
is the case, it does not cause much surprise to hear native music often
described as abominable, and devoid of all melody. But music of great intrinsic
beauty nevertheless exists, and only requires to be heard by an unprejudiced
ear to be appreciated. Throughout India music and poetry go hand in hand.
Their influence may be seen and felt in almost every phase of native life, from the
palace of the rajah to the humble dwelling of the ryot. Music has there been
developed to a degree far greater than has been generally recognised in Europe.
It is there felt to be a means of passionate expression, such as is apparently
unknown amongst nations farther East. And indeed the very soul of all Indian
music may be said to be raga — which in its literal sense means that which creates
passion. And that this has been fully appreciated in Europe would seem to be
evident, for a musical reviewer writing in the A thenccii in, and contrasting the
music of India with that of Japan and Siam, recently wrote : " In the Indian
Peninsula we are really in another world. We exchange a music in which
noise and dry executive skill prevail for one vibrating with sentiment and
passion, and that combines a refined execution with the highly nervous
organization that makes the poetic artist. Such a one was a Jeypore been
player {been — a kind of vina), who was to be heard, but we fear was not much
heard, at a lillle exhibition called ' India in London,' in iS86. To go from one

THE MUSIC OF SOUTHERN IXDIA. 59

of the clever Siamese ranat players of the Inventions Exhibition the year before
to this man, was to quit the atmosphere of a desert for one redolent of sweet air
and flower scents. The Hindu chromatic scale, from which the numerous
modes and melody types are selected, does not appear to differ from our own.
As there is no harmony, slight differences may pass without notice. Very much
of Hindu music impresses the European as being in the minor scale ; but
deflections in the stringed instruments, and possible accommodations in the
wind, introduce an enharmonic elaboration that defies notation.'"'" And here it
might be interesting to quote the opinion of a learned native gentleman ■} " Manv
of the Hindus themselves," he writes, " labour under a false impression
concerning the difterence between Indian and European music, even as to
the employment of tones and semitones. The opinions held by so many
natives, that pieces played upon the piano or harmonium are to them
discordant, can be easily accounted for thus : they are simply confused — being
unaccustomed to anything but simple melody — when they hear five or six notes
played in chords. The chief difference seems to me to be that the Hindus
prefer melodj' simply, while to European ears melody is preferred when
clothed, as it were, with harmony of some sort."

Comparatively few Indian airs have found their way to Europe. Those few
that have been published are mostly from either Bengal or Northern India, so
that there is but small resemblance in them to the national music of the Deccan
or the South ; for there is a marked difference between the music of the various
parts of India, which to even the most casual observer is evident.

The following examples of songs— though a mere handful from so vast a
storehouse — will, it is hoped, aid in filling the vacancy, and thereby afford some
help to those who may care to make further research.

Many of these melodies in themselves are extremely beautiful, and their
simplicity adds an additional charm that no words can express — the airs of
different country districts are but a reflex of the character and feelings of the
people to whom they belong. Some are pathetic and melodious — music that
exactly reproduces the feelings inspired bv the words ; others are gay and bright
— true accompaniments to the daily pursuits and occupations of life ; and in manv
of them may be found a vein of repose, slightly tinged with melancholy, that
offers a curious contrast to either of the former ; indeed, so much varietv mav be

^ The Athencsum, Jan. 4, i8go. Review of " Musical Instruments and their Homes." M. E. and \V. A.
Ill-own, New York.

^ T. M. Venkatas'esha S'astri.

6o THE MUSIC OF SOUTHERN INDIA.

f'dund that it is unnecessarv to notice in detail merits that must he evident to the
musical reader.

But vet, though the melodies themselves are so beautiful, it is but seldom
that we hear them well sung ; indeed, singers of the ordinary type often entirely
ruin the effect of the music ; for native singers appear to have an idea that the
highest form of their art consists in introducing as much grace as possible,
whether it adds to the beauty of their songs or not ; in fact, they try to disguise
the real melody as much as possible by embellishments of their own, and so in
nine cases out often it is quite impossible to follow either the air or the words of a
sone, since the sinsrer is onlv anxious to exhibit what he fondlv imagines to be his
skill.

Native singers rarely practise, for they think that practice, to even a
moderate extent, ruins their voices. The treatment of the voice, too, is quite
different to what experience in Europe has proved to obtain the best results.

The voices of Indian singers are almost always weak and deficient in
volume — one result doubtless of their system of training, by which a full clear
tone is made to give way to incessant small inflections. Girls, too, are taught
singing when much too young, so that their voices either break or become
harsh and shrill.

A singer rarely stands while he sings, and instead of using his proper range
of voice, he prefers a most unnatural falsetto, which he can rarely control, and
his endeavours to make himself heard generally cause him to make the most
ludicrous grimaces. Singers of this kind it is who bring Indian music into
disrepute, and cause it to be regarded with contempt by European audiences.

But still there arc singers in India whose voices are wonderfully sweet, and
when they sing their own songs in their simple form, no hearer can doubt that, like
other national music, that of India possesses a charm peculiarly its ov/n.

The various styles of Indian compositions, consisting as they do entirely oi
melodv, do not present to the casual observer differences as clearly marked as in
those of European music. Nevertheless these melodies are classified systemati-
cally, and in their construction are subject to certain definite rules of composition.
Almost all consist of a burden or refrain called Pallevi, a kind of answer to this
refrain styled Anupallevi, and stanzas (called Charanam) of which there is usually
an uneven number. These parts are in the several compositions arranged in
different wavs, and bv this means the style of composition is determined.
Rhythm is usually very marked, but differs largely from that of most European
music from the fiict that the times are iVequently irregular.

Between vocal and instrumental music the difference is slight, the vina, the

THE MUSIC OF SOUTHERN INDIA. 6i

only instrument of any lart^e capability, being considered to be but an imitation
or reproduction of the human voice ; and if an air be accompanied by that
instrument, it is usually only played in unison with the voice.

The different exercises, compositions, &c., are usually classified under the
following heads : —

Saralas Kruthis

Gentuversis Kirthanas

Alankaras Vernams

Gitas S'ankavernams

Prabhandas Pathams

Thanas Javadis

Svarajotas Ragamalika

A raga, when performed by itself, contains two movements — (i.) Alapa
and (ii.) Madhyamakala.

Pallevi, a kind of fantasia upon some theme abounding in imitation, and
with a well-defined rhythm.

The rhythm existing throughout all the different styles of composition is
worth careful notice ; and it is interesting to compare it with that employed by
other nations. The similarity of that of the Turks and other Eastern nations
is remarkable.

As in European music each period is complete in itself, being clearly
marked by the talas, which divide the different periods into regular or irregular
sections, as the case may be, following each other in definite and regular order.
The periods differ only from those commonly found in European music in
that they may consist, if necessary, of an uneven number of sections or measures,
the tala itself often being irregular, owing to the employment of mixed times.
Hence when Indian music is written in ordinary notation there will be a
regular rotation corresponding to the tala, of bars each of which may have a
different time signature. A reference to the list of talas upon page 36 will
explain this more readily than any words can. These periods or phrases are
often extended by the addition at the commencement of a few notes leading
up to the commencing note of the phrase, or by being terminated with a
small cadence or codetta which may be either a repetition or imitation of
what has gone before, or may lead up to the next phrase.

The rhythm of the Pallevi and Anupallevi is usually a great deal more marked
and regular than that of the stanzas, where the phrasing is frequently irregular,
the periods being interwoven by means of, as it were, abbreviaturas, or extended
by the prolongation and " rekhu," a species of turn or transient shake upon a

62 THE MUSIC OF SOUTHERN INDIA.

note in the middle of a roulade with which all Hindu music abounds. This is
especially the case in the performance of raga as a solo, which in certain cases is
absolutely timeless.

Hence the great difficulty of expressing such music correctly by means of
ordinary notation. The peculiarity of the scales or modes employed in Hindu
music often raises a difficulty in determining the real tonality of many of the
melodies, the Hindu Sa, taken by native musicians as the " Khuruj " or keynote
ot their scale, not necessarily corresponding to what is the real tonic of the scale.
Indian music has been compared to that of Scotland, but the resemblance can
be traced principally to the frequent employment by both nations of a somewhat
similar scale of five intervals, the fourth and seventh being omitted ; and
possibly also from the fact that a similar motive is often found in both, where the
first note has one-fourth of the duration of the second, as —

In reviewing the national music of any country, we cannot help being struck
with the wa}- in which special scales are employed, special graces worked in, all
more or less varying in the music of different nations. In the music of India,
owing to the multitude of scales or modes which it employs, a resemblance here
and there can be traced to the music of nearly every country.

The chief characteristic, for instance, of Hungarian music is that it usually
employs a scale with two superfluous seconds, or the harmonic minor with a
sharp fourth. This scale is in every respect similar to the Indian scale called
S'rinhandra, and nearly similar to one much employed and called Siibhapan-
tovarali, both of which will be found among the list of scales upon pages 32-35.

Many of the graces and embellishments employed in the gipsy music in
Hungarv are to be found in Indian melodies.

Mr. Carl Engel' has drawn attention to the employment of the minor
seventh in both Servian, VVallachian, and Scotch music. This interval is
emploved both in Arabic and Indian music. Some idea of the plaintive and
impressive effect of which it is productive can be gained from the song, " Seki
yenaka thake," given upon page 80.

Mr. J. A. Kappey, in his collection of " Songs of Eastern Europe,'"' draws
attention to the characteristics of Turkish songs, and to the fact that they
employ a scale having a minor third with an augmented fourth, and a minor si.xth

' " All Introduction to the Study of National Music." Carl Engel. London, 1866.

^ "Songs of Itastcni l'".iH(jpc." Edited by J. .\. Kappey. Lundoii, 18S1.

THE MUSIC OF SOUTHERN IXDIA. 63

with a major seventh. A comparison of the examples he gives with songs of
India will be of great interest ; and the similarity of both melody and rhythm
is striking. One of the songs quoted — a song of sorrow by Nihad Bey — might
be from India ; it appears to be written in much the same form, and it is also to
be noticed that it employs a mixed time of % and \, precisely the Indian
Triputa Tala, already noticed.

In a previous chapter attention has already been drawn to the resemblance
that Indian music bears to that of Greece, and this is still more fully borne out
by a careful study of modern Greek national airs. In a work not long published,
by M. Bourgault-Ducoudray,'' the construction of the peculiar scales found
throughout the East have been made the subject of most careful research, and
the use of what the author terms the " chromatique oriental" is especially
noticed. This scale is no other than the Indian Mayamalavagaula, and to
its frequent use attention has been drawn elsewhere. M. Bourgault-Ducoudray's
work to students of Eastern music is especially interesting, and the careful
analysis that is given of each air renders the work most valuable. The
resemblance between Indian songs and the examples of melodies from the
Levant is so striking that, in many cases, it is difficult to believe that their
origin is not identical.

Mr. Engel calls attention to the fact that Chopin, in one of his studies for
the black keys (Douze grandes Etudes, No. 5), has given some idea of the
beautiful effect that may be produced by a melody which employs a limited
number of intervals ; only in this case he notices that as the accompaniment
employs other intervals, the pentatonic effect of the whole is somewhat marred.
In Indian music, too, a frequent use is made of the pentatonic scale, as has been
already remarked. Again, in Spanish national music, embellishments are of
constant occurrence, especially in descending the diatonic scale ; the same
predilection can be observed in Indian melodies ; indeed, a further resemblance
can be traced in the occasional employment of endings of the following
nature —

iSEg=g=^=il

XT'

which in the common songs, such as are heard in the jungles and country
districts of many parts of India, are not unfrequent.

The following observations by Captain Willard are short and to the

' Trente Melodies Populaires de Grece et d'Orient." L. A. Bourgault-Ducoiidray. Paris, 1876.

64 THE MUSIC OF SOUTHERN INDIA.

point, and seem to apply equally well to Southern as to Northern Indian
melodies : —

1. The melodies are short, lengthened by repetitions and variations.

2. They all partake of the nature of what by us is called a Rondo, the piece
being invariably concluded with the first strain, and sometimes with the first
bar, or at least with the first note of that bar.

3. A bar or a measure or a certain number of measures are frequently repeated
with slight variations, almost ad libitum.

4. There is as much liberty allowed with respect to pauses, which may be
lengthened at pleasure, providing the time be not disturbed.

The times employed in Indian music are peculiar ; simple times are of most
frequent occurrence, mixed times are largely employed ; true triple time,
curiously enough, is of the rarest ; but there is a time, the accentuation of which
is upon the first and second beat, which may be said to be a kind of triple time
(although in reality a mixed time of % and C), and is much used for love songs.

The tempo in which the various melodies are sung is sometimes irregular, and
from being exact sometimes changes into a recitative or ad libitum in the
middle of a song. The peculiarities in the working out of the motives are striking,
and the employment of rests of short duration is noticeable.

The endings are often not definite, the last few bars leading up to the
commencement ; the reason for this is probably that it is usual to repeat the
melodies, and when the performer wishes to end, he generally leads up to the
note upon which he wishes to conclude, and prolongs it in this manner —

■ g?

^^F^

Indeed, it seems more natural to regard all endings of Indian melodies rather as
different forms of Da capo than as real closes, the object in most cases being
a return to the commencement of the song. The fact so often noticed by those
who have endeavoured to collect Indian airs, that almost every interval of the
scale can be found used as a close, can possibly be thus accounted for. The words
of most of these songs, particularly those sung by the common people, such as
lavanies and javadis and svarajotas, are generally a long ballad, so that a definite
ending is not required after each stanza. Many singers indeed, as a variety,
improvise their words, so that after each stanza closes on intervals of all kinds
are found. But when the real ending is reached, the performer frequently leads
up to the key-note, or what he regards as the key-note of the Indian scale.
Judged from a European point of view, it appears that closes on the intervals of

THE MUSIC OF SOUTHEKX INDIA.

the third and fifth should be regarded more as //i^// closes upon the intervals of the
tonic chord ; those on the second and seventh as upon intervals of the dominant
chord; whilst those on the sixth or minor third betray the relative minor; sometimes
the third may be looked upon as the fifth to the relative minor. This view can of
course be equally well applied to the national airs of any country, but it appears
to be specially applicable to those of India.

Some of the melodies in their conclusion imply a modulation into the relative
minor, showing thereby a trace of the old pentatonic scale. Examples will be
found among the following melodies of endings with the fifth, the si.xth, the
seventh, the second, and (like those of the Servians) with the third. Closes on the
fourth are rarely if ever employed. An example will nevertheless be found in the
Khyal upon page 88.

In the examples following an endeavour has been made to point out some of
the chief peculiarities and characteristics of the different ragas in which the
melodies are composed.

The first e.xercises taught to pupils are called Saralas, they are always in the
scale of Mayamalavagaula ; similar exercises called Gentu-versis, containing
repeated notes, are next taught, after which Alankaras — exercises upon time — are
learnt, several in each tala.

The simplest melodies are called Gita, and are of two kinds — Pillarigita
and Ganaraga-gita. The first-named are four in number and are hymns to
the god Pillari or Ganesha. The Sangita Parijata mentions four Pillarigitas,
and it is believed that these are the four that are still in use. The following is
an example of one of these ancient Pillarigitas : —

( Raga Malahari.

Andante.

Tala Rupacca.

=^=^

-^»»*-i

T'^ir:'*

^TJt

^-^^

r7r

Ganaraga-gitas are very similar to the above.

Somewhat similar to gitas are Prabhandas, only that they are usually
longer, and are divided into two or three parts by breaks called Khandam.
Skilful performers are fond of playing such pieces in order to exhibit their
proficiency to an audience.

Thanas are studies for the vina, teaching special styles and difficulties met
with in the performance of the various ragas. They are particularlv intended as

THE MUSIC OF SOUTHERN INDIA.

an introduction to the difficult movement called Madhyamakala of a raga. Thanas
are in no particular talas, the time heing taught orally, and left in a great
measure to the performer's discretion. Great attention is bestowed upon proper
accentuation and grace ; the tempo is usually very rapid —

Raga Nata.

^4-i-t^-gJ-^|/^' V^ "^ 1-MI f? C b

^f^-«-

h— H

^ L»»^

1%^

^^=1

/F ^

4ii

Raga Arabi.

g^#-^

rr- »

t^^

^l-^J-^i-l-^Q

Raga Gaula.

i—y

5=^4.a^^

ri r-

■a^&^=^

-*— *-

1 r

Some of the most popular ballads of Southern India are called Svarajotas,
and are sung by almost everyone. The words are usually odes to some deity or
popular hero of the country. A song of this kind commences with a kind of
refrain termed pallevi ; following in quick succession is the anupallevi, a kind of
short stanza, the words of which are an addition to a comment upon those of the
pallevi. After this the pallevi is again repeated. The stanzas, which may be
dissimilar both in metre and melody, follow in order, each concluded by a repetition
of the refrain. There is an almost entire absence of superfluous grace in these
songs, and their marked rhythm renders their execution within the attainment of
nearly all. The following examples of these melodies are interesting, and display the
fluent and decisive nature so characteristic oi them all to the greatest advantage —

Allegyo modcrato.
Pallevi.

Fine. Anupallevi.

Raga Bilahdri.
Tala .\di.

THE MUSIC OF SOUTHERN INDIA.

<•?

^^^^^^^m

P^^^^M

i^^^^

-•-Ti-aH

^^^^Tj^^^Tjji^g^^^a'^g^sg^

• "^^

This air is one of the most popular in Southern India ; it is usually known
only by the name of the raga in which it is composed, as the words vary in
different parts of the country. Its origin is not known, but it is believed
to be very old.

The following, a song peculiar to Mysore, and in praise of the goddess
Parvati or Chamandi, is in a raga that is very little employed —

A llcgro.
Pallevi.

' Parvati Pate."

( Raga Purna-chandrika.
\ Tala Adi.

7n-S^5=

tmzii

1-^ I ^-^r-^

' m 1--- ' • m-—M

-'^

Anupallevi.

tt-

=^^^

•" »m

»*»f» *^

^t^

rpcT

:S3i^^ars

f=^^

* 0r»w

=^^

Stanzas i.

^^^^^S\^i^^^\J^^^^^^^'S^^^: I

THE MUSIC OF SOUTHERN INDIA.

^uv^i ^ h^\ ,>^ rig

A ' ' * ^ ' '

1^3=

::f:^

?E^3JEP^S

^;=t^-ta^^^g^^g

^£

^£3=

^::w-

=f=

-*—m-

p P • P-

pasg

=t=t=^

:i^3^

^^■^^^'Jl^l?^!^

= 1 — 1 — 1-

As an example of a melody confined entirely to the pentatonic scale and with
an undefined conclusion the following is interesting. The apparent want of a
distinctly indicated key-note is evident, and it might be harmonised equally well
in several different keys. Some musicians would doubtless treat it as in a minor
key, and harmonise it therefore in E minor. The Hindus, however, regard it as
pertaining rather to the Mesolydian mode, and therefore make G — the dominant of
the natural scale — the tonic.

This melodv is also worthy of note as it is considered to be one of the oldest
son<js of the kind remaining: —

Moderato.
Pallevi.

' Sami dia mera."

Riga Mohanna.
Tala Adi.

Anupallevi

i»> *ri p i^

^m^

W^ P\ m- It

w » — d — •-P^-* — ^ — w-»-w # J pr\ ^ »- — ^ » ^ m J r

Stanzas i.

^g±ij jjj ^

i^r-r^

w r I r u

* fd—^

=3^=^=^^=^

fT^ f

$^^.^=m^^^^m^^ /J If ^

■:f^

W^i^

t=t.

THE MUSIC OF SOUTHERN INDIA.

iii. poco a poco.

±1

U-/JI rr^j^^

i^:

^F=r^

* h; •-

-*-f~

•_ -•- ^ ^

i I i 1

-«-i-^

ni//.

3=Ui

-^-r

L^ U--g~J=^

Pallevi.

• #1 ,^f fT^

^:Br'^L«g

' Rama na mora alinchera."

Anupallevi.

£^^=n

^^ I i * *

f Raga Ka
( Tala Ru

amachi.
pacca.

Stanzas i.

gs-^^

r>~r=

^1^

LLjdiJ

^E^JSSE^\E^^

The above air displays a good example of the pecuHar effect of a rhythm
of three measures. More than one example of what is styled " Vishama tala "
by the Hindus may be found here, where a note at the end of a bar is tied to one
at the commencement of the bar following.

The two songs following are of a similar kind to the foregoing, and both are
exceedingly popular. They are of quite recent date, and were probably composed
by some Telugu pandit at the court of M3'Sore. I have given them precisely as
they are sung, and without attempting to divide the parts {i.e., pallevi, &c.)

THE MUSIC OF SOUTHERN INDIA.

composing them. The parts can, however, be easily distinguished, and also the
small codettas and cadenzas which separate them —

" Suvi, Suvi, "

Allegro.

fRaga Behag.
\Tala Rupacca

^a!^^^'^^r77i72=^t^[g

F^fgfrfrN-^^

^-' J ' ' .^ J^^ V. rj:

-*^

tz^

EEE

eS^

^^^m^^

eI^^sSsSS^S

> 1 1

tja

«=St=P

ist±dd:

'^1^=^^^^^^!^^^^^^^

-•- -^ -*-• -•-•

A Uegro.

' Kamini Vinaisa."

Raga S'ankarabhama.

Sa-'-TOil^ JJJ^J:3^^:j=|^^^^^

^J.i^l^g^p^^^^^_j^J5j^=^^

THE MUSIC OF SOUTHERN IN VI A.

^i=p=^

^3i^M^knT}:^T^^

^JJ^i^p^TE

=?:«=

^ri|j"3?J?S

-^ I >

^ — k

g_^l . ji,^ I J"^a^ffl,^=j^^^:T^^

:?2=z

^^ .TTJ^^^^J^^^aj-^^^gfe^^P^^^iE

Sacred songs, called Kruthis, are very popular. The airs of some of these
hymns are very old, and have been handed down by successive generations for
hundreds of years. Kruthis are, as a rule, in the more difficult ragas, the
characteristics of which are made as prominent as is consistent with the melody.
They consist of a pallevi, anupallevi, and one stanza. Some few have
three stanzas, and this number is never exceeded. The pallevi is sung at the
commencement, then the anupallevi, after which the pallevi is repeated with
a slight variation at the option of the singer, followed by the stanza, and
concluding with the pallevi again. The toiipo is rather of an Andante con
vtoto, and the whole is sung in a dreamy way, with a great deal of expression,
and as much grace as is wished.

These hymns were revived by the Rajah Sarabhoji of Tanjore, and were
greatly improved in style by the celebrated musician Tiagyaraj of that place,
who composed a large number which are still popular.

Other famous composers of kruthis have been Siama S'astri, Diksitalu, and
Subbaraya S'astri.

As will be noticed from the following example, kruthis have a curious mixture
of pathos and hilarity, and the words are always in accordance with the emotions
expressed by the music. The peculiarly plaintive effect imparted to these
melodies by the employment of grace embracing intervals less than semitones,
and its special charm so readily shown upon the vina — the usual companion
to these hymns — no notation can be found capable of expressing —

Andante.
Pallevi. «

' Upacharam Chesavaru. '

.\nupallevi. ^

J Riga Bhairavi.
(Tala Rupacca.

THE MUSIC OF SOUTHERN INDIA.
Stanza.

1st time.

