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THE MUSIC

THE MOST ANCIENT NATIONS,

PAUTICULARLY OF THE

ASSYKIANS, EGYPTIANS, AND HEBEEWS;

WITH SrECIAL REFEEENCE TO RECENT DISCOVERIES IN WESTERN
ASIA AND IN EGYPT.

By carl ENGEL.

'■ At what time ye hear the sound of tlie cornet, flute, havp, sackbut, psaltery,
dulcimer, and all kinds of miisick, ye fall down and worship the golden image that
Nebuchadnezzar the king hath set up." — Dan. iii. 5.

WITH NUMEROUS ILLUSTRATIONS.

LONDON:
JOHN MUERAY, ALBEMARLE STREET.

1864.

The riaht of Translation is reserveil.

ML 1 1- 1
■ I' ?7

LOXDOK: PRINTED ET W. CLOWES AKD SONS, STAMFORD STRKF.T,
AND CIIARTSO CROSS.

PREFACE.

It is not without hesitation that I offer to the pubhc
the present contribution to the history of music. 1
am fully aware that, in having to express myself in a
language which is not my mother tongue, I labour
under considerable disadvantage. Nevertheless, I
ventm-e to hope for the reader's indulgence on this
point, for the following reasons.

For years I have taken every opportunity of ascer-
taining the distinctive characteristics of the music not
only of civilized but also of uncivilized nations. I
soon saw that the latter is capable of yielding im-
portant suggestions for the science and history of
music, just as the languages of savage nations are
useful in philological and ethnological inquiries.

As I proceeded, I became more and more convinced
that, in order to understand clearly the music ot
the various modern nations, it was necessary to
extend my researches to the music of ancient nations.
Thus my attention was directed to the Assyrian
monuments in the British Museum. All the facts
which I have been able to gather from them must
be considered as a new addition to our history of
music, and one by no means unimportant to the
musician.

vi PKEFACE.

If from the music of ancient nations important
hints may be obtained respecting the music of the
various modern nations, on the other hand, an exact
acquaintance with the latter greatly facilitates the
proper appreciation of the music of any ancient
nation, such as the Assyrian.

For these reasons I venture to hope that my book,
notwithstanding its shortcomings, may be received
with indulgence by those interested in the subject of
which it treats.

Should this hope be realized, I purpose soon to
publish a work on National Music, on which I have
for a considerable time been occupied.

Respecting the illustrations in the present book, I
have to add that those relating to Assyrian music, as
well as several illustrative of Egyptian music, have
been copied from the antiquities in the British
Museum. Some, which have been derived_^ from
other sources, are specified in the list. Moreover,
for drawings of most of the Egyptian musical in-
struments, I am indebted to Sir Gardner Wilkinson's
' Manners and Customs of the Ancient Egyptians,' —
a work which deserves the special consideration of
all interested in the history of ancient music.

C. E.

CONTENTS.

CHAPTEE I.

THE OLDEST RECOEDS ON MUSIC.

Represeutations of musical instruments on ancient sculptures and paintings

— National music applied to ethnology — Monumental records re-
ferring to Assyrian music — The ruins of Nimroud, Khorsabad, and
Kouyunjik — The extent to which the characteristics of Assyrian music
can be ascertained from the representations of the instrimients — The
gradual development of music from its most primitive state, demon-
strated by a comparison of the music of modern nations in different
stages of civilization — The earliest musical instruments — Examples
of musical scales in use among nations in different stages of civilization

— The earliest development of vocal music — The degree of progress
in music attained by the Assyrians — Their accomplishments in other
arts Page 1

CHAPTER II.

MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS OP THE ASSYRIANS.

The harp — Traces of the ancient Oriental harp in Europe — The Assyrian
lyre and the Nubian kissar — The Assyrian dulcimer and the Persian
santir — The asor — The tamboura or guitar — The double-pipe — The
trumpet — The drum — Assyrian bronze bells found in the ruins of
Nimroud — Tambourine and cymbals — Eemarks on the dancing of
the Assyrian musicians — Traces of some other Assyrian instruments
— Conjectures on the antiquity of stringed instruments played with a
bow — Some peculiar similarities between ancient Asiatic and European
instruments — The names of musical instruments 28

viii CONTENTS.

CHAPTER III.

ASSYRIAN MUSICAL PERFORMANCES.

Various combinations of musical instruments — Description of the Assyrian
bas-reliefs in the British Museum on which musical performers are rei)re-
sented — Other representations of Assyrian musicians briefly described

— The characteristics of the performances — Fondness of the Assyrians
for music — Their songs — Music employed in their religious worship —
Court bands of the kings — Ehythmical character of the music — Oriental
music of the present time — Choruses of the dervishes — Call to Prayer
of the Muezzin — Character of the Assyrian instrumental accompani-
ments — Harmony not entirely unknown to the Assyrians . . Page 89

CHAPTER IV.

MUSICAL SYSTEM OF THE ASSYRIANS.

Resemblance of the Assyrian music to that of other ancient Oriental nations

— The peutatonic scale — The present existence of the pentatonic scale
in various Asiatic nations evidenced by tunes from China, Siam, Java,
Hindoostan, Burmah, and Japan — High antiquity of the pentatonic
scale in Asia — The order of intervals in which the Assyrian stringed
instruments appear to have been usually tuned — Traces of the penta-
tonic scale among the ancient Greeks — The intervals of the Nubian
kissar — Subdivisions of the whole tone — Diffusion of the pentatonic
scale — The pentatonic scale of the ancient American Indians — Traces
of the same scale in the music of the Scotch and other Celtic races —
The peculiar character of the Assyrian music — The probable musical
notation of the Assyrians 122

CHAPTER V.

MUSIC OF THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS.

Egyptian instruments — Various harps — Bruce's harps — Egyptian name
of the harp — The trigonon — The lyre — The tamboura — Peculiar
stringed instruments — Pipes, flutes, double - pipes — Trumpets —
Drums and tambourines — Curious instruments of percussion — The
sistrum — Crotala, cymbals, bells — Vocal and instrumental perform-
ances— The Egyptian musical instruments compared with the Assyrian
— Opinions of some musical historians 180

COISTfENTS. ix

CHAPTER VI.

MUSIC OF THE HEBREWS.

Gradual development of the Hebrew music — Musical instruments —
Diversity of opinion respecting the real nature of some of the
Hebrew instruments — Josephus's account — The chatzozerah — The
shophar — The magrepha — Nebel and nofre — The Hebrew lyre
— Vocal and instrumental performances — Hebrew music of the
present day — Literature of Hebrew music — Eastern origin of our
own music Page 277

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.

Procession of Assyrian musicians to meet the conquerors returning

from Battle, From a bas-relief in the British Museum Front ispicce.

Symbol of Baal, the chief divinity of the Assyrians and Babylonians,

who was worshipped with vocal and instrumental music Title-pciije.

FIG. PAGE

3. Assyrian performer on the harp 29

4. Assyrian performer on the harp 31

5. Assyrian performer on the lyre 38

6. Assyrian performer on the lyre with five strings 38

7. Assyrian performer on a lyre with oblique front bar 39

8. Nubian, playing the kissar (from Prisse's OrzVnia/ ^^6»wi) 40

9. Assyrian performer on the dulcimer 44

10. Assyrian performer on the asor 49

11. Tamboura of the modern Egyptians 52

12. Assyrian performer on the tamboura 54

13. Assyrian image with tamboura 55

14. " The good abode," an Egyptian inscription 56

15. An Assyrian, playing the double-pipe 58

16. An Assyrian, blowing the trumpet 61

17. Part of an Assyrian trumpet 62

18. An Assyrian with a small hand-drum 63

19. Assyrian drum, conical shaped 64

20. Assyrian bells (from Lnyard's Discoveries in the Ruins of Nineveh and

Bahtjlon) 65

21. Assyrian musicians, with lyres, tambourine, and cymbals 73

22. Assyrian cymbals 74

23. Pipe from Babylon 76

24. Pipe from Susa 77

25. Assyrian high-priest (from Layard's Discoveries in the Ruins of Nineveh and
Babylon) 80

26. Head-dress of Assyrian musician 95

27. Ancient Egyptian harp 181

28. Ancient Egyptian harp resting on a stand 182

29. Two ancient Egyptian harps 182

30. Ancient Egyptian harp on a stand 183

31. Tambourine and harp 183

32. Harp with thirteen strings 184

33. Harp with ten strings 190

34. Egyptian harp in the Paris Museum 193

35. The trigonon I95

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. xi

FIG. PAGE

36. A kind of trigonon 195

37. Instruments of the trigonon kind 195

38. Lyres held horizontally 196

39. Lyre held perpendicularly 197

40. Lyre in the Berlin Museum 197

41. Lyre in the Leyden Museum 198

42. Ancient Egyptian tamboura 204

43. Another tamboura 204

44. Tamboura, supported by a strap 204

45. Tamboura, from an Egyptian obelisk 205

46. An Egyptian bos 207

47. A kind of guifcir 208

48. A kind of harp 210

49. Remains of an Egyptian instrument in the British Museum 210

50. Ancient Egyptian instrument with five strings 210

51. Remains of Egyptian stringed instruments 211

52. A kind of lyre 212

53. A peculiar instrument of the ancient Egyptians 212

54. Egyptian reed-pipes in the British Museum 214

55. Ancient Egyptian flute 214

56. Two singers, two harpers, and a flutist 215

57. Performance on the double-pipe, with a rhythmical accompaniment 216

58. Common trumpet of the ancient Egyptians 217

59. Peculiar trumpet of the ancient Egyptians 218

60. Ancient Egyptian drum 218

61. Drum, carried on the back 218

62. Egyptian drum found at Thebes 219

63. Drumstick in the Berlin Museum 219

64. Three tambourines and a darabukkeli 220

65. The darabukkeh of the modern Egyptians 220

66. The double tambourine 221

67. An instrument of percussion and two harps 222

68. An instrument of percussion 222

69. Two sistra 223

70. Sistra in the Berlin Museum 224

71. Sistra, without the bars, in the British Museum 224

72. Model of a sistrum in the Berlin Museum 224

73. Abyssinian priest with sanasel (from Riippell's Reise in Abijssinien') 225

74. Jlen dancing to the rhythmical sound of crotala 226

75. Egyptian cymbals in the British Museum 227

76. Bells of the ancient Egyptians 228

77. Harps and flutes 238

78. Harp, tamboura, and double-pipe 239

79. Harp, two tambouras, and rhythmical accompaniment with the hands 239

80. Double-pipe, harp, two tambouras, and rhythmical accompaniment with the

hands 240

81. Vocal and instrumental music combined 241

82. A harper and singers 242

xii MS'I' (H'" ILLHS'I'IIATIONS.

I'Ki. I'Antc

h;I. SoiifT (,r Mio llniiHlicrH 24:\

H'l. SltCI'I'd IIMIHic III' till' llllcil'lll, I'l^ryplJiiilM 240

Kri. I 'ri(wl,i>HMi<H with hiHt I'll '247

.W. Militiiiy liiiiiil 248

K7. A tiiiiHii'iil piii'ly III' niicioiii K)(y|iUiinH 240

HH. MiMi iliiiiiiiiK 251

H'.K A iiiiiii iliuii'iii^ nl(iiii< in llin rliyUiiniciil miiiihIh iirrlii|ijiiii^ lln' IimihIh 252

{)(). .li'Hlri'H iJHiii'iii^ 252

1)1. lii'lii'i'W I'liiii ill Mil' Hi'iiriHli MimiMiin 201

O'J. Till' llcliii'w t.iiim|ii'l. riilii'ij iilio|ilmr (hIhIcIiwI f'lom iiml.runioiitH used in Mm

Hyiiii^;iij;iirM) 29.'t

O.'l. Aiirii'iil. Iiiif;|ii|ir rriiiii 'riiiKim (I'ruiii r>iiiiu'r'H ('ilicia <ind ita (loiwrnom) 298

!)'l. Till) Hiipiiimcil lirliii'w lyii' 302

05. (iiiiilivi" iiiiiHii'iniiH Jiliiyiiijj on Kiiin^;iMi iiiKliiiinriilj^, !;u|i|i(imi'i| In liri .(rwM .'!().'<

(((!. Ili'lirrw ciiiiifi wiili iJit- lyri>, in (lio Ilrilisii Miisi'iiin .'tOK

MUSIC

THE MOST ANCIENT NATIONS.

(jiiajtj:u j.

^ririO OLDEST RIOCOKDH ON MUSIC.

ItcprcHcnliitioiiH of muHiciil inHlrumcnts on ancient HciilptiiniH and painUn^H

— National muHi(; ;iji|ili(!(i lo ctlinology — Monuniontal rcconlH rc-
ferrinfi; (o AH.syriiUi niUHic — Tiio riiiiiH of Nitnroud, KliorHahad, and
Koiiyunjilc — 'I'lii; extent to wiiicli the cliaractcsrlHticH of AH.syrian niMsic
can lie jiKcortiiiiied from the reprcHcntationH of tlio iiiHtruincntH — 'I'lie
gi'adiiid deveiopMKsnt of inuwic from Hh most |)riniitive Htato, demon-
strated liy a e<jmi)ariHon of the mu.sic of modern nationH in different
Hla^^cH of civiii/.jition — 'J'lie carlioHt musical instruments — Kxam|)le8
of musical scales in use amon^ nations in different stages of civilization

— The earliest development of vocal music — 'J'he deforce of progress
in music attained by tlio Assyrians — Tluiir accomplishments in other
arts.

It i'h iinnoccHsaTy for ilio purpoHC of IIiIh work to
notice tlie mytliological accounts and logcndw found
among different nationw reRpecting tlie. origin and
early dcveloprmint of irmsic. Neither necid I trouble
the reader witli a reiteration of the oldest records
on this art given in Holy Writ. With these I
may presume c^very one to be acquainted ; at all
events a reference to Burney's ' History of Music,'
or any sirniljir work, will at once supply the inrpn'rer
with such inlormation. My object is to submit a
few obs(U'v:tiioiis whi(;li .'ire not to be found in those
books, but which seem to me useful as introductory
to tlui following pages, l)ecausc they indicate the

2 THE OLDEST RECOEDS ON MUSIC. Chap. I.

point of view from which the music of the Assyrians,
as an ai't, ought to be considered, in order to be pro-
perly understood.

Before proceeding further, it must be observed
how much new Kght has been thrown on the state of
music of different ancient nations by the various
interesting researches and discoveries made in the
course of the present century. Not only have we
become better acquainted, by means of scul|)tures and
paintings, with the musical instruments of several
ancient nations, but in some instances the actual
instruments have been discovered in tombs or other
places, where, protected from the destroying influ-
ences of air and damp, they had remained almost
unchanged during a marvellously long period. It
seems indeed almost incredible, but it is nevertheless
a fact, that in one of the famous sepulchres at Thebes
an Egyptian harp was found, with catgut strings
which, when touched, still emitted sounds, though the
instrument had been immured and mute probably
about three thousand years.

With the musical instruments of the ancient Egyp-
tians especially we have become more intimately
acquainted during the present century, by means of
sculptures and frescoes, which not only furnish repre-
sentations of instruments, but also show us their use
in musical performances, and display the peculiar cus-
toms of the people among whom music was common.

Besides the music of the ancients, we have become
gradually more familiar with that of contemporary
nations in every part of the globe ; — at all events,
more attention is paid now to national music than
formerly, though this subject does not in my opinion
yet receive that consideration which it deserves.

Chap. I. STUDY OF NATIONAL MUSIC. 3

Hitherto it has been almost entirely disregarded by
musical savants. Sir John Hawkins, in the. preface
to his ' History of Music,' says : " The best music of
barbarians is said to be hideous and astonishing
sounds. Of what importance then can it be to in-
quire into a practice that has not its foundation in
science or system, or to know what are the sounds
that most delight a Hottentot, a wild American, or
even a more refined Chinese?" I have transcribed
Hawkins's own words, because he precisely expresses
the prevailing opinioD, not only of his own day, but
also of the present time. I think, however, a few
moments' reflection will convince the reader of its
fallacy. The study of national music is especially
useful to the musician, because it enlarges his musical
conception, and secures him from one-sidedness and
an unwarranted predilection for any peculiar style or
any particular composer.

Many national tunes are delightfully beautiful, and
are therefore eminently fitted for improving the taste
and preparing it for a higher appreciation and a ju-
dicious cultivation of what is refined and beautiful in
art. Our best composers, as might be expected, have
been fully aware of this ; indeed, they have been the
most ardent admirers of national music, and have not
unfrequently evinced this by imitations of national
tunes, or by adopting them into their works. Han-
del's beautiful Pastorale in the ' Messiah ' owes its
origin to a song of the Italian Pifferari, — Cala-
brian peasants, who, according to an ancient custom,
make their appearance in Rome about Christmas,
to perform their pastoral melodies before the shrines
of the Holy Virgin ; — Mendelssohn also is in-
debted for the theme of the admirable Scherzo in his

B 2

4 THE OLDEST RECORDS ON MUSIC. Chap. I.

Symphony in A minor to a well-known Scottish
melody.

And though the music of some nations may appear
to us harsh and rude, it not unfrequently gains upon
us when we have, so to say, become reconciled to its
unpolished exterior, and are no longer unable to catch
its true spirit. This may be said to be the case, for
instance, with the music of the Hungarians and Wal-
lachians, which, however strange and unsatisfactory
it may appear to the ear of those not accustomed to
it, has great charms for the initiated.

Moreover, national music which may seem to us
entirely devoid of beauty, possesses generally some
characteristic peculiarities in rhythm or modulation,
which afford valuable hints to the reflecting musician ;
so much so, that, when judiciously employed and en-
nobled in musical composition, they may be made to
produce new and charming effects.

Likewise a knowledge of the nature and construction
of the numerous musical instruments used by different
nations may be, and indeed has often been, suggestive
in inventing and improving our own instruments.

Even if it were true that the music of those nations
only which have cultivated this art scientifically, could
be considered worthy of being inquired into, it is evi-
dent that the contempt with which Hawkins speaks of
the music of the Chinese is inconsistent with his own
dogma, since they, as well as the Hindoos, Persians,
Arabs, and several other nations, all of which are
entirely ignored by him, actually jDOSsessed musical
systems long before our own was developed.

Again, in an ethnological point of view, an ac-
quaintance with national music must be, I should
think, interesting. There are sometimes striking re-

Chap. I. STUDY OF NATIONAL MUSIC. 5

semblances in the musical scales, in peculiarly cha-
racteristic modulations, or in the construction and
employment of the musical instruments, between two
different nations, so that the ethnologist may perhaps
find therein hints, either affording him additional
evidence in substantiating a preconceived theory, or
perhaps even suggesting some entirely new investi-
gation. Thus, though the remarkable resemblance
of the music and musical instruments of the Japanese
with those of the Chinese cannot be considered as a
sufficient proof that these two nations derived their
civilization from the same source, yet in combination
with other evidence it may point to a conclusion
almost irrefragable.

And as in their songs the people express generally
their innermost feelings and aspirations, national
music would even on this account alone be highly in-
teresting to the intelligent mind, because it exhibits
the true character of a nation.

Moreover, a knowledge of it is an especial assistance
in investigating the music of ancient nations such as
the Assyrians or the Egyptians, and it is for this reason
that I have thought it necessary to say thus much on
a subject which must otherwise appear irrelevant.

Concerning the music of the Assyrians little or
nothing is to be found in our musical literature ; nor
could it be otherwise, since the discoveries which give
us some insight into its character are of very recent
date. These are almost the only sources from which
information can be obtained ; and as they are yet
very limited, the result of an investigation of them
must necessarily be in many points unsatisfactory.
However, as regards a nation such as the Assyrians,
who played for a long time an important part in the

6 THE OLDEST RECOEDS ON MUSIC. Chap. I.

history of the world, and whose power, wealth, enter-
prise, and military greatness, as recorded in the
Bible, have been, so to say, brought before our eyes
through recent discoveries, — any investigation which
is likely to assist in throwing additional light upon
its state of civilization cannot but be interesting.
Besides, through the music of the Assyrians we may
also possibly become better acquainted with that of the
Hebrews, so often mentioned in the Bible, on which
many treatises have been written, but which neverthe-
less is so imperfectly understood that even the meaning
of frequently-occurring musical terms and expressions,
and the nature of some of the most usual Hebrew in-
struments, have not been exactly ascertained.

The discovered monuments of the Assyrians, on
which the musical instruments are represented, con-
sist of bas-reliefs. Most of them are at present de-
posited in the British Museum. They have been
obtained from three extensive mounds near the river
Tigris in Asiatic Turkey. These mounds owe their
origin to the natural accumulation of rubbish and
earth over the ruins of destroyed edifices. They are
known as the mounds of Nimroud, Khorsabad, and
Kouyunjik.

Nimroud, situated about twenty miles to the south
of the town of Mosul, was explored in 1847 and 1850
by Mr. Layard, and the discovered bas-reliefs have
been transmitted to the British Museum.

Khorsabad, about ten miles to the north-east of
Mosul, has been excavated by M. Botta, French
Consul at Mosul. Most of the sculptures obtained
by him are at present in the Louvre.

The mound of Kouyunjik, which is believed to
contain the ruins of tlie ancient city of Nineveh, is

Chap. I. ASSYRIAN INSTEUMENTS. 7

situated in the immediate vicinity of Mosul, on tlie
opposite bank of the Tigris. Mr. Lajard, in his
* Monuments of Nineveh,' observes that many of the
sculptures from this mound were, when discovered,
in too advanced a stage of decay to bear removal,
and have already perished. A valuable collection
was, nevertheless, secured by him, and is now exhi-
bited in a separate gallery in the British Museum.
Another very interesting series of slabs from Kou-
yunjik has recently been obtained, also for the British
Museum, by Mr. Hormuzd Eassam, and by Mr. Loftus,
who excavated the mound in 1853 and the two
following years, under the direction of Sir H. 0.
Rawlinson, who resided at that time as British
Consul-General in Bagdad.

According to the opinion of the most competent
judges on Assyrian history, the period in which
these monuments were executed commences about
1000 years B.C. The musical instruments represented
thereon must of course be older, and may have
existed many centuries before that time. This appears
the more probable when we consider that they were
used at religious and popular ceremonies, and in re-
presentations of historical events of earlier times.

It may perhaps be objected that from the mere
representations of the instruments, which moreover
are, in not a few instances, imperfectly preserved
and partly obliterated, but little reliable information
respecting the characteristics of Assyrian music can
be gathered. However, it must be borne in mind
that musical instruments are often so constructed as
to permit only the use of certain intervals or com-
binations of sounds. This is the case with several
of the Assyrian instruments, as I shall endeavour

8 THE OLDEST RECOKDS ON MUSIC. Chap. I.

hereafter to explain. Besides, almost all these in-
struments are yet in existence in different parts of
the East, and are played upon by the people almost
precisely in the same manner as we see that they
were handled nearly 3000 years ago by the Assy-
rians. And it is remarkable also that several of the
peculiar customs or ceremonies with which music
was connected, according to the representations on
the Assyrian sculptures, are yet to be found in the
East. I trust a consideration of these facts will make
it appear less presumptuous in me if, from an exami-
nation of the slabs, in connexion with other sug-
gestive hints which will be noticed afterwards, I
venture to come to a definite and certain conclusion
respecting the nature of the musical system of the
Assyrians.

There is another point with reference to our oldest
records on music, on which it seems to me necessary
to say here a few words. Nothing is more usual
than the notion that, in order to trace the art of
music from its most primitive state and to observe
its gradual development, we must commence our
inquiries by penetrating the most remote periods.
This, however, is erroneous, as I shall have soon
an opportunity of proving. Indeed it will be seen
that among the most ancient nations known to us —
the Assyrians as well as the ancient Egyptians and
Hebrews — music had already attained a degree of
perfection considerably higher than we meet with in
many nations of our own time.

A clear idea of the gradual development of the
art of music, from its most primitive condition to
that degree of perfection in which it at present exists
among ourselves, may be best obtained by examining

Cbap. I. ASSYRIAN MUSIC. 9

the music of contemporary nations in different stages
of civilisation. At the same time it is necessary to
compare the music of several nations standing in the
same scale of civilisation, because climate, the usual
occupations of a people, and other circumstances, are
here not without a modifying influence. Thus, in
order to ascertain how music reveals itself in its
earliest infancy, we ought to observe it not only
among the natives of the Fuegian Archipelago, or
the Esquimaux, but also among the natives of Aus-
tralia, of New Guinea, and others in a similarly low
state of civilisation, who are placed in a part of the
globe which impels them to pursuits and habits dif-
ferent from those which we find among the former.

Some knowledge of this kind seems to me abso-
lutely requisite for an unbiassed examination of the
music of an ancient nation like the Assyrian. If we
were to consider it only from the level of our own
highly cultivated music, starting with the assumption
that the musical system of the Assyrians must have
been similar to our own, though less perfect — that
they possessed scales and rhythmical constructions
similar to ours, though probably much more incom-
plete— that their musical compositions must have
been the less good the less they resembled the com-
positions of Mozart and Beethoven — if we were to
commence our inquiries from this one-sided point of
view, we should be led to partial and unsatisfactory
conclusions.

The reader will therefore do well to bear in mind
the following brief observations, which result from a
comparison of the music of the different nations of
the present time, as I have just indicated.

Vocal music, regarded historically, takes precedence

10 THE OLDEST RECOEDS ON MUSIC. Chap. I.

by its antiquity of instrumental music. There exist
even at the present time a few savage tribes who,
though possessing a number of songs, are almost
entirely unacquainted with musical instruments. If
they accompany their vocal effusions at all, it is only
with the rhythmical sounds produced by clapping of
hands, or by beating pieces of wood together. Gene-
rally, however, the most uncivilised nations at pre-
sent existing employ for this purpose some rhythmical
instruments, especially the drum and the rattle. The
invention of these instruments is very naturally ac-
counted for. Indeed it is not improbable that man
was led by the animating effect of the regular accom-
panying sounds of his steps, in walking while sing-
ing, to invent such instruments to heighten the effect
of his songs, especially in processions and dances.
At all events it is not surprising that we meet with
them at an earlier period than with any others. The
variety in construction, shape, and size of the dif-
ferent kinds of drums, found in almost every part of
the world, is indeed remarkable. It would almost
require a separate work to describe them.

A step further, and some rude wind-instruments
make their appearance. The pipe, generally made
of reed or wood, appears at first without finger-holes,
and only capable of emitting one or two notes.
Similarly incomplete is the horn or trumpet, usually
constructed of the horn of an animal in which a
mouth-hole has been cut ; or consisting of pieces of
wood fixed tightly together, like the Swiss Alp-horn
and the Lure of the Scandinavians ; or made of the
tusk of an animal, as the large ivory triunpets of
the negroes of Western Africa, which are simply the
hollowed tusks of elephants.

Chap. I. EAKLY RUDE INSTRUMENTS. 11

Another step further and we find, in addition to
those already mentioned, some rude wind-instruments
formed by a combination of a number of pipes, such
as the double-pipe and the Pandean-pipe (the syrinx
of the ancients). The latter especially is to be found
among many savage tribes in different parts of the
globe. This instrument is particularly remarkable
as being the first producing a series of notes of dif-
ferent pitch, and therefore the first on which a
melody, or what may be called a tune, could be
played. But it must not be supposed that in the
rudest instruments of this kind any regular order
of succession of notes is observed. On the contrary,
the notes succeed each other without any systematical
arrangement whatever.

Next we meet with instruments consisting of a
series of pieces of sonorous wood, which are made to
vibrate by being beaten with a stick or hammer, like
our harmonicon. The invention of instruments of
this description seems to have suggested itself to
many nations at a very early stage of musical pro-
gress ; nor is this to be wondered at, considering that
sometimes a merely rhythmical instrument like the
drum, when made of hard wood or any other particu-
larly sonorous substance, will emit a distinct tone in-
stead of a confused sound. The effect accidentally pro-
duced by a few such drums beaten at the same time
must have soon directed man's attention to the in-
vention of a united series of wooden slabs of different
pitch. It is therefore not surprising that instruments
of the harmonicon species should exist in many dif-
ferent parts of the world. Some savage tribes possess
them at present in a very imperfect state ; but gene-
rally we find them improved by the addition of some

THE OLDEST RECORDS ON MUSIC.

Chap. I,

contrivance for increasing the sound, like our sound-
ing-board. The negroes use gourds for this purpose.
What I have said of the notes of the syrinx apphes
also here. Where these instruments exist in a most
primitive condition, no regular succession of intervals
is traceable, but the relation of the notes to each
other is seemingly quite unpremeditated and acci-
dental. However at present there are but few nations
so little advanced in music as not to possess some
kind of order in the notes produced on their instru-
ments, or what might be considered as some approach
to a musical scale. The following examples, selected
from a number which I obtained by an examination
and careful comparison of the instruments to which
they appertain, may further elucidate my observa-
tions : —

1. Syeinx. — Tonoia Islands.

2. Another.

:.^=zr|:z=z±:z=^E===t=

:t=F

?d«?:

3. Another.

±Z

4. Zanze. — Senegambia.

'i-l*— ^"

Chap. L

EXAMPLES OF EUDE MUSIC.
5. VissANDScHi. — Congo.

533

:1:

-+-»!-

«_«-

tf^-*-

6. Zanze. — Guinea.

=i:

-m>- |7a,i- -#-
7. Syeinx. — Ancient Peru.

t=;J=-'

-!«- i*

8. Pipe. — Ancient Mexico.

^=±

W-

:q:

9. Gambang gangsa. — Java.

:^=F=

lii^ii^ii^

f3^El.

10. A KIND OF Harmokicon. — China.

53.^iife

^^sppiPEeEE

:[=C:

^^g^

11. Balafo. — Senegambia.

i=t:

f.^^

:i^^

12. Balafo. — Mandingoes,

^-j^-..

na^— ^-

^^^lE

w^^^

14 THE OLDEST RECORDS ON MUSIC. Chap. I.

Nos. 1, 2, and 3 are the notes of three syrinxes
from the Friendly or Tonga Islands in the Pacific
Ocean. The syrinx No. 1 was brought by Captain
Fourneanx from Tongataboo (formerly called the Isle
of Amsterdam), and is the same which has been de-
scribed in the ' Philosophical Transactions of the
Royal Society,' vol. Ixv. Nos. 2 and 3 are from in-
struments in the British Museum : the former consists
of nine pipes, and the latter of ten, which, when
blown with an unusually strong breath, produce
other notes besides those above indicated. No. 2
may be considered as belonging to the diatonic scale
of A major, and No. 3 to that of d major. The ar-
rangement in the succession of the notes may perhaps
have been suggested by the notes of some birds ; at
least such is the impression produced upon the hearer
when the pipes are sounded in a moderately fast time.
Nos. 4, 5, and 6 show the notes of three zanzes.
The zanze (in different parts of Africa known also by
the names of ambira, marimha, ibeka, vissandsclii, &c.)
is a favourite instrument of the negroes, especially of
those in Senegambia and in Upper and Lower Guinea.
It consists of a wooden box on which a number of
sonorous slips of wood, or tongues of iron, are fixed
in such a position as to admit of their being made to
vibrate by pressing them down with the thumb or
with a stick. Of the above instruments No. 4 con-
sists of slips of wood or cane ; the others have
tongues of iron. They are in the possession of Victor
Schcelcher, Esq., who kindly permitted me to ex-
amine his interesting collection of musical instru-
ments. The succession of the notes in these three
instruments a23i3ears, as will be observed in the above
examples, to be quite arbitrary.

Chap. I. EXPLANATION OF EXAMPLES. 15

No. 7 shows the intervals of a syrinx, called
huayra-puhura, of the ancient Peruvians. Several
instruments of this kind, made either of reed or of
stone, have been discovered in ancient tombs. The
present one, which may be seen in the British
Museum, contains a double row of reed-pipes, of
which one is open below, and the other closed.

No. 8 shows the intervals of an instrument of the
ancient Mexicans, a kind of flageolet with four finger-
holes.

No. 9 shows the intervals of the gamhang gangsa, a
kind of harmonicon with metal plates, from Java ;
and No. 10 the intervals of a Chinese instrument of
a similar description, but made entirely of wood. It
will be seen that these instruments have the notes of
our diatonic scale, with the exception of the intervals
of the fourth and seventh. The two semitones of our
diatonic scale are consequently wanting, and there
are only five different notes in the compass of an
octave. On the other hand there are two minor thirds
which in our diatonic scale do not occur, viz. from
the third to the fifth, and from the sixth to the
octave. As I shall have afterwards to refer to this
peculiar scale, which is to be found in several Asiatic
nations, and which existed evidently in former ages
with others where at present only a few traces of its
former existence are perceptible, I may add that I
have given it, by way of distinction from the dia-
tonic scale, the name oipentatonic scale.

It is remarkable that the music of the ancient Inca
Peruvians, and of the Aztecs in Mexico, was also
founded upon this scale, as will be seen indicated in
the notations Nos. 7 and 8, and as I could further
prove by corroborative evidence. This fact may be

16 THE OLDEST EECORDS ON MUSIC. Chap. I.

suggestive to the ethnologist, as pointing to an early
connexion between the American Indians and Asiatic
nations.

Nos. 11 and 12 exhibit the intervals appertaining
to two halafoes of the negroes of Senegambia. The
Mandingoes, from whom the second of these has been
obtained, are, it will be remembered, a people widely
spread through Western Africa, and somewhat more
advanced in civilization than most other negro tribes.
The fact that on the balafo, which is a species of
harmonicon, we meet with our diatonic scale (and I
could point out other nations even less advanced than
the Mandingoes who are acquainted with this scale),
may tend to the conclusion that this scale naturally
suggests itself wherever sufficient progess in music
has been made for the adoption of any distinct and
regular succession of intervals. Even if we assume
that, where we find this scale among uncivilized
nations, it must have been derived from Europeans,
as is in many instances undoubtedly the case, it
proves at all events that there exists very universally
a natural susceptibility for it, and that it is therefore
a less artificial scale than theorists have frequently
declared it to be. However, 1 hope to show that it is
not the only scale with which a nation must neces-
sarily become acquainted in its musical progress.

After the invention of the syrinx and the har-
monicon, the next important step in the development
of instrumental music was the discovery that upon a
single pipe different notes are producible by means of
finger-holes. A great variety exists of such instru-
ments, blown with the mouth, or with the nose, as
the nose-flutes of the Society and Feejee Islanders,
and the poogyee of the Hindoos. I could point out

Chap. I. EARLY STRINGED INSTRUMENTS. 17

several nations or tribes who, when first visited by
Europeans, possessed such instruments, though they
were entirely unacquainted with stringed instruments.
There is, however, one stringed instrument which,
among some savage nations, is found at a very early
stage of musical progress, and before the invention
of wind-instruments with finger-holes. This is merely
an elastic stick bent with one or two strings, like a
bow. Indeed it is very probable that the bow used
in the chase and in war suggested this instrument,
which in its turn seems to have led to the invention
of several others, in which the shape of the bow is
more or less discernible. We may then consider this
primitive bow-shaped stringed instrument as the
great ancestor of the harp, lyre, and other similarly
constructed stringed instruments.

In most instances, however, those nations who are
only acquainted with one stringed instrument con-
struct this by stretching some strings over a hollow
piece of wood or a calabash. The strings, usually
consisting of the fibre of some plant or the hair of
some animal, are played upon either with the hand
or with a plectrum made of wood, bone, or any other
suitable substance. In a more perfect condition an
instrument of this description greatly resembles our
dulcimer. It may therefore be considered the parent
of the latter, from which again ultimately have
sprung the harpsichord, spinet, pianoforte, and all
similar instruments.

Important progress in the development of instru-
mental music was made by the invention of the
finger-board, or neck, by means of which a series of
different notes is obtainable on one string, merely by

18 THE OLDEST RECOKDS ON MUSIC. Chap. I.

shortening it more or less, as is the case with the
guitar, lute, tamboura, and others.

Stringed instruments played with a bow are the
least universal. They are however met with not only
throughout Europe, but also among the Chinese,
Hindoos, Japanese, and other Asiatic nations.

The invention of keyed instruments, like our piano-
forte and organ, is entirely European, and of com-
paratively recent date. The rudiments of these in-
struments, however, have existed in Asia from a very
remote period. The Chinese, as well as the Japanese,
possess two distinct instruments wdiich in construction
bear a remarkable resemblance to our organ. One of
these, the cheng of the Chinese, consists of a box or
bowl, into which a number of tubes of different
length and pitch are inserted. Each of these tubes
contains a small metallic tongue, like the so-called
free-reed stops of our organ, or like our accordion.
The instrument is made to sound by being blown
with the mouth through a kind of spout at the side
of the bowl, and the tubes have holes to be played
upon with the fingers. In Laos and Siam there is
also a species of organ constructed on a principle
similar to the cheng, though entirely dissimilar in out-
ward appearance.

In indicating the order in which the different kinds
of instruments make their appearance in the de-
velopment of music, I do not of course intend to im-
ply that this order necessarily occurs in every nation,
but only that it is the most usual. Extraordinary
influences not unfrequently produce exceptions : thus
an uncivilized nation coming in contact with a civi-
lized one is most likely to adopt the inventions of the

CuAP. I. DEVELOPMENT OF VOCAL MUSIC. 19

latter, without experiencing the gradual degrees of
progression which in the course of time led to these
inventions. The Hottentots in South Africa — a
people particularly ingenious as well as fond of
music — having become acquainted with the violin
through the Dutch boors who settled among them,
soon contrived to construct similar instruments, and
learned to play them ; so that at present a rude kind
of violin is not uncommon among the Hottentots,
and may be considered as one of their national in-
struments, although they are unacquainted with
several others which have usually preceded the
invention of stringed instruments played with a
bow.

The earliest development of vocal music is closely
connected with that of instrumental music. The
melodies of songs are not unfrequently performed by
the people on their instruments, and melodies ori-
ginally invented on instruments are often adopted as
tunes of songs by being wedded to words. Certain
characteristics in national songs — as, for instance, a
peculiar succession of intervals, a frequent occurrence
of certain groups of notes, passages, or modulations —
can therefore be frequently traced to some favourite
instrument which, from the nature of its construction,
suggests or perhaps demands these characteristics.
For this reason it is often possible, solely from an
exact acquaintance with the musical instruments of
a nation, to determine with much certainty the chief
characteristics of its vocal music.

The songs of savages in the lowest scale of civiliza-
tion are generally confined to the compass of few
notes, seldom extending beyond the interval of the
fifth. Sometimes, however, a sudden transition into

c 2

20 THE OLDEST KECORDS ON MUSIC. Chap, I.

tlie octave occurs, especially in sudden exclamations,
or where a word naturally dictates an emphatic rais-
ing of the voice. ThQ fifth especially plays a promi-
nent part in primitive vocal music. As far as I have
been able to ascertain from an examination of many
songs of this description, derived from different
nations, it appears that, with respect to their more or
less frequent occurrence, the intervals range in the
following order : — Prime, fifth, third, second, sicth,
octave, fourth, seventh. But it must not be supposed
that each interval is distinctly intoned : on the con-
trary, in the transition from one interval to another,
all the intermediate intervals are slightly touched in
a way somewhat similar to a violinist drawing his
finger rapidly over the string from one note to an-
other to connect them ; and as the intervals them-
selves are seldom clearly defined, it will easily be
understood how nearly impossible it is to write down
such songs in our notation so as to convey a correct
idea of their natural effect. In instances where the
major third is not distinctly intoned, it sometimes
gives the impression of minor ; and I have reason to
believe that many songs have been written down in
minor by collectors which would have been more pro-
perly written in major.

Savages are generally very imitative. Their
dances are often representations of the peculiar mo-
tions and gambols of certain animals ; and the motivos
of their songs have not unfrequently been derived
from a similar source, especially from the songs of
birds. Sometimes this can be distinctly traced. As
an example I shall only mention the Aangitsch songs
of the natives of Kamtschatka, which derive their
name as well as their origin from a wild duck (^Anas

Chap. I. POWER OF MUSICAL COMPOSITION INNATE. 21

gkicialis) which appears in Kamtschatka at a certain
season in large flocks. The notes of this bird are —

=^:

:=T

but the same pitch is not constant in all birds of this
description, some emitting the notes higher, some
lower. It may be easily imagined what a variety of
melodious sounds must be produced from a whole
flock of these birds. This explains also how it hap-
pens that the Aangitsch songs, which form a particular
class of national songs of the Kamtschadales, are very
different from each other, although all have been
derived from the same source.

We should however err were we to infer, as some
speculators have done, from such facts, that in a
primitive stage of the art all vocal compositions
consisted only of imitations or adoptions of sounds
derived from the animated world. The power of
creating an expressive melody is an innate gift which
the most primitive savage may possess as fully as the
most highly civilized man. Susceptibility for music
is, in a greater or less degree, natural to all men, and
is not dependent on the state of civilization which
has been attained. The savage thus gifted, however
little in some respects he may be elevated above the
animal, is likely, when influenced by strong emo-
tions, to be led by a natural impulse to give vent to
his feelings in musical phrases improvised at the
moment, without any external aid. If these phrases,
or rather melodies, are particularly impressive and
pleasing to others, they are soon caught and retained
in the memory, and further circulated among the
people. Such is usually the origin of national songs.

22 THE OLDEST RECORDS ON MUSIC. Chap. I.

which, however, as they mostly are only traditionally
preserved, frequently undergo, in the course of time,
considerable alterations by additions, extensions, or
otherwise.

With respect to the form of vocal music in its in-
fancy, I m.ust not omit to notice the usual combina-
tion of voices in which two or more sing alternately,
or in which a chorus responds to a leader, who is
more generally the chief or superior of the party
than the superior musician. This mode of singing
has been observed in many uncivilized nations. We
find it, for instance, among the New Zealanders in
dragging their canoes overland ; among the palan-
quin-bearers in Hindoostan ; among the negro slaves
in Brazil, when employed in carrying heavy burdens ;
among the Egyptian boatmen on the Nile. And such
is also the oldest form of vocal performance recorded
in the Bible. After the miraculous escape of the
Jews through the Eed Sea, and the destruction of
the pursuing enemy (about 1500 B.C.), "Miriam the
prophetess, the sister of Aaron, took a timbrel in her
hand ; and all the women went out after her with
timbrels and with dances. And Miriam answered
them, Sing ye to the Lord, for he has triumphed
gloriously ; the horse and his rider hath he thrown
into the sea" (Exodus xv. 20). Again, about four
centuries later, when David returned from the
slaughter of the Philistine Goliath, " the women
came out of all the cities of Israel, singing and
dancing, to meet King Saul, with tabrets, with joy,
and with instruments of music. And the women
answered one another as they played, and said, Saul has
slain his thousands, and David his ten thousands"
(1 Sam. xviii. 6). From the construction of some of

Chap. I. EARLY CHORAL MUSIC. 23

the Psalms it appears also that the Jews practised
alternate singing of this nature during their religious
observances in the Temple. I may cite as an ex-
ample the cxxxvi. Psalm, with its regular repeti-
tion of the sentence, " for his mercy endureth for
ever." Later we find in the Christian Church a
similar form, which has been preserved until the
present time in our antiphonal responses.

There are so many noteworthy facts relating to
the earliest development of the art of music, as ob-
served among different nations, that I should gladly
have extended my observations on this branch of my
subject, w^ere this the proper place for so doing.
However, the above sketch, imperfect though it be,
will, I believe, be sufficient to prepare the reader for
an unbiassed examination of the music of the Assy-
rians, Egyptians, and Hebrews, which is the chief
object of this book. I may add that those who desire
to learn more about national music will find informa-
tion and drawings of foreign instruments in a work
shortly to be published, in which 1 have endeavoured
to show that an acquaintance with the characteristics
of the music of different nations may be an assistance
in ethnological researches, as well as in the study of
musical composition.

The Assyrians, as we learn from their monuments,
not only possessed a variety of pulsatile, wind, and
stringed instruments, but they also understood how
to employ different kinds of stringed instruments in
concert, either in mere instrumental performances or
in connexion with vocal music. Moreover they were
acquainted with the use of the finger-board, by means
of which a great number of distinct notes are attain-
able on a few strings, like those on the guitar or

24 THE OLDEST RECORDS ON MUSIC. Chap. I.

mandoline. We may therefore conclude that their
musical acquirements were considerably in advance
of those of some nations of the present day.

Progress in music is generally slower than in other
arts, because much depends on the auxiliary aid of
musical instruments, which require to be invented or
improved previous to the music which is performed
upon them being advanced. We may therefore con-
clude, from the progress which the Assyrians had
made in music, that they must also have progressed
considerably in other arts, and must have attained a
degree of cultivation in taste and social refinement
altogether remarkable. This conclusion is corrobo-
rated by the accounts of the Assyrians which we find
in the Bible, and confirmed by the sculptured bas-
reliefs to which I have alluded. The same opinion
is held by scholars who have made the history of the
Assyrians their special study. Mr. Bonomi, in his
interesting work on Nineveh, has given a graphic
account of the high state of perfection to which
several of their arts had attained. Of sculpture he
says, " The most striking facts that j^resent them-
selves to our imagination, in contemplating the re-
mains of the Assyrian palaces, are the perfection to
which the art of sculpture had arrived at so remote
a period, and the important evidence they afford of
conversance with the most refined arts of life, both
indicating a pitch of civilization that we should find
it difficult to reconcile with the most extended scheme
of chronology, if at the same time we were bound to
suppose that the first settlers in the land were in a
parallel state of ignorance and degradation with the
inhabitants of New South Wales, or with those of the
back- woods of America. The Scriptures, however.

Chap. I. ASSYEIAN ART. 25

afford ample evidence of a primitive civilization,
especially in the knowledge of the working in metals,
and of other refined arts (Gen. iv. 17, 21, 22), even
before the Deluge ; and this testimony, we appre-
hend, sufficiently accounts for any degree of pro-
ficiency we find in the works of art of these remote
ages, and for that early civilization of the human
family which the contemplation of these sculptures
suggests."

Again, with respect to other accomplishments, we
are told, " The Assyrians were able to work the
hardest as well as the softest substances, with a view
to their employment in building or other purposes.
This is proved by the jasper or crystal cylinders, and
by the bas-reliefs sculptured on gypsum or siliceous
basalt. They were acquainted with glass and various
kinds of enamels. They could bake clay for bricks
or vases, the quality of the clay varying in fineness
according to the purpose for which the vases were
intended. . . . The Assyrians were also acquainted
with the art of founding, of working, and even ham-
mering out various metals ; the latter branch of
manufactures having acquired great perfection among
them, as can be seen by the little statue of the bronze
lion, the nails, calf's head, &c. The metal most fre-
quently used appears to have been copper, as was the
case with all people of antiquity. . . . Among those
who traded in ' blue cloths and embroidered work '
with Tyre, Ezekiel (xxvii. 24) enumerates the mer-
chants of Asshur, or Assyria. In these stuffs, gold
threads (Pliny, viii. 48) were introduced into the
woof of many colours, and were no doubt the ' dyed
attire and embroidered work' so frequently men-
tioned in Scripture as the most costly and splendid

26 THE OLDEST KECORUS ON MUSIC. Chap. I.

garments of kings and princes. The cotton manu-
factures were equally celebrated and remarkable, and
are mentioned by Pliny as the invention of Semi-
ramis, who is stated by many writers of antiquity to
have founded large weaving establishments along the
banks of the Tigris and Euphrates. The silken robes
of Assyria, the produce chiefly of the looms of Baby-
lon, were renowned long after the fall of the Assy-
rian empire, and retained their hold of the market
even to the time of the Eoman supremacy. Frequent
allusions are found in classic authors to the brilliancy
and magnificence of the Babylonian carpets, which
were embroidered with symbolic figures, together
with animals and conventional forms. . . . Copper
constantly occurs in their weapons, and most pro-
bably a mixture of it was used in the materials of
their tools. They had acquired the art of making
glass, an invention usually attributed to the Phoe-
nicians. Several small bottles or vases of this sub-
stance, of an elegant shape, were found at Nimroud
and Kouyunjik. The well-known cylinders are a
sufficient proof of their skill in engraving gems.
Many beautiful specimens of carving in ivory were
also discovered — an interesting illustration of a pas-
sage in Ezekiel (xxvii. 6), where the company of
Assyrians are described as the makers of the ivory
benches of the Tyrian galleys : ' The company of the
Ashurites have made thy benches of ivory, brought
out of the isles of Chittim.' Some tablets of ivory
from Nimroud are richly inlaid with blue opaque
glass, lapis lazuli, &c." ^

In concluding these introductory observations, I

' Nincvcli and its Palaces, by Joseph Bononii, London, 1853, p. 323, &c.

Chap. I. ASSYRIAN MUSIC. 27

shall only point out that the music of the Assyrians,
though evidently greatly inferior to our own, yet
appears to have attained to a degree of perfection
which it could have reached only after a long period
of cultivation. It is not at all probable that music
should have attained such a degree of perfection by
cultivation during the existence of one nation, how-
ever extended the period of this existence may have
been. We are therefore reasonably led to infer that
the Assyrians derived their music in an already
somewhat advanced state from some other nation or
nations unknown to us, and that they only further
developed what had been transmitted to them. This
view may appear merely conjectural. I trust, how-
ever, that a perusal of the following pages will con-
vince the reader that it is not advanced without some
plausible reason. Moreover the oldest records on
music in Holy Writ also tend in some measure to
confirm my hypothesis.

28 MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS OF THE ASSYRIANS. Chap. II.

CHAPTER II.

MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS OF THE ASSYRIANS.

The liarp — Traces of the ancient Oriental harp in Europe — The Assyrian
lyre and the Nubian kissar — The Assyrian dulcimer and the Persian
santir — The asor — The tamhoura or guitar — The double pipe — The
trumpet — The drum — Assyrian bronze bells found in the ruins of
Nimroud — Tambourine and cymbals — Remarks on the dancing of
the Assyrian musicians — Traces of some other Assyrian instruments
— Conjectures on the antiquity of stringed instruments played with a
bow — Some peculiar similarities between ancient Asiatic and European
instruments — The names of musical instruments.

The Assyrian bas-reliefs chiefly represent historical
events, religions ceremonies, and royal entertain-
ments. It is therefore very probable that the Assy-
rians possessed several popular musical instruments
which are not represented on these bas-reliefs, because
they were not employed on occasions such as those
alluded to. And it may be thus explained how it
happens that we do not meet with certain instru-
ments which we naturally might expect to find, and
of which I shall say a few words presently. Further
discoveries may also bring to light some others hither-
to unknown. However, those known to us are suffi-
ciently numerous and various to afford an insight into
the character of Assyrian music. With these I shall
now endeavour to make the reader acquainted.

THE HAEP.

The frame of the Assyrian harp was about four
feet high. The performer held the instrument before
his breast, and played while standing or walking. It

Chap. II.

THE HAEP.

must have been light, because women as well as men
carried it in processions, while singing, and even
while dancing. This is shown in our frontispiece,
which represents a procession meeting a conqueror.
In this illustration may
also be observed some
difference in the several
harps, which is chiefly oc-
casioned by the more or
less ornamented tassels
which are appended to the
lower part of the frame.
These appendages make
the instrument appear
nearly half as large again
as it really is. The upper
portion of the frame con-
tained the sounding-board ;
two sounding-holes, some-
what in the shape of an
hour-glass, are seen on one
side. Below them are the
screws, or tuning pegs,
arranged in regular order.
The strings run from these
pegs down to the hori-
zontal bar of the frame,
round which they are fast-
ened ; and the tassels al-
luded to appear to be united to the strings so as to
form a prolongation of them. On some of the harps
also the horizontal bar is represented with dots similar
to those which show the tuning pegs in the upper
portion of the frame.

Fig. 3. Assyrian harp.

30 MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS OF THE ASSYRIANS. Chap. II.

The strings were perhaps made of silk, hke those
which the Burmese use at the present time on their
harps, or they may have been catgut, which was used
by the ancient Egyptians, one of whose harps thus
strung, as I have already mentioned, has been ex-
humed.

The greatest difference in the construction of the
Assyrian harp as compared with our own is that the
front pillar, which in our harp serves to resist the
tension of the strings, is entirely wanting in the
Assyrian harp. It may perhaps be inferred that on
this account the frame was not calculated to resist
any great tension of the strings, and that conse-
quently the sound of the instrument must have been
weak and poor. However, some of the Burmese
harps, as well as several other instruments similarly
constructed, emit, as I can attest, notes far more
clear and sonorous than one might be led to expect
from their appearance. Moreover, if the Assyrian
harp was not made entirely of wood, but partly of
metal or ivory, which is very probable, it may have
had strength enough to resist a considerable tension
of the strings, and to permit of their being screwed
up very tightly.

The drawing (fig. 4) represents an eunuch playing
the harp. The slab from which it has been sketched
is remarkably well preserved, and every part of tl^e
instrument appears very distinct. In several points
it is, as will be observed, different from the harp
represented in fig. 3. The a23pendages seem to
consist only of cords, the ends of which are untwisted,
or of one row of tassels ; while on the former there
are four rows. Also the shape of the frame differs,
as well as the number of strings and pegs. The

Chap. II.

THE HARP.

manner in which the performer places the little
finsrer of his risrht hand under the lowest bar of the
frame is peculiar. This was probably done to keep
the instrument more steadily in its right position.
It must, however, have pre-
vented his using the right
hand with the same facility
as the left.

It is difficult to determine
from the bas-reliefs what was
the usual number of strings
of the Assyrian harp, siuce
almost all the representations
of it are in too imperfect a
state of preservation for the
strings to be exactly counted.
Besides, the Assyrian sculp-
tors may very probably have
thought it unimportant to
represent scrupulously the
right number. This is also
proved by the fact that on
most harps the number of
the tuning pegs is not in
accordance with the number
of the strings. Of four harps,
on which both are sufficiently
distinct to be ascertained, I
found one with 21 strings

and 15 pegs; another with 21 strings and 12 pegs;
a third with 23 strings and 17 pegs; and a fourth
with 14 strings and 26 pegs.

Generally the Assyrian sculptors were very exact,
even in minute details ; of this the monuments afford

Fig. 4. Assyrian harp.

32 MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS OF THE ASSYRIANS. Chap. II.

ample evidence. We have therefore good reason to
apprehend that in all the musical instruments which
have only a small number of strings, which are easily
discerned, we may accept their representations as
reliable in every respect. Thus, an instrument with
three strings would certainly not have been repre-
sented as having four or five, although they consi-
dered it immaterial whether they gave an instrument
with 10 or 20 strings a few more or less.

Some harps may probably have been strung differ-
ently from others. For reasons which I shall explain
when I speak of the musical system of the Assy-
rians, I am inclined to believe that they had usually
25 or 26, 20 or 21, 15 or 16, 10 or 11 strings.

The non-existence of the front pillar in the Assy-
rian harp is a peculiarity found in all the harps of
Asiatic nations. The ancient Egyptians constructed
all their harps, of which they possessed a great
variety, on the same j)rinciple. As the harp of this
construction appertains pre-eminently to Eastern
nations, I shall designate it the Oriental harp, for the
sake of distinguishing it from the differently con-
structed European harp.

At the present time the harp is much less common
among Asiatic nations than it was in former ages.
It is, however, a favourite instrument in Burmah,
and in the countries situated between Hindoostan and
China. The Burmese harp, called saun, has thirteen
strings of silk. To the ends of the strings are at-
tached tasselled cords, which are bound round the
curved upper part of the frame in a way which
admits of their being pushed up or down. By this
means the instrument is tuned, as the tension of the
strings can be thus increased or diminished at plea-

Chap. TI. THE HARP. 33

sure. The cords are made to serve also as orna-
mental appendages, as in the Assyrian harp. And
this mode of tuning was practised by the Assyrians
in some of their stringed instruments.

In Persia, where the harp is now but rarely met
with, it was formerly a well-known instrument. Sir
Robert Ker Porter has given us some careful illus-
trations of it in his sketches from the celebrated old
sculptures which exist on a stupendous rock, called
Tackt-i-Bostan, situated in the vicinity of the town
of Kermanshah. These sculptures are said to have
been executed during the lifetime of the Persian
monarch Khosroo Purviz, towards the end of the
sixth century of the Christian era. They form the
ornaments of two lofty arches, and consist of repre-
sentations of field sports and aquatic amusements.
Some boats are filled with women playing upon
harps, resembling in construction those of the Assy-
rians. As an instance how unreliable communica-
tions by travellers respecting music sometimes are,
I may mention that in Bunting's ' General Collec-
tion of the Ancient Music of Ireland,' vol. i., which
is prefaced by an elaborate ' Historical and Cri-
tical Dissertation on the Harp,' a drawing of this
harp-concert, transmitted to the author by a military
officer, " who took a sketch of it on the spot on his
return from India," exhibits the harps with the addi-
tion of large front pillars. Through such want of
exactness, incorrect notions are not unfrequently
promulgated.

Interesting engravings of some Persian harps of a
more recent date than those just alluded to may be
seen in Mr. Lane's edition of ' The Arabian Nights'
Entertainments.' The Persian harp, called chang in

34 MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS OF THE ASSYRIANS. Chap. II.

Persian, and junk in Arabic, is now almost entirely
fallen into desuetude. Mr. Lane received the two
drawings from which his engravings are derived
from Sir Gore Ouseley. The harps are about 400
years old, and resemble in the principle of their con-
struction all other Oriental harps.

The Oriental harp is now but seldom found out of
Asia, The negroes in Western Africa and in Soudan
possess, however, an instrument which bears a strong
resemblance to it, or rather to some of the harps
which we see represented on Egyptian monuments.
The negroes in Senegambia and Guinea call it
houlou, or omhi, and use strings made from a kind of
creeping plant, or from the fibrous root of a tree.

The Oriental harp does not exist among European
nations at the present time ; but there are indications
of its having been formerly in use, at least among
some of them. The Finns preserved it the longest.
They called it hantele, or harpu, and it was the instru-
ment on which, according to a beautiful old mytholo-
gical tradition, the Finnish god Wainiimoinen played,
like Orpheus, with such irresistible effect, that men
and animals became alike enchanted ; the wildest
beasts of the forest lost their ferocity ; the trees did
not venture to move their branches; the brook re-
tarded its course, and the wind its haste ; even the
" mocking echo " approached stealthily and listened
with the utmost attention to the heavenly sounds.

According to Herr Neus,^ there existed in Es-
thonia up to the beginning of the present century
wandering minstrels who accompanied their old songs
and improvisations on the hantele. The last popular

^ Ehstni.scbe Volkslieder lierausgegeben von Ncus. Iveval, 1850.

Chap. II. THE HAEP. 35

minstrel, much respected and everywhere heartily
welcomed as "the old singer," died in the year 1812,
at an advanced age, and with him the Oriental harp
of the Finns seems to have become extinct.

To avoid any misunderstanding, I must mention
that the Finns have another old national instrument
called kantele, consisting of a wooden box, over which
five strings are stretched. This kantele is still often
met with in Finland, and Dr. Clarke saw it also in
the hands of the Laps in Lapland, who belong to the
Finnish or Ugrian races.^ It bears, however, no
resemblance to the kantele before-mentioned, and is a
species of dulcimer rather than a harp.

Considering that the music of some of the Celtic
nations possesses peculiarities which remind us of
that of Asiatic nations, and that the earliest harps
of the Scotch and Irish, with which we are acquainted
from old monuments, bear a greater resemblance to
the Oriental harp than those of a later date, it
appears very probable that the Oriental harp pre-
ceded the European, and that the latter has been
derived from it. Some facts mentioned in Mr. Con-
ran's book on Irish National Music tend to strengthen
this impression. For instance, in describing some
ancient representations of Irish musical instruments,
he mentions one which forms an ornamental com-
partment of a sculptured cross near the antique church
of Ullard, in the county of Kilkenny, "which," he
says, " from the style of its architecture, and the
workmanship, is evidently more ancient than the like
monument at Monasterboyce, known to have been

3 Travels in various Countries, by E. D. Clarke. London, 1810. Part
III., Sec. i., p. 439.

I) 2

36 MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS OF THE ASSYRIANS. Chap. II.

erected prior to 830. In this ornament tlie figure is
represented as playing upon a harp which rests on
his knee ; and it cannot fail to be regarded with
interest, as being the first specimen of a harp without
a fore pillar that has been hitherto discovered out of
Egypt." * It must be remembered that the Assyrian
harp was discovered subsequently to the publication
of ' The National Music of Ireland.' Its author
might, however, have known the Persian chang, the
Burmese saun, and the Finnish kanteh, all of which
are specimens of the Oriental harp discovered in other
countries besides Egypt.

Such resemblances may be accidental. It is quite
possible that two nations may, independently of each
other, invent harps which are alike in their principal
features. If, however, in addition, the peculiarities
of the other instruments, as well as the chief charac-
teristics of the music itself, are also somewhat similar
in different nations, — as is actually the case in some
Celtic and Ugrian nations in relation to some Asiatic
nations, — it is almost impossible to regard such resem-
blance as merely accidental.

If the reader has carefully examined the harps
represented in our frontispiece, he will have observed
on the under side of the upper portion of the frame a
small semicircular incision, which on the bas-relief
has the appearance as if a piece had been accidentally
broken out. It occurs, however, on each harp in
this representation, always in the same part of the
frame, and must therefore have been made pur-
posely. In some harps on other slabs it does not
appear. Possibly it may have been intended to

The National Music of Ireland, hy Michael Conran. Dublin, 1846, p. 96.

Chap, IT. THE LYRE. 37

indicate a sounding-hole existent in that part of the
upper bar.

THE LYEE.

The lyre appears to have been a favourite instru-
ment with most ancient nations whose musical in-
struments are known to us. By the Greeks and
Eomans its invention, as I need perhaps scarcely
remind the reader, was ascribed to Mercury, who,
according to their mythological traditions, constructed
it from the shell of a tortoise which he chanced to
pick up on the bank of the Nile.

Of the Assyrian lyre, representations of three
kinds occur in the sculptured monuments, differing
in shape as well as in the number of strings. The
first of these (fig. 5), from a slab forming part of M.
Botta's excavations at Khorsabad, is so far corroded
as to render the number of its strings uncertain.
Eight can be counted, and there is space for about
two more, so that we may conjecture the number to
have been ten. The performer carries the instru-
ment before him by means of a band slung over his
right shoulder, and he seems to employ both hands
in twanging the strings, marching firmly on at the
same time, as if his music were in time with his steps.

A lyre of a very different appearance, though of
the same construction as the preceding one, occurs on
one of the bas-reliefs from Kouyunjik (fig. 6). It is
in the hands of a female ; or perhaps the performer
is one of those beardless efi'eminate personages, called
eunuchs, who are so frequently rejoresented as at-
tendants on Assyrian monarchs in their various pur-
suits and entertainments. It has been remarkably
well preserved, and its five strings, as well as the

38 MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS OF THE ASSYRIANS. Chap. II.

mode in whicli they were fastened round the front
bar of the instrument, are distinctly seen. The front
bar is curved, probably for the sake of facilitating

Fig. 5.

Assyrian lyre.

Fig. 6. Assyrian lyre.

the tuning" of the strings. For the same reason the
position of the front bar in the lyre fig. 7 is shghtly
oblique. The strings were, undoubtedly, tied round
the bar so as to allow of their being piTshed upwards
or downwards ; in the former case the tension of the
strings increases, in consequence of the slanting posi-
tion of the front pillar on which they are moved ;
the notes become therefore higher. On the other
hand, if the strings are pushed lower down, the pitch

CUAP. II.

THE LYRE.

of the notes must become deeper. This is similar to
the contrivance for tuning some of the lyres which
are at present in common use in Nubia, Abyssinia,
and one or two other parts
of Eastern Africa, and
which bear also in other
res]3ects a remarkable re-
semblance to the Assyrian
lyre, as well as to that of
the ancient Egyptians.

In most of the Assyrian
representations the body
of the instrument is not
seen, because it rests on
the side of the performer
furthest from the spec-
tator. Its construction was
most likely similar to that
of the Nubian lyre.

The strings on the lyre
fig. 7 are partly oblite-
rated and indistinct ; four
seems to have been the
number. All these lyres
were probably played with
a small plectrum as well as with the fingers. The
performer fig. 6 appears to hold something in his
right hand, which undoubtedly is intended to repre-
sent a plectrum. Here also part of the body of the
instrument is visible, showing it to have been nearly
square in form.

The Nubian lyre, called kissar, is made of wood
and leather. Its body consists of wood, hoUowed in
the form of a bowl, and covered with sheepskin. The

Fig. 7. Assyrian lyre.

40 MUSICAL INSTEUMENTS OF THE ASSYEIANS. Chap. II.

cover is generally pierced by three sounding-lioles
equidistant from eacli other ; sometimes there are
more.

The kissar has five strings of catgut, usually made
of the intestines of the camel. To prevent their

Fig. 8.

Nubian lyre, called Kissar.

coming in contact with the body of the instrument, a
kind of bridge made of wood is placed near the end
of the body upon which the strings rest. It is played
with a small plectrum, made of a piece of leather or

Chap. II.

THE LYRE.

horn, and fastened with a cord to the instrument.
The plectrum is held in the right hand, and the
strings are struck with it, while the performer twangs
some strings with his left hand, using the plectrum
and his fingers either alternately or together.

Sometimes the body of the kissar is made square
instead of circular. Six or even more strings are
also sometimes used ; but five is the usual number.
A kissar from Abyssinia, deposited in the East India
Company's Museum, is so far different from the
common Nubian kissar, that its body is square, with-
out sounding-holes, and it has ten strings, which
rest upon a large wooden bridge 5 inches long and
2^ inches high. On the bridge are small pieces of
leather between the strings, to keep them separate
from each other, and to prevent their coming out
of their position when twanged. Each string is
wound round the front bar, and also at the same time
round a small piece of hard wood, about an inch and
a half in length, by means of which the tension of
the strings can be regulated and maintained, as the
pressure of the little pieces of wood on the front bar
prevents the unwinding of the strings. A plectrum,
made of horn, about 3 inches long, is affixed to the
instrument by a leathern thong.^

I shall reserve some additional observations respect-
ing the kissar, which is especially interesting on
account of its apparently high antiquity and its close
resemblance to the Assyrian lyre ; for in our subsequent
inquiries they will afford assistance in elucidating the
nature of the musical system of the Assyrians.

5 The Abyssiniaus have a tradi-
tion, according to which the kissar
was introduced into Ethiopia from

Egypt, by Thoth, or Hermes, at a
very early period.

42 MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS OF THE ASSYRIANS. Chap. II.

THE DULCIMEE.

This is another of those instruments of which we
have positive evidence of their having existed in
Asia at very remote times. In Europe it is at pre-
sent less common than it used to be about a century
or two ago. On the continent we sometimes meet
with it among the country people at their rural re-
joicings and dances. In Hungary and Transylvania
it is employed by the gipsy musicians in their little
bands, when they wander from village to village to
entertain the people with their favourite national
melodies. In Grermany it is called Hackhret, or Cim-
hal.^ It consists of a trapeziform or square box,
about 4 feet long and 18 inches broad, which con-
tains the sounding-board, at the right and left of
which are the iron screws for tuning. The compass
embraces about three octaves. The strings are of
wire, and there are two or three in unison for each
tone. It is played with two little sticks having small
oval knobs at each end. One side of the knob is
covered with soft leather or felt, and is used in piano
passages, which produce an agreeable effect, some-
what resembling the sounds of the ^olian harp.
When played forte, the sound is too confused to be
pleasant, as there are no means to stop the vibration
of the strings, such as for instance the dampers on
our pianoforte.

The English dulcimer seems to be somewhat dif-

" The name must not be mistaken
for cymbal, which applies to a cer-
tain instrument of percussion. The
German davicimhel, now out of use,
was a kind of spinet. The French

called it clavecin, and the Italians
cembalo. Some of J. S. Bach's ad-
mirable concertos are written " a due
cembali."

Chap. II. THE DULCIMER. 43

ferent, if we may rely on a description of it in Gras-
sineau's * Musical Dictionary' (London, 1740), which
is as follows : — " An instrument with wire strings, of
a triangular form, strung with about fifty strings,
cast over a bridge at each end, and the acuter gra-
dually the shorter, the shortest about eighteen inches,
and the longest about thirty-six ; struck with little iron
rods. The bass strings are doubled, and its sound
is not disagreeable. To be played on it is laid on a
table before the performer, who with the little iron
rod in each hand strikes the strings."

I may add, that I have seen in England dulcimers
in form almost exactly like the German Hackbret. The
Italians call the dulcimer salterio tedesco, which seems
to indicate that they consider it of German origin.
The Persians possess, however, a dulcimer called santir,
which in construction and in the mode of its treat-
ment is almost identical with the German Hackbret.
Its high antiquity in Persia is testified to some extent
by the representation of a Persian lady playing on the
santir, of which Hommaire de Hell, in his ' Voyage
en Perse,' has given a sketch taken from an illustra-
tion which is known to be very old. And it is re-
markable that this oldest santir known to us bears a
strong resemblance, even in some minor points, to
some of our oldest known dulcimers, such as that, for
instance, of which a drawing is given by Luscinius
in his ' Musurgia,' published in the year 1536, which
Sir John Hawkins has copied in vol. ii. of his
' History of Music'

The Assyrian dulcimer (fig. 9) is in too imperfect
a state on the bas-relief to familiarize us intimately
with its construction. The slab representing a pro-
cession, in which this instrument occurs, appears to

44 MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS OF THE ASSYRIANS. Chap. II.

have been injured and slightly repaired afterwards ;
the defect extended over a portion of the dulcimer,
and it cannot be said that in repairing it much
musical knowledge has been evinced, for it never
can have existed as represented. What appears most
strange is, that the sculptor seems to have neglected
to represent the bridge over which the strings, to

conclude from the
delineation, must
have run before
they took a ver-
tical direction. The
representation of
the strings is also
curious ; the fur-
ther ones being
made to appear in
front of those near-
est the spectator ;
perhaps, however,
only because, if the
sculptor had faith-
fully adhered to
nature, he could,
as he gives us a
side aspect of the
instrument, have
shown only one string, since they lay all strictly
parallel, similar to those on our dulcimer or on the
Persian santir. It may have been then the desire to
show as much as possible of the instrument which
occasioned this odd disregard of perspective.

In the frontispiece this dulcimer is shown, with
the imperfection alluded to, exactly as it appears in

Fig. 9.

Assyrian dulcimer.

Chap. II. THE DULCIMER. 45

the bas-relief; while in the woodcut, fig. 9, all the
strings are shown as the sculptor evidently would
have exhibited them, had not the figure of the pre-
ceding performer in the procession been in his way.
It seems strange that the strings do not run across
the instrument as on our own dulcimer, but appa-
rently in a straight line from the player, — in fact, as
on a grand piano. The performer, therefore,^ must
have struck them sideways with his plectrum.

This, however, we learn with certainty, that the
Assyrian dulcimer contained a number of strings —
in the present instance ten — which were played with
a plectrum ; that the instrument was ornamented
with tassels ; and that the performer carried it before
him, most likely fastened by a band round his body,
holding the plectrum in his right hand. And he
seems to use also his left hand in performing, either
by twanging the strings, or, perhaps, only for
checking any undesirable continued vibration of the
strings.

Among the different species of dulcimers at present
in use in the East the hanoon must be noticed, which
differs from the santir not only in form, but also in
the circumstance that the strings are of lamb's-gut,
and are twanged with two small plectra, one attached
to the fore-finger of each hand ; while the strings of
the santir are of wire, and are struck with two little
sticks. These instruments appertain especially to
the Arabs and Persians. The Chinese and Japanese
have also several instruments which may be con-
sidered species of dulcimers. The hin or " scholar's
lute" of the Chinese, which, according to tradition,
was the instrument upon which the great philosopher
Confucius and the sages of antiquity used to play,

46 MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS OF THE ASSYRIANS. Chap. IT.

and which is consequently held in high esteem, has
strings of silk. The yang kin is, however, furnished
with brass strings, which are struck with two small
hammers, like our dulcimer. Similar to the hin are
some kinds of the Japanese instrument called koto.
The strings of the koto are generally twanged with
small plectra fastened on the fingers of the performer.
We meet also in Europe with several old instruments
which greatly resemble the dulcimer, though they are
not played like it, but rather like the guitar or man-
doline. The most remarkable of these are the kantele
and the gussli. The kantele, an instrument of the
Finns, to which I have already alluded, page 35,
has five metal strings, which are played with the
fingers, but which cannot be shortened in playing,
as those of our guitar or violin, the instrument
having, like the dulcimer, no finger-board.

The gussli, an old national instrument of the Rus-
sians, is played like the ka7itele, which it also resem-
bles in form. At present its wire strings embrace
from two to three octaves ; but in former times it
possessed only five strings, like the kantele.

In chap. iii. v. 5 of the Book of Daniel the dul-
cimer is mentioned among the six instruments which
the Babylonians used in their idol-worship. It must,
however, be remembered that not much reliance can
be placed on the translation of the text, as far as the
names of musical instruments are concerned ; the
translators, unacquainted with the original instru-
ments, would naturally adopt the names of those of
our own instruments which they thought most likely
to have resembled them, and would j^refer adopting
names universally known to obscure ones.

Chap. IT. THE ASOR. 47

THE ASOE.

This instrument differs too much from every instru-
ment of our own at present in use for me to compare
it to any one of them. I have therefore preferred to
apply to it the name of a Hebrew instrument called
aso7\ to which it seems to be more nearly related
than to any other.

The asor of the Hebrews was, it is generally sup-
posed, a species of nehel, of an oblong square or trian-
gular shape, mounted with ten strings, which were
struck or twanged by means of a plectrum. The in-
formation which has been transmitted to us regarding
this instrument is, like that regarding most others
of the Hebrews, too meagre to convey an exact idea
of its construction ; but, as far as it goes, it indi-
cates a similarity with the Assyrian instrument in
question. If, on such slight grounds, I venture to
apply the name of the Hebrew instrument to the
Assyrian, the reader should bear in mind that it is
rather for want of a more appropriate name, than
from a conviction that the two instruments were iden-
tical.

The engraving fig. 10 exhibits so faithfully the
characteristic features of the Assyrian asor, as to
render a minute descrij^tion superfluous. I shall,
therefore, only briefly direct the reader's attention
to the following facts : —

The strings are placed horizontally one above the
other at regular distances. The lowest string is the
shortest, producing the highest note, and the upper-
most string is the longest, producing the deepest note.
From the gradual increase in length of the strings,

48 MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS OF THE ASSYRIANS. Chap. II.

in counting from tlie lowest upwards, we may con-
clude that they were tuned in a regular order of in-
tervals, or in a certain scale. The performer holds
with his right hand a long plectrum, not at one end
as is usual, but in the middle. The plectrum was
probably of wood or ivory. From the position of
the strings, the performer could not have struck them
as those of the dulcimer are struck, but he must have
twanged them with the plectrum. The left hand
seems to have been chiefly occupied in checking the
vibration when its discontinuance was considered
necessary.

On the front bar of the instrument are seen a
number of little dots, which probably represent the
screws or pegs round which the strings were fast-
ened, and by means of which they were tuned. To
the bars are affixed tasselled cords, which hang down
considerably below the instrument, and which evi-
dently served for no other purpose than as orna-
ments.

The front bar is surmounted by a small hand,
which may have been of carved ivory, or, perhaps,
of metal. In an interesting communication in the
Athenceum on the Assyrian sculptures in the British
Museum, it is suggested that the hand served as a
stand to hold the written music. There is, however,
no evidence in support of this supposition.

The asor was supported by a belt passed over the
shoulder of the performer, so that he had both hands
at his disposal when required for the execution of
his music.

The asor seems to have been pre-eminently a
favourite instrument with the Assyrians, or, at least,
with the higher classes of this nation, because it is

Chap. 11.

THE ASOR.

introduced more frequently in their sculptures than
any other, and when it occurs it is generally at the
entertainments and sacred rites of the monarchs. It
never appears in combination with other stringed or
wind instruments, and never singly, there being
always, at least, two together. On a few of them
the strings are suffi-
ciently distinct to be
counted ; of these
some have ten, others
nine, one has eight,
and one six strings.
As the number of the
tuning pegs is seldom
in accordance with
that of the strings,
no great reliance can
be placed on the re-
presentations so far
as this point is con-
cerned, and my pre-
vious observations
respecting the indif-
ference of the sculp-
tors in representing
the number of strings
of the harp may also
apply here. Still,
there is reason to conclude, that the six strings of
one of them exhibit the exact number which the
instrument contained at an early period ; since, from
the evident care with which they are indicated,
from the smallness of their number, and from the
corresponding number of the tassels depending from

Fi2. 10.

Assyrian asor.

50 MUSICAL INSTKUMENTS OF THE ASSYEIANS. Chap. II.

the frame where the strings are fastened, it is not
likely that this representation would be inaccurate.
The instrument is delineated on a brick obtained
from the ruins of Nimroud, and now in the British
Museum. As the relics from Nimroud are ascer-
tained to be some centuries older than the others^ it
may be conjectured — and is, indeed, suggested by
the instruments themselves — that the asor had at an
early period only six strings, and that, in the course
of time, the number was gradually increased to ten,
which is the highest hitherto found.

I believe ten to have been the highest number of
strings with which the asor was provided ; partly be-
cause this is strictly in conformity with those numbers
— be they smaller or greater — which most frequently
occur on other Assyrian and ancient Asiatic instru-
ments, and partly because the Hebrew asor was, as its
name implies, a ten-stringed instrument ; and as such
it is mentioned in Psalms xxxiii. 2, and cxliv. 9.

The frame of the Assyrian asor certainly appears
to have been weak, and but little fitted for resisting
any strong tension of the strings. Mr. Layard ob-
serves : — "Like the Egyptian harp, it had no cross-
piece between the upright bar and the flat board or
base ; it is difficult, therefore, to understand how the
strings could have been sufficiently tightened to pro-
duce notes.' Mr. Bonomi expresses a similar opinion,
and suggests, " either the sculptor has altogether
omitted the column to resist this tension of the
strings, or the angle formed by the body of the
instrument and the arm is not faithfully repre-

7 Ninevcli and its Eemains, by Austen Henry Layard, 2 vols., London,
1849, vol. ii. p. 412.

Chap. IT. THE TAMBOURA. 51

sented."^ These impressions seem to have originated
in the assumption that the frame of the asor was con-
structed of wood. But the portion which constitutes
the angle may have been partially, if not entirely, of
metal, which would afford great power of resistance.

If the strings were made of silk, like those of the
Burmese harp saun^ and the Chinese kin, or scholar's
lute, they were, on account of their elasticity, well
fitted for being twanged with a plectrum. The em-
ployment of silk for strings was probably an inven-
tion of a very remote age in Asia, because in nations
cultivating the manufacture of silk, like the Assy-
rians, its adoption for this purpose must have sug-
gested itself very soon, and perhaps earlier than
that of catgut or wire. At all events, we find silken
strings used in some Asiatic instruments at present
in use, which we know to be of high antiquity.

THE TAMBOUEA.

This instrument is at present in use, especially in
Persia, Hindoostan, and Asiatic Turkey ; it is also
found in Egypt. M. Yilloteau, the intelligent musi-
cian, who was a member of the Scientific Expedition
which accompanied Napoleon Bonaparte to Egypt,
has given us the most circumstantial information of
it which we possess. He saw and examined in
Egypt not less than five kinds of tambouras, which
differed from each other principally in size, in a
slight variation in the shape of the body, in the
number of their strings, and in a few other similar
points.^ But they all have the following characteris-

^ Nine veil and its Palaces, by Jo-
seph Bonomi, London, 1853, p. 254.
^ The tamhoura bears no resem-

blance, except in name, to the
tambourine, which is, it will be re-
membered, a small hand-drum.

E 2

52 MUSICAT. INSTRUMENTS OF THE ASSYRIANS. Chap. II.

tics in common : — The strings are of wire, and are
sounded with a plectrum usually made of tortoise-
shell, or of the hard portion of an eagle's or vulture's
feather. The neck of the instru-
ment is remarkably long, and there
are frets or stops on it, as on our
guitar. The neck and finger-board
are formed of only a single straight
bar. Half the tuning pegs are
placed in front, and the other half
at the right side of the head of the
instrument. The oval body is of
wood, without sounding-holes, and
is often highly ornamented. The
instrument here represented (fig.
11), M. Villoteau describes under
the name of tanbour houzourk, or
"the great Persian tamboura." It
has six strings and twenty-five
frets, while the tanbour charqy, or
" the Oriental tamboura," has five
strings and twenty-one frets.

Some elegantly shaped and taste-
fully ornamented tambouras were
sent from Turkey to the London
International Exhibition in 1862.
One of these, I found, was 4^ ft. in
length, the body one foot, and the
neck 3i ft. It had 35 frets and 8
tuning pegs. Another, about 4 ft.
in length, had 44 frets and 9 pegs.
On this instrument three strings
were always tuned together in
iniison ; on the other, always two.

Fig. 11.
Tamboura bouzourk.

Chap. U. THE TAMDOUEA. 53

The frets are made of catgut cords wound tightly
round the neck, generally four times for each fret,
and neatly fastened. These frets are arranged at
short distances from each other, corresponding to the
Arab system of one-third tones.

In Egypt the tamboura is at present not much in
use ; it is, in fact, scarcely ever seen in the hands of
the Egyptians themselves, but only in those of the
Turks, Jews, Greeks, and sometimes of the Arme-
nians residing in that country. The ancient Egypt-
ians, however, possessed an instrument which greatly
resembled it.

We may perhaps acquire a more exact acquaint-
ance with the tamboura if I add here Mr. Bonomi's
description of a Syrian one which he examined.
" The instrument is 3 ft. 9 in. long, and its elegantly
shaped sounding-board is 6J in. wide ; it has ten
strings of small wire, forty-seven stops, and is inva-
riably highly enriched and inlaid with mother-of-
pearl. The tamboura is in common use upon the
shores of the Euphrates and Tigris."^"

The tamboura of Hindoostan differs chiefly from
those described in having no frets, and is generally
of an extraordinarily large size ; indeed, the neck is
in some instances so long, that it seems impossible for
the performer to reach with his hand the highest
part without shifting the instrument on his lap. The
body is usually formed of a large gourd, lacquered
and richly ornamented In the interesting collection
of Oriental musical instruments in the East India
Company's Museum, London, are several tambouras
of this description, remarkable not only on account

Nineveh and its Palaces, by J. Bonomi, Loudon, 1853, p. 231.

54 MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS OF THE ASSYRIANS. Chap. II.

of their enormous size — one of them being about
4|- ft. long, with a body nearly 20 in. in diameter —
but also on account of the very tasteful designs in
gold and harmonious colours with which they are
embellished. So beautiful are some of these designs
that they have been copied by artists as patterns
for various purposes. The tamboura is used by the
Hindoos either as a solo instrument for instrumental
performance, or for accompanying the voice. It is
chiefly found among the wealthier classes, who are
in the habit of displaying it in their rooms like a
piece of elegant furniture.

The Assyrian instrument, for which I have adopted
the name tamboura, on account of its resemblance to
this instrument, occurs only once on the monuments
hitherto discovered, and is so indistinct as to show

neither the tuning

pegs nor the strings.
Perhaps it had only
two strings, to which
were affixed the two
tassels which are seen
(fig. 12) hanging
down from the higher
part of the neck ; and
it was probably play-
ed with a plectrum.

This instrument is
also represented in
the hands of two little
images, about 3J in.
high, formed of baked
clay, of which the

Fig. 12

Assyrian tamboura.

engraving (fig. 13)

Chap. II.

THE TAMBOURA.

represents one. Several small figures of a similar

substance have been found, almost all of them in

the ruins of Susa, but without musical instruments.

They are supposed to be

images of the Assyrian

Yenus, Mylitta, or Astarte.

That the little idol with

the tamboura was intended

for Mylitta, as patroness of

the art of music^ is doubtful

but possible.

If we turn to Asiatic
countries at a greater dis-
tance from that part of
Asia where Assyria was
situated than those men-
tioned, we find there also
instruments which differ
in some respects from the
tamboura, yet not very materially. The most re-
markable of these are the san heen of China, and the
samsien of Jajoan. These two instruments are almost
identical, each having a body without sounding-
holes, three strings which are played with a plec-
trum, a long neck, and three long tuning pegs.
The body of the san heen is round, and the belly
consists of the skin of the tan snake. The body
of the samsien is square, and this constitutes in
fact almost the only difference between the two in-
struments. M. Hommaire de Hell saw among the
Kalmucks in the vicinity of the Caspian Sea a some-
what similar instrument with three strings. This
latter instrument may be considered almost identical
with the Russian balalaika, an instrument said to be

Fig. 13. Assyrian image.

56 MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS OF THE ASSYRIANS. Chap. II.

of high antiquity, and to have been originally derived
from the East/

Among the few European iustruments resembling
the Assyrian tamboura must especially be noticed
the calascione, found among the peasantry in Southern
Italy ; the two catgut strings of which, extending
over a long neck with frets, are also played with a
plectrum. This is the same instrument as that men-
tioned by Dr. Burney in his ' History of Music '
(vol. i. page 196) on account of its resemblance to a
certain instrument of the ancient Egyptians, repre-
sented on an obelisk.

The high antiquity of the tamboura among the
Egyptians is proved by the fact that a figure of
it is found among the hieroglyphs, meaning 7wfre,
" good ; "^ which also seems to indicate that it was at
an early time held in much favour. It occurs in repre-
sentations of concerts of the eighteenth dynasty,
which dates, according to Sir Gardner Wilkinson, from
B.C. 1575 to 1289. Some of the hieroglyphs in which
it occurs are^ however, at least 600 years earlier.

The engraving
fig. 14 represents the
I . I I front of an Egyptian

house with a hiero-
glyphic inscription
over the door, con-
sisting of a tamboura
and a bracket, which
.2^ signifies " the good
" The good abode." abodc." It appears

Fig. 14.

1 Stimmen des russischen Volks
in Licdern iind ubersetzt von P. v.
Goetze. Stuttgart, 1828, p. 37.

- An Introduction to the Study
of the Egyptian Hieroglyphs, by
Samuel Birch, London, li^57, p. 225.

Chap. II. THE DOUBLE-PIPE. 57

to have been the custom with the Egyptians, as it is
at the present time in some European countries,
to write over the entrance of the house the owner's
name, or some significant sentence.

The tamboura affords the best proof that the
Assyrians as well as the Egyptians had made con-
siderable progress in music at a very early age ;
since it shows that they understood how to produce
on a few strings, by means of the finger-board, a
greater number of notes than were obtainable even
on their harps.

THE DOUBLE-PIPE.

This instrument was well known to the Greeks
and Romans, and they employed different kinds,
some having only one mouth-hole, and others having
two, but placed so near together as to enable the
performer to blow upon both pipes at the same time.
The pipes are either of equal length, or one is shorter
than the other. Probably the purpose of one of the
pipes was in many cases only to produce an accom-
panying tone similar to the drone of the bagpipe,
while the other served for the performance of the
melody and of passages. At least I have found
many double-pipes thus constructed, which are at the
present time in use in different parts of the world.
As an instance may be noticed the double-reed-pipe,
called arghool, of the modern Egyptians, in which
one of the tubes is considerably longer than the
other, and serves as a drone. The Egyptian boat-
men are in the habit of using the zummdrah, another
species of double-pipe, in which the tubes are of equal
length.

58 MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS OF THE ASSYRIANS. Chap. II.

The ancient Egyptians also possessed a donble-
pipe, of which I shall, however, reserve any observa-
tions until I proceed to point out the affinity which
apparently subsisted between the music of the Egyp-
tians and that of the Assyrians.

The accompanying en-
graving (fig. 15) repre-
sents an Assyrian female
playing on a double-pipe,
which, from the direction
in which the two tubes are
placed, seems to have but
one single mouth-hole. No
finger-holes are seen, but,
although they are not dis-
cernible on the slab from
which the engraving has
been derived, they pro-
bably existed on the in-
strument itself. This we
may almost accept as cer-
tain, partly on account of
the progress which the
Assyrians had made in in-
strumental music, so evi-
dent in the construction of
some of the stringed instruments just described, — and
partly also because it is ascertained that the Baby-
lonians possessed a single pipe with two finger-
holes. In the pipes of the ancient Egyptians also
finger-holes were used. Judging from certain indi-
cations in the representation, the Assyrian pipes and
flutes consisted of several pieces fitted together, which
could be separated, as is the case with our flute.

Fig. 15. Assyrian double-pipe.

Chap. II. THE TRUMPET. 59

One of the most curious double-pipes at present
extant in Asia is the poogyee of the Hindoos ah-eady
alkided to, the tubes of which are inserted into a
gourd, and are blown with the nose instead of with
the mouth. As the use of the nose-flute originated
in the religious doctrine of the Brahmins that a
person of superior caste is defiled by touching with
his mouth anything which has been touched by the
mouth of an inferior, this instrument is probably of
high antiquity in some parts of Asia. On the Assy-
rian sculptures, however, it does not occur.

THE TRUMPET.

This is another instrument which was known, as
might be expected, to every ancient nation with
whose musical instruments we are acquainted. The
tube is, however, not wound in an oval form like
that of our trumpet, but is either quite straight or
slightly bent, and in shape somewhat resembles the
horn of an animal, from which, in fact, such instru-
ments in old times were made, as they are at present
by some semi-civilised nations.

The Hebrews employed trumpets made of rams'
horns. Metal trumpets, however, were also used by
them, and we are informed in the Bible (Numbers,
chap. X.) that Moses made trumpets of solid silver,
on which various signals were blown to call the
several ranks and divisions of his people together on
certain occasions.

The winding of the tube is said to have been first
adopted about four centuries ago. When people
began to construct trumpets of greater length, they
found it more convenient to double the tube once

60 MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS OF THE ASSYRIANS. Chap. II.

together : thus originated the long trumpets which
were formerly used in Germany. They had a kind
of wooden bridge inserted between the two parts of
the tube, to prevent their pressing together and
injuring each other. Sometimes the tube was wound
in various directions, in order to make the instrument
more handy and manageable. At present the tube
is twice doubled, in an oblong shape, and the instru-
ment is consequently only half as long as it used to
be, and easier to manage. It is pre-eminently a
military instrument. In the cavalry service, where
it is especially employed for promulgating orders,-
the branches of the tube which are in contact are
generally protected by a strong cord wound round
them, which, with its gay colours and hanging tassel,
serves at the same time as an ornament.

With the Assyrians there was no necessity to
adopt any such form as that just described, since
their trumpet was too small to be inconvenient in
a straight shape. In some parts of Asia this shape
is retained at the present day, although the tubes are
sometimes of an immense length. This applies espe-
cially to the enormous trumpets used by the Buddhist
priests in Thibet, as well as by the Kalmucks, in
their religious performances. With the latter the
trumpet usually employed is far too long and too heavy
to be held up l3y the performer ; in processions there
are usually attendants in front, who carry it before
him, while in the temple it rests upon a frame, so
that he needs only to raise it slightly when blowing.
I have seen also large straight trumpets from Hin-
doostan ; they are, however, chiefly used in Nepaul,
and a few other mountainous districts in the north,
where the people possess robust lungs capable of

Chap. II.

THE TRUMPET.

producing the full tone. These trumpets are often
wound in different shapes, as, for instance, coiled Kke
a serpent, or with the projecting head of a tiger, &c.

It is unnecessary for our present purpose to sub-
mit a detailed description of our own trumpet. I
shall confine my-
self, therefore, to
pointing out that
its length, if the
tube were straight,
would be about
eight feet. On
such a trumpet,
without the re-
cently introduced
auxiliary means of
pistons and cylin-
ders, only a limit-
ed number of in-
tervals are obtain-
able.

The Assyrian
trumpet (fig. 16),
judging from its
short length, was
only suited for pro-
ducing three or four notes, aj^pertaining to the Triad,
or Common Chord.

The accompanying representation is remarkable for
the faint indication of the hell of the trumpet, which
must probably be attributed to the imperfect state of
preservation of the slab on which the instrument
appears. On a portion of a trumpet occurring on
another partly corroded slab, the bell is distinctly

Fig. 16.

Assyrian trumpet.

62 MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS OF THE ASSYRIANS. CiiAr. II.

apparent (fig. 17). This trumpet greatly resembles
the trumpet of the ancient Egyptians, as well as that
of the Hebrews which is represented on the famous

arch of Titus in Rome.

Small though the com-

pass of the Assyrian
trumpet must have been,

Fig. 17. Part of an Assyrian trumpet. it WaS Wcll Suitcd for mi-
litary purposes, or for
conveying orders where works were executed by a
large number of men. On such occasions we find it
was actually used ; its few notes were quite sufficient,
because by means of various rhythmical arrangements
a great number of signals, easily distinguishable,
could be j)roduced, each of which would convey a
distinct meaning.

THE DEUM.

We meet with various kinds of drums on the
Assyrian sculptures, which, however, have this feature
in common, that they are covered with skin only on
their upper part, and that they are beaten with the
hands instead of with drum-sticks.

The woodcut (fig. 18) represents a female with
a small drum fastened to her person, whether sus-
pended by a band over her shoulder or round her
waist is not ascertainable from the sculpture, of
which the woodcut is a faithful sketch. She beats
the drum with both her hands, much in the same
way as such little hand-drums are at the present time
played upon by females in the East.

Small drums, more or less similar, are indeed to
be found in most Asiatic countries. They may be

Chap. II.

THE DRUM.

divided into two classes, viz., those which, like the
Assyrian drum, are covered with skin at the top
only, and those which are of a barrel-form, covered
with skin at both ends. The former kinds are
usually designated by the name of tuhla. They are
also frequently beaten with
sticks instead of with the hands,
and sometimes two together are
used, one producing a deeper
sound than the other. The tabl
shamee, or Syrian drum, is used
by the modern Egyptians in
their wedding processions, and
in the processions of Dervishes.
It is, according to Mr. Lane,
" a kind of kettle-drum, of tinned
cojDper, with a parchment face,"
and is carried, by a band sus-
pended round the neck of the
performer. The Assyrian tubla
may very possibly have been at
least partly of metal, and the
dots round it near its upper rim
may have been the bright and
ornamental heads of the nails
with which the skin was fastened.

The other class of Oriental small drums consists
of those which are of a barrel-form, covered at each
end with skin, carried obliquely, and beaten with one
hand at each end. Such drums are best known by
the name tom-tom. Some of them are almost iden-
tical with a drum common among the ancient
Egyptians. This is especially the case with the
mridang, kJiole, and dholkee of the Hindoos, the

Fig. 18. Assyrian drum.

64 MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS OF THE ASSYRIANS. Chap. II.

berri of the Singhalese, and several others. The
pukwauz^ often used by the Hindoo dancing girls at
their performances, or nautches, is also of the same
description ; but with this difference, that it is sur-
rounded with cords, under which are
little moveable pieces of wood, by which
the sound is regulated. This appears
to me worth noticing, because there is
evidence that some of the drums of the
ancient Egyptians also possessed such a
contrivance. It may j^erhaps have exist-
ed also in the Assyrian drum (fig. 19),
which from its shape was particularly
adapted for it. This drum was about
three feet in length, and was beaten
with the hands, like the other.

A third kind of Assyrian drum ap-
pears on the monuments, too indistinct
for me to venture to submit a sketch
Fio-. 19. of it- Though similar to that carried
Assyrhn drum. \^j ^\^q female, fig. 18, it appcars to be
of a larger size and somewhat spherical below.

BELLS.

Small Assyrian bells have been found by Mr.
Layard, and are exhibited in the British Museum.
Mr. Layard gives the following short account of them
when describing the various relics which he brought
to light from a newly-discovered chamber at Nim-
roud : — " The first objects found in this chamber were
two plain copper vessels or caldrons, about 2^ feet in
diameter, and 3 feet deep, . . . filled with curious
relics, I first took out a number of small bronze

Chap. TI.

BELLS.

bells with iron tongues, and various small copper
ornaments, some suspended to wires. With them
were a quantity of tapering bronze rods, bent into a
hook, and ending in a kind of lip. The caldrons
contained about eighty bells. The largest are 31
inches high, and 2i inches in diameter ; the smallest
If inches high, and I3 inch in diameter." ^

Fm. 20.

Assyrian bells, found in the rums of Mound Nimroud.

Most of them have a hole at the top, in which pro-
bably the clapper was fastened. This is especially
the case with the smaller ones ; and it is remarkable
that some of the large bells used at the present day in
China are also open at the top. One of the Assyrian
bells in the above engraving has a slit from the rim
upwards, which was most likely filed after its dis-
covery for the purpose of ascertaining the exact com-
position of the metal.

Small bells were known also to the Egyptians and
Hebrews. The Egyptian bells, which have been dis-
covered in tombs, are of bronze, and some of them re-
semble those of the Assyrians. In the ancient Egyp-
tian necklaces of gold and silver, imitations of bells
may be also seen. Among the Hebrews we know

^ Discoveries in the Euins of Nineveh and Babylon, by A. H. Layard,
London, 1853, p. 177.

66 MUSICAL INSTKUMENTS OF THE ASSYRIANS. Chap. II.

from Exod. xxviii. 33, 34, and Ecclus. xlv. 9, that
small golden bells were attached to the lower part of
the robes of the high-priest in his sacred ministra-
tions. In Zech. xiv. 20, " bells of the horses " are
mentioned, which probably were fastened on the
bridle or upon the forehead of the horses, as we find
them at the present time in many countries. In the
mountainous and wooded districts of Germany and
Switzerland the cattle are provided with bells to pre-
vent their straggling.

In several of the bas-reliefs the Assyrian horses
are represented wearing on the neck a little bell with
a clapper, very similar in shape to those in the above
engraving. It appears to have been a usual custom
with the Assyrians to decorate their horses in this
manner. On one of the Assyrian sculptures in the
British Museum, two spirited horses drawing a
chariot have each of them about half-a-dozen of these
bells, varying in size, affixed to the lower part of
their collars.

Eichly caparisoned horses are seen on the Assyrian
monuments, having head-stalls ornamented with ap-
pendages which, if not intended for short tufted
plumes, probably represent those small hollow metal
balls enclosing loose pieces of iron, which are called
in French grelots, and in Glerman schellen ; and are
used in Germany especially on the harness of sledge-
horses, to prevent accidents by announcing the prox-
imity of the rapid and noiseless sledge, and to con-
tribute at the same time with their cheering harmony
(being tuned in the triad or common chord) to the
hilarity of the drive. Grelots, to conclude, from their
similarity with rattles, must be of very high antiquity,
probably older than bells. They are at present in use

Chap.it. • BELLS. 67

in different parts of the East. The Japanese instru-
ment soezoew consists of a cluster of them attached to
a handle. The Copts in Egypt, who are Christians,
use the maraoueh in their religious ceremonies. This
consists of a disc of silver, round which are attached
a number of grelots made of copper, and to which is
affixed a long handle. Grelots have also been found
in tombs of the ancient Mexicans.

Small bells were used in America before its dis-
covery by Europeans, as is proved by a copper bell
discovered in one of the tombs of the ancient Peru-
vians, and now preserved in the Museum of Antiquities
in Lima. The resemblance between this Peruvian
bell and the little hand-bell called drilbu, which is used
by the Buddhist priests of Ladak in their sacerdotal
functions, seems to me worth notice. The drilbu is
about 6 inches in height, including the handle. Mr.
Cunningham, who has given a drawing of it in his
work on Ladak, remarks, " It is represented in the
left hand of the great Lama Skyobba Jigten, of the red
sect, and it is placed on the throne at the feet of the
great Dai Lama Navang Lozang. The bell is formed
of a very white brittle-looking metal." * Again, the
Brahmins of Hindoostan use a little bell in their reli-
gious ceremonies, similarly shaped and as elegantly
ornamented, called ghunta.

The invention of our large church bells is gene-
rally attributed to Paulinus, Bishop of Nola in
Campania, a.d. 400; whence the term "campana" is
supposed to be derived. It may be that church bells
were first used by Paulinus, and that from Italy

■* Ladak, Physical, Statistical, and Historical, by Alexander Cunningham,
London, 1854, p. 373.

F 2

G8 MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS OF THE ASSYRIANS. Chap. II.

they were introduced into other European countries ;
but in Asia they appear certainly to have been
known, and used for rehgious purposes, long before
the Christian era.

In Barrow's * Travels in China' is given a drawing
of " the great bell of Canton, 20 feet in diameter,
and 16 inches thick;" and Mr. Halloran saw near
Ningpo, in a large pagoda, " an enormous bell of a
very sweet tone, suspended from the rafters of the
roof, having its lower edge curiously scalloped, and
its outer surface entirely covered with inscriptions,
and ornamented in high relief." ^ Similar large
bells are found in other Asiatic countries, especially
where the Buddhist religion has been diffused. In
Siebold's celebrated work on Japan, drawings of
several large elegantly-shaped bells are given ; and
Mr. Tronson saw, near one of the Japanese temples,
" a belfry with a large bell suspended, deep and
heavy, and richly carved." " This," he states, " is
struck at different hours of the day with a heavy
wooden mallet, and the sound, mellow and sonorous,
is heard far away over the water." ® And Mr. Oli-
phant, when speaking of " the celebrated temple of
Dai Cheenara," about ten miles from Yedo, says, " In
the court was a ponderous bell, swinging in a hand-
some belfry of carved wood, on a massive pedestal.
In Japan the bells never have tongues or clappers,
but are always struck from without by a piece of
wood conveniently suspended." '' Mr. Winter, in his

* Eisht Months' Journal, by A.
L. Halloran, London, 1856, p. 117.

® Personal Narrative of a Voyage
to Japan, by J. M. Tronson, Lon-
don, 1859, p. 348.

' Narrative of the Earl of Elgin's
Mission to China and Japan, by L.
Oliphant, London, 1859, vol. ii. p.
198.

CuAP. II. BELLS. 69

description of " the Golden Pagoda" at Rangoon,
mentions a large Burmese bell, under which, he says,
he was able to stand upright with ease. He informs
us, " There is, in a pagoda in Maulmain, a great bell
suspended in the usual way between two posts ; it has

an inscription in the Burmese character The

bell is suspended in front of the temple ; and when
an offering has been made, or some religious duty
performed, it is generally struck by the devotee once
or twice with a deer's horn, several of which are
usually placed near the bell." ^

Large bell-foundries exist in Chinese Tartary. The
French missionary, M. Hue, who visited them, ob-
serves, " The magnificent statues in bronze and
brass, which issue from the great foundries of Tolon-
Noor, are celebrated not only throughout Tartary,
but in the remotest districts of Thibet. Its immense
workshops supply all the countries subject to the wor-
ship of Buddha with idols, bells, and vases employed
in that idolatry." ^

A further description of these bells is unnecessary,
especialty as a Chinese bell from a Buddhist temple
near Ningpo may be seen in the ethnological depart-
ment of the British Museum. In the official ' Synopsis
of the Contents of the British Museum' (London,
1856), we are told, " On the top is the imperial
dragon, the national emblem of China, crouching,
and forming the handle. Beneath this is the orifice
where the clapper has been placed." If this really
was the case, it must be considered as quite excep-
tional, since the lai'ge bells in the Buddhist temples

® Six Months in I'ritish Burmali, i ^ Travels in Tartaiy, Tliibet, and
by Christopher Winter, Loudon, China, by M. Hue, vol. i. p. 35.
1858, p. 30. I

70 MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS OF THE ASSYRIANS. Chap. II.

are usually without a clapper, being struck with a
wooden hammer or a kind of mallet.

Moreover, bells with clappers are frequently fixed
on the outside of the sacred edifices. On the famous
" Porcelain Tower" in Nanking (built of white bricks
having the appearance of porcelain), a number of such
bells were affixed to the projecting corners of its dif-
ferent stories. Mr. Halloran describes a Chinese
pagoda in the vicinity of Shanghae, octagonal in
shape, and consisting of eight stories, each of which
" is provided with a covered verandah, having a pro-
jecting roof, at the corners of which are hung small
bells of different tones ; and as there are sixty-four of
them, which are kept in almost constant motion by
the wind, the sound they produce is exceedingly
pleasing, greatly resembling the wild melody of the
^olian harp." ^

The Chinese declare their bells to be of very high
antiquity, and assert that they used them in numbers,
arranged according to a certain scale, so far back as
more than 2000 years B.C. The oldest Chinese bells
known had not, however, the round form of the pre-
sent ones, but were nearly square. Sonorous stones
were also used, suspended, like the bells, in a large
frame. A glance at the drawings of these bells and
stones, by Amiot, Laborde, and others, might con-
vince us, if there were any doubt on the subject, that
a regular succession of intervals, or some kind of
scale, was observed in their arrangement, since we
see them gradually increasing in size from the highest
to the lowest.

Moreover, also, at the present time similar sets of

' Ei-ht Months' Juuinal, by A. L. Halloran, London, IboG, p. 124.

Chap, II. BELLS. 71

bells (as well as sets of gongs) are by no means uncom-
mon in Asiatic countries. When Lord Macartney, with
his suite, witnessed in Peking the anniversary of the
Emperor of China's birthday, a concert was per-
formed which consisted principally of " sets of cylin-
drical bells, suspended in a line from ornamented
frames of wood, and gradually diminishing in size
from one extremity to the other, and also triangular
pieces of metal arranged in the same order as the
bells. To the sound of these instruments a slow and
solemn hymn was sung by eunuchs, who had such a
command over their voices as to resemble the effect of
the musical glasses at a distance." ^ Captain Yule
mentions that he saw, near a pagoda in Burmah, a
number of attuned bells which were struck by the
visitors of the pagoda on the conclusion of their
prayers, and which reminded him of the village
chimes of England.^

I suppose the few facts which I have stated will
be considered sufficient to prove that our large church
bells, as well as our sets of bells, or carillons, are not
originally European and Christian inventions, as has
been often asserted ; but that to Asia must be con-
ceded the origin of the bell, and its uses for sacred
purposes.

It is true, some travellers and missionaries, struck
with the similarity of the ceremonies in the Buddhist
temple with those of the Eoman Catholic Church,
have thence drawn the conclusion that the former
must have been adopted from the latter. The

2 An Authentic Account of an
Embassy from the King of Great
Britain to the Emperor of China,
by Sir George Staunton, London,
171)7, vol. ii. p. 255.

2 A Narrative of the Mission sent
by the Governor-General of India
to the Court of Ava, by Captain
Henry Yule, London, 1858, p. 178.

72 MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS OF THE ASSYRIANS. Chap. II.

Buddhist religion is however older than the Chris-
tian. At all events it is evident that bells were used
in Asia in religious worship long before the Christian
era.

It is impossible to determine with certainty the
purpose for which the Assyrian bells that have been
found were used. Considering that in ancient times
bells were specially used in religious ceremonies, it
appears probable that this was also the chief use
made of them by the Assyrians. The difference in
size, varying in a great number, though all were
found in the same place, seems to indicate that they
were also originally arranged in regular order, in
conformity with a certain scale or peculiar succession
of intervals. When I examined them in the British
Museum I observed that in almost all the clapper was
missing. I found, however, one in which it had been
preserved, which gave me hope that I should hear at
least one Ass;y rian sound — a sound which once per-
haps had vibrated in honour of the famous Baal him-
self. My hope, however, was not realized ; the
clapper, adhering fast to the inner side of the bell,
strenuously resisted any attempt of mine to restore it
to its former function ; besides, the bell itself was in
so corroded a condition as would probably have pre-
cluded any response to its clapj^er.

TAMBOUEINE.— CYMBALS.

These two instruments occur in a grouj) of four
musicians, given by Mr. Bonomi in his third edition
of ' Nineveh and its Palaces,' of which the engraving
(fig. 21) is an enlarged copy. As the sculpture from
wliieh it lias been deriv^od is not shown in the British

Chap. II.

TAMBOURINE — CYMBALS.

Museum, it was probably in too dilapidated a condi-
tion to be exhibited. Nevertheless, from Mr. Bonomi's
carefulness, we may rely on the strictest fidelity
having been observed in sketching the details of the
instruments. It is therefore worth noticing that the
two lyres of this group are the same in form as two

Fig. 21.

Assyrian musicians, with tambourine, cymbals, &c.

of those previously described. Each has five strings,
exactly the number which we had reason to expect.

The tambourine appears to be almost precisely like
that now used by us, which was already known to
the ancient Egyptians. The cymbals were either flat
circular plates of metal, or (although this is not indi-
cated in the representation) they may have been con-
cave in the middle, like our cymbals, and like those
which have been found in Egyptian mummy-cases.

74 MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS OF THE ASSYRIANS. Chap. II.

Tte performers appear to mark the time with their
feet. Probably they are dancing to their music, as is
the case with several other performers represented on
the Assyrian sculptures. In some instances these
dancing musicians take part in religious ceremonies,
which shows that sacred dances were in use with the
Assyrians, as we know them to have been with the
ancient Chinese, Egyptians, and Hebrews. Soon
after their departure from Egypt the Hebrews per-
formed sacred dances before the golden calf, doubtless
after the manner of the Egyptians (Exod. xxxii. 19).
In Psalms cxlix. and cl. the people are admonished to
" praise the name of the Lord in the dance." David
himself " danced before the Lord with all his might"
(2 Sam. vi. 20), although it would appear from
Michal's sarcastic reproach that this manifestation of

religious zeal was con-
sidered derogatory to
the dignity of a king.
Sacred dancing was also
admitted in the primi-
tive Christian Church,
and is still continued in
some Roman Catholic
countries.

The Assyrians had
also a kind of cymbal
which was funnel-
shaped, resembling the
Egyptian darabukkeh
drum. It appears pro-
bable that there was some contrivance in this pecu-
liarly-shaped instrument for increasing the loudness
and the rhythmical effect of its sound.

Fig. 22. Assyrian cymbals.

Chap. II. PIPE FEOM BABYLON. 75

Pipe from Babylon. — The instrument next deserving
of notice is a little pipe of baked clay which was found
by Captain Willock in the ruins of Babylon, Birs-i-
Nimroud, and which has been presented by him to
the Museum of the Royal Asiatic Society. It is about
three inches in length, and has only two finger-holes,
situated side by side, and consequently equidistant
from the end at which it is blown. The opposite
end has no opening : the instrument in this respect
resembles a whistle. If both finger-holes are closed,
it produces the note c ; if only one of them is closed,
it produces e ; and if both are open, it produces G.

Besides these notes, one or two others are obtain-
able by some little contrivance : thus, by blowing
with unusual force, the interval of a fifth, G, may be
raised to that of a sixth, a. But the fixed and natural
notes of the instrument are only the tonic, third, and
fifth. Moreover it is remarkable that the third which
is obtained by closing the left finger-hole is about a
quarter-tone lower than the third which is obtained
by closing the right finger-hole. Perhaps it was in-
tended for the minor third. It may have been ori-
ginally more flat, and might perhaps be restored to
its former pitch, if it were advisable to submit the
pipe to a thorough cleaning.

The accompanying engraving exhibits the instru-
ment full size. That it is a genuine Babylonian relic
admits, in my opinion, of no doubt. It resembles, in
material and workmanship, several other articles
known to be of Assyrian manufacture ; and several
little idols have been found embedded with it, which

76 MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS OF THE ASSYRIANS. Chap. II.

are similar to those obtained from the Assyrian
mounds.

This is, as far as I am aware, the oldest musical
instrument hitherto discovered which has preserved

its original condition ;
yet it is constructed of
so fragile a material
that were it to fall
from the hand to the
ground it would most
likely be destroyed for
ever. But its notes can-
not have been clearer
two thousand years ago
than they are at the
present day. They
constitute the intervals
of the common chord,
either major or minor.
No doubt the feeling
for musical concord is
innate in man, like the
feeling for melody. It
probably caused the Babylonians to adopt for their
little wind-instrument those intervals which together
constitute the harmonious Triad, and which, even
when heard in succession (arpeggio), produce an effect
similar to that most consonant chord.

The shape of this instrument appears to be in-
tended to represent the head of an animal. It is sin-
gular that the little flageolets and whistles of the
ancient American Indians, of which many have been
found in tombs, especially in Mexico and in Central
America, arc also of pottery formed to represent

Fig. 23.

Pipe from Babylon.

Chap. II.

THE SINGLE PIPE.

animals, and bear besides, in other respects, much re-
semblance to tlie Babylonian pipe.

Traces of other Instruments. — I have already sug-
gested that furtlier discoveries will probably bring to
light several other Assyrian instruments. At least
there are some which we might have expected to see
on the bas-reliefs, but which have not yet been found.
The single pipe, for in-
stance, seems to have
been known to all an-
cient nations. There has
been discovered in the
ruins of Susa a figure in
baked clay, representing
a female playing upon a
pipe (fig. 24). It may
possibly be of a more
recent date than those yI
before described ; there '^^
seems to be even some
doubt whether it is really
of Assyrian origin, as it
bears but little resem-
blance to the Assyrian
figures. However this
may be, there can at

least be no doubt that the pipe was well known to
the Assyrians at an early period, especially as they
possessed the double pipe, which it must have pre-
ceded. Besides, it is a well-known fact that pipes
and flutes were in common use in Asia Minor and in
Syria. The Gringras flutes used in Caria and in
Cyprus, in songs of lamentation in honour of Adonis,
are especially famous.

Fig. 24. Pipe from Susa.

78 MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS OF THE ASSYRIANS. Chap. II.

The syrinoc, or Pandean jnpe^ was also known to
most ancient nations, and was probably tbe instru-
ment whose invention is ascribed in Genesis to Jubal,
and which in the English translation is rendered
organ. Travellers tell us that it is at present in use
in Syria and other Asiatic countries, especially by
the lower classes. It may have been also with the
Assyrians a popular though perhaps but little
esteemed instrument, and this would account for it
not appearing on their monuments. We might also
expect to meet with an Assyrian trumpet, consisting
of the horn of some animal, such as we are informed
in the Bible the Hebrews used on certain solemn oc-
casions ; and perhaps also the conch-trumpet, called
in Hindoostan sanhli — an instrument undoubtedly of
high antiquity, and used in the temples of the
Brahmins as well as in those of the Buddhists.

The bagpipe is also very universal throughout
Asia, though at present not so much in use as it
seems to have been in former ages. The earliest evi-
dence which we have of its existence in Asia is a
representation dating before the Christian era. This
curious relic, to which I shall afterwards recur, was
discovered in the ruins of Tarsus, Cilicia. A Hindoo
bagpipe, called titty, brought from Coimbatoor, may
be seen in the East India Museum, London ; and a
drawing of a similar instrument is given in Sonnerat's
' Voyage aux Indes Orientales,' where it is called
toiirti. Mr. Hill found the bagpipe in the hands of
Chinese musicians in Maimatchin, the famous trading-
place on the border of Mongolia.* Sir William
Ouseley met with it in Persia, where it is called nei

■» Travels in Siberia, by S. S. Hill, Esq., Londou, 1854, vol. ii. p. 64.

Chap. II. BAGPIPE — SISTRUM. 79

miibdnah (from ne'i^ a reed or pipe, and ambdnah, a
bag), and where also " it appears to have been more
general in former ages than at present." ^ The same
may be said of the Egyptian bagpipe, zouqqarah,
which is now of but rare occurrence.

In the Persian concert, sketched from a bas-relief
of the sixth century of the Christian era (mentioned
page 33), one of the musicians plays upon a bag-
pipe. Moreover we know that the Romans were ac-
quainted with this instrument, and most likely the
Greeks also. There may be some reason for sup-
posing that it was likewise known to the Assyrians,
if we remember that most commentators on Hebrew
music are of opinion that it was one of the Hebrew
wind-instruments mentioned in Holy Writ. Among
the instruments of the ancient Egyptians it has, how-
ever, not hitherto appeared.

Again, the sistrum, which we find so frequently in
the Egyptian representations, and of the use of which
among the Hebrews there are many indications, might
likewise be expected to have existed among the Assy-
rians. Of the Egyptian sistrum, which was especially
used in religious services, and which is seen usually
in the hands of females, I shall hereafter say a few
words when noticing the Egyptian instruments. The
sistrum has not hitherto been found on Assyrian
monuments, unless we may surmise that the little in-
strument shaped like a sickle, in the right hand of a
small statue in hard stone, is intended for one. This
statue, which will be remembered by visitors to the
Assyrian antiquities in the British Museum, was found

^ Travels in various Countries of I by Sir W. Ouseley, London, 1819,
the East, more particularly Persia, | vol. i. p. 241.

80 MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS OF THE ASSYRIANS. Chap. II.

by Mr. Layard in the mound of Nimroud, and is sup-
posed, according to the official guide-book of the Mu-
seum, to represent Sardanapalus the Great. If this

be so, the instrument may per-
haps be an emblem of dominion,
like the crook of Osiris, men-
tioned by Sir Gardner Wilkin-
son,® which it also resembles in
shape. Mr. Bonomi, however,
describes the statue as that of
a high-priest in his sacerdotal
dress ; ' and it appears therefore
not improbable that the instru-
ment is a kind of sistrum which
may have been used by the
Assyrian priests in their reli-
gious processions and dances,
as it is at the present time em-
ployed by the priests of a
Christian sect in Abyssinia.
There may be seen, on close
examination, about twenty di-

visions in the crook, which

were perhaps so many separate
and jingling pieces of metal ;
and though the instrument dif-
ers essentially in shape from
the usual Egyptian sistrum, it
must be remembered that the
sistrum generally attributed to the Hebrews is also
different in appearance. However, far from wishing to

Fig. 25. Assyrian high-priest.

^ The Manners and Customs of
the Ancient Egyptians, by Sir G.
Wilkinson, vol. v. p. 267.

7 Nineveh and its Palaces, by J.
Bonomi, London, 1853, p. 291.

Chap. II. THE VIOLIN KIND. 81

express a decided opinion, my object is only to suggest
the great probability that the sistrum also was one of
those hitherto unascertained but nevertheless com-
monly used instruments of the A ssyrians.

THE ANTIQUITY OF THE INSTEUMENTS OF
THE VIOLIN KIND.

Stringed instruments played with a bow seem to
have been unknown to the Assyrians as well as to the
Hebrews and Egyptians. It is true some historians
mention Hebrew instruments played with a bow, but
they have in translating apparently mistaken the
plectrum for a bow. On the other hand, there are
indications of the existence of a kind of violin in Asia
at a very remote period. M. Sonnerat tells us that
the Hindoos maintain that the ravanastron, one of
their old instruments played with the bow, was in-
vented about five thousand years ago by Ravanen,
a mighty king in Ceylon.^ The most characteristic
instruments of this description at present extant
in Asiatic countries are the urh-heen of the Chinese,
the hoMu of the Japanese, the sarangi and the sarinda
of the Hindoos, the kemangeh and rehah of the Arabs
and Persians. It is not at all improbable that some
instrument of this species may have been known to
the Assyrians also.

In describing the Assyrian instruments I have re-
peatedly pointed out some remarkable similarities in
form or construction between ancient Asiatic and
European instruments at present in use — similarities
which, in my opinion, are too peculiar and striking to
be accidental, and which therefore indicate a common

^ Voyage aux ludes Orientales, par M. Sonnerat, Paris, 1806, vol. i.
p. 182.

82 MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS OF THE ASSYRIANS. Chap. II.

origin. The object which I had in view will become
evident when I proceed to explain the musical system
of the Assyrians. I mention this here because the
following observations might otherwise be considered
irrelevant.

Among the Hindoo instruments played with a bow,
and also among those which are played with a plec-
trum, are certain kinds in which the body exhibits on
its sides a curved outline, similar to that of our violin
and its relations the tenor, violoncello, double-bass, &c.
Besides, I have frequently seen instruments from
Hindoostan which had a double set of strings, one set
above the other, the upper consisting of catgut and
the lower of thin wire strings. Now this peculiar
contrivance was also formerly applied to several of
our own instruments. The viole ctamou7\ for instance,
a favourite instrument some centuries ago, was pro-
vided with fourteen strings, seven of catgut and seven
of wire, the latter placed under the former, and tuned
in unison with them, or in octaves. The catgut
strings only were played uj^on, and the object in
placing the wire strings under them was to increase
their sonorousness — it being a well-known fact that if
of two sonorous bodies tuned in unison, or in octaves,
one is made to sound, the other will also sound with-
out being touched. Thus the pitch of the note of a
church bell may be ascertained by playing u23on a
flute under the bell. As soon as the note which is
that of the bell is blown, the bell will begin to vibrate,
emitting softly the same note. The Hardanger pea-
sants in Norway have at the present day a fiddle with
a number of thin wire strings placed under the catgut
strings. It is not surprising that the Hindoos should
be aware of this sympathising nature of notes of equal

Chap. II. THE VIOLIN KIND. 83

vibrations ; but that they should have appHed it in
their stringed instruments precisely in the same way
as we have done, seems to me suggestive. In the
thro of the Burmese, and the hemangeh roumy of the
present Egyptians, the resemblance to our violin is
even greater than in the Hindoo instruments above
mentioned. I should think no one who is acquainted
with the history of our music, and with the music and
habits of Asiatic nations, could entertain the opinion
that these Oriental instruments have been originally
derived from Europe, or must be imitations of Euro-
pean instruments. Although the name of the Egyp-
tian instrument {hemangeh roumy ^ " a Greek violin ")
seems to indicate either that it was introduced into
Egypt from Greece, or that in Egypt it is con-
sidered as a violin specially belonging to Greece, it
must also be remembered that the Greeks possessed
at an early period several instruments in common
with Asiatic nations ; and although it may be impos-
sible to ascertain with any degree of accuracy the
time when the Hindoo, Burmese, and Egyptian in-
struments which I have alluded to were invented,
there are sufficient reasons to apprehend that they
existed prior to ours.

I must not omit to state that most modern musicians
who have written on this subject express an opinion
the very opposite to mine. This is, I think, owing to
their having followed the well-known ' Resume phi-
losophique ' of M. Fetis, prefixed to his ' Biographic
Universelle des Musiciens.' I have frequently ob-
served instances in our musical literature where the
opinion of a theorist of reputation has been adopted
and repeated by others without their having ascer-
tained that it was well founded.

G 2

84 MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS OF THE ASSYRIANS. Chap. II.

F^tis, in liis * Resume,' asserts that stringed instru-
ments of the violin kind are a European invention ;
and he beUeves them to have had their origin in the
Russian (judok. The following extracts, translated
from three different works of this author, will show
hett(3r than any explanation that he was but super-
ficially ac(puiinted with the music of Eastern nations
wlicn he made that assertion.

In the ' Resume philosophique ' ( ' Biographic des
M^^siciens,' Bruxelles, 1837, tome i. p. 83) he writes
as follows : — " If we have borrowed much from the
East, as regards the taste for ornamentation in
melody, and with respect to musical insti'uments ; on
the other hand, we have made known to the East the
class of instruments played with the bow. For the
bow originated in the West. Having passed through
Italy into Greece, the viol was carried into Asia
Minor, and afterwards into Persia and Arabia, where
it became the kemangeh roumy, of which several
vjii-ictics were afterwards formed, by being invested
with an Oriental character. The rehab, a rude imita-
tion of the same class of instruments, was long after-
wards brought back by the Crusaders to Europe,
wliere it received the name of rehebhe ; and, after
having luidergone various modifications in form, in
the material of its construction, and in the number of
sti'ings with which it was mounted, it became the rus-
tic fiddle called rebec.'''

In a later treatise on the same subject, contained
in ' La Musi que mise k la Portee de tout le Monde,'
P>ruxelles, 1830, page 121, M. Fetis points to the
Welsh enctJi, instead of the Russian (judoh, as the in-
strument from which all others of the violin kind are
derived. He says : — " All the researches made with

CiiAi'. II. Til K VIOLIN KIND. 85

;i view to diHCOver whether the iijitloiis ol" :iiili(|iiil,y
were acquainted witli instruments played vvilli ilic
bow have been fruitless; or rather, ithasl)eeii proved,
ahnost to a certaiuty, that they were entii'ely unknown.
It is true, a certain statue of Orpheus, holding a violin
in one Iiand and a bow in the other, has been (n'ted ;
but, on closer examination, the viohn and bow were
foruid to have been added by the sculptor wlio re-
paired the statue. Passages from Aristoj^hanes, Plu-
tarch, Athenoeus, and Lucian have also been (pioted,
in which some writers find proofs of the existence of
the bow among tlie Greeks ; but the most supei'ficial
investigation will suffice to show how little groujid
there is for this assumption. There is no doubt that
the instruments with a sounding-lxjard, ;\, finger-
board, and with strings raised by a bridge, Jind made
to vibrate by a bow, originated in the West ; but in
what century, and in what part of Europe they were
invented, are questions not easily answered. We find
in Wales an instrument which has existed there from
the earliest times under the name of crwth. It is nearly
square in form, has a finger-board, and is played wiili
a bow. In England it is regarded as the parent of
the different kinds of viol, and of the violin."

Again, in Ji subsequent work, entilk^d 'iVntoinc^
Stradivari, precede do Jiecherches liistoiifjnc^s et cri-
tiques sur rOrigine et les Transformations des Instrn-
ments a Archet,' Paris, 185G, M. Fctis says :— "iiin-
doostan, the C(juntry whence we derive the most
ancient monuments (jf a well-developed language, of
an advanced civilization, of a j)hilosophy in which all
varieties of human thought have their exj)ression, of
a poetry eminently rich in all its branches, and of a
music in which the extreme sensibility of the natives

86 MUSICAL INSTEUMENTS OF THE ASSYRIANS. Chap. II.

finds expression — Hindoostan has, it appears, been
the birthplace of the instruments played with the
bow, and has made them known to other parts of
Asia. This does not admit of a moment's doubt, as
the instruments are actually in existence, bearing
unmistakeable marks of their Indian origin. If we
wish to find the instrument played with a bow in its
original state, we must take it in its simplest form,
where no art has been employed to render it more
perfect. Thus we find it in the ravanastron, formed
of a cylinder of sycamore wood, partly hollowed."
After mentioning two other Hindoo instruments, the
ruana and the omerti, both belonging to the violin
class, M. Fetis says : — " If we compare the omerti
with the Arab instrument called heniangeh a gouz, we
at once perceive that the latter took its origin from
the former." And further on he observes : — " Truth
to say, the rehab is only a modification of the ruana
of the Hindoos, the only diiference being in the form
of the body of the instrument."

I may now leave it to the reader to form his own
opinion as to the value of the statements of M. Fetis.
We have already seen that instruments of the violin
kind are also known to the Chinese and other Asiatic
nations, and I shall presently submit to the reader's
judgment some evidence from which it appears highly
probable that the musical instruments of the Arabs
were originally derived from the Chaldees and Assy-
rians.

THE NAMES OF MUSICAL INSTEUMENTS.

The circumstance of many of our European in-
struments having nearly the same name in different
languages would appear to be to some extent an indi-

Chap. II. THEIE NAMES. 87

cation of their having been derived from the same
source. I shall notice a few instances which occur
to my mind, and I must leave it to the philologist to
explain or to enlarge njoon them. To the musician
such investigations would most likely prove useful,
and certainly interesting. Thus, it might perhaps
be easily ascertained in how many languages the
\YOTdipipe, — (aQYViidJi pfeife, YvQiiGhpipeau, Gaelic jf>?6>6,
Welsh jy/6, Swedish pij^a, Dutch pijp, &c., — can be re-
cognised. Or the word harp, — German harfe, Fin-
nish harpu, Icelandic haurpa, Hungarian hdrfa, French
harpe, Sj^anish arpa, Anglo-Saxon hearpe or earpe,
&c. Of the lute, — German laute:, Italian liuto, French
luth, Dutch, luit, Swedish luta, Spanish laud, Arabic
el oud, — we know with some certainty that it is the
Arabic instrument from which the others have been
derived. The guitar is said to have been brought
from the East to Spain by the Moors. In Germany
it has hardly been known for a century. The in-
habitants of some mountainous districts in Germany
had, however, from time immemorial, a somewhat
similar instrument called zither; in Persia, Hindoo-
stan, and other Asiatic countries, we find the sitar ;
in Nubia the kissar ; in ancient Greece the kithara ;
and might not also the name of the Hebrew instru-
ment with which David subdued the " evil spirit " of
Saul, the kinnor, be related to these ? This appears
less improbable if we remember the similarity of the
name of the Hebrew trumpet keren with the Greek
keras, the Latin cornu, the French cor, the German
horn, the Welsh corn, the Persian karna'i, the Hun-
garian kurt, the English horn, &c.