1 1 2tid time.

agq^pS^PpMF^^^J^^^^-^-^^^g^

The scale of this melody is " Nata-Bhairavi," which, as can be seen,
corresponds exactly to the ancient Hypodorian mode. The peculiarities of the
raga Bhairavi, in which it is composed, admit of E being taken either
as h or b at will. Hence this melody, although partaking partly of the nature
of a minor key, should be regarded as founded upon the dominant of the major
key ; and, therefore, if harmonised to preserve its character, WTitten in one flat
only, and harmonised with the triad of the dominant as the principal chord.
The vibrato upon Bb is characteristic of the raga, and is never omitted.

The composer of this melody was Tiagyaraj.

The composition of the next melody is attributed to Kolashekara, a former
Maharajah of Travancore, which, perhaps, accounts in some way for its wide
popularity.

One great peculiarity of the compositions of the Maharajah is the copious
insertion of what are called " Svaraksheras " in them. To make my meaning
clear— the Hindu gamut, as has been stated, is signified by the syllables " Sa,
ri, ga, ma, pa, dha, ni." The composer has adroitly introduced these syllables
at the very place where the notes signified by them occur in the song, without
interferine: with the sense of the words. This is the more difficult to do when
we remember that in Hindu music the notes must follow each other in a
particular order, according to the raga, and not exactly according to the
composer's fancy. In the following piece the words are " 5rtrasa vSrtmamukha
para nava7«rt," &c. The syllables Sa and Ma are introduced at the very points
where the notes C (Sa) and F (Ma) stand in the song. The Hindus regard, in
this song, C and not F as the key-note, though the latter is clearly the real
tonic, and there is apparently no difference in the tonality of this and the
melody " Smarana Sukam," in which they allow the tonic to be F. The
other two melodies, also from Travancore, are compositions of Kolashekara
Maharajah —

SARA5A SaMAMUKHA. "

Moilftlttu.

Kamachi.

I'.iUevi.

^--^^iEijEga^;i:3^:

fRSu'a Kama
(Tala Adi.

«**,

THE MUSIC OF SOUTHERN INDIA.

Anupallevi.

p^SJ-JJ^^

n,r;iJ J'^G^

i\ r-

Stanzas.

pr f.^ '''^^\^^=^^^nu ;'J^

^r r>/JU

JJ jJlJ.l^tz^

^^^

p±^2ni:i\P-^-^rf\f r I J r.jviir r.r f.-^^^^Sl

Pallevi.

Melopy from Travanxore.

Raga Bilahari.

pztUj:; N ^ -*i-^-^^i^i^

Anupallevi.

tefe*

e£

f g-

Stanzas.

j^=^

fefe

^ m

^fe^

r g-

^'^i^

Pallevi.

Melody from Travanxore.
Anupallevi.

Raga Mohanna.

hShH^^^SmiMir^l rj- 1 r rrlrrr I -j^ i L-Q£[,ri Cfe^

Stanzas.

rtf^r r I r ^Gfrg^^

ii=i=i^

fe^^^;^

Modi'ynto.
Pallevi. ,

' Smarana Sukam vo Ramanam.'

j Raga Garudadvani.
ITala Eka.

^^^=3:

^5=1^^^

^^-gj^

3:^|:^-.l J Jl/^^^^

ffi

THE MUSIC OF SOUTJHERX INDIA.

Anupallevi

.^:^«-

"^ »

-r-r

5iit

itfc

An example of an irregular melody is shown below. The two first periods
consist of nine and seven bars respectively. This frequently occurs in Indian
music, and is probably produced simply by rests having in course of time been
either lengthened or disregarded ; or by a bar imitated, repeated, or over-
lapping ; so that a symmetrical period is transformed into one of an uneven
number of bars. The effect produced is original, and often very pleasing.
That this has been fully recognised by musicians in Europe is well known, and
many examples might be quoted from the works of classical composers to prove
that this has been largely appreciated as an important element of variety —

Andante.
Pallevi

Nanna Gan.na Talli.

Raga Manohari.
Tala Eka.

f^T^rrj^^

?=^

Anupallevi.

f I fs- r

Stanza.

J? * * 0 \ ^ ,

^- ^^

zj\: r \ 'Ja^

^=,

The two melodies following are both in the scale called jMavamalava-
gaula. The intervals of the scale are so peculiar and so manv harmonical
combinations can be formed from them that it well deserves attention, especiallv
when it is remembered that this is a scale largely used by the Hindus, and that
all elementary exercises taught to pupils are invariably upon this scale, instead of.
as would be supposed, the diatonic major, which is by us commonly regarded as
natural.

THE MUSIC OF SOUTHERN IXDIA.

These melodies are again irregular in construction ; the ragas in which they
are composed, though much alike, differ, in that the third is not admitted as a
real note in the ascending mode of the second example. A characteristic of the
raga Purvi is shown in the " glisse " from D to G in the sixth and seventh bars
of the first air—

' Trii.oka mata.

Pa'levi.

.^. .^. ;hi

■^^

SC=s:

££

ZMUK.

^ — • — ^ — I h-

Anupallevi.

^ r * ^ ■ rj ^^g-

^=^=

» F m * »'

i^=1=

I I i

=S^

^^^i^l'

Sian/a

'• Nagadhera.

(Raga NadirAmakrya.
I Taia Rupacca.

:^tt=6

f »

=P=5:

zt=a:

*==*=

-*— ^

g^^-i^^^^Lj \^\^'^

1 — 1—1=

-• — • — • — <»-

^^=^

« — • — « — • — « — •-

I si time.

2nd time.

p*=

r-r-mrr^e^t'-i rrr^ >^

J I

Very similar to kruthis are Kirthanas. Thev consist, like the former, of a
pallevi, anupallevi, and stanzas, the tala being regular throughout. The ragas in
which they are composed are for the most part popular ones, and there is
little grace essential to their performance. The music of kirthanas is verv
simple, and the words, addressed to some deity, plain and easy to be remembered.

The following are examples of popular kirthanas —

Allegretto.
Pallevi.

Bala nanna chala brovava.'

Raga Kambudi.
Tala Adi.

^ ^

^ • y

:=3=

=Ua:

=iJ=

is^

iii:

Stanzas.

THE MUSIC OF SOUTHERN INDIA.

I •* 1st time.

"^^

rmT^^nr^

£=t

. -^-^

^^^^^ir-i^-i^

• •-!*■

is< i/mc

2«rf (<mc.

tst

^^a

Modcrnto.

Pallevi. p^

" Karunallah Varnalu."

JRaga Biag
(Tala Adi.

rri:ii:i:rT/rr-fjiffj-rrri^i- j^i^JJ-^VJir r;^^

Modeyato.
Pallevi.

' Garuua gamana rara."

JRaga Surati.
I Tala Adi.

f¥^P

liii:

^ 1 — c

r f ' r \<^-

iiJ=U±

Vernams are songs very similar to svarajotas, merely differing in that the
several parts of which they are composed are not arranged in quite the same
manner, and that they are more difficult of execution. Vernams are, as a rule,
much longer than svarajotas, and contain a larger amount of grace throughout.
They are usually in the more uncommon ragas, and the time is purposely made
as catchy as possible. Their performance is therefore seldom attempted by
other than skilled musicians.

A vernam consists of an introduction to which there are words, usually
concluded by a "Sol-fa" passage. Following this are stanzas generally merely
" sol-fahed." After each stanza there is a short refrain to which words are sung.
The words of vernams treat mostly of the deeds of favourite heroes or warrior
deities.

The following is an example of one of the simplest vernams. In performance
a musician would treat this as a kind of theme which he would expand, vary, and
embellish according to his own taste and skill — indeed, grace is sometimes
employed to such an extent that the original air can hardly be recognised.

THE MUSIC OF SOUTHERX INDIA.

This melody is the composition of some pupil of Tiagyaraj of Tanjore ; it
displays two of the characteristics of the raga Saranga very prominently — viz., the
^lisse from B to G and the vibrato upon D —

Allegro. (Introduction with words.)

Inta Modi.

(Raga Saranga.
\Tala Adi.

-^-^

W » m

foco acccl. (without words.
» ^ m » ' m — ;

J I rurr^.

j=»=

=S=|E

-I ^ ! 1 1 1 "—

_J^ b«««l ^ ^

(^ ^

»r- f

qtip:

^E^^SE:^

» » *-

fc*^

3^^

=?s=^^r^-

=i^5f

Pallevi (at end of each stanza).
a tempo.

t^^^^CzT^^^O '-" r ^

i^:

* P~

iiJ^t.

Stanzas, nrf lib. i.

i=E

-*r->-

=P ^

V~|

i.< I I- — »^

g^^-^tr-^-^^^F^^vE^^^i^^^F^^

iii. rt tempo.

?H .0 ,r- r-i

=pt=i=«=«:

=ft:^^

.i=U=

4 S ta

ad lib.

S^^

=g=K==fc:

3*i-t

:«:

i^=4:

The following is another well known song of this kind —

Allegro. (Introduction with words.]
Q «_

' Sarasamu delupara."

f Raga Kamachi.
(Tala Adi.

:ee

->j '

ij:

THE MUSIC OF SOUTIIEKX INDIA.

r--^-" r> fr i"^*:^

^ ltcj-

iSp^^C£

:Ie£

5=*=

~^=r^Cju^

^^sg;i^^a±^r r- r—x^^xir-fjrr^m

~-:X=-

:'T t^ p-rn^-g r • •■ f^—^^^^^^^^^^s^

poco accel. (without words.)

±3:

U^^ fJ-U^

*-i— ?-

^i 1 f

f4^^^?^^^^^^^fe^g^^^ilg^g#^^

Pallevi (at end of each stanza).

Stanzas ad lib. i.

ff^T-&1f^^g±PagggF#^F^^^£=gE^r=Fr^fe^^^^

Q=c=ra:

feg

^g^F=f=g=&^

-^1- ^. ^-

E£feSEE3E

" 1.J

fU^^N^

:^=^

#X-

^^^^Eg^^

^=SE

p^^-g

^^^^^^

UJ L^=

S'anka-vernams are somewhat similar to vernams, only that the tempo is less
rapid. They are usually very elaborate in style, and abound with graces of all
kinds. They are commonly sung at Nautches and are intended to give full scope
to convey " bhavas " — the gestures and sentiments conveyed by the dancer as she
sways to and fro to the music.

Javadis are songs of a light and pleasing nature, such as love songs, cradle

THE MUSIC OF SOUTHERN INDIA.

songs/ &c. They are much sung by both Nautch girls and all, especially women,
of the higher classes in domestic life. They are of two kinds— ordinary ballads
and songs of a more or less indelicate nature, sung during the performance of a
peculiar dance called Karwar. Javadis consist usually of a pallevi, anupallevi, and
stanzas, sung in the usual manner as described before, and are chiefly in popular
ragas. The tempo is in accordance with the words, and not too slow, the
favourite measure being Rupacca. Consequently, many of these songs bear a
resemblance to a waltz, only that they are taken at a slightly slower pace.

The words of javadis are often very beautiful ; and those upon the loves of
Krishna and Radha are always popular. Musicians as a rule sing these songs
more in their naked form, and with less grace than is their usual custom. Each
stanza is sung to the same air.

These songs are of comparatively recent introduction, being first sung by the
Kanarese musicians of the Court of Surapuri, a petty state near the celebrated
Humpe ruins. The popularity of songs of this kind increased rapidly, and they
are now to be heard throughout almost the whole of Southern India, where they
take the place of the Tappa of Hindustan.

Among the following examples the air " Anthalona Telavari" is perhaps the
most popular— the accompanying rhythm of the tala falls upon the first and
second beat of each bar ; this is much noticed when it is accompanied by
instruments, such as the small tinkling cymbals and drums, which mark the
time strongly. This song seems to be known throughout Southern India — the
version varies slightly in different places, but, on the whole, the air is much the
same everywhere.

The air " S'ri Saratha " is very popular both in Mysore and Tanjore ; the
modulation into the relative minor is noticeable as it shows traces of a
pentatonic scale —

Andante.
Pallevi.

' YlVANA PIRDIDU."

f Raga Biag.
I Tala Adi.

=* * 0 ^

» p •

*IW=W=W

s=«=

^E^

f • f

^ I I

Stanzas.

r ''^'ir ■.tiu^^^^^^s^

• Kayalaga dAvana.''

Raga Janjuti.
Tala Rupacca.

' Simple cradle songs, called " Palna," are very common, and answer to the lullaby songs of Europe,

THE MUSIC OF SOUTHERN INDIA.

Pallevi.

hi^^

^^m

" AnTIIALONA TKLAVARl."

Anupallevi.

(Raga S'ank4rabharna.
jTala Rupacca.

-P— •-

f^^-

^^'•T"XZE

::?«=*=

Stanzas.

3==f^

# — p-

r-^ m W

■^

^TV"^-t^

l=i:

ggsfe|£^g^^^fe^^^g^:

-^v— h

^^p^*^n

rail.

n tempo.
3-TN

~j>~^~

" Jenaka Vaneanatha."

f Raga Janjuti.
(Tala Rupacca.

P •

s=sg3

* Q |-»

ii:

:f=4:

-F-t-

|fe

:=t

^J^F

-* — m-

-F a—r—m-

^1 niQ

e — I— p

^^--

*,,-«-*— ^

Pi3^

?=-=p=r-&

^ '>i^ g

pg^^^S^j^^M^j^^P^

fc *'

.^-

o •

' SeKI YENAKA THAKft."

Pallevi.

(Raga Kapi.
(Tala Eka.

1st time.

\\ 2nd time.

i^^^m^^m

1 J J

Anupallevi.

T*^-*

t=f--=[-

^~z^-^

L. , * i^- Si

c^ p-

f>> ^ •-

^ Ez

iJzzzfirrC

•zizifc

J ^ *

atlit

Stanzas.

-:sr-*-

=i=^

' o •-

^-T^

^pi

« Ti

-li • 4

till

-4-^—1=

2S^

■f— »,

Se^

Fine.

=*=^

g^ig=B3=5

-d ^ 4-

THE MUSIC OF SOUTHERN INDIA.

' S'ri Saratha."

f\\ r ^'tu-

Ra^a Kamachi.
Tala Rupacca.

^'^^

-iS^

*—*-

* m

ggss

^i^ac

«=

i^ Lji.

=i=^

:J^^

Very similar to javadis are songs called Pathams ; they are exclusively love
songs, and are sung largely both in the native drama and by Nautch girls. The
music is very much varied, and the performers frequently leave the air and
improvise cadences and embellishments, rejoining the melody at will. The
tempo is slower than that of javadis, and is varied according to the expression
the singer wishes to put into the words ; the tala is generally irregular, a mixed
time of I and C is the commonest.

The most popular composer of pathams was Kshattrya, whose songs are
largely sung, and contain some of the most beautiful and poetical sentiments
that can be found ; but, like all Oriental love poetry, they employ imagery too
luxuriant for exact translation —

' Valla tella vara."

jRaga S'ankarabharna.
jTSla Druva.

Moderato.

1st time.

■2nd time.

^^S

It \r~i

3C=S3t

a" * ^'\f)

'r *>

-P-u r' ' r . f^^f'^ .'

Hi n M

1 V 1

1 -^H

— \-

if ' L^j' --J L/ u

^> U ^ J 1

^-^^

> '^^

■ J •

*--^ ^' r)

P • \ m

^ ^ * # I ^-mz^j:^

- L I --I — \ — ^T-^-

=tit

n n

£gf-^.^J>f.J|/JJ^||J J-

xxsx.

-*i:

zz:

THE MUSIC OF SOUTHERN INDIA.

tsj— — ■-.=-

r«=M:

-P P— #^

I I L-

• p

T U !

,»\ p t>-

U '^ i U-

iit

L^ 'l> -sii— I 1^ /

:C5f

^-^^.^^

^"^

In the above melody the characteristics of the raga S'ankfirabharna are well
shown. The glide to the upper C is never omitted in this raga. Another
peculiarity of this air should be noticed : at the sign \ it will be seen that
B is tied ; the string is hvice slightly deflected and shaken upon the fret, so
as to sharpen the note to a degree less than a semitone, with a trembling
effect.

This song is very well known in the Mysore country. The pace is moderately
quick but not hurried, and the melody is sung in a soft, dreamy manner, that,
coupled with the gestures of the singer and the tinkling of the accompanying
cymbals, is peculiarly fascinating, especially when heard for the first time.

Here is another example of these songs —

Andante.

( Raga Mukari.
t Taia Triputa.

^231

iOi^^

\ « m -* • L

=t=^

"^m

3=tb.

» ^~¥:

Bg;

jac

fe^

Religious hymns, called Yallapathams and Tathvams, are largely sung bv
the lower orders. They are very lugubrious and monotonous, and are invariably

The former are funeral dirges, the latter

in the raga Yedukula-Kambogi

THE MUSIC OF SOUTHERN INDIA.

allegorical chants sung at religious gatherings. The following example of a
Yallapatham shows the nature of these songs —

Antlante.

(Raga Yedukula-Kambcgi.
Tala Adi.

The ordinary folk-songs of the country are called Lavanis, and will be
familiar to everyone who has heard the coolies sing as they do their work ; the
women nursing their children ; the bullock drivers; dhooly bearers ; or sepoys on
the march. The airs are usually very monotonous. The words, if not impromptu,
are a sort of historv or ballad in praise of some warrior or " burra Sahib."
Some have a kind of chorus, each man in turn singing an improvised verse.
There is no employment of raga.

At the time of the Kama festival in honour of the Indian god of love, special
lavanies called Saval are sung. The words of these are sung by two
parties — one called Turai and the other Kalki — intended to represent the god
Krishna and his mistress Radha. Questions of a metaphorical nature are sung
by one party and answered by the other. These were formerly sung extempore,
but their performance is now usually rehearsed beforehand. This species of
entertainment is also practised in Northern India under the name of Kabi.

The two following are examples of popular lavanies — ■

Allfgro vioderato,

n No. I.

~r » * 0^

:^:i^

^^^

IT-^tf^

No. 2.

^E?

BE^

-fs— r

^■

V I

I^T^'""^

A composition called Raga-malika, or " garland of ragas," is occasionally
heard. As the name implies, it is a song that modulates into many different
ragas. A raga-malika consists of a pallevi or refrain, and stanzas. The pallevi
is employed only at the beginning and at the conclusion. The stanzas are

84 THE MUSIC OF SOUTHERN INDIA.

usually uneven in number. Each stanza employs a different raga, the name
of which must be mentioned in the words, in order that the audience be able
to follow and appreciate the performer's skill. The tala remains the same
throughout.

Somewhat similar to the above is a Pallevi. This word signifies literally
"a creeping plant," and hence the name is given to a kind of fantasia upon some
theme worked out in accordance with certain rules, and containing a large
amount of grace and imitation. As this kind of composition is extremely
popular it well merits some attention.

A stanza or sentence of some poetical nature is sung to any air that the
performer may improvise, and in anv raga and tala. This opening melodv is
taken as the theme of the pallevi, and is varied, imitated, and answered sub-
sequently according to the skill and inclination of the performer. Occasionally
a kind of counter theme is introduced, and a skilful musician will keep the
two parts distinct. If this is done the counter theme is, as a rule, introduced
upon a fourth or sixth lower. But it is not intended to imply that there is any
employment of counterpoint as understood in Europe ; for though in certain
cases these two parts may be actually going at the same time, yet the native
musician is guided by no contrapuntal laws, but by his ear, and the rules of rdga,
entirely. Much greater license is given as to raga in a pallevi than in any
other composition.

There are usually three movements — viz., an adagio, a moderato, and an
allegro or scherzo.

The first movement commences with the subject being given out in any raga
or tala that may be called for. The space of time occupied by this is termed an
avatar, and constitutes the chief rhythmical division or period into which the
pallevi is divided. Each succeeding avatar, though consisting of several
short phrases, either linked together or separated by rests, must be of equal
length to the original. Each avatar differs essentially from those preceding,
and if the voice is employed, commences invariably with the first syllable or word
of the original theme.

The second movement follows with or without a short pause between.
The measure remains the same, but the duration of the movement is less.

The third, or concluding movement, follows ; the only difference being that
the tempo is much increased. In this it is usual for the performer to modulate
into different ragas (called for at the time by the audience), taking care that the
special characteristics of each shall be made clear; each avatar is, however, ended
in the original raga. This movement is brought to a close by a repetition of the

THE MUSIC OF SOUTHERN INDIA.

original theme in the original tempo, after which a few bars in the same raga are
given ad libitum by way of a Finale.

In the performance of a pallevi no harsh or discordant instruments are
employed. For marking a rhythmical accompaniment the hands are employed,
or sometimes a Mridang or Gatha. Occasionally another performer hums
softly a kind of accompaniment to syllables (ta, di, ti, ka, &c., as if sol-fahing)
intended to represent the beats of a drum ; this is called konnagolu, or talavinyasa.

Songs of salutation or hail, called Mangala, are sung at the conclusion
of all performances. Melodies of this kind are usually in either the ragas Surati
or Saurelshtra. The following is one of the most common Mangalas. The
chief peculiarity in songs of this kind is evident here — the beats of the tala falling
upon tied notes at the commencement of a bar —

Paramana Suttu battu padara."

I Raga Saurashtra.
Tala Adi.

A dngio.

l^^Tl

::?«;

^^^

iis5

:S=^

> i^

-»-»-

Hindustani music in some respects differs from the system previously
described, and which is called Karnatik. It has been much copied from the
latter, but its professors are not often men of much education ; and though
many of them are skilled executants, their knowledge of the theory of their art
is, as a general rule, but small. In Hindustani music more attention is paid to
the minute distinction between the various ragas than to the actual melody itself.
To melodic form the same importance is not attached. The nomenclature of
Hindustani and Karnatik ragas differs, but musicians everywhere quote the
Sangita Ratnakera as their principal authority. They also say that, apart from
Arabian and Persian innovations, the difference between the S3'stems of music
prevalent in the North and South of India is accounted for b}- the fact that in
the former that of Hanuman is preferred, while the Southern music is a relic of
the earliest system of Narada.

In Hindustani music the elaborate arrangement of scales previously
described is not used, but merel_y twelve ; all of which, however, are found, and
are in common use, though under different names, in the Karnatik system.
The talas, or measures, employed in Hindustani music are similar to those
previously described upon page 36. As regards the form of Hindustani
melodies, in place of what has been styled " pallevi," " anupallevi," and

86 THE MUSIC OF SOUTHERN INDIA.

" charanam," or stanzas, all their songs consist of distinct parts. The
pallevi is styled asthayi — the anupallevi antara — and the charanam ahhog. As the
differences between the two systems consist mainly of technical points, which
would be of slight interest to the reader, the following observations will, perhaps,
be suflicient.

The Dhrupad — perhaps the most admired of all Hindustani songs — is a
heroic song, with a slow and dignified style, and sung almost exclusively bv men.
It consists of three parts — i.e., asthayi, antara, and abhog. Great scope is given
to variations upon the actual theme, and the time cadence is very complex.
Other songs are called Tilanas and Sarigams (or svaragramas), and are in
particular talas ; they contain onlv two parts.