This instrument undoubtedly was originally made
of the horn of an animal, and hence the name. In-

88 MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS OF THE ASSYRIANS. Chap. II.

deed, many recurrences of the same names are easily
accounted for. Nevertheless, by a closer investiga-
tion of them, some new light might probably be
thrown on obscure questions relative to the history
of music. For instance, in the Hindoo hdrddhi some
clue is afforded to the original home of the Celtic
hard. We are informed in the * Asiatic Eesearches,'
that " the usual name in India for a bard is hhcit. It
is not a Sanskrit appellation, though asserted to be
derived from it. But the original name, as it was
pronounced several hundred years ago, was bdrdcli, or
hdrddhi, though some think it a different name ap-
plied to the same class of people. . . . The title
of hdrddhi is translated ' musician ' by Abul Fazil.
His functions, both in the field and at home, were
exactly those of the ancient bards of the West,"^ &c.
And it is a remarkable fact that the further we
extend such inquiries, the more forcibly we are
directed to the East as the cradle of our music. It
would, however, be out of place to enlarge here upon
this subject.

^ An Essay on tlie Sacred Isles, by Captain F. Wilford, Asiatic Researclies,
vol. ix. p. 76.

Chap. III. ASSYRIAN MUSICAL PERFORMANCES. 89

CHAPTEK III.

ASSYRIAN MUSICAL PERFORMANCES.

Various combinations of musical instruments — Description of the Assyrian
bas-reliefs in the British Museum on which musical performers are
represented — Other representations of Assyrian musicians briefly de-
scribed — The characteristics of the performances — Fondness of the
Assyrians for music — Their songs — Music employed in their religious
worship — Court bauds of the kings . — Rhythmical character of the
music — Oriental music of the present time — Choruses of the dervislies
— Call to prayer of the Muezzin — Character of the Assyrian in-
strumental accompaniments — Hamaony not entirely unknown to the
Assyrians.

In order to show the combinations of musical in-
struments used by the Assyrians in their concerts,
and also on what occasions music was specially intro-
duced, I purpose now to give a short description of
those bas-reliefs in the British Museum which repre-
sent musical performances. Most, if not all, of these
stony records were originally coloured. On some
of them, when discovered, the colours were partially
preserved ; and there are even now a few in the
British Museum on which a red tint is still distinctly
visible, bearing witness to the correctness of the pro-
phet's description of the Assyrian palaces, and the
"men portrayed upon the wall, the images of the
Chaldeans portrayed with vermilion." (Ezek. xxiii.
14.) The colours actually found upon the bas-reliefs
are, according to Professor Rawlinson, only four, viz.,
red, blue, black, and white. " The red is a good bright
tint, far exceeding in brilliancy that of Egypt. On

90 ASSYEIAN MUSICAL PERFORMANCES. Chap. III.

the sculptures of Khorsabad it approaches to vermi-
lion, while on those of Nimroud it inclines to crimson
or lake tint. It is found alternating with the natural
stone on the royal parasol and mitre ; with blue on
the crests of helmets, the trappings of horses, on
flowers, sandals, and on fillets ; and besides, it occurs,
unaccompanied by any other colour, on the stems
and branches of trees, on the claws of birds, the shafts
of spears and arrows, on bows, belts, fillets, quivers,
maces, reins, sandals, flowers, and the fringe of
dresses." ^

It is to be regretted that the colours have not been
preserved on the musical instruments ; otherwise we
might perhaps be enabled to ascertain therefrom
whether the frames of the harps and lyres were
entirely of wood or partly of metal, — whether the
little dots observable on the lower bar of the frame
in some of the harps were tuning-pegs or merely
ornamental brass buttons, — whether the indentations
on the inner side of the upper part of the frame in
some of these instruments, noticed page 36, are
meant for sounding-holes, or whether they are di-
lapidations in the sculptures ; whether the plectra
used by the performers were of wood or ivory, and
several other such points. Unimportant as any in-
formation of this kind may appear, it is sometimes of
great assistance in inquiries relating to the music of
a nation of antiquity.

Most of the instruments have ornamental appen-
dages ; and from the recorded wealth and luxury of
the Assyrian monarchs, we may suppose the tassels

1 The Five Great Monarchies of I George Rawlinson, Loudon, 1862,
the Ancient Eastern World, by | vol. i. p. 451.

Chap. III. DESCEIPTION OP BAS-EELIEFS. 91

on the harps and other stringed instruments of the
musicians playing before the king to have been of
rich silk in various splendid colours, interwoven with
gold ; and the frames themselves to have been embel-
lished with elegant devices, and lacquered, as is the
case with the instruments employed at the present
day by the higher classes in Persia and Hindoostan.

The following is a description of the most remark-
able scenes in which musical performances occur : —

No. 1. Harp and drum. — The king with his queen,
at a banquet under a bower of vines, are waited upon
by attendants, four of whom are fanning them with
fly-flappers, while others hand refreshments. At the
further end are two musicians, facing the king ; the
first, an eunuch, is playing upon a harp ; the other
beating with both hands a sugarloaf-shaped drum,
like the one which is represented at page 64 (fig. 19).
The dimensions of the slab only allow the hands to
be seen. It is therefore possible that other musicians
took part in this concert who were represented on
another slab which obviously joined this one, and
contained additional figures. \_Froin Kouyunjik.']

No. 2. Lyre, harp, and douhle-pi'pe. — The subject of
this representation appears to be a religious ceremony.
Two personages, perhaps royal chamberlains, each
with a long stick in his left hand, which he holds in
the middle, are standing before some vessels, probably
used in sacrifice. At a first glance, one might sup-
pose these men to be indicating the time to the musi-
cians ; but this is very unlikely, because it could not
be nearly so well done by two as by one alone. There
is a greater probability that the sticks were used as
rhythmical instruments. They appear each to consist
of two pieces united, which may have been loosely

92 ASSYEIAN MUSICAL PERFOKMANCES. Chap. III.

fastened together so as to produce a rattling noise
when shaken. However, the manner in which the
men liave the right arm placed over the left, tells
against this conjecture ; since it was scarcely possible
for them in this position to move their sticks, far less
to use them for a rhythmical purpose in combination
with the musical instruments. Facing these men, on
the opposite side of the vessels, stand the musicians.
The first plays upon a lyre with five strings, as repre-
sented in fig. 6, page 38 ; the second upon a harp ;
and of the third only the instrument, a double-pipe,
is seen, as the slab does not embrace more of the
rej)resentation, which undoubtedly extended to another
slab united to the present one, and which may have
represented one or two more musicians. \_From Kou-
yunjik.~\

No. 3. Two asors. — Return from the bull-hunt. —
The king, with a cup in his hand, is standing near a
prostrate wild bull, and seems to perform some reli-
gious ceremony, by pouring out a libation above the
slain animal, or by drinking out of a sacred cup in
honour of the gods. He is surrounded by attendants,
one of whom shades him with a parasol, while another
fans him with a fly-flapper, and a third is approaching
him in an attitude of respect. Two performers upon
asors celebrate his victories over the wild beasts, or,
perhaps, execute a solemn composition appropriate to
the sacred ceremony in which he is engaged. They
are standing side by side, and each holds the plectrum
in his right hand in precisely the same oblique direc-
tion over his instrument as if they were going to
twang the strings both at the same moment. It is
singular that the sculptor has represented the left
hand of the second performer as in front of the strings

Chap. III. DESCEIPTION OF BAS-RELIEFS. 93

of the instrument of the first performer, undoubtedly
with the object of showing it more distinctly than it
could possibly have been seen in its proper position
behind the strings. Such a disregard to natural truth
by the sculptor, in order that no part of any object
which he considered as of greater importance than
others should be hidden, may be not unfrequently
observed in the Assyrian bas-reliefs. The wild bull
of Assyria must have been a formidable and noble
animal. We see it depicted in deadly strife with the
lion ; ^ and the king performed over each the same
religious and musical ceremony, when he had been
successful in the chase. Neither of these animals is
any longer found in the country where, in former
times, their figures were adoj)ted as symbols of power
and nobleness. [^From Nimroud.']

No. 4. Two asors. — Here the king is represented
standing before an altar and pouring a libation over
some dead lions, which he probably has just slain in
the chase. Two musicians with asors, beardless and
juvenile in a2:»pearance, are standing on the opposite
side of the altar, and are probably singing a hymn
with instrumental accompaniment, in praise of the
courageous achievements of the king in his battle
with the lions, or in honour of the gods for having
protected him in his daring pastime. \_From Kou-
yunjik.^

No. 5. Two asors. — Return from the lion-hunt.
The king, accompanied by four archers, besides other
attendants, with the slain lion at his feet, holds a cup
in his right hand, in a similar way, and probably
for the same purpose, as indicated in our previous

Sec Layard's Monuments of Nineveh, First Series, Pis. 46 and 48.

94 ASSYEIAN MUSICAL PERFORMANCES. Chap. III.

description of tlie return from the bull-chase. The
two royal minstrels in the present scene stand side
by side, as all the asor-players on the different slabs
are represented. However, in the bas-relief before
us the instrument of the nearest performer does not
exhibit on its fore-pillar the usual imitation of a
hand, which has been noticed, p. 48 ; but terminates
instead in a human head, which is, as Mr. Bonomi
suggests, " probably to indicate that the bearer is the
chief musician, or the leader of the chorus ; for we
apprehend that the tico in this sculpture, as in all the
representations of battles, sieges, hunts, &c., are put
for the many." ^ \_Fro7ii Nimroud.~\

No. 6. Two asors and a drum. — Triumphal return
of the victors from the battle-field. The king is
approaching in his chariot, preceded and followed by
soldiers on foot and on horseback. Warriors are
carrying the heads of slain enemies ; others are
counting them. Three musicians are celebrating the
victory with song and instrumental accompaniment.
The first two are bearded men, playing upon asors ;
while the third, a beardless and juvenile-looking per-
son, is beating a drum with his hands. The latter
instrument is nearly obliterated, but seems to have
been similar in shape to the small drum repre-
sented in the wood-engraving, fig. 18, p. 63. \_From
Nimroud.']

No. 7. Four asors. — This slab contains nothing but
the half-length figures of four performers on the asor,
two and two together. Of the first two the instru-
ments are incomplete ; they extended aj^parently to
an adjoining slab. The head-dress of one of these

3 Nineveh and its Palaces, by J. Bonomi, London, 1853, p. 252.

UnAP. III.

DESCRIPTION OF BAS-RELIEFS.

musicians, shown in the accompanying engraving
(fig. 26), is remarkable. In a short description of the
slab in the ' Athenjemn' (London, Aiignst 17, 1861),
these musicians are sur-
mised to be priests : " one
has a monstrously ele-
vated head-dress, not un-
like that remarked by
Egyptian antiquaries as
characteristic of the
people of Upper Egypt,
which, when combined
with the mitre usual in
Lower Egypt, constituted
the peculiar crown seen
in so many of the Egyp-
tian portraits of mo-
narchs after the union
■ of the kingdoms."

If I may hazard an
opinion, I should con-
jecture, from his distinc-
tive head-dress and dig

nified attitude, that the „. „.

. . I^'g- 26.

above musician was the

Head-dress of Assyrian musician.

king's chief band-master, or director of music. \_From
Kouyunjik^

No. 8. Three lyres. — On this slab four bearded
men are seen traversing a mountainous country.
On the tops and sides of the hills a few trees are
represented to indicate a woody district. Three of
the men are playing upon lyres, while the fourth,
a warrior, is carrying in his right hand a short stick
surmounted by a knob, or a mace ; he is following

96 ASSYRIAN MUSICAL PERFORMANCES. Cuap. III.

the musicians, and appears to be their superior. The
dress of the men and the shape of the lyres are
exactly as shown in the engraving (fig. 7, p. 39).
\_From Kouyunjik.~\

No. 9. Two trumpets. — Removal of a colossal bull.
— -Whoever has paid a visit to the Assyrian monu-
ments in the British Museum will remember the
colossal bulls and lions, with human heads and eagles'
wings, — expressive symbols of wisdom, power, and
swiftness, — which originally were placed on the
two sides of the chief entrances of the magnificent
palaces of the Assyrian monarchs, and also of the
entrances to some of the inner halls.

The slab now under consideration coromemorates
the conveyance of a human-headed winged bull to
the royal palace, under the superintendence, or at
least in the presence, of the king, who is seen standing
in his chariot, which has been drawn by the attend-
ants to the summit of a mound. Numerous workmen,
directed by overseers, are occupied in removing the
bull, which has been laid sideways on a kind of
sledge. Some officers are standing on it, engaged in
giving orders to the workmen by means of clapping
their hands and other signs. They are assisted in
this operation by two men with trumpets, one of
whom is just in the act of transmitting commands
to the most distant workmen in front of them.
\_From Kouyunjikl]

No. 10. Two trumpets. — Removal of a human-
headed winged bull. — The chief features of this
representation are similar to the preceding one. The
king is, however, not present, and the scene is near
a river or lake, which obviously is intended to indi-
cate the district of the country from which the bull

Chap. III. DESCRIPTION OF BAS-KELIEFS. 97

was brought to the palace. Workmen with spades,
picks, saws, and ropes, are busily engaged in the
removal of the heavy mass, under the direction of
officers, whose commands are transmitted by signs
and trumpet-signals.

I must not omit to mention that in the official
' Synopsis of the Contents of the British Museum,'
the above trumpets are noticed as "speaking-trum-
pets." Such an instrument is however different in
appearance from the trumpets here exhibited. It
especially requires a large aperture which entirely
covers the mouth, and in which the lips can be
moved freely, so as to insure a distinct enunciation
of every word. An examination of the monuments
must convince any one that the Assyrian sculptors
took great care to exhibit any characteristic pecu-
liarities appertaining to a figure or object which they
were representing. I need only notice the great
fidelity evinced in representing the muscles in the
limbs of bulls and lions. This is also curiously
exemplified in the representation of a claw in the
tuft at the end of the lion's tail. The existence of
such a claw in the tail of the living animal had been
repeatedly asserted and doubted, but it has recently
been ascertained to be a positive fact. For some
interesting information on this and similar subjects,
in further corroboration of the conscientious exact-
ness observed by the sculptors, I must refer the
reader to Mr. Bonomi's book on ' Nineveh and its
Palaces.' From such facts the conclusion may be
drawn, that if the instruments in question were
speaking - trumpets, the sculptors would not have
omitted to indicate the large aperture constituting
the mouthpiece ; there is, however, not the slightest

98 ASSYEIAN MUSICAL PERFORMANCES. Chap. III.

trace of it in the representations of any of the trum-
pets, although some of the sculptures are in good
preservation.

Besides, trumpet signals are better fitted for trans-
mitting orders to a great distance, than verbal mes-
sages through a speaking-trumpet, because they are
more distinctly heard. And it must also be remem-
bered that the ancient Egyptians and Hebrews had
trumpets like those of the Assyrians ; and that the
Hebrews used them for signalling, in the same
manner as the Assyrians, is a fact known from Holy
Writ. \_Jp^7vm Kouyunjik.']

No. 11. A tamboii7'a. ■ — We have here a scene
which may perhaps refer to some peculiar national
custom or popular festival. Two mummers, most
likely mimes, clothed in lions' skins, and wearing-
masks resembling the head of the lion, are dancing
to the music of a man who plays upon a tamboura.
One of the dancers is carrying a whip in his right
hand, which he used, perhaps, to produce a rhythmical
accompaniment to the music of the tamboura. Similar
customs exist at the present time in European countries.
In some of the villages in Germany, for instance,
grotesque mummers perform a peculiar dance at
Whitsuntide before the houses, to the rhythm pro-
duced by the cracking of a number of whips. Three
or four men with whips, who may be said to repre-
sent the band of musicians, accompany the dancers ;
they are generally so well practised together as to
perform with much precision, producing a variety of
animating rhythmical effects. [_F'rom Nimroud.']

No. 12. Seven harps, one dulcimer, two double-pipes,
and a drum. — Procession of instrumental and vocal
performers to meet the conquerors on their return

Chap. III. DESCRIPTION OF BAS-RELIEFS. 99

from tlie battle-field. — This is the largest and most
interesting assemblage of musicians which has been
discovered. I have therefore selected it for the
frontispiece to this book. It consists of eleven per-
formers upon instruments, besides a chorus of singers.
The first musician — probably the leader of the band,
as he marches alone at the head of the procession — is
playing upon a harp. Behind him are two men, one
with a dulcimer and the other with a double-pipe ;
then follow two more men with harps. Next come
six female musicians, four of whom are playing upon
harps, while one is blowing a double-pipe, and another
is beating a small hand-drum covered only at the top,
of the kind described at p. 63. Close behind the
instrumental are the vocal performers, consisting of a
chorus of females and children. They are clapping
their hands in time with the music, and some of
the musicians are dancing to the measure. One of the
female singers is holding her hand to her throat, in
the same manner as the women in Syria, Arabia, and
Persia are in the habit of doing at the present day,
when producing, on festive occasions, those peculiarly
shrill sounds of rejoicing which have been repeatedly
noticed by Oriental travellers. Dr. Clarke says,
" They are caused by trilling the tongue against the
roof of the mouth, without the utterance of any dis-
tinct words. Yet this singular mode of expressing
joy is all that constitutes the Alleluia of the ancients.
When Lord Hutchinson first entered Cairo, after the
capture of the city, he was met by a number of
women who greeted him with Alleluia ; they accom-
panied him through the streets, clapping their hands,
and making this extraordinary noise in a loud and
shrill tone. It seems to be a constant repetition

H 2

100 ASSYEIAN MUSICAL PERFORMANCES. Chap. III.

of the same syllable al, uttered with the utmost
rapidity." * Besides being singularly illustrative
of modern Oriental customs, the Assyrian procession
under our consideration is also especially interesting
on account of the resemblance which it bears to
some musical processions of the Hebrews on similar
occasions mentioned in the Bible. I shall remind
the reader only of David's reception by the women
after his victory over the Philistines ; and of that of
Jephthah by his daughter and her companions, after
his return from the battle against the children of
Ammon (Judges xi. 34). Also, on the solemn occa-
sion of the conveyance of the ark into the City of
David, the procession seems to have been very similar
to that of the Assyrians here represented. " David
and all Israel played before God with all their might,
and with singing, and with harps, and with psal-
teries, and with timbrels, and with cymbals, and with
trumpets " (1 Chron. xiii. 8) ; and it was on this
occasion that " David danced before the Lord with all
his might" (2 Samuel vi. 14). \_Froni Kouyunjik.']

In addition to those enumerated I have seen a few
other representations of Assyrian musicians, of which
a brief notice will suffice. The first is a performer
on the harp, engraven on one of those little cylin-
drical seals which may be seen in the British
Museum.

The second is a procession with instruments of
music, in connection with a ceremony apparently
sacrificial, before two altars. It occurs on an obelisk
in white calcareous stone, which was found near the

* Travels in various Countries, by E. D. Clarke, London, 1810 Part ii.
Sect. ii. p. 121.

Chap. III. DESCRIPTION OF BAS-RELIEFS. 101

centre of the mound of Kouyunjik, and which also is
now exhibited in the British Museum. But it is so
much dilapidated that I could not distinguish with
certainty more of the musical instruments than one
or two asors.

The third is an engraving of two performers on
lyres, given in M. Botta's work, ' Monuments de
Ninive,' from a much corroded slab found in Khor-
sabad. The men, who seem to be singing while
marching and twanging their lyres, are dressed like
soldiers, with an appendage to their tunics, as repre-
sented in fig. 5, p. 38, which, according to Mr.
Layard, was a kind of ornament somewhat resembling
the Highland pkilibeg, and which was only worn by a
certain class of soldiers.^

The fourth is a scene in which some singers and
drummers are introduced, and of which also I have
seen only a drawing, viz. in Mr. Layard's work entitled
' Discoveries in the Ruins of Nineveh and Babylon.'
It is there described as representing " Assyi'ians
cutting down the palm-trees belonging to a captured
city." The drums are like those to which I have
alluded (p. 64) as a third kind of Assyrian drum.
It is worthy of notice that we find rhythmical sounds
of the drum here employed apparently for the pur-
pose of facilitating the execution of some menial
labour.

CHARACTERISTICS OF THE PERFORMANCES.

I shall now state in a few words what may be
adduced from a comparison of the different repre-

^ Nineveh and its Remains, by A. H. Layard, London, 1849, vol. ii.
p. 336.

102 ASSYRIAN MUSICAL PERFORMANCES. Chap. III.

sentations whicli I have described, respecting the
characteristics of the Assyrian musical performances.
It must be remembered that the monuments are not
all of the same age. Thus the king on slab No. 9 is,
according to our authorities on Assyrian history,
Sennacherib, during whose reign, about 720 B.C.,
the bas-relief probably was made ; while the king on
slab No. 4 is Ashur-bani-pal, the grandson of Sen-
nacherib. Again, the sculptures derived from the
mound of Nimroud are supposed to be several cen-
turies older than those which are from Kouyunjik.
If we possessed more ample information on Assyrian
music than we do, it might have been of use for the
history of music to arrange these stony records
according to their age, as far as this is ascertain-
able. With our present limited knowledge, however,
nothing satisfactory could be gained by such an
attempt. I shall therefore consider here the instru-
ments only, without further reference to the time to
which their existence can be traced in each indivi-
dual instance.

We have seen that the Assyrians employed in their
musical performances stringed, wind, and pulsatile
instruments in combination. Moreover, we find the
stringed instruments greatly predominating, and any
loud rhythmical instruments but sparingly employed.
In this respect their music evidently dilFered from
that of the ancient Egyptians, in whose bands various
kinds of instruments of percussion are of frequent
occurrence. The Hebrews also used, besides loud
trumpets, several noisy rhythmical instruments, even
in religious ceremonies, which are seldom met with
in the Assyrian bands. Their music must conse-
quently have been pre-eminently soft and senti-

Chap. III. THEIK CHARACTERISTICS. 103

mental in character, like that of several Asiatic
nations at the present time. Captain Yule relates
that when the military band of the English Embassy
to the Court of Ava was playing European music to
the Burmese, " they listened with more curiosity than
enjoyment ; the music was too loud for their taste." ^
On the other hand, their own music, as well as that
of the Siamese, is described by most travellers as
usually soft; and that it must be so, may be also
concluded from the nature of their musical instru-
ments, with the same certainty that the character of
Assyrian music may be determined from the Assyrian
instruments.

The stringed instrument most frequently used by
the Assyrians was, it appears, the asor ; after this
the harp and the lyre seem to have been the most
common. It was the custom to use two or more instru-
ments of the same kind, probably more for the pur-
pose of insuring greater fulness and brilliancy of
tone than for the sake of increased loudness. For
the same reason we employ a number of violins
together in unison in our orchestras, although the
music executed may be quite piano.

The Assyrians were obviously very fond of music,
and it was probably never wanting at their festivals
and public entertainments. The power of music to
increase the solemnity and grandeur of any public
festivity is, indeed, so great and so universally
felt, that it would have been extraordinary if the
Assyrians had not, like other nations, made use of
it on such occasions. Of the luxury and magnifi-

^ A Narrative of the Mission sent I to the Court of Ava, by Captain H.
by the Governor-General of India I Yule, London, 1858, p. 128.

104 ASSYRIAN MUSICAL PERFORMANCES. Chap. III.

cence displayed by tliem at festivals, we have some
casual records in the Bible and Apocrypha. In the
Book of Judith, for instance, it is related that, when
the King Nabuchodonosor had conquered tlie King
Arphaxad, he celebrated his victory in Nineveh,
" and banqueted, both he and his army, an hundred
and twenty days" (Judith i. 16). The employment
of music at banquets and feastings was also cus-
tomary among the Hebrews, as, indeed, it was with
all ancient nations. Jesus, the son of Sirach, says :
" A concert of musick in a banquet of wine is a signet
of carbuncle set in gold. As a signet of an emerald
set in a work of gold, so is the melody of musick
with pleasant wine" (Ecclus. xxxii. 5, 6). And in
praise of Josias he says that the remembrance of him
is " sweet as honey in all mouths, and as musick at a
banquet of wine." (Ecclus. xlix. 1.)

Isaiah alludes to the fondness of the Babylonians
for music, when exclaiming, " Thy pomp is brought
down to the grave, and the noise of thy viols : the
worm is spread under thee, and the worms cover
thee" (Isaiah xvi. 11). And from a passage in
Daniel it would appear that in Babylon hymns
in praise of the gods were sung at the royal ban-
quets. (Dan. V. 4, 23.)

Moreover, there can scarcely be a doubt that the
Assyrians had also their funeral songs and lamenta-
tions, either entirely vocal, or perhaps with the
accompaniment of flutes. The introduction of music
by the Hebrews at funerals and on occasions of
mourning is often mentioned in the Bible. King
David himself composed a dirge upon the death of
Saul and Jonathan (2 Sam. i. 17). From a sentence
in St. Matthew ix. 23, — "And when Jesus came into

Chap. Ill, THEIR CHARACTERISTICS. 105

the ruler's house, aiid saw the minstrels and the
people making a noise, he said unto them, Give
place: for the maid is not dead but sleepeth," — it
would appear that it was a Jewish custom to intro-
duce music on such occasions. Forkel mentions that,
according to Maimonides, even the poorest Hebrew
husband was expected to engage at the funeral of his
wife at least two flute-players, and a hired female
mourner.''

It would seem from the beautiful Psalm cxxxvii.,
that the Babylonians must have found pleasure in
listening to the music of the Jews : —

'' By the rivers of Babylon, there we sat down ;
yea, we wept when we remembered Zion.

" We hanged our harps upon the willows in the
midst thereof.

" For there they that carried us away captive
required of us a song ; and they that wasted us re-
quired of us mirth, saying. Sing us one of the songs
of Zion.

" How shall we sing the Lord's song in a strange
land ? "

Bedford, in his ' Temple Musick,' suggests that
" the service in the Temple at Jerusalem was regular
and orderly, without confusion and disturbance, and
where every one knew his part without interrupting
another ; and this made the Babylonians so very
desirous to hear the same, that, when they had led
the Children of Israel captive, they required of them
a song, and melody in their heaviness, saying. Sing
us one of the songs of Zion." ® It is, however, more

7 Foikel's Geschichte der Musik, I ^ The Temple Musick, by Arthur
vol. i. p. 127. I Bedford, Loudon, 1706, p. 37.

106 ASSYRIAN MUSICAL PEEFOEMANCES. Chap. III.

probable that they considered their own music quite
as good, if not suj)erior to that of the Hebrews ; and
their principal motive for inducing their captives to
sing, and for encouraging the continual practice of
music, was, undoubtedly, as indicated in the psalm,
to preserve them in a cheerful and healthy condition
through the mighty influence of music, of which
influence the Babylonians themselves were fully con-
vinced.

Music was especially used by the Assyrians and
Babylonians in their idol-worship, and in supersti-
tious ceremonies of a religious character. This is
obvious from the sculptures, but is also to some
extent confirmed by the mode of worship paid by
command of king Nebuchadnezzar to the golden
image, which is supposed to have been Baal : —

" Then an herald cried aloud, To you it is com-
manded, 0 people, nations, and languages, that at
what time ye hear the sound of the cornet, flute,
harp, sackbut, psaltery, dulcimer, and all kinds of
musick, ye fall down and worship the golden image
that Nebuchadnezzar the king hath set up." (Dan.
iii. 4, 5.)

The kings appear to have maintained at their
courts musical bands, whose office it was to perform
secular music at certain times of the day, or on fixed
occasions. Of king Darius the Mede we are told
that, when he had cast Daniel into the den of lions,
he " went to his palace, and passed the night
fasting ; neither were instruments of musick brought
before him" (Dan. vi. 18); from which we may
conclude that his band was in the habit of playing
before him in the evening.

A similar custom prevailed also at the Court of

Chap. III. THEIE CHARACTERISTICS. 107'

Jerusalem, at least in the time of David and Solomon ;
botli of whom appear to have had their royal private
bands, besides a large number of singers and in-
strumental performers of sacred music, who were
engaged in the Temple. When David, in gratitude
for services received from Barzillai the Gileadite,
invited the old man to go with him to Jerusalem,
and to abide there in comfort at the king's expense,
Barzillai replied, " I am this day fourscore years old,
and can I discern between good and evil ? can thy
servant taste what I eat or what I drink ? can I
hear any more the voice of singing men and singing
women ? wherefore then should thy servant be yet
a burden unto my lord the king ? " (2 Sam. xix. 35.)
Taking into consideration the circumstances under
which this was said, there can scarcely be a doubt
that Barzillai here alludes to the royal band ; nor is
it surprising that David, with his fondness for music,
should have enjoyed musical performances in his
palace of a different character from those introduced
into divine service.

Solomon himself mentions his private orchestra in
his reflections on the vanity of worldly pleasures and
luxuries : — "I gat me men singers and women
singers, and the delights of the sons of men, as
musical instruments, and that of all sorts." (Eccles.
ii. 8.)

Great as the fondness of the Assyrians for music
appears to have been, the practice of this art as a
profession can scarcely have been held by them in
high estimation, but was more likely considered as
unmanly and effeminate, to judge from the represen-
tations of musical performances, in which many of
the musicians are eunuchs. These personages un-

108 ASSYRIAN MUSICAL PERFORMANCES. Chap. III.

doubtedly were singers as well as instrumentalists ;
tliis may be concluded from their attitude, and from
the nature of their instruments, which in some in-
stances could scarcely have been used otherwise than
for accompanying the singing. Their soprano voices
must have imparted a peculiar brilhancy to their
performances. And it may be supposed that some
of them greatly excelled and attained renown and
riches.

RHYTHM, HAEMONY, AND UNISON.

The questions which, in contemplating the A ssyrian
vocal performances with instrumental accompani-
ment, would, most likely, first suggest themselves to
the musician, are — " How were the songs constituted,
and was the accompaniment in harmony or in uni-
son ? " On these I shall now submit a few obser-
vations.

In nations which have not brought the cultivation
of music to so high a degree of development as it has
attained with us, it may be observed that in vocal
compositions the words are often treated as of
greater importance than the music, and the latter
appears to be subservient to the former. The songs,
therefore, partake more of the nature of a recitative :
they cannot be properly divided into bars, because
the rhythm is entirely dictated by the accentuation
and emphasis demanded by the words. This is usually
the case with the vocal music of uncivilized nations,
although some of them, natm-ally gifted wdth an
extraordinary susceptibility for rhythmical order,
have been almost instinctively led to the invention
of symmetrically-formed melodies of the nature of
our airs or tunes.

Chap. III. RHYTHM, HARMONY, AND UNISON. 109

On the other hand, among nations with whom
music has been highly developed as an art, we not
nnfreqiiently find the words entirely subordinate, in
order that the form of the vocal composition may be
worked out freely and unimpeded. In proof I need
only mention our fugues and similar compositions,
written in a strictly prescribed form, in which the
words are generally distorted in a most merciless
way. In our operas, especially in those of Italian
composers, the words often stand only for so many
unmeaning syllables upon which the notes are sung ;
and even the prevailing emotion conveyed by the
words is not always expressed in the music.

Gluck, the great musical reformer, fully appre-
ciated the advantage of regarding poetry in combina-
tion with music, as of nearly equal importance ; and
thus he treated the words in his immortal operas.
Other distinguished musicians have adopted his views,
and created master-works. Some recent composers,
however, under the notion of extending and im-
proving Gluck's principle, have, for the sake of the
words, injudiciously neglected the distinctness and
beauty of form of the music. Their compositions
are indeed, so far as rhythmical construction is con-
cerned, not very different from the music of uncivi-
lized nations, — consisting merely of various phrases,
each perhaps beautiful in itself, but not forming
together an entire whole, or, in other words, not con-
stituting a work of art producing a distinct total
impression.

In Asiatic nations, especially, the songs are gene-
rally of a nature which renders it almost impossible
to write them down divided into bars of equal dura-
tion. It is true that in some of the collections of

110

ASSYRIAN MUSICAL PERFORMANCES. Chap. III.

national airs this is by no means evident. A little
closer investigation, however, would show that the
tunes have been not unfrequently altered by the
European collectors, in order to bring them into
conformity with our usual divisions into bars.
Hamilton Bird, who had lived for about twenty
years in Calcutta when he published his collection of
the ' Airs of Hindostan,' candidly states in his pre-
face, " It has cost the compiler great pains to bring
them into any form as to time." Similar accounts
could be given relating to other Oriental countries ;
but it will, perhaps, better answer our purpose if I
insert instead a few specimens of vocal compositions
of the nature alluded to : —

CHOKUS OF THE MEWLEWI DERVISHES.

Maestoso.

Hu, Hu, Hu, Hu

.-.^ piu mosso.

¥i

Hei Dost ! Dscha-ui men Dsclia-

a^^

Hei Jar

Maestoso.

:s^

- na - ni men ! Kii - teh ne - kii - ned

uicnsi - li ma

il - la Hu, Hu, Hu, Hu

Chap. III.

CHORUSES OF DERVISHES.

piu mosso.

Ill

§S^

-M

^^J^I^Z

^ZEZM

-i-e-

W^--

Hei Jar !

Maestoso.

L^^

Hei Dost ! Dsclia-ui men Dscha-

§=^

-=v

-^=ii=l^

^t^^-t^

ua - ni men ! Ger A - lim jan dscliumle Ta - bi ban ba-scbed

•3-

-^^^^-

.t:=t2-E=

:^:

=F=t^

±^^

Hal - n ne

kii-ned miiscbki-li ma il

Hu, Hu, Hu, Hu

2^^« mosso.

-^^

j^^-

» ■ ^ l^^H— 1^— P-^-g-^— 1— i l-H-^—

^i=r

gfe^^

g^^jSa

f-i — I-

^— J:i-

Hei Jar ! Hei Dost ! Dsclia-ni men Dscba-na - ni men !

CHOEUS OF THE MEWLEWI DEKVISHES.

Len to.

-"e-=4

itzit^-

:r^ 1 -f-

W=la^-^--iJ=i^-V^S

:=f5=qs:

zs±

Biscbnew es

nei tscbiin .

hi - kia -

rl-^-^ •'-J-^

==q^

jet mi

kilned.

-^-

Be-li Ja

_^^S3=rf

^^---J=-^^

=j=m:j.

Jzi2^

men ! es dscbii - dai - - ha bi - - kia

i=P^

^=K-

jet mi

kilned

Be ~ li Ja -

112

ASSYKIAN MUSICAL PEKFOEMANCES. Chap. III.

:|^

piti mosso.

?^^=^^

i\Mi=J-

\ — -^-

1^33^:

men ! Nei Ha - dis - si Ea - hi piir clum

Lento.

--3-

-a( — l-H — I

i=qt

J^±.

:=tac:

mi - kii - ned :

. Wai! kis - sa - ha

=|:

i Asch

*=J=

::&

q=fe

:3'^E

:^5=is:

z^z

ki Me

dschnuu mi - - ku-ued

-C^-

I^ 1^ J

-»!-•-

Be - li

Ja -

The above two choruses of tlie Mewlewi Dervishes
are taken from the Abbe Stadler's rehable collection.
They form part of those choruses which are usually
performed at the religious dances of the above sect
of dervishes in Constantinople. It will be observed
that, in order to convey a correct impression of their
rhythmical character, several peculiar means have
been resorted to in committing the music to paper, —
such as the frequent employment of pauses, of dif-
ferent kinds of bars, and of indications of change in
the time.

In the second chorus, in which a certain phrase is
several times repeated, and which greatly resembles
a kind of chant used in tlie Jewish synagogues in
Germany, it has been found necessary in several
instances to extend the duration of the last note of
the bar into the following bar, to avoid in the nota-
tion a continual change in the time of the several
bars.

Chap. III.

MUEZZIN'S CALL TO PRAYER.

113

The following piece is the Mahomedan ' Call to
Prayer' of the Muezzin, from the minaret of the
mosque, as given in Mr. Lane's 'Manners and Cus-
toms of the Modern Egyptians :' —

CALL TO PRAYER OF THE MUEZZIN.

:=t

:=^

S^ii

^■

£=i

Al - - la - - hii ak - bar.

^^3q-^-r=^g£:jEp

la - hu ak - bar.

Al - Id - hu ak - bar.

:s:^:=^=^

^St

3:^:

^^3EE

Al-la ------- -huak'

3:^

i^-'F

a^=li^Zit

=^=i

'^S.

-m=r

-iz

3=5:

bar. Ash-ha-du an la i - la - ha il - lal - Idh

:£

^E:^

=^"^

Ash - hadu an Id i - Id - ha il - lal - lah.

p^=»

?ct"f=^=»cz:S"-*=?^=P

--t=i^

Ash-ha-dii

:p=i=;i:

-^»-k-

an - na Mohamma - dar rasoo - lu - lah.

Ash-ha-du

:£:5=ir^

'-=^

an-na Mohamma -dar rasoo -lu - lah. .

-^^^

:Ut:t==^

114

ASSYETAN MUSICAL PERFORMANCES. Chap. III.

--^-

:^-~^

1^-==^

=aL— i=

Hei-ya 'alas - sa - lali.

-lah

Hei - ya 'a-las - sa -

.'TV

Hei-ya 'a - las - sa - lah

Hei-ya 'a - lal - fe - Idh.

W=^=^-

:^:

- la - liii i

--X

-A—\^^=^

liii ak - bar.

Al - la -

\m. ak

izS:

itizb

:i:^:

- bar.

la - ha il - la - lab.

The ' Blessing of the Priests,' as at present sung
in the synagogues of the Spanish and Portuguese
Jews, is beHeved to be identical with that used some
thousand years ago in the Temple of Jerusalem. If
this be really the case, undoubtedly it must have
undergone considerable change in the course of time.
Nevertheless, it bears immistakeable resemblance to
Oriental vocal compositions, as is also the case with
several other ancient melodies in the collection of
Jewish sacred tunes published by De Sola and Aguilar,
from which it has been derived : —

Chap. III.

HEBREW ' BLESSING OF PRIESTS.

115

HEBEEW 'BLESSING OF THE PEIESTS.'

Adagio maestoso.

The specimens of ancient melodies in Siilzer's
' Scliir Zion,' wliicL. are used in the synagogues of
the German Jews, are of a similar character. More-
over, the resemblance of the mode of singing, or
rather chanting, in the synagogues, to the vocal
performances of the Persians and other Eastern
nations, is immistakeahle, and shows, to some extent,
how tenaciously the Jews have preserved ancient
usages connected with their religious observances.
That the singing of the ancient Hebrews, as well as
that of the Grreeks and other nations of antiquity,
was of a similar nature, is the impression conveyed
by the accounts of their music which have been trans-
mitted to us.

Such, especially, must have been the songs of the
Assyrian minstrels, whom we see entertaining the
monarch probably with recitals of historical events
and the glorious deeds of his forefathers, or of his
own achievements ; particularly as these recitals were,
most likely, often extempore performances, like those
which are sung at the present time on similar occa-
sions in chivalrous nations of the East.

I 2

116 ASSYRIAN MUSICAL PERFORMANCES. Chap. HI.

For certain solemnities they may probably have
had more measured melodies, consisting mostly of
notes of an equal duration, like those which the
Chinese and some other Asiatic nations use in their
Buddhist worship. The vocal performances of the
ancient Hebrews appear also to have been sometimes
less chant-like, and more resembling a tune ; we may
suppose that they were modified according to the
occasion on which the music was employed, as well
as to the particular metre of the poetry to which it
was wedded.

Respecting the instrumental accompaniment em-
ployed by the Assyrians, it may be concluded that it
was certainly not always in unison with the voice,
but frequently in harmony. To judge from the con-
struction of the instruments, the harmony must, how-
ever, have been very primitive in comparison with
our own.

Harmony is not so artificial an invention as has
often been asserted. The susceptibility for it is innate
in man, and soon becomes manifest wherever music
has been developed to any extent. Children of the
tenderest age have been known to evince delight in
hearing thirds and other consonant intervals struck
on the pianoforte ; and it is a well-ascertained fact
that with several savage nations the occasional em-
ployment of similar intervals combined did not origin-
ate from an acquaintance with European music, but
was entirely their own invention. Nor is this sur-
prising, if we consider that each single tone of a
melody may be said to contain a harmony in itself, a
harmony produced by the soft derivative tones or
harmonics which are generated with the predominant
tone.

Chap. III. KHYTHM, HAKMONY, AND UNISON. 117

If travellers not imfrequently assert that they have
not observed any traces of harmony in the mnsic of a
nation, it must be remembered how few favourable
opportunities they generally have for exact inves-
tigations. Moreover, they must naturally oftener
meet with opportunities of witnessing vocal perform-
ances without instrumental accompaniments, such as
simple national songs, or dance-tunes played upon
a single instrument only, and accompanied perhaps
by instruments of percussion for the purpose of rhyth-
mical effects. And from what they thus casually
witnessed, many have come to too hasty a conclusion
on the characteristics of the music of a whole nation.

Besides, some may, in their inquiries, have been
influenced by the preconceived notion that the music
of nations in a low state of cultivation must be
entirely without harmony. This opinion, originally
promulgated by most of our writers on the history
of music, who evidently were but little acquainted
with the music of any other nations at present
existing, but those of some European countries,
has been, naturally enough, widely accepted, and
repeated without any further investigation into its
truth.

The music of Asiatic nations especially is usually
described as being exclusively in unison. It is, how-
ever, noteworthy that, in some of the accounts in
which this opinion is expressed, facts are related
which rather tend to prove the contrary. Amiot, for
instance, in the ' Memoires concernant les Chinois,'
states that the performances of the Chinese are always
in u^nison, while in the course of his dissertation it
becomes evident that his statement must be received
with caution. And this impression is strongly con-

118 ASSYEIAN MUSICAL PERFORMANCES. Chap. III.

firmed by the information obtained from some other
sources. Tradescant Lay says of the Chinese pepa^ a
species of guitar with four strings, " It is often used
at festal rites of a rehgious character, and accom-
panied by the three-stringed guitar {san lieert) ; so
that we see something like music in parts, though of
a very humble kind." Of the latter instrument he
observes, " The sounds of the san keen are low and
dull, which adapt it for the purpose of subduing the
shrill sounds of the pepa by something like a bass.
Performers do not appear to have anything like a
score, — one plays from memory or in learning from
notes, while the other accompanies him according to
the best ideas of harmony he is master of." Of an-
other instrument, the yue kin, or " full-moon guitar,"
he says, " I once saw a musician at one of the stroll-
ing theatres who displayed a great deal of execution
upon it, with Yery pleasing effect. On another occa-
sion it was used as an accompaniment to the urh keen
(a species of fiddle), and, as the musician understood
his business, the result had something peculiarly
merry and exhilarating about it." The Chinese dul-
cimer, yang kin, is furnished with brass strings,
which are struck with two small hammers. " When
touched by a skilful hand, it yields a very gay and
lively combination of harmonious and melodious
sounds." ^

A Hindoo morning concert, in which the surinda,
a stringed instrument played with a bow ; the cliou-
tara, a kind of guitar with four wire strings; the
surod, also a kind of guitar, but very different from

* 'i'lie Chinese as They Are, by Tradescant Lay, Esq., Loudon, 1841,
pp. 76-83.

Chap. III. EHYTHM, HARMONY, AND UNISON.

119

the preceding one in appearance ; and the dara, a
kind of tambourine, were used, is described by Mr.
Prinsep as follows : — " The surocl is the leading in-
strument, and is sounded with a plectrum, like other
native guitars. The surinda plays in unison with it,
while the choiitara forms a kind of bass accompani-
ment, or rather performs the same office as the drone
among wind instruments. The men's voices occa-
sionally chime in with the air, and again leave room
for some ad libitum movements of the chief per-
former, who exerts all his energy in rapid impas
sioned execution." ^

Even the bagpipe with its drones, an instrument
almost universal, not only in European but also in
Asiatic countries, produces a kind of rude harmony,
and is unfit for performances in unison. The same
may be said of several other wind instruments
found in Asia. Of the Chinese cheng, already no-
ticed (page 18), Mr. Lay observes, ''By covering the
first set of tubes with the forefinger, and breathing
softly into the mouth-piece, a most charming con-
centus of sweet sounds is heard, with the harmonic
divisions of the octave and twelfth, as the impulse is
augmented. By stopping the second and third groups
respectively, we get harmonies of three and two
somids, which are loud and effective." ^

The Assyrians were evidently much more civi-
lized, and had made greater progress in music, than
many nations of the present time which are not
entirely unacquainted with harmony. The construc-
tion of their stringed instruments, especially the

^ Benares, illustrated in a series
of f Drawings, by James Prinsep,
Esq. Calcutta, 1830.

2 The Chinese as They Are, by
Tradescant Lay, London, 1841, p.
89.

120 ASSYRIAN MUSICAL PERFORMANCES. Chap. III.

harps, the strings of which they touch with both
hands at the same moment at different parts, as well
as the use of the double-pipe, indicate that they pro-
duced together different notes which appeared to
them agreeable in concord. Herein consisted, how-
ever, probably, their entire harmony. For a sys-
tematic combination of a fixed number of different
parts, each having its own individual course and
forming a melody by itself, their instruments were
too incomplete.

Neither could we expect to find among them a
harmony subjected to the same rules as our own, even
if they had been considerably further advanced in
music than was the case. For our own theory of
harmony is by no means so strictly founded upon
natural and universal laws, that any other nation
must, by a progressive cultivation of music, be ulti-
mately led to its adoption as a matter of course. It
is, in fact, continually undergoing changes. Scarcely
three centuries have elapsed since Monteverde ven-
tured to introduce, for the first time, the chord of the
seventh on the dominant without preparation into our
harmony, which previously consisted only of con-
sonant chords, interspersed occasionally with a discord
of suspension. The harmony in some of our old
madrigals and similar compositions appears to us
antiquated and quaint. Modern composers have,
not unfrequently with admirable effect, made use of
combinations of chords which until recently were
considered as incorrect and quite inadmissible. In-
stances of this kind occur in Beethoven's instrumental
compositions.

I have already noticed the remarkable resemblance
of the Nubian kissar to the Assyrian lyre. I shall

Chap. III. RHYTHM, HARMONY, AND UNISON. 121

presently give a few examples of the iisiial accompa-
niments on the kissar, from which it will be seen
that they consist of certain rhythmical groups of
notes, which are repeated during the song. The
Assyrian accompaniments on the lyre must have
been similar ; not only on account of the likeness in
the construction and capability of the two instru-
ments, but also because such accompaniments are the
easiest to execute, and would most naturally suggest
themselves to the performer ; and also because they
are similar to some accompaniments which are em-
ployed by Asiatic nations on stringed instruments at
the present day.

Vocal music in harmony requires more musical
experience and efficiency than simple instrumental
harmony used as an accompaniment. The execution
of the Assyrian choruses was therefore most likely
usually in unison, and in octaves, when men, women,
and children were singing together ; though it is not
improbable that some harmony, consisting of short
sequences of thirds, or perhaps even of some con-
secutive fifths, may have been now and then intro-
duced.

Such combinations of intervals have actually been
found in use in several uncivilized nations when
Europeans first came in contact with them, — nations
whose degree of musical cultivation was far below
that to which the Assyrians had evidently attained.

122 MUSICAL SYSTEM OF THE ASSYEIANS. Chap. TV,

CHAPTER IV.

MUSICAL SYSTEM OF THE ASSYEIANS.

Resemblance of the Assyrian mnsic to that of other ancient Oriental nations
— The pentatonic scale — The present existence of the pentatonic scale
in various Asiatic nations evidenced by tunes from China, Siam, Java,
Hindoostan, Burmah, and Japan — High antiquity of the pentatonic
scale in Asia — The order of intervals in which the Assyrian stringed
instruments appear to have been usually tuned — Traces of the penta-
tonic scale among the ancient Greeks — The intervals of the Nubian
kissar — Subdivisions of the whole tone — Diffusion of the pentatonic
scale — The pentatonic scale of the ancient American Indians — Traces
of the same scale in the music of the Scotch and other Celtic races —
The peculiar character of the Assyrian music — The probable musical
notation of the Assyrians.

A CAREFUL examination of tlie evidences relating to
Assyrian music, which I have been able to collect,
has convinced me that their musical scale must have
been similar to that of other ancient Asiatic nations,
and, furthermore, that traces of this scale, which
dilfers from our own, are even at the present time
apparent.

I purpose now to explain first the characteristics
which distinguish this scale from the diatonic scale
employed in European music ; and aftei'wards to
give the reasons from which I deduce that it was
used by the Assyrians and other ancient Asiatic
nations.

The reader may be assured that I have exercised
the utmost caution in admitting in confirmation of
any opinion only those musical examples whose
genuineness is indisputable. The musician has there-

Chap. IV, DIFFEEENCES IN NATIONAL TUNES. 123

fore an opportunity of drawing his own conclusions
from them, should he not concur in those advanced
by me. I think this especially desirable, since an
independent and unbiassed examination is the surest
means of attaining the exact truth, which is my only
aim.

It would be a mistake to suppose that the music of
the various ancient Asiatic nations was in every
respect alike. This is as little the case at the present
time as it was formerly, altliough from the accounts
of many travellers we might be led to surmise the
contrary. The actual fact may best be explained by
a reference to our own music as practised in different
European countries. The musician seldom finds any
difficulty in distinguishing compositions of Italian
masters from those of the French, Germans, and
others. In the popular folks-music, generally origin-
ating with and traditionally preserved by the rural
population, the peculiar character of the national
music of a civilized country is usually more strongly
marked than in the compositions of educated pro-
fessional musicians ; because the musicians do not
confine their studies to the music of their own
country, but learn also from celebrated masters of
other countries. The character of their music is
consequently often influenced and modified by what
they admire in, and perhaps involuntarily adopt
from foreign music. Thus it may be explained why,
for instance, the Swedish, German, and Hungarian
national tunes are more widely different from each
other than the works of modern celebrated composers
appertaining to Sweden, Germany, and Hungary.

Notwithstanding these differences, the music of
most European nations possesses certain distinct cha-

124 MUSICAL SYSTEM OF THE ASSYEIANS. Chap. IV.

racteristics in common, which stamp it with a kind
of family likeness. The principal features consist in
the circmnstance that it is ahnost always founded
upon the diatonic scale, and exhibits a symmetrical
arrangement of rhythmical notes.

THE PENTATONIC SCALE.

If an intelh'gent Chinese or Hindoo musician, on a
cursory visit to Europe, were to hear the music of
different European countries, he would in all pro-
bability only observe those peculiarities which aj^per-
tain to all European music, and which distinguish
it from that of his own nation ; and it might take
some time before he would be enabled to perceive
the differences which exist in the music of various
countries.

It is therefore not surprising that many European
travellers should have described the music of several
Asiatic countries as the same ; since in Asiatic music
are to be found certain characteristic traits which
convey to it what I have called a family likeness.
The most remarkable of these is that the melodies
are frequently founded upon a scale differing essen-
tially from our own, and consisting of only five
tones, wherefore I have given it the name of Pen-
tatonic Scale.

Diatonic. Pextatonic.

=1:

:J-^^^=E^_f

zjr^-

Pentatonic.

__1 ^ tf 1

Chap. IV. THE PENTATONIC SCALE, 125

In order to sliow exactly the nature of the pen-
tatonic scale, I have also written down our diatonic
scale, which, it will be remembered, consists of five
ivhole tones and two semitones. The two semitones
are from the third to the fourth, and from the seventh
to the octave^ as indicated in the example by brackets.
This scale, which appears here in c major, consists
therefore of only seven different intervals, — the octave,
which is considered as identical with the prime, has
been added merely to show the second semitone before
mentioned. The above example exhibits the five in-
tervals of the pentatonic scale, assuming c to be the
tonic. It differs from the diatonic scale inasmuch as
the intervals of the fourth and seventh are wanting.
Consequently the two diatonic semitones do not
occur : we have instead two minor thirds, as will be
seen in the example, in which the pentatonic scale is
represented ascending to the octave and descending
to the prime.

In the communications of travellers, relating to
musical performances, inadvertent indications are now
and then met with that the pentatonic scale is in use
at the present time in various parts of Asia. Some
travellers describe it so distinctly as not to be mis-
taken, while others allude merely to some peculiarity
in the music which appeared to them a defective
scale. The following extracts from some well-known
books of travel may serve as instances in proof.

Mr. Tradescant Lay, in describing the Chinese
stringed instrument called pepa, observes, " The player
generally avoids the half-note. I asked my instructor
why he did this, but the question confounded him
greatly." ^ Again, Sir George Staunton says that " to

^ The Chinese as They Are, by Tradescant Lay, London, 1841, p. 77.

126

MUSICAL SYSTEM OF THE ASSYRIANS. Chap. IV.

Mr. Hiittner, a good judge of music, it appeared that
tlie Cliinese gamut was sucli as Europeans would
call imperfect, tlieir keys being inconsistent." A
little further on the same author distinctly tells us,
" The Chinese, in playing on instruments, discovered
no knowledge of semitones." ^

The pentatonic scale of the Siamese is described,
rather obscurely, in Finlayson's ' Journal ' as follows :
— " My friend Captain Dangerfield, himself an adept
in musical science, remarks that the music of the
Siamese differs from that of all barbarous tribes in
being played upon a different key to that, if I under-
stand him right, which characterizes the pathetic
music of certain European nations." ^ Doctor Kusch-
enberger relates that he heard a Siamese minstrel
performing an air, " which might have been mistaken
for Scotch, had we not been assured that it was
Siamese."* Barrow, while in Cochin China, heard
on a certain occasion some national airs of that
country, of which he remarks, " One in particular
attracted our attention, whose slow melancholy move-
ment breathed that kind of plaintive softness so pecu-
liar to the native airs of the Scotch, to which, indeed,
it bore a very close resemblance." ^ Again, the
Honourable Mountstuart Elphiustone mentions that
in Afghanistan he witnessed performances of the
national songs and dances of that country, when " a

2 An Authentic x\ccount of an
Embassy from the King of Great
Britain to the Emperor of China, by
Sir G. Staunton, Bart., Loudon,
1797, vol. ii. p. 262.

2 The Mission to Siam and Cochin-
China, from the Journal of the late
George Finlayson, Esq., by Sir

Th. Stamford Eaffles, London, 1826,
p. 290.

"* Narrative of a Voyage Eound
the World, by W. S. W. Euscheu-
berger, M.D., vol. ii. 37.

* A Voyage to Cochin-China, by
John Barrow, London, 1806, p.
295.

Chap. IV. THE PENT ATONIC SCALE. 127

love-song was sung to an extremely pretty melody,
very simple, and not unlike a Scottish air." ^

One other testimony will suffice. It is from a
recent traveller in the north of China, whose state-
ments are perhaps all the more suggestive because he
shows himself incompetent duly to appreciate the
works of great musical composers. He says, " None
of those grand conceptions bestowed on the world by
Mozart, Mendelssohn, Donizetti, Hummel, Handel,
or Beethoven, to nearly all of whose masterpieces
I have lent my enraptured attention, ever produced
in me such unspeakable emotions of tenderness and
plaintive melancholy as those which arose as I sat
one midnight long ago on the banks of a Highland
loch dm-ing the fishing season, when all nature seemed
to be lulled to rest under the burnished silvery light
of a summer moon." In this lovely place his musings
were suddenly interrupted by a Scotch tune, ' Mack-
rimmon's Lament,' played on a bagpipe by one of
the fishermen in a distant boat. " Though before
and since those haj^py days I have been dinned,
delighted, and distracted by pibrochs, strathspeys,
and all the variations which can be appended to the
entire catalogue of Celtic music, the air which threw
me into an almost cataleptic state on that night
remains preserved in my memory in all its original
simplicity and unalloyed genuineness of half-civilized
natural impression, as told in pure pathos by a few
notes on a simple instrument. Mackrimmon's Lament,
' We return no more,' continually interposes between
my judgment and the favourable verdict I might

^ An Account of the Kingdom of I Elphinstone, London, 1839, vol. i.
Caubiil, by the Hon. Mountstuart | p. 311.

128 MUSICAL SYSTEM OF THE ASSYRIANS. Chap. IV.

give in regard to any modern symphony or elaborate
production of a civilized and cultivated mind." Could
we have stronger evidence of a close resemblance
between Chinese and Scotch popular melodies than
the assertion of this enthusiastic admirer of ' Mack-
rimmon's Lament,' that he has met with it again, to
his great surprise, at a Chinese funeral procession ?
He relates : " For many years I had not heard again
my melancholy favourite, and little expected to do so
until I revisited ' the land of brown heath and shaggy
wood ; ' when, one spring afternoon, riding along the
banks of the Peiho above Tien-tsin, the old sound
suddenly overwhelmed me ; and, though the notes I
anxiously sought to catch were not exactly the same,
and did not succeed each other in quite the identical
rhythmical order, yet the resemblance was sufficiently
startling and complete to accomplish the return of
the spell." ^

This resemblance to the songs of Scotland, which
we find so often alluded to, is quite explicable, as
there are also in these unmistakeable traces of the
pentatonic scale. I shall afterwards have to say a
few words on this subject, which I touch upon here
only for the sake of explaining the remarks of the
traveller I have quoted.

Similar accounts are not unfrequently met with
in descriptions of Asiatic countries and their in-
habitants. In order to ascertain how far they are
well founded, I collected and compared as many
authentic melodies of those countries as I could
obtain. I shall now transcribe a few examples from

" Travels on Horseback in Mantchu Tavtary, by G. F. Fleming. Loudon,
18G3.

Chap. IV.

CHINESE AIRS.

129

my collection to show that the impressions of the tra-
vellers cited are confirmed by the music itself, which
has been transmitted to Europe through different
channels.

CHINESE AIE.

H 19 — «-

■f^— t— I — I — I— 1 "•ST-

-B=I=U

fct£E£t

1-^^-^

^-:=^

-\ !— J V~-\

I^t

—I 1 1 (•-|#-

:^t:

# — » — ^ — I-

pf^^-glrjgSr^g^ig£^g^i

CHINESE AIE—' Moo-lee-wha.'

e-,^

ig^^r-i— -^ «-

=£

^i=:^f?£^z?^

:^Z3^

lii^^

-t:

:^:

:i=1:

— «_i

-4-2J ^ 4-

r-^

•-"-e;^ — *-

iqi::

The first Chinese air is taken from Du Halde's
well-known work on China.^ It was afterwards re-
printed in Rousseau's ' Dictionnaire de Musique,'
through which it has become more known to the

* Description de I'Empire de la Chine, par le P. J, B. Du Halde. A la
Haye, 1736.

130

MUSICAL SYSTEM OF THE ASSYRIANS. Chap. IV.

musical world. However, by some oversight, a wrong
note has crept into the copy printed by Rousseau,
viz., in the third bar the interval of the seventh,
/, occurs. This circumstance has given rise to some
curious conjectures among learned musicians. Dr.
Burney observes "/ natural comes in so awkwardly
as to raise a suspicion that it has been inserted by a
mistake of the engraver." ^ Dr. Fink, the late editor
of the Leipzic musical journal called ' Allgemeine
musikalische Zeitung,' instead of referring to Du
Halde's work, where he might have convinced him-
self that Burney has conjectured rightly, takes some
pains to prove that the introduction of the seventh in
the bar where it occurs must be quite in accordance
with the rules of modulation in Chinese music ; and
he is rather bitter against Burney for having sug-
gested the probability of a misprint, where he himself
finds just exactly what he would have expected to
find.^ I mention this as an instance how learned
musicians, when defending a certain theory of their
own, are sometimes apt to endorse statements in con-
firmation thereof which, with less prejudice, they
would see were quite erroneous.

The Chinese air in praise of the flower Moo-lee I
have transcribed from Barrow's ' Travels in China,' a
work in which several other Chinese melodies are
given, all of which are characterized by the penta-
tonic scale.

The following song, called Sian Chok, has recently
been published in an interesting article on the musical
notation of the Chinese, by the Rev. E. W. Syle, in

^ Burney's History of Music, vol.
i. p. 31.

' Erste Wandeninfir der a^testen

Tonkunst, von G. W. Fink, 1831,
p. 78.

Chap. IV.

CHINESE AIR.

131

the Journal of the China Branch of the Eoyal
Asiatic Society, Shanghai, 1859. I insert it here to
show that the specimens of Chinese music collected
by different persons, and in different parts of the
empire, all bear the same characteristics, as far as the
scale is concerned.

CHINESE AIE— ' Sian Chok.'

Andante.

It:

:^:

Vivace.

;^=i^Jo=U

w^—<& — w~

-^i

-I*- -«-

SS=E^i^^^i^?^Sg

4Z — i_j^_^ — ^

:J^

-m-m-

-IK^EEE

:^:

F-pP^

**^=;

' a — ^ — 2S — I ^''^31 ai — ^ — . i^~t~

:^t

4^fe'

-I — •; — _i -^i»_

i=^

-j^_-^

zdnPi!

A number of Siamese tunes, transmitted to Europe
by Captain James Low, of the Madras Army, have
been published in the ' Journal of the Royal Asiatic
Society,' vol. iv., London, 1837. From these I have
selected the following two specimens, to give the
reader an idea of the character of Siamese music : —

K 2

132

MUSICAL SYSTEM OP THE ASSYRIANS. Chap. IV.

S-A-

SIAMESE AIK.

P=P=?

-*-

-&- -I*- -0-
-I — h- — i — ,•-

^^^^m^^^m

\ '— *-

!ee

:?e f*-

-^ »>-

5^:

fer

THE KING OF SIAM'S MAECH, 'Phriyadun.'

E3E^-:

1^^

^-^"^^g^^S

:^z:*=^z7.

=1=

:i=«zi:

^^§eeeS

The King of Siam's March, it will be seen, consists
of only four different intervals; but it is evidently
founded upon the pentatonic scale, like all the other
Siamese melodies in the collection of Captain Low.

In Java, which derived its earliest civilization from
India,^ we meet with the same scale, as may be seen

2 The Natural Historv of the Vai-ietios of Man, by R. G. Latham,
London, 1850, p. 152.

Chap. IV.

JAVANESE AIE.

133

in Sir Stamford Raffles's ' History of Java,' where
some Javanese tmies are given, of which the following
is a specimen : —

JAVANESE AIE—' Surung Dayung.'

•Ji-S — i — \ a> —

—^ — ig

-« — '^ — ^-

i 1

3"^

~^—^-»-

^11^:

■It-n-
,1' — \-

-'-t^-^

r=^j^-^^SEEak

::q=

r--^r^--

rj: -i^

—S 1 — at — k— bI — I 1 fe — I c— — I — — J — I T

-^- -£;-

A number of Javanese melodies, all, like the above,
strictly fomided upon the pentatonic scale, have been
published in Crawfurd's ' History of the Indian

134 MUSICAL SYSTEM OF THE ASSYEIANS. Chap. IV.

Archipelago.' In this book we find also a letter
from Dr. Crotch, referring to a collection of Javanese
musical instruments brought to England by Sir
Stamford Raffles, in which the writer says, " The
instruments are all in the same kind of scale as that
produced by the black keys of the pianoforte." These
instruments are now deposited in the British Museum,
where I have had an opportunity of convincing
myself that they are, as Dr. Crotch intimates, tuned
in the pentatonic scale, which is, in fact, the order of
intervals represented by the black keys on our piano-
forte.

With respect to the music of Hindoostan, I must
observe that the largest collections of native melodies
which we at present possess have been derived from
Calcutta and its immediate neighbourhood. They
were written down by European musicians who lived
in that city as organists and professors of music. I
must say that I have found scarcely any traces of
the pentatonic scale in these collections. In some
instances the cause may perhaps be ascribed to the
circumstance that the collectors considered anything
which appeared defective to the unaccustomed Euro-
pean ear as accidental mistakes of the performers,
and they may, therefore, have taken the liberty of
making alterations which they deemed improvements
when committing the music to paper. Some of them,
indeed, indicate this clearly enough in their observa-
tions prefacing the collections.

It is also very probable that now and then altera-
tions may have been introduced unintentionally.
Tradescant Lay remarks, " In my travels I sometimes
wrote down the airs that I heard among the natives ;
but thougli I took much pains to learn them accu-

Chap. IV. THE TENTATONIG SCALE. 135

rately, I always found they had lost something of their
peculiarity when played upon the violin." ^

M. Yilloteau, the French musician before mentioned,
relates that during his sojourn at Cairo he took some
lessons from an Arab music-master, in order to become
thoroughly acquainted with the musical system of the
Arabs. While writing down certain melodies which
his teacher sang, they appeared to him now and then
out of tune, and he therefore took care to rectify in
the notation the apparent defects. However, after-
wards, when he sang to his teacher what he had
written down, he was told that he was singing wrong
notes. This led to a dispute between the two musicians,
each maintaining that the ear of the other must be at
fault. Thus they went on until at last it struck M.
Yilloteau that the intervals of the Arabic scale must
be different from those of our own, and that therefore
they appeared wrong to him ; and he found this to be
the case. A less intelligent musician, perhaps, would
not have discovered this, and would consequently in
his notation have entirely obliterated the character-
istics of the music. It is therefore always hazardous
to draw conclusions from examples obtained through
one or two channels only.

There can, however, be no doubt, as will be seen
presently, that our diatonic scale is at the present
time found in some parts of Asia, especially where the
people have come more in contact with Europeans.

NATIONAL AIE FEOM CHUMBA.

Moderato.

— 4 ^ ^ ^—•'\ ^ I I ^ ^=J— ^

The Chinese as They Are, by G. Tradescant Lay, London, 1841, p. 81.

136

MUSICAL SYSTEM OF THE ASSYRIANS. Chap. IV.

The above air, from Chumba in the northern part
of Hindoostan, is taken from Yigne's Travels.* It is
strictly pentatonic. But I ought to mention that in
some other tunes, communicated by the same traveller,
also from the north of Hindoostan, the pentatonic
scale is only partially apparent. Nevertheless, there
can be no doubt that this scale is used in Hin-
doostan at the present time, although perhaps not
so universally as formerly. Sir William Ouseley hints
at this fact by observing, " Many of the Hindoo
melodies (to use the words of an excellent musician)
possess the plaintive simplicity of the Scotch and
Irish." ^

An interesting collection of Burmese melodies was
some years ago presented to the Eoyal Asiatic Society
in London by Mr. Fowle, who resided for many years
in Rangoon. It contains thirty different pieces,
which, according to Mr. Fowle, include all the
principal popular tunes of the Burmese : most of
them are of considerable length. I shall therefore
transcribe only the commencement of the first of
them : —

^ Travels in Kashmir, Ladak, 1 Panjab, by G. T. Vigne, London,
Iskardo, the Countries adjoining 1842,

the Mountain- Course of the Indus, * Sir W. Ouseley's Oriental Col-
and the Himalaya North of the | lections. London, 1797.

Chap, IV.

AIR FROM BURMAH.

137

AIE FEOM BUEMAH.

Moderato.

?l^=^^

:P=S=^

:^:

:?=p:

-y^-\=:.

i^:

t \-

Ei^SiEj

-I* I »-

ZpTZfC

:t:=t::

SiiEg^S

«=^-

J — I ^ W-

:^:

i^zirj:

:^ -»-^:

-• — »•— •-

g==ts;

=i-jH=|=f=

— ^ — ai
-01 — mt.

-(O — W—gf-W^

^E^£E

P=P==iJ

£S=^

:i=:p:

i^^t:

» 1— — ^ — ^^ — ^ — ai-

raUentando.

a temiio.

-^z:;^=^-.

&=F

3t=£z:st

-]=»H-

1*=^:

:^ ^ ^-1^

-* — ^^»-

Andante.

n*^ — |=pi:z--^

:^=i^-i^ r:

138 MUSICAL SYSTEM OF THE ASSYEIANS, Chap. IV.

It will be seen that the interval of the seventh
occurs several times. In the phrase of bar 12 and
13, which repeatedly occurs in the course of the
piece, this interval must, however, be considered as
the third, and appertains therefore also to the penta-
tonic scale, because the phrase is not in C major, but
in G major.

From a letter of Mr. Fowle to the Secretary of the
Asiatic Society we learn that these melodies have
been arranged for the Burmese thro, a kind of violin
which I have already noticed. This may account for
the fact that but few traces of the pentatonic scale
are perceptible in them. Besides, the manuscript
has been written hastily, or by an inexperienced
hand, as is proved by the many mistakes and over-
sights by which the musician is every moment
puzzled. It can therefore be used only with great
caution.

The employment of diatonic passages in these
Burmese melodies seems to me, however, authentic,
as it is not likely that the collector would have
allowed himself so great an alteration of the music
as their unwarrantable introduction would involve.
The same may be said of the choruses of the
Dervishes and the ' Call to Prayer ' of the Muezzin,
which I have given. There are, however, various
indications which I shall notice presently, suggest-
ing that the pentatonic scale was at an early period
in use in Western as well as in Central Asia.

In Japan also we might expect to meet with
this scale, considering the great resemblance of the
Japanese musical instruments to those of the Cliinese,
as well as the circumstance of these two nations
possessing much in common in religion and usages.

Chap. IV.

JAPANESE SONa.

139

Although we have several accounts relating to
JajDanese music, scarcely any tunes of reliable authen-
ticity have been published. The following one, which
appeared a short time ago in * All the Year Round '
(London, May 11th, 1861), has been obtained from
the Japanese envoys, who, with a suite of seventy
officers and attendants, recently visited the United
States of America. A gentleman who had frequent
opportunities of hearing the singing of these foreigners,
took, as he informs us in the above-mentioned journal,
much care to commit several of them faithfully to
paper. Of these the following is the only specimen
hitherto published : —

JAPANESE SONG.

-^— ^— »— ^-H-a^

Ma-tsu ka za du, .

Ma-tsu ka za • du !

It will be observed that this melody is also con-
structed upon the pentatonic scale. It is, however,
not in major, like most melodies of this kind, but in
minor — -f-sharp being the tonic.

Nothing, in my opinion, could more clearly prove
the universal diffusion throughout Asia of the penta-

140 MUSICAL SYSTEM OF THE ASSYRIANS. Chap. IV.

tonic scale than the unanimity in the observations
of so many different travellers and other persons
acquainted with Eastern nations, particularly as most
of these gentlemen possessed but little musical know-
ledge, and were evidently unable to account for the
cause of the peculiarity in the music which they
noticed. It seems to me, therefore, unnecessary to
add here any more examples of modern Asiatic music,
especially as I have mentioned several books in which
a number of tunes are given, to which the reader can
easily refer, should he desire further proof in con-
firmation of my opinion.

Some musicians may possibly object to my desig-
nating '^this series of intervals a scale. According
to our usual definition of this word, no wider steps
than from one ivhole tone to another are admissible ;
and such a progression is considered the most natural.
It must, however, be remembered that in our scales
the steps are not all equidistant from each other.
Our diatonic series consists of whole tones and large
semitones ; and even in our chromatic scale all the
intervals are not exactly equal in succession, some
being large semitones and others small semitones.
Again, our minor scale is constructed in various
ways : some composers employ, as a rule, the major
sixth and major seventh in ascending, and the minor
seventh and minor sixth in descending ; others j^refer
the minor sixth and major seventh both in ascending
and descending. In this instance a step is actually
introduced which exceeds a ivhole tone. The Walla-
chians in their national music employ two such steps
(embracing a whole tone and a srnall semitone) in the
minor scale, viz., one from the minor third to
the superfluous fourth, aiid another from the minor

Chap. IV. ANTIQUITY OF THE PENT ATONIC SCALE. 141

sixth to tlie i^iajor seventh. There is no reason why
this succession of intervals also should not be con-
sidered as a real scale ; natural it certainly is, as it
has been, so to say, adopted instinctively.

Moreover, the difference between the large semitone
and the whole tone in our diatonic scale is about equal
to the difference between the whole tone and the minor
third of the pentatonic scale. The latter scale, there-
fore, cannot be considered less irregular than the
former. In short, instead of defining the word scale,
so as to be applicable to our diatonic and chromatic
orders of intervals only, as is often done, it is in my
opinion more correct to consider it in a sense which
allows of its being applied as well to any other fi:xed
series of intervals upon which the music of a nation is
founded.

ANTIQUITY OF THE PENTATONIC SCALE.

I shall now endeavour to show that the pentatonic
scale was in common use in Asia at a very early period.
In truth, we might reasonably expect this to have been
the case, considering that it is so widely spread, and
that it is more simple than any other scale.

There is no doubt that children, in their first
attempts to sing our diatonic scale, will not unfre-
quently find a difficulty in producing the semitone
from the interval of the third to the fourth, and they
are apt to skip from the third at once to the Jifth,
omitting the fourth altogether. Now, this is exactly
a pentatonic succession of intervals, which impresses
itself upon the musically uncultivated mind all the
more easily, because it is especially melodious as well
as characteristic.

142 MUSICAL SYSTEM OF THE ASSYEIANS. Chap. IV.

The tenacity with which Oriental nations adhere
to old customs is well known. Indeed, almost
everything with them is of high antiquity. On
sculptured monuments we see representations of
manners and ceremonies which are still in existence,
and much light has been thrown upon the Assyrian
bas-reliefs by a reference to modern Eastern customs.
Music in Asia has been from time immemorial asso-
ciated with religious observances and solemn cere-
monies ; and any alterations were, of course, con-
sidered highly objectionable. It is true the Chinese
and Hindoos maintain that their music was in old
times in a higher state of perfection than it is at pre-
sent. Such a belief, however, exists in many nations,
and may be classed with the usual traditional belief
in a former period of universal happiness and per-
fection.

But granting the music of the Chinese and Hindoos
to have been once superior to what it now is, still it
was most likely not different in its principal charac-
teristics, because it has not been subject to European
or other foreign influence. If, therefore, it is at
present less perfect, we may conjecture it to be all
the better qualified for affording us an idea of what
it was originally. These conclusions may ap23ear
hazardous, but they are corroborated by several facts
which I shall briefly notice.

It must not be supposed that semitones were
unknown to the ancient Asiatic nations ; on the
contrary, we find in their music even smaller divi-
sions than our chromatic scale, at least in theory
if not in practice.

Of the early history of Chinese music we possess
an account by the French missionary Amiot, who,

Chap. IV. ANTIQUITY OF THE PENTATONIC SCALE.

143

during his abode in Peking, made it part of liis
mission to collect as much information on this subject
as he could possibly obtain. He consulted a large
number of old Chinese treatises on the science and
history of music, of which a list is given in the book
containing the result of his investigations.^ We
learn from them that the ancient Chinese divided the
octave into twelve equal parts, like the semitones of
our chromatic scale, which were called lu? Their
scale, as commonly used, consisted, however, of only
five notes, which were called Jcoung, chang, kio, tche,
and yu, and which corresponded to our /, g, a, c, d.
Koung, or /, was considered to be the normal key, as
we consider our c ; and it was from koung that the
above order of intervals was transposed to any of
the other keys, in a similar way as we change the
scale of C major into that of Gr major, F major, &c.
The intervals of the fourth and seventh were called
pien-koung and pien-tche. The former was identical
with our e, and the latter with our h. These two
intervals they employed only in exceptional cases,
or rather, nearly in the same way as we introduce
chromatic intervals into our diatonic scale. Several
of the ancient Chinese musical instruments contain
only the pentatonic scale, and are purposely thus con-
structed. The hiuen, an ancient wind instrument of
an oval shape, had five holes through which the notes
koung, chang, kio, tche, and gu, were emitted. A
similar instrument is still used. The highly esteemed
kin, the favourite instrument of the venerated Confu-

^ Memoires concernant I'Histoire,
les Sciences, les Arts, les Moeurs,
les Usages, etc., des Chinois, par les
Missionaires de Pekin, tome sixieme.
Paris, 1780.

^ There is, however, this differ-
ence, that the twelve Chinese divi-
sions were strictly alike, while our
chromatic scale consists of large and
small semitones.

144 MUSICAL SYSTEM OF THE ASSYRIANS. Chap. IV.

cius, was also similarly tuned. Another very ancient
one, the ou, in the shape of a crouching tiger, pos-
sessed six notes, corresponding to our /, g, a, c, d, /.

Several of these instruments are no longer in use,
or have become gradually changed. The Chinese,
even at the present time, construct instruments in
which they purposely introduce the pentatonic scale
only. Of this kind is the one mentioned at p. 15,
which is deposited in the Museum of the United
Service Institution. The Chinese harmonicon which
Dr. Burney saw in Paris, in the possession of the
Abbe Arnaud of the French Academy, was of a
similar construction, as is evident from the description
of it given in Burney's ' History of Music' ^

The following ancient Chinese hymn "in honour
of the ancestors," was, according to Amiot, annually
performed on a solemn occasion, in presence of the
emperor. The ceremony tooji place in a large hall
of the imperial palace, in which the portraits of the
former emperors were ranged on the walls. Near
the entrance, on the right and left, stood the instru-
mental performers ; opposite the entrance stood the
singers ; in the middle of the hall the dancers, whose
office it was to perform at a given signal some sacred
evolutions. Upon a table were placed various articles
used as offerings and libations. When everything
was thus duly prepared, the emperor, amidst the
deepest silence, entered the hall. Then at a signal
on the large drum, taokou, the hymn, slow and
solemnly sung, commenced. During the perform-
ance the emperor knelt at assigned places, brought
his offerings, and burnt incense in honom^ of his

* Burney's ' History of Music,' vok i. p. 32.

Chap. IV.

ANCIENT CHINESE HYMN.

145

ancestral relations, whose spirits were supposed to be
present during the solemn ceremony. All was con-
ducted according to strictly prescribed rules, and the
three parts of the hymn did not immediately follow
each other, but there were intervals of silence be-
tween, until a signal directed the recommencement
of the music.

ANCIENT CHINESE HYMN IN HONOUR OF
THE ANCESTORS.

Grave.

FiKST Part.

b:4:

:z2:

Ds:

22:

See hoang sien Tsou,

Yo ling yii Tien,

Tizr.

22:

Yuen yen tsing lieou, Yeou kao tay hiuen,

22:

::22:

icz:

Hiuen sun cheou ming, Tchoui yuen ki sien,

:s2:

32:

Ming yn cM tsoung, Y ouan see nien.

Second Part.

'.ZZiZ

~g?:

122:

Toui yud tcli^ tsing,

Yen jan jou cheng,

ZSZkZ

-^-

-<Si-

22:

ki tchao ming,

Kan ko tsai ting ;

_C2 ,«3

122:

-<Si-

:z2:

Jou kien ki hing.

Jou ouen ki cheng,

146

MUSICAL SYSTEM OF THE ASSYEIANS. Chap. IV.

:s2:

:22:

1221

zzjcsr.

Ngai eulh kins; tche,

liou tclionno; tsin^;.

Third Part.

Yn tsin fan hien,

The Hindoos at a very early time divided their
scale into intervals smaller than our semitones, of
which there were twenty-two in the compass of an
octave. These intervals were called sruti. The
notes of the common scale were sa^ ri, ga, ma^ -pa^
dha, ni, which, according to Sir William Jones,^
correspond to om- a, h, c, d, e, f, g, — and, according to
Captain Willard,^ to om^ c, d, e, /, g, a, h. From
these intervals a great numher of modes are formed,
by substituting a different interval for the key-note,
or ionic, in much the same way as our old church
modes were formed ; and, also — which is more re-
markable— by treating certain intervals either as
unessential parts of the scale, or by actually omitting
them. The following specimens of scales, from Sir

s On the Musical Modes of the
Hindus, by Sir William Jones ;
Asiatic Eesearches, vol. iii.

^ A Treatise on the Music of
Hindoostan, by Captain A. Willard.
Calcutta, 1834.

Chap. IV. HINDOO SCALES. 147

William Jones's essay on the musical modes of the
Hindoos, will explain this more clearly : —

ASAVERI. BhAIKAVA.

-^-

Makavi. Dhanyasi.

_i2_

:c2:

T^E^EE^l

Velavali. Hindola. Desacri.

22:

122:

22-^-

In the above two scales called Asamri and Bhai-
rava, the intervals written in black notes are con-
sidered merely as additions or ornaments. The other
scales, — Maravi, Dhanyasi, Velavali^ Hindola, and
Desacri, — are all strictly pentatonic, and do not
require further explanation. I might have selected
several more of the same stamp, but I consider this
unnecessary, as Sir W. Jones's essay is easily ac-
cessible to every one.

The rags and raginees are ancient Hindoo melodies,
composed upon certain fixed scales. Captain Willard
says, ^'Rags and raginees are divided into three classes :
first, simipoornu, or those which comprise all the seven
notes, in their course, in any determinate succession
whatever ; second, khadoo, or such as are composed
of six notes ; and third, oodoo, whose extent ranges to
but five notes ; and hence it is said that no 7'ag or
raginee is confined within limits whose extent is less
than five notes." ^ This account requires but little
comment, after what we have already seen. Suffice

' A Treatise on the Music of Hindoostan, by Captain A. Willard, p. 56.

L 2

148

MUSICAL SYSTEM OF THE ASSYRIANS. Chap. IV.

it to notice that the extension of the pentatonic scale
into the octave, which requires a sixth note, is not
unusual, as might be expected.

The following old Hindoo melody, called hooly, is a
spring song upon the god Krishna. It was commu-
nicated to Herr von Dalberg (the German translator
of Sir W. Jones's essay on the Modes of the Hindoos)
by Richard Johnson of Calcutta, the friend and
fellow-labourer of Sir W. Jones : —

HOOLY.'

Allegro.

lEfe

jj — _i— —

Gio - te la - gre lie
Adagio.

■^

=1:

aan kien me - ra

kal-iia partues bo
Allegro.

Ap - pe-nae,

—I m — I-

:^±i^:

^^e2

]^=j^

JnMzi

z3=

^^w^-^i=±

pia che de che - ne
Adagio.

ka - ro - ne

ban - de

Allegro.

3^z:iz±:^=i*:

put - clie do -

Fu - me - re aus - ser

^^i^^^^

^i^

laa ghe ret, Gio sa i^a - pi - a kar - te soor

Adicgio.

fe=l>i=

£=^

tzfc=js— i

i^f=i==i

WZIM

sab sa ki a - na mel - kar hoo - ra kel - ly

^li^-i

jd^

'm^M

lior - ra

hor - ra

hoo - - - ra.

Chap. IV. SYSTEMS OF PEESIANS AND ARABS. 149

--=^-

Tu - me - ra ans - ser laa ger - hat.

I do not hold myself responsible for the correctness
of the words of any of the songs. I give them as I
find them, judging that, although of no importance
for our present inquiry, they may nevertheless per-
haps be of some interest to the reader.

The characteristics of the music of the Singhalese
were formerly, as they are at present, similar to those
of the Hindoo music. Mr. Joinville, in his observations
on the religion and manners of the people of Ceylon,
states that " music appears to have been formerly
cultivated in Ceylon, and reduced into principles.
There are pieces of music to be seen in regular notes
in some of the old books in the Pali tongue."^ The
names of the notes are identical with those used in
Hindoostan ; but I am unable to say whether any
traces of the pentatonic scale have been preserved in
the Singhalese popular tunes of the present day.

Of the musical systems employed by the Persians
and Arabs we have no earlier satisfactory accounts
than those dating from the period soon after the con-
quest of Persia and the introduction of the Moham-
medan religion by the Arabs, an event which occurred
about the middle of the seventh century of the Chris-
tian era. As far as we know, the first writers in
Persia who treated music as a science were Arabs.
The system expounded by them resembles that of the
Hindoos, inasmuch as smaller divisions than our
semitones are made use of. They divided the com-
pass of the octave into seventeen intervals ; there

- Asiatic Researches, vol. vii. p. 399.

150 MUSICAL SYSTEM OF THE ASSYKIANS. Chap. IV.

were consequently two intervals between each whole
tone. The same system was adhered to by the Per-
sians. However, towards the end of the thirteenth
century some theorists adopted a system in which the
octave was divided into twelve intervals, like the semi-
tones of our chromatic scale. Kiesewetter believes
this innovation to be of European origin, and to have
been adopted from the missionaries, who during the
thirteenth century were sent by the Popes to various
Asiatic courts.^ This is, however, mere hypothesis,
unsupported by any satisfactory proofs, and its cor-
rectness will ajopear the more doubtful if we recollect
that the Chinese made use of a similar division of
intervals at a very early period. Besides, in most
instances where we meet with the same usage or
invention, both in an Asiatic and in a European
nation, we may be sure that it existed previously
with the former, and that consequently, if one nation
has borrowed it from the other, it must have been
the European that was the borrower.

Much interesting information might be obtained
on such questions if Oriental scholars would publish
translations of some of the most renowned works on
music extant in different countries and languages.
The translator must, however, possess some musical
knowledge, otherwise he is more likely to mislead
than to enlighten the musical inquirer. It would be
an easy but thankless task to notice instances where,
from want of efficient musical knowledge, erroneous
notions have been promulgated by men of science.

Amiot gives a list of the titles of about seventy
Chinese works on music. In Kiesewetter's disserta-

Die Musik tier Arabcr, von Kiesewetter, Leipzig, 1842, p. 14.

Chap. IV. ANCIENT MUSICAL WORKS. 151

tion before noticed almost as many works of Arabian
and Persian authors relating to the music of their
countries are mentioned ; and Sir William Jones, as
well as other Orientalists, informs us of the existence
of a number of old treatises in Sanskrit on the music of
the Hindoos. I do not mean to insinuate that the
study of such works alone would be sufficient to
afford us a clear insight into the character and effect
of the music appertaining to those nations. How
little do we know of the real character of the music
of the ancient Greeks, notwithstanding all the expla-
nations which have been transmitted to us ! Besides,
the systems put forth in treatises are not unfrequently
mere individual theories of the authors, which
have never been popular, nor ever adhered to in
practice. Sir William Jones states that Soma, the
old author from whom principally he drew his in-
formation on Hindoo music "exhibits a system of
his own." And Captain Willard remarks, " During
the earlier ages of Hindoostan, music was cultivated
by philosophers and men eminent for polite literature,
for whom general directions and rules for composi-
tion sufficed, after a course of musical education
acquired from living tutors ; indeed, the abhorrence
of innovation, and veneration for the established
national music, which was firmly believed to be of
divine origin, precluded the necessity of any other.
But, when from the theory of music a defection took
place as to practice, and men of learning confined
themselves exclusively to the former, while the latter
branch was abandoned entirely to the illiterate, all
attempts to elucidate music from rules laid down in
books, a science incapable of explanation by mere
words, became idle. This is the reason why even so

152

MUSICAL SYSTEM OF THE ASSYEIANS. Chap. IV.

able and eminent an Orientalist as Sir William Jones
has failed. Books alone are insufficient for this pur-
pose,— we must endeavour to j^rocure solutions from
living professors, of whom there are several, although
grossly illiterate."^ Kiesewetter, the zealous inves-
tigator of ancient musical theories, also arrives at the
same conclusion, as is evident from the following
remark, translated from a dissertation of his on the
music of the modern Greeks : —

" Altogether, I have for a long time been unable
to repel the impression that the executed music of
various ancient and modern Asiatic nations must
have been, and still is, something very different from
the metaphysical or mathematical music of their phi-
losophers, whose theories, the result of mere specula-
tion, must always have borne but little relation to
the practice. I believe we have generally been in-
volved in error, when, from the discovered tracts of
the systematists of those nations, we conceive that we
have acquired a knowledge of the nature of the music
as practised by the people, and when consequently
we imagine that we understand the latter. I think,
therefore, we ought not to say — the music of the
Chinese, Hindoos, Arabs, Persians, &c. ; but rather —
the musical systems (or mysteries) of the Chinese,
Hindoo, Arabian, or Persian philosophers. Perhaps
this applies also to the music of the ancient Greeks." ^
Almost the same may be said of our own music :
many of the rules advanced by theorists are seldom,
if ever, applied to practice. Supposing, two thou-
sand years hence, some musical antiquary should be

* A Treatise on the Music of
Hindoostan, by Captain Augustus
Willard, Calcutta, 1834, p. vi.

* Ueber die Musik der neueren
Griechen, von Kiesewetter, Leipzig,
1838, p. 32.

Chap. IV. EARLY USE OF THE PENTATONIC SCALE. 153

the happy discoverer of any of our present treatises
on counterpoint and fugue. How far would his im-
pressions on the nature of our ordinary popular
music, as derived from his discovery, be in accord-
ance with the actual truth ? If, then, we cannot im-
plicitly rely upon the written records, it is the more
important that we should glean information also from
the remains of ancient music which are still extant in
Asia, and ascertain by comparison whether, and to
what extent, the rules of the theorists appear to have
been in practical use.

Although we do not possess the same authentic
information on the musical systems of the ancient
nations inhabitating the south-western districts of
Asia as we have of the Chinese and Hindoo systems,
nevertheless, indications are not wanting there of the
pentatonic scale having been in use at an early period.
This might with some reason be expected, considering
that it was the oldest scale known throughout the
greater part of Asia ; that the musical instruments
and musical performances of the various nations pos-
sessed a certain family type, and that the usual num-
ber of strings is the most satisfactorily accounted for.
Thus the majority of the numbers of strings which
have been ascertainable on the Assyrian instruments
are exactly suited for the pentatonic scale, but not for
our diatonic scale. Instruments like the harp, asor,
and lyre we may reasonably suppose to have been
usually tuned in the fixed order of intervals which
constituted the common scale, because thus they could
be much more effectively employed in all kinds of
musical performances than would otherwise have
been possible. The fact that instruments whose
strings produce only one note each, and the pitch of

154 MUSICAL SYSTEM OF THE ASSYKIANS. Chap. IV.

which cannot be altered during the performance —
as it can on the tamboura — are, if tuned otherwise
than in the usual scale, of less practical utility, is so
obvious that the Assyrians, with the progress they
had made in music, could not but have been aware of
it, and have acted upon it. Now, the usual numbers
of strings on those instruments appear to have been
5, 10, 20, and such others as represent the number
of the pentatonic intervals either once or repeatedly.
Sometimes we meet with an additional string to any
such number, which probably was the extension of
the scale into the octave, which we have already
found in other ancient Asiatic music, which is also
usual in our diatonic series of intervals, and which
suggests itself so naturally, that its adoption must
at an early time have occurred in the progressive
cultivation of music by the Assyrians.

According to this opinion the compass of the
Assyrian harps with twenty-six strings, which I have
previously noticed, would have embraced precisely
five octaves. Assuming c to have been the tonic, the
intervals would have stood as follows : —
c, c?, e,g,a\ c, d, e, g, a \ c, d, e, g, a \ c, d, e, g, a \ c, d, e, g, a \ c.

The lyre with five strings would have had c, d, e, g,
a ; and the lyre with six strings, c, d, e, g, a, c.

If these arguments are well founded, the pentatonic
scale must also have been in use with the Hebrews,
the Phoenicians, the ancient Egyptians, and most
likely too with the ancient Greeks.

Of the Hebrews we know on this point only with
certainty, that some of the favourite instruments in
the time of David and Solomon had ten strings ; this
number, from the description given by Joseplms,
appears to have been augmented at a later period.

CiiAP. IV. ANCIENT GREEK INSTRUMENTS. 155

If we could place reliance on the correctness of the
frets as they are shown on some tambouras repre-
sented in Egyptian frescoes, we might gather some
further hints respecting the usual order of intervals
in use among the Egyptians ; it is not, however, pro-
bable that the painters should have thought it worth
while to observe carefully the proper distances of the
frets. Still, some unmistakeable indications of the
pentatonic scale having been used by the Egyptians
as well as by the Greeks are to be fomid in our best
histories on music ; among others in Burney's, from
which I submit the following extracts, which appear
to me all the more convincing, as they are given by
Burney not in support of any particular hypothesis
of his own, but solely as recording historical facts.

" The Greeks, who lost no merit by neglecting to
claim it, unanimously confess that most of their
ancient musical instruments were of Egyptian in-
vention, as the triangular lyre, the monaulos or single
flute, the cymbal, kettle-drum, and the sistrum, an in-
strument of sacrifice, which was so multiplied by the
priests in religious ceremonies, and in such great fa-
vour with the Egyptians in general, that Egypt was
often called, in derision, the country of sistrums, as
Greece has been said to be governed by the lyre.
Herodotus, in tracing the genealogy of the Dorians,
one of the most ancient people of Greece, makes them
natives of Egypt : ^ and as the three musical modes
of highest antiquity among the Greeks are the Dorian,
Phrygian, and Lydian, it is likely that the Egyptian
colony, which peopled the Dorian province, brought
with them the music and instruments of their native

* Herodotus, Erato.

156 MUSICAL SYSTEM OF THE ASSYRIANS. Chap. IV.

country. The profession of music was hereditary
among the Egyptians, as was every other profession.
This custom was imitated by the Hebrews ; and
Herodotus tells us that the Lacedaemonians, who
were Dorians, agreed with their progenitors, the
Egyptians, in this, that their musicians were all of
one family. Their priests, too, like those of Egypt,
were at once taught medicine, to play on stringed
instruments, and initiated into religious mysteries."
Burney cites a long and somewhat obscure passage
from Plutarch's ' Dialogue on Music,' from which,
however, it is obvious that Olympus, who, we are
told, composed his music in the Dorian mode, usually
skipped over " the lichanos, or third sound from the
bottom of a tetrachord ;" and the old Grecian musi-
cians " abstained from the use of trite, or third sound
from the top of a tetrachord." Burney concludes this
account by observing, " The general fact that these
old musicians, composers of the ancient genuine
Greek music, which Plato, Aristotle, and all the
writers speak of as so excellent and superior to the
more modern, did delight to break the diatonic pro-
gression, or stride over certain notes in the melody,
seems pretty clear : and this surely renders it highly
probable that the cast of the old national Greek airs
was much like that of the old Scots music. If they
had melodies where the lichanos was omitted, they
must have been very like ; but even the trite omitted
gives still a strong Scottish tincture to an air.

^EE*£EEE;

--I-

For if we suppose the key-note to be G instead of E,

Chap. IV. INTERVALS OF THE NUBIAN KISSAR. 157

— a major key instead of a minor, — this omission
gives precisely the Scots scale." ^

Moreover, this scale probably remained popular, in
some districts at least, long after music had been
scientifically cultivated in Greece, and developed in
manifold ways ; since it appears still in use and
favour in the first century of the Christian era.

THE INTERVALS OF THE NUBIAN KISSAR.

I shall now notice a fact which should perhaps be
regarded as less corroborative than it appears to be
at the first glance, because striking coincidences are
sometimes accidental ; nevertheless, in connection with
our former evidences, I believe it to be not without
weight.

I have already noticed the close resemblance be-
tween the Assyrian and ancient Egyptian lyres and
the Nubian kissar. The modern Egyptians call this
instrument qytdrah barharyeh, which indicates that it
is considered the national instrument of the Barabras
or Berbers, who are believed to be descendants of the
original inhabitants of Egypt. It occurred to me
that therefore the pentatonic scale might still be
found on the kissar ; and this appeared the more pro-
bable, as the kissar is usually mounted with five
strings, while a similar instrument in Abyssinia, the
bagana, is ten-stringed. I have found this expecta-
tion fully confirmed in a description of these instru-
ments by M. Yilloteau, from which I shall translate
one or two passages.

Yilloteau, who was unacquainted with the ancient

^ Burney's History of Music, vol. i. pp. 30, 194.

158 MUSICAL SYSTEM OF THE ASSYRIANS. Chap. IV.

pentatonic scale, appears to have been greatly puzzled
with the order of intervals on the kissar, which he
thought so singular that he says " One may well be
tempted to take this order for disorder, as I actually
did. The first time I had an opportunity of exa-
mining this instrument and hearing its notes I found
it tuned as follows : —

--^-

■-^-

I believed that this could not be really its proper
tuning, and that our Ethiopian, not considering this
matter of much importance, must have thought it
sufficient to tighten the strings in order to give them
the elasticity requisite to respond to the touch, and
to vibrate and sound distinctly, without concerning
himself about regulating the sounds in relation to
each other. However, in order to assure myself of
this, I resorted to the same experiment that I had
employed on a similar occasion with the servant of
the Yenetian Consul at Alexandria. I slackened all
the strings, to the great annoyance of the Nubian,
and asked him to tune them again. I had not told
him my motive for doing so, and, as he could not
possibly guess it, he was, naturally enough, vexed with
my behaviour. ... At last, however, he pro-
ceeded to restore the strings to their previous con-
dition, tuning each exactly in the same interval as
before ; and this convinced me that it was not acci-
dent nor caprice which led him to tune the strings as
above, but that, on the contrary, the order of the
notes was one transmitted and adhered to."

The songs with the kissar accompaniment, of
which I shall give a few specimens, are called by the

ClIAP. IV.

NUBIAN GHOUNA.

159

NubiaiiKS ghouna. The performer twangs the strings
with his left hand, while he uses the plectrum with
his right. Yilloteau remarks, " The words of the
first song have, like those of the songs of the Bara-
bras, nothing in common with the Arabic language ;
but in the following songs are found not only Arabic
but also corrupted Italian words." ^

NUBIAN GHOUNA.

Voice.

KiSSAE,

ii:

Accomp. ivitli the fingers of tlie left hand.

:fi:

:^^

iS:

Accomp. with the 'plectrum of the right hand.

-^:^Pt,

-±rM.

=r=f

-x:

--r

^^^-li

-F— ^

-M-

:>=ri

Hv-^

• 1

« r~i-4-W I ul-M
Mzi=g=ii- f igiz

Do - Lie do - ble do - ble

p^^s r—1-p^p^ r"i^

— ^ — I — 0 — *!.

-I-

h^H-.

r — t — ^

:#!:

fe'*«r-/=^

FSni

:*^i

V:^

^S^^

do - - ble do - bl^ aou - el gan - de

J-

"^^mi

t ^

8 Description de I'l^gypte, tome xiii. p. 365, and tome xiv. p. 260.

160 MUSICAL SYSTEM OF THE ASSYKIANS. Chap. IV.

—J-

-I -^.« d-

-^\

:±^:

-t^-

ton, do - We clian - de gan - de -

■1 r

3i:J:

w « »-

-f-

i-^-J-U

ton.

*i=Q

l^^t^H^Ii^IltJ.

t:ti^:i=ti:

-m—-<m — im-

"i*^^=r^^^g^^-= r— £=''^

ANOTHER GHOUNA.

i^ I . 11

Ri^ii^i

r=^

3:-.

p=p=

£=^_1^~- i^ ^_^

Na - - ve na - ve be

-^Z3^:^-X:X^z

^ rr^^i I I

'=1-^

t— r ^

Chap. IV.

NUBIAN GHOUNA.

161

z^-mr^wir-

— I 1 ^_ 1 —

1^=N:

nahaf . . ya seg - uiour el a guid

-^ — I 1 — I — I — I— a) H

^=^^

H — I-.— ^ — I 1 — \ ■ ■

-«>-^-

"■j— I LJ_J '"H!

-^ A l^m-

fc^SE^3g3

ya sig-niour el ha - did.

3^:

S=?*:i=S=zt*;

tfi ^ ^-1 I -»■

ANOTHER

i£E:

r=B

, — •> — I — I I ^

t3-

3tZC

^^^5:

!|===^

Ta se-rou - an a - giii del koui* fa-res fa-res el ler

t:^

-t:^-

E3==f=^

'51*=^ — r^-^ — r^-

mu:^

-r^-1 r^-

162

MUSICAL SYSTEM OF THE ASSYRIANS. Chap. IV.

ANOTHEE.

-t__l — I-

I^t^t

^-=^^

-tr-

:it^:

SS^^

0 ya A

1 ' I ■ L

- ly - meh

ya Se -

-^^n-^-^-j-^^i

-^-

S=ri=5:3i:

fctd3:

^jti^:

-etc.

ly-meh.

Respecting the hagana, or ten-stringed lyre of
Abyssinia, I shall merely add that it has, according
to Yilloteau, only five different notes, like the kissar,
but each note has its octave.

The peculiar rhythmical kissar accompaniments to
the above songs are also interesting, inasmuch as
they may give us some idea of the probable Assyrian
accompaniments. I have already stated the reasons
for concluding that they must have been generally of
this kind.

SUBDIVISIONS OF THE WHOLE TONE.

Although, as we have seen, it is highly jDrobable
that the musical compositions of the Assyrians were

CiiAP. IV. SUBDIVISIONS OF THE WHOLE TONE. 163

generally founded upon the pentatonic scale, it does
not follow that smaller intervals than those which
occur in this scale were unknown to them, or were
never used by them. On the contrary, there is reason
to suppose they sometimes employed intervals even
smaller than our semitones. Not only had the Hin-
doos such intervals at a very early period, as we
know with certainty from some of their old theo-
retical works which have come down to us, and from
which Sir William Jones, Sir W. Ouseley, and other
writers on Hindoo music have principally drawn
their information, but also the Persians appear to
have made use of similar subdivisions of the whole
tone. When the Arabs conquered Persia (a.d. 641)
the Persians had already attained a higher degree of
civilization than their conquerors. The latter found
in Persia the cultivation of music considerably in
advance of, and the musical instruments superior to
their own. They soon adopted the Persian instru-
ments, and there can be no doubt that the musical
system exhibited by the earliest Arab writers whose
works on the theory of music have been preserved,
was based upon an older system of the Persians. In
these works the octave is divided into seventeen one-
iliird tones, — intervals which are still made use of in
the East. Some of the Arabic instruments are con-
structed so as to enable the performer to produce
these intervals with exactness. The frets on the
tamboura, for instance, are regulated with a view to
this object.

Again, in the vocal performances of several Eastern
nations we meet with a certain disposition to connect
two intervals, at some distance from each other, by
slightly touching the small intermediate intervals.

M 2

164 MUSICAL SYSTEM OF THE ASSYRIANS. Chap. IY.

The singing of tlie Jews in the synagogue is gene-
rally of a similar character. Where this taste is
developed, it naturally leads to the adoption of
quarter-tones or one-third tones.

Likewise the ancient Greeks possessed a succession
of intervals, known as the enharmonic scale, in which
a quarter-tone, another quarter-tone, and a major third
succeeded each other, thus : —

THE ENHAKMONIO SCALE OF THE ANCIENT
GKEEKS.

3— Ta-;js£s^g^

M 1 :iz^^3zz^.^J^^

ty ^d- -?ri- v^- -^^

;^^^c-i xn=.si=^:

-ri ^ H'»^ A-^ ' — I-

The pentatonic character of this scale is unmistake-
able. It is, in fact, the scale of Olympus (noticed at
page 156), into which quarter-tones are introduced.
Plutarch, who wrote in the first century of the Chris-
tian era, mentions that those musicians who performed
in the genuine ancient style did not make use of the
quarter-tones, which shows that the more simple pen-
tatonic order of intervals existed prior to the enhar-
monic, as might be expected.

Thus, there can be no doubt of the employment of
smaller intervals than semitones by the ancient Hin-
doos, Persians, and Greeks.

The Persians were indebted for their early civiliza-
tion especially to the Assyrians. Mr. Layard ob-
serves that the remains which are still existing among
the ruins of Persepolis and Susa " prove beyond a
doubt that the Persians, who after the fall of the

Chap. IV. ENHAKMONIC SCALE OF ANCIENT GREEKS. 165

Assyrian and Babylonian empires succeeded to the
dominion of tlie East, received from the Assyrians
their reHgion, their arts, and their civiHzation, closely
copying them in all j)articulars. The hmnan-headed
bull of the Nineveh palaces is found faithfully repro-
duced at Persepolis. Slabs sculptured with bas-
reliefs of processions, and with single-winged figures,
line the chambers and the facades ; myths and reli-
gious symbols, similar to those found on the monu-
ments of Nimroud, are portrayed U23on the walls ;
and the cuneiform character was used to record the
glory and the titles of the kings. Besides, many
details of architectural moulding almost identical
have been found in the Assyrian and Persian
ruins."

I must leave it now to the reader to decide
whether the circumstantial evidence adduced is suf-
ficient to warrant the opinion that the Assyrians,
in their music, made use of smaller intervals than
semitones.

In anticipation of the objection which may perhaps
be raised, that to distinguish such minute intervals
would require a more refined ear than the Assyrians
can be supposed to have possessed, I would remark
that those intervals were most likely discriminated
with exactness by theorists and accomplished per-
formers only, which is, according to Lane and others,
also the case with the one-third tones used by the
Arabs and modern Egyptians. The simple and
popular music probably contained the pentatonic
intervals only. Something analogous may be ob-
served in our own music : the German and English
popular tunes being usually fomided upon our diatonic
scale, without the admixture of chromatic intervals.

166 MUSICAL SYSTEM OF THE ASSYRIANS. Chap. IV.

DIFFUSION OF THE PENTATONIO SCALE.

The existence of tlie pentatonic scale at a very
early period througlaout so large a portion of the
world as Asia, and also in Egypt, is a curious fact,
not without importance in the history of music, and,
moreover, leading the inquirer to various specula-
tions. To conjecture that all the different nations
have derived it from one source must appear bold
indeed. One might rather surmise it to be an*order
of intervals so deeply founded upon natural laws as
to suggest itself instinctively wherever a certain stage
of musical progress has been attained. However, if
this were the case, we might expect to meet with it
in most nations, or at least in many other nations
besides those before specified, which we do not. Let
us, for instance, turn to Africa : none of the instru-
ments of the Negroes and Kaffres exhibit any traces
of it ; neither have I detected any in the national
airs of these peoples with which I have become ac-
quainted.®

To investigate this phenomenon minutely is not
requisite for the aim of the present work ; I content
myself, therefore, with stating in a few words how,
in my opinion, it may probably be accounted for.

Evidences of a former connection between several
Oriental nations at a very early period are not

^ It is true that, among half-a-dozen balafoes wliicli I have seen, one had
the eight intervals, to which it was limited, in the following order : —

It:

But this may have arisen accidentally, as the instrument was in a dilapi-
dated condition. All the others had the diatonic series.

Chap. IV. DIFFUSION OF PENTATONIC SCALE.

167

wanting. Philologists inform us of the close rela-
tionship existing between several Eastern languages.
History records great military exploits at the remotest
time, — as, for instance, the invasion of Hindoostan by
the Assyrian queen Semiramis, about B.C. 2000, and
the conquest of a great part of Asia by the Egyptian
Pharaoh Sesostris, about B.C. 1500. Certain rehgious
opinions and ceremonies appear to have been at an
early period disseminated throughout various Eastern
countries. The Buddhist religion is professed at pre-
sent by many nations, extending from the western to
the extreme eastern part of Asia. Captain Turner
says that in Thibet " there is no religious edifice but
what is adorned with the head of the lion at every
angle, having bells pendant from his lower jaw, and
the same figure is equally common at every projec-
tion of the palace walls." ^° As there are no lions to
be found in Thibet, the representations of these animals
point to a former connection with southern countries.
Chinese antiquities have been discovered in the
Assyrian ruins, and also in ancient Egyptian tombs.
Mr. Halloran observes, " It is remarkable, as showing
the high antiquity of Chinese customs, that the vases in
front of their ancient temples are very much like, both
in shape and position, to some figures which appear
in the representations of the ancient temples of
Khorsabad, as given by Bonomi in his work entitled
' Nineveh and its Palaces.' Bonomi supposes these
vases to have been employed for holding water for
purification." ^

In the Nineveh Gallery of the British Museum

^° An Account of the Embassy to
the Court of Teshoo Lama, in Tibet,
by Captain S. Turner, London,

1800, p. 288.

1 Eight Months' Journal, by A,
L. Halloran, London, 1856, p. 53.

168 MUSICAL SYSTEM OF THE ASSYKIANS. Chap. IV.

there are, Mr. Sharpe informs us, " several pieces
of sculptured ivory, which, if not made by Egyptian
workmen, are, at least, copied from Egyptian scul2>
tures, and show how much Assyria was indebted
to Egypt for its knowledge of art. One is the figiu-e
of the goddess Athor, or of a queen holding a lotus-
flower in her left hand, and with the winged sun over
her head. Another is an ivory box, on one side of
which is an oval ring, crowned with two ostrich-
feathers, and within it is written the name of Aobeno-
Ea, which would seem to be the Asiatic way of
spelling Amim-Ra. On each side of this name is
seated the figure of a queen with one hand raised as
if in prayer to the god, and the other hand holding
the sacred staff of the Egyptian priests, which has on
the top of it a dog's head, and a fork at the lower
end. Several flat cups or dishes of copper, also
brought from Assyria, are ornamented with Egyptian
figures, partly chased and partly engraved. One
bears the winged sphinx wearing' the double crown
of Egypt, and the winged sun, together with the
scarabaeus with outstretched wings, and the ball
between its front feet. These were probably divining-
cups, used for the purpose of looking into the future,
and they remind us of Joseph's divining-cup, which
was found in Benjamin's sack."^ (See Genesis xliv.)
Again, in some ceremonies or amusements, with
which music is generally associated, we meet
with the same characteristics throughout the East.
For instance, the manner of dancing, described by Sir
S. Raffles as consisting in " graceful attitudes of the
body, and in the slow movement of the arms and

2 Egyptian Antiquities in the British Museum, described by 8amuel
Sharpe, London, 1862, p. IDO.

Chap. IV. DIFFUSION OF PENTATONIC SCALE. 169

legs, particularly of the former, even to the distinct
motion of the hand and fingers,"^ is very much the
same all over Asia, and may be witnessed even in
Japan, as we are informed by Meijlan, Sherard
Osborne, and others.

Whatever may be thought of the value of such
facts, if considered as evidences of a former affinity
or intercourse between the nations to which they
refer, we may learn from them at least that the
hypothesis of the pentatonic scale having been ori-
ginally derived from one common source is by no
means so unsupported as it at first appears to be.
Indeed, the more we inquire into the subject, the
more we are forced to accept this hypothesis as pro-
bably the most correct.

We have already seen that the pentatonic scale
was in use among the ancient American Indians. It
is true, in the specimens of old Peruvian songs, called
haravi, given in Eivero and Tschudi's ' Peruvian
Antiquities,' no indications of it are traceable. How-
ever, any musician at all acquainted with Spanish
national music will perceive at once that these
arrangements too closely resemble the Spanish Sequi-
dilla and Bolero for any reliance to be placed on
their genuineness. The themes are, perhaps, what
they profess to be — ancient Indian melodies, collected
by the first Spanish visitors to the western hemi-
sphere ; they have, however, been written down so
carelessly and incorrectly, — as is evident from the
many mistakes in the added accompaniment, — and
so greatly modified to make them more pleasing to
the Spanish taste, that we cannot be surprised if we

3 The History of Java, by T. Stamford Raffles, London, 1817, vol. i.
p. 340.

170

MUSICAL SYSTEM OF THE ASSYEIANS. Chap. IV.

do not find retained in tliem what must have appeared
most foreign and distasteful to the arranger. The
musical instruments preserved in museums afford
sufficient evidence of the former existence of the pen-
tatonic scale in America, because we find in them
the intervals of the fourth and seventh intentionally
omitted.

Now, it may be objected — if this scale was used
by the ancient American Indians, and in Europe by
the Scotch, and if these nations invented it inde-
pendently, why should not every Oriental nation also
have done the same ? In reply to this plausible
objection I would direct the reader's attention to the
following facts : —

Most historians and ethnologists believe the American
Indians to have originally migrated to America from
Asia. Humboldt says, " A long struggle between two
religious sects — the Brahmans and Buddhists — termi-
nated by the emigration of the Chamans to Thibet, Mon-
golia, China, and Japan. If tribes of the Tartar race
have passed over to the north-west coast of America,
and thence to the south and the east, towards the banks
of the Gila and those of the Missouri, as etymological
researches seem to indicate, we should be less sur-
prised at finding among the semi-barbarous nations of
the new continent idols and monuments of architecture,
a hieroglyphical writing, an exact knowledge of the
duration of the year, and traditions respecting the first
state of the world, recalling to our minds the sciences,
the arts, and the religious opinions of the Asiatic
nations."^

^ Eesearclies concerning the In-
stitutions and Monnments of the
Ancient Inhabitants of America, by

Alexander von Humboldt ; trans-
lated by H. M, Williams; London,
1814, vol. i. p. 146.

Chap. IV.

SCOTTISH AIR.

171

Scottish music is too well known in England to
require a detailed description here. I shall therefore
confine myself to inserting one specimen only, for the
sake of comparison with the Asiatic tunes : —

SCOTTISH ATE.

Larghetto.

:^5

:ii-=Mz

I've heard them lilt - ius; at the ewe milk - iug,

:p:

;— N:

^^z

*rz=-^:

Las - ses a lilt - ing be - - fore dawn of day.

535

Sees

-9i-9)-

itnt

-»—^—^

Now there's a moan - iug on il - ka green loan - ing, The

i^^

'-W='^-

:^ \^-t

:^:

flow'rs of the fo - rest are a' wede a - - way.

This song, known as ' The Flowers of the Forest,'
is transcribed from the 'Ancient Scottish Melodies
from a Manuscript of the Reign of King James VI.,
published by Wilham Dauney, Esq.' The words are
more modern than the melody, which is strictly pen-
tatonic, with the exception of the fifth bar, where the
minor seventh, /, occurs, through which the melody
modulates from G major into C major. Similar occa-
sional introductions of semitones into the pentatonic
scale occur also in Asiatic music, as we have already
seen.

Traces of the pentatonic scale are perceptible also
in Irish national tunes, although to a less extent
than in Scottish. The following Irish melody was.

172

MUSICAL SYSTEM OP THE ASSYRIANS. Chap. IV.

according to Mr. Walker, the author of * Historical
Memoirs of the Irish Bards,' written down by a
friend of his in the county of Roscommon, from oral
communication. The major seventh, f-sharp, occurs
therein twice, but it does not constitute an essential
note of the melody ; in fact, it rather gives the
impression of having accidentally crept in from care-
lessly drawing the voice over from the sixth to the
octave : —

i^;

:4=^

lEISH AIE, CALLED ' Speic Seoach.'

^s.

■f-^— L

rtitTJj.

i^tei

-m-^-im-

:p=^=S

Mr. Walker remarks, " In no part of Ireland do
our old melodies so much abound as in Connaufrht;
that province may be said to be vocal mtli tliem."^
We have therefore an additional reason for consi-

* Historical Memoirs of the Irish Bards, by J, C. Wcilker, Loudon,
1786 ; Appendix.

Chap. IV. DIFFUSION OF PENTATONIC SCALE. 173

dering the above melody as a faithful example of
Irish music.

These characteristics of the Scottish and Irish music
have been the cause of various conjectures. They
have been especially attributed to the influence of
ecclesiastical music. Mr. Conran, for instance, ob-
serves : " If we compare some of our national original
melodies vdth those scales [viz. the ancient eccle-
siastical modes], we shall perceive, I am inclined to
think, that much of the originality and peculiar con-
struction of those airs may be ascribed to their being
com^^osed in scales or modes corresponding with some
of these modes here given ; and I should therefore
conclude that the practice of this species of eccle-
siastical music being well calculated to make strong
impressions on the feelings, much of its pathetic cha-
racter would naturally be imparted to national music
during the progress of its development in Ireland."^
Mr. Dauney, on the other hand, more judiciously
observes : " Although it has been truly said that
nothing has a greater influence on the music of a
nation than the music of its church, the use of the
Catholic Ritual in Scotland cannot altogether account
for the predilection which the Scots have never ceased
to entertain for their peculiar style of melody ; for if
such an argument were to be admitted, it might
naturally be asked why the same results have not
taken place in Italy, Spain, France, and other coun-
tries which were subject to the same regulations, and
under the influence of the Roman Church to a greater
extent than either Scotland or Ireland. Indeed,
the same marked similitude is not to be traced even

® The National Music of Ireland, by Michael Conran, Dublin, 1846, p. 59.

174

MUSICAL SYSTEM OF THE ASSYRIANS. Chap. IY.

in the ancient music of England. Another view
militates strongly against the adoption of any theory
which would ascribe the invention of the Scottish
music to the See of Rome, and trace its pedigree
to no other source than the Ambrosian Chant, intro-
duced about the year 600. A national music is not
one of those things which a people is much disposed
to receive at second-hand, or to put off or on at the
bidding either of their spiritual or their temporal
masters. It is among the oldest and the most lasting
of their relics. Carried down from father to son,
like an heirloom in a family, it is not likely either
to be lost or bartered even for articles of higher
quality or value." ^

Again, musicians have endeavoured to explain
those characteristics in music from the imperfect or
peculiar construction of the old Scottish and Irish
musical instruments. Now, the principal popular
instruments were the harp and the bagpipe, both of
which are also in use in Asia. It will be remembered,
we have found the Oriental harp in Ireland ; and the
construction of the Persian bagpipe must be nearly
identical with that of the Scottish, since Sir William
Ouseley relates that a Scotch gentleman " played on
it several tunes of his own country, in a very pleasing
manner, without any previous practice." ^

Mr. Gunn gives us at the end of his book entitled
' An Historical Enquiry respecting the Performance
on the Harp in the Highlands of Scotland,' London,
1807, a prospectus of 'An Enquiry into the antiquity
of the harp, and into the Oriental extraction and

'' The Journal of the Royal Asiatic
Society of Great Britain and Ireland,
vol. vi. London, 1841.

® Travels in various Countries of
the East, by Sir W. Ouseley, Lon-
don, 1819, vol. i. p. 241.

Chap. IV. PREVALENCE OF THE MAJOR KEY. 175

ancient history of the Caledonian Scots, demonstrat-
ing, from the language, ancient religion, supersti-
tious rites, their kalendar and festivals, their remark-
able traditions, manners, and customs, and from other
documents and monuments still existing in Asia,
France, Great Britain, and Ireland, that they brought
the harp, together with other arts of civilized life,
from Armenia and the western coast of Asia, into
the southern parts of England, prior to the era at
which our writers commence the history of Great
Britain,' &c. The book has never been published
that I am aware of, and this is the less to be re-
gretted, since, to conclude from the circumstantial
prospectus of which I have quoted the commence-
ment, the author proves himself too superficially
acquainted with Oriental music for the successful
execution of his projected task.

Moreover, a somewhat similar book has been pub-
lished by Fink, in which the aim of the author is to
show that the pentatonic scale was originally brought
over by the Celts from Asia, and that it was preserved
longer in Scotland than elsewhere on account of the
isolated position of that country, and of similar cir-
cumstances.^

PEEVALENCE OF THE MAJOK KEY.

Another question remains for consideration, viz.,
whether in Assyrian music the major or the minor
key was the prevailing one. In my opinion it was
the former, for the following reasons : —

Most national music is in major ; of this I have
had ample opportunity of convincing myself by care-

8 Erste Wanderung der altesten Tonkunst, von G. W. Fink, Essen, 1831.

176 MUSICAL SYSTEM OF THE ASSYRIANS. Chap. IV.

fully examining all accessible collections of tunes from
every part of the world. The generally maintained
opinion that the popular songs of a nation are usually
in minor is altogether erroneous. There are but few
nations possessing more songs and other melodies in
minor than in major, while in the music of most
nations the major key decidedly predominates. Nor
is this surprising, since the major key appears to be
the most natural of the two, to conclude from the prin-
cipal harmonics which are softly emitted with any smgle
tone, and which produce together the major chord.

In the Oriental pentatonic scale the interval of the
third consists generally of tivo whole tones, as in our
major scale, and not of a whole tone and a large semi-
tone, as in our minor scale. A reference to the
examples of Chinese, Hindoo, Burmese, Japanese,
and other tunes previously given, all of which have
been selected without any reference to the present
question, will convince the reader that only a few of
them are in minor. In the East, however, we meet
not unfrequently with melodies which neither begin
nor end with the tonic, and in which, in fact, the key-
note is not easily ascertainable. Such melodies have
generally been considered by Europeans, from the
preconceived notion before mentioned, as being in
minor, and have been harmonized accordingly.

It is altogether a hazardous proceeding to har-
monize any music of this kind according to our own
usual rules ; the result must necessarily be unsatisfac-
tory on account of the two semitones of our diatonic
scale being wanting. The peculiar characteristics of
the music are thereby obliterated without anything
beautiful being gained. Many of the well-known
expressive Scottish airs have in this way been sadly
tampered with.

Chap. IV. PREVALENCE OP THE MAJOR KEY. 177

Moreover, altlioiigli we may suppose Assyrian, like
other Asiatic music, to have been principally in
major, it must have possessed a certain plaintiveness,
such as pre-eminently appertains to our music in
minor ; since the two steps of a minor third, which
occur in the pentatonic scale, would impart to it that
character. It will be remembered, that we now use
in our minor scale two different orders of intervals,
viz., we raise the sixth as well as the seventh in
ascending, or we raise the seventh alone. In the
latter case the step from the minor sixth to the major
seventh — a step of a superfluous second — is, in effect at
least, identical with the pentatonic steps of a minor
third just pointed out. And most likely it may be
also partly on this account that the music of Asiatic
nations has been described by superficial observers as
being generally in minor.

From the nature of the Assyrian instruments we
have been led to surmise that the music of the Assy-
rians must have been especially sentimental and sooth-
ing ; this is also indicated by the pentatonic scale,
which consists of a succession of intervals remarkably
melodious and impressive. In proof, we need only
refer to the universally admired old Scottish melodies
composed in this scale. The Oriental melodies strike
us as too strange in construction to convey directly
an agreeable impression. After, however, becoming
thoroughly acquainted with them, we are sure to dis-
cover that they possess peculiar beauties. Of this
every one may convince himself by learning one of
these mielodies by heart, and familiarising himself as
much with it as with any of his favourite Scotch
tunes, for which purpose I would recommend the
Chinese ' Sian Oliok,' page 131, or the Javanese

178

MUSICAL SYSTEM OF THE ASSYRIANS. Chap. IV.

' Surung Dayimg,' i^age 133, on account of their
melodiousness.

They are certainly in many respects different from
the Scotch melodies ; which shows that, although the
character of the pentatonic scale is remarkably dis-
tinctive, this scale is nevertheless not unfitted for the
expression of a variety of emotions. Besides, the
character of a musical composition is not exclusively
determined by the key and scale, but quite as much
by the time, temj^o, modulation, rhythmical construc-
tion, employment of different degrees of loudness,
and other conditions. The effect of the Assyrian
music may therefore have been widely different from
that of the Scotch, notwithstanding the identity of
the scale.

NOTATION.

With respect to the question whether the Assyrians
possessed a musical notation, we can judge only from
analogy, since no evidences of it have hitherto been
discovered. Most nations advanced in music, as the
Assyrians were, employ some rude means to assist in
recalling their musical compositions to memory. The
Chinese, for instance, have distinctive characters,
which they slightly alter in different octaves. Of
the Japanese we are told by Saris, whose account
dates as far back as the year 1611, that " their tunes
were pricked ; " ^ and Captain Turner was informed
by the Buddhist priests in Thibet that " their music
was written down in characters which they learnt." ^

' A General Collection of Voyages
and Travels, printed for Thomas
Astley, London, 1745, vol. i. p.
481.

'^ An Account of an Embassy to the
Court of the Tcshoo Lama in Thibet,
by Captain Samuel Turner, London,
1800, p. 343.

Chap. IV. NOTATION. 179

Even the North American Indians, much less ad-
vanced in music, sometimes employ signs written
upon birch-bark to assist in remembering their songs,
of which examples are given in Kohl's ' Kitchi-Gami,'
and in Catlin's ' Illustrations of the Manners and
Customs of the North American Indians.' And as
we know that the Greeks and other ancient nations
possessed some kind of notation, we may conjecture
that the Assyrians also, as well as the Egyptians and
Hebrews, were not without such a contrivance. Per-
haps further discoveries may throw some light on
this and other obscure questions relating to Assyrian
music, which it would be at present premature to
discuss. Some hope of this is held out in the follow-
ing observation of Max Miiller : —

"In a letter, dated April, 1853, Sir Henry Raw-
linson wrote : ' On the clay tablets which we have
found at Nineveh, and which now are to be counted
by thousands, there are explanatory treatises on
almost every subject under the sun ; the art of writ-
ing, grammars and dictionaries, notation, weights and
measures, divisions of time, chronology, astronomy,
geography, history, mythology, geology, botany, &;c.
In fact, we have now at our disposal a perfect cyclo-
paedia of Assyrian science.' Considering what has
been achieved in deciphering one class of cuneiform
inscriptions, the Persian, there is no reason to doubt
that the whole of that cyclopsedia will some day be
read with the same ease with wliich we read the
moimtain records of Darius." ^

^ Lectures on the Science of Language, by Mas Miiller, London, 1862,
p. 280.

N 2

180 MUSIC OF THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS. Chap. V.

CHAPTER V.

MUSIC OF THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS.

Egyptian instruments — Various harps — Bruce's harps — Egyptian name
of the harp — The trigonon — The lyre — The tamboura — Peculiar
stringed instruments — Pipes, flutes, double-pipes — Trumpets —
Drums and tambourines — Curious instruments of percussion — The
sistrum — Crotala, cymbals, bells — Vocal and instrumental perform-
ances— The Egyptian musical instruments compared with the Assyrian
— Opinions of some musical historians.

In the preceding inquiry we have repeatedly had
occasion to observe the affinity of the ancient Egyptian
music with the Assyrian. I purpose now submitting
a short account of the music of the former nation,
which will more fully confirm what we have already
found indicated. Here, also, I shall adhere to the
plan hitherto pursued of avoiding as much as possible
a repetition of any information on the same subject
already given in Forkel's and Burney's Histories of
Music, and in similar works, noticing especially those
facts which have not hitherto received that considera-
tion which, in my opinion, they deserve.

We have become gradually more exactly acquainted
with the Egyptian instruments through the discoveries
of a variety of representations of them in sculptures
and paintings, as well as of fragments, and even of
nearly perfectly-preserved specimens of harps, lyres,
and other stringed instruments, pipes, flutes, sistra,
cymbals, bells, &c.

The following pages contain representations of all

Chap. V.

THE HARP.

181

the diiferent Egyptian instruments which have been
found.

THE HAEP.

The Egyptian harps greatly varied in shape, size,
and ornamentation. Fig. 27 represents one of the
more simple kind. It
is mounted with ten
strings, and played
on by a female.

The harp repre-
sented in fig. 28,
which has twenty
strings, is more high-
ly ornamented with
carving, and more
brilliantly coloured,
than the preceding.
It rests on a low
stand, while the per-
former is seated on ^
the ground.

A similar harp,
but much more plain,
and raised on a higher
stand or leg, is shown

in fig. 29. It has
seven strings and
eight tuning - pegs ;
while another in the
same engraving has
only four strings and
six pegs.

Such inequalities

182

MUSIC OF THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS. Chap. V.

Fig. 28. A harp on a stand, a man beating time, and a player on the t;imboura.

in the nrnnber of the pegs and strings not imfre-
qnently occur, and must probably be attributed to the
negligence of the painters or sculptors. We ought,

Fig. 29.

Two liarps.

Chap. V.

THE HARP

183

therefore, not to place niucli reliance on the correct-
ness of the number of the strings, unless we frequently
meet with the same
number on several I %
instruments, and un-
less they are at the
same time in con-
formity with the
number of pegs.

Stands of various
fonns were used for
the smaller harps,
which enabled the
performer to play
on the instnunent
while standing be-
fore it, as is shown
in the engraving
fig. 31, which re-
presents a small
kind of harp with
nine strings.

The Egyptian
harps most remark-
able for elegance of
form and elaborate
decoration are the
two which were
first noticed by the
well-known travel-
ler Bruce, who
found them painted
in fresco on the wall of an ancient sepulchre at
Thebes, which is supposed to be the tomb of

Fig. 30. A harp on a stand.

Fig, 31.

Tambourine and hai-p.

184

MUSIC OF THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS.

Chap. V.

Rameses III., who reigned about 1250 B.C. Bruce's
discovery first became known to the musical world

Fio;, 32.

Harp with thirteen strings.

tbrougli a letter addressed by him to Dr. Burney,
which, accompanied by a drawing of one of these
harps, without the figure of the performer, was pub-
lished in the first volume of Burney's ' History of
Music' Soon afterwards engravings of both instru-

Chap. V. THE HARP. 185

ments appeared in Bruce's ' Travels,' vol. i. This
discovery created a great sensation among musicians.
The fact that at so remote an age the Egyptians
should have possessed harps which vie with our own
in elegance and beauty of form, appeared to some so
incredible that the correctness of Bruce's representa-
tions was greatly doubted ; in fact, they were received
with a distrust somewhat similar to that with which
several other communications by this traveller were
at first viewed, which have afterwards been proved to
be authentic. Sketches of the same harps, taken sub-
sequently and at different times from the frescoes,
have been published in ' Description de I'J^gypte,' in
Eosellini's ' I Monumenti dell' Egitto,' in Champol-
lion's ' Monuments de I'Egypte et de la Nubie,' and
in Sir Gr. Wilkinson's ' Manners and Customs of the
Ancient Egyptians,' all of which differ more or less
from each other in appearance and in the number of
strings. The engravings fig. 32 and 33 represent
" Bruce's harps," as they appear in the last-mentioned
work — the first with thirteen and the second with ten
strings.

I notice these discrepancies in the hope that some
Eastern traveller may set the matter at rest by having
a strictly accurate copy, even to the most minute de-
tails, made from the frescoes which are still in exist-
ence. This would be the only way to render these
interesting representations really valuable in musical
investigations.

Bruce's letter to Burney has been often quoted,
and is well known. The publicity which it has ob-
tained may perhaps be the very cause why the account
of the discovery of those harjDS given by Bruce in
his ' Travels,' which contains some interesting addi-

186 MUSIC OF THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS. Chap. V.

tional information, has not received that attention
from musical historians to which, in my opinion, it is
entitled. I shall, therefore, not apologize for inserting
here that portion of it which more immediately refers
to our present subject.