Ghuzals — songs of the same nature as Kshattrya's pathams of the Karnatik
— are very popular; they consist of only asthayi and antara. Of a similar
form to ghuzals are Tappa, resembling the Karnatik javadis, and consisting
of two parts. There are also Thungri, Dadra, Hari; Gurbah, sung at the Dassera
festival; and Palna, or cradle songs. Songs called Khyals, somewhat like the
Karnatik kruthis, which display a great deal of grace, and have a slow time
cadence, were introduced by Sultan Shirki of Jounpur; they consist of two
parts only. Many Hindustani lavanis are very pretty, though most
melancholy.

The tuning of instruments used by Hindustani musicians differs from that
employed by Karnatik professors, in that the interval of the fourth is always
admitted upon the open strings ; the modulation therefore of these instruments
is less confined ; hence frequently, though the melody itself is less pleasing,
accompaniments to Hindustani songs are preferred to the ordinary Karnatik
accompaniments, and music played in the Karnatik style upon instruments tuned
thus is much liked. Hindustani musicians practise singing more than do
Karnatik. They have better voices, and take more pains to cultivate them.
Karnatik singers, as has been said before, appear to have an idea
that practice is hurtful to their voices, and from attempting to sing when too
young, before the voice is formed, they are apt to ruin their singing entirely ;
while Hindustani singers practise much, and sing in a more manly style ; hence
Hindustani music is much admired in Southern India, chiefly as a variety — the
softness of the language itself, and the ease with which it lends itself to singing,
giving it an additional charm. A careful study of the Hindustani melodies
given below will amply repay the time given up, and their great beauty and
inherent passion can hardly fail to enchant one.

The following examples, gathered principally from the Deccan, Guzerat, and

THE MUSIC OF SOUTHERN IX D! A.

Rajasthan, display some of the chief characteristics of these melodies. The
names of their respective ragas have, in some cases, been omitted, the names of
Hindustani ragas being different from Karnatik. Several of them modulate
into different ragas. Such technicalities are not of nuich general interest.
Examples, however, may be found below. The ghuzal given is popular in
Guzerat, and is sung quickly, but with great expression and varying tempo.
It should be remembered that, in all cases in performance, the airs are much
varied by grace, and rarely are sung in their naked form. All singers, both
Hindustani and Karnatik, make great use of a slide akin to the portamento.

Allegretto.

Ghuzal.

S^7^^r-\M

i> . . — — .

d. *-

Efe

^M^

-±^

=5;=

In Raga S'ankara.

Andantf niosso

Andante

4j # »

Lavani.

M d»-

TT— =aL

^^r^-i4J^

^^Tr

^ — *-

qaot

^a^^i^gzf.

^^.^^^E^^^

A ndanle.

THE MUSIC OF SOUTHERN INDIA.
Thungri.

fc^^"—

-to • ^— 1^~

- i» f-

pFF^s^g

^P^^^fF^g

* y I fO

Ifl

jj /oco accct

a tempo.

Khyal.

Raga Kedara.

4==?:

^^H-X^^

:p=r

^ ^* ^

» ' » -Tt-

£).C.

;i^

Andante niosso.

Patham.

fiij J'j?.jij7:i.^-g^3jg

EIj-JJIbB^

^ • s

±cz

^^m

Fine.

J.71 J j J^LJ^J^^

CoH cspress

Thungri.

R4gas Pilu and Dcsh.

f^- n ;;-j-uJr=r^rrT

:^=

d • J

-at-*-

^
>- r=^

A \-

l=t^

atirf:

l^tib

221

=P5F

J^ ^"J 41. J I 'J-^

THE MUSIC OF SOUTHERN INDIA.

T=r

fi ■; ■' ifr?=^

I J

=*=«:

Tirm-

=^^P^

S£

^ ^ •

-r-> I* ^=

atzit

-1 — h

^=t^

Cos esprcss.

Khyal.

Riga Kalian.

J ■ j'lJ ■ ;'b7^

^iJJIj'i. U.J.J^s?

:«=

*-= — r-

0 * s

tfazjzrh-^^^M3J-^--M=5

»^ g'' * F

g^JN nr

rnrij ;jr7^4^L^N /fi"^

1 — ^-

Dadra.

CoH espress.

Ragas Kafi and Desh.

?srn->r

^'•I'r u-u'l-^^^l^---M ^'^ ;iiiJ^^.^^J /ij.j

0S m*

#f r f. r ,r I r u • I -^t "r- 1 ^ ^ ■■ ' I": r^f^f^n^TTTrWm

Lavani.

Raga Gauri

Allegretto.

l^lf^ ^^l^g^^^tJ^a^f^^

^ *** ^

morcndo.

rt^

:^;|-^ijN^j|^/j

>-«^^»-j

d »• •

THE MUSIC OF SOUTHERN IXDIA.

Andante.

GURBAH.

RSga K&fi.

J^^j^-J JJIJ. J-I^pgp

1^ ri

fet2=st

^^ I J b J *

^^^^^m

=3^^=l=*

*^iJbJ ^*

^H^7^^J???lJ rj'If^mpTp^-^^

GURKAH.

Modcrato.

Raga M4nd.

I N

N I N

?!=

=f5:

-*^» d ^ i

3=:S==*=;i=5

• d d

GuRBAH.

Andante.

^3i7T?y?^n^^i ^r] I ^ J^ J^T^^T^

^^^^^

-4 — d-

^->a^

i^-N^

3E^

^T^eS

Modcralo.

Thunori.

5^EB,U^^: U r £

y^^^

ir-r^

:J=c£J=fe^UP-l

^sr^nrMtfrre^^

THE MUSIC OF SOUTHERN INDIA.

Kalingra (151.

Scales used in Hindustani music and styled " Thats.

Bhairavi (S).

^f=^^^ ^^ -^3

~rj-

-I-

^^=f

=[:

Todi (45).

Sinda-Bhairavi \2o).

^^^

^'— ^-B

zj±:

-trJ ?Q 1=

JTirr

J- o ^-

J2Z±

«^^ -^

Bilaval (291.

Janjuti ^28l.

ZS2Z

-Q-

-c* s*-

-o-
Kafi (22),

Dinkapuria (51)

,^^^^^^=[

3:£:

^^^

-rj o-

^J ^ I-

Shamakalian (53).

F^=

ImankaliSni (65).

=^=^

f^=T3"=^^

-J. J ^ 1^

d <-->

:<rj g?

Pilu :2I)

Bhairubahar 1 17).

^=^

1 J bJ

32Z2:

I I

i^d s*

(The numbers in brackets refer to the corresponding Karnatik scales upon pages 32-35.)

The Nahabet. From a Native Drawing.

CHAPTER VI.

Musical Entertainments — Music and the Drama — Influence of the latter upon songs of the
country — Of the Indian orchestra — Religious music — Temple music — Employment of bells —
Street music — The Nahabet — Nautch music — Dancing.

MUSICAL entertainments among the higher classes are very popular and
much in vogue. Upon such occasions a company of musicians are
hired for the evening. The Vina is the favourite instrument, and is
generally accompanied by either a Mathala or Tabla, or else by a kind of earthen
pot called Gatha, much like the ordinary "chatty," which, in the hands of a skilful
performer, is beaten with wonderful dexterity. Sometimes, but rarely, two vinas
of different sizes are employed. In this case, if the players are skilful, the effect
is very pleasing, especially in the performance of an Alapa, a kind of rhapsody or
fantasia impromptu, in any raga ; each instrument keeps its part distinct, and
the theme is cleverly imitated and tossed about from one to the other much as
is done in a modern orchestra. Such imitation is, however, purely at the fancv
of the performers, and not contrapuntal imitation as understood in Europe.

Throughout Southern India the native drama is exceedingly popular ; the
actors are generally well educated and of a high caste, and a good company
always attracts full houses. Music is largely employed upon the stage, and
there is a kind of orchestra attached to everv native theatre. The songs sung
at performances of the kind do not, as a rule, difler much from the ordinary music
of the country, and of late years there has been a tendency to imitate foreign
music, such as Arabian or Persian, and the English, Scotch, or other airs played
by military bands at all large stations. These naturally hnd their way from the
theatre into private houses — boys learn them and sing them in the street —
and so their inHucnce graduallv extends and makes itself felt upon Indian music

THE MUSIC OF SOUTHERN INDIA. 93

in general. The old melody types, or ragas, are being less jealously adhered
to, and the better educated classes of Hindus are beginning to see that music
is not necessarily confined to one or two particular systems, but that, like
nearly everything else, it is capable of improvement and further development.

A marked change for the better in the manner of singing is evident. This,
indeed, could not fail to be the case when it is remembered that if a voice is
intended to be heard by a large audience in a theatre or other building of the
kind it must be thrown out to the full extent of its volume, instead of being
contorted and its sweetness spoilt by the continued small inflections of tone and
unnatural falsetto notes so much practised by native singers of the ordinary class.

The native orchestra is usually made up of the following instruments, or of
a somewhat similar combination : —

Sarangi (string) .... .... 2 Mathala or Tabla [dnnns) i

Tamburi (string) .... .... 1 S'ruti (drone) .... .... i

^^lukaxina. (native oboe) .... i

The use of the Sarangi in Southern India — except in conjunction with
Nautches — is rapidly being discontinued, and an English fiddle tuned as a vina
or sarangi is often substituted for it. Farther North the instrument appears likely
to hold its place for a long time to come. A clarinet is sometimes preferred to
the Mukavina.

In musical performances cymbals and bells of different kinds are used,
according to taste, and the occasional use of a harmonicon of little bells or plates
of metal (Septaghantika), or of porcelain cups or glasses (Jalatharangini),
is much admired.

It is a common custom for the members of particular castes, sects, &c., to
meet together at stated intervals for the purpose of worship, either in each other's
houses or in temples. On these occasions music forms a prominent feature, and
consists of hymns of different kinds, accompanied bv a variety of instruments.
Music of this nature is called Bhazana, and its use is almost universal.

Among the higher castes great trouble and expense is incurred in procuring
good performers for this purpose. The songs are generallv pretty and well
sung to the accompaniment of the vina or sitar and tamburi, with, perhaps,
a small drum to mark the rhythm. The Bhazana of the common people is a
great contrast to this, and in their assemblies melody is often sacrificed to mere
noise. Each man, in order to show his devotion, sings in turn, frequently with
no re<rard for time or tune, whilst the others beat drums or blow a kind of
whistle called Sillu, with other instruments, just as it pleases them, and, as
can be imagined, the effect of this is discordant in the extreme.

THE MUSIC OF SOUTIIERX INDIA.

The instruments commonly employed in Hhazana consist of one of the
foUowiniT combinations —

Tamburi

Sarangi or Fiddle
Mathala

Tamburi
Sarangi ..
Mathala ..

2
2
I

I
I
I

S'ruti

Sitar

Tabla

Sitar

Tala (cymbals)

Tabla ....

I pair

Or, if the means of the worshippers be very limited, a single tambouri, with,
perhaps, one pair of little cymbals and a common drum, or tabor such as
Khanjeri, is found.

The music performed for Bhazana usually consists of kirthanas, gitas,
and kruthis.

In temples, chiefly those of Lingayet or other Saivite sects, there is a
peculiar kind of music in use called Karadisamela. It is so-called because a
large conical kettle-drum called by that name is the principal instrument
employed in it. The Karadisamela carries with it a special rhythm of its own ;
for lively airs — j"n J~j J~j | J . J . | — ; for those of a mournful nature — J~2 ^^t-

A system of music called Sopanam is found in Malabar, where it is
confined to temple services. In every temple of any importance in Malabar and
Travancore it is usual to have both instrumental and vocal music at the steps
leading to the principal shrine during the performance of certain services. The
word sopanam, in its literal sense, means " steps," and hence gives its name to
this particular kind of music. The Sopanam system varies in man}- respects
from both the Karnatik and Hindustani ; a detailed description of it would,
however, be unnecessary, since it is much akin to the Karnatik system and
differs only in technical points, which would be uninteresting to the reader.

The use of the gong and bell in temples is universal. Colonel Meadows
Taylor, in speaking of this, remarks that the gong is not used as an
accompaniment to any but the loud crashing and generally dissonant music
of the temple ceremonies. No ceremonv of sacrifice or oblation is ever
performed without a preliminary tinkling of the bell, repeated at certain intervals
according to the ritual.

There can be no doubt that the practice of using it is as ancient as
Hinduism itself, and the ritual liturgies and works on ceremonial observances
define the use to be made of it.' In fact, the use of bells for religious purposes

'• Proceedings, Royal Irish Ai-:ulciny." \'ol. I.X.. Fart i.

THE MUSIC OF SOUTHERN INDIA. 95

seems to hav'e been from the earliest times so universal amongst almost all
nations that it is only necessary to point out that the exact counterpart of the
Hindu Ghante is to be found at the present day in the Sanctus bell in
use in Christian Churches, and it is perhaps worthy of note that in the great
sculptured Trimurti or Hindu trinity at Elephanta one of the figures holds a bell.

The Dasaris, a mendicant class of temple servers of Vaisnavite persuasion,
usuallv employ a little side-drum, with one head only, called Dinni, not
unlike the modern Egyptian " Tabl Shami"; other mendicants, called Andis,
outcasts from Saivite sects, play upon a small gong called Semakkalam, which
they beat with a stick. Both Dasaris and Andis often carry a horn as well,
and support themselves by singing doleful ballads or hymns at street corners and
bv begging. Work of any sort they decline. The ordinary native band of
discordant wind instruments, drums, and cymbals found throughout Southern
India is called Mela. The players in these bands are mostly taken from a
caste of Telegu-speaking barbers called " Mangala-vandlu," who make this their
special profession and provide the music, so-called, commonly heard at temple
ceremonies, weddings, festal gatherings, and all street " tamashas." The
composition of these bands varies greatly, the number of instruments in some
cases being as many as thirty and in others perhaps only three or four ; generally
one or two nagasaras — a s'ruti or drone — a drum such as the dhol — and a
pair of cymbals (called Jhanj), about ten inches or a foot in diameter, are found.
Sometimes a mela, consisting of a single mukavina, a flute, a flageolet, a drone,
and a small side-drum called Dhanki is employed. ^

The effect of a mela can hardly be called pleasing, unless to those whose
chief delight is discordant noise. The air, such as it is, is generally drowned by
the clanging of cvmbals and the incessant drumming, which, added to the
prolonged and shrill drone of the s'rutis, produce an effect considerably
imposing. But, as Captain Willard pithily enough remarks,^ it is heard to
advantage "from a distance."

A peculiar institution of Indian music is known as the Nahabet,^ and is so
called from that beinc: the name of the largfest drum associated with it. There are
certain persons — Hindu or Mahomedan noblemen — who are privileged to have
attached to their service bands of professional musicians, who perform at certain
stated hours of the day or night. This privilege is sometimes extended to certain
temples and shrines of saints, or to spiritual princes — gurus or swamies. To these

" Preference seems to be given to instruments of European manufacture, and it is not unusual to find old
clarinets, flutes, and fifes used in these bands.

" " A Treatise on the Music of Hindustan." Captain N. A. Willard. Calcutta. 1S34.
* This word is commonly pronounced " Nobut."

g6 THE MUSIC OF SOUTH ERX INDIA.

bands the name of Nahabet is given, and they are usually placed in balconies over
the gateways of cities or palaces, or in other elevated places elsewhere, and these
places are known as the Nahabet Khaneh. The music played is, of course,
traditional, but it possesses a distinct character of its own that is entirelv different
to anv other music heard in India, and the effect, especially among mountains
or in the hill fortresses, such as are found in Central India or Rajputana, is very
striking. Usuallv care is taken to retain the services of the best performers for
the Nahabet, and when heard from a little distance upon a still Indian night, and
the sound is subdued, there is a good deal of wild beauty about it that possesses
a charm peculiarly its own.

In the time of the Mogul Empire, we learn from the " Ain-i-Akbari,"^ the
Nahabet was held in great esteem, and the Emperor Akbar himself was even a
performer. There were then in the palace Nakkera Khaneh some eighteen large
Nahabets, twenty smaller kettledrums (Nakkeras), four Dohl, four Kurna or
large trumpets, nine Surnais or pipes similar to the Nagasara, and their accom-
panying drones, two S'ring or horns, and three pairs of cymbals of large size,
besides several Nafirs (a smaller kind of trumpet, similar to the Tuturi) ; and in
those davs the performances of the Nahabet occupied a prominent place in the
dailv palace routine. The general practice then was that the Nahabet played
first at midnight and the second time at dawn. An hour before sunrise the
musicians commenced to plav the Surnais, an hour later there was a short
prelude, which in turn was followed by pieces introducing the Kurna, Nafir, and
other wind instruments, with the occasional use of the largest drum of all
(Damama or Nahabet), but which did not introduce the Nakkera. After this the
Surnais and Nafirs were played alone ; an hour later there was a general
crescendo, and then followed seven distinct performances, brought to a conclusion
by the chanting of various prayers for blessings upon the Emperor, and then the
day's service was finished by the Surnais players playing softly to a pianissimo of
the drums.

In the present day the large number of different instruments formerly
found in the Nahabet Khanehs of Ibrtresses and palaces do not exist, and the
effect of the modern Nahabet is therefore less imposing. There are, however, to
be found in most Nahabet Khanehs one pair of large Nahabets, a couple of pairs
of smaller kettledrums (Nakkera) and possibly other drums with a Kurna, one
or two Tuturi, a pair or two of cymbals, one or two Nagasaras and their
accompanying drones, with perhaps a couple of Nuy or flutes-a-bec.

' " .\iiii-Akbari." Translated from the orif^inal version bv H. Bloclunann, M..\. Sec N'ol. I., k\n. ig.

THE MUSIC OF SOUTHERX IXDIA. 97

The Kurna is not always found, for only nobles of the highest rank are
considered able to use it ; and by Brahmins it is still held to be the most ancient
and sacred instrument of music in existence, and they consequently give it
a prominent place in their temple ritual.

Nautch music is termed Taffa or Keylika and is performed exclusively bv a
caste of Nautch people called in Southern India Melakara-jati. This is a composite
class of dancing women and male musicians, distinguished by a marked social
division from the higher orders of the musical profession. The dancing men and
women of the Melakara caste, who together form a complete chorus, constitute
what is called a Chinnamela (or smaller music), in distinction to the Peryamela
(big music), which is a band of male musicians who play upon the Nagasara with
drums and accompaniments differing from those of the dancers.'' The Peryamela,
or Pathamelam as it is also called, is the ordinary native band formed by the
Mangalavandlu caste and already described.

At Nautches the usual arrangement of instruments is as follows : —
Sarangis, or English fiddles tuned in the native manner .... 2

Mridang or Tabla {drum) .... .... .... .... .... i

S'ruti-upanga (drone) .... .... .... ... .... .... i

Tala or jalra {cymbals) .... .... .... .... .... .... i

The Hindu art of dancing is treated of at great length in the Sanskrit work
" Bharata S'astra." Its origin is ascribed to the trod Brahma. The science of
dancing is usually considered under three heads — viz., nritta, vatya, and nrittya.
Of these nrittya is what is understood bv dancing as seen at a Nautch ; nritta
comprises only rhythmical movements without gestures ; vatya has to do with
stage action only. The masculine and feminine aspects of each of these three
heads are fully treated of, and are styled Tandava and Lasyn. There are
rules for numerous motions of the head, eye, brow, and neck, to say nothing of
those of the bodv, arms, and feet, that have to be carefully attended to. Each
movement or look is described with an exactness that is almost incredible. All
these various gestures and expressions are regulated by the tala or rhythm of the
dance, and are centred in the stamp of the feet upon the ground at intervals, or
in the tinkling of the bells worn by the dancer. Indian dancing, like that of
most Oriental nations, consists of gestures, slow, and more or less dignified, in
time to the music, rather than actual dancing as understood by a ballet. To an
Englishman a Nautch is therefore apt to be a rather disappointing entertainment,
there being little real grace or symmetry of movement about the performance.

^ " Manual uf the Tanjore District." T. Venkasanii Ruw. Madras, 1.SS4.

2 B

THE MUSIC OF SOUTH ERX IXDIA.

And like Indian music, Indian dancing should be judged entirely from an Oriental
standpoint. A Nautch usually commences with the singing of a Mangala or
"song of hail" (generally in the Raga Ntita), the words of which are intended to do
honour to the principal personages present. When this is concluded, the leader
or conductor of the troupe, who invariably plays the tala or jalra, hums or
sings a kind of accompaniment, called Konnagolu, to this one of the girls dances,
keeping time with the soft tinkling of the bells tied round her ankles. During this
the other instruments are independent of the leader and are played softly and
without time in any raga that may be chosen, the chorus, if any, being much
subdued. And when the dance is finished, songs— such as javadis or pathams —
follow, one voice singing the solo and the whole of the voices taking up at
intervals a soft refrain. Dances or gestures, in character with the words of the
song, are made by the girls performing in front of the musicians.

Sometimes Sanskrit slokes, called " Astapathi," are sung by one voice, the
instruments plaving a kind of soft, dreamy accompaniment without any well
defined time, either with or alternately with the voice.

The performance is brought to a close by the singing of a Mangala, in
either the ragas Surati or Saurashtra.

A MUblLAL I'AI.IV.

chafti:k \ II.

Of instruments — Decoration — Materials — How susceptible of improvement — Chief defects in
construction — Eastern origin of many European instruments — Descriptions of instruments
in common use.

MOST of the eaflv Indian musical instruments remain still in use.
Since the time of the Mahomedan invasion, about a thousand years
ago, some Arabian and Persian instruments have been adopted, and
have become almost naturalised ; but their use has never become universal, and
is mostly confined to the North of India or to Mussulman musicians.

The people of India have always been conservative in their tastes, and
in nothing do we find this more evident than in their music and musical
instruments. Descriptions of them all are found in many of the old Sanskrit
treatises, and show that the forms of the instruments now in use have altered
hardly at all during the last two thousand years ; old paintings and sculptures, such
as those of Ajanta, prove this even more conclusivelv.' There are many musical
instruments to be found among the sculptures existing upon various old temples,
cave temples, and ancient Buddhist topes and stupas in different parts of India.
Those at Amravati and Sanchi are especially interesting." P'^or in the Amravati
sculptures, which were visited by the traveller, Hiouen Thsang, and called by him
Dhanakacheka, about the vear 640 of our era, we find several representations
of musical instruments. One of peculiar interest shows a group of eighteen
women plaving upon drums, a shell trumpet or s'ankha, one much like a
surnai, and two instruments, apparently quanuns, of a shape very similar to

' Sec "The Industrial .Arts of India." Sir C. M. Birdwood. Londnn. iSSo.

-"Tree and Serpent Worship." James Ferj^'usson, F.R.S. London, iSCS. Sec plates LXII.
XXXVII., XXVIII. These sculptures are now in the British Museum.

loo THE MUSIC OF SOUTHERN INDIA.

the Assyrian liarps. But there is another instrument represented that would
seem to have been especially popular, but which is never met with in India
now, nor can descriptions of it be found in the Sanskrit treatises upon instruments.
This again figures in Assyrian and Egyptian sculptures and paintings. It is some-
what like a harp, and much like an African instrument called Sancho, and still
used in some parts of that continent. Mr. James Fergusson notices strong Bactrian
influences in this monument at Amravati, and is of opinion that the expression
of the traveller Hiouen Thsang that this tope was ornamented with all the art
of the palaces of Bactria is borne out to its fullest extent. This peculiar harp is
again found amongst the sculptures at Sanchi ; where also is seen an instrument
resembling the Roman tibiae pares. But the tibiae pares are there shown
without the capistrum or cheek bandage, and it is known that this instrument
was also used by the Greeks. It is worthy of note that a form of the tibicc
pares is still common in Northern India, where it consists of a pair of flutes-a-
bec. At Sanchi, too, is found a figure of a man blowing a kind of trumpet —
the s'ringa — of much the same shape as that now employed in Bengal.