Speaking of the tomb of Rameses, Bruce says :
" Farther forward, on the right hand of the entry, the
panels or compartments were still formed in stucco,
but, in place of figures in relief, they were painted in
fresco. I dare say this was the case on the left hand
of the passage as well as the right. But the first dis-
covery was so unexpected, and I had flattered myself
that I should be so far master of my own time as to
see the whole at my leisure, that I was riveted, as it
were, to the spot by the first sight of these paintings,
and I could proceed no further. In one panel were
several musical instruments strewed upon the ground,
chiefly of the hautboy kind, with a mouth-piece of
reed. There were also some simple pipes or flutes.
With them were several jars, apparently of potter-
ware, which, having their mouths covered with parch-
ment or skin, and being braced on their sides like a
drum, were probably the instruments called tabor or
tabret (Glen. xxxi. 27 ; Isaiah xxx. 32), beat upon
by the hands, coupled in earliest ages with the harp,
and preserved still in Abyssinia, though its companion
is no longer known there. In three following panels
were painted in fresco three harps, which merited the
utmost attention, whether we consider the elegance of
these instruments in their form, and the detail of their
parts as they are here clearly expressed, or confine
ourselves to the reflection that necessarily follows, to
how great perfection music must have arrived before
an artist could have produced so complete an instru-

Chap. V. THE HAKP. 187

ment as either of these. As the first harp seemed to
be the most perfect and least spoiled, I immediately
attached myself to this, and desired my clerk to take
upon him the charge of the second. In this way, by
sketching exactly and loosely, I hoped to have made
myself master of all the paintings in that cave, perhaps
to have extended my researches to others — thongh, in
the sequel, I found myself miserably deceived. My
first drawing was that of a man playing npon a harp ;
he was standing, and the instrmnent, being broad and
flat at the base, probably for that purpose, supported
itself easily with a very little inclination upon his
arm. His head is close shaved, his eyebrows black,
without beard or mustachios. He has on him a loose
shirt, like what they wear at this day in Nubia (only
it is not blue), with loose sleeves, and arms and neck
bare. It seemed to be thick muslin, or cotton cloth,
and longways through it is a crimson stripe about
one-eighth of an inch broad — a proof, if this is
Egyptian manufacture, that they understood at that
time how to dye cotton crimson, an art found out in
Britain only a very few years ago. If this is the
fabric of India, still it proves the antiquity of the
commerce between the two countries, and the intro-
duction of Indian manufactures into Egypt. It reached
down to his ankle ; his feet are without sandals. He
seems to be a corpulent man of about sixty years of
age, and of a complexion rather dark for an Egyptian.
To guess by the detail of the figure, the painter seems
to have had the same degree of merit with a good
sign-painter in Europe at this day. If we allow this
harper's stature to be five feet ten inches, then we may
compute the harp in its extreme length to be something
less than six feet and a half, This instrument is of a

188 MUSIC OF THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS. Chap. V.

mucli more advantageous form than the triangular
Grecian harp. It has thirteen strings, but wants the
fore-piece of the frame opposite to the longest string.
The back part is the sounding- board, composed of four
thin pieces of wood, joined together in form of a cone
— that is, growing wider towards the bottom ; so that,
as the length of the string increases, the square of the
corresponding space in the sounding-board in which
the sound was to undulate always increases in pro-
portion. The whole principles on which this harp is
constructed are rational and ingenious, and the orna-
mental parts are executed in the very best manner.
The bottom and sides of the frame seem to be ve-
neered and inlaid, probably with ivory, tortoise-shell,
and mother-of-pearl, the ordinary produce of the
neighbouring seas and deserts. It would be even
now impossible either to construct or to finish a harp
of any form with more taste and elegance. Besides
the proportions of its outw^ard form, we must observe
likewise how near it approached to a perfect instru-
ment, for it wanted only two strings of having two
complete octaves. That these were purposely omitted,
not from defect of taste or science, must appear be-
yond contradiction when we consider the harp that
follows. I had no sooner finished the harp which I
had taken in hand, than I went to my assistant to see
what progress he had made in the drawing in which
he was engaged. I found, to my great surprise, that
this harp differed essentially in form and distribution
of its parts from the one I had drawn, without having
lost any of its elegance ; on the contrary, that it was
finished with still more attention than the other. It
seemed to be veneered with the same materials, ivory
and tortoise-shell, but they were differently disposed ;

Chap V. THE HARP. 189

the ends of the three longest strings, where thej^^
joined to the sounding-board below, were defaced by
a hole dug in the wall, Several of the strings in
different parts had been scraped as with a knife ; for
the rest, it was very perfect. It had eighteen strings.
A man, who seemed to be still older than the former,
but in habit perfectly the same, barefooted, close
shaved, and of the same complexion, stood playing
with both his hands near the middle of the har]?, in a
manner seemingly less agitated than in the other. I
went back to my first harp, verified and examined my

drawing in all its parts There still remained

a third harp of ten strings. Its precise form I do not
well remember, for I had seen it but once when I
first entered the cave, and was now preparing to copy
that likewise. I do not recollect that there was any
man playing upon this one ; I think it was rather
resting upon a wall, with some kind of drajoery upon
one end of it, and was the smallest of the three. But
I am not at all so certain of particulars concerning
this as to venture any description of it. What I have
said of the other two may be absolutely depended
upon. I look upon these harps, then, as the Theban
harps in use in the time of Sesostris, who did not re-
build, but decorate ancient Thebes. I consider them
as affording an incontestable proof, were they the only
monuments remaining, that every art necessary to
the construction, ornament, and use of this instrument
was in the highest perfection ; and if so, all the others
must have probably attained to the same degree. . . .
These harps, in my opinion, overturn all the accounts
hitherto given of the earliest state of music and
musical instruments in the East, and are altogether, in
their form, ornaments, and compass, an incontestable

190

MUSIC OF THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS.

Chap. V.

proof, stronger than a thousand Greek quotations,
that geometry, drawing, mechanics, and music were
at the greatest perfection when this instrument was
made, and that ilio period from which we date the
invention of these arts was only the beginning of

£i^

Fig. 33.

Harp with teu strings.

the era of their restoration. This was the sentiment
of Solomon, a writer who lived at the time when this

Chap. V. THE flARP. 191

harp was painted. ' Is there,' says Solomon, ' any-
thing whereof it may be said, See, this is new ? It
has been abeady of old time, which was before ns '
(Eccles. chap. i. v. 10)."^

From Brace's remark that the harp with thirteen
strings " wanted only two strings of having two com-
plete octaves," it is evident he took it for granted that
the Egyptians tuned their harps in onr diatonic order
of intervals. Sir Gardner Wilkinson entertains the
same opinion. He says that the harps " are seldom
represented in the scul23tnres with more than two
octaves " ^ — a statement which implies that he must
be acquainted with the intervals in which they were
tuned. There is, however, no further indication in
Sir Gr. Wilkinson's work of his having really made so
interesting a discovery.

Dr. Burney, in speaking of the harp with thirteen
strings, expresses himself cautiously, as might be ex-
pected from an experienced musician. He says,
" With respect to the number of strings upon this
harp, if conjectures may be allowed concerning the
manner of tuning them, two might be offered to the
reader's choice : the first idea that presented itself at
the sight of thirteen strings was, that they would
furnish all the semitones to be found in modern instru-
ments, within the compass of an octave, as from C to
c, D to d, or E to e. The second idea is more Grecian,
and conformable to antiquity, which is, that if the
longest string represented Proslambanomenos, or D,
the remaining twelve strings would more than sup-
ply all the tones, semitones, and quarter-tones of the

^ Travels to Discover the Source of the Nile, by James Bruce, of
Kinnaird, London, 1790, vol. i. p. 127.

^ The Manners and Customs of the Ancient Egyptians, vol. ii. p. 282.

192 MUSIC OF THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS. Chap. V.

Diatonic, Clironiatic, and Enharmonic genera of the
ancients, within the compass of an octave ; but, for
my part, I should rather incline to the first arrange-
ment, as it is more natural, and more conformable to
the structure of our organs, than the second ; for, with
respect to the genera of the Grreeks, though no certain
historic testimony can be produced concerning the
invention of the Diatonic and Chromatic, yet ancient
writers are unanimous in ascribing to Olympus, the
Mysian, the first use of the Enharmonic ; and though
in the beginning the melody of this genus was so
simple and natural as to resemble the wild notes and
rude essays of a people not quite emerged from bar-
barism, yet in aftertimes it became overcharged with
finical fopperies and fanciful beauties, arising from
such minute divisions of the scale as had no other
merit than the difficulty of forming them. Another
conjecture concerning the tuning of the thirteen
strings of the Theban harp is, that they furnished the
four tetrachords, Hypaton, Meson, Synemmenon, and
Diezeugmenon, with Proslamhanornenos at the bottom.
Thus:

~am —

— <^—

J2«_ij^_

.«. A

► -^-

^•=

_^_

_«-

-«-

Z227

-^—

—

1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13." ^ "

Burney's determination of the thirteen intervals in
accordance with the Greek system might be correct
if the harp dated from the time of the Ptolemies ; but
it is a thousand years older. At that early period
the pentatonic series was, as we have seen, most likely
the usual one in Egypt. Even the scale of Olympus

■'' Burney's ' History of Music,' vol. i. p. 216.

Chap. V.

THE HARP.

193

of Mysias, to which Biirney alludes, was of a similar
stamp. To determine with accuracy how the intervals
on the harp with thirteen strings were ordered, is
impossible. Perhaps the lowest two may have con-
sisted of the tonic and dominant ; thus, supposing the
deepest note to have been c —

c, g \ c, d, e, g, a \ c, d, e, g, a \ c.

Or two of the strings may have been tuned in inter-
vals foreign to the pentatonic scale — i.e. in semitones
or even smaller divisions. The occasional introduc-
tion of intervals foreign to the usual scale appears
probable from the
fact of one or two
strings on some
of the harps be-
ing coloured, or
placed more dis-
tant from the rest.
The Theban harp
with ten strings
had most likely
the pentatonic se-
ries repeated in
the octave.

A kind of harp
with twenty-one
strings, repre-
sented in the en-
graving fig. 34, was discovered in a well-preserved
condition, and is now deposited in the Paris Museum.
In the engraving is also shown the manner in which
the strings are fastened on this instrument.

All these harps, however different they are from

Fig. 34. Egyptian harp in the Paris Museum.

194

MUSIC OF THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS. Chap. Y.

each other in form, have one pecuharity in common
— the absence of the fore-pillar.

The name of the harp was bu7i% or heni. In ' De-
scription de I'Egypte ' it is called tehouni ; hut the first
syllable is only the article prefixed to the substantive,
te-huni. The name may possibly have been used to
designate stringed instruments in general. It has no
resemblance to our word harp, which may be traced
in the languages of almost all European nations. The
Celtic races, however, have a different word for it.
In Welsh the harp is called teylin, and in Irish clai^-
seth. Conran asserts, however, that the Welsh name
teylin is derived from the Irish language.*

In the Egyptian paintings the words sek an hen,
" scraper on tfte harp," have been found written in
hieroglyphs over the figure of a harper.*

THE TKIGONON.

The instrument J fig. 35, is most likely the trigonon,
or triangular harp, mentioned by several classical
authors. Burney, in his ' History of Music,' gives a
drawing of a trigonon with ten strings. He observes
that it is called by Sophocles a Phrygian instrument,
and that a certain musician of the name of Alexander
Alexandrinus was so admirable a performer upon it,
that when exhibiting his skill in Rome he created the
greatest /wrore. Burney further remarks : " The per-
former being a native of Alexandria, as his name
implies, makes it probable it was an Egyptian instru-
ment upon which he gained his reputation at Rome,"^

* The National Music of Ireland,
by Michael Conran, Dublin, 1848,
p. 97.

* Introduction to the Study of the

Egyptian Hieroglvphs, by Samuel
Birch, London, 1857, p. 269.

^ Burney 's History of Music, vol.
i. plate V. fig. 5.

Chap. V.

THE TRIGONON.

195

— an opinion wliicli is corroborated by the discovery
of the instrument shown in our engraving. The
trigonon ought, however, more properly to be classed

Fig. 35. Trigonon.

Fig. 36. Kind of trigonon.

with the lyre than with the harp, because it partakes
more of the character of the former instrument. A
similar stringed instrument is the harp represented on
the old Persian sculptures described by Sir Robert
Ker Porter, which I have already noticed.

Fig. 37.

Instruments of the trigonon kind.

A curious stringed instrument of a semicircular
shape (see fig. 37,) was discovered in the year 1823

o 2

196

MUSIC OF THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS.

Chap. V.

at Thebes. It was mounted with twenty strings of
catgut, which still emitted sound when made to vibrate.
Its wooden frame was covered with red leather. It
had no tuning-pegs ; the strings were affixed to the
upper part of the frame, and were tuned by being
wound round a rod which was inserted into the lower
part of the frame.

Some of the representations of the Grecian trigonon
which we find in our Histories of Music exhibit the
instrument in the shape of a Greek Delta with three
bars. In the ancient Egyptian instruments of this
class, however, the front bar, which would complete
the triangle, is wanting.

THE LYEE.
The lyre of the ancient Egyptians also varies much
in shape and in the number of strings. Some greatly

Fig. 38. Lyres held horizontally.

resemble the Assyrian lyre ; others are of a different
shape, and are held perpendicularly instead of hori-

Chap. V.

THE LYEE.

197

zontally. The frame was not unfreqiiently ornamented
with the carved head of the horse, gazelle, or other
favourite animal. Some
lyres, like that represented
in the engraving fig. 39,
have been found in a re-
markably perfect state of
preservation, and are now
in the Museums of Berlin
and Ley den. That in the
Berlin Museum (fig. 40) is 2
feet high; its body is about
10 inches high and about
15 inches broad. It ap-
pears to have had thirteen
strings instead of ten, like
that shown in fig. 39.
The lyre in the Leyden
Museum is simi-
lar, but smaller.
These lyres
are entirely of
wood, and the
frame, as in the
Assyrian lyres,
is made longer
on one side than
on the other, for
the purpose of
tuning the in-
strument by sliding the strings upwards or down-
wards to obtain the pitch required. The strings of the
six holes which form the lower row on the lyre in the
Berlin Museum contained, probably, the principal

Fig-. 39. Lyre held perpendiculai-Iy.

Fig. 40. Lyre in the Berlin Museum.

198

MUSIC OF THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS. Chap. V.

intervals, consisting of the pentatonic scale extended
to the octave ; while the strings of the upper row
were tuned in the intermediate semitones, or other
small subdivisions.

In the engraving, fig.
41, is shown also the
under part of the instru-
ment.

The lyres, as well as
the harps, appear gene-
rally to have been tuned
in the pentatonic order,
without the addition of
any foreign intervals.
The most usual number
of strings on the harps
represented in the paint-
ings is, according to Sir
Gr. Wilkinson, seven —
this number " being
found in seven out
of twenty -one harps." ^
There is, however, no reason to suppose the seven
strings to have been tuned in the seven intervals of
our diatonic scale ; because in this scale the octave is
so imperatively demanded by the seventh, that the
impression is very unsatisfactory if the scale is re-
stricted to seven intervals instead of eight — a fact
which is so universally felt wherever the diatonic
scale is in use, that we do not meet with instru-
ments, even among savage nations, in which it is
made to stop short at the seventh. Moreover, we

Fig, 41, Lyre in the Leyden Museum.

Athenasum, April 14, 1860.

Chap. V. THE LYEE. 199

have already seen that in such matters not much
reHance can be placed on the fidelity of the painted
and sculptured records. Of the before-mentioned
actual instruments discovered, the small harp with
twenty strings, found at Thebes, appears to have had
the pentatonic scale running through four octaves ;
and the harp with twenty-one strings, in the Paris
Museum, had probably the same order of intervals,
with the addition of the key-note at the top.

Still, it may be suggested, is it not probable, from
the fact of seven strings occurring most frequently,
that the Egyptians tuned their harps in the same
diatonic series of intervals which the Greeks formed
by two conjunct tetrachords ?

The Greek tetrachord consisted of a semitone and
two whole tones, like

-i=M:

i=i=l= or, ^S^,=?^|

3EE3=-J=^=E or, ^Fi-J=i^

The tetrachords were combined in two different ways,
viz., either as disjunct tetrachords, constituting a dia-
tonic series of eight notes ; or as conjunct tetrachords,
containing only seven notes.

Disjunct Tetrachords. Conjunct Tetrachords.

Ei^^

*-(!?:

f^B^^^5^

A — -H — al — • — ^-

:it=it

It will be seen from the above example that in the
conjunct tetrachords the highest note of the first tetra-
chord is also the lowest note of the second.

Now, there is a prevailing opinion among musical
historians, that the Greeks derived their musical
system from the Egyptians. Pythagoras, and other

200 MUSIC OP THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS. Chap. V.

philosophers and theorists, are said to have studied
niusic in Egypt. I believe, however, that the Egyptian
influence upon Greece, as far as regards music, has
been greatly overrated. Not only do the more per-
fect Egyptian instruments, such as the larger harps,
the tamboura, and others, appear never to have been
much in favour with the Greeks ; but almost all the
stringed instruments which the Greeks possessed are
stated to have been originally derived from Asia.
Strabo (book x., c. 3) says : " Those who regard the
whole of Asia, as far as India, as consecrated to
Bacchus, point to that country as the origin of a great
portion of the present music. One author speaks of
' striking forcibly the Asiatic kithara,' another calls
the pipes Berecynthian and Phrygian. Some of the
instruments also have foreign names, as Nabla, Sam-
buka, Barbiton, Magadis, and many others."

We know at present little more of these instruments
than that they were in use in Greece. Concerning their
form and construction there prevails much diversity
of opinion. Of the Magadis it is even not satisfac-
torily ascertained whether it was a stringed or a wind
instrument. The other three are known to have been
stringed instruments. But they cannot have been
such universal favourites as the lyre, since this instru-
ment, and perhaps the trigonon, an inferior kind of
harp, are almost the only stringed instruments repre-
sented in the Greek paintings on pottery and other
monumental records. If, as might perhaps be sug-
gested, their taste for beauty of form induced the
Greeks to represent the elegant lyre in preference to
other stringed instruments, we might at least expect
to meet with the harp — an instrument which equals,
if it does not surpass, the lyre in elegance of form.

Chap. V. THE LYRE. 201

The representation of Polyhymnia with a harp,
depicted on a splendid Greek vase now in the
Munich Museum, may be noted as an exceptional
instance. This valuable relic dates from the time of
Alexander the Great. A drawing of it is given in
* Elite des Monuments Ceramographiques, par Ch.
Lenormant et J. de Witte' (Paris: 1846), vol. ii.
plate 86. The instrument is, in construction as well
as in shape, exactly like the Assyrian harp. It has
thirteen strings. Polyhymnia is touching them with
both hands, using the right hand for the treble and
the left for the bass. She is seated, holding the
instrument in her lap. Even the little tuning-jDegs,
which in number are not in accordance with the
strings, are placed on the sounding-board at the upper
part of the frame, exactly as on the Assyrian harp.
If, then, we have here the Greek harp, it was more
likely an importation from Asia than from Egypt. In
short, as far as can be ascertained, the most complete of
the Greek instrmnents appear to be of Asiatic origin.

Again, it is remarkable that many of the Greek
musicians whose fame is recorded in history were
natives of Asia Minor, or of some island adjacent to
it. Marsyas, for instance, was a Phrygian ; Ter-
pander, Arion, Sappho, were natives of the island of
Lesbos. Olympus, recorded as the inventor of the
old enharmonic scale, was a native of Mysias, also in
Asia. This Olympus, who lived about 1250 years
before Christ, was a celebrated composer as well as
performer on the flute. The invention of the old
enharmonic scale, which is, as we have seen, the same
as the pentatonic, was probably in later times attri-
buted to him, because he composed beautiful melodies
founded on this scale, which were still known and

202 MUSIC OF THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS. Chap. V.

admired at the time of Plato, Aristotle, and even as
late as Plutarch. For a more detailed account of this
musician, who must not be mistaken for another dis-
tinguished Grreek performer on the flute of the same
name, who flourished about four centuries later, I must
refer the reader to Burney's ' History of Music,' vol.
i. p. 280.

Further, it ought to be borne in mind that the
theories of Greek musicians and philosoj^hers, which
have been preserved to us, date from a period about a
thousand years later than the time of Olympus of
Mysias — the oldest of these treatises being one by
Aristoxenus, written not much earlier than three
hundred years before the Christian era. The Greeks
were a remarkably enterprising and progressive
nation ; whatever they borrowed from other nations
they soon further developed and expanded. The
Egyptians, on the other hand, considered it unlawful
to introduce any reforms. If, then, the musical
systems of the Greeks and Egyptians were identical,
this was much more likely the case at the time of
Olympus than at the time of those theorists whose
speculations have been transmitted to us.

Terpander (b.c. 650) is said to have been the first
of the Greek musicians who used seven strings on the
lyre, which, before his time, was usually strung with
four or five strings. The order of intervals in which
he tuned his instrument is recorded to have been the
following : —

Some historians mention Orpheus (b.c. 1300) as the
musician who first employed seven strings on the lyre.

Chap. V. THE TAMBOURA. 203

However this may be, thus much is evident, that the
arrangement of the intervals on Terpander's instru-
ment nearly approaches the scale of Olympus, who
lived about six centuries before Terpander ; and that
the further we go back towards the earliest period,
the more traces we find of the pentatonic scale.
Pythagoras (b.c. 550) is recorded to have added an
eighth string to the lyre, and to have introduced a
diatonic order of intervals, consisting of two disjunct
tetrachords. Ashe is said to have acquired his know-
ledge in Egypt, some writers have precipitately con-
cluded therefrom that his innovation on the lyre was
an introduction from Egypt. All evidence, however,
in support of this opinion is wanting, while every
ascertainable fact tends, as we have seen, to the oppo-
site conclusion.

After these statements, I leave it to the reader to
decide whether those seven-stringed Egyptian harps,
dating from a very early period, were not more likely
tuned according to the pentatonic order of intervals,
than in two conjunct tetrachords like the heptachord
of the Greeks.

THE TAMBOUEA.

The body of the Egyptian tamboura was either
oval, or with the sides slightly incurved, somewhat
like our guitar or violin. We find the latter shape
also in some of the Hindoo instruments. The tmiing-
pegs of the Egyptian tambouras are not indicated in
the paintings ; perhaps because they were situated at
the back of the neck, as they are on some Hindoo
instruments of a similar class ; or the artist may have
omitted them through carelessness. In the figure of

204

MUSIC OF THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS.

Chap. V.

the tamboura, occurring in the hieroglyphics to which
I have alluded, they are distinctly indicated. In the

Fig;. 42. Tamboura.

Fig. 43. Tamboura.

earlier writings the instrument is made with four
pegs, thus — 1^, and in the later ones it has only two.

thus-

If we suppose the

pegs to have been pushed
through holes so far as to stick
out on the opposite side of the
neck — as from the representa-
tions appears probable — the
former could have had but two
pegs and the latter only one.

On a tamboura sculptured on

an ancient obelisk now in Rome,

dating from about 1500 B.C., of

ramboura surportod by a strap, which a dcscription is given in

Fiff. 44

Chap. V. THE TAMBOURA. 205

Burney's History, accompanied by a drawing of the
instrument, from which fig. 45 is a reduced copy,
there are tuning-pegs for four strings, or for two only.
It is probable that the number of strings varied ;
three is believed to have been the
usual number. They were perhaps
tuned in the tonic, fifl^^i ^^^ octave,
like some modern Oriental instru-
ments of a similar kind.

The tamboura was played with a
plectrum, and appears to have been
sometimes, if not always, provided
with frets. In the British Museum is
a fragment of a fresco, obtained from a
tomb in the Western Hills of Thebes,
on which two female performers on
the tamboura are represented. The
painter has distinctly indicated the
frets. On one of the instruments
they are limited to the upper half
of the neck ; on the other they ex-
tend down the neck as far as to the
body of the instrument. There is
also in the British Museum a small
Egyptian vase in terra-cotta, from
Thebes, 8^ inches high, which re-
presents a female standing and play- p. ^^ •^mtoiua from
ing a tamboura, whereon the frets an Egyptian obelisk.
are distinctly marked over the whole neck, even
where it extends over the body. If this be a
faithful representation of the finger-board — and there
is no reason to doubt its fidehty — a great number of
strictly defined intervals must have been obtainable
upon each string. Dr. Birch, of the British Museum,

206 MUSIC OF THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS. Chap. V.

describes this finely-modelled and well-preserved vase
as made of a peculiar red ware, which " was probably
the oldest of all Egyptian pottery." Of the figure he
says, " Her eyebrows and the accessories of her dress
are touched up in black paint. This elegant speci-
men cannot be much later than the eighteenth or
nineteenth dynasty. The orifice consists of a short
cylindrical neck, and the interior contains a viscous
fluid."

I may remark here that among the ancient Egyp-
tian figures of pottery are several others with musical
instruments. These figures are small, seldom above
6 inches high. Of those which represent deities Dr.
Birch mentions "the lion-headed goddesses Pasht-
Merienptah, Bast, and Tafne, wearing the sun's disc,
a disc and plumes, a serpent, and seated upon a

throne, holding a sistrum A very common

type is a grotesque leonine pigmean deity, the sup-
posed Baal or Typhon, either standing or kneeling,
holding a sword, or playing on the tambourine. On
his head are feathers or plumes, and a lion's skin is
thrown across his back." ^

It has been mentioned in a previous chapter that
the Egyptian name of the tamboura was nofre, and
that its figure in the hieroglyphics signifies " good."
Further proof of this instrument having been held in
high estimation may be found in the fact of its figure
occurring as an ornament on vases and boxes. On
the upper part of the body of the tamboura appear to
have been usually four or more sounding-holes. Of
the two instruments before mentioned in the British

^ History of Ancient Pottery, by Samuel Birch, London, 1858, vol. i.
pp. 58, 86.

Chap. V.

THE TAMBOURA.

207

Museum, the painter has made one with four, and the
other with six holes, placed in a different order on
each. Sounding - holes would
have been of comparatively
little use had the upper part
of the body been of parch-
ment ; we may therefore sup-
pose it to have been of wood,
as on our guitar or violin.
Still, in some instances parch-
ment may have been employed.
The Egyptians evidently had a
variety of tambouras, as may
be gathered from the different
shapes of the body, the distri-
bution or the absence of sound-
ing-holes, and other peculiarities
observable in the representa-
tions of this instrument.

All the Egyptian instruments
which have hitherto been found
with the strings preserved had
them of catgut. If wire strings
were known to the Egyptians
they were probably used on
the tamboura, which at the pre-
sent day is mounted with wire strings by the Arabs
and other Eastern nations.

The Egyptians possessed also a tamboura with a
comparatively short neck, resembling our guitar, or
rather the Arabian oud. It appears to have been
less common than the tamboura before described.
The instrument shown in fig. 47 is, I believe, the
only one of the kind hitherto discovered. It was

Fig. 46. An Egyptian box.
(Berlin Museum.)

208 MUSIC OF THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS. Chap. V.

found at Thebes in a dilapidated condition, without
tuning-pegs, or indications of its ever having had
any. The upper part of the body was of parchment.

The Arabian oud has no frets.
Its fourteen strings are of
lamb's-gut. Two are always
tuned together in unison ;
consequently there are seven
different intervals produced
by the open strings.

I must not leave unnoticed
a painting of an instrument
from an ancient Eo;yptian

Fig. 47. Kind of guitar. , , • j1 t> ?• ii/r

tomb, now m the Berlin Mu-
seum, described by Drieberg as a guitar. From the
evident care with which it has been executed, it is be-
lieved to be a faithful representation in all its details.
According to the drawing in Drieberg's ' Worterbuch
der griechischen Musik,' it has seven frets. The per-
former was therefore enabled to produce eight different
intervals on each string. The frets are placed at equal
distances from each other, and the spaces between them
are painted in various colours. The discovery is, how-
ever, in my opinion, not so important as some musi-
cians are inclined to consider it. The instrument is,
in fact, no other than the common tamboura, except
that the neck is rather shorter than usual. Neither
is its accuracy beyond question. The eight intervals
could certainly not have been what has been sup-
posed— a diatonic series, either like the two disjunct
tetrachords of Pythagoras, or like our diatonic scale.
In order to produce such a series of intervals, the
distances for the semitones ought to be smaller than
those for the whole tones. Besides, the frets would

Chap. V. PECULIAR STRINGED INSTRUMENTS. 209

require to be nearer together at the lower part of the
neck than at the iipper part. Supposing the distance
of a whole tone, from the top of the neck to the first
fret, to have been 4 inches, the distances of the other
frets, in order to be in conformity with the diatonic
scale, would have been nearly as follows : —
1 — 2. Whole tone .... 4 inches.

2—3. Whole tone . .

. . 3i

3 — 4. Semitone . . .

. . H

4—5. Whole tone . .

. . 2f

5—6. Whole tone . .

. . 2J

6—7. Whole tone . .

. . 2i

7 — 8. Semitone . . .

. . 1

If, on the other hand, the frets were equidistant, as
they are represented, only the step from the open
string to the first fret would have constituted a whole
tone ; the step from the first fret to the second would
have exceeded a whole tone ; and each following step
would have produced a larger interval than the pre-
ceding one, so that the lowest would have embraced
several whole tones. It seems surprising that these
simple facts could have been overlooked by those
inquirers who place implicit reliance on the correct-
ness of the representation in question.

PECULIAE STKINGED INSTEUMENTS.

Some of the stringed instruments of the ancient
Egyptians differ too much from our own of the present
day to be classed with any of them. One of these,
when played upon, was borne upon the shoulder of
the performer. In shape this curious instrument is not
very unlike some of the small Egyptian harps with
which we have already become acquainted. Some
portions of such instruments may be seen in the

210

MUSIC OF THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS.

Chap, V.

Britisli Museum. The best preserved of these,
shown in the accompanying engraving (fig. 49), is
about 3 feet in length and 16 inches in height. It

i 5

Fig. 48.

Kind of harp.

Fig. 50.

Instrument with five strings.

is entirely of wood, except that
the body is covered with parch-
ment. The tuning-pegs show that,
^ like the preceding one, it must
^ have been mounted with four
^ strings. In the great French work,
' Description de I'Egypte,' there is
a drawing of one of these instrmnents, in which five
strings are given to it.

Chap. V, PECULIAR STRINGED INSTRUMENTS.

211

Another curious instrument of the ancient Egyp-
tians (fig. 50) resembles in construction the sancho,
a small stringed instrument of the negroes of Guinea.**
It likewise bears a resemblance to the valga, found in
Senegambia, Guinea, and other districts of Western
Africa — an instrument which is also known by other
names, as wambee, kissumba, &c. The only difference
in construction between the above Egyptian instrument
and the valga is that the neck of the latter consists of
several canes, generally five. These are stuck into
holes in the under part of the body of the instrument,
and can be pushed in or drawn out independently of
each other. As each string is affixed to the extreme
end of one of the canes, it can be tightened or slack-
ened by drawing
the cane further
out, or pushing it
deeper in ; in this
way it is tuned.
The strings are
apparently made
of the fibre of
a creeping plant.
Some travellers
describe them as
derived from the
fibrous root of a
tree.

Eemains of the Egyptian instrument under our
notice have been discovered in tombs, in the condi-

Fig. 51. Remains of Egyptian stringed instruments.

^ Hen- V. Heuglin has recently met
with the same instrument among the
negro tribes inhabiting districts west
of the Bahr-el-Abiad. See Dr. Peter-
raann's ' Mittheilungen iiber wichtige

neue Erforschungen auf dem Ge-
sammtgebiete der Geographie,' Gotha,
1863 ; where a drawing of the in-
strument is given.

p 2

212

MUSIC OF THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS. Chap. V.

tion shown in fig. 51. Two of these are in the
British Museum ; and the smallest one, with five, pegs,
is in the Berlin Museum.

The next instrument to be noticed is a kind of lyre,
about 6 ft. high, which stood on the ground, and,
like the harp, was played upon with both hands,
one on each side of the instrument. From its close
resemblance to some Greek lyres (see Forkel's ' Ges-
chichte der Musik,' vol. i. tab. ii. 21 ; Hawkins's
' History of Music,' vol. i. plate ii. 8 ; Burney's

Fig. 52. Kind of lyre.

Fiff. 53. Peculiar instrument.

' History of Music, vol. i. plate v. 8), and from the
number of the strings — eight being an unusual
number on the instruments of the ancient Egyptians
— as well as from its rare occurrence among the
Egyptian instruments, it appears to date from a later
period than the others, and to have been, perhaps,
introduced from Greece.

The instrument fig. 53 is too indistinct to reveal its
real nature. The performer might just as well be

Chap. V. THE PIPE. 213

taken for a man poking a burning faggot, as for a
musician j^roducing sweet sounds. Possibly the
instrument — for a musical instrument undoubtedly it
is, because it has been found rej^resented as a com-
panion to the lyre — may be a kind of dulcimer. Or,
even more likely, it may be a harmonicou, constructed
of a series of metallic bars, or of wooden slabs,
arranged according to a certain order of intervals.
Instruments of this description are at the present day
common in several countries of Asia and Africa.
Yarious kinds of them are found, especially in Java,
Siam, and Burmah. Also the halafo, a favourite
instrument of the negroes in Africa, belongs to the
same class. Indeed, the construction of the harmo-
nicon suggests itself so naturally wherever fondness
for music and some ingenuity are combined, that it is
scarcely likely the Egyptians should have been unac-
quainted with it, especially as they evidently were
more advanced in music than some of the nations
which possess this instrument.

Although they are all constructed on the same
principle, there is a wonderful variety in the appear-
ance, character of tone, and degree of completeness of
the harmonicons fomid in different parts of the world.
Those of the Egyptians may therefore have been in
many respects different from any in use at present.

THE PIPE.

Small pipes of the ancient Egyptians have repeat-
edly been discovered, made of reed, usually with four
finger-holes, but sometimes with three, five, or more.
Above a dozen of them may be seen in the Leyden
Museum. There are also examples in the British
Museum, one of which has seven holes burnt in at the

214 MUSIC OF THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS. Chap. V.

side. Two straws were found with it, of nearly the
same length as the pipe, which is about one foot long.
In some other pipes pieces of a kind of thick straw, or
similar material, have also been found inserted into
the tube, obviously serving for a similar purpose as
the so-called reed in our oboe or clarionet. The pipes

Fig. 54. Reed pipes in the British JMuseum.

in the British Museum are in too imperfect a condi-
tion to enable us to ascertain from actual sounds
whether the Egyptian pipes with four finger-holes
possessed the same pentatonic order of intervals that
we find in the pipes of the ancient Mexicans and
Peruvians.

THE FLUTE.

The common Egyptian flute was of considerable
length ; and the performer, who was either standing
or sitting on the ground, appears to
have been obliged to extend his arms
almost at full length in order to reach
the furthest finger-hole.

We are informed that the word
sehi has been found repeatedly in the
hieroglyphics with the representation
of the flute, a word which is the
Coptic name of this instrument. And,
Fig. 55. as it is also the name of the leg-bone,

Ancient Egyptian flute. -,.-, .-, x .• .'!•

like the Latin tibia, we may suppose
that the Egyptian flute, or schi, was originally made
of bone. Those, however, which have been found are
of wood or reed. Judging from the representations.

Chap. V.

THE FLUTE.

215

the flute and the single-pipe were played almost exclu-
sively by men. The double-pipe, however, we find
in the hands of females
also, as was the case
among the Assyrians.

The Egyptians evi-
dently had various kinds
of flutes, differing in
dimension and in the
number of finger-holes, •q^
Similar varieties exist
also among the flutes at
present in use in Egypt,
called nay. It must be c=~i»
remembered that most of =^ ^ >
the instruments of the *^-
modern Egyptians have
been derived from the
Arabs. Still, some kinds
of nay appear to be near-
ly identical with the long
flute anciently in use in
Egypt. The most com-
mon nay of the modern
Egyptians, known as the
" Dervish flute " — be-
cause it is played by the
Dervishes to accompany
the songs at their reli-
gious dances, called zikrs
— consists, according to Lane, of "a simple reed,
about eighteen inches in length, seven-eighths of
an inch in diameter at the upper extremity, and
three-quarters of an inch at the lower. It is pierced

216 MUSIC OF THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS. Chap. V.

with six holes in front, and generally with another

hole at the back The sounds are produced

by blowing through a very small aperture of the
lips against the edge of the orifice of the tube,
and directing the wind chiefly within the tube. By
blowing with more or less force, sounds are produced
an octave higher or lower. In the hands of a good
performer the nay yields fine mellow tones, but it
requires much practice to sound it well." ^"

THE DOUBLE-PIPE.

The double-pipe must have been a favourite instru-
ment with the ancient Egyptians, because it occurs
frequently in the representations of musical perform-
ances. Its name was mam.

On a fragment of an Egyptian fresco-painting in
the British Museum, representing an entertainment.

Fig. 57. PerfoiTnance on the double-pipe, with a rhythmical accomjjaniment.

one female is playing on the double-pipe, others are
clapping their hands in rhythmical accompaniment,
and are probably singing, while two are dancing to

1" An Account of the Manners and I by Edward William Lane, 5tli edi-
Customs of the Modern Egyptians, | tion, London, 1860, p. 362.

Chap. V. THE TRUMPET. 217

the music. The foregoing representation (fig. 57) is
of a similar nature.

The Greeks and Eomans, who were as famihar witli
the double-pipe as were the Egyptians, occasionally
inserted little pegs or tubes into some of the finger-
holes, apparently for the purpose of regulating the
order of intervals, or the mode in which they intended
to perform. A drawing of the instrument, with the
pegs, is given in Burney's ' History of Music,' vol. i.
plate 6. On the representations of the Egyptian
double-pipe such a contrivance is not indicated.

THE TRUMPET.

The Egyptian trumpet appears to have been usually
of brass, and of about the same length as the Assyrian.
The instrument of an unusual shape (fig. 59), appa-
rently a kind of trumpet, occurs,
as far as I am aware, only once in
the representations. If this in-
strument was made of brass, we
may suppose the person kneeling
before the performer, and hold-
ing his hand to his head, to be
shielding his ear from the blast.
In another group of figures, shown
in the same plate of Rosellini's ^\- ss. Common trumpet

1 . 1 • 1 , 1 • , , of the ancient Ecryptians.

work m which this trumpet occurs,
is a listener before a performer on the harp, repre-
sented in exactly the same posture and with the same
expression as the former. The sounds of the harp
must have been soft, and the listener is evidently
intended to express delight at the music.

This trumpet was therefore probably made of wood,

218

MUSIC OF THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS. Chap. V.

or even of some softer substance, producing soimds
less loud and harsh, than brass.

Fis. 59.

Peculiar trumpet of the ancient Egyjjtians.

THE DEUM.

Of the ancient Egyptian drum we are acquainted
with three different kinds. The first much resembles
a small hand-drum at present in use in several
Asiatic countries.

Fig. 60. The chum.

Fig. 61. Drum Ciirriod on the back.

Chap. V.

THE DRUM.

219

It was from two to three feet in length, covered with
parchment at both ends, and braced by cords. The
performer carried it before him, generally by means
of a band over his shoulder, while he was beating
with his hands on both ends.

The other kind of drum (fig. 62) does not appear in
any of the paintings and sculptures with which we are
acquainted, but there has
been found an actual speci-
men in the excavations made
in the year 1823 at Thebes.

It was Ih ft. high, and 2 ft.
broad. Like the small drum
before mentioned, it had cords
for bracing it. A piece of cat-
gut encircled each end of the
drum, being wound round each cord, by means of
which the cords could be tightened or slackened at plea-
sure, by pushing the two bands of catgut towards or
from each other. It was beaten with two drumsticks
slightly bent. The Egyptians had also straight drum-
sticks with a handle, and a knob at the end. The
Berlin Museum possesses some of these.

Fig. 62.
Egyptian drum found at Thebes.

Fisc. (33.

Drumstick in the Berlin Museum.

The third kind of drum is almost identical with the
darabukkeh of the modern Egyptians.

The modern Egyptians have two kinds of this drum.
One of these is the earthen darabukkeh, principally
employed by the boatmen of the Nile, as an accompa-
niment to the zummdrah, a double reed-pipe, as well as
by some inferior story-tellers and such like persons. It

220

MUSIC OF THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS. Chap. V.

Fig. 64. Three tambourines and a darabukkeh drun of the aucieat Egyptians.

is from 1^ ft. to 2 ft. in length. The other is described
by Lane as being made of wood, inlaid with mother-of-
pearl and tortoise-shell, " covered with a piece of fish's

Fig, 65.

The darabukkeh of the modern ligyptians.

skin at the larger extremity, and open at the smaller,"
and about 15 in. in length. This drmn is especially
used in the hareems, and appears to be the most like
that which we see in the hands of the female, the first
in the above procession (fig. G4), who probably accom-
panies her song with its rhythmical sound.

Chap. V.

THE TAMBOURINE,

221

THE TAMBOUEINE.

The Egyptian tambourine was either round, Hke
that which is at the present time in use in Europe as
well as in the
East, and which,
as we have seen,
was also known
to the Assyrians ;
or it was of an
oblong square
shape, slightly in-
curved on the
four sides, and
entirely different
from our own
tambourine. Two
instruments of
this description,
and one of the
common kind, are
represented in the
engraving fig. 64.
Sometimes the
square tambou-
rine had a bar
across the mid-
dle, which divided
the parchment
into two equal
parts, so that it
was, in fact, a double tambourine. Women appear to
have played the tambourine more usually than men.

222

MUSIC OF THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS. Chap. V.

Doff, or deff] is the name given by the Arabs to a
square tambourine still in use, especially in the Bar-
bary States. A parchment of sheepskin is stretched
on a square frame, and four catgut cords are strung
over the inside to increase the vibration. This deff
may have been the toph of the Hebrews, as well as the
square tambourine of the ancient Egyptians.

TWO PECULIAK INSTRUMENTS OF PERCUSSION.

The instrument held with the left hand by a man,
accompanying the performance of two harpers, is

Fi^. 67.

An iustrumeut ot pei'cussion and two harps.

Fig. G8. Instrument of niptal.

most likely a kind of gong,
which was beaten with a
piece of ivory or wood. In
the above engraving is also
shown the manner in which
the strings of the harps were
wound round the tuning-
pegs.

Chap. V.

THE SISTRUM.

223

The instrument fig. 68 was most likely constructed
of metal, to emit, wLen beaten or shaken, a sound like
a gong or bell ; and, perhaps, some loose pieces of
metal were attached to it, to produce a jingling noise
like that of the sistrum.

THE SISTRUM.

The sistrum consisted of a frame of bronze or brass,
into which three or four metal bars were loosely
inserted, so as to produce a jingling noise when the
instrument was shaken. The bars were often made
in the form of snakes, or they ter-
minated in the head of a goose, as
is the case with some sistra in the
British Museum. Not unfrequently
a few metal rings were strung on
the bars, to increase the noise ; and
the top of the frame was sometimes
ornamented with the figure of a ^
cat. The smallest sistra which have
been found are about 9 inches in
length, and the largest about 18 Fig. 69. Two sistra.
inches.

The sistrum was principally used by females in
religious performances ; and it is remarkable that
even at the present time we find it made use of in a
similar way by the priests of a Christian sect in
Abyssinia, where it is called scmasel. Its sound is
supposed by the priests to drive away the evil spirits,
and it was especially employed by the ancient Egyp-
tians for the same purpose. Its Egyptian name was
seshesh. The designation for instruments of percus-
sion in general appears to have been kemkem, which

224 MUSIC OF THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS. Chap. V.

Fig. 70.

Sistra in the Berlin Museum.

Fio-. 71. Sistra without the bars.
'^' In'the Britisli Museum.

FiiT. 72. Model of a sistrum.
Berlin Museum.

Chap. V.

THE CROTALA.

225

is the Coptic name of the tambourine. Villoteaii, on

the authority of Jablonski, beHeves cencen to have

been the common name

of tlie sistrum ; and he

suggests that its present

Ethiopian name, sanasel

(tzenacel, or cenacel), and

also the Hebrew tzeltzelim,

may have been derived

from the same word.

CEOTALA.

lan

Another curious Egypt-
instrument, serving
merely for the production
of rhythmical effects, like
the crotala of the Greeks,
or our castanets, consisted
of two balls or knobs, some-
times made to represent
human heads, probably of
metal, and hollow, to which
were affixed handles, either
straight or slightly curved.
One of these was held by
the performer in each hand,
and the heads were struck together, to mark the time
in instrumental performances or in dances.

In the engraving fig. 74 a double handle is sm^-
mounted by a double head, which may have contained
some loose pieces of metal to increase the effect.

Crotala, clappers, or castanets, were made use of by
most ancient nations in religious performances, and are

Fig. 73.
Abyssinian priest with sanasel.

226

MUSTC OF THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS. Chap. V.

still thus used, even in the Christian Church. The
Roman Catholics in Santo Domingo repair on Easter
Eve to the cathedral, provided with the pata, a wooden

Fis. V4-.

Men dancing to the rhythmical sound of crotala.

clapper. During the service, at the moment when the
darkness of the place is dispelled by the sudden admis-
sion of many lights, the people hail the commence-
ment of Easter by clattering with their clappers, and
dancing and jumping about in the church. Similar
customs prevail in other Roman Catholic countries.
In Spain these instruments were made usually of
chesnut (castaiia) ; hence the name Castanet.

CYMBALS.

The Egyptian cymbals closely resembled our own
in shape. There are two pairs of them in the British
Museum. One pair is, according to the Museum
Catalogue, 5|- in. in diameter, and the cymbals are
united by a band of linen.

Chap. V.

CYMBALS — BELLS.

227

The other pair was found in a coffin enclosing the
mummy of Ankhhape, a sacred musician, and is
deposited in the same case with the mummy and

Fig. 75.

Egyptian cymbals in the British Museum.

coffin. In the Catalogue these cymbals are described
as being of bronze ; but it is probable that brass also,
and even an admixture of silver, was sometimes used
in the fabrication of such instruments.

BELLS.

Among the Egyptian antiquities in the British
Museum are also some small bells of bronze, of which
four are represented in the woodcut fig. 76. The
largest is 2i in. in height, and the smallest three-
quarters of an inch.

The face with the protruding tongue on the largest
represents Typhon, the evil spirit of the ancient
Egyptians. All the bells appear to have had clap-
pers, and some of them have a small hole at the side
near the top wherein the clapper was fastened, as is
actually the case with the lowest of the two small
ones shown in the engraving, in which the clapper

Q 2

228

MUSIC OF THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS.

Chap. V.

still exists. This bell is remarkably well preserved,
and its tinkling can scarcely have been more clear
some thousand years ago than it is at present.

Fig. 76.

Small bells of the ancient Egyptians.

Besides these bells there is another in the same
collection, in a more corroded condition, on which
also the head of Typhon is exhibited. It therefore
appears probable that the bells were employed in
religions observances for a somewhat similar purpose
as the sistrum.

VOCAL AND INSTEUMENTAL PEEFOEMANCES.

The information on the music of the Egyptians
obtainable from the works of ancient writers is, in-
deed, but scanty ; nevertheless, in connection with
the representations depicted on the monuments, it is
not without importance. Herodotus, Plato, Diodorus
Siculus, and Strabo, each visited Egypt, and most
probably ascertained personally what they record.
Their accounts are on some points at variance; this
may, however, be accounted for by the circumstance

Chap. V. VOCAL AND INSTRUMENTAL PERFORMANCES. 229

of nearly five binidred years intervening between the
time when Herodotus visited Egypt and Strabo's
travelhns: there; or from one historian alludino-
especially to sacred, and another to secular music, or
to music in general.

Herodotus (born 484 B.C.) relates that among the
several festivals celebrated by the Egjrptians during
the year, in different towns, in honour of their gods,
one of the most important was the festival held in
the city of Bubastis for the worship of Diana. On
this occasion "men and women embark together in
great numbers. During the voyage some of the
women beat upon small drums, while some of
the men play on the flute. The rest of the people,
of both sexes, sing, clapping their hands together at
the same time."

Further Herodotus relates : " Among other me-
morable customs the Egyptians sing the song of
Linus, like that which is sung in PhcBnicia, Cyprus,
and other countries, where, however, it bears a
different name. But the person they praise in this
song is evidently the same whom the Glreeks cele-
brate under the name of Linus. Among the many
wonderful things I have met with in Egypt this one
astonishes me especially, whence they can have
obtained the song of Linus; for they seem to have
celebrated him thus from time immemorial. The
Egyptians call him Maneros, and they say that he
was the only son of the first king of Egypt. Happen-
ing to die in the prime of life, he is lamented by the
people in this dirge, which is the only song of
the kind they possess in Egypt."

In explaining the character of the Egyptian god
Osiris, who was put to death by Typhon, but returned

230 MUSIC OF THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS. Chap. V.

to life again, though not upon earth, Mr. Sharpe
observes : " The death of Osiris was piously lamented
by Isis and her sister Nephthys ; and once a year the
Egyptians joined their priests in a melancholy pro-
cession through the streets, singing a doleful ditty
called the ' Maneros,' or ' Song of Love,' which was
to console the goddess for the death of her husband.
.... This story the Greeks copied, and have given
us in the form of the loves and lamentations of
Yenus, a goddess, for Adonis, who was a mortal.
The boar which killed Adonis is no other than the
hippopotamus Typhon."^

However this may be, there is at least no doubt that
the song of Linus was introduced on joyful occasions
also. Homer mentions its being sung at a vintage : —

To this one pathway gently winding leads,
Where march a train with baskets on their heads
(Fair maids and blooming youths), that smiling bear
The purple product of the autumnal year.
To these a youth awakes the warbling strings,
Whose tender lay the fate of Linus sings ;
In measured dance behind him move the train,
Tune soft the voice, and answer to the strain.

(Pope's ' Iliad,' xviii. 650.)

A similar air appears at the present day to be
sung on festive occasions in the north of Persia.
Mr. Alexander Chodzko states that in Ghilan it is
the custom on New Year's Day for boys to sing
felicitations before the doors of the people. " It is
remarkable that amongst these joyous songs there
is a sad one on the death of some foreigner. Its
doleful, lengthened tune draws forth a reluctant tear
even from the eyes of an indifferent hearer ; and the

^ Egyptian Mythology and Egyptian Christianity, by Samuel Sharpe,
London, 1863, p. 10.

Chap. V. VOCAL AND INSTRUMENTAL PERFORMANCES. 231

impression is the more touching as all around is joy-
ful. On hearing it, one is put in mind of the coffin
which the ancient Egyptians carried around the tables
at their gayest banquets. Their song ' Maneros '
must have been something like the one here alluded
to." ^

In one or two European countries also we meet
with similar performances. The vocero of the country-
people in Corsica, for instance, is a dirge lamenting
the death of a beloved brother or friend. Grego-
rovius relates that during his stay at Calvi he was
one night awakened by hearing a vocero sung in the
street by some young men, which was intended as
a serenade for a young girl, an inmate of the house
in which he resided. He says : " Singular that a
young girl should be serenaded with dirges ; and
the proper serenade itself, with which they com-
menced, was as mournful as a vocero. It is impos-
sible to tell how overpoweringly touching is the
solemn melancholy of this music in the stillness of
the night — the tones are so wailing, so monotonous,
and long drawn out. The first voice sang solo, then
the second joined, and the third, and at last the
whole band. They sang in recitativo, as they sing
in Italy the ritornello. In the ritornello, too, senti-
ments not meant to be melancholy are sung in an
almost plaintive strain ; but when this in itself
melancholy kind of music is applied to the vocero,
the whole soul is thrilled with sadness. ... I shall
never forget the dirges of that night in Calvi." ^

" Specimens of the Popular Poetry
of Persia, by Alexander Chodzko,
Esq., Loudon, 1842, p. 467.

^ Wanderings in Corsica, translated

from the German of F. Gregorovius,
by A. Muir, Edinburgh, 1855, vol.
ii. p. 31.

232 MUSIC OF THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS. Chap. V.

Considering tliat Corsica, as well as Sardinia, was,
at an early period, colonized by the Phoenicians, it
is not improbable that the vocero may originally
have been the Maneros which, according to Hero-
dotus, was popular among the Phoenicians also.
Superstitions and usages, apparently of Phoenician
origin, are said to be still existent in Corsica and
Sardinia. A detailed account of those of the Sardes
is given by Bresciani in his work entitled ' Dei Cos-
tumi deir Isola di Sardegna, comparate cogli anti-
chissimi Populi Orientali,' published at Naples in
1850. The national musical instrument of the
Sardes, the lionedda, is a kind of double pipe, which
bears a greater resemblance to the instruments of
this class which were in use among the ancient
Eastern nations than to any instrument at present
found in other European countries. But, even
independently of these facts, the observation of
Herodotus respecting the far-spread popularity of
the song of Linus is very suggestive, and deserves the
especial consideration of musical historians.

On another occasion he mentions that at the fes-
tival of Osiris, the Bacchus of the Egyptians, they
had processions, the women singing and carrying the
images, preceded by a player on the flute. ^ And in
describing the customs of the Lacedaemonians, he
observes : " In this respect they resemble the Egyp-
tians : their heralds, musicians, and cooks succeed to
the professions of their fathers ; thus a musician is
the son of a musician, a cook of a cook, and a herald
of a herald. Neither may others on account of the
fine quality of their voice apply themselves to the

^ lltTudoliis, Euterpe.

Chap. V. VOCAL AND INSTKUMENTAL PERFORMANCES. 233

profession of music, but each adheres to the profession
of his father." ^

The division of the people into castes must have
greatly impeded the development of music as an art.
There is nothing, except a physical disqualification,
to prevent the children of a cook or of a smith be-
coming as expert in their vocation as their father.
But in an art like music, where talent and genius
are required, it is very different. These gifts, like
mental powers, are rarely transmitted from father to
son. It is true we meet with a few instances in the
history of our music where a family has produced
talented musicians through several generations. This
was the case with the Bach family, and also with the
Mozarts. Leopold Mozart, the father of the great
Mozart, was a distinguished musician ; and Wolfgang
Amadeus, the youngest son of the great Mozart, has
written compositions which might have made him
celebrated if his name had not been Mozart. But
these instances are quite exceptional : on the other
hand, many could be cited where the children of dis-
tinguished composers and performers have proved
entirely devoid of any talent, and even capacity for
music. If, as Herodotus says, the possession of a
fine voice did not entitle a person not belonging to
the caste of musicians to dedicate himself to the art,
good professional singers must indeed have been
scarce in Egypt, since they are by no means nume-
rous even in countries where such restriction does not
exist.

Plato lived about 400 years B.C. As he is said to
have sojourned in Egypt thirteen years, and as he

Herudolus, Erato.

234 MUSIC OF THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS. Chap. V.

appears to have studied music scientifically, his infor-
mation must be considered especially accurate and
valuable. In the second book of the ' Laws,' written
in the form of a dialogue, he remarks on the subject
as follows : —

" Athenian Guest. — The plan which we have been
laying down for the education of youth was known
long ago to the Egyptians, that nothing but beautiful
forms and fine music should be permitted to enter
into the assemblies of young people. Having settled
what those forms and what that music should be,
they exhibited them in their temples ; nor was it
allowable for painters or other imitative artists to
innovate or invent any forms different from what
were established ; nor is it now lawful, either in
painting, statuary, or any of the branches of music,
to make any alteration. Upon examining, therefore,
you will find that the pictures and statues made ten
thousand years ago are in no one particular better
or worse than what they make at the present day.

" Clinias. — You say what is wonderful.

^\Athen. — Yes, it is in the true spirit of legislation
and policy. Other things practised among that
people may perhaps be blameable, but what they
ordained about music is right ; and it deserves con-
sideration that they were able to make laws about
things of this kind, firmly establishing such melody
as was fitted to rectify the perverseness of Nature.
This must have been the work of the Deity, or of
some divine man ; as, in fact, they say in Egypt
that the music which has been so long preserved was
composed by Isis, and the poetry likewise."

From these observations it is evident not only that
the Egyptians considered some kind of music capable

CuAP. V. VOCAL AND INSTRUMENTAL PERFORMANCES. 235

of corrupting the morals of the people, but also that
iu Plato's time the character of the Egyptian music
was different from that of the Greek, and that Plato
admired it greatly.

Diodorus, who visited Egypt about 60 years B.C.,
mentions the invention of the lyre, by Hermes, and
that the god adopted three strings for this instrument
in allusion to the three seasons of the year. The
highest of the three different sounds produced by the
strings represented Summer ; the lowest. Winter ;
and the intermediate one. Spring. He also tells us
of the universal mournings of the Egyptians on the
death of a king. On such an occasion the temples
were closed, and all feasts and solemnities forbidden,
for the period of seventy-two days. Men and women,
sometimes several hundred together, walked about,
twice a day, throwing dust upon their heads, and
singing mournful songs in praise of the deceased
monarch. Diodorus observes also that it was not
customary for the Egyptians to practise music, be-
cause they considered it effeminate and undesirable —
a statement which probably refers only to a certain
class of secular music, since we have in the repre-
sentations ample evidence of the estimation in which
this art was universally held by them. Strabo, who
wrote his Geography about the time of Christ, states
that vocal and instrmnental performances were
usually admitted in the worship of the gods, espe-
cially at the commencement of the ceremonies, except
in the temple of Osiris, where neither singers nor
players on the flute or on the lyre were permitted to
perform.^

^ Strabo, book xvii,, Egypt.

236 MUSIC OF THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS. Chap. V.

I fear, however, I should tire the reader were I
to notice all the passages bearing upon the subject
found in subsequent writers, as Dion Cassius, Clemens
Alexandrinus, who wrote about a.d. 200, and others.
I shall therefore substitute a short extract from Dr.
Birch's ' Introduction to the Study of the Egyptian
Hieroglyphs,' which contains some interesting in-
formation relating to music condensed from those
writers : —

" The existence of a considerable number of works
in the native language was not unknown to the
Greeks, with whom they passed under the name of
those of Hermes» Hence Clement mentions two
books of Hermes on music — one containing a series
of hymns to the gods, the other the institutes of the
life of the king ; four others upon astronomy — one
containing a list of the fixed stars, a second on the
phenomena of the sun and moon ; the two others
were on the rising of the stars. Another contained a
cosmography and geography, the course of the sun,
moon, and the five planets, the chorography of Egypt
and scheme of the Nile, an account of the supplies
of the temples and the lands apportioned to them,
touching on measures and the requisites of sacred
things. Another of the works referred to the sealing
of victims and the instruction of youth ; ten others to
the honours to be rendered to the gods and other
actions of Egyptian piety, as sacrifices, first-fruits,
vows, ceremonies, feasts, and similar things. Ten
more books embraced the laws of the country and of
the gods, and the instruction of the priests. Alto-
gether there were forty-two of these works — thirty-
six embracing the philosophical notions of the
Egyptians, and the other six medicine The

Chap. V. VOCAL AND INSTRUMENTAL PERI^ORMANCES. 237

false Hermetic books mention the secret hymns and
the hymns taught by Isis to Horns. Plato, better
informed, speaks of the hymns of Isis, which were
apparently in the form of colloquies. Certain books,
which passed imder the name of those of Horns and
Isis, are spoken of by Lncian. There were also
ancient lyrical poems, containing the praises of the
gods and ancient heroes, and sung at ceremonies and
entertainments, and deaths, when threnes, or funeral
dirges, composed in rhythm, were chanted for the
deceased. Among the encomiastic odes is mentioned
one in honour of Sesostris, which differed from the
historical accounts. Hymns were also addressed to
the rising and the setting sun, and to Ammon,
to obtain his oracular responses in the Oasis. Of
these the most important were the Tlirene, i. e. the
dirge or lament for Maneros; another addressed to
Saturn ; and a chant called the Genethlia, or Birth of
Horus." '

Taking all these facts into consideration, there can
scarcely be a doubt that the Egyptians, like the
Greeks, possessed written dissertations on the theory
of music. But it may well be doubted whether from
any such work, had it been preserved, we could have
obtained so accm'ate an insight into the character of
the Egyptian music as the various representations
of the performances afford. Not only the form and
construction of the instruments have thus become
more familiar to us than they would have been from
mere description, but we are also enabled to ascertain
how the instruments were usually combined so as to

'' Introduction to the Study of the Egyptian Hieroglyphs, by Samuel
Birch, London, 1857, p. 185.

238

MUSIC OF THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS.

Chap. V.

form small bands or
orchestras. With some
of these we have al-
ready become ac-
quainted through the
previous engravings.
One of them, for in-
stance, exhibits a con-
cert of performers on
the harp, tamboura,
lyre, double pipe, and
tambourine. Another
shows us a group of
females with different
kinds of instruments of
I percussion, evidently
S accompanying their
S vocal performances by
I the rhytlunical sounds
of tambourines and of
the darabukkeh — like
Miriam the prophet-
ess, when she and the
women of Israel went
out in* procession, ex-
ulting over the de-
struction of Pharaoh's
host.

It may perhaps in-
terest the reader to
know that the hiero-
glyphics in the en-
graving fig. 77 desig-
t^ nate the names of the

Chap. V. VOCAL AND INSTRUMENTAL PERFORMANCES. 239

Fig. 78.

Harp, tamboura, and double-pipe.

instruments — those over the harpers being the word
huni, " harp," and those before the players on the
flute being sehi, " flute."

The combination of two stringed instruments, the
harp and tamboura, with the double pipe (fig. 78), is

Fig. 79. Harp, two tambouras, and rhythmical accompaniment with the hands.

240 MUSIC OF THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS. Chap. V.

suitable for compositions of a sentimental character,
in which the pipe probably sustained the melody,

while the stringed
instruments ac-
companied, with
a primitive kind
of harmony, such
as has been de-
scribed in the
chapter on Assy-
rian musical per-
formances.

If any further
proofs were re-
quired to confute
the opinion usu-
ally expressed by
musical historians
i that the perform-
ances of the
Egyptians were
always in unison,
these small bands
might afford

them. In one of
them a harp with
ten strings, and
a tamboura on
which at least
three times as
many intervals
must have been
producible, occur in union with a lyre of only five
strings. Other representations show combinations

Chap. V. VOCAL AND INSTRUMENTAL PERFORMANCES, 241

similarly suggestive that the performance of a melody
in imison, as well as in what is called unison in octaves^
was almost impossible.

The employment of two tamboui-as, either alone or
in concert with the harp, appears to have been not
imusual. In the present group (fig. 80) a double
pipe is added, and the effect must have been fine, if it
bore any resemblance to that which we are able to
produce by blending the sounds of a harp, two guitars,
and a flute.

Fis. 81.

Vocal anil instrumental music combined.

The instrumental accompaniment to the singing of
men and women (fig. 81), consisting of a lyre — in
shape similar to those before mentioned which are in
the Berlin and Leyden Museums, but mounted with
an unusually large number of strings — and of a harp
and double pipe, is certainly peculiar. In this respect
it is, however, far surpassed by a concert of eight
musicians shown in the splendid Prussian work on
Egyptian Antiquities, edited by Lepsius. These mu-
sicians are all playing on flutes. Three of them, one
behind the other, are kneeling and holding their flutes
in exactly the same manner. Facing these are three
others, in a precisely similar position. A seventh is
sitting on the ground to the left of the six, with his

242

MUSIC OF THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS. Chap. V.

back turned towards tliem, but also in the act of blow-
ing his flute, like the others. An eighth is standing
at the right side of the group, with his face turned
towards them, holding his flute before him with both

hands, as if he were
going to put it to
his mouth, or had
just left off playing.
He is clothed, while
the others have only
a narrow girdle
round their loins.
Perhaps he is the
director of this sin-
r. gular band, or the
f solo performer, who
I is waitins: for the
i termination of the
\ tutti before renew-
ing his part of the
performance. And
does not the divi-
sion of the players
into two sets, facing
each other, suggest
the possibility that
the instruments
; were classed some-
'? what like the first
and second violins,
or the flautoprimo ^nd/lauto secondo, of our orchestras ?
The occasional employment of a third or fifth, as accom-
paniment to the melody, is not unusual, even with na-
tions less advanced in music than were the Egyptians.

Chap. V. VOCAL AND INSTRUMENTAL PERFORMANCES. 243

This representation of a flute-concert is from one
of the tombs in the Pyramids of Gizeh, and dates,
according to Lepsius, from the Fifth Dynasty. It
must, therefore, be earher than 2000 B.C.

In the same plate of the above work where this
concert occurs,^ we also meet with the figure of the
tamboura as one of the hieroglyphic signs of that
remote period.

There are in the history of music few facts so
remarkable and suggestive as the existence of an
instrument of the guitar kind 4000 years ago, evi-
dencing a stage of musical progress in Egypt which
some nations of the present time have not yet
attained.

In order to enable the reader to form his own
opinion concerning the euphony, and the suitable-
ness for vocal music,
of the Egyptian Ian- 0
guage, I shall insert ^^
here, in the original as
well as in translation,
the song of the thrash-
ers to the oxen treading r ■> o
out the corn. This soup:, *© ^^^^ ^"^ A^ i
one 01 the oldest metrical // • • ' 1 i 1 *-
poems of the Egyptians >v^/vw^^ ^.
which has been found,
was written in hiero-
glyphics over a repre-
sentation of oxen so • « « i"^- ~ 1 1 1

employed. Fig. 83. Song of the thrashers.

rr^ ^ A/?

III I I I LV A

/VVWWV I I I

I I 1

A/«A<V\A/W

* Denkmaeler aus ^gypten und iEthiopien heraiisgegeben, von C. R.
Lepsius, Zweite Abth., Blatt 74.

R 2

244 MUSIC OF THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS. Chap. V.

Hi ten en ten Thrasli ye for yourselves,

Hi ten en ten auii Thrash ye I'or yourselves, 0 oxen,

Hi ten en ten Thrash ye for yourselves,

Teha er amu The straw which is yours,

Khau en nehii ten. The corn which is your master's.

Dr. Birch, whose translation is here given, remarks :
" Yerses of four and six syllables are used. There are
other parts of this song thus sung by the men engaged
in the operations, but the lines are not so distinctly
marked." ^

We have previously had under our notice a group
of Assyrians engaged in cutting down palm-trees,
stimulated by the music of singers and drummers.
Others we have found carrying on their work to the
sound of the trumpet. An Egyptian painting from a
grotto at El Bersheh exhibits a scene very similar to
the removal of the Assyrian sculjDtured bull. It is,
however, considerably older, and is believed to be of
the time of King Osirtasen II., who reigned about the
year 1600 before the Christian era. A colossal statue,
resting on a sledge, is being transported from the
quarries by a great number of labourers. Sir Gr.
Wilkinson observes : " On the knee of the figure
stands a man who claps his hands to the measured
cadence of a song, to mark the time and ensure their
simultaneous draught ; for it is evident that, in order
that the whole power might be applied at the same
instant, a sign of this kind was necessary ; and the
custom of singing at their work was common to every
occupation among the Egyptians, as it is now in that
country, in India, and many other places. Nor is it
found a disadvantage among the modern sailors of

" Introduction to the Study of the Egyptian Hieroglyphs, by Samuel
Birch, p. 266.

CriAP. V. VOCAL AND INSTRUMENTAL PERFORMANCES. 245

Europe when engaged in pulling a rope, or in any-
labour which requires a simultaneous effort," '

Representations such as the above suggest the
origin of some of the ancient myths which attribute to
music the power of moving stones. Amphion, who
is said to have built the walls of Thebes by the sound
of his lyre, might be represented similarly to the
Assyrian king superintending the removal of the
colossus. The traveller Clarke has given a rational ex-
planation of the wonderful power ascribed to Amphion,
which I shall here quote, inserting one or two words
in brackets for the sake of musical accuracy : —

" In the harmonious adjust of those masses which
remain belonging to the ancient walls, we saw
enough to convince us that the story of Amphion was
not a fable ; for it was a very ancient custom to carry
on immense labour by an accompaniment of [instru-
mental] music and singing. The custom indeed still
exists both in Egypt and in Greece. It might there-
fore be said, that the walls of Thebes were built at the
sound of the only [the principal] musical instrument
in use, because, according to the custom of the country,
the lyre was necessary for the accomplishment of the
work." ^

Moreover, the Greeks had, as is well known, special
songs suited to their different trades and rural occupa-
tions. Homer describes Calypso weaving and singing :

She sate and sung ; the rocks resound her lays :
The cave was brighten'd with a rising blaze :
Cedar and frankincense, an odorous pile,
Flamed on the hearth, and wide perfumed the isle ;
While she with work and song the time divides,
And through the loom the golden shuttle guides.

(Pope's ' Odyssey,' v. 70.)

^ The Manners and Customs of the I - Clarke's Travels, part ii. sect. 3,
Ancient Egyptians, vol. iii. p. 326. | p. 06.

246

MUSIC OF THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS. Chap. V.

Again, when the companions of Ulysses approached
the palace of Circe : —

Now on the threshold of the dome they stood,
And heard a voice resounding through the wood :
Placed at her loom within, the goddess sung ;
The vaulted roofs and solid pavement rung.
O'er the fair web the rising figures shine.
Immortal laboui* ! worthy hands divine.

(Pope's ' Odyssey,' x. 250.)

Moreover, the different kinds of songs used by the
ancient Egyptians at their various occupations may
be supposed to have been more markedly distinguished
from each other than those of most other nations of
antiquity ; since the division of the Egyptians into
castes must have restricted the use of certain kinds of
songs almost exclusively to certain classes of the
people ; and this must have had the effect of insuring
to each kind its own distinctive characteristics.

Fis. 84.

Sacred music.

The band of musicians (fig. 84), consisting of a
harper, a player on the tamboura, and two flutists,
is evidently performing sacred music, while a
priest is offering incense. Almost all the various

Chap. V. VOCAL AND INSTRUMENTAL PERFORMANCES. 247

^Bwj^oTi-iirrz-

instruments with wliicli we have become acquainted
appear to have been employed in sacred as well as in
secular music. Among stringed instruments, the harp
seems to have been
considered pre-emi-
nently suitable for
music used in re-
ligious ceremonies.
The Egyptians had
" minstrels of the
gods," or sacred mu-
sicians, whose func-
tions were connect-
ed with the religious
observances in the
temples.

The sistrum,
which was usually
employed in reli-
gious worship, ap-
pears to have been
appropriated to
priestesses
"holy women," who
were sometimes of
the highest rank.
The two females
with the high head-
dresses in the en-
graving fig. 85 are,
according to Sir
Grardner Wilkinson, the Queens of Ramesis the Great ;
the others are the mother, daughter, and sister of a
priest.

and ^^

248

MUSIC OF THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS.

Chap. V.

As a specimen of religions poetry, which nndoiibt-
etlly was sung or chanted by the Egyptians, the first
stanza of a hymn to the Nile (taken from a papyrus
in the British Museum) may serve : —

Sha en Hapi.
Nether ek Hapi
Shem em ta an'
Or sankhu kam
Amen sam kek em hru

Hes nn seni

An shau ammeli

Kam am Ra

Er sankh hu abu neb

S'hur set bu tern

Nau pe liaa

Mer en tufa kherp nefra

S'hut tel)a en Phah !

A Hymn to the Nile,
Incline thy face, O Nile,
Coming safe out of the land,
Vivifying Egypt,
Hiding his dark sources from the

ligh\
Ordering his sonrces ;
The streams of his bed
Are made by the sun
To give life to all animals,
To water the lands which are destitute,
Coming all along the heaven,
Loving fragrance, offering grain,
liendering verdant every sacred place

of Phtha ! 3

Fig. 86.

Military band.

In martial music principally instruments of percus-
sion, as indeed might be expected, appear to have
been employed by the Egyptians. The military band
(fig. 86) consists of only five musicians, viz. a
trumpeter, a drummer, a performer on an instrument

■'' Birch, Introduction
p. 268.

to the Study of the Egyptian Hieroglyphs,

Chap. V. VOCAL AND INSTRUMENTAL PERFORMANCES. 249

which is so much obhterated that its real character
cannot be determined, but which, to judge from
its form and size, must have been of importance in a

mihtary band, — and two persons who are clash-
ing together each a pair of cylindrical maces or
crotala.

250 MUSIC OF THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS. Chap. V.

The representation of a musical party in a gentle-
man's house, taken from a fresco now in the British
Museum, will be found especially interesting, if com-
pared with our own entertainments of a similar kind.
Mr. Sharpe has described it thus : " A number of
guests, men and women, are seated on chairs, while
women-servants are handing wine to them, and female
musicians, sitting on the ground, play to them, and
women dance before them. Many of the guests hold
a lotus-flower, and one man a handkerchief, as a mark
of refinement. The servants and dancers are un-
clothed, with the exception of a slight band." *

The Egyptians evidently were fond of dancing.
Their dances were not always restricted to slow and
graceful attitudes, which, as we have seen, generally
characterize the dances of Eastern nations ; but lively
figures, rapid evolutions, and even the pirouette (see
fig. 88), were sometimes introduced. From the repre-
sentations it is evident that various dances were in
use, difi'ering considerably in character, according to
the class of persons by whom they were performed,
and the occasions on which they were admitted.
Sometimes both sexes joined in the dance ; sometimes,
especially in spirited and vehement dances, only men
engaged, bouncing about in wonderful order, v^dthout
the assistance of music, or perhaps to the rhythmical
sounds produced by clapping the hands and snapping
the fingers. Again, on some occasions, only women,
lightly clad, danced to the sounds of soft instruments
before a party of admiring spectators.

The jesters or buffoons (fig. 90) are of interest

'' Egyptian Antiquities in the British Museum, described by Samuel
Sharpe, London, 1862, p. 49.

?(«^

252 MUSIC OF THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS. Chap. V.

Fig. 89. A mau dancing jilone to the rhythmical sounds of clapping the hands.

chiefly in so far as they remind us of the Assyrian
mummers described at page 98. They may be natives
of some district in the interior of Africa ; but it is
quite as likely they are jesters of the lowest caste, who
blackened themselves, like the so-called Ethiopian
Serenaders of our day, and wandered from place to
place to exhibit their antics and low jokes, inter-
spersed with comic songs.

Fig. 90.

.Ti'ster?

Chap. V. ASSYRIAN AND EGYPTIAN INSTRUMENTS. 253

In short, through the monumental representations
we are now in possession of irrefragable evidences in
proof that the ancient Egyptians, highly susceptible
of music, employed it to increase the solemnity of
their religious worship, to enhance the pleasures of
their social entertainments, to inspire and encourage
their warriors, to heighten the rhythmical and panto-
mimic effects of their dances, and to delight the people
in their public festivities, celebrations, and processions.

THE EGYPTIAN MUSICAL INSTEUMENTS COMPARED
WITH THE ASSYRIAN.

I now subjoin, for the sake of comparison, a brief
enumeration of the Egyptian and Assyrian instru-
ments with which we are more or less acquainted.

Ancient Egyptian Instruments.

1. The harp, varying iu shape and construction.

2. The trigonon.

3. The lyre ; various kinds.

4. The tamboura. A kind of lute or guitar.

5. A four-stringed instrument, borne on the shoulder

when played upon.

6. A five-stringed instrument, resembling the sanclio

and valga of the negroes.

7. The single pipe.

8. The double pipe.

9. The flute.

10. The trumpet; two kmds.

11. The tambourine ; three kinds.

12. The drum ; three kinds.

13. Two peculiar instruments of percussion.

14. The sistrum.

15. A kind of crotalum.

16. Cymbals.

17. Bells.

254 MUSIC OF THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS. Chap. V.

Assyrian Instruments.

1. The harp, varying more in ornamentation than in

construction.

2. The lyre ; three different forms.

3. The dulcimer.

4. The asor.

5. The tamboura.

6. The single pipe.

7. The double pipe.

8. The trumpet.

9. The tambourine.

10. The drum ; three kinds.

11. Cymbals; two kinds.

12. Bells.

The dulcimer, one of the most important instru-
ments of antiquity, occurs only in the Assyrian list.
On the other hand, the Egyptian list contains five
more instruments than the Assyrian, and especially a
greater variety of stringed instruments. The Egyptian
harp was superior in construction ; its sounding-board
extended in a curve from the upper part to the bottom
of the frame, whereby greater power and sonorousness
of tone were obtained than on the Assyrian harp.
Besides being acoustically superior, it excelled the
Assyrian harp in elegance of shape and ornamenta-
tion. Instruments so tastefully formed and embel-
lished as the harps discovered by Bruce, and as some
of the Egyptian lyres, do not occur on the Assyi'ian
monuments. The Assyrian harp had, however, the
greatest number of strings.

Costly materials were sometimes employed by na-
tions of antiquity in the construction of their favourite
instruments. Homer mentions a phorminx (a kind
of lyre called "harp" in Pope's translation), made of
silver : —

Chap. V. ASSYEIAN AND EGYrTIAN INSTRUMENTS. 255

And now, arrived where on the sandy bay
The Myrmidouian tents and vessels lay ;
Amused at ease, the godlike man they found,
Pleased with the solemn harp's harmonious sound.
The well-wrought harp from conquer'd 'l'heha3 came ;
Of polish'd silver was its costly frame.

(Pope's ' Iliad,' is. 240.)

As peace and prosperity are especially favourable
to the cultivation of music, the ancient Egyptians — a
people less warlike than the Assyrians — were the
most likely to attain a high degree of proficiency in
this art. Hence the superiority of their instruments.

The following observation of Professor Eawlinson,
however, does not support this view, but rather tends
to point to the Assyrians as most advanced in music.
Professor Rawlinson says : " Fully to appreciate
the Assyrians, we should compare them with the
much-lauded Egyptians, who in all important points
are very decidedly their inferiors. The spirit and
progressive character of their art oifers the strongest
contrast to the stift", lifeless, and unchanging conven-
tionalism of the dwellers on the Nile. Their lan-
guage and alphabet are confessedly in advance of the
Egyptian. Their religion is more earnest and less
degraded. In courage and military genius their
superiority is very striking; for the Egyptians are
essentially an un warlike people. The one point of
advantage to which Egypt may fairly lay claim is
the grandeur and durabihty of her architecture. The
Assyrian palaces, magnificent as they undoubtedly
were, must yield the palm to the vast structures of
Egyptian Thebes. No nation, not even Rome, has
equalled Egypt in the size and solenm grandeur of its
buildings. But, except in this one respect, the great
African kingdom must be regarded as inferior to her

256 MUSIC OF THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS. Chap. V.

Asiatic rival, which was indeed ' a cedar in Lehanon,
exalted above all the trees of the field, fair in great-
ness and in the length of his branches, so that all the
trees that were in the garden of God envied him, and
not one was like unto him in his beauty ' (Ezek. xxxi.
3-9)."^

Respecting the music of the modern Egyptians,
there is reason to surmise it to be more nearly related
to the music of the Assyrians and Chaldseans than to
that of the ancient Egyptians. It must be remem-
bered that most of the present inhabitants of Egypt
are Muslim-Egyptians (also called Arab-Egyptians),
a mixed race^ principally descended from the Arabs.
After the conquest of Egypt by the followers of Ma-
homed, in the seventh century of the Christian era,
the arts and customs of the Arabs were transmitted
to Egypt with their religion. We have already
traced the affinity of the Arabic music with the
Assyrian through the Persian. I shall now submit
to the consideration of the reader an interesting ob-
servation of Professor Rawlinson, from which it would
appear that the music of the Assyrians was. closely
allied to the Chaldsean : —

" The leaven which was to spread by degrees
through the Asiatic peoples was first deposited on the
shores of the Persian Grulf at the mouth of the ' Great
River' (Gen. xv. 18; Deut. i. 7; Josh. i. 4), and
hence civilisation, science, letters, art, extended them-
selves northward, and eastward, and westward. As-
syria, Media, Semitic Babylonia, Persia, as they

5 The Five Great Monarchies of the Ancient EaKstcrn World, by George
Rawlinson, London, 1862, vol. i. p. 308.

Chap. V. ASSYRIAN AND EGYPTIAN INSTRUMENTS. 257

derived from Chaldaia the character of their writing,
so were they indebted to the same country for their
general notions of government and administration, for
their architecture, their decorative art, and still more
for their science and literature. Each people no
doubt modified in some measure the boon received,
adding more or less of its own to the common inherit-
ance. But Chaldsea stands forth as the great parent
and original inventress of Asiatic civilisation, without
any rival that can reasonably dispute her claims." ^

I must now leave it to the reader to decide whether
the music of the modern Egyptians is not likely to
be more intimately related with the Chaldsean and
Assyrian than with the ancient Egyptian music.

Still, there are a few remains of the original
Egyptian musical instruments and performances ex-
tant, which have been preserved intact from the
influence of the Arabs. I have already mentioned
several instruments, such as the kissar, the darabukkeh,
the sistrum, &c. The last-named is, however, at the
present day only found in Abyssinia. The tamboura
and most other instruments have undergone modi-
fications according to the musical system of the
Arabs.

In describing the Grhawdzee, or common dancing
girls of the modern Egyptians, Mr. Lane says : " The
Ghawazee being distinguished in general by a cast of
countenance differing, though slightly, from the rest
of the Egyptians, we can hardly doubt that they are,

as they themselves assert, a distinct race In

many of the tombs of the ancient Egyptians we find

^ The Five Great Monarchies of the Ancient Eastern World, by G'.
Rawlinson, London, 1862, vol. i. p. 216,

258

MUSIC OF THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS. Chap. V.

representations of females dancing at private enter-
tainments to the sounds of various instruments, in a
manner similar to the modern Ghawdzee, but even
more licentious, one or more of these performers being
generally depicted in a state of perfect nudity, though
in the presence of men and women of high stations.'
This mode of dancing we find from the monuments
here alluded to, most of which bear the names of
kings which prove their age, to have been common in
Egypt in very remote times, even before the Exodus,
of the Israehtes. It is possible, therefore, that it has
continued without interruption ; and perhaps the
modern Ghawazee are descended from the class of
female dancers who amused the Egyptians in the
times of the early Pharaohs." ^

Again, if the black buffoons, shown in the woodcut
fig. 90, were Abyssinians, which is not at all unlikely,
they may be the wattas of the present day, described
by Mr. Mansfield Parkyns as " musicians and buffoons,
sometimes attached to the courts of the chiefs of
Abyssinia, but also frequently itinerant in their habits,
making professional tours, something after the man-
ner of ballad-singers." ^ True, the Abyssinians are
not black ; but it appears to have been the custom
with the ancient Egyptians to paint the human figure
of any African black, except their own, for which
they used the red colour.

Of the modern Egyptian professional singing-girls,
Mr. Lane says : " These are called ' Awdlim ; in the

' Sir G. Wilkinson says that this
was not in reality the case, but ap-
pears only so from the outline of the
transparent robe being effaced. (A
Popular Account of the Ancient
Egyptians, vol. i. p. 138.)

^ An Account of the Manners and
Customs of the Modern Egyptians, by
E. W. Lane, London, 18G0, p. 379.

* Life in Abyssinia, by Mansfield
Parkyns, London, 1853, vol. i. p.
2G8.

Chap. V. ASSYRIAN AND EGYPTIAN INSTRUMENTS. 259

singular, Almeh, or Alimeh ; an appellation, as an
Arabic word, literally signifying ' a learned female,'
but, as applied to these female singers, evidently, I
think, derived from the Hebrew or Phoenician word
*almdh, signifying ' a girl ' and * a virgin,' and par-
ticularly ' a singing-girl.' 'Al-aldmoth sheei\ the title
of Psalm xlvi., and nehdlim ' al- aldmoth, in 1 Chron.
XV. 20, should, I doubt not, be rendered * A song ' and
* harps,' or the like, ' adapted to 'almdhs,' — that is,
' singing-girls.' And as Jerome says that alma in the
Punic language signified ' a virgin,' it seems to be
probable that, in old times, the most celebrated of the
singing-girls in Egypt were Phoenicians." ^

Such conjectures may, on a cursory view, appear
but little to our purpose ; but I must say that I have
repeatedly found by experience that, in investigations
like the present, the conjectures of eminent travellers,
ethnologists, and historians are frequently of greater
assistance in arriving at the truth than the confident
assertions of musical theorists. These are often indi-
vidual views only, based on facts appertaining entirely
to our own modern music.

After what has been said respecting the music of
the modern Egyptians, some specimens of their popu-
lar melodies may perhaps interest the reader. A
considerable number of these melodies have been
collected and brought to Europe by travellers. The
singing of the sailors on the Nile, especially, has fre-
quently been noticed and described. This usually
consists of alternate solo and chorus in short phrases,
and varies with the nature of the occupation in which

^ An Account of the Manners and Customs of the Modern Egyptians, by
E. W. I^ne, London, 1860, p. 355.

S 2

260

MUSIC OF THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS. Chap. V.

the men happen to be engaged. Thus, one particular
air is sung when they shift the sails ; another when
the boat has struck on a sandy bank, and they are
working to set it afloat again ; a third when the wind
is favourable, and they give themselves up to singing
con amove ; a fourth when approaching a village ; and

so on.

MODERN EGYPTIAN LOVE-SONG.

£^

±ZI=±

±^:

-^W=?

Doos ya

pzzp

lei - lee ; Doos ya

lel -

lee

Doos ya

:p--l=

lei - lee ; Doos ya

lel

lee ; Doos ya lei - lee ; Doos ya

'^—«-x—i»-

^E£^

SEE

f«=p=

lel

lee ; 'Eshke maliboobee fe

ten

^^E

.i«^z;»H«:

ANOTHER.

:^=

-I 1— I — I — P-

i^^zUi

3^E

SONG OF THE ALATEEYEH, or Male Professional

Musicians.

jt=iv

A #'—*':

^=3^^

[S^E^H

-^^^^^^^^^^^^

Chap. V.

EGYPTIAN SONGS.

261

fa^=^5i=f5=^:1^:f=P^r-T:

3^:^

atis^.

-^—^-^-v-^

'p^

SAILOES ON THE NILE, when arriving at a Village.

Solo. .^aT^ :*: -f-^*-^

F^^N-f=^^

Hel

Chorus.

il Fa - ium ba - la-dac

Pig

S-efi

^g^ i= — ^— F-

?^N^^

I — "V-"^--

\=±.

dolce. jS^.

He! He! il Fa - ium ba- la-dac

Be - ni Su - ef

m^f

la - - rum.

-b^^pi

=g--^^

-^ :ft-^-

^-m^^m-

a=F=F^^E

ba - lad al - mah - bub

5=?

He! He! Be - ni

262

MUSIC OF THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS.

Chap. V.

l/i'^'

-T-'f: -^--

•

fi-

i©—- ^=^

III

^^-1 ,— ^^

He Li - sa !

r--g- -r -r ,
-1 — 1 — ^ —

L^l — E'^ '^L^

Ji_^L. ^ ■

Suef ba-lad al - mah bub

He Li - sa !

If any genuine remains of ancient Egyptian vocal
music had been preserved, they would, most likely, be
found among the Copts of Upper Egypt. It will be
remembered that the Copts are descendants of the
ancient inhabitants of the country. They are a
Christian sect, dispersed throughout parts of Egypt,
but in Upper Egypt whole villages are inhabited ex-
clusively by them. The Coptic language is no longer
spoken, but used in religious observances, like the
Latin in the Roman Catholic Church. Through this
language a clue has been obtained to the study of the
language of the ancient Egyptians, as read from their
hieroglyphic inscriptions.

Mr. Lane says, " With respect to the personal
characteristics, we observe some striking points of
resemblance, and yet, upon the whole, a considerable
difference, between the Copts and the ancient Egypt-
ians, judging of the latter from the paintings and
sculptures in their tombs and temples. The difference
is, however, easily accounted for by the fact of the
intermarriages of the ancestors of the modern Copts
with foreigners above mentioned [Greeks, Nubians,
Abyssinians]. The people who bear the greatest
resemblance to the ancient Egyptians at present are
the Noobeh (or more genuine Nubians), and next to
these the Abyssinians and the Copts, who are, not-
withstanding, much unlike each other. The Copts

Chap. V.

HALLELUJAH OF THE COPTS.

263

differ but little from the generality of their Muslim
countrymen, the latter being chiefly descended fi'om
Arabs and from Copts who have embraced the faith
of the Arabs, and having thus become assimilated to
the Copts in features." ^

Yilloteau, who witnessed some of the Coptic reli-
gious ceremonies, expresses himself as by no means
edified with the interspersed vocal music, which con-
sisted of a Hallelujah, in which the same word was
repeated over and over again, occasionally with as
large a group of notes upon one syllable as we find
attached to this word in some of our older oratorios.
On account of the great length of this composition,
written down by Yilloteau after hearing it repeatedly
performed, I shall here insert only that part with
which it commences.

HALLELUJAH OF THE COPTS.

Lento

. i ji yi

2 An Account of the Manners and Customs of the Modern Egyptians, by
E. W. Lane, London, 1860, p. 530.

264

MUSIC OP THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS.

Chap. V.

i-i^-

;?E^^E^^:

--=\-

:^=:]-

fs^s-

c_t^:

ouo ouo euo.

Althougli the Copts no longer possess the kissar
and the si strum, Hke their neighbours the Nubians
and Abyssinians, they make use in their rehgious
ceremonies of the maraoueh, which appears to be a
modification of the sistrum. This curious instrument
I have already described (page 67).

The music employed in acts of worship is perhaps
less subjected to change than any other. As, how-
ever, the Copts are a Christian sect, it appears impro-
bable that even in their most ancient religious music
there should be remains left of the music of their
heathen forefathers.

Somewhat similar to the relation of the Copts with
the ancient Egyptians, appears to be that of the
Yezidis, or devil-worshippers, in Kurdistan, with the
Chaldseans and the Assyrians. The language of
the Yezidis is a Kurdish dialect, but their religious
chants and hymns are in Arabic — a language which
is understood only by the priests and chiefs. Their
religious vocal performances are usually accompanied
by the Kawals, an order of priests, with flutes and
tambourines. These instruments are looked upon as
sacred. Mr. Layard saw the Kawals before and after

Chap. V, THE YEZIDIS. 265

the performance kissing the tambourine, and inviting
the people to do so Hkewise. The music he describes
as on some occasions solemn and impressive, and on
others wild and harsh.

It must be remembered that the devil is held by
the Yezidis in the greatest awe and reverence. He
is only spoken of as Melik el Taus, "the Mighty
Angel," or Sheikh Mazem, " Great Chief; " his proper
name, Shaitan (Satan) they dread to pronounce.

Mr. Layard observes : " The Yezidis have a tradi-
tion that they originally came from Busrah, and
from the country watered by the lower part of the
Euphrates ; that after their emigration they first
settled in Syria, and subsequently took possession of
the Sinjar Hill and the districts they now inhabit in
Kurdistan. This tradition, with the peculiar nature
of their tenets and ceremonies, j^oints to a Sabsean or
Chaldaean origin. With the scanty materials which
we possess regarding their history, and owing to the
ignorance prevailing amongst the people themselves,
— for I believe that even the priests, including Sheikh
Nasr [the high priest], have but a very vague idea of
what they profess, and of the meaning of their reli-
gious forms, — it is difficult to come to any conclusion
as to the source of their peculiar opinions and ob-
servances. There is in them a strange mixture of
Sabseanism, Christianity, and Mohammedanism, with
a tincture of the doctrines of the Gnostics and Mani-
chasans. Sabseanism appears to be the prevailing
feature ; and it is not improbable that the sect may
be a remnant of the ancient Chaldees, who have at
various times outwardly adopted the forms and tenets
of the ruling people to save themselves from perse-
cution and oppression, and have gradually, through

266

MUSIC OF THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS. Chap. V.

ignorance, confounded them with their own belief and
mode of worship." ^

A German traveller, Herr Wagner, who visited the
Yezidis, and who has described their religious observ-
ances, relates that during his journey he met with the
well-known Bokhara traveller, the missionary Joseph
Wolf, who told him he had seen Yezidi pilgrims on
the ruins of Babylon, engaged by moonlight in
ghastly religious rites, performing strange dances,
with peculiar gesticulations, to doleful songs. The
missionary added that he recognized in it the literal
fulfilment of the words of the prophet Isaiah (ch. xiii.
V. 21) : "Wild beasts of the desert shall lie there;
and their houses shall be full of doleful creatures,
and owls shall dwell there, and satyrs shall dance
there."

Mr. Layard, in his work entitled ' Discoveries in
the Ruins of Nineveh and Babylon,' has published a
few specimens of Yezidi music. I shall insert here
two of them, which are songs — or perhaps, more
properly speaking, chants — of the priests.

CHANT OF THE YEZIDI PRIESTS.

J. iL Adagio. O "7- O

.^Z5

:[=:

vibrato.

11^^^^^

"tr

fej^Tfg^^^i^filgp

^ Nineveh and its Ruius, by A. H. Layard, London, 1849, vol. i. j). 306.

Chap. V. CHANT OF THE YEZIDI PRIESTS.

267

fea^fe^

^rp-ff:pir-P=r:?E^-F=r"?*-"

dim.

■tr

£rrr£^ri=ggg^r^^p^ =^=^

^:r-^55-

=1:

:c^:

Con amore.

=^''— ^gggi'' I I [la I -I r-^g:Sg-=s!j!*-**-

^^^^i

^«^

L-at

:^j

Adagio.

n u M.aagio. '•

:^ifi^

— *^'

^^F@?f^:aSBE^

"tr.

JzrS^S

l^pJuit^t^

:it^=t

S=^

^^^^

nfc

=F=t^

itea^

i^^

^p^s^^^^^^

jJt^rrz^^

dim.

*».

■tr

?^^^P^^

iqizq:

W-'J^:t=^---^.

:jc±.

268

MUSIC OF THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS. Chap. V.

ANOTHER CHANT OP THE YEZIDI PRIESTS.

Adagio melancolico.

i^:

±=L

'SE

-ts^

H-

g-^-^-^--j-_^-J3^;

wi-^l:^z^=t:J±M

lh=t

■i^-zr^zi^z

:*=r-iit

jL_J-#!:

dim

To seek among the Yezidis for actual remains of
Assyrian music would undoubtedly be as futile as to
seek for remains of ancient Egyptian music among
the Copts, or even more so. Nevertheless, these
specimens of songs from Kurdistan and Egypt are
interesting, as they in some measure illustrate the
present state of music in countries where, at the
earliest period, we have found this art cultivated to a
considerable degree of development.

Chap. V. OPINIONS OF MUSICAL HISTORIANS. 269

OPINIONS OF SOME MUSICAL HISTORIANS.

Most of our principal works on the history of music
contain some account of the ancient Egyptian music.
Forkel's dissertation, in his ' Geschichte der Musik,'
deserves especial notice from the care with which all
the facts are stated so far as they had been ascertained
in his time. Forkel, it must be remembered, wrote
subsequently to Printz, Kircher, Martini, Burney,
Hawkins, and other musical historians, and thus had
the advantage of consulting their works.

The information on this subject contained in
Kircher's ' (Edipus ^gyptiacus' (Romce, 1652) is
more curious than instructive. More deserving of
attention is the Abbe Eoussier's ' Memoire sur la Mu-
sique des Anciens, ou Ton expose le Principe des
Proportions authentiques, dites de Pythagore, et de
divers Systemes de Musique chez les Grecs, les Chi-
nois, et les Egyptiens. Avec un Parallele entre le
Systeme des Egyptiens et celui des Modernes ' (Paris,
1770). The Abbe' believes the Greek musical system
to have been founded on the Egyptian, and his con-
clusions respecting the characteristics of the latter are
principally drawn from the former. De Laborde
says, in his ' Essai sur la Musique ' (tome iii. page 678),
that the Abbe Roussier, at twenty-five years of age,
did not know even a note of music, but that five years
later he was one of the first theorists of his century.
The work alluded to certainly contains much interest-
ing information, and has been made use of by most of
the later historians.

270 MUSIC OF THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS. Chap. V.

Some interesting remarks bearing on our subject
are also to be found in Rollins ' Histoire ancienne des
Egyptiens, des Carthaginois, des Assyriens, des Baby-
loniens, des Medes et des Perses, des Macedoniens,
des Grecs' (Paris, 1730), and in Goguet's ' De I'Ori-
gine des Loix, des Arts, et des Sciences ; et de leur
Progres chez les anciens Peuples' (Paris, 1758).
During the eighteenth century France was richer in
literature relating to the music of antiquity than any
other country. De Guignes's arguments, in his * Me-
moire dans lequel on prouve que les Chinois sont ime
Colonic l^gyptienne,' were soon refuted by Leroux
Deshautesrayes, Pauw, and others. Had the Chinese,
according to the hypothesis of De Guignes, been
Egyptian colonists, settled in China about 1100 years
B.C., we might perhaps have found a clue to the fact
that the Chinese use the pentatonic scale, which, as we
have seen, the ancient Egyptians also appear to have
used. We might, with some good reason, expect so
conservative a people as the Chinese to have pre-
served nearly intact the musical system of the
Egyptians. Cornelius von Pauw, in his ' Recherches
philosophiques sur les Egyptiens et sur les Chinois '
(Berlin, 1773), the aim of which is to disprove the
theory of De Guignes, treats also of the Chinese and
Egyptian music, expressing an opinion by no means
favourable to either.

Two interesting essays, written by Yilloteau — the
first headed, ' Dissertation sur les diverses especes
d'Instrumens de Musique que Ton remarque parmi
les Sculptures qui de'corent les antiques Monumens
de I'Egypte, et sur les noms que leur donnerent, en
leur langue propre, les premiers peuples de ce pays ; '
and the other, ' Memoire sur la Musique de I'antique

Chap. V. OPINIONS OP MUSICAL HISTORIANS. 271

Egypte ' — have both been pubHshed in ' Description
de I'Egypte.' *

M. Fetis beheves he has made an important dis-
covery, which I shall here briefly notice. " I have
not the least doubt," he says, " that this musical nota-
tion [used in ecclesiastical music by the modern
Greeks] belonged to ancient Egypt. I have in sup-
port of my opinion the resemblance borne by the
signs in this notation, erroneously attributed to St.
John of Damascus, to those of the demotic, or popular
characters of the ancient Egyptians. In the system
of musical notation in use in the Greek Church there
are no notes, properly so called— that is to say, signs
arranged to represent each a certain sound in the
scale — for the Greeks do not accept a fixed diapason,
or a normal sound to which all the others are referred.
It is true that there is a certain point of departure for
all the songs, which may be considered as the prin-
cipal note in every kind of vocal music, and according
to which all the progressions of the voice are regu-
lated ; but the singer takes this note as he finds it
most convenient, according to the high or low pitch
of his voice. The sound which serves as the point of
departure in any melody, and which, as all Greek
writers say, is the beginning, the middle, and the end
of all music, is represented by a sign which has the
name of ison. Then, the sign of this sound has an
exact resemblance with that sign in the ancient de-
motic alphabet of Egypt which corresponds to the
delta of the Greeks. The sign oligon, which expresses

* In the octavo edition of Descrip- 1 than the folio edition, these two essays
tion de I'Egypte, which is less scarce \ will be found in vols. vi. and viii.

272 MUSIC OF THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS. Chap. V.

an ascension of the voice by an interval of one tone,
commencing from the ison, is one of the characters of
the letter N in demotic writing. The oxeia, a sign
expressing ascension of a sound higher than the ison,
is nothing more than one of the characters, R, in the
same writing. The kouphisma, the sign for pro-
gression from the third to the fourth tone, is one of
the characters representing the letter B. ThQpetasthe,
the sign of ascension from the fourth to the fifth tone,
occurs also in several characters representing the letter
T in the demotic alphabet. The pelasthon, which ex-
presses the ascending progression from the fifth to the
sixth tone, exactly resembles one of the many cha-
racters which in i\\Q papyri correspond to the sigma of
the Greeks. The double kentema, or double spirit,
which occurs in many signs in the demotic writing,
expresses an ascending progression from the sixth to
the seventh tone. The sign for a progression ascend-
ing in thirds is the simple kentema, which is, in fact, a
fragment of the characters in the demotic aljDhabet
corresponding to the eta, the iota, and the sigma of the
Greeks. The progression of the voice in descending
from the ison, or tonic, to the third below, is expressed
by the aporrhoe, which in this alphabet corresponds to
the letter E. The sign of descending progression
from the same tone to the fifth below was one of the
characters representing the letter B."

After having pointed out the resemblance existing
between several signs employed by the modern
Greeks to determine the duration of notes, and cer-
tain characters of the demotic alphabet, M. Fetis con-
tinues :

" After this detailed analysis of the system of nota-

Chap. V. OPINIONS OF MUSICAL HISTORIANS. 273

tion employed in the music of the Greek Church, and
after comparing its signs with those of the demotic
character in use among the Egyptians, can we for a
moment doubt that the invention of this notation is to
be ascribed to that ancient people, and not to St. John
of Damascus ? No doubt, I think, will be entertained
on this point. Both the Greeks and the Romans
employed the characters of the alphabet, arranged in
various ways, for musical notation ; and this was also
the case during part of the middle ages. The nota-
tion of the singing-books used in the churches of
Ethiopia, and by the priests of Abyssinia, is to this
day in characters of the Amara language, as, in all
probability, it has been since the earliest days of
Christianity ; why may we not then conclude that the
ancient Egyptians turned to account the rich varieties
of their demotic alphabet for the notation of their
melodies ? and that this notation was preserved in the
music of the first Eastern Christians ? Besides, since
it has been proved that St. John of Damascus was not
the inventor of the characters of the musical notation
of the Greek Church, what probability is there that in
the eighth century — when the old demotic alphabet
of Egypt had disappeared, to give place to the Coptic
alphabet, derived from the Greek — what probability,
I say, is there that, with no special inducement, he
sought in an obsolete alphabet for the signs of a nota-
tion till then hardly known? I fully believe that
this notation was never lost, but that it was intro-
duced into the music of the Greeks long before his
time. Let us remark the great importance of the
discovery of this ancient notation. Since it can-
not possibly be applied except to music overladen

274 MUSIC OF THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS. Chap. V.

with embellishments, and requiring great flexibility
of voice, as we find it at present in the Greek
Church and among some African nations, it gives
us an exact idea of the music of ancient Egypt." ^

I need perhaps scarcely point out the fallacy of
M. Fetis's conclusion, that, if the modern Greeks
employ a musical notation derived from the demotic
alphabet, the characteristics of the Egyptian music
must have been preserved in the Greek. We might
as well conclude that the English language must
resemble the Latin, because it is written in Roman
letters. Nevertheless, his discovery, if well-founded,
would be very interesting, and might possibly lead to
other useful discoveries in the history of music. I
have therefore carefully examined the two principal
sources mentioned by him in testimony of the correct-
ness of his assertions. They are the Greek notation
as shown in tome xiv. of ' Description de I'Egypte,'
and the characters of the demotic alphabet in Cham-
pollion's ' Precis du Systeme Hieroglyphique des
anciens Egyptiens.'

There are 125 signs in this alphabet, wliich consist
mostly of lines, curves, hooks, right and acute angles,
and other simple figures, placed in varied positions.
The signs of the Greek musical notation are equally
simple. Might we not then naturally expect to find
a close resemblance between half a dozen of these,
and some of the 125 demotic letters? Besides, even
among those pointed out by M. Fetis, several cannot
be identified without some stretch of the imagination.

^ BiograpMe Universelle des Musi- j Musiquc, par F. J. Fetis, Bruxelles,
ciens et Bibliographie G^n^rale de la | 1837, tome i. p. Ixxi.

Chap. V. OPINIONS OF MUSICAL HISTORIANS. 275

I thought it probable that the shape of the Greek
signs might have altered somewhat in the course of
time, and thus have become less recognizable in the
demotic characters. But if this had been the case,
we should find the Grreek notation as it existed about
a thousand years ago — of which, among other musical
writers, Burney has given specimens in his * History
of Music,' vol. ii. p. 50 — more resembling the demotic
characters than it does at present. It is, however,
even less like. M. Fe'tis's assumed discovery must
therefore, in my opinion, be considered as a state-
ment unsupported by sufficient proofs.

Indeed, the French writers seem to have surpassed
all others in the boldness of their conclusions on such
questions. M. Lenormant, after pointing out that
the two harpers from the tomb of Ramesis III. (known
as " Bruce's Harpers") are performing sacred music
before two deities, says : " It is remarkable that the
heads which adorn the base of these harps are sur-
mounted, one by the sign of the upper region [of
Egypt], the other by that of the lower region ; whence
we may infer the existence of two different modes or
systems of modulation." ®

Of the more recent Glerman works containing in-
formation on the music of ancient Egypt, I shall only
notice Kiesewetter's dissertation, ' Ueber die Musik
der neueren Griechen,' which, though valuable for its
many acute observations, contains several assertions
which subsequent discoveries have proved to be
erroneous.

^ Musee des Antiquites Egyptiennes, par Charles Lenormant, Paris,
1841, planche xiii.

T 2

276 MUSIC OF THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS. Chap. V.

It would be useless to notice here every book in
which this subject has been treated. The more im-
portant ones I have already mentioned. The best
sources for information are the splendid drawings of
musical performances in the valuable works of Rosel-
lini, ChampoUion, Lepsius^ and others.

Chap. VI. MUSIC OF THE HEBREWS. 277

CHAPTEE VI.

MUSIC OF THE HEBREWS.

Gradual development of the Hebrew music — Musical instruments — Di-
versity of opinion respecting the real nature of some of the Hebrew-
instruments — Josephus's account — The chatzozerah — The shophar
— The magrepha — Nebel and nofre — The Hebrew lyre — Vocal and
instramental performances — Hebrew music of the present day — Lite-
rature of Hebrew music — Eastern origin of our own music.

Scanty as our information is on Hebrew music, this
is at least evident, that it was closely related to the
music of the Egyptians and Assyrians. Moses him-
self, who had been brought up by Pharaoh's daughter,
"was learned in all the wisdom of the Egyptians"
(Acts vii. 22) ; and the singing of the children of
Israel before the golden calf after their departure
from Egypt (Exodus xxxii. 18) was in the Egyptian
manner. The Assyrians were their neighbours, with
whom they frequently came in close contact ; in fact,
both nations were of the same descent, had nearly the
same language, and their political condition was also
in many respects similar. During the Babylonian
captivity, although the Hebrews adopted the Chal-
deean language, their music does not appear to have
undergone any important modification through fo-
reign influence ; so that, after their return to Jeru-
salem, about seventy years later, a fresh generation
was enabled to re-establish at once in the temple the

278 MUSIC OF THE HEBEEWS. Chap. VI.

musical performances of their forefathers. (Nehem.
xii.)

I do not intend to imply by these remarks that the
music of the Hebrews has not, in the course of a thou-
sand years, experienced considerable modifications.
Indeed, there are, as I shall presently endeavour to
show, distinct indications of this having been the case.
At the earliest period after the Exodus it was un-
doubtedly almost identical with the Egyptian music.
When Joseph's brethren with their families settled in
Egypt, they found the music of that country already
developed to a considerable degree. Whatever their
own musical acquirements may have been, we can
hardly suppose that their descendants did not, in the
course of time, adopt the superior music of the Egyp-
tians. Some musical historians, however, express an
opposite opinion. Saalschiitz, one of the best writers
on Hebrew music, conjectures that the Jews, during
their sojourn in Egypt, where, from a few families,
they gradually became a nation, had preserved to
some extent their own music. His reasons for this
surmise are embodied in the following interesting
remarks : —

" The Hebrews descend from a family in which
both vocal and instrumental music were not only
known, but also appreciated, and considered as a
necessary embellishment in their festivals (Gen. xxxi.
26, 27). Consequently, they possessed a knowledge
of this art when they came to Egypt. Again, imme-
diately upon leaving this country, we also find them in
the full practice of music. (Exod. xv. 20.) Can there
be any doubt, then, that they occupied themselves
with music while in Egypt ? How otherwise could it

Chap. VI. THEIR EARLY KNOWLEDGE OF THE ART. 279

liave occurred to them, or how could it have been
possible for them to celebrate with music the happy-
termination of the great peril at the beginning of their
wanderings ? But, did not the circumstance of their
being in a state of slavery in Egypt prevent their cul-
tivating music ? A moment's attention will show
that this question cannot be answered otherwise than
negatively. First, it must be remembered that the
Jews, during the longest period of their sojourn in
Egypt, were a free people. They abode 430 years in
that country. Diu-ing only the last 80 years of this
time were they living under oppression ; in the pre-
ceding 350 years they enjoyed full liberty. (See
Jahn's ' Archaeology,' Th. ii. B. 1.) During this time
they even carried on wars of their own with Oanaan-
itish tribes (1 Chron. iv. 22 ; vii. 21, 24). They were
also artificers (1 Chron. iv. 21, 23), in which capacity
some of them were even in the service of the king, as
we may infer from the passage in Chronicles just
noticed. Altogether they appear to have stood in
very good relation with the Egyptians, for in 1 Chron.
iv. 1 8 we even find an instance recorded of a Hebrew
having married the daughter of a Pharaoh. Now, as
the Egyptians cultivated music, is it likely that the
Hebrews, with the Egyptian example before them,
should have neglected an art which was domesticated
in their families ? Even the eighty years of bondage
cannot have prevented this. The women, it may be
supposed, did not participate in the daily task ; neither
did the Hebrews of rank. Thus we are told in Exod.
iv. 27 of Aaron undertaking a journey into a foreign
country ; and in verse 2 9 of the same chapter a con-
vocation is mentioned, to which all the elders of the

280 MUSIC OF THE HEBREWS. Chap. VI.

Hebrews were summoned. This indicates that the
elders, at least, were masters of their own time, that
the old patriarchal state of society continued, and that
their family life, in which every Hebrew, after his
day's toil, had his time at his own disposal, was not
infringed. The labour became especially oppressive
only after the mission of Moses (Exod. v. 6). Again,
the Hebrews, even during the years of their servi-
tude, had considerable herds (Exod. ix. 6, 7 ; x. 9) ;
there must consequently have been persons in every
family who tended the cattle. At all events, the
compulsory service cannot have engaged them to such
an extent as to prevent every one of them from occu-
pying himself in other ways." ^

Moreover, there can scarcely be a doubt that, after
the departure of the Hebrews from Egypt, their music
acquired in the course of time certain characteristics
which distinguished it from the Egyptian music, and
which originated in the religious views and observ-
ances of the Jews, as well as from their intercourse
with Asiatic nations, and from other circumstances.

HEBEEW INSTKUMENTS.

There are no representations of Hebrew musical
instruments, the correctness of which is indisputable.
Still, from our acquaintance with the Egyptian and
Assyrian instruments, as well as with those used in
the East at the present day, we are enabled to ap-
proach very near the truth in forming an opinion

^ Geschiclilc uuci Wurdiguug tier Musik bei den Hcbiacrn, von Dr.
J. L. Saalscliiitz, Berlin, 1829, p. 67.

Chap. VI. THEIK MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS. 281

respecting tlie construction and shape of the Hebrew
instruments mentioned in the Bible. Besides those
enumerated in the following list, some others pro-
bably were in use with which we are entirely unac-
quainted.

Some of the instruments mentioned in the Book of
Daniel may have been synonymous with some which
occur in other parts of the Bible, under Hebrew names
• — the names given in Daniel being Chaldgean. But
mth these also the Jews were probably familiar at a
later period. Max Miiller remarks : " The name of
Chaldee has been given to the language adopted by
the Jews during the Babylonian captivity. Though
the Jews always retained a knowledge of their sacred
language, they soon began to adopt the dialect of
their conquerors, not for conversation only, but also
for literary composition. The Book of Ezra contains
fragments of Chaldee contemporaneous with the cunei-
form inscriptions of Darius and Xerxes ; and several
of the apocryphal books, though preserved to us in
Greek only, were most likely composed originally in
Chaldee, and not in Hebrew."^

1. The Harp. — There cannot be a doubt that the Hebrews

possessed the harp, seeing that it was a common instru-
ment among the Assyrians and Egyptians. But it is
uncertain which of the Hebrew names of the stringed
instruments occurring in the Bible really designates the
harp.

2. The Dulcimer. — Some writers on Hebrew music con-

sider the 7iehel to have been a kind of dulcimer ; others
conjecture the same of the psanterin mentioned in the

- Lectures on the Science of Language, by Max Miiller, London, 1802,
p. 277.

282 MUSIC OP THE HEBKEWS. Chap. VI.

Book of Daniel, — a name which appears to be synony-
mous with the psalterimi of the Greeks, and from which
also that of the present Oriental dulcimer, santir, may
have been derived.

3. The AsoPw — This was a ten-stringed instrument, played

with the plectrum, and is supposed to have borne some
resemblance to the nebel. It is therefore probable that
it was in appearance similar to the Assyrian instrument
to which I have applied the name asor.

4. The Lyre. — This instrument is represented on a Hebrew

coin, generally supposed to be of the time of the high-
priest Simon Maccabseus. The kinnor, the favourite
instrument of King David, was most likely a lyre, if not
a small harp like the trigonon mentioned page 194.

5. The Tambouea, or Guitar. — Minnim, machalath, and

7iehel are usually supposed to be the names of instru-
ments of the guitar or lute kind.

6. The Pipe. — CJialil and neheh were the names of the

Hebrew pipes or flutes.

7. The Double Pipe. — Probably the misJirohitha men-

tioned in Daniel.

8. The Syrinx or Pandean Pipe. — Probably the ugah,

which in the English authorized version of the Bible is
rendered organ.

9. The Bagpipe. — The word sumplionia, which occurs in

the book of Daniel, is, by Forkel and others, supposed
to denote a bagpipe. It is remarkable that at the pre-
sent day the bagpipe is called by the Italian peasantry
zampogna. Another Hebrew instrument, the magrepha,
generally described as a small organ, was more likely
only a kind of bagpipe.

10. The Trumpet. — Three kinds are mentioned in the Bible,
viz., the Jceren, the shophar, and the chatzozerah. The
first two were more or less curved, and might properly

Chap. VI. THEIR MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS. 283

be considered as horns. The chatzozerah was a straight
trumpet, about two feet in length, and was sometimes
made of silver (Numb. x. 2).

11. The Drum. — There can be no doubt that the Hebrews

had several kinds of drums, as well as the Assyrians
and Egyptians. We know, however, only of the topJi,
which appears to have been a tambourine, or a small
hand-drum, like the Egyptian darabukkeh, noticed page
219. In the English version of the Bible it is rendered
timbrel or tahret. This instrument was specially used
in processions, on occasions of rejoicing, and frequently
by females. We find it in the hands of Miriam, when
she was celebrating with the Israelitish women in songs
of joy the destruction of Pharaoh's host (Exod. xv. 20) ;
and in the hands of Jephtha's daughter, when she went
out to welcome her father (Judges xi. 34). There exists
at the present time in the East a small hand-drum,
called by the Arabians doff or adufe, — a name which
appears to be synonymous with the Hebrew toph.
Compare also the description of the square tambou-
rine (page 221).

12. The Sistrum. — Winer, Saalschiitz, and several other

commentators, are of opinion that the menaaneim^ men-
tioned in 2 Sam. vi. 5, denotes the sistrum. In the
English Bible the word is rendered cymbals.

13. Cymbals. — The tzeltzelim, metzilloth, and metzilthaim,

appear to have been cymbals, or similar metallic instru-
ments of percussion, differing in shape and sound.

14. Bells. — The little bells on the robe of the high-priest

have been already noticed. They were called phaamon
and are mentioned in Exod. xxvin. 33 and xxxix. 25.
The Jews have, at the present day, in their synagogues,
small bells attached to the '' rolls of the law," containing
the Pentateuch,— a kind of ornamentation which is
supposed to have been in use from time immemorial.
No other Hebrew bells are known. We read, however,

284 MUSIC OF THE HEBEEWS. Chap. VI.

in Zech. xiv. 20 of "bells of the horses," and it is
highly probable that the Hebrews possessed bronze
bells like those of the Assyrians and Egyptians.

The places in the Old Testament where these in-
struments are mentioned are the following : —

KiNNOR.— Gen. iv. 21 ; xxxi. 27.— 1 Sam. x, 5 ; xvi. 16, 23
2 Sam. VI. 5.— 1 Kings x. 12.— 1 Chron. xiii. 8 ; XY
21, 28 ; XVI. 5 ; xxv. 1, 3, 6.-2 Chron. v. 12 ; ix. 11
XX. 28 ; XXIX. 25.— Nehem. xii. 27.— Job xxi. 12
XXX. 31. — Psalms xxxiii. 2 ; XLiii. 4 ; xlix. 4 ; lvii
8 ; Lxxi. 22 ; lxxxi. 2 ; xcii. 3 ; xcviii. 5 ; cviii. 2
cxxxvii. 2 ; cxLix. 3 ; cl. 3. — Isaiah v. 12 ; xvi. 11
xxiii. 16 ; XXIV. 8 ; xxx. 32. — Ezek. xxvi. 13.

Nebel. — 1 Sam. x. 5. — 2 Sam. vi. 5 — 1 Kings x. 12. — 1
Chron. xiii. 8 ; xv. 16, 20, 28 ; xvi. 5 ; xxv. 1, 6.-2
Chron. v. 12 ; ix. 11 ; xx. 28 ; xxix. 25. — Nehem. xii.
27.— Psalms xxxiii. 2 ; lvii. 8 ; lxxi. 22 ; lxxxi. 2 ;
xcii. 3 ; cviii. 2 ; cxliv. 9 ; cl. 3. — Isaiah v. 12 ; xiv.
11. — Amos V. 23; VL 5.

AsOE.— Psalms xxxiii. 2 ; xcii. 3 ; cxliv. 9.

Ugab. — Gen. iv. 21. — Psalms cl. 4. — Job xxi. 12 ; xxx. 31.

Shophae. — Exod. XIX. 16, 19; xx. 18, — Lev. xxv. 9. — Jos.

VI. 4, 5, 6, 8, 9, 13, 16, 20.— Judg. m. 27; vi. 34;

VII. 8, 16, 18, 19, 20.-1 Sam. xiii. 3.-2 Sam. ii. 28 ;
VL 15 ; XV. 10; xviii. 16; xx. 1, 22.-1 Kings l 34,
39, 41.— 2 Kings ix. 13.-1 Chron. xv. 28.-2 Chron.
XV. 14.— Nehem. iv. 18, 20.— Job. xxxix. 24, 25.—
Psalms XLVii. 5 ; lxxxi. 3 ; xcviii. 6 ; cl. 3. — Isaiah
xviii. 3 ; xxvii. 13 ; lviii. 1. — Jerem. iv. 5, 19, 21 ;
VL 1, 17 ; XLiL 14 ; li. 27.— Ezek. xxxin. 3, 4, 5, 6.—
Hos. V. 8; viiL 1.— Joel IL 1, 15. — Amos n. 2; iiL 6.
— Zeph. I. 16.— Zech. ix. 14.

Chatzozerah.— Numb. x. 2, 8, 9, 10. — 2 Kings xl 14 ; xn.
13.— 1 Chron. xv. 24, 28; xvi. 6, 42.-2 Chron. V. 12,
13; xiii. 12, 14; xv. 14; xx. 28.; xxiiL 13; xxix.

Chap. VL THEIR MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS. 285

26, 27, 28.— Ezra in. 10.— Nehem. xii. 35, 41.—
Psalms xcviii. 6. — Hos. v. 8.

Chalil. — 1 Sam. x. 5. — 1 Kings i. 40. — Isaiali v. 12 ; xxx.
29. — Jerem. xlviii. 36.

Keken. — Josh. VT. 5. — 1 Chron. xxv. 5. — Dan. in. 5, 7, 10,
15.

Nekeb. — Ezek. xxyiii. 13.

ToPH.— Gen. xxxi. 27.— Exod. xv. 20.— Judg. xi. 34.— 1
Sam. X. 5 ; xviii. 6. — 2 Sam. vi. 5. — 1 Chron. xiii. 8.
— Job XXI. 12. — Psalms cxlix. 3 ; cl. 4. — Isaiah v.
12 ; XXIV. 8 ; xxx. 32. — Jerem. xxxi. 4.

TzELTZELiM, Metzilloth. — 2 Sam. vi. 5. — 1 Chron. xiii.
8 ; XV. 16, 19, 28 ; xvi. 42 ; xxv. 6.-2 Chron. v. 12 ;
XXIX. 25. — Ezra iii. 10. — Nehem. xii. 27. — Psalms
CL. 5.

Menaaneim. — 2 Sam. vi. 5.

Shalishim. — 1 Sam. xviii. 6.

MiNNiM. — Psalms xlv. 8 ; cl. 4.

Sabeka. — Dan. iii. 5, 7, 10, 15.

PsANTERiN. — Dan. iiL 5, 7, 10, 15.

SuMPHONiA. — Dan. iii. 5, 10, 15.

MisHROKiTHA. — Dan. in. 5, 7, 10, 15.

Most commentators are of opinion that the kereri —
a horn or trumpet, made of ram's horn — was almost
identical with the shophar ; the only difference being,
that the latter was more curved than the former.
Thus are these instruments usually represented in the
drawings given in our dissertations on Hebrew music.
There appears, however, to be no satisfactory reason
for making this distinction. The shophar used at the
present day in the synagogue has not the curved shape
given to it in those drawings. As this instrument

286 MUSIC OF THE HEBEEWS. Chap. VI.

may assist us in forming a correct idea respecting the
ancient Hebrew trumpet, I shall presently give a short
description of it.

Johel (Exod. xix. 13; Jos. vi. 4, 5, 6, 8, 13) is by
some commentators classed with the triunpets ; but is
by others believed to designate a loud and cheerful
blast of the trumpet, used on particular occasions. If
Johel (from which jubilare is supposed to be derived)
is identical with the name Juhal, the inventor of
musical instruments, it would appear that the He-
brews appreciated pre-eminently its exhilarating
power.

Shalishim is supposed to denote a triangle. Minnim
appears more likely to imply stringed instruments in
general than any particular instrument.

The Chaldaean saheka is believed to have been iden-
tical with the Grreek samhuka. Too little, however, is
known of the latter instrument to afford us much
assistance in forming an opinion respecting the con-
struction of the former. The Greek samhuha is de-
scribed by some writers as of a triangular shape, and
mounted with four short strings only ; according to
others it was boat-shaped. Drieberg believes it to
have been a kind of guitar.

The mishrohitha is represented in the drawings ol
our Histories of Music as a small organ, consisting
of seven pipes placed in a box, with a mouthpiece for
blowing. It is not improbable that some instrument
of the kind was known to the Hebrews and to the
Assyrians. The cheng of the Chinese, a similar
instrument, is asserted to have been in use several
centuries before the Christian era. But the shape of
the pipes and of the box, as well as the row of keys

Chap. VI, THEIR MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS. 287

for tlie fingers, exliibited in the representation of the
mislirohitha, have too much of the European type not
to suggest that they are probably merely a product of
the imagination.

Nechiloth, gittith, and machalath, which occur in the
headings of Psalms v., viii., liii., Ixxxi., Ixxxiv.,
Ixxxviii., are also by some commentators sujDposed
to be names of musical instruments. Nechiloth is said
to have been a flute, and gittith and machalath to have
been stringed instruments. Again, others maintain
that the words denote peculiar modes of performance,
or certain favourite melodies to which the psalms
were directed to be sung, or chanted.

Machol (Exod. xv. 20; xxxii. 19. Judg. xi. 34;
xxi. 21. 1 Kings iv. 31. Psalms xxx. 11 ; cxlix. 3 ;
cl. 4. Song of Sol. vii. 1 . Jerem. xxxi. 4, 13. Lament.
V. 15) is, in the opinion of some writers, a kind of
flute, especially used for accompanying dances ; but
is more generally believed to signify the dance
itself.

Forkel observes that, according to the records of
the Rabbins, the Hebrews in the time of David and
Solomon possessed thirty-six different musical instru-
ments. In the Bible, however, only about half that
number are mentioned. Although it is highly pro-
bable that at least some of them were almost identical
with those of the Assyrians known to us from the
bas-reliefs, it would be hazardous to identify them
with any of the latter, on account of the very slight
information transmitted to us respecting their form
and construction. In fact, from our most reliable
source, the Bible, scarcely more can be gathered con-
cerning them than their Hebrew names. The diver-

288 MUSIC OF THE HEBREWS. Chap. VI.

sity of opinion among Hebrew scholars about the real
nature of most of them is evident even in the first
record on music, where Jubal is mentioned as the
inventor of the kinnor and ugab (Gen. iv. 21). In
the English authorized version the passage is ren-
dered : " He was the father of all such as handle the
harp and organ." In Luther's German translation
we read : " Yon dem sind hergekommen die Geiger
und Pfeifer" (i. e. the performers on stringed instru-
ments played with a how, and on pipes). The Yulgate
has " cithara et organo ;" the French translation,
" la harpe et les orgues ;" the Italian, " la cetera e
r organo," &c.

Respecting the illustrations of Hebrew instruments
which usually accompany commentaries on the Bible
and historical treatises on music, it ought to be borne
in mind that most of them are merely the offspring of
conjectures founded on some obscure hints in the
Bible, or vague accounts by the Rabbins.

Equally unreliable are the conclusions drawn solely
from etymological inquiries. For instance, it has been
suggested that the trumpet called shophar must have
been constructed of brass or silver, because shophar
means "to be bright." Is it not, however, quite as
probable, if not more so, that the meaning of the word
refers not to the outward appearance of the instru-
ment, but to the brightness of its sound ?

The most reliable illustrations of Hebrew musical
instruments are perhaps those which have been copied
from the sculptures on the Arch of Titus at Rome.
But it must be remembered that the arch, in com-
memoration of the conquest of Jerusalem, was not
erected until some time after the death of Titus, and

Chap. VI. THEIll MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS. 289

•

that we cannot be sure that the sculptor was actually
acquainted with the Hebrew instruments ; or, being
acquainted with them, that he did not consider it
more incumbent on him to please the eye by intro-
ducing modifications of the forms, than to adhere
strictly to the truth. At all events, before admitting
such monumental records as evidences, more caution
ought to be exercised than is usually the case ; and it
would be well to bear in mind Burney's remark on a
certain statue of Handel, erected in Yauxhall Grardens
in the reign of George the Second : " The musician is
represented playing upon a lyre. Now, if this statue
should be preserved from the ravages of time and
accident twelve or fourteen hundred years, the anti-
quaries will naturally conclude that the instrument
upon which Handel acquired his reputation was the
lyre, though we are at present certain that he never
played on, or even saw, a lyre, except in wood or
stone." ^

Supposing the figures on the Arch of Titus to be
authentic, they may probably be different from the
instruments which were in use about a thousand years
earlier, at the time of David and Solomon, when the
art of music with the Hebrews was in its zenith. If
we compare our own music with that of our ancestors
a thousand years ago, we are surprised at the won-
derful change it has undergone. In semi-civilized
nations the arts are undoubtedly for a considerable
time almost stationary ; and several Oriental nations
are notorious for the tenacity with which they cling
to what has been transmitted to them from time imme-

2 Burney's History of Music, i. 493.

290 MUSIC OF THE HEBREWS. Chap. VI.

morial. Nevertheless, it is not likely that the instru-
ments of the Hebrews — indeed their music altogether
— should have remained entirely michanged during a
period of many centuries. Some modifications were
likely to occur even from accidental causes ; such, for
instance, as the unpremeditated invention of some
instrument, or the influence of neighbouring nations,
as the Assyrians, when the Hebrews came into closer
contact with them. Thus also may be explained
why the accounts of the Hebrew instruments given
by Josephus, who lived in the first century of the
Christian era, are not in exact accordance with those
in the Bible.

Josephus has been frequently cited as an authority
on matters relating to Hebrew music ; but it would
seem that, whatever confidence he may deserve on
other questions, his statements on the subject of music
ought to be received with much caution. Let us take,
for instance, his account of the preparations for the
musical performances at the dedication of the temple.
Solomon, he tells us, had made on this occasion two
himdred thousand trumpets according to the direc-
tions of Moses, and two hundred thousand dresses for
the Levite singers, and forty thousand stringed instru-
ments of bright and precious metal for accompanying
the voice ; all of which he ordered to be kept in the
temple with the treasures.*

In comparison with such an enormous combination
of vocal and instrumental music, our most powerful
bands dwindle into insignificance. It throws into
shade even the monster orchestra of which Berlioz

See Flavins Josei)lius, Antiqu., lib. viii. caji. 3.