Perhaps the most reliable proofs of the antiquity of Indian instruments can
be found, not so much in the Sanskrit, but in the Pali works remaining. For to
these Buddhist treatises it is an easier matter to assign dates that can be
tolerably accurate. In the Milindha Panha,^ a Pali work, written a little after
the Christian era, is a description of the vina, also of the shell-trumpet (s'ankha)
and the flute (here rendered vansa — a reed). And in the Mahaparambhana Sutta,
a still older work of about 400 B.C., we find mention of the Bheri, a word still
used for the Nagara, or large kettle-drum, and also of the mridang (here rendered
mutlinga ; cf. mathala, the Southern Indian name of the mridang). The same
work contains mention of the vina and panava, the latter being a drum. And
these same instruments, with the addition of one called dendima, are found in a
contemporary work called Samaiifia-phale- sutta, and in the Vimana-vatthu also.
The dendima is possibly the modern dinni, a small side-drum used by religious
mendicants in Southern India at the present day.

The materials of which musical instruments are made are for the most part
those that are found readiest at hand in the country — bamboo, or some similar
cane, and large gourds are much employed. These gourds are used for many

' Sec Milindha Panha, Sacred books of the East, Vol. I., pafje 84. Vina is here translated mandoline ;
also page 48. 5ff Buddhist Snttas. Oxford, 81. Translations of Mahaparambhana Sutta, paije 101 ; also
of Samaiiiia-phale-sutta, i; 90, and of Viuiana-vattbu, § 81, 10. Two kinds of tala are mentioned in Dii;hal..
I, I J — i.e., metal tala and hand-tala. 'I'he word for hand-tiila is found in many Pali works. The thanks ol
the Author are due to Professor T. W. Rhys Davids for much valuable hcl]) and information.

THE MUSIC OF SOUTHERN INDIA. loi

purposes, and the best are trained in tlieir growth to the shape for which they
are required.

In the manufacture of certain instruments earthenware is employed ; the
common countrv "blackwood" is largely used; in fact, whatever is found by the
instrument makers, that from its natural shape, or the ease with which it can
be worked, can be adapted with the least possible trouble to themselves, is
readily seized upon, whether its acoustical properties are suitable or not, purity
of tone being sacrificed to appearance. The natural consequence of this is that
manv instruments are badlv put together in the first place ; faults in their
construction are glossed over by outward ornamentation, and, from want of
proper material, the tone, which should be the first consideration, is frequently
sadly deficient in volume and quality.

The reason why this is so appears to be that the manufacture of musical
instruments is chiefly in the hands of ordinary carpenters, most of whom are
totally ignorant of the most elementary principles of music, and who, even if
they possessed the requisite knowledge, could seldom aftord either the time or
monev to spend upon experiments tending to improve their instruments : their
principal consideration seems to be quantity instead of quality.

Most musicians therefore prefer to patch and mend their old instruments,
even though it will be slightly detrimental to their tone, to procuring fresh ones
of a quality of which they are doubtful, and which they cannot test practically
before they make their choice.

A musical instrument, to be of any real practical good, requires in its con-
struction not only skilled labour, but an experimental knowledge on the part of the
maker of the principles of acoustics; he must know of the best materials, and the
best known methods of building up an instrument from these materials. Such
knowledge as this can only be attained by much study and the experience of a
regular apprenticeship to the art. All this is, of course, obtained easily enough
in Europe, where there is a readv sale for good instruments, and instrument
making is a trade profitable enough for a supply to be kept on hand. In
India, where, until comparatively recent times, music has been an art almost
neglected for some hundreds of years, it is clear that there has been little
scope for instrument makers of any ability, the supply being always far in
excess of the demand.

The chief defect apparent in the construction of Indian instruments, besides
what are mentioned above, is one which affects them all — viz., that without
altering the tuning a change of keys is impossible. This may at first sight seem
incongruous, for the vina is semitonic. But it must be remembered that the

102 THE MUSIC OF SOUTIIERX IXniA.

third and fourth strings of that instrument, though they pass over the finger-board,
are seldom stopped, and such devices as shifts are absolutely unknown. There is
Hkewise no method of tuning to any fixed standard of pitch. Willard, in speaking
of this, makes the following observations : — "A drum or tabor, the sound of which
is necessarily monotonous, is an ever attendant and inseparable companion to
Indian songs, whether any instrument be present or not. Its sound is taken as
tlic keynote, and all other instruments that mav be present and the voice are
regulated by it. From this it appears that as long as the use of the drum or
tabor is not laid aside there will be no necessity for change of keys, and
the rhythmical nature of Indian music renders a liberal use of the drum
more essential, in order to mark the time distinctly, than any other
accompaniment." ^

Manv of our own instruments, such as are in use at the present day, have
their prototypes still in existence in the East.

The ancient Pali and Sanskrit treatises would appear to contain the earliest
reliable description of any musical instruments, and from these it seems clear
that those of most Asiatic nations were originally derived from the same source.

The Persians still use an instrument called quanun, much like that of the
same name found now in India — a kind of dulcimer, strung with gut or wire
strings, and played upon by plectra fastened to the fingers of the performers.
This is a development of the kattyayana-vina or shata-tantri {i.e., hundred-
stringed) vina, as it was formerly called. This Persian quanun, the prototype
of the mediaeval psaltery, afterwards became the santir, which has strings of
wire in place of gut, and is played with two sticks, and in the West it eventually
took the form of the dulcimer. Hence the origin of the complicated pianoforte
of the present day can thus be traced to the Aryans. And so with many
others. The violin, the flute, the oboe, the guitar, all have an Eastern origin.
One of the earliest stringed instruments was called " pinaka," and had one
string twanged by the fingers ; its invention is ascribed to the god Siva.

The violin bow is claimed by the Hindus to have been invented by Rabana,
King of Ceylon, who, according to tradition, lived five thousand 3-ears ago.

The earliest instrument played with a bow was called rabanastra or
rabanastrana. What this instrument was like is rather doubtful, but at the
present time there exists in Ceylon a primitive instrument played with a bow,
called "vinavah," which has two strings of different kinds: one made of a species
of flax and the other of horsehair, which is the material also of the string of the

' " A Treatise on the Music of Hindustan." Captain N. A. Willard. Calcutta, 1834.

THE MUSIC OF SOUTHERX I.XDIA. 103

bow, which with bells attached to it is used as a fiddle-stick. The hollow part of
this instrument is half a cocoa-nut shell polished, covered with the dried skin of a
lizard, and perforated below. °

The vinavah is rarely met with except in the hands of strolling musicians,
who support themselves by means of it. Whether this is the primitive rabanastra
or not it is impossible to say, but it seems extremely probable that if not
absolutely identical it bears at least a very strong resemblance to it. Another
very ancient instrument which resembled the rabanastra was called amrita.

Numbers of instruments still in use in India have not altered in the smallest
particular their ancient forms. The vina, the tamburi or tamburu-vina, and the
kinneri still remain just as they are described in the ancient books, even down to
the very details of the carving with which they are adorned, so conservative are
the people who use them of all connected with the art they hold to be so sacred.
The peculiar shape of instruments of the viol and violin tribe appears to have a
prototvpe among Indian instruments ; and this can be seen in the rabob, which is
made with distinct upper, loicer, and middle bouts, and in a less degree in the
sarangi, sarode, and chikara.

The rebec, once popular in Europe, was a form of the rabob, brought to
Spain by the Moors, who in turn had derived it from Persia and Arabia.
Here again the Aryan origin is evident, the rabob being, according to old
Sanskrit works, a form of vina. And it is still popular in the North of India and
Afghanistan.

The use of instruments of percussion of definite sonorousness, such as the
harmonica, does not seem to have entered into Indian music at any time until
quite of late years.

But this is rather an open question, for the harmonicon of cups called
Jalatharangini is by some ascribed to a very remote origin.

Wind instruments, although perhaps of earlier invention than those with
strings, are nevertheless looked upon as of secondary importance. Possibly this
may have some reason in the fact that Brahmins are not allowed by their religious
laws to use them, excepting only the flute blown by the nostrils, and one or two
others of the horn and trumpet kind. And so men of low castes are employed
as players of wind instruments. But all unite in ascribing to wind instruments
a very high antiquity. The conch shell, still used in the daily temple ritual in
almost every place in India, is said to have been first used by the god Krishna,
and it is mentioned in the great epic of the Ramayana, where it is called

' " An Account of the Interior of Ceylon and its Inhabitants." J. Davy, F.R.S.

104 THE Mi'SIC OF SOUrilERX IXDIA.

Devadata. \\'e ;ilso find it under the name of Goshringa, both in the
Ramayana and the Mahabharata.

The horn (s'ringa) is also said to be of Divine origin, and it is mentioned in
the earHest writings. But the flute (murali) is still held to be peculiarly sacred,
for this flute was the companion of the god Krishna in all his wanderings, and in
Indian mythology this flute is looked upon with much the same veneration that
the lyre was by the Greeks, and by Brahmins it is still used occasionally and
blown by the nostrils. In all sculptures and pictures the god Krishna is repre-
sented as standing cross-legged plaving the flute.

Reed instruments, although doubtless of a very remote origin, appear to have
been invented at a later period than instruments of the flute species, and their use
is, as has been stated, confined to either low caste Hindus or Mahomedans. For
the Indian reed instruments are mostlv harsh and wild, far too powerful and shrill to
be used in concert with the delicate vina or sweet tamburi, and so their use is
chiefly confined to out-of-door performances, where their sound is better heard
and where they become fit adjuncts to the Nakkera Khaneh or band already
described.

Instruments with double reeds appear to have been originall}- brought from
India, and the double reed is found in the primitive oboes used there as well as in
Persia, Arabia, and Egypt. There seems to be no trace of the single beating veed
ever having been known in India, but the single //'ft' reed is found in the bagpipe
of the countrv. Indeed, the bagpipe would itself seem to have an Eastern origin,
and although its use in Southern India and the Deccan is chiefly confined to a
drone-bass, yet in the Punjab and Afghanistan pipes are sometimes found containing
both drone and chanter. And I have heard them played with a dexterity that
would do credit to a Highland piper.

The pungi, now used almost entirely by snake charmers, is said to have once
been blown by the nostrils and called " Nasajantra."

The jew's-harp (murchang) is mentioned in most of the Sanskrit works
upon musical instruments, and its use is common all over India.

The use of the gong and bell are universal, and need no particular description.
The gong — called sometimes Tala, but more generally Ghari — is found in almost
all Hindu temples, and is used both in the daily ritual and also to note the hours
of the day. It is usually about a foot in diameter and J-inch in thickness ; it is
made of bell metal, and sounded by a wooden mallet. Indeed, the tone more
nearly resembles that of a bell, and has certainly nothing in common with the
Chinese gong. In Southern India a light instrument of this kind called Jagatay
or Semakalam is found, which is sounded bv a curved bone striker. The small

THE MUSIC OF SOi'THERX IXDIA. 105

bell — called Ghante — is used in every Hindu temple, and is familiar to everyone.
Bells of anv size are not known in India, but the antiquity of the bell in India has
been proved bevond doubt ; specimens of curious old bells have been discovered
in cromlechs and cairns in different parts of India.*^ And among the Todas, the
aborigines of the Niliri Hills, the bell is still an object of especial veneration."

The little ankle bells used by Nautch dancers are called Gllnguru or
Gajelu, and are tied in strings round the ankles. They produce " a faint clashing
sound as the feet move in steps, which mingles not unmusically with the dance
music or songs which accompany the dance ; and they not only serve to mark
the time, but to keep the dancer or singer in perfect accord with the musicians.
These bells are the svmbols of their profession with all dancers and singers,
and to some extent are held sacred. No dancer ties them on his or her ankles
before performance without touching his or her forehead and eyes with them, and
saving a short prayer or invocation to a patron saint or divinity — Hindu or
Mahomedan. Nor is it possible, after a female singer or dancer has once been
invested with them — a ceremonv which is very solemnlv periormed and attended
with much cost^to abandon the professional life so adopted. He, or she, lias
tied on the bells, is even a proverb to signify that the person alluded to has
devoted himself or herself to a purpose from which it is impossible to recede.
Strings of these small bells are also used for horses and tied round the
fetlocks of prancing chargers, with gay tinsel ribbons or pieces of cloth ; also
round the necks of lap dogs ; and some of a large size round the necks of
favourite plough or cart bullocks. The latter are identical with sleigh bells.
No post runner in India travels without a string of them tied on the end of
his pole on which is slung the leather bag he carries, and on a still night
their clashing sound, besides being heard at a great distance, serves to scare
away wild beasts and to cheer the runner on his lonely path.""

And here it may be well to mention two instruments sometimes met with in
Southern India — viz., the cup-harmonica and the Gatha.

The Jalatharangini'-' is a harmonicon of cups of porcelain or earthenware
tuned to the particular scale required by means of pouring in more or less water.
It is played with two thin sticks, covered with felt or tipped with cork ; and
in company with other instruments the contrast of tone that its use effects is not
unpleasing. The Septasvarab, called also Septaghantika, or Indian Glockenspiel,

«" Bells of the Church." H. T. EUacombe. Exeter, 1872.
' " A Phrenologist amongst the Todas." Colonel Marshall. London, 1S73.
' " Proceedings of the Royal Irish ."Academy." Vol. IX., Part i.

' This instrument is said to be mentioned in a Sanskrit work— the name of u liicli the author has bccu
imable to ascertain — believed to have been written about a.d. 700.

2 D

io6 THE MUSIC OF SOUTIIERX IXDIA.

is somewhat similar, but more musical ; it is made either of metal plates or bells,
struck with a small fclt-covercd hammer. The employment of both instruments
is rare.

ihe Ciatha resembles a \iu-<^c spherical jar or "chatty" in shape, and is
largely used by Telegu musicians as an accompaniment to the yina. It is about
1 8 inches in height, and has a yery small aperture and short neck, which is held
downwards when it is in use. It is beaten with the hands and wrists, much like
the drum called mathala, of which it takes the place, and the players manage
to produce sounds of different pitch by striking it in different places. The
performer usually sits cross-legged, and holds the gatha between his thighs,
striking it with his finger tips, flat of his hand, or fleshy part of his wrist.

Players upon the gatha display great dexterity, and often yary their perform-
ance by throwing the instrument up into the air and catching it again, beating
it as they do so : this they keep up for almost any length of time. At the
conclusion of the piece they let it fall into their hands (or upon the ground, so as
to break with noise) at the exact conclusion of the measure (tala), which they
neyer for a moment lose.

In some performances it is not unusual for the player upon the yina to
change the measure suddenly, as often as he wills, so that the gatha player may
better sho\y his dexterity.

Instruments of the trumpet kind — in which tones are produced by the lips
yibrating within a cup-shaped mouthpiece — appear to be of yery great antiquity,
for mention is made of them in both the great Hindu epics — the Mahambharata
and the Ramayana. There are large curyed horns which in tone much resemble
the Alp-horns of Switzerland. There are both straight and bent trumpets. The
method of making an instrument of this kind more portable by being turned back,
but without shortening its length of tubing, would seem to be yery ancient. It
is difficult to describe any definite scale for these instruments, for they are, with
one or two exceptions, rarel}- used by any but men of low caste, and their proper
compass is not emplo\ed or understood. The great similarity between the shape
of the modern trumpet and the Indian tuturi is yery striking, especially when it is
remembered that this shape has not been copied from the European instrument,
but has existed in India from remote a<res.

Indeed, so many points of resemblance might be noticed, and the deyelop-
ment through ages of so many instruments traced, that it would be inadyisable
to enlarge this chapter by so wide a digression from the subject.

Indian musical instruments are usually classified under the following four
designations, just as they were by Bharata two thousand years ago : —

THE MUSIC UF SUUTHERX IX 1)1 A.

107

I. Tata-yantra — Comprising all stringed instruments.
II. Shusira-yantra — Comprising all instruments of percussion (not
being covered with skin or parchment, such as drums), and includes
cymbals, gongs, bells, castanets, iSrc.
III. Ghana-yantra — Comprising all instruments covered with skins,

such as drums, tabors, &c.
IV. Anuddha-yantra — Comprising wind instruments of all kinds.
In different parts of India there is of course a preference for particular
instruments, but it is impossible to assign definite districts to them, as all kinds
arc to be found more or less throughout the country.

In the following pages an endeavour has been made to give as far as
possible some mention of all these instruments, together with the names bv which
thev are known in different parts, and descriptions of those in most common use.

If details are given sometimes which at first sight are apparently
unnecessary, it has been done because in similar cases of musical investigations,
if many things which appeared to be of little moment at the time had not been
left unnoticed, much interesting light would have been thrown upon sexxral
c|uesti()ns of great interest which are still involved in darkness.

In the tunings for stringed instruments given later, the position of the
strings is as if the instrument were held upright, body nearest the ground, with
the finger-board facing the reader. It is to be noted that in instruments of the
vina kind the order of the strings is reversed from that of sitars and the like,
where the first string or chanterelle is always on the right.

A Player on the Karnatik Sitar.

PLATE I.

A BIX PLAYER.

THIS plate shows the position of a player upon the Bin or Vina^" of the
North of India. The vina of the South, described in the next plate,
is sometimes called the Rudra vina, in distinction to the bin or Mahati
vina. As will be seen, this is a fretted instrument, the frets being arranged at
semitonic intervals. The tuning differs from that of the Southern vina, and two
gourd resonators take the place of the w^ooden pear-shaped body. It is worthy of
note that an instrument of this description was described by Mersenne in 1636."

The average total length of the instrument is 3 feet 7 inches, in which case
the dimensions are as follows : —

The first gourd is fixed at 10 inches from the top, and the second about
2 feet iij inches.

The gourds are usually verv large, about 14 inches in diameter, and each
has a round piece cut out of the bottom to act as a sound hole.

The finger-board is aij} inches in length and about 3 inches wide, and upon
it are placed the frets, exactly in the same manner as in the vina, and at the same
semitonic intervals.

The frets are nineteen to twenty-two in number, that nearest the nut usually
being J -inch above the finger-board, and that at the other extremity about J-inch,
the decrease gradual.

'" This instrviment is very fully described as " The Indian Lyre." " Asiatic Researches." Vol. I.

The bin has been described by Mr. Carl Engel as "the vina of the Indus"; this is, however, an
error on his part, it being but a form, and far from the best form, of that instrument, popular chiefly
because of its comparatively low cost. Drawings of this instrument will be found in his " Musical
Instruments," in " Asiatic Researches " above-mentioned, and in Hipkins and Gibb's " Musical Instruments."

" '• Harmonie Universelle." Fr. Mersenne. Paris, 1636.

2 E

THE MUSIC OF SOUTHERN INDIA.

The strings arc seven in number, four of which pass over the frets, the
remainder being side strings, placed two on the left side and one upon the right.
The instrument is tuned as follows : —

Left side.

Finger-board.

Right side.

but a very much more common tuning is-

i r i lu^

the wire X upon the right side being tuned to either Ga (E) or Dha (A), according
to the requirement of the raga performed.

The strings upon the left side and the two highest upon the finger-board are
usually steel, the remainder brass or silver.

The instrument is held over the left shoulder, the upper gourd resting upon
it, and the lower gourd on the right knee.

The frets are stopped with the left hand, the little finger of which is used
occasionally to strike the side string on the left side.

The strikes are made by the right hand in a similar way to that employed in
the sitar, except that the tivo first fingers are armed with wire plectra.

The notes are rapidly reiterated in the bin as well as in the sitar by the
plectra being passed backwards and forwards across the string ; this produces a
kind of sostcntito.

The chief peculiarity of this instrument, as will be remarked, is the tuning,
which employs additional intervals to that of the Southern vina, and so renders
the instrument less confined in its modulation. The tone is rather thinner than
and not so pleasing as that of the vina of the South, on account of the greater
tendency of the strings to jangle. The instrument is nevertheless very
popular, and when found in Southern India is used chiefly by Hindustani
musicians. Instruments of this kind are sometimes made with moveable frets,
like those of a sitar, in consequence of the greater facility with which they can be
played by less experienced performers.

An illustration of a bin of this latter kind is shown in Plate IV.

PLATE II.

SOUTHERN INDIAN VINA. SMALL SITAR.

THE instrument to the left of the plate represents the Vina in common use m
Southern India. Though in Northern India and the Deccan the use of the
vina, or bin, is restricted to professional musicians or skilful performers,
we do not find this to be the case in the South. This instrument is taught in the
schools in many places, and is a very favourite one with amateurs of the higher
classes. The specimen here represented is about 250 years old, and is from the
collection at the Tanjore palace. The delicacy of the carving and the great
wealth of decoration bestowed upon this instrument are remarkable, and prove
it to have belonged to some very distinguished personage — probably to one ot
the Maharajahs of Tanjore.

The vina is a stringed instrument, with frets, played with the fingers, or
rather finger-nails, somewhat in the same manner as a mandoline or guitar.

Its construction, however, renders it for purposes of melody a far more perfect
instrument than either of the latter, and although its tones are not so full and
rich, its compass is larger, and it is, in skilled hands, capable of producing a
much greater variety of effects.

Its tone, judged from a European standard, is rather thin, but curiously
soft and plaintive. It is somewhat like that of the Tyrolese zither, which,
however, it exceeds in fulness, and it is capable of infinitely more expression.

The vina has seven strings, four pass over the frets (twenty-four in number),
three shorter strings are placed at the side of the finger-board, and are employed
chiefly as a kind of accompaniment or to mark the time used by the performer.

THE MUSIC OF SUCTHERX LXDIA.

The four large strings are termed saranis and are named thus : —

Sarani .... ist, thinnest .... steel.

Panchami .... 2nd,

Mandaram .... 3rd, .... brass or silver.

Anumandaram 4th, thickest .... ,, ,,

The three side strings are termed pakha-saranis and are of steel.
The names of the various parts of the instrument are as follows : —

(a.) Kayi or bod}', formed of thin wood and hollowed out of the solid.
(/'.) Gvantu, a projecting ledge, often of ivory, separating the body

from the stem.
{c.) Langaru,'" metal fastenings which secure the strings to the attach-
ment. These fastenings have rings sliding upon them which can

be used in tuning to alter the pitch slightly, without turning the

tuning pegs.
{d.) Dhandi, neck, made hollow.
{c.) Yeddapalaka, or belly. Small sound holes, in circles of about 2

inches diameter, are placed on each side of the strings, about i

inch above the bridge.
(/.) Dhandipalaka, a piece of thin wood covering the hollow of the

neck underneath the frets.
(g.) Maruvapalaka, two ledges, each about ^-inch in height, projecting

from the dhandipalaka and to which the frets are secured.
(h.) Metlu, or frets, formed of "half-round" bars of brass or silver

about A-inch thick.
(/.) Cupe, a cup or socket of some metal into which the hurra or

calabash is fastened ; these cupes are often of silver and richly

chased.
(/.) Burra, or calabash, a kind of hollow gourd attached to the under-
side of the neck, near the head, to increase the volume of sound.
(/I'.j Pallumanu, or nut, a piece of ivory over which the strings pass,

placed between the pegs and the finger-board.
(/.) Mogulu, small ivory pegs answering the purpose of nuts, over which

the side strings pass.
(;;;.) Gurram, bridge.
(/).) Bhirtu, tuning pegs.

strings are sometimes secured to the ;ittac-liiiicnt directly, as described for those of the taiiilniri.