Chap. VI. THE CHATZOZERAH. 291

speaks with prophetic rapture as the ne plus ultra
ill our music of the future, and of which he says, " Its
repose would be majestic as the slumber of ocean ; its
agitations would recall the tempest of the tropics ;
its explosions, the outbursts of volcanos!" &c.^ It is
a pity that Josephus has omitted to inform us how the
performers, besides the people, found accommodation
within the temple : " The length thereof," we read in
1 Kings vi. 2, " was threescore cubits, and the breadth
thereof twenty cubits, and the height thereof thirty
cubits." The supposition of some writers that the
two hundred thousand trumpets were not intended to
be used at the inauguration of the temple, but to be
deposited in its vaults, is likewise too much in contra-
diction to the recorded wisdom of Solomon to be
seriously entertained.

THE CHATZOZERAH.

Some Jewish literati are of opinion that a certain
small figure, occurring on some coins of the time of
Simon Maccabseus, is meant to represent
the trumpet, chatzozerah. There are
always on the coins two of these figures
together.

If they really are intended to represent
musical instruments, and not pillars, they
may as likely be drums, somewhat similar
to the Assyrian sugarloaf drum, but still more resem-
bling a kind of darahukkeh found at the present time

* A Treatise upon Modem Instru- | Berlioz, translated from the French,
mentation and Orchestration, by H. | London, 1856, p. 244.

u 2

292 MUSIC OF THE HEBEEWS. Chap. VI.

among several Oriental nations, and also among the
negroes in some parts of Africa, where it was intro-
duced by the Arabs. The above engraving is sketched
from a small silver coin in the British Museum.
There appears, however, to be a doubt whether it
really dates from the time of Simon Maccab^eus, or
whether it ought to be attributed to Simon Barcho-
chebas, a.d. 132.

THE SHOPHAE.

The shophar is especially remarkable as being the
only Hebrew instrument which has been preserved to
the present day in the religious services of the Jews.
It is still blown, as in time of old, at the Jewish New
Year's festival, according to the command of Moses.
(Numb. xxix. 1.)

In fig. 92 are shown four of these instruments.
Those marked a and h are from a synagogue in
Germany. They have been copied from drawings
published by Saalschiitz, who remarks that the first
represents a shophar made of a ram's horn, and the
second, one made of the horn of a cow.® The other
two (marked c and d) are from the principal syna-
gogues in London, where I have been permitted to
examine them. The first of these (c), from the syna-
gogue of the Spanish and Portuguese Jews, Bevis
Marks, is one foot in length. The other (cZ), from \hQ
Great Synagogue, St. James's Place, Aldgate, is
twenty-one inches in length. Both are entirely of

" Von dcr Form der hebraischen I die Miisik der Hebriier, von J. L.
Poesie, nebst einer Abhandlung uber | Saalschiitz, Kbnigsberg, 1825.

Chap. VI.

THE SHOPHAR.

293

horn. The latter differs especially from the former,
in so far as its tube is not romid, but compressed, so

Fiy;. 92,

The shophar used in Jewish synagogues.

that the cavity is of a long oval shape. There are,
besides this, other shophars in the Great Synagogue,
which are smaller, and in shape somewhat different
from each other ; but that which is here represented
is the one generally used. On some of them short
appropriate sentences in Hebrew are engraved. One,
for instance, had the verse from Psalm Ixxxi., which
in the English translation is rendered " Blow up the
trumpet in the new moon, in the time appointed, on
our solemn feast day." The psalm in question forms
part of the service for the New Year's festival, at
which the shophar is blown.

294 MUSIC OF THE HEBKEWS. Chap. VI.

David Levi says : " The reason of the trumpet
being made of a ram's horn is in remembrance of
Abraham oifering his son Isaac, when the angel of
the Lord called to him out of heaven, and said, ' Lay
not thine hand upon the lad, neither do thou anything
unto him ; for now I know that thou fearest God,
seeing that thou hast not withheld thy son, thine only
son, from me. And Abraham lifted up his eyes, and
looked, and behold behind him a ram caught in a
thicket by his horns : and Abraham went and took
the ram, and offered him up for a burnt-offering in the
stead of his son' (Gren. xxii. 12, 13) ; — which our re-
ceived tradition informs us was on this day ; and
therefore we make use of a trumpet made of a ram's
horn, beseeching the Almighty to be propitious to us,
in remembrance and through the merits of that great
event ; and as it is mentioned in Numb. x. 10, — ' Also
in the day of your gladness, and in your solemn days,
and in the beginnings of your months, ye shall blow
with the trumpets over your burnt-offerings, and over
the sacrifices of your peace-offerings ; that they may
be to you for a memorial before your God : I am the
Lord your God.' " ''

The signals blown on the shophar are said to be the
same, at least rhythmically, as those which were used
more than three thousand years ago. This is the
more probable because they are strictly prescribed
and adhered to ; they are simple, characteristic, and
easily preserved traditionally ; and they are very
much the same in all the synagogues. The liturgy

■? A Succinct Account of the Kites and Ceremouies of the Jews, by David
Levi, Loudon, 1783, p. 78.

CiiAP. VI. THE SHOPHAE. 295

of the Spanish and Portuguese Jews, known as the
Sej)hardic Liturgy, is different from that of the Ger-
man and Polish Jews. The fact of their signals being
nearly the same ftn^nishes a strong proof of their
having been in use anterior to the settlement of the
Jews in the Spanish Peninsula, and in northern Africa,
which took place at the time of the Mohammedan con-
quests. And as the signals have been preserved intact,
notwithstanding the subsequent persecutions and ex-
pulsion of the Jews from the Peninsula, it is not at all
improbable that they may have been likewise pre-
served through many centuries before the dispersion
of the Jews throughout the world, when the Jews
formed a large community, and when a strict ad-
herence to their ancient religious usages was therefore
comparatively easy. In the following examples we
have the three principal signals of the shophar : —

SIGNALS IN THE SYNAGOGUE OF THE GEEMAN

JEWS.

Teeuha. Tekiha. Shebarim.

HESS^

i^^e^ess^

-F-

:^^i?W^-

=EEEF

SIGNALS IN THE SEPHAKDIC SYNAGOGUE.

Teuuha. Tekiha. Shebarim.

The terulia consists of rapid repetitions of the 7>r»?i(?,
with a conclusion in the fifth. The tekiha consists of

296 MUSIC OF THE HEBREWS. Chap. VI.

a figure of two intervals, the lower being of longer
duration than the higher. This is several times re-
peated. The sheharim is the slowest signal, each note
being sustained as indicated in the above examples
by the pauses. The extension of the tekiha and
sheharim into the octave, in the first example, is on
some small shophars not easily executed ; this may be
the reason why these signals are also usual as given
in the second example ; rhythmically they are exactly
the same in both instances.

THE MAGEEPHA.

The magreplia is not mentioned in the Bible, but
is described in the Talmud. In tract Erachin it is
recorded to have been a powerful organ which stood
in the temple at Jerusalem, and consisted of a case or
wind-chest, with ten holes, containing ten pipes. Each
pipe was capable of emitting ten different sounds, by
means of finger-holes, or some similar contrivance :
thus one hundred different sounds could be produced
on this instrument. Further, the magrepha is said
to have been provided with two pairs of bellcrws, and
with ten keys, by means of which it was played with
the fingers. Its tone was, according to the Rabbinic
accounts, so loud that it could be heard at an in-
credibly long distance from the temple. Drawings of
this wonderful instrument, probably originally made
after the description of the Rabbins, are to be found
in several of our older treatises on Hebrew music.
They are all like that given in Hawkins's 'History
of Music,' vol. i. p, 256, which has been copied from

Chap. VI.

THE MAGKEPHA.

297

Sina:- und Klinff-Kunst,

von Wolfgang

Caspar

Printz,' Dresden, 1G90.

Pfeiffer, one of our best authorities on Hebrew
music, is of opinion that the magrepha was not an
organ at all, but that it was a large kettle-drum which
stood between the porch of the temple and the altar,
and which was struck to assemble the priests to
prayer, and the Levites to the performance of sacred
songs, as well as to announce the approach of lepers
for purification.^ Saalschiitz, another careful inquirer,
declares this to be an error, which he supposes to
have arisen from Pfeiifer having been misled by the
name magrepha being also applied to another instru-
ment, likewise used in the temple.^ This, however,
was not a musical instrument at all, but a large fire-
shovel used in removing the cinders and ashes from
the altar and temple. In the Talmud, tract Thamid,
it is stated that it was the custom for the Levite, at a
fixed time, after having used the shovel, to throw it
down between the altar and the porch ; thereby pro-
ducing a loud noise, which was heard at a great
distance from the temple, and served to inform the
people who approached how far the religious observ-
ances had proceeded.

In short, it appears uncertain whether the much-
lauded magrepha was an organ, a kettle-drum, or a
fire-shovel. Still, if this question could be decided by
a majority of voices, no doubt would remain that
there actually was a kind of organ, called magrepha^ in
the temple.

8 Ueber die Musik der alten He-
br'aer, von A. F. Pfeiffer, Erlangeu,
1779, p. 52.

^ Geschichte und Wurdigung der
Musik bei den Hebraern, von J. L.
Saalbcbutz, Berlin, 1829, p. 131.

298

MUSIC OF THE HEBREWS.

Chap. VI.

Of the real nature of this instrument, and the Assy-
rian mmplionia, perhaps some idea may be formed
from a kind of bagpipe, — a syrinx with bellows (fig.
93), — which has been found represented on one of the
ancient terra-cottas excavated in Tarsus, Asia Minor,
by Mr. W. Burckhardt Barker. These remains are
believed to be about 2000 years old, judging from
the figures upon them, and from coins struck about

200 years B.C. having
been found embedded
with them. We have
therefore before us
probably the oldest
representation of a
bagpipe hitherto dis-
covered. " The in-
strument," Mr. Bar-
ker says, " consists of
a vertical row of pijjes,
the length unknown, as the lower portion is want-
ing ; they are inserted into a small air-chest, which
appears inflated in the middle part. The right
hand is operating upon it with a kind of cushion or
compress, by which the player forces the air into the
pipes, and which he seems to apply to different parts
at will. There appears to have been a prolongation
of the central part of the instrument across the left
arm : the loss of this is much to be lamented, as that
would have shown us more of its construction,
and also how the left hand was employed in playing
it. It is firmly fixed to the body ; but the upper ends
of the reeds are too low for the performer to blow into
them with his mouth. The openings in the tops of

Fig. 93.
Ancient bagpipe from Tarsus, Cilicia.

CuAP. VI. NEBEL AND NOFEE. 299

the reeds are all perfect ; nothing is deficient at that
end. This may be looked upon as the very first ap-
plication of a pneumatic chest to the Pandean organ,
which still retains its place on the breast of the player,
though he no longer operates upon it with his mouth.
It is most desirable to restore this figure ; we should
then see whether the left hand or the foot was em-
ployed to blow the air into the machine." ^

NEBEL AND NOFEE.

A change of the liquid consonants r and l^ one into
the other, is by no means uncommon, and occurs in
the English language, for instance, in the word colonel.
Philologists have ascertained that in one of the Coptic
dialects, called Bashmuric, the letter r was pronounced
as I. The change of h into v or /, and vice versa, is
yet more usual. Even without these known facts,
we may rely on the opinion of Dr. Birch, who has in-
formed me that the word nehel, or nehle, is identical
with the word nofre of the ancient Egyptians. Now,
with the nofre we are well acquainted. We know
that it was a kind of guitar, closely resembling the
modern tamboura of the East. It would thus appear
that the Hebrews derived the nehel originally from
Egypt, and that those commentators on the Hebrew
text of the Bible, who surmise this instrument to have
been a kind of guitar, are most likely right.

One objection, however, may be raised against this
opinion. We find in Psalms xxxiii. 2 and cxliv. 9,

' Cilicia and its Governors, by W. B. Barker, London, 1853, p. 260.

300 MUSIC OF THE HEBREWS. Chap. VI.

the asor mentioned as a ten-stringed nebel. Such a
number of strings, however, could not have been
placed on the nofre, or on any other instrument resem-
bling the tamboura, on account of the narrowness of
the neck.

I have already pointed out the impossibility of de-
ciding upon the nature of unknown musical instru-
ments from their names only. Supposing we were
unacquainted with the trumpet marine, formerly a
favourite instrument of the sailors, should we not,
from its name, be led to conjecture that it must have
been a kind of trumpet ? It was, however, a stringed
instrument played with a bow, on which sounds could
be produced resembling those of the trumpet. Again,
the Jew's harp (jaw's harp ?) has no resemblance
whatever to the harp. In German it is called Maul-
trommel, from which might be conjectured that it
must be a kind of drum. Thus also the nehel asor may
have been an instrument widely different from the
nofre.

I am anxious to point out these uncertainties and
doubts, because they have often been lost sight of in
inquiries like the present. It is, however, only by
considering them that we can hope to arrive at the
truth.

THE HEBEEW LYRE.

There appears to be a probability that a Hebrew
lyre of the time of Joseph (about 1800 B.C.) is repre-
sented on an ancient Egyptian painting, discovered
in a tomb at Beni Hassan — which is the name of cer-
tain grottoes on the eastern bank of the Nile. Sir

Chap. VI, THE LYKE. 301

Gardner Wilkinson observes : " If, when we become
better acquainted with the interpretation of hiero-
glyphics, the ' strangers ' at Beni Hassan should
prove to be the arrival of Jacob's family in Egypt,
we may examine the Jewish lyre drawn by an
Egyptian artist. That this event took place about
the period when the inmate of the tomb lived is
highly probable — at least, if I am correct in con-
sidering Osirtasen I. to be the Pharaoh the patron of
Joseph ; and it remains for us to decide whether the
disagreement in the number of persons here intro-
duced— thirty-seven being written over them in hiero-
glyphics— is a sufficient objection to their identity.
It will not be foreign to the present subject to intro-
duce those figures, which are curious, if only con-
sidered as illustrative of ancient customs at that early
period, and which will be looked upon with un-
bounded interest should they ever be found to refer
to the Jews. The first figure is an Egyptian scribe,
who presents an account of their arrival to a person
seated, the owner of the tomb, and one of the prin-
cipal officers of the reigning Pharaoh. The next, also
an Egyptian, ushers them into his presence ; and two
advance, bringing presents, the wild goat or ibex,
and the gazelle, the productions of their country.
Four men, carrying bows and clubs, follow, leading
an ass on which two children are placed in panniers,
accompanied by a boy and four women ; and, last of
all, another ass laden, and two men — one holding a
bow and club, the other a lyre, which he plays with
the plectrum. All the men have beards, contrary to
the custom of the Egyptians, but very general in the
East at that period, and noticed as a peculiarity of
foreign uncivilized nations throughout their sculp-

302

MUSIC OF THE HEBREWS.

Chap. VI.

tures. The men have sandals, the women a sort of
boot reaching to the ankle — both which were worn
by many Asiatic people. The lyre is rude, and
differs a little in form from those generally used in
Egypt." ^

The accompanying figure is a copy of the player
on the lyre, as represented in the engraving of the
group of strangers, to which the description of Sir
Gr. Wilkinson refers.

Again, the three bearded men with lyres in the
Assyrian bas-relief described page 95 are by some

authorities on such questions
supposed to represent Jewish
captives. They certainly are
in appearance and dress al-
most exactly like those figures
on another Assyrian sculpture
which Mr. Layard describes as
Jewish Captives.^ If further
researches should confirm this
opinion, the lyre in our en-
graving fig. 7 must be re-
garded not as an Assyrian, but
as a Hebrew instrument. It
belongs, however, to a period
about a thousand years later
than the lyre before mentioned.
How interesting the scene represented in woodcut
fig. 95 will become, not only to the musician, but
also to the archaeologist, and indeed to every reflect-

Fig. 94.
The supposed Hebrew lyre.

^ Manners and Customs of the
Ancient Egyptians, by Sir Gardner
Wilkinson, London, 1847, vol. ii. p.
296.

3 Discoveries in the Ruins of Ni-
neveh and Babylon, by A. H. Layard,
London, 1853, p. 152.

ClIAP. VI.

THE LYRE.

303

ing reader of Scripture, should further investigation
reveal to a certainty the captive minstrels before us
to be Hebrews ! How forcibly they present to our

Fig. 95. Captive Musicians playing on stringed instruments, supposed to be Jews.
(From a bas-relief in the British Museum.)

mind the dejected captives who by the waters of
Babylon, having hung their kinnors on the willows,
sat down and gave vent to their grief!

The cross-bar of these lyres terminates in the head
of a goose or duck. The bow of the warrior who

304 MUSIC OF THE HEBREWS. Chap. VI.

guards the captives is also ornamented in this way.
In fact, the head of an aquatic bird must have been a
common ornament with the Assyrians, since we find
it not unfrequently on implements and on chariots
represented in the bas-reliefs. Still it would be pre-
cipitate to conclude therefrom that these lyres must
be Assyrian instruments. The sculptor may not im-
probably have applied to the Hebrew instrument the
favourite ornament of his country ; or the Hebrews
may actually have used the same ornament, as also
the Egyptians did on their stringed instruments. It
occurs, for instance, in the Egyptian trigonon, as seen
in woodcut fig. 35.

These lyres appear to have had four strings — a
number which, it will be remembered, was also usual
on the most ancient lyres of the Greeks. Burney has
endeavoured to show that the latter were tuned in
the following order of intervals : —

thus forming a tetrachord.* Other historians believe
the intervals to have been as follows : —

f_j~^=l

They are led to this conclusion principally by some
remarks of Boethius. This series is certainly more
likely to have been in use than that mentioned by

■* See Burney's History of Music, vol. i. p. 278.

Chap. VI. THE LYRE. 305

Burney ; for the lyre, if thus tuned, could be em-
ployed most effectually for accompanying the voice.
Besides, at the present day, the four-stringed instru-
ments met with among different nations are generally
tuned in fifths or in fourths.

True, such an arrangement of intervals on the lyre
appears to be incompatible with the pentatonic scale ;
but it should be borne in mind that the lowest string
on instruments of this class does not necessarily repre-
sent the key-note or tonic. On the four-stringed lyre
the second interval may very probably have been
usually the tonic of the songs for accompanying
which the instrument was chiefly used. If this
were the case, the lowest note would have stood
to the tonic in a relation equivalent to that of the

fifth.

W==^ — j—'-=^

This view is much strengthened by facts met with
among various nations whose degree of musical culti-
vation at the present day is nearly on a par with that
attained by most of the ancient nations. On the
Nubian lyre, for instance, the first string is tuned a
fifth from the second string, which has the principal
interval or tonic of the songs. (See the musical nota-
tion, page 158.) The Arabs have at present a
system of intervals in which not the first note, d, but
the fourth, g, is the principal one.

Diatonic Scale of the Arabs.

— I il>_i ^ •-.

— I \— — iiH ^ *■

306

MUSIC OF THE HEBREWS.

Chap. VI.

Further, it is worthy of consideration that such a
series of fourths or of fifths as we know with cer-
tainty to have been in use among ancient nations
— the Chinese, for instance, according to Amiot,
had adopted at a very early period a system of
fifths, and the Greeks had, as is well known, com-
binations of tetrachords — that such a series of fourths
or of fifths exhibits at first the intervals of the
pentatonic scale, and after these those of the diatonic
scale.

Pentatonic Scale.

CJ -»^ *

■^^.

:=]:

Succession of Fifths.

=|:

-1=-

?J:

Diatonic Scale.

_ «.^ 1*-

J* ffi 1 —

Pentatonic Scale.

5i^

i^^

Succession of Foubths.

W=^

£:

Diatonic Scale.

'W ^

Chap. VI.

THE LYRE.

307

Even the two intervals of a fourth on the four-
stringed lyre, which are in the compass of two dis-
junct tetrachords —

=1;^

lead, if continued in the same order, first to the
intervals of the pentatonic scale : —

Pentatonic Scale.

i^^

Disjunct Fourths.

wi h

1^^

:P^-^=^=^

Diatonic Scale.

=]===1"-

f*=:

These facts are pointed out partly with the object
of showing the probability that the Greek system of
tetrachords also was an offspring of the pentatonic
system ; but more especially because they afford, in
my opinion, additional indications of the closest
affinity having originally existed between the dif-
ferent musical systems of the Eastern nations.

Further, we have a representation of the lyre on
some Hebrew coins generally ascribed to Simon
Maccabaeus, who lived in the second century before
the Christian era. There are five of them in the

X 2

308

MUSIC OF THE HEBREWS.

Chap. VI.

British Museum; two are of silver, and the others
of cojoper. On three of them are lyres with three
strings ; another has one with five, and another one

Fig. 96.

Hebrew coins vvitli the lyre.

with six strings. The body of the lyre appears in
two different shapes, as shown in the engraving
fig. 96, which exhibits the three copper coins which
are in the British Musemn.

The arrangement of intervals on the five-stringed
and six-stringed lyre does not require, after what has
been already ascertained, any further explanation.
The two sides of the frame appear to have been made
of the horns of animals, or they may have been of
wood formed in imitation of two horns, which ori-
ginally were used. Lyres thus constructed are still
found in Abyssinia. The traveller Bruce states that
formerly they were made of the horns of a kind of
goat called Agazan, about the size of a small cow,
and common in the province of Tigre. He saw in
that country several of these lyres "elegantly made
of such horns, which nature seems to have shaped on
purpose." He says : " After fire-arms became com-
mon in the province of Tigre, and the woods were cut
down, this animal being more scarce, the lyre has
been made of a light red wood. However, it is
always cut into a spiral twisted form, in imitation of

Chap. VL THE LYRE. 309

the ancient materials of which the lyre was com-
posed." ®

This shape is also usual in the representations of
the various Grreek lyres ; and it may be recognised
in a fragment of the actual instrument deposited in
the British Museum. This interesting relic was found
in a tomb near Athens. The two pieces consti-
tuting the frame are of wood. Their length is about
18 inches, and the length of the cross-bar at the top
is about 9 inches. The instrument is, however, in a
condition too dilapidated and imperfect to be of any
essential use to the musical inquirer.

The three-stringed lyre was most probably tuned
in the following order of intervals : —

w^^^^^^==^

These notes are the lowest of the harmonics emitted
by a vibrating string, and the first of the natural
tones produced on a tube like the trumpet or horn.
Besides, they are especially suited for accompanying
songs or recitations — an object for which the three-
stringed lyre must have been principally employed,
since it was too limited in the number of its tones to
be of material use as a solo-instrument.

Almost all the three-stringed and two-stringed
instruments still found in the East are tuned either in
fifths or in fourths. It ought to be remembered that
these two intervals are nearly related, in so far as the
fourth is an inverted fifth, and the fifth an inverted

' Burney's History of Music, vol. i. p. 209.

310

MUSIC OF THE HEBREWS.

Chap. VI.

fourth. The two strings of the Arabian kemangeh
are tuned thus —

The Chinese two-stringed fiddle, urh-heen, is tuned
in the interval of a Jifth. The three strings of the
Chinese guitar, san-heen, are, according to Tradescant
Lay, " tuned as fourths to each other." The Japanese
samsien, a kind of guitar with three strings, is tuned,
according to Meijlan, as follows : —

All these instruments have a neck by means of
which the intermediate notes can be produced. In-
struments with only three unalterable strings, like
the above Hebrew lyre, are no longer in use in
the East.

The reasons which can be given in support of the
opinion that kinnor denotes the Hebrew lyre are
certainly far from conclusive ; still, they appear to be
deserving of consideration. The lyre was evidently
an universally-known and favoured instrument among
ancient Eastern nations. Being much more simj^le
in construction than most other stringed instruments,
it undoubtedly preceded them in antiquity. The
kinnor is mentioned in the Bible as the oldest stringed
instrument, and as the invention of Jubal. Even if
the name of one particular stringed instrument is
here used for stringed instruments in general, which

CiiAP. VI. SACRED MUSIC. 311

may possibly be the case, it is only reasonable to
suppose that tlie oldest and most universally-known
stringed instrument would be mentioned as a repre-
sentative of the whole class rather than any other.
Besides, the kinnor was a light and very portable
instrument : King David, according to the Kabbinic
records, used to suspend it during the night over his
pillow. All its uses mentioned in the Bible are espe-
cially applicable to the lyre. And the resemblance
of the word kinnor to kithara^ kissar, and similar
names known to denote the lyre, also tends to con-
firm the opinion that it refers to this instrument or to
a kind of trigonon.

VOCAL AND INSTEUMENTAL PERFOEMANCES.

With the nature of the Hebrew musical per-
formances we are more accurately acquainted than
with the instruments. Moreover, it is evident from
the Biblical records that the Hebrews had various
kinds of sacred and secular musical compositions,
differing according to the occasions on which they
were employed. To enter into a detailed description
of them would transgress the limits prescribed by the
object of the present essay. The following short
summary will suffice for our purpose.

Sacred Music in Divine Worship was evidently re-
garded as of the highest importance by the Hebrews.
The number of musicians engaged in the Temple in
the reign of King David is stated to have been four
thousand : " And four thousand praised the Lord
with instruments which I made, said David, to praise

31 2 MUSIC OF THE HEBEEWS. Chap. VI.

therewith " (1 Chron. xxiii. 5). An enumeration of
the whole band is given 1 Chron. xxv., from which
we learn that it consisted of two hundred and eighty-
eight well-practised members, described as " cmming "
in their profession ; the rest, making up the number
of four thousand, appear to have been pupils and
occasional assistants of the former.

In the solemn musical performances in the proces-
sions conveying the ark, the three principal con-
ductors of the band, Heman, Asaph, and Ethan,
" were appointed to sound with cymbals of brass "
(1 Chron. XV. 19). These "cymbals" (metzilthaim)
were most likely a kind of castanets, perhaps resem-
bling the crotala of the ancient Egyptians before
mentioned, with the rhythmical sounds of which the
leaders indicated the time and directed the per-
formance.

In 2 Sam. vi. 5 we read : " And David and all
the house of Israel played before the Lord on all
manner of instruments made of fir-wood, even on
harps, and on psalteries, and on timbrels, and on
cornets, and on cymbals." The occasion on which
this combination of instruments was employed was
the conveyance of the ark. The same band is de-
scribed somewhat differently in 1 Chron. xiii. 8,
where singing is mentioned with the accompaniment
of harps, psalteries, timbrels, cymbals, and trumpets.
This suggests the probability that in some of the
descriptions of Hebrew bands occurring in the Bible,
some instruments — perhaps those which were con-
sidered as of minor importance — may have been
left entirely unnoticed, and that therefore the bands,
on some occasions, consisted of a greater number

CHAP. VI. SACRED MUSIC. 313

of different instruments than would appear from the
accounts.

Grand, but to our ears painfully loud, must have
been the performance which assisted at the solemn
dedication of Solomon's Temple : " Also the Levites
which were the singers, all of them of Asaph, of
Heman, of Jeduthun, with their sons and their
brethren, being arrayed in white linen, having cym-
bals, and psalteries, and harps, stood at the east end
of the altar, and with them an hundred and twenty
priests sounding with trumpets : It came even to
pass, as the trumpeters and singers were as one, to
make one sound to be heard in praising and thanking
the Lord ; and when they lifted up their voice with
the trumpets and cymbals and instruments of music,
and praised the Lord, saying. For he is good ; for
his mercy endureth for ever : that then the house
was filled with a cloud, even the house of the Lord :
so that the priests could not stand to minister by
reason of the cloud ; for the glory of the Lord had
filled the house of God" (2 Chron. v. 12, 13, 14).

Sacred Songs and instrumental compositions, which
probably were performed also in family circles, are
alluded to in the Bible in a few instances only :
" Ye shall have a song, as in the night when a holy
solemnity is kept ; and gladness of heart, as when
one goeth with a pipe to come into the mountain of
the Lord, to the miglity One of Israel " (Isaiah xxx,
29). " Though ye offer me burnt offerings and your
meat offerings, I will not accept them : neither will I
regard the peace offerings of your fat beasts. Take
thou away from me the noise of thy songs, for I will
not hear the melody of thy viols " (Amos v. 22, 23).

314 MUSIC OF THE HEBREWS. Chap. VI.

" Is any among you afflicted ? let him pray. Is any
merry ? let him sing psalms " (James v. 13).

Military Music, sacred as well as secular, was evi-
dently considered a necessary requisite in warlike
exploits. When Jehoshaphat went to battle against
the hosts of Ammon, Moab, and Seir, he placed a
choir of singers in the front of his army : " And
when he had consulted with the people he appointed
singers unto the Lord, that should praise the beauty
of holiness, as they went out before the army, and to
say, Praise the Lord ; for his mercy endureth for
ever" (2 Chron. xx. 21).

An instance of the powerful effect of the trumpet
upon the Hebrews, in encouraging them on the
battle-field, is recorded 2 Chron. xiii. 12, 14 ; and a
peculiar use made of this instrument in war occurs
on occasion of the capture of Jericho : " And seven
priests shall bear before the ark seven trumpets of
rams' horns : and the seventh day ye shall compass
the city seven times, and the priests shall blow with
the trmnpets. And it shall come to pass that when
they make a long blast with the ram's horn, and
when ye hear the sound of the trumpet, all the
people shall shout with a great shout " (Josh. vi. 4, 5).
Another peculiar employment of the trumpet in
war occurs in the stratagem of Gideon (Judg. vii.),
in which three hundred trumpets were used by the
warriors.

Triwrnplial Songs, as well as instrumental perform-
ances, usually of a sacred character, celebrating a
victory over the enemy, are also frequently alluded
to in the Biblical records. Such, for instance, were
the song of Moses and Miriam, in which the children

Chap. VL TRIUMPHAL SONGS. 315

of Israel joined in chorus (Exod. xv.), and the song of
Deborah and Barak (Judg. v.). True, we do not find
it recorded that the last-mentioned song was per-
formed with instrumental accompaniments and dances,
like other songs of the same description ; still, there
can scarcely be a doubt that this was the case. David,
after his retm-n from the slaughter of the Philistine,
was greeted with vocal and instrumental music
(1 Sam. xviii. 6) ; and musical performances of a
similar character are those of Jephthah's daughter
and her companions (Judg. xi. 34) ; of Jehoshaphat
and his people, on returning from a successful expe-
dition to Jerusalem (2 Chron. xx. 27, 28) ; and of
Judith and the women, after the death of Holofernes
and the defeat of the Assyrians. The description of
the last-mentioned musical performance, occurring in
one of the apocryphal books, is remarkably illustrative
of Eastern customs, and reminds one forcibly of some
of the ancient Egyptian and Assyrian representa-
tions of such performances : — " Then all the women
of Israel ran together to see her [Judith], and blessed
her, and made a dance among them for her : and she
took branches in her hand, and gave also to the
women that were with her. And they put a garland
of olive upon her and her maid that was with her,
and she went before all the people in the dance,
leading all the women : and all the men of Israel
followed in their armour with garlands, and with
songs in their mouths. Then Judith began to sing
this thanksgiving in all Israel, and all the people sang
after her this song of praise. And Judith said.
Begin unto my God with timbrels, sing unto my
Lord with cymbals : tmie unto him a new psalm :

316 MUSIC OF THE HEBREWS. Chap. VI.

exalt him, and call upon his name," &:c. (Judith xv.
12, 13; xvi. 1, 2).

Erotic Songs diTQ alluded to in the title of Psalm xlv.,
" To the chief musician upon Shoshannim, for the
sons of Korah, Maschil, a Song of Loves ; " and in
Isaiah v. 1, " Now will I sing to my wellbeloved a
song of my beloved touching his vineyard."

Music at bridal processions w?i^ probably as usual as
it is at the present day in the East. The prophet
Jeremiah alludes to it in the following passage : —
" Then will I cause to cease from the cities of
Judah, and from the streets of Jerusalem, the voice
of mirth, and the voice of gladness, the voice of the
bridegroom, and the voice of the bride : for the land
shall be desolate" (Jerem. vii. 34).

Funeral Songs and instrumental performances of
doleful music at funerals, combined with lamentations,
processions in the streets, and characteristic wailings,
were also evidently as common as they are at this day
in Asia Minor and in Egypt. Compare, for instance,
the following passages : —

" And Jeremiah lamented for Josiah ; and all the
singing men and the singing women spoke of Josiah
in their lamentations to this day, and made them an
ordinance in Israel : and behold they are written in
the Lamentations" (2 Chron. xxxv. 25).

" Man goeth to his long home, and the mourners go
about the streets" (Eccl. xii. 5).

" Yet hear the word of the Lord, 0 ye women, and
let your ear receive the word of liis mouth, and teach
your daughters wailing, and every one her neighbour
lamentation " (Jerem. ix. 20).

" Therefore the Lord, the God of hosts, the Lord,

Chap. VT. POrULAR SONGS. .317

saitli thus : Wailing shall he in all streets, and they
shall say in the highways, Alas ! alas ! and they shall
call the husbandman to mourning, and such as are
skilful of lamentation to wailing" (Amos v. IG).
Compare also St. Matt. ix. 23.

When king Saul and his son Jonathan, David's
friend, had fallen in battle, David vented his grief in
a touching elegy (2 Sam. i. 19), in which occurs
three times the sentence, " How are the mighty
fallen ! " which suggests the probability that these
words were combined with a certain melodious
phrase of the nature of the refrain in some of our
songs.

Popular Secula?' Songs are found in every nation,
whatever may be its stage of musical development.
There can therefore be no doubt that the Hebrews
must have jDossessed this kind of music also. Allu-
sion is made in Isaiah xvi. 10 to the songs of the
vintners : " And gladness is taken away, and joy out
of the plentiful field ; and in the vineyards there
shall be no singing, neither shall there be shouting :
the treaders shall tread out no wine in their press ; I
have made their vintage shouting to cease." Com-
pare also Jerem. xlviii. 33.

Convivial Songs, as well as instrumental perform-
ances and dances, entertained the guests at banquets
and other social festivities. They are alluded to in
Isaiah xxiv. 8, 9 : — " The mirth of tabrets ceaseth, the
noise of them that rejoice endeth, the joy of the harp
ceaseth. They shall not drink wine with a song."
The injunction to the master of an entertainment,
" Pour not out words where there is a musician, and
show not forth wisdom out of time " (Ecclus. xxxii.

318 MUSIC OF THE HEBREWS. Chap. VI.

1, 4), would indicate that nmsic was at least as much
esteemed as at the present time, where this rule is not
always observed. The custom of celebrating a happy
event with music and feasting is alluded to in the
parable of the Prodigal Son (St. Luke xv. 25).

In denouncing the debaucheries into which the
feasts sometimes degenerated, the prophets also
inveigh against the misuse of music on such occa-
sions. " Woe unto them," exclaims Isaiah, " that rise
up early in the morning, that they may follow strong
drink ; that continue until night, till wine inflame
them ! And the harp, and the viol, the tabret, and
pipe, and wine, are in their feasts" (Isaiah v. 11, 12).
The prophet Amos censures the ignoble use made of
music by voluptuaries " that lie upon beds of ivory,
and stretch themselves upon their couches, and eat
the lambs of the flock, and the calves out of the
midst of the stall ; that chant to the sound of the
viol, and invent to themselves instruments of music,
like David" (Amos vi. 4, 5).

Performances of itinerant musicians were probably
common in the streets of the towns. Female musi-
cians are mentioned by Isaiah as performing in the
streets, and, perhaps, more frequently in houses for
the entertainment of parties, like those seen in some
of the ancient Egyptian representations, or like the
Hindoo Bayaderes, and the Almeh girls of modern
Egypt ; but their musical accomplishments, whatever
they may have been, appear, unfortunately, to have
been superior to their moral character. " And it shall
come to pass in that day that Tyre shall be forgotten
seventy years, according to the days of one king :
after the end of seventy years shall Tyre sing as an

Chap. VI. ITS POWER. 319

harlot. Take an harp, go about the city, thou harlot
that hast been forgotten ; make sweet melody, sing
many songs, that thou mayest be remembered"
(Isaiah xxiii. 15, 16). Such a class of musicians
must Jesus the son of Sirach have had in his thought
when he gave the advice, " Use not much the com-
pany of a woman that is a singer, lest thou be taken
with her attempts" (Ecclus. ix. 4).

Two historical facts are specially remarkable as
showing the power of Hebrew music, and how fully
it was appreciated. These are, its application as
a cure in nervous disorders, and its employment
as a means of stimulating the inspirations of the
prophets. When King Saul became afflicted with
attacks of a nervous malady, his attendants suggested
to him, " Let our lord now command thy servants
which are before thee, to seek out a man who is
a cunning player on a harp : and it shall come to
pass, when the evil spirit from God is upon thee, that
he shall play with his hand, and thou shalt be well."
And we know that the anticij)ated effect was realised :
" And it came to pass, when the evil spirit from Grod
was upon Saul, that David took an harp, and played
with his hand : so Saul was refreshed, and was well,
and the evil spirit departed from him (1 Sam. xvi. 16,
23). And this was repeated until Saul's affliction
became too severe to yield any longer to the bene-
ficial influence of music.

Eeferring to the power of prophesying evoked by
music, several instances might be cited ; one, however,
will be sufficient. Elisha being required by the
kings of Israel, Judah, and Edom, to prophesy before
them, his request was for a musician : " But now

320 MUSIC OF THE HEBKEWS. Chap. VI.

bring me a minstrel. And it came to pass when the
minstrel played, that the hand of the Lord came upon
him. And he said, Thus saith the Lord, Make this
valley full of ditches," &c. (2 Kings iii. 15).

Although we possess no such records of the power
of Assyrian and ancient Egyptian music, there can
scarcely be a doubt that it was similarly effective.
Indeed, the fact of musical performances being con-
sidered essential requisites in important and solemn
celebrations, as is evident from the monumental repre-
sentations, in some measure proves this. Neither can
there be a doubt that the effect of music upon the
human heart must have been in ancient times quite as
powerful as it is in our own day.

I have stated already the reasons which tend to the
conclusion that the ancient nations were not so entirely
unacquainted with harmony as is generally supposed.
True, we read in 2 Chron. v. 13, of a musical per-
formance on a certain occasion in the Temple of Jeru-
salem : "It came even to pass as the trumpeters and
singers were as one, to make one sound to be heard in
praising and thanking the Lord." This passage is
usually cited in support of the opinion that the musi-
cal performances of the Hebrews must have been
in unison. Might not, however, rather the 023posite
conclusion be drawn from it? Taking for granted
that a performance in unison is here really meant, is
it at all likely that it would have been specially
recorded if no other mode of combining the voices
and instruments had been known ?

Some hints respecting the character of the musical
performances of other nations adjacent to the Hebrews,
besides the Assyrians, are also transmitted to us in

Chap. VI. ACQUAINTED WITH HARMONY. 321

the Bible. Laban reproaches Jacob : " Wherefore
didst thou flee away secretly, and steal away from
me ; and didst not tell me, that I might have sent thee
away with mirth and with songs, with tabret and with
harp?" (Gen. xxxi. 27). Laban, who lived about
B.C. 1700, was a Syrian. Again, in the book of Job,
who is supposed to have dwelt in Arabia B.C. 1500,
mention is made of three different instruments in
combination, rendered in the English authorized
version, " They take the timbrel and harp, and
rejoice at the sound of the organ" (Job xxi. 12),
The " organ " is the Hebrew ugab, which, as we have
seen, appears to have been nothing more than a kind
of Pandean pipe.

The prophet Ezekiel, while threatening Tyre with
destruction, adverts incidentally to the music of the
Phoenicians: "And I will cause the noise of thy
songs to cease ; and the sound of the harps shall be
no more heard" (Ezek. xxvi. 13). Perhaps also the
passage in Isaiah xxiii. 15, 16, which has already
been quoted, may refer especially to certain musi-
cal performances common among the Phoenicians.
Further, it must be remembered that some of the
ancient writers ascribe to the Phoenicians the inven-
tion of the kinnor, the trigonon, and several other of
the most remarkable instruments of antiquity.

All that can be gathered from such scanty records
tends to strengthen the conclusion previously arrived
at, that the principal characteristics of the music in all
those nations must have been very much the same.
In the ten-stringed instruments mentioned in the
Bible we have additional indications of the penta-
tonic scale at the time of David. Combinations of

322 MUSIC OF THE HEBEEWS. Chap. VI.

various instruments, in performances like those of the
Hebrew and Assyrian, undoubtedly were in use in
Phoenicia and in other countries of Western Asia, also
at an early period. In reference to the antiquity of
the Egyptian bands, Sir Gardner Wilkinson observes :
" In the earliest sculptures, which are those in the
tomb of an individual behind the Great Pyramid,
between three and four thousand years old, is a
concert of vocal and instrumental music, consisting of
two harps, a pipe, a flute, and several voices ; and
during the reigns of the Pharaohs of the eighteenth
dynasty, other combinations frequently occur." ^ The
Hebrew performances, though similar to these, were
apparently more rude ; noisy instruments of percus-
sion and loud wind-instruments, such as the small
trumpet, being usually employed, often in great
numbers, even in Divine worship. The rudeness of
the Hebrew performances at the time of Moses is
indicated in the conversation between Joshua and
Moses, when the former mistook them for a " noise of
war in the camp ; " so that Moses found it necessary
to inform him, " It is not the voice of them that shout
for mastery, neither is it the voice of them that cry
for being overcome : but the noise of them that sing
do I hear" (Exod. xxxii. 18). The Hebrews evidently
retained their predilection for loud and noisy perform-
ances, even after they had made considerable progress
in the cultivation of music.

Considering that it was the vocation of the Levites
to engage in the musical portion of the religious ser-

^ The Manners and Customs of the Ancient Egyptians, by Sir G.
Wilkinson, London, 1847, vol. ii. p. 30G.

Chap. VI. HEBREW MUSIC OF THE PRESENT DAY. 323

vices, and that they evidently had ample leisure for
the cultivation of music, it appears highly probable
that they studied this art scientifically as well as
practically. We may therefore suppose that the
Hebrews possessed written treatises on the theory of
music, as well as institutions for the practice of the
different branches of vocal and instrumental music.
They had, as the Bible informs us, schools of the
prophets in various places, in which music appears
to have been taught systematically. One of these
establishments it would appear was at Bethel (1 Sam.
X. 5) ; another at Naioth, in Eamah (1 Sam. xix. 19,
20, 21) ; a third at Jericho (2 Kings ii. 5, 7) ; a
fourth at Gilgal (2 Kings iv. 38) ; and there was
most likely also one at Jerusalem (vide 2 Kings xxii.
14). King Solomon himself was a musical composer,
who undoubtedly had systematically studied the art
(1 Kings iv. 32).

HEBEEW MUSIC OF THE PEESENT DAY.

Although the modern Jews cannot be said to possess
a national music of their own, they have retained
several characteristics in their musical performances
which unmistakeably indicate their Eastern origin.
This would scarcely have been possible imder the
circumstance of their being so widely and thinly
dispersed among other nations, were it not for the
strictness with which they have always upheld their
prescribed religious rites and ceremonies in which
music is employed. They have, as we have seen,
even preserved one of their old Hebrew musical

Y 2

324

MUSIC OF THE HEBREWS.

Chap. VI.

instruments, the shophar. Moreover, the Jews in
Grermany possess several hymn-tunes undoubtedly of
very high antiquity. Among these is a Penitential
Hymn, with respect to which a tradition exists that
it was composed by King David. The circumstance
of its being somewhat differently sung in the syna-
gogues of Northern Germany, from what it is in
those of Southern Germany, speaks more in favour
of, than against its antiquity. I shall insert here two
readings of this melody ; the first is my own notation
from hearing it sung in Hamburg, and the second is
transcribed from the collection ' Schir Zion,' used in
the synagogues of Vienna : —

PENITENTIAL HYMN

AS SUNG IN THE SYNAGOGUES AT HAMBURG.

Qrave.

t^.

4— ^1— rj

:2±.

-»-m)-

AS SUNG IN THE SYNAGOGUES AT VIENNA.

^^^

-* — m-

W-

-^-=W-

Chap. VI.

BLESSING OF THE PRIESTS.

325

:=5-

:t:

:^:

^— f*^^-

:^=q:

-ei-

-<s)

WEE3

zi:

J^Z

:E^

* Scliir Zion ' contains, besides compositions of com-
paratively modern origin, thirty-six ancient melodies ;
whicli, however sceptical we may be with respect to
their asserted ancient Hebrew origin, are certainly in
construction closely allied to the songs of the Arabs
and Persians.

The ancient melody to the ' Blessing of the Priests '
has been already noticed, page 114. De Sola ob-
serves : " A tradition exists with respect to the
melody of the ' Blessing of the Priests,' that it is
identical with that sung in the Temple, where, as
it is known, the priestly choirs were daily wont to
bless the people, agreeably to the command to them in
Numbers vi. 22-26. That this tradition is supported
by great probability, almost amounting to direct
proof, will appear from the following considerations :
First, that this duty devolved exclusively on the
priests — who were a numerous class — who executed
it with religious awe and attention, and who, as

326 MUSIC OF THE HEBKEWS. Chap. VI.

a privilege peculiar to themselves, scrupulously trans-
mitted it to their sons. It is therefore highly impro-
bable that, on the restoration of public Divine service,
the priests should have used, or the people would
have permitted them to introduce, any other melody
except the venerated one of the Temple, especially as
the blessing of the people was the only act of ministra-
tion remaining to the priests after the destruction of
the sanctuary. Secondly, we find that, with slight
alteration, this blessing is sung to the same melody
in every Sephardic congregation. And though our
brethren, following the German Liturgy, have more
than one melody for it, they seem to be of compara-
tively modern introduction ; and one of them, said to
be the most ancient, contains unmistakeable traces of
this, which we must consider to be the original
melody. Its simplicity and the repetition of the
same melody for all the words of the Blessing (fifteen
in number), are circumstances which will have due
weight, and will be accepted as additional and corro-
borative evidence for its antiquity by the musical
archaeologist and critic." ^

Another favourite melody of the Jews, the ' Song
of Moses,' is asserted to be the same which Miriam
and her companions sang after the deliverance from
Pharaoh's host. De Sola gives the following argu-
ments in favour of this opinion : — " According to
a very ancient Spanish work (printed, if I recollect
rightly, in Portugal), ' Some have affirmed that what
we now sing to the Song of Moses is the same

^ The Ancient Melodies of the Li- I Jews, by E. Aguilar and by the Kev.
tiirgy of the Spanish and rortuguese | D. A. De Sola, London, 1857, p. 15,

Chap. VI.

SONG OF MOSES.

327

melody which Miriam and her companions sung,' &c.
This legend would not merit any serious consideration
here, except that it undoubtedly proves that the know-
ledge of the origin of the melody was already long
lost when this ancient Spanish book was written.
And here, again, the acute remark of Dr. Sachs is
applicable, that ' Fable soon occupies itself to speak
where history is silent.' It is therefore highly pro-
bable that this melody belongs to a period anterior to
the regular settlement of the Jews in Spain. The
general adoption thereof by every congregation of
the Sephardic Liturgy furnishes also a strong proof
in favour of the high antiquity of its origin :"^ —

THE SONG OF MOSES.

Andantino

ya - sliir Mo - she lib -

yis ra

_J^-_]S_-^

-« — P-

^f^gJ — ^--_^--^-^±:

-g— pi-i h

-I*— i — I — I — ^

- el

et ha • shi - ra ha - zot

-9'—] — 0>-

:^^

la - do

i^:

nai . . va yo - me - ru le - mor. A - do

:t::

:t=t^=

zi:

nai ish mil cha - ma A - do - nai

^ The Ancient Melodies of the I guese Jews, by the Rev. D. A. De
Liturgy of the Spanish and Porta- j Sola, London, 1857, p. IG.

328

MUSIC OF THE HEBREWS.

Chap, VI.

^^Tj_j^_±^^

3=1=

mo mar- ke - Lot Parno;lao ve « clie - lo

=&t:

-— — ;^— #— ^— =— «-

yam

u - mib - char .

sha - li -

shav

tu - bens; - u

be - yam suf.

This melody is, however, so modern in construction,
that, if we are inclined to accept Mr. De Sola's
views, we must yet remember that it has probably, in
the course of time, undergone a transformation suffi-
cient to make it appear almost another tune. The
same remark applies, in my oj^inion, to all the me-
lodies which are asserted to have been in use in the
Temple at Jerusalem. Indeed, it may be doubted
whether the ancient Hebrews, could they hear them,
would now recognise any of them as their own.

Very different is it, however, with the musical per-
formances in the synagogue. These, undoubtedly,
have preserved the Oriental type. Thus the charac-
teristic manner of singing, or rather chanting, with
the introduction of embellishments — in short, the
kind of singing which musicians call cantillation, and
which may be heard in every synagogue — bears a
close resemblance to certain vocal performances of the
Arabs and Persians. A Chief Rabbi related to Dr.
Burney, that, " being at Petersburgh some years
since, the Grand Caliph of Persia was there likewise

Chap. VI. HEBREW MUSIC OF THE PRESENT DAY.

329

on an embassy, and had the service of his rehgion
regularly performed in a kind of mosque fitted up in
the Czar's palace for his use. That when he first
heard this service performed he found the singing so
like that in the German synagogues that he thought
it had been done in derision of the Jews, and on that
account soon left it. But, upon inquiry, finding it to
be nothing more than the manner of singing common
in Persia, he concluded that the Persians had bor-
rowed this kind of chant from the ancient Oriental
Jews." ^

Even the peculiar swinging motion of the body,
usually accompanying the singing of the Jews in the
synagogue, which gradually increases with the in-
creasing fervour of the singers, reminds us of the
East. In Egypt, Mr. Lane states, " all the boys, in
learning to read, recite or chant their lessons aloud, at
the same time rocking their heads or bodies incessantly
backwards and forwards ; which practice is observed
by almost all persons in reciting the ' Km^an/ being
thought to assist the memory." ^

If we were exactly acquainted with the musical
performances in the religious observances of the
various Jewish communities in different parts of the
world, we should probably be in a position to deter-
mine how much has been preserved since the dispersion
of the Jews after the destruction of the second temple.
Dr. Pickering, the ethnologist attached to the United
States Exploring Expedition, who divides the whole
Jewish family, as it exists at the present day, into
four classes, — viz., the Syrian, Indian, Arabian, and

' Buraey's Hialory of Music, i.
256.

* An Account of the Manners and

Customs of the Modern Egyptians,
by E. W. Lane, London, 1860, p.
60.

330 MUSIC OF THE HEBREWS. Chap. VI.

European, — observes that the Arabian Jews at Aden
have preserved more of the primitive Hebrew cus-
toms than any of their brethren elsewhere. Further,
ethnologists describe the Jews in China, Tartary,
and Hindoostan as having spread from early times
through these and other countries of Central and
Eastern Asia. Then, there is in Cochin, Malabar
coast, a colony of so-called White Jews, or Jeru-
salem Jews, which arrived in that country at a
later date than those of a dark complexion, known
as the Black Jews.^ What interesting results might
the musical historian deduce from a comparison of
the sacred musical performances of the former with
those of the latter !

Respecting the Black Jews, a recent traveller
says : " Some few of them have a Hebrew cast of
countenance, but by far the greater number are indis-
tinguishable from the natives around. They are
considered by the White Jews as an inferior race,
and not of ^9z^rt^ caste, and intermarriage between
them consequently never takes place. Their customs,
forms of prayer, songs, &c., are the same as those of
the White Jews, but they do not observe the same
strict Levitical ceremonies, and, having no legitimate
relationship with Hebrews in other lands, they are
looked upon, and pride themselves upon being, a
distinct sect."

Respecting the White Jews, the same writer says :
" Their costume does not at all resemble that of the
natives of India ; and as the Jews say that it is the
same as that of their ancestors, there is reason to

- See The Natural History of Man, by J. C. Pricliard, edited by Edwin
Norris, London, 1855, p. 131.

Chap. VI. HEBREW MUSIC OF THE PRESENT DAY. 331

imagine, therefore, that it affords a correct idea of
the dress of their sect at the commencenient of the
Christian era." The Feast of Tabernacles is cele-
brated by them with great solemnity. The women
are in a screened gallery over the entrance of the
synagogue. " The service commences with a chant
and jDrayer ; a portion of Scripture is read, or rather
intoned, by the officiating Eabbi (who wears the
Tallith or veil over his turban) ; and the impressive
silent prayer follows. The people stand in groups
facing the Books of the Law, and, with a constant
flexion of the body and an occasional low prostration,
hum the petitions very rapidly, and apparently with
deep consideration. After some minutes the Eabbi
gives the initiative, and they burst forth into a tumult-
uous, if not irreverent, chant, in performing which
they distort their faces with zeal to make themselves
heard. After a further pause the men proceed by
turns to the end of the building, and with much show
of respect kiss the silver cases enclosing the Books,
and then the women descend and go through the same
ceremony with most touching solemnity."^

In Jerusalem there are at the present day several
distinct Jewish communities. Among these, the Se-
phardic, or that of the Spanish and Portuguese Jews,
consisting of about 4000 in number, constitutes the
largest. The Aschkenasim community consists of
Jews from Grermany, Holland, Russia, Poland, Bohe-
mia, and other parts of Europe. They all understand
the German language, of which they have created a

3 British and Native Cochin, by C. A, L., Cochin, printed at tlie ' Courier '
Press, l)y B. Fernandcs, 1860, p. 121.

332 MUSIC OP THE HEBREWS. Chap. VI.

strange dialect ; while the Sephardic Jews, principally
derived from Egypt, Tunis, Tripoli, Morocco, Algiers,
India, and Persia, use the Spanish language. Besides
these, there are in Jerusalem some smaller separate
Hehrew communities, of which the Karaites must be
noticed from their having been resident in Jerusalem,
according to their own account, ever since the de-
struction of the Temple. Dr. Frankl, who had ample
opportunity to witness the religious observances of
the Jews in this city, found the singing of the Sephar-
dic Jews closely allied to that of the Arabs, " more
rhythmical than melodious, shrill rather than soft,
and closely bordering on snuffling." Still, he pre-
ferred it to the singing of the Aschkenasim Jews,
consisting of a kind of cantillation, which is usually
called Polish singing.

The same traveller gives an account of the sum-
mons of the Jews in Jerusalem to morning prayer :
" When the oldest rabbi in the institution Beth-el, in
which the Talmud is studied the whole night, observes
the first dawn of early morn, he despatches a messen-
ger to the roof of the institution, which commands an
extensive view towards the east. There he announces
in a loud voice, like the muezzin of the Mohammedans
from the minarets, that it is the hour for prayer. The
commencement of the Sabbath is announced to the
Sephardim by the cry, ' Ascender ' (' Light up '),
and immediately thousands of windows are illumi-
nated, and from the synagogue is heard the fervent
salutation, Lecho Daiidi, likras halo / " *

'' The Jews in the East, translated from the German of Dr. Frankl, by
the Kev. P. Beaton, London, 1859, vol. ii. p. 62.

CiiAP. VI. HEBREW MUSIC OP THE PRESENT DAY. 333

Dr. Frankl, having been invited, during his stay in
Jerusalem, to a Jewish wedding, was, on his arrival,
entertained with the musical performance of some
young Jewesses, who were singing an Arab song,
striking at the same time tambourines, to which bells
were attached. In the course of the entertainment,
several young girls performed dances to their own
singing, while the admiring male spectators produced
a rhythmical accompaniment by clapping their hands.
The girls never formed a group ; each danced singly.
When a Jewish marriage procession passes through
the streets of Jerusalem, the chanting of the men is
at intervals accompanied by the shrill Zaghareet of
the young Jewesses who escort the bride.

It::

I 2ag - - - ha - reet.

During the procession of a Jewish funeral in Jeru-
salem, Dr. Frankl heard the bearers sing the Psalm,
" He that dwelleth in the sacred place of the Most
High shall abide under the shadow of the Almighty."
On the roof of the house out of which the body had
been removed stood female mourners covered with
long white veils, and singing. As they stretched
out their hands towards heaven, they looked, says
Dr. Frankl, " like the dead risen from their graves in
their white winding-sheets, and chanting a death-song
in wild unearthly chorus." Another peculiar cere-
mony is the wailing at the wall which formerly
surrounded the Temple at Jerusalem, part of which

334 MUSIC OP THE HEBREWS. Chap. VI.

is yet standing. Here the Jews assemble every
Friday to express in prayers and songs their affliction
for the destruction of the Sanctuary. Dr. Frankl
relates : " The Jews have a firman from the Sultan,
which, in return for a small tax, ensures them the
right of entrance for all time to come. The road con-
ducted us to several streets, till, entering a narrow,
crooked lane, we reached the wall, which has been
often described. There can be no doubt but the
lower part of it is a real memorial of the days of Solo-
mon, which, in the language of Flavins Josephus, is
' immoveable for all time.' Its Cyclopic proportions
produce the positive conviction that it will last as long
as the strong places of the earth. Before we reached
the wall we heard a sort of howling melody, a passion-
ate shrieking, a heartrending wailing, like a chorus,
from which the words came sobbing forth, ' How long
yet, O Grod ? ' Several hundreds of Jews, Turkish
and Polish costumes, were assembled, and, with their
faces turned towards the wall, were bending and
bowing as they offered up the evening prayer. He
who led their devotions was a young man in a Polish
talar, who seemed to be worn out with passion and
disease. The words were those of the well-known
Mincha prayer, but drawled, torn, shrieked, and mum-
bled in such a way that the piercing sound resembled
rather the raging frenzy of chained madmen, or the
roaring of a cataract, than the worship of rational
beino-s. At a considerable distance from the men
stood about a hundred women, all in long white robes,
the folds of which covered the head and the whole
figure — white doves, which, weary of flight, had
perched upon the ruins. When it was their turn to

Chap. VI. HEBREW MUSIC OF THE PRESENT DAY.

335

offer up the usual passages of the prayer, they joined
the men's tumultuous chorus, and raised their arms
aloft, which, with their wide robes, looked like wings
with which they were about to soar aloft into the open
sky ; and then they struck their foreheads on the square
stones of the wall of the temple. Meanwhile, if the
leader of their prayers grew weary, and leaned his
head against the wall in silent tears, for a moment
there was a death-like silence. I happened to be near
him, and I could mark the sincerity of his agitated
soul. He gave a rapid glance at me, and, without
stopping short in his prayer, said to me, ' Mokem
Kodesch ' ii. e. ' holy place '), and pointed to my
covered feet. My guide had forgotten to inform
me that I must take off my shoes. I now did so,
and was drawn into the vortex of raging sorrow and
lamentation." ^

The Hon. Robert Curzon, while in Jerusalem, went
on the morning of the day of the Passover into the
synagogue under the walls of the Temple. He found
a numerous congregation, standing up, with large
white shawls over their heads, reading the Psalms.
He says : " After I had been there a short time, all
the people began to hop about and to shake their
heads and limbs in a most extraordinary manner ; the
whole congregation was in motion, from the priest
who was standing in the reading-desk to the porter who
capered at the door. All this was in consequence of
a verse in the 35th Psalm, which says, ' All my bones
shall say. Lord, who is like unto thee v ' " «

12.

* The Jews in the East, vol. ii. p.
2.
® Visits to Monasteries in the

Levant, by the Hon. Robert Curzon,
London, 1850, p. 172.

336 MUSIC OF THE HEBREWS. Chap. VI.

The traveller Burckliardt, in speaking of the Jews
of Tabaria, or Tiberias, in Palestine, who constitute
about one-fourth of the population of that town, says :
" They observe a singular custom here in praying.
While the Rabbin recites the Psalms of David, or the
prayers extracted from them, the congregation fre-
quently imitate by their voice or gestures the meaning
of some remarkable passages ; for example, when the
Rabbin pronounces, ' Praise the Lord with the sound
of the trumpet,' they imitate the sound of the trumpet
through their closed fists. When a ' horrible tempest '
occurs, they puff and blow to represent a storm ; or
should he mention ' the cries of the righteous in dis-
tress,' they all set up a loud screaming ; and it not
unfrequently happens that, while some are still blow-
ing the storm, others have already begun the cries
of the righteous, thus forming a concert which it is
difficult for any but a zealous Hebrew to hear with
gravity." "^

Alexander Russell mentions that in Aleppo it is
the custom of the Jews on their Sabbath to remain a
considerable time at table singing in chorus, very
much in the same manner as they chant the Psalms
in the synagogue.^ Also, the Jews in Poland and
Galicia appear to adapt their sacred chants, at ban-
quets, to secular words. The traveller Kohl, when
strolling at midnight through the streets of Stanis-
lawow, a small town in Gralicia, was surprised to hear
from a wine-house a chorus of male voices, which

■^ Travels in Syria and the Ploly
Land, by the late J. L. Biu-ckhardt,
London, 1822, p. 326.

* The Natural History of Aleppo,
by Alex. Russell, London, 1794,
vol. i. p. G3.

Chap. VI. HEBREW MUSIC OP THE PRESENT DAY. 337

appeared to him exactly like the usual chanting of
the Psalms of David in the services of the synagogue.
Having entered the wine-house, he found a picturesque-
looking company of Jews, with fine black beards,
dressed in long black silk talars, who were drinking
and singing with all their might. ^

With the music of the Jews in Syria we are but
superficially acquainted. Dr. Frankl, during his
sojourn in Damascus, was invited to a feast given by
Rafael Stambini, the wealthiest Jew in that place, in
honour of Baron Alphonso von Eothschild, who had
come on a visit from Jerusalem. On this occasion,
as soon as four instrumental performers, playing a
kind of hautbois called zourna^ the drum, the tam-
bourine, and cymbals, had concluded their extraordi-
nary quartetto^ the musical entertainment was continued
by a vocal performance in the manner which. Dr.
Frankl observes, " is often scoffed at in the synagogues
of the West as Polish flourishing and snufiling." And
thus, also, was the singing of profane as well as reli-
gious songs in Hebrew, Arabic, and Spanish, which
Dr. Frankl heard on a Sabbath in the house of Mr.
Angelo Schemaja, another rich Jew, and the patron
of singers and musicians, in Damascus.^

In Egypt there are, according to Villoteau, two
different sects of Jews, strongly opposed to each other
in some of their religious doctrines and rites. The
Rahhanym follow the Rabbinical doctrine, while the
Karaym reject the authority of the Rabbins. Never-

^ Reisen im Innern von Russland
und Polen, von J. G. Kohl, Dresden,
1841, vol. iii, p. 51.

' The Jews in the East, vol. i. p.
275.

338 MUSIC OF THE HEBREWS. Chap. VI.

tlieless, tlicir sacred music is the same — a fact which
affords additional proof of the reverence with which
the Jews have preserved the music of their forefathers.
The chants of the Egyptian Jews are principally based
on the minor scale, with the introduction of a super-
fluous second, —

and it is remarkable that some of the ancient melodies
preserved by the German Jews, as given in ' Scliir
Zion,' exhibit the same peculiarity, of which I shall
have to speak presently.

Yilloteau gives the compass of the notes to which
the songs of the Egyptian Jews, which he heard,
were limited, as follows : —

m=^^=^^E^^^^^^

It will be seen that if the lowest note, g, was the
tonic, the melody had a step of a superfluous second
from the third to the fourth — an order of intervals
which, as we shall presently see, is by no means un-
common in Eastern music of the present day. It is,
however, evident, to judge from the above examjDle,
as well as from well-known theoretical laws, that the
interval d in the series must be usually taken as
the tonic of the melodies.

The Falashas, a kind of Hebrew sect in Abyssinia,

Chap. Vh HEBREW MUSIC OF THE PRESENT DAY, 339

appear to have retained less of the ancient musical
religious performances than their brethren in any
other country. Even the blowing of the shophar at
the Feast of Trumpets is not observed by them.^
There appears, however, to be some doubt whether
they can properly be considered as professing the
Jewish faith. Dr. Latham observes : " The extent to
which the Falashas exhibit a variety of customs
common to themselves and the Jews has long been
recognised. It by no means, however, follows that
they are a result of Jewish influence. The criticism
that applies to the Grhas [a negro tribe, Cape Coast, of
well-marked Jewish characters in their religious and
other ceremonies] applies here. Many of the so-called
Jewish peculiarities are African as well, irrespective
of intercourse and independent of imitation." ^

The Jews in the Barbary States have undoubtedly
adopted much from the Arabic music. The Eev. J.
W. Blakesley mentions a Jewish custom, observed at
Tunis on the 1 st of May, on which occasion a kind of
bower, composed of flowers and wax candles, is car-
ried in procession to the synagogue, the people all the
while chanting, and the females uttering the peculiar
sound of ly-ly-ly, in the manner of the Mahommedan
women at wedding and funeral processions. After
the arrival of the singers at the synagogue, the whole
building is decorated with flowers and the wax-tapers
are lighted. The same traveller visited a synagogue
in Algiers, and was surprised to find that " the air to

2 Wandei'ings among the Fala-
shas in Abyssinia, by the Rev. H.
A. Stern, London, 1862, p. 190.

3 The Natural History of the
Varieties of Man, by R. G. Latham,
London, 1850, p. 500.

z 2

340

MUSIC OF THE HEBEEWS.

Chap. VI.

which the Psalms were chanted coincided almost
exactly with one of the Grregorian tones." The
ritual was in Hebrew, as in other countries, but
the Rabbins preached sometimes in Arabic. In
the town of Constantine he heard the chanting of
the Psalms in the synagogue occasionally accom-
panied by the ejaculation of ly-ly-ly of the women,
which reminded him of similar vocal performances
of the Libyan women mentioned by Herodotus, and
which appears, as we have seen, to have been also
an Assyrian custom.*

In Tangier, Mr. J. Cayley, being invited to a Jewish
wedding, found a company, including about thirty-six
young Jewesses, singing, clapping hands, and danc-
ing to the sound of a kemangeh, played upon by the
Chief Rabbin, an old man with a long white beard. In
the course of this entertainment a curious ceremony
was introduced : the bridegroom, having been placed
in a chair in the middle of the room, was shaved in
the presence of the assemblage.^ The Rev. T. Debary
relates that he witnessed at Tangier the festival of the
circumcision of a little Jew boy. During the time of
the ceremony Psalms were chanted. After its con-
clusion wine was offered to the company, and sprays
of myrtle were thrown among the people for
smelling.^

The Jews in Turkey also are divided into different
sects. In Constantinople, Dr. Frankl on a Sabbath

■* Four Months in Algeria, by
the Rev. J. W. Blakesley, Cam-
bridgo, 1859, p. 36.

* Lasalforjas, by G. J. Cayley,
London, 1853, vol. i. p. 238.

*■ Notes of a Residence in the
Canary Islands, the South of Spain,
and Algiers, by the Rav. Thomas
Debary, London, 1851, ]). 254.

CiiAP. VI. HEBREW MUSIC OF THE I'KESENT DAY. 341

visited tlie synagogue Bene Hamikra, belonging to
the Karaites. " A handsome boy, about twelve years
of age, in a green caftan, with a red fez and yellow
slippers, walked up to the elevated table covered with
a beautiful carpet, which was brought into the middle
of the synagogue. He fell down on his knees, and,
like a Mussulman at prayers, touched the pavement
with his forehead, and then stood up and sang with a
beautiful clear voice a song of praise to God ; the
congregation sang the concluding verse as a chorus.
The boy sang a similar song between the customary
bending of the knees and the head after the thora, a
book of parchment (there are no rolls among the
Karaites), had been read." ''

The traveller Clarke witnessed in the town of
Simferopol (or Acmetchet), in the Crimea, a Jewish
wedding festival, which lasted several days, music and
dancing forming the principal entertainment. On the
day of marriage the bride was blindfolded, and led by
the priest, accompanied by her relations, to a river in
the neighbourhood of the town, and plunged three
times into the water. " After this, being again
dressed, she was led, blindfolded as before, to the
house of her parents, accompanied by all her friends,
who were singing, dancing, and performing music
before her. In the evening her intended husband
was brought to her ; but as long as the feast continued
she remained with her eyes bound." ^

Another curious ceremony, witnessed at the wed-

7 The Jews in the East, vol. i. p.
153.

8 Travels in Various Countries,

by E. D. Clarke, London, 1810, part
i. p. 547.

342 MUSIC OF THE HEBKEWS. Chap. VI.

ding of a rich Jew in tlie province of Podolia in Russia,
is related in the Leipzic ' Musikahsche Zeitnng-.' The
band consisted of four Hebrews, playing on two vio-
lins, a dulcimer, and a violoncello. They commenced
the performance with a soft and sentimental adagio,
and gradually went on to louder and more passionate
music ; the object being so to touch the heart of the
bridegroom as to make him cry before the whole com-
pany ; since, according to an old custom, the bride-
groom must have exhibited contrition for his former
sins before he is permitted to marry. As soon as the
musicians, assisted by the relations of the bridegroom,
who implored him to endeavour to cry, had succeeded
in moving him to tears, the whole company formed a
procession to escort the happy pair to the nuptial
ceremony.^

Blanchini, and after him other writers, have given,
among the drawings of various Hebrew musical instru-
ments, a small wooden mallet, which is still used in
the synagogue at the Feast of Purim, instituted in
commemoration of the deliverance of the Jews from
the designs of Haman. On this occasion the book of
Esther is chanted. Whenever the name of Haman
occurs, the congregation exclaim in a chanting tone,
" May his name perish ! " at the same time striking
the walls and benches with their wooden mallets ;
which, David Levi says, is done " as a memorial that
they should endeavour to destroy the whole seed of
Amalek." This ceremony, however, is gradually
being discontinued in England, and observed in the

" Allgemeine Musikaliscbe Zeitung, Jahrgang IV., Leipzig, 1802, p.
316.

Chap. VI. HEBREW MUSIC OF THE PRESENT DAY. 343

synagogue by children only/ The hammer being-
classed with the musical instruments, suggests the
probability that formerly a rhythmical accompaniment
to the voice was produced with it, in a like manner
as with musical instruments of percussion.

Padre Martini has published, in his ' Storia della
Musica,' a nmnber of chants from sjoiagogues in dif-
ferent European countries. Some of these must be
at least three hundred years old, because the Padre
copied them from a MS. collection made in the year
1599 by Ercole Bottrigari, a musical theorist of some
renown. The specimens given by Burney, Forkel,
and other historians, are most of them transcribed
from Martini's work. Again, some interesting speci-
mens of chants and tunes used in the synagogues of
England are given in Nathan's ' Essay on the His-
tory and Theory of Music,' and in a collection recently
published by Salaman and Yerrinder, entitled, ' The
Music used in the Services of the West London Syna-
gogue of British Jews.'

A large and interesting collection of chants and
songs, as performed in the synagogues of Konigs-
berg in Prussia, entitled ' Schire Beth Adonai,' has
recently been published, edited by H. Weintraub.
It contains, besides modern compositions, several
melodies which are said to be of high antiquity.

Mr. Weintraub observes, that the oldest and most
universally used chants are generally in the Phrygian
and Mixolydian Modes ; and as the popular melodies of
the Arabs, Turks, and some other Eastern nations of

' A Succinct Account of the Rites and Ceremonies of the Jews, by David
Levi, London, 1783, p. 126.

344

MUSIC OP THE HEBREWS.

Chap. VI.

the present day are frequently based upon similar
orders of intervals, he concludes that these chants
must have originated in the East. He points this
out as affording strong evidence in support of the
traditional belief of the Jews, that their old chants
are the identical ones which were in use at the time
when the Israelites sojourned in the Promised Land.
I shall insert here one of them, — more for the
purpose of showing their peculiarities, than with
the expectation of gratifying the musical taste
of the reader. This chant is considered by Mr.
Weintraub as founded upon the Phrygian Mode.
It concludes with a Chorus, which is sung in
strict time, while the chant itself, which is in-
tended for a tenor voice, partakes of the character
of the Recitative : —

Chant from the Synagogue in Konigsberg.
Soh. ^ T ^

gte^gpl

SsteE

o -

- d' cho

i^JEJg^

ki a ni -

Iffi

#rf

S?^^^^£^f:bp=r-

--^--

-f^-

wat t'hi

^^^==A^

Chap. VI. HEBEEW MUSIC OF THE PEESENT DAY. 345

wat

wat t' hi

:p:^-

li - schu .

o li - schu

§ii

Chorus.

'^^r^^^-

-(• *■

Wat

t'hi
I

'-rr

tffiSEEEE

I
at

li . . . schu . .

5rzrJ=z^:

:^zii ^ =1=1

:p==z3:

346 MUSIC OF THE HEBKEWS. Chap. VI.

Most of tliese Chants are interspersed with short
melodious phrases for the Chorus, in four-part har-
mony or in unison. It is to be regretted that the
compilers of the collections do not indicate with
exactness how much they have altered and added.
By far the greater number of the Solos and Choruses
appear to be their own compositions.

Dr. Burney relates that, when he was in Amster-
dam, he betook himself to the synagogue of the Ger-
man Jews, in order to ascertain how far the musical
performances differed from those which he had heard,
during his travels on the Continent, in the synagogues
of other towns. " At my first entrance one of the
priests was chanting part of the service in a kind of
ancient canto fermo, and responses were made by the
congregation, in a manner which resembled the hum
of bees. After this, three of the sweet singers of
Israel, which, it seems, are famous here, and much
attended to by Christians as well as Jews, began
singing a kind of jolly modern melody, sometimes in
unison, and sometimes in parts, to a kind of tol de rol,
instead of words, which to me seemed very farcical.
One of these voices was a falset, more like the upper
part of a bad vox liumana stop in an organ than a
natural voice. I remember seeing an advertisement
in an English newspaper, of a barber who undertook
to dress hair in such a manner as exactly to resemble
a peruque ; and this singer might equally boast of
having the art, not of singing like a human creature,
but of making his voice like a very bad imitation of
one. Of much the same kind is the merit of such
singers who, in execution, degrade the voice into a
flute or fiddle, forgetting that they should not receive

Chap. VI. HEBREW MUSIC OP THE PRESENT DAY. 347

law from instruments, but give instruments law. The
second of these voices was a very vulgar tenor, and
the third a baritono. This last imitated, in his accom-
]3animent of the falset, a bad bassoon — sometimes con-
tinued one note as a drone base ; at others, divided it
into triplets and semiquavers iterated on the same
tone. But though the tone of the falset was very
disagreeable, and he forced his voice very frequently
in an outrageous manner, yet this man had certainly
heard good music and good singing. He had a facility
of running divisions, and now and then mixed them
with passages of taste, which were far superior to the
rest. At the end of each strain the whole congrega-
tion set up such a kind of cry as a pack of hounds
when a fox breaks cover. It was a confused clamour
and riotous noise, more than song or prayer. How-
ever, this is a description, not a censure, of Hebrew
music in religious ceremonies. It is impossible for
me to divine what ideas the Jews themselves annex
to this vociferation ; I shall, therefore, neither pro-
nounce it to be good nor bad in itself; I shall only
say that it is very unlike what we Christians are used
to in Divine service." ^

The same remark may still be applied to the vocal
performances in many synagogues. In not a few
instances, however, considerable reforms have been
introduced. Indeed, some of the Eabbins have endea-
voured to discontinue the cantiUation altogether, and
to adopt simple hymn tunes and part-singing instead.
This, for instance, has been the aim of Dr. Abraham

'^ The Present State of Music in Germany, the Netherlands, &c., by
Charles Burncy, Loudon, 1775, vol. ii, p. 299.

348

MUSIC OF THE HEBREWS.

Chap. VI.

Wolff, in Copenhagen, as early as the beginning of
this century.^ Even the venerable tunes of the Pro-
testant Church, the Chorales, have been made use of,*
and are sung in some synagogues to the accompani-
ment of an organ — innovations which, on the Conti-
nent, have contributed to divide the Jews into two
parties, the reforming and conservative. The latter
has all the more strictly adhered to the ancient mode
of singing since the schism.

It is remarkable that the great susceptibility and
fondness for music which the ancient Hebrews evi-
dently possessed have been preserved by their race
until the present day. Many of our distinguished
musicians, composers as well as virtuosi, are Jews,
or of Jewish extraction. It would be easy to
make out a long list of them ; but I shall men-
tion only three celebrated composers — HaleVy,
Meyerbeer, and Mendelssolm.

The Jews, it must be remembered, are limited in
their choice of occupation for gaining a subsistence,
by their religious laws, as well as, in many countries,
by civil laws. This may in some measure account
for their so often choosing the art of music as a pro-
fession and means of livelihood. Their innate dili-
gence and perseverance in carrying out any fixed 23lan
would, however, not be sufficient for the attainment
of those accomplishments in music by which they often
distinguish themselves, did they not also possess ex-
traordinary talent for this art. Some of them exhibit

3 See Agende zum Gebrauche
buim Israelitischcn Gottcsdicnstc,
von A. A. Wolff, Copenhagen, 1839.

■* See Melodien zii dem Israelit-
iyclicn Gesangbuchc lieraiisgcgeben,
von Dr. Kley, Hamburg, 1846.

Chap. VI. HEBREW MUSIC OF THE PRESENT DAY.

349

in their compositions peculiarities which remind lis of
the synagogue. This is, in my opinion, also the case
in the music of Mendelssohn, who, though a Christian,
was of Hebrew origin. These peculiarities are more
easily felt than described. They consist especially in
the employment and frequent repetition of short melo-
dious phrases, and passages of a peculiar rhythmical
effect, frequently in Minor, and of a certain monotony,
which Mendelssohn, however, knew how to render
highly interesting by a skilful harmony. I shall insert
here two examples of this kind, the first from
Mendelssohn's ' Lieder ohne Worte,' book iii. No. 2 ;
and the second from his Pianoforte Concerto in D
Minor.

From Mendelssohn's Lieder ohne Worte.

Allegro non troppo

=^^.

350

MUSIC OF THE HEBREWS.

Chap. VI.

From Mendelssohn's Concerto in D Minor.

Allegro appassionato, ^m^'

I 1 l-r^ — ~-»-^ 1 — ]-

:?=^:

^^S^

-•L^:

-idi^iSzi: >-Si-^V d:

] J

.-e^i

:=l:

l-J— 4-

i-s^:=r.=:^"

^:^:

.4— -,-.

.S3

:*-iz:;^=S^nt

— 1-

-^ — ^ — ^-1 ^

»-1

-•—*—• — i:^-^ ^ -^ — — '^

' ^.

:=1:

£fel2^-i

2^- -•-•-#-•-

:[=-:'

#- ^.*-

,b^-

g^=E

r~ — i - A- M- 4

ste'

:^:

Chap. VI.

HEBREW MUSIC OP THE PRESENT DAY.

351

The following characteristic Hebrew song, con-
sisting of solo and chorus^ is taken from De Sola's
Collection of the Melodies used in the synagogue
of the Spanish and Portuguese Jews, harmonized
by Aguilar. This fine composition might easily pass
for Mendelssohn's, so much are his style and man-
nerism in accordance with it : —

Ana Bekorenu.

^^^^^''^•SOLO.

Chorus. ^

i^LtM

do - nai si

=^=

E3:

352

MUSIC OF THE HEBEEWS.

Chap. VI.

Chorus. , w

« — ^ ^—± _H^ ^ — : ^_

e - - nu, A - do - nai

■ — !•:

5=^

-m-^-m-

w=^w=^—

cha.

-F

Solo.

:d:

Chorus.

=^^E

De - - ba - rim la -

kacla -

- ti,

She

Solo.

^P=?=^

— I 1? — tr

- maug A - do - nai, Ve

ig- -t . :^ _-

4^^ — --S"-^— j^-gtf

- diet

- bo yu -

Chorus.

SESEElf

3==t=

- cliam

Se - lach

A - do

335

nai a -

«_j£l:_S^_J

^^t

--P^-

^=P

Jai

- na

?P=:^

be - kor

kol
J-

sliav

Chap. VI. HEBREW MUSIC OF THE PRESENT DAY. 353

:S^

e:t

nu A - do - nai she - mang - a a

SSS:

T--

"I* 1 —

:9^:

:8=:^

^-^

ra - cha

4=:

cha

von

bits

_•>_

i3=^

=^=

A - do

ill

cha.

i«!=^^

EE^::

Mendelssohn has made use also of the pentatonic
scale ; and this he has done not only where he has
adopted or imitated Scotch national melodies, but on
other occasions. Thus, for instance, the introduction
to ' (Edipus at Colonos ' he commences as follows : —

Andante.

-J^-.

iSEe^EE

-^-

z^±

:ci:

f-'-r

cres.

r-^

-^-

:^.

2 A

354 MUSIC OF THE HEBREWS. Chat>. VI.

This example may also serve as a proof how well
the pentatonic series of intervals is suited to the
expression of simple dignity and solemnity. If
Mendelssohn was unaware of its early use among the
nations of antiquity, and if he did not purposely con-
template using it, which is quite possible, the fact of
his commencing with it the introductory chorus to a
classical work by Sophocles is to be considered per-
haps all the more as a stroke of genius.

LITERATURE OF HEBREW MUSIC.

An enumeration of all the books which have been
written on Hebrew music would alone fill a large
chapter. Forkel has published in his ' Geschichte der
Musik,' vol. i. pp. 173 to 184, a list of the principal
ones printed before the year 1788. This list he has
extended in his ' Allgemeine Literatur der Musik,'
Leipzig, 1792, where he has adopted a classification
as follows : — Works treating on Hebrew music in
all its branches — on the musical instruments of the
Hebrews — on the headings of the Psalms, and on
the terms relating to music which occur in the Psalms
— on the Hebrew accents considered as musical nota-
tion— on the music of the Temple — miscellaneous
works treating especially of Hebrew music,

Forkel points out that Le Long, in his ' Bibliotheca
Sacra,' published in the year 1723, has mentioned as
many as 1213 commentators on the Psalms alone;
and he thinks it probable that, during the sixty-five
years which had elapsed since the publication of Le

Chap. VL ITS LITERATURE. 355

Long's work, the number of these writers must liave
increased to at least 1500. As nearly a century has
passed since Forkel made this observation, the reader
may judge how extensive our literature on this subject
must be at the present time.

Another list of the books published on Hebrew
music is to be found in ' Dizionario e Bibliografia
della Musica, del Dottore Pietro Lichtenthal,' Milano,
1824 ; and there is another in ' Systematisch chrono-
logische Darstellung der musikalischen Literatur,' von
C. F. Becker, Leipzig, 1836. To this work an Ap-
pendix was published by Becker in the year 1839.
Still it is very incomplete, and the compiler appears
to have been unacquainted with many of the books
which he notices, and merely to have copied the
titles fi'om Forkel, since both writers coincide in
several errors, such, for instance, as the misspelling
of the names of certain authors.

That among so many treatises, essays, and disserta-
tions on Hebrew music there should be some in which
curious theories are advanced, is no more than might
be expected. Of these I shall notice two, on account
of the discoveries which the authors believe they have
made. Speidel, a German divine, published, in 1 740,
a dissertation entitled ' Unverwerfliche Spuren der
alten Davidschen Singkunst,' in which he endeavours
to prove that the Hebrews were acquainted with part-
singing, and that they called the notes by the names
of their vowels. The book is scarce, and I have
hitherto not succeeded in obtaining a sight of it.
But Forkel (' Geschi elite der Musik,' i. 156) has given
a detailed account of its contents, with some of
the curious compositions in four parts which Speidel

2 A 2

356 MUSIC OF THE HEBKEWS. Chap. VI.

believes he has discovered. Strangely enough, the
ancient Egyptians also are by some historians said to
have used the vowels for designating their notes. If
this was really the case, it would supply an additional
proof of their having possessed the pentatonic scale,
since it would show that they required five names
only for their notes. The statement of Clemens
Alexandrinus (' Strom.' vi.), that the Hebrew songs
were founded on the Dorian scale, is not in contradic-
tion to this opinion, but rather confirmatory of it, since
we find that the old enharmonic scale of Olympus
was likewise considered as a Dorian scale. Neither
is it surprising that Herodotus should have been struck
with the close resemblance of the song of Maneros in
Egypt with the ancient song of Linus in Greece, and
with a similar composition in popular use in Asia
Minor.

In a carefully written essay, entitled ' Yersuch die
Melodic und Harmonic der alten hebraischen Gresitnge
und Tonstlicke zu entzifiern ' (published in * Neues
Repertorium fiir biblische und morgenliindische Lite-
ratur, herausgegeben von H. E. Gr. Paulus,' Jena,
1790), the writer, Gottlob Anton, professes to have
brought to light some genuine specimens of Hebrew
music as it was performed in the Temple of Jerusalem
in the days of David and Solomon. He deciphers
them from the Hebrew accents, which he maintains
constitute a musical notation like our own. And he
ingeniously endeavours to prove that the Hebrews
employed harmony, differing from our own in so far
only as no other chords but concords were made use
of. His arguments are accompanied by specimens of
melodies and harmonies obtained from the accents.

Chap. VI. EASTERN ORIGIN OF OUR OWN MUSIC. 357

The largest and most important collection of disser-
tations on Hebrew music, published together, is con-
tained in the thirty-second volume of Blasius Ugolino's
valuable work, entitled, ' Thesaurus antiquitatum
sacrarum, etc.,' published in the year 1767. Among
the modern writers who touch more or less upon
this subject, the German scholars Gesenius, Winer,
Joel Lowe, Jahn, and Saalschiitz, especially deserve
notice.

EASTERN OEIGIN OF OUR OWN MUSIC.

In the course of the preceding chapters I have
several times had occasion to allude to the affinity
which exists between the music of European and
Asiatic nations. To enter fully into this subject
would require much space, and does not come within
the plan of the present dissertation. It is, how-
ever, so intimately connected with the preceding
investigation, that I hope the following remarks, in
conclusion, will not be without some interest to the
reader.

The ancient Egyptians must properly be classed
with the Asiatic nations ; their customs were in many
respects similar to those of the latter, and their lan-
guage was a branch of the Semitic, as was also the
Hebrew and the Assyrian. Besides, the ancients
themselves regarded the Egyptians as an Asiatic
nation.

We have an instance of the transmission, at an
early period, of Asiatic music into Europe, in that of
the ancient Greeks. Most Greek musical instruments

358 MUSIC OF THE HEBKEWS. Chap. VI.

were nearly identical with Asiatic ones; and the
names of the oldest and principal Greek modes — the
Dorian, Phrygian, Lydian, -^Eolian, and Ionian — also
support the assertion of ancient historians, that the
musical knowledge of the Greeks was originally
obtained from Asia Minor and Egypt. Whether these
five modes were originally founded on the five inter-
vals of the pentatonic scale is uncertain ; but, from
what we have seen, it appears probable. Again, in
other European countries we have found traces of the
Oriental harp, and surprising similarities in the pecu-
liar construction and form of old instruments with
those of Asiatic countries. And among them we
have met with five-stringed instruments of such kinds
as, from their nature, we may reasonably surmise to
have been tuned in the order of intervals constituting
a scale, and which suggest the former existence of the
pentatonic scale. Besides the old Russian gussli and
the Finnish kantele already noticed, several others
might be pointed out, as, for instance, the Anglo-
Saxon harp with five strings, the old Irish coinar
cruit with ten strings, &c.

We have seen that the pentatonic scale actually
exists at present in Europe in the music of some
Celtic nations. We have found several names of our
musical instruments to be of Asiatic origin. Further,
in our Christian Church the intoning, chanting, and
antiphonal singing are, in all probability, remains of
the ancient Hebrew mode of performing in the Temple.
The apostles were Hebrews, accustomed from their
childhood to the usages of their nation, and must have
been practised in the music which they had been in
the habit of using in worship before they became

Chap. VI. EASTERN ORIGIN OF OUR OWN MUSIC. 359

Christians. And it is not likely that the primitive
Christians would have adopted in their worship the
musical performances of idolators to which they were
naturally averse.

The Romans derived most of their musical instru-
ments from Greece, and afterwards carried them from
Italy into other European countries of which they
were the conquerors and masters. In Spain the
Moors have, at a later period, introduced the Arabic
music, of which unmistakeable traces are still recog-
nisable in the popular songs and instruments of the
country. The Crusaders also are said to have brought
fi'om Asia some instruments previously unknown in
Europe.

The Gipsies, dispersed like the Jews throughout
almost every European country, were formerly sup-
posed to be an Egyptian race ; but eminent modern
ethnologists tell us that they originally migrated from
Hindoostan. The musical talent of these interesting
vagrants is well known. As professional musicians
we meet with them in most European countries,
generally in small bands roving from place to place,
and entertaining the people with the national melodies
of the country. Thus we find them everywhere, espe-
cially in Spain, in Russia, in Hungary, Transylvania,
Wallachia, and even in South America. In the
northern part of Russia they excel as vocal per-
formers ; in the Ukraine, in the Danubian Princi-
palities, and in Hungary they are almost exclusively
instrumentalists. It cannot exactly be said that they
have preserved anywhere a national music of their
own. They have adopted in every country the music
of the people among whom they live. Still, there, is

360 MUSIC OF THE HEBREWS. Chap. VI.

much in their performances which they appear to
have traditionally preserved from their Asiatic fore-
fathers. It is impossible to convey by words an.
accurate idea of the peculiarities of instrumental music
so strange and spirited as that of the Gipsies. Some
of its characteristics are a strongly-marked and effec-
tive rhythm, the frequent employment of superfluous
seconds^ and the introduction of various kinds of
embellishments. When the Gipsies in Hungary
perform a favourite national melody, it becomes a va-
riation, or rather a fantasia, founded upon the simple
tune. The introduced passages, graces, turns, shakes,
appoggiaturas are, however, frequently so original,
tasteful, and effective, that these peculiar performances
have obtained a well-merited renown. The same
mode of treating a melody in extempore performances
prevails in Hindoostan, the original home of the
Gipsies. This is evident from the accounts of tra-
vellers. Captain Willard, for instance, says : " The
peculiar nature of the melody of Hindoostan not only
permits, but enjoins the singer, if he has the least
pretension to excel in it, not to sing a song through-
out more than once in its naked form ; but on its
repetition, which is a natural consequence, occasioned
by the brevity of the pieces in general, to break off
sometimes at the conclusion, at other times at the
commencement, middle, or any certain part of a mea-
sure, and fall into a rhapsodical embellishment called
Alap, and, after going through a variety oi ad libitum
passages, rejoin the melody with as much grace as if
it had never been disunited, the musical accompani-
ment all the while keeping time. These passages are
not reckoned essential to the melodv, but are con-

Chap. Vr. EASTERN ORIGIN OF OUR OWN MUSIC. 361

sidered only as grace-notes, introduced according to
the fancy of the singer, where the only limitations by
which the performer is bound are the notes peculiar
to that particular melody, and a strict regard to
time." ^

The employment of two superfluous seconds in the
diatonic scale is usual in Turkey, as well as in Walla-
chia, Moldavia, Hungary, and Transylvania.

-ih-

-trf-

-^ s^--|^:

:^:

:J=

There can be, in my opinion, no doubt that this scale
also emanated from Asia, like the races themselves
among whom we find it. The predilection of modern
Eastern nations for the superfluous second is clearly
evident from its frequent occurrence in their popular
songs. Instances of its employment we liave had in
some of our previous examples, for instance, in the
cborus of the Mewlewi Dervishes, page 110 ; in the
Egyptian boatmen's song, page 261 ; in the old
melodies of the Jewish. Synagogue, noticed at page
338, &c. Though evidences are wanting to prove
that the scale with two superfluous seconds is a direct
offspring of the pentatonic scale, this appears not at
all unlikely, considering the close resemblance which
the two scales bear to each other, A superfluous second
may, in sound at least, be taken as identical with a

^ A Treatise on tlie Music of Hindoostau, by Captain Augustus Willard,
Calcutta, 1834, p. 34.

362

MUSIC OF THE HEBEEWS.

Chap. VI.

minor third. Even in our highly developed music
both intervals are generally used, in practical per-
formance, indiscriminately. The two superfluous
seconds correspond, therefore, with the two minor
thirds of the pentatonic scale. It is true that this
scale occurs also with two major thirds, namely, when
it resembles our minor scale ; in this form, however,
it is comparatively but little used.

Here I must draw the reader's attention to a
suggestive fact. Most of the ancient scales known
to us possess two steps of a third in the compass of
an octave. In the scales, or genera, as they are more
usually termed, of the ancient Grreeks, this is the case
with three out of four. The diatonic genus is the only
one in which no larger steps than whole tones occur.
The chromatic genus has two steps of a minor third ;
the enharmonic, two of a major third ; and the old
enharmonic of Olympus, two of a major third. In
order to facilitate a comparison between the scales
exhibiting this peculiarity I shall insert them here
together, and shall indicate the largest steps with
black notes : —

Pentatonic Scale with Progressions in Minor Thirds.

3^^^3^

f^=q:

Pentatonic Scale with Progressions in Major Thirds.

t:r.

Chap. VI. EASTEEN OEIGIN OF OUR OWN MUSIC.

363

Cheomatic Genus.

B^E^E^^^^f^f^

%y -^ ^:^ -s.-

1^:

:^:

:^E

Enhakmonic Genus.

W^^^

i3z=3==3— ^=22^^

x^- ■•-.

1^^=^^:

Scale of Olympus.

8cALE WITH Superfluous Seconds.

:=S;

13^:

z:]=ci

Indeed, most of our musical inventions and con-
trivances appear to have been in use, though less
perfect, among ancient Asiatic nations. No doubt
the coincidences are in many cases accidental, or
rather the natural result of human ingenuity applied

364 MUSIC OF THE HEBEEWS. Cuap. VI.

to the cultivation of music. Guido d'Arezzo (a.d.
1000) is said to have invented the sohnisation, i. e.
the employment of the six monosyllables, ut, re,
mi, fa, sol, la, taken from the words of an old
Latin hymn. The Hindoos had long before his time
the monosyllables sa, ri, ga, ma, pa, dha, ni, also
obtained from words, " three of which," as Sir
William Jones observes, " are, by a singular concur-
rence, exactly the same, though not all in the same
place, with three of those invented by David Mostare
as a substitute for the troublesome gamut used in his
time, and which he arranged thus : bo, ce, di, ga, lo, ma,
ni.'" ^ The employment of different colours to dis-
tinguish the intervals is more remarkable. Yilloteau
describes an ancient Egyptian harp with five blue,
six yellow, and ten red strings. The ancient Chinese
stringed instrument kin had, Amiot informs us,
twenty-five bridges, of which five were blue, five
red, five yellow, five white, and five black.'' The
contrivances are similar on some of our own instru-
ments. On the key-board of our pianoforte, for
instance, the intervals of the diatonic scale of C
major are all of one colour, but the chromatic scale
requires the introduction of intervals of another
colour. And hence, probably, its name, from chroma,
colour. The ancient Greek chromatic scale appears,
however, to have borne less resemblance to our
present one than to the pentatonic scale.

Agaii], the invention of the so-called harmonic hand.

*■ On the Musical Modes of the Hindus, Asiatic Ecsearches, vol. iii.,
Calcutta, 1792.
'' Mdmoires concernant I'Histoire, etc., des Cliinois, tome sixi^mc, \}. 59.

Chap. VI. EASTEEN ORIGIN OF OUR OWN MUSIC. 365

of whicli a description is given in Burney's ' History
of Music ' (vol. ii. p. 90), is also usually ascribed to
Guido d'Arezzo. According to Amiot, the ancient
Chinese made use of the harmonic hand, and in his
' Memoires ' before mentioned a drawing and descrij)-
tion of it will be found. The Chinese also considered
the triple time the complete, and the common time the in-
complete one, just as our theorists did formerly. They
were also acquainted with the circle of fifths , by which
we demonstrate the relation of the keys towards each
other. Their two-stringed fiddle, urh-heen, is tuned in
a fifth ; the Japanese samsien, in the fifth and octave ;
and a similar ancient stringed instrument of the
Hindoos, the dwitantri, described by Sir William
Jones in his essay on Hindoo Music, is also tuned in
the same intervals as most of our own instruments of
a similar kind.

Such coincidences, of which more might be cited,
in whatever manner they may be explained, reveal a
closer affinity between ancient Asiatic music and our
own than is usually supposed to exist. It will be
remembered that the Phoenicians — also a branch of
the Semitic race — held at an early period trading
intercourse with Western nations in distant parts of
the world. Should we by fresh archaeological disco-
veries ever become acquainted with their music to the
same extent as with that of the Assyrians — of which
there appears to be some probability — we may hope
to be in possession of further corroborative evidence
in support of the opinions advanced in this work.

INDEX.

AAKGITSCH.

BALAFO.

Assyrians, their proficiency in va-

rious arts, 24.

, the character of their music,

Aakgitsch songs of Kamtschatka,

177.

20.

, representations of their musical

Abyssinian priest, 225.

instruments, 28, 89.

Accompaniments, instrumental, 10.

, their proficiency in music, 23.

Adonis, songs of lamentation in

, their favourite musical instru-

honour of, 77, 230.

ments, 103.

Adufe, an Oriental drum, 283.

, their vocal performances, 107)

Aleppo, singing of the Jews in that

120.

place, 336.

, their instrumental perform-

Alexander Alesandrinus, 194

ances, 101.

Alleluia of the Copts, 263.

, their musical system, 122.

in the East, 99.

Astarte, image of, 55.

Alphora of the Swiss, 10.

Awdlim, singing girls in Egypt, 258.

Ambira, a negro instrument, 14.

Aztecs, their musical scale, 15, 169.

Amiot, his account of Chinese music.

70, 117, 144.

Anas glacialis, the notes of this bird,

20.

Baal, Assyrian divinity, 106.

Antiphonal responses, 23, 338.

Babylonian captivity, 105, 277, 302.

Arabian music, 149, 163, 305.

pipe, 75.

Arghool, a double-pipe, 57.

Babylonians, their fondness for mu-

Aristoxenus, 202.

sic, 104.

Arpa, 87.

; their susceptibility for musical

Arrangements of national airs, 176.

concord, 76.

Aschkenasim Jews, 331.

Bagana, Abyssinian lyre, 162.

Asor, an instrument of the Hebrews,

Bagpipe, its antiquity, 78.

282.

, in Cilicia, 298.

of the Assyrians, 47.

, Hebrew, 282, 298.

Assyrian sculptures in the British

, Persian, 78.

Museum, 6, 89.

■, modern Egyptian, 79.

winged bull, 96.

Balafo, a negro instrument, 13, 16,

mummers with masks, 98.

166.

368

INDEX,

BALALAIKA.

Balalaika, a Russian instrument, 55.
Band-master, Assyrian, 95.
Barbiton, a Greelc instrument, 200.
Barker, Mr. W. Burckhardt, his de-
scription of an ancient bagpipe,
298.
Bards in Hindoostan, 88.
Bas-reliefs, Assyrian, 89.
Bedford, Eev. Arthur, his conjectures

on Hebrew music, 105.
Bell, its antiquity, 67.

, Assyrian, 64.

, Burmese, 69.

, Chinese, 68, 69, 70.

, ancient Egyptian, 65, 227.

, Hebrew, 65, 283.

■, Japanese, 68.

, used in Buddhist worship, 67.

, Christian church, 67.

of the Inca Peruvians, 67.

Beni Hassan, a painting from, 300.
Berri, a drum of the Singhalese, 64,
Bhdt, a bard, 88.
Birch, Dr. Samuel, description of a

figure with a tamboura, 205.
on ancient Egyptian music,

236.
Bird, Mr. Hamilton, his remarks on

Hindoo music, 110.
Birds, the notes of, 20,
Birs-i-Nimroud, 75,
Blessing of the priests, 115, 325,

Bonomi, Mr, Joseph, his account of

Assyrian arts, 24.
, his description of a Syrian

tamboura, 53.

Botta, M., his discoveries, 6.

Boulou, a harp of the negroes, 34.

Bow-shaped stringed instruments, 17.

Brazil, singing of the slaves in that
country, 22.

Bruce, his description of the Egyp-
tian harps discovered by him, 184.

Buddhist worship, 67, 71.

COINAR.

Buni, harp of the ancient Egyptians,
194.

Bunting, his history of the harp, 33.

Burmah, stringed instruments from,
32, 83, 136.

, music of, 136, 137, 138.

bells, 69.

Burney, Dr., his remarks on the
scale of Olympus, 156.

, his conjectures on the inter-
vals on an Egyptian harp, 191.

, his notice of a trigonon, 194,

, his observations on the singing

of the Persians, 328.

Calascione, an Italian instrument, 56.

Cantillation of the Jews, 328, 332.

Carillons, 71,

Castanets, 226.

Celtic nations, their music, 175.

Cembalo, 42.

Ceylon, national music of, 149.

Chaldaaan names of Hebrew instru-
ments, 281, 285.

Chalil, a Hebrew flute, 282, 285.

Chang, a Persian harp, 33.

Chanting of Eastern nations, 108.

Chatzozerah, a Hebrew trumpet,
282, 284, 291.

Chensj, a kind of Chinese organ, 18,
119.

Chinese, their musical scale, 143.

tunes, 129, 131, 145.

Choruses of the negroes, 22.

Choutara, a Hindoo instrument, 119.

Church bells, 67.

Cilicia, ancient instrument from, 298.

Cimbal, a dulcimer, 42.

Clarke, on Amphion's lyre, 245,

Clavecin, 42.

Clavicimbal, 42.

Cochin, Malabar coast, Jews in, 330.

Coinar cruit, 358,

INDEX.

369

COINS.

Coins, Hebrew, 291, 308.

Colours on the Assyrian bas-reliefs,

89.
Concerts, Assyi'ian, 106.

, Hindoo, 118.

, Persian, 33, 79.

, Hebrew, 107.

Concli trumpet, 78.

Conran, Mr., on the Irish harp, 35.

, his conjectures on Irish music,

173.
Constantinople, music in a synagogue

of that city, 340.
Convivial songs of the Hebrews, 317.

at the present day, 336.

Copts, their music, 262.
Cormi, horn, 87.
Corsica, national songs in, 231.
Crotala of the ancient Greeks, 225.

of the ancient Egyptians, 225.

Crwth, a "Welsh instrument, 84, 85.
Cymbals, Assyrian, 72.

, ancient Egyptian, 226.

, Hebrew, 283.

Damascus, Hebrew music in, 337.
Dancing of Eastern nations, 168.

of the Assyrians, 74.

of King David, 74.

of the ancient Egyptians, 250.

of the Hebrews, 74, 315.

in the Christian church, 74.

Daniel, mention of Babylonian and

Assyrian instruments, 46, 281.
Dara, a Hindoo drum, 119.
Darabukkeh, an Egyptian drum,

219, 220.
David, hymn of, 324.

, his royal band, 107.

Dauney, Mr. William, his collection

of Scotch melodies, 171.
, his conjectures on national

music, 173.

EGYPTIANS.

Dervishes, their choruses, 110.

Dholkee, a Hindoo drum, 63.

Diana, festival of, 229.

Diodorus Siculus, his remarks on
Egyptian music, 235.

Discoveries, the most recent, relating
to ancient music, 2.

, Assyrian, 6.

Doff, an Oriental drum, 222, 283.

Double-pipe of the Assyrians, 57.

of the ancient Egyptians, 216.

of the modern Egyptians, 57.

of the Hebrews, 282.

of the Greeks and Romans,

57.

Drieberg, F. v., description of an
ancient Egyptian guitar, 208.

Drilbu, a bell used in Buddhist wor-
ship, 67.

Drum, Assyrian, 62.

, ancient Egyptian, 218.

, modern Egyptian, 63.

, Hebrew, 283.

, various kinds, 10, 63, 218, 283.

Dulcimer, an instrument, 17.

, Assyrian, 42.

, German, 42.

, Hebrew, 281.

, Persian, 43.

Earpe, 87.

Egyptians, ancient, their concerts,
228.

, their hieroglyphics, 56, 243.

, their musical instruments,

180.

, their peculiar stringed instru-
ments, 209.

, their peculiar instruments of

percussion, 222.

, their secular musical perform-
ances, 248.

, their sacred musical perform-
ances, 246.

2 B

370

INDEX.

EROTIC.

Erotic songs of the Hebrews, 316.
Ethnology and national music, 4.
Eunuchs, Assyrian, 107.
European music, its affinity with the
Asiatic, 357.

Falashas, a Hebrew sect in Abyssi-
nia, 338.
Fetis, his conjectures respecting the

origin of instruments played with

a bow, 83.
, his assumed discovery from

the demotic characters of the

ancient Egyptians, 271.
Fiddle of the Arabs and Persians, 81.

of the Burmese, 83, 136.

of the Chinese, 81, 310.

of the modern Egyptians, 83.

of the Hindoos, 81.

of the Japanese, 81.

of the Norwegian peasants, 82.

Fink, his conjectures respecting the

modulation of a Chinese melody,

130.
■ , on the derivation of the Scotch

music from the East, 175.
Finns, their ancient harp, 34.

, their kantele, 34, 46.

Flageolet of the Mexicans, 15, 76.
Flute of the Assyrians, 77.

of the ancient Egyptians, 214.

of the Hebrews, 282.

concert, ancient Egyptian, of

eight performers, 241.
Frankl, Dr., account of the singing

of the Jews in Jerusalem, 332.
Funeral songs of the Hebrews, 105,

316.

Galicia, singing of the Jews in that
country, 336.

HARMONY.

Gambang gangsa, an instrument
from Java, 13, 15.

Ghawazee girls in Egypt, 257.

Ghouna, a Nubian song, 159.

Ghunta, a bell of the Brahmins, 67.

Gingras, 77.

Gipsies, 42, 359.

Gittith of the Hebrews, 287.

Gluck, his vocal compositions, 109.

Gong, kind of, of the ancient Egyp-
tians, 222.

Goudok, a Eussian instrument, 84.

Greeks, ancient, their oldest scale,
155.

, their instruments, 200.

, their harp, 201.

, their lyre, 304, 309.

, their musical system, 199, 304.

— '■ — , their treatises on music, 152,
202.

', modern, their musical nota-
tion in church-music, 271.

Grelots, 66.

Guitar, 87, 208.

, of the ancient Egyptians, 208.

, of the Hebrews, 282.

Gunn, Mr. John, his remarks on the
har]i, 174.

Gussli, a Russian instrument, 46.

Hackbret, the German dulcimer, 4S
Hallelujah of the Copts, 263.
Handel, his Pastorale, 3.

, his statue, 289.

Haravi, old Peruvian songs, 169.

Harfe, 87.

Harmonicon instrument, 11.

, Chinese, 13, 15.

Harmonized national airs, 176.
Harmony, and unison, 116.
of the Hebrews, 320.

INDEX.

371

HARP,

Harp of the Assyrians, 28.

of the Burmese, 32, 51.

of the ancient Egyptians, 181.

, Egyptian, with seven strings,

198.

of the Finns, 34.

of the Greeks, 201.

of the Hebrews, 281.

of the Irish, 35.

of the Negroes, 34.

of the Persians, 33.

discovered at Thebes, 2.

Harpu,an instrument of the Finns, 34.

Haurpa, 87.

Hawkins, Sir John, his estimation

of national music, 3, 4.
Hearpe, 87.

Hebrews, their music, 277.
, their vocal and instrumental

performances, 311, 322.

, their sacred music, 311.

' , the affinity of their music with

the Assyrian and Egyptian music,

277.

, their instniments, 280.

, their ancient melodies, 324,

328, 344.

, their military music, 314.

, their secular songs, 31G, 317,

318.

, their funeral songs, 316.

, their schools for music, 323.

— — , treatises written on their

music, 354.
Hermes, 41, 235.

Hermetic books of the ancient Egyp-
tians, 236.
Herodotus, his account of Egyptian

music, 229.
Hieroglyphic inscriptions, 56, 238,

243.
High-priest, Assyrian, 80.
Hindoo scales, 147.

melodies, 135, 148.

musical performances, 118.

INSTRUMENTS.

Historians, musical, their conjectures
on the system of music of the an-
cient Egyptians, 269.

Homer, quotations from, 230, 245,
246, 255.

Hormuzd Eassam, his Assyrian dis-
coveries, 7.

Horn, its name in several languages,
87.

Horse-bells, 66, 284.

Hottentot violin, 19.

Huayra-puhura, an instrument of
the ancient American Indians, 15.

Hue, M., his account of bell-foun-
dries in Tartary, 69.

Humboldt, Alex, v., his remarks on
the emigration of the ancient
American Indians, 170.

Hymn, ancient Chinese, 145.

, Egyptian, 248.

, Hebrew, 324.

, Hindoo, 148.

Hymns of the modern Jews, 324,
327, 351.

Ibeka, a negro instrument, 14.
Inca Peruvians, their musical scale,

15, 196.
Indians, American, their musical

notation, 179.
, their ancient instruments, 13,

170.
Inscriptions in hieroglyi^hics, 56,

243.
Instruments of music, Assyrian, 7,

28.

, ancient Egyptian, 2, 180.

, Hebrew, 280.

, Assyrian and Egyptian, com-
pared, 253.
, similarities between Asiatic

and European, 81.

, their names, 86, 194.

■ , modern Asiatic, 8.

372

INDEX.

INSTRUMENTS.

Instruments, of the violin kind, their

antiquity, 81.

J of uncivilised nations, 10.

.^ found in tonahs, 2.

, keyed, 18.

of percussion, 10.

, peculiar ones of the ancient

Egyptians, 222.

, peculiar stringed, 209.

Intervals, on musical instruments,

12. . , .

.of the Assyrian strmged m-

struments, 32,

. of the Nubian kissar, 157.

Intervals, of the pentatonic scale,

124.

smaller than semitones, 1C2.

Irish national music, 171.
Itinerant Hebrew musicians, 318.

KOKIU.

Jephtha's daughter, 315.
Jews, their chanting, 328.

. in China and Hindoostan, 330.

. in Jerusalem, 331.

in Egypt, 337.

in the Barbary States, 339.

. in Germany, 348.

Jews represented in ancient sculp-
tures and paintings, 302, 303.

in Cochin, the Black Jews and

the White Jews, 330.

J songs of the women, 315.

Jew's harp, 300.

Jerusalem, musical performances of

the Jews in that city, 331.
Jobel of the Hebrews, 286.
Jones, Sir William, his treatise on

Hindoo music, 151.
Josephus, his accounts of Hebrew

musical performances, 290.
Jubal, inventor of wind and stringed

instruments, 286.
Junk, an Oriental harp, 34.

Kalmucks, their trumpets, 60.
Kanoon, an Arabian kind of dulci-
mer, 45.
Kantele, an instrument of the Finns,

34, 46.
Karaites, Jews, 332.
Karnai, a Persian horn, 87.
Kemangeh, an instrument of the

Arabs and Persians, 81, 310.
Keraangeh a gouz, 86.
Kemangeh roumy, a kind of violin,

83, 84.
Kemkem, instrument of percussion,

223.
Keras, 87.
Keren, a Hebrew trumpet or cornet,

87, 282, 285.
Keyed instruments, 18.
Kiesewetter, his remarks on musical

treatises, 152.
, on the musical scale of the Per-
sians, loO.

. ^ on the music of the ancient

Egyptians, 275.
Kin, a Chinese instrument, 45, 364.
Kinnor, a Hebrew stringed instru-
ment, 282, 284, 310.

and guitar, 87.

^ the favourite instrument of

King David, 310.

represented on an Assyrian

bas-relief, 303.
Kithara, a lyre of the ancient Greeks,

87.
Kissar, a Nubian lyre, 39, 157.

^ songs with the accompaniment

of the, "159.

, its intervals, 158, 305.

-, in Abyssinia, 41.

Khol^, a Hindoo drum, 63,
Khorsabad, mound of, 6.

', sculptures from, 101,

1 Kokiu, a Japanese instrument, 81.

INDEX.

373

KOTO.

MILITARY.

Koto, a Japanese instrument, 46.

Lyre, ancient Egyptian, 196.

Kouyunjik, mound of, 6.

, Greek, in the British Mu-

• , sculptures from, 91, 92, 93,

seum, 309.

95, 96, 98, 100.

, Hebrew, 282.

Krishna, liymn in honour of, 148.

, Nubian, 39, 157.

Klirt, a hom, 87.

, Abyssinian, 39, 308.

, Hebrew, from the tomb at

Beni Hassan, 301.

, Hebrew, on an Assyrian bas-

relief, 303.

Lane, Mr. E. W., his account of

modern Egyptian musicians, 257,

258.

, his description of the Dervish

MaccabfBUs, Simon, musical instru-

flute, 215.

ments represented on coins of his

, his remarks on the Copts, 262.

time, 282, 291, 307.

Laos, instrument from, 18,

Machalath, a Hebrew instrument,

Laute, 87.

282, 287.

Lay, Mr. Tradescant, his descrip-

Machol, of the Hebrews, 287.

tion of Chinese instruments, 118,

Magadis, a musical instrument, 200.

119.

Magrepha, an instrument formerly

Layard, Mr. Austen H., his disco-

in the Temple of Jerusalem, 282,

veries, 6.

296.

, his remarks on the arts of the

Major and minor keys, 175.

Persians, 164.

Mara, double-pipe of the ancient

, his description of Assyrian

Egyptians, 216.

bells, 64.

Maneros, song of, 229.

, remarks on the music of the

Maraoueh, an instrument of the

Yezidis, 265.

Copts, 67, 264.

Laps, a musical instrument of the.

Marimba, a negro instrument, 14.

35.

Maultrommel, 300.

Levites, their musical culture, 322.

Melik el Taus, 265.

Levy, David, on the blowing of the

Menaaneim, a Hebrew instrument.

trumpets of ram's-horn, 294.

283, 285.

, on the Feast of Purim, 342.

Mendelssohn, his Scherzo, 3.

Linus, song of, 229.

, peculiar characteristic of his

, mentioned by Homer, 230.

style, 349.

Lionedda, national instruments of

Mercury, 37.

the Sardes, 232.

Metzilloth, a Hebrew instrument,

Literature of Egyptian music, 269.

283, 285.

, of Hebrew music, 354.

Metzilthaim, a Hebrew instrument.

Loftus, Mr. W. K., his Assyrian

283.

excavations, 7.

Mewlewi Dervishes, 110.

Lure, a Scandinavian instrument, 10.

Mexico, ancient instrument from, 13.

Lute, 87.

Military music of the Assyrians,

Lyre, Assyrian, 37.

104, 106, 115.

374

INDEX.

MILITARY.

Military music of the ancient Egyp-
tians, 248.

of the Hebrews, 314.

Minnim, a Hebrew instrument, 282.
Miriam's song, 22, 326.
Mishrohitha, a musical instrument,

282, 285, 286.
Modes, ecclesiastical, their supposed
influence upon national music, 173.

of the Hindoos, 147.

Monteverde, 120.

Monuments, Assyiian, 6.

Moses, his Egyptian education, 277.

, his song, 326.

Mridang, a Hindoo drum, 63.
Muezzin, his call to prayer, 113.
Miiller, Max, Professor, on the
Chaldajan language, 281.

, on Assyrian treatises, 179.

Mummy of an Egyptian musician,

227.
Music, ancient Asiatic, its effect,
103, 106, 320.

, its gradual development, 8.

Musical notation, 178.

of the modern Greeks, 271.

of the ancient Greeks, 179.

of the North American In-
dians, 179.

of the priests in Thibet, 178.

of the Chinese and Japanese,

178.
Musical party of ancient Egyptians,

249.
Musical performances, Assyrian, 89.

, ancient Egyptian, 228.

, Hebrew, 311.

Mylitta, Assyrian divinity, 55.

Nabla of the Greeks, 200.

Nay, flute of the modern Egyptians,
215.

National music, modern and an-
cient, 2.

ORGAN.

National music, its beauties, 3.

, applied to ethnology, 4.

, its use to the musician, 2.

Nebel, a Hebrew instrument, 281,

282, 284.
Nebel asor, 300.
Nebel and Nofre, 299.
Nebuchadnezzar, 104, 106.
Nechiloth of the Hebrews, 287.
Negroes, their most remarkable mu-
sical instruments, 10, 12, 13, 14,
16, 34, 166, 211.

in Brazil, their singing, 22.

Nei ambanah, an Oriental bagpipe,

78.
Nekeb, a Hebrew flute, 282, 285.
New Zealanders, their singing, 22.
Nile, hymn to the, of ancient Egyp-
tians, 248.

, songs of boatmen on the, 22,

259, 261.
Nimroud, mound of, 6.

, sculptures from, 93, 94, 98.

Nineveh, ruins of, 6.

Nofre, an instrument of the ancient

Egyptians, 56, 206, 299.
Nose-fiute, 16.
Notation of music, 178.

of the American Indians, 179.

of the modern Greek Church

music, 271.

of Asiatic nations, 178.

Nubian kissar, 40.
son2:s, 159.

Olympus of Mysias, his scale, 156,

192, 201.
Ombi, a negro harp, 34.
Omerti, 86.
Organ, its antiquity, 18.

, kind of Chinese, 18.

of Laos and Siam, 18.

INDEX.

375

ORGAN.

Organ, ancient Hebrew, 296.

from Cilioia, 298.

Oriental harp, 32.

in Ireland, 35.

Orpheus, represented with a violin,

85.

of the Finns, 34,

Osiris, 229.

Oud, a musical instrument of the

Arabs, 87, 207.
Ouseley, Sir William, his notice of a

Persian bagpipe, 78, 174.

Pandean pipe, 11, 78.

, Hebrew, 282.

Pata, used by the Roman Catholics
in Santo Domingo, 226.

Pentatonic scale, 15, 124, 305.

of modern Asiatic nations, 124.

of the Assyrians, 124.

of the Egyptians and Hebrews,

154.

in Burmah, 136, 137, 138.

in Hindoostan, 134, 135, 136,

146.

of the ancient Greeks, 154, 155.

of the Chinese, 125, 127, 129,

143.

of the ancient Indians in Ame-
rica, 13, 169.

of the Japanese, 138, 139.

in Java, 133, 134.

on the Nubian kissar, 158.

of the Scotch and Irish, 127,

128, 171, 172, 173.

in Siam, 126, 132.

, its antiquity, 141.

, diifusion of, 166.

, its impressiveness, 177.

Pepa, a Chinese instrument, 118.

Performances, musical, of the Assy-
rians, 89.

, of the ancient Egyptians, 228.

PUKWAUZ.

Performances, musical, of the He-
brews, 311.

Persian music, 163, 164.

bagpipe, 78.

■ harp, 33.

Peruvians, ancient instrument of, 13.

Pfeife, 87.

Phaamon, Hebrew bells, 283.

Phcenicians, their music, 232, 259.

Phorminx, a kind of lyre, 254.

Pib, 87.

Pifferari, Italian musicians, 3.

Pijp, 87.

Pipa, 87.

Pipe, 10, 87.

, Assyrian, 77.

from the ruins of Babylon, 75.

, ancient Egyptian, 213.

, Hebrew, 282.

from Susa, 77.

of savage nations, 10.

Pipeau, 87.

Plato, his observations on Egyptian
music, 233.

Plectnmi, 17.

used by the ancient nations, 39.

Plutarch, 156, 164.

Podolia, a Jewish festival in, 342.

Polish singing of the Jews, 332,
337.

Polyhymnia, represented with a
harp, 201.

Poogj^ee, a Hindoo nose-flute, 16,
59.

Porter, Sir Robert Ker, his sketches
of old Persian musical perform-
ances, 33, 79.

Priestesses, ancient Egyptian, with
sistra, 247.

Prophets, their musical culture,
319, 322.

Psalterion, a musical instrument,
282.

Psanterin, a musical instrument, 281.

Pukwauz, a Hindoo drum, 64.

376

INDEX.

PURIM.

Purim, feast of, 342.
Pythagoras, 203.

Quong, or koung, the principal in-
terval of the Chinese, 143.

Eag and Raginees of the Hindoos,

147.
Rattle, 10.
Ravanastron, musical instrument,

its antiquity, 81.
Rawlinson, Professor, his comparison
of the ancient Egyptians with the
Assyrians, 255.

, his remarks on the influence

of the Chaldseans on the Assy-
rians, 256.
, Sir Henry, his letter on Assy-
rian records, 179.
Rebah, an Arabic instrument, 81.
Rebec, a European instrument, 84.
Recitative, 108, 115.
Records, the oldest on music, 1, 27.
Representations of Assyrian musical

instruments, 28.
of ancient Egyptian instru-
ments, 180.

of Hebrew instruments, 280.

Rhythm in national songs, 108.
Rhythmical effects, 101.
Royal bands of Assyrian and He-
brew kings, 106.
Ruana, 86.

Saalschiitz, on the cultivation of
music by the Hebrews in Egypt,
278.

Sabeka, a musical instrument, 285.

SCALE.

Sacred music of the Assyrians, 106.

of the ancient Egyptians, 246.

of the Hebrews, 311.

Sacred dances of the Assyrians, 74.

of the Chinese, 144.

of the Hebrews, 74, 315.

in the Christian Church, 74.

Salterio tedesco, a dulcimer, 43.
Sambuka of the Greeks, 286.
Samsien, a Japanese instrument,

55, 310.
Sanasel of the priests in Abyssinia,

223, 325.
Sancho, a negro instrument, 211.
San been, a Chinese instrument, 55,

310.
Sankh, a conch trumpet, 78.
Sanskrit, musical treatises in, 151.
Santir, an Oriental dulcimer, 43,

282.
Sarangi, a Hindoo instrument, 81.
Sarinda, a Hindoo instrument, 81.
Saul, his nervous malady alleviated

by music, 319.
Saim, a Burmese harp, 32, 51.
Savages, their songs, 20.
Scale, definition of, 140.

, chromatic, 143.

, diatonic, 124.

with two superfluous seconds,

361, 363.

, enharmonic, 362.

, old enharmonic, 363.

, pentatonic, 15, 124, 141, 362.

, enharmonic of the ancient

Greeks, 164, 363.

, chromatic of the ancient

Greeks, 363.

. of Olympus, 156, 192, 201.

of Terpander, 202.

, major and minor, 175.

on instruments of uncivilized

nations, 12.

of the Chinese, 143.

of the Hindoos, 146.

INDEX.

377

SCALE.

Scale of the Arabs and Persians, 149.

Schellen, small bells, 66.

ScLire BethAdonai, 343.

Schir Ziou, 324.

Scottish music, 171.

Sculptm-es, Assyrian, with musical

performers, 28, 89.

• , Persian, 33, 79.

Sebi, flute of the ancient Egyptians,

214.
Semitones of the diatonic scale, 124.

of the Chinese, 125, 143.

of the Persians, 150.

Sennacherib, 102.
Sephardic Liturgy, 295, 326.
Seshesh, an Egyptian instrument,

223.
Shalishim, a Hebrew instrument,

285.
Sharpe, Mr. Samuel, on Assyrian

antiquities in the British Museum,

168.
, his remarks on the song of

Linus, 230.
Shebarim, a signal on the shophar,

295.
Shophar, a Hebrew trumpet, 282,

284, 285.
in the synagogue of the present

Jews, 292.

, signals of the, 294.

Siam, kind of organ from, 18.

Siamese tunes, 132.

Simferopol, musical performances at

a Jewish wedding in that place,

341.
Sistrum, probably known to the

Assyrians, 79.

of the ancient Egyptians, 223.

of the Hebrews, 283.

of the Abyssinians, 223.

, its Egyptian name, 223.

Sitar, an Oriental instrument, 87.
Soezoew, a Japanese instrument,. G7.
Sola, De, his collection of Hebrew

songs, 114.

SUBDIVISIONS.

Sola, De, his opinion respecting the
antiquity of some Hebrew melo-
dies, 325.

Solmisation, 364.

Solomon, king, his private orchestra,
107.

Songs, Assyrian, 104.

, Burmese, 137.

of the thrashers, ancient Egyp-
tians, 243.

, Chinese, 129, 131, 145.

- — - of the Copts, 263.

■ of the Dervishes, 110, 111.

, Egyptian, from hieroglyphics>

243, 248.

, Hebrew, 311.

, Hindoo, 135, 148.

, Japanese, 139.

- — -, Javanese, 133.

of Kamtschatka, 20.

, national, 5, 19.

■ of the boatmen on the Nile,

261.

of the Peravians, 169.

of savages, 19.

• , Siamese, 132.

of the Yezidis, 266.

Sruti, intervals of the Hindoos,
146.

Strabo, his observation respecting
the origin of Greek instruments,
200.

on Egyptian music, 235.

Stringed instruments, 17.

played with a bow, 18, 19.

, their antiquity, 81.

Strings of the Assyrian instruments,
32.

of the Hebrew instruments,

321.

of the Egyptian instruments,

198.

of modern Eastern iustniments,

51, 52.

Subdivisions of the Whole Tone,
162.

2 c

378

INDEX.

Sulzer, his collection of Hebrew

chants and songs, 115.
Sumphonia, a musical instrumentj

282, 285.
Superfluous Second, an interval in

the music of Eastern nations, 338,

361.
Surod, a Hindoo musical mstrument,

119.
Synagogue, musical performances in

the, 329.
Syrian drum, 63.

tamboura, 53.

Syrinx, 11, 78.

, its antiquity, 78.

of the Hebrews, 282.

of the Tonga Islanders, 12.

System, musical, of the Arabs, 149.

of the Assyrians, 122, 153.

of the Chinese, 142.

of the ancient Egyptians, 155.

of the Greeks, 155.

of the Hebrews, 154.

of the Hindoos, 146.

of the Persians, 149.

Tabl shamee, a drum, 63.

Tabret, an instrument of jDcrcussion,

283.
Tamboura, Assyrian, 51.

, ancient Egyptian, 203.

, modern, 51.

, Hebrew, 282.

, Hindoo, 53.

, Syrian, 53.

, Turkish, 52.

represented on an obelisk, 205.

in hieroglyphics, 56, 204.

Tambourine, Assyrian, 72.

, ancient Egyptian, 221.

, Hebrew, 283.

Tambour bouzourk, 52.
Terpandcr, 202,

TZELTZELIM.

Tekiha, a signal on the shophar,

295. •
Teruha, a signal on the shophar,

295.
Tetrachords of the Greeks, 199, 304.

, disjunct and conjunct, 199.

Theory at variance with practice,

151.
Thibet, bells in, 167.
Thirds, intervals of the pentatonic

scale, 177, 362.

ol the most ancient scales, 362.

Thoth, or Hermes, 41.

Thro, a Burmese kind of violin, 83,

138.
Timbrel, an instrument of percus-
sion, 283.
Titty, an instrument, 78.
Titus, Arch of, 288.
Tom-tom, a drum, 63.
Tonga Islands, instruments from,

12, 14.
TojA, a Hebrew instrument of per-
cussion, 222, 283.
Tourti, a bagpipe of the Hindoos,

78.
Trigonon, a musical instrument,

194.
Triumphal songs of the Hebrews,

314.
Trumpet, Assyrian, 59.

, ancient Egyptian, 217.

, Hebrew, 282.

of the Negroes, 10.

in Thibet, 60.

, marine, 300.

Tubla, an Oriental dram, 03.
Turkey, Jews in that country, 340.
Turkish musical instruments, 52.

musical scale, 52, 343.

Typhon, 230.

, represented on Egyptian bells,

227.

, figure of, 20(5.

Tzeltzelim, a Hebrew instrument,

225, 283, 285.

INDEX.

379

UGAB.

ZUMMA'RAH.

Wattas, musicians of Abyssinia,

258.

Weintraub, 343.

Ugab, a Hebrew wnd-instrument,

Wilkinson, Sir Gardner, his account

282, 284, 288.

of ancient Egyptian concerts, 322.

Unison in the musical performances

, his description of an Egyptian

of Eastern nations, 117, 320,

painting from El Bersheh, 244.

in national music, 116.

, his description of an Egyptian

Urh-heen, a Chinese fiddle, 81, 310.

painting from Beni Hassan, 300.

, his opinion on the intervals

on ancient Egyptian harps, 191,

198.

Willard, his remarks on the music

Valga, a musical instrument, 211.

of the Hindoos, 151.

Villoteau, M., his account of Arabian

Wind instruments, 10.

music, 135.

Works on music written in Oriental

, his dissertation on the music

languages, 150.

of the ancient Egyptians, 270.

, his description of the modern

tamboura, 51.

on the intervals of the Nubian

kissar, 157.

Xerxes and the Book of Ezra, 281.

on the Egyptian sistrum, 225.

on the sacred music of the

Copts, 263.

Viole d'amour, a musical instru-

ment, 82.

Yang kin, a Chinese instrament, 46.

Viohn, 81.

Yezidis, their music, 264.

Vissandschi, a negro instrument.

, their sacred chants, 266.

13, 14.

Yu, a Chinese interval of the scale.

Vocal music, its development, 9, 19.

143.

Vocal performances of the Assyrians,

Yue kin, a Chinese instrument, 118.

107, 121.

of the ancient Egyptians, 228.

of the Hebrews, 311, 314.

Vocero, 231.

Zaghareet, 333.

Zampogna, an ItaUan bagpipe, 282.

Zanze, a negro instrument, 12, 13.
14.

Zither, a German instrument, 87.

Wainamoinen, a divinity of the

Zouqqarah, a bagpipe of the modern

ancient Finns, 34.

Egyptians, 79.

Walker, Mr. Joseph, his remarks on

Zummarah, a double-pipe of the

old Irish melodies, 172.

modern Egyptians, 57.

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Full text of "The music of the most ancient nations : particularly of the Assyrians, Egyptians, and Hebrews : with special reference to recent discoveries in western Asia and in Egypt"

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