THE MUSIC OF SOUTHERN INDIA.

113

The burra or calabash is secured to the neck by means of a nut and
screw, and is detachable at will.

The instrument is tuned in one of the three ways following: — ^^

In " Panchama s'ruti."

In " Madhyama s'ruti." (i)

In " Madhyama s'ruti." (2)

-•- -•-

^Pi

Side strings. Finger-board. Side strings. Finger-board.

Side strings.

Finger-board.

The construction of the bridge is peculiar and deserves notice.

A wooden arc supports a slab of wood i by 2^ inches. A resinous cement
is poured upon this, and a piece of metal passing underneath the second,
third, and fourth strings is laid above and manipulated until the strings
produce a clear tone free from all buzz or twang ; a wet cloth is then
applied, or a little cold water poured over the upper surface, so as to harden the
cement. Under the first string a similar piece of metal, in this case of a
superior quality- — either polished steel or bell metal — is fi.xed in the same way.

This process is considered very important, as the least carelessness aflects
the tone of the instrument and gives it a most unpleasant twang.

No. I is the thin string.
,, 2, very slightly thicker.
,, 3, thicker again.
,. 4, thicker again.

No.

The same gauge as
No. I.

"A native musician would say for Panchama s'ruti, "Pa, Sa, Pa, Sa"; and for Madhyama s'ruti,
" Sa, Pa, Sa, Pa " ; hence the change of keys is shown.

2 F

114 THE MUSIC OF SOCTIIERX IX 1)1 A.

The side string bridge is secured to the main bridge and the belly of the
instrument and is made entirely of metal ; it consists of an arc of brass with a
projecting rim upon the side nearest the attachment.

The strings pass across the flat of the arc through three saw cuts in the
rim. Pieces of silk or quill termed "jivalam," placed beneath the strings and
the bridge, are occasionally employed to correct anv inclination to buzzing.

Most instruments of this description require steel strings of a quality
specially made for the purpose. The best strings are made at Channapatna in
Mysore, or Bareilly in the North, where the process of manufacture is kept secret
and is in the hands of a particular caste.

The price giv^en for such strings is high, on an average Rs. 6 for a sir
of twenty-four rupees weight, when sold wholesale.

The fretting of a vina requires great care, and most musicians prefer to
fi.\ their own frets.

The frets are tixed to the maruvapalaka by means of small spikes, and
additionally secured by a resinous cement poured in between them, and moulded
neatlv as it hardens.

When finished the finger-board resembles a ladder, there being a space
varying from ^-inch at the head to 2 inches at the end nearest the bridge
between the frets and the dhandipallaka, or piece of wood covering the
hollow stem.

The vina is held in one of the three following positions : —

(a.) The performer sits cross-legged upon the ground, and holds the
vina so that the calabash almost touches the left thigh, the left
arm passing round the stem so that the fingers rest easilv upon
the trets. The body of the instrument is upon the ground, partially
supported by the right thigh.

(/;.) The calabash almost touches the left thigh as before, but the right
knee is bent upwards, the body of the instrument being in front
and resting upon the ground, touching the right leg, which prevents
it slipping away.

(r.) 1 he performer sits cross-legged upon the ground as before, but
holds the body of the instrument in his lap, the finger-board
being vertical.

The method ol' pla\ing upon the vina is rather different from that of other
Indian instruments. The left hand is emploved to stop the strings on the
frets, the right hand to strike with.

THE MUSIC OF SOUTHEKX IXDIA. 115

Strikes are called " mehtu," and are of three kinds, \i/.. : —

Kutra-mehtu.
Toda — mehtu.
(jotu — mehtu.

The right hand is employed thus : the wrist is laid almost upon the edge
of the bellv, and the hand is slightly arched upwards ; the Hrst and second fingers
are above, and are used to strike the large strings, all strikes being made
with the nail doiV)iivards. Players upon the vina purposely allow the nails of
the right hand to grow rather long, for this instrument is never played
with plectra. The side strings are sounded by the third and fourth fingers of
the right hand moved itpi^ards.

The first exercise that a pupil learns is to strike one of the large strings
(downwards) simultaneously with one of the side strings (upwards), a more
difficult feat to accomplish than might be at first supposed.

These simple strikes are called gotu mehtu. The kutra mehtu is
accomplished b\- striking the same string twice — first with the forefinger and
then with the second finger — so as to produce a repetition of the same sound.

The toda mehtu, or etouft'e, is made by striking a string with the
forefinger and then gently stopping the vibration with the second finger so
as to produce a staccato sound.

The left hand is used for all work upon the frets.

As was the case with the lute, the melody is chiefly played upon the
first string — the chanterelle, in fact — which is commonly stopped by the first
and second fingers placed together.

The fourth string is stopped by the thumb — the others, when required, by
the middle and third fingers.

The least difference of pressure upon the frets causes a variation in the
pitch, of which use is made in all grace and embellishments.

A species of transient shake stvled " rekhu " is t)f frequent occurrence ;
it is produced bv the string when stopped being slightly pressed, and at the
same time pulled out of the straight line. This will raise the pitch to any
degree required, not exceeding a major third, beyond which it is found that the
string usualh' breaks.

The jK'rformer can thus produce graces of all kinds, embracing intervals less
than semitones, which can be clearly distinguished by the ear.

Another effect called " rava " is produced by the string being stopped
upon one fret and being beaten bv a finger upon the next fret above.

ii6

THE MUSIC OF SOUTHERN IXDLl.

This, when combined with rel^hu, adds considerably to the capabiHty
of the instrument, and it must be remembered that the string can be kept in
a state of vibration very much longer than in the guitar, owing to its thinness
in proportion to its length.

The use of glisse, as with the guitar, is frequent.

The small sitar shown on the right of the plate is of Deccan manufacture.
It is ornamented prettilv with ivory carving, and the body of the instrument is
formed from a cocoa-nut. Sitars of this kind are much used by native ladies, and
their tone is singularly sweet and plaintive, though, of course, not so powerful as
that of the larger sitars. The method of arranging the frets and of playing the
instrument is preciselv as that described for the larger sitar in Plate III.

.\nna liiiAKruRi: (a Sitar flayer in thi; .si;kvice of
H.H. THE Thakore Sahib of Wadhwan).

PLATE III.

SUR-S'RINGARA. large SITAR.

THE instrument shown upon the right of the plate is the Sitar." This
specimen has been adorned with paintings, representing the avatars or
appearances of the god Vishnu, and is the work of a Poona maker.
The sitars commonly found are only different from this in that the bodies
are unpainted.

The sitar is called also vSundari, and is perhaps the commonest of all the
stringed instruments of India, being much admired. Its use in Southern India
is not so frequent as in the Deccan and farther North, and is chiefly confined iu
those who practise the Hindustani in preference to the Karnatik system of
music.

In general appearance the sitar is not unlike the tamburi, described
later.

The finger-board is about three inches wide, the frets are of brass or silver,
eighteen (sometimes sixteen) in number, and flatly elliptical ; they are secured to
the finger-board by pieces of gut passing underneath — this arrangement admits
of their being shifted so as to produce intervals of any particular scale (that),
hence the capability of the instrument is naturally limited.

" The invention of the sitar is commonly credited to Ameer Khusru, of Delhi, in the twelfth century.

Captain Willard states that the instrument derives its name from si, a-, signifying in Persian three-

and tar ,lj, a string, as that number was commonly used.

2 G

ii8

THE MUSIC OF SOUTHERN INDIA.

The body of the sitar is usually of gourd, cut in half in the direction of the
core, with a belly of thin wood pierced with a certain number of sound holes fixed
upon it.

The tone of medium-sized sitars is considered preferable to that of large
ones.

The nut, or ledge, over which the strings pass on their way to the pegs
from the frets is peculiar, and is made double ; that nearest the pegs having
holes through which the strings pass, and that nearest the frets having simply
small notches. The number of strings varies, instruments being made with from
three to seven strings.

They are tuned as follows —

For three strings. For four.

For five.

For six.

For seven.

£z

I I *-

These tunings are considered to be " Panchama s'ruti." If the G strings be
lowered a tone the sitar will be in " Madhyama s'ruti."

The instrument is played by means of a plectrum of wire placed upon the
forefinger, the thumb being usually pressed firmly upon the edge of the belly,
so that the position of the right hand shall change as little as possible.

Sitars, called Taraffedar, with sympathetic strings underaeath those played
upon, are sometimes found.

The sitar is fairly easy to learn, and much can be made of it by experienced
performers ; but there is a peculiarity in its tone when played at all loud
which greatly mars the effect, the tender charm and colouring of that of the vina
being completely absent. To be heard with advantage a sitar should be at a
little distance from the listener, the unpleasant jangle of its strings will not
then be so apparent, and the melody will be more clear.

According to the common custom, the methods of shifting the frets are five.
The \\\'t methods, called thats, are as follows. These thats have no names,
but are usually known from the ragas that are commonly played upon
them : —

THE MUSIC OF SOUrilERX IXDIA.

119

^ ! 1

)

]•

A:^ ''

Et^

.._

I20 THE Mr SIC OF SOUTIIEKX IXJJIA.

Nos. I, 2, 4, 5, 6 are the arrangements of frets in different thats for an
eighteen-fretted sitar. No. 3 is for a twenty-four fretted sitar, in which there is
no need to alter the frets.

The intervals given represent those upon the F string or chanterelle.

In Taraffedar sitars the sympathetic strings are tuned to the intervals
obtained by the F string, and the frets over their respective nuts. All
instruments with moveable frets (other than sitars) are arranged according
to one of the above thats. The sympathetic strings are arranged in various
ways, but very commonly thus — G, A, B, C, d, e, f, g, a, b, some of the
intervals being flattened or sharpened according to the raga played.

Some sitars are so constructed that the body is almost flat, instead of pear-
shaped. This is accomplished by cutting the gourd body in a peculiar manner,
so that the calix shall be at the back of the instrument. To such sitars
the name Kachwar is given. Some people give the name Kachapi-vina to them.
A rather uncommon instrument of this description is called the Surbehar, which
is merely a large-sized sitar or kachapi-vina, played with a steel plectrum, and
specially used for the performance of alapas or ragas. The body is of wood,
with a flat back, and there are usually sympathetic strings attached. The tone
is rich and mellow like that of the vina, but the large size of the instrument
renders its use fatiguing, while the cost is very high. It is tuned, of course, as
the ordinary sitar.

But besides the sitar just described, there is another form of the instrument
to be met with in Southern India. This might be called the Karnatik-sitar, and
it differs from the ordinary sitar in that it is confined in its intonation and is
generally made with a much thinner and shorter neck. Its capability is, of
course, much less. It is usually shaped somewhat like a tamburi, the body of
the instrument being made either of gourd or of wood. The manner of stringing
is peculiar. The first and second strings onlv pass over frets, which are about
^-inch wide, and raised from the finger-board ; these strings are tuned in
unison, and thev are placed verv much nearer together than the other strings.
The third string is tuned in unison with the first, but does not pass over frets.
The fourth string passes round a small ivory bead about half way up the
finger-board, whence it passes obliquely under the strings to its tuning peg.
The fifth string is placed in a similar way, the ivory peg being in this case a
little nearer to the bridge. The sixth and seventh strings pass straight up
the finger-board in the ordinary manner. \\'ith the exception of the seventh,
which is of brass, the strings are of steel, and are secured either as those of
• the tamburi or vina.

THE MUSIC OF SOUTHERN INDIA. 121

The frets are of wood, with an upper edge of metal, only about J-inch
in width, and fixed to the finger-board ; the strings cannot therefore be pulled so
as to produce " rekhu " without their coming off the frets. The number of
frets is usually fourteen, placed at the intervals of the diatonic major scale ;
occasionally there are two extra frets at semitonic intervals, placed between the
third and fourth, and tenth and eleventh. Karnatik sitars are sometimes found
fretted throughout in semitonic intervals, the number of frets being the same
as in a vina.

The instrument is tuned thus —

-*-

In the ordinary instruments the noise made by the accompaniment frequently
drowns the air, the strings having a strong tendency to twang. But the tone of
these Karnatik sitars, when properly made, is solt and sweet, and, being confined
in intonation, more nearly resembles that of the mandoline than any other Indian
instrument.

The Sur-s'ringara — shown upon the left of the plate — is somewhat like the
rabob in shape, but with a wooden belly, and played with an iron plectrum.
There are, as a rule, two frets only, the finger-board below the frets being
generally of metal, so that the fingers may slide easily over it. The length of
the instrument is about 4 feet, and its tone is rich and mellow, somewhat like
that of the pizzicato notes of the violoncello. It is tuned thus, and has usually
seven sympathetic strings tuned to the intervals of the raga in which the
performer is playing ; the melody string is that upon the right, tuned to G : —

m--

2 H

jsB i

f l^rn^

lrr<W

•"'il/M J

•'finJ

rlnTj

Fi f'^^l

loti

ri-i

^^ %

ih7

[

IPL^Ssiff ^

h3A

«j

PLATE I\'.

BIN-SITAR. TAUS.

HE instrument to the left of this plate is the Bin-sitar, in outward appear-
ance very similar to the bin previously described. It differs, however, in
that the frets are moveable and are arranged precisely as given for those
of the sitar. The strings are arranged as those of the bin, and therefore reversed
in order from those of the sitar. The Bin-sitar is not a common instrument ;
indeed, the few specimens that I have met with have all been in Poona and the
neitjhbourhood. The tuning is like that of the bin.

The instrument to the right of the plate is the Taiis or Esrar. Sometimes
this instrument is called Mohur. It is merely a form of sitar with moveable frets.
The Talis is not much esteemed by any but Nautch musicians, and it is rarely to
be met with out of Upper India. As its name implies, it is usually shaped like a
peacock. Its body is painted like that of the bird, and to the lower end a
wooden neck and head, covered with feathers, are attached. It is sometimes
played with a bow.

The tuning varies slightly, but never employs other intervals than the tonic,
fourth, and fifth, and occasionally the third. There are usually sympathetic
strings attached, tuned to the intervals of the raga played.

PLATE V.

sArinda. sarangi.

THE Sarangi, or fiddle of India, shown to the rij^ht of this plate,
is usually strung with three strings of thick gut and played with
a bow. Sometimes a fourth string of wire called Inntj is added.
The fingers of the left hand, in stopping the strings, do not press them
down upon the finger-board, but press against them at the side in all the
positions. The tone of the sarangi more nearly resembles that of the viola
than any European instrument, and when well played there is a charm about
the instrument that is not easily forgotten. The sarangi is frequently employed
tt) plav a sort of obbligato to a song, particularly in theatrical performances and
by Nautch companies. There are generally in instruments of this kind fifteen
sympathetic strings of wire tuned chromaticall}'. The instrument is made from
a single block of wood hollowed out, and has a parchment belly. When in use
it is held vertically, head uppermost. Curiously enough, as was the case with the
violin in England at one time, the instrument is considered to be rather vulgar,
and hence musicians, though thev admire and like it much, will usually employ
either a low caste Hindu or a Mussulman to play it. The tuning is as follows: —

4321

The string marked x is of brass, tuned either to E or F, according to the

requirements of the raga played — this string is called lui'uj.

The illustration shows the instrument as commonly found in the South of

India and the Deccan. The resin for the bow is ingeniouslv placed in the head.

2 1

126 THE MUSIC OF SOVTHF.Ry fXDIA.

The bow for the Saranj^i is tlie same as that shown in Plate IV. for the Tails. In
Upper India and the Punjali a shtjlitly different form of the Sarangi is found, and
is ijenerallv more highly decorated and with a differently shaped head.

The three-stringed instrument to the left of the plate is the Sarinda, a bowed
instrument common in Bengal. The decoration and carving are characteristic,
although rough. The Sarinda is not a very high-class instrument, but is very
popular with the lower classes. The tuning is like that of the chikara, and the
strings are of cut or silk. The bow used with it is that shown. The chief
peculiaritv of the Sarinda consists in the way that the belly, which is of
parchment, is put on. As will be seen by the plate, it is made to cover only the
lower part of the body, leaving the upper half quite open.

PLATE VI.

RABOB. CHIKARA. SARANGI,

THE Sarangi found in Upper India differs slightly from that of the South
and the Deccan. The head is generally carved to represent the neck of
a swan, and the body is rounded instead of being square ; the number of
sympathetic strings, too, is often less. The beautiful specimen shown in the
upper part of the plate is in the possession of Mr. C. Purdon Clark, C.S.I.,
through whose kindness Mr. Gibb has been enabled to make this representation.
The instrument is ornamented with ivory and inlaid with numbers of small
turquoises. The tuning and the method of playing the Northern Sarangi do not
differ from that of the instrument described under the preceding plate.

The Chikara — shown to the right of the plate — is somewhat similar to the
sarangi, but smaller, and is used by common people. It has three strings of gut
or horsehair and five sympathetic strings of wire. The tuning is

commonly, or else like that of the sarangi. The sympathetic strings are generally
tuned to G, A, B, c, d ; (any of these intervals being made i? or $ as required).

The other instrument in the plate is the Rabob, which is found in almost all
Mahomedan countries, and in various places differs only in shape. The Indian
Rabob is principally used in the Punjab and Upper India; its use in other parts
is confined to Mahomedans. The instrument is made of wood, with a belly of
parchment. In general there are four strings — three of gut and one of brass ;
the two upper strings are sometimes doubled and tuned alike, in which case,

I2S

THE MUSIC OF SOrrUERX IX DLL

of course, the instrument has six strings. Sympathetic strings of metal are
usually attached at the side. Four or hve catgut frets at semitonic intervals are
sometimes found. The instrument is played with a wooden plectrum, and rarely
with a bow as a sarangi. The Rabob is a handsome instrument, and when well
played is verv pleasing. Its tone rather resembles that of the banjo.
It is tuned thus —

The specimen here shown is from Afghanistan. As usually found in India,
the Rabob is slightly different, and is made with a rather larger body, the lower
part of which is wider in proportion than that of the illustration ; but in the
Punjab a preference appears to be given for the Afghan form of the instrument.

PLATE VII.

TAMBURI. YEKTAR. PERSIAN SITARA.

THE Tamburi shown to the left of the plate is used as a common accom-
paniment to singing, the strings are never stopped, but are alwaj-s
struck open by the fingers, which in this case are not armed with
plectra. In outer form the Tamburi much resembles the vina, but is less
complicated, having no frets or calabash affixed to the stem ; and it is employed
for accompaniments only.

There are four strintrs tuned thus —

4321

The first, second, and third are of steel, the fourth of brass ; the steel
strings are similar to those of the vina. The Tamburi has no side strings ; the
tuning pegs are placed differently to those of the vina ; those of the first and
second strings being placed at the side, as in a violoncello ; and those of the
second and third strings being placed at right angles to the centre of the head
as in a banjo or peghead guitar.

The bridge is moveable, and is entirely of wood or ivory, no metal being
employed in its fitting. The tone of a Tamburi is slightly buzzing, and to
procure this result pieces of quill or silk, termed jivnla, are placed between
the bridge and strings, and manipulated until the desired effect is obtained.

The nut is deeper than in the vina, the strings passing through holes
instead of slits. In many tamburis there is a contrivance called tekkah, resembling

2 K

I30 THE MUSIC OF SOUTHERN LXDIA.

in action the capo-tasto of a t^uitar, slidint;" on the fin<^er-board, and b}' means of
it the pitch of tlie instrument can be immediately altered to any degree required
by the performer.

The strings are secured directly to the attachment, which is a narrow ledge
fixed to the body, instead of to langarus as sometimes is the case in the vina.
In place of langarus, and for the purpose of assisting in tuning, there are beads
called pusalu, threaded upon the strings between the bridge and the attach-
ment to which they are secured. These beads pushed down in the direction of
the attachment act like a wedge between the belly and the strings, and thus
stretching the strings serve to alter their pitch as required. This contrivance is
found in many Indian instruments.

The method of fastening the strings to the attachment is worthy of note, and
is as follows. The string is bent round the attachment and passed upwards
through one of the holes ; it is then bent round itself and passed back through
the same hole when it is drawn tight, and the spare portion, if necessary, cut off.

The belly of the instrument is usually slightly convex, andthere are small circles
of sound holes cut like those of the vina. When played the Tamburi is always held
upright, the body resting upon the ground. The tamburis of the Southern parts
of India are generally made with wooden bodies, beautifully carved and
ornamented with ivory, as in the illustration ; farther North they are found with
bodies of gourd. Some of the finest instruments of this kind are made at Tanjore,
where their manufacture has been made a subject of special study, and large
prices are frequently paid for them.

All instruments of this kind are called Tamburis, and many varieties may
be found ; one kind frequently met with is made smaller and with a curved head
like that of the vina, and is used by mendicant singers.

Those of the kind described are used only by musicians and are styled
" Dasiri Tamburi."

The Yektar, or Tuntuni as it is sometimes called, shown in the centre of the
plate, can hardly be called an instrument at all, since it has only one string
and no frets.

THE MUSIC OF SOi'THERN INDIA. 131

It is made from a piece of bamboo, to the under side of which a hirge gourd
or hollow cylinder of wood is attached, one end being closed by a piece of parch-
ment. In the centre of the parchment there is a hole, through which the string
is passed and tied in a knot to prevent its slipping back.

The Yektar is often used by mendicants, and is twanged from time to time
as an accompaniment to their monotonous chanting. In villages and country
districts in the Deccan and Central Provinces this instrument is very popular.
It is used in conjunction with a drum of some kind, and the performers
keep up a sort of monotonous dialogue upon some common topic of village
interest, which is full of witty and rather broad remarks about the principal
personages present.

The three-stringed instrument to the right of the plate is the Persian Sitara.
Its use in India is very uncommon, but it is sometimes met with in large native
cities, such as Hyderabad or Jeypur, where it is admired chiefly as a variety. The
body of the specimen drawn is of wood, ornamented with ivory, the back of the
instrument being left open. As can be seen, the belly is of parchment, and the
tailpin, which serves as a foot for the instrument, is of brass, rather curiously
worked. There are usually three gut strings, tuned like those of the sarangi,
and played by means of a bow.

PLATE VIII.

SVARAMANDALA.

THE Quanun, or Indian Dulcimer, is an instrument seldom met with,
and is to be seen mostly in the hands of Punjabi musicians.
There are usually twenty-one strings, some of brass and the rest
of steel, and tuned to the intervals of any of the Indian scales as
required bv the raga played. Occasionally gut or silk strings are found.
The kind of quanun here drawn is called Svaramandala, and is generall}'
larger and better finished than the ordinary instrument of this name. It
is played with two wire plectra, worn upon the finger-tips of the per-
former. The capability of the instrument is much greater than might be
supposed at first sight. The performer holds in his left hand an iron ring
somewhat like a quoit, which he applies to the strings, so that it acts like
a ;//// and thus enables him to produce all sorts of grace and embellishments.
There is, of course, only one string to a note. The tone is sweet, soft, and
reminds one rather of that of the clavichord, though it is louder and possibh-
more nasal in quality. The Svaramandala is rarely heard, both on account
of its great difticulty and very high cost, and therefore good execution upon it
IS rarely met with.

The Santir, already mentioned as a Persian instrument, is also to be found
occasionally. It, like the quanun, is a kind of dulcimer, but has a great many
more strings than the former, and is generall}- played by being struck with two
sticks covered with leather or felt. Both these instruments are to be found in
Afghanistan, Turkey, Persia, and Egypt, as well as Arabia. The Indian Quanun
and Santir do not differ much from the Egj-ptian and Arabian forms, drawings of

134 '^'^^ MUSIC OF SOUTHF.RX IXDIA.

which can be found botli in Lane's "Modern Egyptians" and Mr. Carl Engel's
" Musical Instruments." The Svaramandala here drawn is from Cashmere.
The tuning pins are turned by means of an iron key, and the tension of the
strings is usually very high. The beautiful decoration and the delicacy of
the painting with which this instrument is so profusely adorned are
evident.

The Hindus say that an instrument of this description was first invented by
the rishi or sage Kattyayana ; hence it is called the Kattyayana vina —
and sometimes Shatatantri (or hundred-stringed) vina — in the Sanskrit
treatises.

PLATE IX.

KINNARI.

THE Kinnari is a rude stringed instrument employed chiefly by the country
people in South Kanara and M3'sore. It is somewhat singular that a
stringed instrument of much the same name — the Kinnor^^ — should have
been mentioned in the Bible, and this leads one to conjecture that they may both
have been derived from the same Aryan source ; for the Kinnari is an instrument
of great antiquitv, and takes its name from the legend that it was invented by
Kinneri, one of the gandharvas or singers of Brahma-loka, the heaven of the
god Brahma.

It is formed out of a piece of bamboo or blackwood, about 2 feet 6 inches in
length, upon which are placed frets, sometimes made from the scales of the
pangolin or scaly ant-eater (bone or metal however is generally used), and fixed
by means of some resinous composition. Beneath this stem are fixed three gourd
resonators.

The instrument possesses two strings only, made of wire. One of these
strings passes over the frets, the other is fixed rather above the frets, and is
tuned either a fourth or fifth below the former, according as the instrument is
tuned in Panchama or Madhyama s'ruti.

The frets are twelve in number, and are placed according to the intervals of
some particular scale or scales. Hence the compass and capability of the
Kinnari are naturally limited. The tone is weak and thin, and the twanging of
the strings renders the instrument unpleasant to ears not accustomed to it.

Most of the Sanskrit treatises upon musical instruments contain some
mention of the Kinnari, or kinnari-vina as it is sometimes called. It is worthy of
note that the tailpiece of the instrument is still invariably carved to represent the
breast of a kite, precisely as directed in all the old treatises ; and in many of the
old sculptures to be seen on temples and shrines in the Mysore country this
instrument is so represented.

^^ Sec II. Chronicles xx. 28.

PLATE X.

MRIDANG. TABLA AND BAHYA,

THE Mridang, or Mathala, considered to be the most ancient of the Indian
drums, is commonly employed by musicians in Southern India as an
accompaniment to their songs and instrumental performances. It
consists of a hollow shell of wood, larger at one end than the other, and upon
which are stretched two heads of skin, fastened to wooden hoops and strained
by leather braces interlaced and passing the length of the Mridang. Small
pieces of wood placed between the shell and braces serve to tune the instrument.
The two heads are tuned to the tonic and fourth or fifth, according to
whether the music is to be in Madhyama or Panchama s'ruti. The centre of the
smaller head of this peculiar drum is coated with a composition of resin, oil, and
wax ; and, by way of ornament, an embroidered cloth is commonly stretched upon
the upper side of the shell.

The Mridang is beaten by the hands, finger-tips, and wrists in a very peculiar
manner, drum playing being a great art among Indian performers ; indeed, years of
study are required to ensure proficiency. The smaller head of the Mridang is
struck by the right hand, the larger head by the left. This drum is considered
to be the most primitive of all Indian instruments. Its origin, as described in the
puranas, is as follows: — " When Mahadeva, elated by his victory over the invincible
demon Tripurasura, began to dance, surrounded by Indra and other deities, Brahma
is said to have invented the mridanga to serve as an accompaniment, and under
his directions the god Ganesha first performed upon it. From the very import of
the word mridanga, it appears that its body was originally made of clay.

2 M

138

THE MUSIC OF SUUTJIERX ISDIA.

The primitive classical niridangas somewhat resemble the khole and maidola
found in use among the aboriginal hill tribes. With some the khole, even to the
present dav, passes under the appellation of mridanga.""'

The specimen — drawn in the upper part of the plate — is from Upper India ;
the Mridang found in the South is usually less ornate, and the leather braces are
thinner and more in number.

In the Deccan and farther North preference appears to be given to the Tabla,
which are small copper kettledrums — tenor and bass — always used together, and
which are tuned as the two heads of the mridang. The Tabla are generallv tied
in a cloth round the waist of the performer. Frequently a small wooden kettle-
drum, rather longer in proportion to its diameter, called Bahya, and answering
to the smaller head of the mridang, is employed with one of the tabla drums.

All these drums are tuned by braces and by means of the resinous composition
already mentioned being applied to them. Both tabla and bahva are considered
as instruments of chamber music, and their sound is consequently soft and
subdued, very different to that of the kettledrums employed in the Nahabet
described elsewhere. Sometimes wooden drums, called Pakhwaj — in appearance
similar to the bahya — are used. The name Pakhwaj is occasionally applied to
the mridang. The drum to the left of the plate is the Tabla, that to the right
the Bahya.

"■ " Short Notice of Hindu Musical Instruments." S. M. Tagore.

Taula ami Tamiiliri Playkrs.

PLATE XL

NAGARA DHOL

THE Nagara (sometimes called Bheri), or Nakkera, is a large kettledrum,
much employed in temples.
The shells are of copper, brass, or sheet-iron, rivetted together; the
heads, made of skin, are strained upon hoops of metal, and stretched by ropes or
leather thongs passing round the underside of the shell. The usual size of these
drums is from 2j to 3 feet in diameter. They are beaten with two curved sticks.
In the Ramayana, Mahambharata, and some of the puranas, this instrument is
called Dundubhi.

The Maha-nagara, or Nahabet, is a very similar kettledrum, of larger size,
employed in bands attached to the palaces of Mahomedan nobles in the Deccan
and Upper India. These instruments are sometimes made as much as five feet
in diameter.

A form of nagara called Karadisamela is in use in Lingayet temples in the
Southern Provinces ; this form only diflers from the ordinary temple drum in
that it is larger and the shell is conical, with the apex of the cone l^attened, in
place of being nearly semi-spherical.

In the Deccan and Central India two smaller kettledrums are often
associated with this instrument in periormance.

The method of bracing drums of this kind varies slightly in different parts.
A very common way is to cover the shell with a kind of network ot twisted
leather thongs, to which the head is attached when wet, and then shrunk on to
its place. This method is commonly applied to the smaller varieties ot
kettledrums.

140 THE MUSIC OF SUUTHERX LXDLl.

The Dhol, drawn at the top of the plate, is a species of drum chiefly employed
in the native bands that are usually heard at weddings and other festivities.
The shell is of wood bored out of the solid, and usually about i8 or 20 inches in
length, and 12 inches in diameter. The size however varies greatly. The
thickness of the shell is from ith to ^\,th of an inch. The heads, made of skin,
are stretched round hempen hoops, fastened to the shell and strained by means
of thongs of leather interlaced. A band of leather passed round the shell and
over the braces serves to tighten the instrument up to the desired pitch. The
Dhol is played both by hand and stick. Sometimes the left side of this
instrument is left out altogether, in which case the right side is beaten
with two sticks. Metal rings struck by the drumsticks are sometimes attached
as shown.

The Dholkee is a smaller dhol, much used by women in the Deccan.

The Dholuk and Dak are drums somewhat similar to the dhol, but are
generally rather larger and vary slightly in shape in different parts of India.

PLATE XII.

KHANJERI. TAM 'lAM.

TAMBOURINES and tabors of all kinds are found throughout India,
but are rarely used by professional musicians. The largest instru-
ment of this kind is called Duff, or Duffde, and is an octagon
frame of wood about 6 inches deep and 3 feet in diameter, covered upon
one side with skin strained by means of a network of thin leather thongs.
The Duff is struck with the fingers of the right hand ; and a thin switch
held perpendicularly over it by the fingers of the left is made to strike the
instrument with the middle finsjer at certain intervals according^ to the tala.
The Daera is circular and not more than 11 or 12 inches in diameter.
It is played with the right hand in a similar manner to the duff. The
thumb of the left hand is thrust into a loop in the underside of the Daera.
This forms a sort of rest for the left hand a little above the centre of the
instrument, so that the knuckle of the middle finger can be pressed against the
skin when a rise in the tone is desired. In the Southern provinces a large
circular instrument of this kind, called Thambatte, is found ; this varies from
3 to 4 feet in diameter. The Thambatte is played in a similar manner to
the duff, and is commonly employed by the lowest castes, and usuall}-
associated with the Kahalay or Kombu, a horn similar to the s'ringa shown
in Plate XVII.

The Khanjeri, or common tambourine, shown in the plate, consists of a piece
of vellum or skin stretched upon a wooden hoop, 8 or g inches in diameter and
about 3 or 4 inches deep, bored out of the solid. In the hoop are placed three
or four slits containing pieces of metal strung together, which clash when the

2 N

142 THE MUSIC OF SOUTHERN INDIA.

instrument is shaken. The lower edge of the hoop is sometimes bound with
silver, chased with mythological devices, and the hoop itself is often carved in the
same way.

Water poured upon the skin serves for tuning.

The Khanjeri is generally employed in Dliazana — described elsewhere — and
by Nautch girls.

The small kettledrum drawn in the plate is the common Tam tam used by
beggars and the like, and which is to be found at all street corners throughout
India. A tam tam of rather Hatter shape, called Dinni, is common in Mysore,
and is generally carried by religious mendicants of Saivite sects. In shape it
much resembles the modern Egyptian tabl-shami.

PLATE XIII.

TALA. JALRA. BUDBUDIKA.

METAL cymbals of all kinds are used as accompaniments to nati\'e
music. Farther North we find them chiefly in connection with
music of a religious character, but in the South their use is
universal. The larger kinds, called Jhanj, are much like the ordinary
Turkish cvmbals and are used in the Nahabet, and in company with the
Tala, or gong, in the wild temple music. The chief use made of all
cymbals is to mark the time. The two small kinds of cymbals here drawn
are peculiar to Indian music. The Jalra — shown uppermost in the
plate — are made in proportion a good deal thicker than the larger cymbals,
and they are played so as to produce a ringing sound, somewhat like
that of a trembling electric bell ; they are usually connected by a cord passed
through their centres. The cup-shaped cymbals to the left of the plate are called
Tala, and are so made that their edges only are struck.

Tala are in size similar to Jalra, but are not usually connected.
At the back of each a tassel of silk or wood serves for a handle. Colonel
Meadows Taylor thus describes their use : " One is held in the left palm secured
by a cord passed round the right, and is struck by the other, which is held
loosely in the right. Players on these C3'mbals are extremely dexterous, and
produce a not unpleasing accompaniment to the voice or to instrumental music,
by striking the cups together in such a manner — outside, inside, and upon the
edges — as to form notes in accordance with the voice or the other instruments
by which it may be accompanied. This cymbal accompaniment is played with
more execution than may be conceived possible from the nature of the instrument.

144 THE MUSIC OF SOUTHERN INDIA.

I have heard professors even play solos upon it, which, if not very intelligible
as to tune, were at least curious in execution and divcrsit)- of lime, as suited
to the various style of music." "

The Budbudika — shown on the right of the plate — is a small hand-drum from
three to six inches in length, used by snake charmers, mendicants, &c. In
shape it resembles an hour-glass, and in the centre a string is attached having a
small ]);dl of leather or cork at the end. When shaken in the hand the striker
at the end of the string alternately touches each head.

A drum, somewhat similar in shape, called Edaka or Dudi, is common
in Coorg. It is of metal, and about i foot in length and 8 inches in diameter;
one end is beaten by a soft drumstick, the other by hand, like the dhol.

On the West Coast, and in Malabar, another drum of much the same shape
is employed. It is usually very light and fragile, the shells being made of large
gourds. Five or six of these drums are commonly used in religious services
and the noise at certain seasons of the year resulting from this method of
worship is almost incredible, and is continued for days together, by relays of
performers, at certain festivals.

'" " Proceedings, Royal Irish Academy." Vol. IX., Part i.

PLATE XIV.

FUNGI. KURTAR.

THE instrument drawn at the right of the plate is the Pungi, or Jinagovi,
a reed pipe used exclusively by jugglers and snake charmers. The
body and mouthpiece are formed from a bottle-shaped gourd, in which
are inserted two pipes of cane, the interior ends of which are cut so as to form
reeds. One of the pipes is pierced with finger-holes so that it can be played
upon, the other being sounded in unison with the keynote as a drone.

The Pungi is invariably constructed in the scale of Hanumatodi (see
page ^T,), and is plaved in the Nagavarali raga, a strain supposed to be specially
pleasing to serpents.

The specimen shown here is beautifully painted, and is of Deccan
manufacture, but the common pungi is of the roughest and simplest description,
and hardlv ever in correct tune.

Kurtar, or Chittika, are two pieces of hard wood about six inches in length,
flat upon one side and rounded upon the other. They are held in the one hand
and the flat surfaces beaten together by alternatel}' closing and opening the
fingers. A ring is usually inserted at the back of each for the fingers to pass
through, and at the ends are placed little clusters of bells, or small pieces of metal
which jangle when the Kurtar is shaken.

Circular wooden castanets, called Chacra, made with slightlv concave

surfaces, are frequently met with. To these the name of Khattala is sometimes

given, and they are played with great dexteritv.

2 o

PLATE XV.

FILLACiOVI. MUKAVINA. S'RUTI
NAGASARA. ALCiOA.

THE three instruments in the centre of the plate belong to the same
class, and are in general use in all parts of India.
The Nagasara — the second from the right in the plate — is a reed
instrument with a conical bore enlarging downwards. It is usually pierced in
twelve holes, the upper seven of which alone are employed in fingering, the others
being stopped or otherwise with wax at the discretion of the performer, so as to
regulate the pitch of the instrument. The holes are bored at intervals roughly
corresponding to those of some Indian scale, but the native players often produce
other and additional intervals by allowing the fingers to only partially cover the
holes.

The reed somewhat resembles that of a bassoon, but it is very roughly
made, and is wider in proportion to its length ; it is mounted like that of an
oboe, on a short metal " staple."

The instrument is usually made of a dark close-grained wood called
chandanna, and has a metal bell. Occasionally nagasaras made entirely of
metal are met with.

The tone is somewhat similar to that of a bagpipe, but is more shrill, and
should be heard at a distance.

The Mukavina — the second from the left in the plate — bears a close
resemblance to the nagasara, but is usually much smaller, about half the size.

It is an instrument of the oboe family, with a conical bore enlarging
downwards. It is pierced in seven holes corresponding to the intervals of some

148 THE MUSIC OF SOUTIIERX INDIA.

scale, and is capable of the same inflections of tone. Its sound is naturally
more shrill than that of the former, and is very piercing, which renders the
instrument very unpleasant to ears not accustomed to it.

Both the nagasara and the mukavina when played in combination with
other instruments are accompanied by the S'ruti, which forms a kind of drone
bass. These drones are made in various sizes, and in outward appearance are
very similar to the two instruments before-mentioned. The bore is conical and
enlarging downwards, but more so in proportion to the length of the instrument
than in either of the other two. P'our or five holes are pierced near the bell at
the fancy of the maker ; and these holes, b}' being stopped wholly or partially
with wax, serve to tune the s'ruti to the desired pitch.

When played in combination with other instruments they are tuned to the
tonic and dominant ; if only one s'ruti is employed it is tuned simply to
the tonic.

The appendages to these pipes are spare reeds and an ivory bodkin for
their adjustment.

Whether we may look to India for the origin of the drone bass is a doubtful
point, but it is certain that the principle has existed there from very remote
times.

" What bagpipes are to Scotland or Ireland, these pipes are to India.
Their sound is precisely similar to that of bagpipes, only, perhaps, more
powerful, and in the hands of good players more melodious. Thev have seven
and eight holes respectively, and thus would appear to have no great compass ;
but in execution, whether from the effects of the lips and tongue upon the
reed mouthpiece, or the manner of fingering upon the holes, combinations are
formed which include semitones and quarter notes, and thus the expression of
chromatic passages ad libitiuii, of which the native players are very fond, is
given, which in reality are verv effective. From their great power of sound
these pipes are unpleasant if the performers be near; but at a distance, in the
open air, and specially among the mountains, the effect is much subdued, and
often attains much wild beautv and softness. They are in fact the onh" regular
outdoor instruments of Indian music, and are emploved on all occasions,
whether in domestic or public religious ceremonials, processions, or festivals,
temple music, and the like ; and the music played upon them varies with the
occasion on which they are used. Marches and military music exceedingly like
pibrochs in character — pieces for marriages, for rejoicings, for funerals,
welcomings, departures — familiar ballad airs and the stated music of the
Nahabet have all separate modes and effects. In the Mahratta ct)untry, in

THE MUSIC OF SOUTHERN INDIA. 149

which I know them hcst, the simple melodies of the people, joyous or plaintive,
are performed with a style of execution often surprising ; and combinations of
musical effect are introduced which are equally curious and interesting.""^

These pipes are also known as Holar-cha-Surnai and Hola-cha-Sur, or simply
Surnai.

The flute to the left of the plate is the Pillagovi, or Murali, made of bamboo,
and traditionally believed to have been invented by the god Krishna, who is
usually represented as holding it or playing it. The name Bansuli is sometimes
given to this instrument.

The Nuv, o\- fliite-a-hcc, resembles the pillagovi, but has the embouchure at
the end, and is bored cylindrically. The tone is low and sweet, and the
instrument is invariably played softly ; indeed, notes of a piercing character
could not be produced upon it. It is quite a pastoral instrument, and is much
used by shepherds and cowherds. Many of the simple melodies of the country
when played upon this instrument have a wonderful charm.

The Algoa — shown on the right of the plate — is a kind of flageolet of
bamboo, with a tone and compass like that of the pillagovi. Instruments of
this kind are found in the Punjab and Upper India, played in pairs in a some-
what similar manner to the tibiae pares of the Romans.

' Col. Meadows Taylor, " Proceedings, Royal Irish Academy." Vol. IX., Part i.

2 P

PLATE X\I.

MOSHUQ. S'AxXKHU.

THE bagpipe here drawn iii the Aloshuq, or, as it is called in
Southern India, S'ruti-upanga or Bhazana-s'ruti. It is used merely
as a drone ; the holes in the pipe are wholly or partialh' stopped
with wax so as to tune the instrument to the pitch desired. The bag
is made of the skin of a kid and is inflated from the mouth bv means of
the smaller of the two pipes shown. The drone is of cane, mounted in a
stock of the same material, and which contains the reed. An enlarged
drawing of the reed has been gi\'en in the plate, in order better to show its
construction, and, as can be seen, the vibrations are controlled bv a little piece
of wire or fine twine tied roughly round the tongue. The whole reed is in one
piece and is generally made of small cane or of the large marsh reeds found
almost evervwhere. Black wax is used to make the instrument wind-titrht.

The Moshuq of Northern India does not differ much in outward appearance
from this, but contains a chanter, with the addition sometimes of a drone.

The conch shell shown in the lower part of the plate is the S'ankhu. It is not
in secular use as a musical instrument, but is found in every temple and is sounded
during religious ceremonials, in processions, and before the shrines of Hindu
deities. In Southern India the S'ankhu is employed in the ministration of a clas.s
of temple servers called Dassari. No tune, so to speak, can of course be played
upon it, but still the tone is capable of much modulation by the lips, and its
clear mellow notes are not without a certain charm. A rather striking
effect is produced when it is used in the temple ritual as a sort of rh\thmical
accompaniment, when it plavs the part of Koiinagohi or Talaviiiyasa, described
elsewhere.

PLATE XVII.

TUTURI. NAFARI. S'RINGA. KURNA.

THE curved brass horn in this plate is the S'ringa or S'ing, called
in Southern India Kahalay or Kombu. It is frequentl}' found with
a metal rod connecting both ends. This horn is " used universally
through India for signals, watch setting processions, and the like, both
by Mahomedans and Hindus, though the performers for the most part are
Hindus of low caste. In every village of Central or Southern India it is
the business of one or more of the watchmen to blow the horn at sunset,
and again at certain hours of the night, or when the watchmen go their
stated rounds. In large cities every uiahnlla or ward has a horn-blower
attached to its night-watchmen or police, and there is seldom a guard or detach-
ment of native irregular troops without one. In all processions, temple services,
and especially at marriages and other festive occasions, this horn is indispensable,
and wailing blasts for the dead are played upon it at the funerals of Hindus of
the lower classes and castes, or equally so at the cremation of Hindu princes.

" No native authority traverses the country without one, frequentlv several, in
his train, and as town or village are approached the great man's advent is
heralded by flourishes of the instrument blown by the performer who struts at the
head of the cavalcade. These blasts are answered bv others from the town or
village gate, whence the local authorities come out to meet the visitor and
present their offerings of welcome. On these occasions the horn-blowers on
both sides vie with each other in producing their grandest efl'ects, and the
discordance is generallv indescribable.

" Itinerant mendicants of many classes use this instrument, both Hindu and
Mahomedan, and by men in charge of droves of cattle carrying grain or
merchandise, such as Brinjaris, Comptis, and others, it is sounded at intervals

154 THE MUSIC OF SOUTH ERS IXDIA.

along the road to cheer up their bullocks and keep them from straggling, as well
as at their departure from or arrival at one of their stages.

" In playing the high notes in many of the calls, shrill wavering cadences are
produced, which have a startling and peculiarly wild effect, as heard from the
wall of some ancient fortress, or from village tower and gates as night falls, and
more especially in the otherwise unbroken stillness of night.'""

The large trumpet with one turn is called the Tuturi. This name is usually
applied to what might be called the tenor trumpet, as distinguished from the
Kurna, the large straight trumpet drawn at the bottom of the plate. The tuturi —
or turi — is made in various sizes and is used principally in religious ceremonies.
The small straight trumpet is the Nafari.

The Kurna — called in Southern India Buruga or Banku — is used onlv on
solemn occasions, and possesses but a few hoarse sounds. In fact, no Indian
trumpets are capable of producing many notes, they are invariably of the most
primitive description, and no attempt is made to play them scientifically : indeed,
their proper compass is not even understood. Colonel Meadows Taylor, speaking
of the Kurna, remarks : " These instruments are almost invariably played by
Brahmins or priests attached to Hindu temples, and by persons attached to
the retinues of Gurus, Swamies or spiritual princes of the country, who possess
large ecclesiastical jurisdiction, and are provided with them as a mark of high
rank, which is not allowable in others. Occasionally also they are met with in the
nobuts, or musical establishments attached by royal permission to nobles of
high rank, Mahomedan as well as Hindu ; but they do not exist in all cases, for
there are distinctions in the classes of instruments according to the rank of
persons privileged to play the nobut, which involve the presence or otherwise
of the kurna. The kurna, or large trumpet, is esteemed by all Brahmins to be the
most ancient instrument of music in existence." ^°

'" " Proceedings, Royal Irish Academy." Vol. IX., Part i.
-" See preceding note.

CHAPTER VI 1 1.

Principal seats of music in Southern India — Famous Indian musicians of the South — Bibliography

of Indian music — Sanskrit MSS. upon music.

FROM early times Tanjore has been the chief seat of music in Southern India
and most of the best known Karnatik musicians have either Hved there
or have received their musical education from musicians of the Tanjore
school. Little information can be gathered as to what extent the art flourished there
formerly, but it is certain that several centuries ago a regular school of music was
established and patronised by the Maharajahs. In the reigns of the Maharajahs
Sarabhogi, Surfogi, and Sivaji music flourished greatly, and the musicians
attached to the palace received large emoluments. The native courts of
Travancore and Mysore have also patronised music to a great extent, and it
is believed that the art was originally brought to them from Tanjore. Some of
the most celebrated musicians of Southern India will be found among the
following : —

TiAGYA RAJ. A native of Trivadi, in the Tanjore district; a pupil of a musician called Venkatraman
Iyer. He was a great composer of kruthis, many of which are exceedingly popular all
through India. Tiagya paid special attention to the requirements of melod)', and his songs
are mostly free from the monotony and intricacies of the ragas as practised by Hindustani
musicians. He flourished from about 1820 — 1840.

GoviNDASWAMi Iyer. A contemporary of the above.

SiAMA s'astri. a composer of kruthis and kirtanas, about the commencement of the present
century-.

Sabharayva s'astri. a native of Pudukotta, a musician in the service of the Maharajah Sivaji of
Tanjore.

Pertabsingh of Tanjore.

Sivaram Iyer. A composer of " pallevi " in the service of the Maharajah Sivaji.

Sabbha rao. Son of the above.

Diksitalu of Trivalur, in the Tanjore district. Many of his compositions are still popular.

156 THE MUSIC OF SOUTIIERX IXDIA.

KsHETRYA. A poet as well as a musician. He was the composer of innumerable love songs
called Pathams, which are widely popular. The words of these pathams are olten ver\-
beautiful, and are full of imagery most poetical, set to music equally as plaintive and
appealing to the senses. An example of one of these pathams will be found in the song
" Yalla tella vara,'' upon page 81.

Paidala guru mukti s'astri. a celebrated composer of " Ganaraga-gitas." Many of his compo-
sitions are popular at the present da}'.

Nathiva Vadivelu. a singer of repute and composer of many Vernams, Svarajotas. He is
believed to have introduced the use of the European violin' into Southern India.

BiKSHANDAR KoiL SuBBAYAR. A pupil of Sabharayya of Andalur. A singer of repute.

Varpaya. A vina player in the service of the Maharajah Sivaji of Tanjore.

Madheo RAO. A contemporary of the above.

Pariya Vaiti. a Malayalam musician of repute.

CiiAL Balkrishnayya. a musician of Tanjore.

Kalastri Iyer of Tanjore.

NiLKANT Iyer of Chingleput.

Sabbha Kattayya of Pudukota.

Savyasachi of Mysore.

Seshana of Mysore. One of the best living performers on the vina.

Shamana of Mysore.

The late Maharajah Kolashekara of Travancore.

Ragavayya of Coimbatore.

Sabbhayya of Andalur.

Narasayya of Salem.

Kalyana Krishna Iyer of Palghat. Now in the service of the Maharajah of Travancore ; a
good vina player.

SuRYANARAYAN Rao Pantulu of Sitapur. A vina player, now " Asthana Pandita " in the
service of the Maharajah of Vizianagram.

Venkaya of Vizigapatam. A vina player.

Tiruvanakodik.\val Krishnan. a violin player.

Mahadeva Iyer. Son of Parmisvara Bhagavata. A violin player in the service of the Maharajah of
Travancore.

Parmisvara Bhagavata. A singer in the service of the Maharajah of Travancore.

Mahavaiddi. a singer.

Besides these there are numerous Hindustani musicians in Southern India,
Maharashtra, and the North, such as Maula Bux of Baroda, Bhande AH of Indore,
Anna Gharpure of Poena, Balkoba Nataka Sahib of Bombay. But to t^ive
a complete list of them would fill a volume. A detailed notice of many has been
given in Panchari Banerjea's History of Hindu music, noticed brieflv here-
after.

' Timed and held in tlie native fashion, like a saranj;!.

THE MUSIC OF SOUTHERN INDIA. 157

The following catalogue of works relating to Indian music has no pretence to
completeness ; it is merely a list of the names of works and passages written
upon the subject. The names of some which contain only allusions that would
be of no practical use to the reader have been omitted altogether. Some of the
books in the list contain no musical notation, but are nevertheless of great
interest to the musical enquirer. An endeavour to notice some of the various
Sanskrit works upon music, and in some cases tables of their contents, has
been made. It has not been thought necessary to notice each in detail, as
for the most part thev are written upon a very similar plan, and, as far as
arransrement of contents, differ little from each other. These Sanskrit works exist
chiefly in manuscript, and are to be found in almost all the libraries — such
as those of Tanjore and the Sarasvati Bhandaram of Mysore — attached to the
palaces of native princes. Many copies are also to be found in the hands of
Pandits and Sanskrit scholars attached to the temples and religious houses
throughout India. There are a number of valuable MSS. in the collection of
H.H. the Alaharajah of Bikanir. Many too can be found in the Bodleian, the
librarv of the India office, and also in the Universitv librarv at Cambridge.

Banerjea, Panchari. " History of Hindu Music." A lecture delivered at the Hooghl)- Institute,

Bhowanipore, 1880. Contains a good deal of interesting information, also an elaborate

table of ragas and raginis, with the essential notes entering into their composition.
Broughton, Th. D. " Selections from the Popular Poetry of the Hindus." London, 1814. Svo.
BoSANQUET, R. H. M. "On the Hindu Division of the Octave." " Proceedings, Royal Society,

March, 1877, to December 20, 1S77." London.
Brown, M. E. & W. A. " Musical Instruments and their Homes.'' New York, 1888.
BuRNELL, A. C, Ph.D. "The Saman Chants from Arsheya Brlihmana.'' Contains descriptions

of the Sama Vedic chants and examples of their notation in plain chant. Mangalore, 1S76.
Bird, William Hamilton. The Oriental Miscellanj, Calcuna. Printed by Joseph Cooper, 1789.
Biggs. " Twelve Hindu Airs, with English words adapted to them by Mr. Opie, and harmonised

for one, two, or three voices, with an accompaniment for the pianoforte or harp, b}- Mr.

Biggs." London, printed by Rt. Birchall. N.D.
Biggs. " A Second Set of Hindu Airs, with English words adapted to them by Mr. Opie, and

harmonised for one, two, or three voices, with an accompaniment for the pianoforte or

harp, by Mr. Biggs." London, printed by Rt. Birchall. N.D.
Blochmann, H. " The Naqquerakhaneh and the Imperial Musicians, from the Ain-i-Akbari."

Translated from the original Persian.
Campbell, A. " Notes on the Musical Instruments of the Nepalese." Journal of the Asiatic

Society of Bengal. Vol. VI., p. 953. Calcutta, 1837.
Von Dalberg, F.H. " Ueber die Musik der Indier. Eine Abhandlung des SirW. Jones, aus dem

Englischen tibersetzt und mit erlauternden Anmerkungen und Zusatzen begleitet von

F. H. von Dalberg. Nebst einer Sammlung indischer und anderer Volksgesange und

30 Kupfern." Erfurt, 1802. 4to.

2 R

158 THE MUSIC OF SOUTHERN INDIA.

" Dramatic Amusements of Natives of India." Asiatic yotirnal, New Series. Vol. X.XIL, p. 27.

London, 1837.
DuTT, Toru. " Ancient Ballads and Legends of Hindustan." London, 1882. Contains no music,

but some songs which for imagery and Oriental colouring are delightful.
Engel, Carl. " An Introduction to the Study of National Music." London, 1866.
Ellis, Alexander J., F.R.S., F.S.A. " On the Musical Scales of Various Nations." Paper read

before the Society of Arts, March 25, 1885. See younial of Society of Arts, No. 1,688.

Vol. XXXIII. ; also reprinted for private circulation by the author, with additions and

corrections. April, 1885.
FowKE, Francis. "On the Vina of the Hindus." "Asiatic Researches." Vol. I., page 295,

Calcutta, 17S8.
Gladwin, Francis. " Ayeen Akbery." See Vol. III., " Sungeet." Calcutta, 1783.
Grosset, J. "Contribution a I'litude de la Musique Hindoue." Paris, published by Leroux.

(Extrait de tome VI., de la Bibliotheque de la Faculte des Lettres de Lyons.) 1888.
Hendlev, T. B. " Memorials of the Jeypur E.xhibition," 1883. Peckham, W. Griggs. See

Vol. III., plates clxxv., clxxix.
Hevmann, W. " Ueber Bharata's Natyasastram." See Nachrichten von der Kcenigl. Gesell-

shaft der Wissenschaften und der G. A. Universitaet zu Goettingen, February 25, 1S84,

pages 86 — 107.
Hipkins, a. J., F.S.A., and Gibb, W. " Musical Instruments. Historic, Rare, and Unique."

Edinburgh, 1887. Contains descriptions and very beautiful illustrations of several Indian

instruments.
Jones, Sir William. " On the Musical Modes of the Hindus." See "Asiatic Researches." Vol. III.,

page 55. Calcutta, 1792. Also republished in "Works of Sir W. Jones." 6 vols., and

Supplement, 2 vols. London, 1799 and 1801 ; together, 8 vols., 410. See Vol. I., page 413.
Mateer, Rev. L. " Native Life in Travancore." London.
Mahillon, V. C. " Catalogue Descriptif et Analyti(iue du Musee Instrumental du Conservatoire

Royal de Bruxelles." Gand. x88o.
Naumann, Emil. " The History of Music." Translated by F. Praeger, and edited by Sir V. \.

Gore Ouseley. London, 1888.
OusELEY, Sir W. "An Essay on the Music of Hindustan." Contained in " Oriental Collections

illustrating the History, Antiquities, Literature, &c., of Asia." London, 1797-1800. 410,

3 vols. See Vol. I., p. 70.
PoRTMAN, M. v., Mus. Doc. " Andamanese Music, with Notes on Oriental Music and Musical

Instruments." See younial of Royal Asiatic Society, New series. Vol. XX., Part ii.

London, April, 1888.
RowBOTHAM, J. H. " The History of Music." London, 1885.
Sahasrabadue, B. T. " Hindu Music and the Gayan Samaj." Published by the Gayana Samaj,

Poona and Madras. Contains information respecting the recent revival of Indian music.

Poona, 1888.
ScHROEDER, L. von. " ludicns Literatur und Cultur." Leipzig, 1887.
SoLVYNS (Bait of Calcutta). " The Costume of Hindustan elucidated by sixty engravings."

London, 1804. I-'olio. Contains drawings of a number of musical instruments, chiefly

those of Northern India and Bcnjral.

THE MUSIC OF SOUTHERN INDIA. 159

Stack, G. A. "The Songs of Ind." Calcutta, 1S72. Contains a number of verses of more or
less interest.

Tagore, Rajah Sir S. M. " The Six Original Ragas."

"The Musical Scales of the Hindus."

" Some specimens of Indian Songs."

■ " Short Notices of Indian Musical Instruments."

The above four all printed by I. C. Bose & Co., Calcutta, for private circulation.

"The Eight Principal Rasas of the Hindus." Calcutta, 1879.

"The Dramatic Sentiments of the Aryas." Calcutta; 1881.

These two works contain much valuable information as to the sentiments conveyed by
the various gestures (rasas, bhavas) made either upon the stage or by dancers.

" Hindu Music from Various Sources." Calcutta. A reprint of different writings upon

Hindu Music. A most useful collection. Contains a reprint of Sir W. Jones' essay and
Willard's treatise. But there are some misprints that are liable to mislead.

"The Twenty-two Musical S'rutis of the Hindus." Calcutta, 1S86.

" /Ekatana, or the Indian Concert." Calcutta. N.D.

Tod, Lieut. -Col. " Annals and Antiquities of Rajasthan." Vol. I., p. 53S. London, 1829.
Twelve Hindu Airs, with English words adapted to them, with an accompaniment for the

pianoforte or harp. Printed by R. Birchall, 133, New Bond Street. These airs appear to be

chiefly from The Oriental Miscellany.
Trinks. " A Collection of Hindoostanee Songs." Dedicated to Mr. Bristow, by C . Trinks, organist

of St. John's Church, Calcutta. Folio.
Williamson. " TwelveOriginal Hindoostanee Airs." Compiled and harmonized by T. G.Williamson.

London, 1797. Folio.
Second collection of " Twelve Original Hindoostanee Airs." Compiled and harmoni;^ed

by T. G. Williamson. London, 179S. Folio.
Weber. " Ueber die Metrik der Inder." See " Beitrage fur die Kunde des Indischen Alterthums."

Band VIII. Berlin, 1863. 8vo.
Wilson, H. H. " Select Specimens from the Theatre of the Hindus." Translated from the original

Sanskrit. London, 1838. 8vo, 2 vols.
Walckiers. " A Collection of Twent3'-four Hindoostanee and otlier Airs." Arranged for the piano-
forte by L. Walckiers. London, Clementi.
Waterfield, W. " Indian Ballads and other Poems." London, 1868.
WiLi.ARD, Captain N. Augustus. "A Treatise upon the Music of Hindustan, comprising a detail

of the Ancient Theory and Modern Practice." Calcutta, 1834. 8vo. The following is the

table of contents —
Preface. — .\ general view of the plan and contents of the work. Introduciion. — Music;, its power on the
human mind. That of Hindustan. The opinion of the natives with respect to their ancient musicians. How
a knowledge of it may be acquired. Not generally liked by Europeans. Reasons assigned for this.
Native opinion with regard to its lawfulness. Musical instruments. Relation of music to poetry
considered. Progress of music in Hindustan. The manner of life which should be led to ensure eminence
in this science. Causes of its depravity. Date of its decline. The similarity which the music of this
country seems to bear to that of Egypt and Greece. How a knowledge of the music of Hindustan might
conduce to a revival of that of those countries. Comparisons offered. Whether the natives of Greece or
Hindustan had made greater progress in music. Comparisons decide in favour of the latter. Hindostanee
Music. — What it is termed in the original. The treatises held in the greatest estimation. Native divisions.
What, and how many. The arrangement adopted in this work. 0/ the Gamut. — What it is called : the

i6o TIIK MUSIC OF SOUTHERN INDIA.

derivation of the word. The sub-divisions of tones. Resenihlancc of these to theGreel< diesis. Opinions of
Dr. Burneyand Mr. Moore on the enharmonic f;enns. Names of the seven notes. Origin of these. The
Gamut invented by Guido and Lemaire. Dr. Pepusch. S'ruti. Of Time. — The various measures used in
Europe. Difference between them and tliose of Hindustan. Tlieir resemblance to the rhythm of the Greeks.
Similarity between the Greek and Sanskrit languages. The Hebrew unmusical, likewise the Arabic.
Melody and metre considered. Tartini's objections against metre endeavoured to be controverted. The
dignified prose in Sanskrit and tongues derived from it. Its superiority to the Oordoo. Probable origin
of the modern musical measure. Tartini's deductions of measure from the proportions of the octave and
its fifth opposed to the practice of Hindustan. Whether the rliythmical or the musical measure possesses
greater advantages. Opinion hazarded thereon. Time table. Characters for expressing time. Their
varieties. Of Harmony and Melody. — The origin of harmony in Europe. Opinions of several learned men on
the subject of harmony with that of the author. Claims of melody. Of Oriental Melody. — Not generally
susceptible of harmony. Limited to a certain number. Its character. Of Ruf^s and Rdginis. — The general
acceptation of the terms supposed to be incorrect. Reasons offered why they are limited to season and time.
Of the Ragniala. Absurdity of limiting tunes to seasons. Division of the Rags and Raginis into classes.
Rules for determining the names of the mixed Raginis. Table of conipo\inded Rags. The Ragmala copiously
described. Of Musical Instruments. — Their present state susceptible of much improvement. Their
classification. Detailed description of the several instruments now in use. Of the various species of Vocal
Compositions of Hindustan. — Twenty different species described. Of the peculiarity of Manners and Customs in
Hindustan to K'hich allusions are made in their song. — Its characteristic nature. Reasons assigned for several
of them which now no longer exist, and examples produced. Brief accoimt of the most celebrated musicians
of Hindustan. Glossary of the most useful musical terms.

The actual size of the work, notwithstanding this lengthv tahle of contents,
is but small. The book is very interestintr, and affords much valuable information
upon Northern Indian music. The descriptions are, however, incomplete in many
cases, and the author's meaning is in places rather vague, and apt to be misleading
to those who have not studied the subject.

There are not a very large number of works relating to music in the
vernaculars — some few are excellent, but the majority of them contain a very
large amount of irrele\'ant matter, and are so full of inaccuracies that too great a
reliance should not be placed upon them. Some of the most important of these
works may be found amon</st the following : —

'• SvAKASASTRA." An cssav or tutor for the Sitar. A. Gharpure. Poona, i8So, in Marathi.
Contains descriptions of the various kinds of Sitars. together with instructions for making,
tuning, and keeping tlieni in order. Contains also an elaborate system of notation invented
by the author.

There are also works in Marathi upon the sitar by Viswanath Kamachundra
Kale ; and by Vastad Murabar Gonvekar.

In Bengali the chief works are: —

" AsuRjANiTATWAR " Oil tile Ksrar. By Kshetra Mohun Gosvami.

•• Sangit Siksha." By Sita Nath Boshak.

" Sangit Sara." By Kshetra Mohun Gosvami. This work contains a good deal that is most
interesting.

■' Katakaumodi." By Kshetra Mohun Gosvami.

" A Treatise on the Mridanga." By S. M. Tagore. On drum playing, rhythm, ice.

•' A Comprehensive Self-Instructor for the Setar, Esrar, violin, tlute, and harmonium." Calcutta,

i858. An attempt to adapt Indian music to European notation. By H. D. Bancrjea.

THE MUSIC OF SOUTHERN INDIA. i6i

There are several Telei^u and Tamil works of less interest. The only
Telegu work that I have seen which is of any interest is a tract called " Sangita
Kalianidhi," on the vina, with diagrams of the fingerboard. There is a Guzerathi
work entitled " The Musical Instructor," by N. D. Apj-akhtiar, Bombay, 1870.
This work contains a certain amount of theory apparently extracted from the
Sangita Ratnakera, and a number of coloured illustrations which, though poor,
are not without interest. It contains also a large number of Guzerathi
songs.

Of the more important of the Sanskrit treatises that are at present known to
e.xist, some slight notice may be useful. The oldest of any is the Bharata Natya
S'astra bv Bharata Muni. This work is being translated by M. Grosset, of
Lvons, who has procured and carefully compared several copies of the MSS.,
one of which is the propertv of the Royal Asiatic Society of London. The
whole work is large, and consists of a great number of lidhyayas. The theory
of music, of dancing, of the connection between music and the drama are treated
of fully, as are also the various kinds of instruments. The antiquity of the Ivric
drama in India is most interesting. M. Grosset has published already the
twentv-eighth adhyaya of this work, containing the part relating to the theory
of music, with a prefatory essay and copious explanations and notes, the results
of his researches — a most valuable contribution to the study of ancient Eastern
musical literature. The date of the Bharata Natya S'astra is placed at some
intermediate period from B.C. 200 to a.d. 100. An edition of this work has been
printed, or partially so, at Poona recently. There is also a copy of the MSS. in
the library of H.H. the Maharajah of Bikanir.

Of the remaining Sanskrit treatises (excepting the work just men-
tioned) the Sangita Ratnakera is probably the oldest and the most
valuable.

The work consists of seven adhyayas, according to Dr. A. C. Burnell.'-

I. — Sv.\RAGATADHYAVA — treats of Hotcs, scalcs, &c.
II. — Ragavivekadhyaya — of Raga.

III. — Prakirnakadhyaya — of music in connection with the human voice.
IV. — Prabandhadhyaya — of musical composition.
V. — Taladhyaya — of times, pauses, measures, &c.
VI. — Vadyadhyaya — of musical instruments.
VII. — Nrityadhyaya — of dancing.

- •• Classified Index to the Sanskrit MSS. in the Palace at Tanjore." Dr. A. C. Burnell. London, 1880.

2 S

i62 THE MUSIC OF SOUTHERN IS 1)1 A.

An edition of the first iidhyaya, with a Commentary, was pubHshed at
Calcutta in 1S79. Its contents are as follows : — •

Chap. I. — Benediction upon music.

II. — Of sounds, notes, concordant and discordant relations.
III. — Of gramas, murchanas, talas.

IV. — Of vernams (ascending and descending successions of notes), alankaras or melodious
successions of notes intended to impress upon beginners the idea of different
pitches, and to cultivate a taste for pleasing combinations.
V. — Of certain subsidiar}' scales.
VI. — Materials and constitution of raga.
VII. — Describes certain ancient species of song called Kapala and Kambala, and defines
various styles of singing.

It appears quite impossible to assign an}- reliable date to this work. The
author of it was Sarnga Deva, son of Sotala Deva, King of Karnata, and grandson
of Bhaskara a Kashmirian.' Possiblv, from this information, the date mav be
discovered at some future time.

In the Preface to the Calcutta edition of this work mention is made of only
five adhyayas, the other two [i.e., the fourth and fifth) have apparently been
discovered by Dr. Burnell.

The following authors or works are cited by Sarnga Deva in this work : —
Anginavva, Kalinatha, Chudamanni, Pratibhavilasa, Manidurpana, Raganava,
Vinoda, Sivakinkara, Sangitanava, Sarodhara, Haribhatta.

Perhaps next in importance to the Ratnakera is the Sangita Darpana, by
Damodara Misra. This work, according to Aufrecht, consists of seven
adhyayas —

I. — SVARAGATADHYAYA.

II. — Ragadhvava.
III.- Prakirnakadhvaya.
IV. — Prabandhadhyaya.

V. — Padyadhyaya.
VI. — Taladhyaya.
VII. — Nrity.\dhyava.

Damodara took the greater part of his work from the Sangita Ratnakera and
added a little from other authors and works. Sir William Jones tells us that the
Pandits of Bengal preferred the Damodara in his time to any of the other
Sangitas, but that he himself had never been able to procure a good copy of it.

'' See .Aufreclit's " Catalogus codiconim Manuscriptoruni Ribliotheca; Bodleiana; " (Oxford, 1864), and
Rajendralala Mitra's Catalogue of the Sanskrit MSS. in the library of H.H. the Maharajah of Bikanir.
Calcutta, 1880.

THE MUSIC OF SOUTHERX INDIA. 163

Here again the question of date must remain doubtful. Tlie onlv information as
to tlie author appears to be that he was the son of Lakshmidara. Damodara
mentions thefolhnvint^ authors and works in addition to the Ratnakera — Anginavva,
Kahnatha, Chudamanni, Pratibhavihisa, Manidurpana, Riiganava, Vinoda,
Sivakinkara, Sangitanava, Sarodhara, Haribhatta.

Later than this work is the Sangita Narayana by Xarayana Deva.

This work eonsists of four parts : — •

I. — Sangitanirnava.
II.— Vadyanirnaya.
III. — Nrityanirnaya.

IV. — SUDDHAPRABANDHODARANAM.

The author of this work was the son of Padmanabhai, and a pupil of
Kaviratna Purushottama-misra. In this work Damodara is frequently quoted,
Naravana Deva also quotes his master's work " Ramachandrodaya," as well
as the following authors and works: — Krishnadatta, Kohala, Gitaprakasa,
Chhandoratnakera, Narada-Sanhita or Sanhita, Panchamasarasanhita, Alam-
mata author of " Sangitaratnamala," Laksmanabhatta Gitagovindatikavam^
S'riromani, Saivasavaswa, Sangitakaumodi or Kaumodi, Sangita Sara,
Harinayatta.

Sir William Jones, in his essay on the Musical Modes of the Hindus,
inclines to the belief that the most \-aluable work that he had seen is the
Ragavivodha, by Soma Raj. This is a later work than the Ratnakera, which
is mentioned in it frequently. It consists of five chapters.

I. — Of S'rutis, their divisions into svaras or notes— of suddha and vikrita notes— of

octaves, definitions of notes essential to raga [i.e., vadi, samv;idi, &c.) — of gramas —

of murchanas — how ragas constituted of five, six, or seven notes.

II. — Of the Vina, and different kinds of vinas, measurement, and general directions for
making.

III. — Classification of ragas.

IV. — The Ragmala or Hst of ragas, with descriptions of each raga personified — hours of day

appointed for performance of each raga.

V. — Ragas written in notation, with directions for the performance of each.

The Sangita Parijata appears to be a very much later work than any
previously described. The author of this work was Ahobala Pandit, and he
seems to have been a native of Central India. The belief among pandits in
India at the present day is that he lived not more than 250 years ago. The

'•• On the Musical Modes of the Hindus." Sir W. Jones. "Asiatic Researches." Vol. III. Calcutta. 1792.

i64 THE Mr SIC OF SOrTHKRX IXDIA.

system described in the Parijata is a description of that practised at the period.

The contents are as follows —

I. Benediction upon music in general.

II. Of svaras or notes.

III. Of gramas or scales.

IV.

'lOf murchanas or permutations of notes, with examples.

VI. Of methods of tuning.

VII. Of gamakas, with a minute explanation of about sixty.

VIII. Of Suddhasvaras (or notes comprising their full complement of s'rutisj and directions for
tuning the vina.

IX. Of gita or melody.

X. Of raga and text of about 122 ragas, with directions for performance.

An edition of this work was printed at Calcutta in 1879.

There is a Persian work entitled Tohfuht-ul-Hind, by Mirza Khan. This
work contains information extracted from the Sanskrit works Raganava,
Ragadarpana, and Subhavinodha. Of the present existence of these three
works I have never been able to discover traces ; still, it is to be hoped that
they may eventually be brought to light. A copy of the Ragadarpana, with
two works entitled Shams-ul-aswat and Hazar Dhrupad, was brought bv
Sir W. Jones to England ; but these, with other MSS. that he is said to have
deposited in the library of the Royal Asiatic Society, cannot be traced.

The following list of Sanskrit treatises upon music has been carefully
compiled from catalogues of various Sanskrit MSS., and from information
supplied by Pandits in different parts of India. Where no reference is made
under the column of authorities, the information has been obtained from Pandits
in India and is, perhaps, not always so reliable as the other authorities. When
copies of any of the MSS. have been printed, the places and approximate dates of
publication have been given.

The following abbreviations have been used in the column of authorities.

BiK = Catalogue of the Sanskrit MSS. in the library of H.H. the Maharajah of Bikanir.
Rajendralala Mitra. Calcutta, 1880.

AuF = Catalogus Codicorum Manuscriptorum Bibliothec;e Bodleiana. Th. Aufrecht.

Oxford, 1864.

Tan = Classified Index to the Sanskrit MSS. in the Palace at Tanjore. A. C. Burnell. London, 1880.

Ind= Catalogue of the Sanskrit MSS. in the library at the India Office. Part II. J. Eggeling.
London, i88g.

OFP = List of Sanskrit MSS. in Southern India. Dr. Oppert. Madras, 1885.
Kiel = Catalogue of Sanskrit MSS. in the Central Provinces. L. Kielhorn. Nagpur, 1874.
Rice = Catalogue of MSS. in Mysore. L. Rice.

Ben = Catalogue of Buddhist Sanskrit MSS. in the University Library at Cambridge. Cecil
Bendall. Cambridge, 1883.

THE MUSIC OF SOUTHERN IX DLL

SANSKRIT TREATISES UPON MUSIC.

165

Name of the Work.

Author.

Name of the Work.

Autlior,

Authority.

Anandajivana .

Anupa Sangita Yi-
lasa with tika

Eaja Mandana-
[pala.

Bhavabhatta

wfViT ....

Bik, 1090.
Bik, 1091.

'Sjf 71 ....

Arj unabharatam

Arjuna.

^ptsi.stiniiciciKjiif .

Ashtottarasata-tala-
lakslianara

Tan, p. GO, 12.

^TTHHT^ ....

WT^!T^ • •

Bliaratabhasliyam .

Nyayadeva.

«t^gf?r .

Bharatanatya-sas-
tram ....

Bharatalakshanam .

Bharatamuni.

Bik, 10'J2.
Poena, circa
18S8.

>TT?r3TT?^ 'RTl'^tf

Bharatasastra Saii-
gitam.

HTTHJITI^

T^T^ . .

Bliaratasastram .

Raghunatha.

Tan, p. 60, '.>.

HTq^z'NrT

»T^^ ■ ■ .

Dliraupaclatika .

Bhavabhatta.

ntiTT^oFTT: .

^^H^tT'mrr

Gitalankara

Anantanarayana.

?r?fTT1^?c5^ .

?T^g ....

Hastaratnavali .

Raghava.

Auf. 483.

^TTOcirm . .

^TRTTTTO^^ . .

Hridayaprakasa

Hridayanaraya-
nadeva.

Bik, 1093.

cTSqiT^ z\^} ^¥11^

'WliJI'^^

Kalpataru with tika
Subodhini

Ganesadeva.

Bik, 1094.

HWHHTff ....

^r^^rr ht^t .

Matangabharatam .

Lakshmanabhas-

ifcSTftioinT^ajur ■ .

Meladhikaralaksha-
nam ....

[kara.

H^T^%TmTr3rci;T . .

Muktavaliprakasika

^Tc4lH<*l3i: .

»TT^»T5 . .

MuralTprakasa .
Nadadipika .

Bhavabhatta.
Bhattacharya.

Bik, 109.5.

^e-T^fqciiT

WgMl5

^^>TTW

^f^ . .

Nandibharata .

Nandi.

L. Rice.

■^TTTr'^fjiHj

TITT!? . .

Xaradlsiksha

Xarada.

Poena, circa
1887.

^t?lfq§^

^iO^ T^^

Nartananirnaya

Pundarikavitthala

Bik, 1096.

^r^t^HW .

Nrityadhyayah

Asokamalla.

Bik, 1098.

^Tr^T^oS'f .

iTOTjfH^^-q

Nntyaratnavali

Ganapatidevasena

i?^»1^T?^f?rn

^T<.? .

Panchamasarasam-

hita ....

Narada.

See Anf 480

1 66

THE MUSIC OF SOUTHERN INDIA.

Name of the Work.

Author.

Name of the Work.

Author.

Authority.

f^T^J . . . .

Ragacliandrodaya .

Tiinala.

O'l^TTXT

xirmiiT^TTfiT ofisiTniznq:

Eagadliyaniidika-
tliauridhyayali

Bik, 1099.

TTmfiT?!n:f^q: .

t^HIVJ-fTWunT?

Ragadisvaranirna-

Raghunatlia Dasa

yali ....

Prasada.

TTH^TK?^ ^»HIinBT^ .

TT*T=STI!mj

Raga-kautuliala,
Nntya-Praktirana

Ramakrisbna
bhatta.

Bik, 1106.

TTTrtHUlt

Ragalakshanam

TiRmon ....

j??:t5fr Uz^ . .

Ragamala .

Pundaiikavittliala

Bik. 1100.

T:mjncrr^TTi*T»rp;T

^*\d^m .

Ragamalil or Rat-

Auf. 481,
lad. p. 319,

namala

KNiicmakarana.

Bik. 1101.

nnjhTT'^.

^^"^-^ f^jcs •

Ragamaiijari

Pundarikavittliala

Bik. 1102.

TTnf?lKm!t .

TK^ ....

Raganirupaiiam

Xarada.

TinimR

Ragaprastara .

Tan p. CO, G.

TTTTTRT^T

nvittnr . . .

Ragaratnakara .

Gaudbarvaraja.

Kiel. p. 96,
Bik. 1129.

TTmr^g^'bi

^■^Vt^jt .

Ragatatvaviljodha .

Sriuiva.sa.

Kiel. p. 96,
liik. 1103.

Ragaviehtii-a
Rciga-vibodlia .
Ragavivcka

Srirama iiiaHa.
Somanatba.

Bik. 1104.

Auf. 47.5,
PooTia, circi

1888.

Kiel. p. 96.

F??*»^ H^H^fci=iT:;rf .

Rudradamaru-bhava
Siitravivarana

Bik. 1107.

niT^TTiMffm?Tt^

^•I^cSUfT

Sangitacliintiimani .

Kamalolocbana.

Kiel. p. 96.

«iftH^im^T: .

5R^fiT . . .

° 1
Sangltadamodara .

Subbaukara.

Ind. p. 318,
Kiel. p. 96.

Bik. 1108 et

»in^rT5MlT

^»ft^r

Sangltadarpana

Damodara.

seq., Auf. 476
ct sei| , Poona

circa LS87,
Calcutta 1879.

?fT^^H .

Sangltadarpana

HarivaUablia.

Bik. 1110.

fil«J>JtJT^ .

Sangitadipika .

Tippabbupaba.

«^'irT<*-HrI55 ...

Sangitakalpataru .

. -I

•n

Sangltaniakarandali

Veda.

Bik. 1111.

flmrmcjid^: .

^^^TT ....

Tan. p. GO, 2.

»inl7rfR»nHT ...

^«cir§J5f?R?-5-

Sangitamimamsa .

Kumbbakarnaiiia-
Iiiinalic'iidra.

Kiel. p. 96.

^^rTTTfi ....

■iiiHcjscjri'H

Sangltamritam .

Kamalabjcbana.

Kiel. p. 96.

BTi'^im-grr^?;^

^'.JlTjT^ti .

Sangltaumktavali .

Devannacbarya.

w )) • •

i^J? ....

)) >y

Deveudra.

Bik. 1112.

THE MUSIC OF SOUTHERN INDIA.

167

Name of the Work.

TiirffT^TTT'mir .

Aiitlior.

Name of the ^Vork.

Autliov.

TO^T^

^fCHJ

niTtTR

Saugitanarayana

Sangitanarayana

Sangitaparijata

Sangitapatlia .

Sangitapuslipanjal

Sangitaragliava

Sangltaraja

tSangitaratuakara

Do. tika

Do. do.

Sangitaratnakara .
Sangitaratnamala .
Sangitaratuavall .
Sangitasamayasara .

Sangitasara-san-

gralia
Sangitasanimrita

Sangitasarvarthasa-

rasangraha
Sangitasaroddhara .

Sangitasaravali

Sangitasetu

Sansitasiroinaiii

Sangitasudlia .

Sangitasudliakara .

Sangitasudhakara .

Sana'itasundara

Purusliottama-
uiisra-

Narayaiiadeva.
Paudita Aliobala.

Authoritv.

Vomabliupala.

Kumbliakarna.

Sai-ngadt'va.

Do.

Kallinatlia.

Simlialjliupala

Kumbliakarna

nai'eudra.
Gangarauia.

Hamsabhupala.

Vanaraka.
Mammata.
Somaraiadeva.

TulajCudra

Haribliatta.

Gautiarama.

Auf. 480.

Calcutta I87t).

Pooiia, circa

1887.

liili. U13.

Kiel. p. W.

Bik. 1111 et
;eq., Auf. 171
et sei)., lud.
[I. 31o, Calc.
1879, pt.l only
Bik. 1120.

Bik. 1121.
See Auf. -JSO.

Rice.
Tan. p. 60, 4.

0pp. p. 656.
B.k. 1123

Bik. 1124.

Simliabliupala.

Haripala.

Sadasivadiksliita.

T.68

THE MUSIC OF SOUTHERN INDIA.

Nuuiu of tlie Work.

Autliur.

Name of the Work.

.\uthor.

Authority.

Sangltasuramrita .

Maharaja Tuliiji
Blionsala, Raja
of TaBJore.

Tan. p. CO, 4.

flTTtK l^tl'[■^ -^jffm

TliJTq RW • • •

Sangitartarodaya chu-
damani . .

Pratapa malla

Ben. p. 150.

«VT<*<3?( . .

Sangita-upanishadha
Sangitavinoda .

Sudhakalasa.

Bik. 1126.
Bik. 1125.

f^JoS ....

Sangitavrittaratna-
kara ....

Vittliala.

Till), p. 60, 8.

»i=F^jnTTnTw?Tq

Sanklrnaragadhyaya

«iTn-«i<;t^^ •

Saragacliandrodaya

^Kr[ ....

Sarasamliita

Sliadragachandro-
daya ....

Srutibliaskara .

Nclrada.

Punclarikavittliala
Bhimadeva.

Bik. 1128.

I^TJt^t't ....

Svaramanjari .

^^^'i^i: . . .

Svaramelakaliinidhl
Talabhinayalaksha-

Ramamatya.

Bik. 1130.

FTc5?3niTri?^f'q^rT

mf^p^

nam ....
Taladasapranadlpika

Nandikesvara.
Goviuda.

Tan. p. 61, Ifi.

irr^f^^iif

' '\^'^*-^X .

Talalakslianam .

Nandikesvara.

Tan. p. GO, 14.

IfW^H^ ....

Talaprastain

f3«t«mc5 .

Talaprastara
Taladipika .

Tippabhupala.

Tan. p. 60, 13.
Tan. p. 60, 1.^.

--)"l'MIMia«HH!t

Viiiavadyalaksliaiiara :

TftmraiH

^W'.V

Vlraparakrama. . 1 Viisuduva.

APPENDIX.

DESCRIPTION OF RAJAH SIR S. M. TAGORE'S S'RUTI VINA.

[The following minute account of the Rajah Sir S. M. Tagore's S'ruti Vina —
intended to demonstrate the ancient system of 22 — was kindly supplied by the

late Mr. A.J. Ellis, F.R.S.]

AS regards the construction of the instrument, I shall first quote the Rajah
Sir S. M. Tagore's own words. ^ " We have hit upon another method to
L ascertain the nature and position of the s'rutis. The method is as
follows : — Take a sitar or vina, measure the distance between Shaja (C) of the
Madhya (middle) octave, and Shaja (D) of the next higher octave, in the C of the
Tara octave. Divide the space between these two C's by putting a dot or line in
the middle ; put a dot or line on either extremity ; place the note F over the dot or
line in the middle, the note C on the other extremity of the first half portion of
the divided space, and the note higher C on that of the second half portion ;
sub-divide the first half poition into iiitic' equal and the second half portion into
thirteen equal parts, and put a dot or line to mark off each sub-division.
Excluding the line marking higher C, there will be in all twenty-two lines.
Each of these will represent a s'ruti."

This S'ruti Vina was, in fact, a long-necked sitar rather smaller than usual.
It had two strings, one of brass and one of steel ; the diameter of the brass
wire was -3 mm. (millimetres), and that of the steel wire was "24 mm. The
brass string proved useless, as the frets made the octave quite wrong with it.
Hence it will be disregarded henceforth.

The string was nearly horizontal. At starting at the nut it was 12 mm.
above the finger-board, and at the bridge 13 mm. above the belly, which had

' "The Twenty-two Musical S'rutis of the Hindus." S. M. Tagore. Calcutta, i885.

2 U

170

THE MUSIC OF SO UT HERN INDIA.

curved upwards. But the first fret was iih mm. and the hist fret only 2 mm.
above the finger-board. The string was therefore pressed down onlv i\ mm.
for the first, but 12I mm. for the last ; consequent!}-, the tension greatly
increased as we ascended the scale, so that if we had taken the octave at half
the length of the string it would have been much too sharp.

There were twenty-three frets to give the s'rutis for one octave, numbered
one to twenty-three on one side of the finger-board, with letters on the other,
thus : —

C DBF G ABc

I 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 g 10 II 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 ig 20 21 22 23

The frets forCDEFGABc were of white metal, the others were yellow. The
frets were flatly elliptical with hooked ends, round which a piece of gut was tied,
and then brought about three times under the finger-board, catching the hooked
ends each time and being firmlv fixed. Each fret was therefore tightly fastened in
its place, and could not be moved up and down the board without much force. But
the fret itself could be deflected to the right or left, leaving the hooked ends fixed.
This was not easy, but was possible.

Then again the distance by which the string had to be deflected to press it
on to the fret varied, but not uniformly. The diameter of the frets was difterent,
but I was unable to measure it, as I could not get my gauge in. However, I
estimate the white frets at fully 2 mm. in diameter; the others were narrower.
The tops were rounded and it was difficult to appreciate the middle point,
but I have endeavoured to measure the distance iVom the middle of one fret to
the middle of the next.

The whole length of the string from nut to bridge was go6 mm. The
bridge was thus shaped, a ^^b B being a ledge cut through for

the strings, which lay on I I ^~"''--~- ^ the flat part, A B, and the

sounding length of the ^ — -^ "^"~~' whole string was iVom the nut

to A, but still the part A B was not firmly fixed and possibly influenced the
pitch. The part of the string bevond B seemed to be damped by a perforated
bead which ran on it.

The note from the first fret was marked C, but taking the pitch of tlie string as
it was (for we did not venture to screw it up), it made 24i'2 vib., which is not far
from 244-23, the French pitch of B in the 4-ft. octave, "^" — : but I adopt the

names of the notes as marked on the instrument, tr

In this case the

THE MUSIC OF SOUTHERN INDIA. lyi

whole string gave F in tlie 4-ft. octave, a fifth below the first C and an
octave below No. 10 fret, marked F, at any rate precisely enough. But the
whole length of the string was go6 mm., and to the first fret 298 mm., so that
the sounding length of C, or 608 mm., was only a little more than j of 906 = 604
mm., the increased tension being here slight. The sounding length for F was
463 mm., considerably more than 453 = ^ of go6mm., because the string was 7
mm. above the F fret, which caused an increase of tension that had to be allowed
for. It is impossible to calculate the effect of these increments of tension which,
however, served to alter the effect of the lengths considerably.

The principle followed seemed to be to find the position of the frets i and 2^,
giving the fifth of the open string and the octave of that fifth, by car only, the
shape and heights of the frets being assumed. The height of the first fret was, of
course, as great as possible, and the last as low as possible to avoid jars. In this
case the fifth is good, but the octave of it, or higher C, is too sharp b\' a trifle
of 20 cents (one cent = the hundredth of an equal semitone, so that an octave
has 1,200 cents and a comma 22 cents). The length of string for lower C was
608 mm., and that for higher c, 316-5 mm., which is much more than half the
former or 304 mm., and vet the note is too sharp, so great is the distance of
this strinir, izl mm., from the last fret.

The distance C c was divided into half at F, and the distance C to F into nine
equal parts, and F to c into thirteen equal parts by frets ; at least, that was the
intention. Actually C to F contained 145 mm., of which Jth = 16J, while the
distances between frets really varied from 15 Mo 16 J-. The distance F to C was
146^^ mm., of which I'lth is 11 "27 mm., while the distances between the frets varied
from 9^ to 13.^ mm. as well as I could measure. This gave very varying values
to the s'ruti intervals. From C to F they varied from 45 to 73 cents, from F to c
they varied from 37 to 84 cents. The intention, I presume, was to make them
as nearlv equal as possible or 54tt cents each.

The pitches of the notes produced were determined on May 21, 1886, by
Mr. A. J. Hipkins, who tried to touch the frets as evenly as possible, while I
furnished the forks from mv tuning fork tonometer, the exact pitches of which
had been accurately determined. By this means Mr. Hipkins was able to count
the beats between the forks and the notes due to the frets for two or three
seconds, and then to continue counting at the same rate to complete ten
seconds. Each pitch was thus determined by two ot my lorks, one sharper and
one flatter, and there was never so much as half a vibration difference in the
determinations. When anv difference existed a mean was taken. A scale was
thus determined which satisfies modern Indian ears. As the s'rutis in it varv

172

THE Ml- SIC OF SOUTHERN ISDIA.

from all the circumstances named, and apparently on no conceivable plan, it is
evident that it" the mean of all wei'e taken — that is, if a cycle of twenty-two were

instituted, as I have effected by a series of forks —
Indian ears would still be satisfied. I have endeavoured
in the following tabic to bring out all these facts.

The width of the finger-board was 80 mm., and the
steel wire was 40 mm. from each edge.

A set of forks was sent by the Rajah to the Inventions
Exhibition at the same time as the S'ruti Vina, but as
they had been tuned by means of sliding weights,
without any appliance to fi.x them in position, these
forks were quite useless, for the weights had shifted on
the journey from India, and, in fact, shifted whenever the
forks were struck.

5—

Tuning pegs.

Nut.

Carved ivory dccoratiim.

6. Tail-pin.

- 6

KlCDUCED PLAN OF S'KLTI ViNA.

THE MUSIC OF SOUTHERX IXDIA.

173

Table of the Pitches of the Notes furnished by Rajah Sir S. M. Tagore's
S'ruti Vina, as determined in 1886 by Messrs. Ellis and Hipkins.

Depression

^i^tA nnmA

Observed

Cents from

f pnt<! frnm

Cents from

Vibrations io

Sounding lengths

or height of

and number.

number of
vibrations.

note to
note.

lowest note.

lowest in
cycle of 22.

cycle of 22.
with same C.

of strings
in millimetres.

string above
fret in milli-
metres.

C I

241-2

608

247-6

248-9

592

257-2

1 1 1

log

256-9

576

266-0

169

163

265-1

559*

D 5

274-3

222

21S

273-6

543*

281-5

267

273

282-4

527*

289-5

316

328

291-4

512

E 8

302-0

389

382

300-7

495i

310-3

436

310-3

479

F 10

323-0

505

491

320-3

463

330-3

544

545

330-5

451*

337-8

583

600

34I-I

441

349-2

640

655

352-0

430

G14

364-0

712

709

3&3-3

4172

371-8

749

764

374-9

408

lOi

384-4

807

818

386-9

395?

10^

395-3

855

873

399-3

384*

lOi

A 18

409-6

917

928

412-1

373

lOi

418-5

954

982

425-3

363I

lOi

432-9

1013

1036

438-9

351

loi

B21

449'3

1077

1091

452-9

340

465-0

1136

1146

467-4

330

C23

488-0

1220

1200

482-4

3i6i

12*

NOVELLO, EWER AND CO., PRINTERS, LONDON.

2 X

' ims®, .-"n'^'A'!*'

V.^:^^"'

ML ZOa . D27

Day, Charles Russell, 1660-
I 1900-

The music and musical
I ±nst.rumeri-te of sout-hern

l.?0197

Internet Archive Audio

Featured

Top

Images

Featured

Top

Software

Featured

Top

Books

Featured

Top

Video

Featured

Top

Mobile Apps

Browser Extensions

Archive-It Subscription

Save Page Now

Full text of "The music and musical instruments of southern India and the Deccan"

See other formats